• 
 
 Digitized by the Internet Archive 
 in 2015 
 
 https://archive.org/details/encyclopdiaofcotOOIoud 
 
MARCH MDCCCXLII. 
 
 A SERIES 
 
 OF 
 
 ENCYCLOPEDIAS 
 
 AND 
 
 DICTIONARIES, 
 
 FORMING 
 
 SPECIAL AND INDEPENDENT WORKS, EDITED BY WRITERS 
 
 DISTINGUISHED IN THE VARIOUS DEPARTMENTS. 
 
 1. Blaine's Encyclop-«dia of Rural Sports ... 5 
 
 2. Brande's Dictionary of Science, Literature, and Art 3 
 
 (In course of publication.) 
 
 3. Copland's Dictionary of Practical Medicine . . 8 
 
 (In course of publication.) 
 
 4. Johnson's Farmer's Encyclopedia .... 3 
 
 (In course of publication.) 
 
 5. Loudon's Encyclopedia of Agriculture ... 8 
 
 6 Loudon's Encyclopedia of Architecture — Rural . 7 
 
 (With Supplement to end of 1841.) 
 
 7. Loudon's Encyclopedia of Gardening ... 6 
 
 8. Loudon's Encyclopedia of Plants .... 6 
 
 (With Supplement.) 
 
 9. Loudon's Encyclopedia of Trees .... 7 
 
 (In course of publication.) 
 
 10. M'Culloch's Dictionary of Commerce ... 4 
 
 (New Edition.) 
 
 11. M'Culloch's Dictionary of Geography ... 4 
 
 (In course of publication.) 
 
 12. Murray's Encyclopedia of Geography . . . 5 
 
 (New Edition, 
 
 13. Savage's Dictionary of Printing .... 8 
 
 (Just completed.) 
 
 14. Ure's Dictionary of Arts and Manufactures . . 4 
 
 MESSRS. LONGMAN AND CO. INTEND CONTINUING THIS SERIES UNTIL IT EMBRACES 
 
 EVERY BRANCH OF KNOWLEDGE. 
 
 LONDON : 
 
 PRINTED FOR 
 
 LONGMAN, BROWN, GREEN, AND LONGMANS. 
 
II. 
 
 Notice of a Series of Encyclopaedias 
 
 OPINIONS OF THE PRESS ON THE SERIES. 
 
 The Athenaeum. 
 
 " A series of encyclopaedical volumes, wherein a ^reat quantity of information is condensed 
 into a small compass, and arranged in a form the most convenient for frequent reference. Such 
 a series will, when completed, form a valuable library of practical knowledge. The specimens 
 we have already seen of these works are such as do great credit to the publishers who formed the 
 design, and to the authors who have executed the respective divisions. Loudon's Encyclopaidia 
 of Agriculture has now given proof of its value by a third edition ; his Encyclopaedia of f Jardening is 
 to be seen open on the table of every scientific gardener, and of every man who values his garden, 
 from one end of this garden-covered island to the other— from the region of the heath to that of the 
 myrtle! M'Culloch's Dictionary of Commerce and Commercial Navigation is to be found in the 
 library equally of the merchant aiul the man of general information. Of the Dictionary of 
 Practical Medicine, by Dr. Copland, we heretofore cxiiressed our appn)l)ation. Taken as a whole, 
 i and judging by the specimens already i)nblished, we consider this scries of works to be one of the 
 I most valuable produced for many years ; and w e look forward to the publication of the Dictionary 
 of Science, Literature, and Art, with confidence and special pleasure, as a work much wantecL 
 None can conceive, who have not witnessed them, the difliculties encountered in the attempt to 
 I get up sterling substantial works of this kind; few are aware of the extent of knowledge, of 
 reading, and of sustained clfort, in collecting, writing out, and digesting such works." 
 
 Examiner. 
 
 *' We think it a worthless, because an imi)racticable design, to aim at embodying in any one 
 work an epitome of eveiy branch of human know ledge. All the general encyclopaclias that we know 
 of are general failures. Some portions of them have been aihnirably done, but at some point 
 or other in all of them the necessary alternative has forced itself on the projectors— to leave the 
 design unfinished, or the book unfinished.— This is a better i)lan of the .Messrs. Lonoman and Co. 
 
 ' and deserves all encouragement and siipi)ort. They purpose to publish a series of encyclo- 
 paedias and dictionaries, each edited by a competent person, each in itself complete, condensed 
 
 j into as small a compass as possible, and arranged for the utmost convenience of simple and 
 easy reference." 
 
 The Statesman. 
 
 " The authors and publishers of most of the great Dictionaries and Encyclopa!dias that have 
 hitherto appeared in thisand other countries, have endeavoured to concentrate into a single work all 
 
 I; the scattered elements of universal knowledge. Hut success in such an undertaking could not 
 rationally be looked for ; in such works it is uniformly found that those departments with which 
 
 I the editors and principal contributors are best acquainted, are treated at great length, and often 
 with much care and research; while those equally important, and far more numerous, depart- 
 ments, with which they are less familiar, or in which they take less interest, are dispatched in a 
 comparatively brief and slovenly manner. It is clear, too, that if all the various branches of 
 human knowledge were treated in a single work, with that completeness which the interest at- 
 tached to the greater number demands, it would be of the most gigantic dimensions, and could 
 not be altbrded, except at a price that would preclude the great bulk of readers from becoming 
 its pmxhasers. We have, therfore, always approved of the valuable encyclopa'ilias which have 
 
 ! issued, or are in the course of publication, by Messrs. Longman. They seem to form a series of 
 
 I Special and Independent Dictionaries, each being the work of persons distinguished by 
 their attention to, and proficiency in, the departments of which it treats. The advantages of this 
 arrangement are obvious. Each subject must have the best chance of being well and carefully 
 treated. The publication of a series of independent Dictionaries is farther advantageous, by its 
 giving individuals the option of purchasing such only as they may have occasion for, without 
 
 I encumbering themselves with the others. The success of the works already published on this 
 
 I plan, shows that it has been fully approved of by the public." 
 
 Times. 
 
 " These books are not only fall of information of the best kind, arranged and presented in the 
 best manner, but are kept current in all cases with the latest discoveries in their various depart- 
 ments of knowledge, by the help of Appendices and Supplements. They promise to realise a 
 
 I more complete Library of Practical Knowledge on the various subjects of human inquiry than we 
 have yet seen attempted with success, and they have the manifest advantage of giving each reader 
 his option of selecting the subjects that will be useful to him, and of rejecting those that would 
 
 I merely encumber his book-shelves." 
 
III. 
 
 Printed for Longman, Brown, and Co. 
 
 BHANDE'S DICTIONARY OF LITERATURE, SCIENCE, &c. 
 
 A Dictionary of Literature, Scienre, and Art; comprising the History, Description, and 
 Scientific Principles, of every- branch of Human Knowledere : with the Derivation and 
 Definition of all the Terms in general use. General Erlitor, W. T. Brande, F.R.S.L. &E ; of 
 Her Majesty's Mint ; Professor of Chemistry in the Roval Institution ; Professor of Chemistry 
 and Materia Medica lo the Apothecaries' Company &c. &c. Assisted by Joseph Cauvix Esq. 
 
 Architecture, Music, axd the Fine Arts Joseph Gwilt, F.S.A. & F.R.A.S. 
 
 „ ^ (J. LiNDLEY, Ph. O. F.R.S. L.S. &c. 
 
 MOTANY ; I'rofi vMjr of BoUiny in Lond.m University 
 
 ' CtiUegi-, ;iiid in the Roval Institution. 
 
 Cmkmisthv, Gkology, Mi.veralogy, Medicine, and) 
 THE Arts and Sciences dlpending on Chemical /W. T. Brande, Esq. 
 
 Pk! NriPI.EH 3 
 
 Gardening and Agriculture J. C. Loudon, F.L.S. H.S. &c. 
 
 Law ) Herman M erivale. A.m. 
 
 t Late Fellow of Ualiol College. 
 
 General Literature i J. R. M'Culloch Esa. ; and 
 
 ■ ■ /Joseph Cauvin, Esq. 
 Mathematics and the Aut.s and Sciences de->™, ^ . t> o 
 
 PENDING ON .Mathematical Principles j Thomas Galloway, M.A. F.R.S. 
 
 Political Economy, Statistics, & Commerce J. R. M'Culloch> Esq. 
 
 Theol«»oy TheRev. Charles Merivale,M. a. 
 
 Zoology, Anatomy, and Physiology Richard Owen, F.R.S. &c. 
 
 In 1 very thick volume 8vo. containing nearly 1400 closely printed pages, illustrated by 
 engravings on wood. 
 
 *^.* Will be ready in April. 
 
 " A general encyrlopa?dia in miniature. The reader will find the elements of nearly all branches 
 of science and art and human en(|uiry embraced in these compact and laborious pages; and 
 given, too, in so jwpular a style, ii.s to i)l:ic(! him at once in pos.se.'ssion of the information he seeks. 
 He will also lie gratified at discovering a varietv of minor topics explained in this Dictionary, 
 which would not, or more properly could not, be admitted into an Encycipanlia." 
 
 Monffili/ Cbrnvidc. 
 
 A concise, well-written, and comprehensive article, is given upon all subjects, each con- 
 taining quite as much as any person could be desintus of reading for the purpo.se of acquiring a 
 thoroui;!) kno« le<lge of the principles of a science without the labour of working out all the 
 ininutia*."— Wwrrcr. 
 
 " This Dictionary is one of the most .satisfactory and genciallv useful books of the kind that 
 have come under our observation."— i/o>u'/i/y Review. 
 
 JOHNSON'S FARMEirS ENCYCLOryEDIA. 
 
 'I'lie Farmer's Encycloiiadia and Dictioii.irv of Rural A flairs. Bv Cuthbeht Johnsov, E'^q 
 Barrister at Law, Editor of the Farmer's Almanack, &c. &c. I'llustrated with wood en"-iav- 
 mgs of the best Agricultural Implements. 8vo. Parts 1 to 6. To be completed in 10 monthly 
 parts, 5s. each. 
 
 I\lany years have now elapsed since an alphabetically arranged work, of easy reference, has been 
 produced for the service of the English farmers and country gentlemen ; and vet, within the 
 present century, agricultural discoveries, and rural improvements of all kinds, have been makino- 
 progress with a rapidity and to an extent which has long rendered obsolete the greatest portions 
 ot all the existing Agricultural Dictionaries. The present work is the result of many years' 
 careful and laborious experimental researches, observations, and collections, by an author whose 
 successful public eftorts have long been favourably received by the English fanners. It is proposed 
 to bo chieriy devoted to the details of practicjd agriculture, and to the results of those scientific 
 UKiuiries by which this important pursuit is assisted and illustrated. It will include, also, many 
 other details interesting to the farmer: such jis the law with regard to certain parish and other 
 public and private duties, which he is often called upon to fulfil- the kitchen and flower garden— 
 a herbal of native plants, Stc. &c. The endeavour will, in short, be made to produce a'new and 
 useful book of reference, to which the farmer may readily resort under all ordinary circumstances. 
 
 " We have no hesitation in stating that it will become one of the first of our standard works on 
 British Agriculture. ... It will be an agricultural library of itself, and will add to Mr. Johnson^s 
 already well-acquired reiuitation as an agricultural writ^^r.^''— Mark-Lane Eaprcsa. 
 
 " Promises to be one of the most useful works for agriculturists which has been issued from 
 the Press for many years past. . . . Should be found in the library of every one connected with the 
 soil." — The Farmers Journal. 
 
 " A work which promises to be of great practical value to the farmer. Every intelligent farmer 
 is certain to possess himself of this book, and no private gentleman, of inquiring turn of mind, 
 can be without it."— .y/rror. 
 
 " The execution of it has been confided to Mr. Cuthbert Johnson, a well-known and very 
 respectable writer on agricultural subjects. The design is good ; the execution is admirable." 
 
 Salopian .Tournal. 
 
 " Great care appears to have been taken to bring down the information to the present time." 
 
 Birmingham Herald. 
 
 " Replete with practical information. "-/S'y^or^/w^ Maaazine. 
 
 " Remarkable for perspicuity of style, and lucid treatment of the minutest points." 
 
 Sporting Review. 
 
IV. 
 
 Notice of a Series of Encyclopsedias. 
 
 M'CTILLOCH'S GEOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 
 
 A Dictionary, Geographical, Statistical, and Historical, of tlie various Countries, Places, and 
 principal Natural Objects in the World. Illustrated with Maps. In Two Volumes. 
 
 The first Volume is now ready, containing: excellent Ma\)s of the World on Mercator's Projec- i 
 tion ; the Navitrable Rivers, the completed and proposed Canals, and Railroads, of Great Britain ' 
 and Ireland, with the Coal Fields, Light-Houses, &c. ; of the British Possessions in North Ame- j 
 rica, with part of the United States, "compiled from official sources, and with Plans of tiie Cities 
 and Harbours of Montreal and Quebec ; and of Asia, carefully constnicted by Messrs. Walker, | 
 from the most recent information. (This present Map of Asia is the most recent Map of that 
 Continent, and is the only Map containing tlie recent Discoveries.) Price d.'2, handsomely bound [ 
 in cloth lettered. j 
 
 " The fulness with which each article is written, the clearness of the arrangements throughout, | 
 and the vast surface traversed under each head, and in every department of inquiry essential to ' 
 the undertaking, contribute to the production of the most luminous body of information con- 
 cerning Geography, Statistics, and History, and all matters necessary to their elucidation, that ! 
 has ever been brought together in a shape so perspicuous and accessible. Such a publication — 
 which can be referred to, on the instant, for any subject embraced in its pages— is indispensable j 
 to all libraries, and must completely supersede every previous attempt to popularise and reduce | 
 within convenient limits tliese various classes of information."— Month ly C'hronitlk. i 
 
 " Reflects great honour on all parties concerned in it, Mr. M'Culloch himself ami tlie respect- i 
 able firm who have seconded him in his conscientious endeavours to redeem the literature of his i 
 country from the disgrace stamped on it by numerous compilations, made without knowledge or 
 industry, in which no notice is taken of changes and improvements, aiul old errors are carefully ! 
 repeated."— Morning Chronicle. 
 
 *^.* The concluding Volume will be ready in April. 
 
 M'CULLOCH'S DICTIONARY OF COMMERCE. 
 
 A Dictionary, Practical, Theoretical, and Historical, of Commerce and Commercial Naviga- 
 tion, Hlustrated with Maps and Plans. New edition, 50s. boards. 
 In this Edition all the more important returns and accounts as to the Trade, Navigation, 
 and Consumption of this and otlier countries, have been brouglit down to the latest period, in 
 some instances, too, the form of the returns has been changed, and new ones, drawn up on a more 
 comprehensive plan, and embracing various additional particulars, have been sub.stitnled for those 
 previously embodied in the work. In illustration of this the reader is referred to the tables now 
 given under the articles iMi'oirrs and Exi-orts : they will, it is believed, be toumi to contain, 
 within a brief space, the completest view hitherto laid before the public of the recent trade of the 
 British Empire. A few new articles have also been inserted ; among which may be specifieil tliose 
 on Bombay, Malta, &c. 
 
 The present Supplement has been greatly enlarged, and, it is hoped, materially imroved. It 
 contains as much niatter as would fill, if printed with types of a medium size, a large octavo 
 volume, and embraces a good deal of important information not elsewhere to be met with. We 
 can assure the reader that neither labour nor expense has been spared to rentier it instructive 
 and trustworthy. It embodies the substance of the former Supplements, and has, mong others, 
 articles on the following subjects, viz. :— 
 
 Austrian Tariff, and New Commercial 
 Treaty with Austria. 
 
 Joint-Stock Banks; witli a complete list 
 of these establishments, and an examina- 
 tion of the principles on which they should be 
 founded. 
 
 American Banking System ; with Remarks 
 on the liabilities of the Foreign Holders of 
 the Stock of the United States' Bank. 
 
 New Customs Act for Bengal. 
 
 Cotton Trade of Great Britain, from 
 1816 to 1839, both inclusive. 
 
 Tables of Imports and Exports, com- 
 prising a full Account of the Foreign 
 Trade of the United Kingdom during the 
 Ten Years ending with 1838, with Remarks 
 on the probable consequences of Foreign 
 Competition, &c. 
 
 Coinage of America and India. 
 
 Navigation of the Danube, 
 
 Trade with Prussia, Prussian Commer- 
 cial League, Tariff, &c. 
 
 Opium Trade ; with Remarks on the State of 
 our Relations w ith China. 
 
 Railways and Railway Legislation. 
 
 New Post-Office Arrangements. 
 
 Alterations in the British Tariff. 
 
 Russian Tariff. 
 
 Classification of Ships. 
 
 Sugar Trade— Growth of Beet-Root Sugar, 
 &c. 
 
 Commercial Treaty with Turkey, with 
 Notices of Civita Vecchia, Galacz, Guaya- 
 quil, Port Lamar, Montevideo, Moulmtm, 
 Rostock, &c. 
 
 LOUDON'S ENCYCLOPAEDIA OF TREES. 
 
 Arboretum et Fruticetum Britannicum, Abridged ; or, the Hardy Trees and Shrubs of Britain, 
 Native and Foreign, scientifically and popularly described : with their Propagation, Culture, 
 and Uses in the Arts ; and with Figures of nearly all the Species. Abridged from the large 
 Edition in 8 volumes, and adapted for the use of Nuserymen, Gardeners, and Foresters. By 
 J. C. Loudon, F.L.S. &c. Conductor of the " Gardener's Magazine." To be completed in 
 10 monthly parts, at 5s. each, of which 3 are published. 
 
Printed for Iion^an, Brown, and Co. 
 
 MURRAY'S EA'CYCLOPyEDIA OF GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 An Encyclopa dia of Geofrraphy ; comprising a complete Descriptionof the Earth, exhibiting its 
 Kelatior, to the Heavenly Bodies, Its Physical Structure, the ^atura History of each 
 Country, and the Industn", Commerce, Political Institutions, and Civil and Social State of all 
 Nations Bv Hugh Murray, F.R.S.E. : assisted in Astronomy, &c. by Prof. ^Yllace; 
 Geolo-v, &c: by Prof. Jameson; Botany, &c. by Sir W. J. Hooker; Zoology, &c. by 
 W Sv>ainson, Esq. New Edition, brought down to 18-W, with 82 maps, drawruby Sidney Hall, 
 and upwards of 1,000 other en?ravin?s on wood, from drawings by Swainson, T. Landseer, 
 Sowerbv Strutt, &c., representing the most remarkable objects of Nature and Art in every 
 Region of the Globe. Containing upwards of 1,500 pages. ^3. cloth lettered. 
 
 EXTRACT FROM INTRODUCTION. 
 This important and extensive subject seems to divide itself naturally into three parts:— 
 The Firgt Part treats of the " History of Geography ;" the origin and process of the Science ; 
 and the steps by which man, who seeme<l fixed by nature in a local and limited position, has 
 made himself acquainted with the immense circuit of the globe This part is divided iiito- 
 I. Ancient Geography ;-lI. Geoerraphy of the Middle Ages ;-III. Modern Geography. 
 
 The >Seroml Part comprises the Prhiciploi of the Science. These are-I. MathcmaUcal : those 
 which relate to the form of the earth, its movements, its place in the Solar teystem, the great 
 circles bv which it is divided, the operations by which it is surveyed, and the modes in which its 
 snherical outline can be represented on the plane surface of a map. II. Pfij/^ical: those which 
 treat of the substances which cover the earth's surface, the elements which compose and surround 
 it • rock earth, water, air, as they appear under the various forms of mountain, plain, river, sea, 
 and present all the changing phenomena of the atmosphere. III. Geography; may be considered 
 in its relation to other objects and sciences. 1. To Zoology, or the distribution of animals over 
 the irlobe 2 To Botany, or the diffusion of vegetable productions. 3. To the human race, and 
 the various branches into which it has been formed, considered in relation to numbers, wealth, 
 nobtical union, social, intellectual, and moral condition. _ , ■ 
 
 The Third Part considers Geography in detail, as it applies to the various quarters and countries 
 into which the world is divided, the outline and extent of each, its natural features, the revolu- 
 tions tliroutrli which it has passed, its political constitution, the industry and wealth, the civil 
 and social condition of its inhabitants. Tlie description of each countn^ will conclude with a 
 local ami top(.graphical survey of its districts, cities, and towns. . 
 'I his part will divide itself into five general heads: I. Europe. II. Asia. III. Atrica. IV. 
 
 '^'An'^^iVlex^s^ldd(MV^^^^^ extreraelv copious, and containing references to all the places 
 
 mentioned in the work, will au.swer in a great degree the purposes of a Geographical Gazetteer. 
 
 BLAIAE'S ENCYCLOPvEDTA OF RURAL SPORTS. 
 
 An Encvclopadia of Rural Siwrts; or, a complete account, Historical, Practical, and De- 
 scrii)tive of Hunting, Shooting, Fishing, Racing, and other Field Sports and Athletic Amuse- 
 ments of the present dav. Bv Dklabkrk P. Blaine, Esq. Author of "Outhnes of the 
 Yeterinarv Art," "Canine Pathologv," &c. &c. Illustrated by nearly 600 engravings on 
 wood, by R. liranston, from drawings by Aiken, T. Landseer, Dickes, &c. d,2. 10s. hand- 
 somely bound in fancy cloth, lettered. 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 Part I.— The Origin, Progress, and Present State of Field Sports. 
 
 Book 3.— The Histoiy of British Field Sports, 
 accompanied with occasional Notices of such 
 other Rural and Active Exercises as are com mon 
 among the Sporting Classes of our Countrymen. 
 
 Book 1.— History of the Chase. 
 Book 2.— The Progress of Field Sports after 
 
 Mankind had Peopled the Four Quarters of 
 
 the Globe. 
 
 Part II.— The Philosophy of Field Sports. 
 Book 1 — Tlie Moral Character of Field Sports, I Book 2— The Natural History of the Living 
 and the Benefits derived from them. | Objects of Field Sports. 
 
 Part VII. — Shooting. 
 
 — VIII.— Fishing. 
 
 — IX.— Cock Fighting. 
 
 — X.— Boxing. 
 
 Part III.- Horse Racing, &c. &c. 
 
 — IV.— Hunting. 
 
 — v.— Coursing. 
 
 — VI.— Hawking. 
 
 " This book is a perfect library for all lovers of country sports, for all country gentlemen, and 
 for all nersons who delight in the manly and healthy recreations which are afforded to the inha- 
 bitants of no country in such perfection as to the inhabitants of the British Isles. It is true the 
 book treats of the field sports, and the sports by Hood, of all the countries m the world j and is, 
 for that reason, so much the more valuable : but its principal value with Englishmen will be the 
 irrcat accuracy with which it describes the sports of which they can partake in their fields woods, 
 and waters and the plain and agreeable manner in which intelligence on subjects with which 
 they want to be acquainted is conveyed. The book is a large one, and so filled-indeed, so 
 crammcd-with information, that it becomes a matter of conjecture as to how the whole can have 
 been brou<^ht together. It is, what it professes to be, ' an Enq/dopadia of the Amusenienfs o/ t ne 
 Count nj.'°T\\Q^ book is illustrated by an immensity of engravings on wood, by Mr. R. Branston, 
 i\ om drawings by Aiken, T. Landseer, Dickes, and other artists. It is at ouce a manual and 
 library for airsportsmen."—Tm<;A\ c ir 
 
 " The study of a sportsman would be incomplete without it. "Sporting Magazine. 
 
 "The three great heads of ' guns, dogs, and horses,' could not be treated in a tuller, more 
 complete, or more effective manner, than they have been by Mr. Blaine in this publicat^ion." 
 
VI. 
 
 Notice of a Series of Encyclopaedias, 
 
 LOUDON'S EXCYCLOPyEDIA OF (iARDENINO. 
 
 An EncyclopaMlia of Gardonine: ronipriRinff tbo Thhtn I * ' 
 cnlturp," Arboriculture, and I^-iiid-ii aiK* tJnrdrniiiff. im « 
 General History of Gnrdeiiiuir in all Couiitnic. and n M. i 
 su^i^estions for its Future Tro^rreRs in the British Iftlo>. li> J.t I "i P '^.I I. ^. II > \< . 
 New Ktlition, preatly cnlarfjed and impntvi-d, with nrarly louo Ku«(m\ iii|c« on WihkI. 
 ^2. 10s. boards. 
 
 The object of this Encyrlojwdia is to pn«spnt. in one «> ^- I 
 Ptate of Gardeninu: in all countries, and its The«tr\ and I*r.. i 
 Gardening, we include H<irticidture. or :i ' •' • > ■ • 
 Floriculture, or all that relates to the II 
 culture of llowers and oriiauiental shruT- 
 
 ornamental ]>Iautatioiis, and the culture ni ii,. ii.i.iii ; i . • •> , t.n 
 
 denin?, or the art of la\in;; out s^rountts. 
 
 " No frardeiiine booW ho comprehensive, anil ronlaininc »"«ch an immrnM- i .tti-r. hat 
 
 ever been bubmitted to the public wore frif from crrom of Uir )irnor Ihr prrM."" — .Mo«/A/jr lUriftr. 
 
 (D.NTF.M ~ 
 
 Taut I.— (Janleninp ronti<l. r . i • . 
 
 dif) 
 
 Uonk I. Ilist<tr> . f (; 
 
 — '2. liardeii' 1 (<• u <> 1 i<',;ii %k ai»tl {>^i m ui M^tr uimIi r itiHc n ul IVlitit aJ 
 
 and <>' ( in*um»t«iKm. 
 
 IVvKT ii.-(.Hi.! • • Srimre, ami a* mn Art. 
 
 Book I. On the Studv nf tl,. 
 
 — 2. <> • - Growth bimI Culiurr. 
 
 — 3. M 
 
 — 4. < 
 
 I'aut III.— Oanlrninir m Prartlaed in Uhuin. 
 
 II 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 or llantin^. 
 
 - ■». Uti.aM.ijM a..irdrQtnf(. 
 
 Paht IV.-S(aU»tini of Rriitsb Gantminx. 
 
 Ilook I. Of the nr»Mn.nt Stale of Ganlrninff in Ihr Hnli*h Uln. 
 
 — 2. (►f the rulurr Pr»»prr»» of (ianlruin;; in llrilaiii. 
 
 Calkkhakial Ikokx. 
 Gknkr^l Ixokx. 
 
 FRF/S DICTIoNAia .VKiS. 
 
 .\ Dicti. narv of Arts. Manufnrturr*. and Miik-' 'if their l*riii- 
 
 ciples iind I'raclice. Ii\ .Vsnahw l ait. M i ». - .\ . i .. .ii, illuBlnilr«l 
 
 with l,2»l enirravin^s on »»kmI, x.2. 10». < 
 
 Tlie fidlovvini; are the objects which the auth " ' 
 
 First— To instruct the nianufartiirer, meiallunri^l. an<l "f thrtr 
 
 respective pri»cesso«, so as to render Ihem in n*ahly the ni. . maiM i- 
 
 pate tliein from a state of bondage to operatives- too cunitii' i..; -..i. ~ . i i..,.. ; , : . ,u.lu r and 
 vicious routine. 
 
 Secoiully— To aflTonl to merchant^. rr.ik< r*. drv«:dtprs. (Jni-ri*'", wn<I oincera of the rr»ruue, 
 characteristic des<-riptions of the I r haiida. 
 
 lliirdly — Hy exhibitinj some v. i > and |>liy«ira, to by o|»rn 
 
 an excellent practical schotd to sti. - 
 
 Fourthly— To teach capitalists, w ho may Ik* desirous of rilacinfc their fund* in aonie pnxlurtne 
 branch of industry, to select judiciously anions plausible clainianta. 
 
 Fifthly -To onsble jrentlemen of the law to bcf ome >*ell acquainted with the nature of lho». 
 patent schemes which are so apt to jrive rise tit liti:ratii.m. 
 
 Sixtldy— To present to our legislators such a clear expoftitioo of our ataple manufarturea, aa ni» \ 
 dissuade them from enacting laws which obstruct iudui»tr>', or cberiab one branch of it to iIm 
 injury of many others. 
 
 And lastly— To srive the c^' r. intent chi' '' ' • :i view of many 
 
 nf the noblest achievement- i eflectin;; t ' .alter to which 
 
 Great IJritain owes her par;. ili, rank, ai. ; , 
 
 The latest Statistics of every iin|H.irlant object of .Manufacture are ifiven, fruui the best, and 
 usually from otticial Authority, at the end of each article. 
 
VII. 
 
 Printed for Longman, Brown, and Co. 
 
 LOUDON'S E>'CYCLOP.™a OF PLAJsTS. 
 
 An Kncvrlonaedi»f Plants; coraprisin? the Description. Specific Character, Culture, History, 
 Application in tile Arts, and ever>- other desirable particular, respecting all the Plants 
 indi<^enous to, cultivated in, or introduced into, Britain ; comhinins: all the advantasres of a 
 Linna an and Jussieuean Species Plantarum, an Historia Plantarum, a Grammar of Botany, 
 and a Dirtionarv of Botany and Ve-etable Culture. The whole in English, with the Synonymes 
 of the coniinnncr Plants in the different European and other languages; the scientific names 
 accentuatf d their etymoloxv explained ; the classes, orders, and botanic terms illustrated by 
 encravin^'s •' and with figures of nearly 10,000 species, exemplifying several individuals be- 
 long-in- to even- ffenus included in the work. Edited by J. C. Loi dox, F.L.S. H.S. &c. The 
 «ipt"rifir Characters bv Professor Lindlev ; the Drawings by J. D. C. Sowerby, F.L.S. ; and the 
 En<-ravin-s bv R. Branston. 2d Edition, corrected, ^ 3.13s. 6d. x i,- i 
 
 In this Encvclripa-dia are included all the indiirenous, cultivated, and exotic Plants which are 
 now found in, or have been introduced into, Britain. The object of this work is to give a Natural 
 Hi'jton- of these Plants, accompanied by such descriptions, engraved figures, and elementary 
 details as «^hall enable a beginner, who is a mere Enslish reader, to discover the name of every 
 Plant which lie mav find in flower, refer it to its proper place, both in the natural and artificial 
 Systems of Classifiration, and acquire all the information respecting it which is useful or interesting. 
 
 'The work is divided into Two Parts, liie First Part contains the Linnean or Artificial Arrange- 
 ment of all the irenera and species, with all the details comprehended in botanical description, and 
 natural and artificial botanical histors", and with engraved portraits of one or more species of each 
 trfMiiis The Second Part contains the Jussieuean or Natural Arrangement of all the genera, 
 without repetition of the species or anv details connected with them: but as the names of the 
 natural orders are added after each jrenus in the Artificial System, and as each genus in both 
 an-ann-ements is numbered, a direct reference may be had from the second arrangement to the 
 first, and from the first to the second; reference may also be had indirectly, through the medium 
 of the Contents or Index. ^j/^ it*i».-4.*i, 
 
 \n Introduction is given to each system of arrangement, and a General Introduction to the 
 whole work in which its uses are explained. ^Yhen the beginner has a plant in flower and would 
 Ascertain its name, he will turn to the Linnean System, as explained in the Introduction to that 
 system ; and, when he has but a small part of any plant, he will turn to the Natural System, as 
 directed in the General Introduction. ,• v t^- i ,i • 
 
 All the Technical Terms, or words not iisuallv found in an English Dictionary, are explained m 
 the Glossary and enffravinirs are given of sucli of the objects designated as might occasion any 
 difflcultv to a brcinnor. This Glossaiy and the two Introductions form together a complete 
 Grammar of Botniiv. ^ ^ , j 
 
 The Table of Svnonvmes in various languages may. to a certain extent, be considered as pre- 
 sentintr the Popular r'or.ns of the various countries where these names are used ; since it is only 
 to the rt-marKable plants (,f a country that vernacular names are given. 
 " The moot useful and popular botanical work that has ever appeared m the English Language. 
 
 Jameson- fi Philosophical Journal. 
 
 LOUDON'S COTTAGE ArxClTITECTURE. 
 
 An Eiicyclop.Tdia of Cottaire, Farm, and Villa Architecture; with about 1,100 pages of letter- 
 press, alid upwards of 2,000 wood entrravings; embracinsr designs of Cottages, Farm Houses, 
 Faiineries, Villas, Country Inns, Public Houses, Parochial Schools, &c. ; including the in- 
 trrior Finishinsrs and Furniture ; accompanied by Analytical and Critical Remarks illustrative 
 of the Principles of Architectural .Science and Taste, on which the Designs for Dwellings are 
 compose.l. and of Landscape Gardening, with reference to their Accompaniments. By J. C. 
 LornoN F.L.S, &c. New Edition, corrected, with above 100 of the Plates re-engraved, with 
 a Snppiement, briniring down the Improvements in Domestic Architecture, Furniture, and 
 in Landscape Gardening, to the end of 1841. .£3. . , . ... 
 
 The main object of this 1':ncvclopaMlia of Cottage. Farm, and \illa Architecture, is to improve 
 the dwellings of the great mass of society, in the temperate regions ot both hemispheres: a 
 secondary object is to create and diffuse among mankind, generally, a taste for aixhitectural 
 comforts and beauties. , . 
 
 '! he means by which we propose to accomplish these objects are the following :— 
 Bv submitting a series of Designs for human dwellings, embracing every appropriate comfort 
 and' the greatest variety of beautv; and by accompanying these designs with analytical and 
 critical remarks, iwintiiig out in what this comfort and beauty consist, and on what principles 
 both are founded. „ . , . ^ . ^ . i r -i. 1 1 
 
 Bv submitting a series of Desiirns for the finishinc, fittings up, fixtures, and furniture, suitable 
 to the dilVereut^ descriptions of (:ottasre, Farm, and Villa Buildings ; and by accompanying these 
 with remarks on their fitness for the end in view, such as lighting, heating, ventilating, &c., as 
 well as with analytical and critical remarks on their style or beauty ; thus showing the necessity 
 of Architec ts including the study of furniture in that of their profession, so as to be able to give 
 
 designs for furnishing a house, as w ell as for building one. 
 
 By accompanying nuinv of the Designs with gardens, as well small kitchen and flo^ver gardens 
 for the colta'-ef, as pleasure ground and park scenery for the occupant of the villa; and by ex- 
 plaining the '"connection of Villa Architecture with Landscape Gardening, and pointing out the 
 necessity which exists for Villa Architects po.ssessing a considerable knowledge of the art of laying 
 
 °"bvT\oidfng, when it is not absolutely necessary, the use of terms peculiar to Architecture ; by 
 explaininc- all such as are used, ^vhen they first occur ; and by adopting such a style as will render 
 tiie work easily understood by the uninitiated reader, as well as subservient to the purpose of 
 educating youiig persons, especially those of the female sex, in Architecture as an art of taste. 
 
 " From tile commencement of the present century, a number of works on ornamental cottages, 
 rural villas, and other country dwellinge, have been published, and have greatly increased the 
 architectural taste of country gentlemen and retired citizens. One of the best of these is Loudon's 
 « Encvclopa'dia of Cottage. Farm, and Villa Architecture and Furniture ; than which, we believe, 
 no single work has ever^ effected so much good in improving the arrangement and external ap- 
 pearance of country dwellings generally."— T<mjc*. 
 
Mil. 
 
 Notice of a Series of Encyclopaedias, printed for Loucmau Ac Co 
 
 LOUDON'S ENCYCLOPEDIA OF AGRICULTURE. 
 
 An Encyclopapdia of Aericulture. Hy J. C. Ixji dox, F.L.^. Il.S^^r. (' ' 
 Tlieory and I'rartire of the Valuation, Trniisfor, laymtr out, hiiprnvcinrnt, :. t 
 of Lan(Je(i i^ro|K-rty, and the ("ultivation and Kfcm niy of the Animal and \ • . 
 tions of Atrriculturt', inrludint: tlu' lati st InipmvenuMits, a Ciim-rnl History ni A_i :' m< hi 
 all Countries, and a Statistical View «if its I'tc-ciit State, witli Sul'l'i >t'ioni» for iti» Kiiturr 
 ProsTcss. With nearly 1,;:00 rncnivinuR on wood, 3ti edit, with a ,"'U|»|ileinent, rontainintr 
 all the recent improvements. Jt'2. lOs boards. 
 *' One of the UiOst scientillc and justlv ifopular works of tbc present timen." 
 
 Stf>cart'$ Plamter'a Gmidt. 
 
 C()NTI:NT.S, 
 
 Part I.— Afjriculture Considered a* to its Oriirin. ProirreM, and Present State, amonff diffrrrnt 
 
 Nations GoveninientH, an<l Climalrs. 
 Book 1.— Hi8tor\- of Airricultureaiuoujf Aucicut I llook 2.— A;rririiltur*' a* Inrtuenrcil l»v (Irogra- 
 and Modern Nations. phical, PhyftioU, Civil, and Politiial Cimuii- 
 
 I ^l«n^e•. 
 
 Part II. — .Xjrriculture coniiderp*! aa a Srienre. 
 Book 1.— Of the Ftn.h of V(-jrtablc and the ,\linospherr, with referrncr to Arri- 
 
 Kingdom with a N rulturr. 
 Book'i. — Of the d Kinjf- Botik 4. -Of the MM-hantcal Axrota rinplo)cd 
 
 dom with ref. rei.. . i" \;:n. ultur.-. 
 
 Book 3.--Of the Stuil) .11 t.itMi!.. rul Kinffdom H < raliunt of Afiiculturr. 
 
 Pakt III.- AffricuHurr n. 
 Book 1, — Of the VahiatKui, Ihirrhajw, and 1 ml of landed Pmprrly. 
 
 Transfer of IjimSetl l*roiM«rty. H ■ ti .u, llirtn?. ami Murkini; ' 
 
 li<Mik 2.— of the |jivin;f Out, or General Ar- 
 
 ranu'emeiit of Ijini'led KMatcH, I- . (ure of Parm Ijioda, 
 
 Book 3. On Improvinif the Culturable Land* liuok ".— Ibe Kronoaijr of Uve Stock and th» 
 of un Hhtate, ' l>a<rT. 
 
 Part IV.— "itatiBtlra of I " 
 Book 1.— Of the IVeaent State of Ajrncullure in i ire Projfreaa of Acricalturr 
 
 the British isles. I 
 
 Calcndartal Index.— Gloaaanal ln u*. Cnurml Imlet, 
 
 COrLAMUS DICTIONARY OF PRACTI' ' I ' i.. 
 
 A I)ictit)nnrv of Pmrtical M«-<liniie; rnmpnauiv (iriirral I' i rralini-nt 
 
 of l>i^eaM•«■ .Mori P ^ , 
 
 Sex, and to the ■ 
 reconiniended. 
 
 Lyinp-in H<»Rpit;., . :.. . 1 ..i.. .. 1,.: : . » . . i.. . M- i., . i ..i r . iv ..i.i 
 
 Collece of i'liyttiriann, Ixindun; of the Medical and (.birurstral hortetir* of Ixindon ami 
 lierlin, &r. 
 
 This work is now i' * I • • i • 
 
 in an ahstrnct 'nd 
 ex|>erience<l w i it- r^. i 
 practice, that t ' 
 opinituis and I 
 have entered. 
 to arrive at j' 
 als»). tin' w(irk 
 niaturitl ju(L':i. 
 comprises the ciunb 
 with in prnctic*', ti 
 nn vary 111 _• t ; t ■ v. . i 
 never c N\ lu n »l- 
 
 Meiliciii' I*'*!, in th. 
 
 f ami sill.- I. ,1.^ References t . . . ; \. , .1. . , . .i. h 
 
 article. 
 
 In conclusion, the Work w ill contain the results of many years of labori< retearrh, 
 and of twenty years' extensive and diversified experience. 
 
 SAYAGE'S DICTIONARY OF PRLNTl.NG. 
 
 A Dictionary of Printinc By William .«avauk, Author of '* Prartical Hint* on Derorative 
 
 Printinsr." ai»d a Treatise " On the I'n iiatnti"ii »if Printi'i'.' Iil , both Black and Coloured." 
 
 In 1 thick vol. 8vo. w ith numerous . . . ., .|. 
 
 It has been the inteution to u'ive in • clear account of the Art of 
 
 IVintinsr. as now pra tised in the M- »■ \ r*- !■ ■ / . > ; . ri ■ . m 
 
 London, durinir w hich i)erioil h- 
 British Press; this has U'en &< 
 
 art, renderin^ it a Guiileto the .\, , . . . . . • il 
 
 Book of Reference to the exixfrienccd Workman, to tue iJa^l(■^ I'micr, tlie Over»' cr, and the 
 Reader, in the priiitins:-otlice; and to the Literary Man, and iu the LibnuA', fur all matters 
 relatinir to. or connected w ith, printing. 
 
 " Few I'rinters, we are iK-rsuaded, however skilful in their Art, or enthusiastic in its pursuit, 
 are aware of the mass ana variety of amusing mutter, not to speak of u«efid hints and infor- 
 mation, to be found iJi this work.' (It is) a very useful and curiou*' I)irti<»nar)-."— .t/oii/A/v Jirnrtr. 
 
 " We heartily recommend the work to all in' any way connected with literature, who Will find it 
 of great service as a book of leierence."— Z/i/rrary Gazette. 
 
 sUnam- Street, SnowliUl Londoo. 
 
EZrC'Y'C:LOP2iDZA 
 
 OF 
 
 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA 
 
 ARCHITECTURE 
 
 AND 
 
 FURNITURE. 
 
• 
 
 Lf.li(i><i.v : 
 l*riiitix) Uy A ^p.imswooop, 
 Ncw.Strcft-S-jaare. 
 
AN 
 
 ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 OF 
 
 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA 
 
 ARCHITECTURE 
 
 AND 
 
 FURNITURE : 
 
 CONTAINING 
 
 NUMEROUS DESIGNS FOR DWELLINGS, 
 
 FROM THE COTTAGE TO THE VILLA, 
 INCLUDING FARM HOUSES, FARMERIES, AND OTHER AGRICULTURAI* BUILDINGS J 
 
 SEVERAL DESIGNS FOR 
 
 WITH THE REQUISITE FITTINGS-UP, FIXTURES, AND FURNITURE, AND 
 APPROPRIATE OFFICES, GARDENS, AND GARDEN SCENERY; 
 
 EACH DESIGN ACCOMPANIED BY 
 
 ANALYTICAL AND CRITICAL REMARKS, 
 
 ILLUSTRATIVE OF THE PRINCIPLES OF ARCHITECTURAL SCIENCE AND 
 TASTE ON WHICH IT IS COMPOSED. 
 
 BY J. C. LOUDON, F.L.S. H.S. &c. 
 
 CONDUCTOR OF THE GARDENER's MAGAZINE, ETC. 
 
 Illustrated by more tban Two Tbousand Eng^ravingrs : 
 
 The Designs by upwards of fifty different Architects, Surveyors, Builders, Upholsterers, Cabinet-makers, 
 Landscape-Gardeners, and others, of whom a List is given. 
 
 A NEW SBXTZOnr: 
 
 WITH A SUPPLEMENT 
 
 CONTAINING 
 
 ABOVE ONE HUNDRED AND SIXTY PAGES OF LETTER-PRESS, AND 
 NEARLY THREE HUNDRED ENGRAVINGS, 
 
 BRINGING DOWN THE WORK TO 
 
 1842. 
 
 LONDON: 
 
 LONGMAN, BROWN, GREEN, AND LONGMANS; 
 
 AND SOLD BY 
 
 JOHN WEALE, AT THE ARCHITECTURAL LIBRARY, HIGH HOLBORN. 
 
 1842. 
 
The Author may he consulted, either perutnally mr by Utter, an any of the tuffjecti 
 treated oj in this Volume, at the rate of' ihte (iuiuea jter hour; or, if required to f^o from 
 home, at the rate of Five (ruiueas a daij, with travelling erpen%et. The charge fir Vlau% 
 and Reports may he ascertained by previous agreement. 
 
 London : 
 
 Printed by A. Spottiswoodb, 
 New- Street- Square. 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 All the arts of life have had their origin in some simple natural want, supplied, in the 
 first instance, by every man for himself ; tiU, with the progress of civilisation, from these 
 wants sprang those desires and wishes, which gave rise to that division of skill and labour 
 in supplying them, which is one of the characteristics of civilised society. Hence the 
 origin of all the different professions, most of which, in their first existence as such, 
 were practised by distinct associations as mysteries, unknown to, or concealed from, 
 general society. 
 
 It is in the nature of all knowledge held as mystery, to remain in a great measure 
 stationary, because the minds which are engaged in it are necessarily few j and because 
 the gi-eat object of such associations is, to keep their peculiar knowledge, and the exercise 
 of their craft, among themselves. Hence the little progress which has been made in 
 Domestic Architecture, the science and rules of which have been almost exclusively 
 confined to Architects, from the earliest ages to the present time. On examining into 
 the actual state of this art, it will be found that the improvements which have been 
 made in it in modern times, are chiefly confined to those departments which are open to 
 the understanding, and amenable to the judgment, of mankind generally ; we mean, 
 such as relate to comfort and convenience in the arrangement, warming, lighting, heat- 
 ing, &c., of rooms ; whereas the department of taste in building is little in advance of 
 what it was two thousand years ago. 
 
 To what can this be owing, but to the circumstance, that the knowledge of Archi- 
 tecture, as a fine art, is much less tamiliar to the public, than it is as an art of utility ; or, 
 in other words, that the Architect is under the control of public opinion much more 
 in matters of usefulness, than in matters of taste ? 
 
 This is a state of things by no means peculiar to Architecture. The greater portion 
 of mankmd, in even the most civilised countries, has hitherto been kept in the dark 
 with regard to what constitutes truth and excellence in all arts or professions, the prac- 
 tice of which has been limited to certain associations or corporations of individuals. 
 Hence the sciences of government, law, medicine, theology, education, &c., have been in 
 all countries comparative mysteries, and have, consequently, like Architecture, remained 
 nearly stationary for ages. The profound and exclusive attention, which is requisite to 
 enable the professors of any art to become eminent in it, necessarily precludes them, while 
 engaged in its pursuit, from acquiring a proportionate stock of knowledge upon other 
 subjects. Unless, therefore, this stock of knowledge has been previously laid in by a 
 scientific education in early youth, professional men and artists are very apt to assign 
 an undue importance to the facts and views connected with their professions ; and to 
 regard as general truths, those which are, in fact, only particular. Hence, universal 
 principles and extended views are much more likely to be entertained by persons who 
 have studied several arts and sciences, though perhaps none of them profoundly, than 
 by those who have confined their attention to only one. Hence, also, we rarely find 
 great reformations made in any art by its professors. 
 
 Another cause which has retarded the progress of all arts and professions is, the prac- 
 tice, common in most of them, of implicitly following precedents ; or of adhering rigidly 
 to rules (made perhaps in a former age, and consequently adapted to a less advanced 
 state of civilisation), instead of testing those precedents and rules by fundamental prin- 
 ciples, and adapting the latter to the state of society for the time being. No art has had 
 its progress more retarded by these means than Architecture ; whether by the old idea 
 that the whole of its science was included in the knowledge of the five orders ; or by the 
 modern one that Architecture, as an art of taste, is one of imitation, like those of sculp- 
 ture and painting ; and that there is no manner of building worthy of the name of 
 Architecture but the Grecian. 
 
 According to our views of this subject, all arts, whether of design a.nd taste, or of utility 
 and convenience, like every thing else relative to man, are progressive, and change with 
 the changing condition of society. In like manner, the knowledge of all arts, from being 
 exclusive, is calculated, through the spread of education, ultimately to become universal : 
 and, the art of printing and the use of the steam-engine being discovered, the time 
 will ultimately arrive, in every country, when all knowledge will be common to all 
 
vi 
 
 PREFACE. 
 
 mankind. No art or profession will then be a mystery ; but, each being reduced to 
 the comprehension of youth, forming a part of that general education which will 
 ultimately be every where established, and being consequently subject to the criticism 
 of the whole of society, the improvement in it will be great, in proportion to the demand 
 which there may be for its exercise and for its productions. Though scarcely any 
 country has arrived at this stage in social progress, even in any one of the arts or ])ro- 
 fessions, yet all countries are advancing towards it with different degrees of rai)idity, 
 according to the circumstances in which they are placed, geographical and political. 
 
 In accordance with these views, our intention, in producing the work now submitted 
 to the reader, is, to prepare the way for rendering general, a knowledge of Domestic 
 Architecture; for the immediate purpose of increasing the comforts of the great mass 
 of society; and for the more remote objects of improving the knowledge and the taste 
 of the public in Architecture, and of inducing Architects to study their art on general 
 principles, and on a theory formed on the nature of the human mind, and on the 
 changing condition of society, rather than on the jjrecedents and rules of former ages, 
 or on any hypothesis whatever. The means by which m-c have endeavoured to elfet-t 
 these objects will be found exi)lained at length in our Introduction, to wiiitli we refer 
 the reader. 
 
 We have only been enabled to accomplish our purjiose by the cooperation of a numlnT 
 of Architects, of scientific men, and of men of tiiste. Several of these we are proud 
 to call our personal friends; and others who, In-fore we received their contributions to 
 this work, were known to us oidy by name, have proved thcinsi-lM-s frii-nds l)y their 
 actions. Hefore proceeding to return our sincere nckniiwli-«lgnu'nts to tiie various 
 artists and others, whose names will In? found in the list, j). xix., it may Ik? ndvisjible 
 to reply to an objection which has Ik-cii made to us by some .Vrchiti-cts viz. that, by 
 laying their profession open to the world, we were acting st» as to injure their pecuniary 
 interests. The same objection was made to Dr. Huchan many years ago, when he 
 first i)ublished his Domestic Mtdicinc; and t(. .?i>hn .\lxrcroml)ie, when lie wrote his Inxik 
 entitled Evcrif Mun his own Gardtmr. Now, without going into details «"e shall only 
 ask, what have been tlie progress of medicine and gardening, and the prosperity of medicnl 
 men and gardeners, since tlietiine these works appeared, eonijiared to wli.it they were for 
 a similar period previous to tlieir publication? The answer, undoubtedly, is that their 
 improvement has been great beyond all former example. To what can this In? owing, 
 but to the more general diffusion of knowledge on these subjects ? 'I'he truth is that 
 public attention can never be turned to any art or science, without iH-nefiting all in 
 professors. A little knowledge of any given subject makes us di-sire to know more; 
 and, though we first apply to Ixxjks Xo accpiire this further knowledge, we nuist ulti- 
 mately have recourse to living jjrofessors to carry it into elli-ct. No lM>ok can be framed 
 so as to suit the exigencies of every particular cxse : all tliat can Ik- done by any author 
 is, to lay down general principles, and to de<luce rules from thenj. 'I'he application <if 
 these rules must be learned from experience; and it is evident that a knowle<lge of the 
 principles from which they are deducwl will enable the amateur more thoroughly to 
 appreciate and profit by the skill of the professtjr. 
 
 -Vmong the important uses of this work will be that of pointing out the various capa- 
 cities for improvement in comfort and beauty, of which each class of building, and each 
 kind of furniture, is susceptil)le. Now, so far from this ha\ing a tendency to injure 
 Architects, it will not only enable those who wish either to build or to furnish, to exjjress 
 more clearly, to the Architect or uplu)lsterer, those wants which they already have ; but 
 it will elicit new ones, of which they had previously no idea, and which the Architect, 
 the builder, and the upholsterer will be called upon to suj)ply. 
 
 In expressing our acknowledgments to our contributors it was originally our in- 
 tention to thank, in an esj^ecial manner, those who, by their early contributions when 
 the work was commenced in monthly parts in April, 1832, encouraged us lo proceed 
 with it ; but, on due consideration, lest we might inadvertently appear partial in our 
 acknowledgments, we think it best to return our sincere thanks generally to trie whole 
 of our contributors as enumerated in the list, p. xix. to x\. How much we feel 
 indebted to the Architects and others whose names are included in that list, can be only 
 understood by those who are duly aware that the value of a work consisting principally 
 of graphic designs, depends upon those designs being the production of a number of 
 different minds. For the liberality which has been thus shown us, we have made the 
 best return in our power, by publishing this work at such an unprecedentedly low price, 
 as must insure, to the names and talents of our contributors, an extensive circulation ; and, 
 for our own labour, we have earned the consciousness of having produced a book, which 
 must inevitably have an important influence on the rural Architecture of the temperate 
 regions of both hemispheres. 
 
 Bayswater, June 1. 18.33. 
 
 J. C. L. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 Page 
 
 . V 1 List of Books quoted - - " xix 
 
 Preface - - - - . List of Contributors - - " " 
 
 List of Engravings - - * 
 
 - 1 
 
 Introduction - - 
 
 BOOK I. 
 
 DESIGNS KOR LABOUREKS^ANO MECHANIC^^^ 
 
 Chap. I. 
 
 Model Designs for Cottages, exhibiting in each 
 Model all the Accommodations and Ar- 
 rangements for Comfort and Convenience 
 of vvhich the smallest Dwellings of this Class 
 are susceptible - • • '„ii fV>o 
 
 I. A Cottage of One Story; combming all the 
 Accommodation and Conveniences of which 
 human Dwellings of that Description are 
 
 U. r'^otuge of On; Story"; combining the 
 Accommodations and Conveniences of De- 
 sign I., differently arranged, and with the 
 Addition of a Veranda - - ' 
 
 in. A Cottage of Two Stories ; combining the 
 Accommodations and Conveniences of De 
 sign L, differently arranged, and with an 
 additional Bed-roora - - ' '^'^ 
 
 Chap. II 
 
 A miscellaneous Collection of Designs for Cot. 
 tage Dwellings, with Critical and Analytical 
 
 IV. I'Swelling for'a Man and hi"s Wife; with'- ^_ 
 
 V roSemnrforaMan and his Wife with 
 Two or more Children, with a Cow-house 
 
 VI. A Dwlllhig for a' Man and his'wife," with 
 an Apprentice, Servant, or grown-up Son 
 
 VIL^A^DwdUng of Two Rooms and a Back 
 Kitchen, for a Man and his Wife - - •i'^ 
 
 VIII A Dwelling of Two Rooms, for a Man ^ 
 
 IX A'Dwemn?in the Swiss Style, for'a mar- 
 rtd Sple^and Family, with a Cow-house ^ 
 
 X TDwemng for a married' Couple a'nd On^ 
 Child, with a Pigsty • - " 
 
 XI A Dwelling for a Man and his Wife, and 
 One or Two Children, with a Cow-house 
 
 XIl'^A DwelUng of TwoStori^s, for aManand 
 We with a Servant and Two or Three 
 Children, with a Cow-house and Pigsty - 
 
 XIII. A Dwelling for a Man and his Wife, with 
 Two or more Children - - - 
 
 XIV. A Dwelling for a Man and his Wife, with 
 One Servant, and a grown-up Son or 
 
 XV. ^A DweUing for a'lMan and his Wife, with'- 
 out Children - - , w;fo" 
 
 XVI. A Dwelling for a Man and his Wite, 
 without Children - ^ ' „a I 
 
 XVII A Dwelling with Two Rooms and a 
 ^ Bed-closItT for aMan and his Wife, with 
 
 an Apprentice or Servant - " 
 XVIIL A Dwelling for a Man and his Wite, 
 
 without Children - - " ' 
 
 XIX. A Dwelling of Two Rooms, for a Man 
 and his Wife, without Children - - 
 
 XX. A Dwelling for a Man and his Wife, with 
 
 . 94 
 
 97 
 
 48 
 
 63 
 
 74 
 - 80 
 
 Children, and having a Cow-house, Pigsty, 
 Xxf A Dw'emng for'a Man' and hi's Wifei 
 XXni^A Dwemngfor a Gardener; or other 
 Servant, on a Gentleman's Estate, who has 
 a Wife, but no Children - ~ " 
 XXIII A DweUing of One Story, for a Man 
 and his Wife lith a Family of Children ; 
 having a Cow-house and P.gsty attached - 
 XXIV. A Dwelling for a Man and his Wife, 
 without Childrin, having Two Rooms, and 
 
 XXrrSlfn??oTa working Man, with I 
 
 XXvPA^CotUge Dwelling in 'the Ge'rman 
 """"Iwisrstyle for a Man and his Family, with 
 
 Accommodation for two Horses and aCow 98 
 XXVII A Dwelling for a Man and his Wife 
 with Children, or a Servant, with the usual 
 Conveniences in a detached Building - 101 
 XXVlTl A Cottage in the Old Enghsh Man- 
 ner, containing a Kitchen, Living Room, 
 and Two Bed-rooms - - " ^"'^ 
 
 XXIX. A Cottage Dwelling of Three Rooms, 
 with various Conveniences - " ^""^ 
 
 XXX. A Cottage DweUing with Five Rooms, 
 and various Conveniences - - 
 
 XXX L A Dwelling with Five Rooms, witn 
 Conveniences, in the O d English Style 
 where the building Material is chiefly S^^^^^^^ 108 
 
 ™Ryoml»e^O?d«^S» 
 Timber, Brick, and Slate are the Materials 
 used for the Walls and Roof - " 
 XXXIII Two Cottage DweUings, under the 
 same Roof; each having Two Rooms and 
 other Conveniences - - " 
 
 XXXIV. A Cottage DweUing of Two Rooms, 
 intended as a Gate Lodge ^ _ - ^ " 
 
 XXXV. A Cottage DweUing of Three Rooms, 
 with Back Kitchen, Cow-house, and other 
 
 XXXvT'A^Dwelling with Four Rooms, aBack 
 Kitchen, and other Conveniences - . " l« 
 
 XXXVII. A Dwelling of Four Rooms, with 
 other Conveniences, intended as a Lodge 
 or a House for a BaiUff or Head Gardener 141 
 
 XXXVIII. A DweUing of Three Rooms, with 
 ^ a Back Kitchen, and other Conveniences^ 
 
 intended as a Porter's Lodge, or C^ardener s 
 
 vx xix Two Dwellings for Country La- 
 well under One Roof, with Two Rooms 
 in each and other Conveniences - ^ - 1*4 
 XL Two Cottages of Three Rooms each, under 
 the same Roof, with Cow-house, Pigsty, 
 and other Conveniences to each - - l*o 
 VT T Six Cottages grouped together, witn a 
 ^^ viSv to Econom^n building them - 147 
 
 XLII. A Cottage of ThreeRooms,in the Eliza. 
 
 XLUL^ A Cottage of Three R^oms, w'ith Back 
 
viii 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 Page 
 
 Kitchen, Cow-house, and other Conve- 
 niences .... 158 
 
 XLIV. A Cottage of Three Rooms and a Back 
 Kitchen on the Ground Floor, with various 
 Conveniences .... 163 
 
 XLV. A Dwelling of Four Rooms, with Back 
 Kitchen, and other Conveniences - - 163 
 
 XLVI. A Cottage Dwelling of Four Rooms, 
 with a Back Kitchen, Cellar, and other 
 Conveniences .... 164 
 
 XLVII. Two Cottages for Country Labourers, 
 under One Roof, with Four Rooms in each. 
 Back Kitchen, Pigsty, and other Con- 
 veniences ... - 168 
 
 XLVIII. A Dwelling of Four Rooms, with a 
 Back Kitchen, and other Conveniences - 175 
 
 XLIX. A Dwelling suitable for a Lodge or 
 Toll-house, having Three Rooms, and other 
 Conveniences _ ._ - . 176 
 
 L. A Cottage Dwelling of Four Rooms, with 
 other Conveniences - - - 176 
 
 LI. A Cottage Dwelling of Six Rooms, with 
 other Conveniences ... 179 
 
 LH. Ideas for altering the Front of an old 
 Cottage, at present in a dilapidated State - 181 
 
 LI 1 1. A Cottage for a Village Tradesman -182 
 
 LIV. Two Cottage Dwellings for Labourers, 
 under One Roof .... 184 
 
 LV. A Cottage of One Story, with Four Rooms, 
 a Kitchen, and other Conveniences - 186 
 
 LVl. A Dwelling of Four Rooms, with other 
 Conveniences, and a large Rustic Portico . 190 
 
 LVII. Two Dwellings under One Roof, Two 
 Stories high, with Four Rooms in each, and 
 other Conveniences - - - 191 
 
 LVIII. A Labourer's Cottage of Two Rooms, 
 with other Conveniences - - - 192 
 
 I IX. Two Cottages of One Room and a Back 
 Kitchen each, under the same Roof - 196 
 
 LX. Two Dwellings under One Roof, each 
 containing Four Rooms, with a Back 
 Kitchen and other Conveniences - , 196 
 
 LXI. A Dwelling of Three Rooms on the 
 Ground Floor, with a Back Kitchen and 
 other Conveniences . - - 197 
 
 LXII. A DweUing of Four Rooms on Two 
 Floors, with various Conveniences .201 
 
 LXII I. Two Dwellings of Two Rooms each, 
 under One Roof . - . . 202 
 
 LXIV. Two Dwellings under One Roof, each 
 Three Stories high, and having Three 
 Rooms, and other Conveniences - . 202 
 
 LXV. A Dwelling of Three Rooms, with 
 other Conveniences ... 205 
 
 LXVI. A Cottage Dwelling of Two Rooms, 
 with a Smithy, Shoeing-shed, and Three- 
 stalled Stable - . . - 205 
 
 LXV I L A Cottage Dwelling of Five Rooms, in 
 Two Floors 211 
 
 LXVIII. A Dwelling of Four Rooms, with 
 other Conveniences - - - 211 
 
 Page 
 
 LXIX. A Cottage Dwelling, in the Old English 
 Style, with Kitchen, Parlour, Business 
 Room, Three Bedchambers, and other 
 Conveniences - 212 
 
 LXX. A Cottage Dwelling of Four Rooms, 
 with other Conveniences ... 214 
 
 LXX I. A Castellated Lodge, as a Dwelling for 
 a Gardener or other Upper Servant, on a 
 Gentleman's Estate ... 214 
 
 LXXII. A Dwelling of Six Rooms, with vari- 
 ous Conveniences .... 223 
 
 LXXII I. A Dwelling, Three Stories high, with 
 Four Rooms, and various Conveniences . 224 
 
 LXXIV. Design for a Cottage Dwelling, in the 
 Old English Style, and of a Construction 
 suitable for having Part of the Walls cover, 
 ed with Weather Tiling - - . 227 
 
 LXXV. A Cottage in the Old English Manner, 
 containing on the Ground Floor a Living- 
 Room, Kitchen, and other Conveniences, 
 with Two Bed-rooms over - - 231 
 
 LXXVL A Cottage Dwelling One Story high, 
 containing Six Rooms, a Wash-house, and 
 other Conveniences - . . 236 
 
 LXXVII. The Model Cottages of the La- 
 bourer's Friend Society, as erected at 
 Shooter's Hill, Kent - - - 237 
 
 LXXVIII. Six Cottage Dwellings, built at 
 Abersychan, near Pontypool, in South 
 Wales, with One common Wash-house and 
 Bakehouse - - - - 238 
 
 LXX IX. Twelve or more Cottages in a Row, 
 with a Kitchen, Wash-house, and other 
 Conveniences in common ; the whole heat- 
 ed by the Fires in the Public Kitchen . 241 
 
 LXXX. Eighty Dwellings of the humblest 
 Class, placed together, with a view of being 
 heated by One common Fire, and enjoying 
 other Benefits, on the Cooperative Sys- 
 tem - . - - - - 244 
 
 LXXXI. A portable Cottage for the Use of 
 Emigrants and others . ■ - 251 
 
 Chap. Ill 
 
 Designs and Directions for Exterior and Inte- 
 rior Finishing, as connected with Furnish- 
 ing, and for the Fittings-up, Fixtures, and 
 Furniture of Cottage Dwellings - - 258 
 
 Sect. I. Designs and Directions for the Exterior 
 Finishing of Cottage Dwellings . - 259 
 
 Sect. 1 1. Designs and Directions for the Inte- 
 rior Finishing of Cottage Dwellings . 272 
 
 Sect. III. Designs and Directions for Internal 
 Fittings-up for Cottage Dwellings - 281 
 
 Sect. IV. Designs and Directions for Fixtures 
 for Cottage Dwellings - . .282 
 
 Sect. V. Designs and Directions for Cottage 
 Furniture and Furnishing . . 298 
 
 BOOK II. 
 
 DESIGNS FOR 
 
 FARM HOUSES AND FARMERIES, COUNTRY INNS AND 
 PAROCHIAL SCHOOLS. 
 
 Chap. I. 
 
 Designs for Farm Houses and Farmeries, ex- 
 hibiting various Degrees of Accommo- 
 dation, from the Farm of 50 to that of 1000 
 Acres, suitable to different Kinds of Farm- 
 ing, and in different Styles of Architec- 
 ture - - - - . . 354 
 
 Sect. I. General Principles and Model Designs 
 for Farm. Houses and Farmeries - . 355 
 
 1. General Principles and Model Designs for 
 
 the Arrangement of a Farm House - 355 
 
 2. Fundamental Principles, Directions, and 
 
 Model Designs, for the Construction and 
 Arrangement of the various Parts which 
 compose a Farmery - - - 373 
 
 Chap. IL 
 
 A Collection of miscellaneous Designs for 
 Farm Houses and Farmeries, in different 
 Styles of Architecture, and adapted to 
 
 different Kinds of Farms ; with Specifica- 
 tions, Estimates, and accompanying Re. 
 marks . - - . - 418 
 
 Sect. I. Miscellaneous Designs - - 418 
 
 I. A Bailiff's Cottage, in the Old English Style, 
 
 intended for the Manager of a Farm in the 
 Neighbourhood of London - - 418 
 
 II. A Farmery in the Old English Style, chiefly 
 calculated for Dairy Husbandry, and con. 
 ducted by a Bailiff, for the Proprietor of the 
 Land - - - - - 434 
 
 III. A Farm House and Farmery suitable for 
 a Farm of 600 Acres of Turnip Soil, ex- 
 ecuted at Halstone, in Dumfriesshire - 441 
 
 IV. A Farm House and Farmery suitable for 
 an extensive Turnip Farm, executed at 
 Gatestack, in Dumfriesshire - - 445 
 
 V. A Farm House and Farmery for a Farm of 
 150 Acres of Arable and Pasture Land in 
 Buckinghamshire - - - 448 
 
 VI. A Farm House and Farmery for a Farm 
 of 600 Acres of Turnip Soil, in Ayrshire, 
 under a Rotation of Five Years, and em- 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 ix 
 
 Page 
 
 ployed partly in breeding and partly in feed- 
 ing Stock 452 
 
 VII. A Farm House and Farmery for Three 
 Ploughs, erected at Ingliston in Dumfries- 
 shire - . - . - 454 
 
 VITI. A Farm House and Farmery for Three 
 Ploughs, erected at Alton, in Dumfries- 
 shire - - - - - 457 
 
 IX. A Farm House and Farmery for a small 
 Farm for breeding Sheep and Cattle, erected 
 
 at Holecleugh, in Dumfriesshire - - 457 
 
 X. A Farm House and Farmery for a Farm of 
 Two Ploughs, erected on the Grebten Es- 
 tate, in Dumfriesshire - - - 459 
 
 XI. A Farm House and Farmery for Four 
 Ploughs, designed, and in Part executed in 
 Dumfriesshire - 460 
 
 XII. The Villa Residence and Farmery of Rid- 
 denwood, in the Parish of Kirkmahoe, 
 Dumfriesshire, in the Occupation of the 
 Proprietor, James Kerr, Esq. - - 462 
 
 XIII. A Farm House and Farmery for 100 
 Acres of Land, to be cultivated on the 
 Norfolk System, with a Flour Mill driven 
 
 by Wind 471 
 
 XIV. A Farm House and Farmery for a Farm 
 of Two Ploughs, in the County of North- 
 umberland - - 475 
 
 XV. The Farm House and Offices at Cocklaw 
 East Farm, on the BeaufrontEstate,North- 
 umberland . . - . 476 
 
 XVI. A Farm House and Farmery for Seven 
 Ploughs, executed at Newnham Barns, in 
 Northumberland - - - - 477 
 
 XVII. A Farm House and Farmery for Four- 
 teen Ploughs, suited to the Northumbrian 
 Husbandry - - - - 479 
 
 XVIII. A Farm House and Farmery for Ten 
 Ploughs, Ten Cows, Twenty Young Cattle, 
 and other Live Stock, adapted to the Hus- 
 bandry of Northumberland - - 482 
 
 XIX. A Farmery of Five Ploughs, with Cows, 
 Cattle, and other Stock in Proportion, 
 suitable for the Northumbrian Husban- 
 dry - . - .... 484 
 
 XX. A Farm House and Farmery for Three 
 Ploughs, adapted to the Northumbrian 
 System of Culture - - - 485 
 
 XXI. The Farm House and Offices for a Farm 
 of Six Ploughs, called Hallington New 
 Houses, on theBeaufront Estate, in Nortli- 
 umberland .... 486 
 
 XXII. The Farmery at Calley, in Kirkcud- 
 brightshire, suitable for a Galloway Crop 
 and Pasture Farm of 400 Acres - . 496 
 
 XXIIL A Farmery for a small French Farm, 
 as given by Morel- Vind6 . - - 497 
 
 XXIV. A Farm House and Farmery suitable 
 for a Farm of from 300 to 500 Acres in 
 France - - - - - 499 
 
 XXV. For a Court of Feeding-houses, built for 
 the late Thomas Hibbert, Esq., at Chalfont 
 Lodge, Buckinghamshire - . - 508 
 
 XXVI. A Farmery for extensive Ironworks, 
 erected at Abersychan, near Pontypool, in 
 South Wales - - - - 511 
 
 XXV II. A Farmery for a Farm of 250 Acres, 
 in the Valley of Strathmore, where a Rota- 
 tion of Seven Crops is followed, the Grass 
 Division being pastured the Second Year . 512 
 
 XXVIII. A Farmeryfor a particular Situation, 
 suitable for 80 Acres of Arable Land, and 
 300 Acres of Pasture, in the Carse of 
 Gowrie . . . - . 514 
 
 XXIX. The Farm House and Farmery of 
 Starston Place, near Harleston, in Norfolk, 
 suitable for a Farm of 350 Acres under the 
 Norfolk System of Culture . - - 516 
 
 XXX. A B^armery for a Farm of 300 Acres of 
 Arable Land, and 500 of Pasture, in the 
 West Highlands - - 519 
 
 XXXI. A Farmery for 200 Acres of Arable 
 Land, and 300 of Pasture, in the West of 
 Scotland 520 
 
 XXXII. A Farm House and Farmery for 200 
 Acres of Arable Land, and 300 of Pasture, 
 
 in Ross-shire . _ _ - 522 
 
 XXX I II. A Farm House and Farmery for 500 
 Acres, half Pasture and half Arable, erected 
 
 at , in the Parish of Tarbat, Ross-shire 523 
 
 XXXIV. The Farmery at Greendykes, in 
 
 Haddingtonshire, consisting of 500 Arable 
 Acres under a Six-course Shift - . 528 
 
 XXXV. A Farm House and Farmery at Elcho 
 Castle, Perthshire, adapted for a Farm of 
 Six Ploughs, under the Turnip Husbandry 537 
 
 XXXVI. A Public House and Farmery; the 
 Publican being, at the same time, a small 
 Farmer and a Butcher ... 544 
 
 XXXVII. A House and Out-buildings for a 
 Cheese Dairy Farm of from 300 to 350 Acres, 
 
 in Cheshire - . . - 545 
 
 XXXVIII. A Mixed Stock Farm, in a high 
 (hilly) Country, employing only One Pair 
 
 of Horses . - - - 546 
 
 XXXIX. A Farmery for a Garden Farm of 200 
 Acres, situated near a Town, employed 
 wholly in Tillage, where no Stock is kept 
 but Horses and Family Cows, and where 
 the whole Produce is sold - - . 549 
 
 XL. A Farmery for a Farm of 500 Acres, kept 
 in a Rotation of Corn Crops and Pasture, 
 producing Turnips, and employed partly in 
 breeding and partly in feeding Stock - 551 
 
 XLI. A Farmery for a P'arm of 500 Acres of 
 Arable Turnip Land, kept under alternate 
 Corn and Pasture, and employed in breed, 
 ing and in feeding Stock, as well as in 
 sending Corn to Market ... 552 
 
 XLI I. A Dairy Farm of 500 Acres, kept in a 
 Rotation of Corn Crops and Grass ; One 
 half being supposed to be in Hay or Pasture 552 
 
 XLIII. A Farmery for a Clay Land Arable 
 Farm of 500 Acres, not producing Turnips, 
 and kept chiefly, or wholly, in Tillage . 554 
 
 XLIV. A Farmery for a Farm of 150 Acres, 
 kept in a Rotation of Crops and Pasture, 
 producing Turnips and Potatoes ; and em- 
 ployed partly in feeding and partly in 
 breeding Stock .... 555 
 
 XLV. A Farmery for a Cottage Farm of 
 25 Acres 556 
 
 XLV I. A Farmery for a Cottage Farm of 
 30 Acres, with Remarks, showing how it 
 may be extended so as to serve for a Farm 
 of 50, 80, or 100 Acres - - -557 
 
 Sect. II. Examples showing the Manner of dis- 
 playing Architectural Style in Farm Build- 
 ings . . - - - 560 
 
 Sect. HI. On constructing temporary, portable, 
 and ambulatory Farmeries; and on altering 
 Mansions, Monasteries, Manufactories, and 
 other Buildings, so as to render them fit for 
 Agricultural Purposes ... 566 
 
 Sect. IV. Designs for various Buildings, such 
 as Corn Mills, Kilns, Malt-houses, Cider- 
 houses, &c., connected with Agricidture 
 and Rural Economy ... 568 
 
 I. The Construction of a Building for contain. 
 
 ing the Machinery of a Corn Mill to be 
 impelled by Water, with introductory Ob. 
 servations on Buildings for Mills generally, 
 on Flour Mills, and on the different Kinds 
 of Water-wheels - . - . 568 
 
 II. The Construction of a Building for con. 
 taining the Machinery and Apartments 
 belonging to a Vertical Windmill, with 
 Remarks on the different Kinds of Wind- 
 mills . - . . .583 
 
 III. A Malt Kiln, with the requisite Append- 
 ages, and Directions for their Use - 589 
 
 IV. A Hop-oast, or Kiln for drying Hops . 592 
 
 V. A Hop-kiln, or Oast, on an improved Prin- 
 ciple, erected in 1832, at Teston, in Kent . 595 
 
 VI. An improved Limekiln . . . 600 
 
 VII. A Kiln for burning Bricks or Tiles, or 
 other Earthenware used in the Construc- 
 tion of Buildings ; and which may also be 
 used as a Kiln for burning Lime or Clay 
 for Manure, or coking Coal or Peat, or 
 charring Wood, impregnating Timber with 
 Pyroligneous Acid, Kiln-drying Corn, or 
 drying Corn in the Sheaf in Wet Seasons, 
 and for other Agricultural Purposes . COS 
 
 VIII. A Cider-house, Mill, and Press, according 
 to the Plan most generally approved of in 
 the Counties of Hereford and Worcester . 609 
 
 IX. A Cider-house, Mill, and Press, with the 
 different Implements connected with Cider- 
 making ..... 615 
 
 X. A House for breeding and fattening Poultry 
 on a large Scale, with Remarks on their 
 
X 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 Page 
 
 Management, and on the Suitableness of 
 Poultry as Live Stock for the Farm La- 
 bourer ; and Designs for altering or build- 
 ing their Cottages accordingly - - 622 
 Sect. V. Designs for Farmery Dwellings for 
 Ploughmen and other yearly Servants em- 
 ployed on the Farm - . - 621 
 
 1. Two'Ploughmcn's Cottages, such as arc in 
 
 common Use in the Carse of (iowrie ; with 
 a Notice of the Bothies, or Lotlges for 
 single Men, in the same District - - 62<J 
 
 IL Two Country Labourers' Cottages, built at 
 Showcrdown Braes, on the Bcaufront 
 E'tate, in North umlx>rland - - 631 
 
 HI. Two Ploughmen's Cottages, in a Village 
 near Salisl)urv, \Vilt.>hire - - <">-j- 
 
 IV. A double Cottage for Farm I^ibourers, 
 crecteti in C;iouce»ter*hire, on the h>t.«te 
 of William Lawrence, Esq., near Ciren- 
 cester - - . - - 6>» 
 
 V. A double Cottage, intended for Farm La- 
 bourers, in C»loucestfr»hirc - - GS.'i 
 
 VL A Cottage for a Farm Labourer and hU 
 
 Wife, without Children - - -039 
 
 Ml. A Cottage for a Farm Ijilwurer with 
 sevrral Children ; or a Bothy a Boothir, 
 or little Booth for Uiree unmarriid IMough- 
 nu-n - 
 
 VIII. The improviHl Farm Ijl>ouror'i Cottage 
 
 of France, a< k'ivcii bv Moril-Vind6 . G*>) 
 
 IX. A double I nttagi- for F.inn l-iU.urert, 
 with Place* Utwifii the Two Dwelling* for 
 hatching and fattening Poultry early in the 
 Season - - - - C4 
 
 Skct. VI. Of the Kxterior and Interior Finish- 
 ing, and the Fitting»-up and Furniture, of 
 Farm Houses and Farmerie* - - 6jO 
 
 J. Of the Finishing, Fittings-up, and Fumi. 
 ture of the Farm House, and tlie Olfice* of 
 the Kitchen Court - - - <wO 
 
 2. Of the Finishing, Fixture*, Fittings-up, and 
 
 Furniture of l armeric* - - - GG2 
 
 Chap. HI. 
 
 Designs for Country Inns and I'ublic Houses of 
 various Degriv's of Accoinmotlatmn, from 
 the Hedge Alehouse to the Mansion Inn, 
 with Its Gardens, Farm, and Park - (TIj 
 
 Strr. I. tJeneral Principles for comi>o8inK 
 Model Designs for Country Inns and Pub- 
 lie Houses - - - - G7G 
 
 Sect. II. Miscellaneous Designs for Country 
 
 Inns ami Public Houm-s ... C7S 
 
 1. A Country Inn in the Italian Style; having. 
 
 Page 
 
 besides public Rooms, Thirty Bed-rooms, 
 and Stabling for Twenty Horses - - C7iS 
 
 II. A small Country Inn, with Stabling, 
 Skittle-ground, Tea-garden, and Bowling- 
 green - - . . - 6S0 
 
 III. A small Village Inn, or Alehouse, in the 
 Italian (Jothic Manner - - - fi82 
 
 IV. An Inn in the Italian Style . - (585 
 
 V. A Suburlwn Public House in theOld English 
 Style - - . . - 686 
 
 VI. A Hetlge Alehouse of the smallest Size - G90 
 
 VII. .\ Country Public House in the Italian 
 Style - - - - 692 
 
 VIII A small Inn or Public House in the 
 Swiss Style . - _ . 693 
 
 Si:cT. III. Of the Finishing, Fittings-up, Fix- 
 tures, and Furniture of Country Inns and 
 Public Houses ... - Ct05 
 
 I. Of Uie Finishing, Fittings-up, Fixtures, and 
 Furniture of the Jiar of an Inn or Public 
 House . . - - . G'X) 
 
 S. Of the Finishing, Fittings-uji, Fixtures, and 
 
 Furniture for the other Othces of Inns . 6!\S 
 
 3. Of thi- FinishiiiK, Fitiings-up, Fixtures, and 
 
 Furniture «>f the Inn generally . . 702 
 
 4. Of the Fiiii»hing, Fittings.up, t-'ixtures, and 
 
 Furniture of the Kitchen and Scullery of 
 InnJ and Public Houk>i ... 707 
 
 Ciup. IV. 
 
 Dcsigni for Parochial Sch«»oU ... 726 
 Sect. I. Of the Fundamental Principles, and 
 the Kulrs deri\«il from these Principles, for 
 designing and littiiig up .VhooU for the 
 I->iiicatioii of Children in Ma.sM-« . -727 
 
 1. Fundamcfital Principles, and (ieneral Hulet 
 
 detluced (rom them, for designing Schocia 
 for Infant Instruction - - . 727 
 
 2. Fundamental Principles, and Uules detluced 
 
 from them, for deaigning ScliooU for 
 Mutual Iiutruction - - - 7J0 
 
 Sk(T II. Miscellaneous Designs for Parochial 
 Schools - - - - - 740 
 
 I. A Parochial ScluKtl, in two Stories, for 400 
 
 Children, witli a House for the Master and 
 Mistress - 740 
 
 II. A Partx hial School, in One Storv, for 100 
 Bo\s and hi) GirU, including a llesidencc 
 for the Ma«ter and Mibtress - - 751 
 
 III. A Country S< Ii(miI. in the Italim Style, in. 
 eluding a Dwelling for the Master and 
 Ml^tres^ - . . . . 757 
 
 Sect HI. Of the Finishing. Fittings.iip, Fix. 
 tures, and Furniture of Parochial Schools 758 
 
 BOOK III. 
 
 DI slcNS FOR VILLAS, WITH VAUIOL'S DKGKEES OF ACCOMMODATION, AND IN 
 1)1.. n.» fuu '^^'\jipj..j,m.^-i. STYLES OF AUCHITECTUUE 
 
 Chap. I. 
 
 The Fundamental Principles of laying out a 
 
 Villa, including the House and theCirounds 763 
 
 Sect. I. Of the Choice of a Situation for a Villa ^ 
 Residence .... - 763 
 
 Sect. II. t)f the Position of the House, and the 
 Arrangement of the Grounds of a Villa ^ 
 Residence - - - - - '67 
 
 Sect. HI. Of adapting the Architectural Style 
 and interior .\rrangement of the House to 
 the Character of the Situation - -773 
 
 Chap. 1L 
 
 The Beau Ideal of an English Villa - - 790 
 SEcr. 1. The Beau Ideal of an English Villa ^ 
 
 described ... - - 790 
 Sect. II. Map of the Demesne and Park, and 
 Ground Pl.in and Elevations of the House 
 of Beau Ideal Villa - - - 813 
 
 Chap. II L 
 
 Miscellaneous Designs for Villas, with various 
 Degrees of Accommotlation, and in differ- 
 ent .Slvles of Architecture - - 821 
 
 L A Grecian Villa, of a medium Size, for a 
 Gentleman of Fortune - - - 821 
 
 IL The Ac ommod.itions of a Villa of moderate 
 Size, exhibited in the Ground Plan of the 
 
 House and Offices, and their relative Con- 
 nection with the Gardens and (irounds - 823 
 
 III. A Suburban Villa of Two Acres and a 
 half, the House and firounds built and laid 
 out by an Architect for his own Residence 826 
 
 IV. A Villa in the Anglo-Italian Style, with 
 Three principal Rooms, and with a Stable 
 and Coach-house . . - 834 
 
 V. A Parsonage House for a particular Situ- 
 ation in .Somersetshire . . - 841 
 
 VI. A Cottage Villa in the Gothic Style - 844 
 
 VII. A Villa in the Old English Manner, 
 adapted to a gently elevated Situation, with 
 goo<l Views on three .Sides - - 846 
 
 VIII. The Villa of Hannay field, the Residence 
 of HannaVi Esq., in the Neighbourhood 
 
 of Dumfries ' - - - - 850 
 
 IX. A small Villa, or Parsonage, in the Italian 
 Style - . - - - 853 
 
 X. A Cottage Villa, showing how Advantage 
 may be taken of a sloping Bank - - 855 
 
 XI. A Villa in the Modern Style of Archi- 
 tecture, Fire-proof, and suitable for a Ma- 
 rine Residence, for the occasional Occu- 
 jiation or the permanent Abode of a small 
 Family of Fortune ... 859 
 
 XII. A double Suburban Villa, adapted for 
 a particular Situation in the Suburbs of 
 Leicester . - - - 870 
 
COI^TENTS. 
 
 xi 
 
 Page 
 
 XIII. A small Grecian Villa or Casino, to be 
 placed on an Eminence, commanding ex- 
 tensive Prospects in two Directions only - 877 
 
 XIV. A Villa in the Old Scotch Style, erected, 
 
 in 1831, at Springfield, near Glasgow - 879 
 
 XV. A Mansion in the Style of a Scotch Ba- 
 ronial House of the Sixteenth Century, 
 with the Accommodation and Arrange- 
 ments suitable to a Villa of the Nineteenth 
 Century . . - - • 885 
 
 XVI. A Cottage Villa, built at Chailey, in Sus- 
 sex, for General St. John - - 890 
 
 XVII. A Villa in the Old English Style, the 
 Idea taken from the Ruins of Berwick 
 House in Wiltshire - - - 893 
 
 XVIII. A Villa Residence in the Tudor or Old 
 English Style - - - - 897 
 
 XIX. A Villa in the Grecian Style, for a large 
 Family, residing chiefly in the Country, 
 with an Income of from 6000/. to 10,000/. a 
 Year .. - - - - 91* 
 
 XX. A Villa for a small Family, in the cas- 
 tellated Style of Gothic Architecture - 919 
 
 XXI. A Villa in the latest Style of pointed 
 Architecture, with an Essay on the Appli- 
 cation of that Style to domeetic Purposes - 920 
 
 XXII. A Villa in the Gothic Style 
 
 XXIII. An ItalianVilla on a considerable Scale 946 
 
 Chap. IV. 
 
 Designs for Appendages to Villas - - 963 
 Sect, I. Stable Offices - - - 963 
 Sect. II. Riding- Houses - - - 966 
 Sect. III. Dog-Kennels - - - 971 
 Sect. IV. Ornamental Dairies and Poultry- 
 Houses - - - - - 973 
 Sect. V. Aviaries and Menageries - - 975 
 Sect. VI. Architectural Conservatories - 975 
 Sect. VII. Terrace Parapets and other mural 
 
 Ornaments - - - - 982 
 
 Sect. VIII. Ornamental Garden Structures - 9'85 
 
 Sect. IX. Entrance Lodges and Gates - 997 
 
 ClIAP. V. 
 
 Page 
 
 Of the Finishing, Fittings-up, and Fixtures 
 
 of Villas - - - - 1007 
 
 Sect. I. Of the Exterior Finishing of Villas -1007 
 Sect. II. Of the Interior Finishing of Villas - 1010 
 Sect. III. Of the Fixtures and Fittings-up of 
 
 Villas - - - - 1018 
 
 1. Of the Fittings-up and Fixtures of Villa 
 
 Offices - - - - 1018 
 
 2. Of the Fittings-up and Fixtures cf the 
 
 Dwelling-rooms of Villas - - 1027 
 
 Chap. VI. 
 
 Of the Furniture of Villas - - -1039 
 Sect. I. Grecian and Modern Furniture for 
 
 Villas - - - - •• 1039 
 
 1. Furniture for Villa Offices - - 1040 
 
 2. Grecian and Modern Furniture for the 
 
 Porch, Entrance Hall, and Billiard-room 1040 
 
 3. Grecian and Modern Furniture for the Par- 
 
 lour and Dining-rooms - - - 1043 
 
 4. Grecian and Modern Furniture for the 
 
 Library - - - - 1053 
 
 5. Grecian and Modern Furniture for the 
 
 Drawingroom and Music-room - - 1058 
 
 6. Grecian and Modern Furniture for Bed- 
 
 rooms and Dressing-rooms - - 1079 
 
 7. Nursery Furniture - . - 1()86 
 Sect. II. Gothic Furniture for Villas -1088 
 
 1. Gothic Furniture for Halls - - 1088 
 
 2. Gothic Furniture for Parlours and Dining- 
 
 rooms - 1089 
 
 3. Gothic Furniture for a Library - -1092 
 
 4. Gothic Furniture for a Drawingroom - 1094 
 
 5. Gothic Furniture for Bed-rooms - - 1097 
 Sect. III. Elizabethan and Mixed Ancient 
 
 Furniture for Villas - - - 1098 
 
 BOOK IV 
 
 THE PRINCIPLES OF CRITICISM IN ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 Chap. 1. 
 
 Of the Principle of Fitness as applied to Archi- 1106 
 lecture - - - - 
 
 Chap. II. 
 
 Of the Expression of the End in View, in 
 Architecture - - 
 
 Chap. IIL 
 
 Of the Expression of Architectural Style' - 1114 
 Sect. I. Of the universal and inherent Beau- 
 ties of Architectural Composition - 1114 
 Sect. IL Of the different Styles of Architec- 
 ture - - - 11^" 
 
 GL0S3AUIAL Index: - - - 1125 
 General Index - - - 1133 
 
LIST OF ENGRAVINGS. 
 
 Model Cottages. 
 Plans. Design I. p. 10; fig. 3; II. p. 22; fig. 21 ; 
 III. p. 24. 
 
 Elevations. Figs, fi, 17, 18, 19, 20, 25, 26. 
 Sections. Figs. 5, 22. 
 
 Cottages of One Story 
 Plans. Design IV. p. 29 ; V. p. 30 ; VT. p. 33 ; VII. 
 
 p. 34: VIII. p. 45; XI. p. .W ; XIV. p. 61 ; fig. 
 
 99; iv. p. 69; XVI. p. 70 ; fig. 116; XVIII. 
 
 p. 75; XIX. p. 76; XX. p. 85 ; fig. 154 ; XXI 
 
 p. 86; XXII. p. 89; XXIII. p. 90 ; XXIV. 
 
 p. 95 ; XXVII. p. 100; XXIX. p. 104; figs. 193, 
 
 197, 201 ; XXXIII. p. 103 ; figs. 249, 252, 253, 
 
 254, 255; XL. p. 140 ; fig. 258 ; XLII. p. 159 ; 
 
 XLIII. p. 160; fig. 297; LI. p. 178; fig. 315; 
 
 LV. p. 187 ; figs. 338, 339, 340, 341, 342, 346 ; 
 
 LXVI. p. 204; figs. 366, 377; twelve cottages, 433; 
 
 college for working men, 440, 441, 442 ; portable 
 
 cottages, 445, 477 ; gardener's house, 1454 : lor 
 
 farm labourers' cottages, see p. 
 Elevations. Design IV. p. 29 ; figs. 29, 30 ; V. p. 30 ; 
 
 figs. 31, 35 ; VI. p. 33 ; VII. p. 34 ; figs. 38, 42, 
 
 79 ; VIII. p. 45 ; XI. p. .W ; fig. 86 ; XIV. p. 61 ; 
 
 figs. 112, 113, 114, 115 ; XVI. p. 69 ; XVII. p. 70 ; 
 
 figs. 117, 125; XVIII. p. 75; XIX. p. 76 ; figs. 
 
 133, 135, 144, 145, 157 ; XX. p. 85 ; XXI. p. 86 ; 
 
 XXII. p. 89; XXIII. p. 90; XXIV. p. 95; 
 
 XXVIl. p. 100; XXIX. p.l04; fig. 194; XXXIII. 
 
 p.133 ; XXXIV. p. 134; XXXV. p. 134; XXXVI. 
 
 p. 134 ; figs. 250, 251 ; XXXVIII. p. 139 : XL. 
 
 p. 140: XLII. p. 159; XLIII. p. 160; XLIV. 
 
 p. 165 ; XLV. p. 166 ; figs. 300, 301 ; LI. p. 178 ; 
 
 fig. 316; LV. p. 187; LVIII. p. 194; LIX. 
 
 p. 194 ; LX. p. 194 ; LXVI. p. 204 ; LXX. p. 215 ; 
 
 LXXVI. p. 226 ; twelve cottages, fig. 4;)9 ; col- 
 lege for working men, 444 ; portable cottages, 
 
 454, 456 ; gardener's house, 1455. 
 Sections. Design IV. p. 29 ; V. p. 30 ; VI.' p. 33 ; 
 
 VII. p. 34; VIII. p. 45; XI. p. 50 ; fig. 136 ; 
 
 XX. p. 85; XXIII. p. 90; XXIV. p. 95; XXIX. 
 
 p. 104; XXXIII. p. 133; XL. p. 140; XLII. 
 
 p. 159; XLIII. p. 160; LV. p. 187; LXVI. 
 
 p. 204. 
 
 Cottages of Two Stories. 
 Flans. Design IX. p. 46; X. p. 49 ; XII. p. 55; 
 XIII. p. 56; fig. 95; XV. p. 62; figs. 98, 105, 
 106, 107 ; XXV. p. 96; XXVI II. p. 103; XXX. 
 p. 109 ; XXXI. p. 110 ; XXXII. p. 117 ; figs. 256, 
 261, 267, 292, 305; XLVI. p. 169; XLVII. 
 p. 170; XLVIII. p. 173; XLIX. p. 174; L. 
 p. 177 ; figs. 314, 319, 325, 327 ; LVI. p. 188 ; 
 LVII. p. 193; figs. .336, 345; LXV. p. 203; 
 LXVII. p. 209; LXVIII. p. 210; figs. 361, 362, 
 367 ; LXXII. p. 216 ; fig. 368 ; LXXIII. p. 225 ; 
 figs. 390, 391, 407, 408, 420, 421, 425, 427,429, 
 43.'3. 
 
 Elevations. In the Swiss style. Design IX. p. 46; 
 Old Knglish, X. p. 49 ; XII. p. 55; XIII. p. 56; 
 figs. 94, 97 ; XV. p. 62; figs. 102, 108, 109, 138, 
 1.39, 140; XXV. p. 96; Old English, XXVIII. 
 p. 103; fig. 203; XXX. p. 109 ; XXXI. p. 110 ; 
 XXXfl. p. 11.3; XXXVII. p. 1,39; XXXIX. 
 p 1.39: ligs. 268, 2i)l, 293; XLVI. p. 169; 
 XLVII. p. 170; XLVIII. p. 173; XLIX. p. 174; 
 L p. 177; figs. 317, 318, 320, 326, .328; LVI. 
 p. 188; LVII. p. 193; fig. .337; LXII. p. 199; 
 LXV. p. 203 ; LXVIL p. i.'0!»; LXVIII. p. 210 ; 
 LXIX.p.215; castellated. LXX I. p.215; LXXII. 
 p. 216 ; fig. 387. ; LXXllI. p. 225 ; LXXIV. 
 p. 226 ; LXXV. p. 226 ; figs. 423, 426, 428, 458, 
 4'V) 460 
 
 Sections. Swi.ss, fig. 80; XXXII. p. 113 and 114; 
 XLVI. p. 169; figs. 363, 364, 3t>5, 372, 403, 404, 
 405, 406, 412. 
 
 Cottagf.3 op Three Stories. 
 Plans. Design XXVI. p. !)!); I-XIV. p. 200. 
 Elevations. ( Jcrman cottage, Design XXVI. p. 9!) ; 
 LXIV. p. 200. 
 
 CO-H AGES FOR FaRM liAROURERS. 
 
 Plans. Figs. 1203, 1204, 1205, 1207, 1208, 1211 
 
 1212, 1218, 1219, 1223, 1225, 1226, 1228, 1229, 
 
 1230, 1236, 1237. 
 Elevations. Figs. 1206, 1209, 1210, 1213, 1214, 1215, 
 
 1220, 1224, 1227, 1232, 1235, 1241. 
 Sections. Figs. 1231, 1233, 1234. 
 
 Farm Houses and Farmeries. 
 
 Plans. Figs. 749, 7.'>4, 757, 758; of ceiling joist-s 
 759, 847, 848, 849, 899, 900, 901, 902, 906, 916, 
 918, 920, 922, 924, 925, 927, 931, 932, 936, 937, 
 948, 949, 9.52, 954, 956, 960, 963, 967, 971, 973, 
 987, 997, 999, 1000 to 1002, 1008, 1009, 1034, 1045, 
 1046, 1062 to lO&l, 1066, 1070, 1071. 
 
 Elevations, and Perspective and Isometrical Views. 
 Figs. 751, 752, 753, 756, 761, 763 ; Design I. ; 
 850 to 853, 855, 856; Design III. p. 443; IV. 
 p. 444 ; fig. 944, 917, 919, 921, 923, 926, 928, 929, 
 930, 933, 934, 935, 938, 939, 940, 943, 955, 961, 
 962, 966, 970, 972, 988, 996, 998, 1004, 1006, 1012, 
 1033; with windmill, XIII. p. 473; XIV. 
 p. 474; XV. p. 474; fig. 1041, 1049, 1051; 
 XXXV. p. 535; XXXVI. p. 536; figs. 1065, 
 1067, 1068, 1069. 
 
 Sections. Figs. 750, 735, 760, 762, 854, 903, 904, 909 
 to 911, 914, 915, 946, 950, 951, 953, 974, 1003, 
 1005, 1007, 1010, 1011, 1013, 1047, 1048. 
 
 Farmeries alone. 
 Plans. Figs. 887, 969, 989, 990, 991, 1020, 1027, 1032, 
 
 1041, 1043, 1054, 10.55, 1072, 1078, 1079, 1080, 
 
 108], 1088, 1089, 1090, 1092, 1095. 
 Elevations, and Perspective and Isometrical Views. 
 
 Figs. 886 to 8&4, 968, 992, 995, 10.18, 1026, 1029, 
 
 1031, 1040,1042, 1042, 1053; Design XXXIV. 
 
 p. 525; figs. 1077, 1091, 1093, 1094, 1096 to 1098. 
 Sections. Figs. 895 to 897, 993, 994, 1019, 1021, 1022, 
 
 1029, 1030, 1084. 
 
 Sheep Houses 
 
 Plan. Fig. 803. 
 Elevation. Fig. 806, 
 Sections. Figs. 804, 805, 807. 
 
 Barns and Granaries 
 Plans. Figs. 808, 816, 817, 1085. 
 Elevations. Figs. 812, 820. 
 
 Sections. Figs. 809, 810, 811, 813, 814, 815, 818, 819, 
 821, 1028, 1082, 1083, 1086. 
 
 Piggery and Meal House. 
 Fig. 912, 
 
 Hovels. 
 
 Circular Hovel for Cattle. Figs. 907, 908. 
 
 Mills. 
 
 Plans. Figs., Water, 1108 to 1111 ; Wind, 1114 to 
 
 1118; Cider, 1170,1173, 1176. 
 Elevations. Fig.s., Water, 1104 to 1106; Wind, 
 
 111.3, 1120, 1122, I12;5; Cider, 1179, 1181, 1185; 
 
 Portable Corn Mill, 1288. 
 Sections. Figs., Water, 1107, 1112; Wind, 1119, 
 
 1121, 1124; Cider, 1171, 1172, 1174, 1175, 1176, 
 
 1177, 1178. 
 Cider Presses. Figs. 1179, 1185. 
 Cider Instruments. Figs. 1182 to 1184, 1186 to 1190. 
 Malt Plough. Fig. 1126. Water Mill Wheels. Figs, 
 
 1101 to 1103. 
 
 Kilns. 
 
 Plans. Figs., Malt, 1129; Hop, 1136 to 1138,1141, 
 1142, 114^, 1148, 115'i, 1153, 1158; Lime, 1161, 
 Ihick, 1164, lirA 
 
 Elevations. Figs., Hop, 1 139, 1 140, 1 144, 1147, 116.3. 
 
 Scctiotis. Fig.s., Malt, 11.34; Hop, 114.0, 1149, 1150, 
 1151, 1154, ll.W. 1156; Lime. 11.07, 1159, 1160, 
 1162 ; Brick, 1165, 1166, HOT, 1169. 
 
 Poultry Houses. 
 Plans. Figs. 1191, ll!>7, 119S, 1199, 1200, 1201, 1723. 
 Elevations. Figs. 1 192, 1 1})4, 1 195, 1723. 
 Sections. Fig. 1193, 1196, 1198, 1199. 
 
LIST OF ENGRAVINGS. 
 
 xiii 
 
 Dairies. 
 
 Flan. Figs. 711, 1722. 
 Elevation. Figs. 744, 745, 746, 1721. 
 Figs. 742, 743. 1724. 
 
 Icehouse. 
 
 Plan. Fig. 748. 
 Section. Fig. 747. 
 
 Stables. 
 
 Plans. Figs. 774, 794 ; of flooring, 798, 1007, 1008, 
 
 1009, 1024, 1512, 1583, 1700 ; circular, 1702. 
 Elevations. Figs. 777, 778, 759, 1006, 1012, 1023, 
 
 1025, 1584, 1613, 1699 ; Circular Italian, 1703 ; 
 
 Gothic, 1704. 
 Sections. Figs. 776, 779, 796, 797, 799, 957 to 959 ; 
 
 1010, 1011, 1013, 1050, 1087. 
 
 Riding-house. 
 Plan of that at Monaco, Fig. 1705. 
 Sections of Roofs. Figs. 1705 to 1717. 
 
 Dog Kennels, 
 
 Plan. 1718. 
 Elevations. 1719, 1720. 
 
 Farm Furniture, 
 Threshing-machine. Figs. 1285 to 1287. 
 Barlej'. chopper. Fig. 1289. 
 Turnip-cutter. Fig. 1291. 
 Oat-crusher. Fig. 1290. 
 Apparatus for steaming Potatoes. Fig. 1292. 
 Sheep-racks. Figs. 802, 1036, 1037, 1038, 1283. 
 Racks and Mangers for Stables. Figs. 770 to 773, 
 780 to 786, 942, 943, 944, 1014, 1015, 1016, 1035. 
 Draining-grating. Fig. 775, 
 Corn Measure. Fig. 1701. 
 Gruel-manger. Fig. 1272. 
 Pig-troughs. Figs. 801, 913, 1281, 1282. 
 Rick-stands. Figs. 825 to 837, 1039. 
 Rack for Cattle. Fig. 1279. 
 Tethering Stake. Fig. 1280. 
 Rabbit-trough. Fig. 1284. 
 Cow Trough. Fig. 1273. 
 Cow Ties and Brechin. Figs. 1274 to 1278. 
 Fodder Cribs. Fig. 965. 
 
 Saddle and Harness Pegs. Figs. 1269 to 1271. 
 Gates. Figs. 359, 360, 841 to 846, 871 to 873, 898, 
 1076. 
 
 Cheese-press. Fig. 1261. 
 Weighing-machine. Fig. 1260. 
 Sparrow-pot. Fig. 468. 
 Pumps. Siebe's, figs. 9, 10 ; Cottam's, 1294. 
 Liquid Manure Tanks. Figs. 840, 1073 to 1075. 
 Posts, &c. for Drying Clothes. Figs. 166 to 171, 
 1353. 
 
 Inns and Public Houses. 
 Plans. Figs. 1296, 1297, 1298, 1300, 1301, 1303, 1304 
 
 1310, 1312, 1313, 1314, 1319, 1322, 1323, 1324. 
 Elevations. Figs. 1295, 1299, 1302, 1309, 1311, 1318 j 
 
 Italian, 1321 ; Swiss, 1326. 
 Section. Fig. 1320. 
 
 Interior of a Liquor Shop. Figs. 1315, 1316. 
 Schools. 
 
 Plans. Figs. 1374, 1375, 1376, 1377, 1380, 1382, 1383; 
 
 1384, 1385, 1387, 1389, 1395, 1399, 1403. 
 Elevations. Figs. 1386, 1390, 1391, 1392, 1393, 1394 
 
 1398. 
 
 Sections. Figs. 1378, 1388, 1396, 1397. 
 
 School Furniture. Figs. 1379, 1381, 1400 to 1411. 
 
 Villas. 
 
 Maps and Plans. Figs. 1435, 1439 to 1442, 1444 to 
 1448, 1450, 1451, 1453, 1456, 1457, 1459 to 1463, 
 1470, 1471, 1473, 1474, 1480 to 1482, 1488 to 1491, 
 
 1496, 1498, 1501, 1504, 1505, 1506, 1509, 1510, 
 151], 1538, 1540, 1541, 1543, 1545, 1548 to 1550, 
 1565, 1567, 1571, 1573, 1580 to 1582, 1585, 1590, 
 1591, 1592, 1597, 1598, 1600, 1601, 1602, 1603, 
 
 ' 1606, 1608, 1609, 1645, 1652, 1653, 1662. 
 Elevations and Views. Figs. 1412 to 1434, 1436 to 
 1438, 1443, 1449, 1452, 1458, 1464 to 1467, 1469, 
 1472, 1475, 1479, 1485, 1486, 1487, 1492, 1493, 
 
 1497, 1503, 1508, 1513 to 1516, 1539, 1544, 1546, 
 1547, 1551, 1552, 1566, 1568 to 1570, 1572, 1574, 
 1586, 1587, 1588, 1589, 1599, 1604, 1605, 1607, 
 1610, 1611, 1612, 1646, 1658, 1659, 1660, 1661, 
 
 Sections. Figs. 1483, 1484, 149 1, 1495, 1507, 1553, 
 1593, 1614. 
 
 Illustrations of Gothic Architecture. Figs. 1593 to 
 
 1596, 1615 to 1644, 1647 to 1651. 
 Illustrations of Italian Architecture. Figs. 1670 to 
 1698. 
 
 Conservatories 
 Plan. Fig. 1725. ^ ^^^^ 
 
 Elevations. Figs. 1729, 1730, 1731, 1732, 1733 
 Sections. Figs. 1726, 1727. 
 
 Cottage Gardens. 
 Gardens. Design XIH. p. .^6 ; XIV. p. 61 ; XVL 
 p. 69; XVII. p. 70; XVIII. p.76; XXL p. 86 ; 
 XXII. p. 69; XXVII. p. 100 ; figs. 247, 260, 289, 
 290; LI. p. 178; public house, figs. 1298, 1301. 
 
 Villa Gardens and Scenery. 
 Villa Scenery. Figs. 1441, 1445, 1480, 1489, 1800, 
 
 1543, 1571, 1585, 1653. 
 Gardens. Figs. 1448, 1452, 1456, 1496, 1652. 
 Architectural Gardens. Figs. 1734, 1735, 1736. 
 
 Temples and Covered Seats. 
 Figs. 1758, 1759, 1760. 
 
 Fig. 1761 
 
 Fountains. 
 Figs. 1762, 1763, 1764, 1765, 1766, 1767, 1768L 
 
 Ruins and Ancient Castles. 
 Figs. 1769, 1770. 
 
 Sundial. 
 Fig. 1771. 
 
 Vases. 
 Figs. 1240, 1772 to 1777. 
 
 Urns. 
 
 Figs. 1778, 1779, 1780. 
 
 Pedestal. 
 
 Fig. 1781. 
 
 Cenotaphs and Tombs. 
 Figs, 1782, 1783, 1784. 
 
 Entrance Lodges and Gates. 
 Plans of Lodges. Figs. 1786, 1788, 1790, 1792, 1794, 
 1796, 1798. 
 
 Elevations of Lodges and Gates. Figs. 1785, 1787, 
 
 1789, 1791, 1793, 1795, 1797. 
 Gates and gateways. Figs. 1799 to 1805. 
 
 Details op Construction. 
 
 Roofs. Figs. 33, 54, 121 to 124, 226, 227, 259; of 
 corrugated Iron, 348 to 354, 1670; for Riding- 
 houses, 1705 to 1717, 1726, 1727, 1821, 1822. 
 
 Eaves of Roofs and Gutters. Figs. 27, 36, 40, 55, 56, 
 59, 63, 77, 101, 103, 120, 127, 142, 155, 159, 160, 
 173, 174; Design XXXII. p. 118; figs. 248, 
 263 to 265, 304, 335, 371, 388, 389, 800, 864, 945, 
 1125, 1216, 1217, 13*06, 1468, 1670, 1672. 
 
 Barge-boards and Gables. Figs. 181, 185, 299, 321, 
 378 to 385, 863, 865, 1476 to 1478, 1627. 
 
 Pinnacles. Figs. 78, 1626. 
 
 Water Trunks, or Spouts. Figs. 60, 61. 
 
 Thatching. Fig. 89. 
 
 Tiles, Quarries, and Slating. Figs. 23, 24, 43, 146, 
 
 163, 164, 434, 885, 947; Slating, 1099, 1100; 
 
 Kiln, 1135, 1238, 1239, 1242, 1517 to 1529, 1670 
 
 to 1673, 1809 to 1813. 
 Modes of Joining Pieces of Timber. Figs. 49, 50, 
 
 57, 238, 239, 376, 422, 447, 448, 450 to 453, 455, 
 
 Wall?' Figs! 7, 39, 44, 48, 216, 306 to 312, 329 to 
 
 334, 463, 975, 976, 1056, 1057, 1674. 
 Partition Walls. Figs. 46, 58, 266. 
 Weather Tiling. Figs. 392 to 402, 466. 
 Mathematical Tiling. Figs. 461 to 465, 467. 
 Chimney-tops. Figs. 32, 33, 84, 88, 91, 92, 100, 104, 
 
 131 132 141, 165, 172, 176, 190, 196, 202, 294, 
 
 303! 324, 343, 347, 373, 409 to 411, 435, 436, 879 to 
 ■ 882' 1305, 1308, 1531 to 1537, 1579, 1675 to 1682 ; 
 
 Slates for ditto, 430 to 432. 
 'Tessellated Pavements. Figs. 1517 to 1529 ; 1809 to 
 
 Watchtowers and Bell-turrets. Figs. 1692 to 1695. 
 Windows. Figs. 28, 45, 73, 85, 90, 180, 188, 191, 192, 
 235, 237, 257, 262, 283 to 288, 322, 323, 344 ; 
 Storm-head, 386, 478 to 489, 787, 876, 976, 977, 
 1307, 159.5, 1616, 1617, 1619 to 1624, 1628 to 1635, 
 1647, 1684 to 1688, 1728. 
 
XIV 
 
 LIST OF ENGRAVINGS. 
 
 Canopies for Windows. Figs. 496 to 500. 
 MuUions. Figs. 87, 177. 
 Sash-bar. Fig. 126. 
 
 Doors and Porches. Figs. 64, 232 ; Corrugated 
 Iron, 355 to 358, 459 to 476, 519, 875, 1575, 1576, 
 1593, 1594, 1596, 1616, 1689 to 1691, 1696 to 1698. 
 
 Door Bracket. Fig. 34. 
 
 Sills. Figs. 216, 218, 981. 
 
 Gauge-box for hollow Walls. Figs. 1221, 1222. 
 
 Curb for a Well. Figs. 229, 230. 
 
 Verandas. Figs. 128 to 130. 
 
 Stairs and Staircases. Figs. 137, 241, 2i2, 1643, 1641, 
 1648. 
 
 Chimneys and Chimney-pieces. Figs. 47, 210 to 214, 
 219, 220, 245, 518,541, 542, 1542, 1578, 1650, 1817, 
 1847, 1848. 
 
 Chimneys for Steam-engines. Figs. 1267, 1268. 
 Floors. Figs. 52, 62, 231, 446 ; Parqueted, 1814 to 
 1816. 
 
 Modes of Heating Floors, &c. Figs. 4, 11, 276 to 
 
 282, 295, 296, 313, 1202. 
 Ventilator. Fig. 1381. . 
 
 Finishings, Fittings-up, and Fixtures. 
 
 Panels for Rooms. Figs. 518, 519, 1849, 1850. 
 
 Ceilings. Figs. 1640 to 1642, 1651. 
 
 Mouldings and Skirtings. Figs. 71, 195, 200 ; De- 
 sign XXXII. p. 118 ; figs. 233, 234, 240, 418, 514 
 to 517, 859 to 861, 877, 1554 to 1564, 1618, 1625, 
 1636 to 1639, 1649. 
 
 Window .fasteners. Figs. 72, 236, 985. 
 
 Plaster Ornaments for Ceilings. Figs. 511 to 513. 
 
 Cornices. Figs. 41, 93, 178, 179, 182, 183, 186, 204 ; 
 Design XXXII. p. 118; figs. 302, 501 to 510, 
 869, 1683. 
 
 Filters. Figs. 8, 119, 275. 
 
 Tanks for Water. Figs. 1, 118, 822 to 824. 
 
 Water-closets. Figs. 13 to 16, 269, 413 to 415, 437, 
 438, 1325, 1336 to 1338. 
 
 Stink-traps. Figs. 215, 222 to 224, 838, 839, 1499, 
 1500. 
 
 Door-spring. Fig. 274. 
 
 Cranks and Pulleys. Figs. 270 to 273, 520, 1818 
 
 Blinds. Figs. 788 to 793, 1806 to 1808. 
 
 Breweries. Figs. 1830 to 1833. 
 
 Kitchen and different Apparatus. Figs. 1819 to 
 1829 ; Sinks for, figs. 416, 544, 1259, 1332 ; Roll- 
 ers for Towels, figs. 546, 547 ; Dressers for, 
 figs. 557 to 566 ; Cupboards, figs. 567 to 572. 
 
 Gas-pipes for Cooking. Figs. 1317, 1373, 1825 to 
 1829. 
 
 Gas-pipes for Lighting. Figs. 1835 to 1837. 
 
 Movable Cupboards. Figs. 1327 to 1329. 
 
 Nails and Wall-hooks. Figs. 51, 76, 221, 244, 246. 
 
 Brackets. Figs. 81, 82, 161, 162, 553, 554, 556, 983, 
 1249, 1250, 1333, 1339 to 1341, 1865, 1866, 1867. 
 
 Balusters. Fig. 184 ; Design XXXII. p. 118 ; figs. 
 584, 858, 870, 874. 
 
 Parapets. Figs. 83, 134, 147 to 154, 175, 189 ; De- 
 sign XXXII. p. 119; figs. 862, 1330, 1577, 1737 
 lo 1757. 
 
 Ornamental Nails. Figs. 477, 1854, 1855. 
 Ornamental Shutters. Figs. 490 to 493. 
 Locks. Figs. 69, 70. 
 Bolts. Figs. 68, 494. 
 
 Hinges. Figs. 37, 65, 66, 187, 298, 495, 606, 731. 
 
 982, 1058, 1059, 1060, 1061, 1851. 
 Latch. Fig. 67. 
 
 Handles for Doors. Figs. 1852, 1853. 
 
 Modes of hanging Pictures. Figs. 1856, 1857. 
 
 Grates. Figs. 521 to 527, 533 to 539, 978, 979, 1243, 
 1244, 1245, 1252 to 1255, 1256, 1257 ; American, 
 1258 : Folding, 1330, 1331, 1843 to 1848. 
 
 Heating-Stoves. Figs. 1838 to 1842. 
 
 Cooking-Stoves. Fig. 528 to 530, 1354 to 1360. 
 
 Ovens. Figs. 531, 532, 1361 to 1372. 
 
 Ash-pan. Fig. 540. 
 
 Register. Fig. 543. 
 
 Interiobs. 
 
 Dining-rooms, Grecian. Fig. 1900; Gothic, fig- 
 
 2009 ; Elizabethan, fig. 2037. 
 Drawingrooms, Grecian. Fig. 1980 ; Gothic, 2021 ; 
 
 Elizabethan, 2038. 
 Library, Gothic. Fig. 2012. 
 
 Kitchen Furniture. 
 ' Sinks. Figs. 544, 545, 1259, 1332. 
 . Rollers, &c. for Towels. Figs. 546, 547. 
 
 Tables. Figs. 550 lo 556, 596, 601, 13i3 to 1350. 
 
 Dressers. Figs. 557 to 565. 
 
 Cupboards. Fig. 567 to 572. 
 
 Kneading-trough. Fig. 593. 
 
 Settles. Fig. 636, 1346. 
 
 Chairs. Figs. 643 to 650. 
 
 Stools. Figs. 623 to 630, 1379. 
 
 Clocks. Figs. 729, 730, 1247. 
 
 Stand for brushing Clothes. Fig. 733. 
 
 Washing-machines. Fig. 1262, 1335. 
 
 Wringing-machines. Fig. 1262, 1858. 
 
 Mangles. Figs. 1263, 1261, 1265, 1834. 
 
 Knife-cleaner. Fig. 1266. 
 
 Napkin-press. Fig. 1334. 
 
 Cooking Apparatus. Figs. 1354 to 1373, 1822 to 
 1829. 
 
 Hall Furniture. 
 Hat and Cloak Pins and Stands. Figs, 548, 549, 
 724 to 727. 
 
 Benches. Figs. 632 to 635, 637 to 639, 1863, 1864, 
 
 2003. 
 Table. Fig. 2034. 
 
 Chairs. Figs. &10 to 642, 651, 718, 1343 to 1347, 
 
 1859 to 1862, 2004. 
 Mats and Scrapers, Figs. 719 to 723. 
 
 Dining-room Furniture. 
 
 Sideboards. Figs. 573 to 575, 1868 to 1877, 1880, 
 2005, 2035. 
 
 Tables. Figs. 602, 613 to 615, 1882 to 1890, 2006. 
 Castors. Fig. 603; Table Flap-cases, 1878 to 
 1881. 
 
 Screens. Figs. 732, 1896, 1899. 
 Window-curtains. Figs. 705, 708, 710, 711. 
 Chimney-glasses. Figs. 712, 713. 
 Chairs. Figs. 1891 to 1895, 2007, 2008. 
 Leg. rest. Fig. 1897 ; Candlestick-stand, 1898. 
 
 Library Furniture. 
 Bookcases and Writing-tables. Figs. 576 to 582, 
 
 1901 to 1904, 1906, 1907, 2010, 2011. 
 Library-table. Figs. 1905, 2014. 
 Book-stands. Figs. . 583, 584. 
 Window-curtains. Figs. 705, 708, 710, 711. 
 Chimney-glasses. Figs. 712, 713, 1914. 
 Desks. Figs. 610, 1908, 1909. 
 Chairs. Figs. 1911, 1912, 1913, 2013, 2029, 2033. 
 
 Drawingroom Furniture. 
 Chimney-glass. Fig. 1975. 
 Curtains. Fig. 1976 to 1979 
 Stool. Fig. 2020. 
 
 Tables, Fig. 604 to 609, 611, 612, 1938 to 1941, 1M3, 
 
 1944, 1947 to 1958, 2019. 
 Footstools. Figs. 631, 1921, 1922. 
 Chairs. Figs. 652 to G60, 1923 to 1937, 2015 to 2018, 
 
 2( 23 to 2028, 2030 to 2332. 
 Fire-screens. Figs. 1972 to 1974. 
 Chiffonier. Fig. 1942. 
 
 Sofas, Couches, Ottomans, and Sofa Bedsteads. 
 
 Figs. 674 to 680, 1915 to 1920. 
 Devonports. Figs. 1945, 1946. 
 Piano-fortes, Music-stands, &c. Figs. 1961 to 1966, 
 
 1968 
 
 Book-stands. Figs. 583, 584, 1959, 1960, 
 Portfolio-stand. Figs. 1967, 1969. 
 Flower-stands. Fig. 1970, 1971. 
 
 Nursery Furniture. 
 Figs. 734 to 740, 1997 to 2002. 
 
 School Furniturf 
 Figs. 1404 to 1411. 
 
 Bedroom Furniture. 
 Bedsteads. Figs. 681 to 699, 1981, 1982, 1984, 2022, 
 Bed Pillars. Figs. 1983, 2036. 
 Cribs, &c. for Children. Figs. 700 to 703, 1997. 
 Wardrobes. Figs. 585 to 591 , 1987 to 1989. 
 Looking-glasses. Figs. 714 to 717, 1991 to 1994. 
 Chest of Drawers. Fig. 592. 
 Towel-stands. Figs. 728, 1351, 1352, 
 Chairs. Figs. 661 to 673. 
 Tables. Fig. 619 to 622, 1986. 
 Washhand.stands. Figs. 616 to 618, 1910, 1995, 
 1996. 
 
 Bed-steps. Fig. 1985. 
 Dressing-table. Fig. 1990. 
 
LIST OF BOOKS QUOTED. 
 
 The Abbreviated Title, or the Name of the Author, is given, with the Number of ike Paragraph where the 
 work, or the Author, is first mentioned, and afterwards the Titl' of the Books at length. All the Works 
 m this List, with the exception of one or two which are outofpr 'nt, may be had of Messrs. Priestley and 
 
 ' Weale, Architectural Booksellers, High Street Blaomsbury, London, to whom we beg thus publicly to 
 acknowledge our obligations for the loan of several of the volumes enumerated. 
 
 Aberdeen's Inquiry, ^c. 2222. An Inquiry into 
 the Principles of Beauty in Grecian Archi- 
 tecture, with an Historical View of the Rise 
 and Progress of the Art in Greece. By George, 
 Earl of Aberdeen, K. T., &c. ; London, 18i^2. 
 small 8vo. 
 
 Alison's Essays, 190. Essay on the Nature and 
 Principles of Taste. By Archibald Alison, 
 LL.D. F.R.S. Edinburgh, 1790. 4to. 1811, 1815. 
 2 vols. 8vo. 1816. 
 
 An Amateur's History and Analysis, S^c., 2231. 
 A concise History and Analysis of all the prin- 
 cipal Styles of Architecture, &c. By an Ama- 
 teur. London, 1829. small 8vo. 
 
 Anderson's Recreations, ^^c, 2223. Recreations in 
 Agriculture, Natural History, Arts, and Mis- 
 cellaneous Literature. London, 1799 to 1802. 
 6 vols. 8vo. 
 
 Arnott's Elements of Physics, 667. Elements of 
 Physics or Natural Philosophy. By Neil Arnott, 
 M.D. London, 1829. 2 vols. 
 
 Bakewcll's Travels in the Tarentaise, 864. Observ- 
 ations on the Alps, Savov, &c. By Robt. Bake- 
 well. London, 182.''). 2 vols. 8vo. 
 
 BarteU's Hints, 533. Hints for Picturesque Im- 
 provements in ornamented Cottages, &c. By 
 Edmund Bartell, junr. London, 1804. 8vo. 
 
 Bath Society's Papers, 1222. Letters and Papers 
 on Agriculture and Planting, &c., selected from 
 the Correspondence Book of the Bath Society. 
 Bath, 8vo, 1780 to 1832. 
 
 Betancourfs Description, &c., 1943. Description de 
 la Salle d'Exercice de Moscow. Par M. de B^- 
 tancourt. St. Petersbourg. Folio, 1819. 
 
 Borgnis, Traite,S(C., 1816. Traite El^mentaire de 
 Construction appliquee k 1' Architecture Civile. 
 Par M. J. A. Borgnis, Ing^nieur, et Membre de 
 plusieurs Academies. Paris, 1823. 4to. 
 
 Braidwood on Fire-engines, 1793. On the Con- 
 struction of Fire-engines and Apparatus, &c. 
 By James Braidwood, Edinburgh, 1830. 8vo. 
 
 Breivster's Mechanics, 1261. Lectures on Me- 
 chanics. Hydrostatics, Pneumatics, and Optics. 
 By James Ferguson, F. R.S. A new Edition, by 
 David Brewster, LL.D. F.R.S. Edinburgh, 
 1805. 2 vols. 8vo. 
 
 Britton's Works. 2150. Architectural Antiquities 
 of Great Britain, 4 vols. 4to. ; Descriptive 
 Sketches of Tunbridge Wells, &c., 1 vol. 8vo. 
 Architectural Dictionarv, 1 vol. 8vo. and other 
 works published from 1801 to 1833. 
 
 Brown's Infant Mind, 1517. A Essay on the Culti. 
 vation of the Infant Mind, &c. By J. R. Brown, 
 Master of the Spitaltields Infant School. 
 London, 1832. 12mo. 
 
 Buchanan's Economy of Fuel, 600. Treatise on the 
 Economy of Fuel in Dwellings and Manu- 
 factories, &c. By R. Buchanan, Civil En. 
 gineer. Glasgow, 1802. 8vo. 
 Burnet on Colouring, S^c, 2012. Hints on Colour in 
 
 Painting. London, 1830. 4to. 
 Cab. Diet. 2100. The Cabinet Dictionary, con- 
 taining an Explanation of all the Terms used in 
 Upholstery in all its Branches, &c. By T. She- 
 raton. London, 1803. Svo. 
 Cardonnel's Views of Scotland, 1821. Picturesque 
 Antiquities of Scotland. By Adam de Car- 
 donnel, F.A.S. Edinburgh. London, 1788 and 
 1793. 2 vols. 4to. 
 
 Carlisle's Hints, %c., 2222. Hints on Rural Resi- 
 dences. By Nicholas Carlisle. London, 1825, 
 4to. (Not published.) 
 
 Carter, 2222. Ancient Architecture in England. 
 Nos. I to 27. folio, 1780 to 1796, By John 
 Carter, F.S.A. 
 
 Caus, SfC, 1990. Hortus Palatinus a Heidelbergse 
 extructus. By Solomon Caus. Frankfort, fol. 
 1620. 
 
 Chad. Chimneys, 602. A Treatise on the Form- 
 ation of "Flues of Chimneys, &c. By J, 
 Chadlev. London, 1832. 8vo. 
 
 Chappie's Survey of Devon, 839, A Review of 
 Kisdon's Survey of Devon, containing the ge- 
 neral Description of that County, &c. By 
 William Chappie. Exeter, 1788. 4to. 
 
 Choix d'Edificcs Publics, 1974. Choix d'Edifices 
 Publics construits ou projetes en France; ex- 
 trait des Archives du Conseil des Batimens 
 Civils, &c. Par MM. Gourlier, Biet, Grillon, 
 et Tardieu, Architectes, et grav^ sous la direc 
 tionde M.Clemence, Architecte. Paris, 1826. fol, 
 
 Clavering, 2191. A Essay on the Construction and 
 building of Chimneys, including an Inquiry 
 into the Cause of their Smoking, and the most 
 effectual Remedies for removing so intolerable 
 a Nuisance. With a Table to proportion Chim- 
 neys to the Size of Rooms, illustrated with 
 proper figures. By Robert Clavering, Builder, 
 London, 1793, Svo. 
 
 Cottingham, 2222. Gothic Ornaments (working 
 Drawings for) selected and composed from the 
 best Examples. Bv L. N. Cottingham, Archi- 
 tect. Atlas folio, 1828, 38 plates. 
 
 Cours Complet d'Agr. 1289. Nouveau Cours complet 
 d'Agriculture Th^orique et Pratique, &c, 
 Nouvelle edition. Paris, 1823. 16 vols. 8vo. 
 
 Cousins' Genie d'Arck., 1974, Du Gdnie d'Ar- 
 chitecture, ouvrage ayant pour But de rendre 
 cet Art accessible au Sentiment comraun, en 
 le rapellant k son Origine, k ses Propri^t^s, et a 
 son G^nie; et contenant une Doctrine Ge- 
 nerate puissee dans des Faits, &c. Par J., A. 
 Cousins, Architecte, &c. Paris, 1822. 4to. 
 
 Dearn's Hints, S^c, 25. Hints on an improved 
 Method of Building, &c. By Thomas D. W. 
 Dearn. Architect. London, 1821. 8vo. 
 
 De Clarac, &;c., 1974. Musee de Sculpture, &c. Par 
 M. de Clarac. Paris, 1811. 4to. 
 
 De Lille, Les Jardins, poeme. Par Jacques De 
 Lille. 1765, Paris. 12mo. 
 
 Denson's Peasant's Voice, 128. A Peasant's Voice 
 to Landowners, on the best Means of benefiting 
 Agricultural Labourers, and of reducing the 
 Poors' Rates. By John Denson of Waterbeach, 
 Cambridge, 1830'. paraph. Svo. 
 
 Des Etablissemens pour V Education en Baviere, 
 ^c. 1573. Par J. C. Loudon. Paris, 1829. Svo. 
 
 Des. of Tremont House, 1944. A Description of 
 Tremont House, with Architectural Illustra- 
 tions. Boston, 1830. 4to. 
 
 Descriptions of the London Zoological Gardens, S^c., 
 1951. Eight Views in the Zoological Gardens 
 in the Regent's Park. London, 1832. ob. fol. 
 Illustrations of the Surrey Zoological Gardens. 
 By W. H. Kearney, London, 1832. In monthly 
 parts, 4to. 
 
 Dictionnaire Technologique, 1261, Dictionnaire 
 Technologique, ou Nouveau Dictionnaire Uni- 
 
xvi 
 
 LIST OF BOOKS QUOTED. 
 
 versel des Arts et Metiers et de rEconomie 
 Industrielle et Commerciale. Par une Societe 
 de Savans et d' Artistes. Tome I.— XX. 8vo. 
 et Planches 4to. Paris, 1822—32. 
 
 Bietterlin's Architectura, ^c, 1990. Architectura 
 de Constitutione, &c. Wendelino Dietterlin. 
 Nuremberg. 1598. fol. 
 
 Donaldson's Gateways, Sfc, 1990. A Collection of 
 the most approved Examples of Doors, from 
 Ancient and Modern Buildings in Greece and 
 Italy. By Thomas Leverton Donaldson, Ar- 
 chitect. London, 1833, 4to. 
 
 Duppa, 2214. Observations on France and Italy, 
 made in 1818. London, 1819. 8vo. 
 
 Durand's Cours d' Arch., 2231. Cours d'Archi- 
 tecture faits a I'Ecole Royale Polytcchniquc, 
 depuis sa Reorganisation; prec^d^ d'un Som- 
 mairedes Lemons relatives kce nouveau Travail. 
 Par J. N. L. Durand, Architecte, &c. Paris, 
 1821. 4to. 
 
 Durand, Legons, S(C.,223\ . Le9ons d' Architec- 
 ture. Par J. N. L. Durand, Architecte, &c. 
 Paris, 1817. 2 vols. 8vo. 
 
 DwighVs Trav.f p. 3. Travels in America. By 
 Dr. Dwight, 4 vols. 8vo. London, 1S2(). 
 
 Elmcs's Lectures, p. 5. Lectures on Architecture ; 
 comprising the History of the Art from the 
 earliest Times to the present Day. By James 
 Elmes, Architect. London, 1823. 8vo. 
 
 JEmerson^s Mechanics, Sic. 2181. Principles of Me- 
 chanics ; explaining and demonstrating the 
 generalLaws of Motion, theLaws of Gravity,Kc. 
 Motion of descending Bodies, Projectiles, Me- 
 chanic Powers, Pendulums, Centres of Gravity, 
 &c.. Strength and Stress of Timber, Hydro- 
 statics, anil the Construction of Machines. By 
 William Emerson. London, 1754. 8vo. 
 
 Encyc. of Dam. Econ., 711. The Domestic Encyclo- 
 p£edia ; or, a Dictionary of Facts and Useful 
 Knowledge, &c. London, 1802. 4 vols. 8vo. 
 
 Epistle to Lord Lowthcr, 476. On Planting and 
 Buildings, in a Poetic Epistle to Lord Lowther. 
 London, I77(i. 4to. 
 
 Essay on Gothic Architecture. An Essay on the 
 Origin and Progress of Gothic Architecture, 
 traced in and deduced from the Ancient Edifices 
 of Germauj', with references to those of Eng- 
 land, &c. By Dr. George Moller, first Archi- 
 tect to the Duke of Hesse; translated from the 
 German. London, 1824. 8vo. 
 
 Facts and Illustrations, 8jc., 480. Facts and Illus- 
 trations, demonstrating the important Benefits 
 which have been and still may be derived by 
 Labourers from possessing small Portions of 
 Land, &c. London, pamph. 8vo. Monthly, 
 continued. 
 
 Falda's Fountains, ^c, 1973. contained in Nuova 
 Teatro delle Fabriche et Edificii di Roma Mo- 
 derna. Rome, 1665, 4to. ; and in Gli Giardini di 
 Roma. Rome, fol. and Norib. fol. 
 
 Farcy's Derbyshire, 1377. General View of the 
 Agriculture and Minerals of Derbyshire, pub. 
 by Order of the Board of Agr. By John Farey, 
 Senr., Mineral Surveyor, vol. i. London, 1811. 
 8vo. vol. ii. 1813. Maps and sections. 
 
 Flaxman's ^schylus,^c. 2168. A Series of Engrav- 
 ings from his Compositions to illustrate the Iliad 
 and Odyssey of Homer, 1793, 4to. Compositions 
 from the Tragedies of ^schylus, 1809, fol. 
 
 Fontaines de Paris, S(C., 1794. Les Fontaines de 
 Paris, Anciennes et Nouvelles. Par M. Moisy et 
 M. A. Duval. Paris, 1812. fol. 
 
 For. Quart. Rev., p. 2. Foreign Quarterly Review. 
 London, 11 vols. 8vo. 1833. Continued. 
 
 Forsyth's Beauties of Scotland, 1821. Beauties of 
 Scotland, &c. By Robert Forsyth, Esq. Edin- 
 burgh, 1809. 5 vols. 8vo. 
 
 Forsyth's Remarks, ^c., 2212. Remarks on An- 
 tiquities, Arts, and Letters, during an Ex- 
 cursion in Italy, in 1802-3. London, 1813, 
 Svo. 
 
 Franklin's Letter, Sfc, 2181. Observations on smoky 
 Chimneys, their Causes and Cure, &c. In a 
 letter to Dr. Ingenhausz. London, 1793, Svo. 
 
 Freud's Universal Education, 1613. A Plan of 
 Universal Education. By William Frend, Esq. 
 London, 1832. 12mo. 
 
 Gerard/n, 1674. La Composition des Paysages sur 
 le Terrein, on des moyens d'embellir la Nature 
 autour des habitations, eJi y joignant I'utile k 
 I'agrdable. Par L. R. Gcrardin. Paris, 1777. 
 8vo, 
 
 Gilpin's Practical Hints, Sfc, 1987. Practical Hint* 
 on Landscape Gardening, &c. By S. Gilpin, 
 Esq. London, 1832. Svo. 
 
 Gilpin's Wye, 533. Observations on the River Wye, 
 and several Parts of South Wales, relative 
 chiefly to Picturesque Beauty, made in the 
 Summer of 1770. London, 1783. Svo. 
 
 Gregory's Mechanical Dictionary, 1261. A Treatise 
 on Mechanics, &c. By Olinthus Gregory, LL.D. 
 of the Roy. Mil. Acad., Woolwich, and Teacher 
 of Mathematics, Cambridge. London, 1806. 
 3 vols. Svo. plates. 
 
 Gwilt's Architecture, 2181. Rudiments of Archi- 
 tecture, Practical and Theoretical. By Joseph 
 Gwilt, F.A.S. London, 1826. Large Svo. 
 
 Gwilt's Chambers, ffc, 2212. A Treatise on the 
 Decorative Part of Civil Architecture. Bv Sir 
 William Chambers, K.P.S. F.R.S. F.S.A. 
 F.S.S.S. ; with Notes, &c., and an Examination 
 of Grecian Architecture. Hy .Joseph (iwilt, 
 Architect, F.S.A. London, 1825. 2 vols. imp.Hvo. 
 
 Hall's Hypothesis, 2229. Essay on the Origin, Prin- 
 ciples, and History of Gothic Architecture. 
 Edinburgh, 1813. 4t(). 
 
 Hassel, 2012. The Speculum ; or, the Art of Draw, 
 ing in Water Colours; and Instructions for 
 Sketching from Nature. London, 18(;9. 12mo. 
 
 Hay's Laws of Colouring, 2012. The Ljiws of Har- 
 monious Colouring, adajjted to House Tainting, 
 and other Interior Decorations. By D. R. Hay, 
 House Painter. Edinburgh, Svo. 1829. 
 
 High. Sor. Trans., 99. The Quarterly Journal of 
 Agriculture, and Prize Essays and Transaction* 
 of the Highland Society of Scotland. Edin- 
 burgh, 18.J2. Svo. Continued. 
 
 Hiort's Chimneys, p. 2191. A Practical Treatise on 
 the Construction of Cliimneys, ivc. By John 
 Wdliam Hiort, Architect. Ixmdon, 1826. 8\o. 
 
 Hirsehfeld's Theorie des Jar., 1674. Tlu'orie de 
 I'Art des Jardin.s. Par C. C. L. Hirschfeld. 
 Leipzig, 1785. 5 vols. 4to. 
 
 Hoarc's Artist, <^c, ^-c. A Collection of Essays 
 relative to Painting, Poetry, S< uli)ture, Archi- 
 tecture, &c. Edited by Prince Hoare. London, 
 18 la 2 vols. 4to. 
 
 Hoarc's U Utshirc, 1831. History of Ancient Wilt- 
 shire. By Sir Richard Colt Hoare, Bart, F.K. 
 and A.S.S. I,ondon, 1810. 3 vols. fol. 
 
 Hofland's White Knights, &;c., 1969. A Descriptive 
 Account of the Mansion and Gardens of White 
 Knights, a .Scat of his Grace the Duke of M;irl. 
 borough. By Mrs. Hofland. London, 1811. 
 Large 4to. 
 
 Hogarth's Analysis of Beauty, Sf;4. The Analysis 
 of Beauty. By William Hogarth. London, 
 17:>4, 4to. 
 
 Hope's Essay on Ornamental Gardening, 1649. 
 Published in the Review of Art, and in Hof- 
 land's If'hite Knights. 
 
 Hope's Furniture, i(C., 2024. Household Furni- 
 ture and Interior Decoration. Executed from 
 Designs by Thomas Hope. London, 18<j7. 
 fol. 
 
 Hope's Observations on Downing College, 2169. 
 Observations on I lie Plans and Elevations, 
 designed by James Wyatt, Architect, for Down, 
 ing College, Cambridge, in a Letter to Francis 
 Annesley, Esq., M.P. By Thomas Hope, Esq. 
 London, 1804. 4to. 
 
 Hosking's Treatises, 2209. Treatises on Archi- 
 tecture and Building, from the Eiicyclopa'dia 
 Britannica. By William Hosking, Esq. 
 London, 1832. 4to. 
 
 Hunt's Tudor Architecture, 2148. Examples of 
 Tudor Architecture, adapted to Modern Habit- 
 ations, with Illustrative Details, selected from 
 Ancient Edifices and Observations on the Fur. 
 niture of the Tudor Period. By T. F. Hunt, 
 Architect. London, 1830. 4to. 
 
 Jameson's Journal, 1980. The Edinburgh New 
 Philosophical Journal ; exhibiting a View of 
 the progressive Discoveries and Improvements 
 in the Sciences and the Arts. Conducted by 
 Professor Jameson. Edinburgh, 1833, 14 vols. 
 Svo. continued. 
 
 Knight's Inquiry, 117. An Analytical Inquiry into 
 the Principles of Taste By R. P. Knight, Esq. 
 London, 1805. Svo. 
 
 Knight's Landscape, 117. The Landscape; a Di- 
 dactic Poem, in Three Books. By Richard 
 Payne Knight, Esq. London. 1794. 4to. 
 1 K}-afft',8ic.. 1943. PlanSj Coupes, et Elevations de 
 
LIST OF BOOKS QUOTED. 
 
 xvii 
 
 By 
 London, 
 
 fur 
 Munich, 
 
 di verses Productions de 1' Art de la Charpente. 
 Par Kraffl. Paris, 1811, large fol. 202 plates. 
 Laine's Hints, 118. Hints for Dwellings, consisting 
 of Original Designs for Cottages, Farm Houses, 
 and Villas, &c., including Ten Designs tor 
 Town Houses. By D. Laing, Architect and 
 Surveyor. London, 1800. 4to. _ 
 Lairesse, 2012. The Art of Painting, in all its 
 Branches, methodically demonstrated by Dis- 
 courses and Plates, &c. By Gerard de Lairesse. 
 London, 1738. 4to. 
 Lamb, 2221. Etchings of Gothic Ornaments. 
 Edward Buckton Lamb, Architect. Lor 
 1830. 6 numbers, fol. 
 Lamfesversc/idnerung, IOOj. ftlonatsblatt 
 Bauwesen und Landesverschonerung 
 3 vols. 4to. Continued monthly. ^ . , _ , 
 Lasteyrie's Rural Architecture, 10' '5. Traits de la 
 Construction Rurale, &c. Paris, 1802. 4to ; and 
 llecueil des Machines et Instruinens d Agri- 
 culture, &c., de tous les Pays, &c. Par M. Le 
 Comte Lasteyrie. Paris, 1815. oblong 4to. 
 Laugier's Essai, p. 5. Essai sur 1' A rchitecture, &c. 
 
 Par le Pfere Laugier. Paris, 1755. 8vo. 
 Lawrence's Practical Directions, 128. Directions 
 for the Management of Cottage Gardens. By 
 Charles Lawrence. London, 1831. pamph. bvo. 
 Laxton's Builder's Price Book, 302. The improved 
 Builder's Price Book. By W. Laxton, Sur- 
 vevor. London, 1833. 8vo. , . •, 
 
 Le Jardinicr des Fenfires, 1963. Le Jardinier des 
 Fenetres,des Appartemens, etdespetits Jardins. 
 Paris, 1825. 1 vol. 18mo. 
 Library of the Fine Arts, 1664. Library of the Fine 
 
 Arts. London, 18.32. 2 vols. 8vo. 
 Loch's Improvewents in Sutherland, 1047. An Ac- 
 count of the Improvements made on the Mar- 
 quess of Stafford's Estates in Sutherland, &c. 
 By J. \Mch, Esq. London, 1819. 8vo. 
 London Journal of Arts and Sciences, 685 Journal 
 of the Arts and Sciences. London, 8 vols. 8vo. 
 Continued. , , 
 
 Loudon, J. a A Manual of Cottage Husbandry 
 Gardening, and Architecture. London, IS-jO. 
 8vo. ils. Supplement to Loudon's Cottage 
 Manual, with 30 Designs, for Dwellings of from 
 Five to Ten Rooms, on 24 Lithographic Plates. 
 London, 1833. Svo. 7s. 
 Loudon's Treatise on Country Besidcnccs, oW. A 
 Treatise on Forming, Improving, and Manag- 
 ing Country Residences, &c. By J. C. Loudon. 
 London, 1806. 4to. . . , ^ 
 
 Malion's Works, 111. Essay on British Cottage 
 Architecture, &c. By James Malton, Architect 
 and Draughtsman. London 1798. 4to. Ihe 
 Young Painter's Maul-stick. London, 1802. 4to. 
 Marriage's Letters on the Agricultural Labourers, 
 1368. Letters on the Distressed State of the 
 Agricultural Labourers, and suggesting 
 Remedy. By Joseph Marriage. Chelmsfo 
 1832. pamph. Svo. . ^ , • 
 
 Mason, G., 1674. Essay on Design ,n Gardening. 
 
 By George Mason, Esq. London, l/b8. bvo. 
 Mason, 1674. The English Garden, a Poem in Four 
 Books. By the Rev. William Mason. London, 
 
 Mcason''s Landscape Architecture of Ualy, 330. 
 The Landscape Architecture of the Ancient 
 Painters of Italy. London, 1830. 4to. 
 Mechanics' Magazine, 142. Mechanics' Magazine, 
 
 London, 1832. 18 vols. 8vo, continued. 
 iW/sm,p..5. PrincipidiArchitettura Civile. Par 
 
 Francesco Milizia. Bassano,1785. 3tom. 8vo. 
 Model Schools of the School Society, 151/. Manual 
 of Model Schools of the British and Foreign 
 School Society. London, 1831. 8v& 
 Morel, 1674. Theorie des Jardins, 
 Jardins de la Nature. 
 1776, 8vo. 
 Morel Vind4, S. A., §r., 743. 
 
 ales Eco . ^. ., 
 leurs Plans, Coupes, EkH'ations, Details, et 
 Devis, etablis aux plus bas pnx possibles, tai 
 M. le Vicomte de Morel Vinde. Les details 
 par A.L. Lussan, Architecte. Paris, 1824. folio. 
 Morris, 2194. Lectures on Architecture. Two parts, 
 
 Murpht',^2^22. Plans, Elevations, Sections, and 
 Views of the Church of Batalha, in Portugal. 
 By J. Murphy. Fol., 1792. 27 plates. 
 
 New Monthly Mag., 493. New Monthly Magazine, 
 London, 37 vols. 8vo, 1833. 
 
 ou I'art des 
 Par N. Morel Paris, 
 
 Essai sur les Con- 
 structions Rurales Economiques, contenant 
 
 Continued. 
 
 Newton's Vitruvius, Ti. The Architecture of Vi- 
 truvius PoUio, translated from the Latin by 
 William Newton, Architect, London, 1791— 
 1791, 2 vols, roval folio. 
 Nicholson's Practical Builder, 2007. The New 
 Practical Builder, &c. By Peter Nicholson. 
 London, 1823. 4to. 
 Papworth, 2222. Rural Residences, and Hints on 
 Situation, &c. By J. B. Papworth, Architect. 
 London, 1820. imp. 8vo. ^ , 
 
 Partington's Builder's Guide, 571. The Builder s 
 complete Guide, comprehending the Iheory 
 and Practice of the various Branches of Archi- 
 tecture, Bricklaying, &c. By C. F. Partington. 
 London, 1825. 8vo. , . 
 
 Percier and Fontaine, Decorations Litericures, 
 2005. Recueil de Decorations Intferieures, &c. 
 Paris, 1812. fol. . u-. . ^ 
 
 Perrault 2169. Les dix Livres d'-A.rchitecture de 
 Vitruve, corrigts et traduits nouvellement en 
 Frangois ; avec des Notes et des Figures. Paris, 
 1673. fol. ^ 1-0 T. 
 
 Plan for a National Education, §-c., la/3. Paro- 
 chial Institutions, or a Plan for a National Sys- 
 tem of Education, &c. Loudon, 1830, Svo. 
 Price's Essays, 1674. Essays on the Picturesque, 
 &c. By Uvedale Price, Esq. London, 181b. 
 3 vols. Svo. „ . . , r 
 
 Principles of Design, 8(C., 2131. Principles of 
 Design in Architecture, traced in Observations 
 on Buildings, &c. In a Series of Letters to a 
 Friend. London, 1809. Svo. 
 Puckler.Muskau, Sic, 2126. Tour of a German 
 
 Prince. London, 1832. 4 vols. Svo. 
 Pugin's Works, 2222. Antiquities of Normandy, 
 4to. Gothic Examples, 4to. Gothic Ornaments, 
 4to, &c. London, ISl'S to 1833. 
 Quatremere de Quincy's Diet. p. 5. Diction- 
 naire Historique d'Architectuie ; comprenant 
 dans son Plan les Notions historiques, descrip- 
 tives, archaeologiques, biographiques, theo- 
 riques, didactiques et pratiques de cct Art : par 
 M. Quatremfere de Quincy, de I'lnstitut Royal 
 de France ( Academic des Inscriptions et Belles, 
 lettresi, et SecrtHaire perpCtuel de I'Arademie 
 des Beaux Arts. Paris. 2 vols. 4to. 1832. 
 Quaf. de Quincy's Essai sur I'Imitation, 221o. 
 Essai sur la Nature, le But, et les Moyens de 
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 Repertory of Arts, 119. The Repertory of Arts and 
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 Reynolds's Lectures, 105. Lectures on Painting. 
 
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 b 
 
xviii 
 
 LIST OF BOOKS QUOTED. 
 
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 cation, &c. By J. Wilderspin. London, 1812. 
 12mo. 
 
 Wilkins's ]^[agna Grcccia, 2221. Antiquities of 
 
 Magna Gra?cia. By William Wilkins, M. A. 
 
 F.A.S. Camb., 1807. fol. 
 Wilson's Infant Schools, 1517. On the System of 
 
 Infant Schools, &c. By C. Wilson. London 
 
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 detected; in Five Books. By John Wood, 
 
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 Essays of the London Architectural Society. 
 
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 France, Italy, and Greece, &c. By Joseph 
 
 Woods, Esq., Architect. London, 1828. 2 vols. 
 
 4to. 
 
LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS. 
 
 A—^ Thomas, Esq., Architect, London. Design I. 
 p. 821 ; III. p. 826, and the lodges, fig. 1785 to 
 fig. 1796. 
 
 Anderson, Mr. John, Agricultural Engineer, Lon- 
 don. The remarks in % \So9. 
 
 Austin, INIr. Felix, Artificial Stone Manufacturer, 
 NewlloadjLondon. Various chimney-tops.vases,, 
 fountains, mignonette boxes, and other archi- 
 tectural decorations for cottages and gardens. 
 
 Bardwell, William, Esq., Architect, Exeter Hall, 
 Strand, London. Design LXXVII. p. 237; 
 IX. p. 853; XIII. p. 877. 
 
 Barn/, Charles, Esq., Architect, Foley Place, 
 London. The revisals of figs. 1436 and 14i0 ; 
 Design V. p. 841 ; the revision of the elevations 
 of the stables, figs. 16y8, 1702, 1703. 
 
 Blunt, Henry, Esq., Architect, Liverpool. Design 
 LXIV. p. 200. 
 
 Brewer, Peter, Esq., Architect and Civil Engineer. 
 Design XLI 11. p. 160; LI. p. 178; LV. p. 187 ; 
 LXVII. p. 209. 
 
 Brovm, Juhn, Esq., Land Steward at Calley in 
 Kirkcudbrightshire. Design XXII. p. 496. 
 
 C— , John, Esq., an extensive Farmer in North- 
 umberland. Designs XVIII., XIX., and XX., 
 p. 482 to 48.5. 
 
 Capper, Charles, Esq., Engineer, Birmingham. Fig. 
 1268. 
 
 Chalmers, Ja?nes, Esq., Land Surveyor and Land 
 Steward, at Muithly in Perthshire. Design 
 XXVII. p. 512. 
 
 Coltam and Ilallen, Messrs., Engineers and Iron 
 Manufacturers, Winslcy Street, Oxford Street, 
 London. Wrought-iron bedsteads, p. 329, 332, 
 333, 335; the rick-stand in p. 406 ; the street 
 air-trap in p. 410 ; the field gate in p. 412 ; figs. 
 1280 to 1284, and IS.'jl to 1353. 
 
 Cottam, Gcorfre, Esq., Engineer. Figs. 1269 to 1273. 
 
 Cottaffi, G. II., Esq., Engineer. The Bruges stove, 
 p. 285. 
 
 Cousin, David, Esq., Architect, Edinburgh. De- 
 
 sign X. p. 855 ; and figs. 1655 to 1670. 
 Dalziel, Mr. JV. F., Upholsterer and Cabinet Manu- 
 facturer. Great James Street, Bedford Row, 
 London. Nearly all the Designs for modern fur- 
 niture not specified as having been supplied by 
 other Contributors. These Designs were, for the 
 greater part, drawn by Mr. George Fildcs,Profes- 
 sional Draughtsman, 12, Lamb's Conduit Street. 
 
 Donaldson, John, Esq., Land Steward to the Mar- 
 quis of Hastings, Loudon Castle, Ayrshire. 
 The farmerv. Design IV. p. 452, 
 
 E—, the Rev. 'JV. T. The construction of cob- 
 walls in Devonshire, p. 416. 
 
 Field, Marriott, Esq., Architect, Christ's Hospital, 
 London. Figs. 1696, 1697, 1698, and 1758. 
 
 Fowler, Charles, Esq., Architect, Gordon Square, 
 London. Design VII. p. 846. 
 
 Gorrie, Archibald, Esq., Land Steward, Annat, 
 near Errol, Perthshire. Design XXVIII. 
 p. 514 ; the remarks in p. 543 ; V. p,627 ; I. p. 629. 
 
 Green, John, Esq., Architect, Newcastle. Design 
 XIV. p. 475; XV., XVI., and XVII. p. 476 to 
 481; XXI. p. 486; the specification, p, 487 to 
 496 ; figs. 1252 to 1257. 
 
 H., Lady F., fig. 2032. 
 
 Hadficld, M. E., Esq., Architect, in the office of 
 Messrs. Woodhead and Hurst, Architects, Don- 
 caster. Design III. p. 682. 
 
 Huniphrcijs, Mrs. A. D. Design LXX. p. 215. The 
 corner cupboard in p. 301 ; the settle, p. 317. 
 
 Hurdis, James, Esq. See Mantell, Joshua. 
 
 Jeakcs, Mr. W., Ironmonger, Great Russell Street, 
 London. Figs. 1359 to 1364. 
 
 Jones and Wilcox, Messrs., Builders Bristol. Design 
 LXXVIII. p.238.1 
 
 Kempshot, Wtlliafn, Esq., Architect, Pentonville, 
 
 London. Design IV. p. 685. 
 Kent, J. C, Esq., Levant Ixjdge, near Worcester. 
 
 Design IX. p. 615. 
 Kent, I. J. Esq., Architect, Great Marlborough 
 Street, London. Design I. p 740, with the 
 details and specification, extending to p. 751 ; 
 II. p. 751, with the details extending to p. 757, 
 Lajnb, Edward Buckton, Esq., Architect, Little 
 James Street, Bedford Row, London, Author 
 of Etchings of Gothic Ornaments. Design 
 VII. p. 692 ; III. p. 757 ; XXII. p. 943 ; XXI II. 
 p. 946 ; and the details and observations on 
 Italian architecture, extending to p. 971 ; figs. 
 1719, 1720, and many others; including most of 
 the Designs for Gothic and Elizabethan Furni- 
 ture, and all the Villa Interiors. 
 Laivrcnce, Charles, Esq., the Ouearns, near Ciren- 
 cester. Design IV. p. 634, and the details and 
 remarks extending to 639. 
 Laxton, William, Esq., Surveyor, Oxford Street, 
 
 London. Design XLI. p. 147 ; V. p. 686. 
 Laxtons, W. and H., Surveyors and Architects, 
 Oxford Street, London. Design LXXI. p. 215; 
 LXXV. p. 226. 
 Levett, Mr. John, Bury St. Edmunds. The gate 
 
 with a puzzle latch, p. 414. 
 Leeds, W. H., Esq., Leigh Street, Burton Crescent. 
 Design XVIII. p. 897, and its description, ex- 
 tending to p. 913. 
 Mac Kenzie, W.M., Esq., Architect, Perth. Design 
 XXXV. p. 537, with its descriptive particulars 
 and estimate, extending to 543. 
 Main, James, Esq., Landscape-Gardener, Union 
 Row, Chelsea. On Farmeries, p. 414 ; V. p. 448 ; 
 XXV. p. 508 ; X. p. 622, and the remarks in 
 p. 624, 625 ; II. p. 823. 
 Mallet, Robert, Esq., Engineer, Capel Street, 
 Dublin. A cottage kitchen-grate, p. 283 ; sinks, 
 p. 291 ; fixed flaps, 293 ; cast-iron table and 
 castors, 307; cast-iron stools, p. 315: chairs, 
 p. 318, 320, 321 ; the tank in p. 404 ; figs. 1249, 
 1250, 1251 ; fig. 1259 ; figs. 1332, 1333 ; figs. 1339 
 to 1345 ; the article on rools for riding-houses, 
 S 1939. &c. 
 
 Mallet, William, Esq., Engineer, Dublin, Patent 
 wrought-iron half-tester bedstead, 331 ; other 
 bedsteads and bed-couches, 332 ; fig. 1293, 
 Mamiing, Mr. William, Carpenter and Builder, Hoi- 
 born, London. Design LXXXI, p. 251 ; and a 
 portable cottage as a substitute for a country 
 residence, p. 256. 
 Mantell, Joshua, Esq., Newick, Sussex, and James 
 Hurdis, Esq, Architect of the same place. De- 
 sign XVI. p. 890. 
 Menteath, James Stuart, Esq., Jun., of Closeburn, 
 
 Dumfriesshire. 2029. 
 Miller, F. S., Esq., Radway, Warwickshire. The 
 
 View of Radwav Grange. Fig. 1768. 
 Newall, Walter, Esq., Architect, Dumfries. De- 
 sign III. p. 443; IV. p, 444; VII. p. 454; VIII. 
 and IX. p. 454; X. p. 459 ; XI. p. 460; XII. 
 p. 462 ; the specification, p. 466 ; VIII. p. 850. 
 Nott, G. R, Esq., Engineer, IVIecklenburgh Square. 
 The account of his stove, 2057 ; figs. 1840 to 
 1842. 
 
 Ogilvie, 'Alexander, Esq., of the Mere, near Knuts- 
 ford, Cheshire. Design XXXVII. p. 435; 
 fig. 1261. ^ . 
 
 Parsons and Gill, Messrs., Architects, Leicester. 
 Design XII. p. 870, with its conditions and 
 specifications, 
 Peake, Mr. Thomas, Tunstall Pottery, Newcastle 
 under Line. The Tiles and Vase figured in 
 p. 648. and fig. 1813. 
 Perry, Miss Elizabeth. The Fire-screen, p. 350. 
 
XX 
 
 LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS. 
 
 Perry, Miss Sarah. The Lady's Wash-hand Stand, 
 p. 311. 
 
 Perry, John, Esq., Architect, Godalming. The 
 Specification and Estimate, p. 36 to 43. The 
 Stable in p. 384, 385 ; I. p. 419, with the details, 
 particulars, and estimates, p. 418 to 434, iiidu- 
 sive; II. p. 434, with the details, particular 
 estimate, &c., to p. 441, inclusive ; the Water- 
 mill, p. 573, with its details, specification, and 
 estimate, extending to p. 583. 
 
 Prosser, T/iomas, Esq., Architect, Worcester. De- 
 sign VIII. p. 4(J9. 
 
 Read, Mr. John, Regent Circus, London. Design 
 V. p. 595. 
 
 2ieid, William, Esq., Architect, Glasgow. Fig. 12G7; 
 
 Design XIV. p. 879. 
 Robertson, John, Esq., Architect, Bayswater, near 
 London. Design V. p. 30; VII. p. 35; VIII. 
 p. 45; IX. p. 46; X. p. 49; XI. p. 50; XII. p. 
 .55; XIII. p. .5fi; XIV. p. 61 ; XV. p. 6i.': XVII. 
 p. 70 ; XVIII. p. 75 ; XIX. p. 76 ; XXIIL p. <K) ; 
 XXIV. p. 95; XXV. p. 96; XXVI. p. !K). 
 XXVII. p. 1(X) ; XXVIII. p. 103; XXX. p. W.); 
 XXXI. p. 110; XXXIII. p. l;J3; XXXIV., 
 XXXV., and XXXVI. p. V^-. XXXVII., 
 XXXVIII., and XXXIX. p. 140 ; XLIL p. 159 ; 
 XLIV. p. 165; XLV. p. 166; XLVI. p. 16!); 
 XLVII. p. 170; XLVIII.n. 173; XLIX. p. 174; 
 L. p. 177 ; LVI. p. 188 ; LVII. n. 193; LVI" 
 LIX.,andLX. p.l94; LXI , LXl I., and LXl 
 
 LVIIl. 
 .111. 
 
 p. lyy; i^AV. p. iiuo ; li.v V 1. i>. ..\tt ; I.,XVI1I. 
 p. 210; LXXIl. p. iM7; LXXIII. i). 225; IX. 
 p. 646; I. p. 678; VIII. p. 693; figs. 1323 to 
 1326, and figs. 1348 to 1350. In general, all the 
 explanatory diagrams, and all the Designs made 
 from our suggestions, were drawn by Mr. Ro- 
 bertson, who has been in our oHice, as Archi- 
 tectural Draughtsman, since March, 182?». 
 Robison, John, Esq., Secretary to the Royal Society, 
 Edinburgh ; 'I'he Remarks in ^ I3.>4, p. ().J7 ; 
 ^ 1373. Remarks on the intro<luction of cast 
 iron in building, in \ 1409, 144<'., 1793, &c. 
 Ross, IVillia/ii, Esq., Architect, Pritchard Street, 
 Rri-stol. Design XXX., XXXI., XXXII., and 
 XXXIII. p. 519 to 523; the specification and 
 estimate, p. 524 to 528 ; II. p. 680 ; V I. p. 61K». 
 Rotvr, Jatnes, Esq., Architect Design XII. p. 55; 
 
 XXI. p. 86; XXII. p. 89; XXIX. p. 104. 
 Rowley, Mr. jyilliatn. Fountain-maker, Howland 
 
 Street, London. The Fountain, fig. 17tr7. 
 Saul, Mr. Matthias, Cabinet Manufacturer and 
 Joiner, Lancaster The Gates in p. 413; fig. 
 1247 ; fig. 1265. 
 
 Selane, Mr., German Stove Builder, Vauxhall Road, 
 I/ondon. Design for a Stove; figs. 1838 and 
 1839. 
 
 Seltm, an Amateur Architect, residing in Wiltshire. 
 
 Design LIl. p. 181; LIII. p. 182; LIV. p. 184; 
 
 III. p. 632 ; ^ 1676 to 1734; figs. 1435 to 1440; 
 
 XVII. p. 893. 
 Shaw, Henry, Esq. F.S.A., Percy Street, Bedford 
 
 Square, London, Author of the History and 
 
 Antiquities of Luton Park, and other Works. 
 
 .Some Designs for Ancient Furniture in 
 
 Chap. IV. p. vm, and 1101. 
 Sheriff, Patrick, Esq., Mungo's Wells, near Hao- 
 
 dington. The Remarks in p. 534, 537. 
 Sieb<', Mr., Denmark Street, St. Giles's, London. 
 
 The Rotatory Pump, figs. 9, 10. 
 Small wood, IVdliam Froomc, Esq., Architect, Cam- 
 
 berwell, Ix)ndon. Design VI. p. 844. 
 Sylvester, Charles, E.«q., Engineer, Great Russell 
 
 Street, Bloomsbury, London. The Stove, figs. 
 
 18*5, 1846. 
 
 Swinton, James, Esq., Architect, Haddington. De- 
 sign XXXIV. p. 528; and the specification, 
 p. 529 to 534. 
 
 T. S. T. Design III. p. m. 
 
 Taylor, Samuel, Esq., Amateur Architect, Stoke- 
 
 ferry, Norfolk. Design LXXVI. p. i,'Jv'6 , 
 
 XXVl. p. 411; XXIX. p. 516; fig. I2«t8. 
 Thompson, Henry Auguttus, h>q.. Architect, Li- 
 
 veriKH)!. Debigns IV. p. 29; VI. p. 33; XVI. 
 
 p. (2»; XX. p. 85. 
 Thorold, William, Esq., Architect and Engineer, 
 
 Norwich. Design XIII p. 471 : XIII. p. 473; 
 
 XXXVL p. 544; figs. 1288 to 1291 ; figs. 1715, 
 
 1716. 
 
 Trotmnn, E., Esq., Architect, Fumival's Inn, 
 Ixindon. Design X.M. p. !»20, with the I-jssay 
 on Gothic Architecture, extending to p. 5»4.j. 
 
 J'arden, Richard, l-j>q., Architect, Godalming. 
 Design XXXII. p. 118, and the particular 
 or si>ecification, 111 ; LXIX. p. 215: LXXIV. 
 p. 226; I. and the discussion on Mills, p. 
 to .'573 ; II. p.. 083 : IV. p. 592; IV. p. 834 ; XI. 
 I). 859 ; ^ 1794 to 1798. 
 
 Vohns, Charles, F^q., Architect, Wilton Road, 
 Pimlico, London. The Bookcase Front, 
 p. 124^5 ; XIX. p. 914 ; XX. p. 919. ; the Brew- 
 cry, figs. 1830 and 1831 ; and the very ingenious 
 mode of hanging pictures described in ^ 2U68, 
 and illustratetl by fig. 1H;'}6. 
 
 Wright, Mr. S., Shelton, near Newcastle, Stafford, 
 shire. Figs. 180l\ 1810, and 1811. 
 
ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 OP 
 
 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA 
 ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 THE main object of this Encyclopedia of Cottage, Farm, and Villa Architecture, 
 is to improve the dwellings of the great mass of society, in the temperate regions of both 
 hemispheres : a secondary object is to create and diffuse among mankind, generally, a taste 
 for architectural comforts and beauties. 
 
 The means by which we propose to accomplish these objects are the foUowmg 
 By submitting a series of Designs for human dwellings, embracing every appropriate 
 comfort and the greatest variety of beauty ; and by accompanying these Designs with 
 analytical and critical remarks, pointing out in what this comfort and beauty consist, and 
 on what principles both are founded. i . • 
 
 By submitting a series of Designs for the finishing, fittings up, fixtures, and turniture 
 Euitable to the different descriptions of Cottage, Farm, and Villa Buildings ; and by ac 
 companying these with remarks on their fitness for the end in view, such as lighting, heating, 
 ventilating, &c., as well as with analytical and critical remarks on their style or beauty; 
 thus showing the necessity of Architects including the study of furniture in that of their pro- 
 fession, so as to be able to give Designs for furnishing a house, as well as for building one. 
 
 By accompanying many of the Designs with gardens, as well small kitchen and flower 
 gardens for the cottager, as pleasure ground and park scenery for the occupant of the villa; 
 and by explaining the connexion of Villa Architecture with Landscape Gardening, and 
 pointing out the necessity which exists for Villa Architects possessing a considerable know- 
 ledge of the art of laying out grounds. 
 
 By avoiding, when it is not absolutely necessary, the use of terms peculiar to Architec- 
 ture ; by explaining all such as are used, where they first occur; and by adopting such a 
 style, as will render the work easily understood by the uninitiated reader, as well as sub- 
 servient to the purpose of educating young persons in Architecture as an art of taste, 
 especially those of the female sex. , , • ■» 
 
 To attain the end proposed, we commence our work with Designs, as rendering it 
 more attractive to a general reader, as well as of more immediate practical utility to persons 
 intendin-r to build or furnish, than it would be if commenced with abstract principles ; and 
 because, in the analytical and critical remarks, with which we mean to accompany these 
 Designs, we intend to develope, as it were, incidentally, and by little and little, all the 
 principles of Architecture, and also those of Landscape Gardening as connected with 
 Buildings. We consider this mode of instruction best calculated for those practical men 
 who have not had a sufficient education, or have not pursued such a course of reading in 
 early youth, as to enable them to enter at once on the perusal of discussions, which must 
 necessarily he, to a considerable extent, metaphysical. We also consider this mode by ar 
 the best adapted for initiating the general reader in the principles of architectural taste ; and 
 for enabling young persons, especially ladies, to educate themselves in Architecture as an 
 
 ^^^'^rimprovement of the dwellings of the great mass of society throughout the world, 
 appears to us an object of such vast importance, as to be well worth attempting, even though 
 
2 
 
 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 we may not all at once succeed to our utmost wishes. In ameliorations necessarily involving 
 considerable expense, much cannot be expected to be performed immediately ; yet, by 
 making known the various particulars in which these ameliorations consist, to those 
 who are to derive important benefits from them, we may rest certain, that, sooner or 
 later, they will be effected. The efforts of Architects, in all ages and countries, have hitherto 
 been, for the most part, directed to public buildings, and to the mansions of princes, 
 noblemen, and men of wealth ; and what have hitherto been considered the inferior orders 
 of society, have been, for the most part, left to become their own architects. Hence the 
 tardiness with which the improvements made in the accommodation, arrangement, and 
 exterior beauty of the mansions of the wealthy, have found their way to the dwellings of the 
 poor. The great object of this work is, to show how the dwellings of the whole mass of 
 society may be equalized in point of all essential comforts, conveniences, and beauties. 
 
 By implanting in the minds of general readers, and especially of the youth of both sexes, 
 some knowledge of the good and bad of Architecture, as an art of Design arul Taste, it is 
 evident that this main object will also be promoted. Teach the young what architectural 
 beauty is, and they will admire it; show them how it may be produced in their dwellings, 
 and they will desire to possess it. Whatever is generally and ardently desired, and 
 unremittingly pursued, is certain of being ultimately obtained 
 
 Independently of the usefulness of the study of Architecture, its pursuit, as a fine art, 
 recommends itself, like the study of painting and sculpture, as a rational source of intellectual 
 entertainment; easily indulged in, since buildings occur every where, and form one of the 
 principal sources of interest in all towns and cities, and in travelling. The great use of the 
 study of any of the fine arts is, to polish and refine the taste, and divest the mind of vulgar 
 and common-place feeling. Architecture is the only fine art open to the inspection of all, 
 and interesting to all ; and could we only succeed in raising the taste of the mass of society in 
 this art, we should not only effect an universal improvement in Architecture, but materially 
 contribute towards the universal adoption of correct and elegant habits of thinking and acting 
 generally. 
 
 As the buildings of every country are open to all its inhabitants, it may be asked, why 
 all have not already a correct and elegant taste in this art ? To this we answer, by asking 
 how it happens that all persons have not a correct knowledge of their native language ; or a 
 good taste in written compositions? The truth is, that but a very slight knowledge of any 
 subject can be obtained without studying its first principles. There is a grammar in 
 Architecture which must be taught, no less than the grammar of language ; and when that 
 grammar is mastered empirically, there remains to be acquired the principles of human 
 nature, upon which its rules are founded. It is on Architecture, as founded on these 
 principles, that we chiefly rest our hopes of creating a general taste for the art, and of 
 rendering architectural criticism as common among all classes of society, as the criticism of 
 general literature. 
 
 It is not," says a clever architectural writer, (Foreign Quarterly Review, Jpril, 1831,) 
 when advocating the study of Architecture by women, " in order that they may be able to draw 
 columns, for that is merely the means, not the end of the pursuit, that we would suggest the 
 propriety of ladies applying themselves to what has hitherto never been included within the 
 circle of female acquirements; but that they may thereby cultivate their taste, and ground it 
 on something iess baseless and siiifting than mere feminine likings and dislikings. And 
 when we consider how wide is the province, how influential the authority, which the sex are 
 apt to claim in such matters; how much, in all that regards ornamental furniture and interior 
 embellishments, depends on the refined or trivial taste of our fairer halves ; it must be acknow- 
 ledged that to initiate them into such studies would not be an act of perfect disinterestedness." 
 Independently of its subsequent advantages, the study of the Grammar of Architecture, or, 
 in other words, " the elementary practice of architectural drawing, would be highly bene- 
 ficial to the youthful pupils, inasmuch as it affords an immediate application of the simpler 
 principles of geometry ; as it forms the hand to correctness, the eye to a scrupulous examina- 
 tion of forms, and, conseq.uently, implants habits of careful deliberation and attention, as well 
 as the seeds of taste." 
 
 We entirely agree with this writer in his opinions of the influence which women would 
 have on the public taste in Architecture ; believing, as we do, that the improvement which, 
 within the last fifty years, has taken place in landscape gardening, is, in a great measure, 
 owing to the more general adoption of the art of sketching landscapes from nature, as a branch 
 of female education. If the study of landscape drawing, by ladies, has led to the improvement 
 of landscape gardening, why should not the study of architectural drawing, on their part, 
 lead to the improvement of domestic Architecture ? 
 
INTRODUCTION. 
 
 The influence of Architecture on taste and morals has been argued, in a masterly manner, 
 by Dr. Dwight, when speaking of what he saw of its influence in the towns of New England. 
 Speaking of a city which had, when he saw it, in the beginning of the present century, been 
 twice ravaged by fire, this admirable author observes, that though the tenants of the houses 
 which were burned were, in many instances, sufferers, yet the town and the proprietors gained 
 much. " The town," he says, has already been improved not a little in its appearance, 
 and will probably be much more improved hereafter. There are persons who will imagine 
 this to be a matter of little consequence. I wish them to consider for a moment the following 
 hints : — 
 
 « There is a kind of symmetry in the thoughts, feelings, and efforts of the human mind. 
 Its taste, intelligence, affections, and conduct, are so intimately related, that no preconcertion 
 can prevent them from being mutually causes and effects. The first thing powerfully operated 
 on, and, in its turn, proportionally operative, is the taste. The perception of beauty and de- 
 formity, of refinement and grossness, of decency and vulgarity, of propriety and indecorum, 
 is the first thing which influences man to attempt an escape from a grovelling, brutish cha- 
 racter ; a character in which morality is effectually chilled, or absolutely frozen. In most 
 persons, this perception is awakened by what may be called the exterior of society, particu- 
 larly by the mode of building. Uncouth, mean, ragged, dirty houses, constituting the body 
 of any town, will regularly be accompanied by coarse, grovelling manners. The dress, the 
 furniture, the equipage, the mode of living, and the manners, will all correspond with the 
 appearance of the buildings, and will universally be, in every such case, of a vulgar and debased 
 nature. On the inhabitants of such a town, it will be difficult, if not impossible, to worK a 
 conviction, that intelligence is either necessary or useful. Generally, they will regard both 
 learning and science only with contempt. Of morals, except in the coarsest form, and that 
 which has the least influence on the heart, they will scarcely have any apprehensions. The 
 rights enforced by municipal law they may be compelled to respect, and the corresponding 
 duties they may be necessitated to perform ; but the rights and obligations which lie beyond 
 the reach of magistracy, in which the chief duties of morality are found, and from which the 
 chief enjoyments of society spring, will scarcely gain even their passing notice. They may 
 pay their debts, but will neglect almost every thing of value in the education of their children. 
 
 " The very fact, that men see good houses built around them, will, more than almost any- 
 thing else, awaken in them a sense of superiority in those by whom such houses are inhabited. 
 The'same sense is derived, in the same manner, from handsomer dress, furniture, and equipage. 
 The sense of beauty is necessarily accompanied by a perception of the superiority which it 
 possesses over deformity ; and is instinctively felt to confer this superiority on those who can 
 call it their own, over those who cannot. This, I apprehend, is the manner in which coarse 
 society is first started towards improvement; for no objects, but those which are sensible, can 
 make any considerable impressions on coarse minds. On these grounds I predicted to my 
 friends in this town a speedy change for the better in its appearance, and in the character 
 and manners of its inhabitants. I have since seen this prediction extensively fulfilled."— 
 (Travels in New England, vol. ii. p. 202.) 
 
 " The connexion of Architecture with the other fine arts," says the critic, in the Foreign 
 Quarterly Review, " and the convenience of knowing at least as much of it as will enable us 
 to judge how far the accessories in a picture are correct, where buildings are introduced, are 
 too obvious to be insisted upon ; neither is it necessary to expatiate on the superior advan- 
 tages possessed by the traveller who has qualified himself, by a competent study oi 
 the subject, for enjoying the local beauties of the cities he visits. It might be conceived that 
 the additional interest which an acquaintance with the various styles of Architecture imparts 
 to historical studies, and the kind of mcmoria technica furnished by the various reminiscences 
 connected with celebrated buildings, would alone form a sufficient reason for directing the 
 attention of the youthful pupil to such studies."— Forc^^ra Quarterly Review, April, ISU. 
 
 He who criticises every fine building which he sees," observes one whom we consider 
 the most philosophical of British architectural authors, " with a sincere desire to find 
 out whatever in it is excellent, bringing everything to the test of his own unbiassed feelings 
 and judgment, will form to himself a habit, profitable, not only when applied to Architecture, 
 but to every subject on which the human understanding is exercised."— ^Foorf'* Letters of an 
 Architect, Preface. 
 
 By tlie principles of Architecture, many persons understand nothing more than 
 certain established rules and precedents, drawn from the ancient buildings of Greece and 
 Rome ; and, for the greater part, comprehended in the study of the orders used in Grecian 
 and Roman temples. ' Are not those orders everything— the all in all of Architecture T 
 say such persons. " The whole science," observes the critic before quoted, " is commonly 
 
COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 thought to consist in knowing a few cabalistic words derived from the Greek, and a 
 few mechanical rules for the proportioning of columns ; while, for those who would wish to 
 acquire such a knowledge of Architecture, as would enable them to appreciate its beauties 
 as they do those of its sister arts, there is hardly a single elementary work, that is not either 
 too superficial, or merely technical. Instead of anything like generalization of principles, or 
 originality of views, we meet with insulated rules, and the dull quackery of monotonous 
 routine : while peurile trifling, or anile superstition, is suffered, in many cases, to exclude 
 even a glimpse of common sense. In almost every other branch of knowledge, the student 
 is able to provide himself with theoretical and critical, as well as practical, works ; but here, 
 he ought to be endued with more than ordinary ardour and perseverance, if he would 
 collect for himself the insulated scraps of criticism, and the few really useful, original 
 remarks that, ' few and far between,' are scattered over a wide expanse of almost unvaried 
 sameness." — Foreign Quarterly Review, April, 1831. 
 
 But a knowledge of the rules of Grecian Architecture, can no more be considered the 
 principles of the science, than the art of mixing colours can be called the principles of paint- 
 ing. " The great object of an Architect," says Wood, " is to determine in what maimer, with 
 means always in some degree limited, cither by the nature of the material to be employed, 
 the customs of the country, the expense, or the tiiste or no taste of the employer, he can 
 combine beauty with utility. The connexion of beauty, as an effect, with the tomposition 
 of the parts of buildings, as the cause of that effect, is the great end and object of the 
 Architect." — Letters of an Architect, Preface. 
 
 After studying with care all the various opinions delivered by different arcliitcctural 
 writers on the subject of the principles of their art, and divesting ourselves, as nnich as 
 possible, of all accidental associations and temporary prejudices, we have arrived at the fol- 
 lowing conclusion : — that the leading principle of Architecture, as a useful art, is fitness for 
 the end in view ; as an art of design, expression of the end in view; and, as an art of 
 taste, expression of some particular Architectural style. Those beauties or effects which are 
 the result of the first and second principles, are in their nature permanent ; those which are 
 the result of the third principle, are in their nature temporary and accidental. 
 
 All the various principles which come into operation, in the design and construction 
 of buildings, easily range themselves under these three fundamental principles. The fitness 
 of a design for the end in view, comprehends, not only the fitness of the si/e, shape, 
 number, relative position, and other particulars of the interior divisions of a building, for the 
 uses for which they are intended; but the fitness of the materials and construction, with 
 reference to the strength and durability which may be recjuired ; and the fitness of the 
 expenditure for the means at the connnand of the builder. In like manner, the principle of 
 the expression of the purpose, or end in view, applies not only to unity of expression in a 
 building as a whole, but to the separate expression of all the different parts of a building for 
 the purposes for which they are intended. So also the expression of architectural style 
 applies, not only to the building taken as a whole, which must be in the same style 
 throughout, but to all its component parts, which, even to the most minute details, must 
 belong to that style, and exhibit its characteristics. 
 
 Thus, as there are various uses to which buildings are devoted, so are there various 
 kinds of beauty of which they can be rendered expressive. But, as all the uses to which 
 buildings can be applied, all the arrangements which are requisite for convenience or 
 luxury, and all mechanical or chemical processes which enter into their construction, 
 are referable to the principle of fitness ; so all the different kinds of beauty of which they are 
 susceptible, are referable either to the expression of purpose, or to the expression of style. 
 A cottage or a barn, which are recognized to be sucli at the first glance, are so far perfect, aa 
 to the expression of purpose ; but they may also be specimens of Grecian or Gothic 
 Architecture, in which case, to the expression of purpose is added the expression of style. 
 
 As fitness and the expression of purpose are principles applicable to all buildings 
 whatever; so fitness, the expression of purpose, and the expression of architectural style, 
 comprehend all the beauties of which buildings are susceptible. 
 
 The principle of expression of purpose, is of universal application in Architecture ; and 
 whatever building will bear the test of examination according to it, cannot but prove 
 satisfactory to every unprejudiced mind, though it may not possess any of the beauties of 
 architectural style. The minds of all men, however, are more or less subject to the 
 prejudices of the age and country in which they live ; and the prejudices of European 
 Architects and their employers, seem long to have been in favour of the expression of 
 architectural style in building, rather than of the expression of use or purpose. This 
 circumstance has influenced the general taste ; and hence it is, that the critical observer, 
 
INTRODUCTION. 
 
 when looking at what is considered a fine building, instead of first examining whether it is 
 expressive of the purpose for which it is applied, considers only whether it is intended ta 
 be in the Grecian, Roman, or Gothic style ; and, having determined to which of these styles 
 it belongs, he next examines whether the details of the building are in strict conformity with 
 the best practice and precedents in that style. But according to the principles we have 
 laid down, it will be seen that the Grecian and Gothic styles are mere accidents m Architec- 
 ture ; and are nothing more than the language which the Architect makes use of to convey 
 his ideas. The expression of the purpose, for which every building is erected, is the first 
 and most essential beauty; and should be obvious from its Architecture, altogether inde- 
 pendently of any particular style ; in the same manner as the reasons for things, are alto- 
 gether independent of the language in which they are conveyed. As in Uterary compositions, 
 no beauty of language can ever compensate for poverty of sense ; so, in architectural compo- 
 sition, no beauty of style can ever compensate for the want of expression of purpose. Every 
 reasonable mind must feel this; for, as we have said before, the foundation of all true and 
 permanent beauty is utiUty. 
 
 But though it is necessary to study the expression of purpose, as the first and fundamental 
 beauty in all Architecture, it is by no means either necessary or advisable to neglect the study 
 of style ; on the contrary, the judicious artist will take advantage of the prejudices in favour 
 of this kind of beauty already fixed in the minds of mankind, and will employ it, so as ta 
 co-operate with and heighten the expression of purpose ; because there are many persons 
 who can admire the beauty of style, by whom the more simple and universal beauty of ex- 
 pression of purpose, would neither be relished nor understood. 
 
 Most authors, from Vitruvius to the present time, divide the subject of Architecture into 
 use and decoration ; and, by decoration, it is evident that they mean what we denominate 
 style ; though scientifically considered, style and decoration are essentially different. Any 
 building may be decorated, by fixing on it ornamental objects of different descriptions; but 
 for a building to be in a particular style, all its principal parts must be characteristic of that 
 style, and must co-operate in producing one effect, or expression. 
 
 Another class of architectural writers, Laugier, John Wood, Milizia, and especially Qua- 
 trem«}re de Quincy (whose opinions have been adopted by a number of English writers, 
 without the slightest acknowledgment), maintain, that Architecture, in so far as it is an art 
 of taste, is to be considered an art of imitation. According to this doctrine, the type of 
 the Egyptian Architecture is a cavern; of the Chinese, a tent; of the Gothic, a grove of 
 trees ; and of the Grecian, a rectangular hut. An opinion of this sort, adopted by such a 
 profound metaphysical author as Uuatrem^re de Quincy, deserves to be examined with the 
 utmost attention. That there is truth in it, cannot be denied : man, whether in a state of 
 barbarism or of civilisation, is alike an imitative animal; that is, he cannot act otherwise 
 than according to general laws, which have influenced all his predecessors from the earhest 
 ages, and which will control all his posterity to the latest period. To say, however, that 
 Architecture is an imitative art, like the arts of Painting or of Sculpture ; that is " purely 
 imitative," as Mr. Elmes calls it in his Lectures, strikes us to be by no means a correct use of 
 lancruage. That the more ancient of the different manners of building have had their 
 origin in certain rude types, there is very little doubt; at all events, this is sufficiently clear 
 with respect to Grecian Architecture, all the principal members of which may be traced to 
 the props androof of a hut constructed of timber : but where is the type for the semicircular 
 arch ? But why should a people, living in a country where stone was almost the only building 
 material, be induced, by the instinct of imitation, to adopt a mode of building suited only for a 
 piaterial altogether different? May not a stone or mud hut serve as a model, as well as a wooden 
 one ? If Egyptian or Indian Architecture may have had its origin in caves or excavations in 
 the face of°m upright rock, and Grecian Architecture have taken its rise from a rectangular 
 hut why may not Gothic Architecture have had its type in the conical huts of turf and stone, 
 jr of sticks and mud, formed by the northern nations of Europe ? We think this, at all events, 
 just as likely to have given rise to Pointed Architecture, as a tent to that of the Chinese. 
 
 The origin, however, of the different styles of art, appears to us a matter of very trifling 
 importance. All Architecture may be reduced essentially to two kinds ; viz. that where the 
 openings are covered with horizontal planks or blocks ; and that where they are covered with 
 arches either curved or pointed. Now, provided a system founded on any of these three 
 principles be developed in a uniform, harmonious, and consistent manner, with reference to 
 strength, durability, and fitness for the end in view, and to the general laws which 
 govern all compositions of lines and forms, what objection can there be to it, in any 
 reasonable mind? On the other hand, supposing an Architect to take any of the alleged 
 
e 
 
 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 types as the foundation of his system, to what kind of result would he attain, without the 
 exercise of reason at every step? Without reason, indeed, and that too continually exercised. 
 Architecture would be an art of absurdity. As well, in our opinion, might agriculture and 
 gardening be called imitative arts, as the art of Architecture ; because there must have been 
 some origin for cultivation as well as for building. The truth seems to us to be, that, viewed 
 with reference to their origin, all arts are imitative; and, with reference to their adaptation 
 to the state of man for the time being, all arts are founded on reason or human improvement. 
 
 How far Architecture is to be considered one of the fine arts must, as it appears to us, 
 (and our opinion is in consonance with that of Alison, Dugald Stewart, Sulzer, and other 
 writers) depend, not on its being either an imitative or an inventive art, but on its powers of 
 creating in the mind, emotions of sublimity or beauty. 
 
 Notwithstanding the seeming difference of opinion on this subject among architectural 
 writers, it appears to us in the highest degree probable, that, if the language of each writer 
 were explained with reference to one fixed standard, they would all be found nearly to 
 agree ; the expressions, " art of imitation," and "art of imagination," being used by many 
 of them as synonymous, A-t all events, hypothetical difTcrences of this kind should never 
 prevent us from profiting by the excellent works of such writers as Quatremere de Quinry and 
 Milizia. — But it is time to turn from a speculative digression to the main purpose of this 
 introduction, which is, to exjjlain the general nature of our work. 
 
 1. Our grand ohjcct being to intr('duce improvement into Cottage, I'arm and Villa 
 Architecture, in the temperate regions of both hemispheres, by numerous examples of Designs, 
 with diflVrent degrees of accommodation, and in different styles of Architecture, we have 
 adopted, as the first term in our ascending series, a simple dwelling of two rooms, suitable for 
 a man and his wife, without children; and, as the last term, the villa or country house of an 
 linglish gentleman of wealth and refinement- \Vc have fixed on the English villa, as com- 
 bining nu)re of the comforts and luxuries of life than the villa of a man of wealth and taste in 
 any other country in the world. 
 
 2. The first step towards the introduction of improvements in the practice of any art, is to 
 familiarize the minds of the practitioners with the deviations from usual practice which con- 
 stitute these improvements. In rural Architecture, almost the only means of doing this is by 
 published Designs ; for no local builder can be supposed to have had cither leisure or opportu- 
 nities to inspect the various improvements which have taken place throughout his own country, 
 and in other countries. Unless he has recourse to books of Designs, therefore, he can do little 
 more than repeat himself, or copy what he has seen ; probably w ith some in>i)rovement — 
 possibly with deterioration. To supply the country builder, therefore, with numerous 
 Designs, at a moderate price, must be rendering him an acceptable service. 
 
 3. The use of published Designs to an experienced j-lrchitcct is to furnish him with ideas 
 for composition ; that is, with different modes of connecting the various parts of which a 
 building is composed; of varying the forms of those parts; of devising new forms from them; 
 and, finally, of composing the exterior as w ell as the interior details ; subject always to the 
 guiding principle of unity of expression, whether of purpose or of style, 
 
 4. Tlie same use of published Designs may be made by a young Architect; but in order that 
 he may profit to the fullest extent, either from viewing buildings actually executed, or from 
 studying published Designs, he should be able to analyze them, and to trace the cause of what- 
 ever they may display of the beauties of fitness, of expression, or of style, to first principles of 
 composition. To assist him in doing this is the object of the analytical remarks which we have 
 made on each Design. The amateur Architect, and general reader, will also find these remarks 
 useful as a means for improving their taste, by enabling them to refer the beauties or defects 
 of buildings to their true causes. This is, indeed, the chief use of Designs to a general reader ; 
 but an Architect or builder may profit much from the careful inspection of a book of Designs, 
 merely as a collection of models, without being able to analyze them ; or to trace the causes 
 of the pleasure or dislike, which he may receive from them, to first principles. Such an 
 Architect, or builder, however, though he may be a very eflScient empirical practitioner, can 
 never be considered as possessing a scientific knowledge of his art. " The uneducated 
 Architect," says Wood, "judges by his feelings ; the half-educated, by rule ; but the master, 
 from feelings, trained and purified by study and reflection." 
 
 5. In delineating these Designs, we have, instead of geometrical elevations, given in 
 every case, correct perspective views ; and we have not accompanied these views by trees, or 
 landscape scenery of any kind, considering the practice of doing so as of no real use ; and, on 
 the contrary, as calculated to mislead the inexperienced eye. For, as the beauty of every 
 whole, is necessarily made up of the beauties of all its component parts ; and as the size and 
 shape of the trees, and the style of the scenery which form conspicuous parts in pictorial views 
 
COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 7 
 
 of Designs for buildings, are beyond the power of the Architect, whatever part of the effect of 
 the picture depends on them, cannot be realized in the execution. In every landscape 
 composed of a house surrounded by verdant scenery, the beauty or deformity of the house 
 may easily be heightened or obscured, at the pleasure of the artist, by the management of 
 the other parts of the picture ; but where a building is exhibited in perspective by itself, its 
 beauties or deformities are more easily detected; and the latter can be corrected before 
 proceeding to carry the Design into execution. If, indeed, the introduction of verdant 
 scenery in the picture, would serve as a guide for planting and arranging the ground about 
 the house, then, indeed, it would not only be allowable, but advantageous ; but every landscape 
 gardener knows that instruction in this department can only be conveyed graphically, by 
 plans and sections of the surrounding grounds, showing the disposition of the trees and 
 shrubs to be planted, and enumerating their kinds. 
 
 G. The Details nf Construction, or Specifications, as they are .technically called, which ac- 
 company some of these Designs, are for the purpose of assisting the young Architect in 
 making out similar Specifications for all the rest; and also for instructing the employers 
 of Architects and builders, as to the sort of details which ought to be entered into and settled, 
 before any building, however small, is undertaken to be executed. Engravings on wood, 
 of the details on a large scale, are given with each Design, for the like purpose of facilitating 
 execution. 
 
 7. The Estimates, with the exception of those cases, in which detailed Specifications are 
 made out, can only be considered as approximations ; but as, in every case, the data are 
 given from which the estimate has been made, an experienced builder, who knows the 
 difference between the price of labour and materials in his own locality and that of London, 
 will always be able to calculate from these data, so as to form an estimate sufficiently accurate 
 for general guidance. Every builder, or even carpenter, when he has laid before him a plan, 
 a perspective or isomctrical elevation, and a section, such as we shall give, can make out a 
 specification of the details of construction, on which he can form an estimate suitable for 
 contract and actual execution. 
 
 8. In the Analytical and Critical Remarks on each Design, we nave illustrated all the 
 different kinds of construction, and all the principles of architectural composition. In doing 
 this, we have preferred, as the most useful mode, and as the one least likely to restrain the 
 freedom and extent of our remarks, to give such details, and offer such criticisms, as naturally 
 arose out of the subjects as they came successively under review, without much regard to 
 the order of their succession. 
 
 9. In illustrating the Principles of Landscape Gardening, as connected with Buildings, 
 we have, in like manner, limited ourselves to the development of one principle at a time ; 
 showing, in some cases, how the ground ought to be disposed in the neighbourhood of 
 a building; in others, how it ought to be approached by roads or walks; sometimes, how 
 fences ought to be disposed ; and, in various cases, not only how the trees or shrubs ought to 
 be arranged, but the particular situations for different sorts, with the different heights 
 to which they grow, the soils they require, their suitableness for particular climates, and their 
 character as ornamental, useful, or fruit-bearing plants. 
 
 10. Plans of small Gardens have been given along with several of the humbler Designs; 
 and, in describing these, we have not only shown how they may be planted, with fruit and 
 ornamental trees and shrubs, to most advantage; but, in some cases, we have given 
 courses of cropping, labouring, and manuring. But as this subject is likely to be much more 
 generally understood than Landscape Gardening, as connected with Architecture, we have 
 taken care to restrain our remarks, so as to keep them within due limits. 
 
 11. In our Designs for Farm Buildings, we have always taken care to state the extent of 
 the Farm, and the kind of culture, for which they are adapted ; taking chiefly, as precedents, 
 the climate and farming of the best districts of Great Britain ; but partly, also, the circum- 
 stances of France, Holland, Belgium, and Germany. The same countries have been kept in 
 view, in arranging our Designs for Country Inns and Public Houses, and for the Workshops 
 of Country Tradesmen and Mechanics. 
 
 12. The Order in which we have arranged these Designs, is as follows : — 
 
 Book I.— Designs of Cottages for Labourers, Mechanics, Country Tradesmen, and Small 
 Farmers ; of Lodges for Gardeners, Bailiffs, Land Stewards, and other Superin- 
 tendants on Landed Estates. 
 
 Book II.— Designs for Farm Houses and Farmeries ; Country Inns, with Farm Buildings 
 attached ; Fermcs Ornees, and Villa Farms. 
 
 Book III.— Designs for Cottage Villas, and Villas of the highest class, with their accom- 
 panying Offices, and other Buildings. 
 
8 
 
 COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 
 
 BOOK I. 
 
 DESIGNS FOR LABOURERS AND MECHANICS' COTTAGES, AND FOR DWELLINGS FOR 
 GARDENERS AND BAILIFFS, AND OTHER UPPER SERVANTS, AND FOR SMALL FARMERS 
 AND CULTIVATORS OF THEIR OWN LAND. 
 
 13. The Designs of this Book are calculated for what, in countries having a privileged 
 aristocracy, are called the lower and middling classes of society; but which, in self-governed 
 democracies, like North America, or in newly-colonized countries, like Australia, constitute 
 nearly the whole rural population. We have arranged these Designs in two chapters : the 
 first contains three Designs of what may be called Model Cottages, as each combines all the 
 accommodations and arrangements for comfort and convenience of which buildings of the 
 lowest class are susceptible. Each of these Designs contains the same quantity of accommo- 
 dation, but differently arranged to suit different situations and climates. The second chapter 
 includes a miscellaneous assemblage of Designs, each combining more or less of the comforts 
 and conveniencies of the Model Designs, joined to various kinds of architectural beauty 
 and style. 
 
 Chap. I. 
 
 Model Designs for Cottages, exhibiting in each Model all the accommodations and arrangementt 
 
 for comfort and convenience of which the smallest dwellings of this class are susceptible. 
 
 14. The Accommodations and Arrangements of these Designs are presented as tlic beau 
 ideal of what we think every married couple, having children of both sexes, and living in the 
 country, should possess ; while, at the same time, we have included in them all that is 
 essentially requisite for health, comfort, and convenience, to even the most luxurious of 
 mankind. In such dwellings every labourer ought to live, and any nobleman might live. All 
 that in any dwelling exceeds the accommodation and arrangements here given, must either be 
 required for a larger family and extended hospitality, or for the display of either superfluous 
 wealth or highly refined taste. The necessaries, and even comforts of life, are contained in a 
 small compass, and are within the reach of a far greater portion of mankind than is generally 
 imagined. But one room can be used at a time, by either the poor man who has no other, 
 or the rich man who has several ; and that room can only be rendered comfortable by being 
 warm, dry, light, well ventilated, and convenient: qualities which depend not so much upon 
 the materials used in its construction, as on the manner of applying them. All that is 
 wanting is knowledge ; first, of what is necessary and desirable ; and, secondly, of the means 
 of obtaining it at a small expense. To communicate this knowledge is the main purpose of 
 the present Book; but more especially of the Designs contained in this chapter. 
 
 15. In the composition of these Designs, we have, in every case, adopted the following 
 arrangements : — First, We have placed every dwelling-house, or the floor containing its living- 
 rooms, upon an elevated platform, with a view of keeping it drier, and consequently, 
 warmer and healthier; as well as to procure greater dignity of effect, as an object in 
 landscape, and as a station for the eye to survey the surrounding scenery. Secondly, We 
 have placed the chimnies in the interior walls, rather than in the exterior ones ; because 
 when the chimnies are so placed, a greater portion of heat is retained withm the house; and 
 because, from the greater degree of heat contained in the mass of masonry through which 
 the flues are carried up, the smoke always ascends faster, or, in common language, the flues 
 draw better. Thirdly, We have, in every Design, kept in view the practicability of the most 
 economical application of fuel ; of the collecting, filtering, and preserving the water which 
 falls on the roofs ; and of the collecting and economizing the liquid and other manure pro- 
 duced in or about the cottage. We have shown the various details for effecting these objects 
 in plans, sections, and perspective elevations, with copious descriptions and various graphic 
 illustrations ; and we wish the Architect to keep them continually in view in judging of the 
 Designs in Chapter II., and to imagine them applied, more or less, to each Design given in 
 that chapter, as circumstances may admit or require. We have before published these Model 
 Designs of Cottages in our tract entitled, A Manual of Cottage Husbandry, Gardening, and 
 Architecture ; but we consider the details which they exhibit as of so much importance, and 
 all the Designs which are to follow in this work as depending so entirely upon many of 
 
MODEL COTTAGES. 
 
 them for their chief excellencies in a useful point of view, that we have felt we should not 
 be doing justice to our readers if we did not repeat these Designs, with their descriptions, in 
 the present work. This we have now done in a much more clear and systematic form 
 than was compatible with the plan of the pamphlet alluded to, and with very considerable 
 additions both of descriptive matter and engravings. 
 
 Design I. — A Cottage of One Story, combining all the Accommodation and Conveniencies of 
 which human Dwellings of that description are susceptible. 
 
 16. In the Ground Plan of this Design, marked I. in page 10, a represents the kitchen, or 
 living room. The floor of this apartment may be of tiles ; or paved ; or laid in a composition 
 of lime, sharp sand, and Roman cement ; or of lime, sharp sand, and scoria from a smithy. 
 Composition floors of this kind are much warmer than those of stones or tiles. In the 
 ceiling, nearly over the hearth, is a trap-door to the loft; which door may, in summer, be 
 partially opened to promote ventilation, there being a false flue in the chimney for that 
 purpose, which will hereafter be described. 
 
 b, A small parlour, with a fire-place and boarded floor; as it will receive a good deal of 
 heat from the kitchen fire, it will seldom require a fire made on purpose for it. It ought to 
 have a small ventilator in the ceiling, near the stack of chunneys, communicating with the 
 false or air flue, for summer use. 
 
 c, Family bed-room ; the floor of tiles, or paved, or of the same material as that of the 
 kitchen. 
 
 d, Bed-room for girls ; the floor boarded. 
 
 e, Bed-room for boys ; the floor boarded. There may be a door in the partition between 
 these small rooms, which it may be convenient in some cases to use instead of the door be 
 tween the girls' bed-room and the family bed-room. 
 
 /, Water-closet for the mother, girls, and females, supplied by water as to be hereafter 
 described. The basin may be of brown earthenware or of cast iron, so as to cost very little ; 
 the door ought to open inwards, and the small window outwards, so that every movement of 
 the door may act as a ventilator. There might also be a water-cock and wash-hand-basin. 
 
 g, Tool-house, and man and boy's water-closet, with an opening to the loft for ventilation : 
 supplied with water from the same source as the other water-closet. The basins of both 
 closets communicate with an earthem pipe, which empties itself into the reservoir of the cess- 
 pools for liquid manure. The liquid manure thus gained will be of so much value to the 
 garden, as alone, independently of cleanliness and decency, to justify the expense of two 
 closets, and both of these t^a/cr-closets. 
 
 h, Cow-house, with a tying-post and trough for food in one corner, and a loft for hay and 
 straw over : this loft may be got at through a trap-door, by the use of a common ladder. 
 
 I, House for fuel, lumber, or for various other purposes, such as roots or other food for the 
 cow and pigs. In cases where the cottager grows corn, it may be made his barn ; and if it 
 were desired to have this barn larger, it could easily be made so, by projecting the whole 
 lean-to two or three feet farther from the main body of the house. 
 
 k, Place for ducks or geese, with a small poultry-stair or ladder to hen-loft formed over 
 •/ and g. This loft ought to be lined with straw on the top and sides, in order to keep the 
 poultry warm in winter and cool in summer. 
 
 /, Cistern for receiving half of the water which falls on the roof. 
 
 m, A pump for pumping water from the tank below, either for use in the back yard or in 
 the house, or for raising the water into the water-closet cistern above. Siebe's rotatory pump 
 is the best adapted for these different purposes, being at once a lifting-pump and a forcing- 
 pump. It costs no more than a common pump, may be worked in far less room, and with 
 greater ease, by a female or a boy, and is much less likely to go out of order. 
 
 w, Tlie open yard, which should have a gentle inclination from all sides towards the 
 dungpit {/)). 
 
 0, Pigsty, with a rubbing-post in the open area or feeding-place. Two old barrels, for 
 pigs' food, will require to be placed under cover, where they can be kept from freezing 
 in wintei-, and from being extremely hot in summer. One of these ought to be filling while 
 the other is emptying, and the contents should not be made use of before fermentation has 
 commenced. The fuel-house, r, will be a very good situation for these tubs in summer, 
 and a corner of the cow-house, //, in winter. 
 
 q, Shed for faggot-wood, o, p, and q, may be roofed with one lean-to, or pavilion roof of 
 uniform height and width ; or, if corn be grown by the cottager, then, instead of a roof of 
 slates, tiles, &c., may be substituted a floor of joists of the same width as required for the 
 
 c 
 
MODEL COTTAGES. 
 
 11 
 
 roof; and on this floor may be laid, first, a layer of faggots, and on these built the corn or 
 hay as a stack or stacks, and thatched in the usual manner. This would save the expense 
 of tiJes or slates, and also the ground that would otherwise be requisite as a rick-stand. 
 
 r r, Two cesspools for liquid manure, i. e. for all the drainings of the open yard after 
 they have passed through the dung-pit, p, for the water of the two closets, and that pro- 
 ceeding from the sink to be described hereafter, including soap-suds and all waste or foul 
 water made on the piemises. As it is found advantageous that liquid manure should 
 undergo fermentation before it is used, two cesspools become necessary, and also an 
 arrangement by which the supplies from the different sources can be turned into either cess- 
 pool at pleasure. 
 
 s, The situation of two plug-holes, for regulating the admission of water to the cesspools. 
 The well containing these plug-holes is, in horizontal dimensions, one foot square, and in 
 depth, three feet. The sides are built of brick or stone, and the bottom is formed of one 
 stone, containing the two holes, each of which is three inches in diameter; the left hand hole 
 communicating with the left hand cesspool, and the right hand hole with the other cesspool. 
 A plug, with a handle four or five feet long, is to be used for stopping the communication 
 with the cesspool which is filled and undergoing fermentation : and as these pools are 
 alternately filled and emptied, tlie plug can be removed from the one hole in the regulating 
 well to the other. These pools are placed without the open yard, in the supposed garden, 
 for the greater convenience of emptying them. 
 
 t t, The level part of the platform, or terrace, on which the house appears to stand, and 
 which will be better understood by referring to figs. 6 and 17, or to Designs IV. and V. 
 
 M, Point at which this platform commences to incline gradually till it terminates at v. 
 
 w, Sloping sides of the platform ; the slope being 45° in stift' loamy soils, and 30° or 
 less, in loose soils. The platform may be covered with turf, or ornamental plants, and 
 finished with a parapet or low hedge, as will be afterwards described. 
 
 or, Steps for ascending the platform, opposite the principal door of the cottage. 
 
 y z, Entrance porch : y represents the steps leading up 
 to the living floor, and z the steps leading down to the 
 cellar floor. If the front of such a porch were to any other 
 quarter than the south-east, the porch should be larger, 
 with an exterior door ; if it fronted the south-west, the 
 entrance to the porch ought to be on its south side, for 
 the sake of protection from the weather. 
 
 if, Shelves for bee-hives ; the upper part of which may 
 be fitted up as a dove-cote, and the lower part as a dog- 
 kennel. 
 
 17. The Section AB of fig. 3, is represented in fig. 1. 
 
 It shows the reserve tank, a ; the opening for inserting the cock for drawing supplies from 
 it, b ; and the sink, c. 
 
 18. The Section C D of fig. 3, is represented in fig. 2. It shows the cellar window, d, 
 with the open area before it, e, covered with a grating,/. 
 
 19. The Plan and Section of the Cellar fioor, shewing the 
 heating flue, and the foundations, are given in figs. 3 and 4. 
 
 a, Steps of descent to the cellar. These steps are 
 represented in Design I. by the letter z. 
 
 b, Apartment serving as a back-kitchen, wash-house, 
 brew-house, bake-house, &c., as well as for boiling or 
 scalding food for the cow, pigs, and poultry. 
 
 c, Store cellar and larder for potatoes, beer, home-made 
 wines, fresh and salt meat, and similar articles of provision. 
 
 d, Milk-house and pantry ; in the farther corner in the 
 ceiling ought to be a small grated opening, communicating ' ' 
 
 'th the air-flue in the wall, to promote ventilation; the exterior window ought to be of 
 wire or hair cloth, which both excludes air and heat or cold. 
 
 e, Copper for brewing, washing, heating water for the bath, &c., unless a copper pot or 
 iron box is fixed over the oven, when a separate copper becomes unnecessary. 
 
 /, Oven for baking, and also for heating the floor of the living-room and family bed-room. 
 g, Termination of the double covering of the flue, commencing at the oven, /I (See also 
 letter g, in fig 4.) 
 
 hy Brick-on-edge work, for strengthening the sides of the flues. 
 
 i, Loose round stones between the flues, for tlie purpose of retaining heat. 
 
 9 
 
12 
 
 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE 
 
 k, Sunk area, 
 before the cellar 
 windows. 
 
 I, A situa- 
 tion in which a 
 bath may be 
 placed, to be 
 supplied with 
 hot water from 
 the boiler, e, or 
 the cast-iron box 
 over the oven, 
 f, or with cold 
 water from the 
 reserve tank, q. 
 
 m, The re- 
 ceiving tank, 
 which, in ad- 
 dition to the 
 pipe fsom the 
 roof, has ano- 
 ther pipe from 
 the inside, with 
 a funnel, into 
 which a supply 
 may be poured 
 for filtration, 
 from the pump 
 (?»,in Design I.), 
 in times of great 
 drought, or at 
 any time when 
 the reserve tank 
 is exhausted. 
 
 w. Waste pipe 
 from this tank, 
 communicating 
 with the drain 
 pipe. 
 
 0, Drain pipe, communicating with the well, with plug-holes connected with the cess- 
 pools -{s, in Design I). 
 
 p, Filtering tank, consisting of sand and charcoal, placed on a false bottom, raised three 
 or four inches above the bottom of the tank. 
 
 q, Reserve tank for the filtered water, communicating by a cock with the sink, r, and 
 the sink having a stink-trap (see fig. 13, d, in p. 18,) connected with a waste pipe, s, which 
 joins the drain pipe, o. 
 
 t, Fovmdations of the out-buildings, shown in Design I. by /, g, h, i, k, I, and m. 
 u, Tank, or well of water for general purposes, and for supplying the filtering tank in 
 times of extraordinary drought. 
 
 20. The Section showing the depth of the flues and the cast-iron box over the oven for heating 
 
 water, is represented in fig. 4. This section is 
 taken in the line G H, in fig. 3, and the object 
 is to show the depth of the flues ; the double 
 cover and vacuity between the covers at g ; the 
 cast-iron box of hot water, k ; the cock for draw- 
 ing water from it, and for emptying and cleaning 
 it, I ; the situation of the small lid for filling it, 
 m ; the oven, n ; the copper, o ; the natural sur- 
 face of the ground, p; and the surface of the 
 platform, or terrace, q. 
 
 21. The Section showing the height of the rooms, 
 and other particulars, is given in fig. 5. This section 
 is taken in the direction of the line I K, in Design I, and it shows the following particulars :— 
 
 Ft. h 
 J— 
 
 111' 
 
 10 Ft. 
 L 
 
MODEL COTTAGES. 
 
 13 
 
 1, Natural surface of the ground. 
 
 b, Surface of the platform. 
 
 c, Level of the foundation of the cellar. 
 
 d, Foundations of the other walls. 
 
 e, Foundation of the oven. 
 
 /, Foundation of the partition wall between 
 the living room and family bed-room. 
 
 g, Well or tank. 
 
 h, Siebe's pump, with an ascending pipe 
 
 into the cistern, i. 
 
 i, Cistern for the water-closets, and for 
 
 supplying the yard. 
 k, Place for ducks or geese beneath. 
 /, Hen-house, with tool-house and man's 
 
 water-closet under. 
 m. Family bed-room. 
 
 n, Loft, with ventilator, or trap-door, from 
 the kitchen, and opening near the 
 air or ventilating flue. 
 
 0, Kitchen. 
 Pf Porch. 
 
 q, Cover ta the air flue, which is only 
 kept open during summer to preveiit 
 excessive heat at that season: it is 
 simply a square paving tile supported 
 by an iron shank, in order to exclude 
 rain. 
 
 r. Oven. 
 
 s, Water-box over. 
 t, Commencement of flue from oven. 
 M, Continuation of flue. 
 V, Cornice to chimney top, made large for 
 the purpose of encouraging swallows to 
 build their nests there; these birds 
 being of great importance to cultivators 
 or possessors of gardens, as destroyers 
 of winged insects, on which they live 
 entirely. 
 
 22. The perspective elevation of the entrance front and south-east side of Design L is 
 shown in fig. 6. The object of this elevation is to show the general appearance of this 
 description of cottage. The steps to the level part of the platform are seen on the left, and 
 the gradual inclination of the surface from the south corner to the south-east corner to the 
 yard-wall. The shelves for bee-hives are shown with the dog-kennel under, but the dove- 
 cote is placed over the entrance porch. , • n 
 
 23. General Form. The most economical form in which a house can be built, is well 
 known to be the cube. Not only does this form afford the greatest quantity of accommo- 
 dation, with the least quantity of walling and roofing, but it is easier warmed; and, when 
 warmed, it retains the heat better than any other form, more especially when the chimneys 
 are placed in the interior walls, the reason being that a smaller extent of surface is exposed 
 to the exterior atmosphere. . . r- 1? 
 
 24 Aspect. With reference to Britain, and to the flat countries of most parts of Europe, 
 the mildest aspect is the south-east, and, therefore, the door of a cottage should, if possible, 
 be placed on that side. The next best side is the south ; and the two worst are the north- 
 east and the south-west. It is very desirable, in a cold moist climate, that the sun should 
 
14 
 
 COTTAGE, 1- ARM, AND VILLA AUCHlTECTUilE. 
 
 shmc on all the exterior uall.-« oi the ci»ita|ji, :iiid aUo in ai .ill liic wiiidovss, every line day 
 in the year, for the sake of keepinj; the walls dry, and the interior warm and cheerful. This 
 object may be accomplished by placing,' any building, which is, or can be, resolved into a 
 square, or parallelogram, on the ground plan, so as that a north and south line will form 
 the diagonal figure. This being done, the out-offices should be placed on the north-west side 
 of the square, or parallelogram, as in Design I. The dairy and the pantry should always, if 
 possible, be placed on the same side, or with a north-east aspect, for the sake of coolness. 
 Tanks for water should also be on the same side, and under ground, for the same reason. 
 
 25. Construction. The walls of this cottage may be built of stone, or brick, or earth ; 
 but either of the two former are, undoubtedly, preferable to the latter, both in point of 
 strength and durability. In situations, however, where these materials are too expensive, 
 or cannot be obtained, every part of the walls here shown above the platform, may be formed 
 of earth, either in the pise manner, by compressed blocks, or by lumps of loam or mud 
 mixed with straw. Each of these modes will be described hereafter. In Design I. we have 
 shown the walls as if built of brick, eleven inches wide, with a vacuity in the centre. This 
 we propose to be done by keeping the width of the wall at eleven inches, working the out- 
 side fair (even) ; and, on the inside, keeping the headers or cross bricks, fig. 7, a, one inch 
 within the line of the stretch- ^ 
 
 ing or lengthway bricks, b, 
 
 and keeping these length- ^ 
 way bricks two inches apart 
 
 along the centre of the wall, ~~~~~~~ ~ ^ 
 
 c. Walls built in this way 
 are much handsomer on the 
 
 fair side; at least equally ' ' 
 
 strong with solid walls ; 
 
 always dry, and less easily penetrated by the cold in winter, or the heat in summer. The 
 inner surface, being uneven, is peculiarly favourable for receiving and retaining the plaster. 
 Hollow cottage walls may also be built by placing the bricks, both headers and stretchers, on 
 edge, as first practised by Mr. Silverlock, of Chichester. They may be also built with bricks 
 halved lengthways, by cutting w ith a knife or wire before burning, as recommended by Mr. 
 Dearne. (Hints on an improved Method of Building, S^c. London, 8vo. 1821.) Both these 
 modes will be afterwards described. The roof may be covered with tiles, slates, thatch, 
 &c., at pleasure or convenience. Other ordinary particulars of construction and arrange- 
 ment have been incidentally mentioned in describing the ground plan, § 16, and in figs. 1 
 to 5, § 17 to 22. Some which are less common follow. 
 
 26. Platform, or Terrace. The principal use of this part of our plan, is to keep the 
 living floor of the cottage dry, and to prevent the necessity, in moist situations, of much ex- 
 cavation for the sunk apartments. Secondary advantages are, that it furnishes a neat and 
 comfortable walk round the house, and adds to the dignity and stability of its appearance. 
 To have the walls of so artificial and important an object as a house, rising abruptly from a 
 plain flat surface, whether that surface be dug or covered with turf, — in short, whether it be 
 a garden or a field, cannot be considered as either in harmony with nature or reason. Every 
 work of art is recognised as such by the appearance which it displays of design ; and the 
 
MODEL COTTAGES. 
 
 16 
 
 preparatory terrace may be considered as enhancing this appearance, and raising its character. 
 Independently, therefore, of the platform being useful, its importance on the principle of en- 
 hancing the character and dignity of the design to be raised upon it, ought, in our opimon, 
 to ensure its almost universal adoption in buildings erected in the country. The platform, 
 in Design I, is five feet broad, and includes a border of one foot for wall-trees and flowers 
 next the house, and a margin of one foot, which should be of turf, on the outer edge, leavmg 
 a walk between of three feet, which ought to be gravelled. The exterior sides of the plat- 
 form may have difiFerent degrees of slope, according to the nature of the soil, and the culture 
 or application of the slope. For a loamy soil, the platform may be covered with turf, 
 with a furze or a box hedge, about two feet high, along its upper angle, and the slope may be 
 45° ; where a loamy soil is to be cultivated as a flower border, the slope may be from 35° to 
 30° ; a sandy soil should have a still greater slope. Where stones are abundant, the slope 
 may be formed into rock-work, with a small hedge at top, or a dwarf wall, or a row of rough 
 stones. In some situations, it might be worth while to form a rough trellis over the roof, 
 about a foot above it, and on this trellis to train either apples, pears, plums, or vines, for 
 their fruit; or, in severe climates, ivy, for the sake of retaining heat, by its evergreen leaves, 
 in winter. On the side walls of the cottage there might be trained fruit trees, or ^^nes, 
 together with ever- flowering roses, honeysuckles, and a variety of climbing shrubs and 
 flowers ; but, at the same time, there is danger of indulging in these to such an extent as to 
 keep the walls damp, and to encourage flies, and other insects, which are disagreeable m the 
 house. The small border of one foot wide, under the wall, may always be planted with low 
 flowers, and great might be their variety and beauty, if the taste of the occupant lay in this 
 way ; but the number and kind of shrubs and trees to be planted among these, with a view 
 of training up the walls, must depend on the climate, aspect, and other circumstances. We 
 shall afterwards give a list of climbing shrubs, and fruit trees, suitable for the purposes in 
 view, in different climates. 
 
 27. The outer margin of the platform may either be finished with or without a low hedge, 
 or by a low parapet, or other fence of wood or iron. If with a hedge, the sameness of the 
 line may be broken by small standard trees, four or five feet high, at the angles ; and we see 
 no reason why these standards should not be cut (not clipped,) into shapes, as well as the 
 hedge, if the cottager's taste inclines him to do so. The standards may either be of the 
 same species of tree as the hedge, but in a state of variegation,-say a green box hedge, with 
 variegated box standards,— or of a different species. Green, and variegated box, are among the 
 best shrubs for this purpose, in point of utility; because every time the box is pruned, the 
 twigs may be used as a substitute for hops, in brewing. But, in most cases, an architectural 
 parapet will have a better effect than a dwarf hedge, and this may always be made an object 
 of great beauty at very little expense. We shall afterwards show in how many different 
 ways common bricks and tiles, and stones, rough or hewn, may be formed into these para- 
 pets. We shall also show various forms of iron and wooden parapets for the same purpose. 
 
 28. Entrance Porch. No edifice whatever, in our opinion, is complete, unless some dis- 
 tinctive mark is placed on the opening by which it is entered. What a portico is to a palace 
 or a public building, a porch is to a cottage. A porch is not only the distinctive mark of the 
 entrance door, but, being a protection to it from the inclemency of the weather, it must tend 
 to preserve the warmth of the apartment within. No cottage, therefore, ought to be without 
 its porch. In many cases, the porch may be a wooden structure superadded to the cottage ; 
 in others, a vestibule within may serve the same purpose ; but, for stability, durability, and 
 dignity of effect, the porch should always project from the main body of the edifice, and be 
 built of the same materials, and in the same taste or style as the cottage itself. 
 
 29 Chimney Tops. In every human dwelling, these ought to be conspicuous objects, 
 because they are its essential characteristics. They distinguish apartments destined for 
 human beings from those designed for lodging cattle. They also distinguish a dwelhng- 
 house from a manufactory or workshop, by their size, form, number, and disposition. Inde- 
 pendently of tliese qualities, they ought, in dwellings, to be dignified by a greater attention 
 to design, than the less important parts of the edifice. On this subject we shall have much 
 to say in describing succeeding Designs, but we have deemed it necessary thus eariy to state 
 our guiding principle with respect to this part of the cottage, in order that it may never be 
 supposed, for a moment, that we approve of concealing chimney tops, or of leaving them in 
 their present mean and trivial form. 
 
 30. Collecting and Filtering Water. Considering it to be desirable that every cottager 
 should be perfectly independent in respect of water, and also that rain-water is the purest of 
 all water we propose to show the manner in which all the water which falls on any dwelling 
 may be collected ; how to filter and preserve one part of it, in a tank, for cookery purposes ; 
 
16 
 
 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 ^^^^^^^^^ 
 
 and to preserve the other part unfiltered, in a cistern and in a large tank, for the purposes of 
 the water-closets, for the use of the cow and pigs, for washing and cleaning, and for the garden. 
 It is calculated by Waistell, that the average quantity of water which falls on a square yard of 
 surface in Britain, in a year, is 126 gallons; which, for this building, containing upwards of 
 100 square yards of roof, will give 12,000 gallons ; an ample quantity for the purposes 
 mentioned. A cottage constructed on this principle, therefore, may be set down in any 
 situation, without reference to a natural supply of water. The cistern, /, in Design I, may be 
 of cast-iron ; or of slabs grooved into each other, and made water-tight with Roman cement ; 
 or of plates of Welsh slate ; or of large flat paving tiles set in cement ; or it may be made of 
 wood, plastered inside with cement; or of bricks set in cement, and plastered within with the 
 same material ; or in countries where timber is abundant, as in America, Dr Australia, it may 
 be formed of thick planks, well pitched ; or it may be simply an old liquor cask. However 
 constructed, it must have a waste-pipe ; which, when the cistern is full, will flow over into the 
 tank or well below, shown in fig. 5, This well or tank is to be considered as the grand 
 reservoir of the premises; and if there should be a natursU spring in it, so much the better. 
 Should the culinary, or filtering tank, fig. 8, /, fail at any time, water may be drawn from 
 this tank, and introduced into the filtering tank. 
 
 31. The mode of filtering is very simple, and will be easily understood from the section 
 E F, of Design I. In this section, fig. 8, a, represents a vacant space of three inches from the 
 bottom to b; b, is a slate, stone, 
 
 or board, pierced with numerous H g 
 
 holes, say at the rate of three to — 
 an inch, of about the eighth of an 
 inch in diameter ; c, is a mixture of 
 clean coarse sand and powdered 
 
 charcoal, or coarse burnt clay, with- 
 
 out either sand or charcoal ; d, a 
 
 filtering stone ; or in default of a stone of this porous nature, a plate of lead thickly 
 pierced with holes, of one twentieth of an inch in diameter; e, an opening by which the 
 vrater of the receiving tank,/, communicates with a, at the bottom of the filtering tank; 
 g, an opening by which the water after it has ascended through the filter, runs over into 
 the reserve tank, h. The filtering or the water may be effected in a more simple manner, by 
 placing a layer, about six inches thick, of round stones, about the size of eggs, in the bottom 
 of the filtering tank, and over this either burnt clay, or sand and charcoal, covered by a 
 pierced leaden plate, as before; or by a stratum of sponge, which may be substituted for the 
 plate. It must be evident by inspecting the section (fig. 8), that when the water supplied 
 from the roof to the receiving tank,/, rises above the level of d, it will run over, by g, into the 
 reserve tank, h; and that the water in all the three tanks will always stand at the same level, 
 provided the water in the tank,/, be above the level of <i. 
 
 32. The filtering material may be 
 cleaned by having a large cock in the 
 bottom of the receiving tank, com- 
 municating with the waste drain ; by 
 opening which, when the reserve cis- 
 tern is full, the water in that cistern 
 will rush through the filter in a con- 
 trary direction to what it did before ; 
 and will carry off all the impurities, 
 either in the filter, or in the space at 
 the bottom, a. The filtering might 
 also be effected by placing the filter 
 in the tank /, instead of in the centre 
 tank ; and by introducing the water 
 from the roof, direct to the space, a, 
 by a pipe, through the filter; the water 
 would then rise through the filter, and 
 fill the tanks, e and h. A larger re- 
 serve of filtered water would thus be 
 obtained ; but the filter would require 
 cleaning oftener. The great advantage 
 
 of the mode we have recommended is, that the water will deposit the greater part of itb 
 impurities in the bottom of the tank,/. 
 
MODEL COTTAGES. 
 
 10 
 
 33. For pumping up the water from the main tank or well, g, in fig. 5, we have recom- 
 mended Siebe's rotatory pump. This pump, fig. 9, operates by the rotation of a roller, 
 on its axis, a, having paddles or pistons, h, b, b, b, by which, when the roller is turned, 
 a vacuum is produced within the barrel, c. In consequence of this vacuum the water 
 flows up the rising trunk, d, into the barrel, and as the paddles go round they force it into 
 an opening which conducts it wherever it may be wanted, and by that means produces 
 a continual stream. By having an ascending tube, e, this water 
 may be forced to any height, and, by having a horizontal tube 
 with a cock,/, it may be let out at pleasure, as in a common 
 pump. By having several pipes branching from e as many cisterns 
 or reservoirs might be supplied. The appearance of this pump 
 is very neat and simple, fig. 10 ; but, as in the case of other 
 pumps, the tubes must be covered with straw or matting, during 
 frosty weather, otherwise the freezing of the water will make 
 them burst. 
 
 34. The mode of heating by a flue below the kitchen fio( r we con- 
 sider a most valuable plan for ensuring and economizing heat, 
 particularly in cold countries, where fuel is scarce. Indeed, we 
 shall afterwards show how, with this arrangement, and an extra 
 quantity of land, say an acre, besides garden ground, every cot- 
 tager may grow all his own fuel. Whenever there is a back 
 kitchen adjoining the principal kitchen, or cottager's living room, 
 and both are on the ground floor, this mode of heating the floor 
 by a flue may be adopted. All that is necessary is to have a sunk 
 area in the back kitchen for the oven, as will be shown in 
 Design IV. When there are two rooms on the ground floor, and one of these rooms is over 
 a cellar, as in Design I., then the oven or furnace can be made in the cellar. In either case 
 the courses of the flue are to be so contrived, as to allow the covers, supposing them to be 
 one-foot tiles, to form the floor of the two rooms which it heats. The flues may be of any 
 convenient depth exceeding eighteen inches, their sides built of brick-on-edge not plastered, 
 and the intervals between the flues filled up with loose stones or rough gravel. If the flues 
 are made deep, which in some cases may be found cheaper than preparing a raised solid 
 basis on which to build shallow flues, then the side walls may be tied together by brick-on- 
 edge work, (Design l.,'h,) and the foundation of the partition wall, which separates the family 
 bed-room from the kitchen, will contribute to the same end. To equalize the heat given out 
 by the flue, and to prevent the kitchen floor from being too hot where the flue proceeds from 
 the oven, a double covering is there shown, with a vacuity of six inches between the under 
 cover and the floor, from the oven,/, to^ / a section of which may be seen in fig. 4, at g.— 
 As faggots are intended to be burnt in the oven, the soot produced will be very trifling ; but 
 the flues may be cleaned once a year by taking up a tile at each end of the different courses 
 of the flue. Except when there is a fire in the oven, its door must be kept perfectly close, 
 and a damper in the upright flue, nearly so. In many cases, instead of a flue, a vault may 
 be made under the kitchen, and the smoke from the oven or furnace allowed to spend the 
 principal part of its heat in this vault, and afterwards ascend a flue proceeding from near its 
 bottom, fig. 11, a. As the walls, from the superincumbent 
 weight, would form abutments of very great stabiUty, the 
 arch might be made very flat, and would thus cost less in 
 execution than the flues. 
 
 35. The immense superiority of this mode of heating the 
 air of a room, over any other whatever, will be obvious to 
 
 every one acquainted with the nature of heat. By open 
 
 fire-places, by stoves, steam-pipes, or water-pipes, (unless 
 indeed these are in the floor,) and, by heated air, the coldest 
 stratum of air is always found immediately on the floor, where, for the sake of the feet and the 
 legs, the air ought to be hottest ; by the method of under-ground flues, or a smoke vault, as m 
 fig. 11, the lowest stratum is necessarily the hottest, which must be preferable for the feet and 
 legs of grown persons, and for the whole bodies of little children. The heat being diffused 
 over the whole surface of the floor, must contribute greatly to the equality of the temperature 
 throughout the apartment, and the mass of loose stones, or the materials of the arch will con- 
 tinue to give out heat for a day or two, according to the season of the year, after every time 
 that the oven is heated. The heat from the floor, in its ascent to the roof, will warm what- 
 ever it meets with ; but this is not the case with either raised stoves or open fires. In heating 
 
 D 
 
 11 
 
18 
 
 COTTAGE FARM AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 by open fires or common stoves, the heat ascends directly to the ceiling, and is there in a 
 great measure wasted, as far as it respects the persons in the apartment ; but by tliis mode 
 the ceiling will not in general be hotter than the floor. 
 
 36. Hot water for domestic purposes may always be obtained by a very simple arrangement 
 connected with the oven and flues. Over the oven, and as a cover to it, instead of brick-work, 
 might be placed, or built in, a cast-iron box or iron pot for heating water, as shown by the 
 dotted Hnesin the plan fig. 3, and by k, in fig. 4. The upper surface of this box or pot might 
 form a part of the kitchen floor, as at c, in fig. 22; and might have a properly secured flat 
 lid on that side, to admit of putting in and taking out water ; or the box might be entirely 
 buried in masonry, as in fig. 4, and in that case a part of it should project from the wall into 
 the back kitchen, or cellar, and should have a lid to open, for the purpose of filling and cleaning 
 out, and a cock, in fig. 4, for the purpose of drawing ofl" the water. If this box were two 
 feet, or two and a half feet square, and nine inches or ten inches dt-ep, it would supersede the 
 necessity of the copper, fig. 3, r, and in summer, when the heat of the flue was not wanted, a 
 damper withdrawn would admit the smoke to ascend directly through a flue to the chimney 
 top. A family with a pot or box of this kind over their oven, the box or pot cither opening 
 only from the kitchen above, or bolli from above and from the back kitchen, would, throughout 
 the year, scarcely require any other fire than what was made in the oven ; all their roasting and 
 baking would be done in the oven, and all their boiling in the jwl or box over iL As it might 
 not be always convenient or desirable to boil the large box or pot full of water, there might 
 be a well of six inches diameter, and nine inches deep, cast in its bottom, and the small quantity 
 of water which this well would contain would be boiled with very little fuel ; fur tt a, or any 
 similar purpose, a tin jug of water might be set in among the water in the well, which would 
 keep the former perfectly pure. A very small quantity of fuel consumed in such an oven will 
 have a powerful effect in heating the water above it, from the dilficulty of the heat escaping 
 by the sides. By this mode of heating and cooking a smaller quantity of fuel may be made 
 to suffice for the wants of a fnnily than by any other method that we are aware of ; since no 
 more can escape by the chinmcy than is absolutely necessary to carry up the soot. 
 Water might easily be drawn out of the well, or out of the box or pot when in com- ] 
 mon use, from the upper kitchen, without stooping, by inserting a long tube, like a 
 trumpet, fig. 12, made of tin, and open at both ends. When plunged in the water, 
 if the thumb be placed on the upper orifice, a, and retained there, the water in 
 the lower part, b, may be transferred to any other vessel. 
 
 37. Water-closets and tanks fur liquid manure. A water-closet or privy ought to be 
 attached to every human dwelling, and in all cold countries it should form part of 
 the edifice, and be approachable under cover. No cottage is, therefore, in our 
 eyes, complete without this appendage under the same roof, or under a lean-to. 
 The well or tanks for liquid manure connected with it, are as advantxigeous, in point 
 of profit, to every cottager who has a garden, as the water-closet or privy itself is 
 essential to cleanliness and decency. 
 
 38. The Water-closets may be variously arranged ; but as one of the best and cheapest 
 modes, and as one the least likely to go out of 
 order, we give the following. The cistern, 
 fig. 13, a, may be at any distance from the seat, 
 6, provided it be on a higher level, by four or 
 five feet. The basin, c, may be an inverted 
 hollow cone, truncated, and joined to a piece of 
 cylindrical tube, inserted in a closed leaden 
 vessel, technically called a stink-trap, d. In the 
 side of c, at e, is a hole, or vertical slit, passing 
 obhquely through the sides of the basin, and 
 communicating with the cistern, a, by the pipe,y! 
 The water in the cistern is prevented from run- 
 ning off through this pipe, by the valve, g, shown 
 in fig. 14, on a larger scale. When it is desired 
 to allow the water to rush down into the basin, 
 it is only necessary to pull the string, h ; which, 
 if the cistern be at a distance, may pass over 
 several puUies, according to the number of 
 angles in its course. In order to ensure the 
 descent of a quantity of water to the basin every 
 time it has been used, a cord, t, may be joined to 
 
MODEL COTTAGES. 
 
 19 
 
 h, and passed over a pulley at and the end of this cord may be fixed to the upper part of the 
 door of the water-closet, at such a distance from the hinge, say a foot, as will suflSce to 
 lift up the valve, g ; or the same purpose 
 might be effected by a lever, fig. 15, /, 
 which would be acted on every time the 
 door was opened. 
 
 39. When the cistern is unavoidably 
 placed on a level with the basin, the 
 opening for the admission of water must 
 be much larger than in the first case. 
 This opening may be closed by a valve, 
 similar to that marked g, in fig. 13 ; but 
 a better mode is to have a lever valve, 
 fig. 16, m, which will also be operated 
 upon by the door every time that it is 
 either opened or shut. In every case 
 in which it is intended that a common 
 or lever valve should be operated on by 
 a door, the latter o^ight to have a spring 
 bolt (a contrivance for shutting the 
 door, which will be afterwards figured 
 
 and described), to shut it, lest at any time it should be left open by neglect. There are 
 difierent methods of constructing a privy to be used without water. One is, to have a basin, 
 as in a water-closet ; and to continue 
 down from it, a tube so far into the 
 cesspool below, as to prevent the rising 
 through it of air, and consequently of 
 smell. If all the waste water of the 
 house is, as it ought to be, poured into 
 the basin, neither that nor the tube will 
 ever be choked up ; and, in that case, 
 this construction may be considered one 
 of the best for preventing smell. The 
 next mode is to have no basin ; but to 
 take care that the surface of the cess- 
 pool exposed to the air, is no larger 
 than is necessary ; and that no crevices 
 are left in the seat, so as to admit of a 
 current of air passing over the surface 
 
 of the cesspool. There ought, both in this case and in the other, to be two covers to the 
 hole in the seat ; one of a circular form, to fit into the opening, and the other, larger 
 and square, to be affixed by hinges to the back board, so as to shut down over the 
 whole seat The windows in all water-closets ought to be close to the ceiling ; both to 
 prevent the persons within from being seen, and to admit of a more effectual ventilation. 
 
 . 40. General Estimate. What is called a general estimate of the expense of a building is 
 calculated at a certain rate per cubic foot, while a specific estimate is made up of the separate 
 estimates of each particular article. The rate or price at which a general estimate is calcu- 
 lated, depends upon a variety of circumstances ; but in every situation, the principal points 
 by which it is affected (all others being the same) are,— first, the irregularity of the outline of 
 the ground plan, and of the elevation ; secondly, the number of angles in the roof, or the 
 number of separate roofs ; and thirdly, the ornamental or carved work, both within and 
 without the building. The nearer the whole mass of a building approximates to the form of 
 a cube, and the nearer all its separate parts approach to that form, the lower will be the rate 
 per foot. One roof of the simplest form may always be calculated at a lower price than a 
 varied roof, or several roofs. In Britain, buildings are divided into three classes: called, first, 
 second, and third-rate buildings. Cottages, and such dwellings as are contained in this 
 Book, belong to the third-rate class, and are generally calculated at from four-pence to six- 
 pence a foot for London. From the amount thus obtained, fifteen or twenty per cent, is 
 generally deducted, and the total thus found is the amount of the general estimate. 
 
 41. The cubic contents of this building are 16,833 feet ; and the following is the manner 
 in which these contents are calculated :~ 
 
20 
 
 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 Length of the front of the main building 24 feet. 
 
 Width of the main building 23 feet. 
 
 Height from the bottom of the foundations to the middle of the roof 28 feet 
 
 Then, for the contents of the main building 24x23x23 = 12,696 feet 
 
 Length of the lean-to building 23 feet. 
 
 Width of the lean-to 9 feet. 
 
 Height, including cistern, pump, and well . . 16 feet 
 
 Then, for the contents of the lean-to 23x9X 16 = 3,312 feet 
 
 Length of tanks 10 feet 
 
 Width 5 feet 
 
 Height 5 feet. 
 
 Then, for the contents of the tanks, and yard walls 10x5x5 = 250 feet 
 
 Length of sheds and piggery 23 feet. 
 
 Width of sheds, &c 5 feet. 
 
 Say five feet high, as the sheds have no fronts 
 
 and include the yard wall 5 feet. 
 
 Then, for the contents of the sheds, &c 23x5x5 = 575 ft i t. 
 
 Whole amount .... 16,S33 feet. 
 
 42. Expression. This dwelling has no pretensions to any particular style of Architecture, 
 but it is obviously expressive of the subject or purpose in view ; and, as all its details are 
 well adapted for their various uses, whether as respects the convenience of the occupant of 
 the cottage, or as component parts of the structure, it is also expressive of fitness. This 
 Design may be ornamented by the addition o^ pillars to the porch, by a vase over it, by 
 ornamental chimneys, and by a parapet on the terrace, fig. 17 ; or, if an architectural 
 parapet is considered too expensive, a low hedge, fig. 18, may be substituted. 
 
 18 
 
MODEL COTTAGES. 
 
 21 
 
 Design II. — A Cottage of One Story, combining the Accommodations and Conveniences of 
 Design I. differently arranged, and with the addition of a Veranda. 
 
 43. Accommodation and Construction. This Design contains the same number of rooms, 
 and of the same dimensions, as Design I. The communication with the cellar, by means 
 
 of the stair, a, in the lean-to, and the direct entrance to the yard, b, is, however, more con- 
 venient. The size of the cow-house, c, though somewhat diminished, is still large enough for 
 a small cow ; the space, d, for ducks or geese, and for a ladder to the hen-house, is not quite 
 so commodious as in the other plan ; but, on the whole, notwithstanding these drawbacks, 
 this plan exhibits what we think a better arrangement than the preceding one. Exteriorly 
 the platform is level as far as the steps to the porch, e, and thence it forms an inclined plane 
 to the natural surface. The veranda,/ (see fig. 19), which is supported by trunks of larch or 
 spruce fir trees, with the bark on, set on plinths of stone, or brick, will add much to the com- 
 fort and economical uses of this residence. 
 
 44. Aspect. The difference in the aspect of this cottage will be ascertained by observing 
 the points of the compass marked in the ground plan ; the north anti south line being in the 
 direction of from left to right ; whereas, in Design I. it is from right to left. 
 
 45. General Estimate. Cubic contents 17,440 feet, at 6rf. a foot, £436 ; at4rf.,£290 : 13^:4(7.; 
 and at 3 J., £218. 
 
 46. Expression. Though no marked features of any style appear in this elevation, yet it 
 nuist be acknowledged to exhibit something more than the mere expression of purpose ; 
 because it would be equally, and to all appearance, as much a human dwelling, without the 
 columns as with them. It may, therefore, be said to exhibit the expression of improved 
 design. This expression would be further heightened by ornamental chimney pots, and a 
 light iron parapet to the terrace, fig. 20. 
 
MODEL COTTAGES. 
 
 Design III.— A Cottage of Two Stories, combining the Accommodations and C&nveniences of 
 Design I. differently arranged, and with an additional Bed-room. 
 47. Accommodation. The same general accommodations are here given as in Designs I. 
 and II. ; but there is a second story, and this contains four bed-rooms. There is no cellar- 
 floor, but there is a back kitchen, the floor of which is a few steps lower than that of the 
 principal one. Into this sunk kitchen the oven opens, from which the flues proceed which 
 heat the best kitchen and the parlour ; unless it be considered desirable to have a boarded 
 floor in the latter apartment; in which case, the courses of the flue will be confined to the 
 floor of the kitchen. The following are the details of the ground plan, as exhibited in 
 Design III. : — 
 
 a, Kitchen. j 
 
 b, Parlour. 1 
 
 c, Back kitchen, the descent to which is j 
 
 by five steps. i 
 
 d, Bed -room staircase, under which are the I 
 
 oven and boiler ; the former with its j 
 flue under the kitchen and parlour 
 floors, which are both paved with tiles 
 or stone. 
 
 e, Sink, supplied as in Design I. from a 
 
 filtering-tank. 
 /, Dairy and pantry. 
 
 g, Women's witer-closet. 
 
 h, Tool-house and men's water-closet. 
 48. The Bed-room Floor is exhibited in detail in fig. 21. 
 
 a and b, over the back 21 
 kitchen and dairy, are on 
 a lower level than the bed- 
 rooms, c and d, over the 
 kitchen and parlour. The 
 positions of the different 
 beds, chests of drawers, 
 and dressing-tables, in the 
 different rooms, are indi- 
 cated by outlines, as in 
 Designs I. and II. ; and the 
 vacuity in the exterior wall 
 is shown as in the ground 
 plan. The vertical profile of 
 the lean-to, containing the 
 cow-house, water-closets, 
 and wood-house, is also 
 shown. By vertical profile, 
 is to be understood a view, 
 looking down vertically 
 upon any object. The walN 
 and ceilings of the bed- 
 rooms are supposed to be 
 finished with two coats of 
 plaster,without cornices, but 
 with the usual fittings and 
 finishings of joiner's work, 
 as given in detail in the spe- 
 cification of DesignVII. The 
 bricks used in the exterior 
 surface of the outer walls, 
 should not be of a harsh red 
 colour. Ft. 10 
 
 i. Cistern for water-closets, with tank or 
 well under, place for ducks and geese, 
 and ladder to poultry-house at one side. 
 k, Cow-house. 
 
 Place for wood, or other fuel. 
 m. Open yard, 
 n. Pigsty. 
 0, Dung-pit. 
 p, Faggot-shed. 
 
 q, Well, for the regulating plugs to the 
 
 manure tanks, or cesspools, 
 r r. Cesspools. 
 
 s, Shelves for bee-hives, witli dove-cote 
 over, and dog-kennel under. 
 
 In this figure, the bed-rooms. 
 
 49. The Levels of the different Floors are shown by fig. 22, which is a section on the lines 
 A B, in Design III., and in fig. 21. In this section may be seen the level of the open yard, 
 
COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
MODEL COTTAGES. 25 
 
 a ; passage from the back kitchen, h ; sunk area under the stair, to give head-room for 
 22 
 
 attending the oven, c ; oven, d ; water-box over it on a level with the kitchen floor, e ; flues 
 for heating the kitchen, /; platform, g ; natural surface, h; lower bed-room, i; larger loft 
 over, k; closet, l; situation of openings to the false flue for ventilation, m n; cormce foi 
 swallows, 0 0. 
 
 50. Construction. The walls are shown as of brick, and of the same thickness as m 
 Designs I. and II. The floors of the 
 kitchen and parlour are formed in 
 the same manner as those in Design 
 I., with flues for heating. The roof 
 may be either covered with Italian 
 tiles, fig. 23, or with Grecian tiles, 
 fig. 24. In putting on either of these 
 tiles, the broad tiles, a, are laid side 
 by side, and the semi-cylindrical tiles, 
 b, are bedded in mortar, or in cement, 
 over the joints. The advantages of 
 these tiles are, that they admit of a 
 roof being made so flat, that it may 
 be walked on, and used as a terrace ; 
 while, at the same time, it is per- 
 fectly water-tight, and of great 
 
 durability, novelty, and characteristic beauty. In StaflFordshire, these tiles are made from a 
 stratum of clay, containing a large proportion of iron ; and when this clay is burnt, the 
 tiles, or other articles formed from it, are almost 
 as hard and heavy as cast-iron. The articles 
 made from this clay are called terro-metallic. 
 
 51. Situation and j^spect. This Design, from 
 having the sleeping-rooms on the second story, 
 is more particularly calculated for low, moist, 
 shady or confined situations ; in which, how- 
 ever, cottages should never be built if it can 
 be avoided. By observing the position of the 
 points of the compass in the ground plan (Design 
 III.), it will be seen that the entrance porch 
 
 is on the south-east : and that the shelves for bee-hives front the north-east. 
 
26 
 
 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 52. General Estimate. Cubic contents, 19,040 feet, at 6d. per foot, £476; at 4J., 
 £Sn : 16* : 8c? ; and at 3d., £238. 
 
 53. Expression. The tiles and the cornice of the chimney stack, give the elevation of 
 this Design, fig. 25, something of an Italian air ; and therefore, in addition to the expression 
 
 of purpose, this cottage may be said to have something of the c xprc.vMun ui urcliiici tural 
 style. The beauty of such a dwelling would be greatly heightened by the addition of a 
 terrace parapet, and by ornamental chimney tops, fig. 26 ; and quite a different character 
 
 might be given to it, by having the roofing a good deal flatter, and adding cantilevers, 
 (pieces of wood framed into the side of a house, to support such mouldings as may be placed 
 over them,) under the far projecting eaves, so as to form an Italian cornice. 
 
 Chap. IL 
 
 A Miscellaneous Collection of Designs for Cottage Dwellings, with Critical and Analytical 
 
 Remarks, 
 
 54. TJie Designs which follow exhibit various modifications of all, or of several of the 
 comforts and conveniences contained in each of the Model Designs, joined to various degrees 
 
COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STlfLES. 
 
 27 
 
 of architectural style. The object is to show how some of the improvements in the Model 
 Designs, may be applied to even the smallest dwellings ; and, how with all, or with any of 
 these ameliorations, or without them, various degrees of architectural style or beauty may 
 be produced in cottages. For the attainment of these objects, we have accompanied each 
 Design by such remarks, as we think calculated to enable the reader to form an opinion of 
 his own ; grounded on sound principles, as to what is, and what is not, beauty in Cottage 
 Architecture. These Designs might have been arranged according to the degrees of accom- 
 modation, or their scale in respect to architectural style ; but considering that the first 
 appearance of this work will be in periodical portions, we have preferred giving a miscel- 
 laneous selection in each portion. 
 
 Design IV. — A Dwellvig for a Man and his Wife, without Children. 
 
 55. Accommodation. This dwelling, we consider as exhibiting the minimum of accom- 
 modation, which ought to exist for a man and his wife without children, even in a country 
 where there is an unequal distribution of civil rights. It contains one room, a, in which the 
 cooking and ordinary avocations of the family are carried on, and which serves at the same 
 time as a sleeping-room ; a wash-house, h, which must also serve as a store-room, pantry, 
 and for various other purposes ; a porch, c, for wood or other fuel, and for tools of husbandry 
 and out-door work ; a privy, rf, and an enclosed yard, with a dung-pit, e, forming a circular 
 basin, and having a well in the centre for liquid manure from the privy. 
 
 56. Description. The house is placed on an artificial platform, which is ascended by four 
 stone steps, seen on the plan, near the entrance door. The surface of the platform, which 
 may be laid with gravel, or paved, forms a walk, on three sides of the house, leading from 
 the door of the house, to the door of the court-yard. The greater part of this court-yard is 
 on a lower level than the platform ; the descent to this level being by an inclined plane 
 from/ to g. The pit, imder the seat of the privy, communicates with the well, e, four or five 
 feet deep, by an under-ground drain, which may either be formed in the usual manner, by 
 bricks or stones, or by earthenware pipes ; so that whenever the well is emptied for the 
 purpose of taking out the manure, (formed by what is thrown in from above, and what is 
 communicated below by the drain from the cesspool, under the privy-seat,) the privy will 
 be emptied also. In consequence of this arrangement, the seat will never require to be 
 removed for the purpose of emptying the cesspool ; and the opening in the seat may com- 
 municate with the cesspool by means of a tube, either of boards, or earthenware, which, 
 with double covers, will prevent the rising of smell. In the section of this cottage (p. 29), 
 it will be seen that the floor is laid on loose stones ; if it be desirable to heat this mass of 
 stones with a view to the economy of fuel, horizontal flues can be built among them, commu- 
 nicating with an oven, in the wash-house, at one end near the boiler, and with an additional 
 flue in the chimney stack at the other, in the manner shown in describing the model 
 cottages. To every dwelling there must be some source for supplying water for the purposes 
 of food and cleanliness. The common resource is a well, from which the water is drawn 
 either by a windlass, or lever and bucket, or a pump ; but the water which falls on the roof 
 may be applied to domestic purposes, as described in the preceding chapter. 
 
 57. CoTistruction. The walls of this cottage are here shown eighteen inches thick, with a 
 view to their being built of rubble stone (stones rough from the quarry) ; of pise (to be 
 described hereafter) ; of mud blocks 
 
 (which is nearly the same thing as build- 
 ing in pise) ; or of compressed blocks of 
 common earth (also described hereafter). 
 The footings, or lowest parts of the foun- 
 dations of the walls are shown, in this 
 Design, and most of those which follow, 
 as only a few inches below the surface 
 of the ground, h ; partly because the ^ 
 footings being covered and surrounded [| 
 by the platform, are not likely to be after- 
 wards disturbed ; and partly because 
 very little depth of foundation is wanted 
 for buildings, generally of one, and sel- 
 
 dom of more than two stories high. The 
 roof may be covered with flag-stones, or slates, or Grecian tiles ; the eaves being sup- 
 ported by wooden blocks, or cantilevers, as shown more clearly for the purposes of the 
 
28 
 
 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 carpenter, by the section of a portion of the wall and roof, drawn to a scale of half an 
 inch to a foot, fig. 27, i. The wall of the court-yard in countries where flag-stones abound 
 may be formed of a continuous line of these stones fixed in the earth, edge to edge ; or it 
 may be constructed of boards, or pales ; or built of wood, pise, or blocks of compressed 
 earth. If formed of earth, the wall ought to have a coping either of stone or boards. The 
 raised platform may be made of the earth dug from the dung-pit and well, or from any 
 other convenient source, taking care not to employ any earth for this purpose, rich enough 
 to be used for the garden, if it can possibly be avoided ; the entrance door may be formed 
 of what carpenters call bead and batten (bead, a circular moulding, stuck on the edge 
 of a batten, i. e. a scantling or piece of wooden stuff, from two to four inches broad, and one 
 inch thick), with cross back bars inside. 
 
 58. General Estimate. The cubic contents of this building are 4,000 feet, and the following 
 is the manner in which these content-s are calculated : 
 
 Length of the front of the main building, 14 feet 4 inches. 
 
 Width of the main building, 14 feet 4 inches. 
 
 Height from the bottom of the foundations of the main building to the middle of the 
 
 roof, 14 feet. Km in. linrt 
 
 Then for the contents of the main building 14 : 4x 14 : 4x 14=2,870 2 8 
 
 Length of the front of both wings, 8 feet- 
 Width of both wings, 11 feet. 
 Height of both wings, 10 feet. 
 
 Then for the contents of both wings 8x11x10=: 880 
 
 Add for the wall round the court yard, and to make an even sum 
 
 3,736 
 243 
 
 4.000 0 
 
 2S 
 
 4,000 feet at 6d., is £100 ; at id., £66 :\3s .id ; and at 3d., £50. 
 59. Garden. The dung-pit and well show that 
 this cottage is intended to have a garden, which 
 ought, if possible, to be around it ; but as dwellings 
 like this in Britain are often placed as lodges to 
 entrance gates, and stand on the margin of a planta- 
 tion or shrubbery, the garden in that case should be 
 on the side of the house which has windows; because 
 that side only in such dwellings is generally left open 
 to the air and light. High trees or shrubs near a 
 house, if on a side which may happen to have no 
 windows, do comparatively little injury in the way of 
 obstructing the ventilation and lighting of the house, 
 to what they do on the windowed side. It is a com- 
 mon practice in Britain to place the kitchen gardens of lodges of this sort in the interior of 
 the plantation or shrubbery, so 
 
 that they may be concealed 29 
 from the road; and to have 
 only a flower garden on the 
 front or open side of the house ; 
 but in this case the kitchen 
 garden is of very little use to 
 the occupant ; the surface being 
 overshadowed by the trees, and 
 the soil exhausted by their roots. 
 
 Whatever is decidedly contrary to utility and convenience, must be in bad taste, though it 
 may seem to a superficial observer to be other- 30 
 wise. 
 
 60. Expression. A plain cottage, like the 
 present, cannot be said to be in any particular 
 style of architecture ; though it belongs more 
 to the Grecian than k) the Gothic, from the 
 proportions of the windows, and from the 
 blocks or cantilevers, fig. 27, i, supporting, or 
 seeming to support, the eaves of the roof. If the door and the two windows had Grecian 
 architraves and mouldings (masonry supposed to be in imitation of the original beams 
 
COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 
 
 31 
 
 which, in rude huts, formed the sides and covers to openings, fig. 28), the building would 
 then lay claim to be called a cottage in the Grecian style ; but being without these, it has 
 little or no expression of style, but simply an expression of the subject, or purpose, for 
 which it was built ; that is, to serve as a cot- 
 tage, or human dwelling of the humblest kind. 
 The glass windows, the door for security, and 
 the chimney top, clearly show this edifice to be 
 a human dwelling; and its size, as decidedly 
 determines it to be one of the humblest 
 description, or what is called a cottage. Re- 
 move the windows and the chimney top, 
 leaving the entrance opening without a door, 
 fig. 29, and it might be taken for a cattle- 
 shed and yard. Remove the roof, and replace 
 the door, fig. 30, and it might pass for a place 
 of burial. Restore the glass windows, in- 
 crease the height of the principal one, and 
 replace the roof with a little alteration, adding 
 on its summit a turret and bell, fig. 31, and this structure might be mistaken for a chapel. 
 We state these things simply for the purpose of showing what is meant by expression of 
 the subject, in contradistinction to what is meant by expression of architectural style. 
 
 Design V. — A Dwelling for a Man and his Wife with Twoormore Children, with a Cow-house 
 
 and Pigsty. 
 
 61. Accommodation. This is a simple, economical, and comfortable dwelling, without 
 pretensions either to ornament or style. It contains an entrance lobby, a ; kitchen, h; back 
 kitchen, c ; children's bed-room, d ; bed-room for the father and mother, and the infant chil- 
 dren, e ; tool house,/; pantry,^; place for fuel, A ; privy,/; cow-house, A- ; and dairy, /. 
 There is a yard behind the house containing a pigsty and the manure well. This yard is 
 entered from the back kitchen, c ; and also by doors in its boundary fence, m. 
 
 62. Construction. The walls may be of stone, brick, or earth ; the two former materials 
 will not only be found more suitable in reality, but more satisfactory to the eye ; for walls of 
 earth, when not whitewashed, have always a mean appearance, from the inferiority of the 
 material ; and when whitewashed, this meanness, though concealed, is still known to exist; 
 for no building was ever whitewashed, but for the purpose of concealing something, and every 
 one must feel, with Wood, that the grandeur or the beauty of any building is never heightened 
 by this operation. " The world in general," says this philosophical artist, " is exceedingly 
 unwilling to acknowledge beauty of form when the material is bad ; and, on the other hand, 
 where the materials are good, it is ready to praise the form also ; the one is a much more 
 obvious and indisputable merit than the other." {Letters, Sfc. Vol. II.p.96.) Where white- 
 washing or lime-washing a building, with any colour, contributes to the preservation of the 
 wall, it is justifiable ; but no genuine lover of truth will ever admit that this operation can 
 add to the beauty or character of a building. The idea which it conveys of the neatness and 
 cleanliness of the inhabitant is its principal recommendation ; and yet it is a fact, that where 
 lime-washing is most employed, as in Wales and Scotland, the interiors of the cottages 
 are less orderly and clean, than in the unwhitened mud and rough stone cottages of 
 England. 
 
 63. The Cow-house in this Design is placed under the same roof with the dwelling apart- 
 ments, but with its floor a few inches lower, so as to be on a level with the platform. That 
 part of the platform on which the cow-house opens ought always to be connected with an 
 enclosed yard ; and instead of sloping down to the general surface level at an angle of 45° 
 or 50°, it ought to slope, as shown in the Section on the line A B, at an angle not exceeding 
 15°. The whole of the enclosed yard ought either to be paved, macadamized, or gravelled ; 
 and the surface ought to be so inclined as to carry all the water which falls on it, to the 
 manure pit and well. The floor of the cow-house ought to be perfectly level and smooth, so 
 as that it may never be necessary to employ litter. The gutter ought to be formed about a 
 foot broad, and four inches deep, and exactly behind the cow's heels. This will be from 
 seven to eight feet from the feeding-trough at her head, according to the size of the cow ; but 
 the details on this subject will be found in our second Book. 
 
 64. The Roof is shown of a low pitch, and covered with slates. The chimney tops are 
 quite plain i and, in our opinion, they, and most of the other chimney tops in the Designs 
 
32 
 
 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 34 
 
 cm m 
 
 hitherto published, are too short. The principle of truth, or a thing appearing to he what it 
 is, and the expression of purpose, alike require that, in all human dwellings in temperate 
 climates, intended to appear as such, the chimney tops should be con- 
 spicuous objects. We would, therefore, recommend them, in all cases, 
 to rise boldly into the air above the roof, and to fornj a conspicuous 
 feature in the outlines of all buildings against the sky. As a palliative 
 for the evil of a stack of chimneys being too short, architectural 
 chimney pots may be employed. Of these there are a great variety of 
 forms made of cement, artificial stone, or earthenware. We shall give 
 numerous specimens in the course of this work, and, in the mean time, 
 present one, fig. 32, wiiich may answer very well for the Design before 
 us, and which was furnished us by Mr. Austin, from his artificial 
 stone manufactory, in the New Road. London. Much of the effect of 
 chimney pots, vases, and all ornaments of this sort, depends on their 
 being raised on suitable plinths (a square plate, origii.ally a square 
 tile, placed under the base of a column, or other object), fig. 33, n. 
 
 65. The Door-way in this Design is protected from the perpendicular rain by what is 
 called a door-bracket, 
 fig. 34, which, consi- 
 dering that there is 
 a lobby or vestibule 
 within, may, perhaps, 
 serve as a substitute 
 for a projecting porch; 
 for, as we have be- 
 fore observed, when- 
 ever comfort is the 
 object, there ought 
 either to be a porch, 
 or a lobby ; and in 
 every exposed situa- 
 tion, both are desira- 
 ble. That the porch 
 should always par- 
 t'lke of the expres- 
 sion of the main body 
 
 1 I I of the building is suf- 
 
 ficiently obvious ; and not less so that it should be enhanced in 
 in order that it may be rendered conspicuous and inviting. 
 
 66. Situation. This building is not calculated for being placed in a situation where it will 
 be seen from all sides ; because the yard-wall, and the irregular size and position of the 
 openings which look into it, have less of the character of architectural design than the front 
 and ends. If it be placed near a road, therefore, the entrance side and end should first meet 
 the eye as in the perspective elevation before us. 
 
 67. General Estimate, 11,700 cubic feet, at M. per foot, £292 : lOi. ; at Ad., £195 ; and at 
 M., £146 : 55. 
 
 68, Expression. 
 Nothing here can be 
 considered as super- 
 added to the expres- 
 sion of the subject. 
 A degree of orna- 
 ment and elegance 
 might be conferred 
 by handsome chim- 
 ney pots as sug- 
 gested above, and 
 by a low fence round 
 the terrace, fig. 35 ; 
 but, for the latter, 
 
 might very well be substituted a box hedge, wliich the cott iger n ight keep neatly cot and 
 ornamented by verdant figures at the corners, &c 
 
 the expression of Design, 
 
COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 VII. 
 
COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 
 
 35 
 
 37 
 
 Design VI.— ^ Dwelling for a Man and his Wife with an Apprentice, Servant, or grown-up 
 
 Son or Daughter, 
 
 69. Accommodation. This neat little dwelling contains only one large room or kitchen, 
 a; a small bed-room for the master and mistress, b ; and 
 a store closet, c. Included under the lean-to at one end, 
 is a privy, d, and a place for fuel, e, and there is a porch 
 in front,/. The servant, or grown-up son, or daughter, 
 is supposed to sleep in the large living room, or kitchen, 
 in which, the situation of a bed is indicated ; it being 
 frequently requisite in the case of gate-houses, ferries, 
 or bridges, to have one of the inmates sleeping near 
 the door, for the convenience of rising in the night-time 
 to open the gate, take toll, &c. The use of the space 
 
 between the ceiling and the roof may be obtained by having a trap door over the porch, 
 
 70. Construction. The walls may be either of 
 brick or of stone. The roof may be covered with 
 slates, projecting a few inches over the walls, and 
 delivering the water into a gutter, fig. 36. The 
 doors are ledged, and hung with ornamental hinges 
 (fig. 37, to a scale of three quarters of an inch 
 to a foot), fixed on the outside. 
 
 71. General Estimate. Cubic contents, 5,230 feet, 
 at 6i. per foot, £130 : 155. ; at id., £S7 : 35 : id. ; and 
 at 3f/., £65 : 75 : 6d. 
 
 72. Expression. There is obviously something more intended here than the mere ex- 
 pression of the subject The peculiarity of the hinges of the door, the small loop-hole opening 
 over it, and the pinnacle by which the gable end is terminated, are intended to give 
 some character or expression of 
 style to this cottage; though 
 we cannot refer to any known 
 sub- style or manner which may 
 be considered its prototype. The 
 elevation, however, presents a 
 very neat whole, and though not 
 striking, is at least agreeable. 
 It might be enriched by suitable 
 chimney pots, and to be complete, 
 ought to have a parapet on the 
 terrace, fig. 38. 
 
 Design VII.— Dwelling of Two Rooms, and a hack Kitchen, for a Man and his Wife. 
 
 73. Accommodation. This dwelling is deficient in closets, which are always more or less 
 useful, either in a small house or a large one ; it is, however, substantially built, and com- 
 fortable. There is an entrance lobby, a ; a room, h, containing a bed, which may sgrve also 
 for a working room, and which, in Scotland, very generally serves for a parlour ; a kitchen, 
 c, well lighted, and with two cupboards ; and a back kitchen, d, which forms part of a 
 lean-to. One end of this back kitchen may be partitioned 
 oflf as a pantry. In the lean-to there is also a place for 
 fiiel, e, and a privy,/; which last communicates by a drain 
 with the well of the dung-pit. 
 
 74. Construction. The walls may be built of rubble stone, 
 with rusticated corners (that is, the joints channelled, or 
 cut in grooves), as shown in the elevation ; and as is veryT 
 generally practised in countries abomiding with free stone. 
 There is an obvious propriety in the practice of building 
 the corners with large and square stones ; because the 
 corner of a building, from being exposed to the weather, 
 and to accidents from coming in contact with persons or 
 objects on two sides, in order to be equal in durability 
 
 with the general face of the wall, must be formed of a more solid, homogeneous material. 
 It is not, as some might suppose, that the corners require to be built thicker 
 
 39 
 
 than 
 
36 
 
 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 the other parts of the walls in order to be stronger; for the corner, from its very position, is 
 always the strongest part of the wall. Thus, a 
 force applied to the wall, g, in the direction of 
 A, fig. 39, is resisted only hy the thickness of the 
 wall ; but a force applied ai i or k, is resisted by 
 the thickness of the wall, backed by its length ; 
 and a force applied at /, is resisted by the length 
 of both walls. The walls in this Design are 
 finished with what is called a blocking course, 
 fig. 40, m, over which the slates of the roof project 
 so as to throw the water into a gutter, formed in 
 the upper surface of what is called the wall head 
 plinth, H. This is a very common mode of roofing 
 and finishing stone-built, slate-covered cottages, 
 in Scotland ; where it is found both economical 
 and durable. The chimney stacks are formed of 
 hewn stone, finished with a simple cornice (fig. 41, to a scale of one inch and a half to a 
 foot). In the section A H, in Design VII. it will be observed that the part ^ j 
 
 of the platform wliich is under the house, is formed of stones ; the 
 object being to keep the floor dry, and to admit, if it should be- tliought 
 necessary, of forming a flue in iL 
 
 75. Situation. A cottage with this description of roof is peculiarly 
 adapted for an elevated situation, much exposed to storms ; it being 
 impossible for the wind to get under a roof like this, which has no eaves. 
 
 7G. Fitness. A great fault in this dwelling is, that the fire-places are 
 in the side wall, and though they are in part protected by the lean-to, 
 yet the heat thrown into that part of the building may be considered 
 in a great measure lost, or of no great use. It would be arj improve- 
 ment to transpose c and /, as the heat given out behind the fire-place 
 of b, would then be turned to some account 
 
 77. Expression. There is very little more here than the expression of 
 the subject. What there is, belongs to local manner, and that manner 
 being common in Scotland, the dwelling before us may very well be 
 termed a stone cottage in the common Scotch manner. This manner 
 
 can by no means be commended in point of beauty ; but it might be improved both in ap- 
 pearance and usefulness, by the ad- 
 dition of a porch ; a parapet to the 
 terrace, and a vase over the porch, 
 to bring those on the parapet, and 
 the chimney pots into harmony, 
 fig. 42. Vases for these purposes, of 
 various forms and dimensions, are 
 to be had from the potters, at a few 
 shillings each. 
 
 78. Specification. In the follow- 
 ing detailed specification, the walls 
 are supposed to be built of stone, 
 with brick coins instead of squared 
 stones. As a number of technical terms are necessarily made use of in these details, we 
 have explained them as they occur ; and the engravings which we have made use of in aid 
 of this purpose, are to be considered as merely expla- 
 natory, and not drawn to any scale, like those illus- 
 trative of the construction of the different Designs. 
 
 79. Specification of Bricklayer's Work. To dig out 
 the several trenches for the foundations of the respec- 
 tive depth and width required ; and to fill in and w^ell 
 ram in the earth round the foundations when built. 
 To dig and steen (to line with brick or stone) in four- 
 inch brick-work, a cesspool for the privy four feet 
 in diameter in the clear, and six feet deep; and to 
 dome (arch over) the same in nine-inch brick-work ; and put in four feet of twelve- 
 inch hollow tile drain, fig. 43, with a proper fall to convey the soil to it. To build 
 
COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 
 
 37 
 
 all the foundations and the cross-wall under the bed-room floor, and the external walls 
 with stones properly headed (squared at the ends) and prepared (so as to lie flat), laid in 
 random courses (courses of unequal height, fig. 44) ; the external face with a neat garreted 
 44 45 46 
 
 joint (the joint stuck with small pieces of stone), with brick coins (corners) and common 
 skewback (a bevelled abutment, fig. 45, o o,) brick arches, set in Roman cement, over the 
 doors and windows. The back kitchen, fuel-house, and privy, to be carried up in four-inch 
 brick-work. To fill in the cross partitions with four-inch brick nogging flat (bricks laid flat, 
 or in bed, fixed between, and flush, i. e. even, with the stud-work, fig. 46). To build nine- 
 inch brick spandrils and steps to the front door, with proper foundations. (The span of an 
 arch is the distance between the two points from whence it springs, and spandrils for door 
 steps are the arches, or the walls, which support the ends of the steps). To build the 
 chimney jambs (sides, fig. 47, p), breasts (fronts, q), backs, r, 47 
 and shafts, s, in brick-work, with flues, nine inches by fourteen 
 inches in the clear ; properly gathered and pargetted (plastered 
 in the inside with a mixture of common lime mortar, fresh cow- 
 dung, and loam) ; and provide an additional flue for a copper 
 (boiler). The fire-places to have each a strong iron chimney-bar 
 (bar for supporting the breastwork, or front side of the flues). 
 A,ll the door and window-frames to be properly bedded (placed 
 in mortar), and pointed (the joints neatly closed) with good lime I 
 and hair mortar. To pave the kitchen and entrance with good J 
 paving bricks, bedded and jointed in mortar ; wheeling in stones t 
 and gravel, which are to be well rammed in and consolidated, in / 
 sufficient quantity to raise the floor to the level shewn in the / 
 section ; and to pave the back kitchen, fuel-house, and privy, / 
 with common stocks, bedded in sand : the whole to be properly 
 
 currented (laid to such a slope as to carry off" the water). The 
 
 bricklayer is to find scaffolding and ladders, and to fix and refix 
 the same, as occasion may require ; and to cut the chasings (to cut 'Jy 
 into the brick-work) for lead, and all rakes (to cut a rake, is to [L 
 reduce to a smooth slope the face of brick-work which has been >— 
 left in a rough slope, as indicated by the dotted line, fig. 48, t), 
 and splays (a splay signifies a return of work deviating from a 
 right angle, and is generally applied to the bevelled jambs of 
 windows and doors, as at «, in fig. 48) required ; and make good (reinstate what may have 
 been deranged during the operations) ; and, from time to time, to clear away the rubbish 
 arising from the work during its progress. The bricklayer is to find all materials; lime, sand, 
 tackle, carriage, and labour, for the completion of the foregoing works in a sound and 
 workmanUke manner. 
 
 80. Specification of Plasterer's Work. To colour 48 
 
 twice over, in a good warm-tinted stone colour, the j 
 
 brick coins, arches, chimney shafts, and the exterior ~ 
 of the back kitchen, fuel-house, and privy. To lathe 
 (to nail on the laths), lay, set, and whiten, the ceilings ' 1 ^ 
 of the kitchen, bed-room, and entrance ; and render t 
 set (first and second coats of plaster in two-coat work) — T* 
 the walls and partitions, and lime-white (whitewash) ~ 
 twice over the back kitchen, fuel-house, and privy "~ r~["T 
 
 inside. The plasterer is to find all materials, tools, UpH: 
 carriage, and workmanship required for the comple- 
 tion of his work ; and to do the same in a workmanlike manner. 
 
 V 
 
38 
 
 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 8L Specification of Slater's Work. To cover the whole of the roofinj? with Countess 
 slating (the third size of Welch slates, see Slates, in Glossarial Index), nailed with painted 
 iron nails, and the eaves to be laid double. The whole to be laid with a sufficient lap, and 
 to be carefully sorted in courses (laid so as that the joints may form regular lines), so as 
 effectually to exclude the weather. The slater is to find all materials, tools, carriage, and 
 labour required for the completion of his work, and to do the same in a workmanlike 
 manner. 
 
 82. Specification of Stone- Mason's Work. To put Yorkshire stone quarry sills, eight inches 
 wide, bevelled (sloped), throated (grooved underneath), and tooled (hewn, hut not rubbed 
 afterwards, as is done occasionally to produce a finer surface), to all the windows. To put 
 a Yorkshire stone hearth and slab to the bed-room fireplace ; and plain Portland stone 
 mantels (the cross pieces which bear on the jambs), jambs, slips (sides of the jambs), and 
 shelves to botli the fireplaces. The mason is to find all materials, carriage, and work, 
 required for the completion and fixing of his work, in a sound and workmanlike manner. 
 
 83. Specification of Carpenter s and Joiner's Work. Carpenter's work. The work to be 
 done with sound, well-seasoned, Quebec red pine timber, except where otherwise specified. 
 The whole to be framed in a workmanlike manner, with the stuff (pieces of timber) sawed 
 square of the several scantlings (dimension of breadth and thickness), and descriptions as 
 follows: — all the carpenter's work, as well as the joiner's work, to hold the several scantlings 
 (dimensions, see Glossarial Index), and thicknesses herein 
 named, when finished. To put oak lintels (correctly, the 
 head pieces over doors or windows, which rest upon the 
 jambs; in brick buildings generally a short beam over the 
 head of a door or window resting on the jambs, to carry work 
 that does not receive support from an arch), three inches and 
 a half thick, to all the openings, of the width of the respective 
 walls, less the thickness of the brick arches, so as to lay nine 
 inches on the walls at each end. Oak wood bricks (pieces of 
 oak timber, cut to the size and shape of bricks, and built into 
 
 the inner surface of walls for the purpose of nailing joiner^ work to them, when finishing 
 the rooms), to be provided in the jambs for fixing the linings (thin boards) where required. 
 — Bed-room floor. To put oak joists, four inches 
 by three inches, and twelve inches apart, laid on 
 two-inch oak sleepers, four inches wide.— Ceiling 
 
 floor. To put an oak wall plate, four inches by two V 
 inches and a half, dovetailed (see fig. 57) at the 
 angles, and halved and spiked (a mode of joining, 
 fig. 49) at the laps; and ceiling joists, joggled on (fixed, as shown in fig. 50), and spiked 
 51 (nailed with spike nails, fig. 51) at each end, to the ,52 
 top of the plate, four inches by two inches, and 
 twelve inches apart; the two end bays (spaces be- 
 twixt the girders, or principal timbers in a floor) to be 
 framed at one end into the binding joists, five inches 
 by thne inches, fig. 52, r.— Roofing. To 'put one inch 
 and half yellow deal hip rafters (rafters at the angles of 
 a pavillion roof), and ridge pieces, nine inches deep (fig. 
 53, w), rounded on the top for lead. Common rafters, 
 four inches by two inches and a half, and thirteen 
 
 inches apart; with two pair of couplings, five inches by three inches, fig. 54, x, 
 framed to the binding joists, or tie beams (horizontal pieces of timber, y), and spiked to the 
 face of them at each end, having king-posts (perpendicular posts, z), six inches by two inches 
 and a half. The whole properly trimmed (framed round, leaving a clear opening,) to the 
 chimney shafts. The shed roof over the back kitchen, fuel-house, and privy, to have 
 
 53 
 
 rafters, wall plates (pieces of 
 timber on the walls, on which 
 the rafters rest, fig. 54 ^ S^), and 
 ties of the same scantling as 
 above described. The whole of 
 tlie roofs to be covered with 
 three quarters of an inch thick 
 yellow deal slips (boards), two 
 
 inches and a half wide, for Countess slates ; with proper tilting fillets (tilting fillets are used 
 
COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 
 
 39 
 
 to give a slight inclination to the verge or border-slates, where they butt against brick-work, 
 as at a, in fig. 55, in order that the water may be directed from the brick-work ; they are 
 
 56 
 
 57 
 
 likewise employed to steady and support the lower edges of slates finishing against vallies ; 
 the usual size is three inches wide, three-eighths of an inch thick, and feather-edged) ; and 
 one inch and a quarter feather-edged (thin edged) eaves' :.oard, eight inches wide. Put one 
 inch yellow deal gutters, and bearers (pieces of scantling to support the gutters, fig. 56, h,) to 
 the chimneys. The internal partitions to be made for 
 nogging flat (the same as in fig. 46, but with the bricks 
 set on edge). Put heads, four inches by three inches, 
 dovetailed, fig. 57, into the plates; sills of oak, four 
 inches by two inches and a half; common quarters, 
 fig. 58. c, four inches by two inches, and eighteen inches 
 apart ; door-posts, d ; principal quarters (principal up- 
 right pieces of timber in the partition, e), and braces 
 (diagonal pieces of timber, /), four inches by three 
 inches; nogging pieces, g, four by two inches. 
 
 84. Specification of Joiners Work. All the inside 
 framing, and all the outside work, to be of sound, well- 
 seasoned, dry, yellow deal. To put one inch and a 
 quarter moulded fascia (fig. 59, h), with an inch thick gutter having a false bottom, i, to current 
 the water (to slope the bottom, so as to make it run), put together with white lead, all round 
 60 61 
 
 69 62 
 
 the eaves, with two three-quarters of .an inch yellow deal water trunks, four inches and a 
 half square (wooden pipes to conduct the water down, fig. 60, k), with head, /, and shoes, 
 fig. 61, to deliver the water to the ground. To lay in the bed-rooms one-inch folding floors 
 (a particular mode of laying down the boards ; but 
 when finished, the appearance presents nothing 
 particular ; fig. 62. See folding floors, in Glos- 
 snrial Ivdc.r), with border to the slab. — [In the 
 specification of the gutter for carrying off the 
 water from the roof, there is a deviation from the 
 section, fig. 40, in p. 36, in which the gutter is 
 formed in stone, being hollowed out of the wall- 
 head plinths. The reason why this deviation has 
 been made, is, that the specification was drawn up 
 with the view of erecting the cottage in the 
 neighbourhood of London, where a stone gutter 
 would have added greatly to its expense. The 
 wooden gutter shown in the section, fig. 63, will 
 produce the same effect, and correspond with 
 the specification.]— Doors. To put proper door-cases (door-cases are called proper, when 
 wrought, i. e. planed, framed, rebated, and beaded,) of fir (fir is generally applied by builders 
 
40 
 
 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 to Baltic timber ; what they call pine generally comes from America, and is of inferior quality) 
 four inches and a half by three inches, and oak sills to all the external 
 doors, with one inch and a half six-panelled bead, butt and square door 
 (a door framed on one side without any moulding ; on the other the panel 
 is flush with the stiles, and has a bead run on the edge, butting against 
 the rails, fig. 64, m, m, m,) to the entrance, hung with three-inch butts 
 (hinges, fig. 65) ; and one and a quarter inch proper Icdged door (a proper 
 ledged door has the boards planed, tongucd into each other, see Iiifirx, 
 and beaded ; they are placed vertically, and nailed to horizontal pieces at 
 the back, called ledges,) to the back kitchen, fuel-house, and privy, hung 
 with sixteen-inch cross garnet hinges (a hinge with a bar, fig. 66) ; the whole 
 
 to have Norfolk thumb latches (latches lifted by the thumb, fig. 67), and — ^ 
 
 eight-inch rod bolts, fig. 68; and, except the privy, eight-inch fine plate !i3\4 I; 
 
 stock locks (locks with a wooden back, or stock, fig. 69). The internal doors to be one inch 
 and a quarter six-panelled, both sides square, with two inches and a half butt hinges, a!> I 
 
 65 
 
 0 
 
 ^ 11 
 9 
 
 six-inch iron rim brass knob locks, fig. 70. — Windows. To put an oak 
 solid two-light proper frame, three inches by two inches, with cast-iron 
 casements, made to open with strong hinges, latches and spring stay-irons 
 (irons to keep the window open) to the back kitchen. — [We have shown 
 in the elevation, sash windows, greatly preferring them to casements; but 
 as the object was to erect the building at as little cost as possible, case- 
 ments were substituted in the scullery window, &c.] — The windows in the 
 kitchen and bed-room to have deal cased frames (frames with wooden cases formed at the 
 back of the pulley stiles for the sash weights to hang in) oak sunk sills (the upper part ol 
 the sill sunk, or grooved out, in order to prevent the 66 
 rain from driving under the sash) one inch and a half 
 ovolo sashes (the sash-bars with ovolo mouldings, fig. 
 71) ; double hung, with white lines, iron weights, and 
 brass pulleys, with brass spring fastenings, fig. 72. All the windows to have inch wrought 
 and rounded window boards, (a narrow shelf in the interior at the bottom of the sa.<h, fi^. 
 73,7?,) with three quarters of an inch splayed lining and 
 soffits, 0, with ogee mouldings, and fillets on the edge, p. 
 The doors also inside to have one inch and a quarter 
 single rebated jamb linings, with mouldings to match. 
 To put inch clamped (cross-headed, q) folding shutters, 
 with rule joints (joints like those of the common foot 
 rule), and proper hinges to the window, with iron bar 
 fastenings. To put three quarters of an inch square 
 68 skirting, (a skirting-board 
 
 ^ "1^ ^ without any moulding at top), 
 
 four inches high, fig. 74, in the 
 bed-room, with inch narrow bevelled grounds (slips of wood to fix the skirting to, having 
 the upper edge bevelled back, in order to retain the margin of the plaster, fig. 75, r), plugged 
 
 69 
 
 to the walls (nailed to plugs of wood driven 
 into the walls). To put an inch deal seat 
 riser (the front board on edge), and bearers 
 (cross pieces), with water board hole and 
 a cover, to the privy, and three quarters of 
 an inch skirting at back of the seat, six 
 inches high.— [We have before, in Chapter 
 
 0. 
 
 0»| 
 
 
 
 
 
 I., recommended a hinged flap, or lid, in addition to the round cover which fits mto the hole, 
 with a view the more completely to exclude smell ; an object which ought, if possible, to be 
 efiected, at whatever cost. For this reason, we would always recommend the introduction of a 
 
 71 72 
 
 I 
 
 Vi 
 
 smooth earthenware basin, with a tube, which may reach down into the soil, under the seat, 
 
COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 
 
 41 
 
 in order to diminish the evaporating surface, and prevent the possibility of a current of air 
 rising through the opening.] — To put three tier of inch shelves in 
 each of the recesses in the kitchen. The carpenter and joiner to 
 find all materials, ironmongery, carriage, and labour for the com- 
 pletion of his vrork, and to do the wrhole in a sound and workman- 
 like manner. 
 
 85. Plumber's, Painter's, and Glazier's Work. To put flashings 
 (strips) of milled lead (lead that is pressed out to the required 
 thickness by a machine), eight inches wide, five pounds to the foot 
 superficial, chased (let) into the brick-work, and fixed with wall- 
 hooks, fig. 76, to the chimney shafts, with proper aprons (pieces of 
 lead to overlap the flashings, fig. 77, s), and cover the gutters with 
 lead seven pounds to the foot superficial. To cover the hips and 
 ridges with milled lead, fifteen inches wide, five pounds to the foot 
 superficial, properly lapped, dressed, and nailed with lead-headed 
 nails (nails with their heads enveloped in lead, by dipping them in melted lead, in order to 
 
 74 
 
 1 
 I 
 
 1 
 
 75 
 
 7G 
 
 prevent their rusting). To glaze and back putty, (to remove the putty 
 pressed out of the rebate by the pane), all the sashes and casements vdth 
 good second (second in quality) Newcastle crown 
 glass. To paint the whole of the external wood- 
 work, and the gutters, and shoots (spouts), inside 
 four times in good white lead and oil ; the external 
 doors to be finished in an oak, or in a stone colour. 
 To paint the sashes, frames, shutters, linings, 
 and skirting, inside the house, three times in oil. 
 The plumber, painter, and glazier, to find all workmanship, materials, and - 
 the carriage thereof; and every thing requisite for the performance of his work, and to do the 
 same in a perfect and workmanlike manner. 
 
 86. Well, Pump, and Platform. The 
 above specification is exclusive of a well and 
 pump, also of a copper boiler, and setting it, 
 and of the bringing of the earth, and forming 
 the platform or terrace round the house. 
 
 87. Estimate. The following is the foma of an estimate, 
 framed on the above specification, as made by surveyors and 
 builders. The architects about London and Edinburgh, as 
 we have before observed, generally estimate by the cubic con- 
 tents ; first making a calculation of what a cube of ten feet 
 square will cost on each separate story ; but the surveyor, 
 whose business it is to measure buildings, and to estimate the 
 the labour and materials, goes into minute details. He docs not, 
 
 value of 
 however, 
 
 in giving in an estimate, specify to his employer the value which he puts on every particular 
 item ; but only the total amounts of the different works generally executed by separate 
 tradesmen, in the following form : 
 
 88. Estimate of Bricklayer's Work. £ s, d. 
 
 Nine cubic yards of digging, filling, and ramming ; seven cubic yards of 
 wheeling in stones and gravel, to level the ground under the kitchen 
 floor 
 
 One hundred and ninety-seven feet of reduced brick-work, (in estimating 
 the price of brick-work in Britain, the quantity, of whatever nature 
 and thickness it may be, is always reduced to walls of one and a half 
 brick in thickness, two hundred and seventy-two and a quarter square 
 feet of which form a rod of brick-work) 
 
 One rod, eighty-two feet of reduced stone-work (the stone walls are re- 
 duced to one and a half brick in thickness) 
 
 Two rods, two hundred and twenty-five feet of reduced stone-work above 
 ground, with brick coins and garreted joints 
 
 Twenty-nine yards of brick Hogging flat 
 
 Ten and a half yards of common stock paving in sand 
 
 Sixteen yards of paving bricks bedded and jointed in mortar 
 
 Eight feet run (lineal measure) of chasings for lead .... 
 
4^ 
 
 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 Forty feet of cutting splays 
 
 Four feet of twelve-inch hollow tile drain 
 
 Digging and stecning in four-inch brick-work a cesspool, four feet 
 
 diameter in the clear, and six feet deep 
 
 Paved slope to the drain in the privy 
 
 Two iron chimney bars 
 
 Twelve common brick arches, set in cement 
 
 Nine window and door frames, bedded and pointed. 
 
 £70 . 3 ; 3 
 
 89. Estimate of Plasterers Work. 
 
 Thirty-two yards of whitewashing to new work. 
 
 Sixty-two yards of whitewashing twice over 
 
 Forty-five yards of stone-colouring twice over 
 
 One hundred and twenty-one and a third yards of render-set plastering. 
 Thirty-two yards of lathlay set plastering 
 
 £10 : 7 : 2 
 
 90. Estimate of Slater's Work. 
 
 Eight squares (one hundrcni square feet each) of CountesN slating, 
 with painted nails 
 
 £13 : I 'J : 0 
 
 91. Estimate of St one- Ma son's Work. 
 
 Twelve feet four inches, superficial, of Yorkshire hearth-stone 
 
 Twenty feet eight inches, sujjerficial, of Portland stone chimney pieces 
 Sixteen feet three inches, lineal measure, of quarry Yorkshire sills, 
 eight inches wide, bevelled and throated 
 
 £4:0:6 
 
 92. Estimate of Carpenter's and Joiner's W ork. 
 
 Sixteen cubic feet four inches of oak timber in lintels, plates, &c. . . . 
 Thirteen cubic feet eleven inches of oak timber, framed in joists, &c. 
 Ninety-one cubic feet one inch of Quebec red pine timber, framed in 
 
 roof and ceiling floor 
 
 Nine superficial feet of one-inch gutter-board and bearers 
 
 Seventy-one superficial feet nine inches of one and a quarter inch 
 
 feather-edged eaves board rounded 
 
 Forty-eight superficial feet nine inches of one and a half inch yellow 
 
 deal hips, and ridge rounded 
 
 Four superficial feet of two inch oak sleepers 
 
 Six squares and fifty-seven feet, superficial measure, of slips for 
 
 Countess slates, two and a half inches wide 
 
 Wood"en bricks 
 
 One hole cut, one water board, and one cover 
 
 £30 . 15 ; 4 
 
 93. Estimate of Joiner's Work. 
 
 Six cubic feet seven inches fir timber in proper (according to specifi- 
 cation) door-cases 
 
 One cubic foot four inches of oak timber, in sills 
 
 Ten cubic inches of oak, proper, in two light frames 
 
 Seventeen superficial feet nine inches of three-quarters of an inch 
 square skirting 
 
 Ninety-three superficial feet ten inches of three-quarters of an inch 
 splayed linings and soffits 
 
 Thirteen superficial feet six inches of inch shelves 
 
 Twelve superficial feet of inch seat and riser 
 
 Twelve superficial feet nine inches of inch vn-ought and rounded 
 window board 
 
 Eighty-six superficial feet of inch clamped folding shutters and hinges 
 
 Sixty-four superficial feet six inches of inch gutter, with false bottoms 
 and bearers, put together with white lead 
 
COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 
 "^7.7!.!"^.''.^!''""'"'''''"'*""' °' deal folding 
 
 ^zT:nTs::::zi !':'::! ^^^^^^^^^ 
 
 ^"PO'-fi'^ial feet ten inches of one'aild a halfVn'ch k;al"ck;;d 
 
 ^unT :,; ,;h"r r^'''^"'''' ' ''^'f °™lo sashes douWe- 
 
 nung „,th wh.te iMies, iron weights and brass pulleys . . 
 
 On JTT, f '''' "aiTow grounds and plugriilg 
 
 94. Estimate of Ironmongery and Fixings. 
 
 One'p'iJr ofl'"' "1 — ^ ^-ng them 
 
 Une pair of three-.nch butt hinges, and screws for fixing them . . 
 
 Three pa.rofs.xteen-inch cross garnet hinges ... 
 
 Four Norfolk latches 
 
 Three eight-inch Stock locks'..*.".'.*.*.'.'.'.'.' 
 F our eight-inch bright rod bolts ....*.*..'..*.*.'.*.* 
 
 Three six-inch iron rim brass knob lock's 
 
 Four spring sash fastenings \\ 
 
 Two cast-iron casements **,\ 
 
 Two stay-irons 
 
 Five shutter bars ' * ' 
 
 95. Estimate of Plumhcr\ Painter^ and Ghzier^s Work 
 I- our cwt. two quarters of milled lead . 
 
 :^^rza^^^rz':-;l«r^ 
 
 Twenty-eight yards four times painted in oil . . 
 
 Eleven yards four times painted in oil, of a stone'^^o'ak i'u'r' 
 
 Th.rty-mne imeal feet six inches of inch skirting, four a^d ^^ainkih;; 
 
 Four dozen squares and fra'mes,'th;ee ti'mes* 'p'a'in'te'd in'oil 
 
 One two-l,ght square and frame, three times painted "n o 1 
 
 Two casements, three times painted in oil . ^ 
 
 Four dozen squares and frames, four times paintVd h'/oil;; 
 
 One two-iight frame, four times painted in oil . 
 
 1 wo casements, four times painted in oil 
 
 Two stay-irons, four times painted in oil ..*.*.!.'.'.'*.*.'.*..'.;;'.*.;; 
 
 96. Summary of Esiimates. £U : 13 : 4 
 
 Bricklayer 
 
 Plasterer £70: 3: 3 
 
 Slater 10 : 7 : 2 
 
 Stone-Mason .'.*.*.*.*.'.*.* ...'.V 13:12: 0 
 
 Carpenter, Joiner, and Trom'nonger *. " " ^ ' ^ ' ^ 
 Plumber, Painter, and Glazier ' ^ = 
 
 14 : 13 : 4 
 
 ^.8^fof t:iii;at^:::i;'j?r- "-"'-^ ™„tai„s 7.05 c,.hc Z:^^, I 
 
 about London gener Uy deduc a — T T- " -""--'"^ 
 
 building ,0 be erected : this pe cenLnJT^ " 'S'"""^'' "'^'^"'""S '» kind of 
 plain buildings, such as O^e'cne T g „°"ryTd™i : ^Td ^ 
 afteen per «e„t. which would reduce the a^.ri about ius """" 
 
44 
 
 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA A RCIHTECTr RE. 
 
 and the roof covered with 
 
 Design Y 111. — J Dwelling of Two Rooms,for a Man and his Wife. 
 
 98. Accommodation. This dwelling, though small, will be found suitable for those 
 situations where neatness, w ith some little appearance of improved design, is an object. It 
 contains a kitchen, a, well lighted, and with two closets ; a bed-room, b, with a recess for a 
 cupboard; a porch, c; a back-room, d, in which there might be a boiler and an oven for 
 baking, and also for heating water, and the flues in the floor ; a place for the fuel, e ; and a 
 privy,/. The section, A B, shows that the kitchen floor, and that of the back kitchen and 
 porch, are on a bed of stones. The bed- room floor is of boards laid on joists, and hoUow be- 
 neath. The whole is surrounded by a jjlatfonn, which may either be paved or laid with 
 gravel; and along its outer margin, there may be a small parapet, with Gothic ornaments 
 on it at the angles. 
 
 99. Construction. The walls may be built of stone or brick ; 
 slates or flat tiles, projecting a few inches ovir the walls, so as 
 to deliver the water which falls ui)on it into the gutter. The 
 chimney tops are round, terminating with small cajjitals. The 
 pediment over the entrance terminates in a small ornament or 
 pinnacle, formed of oak (fig. 78, on a scale of half an inch to a 
 foot), characteristic of old English cottages in districts abound- 
 ing in timber. 
 
 100. General Estimate. Cubic contents, 7,4«0 feet, at (W. per 
 foot, £ 185 : 155. ; at 4r/., £ : 18.?. ; and at 3^/., £l*2 : 175. 
 
 101. Expression. From the pointed top of the entrance- 
 door, from the ornament on the summit of the pediment over 
 it, and from the cylindrical chimney tops, it is evident that 
 something more is intended than mere exjjression of the subject. 
 Yet there is no great unity of style, for the tops of the windows 
 are square, and there is nothing out of the usual course in the 
 appearance of the roof. All that can be said of this elevation is, that it is pleasing and 
 picturesque; that is, very well calculated to look well in a picture, though it is not in any 
 very marked architectural style. The space between the tops of the ^^ iiulows and the eaves 
 of the roof, is suflicient to admit of a veranda; and this, with a suitiible parapet on the 
 terrace, fig 79, would render this 
 cottage a very ornamental object. 
 Placed in a garden, and surrounded 
 by low and round-headed fruit trees, 
 such a building would produce a 
 better effect than in a forest of pines 
 or firs ; as the pointed forms of those 
 trees would not contrast so well 
 with it, and they would overpower 
 it by their size. In planting trees 
 near dwellings of any kind, if it be 
 desired to conceal the building, to 
 diminish its importiince in the land- 
 scape, and to render it an unhealthy abode for its occupants, then tall evergreen shrubs and 
 large trees ought to be planted close to tlie edifice; but, if on the contrary, it be intended 
 that the cottage should have some dignity of character, and that its occupants should keep 
 their health, no tree, that under any circumstances grows higher than the building itself, 
 should be planted within the distance of several yards of it. 
 
 Design IX. Dwelling in the Swiss style, for a Married Couple and Family ; u'ilh a 
 
 Cow-house and Pigsty. 
 
 102. Accommodation. The rooms in this dwelling are of a good size, and there is a 
 sufficient number of them for the comfort of the occupants. On the ground-floor, there is 
 an entrance lobby, a, containing the staircase; a kitchen, b; a back-kitchen, or wash- 
 house, c ; a parlour, d ; a light closet, e ; a pantry,/; a coal closet, under the stairs, g ; a 
 cow-shed, h ; a piggery, i ; a wood-house, k , and a water-closet, or privy, /. The w indows 
 and doors of all this lower range are protected by a far projecting balcony, which, in point 
 of comfort and effect, is equal if not superior to a veranda. The bed- room floor contains one 
 best bed-chamber, m alight closet, n ; staircase, o ; bed-room for boys, jj ; and for girls, q. 
 
COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 
 VIII. 
 
COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 
 
 47 
 
 Thr balcony is entered from a glass door on the landing of the staircase ; and in countries 
 subject to snow and rain, is valuable for the protection which it gives to the v^nndowsand 
 the boarded walls ; as a place in which children and invalids may take exercise ; to hang 
 up com seeds, herbs, tobacco, and various articles from the eaves ; and more especially, 
 to dry clothes on lines during wet weather. 
 
 103. Construction. The foundations, as high as about two feet above the platform, and 
 the two interior walls containing the flues and the chimney stacks, are of brick or stone. 
 All the rest of the building is of wood, being framed work, covered with boards, outside and 
 in. In Switzerland, the native country of such buildings, these boards are seldom painted, 
 though those on the outside are sometimes tarred, in order to preserve them from the 
 weather. The roofs in that country are generally covered with shingles (wooden tiles), 
 usually of larch or 
 
 oak, as being the most gQ 
 durable, six or eight 
 inches broad, and a 
 foot or eighteen inches 
 long ; but in a country 
 where slates or earthen 
 tiles can be got, they 
 are far preferable, not 
 only on account of their 
 durability, but because 
 the shingles are very 
 apt to be blown off by 
 high winds. The bal- 
 conies are supported 
 by the continuation of 
 the flooring joists, as 
 appears by the cross 
 section, fig. 80 ; under 
 which are the further 
 supports of brackets 
 
 (fig. 81, to a scale of half an inch to & foot). The projecting part of the roof at the sides is 
 
 supported by the continuation of the rafters, as may be observed in fig. 80 ; and the ends are 
 supported by solid brackets (fig. 82, to a scale of half an inch to a foot). The railing is 
 generally simple, and characterized by perpendi- 83 
 cular lines ; the ornaments may be notched with 
 the axe and chisel, fig. 83. The chimney has a 
 coping of two broad flat stones or tiles, to exclude 
 the rain ; and the openings for the escape of the 
 smoke are consequently lateral. The windows — n— n-j— rr^ ^-r-- - -, .-r^ r-r.-yr— rr' .xir 
 may be sashes hung in the English manner ; or they may be hinged, opening inwards, 
 according to the Italian and French taste, and as they most commonly are in Switzerland- 
 
 o 
 
48 
 
 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA AKCHITECTURE. 
 
 104. General Estimate. Cubic contents, 23,020 feet, at Gd. per foot, £575: Us.; at id., 
 £383 :]5s:id.', and at 3d., £287 : IGs : 6d. 
 
 105. Expression. This Design assumes a decided character or style, which no one, who 
 has been in Switzerland, can doubt is in imitation of the timber-built dwelling's of that country. 
 As a picturesque object, it is most agreeable ; more especially in its native situation on the 
 side of a hill, where it is frequently accompanied by firs, or pines, or other spiry topped trees, 
 which contrast well with the long horizontal line of the roof. It frequently happens that 
 cottages of this sort are placed on the side of a steep slope, so that while the lower end is 
 entirely above the surface the upper end is half sunk into it. In this cax-, the sloping line of 
 the hill contrasts admirably, both with the horizontal and perpendicular lines of the building, 
 and the appearance of stability is heightened by the one end being sunk or bedded into the 
 hill. The balcony in this case, terminating on the surface, may be entered on the outside. 
 The same cottage placed across the slope would appear much less stable, as well as less 
 picturesque. In imitating the style of any particular country, the Architect ought to take care 
 not to imitate peculiarities or defects. It is common, both in Switzerland and in Kin.sigthal, 
 in the Duchy of Baden, to see the roofs of dwellings of this sort, loaded with stones, with 
 turves, with planks, or with roots of trees, to keep on the shingles, and even, in some cases* 
 to prevent the roof itself from being blown off by the wind. A landscape painter in taking 
 views in Switzerland or Baden, would, very properly, copy these circumstances, and a moral 
 traveller would describe them ; but for an .\rchitcct to introduce them as component parts of 
 a Design in the Swiss style, would display a great want of di!>crimination, and woultl be, what 
 Sir Joshua Reynolds, in his Acf/r/rr* /^ir«/in/p, calls, "imitating a peculiarity." It fre- 
 quently happens, with such buildings in Switzerland, that being situated in narrow valleyi, 
 they are subject to partial inundations from hudden thaws; and also to have the rain thrown 
 more violently against some parts of the building than against others, when the wind is in a 
 particular direction. To guard against these incidents, barriers of boards are put up in the 
 first case, and an exterior protection of weall>er boarding (boards overlapping each other), in 
 the latter. For an Architect to imitate these, would be to copy defects in the construction, 
 rendered necessary by an error in the choice of situation, and would reniind one of the story 
 of the Chinese tailor, who imitated the patches on a coat sent hin» for a pattern. 
 
 lOG. The fitness of a building of this construction for a human dwelling may deserve some 
 consideration. It is certain that wooden buildings of any kind arc never erected (excepting 
 now and then as a matter of fancy), by those who can atford to use stone or brick. Their 
 liability to accidents by fire, is an objection for which no architectural or picturesque beauty 
 can ever compensate. The balcony also surrounding the building, liable to be constantly 
 used, and commanding the bed-room windows, takes away all idea of privacy from these 
 apartments. We, therefore, by no means, recomtnend this style for any country. For 
 our own part, indeed, rather than bestow so much labour on so perishable and combustible 
 a material as wood, we would prefer walls of earth. 
 
 Design X. — -1 Dwelling for a Married Couple and One Child, with a Pigsty, 
 
 107. Accommodation. This is a dwelling of the lowest 
 class, consisting .of three rooms in two stories, and dif- 
 fering only from the commonest cottages in England by 
 the completeness of its appendages, and the architecture 
 of its exterior. It contains, on the ground-floor, an 
 entrance porch or lobby, a ; a wash-house, w ith a place 
 for an oven to heat the kitchen-floor by a flue, b ; a 
 kitchen or living room, c ; a large closet under the stair- 
 case, c?; a pantry, e; fuel-house,/; water-closet or privy, 
 g ; and pigsty, h. The chamber-floor contains a bed- 
 room, i ; a clothes or lumber-closet, k ; child's bed-room, 
 / ; and the staircase, m. 
 
 108. Construction. The walls, as high as the bed-room 
 floor, may be built of stone or of brick, with a vacuity in 
 the centre, as explained in describing Design I. Above, 
 the walls may be of brick nogging ; the principal timbers 
 of which may be like those shown in the elevation. These 
 walls should be plastered within and without. A much 
 better plan of construction, however, is to carry up the 
 bricTc walls to the roof; unless the object of the Architect be the imitation of an accident in 
 
COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 
 
 51 
 
 r 
 
 a style, rather than its essentials; or economy, rather than strength, durability, and comfort. 
 The roof may be covered with plain tiles ; and some care may be bestowed on the chimneys, 
 fig. 84, (scale, a quarter of an inch to a foot). These 85 
 chimneys may be built of brick, and covered with 
 cement; or be formed of cement only. The windows 
 may have wooden mullions, fig. 85, and wooden case- 
 ments ; but we cannot recommend these casements 
 being filled in with lattice-work; for that, like ex- 
 terior walls of brick nogging, is an inferior mode of 
 construction. 
 
 109. Situation. As this building admits of being 
 viewed on every side, it is suitable for an open space. 
 A few fruit trees are its appropriate accompaniments; 
 and at a distance of a hundred yards, it may have as a 
 back ground, a wood of oak, or other round-headed 
 trees, to contreist with its upright and angular lines. It is not meant by this remark, 
 however, either that such a wood should be planted on purpose ; or that it is worth while 
 to give up any point of utility or convenience, in order to place a cottage of this character 
 near such a wood. The comfort of the occupant of the cottage should take precedence 
 of every other object, either respecting it, or its accompaniments. It has been too much 
 the practice, hitherto, for Architects and for their employers to set down cottages, more 
 with a view to their effect in the landscape, than to any thing else whatever; but the 
 habitation of a human being, however humble, ought not to be trifled with, either in respect 
 to it5 accommodations, or its locality. 
 
 110. Aspect. From what we have already advanced on this subject in Chapter 1. it will 
 be understood, that in all practicable cases, we intend that the dwelling should be so placed as 
 to admit of the sun shining on all its walls every fine day in the year, with the exception of 
 a few weeks at the winter solstice. This, we need hardly repeat (were it not for the great 
 importance of the subject), is to be done by imagining the general form of the ground-plan 
 reduced to a square, and letting its diagonal be a north and south line. In most parts of 
 Europe the door should face the south-east- When cottages are detached, and built either 
 singly, or in pairs, and set down in a garden, the adherence to this rule of position, with respect 
 to the sun, will add to the picturesque beauty of a village ; whatever may be the direction of 
 the road, along the sides of which the houses and gardens are built and laid out. This fact 
 must never be forgotten ; and indeed it should be considered, like the introduction of the 
 platform, as a law, which in building detached cottages, ought never to be violated. In 
 building long lines of connected dwellings of this sort, this law cannot be applied; but if the 
 lines be in the direction of south and north, the same advantages, in point of heat and dry- 
 ness, are obtained as by the diagonal position of detached cottages ; for the sun will shine 
 throughout the year on the cast and west sides of every dwelling; and the south and north 
 sides being party-walls (walls of division between different houses), will be necessarily both 
 dry and warm. 
 
 111. General Estimate. Cubic contents 9,528 feet, at 6rf. per foot, £238:45.; at Ad., 
 £158 : 16,9. ; and at M., £119 : 2*. 
 
 112. Expression. This cottage is in what 
 characterized by windows not 
 much higher than they are 
 broad, and divided perpendicu- 
 larly by mullions (vertical divi- 
 sions) ; by high, conspicuous, 
 and sometimes ornamented 
 stacks of chimneys ; by steep 
 roofs generally covered with 
 plain tiles, projecting at the 
 eaves, and sometimes also at 
 the gable ends ; and, finally, by 
 more or less of Gothic forms or 
 mouldings in its details. In this 
 imitation of the old English cot- 
 tage, an erroneous manner of 
 arrangement is conspicuous in the stacks of chimneys, which ought not to have been in the 
 outside walls ; and the introduction into these outer walls of brick nogging, is an inferior 
 
 called the old English manner, which is 
 
 o2 
 
52 
 
 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 mode of construction, undeserving of inutation. A peculiarity, which in respect to use is a 
 great deformity, is introduced in the principal window, in the form of the head of a Gothic 
 arch supporting the mullion. This Gothic arch crosses the window in such a manner as to 
 intercept the most valuable portion of the light. Nevertheless, we have given this Design a 
 place, from its being characteristic of the style which it affects to exhibit ; but we ^hall after- 
 wards give other Designs in the same style not liable to the sanie objections. It is also proper 
 to remark, that in new countries, where building materials and labour are scarce and dear, 
 this would be exactly the sort of cottage that would be most suitable for a dwelling in the 
 English cottage style ; and in temperate climates rather milder than Britain, such, for 
 example, as many parts of Australia, there could be no objection to the chimneys being in 
 the outside walls. Their effect there, rising boldly into the air, and contrasting with the 
 sloping surface and horizontal line of the roof, is excellent A low box hedge, with 
 standards at the angles, cut into architectural shapes, would be in perfect harmony with this 
 style of cottage, fig. 86. 
 
 Design XI. — A DwL'Uiu<f for a Man and his Wife, and One or Two Children, u ilh a Cvw-house 
 
 and Pigsty. 
 
 113. Accommodatiou. This hermitage-looking dwelling contains a porch, o; a work-room 
 or parlour, b ; a bed-room conuuunicating with it, c ; a kitchen, d ; and an outer kitchen or 
 wash-house, with an oven, e ; communicating with a pantry and dairy,/. The wash-house 
 has aback door, near which, in the lean-tw, is « pri^y,^/ a cow-house, h ; and a place ft)r 
 wood, or for a pig, f. In the section the floors are shown as laid over a bed of stones, and a 
 gravelled terrace surrounds the whole building, on a level six inches lower than the floors of 
 the rooms. In the bed of stones may be a flue connected witli the oven placed in the angle 
 of the back kitchen, e, as before described. 
 
 114. Coustrnction. The walls are of stone, hewn at the coins (corners), and with the barge 
 stones (a corruption of verge, and signifying the margin of any thing), also hewn. The 
 roof is of a high pitch, in conformity with roofs in the Gothic style, and may be covered 
 with pan (hollow) tiles, or plain tiles; it pro- 87 ^ 
 
 jects a few inches at the eaves, so as to deliver ( 
 
 the water into a gutter. The windows and the 
 door are surrounded by plain architraves ; \ 
 the principal windows have pointed tops, and \ 
 are divided by muUions (fig. 87, k, to a scale \ 
 of half an inch to the foot). The slack of <^ 
 chimneys, fig. 88, may cither be executed in ' 
 free-stone, or what in Britain will cost much less and yet be sufficiently durable, reinent. 
 The door is formed of bead and batten with exterior hinges, similar to Uiose in Design \\, 
 The gable ends are surmounted by crosses, which may either be 
 formed of stone or cement, and if a description of that article, u>ed 
 in forming stone ornaments by Austin, of the New Road, London, 
 be employed, there can be no doubt of their durability. 
 
 115. Situation. It is evident that a building of this sort is erected 
 chiefly with a view to its ornamental effect, and, therefore, wherever 
 it is placed, it ought not to be obscured by trees. It may be considered 
 as a sort of hermitage, and, in this point of view, it should be placed 
 in a solitary situation. 
 
 116. General Estimate. Cubic contents, 11,700 feet, at 6c/., £292 : 10^.; 
 at 4rf., £195; and at Zd., £l46 : bs. 
 
 117. Expression. This being the first Design in which we have 
 made a great departure from symmetry, that is, a correspondence of 
 parts in the general form, it may be useful to offer a few remarks on 
 the principle of irregularity in Architecture. It is evident that to introduce irregularity of 
 form in buildings, is an architectural refinement of the present age ; for, though in ancient 
 buildings of every description, there is much more of irregularity than of symmetry, yet 
 this irregularity has always been the result of accident ; of additions made from time tc 
 time as they were required, or of subtractions or mutilations, according as certain parts might 
 be done without, or as the ability to keep them in repair diminished. We find no ancient 
 author on Architecture recommending irregularity ; and from this we may conclude that 
 no ancient Architect ever designed a building of an irregular form when he could help it. 
 The first in Britain who decidedly recommended irregularity in buildings, was Uvedale Price, 
 in the first edition of his admirable £5502/5 on thePicturesque,'^\\hY^s\\Q^ in 1794; and he was 
 
COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 
 
 5S 
 
 soon followed by Mr. Knight, in his poem The Landscape ; by Malton,in his works on Cottage 
 Architecture, and subsequently by various others. Uvedale Price, who was a great admirer 
 of Sir Joshua Reynolds, and of the works of the great painters of Italy, probably was 
 strengthened in his ideas in favour of irregularity, by the following passage in one of Sir 
 Joshua's Discourses Architects may take advantage sometimes of the use of accidents to 
 follow where thev lead, and to improve them, rather than always trust to a regular plan. It 
 often happens that additions have been made to houses at various times, for use or pleasure. 
 As such buildings depart from regularity, they now and then acquire something of scenery 
 by this accident, which I think might not unsuccessfully be adopted by an Architect m an 
 original plan, if it does not too much interfere with convenience. Variety and intricacy is a 
 beauty and excellence in every other of the arts which address the imagination; and why 
 not in Architecture ?" This passage is quoted by Knight, in his Analytical Inquiry into the 
 Principles of Taste, as an authority for the praise which he also has bestowed on irregularity 
 in Architecture. The practice at present needs no recommendation ; being, a^ every one 
 knows, followed in dwellings of every description, of extent, and of every kind of style. All 
 that we are anxious to remark on the subject is, that irregularity can seldom or never be 
 adopted in cottage dwellings where economy is a main object. On this subject we entirely 
 agree with Laing, who, in the preface to his Hints on Dwellings, has the following remarks : 
 
 118. The nearer the plan of a building approaches to a square, says Laing, " the greater 
 are its conveniences, and the cost proportionably less. A square, equal in superficial extent 
 to a parallelogram, requires less external walling, and, consequently, less internal finishing. 
 By compactness, convenience is produced, and expense is saved : when the apartments are 
 scattered and lie wide from each other, with long passages between, much unpleasantness 
 must be experienced ; and a much larger expense must be incurred from covering a larger 
 space of ground than is absolutely necessary." This objection, he adds, " may fairly be urged 
 against some schemes, which I have lately seen by an ingenious artist, in which his anxiety 
 to produce variety and want of uniformity, has led him to devise plans void of convenience 
 and economy; how far void of taste, I will not say ; yet, surely, uniformity is essential to 
 beauty. I say this merely to oppose a taste which I consider false, and an economy which 
 is profusion." {Hints on DtceUings. Preface.) ^ 
 
 119. Irregular IiuildinssY>\ease their admirers partly with reference to their picturesque 
 effect; and partly as being characteristic of some particular architectural style, as it is found to 
 exist in ancient buildings. The castellated architecture of the present day is evidently more 
 an imitative style, than one of picturesque beauty ; and the irregular cottage style depends more 
 on its picturesqucness, than on its being an imitation of any thing that has previously existed. 
 Dugald Stewart, in one of his Essays on the Beautiful, has traced the progress of the taste for 
 the several kinds of beauty from that of the rudest appearance of Design, to the greatest 
 irregularities of form. He notices the pleasure which children very early manifest at the sight 
 of regular forms and uniform arrangements. The same love of regular forms and of uniform 
 arrangements, he says, " continues to influence powerfully in the maturity of reason and 
 experience, the judgments we pronounce on all works of human art, whose regularity and 
 uniformity do not interfere with purposes of utility. In recommending these forms and 
 arrangements in the particular circumstances just mentioned, there is one principle which 
 seems to me to have no inconsiderable influence, and which I shall take this opportunity of 
 hinting at slightly, as I do not recollect to have seen it anywhere appUed to questions of 
 criticism. The principle I allude to is, that of the sufficient reason, of which so much use is 
 made (and in my opinion sometimes very erroneously made), in the philosophy of Leibnitz. 
 What is it that, in any thing which is merely ornamental, and which, at the same time, does 
 not profess to be an imitation of nature, renders irregular forms displeasing ? Is it not, at 
 least in part, that irregularities are infinite ; and that no circumstance can be imagined which 
 should have decided the choice of the artist in favour of that particular figure which he has 
 selected ? The variety of regular figures (it must be acknowledged) is infinite also ; but 
 supposing the choice to be once fixed about the number of sides, no apparent caprice of the 
 artist in adjusting their relative proportions, presents a disagreeable and inexpHcable puzzle 
 to the spectator. Is it not also owing, in part, to this, that in things merely ornamental, 
 where no use, even the most trifling, is intended, the circular form possesses a superiority 
 over all others ? 
 
 120. In a house, which is commonly detached from all other buildings, and which stands 
 on a perfectly level foundation, why are we ofi'ended when the door is not placed exactly in 
 the middle ; or when there is a window on one side of the door, and none corresponding to 
 it on the other ? Is it not that we are at a loss to conceive how the choice of the Architect 
 could be thus determined, where all circumstances appear to be so exactly alike ? This 
 
54 
 
 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 disagreeable effect is, in a great measure, removed, the moment any purpose of utility is 
 discovered i or even when the contiguity of other houses, or some peculiarity in the shape o. 
 ground, allows us to imagine, that some reasonable motive may have existed in the artist's 
 mind, though we may be unable to trace it. An irregular castellated edifice, set down on a 
 dead flat, conveys an idea of whim or of folly in the designer; and it would convey this idea 
 still more strongly than it does, were it not that the imitation of something else, which we 
 have previously seen with pleasure, makes the absurdity less revolting. The same, or yet 
 greater irregularity, would not only satisfy, but delight the eye, in an ancient citadel, whose 
 ground-work and elevations followed the rugged surface and fantastic projections of the rock 
 on which it is built. The oblique position of a window in a house, would be intolerable; 
 but utility, or rather necessity, reconciles the eye to it at once, in the cabin of a ship." — 
 Stewart's Philosophical Essays, p. 240. 
 
 Design XII. Dwelling of Two Storirt for a Man and his Wife, with a Servant and Two or 
 
 Three Children, with a Cow-house and Pigsty. 
 
 121. ylccommodation. This may be considered a comfortable dwelling for a gardener or 
 
 bailiff in Britain; or for a small pro- 
 prietor in America, or Australia. It 
 contains, on the ground- floor, an en- 
 trance lobby, a ; staircase, b ; kitchen, 
 c ; parlour, d ; tool-house or office for 
 paying men, e ; pantry and dairy, f : 
 back kitchen, g ; shed for wood an>i 
 fuel, /*; dusthole, i; privy, k; an>i 
 cow-house, with hen-house over, / 
 The cow-house is connected with :> 
 court-yard, which contains a shed for 
 hay and straw, piggeries, and An\\\: 
 pit, with a manure well, connected witli tin- \ 
 
 89 
 
 -uIls of this 
 
 J 
 
 dwelling, forms a handsome walk, from which there is a door into the court-yard. The 
 bed-room floor contains a best bed- 
 room, m ; a second bed-room, n ; a 
 third bed-room, o; and a stair, p. 
 
 122. Construction. The walls may 
 be of brick, or stone, or of brick nog- 
 ging plastered externally, as shown in 
 the elevation ; care being taken, what- 
 ever material may be used, that the 
 colour is neither a glaring red, nor a 
 glaring white. The roof may be 
 covered with reeds, or with combed 
 wheat straw (straw from which the ears 
 of grain have been cu\, or combed off, 
 in consequence o' which, the culms 
 are unbruised by the flail). The inter- 
 secting lines slio'.vn at the ridge of the 
 roof, and which may appear to many, 
 not accustomed to see reed-covered 
 buildings, as a mere ornament at the 
 fancy of the thatcher, are formed by 
 rods, generally of hazel, for the pur- 
 pose of keeping down the layer of 
 reeds, which are spread across the 
 ridge tree of the roof. The intersecting 
 rods, fig. 89, q, are kept in their places 
 by the horizontal rods, r r ; and these 
 are fastened to the thatch, by staples, 
 or spits, or broaches, s, which are 
 
 nothing more than short pieces of rod, previously well steeped in water, to render them 
 flexible, bent in the form of a staple hook, and stuck in the thatch or reeds. The forked 
 piece of wood represented on the upper part of the gable end, should only be employed if the 
 
56 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE, 
 
 XIII. 
 
COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 
 
 57 
 
 zr 
 
 w alls are of brick nogging. The entrance door is ledged ; and the bed-room windows, 
 which are broad rather than high, show two perpendicular and fixed bars or mullions ; the 
 casements being hinged to open inwards. The small windows in the lean-to are round- 
 headed, with Gothic labels over them, fig. 90. The chimney shafts may be executed in 
 cement, in a decorated style, (fig. 91, to a scale of the fourth of an inch to a foot), such as is 
 sometimes found in the better description of old cottages and farm-houses. 
 
 123. Situation. This dwelling being intended as an orna- 
 mental object, should not be crowded with trees ; at the 
 same time it is not calculated for a very exposed sitmtion. 
 
 124. General Estimate. Cubic contents, 14,904 feet, 
 at 6cl. per foot, £372 : 12*. ; at 4d., £248 : 8s. ; and at 3d., 
 £m : Gs. 
 
 125. Expression. The style aimed at here is some- 
 thing of what is called the old English manner. Whatever 
 interest may be excited by associations connected with 
 this style, the specimen here represented, has evidently 
 /ery little merit, taken by itself as a system of building. 
 When a cottage is throughout in one system or style, all 
 the parts of which it is composed, will seem to be the 
 result of the mode of its construction ; and to follow each 
 other so obviously, that the eye and the mind are naturally 
 led from one to the other throughout the whole super- 
 structure. This is Wood's doctrine ; and, tried by it, the 
 Design before us will certainly be found wanting. There 
 may be historical or accidental associations between the 
 form of the door and that of the window over it ; that is, it 
 may have been usual to have such doors and windows in the 
 same building in some old English cottages ; but certainly 
 the form of the one does not naturally arise out of the form of the other. Neither can it be 
 said that the projection of part of the bed-room floor, as shown over the door-way, has any- 
 thing to do with the mode of construction ; on the contrary, to the eye of reason, it appears 
 aa inferior method ; while, as a projection, it not only has not the merit of real utility, but 
 the pretension which it might have had of forming a shelter to the entrance door, is destroyed, 
 by that door having a small roof of its own ; a superfluity which ought to have been avoided, 
 since the walls of the porch evidently do not stand out beyond the line of the projection ot 
 the bed-room story. The small wing, or lean-to, shown below this last-mentioned window, 
 seems to be in a different style from the rest of the building ; both as regards the projection 
 of its roof, and the labels to its two small windows. On the whole, though we acknowledge 
 the ensemble of this Design to present a picturesque appearance, yet as a piece of Archi- 
 tecture, we consider it a deformity. Where the form of any one part of a building, says 
 Wood, does not seem to depend upon that below it, but might as well be substituted by 
 something different, the principle of arrangement is wanting. In looking at any building we 
 endeavour to trace some simple principle of arrangement, the want of which can never be 
 made up by good parts forced into service, or by superfluity of ornament. Profusion of 
 parts, or of ornaments, without obvious connexion and propriety, produce confusion and 
 absurdity. (Letters of an Architect ^c. vol. i. p. 6). We have presented this Design for the 
 purpose of showing how easy it is to captivate the eye in matters of this kind, without in 
 any one point completely satisfying the judgment. 
 
 Design Xlll.—A Dwelling for a Man and his Wife, with Two or more Children. 
 
 126. Accommodation. Here we have a colonnade which serves as a porch ; a vestibule, a ; 
 a parlour, b ; a kitchen, with a stair to two bed-rooms in the roof, c ; a bed-room on the 
 ground-floor, d ; a pantry, e ; two closets, /, g ; ajid water-closet or pantry, h. The two 
 bed-rooms over c and d may be lighted by dormer windows (windows made in the roof) 
 and by the small opening seen in the upper part of the gable end. 
 
 127. Construction. The platform on which this dwelling is built, is sustained by masonry ; 
 which, on three sides, supports the columns of the veranda or colonnade. These columns 
 may either be of stone, of brick stuccoed, or of timber ; in either case, set on stone plinths, 
 and with stone caps. The roof should be slated, with barge courses at the gable ends, 
 terminating in pinnacles. The chimney tops (fig. 92, on a scale of three eighths of an inch 
 to a foot), are plain, like the columns. 
 
58 
 
 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 128. The Garden, containing about three fourths of an acre, is here shown surrounde«i 
 by a hedge. This hedge might, in many cases, be formed of fruit-bearing shrul)s, such as 
 plums, apples, sloes, service or mountain ash, the berries of 92 
 
 which afford an excellent spirit; or elders, the berries of 
 which make a well -known wine. Whichever description 
 of fruit-bearing plant is used, the branches must be pruned 
 with a knife, and not clipped with shears ; because clipping, 
 by producing an exuberance of weak, young shoots, pre- 
 vents the plants from forming blossom buds. If it should 
 be desirable to have a very formidable fence, the hedge 
 might consist of two rows; the inner one of fruit-bearing 
 plants, and the outer one of hawthorns or hollies. There 
 is scarcely any situation, either on hills or by the sea-shore, 
 in which the elder will not thrive, and its fruit is always 
 valuable. The same may be said of the sloe, and the 
 mountain ash, and service, in respect to all inland situ- 
 ations. The mode of labouring and cropping the ground 
 may be as follows : trench compartment i three spits deep, 
 and plant with the cabbage tribe ; manure and dig A-, and 
 plant with potatoes ; trench / two spits deep, and sow with 
 root crops, such as turnips, carrots, parsnips, onions, Sec. ; 
 manure and dig m, and crop with peas, beans, and kidney 
 beans. According to this rotation, in the second year, i will 
 be manured and dug only, and will be under potatoes ; k will 
 be trenched two spits deep, and under root crops ; / will be 
 manured, dug, and under leguminous plants ; and m w ill be trenched three spits deep, aiu 
 under the cabbage tribe. Thus, a new stnitum of soil will be brought up to the surface every 
 otlier year : in the first year, w hat was the bottom becomes the top ; in the second, the top is 
 turned over ; in the third, the middlt- becomes the top; and, in the fourth, this middle is turned 
 over. Manure is applied every second year. This is enough to give a general idea of how a 
 garden ought to be laboured, manured, and cropped ; but more minute and accurate details 
 will be found in our Cottage Manual ; in Dcnsons Peasant's Voice ; and in an excellent little 
 work, by Mr. Charles Laurence, entitled Practical Directions fur Cottage Gardens, ^r. The 
 smaller compartments may be cropped as follows : «, with gooseberries ; o, with currants 
 and raspberries ; p, with strawberries ; t], with asparagus ; r, with sea-kale ; s, with tart rhu- 
 barb ; ^ with Jerusalem artichokes; and m, with perennial, or what is called Good Henry 
 spinach (Chenopodium Honus Henricus). The border which surrounds the garden may be 
 devoted to the smaller crops, such as salads, herbs, &c. ; and to early crops, such as peas and 
 potatoes. The space inunediately surrounding the cott^vge should be ornamented w ith flow ers 
 and flowering shrubs. The trees at the corners of the compartments should be standard 
 apples, pears, cherries, and plums. 
 
 129. Situation. It is evident that the main purpose of this building is effect ; and if placed, 
 as shown, on a raised architectural platform, in the centre of a garden not over planted, it 
 cannot fail to look well from every point of view. 
 
 130. General Estimate. Cubic' contents, 14,568 feet, at 6d., £364 : 4i. ; at id., £242 ; \6s. ; 
 and at 3d., £182 : 2*. 
 
 131. Expressio}!. It can hardly be said that this edifice resembles a cottage dwelling; 
 and, at all events, it is certainly not one of the humble class. There is an obvious desire for 
 display ; and as this has produced a comfortable colonnade for the exercise of children, for 
 hanging up Indian corn, tobacco, or seeds, and for drying clothes during rainy weather, it 
 need not be much objected to. As far as respects style, the building is mixed ; but, as the 
 mixture is agreeable, a whole of some merit is produced. 
 
 Design XIV. — A Dwelling for a Man and his Wife, with One Servant and a grown-up Son or 
 
 Daughter. 
 
 132. Accommodation. There is a kitchen, a ; a scullery and sink, b ; pantry, c ; closet, ; 
 two bed-rooms, e and// a closet,^; a water-closet for women, /» / and a water-closet for 
 men, i. These accommodations are surrounded by an uninterrupted arcade, for the sake of 
 effect, and for air, exercise, and drying clothes during inclement weather. An arcade 
 necessarily throws a much greater shadow on the windows than square pillars, or round 
 columns; but to compensate for this, it may be executed in brick-work, without the aid of 
 lintels of stone or wood, or of cement. 
 
COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 
 
 59 
 
 93 
 
 133. Construction. The arcade, which may support the roof independently of the inner 
 wall, should be of brick or stone. The inner walls may be of earth, or brick, or clay 
 nogging, or of stud-work (frame-work), lathed and plas- 
 tered. The pitch or rise of the roof is low, and the cover- j 
 ing is supposed to be of slates of the largest size ; the slop- 
 ing joints being covered with narrow strips of slate, in the 
 manner known in Britain by the term Wyatt's Patent, to 
 be afterwards described. The chimney stack has a far pro- 
 jecting cornice (fig 93, to a scale of half an inch to a foot). 
 
 134. Situation. This dwelling is calculated for being 
 placed on a platform supported by masonry, in the midst of 
 a garden, on an elevated situation, because it will look well 
 from every point of view. 
 
 135. Garden. Contents, two roods, thirty-five poles, 
 and fifteen yards. The square in which the house stands is 
 devoted to flowers and other ornamental plants. The com- 
 partment to the left of this square, to the perennial crops, 
 such as asparagus, ^; sea-kale, / ; rampion, m ; tart rhubarb, 
 n, n ; strawberries, o, o ; American cranberries, p ; J erusalem 
 artichokes, q ; and common artichokes, or perennial spinach, as may be preferred, r. The 
 two squares to the right are devoted, to gooseberries, and t, to cuiTants and raspberries. 
 The two long squares, « and v, may be subjected to four years' rotation, as described in the 
 preceding Design. There may be a well, or a sun dial, at w, and a small court of offices beyond 
 the garden for other conveniences. 
 
 136. General Estimate. Cubic contents, 26,824 feet, at 6rf. per foot, £670 : 125. ; at 1.-/., 
 £447 : 1* : 4rf. ; and at M., £335 : 6,v. 
 
 137. Expression. Small dwellings 
 in this manner of architecture are 
 generally considered as belonging to 
 the Italian style. There can be no 
 question of the excellence of the 
 general effect ; but we naturally ask 
 how it happens, that in a building 
 so studiously uniform, the entrance 
 stairs should not have been placed 
 in the centre of the front? If the 
 answer be that there is not a central 
 opening, the question occurs, why 
 was not this provided in arranging 
 the plan ? Here, then, we have the 
 Architect setting out on a principle, 
 v\z., that of uniformity, pursuing it 
 through the main body of the build- 
 ing, and afterwards defeating all his 
 labours by abandoning it in an im- 
 portant feature. If we consider this 
 
60 
 
 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 Of) 
 
 building as a human habitation, there is also an obvious absurdity in expending so niudi 
 for appearance, and yet paying so little attention to internal comfort, as to almost exclude 
 ^hat essential requisite to every dwelling, light. It is evident that all the rooms in ilil> 
 iiouse must be very much darkened ; not merely by the arcade, but by the great projection 
 of the roof beyond it. No man, who exercises his reason for a moment, as to what ho sees 
 before him, can feel satisfaction on looking at a structure like this; at least with reference 
 to such a climate as that of Britain. Terliaps in Italy, so much shade as this Design would 
 produce may be desirable ; and the want of light may not be so great an object in the present 
 state of civilization in that country, since the people are not readers, and are far from being 
 cleanly in eitlier their persons or houses. Hut even for Italy, this Design is bad; because, 
 in the warmest climates there must be times when more liglit is dcsiral>le than can be ad- 
 mitted into any of the apartments of this dwelling. Still Uie Design possesses a degree of 
 simplicity and grandeur, and may afford useful hints for 
 something better. The basement raised so as to include a 
 sunk story, fig. 94, would be a great improvement, in point 
 of convenience, and this would admit of lighting the rooms 
 above from two sides instead of one, fig. 95 ; because, in that 
 case, the back kitchen and store closet would be under ground. 
 Another mode of improving this Design would be to retain 
 the ground-floor in its present state, and to raise a bed-room 
 story over it, roofing the arcade or veranda with glass, con- 
 cealed by a parapet, and supporting the bed-room story on 
 the inner walls. The removal of the projection of tlie roof 
 would of itself admit more light ; but w hen to tliis is added the 
 liglit which will pass tlirough the glass roof of the veranda, 
 fig. 96, the liouse will be rendered habitable in any climate. 
 In proportion as the height of the verandas and their openings 
 
 arc increased, the more light will be admitted to the windows beneath them ; and if we 
 imagine a veranda raised six or eiglu feet higher than the tops of the windows which it pro- 
 tects, the rooms would be as light as if there were no veranda at all. In all cases, therefore, 
 of introducing arcades, colonnades, or verandas, before living rooms, they ought either not 
 to project far from the walls, or to have their openings carried up higlu-r than the archi- 
 traves of the windows. This last arrangement, however, can very seldom be carried into 
 
 97 
 
 effect in buildings of more than one story, without violating some principle of utility or 
 fitness. The arches in the Design before us being somewhat higher than the windows, a 
 balcony might be formed over the veranda, which, by getting rid of the projection of the 
 roof, would admit more light, and this, with a bed-room story added, would produce a good 
 effect, fig. 97. There remains to be noticed another great defect in the expression of this 
 
COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES, 
 
 building as a human dwelling, and that is, the want of a porch. Independently of the 
 addition which a porch would make g§ 
 to the expression of purpose, it 
 ■would add to the actual comfort and 
 propriety of the building; for, surely, 
 there is a great inconsistency in 
 forming so extensive a veranda, and 
 yet leaving the steps of ascent to it 
 not only uncovered, but without any 
 architectural appendage to enhance 
 their interest as a main entrance. 
 To introduce a porch in the best 
 manner in a building so entirely 
 uniform, some alteration would be 
 required in the position of the win- 
 dows in the ground plan, so as to 
 admit of preserving the character of 
 symmetry, by having a porch in tlie 
 centre of one side, fig. 98. Were 
 this done, the width of the piers 
 somewhat diminished, and some- 
 thing added to their height, the 
 building would not only have a much 
 better effect, but become more ha- 
 bitable, fig. 99. Edifices of this sort are much better calculated for ornamental purposes, such 
 
 as a garden banqueting house ; in pleasure-grounds, with a fruit and wine cellar under ; or to 
 be placed on a rock or small island, in a lake or river, as a place to fish from under cover. 
 
 100 
 
 Design XY.—A Dwelling for a Man and his Wife, unthout Children. 
 
 138. Accommodation. This cottage, though very small, con- 
 tains a good many comforts and conveniences. The entrance, a, 
 is by a lean-to at one end, which serves as a porch, and at h, 
 may also be used as a place for fuel. There is a good kitchen, 
 c ; a pantry, d; back kitchen, with an oven and a flue to heat the 
 floor of the principal kitchen; a stair-case with a closet under,/; 
 water-closet, g ; and place for poultry, h. The upper story contains 
 only one bed-room, i. There is a small yard behind, ^r, which may 
 contain a cow-house and a pigsty, and which must include a manure 
 well and dung-pit 
 
 139. Construction. The walls are here represented of rough stone 
 plastered, and the roof as covered with Grecian or Italian tiles. The 
 terrace is of masonry, and the chimney tops (fig. 100, on a scale of 
 three-eighths of an inch to a foot), are of brick and cement. The pro- 
 
G4 
 
 COTTAGE, FARM, AXD VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 jection of the roof is considerable, and it is finished with a gutter, supported by short pieces let 
 
 into the wall, fig. 101, /, and by cantilevers, m. The blocks supporting tJie sill of the kitchen 
 
 window are of stone, and 
 
 so is the silL The mul 
 
 lions which divide the 
 
 window are of wood, and 
 
 the casements which fit 
 
 into them are hinged so 
 
 as to open inwards. The 
 
 windows of the pantry 
 
 and back kitchen are 
 
 sash windows. The 
 
 principal objection which 
 
 we have to the construc- 
 tion of this cottage, is 
 the placing the fire- 
 places in the outside 
 walls. For cold climates, 
 this is always with us, 
 a very great objection ; though, as this building is in the Italian Myle, it may be supposed 
 to be adopted for the south of Europe, the most southern parts of North America, or for 
 Australia. With a view to these countries, our objectiim falls to the ground ; and in trut"h, 
 we have raised it chiefly for the purpose of showing that some objections to buildings of 
 this description, and indeed to all buildings, are relative. Of positivf, or absolute objection*, 
 which have no relation to either country, climate, or iituaiioti, we sec noni- in this Design. 
 It is on a dry foundation, of sufficient strength in construction, and of sufficient durability 
 in its materials. It is securely roofed ; the rooms are sufficiently lofty, well lighted, and 
 may be, if the occupant think fit, well ventilated. 
 
 140. Situatiun. This building having no windows behind, is calculated for being placed 
 upon the side of a hill, and viewed from below. If surrounded by a good garden, and w ith 
 no trees within a hundred yards of it higher than fruit trees, it can hardly fail to have a 
 good effect. In general, trees which stand close to any building, more especially to one of 
 small size, should either be decidedly larger or decidedly smaller than the building itself. 
 The chief reason for this is, that objects of the same size, or apparently so, do not co-operate 
 well in forming a whole; which always must consist of one principal or prominent part, and 
 of two or more subordinate ones. 
 
 141. General Estimate. Cubic content^. S.20fl f, < f . at Cut . C205 : 3*. ; at U., £136 : 15i : 4^.; 
 and at M., £102 : lis : Crf. 
 
 142. Expression. The style at- 
 tempted is evidently Italian; but 
 why a deviation was made in the 
 wings from the Italian Gothic win- 
 dow, to the common English sash 
 window, is not obvious. The fault 
 is not a great one ; because so far 
 from interfering with utility, a su- 
 perior article is introduced instead 
 of an inferior one. But in respect 
 to appearance, these windows cer- 
 tainly diminish the force of the 
 style. Reduced to their proper 
 form, and a parapet added to the 
 terrace, fig. 102, this dwelling would 
 produce a very good effect, and might serve for one of those which a recent writer in 
 the Mechanic's Magazine, recommends to be substituted for mile-stones along the public 
 roads of Great Britain. To the cottages so placed, he proposes to attach large gardens ; and 
 those, with the cottage, are to serve as models for neatness and order in their appearance and 
 management to tlie agricultural labourers in the vicinity. The occupier of the cottage is to 
 sit rent-free, on condition of keeping the sides and fences of one mile of road neat and orderly, 
 and as free from weeds and all obstructions as the approach road in a gentleman's park ; 
 a labour which might occupy him fifty or sixty days in the year. Mech. Mag. Vol XVI. 
 p. 410. 
 
COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 
 
 65 
 
 Design XVI.— ^ Dwelling for a Man and his Wife without Children. 
 
 143. Accommodation. This building contains a commodious kitchen, twelve feet by six- 
 teen feet ; and it has two windows, in order to admit of a tailor or shoemaker, with his ap- 
 prentice, carrying on work at one window, while the woman's work is going on at the other. 
 A large porch, a, which is lighted by a fanlight from the upper part of the dooi-way, fonns 
 both the entrance to the dwelling, and the 
 passage of communication from the kitchen, b. 
 to the bed-room, c. There is a pantry and 
 store-closet, d, opening from the kitchen, and 
 a light closet, e, partitioned off the bed- room. 
 The privy, and other conveniences, are sup- 
 posed to be placed at a short distance from the 
 house, and to be concealed by bushes. 
 
 144. Situation. This building, having one 
 side with only a small window in it, may be 
 placed against a wood, and so that the en- 
 trance-door may front the south-east. The 
 roof, being of thatch, indicates that it is not 
 intended for a country subject to high winds. 
 
 145. Construction. The walls may be 
 formed of stone or mud ; or, in a country where bricks are abundant and cheap, they may 
 be built hollow of brick-work (see § 23). The thatched roof will project over the walls, 
 as shewn in the accompanying sketch, fig. 103 ; in which is shewn the rafter, /, placed at 
 an angle of 30°, and also a wooden moulding, ff, under the projecting thatch. The chimney- 
 stack consists of two circular columns with plain heads, as in the annexed drawing (fig. 104, 
 on a scale of half an inch to a foot). 
 
 146. General Estimate. Cubic contents, 10,328 feet, at 6d., £258 : 45. ; at Ad 
 £172 : 2s : 8d. ; and at 3d., £129 : 2s. 
 
 147. The Garden contains two roods and a half, and is divided into eight compartments, 
 with a surrounding border ; the boundary fence being a wall of mud, brick, or stone, against 
 which may be planted fruit trees, or currants and gooseberries, according to the climate in 
 which the design is executed. The compartment, h, is intended for a plantation of goose- 
 berries, surrounded by a row of dwarf apples ; i, is a plantation of currants and raspberries, 
 surrounded by a row of pears, plums, and cherries ; k, a grass plot ; I, strawberries; m. pe- 
 rennial spinach ; t?, peas ; o, beans ; p, potatoes ; 
 q, the cabbage tribe ; r, onions, turnips, 
 carrots, and other surface and fusiform roots. 
 In continuing the rotation, the compartments 
 n and o, will, of course, be considered as one, 
 and cropped, after (1) the leguminous vege- 
 tables, with (2) potatoes, (3) the cabbage 
 tribe, and (4) roots. The borders round this 
 garden may be devoted to small crops, such as 
 salading, annual spinach, pot-herbs, tart 
 rhubarb, which ought never to be omitted in 
 the cottager's garden, a few plants of hops for 
 their tops as asparagus, and their flowers for 
 putting in beer, and, near the house, flowers 
 and flowering shrubs. 
 
 148. Remarks. This Design may be con- 
 sidered as imperfect in point of accommoda- 
 tion, but we introduce it because there are 
 many persons who may be able or willing to 
 build such cottages for themselves or their de- 
 pendents, who,' from particular opinions or 
 want of means, might be unable or unwilling 
 to build a dwelling of a better description. If at any future time it were desired to enlarge 
 this cottage, two rooms under a lean-to roof might easily be joined to the wall, s, t, which has 
 but one small window, a communication being opened to such rooms by changing the destina- 
 tion of the kitchen closet. This will give the ground plan, fig. 105, which may be considered 
 a tolerably commodious cottage ; not only two additional bed-rooms, u, v, being obtained, hut 
 
 I 
 
 104 
 
66 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 105 106 
 
 the closet, to, fts a substitute for d, in Desiffn XVI., here, in fig. 105, turned into a passage. If 
 
 it were desirable to add fnur 
 rooms instead of tw o, a passage 
 and staircase might be formed 
 between the two rooms, and 
 two bed-chambers obtained in 
 the floor above. This migl>t be 
 easily effected by turning round 
 the partition wall of u*, to a 
 line with the door of that clostt, 
 and by removing t}ie centre 
 division wall between u and r, 
 to a line with the door of the 
 right hand bed-room, v ; a space 
 of seven feet wide would then 
 be left in the middle for the 
 i.taircase, fig. IOC, x. Sup- 
 posing the party who had n)ade 
 these alterations to have in- 
 creased in prosperity, and to 
 be desirous of one handsome 
 dining-room in which to re- 
 ceive his friends, it might 
 readHy be attained by extend- 
 ing the building from the ex- 
 tremity of the staircase passage, 
 as in fig. 107, in which a hand- 
 some room, y, is obtained ; and 
 over this it would be easy to 
 form a corresponding drawing- 
 room, or two additional bed- 
 rooms. As it would be no 
 longer desirable to pass through 
 the kitchen to such apartments, 
 a porch, z, might be added, so 
 as to enter the dining-room 
 and the staircase direct from 
 the terrace or platform. The 
 elevation, in the case of such 
 alterations, may very properly 
 be in a somewhat different 
 style of building from the ori- 
 
COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 
 
 67 
 
 ginal cottage, because the builder may justly be supposed to have become possessed, not 
 only of superior means, but of a higher degree of taste, or of consciousness of deficiency in 
 taste, and consequently have called in professional assistance since his former erection. But 
 
 whether he employs another, or proceeds on his own opinion, he will be justified by historical 
 truth, as well as by the natural love of mankind for variety of character, in building two 
 different additions, at different times, in different styles, or substyles of architecture. The 
 elevations in this case will, in our opinion, be in perfect good taste, either as in fig. 108, 
 
 which shows only the first addition ; or as in fig. 109, which shows the dining-room added, but 
 not a drawing-room ; in lieu of this a flat roof is shown, over which an awning may be placed 
 in the summer season, a practice particularly suitable for America and Australia. For the 
 sake of variety, we have shown the centre building in a different style in fig. 109 to what it 
 
 111 
 
 110 
 
 is in fig. 108. We have also shewn 
 in fig. 109, three descriptions of 
 terrace parapets, with three styles 
 of ornamental vases ; the vases for 
 the original cottage may be stone 
 pots, in shape not materially dif- 
 ferent from the common flower- 
 pot; those for the first addition 
 may be as in fig. 110, manufactured 
 by Mr. Peake, of Tunstall, in Staf- 
 fordshire, and sold at \5s. each ; 
 
 and those for the second addition may be a tazza (cup) vase, like fig. 
 Ill, manufactured by the same potter, at 18s. The progressive improvement of cottages in 
 this manner, we consider as particularly suitable for the inhabitants of new and prosperous 
 countries. 
 
 149. Expression. The lofty proportions of the doors and windows, and the height of the 
 
68 
 
 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 walls from the platform to the roof, 
 give a certain expression of dignity 
 to the exterior of this dwelling whicii 
 every one must feel. But this ex- 
 pression is Badly counteracted by the 
 meany crouching appearance of the 
 thatched roof, which, both as regards 
 the material of which it is made, and 
 the form in which it is disposed, is 
 altogether unsuitable for the walls. 
 In general, the truncated gable ends, 
 such as are seen over the entrance- 
 door, and at both ends of this cottage, 
 convey the idea of imperfection of 
 
 form, of restricted resources, and of meanness and lameness of character, 
 pediment of the gable ends completed, 
 even though the building continued 
 to be covered with thatch, the efTcct 
 (fig. 112) will be superior, and will 
 leave nnich less to be wished for. 
 But still the expression of a thatched 
 cottage, as such cottages are gene- 
 rally seen and formed in Britain, is 
 not complete ; the walls continue to 
 be too high, and the roof too low in 
 the pitch, or not sufficiently steep on 
 the sides ; that is, the proportion be- 
 tween the walls and roof to which we 
 are accustomed is violated. Lower 
 the walls, and iticrease the surface of the roof, as in fig. 
 the eve satisfied, and the ex- 
 
 prcssion of a thatched cottage 
 comparatively complete. Let it 
 not be supposed, however, that 
 we prefer these proportions to 
 those given in fig. 112 with a 
 view to the principle of use ; but 
 for the sake of maintaining the 
 beauty of style, we would, with 
 windows of these proportions, 
 introduce the Italian or Grecian 
 roof of low pitch, similar to that 
 of Design XV. Cottages with 
 truncated gable ends, and with 
 roofs, sometimes thatched and _ _ 
 sometimes of slates, seem to be 
 
 much approved of by many British architects ; and 
 built, but several Designs in 
 this manner have been pub- 
 lished. We have no doubt they 
 pleased at the time of their 
 first introduction, from the no- 
 velty of the form, and they 
 still please some ; but we 
 doubt much if the pleasure 
 they communicate will stand 
 the test of time. There is 
 scarcely any architectural land- 
 scape painter who, if he were 
 left to his free choice, would 
 introduce Design XVI. into his 
 composition in preference to 
 fig. 113; at the same time we 
 
COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 69 
 XVI. 
 
COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 
 
 71 
 
 allow that the truncated gable ends may occasionally be introduced for the sake of variety. 
 The same ground plan, and ge- 
 neral proportion of the different 
 parts, including the door and win- 
 dows, may be easily adapted to 
 different elevations, according to 
 the circumstances of country, cli- 
 mate, and locality, where it is to 
 be built; and the wealth, good 
 taste, or peculiar taste of the 
 builder. In the suburbs of a 
 country village it may be thought 
 desirable, as a mark of distinction, 
 to give it a highly architectural 
 character, fig. 114 ; or on an ele- 
 vated situation some might prefer 
 finishing the walls with Gothic 
 battlements with narrow embra- 
 sures, fig. 115, a taste which we 
 have been rather surprised to 
 learn is not uncommon in Ame- 
 rica. In the south of Europe, the southern parts of the American continent, and in 
 Australia, the great luxury of a portico might lead to a continuation of one all round the 
 structure, fig. 116; the columns being either rude trunks of trees, rude blocks of stone, or 
 worked timber, with square stone plinths as bases, and plain capitals, fig. 117. Indeed a 
 
 colonnade or veranda, when it does not obstruct light or impede ventilation, is a great source 
 of comfort and enjoyment in all countries; it excludes rain and cold in the north, and & 
 burning sun in the south. 
 
 Design XVII. —A Dwelling with Two Rooms and a Bed-closet, for a Man and his Wife, with 
 an Apprentice or Servant. 
 
 150. Accommodation. From the vestibule, a, a door leads to the kitchen, b, from which 
 
 is partitioned off the room for the servant or apprentice, c, barely suflBcient for a bed. 
 The bed-room, d, has a dark closet, e, and a light one, /. There is a closet for fuel, g, and 
 some use may be made of the roof, by having an opening in the ceiling, with a trap-door 
 over the porch, and a suitable ladder as will hereafter be described. In the garden are two 
 small yards, surrounded by fruit tree hedges ; one of which, h, is for wood, poultry, pigs, a 
 privy, and in the centre, a tank for liquid manure; and the other, i, is for a drying-ground, 
 wash-house, place for tools, &c At a short distance from the house, is shown the situation 
 of the spring water well and pump, k, it being never desirable to have this near the 
 dung-pit, or liquid manure tank. The pump in the garden may be considered, by some, as 
 too far from the house, but that well is supposed to be of hard water, and principally for 
 use in the garden. For washing, and other domestic purposes, soft water may be collected on 
 the roof, and filtered as described under the Chapter of Model Cottages, Design I. § 31, or 
 below, in § 151. There is a small building in the corner of the yard, i, which covers a tank 
 for containing the filtered water, and it may be drawn to the house from that, or from any 
 distance, by Siebe's piimp, § 33, fig. 10. Various plans for constructing such a tank may be 
 
72 
 
 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 given, but the following, by Waistell, is one of the most complete, either for a farm-house oi 
 for a substantial cottage. 
 
 151. WaistelVs Tank is circular in the ground plan, with the sides built like a well. " The 
 bottom should be in the form of a flat dome reversed, and the top also domical, with an 
 opening left in the centre of sufficient size to admit a man to clean it out occasionally ; the 
 top of this opening should be a little above the surface of the ground, and should be covered 
 with an oak flap, with several holes bored in it for ventilation ; or the cover may be an iron 
 grating, horizontal and a little elevated, or conical. These tanks may be constructed of 
 various dimensions ; the depth and width should be nearly equal ; a hole should also be left 
 for the service-pipe, or that which conveys the water into the 1 1 8 
 tank, and also for the pipe for the pump, if the water be drawn 
 out by that means. The water may be filtered previously to its 
 entering the tank ; the hole for the service-pipe ought, therefore, 
 to be near the top, and on that side most convenient for the 
 filtering chamber ; this may be about four feet in diameter, and 
 three feet deep ; across this, about twelve inches from the side 
 next the tank, as at fig. 118, /, a slate partition from the top to 
 within about six inches from the bottom should be fixed ; at the bottom of the box should 
 be put clean coarse sand or pounded charcoal, about a foot in thickness. The pipe or 
 opening from the filter to the reservoir should be of aujple dimensions, and be made at about 
 eighteen or twenty inches from the bottom, in the sniall division or space behind the slate. 
 Above this opening, and in any part most convenient, as at m, in the large division of the 
 filter, should be an opening or drain to carry off" the water when the 119 
 
 tank is full. This filter should also have a cover, that it may be 
 cleaned out, and fresh sand, or some other purifier, put in as often 
 as may be found requisite. Of course, the water, as it comes from 
 the roof, is to be first conveyed into the large division of the filtering 
 chamber, on the opposite side to the slate partition, as at fig. 119, n, 
 and passing through the sand it rises in the small division purified, 
 when it is fit to pass into the tank by the tube, o. If there are two 
 or more of these filtering chambers, or if they are of greater depth, 
 the water mav be passed through the greater quantity of sand, 8:c. in them, and be still more 
 purified. Both the tanks and the filtering chambers should be water tight ; if constructed of 
 brick, the inner course may be built in Roman cement, and afterwards the whole of the 
 inside covered with a coat of about three quarters of an inch thick of the same material. 
 Water from drains formed in the ground for the purpose of collecting it for domestic pur- 
 poses, may be purified by passing it through a sand filter previously to its entering the tank 
 or reservoir. Sponge and flannel may also be used as filters. In constructing tanks of the 
 above description, care must be taken to have the earth closely filled around the brick-work, 
 and to allow sufficient time for the work to 
 get properly settled previously to admitting 
 any great weight of water. Cisterns for 
 water formed of blue slate, or Yorkshire 
 paving stones, are much better than those 
 made of wood, and lined with lead." — 
 WaistelVs Designs for Farm Buildings. 
 
 152. The CoTistruction of the Walls arjrfC 
 
 Roof of this dwelling is very similar to that | ^ 
 
 of Design VII. The wall is carried up with 
 a parapet or blocking course, fig. 120, p, be- 
 hind which is the gutter, q. This gutter is 
 usually covered with lead ; but in countries 
 like Russia, where cast-iron is abundant, it 
 may be very convenienUy formed of that metal, in connexion with the entire covering of the 
 roof. A patent was some time ago taken out for this mode of covering roofs in England, 
 by Carter, of Exeter, of which it may 
 be useful here to give the substance. 
 
 153. Carter's Cast-iron Roofs are 
 formed of three descriptions of cast-iron 
 plates, fig. 121, r, s, t. These forms answer every purpose for flat roofs which have not 
 pavilion ends. One of them, r, is formed with three of its sides turned up and one turned 
 down, and is called the roof plate. This plate is tapered narrower towards the lip by twice 
 
COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 
 
 73 
 
 the thickness of the plate. A second, s, is called the low ridge plate, and has two of its sides 
 turned up, and the other two turned down. 
 The third, is the high ridge, or cap plate, 
 
 0" 
 
 122 
 
 1_L 
 
 123 
 
 having all its sides turned down, and formed 
 with an angle in the middle, so as to slope 
 each way of the roof. This roof may be 
 made very flat, so much so, that, for a house ' ' ' 
 
 twenty feet wide, the height of the roof in the middle need not exceed two feet. No 
 boarding is required, but the plates, fig. 122, u, may rest without either cement or nails, 
 on the rafters, v. The appear- 
 ance may be considered massive 
 and handsome, fig. 123; and it 
 is evident, from the manner in 
 which the plates overlap each 
 
 other, as shown in figs. 123 and._£ ' _ 
 
 124, that there can be no risk of 
 
 inconvenience from contraction or expansion. If a number of buildings were to be erected, 
 it might become worth while to have plates cast on purpose for hips and angles, so as to comr 
 plete pavilion roofs on r====, 
 
 the same principle. . — — ' ^'^^ 
 
 Probably, also, tiles, ' --^^l!]!^;;;;;; ^!^^ p 
 
 especially of the terro- — ■•CI]^^;;;^-' 
 
 metallic 
 factured 
 
 kind, 
 from 
 
 manu- 
 a stra- 
 
 tum of clay almost peculiar to Staffordshire, might be formed of the same shapes as these 
 plates, and be found strong enough, after burning, to serve as substitutes for cast-iron. 
 
 154. The Garden contains about two roods and a half, and is divided into four large 
 compartments, w, w, w, to, for the usual four course rotation ; there are several smaller 
 compartments, viz., x, x, for grass plats surrounded by flowers; y, y, for strawberries; 
 and 2, 2, for gooseberries, currants, and raspberries. The boundary fence is a hedge, which, 
 in suitable climates, may be formed of figs ; in more northern latitudes, of apples, quinces, or 
 plums ; and in cold, ex- 
 posed situations, of sloes, 
 elders, services, or moun- 
 tain ash. The fruits of the 
 sloe, and the berries of the 
 elder, are valuable for wine 
 and those of the service and 
 mountain ash afford an ex- 
 cellent spirit. The three 
 last named trees must never 
 be clipped, otherwise they 
 will produce but few blos- 
 soms. Whenever a cot- 
 tager has the power of 
 choosing the sort of hedge 
 which shall surround his 
 garden, he may, in all cases, if he chooses, render it productive of useful fruit ; for every climate 
 has its fruit shrubs, and its low edible fruit-bearing trees. It must always be recollected that 
 the ground inside of the fence being under garden cultivation, and well manured, it would be 
 a pity to let any part of this enriched soil be exhausted by barren trees or shrubs. Even 
 where a powerful fence is required, by planting a double row of hedge plants, the outer one 
 of thorns, and the inner one of fruit shrubs, the riches of the soil will not be altogether lost. 
 
 155. General Estimate. Cubic contents, 1,089 feet, at Qd. per foot, £272:55.; at 4^^., 
 £181 : 10*. ; and at 3rf., £136 : 2s : Qd. 
 
 156. Expression. It must be confessed that this, though a substantial looking dwellxug, 
 which promises not to be without comfort within, has nothing elegant in its appearance. If 
 it has any character of style, it is that of the Scotch stone cottage, and it might very fitly 
 form a pair with Design VII. What can be done to render such a cottage elegant? A 
 veranda might be added, more especially if it were roofed with glass, otherwise, it would 
 darken the windows. The chimney top might also be enriched by ornamental chimney pots. 
 The greatest improvement would be a substantial porch, fig. 125, which would ad,d to the 
 
74 
 
 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 interior accommodation and comfort- Tlie veranda may be constructed of wroujjht iron sash 
 12G bars, of which fig. 126 is a section full size, cut to 
 the proper length, the upper end let into tl>c wall, 
 and made secure by cement, and the lower ends 
 notched into a cast-iron gutter, fig. 127. The 
 veranda may have an apron in front, formed of cast- 
 iron ornaments, fig. 128, screwed to the under side of 
 the gutter, or to the upper part of the iron props 
 which support it, fig. 129. No simpler or more 
 durable form of veranda ran well be constructed ; 
 its roof may be glazed with panes of crown glass, 
 
 Wfrom five inches to ten inches wide, according as the 
 country is more or less subject to violent hail storms. In those countries where 
 there is no duty on glass, the bars may be placed a foot or more apart, and plate 
 glass may be employed ; the panes, in that case, being from a foot to eighteen indies in breadth. 
 Where light is not an object, and blue slate 12S 
 abounds, it may be used in plates of any con- - 
 venient size, stucco, or Honian cement, being jj 
 employed instead of putty. Sheets of copper, 
 zinc, tinned plates, or rolled iron, may be fixed 
 in the same manner as the glass, or even tar- 
 pauling well painted, or oil-cloth, may also be 
 fixed between the bars. The lightness of ap- 
 pearance may be increased, by bending the bars so as to g»vc a concave form to the uppe* 
 
 surface of the roof, fig. 130 ; con- 
 cave surfaces, whether of ground 
 or of roofs, reflecting more light, 
 and therefore being always lighter, 
 or more varied to the eye, than 
 plain or convex ones. In this, 
 and in various other cases of a like 
 nature, where the width of the 
 veranda is not more than four feet, 
 it may be supported with cast-iron 
 brackets of elegant architectural 
 design, firmly built into the wall. 
 
 Design XVIII.— DweUiug far a Man and his ff i/c, without Children. 
 
 157. Accommodation. The man, in this case, is supposed to be a working mechanic, a 
 shoemaker or weaver, who works at home in one room, a, while the business of the house is 
 carried on by his wife in the other, b. There are two small rooms, c and d, one of which 
 may be used as a bed-room, and the other as a store-room. In the kitchen, b, is an oven, 
 w hich will contribute materially to warm the whole house, when baking is going forward 
 during winter ; and in summer, during the same operation, the apartment may be kept cool 
 by opening both the windows. There is a good closet in the work-room, o, and also in the 
 kitchen, b, so that, on the whole, there seems something like comfort in this dwelling, pro- 
 vided the man and his wife continue without children. In a small yard, which may be seen 
 at e, in the plan exhibiting the garden, are contained a privy, pigsty, a place for fowls, a 
 long narrow open shed for fuel, a manure tank and pump, and other conveniences. 
 
 158. Construction. The great art in building an economical cottage, is to employ the 
 kind of materials and labour which are cheapest in the given locality. In almost every part 
 of the world the cheapest article of which the walls can be made, will be found to be the 
 earth on which the cottage stands, and to make good walls from this earth is the principal 
 art of the rustic or primitive builder. Soils, with reference to building, may be divided into 
 two classes : clays, loams, and all such soils as can neither be called gravels nor sands ; and 
 sands and gravels. The former, whether they are stiff or free, rich or poor, mixed with stones, 
 or free from stones, may be formed into walls in one of the three modes already mentioned, 
 viz., in the pise manner, by lumps moulded in boxes, and by compressed blocks. Sandy and 
 gravelly soils may always be made into excellent walls, by forming a frame of boards, leaving 
 a space between the boards of the intended thickness of the wall, and filling this with gravel 
 mixed with lime mortar ; or, if this cannot be got, with mortar made of clay and straw. In 
 
COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 
 
 77 
 
 all cases when walls, either of this class or of the former, are built, the foundations should be 
 of stone or brick, and they should be carried up at least a foot above the upper surface of the 
 platform. In the course of this work, we shall describe all the various methods of building 
 earthern walls, and we shall here commence by giving one of the simplest modes of con- 
 struction, from the work of a very excellent and highly estimable individual, Mr. Denson, of 
 Waterbeach, Cambridgeshire, the author of The Peasant's Voice, who built his own cottage 
 in the manner described below. 
 
 159. Mode of building the Mud Walls of Cottages in Cambridgeshire. After a labourer has 
 dug a sufficient quantity of clay for his purpose, he works it up with straw ; he is then pro- 
 vided with a frame eighteen inches in length, six deep, and from nine to twelve inches 
 in diameter. In this frame he forms his lumps, in the same manner that a brickmaker forms 
 his bricks ; they are then packed up to dry by the weather ; that done, they are fit for use, 
 as a substitute for bricks. On laying the foundation of a cottage, a few layers of bricks are' 
 necessary, to prevent the lumps from contracting a damp from the earth. The fire-place is 
 lined, and the oven is built with bricks. I have known cottagers, where they could get the 
 grant of a piece of ground to build on for themselves, erect a cottage of this description at a 
 cost of from £15 to £30. I examined one that was nearly completed, of a superior order ; it 
 contained two good lower rooms and a chamber, and was neatly thatched with straw. It is a 
 warm, firm, and comfortable building; far superior to the one I live in ; and my opinion is, 
 that it will last for centuries. The lumps are laid with mortar, they are then plastered, and 
 on the outside once rough cast, which is done by throwing a mixture of water, lime, and small 
 stones against the walls before the plaster is dry, which gives them a very handsome appear- 
 ance. The cottage I examined, cost £33, and took nearly one thousand lumps to complete 
 it. I believe a labourer will make that number in two days : the roofs of cottages of this 
 description are precisely the same as when built with bricks, or with a wooden frame. Cow- 
 house sheds, garden walls, and partition fences, are formed with the same materials ; but in 
 all cases the tops are covered with straw, which the thatchers perform in a very neat manner. 
 — Benson's Peasant's Voice, p. 31. 
 
 13] 160. The Roof of this cottage is shown 132 * 
 as if thatched with reeds or straw ; it pro- 
 
 I jccts considerably on every side, and forms 
 a truncated pyramid, terminating in the 
 chimney-tops which are of stone, and of 
 a very simple form, (fig. 131, to a scale 
 of half an inch to a foot,) easily executed. 
 Nearly the same form might be produced 
 in well tempered clay, mixed with straw 
 and gravel, and afterwards rough cast; 
 but it is evident that it would not be so 
 durable. When chimney-tops are formed 
 
 of clay, a shape should be adopted which admits of covering them with 
 a flag stone, or a large slate, or tiles, in the Swiss manner, fig. 132. 
 
 161. Garden. The extent is about three-fourths of an acre. There 
 are four large compartments, /, g, h, i, calculated for a four-fold succession of crops ; viz., 
 potatoes, the leguminous tribe, the cabbage tribe, and turnips and other roots. Two small com- 
 partments, k and /, are devoted to currants, gooseberries, and raspberries ; and m, to straw- 
 berries, asparagus, and sea-kale. The garden is surrounded by a wall, with a border for 
 early and late crops, and for flowers. The rows of shrubs round the compartments, k and I, 
 are chiefly ornamental, sucli as roses, honeysuckles, mezereons, Cydonia japonica, &c. The 
 smgle fruit trees at the corners of the compartments are chiefly apples, with some pears, 
 cherries, and plums. There is a small summer house at ??, from which it may be supposed 
 there is an extensive prospect. 
 
 162. General Estimate. Cubic contents, 11,362 feet, at 6rf. per foot, £284:1*.; at 4rf 
 £189 : 7s : id. ; and at 3d., £142 : Os : 6d. 
 
 163. Expression. " I imagine," says Newton, in his preface to Vitruvius, " that every 
 bmldmg should, by its appearance, express its destination and purpose ; and that some 
 character should prevail therein which is suitable to, and expressive of, the particular end it is 
 to answer. To effect this, will require the exertion of the powers of the mind, the fire of 
 genius, and the solidity of judgment ; and without this, a composition is but a compilation of 
 parts without meaning or end." —Preface. The dwelling now under consideration can hardly 
 be considei'ed as having any other expression than that of the subject. It is a substantial 
 looking cottage dwelling, without any pretensions to either elegance or beauty. 
 
78 
 
 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 164. Alterations and Improve- 
 ments. The first and most obvious 
 mode of ornamenting this cottage, is 
 by surrounding it with a veranda, 
 either glazed, or finished with sheet- 
 iron or copper; and adding a light 
 terrace parapet, and also chimney 
 pots; for example, as in fig. 133. 
 The terrace parapet may be a very 
 simple wooden palisade, fig. 131 ; 
 and both it and the vt-randa may be 
 painted of a stone colour. In the 
 suburbs of a town, we should not 
 object to green ; but in the country « 
 there is green enough ; and tlie ^^J^ 
 colour of stone is, by contrast, a re- 
 lief to the eye. Another, and a very 
 simple and economical mode of conferring ornament on such a cottage, is by disguising its 
 
 roof with a second roof, .supported on a kcrcen front ; both roof :ind screen front being fi)rnit'd 
 of light trellis work, for the 
 
 purpose of being covered with 
 plants, fig. 135. The con- 
 struction of this trellis roof 
 will easily be understood from 
 the section, fig. 13G, in which 
 0 0 represent the walls of the 
 house, aud p p the roof, while 
 q q and r r represent the 
 trellis roof and trellis screen. 
 It deserves to be remarked, 
 that the screen being at tlie 
 distance of only three feet 
 from the walls, the trellis- 
 work, eren when covered with 
 foliage, will throw very little 
 shade on the windows, and 
 therefore not materially darken the rooms, 
 and even to dine, or receive 
 visiters, under the veranda of 
 a house, its distance from the 
 walls should be double or 
 treble what has hitherto been 
 shown in these cottages. At 
 whatever distance the trellis 
 screen and roof may be placed, 
 they ought to be covered with 
 vegetation ; and for the in- 
 dustrious cottager, we would 
 recommend apples, pears, or 
 vines, as the most profitable 
 trees. We should even prefer 
 elders for the roof, in climates 
 where the apple would not 
 ripen, rather than to cover the 
 whole with merely ornamental 
 plants, though these would do 
 
 135 
 
COTTAGE DWELLINrxS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 79 
 
 vrery well for the side screen. If heat were the great consideration, no plant could answer 
 '.he purpose better than ivy ; and it maybe observed incidentaUy, that such a trellis-work 
 and screen — 
 would form 
 averyhand- 
 sorne cover- 
 ing for any 
 building in 
 a garden 
 or pleasure 
 grounds, 
 which it 
 might be 
 desirable to 
 conceal, though a great ob- 
 jection to all such coverings is 
 their harbouring insects, unless 
 birds are so abundant as to keep 
 them under. The greatest im- 
 provement, however, of which 
 a cottage, such as Design XVIIL is susceptible, is by adding another story to it. This 
 might be done m various ways; the cheapest would be by turning the two small closets 
 mto one economical stair- 
 case, of the kind shown in 1.39 
 fig. 137. This description 
 of staircase occupies exactly 
 one half the space of a stair- 
 case on the ordinary plan. 
 This may be easily con- 
 ceived, when it is observed 
 that every step rises twice 
 the usual height. The space 
 occupied by these two closets 
 is four feet by three feet six 
 inches, and supposing the 
 tread or width of each step 
 of the stair to be eight inches, 
 and the rise eight inches, 
 then the depth of the closet 
 being eight feet, it will ad- 
 mit of carrying the stair 
 
 eight feet high. After this, 
 
 of the surface of the bed-room floor 
 the surface of the ground 
 floor, none of our ceilings 
 being lower than ten feet. If 
 the projection of the top of 
 the stair into the kitchen were 
 an insuperable objection, then 
 the bottom might either pro- 
 ject two double steps into the 
 bed-room below, the door 
 shutting against the riser 
 (perpendicular board) of the 
 third step; or a trap stair, 
 composed of the two lower 
 steps, and made to fold up, 
 might be resorted to. This 
 practice is to be met with in 
 F ranee, and it is remarkable 
 
 vance. that he made a note of it m his journal, which has since been published in hi. 
 
 the stair may project into the kitchen till it gains the height 
 This height is exactly eleven feet six inches from 
 
80 
 
 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 Correspondence. The elevation of this cottage, in the event of a second story being added, 
 will admit of adopting different styles of architecture, and a variety of the decorations or 
 features belonging to each style. The castellated Gothic may be adopted, as in fig. 138 ; the 
 monastic Gothic, as in fig. i;39 ; the Indian Gothic, the Italian style, with a campanilc-like 
 watch tower, or the Elizabethan style, fig. 140. It may appear injprobable to some, that 
 a person purposing to build so small a dwelling, should think of applying any of these 
 styles to it ; but in particular situations in Britain, it is sometimes considered desirable to 
 render such dwellings striking objects in a view ; and in America, we are informed that the 
 proprietors in easy circumstances are connnencing not only to build good, comfortable 
 cottages, but to display architectural style in them. Sometimes, also, the object is to create 
 particular associations. It may appear singular to a resident in Britain, that a British 
 emigrant in Van Diemen's Land should wish to build his dwelling in the form of an English 
 church tower; but, duly considered, the feeling will be found to be quite natural. The 
 associations which an object so characteristic of British scenery and civilization is calculated 
 to raise up in the minds of Brilons, resident in far distant, and, as yet, scarcely peopled 
 countries, surrounded by primeval forest* or wastes, can hardly be conceived by those who 
 liave never experienced them. 
 
 Design XIX.— ^ Dwclliuf^ of Two Rooms for a Man and his Wife without Children. 
 
 165. Arcojniiwdation. This dwelling contains what, in our opinion, ought to be llie 
 minimum of apartments for a man and his wife, without children, in any country. It ii 
 certain that, without this degree of accommodation in England, no country labourer considers 
 himself at all comfortable ; and in new countries, where the first settlers arc obliged to put 
 up with huts, or log houses, if they commence with one room, they never rest satisfied till 
 they have obtained, at least, two. The room, a, in this design, is supposed to be used as a 
 kitchen, and as the place for sitting and eating in; the bed-room is marked b; and from the 
 kitchen are divided off a lumber closet, /, and a pantry, e. The bed-room has, in like 
 manner, separated from it by partitions, two closets, c and d ; one of which may be used as a 
 store-room, and the other may serve as a place for clothes. The size of all these apartments 
 is comparatively small ; but they are all well lighted, and ten feet high from the floor to the 
 ceiling. The privy, dung-pit, and maimre tank, to this dwelling, are supposed to be placed 
 at a short distance from it outside the garden ; in our opinion, noi the best arrangement, but 
 in some particular situations unavoidable. The well for water is also supposed to be placed 
 outside the garden, but in an opposite direction to, or at all events, at some distance from, the 
 tank for manure. 
 
 1G6. Situation. This building is well calculated for being placed on the summit of a gentle 
 clevaiion, in a situation where it will be se^n frouj all sides. The reasons why it 'm suitable 
 for this purpose, are, first and chiefly, the nearly cubical fonn of the building, which, from 
 whatever point it is viewed, has a massive, substantial, and secure appearance ; secondly, 
 from the chimney being in the centre of the roof, thus giving an expression of symmetry, or of 
 a whole, of which the chimney top is the finishing part ; and thirdly, from the number of 
 openings being the same 
 
 on every side ; for though ^^-''^^^'^^^^^^^ii*^ 
 these openings are irrcgu- J i 1 
 
 lar in size, yet they are 
 regular in number, and 
 mere regularity, though a 
 minor beauty, has the ad- 
 vantage of being recog- 
 nised and acknowledged 
 by ordinary minds, while, 
 at the same time, it is al- 
 ways more or less satis- 
 factory to those even of 
 the most refined taste. 
 When we add to these 
 particulars, the effect of 
 the elevated platform on 
 
 which the cottage stands, it being placed on the flattened summit of a knoll, and forming, as 
 it were, an architectural plinth to this little cottage castle, it will not be denied that the result 
 will be a somewhat dignified, though formal expression of purpose. One conspicuous fault 
 
COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 
 
 81 
 
 in the elevation of this cottage is, that the chimney stack rises from the roof without any 
 preparation, and is far from being suflBciently high. Were this feature properly altered, the 
 effect would be very different, fig. 141. 
 
 167. Aspect. Much of the comfort enjoyed by the inhabitants of every dwelling will de- 
 pend on the aspect of the windows. Where a house has only windows on one side, as we 
 have before observed, (§ 24) the best aspect is the south-east, on account of the greater 
 mildness of the wind from that quarter, the infrequency of south-easterly storms, and the 
 cheerfulness of the morning sun. The least desirable aspect for a house ha\nng the windows 
 and the door all on one side, is the north ; because at such windows the sun will only enter 
 during a few mornings and evenings before and after midsummer: the next worst aspect is, 
 perhaps, the south-west ; because the winds from that quarter are frequently boisterous, and 
 are almost always accompanied with rain. If the entrance is unavoidably on the south-west 
 side, then the door should be protected by a close porch, having its door opening to the south ; 
 if on the north-west or north-east, the entrance should be similarly protected by porches, 
 having their doors opening to the west or east. 
 
 168. Construction. The walls are supposed to be of stone, and the roof to be covered with 
 Tuscan or Grecian tiles (figs. 23 and 24, § 50). The windows are surrounded by what are 
 commonly called facings, that is by architraves without mouldings ; and the sills are sup- 
 ported by small blocks. The window frames may each be in three parts, opening inwards, 
 with bold perpendicular astragals (from astragalus, the ankle bone ; a bar with a round 
 moulding resembling the end of that bone), and lighter horizontal ones. The chimney top 
 may be covered by two pieces of flag-stone, or two large slates, each chimney flue having 
 two holes on the sides of the stack 
 for the smoke to escape. The water 
 which falls on the roof, is collected 
 by a gutter, formed in the manner 
 shown by fig. 142, which gutter 
 ought to be lined with lead ; beneath 
 this is the cantilever, h. The end of 
 the wall plate is shown at i, on which 
 the binders, k, of the rafters, /, rest, 
 and to which they are fitted. The 
 poleplate, to, is for the purpose of 
 supporting the rafters. 
 
 169. General Estimate. Cubic 
 contents, 8,316 feet, at M. per foot, £207 
 
 
 r ^ 1 
 
 
 i 
 
 ^ ^ 
 
 
 
 rO. The Garden contains three roods. 
 
 185. ; at 4rf., jgl38 : 125. ; and nt 3</., £103 : 19*. 
 We have shown the house placed in the middle 
 of a garden, and this garden is divided into seven compartments. The two small ones on the 
 entrance front of the house, n, n, may be devoted to flowers, and herbs for seasoning, with a 
 few rhubarb plants for tarts, and one or two hops. These compartments may be surrounded 
 by a line of gooseberries, currants, raspberries, roses, and other useful and ornamental shrubs, 
 three or four feet apart The compartment, o, behind the house, is shown in three equal 
 divisions, and is supposed to be cropped with strawberries, for the sake of selling the fruit. 
 The remaining four compartments, p, q, r, s, two on each side of the house, will stand thus : — 
 (1) potatoes; (2) peas, beans, kidney beans, and other leguminous crops; (3) the cabbage 
 tribe ; and (4) turnips, carrots, parsnips, onions, and other root crops. These crops may suc- 
 ceed each other in the above order in every compartment, and the rotation may thus go on 
 for ever. The dung should be applied with the first and third crops. The surrounding hedge 
 may be of plums or sloes, pruned, but not clipped, in order that the plants may produce 
 fruit for sale, for tarts, or for wine. The fruit trees shown at the corners of the compart- 
 ments may be chiefly apples, with one or two pears and cherries. The privy, dung-pit, and 
 well, already noticed, are supposed to be exterior to the garden in the fuel plantation, and 
 therefore are not shown in the plan. 
 
 171. Remarks. On examining this dwelling, we find that though it is deficient in point 
 of comfort, from having the privy at a distance, it is convenient in respect to in-door enjoy- 
 ments, from having four light closets in addition to the two apartments which constitute the 
 main part of the dwelling. It must not be forgotten, however, that the living-room, a, must 
 also be used as a wash-house, and back kitchen ; and that the room, b, having a bed in it, can 
 never be considered, by an English labourer, as a comfortable sitting-room. Nothing, indeed, 
 short of three rooms, viz., a kitchen, back kitchen, and bed-room, can be deemed sufficient 
 for the comfort of even a labourer and his wife without children. We know a case in which 
 a cobbler and his wife lived in such a cottage as that represented in the present Design, and 
 
82 
 
 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 both these persons being under the usual size, they put a bed in the closet, /, and used the 
 room, b, as the cobbler's work-room, lor which, being liirhted from two sides, it was very well 
 adapted; but this is what is called, in Eng- 143 
 land, making shift ; a thing not to be recom- 
 mended in any book written with a xnew to 
 human improvement. We may, notwith- 
 standing, state that a closet may be turned 
 into a makeshift bed-room for persons of even 
 the ordinary size, by projecting the foot of the 
 bed, fig. 143, through a partition, u, into the 
 next room, or closet, v, enclosing and cover- 
 ing the projection in such a manner as to give 
 it the appearance of a chest of drawers or a 
 press, and making the top serve as a dressing 
 tabic, w. In the space below the bolton) of 
 the bed, a large drawer, i, for clothes or linen 
 may be obtained, opening into the closet, v. 
 
 172. Expression. It is evident, from inspec- 
 tion, that something more is intendid in the 
 elevation of this cottage than mere expression of the subject, Tbe lilocks or dentils undet 
 the window sills, the projecting roof, and its tiles, the cover to the chimney top, the general 
 form of the windows, and the 
 
 arched head of the doorway, 144 
 show something like an at- 
 tempt at architectural style. 
 What, then, is the style at- 
 tempted? Those who have 
 viewed the buildings of all the 
 countries of Europe with an 
 architectural eye, or those who 
 have studied the cottage build- 
 ings in the pictures of the 
 Italian landscape painters, will 
 best be able to detcrnune this 
 question. All will agree that 
 it seems to belong to the Italian 
 style. This style, as it is called 
 
 on the Roman variety of Grecian architecture, with some form 
 belonging to the castel- 
 lated Gothic, but is by 
 no means definite in its 
 characteristics. In build- 
 ings of the humblest chiss, 
 it may be described as 
 characterised by flat and 
 far projecting roofs, mas- 
 sive walls, and windows 
 broad rather than deep, 
 which are generally car- 
 ried up close to the eaves, 
 in order to be shaded, as 
 much as possible, from 
 the sun. In adapting the 
 Italian style to England, 
 this last characteristic is 
 generally somewhat mo- 
 dified, as in this Design ; 
 indeed no characteristic 
 of any style or manner 
 ought to be servilely 
 imitated, when that imitation would prove inconsistent with utility or convenience. When 
 one age or country borrows the architecture of any other, it must be modified in such a 
 
 .4 
 
 though in reality it is only a substyle or manner, is founded 
 dispositions, and ornaments 
 
COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 
 
 S3 
 
 manner as to suit the new locality to which it is applied ; and the hand of the master is 
 
 146 
 
 shown in effecting this modification in the 
 spirit of the original style. 
 
 173. Ornament or Variation. A veranda, 
 and a common Italian parapet, would serve 
 to decorate this Design, fig. 144; while, if it 
 were desirable to adapt a different elevation 
 to the same plan, any of the Gothic styles 
 indicated in figs. 138, 139, and 140, § 164, 
 might be adopted ; or recourse might be had 
 to the Indian Gothic, fig. 145. The Italian 
 parapet is formed by tiles of any kind, but not longer than six or eight inches, fig. 146, piled 
 
 148 
 
 up between piers, as in figs. 147, 148, 149, 150, 151, and 152. It is easy to conceive that 
 mZV 149 150 
 
 numerous other variations of the same kind may be made in the same manner, by tiles of 
 151 152 
 
 these and of other kinds, with or without the aid of bricks and paving tiles. A very hand- 
 
 153 
 
 sAA-AA A AA/\AAA/>AA/ 
 
 154 
 
 some parapet may be made by using small hollow draining tiles or tubes as balusters. To 
 the Indian cottage, fig. 145, parapets may be contrived of appropriate Indian forms, figs. 
 
 153 and 154. 
 
 Design XX.-^ Dwelling for a Man and his Wife with Children, and having a Cowhouse 
 
 Pigsty, ^c. attached. 
 
 174. Accommodation. The ground plan consists of an entrance, a; kitchen, h; bed- 
 closet, c ; wash-house, d; bed-room, e; dairy, // linen closet,^; pigsty, h; privv, i; 
 pantry, k ; and cow-house or wood-house, /. In the roof, there is one large bed-room, v^hich 
 may be seen in the section A, B ; it is lighted from one end, but can only be ascended to by 
 means of a ladder through the trap-door in the ceiling of the entrance lobby, a. A hen- 
 house might be formed over the piggery or the cow-house ; and rabbits, in hutches, might 
 be kept in the latter building. 
 
 175. Construction. The inner walls are supposed to be of rubble stone, as being the 
 cheapest material in the given locality ; the outer walls are of brick, and hollow ; the roof is 
 thatched. The three-quarter columns shown in the front elevation, are supposed to be of 
 wood ; and the manner in which they are attached to the walls may be seen in fig. 155, which 
 is a section through the lean-to from back to front. 
 
 176. General Estimate. Cubic contents, 11,142 feet, at 6d. per foot, £278: II5 • at 4rf 
 £185 : 145. ; and at Zd., £139 : 5^ : Qd. 
 
 177. Expression. To the eye which looks only at picturesque effect, this cottage will not 
 
84 
 
 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 be unpleasing ; but strictly examined on scientific principles, it is full of faults. The three- 
 quarter columns, supporting nothing but thatch, are absurdities : they are of n(. use as piers, 
 because the wall is strong enough without them ; 
 and they are the more superfluous, because they 
 are attached to the walls at the angles, which, as 
 we have before shown (§74), are the strongest parts 
 of the wall. A column is the noblest member of 
 the architectural body, because it effects, of itself, 
 and in a simple and striking manner, by one bold 
 and independent form, what could otherwise be 
 only effected by a great number of petty details 
 of masonry or carpentry. As a support, it ni&y 
 be substituted for a wall ; as a monument, it will 
 serve the purpose of either a cone, a pyramid, or 
 a tower ; and placed horizontally over an opening, 
 in the form of a beam, it takes the place of an 
 arch. Of what other architectural member can so 
 much be said ? A column may be considered in 
 architecture what a timber tree is in the vegetable 
 
 kingdom ; the first is one of the grandest objects of i.rchitectural art, and the ficrond, one of 
 the most imposing in the vegetable creation. It is the part of correct judgment always to 
 adjust the means employed l.'iO 
 to the end to be attained ; 
 
 and in attempting to gain 
 
 any end, never to call forth 
 
 more energy than the occa- 
 sion requires. When a wall 
 
 is employed to support a 
 
 roof, no wise architect will 
 
 ever join columns to this 
 
 wall ; since, from what has 
 
 been said of the uses of 
 
 columns, it must be clear 
 
 that, to place them there, 
 
 would, in point of utility, be 
 
 a mere waste of strength ; 
 
 and in point of order and 
 
 beauty, it would be to de- 
 grade their character. To 
 
 see a column misapplied in a 
 
 building, is as offensive to a 
 
 correct architectural eye, as 
 
 it is to a well regulated mind 
 to see misapplied wealth or 
 power in the common affairs of life, 
 capitals of the columns in 
 the front of Design XX. 
 they would have had some 
 pretensions to fitness, by 
 appearing to support it, and 
 having thereby an air of 
 completeness ; but merely 
 set against the wall without 
 any conspicuous superin- 
 cumbent member of the 
 roof, and immediately under 
 the projecting thatch, they 
 show an apparent disre- 
 gard, not only of the prin- 
 ciple of utility, but of that of 
 congruity. A second fault is the placing of two false windows in the wings, which, m the 
 elevation, are so shaded that it is impossible to detect them as such. This, in a drawing, b 
 
 Had there been an architrave of any sort over the 
 
COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 
 
86 
 
COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 
 
 87 
 
 liable to be considered as a deception practised on the inexperienced eye, and an architect 
 might thereby mislead his employer. Perhaps the architect may say that he intends glass to 
 be put in these windows, in which case they would not be distinguishable from real ones, 
 either in the drawing, or in the reality. If so, our objections are less strong ; but still we 
 disapprove of the expense of false windows in such a building as a cottage. A third objection 
 to this dwelling is, that sufficient consequence is not given to the entrance. So large a 
 cottage, and one of so much pretension, ought surely not to be entered as it were by stealth. 
 One other objection, and we have done : — the window in the roof is too low, and not fit for 
 ventilating sufficiently, so large a room as the one it opens into. 
 
 178. Improvement. We would remove the three-quarter columns and the false windows ; 
 place a porch over the main door, fig. 156, m, and extend the roof of the back kitchen in such 
 a manner as to form a covered area for drying clothes, fig. 156, n, which might also serve as 
 a play-ground for children, or, in hot countries, for occasionally dining under. We would 
 also enlarge and raise the window in the roof, because there can be no perfect ventilation 
 unless windows reach nearly to the ceiling. This done, the ground plan would be as in fig. 
 156, and the elevation (chimney pots and a terrace parapet being added), as in fig. 157. 
 
 Design \Xl.—A Dwelling for a Man and his Wife, without Children. 
 
 179. Accommodation. We have here, in a compact form, and under a pavillion roof, a 
 dwelling of the humblest class ; very well calculated for two persons, but not for more. It 
 contains a kitchen, a, in which is an oven ; a oed-room, h ; two light closets from the 
 bed-room, c and d ; and two from the kitchen, e and /. In this, as in most of the preceding 
 Designs, some accommodation for lumber may be obtamed m the roof, to which there should 
 be an opening in the ceiling, closed by j 
 a door, with a hinged ladder, for ascent 
 and descent. This ladder when not in 
 use, is easily kept suspended to the 
 ceiling, by a hook at one end. By 
 substituting hooks and staples, as in 
 fig. 158, for hinges, the ladder may be taken off at pleasure, and used for other purposes. 
 The cow-house and yard, g ; and the pigsty, poultry-house, place between them for fuel^, 
 liquid manure tank, and privy, h, are supposed to be placed in the garden. 
 
 180. Construction. The walls may be of 
 earth, rough stone, or whatever may be the 
 cheapest material in the particular locality. If 
 they are built of brick, they should be madp 
 hollow, either according to the method already 
 mentioned (§ 25), or according to that of 
 Silverlockor of Dearn ; both of which will be 
 afterwards described. The roof in this dwelling 
 is shown as covered with large slates. No 
 gutter is added round the eaves, fig. 159, in 
 this, as in many other of the Designs ; because 
 this essential accompaniment is of the same 
 form in most buildings of the cottage kind, 
 and is easily added, either as a tinned, copper, zinc, or cast-iron half cylinder. The most 
 durable, the most convenient, and, ultimately, the cheapest gutter, is a segment of a hoHow 
 cast-iron pipe, fig. 160; supported by IgQ 
 
 iron brackets, fig. 161. The brackets are 
 nailed to the face of the eaves, as at 
 fig. 159, k, and have sometimes rivetted 
 to them tinned iron straps, fig. 162, /, the 
 ends of which are folded over the gutter, to hold it in its place. Each length of gutter 
 overlaps the other ; and when the slope, for giving a current to the water, is less than one 
 inch in a yard, the one piece of gutter is bedded on the other 
 in putty, or in white lead. If the water is not to be preserved for 
 use, it may be conducted to a drain, by an upright pipe or tube, 
 in one or two places (§ 84, figs. 60 and 61); but, if it is to be 
 collected for filtration, the slope of the guttering, on all the sides L 
 of the house, ought to be directed to one point, where a descending 
 tube should conduct the water to a receiving titnk (see § 31). 
 
 161 
 
88 
 
 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 181. Tfie Garden has four main compartments, m, n, o, and p, for the usual four year 
 rotation of kitchen crops; two small compartments, q, q, supposed to be used, the oue, as 
 a yard for faggot wood, &c., and the other as a rick-yard; and four small compartments, 
 r, s, t, and u, for fruits, shrubs, and flowers. 
 
 182. General Estimate. Cubic contents, 11,178 feet, at 6</. per foot, £279 :9i.; at Ad., 
 : 6s. ; and at 3J., £139 : 14s : M. 
 
 183. Expression. This Design, like the preceding one, aims at nothing more than tlie 
 ex[ircssion of the subject. To both, might be given a character of elegance, as well as a 
 solid addition in point of comfort, by a surrounding veranda. To fit both these Designs for 
 receiving this addition, the tops of the windows are kept two or three feet under the eaves. 
 If the veranda were formed with an opaque roof, it would merely serve as a shelter, and a 
 cover under which to dry clothes, seeds, Indian corn, and tobacco, and to work or walk 
 under in rainy weather ; but, if the roof were glazed, wiMi a trellis under it, grapes and 
 peaches might be grown all round the house (the diagonal of the square being a north and 
 south line), and all the former advantages obtained in equal perfection. The architectural 
 beauty of this Design, as well as its internal convenience, might be greatly heightened by a 
 judicious porch, and by a window in the roof over the entrance door; but these improve- 
 ments we leave to be contrived by our readers ; requesting them to take out their pencil* 
 and make the attempt ; and assuring them, that notliing will contribute more to their 
 improvement, as architectural designers. 
 
 Design XXII. — Dwelling for a Gardener, or otiur Servant, on a Gentleman's Estate, who 
 has a Ji'ife, but no Children. 
 
 184. The Accommodation of ihis cottage consists of a lobby, a ; a small kitchen, b, with 
 an oven ; a light closet from the kitchen, c ; and a bed-room, d, with a small light closet, e, 
 which may be used as the gardener's library. This closet will be kept sufficiently dry and 
 warn) by its proximity to the oven. From the lobby, is portioned off a small closet for 
 fuel, /. 
 
 185. Construction. The walls are supposed to be of conunon brick, or of flints, with 
 piers and coins, in the form of pilasters, built of brick, of a superior description; or, if brick 
 should not be the material employed, the plain part of the walls may g.j 
 
 be comi>osed of rubble stone, or random jointed ashlar work (free 
 stone, rough as it comes from the quarry, laid in irregular courses), 
 and the pilasters of tooled stone. The plain parts of the walls may 
 also be of earth, and the pilasters of brick or stone ; or both the plain 
 parts and pilasters may be built of earth ; the former being rough cast, 
 and the latter covered with cement, scored (lined) in imitation of 
 stone, and lime-whitcd. The roof is framed at a low pitch (low angle of the sides), and 
 covered with Italian semi-cylindrical tiles, fig. 103, in the manner practised in the neigh- 
 bourhood of Florence, fig. 164. The chinmey top, fig. 105, on a 
 scale of half an inch to a foot, is built with a far projecting cornice, 
 supported by blocks, with intervals between, suitable for swallows* 
 nests. The windows would have been more in character with this 
 manner of building, obviously somewhat Italian, if they had been 
 formed of two frames, lengthways, the whole height of the window, 
 and hinged at the sides, so as to open inwardly ; but the comfort of 
 a sash window to a poor man, in a cold climate like that of Britain, 
 is so great, that the British architect may well feel justified in 
 adopting it in preference to the Italian form. In a building of a 
 higher class, or for a warmer country, we should, probably, not so easily have formed an 
 excuse for him, because there is a real advantage in being able to throw open the entire 
 
 space occupied by the window ; and this never can 
 be done in the case of suspended sash-windows, 
 where no more can be opened than one-half. 
 
 186. Situation. If this dwelling be erected for 
 a gardener, it should, of course, be placed near 
 the garden ; and, if the health of the gardener, 
 or that of his wife, be any object to the proprietor, 
 it ought to be in a dry, open, airy situation ; and 
 not placed, as such houses very frequently are in 
 Britain, among dug ground, thickly planted with 
 trees and shrubs, where there can be neither good 
 
 165 
 
COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 
 
 91 
 
 air, nor a free circulation of such air as there is. This Design is also well adapted for a 
 lodge, and is worthy of being exposed to view on three sides, instead of being almost 
 entirely covered with vegetation. The practice of almost entirely covering buildings in the 
 country with creepers, can, by no means, be considered as in good taste : a few may be trained 
 up a plain building, or a ruin ; but to cover a handsome piece of architecture in this way, 
 is to defeat the very intention for which that architecture was produced. In the country, all 
 is vegetation : what beauty, therefore, can be expected from clothing with foliage an object, 
 which, to produce any effect at all, must operate by contrast ? In the town, all is archi- 
 tecture ; and there, the introduction of vegetation of any kind on a building, can, in point 
 of effect, hardly be carried too far. In the country, the white or grey walls of the plainest 
 cottage, are a relief to the eye from the eternal monotony of green, by which such cottages 
 are generally surrounded. In addition to this, it should never be forgotten that all vegetation 
 near a house, especially that of deciduous plants, encourages damp and insects. 
 
 187. Garden. We have added a garden, on the supposition that this Design might be 
 thcMght worth adoption, as a gate lodge, or by an independent labourer, or small farmer 
 williout children. We have shown in it a building, and yard, for two cows and two 
 horses, ^; and another yard with a privy, a place for pigs, another for poultry, and a third 
 between them for wood, h. It is of great consequence that the floors of these buildings should 
 be raised at least one foot above the surface of the yard, and that their walls should be of 
 such a thickness as to ensure warmth to the animals. The necessity and advantage of this 
 will appear in Book II. There are several small borders and angles, round the house and 
 beneath its terrace or platform, which are supposed to be devoted to flowers and ornamental 
 plants. There are two compartments, i and k, which, in the case of horses or cows being 
 kept, might be devoted to lucerne, saintfoin, Hemeroc^llis, (see Card. Mag. Vol. V. p. 451,) 
 Symphytum, or some other perennial forage plant, according to the soil ; in order that they 
 may always afford food at a short notice, when it may be inconvenient to send to a greater 
 distance. To a family of two persons without a servant, in Britain, and to small farmers 
 in America and Australia, where servants or helpers, are scarcely to be got at any price, 
 arrangements of this sort should always be kept in view. The four compartments, /, and 
 166 "^^y "^'^^ * kitchen garden ; and the four larger 
 
 compartments, ii,o,p,q, for growing corn crops. But if the 
 garden is supposed to be on a smaller scale, and to contain only 
 a quarter of an acre, instead of five acres, then these four 
 large compartments may be devoted to the usual rotation 
 of culinary vegetables ; and the four smaller ones to a grass- 
 plot for drying clothes, and to strawberries ; either, or both. 
 The two compartments, r and s, may serve for gooseberries, 
 currants, and raspberries ; fruits that ought to be in every 
 cottage garden, where the climate is suitable for them. 
 
 188. Inforviing Grass-plots for drying Clothes, where ap- 
 pearance is an object, there ought always to be tubes built in 
 or inserted in the ground, for the purpose of holding the posts, 
 to which lines, for hanging the clothes on, are attached. These' 
 166, are generally about eighteen inches long and four inches wide 
 
 tubes, fif 
 
 168 
 
 inside at top, and three inches at 
 bottom, with a plug, t, to cover 
 each when its post is taken out 
 and laid in the dry. Posts for 
 being so used have a shoulder at 
 their lower end, fig. 167,?/, for pre- 
 venting them from being wedged 
 too firmly into the receiving box. 
 The top of such a line post has 
 generally two pins, v, passed through it in opposite 
 directions, for the purpose of fastening the lines. 
 In some situations, instead of moveable posts, the lines may be tied to fixed posts, ornamented 
 by creepers ; or to trees with narrow heads, such as the Lombardy poplar ; or for some 
 description of clothes, cords may be stretched under the far projecting eaves of the roof all 
 the house. One end of the cord in this case is fixed, and the other passes over a 
 and is made fast to a hook in the wall. The advantage of passing a cord over a 
 w, is, that the line may be lowered to receive the articles to be dried, 
 This mode of drying nlothes is very common in Germany 
 
 round 
 pulley 
 
 pulley, fig. 168 
 find then hoisted up again. 
 
92 
 
 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 and Switzerland, and has the advantage of never exposing 
 the clothes to perpendicular rain ; with the disadvantage 
 of running the risk of having the larger articles blown 
 against the wall, and dirted and discoloured, in windy 
 weather. Where very long lines are stretched from tree to 
 tree, it is customary to support the line in the middle, or 
 in one or two places by a prop, forked at one end, figs. 169, 
 or 170; the weight of the clothes keeps these props steady. 
 The clothes are kept fast on the lines by what arc called 
 clothes' pegs. These are commonly formed of a piece of 
 cleft wood, held together by a fillet of tinned iron ; but an 
 elegant improvement on them has lately been made by Mr. 
 Stenning, of Haslemere, under the direction of our highly 
 talented contributor, Mr. Terry, of (iodalming, fig. 171, by 
 which the fillet of tin is rendered unnecessary, and ail risk of 
 iron-mould on the linen avoided- 
 
 189. General Estimate. Cubic contents, 9,S2S feet, at Gd. 
 per foot, £2Vo : Us. ; at id,, £'1G3 : IG*. ; and at £122 : 17*. 
 
 190. Expression. It is clear that something more is intended in this elevation than 
 expression of purpose ; eUe why the pilasters, the far projecting 
 roof with its cantilevers, the semi-rylindriral tiles, and the .swallow 
 corniced chinmey top ? The manner intended to be elpre^^ed is 
 evidently of the Italian kind, which is only diminished a little by the 
 English sash window. If it were dehired to deciirate this cottj^e, 
 it might be done by placing four urnamenlal tulip-shaped chimney 
 pots, fig. 172, on the chimney lops, raising a low wall or parapet in the 
 Italian maiuicr, in bricks and tiles, at a very trifling expens^e, round 
 the outer margin of the platform; and placing vases in harmony wiih 
 the chimney jiots, at the corners. An ornamental water-gutter, 
 tig. 17.'1, ought also to be used instead of a plain one. The dwelling 
 might then be said to be in the enriched Italian style, and if no more 
 trees were placed round it than what are shown in the ground plan 
 of the garden, it could hardly fail to I»H)k well frutn every point of view, 
 readers to embiuly 
 
 We leave our 
 
 17;{ 
 
 U 
 
 these ideas in geo- 
 metrical and per- 
 spective sketches of 
 their own ; and we 
 may further suggest 
 that by increasing 
 the width of the ter- 
 race and veranda, 
 
 and adding a second story, a very handsome elevation, and a tolerably comfortable habitation 
 (the walls still of earth), might be produced. The Italian manner of building cottages must 
 naturally have more charms for such as have been in Italy, or are conversant with the 
 works of the great painters of that country, than for those who have never travelled, or 
 paid much attention to prints or paintings; but even to such persons an Italian cottage may 
 please, when first erected, from its novelty ; and afterwards, this satisfaction may be con- 
 tinued on the principle of contrast, or the difference between such a cottage and the 
 generality of cottages in the neighbourhood. It is evident, however, that the great beauty 
 of an Italian cottage, that in which the imagination is engaged, can only be fully realized 
 by those minds in which it will call up associations connected with Italy. An old English 
 cottage has this great beauty to every Englishman, educated or uneducated, that, in addition 
 to all its comforts and conveniences, it operaies upon his imagination, and recals to mind a 
 thousand associations connected with his earlier years, with his parents, his kindred, his 
 school companions, and, in short, with all the vivid feelings of his youth. It ought to be 
 the business of the young architect, therefore, not only to inform himself on all that relates 
 to actual fitness in a building, and to whatever contributes to the expression of purpose, but 
 to those circumstances, in style, which are calculated to operate on the imagination. For 
 this piu-pose, we recommend to him the careful and repeated perusal of Allison's Essays on 
 Tnstc, Wood's Letters cf an Architect, and Dugald Stewarfs Philosophical Essays. 
 
COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 
 
 93 
 
 Design XXIII.— ^ Dwelling of One Story, for a Man and his Wife with a Family of Children; 
 having a Cow-house and Pigsty attached. 
 
 191. Accommodation. The plan consists of a long broad portico, a, well adapted for 
 drying clothes under, and protecting the children from the sun or rain while at play ; an en- 
 trance lobby, b; a kitchen, c; a wash-house, d; three bed-rooms, e, f, and g ; a pantry, h ;^ 
 dairy, i ; store-closet, k ; pigsty, I ; privy, m; cow-house, n ; and open shed for fuel, o. 
 
 192. Construction. The walls may be of earth ; 
 the props of the portico, and of the open shed, 
 trunks of trees with their bark on ; the roof is 
 tliatched with reeds, heath, straw, or the shavings 
 and dressings of barrel hoops, made from green 
 rods, as practised in various parts of England. In 
 countries where timber is very abundant, and 
 other materials dear, the roof may be covered 
 with shingles ; but materials so liable to be con- 1 
 sumed by fire, should never be employed if it can I 
 be avoided. The rustic columns may be placed 
 on stone plinths, and have square wooden caps, 
 fig. 174, p. In a country having a long winter, 
 and liable to heavy falls of snow, it might be de- 
 sirable to have the roof of such a cottage con- 
 siderably steeper ; because the melting of snow on 
 flat roofs, or even any roofs which are under an 
 angle, or pitch, as the technical term is, of 45°, is generally attended by water penetrating 
 to the interior. Thatched roofs in snowy countries, unless very steep, are of particularly 
 short duration ; and the same may be said of roofs covered with bark, heath, moss, ferns, or 
 spray. These kinds of roof occur often in Sweden and Norway, but they are never resorted 
 to when the builder can afford slate, or flat stone, or iron. One of the best modes of con- 
 structing flat roofs in a country liable to heavy falls of snow, would be to employ flat brick 
 arches, tying the abutmenis together with wrought-iron rods, in the manner which will be 
 afterwards mentioned. In Italy, and in other countries where stucco, puzzulano earth, or 
 any other cement is abundant and cheap, flat roofs are not uncommon. The joists, or 
 rafters, are first covered with boards, then with tiles, or sometimes with reeds ; and after- 
 wards, first with a coat of stucco, mixed with gravel, or very coarse sand ; and, lastly, with 
 a finishing coat of finer material. 
 
 193. General Estimate. Cubic contents 14,622 feet, at M. per foot, £365 : lis.; at 4<f., 
 £243 : Us. ; and at Zd., £182 : 15s : Qd. 
 
 194. Expression. This 
 cottage pretends to no- 
 thing more than what 
 it is ; a simple, humble 
 dwelling, but not with- 
 out comfort. In a cold 
 country, we should pro- 
 pose to heat all the 
 
 floors by flues conducted ' ' — « 
 
 from one fireplace in the back kitchen, d ; thereby rendering the dwelling, at a mere trifle 
 of expense and trouble, as comfortable as even a first-rate mansion 176 
 
 could possibly be (see § 34). This would also greatly diminish 
 the expense of fuel, the labour attendant on keeping up fires, 
 and that of cleaning fireplaces. As a finish to this cottage, the 
 platform may be bordered with a neat hedge of box, or furze, 
 or butcher's broom, or an ivied trellis ; or by a rustic fence, com- 
 posed of the trunks of small pine or fir trees, driven into the 
 grovuul at equal distances, sawn evenly over at the height of two 
 feet and a half, and finished with a horizontal railing of the 
 same material, or of Vvorked timber painted, fig. 175, to a scale 
 of a quarter of an inch to a foot. Ornamental urn chimney pots, 
 ng. 176, and one or two creepers, would complete all the ornaments 
 proper for such a cottage. 
 
 H 
 
 175 
 
94 
 
 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE 
 
 Design XXIV. — A Dwelling for a Man and his Wife without Children, having Two Riiomi 
 
 and other conveniences. 
 
 195. Accommodation. For a 
 small family this may be considered 
 a comfortable cottage. It contains 
 a porch, within which is a lobby, a; 
 kitchen, b ; bed-room, c; store-closet, 
 d; back kitchen, from which the 
 whole house may be heated, c ; 
 pantry,// dairy, if ; privy, h; root 
 cellar, i ; and wood-house, k. 
 
 196. Construction. The walls 
 may be of earth, or of any other convenient material ; the roof we have supposed to be 
 
 178 
 
 1-^ 
 
 slated, and the piitter is not shown. The windows arc in 
 the French manner ; that is, opening- in the middle fron) 
 top to bottom, and to render the junction as much as pos- 
 sible air tight, the styles, fig. 177, half the full size, are 
 made to fit into each other in the nianner shown at /. In 
 this, as in every case where the house is built of mud, or 
 compressed earth, the chimney tops are supposed to be of 
 stone, brick, or other niaterial winch will endure exposure to 
 all weathers. We have said little hitherto of internal 
 finishing ; but we would not on that account have any 
 cottage without some sort of cornice, both to its living- 
 rooms and sleeping-rooms. Ornament enhances comfort, 
 and tends to refine the mind. For this cottage, which is 
 somewhat in the Italian manner, fig. 178, to the scale of two inches and a half to a foot, 
 may serve as the section of a cornice for the 
 living-rooms, and fig. 179, to the same scale, 
 for the bed-rooms. 
 
 197. General Estimate. Cubic contents 
 10,920 feet,at Gd. per foot, £273 ; at 4rf.,£lS2 ; 
 and at 3f/., £136: IO5. 
 
 198. Expression. Something more than a 
 common cottage dwelling is here intended ; 
 but there are, in our eyes, two conspicuous 
 faults ; the first is the hipped or rather trun- 
 cated angle of the pediment roof; and the 
 second, the want of height and boldness in 
 the chimney tops. These defects supplied, 
 and a window added to show that some 
 use was made of the garret, with a veranda 
 and parapet or balustrade, the effect to us 
 would be satisfactory. We again recom- 
 mend our readers to attempt to realize these improvements on paper. The benefit they 
 will derive from so doing, is far greater than may at first sight appear. The mere cir- 
 cumstance of familiarizing the mind with orderly arrangement, regular figures, symmetry, 
 means adapted to the end in view, either in buildings, in furniture, or in gardens, must have 
 an influence on conduct. Order is the fundamental principle of all mora)s : for what is 
 immorality but a disturbance of the order of civilized society, a disturbance of the relations 
 between man and man ? We do not say that all kinds of drawing have a tendency to pro- 
 duce an orderly mind, but we do affirm that architectural drawing has that tendency in an 
 eminent degree. Carpenters and stone-masons are a superior class of mechinics in all 
 countries. 
 
 179 
 
COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 97 
 Design XXV.—// Dwelling for a Working Man with a Family of Children. 
 199. Accommodation. The ground plan exhibits a porch, a ; staircase and passage, b ; 
 
 sitting-room, with small closet, /; 
 
 kitchen, c; closet under the stair, c?; back kitchen, e 
 privy, ^; and wood-house,^. The chamber floor con- 
 tains a bed-room, i; closet, /c ; another closet, I; a bed- - 
 room, m; two closets, n amdo; and the staircase and 
 landing, p. The defect in the accommodation here, is ~~ 
 the want of a proper pantry; but this might be easily _ 
 obtained by enlarging h, turning its present door into 
 a window, and opening a door to it from the kitchen. 
 A substitute for A, may be provided adjoining g. 
 
 200. Construction. This cottage, its designer observes, 
 work, plastered 
 
 180 
 
 may be built of brick stud- 
 
 outside, the roof 
 to be thatched with 
 reeds or straw. 
 The entrance is to 
 havealedgeddoor, 
 and the windows 
 are to be filled in 
 with lattice-work, 
 having oak mul- 
 lions, or mullions 
 of other timber, 
 painted in imita- 
 tion of stone. The 
 rabbet heads of the 
 windows, fig. 180, 
 q, to be back filled, 
 (to project beyond 
 the wall, in the 
 manner of archi- 
 traves, but without 
 mouldings, as at 
 r)." The chimney 
 stacks to be form- 
 ed of, or orna- 
 mented with, Roman cement 
 working drawing, fig. 
 
 181, made to a scale , - 
 
 of half an inch to a 
 foot, in which s,s, are 
 the barge boards, and 
 /, the pendant. Fig. 
 
 182, shows a section 
 of a suitable cornice 
 for the living-rooms ; 
 and fig. 183, one in 
 the same style for the 
 bed-rooms ; both these ' 
 sections are to a scale 
 of two inches and a half to a foot. 
 
 201. General Estimate. Cubic contents, 10,904 feet, 
 at 6rf. per foot, £272 : 6*. ; at 4rf., £181 : 10s : M. ; and 
 at 3rf., £136 : 3.9. 
 
 202. The Expression is evidently that of an old 
 English cottage. We should have preferred the chamber windows in the ends, which would 
 have been less picturesque in effect, but cheaper to execute, and much easier to keep in 
 repair. We should also prefer the ground floor windows to have six large panes in each 
 frame, rather than to have them filled in with lattice-work. This done, and the alteration 
 made in the accommodation, which we have suggested, § 199, a parapet on the platform 
 and pinnacles over the pendants, are all that are wanting to render this Design very much 
 to our taste. 
 
 The barge boards 
 ( 
 
 and the pendants to be finished as in the 
 182 
 
COTTAGi:, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITKCTURE. 
 
 Design XX\l.—A Cottage Dwelling iti the German Swiss Style fur a Man and hij Family, u itk 
 accommodation for two Horses and a Cow. 
 
 203. Accommodation. This description of dwelling is common in the northern parts of 
 the continent of Europe, and also in Switzerland. To economize heat, no less than to save 
 expense in the first erection, the apartments for the doniestic animals, and the places for 
 carts, ploughs, and other country machines and implements, are all contained under the same 
 roof. The occupier of such a dwelling is commonly a very small farnier, who joins to tnis 
 occupation some description of trade or commerce ; such as a carrier, coach-driver, jobber m 
 cattle, fisherman, hunter, &c. There is a great objection to having cattle and horses under 
 the same roof with living rooms for human beings, on account of the smells and insects 
 generated by the former; but it must be recollected that in the warm season, the cattle are 
 seldom in the house, and that during winter in the North of Europe, the great difficulty in 
 human dwellings is to maintain heat. We have lodged in various dwellings of this descrip- 
 tion, from Stockholm to Naples, both in summer and winter, and cannot recollect that we 
 ever felt much inconvenience from smells, but certainly some from insecta. We do not. 
 however, recommend this Design, where the expense of erecting the offices apart from the 
 dwellings is not an object. — In the ground plan of this building, we have a place for a cart, 
 waggon, or other carriage, and f(»r ploughs and other iniplements of agriculture or tuide, a ; 
 a three-stalled stable for two horses and a cow, &; aback kitchen, r; a privy, d ; and a 
 pigsty, f. On the princip.il flcKjr, we have aii entrance under a porch, ascended to by an 
 exterior stair,/; a sitting-room, ; pantry, h; light closet, i ; kitchen, /r ; closet under 
 the stairs, /; bed-room stairs, m ; and three balconies, «, m, n. The chamber floor consists of 
 two bed-roonis, and two bed-clowts. 
 
 204. Construction. The foundations, and the first story, as high as the floor of the 
 living-rooms, arc supposed to be built of stone, or brick with 
 rusticated stone corners; the upper part of the building is en- 
 tirely of timber. The roof is shown as covered with thatch, 
 and without gutters. In Switzerland, where tinjber is abundant, 
 and labour not high, the railing for the stairs and balconies of 
 such a building is commonly massive, and very curiously 
 carved. We have given a specimen, fig. 184, on a scale of half 
 an inch to a foot, of a suitable railing to such a balcony. 
 
 203. Situation. Were such a building to be erected in 
 
 England, it could only be for the sake of its char.icter, and 
 
 therefore the proper situation for it would be in a romantic, 
 
 woody vale, glen, or dingle, like those of the South of (iermany. 
 
 and especially the valley of Kinzigthal, from a cottage in which, 
 
 engraved and published, the idea of the present Design is 
 
 taken. There are many situations in Wales, and in the West 
 
 of England, and some in Scotland, where the appearance of 
 
 such a cottage would raise up interesting associations in the 
 
 mind of a continental traveller, and would fill the stationary 
 
 inhabitants with surprise, and by exciting inquiry, might lead! 
 
 to the improvement of their taste. We are naturally indifferent' 
 
 about what we do not understand; but the moment we begin to have a knowledge of any 
 
 subject, we take an interest in it, which incites us to further inquiry, and ultimately brings 
 
 us to an acquaintance with what is right or wrong, beautiful or deformed. To teach men to 
 
 Uiink is the grand object of every effort for promoting human improvement. 
 
 20C. General Estimate. Cubic contents, 16,980 feet, at 6rf. per foot, £424 : 10*. ; at Ad., 
 
 £283; and at 3rf., £212:55. 
 
 207. Criticism. The effect of the walls of the ground story bemg of stone is good, by 
 giving the idea of great solidity in itself, and of stability and security in the superstructure. 
 The three balconies are calculated to be very useful, and are not liable to the same objection 
 as those exhibited in Design IX. ; because they are not connected with any of the bed- 
 room windows (see § 106). The outside stair, by artificially increasing the distance between 
 the living-rooms and the stable, must in some measure diminish the quantity of effluvia 
 from the cattle, conveyed thither by the clothes of those who attend on them. The eaves 
 ought to have the addition of an ample gutter ; and for our own taste, we should have pre- 
 ferred liaving two windows in each gable end, and none in the roof; dividing the garrets 
 lengthways. We should not have truncated the gable, and we should have made a better 
 preparation for the chimney stack, raising it higher, and in a bolder style. 
 
COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 
 
 101 
 
 Design XXVII.— ^ Dwelling for a Man and his Wife, with Children, or a Servant, with the 
 usual Conveniences in a detached Building. 
 
 208. Accommodation. This plan exhibits a porch 
 parlour, or family bed-room, d ; and children, or ser- 
 vants' bed-room, e. The privy, pigsty, cow-house, and 
 similar appendages are supposed to be placed in a small 
 yard, opposite the entrance to the garden, /. If this 
 were the case, a wash-house might also be erected 
 there ; the apartment, c, being used as a kitchen, and 
 6, as a parlour. This cottage might then be suitable 
 for a small farmer, or jobber. 
 
 209. Construction. The walls may be of rubble 
 stone, small land stones, or flints, set in good mortar. 
 They may be finished at the gable ends with summer 
 stones (stones placed on a wall, or on piers, for the 
 
 kitchen, b; back kitchen, 
 
 o(,\yiavo yc7<.v^i.Av,o ^<u,v,«^u, vii c* *tu.ii.j ^/ItlOj iUl LIlC 
 
 support of beams, or on the lower angle of gable ends, fig. 185, g, as an abutment of the 
 1 Sfi barge stones, h), having worked cornices, fig. 186, and stone pinnacles. 
 
 The roof may be of plain tiles or slates; the windows are shown 
 as common sashes with large panes, hung in the usual manner. 
 The door is ledged, with ornamental outside hinges, fig. 187, to a 
 scale of three-quarters of an inch to a foot. The chimney tops may 
 be of Austin's cement, or of soft stone. 
 
 210. The Garden contains two roods and a half; it is surrounded 
 by a hedge of fruit trees, within which is a border, and walk ; and 
 the interior is in four main compartments, i, k, I, m, for the usual 
 rotation ; with two small plots, n, o, for fruit shrubs ; two still smaller, 
 
 187 
 
 (3) 
 
 7 
 
 ^ 1 
 
 0 
 
 p, q, for flowers ; and 
 three, r, s, t, for straw- 
 berries, tart rhubarb, and 
 perennial pot and sweet 
 herbs. 
 
 211. General Estimate. 
 Cubic contents, 9,024 
 feet, at 6d. per foot, 
 £225 : 12*. ; at Ad., 
 £150 : 8*.; and at Zd. 
 £112: 16s. 
 
 212. Situation. The designer of this building states, that it will 
 have a good effect as a gardener's house, placed in the garden, in 
 cases where the gardener is a single man. The apartment, d, may 
 be the gardener's library and office ; and e, his bed-room. He also 
 
 . . ^ , \ ^^'""^^ "^'ght answer well for a small proprietor in Nortli 
 
 America; the farm lands surrounding the garden; or the garden placed near a public 
 road. The house havmg windows on all sides, it ought evidently to be placed in an open, 
 airy situation. ^ "pcn, 
 
 213. Expression Something Gothic ; and, from the cross over the entrance front, bordering 
 on the ecclesiastical style. This expression is counteracted in a small degree by the modern 
 to themJn f ^^"^^^to the inhabitant in comfort by those windows' than is lost 
 
 to the man of reasoning taste, by this deviation from the details of correct style. However, 
 as the comfort of a sn.gle man, for example, a gardener in his garden, is of much less con 
 
 188 
 
 „ 7 ^...f,.^, u, 
 
 sequence than that of a family, we see no objection to 
 completing the effect of such a building by intro- 
 ducing mullions in the windows with lattice-work, and 
 labels over them (a label, or hood moulding, is an 
 outer moulding, crowning a door or window head, 
 either plain or carved, and always returned at the 
 ends, when straight, fig. 188) ; or, pointed topped win- 
 dows may be employed ; and, instead of lattice-work, 
 with those very small panes, called by glaziers quarries 
 
 (perhaps from carre, French, square), large panes may be used, (t would also be an im 
 
102 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 189 
 
 1 
 
 provement to carry the chimney tops higher, and to have a panelled entrance door, studded 
 with cast-iron nails, substituted for the ledged one ; which, with a neat architectural 
 parapet, fig. 189, would form a finish to the platfoniu The effect of the whole would thus be 
 enriched, and rendered more characteristic of the 
 style so obviously indicated ; and it may be tried 
 by such of our readers as can use a pencil, for 
 themselves. We may remark incidentally, that 
 the mere circumstance of deviating from the 
 straight line in a very small degree in the window 
 opening, as in fig. 1S8, at m, adds materially to the 
 effect of that window, as a (Jothic one. The more 
 obvious forms of (iotliic architecture are so universally known in this conntrv, that thf 
 slightest line in a building which ha« an allusion to them, operates upon the imagination 
 and at once gives the idea of style. 
 
 Design XXVIII.—// Cottage in thf Old English mnnnrr, containing a Kitchen, Living Room, 
 
 and two lied Roowit. 
 
 214. Accommodation, The (ground floor contains an entrance-lobby, a 
 
 closet under 
 privy. /; ajid 
 
 oven, b; best kitchen or living-room, 
 the stair, d ; stair to the bed-rooms, e 
 place for wood, pigs, or poultry, g. In the chamber 
 floor, there are two bed-TOoms ; the largest, h, which 
 js entered fronj the staircase, i, has a small cicset. k ; 
 the other bed-room, /, has a press near the fireplace; 
 and chests, and other articles, may stand in the 
 passage, m. 
 
 215. Construction. The walls, as high as the bed- 
 roon» floor, are of brick ; and from the bed-room flttor 
 to the roof, of stud-work, or brick nogging plastered. 
 The chimneys, fig. 190. are of brick, covered with 
 composition ; or they may be formed entirely of arti- 
 tkial stone. The roof is supposed to be thatched ; the 
 windows of lattice-work, and the doors ledged. The 
 large projecting window in the centre of the gable 
 end, is called an oriel, or bav, or compass window, 
 and is constructed in the following manner, viz. heart 
 of oak bearers, fig. 191, n, «, are projected from the 
 walls at the given height in a horizontal position, and 
 generally so as to form an angle with the wall of 43^. 
 The ends of these beams are inserted in the walls, and 
 the brick-work is carried up over them, so that they 
 are reUiincd in their places by the whole weight of 
 the superincumbent structure. By these means the 
 
 diagonal beams afford a sufficient support to a parallel beam, o, which is dovetailed into the 
 
 191 
 
 diagonal ones, as 
 shown atp,p. The 
 opening below the 
 beams is covered 
 in by the moulded 
 boarding, q,'m fig. 
 192, to a scale of 
 
 three-eighths of ^ 
 an inch to a foot, 
 
 and the section of the front, or parallel beam, o, is covered by the weather-boarding, r. 
 The beams, n, ii, ought to be of strong sound timber, and not less than fourteen inches by 
 twelve inches. Oriel windows are generally constructed of wood-work, as being lighter than 
 any other material ; but beams of the above dimensions are sufficient to support a wall of 
 brick or stone. The manner in which oriel windows of stone are carried up, is founded on 
 the same principle, and will be described hereafter. Round the inside of these windows, are 
 generally formed seats, which commonly open in front, at 5; or at the top, like a ship's 
 locker ; so as to serve at the same time as a chest and a seat. Formerly these seats were 
 called binks, bins, or bunkers, possibly a corruption of the French word, banc. The barge 
 
COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 103 
 XXVIIL 
 
104 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 XXIX 
 
COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 
 
 105 
 
 boards, and pendants, both for the gable 
 ends and windows, may be varied at 
 pleasure ; and they form very fit subjects 
 of composition for exercising the ingenuity 
 of oar female readers. The enclosure to 
 the pigsty is of oak pales. 
 
 216. General Estimate. Cubic contents, 
 10,544 feet, at 6d. per foot, £263 : 12*. ; 
 at 4d., £175 : 14* : Sd. ; and at 3rf., 
 £m : 16s. 
 
 217. Remarks. This cottage is dis- 
 figured, rather than otherwise, by the two 
 appendages, /, and g, at the end ; not but 
 what these appendages are essentially re- 
 quisite, but that they are given in a mean 
 and common-place manner. The door of/, 
 is also in too conspicuous a situation, and 
 
 193 
 
 t 
 
 is too nearly 
 resembling the 
 door of the main entrance. 
 turesque ; expressive of what it 
 pretends to be, an old English cot- 
 tage ; and not uncomfortable with- 
 in. The mean character of the 
 lean-to at the end, and the naked- 
 ness of the door of /, may very 
 easily be remedied ; as a glance 
 at the ground plan, in Design 
 XXVIII., and another afterwards 
 at the plan, fig. 193, and at the view 
 of the end of the cottage, as so alter 
 ed, fig. 194, will sufficiently prove. 
 
 n other respects the building is pic- 
 li)4 
 
 Design XXIX. — A Cottage Dwelling qf Three Rooms, with various CojweJiiences 
 
 218. Accommodation. 
 195 
 
 left hand, into a sitting-room, 
 into the family bed-room, d. 
 
 There is a good deal of convenience and com- 
 
 r jjj^ fort about this cottage, and it must 
 
 > ^ allowed to be, externally, rather 
 an elegant object. It contains an 
 entrance under a handsome recess 
 to a lobby, a, which opens, on the 
 b, with a bed-closet, i, and, on the right, 
 Directly in front is the kitchen, c; the 
 back kitchen, e; dairy,/; place for fuel, g ; privy, h; and place for 
 poultry, or a cow, k. Where there is a small yard for a cow, poultry, fuel, 
 &c., the apartment, k, may be enlarged, and turned into a green-house, 
 heated by hot water from the back of the fireplace in the kitchen, c; 
 and d, being changed into a sitting-room, may be connected, by double 
 glass doors, with the green-house. 
 
 219. Construction. This building is well designed for having the 
 walls executed in compressed earth, because these walls are thick, have 
 few openings, and the dwelling is only one story high. The roof is of a 
 low pitch, and should therefore be covered with some description of slate, 
 tile, or metal, and not by any kind of thatch. Beneath the floors may 
 be flues heated from a fire under the boiler in the back kitchen. The 
 windows are shown in the French style, shutting by an air-tight joint, 
 as exhibited in § 196, fig. 177. The panelled pilasters on each side of 
 the door, and at the angles, a cross section of which is given in fig. 195, 
 to a scale of half an inch to a foot, may ba finished in plaster or cement. 
 Fig. 196 shows the plan and elevation of one end of the chimney stack, 
 which may be executed in brick-work, and covered with cement. 
 
 220. General Estimate. Cubic contents, 14,212 feet, at Qd. per foot, 
 £355 : 65. : at 4rf, jg236 : 17s : Ad. ; and at 3rf., £177 : 135. 
 
 221. Remarks. The entrance front of this cottage is satisfactory, but the outline of the 
 
106 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 ground plan is by no means so. For what purpose are so many breaks and angles made, 
 when a plain square, as in fig. 197, would have given the same accommodation, with 
 increased dimensions, and at less expense ? The answer from the designer will probably be 
 that the breaks are made to produce shade and variety in the elevation, as well as to mark 
 the subordinate parts of the building, in order that an excuse may appear for their being 
 executed in a cheaper manner than the rest- With respect to the first reason, we allow that 
 some perpendicular shadows are by these means obtained ; but no shadows whatever will, 
 in our eyes, justify so direct a deviation from the principle of utility. Here are no fewer than 
 five apartments or appendages diminished in size for the sake of getting four breaks and 
 four perpendicular shadows. Surely this will not bear the test of reason. But it may be siiid 
 by the author of this Design, that the breaks arc made to show that what is included in 
 them are appendages or offices, and that they afford a reason why these appendages or offices 
 are placed under lean-to roofs, and have snKillcr windows, and thinner and lower walls, than 
 those of the main body of the house. Here we admit the architect has reason on his 
 side ; for economy in building a cottage must cvi-r be an important object, and indeed seems 
 implied in the very name. The question, therefore, between the designer and us is, 
 whether the superior simplicity and dignity of the exterior elevation that will be pro- 
 duced by avoiding the breaks, and having the walls and roof of the offices of the same 
 height and character as the main body of the building, will not compensate for the ad- 
 ditional expense incurred? We think it will; for nothing, in our eyes, adds more to the 
 dignity of a house, than a general 8inii)licity of fonn, communicating grandeur to it ;u> a whole, 
 and giving an elevated character to its 197 
 appendages. Hy comparing the ground r ^ ^ 
 
 plan in Design XXIX. with fig. VJ', the 
 superior degree of simplicity of the latter 
 figure, one would think alone sufficient to 
 give it the preference over the other. 
 
 222. Improt'cmnit. A very suitable 
 parapet for the terrace of this cottage might 
 be formed by placing mignioiu tte troughs 
 of Austin's artificial titone, or of IVake's 
 Staffordshire ware, such a* fig. on the 
 top of a four-inch brick wall, formed of 
 open or pigeon-hole brick-work, and car- 
 ried to the height of eighteen or twenty 
 inches. At the corner of this wall, solid 
 square piers might be built, covered with 
 plaster, and panelled like the pilasters at 
 the end of the house, and these might be terminated by square mignionette boxes, fig. 
 199. This done, and corresponding terminations given to the chimneys, the design may then 
 
 198 
 
 199 
 
 be considered as tolerably complete. The mignionette boxes for mere admirers of flowers 
 and lovers of sweet smells, may be filled with earth, and sown or planted with mignionette ; 
 but for botanical amateurs, they may 
 be filled with alpines, or herbaceous 
 plants in small pots. To a botanist, 
 even if he had no other resource than 
 the native plants of Britain, this 
 would afford a perpetual source of 
 enjoyment ; because the length of the 
 four sides of the parapet being one 
 hundred and sixty feet, the oblong 
 and square troughs would contain six hundred and eiglity pots of three inches in diameter, and 
 of course as many species. These might be changed, arranged, and re-arranged, at pleasure. 
 
COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 
 
 107 
 
 Design XXX. — A Cottage Dwelling with Five Rooms and various Conveiiiences. 
 
 223. Accommodation. This may be considered a commodious cottage ; and it might even 
 be turned into two dwellings, by shutting up the door by which c communicates with e. The 
 details of the ground floor are two open porches, a, a ; a shop, or business room, 6; a prin- 
 cipal kitchen or living-room, c ; two bed-rooms on the ground floor, d and e ; dusthole, /; 
 place for fuel, g ; privy, h ; back kitchen, i ; pantry, ^ ; and staircase, with closet under, i. 
 The chamber floor contains two good bed-rooms, m and n, each with two small closets. We 
 may observe here, that closets in the outer walls of bed-rooms are very apt to become 
 damp ; and that, in general, it is much better to keep clean clothes in wooden presses, com- 
 modes, or chests, and dirty clothes in bags. By these modes of keeping, also, less danger is 
 incurred from the moth. 
 
 224. Construction. The walls may be of earth, of flints, or of bricks built hollow. All 
 the floors may be heated by a flue from the back kitchen, i. Two plain mouldings are in- 
 troduced in the principal body 
 
 of the front, which will be 200 
 easily understood from the 
 cross section, fig. 200, to a 
 scale of three-eighths of an 
 inch to a foot. The pro- 
 jection over this ornament contains a sunk panel, the effect of which, as an architrave to the 
 perpendicular mouldings, is satisfactory. The eaves of the roof ought to have gutters, as 
 shown in the section, fig. 36, § 69 ; and the water may be conducted to a filtering tank under 
 the pantry, fiom which it may be drawn up for use by one of Siebe's pumps. The roof may 
 be of thatch. 201 
 
 20,762 feet, at Qd. per foot, £51 
 
 225. General Estimate. Cubic contents, 
 £340 :\bs.\ and at Zd., £255 : 10^ : 6d. 
 
 226. Remarks. The simplicity of this Design must, we should think, be 
 generally pleasing. The ample sized windows, with their large panes, give 
 the idea of abundance of light and of cheerfulness within ; and the circum- 
 stance of their beinj; brought down to the floor, shows that elegance has not 
 been lost sight of. Such a building would answer well for a bachelor who had 
 a man and his wife as servants. The former might live in b and e, removing 
 the bed from the latter room, and sleeping in m or n. The servant and his 
 wife could sleep in d. The apartment, e, being made the dining-room, it 
 would be requisite to have double doors between it and the kitchen, in order 
 to exclude noise and smells ; and the proximity of these two apartments 
 would be found highly favourable for economising labour, and for what 
 constitutes the essence of all good eating, having things brought to table 
 hot. One little alteration in the plan would be requisite to answer the 
 comfort of all parties, supposing the house turned to this use ; and that is, 
 that the staircase, I, should enter from e, instead of from d. This would 
 require no additional expense at the first erection of the house, but merely 
 forethought. Supposing that the master were desirous of having a bed-room 
 on the ground floor, it would only be requisite to join /, g, and h, to i, in a 
 new form, and to open a door from e to o, as in fig. 201. The house would 
 
108 
 
 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE 
 
 be greatly improved by this arrangement, and it might be rendered still more cunimodious. 
 by having tvy^o steps down to i, so as to get a floor over i, /, g, and h, in which to form 
 a bed-room for the married servants, to be entered by a stair from i. This would allow 
 of d being used as a drawing-room. In this way a very simple cottage might, at a very 
 moderate expense, 
 and what is of 
 more consequence, 
 without injury to 
 its beauty or cha- 
 racter, be changed 
 into a cottage villa, 
 fit for the residence 
 of any gentleman 
 whatever. It would 
 then deserve some 
 ornament; and what 
 we sliould prefer 
 would be to sur- 
 round the whole by 
 a glass veranda, 
 placing a light iron 
 
 fence on the outer margin of the stone parapet, and ornamental chimney pots, fig. 202, on 
 the stacks of chimneys; or a somewhat diflcrent style may be adopted, as in fig. 203. 
 
 Design XXXI. — A Dwelling with Fire Rooms, with Conveniences, in the Old English Style, 
 where the building material is chiefly Stow. 
 
 227. Accommodation. There il more show than space in this building, from the cir- 
 cumstance of there being only one room in width in the bed-room story. It is by no means 
 recommended as a cheap Design, but as one ornamental and characteristic ; and suited for 
 producing a great effect, at comparatively little cost, in a country where free-stone, soft and 
 easily worked, is abundant, and the price of labour low. The ground floor consists of an 
 f.Mitrance and staircase, a; a kitchen, b; a wash-house, or back kitchen, r; a bed-closet, d; 
 a milk-room, e ; a closet under the stair, /; a bed-room, g ; parlour, h ; store cellar, t ; 
 place for coals, A-; and privy,/. The chamber story contains two bed-rooms, m and o; a 
 dressing closet, p; and a staircase and landing, n. 
 
 228. Constntetion. The walls should be of stone, in regular courses, or of brick ; and 
 the jambs (sides) of the doors and windows, with their sills, and lintels (covering stones) 
 of hewn stone. These may, or may not, be bevelled at the 204 
 
 angles. The mode of executing the summer stones and 
 pinnacles, will be understood from figures already given, 
 § 209, figs. 185 and 186. Great care should be taken in con- 
 structing the guttering over the bay windows, so as com- 
 pletely to carry off the water. These windows may have mul- 
 lions, and iron casements made to open. The roof should be 
 slated, and the chimneys may be of stone, and polygonal, or 
 what are commonly called cannon chimneys. The chimney 
 head cornice may be executed as in fig. 204. Some use may 
 be made of the roof, to which light and air may be admitted 
 by the small openings shown in the upper part of the gables. 
 
 229. General Estimate. Cubic contents, 23,024 feet, at 
 (irf. per foot, £575 : 12*. ; at 4<f., £383 : 14s : 8J. ; and at 3rf., 
 £287 : 16s. 
 
 230. Remarks. In England, this would be considered a 
 very suitable house for a gardener or bailiff, where effect was an ebject ; and it might be 
 adapted to a small family, in easy circumstances, by rendering g a sitting-room ; and by 
 raising a floor over c, d, and e, for servant's sleeping-rooms ; and another over i, k, and /, for 
 a family bed-room ; the dwelling would then be tolerably complete. A light stone parapet 
 may be pkced on the outer margin of the platform with ornaments at the corners somewhat 
 analagous to those which terminate the gable ends. These, with the other variations and 
 improvements of which this dwelling is susceptible, we leave to be designed by our 
 readers. 
 
110 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 XXXI. 
 
COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 
 
 Ill 
 
 Design XXXII.— ^ Cottage Dweiling uith Two Sitting Rooms, in a mixed style, where 
 Timber, Brick, and Slate are the materials used for the Walls and Roof. 
 
 231. Accommodation. This is a very commodious, convenient, and handsome dwelling; 
 exhibiting every thing requisite for a cottager, vrhether a gardener, a bailiff, or a small 
 farmer. It contains three floors ; — for cellars, for living-rooms, and for bed-rooms. The 
 cellar, or basement story, (see the plate forming page 117), contains a store-cellar, a; beer- 
 cellar, b; coal-cellar, c; salting-room, d; and staircase, e. These are lighted by windows 
 having sunk areas, /. The ground plan of the living-room floor (also in page 117) shews 
 the principal entrance and staircase, g; a sitting-room, h; another sitting-room, i ; a stair- 
 case, with a closet under it, k ; a. kitchen, /; a wash-house, ?«; a pantry, n; and a store 
 room, 0. This floor is surrounded by a terrace, part of which is covered by an extension of 
 the roof of the kitchen and wash-house, as may be seen by inspecting the plates in pages 
 113 and 114. The chamber floor contains a bed-room, p ; staircase and landing, q; closet, 
 r; bed-room, s ; closet, t; closet from the passage, u; passage, v ; family bed-room, w; and 
 nursery, or infant children's bed-room, x. 
 
 232. Construction. The walls are to be of brick ; the roof covered with slates ; the 
 chimney shafts of cement, or artificial stone ; and the balconies, brackets, posts, and gallery 
 railings, of oak timber. The details of construction are given in the plate, forming page 118, 
 in which fig. 1 is the open truncated pediment in front of the house ; and shows the ends of 
 the ceiling joists, a; the purlins, b ; the covering of the pediments, c, c; the wall plate, d; 
 and the bracket, e. Fig. 2 is a section at the eaves of the roof over the kitchen; in which 
 is seen the rafter,/; the wall plate, g ; the brackets, h, h ; and the cross section of the post, i. 
 Fig. 3 is the chimney top, in which is seen the chimney shaft, k. Fig. 4 is a cross section, 
 or plan, of the chimney, in which one half, /, represents the plan of the base ; and the other 
 half, m, the plan of the top. Fig. 5 represents the balcony, in which is shewn the corbel, n, 
 which supports the bracket, e ; also the bracket, o, which supports the balcony ; and the 
 wall of the house, p. Fig. 6 shows the gable brackets to support the roof, in which is seen 
 the gable wall of the house, q ; and the section of the rafters, r, r. Fig. 7 shows the elevation 
 of the lower part of the post ; in which is seen a balluster, s, with a section of the upper and 
 under rails. Fig. 8 shows the end elevation of the flower balcony ; in which is seen the 
 bracket, t, and the section of the wall, u. Fig. 9 shows the front elevation of the flower 
 balcony. Fig. 10 is the section at the eaves of the front wall of the house ; in which is seen 
 the rafter, v; the section of the wall, w; and the bracket, x. Fig. 11 is the section of the 
 plaster cornice of the sitting rooms, Src. Fig. 12 shows the section of the grounds (ground 
 work, or foundation plan) for forming the architraves round the doors, windows, &c. ; in 
 which is seen the ground, y ; and the jamb lining, z. 
 
 233. Particulars, or Specification and Estimate. The contributor of this very elegant and 
 judicious Design, has sent with it a no less copious and complete specification and estimate. 
 We consider the former, together with its accompanying explanations of technical terms, of 
 the greatest value to the young architect, and the amateur. To the general reader, they 
 will show the manner in which business is done among architects and builders, and their 
 employers in England. A Design being once agreed on, details similar to those in the 
 following specification, are first made out by the architect; and tlaen the builder, who 
 contracts for the work (either at the estimate made by the architect, or at one made by 
 himself, after having had the plans and specification some days in his possession for that 
 purpose), signs this particular, or specification ; and also an agreement made out, according 
 to certain legal forms. This agreement binds him to execute the work, under a certain 
 penalty, according to the specification, and to the satisfaction of the architect, or of a 
 surveyor (for a surveyor, as clerk of the works, is often employed in addition to the 
 architect). Security for the execution of the work is also sometimes required of the builder ; 
 in which case, the guarantee also signs the agreement, or a bond for the amount of the 
 penalty. The particular, or specification sent by our contributor, Mr. Richard Varden, as 
 a fair specimen of the usual style, bears the following title :— " Particulars of the several 
 works to be done in building a cottage residence, according to the annexed plans, elevations, 
 sections, and details, and the conditions subjoined." The work is classed according to the 
 trades employed to execute it ; and we shall give the specification, for each trade, in a 
 separate paragraph. We may observe here, that the specifications and estimates of architects, 
 surveyors, and builders, are frequently composed in a sort of professional, or abbreviated 
 style, which, independently of its technical terms, is unintelligible to general readers from 
 want of care in its grammatical construction The terms are unavoidable ; but the employers 
 or professional men should insist on at kast readable language. Another point which we 
 
COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 207 
 
 should always require would be perspective views, undisguised by trees, or gaudy colouring, 
 of the edifice to be erected, independently of the necessary geometrical plans, sections, and 
 elevations ; and in works of importance, a model in unpainted wood should always be con- 
 structed, and maturely considered before a Design is determined upon. 
 
 234. Specification of Excavator's, Well-Digger s, and Bricklayer s Work. To dig out the 
 earth for the basement story, together with the cesspools and drains, and the several trenches 
 for the foundations of the whole of the building, of the respective depths and widths 
 required ; and to fill in and well ram the earth round the work. The surplus 
 earth arising from these excavations, and from the well, together with the rubbish 
 made in the progress of the work, to be spread round the house so as to form 
 the terrace, shewn in the Designs (if more earth is required for this purpose, 
 it must be brought to the spot at the expense of the employer) ; and the whole 
 to be well rammed and consolidated.— To dig a well four feet clear in diameter, 
 and forty-five deep, and to steen the same in four-inch brick-work, with the top 
 properly domed over in nine-inch brick-work ; leaving a manhole, twenty 
 inches square, covered with a Yorkshire stone, having a strong iron ring on the 
 top. If a greater depth than forty-five feet should be required, the additions 
 must be paid for by the employer as an extra ; and, if a U\ss depth is sufficient, a 
 proportionate deduction must be made. To dig a cesspool four feet clear in diameter, 
 and nine feet deep, and steen it with four-inch brick -work ; leaving a manhoU', which is to 
 be closed with a Yorkshire stone, the same that used to close the well. All the bricks 
 to be used in the building, or brought upon the premises, to be sound and good well burnt 
 grey stocks (bricks made of marley clay ; that is, clay having a certain proportion of marl 
 naturally, or chalk artificially, mixed with il) ; those to be used in the external parts of 
 the building to be carefully picked of an 
 
 uniform colour; and the whole laid, and J 
 
 flushed solid (the joints filled up) in mor- L 
 
 tar, of the several heights and thicknesses, 
 with the apertures specified in the draw- 
 ings : none of the bricks to be brought 
 upon the premises to be slack burnt (im- 
 perfectly burned), or overburnt. The 
 mortar to be composed of the best well 
 burnt grey lime (grey lime- stone, not 
 chalk lime-stone), and clean, sharp, pit, 
 or river sand, well tempered together; and to be sifted through a screen, whose wires 
 shall be at equal distances, and not less than thirty in every foot in breadth. — The walls 
 of the foundations and cellars, up to the level of the platform, to be worked in brick-work, 
 and grouted (fluid mortar poured into the middle joints) with hot lime and sand ; the rest 
 of the walls above ground to be of brick -work, and the external face to be worked with a 
 neat flat ruled joint (a ruled joint is a joint struck flat with the trowel, with a line drawn 
 in the centre by means of a small iron instru- 
 ment, fig. 207, called a jointer, and an iron 
 straight edge, or flat ruler). The terrace wall 
 to be built battering (sloping inwards), from 
 two feet three inches at bottom, to nine inches 
 thick at top, with a nine-inch upright parapet, 
 coped with bevelled bricks, and fourteen-inch 
 brick piers, as shewn by the drawings ; fourteen 
 common garden pots and pans, twenty inches 
 high, to be provided and fixed thereon. Four- 
 inch brick discharging arches (arches built over 
 lintels to relieve them from part of the super- i v>- 
 
 incumbent weight, fig. 208, in which is shown the discharging arch, a, and the lintel which 
 it is intended to relieve, 6), to be turned over all the openings in the interior of the walls ; 
 twelve-inch guaged arches (bricks reduced by rubbing on free-stone laid on a table, called 
 a banker, to the shape of truncated wedges, so as to form arch stones, fitting exactly with 
 each other, according to the curve of the arch ; the faces of these bricks are also rubbed 
 quite smooth), with eight-inch skewbacks (the space between c and d, in the guaged 
 arch, fig. 209, is the skewback of that arch), and four-inch sofiits (the under side of the 
 arches) corresponding in width with the reveals (the outside jambs, or rabbets ; see 7, m 
 fig. 180), to be put over aU the external openings, made of the best grey cutting bricks. 
 
 209 
 
COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 
 XXXII. 
 
 113 
 
114 
 
 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 115 
 
 210 
 
 212 
 
 Nine-inch brick inverted arches, fig. 210 {f g being the level of the ground, and h 
 the window or opening over the arch), are to be 
 turned, the whole thickness of the waUs, under all the 
 external openings and chimney jambs. Inverted 
 arches are intended to equalise the pressure of the 
 foundations on the earth, and thus to prevent the 
 sinking of one part more than another, or what are 
 called settlements : it is evident that whatever carries 
 down i i, fig. 210 must also carry down the point k. 
 The chimney hearths, jambs (see § 79. fig. 47.), 
 backs, breasts, and shafts, to be of brickwork. All 
 the flues to be fourteen inches square in the clear, 
 properly gathered (drawn in above the fireplace, 
 till they are reduced to the proper size), and par- 
 geted (plastered with mortar, mixed with cow- 
 dung) ; and each flue. to have a Roman cement 
 chimney shaft (as shown by figs. 3 and 4, in the 
 plate of details, page 118,) flanched up (sloped in 
 a way to throw off wet: in fig. 211, / is a section 
 
 of the chimney shaft ; m, a section of the flue ; and . 
 
 n n, sections of the flanchings) with plain tiles set and rendered (plastered) in cement, 
 21 i A strong iron chimney 
 
 bar (fig. 212, 0 0. in this 
 figure, p is the breast; 
 q q are the jambs ; r, the 
 inverted arch under them ; 
 and s, the footing, or first 
 course of the foundations), 
 to be put to each of the 
 fireplaces ; and four-inch 
 brick trimmer arches to 
 be turned where required. 
 (Trimmer arches are made 
 to support the hearth- 
 stones, abutting at one 
 extremity on the wall of 
 tiie chimney, and at the 
 other on trimming pieces. 
 Trimmers are pieces of 
 timber framed at right 
 angles to the joists, against 
 the ways (openings) for 
 chimneys, and round the 
 well-holes (openings left 
 in floors for admitting the 
 stair) of stairs, &c. Fig. ^ 
 213 is a plan in which 
 are seen the joists, t t; 
 the trimming piece, u; and the fireplace, v. Fig. 214 is a section of the same plan, in 
 
 213 
 
 214 
 
 N 
 
llG COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 which the trinvmer arch, w, is shown abiittin;:^ against the trimming piece, w, and the back 
 of tlie chimney, v.) To build brick foundations for the sink, and for the stone steps ; and 
 nine-inch brickwork to surround tlie areas in front of tlie basement windows, copi-d witli 
 brick on edge set in Roman cement, and paved with bricks, having sink holes anil drains, 
 to deliver tlie water into the main drain. To put ICX) feet of hollow tile drain, 
 twelve inches clear in the l)ore, where directed ; and to lay the whole of the drains with 
 a proper ^all, and at a suflicient depth to deliver the water away from the lowest part of 
 the building. To provide nine cast-iron stink-traps eight inches Mjuare, and fix one at 
 each external aperture of the drain. ( I'he construction and action of a stink-traj) will 
 be easily understood from tlie section, fig. 'J 1.5. Water falling into this trap, through the 
 cover, J, escapes by the funnel, y, the inverted se- 
 micircle over which prevents all air from ascend- 
 ing. See figs, 'J-2'i, 223, and 22 1. Tiie terrace to be 
 paved with pebbles laid insand.projieriycurrcnted, 
 and well rammed. To build foundations and enclo- 
 sure walls, and aJi oven three feet six inches liy 
 three feet in tlie clear, proj)erly domed, plastered, 
 and jiaved ; and to find and ti x the recpiisite ironwork 
 for the vime, such asan iron door and frame, hinges, 
 latches ^tc, conij)lete. To till in the Hogging 
 partitions with brick Hogging d.it (brick on l)ed). 
 To pave the wash-house, p;uifry, and store nnini, 
 with dressed paving bricks (smtH>thed on one siile by passing a cylindrical rule, welted, 
 over the soft brick when mouldeil ; the kitchen to be paved with ten-inch tiles, bedded 
 and jointed in mortar; anil the rest of the basement story, throughout, with common 
 stock bricks hud flat in sand : the whole to Ik* properly levelled and currented to the 
 several drains. The openings of the fireplaces, in the sitting-rooms and in the chambers, 
 to be three feet high by their respective widths; and that of the kitchen to be four feet 
 high. All the window and door fnmies to be properly bedded and puinted in good lime 
 and hair mortar, and the sills underjiinned. (NN lieii stone sills are built intt) any wall, 
 they are generally made to bear on solid work only in those jjarts directly above which 
 the wall is carried up. The reason is, that, in buildings of any height, the solid parts 
 are apt to sink a slight degree more than those parts in whicii tliere are se\eral openings 
 one above another. Tlius, in the sill, fig. 216, a and 6 represent those parts of the sill 
 
 21 G 
 
 
 d 
 
 
 
 
 
 111 - 1 ■ 
 
 'i-i 1 1 1 , 1 I ^r-T^ 
 
 on which the jambs of the doors 
 or windows are carried up. Now, 
 if the sill were bedded on solid 
 walling throughout, from a to 
 b, and especially towards c, it is 
 evident that, if the walling sunk 
 only half an inch at either a or /», 
 not having the same superincum- 
 bent pressure, it would not sink 
 to the same degree at r, and the 
 consequence would be a rent in the 
 stone at d. For this reason sills - I ' ^ i i i i > » 
 
 are left hollow between the two 
 
 points of bearing, until the walling is completed ; and the filling up of the hollows after 
 is called the underpinning. In brick buildings, the sills, \\ hether of stone or oak, are not 
 generally put in until the walls are carried up to their destined height, and tliey are then 
 let in by cutting away part of the brickwork from the jambs. ' The bricklayer is to find 
 scaffolding for the use ot the carpenter, slater, plasterer, and other trades retjuiring the use 
 thereof for the outside work ; and to allow the same to remain until the external part of 
 the building shall be completed. The walls are to be carried up in an upright, substan- 
 tial, workmanlike manner ; and, in the progress of the building, no part is to be raised 
 more than four feet above the other (in order that the whole may settle, or sink equally, and 
 at the same time), except in gables and chimney-shafts; and the whole is to be built in a 
 regular and equal manner. To fix the wooden bricks, and to bed all the plates, bond 
 timbers, lintels, &c., in loam. To cut all the rakes and splays, and all the chasings 
 required for the lead flashings (strips of lead to cover joints or joinings ', and to make 
 good and stop the same with Roman cement. To do all the wind-pinnings filling in 
 the angle between the wall-plate and the roof) and beam-filling (filling up with brick- 
 work the interstices in the wall, between the ends of the beams) required. The brick- 
 layer is to find all the materials, ropes, ladders, boards, tackle, tools, workmanship, and 
 ironwork, for the completion of his work, and for the carriage thereof ; and to do the 
 
\ of tlie full size. 
 
COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 
 
 119 
 
 whole in the best and most workmanlike manner, subject to the general yarticulars at the 
 end of this specification. 
 
 '235. Specification of Plasterers Work. The cement chimney shafts to be coloured 
 twice over, of a good warm stone tint. To lath, lay, float, set, and white the strings 
 of the principal stairs, and the ceilings of the sitting-rooms, of the passage, and of 
 the chamber floor throughout. The ceilings of the kitchen, wash-house, pantry, store- 
 room, and the whole of the basement story, as well as the pediment in front of the house, 
 to be lath- laid, set, and whited. (To lath, plaster, float, and set, is to give what is called 
 three-coat work ; the first coat, given after nailing on the lath, is called pricking up ; the 
 second, floating ; and the third, setting or giving a coat of fine stuff. The second coat 
 is called floating, from the tool used in the operation, which is denominated a float. 
 There are three sorts of these tools; viz., the hand float, the quirk float, and the Derby 
 or two-handed float. The floated coat is brushed with a birch broom, to roughen the 
 surface before the setting coat is applied. The first coat of two-coat work is called 
 laying, when on lath, and rendering on brick. In three-coat work, the first coat on lath 
 is called pricking up, and upon brick roughing in.) To lime white, twice over, the 
 walls of wash-house, and the basement throughout. To lath, plaster, float, and set, for 
 paper or colouring, the whole of the battening (pieces of wood fixed to the bond timber 
 on the walls at regular distances, on which the lath is to be nailed) of the inside of the 
 external walls, and partitions for lath of the principal and chamber floors (except the 
 wash-house) ; and render-float (roughing in would be the more correct term here, but 
 rendering is generally used, and is understood by the trade), and set, for paper or 
 colouring, all the internal walls, and nogging partitions of both floors. Ail the external 
 walls, with the exception of the wash-house, will be battened by the carpenter. All the 
 timbers in the partitions, and the bond (the timber built into the walls), to be diagonally 
 lathed. (Lathing diagonally lessens the risk of cracks in the plaster, in case the timber 
 should shrink). The two sitting-rooms and passage to have plaster cornices, as shown 
 in fig. 11, in the plate of details, page 118. The plasterer is to find all materials, tools, 
 tressels (a sort of stool, sometimes five or six feet high, fig. 217, used for supporting 
 scaffolding boards), boards, moulds, rules, car- 
 riage, and workmanship required for the comple- 
 tion of his work; and to run (a term used by 
 plasterers, meaning to form) such beads, quirks, 
 arrises (projecting angles), &c., as may be neces- 
 sary for the perfect execution of the same ; and to 
 do the whole in the best and most workmanlike 
 manner, subject to the general particular at the 
 end of this specification. 
 
 236. Specification of Slater^s Work. To cover the whole of the roofing with the best 
 countess slates, nailed with stout wrought-copper nails; the eaves to be laid double, and 
 the whole of the slates to have a saflScient overlap, and to be carefully sorted in courses 
 consisting of slates of equal thickness, so as to exclude the weather effectually. The 
 slater is to find all materials, tools, carriage, and workmanship required for the com- 
 pletion of the above ; and to do the same in the best and most workmanlike manner, 
 subject to the general particular at the end of this specification. 
 
 237. Specification of Stone- Mason's Work. All the windows to have York quarry 
 stone sills, eight inches wide, beveled, throated (in the section of the stone sills, fig. 218, 
 the throat is represented at e ; j^is the bevel of the 218 
 
 sill, and g the oak sill of the window frame, resting 
 on the stone sill ; and also throated at h), and tooled 
 (see § 82). The entrance door to have a landing 
 (a piece of pavement of larger dimensions than ordi- 
 nary) over the area, of Yorkshire stone, four inches 
 thick, rounded at the edges; the terrace to have 
 Yorkshire pavement laid the width of the stairs at 
 the entrances ; the steps and the coping of the 
 spandril (the space between an arch and the member [ 
 over it j, together with the coping of the piers (the 
 
 solid parts between any arches or openings) of the ' — 9 — I ""^ 
 
 stairs, and those on the terrace wall, to be of York 
 quarry stone. The coping of the spandrils to be 
 twelve inches wide, and that of the piers seven- 
 teen and a half inches square, properly cramped 
 
 and run with lead. Each parlour to have vein marble profile chimney-pieces, 
 not exceeding seven pounds in value, exclusive of hearths and slabs. (Profile 
 chimney-pieces are such as have projecting jambs, with their sides covered by slips. 
 
120 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITFXTURE. 
 
 fig. 219, ii, of marble, stone, or whatever material the chimney-piece may consist of 
 When there are 
 
 two side slips, f -19 
 i i, and a slip 
 in front, Ic, the 
 chimney-piece is 
 said to be in pro- 
 file ; when there 
 
 is only one piece 
 in front, it is said 
 
 to be not in pro- ' — ' 
 
 file, and the front 
 
 slip, /, is called a jamb. Such chimneys have generally an inside slip, m; but this rests 
 against the brick jamb of the fireplace, instead of t)ie stone jamb, o, to which the 
 slips of the chimney-piece are fixed. Fig. 2'JO is an elevation of a chamber fireplace 
 chinmey, in which p is the 
 shelf ; (J, the mantel ; r r, 
 the jambs; and s s, the in- 
 side slips.) All the fire- 
 places to have Y»)rkshire 
 stone hearths, and Portland 
 stone slabs. The fireplaces 
 of the front chambers to have 
 jilain Portland stonu mantels, 
 janil)s, slips, and shelves 
 with rounded corners. The 
 kitchen to have one inch and 
 Lliree quarters tJnck Portland 
 stone mantel and jambs. 
 The kitchen, pautry, anvl 
 store-room to have milled 
 slate (milled slate is sawed 
 out of blocks by machinery ; rooting slate is ck-ft into lamina- by wedges) skirting 
 (a bordering to the wall) seven inches higli, and one inch and a (piarter thick, properly 
 cramped (by an iron or copper hook, fig. 'J'Jl, driven into the w jiW at one end, and let 
 
 into the slate at the other), backed up, and set in Roman cement The wash-house to have 
 a Yorkshire stone sink, five feet long and two feet three inches wide, with a proper hole 
 for the bell-trap a kind of stink-trap usually made of bell meud, about three inches 
 across and round, figs. 222, 223, and 224). The mason is to find all cramps, lead, and 
 
 222 
 
 22 1 
 
 all the materials, as well as the carriage and workmanship required for the completion 
 of the above ; and to do the same in the best, most substantial and workmanlike manner, 
 subject to the conditions of the general particulars. 
 
 238. Specification of Carpenters IVork. The whole of the bearing timbers to be sound, 
 well seasoned, yellow Dantzic or ]Memel fir timber, except ^\here otherwise specified. 
 The whole of the carpentry to be framed in a workmanlike manner ; and all the timber 
 to be sawed square, and to be free from sap (outside wood, not properly matured wanes 
 
COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 121 
 
 (deficiencies, as at t, in fig. 225, owing to marking the dimension too near the circmn- 
 
 ference, instead of making allowance 2-^5 
 
 for the sap wood, as at u), shakes (fis- 
 sures in the wood), large knots, or other 
 defects, and of the several dimensions, 
 scantlings, and descriptions, which 
 follow ; and all the carpenter's as well 
 as the joiner's work, to hold the several 
 scantlings (the term scantling is gene- 
 rally applied by carpenters to the depth 
 and width of a piece of timber) and 
 thicknesses when finished, such which 
 are named in the particulars : this 
 must be particularly attended to. The 
 principal and chamber stories to have 
 two tiers of oak [)ond, three inches by 
 two inches and a half, to pass through 
 the openings, and not to be cut out \ / 
 
 xmtil the work has become settled; ^\ /' 
 
 and an oak wall-plate under each floor, ^^--.^ ^-'^ 
 
 four and a half inches by three inches, '"'--^ 
 
 dovetailed at the angles, and halved and spiked at the laps. To put double oak 
 lintels four inches thick, and of the width of the respective walls, except the reveals 
 (properly revels, from revelo, to reveal or discover; the two vertical sides of the aperture 
 between the outside front of the wall and the window , and to rest nine inches on the 
 walls at each end. Wooden bricks of oak (see § 83), to be furnished to the bricklayer to 
 be inserted in the jambs, not exceeding two feet apart, for fixing the linings to, where neces- 
 sary. The entrance passage and the two sitting-rooms to have heart of oak joists six 
 inches by four inches. The chamber floors to have fir joists nine inches by two inches and 
 a half, not more than twelve inches apart ; and trimmed (see § 234, and fig. 21 3J, to the 
 stairs and fireplaces, with trimmers and trimming joists nine inches by three inches and a 
 half, with one inch and a quarter yellow deal keys (pieces of timber driven fast between 
 each pair of joists, with their ends butting against the groin of the joists ; they are commonly 
 called strutting pieces, and their use is to stiffen the floor^, in each chamber. The back 
 chambers and passage to have ceiling joists four inches by two inches, and thirteen inches 
 apart, firmly spiked to the common rafters, as shown by the drawings. The front rooms to 
 have ceiling joists four inches by two inches, not more than twelve inches apart, and 
 framed into the tie beams. The penthouse a roof projected from a wall, and not sup- 
 ported by pillars) in front, to have ceiling joists three inches and a half by two inches, 
 spiked to the rafters above the purlin. — Roof. Tie beams (see fig. 54 j to be seven 
 inches by four inches ; framed principal rafters six inches by two inches and a half at 
 bottom, and four inches by two inches and a half at top ; purlins, five inches by three 
 inches, to be framed to the principals ; wall-plates, five inches by two inches and a half ; 
 pole-plates, four inches by two inches, supported by^vTought curved brackets four inches 
 and a half by four inches, as shown by the drawings ; common rafters to be four inches 
 by two inches, not more than thirteen inches apart, and properly trimmed to the shafts. 
 The feet of the rafters which project beyond the brickwork are to be five inches by 
 three inches and a half, wrought, notched, and spiked to the wall-plate and pole-plates. 
 The roofing of the back part will be without principals or tie beams. The roof throughout 
 to have one inch and a half yellow deal liips, nine inches wide; and ridge pieces of the 
 same width and thickness, rounded oflP for the lead ; the valleys to have one inch thick 
 feather-edged flanch boards nine inches wide. (Hips and valleys are formed wherever 
 
 226 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 
 
 c 
 
 
 c 
 
 e 
 
 e 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 
 roofing meets at 
 a right or other 
 angle ; the ex- 
 ternal angles,fig. 
 226, a a a, form 
 the hips ; the in- 
 ternal angle, b, 
 the valley ; c c, 
 the ridge ; d, the 
 gable y ee e, the 
 eaves ; f, the 
 span ; and g, in 
 fig. 227, which 
 shows a double 
 
 227 
 
122 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 roof, the gutter between the roofs. ) The chimney shafts to have one inch gutter boards 
 and bearers, with feather-edged flanch boards nine indies wide ; the eaves to liave one 
 inch and a quarter thick feather-edged cave boards, with wrought anil rounded edge, 
 and a wrought fillet between the pole-plate and cave boards, nailetl to the feet of the 
 rafters : three-inch thick cut brackets to be pul under the projection of the roof over the 
 gables fas shown by fig. 6, in the plate of details, page 118). The rafters of the roof 
 to be covered with three quarters of an inch tiiick deal slips two inches and a half wide, 
 for countess slating, with such tilting fillets see fig. 55), &c., as may be required The 
 penthouse in front to have wrought and curved chamfered (the angles planed off, as in 
 fig. 228, in which h is the chamfer; brackets six inches by ten inches, to 228 
 sui)port the plate, as shown by the drawings, firmly fixed at the lower end 
 into the wall. Partitions for brick Hogging fiat see tig. 58 to have 
 heads and sills four inches by two inciies ; puncheons <juarters' and 
 braces, four inches by two iiulies and a (juartir, and eighteen indices 
 apart; door-posts and principal quarters, four inches by three inches; 
 Hogging pieces, four inches by two inches. Partitions for lath to have 
 heads and sills, four inches and a quarter by three inches ; conunon quarters, three 
 inches by two inches and a cjuarter, and twelve inches apart ; braces, three inches 
 by two inches and a quarter; door-posts and principal (juarters, four inches by three 
 inches. The whole of the external walls of the principal anil chambt-r fioors, except 
 those of tlie wash-house, to be battened inside with one-inch thick yellow deal battens 
 two inches and a quarter wide, and twelve inclies apart. The well to have a j)ropor 
 barrel curb, four teet high, boarded with one-inch tliick boards, and oak stiiges to be 
 placed in the well for fixing the suction pipe of liie pumj). , A barrel curb is fornied 
 of circular ribs, generally of elm, on the outside of wliich slips of deal, four feet long, are 
 nailed so as to form a cylinder, fig. 22J», on which the brick steening is placed ; the rest of 
 the steening is built above it, as at i, in fig. 2;iO ; and, as the well is sunk, the curb 
 2'J'J 
 
 and superincumbent steening descend. 
 When the well is in progress, the body 
 of the earth, k, is dug out to the depth 
 of two or three feet at a time, according 
 as the soil may be more or less tenacious, 
 and drawn to the surface in buckets ; a 
 band or rim, / /, being left under the 
 curb ; this band is afterwards dug out, when the curb descends, and several courses 
 of steening are added above. The use of the curb is to keep the well perpendicular, and 
 truly cylindrical during the work; it is left in the well, the interstices between the slips 
 being filled in with brickwork. Oak stages are pieces of timber, with their ends fixed 
 in the steening, which cross the centre of the well, at the distance of eight or ten feet 
 from the bottom, and from each other ; to these the pipe of the pump is fixed, in order 
 that they may support its weight, and keep it steady. J The carpenter to make, fix, and 
 refix, when required, such centring (frames of timber by which the brick or stone work 
 
COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 
 
 123 
 
 of arched vaulting is supported during its erection! as may be necessary for the brick- 
 layer's or well-digger's use, in forming arches, trimmers, &c. 
 
 239. Specijication of Joiner's Work. All the timber used by the joiner to be the best 
 well-seasoned yellow deal listed (listing is cutting off a strip of such boards as are blue 
 and sappy at the edges, so as to leave only the true wood), free from sap, shakes, and 
 large or loose knots. The whole to be neatly wrought, framed, and finished oft" (rubbed 
 after being planed) with firestone fa kind of soft stone, which serves to smooth the sur- 
 face), in the most substantial and workmanlike manner. — Floors. To lay good one- 
 inch thick yellow deal straight-jointed floors in the sitting-rooms and passage ; and one- 
 inch thick yellow deal folding floors throughout the chamber story. (The term folding 
 is applied to a peculiar manner of laying floors. The first and fourth boards are bradded 
 down (tacked, or slightly nailed ; from brad, a small nail made without a head, so that 
 the nail may be sunk into the wood ', with an intervening space, n, fig. 231, something 
 less than the breadth of the two boards, o o, that are to go 
 
 between ; so that when these two last are placed with vi 
 
 their edges coinciding with the edges of those fixed, as shown 
 by the section, moo m, they rest, as it were, folded toge- 
 ther in the middle, forming a ridge ; on which ridge two 231 
 or more workmen jump, till they force the boards down flat 
 between the other two, they are then secured with brads. 
 The object of this process is to procure very close joints.) The 
 whole of the rooms to have proper oorders (narrow slips 
 forming a margin) to the hearth slabs, &c. — Doors of 
 Chamber Floor. To put one inch and a quarter thick four- 
 paneled doors throughout this story, framed square on 
 both sides, and hung with two inch and a quarter butt hinges 
 (see fig. 6.5) ; and to have good iron rim locks, with plain 
 brass knob furniture, one inch and a quarter single-rebated 
 jambs (in fig. 232, p is the jamb, q the door, and r the 
 rebate), with one-inch framed wrought and sunk grounds, 
 five inches wide, and with quirk ovolo and fillets laid on to 
 form the architraves. — Doors of Ground Floor. The doors 
 opening into the entrance passage to be one inch and a half 
 thick, six-paneled, and hung with three inch and a half 
 butt hinges; having good mortised locks (locks which are 
 inserted in a mortise, cut edgewise into the style of the 
 door), with plain brass knob furniture ; one inch and a 
 quarter deal single-rebated jamb linings, witli grounds (see fig. 
 mouldings the same as those of the doors of 
 
 the chamber floor. The doors that open into 
 
 the sitting-rooms to be moulded inside. The 
 door at the top of the cellar stair, together 
 with all the other internal doors on the ground 
 story, that have not been specified, to be finished 
 in the same manner as those of the chamber 
 floor The front entrance to have a two-inch 
 deal sash door ; one inch and a quarter astragal 
 and hollow sash bar, fig. 233 (fig. 234 is an 
 ovolo sash bar), circular-headed, with double- 
 
 margined and diminished styles, hung with three inch and a half butt hinges, and pro- 
 vided with two six-inch bright rod-bolts (see fig. 68), 
 and a ten-inch iron rim drawback lock (having a bolt 
 which draws back from the inside by means of a knob), 
 with brass knobs; the bottom of the door to be framed 
 with three reeds, flush on one side, and square on the 
 back, one-inch thick clamped lifting shutters, with 
 studs and plates and screw fastenings, and one inch 
 and a half rebated jamb linings and grounds, with 
 mouldings to match the others. (Double-margined and 
 diminished styles will be understood from fig. 235 ; in 
 which, s is the style of its full breadth ; t the style 
 diminished ; u the inner margin, for the purpose of 234 
 '^''^ receiving the shutter ; v the sash; and lo the panel. 
 
 The section of the diminished style is shown at x, and 
 the shutter by the dotted lines, t/. ) The back entrance 
 door to be one inch and three quarters tliick, six-pa- 
 
 1 2, in page 118) and 
 
 232 
 
 A 
 
124 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 neled, square on both sides ; and to be hung and fitted 235 
 as the front entrance door, with jambs, lining, &c., to 
 correspond ; both of the entrance doors to have oak- 
 /ramed door cases and sills, five inches by three inches 
 and a half. — Basement. The basement story to have 
 one-inch thick deal proper-ledged doors (a ledged 
 door is called proper, when it is wrought, ploughed 
 (grooved), tongued (slips which go into the grooves, 
 so as to make perfect joints), and bedded), and good 
 oak proper door-cases, five inches by three inches and 
 a half, (a door-case is called proper, when it is 
 wrought, framed, rebated, and beaded), hung with 
 eighteen-inch cross garnet linings, with stock locks 
 (see fig. 69;, and Norfolk latches (see fig. 67). The 
 basement story to have solid oak proper two-light 
 window frames, four inches by two inches and a half, 
 with one-inch iron stanchion bars (properly, support- 
 ing bars, but here placed for protection), four inches 
 apart, wrought-iron casements, and strong hinges, 
 
 latches, stay irons (fig. 23G), saddle-bars (cross-bars to which theleadwork of the 
 
 236 
 
 glazing 
 
 is fixed), &c., complete. The other windows to have deal-cased frames, oak sunk sills, one 
 inch and a half astragal and hollow sashes, double hung with iron weights, and best white 
 lines, brass pulleys, and j)atent spring sash-fastenings. The sash windows, except the 
 sitting-rooms, to have one-inch wrought hinges, and one inch and a quarter wrought and 
 rounded window-boards. All the windows, except those of the basement, to have grounds 
 and mouldings to match the doors. The kitchen, wash-house, store-room, and pantry 
 to have one-inch thick square framed folding inside shutters, with rule joints, proper 
 hinges, and iron bar fastenings. The sitting-rooms to have one inch and a quarter pro- 
 per boxings (the frames which receive the architraves and the outer edges of the shutters 
 are called proper boxings, when they are wrought, framed, rebated, splayed, and beaded), 
 and architraves to 
 match the doors ; one 
 inch and a quarter 
 ovolo flat backs and 
 splayed elbows (in 
 fig. 237, a a are the 
 elbows J b is the cap- 
 ping, or, as it is called 
 when of some width, 
 the window-board), 
 and soffits (the part 
 of the architrave 
 which projects over 
 the columns, but the 
 term is used generally 
 for the under side of 
 any horizontal pro- 
 jection), with proper 
 capping (the coping 
 or covering to the 
 elbows and backs of 
 the windows ; viz., to 
 a a, as shown at 
 
 b b b, in fig. 237) , one-inch bead and butt back linings ; one inch and a quarter ovolo 
 flat shutters, with one inch bead and butt back flaps (framed in panels, witli a bead 
 struck on the panel sides only), with proper hinges, strong wrought-iron spring shutter 
 bars, and brass spring fastenings. (Fig. 238 is a section of part of a bead, butt, and 
 square back door ; in which, c is the style, d the panel, e the bead on the front side 
 of the panel, and / the square back of the panel. Fig. 239 is a section of part of 
 
COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 125 
 
 239 
 
 — YTj 
 
 (In fig. 240, c is a torus 
 
 240 
 
 a bead flush door, in which 
 the bead, g, is struck upon 
 the styles, and returned on 
 the rails, so as to surround 
 the panel.) — Skirting. 
 Chamber floor to have three 
 quarters of an inch square 
 skirting throughout, four 
 inches and a half high. The 
 sitting-rooms and entrance 
 passage to have one-inch 
 torus skirting, eight inches 
 
 high ; all the skirting to have narrow beveled grounds, 
 moulding on the skirting, d, which 
 is nailed to the beveled ground, e; 
 f is the wall ; g, the plaster ; and h, 
 the floor of the room. The grounds 
 are beveled, in order that they may 
 retain the plastering better than by a 
 horizontal joint.) Principal stair- 
 case to have one-inch yellow deal 
 steps, risers, and carriage (pieces 
 which bear the brackets till the steps 
 are fixed), with moulded nosings to 
 the steps to be housed (let in) into the 
 close stringing, which is to be one 
 and a quarter inch thick, sunk, and 
 moulded with a moulded planceer 
 (a moulded capping to the stringing 
 into which the balusters are fixed) 
 with one inch and a quarter raking 
 (following a slopej torus wall string- 
 housed to the steps and risers. To 
 put deal turned newels (posts firmly 
 framed to which the handrail is 
 
 fixed) and moulded handrail- and 
 
 three quarters of an inch square deal bar balusters, and one inch and a quarter square 
 framed spandril to enclose the cellar 
 stairs. (In fig. 241, i is the spandril 
 of the stairs; h, the string; I, the 
 planceer ; m, the balusters ; n, the 
 newel ; and o, the handrail. Fig. 242 
 represents the string board, in which the 
 dotted lines show the housings. ) The 
 cellar stairs to have one-inch deal risers, 
 one inch and a quarter oak treads with 
 rounded nosings and proper carriage, 
 a deal handrail, newel (turning) post, 
 and one and a quarter inch string boards 
 with steps housed in. The pump to 
 have one inch and a half oak cheeks 
 (sides) and silis, cased with one-inch deal, with proper cap, &c. ; which is to be fixed in the 
 wash-house. The angles of the chimney breasts to have proper staff beads (upright corner 
 beads put at the external angles of chimney jambs, and in similar situations. In fig. 243, 
 p is the section of the staff bead ; q q, the plaster ; r r, what are called the quirks in the 
 plastering; and s, the wall.) Two hundred feet (lineal) of one-inch thick wrought 
 and rounded shelf board, twelve inches broad, to be prepared and fixed with brackets 
 and iron hold-fasts in the pantry, store-room, and closets, or elsewhere, as may be 
 directed by the employer. Yellow deal balconies to be put up to one of the front and 
 two of the side windows, as shown by the drawings ; with moulded handrail, and turned 
 balusters ; the floor wrought on both sides, moulded on the edge, and two inches and a 
 quarter thick ; having four cut brackets three inches thick to support each : the whole 
 to be firmly and securely fixed. Flower-stands of good yellow deal to be put up to the 
 two front windows as shown by the drawings, and finished according to figs. 8 and 9, in 
 plate of details, page 118. An oak moulded sill and a deal moulded handrail to be 
 put round the back part of the building : these are to be framed into the posts, and the 
 
 o 
 
1^6 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE, 
 
 be wrought, fiaintil, and 
 
 turned balusters housed into the same. The posts aie 
 chamfered, seven inches s<juare, witl» iron tenons (square 
 pieces of iron fitted into mortise's, Uiat is, into holts 
 cut to receive tlu-ni) at bottom ; and circular wrought 
 framed braces at top, to support the cave's of t!)c project- 
 ing roof of the kitchen, uash-house. Sec. The carpenter 
 and joiner are to iiiid all to<)ls, labour, glue, nails, and 
 every description of ironmongery, locks, bolts, bars, 
 hinges, fastenings, and tlie filing of tJie sami-. and every 
 thing required for the conijiletion of tJieir works; vshich 
 must be done in the best and in the most substantial 
 and workmanlike manner; and to prepare and fix all 
 kind of l)eads, stops ^a tenn variously apj)Iied, but chiefly 
 to slips nailed on for doors or shutters to shut against, or 
 for fixing work\ fillets, grounds, linings, and backings 
 (back linings , retjuired for the perfect execution of 
 the above, whether the same may or may not be minutely 
 specified in tliis particular; the whole to be done, subject to the provisions in the general 
 particular at the end hereof. 
 
 'J-10. Sjjecificalion (if Plumbers Work. Flashings of milled lead ten inches wide, 
 weighing five pounds a superficial foot, to be chased into the brickwork (see § S5), 
 and fixed with wall-liooks (fig. ^'44. , where the roof abuts against the brick walls, as 
 well as to each of the chimney shafts, 
 which must have aprons (strips of 
 lead, to throw the wet frmii the joint 
 betw 'cen the roof and the chimney 
 sliaft) where they are recjuired. The 
 gutters against the chimney shafts to 
 be covered with lead weighing seven pounds to the superficial foot. Tlie hips, ridges, and 
 valleys to be covered with milled lead, fifteen inches broad, weighing five pounds the 
 superficial foot ; the whole to be properly lapped, dressed (smoothed), and nailed with 
 lead-headed nails. The sink to have a six-inch brass grate and bell-trap (see figs. 
 222, 2'23, and 224), and a two and a half inch lead pipe. A good stout four-inch 
 lead pump barrel, weighing 2 qrs. 14 lbs., with bucket, sucker, and wrought-iron 
 thandle, complete, and forty feet of two and a half inch lead suction pipe, to be put up in 
 he wash-house. 
 
 241. Specification of Glazier s Work. The basement story windows to have lead 
 lights, and Newcastle crown-glass (crown-glass is white or colourless, and is so called 
 to distinguish it from gieen glass), in quarries. All the sashes, including that of the 
 front door, to be glazed with good second Newcastle crown-glass ; the best squares to be 
 selected for the sitting rooms. 
 
 242. Specification of Painter's Work. To knot (cover the knots with paint, before the 
 general painting', prime (give the first coat), and paint the whole of the external wood 
 and iron work four times in oil, with good white lead, and to finish the same in a light 
 stone colour ; with the exception of the doors, which are to be finished olive green. 
 The whole of the joiner's work, internally, with the exception of the floors, shelves, and 
 the risers and treads of the stairs, to be knotted, primed, and painted three times in good 
 white lead and oil ; and the sitting-rooms to be flatted (the glossy appearance of the 
 
COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 
 
 1^27 
 
 paint to be taken off by using turpentine in the last coat, instead of oil). The plumber, 
 the painter, and the glazier to find all materials, workmanship, and carriage, and every 
 thing requisite for the performance of their works ; and to do the same in a perfect and 
 workmanlike manner ; subject to the conditions in the general particular at the end 
 hereof. 
 
 243. General Particular. The whole of the foregoing works to be entirely finished 
 and completed on or before the day of ; and the several portions to be 
 performed in such order of succession as to insure the final completion of the whole by 
 that time. Each contractor to be answerable for any damages that may be done to his 
 respective work during its progress (fire excepted), whether by the inclemency of the 
 weather, or otherwise ; and to make all good, and to leave the same perfect at the final 
 completion of the work. The whole of the works are to be paid for within 
 
 after the completion of the contract. If the contractor or contractors 
 shall omit to complete the work by the time specified, a deduction of 1 per cent shall 
 be made from the amount of his or their contracts, for every week the time shall be 
 exceeded. The whole of the materials are to be of a sound and good description, and 
 fit for their several purposes. The works aie all to be done in a substantial and work- 
 manlike manner ; and every thing is to be performed that is necessary for completing 
 the whole of the work in the usual and customary manner, notwithstanding any 
 omissions that may have occurred in the foregoing particulars : and if any alteration 
 shall be made, by the direction of the employer, it shall not vitiate or annul the con- 
 tract ; but the value of such alterations shall be ascertained at the customary prices of 
 the neighbourhood, by of ; whose decision between the parties 
 
 shall be final. And further, if any or all of the works should be performed in any 
 way inferior to the description and intention of the particulars and drawings, or shall 
 be deteriorated below a fair standard of good quality or sound workmanship ; the 
 same shall also be valued by as aforesaid, and the sum deducted 
 
 from the amount of the contract by the employer : the decision in this case also shall 
 be final. And further, if, in the course of two years from the completion of the said 
 work, there should become manifest any latent defects, resulting from imperfect or 
 careless workmanship, or from badly burnt bricks, unseasoned timber, or other materials, 
 the contractor shall be held to make the same good, upon receiving notice from 
 
 to do so ; and in case the said contractor shall neglect or refuse to make 
 good such defects within one calendar month from the date of such notice, to the satis- 
 faction of the proprietor, he shall be at liberty to employ such other persons to do the 
 same as he may think proper ; the expense of which shall be borne by the said con- 
 tractor or contractors. The contractor or contractors to sign an agreement to perfonn 
 the work according to the foregoing particulars and conditions therein ; which agree- 
 ment shall contain such additional clauses as the solicitor to the employer shall deem 
 requisite to secure and enforce the fulfilment of the same. Satisfactory security for the 
 performance of the work to be given by the contractor, if required. 
 
 244. Estimate in Detail of the expense of building a cottage residence according to 
 the annexed plans and particulars of Design XXXII. 
 
 245. Estimate of Excavator s, Well- Digger s, and Bricklayer s Work. £ s. d. 
 One hundred and sixty-eight cubic yards of digging, filling, and 
 
 ramming, for the foundations, cellar story, and drains 
 
 One cesspool, dug and stecned in four-inch brickwork, nine feet 
 
 deep, and four feet clear in diameter 
 
 One well, dug and stcened in four-inch brickwork, forty-five feet 
 
 deep, and four feet clear in diameter 
 
 Five rods two hundred and fourteen feet of reduced brickwork in 
 
 foundations below the level of the plinth (grouted) 
 
 Ten rods two hundred and eleven feet of brickwork above ground, 
 
 flushed solid, with flat ruled joints 
 
 Two thousand and twenty-seven feet six inches, superficial measure, 
 
 of extra-labour in picking stocks of equal colour for the facing.... 
 
 One hundred and ninety feet seven inches of gauged arches 
 
 Seventy-five yards and a half of nogging flat 
 
 Fifty yards of stock brick paving, laid flat in sand 
 
 Fourteen yards of paving bricks, bedded and jointed in mortar 
 
 Twenty-four yards of ten-inch tile paving, bedded and jointed in 
 
 mortar 
 
 Seventy-six yards of pebble paving, laid in sand • 
 
 Thirty-four feet lineal of cuttings to rakes, &c 
 
 Thirty-four feet lineal of ch;isings cut for lead flashings, and making 
 
 them good with Roman cement 
 
128 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 Fifty feet extra, to the setting of brick on edge coping in cement 
 
 (labour and cement) 
 
 Ninety-six feet of beveled brick coping, and fixing the same 
 
 One hundred feet of hollow tile drain, twelve inches clear in the bore 
 
 (tube or tunnel), and setting the same 
 
 Eight feet superficial of Yorkshire stone paving, to cover the well 
 
 and the cesspool 
 
 Sundries- — Two iron rings to the cover stones of the well and the 
 
 cesspool, and letting in and fixing the same 
 
 Fourteen garden pots and pans for the piers of the parapet, twenty 
 
 inches high 
 
 Twenty-two window-frames bedded and pointed in lime and hair 
 
 mortar 
 
 Seven door-frames bedded and pointed in lime and hair mortar 
 
 Eight Roman cement chimney shafts seven feet high (as shown by 
 
 the details), and fixing and flanching up the same with cement and 
 
 plain tiles 
 
 Eight chimney bars 
 
 A cast-iron door with wrought-iron hinges, latch, &c., to the oven, and 
 
 fixing the same 
 
 Five sink stones in the areas, with five holes cut in each 
 
 Nine cast-iron eight-inch stink-traps, and setting them 
 
 Bedding bond plates and lintels in loam (loam is used in bedding, 
 
 because a bedding of lime is supposed to destroy the timber) 
 
 £362 : 6 : 4 
 
 246. Estimate of Plasterer's Work. 
 
 One hundred and fifty-eight yards of lime- whiting twice over 
 
 Two hundred and nineteen yards of whiting to new work 
 
 Forty-four yards of stone-colouring on cement 
 
 One hundred and fifty-five yards of floated render set 
 
 Eighty-seven yards of lath-layed and set 
 
 Three hundred and eighty-five yards of lath plaster, floated and set 
 One hundred and fifty feet lineal of plaster cornices, as per drawing 
 Four extra mitres in the cornices 
 
 £6A .9:10 
 
 247. Estimate of Slater's Work. 
 
 Twenty-three squares and a quarter of countess slating, with wrought- 
 copper nails 
 
 £41 : 17 : 0 
 
 248. Estimate of Stonemason's Work- 
 
 Seven feet superficial of plain work to the Portland stone shelf. 
 
 Twenty- eight feet of Portland stone chimney-pieces 
 
 Eight feet ten inches of Portland stone, one and three fourths of an 
 inch thick 
 
 Thirty-six feet seven inches of Portland stone slabs 
 
 Twenty-five feet six inches of Yorkshire stone hearths 
 
 Fifty-nine feet six inches of Yorkshire stone paving, and pier caps... 
 
 Eight feet nine inches of four-inch Yorkshire stone landing, 
 
 Eleven feet three inches of Yorkshire stone sink, six inches thick.... 
 
 Forty-six feet five inches of one and a quarter inch milled slate 
 skirting, fixed with cramps, and set in cement 
 
 Ten feet two inches of lineal rounded edge to the Portland stone 
 shelf 
 
 Five feet lineal of rounded edge to the Yorkshire stone landing, four 
 inches thick 
 
 Seventy- three feet four inches of York quarry stone sills, eight inches 
 wide, beveled, throated, and tooled (quarry stone is a term ap- 
 plied to stones prepared at the quarry, for any particular purpose^ 
 such as sills, copings, steps, &c. ; without being very carefully 
 tooled, or rubbed) 
 
 Ten feet of York quarry stone coping, twelve inches wide 
 
 Forty-five feet of Yorkshire stone steps 
 
 Two veined marble chimney-pieces in the parlours, at £l each ... 
 
COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 1^9 
 
 Twelve chimney cramps 
 
 One hole cut in the sink for a bell-trap ''. ..*..*."*.'!!. *. .*.*.* 
 
 249. Estimate of Carpenter's and Joiners Work. 
 
 Four hundred and twelve feet eight inches cubic of Memel, or 
 
 Dantzic fir, framed in the roof, the floors, and the partitions.. 
 Iwenty feet three inches of wrought and framed timber, in brackets 
 
 cut circular ' 
 
 Six feet eight inches of wrought and framed timber^ in br^^^^^^ 
 
 chamfered edges 
 
 ^^hitSS''^'^^^ ^'"^ '''''^^^ of 'oi'i^thy bondVpktys aAd 
 
 Fifty-four feet eight inches of oak, framed Vndngirfloorin^* 
 Sixty-six feet superficial of feather-edged valley-boards . 
 
 filler''^'' three-quarter inch wrought* eaves 
 
 Nineteen squares sixty-eight feet of thrye-quartyr Vnch sli^ 
 
 a half mches wide, for countess slating 
 
 Twenty squares thirty-four feet of inch yellow dearbaVteAVngrtwo 
 
 and a quarter inches wide, and twelve inches apart . 
 Twenty-four feet superficial of inch gutters and bearers 
 Ninety-four feet one inch superficial of one and a quarter inch keys 
 Ninety feet nine inches of hips and ridges rounded . 
 One hundred and thirty-five feet four inches of feather-edged eaVe- 
 
 boards, with wrought and rounded edges 
 
 Fifty-three feet one inch of three-inch cut braciytV,* wVoughV and 
 
 notched to the rafters _ * 
 
 Sixty feet of barrel curb to the well . 
 
 Sundries. — Oak wood bricks .'.*.'.'.'.*.'.*.*".* 
 
 Twenty-three slip centres to tiVkVch^r (a'dip of dyal^uVto 
 intended hne of the soflSt of the arch, and supported by an uprieht 
 piece against each jamb. In fig. 245, t is the slip centre; uu. 
 
 £53 : 6 : 8 
 
 the^ upright pieces which support it; vv, the jambs; and w, the 
 
 250. Estimate of Joiner's Work, : 7 : 1 
 
 Eighty-five feet cubic of fir, wrought, framed, and chamfered 
 
 Two cubic inches of oak-framed pump sill. (This may seem a small 
 quantity; but the fact is, that surveyors and builders divide the cubic 
 toot, which contains 1728 cubic inches, into twelve parts, which 
 they call inches; so that the two cubic inches in this estimate are 
 Tsot 1728, or 288 cubic inches. This custom is adopted by sur- 
 veyors, to save them the trouble in calculating the money value of 
 fractional parts of cubic feet.) 
 
180 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 Thirteen feet eleven inches of oak proper door-cases 
 
 Six feet six inches of oak proper two-light window-frames 
 
 Eighty-six feet superficial of three-quarter inch square skirting 
 
 Ten feet four inches of latticing 
 
 Two hundred feet of inch wrought shelves 
 
 Thirty-five feet one inch of ditto bead and butt back linings 
 
 Twenty-one feet eight inches of ditto pump casing 
 
 Seventeen feet of ditto wrought lining tongued 
 
 Five feet of ditto apron Iming 
 
 Fifty-eight feet six inches of ditto torus skirting 
 
 Sixty-six feet of ditto proper ledged doors 
 
 One hundred and twenty feet eight inches of ditto square framed 
 folding shutters, with rule joints 
 
 Eleven feet of ditto clamped lifting shutters, circular headed 
 
 Two hundred and ninety-four feet six inches of ditto wrought, framed, 
 and sunk grounds 
 
 Fourteen feet seven inches of ditto deal risers and carriage 
 
 Seventy feet one inch of ditto yellow deal steps, risers, and carriage 
 (the piece which carries the steps), with moulded nosings (the edges 
 of the steps which are exposed to view) 
 
 Seven squares thirty-four feet of ditto yellow deal folding floors 
 
 Three squares ninety-three feet of ditto yellow deal straight-jointed floor 
 
 One foot of one and a quarter inch cap to the pump 
 
 Fourteen feet eight inches of ditto square framed piers 
 
 Nineteen feet six inches of ditto wrought and rounded window board 
 
 One hundred and ninety-six feet four inches superficial of ditto four- 
 paneled doors, both sides square 
 
 One hundred and ten feet eight inches of ditto single-rebated jamb 
 linings 
 
 Twenty-four feet of ditto square framed spandril 
 
 Thirty-four feet two inches of ditto proper boxings 
 
 Twenty feet of ditto sunk and moulded close strings 
 
 Fifty-two feet of ditto raking torus wall strings 
 
 Twenty-five feet of ditto treads of oak, and rounded nosings 
 
 Ninety-six feet six inches of ditto ovolo flat shutters, with inch bead 
 and butt back flaps 
 
 Forty-four feet nine inches of ditto ovolo flat backs, elbows, and 
 sofl[its splayed 
 
 Twenty-eight feet nine inches of one and a half inch single-rebated 
 jambs, with circular heads 
 
 Seventeen feet ten inches of ditto six-paneled doors, both sides square 
 
 Thirty-five feet eight inches of ditto six-paneled doors, moulded on 
 one side, and square on the backs 
 
 Three hundred and eighty-six feet of ditto deal cased frames, oak sunk 
 sills, one and a half inch astragal, and hollow sashes ; double- 
 hung with iron weights, best white lines, and brass pulleys 
 
 Nine feet four inches of ditto oak pump cheeks 
 
 Twenty-two feet nine inches of one and three quarter inch six-pa- 
 neled doors, square on both sides, and circular-headed 
 
 Twenty feet of two-inch deal floor to the flower balconies 
 
 Twenty-two feet nine inches of deal sash doors, one and a quarter 
 inch astragals, and hollow sashes, circular headed, double-mar- 
 gined and diminished styles, three reeds, flush fronts and square 
 back at bottom 
 
 Ninety feet of two and a quarter inch deal wTOught floor to the bal- 
 conies 
 
 One hundred and thirty-two feet nine inches of three-inch cut 
 brackets, wrought 
 
 Five hundred and nine feet superficial of mouldings 
 
 Ninety-six feet superficial of oak mouldings 
 
 Three hundred and seventeen feet three inches lineal of inch narrow 
 beveled skirting and grounds 
 
 One hundred and five feet of staff beads 
 
 Five hundred feet of quirked ovolo, and fillets 
 
 Fifteen feet of moulded planceer 
 
 Six feet of moulded nosings (on the staircase landing to form the edge) 
 
COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 
 
 One hundred and eighty feet of three-quarter-inch square bar ba- 
 lusters 
 
 Twenty-one feet of deal moulded handrails ^"^'.*.*.*.'..*.' .'.'*.'.'.**.*.* 
 
 Six feet of plain deal handrails !!.....".'.*!!]!!!'.*.!! 
 
 ■51. Estimate of Ironmongery and Fixing with Screws and mils. 
 
 tour pair of eighteen-inch cross-garnet hinges 
 
 Ten pair of rule-jointed hinges .*.'.*.'!.*.'.' 
 
 Twenty-four pair of shutter hinges '...'!'.!!*.'.*.*.*.!'.'.' 
 
 Twenty-one pair of two and a half inch butt hinges 
 
 Nine pair of three and a half inch butt hinges 
 
 Four bright rod bolts six inches long .'.'.*.'.'.*.' 
 
 Four stock locks eight inches long !.'..'!!!!!!!*..'.'.'.*.'." ' 
 
 Two iron rim ten-inch drawback locks .-!.".*.'.'.*..'...'.*.*!.*,. * 
 
 Seventeen patent spring sash fasteners 
 
 Three mortise locks, with plain brass knob furnitureV.'.'.'.*.'.'.'.'..!!,'.'.'.*, 
 
 Seven iron rim six-inch locks, with brass knobs .*.*.'.'.*.'.'.". 
 
 Nine iron bar shutter fastenings 
 
 Eight brass spring shutter fastenings .".'...'.*.'.'."**.',*.*.*.* 
 
 Two studs and plates '.'.*.!'.!!!! 
 
 Two shutter lifts ...!!!..*....'.*.*.'.*. 
 
 One plate and screw fastening 
 
 Four Norfolk latches .V..V.V.'.V^**.* '..*'.'.*.* 
 
 Five wrought-iron casements !!!][.'.*.*.*.'..'..*. 
 
 Five stay irons to the casements !!!.*!!.*." 
 
 Twenty saddle bars of iron .V.'.V.^'.'.'.'*. .*.!!!..'...'. 
 
 Twenty iron tenons '..**.*'.'.*.'.!*.*.!*.'.." ".' 
 
 Thirty square wrought-iron inch stanchion bars, tw' feet ' si* 
 
 inches long 
 
 Forty holdfasts (fig. 246} to the shelves"/. !!!.'* 
 
 Twelve iron tie fastenings, to fix the brackets to the balconies.. 
 
 Sundries. — Four elbow caps 
 
 Thirty steps housed into the strings at both ends*.'.'.!'.'.'.".*..]]]**.'.''. " 
 Four deal turned newels [^[ 
 
 Four turned knobs and bases, one foot high, and 'four* 'inche'J'i'n 
 diameter 
 
 Fifty-four turned balusters, three feet tW 'inches' 'h'i'gh, 'and "thre'e 
 
 inches in diameter ° 
 
 One hundred and ninety-four housings to the balusters*. .".'." ,..'.' 
 
 Forty wrought brackets to the shelves * 
 
 Forty-three turned balusters, three feet seven inches "I'on'g.*. !!*..'.' 
 
 52. Estimate of Plumber's, Painter's, and Glaziers Works. 
 
 I hirteen cwt. 8 lbs. of milled lead 
 
 Forty-one superficial feet of lead lights and quarry glass 
 
 Two hundred and forty feet seven inches of Newcastle secon'd'c'r" 
 
 glass in sashes 
 
 Four feet lineal of two and a half inch lea'd'p'ipe to sink ..." 
 
 Forty feet of two and a half inch lead suction pipe '.*.*. " '.'.". 
 
 One six-inch brass grate and bell-trap 
 
 One stout four-inch lead pump barrel, and fixing'the sam'e.'.' .'.*.'! 
 
 One iron handle, bucket, and sucker, for the pump 
 
 One hundred and ninety-two yards, three times painted in oi!].'.' 
 
 Forty-eight yards, three times painted in oil and flatted 
 
 Three hundred and twenty-three yards, four times painted in oil, 
 live yards, four times painted in oil of an olive-green colour.... 
 
132 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 One hundi-ed and five feet lineal of staff beads, three times painted 
 
 in oil : 
 
 Twenty-seven feet of handrail, three times painted in oil 
 
 Two hundred and twenty-nine feet six inches of skirting, four inches 
 
 high, three times painted in oil 
 
 Sixty-seven feet nine inches of torus skirting eight inches high, three 
 
 times painted in oil and flatted 
 
 Twenty feet of torus skirting, three times painted in oil 
 
 Ten lights, five casements, three times painted in oil. 
 
 Twenty saddle-bars, three times painted in oil 
 
 Nine shutter-bars, three times painted in oil 
 
 Three newels, three times painted in oil 
 
 Sixty balusters, three feet long, three times painted in oil 
 
 Twelve dozen and a half of squares and frames three times, painted 
 
 in oil 
 
 Four dozen squares and frames, three times painted in oil, and flatted 
 Sixteen dozen and a half of squares and frames four times, painted 
 
 in oil 
 
 Ten lights, five casements, and five stay irons, four times painted in 
 
 oil 
 
 £9S : 8 : I 
 
 253. Summary of Estimates. 
 
 Excavator, Well-digger, and Bricklayer 362 : 6 : 4 
 
 Plasterer 64 : 9:10 
 
 Slater 41 -.17 : 0 
 
 Stone Mason 53 : 6 : 8 
 
 Carpenter, Joiner, and Ironmonger , 441 : 8 : 8 
 
 Plumber, Painter, and Glazier 98 : 8 : 1 
 
 £1061 ; 16 : 7 
 
 254. Architect's Fee. The above sum is exclusive of the Architect's fee, which, for 
 small buildings, is generally 5 per cent on the amount, independently of a sum charged 
 for the drawings ; say, in the case of a cottage, £\0, or upwards. In the case of larger 
 buildings, say such as amount to j£"'1000, or upwards, the Architect is content with his 
 commission and travelling expenses ; for which he supplies all the working drawings 
 as the work is going on, and visits it from time to time. When plans are made for 
 any building, and the work is not executed, a charge is made according to the value of 
 the drawings. In many, perhaps in most, cases of very large buildings, a clerk of the 
 works, resident on the spot, furnishes most or all of the working drawings, under the 
 occasional direction of the architect, who in this case receives a smaller commission, or 
 a certain sum per annum while the work is going forward. 
 
 255. An Estimate for this design, formed on the cubic contents, will serve in some 
 measure as a guide for the price per cubic foot, at which dwellings so carefully finished 
 and ornamented as the present, should be calculated. The number of cubic feet in De- 
 sign XXXII. is about 32,000 ; which, at 7|d. per foot, amounts to jglOeO. If we add a 
 farthing per foot for the Architect, we shall have about ^^1130 as the cost of this cottage, 
 and 8rf. as the rate per cubic foot, at which such cottages should be calculated, in a 
 general or guess estimate. 
 
 256. Remarks. This Design conveys the expression of a comfortable, and even ele- 
 gant dwelling. There is much of style in its external details, and yet we cannot point 
 to any particular manner as its type. Its contributor, says, " I do not know what style 
 it can be said to be in ; it is of so complicated a nature in its details, that I know of no 
 term which expresses their general result. Were I requested to analyse its component 
 parts I should give it as my opinion that the gables resembled those of the Italian style ; 
 the balustrading and galleries, the Flemish or German manner ; and that the large pro- 
 jecting eaves partake of the Swiss character. I say this with due deference to Architects 
 who have visited foreign countries, for my ideas are derived from books alone. The 
 hood over the entrance door is somewhat similar to those made use of in the Berkshire 
 farm buildings. Whatever may be said of the kind of style exhibited in Mr. Varden's 
 Design, all our readers, we think, will agree in the praise which we have already 
 (§231 and 233) bestowed on it. The effect of the whole is highly picturesque, and 
 nothing seems wanting to render the dwelling complete. Considering the number of 
 rooms, the decorations, &c., it certainly cannot be considered an expensive structure, for 
 the neighbourhood of London. A very good situation for it would be the north side 
 of a pubhc road, with a lawn in front, fig. 247 (on a scale of about forty feet to an 
 
COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 1S3 
 
 XXXIII. 
 
 i 10 5 u 20 
 
 cc Ft. 4 1 F£. 
 
XXXVI. 
 
COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLE. 
 
 135 
 
 
 Q O O O 
 
 oooooooooooo o o 
 
 0 
 
 o 
 
 0 
 
 o 
 
 0 
 
 o 
 
 0 
 
 
 0 
 
 o 
 
 0 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 inch), varied by groups of flowers, a a, and by scattered shrubs, and ornamental trees, 
 b b ; with two small flower compartments, c c; a. narrow border at the base of the ter- 
 race, d d ; an orchard of gooseberries, currants, and raspberries, e ; a compartment for 
 asparagus, sea-kale, tart rhubarb, strawberries, and other perennial crops, f; and 
 another compartment for common culinary crops, surrounded on three sides by dwarf 
 fruit trees, g. The boundary borders may be occupied with small and very early crops ; 
 and the walls should be planted w ith fruit trees. The walks may have box edgings, 
 and be gravelled ; or, should the dwelling be in a neighbourhood where flag-stones are 
 abundant, they may be paved, the pavement resting on stone piers, by which a great 
 annual expense in keeping the walks and their edgings clean and in repair will be 
 saved, and the ground underneath them rendered available for the roots of the fruit trees 
 in the borders. 
 
 Design XXXIII — Two Cottage Dwellings, under the same Roof; each having Two Rooms 
 and otlier Conveniences. 
 
 257. Accommodation. Each of these dwellings contains a porch, a ; kitchen, b ; and 
 bed-room, c, which may be made a sitting-room, by placing the bed in the closet, e. 
 There is also to each a back kitchen,/ ; a pantry, g ; and a privy, h. One of these 
 dwellings has an extra bed-room, d ; and a very little change in the arrangement, as will 
 be shown afterwards, would give a light bed-room to the other also. Some use may 
 be made of the roof, by having trap-doors and ladders, as recommended in § 179. 
 fig. 158. 
 
 258. Construction. This building having only one story, the walls may be made of 
 earth, smoothed, and lime-whited externally ; and lathed and plastered inside. The 
 columns of the porch may be portions of the trunks of fir or pine trees, with the bark re- 
 moved, and the knots and other irregularities reduced. The roof may be of slate ; and, 
 as it is of considerable span, it may be constructed as in fig. 248, with principal and 
 secondary rafters. 
 
136' COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 259. General Estimate. Cubic 
 contents of the two houses, 15,868 
 at 6d. per foot, £396: 14s. ; at 
 4d., £264 : 9s. : 4d. ; and at M., 
 £198: 7s. 
 
 260. Remarks. Looking at 
 the elevation, we should say that 
 this is a simple and somewhat 
 elegant Design ; and at the plan, 
 that it appears convenient. AVhen 
 we examine it critically, however, 
 we perceive that the windows are 
 not sufficiently high for the pur- 
 poses of ventilation; and that their 
 proportions are not such as are 
 commonly received :ls elegant. 
 On examining the section, it will 
 be found, that the heads of these 
 windows are not near so high as the ceiling, and that the window sill is more than the 
 usual height from the floor. We must, tlurefore conclude that the designer of this cot- 
 tage intended it for a warm climate, w lu-re it would he desiral)le to exclude the liglit ; 
 but even if that were the ohject, it might have l)een ellected l»etter, l)y having windows 
 of the same form close under the eavos. The interior of such a cottage, in Hritain, 
 would he gloomy, and the vi ntilation IkuI ; hut its appearance, as well as con)fort, would 
 be improved hy changing the projmrtions of the windows. There is one great fault in 
 delineating the elevation of this Design, which must not he j)assed over. It consists in 
 representing the two false windows in the principal front exactly in the same manner as 
 the real ones. Let the reader make a sketch without these false windows, or cut out a 
 bit of white paper, and place it over them in our elevation, and he will see how different an 
 effect will be produced. Whenever the effect of any design depends maiidy on any thing 
 not essential to its use, the critic may always be certain that there is something wrong. 
 In general, also, when imitations of the effect of time on buildings are introduced in 
 architectural designs, they are \o be looked on \\ith «• uspieion ; as well as all accoTnp:iniments 
 of trees, clouds, and figures. A design for a building slould always have a distinct and 
 independent beauty in itself; a beauty whic h can be conveyed by lines in correct pers|)ective, 
 without any reference to either shading, colouring, or accompaniments. Examined by 
 these tests, some of the most showy works on CotUige Architecture, of the present day, will 
 be found to be little better than pictures for the eye; or, as some woidd express it, to 
 gratify the sense of the ])icturesque. The Design l)efore us is capable of very great 
 improvement ; and, by nltering the ground plan, as in fig. 249, two most comfortable 
 
 249 
 
 dwellings, of two rooms and two bed closets, with a back kitchen, pantry, and privy, to 
 each, might be obtained under a very handsome exterior. Fig. 250 shows the perspective 
 elevation of the principal front, in which a close porch, Avith square columns, is shown 
 instead of an open one, with round columns. It is intended that the door sl)all be placed 
 on whichever side of this portico may best suit the prevailing winds of the given situ- 
 ation. If the building were to stand east and west, the door of the porch ought to be on 
 
COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 
 
 250 
 
 one side, and that, of course, the south ; if it stood north and south, then the door of 
 the south porch ought to be on the south side ; and that of the north, on either the east 
 or west, which ever may be considered the mildest aspect. Fig. 251 shows the back eleva- 
 tion of these cottages, which will be found as handsome as that of the principal front, 
 though differently composed. This also is a test of excellence in architecture. When- 
 
 ever any one side of a building is not as good in architectural design as another side, it 
 may infallibly be considered as a proof of either poverty of invention or negligence in 
 the Arcnitect ; or of want of means or of spirit in the employer. On the whole, for cheap 
 and yet elegant cottages of the lowest degree of accommodation, we can recommend this 
 improved version of Design XXXIII. as equal to any thing which has been yet given in 
 tins work. In a recent number of the Gardeners Magazine (vol. viii. p. 263), we have 
 animadverted on the miserable hovels of one room, recently built on the Duke of 
 Buccleugh's estate in Dumfriesshire ; and on some still m.ore wretched habitations, built 
 along the coast in Wigtonshire. We would recommend to the amiable Duchess of 
 Buccleugh to advocate the substitution of dwellings like those before us, for the cottages 
 to which we have referred, on her husband's estate. 
 
 Design XXXIV A Cottage Dwelling of Two Rooms, intended as a Gate Lodge. 
 
 261. Accommodation. In the ground plan of this Design, fig. 252, there is a kitchen, a ; 
 with a bed-room, 6 ; a light 252 
 
 closet to the bed-room, c ; a 
 bed closet from the kitchen, 
 d; and a pantry, e. 
 
 262. Construction. The 
 exterior walls may be of earth 
 or stone ; and the interior of 
 brick nogging flat, with the 
 exception of the chimney 
 stacks. The pitch of the roof 
 being low, it must be covered 
 with slates, or with Grecian 
 or Tuscan tiles. 
 
 263. General Estimate. 
 Cubic contents, 7770 feet, at 
 6d. per foot, £19U. : 5s. ; at 
 4rf., £129: lOs.; andatSrf., 
 £97 : 2s. : 6d. 
 
 264. Remarks. The ex- 
 pression is simple and appro- 
 
138 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 priate ; and it is heightened by the bench under the recess, which may be supposed to be 
 placed opposite the gate which the occupant is expected to open, and gives an air of 
 ease and attendance on his part, as a porter's chair does in the hall of a mansion. 
 
 Design XXXV. 
 
 A Cottage Dwelling of Three Rooms, with Back Kitclien, Cotv-hojise, 
 and other Conveniences. 
 
 265. Accommodation. This is a commodious cottage, and all the accommodations 
 being got within one roof, with the exception of tw o small lean-tos, it must be considered 
 as promising to be economical in its erection. By the ground plan, fig. 253, it appears 
 
 to contain an entrance, a, from under a projecting porch ; a kitchen, b, with a berl- 
 closet from it, c, for a child ; principal bed-room, d ; parlour, e ; back kitchen,^* ; shed 
 for fuel, /t; cow-house, A; dairy, t; water-closet, with a cistern of water over it, 
 supplied from the roof ; and pantry, /, If the cow-house and dairy can be dispensed 
 with, or removed to the yard, then g and k may be got out of h, and the whole building 
 included under one roof ; always a most desirable object. Tliis alteration effected, 
 the back elevation may be rendered symmetrical, and altogether as handsome as the 
 front or the ends, as exemplified in the improved plan, fig. 254. 
 
 254 
 
COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 
 XXXVJL 
 
 139 
 
 XXXIX. 
 
COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 
 
 141 
 
 266. Construction. The walls are for the most part shown thick, as if built of earth 
 or stone ; and the rocf is covered with Peake's Grecian terra-metallic tiles. These 
 being heavy, require considerable strength of timber in the rafters ; but their durability 
 we believe to be greater than even that of cast-iron. 
 
 267. General Estimate. Cubic contents 13,904 feet, at 6d. per foot, £'347 I2s. \ at 
 Ad., £231 : 145. : 8rf. ; and at Sd., £173 : 16s. 
 
 268. The expression is somewhat analogous to that of the Scotch stone cottage. 
 Design VII. ; but the low pitch of the roof, the Grecian tiles, and the porch in front, 
 are great improvements. 
 
 Design XXXVI. — A Dwelling, with Four Rooms, a Back Kitchen, and other Con- 
 veniences. 
 
 269. Accommodation. This is calculated to form a very comfortable habitation, and 
 all the rooms being on the ground floor, the walls may be built of earth, and the apart- 
 ments heated by flues in the floor from the back kitchen. The ground plan, fig. 255, 
 
 255 
 
 shows a porch, a , a kitchen, b ; parlour, c ; two bed-rooms, d and e ; a lobby, y (lighted 
 from the dairy) ; a root-house, g ; wood or coal house, A; pantry, i; privy, k; dairy, I; 
 and back kitchen, m. 
 
 270. Construction. The walls may be of stone, finished with blocking courses, after the 
 manner of Design VII. ; the roof of slate, and the windows of sashes hung with weights 
 and pulleys. The floors may either be of boards, or paved, and heated by flues from the 
 back kitchen. 
 
 271. General Estimate. Cubic contents, 19,468 feet, at 6d. per foot, £"'486 : 14s. ; at 
 4d., jg324 : 9s. ; 4rf. ; and at 3d., £243 : 7s. 
 
 272. Remarks. The expression is that of an humble but very comfortable dwelling ; 
 tliough little care has been taken to create allusions to any particular style. The door 
 in the porch, and also the entrance to the back kitchen, ought to be varied relatively to 
 the position of the sun, and the prevailing winds. 
 
 Design XXXVII. — A Dwelling of Four Rooms, with other Conveniences, intended as a 
 Lodge, or a House for a Bailiff", or Head- Gardener. 
 
 273. Accommodation. The ground plan, fig. 256, contains a kitchen, a, entered 
 from under a veranda ; a parlour, b ; a small bed-room, c ; back kitchen, d, from whicli 
 the whole may be heated; pantry, e ; dusthole, y; place for potatoes and other roots, 
 and for fuel, g ; and privy, h. There is a closet under the staircase ; and in the cham- 
 ber floor two small bed- rooms, and a ganet over the kitchen. 
 
 274. Construction. The walls of the main building are shown of extra-thickness, with 
 a view to situations where the cheapest building material is compressed earth, or rubble 
 
142 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 stone. In brick, countries, 256 
 hollow brick walls will be 
 found both the cheapest and 
 the best, both for the main 
 building and the lean-to, 
 containing d, e,f, g, and h. 
 The roof may be of slate ; 
 the windows latticed ; and 
 the pillars of the porch of 
 squared wood ; or, in some 
 countries, they would be 
 cheaper and better of slate, 
 or slate stone. It is not the 
 custom to form such co- 
 lumns of cartlienware tubes, 
 such as are made for Hues 
 in hot-Iiouses, both in Bri- 
 tain and on the continent 
 of Europe ; but we have 
 no doubt that such a mode 
 would answer well, tlie 
 wL'iglit being carried by a 
 prop of wood, iron, or brick, in the centre of tlie tubes. The terro-metallic earth of 
 Suiilbrdshire would fonn admirable columns, lintels, summer stoni>s, copings, ornamental 
 chinuiey tops, and other component parts of buildings. Indeed, much might be done 
 with conunon brick earth; but, unfortunately for Hri tain, all articles formed of this 
 material are heavily Uixed, and, to save trouble to the exciseman, the brickuiakcr is oidy 
 allowed to make his bricks of certain forms and dimensions; viz., for building bricks, 
 nine inches by four inches and a half, and two inches and a half If he deviates from 
 these, and makes a brick either longer or broader than usual, or impresses a moulding 
 on one end, or on one side, he renders himself liable to such an increjise of duty as 
 amounts to a prohibition of the ju-ticle. Two or tliree centuries ago, bricks were made 
 in every form, ornamental and useful, which the Architect could desire; for a proof of 
 which, we have only to look to tlie EHzabethan mansions wliich still exist in diUcrent 
 parts of the country. Even so early as the time of Henry VIII., the art of making 
 bricks to serve all the purposes of stone in tlie jaml)s and lintels of dtK)rs and windows, 
 appears to have been carried to a great degree of perfection. At Sutton Place, near 
 Ripley, in Surrey, built by this monarch's brewer, the jiiers, lintels, mullions, chimney 
 tops, tracery in th« window's of the chapel, and other parts, some highly ornamented, are 
 formed of artificial stone or brick ; and are still in excellent repair. " 
 
 Fig. 257, in isome- 
 
 trical perspective, on a scale of a quarter of an inch to a foot, shows the manner in which 
 the shelf is supported over the window in the gable end. 
 
 275. General Estimate. Cubic contents, 10,818 feet, at 6d. per foot, £270 : 9s., at 
 4rf., £180 : 6s. ; and at 3d., £135 : 4s. : Gd. 
 
 276. Remarks. What has the mental architect to say to this building ? What is the 
 kind of mind discoverable in the elevation ? Certainly it does not exhibit a single feature 
 of vulgarity. The pillars and cornice, and the brackets to one of the windows, have, on 
 
COTTAGE DWELLINGS JN VARIOUS STYLES. 
 
 143 
 
 the contrary, a simple and rather elegant appearance. The shapes of the three windows 
 are different, and yet not opposed , and they are in three different positions relatively 
 to the walls and the roof, forming an agreeable variety, or perhaps rather harmony. 
 On the whole, we are satisfied with this elevation, and the plan is convenient. 
 
 Design XXXVIII. — A Dwelling of Three Rooms, with a Back Kitchen, and other Con- 
 veniences, intended as a Porter's Lodge, or Gardener^s House. 
 
 277. Accommodation^ The ground plan, fig. 258, shows an entrance lobby, a ; 
 kitchen, 6; back kitchen, c; parlour, ; bed-room, e; closet,/; cellar, g; pantiy, ^; 
 dusthole, i ; privy, k; a place for fuel, roots, &c.,^; and another for bees, exterior 
 to 
 
 258 
 
 278. Construction. The walls are shown of a thickness proper for earth or rubble 
 stone. The roof is in two parts, fig. 259 ; one part, m n, covering the main body of 
 the house ; and the other part, o p q, 
 being a lean-to at the back. From 
 this construction of the roof, the whole 
 of the water might be easily, and with 
 little expense, collected, and conveyed 
 to a cistern over k, or to a tank under 
 A or 
 
 279. General Estimate. 13,334 
 cubic feet, at 6d. per foot, £333 : 7s. ; 
 at 4rf., £222 : 4s. : Sd. ; and at 3d., 
 £161: 13s. : 6d. 
 
 280. Remarks. The effect of the 
 front elevation is dignified, and the 
 expression, with reference to use, is 
 that of substantial comfort. There 
 does not appear to be much attempt at 
 style. A side or back view would 
 not give so favourable an expression, 
 because a great breadth of lean-to roof has always a mean effect. To counteract this, care 
 must be taken in planting the garden, fig. 260, (drawn to a scale of a quarter of an inch to 
 ten feet,) that trees be so placed as to break the horizontal lines from every point of view 
 whence the lean-to part of the roof can be seen. The simplest mode of effecting this 
 would be by planting a row of trees in the border below the terrace, commencing at r, 
 and continued round slot: but this would shade the windows, and stagnate the air 
 about the house ; and, therefore, a better mode is, to place only a few trees in that 
 situation, and scatter others throughout the garden (but always so as not to impede its 
 
 — O — H 
 
144 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 260 
 
 
 rTwr. 
 
 » 
 II 
 n 
 
 i 
 
 r 
 
 3/ 
 
 
 
 • 
 
 n 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 t^? f>>:fn fo, r?3 fc? 
 
 
 
 1^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 0 
 
 iigular cultivation), beiwocii tJie dotted lines « r, and p and the back part of the 
 jfarden w. The reason for the range, precisely within which the trees must be planted, will 
 be sufficiently obvious to all who have tlie slightest idea of perspective. Trees scattered 
 along the boundary of the garden, from u to and from w to r, would never disguise 
 any part of the house from a spectator walking along the outside of tlie boundary, 
 because they would be too near the eye ; and trees scattered any where between the 
 dotted lines n r and j, and t v and x, would be of no use in disguising the lines of a 
 roof, or indeed any other object, situated between r and 5, or l)etweeri s and /. When 
 the view is unconfined, the horizontal range of vision taken by the eye is ninety degrees; 
 and, conse(]uently, a fixed position for Uje eye being given, the number of trees required 
 to plant out any distant object, filling the wliole of this angle, will chieHy depend on the 
 disUmce of the trees from the eye : on tiie contrary, when an object-, filling a small 
 part only of the angle of vision, is to be concealed from a variety of points, through all 
 of which the eye may range, the number of trees required will increase in proportion 
 to tlieir distance from the object. Thus, it will appear by fig. that sixty-four trees 
 would be required in the boundary hedgerow to hide that part of the house marked 
 r s /, from an eye which could range from u, by «>, to v ; whereas sixteen trees would 
 effect the same object, if placed neiu- the platform on which the house stands. Jn the 
 case of this garden, we neither recommend the hed jerow, u u< v, of sixty-four trees, nor 
 the semicircular row, r t, of sixteen trees ; but, as before observed, we would effect our 
 object by scattering them in the garden at different distances from those parts of the house 
 which are to be concealed. 
 
 Design XXXIX. — Two DivelUngs for Country Labourers, under One Roof, unth Two 
 Hoonis in each, and other Conveniences. 
 
 281. Accommodation. The ground plan, fig. 261, shows the following accom- 
 modation for each cottage: — a projecting open porch, a ; entrance lobby, b ; kitchen or 
 living-room, c, with a closet under the stair; back kitchen, d, from which the whole 
 might be heated; place for fuel or roots, e; privy, y*; and cow-house,^. On the 
 chamber floor there are one good bed-room and a closet to each dwelling. There is a 
 small yard to each cow-house, with a pigsty, h ; dung-pit, i ; and a liquid manure tank, 
 k. There is a grass-plot to each cottage ; and a garden in front, and along one side ; 
 behind may be a grass field or lawn. 
 
 282. Construction. " The walls," observes our contributor, *' may be of stone, or 
 mud ; the roofs may be thatched with straw or reeds, and wattled down at the ridge 
 with hazel rods, as shown in the elevation. The windows may be latticed, having the 
 lintels, sills, and rabbet-heads, &c. plastered (the rabbet-head of a window is a Scotcb 
 
COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 145 
 261 
 
 term for what in England is called the reveal of a window, viz. p, in fig. 262 ; and 
 what in Scotland is called the back-filled p 
 
 rabbet, or the back-filled rabbet-head, is in 
 
 England called the facing, or architrave, 
 
 viz., q, in fig. 262, projecting an inch all 
 
 round. This term is, however, only ap- 
 plied to plain facings round doors and 
 windows externally ; for, when the facings 
 round both the exterior and interior open- 
 ings are moulded, they are called, as in 
 England, « architraves." Fig. 263 is a section across the chamber floor, to show, that 
 a part of the height of the bed-rooms is obtained from the roof. 
 
 262 
 
 283. General Estimate. The two houses contain 12,986 cubic feet, which, at 6d. per 
 foot, is £324: 13*. ; at 4d., £216 : 85. : 8rf. ; and at Srf., £162 : 6s. : 6d. 
 
 284. Remarks. There is an appearance of comfort about these cottages, and yet 
 there is something mean in the roof slouching down over the two bed-room windows. 
 The manner of roofing the lean-tos is altogether bad ; a gutter against a gable-end wall 
 
 Q 
 
146 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 is almost certain to leak, or to become choked up, more especially when the roof is 
 thatched. The building, however, is so far expressive of its purposes, that it can never 
 be mistaken for any thing else than a cottage ; and, on the whole, is ratiier picturesque 
 than otherwise. 
 
 Design XL. — Two Cottages of Three Rooms each, under tlie same Roof, with Coiv-hmis"., 
 Pigsty, and other Conveniences to each. 
 
 285. Accommodation. Each dwelling contains a porch, a ; kitchen, b ; back-kitchen, 
 c dairy, d\ store closet, e; two bed-rooms,/and ^ ; privy, /, place for fuel, . ; pigsty, 
 k' and cow-house, /. Where neither cows nor pigs are kept, the cow-house may, with 
 propriety, be used as a root-cellar and place for fuel, and the pigsty as a dustiiole ; or, 
 k and t may be got 
 out of the space occiv- 
 pied by /; and thus 
 the whole of the con- 
 veniences required may 
 be obtained under one 
 simple parallelogram 
 roof. 
 
 286. Construction. 
 The walls are shown 
 of such a thickness as 
 to admit of their being 
 constructed of stone, 
 or of earth, and the 
 roof may be of slate : 
 the eaves, where the 
 roof projects over the 
 
 porch, are supiiorted in . /. , , i r i ir 
 
 the manner exhihiied in U.e scnrtion, hg. 264, or m fig 26.., both to a scale of half an 
 inch to a foot, as double or single rafters may be required. 
 
 287. Genend Esti- 
 mate. Cubic contents, 265 
 26, .304 feet, at Gd- per 
 foot, £657 : 1 25. ; at 
 4rf., £438 : 85. ; and 
 at 3d., £328 : 16s. 
 
 288. Remarks. Con- 
 sidered as the lowest 
 description of cottages, 
 for country labourers 
 these dwellings are 
 commodious, and are 
 calculated for being 
 executed at a moderate 
 charge. The walls in 
 the ground plan are 
 shown of more than 
 the usual thickness, be- 
 cause they are supposed 
 to be built of earth, 
 with the exception of the chimney stacks. The partitions between the closets may be 
 formed of brick nogging on edge, fig. 266. The floors may be paved with bricks, tiles, 
 
 or flag stone ; or formed of gravel or mortar mixed together, 
 and laid down immediately, then beat smooth, and covered 
 with a thin coat of cement. Of whatever earthy materials 
 the floors are made, they must be heated by a flue from the 
 back kitchen ; because, otherwise, the dwelling would be 
 cold and uncomfortable in winter. This flue will not re- 
 quire the fire to be lighted more than two or three times 
 a week ; because, if the floor be constrticted as directed in 
 describing Design I., it will retain the heat communicated 
 to it by the flue for several days. If the floors be made 
 of boards, the flue may be dispensed with ; because, in that 
 case, there will be a vacuity between the boards and the soil 
 of, At least, two feet. The bottom of this vacuity should be, 
 
 266 
 
 m 
 
COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 
 
 147 
 
 at least, one foot above the surrounding surface, in order that no water may ever drain 
 into, or rest upon it. Each cottage should have a yard behind it, surrounded by a wall 
 of earth, with a projecting coping of slate, tile, or boards, and the entrance to this yard 
 may either be at one side, or behind, according to the arrangement of the walks of the 
 garden. It is almost needless to observe that there ought to be a dung-pit and liquid 
 manure tank in each yard, communicating with the privy by a pipe-drain; and, where 
 superior cleanliness is an object, this drain should communicate with the cow-house and 
 pigsty in the same manner. 
 
 289. Ornament. These dwellings maybe ornamented with handsome chimney pots; 
 by covering the roof with a trellis for vines ; by adding another pillar to each porch ; and 
 by a handsome architectural parapet. Supposing the slope of the parapet not to be less 
 than forty-five degrees, and covered with turf, and the upper part gravelled, with a 
 margin of turf of about a foot in width, the effect from the surrounding garden would 
 be exceedingly good, without any other addition than the chimney-pots. 
 
 Design XLI. — Six Cottages grouped together, with a view to Economy in building them. 
 
 290. General Arrangement. The object of this Design is, to show the manner in 
 which dwellings may be erected with the greatest degree of economy. We have before 
 observed (§ 23), that, where this is the case, the external form will always approach 
 more or less to that of a cube, and the internal apartments will also approximate to this 
 figure. In the Design submitted, fiigs. 267 and 268, six dwellings are ranged round an 
 
 ] 267 
 3 
 
 \ 
 
 open yard, a, which contains a privy, b, and well, c, common to the whole ; beside this is 
 a wash-house and bake-house, d, also common to the whole. The building is two 
 stories high, each story being eight feet high in the clear. 
 
 291. The situation of this group may be supposed to be near a public road, c. 
 
14<8 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 separated from it by a small area, f, which may either be left open for a j)lay -ground for 
 children, or laid out as a drying ground, or rit)wc'r-garden. The six kitchen-gardens are 
 indicated as ranged on three sides of the building, and the whole space occupied by the 
 dwellings and gardens need not, in ordinary cases, exceed one acre. The accommoda- 
 tions of the separate dwellings var)' from two to four rooms each. The place for a 
 wash-house and bake-house is intended to be used in rotation by each family, so that it 
 will be employed as a wash-house and bakehouse six days in the week, and as a bake- 
 house only on the Sunday morning. One of the cottagers may have the general ma- 
 nagement of the wash-house and of the oven ; and this management may either be taken 
 by all in turn, or a small payment be made for it monthly by all to one, &c. 
 
 292. j-lccojnmixialion of each Cutta^r. Tlie four dwellings, marked fi p, contain 
 each a principal room ten feet by twelve feet, and a small room of ten feet by eight feet, 
 on both floors, with a closet under the staircase. The two dwellings, marked h It, contain 
 each a room ten feet by twelve feet, on both Hoors, with a closet under the sUiircase. 
 
 29S. Construction. The walls are supposed to be built of brick, and the roof slated. 
 If, instead of brick, timber were used, there would, at the present price of British timber 
 about London (i;3: 10s. per load of fifty cubic feet), be a saving of from to .£60 on 
 the six dwellings. In this case, all the exterior and foundation timber ought to be oak, 
 but tiie rest may be of any description of wood of Hritisli growth. The floors of both 
 stories are to be of deal l)oarded ; the windows of latticework in iron frames, and the 
 covers to the entrance porches of slate slabs. 
 
 294. Specification and Estimate. These are here combined ; the building being of so 
 simple a description, that a separate specification is not considered necessary. 
 
 295. Bricklayer, Plasterer, and Slaters Work. The bricklayer is to build the walls 
 externally, and the division walls between each cottage, of one brick in thickness, with 
 three courses of footings, one foot and a half thick. The openings of the chimneys on 
 the ground floor to be two feet six inches wide, with jambs of one brick in thickness ; 
 and the chimneys of the chamber floor to be one foot six inches wide, with half-brick 
 trimming arches. The space under <?ach staircase to be paved, and enclosed with brick- 
 work one foot six inches high, and half a brick in thickness. 
 
 £ 5. d. 
 
 Fifty-three thousand bricks, per thousand 885 
 
 Six and a half bushels of lime for every thousand of bricks, at 9>d. 
 per bushel, is, per thousand of bricks, 45. : 4d 
 
 Road drift (the scrapings of roads, being stone or gravel, ground to 
 powder by the traffic on the road, and therefore become a sort of 
 sand,) or pit or river sand, for every thousand of bricks say 2s. : 2rf. 
 
 Labour for every thousand of bricks, 8s 
 
 In all, per thousand of bricks, £2 : 12s. : 6d. which for 53 thousand is 139 : 2:6 
 
 (The above price is equal to ^^11 : 5s. per rod of brickwork.) 
 
 Digging the foundations 2 : 10 : 0 
 
 Twelve chimney pots, and setting them, at 4s 2 : 8:0 
 
 Twelve cast-iron fronts to the fireplaces, five eighths of an inch thick, 
 four inches wide, with slabs half an inch thick, and one foot six 
 
 inches wide, at 13s 17 : 16 : O 
 
 Twenty stone sills to the windows, at 6s 6 : 0:0 
 
 One hundred feet lineal of ridge tiles, at Ad 2 : 16 : 0 
 
 Eighteen squares of countess slating on the roof, at 25s 22 : 10 : 0 
 
 As slating is the lightest covering, and the cheapest in most parts of 
 England at the present time ; it is preferable to tiles. 
 
COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 
 
 149 
 
 Thirty feet superficial of half-inch slabs over the entrance porches, £ s. d. 
 
 at l5. per foot 1 : 10 : 0 
 
 Two cwt. of milled lead for valleys, at 305 3 : 0 . 0 
 
 Two hundred and thirty-three yards of plaster, set and whited on lath, 
 
 to the ceilings, at Is. : 3d 14 : 6 : 3 
 
 Seven hundred and fifty-five yards of plaster, set and v^hited, to the 
 
 walls, at l^d 23 : 11 : 10 
 
 ^96. Carpenters Work. The timber may be of larch, elm, or any other 
 timber of equal durability. The rafters of the roof are to be four 
 inches by one and a half inches. The ridge pieces, hips, and valleys, 
 to be seven inches by one and a half inches. The ceiling joists to 
 be four and a half inches by one and a half inches. The joists to 
 the floors to be seven inches by two inches. The plates to the roof, 
 to the floors, and to the angle ties, to be four inches by four and 
 a half inches. The lintels to be four inches by three inches. The 
 wooden bricks for fitting joiner's work to the brickwork to be four 
 inches by two and a half inches. The door-frames to be four 
 inches by three inches. Eleven and a half loads of timber de- 
 livered £3 : 10 : 0 
 
 Sawing the same, per load 0 : 10 : 0 
 
 Labour and nails, per load 1 : 5 : 0 
 
 In all, per load 5 : 5:0 
 
 which, for eleven and a half loads, is 63 : 0 : 0 
 
 Fourteen squares of three-fourth-inch battening for slates, at 12s. ... 8 : 8 : O 
 One hundred and seventy feet superficial of three-quarter-inch eave 
 
 boards, at 4d 2 : 17 : 0 
 
 Seventy-six slip centres for the openings, at Is 1 : 6 : 0 
 
 297. Joiners Work. The joiner's work for these dwellings is calculated 
 on the supposition that deals twelve feet in length, three inches 
 thick, and nine inches wide, cost, when delivered, per 120, £S6. 
 
 Twenty-six squares of three-quarter-inch deal wrought floors, at 51s. 40 : 6 : 0 
 
 Two hundred and fifty-five feet superficial of three-quarter-inch deal 
 
 skirting, 5^d 5 : 16 : 10 
 
 Twenty-three and a half squares of five-eighth-inch deal matched 
 (the edge of one board grooved, and the adjoining board tongued, 
 with a pair of planes fitting into each other, called match planes), 
 and beaded boarding, planed on both sides, for each side of the 
 stairs, at 34s • • ...n. 
 
 Latches and bolts to twenty-four doors 4 : 4 : 0 
 
 Ten one and a half inch deal two paneled square doors, 
 each measuring twenty-four superficial feet, and each having a 
 latch and a bolt, wdth stops, and hung veith three-inch butt 
 hinges, to be provided for the rooms on the ground floor, each 
 door complete, at 23s 11 : 10 : 0 
 
 Twelve one and a half inch two paneled bead butt, and square out- 
 side doors, each measuring sixteen feet three inches superficial, and 
 each having a lock, latch, and oak sill, with half-inch lining to the 
 frames, and hung with three-inch butt hinges, at 25s 15 : 0 : 0 
 
 Twelve three-light frames to the windows, and eight two-light frames 
 of one and a half inch deal five inches wide, framed, rebated, and 
 beaded ; the whole containing four hundred and sixty-four feet 
 lineal, including the fitting in of the lights, at 6d 11:12: O 
 
 Twenty-six lifting shutters for the windows of the ground floor of 
 five eighths of an inch deal, ledged ; each shutter measuring four 
 feet six inches superficial , 4 : 8 : O 
 
 Twenty iron casements and fastenings 3 ; 10 : O 
 
 Six staircases of inch deal, housed into one and a half inch strings, 
 
 and framed newels and handrails 15: 0- 0 
 
 298. Glaziers Work. Fifty-two lights glazed with quarries, each mea- 
 suring six feet superficial, at Is. : 6rf 19: 10 : 0 
 
 Ninety-six saddle bars to the lead lights 1 ' 4 : 0 
 
 299. Painter's Work. The woodwork to be painted four times in 
 
 oil colours 35 : 0 : O 
 
150 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 
 
 
 (!• 
 
 300« SundfieS' The erection of the wjish-house will amount to 
 
 IG : 
 
 ^ . 
 
 \j 
 
 
 14 : 
 
 0 : 
 
 
 Well, fifty feet deep, including l)ucket and tackle 
 
 SO : 
 
 0 : 
 
 \t 
 
 
 5 : 
 
 0 : 
 
 0 
 
 fifty feet of drain 
 
 '> . 
 
 
 u 
 
 Two hundred and forty-three feet lineal of three-Quarter-inch deal, 
 
 
 
 
 
 4 : 
 
 9 : 
 
 0 
 
 Two hundred and forty-three feet in length of cast-iron gutter to 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 9 
 
 
 2 : 
 
 8 : 
 
 0 
 
 Six heads and six shoes to tlie pipe, and four angles to the gutter ... 
 
 2 : 
 
 1 : 
 
 0 
 
 Total (£98 : lOi. : \0\d. per dwelling, or) £591 : 
 
 5 : 
 
 2 
 
 30J. The aforesaid prices are prime cost ; but if a builder be employed, a profit must 
 be added, accoriling to tlie mode of paymenL 
 
 302. liemarks. Vor the foregoing very economical and convenient design, specifi- 
 cation, and estimate, we are indebted to Mr. W. Laxton, Surveyor, Holborn Bars, 
 London ; well known among profesMonal men as the author of I.axtons Builder t Price 
 Book. We have given it exactly as received, in order tliat tlie specification and estimate 
 miglit apply to the engravings ; and we shall now show how we tiiink it might be improved; 
 though, of course, by adding to the expense. The first thing w hicli w e shall suggest is, 
 the buihliiig of the walls witli brick on edge, in the manner of Dearn or SilverU)ck, l)Oth 
 to be hereafter described. According to Dearn's mode, a saving of one third in the 
 number of biicks would be ol)tained, at once deducting : 75. : Gd. from the estimate, 
 besides producing walls which would keep the apartments within warmer in winter, 
 and cooler in summer. IJy raising the general floor of these dwellings two feet or three 
 feet above the level of the surrounding surface, according to the nature of the soil and 
 subsoil, and l)y having the oven in a sunk area three feet deep, a flue might be con- 
 ducted from it under tlie ground floor of every apartment, as exjjlained under Design 1., 
 § 34. Over the oven miglit be placed a box boiler, from which a flat tube, six inches by 
 three inches, might be conducted horizontally under the floors of all the rooms on the 
 ground floor; by which they would be sufliciently heated. If an underground smoke 
 flue were emj)loyed, it would be necessary to have the floor paved, at least in j)art, with 
 tiles or flag stones; but if a hot water pipe were conducted round the building, in the 
 direction of the dotted line i i i, in fig. 2G7, a boarded floor might be used. 
 
 303. Prin/. In the yard there ought unquestionably to be two privies, one for each 
 sex ; and these might, at a very little expense, be rendered water-closets ; not by a cis- 
 tern over them, the water in which would be liable to be frozen in winter; but by a 
 cistern in the wash-house, w hich would, at the same time, su|)ply water for washing and 
 other purposes. Basins should be placed in the privies, as shown in fig. 1.3, § 38, and^ 
 in order to prevent the waste of water, an arrangement may be made only to admit a 
 little to the basin, every time the door is opened and shut. For this purjjose, in addition 
 to the simple and efficient plans described under § 39, we shall here exhibit a less perfect 
 one employed in the British Museum. In this example, which will be understood from 
 fig. 269, as soon as the door of the water-closet is opened beyond a right angle, the 
 
COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 151 
 
 wrought-iron rod fixed on it at a puils the brass chain through the pulley b, that 
 communicates with the crank c ; to which a wire is attached, that runs along as 
 shown in the figure, between c and d. The crank d pulls dowTi the lever e, which lifts 
 the valve^ and consequently admits the water from the cistern through the small pipe g, 
 to the basin. Fig. 270 shows the brass pulley, b, on a large scale. Fig. 271 represents 
 
 271 
 
 270 
 
 the crank c, also on a large scale. Fig. 272 is an enlarged view of the crank d. The 
 cross pieces of the cranks for the reception of the screw nails are of iron japanned, and the 
 other parts of the cranks are of brass. Fig. 273 represents the wrought-iron rod a, which 
 is fixed on the door, and to which the chain is attached. Fig. 274 shows the spring 
 
 274 
 
 273 
 
 that shuts the door, in which h is a roller 
 moving on the iron plate i, nailed to the door. 
 It is almost superfluous to add that the whole 
 of the water of the roof may be conveyed to the 
 supply cistern, by connecting the outer eaves' 
 gutters with the inner ones, by means of pipes 
 carried along the party walls, immediately 
 under the roof ; that one of Siebe's pumps may 
 be used for supplying this cistern in times of 
 great drought ; or that the water, when filtered, 
 may be preserved cool in an underground tank. 
 § 151, fig. 119. 
 
 304. Manure Tank. The importance of 
 manure to a cottager's garden ought never to 
 be lost sight of ; every means ought to be made 
 use of to collect it ; and for this purpose not a drop of soap-suds or of foul water ought 
 to be lost ; but the cess-pool, provided in this design, is much too small, and very incon- 
 veniently situated for being emptied ; not to speak of its proximity to the well of pure 
 water. We would recommend a larger cess-pool in one of the gardens, connected with the 
 one in the yard by a barrel drain, 
 and conveniently situated for dis- 
 tributing its contents among the 275 
 different gardens. We recommend 
 attention to what we have before 
 observed on this subject, when de- 
 scribing Design I. 
 
 305. The Cistern in the wash- 
 house should be raised at least eight 
 feet from the floor; and, besides 
 
 supplying the water-closets, it may pjs 
 communicate with a filter of a simple 
 construction, from which water may 
 be drawn at pleasure for the pur- 
 poses of cookery or washing. This 
 filtermay bethus constructed: — Fig. 
 275, k, represents the cistern ; I, a, 
 cask ; containing the filtering ma- 
 terial at m, a space for the deposi- 
 tion of impurities from the water to 
 be filtered, at n, and for the filtered 
 
 water at o. This cask is connected 
 
 with the supply cistern by the pipe 
 
152 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 y, which, having a stopcock at p, water may be admitted to n at pleasure ; and this 
 water, by the pressure from that in the cistorn, will speedily rise through the filter, m, 
 to the space, o ; from which it may be drawn off by the cock, r. There is also a cock, 
 s, for drawing off the water from w, when it is desired to clean the filter, which may be 
 done by allowing the water from o to descend. It may be obser\'od, that if at any time, 
 there should be a deficiency of water in the cistern, k, water from any other source 
 njaybe filtered from the barrel, I, by the following means: — First, the filter, m, may 
 be cleaned by pouring in water at the top of the cask through the funnel, t ; and 
 afterwards water from the well, or any otlier source, may be poured into o, and 
 drawn off by s for use, till the cistern, k, is agaiji supplied from tlie roof. A wooden 
 or copper bath may be placed in the wash-house ; which may be supplied with cold water 
 from the filtering cask, or with hot water from the cistern over the oven, or from the 
 washing and brewing boiler. The brewing utensils may also be deposited in this part of 
 the building, and may be used in common. 
 
 306. A Drying- Closet, by another slight arrangement, might be formed over the oven ; 
 all that is necessary for tliis purpose, being to have the cast-iron box containing the 
 water, fig. 276, made rather larger than the bottom of the closet ; that part of the cover of 
 
 b h b b 
 
 -^...9. 
 
 the boiler which forms the bottom of tlie closet being made perfectly watertight, and the 
 boiler having an exterior opening at a, for the purpose of supplying it with water, and to 
 admit of the escape of steam when the water boils. The portion of the cover of the boiler 
 which forms the bottom of the closet may have grooves, b bbb, cast in it, or riveted to it, 
 or to a false bottom, at six inches' distance from each other ; in which grooves may slide 
 clotlies-horses, to hold the clotlies to be dried. There should be a large cock for draw- 
 ing off the water at c ; and, from the side which will be placed next the wall, a conducting 
 or outgoing tube, rf, and a returning one, e, for the circulation of the hot water round 
 the building. The upper surface of the outgoing pipe will be on a level with the floors 
 of the rooms, and form part of them ; and the projections of three inches on each 
 side of this pipe are pierced with holes, to permit the heat from the sides of the tubes 
 to rise into the rooms. Over the grooved surface of the boiler a closet may be formed, 
 five or six feet or more in height, three feet wide, and four or five feet long. This 
 would admit of four clothes-horses standing side by side, at six inches apart ; and by 
 a small opening in the bottom of the door (say half an inch in depth, and the whole of 
 its width ', with a corresponding opening in the ceiling of the closet at the opposite end, 
 a current of air will be produced, which will rapidly convey away the moisture from 
 the clothes. Tliis arrangement would not in the least interfere either with baking in the 
 oven, heating all the dwellings with hot water, or supplying hot water for ordinary uses, 
 as the following figures will show : — Fig. 277 is the foundation plan of the wash-house, 
 in which the oven, f, is retained in the same position as in fig. 267, but varied in size, 
 and sunk lower ; g shows the steps down to it ; and h is the area for fuel. Fig. 278 
 is a surface plan, showing the dxj'ing-chamber, i, over the oven, and the boiler for wash- 
 ing and brewing, k. Fig. 279 is a section on the line A B, of the plans figs. 277 and 
 278, in which are shown the steps down to the oven, l; the hot- water box, m, and hot- 
 air closet over it, n. Fig. 280 is a section of fig. 278 on the line C D, in which are 
 shown the oven, 0 ; the hot-water box over it, j) ; the hot-air closet, q ; the opening 
 under the door, r ; and the other opening near the ceiling, s. Fig. 281 is a section on the 
 line E F of fig. 278, showing the front of the hot-water plate, t, the cock for drawing 
 
COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 
 
 153 
 
 "in 
 
 278 
 
 n 
 
 11 
 
 ^1 
 
 B B 
 
 off" the water, u, and the two pipes for circulating it, v and w. The hot-water box may 
 be either of cas1>iron in one piece, or of riveted plates of iron or copper. It may be 
 
 279 280 
 
 mentioned, that it would be an improvement to have what may be called a false bottom 
 to the closet, made of iron, or even of wood, to which the grooves might be attached, 
 
 28] 
 
 282 
 
 and placed about an inch above the top of the boiler, with an opening (of about half an 
 inch in depth, and the whole width of the closet), at the door, for the admission of the 
 air to be heated, and another at the opposite end, about twice the size, for the escape of 
 the hot air into the closet. The effect of this arrangement would be, to caiTy off" more 
 heat from the cover of the boiler, and consequently to make the closet hotter. The 
 principle has been illustrated in Perkins's steam-generater, as described in the Mechanics 
 Magazine, vol. xvii. This pipe for circulating the water should be of iron ; and it 
 would be an improvement to have the upper one square, or at least flat at top, about 
 nine inches wide, with projecting flanches of grating, as in fig. 282, so that when the 
 whole was laid down, painted of the colour of deal board, and completed, it might ap- 
 pear ornamental rather than otherwise. The grating on each side of the pipe, rr x, in 
 fig. 282, it is almost needless to observe, is to admit heat from the under pipe. By having 
 the upper surface of the outgoing pipe no higher than the level of the floor of the 
 apartments, no interruption is offered to the opening of the different doors which pass 
 from the dwelling-rooms into the yard or to the wash-house. The low position of the 
 pipes will also heat the air of the rooms more eflfectually than if they were higher ; and, 
 
154 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 so placed, they will be found convenient forwanninj^ the feet, and for keeping vessek of 
 water or of food hot. Those who are acquainted with the mode of heating hot-houses 
 by hot water will allow that^ there is not the slightest degree of difficulty either in erecU 
 ing such an apparatus, in the first instance ; or, when erected, in managing it, and keeping 
 it in repair ; and further, that, by it, it would be easy, in the most severe weather of even 
 a Russian winter, to maintain a temperature of 60** and upwards in all the rooms on 
 both floors of this group of cottages. 
 
 307. Windows. We do not like latticed windows, because they arc generally cold and 
 gloomy ; but as they are much cheaper than sashes hung with cords and pulleys, where 
 economy is a main object, recourse must either be had to them, or to iron windows. 
 Windows of cast iron, very fit for cottages, are now made, of different forms, and 
 very cheap. Fig. 28'% which is one foot two inches and a half wide, and two feet four 
 inches high, and weighs 8 lbs., costs in London, in 183'2, by retail, only 3s. 6d. Fig. 
 284, in the Gothic form, which is one foot four inches wide, and three feet 7 inches 
 high, weighs 23 lbs., and costs 6s. Fig. 285, two feet six inches s(juare, weighs 19 lbs., 
 
 284 
 
 283 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 i 
 
 V 
 
 
 
 
 t ridlt. 
 
 285 
 
 J. 6. 
 
 ^ 3^ ^ ^ 
 
 Fig. 2S6 is one foot seven inches wide, and three feet high, weighs 
 55. 6d. Fig. 287 is one foot seven inches wide, three feet four inches 
 js., and costs 65. 6d. These windows liave each, either ears in the 
 
 and costs 6s. 6d. 
 11^ lbs., and costs 
 
 high, weighs 20 lbs., - 
 
 centre, as at a a, figs. 285, 2SC. 287, by which they may be suspended, so as to open out- 
 wards at bottom, and inwards at top, or the contrary ; or they have side-ears, to which 
 hinges may be riveted, as at b 6, in figs. 283 and 284. Fig. 288 is a superior description ot 
 
 287 
 
 286 
 a 
 
 288 
 
COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 155 
 
 cottage window : it is two feet six inches broad, three feet high, weighs 34 lbs., and costs 
 15s. This sash is calculated for being fixed in the masonry, having in the centre a 
 square of six panes, which opens for the admission of air. As it requires no window 
 frame or hinges, it must be a verj' cheap substitute for the sash window. Mr. Laxton 
 appears to have chosen the cheapest of these casements ; but, where ornament or style is 
 thought worthy of attention, the Gothic or Grecian headed iron sashes, figs. 284 and 
 288, would still be found economical. 
 
 308. Gardens. We do not think it desirable that there should be a walk round this 
 building close under the windows, because it would have a tendency to destroy privacy. 
 We would rather give a small flower-garden or grass-plot, to each house, separated by 
 low walls, and forming separate entrances through each plot, as shown in fig. 289. We 
 
 289 
 
 would by all means raise a terrace, two steps high, and four feet broad, round the whole, 
 so as that the building might seem to stand elevated a little above the general surface; 
 and this would give the grass-plots or flower-gardens a slope outwards towards the walks 
 
156 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 c f, &c. As the floors in the original plan, figs. 267 and 268, are already two steps 
 above the surrounding surface, this terrace will occasion no other expense than the 
 proper disposal of the earth which comes out of the foundations, the well, and the cess- 
 pools. The kitchen-gardens, d d, would remain in the same positions as in fig. 
 267. We have shown a walk, four feet broad, round each garden, under the hedge, 
 which may be of fruit trees, and we have placed the liquid manure tanks, e, in 
 a situation which will be central to all the gardens. Tlie emptying of these tanks 
 should belong to each occupier in rotation. Nothing but useful plants and fruits will 
 require to be grown in the large gardens, d d, &c., because tiie borders round the grass 
 plots will be sufficient for flowers and ornamental plants. In order that this building 
 may have a proper aspect, the diagonal 
 
 of the parallelogram should form a 290 
 north and soutli line, fig. 2S<). s n, 
 (see § 24) ; however much the line of 
 the front of the building may diverge 
 from the line of the road. All that 
 is necessary in this case is to ini liide 
 the building and its gardens in a 
 parallelogram, one side of whkh coin- 
 cides witii the line of the road, as in 
 fig. 290, in which /is the public road, 
 and g is the building, in a parallelo- 
 gram of exactly the same size as in 
 fig. 289. Here it will be observed that 
 the north and south line is at right 
 angles with the public road. 
 
 309. Ornament. This |)uilding 
 might be decorated, by surrounding it 
 with a veranda, or a penthouse nxjf, 
 which would give to each dwelling a 
 covered walk during rain, or a hot 
 mid-day sun, or under which clothes, 
 herbs, or Indian corn, might be dried. 
 The roof of this veranda or penthouse 
 might be slated like that of the dwell- 
 ing ; and this would supersede tlie 
 neces.'^ily of covering the entrance 
 lobbies with slabs, as in fig. 267. 
 Suppose the whole building sur- 
 rounded by a pentliouse roof; 
 brackets placed under the eaves of 
 the principal roof ; Tusciui tiles used, 
 and the common chinmey pots suppl 
 
 lied by ornamental ones; the elleel ol the 
 
 291 
 
COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES 157 
 
 whole would not be unpleasing, fig. 
 291. Or if, instead of a veranda, Gothic 
 porches were added to each entrance, as 
 in the plan, fig. 292, and Gothic labels 
 were placed over the lower windows, a 
 Gothic character given to the doors, and 
 to the cast-iron grating, and Gothic 
 chimney pots added to the chimney tops, 
 something ornamental in a different style 
 would be produced, fig. 293. 
 
 292 
 
 Design XLII A Cottage of Three Rooms, in the Elizabethan Style. 
 
 310. Accommodation From a porch, a, there are two entrances; one to a kitchen, 
 b, with two light closets, c, t/; and the other to a parlour, e, and a bed-room,/, with a 
 closet, g. No out of door conveniences are shown ; and they must therefore be sup- 
 posed to be placed in a yard, at a short distance from the dwelling. 
 
 311. Construction. The walls are supposed to be of stone, and the roof covered with 
 grey slates. The openings of the windows are shown with plain architraves or facings ; 
 
 the sashes are modern, and hung with 294 
 
 weights and pulleys. The porch is 
 supported by a wooden column, which 
 rests upon a square stone plinth, and 
 has a plain capital. The chimney 
 pots may be formed of cement, agree- 
 ably to fig. 294. The platform or 
 terrace may either be finished with 
 turf and gravel, or paved, as in 
 Design XXXII., as may be most 
 convenient in the given situation. 
 
 312. General Estimate. Cubic con- 
 tents, 13,615 feet, at 6d. per foot, 
 £340:7s.:6d. ; at4rf., £226 : 18s.:4rf.; 
 at 3d., £170 : 3s. : 9d. 
 
 313. Remarks. This is evidently 
 an ornamental cottage, and certainly 
 possesses some characteristics of the 
 Elizabethan style. Were a cellar 
 floor added, and the stair to it made 
 in the closets c and g, the accom- 
 modation and convenience would be 
 greatly increased ; a small stair might 
 be continued from the same situation 
 to the roof, the space in which, as exhibited by the section, might be applied to various 
 useful purposes. A garret, where there is a sufficient number of openings for ventilation 
 
158 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTLRE. 
 
 -A 
 
 ! A 
 
 may always be made use of in the winter season for drying clothes, and in summer for 
 drying green herbs, or seeds in the pod. In the larger houses in many parts of France, 
 and in both large houses and cottages in most parts of Germany, clothes are always 
 dried in the garrets. A decided improvement to this cottage would be an alteration 
 in the position of the kitchen fireplace ; by which means, by having a cast-iron back 
 to it, it might be made to heat both the bed-room, /; and the parlour, e ; either, or both, 
 at pleasure. We do not think this mode so etioctual as that by a Hue under the 
 floor, which, if a cellar story were added to this cottage, might be most conveniently 
 adopted ; but as it may be useful in the case of cottages with boarded floors, or with 
 earthen or paved floors, so low, or otherwise so circumstanced, as that flues cannot be 
 made in them, we shall show how the alteration may be made. 
 
 314. Heating from tlie Back of the AUc/wn Fire. Suppose the fireplace of b, in 
 Design XLII., to have a cast-iron back, three feet square, and that six inches of each 
 end are built into the brickwork, as nt h h, in fig. 295, then it is evident that whenever 
 there was a good fire at i, a great portion of heat would ^ 
 be communicated to the space behind o ; and that this heat 
 might either be allowed to escape freely into both rooms, 
 k and /, or confined by two doors, 7/1 and n (which may 
 be wood), so as to axiinit the whole of the heat to either 
 room at pleasure, liy having a centnil door or movable 
 partition in the situation of the dt)tted line marked o, the 
 
 iieat may either be equally divided between the two rooms, 
 
 or half the heat may In? admitted to one room, and none ^ 
 
 to the other, i\:c. By enlarging the size of the enclosure 
 behind the cast-iron back, and by having an oj)ening at 
 the bottom of the doors, and another at the top, connected 
 witij an air tlue in the wall, clothes may be dried in tliis 
 closet w ith the greatest rapidity, and with very little labour. 
 To increase the jjuantity of heat produced from these 
 plates, when clothes are to be dried, or on other occasions 
 when an extra-cjuantity of heat may be desirable, it is only 
 necessary to place a })late of sheet iron, or a large slate, or even a well-seasoned boaid, 
 at the back of the cai^t-iron plate, and separated from it about one inch ; tlie plate 
 l)eing raised from the floor at the bottom, so as to leave 
 a vacuity of half an inch, and another vacuity of the same 
 dimensions should be left at the toj), as representetl in the 
 section through both jjlates, fig. 296. The use of this 
 additional plate is to confine tlie heating power or railiation 
 of the cast-iron plate p, in fig. "296, and thus create a current 
 in the vacuity </, on the same principle that water is boiled 
 with greater rapidity in one of Perkins's double-bottomed 
 boilers than in a common kettle. It must not be forgotten, 
 however, that the additional quantity of heat procured by 
 this means for the hot-air closet w ill increase the consumption 
 
 of fuel in the kitchen fire; and also tend, by abstracting 
 
 heat, to render the consumption of the fuel used there imperfect ; but these are minor 
 evils, compared with the saving of labour and the comfort which the judicious use of 
 these cast-iron plates is calculated to aflbrd. These plates, which are common in the 
 north of France, have been introduced in the cottages on the estate of Closeburn, in 
 Dumfriesshire, by its enlightened and benevolent proprietor, J. C. Stuart Menteath, 
 Esq., who, having observed them in use on the Continent some years ago, immediately 
 adopted them on his return home, with a degree of success altogether equal to his 
 expectations and wishes. 
 
 296 
 
 Design XLIII. — Cottage of Three Rooms, with Back Kitchen, Cow-House, and other 
 
 Conveniences. 
 
 315. Accommodation. The plan exhibits an entrance porch, which serves also as a 
 lobby, a; with one door opening to a kitchen, b; a back kitchen, c; and kitchen closet, 
 f ; another door opening to a bed-room, e, and bed-closet, g ; and a third to a parlour, 
 d. In a lean-to behind is an open shed, from which is an entrance to the dairy, k ; and 
 in the same lean-to there are a privy, h ; pigsty or dust-hole, i ; and cow-house, or root- 
 cellar, /. There is a terrace shown round the building ; but if the cow-house and pig- 
 sty are used as such, then the terrace may be limited to three sides, and the fourth 
 enclosed as a yard. This is a very commodious and convenient dwelling, and would not 
 
160 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 XLIII. 
 
COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 
 
 161 
 
 be expensive or diflficult to execute, either m earth or of rubble-stone. The parlour, rf, 
 might be very readily heated from the fireplace of the kitchen, 6, by means of a cast- 
 iron plate, as described § 314. The open shed behind vdW be found useful for various 
 purposes, as well as being a passage of communication to the dairy, and having a 
 place for fuel and lumber at the opposite end. 
 
 316. jdn elegant improvement v^^ould be, to remove the pigsty and the cove-house 
 farther from the dwelling, and connect them by a covered way open at both sides, as in 
 fig. 297, in which m is the dairy ; n, the cow-house ; o, the pantry ; p, the water-closet 
 
 297 
 
 for females; q, that for males; and r, the passage which connects this vdng with the 
 house ; s, a wicket gate, separating the yard from the passage, and from the platform on 
 which the house stands ; t, the yard ; u u, tank for liquid manure and dung-pit ; v v, 
 pigsties ; w w, inclined planes to the platfoim ; and x x, grass-plots, which in some 
 situations may be varied with flower-beds. It will be observed, at t/, that we have 
 altered the position of the steps to the terrace, and placed an open porch over the 
 entrance. One advantage of this arrangement would be, that the terrace might be con- 
 tinued completely round the house ; and, if it were thought desirable, as we undoubtedly 
 think it would, the eaves might be made to project three feet, which would give a 
 dry walk for infirm persons, or children, during rain. 
 
 317. Construction. The walls may be of earth; and, if it is found desirable, the 
 
 298 
 
 whole of the floors may be heated from 
 a flue from under the boiler, in the back 
 kitchen, c ; which, in this case, must have 
 the space where the boiler is placed sunk 
 three feet below the general level. The 
 windows are shown with Gothic labels, 
 and the door is ledged with ornamental 
 hinges (fig. 298), on a scale of three 
 fourths of an inch to a foot. The gable 
 end is finished with a barge-board (fig. 
 299), to a scale of three eighths of an inch 
 to a foot, but without a pendant or a pin- 
 nacle. 
 
 318. General Estimate. Cubic contents, 15,232 feet, at 6d. per foot, ^'380 : 16*, ; at 
 4d, 5g253 : 17s. : U. ; and at 3rf., ^190 : I85. 
 
162 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 299 
 
 319. Expression. Thougli we like the arrangement of this building in tlic interior, 
 yet we by no means approve of the external expression. The projection of the roof at 
 the eaves, which is here two feet, does not belong to the Gothic style ; and to place 
 
 labels over windows immediately 
 under a far-projecting roof, is, 
 in point of use, superfluous ; since 
 the original intention of labels 
 was to throw ofl" the rain from the 
 windows, which is here already 
 done by the eaves. The pitch of 
 the roof is much too low for the 
 Gothic or old English cottage, 
 and is by no means suited for 
 the ornamental barge-boards at 
 the gable ends, which are never 
 seen but against the ends of steep 
 roofs. TIjc windows ought to be 
 of more lofty proportions, more 
 especially as it appears by the 
 section that they might be carried 
 at least one foot higher ; and, if 
 tliey were lowered one foot, the 
 window she lf would not he too low 
 for use. Tlie cliinmey tops rise 
 out of the roof without any preparation, which is aways objectionable; and we do not 
 think the position of the steps to the terrace j)articularly fortunate. If we were to alter 
 
 the ground plan, as in fig. 297, a very commodious and convenient cottage would be 
 produced, and the elevation miglit then either be in the Italian, or modern style, as m 
 fig. S'M, or in the Gothic or old English manner, as in fig. 301. 
 
COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 
 
 163 
 
 Design XLIV. — A Coltage of Three Rooms and a Back ICUchen 07i tlie Ground Flooi, 
 with various Conveniences. 
 
 320. Accommodation. In the ground plan may be seen an entrance lobby, e; 
 kitchen, b ; bed-room, c; parlour, d; closets, e and f\ back kitchen, g ; dairy or pantry, 
 h ; pigsty or dusthole, i ; privy, k; and cow-house or root-cellar, I. 
 
 321. Construction. The walls may be of brick or stone; the copings and finishings 
 to the walls, windows, and cliimney tops, to be of the latter material, or of Roman 
 cement. The chimney head cornice may be finished, as n fig. 302, to a scale of one 
 inch and a half to a foot. The designer of this ^^^.^ 
 cottage recommends the roof to be covered with painted 
 pantiles ; the windows to be divided into three parts 
 by two mullions, and each compartment to have one 
 iron frame filled in with latticework. The surrounding 
 terrace appears by the section to be formed of earth, and 
 the floors seem to be paved. 
 
 322. General E<itimate. Cubic contents, 12,330 feet, 
 at 6d. per foot, £308 : 55. ; at 4rf„ £205 : 10s. ; and at 
 3(/., £154: 2s. ; 6d. 
 
 323. liemarks. The accommodations of this cottage 
 are obtained at more than ordinary expense, on account 
 of the numerous projections in the ground plan, and the 
 consequent angles, hips, and valleys, in the roof. The 
 style is somewhat Elizabethan; but it is hardly justifi- 
 able to raise the two pediments over the entrance 
 door and right-hand window ; when, according to the 
 section, there can be no use whatever made of the roof. 
 
 section, that the doors, even of the dairy and back kitchen, are six-paneled, which is 
 not very consistent with the entrance door, that being only ledged. While there is this 
 attention paid to the style of the doors in the interior, no cornices to the rooms are shown, 
 nor any shelf to the kitchen chimney. In short, not to waste criticism on a design 
 scarcely worthy of it, though there is something of style in the elevation, and of accom- 
 modation in the plan, yet the composition, taken as a whole, is not such as to be held up 
 as an example for imitation, but rather as a beacon to be avoided. 
 
 It will also be observed by the 
 
 Design XLV. — A Dwelling of Four Rooms, with Back Kitchen, and other Conveniences. 
 
 324. Accommodation. From the entrance passage, a, a door opens to the kitchen, 6, 
 which is connected with the back kitchen, c, on the one band, and with the bed-room, d, 
 on the other. There is a parlour, e, and another bed-room, y; with a closet, ^: and, in a 
 lean-to, we have a cow-house or root-cellar, h ; pigsty, i; and privy, k. Should the cow- 
 house and pigsty be occupied as such, then it would be necessary to have a yard joined 
 to that side of the house, and to alter the slope of the platform within it, as in similar 
 cases. Some use may be made of the roof by a trapdoor in the ceiling of the kitchen, 
 and the whole may be heated from a fireplace in the back kitchen. 
 
 325. Construction. The walls may be of brick or stone ; and the panels, shown in 
 'he elevation, either executed in the brickwork or formed in cement. The roof is low 
 in pitch, and it is proposed to cover it with slates. The 
 
 chimney stack is large, containing four vents or flues ; it 
 has a sunk panel in the lower part, which, with the cornice 
 at its termination, will be understood by the vertical section 
 fig. 303, on a scale of half an inch to a foot. The section 
 ig. 304, to a scale of half an inch to a foot, shows the 
 projecting frieze, under the eaves of the roof, which is 
 supported by the paneled pilasters. The door is paneled, 
 and the windows are in the modern style, with sashes hung 
 by lines, weights, and pulleys, &c. 
 
 326. General Estimate. Cubic contents, 13,700 feet, at 
 6d. per foot, £342 : 10s. ; at 4rf. £228 : 6s. : 8rf. ; and at 
 3rf., £171 : 5s. 
 
 327. Remarks. There is a simplicity and grandeur in 
 the elevation of this cottage, which raises it above the cha- 
 racter of a dwelling of the humblest class. The massive 
 chimney stack corresponds well with the simplicity of the 
 roof; the eflTect of which is supported by the smaller, but 
 similarly formed, roofs of the projections at the ends. The 
 paneled pillars or pilasters, with the cornice over them, have 
 
 303 
 
 J 
 
164 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 very complete system of vertical ani\ liori- 
 304 
 
 irilli a Hack Kitchen, Cellar^ and 
 
 a massive and architectural efTect, forming 
 zontal bond or chain work, as the French 
 term it ; and they are supported and har- 
 monised by the horizontal panels in tlie 
 chimney stack. Where the perfection of 
 architectural expression is aimed at, all 
 walls should be built either on the prin- 
 ciple of vertical and horizontal bond, by 
 projecting piers and horizontal bands; or, 
 on that of squared stones or bricks, with 
 or without piers and bands. The i)reten- 
 sions of a wall to strength would thus, at 
 all limes, be obvious at a single glance. 
 By altering the destination of some of tlie 
 parts of the ground-plan, this building 
 might be rendered fit for the habiuition of 
 what is called a genteel family. Thus, 
 h and i might be joined in one, and form 
 a small bed-room or book-room, to the 
 parlour, e ; and h, in like maimer, might 
 be made a bed-room, or a dressing-room, 
 connected w ith (/. The appendages, h, t, k, 
 might be got in a separate l>uilding, con- 
 nected by a lattice-roofed arcade, covered 
 with ivy, from the door of c. 
 
 Design XLVI. — Cottage Dwcllinp, wUfi Four Room 
 
 other Convciiunxccs. 
 
 328. The accommodations of this dwelling are, as usual, a kitchen, a, w ith closet inidt-r 
 the stiiir, /i; back kitchen,/;; parlour, c ; bed-room d ; cellar, ; dustliole, or place f»)r 
 fuel, fy and j)rivy, g: tliere is a bed-room over the kitchen ; and two usi-ful garrets, one 
 over c, e,f, and the other over b, d, ^, w hich may l)e lighted from the ends. The 
 apartment c may, in this, as in most of the other Designs, be used either as a cellar or 
 a cow-liouse, or a place for keeping fuel and lumber; or as a receptacle for jmtatoes 
 and other roots, or whatever may be most desiral)le in the given locality. We are of 
 opinion that in most parts of Britain it will not be found pr<)tital)le for the labourer to 
 keep a single cow ; but we are aware that in most parts of Scotland and Ireland, as well 
 as in the north of France, the cottager never thinks himself comfortable without one. 
 We are aware, also, that there are objections to having a cow-house and jjigsty too close 
 to a dwelling; but it will be recollected that much dei)ends on the manner ii» which these 
 animals are kej)t ; and tliat, by dis])osing t>f the litjuid part of the manure in the manner 
 we have directed, and having the door of the co\N -house so far apart from tiie door of the 
 house as we have always shown it, the practical inconvenience would not be felt. We 
 think the apartment for a cow ought to be added to all cottages not having a cellar, be- 
 cause, if not used for the former purpose, it may be applied to the latter ; and a cellar is 
 almost every where a great source of comfort to the cottager. 
 
 329. Construction. The paneled piers may be built of stone in courses, or of 
 brick ; or they may be framed of wood, and filled in with brick, and covered w ith cement. 
 The same may be observed as to the architrave which rests on these piers or pilasters, and 
 supports the roof. The interspaces between the pilasters may be formed of pis(^, of 
 brick or clay nogging, of rubble stone, of pebbles, of flint, or, in short, of any material 
 which will support its own weight, and be of sufficient thickness to keep out tlie weather, 
 and maintain a steady temperature ; for the weight of the roof in this Design, and in 
 Design XLV., is supposed to be carried by the piers. As a good deal of the beauty of 
 this, and indeed of most designs for cottages showing pilasters, depends on the materials 
 with which the panels or cementitious part of the wall is filled up, we shall here introduce 
 a few remarks on the materials for walls, with a view of directing the reader's attention 
 to the subject. 
 
 330. Materials for Walls. The design, the style, the accompaniments, and all other 
 circumstances, being the same, the eflTect of the walls of a cottage being of squared stone, of 
 rubble stone, of red, yellow, or white bricks, of flints, of pebbles, of mud, or of boards, 
 will be very different ; and more so to the ordinary spectator than to the artist, or to the 
 eye accustomed to study the effect of forms, shades, lines, and colours, in some measure, 
 independently of materials. The nature of the material, therefore, of which the walls of 
 a cottage are built, is a fertile source of variety, where several cottages are to be built on 
 the same estate ; or where a village is to be formed, in which variety of character in the 
 
COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. I67 
 
 buildings is an object. As a general principle, it may be affirmed that the ma- 
 terials of the walls of a cottage ought always to be such as are, or may be, furnished bv 
 the soil or vicinity where it is placed. In this point of view, mud, pis6, brick, and timber 
 are the most umversal materials for cottage waUs ; and, next to these, small land stones, so 
 far broken or squared as to incorporate in a wall built either on the bond or on the cemen 
 titious principle of construction. Among the land stones of a country are included the 
 sha e, scales, or shivery stone, of some districts, and the pebbles and flints of others. We 
 sha here confine ourselves to giving short directions for forming a flint wall • and we 
 shall take them from the Landscape ArchUecture of Italy, by Gilbert Laing Meason Be 
 fore we give this quotation, however, we wish particularly to impress on the minds of 
 our readers the necessity of having coignes and other supports of the roof, which shall act 
 on the principle of independent strength, in all cases where the walls are to be formed of 
 pise, mud, pebbles, flint, or, in short, of any material, the strength of which depends upon 
 the cementitious principle ; that is, on the plasticity, when used, of a part of the materials. 
 Ihis Design and the preceding one are examples of this mode of construction, and these 
 remarks are introduced here incidentally; but in the systematic part of our work the sub- 
 ject will be treated in detail, and it will then appear to be one of very great importance, 
 though very little understood. ^ ' 
 
 331. Flint Walls. " In the chalk countries of England, why may we not renew the 
 fi.nt-built walls of our ancestors, seeing that the Roman circus at Toulouse has endured 
 so long I* Build up the flints in frames, and pour cement into the interstices : the found- 
 ation should be on brick arches ; and the cement employed may be composed of tho- 
 roughly burnt chalk, slacked with water, to reduce it to the finest dry powder ; and then 
 SI ted, and added to two parts of rough sharp sand, with small sharp gravel stones. The 
 whole should be imxed together dry, and then a sufficient quantity of water should be 
 poured upon It to make it into a liquid paste, which should be used immediately The 
 Slacking ot the lime, the mixture, and the application to the walling, should follow one 
 another without delay A quantity of the sand and powdered lime ought to be at hand 
 to throw into the moulds, in case the mortar should appear too tliin. By such manao-e 
 ment this cement requires not age to harden it. On examination of the oldest parts^f 
 the ancient castle at Hastings we are satisfied that the mortar employed was so formed 
 
 Flint hlir' H ^ ""IT "^"i'"^ ^^'■^'^^^^ P^^ts of the wall 
 
 V lint-built walls would produce an excellent effect in irregular buildings ; for the rough- 
 ness of the surface, in towers, gives the impression of strength and stability." 
 
 305 
 
108 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 332. General Estimate. Cubic contents, 12,5G3 feet, at fir/, per foot, ^£-"314 : Is. 6d. ; 
 at 4rf., £209: 7s. : Sd. ; and at 3(/., £l51 : Os. : 9d. 
 
 333. Remarks. The arrangement of the plan of this cottage is not favourable to 
 economy in its execution, from the greater length than breadth of the body of the build- 
 ing, from the breaks and recesses in the walls, and from the raised part of the roof. All 
 these deviations from the cube, which, it will be recollected, is the perfect form, increase 
 the expense in proportion to the accommodation allbrded. There can be no doubt, 
 however, that this would be a comfortiible building, because the heated air from the 
 kitchen, a, would always keep the bed-room over it wann ; and the fire both of the 
 kitchen and the back kitchen might, by very little contrivance, render a fire at all times 
 unnecessary in the room d, which might, according to circumstances, be made a shop or 
 a parlour. Were it desirable to enlarge this dwelling, it might be done with great eflect, 
 by opening the door from o, as in fig. SOj, in which i is the additional room ; k, a 
 small court-yard, containing the pigsty, /, and litjuid manure tanks, m ; the apartment r, 
 in Design XL^'I., being considered in thisgryund plan as a cow-house. \Ve have shown 
 a walk, 71 Jh surrounding thiscottige, which leaves between it ami the slope of tin- plat- 
 form a border of an irregular width, o o, ^vc, which may either be covered with turf, or 
 with shrubs, flowers, and two or three trees. Like Di'sign X LV., this building, present- 
 ing a sitnple outline against the sky, is well adapted for a situation where it would be 
 backed by a broken outline of wood. Having no windows in the ends, it is also better 
 adapted for being viewed in front only, or chiefly, than for being seen on all sides. 
 
 Design XLVII. — Two Cottaiirs for Countrif J.ahonrerx, under One Roof, with Four 
 Rooms in each, Hack Kitchen, Piiistt/, and other Conveniences. 
 
 334. Accommodation. Each of these dwellings contains an entrance lobby, a ; 
 kitchen, 6; back kitchen, c; parlour or best bed-room, <i ; staircase, <• ; dairy,/; place 
 for fuel. cow-house,/*; pi ivy, i; and pigsty, The chamber floor of each bouse 
 contains a bed room, /, with a landing, m, from the staircase, it ; and another bed-room, o. 
 We have not shown the yard which would be necessjiry to the cow-house and pigsty, 
 as we think it more probable that these appeiulages will be applied to t)ther purposes. 
 
 335. Construction. The walls may be of stone ; but, as they exhibit few breaks or 
 angles, they might be very advantageously built hollow, with bricks on edge, in Dearn's 
 manner. lii a country where fuel is abundant, we should recommend the floors of the 
 kitchen and parlour fo be of boards ; but where fuel is scarce and dear, or chiefly wood, 
 we should prefer having the floors paved, in order that they may be heated by a flue from 
 the back kitchen. Or, a flue may be made above the floor, so as to form a bench, in the 
 Chinese manner {Mcch. Ma^., vol. iv. p. 3G'J.) ; in several returns one over another, so 
 iis to form a stove, in the CJerman manner; or in one of the partitions, as in the flued 
 walls of gardens. Having recommended Dearn's mode of hollow walls as applicable 
 to this building, we shall here proceetl to describe it. 
 
 336. Dcarns Method of buildins. hollow lirick U'alb. The manner of bonding the work 
 is shown in fig. 30G, which is an elevation and section of part of a wall. " The three 
 
 306 
 
 ! I 11 ! I 1 I I I I 
 
 lower courses, c], the upper one of which is proposed to be level with the floor, are in- 
 tended as a footing to the superstructure, and are laid in what is called the old English 
 manner, consisting of alternate courses of headers and stretchers. The next course 
 above is a stretching course on edge, p, and the backing course is like it, leaving an in- 
 terval between of the width of half a brick ; these are then covered with a heading 
 course, r, laid flat ; and the same system is pursued until the whole height required be 
 
COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 
 
 
 
 
 307 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ! 
 
 s \ j 
 
 
 
 these are proposed to be 
 
 attained. Fig. 307 is a plan taken on the upper course of the footing, showing the man- 
 ner of bonding the angles. The dotted 
 lines denote the course above, of heading 
 bricks laid flat. The two bricks on edge 
 marked s s, at the angle, will be re- 
 versed in each other course. Fig. 308 
 displays the manner of introducing a 
 girder, t, into walls thus constructed. 
 To support the stress of the girder, the 
 intervals in the walls below it, u u, are 
 filled in solid with brickbats from the 
 footing to the course on which the girder, 
 t, rests, by which means a solid pier is 
 formed, nine inches wide. In the course 
 on which the girder lies, it is proposed 
 to introduce a piece of timber, v, for it 
 to rest on, nine inches long, four inches 
 wide, and two inches and a half thick. 
 Mortises for the joists are shown in the 
 girder at w w. Fig. 309 shows the 
 elevation of part of a building of this 
 
 kind, in which a doorcase and a window fiame are introduced 
 of the same scantling as usual ; 
 viz., window-frames, two inches 
 and a half by two inches and a 
 half, and door-cases four inches 
 by three inches ; but in order to 
 conceal the hollows in the wall, 
 it will be necessary to tack in a 
 fillet in the front or back of each 
 window and door-case. In order 
 to secure the frames in the wall, 
 a piece of inch stuff', four inches 
 square, may be attached to tliem 
 at X X, by screws ; the heads of 
 
 the screws to be on the outer side, 
 that the frames may be taken out 
 
 at any time, if found necessary, 
 
 without injury to the brickwork. 
 
 To take the weight from the 
 
 heads of these frames, a lintel, 
 
 four inches square, may be placed 
 
 within the brick on edge course, 
 
 marked y 3/, extending nine 
 
 inches beyond the opening on each side. 
 
 308 
 
 )9 
 
 2 I I 
 
 1 I. .1 
 
 I I II I .j: 
 
 I . . I I .1 7 
 
 jTnr 
 
172 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 337. Economy and other Advantages of Beam's hollow Walls. First, a saving of one third 
 will arise in the article of bricks ; that is, if 4500 would have been required to complete 
 a rod of reduced work in the common way, 3000 will be found sufficient according to 
 Mr. Beam's method : secondly, only one half of the mortar will be requisite : thirdly, the 
 labour will not be greater than for common brickwork, though it will include rubbing 
 the bricks in the heading course to one length, in order to supersede the necessity of 
 rendering (plastering) within, and to leave the walls with a fair face ready for white- 
 washing or painting in oil : 
 fourthly, the hollows in the 
 walls will prove an antidote 
 to damp : and, fifthly, all 
 the expense of inside plaster- 
 ing will be saved. 
 
 338. Dearn's proposed Va- 
 riation in his Method of 
 building. Instead of the 
 brick on edge course, half 
 bricks may be used as stretch- 
 ers, figs. 310, 311, and 312 ; 
 the bricks being divided lon- 
 gitudinally, by drawing a 
 knife or other sharp instru- 
 ment about half through them, while in a state between wet and dry, and giving each a 
 slight stroke of the trowel on the reverse side, to separate the halves, after it has been 
 burned. This is done, partly because, if the halves were entirely separated before being 
 
 
 310 
 
 1 1 , 
 
 1 1 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 ii !! 
 
 
 1 
 
 |i II II ; * 
 II II II : 
 1 !! II 11 
 
 31 
 
 312 
 
 II II 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 II 
 
 
 
 
 1 II 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 II 1 II II 
 
 
 II 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 burned, the bricks would (in Britain) be subjected to a double duty ; and partly because 
 the half bricks, thus treated, cost less, and are less liable to warp in the kiln, than if 
 moulded separately. A fair charge for removing bricks from the hack (the stock or 
 pile on which they are placed to be burnt), with the cutting and replacing them, is 5s. 
 per thousand. With respect to bonding the work, it may either be carried up in the old 
 English manner (see § 336, and fig. 306) ; or in the Flemish manner: that is, having 
 an alternate header and stretcher in each course ; as the air may be made to circulate 
 freely through the walls in both ways. The bond at the angles is shown in fig. 310; 
 and fig. 311 shows the appearance of the work in elevation. Fig. 312 is a section in 
 which at a is shown the footing, and three courses above it, carried up solid, with a drain 
 brick, h, set in cement on a level with the supposed floor of the house. The use of this 
 course of draining bricks is to carry off any water that might at any time find its way 
 into the vacuity, when this mode of building is used in walls under the level of the 
 ground. 
 
 339. Beam's Mode of building Fourteen-Inch hollow Walls. When the thickness of 
 the walls is proposed to be fourteen inches, the stretching course may be of whole bricks, 
 instead of half ones, and the heading course may be bricks fourteen inches long, which are 
 frequently made for the purpose of coping dwarf walls ; but, should economy be the 
 main object, Mr. Dearn proposes to use half bricks for the stretchers, which, he says, will 
 produce a wall strong enough for all ordinary purposes ; and which will only require 
 some degree of management when used for underground walls, when it will be necessary 
 to take care that the lateral pressure of the soil outside does not throw the wall off the 
 
COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 
 XLVIIL 
 
 30 20 10 0 5 10 
 
 Ft. ! I I I I I I I I I I I ■ I 
 
COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 XLIX. 
 
COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 175 
 
 perpendicular. Where there is any danger of this (which can only be when the foundations 
 are made in very soft ground, or where the outside walls of a house are to be earthed up, 
 in order to form a terracej, he directs the builder to extend the excavation, in those parts 
 where the evil is anticipated, to a distance of not less than three feet six inches beyond the 
 proposed face of the wall ; and, as the brickwork is carried up, to fill in the earth not 
 more than one foot thick at each time ; to ram it well, and at each interval to introduce a 
 thin layer of green faggot-wood, with the butt-ends to the wall : the ground thus made 
 will unquestionably be found to settle ; but there can be little or no stress on the wall, the 
 lateral pressure being directed by the faggot- wood to the natural earth opposite." — 
 Hints on an improved Method of Building, &c., p. 36.) 
 
 340. Deam's hollow Walls, applied to the heating of Green-houses, as hot Walls for ripen- 
 ing Fruit, and for warming Barracks, Workhouses, &c. Mr. Dearn thinks that conserv- 
 atories, vineries, &c., attached to houses thus constructed, may be heated without much 
 expense, if placed against or near the back of the kitchen fireplaces. For this purpose 
 he proposes to form the back of the range of a plate of cast iron, not less than one inch 
 thick, open on the reverse to the hollow in the wall. From this plate such a degree of 
 heat would be diffused throughout the whole extent of the wall, as would probably be 
 sufficient to preserve the tenderest plants in the most inclement seasons, and to forward 
 vines as much as a common forcing-house. The heat might be regulated by an 
 opening in the wall externally, either above the conservator)', &c., or on the side, as the 
 case should require. Barracks, workhouses (commonly so called), houses of industry, 
 and manufactories, built according to Dearn's method, may also, he conceives, be warmed, 
 without any additional expense, and the heat so regulated as to answer the various pur- 
 poses required. [Ibid. p. 37.) In our Treatise on Country Residences, 4to, 1816, we gave 
 a plan of a house, with a large conservatory and 
 vinery attached to it, both heated from the fires 
 of the living-apartments, the kitchen, and the 
 offices; and showed by the section, fig. 313, a 
 very efficient mode of abstracting heat from 
 cast-iron plates at the back of the difi'crent fire- 
 places. We have since put the plan in practice 
 (in 1817) ; and it is but candid to state that 
 we cannot recommend it either in point of 
 comfort or economy. In point of comfort, it 
 is objectionable, on account of the great quan- 
 tity of heat which is drawn ofl", and the con- 
 sequent necessity of attending constantly to 
 the fire ; and in regard to economy, the same 
 abstraction of heat renders the consumption 
 of the fuel, especially coal, very imperfect ; and, 
 consequently, more is required to produce any 
 given temperature, than would be case were the 
 back and sides of the fireplace either of fire- 
 brick only, or of iron plates with solid masonry 
 behind them. 
 
 341. General Estimate. Cubic contents, 27,760 feet, at 6d. per foot, £'694 ; at Ad., 
 £462: 13s. : 4d. ; at 3d., £347. 
 
 342. Remarks. This Design is well calculated for being executed at a very moderate 
 expence. The span of the roof not being more than 14 feet, timber of very slight 
 scantling may be used botii in the floors and in the roofing; and the walls, as we have 
 seen, need not be wider than nine inches, and may be built hollow, either in the manner 
 detailed. Chap. I. § 25 ; or according to some one of the modes just described. If it were 
 desired to ornament such cottages, it might be readily done by placing chimney pots on 
 the stacks, by porches, or by a veranda ; in either case, adding a parapet to the terrace. 
 The ends of both cottages, being without windows, may be covered by vines or fruit trees ; 
 and a few Cliina roses may be planted along tlie front. 
 
 Design XLVIII. — A Dwelling of Four Rooms, with a Back Kitchen, and other 
 
 Conveniences. 
 
 _ 343. Accommodation. The ground-floor consists of a lobby and staircase, a ; 
 kitchen, 6; back kitchen, c; dairy, d; parlour, e ; bed-room,/; water-closet, g; and 
 cellar, h. The chamber floor contains two good bed-rooms, i and I, with the staircase, k, 
 between them. 
 
 344. Construction. Dwellings in this style are common in various parts of Glouces- 
 tershire, and other parts of England, where freestone is abundant, and easily worked. 
 
Iji) COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 They are generally covered with a grey slate, and the walls are in regular courses of 
 tooled stone. As the inner i)art of these walls is generally built of rubble, tlioy cannot 
 be considered strong ; unless, iiideed, a mortar were used cajjable of l)econiing as ban! 
 as the stone itself, or at least as Roman cement. To add to the slrengtli of such walls, 
 what are called string courses are introduced in tliem ; one of w hich may be observed in 
 the elevation of tiiis Design, as a horizontal band Ijclw een the ground lloor and beil-rooin 
 windows. This band, horizontal chain, or string course, is supposed to be formed of 
 stones of a sufficient width to cover the whole wall, and by that means to tie it together; 
 and this, if the rubble part of the wall luis been properly built, it will effectually do. If, 
 on the other hand, the rubble stones have been small, and have not liail true bearings, 
 (tliat is, flat surfaces resting horizonUiily on each otlar), these string courses will add verV 
 little to the strengtli of the wall. 'When thereatkr comes to that part of t)ur work wliicli 
 treats upon the principlt-s of construction, he will find, what will prol)ably surprise him, 
 that the stn)ngest, as well ;ls the most durable, of all wulU for dw■L■lling-hou^es, are those 
 of well burnt brick, covered with liomaii cement without and plaster within. Kveu 
 without these coverings, brick walls are stronger and more durable than stone walls, 
 the latter are generally built. There can be no doubt that stone walls might be, and 
 sometimes are, so constructed for dw elling-houseb. an to be stronger than connnon brick ; 
 but the expense, except under very peculiar circumstiuices, is too great for general use. 
 
 315. General Esliinatc Cubic contents, 'J J,54S feet, at tid. per foot, : 11<. ; at 
 
 4^/., .£'40.') : 'is. : S,/. ; and at S*/., £M(\ . \lt. 
 
 Remarks. The rooms in this Design are of a convenienta»ize, and the dwelling 
 may be considered as suitable for a gardener or other upper si rvunt. Tor t fleet, we 
 should have jjrLl'erred thnv lights in each of the l>ays of the kitchen and parlour, and 
 no w indow s t)n the other side «)f these rooms. We say, ihat^ for elfect, we should have 
 done this ; but, for convenience and use, it is belter that the light should enter on two 
 sides, because two i)arties may then work at two dillerent windows. Respecting the 
 situation of this building, its contributor observes that it "should be placeil on rather 
 an elevatid spot, thickly covered with wikkI. When the outline of a builtiing is so con- 
 structed tliat the various projections throw a mass of shade upon the recetling pjuts, then 
 the object itself forms an inde|>endent picture ; but in buildings of a plain unbroken out- 
 line, such as this cottage, st)me assistance is wantetl to produce the piclure^<|ue ; and 
 trees will be found eflicient auxiliaries in accomplishing this effect." 
 
 Design XLIX A DweUiug suUahle fur a Liulge or Toll-house, having Three itountt, 
 
 and ullwr Conveniences. 
 .T47. Accommodation. The ground floor consists of an outer kitchen, which serves 
 also jis an entrance-lobby, n ; hu-ge kitchen, or living-room, 6 ; light bed-closet heated 
 from the back of the kitchen fire, c ; pantry, d ; closet for fuel, <• ; cellar for roots, /*; 
 privy, ^; dusthole, /i ; stair to the bed-ri>om flo<»r, i ; and open shed, A. 'I'he chamber 
 story contiiins two bed-rooms, / in, and tiie landing of the staircase, n. 
 
 348. CunJruction. The w alls be may of brick, and the roof covered w ith tiles or slate. 
 The cornice of the principal part of the building may contain a gutter cut in the stone, 
 similar to that shown in the sectioi^ fig. 40, § 74, if that material should be abundant ; 
 otherwise, the cornice and gutter may be of wood, as shown in the section fig. 6.'}, 
 § H4. 
 
 349. General Estimate. Cubic contents, 11,3 15 feet, at 6d. per foot, £"282: 17s. ; at 
 4d., £188 : lis. : lOrf. ; and at 3rf., i. 141 : 85. : 9d. 
 
 350. lit'/narh. The expression of this dwelling seems to aim at something more than 
 a simple humble cottage, because it may be siud to have a centre and two wings, like a 
 cottage villa, or like w hat in Scotland is called a minister's house ; yet there is no attempt 
 at architectural style, either in the geneial forms or the ornaments. We leave our 
 readers to contrive different modes of altering or adding to it, so as to make it more 
 attractive without, and more convenient within. 
 
 Design L. — A Cottage Dwelling of Four Rooms, loith other Conveniences. 
 
 351. Accommodation. On the ground-floor there is an entrance and staircase, a ; 
 parlour, b\ bed-room, c; closet under the stairs, d; pantry, e; light bed-closet,/; 
 and kitchen, g. The wash-house, privy, and other conveniences, are supposed to be 
 in a separate building. The chamber floor contains a bed-room, //, and two closets, i 
 and k. 
 
 352. Construction. All cottages having no cellar floor may have the walls built of 
 rammed earth, on a brick or stone foundation ; though we would never recommend 
 earth where brick or stone can be afforded. The roof is shown with a considerable 
 projection at the caves, and it is covered w ith Grecian tiles. 
 
COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 
 
 353. General Estimate. Cubic contents, 15,704 feet, at 6d. per foot, ^^"392 : 12s. ; at 
 4<Z., ^£^261 : 14s. : M- ; and at 3rf., i;l96 : 6s. 
 
 354. Remarks. The expression of this dwelling is agreeable, and the tiles give it some- 
 what the air of an Italian cottage. The windows, however, are modem, and the chimney 
 tops are such as are used in various manners. As picturesque eflfect appears to have been 
 studied in forming the Design of this cottage, we rather wonder that no porch was 
 placed over the door, which would have added much to its beauty. It is true, the far- 
 projecting roof will, in some measure, compensate for the want of this part of an 
 edifice ; but we do not think it ought ever to supersede it. It is curious to observe, 
 in the ground plan of this Design, the preference which the designer gives to irregular 
 beauty over that which is regular. Had his object been to produce a regular sym- 
 metrical building, he might have done so out of the same extent of walling, by adopting 
 the ground plan fig. 314. By this arrangement, y* and g are greatly enlarged ; and a 
 commodious back kitchen, h, linen closet, i, and a porch, k, are added. The apartment, 
 c, will then become the kitchen (instead of g), and the pantry, e, and the back kitchen, 
 h, will open into it. The space over e,f, g, and i, when equally divided, will afford two 
 good bed-rooms in the chamber floor. The superficial surface of the ground occupied 
 by this improved plan ffig. 314) is 1292 feet, while that of the original ground plan is 
 only 875 feet. This difference will, 
 of course, occasion an additional 
 surface of roofing ; but, as it is the 
 angles and breaks of a roof which 
 are the most expensive parts, the cost 
 will be very nearly the same ; the 
 improved plan approximating much 
 nearer to the form of a cube, and 
 requiring only a plain roof. The 
 lineal length of external walling, or 
 the girth of the building, is 1 35 feet 
 in both plans, and the internal walling 
 is but little increased in the improved 
 one. Thus, the second plan, though 
 containing so much more accommoda- 
 tion, would cost very little more than 
 the first; for though the cubic contents 
 of the building, according to the im- 
 proved plan, will be 17,664 feet, while 
 those of the original Design were 
 only 15,704 feet; it must always be 
 
 remembered, by those who wish to make an estimate of the expense of, or to fix a 
 value upon, buildings measured in this manner, that the contents of the original Design 
 would require to be calculated at 5d. or 5^d. per foot, while those of the Design fig. 314 
 from its nearer approximation to a cube, and the simplicity of its roof, need not be esti- 
 mated at more than 4rf. or 4irf. per foot. The elevation of a building constructed accord- 
 ing to the improved plan, would not be so picturesque as that of the original Design, but 
 we do not think that it would be less beautiful. And why would it be less picturesque? 
 Because it would have less irregularity of fonn, of outline, and of light and shade ; and, 
 consequently, of that kind of beauty which is more particularly adapted for transferring 
 to paper, or to canvass : it would, therefore, not form so marked a character for the painter ; 
 in the same way as a plain honest man would not afford so good a study for a novelist, 
 or so interesting a subject for a biographer, as a man of irregular features, both of mind 
 and character. Let it be observed, however, that we do not object to the irregular 
 style of beauty, for those who can afford it : all that we mean to say is, that it is neither 
 so economical to erect, nor so easy to keep in repair, as the symmetrical style ; and that, 
 as we have frequently before stated, symmetry is the soul of Architecture. 
 
 Design LI. — A Cottage Divelling, with Six Rooms and other Conveniences. 
 
 355. Accommodation. There is a good entrance porch, a, with two doors, the one to 
 be kept shut when the other is open, to protect the interior from the weather most likely 
 to penetrate into it. From this porch there is a door to a room, b, which might be 
 used as a workshop for a tailor or shoemaker, or other similar trades, in the country ; 
 as an infant school on a small scale ; as a shop ; or let off as a bed-room. There is a 
 kitchen, c, communicating with the bed-room, r/; a back-kitchen, e; and an ante~room,y. 
 This ante-room may be used as a small green-house, or as a china closet, if the cottage 
 
 ' were occupied by what is called a genteel family ; or if it were used as a public house, 
 it would make an excellent bar ; or, for a private family in humble life, it might be a 
 
180 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 child's bed-room, or a pantry. The parlour, g, communicates with the bed-room, h. 
 The privy and other conveniences are supposed to be contained in a separate building 
 on the outside of the garden. 
 
 356. Construction. The walls are shown of a proper thickness, for being built of 
 earth, or of rubble stone, or of any description of cementitious wall w ithout chainwork ; 
 that is, without what in carpentry are called ties and strutts. The roof may be covered 
 with slate, and finished, as in 63, § 84. 
 
 357. General Estimate. Cubic contents, 16,848 feet, at Sd. per foot, £421 : 4j. ; at 
 4rf., £-"280 : 16s. ; and at 3f/., £^210 : 12s. 
 
 358. Remarks. Tliis is an example of an irregular, and yet not picturesque 
 building, and of a good deal of accommodation without convenient arrangement. The 
 plan is irregular, from the projection of the two bays of the apartments^ and g \ and 
 from the projection of d and li beyond the line of frontage of e ; but the regular pen- 
 tagonal sides of the bays, and their time roofs, present nothing strikingly irregular in 
 the elevation. There is nothing irregular or picturesque in the roof, nor in the porch, 
 which occupies too large and important a i)ortion of tlie main building for its use. 
 Bay windows are great additions to the chit-rfulness of rooms when they have lights on 
 three sides, and this they always used to have in BriUiin, till the great increase of 
 window-duty, during the war with Bonaparte, renderetl bay windows with tl>ree lights 
 too expensive for the middle classes, not to speak of the lower. Bays, with only one 
 light, as in the Design before us, are neither handsome without, nor cheerful within ; 
 and, in a cottage, tlie gain in point of room is by no means commensurate witli the 
 expense. In point of expression, hay windows of three lights convey ideas of ancient 
 times; because the forms of the windows, in that case, are different from what they are 
 when only one window is jjlaced in the centre of each bay. In the Design before us, the 
 modern window in the bay 
 seems misplaced and in- 
 complete. However, we 
 have here the matt-rials 
 for a good comfortable 
 dwelling. Let us suppose 
 the central bay, f, made 
 a central porch ; tlie bay 
 of g placed in the centre 
 of that side of the room ; 
 the porch, a, turned into 
 a pantry ; and tlie bed- 
 room, b, made to open 
 from the kitchen. We 
 shall then have the leading 
 features of a good plan, 
 fig. 315: and by adding 
 a place for fuel, i ; a 
 privy, k ; and carrying out 
 tlie front wall of e, we shall have a dwelling fit for any person to reside in, all other cir- 
 cumstances, such as situation, aspect, dryness of floors, &c., being favourable. The 
 elevation, at very little expense, might be rendered handsome, fig. 316. No particular 
 
COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 
 
 181 
 
 description is given of the garden, as it may be laid out and cultivated in the same 
 manner as any of the gardens already described; as, for example, that of Desi^rn 
 XIX. § 170. ^ 
 
 Design LI I. 
 
 Ideas for altering the Front of an old Cottage, 
 State. 
 
 present in a dilapidated 
 The contributor of this Design observes that fic 
 
 317 
 
 359. Present State, ^g. 317 
 is an unsightly cot- 
 tage, standing at the 
 extremity of a village, 
 and close to the gates 
 of a venerable man- 
 sion built in the reign 
 of James L, and 
 much admired both 
 for its antiquity, and 
 the elegant comfort 
 of its interior. He 
 says : — "As I have 
 the pleasure of being 
 occasionally useful to 
 my friend in some of 
 his plans for improve- 
 ments, he consulted me as to the way in which he might give the cottage a more agree- 
 able appearance ; and Isuggested the alteration shown in fig. 31 8, which may serve as an 
 example m what manner a cottage, with the inside sufficiently comfortable, may be altered, 
 so as to change an ugly outside, at little trouble and expense, to one that is picturesque 
 ana pieasmg. Ihe house is convenient enough within, and has some very comfortable 
 rooms ; but as there is nothing in aU this very remarkable, I will not trouble you with 
 
 straight tfZnifv*"' Tt' ■ '^'^ "''j'^' ^" "^^^^ ^^''^^'^^^ i^' to break the 
 straight horizontal lines, and thus improve the appearance of a very uelv roof This is 
 
 iSVU'^in^^^^^ ^a'rge boards over^hrcrr; wTndow 
 
 let into r^ThP t"" ^Vper windows may be 
 
 and nlaslr T"""V^/^u ^^^f.^^eing a wooden frame filled in with clay nog- 
 Bvlav of t v7n' additional gable is constructed in a similar manner. 
 
 prLTanda cbS^"''^"?'' this dwelling, the style of the entrance door is im- 
 provea, and a common window changed into a bay one." 
 
 apLaralXtnt alterations are, no doubt, improvements; but there does not 
 
 Zc?on of Thp nln P""^^P^" "''^^^y accommodation, for the intro- 
 
 way nto^ V ^1'"?'"' ^^^^^^^^ ""^^r ^ad been carried up half 
 
 can deny iha %v" nT' S-en at once ; and no one, we fhink, 
 
 ^easoninLrt • . ^PP^^''^"^^ ^ould have been improved. Architecture is a 
 
 L not a fe^oA ^th "^^'^ should be introduced for which there 
 
 tLt w ?,^^t^f r '•eal or apparent. A real reason is best ; but, when we have not 
 
 men\ ext?t 'k" ^"'5*"*" ^^^^^^ — - 4 ^is" for the "eX 
 
 hJsufficLnt. ^ °^ ^^^^^ in this case to be 
 
182 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 Design LI 1 1. — A Cottage for a Village Tradesman. 
 362. Accommodation. This Design was made for a shoemaker, who wanted only 
 
 and to contain, on the 
 boiler, a ; parlour, b ; cellar, under 
 
 three rooms on a floor. It was intended to be a comer house 
 ground floor, fig. 319, a kitchen, with oven and 
 the stairs, c ; pantry, 
 d ; shop, e ; and 
 privy, f. If it were 
 desirable, a lean-to 
 back kitchen or wash- 
 house might be built 
 in the situation of g. 
 The chamber floor 
 contains three rooms. 
 Fig. 320 is the ele- 
 vation. 
 
 363. Construction. 
 The walls are sup- 
 posed to be built of 
 " brick and flints, in 
 alternate squares. 
 This mode of build- 
 ing with a mixture 
 of stone, brick, or 
 even chalk, with 
 flints, is common in 
 
 several counties in England, and has a very pictures^jue effect, either with the diULrent 
 kinds of materials in ainriiate layers, or in s<iuart.s, as in this IXsigu. Whin chalk- 
 stone forms one of the materials used, the roof should always project a good way over 
 
 the walls, to protect them from the rain ; in w hich case, even if the chalk should be so 
 soft as to yield to the impression of the nail, it will last very many years. The roof 
 is thatched ; the gables have stone tablings (barge stones), and the summer stones are 
 cut in the form shown by h, in fig. 321. Sometimes the tabling, i, is formed of brick, 
 but the summer stones are always required to be of stone. Figs. 322 and 323 are 
 sections of stone window mullions, such as are common in the neighbourhood of 
 Salisbury, and which are there considered very ornamental. Where stone is too expen- 
 sive, these mullions may be made of wood. Fig. 324 is a plan of the chimney tops." 
 
 364. General EsHmate. Cubic contents, 12,336 feet, at Qd. per foot, £303 : 8s.; 
 at 4rf., £205 ■ 12s. ; and at 3rf., £157 : 14s. 
 
 365. Remarks. The shoemaker, we are informed, "preferred being his own Archi- 
 
COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 18.3 
 
 S21 S22 
 
 -V 
 
 32S 
 
 \ 
 
 324 
 
 in a row. 
 
 325 
 
 
 J 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 tect; and erected a cottage of three rooms on a floor, fig. 325 ; and these all 
 His kitchen and common sitting- 
 room, k, is thus rendered a perfect 
 temple of the winds. There are a 
 door and window to the north, and 
 the same to the south; besides 
 three other doors, making of doors 
 and windows no less than seven 
 in a room only fourteen feet square. 
 He also contrived to have the stairs 
 come down by the parlour fire- 
 place, /; and two of the bed-rooms 
 above necessarily became passage rooms to the third. I mention this, to show how 
 little notion people of this class have of comfort in houses." 
 
 rnft.!: When different kinds of materials are introduced into the walls of a 
 
 to rS, 1 ' independent altogether of picturesque beauty, ought 
 
 IndTna "tv ofT"" "i'''' ^'^^"^^ ^'^P°^^^- Where the specific gravity, hLdnIss, 
 form or in ^hf ^'^^."^^^^"^l^/fe equal, they may yet differ in their Ize, and in theiV 
 nie^' nnd ^ ^PP/^e^bility of their surfaces. In this case, vertical bond in the form of 
 strnld f r'r^^ °f ^^^rses, ought to be con- 
 
 structed of the large and flat-surfaced materials; while those of smaller size and less 
 
 Zltrj ''^^"^'^ •'"."f ^ b^-"^^ compartments so formed. In the 
 
 Tve cfall anLT t"^'''^^ ^"i!' ^^^^"^^^ P^^^^^^^ by chalk 
 
 fn alterni^; 1 ^'"^^^ ^^'^^"'-^ °f ^^ese, or by their position 
 
 hink bp .t r''; '^i"^'^'' picturesque beauty of such an arrangement will, we 
 
 beautVt J^W ^S- 320; while it will have that most satisfactory 
 
 S of the s^:l'""' ^" fig- we have supposed the walk 
 
 to whal we oon ' ^^'^ ^^^^ disposed them agreeably 
 arcWte^trr.1 r ' P""£!Pl^« architectural fitness, or, in other words, of sound 
 room o^rth^^'^^r u ^^^'^ ^'^^ having the window of the bed- 
 
 the^renlacet r^H "-^^^'.^hen it might have been in the gable end; and that 
 
 nl^rr-? • f "."f°^t""ate in being placed in an outside wall. We should have 
 Sioul sake of tlie heat to the staircase, and the rooms above! 
 
 it haf . h "^^^'^^ge that, m point of appearance in the interior of the sitting-room 
 Later nn^h" our contributor. We beUeve ?hat the 
 
 fnd " ^u"" ""^^ P'"^^"- fireplace where it is for another reason, 
 
 and v^f h^^"g the chimney shaft as a termination to the gable end. This is good 
 and reasonable, when we look no farther than commonplace ideas of external effect • 
 and flnpr-"^^ °f improved reason, and reflect that all fireplaces 
 
 bPsidp« 1ft ^^}^ ^^''^^ g'^^t P^'^ «f their heat in the external atmosphere, and 
 
 beautTfuf!?- T ^"^'^ ^^^^^^^^ ^ '•^^^^^ why it would have been n.ore 
 
 wL n an intern ^1 iT P^**' *he building, which might indicate that the flue 
 
 « as in an internal wall. Thus it ,s that taste, to be correct, requires to be founded on reason. 
 
184 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 326 
 
 1 
 
 ilTIls 
 
 Design LI V. — TtiH) Cottage J)urllin-is fur Labourers, under One Roof. 
 367. ylccom modal ion. The larger dwelling, fit for a man with a large family, will 
 contiiin three rooms on a floor, 
 with a cellar under the stairs, and 
 a wood-house behind ; bi-sid«.*s a 
 cow-house, pij^sty, itc, in a small 
 farm-yard. Tlie smaller dw elling 
 is intended for an old c ouple, and 
 contains only two rt>()ms. Tiie 
 details of the larger dwelling are 
 as follow : — a, tiie porch ; b, 
 the kitchen ; c, the back kitchc^i ; 
 f/, the steps down to the cellar 
 under the stairs ; e, the dairy and 
 pantry ; f, the wood-house ; the 
 
 pump ; /j, the hay-stack ; i, the 
 
 wood-stack ; k; the privy ; /, the 
 cow-house; jn m, two pigsties; and 
 
 lu the dung-i)it. In the chamber 
 
 floor there are three bed-rooms, 
 
 over 6, c, and e. The smaller 
 
 dwelling contains a kitchen, o, 
 
 with an oven on one side of the 
 
 fireplace, a closet on the other, 
 
 and a pantry under the stairs ; a 
 
 back kitchen, serving as a wash- 
 house, p ; a wood-house, q ; a 
 
 wood-stack in the yard, r ; privy, 
 
 s; pigsty, t ; and dung-pit, u. 
 
 There is one bed-room, and an 
 
 apartment over p and q, in the 
 
 chamber floor. 
 
 368. Construction. The walls 
 of the ground floor are show n in the elevation, fig. 328, as built of stone, and the upper 
 part of the building of framed work; the panels to be filled in with lath and mud 
 plaster, or with wattled work ; and, in whatever way done, plastered with lime mortar 
 outside. The roof is of thatch, and the chimneys of stone. 
 
 369. General Estimate. Cubic contents, 15,360 feet, at 6d. per foot, ^^384. ; at 
 4d., £256. : and at 3d., £l92. 
 
 370. Jtemarks. The contributor of this Design offers the following observations 
 upon it ; — " Double cottages have several advantages, especially in a scattered village. 
 Two cottages are built cheaper, if united, than if separate ; and the effect is often more 
 
COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 
 
 185 
 
 picturesque. Besides, it adds to the comfort of the poor, to have a neighbour close at 
 hand, in case of sickness ; and, in other respects, near neighbours may be mutually useful 
 to each other. For example : suppose the mother of a family living in the larger cottage 
 has occasion to go from home during the absence of her husband at his work, she may 
 leave the key and her younger children with the old woman in the next house. It also 
 facilitates attendance on divine worship, as the two families might alternately heat their 
 ovens on Sundays, and one of the women might remain at home, to take care of the 
 dinners for both houses, and have an eye to the gardens ; a very necessary precaution in 
 most English villages, particularly in the fruit season. Besides these obvious advantages, 
 there is a feeling of security and cheerfulness in having a near neighbour, especially to 
 an old couple, who must often stand in need of assistance. In closely built villages, 
 three cottages may occasionally be united ; but this number should never be exceeded ; 
 avoiding, above all things, that school of idleness, dirt, and vrickedness, a continued 
 row of cottages : — 
 
 • That infected row, they call the street,' 
 
 as Crabbe happily expresses it; in which are commonly found the bad habits of a 
 crowded city population ; and where one dirty, quarrelsome, gossiping woman gene- 
 rally annoys or contaminates all her neighbours. Not that rows of houses are necessarily 
 unpicturesque ; for, though modern rows are usually frightful, streets of contiguous 
 houses may be found in many old villages in England, which have an exceedingly 
 pleasing effect. The principal objections to rows are, indeed, the demoralising effect 
 they generally have upon the inhabitants, and the preference which almost all the well- 
 disposed poor give to a detached house, or to only one or two neighbours." 
 
 371. Cnticism. We cordially approve of the reasons given for designing this double 
 cottage. The evils of streets, in the present state of our working population, are no 
 doubt great ; because the labouring classes have as yet no idea of co-operating together 
 either for enjoyment or advantage. If they had, as we shall hereafter show, the as- 
 semblage of houses in streets and squares to a certain extent, even in villages, would be 
 attended with very great advantages. In a country where fuel is abundant, or the winter 
 mild, as it generally is in Wiltshire {the county for which this cottage was designed), fires 
 will seldom require to be made in the bed-rooms, and a flue under the kitchen floor will not 
 be necessary. All the chimneys are well contrived to unite in one cluster of angular stacks ; 
 and this is judiciously placed in the interior, and not in the outside walls. The projection 
 of the framework of the upper part of the walls, over the stonework of the lower, is both 
 scientific and picturesque ; because it will preserve the windows from the rain, and 
 produce a striking horizontal line of shade across the elevation. Besides, when one 
 object is placed upon another, we are pleased to see it either projecting outwards, like 
 the capital of a column ; or inclining inwards, at a regular slope, like the sides of an 
 obelisk or pyramid. The source of the beauty lies in the evidence, which, in either case, 
 is afforded, of the exercise of improved design. We do not altogether like the porch, 
 which a stranger might mistake for some inferior appendage. A porch being, to a cer- 
 tain extent, a luxury, should, we think, be generally in a conspicuous style of art, com- 
 pared with the rest of the building. Perhaps, also, the oriel window is rather too insig- 
 nificant ; but this might easily be remedied, by raising it at top, and lowering it at bottom. 
 This done ; the porch altered ; and the whole placed on a platform, so as to keep the 
 interior perfectly dry ; the effect would be to us altogether satisfactory. 
 
186 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 Design LV. — A Culture of One Story, with Four Rooms, a Kitchen, Back Kitchen, and 
 
 other Conveniences. 
 
 372. Accommodation. Tliert' are a large lobby, a, and kitchen, 6, with a closet 
 between ; bed-room, c ; parlour from the lobby, d ; three bed-rooms, e, f, and g ; 
 cow-house, cellar, or place for wood, h ; dairy, t ; pajitry, k ; and privy, /. 
 
 373. Construction. The walls, in such a building as the i)resent, may be all fonned 
 of mud; because they have nothing more to carry tlian their own weight, and (liatof the 
 roof. The weight on them of the latter, which is thatclu'd, is diminished on tliree sides 
 by the columns of the veranda, or, as the Romans would have called it, the portico. Such 
 a design is also particularly suitable for brick on edge walls; and having already (§ 336) 
 explained Dearn's method of building such walls, we shall now describe a similar kind, 
 invented by Mr. Silverlock of Cluchester, and practised by liim in the erection of garden 
 walls, hot-houses, and cottages. 
 
 374. Silvcrlock's hoUow walls are constructed of bricks set on edgt;, each course or layer 
 consisting of an aUernate series of two bricks placed edgewise, and one laid across ; form- 
 ing a tliickne^s of nine ijiclies, and a series of cells, eacli cell nine inches in the length way 
 of tlie wall, four inches l»road, and fi)ur inches and a half dei'i). The second course 
 being laid in the same way, but the position t)f the bricks alternating, or breaking joint 
 witli the lirst, the result will evidently be a hollow wall, with communicating vacuities of 
 the above-stated dimensions, equally distributed from the bottom to the toj) of the wall. 
 
 .TJ9 
 
 r.i 
 
 Fig. 329 shows the plan and elevation of such a wall, which differs only from the 
 hollow wall of Dearn (fig. 306.) in being carried up in Flemish instead of English 
 bond. At m is shown the manner in which piers may be built in such walls, so as 
 to project equally on both sides of the wall, with a view to the north and south walls 
 of gardens, both sides of wliich are equally valuable for training fruit trees. Fig. 330 
 shows how a pier may be built on one side of the wall only, with a view to 
 the east and west walls of 330 
 
 gardens, the south sides I j i | 1 I \ I j I [ i | J 
 
 of which are chiefly valu- i ' j <' j 1 — 
 
 able for fruit trees, and j { i I i ! 
 
 to the walls of cottages, | j [_] j i ! 
 
 which should be made | j \ I j j 
 
 smooth in the inside ; - — ' ' ' ' j ' ' ' ^ 
 
 while, on the outside, the _ i ! 
 piers, independently of j I 
 the strength which they ' ' 
 
 add to the walls, will form sources of architectural beauty. These walls have 
 been built by Mr. Silverlock in a number of places, as garden walls, to the height of 
 ten or twelve feet, and with verj' few piers. The saving is one brick in three ; 
 hut the bricks and the mortar must be of the best quality. One great advantage of 
 
COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 LVL 
 
COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 
 
 189 
 
 these walls is, that they admit of being equally heated throughout, by a tube of hot water 
 or steam conducted along the interior, just above the surface of the ground. Several 
 cottages have been built with walls of this description, on the estate of Robert Donald, 
 Esq., near Woking, Surrey. It is evident that brick walls on the same plan might be 
 built of eighteen inches or two feet in width, or, indeed, of any width, by joining two 
 nine-inch hollow walls together, as in fig. 331, which, if a garden wall, might be heated 
 
 331 
 
 on one side, without being heated on the other ; by carrying up the heading courses solid 
 from the bottom, as in fig. 332 ; or, better, with a brick on edge wall in the centre, as in 
 
 332 
 
 fig. 333. A wall of this construction, with the bricks flat, would form one of the very 
 cheapest and best descriptions of walls for a fruit-garden. For a fourteen-inch wall 
 
 333 
 
 bricks might be made of that length, as proposed by Dearn ; and, for a wall two feet or 
 more in thickness, the interior might be entirely hollow, with cross walls every four or 
 five feet, as shown in Gard. Mag., vol. iv. p. 228. To save bricks in the cross walls, 
 and also to admit of the free transmission of heat from one division to another, they 
 might be built in what is called the pigeon hole manner, viz. each stretching course 
 having alternate vacancies, by leaving out every other brick, as in fig. 334. 
 
 334 
 
 u 
 
190 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 375. General Estimate. Cubic contents, 29,348 feet, at 6d. per foot, ^'733 : 14i. ; 
 at 4rf., £489 : 2s. : 8d. ; and at 3d., £366 : 17s. 
 
 376. Remarks. The veranda in this Design being an object of luxury, or at least of 
 elegant enjoyment, the wooden columns ought to have had plinths and caps, and the 
 steps to the platform an air of more consequence conferred on them. However, the 
 general form of this building, being that of a cube, is good, and the idea of the veranda 
 on three sides is highly commendable. 
 
 Design LVI. — A Dwelling of Four Rooms, with other Conveniences, and a large Rustic 
 
 Portico. 
 
 377. Accommodation. The entrance is direct into the kitchen, a, from wluch there 
 is a passage, b, to the back kitchen, and to the cellar stairs ; staircase to the bed-room, c; 
 d is the back kitchen, from which there is a pantry, I ; e is the parlour ; f, a bed-room, 
 or second parlour, in case this building should be made a public house, for which the 
 large space under the portico is well adapted ; g may be a place for fuel ; h, a dusthole ; 
 i, a place for ducks or other poultry ; and k, a privy. On the chamber floor there are 
 a good bed-room, m, and a closet, n. 
 
 S78. Construction. The walls are shown of sufficient tjiickness to admit of their 
 being built of rammed earth ; but we are informed, by the contributor of this Design, 
 that it is erected as a small public house by the roadside in South Wales ; and that 
 the walls are actually formed of the land- 335 
 stones of the country, thickly coated over with 
 plaster within, and covered with rough-cast 
 without. The columns which support the 
 portico are of native larch fir, with the bark on, 
 joined to the roof in the manner shown in the 
 section, fig. 335, to a scale of half an inch to a ^ 
 foot. The roof is first thatched with straw, o^ij 
 and then finished with a coating of heath over 
 it. The ground floor of the house is raised 
 about eighteen inches above the surface, and the 
 floor of the portico about one foot above the 
 surface. We have shown the ground on which 
 the portico stands, higher in the Design, think- 
 ing one foot insufficient, either for the purpose 
 of dryness, or of dignity of effect. 
 
 379. General Estimate. Cubic contents, 
 14,798 feet, at 6c/. per foot, ^£-369: 19s.; at 
 4d., £246 : 12s. : Sd. ; and at 3d., £lS4 : 
 19s. : 6d. 
 
 380. Remarks. There is comfort in tliis building, and also economy. The three 
 cellars under a, e, and^ (which have no light, or means of ventilation, in order to lessen 
 the risk of variations of temperature,) are well adapted for a public house, as is the 
 pantry or store-room from the back kitchen. The presses shown in each of the rooms 
 are also very suitable for a public house, being well adapted for holding glasses and 
 china or earthenware. The apartment g, though used for keeping fuel, may be very 
 properly substituted for a stable ; though this public house does not belong to the class 
 of occupiers who receive travellers on horseback, for the night. It is needless to add 
 that the great width of the portico affords an excellent protection to guests enjoying 
 themselves in the open air. Having said thus much of the fitness of this building, vnth. 
 reference to its use, we shall next consider its fitness, as expressive of architectural design. 
 It is an acknowledged principle, that whatever idea obviously pervades a building, taken 
 as a whole, ought also to pervade all its separate parts. If the idea of the whole were 
 that of an irregular mass, the parts ought to be irregular also ; if the whole were regular, 
 or symmetrical, so ought to be the parts, and not only the parts, but their details. We 
 do not say that these principles ought to be enforced in ever)' building, whether or not 
 they be consistent with comfort or convenience ; but we do assert that it is the main 
 business of the Architect to accomplish this object, whenever it can be done without 
 sacrificing the higher principle of purpose ; and that it is his duty to aim at this in the 
 very smallest and most humble buildings, as well as in the larger and more important 
 ones. Now, on looking at the ground plan of the Design before us, we shall find that 
 the entrance front and the back front are regular and symmetrical in their general 
 masses, and yet irregular in the details of these masses ; that is, in the disposition of 
 the doors and windows. In the apartment a, for example, the entrance door is on one 
 side, and a window on the other; whereas, to preserve the principle of symmetry, the 
 door ought to liave been in the centre, with a window on each side : and this arrange- 
 
COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 19£ 
 
 raent would have been more suitable for a room, the windows of which must necessarily: 
 be darkened by having so wide a portico over them. Again, the doors from this room 
 into e and f ought to have been opposite to each other, in order to maintain the same 
 principle. " There ought to have been another press, both in e and/; and the fireplaces 
 ought to have been exactly opposite the windows in both of them. In the back kitchen, 
 the press door ought to have been exactly opposite the door of the pantry ; the outer 
 door to have been in the centre ; and the window, now there, in the position of the door. 
 These alterations would render every thing regular, but the two sm^ill lean-tos contain- 
 ing g, h, i, and k. The doors of g and k, at present, answer to each other. Remove 
 the partition between i and h ; reverse the positions of the window and door of g ; let 
 the door of k be in one end ; turn its present door into a window, to correspond with 
 that of g; build up the door oft, and take down the partition between it and h, thus 
 forming a dusthole and place for poultry in one apartment ; and the thing is done, with 
 a door less, and only one additional window, and without the slightest interference with 
 the use of any one apartment. As minor faults in this Design, we object to the columns 
 (even though they are nothing more than the trunks of trees with the bark on), for not 
 having stone plinths and wooden caps. The former are of real use, in preventing the 
 ends of the wooden columns from rotting, and of apparent use, by seeming to take a 
 larger bearing on the surface of the soil ; though this is rendered unnecessary, in reality, 
 by sunk stones, or masonry, brought up as high as the surface. The wooden caps always 
 give, or seem to give, a more secure bearing for the wall-plate or architrave, which is 
 placed over them, besides protecting the end of the wooden column from the weather. 
 Both the caps and the plinths have also the great advantage of calling forth the associ- 
 ations which belong to them, as parts of the orders of Grecian Architecture. It ought to 
 be the maxim of all architectural improvers, never to neglect an established association, 
 when it can be made use of without interfering with the principles of fitness and ex- 
 pression of purpose. 
 
 Design LVII. — Two Dwellings under One Roof, Two Stories high, with Four Rooms in 
 each, and other Conveniences. 
 
 381. Accommodation. Each dwelling contains an entrance, and stair to the bed-room 
 floor, a ; kitchen, b, with closet under the stairs ; small bed-room, or parlour, c ; pantry, 
 d ; back kitchen, e ; place for fuel, /; dusthole, g ; privy, h ; and root-cellar, i. The 
 chamber floor contains two bed-rooms, k and I, with a closet to each, m and n ; and a 
 staircase, o. 
 
 382. Construction. The most suitable material for a building having so many in- 
 ternal walls is brick. The outside walls may be eleven-inch work, with a vacuity 
 between, as shown in fig. 7, § 25 ; and all the others may be brick nogging on edge, with 
 the exception of the party walls, which may be brick nogging flat, and of the chimney 
 stacks, which should be solid brickwork. The roof is shown covered with semi- 
 cylindrical tiles, which, though they are much used in Italy, and commonly called Italian, 
 are, in reality, Moorish, and, as we are informed, the oldest description of tiles in the 
 world. In Barbary, they are bedded in clay, laid on reeds. 
 
 383. General Estimate. Cubic contents of both houses, 22,050 feet, at 6d. per foot, 
 £551 : 5s. ; at 4d., £361 : 10s, ; and at 3d., £273 : 12s. : 6d. 
 
 384. Remarks. We have engraved this Design as it was sent to us ; because, though 
 it is full of faults, it contains the germs of great beauty and interest ; and because it 
 affords a very good example of the kind of impracticable Designs which are frequently 
 made by picturesque architects or amateurs. The plan is so far commendable, that all 
 the apartments and appendages are obtained under one roof, and that the general form 
 is symmetrical ; but, in the ground plan, it is bad to have a place like f, without the 
 means of either light or ventilation. It would be much better to divide the contents 
 of that apartment between g and c, which could easily be done, by making the division 
 h narrower, and that of i shorter. The division g would then serve its own purpose, 
 and that of / also. The two false windows shown in the plan of the ground floor, and 
 the two in the plan of the bed-room floor, which are seen in the elevations of both, are 
 uncalled for, and add to the expense, without being requisite to carry on any idea of 
 symmetry. The small windows shown in the ground plan, close to the staircase, are, or 
 ought to be, intended for lighting the closets under them ; but in the elevation they are 
 placed much too high for that purpose, being even higher than the windows of the apart- 
 ments b and c. Placed where they are, they could only light the staircase, which is 
 superfluous, as this is already done in an ample manner by the broad muUioned windows 
 over them. The boilers in the back kitchen are also badly placed, because they are 
 against an outside wall, instead of an inner one ; in which last case their heat would 
 have served to increase the temperature of the interior, instead of being in a great 
 
192 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 measure lost in the atmosphere. The divisions g and h should obviously l)e transposed; 
 because the one would be improved by heat, and the other injured by it. In the chamber 
 floor, a division wall is shown, so as to give to each liouse its portion of the balcony ; but 
 this division wall appears by the shading to be entirely omitted in the elevation. A pro- 
 tecting railing is also wanting to this balcony, and the windows in the elevation should 
 
 336 
 
 { 
 
 I 
 
 Jim 
 
 o 
 
 IZ 
 
 tin 
 
 d 
 
 i 
 
 XT 
 
 come down to the floor. Finally, the chimney stacka are too low, and the shaft* too 
 
 short, for grandeur an«l elegance of iffect. We would change the plan as in fig. 336, 
 and the elevation as in fig. 337. 
 
 Design LVin. — A Labourers Cottage of Two Pooms, with other Conveniences. 
 385. Accommodation. The p an, fig. 338, shows a porch, a ; kitchen, b ; with pantry 
 
 c ; bed-room, d ; and light bed- 
 closet, e. The privy and other 
 conveniences, such as pigsty, 
 cow-house, &c., are supposed 
 to be placed in a small yard at 
 a short distance. 
 
 386. Construction. The walls 
 may be built of compressed 
 earth. The floors should be 
 formed by loose stones, and 
 finished with a mixture of quick- 
 lime and sharp sand ; on the 
 supposition that this construc- 
 tion in the given situation would 
 not be too cold for the inhabit- 
 ants. I n a country where bricks 
 are to be obtained at a moderate 
 cost, the piers of the doors and 
 windows, and the inner sides of 
 the walls, might be built of 
 them ; and the main body of the 
 
 338 
 
194 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTU UE. 
 
 LVIIL 
 
 LI\. 
 
COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 
 
 195 
 
 wall afterwards filled in with mud, or turf, or rustic work, rough stones of any kind, 
 or straw, heath, or reeds, to keep out the heat in summer, and to keep it in during winter. 
 One fireplace might, by means of a cast-iron back, be made to serve both apartments, 
 and an oven and boiler might be added. It is evident, that, by this mode of proceeding, 
 a very comfortable interior might be included in a very simple, picturesque, or grotesque 
 exterior. The brickwork of the interior, and of the doors and windows, being arranged, 
 as in the ground plan (fig. 339, to a scale of 1^ of an inch to ten feet), no interior 
 
 339 
 
 f 
 
 1 1 1 1 
 
 
 
 
 1 1 1 i 
 
 
 f I 
 
 plastering would be required, provided rubbed bricks were used. This adds greatly to 
 the durability of the surface of rooms, and prevents them from being injured by 
 children, and idle people, in countries where the labouring classes are not yet accustomed 
 to comfortable dwellings. In this ground plan, fig. 339, jff fff are the outside spaces, to 
 be filled up with turf, rammed earth, rubble work, or whatever may be most economical 
 in the given situation ; g g g, inside spaces, to be fitted up as closet cupboards ; h, bed ; 
 i, bed, with the foot projecting into a cupboard or small dresser in the kitchen or 
 living-room, in the manner represented in fig. 143, § 171 ; yt, dresser; pantry shelves; 
 and m m m, piers of the porch built hollow. All the doors must necessarily have door- 
 frames, with projecting heads or lintels, and sills, in order that they may build into the 
 four-inch work. There should also be wooden bricks built in the door-jambs, to which 
 the door-frames are to be nailed ; and there must be a strong wall-plate to rest on the 
 four-inch work, for the sake of equalising the pressure of the roof. Much may be 
 done, in point of economy, by adopting this mode of building the walls of a house ; and 
 by using corrugated iron roofs, corrugated iron panels for the doors, and flues for 
 heating, either under the floors, or as benches over them, in the Chinese manner, to be 
 afterwards described. 
 
 387. General Estimate. Cubic contents, 8696 feet, at 6d. per foot, £211 : 8s.; 
 at 4d., £144 : 18s. : 8d. ; and at 3d., £10S : 14s. 
 
 388. Remarks. This cottage is not without comfort ; and it would be improved, in 
 point of architectural effect, and executed at less expense, if the porch were included 
 under the same roof. We say, it would be improved in architectural effect, because the 
 roof and ground plan would be more symmetrical, and symmetry is the soul of Architec- 
 ture ; but it would not be so picturesque as it now is, because the soul of that beauty 
 is irregularity. 
 
196 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 Design LIX. — Two Cottages, of One Room and a Back Kitchen each, under the 
 
 same Roof. 
 
 389. Accommodation. Each dwelling contains an entrance lobby, which serves .iIno 
 as a place for fuel and tools, fig. 340, a; a kitclien, 6; back kitchen, c; a place for 
 keeping potatoes, or for poultry or a pig, d ; and a privy, e. 
 
 340 
 
 390. Construction. Tlie walls may be of stone ; but brick walls, built hollow, would 
 be greatly jjrefi rahle. Tlie roof nuiy be slated. If desirable, the kitchen floor may be 
 heated by a liue from under the oven in the back kitchen. 
 
 391. General Kstimatc Cubic contents of both dwellings, 9110 feet, at Gd. p. r foot, 
 i227 : 155. ; at 4rf., £151 : IGs. : Hd. ; and at .SJ., 1113: 17j. : 6d. 
 
 392. Remarks. It is sulliciently obvious that the expression of this design is that of 
 the sul)ject. Ejich dwelling can only be fit for a single person ; and the building must 
 be favourably situated, in regard to a dry soil and free air, to admit of sleeping on the 
 ground fh)or. As it is desirable, in c;lsi-s where the sitting-room is also a bed-room, to 
 have the bed in a recess, or of such a form as not to offend the eye of those who are not 
 accustomed to live in bed-rooms, a press-bed may be employed. 
 
 Design LX. — Two Dwellings, under One Roof ; each containing Four Rooms, with 
 Rack Kitchen, and other Conveniences. 
 
 393. Accommodation. Each house contains a kitchen, fig. 341, a; back kitchen, h ; 
 parlour or bed-room, c ; bed room, d; large bed-room, ^ ; closet,/; pantry, ^' ; P^'vy, 
 
 dusthole, i; and place for fuel, k: or the smaller apartments may be diflerently 
 
 S41 
 
COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 197 
 
 arranged ; thus, I may be a cowhouse, formed out of / and /i: ; m, a privy ; n, a dairy • 
 and 0, a pantry. With this arrangement, the platform will require the alteration inl 
 dicated at p. 
 
 394. Construction. Tlie walls may be of brick or stone, and the roof thatched. One 
 roof covers the whole of the apartments belonging to both cottages, without any 
 guttering, and with only two hips, or pavilion ends. Roofs so simple are particularly 
 eligible for being covered with zinc, or sheet iron, instead of tiles or slates. 
 
 395. General Estimate. Cubic contents of both houses, 24,660 feet, at 6d. per foot 
 ^616 : 10s. ; at 4(/., £41 1 ; and at 3rf., jg308 x 5s. f » 
 
 396. Remarks. These are comfortable, unobtrusive dwellings, expressive of nothing 
 more than what they are. All that we should wish to alter in this Design, would be 
 the projections of the roof in front, which we would form into one general veranda, and 
 return it also at the ends. 
 
 Design LXI. — A Dwelling of Three Rooms on the Ground Floor, with a Back Kitchen, 
 and other Conveniences. 
 
 The ground plan, fig. 342, contains a back kitchen, a ; 
 342 
 
 397. Accommodation. 
 
 principal kitchen, or 
 
 living-room, 6; a best 
 
 bed-room, c ; another 
 
 bed-room, d ; with a 
 
 closet, e; a pantry, y*; a 
 
 dairy, g ; a place for 
 
 fuel, h ; privy, i; and 
 
 cow-house, k. 
 
 398. Construction. 
 
 The walls are supposed 
 
 to be of stone ; the 
 roof thatched, and the 
 chimney stacks in square 
 divisions, as in fig. 343, 
 on a scale of half an inch 
 to a foot ; the principal 
 window, Gothic, with 
 labels and mullions, as 
 in fig. 344 ; on a scale 
 of three eighths of an 
 inch to a foot. The 
 chimney stacks as repre- 
 sented in fig. 343., will, 
 as building is now car- 
 ried on in Britain, re- 
 quire to be executed in 
 natural stone, artificial 
 stone, or in brix^k covered with cement; but, if the practice of employing ornamental 
 chimney tops of this kind were general, they might be formed at every pottery of com- 
 mon tile ware, at half their cost in cement. Indeed a great deal is to be done in 
 the commonest earthenware, not only in the way of chimney tops, but in cornices, labels 
 to windows, string courses, mouldings, ornamental roof and weather tiling, and even 
 in the internal finishing of kitchens, wash-houses, porches, &c. 
 
 399. General Estimate. Cubic contents, 9415 feet, at 6d., £-2^5 : Is. : 6d. ■ at 4d 
 £156 : 18s. : 4d. ; and at 3d., £ll7 : 13s. : 9d 
 
 400. Remarks. There is something mean and depressed in the elevation of this 
 building ; tliough, to some tastes, this would be a recommendation to it, as a cottage. 
 It is evident, that the main study of the Architect has been picturesque eflTect, else why 
 so much irregularity, both in the masses of the ground plan, and in the roof? We do 
 not like the truncated gables ; but there can be no doubt that precedents are to be found 
 tor them. We have before observed that some Architects consider their art as one of 
 imitation, even in its higher departments ; and it is certain that the department of Cot- 
 tage Architecture has been hitherto much more one of imitation than of improved de- 
 sign. « The general character of a cottage, as distinguished from that of dwellings of a 
 higher class, is considered by Architects to consist in low walls, and of course low ceil- 
 ings, m small windows rather broad than high, and in conspicuous high-pitched roofs 
 otten with dormer windows in them. We admit, that, taking cottages as they are usuaUy 
 constructed, these features may be said to establish their character ; and hence they are 
 
198 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 generally employed by painters, and by poets, or other descriptive writers, who wish to 
 portray a cottage of the present day. In the like manner, a certain degree of coarseness 
 or homeliness of dress and manner may be said to have hitherto characterised the British 
 labourer, as contradistinguished from the British gentleman. A romantic writer would, 
 therefore, make use of these characteristics ; and a poet or a sentimentalist might pro- 
 bably regret their disappearance, and the gradual assimilation of dress and manners 
 between the labourer and the gentleman. The fault of the Architect is, thnt he has too 
 closely followed the painter and the man of literature ; forgetting that his art, being 
 founded upon and guided by utility, ought to embrace all improvements, not only in Ar- 
 
 343 
 
 chitecture, but in tlie uses 
 of buildings, as they are 
 brought into notice. It 
 is surely the duty of landed 
 proprietors who build cot- 
 tages, to encourage and 
 elevate the character of 
 the people who live on 
 their lands ; and that of 
 the Architect, in con- 
 formity with this object, to 
 consider, not what a cot- 
 tage has hitlierto been, 
 but what it is capable of 
 being made. Tutting a 
 servant into a handsome 
 Gothic cottage, is like 
 putting him into a hand- 
 some suit of livery ; but 
 there is, unfortunately for 
 the servant, this diflerencc, 
 that the faults of the 
 dwelling, if it does not fit, 
 caimot be so readily per- 
 ceived as those of the coat ; 
 and nobody may know, 
 but the occu]>ant and his 
 family, how little comfort 
 sometimes exists under a 
 gay exterior. For our 
 own part, we have seen so 
 many ornamental cotUiges 
 and lodges on gentlemen's 
 estates, both in England 
 and Scotland, small, damj), 
 and badly contrived with- 
 in, that we are compelled 
 to consider them as much 
 badges of slavery as a suit 
 of livery. Let us hope 
 that another generation 
 will efiectually simplify 
 and improve the former, 
 and entirely abolish the 
 latter. We are aware that 
 there is a great prejudice in favour of Gothic buildings of every description, from the 
 cottage to the palace ; arising from the associations of reverence, antiquity, and chivalry, 
 which are connected with them. Maturely considered, however, we cannot help some- 
 times doubting whether the existing prejudice in favour of Gothic Architecture does not 
 reflect more discredit than honour on human nature : at all events, it is a prejudice un- 
 worthy of an age of rapid improvement like the present. We freely acknowledge that 
 we do not expect many converts to our views in this respect ; because simplicity is one 
 of the last refinements men arrive at, not only in the progress of the arts, but in the 
 progress of opinion. Believing, as we do, that this principle is undeniable, we have 
 little doubt but that much of what is now considered beauty, both in art and in litera- 
 ture, will, by the next generation, be neglected ; and, as the French characteristically 
 ifxpress it, " r^duit au m^rite historique." {Gard, Mag., vol. viii. p. 260.) 
 
LXIII. 
 
COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 LXIV. 
 
COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 
 
 201 
 
 344 
 
 Design LXII. — A Dwelling of Four Rooms on Two Floors, with various Conveniences. 
 401. Accommodation. In the ground plan, fig. 345, there are a porch, a; kitchen, b ; 
 
 345 
 
 light 
 and 
 
 back kitchen, c ; parlour, d 
 bed-closet, e ; root-cellar 
 lumber room, jf; privy, g; pantry, 
 h ; and place for fuel, i. The 
 stairs, k, lead down to a small 
 cellar under e, and up to two 
 good bed-rooms over d and b- 
 
 402. Construction. This dwell- 
 ing, as an edifice, consists of three 
 parts : one of these is two stories 
 high, and contains the kitchen, 
 the parlour, and the bed-rooms ; 
 another is a lean-to, containing the 
 smaller apartments on the ground 
 floor ; and the third is the porch. 
 The walls of the first part may 
 be of brick or stone ; but those 
 of the other two parts, being 
 much narrower, ought to be built 
 of brick, or of nogging; or, if 
 necessarily of stone, they should 
 be double the thickness shown 
 in the plan. The roof is covered 
 with Grecian tiles, and all the 
 flues are brought into one chim- 
 ney stack. The door of the porch 
 should be varied in position, 
 according to the aspect of the 
 entrance front, and to the prevailing winds of the country, as before directed. 
 
 403. General Estimate. Cubic contents, 11,692 feet, at 6d. per foot, ^292 : 6s* ; at 
 4d., £194 : I7s. : 4d. ; and at 3d., ^gl46 : 3s. 
 
202 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE, 
 
 404. Remarks. On the supposition that this house is to be seen principally in front, 
 we consider it handsome ; though, if it were to be seen alike on every side, it would be 
 the reverse. The front part of this dwelling consisting of two stories, and all the 
 windows, both of the ground floor and of the bed-room floor, being in front, the lean- 
 to containing the inferior apartments may be well considered as the subordinate part of 
 the building ; whereas, in perfect designs, whatever meets the eye, whether in the back 
 or front, ought to be noble. Placed on the outskirts of a wood, or half surrounded by 
 an orchard, in the manner shown in fig. 260, § 280, it would be unexceptionable. 
 
 Design LXIII.— Two Dwellings, of Two Rooms each, under One Roof. 
 
 405. Accommodation. In the ground plan, fig. 346, there are shown, for each of these 
 dwellings, a porch, a ; kitchen, b ; bed-room, c ; back kitchen, d ; pantry, e ; place for 
 fuel,y; and privy, g. 
 
 346 
 
 406. Construction. Nothing appears to require notice under this head, which may 
 not be gathered from preceding designs ; we may remark, however, that porches of the 
 kind here shown, in many parts of the coimtry, might be covered with lead, cheaper than 
 they can be with slate, because in each of these porches there is 
 not only a gutter between the roof of the porch and the roof of 
 the main body of the house, but four ridge pieces on the hips, 
 which must be covered with lead. The cheapest way, however, 
 would be to make the porches lean-tos, when no lead would be re- 
 quired, but only boards at the sides. Chimney pots, such as fig. 347, 
 on a scale of three quarters of an inch to a foot, may be used. 
 
 407. General Estimate. Cubic contents of both houses, 
 15,606 feet, at 6d. per foot, £390 : (is. ; at 4d., £260 : 2s. ; and 
 at Sd., £195 : Is. : 6d. 
 
 408. Remarks. This Design, like the preceding one, is 
 chiePy calculated for being seen in front, and, on the whole, 
 though it has no pretensions in regard to style, we think it 
 satisfactory. 
 
 Design LXIV. — Two Dtvellings under One Roof, each Three Stories high, and having 
 Three Rooms, and other Convenie?ices. 
 
 409. Accommodation. The ground plan exhibits an entrance porch, a ; with a place 
 for fuel or tools, b ; kitchen or living-room, c ; back kitchen, d ; staircase, e ; cow- 
 house or root-cellar, f ; dairy or pantry, g ; pigsty or dusthole, h ; and privy, i. Each 
 of the chamber floors contains one good bed-room, k ; and a landing from the stair, /. 
 
 410. Construction. The walls must necessarily be of brick, or of tooled stone; and 
 the roof, being at a low pitch, should be slated. Should red harsh-coloured bricks be 
 employed, they may be changed to a mellow tint, by a wash of quicklime, yellow ochre, 
 and black ; or the effects of time may be anticipated by a grey moss-coloured tint, com- 
 posed of lime and black only. There is also a mode of imitating weather stains. 
 
^04f COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 LXVI. 
 
COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 205 
 
 technically called splashing, which will be described hereafter, as being more applicable 
 to cottages in the Gothic style, than to the present town-looking edifice. 
 
 411. General Estimate. Cubic contents of both houses, 21,906 feet, at 6d. per foot, 
 £540 : 3s. ; at 4d., £360 : 2s. ; and at 3d., £270 : Is. : 6d. 
 
 412. Remarks. This Design, we are informed, is actually executed, with the ex- 
 ception of the platform. The situation is on the side of a road which passes through a 
 high wood, on the steep slope of a hill in Devonshire. The object of the third story is 
 said to be to show a part of the cottage above the trees, from the windows of the man- 
 sion of the proprietor of the estate, who resides in the vale below. This circumstance 
 shows how much of the beauty of cottages must always be relative ; because, by itself, 
 no one, we will venture to assert, would consider this a handsome building. The two 
 wings or lean-tos are too small to become even secondary parts of so large a centre ; and 
 yet they are sufficiently obtrusive to excite a wish that they were either removed or 
 made larger. In a word, they do not co-operate with the main body in forming a whole ; 
 and, though important in a useful point of view, they are worse than useless in point 
 of either architectural or picturesque effect. 
 
 Design LXV. — A Dwelling, with Three Rooms, and other Conveniences. 
 
 413. Accommodation. The ground plan shows an entrance lobby, a; kitchen and 
 living-room, b ; bed-room, c ; back kitchen, d ; privy, e ; root-cellar or cow-house, f ; 
 pigsty, poultry-house, or place for fuel, g ; dairy, h ; pantry, i ; and dusthole, k. The 
 chamber floor contains one good room. 
 
 414. Construction. The walls of the main body of the building are shown of stone, 
 the lower part of the centre has rusticated corners ; and the corners of the wings are 
 plain. Some consequence is given to the entrance door by two projecting pieces on each 
 side, which may be covered with one flat stone, that will thus serve both as a cap to the 
 piers, and as a roof to the entrance. 
 
 415. General Estimate. Cubic contents, 13,056 feet, at 6d. per foot, £326: 8s. ; at 
 4d., £217: 12s. ; and at 3d., £163 : 4s. 
 
 416. Remarks. This dwelling is neat, and has an air of comfort. There are some 
 faults in the ground plan, one of which is, the want of a cupboard closet in the kitchen ; 
 but this is probably intended to be supplied by a corner cupboard and dresser. The 
 wall enclosing the stair, considering that it is to be carried up two stories, is not of propor- 
 tionate thickness, and a door should have been shown to the closet under the stairs. 
 The terrace requires a plain parapet, which might consist of a pigeon-hole wall, terminat- 
 ing in a row of flower troughs of the kind delineated in fig. 198, § 222; and there 
 might be piers at the corners, finished with vases, or with the square flower troughs, fig. 
 199, § 222. 
 
 Design LXVI. — A Cottage Dwelling of Two Rooms, with a Smithy, Shoeing-Shed, and 
 
 Three-stalled Stable. 
 
 41 7. Accommodation. This is evidently a building for display, and therefore it may 
 be called an ornamental smithy. It depends for beauty principally on its arcade, and 
 its far-projecting Italian roof. The ground plan shows the walk under the arcade, a ; 
 the entrance passage, b; kitchen and living-room, c ; pantry, d ; bed-room, e ; child's bed- 
 closet, y*; shoeing-shed, g ; forge and smith's shop, h; three-stalled stable, i; women's 
 privy, k ; and common privy, I. 
 
 418. Construction. As this building has a great extent of walling in proportion to 
 the number of openings, all the walls, vnth the exception of the piers and arches, might 
 be built of earth, or of some other cheap adhesive material. The roof may be covered 
 with Grecian tiles. The stable should be fitted up in the usual manner, with hay- 
 rack, manger, &c. ; and the shoeing-shed ought to have rings in the walls for the bridles 
 or halters of the horses being shod, to be fastened to ; but it will not require either racks 
 or mangers, as horses should never be allowed to eat during that operation. Such a 
 building as the present is very well calculated for being covered with an iron roof ; be- 
 cause the span is considerable, and the form simple. There are three kinds of iron roofs, 
 any of which might be adopted for this building. The first is the cast-iron roof ; one 
 kind of which, the invention of Carter of Exeter, has been already described, § 1 53 ; the 
 second is the Russian roof, of wrought-iron rafters and sheet-iron plates ; and the third 
 is the newly invented corrugated iron roof, without rafters of any kind. We shall here 
 shortly describe the last two. 
 
 419. Iron Roofs, as constructed in Russia. The rafters, in the better description of 
 houses, are for the most part of wrought iron, and of very small dimensions ; they are 
 constructed on the same general principles of trussing as wooden rafters. In smaller 
 houses, the rafters are of timber ; and in these houses, whether iron or wooden rafters 
 
206 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 are used, the laths to which the plates are nailed are almost always of wood. We have, 
 indeed, in Moscow, in 1814, seen iron rods substituted for wooden laths, and the sheets 
 fastened to them by strong copper wire ; but we do not think the practice general. The 
 common mode of covering iron roofs in Russia is thus given in a late number of the Re- 
 pertory of Patent Inventions, &c. : — " Sheet-iron coverings are now universally made use 
 of on all new buildings in Petersburgh, Moscow, &c. In the case of a fire, no harm can 
 come to a house from sparks falling on a roof of this description. The sheets of this 
 iron covering, measure two feet four inches wide, by four feet eight inches long, and 
 weigh twelve pounds and a half avoirdupois per sheet, or one pound five ounces eacli 
 superficial square foot. When the sheets are on the roof, they measure only two feet 
 wide by four feet in length : this is owing to the overlapping. They are first painted 
 on both sides once; and, when fixed on the roof, a second coat is given. The common 
 colour is red ; but green paint, it is said, will stand twice the time. Small bits, or ears, 
 are introduced into the laps, for nailing the plates to the two-inch square laths on which 
 they are secured. It takes twelve sheets and a half to cover 100 feet, the weight of 
 which is only 150 lbs. ; the cost only £l : \5s., or about 3d. per foot." {Sup. to Rep. of 
 Pat. Liven., 1832, vol. xiii. p. 409.) 
 
 420. Corrugated Iron Hoofs are composed of sheet iron, impressed so as to present a 
 surface of semicircular ridges, with intervening furrows, lengthwise of the sheet. By 
 this means, the sheet, from a plain flat surface having no strength but from its tena- 
 city, becomes a series of continued arches, abutting against each other, fig. 348; and tlie 
 metal, by this new position, 
 
 acquires strength also from its "^"^^ 
 
 hardness. To give an idea of /^""^ /^"^ /^"^ j/'^^^ /^^^ 
 the strength acquired, it is ob- <^ W \/ X/ ^ 
 
 served by Walker, the inventor of this mode of preparing sheet iron, that " a single 
 sheet of iron, so thin that it will not contiime in a perpendicular position, will, after 
 undergoing the process of corrugation, bear upwards of 700 lbs. weight, witliout 
 bending in the least degree." Iron so furrowed will be preferable to common sheet 
 iron for covering a flat roof; because the furrows will collect the water, and convey it 
 more rapidly to the eaves : but this is a trifling advantage, scarcely worth mentioning, 
 in comparison with others which follow. Suppose, that, in addition to furrowing a 
 sheet lengthways, so as to 
 
 give it the appearance of 349 
 fig. 349, it is also bent in 
 one general curve in Uie 
 direction of its length, so 
 
 350, we have then an arch of great strength, capable 
 350 
 
 as to give it the appearance of fij 
 of serving as a roof, without 
 rafters, or any description 
 of support, except at the 
 eaves or abutments. It is ^ 
 evident that, the span of - n 
 
 any roof being given, seg- 
 
 ments of corrugated iron may be riveted together, so as to form such an arch as may be 
 deemed proper for covering it. To every practical man, it will be further evident, tliat 
 a roof of extraordinary span, say 100 
 
 feet, which could not be covered by one ^"^^ 
 arch of corrugated iron without the aid 
 of rafters, might be covered by two or 
 three, all resting on, and tied together 
 by, tie-rods, fig 351. Further, that in 
 the case of roofs of a still larger span, 
 say 200 feet, a tie-rod might be combined with a trussed iron beam, fig. 352 ; by which 
 
 a a. Tie rods. b b, &c.. Corrugated arches, each forty feet span. c c. Segment rafter of 
 wrought iron, supporting the tie rod and the roof of corrugatPfi arches under it, and kept steady 
 and strong by the trussing, d d, &c. 
 
COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 
 
 roofs of this span, or even one of more than double the extent, might be covered without 
 a single rafter appearing inside. In short, no material hitherto brought into notice 
 at all approaches this, in its capacities for forming light and economical roofs of the 
 greatest extent of span, and with the least loss of interior room. Its durability will 
 depend on the application of oil or tar paints : for barns, sheep-houses, and various other 
 country buildings, and for all manner of sheds, both in town and country, it is par- 
 ticularly suitable. As the invention has only been known four or five years, much has 
 not hitherto been done with it ; but there are several roofs of corrugated iron in the 
 London Docks, and fig. 353 represents a portion of one of them. Its leno-th is 225 
 
 353 
 
 feet, its width 40 feet, and the height of the columns on which the roof is supported 
 12 feet. The columns are of cast iron, a gutter of which metal is continued from 
 column to column, the whole length of the roof; and in the gutter rests the edo-e of the 
 roof. The arch is formed of several sheets of iron, curved in a reverse direction to the 
 corrugated arches, as shown fig. 353, and riveted together longitudinally. Similar 
 arches, connected to each other by rivets, compose the roof: every corrugated arch forms 
 a watercourse, ending in the gutters at the side, and thereby rendering it quite water 
 proof. To give stability to the whole, a tie rod, fig. 354, is carried across the shed 
 
 354 
 
 from each column to the one opposite. Between this shed and the brick wall is a 
 lean-to corrugated roof, forming a half arch, springing from the gutter, and resting 
 against the wall, as shown m fig. 353." The walls of buildings may be constructed 
 of this iron set on edge, either in single plates, or of double plates with a vacuity 
 between, to lessen the efl^^ect of changes in the exterior temperature on the space 
 enclosed. As the corrugation, or fluting, of the iron may be made either laroe or 
 small. It may be adapted to the panels of doors, as in figs. 355, 356, and 357 ; or an 
 
 356 
 
208 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 857 358 
 
 brick wall. The gate is composed of sheets of corrugated iron riveted together, so as 
 to form one large panel, the size of the opening ; the foot of this gate rests in a groove, 
 as shown in the section, fig. 360, b, made of timber or stone, and embedded 
 in the earth, so as to be level with the roadway. On the upper edge are two S60 
 grooved wheels, which work on an iron ledge groove, a. Shutters to shops p 
 may be made of this description of sheet iron, as well as chests, and a variety ^ 
 of other objects which will easily occur to a practical man. The following H*. 1 
 are the prices at London in 1832: — Roofs, per square of 100 feet, 
 £5 : 10s. ; verandas, per square, £1 ; and doors of the ordinary size, in 
 six panels, as in fig. 357, £2 : 10s. each. This description of roof is not 
 particularly applicalle for small-sized cottages, but may be used for large 
 ones ; and, for smithies, carpenters' shops, and all manner of sheds, it seems 
 particularly appropriate. Portable houses might be very readily made of it 
 for exportation ; but, wherever such houses were erected, they should be 
 covered with ivy, or some other evergreen creeper, to moderate the effect of 
 changes in the exterior temperature. 
 
 421. General Estimate. Cubic contents, 28,636 feet, at 6d. per foot, 
 £715 : 18s., at 4d., £477 : 5s. : 4d. ; and at 3d., £357 : 19s. 
 
 422. Remarks. There is a simplicity and grandeur in the elevation of 
 this Design, which by no means belongs to a common dwelling ; and, were the 
 chimney tops omitted, we should be at a loss to know its purpose. The 
 extent of the arcade, and its width, with the small windows under it, wouJd 
 seem to indicate that this Design has been intended for a hot climate ; but. 
 
210 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 LXVIII. 
 
COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. ^11 
 
 for such a climate, the chimney tops are too conspicuous. They are very well 
 calculated for Britain or North America; but, for either of these climates, there 
 ought to have been at least one additional window to each room. In the engraving, 
 we have shown the tiles of the roof much more distinctly than they were seen in the 
 drawing sent by our contributor. When the covering of a roof is (Kke thatch, 
 plain tiles, or slate) neither ribbed nor definitely marked, except by its great outlines, 
 indistinctness is no defect ; but a roof marked, in consequence of its construction, 
 by distinct lines and strong shadows, should have the parts as definitely made out 
 in the picture as in the reality. Whoever will examine the published works of the 
 Italian Architects, or the views of Italian buildings taken by British Architects or 
 artists, will find that much of their beauty depends on the minute details of the roof, 
 and especially of the projections of the eaves ; and of the ridge pieces, as well of the hips 
 as of the main roof. 
 
 Design LXVII. — A Cottage Dwelling of Five Rooms, in Two Floors. 
 
 423. Accommodation. The ground plan contains an entrance lobby and staircase, a ; 
 parlour, b; another parlour, or best bed-room, c; kitchen, d; back kitchen, e; closet,/; 
 root-cellar,^; dusthole, h; privy, i; and pantry, k. The chamber floor contains two 
 good bed-rooms, I and n ; with a dressing-closet, o : the well-hole of the stair is shown 
 at m. 
 
 424. Construction. The walls are shown of such a thickness as to admit of their being 
 built of rubble-work. The roof is covered with slates, and the guttering, which is of 
 cast iron, is calculated to serve as a cornice to the eaves. 
 
 425. General Estimate. Cubic contents, 29,044 feet; at 6d. per foot, ^726: Is.; 
 at 4c?., ^484 : : 4d. ; and at 3c?., £363 : Os. : 6d. 
 
 426. Remarks. The chief merit of this biulding is, that it contains five good-sized 
 rooms ; for size is very desirable, both in a cold climate and a warm one. Air in large 
 bodies is much more slowly either heated or cooled by the mere contact of hot or cold 
 air, and it is also less liable to be traversed by currents of air, than when in a smaller 
 volume. No one could sit in a smaU room with doors and windows on all sides, with- 
 out experiencing what is commonly called a draught ; but, in a very large room, doors 
 and windows on aU sides will occasion no such inconvenience. We object to the position 
 of the recesses for cupboard closets in b and c ; because they occupy the proper places 
 for a sofa in the one room, and for a bookcase in the other : they also seem to divide the 
 side of the room into two parts, and thus take away from the idea of a whole. If these 
 rooms were to be handsomely finished, the doors in question would be highly objection- 
 able, on the latter account. The closets in question ought to have been placed, one in 
 both b and c exactly opposite the entrance door ; and another, in each room, between 
 the fireplaces and the side walls in which they are now placed. So large a dwelling, we 
 think, ought to have had a porch ; but that may be matter of economy on the part of 
 the proprietor. There is a poverty about tae elevation, which requires to be removed 
 by architraves to all the windows, by sills to those of the chamber story ; and by other 
 means, which are by this time become familiar to our readers. We need not say that 
 we object to the truncated pediments, which give a tame lumpish character to this 
 dwelling, hardly in accordance with the bold and handsome chimney tops. 
 
 Design LXVII I. — A Dwelling of Four Rooms, with other Conveniences. 
 
 427. Accommodation. The door is protected by a far-projecting roof, and enters at 
 once into the kitchen and living-room, a, in which is a staircase to the bed-chamber, 
 with a closet under it, b : from this we have a room with a bed in a recess, c ; and 
 another of the same description, d: there are a back kitchen, e; privy,/; root-cellar and 
 fuel place, g ; and dusthole, h. There is a good bed-closet in the chamber story ; and on 
 the ground floor there is another closet, k, which may serve as a pantry, and a third, i, 
 which may be used as an oflSce, or place for books, &c., according to the occupation of 
 the inhabitant. 
 
 428. Construction. The walls may be of brick, hollow, and the roof slated ; but the 
 building would have the best eflPect, if the walls were covered with cement or plaster, 
 and coloured of a mellow tint. We say they would have the best effect ; because the 
 beauty of this dwelling depends on the contrast between its perjjendicular and horizontal, 
 lines ; and between its bright lights and dark shadows : and both lines and shadows are 
 more conspicuous in light-coloured walls than in any other. 
 
 429. General Estimate. Cubic contents, 11 890 feet, at 6d. per foot, ^297 : 5s. ; at 
 4d., £198 : 3s. : 4d. ; and 3d., £l43 : 12s. : 6d. 
 
 430. Remarks. There is something pleasing in the contrast of the lines, and of the 
 lights and shadows, in this dwelling ; but it has not much of tlie expression of a cottage. 
 
21^2 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 It seems better calculated for a small public-house, or coffee-house, to be placed on an 
 eminence, commanding a fine prospect, or close by a river. The room a might then 
 be the kitchen, and jjublic sitting-room for guests, and there might be a good cellar 
 under it ; d and c might also be for guests, the bed recesses being concealed by folding- 
 doors ; and the room up stairs might be considered the principal room, as it would have 
 the best prospect. The expression of the Design is somewhat Italian, but it wants the 
 characteristic tiles. It will never be erected where economy in the construction is 
 an object. 
 
 Design LXIX. — ^ Cottage DweUing, in the Old English Stgle, with Kitchen, Parlour, 
 Business Room, Three Bed-chambers, and other Conveniences. 
 
 431. Accommodation. The ground plan, fig. 361, to a scale of 20 feet to an inch, 
 contains a porch, a ; a lobby 
 
 7S.0XJ3,a 
 
 ri'^- imiiiHiL 
 
 361 
 
 and passage, with staircase 
 b ; a kitchen, c ; a wash- 
 house, d, with boiler, wash- 
 ing-trough, and sink ; a 
 store-room, e ; pantry, / ; 
 business room, g ; closet, h ; 
 and })arlour, i. The cham- 
 ber floor, fig. 362, contains 
 three bed-rooms, k, I, and 
 m ; and a closet, n. The 
 other requisite conveniences 
 are supposed to be placed in 
 the garden. 
 
 432. Construction, The 
 walls may be of brick, or 
 of rubble-work, with corners 
 of sijuared stone. The roof 
 is supi)osed to be covered 
 witli plain tiles, having barge boards against the west gable, as shown in the elevation, 
 fig. 363 ; and also against the east gable, as shown in tiie elevation, fig. 364 ; and with 
 the two other gables truncated, as may be seen in the south elevation, figs. 365 and 
 363, and in the perspective view. Design 
 LXIX., p. 215. There are Gothic labels 
 over the kitchen and parlour windows ; and 
 the window of the business room projects in 
 the manner of an oriel, as mav be seen in 
 figs. 363 and 365. Perhaps' it may be 
 thought by some of our readers, that the 
 chimney tops in this Design, and in a num- 
 ber of others, are carried too high ; that is, 
 higher than can be of any use, either in 
 creating a draught for the smoke, or in ren- 
 dering the dwelling more ornamental. Now 
 we are prepared to give our reasons for 
 denying these suppositions. In the first 
 place, it is known and axjknowledged, both in 
 theory and practice, that the simplest and 
 most effectual mode of producing a draught 
 in a flue, so as to cure a smoky chimney, is, 
 to add to its top a long narrow funnel. This 
 funnel is, in all ordinary cases, an earthenware cylinder of eight or ten inches in diameter, 
 and between two and tiiree feet long : but, in difficult cases, the length is increased to 
 five feet, by employing a. longer earthenware tube ; or to a still greater length, by em- 
 ploymg those tubes of copper or iron called about London " tall bovs." The five feet 
 long chimney pots are roade by joining two pots of the ordinary length together before 
 tliey are burnt : but, as tl lese long pots are liable to be broken in the kiln, the cost of them 
 about London, in 1832, is. 9s. each by retail ; therefore two or more draining tubes, such 
 as are shown in fig. 411, which cost 2s. each, are preferable. In the second place, with 
 respect to ornament, our object is, by clothing these tubes, whatever may be their length, 
 with architectural forms,, instead of leaving them bare as is almost universally done, to 
 render them handsome component parts of the building, instead of deformed appendages 
 
 362 
 
 i5.9>/j.4 
 
 1 ' 
 
 r-i_n 
 
 mill 
 
 k 
 
 [ ... 
 
 J 
 
COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 213 
 
 433. General Estimate. Cubic contents, 21,660 feet, at 6ii. per foot, ^541 : 10s. ; at 
 4d., £361 ; and at 3<f., £270 : 15s. 
 
 434. Remarks. No one can mistake the expression of this Design, who has ever 
 seen an English cottage. It pretends to be nothing more than what it is, and might be 
 
 mistaken for a copy from nature. It seems to us to want dignity, which might be 
 given by heightening the windows of the parlour-floor, and by a surrounding terrace. 
 The ground plan is very convenient. 
 
£14 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 Design LXX. — A Cottage Dwelling of Four Rooms, with other Conveniences. 
 
 435. Accommodation. The ground plan, fig. 366, shows a kitchen, a ; parlour, b , 
 best bed-room, c ; bed-room, d ; 
 
 closet, e ; recess for books, / ; two 
 closets, g g ; pantry, h ; wash- 
 house, i ; potato cellar, and place 
 for lumber, k ; coal-house, I ; and 
 privy, m. 
 
 436. Construction. The walls, 
 which have brick footings to the 
 height of eighteen inches above 
 the surface, are of stud-work, 
 covered with weather-boarding 
 without, and lath and plaster 
 within ; the floors of a, h, c, and 
 d, are of boards, and those of the 
 passage and offices of tiles and 
 bricks. The roof is covered with 
 pantiles; it is in two parts, the 
 higher and wider part being over the living-rooms, and the low narrow division covering 
 the passage and the offices. There is a rustic veranda along one front, constructed of 
 barked oak branches, on which vines and flowering shrubs are twined. 
 
 437. General Estimate. Cubic contents, 11,040 feet, at 6d. per foot, £276; at 4c?., 
 ;^184; and at 3d., £l33. 
 
 438. Remarks. This Design is executed at Chingford in Essex, and it has been sent 
 us as being very economical in the erection, and very commodious and convenient in the 
 occupation. We have improved the forms, and increased the height, of the chimneys, for 
 the sake of effect, and also in order to make them draw better. Without high, bold, and 
 carefully studied chimney tops, a cottage, to us, is without one of its chief beauties ; and 
 it is, besides, very liable to smoke. Beauty, in this case, as in most others, goes hand 
 in hand with utility. We by no means approve of the plan of having the outside walls 
 of a cottage of wood ; but, in many cases, it cannot be avoided. When an old cottage, 
 with walls of this description, is to be improved, the weather-boarding may be covered 
 either with what is called weather- tiling, of which we shall give a variety of shapes in a 
 succeeding page, or with tiling so marked as, when put up, to resemble bricks, and 
 known as brick weather-tiling, of which we shall also hereafter give specimens. Much 
 of the effect of such a cottage will depend on the disposition of the flowering shrubs and 
 trees on its veranda and trellised porch. 
 
 Design LXXI. — A Castellated Lodge, as a Dwelling for a Gardener, or other upper 
 Servant, on a Gentleman's Estate. 
 
 439. Accommodation. The ground plan, fig. 367, shows a porch, a ; kitchen, b ; 
 living-room, c ; two light closets, d d ; 
 
 staircase, with closet under, e ; place for 
 coals, / ; for wood, g ; and water-closet, 
 h. The chamber floor, fig. 368, contains 
 two good bed-rooms, i, k ; and two bed- 
 closets, I, m. 
 
 440. Construction. The contributors 
 of this Design, Messrs. W. and H. 
 Laxton, have sent the following details. 
 Fig. 369 is a section across the window 
 in the living-room, in which is shown 
 the wall of brick, a ; label moulding 
 over the window, b ; reveal, with splay, 
 finished with cement, c ; frame to the 
 casements, four inches by two inches, 
 with hollow worked on the edge, rebated, 
 and beaded, d; inch and half Gothic 
 bar casement, rebated on the lower edge, 
 to shut against an iron tongue, let into 
 an oak sill, e ; lintel, four inches and a 
 half by three inches and a half, / ; plate, 
 four inches and a half by five inches, g ; 
 joists, seven inches by two inches and a half, notched on to the plate, h ; ceiling, « ; 
 
 i 
 
COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. ^17 
 
 369 
 
 sill, q; capping, 
 3 70 
 
 cornice, with flowers or bosses, fifteen inches apart, j ; 
 floor boards out of two cut battens, k ; skirting board, 
 with hollow worked on the edge and a groove, / ; narrow 
 ground, splayed for plaster, m • small fillet nailed on 
 the floor, for fastening the skirting, n ; wooden brick, 
 four inches by two inches and a half, o ; plaster, p ; oak 
 or window board, r; and window 
 back, s. Fig. 370 is a section show- 
 ing the construction of the embattle- 
 ments, in which we have the wall of 
 the ground floor a brick and a half 
 thick, t ; the wall of the bed-room 
 floor one brick thick, u ; the coping 
 of the embattlements formed of Aus- 
 tin's artificial stone, v v ; and the 
 moulded string under the embattle- 
 ments, w. Fig. 371 is a section, 
 showing the gutter and the roof, in 
 which the wall-plate is represented 
 at a ; the ceiling joist, four inches 
 by one inch and a half, is nailed to 
 the side of the rafter at &; the rafter, 
 c, four inches by two inches, is 
 notched on to the wall-plate ; the 
 battens for the slates, three inches 
 by three quarters of an inch, are 
 shown at d; three quarters of 
 an inch feather-edged eaves- 
 board at e ; a cast-iron gutter 
 at /, moulded to form a cor- 
 nice, and fastened by copper 
 nails to the ends of the rafters ; 
 Fig. 372 is an elevation of the 
 south-east end of this building. Fig. 373 is an 
 elevation, to a scale of three eighths of an inch to 
 a foot, of the chimney tops, formed of Austin's 
 artificial stone. 
 
 441. Specification and Estimate. As the build- 
 ing is small and simple, these are combined in what is technically called one particular. 
 The prices are calculated at the prime cost of materials and labour, in London, in the 
 year 1832. 
 
 442. Digger and Bricklayer's Work. 
 Twenty cubic yards, digging, wheeling, or filling in to the founda- 
 
 and slates at 
 
 Seven rods and three quarters reduced stock brickwork, at ^£"'12 
 
 per rod 
 
 The walls are to have two courses of one brick in thickness, and 
 the plinth is to be half a brick thicker than the walls above, as shown 
 in the ground plan, fig. 367. There are to be one-brick footings, 
 
 
 s. 
 
 d. 
 
 1 : 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 93 : 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
21S COTTAGE FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 eighteen inches high, to the partitions forming the sides of the 
 
 stairs and lobby ; and one- 
 brick sleeper walls, for the joists 
 under the parlour. ( A sleeper 
 is a piece of scantling, laid on 
 the top of a low wall, under 
 the flooring, on which the 
 joists are to rest. ) 
 Thirty yards of brick nogging of 
 stocks laid flat to the partitions 
 on the ground floor, at 3s. a 
 
 yard 4 : 10 : 0 
 
 Five yards of brick paving of 
 stocks, laid flat in sand, to the 
 closet for coals, imder the 
 
 stairs, at 2s. 3d. per yard 0:11:3 
 
 Forty-five feet superficial of cut- 
 tings to the rakes of the gables 
 
 at 3d. per foot 0:11:3 
 
 Ten feet superficial of two 
 courses of plain tiles, bedded 
 in cement, and rendered on 
 the top, to the flat roofs of the 
 
 towers 0: 7:6 
 
 Two hundred and two feet lineal 
 of cuttings to the splays of the 
 windows and doors, at 2c?. a 
 
 foot (c, in fig. 369) 1 : 13 : 8 
 
 Cutting four small Gothic heads, 
 and one large ditto ; and four 
 loophole crosses to the towers 0 : 10 : O 
 
 One himdred and sixteen feet lineal of brick on edge, cut and set in 
 cement, for plinth, 2^d. per foot (fig. 374) 
 
 4 : 2 
 
 S74 
 
COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 
 
 One hundred and sixty feet lineal bird's-mouth splays to the quoins £ 
 (corners) of the towers, at 2d. per foot. (A bird's-mouth splay 
 IS an oblique angle, as at a, fig. 375, instead of a right angle.) l : 
 
 To buUd a small cess-pool, two feet six inches square, and one foot 
 six inches deep, of one brick wall aU round, under the water- 
 closet ; and to provide thirty feet of eight-inch drain pipes, and 
 diggmg, to convey the soil to the common sewer ; also an earthen- 
 ware pan and trap 2 • 
 
 443. Slater's Work. ^^^^ 
 
 Eight square forty feet of countess slating, at 25s. per square 10 
 
 Thirty-six feet lineal of glazed ridge tiles, at 6d. per foot * o 
 
 Eighty-six feet lineal of cement filleting to the gable, at 2d. per foot 0 
 
 ^12 • 
 
 444. Carpenter's Work. ' 
 
 Seven squares of three quarters of an inch battening, two inches and 
 
 a half wide, for slating, at 10s. per square 3 . j 
 
 Sixty-three feet superficial of three quarters of an inch feather-edged 
 eaves-board, at 5d. per foot , / , j • 
 
 Eighty-six feet Hneal of tilting fillets to the gawi' lirf.'^er foot 0 • 1 
 
 Iwo hundred and ninety-eight cubic feet of Memel, Riga, or Dantzic 
 fir, m bonds, plates, rafters, joists, and quarters, as under, at 3s. 6d. 
 
 per foot..... : 
 
 _ Ridge-pieces, ten inches by one inch and a half; rafters, four 
 mches by two inches and a half; purlins, four inches by four inches ; 
 two collar beams, nine inches by three inches ; ceiling joists halved 
 on to the rafter, four inches and a half by one inch and a half; 
 (joists are said to be halved on, when they are joined by half 
 being cut out of the joist and half out of the rafter) ; a girder 
 under the floor of the large room, nine inches by nine inches ; 
 joists, seven inches by two inches and a half; plates, four inches 
 by four inches and a half under the roof, and under each floor, all 
 round, except where the flues intervene ; also two tiers of bond, 
 four inches by two inches and a half; oak sleeper under the ground 
 floor, and oak sill, four inches by four inches, to the partition on 
 the ground floor ; heads to the partition, four inches by five inches, 
 to form the sill of the partition above, or the cross-tie to the roof • 
 centre and door-posts, and door-head, four inches by four inches • 
 quartering, four inches by two inches ; door-posts and head to the 
 water-closet, and the closets on each side, four inches by four inches, 
 to be wrought aU round ; beaded head to the partition over ditto, 
 four inches by four inches ; puncheons, four inches by two inches. 
 Three centres to the fireplaces, and ten ditto to the apertures of the 
 doors and windows ; one centre to the Gothic head 
 
 1 : 0 
 
 445. Joiner's Work. ' 
 Nine and a quarter square inch deal wrought folding floors, at 40s. 
 
 per square 18-10 
 
 Two hundred and thirty feet, lineal plain skirting out of two' cut 
 battens, with a hollow and groove worked on the face, backings, 
 
 and wooden bricks at 6d. per foot (see I, and o, in fig. 369) 7.. 5: 15 
 
 Eight one and a half inch four-panel square framed doors, six feet six 
 inches by two feet six inches, with a hollow worked on the fram- 
 ing round the panels, as in fig. 376, hung with three-inch butt 
 
 hinges, and fastened with 
 ^ a six-inch iron-rimmed 
 _^ two-bolt lock, one and 
 
 ^ half inch rebated linings 
 
 ~I~ and mouldings round 
 
 / both sides, at 30s. per 
 
 ^ J door 
 
 l-our doors as above, with fillets nailed on the door-posts to form 
 stops, to the water-closet, to the closets on each side, and to the 
 
 12 
 
220 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 closet under the stairs; each door hung with three-inch butt £ s. d. 
 hinges, and having a four-inch lock to each, at 22s. per door 4 : 8:0 
 
 Four one and a quarter inch fi-amed and beaded closet fronts, eight 
 feet by three feet three inches, with four-panel square doors, hung 
 with three-inch butt hinges, and having a moulding round, and a 
 closet lock to each, at 26s. per door 5 : 4:0 
 
 A two-inch two-panel bead butt and square framed door, seven 
 feet by three feet, with one and a half inch sash and shutter ; the 
 lower panels to be filled in with a Gothic moulding, and Gothic 
 head, hung with four-inch butt hinges, and fastened with a nine- 
 inch drawback lock, and two eight-inch bolts. A proper door- 
 case of fir, four inches by four inches, with a moulding round 
 inside 3 : 3:0 
 
 One and a half inch sash door to the back lobby, six feet six inches 
 by two feet six inches, framed bead butt and square; with a 
 shutter, and a pair of three-inch butt hinges, a thumb-latch, two 
 bolts, a thumb-screw, and two stubbs ; a proper doorcase of fir, 
 four inches by three inches, with a moulding round inside 2: 0:0 
 
 Eighty feet superficial of one and a half inch square framed partition, 
 to divide the small room, on the bed-chamber floor, from the stairs ; 
 also over the stairs, with a four-panel square framed door in ditto, 
 at 9d. per foot ; sixteen feet of moulding round ditto ; one pair of 
 three-inch butt hinges, and a six-inch two-bolt lock 3; 7:0 
 
 Four windows with one and a half inch deal casements, Gothic heads 
 and spandril, four feet six inches by five feet in the clear ; hung 
 folding (both casements to open and shut against each other as 
 in fig. 177 § 196,) with three-inch butt hinges, and fastened with 
 two five-inch brass flush bolts, and a brass fastening ; two-inch deal 
 rebated and beaded frame, four inches wide, with hollow worked 
 on the outer edge {d, in fig. 369), and with oak sills, at £2 : 2s. 
 each 8 : 8 : 0 
 
 Four windows, three feet six inches by five feet, at j£l : 18s. per 
 
 window 7 : 12:0 
 
 Two pair of one and a half inch deal shutters, framed as doors, to the 
 parlour windows, hung as sashes, with pulleys and boxings complete, 
 each twenty-eight feet su])erficial, and with four feet extra-length 
 of boxing, two brass flush rings, a brass thumbscrew, and two four- 
 inch brass flush bolts to each window 4 : 0:0 
 
 A three-quarter-inch ledged shutter to the kitchen window, seven- 
 teen feet six inches superficial, with a wooden bar, and two 
 staples • 0 : 15:0 
 
 Fourteen feet superficial one and a quarter inch deal seat, riser and 
 bearer to the water-closet ; five feet superficial one and a quarter 
 inch deal clamped flap, and beaded frame ; six feet lineal inch 
 skirting, four and a half inches wide, one pair of two-inch brass 
 butt hinges, and two holes cut ; and a small buU's-eye light frame 
 and linings 1 : 13 : O 
 
 Sixty-five feet superficial of one and a quarter inch deal steps, with 
 inch risers, bracketed and housed into one inch and a half wall 
 string, twenty-five feet superficial, with thirty feet lineal of beaded 
 capping ; and a deal moulded rail, fifteen feet lineal, fastened with 
 three iron brackets 6 : 5 : O 
 
 Deal dresser, seven feet long by two feet wide, with three drawers 
 under, pot board and bearers ; three-inch deal shelves over, and two 
 cut standards (the upright piece of deal to which the ends of the 
 shelves are fixed) 3 : 0:0 
 
 One hundred feet of inch deal, wrought on both sides, to be fixed 
 
 with bearers for shelves, at 8c?. per foot 3 : 6:8 
 
 £ 89 : 6:8 
 
 446. Stonemason's Work. 
 
 Two profile stone moulded chimney-pieces, with slabs and back 
 hearths, to the parlour and the room over ; opening three feet high, 
 by two feet eight inches wide 3 : 10 : 0 
 
 A set of stone jambs and mantle, five inches wide, to the bed-room, 
 
 w'th sLib and hearth 0 : 15:0 
 
COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. ^^1 
 
 A set of one and a half inch stone ditto, eight inches wide to the £ s. d. 
 
 kitchen, with slab and back hearth 1 : 5:0 
 
 A six-inch stone sink, ten feet superficial, with a trap in ditto pinned 
 
 into the wall on two sides 2 : 5 : 0 
 
 Two stone steps, seven feet lineal, to the doorway 1 : 1:0 
 
 £S: 16 : 0 
 
 447. Plasterer's Work, 
 
 One hundred and thirty-six yards of whiting ceilings, at Id. per yard 0:11:4 
 Two hundred and fifty-six yards of colouring walls, at 2d. per yard 2 : 2:8 
 
 One hundred and fifty yards of render and set, at Id. per yard 4: 7:6 
 
 Fifty-nine yards floated ditto, at 10c?. 2 : 9:2 
 
 One hundred and eighty-seven yards of lath, plaster, and set, to the 
 
 partition and ceilings, at Is. : 5d 13 : 4: 11 
 
 Thirty yards floated ditto, to the parlour, at Is. : 9c?. 2 : 12:0 
 
 Forty-five feet lineal of cornice, six inches in girth, at 5d. per foot 
 
 (see s, in fig. 369) 0:18:9 
 
 Fifty-eight feet lineal moulded coping in cement to the gables, and 
 
 eighty-one feet ditto to the embattlements (see v v, in fig. 370), 
 
 at Is. : 6d. per foot 10 : 8 : 6 
 
 Thirty-seven feet ditto label mouldings to the windows (see b, in 
 
 fig. 369), at 6d. per foot 0 : 18 : 6 
 
 One hundred and fifteen ditto ditto string mouldings (see w, in 
 
 fig. 370), at 9c?. per foot 4 : 6:3 
 
 Sixteen mitres to the gable moulding, at 3d. each 0 : 4:0 
 
 Three shields, at Is. each 0 : 3 : 0 
 
 Four ornamental chimney tops of Austin's artificial stone, five feet 
 
 high, at £2 : 2s. each (see fig. 373) 8 : 8:0 
 
 50 : 14 : 7 
 
 448. Plumber, Painter, and Glazier's Work. 
 
 Three cwt. of milled lead to the valleys, at 25s. per cwt 3 : 15:0 
 
 Ten feet of three-quarter-inch pipe, with joints and stopcock to 
 
 ditto, for the water-closet 1 : 0:0 
 
 Water-butt and stand 1 : 10: 0 
 
 Fifty-three feet lineal of cast-iron gutter to the eaves, painted four 
 
 times in oil, at 2s. per foot (see/, in fig. 371) 5 : 6:0 
 
 Thirty-six feet ditto of two-inch iron pipe, at Is.. 1 : 16 : 0 
 
 Two heads and two shoes to ditto 0 : 12 : 0 
 
 One hundred and forty-eight feet superficial crown glass (third 
 
 quality) to all the sashes and doors, at Is. : 6d. per foot 11: 2:0 
 
 One hundred and twenty-five yards, painted four times in oil 
 
 colours, at 8c?. per yard 4 : 3:4 
 
 Two hundred and thirty feet lineal of skirting ditto, at Ic?. per foot 0 : 19 : 2 
 
 Eight casements and frames, painted on both sides 1: 0:0 
 
 i? 31 : 3:6 
 
 44S. Summary of Estimates. 
 
 Digger and bricklayer 107 : 2:6 
 
 Slater 12 : 2:4 
 
 Carpenter 58 : 10 : 0 
 
 Joiner and Ironmonger 89 : 6:8 
 
 Stonemason 8 : IG : O 
 
 Plasterer 50 : 14 : 7 
 
 Plumber, Glazier, and Painter 31: 3:6 
 
 Total prime cost of this dwelling £ 357 i 15 : 7 
 
 450- General Estimate. Cubic contents 17,688 feet, at 6c?. per foot, ^442 : 4s. ; at 4c?., 
 £294 : 16s. ; and at 3d., £221 : 2s. ; by which it appears that 4^d. per foot is about a 
 fair price for estimating lodges of this description. 
 
 451. Remarks. For an ornamental cottage this must be considered a very economical 
 plan : its accommodations are insufficient for a small farmer, or a retired tradesman ; but 
 it would not be difficult to enlarge it, and yet preserve the general character of the 
 elevation. The contributors of this Design (Messrs. W. and H. Laxton) have sent 
 us a plan for this purpose, fig. S77 ; in which a is the entrance lobby ; 6, the parlour, or 
 
COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 living-room, with a wine closet, c, and a store-room, d; e, the principal room, with a 
 china closet, /, and book closet, g ; A, the passage leading to a staircase, with a light 
 pantry under it, i ; k, the kitchen ; I, the lobby to the back entrance ; ?n, the water- 
 closet ; n, a coal and wood-house ; and o, the yard. We object to this plan, and also to 
 that of the original Design, fig. 367, on account of the chimneys being placed in the 
 outside walls ; but this evil may be mitigated by an increased thickness, and by forming 
 a vacuity all round the chimney and flue, so as to lessen the conducting power of the 
 wall. Whoever, in a climate where fires are necessary one half the year, employs an 
 Architect to design a dwelling, whatever may be its rank, from the cottage to the palace, 
 ought to make it an indispensable condition, to have no chimneys in the outside walls ; 
 and none that shall not di-aw well. Every person looking through this work, with a 
 view to make choice of a design, ought to bear in mind the same principle. With respect 
 to the elevation, as shown in Design LXXI., p. 215, we cannot approve of carrying 
 through, between the lower and the upper windows, the forms of battlements, as shown 
 in the section fig. 370, in the manner of a string course ; because such an ornament has 
 neither the appearance nor the reality of use. A string course, or horizontal band, has 
 the architectural expression (to speak technically) of binding and tying together the 
 work below it, as well as, to a certain extent, of protecting it from the rain. It is true that 
 the battlement forms, carried through, as in fig. 370, wiU also protect what is below from 
 the rain ; but they have not that expression, for every one knows that their usual pur- 
 pose, on a building, is to form the termination of a wall. The effect of these battlements 
 on the outline elevation, fig. 372, can hardly fail to deceive the unpractised eye ; and, 
 by raising the idea that the basement story of the building projects outwards, considerably 
 beyond the upper story, creates a beauty in the design, as seen in an outline elevation 
 on paper, which it could never have in reality. The shaded perspective view, Design 
 LXXI., p. 215, maybe referred to in proof of this assertion, as showing the advantages 
 of such views in conveying correct ideas of the effect of architectural designs. We may 
 further observe that it would be an improvement, to raise the angular towers two or 
 three feet higher, so as to detach their summits more distinctly from the gable ends. The 
 effect of this, as of aU distinctness and bold relief in buildings, is to make the parts ap- 
 pear more decidedly what they are ; in short, to add to the strength of their expression. 
 
COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 
 
 2^3 
 
 Design LXXII. — ^ Dwelling of Six Rooms, with various Conveniences. 
 
 452. Accommodation. From the entrance and staircase, a, there is a kitchen, b ; with 
 back kitchen, c; and pantry, d: there are two good parlours, e and/; a ceDar, g ; which, 
 if thought necessary, might be connected with the kitchen ; a place for fuel, h ; dusthole] 
 t ; and pnvy, k. The chamber floor contains three good bed-rooms, Z, m, and o ; and a 
 light closet, jr). 
 
 453. Construction. The walls are supposed to be rubble-stone ; the roof covered with 
 slate; and the chimney tops, coping of the side waUs, and tabUng of the gable ends of 
 tooled stone. The doors and windows have piain stone facings. The ffutterine is 
 formed as in fig. 120. o «3 & 
 
 378 379 380 381 
 
 . General Estimate. Cubic contents, 22,839 feet, at 6d. per foot, £520 : 9s. : 9d. • 
 . ^380: Gs: Gd. • and at. ^OKK ■ 4o . iaU 
 
 454 
 
 at 4d., £380: 6s 
 382 
 
 6d. ; and at 3rf., £2b"5 : 4s. : lO^rf. 
 
 383 384 
 
 385 
 
 455. Remarks. This building will be known at once to be in the Scotch style. This 
 style, which is also common in the north of France and in Flanders, prevails in all those 
 parts of Scotland where freestone is abundant ; varying sometimes with plain tabling • 
 with the tabling stones raised one ° * 
 
 above another like the steps of a stair, 
 as in Design XI. ; or in various other 
 forms, as in figs. 378 to 385. As the 
 chief characteristic beauty of this 
 manner of building depends on the 
 gables, we have given these different 
 forms, which the reader may vary at 
 pleasure. The next characteristic 
 is the storm-head windows, fig. 386; 
 and these admit of as great a variety 
 as the gable ends. A third distinction 
 of this style is the facings to the doors 
 and windows, which may also be con- 
 siderably varied. The chimney tops 
 are generally very simple. Loopholes 
 
224 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 and very small gable windows are frequently introduced, partly to give character, but chiefly 
 for ventilation ; and these also may be considerably varied. It is remarkable that houses in 
 this style, which is evidently one attended with considerable expense in stone-cutting, are 
 seldom found with a porch ; though this appendage, in a climate like that of Scotland, 
 would be of the most essential service in point of comfort : a porch in Scotland, however, 
 is seldom seen to any building under the rank of a villa. The Design before us is given 
 more as a specimen of the Scotch style, than as a model ; though it is certainly commodious, 
 and convenient in its arrangement. It would be much improved by a string course 
 under the chamber-floor windows, and by squared stones at the corners. A better effect 
 would have been produced in the elevation, as well as more heat in the interior, by 
 having the fireplaces of the two living-rooms, e and /, against the partitions wliicli 
 separate them from the stair. These alterations made, and a porch added, tlie result would 
 be fig. 387, which may bo described as a specimen of the improved Scotch style of 
 
 tradesmen's houses. In this figure, the vertical and horizontal bond, both in regularly 
 hewn stone, and the panels filled up with rubble-work on the cemcntitious jjrinciple, 
 will be distinctly observed. Expression is by these means given to a mere wall, as such, 
 without reference to what it has to support or enclose. The young architectural reader 
 ought constantly to bear in mind, not only that every building ought to have its apjjro- 
 priate expression obvious at first glance, but that every separate part of a building 
 ought to have its separate expression. The student ought, therefore, to exercise himself 
 in endeavouring to analyse every edifice that comes before him, so as to be able to feci 
 the force of every effect, and to refer it to its cause. Two of the windows of the ori- 
 ginal Design, p. 216, are false; which, in buildings of this class, is to us an abomination. 
 
 Design LXXIII. — A Dwelling, Three Stories high, with Four Rooms, and various 
 
 Conveniences. 
 
 Accommodation. From a porch, a, the door enters into a lobby 
 
 456. 
 
 there is a closet, c 
 
 under the staircase; there are a kitchen, d; back kitchen, 
 
 h • whence 
 pantry. 
 
 / ; pai-lour, g ; closet cupboard, h ; root-cellar, i 
 priNy, 771. The chamber floor contains 
 two good bed-rooms, n and o ; with a 
 closet, p ; and a landing to the stairs, q. 
 The garret, which is entered by a 
 trapdoor from this landing, is in one 
 large room, lighted by a dormer window. 
 
 457. Construction and Remarks. The 
 walls may be of rammed earth, of mud, 
 or of rubble-stone ; with the exception 
 of the partitions, and the walls to i, k, 
 I, and m, which may be of clay nogging. 
 Near London, and in other situations 
 where labour is high, walls of brick on 
 edge, hollow, in Dearn's manner, § 336, 
 would be equally cheap, and preferable 
 on account of their neatness and dura- 
 bility. The roof is shown thatched, 
 a«d without guttering, which, however, 
 may be added ; in which case it should 
 be of wood or of cast iron, with an 
 exterior moiUding, as in fig. 388. In 
 
 place for fuel, k ; dusthole, I ; and 
 
COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. ^25 
 LXXIIL 
 
COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 LXXIV. 
 
 LXXVI. 
 
COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 
 
 general, however, thatched roofs should either project so far as to protect the wall and 
 windows, and also a space of two feet broad, to serve as a passage, and thus render a 
 gutter unnecessary ; or, they should have two or three feet at the eaves tiled or slated, 
 in which latter case a much cheaper and neater form of guttering may be adopted ; say 
 as in fig. 389. One reason why guttering is objectionable to all thatched roofs is, that, by 
 the continual decay of the thatch, they 
 are very apt to become choked up. A 
 large clumsy gutter, like that shown 
 in fig. 388, is, no doubt, less liable to 
 this than a smaller gutter, such as is 
 suitable for a thatched roof with slated 
 eaves, like that in fig. 389 ; but both will 
 be found to require continual attention, 
 and, after every violent shower, to be apt 
 to choke up the descending pipe. There 
 is a porch of trelliswork to this Design, 
 which is so far good, as any description of 
 porch is better than none ; but there are 
 two trunks of trees, in the manner of 
 columns, without plinths below, and with- 
 out any thing in the way of an entablature 
 above, which, we must say, we think in 
 superlatively bad taste. What can be worse 
 than a column supporting nothing but 
 thatch ? There is a false window to the 
 parlour, on one side of the porch, which we disapprove of ; because there must be 
 something deficient in the invention of the Architect, when such windows are found 
 requisite in buildings of this description. A window in a thatched roof is always bad ; 
 because the number of angles which it presents to the wind and the weather,. makes the 
 thatch which covers them go rapidly into decay, and soon admit the rain. If such 
 windows are ever admitted, they should be in the style of that shown in Design XX., 
 or in fig. 157. We never can bring ourselves to consider thatch as a proper covering 
 for a building of two stories ; we would limit it to low buildings, with mud or rubble- 
 stone walls, and where no guttering was required : but let taste be free. The compact- 
 ness of the plan, however, is commendable ; and this is, perhaps, all that we can say in 
 its favour. The cubic contents of this Design are 19,632 feet, from which our readers 
 may easily form a General Estimate. 
 
 Design LXXIV. — Design for a Cottage Dwelling, in the Old English Style, and of a 
 Construction suitable for having Part of the Walls covered with Weather- Tiling. 
 458. Accommodation. The ground plan, fig. 390, contains an entrance-lobby, a ; 
 hall and staircase, b ; parlour, c ; kitchen, d ; wash-house, with oven-boiler and sink, e ; 
 pantry,/; dairy, ; beer cellar, A ; and coal cellar, z. The chamber floor, fig. 391, 
 contains three good bed-rooms, k, I, and m ; and a light bed-closet over the lobby, n. 
 
 N 
 
 390 
 
 391 
 
 W 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 15-0 X 11-6 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 m 
 
 
 y 
 
 
 i:-0xii-3 
 
 
 
 12-0x11 3 
 
 
 
 1, rJ 
 
 
 
 6-OX 4-0 
 
 - n 
 
 J s 
 
 W 
 
 459. Construction. The foundations and walls of the ground-fioor story should be of 
 brick, or of rough stone with brick dressings (bricks at all the angles, whether of doors, 
 windows, or corners), and with brick arches to the windows. These walls, of whatever 
 material constructed, should have what is called a Welsh cornice (two or three over 
 sailing (protruding) courses of brickwork, one of which has dentils, formed by the ends 
 
228 
 
 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 392 393 
 
 I 
 
COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 2^9 
 
 402 
 
 of bricks projecting at equal and regular distances,) to finish with at top ; in order that 
 the lower part of the weather-tiling, which is to cover the bed-room walls, may incline 
 outwards, for the purpose of throwing off the water, and preventing it from running 
 down the walls of the ground floor. The external partitions of the chamber floor should 
 be formed of timber framing, lathed horizontally, to receive the tiling, which may be of 
 any pattern, according to fancy. Our contributor has sent sketches, figs. 392 to 402, of 
 all the different kinds which he recollects having seen ; but as two or three sorts are 
 generally used together, arranged alternately, it would be fruitless, he says, " to attempt 
 sending all their combinations. It is very conamon to have two, three, or more courses 
 of ornamental tiles, separated by a row of plain ones, which has a good effect." For the 
 present Design he recommends employing successive courses of figs. 393, 394, and 395, 
 separated by a course of fig. 392, as shown in fig. 402, " which would produce an agree- 
 able play of light and 
 shade, showing off some 
 of the most pleasing 
 alternations of straight 
 and waved lines that this 
 species of material is 
 capable of producing." 
 It will generally be 
 found advisable to colour 
 the whole of the weather- 
 tiling a light stone or 
 cream colour, and the 
 brick or stone walls 
 below may be left un- 
 coloured, or not, accord- 
 ing to whether the 
 natural tint of the ma- 
 terial employed is agree- 
 able or otherwise. The 
 roof is to be covered 
 with the common plain tiles, and its picturesque beauty will be much improved if 
 they are old ones that have lost the glaring hue which all tiles have when they are 
 fresh from the kiln." With respect to colouring the materials of a building, it may 
 be observed that it is not liable to the same objections as either plastering them 
 over, or roughcasting or whitewashing them ; because colouring, being much thinner, 
 does not, to the same extent, disguise the nat\ire of the material, and thus either destroy 
 the natural expression of, or give a false expression to, the wall. A wall may be said to 
 have its true and natural expression, when, at the first glance, it shows the materials of 
 which it has been constructed ; the manner in which these materials have been put 
 together ; and the principles of construction on which it depends for its stability, strength, 
 and duration. Now, a brick or stone wall, on the external face of which the distinct 
 shapes of the bricks or stones are clearly discernible to the eye, is the same thing, in 
 point of the useful qualities mentioned, whatever may be its colour ; but if the joints of 
 the stones or bricks, and their surfaces, are covered with plaster or roughcast, or with 
 such a thick coat of whitewash as to obliterate their forms and lines, the wall has lost its 
 natural expression : it may be of brick, or it may be of hewn stone ; but as every body 
 knows that whitewashing is 
 
 generally applied for the pur- j ;j 403 
 
 pose of disguise or conceal- 
 ment, it is fair to conclude 
 that, wherever it occurs on 
 the external walls of buildings, 
 they are made of lath and 
 plaster, or mud. To return to 
 our Design, the general efiect 
 of the weather-tiling will be 
 seen in the elevation of the 
 entrance, or north-west front, 
 fig. 404 ; in the south-west side, 
 fig. 405 ; in the south-east end, 
 fig. 406 ; and in the north-east 
 side, fig. 407. The use of 
 weather-tiling in England is 
 chiefly confined to the marine 
 
230 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 14s. 
 
 districts, where it is employed for casing the walls of buildings, whether formed of 
 wood, brick, or stone, to protect them from 
 driving winds that carry with them the spray 
 of the sea, which, from the salt it contains, 
 would otherwise render the walls damp. 
 Weather-tiling is also used in some parts of 
 the intci'ior of the country, on the south- 
 west and west sides of buildings, to protect 
 them from the rains, which, in England, are 
 not only more frequent from that quarter 
 than from any other, but which are almost 
 always accompanied by high driving winds. 
 The most suitable weather-tiling, for this 
 purpose, is that conunonly called mathe- 
 matical tiling, which is made to imitate 
 bricks; but we shall defer our description 
 of this kind of tiling till some future oc- 
 casion. 
 
 460. General Estimate. Cubic contents, 18,749 feet, at 6d. per foot, £^6S 
 6d. ; at 4rf., £^\2 : 9s. : 8d. ; and at Sd., £234 : 7s. : 3d. 
 
 461. Remarks. This Design has been sent 
 us by our valuable contributor Mr. Varden, 
 chiefly with a view of showing the apphca^ 
 tion of weather-tiling, as practised in the 
 neighbourhood of Guildford, in Surrey. 
 Speaking of the Design before us, its author 
 observes that " it is one of the largest erec- 
 tions for which this manner is suitable. 
 The effect generally pleases, from its homely 
 and comfortable appearance. The masses 
 are usually very irregular, convenience being 
 more studied than uniformity ; nevertheless, 
 sometimes combinations of form occur, that 
 would be highly gratifying to a lover of the 
 picturesque, and might even afford useful 
 hints to the professional Architect. This 
 manner of building requiring an economical 
 
 plan, the Architect avoids all breaks that are not absolutely necessary, and never 
 allows the roof to project more than is wanted to throw off the water clear of the walls. 
 Ornament is never intentionally introduced; 
 and there is nothing in this style incompati- 
 ble with the humble character of a cottage 
 dwelling." The ground plan is compact, 
 and the two principal fire-places are against 
 the interior walls. It would have been easy 
 to have changed the position of the oven 
 and boiler in e, so as to have carried up the 
 flues from them along with the others, and 
 thus had only one stack of chimneys instead 
 of two ; but our contributor, in all pro- 
 bability thought that the boiler wovdd be 
 more convenient adjoining the sink ; and, 
 perhaps, also, he considered that two chim- 
 neys in the elevation would be more pic- 
 turesque than one. For our own part, we _ 
 
 consider that a boiler and an oven, wiien ' ' ' ' 
 
 placed in the interior of a house, add so much to its comfort by serving as reservoirs of 
 heat, that we always regret to see them placed against outside walls. Many persons, we 
 are persuaded, are not sufficiently aware of the great quantity of heat that is generated 
 in an oven, by the consumption of the most worthless looking spray or brushwood, 
 which no good housewife would ever think of burning in an open fire-place. It is only 
 by having an oven, surrounded by a mass of brickwork, that this spray can be properly 
 tvu-ned to account ; burned in an open fire, its heat is dispersed in the atmosphere, and 
 speedily lost to the apartment ; but burned in an oven, and the more rapidly the better. 
 Its heat is absorbed by the brickwork, and continues to be given out slowly during many 
 
COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 
 
 231 
 
 hours afterwards, to whatever surrounds it. If the oven has a horizontal flue proceeding 
 from it, either under the floor as in our model cottages, or above it as a bench in the 
 German or Chinese manner, both to be hereafter described, the heat given out will be so 
 much the greater. The occupiers of cottages have much to learn in respect to the best 
 mode of consuming fuel, and economising heat : but to be taught this they must become 
 readers ; or, we must have parochial discourses on economical subjects, as well as sermons 
 on religious and moral duties. 
 
 Design LXXV. — A Cottage in the Old English Manner, containing on the Ground Floor 
 a Living-room, Kitchen, and other Conveniences^ with Two Bed-rooms over. 
 462. Accommodation. From the fi'ont porch, fig. 407, a, the entrance is to a passage 
 and staircase, which leads on the left to a living-room, b ; and on the right, to a kitchen, 
 
 c ; from which there is a closet, or coal 
 cellar, under the stairs. From the kit- 
 chen there is a door to the dairy, d ; 
 and another to a lobby, which leads 
 to the water-closet, e ; and to the 
 common entrance porch, /. There 
 are a cow-house, g ; a pigsty, h ; and 
 a place for hay and straw, i. The 
 chamber floor, fig. 408, contains two 
 
 408 
 
 463. Construction. The walls are of brick nine 
 titions are of brick nogging flat. The roof is slated, 
 and the chimney stacks are of brick set angularly. 
 These angular chimneys are thus constructed : the shaft 
 being finished square, as shown in fig. 409, an earthen- 
 ware circular flue-pipe is placed over the opening of the 
 chinmey, and the square flue is made to unite smoothly 
 with it, by being pargeted with mortar made of fresh 
 lime and powdered brick. Bricks are then built round 
 the upright pipe, leaving vacuities not filled up with 
 mortar, in the four angles formed between the bricks 
 and the pipe. As the work is raised in height, pipes are 
 added ; the length of each pipe being two feet, and each 
 having an outside rebate at one end, and an inside rebate 
 at the other, so as to admit of a perfect junction. We 
 
 good bed-rooms, k and I ; one of which 
 has a fireplace. 
 
 inches thick, and the par- 
 409 
 
 4U, 
 
 may observe that the diameter of these pipes may be from 
 nine to thirteen inches, according to the size of the fire- 
 place below; and we shall show, in Book III. of this work, 
 that by having tubes of this sort, of two feet, one foot, nine 
 inches, and six inches, rebated as above, flues might be 
 built in any direction, however crooked, which would require 
 no climbing boy to sweep them, and would be attended, as 
 we think, with all or most of the advantages of the circular 
 flues of Hiort, Chadley, or Smith, at a comparatively trifling 
 expense. Fig. 410 shows the plan of the projecting bricks 
 set on edge, which form the dentils that support the capital 
 of the shaft. Fig. 4 11 represents one of the chimney tops 
 
^232 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 ■ill 
 
 a. 
 
 complete, with its base, w ; shaft, n ; capital, o ; and 
 capping, p. Wherever a " tall boy" (see § 432.) is 
 required to make a chimney draw, we would enclose 
 it with brick or stone, in this, or in some similar 
 manner, and thus get rid of those house-top de- 
 formities so cleverly ridiculed in the Mechanic's 
 Magazine, vol. xvii. p. 316. " How generally," says 
 this writer, " do we see fine terminations become 
 pedestals for every foul thing in the shape of a cowl, 
 a mitred, a caped, an uncaped, a vandyked, a per- 
 forated, a conical, a crooked, or a straight, " tall 
 boy; " or to support a black pot, or a red pot, or 
 some of the numerous devices which start up in such 
 great profusion and variety, as soon as a new house 
 is inhabited, or an old one changes its tenant : thus, 
 as it were, proclaiming from the house-top, that the 
 Architect and builder have been unsuccessful, and 
 that some variety or other of the tinker's or potter's 
 whims, to charm or coax out the smoke, has pre- 
 vailed." What are called the genteel cottages about 
 London, indeed, are, in this respect, a disgrace to 
 their Architects and builders. The cow-house, hay- 
 shed, and piggery are supposed to be of studwork. 
 
 weather-boarded, and roofed with pantiles. The ceiling of the living-room is curbed, 
 or coved at the sides (see the section fig. 412), by which means some addition is made to 
 its height from the roof. Further details of construction will be found in the following 
 specification and estimate ; which, it may be observed, does not include the cow-house, 
 hay-shed, and pigsty; the ingenious contributors of this Design, Messrs. W. and 
 H. Laxton, considering that the occupant might be able, with a little assistance from 
 a carpenter, to erect these additions at his leisure hours. The prices stated in the esti- 
 mate, we should observe, are calculated for the neighbourhood of London, in the year 
 1832. 
 
 464. Bricklayer and Digger's Work. To build the walls, as shown in the plan, one 
 brick thick, with one brick and a half footing, one foot high : — 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 Five rods of reduced stock brickwork, at £l2 per rod 60 : 0:0 
 
 Twenty-four yards and a half superficial of brick nogging flat, to the 
 
 partitions on the ground-floor, at 3s. : 3c?. per yard 3 : 19 : 8 
 
 Two yards superficial of stock brick paving laid flat, for the closet or 
 
 coal cellar under the stairs, at 2s. : 3c?. per yard 0 : 
 
 Two hundred and fifty-two feet superficial of foot tile paving to the 
 
 kitchen, dairy, and tire-places, at 6d. per foot 6 : 
 
 Twenty-five feet lineal of eight-inch draining pipes, and digging for 
 
 laying them, from the water-closet and sinkhole, to a tank in the 
 
 yard, or some other part of the grounds, at Is. per foot 1 : 
 
 A cast-iron basin and trap to the water-closet, figs. 413, 414, and 
 
 415 0 : 10 : 0 
 
 4 : 6 
 
 6 : 0 
 
 5 : 0 
 
COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 
 
 233 
 
 (Fig. 413 is the surface plan of the basin; and fig. 414 is a £ s. d, 
 view of it before it is built in. Fig. 415 is a section of the 
 
 s 
 
 basin, as built in ; in which q is the trap ; r, the riser of the seat ; 
 s, the seat ; t t, the brickwork of the drain ; and u, the drain. 
 It is evident, from this figure, that no smell can penetrate from 
 u upwards, it being intercepted by the trap, q ; and the water 
 
 into which it dips.) 
 
 Digging out foundation, levelling, &c., say 1 : 0:0 
 
 Ten squares of countess slating, laid on three quarters of an inch 
 battening, with eaves, boards, and tilting fillets to the rakes, com- 
 plete 17 : 10 : 0 
 
 Forty feet six inches lineal of ridge tiles 0 : 13 : 6 
 
 Three chimney pots formed in brickwork, set angularly 1 : 10 : 0 
 
 £92 : 18 : 8 
 
 465. Carpenter's Work. 
 
 Rafter and ceiling joists, four inches by two inches ; ridge pieces, 
 nine inches by two inches ; wall plates, four inches by four inches ; 
 purlins, four inches by four inches ; joists, seven inches by two 
 inches and a half ; bond, four inches by two inches and a half ; 
 and lintels, four inches by four inches : one hundi-ed and forty- 
 eight cubic feet of Memel fir timber, including labour and nails... 25 : 18:0 
 
 Three squares and a half of four-inch quartering in partitions, 
 
 framed complete 5 : 5 : 0 
 
 Three squares and a half of one-inch deal wrought folding floors... 7 : 0:0 
 One hundred and seventeen feet lineal of skirting worked out of two- 
 cut battens, including wooden bricks and backings 2 : 8:9 
 
 Seventy-four feet superficial of one inch and a half square framed 
 
 partition, between the stairs and the small bed-room 2:15:6 
 
 Eight one inch and a half four-paneled square doors, six feet six 
 inches high, by two feet six inches wide, with one inch and a 
 quarter single rebated linings, and a moulding round both sides ; 
 hung with three-inch butt hinges, and having a six-inch iron-rim 
 
 two-bolt lock to each 11 : 4 : 0 
 
 Two outside bead butt and square doors, with fir frames, four inches 
 by three inches, rebated and beaded, with a moulding round 
 inside. The doors hung with three-inch butt hinges ; and having 
 
 two bolts, and a seven-inch three-bolt iron-rim lock to each 3 : 12:0 
 
 Four window frames and mullions, containing seventy-six feet lineal, 
 of one and a half inch deal, wrought, rebated, and beaded, four and 
 a half inches wide, with forty-eight feet lineal of moulding round 
 
 the frames inside 2 : O : 0 
 
 One bay or bow window in three divisions, containing thirty-eight 
 feet six inches lineal frame and mullions, four inches by four inches, 
 wrought, framed, rebated, and beaded. Twenty-four feet lineal 
 of moulding inside, and fourteen feet lineal of moulded cornice 
 
 and base, to the top and bottom of the frame outside 1:10:0 
 
 Six three-quarter-inch proper ledged lifting shutters to the lower 
 
 windows, four feet by one foot six inches, with fastenings 2 : 5:0 
 
 A flight of stairs, containing fifty-three feet superficial of one and a 
 quarter inch deal steps, and inch risers, bracketed and housed into 
 
 A A 
 
^34 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 strings, fifteen feet superficial, one inch and a half deal wall string, £ «. d. 
 
 and seven feet superficial of ramped ditto ; twenty-five feet lineal 
 
 of beaded capping, and three feet of framed newel 3:17-0 
 
 One small skylight, frame and lining, to the upper part of the stairs, 
 
 in the roof. 0: 7 : 0 
 
 One and a quarter inch deal seat, riser, and bearer, to the water- 
 closet, with hole cut and cover lined, and skirting round 0 : 12:0 
 
 £ 68 : 14 : 3 
 
 466. Plasterer's Work. 
 
 Sixty yards of lath, plaster, set, and whiting, for the ceilings 4: 0:0 ' 
 
 Twenty-three yards of ditto and colouring, for the partition 1:14:6 
 
 One hundred and sixty yards of plaster, set, and colouring, for the 
 
 walls 6 : o : 0 
 
 Eighty-six feet lineal of cement skirting, seven inches wide, to the 
 
 kitchen and dairy 1 : 8:8 
 
 £\S\ 3:2 
 
 467. Stonemason's Work. 
 
 A moulded profile stone chimney-piece to the living-room ; and a set 
 
 of flat jambs, mantle, and slabs to the bed-room ; and a set of one 
 
 inch and a half ditto to the kitchen 3 : 5 : 0 
 
 Four stone sills to the windows, and two stone steps to the outside 
 
 42g ^ doors 2 : 5:0 
 
 A stone sink seven feet super- 
 ^^^"'^^^^^^^^^^^'"'^ ^^..^-■'■^^^^^^^^^-^^>:~^ ficial, with grating and iron 
 p--^-.^.^^^^,--'''''''^^ ^^^^>--'^--^ socket, waste pipe, two five- 
 L 3-^^:^^^^^--^^^^^^"'^ holes sink stones (dish hol- 
 
 ^ — Wed out), fig. 4I6 1 : 14 : 0 
 
 £ 7 : 4:0 
 
 468. Sundries. 
 
 Ten feet lineal of three-quarter-inch pipe, with stopcock to the 
 
 water-closet 1 : 0:0 
 
 Seventy-five feet superficial glazing to casements in small squares 4 : 7:6 
 Seven iron casements, as in fig. 287, three feet four inches by one 
 foot seven inches ; and seven ditto, four feet by one foot seven 
 
 inches 5: 15: 6 
 
 Painting woodwork inside and outside, four times, in oil colours 4 : 0:0 
 
 Centring for doors, windows, and chimneys, and bedding and 
 
 pointing (filling up the joints) 1 : 0:0 
 
 16 : 3:0 
 
 469. Extra Work for the Porch. 
 
 Twenty-six feet reduced brickwork in the footings, and digging out 
 
 the foundations for them 1 : 6:0 
 
 Eight yards superficial of pebble paving 1 : 4:0 
 
 Three quarters of a square of slating and battening 1: 6:3 
 
 Nine oak posts, five inches square, with chamfered angles, and having 
 the slabs of trees with the bark on, nailed round them, to imitate 
 
 the trunks of trees, fig. 417 4 10 :0 
 
 ( Trunks of trees very soon rot, if the bark 
 be not removed; and the mode above 
 y-^ 7\ recommended has all the appeara<.ice 
 
 y/ \ I ^\ required, with increased durability.) 
 
 X \^ \ Eighteen ono-foot tiles for the tops and 
 
 r^--y^\^ / bottoms of the posts 0: 9:0 
 
 j \y I Ten branches of trees to form arches 1 : 5:0 
 
 \^ J Twenty cubic feet of Memel fir to the 
 
 \r \/ N^j/ '""^^ 3 : 10 : 0 
 
 \ J Thirty-seven feet six inches superficial of 
 
 \^ I \ / three quarters of an inch deal soffit and 
 
 fascia wrought and beaded 0 : 18 : 9 
 
 £ 14 : 9:0 
 
COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 
 
 470. Extra Expenses to the Exterior of the House. 
 
 Eighty-one feet lineal three-quarter-inch deal eaves, fascia beaded, £ s. d. 
 with lath and stucco soffits and backings, and cast-iron eaves gut- 
 ters, and painting 8 : 2:0 
 
 Thirty feet lineal of two-inch cast-iron pipes, with heads and shoes 2 : 0:0 
 Sixty-six feet lineal one and a half inch verge board to gables, ten 
 
 inches wide, wrought, moulded, and cut, with stuccoed soffits 4:19:0 
 
 Two oaken pinnacles 0 : 12:0 
 
 Label moulding to three windows 0 : 15 : 0 
 
 Seventy-six lineal feet of beading round the ceilings of the living- 
 room (fig. 418.) 0 : 19 : 0 
 
 £17 : 7:0 
 
 471. Summary of Estimates. 
 
 Bricklayer and Digger 92: 18: 8 
 
 Carpenter..... 68 : 14 : 3 
 
 Plasterer 13: 3:2 
 
 Stonemason 7 : 4:0 
 
 Sundries 16 : 3:0 
 
 Total expense of the building, 
 
 plain £\9S : 3 : 1 
 
 Extra work for the porch 14: 9:0 
 
 Extra expenses to the exterior ... 17 : 7:0 
 
 Total expense with a porch 
 
 and other extras 5^229 : 19 : 1 
 
 472. General Estimate. The cubic contents of this dwelling are 11,686 feet, which, 
 at 6d. per foot, make ^^292 : 3s. ; at 4(^., ^194 : 15s. 4d ; and at Sd., £l^6: Is. : 6d. 
 As Mr. Laxton's estimate amounts to ^'229 : 19s., it thus appears that about 4^d. per 
 foot is a fair price for buildings of this description, in the neighbourhood of London, in 
 the year 1832. 
 
 473. Remarks. The general effect of this building is good; but, for comfort, and 
 especially warmth, the chimneys ought not to have been in the outside walls. In 
 countries where fuel is abundant, or in those where fire is wanted chiefly for cooking 
 and washing, this will be no great objection; but, in Britain, no exterior beauty or cha- 
 racter can, in our opinion, compensate for having the fireplaces in the outside walls. 
 When the chimneys are in the interior walls, they not only keep the whole house warm, 
 but they invariably draw better. Knowing, and being deeply impressed with, these two 
 facts, chimney shafts, when rising from the centre of a roof, always appear to us more 
 beautiful than in any other position; and in this sentiment we think we are correct, 
 because the origin of all beauty must necessarily be utility. The difference between us 
 and those who prefer the chinmey shafts on the gable ends, consists in their judging with 
 reference to a different standard. If we ask what that standard is, we shall generally 
 be told that it is picturesque effect; sometimes, perhaps, the imitation of particular styles 
 of cottage building, which have resulted from accident; and occasionally, though rarely, 
 symmetry and regularity. In our opinion, the grand and fundamental principle of 
 exterior beauty in dwellings is to be found in their internal accommodation and comfort. 
 Whatever is required by or consonant with this, must be beautiful in the eye of reason ; 
 and all exterior beauty inconsistent with this, must depend on associations, which, not 
 having their origin in reason, may be called arbitrary or accidental, and ought there- 
 fore not to be relied upon. All Architecture being founded on necessity and reason, 
 and not on the imitation of any objects whatever, either of nature or art, it follows 
 tliat the external beauty of any edifice as a whole can never be truly judged of, without a 
 knowledge of the uses for which it is designed. So also the beauty or propriety 
 of the various parts and details of a building, such as walls, supports, openings, 
 &c., cannot be properly appreciated, unless we know the nature of the materials em- 
 ployed. We cannot, for example, decide as to the width of a doorway or a window, 
 unless we know the materials of the wall in which the opening is made ; as well as 
 the mode, whether by an arch or a lintel, in which that opening is covered. Neither can 
 we estimate the weight which any prop or column will bear, unless we know the 
 material of which it is composed. The proportions of a column, in timber, which may be 
 very suitable for what it has to support, and therefore beautiful, would be more than 
 sufficient, and therefore cumbrous and inelegant, in stone, and still more so in iron. It 
 is true, that, in judging of doors, windows, and columns, a very small portion of man- 
 
236 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 kind do so with reference to this standard; but it is not, on that account, the less founded 
 on reason. The common standards of Architects, whatever may be the material em- 
 ployed, are the models handed down to us by the ancients; and the common standards of 
 the rest of mankind are the works erected by the Architects for the time being. Thus 
 precedent takes the place of principle ; and in Architecture, as in every thing else, fashion 
 ultimately usurps the part of reason. But it is the province of criticism to test the fashions 
 of the day, by a recurrence to first principles, and to endeavour to recall mankind to the 
 consideration of fundamental laws. In no art is this more requisite than in Architecture; 
 the pretended knowledge of which has hitherto, in all ages and countries, been in the 
 hands of a few ; but which, to be improved and brought to perfection, ought to have its 
 principles universally studied and understood, so as that its works may be examined and 
 criticised on these principles by the many In the infancy of all art, the many are ne- 
 cessarily led by the artists, and their arbitrary rules become law ; but, with the progress 
 of things, the many become enlightened, and, judging for themselves, force the professors 
 of art to recur to fundamental principles; and it is self-evident, that, in a useful art, these 
 principles must be based on utility. These remarks arc not more ajjplicable to this 
 Design than they are to several otliers; but we consider it necessary to make them, with 
 a view of impressing on our readers the necessity of mainly depending upon their reason, 
 in judging of all architectural works whatever. 
 
 Design LXXVI. — A Cottage Dwelling, One Story high, containing Six Rooms, a 
 JFash-house, and other Conveniences. 
 474. Accommodation and Construction. The ground plan, fig. 419, contains an 
 entrance-porch, a ; breakfast-room, h ; dining-jiarlour, c ; two good bed-rooms, d and e ; 
 with two closets in J ; a servant's bed-room, / ; kitchen, g ; wash-house, h ; and privy, 
 
 419 
 
 k. There is a cellar under c, which is descended to by the stairs, I. A well may be 
 dug, and a pump fixed either in the wash-house, or in the yard, m. The wall n may 
 be continued at convenience, the south-east side of it enclosing a yard, in which may be 
 placed a chicken- coop, pigsty, coal-house, dirt-bin, wood-house, and other conveniences ; 
 and the north-west side may form one wall of the garden, against which, of course, fruit 
 trees may be trained. It is proposed to have a cistern for rain water, over a part of 
 the wash-house, to be formed of wood, and lined with zinc, as being much cheaper than 
 lead. To this the water is to be conveyed by large wooden gutters, lined with zinc, to 
 the thatched roof. The waste water from this cistern, and from the wash-house and 
 from the pump, is to be led through the drain of the privy, to the liquid manure tank. 
 The walls are proposed to be of chalk-stone with brick corners ; and with brick facmgs 
 
COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES, 
 
 and labels to the doors and windows, which are intended to have stone sills ; the roof is 
 to be thatched with reeds., and the chimney tops are to be formed of Roman cement. 
 The whole is to be embraced by a platform on three sides. 
 
 475. General Estimate. Cubic contents, 13,308 feet, at 6d. per foot, ^332 : 14s. ; 
 at 4rf., ^^221 : 16s. ; and at Sd., £l66 : 7s. 
 
 476. Remarks. This Design, which has been sent to us by our much-valued contri- 
 butor, Samuel Taylor, Esq., of Stoke Ferry, Norfolk, is calculated for being built of 
 chalk-stone, which forms the cheapest material of that country, and for being covered 
 with reeds, the produce of the adjoining fens. It forms a comfortable and commodious 
 dwelling, expressive of what it is ; and, from the height of the walls and the proportions of 
 the windows, is rather elegant than otherwise. We cannot justify the Gothic labels over 
 the doors and windows, immediately under a fai-projecting roof ; because no other part 
 of the building is in the Gothic style, and because labels of any kind, in such a situation, 
 cease to have any character of use. " From truth and use all beauties flow." {Epistle 
 to Lord Lowther on Building and Planting. ) 
 
 Design LXXVII. — The Model Cottages of the Labourer's Friend Society, as erected 
 at Shooter's Hill, Kent. 
 
 477. Accommodation. These cottages are built in pairs, in such a manner as to have 
 the fireplaces in the 420 
 
 party walls ; the 
 ground plan, fig. 420, 
 showb, for each cot- 
 tage, an entrance- 
 porch, a ; kitchen, b ; 
 pantry, c ; and closet 
 under the stairs, d. 
 The chamber floor, 
 fig. 421, shows two 
 good bed-chambers to 
 each cottage, without 
 fireplaces. The privy, 
 pigsty, and other con- 
 veniences, are built 
 apart. To each double 
 
 cottage are annexed two acres and a half of land. 
 
 478. Construction. The 421 
 walls are raised on grouted 
 foundations (grout is com- 
 posed of fresh lime and 
 gravel, mixed, and imme- 
 diately thrown in, beaten 
 down, and left some days 
 to consolidate), two feet 
 broad and two feet deep ; 
 over which are two courses 
 of twenty-two inches in 
 width, and two of eighteen 
 inches, as a footing, and 
 four courses of fourteen 
 inches as a plinth. The 
 walls above are nine inches, 
 and hollow, and one course of slates is laid before the floors commence. The bricks 
 are all hard stocks ; the timber Swedish or Baltic ; the mndow sills and landings of York 
 stone ; the chamber flooring of inch and quarter deal, ploughed and tongued (a groove 
 made along the edge of one board, and a tongue or projection worked along the edge of 
 the other, to fit into it, fig, 422) ; the window casements are of iron, and the roof slated. 
 The course of slates is laid along the walls, just beneath the ground floor, in order to pre- 
 vent the damp from rising through the vacuities, which are two inches wide, being 
 formed in the manner shown in fig. 7, § 25. The brickwork is worked to a smooth 
 face inside, and not plastered, but only whitewashed. The outside of the walls is thus 
 left rough, and it is brought to an even surface by rough-casting it with a mix- 
 ture of lime and fine gravel, which, when completed, has the colour and texture of 
 Bath stone. The floors of these cottages are fifteen inches above the general level of 
 the surrounding ground ; twelve inches of this space is filled with gi avel, and the top 
 
S38 
 
 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 422 
 
 three inches with grouting, which forms a hard bottom, upon which is laid a flooring of 
 foot square paving tiles. The roof, as shown in fig. 423, 
 
 projects, in order to keep the walls dry. j |5 — — i 
 
 479. Estimate. Twelve of these cottages have been 
 erected on Shooter's Hill, at £^115 per pair, under 
 the direction of our contributor, W. Bardwell, Esq., 
 for the Labourer's Friend Society. The cubic contents 
 of the building are 9620 feet ; which shows that 2|c?. 
 per cubic foot is the proper rate for making a general 
 estimate for this description of dwelling. 
 
 480. Remarks. This Design, which has been pub- 
 lished in Facts and Illustrations demonstrating the 
 Benefits derived hy Labourers from possessing small 
 Portions of Land, 8fc., vol. i. p. 31, was recommended 
 to us, for our work, by its author, Mr. Bardwell. 
 Considering the size of the rooms, these dwelliiigs are 
 certainly reinarkably cheap ; and we are informed that, 
 in consequence of the grouted floors and hollow walls, 
 they are the driest cottages in the neighbourhood 
 where they are built. We agree with tlie writer, who 
 describes them in the work referred to, that, as all the 
 materials arc of the best quality, these cottages will be 
 as durable as they are cheap ; and that they may justly 
 
 be considered elegant, from tlie pr()j)orti()ns of the L^^-w^^/V 
 openings, the pediment ends, the low pitcli of the 
 roof, and " the Doric simplicity of their general form." The quantity of land annexed 
 
 to them seems large ; but the reason may be that the occupiers are supposed not to have 
 regular employment, and to find a ready market for garden produce. 
 
 Design LXXVIII. — Six Cottage Dwellings, built at Abersychan, near Pontypool, in 
 South Wales, with One common Wash-house and Bahehouse. 
 481. The object of building these dwellings, of which fig. 424 is the elevation, and 425 
 
 424 
 
 
 — & 
 
 — * 
 
 
 0 
 
 D n 
 
 D 
 
 D 
 
 in r 
 
 in on 
 
 D 
 
 30 
 
 the gr ^ plan, both to a scale of five sixteenths of an inch to ten feet, was to afford 
 lodgin for the workmen of Messrs. Jones and Wilcox, builders, of Bristol, during tht 
 
COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES, 
 
 239 
 
 time they were employed in erecting the extensive furnaces of the British Iron Com- 
 pany at Abersychan. 
 
 482. Accommodation. The ground plan of each dwelling shows a passage, with a 
 wooden dresser along the side, fig. 425, a ; living-room, h ; and back-kitchen, c ; over 
 
 which are two good bed-rooms. There are a wash-house, d, with two boilers and two 
 ovens, common to the whole ; and four privies, e e e e. The front room, over the bake- 
 house, belongs to the dwelling,/, which was occupied by the foreman of the masons; and 
 the back room, over the privies, belongs to the dwelling, g, which was occupied by the 
 foreman of the smiths. Each dwelling has a strip of garden-ground behind, and they 
 are all supplied with water by a mountain stream, which afterwards passes through the 
 drains of the privies. 
 
 483. Construction. The walls are of stone, quarried on the spot ; the outside and 
 party walls are eighteen inches in thickness, and the inside ones one foot. The floors 
 are paved with stone, and the roofs covered with grey slate. The elevation, fig. 424, is 
 wholly without ornament. 
 
 484. Estimate. These dwellings cost, including the wash-house, privies, enclosing 
 the garden ground, &c., ,£'800, which gives ,£'133 : 6s. : Sd. for each cottage. As the 
 whole line of building contains 61,005 cubic feet, it appears that 3c?. per foot is the proper 
 sum for employing in its general estimate. 
 
 485. Remarks, This Design was sent us by our esteemed friend, Samuel Taylor, Esq., 
 as a specimen of a very cheap and simple mode of building dwellings of the lowest degree 
 of accommodation in a stone country. The elevation has nothing to recommend it in 
 point of effect : but, by advancing the wash-house in front ; by putting a screen wall be- 
 fore the privies behind ; by reversing the position of the doors of the three dwellings on 
 the right-hand side of the centre, in order to get the fireplace of the end one against a 
 party- wall, as well as to maintain uniformity in the position of the doors and windows ; 
 by projecting the roof at the eaves, and forming pediment ends ; by introducing a string 
 
 426 
 
240 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTUIIE. 
 
 If such a line of cottages were erected in a country where fuel was dearer than 
 it is at Abersychan, it might be worth while to keep the floor of the wash-house three 
 feet lower than that of the dwellings, and to conduct the flues from the boilers and ovens 
 under the floors of the living-rooms, in the manner indicated in § 1^. Perhaps some 
 might think that it would be an improvement in our elevation, fig. 426, to bring the 
 windows of the living-rooms more into the middle of the space between the door and the 
 party-wall ; and also to bring the door to the back-kitchen into the middle of the space 
 between the passage door and that party-wall, as in figs. 428 and 429 ; and we grant it 
 
 429 
 
 
 ^ 428 j: 
 
 i- -f 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 n 
 
 n 
 
 IM n Q n _ 
 
 BE 
 
 would, looking no farther than mere symmetry : but in figs. 425 and 427 tl 
 spaces in the living-rooms at h, and also at i, in which a person may 
 be seated at work without being in the draught between any opening 
 and the fireplace ; and also in which tables or dressers might be 
 placed : but supposing the door of the back-kitchen and the front 
 window placed in the middle of their respective walls, as in fig. 429, 
 there will be no place for either table or dresser, and the 
 whole room will become, as observed by one of our correspondents 
 § 365, a complete " Temple of the Winds." Thus, though there 
 cannot be a doubt that, in point of architectural symmetry, the 
 elevation, fig. 428, is much more beautiful than fig. 426 ; yet, in 
 point of fitness, that is, with reference to the interior plan, the 
 latter is decidedly more beautiful than the former. Can there be a 
 doubt, then, which kind of beauty ought to be preferred, in cases 
 of this sort ? We say there cannot. The most useful is unqucf^- 
 tionably the most beautiful. When the question is between a 
 beauty belonging to the expression of art, and a beauty con- 
 nected with fitness for enjoyment, it is clear to us that the decision 
 ought to be in favour of the latter. The great object of the 
 Architect ought to be, to combine the two species of beauty ; but as 
 this cannot be done in every case, it is clear, that in judging of 
 a building merely by its exterior, unless we are intimately ac- 
 quainted with its use, we can only decide as to its symmetry, or 
 other architectural expression. To form a just taste in architec- 
 ture therefore, it is as necessary to study all the various purposes 
 to which the different parts of the interiors of buildings are applied ; 
 and the different modes of lighting, warming, and ventilating, of 
 supplying water and draining, of avoiding bad smells, damp, dry rot 
 &c., as it is to study the original or conventional beauty of lines and 
 forms. It may be useful to observe that the chimney tops in figs. 
 426 and 428 are formed by setting up four slate stones, such as 
 fig. 430, two about a foot, and two about eighteen inches broad, and all from three to four 
 
 feet . high ; firmly 
 flanching them to the 
 top of the chimney 
 shaft with cement, 
 and sometimes cramp- 
 ing them with iron 
 into each other. Over 
 these slates is placed 
 a two-feet square slab, 
 
 fig. 431 ; and on that a truncated pyramidal stone, fourteen or sixteen inches square 
 at the base, fig. 432. The handsomest cottage chimneys on the banks of tlie lakes of 
 Cumberland and Westmoreland are formed in this manner ; and we shall give specimens 
 of fome of them in the historical part of this work. 
 
 431 
 
COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 241 
 
 433 
 
 n 
 
 ' [j 
 [r 
 
 13X9 
 
 Design LXXIX. — Twelve or more Cottages in a Row, with a Kitchen, WasJi-house, and 
 other Conveniences, in common ; the whole heated hy the Fires in the public Kitchen. 
 
 486. The object of this Design is to show how the modes of heating under the ground 
 floor, and of having a common kitchen and wash-house, may be applied to a number of 
 houses together, so as to produce very comfortable dwellings at a very moderate expense. 
 By rendering fireplaces and chimneys unnecessary, not only is the expense of building 
 them avoided, but also that of employing any other material than mud or earth in any 
 part of the walls, or of having them, in any part, more than nine or ten feet high. It 
 will be evident, after considering this Design in detail, that the domestic labours of a 
 family living in one of these dwellings will be considerably diminished, and their com- 
 forts, at the same time, greatly increased. 
 
 487. Ground Plan of the public Offices. The dweUings and offices may be either erected 
 in a straight Line, or in a curved line ; or they may form two or more sides of a qua- 
 drangle. For so small a number as twelve, we prefer a straight line. At one end of this 
 line we place the common kitchen, fig. 433, a ; in which there are two ovens for baking 
 and roasting, b ; an open fireplace, c ; and three boilers for 
 cooking and washing, d. The floor of this kitchen is four feet 
 below the level of the floors of the dwellings, in order that flues 
 from the ovens, and also from the boilers and the open fireplace 
 in the centre, may be conducted under the floors of the drying- 
 room and sitting-rooms, for heating them. Two ovens are 
 shown, because, in the most severe weather in winter, the heat 
 from one oven may not be sufficient for the floors. There 
 are three boilers, in case of accident to one, and also because 
 one boiler may be required for washing or brewing, while the 
 others are being used, the one for boiling potatoes, and the 
 other for making soup. The open fireplace is for the cooking 
 of small articles by individuals. The roasting and baking is 
 supposed to be carried on in the ovens, and the boiling meat 
 chiefly in one of the boilers, in which also vegetables may be 
 introduced to form soup ; while another boiler may be devoted 
 exclusively to potatoes ; and the third to hot water. There 
 may be a large table, with benches along its sides, in the centre 
 of this kitchen, at which those who choose may dine. There 
 are a cellar, e, and a store-room, /, adjoining, in which potatoes 
 and other roots, flour, meal, barley, table-beer, &c,, may be kept 
 for sale to the occupiers. The common wash-house, g, is fitted 
 up with washing-troughs, from h to i; and there is a pipe of 
 hot water from the boiler in the kitchen, and another of cold 
 water from a cistern over the wash-house ; both which com- 
 municate by cocks with each trough. There is also a hole in 
 the bottom of each trough, with a stopper, for emptying its 
 contents into a common drain, connected with the cess-pool of 
 the water-closets. There may be one of Siebe's pumps in the 
 wash-house, where it would be completely protected from the 
 frost; and by this, the water might be raised from a well, 
 either in the floor of the wash-house, or at any convenient 
 distance from it, to the cistern. This cistern would also be 
 completely protected from the frost ; and from it a pipe might 
 be conducted along the upper part of the middle wall, which 
 separates the sitting-rooms from the bed-rooms of the dwellings, 
 so as to supply each house. Another pipe, with a ball cock, 
 will give a perpetual supply to the hot- water boiler ; from which 
 the water may be drawn for the use of the kitchen by one 
 cock, as it is in the wash-house by several. This boiler, in- 
 tended for the purpose of affijrding a perpetual supply of hot 
 water, should be raised considerably higher than the cooking 
 boilers, in order to supply the water at a sufficient height for 
 the washing-troughs ; the floor of the washing-house being on 
 a level with the floors of the dwellings, while that of the kitchen, 
 as already observed, is four feet below them. Adjoining the 
 wash-house is a drying-room, k, heated by the hottest part of 
 the flues which proceed from the ovens, the open fireplace, 
 and the boilers ; and, to increase this heat, a part of the flues 
 may be covered with cast-iron plates, over which may be a 
 false floor, one inch distant from them, so contrived as to create a draught 
 
 B B 
 
 zzmm 
 
 — 0- 
 
 mr: 
 
 f 
 
 on the 
 
242 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 principle before mentioned, § 306. There are two divisions of privies ; one for the 
 females and young children, I ; and the other for males, m. The drain, common to both, 
 is connected with three covered cess-pools, n, n, and o ; by which, with the aid of two 
 sluices or plugs, as described in § 16, s, the liquid manure in one tank^may be allowed to 
 ferment, while one of the others is being filled, and the third being emptied. Over these 
 cess-pools are two dung-pits, n n, and one pit for rubbish not convertible into manure, o. 
 
 488. Accommodations of each Dwelling. The entrance is by a lobby, p, in which there 
 is a sink with a water-cock at one corner, and the other corner may do for the tools, 
 brooms, &c. A door from this lobby opens into the living-room, g, which is of a com- 
 modious size, nineteen feet six inches by thirteen feet six inches. In this there is a place, 
 r, with a raised hearth for keeping food or water hot over a lamp, a little charcoal, or a 
 fire pail, there being a small flue formed of earthenware pipes, for carrying off the smoke. 
 This cooking place, however, is only intended to be made use of in case of family sick- 
 ness. Adjoining, there is a closet cupboard, s ; and at the opposite end of the room 
 there may be corner cupboards, a dresser, or any piece of furniture or kind of fitting 
 up the occupier may prefer or find necessary. There are three bed-rooms, t, u, v, the 
 largest for the master and mistress ; and the centre one, u, having the window down to 
 the floor, paneled below, and to open as a door. This door is to be considered as 
 exclusively for the use of the females. 
 
 489. The flues under the floors will be six in number, going from the three boilers 
 and the two ovens. We propose that the whole of these flues should be placed under the 
 floors of the living-rooms, and that all of them should go from the drying-room in direct 
 lines to tlie extreme end of the dwellings, each outgoing flue having a return flue along- 
 side of it. There will thus be six outgoing and six return flues ; which, covered with 
 one-foot tiles, will serve as flooring to the whole of the living-rooms. In order to prevent 
 the smoke from rising between the joints, narrow slips of slate must be laid under each ; 
 or, what would make a warmer floor, the whole should be covered with cement, or arti- 
 ficial stone composition. As heat will not be required under any of the floors during the 
 summer season, except that of the drying-room, it is proposed to have all the upright 
 flues in the party wall between the drying-room and the first dwelling, and to have two 
 communications with each of these upright flues, one from the outgoing flue immediately 
 under it, and the other from the return flue of the same outgoing flue. By having a damper 
 in the first, the smoke might be either sent round the horizontal flues, for the purpose of 
 heating the dwellings ; or, when heat was not wanted, allowed to escape through the 
 upright flues. These dampers will thus serve to regulate the heat supplied to the floors 
 of the dwellings ; and, in the end of spring and the beginning of autumn, when only a 
 little heat is wanting, some of the dampers can be drawn out ; while in winter, when a 
 maximum of heat is required, they can all be pushed in. The dampers will also be 
 useful when first lighting the fires in the mornings ; because withdrawing them will 
 create a draught. The number of dwellings, which it is supposed these flues might heat, 
 with no other fuel than what was required for the cooking and washing of the occupants, 
 is here estimated at twelve ; but, if the houses were placed on a slope, the fires at the 
 lower end, and the upright flues at the upper end ; the outgoing horizontal flues having 
 no returns, the number would no doubt be greater. Much will depend on the kind of 
 fuel used, and on care being taken to let no air pass into the flues from the furnaces or 
 ovens, that has not entered by the ash-pit doors, and ascended through the fires ; and 
 also, that, when no fires require to be made, the furnaces, ovens, and ash-pit doors 
 are kept closely shut. The best fuel for heating flues is that which burns the quickest, 
 such as faggot wood, spray, shavings, &c. ; and when once heated they ought to be closely 
 shut up, to prevent a draught of air from cooling them. 
 
 490. Construction. We have shown all the outside and party walls as eighteen inches 
 thick, and the partition walls as one foot thick, on the supposition that it would be 
 cheapest to build them in mud or rammed earth : there will thus be no brickwork 
 required, but for the ovens, fireplaces, and flues. The walls may be finished inside 
 according to the taste or means of the party. The roof may be of thatch, or whatever 
 material is cheapest in the given locality ; it ought to project at least three feet on every 
 side, as well for protection of the walls, as to 
 form a covering to the terrace path, which 
 will form the common passage from all the 
 dwellings to the offices ; and also to save 
 the expense of gutters. In the roof of each 
 dwelling there should be an opening of two 
 or three inches square over the raised hearth, 
 corresponding with a similar one in the 
 ceiling under it, to admit the escape of 
 ^moke, when a lamp, embers, or charcoal, 
 
COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 
 
 happened to be used in the heating place. The opening in the roof may be simply a pan- 
 tile with a covered hole, fig. 434, such as are common in the neighbourhood of London. 
 If thought necessary, a small flue to each cooking place could easily be made by earthen- 
 ware tubes, ten inches or a foot in diameter, such as fig. 435, with a cap to keep off the 
 rain, fig. 436. These tubes are common in all potteries, and are 
 435 sold in the neighbourhood of London at only from ninepence to 
 
 tenpence per foot. The same description of tubes, twelve or 
 thirteen inches in diameter, may be used in forming the six 
 upright flues to the six fires, which will thus render brickwork 
 unnecessary for them, except at the dampers, and for the 
 chimney shafts. All the window casements may be of iron, and 
 all the doors ledged ; and no window shutters can be required 
 where there is perfect security, and abundance of heat. Warm 
 curtains of some cheap worsted stuff in winter, and calico blinds 
 in summer, will be found preferable. The privies are not proposed 
 to be made water-closets ; but to prevent the rising of smell, a 
 description of cheap basin and trap may be used, such as fig. 437, 
 
 manufactured at the common tile potteries about London, and sold by retail at 2s 6d. 
 each ; or fig. 438, which has a hole for a water-pipe at w, 
 and forms altogether a very complete trap ; these are also 
 made at the tile works, and are sold at 5s. each. It will 
 be understood that the upper part, x, of fig. 438. is a 
 separate vessel, of a funnel shape, and that the lower part, 
 y, is a basin with a soil pipe, z ; and that when the fimnel 
 is placed in this basin, it must be so adjusted as to have its 
 truncated extremity reach to within two or three inches 
 of the bottom. As this funnel, from its construction, 
 must then necessarily remain immersed in water as high 
 as the under part of the soil pipe or discharge tube, z, 
 it is evident that no smell can rise through the funnel. 
 When X has been properly adjusted to y, it must be made 
 air-tight with cement. 
 
 491. General Estimate. The cost of these dwellings 
 will evidently depend much on the price of common country labour ; for the work of 
 the carpenter and joiner is very limited, and still more so that of the bricklayer. From 
 a rough calculation made for us by an experienced surveyor, it appears that the whole of 
 the twelve dwellings, with the requisite offices complete, as shown in the plan, might 
 be executed, where common labourers' wages are 10s. a week, for about ^^500 ; which 
 averages less than ^"50 a dwelling. 
 
 492. Remarks. Wherever this plan is proposed to be carried into execution, choice 
 should be made of a dry soil, because that will greatly lessen the expense of the footings 
 to the mud walls, to the flues, and to the platform. It must not be forgotten, also, that a 
 level spot is to be preferred, unless one of a uniform slope is obtained, and the number 
 of dwellings increased so as not to require the flues to be returned. We have no doubt 
 that in many situations, perhaps in most, it would be least expensive to form all the flues of 
 thirteen-inch tubes, so close together as to touch each other, supported on brick or stone 
 piers, filling up the interstices above them, and levelling the surface so as to form a com- 
 fortable floor over them with concrete (gravel and mortar), and the flooring composition 
 before mentioned, § 386. These, and every other description of flue in this position, 
 the direction being straight, may Ibe easily cleaned, which they ought to be at least four 
 
^44 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 times a year, by first pushing a slight line through them, by means of a series of hazel 
 rods, or rods of any kind, tied one to another as inserted, and afterwards with this line 
 introducing a rope, to which a bunch of straw is attached. Not one tile of any of the 
 floors would require to be disturbed, but merely the ends of the flues opened, by taking 
 out foot tiles, built in so as to be convenient for that purpose. The farther ends of all 
 these flues will necessarily be on the outside of the gable end of the last dwelling, and 
 the other ends will either form the throats of the ovens and furnaces, or they may termi- 
 nate in the drying-room, close under the dampers, where their covering tiles may be 
 taken up. It would save some trouble, if, when each flue was built, a copper wire were 
 laid in it, extended from one end to the other. This might always be employed, when 
 they were being swept, to draw througli a rope. It may be thought that a line of build- 
 ings of this description, fig. 439, with no chimneys but in one place, would be rather 
 
 mean than ornamental ; but that difficulty would be easily overcome, and would speedily 
 be so, if such dwellings were found as comfortable and economical as we consider they 
 would be. By employing tiles of any of the Italian forms for the roof, by heightening the 
 architectural expression of the walls, and by surrounding the whole with a light zinc-roofed 
 veranda supported by iron columns, the whole might be rendered elegant, as well as 
 comfortable ; not to speak of the additional beauty which might be given by ornamental 
 shrubs and flowers, and by the gardens. In countries where grapes ripen in the open 
 air, the whole roof might be covered with vines ; and in colder climates, even apples, 
 pears, cherries, or plum trees, might be trained over it in the same manner. 
 
 Eighty DweUings of the humblest Class, placed together, with a View 
 \f One common Fire, and enjoying other Benefits, on the Cooperative 
 
 Design LXXX. - 
 of being heated 
 System. 
 
 493. General Purpose. Our able contributors, Mr. Laxton and Mr. Taylor, have 
 shown, § 290 and § 481, how six labourers' families may live together under one roof, 
 and use, in common, the same wash-house, oven, drying-closet, well, &c. ; and we have, 
 in both cases, suggested how the six dwellings may be heated from one fire. In our last 
 Design, we have extended the idea of a common kitchen, wash-house, and other offices, 
 to twelve dwellings, and shown how they might all be heated from the fires which must 
 necessarily be kept in these offices, for cooking and washing. We now intend to show 
 an extension of the principle, so as to include any number of dwellings, with common 
 offices for cooking, washing, baking, brewing, bathing, &c. ; and, instead of employing 
 common smoke flues, as in our last Design, for heating the whole, to adopt, for that pur- 
 pose, steam or hot water. Mankind are beginning to allow that society is in its infancy, 
 and that " the grand secret of its improvement is in union and cooperation ;" although, 
 as the writer in the New Monthly Magazine, from whom these words are quoted, ob- 
 serves, Mr. Owen, the founder of the cooperative system, may be laughed at in the 
 mean time by those who do not comprehend his doctrine. Our object, in giving this 
 Design, is to show the application of the cooperative principle in what may be called a 
 college of mud houses, for the humblest class of country labourers ; by which it will 
 appear, that, by such a plan, their comforts, compared to what they enjoy at present, even 
 in the best districts of Britain, may be increased in an almost incredible degree. We 
 shall not go very minutely into details ; because we are aware that the labouring classes 
 
COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 
 
 245 
 
 themselves must be rendered alive to the benefits which would result to them from adopt- 
 ing plans of this kind, before they can be carried into execution with much prospect of 
 success. Good, however, will result from making such plans known, because it wUl 
 prepare the way for them in the minds of the rising generation. 
 
 494. Locality. The place where such an assemblage of buildings ought to be erected 
 must depend on the kind of labour supplied by the occupants, and the demand for it. 
 Such a Design as the present would answer best in the immediate neighbourhood of a 
 large manufactory, or, in a mining district ; or, in short, wherever mankind are employed 
 in masses : but it would also answer for a central situation in an agricultural district, 
 where the mimber of hands required was such, that none of the eighty men supposed to 
 be here congregated together would require to walk more than a mile to and from their 
 work morning and evening. In the neighbourhood of a large town like London, such 
 a working man's college might be set down, though at a distance of several miles ; be- 
 cause there is always abundance of public conveyances to carry the occupants to and 
 from their work, and others might be started, either by individuals or by the college 
 itself, to carry a greater number, and at a cheaper rate. In the best cultivated districts 
 of Scotland, where the farms are large, it is the custom, during harvest, and we believe 
 also during the turnip-hoeing season, to carry the labourers to the field and back again 
 in carts ; the same thing is also done with the colliers in the coal districts of Staffordshire, 
 and has been lately adopted with the letter-carriers in London. Why, then, might not 
 even an agricultural college, and much more a manufacturing or a mining one, support a 
 public carriage for the accommodation of those of its inmates who had to go the greatest 
 distance to their work ? Such a college must always have a certain portion of land for 
 the growth of ciilinary vegetables, &c., the culture of which would fill up aU the spare 
 time of the horses and their driver. 
 
 495. Situation. Whatever may be the locality of such working-man's coUege, the 
 situation ought to be dry and elevated ; and the summit of a regular knoll, or a level 
 spot, will always be found preferable to an irregular surface, on account of the greater 
 
 440 
 
246 
 
 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 441 
 
 facilities which it affords for heating and supplying water to every separate dwelling. 
 The aspect of this and of all similar buildings ought to be such as that the sun may shine 
 on every front nearly every day in the year. 
 
 496. General Form. In all cases where economy is a leading 
 object, the quadrangular form presents itself as the best. 
 When the number of dwellings is few, as in Mr. Laxton's 
 plan, fig. 267, or that of Mr. Taylor, fig. 424, or in a plan 
 which we made in 1818, for a London college for working 
 men (see Mech. Mag., vol. xvi. p. 321), the whole of the 
 buildings may be under one roof, and several floors may be 
 formed one over another, and ascended to by stairs, or, as we 
 proposed in the plan alluded to, by an inclined plane. In 
 Design LXXX., however, we intend to have all the buildings 
 only one story high, as cheapest, and as admitting of their being 
 built of mud, or of compressed earth, chiefly by the occupants 
 themselves. 
 
 497. General Arrangement. In the quadrangular plan, fig. 
 440, we have shown in the centre the public oflices of the 
 college, which include one fireplace, from which all the artificial 
 lieat required proceeds, and the public kitchen, store-rooms, 
 (lining-rooms, schools, &c. In the circumference we have 
 placed eight lines of dwellings ; every line containing ten 
 dwellings marked 1 to 10, of four apartments in each, similarly 
 arranged to the dwellings in the preceding Design. At the 
 angles, a a a a, are water-closets ; those entered from the inner 
 side for the women and female children and infants, and 
 those from the outer side for the men and boys. There is 
 one carriage road, c d, which passes through the centre of the 
 quadrangle, and two walks, e and/, which connect the centre 
 with the circumference, at right angles with the carriage road. 
 Both the central buildings and the outer quadrangle are 
 raised on platforms ; and the roof of the outer quadrangle is 
 supposed to project at least three feet outwards from the walls, 
 in order to give a dry path, at all times, along both sides of the 
 dwellings. The four enclosed areas, g, h, i, k, may be devoted 
 to public gardens and play-grounds. Exterior to the qua- 
 drangle, each dwelling is proposed to have a small grass plot or 
 flower-garden, I, the width of its front, and about fifty feet in 
 depth ; beyond which there may be a circumferential walk, m ; 
 and, beyond that, gardens for fruit, flowers, and amusement, 
 to each house, n. Last of all may come the vegetable ground, 
 and dairy and poultry farm, belonging to the college, with its 
 cow-house, stable, piggery, poultry-house, &c. 
 
 498. Arrangement of the public Offices. The most important 
 of these is the fire and fuel room, fig. 441, o, in which all the 
 artificial heat required either for cooking, washing, drying, 
 &c., in the public offices, or for heating or cookery in the 
 private dwellings, is generated ; and from which it is dis- 
 tributed in the manner hereafter described. Adjoining this 
 is the public kitchen and bakehouse, p, in which the roasting 
 is supposed to be done in an oven, heated, of course, by the 
 common fire in o ; and in which there is also a baking oven, 
 which may be either heated in a similar manner, or by Per- 
 kins's hot- water apparatus, which is connected with the common 
 fire, and by which all the heat requisite for boiling, stewing, 
 and similar culinary operations, is supposed to be supplied 
 
 to the kitchen in small iron tubes of hot water and steam under compression, 
 and raised to a temperature of from 300° to 400°. The same mode is proposed 
 to be adopted for conveying heat to every public oflSce and private dwelling. Ad- 
 joining the kitchen are, a scullery, g; dairy, r; larder and pantry, s; store-room, potato 
 and root cellar, u u ; brewhouse, with beer-cellar under, v ; drying-room, to ; wash-house, 
 x; dining-rooms, y y; oflEice for keeping the college accounts, and public library, z; 
 infant school, a ; boy's school, &; girl's school, c; bath for boys, d; and for girls, e. The 
 mash tub may be in the upper part of the brewhouse, and the water may be boiled in it, 
 by a pipe from PeiJdns's heating apparatus; from this the liquor may be let down into 
 successive coolers, and working vats, till it is at last delivered by a funnel and pipe 
 
COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 247 
 
 to the different barrels in the cellar, as is done in the brewhouse of the Bush Inn, 
 at Dudley. Adjoining the brewhouse is an apartment, u, with a cellar under it, for 
 keeping potatoes and other roots; the upper part being devoted to fruits, herbs, and 
 seeds. At this extremity of the building are the baths, &c. The two dining-rooms are 
 each forty feet by twenty-five feet, which will afford space for two tables in each room 
 four feet broad by twenty feet long; and these, with side-tables along the sides of the 
 rooms, will dine 1 60 persons at once, in the two rooms. The entrance to these rooms 
 is direct from the kitchen, and they are supposed to be surrounded by a sideboard shelf, 
 one foot broad, above the dining-board, which may be two feet in breadth. The four 
 detached tables are also supposed to have narrow elevated shelves, ininning along their 
 centres, on which may be placed plates, and various articles, to which the party at table 
 may help themselves, and thus lessen the labour of waiting. The tables may have a 
 strip of iron along their margins immediately under the Kne of plates, and this iron may 
 be easily kept hot during dinner by a very small pipe of hot water passing under it ; thus 
 preserving the food of each individual quite hot while being eaten. The office and public 
 library, infant school, and the two Lancasterian schools for the older boys and girls, which, 
 when not occupied by the children, may serve as lecture-rooms, places of public discussion, 
 &c., may be heated by hot- water pipes from the common fire ; as will the water in the baths, 
 which it is supposed will be in use every day for washing the children. These bath rooms 
 may, if requisite, be easily fiUed with steam, medicated or otherwise, for the benefit of 
 rheumatic patients, and along their sides there may be long troughs, with forms beside 
 them, for the larger children to sit on while washing their feet; and into these troughs 
 hot or cold water may be admitted by cocks, and drawn off in the same manner by a 
 waste pipe, which will convey it to the manure tanks. A similar process to this, for 
 washing children's feet, is practised at Christ's Hospital, London. The chimney of the 
 grand central fire may serve at the same time as a tower for a turret clock, which should 
 have four faces, and be placed so high as to be seen fi-om the inner windows of all the 
 dwellings. It should be made to play chimes at certain hours, such as the time of 
 rising, of taking meals, of going to school, &c. &c. ; and at night the dials should be 
 illuminated. In this tower there might also be a bell, for ringing on extraordinary 
 occasions. In the fire house there may be a small two-horse power steam engine, which, 
 by very simple machinery, may communicate with the kitchen, to work a kneading 
 machine, a machine for chopping meat, breaking sugar, mashing potatoes, &c. ; with the 
 wash-house, to work the washing and wringing machine ; with the scullery, for washing 
 potatoes and other roots ; with the knife and shoe house, for setting in motion a knife- 
 cleaner (see Mech. Mag., vol. ii. p. 409.), shoe-brusher (as at the Angel Inn, Oxford), 
 a coat beater and brusher, &c. ; with the drying-room, for working a mangle ; with the 
 dairy, for churning and breaking the curd of cheese, &c. ; and, when employed in none 
 of these offices, in turning a small bone-crusher, to prepare bones for making soup, and 
 in raising water to a cistern over the scuUery, placed on exactly the same level as the 
 four cisterns placed over the four angular water-closets, and communicating with them 
 in such a manner that there should always be the same depth of water in all the five 
 cisterns. From the central cistern there should be pipes for conveying it to all the dif- 
 ferent offices, including even the dining-rooms and the schools ; and to each cock there 
 ought to be a smaU sink, communicating with a conunon drain leading to one of the four 
 angular cess-pools. Many other modes of applying the power of the steam engine to 
 domestic purposes will doubtless suggest themselves in practice. We have omitted to 
 introduce a gajjometer ; because, though we believe that in towns gas might be advan- 
 tageously employed for the purposes of cooking and heating, as well as lighting, yet, for 
 a college of so humble a description, it might involve more expense and trouble than it 
 would be desirable to incur. Neither do we consider the steam engine, nor the various 
 machines which it is intended to set in motion, as at aU essential to the plan ; but we 
 have suggested them, because, in many parts of the country, in the mining districts for 
 example, the rate of wages is sufficiently high to allow of their introduction, and every 
 one, in such districts, understands their management. The only feature in the way of 
 apparatus, that is essentially necessary, is that of Perkins, for heating by hot water; and 
 the reason why we consider this essential is, that it will convey to each of the eighty 
 dwellings a higher degree of heat than can possibly be done by steam, and this at a 
 cheaper rate, than by any other mode at present known. But if the idea ofiUndividuals 
 ever cooking any thing for themselves in their own dwellings, or preserving any thing 
 there at a higher temperature than 180°, is given up, which we think it very well might 
 be, as the public kitchen is at a convenient distance for supplying hot water, &c., to all; 
 then, instead of Perkins's apparatus for circulating hot water at a temperature of 300°, 
 steam might be circulated at the ordinary temperature of 180° and upwards. The 
 apparatus for this purpose would not be so cheap as that of Perkins, but it would be 
 more easily put up, and kept in repair, in remote districts. In putting up a steam 
 
^^48 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 apparatus, it must be kept in view, for the sake of economy, that all the mains may be of 
 small half-inch pipe, which does not cost above 3c?. or 4d. a foot, while the haating pipes 
 under the floor of each dwelling, in order to give them abundant power, may be of six 
 or eight inches in diameter. In the management of steam, with a view to economy, it 
 should always be remembered, that it differs from water in this, that the mains may 
 always be exceedingly small, however large may be the service pipes. Where steam is 
 to be conveyed to a distance, this is a very great advantage. 
 
 499. Arrangement of the Dwellings. These, as before stated, are in eight divisions ; 
 by referring to the plan, fig. 440, it will be seen that the limits of each row of ten 
 dwellings is determined by the carriage or foot entrance to the offices, at 10, at one end; 
 and by the public water-closets, at a, at the other. We shall show, in succession, the 
 mode of heating, and of supplying one of these divisions with water, the construction 
 of the water-closets and manure tanks, and the drainage. 
 
 500. For heating each line of Dwellings, a steam or hot-water main proceeds direct 
 from the central fire, to the end of the line, at 10. If steam be used, the main is there 
 connected with two cast-iron jiipes, the one under tlie floors of the living-rooms, six 
 inches in diameter ; and the other, under the floors of the bed-rooms, three inches in 
 diameter. The main, and these pipes, must be laid with a gradual inclination from the 
 boiler to the further extremity of the water-closets, which it also heats ; and there each 
 pipe must have a small return tube, gradually descending from that point to the boiler, 
 to admit of the condensed water running back of itself. The mains, between the boiler 
 and the dwellings, will be placed isolated within earthenware pipes ; and tliese, and the 
 return pipes of condensed water, will be included in a dry drain, filled with charcoal or 
 coke. All the difference of level requisite to return the condensed water need not be 
 more than one foot ; so that, if this drain be two feet deep, the pipes will be sufficiently 
 protected from the influence of frost. Under the floors of the dwellings, the drain need 
 not be above ten inches broad and one foot deep, and it may be covered with one-foot 
 tiles ; or, the tubes may be made square, and their upper surface may serve as part of the 
 floor, as suggested in fig. 282, for Laxton's small college, § 290 ; and also in § 489, for 
 our college of twelve families. Should Perkins's hot-water apparatus be preferred to steam, 
 common gas pipe may be used throughout, both for the mains and service pipes. A 
 description of this mode of heating will be found in the Repertory for Pate?it Inventions, 
 for March, 1832, and a more particular account in the Gardener's Magazine, vol. viii. 
 p. 292, by Mr. Perkins himself. Should Mr. Perkins's apparatus be adopted, there 
 
 442 
 
COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 
 
 249 
 
 may, in the living-room of each dwelling, be what may be called a hot plate, connected 
 with it ; that is, a branch pipe may rise from the pipe in the floor, and terminate at top 
 in a piece of cast iron, say of a foot or eighteen inches in diameter, like a small table, or 
 like the raised hearths common in the kitchens abroad. The temperature of the upper 
 surface of this table, when the apparatus was at work, would be between 250° and 300° ; 
 and, consequently, it would boil water, broil meat or fish, toast bread, and perform every 
 office of cookery, with the exception of roasting. This table would be most conveniently 
 placed in a closet or cupboard, which might correspond, in situation with the ordinary 
 fireplace of a kitchen, so that it could be shut up at pleasure, and especially during sum- 
 mer, when the heat escaping from it might render the room too warm. In the roof of 
 this closet there should be an opening in the ceiling, communicating with the open ail- 
 through the roof, by means of a tile or slate with a hole, as shown fig. 434, § 490, to 
 permit the escape of steam and smell. 
 
 501. Supply of Water. From a cistern thirty feet long, and five or six feet broad, 
 over the water-closets, a lead pipe should be conducted along the bottom of the same 
 channel which contains the steam or hot-water pipe ; and from this, in each house, a 
 branch pipe may rise, and terminate in a cock over a sink, either in the cooking closet, 
 or in the entrance lobby adjoining, as at p, in fig. 433. In order that this cold-water 
 pipe may not receive any heat from the hot- water or steam pipe above it, it should be 
 laid at least a foot deeper, and covered with soil. 
 
 502. Water-closets, Manure Tanks, and Drainage. The situation of these is at the 
 four angles of the quadrangle ; and each is arranged, as shovm in fig. 442 ; in which / 
 is the range of closets for women and infants, and g the range for men and boys : h h 
 indicate the situations of two tanks communicating with the cesspool, common to both 
 ranges of closets. By means of a hole, with a stopper, at one side of the roof of each 
 tank, it may be emptied by one of Shalders's pumps. There are drains directly under 
 all the channels containing the steam or hot- water service pipes and mains, which convey 
 the waste water from the public offices, and from all the sinks of the private dwellings, 
 as well as all the water which falls on the surface, in equal parts, to the four cesspools 
 of the water-closets. Thus an imniense quantity of liquid manure will be formed. 
 Wherever the surface water is allowed to enter one of these drains, a stink-trap must 
 be used, to prevent the rising of smell. Of these there are many sorts very cheap ; one 
 of terro-metalUc earth, made by Peake before mentioned, 443 
 
 is of great strength and durability, and costs only 9d. ; ^^-'■'''^'~\ 
 another, fig. 443, made in the tile- works about London, ^^--""^'^ \^ 
 and very suitable for the sides of gravel walks, as the top 1 '^^-^ 
 
 lifts off, to admit of cleaning out the sand or rubbish \\ 
 which may have lodged in the bottom of the trap, costs I ^^r^^^^l^ ! 
 only Qd. Over and adjoining each manure tank there is >v j 
 a place, i, for rubbish convertible into manure; and 
 another smaller space, k, for broken crockery, &c., and such 
 
 other kinds of rubbish as can be only useful in repairing roads, filling up pits, or making 
 drains. 
 
 503. The Plan of each Dwelling we propose to be the same as that already detailed in 
 fig. 433, § 487, for our smaller working-man's college, Design LXXIX. 
 
 504. Construction of the Dwellings. The walls and partitions of the whole of the 
 private dwellings may be of earth, plastered over internally and lined, and coloured in 
 imitation of stone externally. For this purpose the outside and party walls are shown 
 eighteen inches in thickness, and the partition walls a foot. As no chimneys are required, 
 and no second story, nothing can be more simple and economical than the construction 
 of these walls. The floor may be formed of loose stones, gravel, or whatever material of 
 the kind inay be most conveniently had ; and its upper surface may either be paved, or 
 covered with a mixture of lime and gravel, mixed while the lime is yet hot, and spread 
 out over the rough materials, and immediately beaten perfectly smooth. This mixture 
 IS called by London builders concrete, and, when covered with a thin coating of cement, 
 forms an excellent flooring for either bed-rooms or sitting-rooms. The roof, as there is 
 a central wall, need not be expensive ; strong tie-beams may be dispensed with, by having 
 the ceiling joists of somewhat larger dimensions than usual, so as to project three feet at 
 the eaves ; and by carrying up the central walls so as to serve as king-posts. The covering 
 may be thatch, or whatever is cheapest ; and unless the rain water be an object, there 
 need be no gutters to the roof, as without them the water will drop on the slope of the 
 terrace, which may be paved with pebbles, below which there may be a gutter, and under 
 It a drain communicating with the main drains. The windows may be iron casements 
 of the simplest kind, and without either inside or outside shutters ; curtains, as before 
 observed, § 490, where there is perfect security and an abundant supply of heat, forming 
 a very good substitute. 
 
 c c 
 
^50 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 505. Construction of the public Offices. All the walling, with the exception of that of 
 the central chimney and clock turret, may be of earth. The chimney and tower must be 
 built of stone or bricks. All the flooring may be formed in the same manner as that of 
 the private dwellings. The baths may be simply square tanks, lined with Roman cement. 
 The roof should project as in the private dwellings, as well for the protection of the 
 walls, as to give a dry path completely round the whole, for the purpose of communicat- 
 ing from one door to another. Other details need not be entered into : the oven may 
 be Hicks's patent one, desci'ibed in the Mech. Mag., vol. xiv. p. 417; the kneading 
 machine, one of several also described in the same work ; and the turret-clock may be of 
 wood, a clock of that material being little more than half the price of one of metal (see 
 Mech. Mag., vol. iv. p. 142); the washing and wringing machine may be one manufac- 
 tured by Weir, to be hereafter figured and described. 
 
 506. General Estimate. The expense of each dwelling, steam or hot-water pipe and 
 cold-water pipe included, would, in most parts of the country, not exceed ^50 ; and the 
 expense of furniture to the occu]iier would evidently be less than in the case of single 
 cottages; because vessels for cooking, baking, brewing, washing, &c., would be unneces- 
 sary. The expense of the greater number of the apartments, constituting the public 
 oflfices, would be about the same, per cubic foot, as that of the private dwellings. The 
 most expensive would be the fire-house and the kitchen. The different apparatus and 
 machines would form a considerable item, because no part of the work connected with 
 them could be done by the occupants themselves. Exclusive of the heating apparatus, 
 and of the machines, and furniture of the public offices, the whole quadrangle might, in 
 all probability, be completed for between £-"3000 and £4000; and £1000 more would 
 supply all the machines, furniture, and fittings-up for the public offices. 
 
 507. The general appearance of such a working man's college as that we have just 
 described will be simple, but not inelegant, as will be seen by the isometrical elevation, 
 lig. 444. Much of the beauty and interest of the whole will depend on the keeping of 
 
 n. 30 0 ?0 60 90 120 H 
 
 the gardens, and the cultivation of the farm ; and much of the enjoyment of the occupants, 
 on the building being placed on an elevated situation, commanding extensive prospects on 
 all sides. 
 
 508. Remarks. Though we have recommended a quadrangle as the preferable form 
 for a large working college in the country ; yet there is no form which may not be adapted 
 to this purpose, with advantages approaching more or less to those possessed by the 
 quadrangle. One continued line along a road or river, up a steep hill, or across a slope, 
 provided always that the floors of all the dwellings were in one plane, whether level or 
 inclined, would answer perfectly. In such cases the general fire must always be placed 
 at the lower end, and the general cistern for supplying cold water at the higher end, for 
 obvious reasons. Even in a scattered village, if the floors of the houses were either 
 nearly on one plane, or nearly on a level, they might all be heated from one fire ; and 
 their inhabitants might all have their cookery and washing performed in the same kitchen 
 and laundry. Indeed, if Busby's mode of circulating hot water below the level of the 
 boiler, by mechanical means, were adopted, the floors of all the houses might be heated, 
 however different might be their levels. It would be easy to bring together double the 
 
COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 251 
 
 number of fanailies in a quadrangle of the same dimensions as fig. 444, by diminishing 
 the ground area of each dwelling one half, and raising a story over it, for completing the 
 requisite accommodation. A second range of dwellings forty or fifty feet beyond the first, 
 so as to form a double quadrangle, would give 1 20 additional dwellings of the same size 
 and arrangement as those in fig. 440, making in all 200 ; and 400 might be obtained by 
 having two stories. The situation of the dwellings of such an outer quadrangle is indi- 
 cated by the dotted lines, marked one to fifteen, in fig. 440. The mode of having a 
 double quadrangle would in general be much more economical than raising the buildings 
 three or four stories high, and thus rendering a heating-pipe necessary for the living- 
 rooms on the third story. In buildings of two stories, there would be no occasion for 
 any other heating-pipe than that on the ground-floor ; because the heat would readily 
 ascend from that to the bed-rooms. If the occupants were to agree to dine at three 
 separate hours, and to breakfast and sup in their own houses, no additional dining-rooms 
 would be required ; and the only alteration in the public offices would be an enlarge- 
 ment of the schools. Much more might be said on the subject of this Design, and on 
 the immense advantages which would result from working men's colleges, to the labour- 
 ing classes of every description ; but the rising generation must be prepared for such 
 a result by education. The first step towards living together in communities is being 
 educated together in Infant and Lancasterian schools. In the mean time, those who 
 have entered into the subject will be aware, that, by enlarging the separate dwellings, 
 and using a superior description of materials and finishing in their construction, this plan 
 might be rendered suitable for persons of any income ; even so large as to require a set 
 of stables and coach-houses, assembly rooms, a theatre, walled gardens, conservatories, hot- 
 houses, pleasure grounds, and a park. The principle is the same in all, — that of produc- 
 ing in masses, by machinery, and by a division of labour, what has hitherto been effected 
 in scattered fragments, by manual labour, and by every individual family for itself ; and 
 the advantages are, that by the cooperative system each member of the community ob- 
 tains a much greater portion of comfort and enjoyment for a given sum or quantity of 
 labour, than he could possibly have done singly. It would be foreign from this work to 
 enter more fully into the subject, and we refer our readers to its enthusiastic advocate, 
 Mr. Owen, and to an able exposition of the cooperative principle, as applicable to persons 
 possessing from ^^500 to ^1000 a year, given in the paper before referred to, in the New 
 Monthly Magazine for August, 1832. 
 
 Design LXXXI. — A Portable Cottage for the Use of Emigrants and others, 
 
 509. The principal object of this portable cottage is, to supply emigrants with comfort- 
 able and secure lodgings immediately on their arrival at a foreign settlement. It is 
 well known that in all new countries the rent of houses or lodgings is extremely high : 
 it follows, therefore, that when an emigrant arrives with his family at the sea-port town 
 of the country where he is to be put in possession of a grant of land, he must take a 
 lodging for his family and goods ; probably for some weeks, or even months, till he has 
 visited the interior of the country, examined it, and fixed upon the situation of his future 
 residence. A single room at Hobart Town, in 1830, was often let at <£l a week ; hence 
 it may be easily conceived that a portable cottage, like that given in this Design, which 
 costs in London ^50, will afford, though only containing two rooms, a considerable 
 saving to a family of three or four persons of diflferent sexes. Security from thieves, and 
 protection from vermin, are also other recommendations. 
 
 510. As secondary uses of a portable cottage, we may mention, that it may be carried 
 in ships making long voyages, for the pui-pose of being set up on shore wherever any 
 stay is made, either for the benefit of invalids, or the use of scientific persons ; that it 
 may be employed as a shooting-box, wherever there are tolerable roads, as it weighs little 
 more than a ton, and might therefore be easily drawn by one horse. (It weighs about 
 three tons ship's measurement, which is forty cubic feet to a ton ; but as a cubic foot of 
 Baltic fir timber weighs only thirty-four pounds, even if the 140 feet forming the three 
 ship's tons were solid, the weight would be little more than one hundred weight and a 
 half. Not being solid, it is found not to weigh so much by half a hundred weight. ) 
 Where public works are going on in any remote district, one of these cottages would form 
 a very convenient dwelling for the overseer ; and, being put on six wheels, might be 
 moved forward as the work proceeded. When that stupendous undertaking. Napoleon's 
 road over the Simplon, was being executed, the chief engineer, a general of high rank, 
 lived in a portable cottage, about ten feet square, which was carried forward by men, 
 from one position to another, as required ; and the remains of which we saw in 1819, at 
 a village near to where the road commences in the Valais, on the Swiss side of the 
 mountain. A party exploring a river in any country, and wishing to study the natural 
 history of the country on each side, or even to shoot and fish, would, if they had such a 
 
252 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 cottage in their boat with them, find it a source of great comfort, as it could be put up 
 by a man and a boy in two hours, and taken down again in even less time. 
 
 511. The Accommodation of such a dwelling is limited to two rooms, as in fig. 445 (to 
 
 445 
 
 a scale of three inches and one eighth to twenty feet), each twelve feet by twelve feet, and 
 eight feet high in the clear. One of the rooms may have an iron stove, c, at one corner ; the 
 pipe from which may l)e carried up within a square iron or wooden tube, with a vacuity 
 of two or three inches between, in order to prevent the risk of setting fire to the tarpaw- 
 ling, which serves as the temporary roof. If necessary on account of cold, the stove 
 might be i)laced in tlie partition between the two rooms, so as to heat both ; or a tube 
 from it might be carried roimd or along one side of either or both apartments. In 
 general, however, horizontal pijjes will be unnecessary, and one upright tube for carrying 
 off the smoke will be found quite sufficient. 'Die whole of the stove should be of 
 wrought iron, for lightness. 
 
 512. Construction. The foundation of this structure consists of four sleepers, fig. 446, 
 
 446 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^= 'tj7- 1. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 d 
 
 
 
 
 
 3 C 
 
 
 
 1 f 
 
 1 i' 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 d d d d, each thirteen feet long, and five inches deep by three inches wide. On these 
 are placed grooved bottom plates, e e e e, forming the foundations of the flooring, of 
 the outside walls, and of the partition. These plates are formed of pieces, five inches 
 broad, and three inches deep, laid flatwise, grooved along the upper side, to receive the 
 bottom rails of the paneled frames which form the walls of the cottage. These plates 
 are let into the sleepers in the manner shown by fig. 447 (to a scale of three eighths of an 
 inch to an inch). In this figure, / is the sleeper ; g, the bottom plate ; h, the corner post 
 let into it, in which is fixed a screw-nut, for being taken hold of by a screw-bolt that passes 
 through the bottom plate so that by means of a bed- wrench applied at i it can be screwed 
 perfectly tight. The corner posts are eight feet six inches long, and three inches by 
 
COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 253 
 
 three inches on the sides. There are seven intermediate posts, and three posts in the 
 partition, each of which is three inches and a half on one side, and two inches and a 
 quarter on the other. There are five joists, each five inches by two inches, which are 
 joggled on to the sleei^ers aaid to the bottom plate, as shown in fig. 448 (to a scale of 
 
 448 
 
 tTe nt. TV.^"^ ^ * ^l^^P^rj the bottom plate; and m, 
 
 the d I P"""*' grooved on the sides, and so are the top and bottom plates, for 
 - ""^""^^S m the grooves the ends of the paneled frames. When the 
 Shtfc f f^^^'^P 'T^^^''' P^^^^^^ 449 (to a scale of an inch and five 
 
 3 1 A . . -^^ f ""^ P""* between the grooved posts. Two of these panels are in 
 part glazed, and hinged to a hanging style, which fits into the upright groove ; thus form- 
 «W ^"''^ '"^ windows required. The panels being aU fixed, a set of top 
 
 pidtes IS put on, similar in dimension to the bottom plates, and similarly grooved to 
 hnu'^'V^-'' ^""^ ""^'^^ paneled frames; and these are held together by iron screw- 
 
 Doits at the corners, made fast by a bed-wrench applied on the upper side of the plates 
 XpH 1^ £ ^'^^'''1?' ^ common building, would be called the wall plates) are 
 piacea the rafters, seven feet six inches long, and four inches by one inch and a half 
 
254 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 449 
 
 s 
 
 < 
 
 < 
 
 \ 
 
 t 
 
 \ 
 
 J 
 
 i 
 
 thick, which are let into a ridge piece at the top, as shown in fig. 450, and into the wall 
 plates at the foot, as shown in fig. 451. A purlin is placed across the rafters on each 
 
 451 
 
 452 
 
 side, halved into them, and flush at top, as seen in the skeleton elevation, fig. 454. The 
 flooring is formed of inch-deal boards, laid side by side, and let into the bottom plates, 
 as shown in fig. 452 (to a scale of one eighth of an inch to a foot), in which n is the floor 
 board ; o, the bottom plate ; 
 p, the bottom rail of one of 
 the paneled frames ; and q, 
 the joist. The construction 
 of these frames will be un- 
 derstood by fig. 453 (to a scale 
 of five eighths of an inch to a 
 foot), in which r r are the 
 styles ; s s, the muntins, or 
 muntings (from the French, 
 montant, meaning the upright 
 pieces between the side styles, 
 
 into which the rails of doors, or other paneled compartments, are framed) ; t f t, the 
 panels ; and u u, the posts. The outside posts, to which the partition is joined, are 
 
 453 
 
 formed as in fig. 455 (one fourth of the full size), which requires no explanation. The 
 roofing is generally completed by a tarpawling, which is thrown over the rafters, and. 
 
COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 
 
 0,55 
 
 454 
 
 having strings on the under side, is made tight by them to the rafters, while it is kept 
 close down at the eaves by lines which are sewed along the margin of the canvass, and 
 tied tight at the angles. AU that is now wanting to complete the cottage are eight short 
 posts, on which to place the sleepers, so as to raise the floor above the surface, in order 
 
 455 
 
 to keep it dry. These, however, may be generally dispensed with ; for on very dry soils, 
 or where the ground falls from the site on every side, the sleepers may be laid on the 
 ground ; and even in situations flat, and not very dry, a ditch may be dug round the 
 
256 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 cottage, at the distance of about a foot from it, so as to produce the effect of placing it 
 on a platform, as shown in the skeleton, fig. 454, and in the miniature elevation of the 
 finished cottage, in isometrical perspective, v, in the same figure. Exterior appendages 
 may be easily constructed of materials found on the spot. The tarpawling ought to be 
 oiled, and all the wood-work should have at least two coats of paint. If instead of 
 being painted with common oil paint, these cottages were coated over with any of the 
 anticombustible paints or washes, the risk of accidents from fire might be diminished. 
 The most effective wash of this description is said to be a saturated solution of silex in 
 alkali. This is obtained by dissolving to saturation, in a lie of caustic alkali, siliceous 
 earth properly prepared. Whatever material is washed with this mixture is said to 
 become covered with a vitreous coat, and this has been proved at Munich and other 
 places effectually to resist ignition. (Rep. of Arts, 2d series, vol. iii. p. 249.) 
 
 513. Remarks. We consider this cottage as one of the most perfect things of the 
 kind that we have seen. Every part of it being made exactly of the same dimensions ; 
 that is, all the panels, posts, and plates, being respectively of exactly the same length, 
 breadth, and thickness, no mistake or loss of time can occur in putting them together. 
 Another great beauty in the construction is, that there is not a single nail used either in 
 the carpentry of the separate parts, or in putting those parts together so as to form 
 the cottage. All the framework composing the sides of the cottage being grooved and 
 tongued, the weather is most effectually kept out ; and at the same time this construction 
 allows the work to shrink or swell, according to the changes of the atmosphere or the 
 season, without deranging any of the parts. The inventor of this cottage, Mr. Manning, 
 carpenter and builder. High Holborn, London, has made a great number of them for 
 the Australian colonies, and particularly for the Swan River. Mr. Manning, who has 
 a son settled at the latter colony, says, " These cottages were found to be of the greatest 
 service to settlers, both in protecting their families from the weather, and their property 
 from theft. Many persons who took out only tents, suffered severely in both respects ; 
 their tents being frequently blown down in the middle of a stormy night, and their goods 
 being thus not only exposed to the weather, but to pilfering. Provided with a cottage 
 of this description, an emigrant might land from a ship in a new country in the morning, 
 and sleep in his own house on shore at night. Whoever can use a common bed-wrench 
 can put this cottage up ; and as none of the pieces are heavier than a man or a boy could 
 easily carry for several miles, it might be taken even to a distance, without the 
 aid of any beast of burthen. When a permanent situation is fixed upon, the cottage 
 may be covered with shingles, or thatched with spray of trees, long grass, or such other 
 suitable material as may be most readily obtained ; and at any future period, when the 
 emigrant is prepared to build a stone, brick, or earth en- walled house, all the posts, panels, 
 &c., of the portable cottage maybe brought into use as doors or partitions ; or cut up for 
 window-framing, shelves, chests, or a variety of other purposes; and the tarpawling, 
 when no longer wanted for the roof, will always be a useful article for the agriculturist." 
 
 514. A Portable Cottage may be used as a Substitute for a Country Residence. Mr. Man- 
 
 ning has furnished us with an elevation and ground-plan, figs. 456 and 457, of one, which 
 he constructed for Captain J. G. Hall, and which has been erected by that gentlemen as 
 a residence, at Wargrave, near Henley upon Thames. It is placed on a rising ground, 
 within sixty feet of the river, and forms a handsome and conspicuous object to persons 
 sailing from Henley towards Reading. The accommodations of this cottage are, an 
 entrance hall, a ; servant's sleeping-room, b ; kitchen, c ; store-room, d ; sitting-room 
 twelve feet square, e ; and bed-room, /. A lumber-room which is formed in the roof 
 
COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 257 
 
 457 
 
 
 
 
 
 I, 
 0 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 e 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 8-6 x 12 
 
 
 
 I2X 12 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 4)C12 
 
 
 
 r 
 
 
 r' 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 =^^4^1 
 
 l1, ,P. 
 
 
 
 has a floor of ploughed and tongued boards laid on ceiling joists, so as to form a ceiling 
 to the room below, and a floor to that above. The roof is thatched ; and the walls are 
 painted, and dusted over with powdered freestone. The interior is painted in imitation 
 of wainscot. The fireplace of the sitting-room is a ship's cabin stove, and that of the 
 kitchen a ship's galley stove ; both having iron piping for flues. By having horizontal 
 piping from the kitchen through the servant's room, sitting-room, and bed-room, with a 
 return pipe, one fire might suflBce to heat the whole house. In this case, by a very 
 simple contrivance, the smoke, during warm weather, instead of circulating through the 
 horizontal flues, might be made to escape direct from the fire through the upright pipe 
 (see § 489.). The cost of this cottage in London, exclusive of the stoves and the thatch, 
 was only ^120. For this sum, which would do little more than pay for a year's lodging 
 of two rooms and a kitchen, in a fashionable street in London or New York, we have 
 here a handsome and comfortable dwelling, abundantly commodious for a single person, 
 or a man and his wife without children, and which, with moderate attention to painting, 
 would last a lifetime. It must not be forgotten that a great saving is produced by the 
 paneled walls, which render unnecessary all expense of plastering and papering, and 
 which, when painted in imitation of wainscot, look remarkably well, and remain many 
 years without requiring any repair. 
 
 515. Ambulatory Cottage. With such a portable cottage as this on wheels, a man 
 with ^200 or £^300 a year might enjoy in Britain as much rural beauty and variety, as 
 would cost another with a fixed town and country residence as many thousands. 
 
 516. Cooperative Ambulatory Cottages. If a family or a party intended to live in 
 portable cottages, renting a small field wherever they found it desirable to set them 
 down ; and to change their place of residence frequently, say to the north of England or 
 Scotland during summer, and to the south during winter, the most convenient plan 
 would be to have not more than two rooms in one cottage, or, perhaps, even one room 
 might be found enough, as the wheels should be low, and under the floor. At every 
 place of encampment, the cottages, or rooms, any number of which might belong to one 
 family, might be placed in a line, with the kitchen at one end ; from which a steam pipe 
 might proceed to heat all the others, and also a pipe of cold water from a cistern over 
 the ceiling of the kitchen, filled by one of Siebe's pumps, and a long leathern hose, from 
 any neighbouring well or brook. The roof and the floor of one side of every cottage 
 might project three feet beyond the wall ; and, when all the cottages were placed close 
 together with the projections alongside of each other, a covered passage or veranda would 
 be formed the whole length of the line of cottages. There would be no difficulty in 
 heating all the rooms by steam from one fire, or in supplying all the bed-rooms with 
 water from one cistern. Every cottage should have its own pipes for these purposes ; 
 and those of one cottage could be connected with those of another by right and left- 
 handed screws and coupling pieces, as in Perkins's tubes for circulating hot water under 
 compression. In short, by some contrivance, many of the comforts of a fixed residence 
 might be obtained in these portable and ambulatory cottages ; and many of the enjoy- 
 ments and advantages of society and of cooperation, by a number of them encamping 
 together. We do not say that the same comforts and advantages would be obtained so 
 economically as in a fixed locality ; but for those who have no occupation, and derive a 
 great part of their enjoyment from visiting different parts of the coimtry ; who like to 
 live by turns among mountains, by the sea-shore, in a fertile valley, or in the suburbs of 
 a large town ; among the lakes of Cumberland and Westmoreland in summer, and in 
 Devonshire or Cornwall during winter, we do say that an arrangement of this kind 
 would procure those enjoyments for one tithe of what they now cost. 
 
258 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 Chap. IIL 
 
 Designs and Directions for Exterior and Interior Finishing, as connected with Fumtshing, 
 and for the Fittings-up, Fixtures, and Furniture of Cottage Dwellings. 
 
 517. Exterior Finishing is the term applied to stuccoing, roughcasting, and plastering ; 
 and to whitewashing, colouring, painting, and similar processes, for exterior walls, and 
 timber-work. It also includes troughs, gutters to projecting roofs, rain-water pipes, 
 exterior window shutters and window blinds ; and the application of exterior ornaments, 
 such as barge-boards, canopies, ornamental chimney-pots, balconies, verandas, vases, 
 trelliswork, and a variety of similar appendages. 
 
 518. By Interior Finishing is here to be understood the covering of the walls with various 
 materials, partly with a view to use, and partly to ornament; such as affixing cornices, 
 whitewashing, colouring, painting, stenciling, papering, &c. Architects include under 
 the term finishing, all such portions of the joiner's work as are fixed, after the ceilings, 
 walls, &c., are plastered ; also locks, bolts, bars, and springs, to shutters and doors ; and 
 water-closets, baths, chimney-pieces, &c. : but, in this portion of our work, we have 
 thought it best to confine ourselves chiefly to such parts of finishing as have not before 
 come under our review. 
 
 519. Bg Fittings-up are commonly implied the putting up of wooden closets; the 
 fixing of shelves; of seats and basins in water-closets; of cisterns; and of pipes and 
 cocks to supply the different parts of the house with water ; the hanging of bells ; and 
 the putting up of such other articles in a house, as cannot be taken down without 
 deranging in some way or other the finishing of the apartments. 
 
 520. Bg Fixtures are meant stoves, grates, boilers, coppers, dressers, and sometimes 
 bookcases and corner cupboards ; all of which are more or less fixed to the walls, and, 
 like the fittings-up, cannot be taken down without, in some degree, injuring or disfiguring 
 the apartment. 
 
 521. Furniture includes all the portable articles introduced into apartments, for the 
 purpose of rendering them habitable, comfortable, and agreeable : such as seats of dif- 
 ferent kinds, tables, beds, carpets, and curtains ; wardrobes, and other portable receptacles 
 for clothes, books, &c. ; musical instruments ; and also ornaments, such as pictures, 
 sculptures, curiosities, &c. 
 
 522. These different departments of the art of completing a house are not alike 
 susceptible of being illustrated by designs, which cannot, for example, be made to include 
 painting, colouring, papering, &c. For this reason we intend to blend some general 
 directions with our graphical illustrations, deferring the details of the processes of the 
 painter, plasterer, paperhanger, &c., till we treat of these arts in a subsequent part of 
 the work. 
 
 523. In all that relates to finishing and furnishing, the artist must be directed by the 
 same general principles as those which were his guide in designing the building. These 
 principles are as much founded on reason in the one case as in the other. The first im- 
 pression which we ought to receive from seeing a human dwelling at a distance is that 
 it is such ; and that it is suited for some particular class or description of family, mode 
 of living, or state of civilisation. On a nearer view, the parts and finishing of the 
 exterior, as they develope themselves, ought to convey to us some ideas of the taste of 
 the occupant. As we enter the porch, these ideas ought to be confirmed by the 
 continuation of the same general style of taste, enhanced in degree, because nearer to the 
 eye and under the protection of a roof ; and, as we proceed to the principal apartment, 
 the train of ideas awakened ought to be maintained, and increased, till it arrives at its 
 ultimatum in the room where the mistress of the house receives visits from her friends. 
 This is the general result to which all finishing and furnishing is, or ought to be, 
 directed ; and it may be reduced to two principles, unity of style, and gradation of 
 excellence. Unity of style should pervade both the exterior and the interior ; and there 
 ought to be a regular gradation in the labour and care employed, from the outside walls 
 and exterior finishing and ornaments, to the most highly enriched apartment within. 
 Another principle, subordinate to these two, is, that as every apartment in a house has, or 
 ought to have, its particular use, so it should be characterised by some particular piece 
 of furniture essential to that use ; and that all the subordinate articles and ornaments in 
 such apartments should have a reference, or be appropriate, to the principal one. Thus 
 a kitchen is characterised by the grate or kitchen range ; the dining-room, by the side- 
 board ; the library, by the bookcase ; the drawing-room, by the sofa ; and so on : the 
 subordinate furniture must always accord with the principal article. Thus, the kitchen 
 range should be supported in character by the dresser and plate-rack ; the sideboard, by 
 the cellaret and massive dining-table ; the bookcase, by reading and writing tables and 
 desks; and the sofa, by chimney and pier glasses, and by various descriptions of seats, 
 
EXTERIOR FINISHING OF COTTAGES. 
 
 2o9 
 
 some with cushions. Every apartment, therefore, on being entered, ought to display a 
 marked character of use ; as well as a particular character of style, with reference to its 
 finishing aJid furnishing. Whenever any doubt is left in the mind of the spectator, as to 
 the use of an apartment into which he is conducted, something in that apartment must 
 as certainly be wrong, as when the exterior of a building conveys a false idea of its use, 
 and a human dwelling is mistaken for a stable or a chapel. This principle must also be 
 extended to the exterior of a dwelling, and the windows and waUing of a drawing-room, 
 or library, or other superior living-room, ought never to be liable to be mistaken for 
 those of a bed-room or closet. At the same time that the nobler parts of a dwelling are 
 to be rendered prominent features in its general aspect, the meaner parts are not to be 
 rendered more mean, but should rather be raised in character, so as to harmonise with 
 the rest, and to support the general expression of the whole. These principles are as 
 applicable to the humblest cottage as to the most elegant villa ; and we shall proceed to 
 exemplify their application in the order of exterior finishing, interior finishing, fittings- 
 up, fixtures, and furniture. "We should premise, however, that some parts of the present 
 chapter must necessarily seem to belong as much to ornamental as to plain cottages ; be- 
 cause the two subjects are so intimately connected, that it is almost impossible to separate 
 them ; nor, indeed, with a view to the improvement of the cottager, is it desirable that 
 this should be done. 
 
 524. Previously to finishing either exteriors or interiors, a suflScient time ought to be al- 
 lowed for what is called the carcass, or general fiamework, of a building to be thoroughly 
 dried and settled in every part. The time requisite for this purpose will depend on various 
 circumstances ; but chiefly on the thickness of the walls, and on the doors and windows 
 being left unclosed. The maintenance of this ventilation, when the house is finished, will 
 depend upon the judicious introduction of openings in the side walls under aU the floors, 
 and under the eaves of the roof, for the admission of a free current of air. As a general 
 principle, it may be laid down, that provision ought to be made for a constant circulation 
 of air in all the voids of a building ; or, in other words, vv^herever air is admitted, it ought 
 to maintain a circulation with the external air. A circulation between the roof of a house 
 and the ceiling of the uppermost room is maintained by small openings directly under 
 the eaves ; or by very small windows, loopholes, or slits, in the gable ends.^ A circulation 
 is promoted under the floors of the different stories of a house by the introduction of 
 small iron gratings in the walls, communicating with the vacuities between the floors and the 
 ceilings. When precautions of this kind are neglected, premature decay is too frequently 
 the consequence. What is called the dry rot in timber, every builder knows, is brought 
 on by the use of timber imperfectly seasoned in parts of buildings excluded by position, 
 or by neglect of the means, from proper ventilation. Even in cottages of the humblest 
 class, therefore, the walls ought to stand some months before being roughcast, or coloured 
 outside, or plastered inside; and the timbers of the floors should remain still longer 
 before they are covered with the flooring-boards above, and closed up by the ceilings 
 below : when all the timber- work is put up, it ought to remain another period before it is 
 painted ; and in some parts of Britain, and in most parts of the Continent, this period 
 extends to a year and upwards, even in cottages. Conmion plaster, on brick or stone 
 walls, ought not to be whitewashed or coloured in less than a year ; or, if on lath and 
 plaster, six spring or summer months. Where oil colours are used, the stuccoed plaster 
 requires, in ordinary cases, to dry for one or two years. When this is neglected, the water 
 enclosed in the walls cannot escape by evaporation ; and is therefore, by the swelling of 
 the mortar, forced through the paint ; entirely discolouring it in some places, and oc- 
 casioning it to peel off in others. 
 
 525. Provisions for all the exterior and interior finishing and all the fittings-up and 
 fixtures of a dwelling, however humble, ought to be made in building it. Among these 
 provisions, the principal ones are, proper openings for pipes for bringing in or carrymg 
 off water ; tubes for conducting bell wire ; recesses, flues, and other openings, for such of 
 the new modes of heating or ventilating as it may be proposed to adopt ; and places for 
 cupboard-closets, water-closets, cisterns, &c. &c. There is not much to be provided for 
 in this way in cottages of the class now under consideration, but still enough to warrant 
 our noticing the subject in this place. 
 
 Sect. I. Designs and Directions for the Exterior Finishing of Cottage Dwellings. 
 
 526. Outside Plastering includes stuccoing with the different kinds of cement ; rough- 
 casting, Scotch and English ; and common Hme and hair plastering, ornamental or other- 
 wise. The principal purpose for which any of these processes is adopted on the 
 outside walls of a cottage is, to keep them dry ; and a secondary purpose is, to render 
 them ornamental, either by imitating stone, or by producing a surface more curious or 
 agreeable to the eye, than the rude materials concealed by it. 
 
 527. The Cements for Stuccoing are chiefly the Roman cement, of which there are two 
 
260 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 kinds common in Britain, Parker's and Mulgrave's ; the Puzzolano ; the tarras ; the 
 gypsum ; the mastic ; Frost's cement ; the metallic cement ; and Bailey's composition. 
 The first two, and the gypsum, possess in an eminent degree the power of setting almost 
 instantaneously, either with or without an admixture of sand. Puzzolano earth, tarras, 
 and Frost's cement are better calculated than the Roman cements to indurate with lime ; 
 because they do not set so quickly. A very hard and durable cement may be formed of 
 stone lime recently burned, and, immediately after being slacked, mixed with clean, sharp 
 sand. This about London is called Bailey's composition, and is packed dry in casks, and 
 sent to any distance. The usual proportions are, three of sand to one of lime. Mastic is a 
 calcareous cement, which consists of earth, and other substances almost insoluble in water, 
 to which, when pulverised, are added any of the oxides of lead, and also a quantity of 
 glass, or flint stones ; the whole reduced to a fine powder, and intimately incorporated 
 with any cheap vegetable oil. This is rather too expensive a cement for cottages ; but 
 it forms a better imitation of stone, especially of freestone, than any other, and has this 
 great advantage over all the others, that, when put up into casks, it will keep without 
 injury for any length of time. In general, wherever good fresh lime and clean sharp 
 sand can be had, an excellent cement may be formed. Mr. Frost has proved that lime, 
 even chalk-lime, burned in a close kiln, and cooled without coming in the slightest 
 degree in contact with the atmosphere, will, when afterwards slacked, and mixed with 
 sharp sand, set as rapidly as Roman cement, and this even under water. ( See the Spe- 
 cification of the Patent in the Repertory of Arts.) In England, the scrapings of the 
 public roads, where limestone or sandstone is the material employed, are found to serve 
 as a substitute for sharp sand, provided care be taken fo wash from them their finer 
 earthy particles. But on the subject of cements we shall enter more at length in a 
 future part of this work. 
 
 528. The object of covering the outside of the walls of cottages with cement is generally 
 to imitate stone. In this imitation, care must be taken that the lines drawn do not represent 
 stones of too large a size ; that the shapes of the stones at the corners, and for the lintels 
 and sills of doors and windows, be suited to their situations and uses ; and that, in the 
 regular courses, the joints alternate and show bond properly, as in regularly built stone 
 buildings. A dwelling with the walls of brick will often l)e much improved in appearance 
 by forming the string courses, tlie facings or architraves to the doors and windows, the 
 corner stones, the cornices, the tablings, and especially the chimncy-tops, of cement in 
 imitation of stone. Where the cement used for either of these jjurposes is lime and sand, 
 it will resemble stone with little or no colouring matter added ; but where Roman 
 cement, or Puzzolano, or tarras, is used, the colour, after being laid on, will be dark, 
 and the cement must therefore be brouglit to a stone colour by washing it over with 
 washes, composed in proportions of five ounces of copperas to every gallon of water, and 
 as much fresh lime and cement (to which some add tallow), as will produce the colour 
 required. The copperas, or sulphate of iron, oxidises with the atmosphere, and produces 
 a reddish tinge. The forms of the stones, defined by the lines, should, some days 
 afterwards, be touched with lunber, ochres of different shades, and occasionally with 
 vitriol ; which colours, if laid on by a painter who knows how to imitate the tints of 
 nature, will produce a harmonious effect. Oil colours should not be used on cement 
 laid on walls in the open air for a year or more, till the water mixed up with it is either 
 solidified or evaporated. When cement is once thoroughly dry, its hardness and durabi- 
 lity is greatly increased by washing it over with any oily or greasy matter, with or with- 
 out a mixture of colour incorporated. There are various lithic paints for covering 
 cement, all of which are composed of oxide of lead, powdered glass or other vitrified 
 matter, and the colour of the stone to be imitated, intimately mixed together, and beaten 
 up with oil. 
 
 529. Roughcasting, or Harling as it is called in Scotland, is a mode of outside finish- 
 ing well calculated to protect walls from the weather. It is not capable of such a high 
 degree of beauty as a covering of cement, because a roughcast wall is only a plastered 
 wall with a rough surface, instead of a smooth one ; but then it is considerably cheaper 
 than any description of stucco. It is much used for covering rubble stone walls and 
 houses, in Scotland and Ireland. The following is the process : — Plaster the wall over 
 with lime and hair-mortar ; when this is dry, add another coat of the same material, 
 laid on as smoothly and evenly as possible. As fast as this coat is finished, a second 
 workman follows the other, with a pail of roughcast, which he throws on the new plas- 
 tering. The materials for roughcasting are composed of fine gravel, reduced to a uniform 
 size by sifting or screening, and with the earth washed cleanly out of it ; this gravel is 
 then mixed with pure newly slacked lime and water, till the whole is of the consistence 
 of a semi-fluid : it is then forcibly thrown, or rather splashed, upon the wall with a large 
 trowel, which the plasterer holds in his right hand, while in his left he has a common 
 whitewash brush. With the former he dashes on the roughcast, and with the latter, 
 
EXTERIOR FINISHING OF COTTAGES. 
 
 261 
 
 which he dips into the roughcast, he brushes and colours the mortar and roughcast 
 that he has laid on, so as to make them, when finished and dry, appear of the same colour 
 throughout. 
 
 530. Another description of roughcast, which may be called English, as the other may 
 be called Scotch, consists in dashing the surface of the plaster, after being newly laid on, 
 with clean gravel, pebbles, broken stones of any kind, broken earthenware, scoria, spars, 
 burnt clay, or other materials of the like description, sifted or screened, so as to be of a 
 uniform size. The effect of surfaces of this kind is good, and the process admits of pro- 
 ducing very great variety in the external appearance of cottages. The sea-side pebbles 
 are frequently used in this way on the sea-coast of Norfolk : by being forcibly thrown 
 against the moist plaster, they penetrate into it, and render it very firm and durable. 
 Sometimes, instead of the stones, or other matters, being broken to a small and uniform- 
 sized gravel, they are pounded into a coarse sand, and this is dashed against the moist 
 mortar. The effect is pleasing, but the strength and durability are not so great as in 
 the other mode. In using small stones or gravel, it is desirable, for the sake of effect, 
 previously to render the moist plaster as nearly as possible of the same colour as that of 
 the materials to be thrown against it. It is also desirable that all corners, sills, lintels, 
 and, in short, all vertical and horizontal bond, should be tinted of the same colour as the 
 roughcasting. 
 
 531. Common Lime and Hair Plastering ornamented is to be seen on the outside of cot- 
 tages in several parts of England. When the plaster is in a moist state, impressions are 
 made on it in various ways, and by various articles. Lines are drawn with the trowel, 
 straight, wavy, angular, intersecting, or irregular. Stripes, chequers, squares, circles, or 
 trelliswork, are also imitated. Wickerwork is a very general subject of imitation ; and 
 this is produced by pressing a panel, generally a foot square, of neatly wrought wicker- 
 work, against the plaster, while moist. It is evident that this description of ornament 
 might be greatly extended and varied ; and that, instead of the panel of wickerwork, 
 wooden plates of patterns, such as those used by room paper-printers, might coyer the 
 cottage walls with hieroglyphics, with sculptures of various kinds, with imitations of 
 natural objects, or with memorable or instructive sayings, or chronological facts. 
 
 532. Cementing, Roughcasting, and Plastering, as means of ornamenting the outsides 
 of buildings, are dangerous processes in the hands of a builder who is without a culti- 
 vated architectural taste. Let our readers never forget that the outside of a house, or 
 a wall of any kind, covered in every part with roughcast, or with plaster ornamented in 
 any way, except being lined and coloured in imitation of stone, is a mere blank or 
 negation in Architecture. Such a wall has no beauty, because it has no expression. It 
 may not even be a wall, but a panoply of plastered lath, imposed upon us as a substitute. 
 No wall is worthy of the name that does not bear on its face the nature and kind of its 
 materials, and the manner of its construction ; or, in other words, that does not display 
 in its physiognomy the character of its anatomy. A house, the walls of which are 
 covered with roughcast, or with plaster whitewashed or otherwise coloured, whatever 
 may be the beauty or magnitude of its doors and windows, is no piece of Architecture ; 
 it is not even an imitation of Architecture ; because the elements of all architectural 
 productions are the stones or bricks of which edifices are composed. A wall or a house, 
 therefore, that does not show, either in reality or in imitation, the materials of which its 
 walls are composed, can have no pretensions to architectural expression. This expression 
 can no more be produced with its full effect, without the indication of the constituent 
 materials of the edifice, than a sentence can be printed without employing the letters of 
 the alphabet. There is not a more important principle than this for the young Architect 
 to bear constantly in mind, in the whole range of the science of Architecture. The rule 
 to be derived from it, in the practice of the art, is, whenever cement is to be employed 
 on the outside of a building, and not to be lined and coloured in imitation of stone, there 
 must be the requisite vertical and horizontal bond, for the strength, stability, and 
 durability of the structure, of brick or of stone ; or, in minor buildings, of timber, or of 
 projections or piers of cement, lined and coloured in imitation of stone. The same rule 
 applies to roughcasting and ornamental plastering. We shall illustrate this rule by the 
 case of a plastered and whitewashed house, taken at random from a number seen from 
 the window of the room in which we now write. Fig. 458 will, by general observers, 
 be considered a very neat elevation ; but those who have understood the principles we 
 have laid ^down will see at once that it is totally without expression, having no appear- 
 ance whatever of either vertical or horizontal bond. The facings to the windows convey 
 the idea that these openings are surrounded by stone ; but there is no evidence that these 
 stone framings rest on any thing but plaster ; the mind, therefore, does not follow up the 
 impression made by the eye, and the imitation stone facings, for want of imitation sup- 
 port below them to carry on the illusion, sink into mere plaster ornaments. Let the 
 plaster in front of this building be disposed either as in figs. 459 or 460, and how dif- 
 
262 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 458 459 460 
 
 ferent would be the effect ! In the first case. fip. 459, the vertical Iwnd is produced, or, 
 in other words, tlie nxjf is supjjorted, by the s(juaretl stones at the angles, and the hewn 
 stones forming tlie i)ic'rs containing the windows ; and in the latter case, fig. 460, the 
 roof is su|)|)orte(i hy the ])ilasters, and tlie architrave over them; while the windows are 
 supported hy tlie string courses, or horizontal Innid. 
 
 5;5;}. Jr/iitt iv(ts/tiii</ the outside walls of buildings is of very universal use, and it seems 
 to |)leiLse the eyes of i)ersons of ordinary minds, by the contrast which it y)roduces with 
 the surrounding scenery. liright whitewashing, however, has at all times been objected 
 to by men of taste ; particularly by artists, who, having cultivated the art of seeing objects 
 with reference to their pictures<pie l>eauty, ought to Ik' judges of its effect in scenery. 
 CJilpin, speaking of the cottages in Wales, s.'»ys, the Welsh generally " seem fond of 
 wliitening their houses which gives tlnm a disagrewible glare. A speck of white is often 
 beautiful; but white in jjrofusion is, of all tints, the most inhanuonious. A white seat 
 at the corner of a wood, or a few white cattle grazing in a meadow, enliven a scene, per- 
 haps, more than if the seat or the cattle had been of any other colour: they have mean- 
 ing and effect. Hut a fr<Mit and two staring wings ; an extent of rails ; a Imge Chinese 
 l)ridge ; the tower of a church ; and a variety oi' other large objects, which we oftvn see 
 daubed over with white, make a disagreeable apjjearance, and unite ill with the general 
 simj)licity of nature's colouring. In animadverting, however, on white objects, I would 
 only censure the mere raw tint. It may be easily corrected, and turned into stone 
 colours of various hues; which, though light, if not Ux) light, may often have a good 
 effect." ( Gilpin s Wye, p. 94.) Bartell directs, that, in colouring cotUige walls, "every 
 material of a strong harsh colour should be rejected. The fierce red of some kinds of 
 bricks, and the jjerfect white of a wash of lime, are e(jually disgusting." Hints for Pic- 
 turesque Improvement for Orn<imental Cotttif/es, p. 10.) 
 
 5.34. IVie Compositions for Exterior Colouring are various. The following is said 
 to be a very superior one : — Take 'J6 pounds of quicklime, slacked to a powder, and 
 well sifted, and 'J8 pounds of tarras, sifted well. Mix these with a small quantity of 
 water as (piickly as possible. Heat them together with a wooden beater, upon a banker 
 (a stone or wooden bench). Continue to i)eat them three or four times a day, for four 
 days; and, at the end of that period, take three gallons of bullock's blood (which should 
 be well stirred in the catching, to prevent it clotting), and add to it, when cold, three 
 gallons of water. Put the lime and tarras into a tub, together with the blood and 
 water, stirring them well to make the wash thin ; when it will be fit for use. Keep 
 stirring while using it, to juevent the tarras from settling at the bottom. I^et the wall 
 be first cleaned from moss and dii-t, washing it twice with a watering-pot ; and, before it 
 is dry, begin to lay on the composition, observing not to work it too thick. In the 
 second washing, add two quarts more blood, properly stirred while cooling, as before, to 
 make the wash more sizy and glutinous. If a yellow tinge be desired, put in a poimd 
 or more of stone or Roman ochre, according to fancy. Stale milk may be substituted for 
 blood, though it is sard by some not to make the wash resist the weather equally well. 
 
 535. The common colouring in use about London is composed of whitening made from chalk 
 or other lime, charcoal, or yellow ochre, and copperas, in proportions according to the 
 colours which it is desired should prevail. A preponderance of lampblack, or powdered 
 charcoal produces a greyish white, which is a cold, and not in general a desirable, 
 colour ; lime and stone ochre produce a cream or freestone colour. Lime and copperas 
 produce a bright white at first, which, in the course of a few weeks, changes to a white, 
 with more or less of a reddish tinge, according to the proportion of copperas introduced. 
 
 536. A whitewash which will adhere to woodwork, and preserve it from the weather, is 
 thus composed : — To three parts of unslacked lime add two of wood ashes, and one of fine 
 sand; or of coal ashes sifted through a fine sieve. Let these be mixed with as much 
 linseed oil as will bring the mixture to a consistence for working with a painter's brush. 
 If the mixture be ground together, it will be an improvement. Two coats will be re- 
 quired ; the first thin, and the second thick. The hardness of this wash increases by 
 time. ( Smith's Art of House- Painting, p. 36. ) 
 
EXTERIOR FINISHING OF COTTAGES. 
 
 ^63 
 
 ' 537. The colouring of outside walls is most commonly effected by water colours, when 
 the surface of the wall is new ; or by colours incorporated with glutinous substances or 
 oils, after the walls have been thoroughly dried. As a general rule in colouring wails, 
 it may be laid down, that colours unmixed with glutinous bodies, and held in solution 
 by water alone, may be laid on the wall at any time when the temperature is ten or 
 twelve degrees above the freezing point, and in no immediate danger of falling lower, 
 whether the walls are wet or dry, new or old. Colours mixed with glutinous matters 
 or oils, on the other hand, should not be laid on new walls tiU they are thoroughly dried ; 
 or on old walls at a season of the year when their surface may be saturated with mois- 
 ture. The reason for these rules is, that water colours do not impede the evaporation of 
 moisture from the wall, and the absorption by the mortar of carbonic acid gas, by which 
 it is hardened and rendered durable ; while glutinous colours, by closing up the pores of 
 the surface, do both. 
 
 538. Water colours for outside walls are generally formed on a basis of quicklime, 
 Roman cement, tarras, or Puzzolano. With one or other of these the colours are 
 mixed as wanted, and are immediately laid on with a whitewashing brush. By far the 
 most favourable time to do this is when the wall is newly built, or the plaster is recently 
 laid on. In the case of old walls, they must first be thoroughly scraped, washed, and 
 stopped ; and afterwards brushed over with the colouring mixture, either as a flat shade, 
 or clouded, as the expression is, to imitate the effects of time. This last purpose will 
 be materially aided by taking any strong acid that combines with lime, or any metallic 
 oxide, that will, of course, absorb oxygen from the atmosphere, and mixing these with 
 water, in two separate pails, occasionally dipping the brush in one or the other. A very 
 convenient acid is the sulphuric, in the proportion of one to ten of water ; and a suitable 
 oxide is the sulphate of iron, dissolved in water, in about the same proportion. The 
 blotches moistened with the sulphuric acid will in time assume a rich cream colour, and 
 those touched by tlie copperas will have a reddish tinge. 
 
 539. Ghdiuoiis colours for outside walls also take for their basis quicklime or some 
 cement ; and the glutinous matter is either blood, kept stirring till cold, to prevent it 
 from becoming clotted, stale milk, or vegetable oils. Size and paste are sometimes used 
 as glutinous media ; and, in such cases, alum is mixed with them, to prevent them from 
 fermenting, and becoming mouldy on the walls ; but they are not durable, and, if exposed 
 to driving rains, soon wash off. The desired colours are added to the glutinous matter, 
 which is laid on of such a consistence as to part easily from a common whitewasher's 
 brush. 
 
 540. Painting the outsides of tvalls in oil colours is too expensive for cottages, and, on 
 the whole, is unsuitable for any structure not formed of timber. As a medium of giving 
 colour, it is more expensive, and not much more efficient, than glutinous colours formed 
 with blood ; and, as a protection from the weather, three coats of oil paint are nearly as 
 expensive, and far less effective, than one coat of quicklime and sharp sand, which will 
 last as long as the atmosphere contains oxygen, and will grow harder as it grows older. 
 In the United States of America, however, the exteriors of brick houses are said to be 
 frequently " painted in oil, the colours being most commonly red or brown." It is also 
 said that " the Dutch very generally cover their buildings with a composition of mortar, 
 or plaster, mixed with oil and colour : blue, red or light pink, and grey, are the most 
 common tints. These walls, when dry, have a kind of gloss like varnish, and of course 
 resist wet." {Mech. Mag., vol. iv. p. 98.) It appears to us that the protection afforded 
 by this oil-colouring is not sufficient to atone for the bad taste which it displays. 
 
 541. The kinds of colours most suitable for exterior walls should generally be such as 
 belong to the stones or bricks of the country in which the dwelling stands. These are 
 chiefly whites, browns, yellows, reds, and greys. Yellow, red, and brown ochres are 
 among the cheapest of colours ; and fi'om these, with whiting, charcoal, and bistre (or 
 soot, fi-om which bistre is made), all the colouring desirable for the outsides of cottages 
 may be produced. 
 
 542. Splashing is a mode of colouring walls, which may be performed with equal 
 success, as far as immediate effect is concerned, in water, in glutinous, or in oil, colours ; 
 and, in regard to the state of the walls, the same rules will apply in this case that have 
 been already laid down in § 537. The object of splashing is either to imitate the lichens 
 and weather stains of an old wall, or some particular kind of stone. ^ It is seldom 
 attempted in water colours, from their transient duration in the open air, but answers 
 perfectly well with colours mixed with either blood, milk, or oil. The surface of the 
 wall to be splashed must be well seasoned, and perfectly dry ; and should resemble, as 
 much as possible, the form of the stone or wall to be imitated ; and the prevailing or 
 groundwork colour of that wall should be given to it, by one coat over the whole. 
 Then, several pots of different colours being mixed up, and a long painter's brush, called 
 a duster, being put in each, the artist, holding a short stick in one hand, takes in the 
 
264 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 other the brush, with the colour which he thinks it desirable to put on first, and strikes 
 the head of the brush against the stick, so as to bespatter the wall with the colour. The 
 taste of the artist must be his guide, as to the quantity of each colour which he throws 
 on, and also as to the number of colours to be employed ; but in neither case will he be 
 at any loss, if he keeps the object to be imitated steadily in view. The first brushful of 
 colour falls on the wall in circular patches, from -j'g to | of an inch in diameter ; the 
 second brushful adds to the number of these round patches, and enlarges many of them, 
 either by falling thickly among several, and joining them into one irregular blotch ; or 
 by falling on two or three, or on only one of the previous spots, and forming with it 
 either an oval, or the figure 8. If we suppose the same process continued, on the same 
 portion of surface, with different colours, it will be evident, that not only the shapes of 
 the patches will be further altered by the addition of each sphish of colour, but tliat their 
 colours also will be varied. In this mxinncr tlic ))rocess of si)lashing is carried on ; and 
 the result is obtained ])artly by chance, thougli chiefly by tlie skill of the artist. This 
 kind of painting is less applicable to cottiiges than it is to imitations of rocks in garden 
 scenery, and to CJotliic buildings of a considerable size. In cottages, however, it may 
 sometimes be usefully employed in colouring the imitations of stone or brick bond, 
 where the rest of the walling is stuccoed, roughcast, or plastered ; and, at all events, it is 
 good to know every source of varied exjjression. 
 
 543. In w/iitcu'fts/iiiip, cohmrirKj, or jmintiuff the exterior wnll-ii of buildiiu/s, the voung 
 Architect must constantly bear in mind that there are two objects in view ; viz., the pro- 
 tection of the wall from the weather, and the production of a colour suitable to the 
 object coloured, and agreeable to the eye. Tlie i)rotection of the wall is effected witl» 
 glutinous or oil ])aints, by excluding it from all kinds of atmosj)lierical influence, 
 except that of change of temperature. The Siime object, but in a less degree, is pro- 
 duced by washes comjjosed of lime or cement ; whieli, while they do not jjrevent the 
 atmosj)here from evaporating the moisture of the wall in dry warm weather, yet exclude 
 from its surfiice driving rains. The colouring matter in eitlier of these cases is of very little 
 consecjuence, so far as respects the protection of the wall, liy having a clear idea of the 
 purposes to be efft'Cted by colouring and painting, the Architect will know when to 
 direct, or the cottager when to emjjloy, colours or washes which will protect the wall 
 from the drying influence of the atmosjjlierc ; and when such other colours and waslies 
 as will a(bnit that influence ought to be preferred. 
 
 544. Oh painthuj the woodwork of the outsides of cottar/es little need here be said. If 
 the wood be not thoroughly seasoned, it should not he painted with oil cohjurs till it 
 l>ecome so. It may be washed over in the mean time witli water colours, or stained with 
 nitrous acid, and dved with logwood for immediate effect. We allude chiefly to the 
 doors and windows. The larger outside timbers in cottages, especially those built of 
 studwork and nogging, in countries where labour is abundant and jjaint dear, may be 
 charred by the ajjplication of fire before being jmt up. We have seen buildings, the 
 timbers of which had been treated in this manner, in France and Germany ; and in 
 Switzerland we have seen cottages in which the timbers had been charred, after having 
 been put uj), by the aj)plication of red-hot iron. The practice is not uncommon in some 
 parts of Russia, not with a view to preservation, but for the jjurjjose of ornamenting the 
 very curious barge boards and gable ends which are sometimes seen on the cottages of 
 enfranchised serfs in that country. The cheapest paint for the outside timber-work of 
 common cottages in Britain is coal tar or gas liquor, which should be laid on hot during 
 summer, when the timber is not only dry, but warm, and of which two or more coats, at 
 intervals of two or three weeks, should be given, according to the nature of the timber, 
 so as completely to saturate its pores. The colour cannot be called beautiful at first, 
 but in the course of a year or two it assumes a subdued greyish tone, from the surface 
 fibres of the wood becoming bleached by the atmosphere. Coal tar will, however, be suf- 
 ficiently softened by the heat of the sun, to stick to clothes, or any thing that touches 
 it, for three years ; but is an excellent preserver where it can be used without incon- 
 venience. 
 
 545. The tiles, slates, and other roofing materials o f cottages, may be painted exactly in 
 the same manner as the walls ; but this can only be desirable with certain materials of a 
 perishable nature, such as timber ; or with others of a harsh glaring colour, such as red 
 tiles. The latter will be greatly improved, both in durability and appearance, by being 
 rubbed over or soaked in any greasy or oily matter, or by being painted with tar or 
 gas liquor, before being put on the roof. But the best mode of colouring tiles and bricks 
 IS by mixing chalk, or ochres, or other oxides, with the clay, while it is being prepared 
 for the mould. The tiled roofs of cottage lodges are sometimes splashed with oil colour, 
 and the effect of age very successfully produced. 
 
 546. The best description of paint, for all kinds of outside work, is such as is formed by 
 ground glass bottles, scoria from lead-works, burnt oyster-shells, and the required 
 
EXTERIOR FINISHING OF COTTAGES. 
 
 -265 
 
 colouring matter, powdered, and intimately mixed with raw linseed oil. Paint of this 
 kmd IS prepared in London, and sold in a state of powder, under the name of anti- 
 corrosion, lithic paint, &c. : but, as it requires to be mixed a day or more before it is 
 used, as it is much more laborious to put on than common paint, as it wears out the 
 brushes m a very short time, and, above aU, as it lasts so long when appHed to iron, or 
 well-seasoned timber, or masonry, as seldom to require renewal during a man's lifetime, 
 painters very seldom recommend it. The appearance of a surface painted with anti- 
 corrosion IS rough, resembling that of unrubbed cast iron or freestone; and, when 
 timber which has been once painted with it has to be cut up by a carpenter, it takes the 
 edge off his tools (even his axe and saw), so that he also is against it. It is used, how- 
 ever, m some government works ; particularly for cast-iron bridges. 
 
 547. The Walls of Cottages may he protected and ornamented by Mathematical Tiling. 
 The object of this is to make the walls appear as if they were built of brick. The tiles, 
 fig. 461, have their surfaces in two planes ; each plane of the depth and length of a common 
 brick ; so that when tiles of this kind are placed against a waU, the one overlaps the 
 other, as shown in the section, fig. 462 ; and the general appearance of the elevation is 
 that of regular brickwork, as in fig. 463. There are bats or headers to imitate half 
 bncks, fig. 464 ; and closers or quarter bricks, fig. 465, for the purpose of breaking 
 
 462 
 
 461 
 
 463 
 
 joint at the angles, and rendering the imitation more complete. When these tiles are 
 of cream colour, their effect is very neat, clean, and handsome ; but buildings in which 
 they are used, to be in good architectural expression, ought always to have vertical bond 
 m the form of projecting piers or angle stones. 
 
 548. Mathematical and common weather tiles may he rendered ornamental, either by 
 varying their outline, or by impressing on them, in the mould, lines or figures. This 
 has been done in a few places in England with bricks, and we think also with tiles. 
 Fig. 466 shows some forms of weather-tiling, in addition to those before given, § 459. 
 
 466 
 
 V 
 
 By taking leaves of plants as the source for originating ideas for varying the outline, 
 the variety of ornamental weather-tiling might be carried to a great extent ; and we are 
 informed by travellers that it would be a most valuable protection to the wooden walls 
 ot houses in America, as we are certain it would be to the earthen walls of the farm 
 buildings which are put up in some parts of Ireland. Weather tiles might also be 
 applied instead of barge boards, the tiles in that case being formed longer ; and, when 
 put on at right angles to the slope of the gable, finished by a projecting line of plain 
 tiles over them. The colour of common weather-tiling might be varied, as well as the 
 torm, by the mixture of chalk, ochres, &c., with the clay while working it. Matlier 
 matical tiling might be ornamented on the surface by geometrical lines and figures ; by 
 
 EE ■ ' 
 
266 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 representations of natural objects, such as the sun, moon, and stars, as is sometimes done 
 on the window- 
 facings and barge- 467 
 boards of the cot- 
 tages in Russia ; of 
 animals ; of the 
 flowers of plants ; of 
 their leaves, &c. In 
 fig. 467 a, h, c, d, 
 and e show a few of 
 the simpler patterns. 
 
 549. Various other articles might be employed to cover and ornament the walls of cot- 
 tages, according to the effect intended to be produced. Trellis-work of various kinds 
 gives a gay and dressed appearance, suitable for the immediate neighbourhood of a large 
 town. A marine character may be given by shells ; a rustic one by bark of trees ; and 
 a grotesque one by roots of trees ; that of a Dutch cottage by glazed quarries (square 
 tiles) ; and that of a Russian log-house by the outside slabs of trees (the first pieces sawn 
 off, to reduce the trunk to a square, and of course flat on one side, and round on the 
 other) ; the expression of warmth may be produced by clothing the walls with reeds ; 
 and of coolness by blue slates, &c. 
 
 550. The use of barge-boards, ornamental chimney tops, vases, verandas, terrace parapets, 
 balconies, flower-stands, mignonette boxes, 8fc., may be considered as having been suf- 
 ficiently illustrated in the preceding chapter. We have not hitherto, however, mentioned 
 one very simple but neat cottage ornament, the sparrow pot, 468 
 fig. 468, which is made of common potter's ware, and projected 
 from under the eaves of cottage roofs at regular distances, by 
 simply placing the pots, which have holes in the side of their 
 bottoms, on nails or wooden pegs. The use of these sparrow 
 pots is, to prevent the birds from dirtying the walls or windows 
 with what falls from their nests, by keeping them farther 
 from the wall ; they also supply an easy means of taking either the birds or their eggs. 
 We have seen a swallow pot for the same purpose, made by Adams, Gray's Inn Lane ; 
 but we are not certain that it succeeds. High and ornamental chimney tops will, how- 
 ever, generally be found to afford suitable angles and recesses for that bird (so useful to 
 the cultivator in destroying winged insects) to build in. 
 
 551. The Doors of Cottages may be ornamented by adding strips of deal, in the form 
 of muntins, styles, rails, beads, &c. ; by ornamental hinges and latches ; or by studding 
 them over with imitation door nails. The plain door, fig. 469, may be rendered archi- 
 tectural, in the Gothic style, at a very trifling expense, by fillets nailed on so as to 
 produce the eflfect of figs. 470, 471, or 472, or that of fig. 473 ; or by nails, as in figs. 
 474, 475, and 476. The woodwork should be painted in imitation of oak, and the heads of 
 
 469 
 
 470 
 
 471 
 
 472 
 
 473 
 
 474 
 
 475 
 
 476 
 
 L1Q 
 
 □ 
 
 the nails should be black. These nails are to be procured complete, of different shapes, 
 in cast iron ; but they are equally fit for producing effect when the heads are made of 
 wood, and fastened on by a brad. When properly painted, it is impossible to distinguish 
 the wooden nails from the iron ones. The shapes of the heads of these nails may be 
 round, square, triangular, or polygonal ; and with either flat or raised surfaces. A few 
 of the different forms are shown in fig. 477. Ornamental hinges, or plates of iron as 
 
 477 
 
 in figs. 474 and 475, into which ornamental nails are driven, may also be imitated in 
 wood, and completely disguised by paint ; as may be certain parts of common latches, the 
 
EXTERIOR FINISHING OF COTTAGES. 
 
 267 
 
 escutcheons of keyholes, &c. All knobs to cottage doors should be of real oak, laburnum 
 Cfalse ebony, as it is called by the French, from its hardness and blackness), yew, box, or 
 other hard and tough wood, or of iron blackened or bronzed, but never of brass, which 
 is too fine, and is besides liable to tarnish. The knobs, and other iron work of doors, 
 may be blackened, by heating them nearly red hot, and immediately plunging them in 
 oil - after being taken out and dried, they are poUshed with a coarse woollen cloth. 
 Knobs, nail heads, and other parts of doors, whether of iron or wood, may be made to 
 imitate bronze, by first painting them of a deep yeUow colour, and then green : before 
 the green is quite dry, it should be rubbed off the projecting parts, so as to allow the 
 yellow to be seen through it. The greatest ornaments to cottage doors are, the porch, 
 the penthouse roof, and the projecting canopy or shelf supported by brackets; but 
 these may be considered as already disposed of. * , . , i 
 
 552. Windows may be ornamented in a great variety of way . A plain sash or lat^tice 
 window, figs. 478 and 479, may be disguised by a Gothic framework being put before 
 it as in figs. 480 and 481. In these cases it is supposed that the window to be disguised 
 
 shows outside reveals of at least six inches in depth, and that the thickness of the frame- 
 work is not more than an inch, which will still leave five inches of reveal ; a deep reveal 
 being always desirable, as expressive of the thickness and strength of the walls. To dis- 
 guise windows placed in nogging, studwork, weather-boarding, or other kinds of thin walls, 
 which prevent any reveal from being shown on the outside, an artificial reveal must first 
 be formed round' the window by a projecting facing, in the manner of an architrave; 
 and to be truly architectural, and to convey the expression of strength, this facing ought 
 to be continued to the ground below, and to the roof above. Fig. 482 shows a portion 
 of the front of a common weather-boarded cottage, in which it is desired to improve 
 the appearance of the windows. Fig. 483 shows the windows improved in the manner 
 described. On the supposition that these windows gave light to a stable and hayloft, to 
 a tool-house with a seed-room over, or to any apartment not occupied as a dwelling, the 
 windows might be further ornamented by placing a framework before the glass, as in 
 fig. 484 ; or Gothic labels might be added, as in fig. 485. It will readily be conceived 
 
 482 
 
 483 
 
 484 
 
 485 
 
 _ --1 
 
^68 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 that, by the application of facings round windows, and by placing framework, judiciously 
 painted and shaded to imitate mullions and their mouldings, before them, an inexhaust- 
 ible source is opened for the improvement of commonplace windows. Where the windov/ 
 to be improved is flush with the outside wall, even its proportions might occasionally be 
 changed ; its height might be added to by using framework in which there was much 
 tracery in the upper part, painting the wall immediately behind it black ; and the width 
 might be increased in the same manner, by having narrow side-lights, and broad mullions 
 and transoms. Thus, fig. 486 might be placed before fig. 487, and fig. 488 before 
 fig. 489 ; the spaces marked a in both figures being painted black. In a country like 
 486 487 488 489 
 
 Britain, where the cottage windows are generally low and broad, nothing adds more 
 dignity of character to a dwelling than heightening the windows ; because high windows 
 are expressive of lofty rooms. Where height cannot be given, and the obvious tendency 
 of the openings is to width, the effect of the elevation is improved by increasing that 
 tendency, because the idea of a larger room is thus given. From what we have said 
 on the subject of disguising and ornamenting windows, we hope no reader will for a 
 moment suppose that we intend any of the frames to be placed before the windows 
 of the dwelling-rooms of cottages, in such a manner as to diminish the quantity of 
 light and air admitted by them, or to injure the prospect seen from them. Nothing 
 can be truly an ornament, or an improvement, to a house, which in the slightest degree 
 diminishes the comforts or enjoyments of the occupier. There are few things to which 
 we have a greater dislike than the practice of some great owners of parks, of putting 
 labourers to live in lodges, and other ornamental buildings, which, with a great display 
 externally, are scarcely habitable within. 
 
 553. Outside Shutters to windows or doors certainly cannot be considered as 
 ornamental. To see on the outside of a building what we are accustomed to see on the 
 inside, seems an offence against propriety ; while it gives, at the same time, the idea of 
 meanness and insecurity. Nevertheless, it is certainly more economical, in building 
 a cottage, to have outside shutters than inside ones ; and this circumstance, together with 
 the influence that it is likely to have on the comfort of the cottager, being duly taken 
 into consideration, we ought to moderate our dislike to them. What, perhaps, increases 
 this dislike is the practice of holding forth these shutters as ornaments, by painting them 
 green, and other gaudy colours ; instead of keeping them subordinate, by making them 
 the colour of the walls, or of oak ; or by avowing them, and giving them the character 
 of great strength, by fillets of wood, and nail heads, painted in imitation of iron ; 
 or by adding some description of architectural expression. When we consider the 
 economy produced in interior finishing by having Outside shutters, we think that, treated 
 in this manner, they might be admitted even in ornamental cottages. Figs. 490, 491, 
 492, and 493, are examples of what may be called architectural shutters : those which 
 
 490 491 492 493 
 
 are meant to be completely subordinate should be painted, and marked with lines, in 
 exact imitation of the forms and materials of the walls against which they are to be 
 turned back. We have seen houses m the suburbs of Kbnigsberg with the outside 
 shutters painted so exactly like the walls on both sides, that, when shut, the house ap- 
 peared to be without windows; and we were informed in 1813, by M. Koch, that several 
 
EXTERIOR FINISHING OF COTTAGES. 
 
 269 
 
 houses escaped in this way from being plundered by the retreating French army, during 
 
 494 
 
 495 
 
 the preceding winter. In the Duke of Northumberland's house, 
 in the Strand, London, there is a gateway painted so exactly 
 like the wall, as to deceive every body. Hinged shutters, 
 when folded back, should be made fast in that position by the 
 same bolt as that which fastens them when closed ; and the 
 strongest bolt for this purpose is one in which the end is turned 
 up so as to form the handle, and render riveting on the knob un- 
 necessary, fig. 494. The hinges used should be what are called 
 set-back hinges, when it is wished to make the shutters fit close 
 to the windows when shut, and to throw them back close to the 
 wall when open, as shown in fig. 495. Outside shutters might 
 also be made to slide in grooves, in the manner which we 
 shaU notice when speaking of outside blinds. Thus, outside 
 shutters, which at first sight appear a deformity, may be 
 converted into a source of beauty ; for taste, like necessity, 
 must bend to circumstances. The truth is, that the found- 
 ation of all taste, beyond that which is merely physical, lies 
 in the mind ; and, as a writer in the New Monthly Magazine 
 observes, " every man manufactures for himself his own sub- 
 limity and beauty." 
 
 554. Outside Blinds form both elegant and useful ornaments 
 to windows. The mind is at once reconciled to them, from the 
 idea which they convey of shading and protecting something 
 delicate and refined within. Their expression is the very 
 opposite of that of commonplace window shutters, noble rather 
 than mean ; and the reason is, because, in Britain at least, they 
 are almost exclusively used in superior houses. They have not 
 only the effect of shading the curtains, carpets, and other fur- 
 niture in a room, from the direct rays of the sun, and so pre- 
 serving their colours; but, by reflecting back the sun's rays, 
 they keep the rooms cooler during summer, and also darker ; 
 which last circumstance lessens the inducement for flies and 
 other winged insects to intrude themselves. These outside 
 blinds being only necessary during sunshine, various contrivances 
 have been invented for putting them up in a compact form, 
 during the night, or in cloudy weather ; and this circumstance 
 has given rise to boxes with cornices, which are fitted to 
 the upper parts of windows, and joined to narrow wooden facings, or architraves, which 
 extend along the reveals down each side. These boxes and facings are always more or 
 less ornamental ; and hence, even without blinds in them, they confer, when added to 
 windows, a certain degree of dignity and beauty. All the different kinds of outside 
 window blinds may be included in three divisions ; viz., shutter blinds, Venetian blinds, 
 and cloth or curtain blinds. 
 
 555. Shutter Blinds of the commonest kind, sometimes called folding Venetian 
 blinds, are nothing more than outside shutters, opening in the middle, each shutter 
 framed so as to form one panel, which is filled in with what are technically called luffer 
 boai'ds (inclined boards placed one above another in an aperture, so as to admit air^ 
 without permitting the rain to penetrate). These luffer boards are either fixed, or turn 
 on pivots in the styles of their frames ; their action, in the latter case, being like that of 
 the common Venetian blinds. In shutter blinds, where the luffer boards move (which 
 is always the preferable plan, as by it the admission of light and air can be better 
 regulated), the movement is effected by a lever handle fixed on one of the luffer boards. 
 These boards might be placed vertically, instead of horizontally ; but the greater length 
 required would render them liable to warp, and of course the shading would be imper- 
 fect. Outside shutter blinds are generally hinged like outside window shutters, and 
 fastened back against the wall like them, by bolts, or button fastenings ; but in 
 very windy situations they are sometimes made to slide in grooves, which, as they 
 are commonly made, are by no means ornamental ; but by disguising them as string- 
 courses, or labels, and painting them of the same colour as the walls, they may be 
 rendered architectural as well as useful. These blinds, when the luflTer boarding is 
 shut close, serve, during night, as a secure window-shutter. In situations much ex- 
 posed to the sun and wind, we consider this description of blinds, either running in 
 grooves with fixed luffer boarding, or hinged and furnished with bolts or other fastenings, 
 superior to any of the kinds of hanging outside blinds about to be described. From 
 
TjO COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 the manner in which shutter blinds are generally constructed and hung, their outer 
 surface, when shut, is even with that of the wall. This is objected to by some, 
 in a picturesque point of view, as depriving the window of the effect of the lines 
 of shade that would otherwise be thrown upon it by the depth of the reveals. To 
 overcome this objection, it is only necessary to form the luffer boarding narrower, say 
 two inches in width, and to hang the blinds with set-back hinges, so as to shut them close 
 against the sash frame, like the outside shutter in fig. 495. Thus, if the depth of the 
 reveal be seven inches without the shutter blind, it will only be reduced to five inches 
 with it. 
 
 556. Venetian outside Blinds, of the common kind, only differ from inside Venetian 
 blinds in having cornice boxes at top into which the l)]inds are drawn up, and frames at 
 the sides which confine the ends of the laths forming tiie blinds, and prevent them from 
 being blown about by the wind. In these blinds, instead of the laths being hung on 
 tape, as is customary with inside Venetian blinds, slight brass chains are sometimes used. 
 Outside blinds are generally painted of a stone or cream colour in the country; and 
 green in towns. In Gothic cottages, showing oak framework externally, they may be 
 painted in imitation of that wood. 
 
 557. The Venetian Fan Blind, an improvement on the common Venetian blind, is 
 made by Messrs. Barron and Milk of London, and its object is, to admit a greater 
 (juantity of light and air than is done by cither tlie common Venetian blind or tlie sliutter 
 blind. For tijis purpose tlie front of the blind is projected from the wall, at an angle 
 which may be varied at pleasure from 1° to 45" ; and to prevent the sun from shining into 
 the windows on the sides, adjnitting at the same time free circulation of air, fan blinds are 
 there introduced. Both the front blind and fans are worked by means of one line coiuiected 
 with cords and pulleys, which is made fast to the frame in the same maimer as in the com- 
 mon outside Venetian blinds. The front blind may be pulleil up, and completely concealed 
 under the cornice box at top, while tlie fan blind folds into a narrow box provided for it 
 in the side frame. Hence, when this description of blind is not in use, the cornice box 
 and side frame of the window have exactly the same appearance as those of any other 
 hanging blind. A detailed account of the very intricate construction of this blind will 
 be found in the liepertorif of Arts, vol. viii. p. 449. ; and we shall recur to it when 
 entering more at length into the subject of blinds, under the head of Exterior Finishing 
 to V^illas. There is another description of outside Venetian blinds, in which the laths 
 are formed of iron, and copper diains supply the place of tape. These blinds are fixed 
 at top to a box which projects from the window, and are attached at the other end to 
 a roller having a pulley at one end, by which, and by a cord which passes over a 
 pulley in the reveal of the window at top, the blind is let down and rolled up. These 
 l)ullet-proof blinds, as they are called, are manufactured by Bramah of I'indico, and 
 have been employed by the Duke of Wellington, at Apsley House, to protect his 
 windows from the mob. They are most unsightly objects, and are only mentioned here 
 as connected with the subject of Venetian blinds. 
 
 558. Outside Curtain or Cloth Blimls are of various kinds. The simplest form is 
 where a curtain of the size of the opening of the window is furnished with rings on the 
 margin of each side, which run upon two upright rods, concealed or not, according to 
 the taste or means of the party, by side-framing. The lower edge of the curtain is 
 attached to an irod rod, or a fillet of wood, to keep it down by its weight ; and to this 
 there is a cord attached, which, passing over a pulley in the middle of the soffit of the 
 window, admits of pulling up the curtain, and fastening it in the usual manner. By 
 another plan, the curtain is made to spread out in front like the Venetian fan blind. 
 This variety is called a bonnet blind, and on it Messrs. Barron and Mills have made 
 an improvement, which we shall hereafter describe. When these blinds are drawn up, 
 they are as completely concealed, and protected from the weather by the box and frame, 
 as any other description of blinds. The cloth generally used is strong linen, of the 
 kind called gingham, and is generally striped with blue and white colours, which 
 harmonise remarkably well with the sky and clouds. The cornice and frames are 
 generally painted of a stone colour. A patent was taken out in 1826 for an improved 
 mode of stretching by a contracting and collapsing apparatus, but it does not appear to 
 have come into use. (See Rep. of Arts, vol. iv. p. 195.) 
 
 559. Various other outside blinds of the curtain kind have been used, and might be 
 occasionally introduced in cottages. Projecting canopies, of different kinds, from the 
 top of the window, might have corresponding balconies for flowers at the bottom ; and, 
 common curtain rods being concealed in the top of each canopy and in the bottom of 
 each balcony, curtains, with rings aflfixed in the usual manner, might run on them, and 
 be opened by hand, in the middle or at the sides, at pleasure. This would be a very 
 cheap exterior blind, and one which, judiciously placed over the principal window of a 
 cottage, would produce a very striking effect. Another description of blind is formed 
 
EXTERIOR FINISHING OF COTTAGES. ^71 
 
 by straining canvass, gauze, or fine wire cloth, on three or more light wooden frames ; 
 and, by hanging these horizontally to a frame of the size of the window, the small 
 frames being connected on the opposite side to that on which they are hinged, by two 
 slips of wood or by iron rods, they may be moved sjTupathetically to any angle, so as 
 to keep out the sun. The shps of wood or iron rods must be screwed on so as to allow 
 them to have free action at the head, otherwise they will not fall down. Blinds of this 
 sort are kept in their position by a line fixed to the outer edge of the upper frame, 
 which passes through a pulley at the upper end of the large frame, and "being 
 brought down, either on the inside of the window, or on the outside, is fastened as 
 usual by a hook. It is evident that blinds of this description may also be hinged ver- 
 tically ; and if only two are used for each window, and these are hinged back to back 
 to a style in the centre, one half of the window might always be uncovered, because 
 before twelve o'clock it would be only requisite to keep that blind shut which was next the 
 east, and after twelve o'clock that one which was next the west. Such blinds, however, 
 would be chiefly applicable to windows facing the south. If, instead of being hinged 
 back to back in the middle of the window, they were hinged to the side styles, and fur- 
 nished with set-off hinges, they would form shutter blinds of a simple and cheap 
 description. Roller outside blinds, such as are used to shade shop windows, are capable 
 of a variety of useful and ornamental applications on the exterior of cottages. 
 
 560. IFire outside Blinds have not hitherto been used ; but the very fine wire cloth 
 now applied as inside blinds, might, we think, in some cases be advantageously placed 
 outside, either as leaf or sympathetic frame blinds, § 559, or as shutter blinds. The 
 great advantage of this wire cloth is, that it admits a view of what is without from 
 within, while it completely excludes a view of what is within from without. Where a 
 cottage is placed by the roadside, such blinds are very desirable, not only on these 
 accounts, but also because they keep out the dust ; and they are not less so where the 
 windows on the south side of a house command a fine prospect. Much of the enjoyment 
 of some rooms, in country houses, is lost during, the finest weather of summer, from 
 the necessity of keeping down the blinds ; but, with wire blinds, the heat and great part 
 of the light might be excluded, and yet the prospect be not only enjoyed, but even im- 
 proved in eflPect, by the darkness of the room acting on the eye like the tube of a telescope. 
 They should be painted to preserve them from the weather ; and they may, in addition, 
 be ornamented with landscapes, figures, or other objects ; or, in the case of a country 
 tradesman, in a roadside cottage, they may exhibit the owner's name, or the implements 
 or products of his trade. 
 
 561. Projecting fixed Canopies are sometimes used for giving consequence to windows ; 
 and they might be occasionally employed in cottages. They are framed in wood, with 
 paneled soffits, moulded cornices, and sometimes ornamented friezes, and they are 
 supported by brackets. Figs. 496, 497, 498, 499, and 500, are canopies of this 
 
 496 497 -^98 499 500 
 
 sort. They may very properly be put over doors, and when they cannot be formed in 
 solid timber, a plain kind of trellis-work may in some cases be introduced, for the 
 purpose of supporting an ornamental climber. 
 
 562. Other architectural modes of ornamenting the exteriors of either old or new Cottages 
 might be mentioned but we have said enough to lead the reader into a train of thought 
 on the subject, and to point out to him to what parts of a plain cottage he ought chiefly 
 to direct his attention, when his object is to ornament it. 
 
 56S. Ornamenting the exterior of Cottages by the productions of Horticulture, and by 
 Landscape- Gardening, is a subject which has occasionally occupied our attention in the 
 course of the pieceding chapter ; and that of laying out the grounds round ornamental 
 cottages and villas will be treated of in a future division of the work. We may here 
 repeat, what we have before stated incidentally, that we by no means advise much to be 
 attempted in the way of ornamenting cottages in the country by means of vegetation, 
 
COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 on account of the damp produced, and the insects harboured, by leaves ; and bi cause, in 
 proportion as any building depends for its effect on a covering of vegetatioji, in the 
 same proportion does it lose its beauty as a piece of Architecture. We are more par- 
 ticularly anxious to impress on the minds of our readers the impropriety of planting 
 trees, or creepers of any kind, against walls of cottages, which are shaded by opaque-roofed 
 verandas, penthouses, or far-projecting eaves ; because in such situations they can never 
 thrive, and not only have a sickly and disagreeable appearance, but actually, to a certain 
 extent, contaminate the air by tlieir decaying foliage. Life without health is without 
 beauty. 
 
 Sect. II. Designs and Directions for the Interior Finis/ling of Cottage Dwellings. 
 
 564. The Walls of a Cottage, viewed externally, ought, by the appearance of the 
 nature of the materials, and the mode in w hich they are put together, to give at the first 
 glance unquestionable evidence of their sufficiency to support the roof. This being the 
 case, on entering the dwelling we dispense with a repetition of this evidence, as far as 
 the roof is concerned ; but if the apartments are large, and one is placed over another, 
 as in houses of two or more stories, we ri'quire the appearance of strength in the ceilings 
 to support the floor above tliem. Hence, the ceilings, in all very large rooms, should be 
 thrown into compartments by the reality, or l)y the appearance, of beanvs crossing the 
 ceiling in the direction of its breadth, or shortest diameter. On the same principle it is 
 desirable that these beams should be, or appear to be, supported at the extremities by piers 
 or pilasters projecting from the walls, and sometimes even by detached columns. The 
 finishing of tliese jjiers or columns is genenilly in imitation of some description of 
 stone or marble, as iK'longiiig to the wall ; and that of the horizontal beams, of oak, or 
 some other timl)er, as belonging to the superincumbent floor, or the roof. 
 
 565. The Interior of the Walls of a Cottage of the humblest class may, in some cases, 
 require no other finishing tlian the rubbing or dressing of the material of tlie wall. 
 This may be the case when the walls are built of brick, and the inner courses are 
 rubbed and worked to a fair smooth surface, Rubl)ed sandstone may be applied in 
 the same manner. For the plainest description of cottage the walls may be completely 
 finished with one coating of jjlaster; either by mixing tlie lime with a portion of Roman 
 cement, or by using fresh.burnt ..tone lime and sharp sand, in the proportions of five of 
 the latter to two of the former. The basement stories of many of the commoner street 
 houses about London are finished in this manner ; by which not only the labour of 
 putting on two coats of plaster is saved, but a more durable surface to the wall is 
 produced. In general, however, the internal surfaces of cottage walls, of whatever 
 materials they are composed, require to be plastered as indicated in the specifications 
 already given ; for example, in § 80, and in § 235. 
 
 566. Without a Cornice no Room can have a finished jippearance, therefore we recom- 
 mend cornices to be introduced into the living-rooms and principal bed-rooms of even 
 the huml)lest cottages. The simplest cornice is formed by fiUiiig up the angle by a 
 straight hypotenuse line, fig, 501 ; the next step is to curve this line convexly, fig. 502, 
 or concavely, fig, 50;3 ; a square fillet, fig, 504, may be introduced ; or a round bead, 
 fig. 505. In cottage dwellings, this bead is frequently formed of wood, as being 
 
 501 
 
 502 
 
 503 
 
 504 
 
 505 
 
 u 
 
 easier executed in that material than in plaster. The effect, when the bead is about 
 an inch in diameter, is satisfactory ; and we think, instead of wood, it might, in 
 some cases, be made of iron, fastened to the walls with staples ; and with one or two 
 hooks to each length of rod between the staples, for the purpose of hanging pictures or 
 other articles, agreeably to the practice in what are called gentlemen's houses. It is 
 «asy to conceive how a variety of cornices may be deduced from this simple form : by 
 flattening the circle, by narrowing it ; by causing it to present the broad end of an 
 oval, or the narrow end ; and by its being made, sometimes, to seem chiefly projecting 
 from the wall, and, sometimes, chiefly from the ceiling. From these elementary forms 
 a great variety of cornices may be produced. For example, in figs. 506 and 507 we 
 
INTERIOR FINISHING OF COTTAGES, 
 
 506 
 
 r 
 
 have ten different variations of the concave line, the lightest and most agreeable feature 
 of all cornices, particularly when viewed from below, and the characteristic of the Gothic 
 
 507 
 
 r 
 
 cornice. Fig, 508 shows five sections of cornices having a convex curve for a leading 
 
 508 
 
 member. Fig. 509 shows modifications of the square, a leading feature in Grecian and 
 Roman cornices. The square form, it thus appears, may be varied by approaches 
 
 509 
 
 r r 
 
 to the parallelogram and to the rhomboid, and by altering its relative proportions with 
 respect to the ceiling over it, and the surface of the wall beneath it. Composite cornices, 
 fig. 510, may be formed by employing two or more of these five leading forms as 
 
 510 
 
 mam features ; and cornices in particular styles of architecture are obviously of easy 
 composition, from the lines and forms which belong to those styles. 
 
 • The magnitude of a cornice ought always to be regulated by the size of the room 
 
 in which It is introduced ; since the origin of the cornice of a column or wall was the 
 edge of a plate of stone or timber, bedded on that column or v/all, to receive with 
 greater security, and give a better bearing to, what was to be placed upon it. A long 
 narrow room does not require such a massive cornice as a square one covering the same 
 jo^tr^' ^^^^"^^ ^^^^^ ^^^^ occasion for studying the security of the cross-beams or 
 
 568. Plaster Ornaments on Ceilings have not hitherto been much introduced in cottages, 
 on account of the expense. We scarcely think cornices with foliage or other cast 
 ornaments desirable in plain cottages ; but a rose or other flower, in plaster or composi- 
 ^iglit often be introduced, at very little expense, in the centre of the ceiling of a 
 CO age parlour. There is scarcely any part of a house in which a single ornamental 
 lorm produces so much effect as in the centre of a ceiling. Fortunately for the builders 
 
274 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 of even plain cottages, ornaments suitable for this purpose, and for various others in 
 the finishings and fittings-up of rooms, have recently been manufactured by Messrs. 
 Bielefelds and Haselden, at a very low price, of a description of papier mach(j. Tliey 
 are perfectly light and strong ; and may be sent to any part of the world. They are fixed 
 on by tacks or brads ; and, being painted, will last as long as any other part of a house. 
 Fig. 5 11 , p. 275, is one foot in diameter, and costs 75. ; fig. 5 1 2 is two feet across, and costs 
 ; and fig. 513 is two feet and a half across, and costs Jt^] : \5s. For the ceiling of 
 the principal room of a well-finished cottage, it could not be thought extravagant to lay 
 out 7s. on such an ornament as fig. 511. In all cases of introducing such ornaments, 
 due preparation should be made for them, by raised borders, or mouldings, which should 
 enclose them in a sort of framework. 
 
 569. The Paneling of the Walls or the Ceilings of the Rooms of plain Cottages is seldom 
 attempted, otherwise than by lines painted on the wall, or by coloured papers ; but 
 there is no other reason than the expense, why it should not be adopted in the humblest 
 cottage, as well as in the higlily enriched villa. The occupant of the one may have a mind 
 as susceptible of deriving enjoyment from the contemplation of elegant forms as that of 
 the other, and he is therefore entitled to i)rocure them whenever it is in his power to do 
 so without interfering with any moral duty. Panels of this sort are generally formed 
 by raised mouldings in phtster or stucco; but they may sometimes be more cheaply 
 produced by mouldings of papier mache, some of which, such as figs. 514, 515, 516, 
 and 517, p. 276, may be bought at from 2f/. to 3(1. per foot. 
 
 570. Whitewashing and Colonring the inside Walls and the Ceilings of Cottages ^honXA not 
 be attcm])te(i till they have dried at least a year. If the plaster be of the commonest 
 kind, witiiouf a finisiiing coat of stucco, it is only adapted lor water colours, or colours 
 rendered tenacious by glue, paste, or other mucilaginous matter, instead of oil ; because 
 of its porosity, which would wholly al)sorb the oil. Tiie most common colouring for 
 cottage walls is what is technically called lime whiting, which is nothing more than the 
 finest particles of lime or chalk mixed with water, with the addition of a small quantity 
 of size. The colour of this is varied by the addition of the black of charcoal (com- 
 monly called blue black, as distinguished from the soot of lamps, which is called lamp- 
 black , or by yellow ochre, by verdigrise, or any cheap pigment. 
 
 571. A snpcrior description of whitening for interior walls is thus formed: — Procure a 
 quantity of tlie very best lime, and pass it through fine linen; pour it into a large tub, 
 furnished with a spigot at the height equal to that wliich the lime occupies : fill the tub 
 with clear spring water ; beat the mixture with instruments made of wood, and then 
 allow it to settle for twenty-four liours. When this period has elapsed, open the spigot, 
 and allow the water to run oft"; then supply the tub with fresh water, and continue this 
 ojjeration for several days, until the lime attains the greatest degree of whiteness. 
 Wiien you allow the water finally to run oft", the lime will be found in the consistency 
 of paste ; but when used it is necessary to mix a little Prussian blue, or indigo, to relieve 
 the brightness of the white, and a small quantity of turpentine, to give it brilliancy. The 
 size proper for it is made of glove leather, with the addition of some alum ; and the 
 whole is applied witli a stronj^ brush, in five or six layers, to new plaster. The wall is 
 rubbed strongly over with a brush of hogs' bristles after the ])ainting is dry, which gives 
 it its lustre and value, and makes it appear like marble or stucco. (Partington's Builders 
 Guide, p. 550.) 
 
 572. To xvhiten the Ceilings of Cottages. Take the best white chalk, and add a little of 
 the black of charcoal, " to prevent the white from growing reddish ; infuse them 
 separately in water; mix the whole with half water and half size of glove leather." 
 The size requires to be diluted, otherwise the whiting would come off in rolls when dry. 
 Give two layers of this tint while it is lukewarm. {Ibid.) Instead of black, a small 
 portion of any other colour may be mixed with the v.hite, and Dutch pink is not un- 
 frequently used for that puqiose. The cornice, where there is one, forms a member of 
 separation between the wall and the ceiling, and, being always an architectural object, 
 should, for that reason, generally exhibit some colour belonging to stone, such as white, 
 or some shade of yellow, grey, or brownish red. 
 
 573. The colouring of the u'alls of rooms with water colours, or in what is called dis- 
 temper, only differs from whitewashing them, in the application being coloured. White, 
 that is, lime or chalk, forms the groundwork or body of the composition, and the colour- 
 ing is added by some concentrated vegetable extract, or metallic oxide. All the different 
 colours are used for the walls of rooms ; but the most common, after white, are some 
 shades of yellow, red, green, or grey. As a general rule, the ceiling should be of a 
 lighter colour than the walls ; because it is found that, when it is darker, it is apparently 
 brought nearer to the eye, and has consequently the efiPect of making the room appear 
 low. Rooms which are too low may on the same principle be made to appear some- 
 what higher than they are, by having the walls a shade darker than is usual, and the 
 
INTERIOR FINISHING OF COTTAGES. 
 
 277 
 
 ceilings a shade lighter, and this effect may be heightened by a slight gradation in the 
 shade of the wall from the base to the cornice. The manner in which the cornice is 
 painted may also be made to cooperate in conveying the idea of height or the contrary. 
 Small lines and mouldings, and faint shadows, convey the idea of distance from the eye, 
 and the contrary that of being near it. Cornices of small dimensions, in pla-^ter, may be 
 apparently increased by lines of colour, and members not sufficiently distinct may be 
 rendered so by shades. When the walls of rooms are paneled, the shade of colour of 
 the panel, and of the styles, rails, and munnions, should be the same : but the shades of 
 the mouldings between them should be lighter on the side on which the light is sup- 
 posed to come ; and darker on the opposite side, as in fig. 518, p. 276. Sometimes panels 
 are formed by lines in imitation of raised mouldings as in fig. 519, which, with the preced- 
 ing figure, may serve to show the method of paneling in plaster as well as in colours. 
 
 574. As a cheap inside paint, which a cottager may prepare, and lay on himself, we 
 shall give a receipt for milk paint : we could add a number of others ; but we have made 
 choice of this, from having been assured of its superiority. 
 
 575. MiUc Paint. Take of skimmed milk nearly two quarts ; of fresh slacked lime, 
 about six ounces and a half ; of linseed oil four ounces, and of whiting three pounds : 
 put the lime into a stone vessel, and pour upon it a sufficient quantity of milk to form a 
 mixture, resembling thin cream ; then add the oil a little at a time, stirring it with a 
 small spatula ; the remaining milk is then to be added, and lastly the whiting. The 
 milk must on no account be sour. Slake the lime by dipping the pieces in water, out 
 of which it is to be immediately taken, and left to slack in the air. For fine white 
 paint, the oil of caraways is best, because colourless ; but with ochres the com- 
 monest oils may be used. The oil, when mixed with tl)e milk and lime, entirely dis- 
 appears, and is totally dissolved by the lime, forming a calcareous soap. The whiting, 
 or ochre, is to be gently crumbled on the surface of the fluid, which it gradually im- 
 bibes, and at last sinks: at this period it must be well stirred in. This jiaint may be 
 coloured like distemper or size-colour, with levigated charcoal, yellow^ ochre, &c., and 
 used in the same manner. The quantity here prescribed is sufficient to cover twenty- 
 seven square yards with the first coat, and it will cost about three-halfpence a yard. 
 The same paint will do for out-door work by the addition of two ounces of slaked lime ; 
 two ounces of linseed oil, and two ounces of white Burgundy pitch ; the pitch to be 
 melted in a gentle heat with the oil, and then added to the smooth mixture of the milk 
 and lime. In cold weather it must be mixed warm, to facilitate its incorporation with 
 the milk. (Smith's Art of House- Painting, 1825, p. 26.) 
 
 576. Tlie painting of the vatls of rootns in oil is seldom attempted, unless the walls have 
 been finished with a coat of stucco ; but, wherever both can be affiarded, the result, in 
 point of durability and beauty, is far preferable to what can be produced by water 
 colours. The great advantage of oil colours is, that they will bear washing with soap 
 and water, so that a room once finished with them will not require repainting for many 
 years. 
 
 577. Painti7ig the internal wooduwk of cottages ought never to be neglected, both on 
 account of its preservative quality and its ornamental eflPect. All woodwork, avowed as 
 such, should, if possible, be grained in imitation of some natural wood ; not with a view 
 of having the imitation mistaken for the original, but rather to create allusion to it, and, 
 by a diversity of lines and shades, to produce a kind of variety and intricacy, which affords 
 more pleasure to the eye than a flat shade of colour. The most suitable colour for the 
 woodwork of cottages is undoubtedly that of the prevailing timber of the district or 
 country in which the cottage is built ; at the same time, where this timber is but slightly 
 veined or marked, it is allowable and advisable to imitate a better description of wood. 
 Thus, in England, the prevailing timber in several districts is fir and poplar ; but, as the 
 wood of these trees is much inferior in beauty to that of the oak, the elm, or the chest- 
 nut, which respectively prevail in different districts in Britain, it would be allowable, 
 and what would be considered in good taste, for the painter to imitate them. In this, 
 as in every thing else, the Architect must be guided by the object in view. If a cottage 
 be in the Swiss style, the larch and silver fir, being the two woods chiefly used in cottages 
 in Switzerland, should be either procured by the builder, or imitated by the painter. In 
 an Indian or Chinese cottage, the bamboo and other tropical woods, or their imitations, 
 should predominate ; and the same principle may be applied to other countries ; always, 
 however, bearing in mind, that the business of an Architect of reason and taste is not to 
 produce fac-similes, or repetitions of objects, but imitations of their style and manner. 
 For the method of imitating woods in painting, or what is technically called graining, 
 as well as for the practical details of the painter's art, we refer to that part of this work 
 where painting is treated of systematically, and also to Smith's Art of House- Pahiting, im- 
 proved by Butcher, 12mo, London, 1825, price Is. 6d. 
 
 578. The Process of Stenciling Walls or Ceilings. Stenciling, said to be a corruption 
 
278 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 of stained ceiling, is of two kinds. The first, most ancient, and most universal mode, 
 which is still generally practised in Italy, both on the outsides and insides of buildings, 
 is that of pricking through, with a large-sized needle, the exact outline of a figure, 
 previously drawn on paper or oilcloth; and then placing it against the wall, and striking 
 the surface with a small gauze bag containing red or white chalk in powder, or powdered 
 charcoal. The powder goes through the holes in the paper, and, lodging in the plaster, 
 forms an outline, which is afterwards filled up by the painter. Sometimes, instead of 
 pricking through the drawing, it is placed against the plaster before the latter has dried, 
 and the outline is impressed on it by passing a blunt point over the outlines on the 
 paper. This is generally done in tiie Italian practice of al fresco, a term applied -in that 
 country to the process of painting in water-colours on phister, when newly laid on, and 
 before it has set. Tlie second mode of stencilling is the most common in Britain ; by 
 it, the patterns are all cut out in pastel)oard or oilcloth, and as many pieces of board or 
 cloth are employed for eacli figure, or compartment, :ls tliere are colours or shades to be 
 laid on. This mode of ornamenting tlie walls of rooms is not unsuilable for cottages 
 of the humblest description, on account of its cheapness ; and because, in remote i)laces, 
 or in new countries, it might be done by the cottager himself, or by the local plasterer or 
 house-painter. The beauty of the effect produced will depend on the suitiibleness of 
 the forms and colours of the figures to the style of the Architecture of the cottage ; and 
 on their disposition on the walls. Where the cottage displays externally any kind of 
 architectural style, it is reasonable to conclude that some of the same style should prevail 
 in the ornaments within, as well as in the furniture. A Ciothic cottage should display 
 lines, forms, and ornaments belonging to that style of Arcliitecture, in all its interior, as 
 well as exterior detail ; and the same of other styles, or sub-styles. IMore judgment is 
 required in the disposition than in the choice of ornament. There ought always to be 
 an obvious reason why an ornament is placed in one position rather than in another; and 
 wherever there is ornament or enrichment, there must be plain or flat surfaces to con- 
 trast with it. The side-walls of a room equally ornamented in every part by elaborate 
 stenciling, or by a rich paper, would be intolerable, were it not for the contrast produced 
 by the plain ceiling, and by the Imrder with which the paper, or stenciling is finished 
 under the cornice at top, and al)ove the base or surbase below. If the same border, 
 however, were carried across the middle of the paper, it would be as intolerable as the 
 paper without a border, because the spectator would see no sufficient reason for its being 
 placed there. In stenciling, and in every other mode of i)utting ornaments on walls, no 
 figure, however apjjropriate and beautiful in itself, should be put down at random; nor 
 should any wall be covered with figures for the sake of their individual beauty, but because 
 they cooperate in forming a whole, or a particular object. 'J hat object may be the 
 enrichment of the entire surface of the wall, by covering it, as it were, with a rich cloth 
 or printed paper; or, insteiid of a cloth, by covering it, with a picture in perspective. 
 The cloth, as a production of the loom, and the paper, as produced by printing, ought to 
 exhibit a succession of the same figures at regular distances, and to be accompanied by all 
 that uniformity and regularity which is characteristic of works effected by machinery. 
 The perspective view, on the other hand, as ati imitation of something existing, or sup- 
 posed to exist, in nature, forms a whole with reference to itself, and not to the art by 
 which it is produced, and consequently admits of almost endless variety. 
 
 579. In the choice of patterns for stenciling, not only the architectural style of the 
 cottage, but its situation, whether in a town, the country, or in a village; and the 
 occupation, native country, and taste or wishes, of the occupant, will naturally influence 
 the artist. As contrast is one great source of beauty, both, as respects objects when 
 placed so as to be seen together, and when placed so as to create allusion to other objects 
 of the same order, but of a difllerent class; so figures of flowers and plants in gay 
 colours are more suitable for the town than the country, and figures of human beings, 
 buildings, and streets, are more suitable for the country than for the town. The taste of 
 a cottager living in a country far distant from that in which he was born may lead 
 him to wish to create allusions to that country, by depicting some of its scenery ; and, 
 in like manner, another may desire to create allusions to scenery which he has heard of, 
 but never seen. We state these things chiefly to show that, even in ornamenting walls, 
 there should be a reason for every thing, and that this reason is, in every case, nothing 
 more than a refinement on, or a correction, by a recurrence to original principles, of, the 
 common practice of mankind. (See Whittock's Decorative Painter's Guide.) 
 
 580. A simple and elegant mode of stenciling the walls of plain cottages consists in 
 throwing them into panels, with lines of dark brown or grey ; the general colour of 
 the wall being white, a pale yellow, or fawn colour ; and in forming ornaments at the 
 angles. These panels should be coloured of a shade darker than the spaces between them, 
 which are left in imitation of styles, muntins, and cross rails ; for there can be no doubt 
 that all paneling has liad its origin in wainscoting. The panel may be ornamented, 
 
INTEEIOR FINISHING OF COTTAGES. 
 
 and the styles and rails left plain, or the contrary. It is easy to conceive that there may 
 be a great variety of stencil paneling adapted to plain cottages, which any cottager 
 or emigrant, who could mix milk with ochres or any cheap universal colour, and use 
 a blacking brush, might do for himself. 
 
 581. Papering the Walls of Rooms is a very general practice in Britain; and is ap- 
 plicable, to a certain extent, even to the humblest cottages. It is not adapted for 
 kitchens or other apartments in which the coarser domestic labours are constantly going 
 forward ; but it gives a clothed, warm, and comfortable air to bed-rooms, and an enriched 
 finish to the better description of living-rooms. The variety of papers for rooms is 
 almost endless ; beginning with a flat shade of colour, and rising through patterns of 
 one, two, or three, or more, to twenty or thirty different colours, or shades of colours, 
 as in the printed landscapes, some years since introduced into this manufacture by the 
 French. All this variety may either be printed on the paper in water colours, or in 
 colours in which oil is introduced, so as to admit of their being washed with soap and 
 water. The figures on papers may be classed as architectural, either in the Gothic, 
 Grecian, or other styles ; as imitations of nature, either plants or animals, or combina- 
 tions of these in landscape scenery ; or as historical or biographical, and, consequently, 
 either groups of figures or portraits. As the fashions of most of these papers change as 
 frequently as those of printed cottons, it would serve little purpose to offer designs of 
 them, either for the choice of the builder or the direction of the manufacturer. 
 
 582. The designs which are printed on papers, like those which are printed on different 
 cloths, may be divided into two kinds : those which are intended to be correct imitations 
 of natural or artificial objects, such as of particular species of plants or animals ; and 
 those which are fanciful compositions of artificial forms and lines, or of plants and 
 animals imagined in imitation of nature's general manner, but not copied from any 
 of her specific objects. All ornaments truly architectural or sculptural are of this 
 latter class, and they are in no style more beautifully exemplified than in the Grecian ; 
 and, perhaps, in no ornament of that style more elegantly than in the sculptured 
 honeysuckle which decorates many of the friezes of the ancient temples. As this style of 
 design brings into exercise the imagination and invention of the artist, while the other 
 (that of copying specific objects) only calls forth his powers of imitation, the former must 
 necessarily be considered higher in the scale ; and hence we find that the ornaments of 
 the most cultivated nations of antiquity are of this class, while those of nations who 
 have never excelled in the arts of design, as the Chinese for example, are of the other. 
 Thus, while Grecian or Roman ornaments have only in their forms a certain allusion to 
 particular plants or animals, almost all the plants and animals on Chinese papers and 
 cottons may be referred to particular species or varieties. The imaginative style of 
 design, carried to a high degree of perfection, is addressed to the cultivated mind, and 
 excites admiration on the same principle, though in an inferior degree, as a painting or 
 a piece of sculpture ; and the iinitative style, carried to an equal degree of per- 
 fection, is addressed to the memory and the judgment, and gives pleasure to the 
 mind, by its imitation of well known objects, and by the associations which their images 
 recall- As a proof that the imaginative designs, if we may so term them, are more 
 permai.ently satisfactory than the merely imitative or natural history ones, it may be 
 stated that all those patterns of papers and cloths which have withstood the changes of 
 fashion are of the former description ; while all those patterns which have soonest palled 
 on the public taste have been attempts at close imitations of nature. At a large ma- 
 nufactory of tea trays, and other articles in papier mache, at Wolverhampton, a trial was 
 niade, a few years ago, to substitute portraits of plants botanically correct, for the ima- 
 ginary compositions of flowers and leaves generally used ; but the change was found 
 unsatisfactory, as the articles would not sell. The drawing-room walls of the celebrated 
 stock-broker Goldschmidt, at Morden, were covered with silk, painted with flowers and 
 other objects, which were all drawn and coloured with scientific accuracy. We recollect 
 the principal flower was the A^arcissus Taz6tta, with its bulb and roots accurately 
 portrayed ; but, though we admired the figure in a botanical point of view, it gave us 
 no pleasure as an ornament among other ornaments ; because it had no connection with 
 any of them, and did not combine with them in foiming a whole. A showy geranium 
 paper, and a red rose and green trellis paper, are seldom chosen but by those who 
 cannot derive pleasure from, a higher style of composition. 
 
 583. In the choice of papers for a common cottage, the same general principles may be 
 observed respecting patterns and borders, as were mentioned under the head of stenciling. 
 One of the best plain papers for the entrance lobby and the staircases of cottages, is one 
 simply marked with lines in imitation of hewn stone; because, when any part of this 
 paper is damaged, a piece, of the size of one of the stones, can be renewed, without 
 having the appearance of a patch. There are very appropriate Gothic papers, with 
 borders at the top, to imitate cornices, which are very suitable for Gothic cottages. 
 
280 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 There are also papers covered with green trellis-work, with roses and other flowers 
 entwined ; and it is sometimes the custom to cover the ceilings, as well as the walls, with 
 such papers. This practice may be allowable in towns, as creating an allusion to the 
 country ; but, in a country cottage, we consider it in bad taste, as not contrasting with 
 local circumstances. 
 
 584. An instructive natural histori/ paper for cottages, and the walls of nurseries and 
 school-rooms, a contributor suggests, might be formed by printing figures of all tlie 
 commoner and more important plants and animals with the scientific and popular names 
 beneath them ; each plant or animal being surrounded by lines, so as to appear either in 
 frames, or as if painted on the ends of stones or bricks. The advantage of the framed 
 lines would be to give unity to the paper as a whole, and also to admit of repairs by 
 taking out any single frame or stone, and replacing it by another. There is no reason, 
 but the expense, why a geographical i)aper should not be fonned ; or one exhibiting all 
 the principal rivers, mountains, and cities in the world ; or the portraits of eminent men, 
 with their names; or perpetual almanacks; or lists of weights and measures; or 
 chronological or arithmetical tables ; or, in short, any useful and instructive subject, 
 which it would be beneficial to the cottager to have frequently before his eyes. We 
 all know Jiow easily, and yet how deeply, the mind is impressed with objects that we are 
 continually in the liabit of seeing; and that what is learned through that medium in 
 childhood is rarely, if ever, forgotten in after-life. Children, brought up in nurseries or 
 cottages decorated in the manner we have mentioned, would thus have their minds 
 stored with useful ideas, instead of fanciful images. 
 
 585. T/ic Floors of Cottages of the common kind do not admit of much ornament. 
 Entrance porches and lobl)ies may ])e paved with a description of tiles calk'd (juarries, 
 which are formed in small s(piares of six inches on a side; coloured blue, red, drab, and 
 black ; and sold at Newcastle under Line, at from '2s. 'Id, to '2s. Sd. per square yard. A 
 superior sort is sold at 10s. ; and a sort known as Wright's quarries, which have dark 
 brown figures in pigment on their surface, let into a pale yellow ground, and are very 
 ornamental, are sold for 25s. per superficial yard. In countries wliere tiles are not taxed 
 as in Britain (where the duty, in ISS'i, is £l : 4s. : 2d. per thousand), the price would of 
 course be much cheaper. Quarries of different colours are set in mortar or cement, so 
 as to appear like tessellated pavement ; and Wright's figured quarries are used to form 
 bordering and centres to his plain ones, or to floors of rubbed stone : in either case, they 
 make a very ornamental and substantial flooring. When all the rooms of a cottage are 
 on the ground floor, and when they are not flued under, a substitute for boards, at once 
 ornamental, cheap, and comfortable, may be formed by paving them with one or difl'erent 
 kinds of wood, obtained from the branches of trees, which have been cut into lengths of 
 four or six inches, and set endways on gravel or in mortar; or, pieces of board, of 
 various woods, resembling tile quarries in size, or stained of different colours by acids, 
 might be embedded in cement, either in imitation of tessellated pavement, or of the 
 Continental practice of parquetted floors. A very good composition for laying under 
 such floors is made of one part of quicklime, two of sharp sand, and as much oil of r.ny 
 kind as will bring the other ingredients to the consistence of mortar. A sound, warm, 
 and durable floor is formed in the following manner : the ground being well drained, 
 and covered to the depth of a foot with loose stones, lay on these a stratum of a mixture 
 of gravel and newly slacked lime, to the depth of six inches ; let this be well beaten, and 
 brought to a perfect level, and after it has dried a week or a fortnight, according to the 
 weather, cover it, to the depth of two inches, with a composition of equal parts of quick- 
 lime and powdered smithy ashes, brought to the consistency of mortar by the addition 
 of bullock's blood, stale milk, oil, or any other description of greasy matter. As soon as 
 this is laid on, it must be well beaten with the back of a spade, or rolled with a cast-iron 
 roller ; after which, if immediately well and long rubbed with coarse woollen cloths, it 
 may be brought to a high polish. The colour, when bullock's blood is used, is at first 
 brown, but after some weeks it changes to a light grey. When yellow ochre is added 
 to the mixture, a Bath stone colour is produced. One of the simplest modes of pro- 
 curing a composition floor, in countries where Roman cement can be easily obtained, is 
 to bed plain tiles in this material ; then coat them over with a mixture composed of one 
 part of cement, and two of sharp sand ; and, a month afterwards, to give the floor a second 
 coating of the same mixture, with the addition of as much lime and yellow ochre as will 
 communicate a cream-coloured tinge to the surface. Or, the second coat may be com- 
 posed of powdered Portland, Bath, or other freestone, and oxide of lead mixed up with 
 oil, as in Hamhn's mastic (see § 527). A great object, in all ground-floors of cottages, 
 is to lay such a foundation as to insure their dryness ; we have mentioned several modes 
 of attaining this end, and we add the following (which is said to be practised in Bengal), 
 as suitable for districts in Britain, or other temperate climates, where pottery is cheap. 
 *' The area of the house or room to be floored is first made perfectly level ; unglazed 
 
INTERNAL FITTINGS-UP OF COTTAGES. 
 
 281 
 
 earthen pots, each about a foot in height and large-bellied, are then placed with theii 
 mouths downwards, close together, over the whole surface. The vacant parts round the 
 necks and tops of these pots are afterwards filled up with charcoal pounded fine (this sub- 
 stance being well known to resist damp) ; and, over the whole, a floor is formed of brick- 
 dust and lime, well worked together, and made as hard as possible. {Mech. Mag., 
 vol. xi. p. 21.) We shall describe different modes of forming composition floors for 
 the upper stories of buildings, when giving designs for fire-proof houses, in our suc- 
 ceeding Book. 
 
 Sect. III. Designs and Directions for internal Fittings-up for Cottage Dwellings. 
 
 586. Shelves to pantries, closets, and closet cupboards should be formed of boards of 
 some description of wood not liable to communicate its flavour to the articles laid on 
 them ; or, if such a wood cannot be got, the shelves ought to be painted in oil. The 
 least expensive mode of fixing these shelves is by inserting their ends in the wall, or 
 rather in the first coat of plaster ; a better one is by fixing them to wooden bricks, but 
 the best is by lining the walls with tliin boards to which the shelves are attached. 
 When shelves are put in by tenants, or temporary occupiers of houses, this last practice 
 is sometimes adopted, for the sake of allowing the temporary occupier, at the expiration 
 of the period of his occupation, to carry away with him his shelves, which in this case 
 are no longer considered as landlord's fixtures. 
 
 587. Of Seats and Basins to Water-closets, and of Cisterns for JFater, we have already said 
 enough for this division of our work ; and shall, therefore, not again recur to them, till 
 we come to give designs for those of ornamental cottages and villas. 
 
 588. Chimney-pieces for the kitchens of cottages should generally be finished with 
 stone facings and stone shelves ; but, where the stone is sandy and brittle, it is much 
 better to substitute stout shelves of deal or oak. The cottage parlour should, if pos- 
 sible, have a marble chimney-piece ; and those of the bed-rooms may be of stone or 
 composition. Designs will be found in our succeeding section, where we treat of tire- 
 places which may be executed either in marble, or stone, or composition ; in the latter 
 case, and even where freestone or slate-stone is used, they may be painted in imitation 
 of some variety of marble. In countries abounding with slate of the kind which rises 
 in large lamina; like that of North Wales, handsome chimney-pieces may be formed 
 at very little expense, and painted so as to resemble either stone or marble. There are 
 also chimney-pieces of cast iron, which are generally highly ornamented ; and which 
 are strong and durable when properly painted. The height of the shelf of the chimney 
 from the floor is generally varied according to the width of the fireplace ; but, in a 
 cottage where the shelf is always turned to some use, its upper surface should generally 
 be about four feet and a half from the floor ; the projection of the shelf from the fascia, 
 or face of the lintel, may vary from four to six inches, and its thickness should not be 
 less than an inch. Where cast iron is used, and bronzed, so as to avow the material, 
 the thickness of the shelf need not exceed half an inch, and the general design may 
 be much more varied and enriched. Were the plan adopted of enclosing fireplaces 
 in glazed doors, so as to prevent the heated air of the room from escaping by the 
 chimney, and yet to show the fire, for which a patent was taken out by a gentleman of 
 Edinburgh some years ago (see Rep. of Arts), and which has been recently recommended 
 by Dr. Arnott, cast-iron chimney-pieces would be found very suitable. 
 
 589. A valuable substitute for Portland stone chimney-pieces is thus formed: — " Take 
 two bushels of sharp drift sand, and one bushel of sifted slacked quicklime ; mix 
 them up with as little water as possible, and beat them well together for half an 
 hour every morning for three or four successive days, but never wet them again after 
 their first mixture. To two gallons of water, contained in a proper vessel, add one pint 
 of single size made warm ; a quarter of a pound of alum in powder is then to be dissolved 
 in warm water, and mixed with the above liquor. Take about a shovelful of the first 
 composition, make a hole in the middle of it, and put therein three quarters of a pint of 
 the mixture of alum and size, to which add three or four pounds of coarse plaster of 
 Paris ; the whole is then to be well beaten and mixed together rather stiff. Put this 
 mixture immediately into the wooden moulds of the intended chimney-piece, the sides, 
 ends, and tops of which moulds are made of movable pieces, previously oiled with the 
 following mixture: — Take one pint of the droppings of sweet oil, and add thereto one 
 pint of clear lime water, made from pouring boihng water on lumps of chalk lime in a 
 close vessel till fully saturated : when the lime water becomes clear, it is in a proper state 
 to be added to the oil, as above mentioned, and on their being stirred together they will 
 form a thick oily mixture or emulsion, proper to apply to the moulds. In forming the 
 side or jamb of a chimney-piece, the mould is to be first half filled with the sand, lime, 
 and plaster composition ; then two wires, nearly the length of the piece to be moulded, 
 are to be wrapped round with a thin layer of herpp, and to be placed in parallel lines, 
 
28^ COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 lengthwise, in the mixture or composition in the mould : the mould is afterwards filled 
 up with more of the composition ; and if there is any superfluous quantity, it is to be 
 struck off with a piece of flat board. The lid, or top of the mould is then to be placed 
 upon it, and the whole subjected to a strong pressure from powerful levers, or a screw 
 press. The composition should remain under this pressure for twenty or thirty minutes ; 
 the precise time necessary being guessed from examining the state of a small specimen of 
 the composition, reserved purposely to determine the time it requires to harden and set 
 firm. The sides of the mould must be held togetlier by iron clamps and wedges. The 
 wires above mentioned answer a double purpose, by giving strength to the jambs, and 
 retaining the whole mass together, in case it should at any time be cracked by accident. 
 These chimney-pieces may be made either plain or fluted, according to the mould ; and 
 when moulded, they are finished off' by rubbing them over with alum water, and smoothing 
 them with a trowel, and a little wet plaster of Paris. A common plain chimney-piece 
 of this composition was sold at only 7s., and a reeded one at 2Hs., in London, in 1832, 
 completely fitted up." (Trans. Soc. Arts.) 
 
 590. Jiell-hani^ng may be rlescribed as the art of conducting lines of wire, intended 
 to ring a bell atone end, wlien pulled with a little force at the other, ui all directions 
 round the apartments and through the walls of a building, in such a manner as not 
 to obtrude on the view. This is effected with ease in striiight lines ; aiid angles are got 
 over l)y what are called cranks, of which there is a variety of sorts for external and 
 internal angles. As few bells can be required for common cottages, we shall defer what 
 else we have to say on the subject till we come to treat of public-houses and iims ; merely 
 ol)serving here, that a modern improvement consists in having the wires entirely con- 
 cealed ; and, in having a small wooden or ivory knob, protruding either from tlie plain 
 face of the wall, or from the centre of a rose, a cup, or otiier ornament, instead of riband 
 or string bell-ropes suspended from the ceiling. Fig. 520 shows a bell handle of this 
 
 520 
 
 description, with its different parts : a is a cup, containing in the centre an ivory knob, 
 by which is pulled the brass chain b ; this chain passes over a pulley, c, and consequently 
 may pull a bell in the direction of right or left, upwards or downwards, according to 
 the side to which the pulley is turned; and when it is desired to pull the wire in a di- 
 rection perpendicular to the face of the wall, the pulley is omitted, and the chain works 
 solely in the groove d ; e shows the outer rim of the cup unscrewed, in order to be 
 cleaned if in wood, or new lacquered if in brass ; f shows the ivory knob also unscrewed ; 
 g is the hollow of the cup, with the ears containing the holes for the screw-nails which 
 fix it to the wall. The knoby is of ivory, and all the rest is of brass ; but the cup 
 might be made of ebony ; or both cup and knob might be of bronze, or of iron painted 
 to imitate bronze. The grooved bolt, d, in which the chain works, is generally made 
 square, but it is here shown round, an improvement made by Mr. Nettlefold of London, 
 which is found to make it work more truly and easily. The use of the grooved bolt is 
 to guide the chain or wire, in pulling it out, and in letting it spring back again. 
 
 Sect. IV. Designs and Directions for Fixtures for Cottage Dwellings. 
 
 591. The fixtures ior cottages we shall take in the order of kitchen ranges, cooking 
 stoves, warming stoves, ovens, boilers, grates, sinks, fixed basins, fixed washing troughs, 
 fixed ironing boards, and other flaps and slabs, towel rollers, dressers, and corner cupboards. 
 
 592, Kitchen Ranges are manufactured in Birmingham, and sent to all parts of the 
 world, and their variety is almost endless. All of them, however, may be included in 
 two classes ; those that have neither boilers nor ovens, either at the sides or behind ; and 
 those which have either or both. It is of great importance to the cottager to know, that 
 when he is obliged to choose a kitchen fire-place that has neither boiler nor oven in the 
 hob or jamb, he ought to choose a front and bottom grate only, and have the sides and 
 back of his fire-place one solid mass of masonry, and if possible of fire stone or fire brick. 
 
FIXTURES FOR COTTAGE DWELLINGS. 
 
 283 
 
 In every country there are clay stones to be found, so free from sand or lime as not 
 readily to fuse ; or clay so free from other substances as in like manner to resist the 
 action of mtense heat ; and of one or other of these the backs and sides of all open fire- 
 places ought to be formed, where the object is to get the greatest quantity of heat from 
 the smallest quantity of fuel, with the least quantity of labour. When the cottager can 
 afford to purchase a range having an oven on one side and a boiler on the other, the 
 kind which we consider the most suitable is that first made by Mr. Eckstein of London, 
 fig. 521, in which the boiler occupies one side and the back, from atob: and the oven is 
 on the other side, c; 
 
 the fire comes in close " ^ 
 
 contact with both oven 
 and boiler, and heats 
 them sufficiently with- 
 out the aid of a flue 
 under the former. This 
 range, on a small scale, 
 may be purchased in 
 London, by retail, for 
 five guineas ; the size 
 here shown costs eight 
 guineas. The oven, 
 in this and other iron 
 kitchen ranges, would 
 be much improved by 
 being lined with fire 
 stone or fire brick ; 
 the heat would be thereby moderated, rendered more uniform, and retained longer. 
 tor roasting meat, there might be a grated false bottom, with a valve in the lower part 
 of the door of the oven, and another in the back part of its cover, by which a current of 
 air might be admitted at pleasure to brown the meat. There is a very small cast-iron 
 range made occasionally, in which a stove for heating irons, and for other purposes, 
 IS substituted for a boiler, and which costs only three guineas. 
 
 ^ 593. A Design for a Cottage Kitchen Grate, of great ingenuity, and capable of supply- 
 mg all the heat required, not only for cooking, but for washing, warming, and every 
 other domestic purpose, has been sent us by our scientific and gifted correspondent, Mr. 
 Mallet, jun., of Dublin, who informs us that he has tried it, and found it to answer 
 in every particular. Fig. 522 is a vertical section of this grate in the plane of the 
 
 breast of the chimney ; and fig. 523 is a plan, or horizontal section, of the sapie, taken a 
 little above the bottom grate. The sides and back of the fireplace are formed by the 
 
284 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 hollow vessel b, of boiler plate iron, into which two pipes are inserted to produce circula- 
 tion between the water in it and that in 
 the apparatus shown in figs. 524, 525, -523 
 and 526. The vessel b receives constantly 
 that portion of the heat which would 
 otherwise be dissipated in the brickwork | 
 of the back and sides of the fireplace, 
 and transmits it to a hollow vessel, fig. 
 524, enclosed in a cast-iron casing with doors, as shown in fig. 525, which may form 
 
 525 
 
 
 524 
 
 
 
 
 
 water or steam bath 
 hiiiher 
 
 the tern- 
 
 >2G 
 
 Of) 
 
 o © 
 
 at one time an oven or hot closet, and at another 
 perature of either of these, however, can never 1 
 than 212°, unless oil be used. The upper surface of this 
 case will be useful for culinary purposes, most operations of 
 which require but a moderate heat. Fig. 526 shows the top 
 of the water-bath, with holes at one end for inserting sauce- 
 pans, &c. ; and with a hot plate at the other. This double- 
 cased vessel is easily and cheaply made of boiler plates. 
 Over the fireplace is another vessel, also formed of boiler 
 plates, fig. 522, a, the water in which is heated by that heat 
 which generally escapes up the chimney, to the amount of 
 half that evolved by the fuel. The flue passes in a circuitous 
 route, c c, and the ordinary flue receives the smoke at d ; 
 but if the smoke passed off by the dotted lines e e, more heat 
 would be given out, though in that case soot doors would be 
 necessary in the chimney breast, opjwsite the angles of the 
 flues, to admit of cleaning them. This boiler or vessel will 
 heat part, or the whole, of the cottage, according to its site ; 
 it will supply hot water for culinary or other purposes ; and 
 when the vessel b is not in use, the heat of a may be greatly 
 increased by opening the cock m, which will permit circulation 
 to take place between the upper and lower vessels. The 
 vessel a is supplied with water by a small cistern and ball cock, f, connected by the 
 pipe g, bent to prevent circulation, and 
 sunk into the wall of the chimney ; a 
 simple smoke-jack may be placed over the 
 opening of the flue, c, as shown at h in fig. 
 527 ; and a door of iron should be fixed in 
 the breast of the chimney, a little higher 
 up, as shown in the same figure at i, in 
 order to get at the boiler at any time, and 
 to sweep the chimney. Fig. 527 shows 
 the elevation of the grate, which has a 
 common crane, k, for hanging pots on ; 
 and two hinged cast-iron doors, / /, to 
 turn back against the wall ; by closing 
 which the fire may be at any time 
 intensely urged, and thus the water made 
 to boil in both vessels in a few minutes (the 
 cock m being open). By these means a 
 bath may be procured in a very short time 
 
 in any part of the house or cottage. Of course many modifications and applications of 
 this Design are practicable ; such as heating a conservatory or a poultry-house, hatching 
 eggs, steaming fodder for cattle, &c. ; all of which may be readily conceived and executed 
 by any practical engineer accustomed to direct w orks in iron. 
 
FIXTURES FOR COTTAGE DWELLINGS. 
 
 285 
 
 594. Cottage Cooking- Stoves are not common in Britain, but they are much used ji> 
 those truly economical countries, Holland and the Netherlands ; and might, iu many 
 districts, prove of great advantage to the British cottager. We shall give a description 
 of the stove in use in the cottages about Bruges, as furnished us by Mr. G. H. Cottam, 
 who adds that these stoves will be manufactured, in future, at the establishment of 
 Messrs. Cottam and Hallen, Winsley Street, London. Fig. 528 is a vertical section, 
 showing the furnace or fireplace, a; the flue, e ; and oven, o. Fig. 529 is another vertical 
 section, taken at right angles with the former ; and fig. 530 is a perspective view, show- 
 
 528 
 
 529 
 
 
 
 e 
 
 p 
 
 
 V 
 
 
 nk 1/ .f 1 
 
 
 
 1 r 
 
 o 1 
 
 m 
 
 ing the external appearance of the whole. Near the top of the furnace there is a square 
 opening, fig. 528, /i, to admit the hot air and smoke produced by the consumption of the 
 fuel, to enter into the flue, ^ in which it circulates round the stove, between the plates 
 p and ^, before it escapes up the chimney, The oven, o, is heated from the furnace, a; 
 which furnace, being closed at top, becomes red-hot, or nearly so, and produces suflficient 
 heat for roasting, or any other culinary purpose. The size of the fireplace can be 
 increased at pleasure by taking off the grate, g, and putting in a smaller grate to rest on 
 the projections, i\ or a still smaller one on the shoulders, at the bottom of the opening 
 at h The cinders and dust from the fuel fall into the box, h ; which pulls out, in order 
 to remove them, without producing the slightest degree of dust or dirt. Thus, while 
 bread is baking in one oven, and meat roasting in the other, boiling or stewing may be 
 carried on by saucepans set upon the cover, or in holes cut in it, having lids with 
 handles, r, which lift off. One of these lids, n, is directly over the fireplace, and the two 
 others, I and m, open into the smoke-flue. Irons may also be heated on this plate. 
 These stoves will consume the most inferior description of fuel, and will produce an 
 intense heat, from what would scarcely burn at all in a common open fireplace, where 
 the fire is, as it were, drowned with air on all sides, instead of being, as it is in the 
 Bruges stove, surrounded on all sides by heat, and the air supplied in one stream from 
 below, through a valve in the front of the drawer for receiving the ashes. Most of our 
 readers will agree with us in thinking that this stove, when it becomes generally known, 
 will form a treasure to the British cottager, as it will not only serve to cook his meat, &c., 
 but will throw out more heat for the purpose of warming his room, than any open fire- 
 place whatever. The construction of this stove, in a scientific point of view, is admirable j 
 and all that is necessary, in putting it up, is to set it on the floor, a few feet from the 
 chimney (if one should be already built), and to conduct the smoke fuimel of the former 
 into the flue of the latter, immediately under the ceiling of the apartment, or, if the 
 cottage contains two floors, it might be carried through to the roof, in order to heat the 
 bed-rooms. When this stove is used as a substitute for a kitchen range, the open fire- 
 place, or the throat of the flue over it, should be closed up, in order to prevent the escape 
 of the heated air of the room. The fireplace, indeed, might be turned into a cupboard. 
 We hope to hear of orders being given for hundreds of Cottam's Bruges stove; because 
 they would not only serve instead of all other kitchen fires for common cottages, but 
 would prove a useful auxiliary to the kitchen in most houses. It would be easy to 
 make an improvement on this stove, so as to circulate hot water from it all over a house, 
 for the purpose of heating it ; thus rendering open fireplaces totally unnecessary, and 
 doing away, in ordinary-sized dwellings, with all the chimney-flues and chimney tops, 
 except one. 
 
 595. Warming-Stoves are of endless variety. Those manufactured in Britain are 
 generally of iron ; and for the consumption of pit coal they are erroneous in one im- 
 portant particular;, viz, that of not being surrounded by fire brick or fire stone, to serve as 
 
S86 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 a reservoir of heat. Were this done, or were even a double vacuity of air formed 
 around, above, and below the furnace of a stove, by plates of iron, a great deal more heat 
 might be procured from the fuel ; because nearly the whole of the smoke might be 
 consumed: all the difference would be, that the heat, instead of being radiated directly 
 from the stove into the air of the apartment, would be radiated from the flue ; and this 
 flue, being of iron, might be conducted so as to heat several apartments, or the whole 
 house. A good and cheap construction for this purpose is still wanting. A stove 
 invented by Witty effectually consumes the smoke ; but it is bulky, the fuel is supplied 
 in an awkward manner, and the stove itself is rather too expensive for our present 
 purpose. 
 
 596. Cottage Ovens are formed of either iron, fire stone, or fire brick. The two 
 latter kinds are by far the best ; because they do not, like iron, acquire suddenly so much 
 heat as to burn what is to be baked or roasted in them ; and because they retain the 
 heat they do acquire for a long time. An excellent oven is formed by cramping together 
 five square fire stones or fire bricks, of a foot or more in breadth each, and having a sixth 
 stone or brick as a cover. The fire may be made within, and taken out when the stones 
 are thoroughly heated. This oven may be fixed by the side of a kitchen fire, or set 
 on a weak fire, as practised with a description of stone oven in use among the cottagers 
 in Gloucestershire, and with clay ovens at Dunstable, in Bedfordshire. Excellent ovens 
 of this sort might be made of Stourbridge fire clay ; and Mr. Peake of Tunstall informs 
 us, that not only ovens for baking bread, but entire 
 fireplaces, mth their flues, might be made of the 
 same material, at a very moderate expense, if it were 
 not for the present enormous duty. A fire clay 
 fireplace, with an oven on each side, and requiring 
 no ironwork, except a small grating in front and 
 another at the bottom, would be a most desirable 
 fixture for the cottage kitchen. 
 
 597. Portable Iron Cottage Ovens are common 
 among the ironmongers, but they are not very 
 desirable. Occasionally, however, they may be 
 useful where nothing better can be got, and we shall 
 therefore briefly notice two kinds. Fig. 531 is a 
 front view of a portable wrought-iron cottage oven, 
 which costs in London, by retail, 30s. It is intended 
 to be placed over a fire, so that the smoke and hot 
 
 air may enter at a, circulate round the oven, and escape by the funnel, b* 
 valve, c, to permit the escape 
 of steam when meat is roasting. 
 Fig. 532 shows a view of the 
 oven with the door open, and 
 with a false bottom, rf, of fire 
 stone, raised half an inch from 
 the iron bottom, to moderate 
 the heat. The dimensions of 
 the chamber are, depth and 
 height, thirteen inches and a 
 quarter, and width fifteen 
 inches. Another portable oven 
 is nothing more than a com- 
 mon cast-iron flat-bottomed 
 pot or stewpan- with a false 
 bottom inside supported on pivots, under which sand is put, to diminish the intensity of 
 the heat. When this oven is to be used, it is put on a moderate fire, and covered with a 
 iid, which may be taken off occasionally to admit air. The cost in London, by retail, is 
 only 3s. 6d. It will bake a small loaf, or roast a fowl. 
 
 598. Boilers for Wash-houses are commonly made of copper, and require little art in 
 either making or managing, except, in setting them up, to provide for getting as much 
 heat as possible out of the fuel burned beneath them ; and to get ready access to the flues, 
 to free them from soot. In all open boilers, as usually constructed, there must necessarily 
 be a great waste of heat ; and therefore, in cottages, we always desire to contrive the 
 flues proceeding from them so as they may heat the air of the apartments. 
 
 599. Parlour and Bed-room Grates are manufactured in iron in the greatest variety ; but 
 it may truly be said that there is not one in a hundred of their forms worthy of being recom- 
 mended, as being scientifically constructed, with a view to the complete consumption of 
 the fuel used, and the radiation of heat into the room. The grand error of almost all of them 
 
 There is a 
 
fixtures: for cottage dwellings. 
 
 287 
 
 consists in their being exclusively constructed of iron. We hope the day is not very far 
 distant when open fireplaces will be considered as relics of barbarism, and will be altoge- 
 ther banished froro every room in British houses, except the kitchen : in the mean time, 
 we recommend the cottager who persists in indulging his prejudice for the sight of an 
 open fire, to form the sides and back of his fireplace with fire brick or fire stone ; and to 
 use np iron whatever in its construction, but four bars for a front to the fuel chamber and 
 a bottom grate, which, together, in cast iron, will not cost more than 3s. or 4s. The most 
 convenient fire bricks are what are called Welsh or Stourbridge lumps, from the names 
 of the places where they are made ; that is, masses of burnt clay, eighteen inches or two 
 feet long, nine inches or a foot broad, and six or eight inches thick. One of these may 
 form the back of the fireplace, and two others the two sides, as in fig. 533 ; in which a 
 
 5SS 
 
 represents the front bars ; b, the bottom grate ; c, the plan of the fireplace, the bars, grate, 
 and Welsh lumps being shown in their proper places ; d, the elevation ; e, the section of 
 the front bars, and the bottom grate, showing the inclination of the latter, f, towards the 
 back of the fire chamber, in the proportion of about one inch in six, with a view of giving 
 the ashes a tendency to the back ; and g, a section of one of the front bars, of nearly its 
 full size, showing the upper surface inclining towards the back of the grate, in the pro- 
 portion of half an inch to an inch, h being the front of the bar. The nearer the fuel- 
 chamber is placed to the hearth, the more heat will be radiated into the room from the 
 increase produced in the space, i, between the grate and the chimney breast ; and, on the 
 contrary, the nearer the fuel chamber is to the chimney breast, the less will be the heat 
 radiated into the room, though the chimney will draw better. The Welsh or Stourbridge 
 lumps at the sides should form with those of the back an angle of forty-five degrees or 
 uj)wards. In a fireplace of this sort a fire is much more easily lighted, and much less liable 
 to go out when neglected, than in one having the back or sides of iron. It also con- 
 sumes the fuel much more effectually ; and, by not radiating the heat so rapidly from its 
 surface as iron, it creates less draught up the chim.ney, and consequently carries less heat 
 but of the room. When the mass of fire brick is once thoroughly heated, it retains heat 
 for many hours after the fire has been extinguished; so that, if the fire is at any time 
 suffered to go out from neglect, the room is not so soon cooled as it would be, under 
 similar circumstances, by the radiating and conducting powers of cast iron. Where the 
 grate is raised somewhat higher than is shown in fig. 533, a drawer may be added to the 
 front bars, and bottom grate under the latter, for receiving the ashes, so as to prevent 
 them from raising a dust, by falling from the bottom grate to the hearth, and at the same 
 time to retain more heat about the fire. The ashes may also be carried away in the 
 drawer, in furtherance of the same object ; and by drawing it out more or less, or keeping 
 it closely shut, the burning of the fire may be accelerated or retarded. As a further 
 means of preventing the ashes from falling from the front bars on the hearth, the uppes' 
 
S88 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 534 
 
 I 
 
 surface of the former should always be made to slope inwards, as before stated, and the 
 breadth of the bars should be somewhat greater than is usually employed. This is shown 
 in tig. 533, g, and also in the section, fig. 534, to a scale of a quarter of an inch to a foot, 
 in which k k k are the sections of the bars ; I, the bottom grate ; 
 and m, the ash-drawer. The front bars should always be straight, 
 because the consumption of the fuel depends on its being as little 
 exposed as possible to cold air on the sides, and because the heat 
 given out to the room depends on the breadth of surface of the 
 ignited fuel, and not on the depth of the fuel chamber. Curved 
 fronts, therefore, for fireplaces of this sort, are never to be recom- 
 mended ; not only because they increase the depth of the fuel- 
 chamber, but because they expose a greater portion of the fuel 
 to the action of the cool air, by which perfect combustion is 
 rendered more difficult. With the fireplaces near the hearth, with 
 front bars beveled inwards, and with an ash-drawer, the fender 
 may be made very low ; and thus the heat may be allowed to 
 radiate freely to that part of the floor from which it is excluded 
 by a high fender. It is necessary to observe that the bottom or ash-drawer is not 
 recommended as a means of increasing the heat, because its front and bottom will 
 prevent a portion of that from being radiated to the hearth, but chiefly as a means of 
 regulating the draught of air through the fire, and consequently of accelerating or 
 diminishing the consumption of the fuel ; and partly for the sake of cleanliness, in 
 preventing the small ashes from falling on the hearth, and avoiding the dust which in 
 that case arises when they are swept up and carried away. 
 
 600. A simple and economical Fireplace for a cottage parlour the chimney of which 
 is liable to smoke, is in use in some parts of Fifeshire and Mid-Lothian, and is worthy of 
 imitation in countries where fire stone or fire clay can be readily procured. In tlie cot- 
 tages alluded to, the sides or jambs, figs. 535, 536, n n (between which are fixed the front 
 bars and the grate), are formed of 535 
 a kind of fire stone, found in the 
 island of Cramond : the fire-cham- 
 ber is wide in front, but not deep ; 
 in consequence of which it consumes 
 but few coals in proportion to the 
 heat it throws out. The upper part 
 of the fireplace, behind, and at the 
 sides, is formed of the same stone ; 
 and in front there is fixed a cast- 
 iron plate, with an opening in it ; 
 which, though generally semicir- 
 cular, might be made square, or 
 Gothic, according to the character 
 of the architecture of the house. 
 These fireplaces are valuable for 
 low-roofed cottages placed among 
 high trees, as the chimneys of dwell- 
 ings so situated are very apt to 
 smoke. Fireplaces thus constructed 
 draw well ; but it must be obvious 
 that, in proportion as this is the 
 case, a greater amount of heat must 
 be carried up the chimney, A thin 
 plate (generally of sheet iron) is 
 sometimes hooked on in front of the opening, on first lighting the fire, in order to 
 increase the draught, by preventing the cold air of the room from mixing with the 
 heated air that has passed through the fire. In Ireland, we are informed by Mr. Bu- 
 chanan, in his Economy of Fuel, P- 315, that, instead of using a cast-iron plate, the 
 back of the upper part of the fireplace is formed into an oval niche, by fire stone or fire 
 brick ; the breast of the chimney being rounded off, and the thioat very much con- 
 tracted. A view of such a chimney is given in an excellent work, entitled The Theory 
 and Practice of Warming and Ventilating, &c., p. 183. We can only recommend such 
 fireplaces, however, as a minor evil to that of a smoky chimney. The grate, fig. 535, 
 and the preceding one, fig. 533, have one disadvantage for the cottager, common to 
 both, viz., that of having no hobs; but this want may be supplied in the present 
 grate, by omitting the cast-iron plate, when the tops of the jambs would become 
 hobs, as is actually the case in the parlour fireplaces of cottagers about Edinburgh ; 
 
 536 
 
 ■ill 
 
 Frr\ ^ 
 
 
 ilk 
 
 
 Q ' — i 
 
FIXTURES FOR COTTAGE DWELLINGS. 
 
 ^89 
 
 and hobs might be supplied to the grate, fig. 537, having the sides of the fire 
 at right angles to the front, as indicated in fig. 538, in which o o are the hobs, 
 
 537 
 
 538 
 
 
 
 
 
 piliiH 
 
 
 
 
 
 539 
 
 formed of Welsh lumps, 
 or fire stone ; ppp, Welsh 
 lumps forming the sides 
 and back ; and q angles 
 filled up with mortar, or 
 fragments of fire brick. 
 In such fireplaces as fig. 
 533, a substitute for a 
 hob may always be found 
 in the movable bracket 
 called a trivet, for hang- 
 ing on the bars ; or by a 
 similar stand with three 
 feet, for setting before the 
 fire. 
 
 601. An economical 
 union of cast iron and 
 fire stone or Jire brick is 
 sometimes attempted by 
 ironmongers, by lining 
 iron cases with stone or 
 brick, as in fig. 539 ; in 
 which the front plates of 
 the jambs, r r, and the 
 
 plates which form the hob, , t j . i_ n 
 
 s s, are of cast iron ; and the back and sides are also of iron, but lined with three hre 
 stones, 1 1 t. The iron back and sides are of no other use 
 than to retain the stones in their proper places, and thus 
 render this fireplace portable, and, in consequence, an 
 article of trade for ironmongers ; since a much more 
 effective and less expensive fireplace would be produced 
 by having only the covers of the hobs, the front plates 
 of the jambs, and the bottom grate, of iron, and building 
 up from the hearth, the jambs, and the back, of solid 
 masonry, and on that placing the firestone. A grate 
 built in this way is both economical and handsome, more 
 especially if it has broad beveled front bars and an 
 ash-drawer, as shown in figs. 534 and 537 ; but, as Mr. 
 Tredgold observes, "ironmongers, in general, seem to 
 
 think it more desirable to use iron, than to economise , „ . ^ , . 
 
 fuel, or to work on sound principles." In the neighbourhood of Birmingham, and m 
 the coal districts of the midland counties, where coal is abundant, and the inhabitants 
 are fond of large bright fires, the bottom grates are made so wide that cinders ot con- 
 siderable size are allowed to pass through them. To prevent these cinders from being 
 lost, and also to prevent dust from being raised, by sweeping up and carrying away 
 the ashes, what is called an ash-pan is often placed on the hearth between these fire 
 jambs, immediately beneath the grate. This ash-pan, fig.^540, is a frame or box, with 
 a grated top and a drawer underneath. The open 54O 
 spaces in the grating are about a quarter or three 
 sixteenths of an inch apart, which is the width 
 between the bottom bars of grates about London, 
 and in most parts of the country where fuel is 
 scarce and dear. In some places, the drawer or 
 box is let into the hearth, and the grating over it 
 
 is formed of brass vdre, which gives a remarkably u • oc «rWTi 
 
 clean and warm appearance to the hearth, as no ashes can he on the wires, wnicn, 
 from the reflection of the fire over them, present a glowing hue to the eye. J^ ^ere 
 provision has not been made for this recess in the hearth, the same ettect may be 
 produced by a box over it, the outer rim of which should form the fender, which 
 will look better, and be more effective, than the ash-pan, fig. 540 which only receives 
 the ashes that fall directly under the grate ; leaving those which fall from the front 
 bars to be swept up. By having the whole of the hearth withm the fender formed 
 of one shallow box, of which the fender is the outer nm ; by havmg this box co- 
 vered with brass-wire grating, and the front bars sloping inwards, no ashes could ever be 
 
 
 A 
 
 !\ 
 
 r 
 
 1 1 
 
 r 
 
 1 
 
 
 
290 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 541 
 
 seen. In kitchens on the ground floor, it is a common practice, in many places, to leave 
 an ash-pit under the kitchen range, three or four feet deep, covered with a wrought-iron 
 grating, into which the ashes fall, and are only taken out when it is full, generally when 
 the chimneys are swept. This practice is highly commendable, as saving the labour of 
 daily carrying out and sifting the ashes, and bringing back the cinders. 
 
 602. The rounding of the chimney breast, and the contraction of tJie throat of the flue, 
 whatever may be the kind of grate adopted, are points which contribute materially to 
 the free draught of every chimney. The chimney breast requires to be rounded, in order 
 to direct the current of cool air drawn from that of the room gradually upwards, so that 
 it may mix in by degrees with the current of hot air ascending from the fuel chamber, 
 instead of striking against it at right angles, which it must necessarily do when the 
 chimney breast is not rounded. The object of contracting the throat of the chimney is 
 to diminish the quantity of heat drawn from the room, by the current of air which is 
 continually passing up the chimney ; but the same contraction, it is justly observed by 
 Mr. Tredgold, often augments the draught to such a degree, as greatly to increase the 
 consumption of fuel. The grand point to be attained is, such a draught as will do 
 nothing more than carry off the smoke, and keep the fire clear ; because then there is 
 the greatest radiation from the fire and fireplace, with the least waste of hot air from the 
 room. The rounding of the chimney breast may either be effected by having a stone 
 lintel or a cast-iron one. In countries where stone is so abundant that lintels of that 
 material are thrown across the openings of the fireplaces, the under side may be rounded 
 off as at a, in fig. 541, and the throat of the flue gradually contracted (as shown in the 
 section from c to d, p. 11 S. ), till, at the height of two or 
 three feet from the chimney breast, the superficial area, 
 in ordinary cases, is not more than 90 or 100 square 
 inches; this being found by experience to be a suitabley 
 sized flue for an ordinary coal fire. When this contraction 
 has been neglected in building the chimney, or done 
 improperly ; or when it is found necessary to contract the 
 throat still farther, to create a draught ; this may be done, in 
 stone countries, by the piece of flag-stone, b, set on the 
 surface, c, which may be moved backward or forward to 
 adjust the draughts to the degree required. When fires are 
 no longer wanted, this stone may be brought forward so 
 as to lean against the breast of the chimney, as at d, to close 
 up the flue ; or thrown back, as at e, when the chimney is to 
 be swept. That this may be done with ease, and without 
 dirtying the hands, the stone may be removed by inserting 
 tlie points of the tongs in two holes cut in its face for that 
 purpose. In countries where brick is the principal 
 building material, the chimney breast, as we have seen, 
 § 79, is built on an iron bar: this bar is generally flat, and 
 about three inches broad ; consequently its inner edge pre- 
 sents a sharp angle, instead of the rounded surface repre- 
 sented in fig. 541 : to remedy this, a bar has been invented 
 by Mr. Chadley, fig. 542, the cross section of which, taken 
 at the centre of the opening, is shown at f ; and another 
 cross section, taken nearer the end, is shown at g. This is 
 obviously an excellent bar, and its cost, for an opening 
 
 three feet wide, is not more than the usual expense of a common wrought-iron bar, 
 
 suitable for the same opening. 
 The contrivance for contracting or 
 closing the throats of chimneys, in 
 brick-built buildings, is either by 
 a plate of cast iron, fonned with 
 a base so as to stand like the stone. 
 
 513 
 
 543. In the latter case 
 
 b, in fig. 541 ; or by what is called a register plate, fit. 
 the plate is furnished with a turn latch, which may be worked by the tongs, so as 
 to regulate the distance between its upper edge and the breast of the flue. It may 
 
FIXTURES FOR COTTAGE DWELLINGS. ^91 
 
 be taken out to admit of sweeping the chimney; or the flue may be completely 
 closed by it. " When the chimney top is properly contracted," Mr. Tredgold observes, 
 " a register at the throat is not wanted, and it is always desirable to do with as little 
 machinery about a fire as possible." He says that he makes the contraction at the top 
 in order to reduce the opposition which the wind, and even the resistance of the air, 
 make to the ascending smoke ; also to prevent the chimney from being cooled by double 
 currents of air (which is often the case in wide chimneys), and to diminish the loss of 
 heat which would be required to sustain a current of smoke in a large flue. If the con- 
 traction were made only at the throat, the force of ascent would be diminished at the first 
 effort ; it would be like contracting the aperture of a pipe which supplies a jet ; besides, if 
 a larger opening were left at the top than what is absolutely necessary, the rain, cold 
 air, &c., would descend, and interrupt the smoke. The degree of contraction at the 
 throat of the flue Mr. Tredgold makes the same as that at the top of the chimney. He 
 avoids all abrupt changes in either the form or direction of the flues ; he prefers the 
 circular form for them ; and in 1816 proposed, in the New Monthly Magazine, to build 
 them of earthen pipes. 
 
 603. The American Stove is adapted for a cottage in a country where wood is the fuel, 
 where it is abundant, and where no great nicety of construction has yet entered into 
 cottage dwellings ; but it can never be recommended as so economical in the first cost, 
 or so neat and cleanly in use, as a fireplace with the back and sides of non-conducting 
 earthy material. It is formed entirely of cast iron, and has a large projecting cast-iron 
 hearth, with a rim to it, serving as a fender ; it has also sides serving as jambs, and a 
 hood or shelf of cast iron. The fuel is burned on three or four iron bars, resting on 
 dog-irons. 
 
 604. Many other Stoves suitable for Cottages might be described and figured ; but we 
 have deemed it more likely to be useful, to confine ourselves to two or three which we 
 are perfectly certain are excellent, and which are tit for first-rate houses no less than 
 for cottages. The fire-brick stove, fig. 533, is to be found in the libraries and business 
 rooms of some of the largest mansions in London ; for example, in Portland Place 
 and St. James's Square. 
 
 605. The Consumption of the Smoke in open Fireplaces has long been a desideratum ; 
 and though it never can be accomplished effectually, it may in a great degree, by the 
 use of a stove invented by Cutler, in which, instead of throwing coals on the top 
 of the fire, in the usual way, they are supplied from beneath, by hoisting up a grated 
 box, into which as many coals are put in the morning as it is supposed will be burned 
 during the day. The invention is rather too complicated for common cottages ; but, if 
 a little trouble were not objected to, at least the grosser portion might be consumed by 
 the following arrangement : — Supposing the bottom grate of the fuel chamber, as in 
 fig. 533, to be within six inches of the hearth, all that is necessary is to char the coal by 
 keeping it a day directly under the grate (with a good fire burning above), before it 
 is used. The space below might be divided vertically into two chambers, and each 
 sunk so deep into the hearth as to contain as many coals as would be used in a day. 
 The bottoms of these chambers should have an ash-box fitted into them, into which 
 the ashes and dross would fall when the coals were being lifted with a shovel to be put 
 on the fire. Every morning one chamber would be found empty, or nearly so ; and the 
 ash-grate, being taken out, and its contents thrown in the dusthole, might be replaced, 
 and the chamber again filled with coals. The coals might also be charred by having 
 the jambs hollow, and the hobs to lift up ; or by leaving a hollow in the back directly 
 behind the fuel chamber, with a cast-iron door : but though these two modes would be 
 much more cleanly than the other, they would not, like it, have the advantage of 
 burning whatever was evaporated from the coals. It would be impossible for a quantity 
 of raw coal to remain a whole day directly under a good fire, without being in a great 
 lueasure deprived of the watery particles and grosser carbonaceous matters which are 
 the principal ingredients in smoke; and equally impossible for this vapour to escape 
 without passing through the ignited mass of fuel over it. We do not present this as 
 either a perfect or an elegant mode of burning smoke in open fireplaces, but as one 
 which may be universally adopted ; and which, whether it succeeds in effectually ccn- 
 suming the smoke or not, is sure to do good, since the drier and hotter fuel is, before it 
 is put on the fire, the better it will burn. 
 
 606. Designs for more elegant Grates and Stoves will be found among our fixtures for 
 ornamental cottages and villas ; and we shall treat more at length on the principles of 
 warming and ventilating, in the Third Part of this work. 
 
 607. Sinks, or fixed shallow troughs, are usually placed in back-kitchens, sculleries, 
 and wash-houses, for setting dishes and other articles upon which are to be washed ; 
 and for receiving and conveying away dirty water. Tiiey are generally formed of stone, 
 fig. 544, but are sometimes also made of cast iron ; and Mr. Mallet of Dublin, who 
 
 H H 
 
292 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 has made a great number, has sent us several Designs, of which fig. 545 is a corner 
 sink, suitable for cottages. Sinks are also frequently made of wood, lined with lead or 
 zinc. A sink, of whatever materials it may be constructed, should always either be 
 raised on masonry, or placed on an iron or wooden stand, so as to have the upper edge 
 about two feet and a half from the ground ; and it should be fixed near a window, on 
 account of the light. Where practicable, there should be a cock with a supply of 
 water immediately over it ; and, at all events, there should be a waste-pipe from it, 
 leading to a drain, the orifice being protected by a bell stink-trap, as already described, 
 § 237. 
 
 608. Fixed Wash-hand Basins, Washing- Troughs, and Slabs are little required in 
 plain cottages ; we shall therefore defer what we have to say of them, till we come to 
 treat of fixtures for villas. Fig. 545, given as a corner sink, would make a very good 
 fixed wash-hand basin. 
 
 609. A Towel Roller ought to be placed on the back of the kitchen-door of every 
 cottage ; or, if not on the back of the door, it should be near the sink or fixed wash- 
 hand basin. It is formed of deal, or any common wood, fig. 546, to a scale of one inch 
 
 to a foot, and consists of a roller with a gudgeon, or small pin, at each end, which pins 
 work in sockets cut out of brackets fixed to a door, or to any other perpendicular surface. 
 One of these brackets, a, has its socket cut through, to admit of taking out and putting 
 in the roller, when the towel requires to be changed ; the other, b, has merely a circular 
 hole cut into one side. 
 
 610. A Rail for Towels, fig. 547, to a scale of an inch to a foot, is a fixture suitable for 
 
 547 (q\ 
 
 either bed-rooms or kitchens : it requires no description beyond the inspection of the 
 figure; and may be nailed to a wall, to a door, or to the side of a wardrobe or chest of 
 drawers. This rail should be made of strong wood, and painted of the same colour as 
 
FIXTURES FOR COTTAGE DWELLINGS. 
 
 293 
 
 548 
 
 the walls or door of the room, or the wardrobe against which it is fixed. The use of 
 the paint is not only to harmonise it with the rest of the apartment, but to preserve the 
 wood from being first discoloured, and afterwards rotted, by the wet and damp of the 
 towel. If it should be fixed against a papered wall, and near a wash-hand stand, a row 
 of wooden pins or buttons, e, may be placed in the under side of the rail, on which may 
 be hung a curtain of brown hoUand linen, or of any other material, to prevent the wall 
 from being splashed. 
 
 611. Hat and Cloak Pins are sometimes formed of wood, turned or plain, and let into 
 a rail of the same material ; this rail being fixed to the wall, in the entrance lobby or 
 passage, or sometimes in cottage bed-rooms. The more common pins for this purpose 
 are made of cast iron ; and figs. 548 and 549 show two of the most useful shapes : the 
 latter answers two purposes, as a cloak may be hung on and a hat on e. 
 
 612. An Iron Hand-mill, for 
 grinding coffee, rice, barley, and 
 groats, and another smaller one for 
 pepper, &c., are most valuable 
 articles in the better description of 
 cottages ; because the cottager may 
 not only roast and grind his own 
 coffee, or any of the substitutes 
 
 for it, but he may, at pleasure, form rice flour from whole 
 rice, for puddings, &c., for invalids or children ; barley 
 flour from pearl barley, for fever drink ; or oatmeal from 
 groats, for porridge or gruel. These mills are always easies to work, and most 
 effective, when fixed; and for this purpose, if there be no style of a door or quarter 
 of a partition sufficiently strong, they must be bolted to the wall, unless provision was 
 made in building it, by inserting a piece of strong timber, or a stone to which the mill 
 could be cramped with lead. 
 
 6 IS. Fixed^ Ironing- Boards and Flaps are useful both in kitchens and, on a smaller 
 scale, in lobbies and passages, and even sometimes as brackets in sittijig-rooms. Fig. 
 
 550 
 
 550 is an ironing-board, or flap table, which, in a cottage, may serve for various useful 
 purposes, and, where the living rooms are small, will be found a most valuable substitute 
 
^294 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 554 
 
 553 
 
 for a portable table. The piece of board, a, is made fast to the wall, either by holdfasts, 
 or by being nailed or screwed to wooden bricks. The flap, b d, is hinged to it, and, 
 when raised up, is supported in its place by the hinged folding legs, of which c c, fig. 550, 
 is a plan, and d an elevation. Fig. 552 is an insulated fixed table, or ironing-board, 
 supported by cast-iron framing, which is fixed by screw nails to the floor, and also 
 to the under side of the top. Mr. Mallet, junior, of Dublin, who has sent us this 
 Design, observes that all manner of kitchen tables mtiy be supported in this manner, 
 most securely and firmly, and at very little expense. Fixed insulated tables occupy 
 more room than wall flaps ; but in 
 roomy cottages, and especially 
 where the mistress is a washer- 
 woman, they admit of two or four 
 persons ironing at the same time, 
 instead of one or two. Fig. 551 
 is an ironing-board, or side-table, 
 supported by cast-iron brackets ; 
 the dotted lines showing the ge- 
 neral disposition of the framing to 
 support the table, and the diagonal 
 rib, e, introduced to prevent lateral 
 action. Figs. 553 and 554 show 
 two modes of fastening sideboard 
 framing to walls ; the first by an 
 
 eye-bolt, with a round key, passing through holes jumped (the expression for boring 
 stone with a blunt chisel, called a jumper) in two superincumbent stones in tlie wall ; the 
 latter shows the bolt passed through the wall, and secured with a nut. Fig, 555 is a 
 sideboard suitable for a lobby, wide passage, or dining-parlour. The board or flap,y; is 
 hinged at the joint, to fall down, and is supported by two jib brackets, fig. 556, which 
 
 555 , 
 
 shut into the frame when the flap is let down, and are concealed by it. There is a slip 
 of board, g, above the flap, to keep things from rubbing against the wall. In the 
 construction, the brackets are fixed to the frame, by having round pins worked in both 
 ends of their upright piece, which turn in corresponding holes of the top and bottom rails 
 of the frame. 
 
 614. Dressers are fixtures essential to every kitchen, but more especially to that of 
 the cottager, to whom they serve both as dressers and sideboards. They are generally 
 made of deal by joiners, and seldom painted, it being the pride of good housewives, in 
 most parts of England, to keep the boards of which they are composed as white as 
 snow, by frequently scouring them with fine white sand. The dishes, plates, &c., 
 which they contain are also kept perfectly clean and free from dust, by being wiped 
 every day, whether used or not. In old farm-houses, the dressers are generally of oak 
 rubbed bright, and the shelves are filled with rows of pewter plates, &c., polished by 
 frequent cleaning, till they shine like silver. The dresser may be called the cottager's 
 sideboard, and in the dining-rooms of the first nobleman's houses in Britain, the splendid 
 mahogany sideboards, set out with gold and silver plate, differ only in the costliness of 
 the materials employed from the cottage dresser : nor do the essentials of human food 
 differ more in the palace and in the cottage than the furniture; for, in Britain and 
 America at least, good meat, good bread, and good potatoes are the main dishes on all 
 tables, and may be obtained by the workman who has good wages and full employ- 
 ment, as well as by the wealthy merchant or hereditary aristocrat. When there is a 
 pot-board affixed to the dresser, it is usually painted black or chocolate colour ; and 
 when the shelves and fronts are painted, it is generally white, or, what is in better 
 taste, the same colour as the walls or doors of the apartment. Gothic dressers would 
 be more appropriate if made of oak, or painted to resemble that wood. The price of a 
 deal dresser, in London, is from £2 to £5. 
 
FIXTURES FOR COTTAGE DWELLINGS. ^QS 
 
 559 
 
 561 
 
 562 
 
296 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
FIXTURES FOR COTTAGE DWELLINGS. 
 
 297 
 
 615. Dressers in the Grecian Style. Fig. 557, on a scale of three eighths of an inch 
 to a foot, represents a dresser in a plain Grecian style, the characteristic features being 
 the square columns which support the drawers, and the board or table which covers them : 
 under the drawers is seen the potboard, or place for setting pots, saucepans, &c., when 
 not in use. There are three shelves, and two large drawers. Rails are fixed a few 
 inches under each shelf, on which to rest the edges of the plates and dishes, in order that 
 they may lean forward, so as to protect their faces from the dust, which, when they are 
 in this position, can only fall on their backs. There are hooks fixed in the edges of the 
 shelves, on which jugs and any small articles having handles may be hung. Fig. 558 is 
 
 557 558 ^' 
 
 a cross section of this Design, on a someAvhat larger scale, on which are shown the ends 
 of the shelves, e ; of the plate rails,y; of the hooks, g ; and of the potboard, h. Fig. 559, 
 p. 295, is another dresser in the Grecian style, but differing from the other, in having beads 
 fixed along the upper surface of the shelves, near the edge, to support the plates and 
 dishes in a reclining position against the back. In this position they are liable to receive 
 the dust on the face ; but it is nevertheless preferred by some housewives, as showing 
 better whether or not the plates are clean. Instead of an open potboard, there are two 
 side-closets, and, in the middle, shelves. There are three drawers above ; the centre one 
 for tablecloths, towels, &c. ; and the two side ones, one for knives, forks, and spoons, 
 and the other for dusters, brushes, &c. In one of the cupboards below may be kept 
 what wines or spirits are in daily use, glasses, &c. ; and, in the other, bread, biscuits, 
 groceries, or any other articles of food. The tea-tray and teacups may be put on the 
 upper middle shelf, and the smaller saucepans, &c., on the bottom one. Fig. 560 is an 
 end view of this dresser, on a somewhat larger scale, in which the ends of the beads, i, 
 the hooks, k, and supporting brackets, I, are more distinctly delineated. The top of 
 this dresser, being somewhat heavy, should be fixed to the wall by two holdfasts driven 
 in above so as to be concealed by the cornice, or by screw nails to wooden bricks. Fig. 
 561, also to a scale of three eighths of an inch to a foot, is a very convenient dresser, 
 used in the better description of cottage dwellings in Cambridgeshire. The middle 
 drawer, which is shown drawn out, has a lift-out box or tray, which is divided in the 
 centre for the knives and forks, and spoons, in daily use ; and underneath, in the bottom 
 of the drawer, is a space in which are kept those not generally in use. There are two 
 other drawers, one on each side, for clean tablecloths and towels, and for dusters, &c. 
 The cupboard in front is made, in order to look uniform, with three panels like doors, 
 but the centre one is fixed, and behind it, in the middle, is a division forming the whole into 
 only two cupboards, in one of which may be kept glasses, teacups, &c. ; and in the other, 
 the liquors, fruits, sweetmeats, &c., in daily use. Fig. 562 shows a section of this 
 
298 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 dresser, in which is seen the middle drawer, m, with its lift-out tray, n, and the space 
 below, for knives and forks not in use, o. This dresser being intended to have the plates 
 leaning forward, as in fig 557, sections of the plate rail for that purpose are seen at p. 
 
 616. Dressers in the Gothic Style. Fig. 563, p. 296, to a scale of three eighths of an 
 inch to a foot, is considered in the Gothic style, from the character ofits mouldings at q q, 
 and of the upper part of its supporting columns, r r. It has an open potboard and two 
 large drawers over it. The plates, &c., are intended to lean forward, as shown in this 
 figure, and also in the section, fig. 564. Fig. 565 is a dresser more decidedly in the 
 Gothic style, as is obvious from its openings with pointed-arched tops in the ends which 
 support the shelves, and from its pointed-topped panels in the two cupboard doors. 
 There are three shallow drawers under the board or table, two shelves in the middle, and 
 a lock-up cupboard on each side. The plates are intended to lean back, as shown in the 
 section, fig. 566. 
 
 617. Fired Corner Cupboards. Where the dresser is without cupboards, as in figs. 
 557 and 563, a corner cupboard becomes requisite for cups and saucers, glasses, the tea- 
 caddy, liquors in daily use, &c. ; and these cupboards are cheapest when put up as fix- 
 tures ; because the shelves, instead of being fitted into wooden sides or linings, are then 
 let into the plaster, or fixed on slips nailed to the wall. In small rooms these cupboards 
 are very convenient, as they occupy very little space, and, for a moderate sum, supply a 
 handsome article of furniture. 
 
 618. Fixed Corner Cupboards in the Grecian Style. Fig. 567, p. 299, to a scale of three 
 eighths of an inch to. a foot, is the external view of a corner cupboard in a plain Grecian 
 style. The side styles are finished with pilasters, and there is a handsome cornice at top. 
 There are an upper cupboard with two glazed sashes, and a lower one with two paneled 
 doors. Fig. 568 represents another cupboard, in the Grecian style, with the doors open to 
 show the interior, and standing on turned legs, to give it the character of a portable piece 
 of furniture. The shelves, which are supposed to be of deal, are let into the plaster ; and 
 the whole, outside and inside, including the plaster between the shelves, is painted of a 
 wainscot colour. Fig. 569 is a Grecian corner cupboard in a more elevated style of 
 design ; the panels below and the round heads of the sashes give it an elegant and rather 
 uncommon air. 
 
 619. Fixed Comer Cupboards in the Gothic Style. Fig. 570 is an open corner cup- 
 board without doors. The shelves are nailed to slips of wood ; and these, with the wall 
 between them, should be painted of the same colour as the side styles or pilasters, and 
 the whole will look well, if grained to imitate wainscot. Fig. 571, p. 300, shows a plain 
 Design, with glazed doors above, and paneled doors below. Fig. 572 is a Design somewhat 
 more elaborate ; the pilasters having sunk panels ; and the sash-heads and cornice having 
 more work in them. The expense of fixed corner cupboards of the kind here shown, 
 with glazed doors above and paneled doors below, varies from £2 to £5. The cost will 
 be considerably diminished by having the upper doors in single wooden panels, instead 
 of being glazed. 
 
 Sect. IV. Designs and Directions for Cottage Furniture and Furnishing. 
 
 620. The Furniture and Furnishing of Cottages have been hitherto neglected in every 
 country where the comfort of the cottager has depended on those above him, and this never 
 can be fully remedied till the inmate of the cottage is. suflSciently enlightened to be able 
 to take care of himself. We have shown, in our Chapter on Model Cottages, p. 8, that all 
 that is essential, in point of the general arrangement of a house, may be obtained in a cot- 
 tage with mud walls, as well as in a palace built of marble ; and we intend now to point 
 out in Avhat manner all that is comfortable, convenient, agreeable, and much of even what is 
 elegant, in modern furniture and furnishing, may be formed of the indigenous woods and 
 other common articles of every country, as well as of the most beautiful exotic timbers, 
 and other costly materials obtained from abroad. If it should be asked, whether we ex- 
 pect that such Designs as those which follow can be executed or procured by the cottagers 
 of this country, we answer that we trust they soon will be ; and we believe that the first 
 step towards this desirable end is, to teach them what to wish for. As the spread of 
 knowledge becomes general, it will be accompanied by the spread of taste ; and correct 
 habits of thinking will go hand in hand with comfortable dwellings, and convenient, neat, 
 and elegant forms of furniture. An approximation to equalisation in knowledge will, 
 lead to an approximation in every thing else ; for knowledge is power, and the first use 
 which every man makes of it is, to endeavour to better his own condition. Our grand 
 object, therefore, in this as in every other department of our work, is, to cooperate with 
 the causes at present in operation for bettering the condition, and elevating the character, 
 of the great mass of society in all countries. Though most of the Designs submitted 
 are of a superior description to what are common in cottages, they are not on that account 
 more expensive than various cumbrous articles of furniture now possessed or desired by 
 
300 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
FURNITURE FOR COTTAGE DWELLINGS. 301 
 
 every cottager in tolerable circumstances. The difference will be found to consist 
 chiefly in the kind of labour employed in making them, and in the style of design which 
 they exhibit. To speak in familiar language, we have given more work for the joiner 
 than for the carpenter ; and our Designs pretend to nothing more than what could be in- 
 vented by any joiner who could read and draw, and derive ideas from books. Mr. Dalziel, 
 under whose direction most of them have been prepared, has shown superior taste in pre- 
 serving the character of simplicity, and preferring what was really good in itself to what 
 had only novel or showy appearance to recommend it. For the Designs for iron furni- 
 ture we are chiefly indebted to Mr. Mallet, jun., of Dublin; but partly to Messrs. 
 Cottam and Hallen, and Mr. Eckstein, of London. We shall present the following 
 Designs in the order of sideboards, dumb waiters, bookcases, book-shelves, wardrobes, 
 chests of drawers, tables, chairs, stools, benches, sofas, beds, cribs, window-curtains, inside 
 blinds, looking-glasses, fenders, carpets, oilcloths, matting, umbrella stands and hat and 
 cloak holders, mats, scrapers, clocks and musical instruments, pictures, sculptures, and 
 other ornamental furnishing the various utensils employed in cookery, brewing, baking, 
 washing, the dairy, &c,, or for the table and bed-rooms, including earthenware, China 
 and glass of every description, with linen, the minor articles of ironmongery, cutlery, 
 &c., do not come within our plan, because they cannot be considered as architectural in 
 their Design. 
 
 621. Sideboards for a co^^age joarfowr generally include cupboards, unless there should 
 be a corner cupboard in the room, either as a fixture, or as a movable piece of furniture. 
 Fig. 573, p. 300, shows a small cupboard side-board for a neatly furnished cottage par- 
 lour, in which there is not much room. In point of style it maybe considered Grecian ; 
 because the panels do not indicate any thing of pointed architecture at their angles, and 
 because the mouldings under the top belong to the former style. Fig. 574 is a Design 
 in the Gothic style ; and fig. 575 shows the interior of the Design. A partition is fixed 
 in the centre, which divides the cupboard into two parts. One side has a drawer at the 
 top, which drawer is partitioned, and lined with baize, for holding plate. There are 
 four tray shelves below, which draw out, the space between them being of suflScient 
 height to hold wine glasses, tumblers, &c. In the other side is one fixed shelf, leaving 
 height enough for bottles and decanters both above and below. The lower part may 
 be lined with lead, to keep wine and liquors cool ; or it may contain earthenware wine 
 coolers for that purpose, the bottom being lined with lead, and having a ledge in front 
 about an inch high, to retain any water that may exude from the coolers. The top of 
 this sideboard lifts up, and leaves a well for holding tablecloths, napkins, doyleys, table- 
 mats, &c. This article may be made in deal and painted ; of any native broad-leaved 
 wood, as oak, elm, walnut, &c., or of mahogany. Made of the last material, in London, 
 the price would be from £l to £\2, according to the style of finishing 
 
 622. Corner Cupboards are best put up as fixtures (see § 617), and Designs for them 
 may be made after the style already given, figs. 562 to 574 ; all the difference in con- 
 
 struction between a movable and a fixed corner cupboard, being, that the former have 
 linings or sides of boards, to which the shelves and side styles are fixed. In some old 
 
302 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 cottages and farm-houses there is a sort of pyramidal corner cupboard, fig. 575 a, to a 
 scale of half an inch to a foot, sometimes in use for holding glasses, the punch bowl, &c. ; 
 and another sort of corner cupboard, fig. 575 b, to the same scale as the preceding Design, 
 has this advantage, that, when not in use, its two open sides may be turned against the 
 two walls of the room, and, its two close sides only being seen, it may pass with a stranger 
 as a book or music stand, for which, indeed, a similar design is frequently used. There 
 is a drawer below, for holding plate, and on the top may stand the tea-urn; or, in the 
 event of its being used as a music-stand or book-stand, the drawer may contain manu- 
 scripts, and the top a globe or bust. This piece of furniture should stand on castors. 
 
 623. Dumb Waiters, or portable sideboards, are useful in small families, with few or 
 no servants or children. The most common form is that of a candelabrum, with tiers 
 of circular shelves fixed to an upright axis, the shelves diminishing from the bottom 
 upwards, and the whole on castors. The two figures last described will also make very 
 good dumb waiters. 
 
 624. Bookcases and Escrntoires, Secretaries, or Bureaus, are extremely useful for holding 
 books, keeping papers, or writing on ; and, therefore, no cottage parlour ought to be 
 without one. Figs. 576 and 577 are bureaus in the Grecian style ; the middle part of 
 fig. 576 draws out, and the front lets down and forms a writing-desk. The lower part, 
 enclosed by doors, may be either fitted up with shelves or drawers; the upper part is for 
 books. Fig. 577 has a falling board or fiap, which, when let down, as shown in fig. 578, 
 forms a writing-desk. Figs. 578 and 579 are bureau bookcases in the Gothic style. 
 In the first of these figures, the writing-table is formed by pulling out a drawer, and 
 letting down its front, as in fig. 578 ; in the second (fig. 579;, the sloping flap falls 
 down, and rests on two sliding pieces, a, technically called lopers. This last description 
 of secretaries is often made without the addition of the bookcase over it; and, instead 
 of paneled doors, it is more common to have drawers exposed to view. The knobs to 
 the drawer desks, figs. 576 and 578, are supposed to be made of wood, mahogany, ebony, 
 or laburnum, as being more in harmony with the articles, and as less liable to tarnish 
 than brass, the usual material of which similar handles are formed. The astragal 
 moulding which covers the joint formed by the two doors of each Design is also com- 
 monly formed of brass ; but wood, generally of the same sort as the rest of the fabric, is 
 now substituted by the best manufacturers. Even the linings to keyholes, fig. 580, 
 and the shields or escutcheons of locks, are now made of ebony, or some other hard 
 wood, in all the better articles of cabinet furniture. Fig. 581 shows a section of the 
 door style and astragal of the Grecian Designs ; in which b is the astragal, and c the 
 door style. Fig. 582 is a similar section, showing the Gothic astragal and door style. 
 It vvill be observed that the astragal is not worked on the door style, but on a distinct 
 piece of wood, d; which is afterwards glued, and rabbeted on to the edge of the side 
 style. The situation in a room for pieces of furniture combining bookcases and secre- 
 taries should never be on the side opposite to the window ; for nothing can be more 
 awkward than the idea of a person sitting down to write with his back to the light, or, 
 should the room be small, to an open fireplace. Recesses in those sides of a room, which 
 form right angles with the window sides afford the most desirable portions ; and, of 
 these, the preference is always to be given to the side containing the fireplace. In rooms 
 heated by stoves or flues, the same care as 583 
 
 to the position of the secretary with refer- 
 ence to the fire is not requisite. 
 
 625. Bookshelves will shortly become 
 as necessary as chairs or tables, for the 
 cottage of even the humblest labourer. 
 We shall give two Designs, figs. 583 and 
 584 ; the first may be considered as suitable 
 for a Gothic cottage, and the other for a 
 plain one. Either of these Designs may 
 be fixed against a wall, with the lower 
 shelves about six inches higher than what 
 is called chair-back height from the floor. 
 Or they may be set on a chest of drawers, 
 or secretary, provided these are in suitable 
 styles of Designs. The balusters which 
 support the shelves, in fig. 584, are called 
 
 by cabinet-makers shaped columns ; and they may either be made plain ; fluted or 
 reeded, as at g; or with carved foliage, as at h, in the same figure. 
 
 626. Wardrobes are as essential in a bed-room, as a dresser is in a cottager's kitchen, 
 or a cupboard, or sideboard of some sort, in his parlour. Figs. 585 and 586, p. 304, on a 
 scale of three eighths of an inch to a foot, exhibit a Design for a wardrobe in the Grecian 
 
FURNITURE FOR COTTAGE DWELLINGS. 
 
 584 
 
 305 
 
 g h 
 
 592 
 
 style. Fig. 586 is a view of fig. 585 Avith the doors removed, showing four inside sliding 
 tray shelves, with a deep drawer underneath for bonnets, &c. In this drawer are com- 
 monly fixed bonnet-holders, fig. 587, and against its sides cap pins, fig. 588. Fig. 589 
 is a Design for a wardrobe in the Gothic style, and also differently arranged in the 
 interior. Fig. 590 shows a view of it with the doors removed. There is an upright 
 division in the centre, with four fixed shelves on one side, and on the other an open 
 space, with cloak pins fixed round it for hanging gowns, coats, caps, &c., upon. It is 
 to be remarked, that the row of pegs is continued round the inside of the door. In 
 the bottom of this division may be a fixed or portable bonnet-holder, such as fig. 587. 
 These wardrobes may be made of deal, and painted wainscot colour, or of any other 
 suitable to the other furniture of the room. The price in London is from £3 to £5 
 each. 
 
 627. Chests of Drawers are the common substitute for wardrobes, but they are very 
 far inferior to them for keeping clothes, and create a great deal of useless labour in 
 pulling out and pushing in drawers, and perhaps in locking and unlocking them; 
 whereas one lock secures the whole of the wardrobe ; and, by the opening of one door, 
 the whole of the contents are exposed to view, and the article wanted can be had with the 
 least possible trouble. For those who prefer the old mode, we have given the Design 591, 
 to a scale of half an inch to a foot, which represents a chest of drawers in the Gothic style. 
 It may be constructed of common deal, painted wainscot colour, with real oak knobs. 
 The cost in London is from £3 to £4. A common chest of drawers may be made more 
 useful in a small room, by 
 liaving a slider to pull out 
 in front, from under the 
 top above the first drawer, 
 as in fig. 592, a; the two 
 bottom drawers may, if re- 
 quired, be made into one 
 deep drawer, to hold bon- 
 nets, &c., like the drawer 
 in the wardrobe, fig. 586, 
 p. 304 . Knobs of the same 
 wood as the furniture, fig. 
 592, b, are now generally 
 substituted, as in most other 
 pieces of furniture, for brass. ^ ^ 
 
 They harmonise better, and 
 
 do not tarnish ; besides, the fashion is, at present, comparatively new in liOndon, and this 
 confers on them a certain degree of factitious elegance, viz , that of novelty and fashion. 
 
 628. Tables are of numerous kinds and various forms. We shall take them in the 
 order of kitchen tables, parlour tables, and bed-room tables. 
 
 629. Kitchen Tables ought to be strong, on account of their continual use ; and, if 
 possible, they should be contrived to fold up, or otherwise go into little space, when not 
 in immediate use, in order to afford more room for carrying on the business of the kitchen. 
 One of the most economical of kitchen tables is that formed by the kneading-trough, 
 represented by fig. 593, to a scale of half an inch to a foot, of which a is an end view. 
 Such tables are a good deal in use in the cottages and small faim-houses in many parts 
 of England. The cover, which, when on the trough, serves as a table or ironing-board, 
 either lifts off, or, being hinged, is placed so as when opened it may lean against a wall, 
 when the trough is wanted to be used. Frequently a' division is made in the centre of 
 the trough, so that the diy flour can be kept in one compartment, and the dough made 
 111 the other. Sometimes there are three compartments, in order to keep separate two 
 different kinds of flour or meal. The board forming the cover ought to be an inch and 
 a half thick, and always in one piece, in order that neither dirt nor dust may drop through 
 
 I I 
 
306 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 593 
 
 595 
 
 the joints. Tliere ought to be four fillets, b b, nailed along the under side of each edge 
 of the cover, so as to keep it exactly in its place when on. Deal, beech, sycamore, and 
 ash are good woods for the trough and cover of this table, because they are light in 
 lolour, and have a clean appearance. No part of them should be painted, because both 
 the trougli and cover, when used for making bread, will require frequent scouring to 
 keep them clean ; and, if the board sliould be used for an ironing-board, the heat of the 
 irons would blister tl»e paint, and make it stick to the cloth or blanket used to cover it. 
 Fig. '394, J). to a scale of half an inch to a foot, is a kitchen table on four fixed legs, 
 which, by means of two porUible legs in addition, can be extended at each end, so as to 
 make a table of double its original length. Thus, suppose the table, fig. 591, when 
 folded up, to be three feet long, and two feet six inches wide , it may, in two minutes, 
 by screwing in the two portable legs, be made six feet long ; and, instead of being only 
 large enough for two persons, it may dine several, or be used as an ironing-board, which, 
 in narrow rooms, must obviously be a great convenience. There is a drawer under 
 the centre of this table, in which the portable legs may be kept ; or they may be set 
 elsewhere, and the drawer used for other purposes. This Design might be varied by 
 having lopers to support the end leaves, instead of portable legs ; or the leaves might 
 hang down, like those of a coimnon dining-table, and be supported by draw-out feet. 
 In the construction, care must be t:iken to have the wood 
 of the hinged leaves very dry and well-seasoned, otherwise 
 they will warp ; and the ends of these leaves should be 
 clamped at each end, by a piece of wood the reverse way 
 to the grain of the leaf or Hap. The term clamping is 
 applied by cabinet-makers, when a piece of wood is 
 grooved, and another tongued into it, as in fig. 595. This 
 table will cost in London from 3 to £ 4. Fig. 596, 
 to a scale of half an inch to a foot is a fold-up kitchen 
 
 table, chiefly valuable because it will take up little room when not in use, as in fig. 597 
 The top consists of two 
 
 leaves hinged together 5<)(; 597 
 
 at the ends ; and, when 
 the table is opened, it 
 is prevented from fall- 
 ing down in the middle 
 by the wooden button, 
 c, being locked into the 
 notched piece, d, figs. 
 598 and 599. The for- 
 mer figurerepresentsthe 
 under side of the table. 
 The tops and feet of 
 the standards, e e, and 
 the rails, f f, must be 
 beveled, to admit of 
 their free action. The 
 legs may be fastened 
 
 together, when shut, by a hook and eye at each end, as shown at g, otherwise it would 
 be apt to warp. Tliis table will be found very convenient for carrying out to a cottage 
 lawn or arbour, or for using under a veranda. Where, however, the veranda is narrow, 
 
FURNITURE FOR COTTAGE DWELLINGS. 3Q7 
 
 the preceding Design, forming a long narrow table, will, perhaps, be found more com- 
 modious. Fig. 601 shows a table with a semicircular top, double-hinged at the ends, 
 and supported by three legs and a triangular frame, as shown in fig. 600. The two 
 
 600 
 
 601 
 
 legs, h h, fold out, to support one half of the top, when it is opened and tunied over on 
 them. As this table, when shut up, will stand against a wall, it will take up but little 
 room, and is, therefore, very suitable to a cottage kitchen. A common kitchen dining- 
 table, square, round, or oval, with a fixed centre, and two hinged folding-down leaves, 
 supported, when up, by hinged folding feet, is so familiar a form, that we have not 
 thought it necessary to give a Design for it. Its construction will be easily understood 
 from that of the fixed flap table with folding legs, § 613, fig. 550. 
 
 630. Parlour Tables. Where the parlour is square, a round table will be found the 
 handsomest and most appropriate. Fig. 602, designed by Mr. Mallet, shows a round 
 ^ble with a wooden top, supported on a cast-iron 
 pillar, with iron castors. Each of tliese castors con- 
 sists of a ball one inch in diameter, having free 
 motion in every direction within a wrought-iron 
 cup, which is pressed into its form in a fly press, 
 from a piece of flat iron ; and, the ball being put 
 into it, it is then closed sufficiently at the mouth, 
 to prevent the ball from falling out. The con- 
 struction of this kind of castor (which Mr. Mallet 
 informs us he invented some time ago, and which 
 has been since used extensively) will be better 
 understood by fig. 603, in which a is the ball of 
 a single castor ; b b are the sides of the wrought- 
 iron cup ; and c is the leg of the table, bed, 
 sofa, or other piece of furniture, to which the 
 
308 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 cup is riveted : d shows the phm of three castors, such as arc used for the table, 
 fig. 602 ; and e is a view of these castors appended to the round foot of any piece 
 of furniture, the junction being ct)ncealeti by the niouhhng f. Mr. IVI.iHet states 
 tliat three castors phiced in this manner form an exceedingly firm and efVective loco- 
 motive support for any heavy article of furniture. The pillar of this table is cast 
 hollow and thin, so as to come far cheaper than the same Design could be made in the 
 
 604 
 
 1 
 
 commonest description of wood. Fig. 604, to a scale of half an inch to a foot, is a 
 table on four legs, and which, when covered with green baize, is commonly called a 
 
 1 o 
 
FURNITURE FOR COTTAGE DWELLINGS. 309 
 
 card table. The top is made double, and hinged at the back, so as to fold over, and 
 there is a drawer in the frame. The two legs g g are fixed, but the other two, h h, are 
 hinged, and fold out to support the folding flap. The joints, which are made in the 
 rails of the folding legs, are of wood, as shown at i and k ; and, being put together, a 
 piece of strong iron wire is driven down the centre of the rounded ends, and forms the 
 axis on which they turn. This joint is technically called a knuckle joint ; and rails of 
 tables hinged in this manner are called fly rails. Fig. 605 is a table, which, when 
 folded up like fig. 604, has exactly the same appearance. The top is double, like the 
 top of a card table, and turns round on a pivot /, having a fixed well, n, to answer the pur- 
 pose of a drawer ; when the flap is opened it makes a square table with rounded comers 
 L'ke the other. There is a rail, m, fixed to the upper side of the frame, to receive the pivot on 
 which the top of the table works, as shown in the cross section, n, and longitudinal section, o* 
 Fig. 606, to a scale of half an inch to a foot, is a table on four legs, with two drawers in 
 
 606 
 
 the frame. The end flaps, p p, are made to put on or to take off as required, by means of 
 what are called strap-hinges, which are fastened to the flaps. These hinges are shown in 
 fig. 606, in which q is the part screwed to the under side of the flap ; and r the strap or 
 part which is inserted under the top of the table, into an iron plate, s, screwed to the under 
 side of the top, as shown at t. The hinge of the strap is of the knuckle-joint kind, as 
 exhibited at u. After the flap is put in, it is supported by small fly-brackets, fig. 606, v v. 
 This is certainly a very convenient table, and very simple in its construction : it might 
 be made still more economically, by substituting fixed bracket-shaped iron straps to the 
 flaps, in lieu of the strap hinges ; which would render both the latter and the brackets, 
 V, unnecessary. The only inconvenience of this plan would be, that the flaps, when not 
 in use, would require to be taken out and put aside. Fig. 607, p. 313, is a table on 
 four turned legs with castors, and with the ends of the frame made to draw out to 
 support two flaps, which may be loose, and fastened at the joints by sockets, w, and pins, x ; 
 or the flaps may be hinged to the ends of the top, and lift up and let down, being sup- 
 ported, when raised, by the end frames. A shelf might be added to this table, about 
 fifteen inches from the floor, which would be found useful for holding workboxes, books, 
 &c. Fig. 608, p. 313, to a scale of half an inch to a foot, is a plain parlour work-table, 
 with two drawers ; and with flaps having ruled joints to fall down, and fly brackets to 
 support them when up. Fig. 609, p. 313, to a scale of three fourths of an inch to a foot, 
 is a work and writing table for a cottager's wife ; for we trust that the time will soon 
 come, when not only every cottager's wife will be able to write as well as read, but will 
 have leisure to do so. This table may be made much plainer than is here shown, and 
 consequently cheaper. For example, if the legs were not turned, and the whole were 
 made of common deal, it would cost little more than an ordinary table with two drawers. 
 The bag frame, which, when economy was the object, might be made of glazed coloured 
 calico instead of silk, is made to draw out in front, and the writing. drawer over it pulls 
 out at the end. In this drawer there is a flap to write on, hinged to a sliding piece. 
 
310 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 which may be pushed back from the front of the drawer, so as to raise the desk upon the 
 edge of the table to the angle required. Underneath this 
 
 writing-board is a space for papers ; and, to the right, — ^'^^^ h 
 another for the inkstand, pens, and wafers. The writing- 
 board, or flap, might be made to rise with a rack and horse, 
 (fig. 610, in which a is the rack, and h the horse) ; but the first 
 plan is far simpler, and answers the same end. Indeed, even 
 the sliding piece might be dispensed with, and the writing- 
 flap adjusted to the proper angle by pulling out or pushing 
 in the drawer. At the opposite end of tliis table a flap is 
 shown, which may be put up or let down accordingly as it may be desired to make the table 
 longer or shorter. This is evidently a very convenient table ; because a cottager's wife 
 may have a book to read in lying at one end, writing materials at the other, and her work in 
 the middle. Fig. Gil is a small 
 tea or work table. The top is 
 hinged on a triangular box, 
 wliicli may be useful to hold 
 work in. When not in use, 
 tlie top is set up on edge, and 
 when brought dow n, it fastens 
 itself by a common catch fasten- 
 ing. Fig. 612 is a neat work- 
 table, which may be made by 
 any joiner, out of the common 
 woods of the country, at a very 
 trifling c'xi)ensc, and placed on 
 three of Mallet's iron castors, 
 or even on turned knobs in imi- 
 tation of castors ; either of which, 
 by raising it from the ground, 
 would add much to the lightness 
 .ind elegance of its appearance. 
 Figs. 613, 614, 615 represent 
 n very useful article, called a camp table, from its going into little bulk, being light, and 
 being used by officers in camps. Fig. 613 shows it opened out to its full extent ; the top 
 being hinged to the two legs, and supported by a portable leg which is fastened into it 
 by a screw and socket, c, in fig. 613, and can be removed at pleasure. When not in 
 
 1 r 
 
 612 
 
 I 
 
 A- 
 
 
 use, this leg is fixed to one of the legs of the stand by two pieces of girth webbmg, d d 
 in fig. 615, which are fastened to the leg of the stand. When the stand is opened to 
 its full extent, it stretches out, as a top, three pieces of webbing, which serve as a tray- 
 stand; and a tray is generally made of a proper size to go along with the table. Fig. 
 615 shows how this camp table may be used as a common table; the hmges projectmg 
 above the rail of the stand in such a manner as to let the top turn round either way. 
 Fig. 614 shows this table shut up ; there are two turn buckles, e, on the legs at/, to 
 keep the top fastened, and to prevent it from swinging about when the table is moved. 
 In famiUes, accustomed to give large dinner parties, these tables are found useful, as 
 forming additions to the sideboard ; they are also brought in requisition when parties 
 are given in the open air, or when a meal is taken in any room deficient in tables. 
 
FURNITURE FOR COTTAGE DWELLINGS. 
 
 811 
 
 G14 
 
 615 
 
 ^ , , +>,voo ti'nrl*; • those for holdinff washing utensils ; dressing- 
 
 th. Gothic style, with a sheif l>.low, and a drawer under it. The hole in the top is cut 
 round to receive the basin, and on the 618 
 back-board is fixed a small shelf to 
 hold a glass, trays for brushes, &c. 
 This table may be made of oak, or of 
 deal painted and grained in imitation 
 of that wood. Fig. 617 is a small 
 enclosed wash-hand stand %vith two 
 cupboards; one of which will hold 
 the ewer, and the other a night-vase. 
 There are two hinged shelves, one on 
 each side, supported by fly brackets, 
 in order that they may be let down 
 to save room, when not in use. Fig. 
 618 is a Design for a lady's wash- 
 hand stand, which has been sent us by 
 its inventress. When not in use, the 
 basin is concealed by two box covers, 
 which are hinged ; and which open and 
 turn over when the stand is used, af- 
 fording space for soap-holders, brush- 
 trays, &c. There is a drawer below, 
 with partitions for keeping these and 
 
 various other articles belonging to the , p^^ZZ fVio Vir.ffnTn nf the 
 
 toilette; one partition having a flat board raised two mches from the bottom ot the 
 
312 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 drawer, and being pierced with holes for scent bottles, &c. Below this drawer there is a 
 deep cupboard with double doors. This wash-hand stand, which has a neat and rather 
 massive or architectural appearance, is said to be a great favourite with all the ladies who 
 have seen it. Fig. 619, to a scale of half an inch to a foot, is a small dressing-table, 
 with a drawer in front to hold combs, brushes, &c. Common dressing-tables, consisting 
 of a top without flaps, supported by four legs, and with one or two drawers, are sc 
 simple in their construction as not to require any particular exemplification. Fig. 620, 
 
 to a scale of half an inch to a foot, is a table for invalids, commonly called a bed table ; 
 which is a very great convenience to a person bedridden. The to\) of this table is 
 made to rise and fall at pleasure, by raising or lowering the upper part of the pillar, a, 
 which is perforated with holes at given distances, and which works in a square groove, in 
 the centre of the lower part. Tliis lower j)art is formed of four pieces glued together, 
 as shown in the plan, b, in fig. 621. It is firmly fixed in the bottom block by a mortise 
 
 and tenon, and at top the four pieces are confined by an iron ferule, to keep the joints 
 from opening: the mortise at bottom sufl^ciently confines the lower part of the pillar. 
 The height of the top is regulated by moving the pin at c ; the block or foot, of 
 which d represents a plan, is elongated on one side to about the same extent as the 
 top is elongated on that side ; and, when the table is in use, the block is turned under 
 the bed, and the top over it ; the latter 
 being adjusted to the height most con- 
 vejiient for the patient. This table is 
 very frequently used for reading in bed ; 
 and in that case it is generally made 
 with a horse and rack, e, and a shifting 
 ledge, f, to support a book, at one end. 
 Tliis ledge is fixed by two wire pins, 
 fastened in its under side, which drop 
 into two holes bored in the lower side of 
 the flap of the table. On the edge of this 
 ledge are affixed two book-holders, g, 
 commonly made of brass, but which are 
 much better if made of ivory, or of 
 ebony, box, or any other hard wood. 
 This table, in mahogany, costs in London 
 
FURNITURE FOR COTTAGE DWELLINGS. 
 
 313 
 
 607 
 
314 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 652 653 654 
 
 658 
 
 659 
 
 6G0 
 
FURNITURE FOR COTTAGE DWELLINGS. 315 
 
 from £5 to ; but, made of any common wood by a joiner in the country, it would not 
 come to half the amount. Fig. 622 is a cheap invalid's bed table, which we had made at 
 Bayswater some years ago, for our own use. It is simply a piece of 
 mahogany board, about three feet long, and one foot nine inches 
 wide, supported by a wrought-iron pillar, with a brace, h, and 
 two feet, i i • the latter extending nearly the length of the top 
 from the pillar, and spreading out at their extremities to about 
 its width ; thus producing in effect a table with three feet. It 
 is placed on castors, and is light and strong. The height of the 
 pillar must be regulated by the height of the bed. The maho- 
 gany board cost 5s., and the iron work and castors £l. 
 
 632. Seats may be arranged as stools, forms, benches, chairs, 
 and sofas. 
 
 633. Stools. Common kitchen stools for children admit of 
 little variety of design, without incurring more expense than 
 would be justifiable by the use and place of the object. Fg. 623 
 shows the construction of a plain round stool, with three legs 
 framed together at the top, and with rails about six inches from 
 the ground ; a shows the proportion which the triangular frame bears to the circular top. 
 Fig. 624 is a round stool, which may be called in the Gothic style, and would be suitable 
 in a Gothic cottage, where every thing was in character with that style. Fig. 625 is a 
 
 623 
 
 624 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 625 
 
 -L-L 
 
 box stool ; the lid slides in a groove, as shown by the section, b ; but there is a stop, to 
 prevent it from being taken off entirely. The box may be useful for a child to put its 
 playthings in, and to teach it betimes those habits of order and neatness which are so 
 highly essential to its success in life. Figs. 626, 627, and 628 are stools with cast-iron 
 
 legs or pillars, invented by Mr. Mallet. The tops may be of any common wooo, with 
 or without cushions, according to the use for which they may be intended. Fig. 6S;9 
 is a long stool, in the Gothic style, for a child ; and fig. 630, one, also for a child, suitable 
 for a plain cottage. 
 
 es^. A Footstool, either 629 630 
 
 plain or covered with 
 carpeting, is an article of 
 essential utility in every 
 cottage where there is a 
 mother; and it also forms 
 a seat for a child. In 
 England, they are very 
 
316 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 commonly formed by covering a bundle of bulrushes with rush matting, and they are then 
 called hassocks. Fig. 631 is a design for a box 
 footstool, which has been sent us by a lady. 
 The top is formed of an outside frame, on which 
 is stretched strong webbing, for the purpose 
 of supporting the stuffing above, which is co- 
 vered with carpeting of the same kind as that 
 of the Hoor of the room in which it is to be 
 used. The sides are of wood, painted of the 
 same colour as the other furniture. 
 
 635. Forms may be described as long stools, 
 for the use of several persons ; and, as such, 
 are useful in cottage kitchens, and in lobbies 
 and passages. In the scullery they also often serve as stands for tubs, and for various 
 
 632 
 
 articles to be washed or cleaned, to prevent stooping more than is necessary. Two or 
 more of them are, therefore, always requisite about a house. Figs. 632 and 633 are 
 
 633 
 
 Designs for fonns in the Grecian style, the construction of which \vill be understood by 
 
 634 
 
 every carpenter. Figs. 634 and 635 are forms in the Gothic style, equally simple with 
 the others. All these Designs are to a scale of half an inch to a foot. 
 
 636. Benches are broad forms with backs to them, and sometimes with arms. Fig. 
 636 is a kind of bench with solid back and arms, for a cottage kitchen, commonly 
 
FURNITURE FOR COTTAGE DWELLINGS. 317 
 
 called a settle, and frequently to be met with in public houses. The back forms an 
 excellent screen or protection from the current of air which is continually passing from 
 
 the door to the chimney. The 
 drawers below are deep, and 
 will be found very useful for 
 a variety of purposes. On the 
 back there might be a towel 
 roller ; or, in a superior kind 
 of cottage, the back of the 
 settle might be ornamented 
 with prints or maps, in the 
 mannei of a screen. Placed 
 in the open floor, where it 
 would seldom require to be 
 moved, there might even be 
 book shelves fixed to this 
 back, and a flap might be hung 
 to it, with a jib bracket, to 
 serve as a reading or writing 
 table, or for other purposes. 
 Fig. 637 is a handsome Gre- 
 cian bench with turned legs 
 and open back, but without 
 arms at the ends, or drawers 
 under the seat. Fig. 638 
 is a Gothic bench also without 
 arms or drawers, but with a 
 paneled back and square legs. 
 
 636 
 
 Fig. 639 is a Design for a handsomer Gothic bench 
 
 the back of which may either be paneled or open, according to the position, in the 
 kitchen, where it is intended to stand. It has arms and two drawers, and has below 
 the latter a broad shelf about three inches from the ground, on which shoes, &c.j may 
 
 638 
 
 stand, or a dog may have a mat for sleeping upon. All these benches are to the same 
 scale of half an inch to a foot. 
 
318 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 637. Chairs may be classed as suitable for the lobby, kitchen, parlour, and bed-room. 
 
 638. Lobby Chairs, being seldoni moved, may be made of heavy massive forms in 
 timber, or of cast iron, so as to have 
 a decidedly architectural character. 
 Fig. 640 is a lobby chair of cast 
 iron, suitable for a porch. The 
 Design is Etruscan ; and Mr. Mal- 
 let, to whom we are indebted for it, 
 says that it may be cast in two pieces. 
 It would, therefore, come cheap, and 
 would look exceedingly well in the 
 porch of a cottage in the Italian 
 style. Mr. Mallet observes, that 
 " where carved work, or much or- 
 nament, is to be executed in fur- 
 niture, cast iron will always be found 
 cheaper than wood, even though a 
 small number only of the article 
 were wanting." We hope that tliis 
 hint will not be lost on Architects, 
 who miglit thus introduce a style of 
 highly improved design in all the 
 principal articles of furniture, at a 
 moderate cost. Chairs of this de- 
 scription, whether made of iron or 
 wood, may be painted in imitation 
 of oak in the following manner: ^ 
 Give two coats of white lead in l\w 
 usual mode ; add a third coat of a 
 pale yellow, as near as possible to 
 the lightest part of the oak board to 
 be imitated. Yellow ochre is ratlier 
 too deep for most varieties of oak 
 board ; but stone ochre and white 
 may be mixed together, till the exact shade oe produced. When this coat is dry, the 
 graining colour is to be laid on. This colour is not fluid like common oil paints, but 
 is a mixture about the consistence of thick treacle, composed of various ingredients, 
 and technically called meglip. The recipes given for making meglip are various ; but 
 the following are the articles principally used : sugar of lead, rotten stone, linseed oil, 
 white wax, and spirits of turpentine. These are all ground up together, and immediately 
 after the colour they produce is laid on, the graining is made by passing horn combs over 
 it before it is dry. These combs have their teeth of different widths and lengths, and 
 may be had of every combmaker. Fig. 642 is a lobby chair of wood in the Grecian 
 style, which may be made of deal, with the exception of the legs, which, being turned, 
 should be of beech or some fine-grained wood suitable for that operation. This chair 
 may be painted of the colour of the wall against which it is to stand. Fig. 641 is a 
 lobby chair in the Gothic style, which may be made entirely of deal, or of any other 
 common wood, and painted and grained in imitation of oak. 
 
FURNITURE FOR COTTAGE DWELLINGS. 
 
 641 > " u 642 
 
 639. Kitchen Chairs. Fig. 643 is a Windsor chair, one of the best kitchen chairs 
 \v. general use in the midland counties of England. The seat, fig. 644, is of elm, 
 
 643 
 
 somewhat hoUowed out ; the outer rail of the back is of ash, in one piece, bent to the 
 sort of horseshoe form shown in the figure, by being previously heated or steamed ; its 
 ends are then inserted in two holes bored through the seat, and are wedged firmly m 
 from the under side. An additional support is given to the back, by two round rails, 
 fig. 644, 6, which are also made fast in two holes, formed in a projecting part ot the 
 seat, c. These chairs are sometimes painted, but more frequently stained with diluted 
 sulphuric acid and logwood ; or by repeatedly washing them over with alum water, 
 which has some tartar in it: they should afterwards be washed over several times 
 with an extract of Brasil wood. The colour given will be a sort of red, not unlike 
 that of mahogany ; and, by afterwards oiling the chair and rubbing it well, and for a 
 long time, with woollen cloths, the veins and shading of the elm will be rendered con- 
 
320 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 spicuous. Quicklime slacked in urine, and laid on the wood while hot, will also stain 
 it of a red colour ; and this is said to be the general practice with the Windsor chair 
 manufacturers in the neighbourhood of London. Fig. 645 is a chair with a seat like 
 the Windsor pattern, but with a different back, the two side styles of which are 
 mortised into the seat, as shown at d. The legs are put together by dowels (wedges 
 put in tenons after they are inserted in the mortise, to prevent them from being drawn 
 back), like the Windsor chairs before mentioned, fig. 643. This forms a very comfort- 
 able and cheap chair. Fig. 646 is a very strong chair, being put together with mortise 
 and tenon: it forms the common kitchen chair about London. It is generally made of 
 deal, but sometimes of birch or beech, and is usually painted. Figs. 647 and 648 are two 
 Gothic arm-chairs for kitchens ; and fig. 649 is a kitchen workbox and table chair. The 
 
 workbox is formed beneath the seat, and is got at by a fall-down flap, e, supported 
 by small chains or strong tape. The table, J, is simply a board which draws out 
 from under the seat three fourths of its length, the remaining fourth remaining in to 
 steady it ; by wliich means lopers or Hy-brackets are rendered unnecessary. Such a 
 chair will be found very useful, and it may be made of deal, at a very trilling expense, 
 by a common carpenter. The bottom of the box below may be loose, so that by 
 turning the chair upside down, it may be taken out, and the box cleaned. Fig. 650 is 
 a Design for an iron elbow kitchen chair, by ISIr. Mallet. The back and elbows are 
 cast in one piece ; the supports for the elbows and also the legs are of gas tubing, screwed 
 into a cross frame of iron, which proceeds from the back of the chair under the wooden 
 seat. This is a strong, durable, and cheap chair, and only wants good cushions, for 
 the back, elbows, and seat, to render it a most comfortable article for a cottager. Fig. 
 651 is a Design by Mr. Mallet for a cast and wrought iron chair, with a wooden seat. 
 It is cast in one piece, the legs being tubular, with wire stays ; the whole forming an 
 exceedingly light and yet stable 
 chair, weighing less than most oak 
 ones. Tliis chair might have a 
 cushion seat, and also a cushion 
 for the back, which the cottager 
 might make himself of bulrushes, 
 or of any other monocotyledonous 
 water plant (the pith of these being 
 filled with air, and therefore bulky, 
 soft, and elastic), or of the chaff 
 of Indian corn ; covering them with 
 cloth, and tying them on the chair 
 with tape. 
 
 640. Parlour Chairs. These are 
 of various patterns; and, as the 
 characteristic of the kitchen chair 
 was strength and durability, so that 
 of the parlour chair is lightness 
 and elegance. Figs. 652 to 657, 
 p. 314, are plain Grecian chairs, 
 sold in London at from 7s. to 12s. 
 each. They are usually made of 
 beech, and may be stained to imi- 
 tate mahogany, by the follovdng process : — Wash the wood, after the chair is completed, 
 
FURNITURE FOR COTTAGE DWELLINGS. 
 
 with red ochre mixed with thin glue and water, quite hot ; when dry, rub the chair well with 
 woollen cloths, till it assumes a good 
 colour, and afterwai-ds varnish and polish 
 it. Chairs of this sort are made in great 
 numbers in Buckinghamshire, where 
 there are extensive beech woods. The 
 commoner sort are generally nailed 
 together, but the best are screwed or 
 mortised, as in figs. 6-54 and 657. The 
 bottoms are made of cane, with the 
 exception of fig. 654, which is covered 
 with leather. These chairs are generally 
 painted and varnished ; but tliey are 
 sometimes stained either black maho- 
 gany colour, or a rosewood pink. We 
 shall give the processes from Partington s 
 Builders Guide. 
 
 641. For a deep Black, the wood is 
 brushed over four or five times with 
 a warm decoction of logwood, made by 
 boiling one pound of logwood for an 
 hour or more, and afterwards as often 
 with decoction of galls, allowing it to 
 dry thoroughly between the several ap- 
 pUcations of the liquor : thus prepared, it 
 receives a fine deep colour, from being 
 washed over with a solution of vitriol, in 
 the proportion of two ounces to a quart : 
 in the room of which some use a solution 
 of iron in vinegar, keeping the vinegar 
 for this purpose upon a quantity of the 
 filings of the metal, and pouring off a 
 little as it is wanted. A pretty good 
 black is also obtained, more expeditiously, by brushing over the wood, first with the 
 logwood liquor, and afterwards with common ink. 
 
 642. A very fine Black may be produced by brushing the wood over sevei-al times with 
 a solution of copper in aquafortis, and afterwards with the decoction of logwood (Haema- 
 toxylon campechi^nse), repeated till the colour be of sufficient force, and the greenness 
 produced by the copper overcome. The blacks may be varnished as the other colours. 
 
 643. A light red-brown Mahogany colour may be given to wood by means of a de- 
 coction of madder and fustic wood (the wood of Madura tinctoria), ground in water, 
 in the proportion of half a pound of madder and a quarter of a pound of fustic wood, 
 to a gallon ; or, instead of the fustic wood, an ounce of yellow berries (the berries of 
 J2hamnus tinctorius) may be used. Brush over the wood with this solution, while 
 boiling hot, till the due colour be obtained. Nearly the same effect may be produced 
 by a tincture made by dissolving an ounce of dragon's blood in a pint of spirits of 
 wine; and a similar tincture of turmeric root {Curcuma \6nga), made by putting an 
 ounce of the powdered root to a pint of spirits of wine, and after it has stood some 
 days straining off the mixture. 
 
 644. For a dark Mahogany, take the infusion of madder as above, and substitute for 
 the fustic wood two ounces of logwood : and when the wood has been brushed over 
 several times, and is dry, wash it over with water in which pearl ashes have been dis- 
 solved, in the proportion of a quarter of an ounce to a quart. The wood , in the better 
 kind of work, should be afterwards varnished with three or four coats of seed-lac 
 varnish ; but, for coarse work, resin and seed-lac varnish may be used, or the articles may 
 be well rubbed over with drying oil. 
 
 645. Wood may be stained Yellow by the above tincture of turmeric root, or by a tinc- 
 ture of yellow berries applied boiling hot ; the wood, when dry, being brushed over with 
 weak alum water, used cold. 
 
 646. For Rosewood Pink, make an infusion of a pound of Brasil wood (Caesalpinia 
 brasili^nsis) in a gallon of water impregnated with pearl ashes, in the proportion of an 
 ounce to a gallon of water. The infusion should be frequently stirred, and should 
 stand two or three days. When wanted for use, two ounces more pearl ashes should be 
 added, and the mixture strained, and made boiling hot. It should then be applied to 
 the wood, which should be afterwards brushed over with alum water, made in the pro- 
 portion of two ounces of alum to a quart of water. 
 
322 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 647. Elbow Parlour Oiairs in the Grecian Style. Figs. 658, 659, and 660, p. 314, 
 are Grecian elbow chairs with stuffed seats. Fig. 660, has a workbag under the seat, 
 which draws out on one side ; and on the other a slide, which serves as a table. 
 These chairs may also be made of beech or birch, and stained or painted like the other. 
 The silk or glazed cotton, for the workbag and the covers for the cushions, should be 
 of the same colour as the window curtains and the cover of the sofa, if there be one in 
 the room. 
 
 648. Gothic Parlour Chairs. Fig. 661 to 666, p. 323, are Designs for chairs made of 
 beech ; the first with a rush bottoin ; the second, third, and last with cane bottoms, and 
 the two others with stuffed bottoms. Figs. 661 and 668, p. 323, are Gothic elbow 
 chairs with stuflfed bottoms. Fig. 669 is a Gothic chair, with a workbjig and sliding 
 board for table. All these chairs may be made of any strong fine-grained wood, 
 mortised together, and afterwards painted and grained in imitation of oak. In the 
 construction of chairs, care sliould be taken that the feet of the back legs shoula always 
 spread out an inch at least more than the top rail of the back, in order to keep ttie 
 latter from touching the wall, or paper, or window, when set agjiinst it. 
 
 649. Bed-room Chairs. These are of two kinds; a light sort for common use, and 
 strong ell)ow or easy chairs for times of sickness. The light chairs may be any of 
 those frames figured in p. 314, but with rush instead of cane bottoms. Figs. 670 and 
 
 671 are two strong elbow chairs for the use of a labouring man, when confined to his 
 bed-room. Pillows may be i)ut in them as cusliions, both for the seat and l)ack. Fig. 
 
 672 is a bedside chair of the same description, with a cujjboard beneath for containing 
 a night convenience of the simplest description. Such a chair ought to be in tlie bed- 
 
 room of every cottage. Fig. 673 is a very comfortable easy chair, stuffed in the back 
 and sides, with a movable cushion as a seat ; beneath which is a night convenience. 
 
 650. ^ Sofa is a piece of furniture which affords 
 a great source of comfort to its possessor ; and 
 therefore the cottager ought to have one as well as 
 the rich man. Let him strive to obtain it, for no 
 parlour is completely furnished without one ; and he 
 will certainly succeed. We shall give some Designs 
 for sofas, and also for sofa-bedsteads, which we 
 hope will come within the reach of many cottagers ; 
 and shall commence with figs. 674 and 675, p. 
 324, which are Designs for sofas of a superior 
 description. Fig. 674 is in the Gothic style, with 
 castors sunk in its legs, a great improvement with 
 regard to appearance. We may here observe, 
 generally, that good castors are essential to the 
 convenient use of every piece of furniture to which 
 they are applied. Many persons, by saving a few 
 shillings in castors, deprive themselves of the 
 full enjoyment of what, if easily moved, would 
 be a most useful piece of furniture ; besides which, 
 bad castors destroy the carpets of sitting-rooms, and scratch the boards of bed-rooms. 
 Purchasers of furniture, who are no judges in this respect, are often deceived; 
 for of two articles of furniture, exactly the same in size and appearance, one may 
 
324 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 677 
 
FURNITURE FOR COTTAGE DWELLINGS. 
 
 be sold by a manufacturer for a pound sterling less than the other, merely from 
 his having employed in it the most common, instead of the best, description of castors. 
 We are informed by Mr. Dalziel, who is extremely particular to use only the very best 
 materials in all the articles which he manufactures, that the best castor at present in 
 use is that of Cope of Birmingham. This is a ball working in a cup, something in 
 the manner of Mr. Mallet's iron castor ; and the more pressure there is on it, the 
 easier it works. The cushions and mattresses of sofas are commonly stuffed with 
 hair or wool; and sometimes, for cheapness, with chaff, chopped hay, or straw, or 
 bran; but an article has been lately introduced into this manufacture, which is 
 found to answer as well as baked hair, and not to cost above a third of the expense. 
 This is the Zostera marina, or sea wrack grass, found on the coast of Norfolk ; abundantly 
 in the Orkneys and Hebrides; and on the northern shores of the German Ocean. 
 When gathered, it is repeatedly washed in fresh water, to deprive it of all its saline 
 particles ; and, being afterwards dried in the sun, it is twisted into thick ropes, and in 
 that state sent to the manufacturer, who has it untwisted, and cut into short lengths for 
 use. Whatever material is used for stuffing, it is first enclosed in strong canvass, and 
 afterwards covered with black horse-hair, moreen, or damask, nailed on with brass- 
 headed nails, or with a loose cover of printed cottons or other stuffs. A very cheap 
 and yet tasteful loose sofa cover may be made of glazed self-coloured calico, with a 
 narrow piece of different coloured calico, or shawl bordering, laid on about a couple of 
 inches from the edge. This kind of cover lasts clean much longer than one of common 
 printed cotton ; and, when the bordering is carried round the covers of the cushions, 
 bolsters, &c., it has a pretty and even elegant effect. In all cases where the covers of 
 sofas are made of a material which admits of a choice of colours, those should be 
 preferred which prevail in the carpet and window curtains of the room ; the principal 
 reason in this, and all similar cases, being, that such a choice indicates unity of design. 
 
 651. Sofa, Beds. Sofas which may be converted into beds are most convenient 
 articles of furniture for cottages and other small dwellings. Fig. 676, p. 324, shows a bed 
 formed out of a sofa of this description. The back of the sofa is hinged, as shown in 
 fig. 677, at a; and it falls down, and is supported by two portable legs, fig. 678, b, c: 
 these legs are tapped and screwed into the top rail of the back (that is, a screw is formed 
 on the upper end of the leg, and, a hole being bored in the rail, nearly of the same 
 diameter as this screw, an instrument called a tap is introduced into the hole, and being 
 turned round, grooves out a path for the screw ; this path, or screw groove, is called 
 the female screw, and that which goes into it, the male screw). The end, d, is made to 
 shift ; it is fastened to the side rail of the seat of the sofa by the two wooden dowels, e e, 
 which go into the rail, and is secured to the back and bottom by two thumb screws, at 
 f f. When the bed is used, this end is shifted to that opposite, in order to form the 
 head of the bed; the end style of the back of the sofa having holes to receive the same 
 dowels and thumb-screws, so as to retain it in its place. Underneath the sofa there is 
 a well for the legs, fig. 676, g, which may either open to the front or the back, and may 
 be either concealed by the valance of the sofa cover, or by a movable panel of wood. 
 There is a cupboard which opens at one end, as seen at h, in fig. 678. Fig. 679, p. 327, is a 
 view of a sofa which may be turned into a bed with posts and curtains. Fig. 680 shows 
 
 680 
 
 the first process, that of removing the sofa cover, mattress, and cushions of the seat, and 
 the mattress of the back. Here is seen a third mattress, i, which is kept in a well 
 underneath the scat, and sufficiently long to hold it in a curved though not in a 
 straight position. The remaining part of the space underneath the seat is occupied by 
 
326 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 a cupboard, k. Under the cushions which form the seat of the sofa, and above the well, 
 may be seen the folding frame, I, which forms the bottom of the bed. Fig. 681 shows 
 
 this folding frame opened out, and supported by four portable legs, tapped and screwed 
 into its sides. The bedposts are, in like manncjr, tapjjed and screwed into the top rails 
 of what formed the sofa ends ; and tlie tester laths, and their side pieces, forming the top, 
 drop on to iron pins inserted in the upper ends of the bedposts. The legs, the posts, 
 the tester laths, and side pieces, all go into the same well as the mattress, when not in 
 use ; and when the sofa cover is on, it completely conceals the holes which receive the 
 bedposts, and also the well and the cupboard. Fig. 682, p. S27, shows the bed with the 
 mattresses and bolsters laid in their places, and the curtains put up. This is a very 
 desirable description of sofa bed to have in a cottage parlour, or, indeed, in any small 
 dwelling either in town or country. The cost, complete, in London, is from £\0 to 
 £\5. There are also chair beds, which are formed by drawing out a frame from under 
 the chair, so as to triple the length of the seat ; on which frame are arranged the cushions 
 which were previously placed against the back and sides of the easy chair. The bottom 
 of the chair may be formed into a cupboard to open at the side. 
 
 652. Beds of other descriptions may be classed under the following heads : folding 
 or camp beds ; stump, press, and half-tester bedsteads ; couch, box, and French beds ; 
 tent and four-post bedsteads, and children's cribs. In our opinion, those cottagers 
 who can afford to have good furniture are often disproportionably extravagant in the 
 article of beds and bedding. In Scotland and France, where the cottager's parlour has 
 frequently a bed in it, luxury in this article may perhaps be excusable ; but in England, 
 where the bed-room of a cottager is seldom entered by a stranger, we think it would be 
 a wiser economy to have the bed plain, though, in all respects, comfortable, and to 
 expend any surplus money, which might have been spared from it, on the furniture of 
 the parlour. However, we make the remark with great deference to the opinion of the 
 cottager's wife, who must be allowed to be the best judge on the subject. 
 
695 
 
FURNITURE FOR COTTAGE DWELLINGS. 
 
 329 
 
 653. Folding Camp Bed. This is one of the cheapest of all beds ; and when the 
 sides and feet are made of iron rods, with no wood but the head board, it goes in very 
 little bulk, and costs complete, with sacking, not more than 155. _Fig. 683 to a scale 
 
 of half an inch to a foot, is a view of a folding bed, with the sides and feet made of 
 wood, which may be manufactured complete, in London, for £\. The head board has 
 two iron pins in its lower edge, which drop into holes made in the side-rails of the bed 
 When a cottage is small, we recommend all boys to be made to sleep on beds of this 
 kind, which they ought to be taught to fold up and put away in the morning, as soon as 
 they get up ; and to bring out and make up for themselves at night. The boy or 
 lad who cannot sleep soundly on such a bed must have something either physically or 
 morally wrong in his constitution ; and is, in either case, not very Ukely to become 
 a man capable of earning his bread by labour. 
 
 654. Stump Bedsteads are common in the humblest description of dwellings in 
 England, both in town and countr>^ They are commonly made of wood, with sacking, 
 bottoms ; but as these materials are apt to harbour vermin, they have lately been ma'' 
 nufacturcd entirely of wrought iron ; the place of the sacking or canvass bottom beina- 
 supplied by interwoven thin iron hooping, as shown in fig. 684, which is manufactured by 
 
 Messrs. Cottam and Hallen of London, and sold complete with castors, when two 
 teet SIX inches wide, for one person, at 23s. each ; and at a proportionate increase of 
 price, according to the width, up to 33s., which is the price of an iron stump bedstead 
 tve feet wide. 
 
 _ 655. Press Bedsteads are very common in kitchens, and, sometimes, in parlours where 
 there is a deficiency of bed-rooms ; but they are objectionable, as harbouring vermin, 
 and being apt soon to get out of order when in daily use. They have, however, one 
 advantage, which is, that persons sleeping in them are generally obliged to get up 
 betimes in the morning : we, therefore, present one Design. Fig. 685 is a view of the 
 press^ when the bed is put up. There is a cupboard shown at one end, and the 
 remainder of the lower part is occupied by a drawer which is made to appear like 
 two externally, in order to form to a regular front, with that of the cupboard. Fie. 
 686 shows the manner in which the bedstead folds up: a is one of the feet, which is 
 
330 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 Iiinged on an iron pin, and is seen when down, as in fij;. 687. Tlie other two feet, b b, 
 in tig. G87, are placed, when folded up, as shown in the section, fig. 686, at ^; c 
 
 represents part of the front and top, lifted up and folded back. Press bedsteads are 
 sometimes made to imitate a chest of drawers, or a secretary, in front ; in order, if possible, 
 to prevent the real use of the article from being discovered : a proof that beds of this 
 kind are not held in much repute ; because they indicate a deficiency of bed-rooms. 
 
 656. Half-Tester Bedsteads are used in small rooms, where it may be desirable to turn 
 them up during the day, in order to allow the occupant to work in the room. They 
 have this advantage over press beds, that they are turned up and let down vrith very 
 little trouble ; and that when turned up, and the curtain drawn round them, they are 
 by no means unsightly objects in a room which is to be considered as a bed-room ; but 
 they are quite inadmissible in a kitchen or a parlour. Fig, 688 is a Design for a half- 
 tester bedstead, with the posts, rails, and feet of wood, and the bottom of sacking. It 
 is shown in this figure as turned down, and ready to receive the mattress and bedding. 
 In fig. 689 the bed is shown turned up, by which it appears that the turned legs, d d, 
 are hinged and fold down, so as to occupy less space. The manner in which the curtain 
 rod is fixed is also here shown. It is fasteried to the lath at the middle of the front, 
 at e, and at both its extremities an eye is formed, which drops on a hook, as shown at f. 
 The fixed feet are always placed in an inclined position, to give greater steadiness to 
 
FURNITURE FOR COTTAGE DWELLINGS. 
 
 331 
 
 the bed . they are shown straight in fig. 688, and curved in fig. 689, to indicate that 
 they may be made eitlier way. Fig. 691 is an iron half-tester bedstead, which, however, 
 does not fold up, but which has the great 
 advantage of being remarkably cheap. It 
 is manufactured by Messrs. Cottam and 
 Hallen, of two feet six inches in width, for 
 46s. 6d. ; and of five feet in width, for 68s. 
 in both cases it is complete, with castors, 
 head board, and curtain rods, and is thrice 
 painted in oil. Fig. 692 is anotlier wrought- 
 iron half-tester bedstead, one half of which 
 folds over the other : it is the invention of 
 Mr. William Mallet of Dublin, who, we 
 are informed, has made many thousands of 
 them. In this bedstead both the head board 
 and the foot board are of iron. Fig. 690 
 
 is a different modification of the same 
 bedstead, intended for sick persons, which 
 is made to rise with racks, h h, so as to place 
 the patient, though still recumbent, at any 
 angle that may be required. An important addition to this bed would be two upright 
 rods, one on each side, about half way between the head and foot, securely joined 
 together "by a strong rod at top, so as to be perfectly firm ; from this top rod a cord, 
 
332 COTTAGE, FARjM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 sash, towel, or piece of girth webbing, might be suspended, or even a hooked walking-stick 
 put on, for the bedridden patient to take hold of, to assist him in turning, or otherwise 
 changing his position. Every person who has been long confined to a bed knows that this 
 simple contrivance is tlie most valuable part of a sick man's bedstead ; and it is one 
 reason why the beds of all elderly people should have bedposts and testers, because from 
 the centre cross laths this simple contrivance, for the comfort of an invalid, may be 
 suspended. Both figs. G90 and G92, we are informed, can be afforded for less than the 
 price of the frame of a common wooden bedstead, 
 
 657. Couch Beds may be described as sofas used as beds ; and, for our parts, we prefer 
 them to either the press or the half-tester bedstead. Tliey are very common in France 
 and Germany. Fig. 693 is a Design, by Mr. William Mallet of Dublin, for an iron couch 
 bed frame. The head is cast in one piece, the back in another, and the frame in a third. 
 All the rest is of wrought iron ; the four legs of gas pipe, the braces of quarter-inch 
 wire, and the bottom of iron hooping. Castors might easily be added ; and this Design 
 would then form a suitable article for some descriptions of cottages. 
 
 658. Box Beds are common in the better description of cottages in Scotland, and also 
 in Alsace, Lorraine, and otlier parts of the north of France, and in Holland and Flanders. 
 This bed is of the usual length, and in general four feet wide within. There are four 
 
FURNITURE FOR COTTAGE DWELLINGS. 
 
 333 
 
 square posts, at the four comers ; and the back and ends are filled in with boarding 
 grooved and tongued ; while the front is formed into panels, one of which at top and 
 another at bottom are fixed, and two between them slide in grooves, and form the door 
 of the bed. The roof is of boards, and the bottom of laths, three inches wide, and about 
 two or three inches apart. There is generally a shelf, and sometimes two, fixed to the 
 inside of the bottom of the bed, just above the bedclothes ; and sometimes there is one at 
 top, close under the roof. There are also sometimes one or two shelves against the back 
 of the bed J so. that this piece of furniture not only serves as a bed, but as a wardrobe 
 and linen chest. In some parts of the country the bed doors fix within by bolts, or 
 have a lock to fasten them on the outside ; so that a person going to bed, with all his 
 treasure round him on the surrounding shelves, may secure it while he is asleep at night, 
 or going out to work in the daytime, by bolting or locking the doors. These box beds 
 can be easily taken to pieces, and put together again ; the ends, backs, and roofs being in 
 separate pieces, and fitting into grooves in the posts, and in the top and bottom rails, in 
 the manner of Manning's portable cottages, § 512. Besides serving as a wardrobe, 
 &c., a box bed may be made to supply the place of a partition, two of them being often 
 placed, in Scotland, as well as in Alsace, across any apartment of fourteen or fifteen feet 
 in width, which they thus divide into two rooms (a but and a ben), leaving a passage 
 between them. In roomy cottages, four are sometimes so placed back to back ; thus 
 giving two beds to be entered from the kitchen, and two from the parlour. A bed of 
 this sort, well made, was formerly considered the principal article in a Scottish cottager's 
 furnishing ; and this is still the case in Alsace and Lorraine, as we learned when we visited 
 those countries in 1829. Something might be made of these beds in any country where 
 the cottager's house is his own, and where he is likely to be a permanent resident but 
 they are too costly, and too cumbersome, for a tenant at will, or on a short lease. 
 
 659. French beds are generally formed like couch beds, especially those in use by 
 French cottagers. Fig. 694, p. 328, shows a French bedstead of an improved description, 
 with the furniture complete. There are two drawers underneath, and a small cupboard, all 
 of which open fi-om the front ; because the furniture would be in the way if they opened 
 at the ends. There is a turned rail above the headboard, to keep the furniture from 
 the face ; and another over the footboard, to be uniform with it. The pole whicl 
 supports the curtain is screwed into an upright piece, which is securely fixed by 
 a mortise and tenon to the back rail of the bottom of the bedstead, as shown in fig. 695, 
 so that the bedstead and furniture can be removed from the wall. Castors may be 
 introduced into the four pillars, so as not to be seen. It will be observed that the 
 Design of fig. 695 is different from that of fig. 694 : both may be considered elegant, 
 and well adapted for a superior description of cottage. These bedsteads may be made 
 of deal, and painted, with the exception of the upright piece, which should be of beech or 
 some other stiff wood. Fig. 696 is a French bedstead of wrought iron, which costs 
 
 when two feet six inches wide, 465., and when five feet wide, 84s. The curtains, in this 
 case, are supposed to be tlirown over a pole, projecting from the wall, and supported by a 
 bracket. 
 
334 
 
 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 o, h, c, is the bed frame, a and l)cing the side rails, and c the bottom rail ; d is the 
 liead-board which fixes into a groove in the head i)osts. These posts, being intended to 
 i)e covered with that part of the bed hangings called the head piece, are made plain; 
 while the bottom posts, which are intended to be exposed, are generally turned or 
 covered. Fig. 698 is a tent bedstead with the curtains complete. Fig. 699 is an iron 
 
 tent bedstead, manufactured by Messrs. Cottam and Hallen, which costs, when two feel 
 six inches wide, 565. 6rf., and when five feet wide, 77s. 
 
 661. Four-Post Bedsteads are more suitable for villas than for cottages, except perhaps 
 the cheap and excellent ones made of wrought iron, which do not cost much more than 
 a tent bed of the same materials. Four-post bedsteads, however, of every descrip- 
 tion, are objectionable for cottagers, both on account of the room they take up, and th« 
 quantity of bed funiiture which they require. 
 
FUEiNITURE FOR COTTAGE DWELLINGS. 
 
 535 
 
 662. Cribs are bcdste:.ds for children so young as to render it unsafe to trust them by 
 themselves in beds with 
 unguarded sides. They 
 are generally intended 
 to be placed, during the 
 night, by the bedside 
 of the mother ; and, for 
 that purpose, the height 
 of the crib should cor- 
 respond with that of 
 the large bed, and one 
 of its sides be made to 
 lift out. This is effected 
 by grooves in the up- 
 right posts, with tongues 
 on the end styles of the 
 side. Fig. 700 is a 
 Design for a crib in the 
 
 Grecian style, and fig. , , 
 
 703. for one in the Gothic style, both by Mr. Dalziel, who recommends that the 
 heads of the bed-screws, with which fig. 700. is screwed together, should be concealed 
 by a wooden cap, fig. 701, instead of by a brass one, as is commonly done. In the 
 leg of the Gothic crib, fig. 703, the screw is concealed by means of a small wooden panel 
 made to take out. The turned rails of the sides, in fig. 700, and the plain rails in the 
 Gothic Design, are considered better than the open canework usually employed tor crib 
 sides, through which children are apt to put their fingers and hurt themselves. Cnbs 
 are sometimes made with only one side, the rail on that opposite being held close to 
 the rail of the large bed by hooks and eyes. Any joiner might make these cribs ot 
 deal, or any other cheap wood ; and they may be painted or stained to harmonise with 
 the bedstead and chairs of the room in which they are to be placed, tig. 702 is a 
 view of a cheap crib, the frame and bottom of which are formed of wrought irou, 
 
 .MM 
 
336 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 r 701 
 
 3 
 
 and the sides and ends of deal 
 are now justly exploded. 
 
 663. Bedding indudes 
 palliasses, or straw mat- 
 tresses ; liair, wool, or 
 other mattresses ; hay, 
 chaff, or feather beds ; 
 bolsters, pillows, sheets, 
 blankets, and counter- 
 panes. The palliass is 
 an inflexible mattress, 
 stuffed with drawn wheat 
 straw ; placed as the 
 lower layer of the bed- 
 ding, for the puri)Ose of 
 raising it, and giving a 
 more agreeable basis to 
 the feather-bed. The 
 common mattress is 
 formed by stuffing a 
 canvass case with flocks, wool, baked horse-hair, sea grass, technically called U'lva. 
 marina, or any other articles which when put together form an elastic body, and 
 afterwards quilting it down, and covering it with a description of cloth called ticken. 
 The feather bed and the pillows are stuffed with fealiiers. In Scotland, mattresses 
 and bolsters, exceedingly agreeable to sleep ujjon, are stuffed ith the outer chafl' of 
 the oat, carefully sifted from the s;r ler chaff, and from all dust, and renewed once a 
 year. In Italy, and in count.' iiere the maize is in connnon culture, excellent 
 mattresses are formed by stuffing ..). | with the chaif of that grain. A few flowers 
 of the hop mixed with the chaff of thcy bolster gives that article an agreeable fragrance, 
 which is at the same time soporific. George III. at one time slept on a ])illow entirely 
 stuffed with hops ; and some years ago, when in Worcestersliire, we think in 1815, we slept 
 at a farm house, on a bed, bolster, and pillows, all stuffed with hops, and found that they 
 formed a species of bedding soft and powerfully fragrant, though said to be unwholesome. 
 
 664. Substitutes for StuJ/ing to beds, bolsters, and pillows have been proposed by 
 upholsterers at different times, and some of them have lately been a good deal used : 
 of these we shall mention three ; viz., wire springs, air, and water. 
 
 665. JFire Spi-iiigs for stuffing are nothing more than spiral coils of wire, fig. 704, gene- 
 rally an eighth of an inch in diameter for mattresses, and smaller for cushions, carriage 
 seats, &c. These springs are placed, side by side, on interlaced webbing, strained to a 
 frame of the size of the intended bed, cushion, or seat ; they 704 
 are then all confined by cords to one height, and covered by a piece 
 of ticken or strong canvass, strained tightly over them. On this is 
 spread a layer of curled horse-hair, and an upper cover of ticken 
 is then put over the whole, and nailed down tight to the under 
 side of the wooden frame with tacks. For our own part, we prefer 
 beds made with these spiral springs to any other ; not only from 
 their greater elasticity, and the equal diffusion of the support 
 which they afford to the body, but because, from the quantity of 
 air among the springs, they can never become so warm as beds 
 stuffed with any of the ordinary materials. The effect of spiral 
 springs as stuffing has been long known to men of science ; but 
 so little to upholsterers, that a patent for using them in stuffing 
 was taken out, some years ago, as a new invention. Beds and 
 seats of this description are now, however, made by upholsterers 
 generally, and the springs may be had from Birmingham by the hundred weight. 
 
FURNITURE FOR COTTAGE DWELLINGS. 
 
 337 
 
 666. ylir Beds and Cushions were invented by John Clark of Bridgewater, in 1813. 
 He first renders the case of the bed, pillow, hammock, or cushion, impervious to air, by 
 preparing it with caoutchouc ; he next encloses it in another case not impervious to air, 
 and afterwards forces the air into the inner case by means of an air-pump, preventing 
 it from returning by an air-tight stopcock. He observes " that these beds afford the most 
 renovating and easy repose ; that they may be rendered soft to any required degree, and 
 either cool or warm, by changing the air ; that, on the general principle of fluids main- 
 taining a uniform level, ihey are not subject to hard lumps or knots, like feathers, 
 wool, or down ; that they never can get damp ; that they require no making up ; that 
 the largest bed weighs only a few ounces, and that, being exhausted, they may be folded 
 or rolled up, so as to go in very little bulk, and hence their great advantage to travellers." 
 For medical purposes, he says, " they may be filled with air at any required temperature; 
 or with water, steam, or other fluids, either wet or dry, elastic or non-elastic, to which 
 the case is impermeable. Seamen's hammocks, if filled with air, would be light, portable, 
 and buoyant ; and, in case of shipwreck, might be used as life preservers. Cushions, 
 pads, and carnage linings thus, filled, will also be eligible and commodious, from their 
 lightness and elasticity. [Repertory of Arts, vol. xxiv. p. 157.) 
 
 667. Tke Hydrostatic Bed for Invalids is a recent invention of that enlightened and 
 benevolent physician Dr. Arnott, the author of the Elements of Physics, and is already 
 coming into general use in the London hospitals. Its object is to mitigate all, and 
 entirely to prevent some, of the evils attendant on remaining for a great length of time 
 in a reclining posture. " The health, and even life, of every part of the animal body 
 depends on the sufficient circulation through it of fresh blood, driven in by the force of 
 the heart. Now, when a man is sitting or lying, the parts of his flesh compressed by the 
 weight of his body do not receive the blood so readily as at other times ; and if, from 
 any cause, the action of his heart has become weak, the interruption of the circulation 
 will both follow more quickly and be more complete. A peculiar uneasiness arises where 
 the circulation is thus obstructed, impelling even ahealthy person to involuntary changes 
 of position : when the body is debilitated with sickness, however, these changes occasion 
 much fatigue ; and should the sensations after a time become indistinct, as in delirium, 
 palsy, &c., or the patient have become too weak to obey them, the compressed parts are 
 kept so long without their natural supply of blood, that they lose their vitality, and change 
 to what are called sloughs, or mortified parts. These have afterwards to be thrown oflT, 
 if the patient survive, by the process of ulceration ; and they leave deep holes, which 
 require to be filled \\\) with new flesh during a tedious convalescence. Many a fever, 
 after a favourable crisis, has terminated fatally from this cause ; and the same termination 
 is common in lingering consumptions, palsies, spine diseases, &c. ; and, generally, in 
 all diseases which confine patients long to their beds." [Penny Mag., vol. i. p. 215.) 
 Dr. Arnott, having tried various descriptions of beds contrived for invalids, including 
 air pillows, down pillows, &c., thought at last of a hydrostatic bed. He " reflected that 
 the support of water to a floating body is so uniformly diffused, that every thousandth 
 part of an inch of it has, as it were, its own separate liquid pillar, and no one part 
 bears the load of its neighbour ; that a person resting in a bath is nearly thus sup- 
 ported ; that a patient might be laid upon the surface of a bath over which a large sheet of 
 waterproof India rubber cloth had been previously thrown, his body being rendered 
 sufficiently buoyant by a soft mattress being placed beneath it ; and that it might thus 
 repose upon the surface of the water, without sensible pressure any where." (Ibid.) 
 The hydrostatic bed is made of the usual dimensions ; and is nothing more than s. 
 wooden trough, say four feet wide, six feet long, and one foot deep, lined with lead or 
 zinc, to render it water-tight. Over this is thrown a sheet of India rubber cloth, as 
 large as would be a complete lining to the box if it were empty. The edges of this 
 sheet are secured by narrow slips of wood, or tinned iron hooping, firmly screwed down 
 all round the top of the trough, shutting in the water as completely as if it were in a 
 bottle, the only opening being at one end, which is filled by a cock. Upon this 
 India rubber sheet a mattress, pillow, and bedclothes are laid, as in common beds. 
 The box may be made by any carpenter, and lined by any plumber, and the India- 
 rubber cloth is manufactured by Mackintosh and Co., Charing Cross. 
 
 668. Bed Furiiiture, The usual material for the hangings of cottage beds, especially 
 for tent beds, is dimity, which has the advantage of being easily washed, and may thus 
 be always contrived to have a clean appearance. Printed cottons, Manchester stripes, 
 and chintzes are also very suitable, particularly the latter, for French beds ; but moreens 
 and other woollen stuflTs should never be used in cottages, as they have not only too 
 heavy an appearance for a small room, but are liable to harbour dust and vermin. The 
 furniture of the bed, and the curtains of the windows of the room in which it is placed, 
 should always be of the same material and colour. 
 
 669. Window Curtains give such an air of comfort to a room, whether it be to the 
 
3SH 
 
 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 spectator from without, or to the occupant within, that we could wish no cottage, 
 however humble, to be without them. For the same reason, we should wish cottage 
 windows to be large, that the curtains may be displayed without too much obstructing 
 the light. Window curtains give the mistress of the house an excellent opportunity for 
 exercising her taste in their arrangement; and it is but doing justice to the French and 
 Germans, to state that they are far in advance of the British, or, indeed, of any other 
 people of Europe, in this particular. From Stockholm to Naples, the room of a French- 
 man may always be known, before entering it, by the curtains of his window. It is not 
 that they are formed of expensive materials, for these are seldom employed, except in 
 a superior description of houses ; but muslins, cottons, and lenos, of different colours, 
 sometimes accompanied by shawl bordering, sewed upon the cottons, are put up with a 
 degree of style and taste which indicates both talent and a love of home in the occupant. 
 It would be easy to introduce the same taste in Britain, if it were once properly pointed 
 out to young females, and exemplified by the comparatively enlightened cottager ; for 
 example, in the dwellings of the married upper servants of country gentlemen. Tlie 
 first step, however, is to have large windows. Fig. 705, p. 339, is a very plain style of 
 hanging curtains. A round pole of wood is supported at each end by a bracket, fig. 706 a, 
 
 706 
 
 which is fixed by screw nails to the architrave of the window. The pole is kept securely 
 in its place by the screw-pin, b, which passes through the bracket, and is screwed into 
 the pole so as to keep it quite firm. On the pole are fourteen rings, generally of brass, 
 but for a common cottage they might be made of iron bronzed ; and in the lower part 
 of each ring there is a small eye, c, in which is inserted the end of the wire hook, rf, 
 v/hich is sewed along the inside of the upper margin of the curtain. By these means the 
 curtain can be unhooked, and taken down to be cleaned at any time. The curtain, when 
 not drawn, may be supported by a wooden pin, by a brass pin, by a brass band, e, which 
 fits into a socket, f, and will stand either upright, or horizontal, at pleasure, accord- 
 ingly as the square tenon of the band may be introduced. In fig. 705, this band is shown at 
 placed horizontally; in fig. 706 it is shown placed upright. Instead of a pin or 
 band, a piece of riband or curtain line, with a ring on each end, might be hooked on two 
 knobs, and thus loop up the curtain. The manner in which this curtain, which opens 
 in the middle, is made to draw from the centre to each side of the window, is shown in 
 fig. 707. A line, h, is passed round the small pulley which works in the pulley rack, t ; 
 it is then carried 
 over another 
 pulley at ^; then 
 over a third at 
 / ; and a fourth 
 at m, return- 
 ing to the pul- 
 ley rack, where 
 it is joined to 
 its other end. 
 There are two 
 rings at n and 
 
 o; one of which, the curtains being closed, is attached to 
 the inner edge of one curtain, and the other to the inner 
 edge of the other. The ring n is then fastened to the 
 uppiir line, by a small eye on the outer edge of the ring, 
 which may be seen in the figure ; and the ring o to the under 
 line, by similar means. On inspecting the figure, it will 
 be evident that, when thus arranged, by i)ulling the line 
 the curtain to which the ring o is attaclicd will he pulled 
 towards m, and that to whicli n is fixed towards /; and thus 
 tlie curtiiins will be opened. The reverse will be of course 
 oil'ectod by i)iilling the line h. Tlie curtain rod may be 
 formed eitiier of iron or of any hard wood ; ;md it should 
 
 7 07 
 
FURNITURE FOR COTTAGE DWELLINGS. 
 
 339 
 
FURNITURE FOR COTTAGE DWELLINGS. 
 
 341: 
 
 be fixed to the under side, or soflBt, of the window, by hooks of the form shown at q. This 
 is the very simplest form of curtain made to draw apart, and it may be made by any 
 country carpenter. The cheapest material for these curtains is calico, dyed crimson, 
 blue, or any other ingrain colour that will wash. They may also be formed of dimity, 
 with a strip of glazed calico about an inch and a half wide, of any colour suitable to the 
 other furniture of the room, sewed on about two inches from the margin. This coloured 
 calico is, of course, taken off when the dimity is washed, and, with care, will last clean 
 and look well for years. Coloured calico cut in Vandykes, or in any other pattern, and 
 sewed on close to the edge, may be substituted for the plain strip, if preferred. 
 
 670. Window Curtains in the Grecian style. Fig. 708, p. 339, may be considered as 
 stutable for a cottage finished in the Grecian style, including under that term the 
 Italian manner. This curtain requires a different bracket from the other. A lath, four 
 inches wide, fig. 709, r, is fixed on the architrave of the window, by an iron angle 
 bracket, s. The bracket which supports the pole, t, is of brass, and it is fastened by 
 screws on the top of the lath. The curtains are arranged as in the preceding Design, and 
 the drapery or valance over them, at top, 709 
 is hooked into the rings (shown in tig. 
 708), in a similar manner to the curtains, 
 
 so that both drapery and curtains may be ~Zy t ® 
 
 taken off to be washed. The pole to 
 which the drapery is attached would look 
 remarkably well if stained of a mahogany 
 colour ; or, in a Gothic cottage, to re 
 semble oak. Fig. 710, p. 340, is another curtain in the Grecian style, in the construc- 
 tion of which the plaited drapery, or valance, is tacked to the cornice in a manner which 
 we shall include in our description of the next figure. 
 
 671. A Gothic Curtain and Cornice are represented in the Design, fig. 711, p. 340. 
 ,The cornice may be made of deal, and painted and grained to imitate oak. The drapery 
 ,is nailed on to the lath with tacks, the heads of v.'hich are covered by the cornice, as 
 shown in the sections, p. 340, u. The cornice takes off and puts on by means of what 
 are called cornice slides, v, v/hich go into a broad staple, w. The curtain runs behind 
 the drapery, on a pulley rod, as shown in the section x, in fig. 708, p. 339. The pins 
 to support the curtains may be made of oak, in order to harmonise with the cornice. 
 
 672. Curtains for the humblest description of Cottages. Where an apparatus of lines 
 and pulleys would be too expensive, a simple curtain, opening in the centre, may be 
 formed by nailing t^o pieces of dimity, coloured calico, or printed cotton, to a square 
 cornice, either painted, or covered with a piece of paper bordering ; these curtains may 
 be looped back by a piece of sash line, or coloured cord, twisted round hooks fixed to 
 the architrave, and will thus form a kind of Gothic drapery across the window. Another 
 simple description of curtain is formed by nailing a piece of dimity, or other material, of 
 the requisite length and width, to a flat piece of wood, in one end of which are inserted 
 two pulleys ; while two others are let into it, one in the middle, and the other at the 
 opposite extremity. Three pieces of tape are sewed down the curtain, one on each side, 
 and one in the middle, to which are aflSxed small rings, at regular distances : through 
 these rings are passed three pieces of cord, which afterwards go over the pulleys, and, 
 being fastened together on one side, are kept tight by means of a pulley rack. By this 
 apparatus the curtain may be raised or lowered at pleasure, The board with the pulleys 
 is concealed by a cornice, to which a valance, or any other description of drapery, may 
 be attached. 
 
 673. Inside Window Blinds are of various kinds; but the chief are roller blinds, 
 Venetian blinds, and wire blinds. The roller blind, being much the cheapest, may be 
 considered the most suitable for common cottages. It is simply a piece of linen, of the 
 height and breadth of the window, nailed to a roller, which has a pulley at one end, by 
 means of a string over which the blind is pulled up ; and it is drawn down by a cord and 
 tassel fixed to the middle of its lower edge. The blind is kept extended to the width of 
 the window by a lath, passed through a broad hem, at the opposite end to that which is 
 fixed to the roller. The roller works in pivots at each end ; and motion is usually com- 
 municated to it, for the purpose of drawing up the blind, by an endless cord, which, 
 passes over the wooden pulley on the end of the roller, and under the small brass pulley 
 in the rack. (A rack is shown in fig. 707, at i.) As the pulley and rack often re- 
 quire adjusting, a more simple plan is to have the pulley affixed to the roller of the 
 blind, with a cylinder or axis smaller in diameter than that of the roller on which the 
 blind is wound up. To this is attached a line, the length of which should bear the 
 same relation to that of the blind, as the diameter of the cylinder of the pulley does to 
 that of the cyHnder of the roller. The line must be affixed when the blind is wound 
 up on the roller, so that the action of drawing down the blind may wind up the cord. 
 
342 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 The smaller the diameter of the axis of the pulley is in comparison with that of the 
 roller, the shorter will be the length of string required. A great improvement in this 
 description of blinds has been made by forming the roller of a tin case that encloses a 
 spring, which acts so as to turn the roller, and pull up the blind of itself. The best 
 description of this spring roller blind is one improved by Messrs. Barron and Mills, which 
 we shall describe when treating of blinds for villas. Sometimes, instead of linen blinds 
 being plain, they are painted with transparent colours, so as to represent stained glass 
 windows, landscapes, &c. These blinds, while they exclude the sun, admit abun- 
 dance of light, and are very suitable for staircase windows, or the windows of cottages 
 which have either no view, or one which it is desirable to exclude. A great improve- 
 ment has lately been made in the manufacture of transparent blinds by Mr. Newbury 
 of I^ondon, who paints them on a superior description of gauze, of his own invention. 
 Long and short Venetian blinds, and short inside wire blinds, are not unsuitable for the 
 better description of cottages ; but we shall defer what we have to say of them till we 
 come to speak of Villa Furniture. 
 
 674. Commoner descriptions of Short Inside Blinds are formed of muslin or leno, either 
 flounced all round, and opening in the middle, or with flounces only at top. These 
 blinds may be affixed to the windows either by a piece of tape drawn through a string 
 case running across the blind near the top, and fastened by brass hooks to the side styles 
 of the window ; or by brass wires or rods passed through broad hems at the top and 
 bottom of the blind, and having a loop at each end, to drop on the pin of a small brass 
 bracket affixed to the side style or bead of the window frame. Other blinds may be 
 netted by the cottager's wife, of white cotton, or green worsted, the size required, and 
 hung on brass hooks fixed to the astragals and side styles of the window. Various other 
 blinds may be formed of equally cheap materials, according to the taste and skill of the 
 mistress of the cottage. 
 
 675. Lines and Knobs for Curtains and Blinds, ^c. The description of line used 
 should always be the plaited thread line, which, being of the same material throughout, 
 is much stronger, and lasts four or five times as long as the common twined sash line, 
 which in many cases is made of 
 one material on the outside and 
 another in the interior. This 
 patent thread line, as it is called, 
 is manufactured of all sizes, from 
 that fit for a carriage window 
 blind, to one thick enough for a 
 ship's cable; and it should be 
 used, not only in curtains and 
 blinds, but in hanging sashes, 
 pictures, and, in short, in all 
 cases requiring lines. Knobs of 
 iron, brass, or wood, for the 
 purpose of fastening lines round, 
 are far preferable to the hooks 
 of different kinds in common 
 use ; because they have a more 
 solid and architectural look; are mare removed from a common nail ; and are not so apt 
 to catch the corners of the laths of Venetian blinds, or to tear cloth blinds or curtains. 
 
 676. Looking-glasses for cot- 
 tages may be divided into two 
 classes ; chimney or pier glasses, 
 and dressing-glasses. Fig. 
 712 is a Design for a chimney 
 glass in the Grecian style, and 
 fig. 7 1 3 is another in the Gothic 
 manner. The frames may 
 be of deal, painted in imitation 
 of oak, or they may be gilt, 
 which is generally considered 
 to look best. For a Gothic cot- 
 tage, very handsome and cheap 
 pier and chimney glasses may 
 be formed by constructing a 
 frame like a Gothic window, and 
 glazing it v\dth panes of plate 
 glass, or of a superior descrip- 
 
FURNITURE FOR COTTAGE DWELLINGS. 
 
 343 
 
 tion of common glass prepared as looking-glass. The same may be done in Grecian 
 cottages by imitating a Grecian window. By placing mirrors of this kind so as to 
 reflect the best exterior views, apparent extent, variety, and gaiety may sometimes be 
 added to even small rooms. Where it is desired to have richly ornamented frames, they 
 can be had in great variety, and at a very moderate price, made of the papier mache of 
 Bielefield and Haselden (see § 568), or of a composition manufactured by Jackson of 
 Rathbone Place. 
 
 677. Dressing- glasses may have their frames made either in the Grecian or Gothic 
 style. Fig. 715 is the ordinary form, improved in the style of design, so as to har- 
 monise with Grecian forms ; and, if the supporters were of cast-iron bronzed, it might 
 be recommended : but, made of wood, it is not heavy enough to resist the action of the 
 wind against the back of the glass when the window is open ; and, accordingly, bed-room 
 glasses of this description are very frequently blown down and broken. Fig. 714 is 
 
 714 
 
 715 
 
 also a Design in the Grecian style, with a plinth or base of solid wood, on which it 
 stands. Such glasses are called by cabinet-makers plateau glasses; and they are far 
 preferable to the common sort, for obvious reasons. Figs. 716 and 717 are Designs for 
 plateau glasses in the Gothic style, which are given principally to show that style 
 should be attended to in minor as well as in major articles of furniture. Fig. 717 has 
 a drawer for trinkets, &c. 
 
 716 
 
 678. Fenders should be low, and may be narrow, when the fuel chamber is placed 
 low; and more especially when the beveled front bars and drawer, § 599, fig. 534, are 
 used. The lower and narrower the fender, the more heat, other circumstances being 
 the same, will be radiated into the room. The front of the fender, unless very low 
 indeed, ought always to be of open work, in order to admit through it the radiation 
 from the fire. The forms and lines and general style of the fender ought to be the same 
 as those of the grate ; and both ought to harmonise with the chimney-piece. We have 
 seen a cottage fender with a well hole inside for containing coals ; thus serving mstead 
 of a coal scuttle, and at the same time drying the fuel so as to diminish the quantity of 
 smoke produced; in this case the fender and its well fitted into a sunk panel in the 
 hearth, and as it was in the house of a toll bar keeper, who had to sit up all night, it 
 proved convenient; because the coals were always at hand, and burned readily when put 
 on the fire. Fenders should have stands for fire-irons, unless a substitute is provided 
 by holders being screwed to the grate. The cheapest kind of cottage fenders are of pamted 
 wire, and these may do for parlours and bed-rooms ; but there are very handsome and 
 cheap fenders of cast iron, which are much more appropriate tor kitchens. 
 
 679. Fire-irons, stoves, and grates, when of polished iron or steel, require a great deal 
 
344 
 
 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 of severe and disagreeable labour from women, which we have long wished to see put 
 an end to, by the substitution of a more rational mode of heating than that of open fire- 
 places ; but, in the mean time, as the cottager must have fire-irons of some sort, we 
 recommend him to have plain patterns, and rather to indulge in some other description 
 of furniture which requires less care in keeping. Where wood is the principal fuel, we 
 recommend the kitchen poker to terminate at the lower extremity in two claws like 
 a claw hammer, o-r a crowbar ; and to be hollow, with one orifice between the 
 claws, and another at the opposite end for applying the mouth to blow the fire, or 
 rather to rouse the embers after they have been collected together from the ashes by the 
 claws. We have seen the use of such pokers in the kitchens of inns in Germany ; and 
 tliink they may be safely recommended as very superior to those in common use, where 
 wood is burnt on a hearth. 
 
 680. Carpets are sources of comfort in every room ; and we should wish the cottager 
 to have not only one in his parlour, but, if possible, also one in his bed-room. For neither 
 the parlour nor the bed-room would we recommend the carpet to be fitted to the room ; 
 because such carpets can very seldom be either turned or changed in any way. In 
 general, whatever may be the shape of the room, the carpet ought to be in the form of a 
 square, a parallelogram, or a circle. A square carpet may be changed eight times, 
 so as to be worn equally on every part of both sides ; a circular one, indefinitely. A 
 parallelogram may be changed four times, which will also admit of wearing it with toler- 
 able regularity. A carpet, accurately fitted, or planned (the term among upholsterers), to 
 every projection and recess of a room, cannot even be changed once, unless the projections 
 and recesses should be of a particular description of symmetry, which is very seldom to 
 be met with. It is evident, then, that a fitted carpet, which can neither be changed nor 
 turned, will not last more than one eighth the time of a square one, or one fourth the 
 time of a parallelogram. For a cottager's bed-room, we would chiefly recommend one 
 piece of carpeting placed by the dressing-table, and pieces neatly fitted to each other to 
 go round the foot and sides of the bed. In general, the parlour carpet will require to 
 be made fast at the margins with a few tacks, but the bed-room carpets may be left 
 loose. Stair carpets give an air of great comfort and finish to a house ; and a cottage 
 should never be without one. We shall describe the manner of laying these down, and 
 shall enter into other particulars respecting carpets, when we come to speak of Villa 
 Furniture. When a parlour carpet does not cover the whole of the floor, there are 
 various ways of disposing of the margin between it and the wall. Some recommend oil- 
 cloth, others baize, drugget, coarse broadcloth, or brown linen ; for our part, we greatly 
 prefer to any of these, painting that part of the boards of the floor which is not covered 
 with the carpet, of the same colour as the woodwork of the room ; taking care that 
 the margin painted shall exceed in breadth by a few inches the space which it is 
 intended to leave uncovered. This is by far the best mode in staircases and in bed- 
 rooms, as well as in parlours ; it also saves a great deal of the most disagreeable part of 
 a woman's household labours. When the woodwork of the room is painted to imitate 
 oak, this mode of treating the margins of the floor has a particularly good effect. The 
 expense may be objected to ; but we shall show, when we come to treat of the art of 
 house-painting, how easily any cottager or his wife, though they never before saw a paint 
 brush in their lives, may learn in an hour to grain the woodwork of their cottage, in 
 imitation of oak, sufficiently well for every purpose they can require. Round carpets 
 are not very common in England, but they are not unfrequent on the Continent, and 
 look exceedingly well in a square room. 
 
 681. The kinds of carpets most suitable for cottages are chiefly the Scotch and the 
 Kidderminster, on account of their cheapness ; but we consider none too good for the 
 cottager, provided he can afford to pay for them. In choosing a pattern, the smallest 
 is generally to be preferred, not only as a matter of taste, as being more in accordance 
 with small rooms, but in point of economy ; because, in sewing the breadths together, it 
 requires less cutting out to make it match, and because, when the carpet gets old, the 
 patches put on in mending are less conspicuous. The parlour carpet, and the carpets of 
 at least one bed-room, should be of the same pattern, in order that, when the former is 
 partly worn out, the latter may be used to mend it ; because it is always bad, both in point 
 of effect and economy, to mend what is old with what is quite new. A very neat pattern 
 for carpets has lately been introduced for libraries, but it would suit Gothic cottages 
 equally well. It consists of an imitation of wainscot, has a quiet subdued tone of 
 colour, and accords well with furniture made, or painted in imitation, of oak. 
 
 682. Colours of Carpets. Much of the opinion which we form of all objects depends 
 on the effect of the first impressions which we receive from them. Our first ideas of 
 any man or woman, on seeing them at a short distance from us, are taken from their 
 height and clothing ; and our first ideas of a room, from its size, and the covering or 
 colour of its floor and v^ralls. Taking the room as a whole, and considering its effect as 
 
FURNITURE FOR COTTAGE DWELLINGS. 
 
 34^5 
 
 a picture, the colours of the carpet and of the walls will form the principal masses in the 
 composition, and will necessarily influence every other component part. If the floor and 
 the walls were of the same colour, there would be a deficiency of force and of effect, from 
 want of contrast ; if they were of diflrerent colours, equally attracting the eye, the effect 
 produced would not be that of a whole ; because a whole is the result of the cooperation 
 of different subordinate parts with one principal part. The harmony of the colouring of 
 a room, therefore, can only be produced by the same kind of knowledge which guides 
 an artist in painting a picture. The principles of the art of painting supply the prin- 
 ciples for the art of distributing colours in furnishing ; but, as this art cannot all at once 
 be communicated to the reader, all that we shall attempt, at present, is, to supply him 
 with a few hints, drawn from the usual practice of upholsterers. These are, that neither 
 the colours of the carpet should be so brilliant as to destroy the eflfect of those of the 
 paper, nor the contrary; and that the curtains should always be of a colour suitable to 
 both. It is not necessary that they should be of the same colour, but that they should 
 be of colours that harmonise, or, in other words, look Avell together. A very brilliant 
 colour, such as crimson, in the carpet, may have a drab or other subdued colour in the 
 curtains and paper ; but then there should be some of the brilliant colour introduced in 
 both, as bordering or ornaments. Thus, a room with a bright blue or crimson carpet 
 may have white, yellow, or drab, curtains and paper; but blue or crimson bordering or 
 ornaments should be introduced in them, to harmonise the effect. It would not do, in the 
 case of the blue carpet, to have green curtains or paper, or with the crimson to have 
 scarlet ; because these colours do not accord. A green carpet may have black, red, or 
 white curtains, with green borders and ornaments. A yellow carpet may have black 
 curtains, and a dark grey paper with yellow borders and ornaments. Whatever will 
 apply to a self-coloured carpet, curtains, or paper, will apply equally well in all cases 
 where those colours predominate. It should never be forgotten, that the whole effect of 
 an elegantly furnished room may be destroyed by the selection of a carpet which, 
 though handsome in itself, does not harmonise with the other furniture. 
 
 683. Geographical Carpets. The idea of a geographical carpet, that is, a carpet with 
 the lines of a map substituted for a regular pattern, has been suggested (Meek. Mag., 
 vol. xii. p. 21.) ; and we agree with the author of the suggestion in thinking that " a 
 carpet is so admirably adapted to geographical instruction, that it may be almost said to 
 be a natural article for the purpose. A map is a picture of the surface of the earth, and 
 on tlie ground is the place to view it. One on so large a scale as a carpet would admit, 
 is calculated to give a more correct idea of the relative position of places than could be 
 effected by the largest map now extant. A family in the daily occupation of a room 
 furnished with such a carpet, would acquire unavoidably a more permanent kno^vledge 
 of a given portion of the earth than could be obtained by any other means ; and, when 
 the local position of the room would admit, the carpet might be placed agreeably to the 
 bearings of the compass, and it would thereby give a correct idea of the real direction of 
 places on the map." The principal objection to this plan seems to be, the great difficulty 
 which would attend its execution. A map, such as above described, might, however, be 
 printed on fine cloth, or brown holland linen, and might then serve as a cover to a carpet. 
 Tliis would be particularly suitable for a school-room or nursery. 
 
 684. Substitutes for Carpets. Green baize and drugget are often used as substitutes for 
 carpets, and are not only cheap, but in many cases look remarkably well. When a drab 
 drugget is used, a border of black or any dark-coloured cloth, laid on about two inches 
 from the margin, has a veiy good effect. Cheap carpets may be made by industrious 
 housewives of a kind of patchwork. Remnants of cloth bought from the woollen- 
 draper, or tailor, and cut into any kind of geometrical shapes, may be sewed together, so 
 as to form circles, stars, or any other regular figures that may be desired; and, when 
 arranged with taste, produce a very handsome and durable carpet, at a very trifling 
 expense. The figures, of whatever nature they may be, should be always symmetrical ; 
 and a handsome border should invariably surround the whole, so as to preserve the idea 
 of unity of design ; care should also be taken that the colours employed harmonise, not 
 only with each other, but, as before advised, with those of the other furniture of the 
 room. 
 
 685. Paper Carpets are formed by cutting out and sewing together pieces of linen, cot- 
 ton, Scotch gauze, canvass, or any similar material, &c., to the size and form required ; then 
 stretching the prepared cloth on the floor of a large room, aiid carefully pasting it round 
 the margins so as to keep it strained tight. If cotton be the material, it will require 
 to be previously wetted. When the cloth thus fixed is dry, lay on it two or more coats 
 of strong paper, breaking joint, and finish with coloured or hanging paper, according to 
 lancy. Centre or corner pieces, cut out of remnants of papers, which may be bought 
 tor a mere trifle, may be laid on a self-coloured ground, and the whole surrounded by a 
 border; or any other method adopted which may suit the taste or cirfumstances of the 
 
346 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 occupier, or accord with the other furniture of the room. When the carpet is thus pre- 
 pared, and quite dry, it should receive two coats of glue, or size made from the shreds of 
 skins, such as is used by carvers and gilders. This size should be put on as warm as 
 possible, and care should be taken that no part of the carpet be left untouched by it; 
 otherwise the varnish to be afterwards laid on will sink into the paper, and spoil it. 
 When the size is perfectly dry, the carpet should have one or more coats of boiled oil ; 
 and when that is dry, a coat of copal or any other varnish. The varnish is not absolutely 
 essential, as boiled oil has been found to answer very well without it ; but where oil only 
 is used, it requires several more coats to be applied, and takes a much longer time to 
 dry. These carpets are portable, and will roll up with about the same ease as oilcloth. 
 They are very durable, are easily cleaned ; and, if made of well-chosen patterns, have a 
 very handsome appearance. Where labour is cheap, the cost will be very trifling ; 
 the materials being of little value, and the expense consisting chiefly in the time 
 requisite to put them together. Where cloth cannot be easily procured, the carpet may 
 be made by pasting paper to painted boards ; when, by repeated coats of paper, it is 
 become strong and firm, it will separate from the paint, and will be as durable as if 
 mounted on any kind of cloth. For earth, brick, or stone floors, in order to render 
 them impervious to damp, these carpets may be made with two faces, by pasting paper 
 to both sides of the cloth which forms their basis, and well oiling or varnishing them on 
 the under as well as upper surface : they may also be bound with leather or any strong 
 substance, to prevent moisture from penetrating to the paste. The paste used in the 
 preparation of these carpets ought to be very strong, and is best when beer or sweet 
 wort is substituted for common water. It must be kept free from lumps, and, when 
 taken from the fire, stirred till cold. Papers used for carpets should have sufl^cient 
 gum or size employed in the printing of them, to enable them to withstand the effects 
 of the washing over with warm size. If printed in oil, a strong coat of size should be 
 given to the back to prevent the oil from penetrating through the paper, otherwise it can- 
 not be pasted to linen, cotton, or any thing else. Papers printed in oil will not require 
 any size before they receive the finishing coats of boiled oil and varnish. When 
 varnished on one side only, they ought to be rolled up with that side outwards, to pre- 
 vent its cracking. {London Jour, of Arts and Sciences.) Paper carpets would perhaps 
 be better for geographical subjects, than carpets formed of any material produced by the 
 loom. We have before suggested the idea of geographical, natural history, and other 
 scientific papers, for the walls of apartments ; and, if these were once made, they might 
 be transferred to paper carpets at pleasure. 
 
 686. Hearth Rugs are of various patterns and prices. Their use is obvious, in saving the 
 carpets from becoming worn by the constant movement of persons near the fire. When 
 economy is an object, a piece of carpeting the same as that of the room, and the width 
 of the hearth, may be employed, and this may be either hemmed at the ends, or sur- 
 rounded by a deep fringe of black or very dark brown worsted, which the mistress of 
 the cottage may net herself, and sew on. A cheap rug may also be formed of a piece 
 of drab drugget bound with black, or any other colour to suit the paper and curtains, 
 and fringed ; either with or without a strip of cloth, of the same colour as the binding, 
 laid on about two inches from the margin. This kind of rug does very well without the 
 fringe. Another kind of cheap hearth rug may be made by the cottager's wife, of 
 remnants of cloth cut into narrow strips about half an inch broad, and three or four 
 inches long ; these strips are doubled, and sewed at the bend, in rows, to a strong 
 piece of cloth, or knitted into a framework of packthread. In either case the colours 
 are disposed so as to form some kind, of pattern ; and, the ends being left loose, and cut 
 even when the work is finished, with a large pair of scissors or shears, the whole presents 
 a remarkably rich, warm, and massive appearance. 
 
 687. Painted Floorcloths may sometimes be used in the lobbies and passages of cot- 
 tages ; but they are not economical articles, where there is much going out and coming 
 in of persons generally employed in the open air, and of course wearing strong shoes, 
 probably with nails in the soles. When they ai'e used in cottages, the most appropriate 
 patterns are imitations of some materials usually employed for floors, such as tessellated 
 pavement, different-coloured stones, wainscot, &c. ; but, for the better description of 
 dwellings, where oilcloths are considered chiefly as ornamental coverings, there seems to 
 be no reason why their patterns should not be as various as those of carpets. 
 
 688. Matting of different sorts may be extensively used in cottages. There are some 
 kinds, which the cottager might make for himself in the winter's evening ; and there are 
 others that he may purchase cheap. Matting is manufactured, in many different manners, 
 out of the straw of corn, rushes, or other long, narrow, grassy or sedgy leaves. Among 
 the uses to which a cottager might apply mats of this sort, which he could make himself, 
 ;ire, seats for chairs, stools, and benches ; foot mats for outside doors ; and screens, than 
 which there is not a more useful article for the cottage kitchen. In Monmouthshire, 
 
FURNITURE FOR COTTAGE DWELLINGS. 
 
 easy chairs with hoods, like porter's chairs in gentlemen's halls, are constructed of straw- 
 matting on a frame of wooden rods, or of stout iron wire ; and 
 chairs like fig. 718 are made entirely of straw in different parts 
 of England, in the same way as the common beehives. Matting 
 of this sort might in some cases be employed as partitions, and 
 is extensively used in the more miserable of the cottages both in 
 France and Scotland. Russian matting, or bast, made from the 
 inner bark of the Ume tree, is very cheap, and might be useful 
 to the cottager in many ways : the walls and partitions might be 
 lined with it, and temporary ceilings formed of it in hovels where 
 there were none. There are various other applications of Russian 
 matting, whicli will readily occur. Indian matting, when bound 
 with black or coloured ferreting, is a very neat article, and may 
 be used either for walls or floors. 
 
 689. Door Mats may be made of basketwork, straw, rope, hair, wool, sheepskin, &c. 
 A very good outside mat, or rather perhaps scraper, is formed by a piece of flat wicker- 
 work, somewhat coarser than that of a common hamper ; it takes the dirt effectually from 
 the soles of the shoes, and as it falls down in the interstices between the rods, the wicker- 
 work has only to be lifted up now and then, and the dirt sv/ept away. A mat which 
 operates like this wicker mat has been formed in Germany of flat tarred rope, in the 
 following manner:— The breadth of the rope, fig. 719 a, fiill size, is about three 
 quarters of an inch, and it is something more than a quarter of an inch thick. The out- 
 line of the mat is first formed by setting the rope on edge on the floor, or on a piece 
 of board, in the manner of a frame, and attaching it in two or three places with nails or 
 pegs ; the rope is next returned on itself in zigzag lines within the frame, either by 
 
 continually going round it till it ends in the centre, or 
 
 by going backwards and forwards from one end to the 
 
 other, till it finishes on one side. This being done, all 
 
 the parts which touch are sewed together, and the 
 
 result is a mat like fig. 719, 6 (to the scale of half an 
 
 inch to a foot). These mats are imported from Ger- 
 many ; and, when used as shop-door mats in London, 
 
 they are found to be more durable than any other 
 
 kind that has yet been tried. One of the commonest 
 
 and most useful out-door mats is made of untwisted rope 
 
 yarn, woven into very coarse canvass, and then cut, so as 
 
 to present a brush-like surface, on which, not only the 
 
 soles of the shoes may be cleaned, as in the wicker and 
 
 rope mats, but also the sides. In-door mats are made 
 
 of hair, tow, or wool, in various modes. One of the 
 
 best for a cottager's bed-room door is a black or grey 
 
 sheepskin, with all the wool on. A black or dark 
 
 goatskin makes also a very handsome mat. Skins 
 
 with white or other light-coloured hair or wool make 
 
 very handsome mats, but are hardly advisable for a 
 
 cottager, as they require frequent washing. " — — 
 
 690. Scrapers for the feet may be let into the wall of the cottage, on each side of the 
 door, a cavity being left over the scraper for the foot, and one under it for the dirt, 
 rhere are various forms of scrapers for building into walls, which may be had of every 
 ironmonger; and all that the cottager has to do is to choose one analogous to the style 
 of his house. There are detached scrapers in endless variety ; the most complete are 
 those which have brushes fixed on edge, on each side of the scraper, which, with other 
 forms, we shall describe and figure under Villa Furniture. Scrapers are so essential to 
 cleanliness, that, where the cottager can get no better, he may drive two short stakes into 
 the ground, about a foot apart and half a foot high, and let into them a piece of iron 
 hooping edgewise ; or he may sink the blade of an old spade, with its edge upwards. 
 The last two scrapers are very suitable for gardens ; and, unless the cottager keep his 
 garden walks perfectly clean, or at least free from the clods of earth which will stick to 
 his feet when working in the compartments, he cannot expect to have the gravel of his 
 platform in nice order, or his entrance-porch clean. A dirty entrance is a sure sample 
 ot an untidy housewife ; and little comfort can be expected in a cottage the floor of 
 which is soiled with filth brought into it from without. Those cottagers who can afford 
 It may purchase the portable scraper, fig. 720, which costs, in London, only Is. 6d., 
 or fig. 721, which costs 2s. ; both of which will answer either for the entrance door or the 
 garden walks : or they may take the dibber scraper, fig. 722, which costs only 25. 6d., and 
 may be stuck into the garden anywhere, and pulled out again to remove it, at pleasure. 
 
 '19 
 
34^8 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 721 
 
 An excellent scraper, 
 partaking of the na- 
 ture of a mat, may be 
 formed by letting a 
 number of pieces of, 
 iron hooping edge- 
 wise into a wooden 
 
 frame, say a foot or more wide, and eighteen inches long. The 
 pieces of hooping may be from an inch to an inch and a half 
 apart. Wooden hoojoing, or straight-edged laths, may be sub- 
 stituted for iron ; but the latter is more effective, as well as 
 more durable. Scrapers of this sort may be let into a stone, so 
 as to he level with the adjoining path or pavement; but in 
 this case there should be a pit, three or four inches deep, beneath 
 the scraper, and the latter should admit of being taken out, to 
 remove the dirt from the pit. In Holland a very good cottage- 
 garden scraper, particularly for sandy soils, is formed by fixing 
 
 small iron bars, or pieces of hooping, in the circumference of two segments of ovals, fig. 
 723 ; the chord of the segment is about nine inches in length, and the width of the 
 scraper a foot. When it is used, the sand, or other 723 
 dirt, drops from the soles of the shoes, between the 
 bars ; and, when the space is filled, the scraper is 
 lifted up, and the dirt removed. 
 
 691. Hat and Umbrella Stands. Both these articles 
 combined, as in fig. 724, may form a suitable piece of 
 furniture for aGothic porch or passage, where the walls are covered with pictures ; or where 
 there are other objections to having coat and cloak pins fixed against tliem. Besides, 
 it is always better for hats to be hung on stands in the 
 free air of the apartment, than to have them placed on 
 a table, or against a wall, where they get the air only 
 on one side. In the box at the bottom of this stand, 
 there is a tray of tinned iron, painted black, which lifts 
 out, in order that it may be emptied of the water which 
 may run into it from wet umbrellas, &c., and be cleaned. 
 Where there is suflScient space in the apartment, hat and 
 cloak pins may be put on both sides of the tree ; in which 
 case there should be a second box. We have shown on 
 the two upper branches or rails of the trunk, or upright 
 piece, five hat pins, or surplice pins, as they are called 
 by upholsterers, which may be made either of brass, or of 
 iron bronzed. On the lower rail there are four wooden 
 pins, which may be either made of oak, or painted in 
 imitation of it. These pins are formed in two pieces ; 
 the stem, or shank, and the head ; and the latter is 
 screwed into the former, as indicated in fig. 725. Such 
 
 725 
 
 pins are made of mahogany, in Birmingham, in large 
 quantities, and are sold to the trade all over the country. 
 They are far superior to brass or iron knobs or pins; 
 because they never tarnish or rust, and because they give 
 decided evidence of improved design, in their far removal 
 
FURNITURE FOR COTTAGE DWELLINGS. 349 
 
 from the common nail or hook. The umbrella stand, fig. 726, might very well bo made 
 of cast iron ; and could not, in that material, cost more than a fourth of what it woxild 
 
 in any description of wood ; but in this, and in similar cases, the objection is, the first 
 expense of the pattern, which, being necessarily considerable, cannot be prudently in- 
 curred, unless the manufacturer be secure of an extensive sale. We could wish that our 
 furnishing ironmongers would direct a portion of that power of invention which seems 
 to be now almost exclusively occupied in contriving bad fireplaces, to the improving of the 
 designs and lowering the price of cabinet furniture, by the judicious introduction of cast 
 iron. Much, we are sure, will one day be done in this way. For a small cottage, a 
 very useful corner umbrella stand, may be formed by bending a piece of stout brass, or 
 iron wire, somewhat in the form of c d in fig. 727, and fixing it in the angle of the 
 porch, immediately within the out- 
 side door; placing below a corner 
 tray of tinned or cast iron, e, to 
 receive the water from the wet 
 umbrellas. The use of the wire is 
 to prevent the wet umbrellas from 
 touching the wall, and the use of 
 the bends in it is to keep the um- 
 brellas or walking-sticks apart. 
 
 692. A ToweZ/^orse has generally 
 one rail at top ; but a double rail, 
 as in fig. 728, is a great improve- 
 ment ; for, when a wet towel is 
 thrown across both rails, the air 
 has freer access to it, and it dries 
 much sooner. It may be formed 
 of deal, and should at all events be 
 painted, for the reasons given when 
 speaking of fixed towel rails, § 610. 
 
 693. Clock-cases for cottages may 
 be harmonised both with the style 
 of the building and that of the 
 other furniture, by the lines of their 
 mouldings and the forms of their 
 panels. "Figs. 729 and 730 are 
 examples; the former in the Gothic, 
 and the latter in the Grecian style. 
 
 694. A Folding Screen, for keep- 
 ing off the wind, is required in 
 most cottage kitchens, particularly 
 such as have no porch or lobby. 
 The most suitable, where there is 
 room, is the settle, § 636, especially 
 with the addition of Mallet's iron castors; but very light and eflScient screens may be 
 formed by two or more wooden frames, five feet high, and two feet wide, hinged with 
 girth webbing or leather, so as to fold either way. The mode of hinging, so as to admit 
 of this, is by nailing the pieces of girth which serve as hinges, alternately to one side of 
 
350 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 ^31 
 
 the one hanging style, as at a, fig. 731, and to the opposite side of the other, as at h. 
 Supposing two hinges done in this way, the two alternate ones should be nailed, as indi- 
 cated by the dotted lines at c and d. A brass hinge, to answer the same purpose, has 
 been lately invented by Mr. Vokins, architect and builder, of Wilton Road, London ; 
 several of whose ingenious inventions and contrivances we shall have to notice when 
 speaking of Villas. The wooden frames for the screen may have canvass strained on 
 them, in order that they may be covered with paper ; or they may 
 be covered with green baize, drugget, or any similar material, with 
 a border of ferreting, attached by brass-headed nails, or bordered by 
 the nails only. In case of the screen being covered with paper, maps, 
 subjects of natural history, arithmetical or chronological tables, alma- 
 nacks, or, in short, any kind of useful subjects, should be preferred, 
 for the reasons given, § 584. 
 
 695. Fire-screens may be wanted in a cottage as well as in a palace. 
 A lady has sent us a cottage fire-screen, made of straw, with a hook 
 attached to it, by which it is hung on the back of a chair, fig. 732, 
 which will answer very well when sitting with the back to the fire. 
 To shield the face a standard fire-screen is required ; but we shall leave 
 the reader to contrive one for himself from the Designs, which he will 
 find in another part of this work, under the head of Fire-screens for 
 Villas. 
 
 696. Clothes Horses and Stands for brushing Coats. Clothes horses, for drying linen, 
 &c., are open frames hinged in the same manner as folding-screens; and one or more 
 of them should be found in every cottage, not 
 connected with a public drying establishment. 
 There are generally three horizontal rails to 
 these clothes horses ; one at top, one within 
 two feet of the bottom, and one between. In 
 a small cottage the clothes horse might be 
 contrived to answer the purpose of a screen, 
 by having a movable cover, either to slip on, 
 or to be attached by hooks, or pieces of tape. 
 Stands for brushing clothes are formed of a 
 foot in the form of a Greek cross, with an 
 upright piece firmly mortised into it at the 
 point of intersection ; into the top of which, 
 about five feet from the ground, is mortised 
 another piece, about two feet long, which 
 serves as arms, on which is put the coat to be 
 brushed. Where there is not room for a 
 stand, the arms, with a post of six or eight 
 inches in length, may be hinged to the back 
 of a door, so as to fall down like a flap when 
 not in use, and be supported by a bracket, 
 or horse and rack, when a coat is to be brushed ; 
 or the form shown in fig. 733 may be adopted, 
 
 732 
 
 in which the jib bracket, e, works by two pins in / /, and the cross piece, g, also works 
 on a pin in the upper part of the bracket ; the holes, h h, are for slipping it on to 
 nails fixed to any wall or door. Whatever kind of coat stand or horse may be used, 
 there should always be a table at the command of the person brushing the coat, on 
 which to fold it up, previously to putting it away. 
 
 697. Children's Furniture. To enable a mother who has no servants, to relieve herself 
 at pleasure from carrying her child, there are various contrivances in use in England, 
 which deserve to be mentioned ; and there is one, for cleanliness and decency, which 
 deserves imitation in every country, and more especially in our own. Fig. 734 is a 
 swing chair, formed out of ten pieces of elder tree, a, six inches long, and an inch and 
 
FURNITURE FOR COTTAGE DWELLINGS. 
 
 351 
 
 a half in diameter, with the pith biirnt out with a redhot poker, or other iron ; nine 
 rails about a foot long, with a round hole at each extrenadty, h ; a bottom board a foot 
 square, with a round hole in each corner, c ; and four sash lines or cords about a quarter 
 of an inch in diameter, and of sufficient length to reach from the ceiling of the room in 
 which the chair is to be himg. Knots being made on the ends of the lines, the tubes 
 and rails are strung on as in the figure, and the other ends of the cords tied together and 
 suspended from a hook in the ceiling. By omitting four of the cylinders and four of 
 the rails, a chair may be made for an infant of the earliest age. A cushion may be put 
 in the bottom, or the bottom may be stuffed. Fig. 735 is a go-gin for a child who can 
 stand, to teach him to walk. It consists of a perpendicular shaft, long enough to reach 
 from the floor to the ceiling, which turns in a hole in a brick or stone of the floor, and 
 within a staple driven into the side of one of the ceiling joists, or by any similar means. 
 The piece d, about eighteen inches long, is mortised into the upright shaft, about eighteen 
 inches from the ground ; and the wooden ring, e, about seven or eight inches in diameter, 
 has a piece about six inches long, which is hinged at one end, and fastened with a hook 
 and eye at the other. This opens, and the child being put in is enclosed at the height 
 of the waist. The ring taking part of the child's weight, he cannot faU, and he soon 
 learns to walk. Frequently this ring is made of twisted withy, fig. 736, with an eye at 
 one extremity and a hook at the other : or each extremity is made to terminate in a loop, 
 and when the child is put into the ring one of these is slipped over the other, and a 
 hooked wooden pin serves to keep them together : in both cases the hinge is made like 
 that of the handle of a basket. Both these pieces of furniture are made in England by 
 every cottager for himself. Fig 737 is a hoUow cylinder, nothing more than the section 
 of the trunk of an old pollard tree, commonly to be met with in England; the inside and 
 upper edge are smoothed, and a child just able to stand is put into it, while its mother is 
 at work by its side, or going after the business of the house. Fig. 738 is a go-cart 
 which is frequently made of willow'rods without castors, but is here shown as a piece of 
 carpentry, standing on castors. The ring, /, opens with a hinge, and shuts, and is made 
 fast like e in fig. 735. Childi-en readily learn to walk by these machines, without the 
 danger of falling. Fig. 739 is a pierced chair, made entirely of wickerwork, which 
 costs, complete, about London, only 4s. 6d., while there is a cheaper sort, with a rush 
 bottom, at 2s. 6d. Every one wlio can make a basket can make a chair of this descrip- 
 tion. First form the skeleton frame, fig. 740 ; then commence round the circular hole 
 in the centre, and work in either willow rods or rushes towards the extremities, according 
 
 734 735 733 
 
 736 739 740 
 
 to the kind of chair it may be wished to produce. The cover of the vase in the 
 seat, ff, is lifted off by two thumb holes, so as to be quite flat for the child to sit 
 upon when the vase is not in use. There are two holes in the elbows of the chair, 
 through which may be placed either simply a rod to keep the child from falling out, or 
 a table flap, h, with two pins at the ends to fit into the holes ; the table being also sup- 
 ported by a movable leg in front, and having a ledge round it for holding the child's 
 playthings ; its pins being kept in their holes by the elasticity of the sides of the 
 chair. In England the cottager's child is placed on a chair of this sort after he is a 
 week old ; but in Scotland there is neither this chair, nor any substitute for it. In both, 
 countries there are small chairs with long feet, for elevating children to the height of an^ 
 
352 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 ordinary table, so that they may sit and eat with their parents ; and these, like the 
 pierced chair, ought to be universally in use. 
 
 698. Other articles of f urniture might be enumerated, and various hints given for the 
 selection of household utensils and instruments, but we are doubtfial whether in this work 
 they would be seen by those who would feel most interest in them, or to whom they 
 would be most useful. A washing and wringing machine, such as we shall figure in our 
 next Book would be too dear for one cottager ; but we would strongly recommend that 
 half a dozen cottagers should join in purchasing one ; as it would afford a great saving 
 of labour, and that, too, of the most oppressive kind, to the cottager's wife ; since wring- 
 ing is, to a female, almost as great an exertion as mowing is to a man. Washing-tubs 
 have hitherto been chiefly made round, and by the cooper, probably to accommodate the form 
 to the ancient practice of washing by treading with the feet ; but oblong troughs are much 
 cheaper, and far more convenient. — Every house whatever ought to possess the means of 
 filtering the water used in cookery. We have shown how this may be done on a large 
 scale, § 3 1 and 305 ; on a small scale, the operation may be performed with a common 
 garden flower-pot of a foot or more in height, according to the impurity of the water to 
 be filtered. Over the hole in the bottom of this flower-pot should be placed a piece of 
 sponge ; around and over which should be put two or three pieces of smooth clean stones, 
 to keep it in its place, and, at the same time, to prevent the pressure of the filtering mate- 
 rials (to be placed over them) from rendering the sponge so compact as not to allow of 
 the escape of the water. Fill the pot, when thus prepared, to within two inches of the 
 brim, with a mixture of one part of powdered charcoal, and two parts of clean sharp 
 sand, and on the top of this lay a piece of flannel, letting it sink in the centre, but making 
 it fast on the outside of the pot, by a string tied tightly under the rim. The upper sur- 
 face of the pot will now form a shallow basin, lined with flannel, into which the water to 
 be filtered is to be poured, and it will be found to come out rapidly at the bottom, quite 
 clear. As the flannel will intercept the grosser impurities, it should be taken off fre- 
 quently, and washed and replaced ; and two or three times a year the sand and charcoal 
 ought also to be taken out and washed. This will be found absolutely necessary ; for 
 the purification is effected simply by the filtering materials attracting the impurities in 
 the water ; the sand the earthy particles, and the charcoal those of organised matter. 
 From this use of the charcoal the reader may learn to increase or lessen its proportion, 
 according to the nature of the water to be purified. — When a cottager keeps a cow, he 
 will require a churn, and one of the cheapest and best is the patent box churn which may 
 now be had at Weir's manufactory, London, for ^1. Butter may be made in this churn 
 with a fourth of the labour requisite with the common plunge churn ; it is, besides, much 
 more easily used, and when not wanted as a churn, makes an excellent vessel for holding water. 
 In the choice of utensils much depends upon knowing when to choose iron, and when 
 wood, earthenware, or papier mach^. Cast-iron pots, tea urns, tea and coffee pots, and 
 parlour candlesticks, are excellent ; but iron tea trays are bad, as compared with those of 
 papier mach^, because one of the latter will last out a dozen of the former. The same 
 may be said of all vessels of copper or pewter, as compared with those of cast iron. It 
 must never be forgotten that copper, pewter, and lead vessels sell for nearly as much by 
 weight, when old and worn out, as when new, and that even cast iron will sell for some- 
 thing, but that vessels of wrought or turned iron, when worn out, are of no value at all. 
 Spoons, forks, and other articles, made of a composition of nickel and other ingredients, 
 and known under the name of German silver, or of Beauchamp's British plate, may be 
 recommended as very good substitutes for real silver. 
 
 699. Pictures, Sculptures, and other internal Ornaments. There is no cottage or dwelling, 
 however humble, in which there will not be found some object purely ornamental : we 
 have observed this to be the case in the most wretched log-houses in Russia, where engrav- 
 ings of the rudest kinds, and sometimes fragments of glass or earthenware, such as 
 no one would think worth picking up in the street in England, are placed in rooms 
 which cannot boast of either chairs, tables, or beds. The occupants of these hovels sleep 
 in their sheepskin clothes, on the stove in winter, and on the floor or out of doors in 
 summer ; and their seats and tables are wooden forms or turf benches. It seems, at first 
 sight, diflftcult to account for a taste for ornament existing among people so circum- 
 stanced ; but the truth is, that man, whether in a state of barbarism or refinement, is 
 essentially the same animal, and ornaments his home, because he loves it, and wishes to 
 render it agreeable. The trumpery of the Russian boor, and the pictures and statue 
 of the English gentleman, are collected and displayed exactly on the same principle. It 
 is clear, therefore, that every cottager must have ornaments in his house, as well as 
 flowers in his garden ; aiTd, since whatever it is worth doing at all, it is worth doing 
 well, we strongly recommend him to cover his walls with the best engravings he can get, 
 and to ornament his chimney-pieces with handsome plaster or terra cotta casts. Such 
 articles may now be had for a mere trifle ; for example, alto relievo plaster portraits, on 
 
FURNITURE FOR COTTAGE DWELLINGS. 
 
 358 
 
 tablets six inches or eight inches square, of eminent men, remarkably well cast, may be 
 had in London by retail, at 6d. each ; casts of Venus, Cupid, Adonis, and of various cele- 
 brated antique statues, eighteen inches or more high, may be had at 5s. each ; busts of a 
 large size may be had at the same price, and Swiss figures in terra cotta at 2s. 6d. each. 
 By sizing over plaster casts when they are first bought, and quite clean ; and afterwards, 
 when the size is perfectly dry, washing them over with copal varnish, they may be made 
 to look almost as beautiful as marble sculpture. (Mech. Mag., vol. xiv. p. 96.) Excel- 
 lent engravings of subjects of every description may now be had for a few halfpence 
 each : the commoner sorts the cottager may paste on the back of his settle, fig. 636, 
 § 636, or kitchen screen, and varnish them ; and the better kinds he may frame with 
 common deal, painted to imitate maple, and either glaze or varnish them according to 
 his means. When there is a good broad chimney shelf, there will be room for other 
 ornaments of a smaller description than busts or sculptures, such as curious stones, spars, 
 ores, or other minerals, or coins, and objects of art and antiquity ; and these the cottager 
 will collect as he can. The public taste for articles of this description has improved in 
 an astonishing degree within the last twenty years ; and, as knowledge spreads, and the 
 working classes acquire that leisure which, in consequence of this spread of knowledge, 
 will become a necessary of life to even the most hard-working cotmtry labourer, this 
 improvement will increase. But the objects with which, above all others, we should 
 wish to see the cottage ornamented are books ; and every room, even the kitchen and 
 bed-room, ought to have its book shelf. If we were asked what sort of books we should 
 recommend generally to the cottager, meaning in this term to include the very humblest 
 class of society, as well as the more elevated, we should reply that, as our aim is to render 
 him free and independent alike mentally as physically, to fit him in short for taking 
 care of himself, we recommend, first and principally, works on morals and politics : the 
 former, that he may know the principle on which the social duties of all individuals are 
 founded ; and the latter, that he may learn the use and duty of public government. Next, 
 we recommend books on his own art, trade, and manner of living ; and, for the rest, we 
 leave him to his own taste. Every cottager ought to possess a general encycloptedia, 
 and to take in a newspaper. The penny magazines, and other cheap literature of tha 
 present day, though more calculated to amuse the cottager, than to instruct him how to 
 improve his condition, will end in creating a demand for something better. 
 
 700. Remarks. Some other articles of furniture and decorations suitable for cottages 
 might be enumerated ; but we have, we think, done enough, in Designs both for cottages 
 and furniture, to prove the assertion with which we set out (§14), that all that is essen- 
 tially requisite for " health, comfort, and convenience, to even the most luxurious of man- 
 kind," may be obtained in a cottage, the wails of which are of mud, as well as in a palace with 
 walls of marble ; in a working man's college of one story, as well as in the magnificent halls 
 of Oxford and Cambridge, or in the elegant club-houses of London. A number of our 
 readers will, no doubt, object to many of our Designs, both of cottages and furniture, as 
 being beyond the reach of the great majority of British cottagers ; but let such recollect 
 that, in our Introduction to the Book of which this is the conclusion (see § 13), we in- 
 cluded under the term cottager, not only labourers, mechanics, and country tradesmen, 
 but small farmers and cultivators of their own land ; and the gardeners, bailiffs, land 
 stewards, and other upper servants, on gentlemen's estates. Let them consider, also, that 
 our plans and views extend to both hemispheres (see § 1 ) ; and that the citizen of 
 America, who thinks with his countryman. Dr. Dwight, that all private dwellings should 
 be as much as possible alike in accommodation, and that architectural display should be 
 confined, as in ancient Greece, chiefly to public buildings, may on his part not only find 
 the Designs given not too good, but may even object to our making any distinction 
 between Cottages and Villas. The British cottager or workman is, no doubt, at present 
 in a widely different situation from the American ; but we anticipate for him a new era, 
 and a condition very different from that in which he now is, at no great distance of time. 
 All the evils which have so long afflicted him have arisen from his own moral and poli- 
 tical ignorance, and from his consequent incapacity for self-government, either indivi- 
 dually or collectively ; and they will be dispelled by the education of the rising generation, 
 and the new order of things which will thenceforth be established. The working classes 
 will then be able to take care of themselves; and never, till this shall be the case, will 
 they obtain those comforts and enjoyments which ought to be in the possession of the 
 industrious labourer, as well as of the wealthy capitalist Every country is essentially 
 the property of its inhabitants; and it is only in ages and in countries where education 
 is partial or unequal, that wealth and the enjoyments of life can be very greatly 
 different. 
 
 o o 
 
B54f COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 BOOK XL 
 
 DESIGNS FOR FARM HOUSES AND FARMERIES, COUNTRY INNS, AND PAROCHIAL 
 
 SCHOOLS. 
 
 701. The Designs which compose this Book are calculated for three of the most 
 important occupations of man in civilised society ; viz., that of raising food on a large 
 scale ; that of furnishing all domestic comforts to travellers and others, who are absent 
 from or have no home ; and that of the education of youth. The last subject does not 
 necessarily belong to an EncyclopcBdia of Domestic Architecture ; but, as our main object 
 in this work is the amelioration of the great mass of society in all countries, and as we 
 consider education as the source of all amelioration, and, in fact, as the only means of 
 preparing the most depressed part of society for appreciating and obtaining the comforts 
 and conveniences which we are pointing out to them, we find that the parochial school, 
 for the purpose of mutual instruction, is the most important feature for the accomplishment 
 of our object ; and, as such, ought not to be passed over unnoticed in a work like the 
 present. 
 
 702. The Arrangement of these Designs will be in three chapters ; viz., on Farms, on 
 Inns, and on Schools. The first section in each chapter will consist of Fundamental 
 Principles and Model Designs, on which the Miscellaneous Examples given in the second 
 section of the same chapter are founded ; and the third section of each chapter will be 
 devoted to such Furniture as may be peculiar to the class of subjects of which that 
 chapter treats. 
 
 Chap. I. 
 
 Designs for Farm Houses and Farmeries, exhibiting various Degrees of Accommodation, 
 from the Farm of Fifty to that of One Thousand Acres, suitable to different Kinds of 
 Farming, and in different Styles of Architecture. 
 
 703. A Farm House differs from other dwellings, more in the circumstance of its 
 situation, being adjoining a farmery, than in its accommodation ; but still there are some 
 extra-arrangements, which require to be provided for in designing it, according to the 
 kind of produce raised on the farm, the manner in which it is manufactured or disposed 
 of, and the mode of lodging the labourers employed. 
 
 704. A Farmery, or set of buildings necessary for carrying on the business of a farm, 
 consists of various structures and enclosures ; some for lodging animals, and others for 
 securing farm produce, for keeping farm implements, and for other purposes ; with yards 
 for enclosing cattle, and for preparing or keeping manure ; others for containing ricks 
 of corn, and stacks of hay, or other produce. The house in which the farmer resides is 
 no essential part of a farmery, and is therefore left out of view in this enumeration of 
 its leading features. These features are three : the buildings, the court-yard, and the 
 rick-yard. The rick-yard does not form an essential part of the farmery ; because but 
 little inconvenience would result from having the ricks placed apart from the farm ; 
 and, indeed, in some parts of Britain the produce of every field is formed into a rick, or 
 ricks, in one of its corners. The two essential parts of a farmery, then, are the buildings 
 and the court-yard ; and all the variations of which these are susceptible, in point of 
 design, are founded on their relative position with regard to each other. Thus, all 
 farmeries may be included under two classes ; viz., those in which the buildings surround 
 the court-yard, and those in which the court-yard surrounds the buildings ; and a model 
 of each mode must necessarily be the groundwork of every variation or combination of 
 the component parts of a farmer5% 
 
 705. The Divisions of the Buildings of a Farmery admit also, to a certain extent, of 
 being founded on model plans ; because the animals which, in temperate climates, are 
 to be lodged in them, are every where of the same species, and require the same extent 
 and kind of accommodation and food ; because the manner of threshing out grain is, or 
 may be, the same throughout the world ; and because the implements to be worked by 
 the same animals cannot differ greatly in bulk in different countries. Previously, there- 
 fore, to giving Model Plans for Farm Houses and Farmeries, as a whole, we shall submit 
 General Principles, and give Model Designs and Directions, for the construction of their 
 component parts. 
 
 706. Every particular situation and hind of Field Culture requires an appropriate 
 arrangement in its Farmery ; therefore our object, in giving Model Designs, is chiefly to 
 embody principles in a tangible shape, to which practical men may recur for general 
 rules for application to peculiar localities. The manner of applying these rules we shall 
 
MODEL DESIGNS FOR FARM HOUSES. 
 
 S55 
 
 exemplify in a series of Miscellaneoizs Designs for Farm Houses and Farmeries, most of 
 which have been executed in different parts of Britain, and some in France. 
 
 707. The Arrangement of the first tioo Sections of this Chapter, therefore, will be in 
 the order of General Principles with Model Designs, and Miscellaneous Designs with 
 Details and Remarks. 
 
 Sect. I. General Principles and Model Designs for Farm Houses and Farmeries. 
 
 708. The object of this section is to show what parts of a farm house are peculiar to 
 it as such, and the best mode of constructing and arranging these ; what are the details 
 of a farmery, with the relative position for each object there ; and what is the best arrange- 
 ment for a Farm House and Farmery, as a whole. 
 
 SuBSECT. 1. General Principles and Model Designs for the Arrangement of a Farm House. 
 
 709. T7ie Interior of a Farm House may be arranged in three divisions : viz., the 
 apartments of the family, including such of the servants as live in the house ;. the rooms 
 for farm-house stores ; and the places where the in-door business of the farm house is 
 carried on. In farm houses of the smallest size, all these may be obtained under one 
 roof ; but in the case of large farms, where fifteen or twenty persons live on the premises, 
 all those offices, or places, in which the in-door business of the farm house is carried on, 
 such as the dairy and its appendages, the cider-house, the brewhouse, the bakehouse, 
 the wash-house, and the cleaning place, ought to be in a building or buildings separate 
 from the house, but not far distant from it. Cellars of most kinds, however, such as 
 those for potatoes, and other roots or vegetables to be used by the family ; for fruits ; and 
 for beer, ale, wines, &c. ; and the larder, pantry, and coal-hoxise, may be in the same bmld- 
 ing as the farm house. 
 
 710. Of the Apartments for the Family we need enter here into few details in addition 
 to those which have been given in the preceding Book. The number of living-rooms in 
 a farm house will depend on the extent of the farm, and on the style in which the farmer 
 chooses or can afford to live. The smallest farm-house should have at least one good 
 parlour ; and for a farm of 300 acres or upwards, of good productive soil, there ought to 
 be in the dwelHng-house, at least two good sitting-rooms, and a small library or office for 
 business ; besides three or four bed-rooms, and a nursery. In farm houses where it is 
 the custom to board and lodge the out-door laboui-ers, a larger kitchen will be required 
 for them to dine in, and a larger kitchen range to cook their food. More bed-chambers will 
 also be necessary, and these should always have a separate staircase from that leading to 
 the better rooms. In some parts of Britain where the farmer and his out-door labourers 
 are nearly on a par in point of intelligence and manners, they continue to dine at the 
 same table in the kitchen. This is by no means the practice in districts where the 
 farmers are highly intelligent, and superior in their manners to their servants, as, for 
 example, in East Lothian ; but when the latter are raised nearer to the level of the 
 former by the universality of education, this excellent patriarchal practice will in all 
 probability be restored. 
 
 711. The Sleeping- Rooms for unmarried Farm Servants, in most parts of Britain, are 
 generally such as merit extreme reprobation. Those of the men are frequently in lofts 
 over stables or cow-houses, without light, or sufficient space for air ; subject to the 
 deleterious exhalations arising from horse or cow dung ; sometimes badly ventilated, and 
 at other times under a roof insufficient to exclude the wind and the rain. Female 
 servants are lodged in-doors, but often in damp back-kitchens, store-rooms for the coarser 
 articles, harness-rooms, dark closets, or low, ill-ventilated garrets. " I am sorry," says 
 the excellent and benevolent Mr. Waistell, when speaking on this subject, " that the 
 health of servants is often less attended to than the health of cattle. Too often," he 
 adds, " there is neither chimney nor window by which to ventilate servants' bed-rooms, 
 and when there is no window they are not likely to be properly cleaned. What renders 
 them still worse is, their "being partly occupied as store-rooms for green fruit or bacon, 
 or for drying new-made cheese : the effluvia from all these articles contaminates the air, 
 and renders it greatly injurious to the health of those who breathe it ; indeed, all strong- 
 scented bodies, placed in bed-rooms, are more or less pernicious. I shall, therefore, 
 enumerate," he continues, " a few more of those things from which farmers and theii* 
 families not unfrequently suffer in their healths, without being, perhaps, at all aware of 
 their pernicious effects. The air of rooms is rendered unwholesome by keeping in them 
 oil, oil colours, impure wool, sweaty saddles, soap, tallow, fat, fresh meat whether raw or 
 dressed, wet clothes and other wet articles ; by foul linen, washing, di-ying, and ironing ; 
 by the fumes from charcoal fires, which are extremely pernicious, and frequently fatal ; 
 by green plants, and flowers however fragrant ; and by saffron and hops, which last 
 articles. Dr. "Willich says ( Encyc. of Dom. Econ. ), have also sometimes proved fatal." 
 ( Waistell on Agricultural Buildings, p. 22. ) There is no department of farm architecture 
 
350 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 in which reform is more necessary than in the rooms appropriated to unmarried servants ; 
 unless, indeed, it be in the cottages of the married ones. The state of both in Britain 
 is disgraceful to the farmers and their landlords. 
 
 712. Tlie Places in which the ordinary Farm- House Stores are kept are, the potato or 
 other root-cellar, the cabbage-eeUar, the liquor-cellar, the fruit-room, the cheese-room, 
 the larder, the pantry, and the coal and wood cellar. In general, all articles that are 
 not frequently wanted are better kept in a di-y cellar than any where else, because they 
 are there less subject to atmospherical changes. If cellars, however, are damp, they are 
 unfit for storing up any thing except liquors in glass or in earthen vessels. 
 
 713. In the Construction of Cellars the first thing is, to provide such a drainage as will 
 draw off the water at least one foot lower than the surface of the cellar floor. If the soil 
 be naturally wet, this floor, which should be of flag-stones or tiles, should be laid hollow ; 
 the walls should also be built hollow, and, if convenient, with a powerful cement, rather 
 than with common mortar ; or, at least, they ought to be coated over with cement in the 
 inside. In all very cold or very hot countries, provision should be made for double 
 doors and double windows, even though the inner window should be nothing more than 
 a boarded shutter ; and the windows, in all such cases, ought to fit tightly. The space 
 between the double windows need not be more than from six inches to a foot ; but the 
 space between the double doors ought to be at least three feet, so that the one door may 
 always be shut before the other is opened. In cellars so constructed, even ice, enveloped 
 in abundance of straw, might be kept without danger of melting ; and it is so kept in 
 most of the confectioners' cellars in London. As cellars are not places to live in, they 
 need not necessarily be made higher than seven feet. In general they are better under- 
 ground, and arched over with masonry ; but the same results may be obtained above 
 ground by double walls, very small and double windows, double or thickly thatched 
 roofs, and double doors. 
 
 714. The Potato and Root Cellar may be imder the floor of some part of the house, 
 when the soil is dry naturally, or capable of being rendered so by drainage. The 
 opening by which the potatoes or other roots are introduced should be on the outside of 
 the house, and not higher than the level of the ground, in order that a cart may be set 
 back against it, and the potatoes or other roots shot out and shoveled down the opening. 
 This opening should have double shutters, in each of which should be at least one pane 
 of glass, to admit sufficient light, and yet effectually to exclude the cold in winter and 
 the heat in summer. The panes of glass should be in the upper part of the shutters, so 
 as to be protected, by the lintels of the windows, from the direct rays of the sun ; but, if 
 the opening be to the north, this precaution is unnecessary. The size of a root cellar, 
 where the roots are merely for the consumption of the family, need not be large : ten or 
 twelve feet square, and seven or eight feet high, will be sufficient dimensions in a house 
 calculated for from twelve to twenty persons. When there are different roots to be stored 
 in the same cellar, they may be separated by temporary partitions of boards. 
 
 715. A Cabbage- Cellar is a common appendage to a farm house in Germany, and 
 might well be introduced in Britain and North America. It may be formed either 
 above or under ground, provided it can be rendered quite dry, and lighted by one or 
 more windows, with double sashes, about six inches apart, to guard against extremes of 
 temperature. This cellar ought to be twice as large as the other, because the manner in 
 which the cabbages and other articles are disposed in it requires a good deal of room. 
 The common method is, to cover the floor with soil to the depth of a foot, and to plant in 
 it, at the commencement of winter, full-grown cabbages, broccoli, lettuce, endive, &c., as 
 close together as they can be placed without touching each other. Water is given 
 occasionally in the course of the winter, and the greatest care is taken to remove every 
 leaf as soon as it shows symptoms of decay. The improved method which is adopted in 
 the better description of cabbage cellars is, to surround the cellar with shelves about 
 eighteen inches in width and three feet apart, which, if convenient, may be formed 
 of flag-stone or slate, or, if these materials are not to be had, of strong wood. On these 
 shelves are placed layers of earth, with alternate layers of cabbages or other vegetables ; 
 with their tops projecting beyond the shelf, and their roots and stalks bedded in the soil. 
 Where the soil is of a sandy nature, bricks, moss, straw, or some other suitable material, 
 should be introduced in the front part of the soil, to keep it up. Not only the cabbage 
 family, but the lettuce, endive, celery, beet, sweet herbs, and a variety of other culinary 
 vegetables, are kept in this manner from October till May, in Bavaria, Wirtemburg, 
 Baden, and other states. In very severe weather, or when the air is more than usually 
 humid, hot embers are placed on the floor to raise the temperature, or dry the air ; or, 
 when the cellar has a chimney-flue, which is the preferable mode, provided it be kept 
 shut when not used, a fire may be made in a small iron stove. 
 
 716. A Cellar for forcing some kinds of Culinary Vegetables might be formed in every 
 house, merely by placing an iron stove in any cellar sufficiently protected by external 
 
MODEL DESIGNS FOR FARM HOUSES. 
 
 walls. Light is not necessary. In boxes or pots, or in beds of earth on the floor, or on 
 shelves, may be placed roots of tart rhubarb for its footstalks ; succory for its leaves ; 
 hops for their tops, as a substitute for asparagus ; asparagus roots, sea-kale, &c. Potatoes 
 might also be placed in such a cellar, to make them throw out fresh tubers ; but, as the 
 young ones so produced would be merely a transfer of nutriment from what we consider 
 a better to a worse state, we cannot recommend the practice as one of utUity. Were 
 light admitted into a cellar of this description, mustard, cress, and other small salading 
 might be grown ; and roots of parsley, mint, and other herbs, and of beet, sorrel, and 
 other spinaceous plants, for their leaves, might be planted. In short, a good di*y cellar 
 with double doors and windows, might, with very little trouble, be made to produce a 
 great many articles of convenience and luxm-y for the table, which are now grown in 
 glass frames, or hot-houses, at very considerable expense. Every body knows that 
 mushrooms can be grown in a cellar better than any where else. We do not, however, 
 recommend the practice of forcing for general adoption ; thinking it, with a few exceptions, 
 in better taste to take the vegetable productions of natm-e or art in the open au-, by turns, 
 in their proper seasons. Our exceptions are, tart rhubarb, sea-kale, asparagus, mush- 
 rooms, succory, and small salading j all of which are as good, when forced, as when 
 grown in their natural climate. 
 
 717. A Fruit-Room, or Fruit- Cellar, is essential to every farm which has an orchard; 
 and no farm ought to be without one where fruit will gi-ow. The great art in preserving 
 fruit is, to keep it dry, and, at the same time, so as to prevent evaporation from its 
 surface ; for this last pui-pose, all change of temperatiu'e and moisture in the air must 
 be guarded against. The simplest mode of effecting these objects is, to place the fruit 
 on a thick bed of dry straw, and to mix and surround it with an ample mass of the same 
 material in any situation dry and protected from the weather ; but a better method is, to 
 place the fruit in a dry cellar, on a layer of dry sand, and to cover it with the same 
 material, or with fern, finishing with an upper layer of straw. The superiority of the 
 sand consists in its coolness, and comparative freedom from air, by which the frmt is less 
 liable to wither. Where there are several kinds of fruit to be kept in one cellar, shelves 
 may be employed ; and if the cellar be not often entered, so as to admit air of a different 
 temperature or degree of humidity, the fruit need not be covered at all, or may only have 
 fern strewed over it. Where the situation does not admit of an under-ground fruit- 
 cellar, a fruit-room may be formed above the surface, with thick or hollow walls, and 
 double doors, windows, and roofs. The size for a fruit-cellai*, on a farm of even consider- 
 able extent, need seldom be more than an area of ten feet on a side, and seven feet high. 
 
 718. Cellars for Liquors, including ale, beer, cider, wine, and spirits, are essential to 
 every farm house. In even the smallest there ought to be one cellar for beer, empty 
 casks, brewing utensils, &c. ; and another, opening out of it, for ale, wines, and spirits. 
 The area of the former, in the smallest farm house, should not be less than twelve feet by 
 twelve feet ; nor that of the latter less than six feet by eight feet. The beer-cellar, and 
 that part of the wine-cellar which is to contain ale, should have brick or stone benches 
 or shelves built solid, or on arches or piers about two feet high, on which to place casks, 
 for the greater convenience of di-awing off their contents. That part of the inner cellar 
 which is to contain wine should be fitted up with cells, or bins, one above another, oi 
 about two feet broad, and the same height, and of any convenient depth, provided it be 
 a multiple of the height of a common wine bottle. A part of the wine-cellar should be 
 fitted up with stone shelves, for spirits or other liquors, and for various articles which are 
 best preserved in the temperature of a cellar. 
 
 719. The Larder and Pantry are conveniently placed near each other, and close to 
 the kitchen. Both ought to face the north ; and the former more especially ought to 
 be thoroughly ventilated, by openings near the floor on one side, generally in the lower 
 part of the door, and near the ceiling, generally in the outer wall, on the other. Both 
 larder and pantry should be fitted up with shelves and hooks ; and the larder may have a 
 wooden grating or cradle, called a rack, three or four feet wide, about one foot deep, and 
 of any convenient length, suspended from the roof, for the purpose of holding bacon. In 
 old farm houses these racks are generally placed in the kitchen, but in very large 
 establishments, or where bacon forms the principal animal food of the labourers, as it 
 does in the midland counties of England, there is often a separate room fitted up with 
 racks and shelves, set apart for keeping it. 
 
 720. A Salting-Room is necessaiy in every house where the farmer occasionally kills 
 his own meat. The effluvia from this room being both disagreeable and deleterious, it 
 should, when convenient, form one of a detached group of buildings. In small establish- 
 ments, or where only a part of the meat used is killed at home, an airy cellar, facing the 
 north, may be employed. The room should be fitted up with strong benches for cutting 
 up the meat, and salting it on ; and fixed long shallow troughs, generally lined with lead, 
 for holding the sides of bacon, &c., while in pickle. These troughs should be provided 
 
358 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 with cocks, or holes with plugs, at the bottom, for the purpose of drawing off the brine, 
 and cleaning them ; the brine, when boiled and skimmed, being fit for use several times. 
 Smaller troughs, or round earthenware pans, are generally employed for holding tongues, 
 pieces of beef, and other smaller articles ; and the whole should be carefully provided with 
 the means for being kept clean, by having pipes of water conducted into it, and the floor 
 arranged so as to have a gradual inclination towards a corner, having a trap and di*ain. 
 
 721. The Coal-house and the Wood-house should always be adjoining the kitchen or 
 back kitchen, and both should be perfectly dry ; since whatever moisture is added to fuel, 
 beyond what it contains in combination, must be driven off before combustion can take 
 place ; and this must always occasion a certain loss of heat. Both places ought to be of 
 considerable size, because in well regulated farms there are only certain periods of the 
 year when the farmer finds he has leisure to bring fuel from a distance, and to store it 
 up : he will also by the same means be enabled to take advantage of a temporary 
 depression in the fuel market. 
 
 722. A Tank, or a Well for Water, is essential to every farm house, independently 
 of the provision of water for the farm-yard ; but we have akeady sufficiently enlarged on 
 this subject in § 30 and § 151 ; and the subject of supplying water to the farm-yard will 
 occur hereafter. 
 
 723. A Place for brushing Clothes, and cleaning Knives and Shoes, 8fc., should form 
 part of the arrangement of every farm house ; and as this is necessarily a place where 
 much dust and dirt are generated, it should be kept apart from the house, and especially 
 from the back kitchen, which is too generally made use of for these purposes. As a mere 
 open shed, which every countryman may erect for himself, will suffice for a cleaning 
 place, there can be no sufficient excuse for not having one adjoining every farm house ; 
 and, indeed, every labourer's cottage or human dwelling whatever. Conveniences of this 
 sort, which are within the reach of every one, and which may be obtained rather by 
 thought and contrivance than by expending any considerable sum of money, are indeed 
 some of the distinguishing marks of a high state of civilisation and refinement. A savage 
 is satisfied with mere food and shelter ; and, if he pretends to more, takes delight in showy 
 or gaudy ornaments ; but the man whose mind has been enlightened by education prefers 
 simplicity in decoration, and only employs his leisure time and money in contrivances to 
 lessen human labour, and obtain the greatest possible proportion of comfort which his 
 opportunities will permit. Ample apartments and sumptuous furniture can be obtained 
 but by few, and, as they contribute little to happiness, are not worthy of becoming objects 
 of ambition to any rational being ; but a clean, comfortable, and well arranged home is an 
 essential ingredient in human happiness, and, as such, ought to be sought after and 
 obtained by every one. Cleanliness is also essential to health ; and this blessing, so 
 desirable in every condition of life, is particularly so to a labouring man, as without it 
 he cannot perform his daily toil. 
 
 724. The Wash-house, Bakehouse, and Brewhouse, in small farms, are commonly all 
 united in the back kitchen ; but in extensive establishments they, together with the 
 laundi-y, dairy, cheese-room, cider-house, salting-room, and smoking or curing room, 
 should be in a building or buildings apart from the house, but connected with it by a 
 covered way. 
 
 725. The Wash-house should be well lighted ; and therefore, if united with other 
 offices, it should, if practicable, be made a corner building, and have windows on two 
 sides. Instead of portable round tubs, which, as noticed in the preceding Book, are the 
 most inconvenient of all the forms that could be devised for washing by hand, oblong 
 troughs, about three feet in length, eighteen inches wide at top, one foot wide at bottom, 
 and eighteen inches deep, should be fixed round the two lighted sides of the room. Each 
 trough should have a hole and stopper in the bottom ; and close under these holes should 
 be a gutter, common to all the troughs, which may convey away the waste water to the 
 manure tank. In one corner or side of the room the boiler should be placed ; and over 
 it a supply pipe from a cold-water cistern. Pipes may be conducted from both the cold- 
 water cistern and the boiler, so as to deliver, on turning cocks, cold or hot water, at 
 pleasure, into each trough. The main part of the washing, however, we should propose 
 in all cases to be done by a washing-machine, of which we shall hereafter give an 
 improved Design ; and this, with a pressing or wringing machine hereafter, may be 
 woi-ked by a horse or steam power, which may also be applied in churning and other 
 operations, to be carried on in this department of the farm offices. The floor of every 
 washing-house ought to be very carefully paved, with an inclination of an inch in a yard 
 towards one corner, in which there ought to be a trap drain leading to the manure tank. 
 This inclination, which will hardly be perceptible to the eye, or recognised in standing or 
 walking, will yet be most useful, by directing all the water, which must be occasionally 
 spilt on the floor, to the point where it will be carried off. Close under the ceiling there 
 ought to be several openings communicating with the open air, to carry off the steam, and 
 
MODEL DESIGNS FOR FARM HOUSES. 
 
 359 
 
 in the bottom of the door there ought to be correspondent openings to admit fresh air : 
 both openings ought to have shutters sliding in horizontal grooves, with hooks in them, 
 so as to admit of their being easily drawn back, or pushed forward. 
 
 726. The Laundry, the business of which in small dwellings is generally performed in 
 the kitchen, may be very conveniently placed over the wash-house ; and, like it, should 
 have windows on two sides, and ventilators under the ceiling, and in the bottoms of the 
 doors. Against the two lighted sides, tables or flaps for ironing on may be fixed ; and in 
 the comer behind, directly over the boiler, may be placed a drying-closet ; which may be 
 partly heated by the flue from the boiler, and partly by the requisite ironing-stoves, or by 
 a steam-pipe. If the laundry should be placed on the same floor with the wash-house, it 
 should adjoin it, so that the back of the boiler fire may heat the drying-closet. In this 
 closet the clothes may be dried by the arrangement described § 306. Where a drying- 
 closet is not used, the clothes may be dried, as is usually done, in the open ironing-room, 
 either on common clothes horses, or on rails suspended from the ceiling by ropes and 
 pulleys, so as to be raised or lowered at pleasure ; or by lines stretched across the room, 
 which may also be raised or lowered by means of pulleys. The last mode may be very 
 completely effected by having the pulleys to work in vertical grooves, or in hollow rods 
 similar to that invented by Mr. Vokins for hanging pictures, to be hereafter described. 
 The mangle may stand in the middle of the room, or on the dark side not occupied by 
 the drying-closet. 
 
 727. The Bakehouse should be close to the wash-house, in order that their united 
 flues, with those of the dairy, scullery, and the brewhouse, may form one stack. The 
 bakehouse may have light on one side only. The oven should be lined with fire-bricks ; 
 and immediately without its iron door there should be a grating over an ash-pit, for the 
 reception of the ashes when it is cleared out. Height in an oven is of no use, but rather 
 tends to bake the bread unequally : eighteen inches will generally be found sufficient foF 
 private ovens, and the length and width need not be more than three or four feet. 
 Against the light side of the bakehouse should be placed a flap or table, for making up 
 the loaves on, with a kneading-trough close to it ; and near the kneading-trough should 
 be a flour chest or cask. If a kneading machine be employed, which for large families 
 ought always to be the case, not only from the saving of labour, but from the greater 
 certainty of cleanliness, and the more thorough working of the dough, it should take the 
 place of the kneading-trough. In the largest private establishments it may also be found 
 worth while to construct the oven on Hicks's plan, so as to be able to condense the 
 spirituous vapour produced from the dough while baking. The plan will be found de- 
 tailed at length in the Repertory of Arts, new series, and in Mech. Mag. vol. xiv. p. 417. 
 
 728. The Brewhouse, for the reasons before given, should adjoin the wash-house and 
 the bakehouse. It should occupy two floors, in order that the malt may be placed in 
 the upper floor, and be conveniently put through a shoot into the boiler, which should 
 be near the ceiling of the lower room, to allow of the liquor or wort being conducted 
 from its bottom by pipes or tubes to the coolers, which again should be sufficiently raised 
 from the ground floor to allow of casks being placed under them, so as to be fiUed without 
 trouble ; or, where it is practicable, a small pipe may be conducted at once from the 
 coolers to the beer-cellar in the house. Where the cellar is under the brewhouse, which, 
 however, is seldom desirable when the latter is detached from the farm house, the same 
 arrangement may be adopted as that mentioned § 498. 
 
 729. Tlie Dairy is one of the most important of farm-house oflices, and yet it is seldom 
 properly constructed. The desiderata are, equality of temperature during every season 
 of the year ; and frequent renewal of the air, so as to have it perfectly fresh and sweet. 
 Equality of temperature is easiest obtained when the dairy is under ground ; but in this 
 case the ventilation is insufficient to supply the other desideratum. Where the dairy is 
 in a detached building, a compromise between a cellar and a room above the level of the 
 ground may be formed by sinking the dairy two or three feet, a?jd covering the outside 
 of the walls and the roof very thickly with thatch ; or by forming the walls hollow, and 
 raising against them a bank of earth covered with turf. One of the most complete 
 modes is, to form the walls hollow, and to throw over the room two or three arches of 
 masonry, one above the other, covering the whole with a mound of earth, like that of an 
 ice-house, but with proper windows for light and ventilation, protected from the covering 
 mound by projecting side walls, with lintels or arches over them of corresponding depth. 
 The windows, in this and in every case, should face the north, or north-north-east, or 
 north-north-west, and should be double ; the outer window fixed and of wirecloth, and 
 the inner one of glass and to open. There should also be double doors, and the space 
 between them should not be less than three or four feet. In both doors there should be 
 panels of wirecloth, to exclude the flies, and yet admit the air. In the most severe 
 weather of winter, the wirecloth of both doors and windows may require to be protected 
 by temporary shutters of either mats or boards. 
 
360 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE, 
 
 730. WJiere the dairy is connected with a group of other farm-house offices, including 
 the dairy scullery, cheese-room, cheesepress-room, &c., it may occupy the north angle, 
 or part of the north side of a square mass of building. The walls should in this case 
 also be double, and the windows should be treble ; the outer one of wirecloth, and the 
 two inner ones of glass. There should be double doors, and care should be taken that 
 one should always be closed before the other was opened, and that neither should ever 
 be left open for more than a few minutes at a time. To compensate for all inequalities 
 of temperature, there should be a power of introducing a stream of water to run through 
 the dairy, or spring water from a well, tank, or spring, so as to cover the whole of the 
 floor, or to sprinkle it and the shelves, at pleasure, and thus reduce the temperature of 
 the air in summer, or raise it in winter. To do this more rapidly, part of the floor may 
 be perforated, and from each small hole a jet of water may be contrived to rise, on turning 
 a cock ; or perforated pipes may pass under the dairy shelves, and under the middle 
 part of the ceiling ; and from these there may be a power of producing an artificial 
 shower to raise or lower the temperature at once. The process of introducing water in 
 this way, either from the floor or from the ceiling, may seem at first intricate and ex- 
 pensive ; but whoever has seen it done in Messrs. Loddiges's palm-house will allow that 
 it is neither. We shall give some details hereafter, when speaking of fountains for villas. 
 Common lead pipes, of half an inch in diameter, may be used ; and the perforations may 
 be made with a stout sewing needle. The only matter of expense is the tank, or cistern 
 of water, which should be so placed as to maintain the same temperature throughout the 
 year ; and at the same time be above the level of the dairy ceiling, so as to give due 
 force to the delivering pipes. If, however, the dairy be properly constructed, and a 
 power contrived for flooding its floor with water (and, if no permanent jet can be made, 
 this may be done by a common watering-pot), the two grand desiderata may in every 
 case be certainly and economically obtained. The floor should be accurately paved, and 
 should slope to a trap drain in the corner, as before directed for the washing-house. The 
 shelves and benches should be formed of thin flag-stones, or slates, or of wood covered 
 with lead ; the walls and ceiling should be plastered with cement, or coated with a firm- 
 setting mortar, or should be inlaid with glazed tiles. The milk-pans are better portable 
 than fixed ; because, if fixed, they must be scalded in the dairy ; and hot water should 
 never be introduced into it, in summer at least, on account of its raising the temperature. 
 Even milk directly from the cow should be allowed to stand to cool in the dairy scullery, 
 before it is taken into the dairy ; because its temperature, when in large quantities, either 
 in summer or winter, would soon raise that of the apartment. A thermometer should 
 be kept in the dairy, and the temperature should be never allowed to fall below 50", or 
 rise above 55° ; experience proving that most cream is thrown up by milk in a medium 
 between these degrees. If at any time in winter the temperature of the dairy should 
 fall too low, vessels of hot water may be carried in and set down on the floor, or the milk, 
 in such a case, may be sent in direct from the cow. No articles of food, but milk, cream, 
 and fresh butter, should ever be kept in a dairy ; nor, as Waistell tells us, should any 
 thing that has a strong scent, even though it may be sweet, be placed in or near 
 it. " Bad scents," he says, " greatly lessen the product of butter dairies, by preventing 
 the complete separation of the cream from the milk." It is also certain that raw meat, 
 if kept in a dairy, has such an effect upon the cream as to prevent the butter produced 
 from it from keeping. This, and the facts stated by Waistell, it is difficult to account 
 for, but not more so than others equally well ascertained ; such as the influence which 
 the leaves of certain milky-juiced trees, such as the papaw tree and the fig for example, 
 have in intenerating frpsh meat. 
 
 731. The Dairy Scullery should be near the dairy, though not immediately adjoining 
 it : it should have a boiler for heating water, and two underground pipes with traps ; 
 one for foul water, communicating with the liquid manure tank, and the other for waste 
 milk, communicating with the pigs' food tank. From the latter pipe there may also be 
 a communication with the dairy ; because it may sometimes be advisable to empty out 
 milk there, without bringing it into the dairy scullery. The churning may be carried 
 on in the dairy scullery ; for which purpose, on a large farm, provision ought to be made 
 for the introduction of a shaft from a horse or a steam power for working the churn. 
 There ought to be fixed benches and movable forms, for setting milk-pans and other 
 dairy utensils on ; and a portable rack with a wheel and two feet like a wheelbarrow, for 
 draining the pans and pails, and wheeling them out to a shed to dry. Figs. 741 to 746 
 show a Design for a double dairy, which will keep the produce at a proper temperature, 
 in whatever climate it may be built. It may also, with very little alteration, be partly 
 or chiefly used as an ice-house, or as a wine or ale cellar. We shall first describe it as 
 a dairy. Fig. 741 is the ground-plan, in which a is an outer room, for airing and 
 drying the utensils, or for drying cheese ; being warmed by an open fireplace at b, and 
 lighted and ventilated by two windows, cc, beneath which are two elevated sinks, dd. 
 
MODEL DESIGNS FOR FARM HOUSES. 36l 
 
 741 
 
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 k 
 
 J. 
 
 a 
 
 
 k 
 
 
 
 II 
 
 
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 U 
 
 J 
 
 ^=3'- 
 
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 . J 
 
 J ■ 
 
 w 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 I- 
 
 r 
 
 k 
 
 1 
 
 c. 
 
 k 
 
 
 h+H+H+h) ! \ 
 
 Ft. 10 0 10 20 Ft. 
 
 close to one of which is a Siebe's pump, from a well or tank common to the whole dairy. 
 It will be observed, by the five steps at e, that the floor of this building is three feet below 
 the common surface of the soil. The room marked / is the dairy scullery ; in which 
 may be observed a boiler, two windows, two sinks close to one of which is a Siebe's 
 pump, and five steps at the entrance door. In this room the dairy utensils are to be 
 washed; and churning may be performed, if it should be a butter dairy ; or cheeses pressed, 
 if the object should be cheese-making. In both these rooms there should be traps to a 
 common drain ; and from one of the sinks in each room a bell trap communicating with 
 the pig's food tank, unless the piggery should be at such a distance as to render it more 
 economical to convey the milk thither in wheelbarrow tubs. The two milk rooms, g g, 
 are to the right and left of the lobby or drying-room ; and these are surrounded by 
 slate or thin stone shelves two feet broad, with smaller shelves beneath them eighteen 
 inches broad, indicated in the section, fig. 742. Each range of shelves has two small 
 
 742 
 
 sinks, at the two corners next the lobby and scullery : one of these sinks is for waste 
 milk for the pigs, and the other, which has a Siebe's pump close beside it, for waste 
 water. It is to be observed that we mention Siebe's pump, because it goes into less bulk 
 than any other ; and, indeed, when the handle is taken off, and an escutcheon put over 
 the keyhole, no appearance whatever of a pump is discernible. These pumps are also 
 worked in much less space than any other. In the centre of the floor of each of these 
 milk-rooms is a small circular basin, and under the shelves in each is a trap to a diain. 
 There are skylights directly over the two circular basins, which are seen in the section 
 fig. 742, at h h. These are covered with glass cases, which project and are open at the 
 eaves ; and under these are other glass cases, i i, which are lifted out during summer, but 
 put m again during winter for the purpose of retaining heat : below these cases are wiie- 
 cloth frames, which remain on always, in order to exclude the flies. There are three 
 windows, kkk,in the side waUs of these milk-rooms, with three frames, shown both in 
 the plan, fig. 741, and in the section, fig. 742. The outer frames of these windows are 
 failed in with wirecloth, and fixed ; the two inner frames with glass, each in two vertical 
 divisions, hinged, so as to admit or exclude air at pleasure. There are double doors to 
 each of the rooms, one of which is chiefly of wu-ecloth, and the other of wood, so that 
 ventUation may be allowed to take place from or to the drying-room, a, as may be 
 required to warm or cool the milk-room. It wiU be observed that the milk-room is 
 surrounded by double walls ; and by the section fig. 742 it will be seen that the whole 
 is covered with a mound of earth, which necessarily produces the long tubular openings 
 to the side-wall windows,^ A, so favourable for producing currents of air during the warm 
 season, and for tempering the frosty air during winter. Fig. 743 is a cross section, 
 
36^2 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 743 
 
 in which 1 1 represents the ground's surface, m the top of the upper milk shelves, and n 
 the skylight. It may be observed that, 
 instead of employing glass and wirecloth 
 frames for these skylights, vessels of water 
 with glass bottoms might be introduced ; 
 which, while they admitted light, would 
 exclude heat in summer and cold in 
 winter ; and they might be rendered 
 further useful, by having openings in their 
 bottoms, to be regulated by cocks within 
 the dairy, so as to allow water to drop down 
 on the basin below, whenever it was de- 
 sirable to increase the coolness of the tem- 
 perature. The vessel might be covered above with a skylight, and supplied either by 
 the Siebe's pump within the dairy, or by a pipe and ball-cock from some exterior source. 
 The water might contain gold and silver fish. The glass might be stained, as might 
 that of the side windows ; and, instead of a small circular basin in the centre, there 
 might be a deep well for containing very cold water. — "We shall now describe this 
 building as two ice-houses with a dairy between. The shelves of the milk-rooms 
 should be removed, and the windows closed up entirely ; and, instead of a skylight 
 at top, there should be three flag-stones substituted for the frames containing the upper 
 skylight, the under skylight, and the haircloth, and resting on the same ledges on 
 which they rest. There are three offsets or ledges, shown at h i, in the section fig. 742, 
 for this purpose. The object of leaving these openings in the ceiling is to put in the 
 ice ; and this being done, and the flag-stones replaced, the space between them should be 
 filled in with barley straw. The traps to the drains before mentioned will serve as 
 conduits for such water as may be produced by the thawing of the ice ; the well in the 
 centre will also hold a part of this water, which will be valuable for its coolness even 
 after the ice is gone. The spaces o o, 
 between the doors, must be kept constantly 
 filled with straw cushions. The room a may 
 be fitted up with shelves as a dairy, the 
 chimney being turned into a ventilator; and 
 the room / may remain a dairy scullery, as 
 at present. For a wine or beer cellar this 
 building is admirably contrived, whether for 
 a very warm or a very cold climate. The 
 wine or ale may be kept bottled in bins, or 
 
 in casks on benches, in the milk-rooms ; and it may be supplied to customers in the room 
 a, while the cleaning operations go on, and the attendants wait, in the room f. Wine and 
 
 ale cellars of this description are little known in Britain, though there used to be a wine- 
 cellar for draught wine near old London Bridge ; but in Germany they are frequently to 
 be met with. There i? a very large one at Munich, covered with an immense cone of 
 
 earth, in which ale is kept and di'unk at the same temperature both in the hottest sum- 
 mers and the severest winters of that climate of the most opposite extremes. There is an 
 excellent one at Silberberg, near Stuttgardt, both for ale and wine ; and there are nume- 
 
MODEL DESIGNS FOR FARM HOUSES. 
 
 363 
 
 rous others in the neighbourhood of Vienna, which no doubt are familiar to many of our 
 readers. By a third arrangement, one of the milk-rooms might be made a dairy ; the 
 other milk-room a wine and ale cellar, and the lobby a drinking-room. The appearance 
 of such a construction, to whatever use it may be appKed, when covered with green turf, 
 need not be disagreeable ; we have given the architectural parts something of an Egyptian 
 character, as maybe seen in the elevation of the end, fig. 744 ; of one side, fig. 745 ; and 
 in the perspective view, fig. 746. 
 
 732. The Cheesepress-room may be very properly placed between the dairy and the 
 dairy scullery. It should be surrounded by shelves, and the presses may stand in the 
 middle of the floor. The shelves should be grooved across, with a small gutter suspended 
 in front, to collect from the grooves the whey which runs from new cheeses, for a day or 
 two after they are taken out of the press, and before they are carried up into the cheese- 
 room. These gutters may deliver their contents into one upright pipe, communicating 
 with the pig tank. As a good deal of whey wiU also run from the cheeses while in the 
 presses, grooves may also be formed along the floor communicating with the same pipe. 
 
 733. TJie Cheese-room may be over the cheesepress-room, the dairy, and dairy scullery. 
 There should be windows on opposite sides of this room, for thorough ventilation ; and 
 these windows should have outside wire shutters, to exclude flies and vermin, and yet 
 admit a free circulation of air. The best position for the shelves is in the middle of the 
 room, so that the cheese may have air on all sides. The shelves should be of the breadth 
 of the cheese intended to be made, and should be perfectly smooth and level. They may 
 be supported from the floor, or, if danger from mice be anticipated, suspended from the 
 ceiling by iron rods. 
 
 734. A Dryiny-shed is a useful appendage to the back kitchen, dairy scullery, wash- 
 house, and even brewery. It is useftil not only for drying every description of wooden 
 vessel, but even clothes, leaves, such as those of tobacco, ears of maize, garden seeds, &c. 
 In old English farm-houses, the penthouse, or far-projecting eaves, supplied the place of 
 this appendage ; and in Switzerland the galleries answer the same purpose ; but 
 Waistell, by far the best British writer on farm buildings, as Morel- Vinde is by far the 
 best of the French writers on the same subject, recommends that a drying-shed should 
 be built on pui-pose. We are decidedly of the same opinion, unless verandas connecting 
 the different parts of f^rm offices, and forming covered passages between them, can be 
 made to serve the same end. 
 
 735. The Cider-house, on a small farm, where cider is not made for sale, may be 
 dispensed with, and the apples ground in the churning-room, or in any room or shed 
 where steam or horse power can be applied to turning the grinding rollers. On large 
 cider farms, the cider-house requires to be of considerable size, for holding the fruit before 
 and after it is ground, and for holding the rollers or mill for grinding it, and the press. 
 In Worcestershire the dimensions of the best cider-sheds are twenty-four feet in length 
 by twenty in breadth. The rollers are turned by horse power, communicated by a gin 
 wheel operating on a pinion on the end of a horizontal shaft, in a similar manner to what 
 takes place in a horse churning or washing machine. The cider-house is occasionally open 
 on one or more sides, and the liquor, after being expressed from the pulp, is carried in 
 pails to the cider-cellai-, which is commonly under the dwelling-house ; but a better 
 mode would be, to have a cellar under the cider-house, and to let down the liquor into 
 the casks by pipes, in the manner suggested for the brewery, § 728. The floor ought to 
 have an inclination to a trap at one corner, in order that it may be easily washed ; and 
 this trap ought to communicate with the manure tank. A second trap and pipe should 
 lead to the pig's food tank, to poiu* down it such liquor as may not be fit for putting in 
 the casks. 
 
 736. An Ice-house for a farm house may be considered a superfluous appendage in 
 Britain, but it is common on the farms in America, and therefore its construction deserves 
 a place in this work. There are various descriptions of farms in Britain, particularly 
 those belonging to public-houses and inns, to which an ice-house would be a most desir- 
 able appendage ; not only as affording the means of preparing ices, cooling wine, &c., 
 but as supplying a place for preserving fish, meat, fruit, and vegetables fresh, much longer 
 than can be done by any other means. The simplest mode of keeping ice is by envelop- 
 ing it in an immense body of loose straw above the surface. For this purpose, the first 
 operation is to form the surface of the ground into a flattened cone, for the sake of drainage 
 when the ice happens to melt ; next, put on a layer of faggots, and straw a foot or more 
 in thickness; then lay on the ice, in a conical mass, the larger the better, and cover it 
 with straw to the thickness of one foot, and afterwards with faggot wood to the thickness 
 of two feet, for the purpose of preserving a stratum of air above and around it ; lastly, 
 cover the whole with two or three feet of straw, arranged as thatch. The ice will now 
 be surrounded on every side by such a powerful non-conducting medium, that scarcely 
 any heat from the atmosphere will be able to penetrate to it j while whatever portion of 
 
364i COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 it may thaw will find its way off through the under stratum of faggots, without the 
 admission of air. Ice has been kept in large quantities in this manner both in England 
 and America, throughout the year. The best situation for such an ice stack is under 
 the shade of trees, or under a shed roof, closed on the south side, and open on the 
 north. 
 
 737. An underground Ice-house may either be a large cellar, with hollow walls, 
 hollow floor, hollow roof, and double doors ; or, it may be a separate structure, in the 
 form of an inverted hollow cone, with a drain and trap at the bottom, and double doors 
 on one side at the top. When a cellar is employed as an ice-house, a proper drain and 
 trap should be provided in the lower floor, for carrying off such water as may be 
 produced by the melting of the ice, without the risk of introducing air. When the 
 ice is about to be put in, the floor and sides of the cellar are thickly coated over with 
 strong wheat straw, or reeds, as a powerful non-conducting medium. Double, treble, or 
 quadruple doors are always requisite to an ice-house of this description, according to the 
 use which is to be made of the space between the doors. Where these spaces are to be 
 used as pantries, four doors are requisite ; and two should never be opened at once. The 
 space between the outer door and the second door should always be kept filled with 
 straw, and that of barley is found better than the stiffer straw of wheat, rye, or oats. 
 The space between the second door and the third should, if possible, be kept filled with 
 straw also ; but the space between the third door and the fourth should be of sufficient 
 width to admit of its being fitted up with shelves, on which the articles to be preserved 
 fresh are to be placed. From time to time, the door of the ice-house may be opened, in 
 order to reduce the temperature of this space, and to freshen the air. In some cases 
 there is a movable shelf or table placed over the ice, immediately within the inner door, 
 as a substitute for the shelves in the passage. When an ice-cellar cannot be formed 
 under or adjoining a dwelling, it may be constructed above ground, even on wet 
 soils, covered with a mound of earth, and that mound further protected by trees, 
 evergreen shrubs, or, what is equal to any thing as a non-conductor, and at any 
 rate far superior to deciduous trees, ivy. The coimnon form of out-door ice-houses, 
 is, as we have before observed, an inverted cone, and the supposed advantage of 
 this form is, that, as part of the ice thaws, the remainder slides down the sides of the 
 cone, and still keeps in one compact body. This is no doubt true ; but the advantage 
 by no means compensates for the difficulty of constructing an ice-house in the conical 
 form. A plain square room, with double side-walls, say a foot apart, a double arch 
 over, and a double floor under, which can be built with the same ease as any common 
 cellar, will, all other circumstances being alike favourable, keep the ice as long as any 
 conical form whatever. Where there is a doubt of being able to exclude the heat, treble 
 walls, roof, and floor may be resorted to ; and the entrance, which should always be 
 three or four yards in length, instead of being straight, may be made crooked, with a 
 door at each turn. The space between at least two of the doors should always be filled 
 with straw ; and, to render the removal of this straw easy, when passing from the outer 
 door to the ice-house, it might be put into two or more canvass bags, like inunense 
 cushions, which might be hooked to the ceiling and the sides, so as to close up every 
 interstice. The space between the second and third doors may always be widened, and 
 fitted up, as before described, with shelves for holding articles which require to be kept 
 cool, but not to the same degree as if they were placed in the ice-house. It ought 
 always to be recollected that any perfectly dry cellar may be made an ice-house, by 
 employing faggots as well as straw, in the manner we have described as proper for 
 preserving a stack of ice above ground. The French preserve ice in frames of wood- 
 work suspended in cellars or pits, in the form of inverted cones, surrounding the whole 
 with a thick covering of straw. Both the French and Italians also form ice-houses in 
 dry, chalky, or calcareous soils, deep under ground, where neither drains nor straw 
 are necessary, with the exception of as much of the latter as will close up a long 
 circuitous opening. In England, many persons are deterred from forming an ice-house, 
 by the idea that the form of an inverted cone is essentially necessary to it ; that it 
 must be under ground ; and that ice is only useful for making ice-creams and cooling 
 wines : but an ice-house may be made any where ; and, as a place for preserving meat, 
 fish, fruit, and vegetables, there is not a more useful appendage to a country house. 
 Fig. 747 is a section, and fig. 748 a ground plan, of an ice-house on the inverted 
 cone principle, but of an improved construction. This form, as usually employed 
 in English country seats, very frequently fails in keeping the ice, from not having 
 double walls, and double or treble doors, or from imperfect drainage ; but the plan 
 now submitted is free from these defects, and will keep ice throughout the year, in 
 any climate, if covered with a sufficient thickness of earth or straw. In this Design, 
 a is the well or cellar for the ice ; b, a drain from its bottom, for can ying off such 
 water as may be produced by the gradual thawing of the ice ; c, a trap in this drain, to 
 
MODEL DESIGNS FOR FARM HOUSES. 
 
 365 
 
 prevent the external air from communicating with that of the ice-house ; and d, a lead pipe 
 from this trap, connected with one 747 
 of Siebe's rotatory pumps at e. 
 The object of this pump is to allow 
 of making use, during the heat 
 of summer, of the very cold water 
 produced by the thawing of the 
 ice, either for cooling wines, or, 
 after filtering it, for drinking. 
 There are five doors to this ice- 
 house, at /, ff, h, i, and k ; and a 
 vacuity, I, one foot wide, between 
 the two walls, surrounding the 
 cellar, and covering the inner 
 division of the passage, m. This 
 passage may be fitted up with 
 shelves, as a place for keeping ve- 
 748 
 
 getables, and various other articles of food (raw or cooked), fresh during summer. 
 The natural level of the ground is shown at 71 n ; and the whole supersti-ucture 
 may be covered, in Britain, to the depth of two or three feet with earth, planted 
 with ivy, and surrounded with trees. In warmer climates the depth of earth ought 
 to be increased to eight or ten feet. The size of the well ought also to be enlarged, 
 and it might be well to have even a third vacuity round it. The space between 
 the doors i and k sliould be filled up by a barley-straw cushion, and it would be well 
 to have similar cushions against the doors ff and h, at least during summer. The two 
 recesses, o and p, are here shown only two feet in depth ; but, by making the walls 
 behind them of brick, that depth may be increased at pleasure. It may also be observed, 
 that, in situations where brick is cheaper than stone, all the walls in this Design 
 may be built, in Dearn's manner, hollow ; and that the side walls of the ice-well need not 
 be more than the length of a brick in thickness, the one wall being tied into the 
 other. It may be further observed, that, if it should be inconvenient to cover the 
 building with earth, a covering of straw or reeds, or even planting ivy against the 
 outside walls, and surrounding the whole with a few trees, will be equally efficient in 
 keeping out the heat. If trees cannot be planted, on account of the soil, or of shutting 
 out any view, a slight roof elevated on props of any sort will have the same effect. 
 One of the most effective ice-houses which we have ever seen was covered in this 
 manner, by a wire trellis and Ayrshire roses, mixed with honeysuckles, clematis, and 
 Virginian creeper. Ice-houses, we are persuaded, would become much more general, 
 were country gentlemen fully aware of the fact, that they might be built square just as 
 well as round, and be equally effective at less expense, above the surface than under it. 
 A square ice-house above ground, or sunk three feet into it, may have treble hollow floors 
 formed of bricks on edge, covered with foot tiles or flag-stones ; and its side walls may 
 be treble also, of brick on edge, in Silverlock's manner. To form the roof, a nine-inch 
 semicircular arch may be first thrown on these walls, and on this arch three vacuities 
 built of bricks on edge and tiles : there may be five doors, as in fig. 748 ; and the whole 
 may be covered with a cone of earth, or thatch, four feet thick, and clothed with giant ivy. 
 In filling an ice-house, the ice, being collected and laid down outside of the exterior 
 door, is there broken into small pieces, and reduced to a powder composed of particles 
 not larger than those of sand or salt. It is then carried into the house and thrown 
 down into the ice-well, in which a man is placed with a rammer to beat, and ram it 
 closely; occasionally sprinkling it with a little water to consolidate the whole. An 
 improved method consists in using water saturated with salt, by dissolving ten pounds of 
 salt in ten gallons of cold water, and pouring it on the ice through a common garden 
 watering pot every two feet of thickness, as the house is filling, and finishing with a 
 double quantity of the salt water. " The ice, in houses filled in this manner, will be 
 
366 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 found, when opened in summer, to be as firm as a rock, and to require, at all times, the 
 force of a pickaxe to break it up. Thus prepared it will be found to keep three times 
 as long as by the common method in the house, and it will also keep three times as long 
 when exposed to the air, from salt water, and consequently salted ice, having a less 
 capacity for heat than fresh water, or fresh ice." (Card. Mag., vol. iii. p. 139.) 
 
 738. A very cool Place for the Preservation of Meat, Butter, Vegetables, Sj-c, might be 
 formed as follows : — Construct a frame of wooden or iron rods, in the form of a cone, or 
 in any convenient form, and raise it from the ground on pUlars between two and three 
 feet high ; form a door of wirecloth on one side, and one or two openings as windows, 
 also filled in with wirecloth, on the other. Cover the whole, except the doors and 
 windows, with a coating of cement, and form a double floor of boards. The result will 
 now be a conical bottle of cement, with three wire openings in the sides. Place on the 
 summit of the cone a vessel of water, or conduct a pipe of water there, and allow it to 
 trickle down the sides of the cone, and the greater the heat of the weather, the cooler 
 will the area be made within, by the heat carried off by evaporation. Perhaps it would 
 be better to form the cone over a pit or well, and without any openings in its sides ; 
 entering under ground to the pit or well, in which the heavier articles might be put, 
 while the lighter ones were placed on shelves suspended from tlie roof. In an airy 
 situation, in the shade, it is presumed the temperature, through the continued evaporation 
 of the water, would be kept suflficiently low for every purpose that could be required 
 from an ice-house pantry. Perhaps the water might be conducted more regularly from 
 the apex to the base of the cone, by forming round it a screw gutter, something like the 
 rings of a straw beehive. 
 
 739. A Boom for smoking Hams and other dried Provisions is, in some countries, 
 particularly in Germany and Sweden, a general appendage to a country house or a large 
 farm. It is usually built of stone or earth, and placed apart from other buildings. It 
 may be a square room, ten feet on the sides, and ten feet high, open to the roof ; and 
 it may have iron ceiling joists, at about two feet apart, in both sides of which hooks 
 are fixed for suspending the articles to be smoked. The smoke is generally allowed 
 to escape through crevices in the roof, or through chimneys or apertures formed of 
 slates, or thin stones, placed like lufFer-boarding ; but, in an improved construction, 
 air-hole tiles, like that shown in fig. 434, or central luflfer-boarded chimneys which 
 admit of regulation, like those of stables, to be afterwards described, would be an 
 admirable substitute ; because, while they admitted the escape of smoke, they would 
 exclude the entrance of rain. In Germany, not only bacon, beef, and mutton hams 
 are smoked in houses of this kind, both as a means of preservation, and to communi- 
 cate a flavour ; but venison, geese, ducks, salmon, cod, haddock, eels, herrings, &c., 
 are so cured. The preserving principle is the pyroligneous acid, which being purer in 
 wood than in coal, the former is always employed. The flavour depends upon the kind 
 of wood used : that most esteemed is communicated by the juniper, with which the 
 Westphalian hams and the Embden geese are smoked. The wood most generally next 
 in use is the beech ; but in Sweden and in Pomerania the spruce fir is often used, either 
 alone or in mixture with the birch. In Hampshire, and other counties, where much 
 bacon is smoked, the kiln is egg-shaped, with a door in one side, and a covered chimney 
 on the narrow end : the hams are suspended from hooks in the roof, and a smothered 
 fire of sawdust is kept up on the floor, by throwing on successive handfuls of sawdust. 
 The sawdust of hard wood, such as oak, ash, beech, &c., is preferred to that of resinous 
 trees. In Cambridgeshire, and other parts of England, hams and bacon are frequently 
 smoked by hanging them in a wide kitchen chimney, and making a fire of sawdust on the 
 hearth ; and, in the north of Scotland, gentlemen often send their bacon or mutton hams, 
 wrapped in paper, or coated in sawdust, to their tenants, to be hung up in their wide 
 kitchen chimneys where peat is burned below. In the neighbourhood of Aberdeen, and 
 in various places in the north of Scotland, haddocks are strung up on rods called spits, 
 and suspended in wide chimneys, under which peat and sea-weed are burned, and some- 
 times fir; though the flavour of the sea- weed and peat is greatly preferred. Red herrings 
 are strung by the gills on wooden spits, and these spits are suspended in rows above each 
 other, in a house which is kept filled with the smoke of birch for several weeks. As this 
 process cannot require to be performed more than two or three times a year on a private 
 farm, the same apartment might serve for distillation ; or for smoking willows with 
 sulphur, to bleach them, where basket-making was carried on ; or straw, where hat-making 
 was practised. In the same room, also, articles of carpentry intended for the open air 
 might be either saturated with pyroligneous acid, or actually charred at the ends to be 
 inserted in the ground. The value of the saturation process is evident from the great 
 durability of the timber of the roofs of cottages which have imperfect outlets for the 
 smoke ; many in Scotland, and some in England, might be referred to as examples. 
 
 740. As an Example of the essential Accommodations of a Farm House on a small scale, 
 
MODEL DESIGNS FOR FARM HOUSES. 
 
 367 
 
 and on the most econormcal principle of construction, we may refer to fig. 749. The waUs 
 of this house may be built of rammed earth, or mud, or clay noggfng, or in wharever 
 manner is cneapest and best suited to the particular locality; and, af alf the acc™da 
 tion IS on one floor, the highest of these walls need not be more thL te i feeJ abTe 
 tone or brick foundation The accommodations are, an entrance-porch arfacing tte 
 south-west ; a hall or lobby, h ; kitchen, c ; back-kitchen, d ; place for fuel, e - larder f - 
 
 ce£7'/'d ' '"^'^ ^^^^^"^^ fires, and womenUaL-closet,T ^lea;rbe{; 
 
 ceUar, ^ ; dairy, k; room for potatoes and other roots, I; wine and spirit ceUarT with 
 
 LmilXd"' 'T'"^ dining-room; boys' bed-room, „; ifbby to the t^ e 
 
 r^l'tn'^^^^ " private water-closet,^o; master and i^iistreJs's bed-roJi^^ 
 q ; stranger's bed- 
 room, r ; parlour, 
 s; single men's sleep- 
 ing-room, t (the 
 window of which is 
 also a door, by which 
 they can go out 
 early in the morning 
 without disturbing 
 the family); maid- 
 servant's room, u; 
 dining-room, v ; dry- 
 ing-closet, heated 
 from the back of the 
 kitchen fire, w ; and 
 projection over the 
 oven, X. There is 
 a flue from the oven 
 across the dining- 
 room, going round 
 the parlour, and 
 back again ; which, 
 with the heat from 
 the drying-closet, 
 will, it is calculated, 
 render open fire- 
 places wholly un- 
 necessary, and there 
 fore none are shown. 
 By examining the 
 section, fig. 750, the 
 
 slven felt hi ^ ^ ^''^^^"^ """^ The outside walls are only 
 
 seven teet high, but the capacity of all the rooms is rendered sufficiently ample by raising 
 
 750 
 
 the ceiling, as shown in the section. To admit of raising the ceiling, a chain of purlins, 
 ng. 750, is placed in the direction shown by the dotted line c b d, &c., in fig. 749, and 
 IS carried round the house. These purlins are supported by the cross walls ; and on 
 them, and on the wall surroimding the dining-room, the rafiters, which are of short 
 lengths, find a secure support. From the entrance-door to the door of the dining-roona 
 there is a rise of two feet, effected by an inclined plane ; and there is also a decluiatioii 
 trom the door of the back-kitchen to that of the root-ceUar, also of two feet, by which 
 
368 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 means the fireplace of the oven is sufficiently low to admit of the flue from it passing 
 under the dining-room floor ; or the same purpose may be effected by having a few 
 steps down to the oven furnace. There may be an upright flue from the oven, for use 
 during summer. The stairs down to the wine-cellar are shown with a line across the 
 steps, indicating that it is to be constructed with double treads, in order to gain space, as 
 shown § 164, fig. 137. The windows in the roof are double; the outer sashes being 
 glazed with small panes, to resist hail ; and without cross bars, like hot-house sashes. 
 The inner ones are upright, and hung in the usual manner. A line passed diagonally 
 
 through this house, from the south to the north, should intersect the centre of the farm- 
 yard, which would thus be completely overlooked from every part of the parlour, s, which 
 for that purpose has windows on both sides. Fig. 751 is the elevation of the entrance, 
 
 or south-west front ; fig. 752 that of the sotith-east front ; and fig. 753 is a perspective 
 view. This building might be erected, in the neighbourhood of London, reckoning 
 
 labourers' wages at 18s. a week, and carpenters' at 25s. a week, for £250; and, were 
 there no duty on glass, the sum would be much lower ; because, the floors and waUs being 
 of earth or composition, and the roof of short pieces of timber and thatch, the chief 
 expense is incurred in the doors and windows. 
 
 741. A Farm House with an enlarged degree of Accommodation, but still on the most 
 economical plan, for a country where the cheapest material for the walls is earth, and for 
 covering the roof, thatch, might be formed from the same ground plan, with a story over 
 it. The change in the destination of the apartments shown in fig. 749 may be as 
 follows : — r may be an office, the window serving also as an outside door, for the entrance 
 
MODEL DESIGNS FOR FARM HOUSES. 
 
 369 
 
 of persons on business belonging to the farm; a fruit-room and china-closet, or room 
 for the use of the mistress ; and e., a laundiy. Fig. 754 may be the plan of the bed-J^m 
 
 754 
 
 or garret floor, m which a is the room for female servants, and b that for single men ; 
 a, e, f, and .9 are bed-rooms for members of the family, or for strangers; and A is a 
 lumber-room. The entrance to the two servants' rooms is from the landing of the staircase, 
 in consequence of which they can go down stairs without disturbing the rest of the 
 tamiiy ; and the entrance to all the other bed-rooms is from the gallery, which is pro- 
 jected from the side walls of the dining-room, as sliown in the section fig. 755. Tlie 
 
 gallery, the staircase, and also the dining-room below, may be amply lighted during the 
 y irom the four skyhghts, which lights have double sashes ; viz., outside ones of the same 
 small ''^^^''^^ ^^'^^ ^'^^ ^^^^"^ ^ hot-house, with very 
 
 cnmrr.^^^^^\^^ ^-^^^^'^ described; and inside ones, which are perpendicular, and open like 
 uinmon sash windows. Both sashes may be worked from below by lines and pulleys. 
 door.T '"'l'"^"?^^ the centre of the dining-room will light it, the staircase, and the 
 outer wnn"'"f TV^l ^" evening. For the sake of economy, the 
 
 wans ot the bed-rooms are kept low ; but as they are larger in length and width, 
 
370 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 there will be an ample volume of air in each for health. The whole of this house may 
 be effectually heated by the oven and kitchen fires, without any others. An ironing 
 stove may be placed in the laundry ; for which purpose there may be a flue built in the 
 stack which contains the kitchen flue. In this Design, and the preceding one, it will be 
 observed that there are no passages ; which is a great saving of room. The general 
 appearance of this farm house may be as in fig. 756. 
 
 742. A Model Farm House for a small Farmer has been given by Morel- Vind^, which 
 we consider perfect in its kind, for a country where the chief material of construction is 
 timber of a small size. No piece of wood, in constructing this Design, is longer than ten 
 or twelve feet, or thicker, when squared, than six inches on the side. It is not intended 
 ' that this wood shall be cut out of large trees, but that it shall be squared from young 
 trees or branches ; to the end that, in countries abounding with wood, it shall not cost 
 more than that which is used for fuel. The walls are framed of timber, and the panels 
 filled in, and covered with weather-boarding or plaster, outside, and lath and plaster 
 inside. The cellar floor of this Design, fig. 757, contains two divisions, a bake- 
 
 757 
 
 house, in which there is a stove, c, for heating the apartments above ; an oven, 
 h ; and a supporting post for the parlour floor, k. The cellar has also a supporting 
 post, I, and the entrance to both has six descending steps at o. The use of the 
 two posts, k and I, is to admit of forming all the joists of the floor above of wood not 
 longer than ten or twelve feet. Fig. 758 is the plan of the ground floor, in which may 
 be seen the parlour, a, with a small office, h, and a bed for the master and mistress in a 
 recess, c ; the kitchen with its dresser, i, at one end of which there is a post, k, to support 
 the floor above. In the centre of the building may be seen the stove funnel, /, with 
 three small openings to the two bed-rooms, h h, and to the parlour, a ; one of the bed- 
 rooms containing two beds, d d, for children, and the other two for female servants, e e. 
 In the mid wall may be seen at g the flue from the oven ; and at one end the dairy, m, 
 and the harness and small tool room, n : at the opposite end is a water-closet, p ; and a 
 house for wood and the larp-er farm implements, q. The entrance is by the ascending 
 
MODEL DESIGNS FOR FARM HOUSES. 
 
 759 
 
 steps, r. The plan of the ceiling joists over this floor is represented in fig. 759. Over 
 these joists there is a garret, which may be entered either from a staircase, formed in a 
 porch behind, placed at 0, in fig. 758, 
 and corresponding with that in front ; 
 or by an outside ladder. On the sup- 
 position that it is entered by a ladder 
 in front, its door is represented in the 
 elevation, fig. 760, in which may be 
 seen the two small windows to the bake- 
 house and cellar ; the doors of the 
 harness-room and water-closet in the 
 two wings ; the entrance door of glass, 
 the window to the kitchen, that to the 
 parlour, and that to the cabinet or 
 office. Fig. 761 is a side view, in 
 which the projection of the porch is 
 conspicuous at s, the window of the 
 harness-room is seen at t, and of the 
 dairy at u. Fig. 762 is a longitudinal 
 section, in which the oven is seen at h, 
 with its ash-pit imderneath ; the kitchen 
 fireplace over it at i, the parlour at k, 
 
 the garret at I, the ventilator to the dairy at m, and to the water-closet at n ; and the 
 doors to the two bed-rooms at 0 o. In fig. 763 we have given a perspective view of 
 
 this improved French farm house, varying the form of the chimney-tops ; of the angle 
 brackets of the porch ; adding rails to the outside stair ; giving a Gothic or old Enghsh 
 character to the ventilators ; and placing the whole on a platform. A further improvement 
 
372 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 on the original Design is a glass window as a door to the garret, instead of the boarded 
 one shown in fig. 760. This garret, 
 instead of being entered by a ladder 
 outside, might be got at by a trap- 
 door in the ceiling of the kitchen, 
 with a hanging ladder like that shown 
 in fig. 158, § 179. The area covered 
 by this building is 920 superficial feet; 
 and it would cost, in the neighbour- 
 hood of Paris, £258 : 8s. : 4d. ; but 
 in the departments of France the ex- 
 pense would not be above half that sum. 
 
 743. On the Construction and Ar- 
 rangement of this Design, Morel- 
 Vinde has the following remarks : — 
 The post which, in fig. 758, is shown 
 at k, as proceeding from the kitchen 
 dresser, ma/ be thought to be incon- 
 venient, but it is not found to be so in 
 
 practice ; on the contrary, it serves as a standard to drive hooks or nails into, on which to hang 
 things : at all events, its position there is essential to the solution of the problem of using 
 
 U iS 
 
 no wood in the whole building that is longer than ten or twelve feet. However, where 
 wood is abundant, it might be avoided by substituting over it one strong and long beam, 
 
MODEL DESIGNS FOR FARMERIES. SJg 
 
 instead of two short joists. The privy or water-closet is thus constructed : — A tub, firmly 
 held together by iron hoops, is sunk in the earth to the brim ; and it has two strong hooks 
 which project from each side. Over this tub is placed a portable seat, with a funnel, 
 which descends into the tub, and there is a lid to the opening in the seat. All the soap 
 suds, and other waste water of the house is poured through this funnel. Directly over 
 the tub, in the rafters of the roof, a pulley is fixed ; and, when the tub is full, T>^hich it 
 will be once or twice every week, the portable seat is removed, and the tub is raised up 
 and placed on a wheelbarrow, by means of a cord passed over the pulley. The tub is 
 then wheeled away to two tanks, or small trenches ; into one of which is poured the 
 liquid matter, and into the other the more solid contents. The tub is then washed out 
 and returned to its place ; and the liquid matter is immediately rendered thick by mixing 
 with it powdered lime, chalk, or marl; or, in default of either of these, powdered lime 
 rubbish. This manure is what is called in France urate. The thick matter the farmer 
 allows to dry, and afterwards he reduces it to powder, when it foi-ms that excellent and 
 high-priced manure so well known throughout Europe, and especially in France, as 
 poudrette. Finally, the urate and the poudrette are mixed together in a large tank, having 
 the bottom and sides of masonry ; and soap suds, or the liquor from stable dung, being 
 added, the whole is worked till it becomes of the consistency of mud. After this, 
 powdered plaster of Paris, or lime, or marl, is added, and thoroughly incorporated, till 
 the whole is so thick that it can scarcely be stirred with a stick. Left to itself it soon 
 sets, and in three weeks will have become so firm, that it will cut like cheese, and may 
 be taken out and dried in lumps about twice the size of bricks. These bricks Morel- 
 Vinde calls stercorat, and he says that they form as powerfixl a manure as pigeon dung. 
 When used they are reduced to powder, and strewed over the soil by hand, as a top- 
 dressing. In situations where neither plaster of Paris, lime, nor marl is to be had, the 
 urate and poudrette may be mixed up with clay, when the stercorat is to be used on 
 sandy soil, and with sand when it is to be used on clayey soil. This, Morel- Vind^ says, 
 is the best of all known manners of employing the contents of privies, and he speaks from 
 long practice on his own estate, at Celle, near St. Cloud. {Essai sur les Constructions 
 Rurales Economiques, &c., p. 26.) 
 
 SuBSECT. 2. Fundamental Principles, Directions, and Model Designs, for the Construction 
 and Arrangement of the various Parts which compose a Farmery. 
 
 744. The Parts which compose a Farmery may be arranged under two heads, buildings 
 and yards. The buildings may be classed as houses for lodging and feeding live stock j 
 storehouses for produce and food ; houses for preparing food, or carrying on in-door 
 farmery operations ; houses for portable machinery and implements ; lodgings for single 
 men, and houses for married men. The yards are chiefly two ; the cattle or dung yard, 
 and the rick or stack yard : but in large establishments there are, besides these, the pig 
 yard, the poultry yard, the carpenter and smith's yard, and some others, according to the 
 kind of farm. 
 
 745. The Principles on which the Lodging-places of all domestic Animals are designed 
 must necessarily be drawn from the size of the animal, the temperature of its native 
 climate, its habits of life, and the state of domestication to which it has been brought. 
 The domestic quadrupeds which form the inmates of farmeries are chjefly the horse, the 
 cow, the sheep, and the swine; and these, in their artificial state, may be considered as 
 requiring the same climate, or nearly so ; and as not differing very materially, either in 
 the kind of food which they eat, or in their manner of taking it. They may all feed 
 from a rack or manger, of nearly the same height relatively to their own ; and, taken in 
 the plan, or vertical profile, they are all more or less wedge-shaped ; the head being 
 placed at the narrow end of the wedge. The chief diflference, therefore, is in their magni- 
 tude as wedges ; and it is to ascertain this difference that the Architect who wishes to 
 draw his practice from fundamental principles ought in the first place to direct his 
 attention. A horse of average size, he will find, forms a wedge eight feet long, six feet 
 and a lialf high ; two feet broad at one end, and one foot and a half broad at the other. 
 A cow or bullock of average size forms a shorter and somewhat blunter wedge than the 
 horse ; being generally seven feet and a half long, five feet high, two feet and a half broad 
 at one end, and, allowing for the horns, nearly two feet at the other. Taking the horse 
 and ox together, we may consider them, on the average, as wedges eight feet and a half 
 long ; two feet and a half at the broad end, and two feet at the other ; and six feet and 
 a half high. The sheep we may consider as three feet and a half long, two feet high, 
 eighteen inches broad at one end, and, allowing for the horns of the ram, one foot at 
 the other ; and the swine may be considered as a wedge of the same size and shape as the 
 sheep. ^ Assuming these averages to be sufliciently correct for practice, two important 
 conclusions may be di-awn from them : first, that the most economical mode of lodging 
 the first two of these quadi upeds must be in houses the walls of which form concentric 
 
37'1* COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 2o7' 
 
 circles, or segments of circles parallel to each other ; and that the rack or manger being 
 required for the small end of the wedge, should always be placed against the smallest 
 circle or segment ; and, secondly, that in all open yards where quadrupeds are allowed 
 to run loose, and eat from racks or mangers, the length of the rack or manger required 
 to allow the whole to eat at once may be obtained with certainty when the kind of animal 
 is given ; since, when the rack or manger is to be in a straight line, the breadth of the 
 broad end of the wedge must be allowed for each animal, and when it is to be curved, the 
 radius of the curve must be determined by the breadth of the smaller end of the wedge. 
 From this theory it may also be deduced, that there must be one magnitude, as well as 
 one form, more economical than any other, for lodging each of these animals ; and that 
 this magnitude must be that circumference of a circle which the narrow ends of the 
 wedges completely fill up, and no more. Fig. 764 shows the number of horses, or horned 
 cattle, that will stand 
 together in the cir- 
 cumference of a 
 circle, with their 
 heads towards the 
 centre ; and fig. 765 
 shows the parallelo- 
 gram that would be 
 required to contain 
 the same number of 
 the same-sized ani- 
 malsjsupposing them 
 to be placed in a 
 straight line. Fig. 
 767 shows the num- 
 ber of average-sized 
 sheep or swine that 
 would stand in a 
 
 circle ; and fig. 768 -7 65 
 
 the parallelogram 
 that would be re- 
 quired to contain 
 them in a straight 
 line. The loss of 766 
 space, in both in- 
 stances, is about one 
 fourth. It is true 
 that, in practice, ani- 
 mals can never be 
 placed so near to- 
 gether for any length 
 of time ; but the 
 comparison which 
 we have made suf- 
 ficiently establishes 
 the principle, that, in 
 calculating the room 
 required for lodging 
 these animals, or 
 feeding them from 
 racks or mangers in 
 open courts or yards, 
 they must be con- 
 sidered as wedges. 
 
 In applying this ti^-T^ M sj/ 
 
 principle to practice. 
 
 the habits of each animal, and the kind of food to be given to it, will form subordinate 
 principles, which must also be taken into consideration by the Architect. We shall 
 endeavour to illustrate this in the case of the animals above mentioned. 
 
 746. The Horse and Ox are capable of lying down and rising up, when they have a 
 vacant space of a foot round them on every side. This will give a wedge-shaped stall, 
 eleven feet long, five feet broad at one end, and four feet broad at the other ; in which 
 they will have ample accommodation, and the saving of room on each animal, in a stall 
 of this description, as compared with a parallelogram stall, will be five and a half 
 
 68 
 'alls 
 
 
 
 54.6 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 272' 
 
 237 
 
MODEL DESIGNS FOR FARMERIES. 
 
 superficial feet, or above one eighth part of the whole. The circular building best suited 
 for this accommodation would have the radius of the inner wall fifty-four feet 
 six inches, as in fig. 766 ; and, therefore, if (other circumstances being the same) stables 
 or cattle-houses in farmeries could be built in this form as easily as in the parallelogram 
 shape, there would be an obvious saving of space to the above extent ; and this, in a stable 
 of twelve horses, or a cattle-shed of twelve cows, would amount to sixty-six feet ; or, in 
 other words, more room would be gained than would be suflficient for an additional stall. 
 Wherever curvilinear stables, or cattle-houses, therefore, can be introduced into a farm- 
 yard, the Architect may feel satisfied that the proper radius for the smaller circle, when 
 the animals are of medium size, is fifty-four feet six inches. 
 
 747. Sheep and Swine, from the 
 necessity of the former being kept in 
 almost continual exercise, and being 
 surrounded by, or at least having 
 above them, a great abundance of fresh 
 air, and from the restlessness of the 
 latter, are never kept tied up in 
 stalls ; and therefore the curvilinear 
 principle, as applied to them, refers 
 only to the lineal direction of their 
 mangers or troughs. Allowing a full- 
 grown sheep or swine, when feeding 
 at a rack, three inches on each side of 
 his head, this will give fifteen feet 
 nine inches as the best radius for the 
 convex side of sheep racks, which are 
 intended to be eaten from on one side 
 only ; and for the feeding-troughs of 
 full-grown swine kept in a yard. 
 This will be seen on inspectingfig.769, 
 in which the inner circle represents 
 a trough or manger, out of which 
 fifty-eight sheep or swine might eat 
 on the outside, though not half that 
 number within. As the difference is 
 considerable between the width of a 
 horned sheep and one without horns, 
 this radius will require to be varied 
 according to the proportion of horned 
 to polled sheep in the flock. 
 
 748. These Principles for the cur- 
 vilinear arrangement of stalls, racks, 
 and troughs, we do not lay down as of very great importance, but rather with a view to 
 induce the young Architect to enquire into the reasons of things ; and to endeavour, in 
 every thing, to take principles into consideration rather than precedents. We shall now 
 proceed to give details of, accompanied by reasons for, the more ordinary modes of con- 
 structing stables, cattle-sheds, and other buildings for animals which belong to a farmery. 
 
 749. The Buildings usually employed for lodging, feeding, or fattening Live Stock, com- 
 prise the stable, cow-house, calf-house, cattle-stalls, hammels and sheds, sheep-house, 
 piggery, poultry-house, rabbit-house, pigeon-house, and house for sick horses or cattle. 
 These should either be connected together, and open into one yard, or they may be 
 separated by the barn, and open into the same or diflferent yards. On no account should 
 they be intermixed with the implement and machine houses, or with the cart-sheds. 
 
 750. Stables. The horse is an animal in a highly artificial state, and requires to be 
 treated with a degree of care beyond that bestowed on any other domesticated quadruped. 
 The stable in which he is lodged should have its doors and windows to the south-east, 
 as the mildest aspect, and, in general, have all its openings on one side, and in the roof, 
 to prevent cross draughts of air. It ovight to be on a dry soil, or, if on a wet one, it 
 should be raised above it by a hollow floor ; or by materials of a kind which will contain 
 interstices of air between the natural surface and the artificial floor. All stables should 
 be large, cool, and capable of being well ventilated. The proper temperature for a horse 
 is 50° in winter and from 60° to 65° in summer. The best mode of ventilating a 
 stable in winter is by trunks or tubes of boards, about a foot square, forming openings 
 under the eaves, or carried up through the ceiling, where there is one, so as to pass 
 through the roof ; their tops being covered in such a manner as to exclude the rain, 
 without impeding the ascent of the heated air. The inside openings of all these tubes 
 
3T6 cottage, farm, and villa architecture. 
 
 should have small sliding shutters to regulate the ventilation. In summer, this is best 
 effected by having the windows filled in with hinged lufFer-boards ; or by having glass 
 windows, with outside lufFer-blinds. In the latter case, the quantity of air admitted, 
 both in summer and winter, may be very accurately regulated by the degree to which the 
 glass windows are opened. It was formerly supposed that darkness was favourable to 
 good condition in horses ; but this has been found to be a mistake, and light is now 
 freely admitted, as well as fresh air. The floors of that part of stables in which the 
 horses stand should be level ; because, when raised towards the horse's head, they are 
 found to put the back sinews on the stretch, and thus to fatigue the animal when he ought 
 to be at rest. The urine may be carried off by a drain under each compartment, covered 
 by a grating ; and this grating where the horse stands loose, should extend from the 
 centre of the compartment in four directions, like a right-angled cross. When the horse 
 stands in a stall, in addition to the gutter behind, there ought to be a branch from it 
 carried up the middle of each stall, a third part of its depth ; and this, also, ought to be 
 covered with a close grating of cast iron, or, as it generally is on the Continent, of oak 
 pierced with holes. These cover gratings ought to fit into the tops of the gutters, so as 
 to lie close and level with the adjoining floor, without requiring to be fixed, in order to 
 admit of their being lifted out occasionally, for the purpose of cleaning out the gutter. 
 This gutter should communicate with a covered liquid manure tank by a drain ; or, 
 if it communicates with an open tank, there ought to be a stink-trap in the drain 
 immediately without the stable door, to prevent the entrance of a current of air through 
 the grating, which air being necessarily saturated with the volatile alkali of the urine, 
 would contaminate the atmosphere of the stable. The great advantage of this drain and 
 grating is, that the evaporation of urine in the stable is in a great measure prevented by 
 it ; and not only its atmosphere rendered much more healthy, both for men and horses, 
 but the whole of the ammonia of the urine is transferred safe to the manure tank, where 
 it forms one of the most valuable portions of the manure. To get rid of this ammonia 
 in the stable, all droppings from the horse should be removed immediately, if practicable ; 
 and, at all events, the litter which has been stained by the urine or the dung ought to be 
 removed to the dung-pit, or to the outside of the stable, at least twice a day. It is the 
 practice with some farmers to clean out their stables only once or twice a week ; but the 
 exhalations produced by such an accumulation of matter cause many diseases in the 
 feet and legs ; and the floor, by the unequal accumulation, being rendered uneven for the 
 horse to stand on, he is strained and fatigued when in the stable, instead of being rested. 
 The litter kept in a stable should be only such as is dry and sweet ; and that taken out 
 should be immediately put into the dung-pit, to prevent evaporation. The eminent 
 veterinary surgeon Blaine observes, in an excellent article on the horse, in owe Encyclo- 
 pcedia of Agriculture (2d edit. § 6706.), that horses should not stand on litter during the 
 day ; because, though it is thought to save their shoes, and even their feet, by preventing 
 the uneven surface of the floor from hurting them, he affirms that it " holds the urine, 
 injures the feet, and is very apt to encourage swelling at the heels." As stables are 
 commonly constructed and managed, it is by no means desirable to have a hay-loft over 
 them ; unless this is floored in such a way as to prevent the dust and dirt from the hay 
 from descending upon the horses, and the ammoniacal gas from ascending into the hay. 
 Upright racks are preferred to racks which slope forwards, because the horse in drawing 
 out the hay is less liable to get dust and hay-seeds in his eyes ; but, if the best and most 
 economical system of horse feeding were adopted, viz. cutting all the hay and fodder, 
 and giving it to them well mixed with corn and pollard in their mangers ; and if these 
 mangers were watertight, and the hay and fodder, previously to cutting, sprinkled with 
 a solution of salt and water, no racks whatever would be necessary. When the horse 
 is tied up, the halter should be contrived to run in a groove in the manger post, or in 
 a tube behind it, to prevent it from becoming entangled with his feet. Stalls should 
 always be wide, and for single horses of full size not narrower than six feet, and at least 
 eight feet deep. Stalls for two horses ought not to be less than ten feet wide and eight 
 feet deep, unless the horses are under the middle size. These are the fundamental 
 principles and rules on which all stables ought to be formed, when the health of the 
 horse, and the prolongation of the working period of his existence, are the objects in view. 
 We shall now show their application. 
 
 751. The Stables for farm buildings ought to be at least sixteen feet wide from wall 
 to wall. The walls ought to be nine feet high ; there ought to be no ceiling or floor over ; 
 and the width allowed for each horse should be at least five feet, whether they are 
 separated by partitions or not. In stables without partitions, or with partitions of not 
 more than three or four feet from the head wall, four feet six inches may suffice ; but it 
 has been observed that, when horses are crowded together, they do not lie down near 
 so frequently as when they have ample space ; and it has been further remarked that 
 horses tied up in stalls do not lie down near so frequently as horses which are shut up 
 
MODEL DESIGNS FOR FARMERIES. 
 
 377 
 
 loose in separate compartments. When it is considered how much the health of almost 
 all quadrupeds depends upon their reposing a portion of every twenty-four hours in a 
 horizontal position, and more especially when we reflect that the horse is particularly 
 liable to have swelled legs and heels, we cannot help being of opinion that all horses 
 whatever ought to be lodged in separate cells or rooms, with divisions so high as to 
 prevent them from seeing each other. We are informed by Waistell that some stables 
 in the north of Yorkshire are di^'ided in this manner, and that horses have been found to 
 lie down in these stables, which would seldom do so when tied up with other horses, 
 either with or without stalls. In several stables in Britain for hunters or riding horses, 
 we have seen this practice adopted ; and it is very general in the great breeding establish- 
 ments known by the name of des haras (studs) in France. There is a very large stud 
 of this kind in the neighbourhood of Nancy, which we visited in 1828 ; and where we 
 found entire ranges of stabling partitioned off into separate cells for mares and foals, with 
 a passage behind. The dimensions of these cells, as estimated by us on the spot, and 
 marked down at the time, were about fifteen feet square ; the partitions were of inch 
 and a half boards, ten feet high, grooved and tongued into each other ; and in the centre 
 of the side next the passage was a doorway opening into it : this passage was at least six 
 feet wide. These dimensions, being for mares with foals, are much more ample than 
 would be required in farm stables: in these, eight or nine feet by twelve feet, the 
 dimensions adopted in the north of Yorkshire, would be sufficient. It is well known 
 that almost all hard-worked horses fail first in the legs and feet, and that the best way to 
 alleviate this evil is to induce them to repose as much as possible in a reclining position. 
 Now, since horses are found to lie down more readily in separate rooms than in stalls, 
 there can be no doubt that, as a matter of economy, this mode of lodging them would 
 repay a farmer for the extra-expense. This once proved by practical men in the best 
 cultivated districts of Britain, such as East Lothian or Northumberland, for example, 
 such stables would as soon be substituted there for those now in common use, as the 
 threshing mill was fifty years ago for the flail, in the same districts. Whether the stable 
 is laid out with stalls, or in separate compartments for single horses, there ought to be 
 a broad passage behind, between the stalls or horse-rooms and the wall ; which passage 
 ought to be paved, and kept at all times dry, clean, and free from litter. In the wall 
 there ought to be one or more 
 windows, according to the size 
 of the stable, for light and ven- 
 tilation. Each window may 
 contain two glass sashes,sliding 
 past each other in grooves, and 
 should have on the outside 
 fixed lufFer-boarding, or shut- 
 ters of that description, either 
 hinged, or also sliding in 
 grooves. Under each window 
 there should be a recess for a 
 corn bin ; or these may be 
 placed at the extreme ends of 
 the passage, or in the fodder- 
 ing bay. There ought to be 
 tubes under the eaves for ven- 
 tilation, protected outside by 
 lufFer-boarding, and furnished 
 with sliding shutters inside, 
 for the purpose of regulation. 
 There ought to be cupboards 
 formed in recesses in the walls, 
 one for each man who works 
 a pair of horses, in which he 
 may keep the currycombs, and 
 other articles necessary for 
 cleaning them. The harness 
 of every horse that is in daily 
 use ought to be hung against 
 the wall behind it, in order to 
 lose as little time as possible in 
 taking it oflF and putting it on ; 
 and that which is only used 
 occasionally should be kept 
 
378 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 in the harness-room. There should be one or more lanterns, suspended by cords and 
 pulleys from the roof over the passage, for putting lighted candles in, while feeding or 
 cleaning the horses during winter. The racks, when placed on the floor, should occupy 
 two thirds of the width of the stall or horse-room, and the manger ought to occupy the 
 other third, its top being on a level with that of the rack ; or the rack may occupy one 
 angle, and the manger the other. The loft being condemned in farm stables, a place 
 must be provided for holding food and litter : the most convenient is one or two divisions 
 in every stable opposite its door, into which the food, whether green clover or tares in 
 summer, or hay or roots in winter, can be readily carried from without, and easily 
 distributed within. Being near the door, the food will be better ventilated than it could 
 be in any other part of the stable, and it will occupy the least valuable part with reference 
 to the horses ; it being well known that in farm stables the horse which stands opposite 
 to the door is more liable to take cold than any other. The corn bin or chest may also 
 be kept in one of these divisions, and, in that case, should be so large as to have separate 
 compartments for corn and beans, and for cut straw or hay, or bruised furze to mix with 
 the corn or pulse. Stable doorways ought to be made four feet wide, and seven feet 
 high ; and the door ought to have no projecting latches or handles, because these are apt 
 to hurt the horse, or become entangled with the harness. Racks and mangers are very 
 frequently made of cast iron, and they are found much more durable and economical than 
 wood, Tidthout any inconvenience being experienced from them. Fig. 770 is a cast-iron 
 rack, two feet four inches long, one foot wide in the centre, and one foot four inches high. 
 The bars are one inch and a half by five eighths of an inch in thickness, and two inches 
 and a half apart ; the whole weighs thirty pounds, and costs by retail 8s. 6d. Below it 
 is seen a cast-iron manger, three feet long, one foot three inches wide, outside measure, at 
 top, and eight inches deep. It weighs two quarters thirteen pounds, and costs 10s. 6d. 
 Fig. 771 is a wrought-iron angle rack. The chord of the arc on each side is two feet 
 eight inches ; the surrounding frame is one inch and a half by a quarter of an inch ; 
 
MODEL DESIGNS FOR FARMERIES. 
 
 379 
 
 the ribs are round iron rods five eighths of an inch in diameter ; and the whole weighs 
 twenty-four pounds and a quarter, and costs 6s. Below it is an angle manger of cast 
 iron, which measures three feet in length in front, with a basin one foot seven inches 
 long, one foot wide, and eight inches deep. It weighs two quarters twenty-three pounds, 
 and costs 9s. Fig. 772 is a wrought-iron rack, three feet long, eighteen inches high, 
 and eighteen inches wide. It weighs thirty pounds, and costs 6s. 6d. Fig. 773 is a 
 cast-iron bull's-eye rack two feet and a half in diameter, which costs 7s. 6d. These iron 
 racks are far more durable than wooden ones ; and, about London at least, cost less. 
 
 752. As an Example of a Stable with high Racks, Mangers, and partitioned Stalls, 
 constructed in the most approved manner, we refer to figs. 774 to 779. Fig. 774 is the 
 
 774 
 
 d H . 
 
 ground plan of a stable for eight horses, in which the racks are upright. In the centre 
 there is a foddering bay, a ; with a corn chest, h, placed on blocks of stone, to prevent 
 its bottom from rotting ; in the front walls there are recesses, c c, six inches or more 
 deep, according to the kind of wall, for hanging harness in the upper part, and for pails 
 and other articles used in the stable to stand in below. The recesses under the windows 
 wiU allow of placing a small corn bin or cupboard there. The dotted lines from d to 
 d represent the main gutter drain, and the short dotted lines from it, e, the branch drains 
 into the different stalls ; the dotted lines at / indicate a drain communicating with the 
 
 775 
 
 liquid manure tank. The gratings placed 
 over the main and stall gutters may be of 
 stone or oak, pierced with holes ; or of 
 massive cast iron, like fig. 775, which, when 
 twelve inches square, costs 4s. ; when fifteen 
 inches, 6s. 9d. ; and when eighteen inches, 
 9s. 9d. Fig. 776 is a cross section on the 
 line A B ; in which is shown a ventilator in 
 the roof, formed by a tube, with a stopper, g, sliding horizontally, continued up imme- 
 diately under the roof, and opening in the ridge, under a protecting cover composed of 
 two large slates, A ; £ is a cast-iron 
 harness peg ; k is the corn chest ; I, the 
 rack ; m, the manger ; n, the grating at 
 the termination of the stall gutter ; and 
 a, the main gutter ; p, the space under 
 the rack, into which dust, seeds, and 
 other matters from the hay or fodder 
 drop down through the grated bottom 
 of the rack, and are taken out, from 
 time to time, by removing the bottom 
 board in front. Fig. 777 is a front 
 elevation of this stable, in a simple style, 
 which may be called Grecian. Two of 
 the windows are shown with outside 
 blinds, and two glazed between upright 
 bars, without horizontal ones, in the 
 manner of hot-house sashes. The intention of this mode of glazing is to avoid 
 collecting the moisture and dust which otherwise are always found on the cross 
 bara of stable and out-house windows. All the windows are intended to have outside 
 
380 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 777 
 
 lufFer-board blinds, to be worked from the inside by a lever handle, in the manner which 
 we shall describe hereafter. Fig. 778 is an elevation of the plan, fig. 774 ; supposing 
 
 778 
 
 it to be finished exteriorly in a style which may be called Gothic. Fig. 779 is a cross 
 section, in which is seen the small corn bin or cupboard for currycombs, &c., under the 
 window, q ; the ventilator, with its protecting cover, r r ; the gutter drains with their 
 gratings, s ; the cast-iron manger, t ; the bull's-eye cast-iron rack, u ; the bottom of the 
 rack, V, beneath which is the space for dust and seeds ; a cast-iron ramped cap, w, to the 
 partition between the stalls ; and a cast-iron sill, with a groove for receiving the ends 
 of the boards from the partition, x. The stable-post, y, in this section, is also of cast 
 iron, and it costs 20s.; the ramped iron copings cost 12s. each, and the sills 7s. each. 
 These cast-iron copings and siUs for stalls 
 are manufactured by Messrs. Cottam and 779 
 Hallen ; and they afford a very cheap, easy, 
 and dm-able mode of forming the partitions 
 between stalls. 
 
 753. The different Modes of arranging 
 the racks and mangers of stables are 
 shown in figs. 780 to 785. Fig. 780 is a 
 front view of the rack and manger, shown 
 in the section fig. 776 ; and fig. 781 is a 
 front view of the bull's-eye rack and cast- 
 iron manger shown in fig. 779. Fig. 782, 
 two corner cast-iron racks, and a cast- 
 iron manger. Fig. 783 shows what is 
 called a corner manger, with a standard 
 corner cast-iron rack, which costs 10s. 6d., 
 and of which fig. 786 is a perspective 
 view. Fig. 784 is a standard rack, ex- 
 tending two thirds of the width of the stall, 
 
 in which the horses or cattle are supposed -i^. i . r 
 
 to eat from the top when standing, and from the side when lymg down. Ihe length ot 
 the manger is one third of the stall, and the space under it is fitted m with spars, so as 
 to form a continuation of the rack. The bottom of the rack is raised six inches from the 
 floor, and is sparred somewhat closer than the sides ; the top has cross spars, one foot 
 apart, to prevent the animal from tossing the fodder out of the rack. Fig. 785 shows a 
 cast-iron manger, and a projecting quarter circle rack ; that is, the fourth part of a grated 
 
MODEL DESIGNS FOR FARMERIES. 381 
 
 780 781 782 783 784 785 
 
 1^4 
 
 globe, open at top, for putting in the hay or other fodder. When the upright rack 
 shown in fig. 780 is formed of wood, the staves or upright spars are one inch and a 
 quarter square, or round, let into top 
 ana bottom rails, three inches and a 
 half by two inches and a half. If 
 the staves are square, they are mortised 
 into these rails ; and, if they are 
 round, holes are bored in the rails, 
 to admit their ends. The common 
 width of the openings between the 
 staves is two inches and a quarter ; but 
 large horses require three inches. 
 The bottom of the rack is filled in 
 with spars of the same dimensions as 
 the staves of the rack, and at rather 
 less distance from each other. The 
 partitions between the stalls, when 
 made of wood, are thus formed : — A 
 strong post, called the heel-post, or 
 stable-post, six inches square, and 
 seven or eight feet long, so as to stand 
 six feet high when the lower end is 
 inserted in the ground, is firmly fixed 
 by ramming round its lower end with 
 earth and stones. Into this post two 
 rails are mortised, the other ends 
 of which are nailed to the uprights 
 which support the rack, and against 
 these rails upright boards an inch 
 
 thick are nailed, and terminated by a capping piece, straight or ramped, according 
 to taste. Short partitions, three or four feet long, and seven feet high, are sometimes 
 formed between stalls, to prevent horses adjoining each other from eating together. 
 The width of stalls with these short partitions, Waistell observes, may be about four 
 feet and a half. Long partitions to stalls, he says, should be about eight feet ; and the 
 width of each stall, from five feet and a half to six feet. In some parts of the country, 
 it would be cheaper to form the partitions of slate or flag-stone, or even of common 
 rubblework ; or of rammed earth, or of cob. 
 
 754. The Window most suitable for Stables and Cow-houses, we think, should be com- 
 posed of glass within, and of lufFer-boarded blinds, to serve also as shutters, without. The 
 construction is shown in figs. 787 to 793. Fig. 788, to a scale of a quarter of an inch to 
 a foot, is a view of the glass window, as seen inside the stable or cow-house. It is com- 
 posed of two sashes, a, b, one of which slides past the other, in two grooves, in the top 
 and bottom of the frame, as shown in the section fig. 787. These two sashes are without 
 horizontal bars, and are glazed in the manner of hot-house windows, for the reasons 
 before mentioned, § 752. At c is a mortise cut in the side style of the window frame. 
 
 for a handle to move up and down in, which is used to work the 
 outside blinds, and this handle can be locked by an iron pin, when 
 the blinds are used as shutters. Fig. 789 is an outside view of the 
 same window, with the blinds placed before it ; the laths or lufFer- 
 boards being in a horizontal position, to admit the greatest quantity 
 of light. Fig. 791 is a cross section of the window complete, with 
 the luffer-blinds, d, outside, and the two sashes, e, inside. In this 
 figiu-e is seen the lever handle, /, which works the luffer-boards. In 
 the knob of this handle there is a small hole, which (when the 
 
 787 
 
382 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 788 
 
 hiffer-boards are shut close 
 down, so as to admit the 
 least quantity of light, 
 and the handle is, in 
 consequence, raised to 
 necessarily coincides with 
 the ring staple at g ; when, 
 by inserting an iron pin 
 through the hole in the 
 lever handle, and through 
 this staple, the lufFer- 
 boarding is locked, and 
 becomes a secure shutter. 
 Fig. 790 is a Adew of a 
 single lath or luffer-board, 
 in the ends of which are 
 seen the two small iron 
 pivots or studs which 
 work into the holes 
 shown in the two lever 
 rods, fig. 792. Fig. 793 
 is a fragment of the 
 section fig. 791, on a 
 large scale ; in which are 
 shown the lufFer-boards 
 locked, the lever handle, 
 h, being at its highest 
 point. These figures will 
 be understood by any car- 
 penter, if not by all our 
 readers ; and though win- 
 dows and blinds of this 
 description may be thought too good for stables and cow-houses of the commonest 
 kind, yet, for amateurs, we have no hesitation in stating it to be our opinion, that they are 
 far preferable to any others which have yet been invented. No other construction gives 
 
 \ 
 
 789 
 
MODEL DESIGNS FOR FARMERIES. 
 
 383 
 
 such command of light and darkness during 
 tlie day, and of air at all times. In common 
 farm stables, windows might be formed of 
 broad lufFer-boards, so hinged as to shut 
 close when it was desirable to exclude air, 
 and to open to different degrees according 
 io the quantity of light or air, or both, which 
 might be wanted. In these broad luffer- 
 boards, there might be inserted one or two 
 small panes of glass, for the purpose of ad- 
 mitting light in severe weather when it was 
 not desirable to admit much air. On the 
 whole, whatever description of window is 
 used in a stable, it ought to be such as 
 will when it is desirable, as in very cold 
 weather, for example, admit light without 
 air, and in very warm weather, in the day 
 time, admit abimdance of air without much 
 light. 
 
 755. As an Example of a Stable with Boxes 
 as well as with Stalls, such as is usually 
 erected for gentlemen keeping hunters, we 
 shall give the plan and other details of a 
 Design sent us by Mr. Perry, and executed 
 under his superintendence, for a gentleman 
 in the neighbourhood of Godalming. Fig. 
 794, to a scale of one sixteenth of an inch to 
 a foot, is the ground plan, in which a b are 
 two-stalled stables, each seventeen feet by 
 
 793 
 
 792 
 
 791 
 
 790 
 
 Above 
 line C 
 
 twelve feet six inches, and con- 
 taining mangers, c, of the width 
 of the stall, and quarter circle 
 upright racks, d, in the angles 
 of each stall. There is a com- 
 mon sash window to each stable, 
 and near it an angle hay bin, e, 
 formed of boards, with a lid, 
 and capable of containing a 
 truss of hay. The two-horse 
 boxes, / /, are each twelve feet 
 six inches by nine feet six in- 
 ches, and have mangers, racks, 
 and hay bins like the stables. 
 There is an entrance lobby, ff, 
 with stairs to the rooms over, 
 and this entrance has double 
 doors, as appears by the ele- 
 vation, fig. 795. Fig. 796 is 
 a longitudinal section from A 
 to B, in which are shown the 
 partitions between the stalls, 
 h h ; the mangers, i i ; the si- 
 tuation of the drains beneath, 
 k k ; and the openings in the 
 exterior walls for ventilation, 1 1. 
 are two rooms for any convenient purpose, m m. Fig. 797 is a cross section on the 
 D, in fig. 794, in which may be seen the man.eers, n n ; the racks, o o ; and the 
 
384< COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 is a plan of the flooring of the rooms over the stables. 
 
 ,9 
 
 794 
 
 the eaves board : 
 
 w, the slate boarding ; a:, the bracket ; 
 The stalls in this stable have level floors 
 
 795 
 
 rentiJators, pp. Fig. 798 
 exliibiting the channels or 
 grooves in the walls, for 
 ventilation, q q ; and the 
 appearance of these open- 
 ings exteriorly is indicated 
 in the end elevation, fig. 
 799. Fig. 800, to a scale 
 of two thirds of an inch to 
 a foot, shows the manner 
 of finishing the eaves of 
 the roof ; in which r is 
 the principal rafter, eight 
 inches by three inches at 
 bottom, and six inches by 
 three inches at top ; s, the 
 wall-plate ; t, the pole- 
 plate ; u, the upper rafter 
 y, a bed-moulding ; and z, the soffit boarding, 
 and gratings similar to 
 those in fig. 776, § 752 ; 
 the floors of the boxes 
 are also level, and paved 
 with flag-stones, all of 
 which, except about 
 eighteen inches in width 
 round the box, are per- 
 forated with holes about 
 the fourth of an inch in 
 diameter at top, and 
 gradually widening to 
 the under side of the 
 stone, like the holes in 
 the tiles of a malt kiln. 
 The centre stone lifts up, 
 for the purpose of cleaning out the drain below. 
 
 756. Houses for Horned Cattle. The anatomical structure and physiology of horned 
 cattle are much less intricate 
 than those of the horse ; and 795 
 the animals are consequently 
 much hardier, and much less 
 liable to disease. They will 
 endure a greater degree of 
 cold in winter, and of heat 
 in summer ; and they requi'-e 
 less delicacy of management 
 in their lodging, either in 
 respect to space or ventila- 
 tion, than horses. No horse 
 could be kept in a stall for 
 months, without exercise in 
 the open air, and yet retain 
 his health ; but cattle have 
 been so kept till they have 
 been made sufficiently fat for 
 the butcher ; and milch cows have been kept in the neighbourhood of London, standing 
 in the same stall, without having been once taken out, for two years. (^Encyc. of Agr., 
 2d edit. § 6898.) It does not follow from this, however, that great improvement might 
 not be introduced into cow-houses and cattle-sheds ; and that exercise in the open air 
 would not add to the flavour and wholesomeness both of butcher's meat and dairy 
 produce : on the contrary, the cow-houses in Holland, and the cattle hammels, or small 
 feeding yards, of Northumberland, may be referred to as proofs that this is actually 
 the case. The principal diflPerence between a house in which cattle are tied up, and one 
 in which horses are either kept in stalls or in separate rooms, is the open gutter behind, 
 which has hitherto been considered indispensable in cattle-houses, on account of the more 
 fluid nature of the dung of the animals. This gutter, or some substitute for it, is 
 
MODEL DESIGNS FOR FARMERIES. 
 
 385 
 
 certainly essential where cattle are tied up ; and one of the principal points in the 
 construction of the floor, in every house for horned cattle, is, to place the gutter at 
 
 798 
 
 a proper distance from their hind feet. This distance, in Holland, is never less 
 than six inches, nor more than a foot. The gutter is generally made a foot broad, 
 and three or four inches deep ; it is usually perpendicular on the sides, but some- 
 times the cross section of the gutter is that of a semicircle or semioval ; which last 
 form is, however, objectionable, as it is apt to make the cattle slip when they cross it 
 to their stalls. Whatever be the form of 
 the section of the gutter, the hoe or scraper 
 employed to clean it out must have its blade 
 of a corresponding shape. In houses where 
 cows or cattle are kept untied, two or three 
 are generally placed together in an apartment 
 ten or twelve feet square, opening into a 
 small yard of twice that area. Such cattle- 
 houses are called, in Northumberland and 
 Berwickshire, hammels ; and in them there 
 is no regular gutter, but simply a very gentle 
 inclination of the floor of the shed and of 
 the surface of the yard to one angle, where 
 there are, or should be, a trap and drain, com- 
 municating with the liquid manure tank. 
 
 757. Cow-houses, in which cows are kept 
 for giving milk, require to be constructed with more care than other cattle-houses, with 
 respect to ventilation, 
 light, and cleanliness. 
 Cows on common farms 
 are not generally kept in 
 separate stalls, except 
 in cases of sickness, or 
 when they are near the 
 period of calving. The 
 width of a common farm 
 cow-house, where the 
 cows are to be ranged 
 lengthwise of the build- 
 ing, should be at least 
 sixteen feet, and the 
 width allowed for each 
 cow, of the largest and 
 most improved breed of 
 cattle, should not be less 
 than five feet, or, when 
 the cows are kept in-doors 
 throughout the year, six 
 feet ; and the space from 
 the manger to the gutter 
 should be eight or nine 
 
386 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 feet. The manger should be a boarded, stone, or iron trough, placed so that the upper 
 edge may be from a foot to eighteen inches above the surface of the ground, or about 
 the height of the cow's knees ; and it may be eighteen inches broad, and a foot 
 deep. It should be divided into three parts, to admit of putting dry food in one, 
 moist food in another, and water in the middle. In default of this arrangement, 
 there ought to be a division of the manger for water between every two cows. Where 
 cows are not kept in separate stalls, there ought to be a partition between every two pair, to 
 reach half-way or more to the gutter behind. Between the manger and the wall there 
 should be a passage of at least three feet in width, for supplying food, and for cleaning 
 out the mangers from time to time. The gutter behind the cattle should be at least a 
 foot wide ; and this will leave a passage, between the gutter and the wall, of three feet in 
 width. There ought to be a door in one end of the foddering passage ; and, another as an 
 entrance for the cows, in the end of the broad passage. The food may either be kept in 
 an empty stall next the door, or, what is preferable, in a foddering bay, into which the doors 
 should open. In every cow-house there should be windows for light ; and there ought to be 
 tubes for ventilation in the side walls, or in the roof, similar to those recommended for 
 stables, to use when the windows cannot be conveniently opened. The cows may be 
 fastened to the front rail of the manger by a halter or chain passed through an iron 
 ring, and loaded at its lower end. The floor of the standing-room ought to be perfectly 
 level, because it is found that, when it is lower towards the gutter than at the manger, it is 
 apt to occasion abortion, when the cows are in a gravid state ; and, for the same reason, 
 the top of the manger or rack, if there is one, should never be higher above the floor 
 than eighteen inches. Morel- Vind^ observes that the farmers of Normandy are so 
 particular in this respect, that they not only have their mangers and racks very low, but, 
 when the cows are turned out to grass, they always harness them with a bridle and 
 brechin (bricole Normande), in such a manner as to prevent them from tossing up their 
 heads, or reaching to the branches of trees. 
 
 758. A cow-house in which the cows are to stand across the building will afford the 
 same accommodation as that in which they stand with their heads against one of the side 
 walls, at less expense of walling ; because the foddering bay, which need not be lai-ger in 
 this case than in the other, serves at the same time as a foddering passage. In these 
 foddering bays Waistell recommends that a cistern should be constructed, in order that 
 when the turnips are topped and tailed in the field, the cart which brings them home 
 may be backed into the bay, and the turnips tilted into the cistern, where, by stirring 
 them a little, the loose earth which adheres to them will readily drop off, and they may be 
 taken out of the cistern, and supplied as wanted to the mangers. This operation is per- 
 formed by means of a grated iron scoop with a long handle. 
 
 759. I't the cow-houses of landed proprietors of taste, or in those of large establish- 
 ments near town, various improvements may be suggested on the above arrangements. 
 One of these is, to have a drain covered with oak planks pierced with holes or cast-iron 
 grates along the bottom of the gutter, for the purpose of allowing the urine and thin 
 dung to pass immediately through it, and be carried off, as was practised in the Harleian 
 dairy, near Glasgow ; thus diminishing smell and evaporation, and presenting at all times 
 an appearance of cleanliness. The gutter, in this case, may be very shallow ; and, 
 indeed, if a broom be now and then passed over the grating, so as to press all the dung 
 into it, it might be raised to a level with the floor, and the open gutter entirely dispensed 
 with. Grated bottoms to gutters, with drains underneath, are common in the cow- 
 houses of men of wealth in France and Germany ; where there is sometimes, as in the 
 king of Wirtemberg's dairy at Weill, a supply of water at one end of the gutter, always 
 ready to be turned on by a cock, every time it is cleaned. This is the case also in the 
 cow-houses of the Agricultural Institution at Schleissheim ; and it is found there not 
 only to keep the gutters sweet, but, by the obvious increase it affords of fluid matter in 
 the manure tank, to supply the means of rotting a greater quantity of straw in the 
 dunghill which is there kept over it, and moistened with the fluid beneath by means of 
 a pump. Another improvement is, having all the divisions in the manger, intended for 
 water, on the same level, by which means they may be simultaneously supplied by 
 turning a cock ; or the same thing may be accomplished, if they are on a uniform slope, 
 by sinking them six or eight inches below the general surface of the bottom of the 
 manger, and having a false bottom or water channel, leading from one to another. In 
 this case, after the first division was filled, the water would run along the false bottom 
 or water channel and under that of the dry and moist food divisions of the manger, to 
 the next water division, and so on to the end. It must be confessed, however, that 
 supplying cattle with water in this way is a refinement that can only be worthy of 
 adoption in very extensive establishments ; for cattle, like all other a;:;imals, when 
 regularly fed, and properly treated, will only drink at stated periods after they have had 
 their due supply of solid food, and at these periods they could be let out to drink in the 
 
MODEL DESIGNS FOR FARMERIES. 
 
 open air. Water is supplied in the manner above mentioned at Rhodes's dairy, at 
 Islington (see Encyc. of Agric, 2d edit. § 6897. )j where one division for water is 
 formed in the manger between every two cows ; and these divisions are furnished with 
 covers, which are put on when the cattle are eating dry food, to prevent them dropping 
 any of it into the water, and thus dirtyhag it. As abundance of light in every farm 
 building is highly favourable to cleanliness by exposing the want of it, large glass 
 windows might be formed in every description of house for cattle ; but these should 
 always be provided with outside shutters ; or, what is preferable, luffer-boarded outside 
 blinds, as recoimnended for stables, fig. 789, § 754, to keep off the intensity of the 
 light, and also the heat of the sun. These shutters or blinds should be opened whenever 
 the master or mistress may enter the building, or when it is to be cleaned out ; but at 
 other times they should generally be closed, as it must not be forgotten that light 
 stimulates the animals, and prevents their repose, while it favours the introduction of 
 flies and other insects, which are always very troublesome to cattle. In the royal 
 cow-houses at Bagatelle and at ViDeneuve d'Etang, near Paris, the windows reach from 
 the floor to the ceiling, and open like those of a di-awing-room. They have outside 
 shutter blinds, and hinged panes of glass at top and bottom, for giving air in the 
 winter season. The walls and ceilings are plastered, and finished as carefully as 
 those of a common dwelling-house in London ; and a person being constantly in 
 attendance to remove any dung that drops, the place is as clean and sweet as can be 
 desired. We speak of them as they appeared to us when we visited them in 1828. 
 In Flanders the cow-houses are equally clean and sweet ; and Radcliflfe, in his Hushandry 
 of Flanders, informs us that, in the winter season, the farmers generally breakfast in 
 them : he adds that he did so himself, and found no inconvenience from either bad 
 smells or want of cleanliness. In general, indeed, cow-houses and cattle-houses, as 
 well as the animals themselves, are kept far cleaner and wholesomer on the Continent 
 than in Britain. In the Harleian dairy establishment, which existed some years ago 
 at Glasgow, some ingenious contrivances for cleanliness were introduced, which may 
 deserve imitation. In front of each cow, between the manger and the foddering 
 passage, a wire grating was suspended by cords and pulleys like a window-sash, which 
 was lifted up when food was given, or the mangers cleaned out. The racks for hay 
 were also suspended by cords, weights, and pulleys ; so that they could be pushed up 
 out of the reach of the cows, when moist food was put into the mangers. In the gutters 
 there were round apertures, of about six inches in diameter, with cast-iron covers fitted 
 to them at short distances, and through tlic.se the dung was swept into large drains 
 below, whence it was carried away by its fluidity to a dung-pit. The tails of the cows 
 were tied up to the ceiling at milking time, as in Holland, and they were regularly 
 combed and brushed twice every day. A stream of water could be introduced into the 
 mangers and gutters at pleasure, for the purpose of cleaning them, or for supplying 
 water to the cattle to di ink. No litter was used, but the floors of the stalls were formed 
 of boards, and tlie gutters behind were furnished with grated bottoms, and openings 
 with covers, at intervals, as before mentioned. The temperature of these cow-houses 
 was regulated by a thermometer. We cannot approve of this plan of not littering the 
 cows, which is still adopted in some of the large dairies near London ; because it must 
 be more comfortable to the cattle to lie down on straw than on bare boards or pavement, 
 however smooth or clean either may be. Much less can we approve of the plan of not 
 turning cows out of doors at least once or twice a day for exercise : this is always done 
 on the Continent, even in the winter season, unless during a heavy fall of snov/, or 
 during continued heavy rain. Cows are universally cleaned like horses in Holland and 
 the Netherlands, and 'in all the first dairies both in France and Germany; and the 
 Continental custom of tying up their tails at milking time, already mentioned as 
 practised by Harley, is beginning to meet with imitators in this country. Currj^- 
 combing and brushing have long been in use in gentlemen's dairies. We mention 
 these things with a view of supplying the young Architect with ideas for the introduction 
 of these and still further improvements in the design and construction of this kind of 
 buildings ; since no Architect can improve the arrangements of a building, of vrhich he 
 does not thoroughly understand the use ; and the mere improvement of its Architecture, 
 or external effect, without adding to its utility, is calculated to excite a feeling of 
 contempt, rather than of approbation or respect. 
 
 760. Calf-houses ought to be placed near the cow-houses, to lessen the labour of 
 carrying the milk to them ; but they ought never to be so near as to permit the cow to 
 see or even hear the calf; because either would disquiet her, and prevent her from 
 feeding. The best mode is to have a separate house for the calves, and to tie them up 
 to stakes like cows. The width of the space allotted for the calves need not be more 
 than eight feet, and it should be arranged in every respect like a cov/-house in miniature. 
 Where calves are to be fed for the butcher, they are sometimes enclosed singly in 
 
388 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 small pens, between six and seven feet square ; but this is an unnecessary expense when 
 the object is simply to rear the calf. In general, no arrangement is advisable by which 
 two or more calves are kept loose in the same pen ; because, so placed, they are apt to 
 suck one another, and also because milk or food cannot be given to more than one calf 
 at a time, and the others are liable to be injured while being driven off. As calves 
 require the greatest attention to keep them clean, all the architectural arrangements 
 connected with them ought to be especially directed to that end. The best constructed 
 calf-pens in Middlesex have false bottoms of boards pierced with holes, through which 
 all moisture escapes, by which means they are kept quite dry ; and, by a little care on 
 the part of the attendant, they may also be kept perfectly clean and sweet. 
 
 761. Feeding -sheds for horned Cattle may be constructed on the same plan as cow- 
 houses, and the cattle placed in pairs between wooden, stone, or slate partitions. Tlie 
 cattle may either be ranged along the side walls, with a foddering passage at their heads, 
 and a cleaning passage behind (the foddering bay being at one end, or at both ends) ; 
 or they may be ranged across the building, with bays for holding fodder, or serving as 
 passages for supplying it, alternating between every two rows of cattle. A house 
 sixteen feet wide and twenty-eight feet long will contain eight head of average-sized 
 cattle, in a row, with their heads to a foddering passage three feet wide, at one of the 
 side walls ; and with a cleaning passage four feet wide behind them. A house thirty- 
 two feet long and fourteen feet wide will contain the same number of cattle, with their 
 heads towards a foddering bay, and place for giving fodder in the middle of the house, 
 eight feet wide. This last mode of placing the cattle is m_uch more convenient than 
 the other, and though it contains four feet more of circumferential walling, yet, if we 
 make allowance, in the former case, for a building to contain the fodder, the latter will 
 be much the more economical as well as the more convenient mode. 
 
 762. Feeding-houses for loose Cattle. It has been found that many descriptions of 
 cattle, and particularly those bred up in mountainous districts, which are naturally small 
 and active, do not fatten so well when tied up in stalls, as when left loose in a limited 
 space, with a well-littered house or shed to take shelter in at pleasure. This is the 
 general practice in Northumberland, and in most parts of Scotland. The sheds or 
 houses may be fifteen or sixteen feet square, and fitted up with racks, either at the 
 angles or against the partitions. The open yards may be of the same size as the 
 covered sheds, with walls four feet high, and doors lifting out of grooves ; or in two 
 parts, with the upper half hinged, and the lower part fitted in a groove, so as to lift out. 
 The reason why it is proposed to fit the doors in grooves, or to have them in two parts 
 with the lower part grooved, is, that, in opening doors hinged in the common manner, 
 they are apt to be obstructed by the litter which generally, though improperly, covers 
 every farm-yard passage. In some Scotch farmeries, not only the doors of hammels 
 and pigsties lift out of grooves, but even the gates lift out in a similar manner, or are 
 suspended by weights with cords and pulleys, and are raised up and lowered like common 
 sash windows. All this is owing to the practice of keeping yards covered with litter ; 
 but, when the management of cattle and manure is properly understood, the former 
 will always be kept in houses or hammels, in order to moderate temperature ; and dung 
 and litter always under a roof, in order to lessen evaporation. 
 
 763. Feeding-places for growing Cattle are nothing more than open sheds fitted up 
 with racks, each having a court or yard of proportionate size to the shed; that is, 
 containing three or four times its area. In general it is desirable to divide these yards 
 or sheds, so that not more than six or eight head of cattle may be together in the same 
 yard. Besides the rack in the shed, there ought to be fixed or portable racks, with roofs 
 to them, in the open yard. All cattle-racks ought to be placed on the ground : their 
 height need not exceed two feet and a half, and their width eighteen inches. The top 
 should have cross bars eighteen inches apart, to prevent the cattle from tossing out 
 the fodder, and the bottom should be grated, to allow reeds, stones, dust, or other matter 
 to drop through on the ground. 
 
 764. Houses for working Oxen may either be fitted up like the cow-houses, or, what 
 is preferable, like the cattle hammels ; a pair of oxen being allowed for each hammel. 
 Whether oxen are kept loose in hammels or tied up in stalls, provision ought to be made 
 under cover, and near them, for hanging up their harness ; and for keeping the curry- 
 combs and other instruments or utensils with which they are cleaned or fed. As it 
 requires two pair of oxen to do the work of one pair of horses, on a farm where the ox 
 is the principal beast of labour, a proportionate increase of building is required ; and, in 
 general, also an additional labourer for every three or four pair, for the purpose of 
 cleaning them, and their stalls, harness, &c. 
 
 765. Piggeries. The swine is an inhabitant of all climates, and eats every kind of 
 food ; but he is nevertheless averse from extremes of either cold or heat. Nature has 
 taught him, in a wild state, in the torrid as well ^ in the frigid zone, to seek the recesses 
 
MODEL DESIGNS FOR FARMERIES. 
 
 389 
 
 of the forest, both for food and shelter ; where, while grubbing up the soil for roots, he 
 is protected, by an impenetrable non-conducting mass of branches and foliage, from the 
 heat of the one or the cold of the other. The domestic swine is in a highly artificial 
 state, and requires to be kept warm by abundance of dry litter in the winter ; and cool, 
 by shady weU ventilated houses or sties in sunamer. Seeking his food chiefly in 
 the soil, he cannot be considered a delicate animal ; and he has few diseases compared 
 with either the cow or the horse. Uniformity of temperature, therefore, seems to be 
 the chief thing to be studied in the construction of piggeries. As pigs are generally 
 fed in great part with refuse from the kitchen and dairy, the piggeries should be so 
 placed in a farmery as to be accessible from the oflSces of the dweUing-house, without 
 passing through any of the straw yards, and at the same time not so near as to prove an 
 annoyance in summer by their smell. The construction of piggeries is exceedingly 
 simple, each pigsty consisting of a covered lodging, and a small open court ; the latter 
 for feeding and the former for sleeping in, in the case of store pigs ; though, for fattening 
 pigs, especially in winter, the feeding troughs are frequently placed in the covered or 
 warmest part of the structure. In a complete piggery for fattening pigs, there should 
 be, at one end, or in the middle, a bay or compartment for pig's food dry and moist ; and 
 on the two sides of a passage may be placed rows of separate sties ; each with its feeding- 
 trough in the side next the passage, and with a swing-door on the opposite side to a 
 small yard. The use of the swing door, which is nothing more than a frame of boards 
 suspended from a rail, the ends of which move in sockets freely either way between the 
 jambs of the door, is to prevent the door from ever being left open in severe weather. 
 When the pig wishes to go out, he soon learns to push it before him ; and the same 
 when he wishes to return. Fig. 801 is a section across a waU containing a pig's trough, 
 in which a is a swinging flap or door ; b b, 
 
 stops to prevent it from being pushed too 801 
 
 far either way; and cc, holes for a bolt to fix 
 it in the position d, when the troughs are 
 to be filled with food, or to be cleaned ; or 
 at e, when the pigs are to eat. The pigs, 
 however, will keep the flap open them- 
 selves while eating. This arrangement 
 is well calculated for fattening pigs, when 
 there is not more than one in a sty ; 
 but for store pigs, or for a sow with a 
 litter, it is desirable to have a longer trough, 
 or to have two or more small troughs, as 
 the strongest pig is apt to get into the 
 trough while eating, to the exclusion of 
 the others. The floors of all pigsties 
 should have an inclination to carry the 
 moisture to a trap or drain ; and no animal 
 requires a greater abundance of dry litter. 
 
 a 
 
 d 
 
 If under a good roof, and well supplied 
 with this material, the pig will keep 
 
 himself warm and comfortable, almost any where, and in any season. 
 
 7G6. Sheep-houses. The sheep is a native of temperate climates, where the ground 
 is not long covered with snow during winter ; but it has become an artificial inhabitant 
 of all countries from Iceland to the equator. It is only in those countries where it 
 cannot pasture in the open air, from the snow covering the ground during some weeks at 
 a time, or where the extreme heat of summer burns up the herbage, that sheep-houses 
 oiight to be required. There are, however, other cases, in which, from the imperfect 
 state of agriculture, and the absence of fences to the fields, or from imperfect civilisation, 
 or the want of rural police, and the consequent prevalence of thieves and wolves, sheep- 
 houses become necessary for protecting the sheep during the night. Structures of this 
 kind are common in Russia, to prevent the sheep from being famished during the long 
 winters of that country ; and in France they abound as nightly shelters to guard them 
 from the wolves. In Britain, folds, or walled enclosures, are almost the only description 
 of sheep-houses in use ; because our sheep can pasture in the open air during every month 
 in the year, and all our fields are enclosed by hedges, walls, or other barriers. In some 
 of the mountainous districts it becomes necessary to protect and feed the sheep during 
 severe storms ; and this is done in Scotland by square or circular folds, called stells, into 
 which the sheep are driven and fed. Sometimes these stells are roofed in, but in general 
 they are left open. The sheep-houses of France and Germany are simply roofs supported 
 by posts, and covering a space sometimes open on all sides, but generally closed to the 
 height of six or seven feet. Across, or lengthwise, in this space, hay-racks are placed ; 
 
390 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 and, instead of side and end walls of masonry, there are generally wooden pales. The 
 roofs are made very high and steep, in order to acquire strength to bear, and inclination 
 sufficient for throwing off the snow, at the least possible expense of timber. As there is 
 no objection to numerous posts within, provided they be in the line of the racks, sheep- 
 houses of the largest dimensions may be constructed of pieces of timber not more than 
 ten or twelve feet long, or thicker than six inches. Sheep-houses, or folds for feeding 
 and housing sheep in bad weather, are, in England, Mr. Main observes, " square 
 enclosures erected in sheltered places, formed of an outside wall built of turves or other 
 materials, about six or seven feet high ; and all round the interior are lean-to thatched 
 sheds, supported on posts about four feet high. Against the back wall are racks for hay, 
 and troughs for chaff, bran, oats, or peas, &c. The middle of the fold is kept well littered 
 with straw ; and on one side of the gate there is a lock-up shed for keeping the provender. 
 These folds are usually about fifty feet square, and are no less serviceable to the flock in 
 bad weather, than to the farm in making great quantities of excellent manure." In the 
 north of Germany, and in Poland and Lithuania, there ave immense sheep-houses of a 
 very simple construction, which nevertheless are exceedingly effective. A skeleton roof, 
 sometimes circular and sometimes oblong, is formed of long poles, chiefly young spruce fir 
 trees, with their lower ends inserted in the ground, and their points meeting at top ; across 
 these, smaller poles are fastened, not by nails or wooden pins, but by withy ties. The 
 whole is then covered, or thatched with branches of spruce fir. The doors and places 
 for ventilation are merely gaps, stopped up or opened according to the discretion of the 
 shepherd. These sheep-houses answer their purpose perfectly. They are sometimes 
 also used for sheltering cattle. 
 
 767. The Sheep-house at CeUe,near St. Cloud, may be given as one of the most complete 
 in France. It was erected in 1809, by Morel- Vinde, on his own estate, and the plan 
 published fourteen years afterwards, as of a construction which, during that period, had 
 given entire satisfaction. Long experience has convinced Morel- Vind^ that every sheep 
 in lamb, or with a lamb, to be at its ease, ought to occupy a superficies of ten square feet ; 
 that every full-grown sheep without a lamb requires a space of six feet ; that every ewe 
 requires a length along the edge of the rack and manger of one foot, in order to eat at 
 ease ; and that every ram with horns requires fifteen inches along the rack ; that the racks 
 are best when portable, that is, when they are capable of being taken down from the 
 posts on which they are hung, as shown in fig. 802 ; and, lastly, that in no case should 
 
 a sheep-house have a floor over it, the health of the sheep depending essentiaUy on t 
 having a great height of open space over them. On these fundamental principles 
 
MODEL DESIGNS FOR FARMERIES. 
 
 391 
 
 sheep-house at Celle was designed. Fig 803 shows the gi-ound plan, in which a a aa 
 are double racks and mangers, like that shown in fig. 802, placed lengthwise in the 
 
 803 
 
 middle of the building ; and 6 & a single rack and manger, continued round three sides. 
 There are three doors at one end, c c c. These doors may be seen shut in the elevation, 
 fig. 804; and the double and single racks maybe seen in the cross section, fig. 805; 
 
 804 
 
 
 o 
 
 d 
 
 o \ 
 
 805 
 
 
 1 
 
 1 L 
 
 / 
 
 in this section, also, are seen two bull's-eye openings, d d, in the end, for ventilation, and 
 wliich are kept open at all times. Fig. 806 is the side elevation, in which are shown the 
 situation of small sliding shutters, immediately under the eaves, at e e, and that of small 
 
 806 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 e 
 f 
 
 e 
 
 f 
 
 
 
 
 r— J- 
 
 
 openings close to the ground, at //, which have also sliding shutters, and which are for 
 the purpose of establishing a current of air on a level with the soil. Fig. 807 is a 
 
 807 
 
 longitudinal section, showing the framing of the roof. The dimensions of this sheep- 
 house are thirty feet in width, and seventy feet in length ; giving, exclusive of the space 
 occupied by the racks, eight parallelograms, marked from 1 to 8, in fig. 803, each thirty 
 feet by ten feet, and each containing sufiicient room for thirty sheep in lamb, or fifty 
 without lambs. The racks cover a space of 370 superficial feet, exclusive of the 24,000 
 feet devoted to the sheep. The great merit of this structure is its economy ; it having 
 cost only £\\n 10s., which was mainly owing to the circumstance of its construction 
 requiring only short pieces of wood ; none of these exceeding twelve feet, or measuring 
 
39^2 
 
 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA AIirHITEC TURK. 
 
 more than six inches on the side, as before mentioned. In France, wihhI which does 
 not exceed these dimensions sells at the siune price as firewood. 
 
 7G8. Goat-housrs are not in ase in Britiin ; but in France the celebrated manufacturer, 
 M. Ternaux, who introduced the Cachemire goat from Persia, keeps them in his grounds 
 at St. Ouen. near Paris, in the same description of houses as he docs his sheep. In 
 similar houses deer might also be kept. 
 
 7G9. Rabbits niav be kept in any dry house. Sometimes they are allowed to run at 
 large on the floor, and a range of boxes, eigliteen inches high, and two feet broad, is 
 placed round it, at the foot of the walls, divided into compartments of two or three feet 
 in length, with one small door, a foot high and six inclies wide, to each. On other 
 occasions, where there is a scarcity of room, or where rabbits are to be fed, they are kept 
 in tiers of boxes, one above another, called hutches. Each box or hutch, in this case, 
 has a grated front, and behind, or at one side, an inner box or division, for the animal to 
 enter and rejiose. Tiie size of tliis inner box may be a foot by eighteen inches, and 
 eighteen inches high ; and the size of the open part of the box may be a cube of eighteen 
 inclics. The bars or spokes in front may bean inch square, and two inches apart Two 
 of tliem ought to take out, for the purpose of putting in food, &c. 
 
 770. Poidtnj-houses require no particular form or magnitude ; because, the animal being 
 small in size, there is no necessity for accommodating the shape of the house to its par- 
 ticular figiire. Both terrestruil and aquatic poultry agree in requiring a dry and rather 
 warm lodging ; and they differ, in that the web-footed birds all roost on a flat surface, while 
 gallinaceous fowls roost best at some height from the ground, on roundish horizontal rods 
 or rails, of a size suitable for being grasped by their claws, but neither perfectly round 
 nor perfectly smooth. All fowls, when in a state of incubation, require repose, to which 
 darkness is favourable as well as solitude ; and places where they can have tliesc recjuisites 
 must be provided for them, as well as separate places for fattening them, to which also 
 solitude and darkness are congenial. - Poultry of every description, while growing, are 
 exceedingly active, and, in an artificial state, require a considerable extent of yard to 
 enable them to take suflicient exercise for health. The variety of their food is also con- 
 siderable, including not only animal and vegetable matter, but even, as a help to digestion, 
 salt, sand, or small pebbles. As land poultry require a dry yard, so acpiatic jioultry 
 require ponds ; and, while the common hen will roost at the height of a few feet from the 
 ground, the turkey and peacock prefer the highest trees. It must be evident from this 
 variety in the nature of these animals, that every kind will require a separate house or 
 compartment of a building, and that this house or compartment should be in four 
 divisions ; one for rearing, another for keeping full-grown fowls, another for incubation, 
 and a fourth for feeding. For the first two of these houses or divisions, a yard for the 
 pur])ose of allowing the fowls to take exercise and pick up food is essenti.d, and in this 
 yard there ought always to be an open shed for shelter from the sun or rain, abundance 
 of sand, and small pebbles; and, for aquatic fowls, a large pond. The healthiest poultry 
 of every description are those which are well fed in their yards in the morning, and 
 allowed free exercise out of them the greater part of the day ; and the fattest poultry are 
 those which are confined in the dark, and not allowed to take any exercise. In all cases 
 where poultry have not the free use of a large yard, they should have troughs filled witli 
 sand and small pebbles, placed so as to allow them to pick them when they cluK)se, to 
 promote digestion. We have described, in the Encyclojucdia of A<;riculture, the motie ot 
 fattening geese and other poultry, as practised at Strasburg ; but it is too disgusting to wish 
 for its adoption in any other country. These being the general circumstances connected 
 with domestic ])oultry for architectural purposes, they may l)e classed in tiie three fol- 
 hiwing divisions; viz., (lie web-footed or aquatic, which must necessarily, for every kinil 
 ')f treatment, be lodged on the ground floor; the comnion cock and hen, which prefer the 
 floor above ; and the turkey, guinea fowl, and iie.ncock, which roost in lot>y ojien sheds 
 or on trees. In small farms, tlierefore, nil the different kinds of poultry may l)e lodged in 
 the sanie house. Ducks and geese, with the other kinds, while rearing, on the ground 
 floor ; common fowls, when full grown, and while in a state of incubation, on (he middle 
 floor; and the turkey, Ac, above. One yard may answer for the whole, ])rovidcd it be 
 sufficiently large, and contain a large pond. As warmth is highly conducive (o (he 
 prosperity <»f ]>oultry, connnon fowls are frccpiendv lodged above cow-houses or stables, 
 or even pigsties; and in other casi-s, wlien it is vi-ry desirable (o cause hens to l.iy e.irly in 
 the seasotj, (heir houses are healed by fl-ies. When, howevet, (he house is of a coiisiruelion 
 well calculated to retain heat, and it is perfectly dry below, and has few opening* al>ovc, 
 and a roof sufliciendy (hick to exclude nil frost, artificial heat can very seldom be 
 necessary. When it is desired to rear chickens for sh\c very early in the season, the eggs 
 may be hatched by hot water, or in a bed of (an, dung, leaves, »)r odier feruHMUing 
 ma(tcr ; and, af(er being hatched, they may be reared under a nwif »»f glass, which roof 
 may be employed in the summer season as a covering for vines. At Ragshot Park, 
 
MODEL DESIGNS FOR FARMERIES. 
 
 393 
 
 Surrey, there is a very extensive poultry establishment ; and early in the season the fowls 
 are reared in a vinery; and a writer in the Gardener's Magazine (vol. viii.) not only 
 rears, but hatches, in a house of the same description. In the centre of the large yard at 
 Bagshot there is a tree partially denuded of its branches, in order that it may serve as a 
 roosting-place for the turkeys. In every poultry-house the places for incubation are small 
 stalls or boxes, eighteen inches or two feet square, and open in front, in which the fowls 
 sit on their eggs ; and, after these are hatched, they are taken out into the yard, and the 
 mother is confined in what is called a coop, an inverted cup of wickerwork, with the 
 interstices large enough to allow the young brood free egress and ingress, while the 
 parent cannot escape. These coops are frequently boarded on all sides, with a grated 
 door opening in front. Partridges, pheasants, quails, bustards, and other gallinaceous 
 birds are sometimes bred and reared in artificial structures, with a view to their domes- 
 tication or increase in any particular locality. When this is the case, it is necessary to 
 enclose them above and on all sides by netting, to prevent their flying away ; because 
 these birds are not susceptible of perfect domestication. 
 
 771. The Pigeon-house, or Dovecote, has been an appendage of the country-house from 
 the earliest ages ; and nothing can be more simple or universally known than its structure- 
 The only essential requisite is, that it must be at some distance from the ground ; because 
 the pigeon is a bird that flies much higher than any of the domesticated fowls before 
 mentioned. The openings for the birds may be in the roof, or in the highest part of the 
 side walls, with shelves before the holes for the birds to alight on ; and the walls of the 
 interior may be lined with boxes, divided into square holes, for the birds to make their 
 nests in ; in short, into pigeon-holes. 
 
 772. The Farmery Infirmary is simply a house, or one or more divisions of one, in a 
 quiet part of the farmery, large enough to contain a horse or cow in each division, and 
 to serve as lodgings for animals under a course of medicine. Dryness and a command of 
 temperature and ventilation are essential. 
 
 773. The Store-houses for the Produce of the Farmery mohxdiQ the barn; the straw- 
 house ; the granary ; the root-house ; the hay-barn ; the maize-barn ; the place for 
 keeping pigs' food ; the wool, hair, and feather room ; the hop-loft ; and the loft for 
 miscellaneous products. 
 
 774. The Barn combines a manufactory and a storehouse, and is to the farm-yard, 
 in the former capacity, what the kitchen is to a human dwelling ; that is, it manufactures 
 a great part of the food consumed in the other apartments or divisions of the premises. 
 Formerly the corn barn was much larger than it has become necessary to have it since 
 the introduction of threshing-machines. It should still, however, be of considerable size, 
 so as to contain a rick of unthreshed corn of the size that such ricks are generally made 
 on the farm. The size of the ricks, and the size of that part of the barn which is to con- 
 tain the imthreshed corn, should be accommodated to each other ; and the size of that 
 part of the barn which is to contain the straw after it has been threshed, if the straw- 
 room is not a separate building, should be accommodated to both. The form of the barn 
 should, in almost every case, be a parallelogram, and at least twenty feet wide, with walls 
 twelve feet high. The length will depend chiefly on the size of the ricks, and it is 
 always most economical to have these small ; not only because a small barn costs much 
 less than a large one, but because both grain and straw are sweeter, and more relished 
 by cattle, when recently threshed from the rick, than when they have been long kept in 
 a barn, granary, or straw-room. Where the expense is not an object, it is desirable to 
 have a room, as a granary, over that part of the barn which contains the machinery for 
 threshing, and the room for cleaning up and measuring the corn. Into this granary the 
 corn, as measured and put into sacks, may be hoisted up through a trapdoor by a wind- 
 lass, with a rope and pulley. The position of the barn relatively to the other buildings 
 of the farm-yard, depends on the position of the stables, and cattle-houses ; it should 
 always adjoin or be central to them, and be close to the rick-yard. Where the thresh- 
 ing-machine is to be driven by horses or steam, the barn may be set down on whatever 
 side of the farmery is thought best for it ; but where it is to be driven by water, local 
 circumstances must often determine its position. In general, as the buildings of a farmery 
 form a shelter to the cattle-yard, and as the barn is the highest of these buildings, it 
 should be placed on that side from which the coldest winds blow ; and this is also favour- 
 able for its proximity to the rick-yard, which ought to be in the most windy situation, 
 for drying the corn when it is newly stacked. There is another reason for placing the 
 barn on the most airy side of the farm-yard, which is, that when the threshing-machine 
 is driven by horses, they are less apt to be heated in the track-shed, which should always 
 be as open as possible on all sides. Wind machinery is also sometimes employed for 
 driving a threshing-machine; and, when that is the case, the north side of the farmery is, 
 in Britain at least, stiU the best situation. The most desirable power for driving a 
 threshing-machine is water ; and the next, in a coal country, steam. 
 
394 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 808 
 
 '9 b 
 
 809 
 
 775. A Corn Barn on Posts was erected by Morel- Vinde, at Celle, St. Cloud, in 1812} 
 and the plan and details of it are given in his excellent work. He observes, that though 
 the construction of a barn on posts is necessarily more expensive than one the floor of 
 which is the ground, yet that it does not cost more than one third of a bam of the same 
 size built of masonry, while it is a great deal better, especially in countries where timber 
 is at a low price. When Morel- Vinde's work was published, the barn at Celle had 
 stood twelve years without undergoing any alteration, or requiring the slightest degree 
 of repair, and without a single mouse or rat ever having been seen in it. The great 
 advantage of this barn is that of preserving the straw always as fresh as if it had just 
 come from the flail : he has preserved it one and even two years, without its undergoing 
 the slightest damage. The saving from the ravages of rats and mice, produced by such a 
 barn, is found by experience to be more than fifteen per cent ; and, compared with barns 
 built of masonry, there is also another saving, that of being able to fill it with corn the 
 first year ; whereas a barn with stone or brick walls requires a year to dry them. The 
 wood of which this barn is composed was not felled on the 25th of March, 1812, and yet 
 the barn was completed by the 25th of June in the same year ; and in the harvest follow- 
 ing 15,000 sheaves of wheat were put into it. The only kind of wood employed in this 
 barn is that of the Lombardy poplar, with the exception of the posts, two feet high, 
 which are of oak ; it is covered with slates ; and the whole cost was only £182 : 5s. : lOd. 
 in the neighbourhood of Paris. In the departments of France, the cost is estimated at 
 ;^109 : 7s. : 6d. Fig. 808 is the ground plan, on one half of which are shown three sleepers 
 
 the whole length of 
 the structure, a a a, 
 which support the 
 joists, 6 6, on which 
 is laid the plank- 
 ing, c. Fig. 809 is a 
 cross section of fig 
 808 ontheline AB, 
 on which are shown 
 the threshing-floor, 
 d ; a floor over it, 
 e, and the suspend- 
 ed fold-up steps, f. 
 Fig. 811 is a cross 
 section of fig. 808, 
 on the line C D, 
 showing that there 
 
 is no second floor over any part of the barn, but the 
 threshing-floor, as seen in the preceding figure. Fig. 
 810 is an elevation of one end, showing the cross braces, 
 which are only placed in the ends and sides. Fig. 
 812 is a side view in which may be seen the threshing- 
 floor, g ; the end of the floor over it at A ; and, in the 
 roof, four small openings for the escape of the wind 
 during stormy weather, to prevent its blowing off the roof 
 
 
 / \ 
 
 e 
 
 
 / 
 
 / 
 
 d 
 
 
 
 
 The side view of these openings is seen in fig. 81 1. Fig. 813 is a longitudinal section, showing 
 the cross braces which strengthen the upright posts, and the construction of the rooL 
 
MODEL DESIGNS FOR FARMERIES. 
 812 
 
 395 
 
 776. In the Con- 813 
 struction of the Corn 
 Barn at Celle, the 
 object was to enclose 
 a space fifty-five feet 
 long, twenty-two feet 
 broad, and twenty- 
 two feet high, without 
 taking into calcula- 
 tion the space con- 
 tained in the angle 
 of the roof, which 
 was eleven feet high 
 in the centre, the 
 angle of the side being 
 at forty-five degrees, 
 for the better throw- 
 ing off of the rain. 
 Numbers divisible 
 by 11 were made 
 
 choice of, because Ft.o s o 6 12 
 
 experience has shown that eleven feet is the maximum of length which can be given to 
 beams placed horizontally, without risking their bending. The fifty-five feet of length are 
 therefore divided into five bays, which are contained between six frames of carpentry, placed 
 eleven feet apart, and of which two form the gables at each extremity. Eighteen founda- 
 tions of masonry are built in the angles of ten 
 squares (see fig. 808), each eleven feet on 
 the side, and carried up fifteen inches above 
 the surface, in order to support eighteen stone 
 plinths, on which are placed eighteen oak 
 posts, two feet high and one foot square, fixed 
 to the stone by oak pins one inch square 
 and two inches long, which are let half way 
 into the post and half way into the stone, with 
 tenons at their upper extremities for being 
 mortised into the sleepers. By these means 
 the eighteen piUars are raised to the height 
 of three feet from the surface of the groimd ; 
 the two lower feet are covered with slates, 
 as shown in fig. 814 from i to k, and the 
 foot immediately under the joists is covered 
 with twelve panes of window glass, each a 
 foot square, retained in their places by two 
 small fillets of wood at k and I, to which they 
 are cemented at the upper and lower edges 
 only, and without any finishing at the angles. 
 The glass is to prevent the ascent of rats. 
 
 
 
 814 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 /\ 
 
 / 
 
396 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 On the eighteen pillars, presenting on their upper extremities eighteen tenons, is placed, 
 first a frame of carpentry composed of three sleepers the whole length of the structure, 
 which may be easily cut out of trees of Italian poplar ; and, secondly, six sleepers of 
 twenty-four feet long each, crossing the three long sleepers, and let into them by notch- 
 ing out each to the depth of one third. The three long sleepers contain, on their 
 under sides, mortises to receive the tenons of the oak pillars, and these are made fast by 
 wooden pins. On this frame is placed the skeleton of the building, which is rendered 
 plain by the sections and elevations represented in fig. 809 to 813. The skeleton of the 
 superstructure consists of twelve upright posts, each twenty-two feet high, framed into 
 two top plates extending the whole length of the barn, and into six cross plates. This 
 framework completes the skeleton of the rectangular part of the building. The roof is 
 composed of twelve principal rafters, on which are placed two purlins ; and on these rest 
 
 the secondary rafters, to which are nailed 
 the laths for receiving the slates. The 
 eaves of the roof project about foiir feet 
 on each side, to protect the unthreshed 
 corn or straw from the rain ; it also projects 
 about two feet at each end, for the same 
 purpose. This is the more necessary as 
 the sides are not covered with boards. All 
 the joinings of the timbers in this building 
 are by tenon and mortise, and all the pins 
 used are of wood, with the exception of 
 those employed for nailing on the laths for 
 receiving the slates, and the nails used in 
 fastening them. With these exceptions, 
 there is not a single piece of iron in the 
 whole of this structure ; and there is no 
 other metal used, except four pieces of 
 lead for the four openings in the roof. In 
 order to make certain of excluding the 
 rats and mice, by rendering it impossible 
 that the thresher should ever forget to 
 turn up the folding stair when he leaves 
 his work, two chains or ropes are attached 
 to it, one on each side, counterbalanced 
 by heavy weights, as shown at m, in fig. 
 815. In case of the roof requiring repairs, 
 twenty-four hooks of iron may be placed 
 at equal distances along the ridge, to which 
 the slater's ladder may be hooked on. 
 Instead of painting or tarring the timber 
 work, it may be covered, on the exterior 
 sides, with slates. We examined this bam 
 and the other buildings at Celle, with 
 M. Bailly de Merlieux, in 1828, and were 
 highly gratified with it. We consider it 
 a model for economy and usefulness, and 
 would strongly recommend it to the 
 American farmer. 
 
 777. The Straw-house is generally the 
 end of the barn opposite to that in which the unthreshed corn is placed ; but in large 
 farms it forms a separate building, adjoining and connected with the barn, and opening 
 into the different cattle-houses and cattle-yards. 
 
 778. The Granary, where the barn is not sufiiciently high to admit of its being placed 
 in the roof, is commonly placed over the cart-shed, or some other building. It is some- 
 times built apart ; but this is a needless expense, and seldom incurred in wooden construc- 
 tions. A detached granary should be built on pillars with projecting caps, to prevent 
 the ascent of rats and mice ; and it should have windows filled in with luffer-boarding 
 on all sides, for thorough ventilation ; it should generally be placed exterior to the cattle- 
 yards, in any open situation not far from the barn. When the granary is placed over 
 any other building, it is always convenient to have a windlass fixed in it ; either im- 
 mediately over a trap-door in the floor, or over a door in the outside wall ; through the 
 first of which, sacks of grain may be hoisted up from the corn-room of the barn, should 
 the granary be placed over it ; in the other case, be raised up from, or let down into, 
 a cart. 
 
MODEL DESIGNS FOR FARMERIES. 
 
 397 
 
 779. A Granary with a Loft for Wool above, and a Cart or Implement Shed beneath 
 it, is given by Morel- Vinde, which, where economy of room and money is an object, we 
 consider a most ex- 
 cellent model. The 
 material of construc- 
 tion is entirely timber 
 of small dimensions, 
 no piece in the whole 
 structure exceeding 
 ten feet in length ; 
 and only the story 
 posts, or supporting 
 pillars, are so much 
 as nine inches square. 
 Fig. 816 is the ground 
 plan of the cart-shed 
 or ground floor, fifty 
 feet by thirty feet. 
 
 The height to the under side of the floor above is ten feet. The two longitudinal sides of 
 this plan are carried up perpendicularly as gables, and the two ends are hipped in at an angle 
 of forty-five degrees, as shown in figs. 818 and 819. The granary floor is of the same dimen- 
 sions as the ground floor, and the wool floor, fig. 817, which is above the granary, is thirty 
 
 ^ 1 
 
 s 
 
 ' 1 
 
 816 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 817 
 
 feet by thirty feet. The granary and the wool-room are both seven feet high. The grain 
 and wool are both taken up and let down through a trapdoor, by means of a windlass fixed 
 over it, as shown at a, in the plan of the wool room. Fig. 818 shows the longitudinal 
 elevation of the building, in which may be observed three doors to the corn granary, and 
 one door to the loft over it. Fig. 819 is a longitudinal section through the centre of the 
 building, showing the situation of the windlass, b ; and the pulley over which the rope 
 passes, a. Fig. 820 is an end elevation, and fig. 821 a cross section. The total expense 
 of this structure, in the neighbourhood of Paris, in 1819, was j^247, and the estimate 
 for the departments of France was £150. Such a building is admirably calculated for 
 a country where small timber is the cheapest building material ; and we have introduced 
 it with a particular view to America and Australia, as it might be put up by the very 
 commonest description of country carpenter. The granary might even be used as a 
 hay-loft, or a loft for maize or Indian corn in the ear, and the wool-room may be 
 employed as a granary or seed-room, according to local circumstances. By means of 
 
398 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 818 
 
 the trapdoors and windlass, any article might be hoisted up from or let down into carts 
 with very little labour or loss of time. Should it be intended, before creating this 
 
 building, to use the granary as a hay-loft, or hay-barn, the floor need not be laid with 
 boards. 
 
 780. Storehouses for Roots, such 
 as potatoes, turnips, mangold- ^20 
 wurtzel ; and temporary deposit- 
 aries for clover, tares, or other green 
 food, or for chaff, hay, or other dried 
 food, should be placed next to the 
 houses or yards of the animals 
 which are intended to be fed by 
 them. In form they should either 
 be squares or parallelograms, as 
 giving most space at least expense. 
 They should have ample doors, ge- 
 nerally of such a width as to admit 
 of setting back a loaded cart into ^ 
 them, and shooting down the article 
 to be stored up. Food which is to be consumed immediately in feeding cattle, such 
 as green clover, tares, turnips, &c., may also be laid down at once in proper recesses 
 or stores formed in the houses or sheds in which the cattle stand. Food which is to be 
 steamed, or otherwise prepared, before it is given to cattle, should be stored next to the 
 place of preparation. 
 
 781. A Barn for Hay is used on some farms, though the practice is given up by the 
 best farmers as too expensive, and as being less favourable for keeping the hay than 
 stacks or ricks in the open air. . 
 
 782. A Barn for keeping the Ears of Maize is sometimes reqmred m countries where 
 that corn is grown upon a large scale. Barns of this description should be made quite 
 narrow, and open on the sides, so as to admit a thorough current of air ; and, to prevent 
 the weight of the ears above from compressing those below, there should be horizontal 
 
MODEL DESIGNS FOR FARMERIES. 
 
 399 
 
 floors of open work on which the corn may be borne in separate layers. A small 
 maize-barn on this construction, and 
 supported on posts six feet from the 
 ground, has been erected by M. Mathieu 
 de Dombasle, at Roville, near Nancy. 
 
 783. A Store Place for Pigs' Food 
 is a most useful part of a large farmery, 
 which never can be properly conducted 
 without keeping pigs. It ought to be 
 a dry well-aired room, near the pig- 
 geries, and should be of considerable 
 size, so as to have two tubs or tanks for 
 liquid food, the one being always filling 
 while the other was emptying, after 
 the contents had undergone proper fer- 
 mentation ; and three or four divisions, 
 for different kinds of meal and other dry 
 food. The situation should be close to 
 the pigsty, so as to minimise the trouble of supplying their troughs. 
 
 784. Storehouses for Hair, Wool, and Feathers should generally be formed in dry 
 airy lofts ; and, as nothing is more offensive or unwholesome than the decomposition of 
 these materials, no one, as before observed (§ 711), ought to be allowed to sleep, or to 
 work for any length of time, in such places. 
 
 785. The Storehouses for the Machinery and Implements of the Farmery include the 
 cart and roller shed, the plough and harrow house, the house for hand implements, the 
 harness-room, the chaise-house, and the place for miscellaneous articles. Of several of 
 these it is unnecessary to say any thing. 
 
 786. Storehouses for portable Machinery and Implements should be placed apart from 
 the houses for live stock ; and they should not, if it can be avoided, open into a yard 
 in which cattle or swine are at large. The sheds for carts and waggons are generally 
 lefl open in front ; and, when this is the case, they should face the east, in preference to 
 the west, from which driving rains are to be expected ; and the north, rather than the 
 south, because the intense heat of the sun is apt to warp the wood, and occasion a 
 shrinking in the joints. Houses for smaller tools should have closed doors, and luffer- 
 boarded windows for better ventilation, and their floors should always be perfectly dry 
 and free from litter. In general small implements should be hung up, or supported at 
 some distance from the floor, that they may be kept drier and more airy ; and those of 
 iron should be placed horizontally rather than vertically ; because it is found that in the 
 latter position they become in time magnetised, and more apt to rust and decay at their 
 extremities. 
 
 787. A Harness-room, for harness not in use, should also be a dry airy loft, or other- 
 wise a room on the ground floor, with a fireplace to admit of occasionally drying and 
 ventilating it by artificial heat. 
 
 788. The Working-houses of the Farmery, besides the barn already mentioned, include 
 the slaughter-house ; the carpenter's shop ; the smith's shop and shoeing-house ; and a 
 room for pickling wheat, cutting potatoes, carrying on various miscellaneous works, &c. 
 
 789. A Slaughter-house is necessary in a farmery of considerable extent, as it will 
 always be found profitable for a farmer to kill as much of the meat used on his farm as 
 possible. This part of the farmery should face the north : it should be well ventilated, 
 but without admitting light, because darkness tends to exclude the flies. The floor 
 should be paved, and have a sink and trap communicating with a manure tank. 
 
 790. A Room for a Smithy, and another for a Carpenter's Shop, are reqmred in very 
 extensive farmeries ; and they should generally be placed so as to open into a small yard 
 devoted to the different materials used by the carpenter and smith, and to machines 
 and implements undergoing repair, &c. 
 
 791. A Boom of All-work is necessary in every farmery, whether small or large, and 
 it may generally adjoin the slaughter-house. In it there should be a boiler for preparing 
 drinks for sick cattle, or for supplying hot water for other purposes. Wheat may be 
 pickled or brined, and other seeds prepared, in this room ; harness cleaned, tools sharpened 
 on a grindstone, chaff or roots cut by machinery, malt ground, &c. 
 
 792. Bee-houses are seldom requisite, where bees are kept, unless for the purpose of 
 preventing the hives from being stolen ; and this Huish and other writers propose to do by 
 chaining them to the bee-stand. A bee-house is very conveniently formed in the end 
 or side of any building, or in a wall, facing the south-east, east, or south. There should 
 be a recess, or a projection formed so as to give the effect of one ; and in this recess there 
 should be shelves of stone or boards, eighteen inches broad, and from eighteen inches *o 
 
 821 
 
400 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 two feet one above another. In front there may be either a grated iron door, or several 
 horizontal iron bars, to lock, so as to permit the free ingress and egress of the bees to and 
 from their hives, and yet prevent any person from taking them out. 
 
 793. Dogkennel, A watchdog is common to most farmeries, and the shepherd's 
 dog is a valuable assistant where flocks of sheep are kept. The proper position for the 
 watchdog is the middle of the open area between the farm house and the farm-yard, 
 in order that the dog may have a complete view of the yard, and be seen both from the 
 yard and house, as well as by all strangers who approach either. The lodging-place for 
 the dog is commonly a roofed wooden box with an opening only on one side, the 
 consequence of which is, that he may be passed by persons on the other sides without 
 his seeing them. We would suggest the idea of raising the dogkennel eighteen 
 inches or two feet, by placing it on a knoll sloping on every side, and of having two or 
 three panes of glass on each side, that he may see every way around him. To enable 
 the dog to lie in his kennel with comfort during hot weather, we would form two openings 
 the whole length of the sides of the kennel, close under the eaves of the roof, by means 
 of hinged flaps, which could be let down during summer, and put up and fastened with 
 wooden buttons in severe weather. Kennels for dogs kept for field sports belong to the 
 subject of villas. 
 
 794. A Lodge for single Men sometimes forms a part of farmeries, and should always 
 consist of one large well lighted and comfortable room for cooking and eating ; and 
 another, also large, dry, and well ventilated, for sleeping in. These rooms ought to be 
 placed near to the stables and cattle-sheds ; and perhaps it might not be amiss, in some 
 cases, to have speaking pipes from the stables and cattle-houses to the men's bed-room, 
 in order that they might the more readily hear any noise made there in the night-time. 
 Near London, where farms are liable to be robbed, we have known the farmer have a 
 speaking or hearing pipe, communicating from his bed-room to his dogkennel, and also 
 a wire connected with his dog's collar, by means of which he could loose the animal, 
 without moving from his bed. Mr. Ackermann, the celebrated printseller, has a 
 contrivance somewhat similar, in his villa near Fulham. 
 
 795. Cottages and Gardens for married Servants are built in the neigbourhood of the 
 farmery, in all the large farms in the north of England and in the south of Scotland. 
 Sometimes they form part of the farmery, but in general they are 200 or 300 yards 
 apart from it. The convenience of proximity is, however, so great, that we think the 
 distance should be diminished rather than increased. These cottages, in Scotland more 
 particularly, are very wretched habitations, even on the most extensive and best cultivated 
 farms. In 1831, we examined some farm labourers' houses of this description on a very 
 large and admirably cultivated farm, on the Duke of Buccleugh's estate in Dumfriesshire. 
 The dwelling-house on this farm (Cumroo) is more than usually large, with two rooms 
 in its width ; a part of its exterior wall is covered with well trained and wide-spreading 
 fruit trees ; and there is an excellent kitchen-garden, well stocked, and apparently in 
 good order, in which, when we saw it, a professed gardener (judging from his blue 
 apron) was at work ; so that the whole, had it not been for the farm-yard behind, might 
 very easily have been taken for a mansion residence. Passing this house, and advancing 
 about half a furlong, we came to a row of fourteen cottages, occupied by yearly servants 
 of the farmer who resided at the large house, and who, we were told, came from the 
 best-cultivated district in Scotland, East Lothian. Observing that to every door in this 
 row of cottages there was but one window, we entered one of them, and found a woman 
 sitting at a table, writing a letter (which seemed in a very good hand for a person in 
 her rank in life), while she rocked the cradle with her foot. The room, which comprised 
 the whole cottage, was about fourteen feet square, without a ceiling, and open to the roof ; 
 the floor was of earth, and the walls were left rough, just as the stones were put together 
 in building, but whitewashed : there was a fireplace, but only one fixed window of four 
 small panes. In this room there were two box-beds, placed end to end, and, behind, a 
 space of about two feet in width for fuel and lumber. The furniture and utensils, 
 though scanty, were clean and neat ; more especially when contrasted with the floor, 
 which, underneath the box-beds, which have no valances, was of earth, quite loose, though 
 near the fire were laid some flat stones, which the woman said her husband had picked 
 up and put down himself. The cottage window, as already observed, was fixed, and 
 incapable of opening to give air. There was no back door, and no opening either in 
 the roof or walls for ventilation, except the entrance door and the chimney. There was 
 no appendage, nor garden ground of any sort, behind these cottages ; but across the 
 road, in front of them was a narrow strip of ground, divided so as to allow one fall 
 (thirty-six yards square) to each cottage. In these gardens was no structure of any 
 kind. ( Gard. Mag. vol. viii. p. 265. ) There are few of the houses of married farm- 
 servants in Scotland any better than those at Cumroo, where they are built by the 
 tenants ; but we hope that the time may not be far distant, when the landlords will 
 
MODEL DESIGNS FOR FARMERIES. 
 
 401 
 
 undertake this part of the farmery, as well as those buildings which are destined to 
 lodge cattle, or protect produce or implements ; which are now deemed of so much 
 more importance than the cottages, that their erection is not intrusted to the farmer. 
 
 796. By the Extra-Buildings of a Farmery are to be understood those which do not 
 belong strictly to agriculture ; but which, nevertheless, are to be found on particular 
 farms, and the businesses for which they are calculated carried on by the farmer, as well 
 as the common culture of the farm. This practice is, no doubt, at variance with the 
 principle of the division of labour; but as it does exist in many cases, and must 
 necessarily long continue to do so in new cotmtries, we cannot avoid shortly noticing 
 such extra-buildings, in a work addressed to occupiers of land, and dwellers in the country 
 generally. They may be included under corn mills, malt-houses, hop oasts or kilns, 
 cider-houses, kilns for drying corn or other seeds, and for general purposes, limekilns, 
 houses for manufacturing meal from potatoes, distilleries, beet root sugar manufactories, 
 &c. We shall shortly describe the most common of these, and such as are most closely 
 connected with general agriculture. The reader whose situation may render him par- 
 ticularly interested in any of those not noticed in this work will find every information 
 he could wish, accompanied by plans, sections, and details, in the Dictionnaire Techno- 
 logique, and in the Agricailteur Manufacturier ; the latter one of the most scientific 
 agricultural periodicals published in France. 
 
 7^7. Corn Mills are of various kinds ; the principal of which are those for grinding 
 or husking oats, barley mills, and flour mills. The first class is sometimes connected 
 with the threshing-machine ; more especially in Scotland, where it is driven by water, or 
 impelled by steam. The farm in this case is always small, seldom exceeding 100 acres; 
 and, as the occupier's attention is divided between his mill and his land, he rarely succeeds 
 either as a miller or a farmer. Still we see no reason why an active intelligent man, 
 with sufficient capital, might not excel in both, and thus secure to himself the profits of 
 the grower, as well as those of the manufacturer, of corn. The same observation may 
 be made with respect to barley and flour mills ; and, no doubt, will apply to a variety of 
 others which are used for manufacturing farm produce. 
 
 798. Malt-houses. The manufacture of malt being a much more simple process than 
 that of grinding meal or dressing flour, a malt-house is a very common appendage to the 
 farm-yard in the barley districts of England. A malt-house and kiln comprehend three 
 divisions ; a floor, or place for steeping the barley, and managing it, till it has germinated ; 
 a kiln for drying it, to check vegetation ; and an airy loft for cooling it, and rendering it 
 so dry as to admit of its being put up in sacks, without the risk of its undergoing fer- 
 mentation in them. The floor for germinating the corn may be level with the surface 
 of the ground ; or, if the soil be dry, it may be three or more feet below it, as, the warmer 
 and moister the atmosphere is, the better it will be for the vegetative process to be carried 
 on. One end of this room should contain a cistern for steeping the barley ; and near it 
 should be a pump for supplying water. The barley, when the process is completed, is 
 thrown out on the floor, and turned over till it has sufl^ciently germinated. It is now 
 ready to be put on the kiln ; and, after being properly dried there, it is spread out on the 
 floor of the loft, which is generally over the malting-room, and of the same size ; being 
 thoroughly ventilated by having luffer-boarding on both sides. The building containing 
 the kiln may be advantageously placed at that end of the malting-room which is opposite 
 to the end containing the cistern ; and the floor of the kiln, and that of the upper or drying 
 room, ought to be on the same level, for the convenience of throwing out the malt to 
 be cooled and dried. The common form of all kilns is that of an egg, with the broad 
 end uppermost ; or of two inverted cones, placed base to base, the floor for drying on 
 being formed where the diameter of the shape so produced is broadest. The fire is made 
 at the bottom of the kiln, and the smoke froiu the fuel, and the vapour from the articles 
 drying, are allowed to rise directly through the floor above it, and to pass off by a chimney 
 covered with a cap or cowl, mounted on an upright shaft, and furnished with a pivot, so 
 as to turn freely with the wind, and presei .t the opening for the emission of smoke and 
 vapour always on the sheltered side. This form of kiln and mode of management are 
 still continued in Aberdeenshire, and in other parts of the north of Scotland ; and the 
 malt made there takes a particular flavour according to the kind of fuel used. The 
 malt most in repute is what has been dried with birch wood. In England the fuel used 
 is most generally wood, coke, or Welsh coal ; none of which produces a smoke injurious 
 to the flavour of the malt, so that the heated air which arises from the fire is allowed to 
 pass directly through it. The principal modern improvement in the construction of 
 malt-kilns consists in the employment of a furnace and flues, in the lower part of the 
 kiln, by which common coal, or any description of fuel, may be burned there ; and heated 
 air, being generated on the sides of the furnace and around the flues, ascends through 
 the malt, instead of the combination of air and smoke which issues from an open fire. 
 The sides of malt-kilns are of masonry, and the drying-floor is commonly formed of cast- 
 
 u u 
 
4<02 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 iron plates, sixteen inches square, and three eighths of an inch or half an inch thick, 
 pierced with holes an inch apart, half an inch in diameter on the under side, and con- 
 tracted to the eighth of an inch on the upper side. Sometimes tiles pierced in the same 
 manner are used instead of iron plates ; and a kiln tile, about a foot square, ought to 
 contain 900 or 960 small holes. Whether tiles or plates are used, in either case they 
 rest loose on wrought-iron rafters, with a narrow rib along the middle of the upper edge, 
 which forms two rabbets for receiving the plates or tiles. Wirecloth, supported by iron 
 rafters, is used occasionally, but it is found not to be sufficiently durable ; or perforated 
 sheet iron may be employed. This last material was formerly almost exclusively used 
 for drying pale malt, but it is now found that with cast-iron plates or tiles, like those 
 above described, the malt may be made pale or brown at pleasure. The space between 
 the floor tiles and the top of the furnace or flues is commonly between five and six feet : 
 this space is called, in Norfolk, the dunge, and into it fall the chives or cooms which, in the 
 process of turning and drying, are rubbed off the malt; and these form an excellent manure, 
 under the name of malt dust, as well as a good mash for sick cattle. The proportions of 
 the openings on the top of the kiln, and for admitting air to be heated over the furnace, 
 relatively to the area of the surface of the kiln, are points rather difficult to adjust. For 
 a kiln twenty-seven feet square, a circular opening at top, of about five feet in diameter, 
 will generally be found sufficient ; and the area of the openings on each side of the 
 furnace and flues, for the admission of cold air to be heated, must, when united, equal 
 that of the opening at top. These openings for the admission of the external air should 
 have regulators of sheet iron balanced by weights, so as to adjust the draught according 
 to the heat, and the state of the malt. A great improvement has been lately effected in 
 some of the Norfolk malt-kilns, by the dismissal of that unsightly and expensive appendage, 
 the cowl, before-mentioned, as being placed over the orifice at top. This cowl, until of late 
 years, was deemed an indispensable part of every malt-kiln ; but to Mr. Salmon of Stoke- 
 ferry is due the merit of the discovery that it may be wholly dispensed with. In lieu of 
 them this gentleman substitutes a flat circular canopy of sheet iron, supported on iron 
 rods. By this improvement, not only the exterior deformity is got rid of, but also two 
 large interior beams ; the one forming a guide, and the other a base and pivot for the 
 upright axle of the cowl. In a country like Britain, where malt is heavily taxed, there 
 are necessarily a variety of observances having reference to the duties of the excise officers, 
 which occasion some peculiarities in the details of construction ; such, for example, as the 
 malt couch, dry cistern into which the malt is thrown from the steeping cistern, before it 
 is spread on the floor, in order to be gauged ; but these we leave unnoticed at present, 
 as unconnected with general principles. 
 
 799. Hop- Oasts, or Hop- Kilns, are constructed much in the same manner as the malt- 
 kilns ; and the principal modern improvement which has been made in them, that of sub- 
 stituting hot air cockles for open fireplaces, is common to both. In the old plan of the 
 hop-oast, the fire was made on a grating at the bottom of the kiln, with what is called a 
 spark plate (a broad plate of cast iron, to reflect back the sparks, and prevent their 
 reaching up to the hops) placed at the distance of a few feet over it. Instead of being 
 laid on a perforated floor of iron or tiles, hops are almost always dried on haircloths. 
 These are supported on a floor formed of wooden spars or laths, about two inches and a 
 half square, and nailed, two inches apart, to wooden joists. The haircloth is laid upon 
 this floor, and its edges round the sides of the kiln are hung up by loops, to prevent the 
 hops from falling over into the fire-chamber below. The form and size of hop-kilns vary, 
 but they are generally built square, as being most suitable for covering the drying-floor 
 with a cloth ; and the ordinary size of a drying-floor for a hop ground of two statute acres 
 and a half, is eleven feet on the side. This size will dry three changes of hops in twenty- 
 tour hours. The floor of the kiln ought to open into a loft on the same level, into which 
 the hops are thrown to cool. In one part of this loft is a circular hole, about two feet 
 in diameter, with an iron rim round it, on which is placed the hoop to which the mouth 
 of the bag or pocket in which the hops are to be packed is sewed. This bag hangs down 
 fJirough the floor into the place below, which may be a cow-shed, or, as it is very fre- 
 quently in Worcestershire, a cider-house ; and a man gets into it and treads down the 
 hops as they are thrown in to him. The fuel which is used for drying hops, when the 
 smoke is allowed to pass through them, is coke ; and that made from very sulphureous 
 coal is preferred, as tending best to preserve the colour of the hops. In the management 
 of hops in Britain, there are a variety of arrangements connected with the kiln and hop- 
 loft, rendered necessary by the mode of collecting the excise duty ; but these we take no 
 notice of here, as our object is merely to lay down the general principles of drying, from 
 which every Architect can deduce the most advantageous forms. 
 
 800. A Drying- Kiln for General Purposes is a useful building for a corn farm in a 
 wet climate, and it may be easily constructed, at very little expense, and scarcely any loss 
 of room ; since the drying-floor may be used as a granary or store-room, when not 
 
MODEL DESIGNS FOR FARMERIES. 
 
 403 
 
 requwed for drying on. In the north of Russia it is frequently found necessary to dry 
 the corn, while in sheaf, in a particular description of kiln, the characteristic of which is, 
 that the floor is of wooden rafters about a foot apart, and at least twenty feet above the 
 hearth on which the fuel is burnt. There are various uses to which a farmer could 
 apply such a kiln as might be used for drying either malt or hops ; and since it is verv 
 desirable for every farmer who grows barley, to make his own malt, and brew his own ale, 
 we think a drying-kiln ought to be considered as a part of the farmery on every large farm. 
 
 801. A Cider-house is only essential to an orchard farm. Where the fruit, as in 
 Devonshire, is ground between rollers, the house for containing these need not be large ; but 
 where it is ground in a circular trough by a stone roller mill, as in Worcestershire, greater 
 extent of space is requisite. It seems to be agreed on by the most competent judges, 
 that the Worcestershire practice is by far the best ; for, while the fruit is merely torn and 
 crushed to pieces by being passed between two revolving cylinders, it, together with the 
 rind and seeds, is reduced to a pulpy mass by the continued revolution of the stone wheel 
 in the trough. The exposure of the pulp to the atmosphere, while this process is going 
 forward, is also more favourable to its absorption of oxygen, than that given to it by the 
 cylinder mill, from which it drops at once into a vat. Hence the great superiority, in 
 flavour, of the Herefordshire and Worcestershire cider over that of Devonshire. It may 
 be observed, also, that the malic acid corrodes the metal of the iron cylinders, and thereby 
 injures the liquor ; and further, that the machinery which impels these cylinders is much 
 more liable to get out of order, than the extremely simple apparatus by which the roller 
 mills are driven. In choosing a stone for a roller to grind fruit, all such as contain lime 
 must be avoided, on account of the action which the acid of the fruit would necessarily 
 have on it. Granite, quartzose rock, or millstone grit, is therefore necessary. The 
 stones are mounted so as to turn in a circle of from ten to twelve feet in diameter, in the 
 manner which we shall describe when we give an example in our succeeding section. 
 
 802. A Limekiln is a most valuable article on a farm containing limestone, or with 
 limestone in its neighbourhood. We are even of opinion that, where fuel is abundant, a 
 kiln for burning a portion of the soil of the farm, whether calcareous or clayey, would be 
 a valuable source of manure ; because all calcined earths, in consequence of their affinity 
 for oxygen and carbonic acid gas, decompose air, water, and insoluble organic matter. 
 Almost all clayey soils contain a certain proportion of lime ; and it has been found that 
 when such clays are calcined, and spread on any soil, even the same as that from which 
 they were taken, they add to its friability and fertility. There are various rude modes 
 of burning lime adopted in different parts of the country : in some districts it is mixed 
 with the fuel, and burned in heaps ; in others it is burned in kilns in the form of an 
 inverted cone, or of an egg with the broad end uppermost ; but the most improved form 
 has been determined, by Mr. INIenteath of Closeburn, after long experience, to be that of 
 an inverted wedge rounded at the angles. The advantage of the wedge or oval form in 
 the ground plan of a kiln is, that it admits of two or more openings at the bottom for 
 emptying the kiln, by which that work can be moi-e speedily performed than in the 
 common round kilns, which admit of only one opening ; and by which improvement, of 
 course, more lime can be burned in a shorter time. The great object, in burning lime, is 
 to burn it thoroughly, with the least possible expense of fuel, and in the shortest time ; 
 and for these purposes the kilns of the most improved construction, in addition to the 
 wedge shape for the expeditious emptying of the kilns, have either non-conducting 
 movable covers, or very small openings at top, into which the fuel and limestones are 
 thrown. The first inventor of the cover for limekilns was Booker of Dublin ; but they 
 have since been greatly improved by Mr. Menteath, as we shall show hereafter, in giving 
 designs. A most scientific combination of a limekiln with a coke oven has been made 
 by Mr. Heathorn of Maidstone ; in which the lime is burned by the gases which are 
 driven off from the coal while it is being turned into coke, and which gases would other- 
 wise be entirely lost. Of this kiln, also, we shall hereafter give a plan. 
 
 803. Buildings for carrying on Agricultural Manufactures, such as making potato flour, 
 extracting sugar from the beet, maple, or cane ; distilling spirits ; crushing seeds for oil ; 
 preparing woad, or weld, or flax, or hemp, and similar operations, have nothing so 
 peculiar in them as to demand the particular study of the Architect ; the building being, 
 in all these and similar cases, rendered subservient to the machinery. 
 
 804. Water is essential to every farmery, both for supplying the cattle with it to drink, 
 for washing the feet of horses, &c., and for other purposes of cleanliness. The most 
 convenient form of supplying this is from a well with a pump, in a central part of the 
 yard. If the subsoil do not naturally afford water, the well, or in that case the tank, 
 must be supplied artificially, either by pipes laid from some distant spring, pond, or brook ; 
 or from the rain which falls on the roofs of the buildings. We have already, § 151, 
 given Mr. Waistell's design for a tank, and shall here submit a plan which has been 
 sent us by our ingenious and most scientific contributor Mr. Mallet. 
 
404 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 805. Mallefs Tank, fig. 822, is calculated to save expense ; first, by using a figure of 
 maximum capacity and minimum surface ; and, next, by being able to dispense entirely 
 with the centring, which, according to the present practice, is used for arching over 
 tanks. Mr. Mallet proposes for very large tanks to adopt a spherical form ; but for any 
 of less than five or six feet in diameter, a short cylinder with hemispherical ends, as shown 
 in fig. 822. The excavation being made, the building is commenced, either with a single 
 brick at the bottom, a ; or better with a circular piece of stone laid on a layer of tenacious 
 clay, tempered as dry as possible, well beaten together, and previously mixed with some 
 salt to prevent the worms from working through it. This layer of clay, b, completely 
 surrounds the brickwork in every part, to make it retain the water. The bottom part is 
 now built all with common mortar, in the form of an inverted dome, nine inches thick ; 
 then the perpendicular part, c ; and, lastly, the upper dome. Now, any common arch may 
 be built without centring as far up as where the courses lie at an angle of about thirty- 
 two degrees, or what is called the angle of repose for masonry ; that is, where the bricks 
 will first begin to slip off ; but a brick dome may be built of any size, entirely without 
 centring, for the following reason . — Referring to fig. 823, d d are two bricks supposed 
 to belong to part of the course of bricks next above that at the angle of repose. Each of 
 these is to be considered, with the mortar in which it is embedded, as a quadrangular 
 prismatic frustum, whose sides all incline towards the centre of the hemisphere at e : now, 
 the upper surfaces of these two bricks form an internal or reentering angle with one 
 another, from the position they lie in on the preceding courses ; that is, they lean against 
 each other, as if they lay on opposite inclined planes, as shown in fig. 824. If, then, these 
 
 822 823 
 
 e 
 
 bricks slip, they must do so in the line e f ; but, in doing so, they must approach each 
 other : but they are already in contact, therefore they cannot slip. This demonstration 
 applies to any greater number of bricks, until the whole course is finished, when the 
 bricks are sustained by their lateral thrust. There is a limit to the weight of the voussoir 
 (the overhanging part of an arch, looking up from under it) which will support itself in 
 this way, as must be obvious to every one from the common principles of gravitation. It 
 is also obvious that a dome may thus be either left open, or closed at top. To make the 
 tank perfectly watertight, it is finally coated over two or three times with coal tar inside. 
 A manhole is shown at in fig. 822, for getting in to clean it out occasionally. This 
 plan of building without centring is applicable to constructing large architectural domes, 
 provided they be of brick, and that they be afterwards plastered outside with Roman 
 cement, which would stand as well on a dome as on a wall ; and, the great expense of 
 heavy domical centring being got rid of, domes on our large public buildings might be 
 more common than they are at present. The hollow bricks invented by Mr. Frost might 
 be here advantageously used. The usefulness of this plan of building without centres, in 
 constructing ice-houses, fruit-cellars, ovens, kilns, sewers, &c., is obvious. Mr. Mallet 
 adds, " I have built one tank on this plan, which holds sixty hogsheads : it was built by 
 one mason in four days, and never leaked a drop, although one side of it stood close to 
 an area wall, where the least moisture would have been visible." 
 
 806. Ponds formerly were thought essential to farm yards, partly for supplying water 
 for the cattle to drink ; but chiefly for the horses to wade through, in order to wash their 
 
MODEL DESIGTSTS FOR FARMERIES. 
 
 405 
 
 feet. The first use is now, in all the best-planned farmeries, supplied by troughs or 
 cisterns from pumps ; while the horses' feet are either washed in the stable with water 
 in pails ; or the horses are made to walk repeatedly through a narrow trough with a 
 paved bottom, and with oak or stone sides. This trough, which ought to be placed near 
 a pump, and opposite the stables, in the side of the passage between the buildings and 
 the dung-yard, may be three feet wide, six inches deep at the two ends, and gradually 
 increasing in depth to the middle, where there may be three feet of water. It must be 
 acknowledged, however, that in many, perhaps in most cases, the best mode is to wash 
 the legs of horses while in the stable ; because, when they are ridden into a pond or 
 trough, while warm from the plough or the cart, they are very apt to catch a cold or 
 rheumatism from the sudden chill produced by the cold water. This will chiefly depend 
 on the distance which the horses have walked after they have left off work. Horses 
 taken out of the gin wheel of a threshing-machine should never either be driven through 
 a pond or through a trough, for similar reasons, as will be ob-vious to every farmer. In 
 all cases, when the feet and legs of horses are washed, they should be immediately rubbed 
 dry with straw and cloths. 
 
 807. The Yards of Farmeries are, the corn-yard, the hay or dried herbage yard, the 
 cattle-yard, the sheep-yard, the poultry-yard, the dung-yard, the implement-yard, and, in 
 large farmeries, the yard for the carpenter and smith. 
 
 808. The Corn- Yard is that which contains the stacks of corn, and should always be 
 placed adjoining the barn, and on the most elevated and airy side of the farmery. The 
 size ought to be regulated by the size of the arable part of the farm, and of the barn ; 
 because no rick ought to be made larger than what could be contained at one time by 
 the corn bay, or end for unthreshed corn, of the barn ; and, consequently, a small barn 
 will require a larger rick-yard than a large one. The form, in this case, as in almost 
 every other yard or building on a farm, ought to be rectangular, and as near as may 
 be convenient to that of a square. Acute-angled or round forms are necessarily attended 
 with loss of space, and great inconvenience both in building the ricks, and in removing 
 them to the barn. The ricks ought to be placed in parallel rows, with a suflScient space 
 between every two rows, for a cart to pass along, either to unload when building the 
 ricks, or to load when taking them into the barn. Round the ricks, on the margin of 
 the yard, there ought to be a space suflliciently wide for a loaded cart ; and at the angles 
 this space ought to be increased by the omission of a rick, in order to admit of the cart's 
 turning round easily. All the ricks ought to be placed upon stands or saddles, so as 
 to keep them dry and safe from rats and mice. These stands are of different kinds, some 
 of which we shall notice. 
 
 809. The Rich Stand most common in countries where wood is the cheapest material 
 is formed of oak pillars inserted in the ground, and standing two feet high above it, with 
 a frame over them composed of joists of any cheap wood. The plan is round when the 
 ricks are to be small and rectangular, and generally a parallelogram, when the ricks are 
 to be large. 
 
 810. The rick stand, in wet climates, where the corn is frequently obliged to be 
 carried before it is perfectly dry, has, in addition to the flooring of joists, a funnel, formed 
 by a frame of wood, carried up from the flooring to the summit of the rick, passing, 
 or at least which ought to pass, through it, and terminating in a light cap of sheet iron. 
 The funnel is commonly not carried higher than two thirds of the height of the rick, but 
 this often defeats the object in view, for, from the sluggish nature of air, it will not ascend 
 freely unless it have a clear passage from the base of the stack to the summit ; and there- 
 fore the funnels, to be eflScacious, ought always to be carried through the thatch of the 
 rick. 
 
 811. Tlie rick stand, in countries where stone is more abundant than wood, and 
 where central fminels are unnecessary, is frequently nothing more than a wall two feet 
 high, of the size and shape of the intended rick, with a coping of stone or wood, project- 
 ing at least six inches over the wall outwards, to impede the ascent of vermin. The 
 foundations of this wall should be a foot or more beneath the surface, to prevent vermin 
 from burrowing under it. The interior space may be partially filled with earth or 
 loose stones, according to the nature of the soU, keeping in view the importance of pre- 
 venting the ascent of damp into the rick. 
 
 812. The rick stand, where cast and wrought iron are cheap materials, may be formed 
 of cast-iron pillars set on stone plinths, with cast-iron copings and joists ; and a cylindri- 
 cal funnel of wrought-iron round rods held together at intervals by circular rods, and 
 terminating in a cap above the thatch. Corn stands and funnels of this kind, but not 
 carried through the thatch, and without the cap, are not uncommon in the iron districts 
 of Scotland; having been first invented by Mitchell of Balquharn, near Alloa, in 
 Stirlingshire. 
 
 813. A square or parallelogram rick stand, fig. 725, is manufactured by Messrs* 
 
406 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 Cottam and Hallen. It consists of cast-iron pillars fig. 826, two feet six inches high, 
 which cost 8s. 6d. each. Wrought-iron rods, a, six feet eight inches long, which cost 
 lOs. each ; secondary rods, b, six feet eight inches long, which cost 35. 4d. each ; and 
 small rods, c, five feet six inches long, which cost Is. 5d. each. The method of fixing 
 the principal rods is shown in fig. 827 ; that of placing on them the secondary rods, &, 
 in fig. 828 ; and that of fixing the small rods on these last in fig. 829. A square yard 
 
 825 
 
 826 
 
 829 
 
 827 
 
 828 
 
 of this description of rick stand costs in all 12s., which may be considered cheap for an 
 article which, if heated, and afterwards rubbed over with oil or tar, previously to being 
 put up, will last many years. 
 
 814. WaistelVs circular rick stand, fig. 830, is formed entirely of stone, and consists of 
 two concentric circular walls ; the outer wall is twenty 830 
 inches high, to the top of the projecting flags ; at about 
 half its height, four grates of cast iron, about six inches 
 square, and half an inch thick, are placed in openings 
 left through the external walls, at equal distances from 
 each other, to admit air. The bars of the grates are a 
 quarter of an inch broad, and a quarter of an inch distant 
 from each other, which is sufficiently close to prevent 
 the entrance of mice. Stands thus constructed are con- 
 sidered, by those who have tried them, to be less expensive, 
 and more effective, than on any other plan that has been 
 invented. The air that passes through these four grates, 
 and through the openings in the internal walls, will 
 circulate freely under the rick ; and, if a chimney be 
 carried up the middle of the rick to its top, the current 
 of air that will pass up through it will carry off the 
 
 heat and moisture which might otherwise injure, and even spoil, such corn as was 
 rather too moist when carried." (^WaistelVs Designs, &c. p. 101.) These rick-stands 
 seem to have been invented by Mr. Waistell's nephews, who built the outside wall twenty 
 inches thick, the inside wall eighteen inches thick, and left a distance between the two 
 walls of eighteen inches. Across this space hedge-stakes or faggots were laid, sufficiently 
 long to support the sheaves. The funnel in the centre, when necessary, need have no 
 
MODEL DESIGNS FOR FARMERIES. 407 
 
 frame round it, but may be merely a circular opening, of two feet in diameter, left in 
 building the rick. j «. 
 
 815. Morel- Vindi's rick stands are of two kinds, one of which is circular and the other 
 square, and both are calculated for containing 3000 sheaves. The circular rick stand 
 fig. 831, is twelve feet m diameter; and, to contain 3000 sheaves, the rick must be carried 
 up to the height of twenty feet. It is surrounded by a ditch from two to three feet deep 
 the soil from which serves to elevate the stand or basis of the rick. On this is placed a 
 bed of faggots, which is first covered with straw, and on which the sheaves are afterwards 
 bmlt m the usual manner. Morel- Vinde's square rick stand is called in France the Ame- 
 rican rick stand. It is formed of a square frame of carpentry, fig. 832, with a St An 
 drew's cross m the middle, and is placed on five posts, each of which is furnished with a 
 cone of tmned iron, in the form of an inverted basin, to prevent the ascent of vermin as 
 shown at a a, m fig. 833 ; on this frame are placed faggots and straw, and afterwards the 
 
 sheaves ; and, when the sides are twelve feet high, this square rick, at that height, will 
 contain 3000 sheaves. o i ^ , 
 
 816. The Dutch rick stand is made square in the plan, with a frame of wood, placed 
 I P°^!«' furnished with tinned iron cones, like the American rick stand ; 
 
 Dut It differs from it in having the corner posts, twenty-five feet high, tied together at 
 top, so as to be there at exactly the same distance as at bottom, by horizontal rails, as 
 snown m fig. 834 ; and further braced at top by two pieces in the form of a St. Andi-ew's 
 cross, as shown in fig 835. The sheaves are built in the usual manner within the four 
 posts ; and in the centre of the under side of the cross of St. Andrew, at top, is fixed a 
 pulley, to which is suspended a light roof, formed of deal, and covered with matting of 
 
 hTq^ ^^rJ-^-'*''^' P^^^^"^ of oiled or tarred canvass, as shown in figs. 836 
 
 ana 837. This light roof is raised and lowered at pleasure by means of the windlass b, 
 in hgs. 834, and 835 and a cord, which passes over a pulley placed on the top of one of 
 tne corner posts, as shown at c, in figs. 834 and 836. The rest of the construction of 
 tn^s rick stand will be sufficiently obvious from the figures. We agree with M. Morel- 
 
408 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 834 836 
 
 ■ ft 4^ ^ 
 
 Vinde in thinking, that, as the great object of the farmer is to do the most at the cheapest 
 rate, the common round or square rick stand, on posts, and without a roof, is the best. 
 This is more especially the case where the barn is sufficiently large to contain a rick 
 at a time. The Dutch, no doubt, contrived these ricks for very small farms, and small 
 barns, where the sheaves were put on the rick by a few at a time, as they were harvested, 
 and taken into the barn by degrees as they were to be threshed. 
 
 817. The Hay- Yard of a common country farm is generally much smaller than the 
 corn-yard ; because the horses and cattle eat straw of different kinds rather than hay. 
 On grass farms, however, the hay-yard is often the largest. The same principles of form 
 and arrangement are applicable to it as those laid down for the corn-yard, with this differ- 
 ence, that its position should be placed as near as possible to the stables, cow-houses, or 
 such houses or yards in which it is to be chiefly consumed. 
 
 818. The Dung- Yard ought to be central to the stables and cattle-houses, for the 
 reception of the dung produced in them as it is daily wheeled out. The common situ- 
 ation is the centre of the farmery, where it is enclosed by a wall, against which, in large 
 farms, there are frequently open low sheds for cattle, and pigsties for swine. Both these 
 animals, as well as poultry, are allowed the run of the yard over the dung, to which they 
 do good rather than harm ; the pigs and poultry hy picking out grains and seeds, which 
 would otherwise be lost, or spring up as weeds when the manure was spread on the land ; 
 and the cattle, by treading the straw into the moister part of the manure, and thus pre- 
 paring it for being carted out and put into a dunghill for fermentation. The surface of 
 the dung-yard ought to slope towards its centre, or towards one point which ought to be 
 the lowest, and under which point there ought to be two capacious liquid manure tanks, 
 with which all the drains of the stables, cattle-houses, piggeries, &c., ought to be con- 
 nected. In this tank there ought either to be a pump constantly standing, or a hole for 
 inserting one at pleasure, in order to admit of pumping up the liquid to moisten the 
 straw of the manure, or into a barrel cart, for being carried off to form urate, or to apply 
 at once to growing crops. In small farm-yards, where few or no cattle are kept loose in 
 a central enclosure, instead of a dung-yard there is simply a dung-pit, into which all the 
 dung produced in the surrounding houses is thrown, and into which all the gutters and 
 drains (except those which are merely intended to collect rain or underground water) are 
 to be directed. This pit ought either to be sufficiently deep to contain the liquid manure 
 among the dung, or, what is far preferable, a liquid manure tank ought to be formed 
 under it. All dunghills ought to be kept constantly covered with dry loose straw, to 
 diminish evaporation by the cun and wind. 
 
 819. The Poultry- Yard, as we have already mentioned, § 770, should be in front of 
 the poultry -houses, and should be divided into the breeding, rearing, and fattening yards. 
 These oug ^t always to face the warmest aspect, being well sheltered from cold winds ; 
 and the breeding-yard ought to contain a large pond for aquatic fowls. In most country 
 farms the aquatic fowls are allowed to run at large over the farm, as being useful for 
 picking up slugs, worms, tadpoles, &c., and even the common poultry are allowed the 
 run of the dung-yard, rick-yards, and, in general, all that constitutes the farmery. 
 The poultry-yards, therefore, are chiefly used for rearing, and, to a certain extent, for 
 feeding in. 
 
MODEL DESIGNS FOR FARMERIES. 
 
 409 
 
 820. The Carpenter's and Smith's Yard is placed in front of the shops or work-places 
 to which it belongs ; and it ought always to be quite distinct from any of the other yards 
 which have been already mentioned ; particularly those containing straw, on account of 
 the danger from fire. On the largest farms, in the most improved agricultural districts, 
 a carpenter and a smith are kept constantly on the premises ; and in those of a smaller 
 size, these tradesmen attend one, two, or more days in a week, fortnight, or month, 
 according to the size of the farm and kind of culture pursued. In either case, shops for 
 these mechanics become requisite on the farmery ; these shops and yards serve also as 
 repositories for such articles as require repair, and for rough timber, hurdles, gates, bricks, 
 lime, and other materials of construction. 
 
 821. Passages or roads are required, in large farmeries, between the yards and the 
 houses, and these ought to be of such a width as to allow two carts to pass each other, 
 and so rounded at the corners as to prevent any difficulty in turning. Their width, in 
 general, should not be less than sixteen feet, and there should be as few gates across 
 them as possible. As the surface water collected in the gutters of these passages is not 
 intended to be conveyed to the dung-pit or manm-e tank, they should never be covered 
 with litter, but kept as clean as any other gravelled, macadamised, or paved road. 
 
 822. The System of Drainage in a farmery is a matter of very great importance, and 
 it ought to be determined on before any part is commenced of the yards, farm buildings, 
 or farm house. There are three distinct systems of drainage which must necessarily 
 exist in every well-constructed farmery : the first is the underground di-ainage of the 
 natural soil, so as to render it perfectly dry beneath, and fit for serving as the immediate 
 basis of the floors of the different buildings to be erected ; the second is the surface 
 drainage, for the removal of rain water from the roofs and passages ; and the third the 
 liquid manure drainage, for conveying the urine from the stables, cattle-houses, pigsties, 
 &c., and the dung liquor from the hammels and yards, to the liquid manure tank. We 
 shall offer a few words on each of these systems, for the guidance of the Architect. 
 
 823. Underground Draining. It seldom happens that the site for a farmery is so 
 dry as not to require some underground drains around and through it, for carrying off 
 the water that either sinks into the soil from the surface, and is retained there, or is 
 found latent in the subsoil, or from some other cause. In making these drains, particular 
 care ought to be taken that they be made so as to dry thoroughly the ground under the 
 floors of all the houses ; and, at the same time, neither in the houses nor in the yards to 
 interfere with the undergi'ound gutters to the manure tank, so as to carry off any of the 
 liquid manure. For this purpose, and also because their object is chiefly to carry off 
 underground water, they ought to be deep, and they need not come within a foot or 
 more of the surface. In general, one drain should surround the farmery, so as to inter- 
 cept all exterior sources of water ; and others should cross the farmery under the principal 
 lines of buildings and roads or passages. The dung-courts will, by those lines, be 
 rendered sufl^ciently dry for containing manure. As the drains under the passages, and 
 in the rick and hay yards, will have to receive the surface water through traps, they 
 ouglit to be barrel drains ; but all the others may be formed of loose round stones of 
 three inches in diameter at the bottom, four or five inches in the middle, and of the size 
 of large gravel at top. 
 
 824. Surface Drainage. The water of the roofs should all be collected by gutters at 
 the eaves ; and, if not wanted for a well, tank, or pond, it should be conducted direct to 
 the underground drains. The water which falls in the passages, roads, courts, or yards 
 not covered with litter, and more especially in the rick-yard, ought to be collected in 
 gutters, and also conveyed direct to the underground drains, through air traps. These 
 traps ought to be of such a construction as to retain the sand and grosser particles, 
 which might choke up the drain, and also to admit of being readily cleaned out. There 
 are various forms very suitable for this purpose ; but one of the cheapest and best at 
 present in use is the iron one of Messrs. Cottam and Hallen, shown in the perspective view 
 fig. 838, which weighs 4 cwt. 19 lbs. and costs 50s. In this figure, and in the section, 
 fig. 839, a is the level of the water, on both sides of the trap, & ; c is the opening by 
 which the water escapes ; and d the place where the sediment is deposited. The grating 
 at top, e, lifts oflT; when this sediment is to be removed. Gratings of this kind ought to be 
 placed all along the gutters, at distances of thirty or forty yards ; in order that no great 
 accumulation of water may ever take place on the surface. The grating being hollow 
 in the middle indicates that the direction of the bars ought to be across the line of gutter ; 
 their strength is suflficient to bear the pressure of the most heavily laden waggon. The 
 contents of all the underground drains about a farmery should be conducted to a pond 
 where they may be rendered available for the purpose of the surface irrigation of grass 
 land ; for, notwithstanding all ordinary care and attention that may be given, to prevent 
 the water collected from the surface by these drains from being mixed with manure 
 
liquor, some, if only from the droppings of horses and poultry on the passages, will find 
 its way into it. 
 
 825. Underground Gutters for Liquid Manure. In general, there ought to be a cess- 
 pool, or liquid manure tank, in the centre, or in the lowest part of every dung or cattle 
 yard, or yard which is intended to be kept generally covered with litter ; or where a 
 number of small yards, such as those of hammels, are to be placed together, one tank 
 centrally situated may have communications with the whole. The inclination of the 
 surface of every part of every yard should be to the cess-ix)ol, or to the trap of the drain 
 communicating with it ; and the underground drains fi-om the cattle-houses, stables, 
 piggeries, &c., should always be conducted to the nearest cess-pool. These underground 
 drains or gutters need neither be large nor deep, and may in general be formed of brick 
 earth draining-pipe of three or four inches in diameter. To prevent the possibility of a 
 current of air passing through these pipe drains, the end which enters the cess-pool may 
 either have a trap there, or be carried down the side walls to near the bottom of the tank, 
 so as always to be filled with water at their orifice. This is easily done by carrying up 
 the requisite number of funnels in the side walls of the tank, from the bottom of the 
 tank to the bottom of the drain, as shown in the section, fig. 840, in which a. is the bottom 
 of the tank ; b, the funnel left in its side walls ; c, 
 the conducting drain or draining-pipe; and d, the 
 surface of the ground. These manure drains, when 
 formed of earthenware piping, may be laid a foot 
 under the surface, and protected by side walls and 
 
 an outer cover of stone, to prevent them from being 
 
 injured by the wheels of carts or waggons ; or they 
 
 may be sunk two feet into the ground, in which case 
 
 they will be safe without any protection. The 
 
 manure tank should, as we have before mentioned, 
 
 § 16, always be in two divisions, that one may be 
 
 fermenting while the other is filling; and there 
 
 should be a pumphole in each. Were it not for the 
 
 expense, we should recommend the dunghill in 
 
 farmeries to be always covered with a roof, close 
 
 down to the ground, to prevent evaporation, Avhich, 
 
 m all cases where the dung is not enveloped in a 
 
 thick covering of dry straw, as before recommended, 
 
 § 818, carries oflT the most nutritive part of the 
 
 manure. The present clumsy mode of making 
 
 manure, at a great loss of material, and at a consider- 
 able diminution of the com.fort of cattle and other 
 
 animals, is unworthy of an age of science and 
 
 refinement, and, we have no doubt, will soon be 
 
 reformed. We see no reason why the straw should 
 
 be trodden by cattle at all ; if it were placed in 
 
 layers from time to time under a roof, over the 
 
 manure tank, and the liquid beneath pumped up 
 
 over it, such solid manure as was made in the stables 
 
 and cattle-houses being added daily, the manure produced would be as good as if the straw 
 
 had been trodden by cattle in a yard or in a cow-house ; while the loss which that 
 
 practice occasions, by evaporation and by what sinks into the soil, would be saved, and the 
 
 cattle preserved clean, and better in health, as well as more agreeable in appearance. 
 The mode of feeding cattle with straw is al&o in its infancy. We are persuaded that it 
 
MODEL DESIGNS FOR FARMERIES. 
 
 41i 
 
 would pay a fanner to have his straw cut by a machine into lengths of three or four 
 inches; and afterwards to have it boiled or steamed, and mixed with a portion of 
 succulent food of some kind. For litter and thatch the larger and stronger the straw is 
 kept the better ; but both for eating and for manure it would be more easDy managed if 
 cut into short lengths. The science and the art of making manure are alike unknown 
 to the great majority of even the best British farmers, and will be so till they learn 
 something of chemistry. In every farmyard, at present, it may safely be affirmed that 
 there is nearly as much manure lost as made. A liquid manure tank, connected by 
 underground tubes with the back-kitchen, and kitchen-court, with aU the privies, and 
 with all the houses or yards in which cattle are kept, in short with every source of water 
 impregnated with animal or vegetable matter or with any of the alkalies, would alone, 
 on a large farm, supply manure for several acres yearly. Even supposing the manure 
 tank not to be adopted, the mere circumstance of placing all the dung made on a farmery 
 in one dunghill under a roof, where its more valuable parts would neither be washed 
 away by the rain nor carried off by the sun and wind, would be an immense sa-sdng. 
 We say nothing here of other sources of manure, such as stall-feeding, which ought to 
 be universally substituted for grazing, &c. We strongly recommend the subject of 
 employing manure tanks and dunghill roofs to the land stewards of country gentlemen, 
 and to scientific agriculturists, and rural Architects generally. 
 
 826. The Liquid Manure Tank, to be generally adopted, ought to be of a very simple 
 construction ; for which purpose a square or a parallelogram plan, with perpendicular 
 side and end walls, and a semicircular arch over, with a manhole in the centre for the 
 pump, and for entering to clear out the interior, may be recommended as of easy erection 
 by any country bricklayer or mason. The walls may be built with common mortar, 
 provided they are well puddled behind with clay ; but cement will make the strongest 
 work, and will render a clay puddle unnecessary. In some parts of Germany, where 
 timber is abundant, the liquid manure tank is made ten or twelve feet wide, about the 
 same depth, and is covered with joists of wood, on which first coarse litter, and afterwards 
 the stable and cattle dung, are put as made. 
 
 827. Gates for farmyards and fields are commonly treated of in works on Farm 
 Architecture; and a very excellent wooden one is given by Waistell, which we have 
 copied in our Enci/clopevdia of Agriculture. We shall here, therefore, confine ourselves 
 to two very strong and cheap iron gates, and to a mode of opening gates, which, though 
 chiefly applicable to gates on public roads, may also be occasionally adopted with 
 entrance gates to farms, or farmeries. 
 
 828. Buchanan of Cutrine's Field or Farm Gate, fig. 841, on a scale of five sixteenths 
 of an inch to a foot, is composed of a frame or rim of bar iron, seven feet long and four 
 
 
 
 841 
 
 
 
 W\ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 — ? 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 — ■ — — ^ . " 
 
 
 feet high, one inch and three quarters broad, and three eighths of an inch thick, not 
 riveted, but welded at the angles, and the rim presenting its edge to the face of the gate. 
 The head style and the falling style are each projected about three inches above the rim, 
 for the purpose of retaining a horizontal rail of wood, about three inches by two inches, 
 placed on the top bar, in order to render it more conspicuous to cattle than the narrow 
 edge of the top of the iron rim. The diagonal strutt or brace is of the same breadth and 
 thickness as the surrounding rim, to which it is firmly riveted at both extremities. The 
 vertical round rods are eleven ; six of them are three quarters of an inch in diameter, and 
 five are five eighths of an inch ; they are riveted into the top and bottom rails, and 
 firmly fixed into the brace, by being put through it cold while the brace is red-hot. The 
 
412 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 842 
 
 hanging post is continued down nine inches at bottom, so as to form a pivot for working 
 in a socket fixed in a stone ; and up, so as to turn in a hook. The shutting post admits 
 of the application of any description of fastening ; one of the best for a cattle-yard, to 
 which this gate is particularly adapted, is a spring latch, which shuts into a recess in the 
 falling post, as seen in the figure. These gates are manufactured in the workshops of 
 the inventor, at Catrine, and the prime cost, in 1831, was found to be about 30s. 
 
 829. Cottam and Hallen's Iron Field Gate, fig. 842, is made of wrought iron, the hori- 
 zontal bars and braces being 
 made of flat bar iron, riveted 
 together at every intersec- 
 tion, in order to prevent the 
 swagging or sinking of the 
 head or falling style. The 
 lower rails are placed suf- 
 ficiently close together to 
 prevent pigs and lambs from 
 passing through between 
 them. This gate can be 
 supplied, singly, for 26s. each, 
 
 and by the dozen 10 per cent lower. Mr. Cottam considers this gate stronger, more 
 durable, and far more economical, than any gate which can be made of wood. 
 
 830. The Closehurn Field Gate is the invention of C. J. Stuart Menteath, Esq., and 
 of which he has lately sent us a sketch, fig. 843. The material is timber ; the construction 
 
 843 
 
 /rst-i ... .. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ■Si 
 
 I i 
 
 
 
 
 
 o 13 u a- ■ j 
 
 IS very light and strong, 
 and so economical that it 
 may be made in some parts 
 of the country, where 
 young fir trees are abun- 
 dant, for Is. When the 
 head sinks, it is raised by 
 the simple operation of 
 adding another washer be- 
 tween the key, and that 
 which retains the hook of 
 the upper part of the hang- 
 ing style at a. The fasten- 
 ing latch is protected from the rubbing of cattle, by being made to shut into a recess in the 
 falling post at h. When gates of this sort are made of young timber, it is, after being 
 sawn up, steeped in lime water, which is found to add to its durability ; and, when well 
 seasoned and put together as a gate, it receives three coats of boiling hot tar. 
 
 831. Gates to open hy Machinery. One of these, for a park or farm, made to open on 
 the approach of a carriage, will be found in our Encyc. of Ayr., § 3107; and we shall 
 here describe two others ; one of which is used as a turnpike gate at Scotforth, in the 
 neighbourhood of Lancaster, and the other is the invention of our correspondent, 
 Mr. Saul, of that town. Mr. Saul has sent us the following account of the mode of 
 opening the gate at Scotforth. In fig. 844, a a represent two fixtures ; each consisting 
 of two posts, with rollers between, for guiding the chains b and c. The chain h, fixed 
 to the lower bar of the gate, is the opening chain ; and the chain c is the shutting one. 
 There is a continuation of these two chains in tunnels under the road, represented by the 
 dotted lines d d ; and both chains pass under a roller at e, after which they rise through 
 a wooden tube to /, in the sleeping-room of the toll-house. They are there worked by a 
 winch, which being turned one way opens the gate, and the other way shuts it. Mr. Saul 
 was informed by the gatekeeper that this gate did not work freely ; and he lias suggested 
 what is obviously a far more efficient plan, of which he has given us an explanation, 
 accompanied by the sketch, fig. 845. In this figure, g represents a horizontal shaft placed 
 in a tunnel made across the road directly under the gate ; working at one end on the heel 
 of the hanging post by a pinion at h, and at the other by a beveled pinion at i, on the 
 upright shaft k. This shaft has another pinion at its upper end, which works into the 
 pinion I, on the axle of the winch m, supposed to be at the bedside of the gatekeepei. 
 It is evident that, by turning this winch, the gate may be opened or shut to any extent 
 at pleasure. The whole of the machinery may be concealed under ground, and in the 
 wall of the house ; the winch alone protruding into the bed-room of the gatekeeper. Any 
 millwright could easily make a working plan from the above description and sketch. It 
 may sometimes be worth while to have the principal entrance gate to a farm-yard con- 
 structed so as to open in this manner, and the use of the contrivance for toll gates, and 
 for the coach-yard gates of inns, is obvious. We hope also that the time is not far distant 
 
MODEL DESIGNS FOR FARMERIES. 
 
 844 
 
 413 
 
 \ I'M'-I 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 11/ • 
 
 
 
 when the occupiers of mansions, whose approach roads are guarded by entrance lodges 
 and gates, will so far study the comforts of their gatekeepers as to mtroduce this piece of 
 mechanism, or something better, to prevent the necessity of theu- getting out of bed to 
 
 open the gate in the night-time. In Germany the toll-bar or beam (f^Wagbainn)^^^ 
 balanced by a weight at one end, and the other is held down by a cord, ^.^^^^ P^^^^^^ 
 under one pulley Sid over another into the bed-room of the gatekeeper ; ^^^O' J?*^^^^ 
 rising from his bed, pushes out through a small opening ^ /^^g"?^"^"? "^'^.V,^^^^^^ 
 which he receives the toll, and, afterwards untying the cord, the weight raises the bar, and 
 the traveller passes through. r i. gar I'c in hqp 
 
 832. A Gate with a Puzzle Latch, to serve as a Substitute for a Lock, ^^fj' f j' '^'^ 
 on the estate of R. Bevan, Esq., Rougham, Suffolk, and the fo lowing ^^'If^^^^l^ 
 has been sent us by Mr. John Levett. The latch, a, is fastened by a br^P^' J^?^.^ f^^^^^ 
 bolt and nut to the head of the gate, and it works on the joint b. When this latch ^^ diaw^^ 
 back by pressure on the top of «, it raises the rod c which is connected the catch 
 date. The catch d being now raised, the pin /' * % ?l ^^fvkpd c 
 
 allowed to pass, and the gate is opened. The catch d, and plate for the rod, marked c, 
 are fastened to the post with four screw nails and two screw bolts. 
 
414 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 8<€ 
 
 9 
 
 r 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 • 
 
 
 
 
 ce 
 
 / 
 
 SuBSECT. 3. The Farmery considered as a whole. 
 
 833. The Farmery, as a whole, may be considered with reference to its situation on the 
 farm ; its extent and character relatively to the size of the fai-m, and to the kind of 
 culture pursued or of crops raised ; its position relatively to that of the farm house j the 
 style of its architectural design ; and the materials of its construction. 
 
 834. The Situation of every farmery ought, as far as practicable, to be in the centre 
 of the farm ; because this will reduce the labour of carting home produce, and carting 
 out manure, to a minimum. When the surface of a farm is very irregular, or where it 
 consists of the sloping side of a hill, the site of the farmery should be chosen at that 
 point of height in the slope where the extra-labour of carrying home the crop will always 
 be balanced by the extra-facility of carting out the manure ; and where, as much as 
 possible, the labour of the two operations may be equalised. The most difficult case for 
 choosing a proper site for the farmery is where the lands lie on the two sides of a valley: 
 here there is no choice but that of placing the farmery in the valley, and laying out the 
 fences, roads, and even ridges of the fields, in directions athwart the slopes, so as to 
 diminish all the farm labours to the extent of one half of what they would be by ascend- 
 ing and descending in straight lines. All labours with ploughs, carts, or waggons, and 
 even harrowing, and the manual labours of hoeing and reaping, may be diminished on 
 this principle. In laying out farmeries in all old countries which have been long inter- 
 sected by hedges and roads, and the boundary lines of all landed property in which is 
 exceedingly irregular, numerous cases occur where true principles must give way to 
 circumstances ; and all that the Architect can aim at is, after weighing well the argu- 
 ments for and against particular situations, to make choice of that which has a maximum 
 of advantages. Our intelligent contributor, Mr. Main, has paid much attention to this 
 subject, and has sent us the following observations : — " Proximity to a high road, to a 
 natural pond, or to the summit of a dry knoll, in order to be free from floods, is an advan- 
 
MODEL DESIGNS FOR FARMERIES. 
 
 415 
 
 tage which is never disregarded by the British fanner ; but, for the sake of these, we 
 often see others of much greater importance wholly neglected. If the buildings are on 
 the highest ground belonging to the farm, it follows that carting out manui-e fi-om the 
 yards must be facilitated ; but that, on the other hand, all the produce will have to be 
 carried up-hill ; and if, for the sake of water, the homestead be placed in a valley, that 
 these circumstances will be reversed. A gentle eminence, near the centre of the farm, is, 
 on all accounts, the most eligible, provided only that water can conveniently be had near 
 it ; but, now that the practicability of obtaining water by boring, in almost any situation, 
 has become so well known, no homestead need be wrongly placed merely on that score. 
 Some old homesteads are badly arranged in other respects ; such as placing them across 
 public footpaths or bridleways ; in which case gates are frequently left open by careless 
 passengers, and much damage is often sustained by the straying out of cattle, &c. There 
 are even instances of farm houses standing on one side of a turnpike road, and the barns 
 and yards on the other j but surely accident, and not design, must have produced such 
 absurdities." 
 
 835. The Size of the Farmery, and the Kind of Buildings which compose it, must 
 necessarily be regulated by the extent of the farm, and by the kind of culture pursued on 
 it. A farm wholly arable will obviously require different buildings fi-om one chiefly in 
 pasture ; and an arable farm, on a strong alluvial soU, on which wheat, beans, and clover 
 are chiefly cultivated, will require different buildings from a farm on a light soil, on which 
 turnips form a principal article in the succession of crops ; and, consequently, extensive 
 cattle-sheds ai-e required for lodging the cattle to consume them. On this subject 
 Mr. Main observes : — " The size of a farm regulates the extent and number of the build- 
 ings belonging to it. The lowest grade of farmeries has only a dwelling-house of two 
 or four rooms, with a small barn on one side, and a cow-house and stable on the other. 
 A front fence (generally carried across from the outer end of the stable to that of the 
 barn) forms the yard. The rick-yard is behind the barn, and the orchard and garden 
 are behind the stable and dwelling-house. The carts or waggons, when not in use, are 
 usually kept loaded with straw to preserve them from the weather ; pigsties lean against 
 the end of the liouse or stable ; and the whole is on a very homely and limited scale. 
 Such a homestead is only fitted for a farm of from forty to sixty acres. Lai-ge fanns 
 require buildings in proportion. Those belonging to a farm of 500 or 1000 acres appear 
 like a little town. In arranging these buildings, it should always be contrived to have 
 all the barn doors and cattle-yards in view from the dwelling-house. The superintending 
 eye of the master, or of some of his family, assists the vigilance of servants, and accidents 
 among the live stock are sooner observed and prevented, or remedied. Another point, in 
 disposing the buildings, should be, to have the lowest on the south, and the highest on the 
 north and east sides, for the purpose of shelter to the yard. Where the buildings are 
 insufficient for the purpose of shelter, closely planted ranks of spruce firs are available. 
 A horsepond is generally supposed to be a desirable appendage to a farm yard : but a 
 pump and trough in the yard are far more suitable. Cart horses are liable to greasy heels ; 
 and the having their legs wetted in the pond causes irritation, which they generally 
 indicate by constant stamping for an hour or two afterwards ; and this is sometimes attended 
 with dangerous wounds, loss of shoes, &c. The pantry and dairy are always placed on the 
 north side of the house. The latter, on a dairy farm, is usually a large clean room, with 
 a stone floor, four or five feet below the surface ; and a ceiling loft}, and plastered. At 
 one end, on the ground surface, is the churning and scalding room ; and on the outside 
 of this, next the yard, are the hog-cisterns, for the reception of the whey, skim-milk, &c. 
 It is an advantage to have barn room enough for every crop, especially in climates where 
 the corn is quickly and thoroughly di'ied. But in cold hmnid districts of country, it is 
 absolutely necessary either to have Dutch barns, or covered rick stands, § 816, or to set 
 the corn abroad in small cocks, thatched, to receive the sun and wind for several months 
 before housing. Agriculturists are generally of opinion that a well-proportioned farm 
 should consist of one third of meadow and pasture ground, and two thirds of arable land ; 
 because all the advantages of the plough and the hoof will thus be so well balanced, and 
 each will assist the other so beneficially, that there need be neither redundancy nor waste 
 of any of the produce ; but all may be turned to the best account in the shortest time. 
 In grazing farms, the above proportions are reversed ; one third of arable land being 
 considered necessary to supply litter for the cattle, and straw for thatching ricks, &c. 
 The buildings on such farms are also different ; as, instead of barns, they have extensive 
 feeding-houses." We might enlarge on this subject at gi-eat length, from the circum- 
 stance of having been early initiated in farming under our parental roof, and having since 
 farmed extensively on our own account, as well as from having designed several farmeries, 
 and executed some of them : but having abeady treated on the subject in detail, in 
 our Encyclopcedia of Agricidture, we purposely refer the reader to that work; being 
 desirous of not repeating any part of it in the present one, and of saying no more on 
 
416 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 the subject of agriculture than what is absolutely necessary to put the Architect in 
 possession of the requisite data and desiderata of the buildings which he will be required 
 to design. 
 
 836. Tlie most desirable Position of the Farm House, relatively to the Farmery, has 
 already more than once (see § 740 and 741) been incidentally mentioned; and it is only 
 necessary to repeat, that it should always be such as to command as complete a view of 
 the yards and the doors of the buildings as possible. For this purpose, when the living- 
 rooms of the house have windows on two sides, as in fig. 749, § 740, the diagonal of the 
 square of the house ought to be parallel to the square of the farmery ; but when the 
 parlour or living-room has windows only from one side, its front may be parallel with 
 the front of the farmery. On whichever side of the farmery the house is placed, the 
 buildings or walls on that side should always be so low as to be overlooked by the dog- 
 house and the windows of the parlour. 
 
 837. The Style of Architectural Design, in Farm Houses and Farmeries, may be con- 
 sidered in two points of view : first, with reference to the nature of the buildings ; that 
 is, their magnitude, shape, materials, and uses ; and, secondly, with reference to the other 
 buildings of a superior character, when there are such on the estate to which they 
 belong. Grecian architecture is best suited for low extended buildings, and for build- 
 ings constructed of timber, and abounding in piers and posts ; and Gothic architecture 
 is best calculated for lofty buildings of stone, without detached outside piers, posts, or 
 pillars. The prevailing lines in Grecian architectui'e ai-e horizontal, and lead the eye 
 along the eaves of the roof ; the prevailing lines in Gothic architecture are perpendicular, 
 and lead the eye upwards, by long, narrow, upright openings, and high gables. A 
 Gothic building of one story produces no effect, because there is no room for the ex- 
 tension of its characteristic lines ; but a low Grecian building may have the full measure 
 of its characteristic expression by extending its length. It is clear, therefore, that the 
 Grecian style is better adapted for farm buildings than the Gothic style ; and that, if 
 expense were not an object, the piers and posts of a farm yard might be, with propriety, 
 finished as Grecian columns andpilasters ; and open cattle-sheds and cart-sheds might show 
 the noblest colonnades, arcades, and piazzas. , On the other hand, when the mansion, or 
 chateau, or convent, or college, or school, to which the farm belongs, is in the Gothic 
 style, there is a propriety in yielding to accidental circumstances, and conferring the 
 same character of style on the farm buildings. As this cannot be done by general forms, 
 since it would be useless to carry stables and cattle-sheds three or four stories high, it is 
 to be attempted chiefly by the character of the openings, and by highly raised roofs . 
 the barn may have something of the forms and proportions of a cathedral ; the cart and 
 cattle sheds, of cloisters ; and the stables and cow-houses, of lodgings for monks, like those 
 common in old monasteries. We throw out this idea respecting the Gothic style more 
 in conformity with the taste of the times than with our own, which in every case of farm 
 buildings is in favour of the greatest simplicity of design, and of the indication of the 
 Grecian style rather than of any other. 
 
 838. The Materials with which Farm Buildings are constructed are commonly those 
 which are most abundant in the given locality. As the improvements which are con- 
 stantly taking place in agriculture necessarily occasion changes in the buildings for storing 
 or consuining its produce, it does not seem essential that the constructions on a farm 
 ought to be of the same degree of durability as those for a dwelling-house or for a public 
 building. Indeed, as society advances, change will enter more and more into every 
 thing, and almost the only buildings that will eventually require to be made of great 
 durability will be those of a public nature ; such as bridges, which ought to be the most 
 durable of all architectural constructions, piers, quays, sewers, public offices, parochial 
 schools, &c. As the walls of the greater part of farm buildings have no weight to support 
 but the roof ; as the retention of a high temperature within is seldom, if ever, an object ; 
 and as scarcely any fires are requisite, timber seems a very suitable material of construc- 
 tion ; and in all countries where wood abounds it will be found the cheapest. The 
 objection hitherto has been the want of durability, but this evil may be in a great degree 
 remedied by raising proper footings of masonry, as basements for the framework of the 
 walls ; by thoroughly seasoning the timber before it is used ; and by coating it over, after 
 it is put together, with tar, or some description of paint or other adhesive material, which 
 will effectually exclude the air and the weather. Walls of mud, or of compressed earth, 
 are still more economical than those of timber ; and if they were raised on brick or stone 
 foundations, the height of a foot or eighteen inches above the ground, or above the 
 highest point at which dung or moist straw was ever likely to be placed against them, 
 their durability would be equal to that of marble, if properly constructed, and kept per- 
 fectly dry. The cob walls of Devonshire, which are formed of clay and straw trodden 
 together by oxen, have been known to last above a century without requiring the slightest 
 repair ; and we think that there are many farmers, especially in America and Australia, 
 
MODEL DESIGNS FOR FARMERIES. 
 
 417 
 
 who, if they knew how easily walls of this description could be built, would often avail 
 themselves of them for various agricultural purposes. We shall therefore here describe the 
 
 Devonshire practice, as furnished us by the Rev. W. T. E , who has himself built 
 
 several houses of two stories with cob walls, in the manner which he details in the follow- 
 ing paragraph ; and who, moreover, informs us that he was born in a cob- wall parsonage, 
 built in the reign of Elizabeth, if not a few years earlier, which was only taken down 
 last year (1831) to be rebuilt. 
 
 839. Cob Walls, as they are called, are composed of earth and straw mixed up with 
 water like mortar, and weU beaten and trodden together. Chappie, in his Survey of 
 Devon, 1785, derives coh from the British word chwap (ictus), or from the Greek 
 KOTTTos (contusus), because the earth and straw ought to be well beaten or pounded 
 together. The earth nearest at hand is generally used, and the more loamy the more 
 suitable it is considered for the pui-pose. These walls are made two feet thick, and are 
 raised upon a foundation of stonework. The higher the stonework is carried the better, 
 as it elevates the cobwork from the moisture of the ground. After a wall is raised to a 
 certain height, it is allowed some weeks to settle, before more is laid on. The first rise, 
 as it is called, is about four feet ; the next not so high ; and so every succeeding rise is 
 diminished in height as the work advances. The solidity of cob walls depends much 
 upon their not being hurried in the process of making them ; for, if hurried, the walls 
 will ^surely be crippled ; that is, they will swag, or swerve from the perpendicular. It 
 is usual to pare down the sides of each successive rise before another is added to it. The 
 instrument used for this purpose is like a baker's peel (a kind of wooden shovel for taking 
 the bread out of the oven), but the cob-parer is made of iron. The lintels of the doors 
 and windows, and of the cupboards or other recesses, are put in as the work advances, 
 (allowance being made for their settling), bedding them on cross pieces, and the walls 
 being carried up solid. The respective openings are cut out after the work is well settled. 
 In Devonsliire, the builders of cob-wall houses like to begin their work when the birds 
 begin to build their nests, in order that there may be time to cover in the shell of the 
 building before winter. The outer walls are plastered the following spring. Should 
 the work be overtaken by winter before the roof is on, it is usual to put a temporary 
 covering of thatch upon the walls, to protect them from the frost. 
 
 840. In forming coh walls, one man stands on the work to receive the cob, which is 
 pitched up to him by a man below ; the man on the work arranging it and treading it 
 down. Each workman generally uses a common pitchfork, though sometimes a three- 
 pronged fork is employed. Cob houses are considered remarkably warm and healthy ; 
 and they are generally covered with thatch. The durability of cob is said to depend 
 upon its having " a good hat and a good pair of shoes ;" that is, a good roof and a good 
 foundation. The Devonshire thatching is very superior to that in most other parts of 
 England. It is done with combed wheat straw, called reed, consisting of the stiff, 
 unbruised, and broken stalks, which have been carefully separated from the fodder straw 
 by the thresher, and bound up in large sheaves called nitches. In this way the 
 thatcher is enabled to finish his work much more neatly than in other counties where no 
 reed is made. Instead of brick nogging for partitions, cob is used for filling in the frame- 
 work, which is previously lathed with stout slit oak or hazel. This sort of work is 
 called rab and dab. 
 
 841. Cob walls thatched are very common for garden boundaries. The trees are trained 
 against them by being pinned with maple hooks ; but such walls in the course of time 
 become full of holes, and afford a hiding-place for insects ; they, therefore, frequently 
 require a fresh coating of plaster. 
 
 842. In estimating the merits of cob walls, it must not be forgotten, that, when pulled 
 down, the materials are good for nothing but as manure ; whereas the materials of brick, 
 stone, and sometimes even of timber walls may be used in rebuilding. It also deserves 
 to be remarked, that earth or mud walls are not in use in any district of Britain which 
 is in an advanced state of improvement ; they appear to be chiefly suitable to a rude 
 state of society, where every man is his own builder, and where mechanical skill, and 
 good tools for working in timber and stone, are scarce. However, though they cannot be 
 recommended for general adoption where brick and stone walls are common, yet the 
 very circumstance of their being neglected, or not known, in such places, renders it pro- 
 bable that a great economy would be produced by their occasional use ; on the saine 
 principle that, in a country where the common labourers live on bread and butcher's 
 meat, one of them who should determine to subsist merely on oatmeal or potatoes would 
 save money. 
 
 843. For covering the Roofs of Farm Buildings, the cheapest material will generally 
 be the straw raised on the farm, which, when laid on thick, and with a steep slope, lasts 
 many years. The spray of trees previously well seasoned, hoop chips, and the chips from 
 other articles made of coppice wood, form more durable materials for thatching with than 
 
418 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 straw, and we think they might be more used than they are, with advantage. Never- 
 theless, thatched roofs have disappeared with the improvement of agriculture in all the 
 more advanced districts of Britain, and have given place to tiles and slates. It would 
 appear, therefore, that mud walls and thatched roofs, like the practice of using oxen in 
 field labours, notwithstanding all that is said in favour of the former for excluding 
 extremes of temperature, and of the latter as combining a working with a beef-producing 
 animal, are fast falling into disuse. Our own opinion, with respect to thatched roofs, is, 
 that in very many cases they are preferable, both for farm buildings and cottages, to 
 roofs of tiles or slates, as these are commonly constructed, even where the latter two are 
 cheaper, because they are less liable to admit through them the influence of every change 
 of temperature. 
 
 844. For Details of Construction common to buildings in general, we refer to that 
 part of this work which treats of the practice of building ; or the Architect may consult 
 Waistell's very excellent chapter (v.) on this subject. 
 
 Chap. IL 
 
 A Miscellaneous Collection of Designs for Farm Houses and Farmeries, in different 
 Styles of Architecture, and adapted to different Kinds of Farms ; with Specifications, 
 Estimates, and accompanying Remarks. 
 
 845. The following Designs exhibit various combinations of the separate buildings, 
 courts, and yards which compose a farmery ; and exhibit also farm houses with different 
 degrees of accommodation, from those of the gentleman's bailiff, and of the rent-paying 
 occupier of a hundred acres, to that of the wealthy proprietor who cultivates his own 
 estate. Though there is little room for a display of style in the necessarily simple form 
 of farm buildings, yet we shall endeavour to show in what manner style may be intro- 
 duced even in the humblest of them ; because the farm house is as susceptible of archi- 
 tectural design as any other dwelling ; and when it is in the same style as that of the 
 farmery, it gives a first impression, which should be found to be echoed, as it were, 
 through all the subordinate buildings. With respect to the arrangement of these 
 Designs, it is enough to say, that, like those of the cottage dwellings in the preceding 
 Book, it is miscellaneous. 
 
 Design 1. — A Bailiff's Cottage, in the Old English Style, intended for the Manager of a 
 Farm in the Neighbourhood of London. 
 
 846. Situation. This dwelling, which has been erected at Bury Hill, near Dork- 
 ing, Surrey, the seat of Charles Barclay, Esq., was designed by John Perry, Esq., 
 architect, Godahrung, and executed by contract, in 1831, under his direction. It is 
 situated on the south side of the farm yard, which will form the subject of our next 
 Design, and of which the bailiff has the management. We were shown the house and 
 the yard by Mr. Barclay, in October, 1831, and were so much gratified with both, that 
 we requested his permission to publish Designs of them. This permission he kindly 
 granted ; and, by the liberality of our excellent friend, Mr. Perry, we are here enabled to 
 give them, with the most ample details of construction, and with the original specifi- 
 cations and estimates signed by the contractors who executed the work. 
 
 847. Accommodation. The ground floor, fig. 847, p. 419, contains a porchway, «; 
 
 hall and staircase, ft; parlour, c; pantry, c?; 
 store room, e ; dairy, / ; scalding-room, or 
 dairy scullery, g, containing a pump, h ; 
 oven, i ; drying-room, k ; and terrace, I. The 
 
FARM HOUSES AND FARMERIES IN VARIOUS STYLES. 419 
 
420 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 851 
 
FARM HOUSES AND FARMERIES IN VARIOUS STYLES. 421 
 
 chamber floor, fig. 848, to a scale of twenty feet to an inch, contains four good bed- 
 rooms, TO, «, 0, p\ each with fireplaces, and all commodiously entered from the 
 landing, of the stairs, r. The basement story, fig. 849, to the same scale, contains 
 an outer cellar, s, and an inner cellar, t. There is an area, u, to the kitchen window, with 
 a trap over a drain, v, which is conducted under the cellar floor ; in one corner of which, 
 another trap, w, is placed over it, for carrying off any moisture spilled in the cellar. 
 
 848. Construction. The walls are of local sandstone, in random coxirses, with brick 
 arches and coins ; and the window sills, lintels, labels, and chimney shafts are of Bath 
 stone. The posts of the entrance and drying porches, are of oak and the superstruc- 
 ture of the drying-porch is of framed oak, filled in with brick nogging flat, as shown in 
 the elevation of the south front, fig, 850, p. 419. The roof is covered with plain tiles. 
 The different elevations are shown in p. 420 ; fig. 851 being the north front, fig. 852 
 the east front, and fig. 853 the west front. The ground floor is raised three feet six 
 inches above the general surface, and the terrace three feet ; as shown in the different 
 elevations, by the line z, which represents the soUd ground, as compared with the line y, 
 which represents the surface of the terrace. The ceUar is shown at in fig. 850, p. 419, 
 in fig. 853, p. 420, and in fig. 854; the latter being a section across the cellar, z; the 
 
422 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 both to a scale of one eighth of an inch to a foot. The columns here, it will be 
 observed, are twisted ; a practice not unfrequent in old English cottages of the better 
 kind, and which is in perfect accordance with the enriched barge boards and the turned 
 balusters of the balustrade. 
 
 Fig. 857 shows the plan of the drying-porch. 
 
 Fig. 858, to a scale of one inch to a foot, is a section across the balustrade, in which 
 a is the top rail, and b the bottom rail. 
 
 Fig. 859, to the same scale, is a section of the moulded face of the beam, c, in 
 figs. 855 and 856. 
 
 Fie 860 is a section of the top of the columns, on which the beam, c, is placed. 
 Fig. 861 is a section of the base of the same columns. 
 
 Fig. 862, to a scale of one fourth of an inch to a foot, shows one of the piers to the 
 parapet of the terrace, supposed to be of stonework ; in which d is the line of the solid 
 ground ; e, the surface of the new ground ; /, the level of the terrace ; g, rough stone- 
 work ; and h, worked stone. 
 
 l' I d 
 
 Fig. 863 shows the bottom part of the gable post, seen in fig. 865, and which also 
 serves as a pattern for the pendants from the verge boards. The scale of this figure is 
 two inches to a foot. 
 
 Fig. 864 is a section across the eaves of the roof, in which are seen the face of the 
 wall, i ; the bed moulding, k ; the soffit, I ; the situation of the bracket, m ; the eaves 
 moulding, n ; the rafter, o ; and the eaves board, p. The scale of this figure is two 
 inches to a foot. 
 
 Fig. 865 is a view of part of the barge board, and the gable post; in which are shown 
 the sunk panel, q, of the pinnacle ; the gable post, r ; the pierced openings in the verge 
 board, s s; the raised ornaments on the same, 1 the cross section of the verge board, 
 tt u ; and the cement verge of the tiling, v v. The scale of this figure is two inches to 
 a foot. 
 
FARM HOUSES AND FARMERIES IN VARIOUS STYLES. 423 
 
 Fig. 866 is the front view of the entrance porch, and r • r 
 
 Fig. 867 is the side view of the same porch ; both are drawn to a scale of six feet to 
 an inch. 
 
 Fig. 868 is a cross section of the oak coping of the wall of the porch. 
 Fig. 869 is a view and sections of the bracket part of the post, and part of the arch, 
 in the gable of the porch. In this figure, a is the commencement of the arch, which 
 
424 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 corresponds with the same letter in fig. 866 ; 6 b show the section of the moulded face 
 of the arch ; c c c are the three ornaments shown at c in figs. 866 and 867 ; d, e, f are 
 the ornaments shown as decorating the outer sides of the corner posts in figs. 866 and 
 867 ; and g is the side view of the brackets shown at g in the same figures ; A is a section 
 
 of the face of the comer post, and of the impost over it; ii, the front view of 
 bracket; k, a front view of the impost over the bracket; I, the soffit of the arch; i 
 my the inside view of the corner post, shown without ornament. 
 
 Fig. 870 is a baluster in the side of the entrance-porch, in which n is a section of 
 top rail. 
 
FARM HOUSES AND FARMERIES IN VARIOUS STYLES. 425 
 
 Fig. 871 shows the gate-post, o, and a cross section of the top rail of the gate, p. 
 
 Fig. 872, bottom rail of the gate, q ; and lower part of a baluster, under the rail, r. 
 
 Fig. 873 shows a horizontal section of the gate-posts, s, and of the gate-head, t. 
 
 Fig. 874 is a baluster of the gate, different from that in the side rail, shown in fig. 870. 
 
 Fig. 875 is the elevation of the external door of the house, to a scale of four feet to an 
 inch ; below which are the plan, a, to the same scale ; and the section of the muntings, b ; 
 the latter to the scale of a quarter of an inch to an inch. 
 
 Fig. 876 is a horizontal section of part of a window, showing the stone window jamb, 
 c, stone munting, d, and the cast-iron frames of the windows let into them, e e e. 
 
 Fig. 877 is a section of the stone drip mouldings, or labels, put over the windows, to 
 a scale of one inch to a foot. 
 
 Fig. 878 shows three sections of different parts of the chimney shafts, to a scale of 
 one inch to a foot ; / is a section of the head of the shafts ; ff is a section of the base ; 
 and h is a section of the drip moulding under the base, shown at h in figs. 879 to 882. 
 
 Figs. 879 to 882 are the elevations of the four diflPerent patterns of chimney shafts, 
 below which are the plans, i i i i. 
 
4^6 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 Fig. 883 is a section showing the footings of the walls, and their depth under the 
 original surface line, k k, of the ground on which they are built. 
 
 883 
 
 k 
 
 *• 
 
 ' 18 
 
 k 
 
 16 5 
 
 884 
 
 I 
 
 n 
 
 f 
 
 18 
 
 m 
 
 
 0 
 
 < 18 ; 
 
 
 Fig. 884 is a section showing the relative height of the ground floor, I, and the surface 
 of the terrace, m. In this figure are also shown the joists of the ground floor, n ; the 
 wall plate on which they are placed, o ; and the chain plate, p, which is continued round 
 the whole building. 
 
 Particulars of the several Works to he done in building a Bailiff's Cottage at Bury Hill, 
 near Dorking, Surrey, for Charles Barclay, Esq., according to the Plans, Elevations, 
 Sections, and Details, severally signed by the Parties undertaking the same. 
 
 849. Excavator's, Bricklayer's, and Well-digger^ s Work. To dig out the earth for the 
 basement story, and the several trenches for the foundations of the whole of the building, 
 of the respective depths and widths required, and to fill in and well ram round the work. 
 Surplus earth arising therefrom to be spread round the building, to form a terrace, as 
 shown in the plan. To dig a well in the dairy scullery, 4 feet clear in diameter, 45 feet 
 deep ; to steen the same in 4-inch brickwork, and to dome it over in 9-inch brickwork. 
 The soil and rubbish which may be made during the carrying on of the works to be 
 taken out of the building, from time to time, as occasion may require. All the bricks 
 to be used in the building, or brought upon the premises, to be sound and good well- 
 burned stocks. The mortar to be composed of the best well-burned grey lime, and clean 
 sharp sand, well tempered together. The footings and foundations to be built of sand- 
 stone, and below the ground line to be grouted with hot lime and sand. The remain- 
 der of the walls above ground to be built of sandstone laid in neat random courses, 
 with a flat joint garreted on the external face ; the stones to be properly headed and 
 prepared, and flushed solid in mortar ; the whole of the coins, arches, and inverted 
 arches to be of brickwork, and all the walls to be built of the several heights and thick- 
 nesses shown in the drawings, leaving the several apertures therein described. The 
 chimney breasts, jambs, and backs to be of brickwork, with inverted arches under the 
 lowest fireplaces, the flues to be properly gathered and pargeted (this operation is usually 
 performed with loam and cow-dung ; but quicklime and pounded brick are found far 
 better, and are now generally used by the best London builders), 1 2 inches in diameter 
 in the clear. A strong iron chimney bar (see § 602, fig. 542) to be put to each of the 
 fireplaces, and 4-inch brick trimmers to be turned where required. To build stone 
 foundations for the porchways, stone underpinning for the partitions, brick foundations for 
 the sink and to the dairy steps, and an area of 9-inch brickwork to the cellar window, 
 paved with bricks, with sinkhole and drain to deliver the water into the main drain. 
 To pave the cellar and passage adjoining with building bricks laid flat in mortar ; and 
 the pantry, store room, and kitchen with dressed paving bricks, bedded and jointed in 
 mortar ; and to wheel in such sand as may be required for properly levelling and current- 
 ing the same. To put hollow tile drains, 7 inches clear in the bore, where shown by 
 dotted lines in the plan ; altogether a length of 200 feet ; and to provide and fix 6 cast- 
 iron stink-traps, 8 inches square, one at each of the external apertures thereof ; the whole 
 to be laid with a proper fall, and sufficient depth to deliver the water away from the 
 lowest part of the building. To pave the drying-porch with pebbles ; to build brick 
 steps, and to bed the oak nosings (the nosing of a step is the front part of the tread, 
 between the line formed by the meeting of the riser with the tread) to the cellar stairs. 
 To build the foundations, the enclosure walls, and an oven 4 feet by 3 feet 9 inches in 
 the clear, properly domed, plastered, and paved ; and to find and fix the requisite iron- 
 work and door for the same complete. To build brick benches, with 4-inch arches and 
 piers, in the dairy, to receive a slate covering. To fill in the nogging partitions with 
 brick nogging flat. The bricklayer to find scaffolding and ladders, and to fix and refix 
 the same as occasion may require, as well for his own work as for the other trades 
 requiring the use of them ; and to allow the same to remain till the external part of the 
 house and chimney shafts shall be completed. The walls to be carried up in an upright. 
 
FARM HOUSES AND FARMERIES IN VARIOUS STYLES. 4^7 
 
 substantial, and workmanlike manner ; and in the progress of the building no part of 
 the work to be raised more than 4 feet above the other, except in the pediments, but 
 the whole to be carried up in a regular and equal manner. To fix the wooden bricks, 
 and to bed all the plates, bond timber, and lintels in loam. To cut all the rakes and 
 splays, and aU the chasings required for the lead flashings ; to make good and stop the 
 same with Roman cement ; to bed and point the door frames in lime and hair, and to 
 underpin the sills. To cover the whole of the roofing with old sound plain tiles (old 
 are preferred for their picturesque effect) laid on straw to a 7^-inch gauge, with 
 heart of oak laths, the hips, ridges, and eaves in mortar : the straw to be of equal 
 thickness throughout, and in sufficient quantity to exclude the L'ght : §85 
 no crooked, cracked, or cornerless tiles to be used ; and the whole of the 
 tiling to be done with particular care, so as perfectly to exclude the 
 snow, rain, and wind. (The gauge of plain tiling is reckoned from 
 the distance which the first and third laths are apart, measuring from 
 centre to centre. For a T^-inch gauge, the workman nails on a lath, and, 
 with a measure or gauge 7 inches and a half long, finds the place of the 
 third lath; and, having fixed that, nails another lath between. This 
 arrangement, when the tiles are hung on, causes them to overlap, so as 
 to show uncovered 3 inches and a quarter of each course. By this means 
 the third tile overlaps the first 2 inches and a half, which makes the work 
 impervious to rain. This will be rendered clear by the section fig. 885 ; 
 in which a a are the tiles ; h h, the laths ; and c c, the wooden pegs, by 
 which the tiles are hung on the laths.) The fillets, listings, and verges 
 to be of Roman cement. (The fillets are narrow strips of lime and hair, 
 or cement, put to cover the horizontal joints, where tiling abuts against 
 walls ; the listings are the same upon an inclined plane. The verges are 
 the external edge of the tiling in gables, which are covered with lime and 
 hair, or Roman cement.) The bricklayer to find all the materials, ropes, 
 boards, tackle, tools, workmanship, and ironwork, for the completion of 
 his work, and the carriage thereof; to do the whole in the best and 
 most workmanlike manner ; and to colour twice over in good stone colour, 
 to match the stone part of the chimney shafts, the whole of the brick 
 coins and brick part of the chimney shafts. To do all the beam-filling, 
 and wind-pinning required. The whole to be done subject to the pro- 
 visions of the general particular at the end. 
 
 8.50. Plasterer's Work. To lath, lay, set, and colour stone colour, the gable of diying- 
 porch. To lath, lay, set, and white the ceilings of basement story and scalding-room, 
 and to lime-white the walls twice over. — Ground Floor and Chamber Story. To latli, 
 lay, set, and white the whole of the ceilings, except the parlour, which is to'be lath, lay, 
 float, set, and whited. To lath, lay, and set the whole of the battenings and strings 
 of the stairs; and to render set the walls and nogging partitions, so as to fit them for 
 colouring, and in the parlour for papering. All the timbers of the partitions to be 
 diagonal-lathed. The plasterer to find all materials, tools, tressels, boards, moulds, 
 rules, carriage, and workmanship required for the completion of his work ; and to do 
 the same in the best and most workmanlike manner, subject to the provisions in the 
 general particular at the end hereof [The same person contracts for both the brick- 
 layer's and the plasterer's work, and signs this particular in the following form : — ] 
 
 I, the undersigned, hereby undertake to perform the foregoing bricklayer's and 
 plasterer's work for the sum of four hundred and eighty-five pounds five shillings and 
 eleven pence. 
 
 851. Mason's Work. To pave with Yorkshire stone paving, properly squared in 
 courses, the porchway, the dairy, and the scalding-room ; the dairy floor to be rubbed ; 
 with proper holes for stink-traps where required ; with Yorkshire steps and risers where 
 shown in the plan, and with a solid Yorkshire step at the entrance door of the house. 
 To put Yorkshire curb stones to the drying-porch and area, 5 inches by 4 inches, pro- 
 perly cramped, and run with lead. To put plain Portland stone shelves, mantels, jambs, 
 slips, and bases to the chambers ; and the same, with profiles, and reeded shelf and turned 
 pateras (the representation of a cup in has relief, a common ornament in friezes), in par- 
 lours, with Yorkshire stone hearths, and Portland stone slabs to each. The kitchen to have 
 mch-and-three-quarters Portland stone mantel jambs and shelf To put a Yorkshire 
 stone sink in the scalding-room, 5 feet long, and 2 feet 3 inches wide, with proper hole for 
 washer. To put moulded window frames, labels, and chimney shafts of Bath stonej 
 properly cramped and run with lead, according to the di-awings, and properly to fix, and 
 run with lead, the iron frames, lights, and stanchion bars. To put milled slate benches 
 in the dairy, an inch and a quarter thick, with rounded edges, and milled slate skirting 
 
428 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 7 inches high, backed up, and set in Roman cement, in the kitchen, dairy, pantry, and 
 store room. The mason to find all materials, carriage, and workmanship required for 
 the completion of his work in the best and most workmanlike manner ; and to fix the 
 whole complete, subject to the conditions in the general particular at the end hereof 
 [The mason contracting for this, affixes his signature to the same form as before.] 
 The terrace shown in the drawings (see the figures in p. 419 and p. 420) is not de- 
 scribed in this particular, nor included in the estimate ; as the expense depends upon 
 whether the free sandstone, of which it should be built, can be obtained with facility or 
 not. 
 
 852. Carpenter's and Joiner's Work. The whole of the materials to be provided and 
 sawed out square free from wane, of the several scantlings and thicknesses herein spe- 
 cified ; to be carted to the spot by the contractor, and to consist of the best yellow Dantzic 
 or Memel fir, or English oak, free from sap, shakes, or large and loose knots. The whole 
 of the carpentry is to be framed in a workmanlike manner, according to the drawings ; 
 the carpenter finding labour, nails, and tools, and all kinds of ironwork required for the 
 purpose ; the whole to be done subject to the provisions of the general particular at the 
 end hereof. The bond is to pass through the openings, and not to be cut out till the 
 work has settled. To put a chain plate of oak, 6 inches by 4 inches and a half, 
 round the whole of the building, and the middle wall in the centre of the same, at the 
 height shown in the plan ; the whole to be properly halved, and bolted at the laps, and 
 dovetailed at the angles. To put three tiers of bond in the ground floor story, and three 
 tiers in the chamber story, of oak, 3 inches by 2 inches and a half ; and an oak wall 
 plate under each floor, 4 inches and a half by 3 inches, dovetailed at the angles, and 
 halved and spiked at the laps. To put double oak lintels, 4 inches thick, to all the 
 openings, of the width of the respective walls or reveals, to lie 9 inches on the wall at 
 each end. Oak wooden bricks to be provided in the jambs, for fixing the several linings 
 where required, not exceeding 2 feet apart. — Parlour. To put oak joists, 6 inches by 
 3 inches, 12 inches apart ; the trimmers and trimming joists to be 6 inches by 4 inches. 
 — Chamber Floor. To put fir joists throughout, 9 inches by 2 inches and a half, 12 
 inches apart. The trimmers and trimming joists to be 9 inches by 3 inches and a halt^ 
 with one row of 1 inch and a quarter, fir keys (or strutting pieces) in each of the large 
 chambers. — Ceiling Floor throughout. The ceiling joists to be 4 inches and a half by 
 2 inches, 1 2 inches apart, with binding joists, 5 inches by 3 inches and a half, and angle 
 beams fixed with iron screw pins to the tie beams, 5 inches by 3 inches and a half, 
 trimmed to the chimneys, and for a trapdoor over the landing to the stairs. — Roofing. 
 Gutter plate, 8 inches hy 4 inches. Tie beams, each in one length, joggled to the plates, 
 7 inches by 4 inches ; king posts, 9 inches by 3 inches, with three quarters of an inch 
 iron screw pins 2 feet long, with nuts 3 inches long, mortised through the king posts. 
 Struts, 4 inches by 3 inches ; framed principal rafters, 6 inches by 3 inches at bottom, 
 and 4 inches by 3 inches at top ; purlins notched on the back of the principal rafters, 
 5 inches by 3 inches ; oak wall plate, 5 inches by 3 inches ; pole plate, 4 inches and a 
 half by 2 inches and a half ; 1 inch and a half sleepers, 5 inches wide, laid on the back of 
 the rafters to form valleys, 1 inch and a half ridges and hips, 6 inches wide ; common 
 rafters, 4 inches by 3 inches, 13 inches apart ; inch yellow deal gutter board and bearers, 
 with feather-edged flanch board ; and the same to the chimneys. The middle gutter is to 
 be 12 inches wide at the narrowest end, and to rise 2 inches in every 10 feet, with one 2-inch 
 splayed drop ; proper valley boards are to be put for the lead valleys. The roof of the 
 scalding-room, and of the porches and oven, are to have plates, rafters, ridges, valleys, 
 and gutters, as before described, and the whole of the eaves are to have feather-edged oak 
 eaves board, 4 inches and a half wide, and 1 inch and a quarter, and three quarters of an inch 
 thick, with inch brackets to receive the eaves moulding and soffit. — Partitions for 
 Nogging Flat throughout. To put heads and sills, 4 mehes and a quarter by 3 inches ; 
 and common quarters, 4 inches and a quarter by 2 inches and a half, 1 8 inches apart ; 
 door posts, principal quarters, and braces, 4 inches and a quarter by 3 inches ; and 
 nogging pieces, 4 inches and a quarter by 2 inches. All the heads of partitions to be 
 dovetailed into the plates. All the external walls are to be battened inside with inch 
 oak, 2 inches and a half wide and 12 inches apart. To make a proper barrel curb, for 
 the well-diggers, and such centering as may be wanted for the archers and trimmers. 
 
 853. Joiner's Work. To be done according to the several drawings of details. All the 
 stuff to be of the best well-seasoned (kept till so dry as to be in no danger of shrinking 
 when used) yellow deal, listed, free from sap and shakes, and the whole to be neatly 
 wrought and finished off in a workmanlike manner. — Floors. To lay inch straight 
 joint floors, with proper borders to slabs in the parlour, passage, and bed-rooms. — 
 Doors. To put inch and three quarters four-panel both sides square doors to all the 
 rooms and closets, and to the head of the cellar stairs, hung with 3 inches and a half 
 butt hinges, and 6 inches iron rim brass knob locks, with 1 inch and a half single-rebated 
 
FARM HOUSES AND FARMERIES IN VARIOUS STYLES. 429 
 
 jambs, having framed grounds beaded on edge, with quirk ogee fillet and square, to form 
 architraves. To put an inch wrought ledged and beaded trapdoor to go into the roof, 
 with inch rebated linings. The external doors into the entrance-porch, and the di ying- 
 porch, to be of oak, with doorcase, hinges, and linings, &c., according to the drawing ; 
 and to have a 10-inch iron-rim drawback lock, and two 8-inch bright rod bolts to 
 each. The cellar door to be inch proper ledged, with oak proper doorcase, 5 inches 
 by 3 inches and a half, with lock and key, and hung with 1 8-inches cross garnet hinges. 
 
 — Windows. To prepare a wood model, and provide cast-iron lights, casements, frames, 
 hinges, fastenings, and stay bars to the several openings, according to the drawings. To 
 provide stanchion bars four to each light, of an inch square wrought iron, in the dairy, 
 the pantry, and the store room. The dairy, the pantry, and the store room to have fly 
 wire (wirecloth to exclude flies) inside of the windows, and the casements to open from 
 the outside, with two panels of fly wire in the door between the pantry and the passage. 
 The several windows to have inch window boards with rounded edge, and also three 
 quarters of an inch splayed jamb linings, and soffits with framed gi-ounds, and moulding 
 for architraves, to match the other doors, except those in the cellar, store room, pantry, 
 dairy, and scalding-room. The kitchen and parlours to have 1 inch and a quarter sqiiare 
 framed folding inside shutters, with back flaps, proper hinges, and iron bar fastenings. 
 
 — Skirtings. To put inch torus skirting 7 inches high in the parlour, and three 
 quarters of an inch square skirting throughout the chamber floor. All the skirtings to 
 have narrow beveled grounds and backings. — Staircase. To put inch steps, risers, and 
 carriage, housed into the string boards, and 1 inch and a half close string, with moulded 
 planceer and raking skirting. Moulded handrail, and inch square bar balusters, with 
 iron balusters, and turned newels. The spandril to be filled in with inch and quarter 
 both sides square framing; and to put proper apron lining (the lining which cases 
 the trimmer) and nosing to the landing. To put oak framed nosings to the brick steps 
 of the cellar stairs, with oak wrought and rounded handrail and newel posts. To put 
 inch and half oak pump cheeks and sills, and to case the same with inch deal, and 
 proper cap, &c., and to fix the same in the scalding-room. To put proper staff beads to 
 the angles of the chimney breasts. To prepare and fix with iron holdfasts, 150 feet 
 run of inch and quarter shelf, 12 inches wide, and brackets in the pantry, store room, 
 or elsewhere, as may be directed. To put 2 inches and a half oak carved verge boards 
 with crown mouldings, and carved pendants, with three quarters of an inch wrought oak 
 soffits to all the pediments, and eaves moulding, and three quarters of an inch soffit and 
 bed mould, also of oak, to all the eaves. The entrance porch and drying porch also to 
 be fitted up with oak, the whole according to the drawing of details. The carpenter 
 and joiner to find all the materials, too^s, labour, nails, glue, and every description of iron- 
 mongery, locks, bolts, bars, hinges, and fastenings, and the carriage and fixing thereof, 
 and every thing required for the completion of his work in the best and most workman- 
 like manner ; and to prepare and fix all manner of beads, stops, fillets, grounds, linings, 
 and backings required for the perfect execution of the work, whether the same may or 
 may not be minutely specified in this particular. The whole to be done, subject to the 
 provisions in the general particular at the end hereof. 
 
 [Signed, as before, by the person undertaking the carpenter's and joiner's work.] 
 
 R.S. 
 
 854. Plumber, Painter, and Glazier's Work. Plumber. To put flashings of milled 
 lead, 8 inches wide, 5 lbs. to the foot superficial, chased into the stonework, and fixed 
 with wall hooks to each of the chimney shafts ; and to put gutters, 18 inches wide, of 
 7 lbs. cast lead, and aprons to such as require it. To cover the middle gutter, and gutter 
 at the drying-porch, with cast lead, 7 lbs. to the foot superficial, to turn up 8 fnches 
 under the tiles on each side, and to put 3 inches lead rain-water stack pipes, with cistern 
 heads to bring the water to the ground in the angle of the north front, and at the dry- 
 ing porch. To cover the valleys with 7 lbs. cast lead, 15 inches wide. To put proper 
 flashmgs of milled lead, 5 lbs. to the foot superficial, 12 inches wide, chased into the 
 stonework where the roofs of the scalding-room and of the porchway abut against the 
 same. To put a 5-inch brass grate, and bell trap, and 2 inches and a half lead pipe to 
 the sink. To put a good stout 4-inch lead pump barrel, weighing 2 qrs. 14 lbs., in the 
 scaldmg-room, with 50 feet of 2 inches and a half lead suction pipe, with bucket, 
 sucker, and iron handle complete. — Glazier's Work. To glaze and back putty all the 
 lights and casements, with good second Newcastle crown glass. — Painter's Work. The 
 whole of the iron frames, lights, and casements, and fly wire to be painted inside and 
 out, four times, in good oil colour. The whole of the internal joiner's work to be knotted, 
 primed, and painted three times in oil stone colour. The oak work is not to be painted. — 
 The plumber, painter, and glazier to find all materials and workmanship ; and the car- 
 nage thereof, and every thing requisite for the performance of his work ; and to do the 
 
430 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 same in a perfect and workmanlike manner, subject to the general particular at the 
 end hereof. 
 
 [Signed, as before, by the plumber, painter, and glazier.] W. B. 
 
 855. General Particular. The bricklayer's work to be completed by the 
 
 day of . The naked floors and roofing to be fixed and finished by the 
 
 day of . The whole to be covered in by the 
 
 day of . The plastering to be begun as soon as the roofing is 
 
 covered in, and finished, as well as the mason's work, by the day of 
 
 . The whole of the joiner's work to be finished by the day of 
 
 ; and the painter's by the day of 
 
 The glazing to be done as soon as the lights and casements are fitted in. Each con- 
 tractor shall be answerable for all damage done to his respective work during the pro- 
 gress, either by the inclemency of the weather or otherwise ; and shall make all good, 
 and leave the same perfect at the final completion of the work. The work to be paid 
 for within one month after the certification of the completion of the contracts. — 
 The whole of the materials are to be found by the contractors, and are to be of the best 
 of their several kinds, and fit for the purpose. The work is to be done in a substantial 
 and workmanlike manner, under the direction and to the satisfaction of the Architect 
 appointed for the purpose by the employer ; and every thing is to be performed that is 
 necessary for completing the whole work in the usual and customary manner, notwith- 
 standing the same may not be mentioned in the specification. And, if any alteration 
 shall be made by the direction of the employer, during the progress of the work, it shall 
 not vitiate or annul the contract, but the value of such alteration shall be ascertained, at 
 the customary prices of the neighbourhood, by the Architect, whose decision between the 
 parties shall be final. The full amount of the contracts to be paid when the several 
 works are certified by the surveyor to be complete and finished. And, if any material 
 shall be brought upon the premises which is disapproved by the surveyor, or any workman 
 employed whose skiU is considered insufficient by him, the said materials or workman 
 to be removed or discharged immediately, upon the contractor receiving notice from the 
 surveyor so to do, either in writing or verbally. And further, if any or all of the said 
 works should be performed in any way inferior to the description or intention of the 
 particular and drawings, or shall be deteriorated below a fair standard of good quality 
 or sound workmanship, the same shall also be valued by the said Architect as aforesaid, 
 and deducted from the amount of the contract by the employer ; and his decision in this 
 case shall also be final. The several contractors to be responsible to make good all latent 
 defects arising fi-om bad work or bad materials, notwithstanding the certification as 
 aforesaid. The contractor or contractors are to sign an agreement, when required so to 
 do, to perform the work according to the foregoing particulars and conditions ; which 
 agreement shall contain such additional clauses as the solicitor to the employer shall 
 deem requisite to secure and enforce the fulfilment of the same. 
 
 [This general particular is signed by all the different contracting tradesmen who have 
 signed the separate particulars, in the manner before shown.] 
 
 S. B., Bricklayer, Plasterer, &c. 
 
 W. G., Mason. 
 
 R. S., Carpenter and Joiner. 
 
 W. B., Plumber, Painter, and Glazier. 
 
 856. Measurement and Estimate. Account of the quantities of the several works 
 required in building a bailiflT's cottage, with an estimate of the expense of performing 
 the same. 
 
 857. Bricklayer, Excavator, and WeU-digger, a. m. (that is, finding All Materials). 
 102 cubic yards digging, filling, and ranaming 
 
 6 rods 265 feet reduced stonework below ground, grouted 
 
 13 rods 7 feet reduced above ground with brick coins and garreted 
 
 on face 
 
 4 rods 183 feet reduced brickwork in shafts and chimneys 
 
 25 squares 83 feet superficial, old plain tiles, with heart of oak laths 
 
 laid in straw ; with the hips, ridges, and eaves in mortar 
 
 65 yards brick nogging flat 
 
 27 yards stock paving flat, in mortar 
 
 34 yards dressed paving bricks, bedded and jointed in mortar 
 
 8 and a half yards pebble paving 
 
 92 feet run (lineal) splay 
 
 60 feet chase-cut and cement stopping 
 
FARM HOUSES AND FARMERIES IN VARIOUS STYLES. 431 
 
 78 feet verge (see fig. 865 v, p. 423), in cement 
 
 58 feet hip 
 
 100 feet ridge •• f* 
 
 200 feet run hollow tile drain 7 inches bore, and digging and setting 
 and filling in 
 
 1 sinkhole 
 
 6 cast-iron stink-traps 
 
 2 door frames bedded and pointed, colouring brick shaft, and back 
 at scalding-room, and square bases of the chimneys of the house, 
 and all the coins • 
 
 30 feet deep of well-digging, and labour to steening 
 
 15 feet do. of do. (Extra depth) 
 
 6 strong iron chimney bars 
 
 Ironwork to oven • 
 
 444 : 1 ; 4 
 
 858. Plasterer's Work, A. M. 
 
 94 yards lime- whiting 
 
 204 yards whitewashing to new work 
 
 7 yards stone colour 
 
 245 yards render set 
 
 261 yards lath, lay and set 
 
 19 yards floated do 
 
 £41 : 4 : 7 
 
 859. Mason's Work, A. M. 
 
 190 feet superficial York paving squared in courses 
 
 182 feet do. rubbed 
 
 18 feet 9 inches Yorkshire stone hearth 
 
 23 feet 9 inches Portland stone slab 
 
 12 feet 9 inches inch-and-three -quarters Portland stone mantles, 
 
 jambs, and shelf 
 
 47 feet 5 inches seven eighths of an inch thick in chambers 
 
 63 feet 6 inches milled slate benches to the dairy 
 
 87 feet 7 inches milled slate skirting set in cement 
 
 1 1 feet 3 inches superficial Yorkshire stone sink 
 
 28 feet 6 inches run Yorkshire curb 5 inches by 4 inches, cramps, and 
 
 lead 
 
 feet 6 inches Yorkshire stone step 
 
 24 feet rounded edges to slate shelves 
 
 4 feet 6 inches reeded edge 
 
 2 holes for stink-traps 8 inches square 
 
 2 turned pateras 
 
 2 bases to do • 
 
 4 three-light Bath stone window frames, and labels, as per drawings, 
 
 figs. 876 and 877, p. 425 
 
 10 two-light do. (with iron frames and stanchion bars in ditto, and 
 3 light frames fixed only) • 
 
 3 plain Bath stone chimney shafts and bases 
 
 4 enriched do. do 
 
 Yorkshire stone landing, and corbel, to secure the stack of 
 
 chimneys. (A corbel is a projecting row of stones, or of pieces of 
 timber, to support a superincumbent part of a wall ; it is here 
 used to support the upper division of the shaft which overhangs 
 its base) 
 
 £234 : 12 : 1 
 
 860. Carpenter's and Joiner's Work, a. m. 
 
 154 feet cubic of oak in bond, plates, &c ••• 
 
 422 feet 9 inches foreign fir, framed, in roof, floors, and partitions... 
 
 11 square (a square is 1-00 superficial feet) 11 feet superficial, in oak 
 battening 2 inches and a half wide, and 12 inches apart 
 
 180 feet superficial feather-edge flanch and valley board 
 
 58 feet 6 inches yellow deal gutter and bearer 
 
 36 feet 9 inches inch-and-quarter keys in floor 
 
 40 feet inch-and-half sleepers for valleys..... 
 
432 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 87 feet 2 inches ineh-and-half hips and ridges 
 
 • 227 feet run oak eaves board 
 
 1 1 feet 5 inches cubic oak framed 
 
 2 feet 4 inches oak wrought and framed 
 
 2 feet 4 inches do. do. circular 
 
 1 1 feet 7 inches do. wrought, framed, and moulded 
 
 Oak wood bricks , 
 
 9 screw pins (wrought iron) to angle beams, and fixing 
 
 8 iron screw pins and nuts to king posts 
 
 1 gate to the porch, of oak with turned balusters, and hinges com- 
 plete 
 
 Joiner's Work. 
 
 105 feet superficial, three-quarters-inch splayed lining 
 
 109 feet three-quarters-inch square skirting 
 
 244 feet three-quarters-inch wrought oak soflit 
 
 3 feet inch rebated lining... 
 
 48 feet window board rounded 
 
 52 feet 6 inches steps, risers, and carriage 
 
 148 feet 8 inches framed grounds 
 
 2 feet 3 inches wrought beaded and ledged trapdoor 
 
 1 9 feet 6 inches proper ledged door 
 
 2 feet 3 inches apron lining 
 
 18 feet 5 inches wrought pump case 
 
 28 feet 3 inches torus skirting 
 
 15 feet raking do 
 
 9| squares of inch straight joint floor 
 
 97 feet 6 inches superficial inch-and-quarter closet front and door ... 
 42 feet square framed folding window shutters, including hinges .... 
 
 13 feet 4 inches, inch-and-quarter close string 
 
 21 feet square framed spandril 
 
 150 feet shelf wrought, rounded, and fixed with brackets and hold- 
 fasts 
 
 167 feet 3 inches, inch-and-half single-rebated jambs 
 
 9 feet 9 inches oak pump cheeks 
 
 7 feet 6 inches oak filling in to gable of porch cut circular 
 
 206 feet 8 inches inch-and-three-quarters both sides square doors.... 
 
 39 feet 6 inches oak Gothic doors 
 
 208 feet superficial moulded work to oak verges, and fixing with 
 
 pierced sinkings 
 
 74 feet superficial oak columns turned spiral, as shown in figs. 855 
 
 and 856, in p. 421 
 
 1 3 feet 6 inches oak wrought, framed, and weathered (beveled to 
 
 throw off the wet) 
 
 35 feet 7 inches fly wire 
 
 435 feet run quirk ovolo and fillet 
 
 266 feet 6 inches narrow grounds 
 
 10 feet moulded planceer 
 
 3 feet nosing 
 
 120 feet angle staves 
 
 1 32 feet bar balusters 
 
 8 feet wrought and rounded rail 
 
 15 feet moulded handrail 
 
 120 feet eaves moulding of oak 
 
 120 feet bed mould 
 
 24 feet 6 inches, inch-square wrought-iron bars 
 
 2 feet 9 inches cubic oak in nosing to steps 
 
 3 inches do. in newel 
 
 3 feet 9-inch oak wrought, framed, and weathered 
 
 9 feet 9-inch posts, wrought, framed, and carved 
 
 4 feet 10-inch do., coping, wrought, framed, and beveled 
 
 1 1 pair 3-inch and a half butt hinges, and fixing them 
 
 1 1 6-inch iron-rim brass-knob locks 
 
 4 closet locks 
 
 2 10-inch iron-rim locks 
 
 4 8-inch rod bolts bright 
 
 2 pair of old formed hinges, as per drawing 
 
I 
 
 FARM HOUSES AND FARMERIES IN VARIOUS STYLES. 433 
 
 5 pair 2-inch butts 
 
 1 pair 18-inch garnets , 
 
 1 cellar lock and key 
 
 1 wooden pattern for casting the iron lights and casements 
 
 32 cast-iron frames 
 
 32 casements with hinges and stay bars 
 
 2 iron shutter bars 
 
 4 newel posts turned 
 
 1 hole for handle 
 
 1 cap to pump case 
 
 Barrel curb for well 
 
 5 gable posts carved and fixed, 7 feet 6 inches long 
 
 8 pendants 4 feet long 
 
 4 caps and 4 bases to columns 
 
 36 turned balusters 
 
 4 carved caps to the posts in the porch 
 
 ^485 : 7:11 
 
 861. Plumber's, Painters, and Glazier's Work, a. m. 
 
 12 cwt. 2 qrs. cast lead 
 
 3 cwt. 2 qrs. milled lead 
 
 53 feet run 2|-inches lead pipe and joints 
 
 26 feet 3-inch lead rain-water pipe 
 
 2 cistern heads 
 
 1 5-inch brass grate and bell trap 
 
 1 stout 4-inch lead pump barrel complete, with iron handle, bucket, 
 sucker, and fixing 
 
 152 feet second Newcastle crown glass, small panes 
 
 154 yards of painting thrice in oil, of stone colour 
 
 146 feet run bar do 
 
 218 feet square skirting, 6 inches high 
 
 48 feet 6 inches torus skirting, 7 inches high 
 
 26 feet handrail 
 
 132 feet bar balusters 
 
 90 feet angle staff 
 
 32 casements and frames both sides, 12 small squares in each 
 
 2 shutter bars 
 
 £ 68 : 18 : 10 
 
 862. Summary of Estimates for the Bailiff's Cottage, a. m. 
 
 Bricklayer 444 : 1 : 4 
 
 Plasterer 41 : 4 : 7 
 
 Mason 234 : 12 : 1 
 
 Carpenter and Joiner 485 : 7:11 
 
 Plumber, Painter, and Glazier 68 : 18 : 10 
 
 £ 1274 : 4 : 9 
 
 863. General Estimate. This cottage contains 22,842 cubic feet ; which, at the above 
 sum, amounts to Is. l^d. per foot, which thus appears to be the proper sum, per cubic 
 foot, for estimating dwellings of this description in the neighbourhood of London. 
 
 864. Remarks. Our readers, we think, will agree with us in highly approving of 
 this cottage, both for its internal accommodations and arrangements, and for its external 
 effect. The parlour and kitchen are of good sizes, and are both well lighted ; and the 
 cellarage, pantry, store room, and dairy are ample. The latter is large, because it is 
 supposed to furnish supplies to the family residing in the mansion. It is very properly 
 placed on the north side of the building, and both doors and windows are protected by 
 wirecloth from the entrance of flies. The pump being in the dairy scullery is a great 
 convenience. The drying-porch, judiciously placed on the south side of the building, is 
 a most useful part of this house, and we could wish it appended to every dwelling in the 
 country ; not only on account of the accommodation which it affords for drying things 
 in wet weather, and for sitting or working under, but for its ornamental effect. It is 
 a more social appendage than the veranda, because it allows of a party sitting round a 
 table, either to work or to eat. In America such a porch would be a delightful place 
 for husking Indian corn, as described by Cobbett ; or, in Savoy, for taking the skins off 
 walnuts, to prepare them for being crushed for oil, as described in the interesting Travels 
 
434 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 in the Tarentaise, by the eminent geologist Bakewell. All the chimneys are in the 
 interior wall, which brings the shafts exteriorly to the highest part of the general mass, 
 and completes what Hogarth, in his Analysis of Beauty, calls the painter's pyramid. 
 It is always more satisfactory to see chimneys issuing from the highest part of the roof, 
 than from the side walls, or from any lower part ; because the rising sides of the roof 
 seem to conspire in supporting what issues out of its apex, as the leaves of a plant 
 seem to support the flower stem which proceeds from its centre, or the spreading lower 
 branches of a fir tree do its spiry top. When it is known, also, how much this dis- 
 position of the chimneys contributes to their drawing well, and to the general warmth 
 of the house, its satisfactory effect cannot but be greatly heightened in every well regu- 
 lated mind. 
 
 Design II. — A Farmery in the Old English Style, chiefly calculated for Dairy Ht*6- 
 handry, and conducted hy a Bailiff, for the Proprietor of the Land. 
 865. Situation. This farmery, of which fig. 886 is the isometrical elevation, and 
 fig. 887, the ground plan, is built a few yards to the north of the bailiff's house, which 
 
 forms the subject of the preceding Design. Both, as before observed, were erected in 
 1831, at Bury Hill, near Dorking, for Charles Barclay, Esq., from the Design, and 
 under the superintendence, of John Perry, Esq., Architect, of Godalming. 
 
 
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 e 
 
 
 p ^ 
 
 
 ! 
 
 887 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 c 
 
 
 
 h 
 
 
 m 
 
 
 
 
 SI 
 
 r 
 
 L 
 
 
 
 
 P fj 
 
 
 — I 
 c 
 
 
 1 
 
 k 
 
 m 
 I 
 
 L:::™-|] 
 
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 866. Accommodation. The ground plan, fig. 887, to a scale of forty feet to an inch, shows 
 a cattle-shed, a ; waggon and implement house, with granary over, 6 ; hay-store, c ; calf- 
 pen, d ; cow-house, e ; another calf-pen, / ; slaughter-house, g ; swill-cisterns and tanks 
 for holding liquid food, and bins for dry food, for pigs, /* ; piggeries, i i i i i ; passage 
 between the piggeries and the fowl-houses, A; fowl-houses, 1 1 II; and two places for 
 fuel, m m. There is a pigeon-house over the granary, as may be seen in the elevation, 
 fig. 888. These buildings are placed on three sides of a cattle-yard, which is open to 
 
FARM HOUSES AND FARMERIES IN VARIOUS STYLES. 435 
 
 the south, and overlooked in that direction by the windows of the bailiflfs house. 
 There is no stable in this farmery, all the field labour being performed by four pair of 
 oxen, which stand in the cattle-shed. The surface water may be supposed to be con- 
 veyed from the passage round the farm-yard by a gutter, forming a line of demarcation 
 between that passage and the space for the dunghill in the centre, and having traps com- 
 municating with an underground drain. The water from the roofs may be collected 
 by gutters at the eaves, and conveyed to the same underground drain as that which 
 carries off the surface water. All the liquid matter of the cow-house, cattle-sheds, and 
 pigsties should be collected by gratings into covered gutters, and by them conveyed to 
 two liquid manure tanks in the centre of the yard, over which should be placed the 
 dunghill ; and, if the greatest economy of manure, and al^ a pattern to surrounding 
 farmers, were, as we think they ought to be, leading objects, this dunghill ought to be 
 covered with a roof. 
 
 867. Construction. The walls are buUt of local sandstone, with the exception of the 
 south wall of the cow-house, and of the west wall of the granary ; both of which are of 
 studwork, weather-boarded. The roof, over the cattle-shed and hay-store is to be covered 
 with pantiles, and all the other roofs with hoop chips. Hoop chips are the shavings 
 made by the coppice cutters, when splitting and preparing lai-ge hoops from long hazel 
 and other rods grown in coppice woods : they are generally upwards of an inch broad, 
 a quarter of an inch or more thick, and from 18 inches to 3 feet in length. They are 
 laid on, and sewed to the laths, like thatch ; and, after a few years, are hardly to be 
 known from a roof of that description. Their durability, when the roof is so steep as 
 to throw off the water effectually, is equal to that of tiles, and they require less repair. 
 Fig. 888 is the south elevation, in which may be seen the manner in which the oak gate- 
 
 posts are kept firm in their places, by the underground braces, to the subsUls, n n. 
 Fig. 889 is the back elevation of the cow-house, in which are seen, to the right, the 
 
 889 
 
 gable end of the granary, and its outside step-ladder. Fig. 890 is the front elevation 
 of the cow-house and the slaughter-house ; showing the manner in which the former is 
 ventilated by luffer-boarding under the eaves. Fig. 891 is an elevation of the waggon- 
 house, with the granary over, in which is seen a side view of the outside wooden stair or 
 step-ladder; and, under the ground line, the inverted arches, on the abutments of which 
 the stone bases of the story posts are placed. These stone bases are shown in fig. 892, 
 
 890 S92 
 
436 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTUKl!:. 
 
 on a scale of half an inch to a foot. In this figure, o is the post ; p, the stone base ; and q, 
 half of the plan of the same. Fig. 893 shows the elevation of the front of the fowl-houses, 
 and the end of the slaughter-house ; and fig. 894 the front of the pigsties. In the last 
 figure are seen, at r r, the ends of the cast-iron troughs, which project about a foot from the 
 
 wall, for receiving the pigs' food. They are seen In the ground plan, fig. 887,*at s s s. All 
 these elevations are to a scale of forty feet to an inch. Fig. 895 shows the construction 
 of the roof of the cow-house, and fig. 896 that of the roof of the granary ; both to 
 a scale of twelve feet 
 to an inch. Fig. 897 
 shows a section, on a 
 scale of twelve feet to 
 an inch, through the 
 piggeries and fowl- 
 houses, in which t is 
 the fowl-house ; u, the 
 passage between the 
 fowl-houses and the 
 piggeries; v, the pig- 
 sties ; and w, the open 
 yards in front of them. 
 Other details of con- 
 struction may be gathered from the following particulars of the work to be done ; 
 
 Particulars of the several Works to he done in erecting certain Farm Buildings at Bury 
 Hill, near Dorking, Surrey, for Charles Barclay, Esq., according to the Plans, Eleva- 
 tions, Sections, and Details severally signed by the Parties undertaking the same. 
 
 868. Bricklayer, Excavator, and Well-digger. To dig out the several trenches for 
 the foundations, of the respective depths and widths required, and fill in and well ram 
 round the work. To level and form the ground for the farm-yard and paving, and to 
 spread the surplus earth, if any, wherever required so to do, any where within 50 yards 
 of the farm-yard : if an additional quantity be considered necessary, it is to be carted to 
 the spot by the employer. To dig a well, 4 feet clear in diameter, 45 feet deep ; to 
 steen the same in 4-inch brickwork, and to dome it over in 9-inch brickwork. All the 
 bricks to be used in the work, or brought upon the premises, to be sound and good well 
 burnt stocks. The mortar to be composed of the best well burnt grey lime, and clean 
 sharp sand, well tempered together. The foundations of the walls to be built of sand- 
 stone below the ground line, and to be grouted with hot lime and sand. The remainder 
 of the walls above ground to be built of sandstone, laid m neat random courses, with a 
 fiat joint garreted on the external face ; the stones to be properly headed and prepared, 
 and flushed solid in mortar ; the whole of the coins, and arches, and inverted arches, to 
 be of brickwork. The whole to be built of the several heights and thicknesses shown in 
 the drawing ; leaving the several apertures therein described. The chimney breast, 
 back, and shaft, for the copper in the slaughter-house, to be of brickwork, and the flue to 
 
FARM HOUSES AND FARMERIES IN VARIOUS STYLES. 437 
 
 be properly pargeted, with a second-size chinmey pot, well flanched up with plain tiles 
 and Roman cement. The shaft and pot to be coloured stone colour. All the door and 
 window frames to be properly bedded and pointed with good lime and hair mortar, and 
 the sills to be underpinned. To build underpinning of stonework, with proper footings 
 for the partitions where required, and foundations for the stone bases to the cattle-shed. 
 To put a coping of semicircular bricks, 14 inches wide, to the fence wall, the back of the 
 hay-store, and the front of the pigsties, set in Roman cement, with proper stay irons at 
 all the coins. To fill in the nogging partitions with brick nogging flat. To pave the 
 four fowl-houses with paving bricks, flat bedded and jointed in mortar. To pave the coa] 
 places, pigs' lodgings, and slaughter-house with brick stock paving on edge in sand. 
 The passage, cow-house, calf-pens, cattle-shed, hay-house, and pigs' yards to be paved 
 with pebbles laid in sand, properly currented and rammed. To build and pave proper 
 swill cisterns of brick, set in Roman cement, and rendered inside with the same, so as to 
 be perfectly watertight. To colour twice over in good stone colour the brickwork of aU 
 the coins, arches, and coping. To lime-white the inside of the slaughter-house and fowl- 
 houses. To bed all the plates, bond, templets (short pieces of timber laid under girders 
 and beams, to distribute the weight), and lintels, in mortar. To cover the roof of the 
 cattle-shed and hay-store with pantiles jointed in mortar ; to build foundations for the 
 posts, and to cover all the other roofs with hoop chips from large hoops, finding straw, 
 binders, rods, twine, &c., and laths. The bricklayer is to find all the materials, carriage, 
 scaffolding, tools, workmanship, and ironwork for the completion of his work, in the 
 best and most substantial manner. The whole to be done under the inspection and to 
 the satisfaction of the Architect, subject to the several conditions contained in the general 
 particular at the end hereof. 
 
 [Signed by the bricklayei-, in the same form as before.] S. B. 
 
 869. Carpenter and Joiner. The whole of the materials to be provided and sawed 
 out square, free from wane, of the several scantlings herein specified ; to be carted to 
 the spot by the contractor, and to consist of the best yellow Dantzic or Memel fir, or 
 English oak, free from sap, shakes, or large loose knots. To frame the whole of the 
 carpentry in a workmanlike manner, according to the drawings ; finding labour, nails, 
 and all kind of ironwork for the purpose, subject to the provisions of the general par- 
 ticular at the end hereof — Waggon-house with Granary over To put oak story posts 
 (upright timbers supporting brestsummei's or girders), 9 inches by 9 inches, and circular 
 braces, 8 inches by 9 inclies, wrought, framed, and chamfered ; each post to have 
 a square iron tenon let into the stone base. To put wall plates of oak under the floor 
 and roof, 4 inches and a half by 2 inches and a half, with fir sills to the external 
 partition, 12 inches by 6 inches. To put fir girders, 12 inches by 12 inches ; each girder 
 to be fixed with a three quarters of an inch iron screw pin and nut to the sill, and 
 to have an iron tie, with an S iron through the wall, properly spiked to the girder. 
 The joists to be framed into girders, 12 inches by 2 inches and a half, 12 inches apart. 
 The external partition to have principal quarters, 6 inches by 6 inches, with common 
 quarters and braces, 1 2 inches apart, 6 inches by 3 inches and a half ; head, 6 inches by 
 6 inches, covered with oak or yellow deal weather-boarding and fillets, with flanch board 
 and brackets at bottom. To lay the floor with inch and quarter yellow deal, wrought, 
 ploughed, and tongued. To put 3 tiers of bond, 4 inches by 3 inches, in the walls of the 
 granary. To put fir proper window frames, filled in with three quarters of an inch deal 
 wrought lufFer-boards housed into the frames ; with oak wrought and beveled drip sills 
 to the front and back windows. To put an oak proper doorcase, 5 inches by 3 inches 
 and a half, to the granary, with oak drip sill, 9 inches by 3 inches and a half, with inch 
 and quarter deal proper ledged door, hung with strong hook and eye hinges, and with 
 a strong iron-rim lock. To put a step-ladder of 2-inch oak, with the steps housed into 
 the sides with three iron screw braces and nuts. The steps to be fixed with strong iron 
 hook and eye hinges to the sill. — Roof. To put fir tie beams, 9 inches by 4 inches ; 
 king posts, 9 inches by 3 inches, with three quarters of an inch iron screw pins 2 feet 
 long, with nuts 3 inches long, mortised through the king posts ; struts, 3 inches by 3 
 inches ; framed principal rafters, 6 inches and a half by 3 inches at bottom, and 5 inches 
 by 3 inches at top, fixed at each end with screw pins to the tie beams. Purlins, 5 
 inches by 3 inches, notched on the back of the principal rafters. Pole plate, 4 inches 
 and a half by 3 inches; common rafters, 13 inches apart, 4 inches and a half by 3 
 inches ; ridge pieces, 9 inches by 1 inch and a half, with oak eaves board. The joists, to 
 receive the pigeon-house floor, laid on tie beams, are to be 6 inches by 2 inches and a 
 half, trimmed for a trapdoor ; the floor is to be of inch deal, rough, with edges shot, 
 ploughed, and tongued, with trapdoor and hinges, and step-ladder, complete. To put 
 1 inch and a quarter oak shelves and penthouse to the pigeon-holes, with oak cantilevers 
 to support them. A rough partition to be put across in the roof, covered with weather- 
 
438 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE, 
 
 boarding, with a door, hinges, and lock, to go into the pigeon-house end. — Cattle-shed 
 and Hay-house at the back of the Granary. To put fir posts, 7 inches by 7 inches, 
 vvi-ought, framed, and chamfered, with iron tenons and braces circular on plan, 6 inches 
 by 3 inches ; fir plates, 7 inches by 4 inches ; pitching piece, 4 inches and a half by 3 
 inches ; tie beams, 7 inches by 4 inches ; principal rafters, 5 inches by 3 inches ; struts, 
 3 inches by 3 inches; purlins, 5 inches by 2 inches and a half; common rafters, 13 
 inches apart, 4 inches and a half by 2 inches and a half, covered with pantile laths, with 
 oak feather-edge eaves boards. To put oak proper door-case and sill to the hay-house, 
 
 5 inches by 3 inches, with 1 inch and a quarter yellow deal proper ledged door, hung 
 with strong hook and eye hinges, strong Norfolk latch, and 8-inch stock lock. — Cow- 
 house, Calf-pens, and Slaughter-house. To put oak sills to the external partition in front, 
 
 6 inches by 3 inches, with fir principal posts, 6 inches by 3 inches ; common quarters 
 and braces, 5 inches by 2 inches and a half ; the head, 6 inches by 3 inches ; oak wall 
 plates, 4 inches and a half by 3 inches. The front to be covered with weather-boarding 
 at bottom, and with open filleting (slips of deal nailed at one or two inches apart), at 
 top ; to put oak proper door-posts, 5 inches by 3 inches, with 1 inch and a quarter oak 
 proper ledged doors, with strong hook and eye hinges and fastenings and the same to 
 the slaughter-house. The calf-pens to be parted off with oak posts and arris rails (rails 
 presenting two surfaces to the eye, which two surfaces unite in forming an edge or arris 
 between them), filled in with oak slabs, with a small gate hung on hook and eye hinges, 
 with a hasp and staple. To put proper cow-bows (a contrivance for fixing the cow's 
 head over the manger) and mangers for twelve cows. To put an oak proper 2-light 
 window frame, and oak drip sill with iron casement, to the slaughter-hoiise. To put 
 tie beams, 7 inches by 4 inches ; struts, 3 inches by 4 inches ; principal rafters, 5 inches 
 by 3 inches ; purlins, 5 inches by 2 inches and a half ; common rafters, 4 inches and 
 a half by 2 inches and a half ; ridge pieces, 9 inclies by 1 inch and a half, with oak 
 eaves board. — Fowl-houses and Piggery. The roofing to be of the same scantlings 
 with oak eaves board, as last described ; and the window frame in the swill-house the 
 same as that in the slaughter-house. The door and doorcases the same as those in 
 the cow-house, with 8-inch stock locks. The partitions of the fowl-houses to be framed 
 for brick nogging flat, with oak sills, and English fir puncheons (short pieces of timber 
 used in framing partitions). The front of the pigsties to have oak sills with fir pun- 
 cheons, 4 inches by 2 inches and a half, covered with weather-boarding. The division 
 of the sties and of the back partition to be of oak posts, 5 inches by 5 inches, with arris 
 rails, and filled in with oak slabs. The pigsty doors to have oak frames wrought and 
 rebated, with inch oak wrought ledged doors, with strong hook and eye hinges, and hasp 
 and staple fastenings. To find and fix five pig troughs of cast iron, 6 feet long each. 
 To put a proper wrought framed and beveled oak curb to the swill cisterns, 6 inches 
 by 2 inches and a half. — The three Gates. To put oak posts wrought and chamfered, 
 9 inches by 9 inches, with proper sills, subsills, and braces, to the wide gates. To put 
 cast-iron moulded and beveled caps, as in fig. 898, to the posts. To put yellow deal, 
 2 inches and a half, wrought, framed, and braced gates, 
 filled in with inch yellow deal, wrought, ploughed, 
 tongued, and beaded, v/ith proper strong wrought-iron 
 hook and staple hinges ; the staples to be fixed with 
 nuts and screws, and bar fastenings ; the large gate 
 to be a folding one. All the gates to have wrought, 
 beveled, and moulded capping, and strong Norfolk 
 latches. To put 1 inch and a half oak pump cheeks and sill ; to case the same with 
 inch deal, with proper cap, and fix the same where required. To make a proper barrel 
 curb for the well. 
 
 [Signed by the contractor, as before.] R. S. 
 
 870. Plumber, Glazier, and Painter. To put lead lights and glass to the window 
 frames in the slaughter-house and SAvill-house. To put a lead flashing, 5 pounds to the 
 foot superficial, to the roof of the cattle-shed and hay-store, 12 inches wide, worked into 
 the joint of the stone wall of the granary and coping, and also to the shaft of the chimney 
 to the slaughter-house. To put a good stout 4-inch lead pump barrel, weighing 
 2 quarters 14 pounds, with 50 feet of 2 inches and a half lead suction pipe with bucket, 
 sucker, and iron handle complete. To paint all the gates, doors, and window and door 
 frames, inside and out, and all the weather-boarding outside four times in good oil colour. 
 The work to be done, finding all materials, workmanship, and carriage, subject to the 
 provision of the general particular at the end hereof. 
 
 [Signed, &c., as before.] W. B. 
 
 871. Stone-Mason. To provide and fix Portland stone bases, properly tooled and 
 beveled, for the story posts of the granary aad the cattle-shed, and to fix iron tenons in 
 
FARM HOUSES AND FARMERIES IN VARIOUS STYLES. 439 
 
 them run with lead. To be done subject to the provisions in the general particular at 
 the end hereof. 
 
 [I, the undersigned, hereby, &c., as before.] W. G. 
 
 872. General Particular, See that at the end of the particulars of the cottage, § 854. 
 
 873. Measurement and Estimate. Account of the quantities of the several works 
 required in building the farm-yard at Bury Hill, with an estimate of the expense of 
 performing the same. 
 
 874. Bricklayer, Excavator, and Well-digger, a. m. 
 
 176 cubic yards and a half, digging, filling, and ramming in again; 
 the surplus earth to be wheeled to any distance not exceeding 50 
 yards 
 
 10 rods 248 feet reduced of stonework grouted 
 
 21 rods 73 feet, ditto, above ground, with garreted joint 
 
 92 feet reduced of brickwork 
 
 45 feet ditto ditto, set in Roman cement 
 
 205 feet ditto of brickwork, in dry steening, without labour 
 
 8 squares 83 feet superficial pantiling pointed 
 
 63 squares and a half superficial hoop chip thatch, with chips from 
 large hoops, including laths and every thing 
 
 178 yards lime- whiting 
 
 8 yards stone-colouring 
 
 27 yards brick nogging flat 
 
 41 yards rendering in Roman cement 
 
 29 yards paving bricks flat bedded and jointed in mortar 
 
 7 yards paving bricks in cement ; two courses of bricks, and one 
 
 course of plahi tiles (in swill-cisterns) 
 
 63 yards stock paving on edge in sand 
 
 226 yards pebble paving 
 
 94 feet, run one half round, 14 inches brick coping set in cement ... 
 SO feet verge in cement 
 
 30 feet deep of well-digging, and labour to steening 
 
 15 feet ditto ditto (extra-depth) 
 
 1 chimney-pot and flanching, with tiles in cement 
 
 3 stay irons to coins of coping 
 
 6 window frames bedded and pointed 
 
 16 door frames ditto 
 
 Forming cattle-yard, with dish and current 
 
 Colouring the coins, arches, and coping stone colour 
 
 £570: 19: 11 
 
 875. Carpenter's and Joiner's Work. a. m. 
 
 37 feet 1 inch cubic Dantzic fir in bond plates, &c 
 
 943 feet 8 inches cubic ditto, framed in roofs, floors, and partitions... 
 
 5 feet cubic proper doorcase and window frames 
 
 40 feet 6 inches cubic oak in plates, &c 
 
 20 feet 5 inches cubic ditto, framed 
 
 80 feet 7 inches cubic, wrought, framed, and chamfei-ed 
 
 33 feet 6 inches cubic, ditto, ditto, cut circular 
 
 3 feet 1 1 inches cubic drip sill, wrought, framed, and beveled 
 
 3 feet 9 inches cubic wrought, framed, and beveled curb to pigsty ... 
 
 33 feet 1 inch cubic oak proper doorcase 
 
 25 feet superficial three quarters yellow deal lining 
 
 93 feet 4 inches superficial three quarters luflPer-boarding 
 
 18 feet 5 inches superficial inch yeUow deal wrought pump casing ... 
 
 9 feet superficial inch ledged flap 
 
 46 feet 10 inches superficial inch oak proper ledged door 
 
 7 squares 82 feet superficial inch weather boarding 
 
 7 squares 79 feet superficial inch yellow deal floor rough, edges shot, 
 
 and ploughed, and tongued 
 
 7 squares 79 feet superficial l^-inch yellow deal floor, wrought, 
 
 ploughed, and tongued 
 
 247 feet 9 inches superficial l^-inch proper ledged door 
 
 20 feet 3 inches superficial l^-inch wrought oak shelves to the pigeon 
 
 house 
 
 9 feet 9 inches superficial l^-inch oak pump cheeks 
 
 23 feet 10 inches superficial 2-inch oak wrought sides to ladder 
 
44-0 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 37 feet 2 inches superficial 2-inch oak wrought and beveled 
 
 32 feet 3 inches superficial l|^-inch yellow deal ridge 
 
 76 feet superficial 2^-inch yellow deal wiought, framed, and braced 
 folding gates, filled in with inch deal, wrought, ploughed, and 
 tongued 
 
 96 feet superficial slab filling in 
 
 51 feet superficial rough partition and boarding with ledged door 
 
 8 squares 62 feet superficial pantile lathing 
 
 3 squares 22 feet superficial partition for nogging flat 
 
 2 squares 47 feet superficial partition to the front of the pigsties 
 
 4 squares 7 feet superficial enclosure of posts, arris rails, and slabs ... 
 
 30 feet run throating in oak 
 
 433 feet 6 inches run oak eaves board 
 
 14 feet 6 inches run fir beveled and moulded capping 
 
 80 housings to lufFer-boarding 
 
 34 ditto to steps 
 
 2 oak cantilevers cut 
 
 1 step-ladder, made complete, to go into the loft over the granary.... 
 6 posts, prepared and fixed 
 
 4 arris rails, ditto 
 
 5 cast-iron pig troughs, 6 feet long 
 
 1 hole for the pump handle, in oak 
 
 1 cap to pump case , 
 
 1 barrel curb for the well 
 
 876. Ironmongery and Fixing, a. m. 
 
 10 square iron tenons ....f 
 
 3 f-inch iron screw pins and nuts to the girders 
 
 3 iron ties, and 3 irons to ditto 
 
 6 iron screw pins to the principal rafters 
 
 3 ditto to the king posts 
 
 3 iron screw bars and nuts to the step-ladder 
 
 1 iron casement 
 
 6 cast-iron beveled and moulded caps to the gate-posts 
 
 1 bar gate fastening 
 
 1 pair of strong hook and eye hinges for the granary door 
 
 1 strong lock for ditto 
 
 1 pair strong hook and eye fastenings to the granary ladder 
 
 1 pair 1 6-inch cross garnet hinges 
 
 1 pair 18-inch ditto - 
 
 17 pairs of hook and eye hinges to hay-store, cow-house, fowl- 
 houses, &c • 
 
 4 strong Norfolk latches 
 
 13 fine plate stock locks 
 
 7 hasps and staples 
 
 5 pairs hook and eye hinges to pigsty doors 
 
 4 pairs strong hook and staple hinges, with nuts and screws 
 
 £ 383 : 19 : 5" 
 
 877. Plumber's^ Painter's, and Glazier's Work. a. m. 
 
 24 feet superficial lead lights and glass » 
 
 3 cwt. of lead in flashings 
 
 50 feet run of 2^-inch suction pipe 
 
 1 stout 4-inch lead pump barrel complete, with bucket, sucker, and 
 
 iron handle, and cistern head 
 
 223 yards superficial painting four times in oils 
 
 3 lights, in four oils, on both sides 
 
 ^ 30: 18 : 10 
 
 878. Stonemason's Work. A. M. 
 
 24 feet 8 inches cubic of Portland stone 
 
 79 feet 8 inches superficial of sunk tooled work 
 
 10 mortises for iron tenons run with lead 
 
 ^12: 6: 8 
 
FARM HOUSES AND FARMERIES IN VARIOUS STYLES. 441 
 
 879. Summary of Estimates. 570 • 19 ■ 11 
 Bricklayer......... • ; ^ 
 
 Carpenter and joiner - qo ^ 1 8 • 1 0 
 
 Plumber, painter, and glazier 12 • 6 : 8 
 
 Mason ' 
 
 Total ^998: 4:10 
 
 880. General Estimate. As the number of cubic feet in the buUdings of this farmery 
 is 73,383, it appears, from the actual cost, that S^d. per foot wiU give a near idea of the 
 price of such buildings similarly circumstanced. „ . . ^ n 
 
 881. Remarks. There is no great room for ingenuity of contrivance m a_ farmery ot 
 this description, on a small scale; but the minuti^ of the construction, as given in the 
 particular, will be found very useful to those connected with this department of build- 
 inff. The appearance of the whole, as seen in the isometncal view, fig. 886, is neat, 
 plSin, and substantial ; the true characteristics of an English farm-yard. ^ The practice of 
 roofing such buildings with hoop chips is little known in Scotland, but is well deserving 
 of imitation in that country; and we should think it would be also found suitable for 
 America and Australia. In some parts of the country the granary would have been 
 supported by stone pillars, instead of oak posts ; but it must be recoUected that the 
 necessarily increased diameter of the former, occasions a great loss of room in the cart- 
 shed, since no cart can be introduced that will not pass between the piUars. 
 
 Design III. — A Farm House and Farmery suitable for a Farm of Six Hundred Acres 
 of Turnip Soil, executed at Halstone, in Dumfriesshire. 
 
 882. Accommodation. The ground plan of the house, and its kitchen coiu-t and offices, 
 and of the farmery, and its courts and yards, is given in fig. 899 ; and the general effect 
 of the whole is seen in the isometrical view, p. 443. In fig. 899 are shown, in the plan 
 of the house, a drawing-room, a ; dining-room, h ; parlour, c ; bed-room, d ; store-room, 
 €; kitchen,/; two pantries, g g ; kitchen scullery, with stair to servants' bed-rooms over 
 it, and the kitchen, A; dairy scullery, r ; dairy, A; ash-pit, I; and coal-house, m. In 
 the farmery are shown a steaming and boiling house, n ; cow-house for eighteen cows, o ; 
 hay-house, p ; two stables for six horses each, q q ; harness-room, r ; gateway from the 
 hay-yard and the rick-yard, s ; cart-house, t ; barn, with a threshing-machine driven by 
 water, u ; straw-house, v ; calf-house, w ; stable for a sick horse, or mare and foal, x ; 
 potato-house, y ; eight cattle-hammels for feeding twenty head of cattle, z z z. A turnip- 
 house, aa ; two cattle sheds and courts, bb ; hay and green wood house, cc ; piggeries, 
 dd ; dung court, ee ; passage between the dung court and the buildings, ff; kitchen 
 court, gg ; garden, hh ; hay-yard, ii ; barn-yard, kk ; straw-yard, 11 ; grass field, mm ; 
 and lawn and shrubbery in front of the house, nn. The letters ii to nn will also be 
 found in the isometrical view, p. 443. It will be observed that in this Design there are 
 regular foddering passages to the cattle and cow sheds, and to the hammels ; and that 
 the hay and green food houses are judiciously placed adjoining them, for the convenience 
 of having a supply of food at hand. In the stables the horses stand in separate stalls, 
 and the cows are allowed a width of five feet each. Fig. 900 shows a plan of such parts 
 of the buildings as have a second story, with the roofs of the other parts. In this plan, 
 a and b are two best bed-rooms, with a dressing-closet, c, between them ; d is the 
 chamber lobby, and staircase ; and e and / are two family bed-rooms ; 5^ is a nm-sery or 
 lumber room ; h h are two servant's bed-rooms ; i is the open yard for ashes and rubbish, 
 in which yard there is a privy ; k is the hay-house, or house in which food is stored for 
 the cows ; Z Z are the hay-lofts over the stables ; m is the corn-room, over the harness- 
 room ; n is the granary over the cart-house ; o, the barn ; p p p, the yards to the 
 hammels ; q q, the yards to the cattle-sheds ; r r r r, the yards to the pigsties ; s, lobby 
 for supplying food to the four fattening pigsties ; t t are two sties for breeding pigs, with 
 doors which open to the dung-yard, u ; v is the principal entrance to the farmery from 
 the fields, and from the public road ; w is the covered entrance from the rick-yard ; x is 
 an entrance from the straw-yard, in which straw is stacked to be given to cattle as wanted 
 for food or litter ; y is the entrance from the kitchen court ; z is the kitchen-garden, and 
 
 the lawn. 
 
 883. Construction. The walls are of freestone found on the premises, squared, and regu- 
 larly hewn at all the angles and openings, with stone sills, jambs, and lintels. The roofs 
 are covered with blue slates, and the whole of the court, passage, entrances, and kitchen 
 court, is paved with granite. 
 
 884. Remarks. This Design was furnished us by Walter Newall, Esq., Architect, 
 Dumfries, under whose superintendence it was erected on the extensive estate of the 
 Duke of Buccleugh in that county. It is remarkably complete in point of accommoda- 
 
44^2 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 899 
 
 N E 
 
 tion ; and, like all the buildings erected on the duke's property, is most substantially 
 and durably executed. We observe that there is no poultry-house, and but a very small 
 kitchen-garden ; which is characteristic of the Scotch farmers, who care little about the 
 minor comforts. We could suggest some additions to the house, one of which no English- 
 man, with a dining-room, drawing-room, and parlour, would be without, we mean a 
 water-closet. We wonder, also, that to such a house and yard, there is neither a chaise- 
 house, nor a stable for saddle horses. Why not a green house ? 
 
FARM HOUSES AND FARMERIES IN VARIOUS STYLES. 443 
 
COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
FARM HOUSES AND FARMERIES IN VARIOUS STYLES. 445 
 
 900 
 
 Design IV, — ^ Farm House and Farmery, suitable for an extensive Turnip Farm^ 
 executed at Gatestack, in Dumfriesshire. 
 885. Accommodation. In the ground plan of the house, %. 901, there area lobby, 1; 
 two parlours, 2 and 3 ; two bed-rooms, 4 and 5 ; a store-room, 6 ; back lobby, 7 ; with 
 a pantry, 8 ; kitchen, 9 ; with a small pantry adjoining ; scullery, 10 ; ash pit, 1 1 ; wood 
 and coal house, 12 ; open shed or cleaning room, 13 ; boiling-house, 14; dairy, 15 ; pig- 
 houses, 16; feeding-house for cattle, 17; turnip or green food house, 18; cow-houses, 
 19 19; calf-houses, 20 20; hay-house, 21; potato-houses, 22 22; a stable for four 
 horses, 23 ; a stable for eight horses, 24 ; cart-house, 25 ; barn, 26 ; straw-house, 27 ; 
 cattle-sheds and courts, 28 ; and house for turnips, tares, or clover, 29. In one corner 
 
446 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 901 
 
 H 1- 
 
 of the dung-court, SO, is a pig-house, 31 ; the entrance from the rick-yard and the fields 
 of the farm is at 32 ; the rick-yard is at 33 ; the water-wheel for tlie threshing-machine is 
 at 34 ; and the main entrance at 35. There is a garden at 36 ; and a lawn, with shrubf. 
 and ornamental trees, at 37. The three references 33, 36, and 37 are also introduced 
 in the isometrical view, p. 444. Fig. 902 is the plan of the chamber floor of the house, 
 
FARM HOUSES AND i ARMORIES IN VARIOUS STYLES. 447 
 
 902 
 
 and of the lofts and roofs of the farmery. 38 and39 are two best bed-rooms, with a dressing- 
 closet between ; there are two other bed-rooms, 40 40, and a servants' bed-room, 41 : 
 42 and 43 are the yards to the pigsties ; 44, the wool-loft ; 45, two hay-lofts ; 46, the 
 granary ; 47, the upper part of the walls of the barn ; 48, the straw-house ; and 49 49 
 49 49, the yards to the cattle-sheds. The dung-court is indicated by 50; the kitchen- 
 court by 51 ; the kitchen-garden by 52 ; and the pleasure-ground by 53. 
 
 886. Construction. The walls are of stone, and the roofs slated, with ridge stones of 
 the free red sandstone of the district. Fig. 903 is a cross section of the cow-house, 
 marked 19 in fig. 901 ; in which may be seen the feeding-passage, two feet and a half 
 wide, a; the partition of flag-stone, b, which separates this feeding-passage from the 
 feeding-trough or manger, c ; the partitions between the stalls, formed by single flag- 
 stones, d; the level surface of the stall, e; the gutter behind, /; and the passage, g. 
 At k a vertical line is shown which indicates a round iron rod, half an inch in diameter, 
 on which a ring runs, and to which the cattle are fastened by halters or chains. Two 
 stand together between each stall. Fig. 904 is a longitudinal section of a part of these 
 
448 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 Ft. 10 5 0 10 Ft. 
 
 Stalls, in which the fastening rods, h, are more distinctly seen : i is the elevation of the 
 manger ; k, the partition between the manger and the foddering-passage ; and I, the top 
 of the side wall. The stalls for every two Ayrshire cows are five feet long from the manger 
 to the gutter, and five feet and a half wide from partition to partition. The manger is 
 one foot and a half wide, and the gutter behind one foot two inches. Each separation 
 partition is a flag-stone four feet and a half long, three feet and a half broad, and six 
 inches thick, let into the ground, to the depth of a foot. 
 
 887. Remarks. This Design, by Mr. Newall, which was also executed under his 
 superintendence, on the Duke of IBuccleugh's estate, affords a very good specimen of 
 a breeding and feeding farmery, where the produce is chiefly consumed in feeding cows 
 for their milk to rear calves, but partly also in fattening cattle for the butcher. The 
 wool-loft bears evidence that sheep form a part of the live stock ; and, from the number 
 of stalls for horses, it may be concluded that about 500 acres are annually under the 
 plough. 
 
 Design V. — A Farm House and Farmery for a Farm of 150 Acres of Arable and Pas- 
 ture Land, in Bucki?ighainshire. 
 
 888. Accommodation. Fig. 905 shows the general appearance of the whole ; and in 
 fig. 906 the ground plan is exhibited, containing a parlour, 1, with a cellar under it, 
 
 into which the beer is let from the back kitchen by a pipe, and which is lighted by a 
 window on the garden side : this parlour has a bed-room and attics over it. The front 
 door and stairs are shown at 2 ; the front kitchen at 3, having a glass door into the 
 garden, and containing the door to the cellar and pantry, with dry cupboards for groce- 
 ries, &c., and bed-rooms and attics over ; 4 is a pantry under a lean-to, the floor of which 
 is two feet under that of the kitchen ; the back kitchen, 5, has two coppers, a large 
 oven, a well and pump, and a sink, with men's bed-room over, and stairs to the same ; 
 the dairy, 6, is three feet below the floor of the back kitchen. The pantry, oven, and 
 dairy are all under a lean-to roof. There is a wood and coal house, with a granary 
 over, 7 ; the granary being entered by a swing step-ladder from the yard, as seen in the 
 
FARM HOUSES AND FARMERIES IN VARIOUS STYLES. 44<9 
 
 906 
 
 isometrical view ; 8 is a stable for six horses, with a hay-loft over ; 9 is a chaff or fodder 
 bay at the end of the stable ; 10 is a hen-house fitted up with roosting-poles and laying- 
 boxes three feet from the floor ; the poultry go out and in at a hatch-hole, three feet above 
 the surface of the yard, by means of a short ladder fixed at a. The entrance to the 
 potato-house, which is under 14, is at 11; 12 is a duck-house; and 13 a goose or 
 turkey house : both these houses, together with the hen-house, are under a lean-to roof; 
 and the potato-house is under the straw-house and barn, 14 and 27 ; 15 is a straw- 
 house ; 16, store pigsties, the ends of the feeding-troughs shown at & 6 ; 17 are fattening 
 pigsties ; 18, a meal-house, with five bins, c, for meal and dry food of different kinds, with 
 a large hog-tub, d, for liquid food, and showing the ends of three feeding-troughs at e e e ; 
 19 IS a cow-house, with calf-pens at one end, /, and a hay-bin or cupboard in one 
 corner, g; 20 is a cattle-shed, with a rack and manger ; 21 is a waggon and cart lodge, 
 the entrances to which are outside of the yard ; 22 is the principal gate of entrance, 
 made of oak, nine feet wide with five bars, and a strong diagonal brace ; 23 is a circular 
 open shed or hovel, for sheltering cattle while eating, with a rack under ; 24 is the rick- 
 yard; 25 IS the gate from the fields; 26, smaU doors of the barns, with locks; the large 
 doors bolting in the inside in a manner which will be mentioned hereafter ; 27, wheat 
 barn, consisting of a threshing-floor, h, and two bays, one at each side, i i ; 28 is the 
 barley-barn, consisting of two bays on one side, k, and one bay on the other, I, and a 
 threshing-floor between, m ; 29 is the oat-barn, with a threshing-floor, n, a double bay 
 tor unthreshed corn on one side, o, and a single one on the other, p ; 30 is a water-trough 
 tor supplymg the horses and cattle with di-ink, filled from the pump in the back kitchen 
 by means of a spout through the wall; 31 is a light open fence or palisade; 32 is a 
 fence of oak pales ; 33, a hedge ; 34, a lawn, with groups of shrubs and flowers ; 35, a 
 kitchen-garden ; 36, a best privy ; 37, a privy for the female servants ; 38, wood-stack ; 
 (these last three being represented some yards nearer the house than they really ai-e, in 
 order to bring them within the compass of the plate) ; 39, orchard ; 40, privy for the 
 men-servants; and 41, hollow basin sloping on every side, to receive the waters of the 
 yard and the dunghill. 
 
 889. Construction. The dwelling-house is built of brick, and is covered with plain 
 tiles; all the other buildings are of timber in frames filled in with studwork, and 
 covered outside with weather-boarding ; their roofs are of plain tiles, with the exception 
 
450 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 of that of the cow-house, cart-house, and central hovel, which may be thatched with 
 straw, chips of wood, or spray. The walls of the cart-shed, 21, are frames filled in with 
 studwork, into which branches of furze are thickly wattled, a species of covering which 
 lasts several years, and is easily renewed. Where furze is not 907 
 abundant, common spray may be used. Fig. 907 is a section 
 across the round hovel in the yard, to show its construction. 
 Four posts are fixed in the ground, which at the height of 
 ten feet support four horizontal pieces, each twelve feet long, 
 and placed at right angles, as shown at 23, in fig. 906 ; on 
 these, poles of any sort are laid so as to form a circular 
 flooring, on which faggots are built in such a manner as to 
 form a cone, and these are slightly covered with straw or 
 chips so as to throw off the rain. A round fodder-rack is formed on the ground, by placing 
 four short posts in such positions as that they will form a circle with the four long ones, 
 
 908 
 
 909 
 
 as shown in the plan, fig. 908, in which q shows the long 
 posts for supporting the roof ; r, the short ones for the frame 
 of the rack ; s, the horizontal joists placed at right angles to 
 one another ; t, the rough poles, placed diagonally to the 
 joists ; and u u, the short poles, or branches, laid on the others, 
 to form a flooring for the faggots. Fig. 909 is a section 
 of the wheat-barn, to show the framing of the principal 
 timbers, six of which frames form the two ends, and the 
 five intervening spaces called bays. The central bay is the 
 threshing-floor, which is laid with joists or sleepers, across the 
 potato-pit, or cellar, v, which, as before mentioned, is entered 
 from one end of the barn, at 11, in fig. 906. The sleepers are generally of oak or 
 beech, and they are covered with oak planking, an inch and a half or two inches 
 thick, halved into one another along the edges, 
 or tongued and grooved. Along the sides of the 
 threshing-floor are what are called mowsteads, w ; 
 which are generally frames of woodwork boarded, 
 carried up to the height of two feet and a half or 
 three feet, with a coping of wood, to separate the 
 corn which is being threshed, from the unthreshed 
 corn on one side, and the corn or straw on the other. 
 Fig. 910 is a section across the porch of the barn, 
 showing the doors removed, and the position of 
 the barn-door lift. In this section, a is the sill of 
 the door, six inches square, sunk level with the 
 threshing-floor, and supported by two stout posts 
 or wheel-pieces, bb; c c are posts eight inches by six 
 inches, framed to the sill at their lower end, and at the 
 upper end to the top plate d, which is six inches square. 
 The inner angle of the front of the posts is rebated one inch for the shutting of the doors, e e. 
 These doors are made of inch deal, nailed to stout ledges or back boards, which lock 
 into each other by means of their beveled ends, as shown by the dotted lines in e e. 
 The doors are hung with strap hinges, on stout hooks driven into the posts ; and they 
 shut against, and are fastened to, a movable bar, f, which fits into mortises, one of which 
 is a trap mortise, in the posts. To this bar the barn-cloth, g, is hung by loops of tape : 
 it is let down when threshing is going forward, to prevent the corn, which flies up in all 
 directions from tlie flail, from falling over the lift, h. This lift is made of inch deal 
 ledged, two feet four inches high, and f ts into grooves chiseled out of the spur pieces, i i, 
 spiked to the sill and posts. The barn doors swing two feet above the level of the floor 
 of the barn, in order that they may not be obstructed by the litter in the yard. The 
 back door of a barn of this description has no porch, neither is it usually made so large 
 as the front door : if it allows an empty cart or waggon to pass out, for which an opening 
 eight feet wide and ten feet high wiU be suflScient, that is all that is required ; for these 
 doors are only used for taking out a cart after it has been unloaded in the barn ; it being 
 dangerous to back a thill or tram horse on the threshing-floor, which, from its smooth- 
 ness, is generally slippery. Such doors are also used tor taking in corn by manual labour 
 from the rick-yard. Fig. 911 is a view of the side of the barn-door porch, in which is 
 shown the base of brick or stone work, k, with a coping of wood, I, forming a sill to the 
 small lock-up door, m, which is shown at 26, in fig. 906. The thresher, on leaving his 
 work at night, makes fast the large double doors by means of the movable bar f, and, 
 passing out by the small door, locks it, and secures the whole. The wall or eaves plate 
 of the barn, it is to be observed, is carried directly through the porch, for the greater 
 
FARM HOUSES AND FARMERIES IN VARIOUS STYLES. 451 
 
 910 
 
 .Irt-h-i-r-b. 
 
 
 
 
 e 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 security of the structure. Fig. 912 is a section across the meal-house, »; covered part 
 of the pigsties, o ; and pigs' yard, in which is seen the bin, q ; hog-tub, r ; shoot, .v • 
 
 hog-troughs, t ; and in the background the end of the man's privy, u. The hog-troughs 
 are formed of two long boards, and two short ones, in the very simple manner exhibited 
 in fig. 913. Fig. 914 is a section across the cow-house; and fig. 915 is a longitudinal 
 view of the cow-stall, in order to show the manner of fastening the cows to it. In these 
 
 915 
 
 913 
 
452 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 figures, a aa are upright pieces of oak three inches square, sunk in the ground at the 
 lower end, and kept steady by braces, b, at their upper ends. At a foot from the ground, 
 and also near the top, these posts have double ledges, or horizontal pieces, c c, nailed on 
 behind, and in front, for the movable cheek-pieces to traverse in ; they being fixed with 
 pivots at e e. These pieces lean back to admit the cow's head at f, and they art then 
 moved to a perpendicular position, as shown at i, and kept in place by catch-pieces, g gy 
 which have mortise holes which fall down on tenons on the ends of the cheek-pieces : 
 these catch-pieces also move on pivots, which are fixed in the uprights. The calf-pens, A, 
 at the further end of the cow-house, are enclosed by boards five feet high from the ground, 
 with a door to each ; but the floor of the pen is raised one foot above the floor of the 
 cow-house, and is formed of stout oak boards pierced with holes to allow the escape of 
 urine : each pen has a door two feet wide. The drainage of the yard is to a hollow 
 space between the pigsties and the central hovel ; this space being central to the piggeries, 
 the stable, the cow-house, and the cattle-shed, which are the great sources of manure, 
 and to the three barns, which are the great sources of litter. In this situation the dung- 
 hill is at the farthest point from the house ; and, therefore, least likely to be oflPensive by 
 its smells. There is an open gtitter surrounding the interior of the yard, so as to receive 
 the water from the eaves of the roofs, and conduct it out by the back gate, there to 
 irrigate a gi-ass field. 
 
 890. Remarks. This Design was furnished us by Mr. Main, who informs us that it is 
 very nearly a fac simile of the Warren Farm in the parish of ChaJfont, Buckinghamshire. 
 It does not exhibit the modern improvements of a threshing-machine, or a liquid manure 
 tank ; but, considering it as a farm house and farmery of the old school, it is, perhaps, as 
 complete a thing of the kind as is any where to be met with. There is rothing super- 
 fluous or extravagant, and yet nothing wanting, either for the business of the farm or 
 the comfort of the farmer. As compared with the two spacious Scotch farmeries before 
 given, we cannot help remarking the difference between the essential requisites in the 
 appendages to an English and a Scotch farm house. Here, in a house for a farmer 
 occupying only 150 acres, and that of poor flinty clay, we have every convenience for 
 baking, brewing, and keeping ale and beer ; a large pantry, and a large dairy ; poultry- 
 houses for three kinds of poultry ; and well contrived piggeries and calf-pens. Besides 
 the lawn or flower-garden, and the kitchen-garden, there is an orchard; for apple 
 puddings and damson pies are necessaries of life to the English farmer, though they are 
 hardly ever seen on the table of a Scotch one, whose indulgence in this way lies in 
 marmalades, jellies, and other sweetmeats. There are no less than three privies to this 
 comparatively small establishment, while there is but one to each of the magnificent 
 Scotch quadrangles, p. 442 and p. 446, the dwelling-house to one of which has three 
 sitting-rooms. The propriety of the situation of the privies, in Mr. Main's Design, is 
 also worthy of notice : that of the workmen being placed in the most obscure corner of 
 the yard, and that of the maid-servants being near the wood stack. In countries where 
 the threshing-machine is in general use, the smallest of the barns would have sufficed ; 
 and, in others where the importance of liquid manure was fully understood, there would 
 probably have been a liquid manure tank under the dunghill, communicating by under- 
 ground gutters with the stable, cow-house, and pigsties ; and probably, also, the dunghill 
 would have been covered with a roof: but these constitute the chief improvements which 
 would probably be introduced, if this farmery were to be reconstructed at the present 
 day. Looking at it as a piece of Architecture, it will give no pleasure to the Architect, 
 as an artist, because it does not display externally any thing of architectural style ; but 
 that it has the beauty of fitness in an eminent degree, and that it is characteristic of an 
 English farmery built of timber, we think no one will deny who has gone over the details. 
 
 Design VI. — A Farm House and Farmery for a Farm of 600 Acres of^ Turnip Soil, in 
 Ayrshire, under a Rotation of Five Years, and employed partly in breeding and partly in 
 feeding Stock. 
 
 891. Accommodation. The general appearance is shown in fig. 917 ; and the groimd 
 plan in fig. 918. The ground plan of the house shows a common parlour, 1 ; best 
 parlour or dining-room, 2 ; kitchen, 3 ; scullery, 4 ; pantry, 5 ; and dairy, 6. The 
 chamber floor, fig. 916, contains two good bed-rooms, a, b; two second-best bed-rooms, 
 c, d; a lumber-room, e ; a maid-servant's bed-room, / ; and three 
 
 closets, g g g. The farmery, fig. 918, exhibits a stable, 7, for eight 916 
 horses in separate stalls, forty-eight feet by sixteen feet ; a hay-house, 
 8, eighteen feet by sixteen feet ; another stable, 9, for nine horses in 
 separate stalls, fifty-four feet by sixteen feet; a cart-house, 10, for 
 seven carts, fifty-four feet by sixteen feet; a tool-house, 11. eight feet 
 by sixteen feet ; a cart-way, or place for backing a cart l#ded with 
 
FARM HOUSES AND FARMERIES IN VARIOUS STYLES. 453 
 
 corn, 12, twelve feet by sixteen feet; a barn, 13, thirty-five feet by sixteen feet; a 
 straw barn, 14, fifty feet by sixteen feet; a cow-house for eight cows, 15, thirty feet by 
 
 30 9 1 8 
 
 sixteen feet; a calf-house, 16, forty-nine feet by sixteen feet; another cow-house for 
 eight cows, 17, thirty feet by sixteen feet; a house for a mare and foal, 18, seventeen 
 feet by sixteen feet; a potato-house, 19, twenty-five feet by sixteen feet; a boiler-house, 
 20, sixteen feet by sixteen feet; a poultry-house, 21, sixteen feet by ten feet; five 
 cattle hammels, 22 to 26, two of them thirty-four feet by fifteen feet, with sheds and 
 yards sixty-nine feet by thirty-four feet, and three of them with sheds thirty feet by 
 fifteen feet, and yards sixty-nine feet by thirty feet ; these yards to the hammels have 
 each a fodder rack along the whole width of one side ; a shelter shed, and yard for 
 
 3 c 
 
454" COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 young horses, 27, the former twenty feet by fifteen feet, and the latter twenty feet by 
 seventeen feet ; and, finally, two ranges of pigsties, 28, each range containing three sties, 
 six feet wide and twelve feet long, with a passage between, six feet wide. There is a 
 -paved way between the yards and the buildings, 29, which is eighteen feet wide. The 
 rick-yard is placed to the north side of the farmery at 30, and the kitchen-garden to the 
 south-west side at 31 ; the lawn is on the south front of the house, and the orchard, 
 32, is on the east side. 
 
 892. Construction. The walls are of rubblework, and the roofs are slated or tiled. 
 The greatest width of any of the buildings, except the house, is sixteen feet within the 
 walls ; and, the walls being eighteen inches thick, this gives nineteen feet for the tie beams 
 of the rafters, supposing them to be placed on the wall plates ; but, as in buildings of this 
 description, in the northern counties of the island, they are generally placed three feet 
 higher, their length will be about fifteen feet. 
 
 893. Remarks. This Design has been sent us by Mr. Donaldson, land steward to the 
 Marquess of Hastings, at Loudon Castle, Ayrshire, a scientific agriculturist, who studied 
 the theory of his profession under the late Dr. Coventry, and its practice in Northumber- 
 land. The following remarks accompanied the plans and elevations : — " This plan may 
 be altered to suit circumstances. If the stack-yard stand on the east or west side, the barn 
 and cart-shed must be shifted to the wings ; but they should, if possible, be central. The 
 granary is over the cart-shed, and has a communication with the barn by an inside 
 stair. The stables have lofts to hold hay and straw ; and, having a communication by 
 means of these lofts with the granary, corn, &c., may be discharged into the corn chests 
 or bins in the stables, without any out-door carriage. The grain in bags for the market 
 is intended to be let down into the carts in the shed through a trapdoor in the floor, by 
 means of a cord and pulley. The feeding-yards may be divided by a cross wall, if thought 
 too large ; and shelter sheds may be erected on the sides, but not in front, as that would 
 exclude the sun from the yard behind. Feeding cribs or racks may be erected in the 
 shelter sheds, if thought necessary, to admit of the cattle eating under cover. In the 
 calf-house each calf has its own apartment, with a slip or sliding board in the door, 
 through which it receives the milk. The pigsties have a back door for discharging the 
 dung made in them into the yards of the hammels ; and the floors of these pigsties are 
 raised considerably above the level of the yards. They are designed on the plan of keeping 
 swine for eating the ofFal made on the farm ; but, if they are kept on a larger scale, the 
 plan must be more extensive ; and perhaps the oval form, with a boiler in the centre, as 
 recommended by the late Mr. Arthur Young, will be found the most convenient. The 
 cattle yards and sheds, and the paved way, have an inclination to a point, where an iron 
 grate receives the water, and conveys it to an arched conduit leading through the centre 
 of the homestead or farmery ; which conduit discharges the water at some convenient place 
 for irrigating grass land. Each of the open yards ought to be supplied with water 
 from a pump, for the placing of which no particular directions can be given, as much 
 depends upon situation and circumstances. This dwelling-house and farmery are con- 
 structed in a plain substantial manner, and nothing is done for show ; but decorations 
 may be added according to the taste and ability of the proprietor." The above plan we 
 consider a most excellent one ; there is nothing that we should wish to add but a few 
 conveniences and appendages to the house, which might be contrived in a small kitchen 
 court between it and the farmery. 
 
 Design VII. — A Farm House and Farmery for three Ploughs, erected at Ingleston in 
 
 Dumfriesshire. 
 
 894. Accommodation. The general appearance may be seen in the isometrical view, 
 fig. 919, and the ground plan in fig. 920. The house contains a parlour, a; kitchen, 
 h, with a closet under the stairs ; bed-room, c ; another bed-room, d ; scullery or back 
 kitchen, e ; and dairy, /. The farmery contains a pigsty and yard, g, for store pigs ; 
 two sties, h h, for fattening pigs ; a cattle shed and court, i ; a house for stirks, k ; 
 stable for six horses, I ; cart-house, m, for four one-horse carts ; barn, with a threshing- 
 machine driven by water, n ; straw-house, o ; byre or cow-house, p ; calf-house, q ; and 
 dung yard, r. 
 
 895. Remarks. This Design, furnished us by our excellent contributor Mr. Newall, 
 was erected under his superintendence, a few years ago, in Dumfriesshire, for what is 
 considered in that agricultural county a small farm. The farmery is complete of its 
 kind ; but the house wants pantries and closets ; and the pigsties are nearer to it than 
 would be approved of in England. No poultry-house is shown ; but hens are probably 
 kept over the calf-house. It is remarkable that such an establishment should be 
 considered complete with only two small bed-rooms. On the whole, the horses and 
 cattle are much better provided for than the human beings. Extent without comfort 
 is too frequently the characteristic of modern Scotch farmeries. 
 
FARM HOUSES AND FARMERIES IN VARIOUS STYLES. 455 
 
COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 921 
 
 rmT-rrr| 1 j 1 ] 1 T 1 i 1 I 
 
 Ft.lO 6 0 10 30 60 70 'JO 100 Ft. 
 
FARM HOUSES AND FARMERIES IN VARIOUS STYLES. 457 
 
 Design VIII. — A Farm House and Farmery for three Ploughs, erected at Alton in Dum- 
 friesshire. 
 
 896. Accommodation. The general appearance is shown in fig. 921, and the ground 
 plan in fig. 922. The ground plan of the house shows a parlour, a ; kitchen, b ; bed- 
 room, c ; smaller bed-room, d ; lobby and stair to garrets, e ; scullery, f ; and dairy, ff. 
 The farmery contains a house for store pigs, h ; two houses for fattening pigs, i ; stable 
 for seven horses, k ; cart-hovise, I ; straw-house, m ; barn with threshing-machine, n ; 
 cattle-shed with court, o ; another cattle-shed, also with court, p ; calf-house, q ; byre 
 or cow-house for twenty cows, r ; spare stable, s ; dung-pit, t ; potato-house, u ; kitchen 
 court, V ; and cleaning-shed, w. 
 
 897. Remarks. There is something like comfort in this dwelling-house, though a 
 pantry is wanting, as well as certain conveniences in the kitchen court. In the small 
 farm-houses, in Scotland, the dairy is commonly used as a pantry, to the injury of the 
 milk and butter, as well as of the meat and bread. In making these remarks on the 
 want of comfort and accommodation in Scotch farm-houses and farmeries, we hope 
 it will not be for a moment imagined that we consider the fault in any degree owing to 
 the Architect : the evil is much deeper seated, and belongs essentially to the state of 
 civilisation. The Scotch farmers are not yet sufficiently free and independent to assert 
 their rights to those comforts and enjoyments which belong to men with equal capital, 
 intelligence, and responsibility, in almost every other country. 
 
 Design IX. — A Farm House and Farmery for a small Farm for breeding Sheep and 
 Cattle, erected at Holecleugh in Dumfriesshire, 
 
 in fig. 924. The latter shows, in the farm-house, a parlour, a ; kitchen, b ; bed-room, 
 c ; scullery, d ; dairy, e ; cleaning-shed, f ; kitchen court, g ; potato-house, h ; green- 
 meat house, i ; stable for four horses, k ; stable for two horses, I ; three pigsties, m ; 
 cattle-shed, n ; green-food house, o ; cart-house, p ; barn, with threshing-machine driven 
 by water, q ; cow-house for eight cows, r ; calf-house, s ; cow-house for eight cows, t ; 
 and dung-pit, u. Fig. 925 shows a plan of the roofing of the farmery, and the four 
 garret bed-rooms of the house. 
 
 899. Remarks. This is a compact and yet commodious farmery, and the house is 
 not altogether without comfort, considering that there are a kitchen-court and a shed. 
 In the cart-house, p, of this Design, and in the cart-house of preceding Designs, by the 
 same most intelligent and experienced Architect, it will be observed that there is a 
 space at one side, which, considering that the carts must be set back in a direct line 
 with the openings between the piers, must be left empty. This space is purposely 
 provided for harrows, ploughs, and other implements. It will be observed in this plan, 
 as in most others, that there is generally a granary over the cart-shed ; and that the 
 barn is two stories high. Some descriptions of implements, and also boards and other 
 bulky articles, are generally kept imder the roof of the cattle-sheds, being laid across 
 the tie-beams. These beams, or the beams of the cow-house, also form the roosting- 
 place of the hens, where there is no poultry-house ; and the ducks or geese, when 
 there are any, take shelter where they can. In Scotland, this description of stock is 
 despised by the large farmer as an article of profit, and not prized as an article of table 
 
458 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 comfort. For this Design, and all our others from Dumfriesshire, we are indebted to 
 Mr. Newall : as they have 
 
 been, for the most part, 
 
 erected on the property of 
 one of the most wealthy 
 men, and extensive land- 
 owners in Britain, the 
 Duke of Buccleugh, they 
 may fairly be considered 
 as specimens of the best 
 erections of the kind in 
 Scotland. As we exam- 
 ined several of them, when 
 in the west of Scotland in 
 the summer of 1831, we 
 can vouch for their sub- 
 stantialness, and we have 
 no fault to find with their 
 arrangement. The accom- 
 modation afforded, how- 
 ever, is, we think, less 
 complete than it might be ; 
 there is no liquid manure 
 tank, and no proper pro- 
 vision made for making 
 the most of the waste 
 waters, and other matters 
 suitable for manure, pro- 
 duced in the dwelling- 
 house. The dwelling- 
 houses also want conve- 
 niences both for cleanliness and decency. That the absence of all these things, and of 
 good gardens and orchards is entirely owing to the want of taste for them in the tenants, 
 we had a decided proof in 
 that part of the country; 
 having stopped a day and 
 night at the house of one 
 of the Duke of Buccleugh's 
 tenants, who, being engaged 
 in commercial pursuits, and 
 having consequently mixed 
 much with society, knew 
 what comfort was. At 
 this gentleman's house we 
 found not only a liquid 
 manure tank, and a com- 
 plete system of under- 
 groimd drainage to it, but 
 every other rural comfort, 
 and even luxury, both in 
 the house, farmery, and 
 gardens, that we could 
 wish. The place we al- 
 lude to is Woodhouselees, 
 between Longtown and 
 Langholme. That tlie 
 Architect is not responsible 
 for either the deficiencies 
 in the farmeries, or in the 
 dwelling-houses, is ren- 
 dered certain by the villas which he has erected in various situations in the neighbour- 
 hood of Dumfries, containing every comfort, and modern refinement in convenience and 
 arrangement, and at the same time displaying a high degree of architectural taste. 
 Mr. Newall, indeed, lias had and profited by every advantage that an architect can have, 
 not only in Britain, but in France and Italy. This will be rendered obvious by some 
 of his designs for villas, which will be given in the succeeding Book of this work. 
 
FARM HOUSES AND FARMERIES IN VARIOUS STYLES. 459 
 
 Design X. — A Farm House and Farmery for a Farm of two Ploughs, erected on the 
 Grebten Estate in Dumfriesshire. 
 
 900. Accommodation. The general appearance is shown in fig. 926, and the ground 
 plan in fig. 927. In the latter the dwelling-house exhibits a parlour, a ; three bed- 
 
 rooms, b ; store-room, c; kitchen, d; scullery, e; dairy,/; coal-house, 5- ; wood-house, 
 h ; potato-house, i, and kitchen court, k. The farmery shows a stable for a loose horse, 
 or a mare and foal, I ; a four-stalled stable, m ; cart-house, n ; barn, 0 ; straw-house, p ; 
 
460 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 cow-house for five cows, q ; calf-house, r ; cattle-shed, s ; cattle-court, t ; hammel for a 
 loose cow, u ; pigsties for fattening pigs, v ; sties for store pigs, w ; dung-pit, x ; 
 garden, y ; road to the farmery, z ; and rick-yard, Fig. 928, is the front elevation, 
 
 928 
 
 by which it appears that the house is only one story high ; and fig. 929 is the north- 
 west elevation, in which, at a, may be seen the four vertical slits, two or three inches 
 
 929 
 
 a 
 
 wide on the outside, splayed to one foot within, in the barn walls, for the admission of 
 air and light : these slits are never above three inches wide on the external surface of 
 the wall, but on the inside are spread out as much as a foot or eighteen inches, to pro- 
 mote a free circulation. 
 
 901. Remarks. This is a compact Design, and the house, with its kitchen court, 
 is more than usually commodious for one of the smallest size ; as in most of the 
 others, however, privies are wanting. 
 
 Design XI. — A Farm House and Farmery, for four Ploughs, designed, and in part 
 executed, in Dumfriesshire. 
 
 902. Accommodation. The general appearance is shown in fig. 930 ; and the ground 
 plan in fig. 931. In the latter, the house exhibits an entrance-hall, a; lobby and stair- 
 
 case, 6 ; dining-room, c ; drawing-room, d ; library and oflSce, e ; store-room and 
 pantry, f ; kitchen, g ; scullery, h ; dairy, i, from which there is a veranda or covered 
 way to the kitchen door ; coal-house, k ; kitchen court, I ; servants' privy, m ; best 
 privy, n ; ash-pit, o ; steaming-house, p ; feeding-house for cattle, q ; loose stable, 
 r ; pigsties, s ; stable for eight horses, t ; cart-house, u ; barn, v ; straw-house, 
 w ; horse- walk for threshing-machine, x ; cattle-sheds and courts y ; cow-houses, z ; 
 potato-house, aa ; open courts, hh ; rick-yard, cc ; dung-court, dd j pleasure-ground, 
 ee ; and kitchen-garden, ff. Fig. 932 is a plan of the second floor of the house, and 
 of that part of the farmery which is carried up two stories high. In the house there 
 appear four good bed-rooms, a ; a closet, b ; and three servants' rooms, c. The 
 farmery exhibits a hay-loft over the stables, d ; a continuation of the barn, e ; a gra- 
 nary over the straw-hoixse, / ; and another granary over the cattle-shed, g. Fig. 933 
 is a front elevation of the house, with the south-cast side of the farmery ; and fig. 934 is 
 an elevation of the north-east side of the farmery and of the farm house. 
 
 903. Remarks. The house is commodious, and the covered way from the kitchen to 
 
46^ COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 9S3 
 
 the dairy, gives an idea that something is known about comfort, as the two privies do 
 respecting cleanliness and decency. It is possible that one may walk about this farmery 
 
 without being shocked on turning every corner ; but even in this respect it is not com- 
 plete, as there should have been a third for the men-servants. It will be observed that 
 the stable and cart-house, and the piggeries, and the three houses, p, q, r, are double 
 buildings, use being made of both sides of the middle wall. This is always desirable 
 when it is compatible with other arrangements, because not only a wall is saved, but 
 guttering ; and both buildings are kept warmer in winter and cooler in summer. On 
 comparing this farmery with the most improved mode of arranging farmeries in North- 
 umberland, the cattle-sheds and courts appear to us too large ; it being found there that 
 not only feeding-cattle, but even store beasts, always do better when three or four, or at 
 most six, are together, than when a greater number are put into the same yard. Judging 
 from the length of rack in the three cattle-sheds, y, one of them is calculated for 
 two dozen, and the others for a dozen and a half each. There are no poultry-houses 
 shown in the Design before us ; and we are surprised that the kitchen-garden is not sur- 
 rounded by a wall, which it always is in Northumberland. 
 
 Design XI I. — The Villa Residence and Farmery of Riddenwood, in the Parish of Kirk- 
 mahoe, Dumfriesshire, in the Occupation of the Proprietor, James Kerr, Esq. 
 904. Accommodation. The general appearance is shown in fig. 935, and the ground 
 
 plan in fig. 936. In the latter, the house contains an entrance-hall, a ; lobby, h ; par- 
 lour, c; dining-room, d; drawing-room, e ; closet,/; kitchen, g ; store-room, A; 
 
FARM HOUSES AND FARMERIES IN VARIOUS STYLES, iSS' 
 
 \ 1 1 j 1 ^ — 1 ) ! 1—4^^^'^^ 
 
 Ft. 100 80 60 40 5iO 0 10 Ft. 
 
 scullery, i; dairy, k; coal-house, I; gig-house, with poultry-house and dovecot over, 
 m; kitchen court, n; ash-pit, o; servants' privy, p; best privy, q; pig-houses, r; 
 steaming-house, s ; dung-pit, t ; cattle-shed and court, u ; cattle-house, v ; cow-house, 
 w ; green-food house, x ; barn, y ; cart-house, z ; hay-house, a ; stable for five horses, 
 b' ; stack-yard, c ; kitchen-garden, d' ; back entrance to the farm-yard, e ; plantation, 
 f; lawn varied with groups of shrubs and flowers, g ; and the approach-road to the 
 house, h'. Fig. 937 is a plan of the second floor of the house, and of such parts ot the 
 offices as are carried two stories high ; in which aaaa are four good bed-rooms ; 
 bbb, three large closets; c, the servants' room ; d, turkey-house; e, hen-house; and/, 
 granary. 
 
 905. Construction. The walls, like those of almost aU the buildings in Dumfriesshire, 
 are of reddish sandstone, and the roofs of blue slate. Fig. 938 is an elevation ot the 
 south or entrance front; fig. 939, an elevation of the east front; fig. 940, an elevation 
 of the north side of the house, and kitchen offices, from the farm-yard; fig. 941, a 
 general elevation, from the west side. The racks and mangers of the stables in this 
 Design are somewhat differently constructed from those in general use. Each stall 
 is five feet wide, one corner of which to the extent of two feet is occupied by a manger 
 two feet square, and one foot deep; and the remaining three feet by a deeper manger 
 of the same width, which reaches to within one foot of the floor, and in which the clover, 
 
464 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 tares, potatoes, and other succulent food given to horses, are placed. Above, at the usual 
 height, and on the old plan, is placed a common hay-rack, projecting from the wall. 
 Fig. 944 shows a plan of this corn and fodder manger, in which a is the corn-manger ; 
 h, the fodder-manger ; and c, a rail across it, to prevent the horses from tossing out the 
 fodder, chafl^ &c. Fig. 943 is an elevation of the same manger, in which d is the corn- 
 
 manger ; c, the fodder-manger ; /, the partition rail ; and g, the hay -rack. Fig. 942 
 is a section in which h is the corn-manger j i, the fodder-manger j A, the partition 
 rail J and Z, the rack. 
 
 906. Remarks. This Design, by Mr. Newall, presents a handsome and commodious 
 country residence ; and one, judging from appearances, very suitable to what is called a 
 gentleman farmer. It is a favourable circumstance for the effect of the house, that the 
 
FARM HOUSES AND FARMERIES IN VARIOUS STYLES. 465 
 
 around on which it stands is somewhat above the level of that of the farmery. The pig- 
 |eZ arTvIry conveniently placed, with reference to the scuUery and dairy ; but unles 
 
 940 
 
 thev are kept very clean and sweet during summer, being so near the living-rooms, their 
 they are kept v^Y^e.^^^ ^^^^^^^ the dunghiU, which we should have 
 
 smell 
 
 preferred in the situation of the cattle-shed, unless indeed it be roofed ^"^^^^^jf^^^^^'* 
 P^'^ r, which we suppose is not yet introduced into Dumfriesshire. The foddering- 
 
 however, 
 
 943 
 
 I 
 
 p r 
 
 In. 12 6 0 
 
 a 
 
 1 
 
 i 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 c 
 
 
 
 944 
 
 
 
 manger we consider a good idea, and worthy of imitation ; indeed, bdieve is^ 
 frequently to be met with in the south of Scotland and the north of EngUnd^ 
 the\heapest and best mode of feeding horses and cattle is better understood ^ tJ^e^^J 
 and straw given to them wiU be cut, by machinery, into short l^«g*« .y^^^^^,^^^^ ' 
 corn, or with roots, or other succulent food, and water and A^^^m-ed with ^^^^^^ and pr^ 
 bably,inthe case of fattening cattle and sheep for the butcher, with the addit^^^^^ 
 aromkc herbs, to give a flivour to the meat. Mehlotus officmahs ^^ ^^.nd 
 important a pknt to the British farmer as it now is to the farmer f ^wit^^^J^^^^^^ „f 
 907. Spedjication for Dumfriesshire Farmeries, The following detailed particulars ot 
 
466 COTTAGE, FARI^, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 the mode of building farm houses and farmeries, such as we have given above, has been 
 furnished us by Mr Newall : — 
 
 Specification of the Materials and Works required to build a Dwelling-house, and a 
 Steading of Farm Office Houses at agreeable to given Plans for 
 
 908. Digger and Leveller. The whole of the surface mould is to be stripped from the 
 site of the buildings, the dung and court yards, and to the extent of 2 feet beyond the 
 respective outside walls of the buildings, and it is to be laid into the proposed garden. 
 The site for the buildings is to be properly levelled, agreeably to the sections and plans ; 
 and these levels are to be taken from the level of the principal floor of the dwelling-house, 
 which is marked by a post fixed into the ground at the south corner of its site. The 
 cellars under the parlour are to be sunk to the depth of at least 9 feet 6 inches below 
 the level of the principal floor of the house. If it be found, after these levellings and 
 excavations are made, that there are any soft parts in the ground along the lines of the 
 foundations, trenches are to be cut through these parts for the footings of the walls, to a 
 sufficient depth to insure a proper foundation. All the earth, rubbish, &c., of these 
 excavations and levellings, together with all the rubbish that will accumulate during the 
 building and finishing of the houses, are to be removed to such place or places as shall be 
 fixed upon before entering into contract. 
 
 909. Dwelling- House. — Mason's Work. Foundations. The foundations of the thick 
 walls are to be laid with large suitable flat-bedded stones (stones level on the under 
 surface), which are to be at least 6 inches thick, and so broad as to leave offsets on each 
 side of the respective walls, as shown by the sections of the footings. 
 
 910. External Walls. The walls of the front and gables are to be built with coursed 
 rubblework (courses of unequal height, but of hammer-dressed stones), neatly dressed, and 
 closely jointed ; all the other external walls are to be of good rubble building, neatly dressed ; 
 and the inside thick ones to be likewise of good rubble building. All these walls are to be 
 properly built in the heart (in the centre or middle of the walls) with good lime mortar ; 
 and they are to have such a proportion of in-bonds (bcxid stones stretching across the 
 wall) throughout the whole of them, that these shall not be more than 4 feet apart in any 
 direction on either side of the walls : these in-bonds are not to be less than 1 8 inches in 
 length, and 1 6 inches into the wall ; but they are not to be more than 9 inches in height. 
 
 911. Hewn Works. The whole of the windov/ rybets (reveals), sills, and lintels ; the 
 entablatures over the windows, and all the other dressings round the front and gables j the 
 portico and doors, ingoings (jambs or sides), and stair of the front entrance-door ; the 
 wall head cornice and gutter, with a 6-inch course under the cornice, are to be of neatly 
 polished freestonework ; and all the entablatures, cornices, and other dressings, are to be 
 cut to the respective drawings. All the other door and window rybets, sills, and lintels ; 
 the wall head tabling of the low buildings ; the chimney tops (or stacks), and the exter- 
 nal corners, and base course, are to be of droved (a particular mode of hewing with a 
 broad chisel, called a drove by masons, which leaves its marks, not unlike the squares 
 on a chess-board, but smaller) freestonework. 
 
 912. Chimney-pieces, Hearth, §-c. The chimney jambs and hearth are to be of fine 
 polished freestonework, and those of the two parlours are to be cut to imitate marble 
 ones, as shown by the drawings. The chimney flues are to be built oval, and neatly 
 plastered. The hearths of the first (ground) floor are to be laid in mortar over a mass of 
 dry whinstones (granite, or any local stone, not freestone), enclosed with rubble building. 
 
 913. Stairs. The stairs are to be of polished freestonework; and the fronts of the 
 steps, &c., to have torus and fillet mouldings; and the whole to be finished with polished 
 stone skirting. 
 
 914. Stone Floors. The floors of the entrance-lobby and passages are to be laid with 
 fine polished pavement, at least 2 inches and a half thick. Those of the kitchen and 
 scullery are to be laid with the hardest pavement that can be procured in the 
 
 quarry ; and the flags are to be at least 3 inches and a quarter thick. Those of the dairy 
 and cellars are to be laid with good droved pavement ; the flags to be 2 inches and three 
 quarters thick. They are all to be square-jointed at least 2 inches from the face, and set 
 with lead and oil putty to a similar breadth. Preparatory to laying these floors, all the 
 earth, rubbish, &c., is to be cleared from the respective apartments, to the de])th of at 
 least 18 inches below tlic level of the floors; and these spaces are to be filled with clean 
 .small whinstones to the depth of 12 inches, over the top of which a stratum of lime 
 riddlings (or any such mixture) is to be put, so compact that the sand (or mortar) in 
 which the flags are laid will not pass through it. All tlicse stone floors are to be finished 
 round with polished stone skirting, at least 5 inches high. 
 
 915. Stone Tables. The dairy is to have polished stone tables (or shelves) round it, 
 as shown by the plans, and they are to have polished stone skirting along the top of 
 them, at least 6 inches high. 
 
FARM HOUSES AND FARMERIES IN VARIOUS STYLES. 46? 
 
 916. Catacombs, or Bins. The spirit cellar is to have two tiers of catacombs (bins) 
 . along the side of it, with divisions over the second tier to form a third tier. These cata- 
 . combs are all to be of plain droved work. 
 
 917. Partitions. The thin partition walls are to be constructed with hard-burnt bricks. 
 
 918. Dwarf Walls. Dwarf walls, 12 inches thick, are to be constructed to support 
 the sleepers of the floors of the two parlours, bed-rooms, &c., on the ground (or first) floor. 
 Stones of droved work, 8 inches thick, are to be built into the high walls, along the lines 
 of the roofs of the low buildings that join the high ones, for the purpose of inserting lead 
 aprons to cover the joinings of the slates, &c., with the high walls. All the rubble and 
 brick buildings are to be built with strong well prepared lime mortar ; and all the hewn 
 works are to be set with lead and oil putty. 
 
 919. Carpenter's Work. Inside Lintels. The inside lintels of the door and window 
 spaces are to be of British oak, free from sapwood : they are to be not less than 6 inches 
 square, and to have at least 12 inches of bond (or wall-hold) on each end. 
 
 920. Roofs, The roofs are to be constructed as shown by the plans ; and the scantlings 
 of the timber are to be of the sizes figured thereon ; the small couples (couples of the 
 narrow houses) and half couples (hip and valley rafters) are to be placed at no greater 
 distance from each other than 16 inches between their centres. The diagonal and alley 
 beams are to be 9 inches by 2 inches. The slate laths are to be sawn ones, 1 inch and a 
 half by five eighths of an inch. 
 
 921. Joists. The joists and sleepers of the principal part of the house are to be of 
 Memel timber ; those of the chamber floor are to be 10 inches deep, and 2 inches thick ; 
 and they are not to be more than 14 inches apart ; they are to have two tiers of bracing 
 (strutts, nailed diagonally between the joists, to keep them firm) to the floor of each room, 
 which bracing is to be 9 inches deep by 1 inch and a quarter thick. The sleepers are to be 
 5 inches deep, and 2 inches thick ; they are to be supported by the dwarf walls formerly 
 specified, and they are not to be more than 14 inches apart. The joists over the kitchen, 
 scullery, &c., are to be 9 inches by 2 inches, and placed 14 inches apart ; they are to have 
 two tiers of bracing, similar to those specified for the other floor. 
 
 922. Flooring. The flooring is to be at least 1 inch and an eighth thick when finished, 
 and none of the boards are to exceed 6 inches in breadth ; they are all to be feathered and 
 grooved, and nailed through the feather edge, and the wood employed is to be perfectly 
 sound and seasoned. 
 
 923. Partitions. Those partitions in the chamber floor that are to be constructed with 
 timber, are to have the stiles 4 inches by 1 inch and a half, and placed at no greater distance 
 from each other than 12 inches between their centres : they are to be properly braced. 
 
 924. Doorcases. The doorcases (or jambs) are to be constructed with timber 2 inches 
 thick, but their breadth must be regulated by the thickness of the respective walls into 
 which they are placed ; and their size is shown by the plans. 
 
 925. Stoothing (quartering). The whole of the insides of the external walls are to 
 be properly stoothed (battened) ; the wall-straps (battens, or pieces of quartering on which 
 to nail the laths) are to be 1 inch and a quarter thick, by seven eighths of an inch, and 
 placed at no greater distance from each other than 12 inches between their centres; the 
 wall docks (plugs of wood) are not to be more than 16 inches apart. N. B. If whinstones 
 are to be employed in building the inside walls, and the insides of the external ones, bond 
 timber must be used ; and large blocks of timber must be built into proper situations to 
 receive the bell wires, &c. 
 
 926. Doors. The framings and mouldings, &c., of the doors are all to correspond in 
 size with their respective sections ; those of the first or ground floor are to be hung with 
 5-inch double-jointed hinges, and those of the chamber story are to be hung with 4i-inch 
 double-jointed hinges. The locks of the principal rooms are to be 7-inch mortise ones, 
 value each 10s. 6d. The entrance-door to have one, value \5s. All the other doors are 
 to have each a rim lock, value 6s. The spirit-cellar lock is to have a copper bolt, and its 
 value is to be 8s. All the press doors are to have suitable press locks, value each 3s. 6d. 
 
 927. Windows. The windows, including the skylights, are to be good astragal (the 
 bars with astragal mouldings) ones ; the sash frames of those of the first floor are to 
 be 2\ inches thick ; the frames of all the others are to be 2 inches thick. They are 
 all to be glazed with second crown glass, and to be finished with three coats of lead 
 and oil paint. They are all to be double hung (each sash is to be hung) with axle 
 puUeys, and best window line. The skylights to be hung on the upper parts, ends with 
 pivot hinges, and each to have a hinged rack for holding them up or down. 
 
 928. Window Shutters. All the windows are to have framed shutters ; the framings 
 and mouldings^to correspond with their respective sections. Those in the principal rooms 
 of the first floor are to have framed back-laps (parts of the shutter that fold behind the 
 part seen) to correspond with the shutters. The shutters are to be hung with 3-inch 
 hinges, and the back-laps with 1^ iticIi back-lap hinges. 
 
468 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 929. Soffits, Ingoings, Scuncheon Linings, S^c. All the windows of the principal rooms 
 of the first story, and those of the chamber story, are to have framed soffits and ingoings 
 to correspond with the shutters. Those of the other parts of the house are to be plain. 
 The scuncheons (the beveled parts, splays, or elbows, of the inside of a window opening, 
 where the shutters are placed) of the two parlour windows are fc-j have framed linings to 
 correspond with the shutters ; all the other windows are to have plain linings, and those 
 of the low buildings are to have plain soffits and ingoings. 
 
 930. Architraves, Facings, §*c. The doors and windows of the two parlours are to be 
 finished with double-faced architraves, and all the other doors and windows are to be 
 finished round with moulded facings ; they and the architraves are to be made to corre- 
 spond with their respective sections. The skylights are to be finished with suitable linings 
 and facings. 
 
 931. Bases. The two parlours are to be finished with bases to correspond with their 
 other finishing, the plinths of which are to be 6 inches and a half high. All the 
 other apartments, passages, &c., that are floored with timber, are to have skirtings to 
 correspond with the facings of the respective apartments, &c. Those of the first and 
 chamber floors are to be 6 inches and half high ; and those of the kitchen buildings are 
 to be 5 inches and a half high. The parlours are each to have a surbase to correspond 
 with the base ; and the window architraves and facings, the bases and skirtings, and 
 the surbases, are all to have suitable gi-ounds. Those of the windows are to be 
 dressed ; and those of the thin walls are to be built into them. 
 
 932. Jamh Moulding. The chimney jambs, that are not made in imitation of marble 
 ones, are to have jamb mouldings round them, and light entablatures over them. 
 
 933. Stair of Kitchen Buildings. The stair to the apartments over the kitchen, 
 scullery, &c., is to be of timber ; the steps are to be 1 inch and an eighth thick ; it is 
 to have a suitable plain rail. The stair to the chamber floor is to have a suitable hand- 
 rail of wainscot, fixed upon plain iron balusters, three fourths of an inch square, which are 
 to be batted (run with lead into holes chiseled out for their reception) into the steps, &c. 
 
 934. Press Shelving. All the presses are to have tiers of shelving ; and the store 
 closet is to be fitted round with three tiers of shelving ; each tier to be 14 inches broad. 
 
 935. Slating. The roofs are to be covered with best second Lancashire ton slates (or 
 others according to local situation), hung to the laths with Memel timber pins, and 
 to be rendered (pointed inside) with good plaster. The slates are to have at least 3 
 inches of bond at the eaves; but the bond may gradually diminish to 2 inches at the 
 ridges. The ridges and piens (angles of the hips) are to be slated watertight before they 
 are covered with the lead. The ridge and pien batten rods (ridge and hip rods) are 
 to be 2 inches' diameter, and they are to be covered with lead, 6 pounds to the square 
 foot, which is to be at least 12 inches in breadth. The alleys are to be laid with lead, 
 7 pounds to the square foot, which is to be at least 14 inches in breadth. All round the 
 chimney stalks (shafts), where they are intersected with the slates, coverings of lead, 12 
 inches broad, are to be inserted into the chimney heads, to cover the joinings, and these 
 coverings are to be of lead, 6 pounds per square foot. All along the lines of the roofs 
 that intersect the higher buildings, the joinings of the slates with the walls are to be 
 covered with aprons (or flashings) of 6-pound lead at least 12 inches broad. The sky- 
 lights are to be laid round with gutters of 6-pound lead, at least 12 inches broad. The 
 aprons round the chimney stalks, and those that cover the joinings of the low roofs, are 
 to be inserted into mortises or grooves, made in the stones as formerly specified ; and 
 they are to be puttied into these mortises with lead and oil putty, mixed with fine sand, 
 or dry pounded sandstone, well burnt (or roasted). This roasting is to destroy all 
 earthy matter, &c. 
 
 936. Plasterers' Work. The ceilings of all the apartments, passages, &c. of the first 
 and chamber floors, and the walls of the entrance-lobby, passages, and staircase, are to 
 be finished with good three-coat plaster. That of the ceilings to be on laths three 
 sixteenths of an inch thick ; and each apartment to have a suitable cornice, finished 
 agreeably to the sections. AU the ceilings of the kitchen buildings, and of all the other 
 walls not specified above, are to be finished with fine two-coat plasterwork, to be properly 
 straighted (made even or smooth with the edge of a board or float), &c. Behind all 
 the ingoings, soffits, bases, and skirtings, &c., the wall is to have one coat of plaster, 
 without finishing. 
 
 937. Though a variety of the materials and works are described in the foregoing 
 specifications, yet it is not to be considered that the whole are specified, but it is to be 
 distinctly understood that the whole are to be included in the estimate ; so that the 
 house may be built and finished with materials and works of the quality and relative 
 scantlings with those specified and figured on the plans, without any other charge than 
 that in the estimate ; and the whole of the materials and works are to be done to the 
 satisfaction of by the day of , under a penalty of £ . 
 
945 
 
 FARM HOUSES AND FARMERIES IN VARIOUS STYLES. 469 
 
 938. Office Houses, — Rubble Walls. The foundations of the thick walls are to be 
 laid with large flat-bedded rubble-stones, and the whole of the walls are to be good 
 rubble-work, properly built in the heart with good lime mortar ; and such a proportion 
 of large bond stones to be used throughout the whole of them, that they shall not be 
 more than four feet apart, in any direction, on either side of the walls. 
 
 939. Hewn Work, §-c. The door and window rybets, sills, and lintels are to be of 
 droved freestonework ; they are all to have canted corners (the sharp angle of the 
 corner cut off). The scuncheons of the doors are to be splayed 4 inches wider mside 
 than at the rybet cheeks (see § 282, and fig. 262), and their inner corners are all to 
 be rounded. In-bond rybets with 12-inch heads are to be built at proper heights for 
 fixing the crooks of the door hinges. The Hntels are to be at least 12 inches square. The 
 window sUls are to be weathered (beveled so as to throw oflP the rain) at least 2 inches, 
 exclusive of a sinking for the wood sills, as shown by the sections. All the external corners 
 are to be of droved work. The waU-head tabUngs (copings beveled to throw off the ram) 
 are to be of droved work 3 inches thick, and to project 5 inches beyond the Une of the 
 walls. The door scuncheons and lintels of the cart-house and loose cattle sheds are to 
 be neatly draughted and scappled (stones are said to scappled or scabbled, when they are 
 dressed with the pick end of the hammer ; they are called draughted and scappled when 
 worked round the edges or joints with a chisel and hammer-dressed in the centre), and 
 the corners canted with droved work. The pillars for the cattle are to be in one stone 
 each, and to be finished in a similar manner with the 
 scuncheons. The door scuncheons, sills, and lintels of the 
 barn- ventilators, &c., are to be di-aughted and scappled. 
 
 940. Barge Stones over the Slates. Droved stones 
 4 inches thick, weathered on the upper side, are to be 
 built into the walls of the high buildings, along the 
 lines of the roofs of the low ones that intersect them ; 
 these stones are to project at least 4 inches in front of 
 the walls, to cover the ends of the slates, and to lie close 
 upon them, fig. 945 ; and ragalets (grooves), 2 inches 
 deep into the walls, are to be made under these stones, 
 to receive the ends of the slates. In fig. 945, a is the 
 wall, b the situation of the groove, in which the slate, c, is 
 shown inserted ; d is the upper part of the wall ; e, the 
 weathered stone inserted into it ; /, the rafter ; and g, the wall-plate. 
 
 941. Floors. The barn is to be floored with the hardest freestone pavement that can 
 be procured in any particular quarry in the neighbourhood. The flags are to be square- 
 jointed, and set with oil putty ; and* they are to be laid on a preparation of whinstones, 
 similar to that specified for the floors in the dwelling-house. There is to be a 6-inch 
 skirting built into the walls at the level of the floor, so that the flooring may be 
 jointed to it with putty. This is to prevent the operations of vermin. The floors of 
 the pig-houses are to be laid with rough flags closely jointed ; and these floors are to 
 have a current of at least 9 inches from the back walls towards the doors. The stables, 
 byres, and all the other houses not specified above, are to be paved (pitched) with 
 small whinstones set in sand, and all the requisite sewers are to be made in the 
 cattle-sheds, stables, &c. The byre is to have a freestone kerb along the sides of the 
 grip (gutter), the stones of which are to be 16 inches deep 
 and 4 inches and a half thick, and placed so that they will stand 
 6 inches above the bottom of the grip, all as shown by the plans. 
 
 942. Partitions of Byre. The byre is to have stall partitions 
 of freestone, each to be in one stone 4 feet 6 inches by 5 feet, 
 which are to be sunk into the ground 1 foot, and on each side 
 of these partitions there is to be an iron rod, with a sliding 
 shackle (fig. 946 is a section across a stone partition, in which 
 the iron rods at h h are the shackles) upon it, upon which the 
 collar is fixed for binding the cow. The feeding-crib is fitted 
 up with rough droved work, and the partition between it and the 
 fotherum (foddering-passage) is to be of freestone flags set on end, and to stand at least 2 
 feet 6 inches high above the crib. All these are shown by the detailed plans and sections. 
 
 943. Cope of Court Walls, 8rc. The court walls of the pig-houses are to have a cope 
 (coping) 6 inches thick, of draughted and scappled work ; but the joints are to be droved 
 and jointed with oil putty. The cope is to be laid even with the walls on both sides. 
 The walls of the kitchen-court, large court, dung-court, &c., are to be covered with a 
 3-inch cope of droved work jointed with putty. The cope is to be laid even with the 
 walls, on the sides next the large court and cattle-sheds ; but it is to project 3 inches on 
 the side next the kitchen court, 2 inches on the side next the dung-court, and 6 inches 
 on the side next the garden. 
 
 3 E 
 
 946 
 
470 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 944. Stable Windows. The stable windows are to be made ingoing ones (recessed 
 from the inside), in order that corn-chests may be fitted into them. The upper sashes 
 are to be astragal ones, glazed with third crown glass, and the under ones are to be sliding 
 wooden frames, for ventilation, &c. The back wall ©f the barn is to be sunk sufficiently 
 deep for the wheel of the threshing-mill and the race (horse-course) from it. The 
 hewn work is all to be jointed with oil putty, and all the rubble-work is to be built with 
 good lime mortar. 
 
 945. Inside Lintels. The inside lintels of the door and window spaces are to be of 
 British oak timber ; they are to be proportioned in size to the width of the respective 
 spaces ; and they are all to have 1 2 inches of bearing on each end (or bond). 
 
 945. Roofs. All the roofs are to be constructed, as shown by the plans, with trussed 
 principals ; which are all to be of the dimensions figured on the respective sections. 
 These principal couples (rafters) are to be placed at no greater distance from each other 
 than 6 feet 6 inches between their centres. The purlins are to be 7 inches by 3 inches 
 and a half, and placed no farther asunder than 3 feet 6 inches. The rafters are to be 2 
 inches and a quarter square, and placed no farther asunder than 16 inches between 
 their centres. All the roofs are to have sawn laths 1 inch and a quarter by five eighths 
 of an inch each. 
 
 947. Slating. The whole of the roofs of these office-houses are to be covered with 
 second Lancashire slates (or as the case may be), hung with Memel timber pins ; and 
 they are to be rendered with good plaster. They are to have 3 inches of bond at the 
 eaves ; but the bond may gradually diminish to 2 inches at the ridges. The under eave- 
 courses are to be laid full, and they are to be double-nailed at the shoulders with 12-lb. nails. 
 The ridges and piens are to be slated water-proof, before the pien and ridge-stones are 
 laid over them. The gables are to be slated over, and the skew-stones (the coping- 
 stones of the gables, called barge-stones in England) are to be laid over the slates, but to 
 project 3 inches over the line of the walls, and to be pointed along the ends of the slates 
 under them withRoman cement. The eaves slates are to project 4 inches beyond the line 
 of the tabling. The ridge and pien stones are to be of fine droved work ; they are to be 
 made correctly to the angles of the respective roofs ; to be closely jointed with oil putty ; 
 and, when perfectly dry, to be painted with three coats of oil paint, the same colour yvith 
 the slates. 
 
 948. Joists. The joists of the granary floors are to be 12 inches by 2 inches and a 
 quarter, and placed no farther asunder than 16 inches between their centres : they are 
 to have a tier of bracing along the centre of each floor, 1 1 inches by 1 1 inches. Those 
 of the stable lofts are to be 8 inches by 2 inches, and placed no farther asunder than 1 8 
 inches between their centres. The flooring is all to be 1 inch thick when finished, and 
 none of the boards are to exceed 7 inches in breadth ; they are all to be feathered and 
 grooved. The granaries and haylofts are to be finished all round with skirting, not less 
 than 5 inches high ; the walls of the haylofts are to be plastered at least 9 inches above the 
 skirting ; and the walls of the granary are to be plastered at least 2 feet above the skirting. 
 
 949. Doors. The whole of the doors of the office-Jiouses are to be stout batten ones. 
 The front boards are not to be less than seven eighths of an inch thick, and the battens 
 are not to exceed 6 inches in breadth ; the back battens are to be 1 inch thick, those of 
 the small door to be not less than 7 inches broad, and those of the large ones not less 
 than 9 inches broad. These doors are all to be hung with stout crooks and bands. The 
 doors of the stables, barn, byres, granaries, calf-house, potato-house, and coal-house are 
 each to have stock-locks, value 4s. each ; and the doors of the granaries and stables are 
 to have likewise thumb latchets. All the other doors are to be secured with bolts, &c. 
 All the hinges, &c., are to be proportioned in size to the size of the respective doors. 
 
 950. Stables. The stables are to be fitted up with stall partitions of 2-inch battens, 
 fixed in oak posts 6 inches square, with canted corners; and they are to be fixed under 
 beams 6 inches square, which are to extend the whole length of each stable, under the 
 joists of the hayloft. The feeding (or hay) cribs of the stables are to be constructed like 
 mangers; but they are to bo about 18 inches deep and 18 inches wide at the top ; and 
 are to have two slanting iron bars rising from the front of them to the wall, at an angle 
 of about 45". The corn manger occupies about one third part of the width of the stall, 
 and the feeding-crib tlie other two thirds (as shown by detailed drawings). The gra- 
 nary windows are to be sliding-framed ones, or they may be made with shades similar to 
 Venetian ones, proper fi)r ventilation, &c. 
 
 951. Cattle-sheds. The cattle-sheds to be fitted up with feeding-cribs, the bottoms 
 of which are to be raised 9 inches above the level of the floors ; tliey are to have 3 rails 
 in front, fixed to the upright posts. The upper one is to be 4 inches by 3 inches, the 
 middle one 3 inches by 1 inch and a half, and the under one 5 inches by 1 inch and a 
 half. The bottom rails are to be 2 inches by 1 inch and a half, and placed no more 
 than 1 inch and a half apart. The side next the fotlierum is to be finished with 1-inch 
 
FARM HOUSES AND FARMERIES IN VARIOUS STYLES, 'hjl 
 
 battens to the height of 2 feet 6 inches. Fotherums are not always introduced in cattle- 
 sheds (see the sections, &c. ). 
 
 952. Feeding-houses. The feeding-houses are divided into stalls of 12 feet 6 inches 
 each (either with stone or timber); and the hayracks are placed alohg the tops of these 
 partitions, nearly in the form of two sides of an equilateral triangle, at the height of about 
 4 feet 6 inches from the floor. These racks extend from the feeding-cribs to the front 
 of the covered part of the shed. The feeding-cribs are constructed similar to stable- 
 mangers, but they are to be 18 inches wide and 10 inches deep, and are raised 9 to 12 
 inches above the level of the floor. The partition between the crib and the fotherum 
 is to be of 1^-inch battens. These cribs may be of wood, or they may be constructed of 
 similar materials to those of the byres. The byre partitions may be of timber, where stone 
 cannot be procured. 
 
 953. Gates. The gates of the court-yards, &c., are all to be constructed as shown by 
 the plans ; and they are to be hung with stout crooks and bands (hooks and strap hinges). 
 The gates, and all the outside doors, the stable and granary windows, are to be finished 
 with three coats of oil paint. 
 
 Design XIII. — A Farm House and Farmer]/ for 100 Acres of Land to he cultivated on 
 the Norfolk System, with a Flour Mill driven hy Wind, 
 
 954. Accommodation. The general appearance is shown in tne isometrical view, 
 p. 473. The ground plan, flg. 948, exhibits a dwelling-house, containing a parlour, 1 ; 
 kitchen, 2 ; counting-house or keeping-room, 3 ; store-room, 4 ; pantry, 5 ; wash-house 
 and brewhouse, 6 ; and dairy, 7. Over these are two large bed-rooms with fireplaces, 
 and four other bed-rooms without fireplaces. The farmery contains a central building 
 of two stories, in which, on the ground floor, are, a passage to the mill, which serves also 
 as a foddering-passage, 8 ; a place for turnips, 9 ; for calves, 10; for four cows, 11, over 
 which there are a granary, and a retail shop for flour, lighted by glazed tiles (fig. 947) of 
 cast iron (weight four pounds and a quarter, price, unglazed, 
 
 8d. , glazed, 1 s. 4d. ) from the roof ; a house for six oxen, 1 2 ; fof 
 chaff, 13; the mill, 14; the barn,-15; the cart-house stable, /y-^- 
 with hayloft over, 16; lean cattle lodge or shed, 17; the 
 harness-room, 18; piggeries, 19; cart lodge, 20; drive- way 
 to the mill, 21 ; hackney stable, with hayloft over, 22 ; 
 customers' stable, 23 ; colt stable, 24 ; and gig-house, 25. 
 There are two ample yards, 26 and 27, for the lean cattle 
 and the colts ; and two also, 28 and 29, for the piggeries. 
 
 955. Remarks. This plan has been furnished us by 
 William Thorold, Esq., Architect and Engineer, of Norwich, 
 accompanied by the following observations : — " The capital 
 
 required to carry on a mill must necessarily limit the size of the farm. We will, there- 
 fore, take a farm of 100 acres of land, four fifths being arable, and the remainder in 
 grass ; and we will suppose the mill competent to grind thirty quarters of corn per week, 
 twenty of which would be manufactured into flour and sold, and the remaining ten used 
 as grist for the neighbourhood ; the mill being supposed to be situated in a rural district. 
 The mill should have a threshing-machine and hay-cutter attached to it ; the threshing- 
 machine to be made capable of drawing, that is, of husking, trefoil, clover, and other 
 small seeds. Pumps can also be added in situations where water is at a great depth, 
 which will often occur in places proper for a windmill. A number of pigs may be kept, 
 to eat up the offal of the mill ; and this will, of course, require buildings for their reception 
 more extensive than the piggeries on a common farm, while the buildings for the other 
 cattle are fewer in proportion. The mill is placed in the centre, for the sake of uni- 
 formity and economy. It is necessary to have one side of it accessible to waggons, and 
 ialso in case of repairs being done to the sails. The piggeries I have placed on the north 
 side ; knowing, from experience, that they are intolerable in summer, if near the house. 
 In constructing the mill, a horse walk should be added to it, in order that the machinery 
 of the mill may be occasionally worked with that power. There is stabling for four farm 
 horses, and for two hackney or trade horses, besides a loose stable for customers' horses : 
 there is also a cow-house for four cows ; stalls for six grazing bullocks ; and a lodge for 
 lean cattle. This will generally suflSce for noilling and farming as it is carried on in 
 Norfolk. The house contains a parlour and kitchen, with a brewhouse and wash-house 
 combined, on the ground floor ; and it has six sleeping-rooms in the upper story. It is 
 kept low, in order that it may offer as little obstruction as possible to the wind. The 
 fireplaces for the kitchen and for the oflSce or keeping-room are contrived so that the 
 chimneys may be conducted under the stairs, and form one stack with the other chimneys. 
 The parlour window is to have French casements, opening in the middle. The mill will 
 cost from ^ 800 to ^1000, according to the quantity of machinery employed. The sails, 
 
472 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 948 
 
 10 5 0 10 2 0 30 4 0 50 6o 
 Ft. HWWHi 1 1 H 1 1 1 
 
 j — v-i==i — J i 
 
 5 u ft— 1 
 
 3 |H 
 
 ] 4 il 
 
 1 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 as shown in the Design, are upon the principle generally adopted in Norfolk, called 
 Cubitt's Patent : they should never be horizontal, as such sails have only one fourth of 
 the power of vertical ones. Norfolk is considered to be superior to any other county in 
 England, as to windmills." We consider this a remarkably well arranged Design, which 
 will not surprise those of our readers who are aware of the experience which Mr. Thorold 
 has had as a farmer, as well as an Architect and Engineer. The entrance to the cattle- 
 house, being near the dwelling-house, is convenient, on account of its supplying a covered 
 passage to the mill-house and barn : and this passage is not merely a matter of conveni- 
 ence as such, but it is essential to the cattle-house for conveying fodder from the straw- 
 house at one end, and turnips from the turnip-store at the other to the oxen. It is always 
 gratifying when a really useful object or arrangement can be rendered at the same time 
 ornamental or agreeable. The back cart or waggon entrance to the miU is exceedingly 
 well contrived, while it serves at the same time as the waggon court, which could not 
 have been dispensed with in a farmery of this extent when combined with a miU.^ Ihe 
 architecture of a building containing a windmill will be given in the next subsection. 
 
FARM HOUSES AND FARMERIES IN VARIOUS STYLES. 
 
 XIII. 
 
474 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 XIV. 
 
FARM HOUSES AND FARMERIES IN VARIOUS STYLES. 475 
 
 Design XIV. — A Farm House and Farmery for a Farm of two Ploughs, in the County 
 
 of Northumberland. 
 
 956. Accommodation. The general appearance is shown in the isometrical view, 
 p. 474 ; and the ground plan 
 in fig. 949. The latter shows, 
 in the dweUing-house, the 
 parlour, a ; kitchen, b ; back- 
 kitchen, c ; and dairy, ^ ; with 
 two bed-rooms in the chamber 
 floor, one over the kitchen, 
 and the other over the parlour. 
 The farmery contains a stable 
 for four horses, e ; a hay- 
 house, / ; two cattle-hovels, 
 ff ; a barn and straw-house, h ; 
 foal-house, i ; calf-pens, k ; 
 cow-house for four cows, I ; 
 cow-house for eight cows, m ; 
 two fold-yards, n ; and stock- 
 yard, 0. 
 
 957. Construction. Fig. 
 950 shows a section across 
 the house, in which appears 
 the manner of roofing, and 
 also that the floors are paved. 
 Fig. 951 shows a section 
 across the stable, in which is 
 seen the manner of construct- 
 ing the partitions between lo 5 o lo 20 3o 40 so 
 
 the stalls, p; and that the ft^^m^ 1 1 »— » \ft 
 
 partition post, q, is let into a 
 stone at the lower end, and at 
 the upper end fixed to the 
 tie-beam. The flooring of 
 the stable is also shown per- 
 fectly level, which is consistent 
 with the most improved ideas 
 on this subject. 
 
 958. Estimate. The total 
 expense of erecting this farm- 
 house and farmery was ^^550 ; 
 
 a sum which will appear remarkably low to a London Architect: but it must 5hj 
 TccoUected, that, in Northumberland, freestone is generally found for the trouble of 
 
476 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 working it, on the larm; and that 
 the carriage of all materials is per- 
 formed by the tenant. 
 
 959. Remarks. The house has 
 few conveniences, and there is no 
 enclosed kitchen-garden shown : 
 the stack-yard, however, is sur- 
 rounded by a stone wall ; a com- 
 mendable practice, if it were only 
 for the air of neatness and finish 
 which it gives to the whole. 
 
 Design XV. — TTie Farm House and Offices at Cocklaw East Farm, on the Beaufroni 
 Estatey Northumberland. 
 
 960. Accommodation. The general appearance is shown in the isometrical view, 
 p. 474, and the ground plan in fig. 952. In this plan the farm house contains a kitchen, 
 a ; a parlour, h ; back-kitchen, c ; dairy, d ; coal-house, e ; and place for ashes, /. 
 There is a garden, enclosed with a wall. The farmery exhibits a cart-shed, h ; foal. 
 
 952 
 
 house, i ; stable and hay-house, k ; four liovels, I ; three folds, m ; straw-house, with 
 granary above, n ; barn, o ; stack-yard, p ; calf-housc and turnip-house, q ; two byres 
 (cow-houscs), r ; two cottages, $ ; and piggery, i. 
 
FARM HOUSES AND FARMERIES IN VARIOUS STYLES. 477 
 
 961. Construction. Northumberland 953 
 being a county abounding in freestone, 
 the walls are of that material, and the 
 roofs of Baltic timber, covered with 
 Westmoreland slates. Fig. 953 shows a 
 cross section of the dwelling-house. A 
 specification, applicable to Northumbrian 
 farms generally, will be given with a suc- 
 ceeding Design. 
 
 962. Estimate. The contributor of this 
 Design, John Green, Esq., Architect, 
 
 Newcastle, having supplied us with the amount of the actual cost of the different 
 buildings composing this Design, we have made out the following table, with a view of 
 obtaining an approximation to the cost per cubic foot : — 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 n 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 Per 
 Foot. 
 
 d. 
 
 2 
 2 
 2 
 
 Estimated 
 Cost. 
 
 54 
 150 
 178 
 
 Actual 
 Cost. 
 
 50 
 145 
 168 
 
 Contents of the cart-shed, h 6,480 
 
 Contents of the foal-house, «, and stable and hay-house, k k 18,000 
 
 Contents of two hovels, b b . 21,432 
 
 Contents of the barn, o, and straw-house, with a granary 
 
 above, n 25,442 2 212 177 
 
 Contents of two cow-houses, r r, and calf-house, 18,000 2 150 129 
 
 Contents of two pig-houses, t, with yards 4,804 2 20 27 
 
 Contents of the farm-house, and kitchen offices, a, b, c, d, 
 
 &c 31,570 3§ 460 453 
 
 Contents of two cottages, s s 11,520 2| 132 130 
 
 From the above it would appear that, in Northumberland, 2d. per cubic foot is a fair 
 sum for estimating farm buildings j 3^d. for farm houses and their oflices ; and 2|<f. 
 for cottages. 
 
 963. Remarks. The farm house in this Design is placed on one side of the farmery ; 
 but that circumstance, we presume, is owing to some local peculiarity in the surface ; 
 since it must, when no obstacle is in the way, generally be desirable to have the house 
 so placed as to command the whole of the farm-yard. In this instance there is not a 
 single window of the living-rooms which looks in that direction. We observe that the 
 fireplaces are all made in the outside walls, which would be bad in a country where fuel 
 is scarce and dear, but which is probably thought nothing of in Northumberland, where 
 it is abundant and cheap. 
 
 Design XVI. — A Farm House and Farmer^/ for seven Ploughs, proposed to be executed 
 
 in Northumberland. 
 
 964. Accommodation. The ground plan of the farmery is shown in fig. 956 j and the 
 ground plan of the farm house in fig. 954. 
 
 The farmery contains a cart-shed, a ; stable 
 for eight horses, 6 ; hay-house, c ; hovels 
 with yards, d,e,f; straw-house, g ; water- 
 wheel and machinery for threshing- 
 machine, and place for threshed corn, 
 h h h; corn-barn for unthreshed corn, 
 i ; tool-house, k ; hovels with fold yards, 
 I, m, n; foal-house, o; calf-house, p ; 
 cow-house, with stalls between every two 
 cows, q ; stable for six horses, r ; hay bay 
 in the stable, s ; turnip-houses, 1 1 ; roofed 
 part of the pigsties, u u ; cribs for fodder 
 in the fold yards, v v ; kitchen court of 
 the dwelling-house, w ; and stack-yard, x. 
 Fig. 954 is the ground plan of the 
 dwelling-house, in which may be seen a 
 porch, a ; a sitting-room, b ; parlour, c ; 
 dining-room, d; store-room, e; pantry, 
 /; dairy, g with a meat-safe indicated 
 on one side at p ; kitchen, h ; back-kit- 
 chen, i ; cleaning-shed, k ; privy, I ; place 
 for ashes, m, and for coals, n. The 
 surface drainage of the kitchen court, o, 
 is to two iron traps, g q, as indicated 
 
 953 " 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 1 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 1 
 
478 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 956 
 
 by arrow-heads ; and the water thus collected passes under the privy into a drain, r, 
 which also receives the water from the sink-stone, s. 
 
 965. Construction. The walls are of freestone ; the exterior angles, and all the jambs 
 of the doors and windows being worked, and the lintels and sills of one piece. Fig. 955 
 is an elevation of the front of the house, in which a porch is shown, which is formed of 
 stone pilasters. Fig. 957 is a cross section of the stable, showing the manger, a ; racks, 
 b ; and the floor, perfectly level, c. Fig. 958 is a section across the division walls, d, 
 and double cribs of the fold-yard ; by which it appears that the posts, e, into which are 
 lev the ends of the rails to which the spokes of the cribs are nailed, are of stone, and 
 that the cribs are divided into short lengths by cross rails at top, let into the posts, e, and 
 the wall, d. Fig. 959 is a section across a single crib. 
 
FARM HOUSES AND FARMERIES IN VARIOUS STYLES. 4*79 
 957 
 
 958 
 
 SI 
 
 959 
 
 n 
 
 m 
 
 966. General Estimate. The actual expense of building this farmery, exclusive of the 
 farm house, was ^1200; and, as it contains 168,560 cubic feet, the expense ^r foot is 
 about lU. The actual cost of the farm house, with the kitchen court and offices, 
 amounted to the same sum ; and, as these contain 86,704 cubic feet, the average per foot 
 is S-rd., or thereabouts. ^-r i i - t.- 
 
 967. Remarks. This Design, also by Mr. Green, is for a Northumbrian farm which 
 pays a rent of from £1200 to £^400 a year ; the rent being partly paid m money, and 
 partly in the value of the produce, chiefly corn, wool, and butchers meat. The cn-cum- 
 stance of the threshing-machine being diiven by water is favourable for the tenant, as 
 requiring fewer horses. The cribs for the cattle in the fold-yards_ seem remarkably well 
 executed; the posts being of stone. These cribs are two feet wide, and mto them the 
 turnips are thrown at one period of the day, and the straw at another. The stables are, 
 as usual, divided into single stalls, and they are lighted by glass windows, which are always 
 favourable for cleanliness. The house is spacious, and appears to contain most of the 
 conveniences required. The connection of the dairy with the kitchen and back-kitchen 
 is good ; but the idea of a safe for meat in the dairy cannot be considered as favourable 
 (see § 730). The manner in which the draining of the surface water of the yard is 
 indicated is highly commendable, and ought to be generally adopted. The first points 
 which should be settled, in determining the heights of the ground floors of any assemblage 
 of buildings, are the levels of the underground and surface dramage. 
 
 Design XVII.— /4 Farm House and Farmery for Fourteen Phuffhs, suited to the North., 
 umbrian Husbandry. 
 
 968. Accommodation. Fig. 962 shows the general appearance of the whole; fig. 963 
 is the ground plan of the farmery ; and fig. 960 the 
 ground plan of the dwelling-house. The ground plan 
 of the farmery shows a gig-house, a ; harness-room, h ; 
 a stable, c, with a loft over it, and a man's sleeping-room 
 over the gig-house and harness-room ; a foal-house, d ; 
 buU-house, e; two cow-houses, for sixteen cows, each 
 pair separated by a partition, / / ; five hovels with fold- 
 yards, g-, calf-house for twelve calves, A; stable for a 
 loose horse, i ; straw-house, h ; barn, I ; steam-engine 
 house, m ; boiler-house, n ; tool-house, o ; poultry-house, 
 p ; outside stair to the bam, q ; cart-shed, r ; cartwright's 
 shop, s; blacksmith's shop, <; hay-yard, u; stable for 
 bailiff's horse, v ; bailiff's cottage, w ; turnip-houses, x ; 
 pig-houses, y ; kitchen-court of the farm house, z ; and 
 rick-yard, Fig. 960 is a ground plan of the dwelling- 
 house, in which there are a lobby, a ; a dining-room, h ; 
 drawing-room, c; parlour, d; office and library, e ; 
 passage, /; kitchen, ^; back-kitchen, A; pantry, i; 
 dairy, k ; wash-house, I ; place for ashes, m ; for coals, 
 n ; best privy, o ; and servant's privy, p. Fig. 961 is a 
 front elevation of the house. 
 
 969. Construction. Native freestone, Baltic timber, 
 and Westmoreland slate are, as usual, the principal 
 materials ; and the details of construction are common 
 to all farmeries in Northumberland. We may remark, 
 as not common, the practice of passing from one fold- 
 
 3 F 
 
 960 
 
 961 
 
COTTAGE, FABM, AND VILLA AECHITECTUUE. 
 
 962 
 
FARM HOUSES AND FARMERIES IN VARIOUS STYLES. 481 
 
 963 
 
 J2 6 0 12 24 36 48 60 72 84 95 108 
 
 I - ■■ - ■ ■ • -I i ■ •- - • feet 
 
482 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 yard to another, over the separation wall, by ascending three steps on one side, and 
 descending three on the other, as indicated 
 by the section fig. 964. The fodder-cribs, — p 
 964 fig. 965, have raised bottoms, grated, in order [ 965 
 
 to let the dust and dirt from the turnips 
 f""^ drop through. The hay, when there are cribs 
 
 for the turnips, is given in racks, placed 
 against the back wall of the hovels, as indicated 
 
 in the plan, fig. 963. This practice seems a ' 
 
 decided improvement. 
 
 970. Remarks. The threshing-machine here is driven by steam, which shows a great 
 aavance on the practice of employing horses, and one particularly suitable to a coal 
 country, where fuel must be so much cheaper than horse-food. It will be observed in 
 the plan, that the boiler-house, the cart-shed, the cartwright's shop, and the smithy are 
 kept quite apart both from the fold-yards and the rick-yard ; which is highly proper, as 
 it prevents all risk from fire getting to straw, and all waste of litter, none being required 
 for this department of the farmery. Taken altogether, this farmery appears one of the 
 most extensive and well-arranged things of the kind that we have seen, and does the 
 highest credit to its Architect, Mr. Green. One circumstance we cannot help remarking ; 
 and that is, the commodiousness of the farm house, which contains twenty-eight windows, 
 and twenty-eight apartments; while the dwelling of the bailiff, or superintending hind, as 
 he is called in Northumberland, consists of only one apartment, and one small window. 
 The horses and cows, nay, even the swine, are incomparably better lodged, considering 
 their scale in creation, than the unfortunate occupant of such a cottage as is here shown : 
 but the farmers of Northumberland, like tliose of Scotland, are under the dominion of 
 an all-powerful aristocracy, and their servants are little better than serfs ; or, as it has 
 been observed in the Morning Chronicle, the landlords are the slave-owners, the farmers 
 the slave-drivers, and their servants the slaves. 
 
 Design XVIII. — A Farm House and Farmery for Ten Ploughs, Ten Cows, Twenty 
 Young Cattle, and other Live Stock, adapted to the Husbandry of Northumberland. 
 
 971. Accommodation. The general appearance is shown in fig. 966, and the ground 
 plan in fig. 967. In the latter, the house contains a kitchen, a ; dining-room, b ; parlour, 
 
 966 
 
 f, separated from the dining-room by a large hall or lobby ; office, or place of business, 
 J; dairy, e; covered passage, open in front,/; back-kitchen, and dairy-scullery,^; privy 
 for servants', h ; best privy, i ; kitchen court, k ; place for ashes, I ; and walled kitchen- 
 garden, m. The farmery contains in the barn a compartment for unthreshed corn, 1 ; 
 another for threshed corn, 2 ; a space for machinery, 3 ; and a large straw-house, 4. At one 
 end of the straw-house is a stair to a granary which extends over the straw-house and cattle- 
 sheds 5 and 6. The cattle-sheds, or hammels, are of three kinds ; hammels for beeves 
 upon turnips, 5 ; hammels for stirks, 38 ; and hammels for store cattle on straw, 6. 
 Every hammel has its yard ; those for the cattle on straw, 39, being largest, because 
 
FARM HOUSES AND FARMERIES IN VARIOUS STYLES. 483 
 967 
 
 1'' 9 I 
 
 I B f=> t- j- 
 
 39 
 
 6 
 
 4 
 
 13 
 
 39 
 
 7 
 
 38 
 
 
 38 
 
 14 
 
 
 23 1 r| ^ Tj 
 
 a number are put together ; and those for the beeves being smallest, because they are 
 understood to be fattening. The yard for the stirks, 38, is also the yard for the stables. 
 There are two hay-rooms, 7 7 ; and two stables for ten horses each, 8 8 ; a poultry-house, 
 9; pigsty, 10; calf-house, 11 ; foddering-bay for cow-house, 12; cow-house for ten cows, 
 1 3 ; yard to the cow-house, 1 4 ; vacant house, to be used as a slaughter-house, or for 
 pickling wheat, or for various other purposes, with a dovecot over, 15; store pigsty, 
 16 ; house for a bull, 17 ; house for a stallion, 18 ; feeding-house for cows, 20 ; and yard 
 for cow-house, 21. There are a boiling-house, which also serves as a wash-house for the 
 family, 22 ; a coal or wood-house, 23 ; stable for a riding-horse, 24 ; an hospital, 25 ; a 
 carpenter's shop, 26 ; a tool-house, 27 ; cart-shed, 28 ; and six cottages for ploughmen, 
 29. Belonging to the cottages there are a place for such rubbish as cannot be turned into 
 manure for the cottage gardens, 30 ; a privy for the women and children, 31 ; and a privy 
 for the men and boys, 32. To complete the establishment, there are a blacksmith's shop, 33 ; 
 and a cow-house for the six cows of the cottagers, 34. Each cottage has a garden in 
 the enclosure marked 35. To supply all the animals with water, there are pumps at 
 n n n, besides a pump in the kitchen court, and one at o, for the cottagers. ^ There are a 
 broad passage or roadway between those offices which are unconnected with working, 
 feeding, or store animals, and the farm yard, 36 ; a yard for store turnips, 37 ; one^ for 
 stirks, and for the stables, 38 ; two for cattle feeding on straw, 39 ; and an extensive rick- 
 yard, 40. 
 
 972. Remarks. This Design has been sent us by one of the most extensive farmers 
 in Northumberland, an enlightened and liberal-minded man, and a much valued con- 
 tributor to our Encyclopedia of Agriculture, Gardener's Magazine, and Magazine of 
 Natural History, accompanied by the following remarks : — " This Design is sent to show 
 you what we in Northumberland consider some of the essentials in the arrangement of a 
 farm steading. It scarcely ever happens that a whole homestead has to be built at once ; 
 and the nature of the ground, or of the farm roads, frequently causes a variety of modi- 
 fications in the different buildings here exhibited. In explaining what these essentials 
 are, it may be necessary to state the reasons why the barn, in fig. 967, is made thirty feet 
 wide, instead of sixteen or eighteen feet, which is the usual width. This is done that 
 there may be sufficient space for a stack of unthreshed corn, and also two bays for 
 threshed corn, in order to supply work for the men and horses, in weather so bad, that 
 corn would be injured in carrying it from the rick-yard to the barn ; and to contain a 
 large quantity of threshed corn, when there may not be time, on account of out of doors 
 work, to clean and measure it up, and raise it into the granary. The straw-house, 4, may 
 
484 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 also seem large ; but the advantage of having occasionally, or rather always, a store of 
 dry straw is great ; and in a large straw-house the different kinds for the keeping or 
 feeding of cattle may be kept separate without inconvenience. The hammels, as well as 
 the other cattle-houses, it will be seen, are so situated as to be supplied with straw from 
 the straw-house with the least possible labour ; they are also all made to front the south ; 
 as that aspect, in Northumberland, offers so much more warmth and comfort to the 
 animals, a,s to render the food given much more effective in fattening them than it would 
 be in houses facing the north, or even the east or, west. The cattle wing is placed on 
 the west side of the quadrangle, near the dwelling-house, as being more convenient for 
 the cows and calves ; and the stables are placed near the centre, with hay-houses, 7 7, at 
 their farther end, to which access may be had through large folding doors in the straw- 
 house. The hay, may, therefore, be carried to the feeding stock dry, and may be lodged 
 under lock and key, and given into the charge of a fodderman ; under which circumstances, 
 it is considered much less liable to waste ; the expense of lofting the stables is also saved, 
 and the stables are thus rendered more healthy for the horses. As a long range of 
 buildings fronting the south might be exposed to a sweep of wind from the east or west, 
 the stables are carried up close to the fodder-house, for the purpose of breaking such a 
 current, and of rendering the folds more sheltered, particularly the middle one ; which, on 
 this account, and from its being the most convenient for receiving the stable litter, is 
 particularly eligible for the yearling cattle (stirks), which the Northumbrian farmers 
 think are less liable to the quarter ill, when allowed to eat the refuse hay and litter from 
 the horses, of which they are very fond. The feeding cattle are now generally fed in 
 sheds opening into a loose yard, three, five, and sometimes more, being placed together, 
 with the exception, occasionally, of old cows, which are usually tied up ; for these there is a 
 feeding-byre, 20, in the east wing, which, however, may also be converted into a feeding- 
 hammel. Both a turnip-house, 1 9, and a turnip-yard, 37, are given ; the first is princi- 
 pally useful during winter frosts, though excellent beeves may be fed with turnips which 
 have been stored in the open yard, when they have been weU covered with straw. The 
 cart-shed, which more farmers consider necessary than can boast of having, is placed near 
 the stables, and fronting the north ; that being considered the best aspect for preserving 
 those implements. The tool-house is also near, and the remainder of this range to the 
 west may be considered most conveniently situated. The dwelling-house is placed a 
 little in advance of the west wing, and is as near the farm-yard as it well can be, without 
 being subjected to its nuisances. The dairy is shown rather detached, because it is better 
 at some distance from the heat of the kitchen ; and its window is to the north, as that is 
 requisite for preserving the milk sweet during the hot weather of summer. The cottages 
 are to the east of the south range ; and if built like Mr. Bardwell's, § 477, fig. 423, with 
 sleeping apartments above, they will be of sufficient size. They are better placed 
 together than detached, as, by their vicinity to each other, a dishonest servant is prevented 
 from pilfering, from the fear of being detected and exposed by his neighbours. Their 
 cow-houses, and the blacksmith's shop, are placed on the east, to complete the quadrangle, 
 where also other conveniences may be added, if thought necessary. The wash-house, 22, 
 at the west end, is intended either to boil horse or cow food ; or where many harvesters 
 (reapers) are employed and fed, it may be used as a cooking-house." We value this plan 
 highly, knowing the competency of its author. We are gratified to observe that the 
 cottages for the labourers are proposed to be formed, like Mr. Bardwell's, with one large 
 room and two closets on the ground floor, and two bed-rooms over. The worst point 
 about the Northumbrian farmeries, as well as those of Scotland, is the boothies, or little 
 booths, for the single men, and the houses of one room for the married servants. 
 
 Design XIX. — A Farmery for Five Ploughs, with Cows, Cattle, and other Stock in 
 Proportion, suitable for the Northumbrian Husbandry. 
 
 973. Accommodation. No farm house is here shown, but merely the offices of the farmery ; 
 the general appearance of which is exhibited in fig. 968, and the ground plan in fig. 969. 
 The latter contains the barn bay for unthreshed corn, y ; the bay for threshed corn, z ; 
 the machinery, c ; and the straw-house, d : the stable, e, has separate stalls for ten 
 horses ; and connected with it is a hay-house, /. There are a tool-house, g ; straw- 
 yards, and hammels, h, i, k, I ; calf-house, m ; stable for a loose horse, n ; cow-houses, o, 
 p ; hackney stable, q ; and four feeding-hammels, with yards, r, s. There are a vacant 
 house for an hospital, and for various other purposes, t ; a cart-shed, u ; turnip-house, 
 V ; a common yard, w ; and rick-yard, x. There are pumps for supplying water, at 
 
 - a'af ; and upright racks along the divisions between the fold-yards, at b' b', &c. 
 
 974. Remarks. On this Design, which has been sent us by the same experienced 
 agriculturist as the preceding one, its author thus remarks : — "No dwelling-house or 
 cottages are attached, nor a blacksmith's nor carpenter's shop ; because these may be added 
 
FARM HOUSES AND FARMERIES IN VARIOUS STYLES. 485 
 
 where deemed most convenient. Many of the observations made on the preceding Design 
 will apply also to this one : the cart-shed, however, fronts the east, which is the next 
 desirable aspect to the north." 
 
 80 100 Ft. 
 
 Design XX. ■— A Farm House and Farmery for Three Ploughs, adapted to the NortJi^ 
 umhrian System of Culture. 
 975. Accommodation. Fig. 970 shows the general appearance; and fig. 971 the 
 ground plan. In the latter the dwelling-house shows an entrance-lobby and staircase, a ; 
 
 970 
 
480 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 971 2 
 
 Ifrfftt,^ ( 1 \ \ f 1 i ' 1 1 
 
 Ft. 10 0 '^0 40 60 80 100 Ft. 
 
 parlour, &; kitchen, c; dairy, d; drying-shed, e; back-kitchen and dairy-scullery,/; 
 servants' privy, g ; best privy, h ; place for ashes, i ; pigsty, k ; poultry-house, I ; and 
 kitchen yard, m. The offices show a stable for six cart-horses, n ; hackney-stable, o ; cow- 
 house, p ; calf-house, q ; hammels and yards, r ; house for a loose horse or bull, s ; bay 
 of the barn for unthreshed corn, t ; threshed corn and machinery, u ; straw-house, v ; 
 situation in which cattle-sheds may be extended, w, with yards, x, A pump, placed aty, 
 will supply the whole of the farm-yard, and the kitchen court may have one in any con- 
 venient angle. The rick-yard is at z. 
 
 976. Remarks. This Design, by the same contributor, is for what is considered in 
 Northumberland a small farm. " It is chiefly intended for keeping cattle, and may be 
 extended towards the east, as shown by the dotted lines, w, x. The additional hammels, 
 tr, may be covered by corn stacks, as roofs, and especially with beans, a very general 
 practice in Northumberland. There is a dwelling, but no buildings are shown, for ser- 
 vants or workmen. The cattle-sheds are all lofted, such lofts forming better granaries 
 for keeping corn than those over close cattle-houses or stables ; because the corn is not 
 injured by the breath of cattle confined below. The whole range of building on the 
 north side of this yard is shown two stories high, for the sake of sheltering the fold-yards. 
 The stables in this Design, and in the two preceding ones, ought to be between sixteen 
 and eighteen feet wide ; and, if a recess with a small window in it were made behind 
 each pair of horses, a convenient place would be formed there for keeping harness above, 
 and for placing a corn or chaff bin below. The light and the ventilation which would 
 be afforded by the window would admit of keeping the stable much more sweet and clean 
 than is usual ; for it is certain, as White observes, that < there is nothing like light for 
 exposing a negligent servant.' " 
 
 Design XXI. — The Farm House and Offices for a Farm of Six Ploughs, called Hallington 
 New Houses, on the Beaufront Estate, in Northumberland. 
 
 977. Accommodation. The general appearance is shown in fig. 972, and the ground 
 plan in fig. 973. The latter shows the farm house, containing a kitchen, a ; parlour, 6 ; 
 
 972 
 
FARM HOUSES AND FARMERIES IN VARIOUS STYLES. 487 
 
 973 
 
 nrl: 
 
 [ Ll-LJU, 
 
 back-kitchen, c, with four bed-rooms and a closet over. There are also a dairy, d ; coal- 
 house and shed, e ; ash-house and privy,/ ; and garden, surrounded by a wall, g. The 
 farmery contains a stable for nine horses, h ; a hay-house, i ; three hovels with their fold- 
 
 stack-yard, n ; stable for four 
 piggeries, s ; cart-shed, t ; and 
 
 yards, k ; a straw-house, with granary over, I ; a barn 
 horses, o ; foal-house, p ; cow-houses, q ; calf-house, r 
 two cottages, u u. 
 
 978. Construction. The walls are of the 
 freestone found upon the estate ; the timber is 
 of Baltic fir, and the covering of the roofs of 
 Westmoreland slate. There is nothing pe- 
 culiar or specific in the fitting up of the 
 buildings composing the farmery ; and the 
 interior of the dwelling-house is finished in 
 the usual manner, as appears by the section, 
 fig. 974. As a specimen of the manner in 
 which the particular, or specification, of the 
 work to be done in building a farm house 
 and offices in Northumberland is made out, 
 we are enabled, through the kindness of Mr. 
 Green, to subjoin the following form, being that actually made for rebuilding this 
 farm : — 
 
 979. Specification and Description of the several works to new farm buildings intended 
 to be erected at Hallington New Houses, on the estate of J. Errington, Esq., of Beau- 
 front, in the county of Northumberland, according to the plans, elevations, and sections 
 hereunto annexed. 
 
 980. The Contractors shall, at their own cost and charge, provide all and every kind 
 of material ; labour, including the digging and quarrying stones ; workmanship ; tools ; 
 travelling, lodging, and every other expense attendant on the works, except cartage, 
 which is to be supplied by the tenant. All the materials to be of good quality of their 
 several kinds; and the mortar for building the walls to be composed of good well-burnt 
 lime, mixed with clean sand ; using not less than one cart-load of lime to three cart-loads 
 of sand, and having them well mixed and beaten together with water. The stones to be 
 got from a quarry which is to be opened on the farm ; the contractor to find labour for 
 opening and laying bare the stone ; but the tenant to supply what cartage may be neces- 
 
 3 c. 
 
^SS COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 sary. The timbers for all the carpenter's work; viz., roofing, lintels, bond timber, 
 stoothings (stud work, or quartering ; that is, wooden framework for lath and plaster par- 
 titions), ragglings (ceiling joists), joistings, external door-frames, posts and rails for stalls 
 in stable, cow-byre, and calf-pens, to be all sawn out of Memel, Dantzic, or red pine 
 timber. The deals for the external doors, windows, gates, stall partitions, mangers, and 
 hay-racks, and for the steps and risers to stairs, to be all of red wood from the Baltic. 
 All the floors of the house and gi-anary to be laid with white-wood battens from Christiania. 
 All the other inside joiner's work to be executed with deals, &c., cut out of Quebec yellow 
 pine. The whole to be free from sap, shakes, loose knots, and every other defect. 
 The materials of the present old buildings to be taken for the use of the respective con- 
 tractors ; and such of them as shall be deemed sound and good by the inspector, such as 
 stones and timber, to be used in the new offices. The old buildings, however, are to be 
 taken down only in such order of time as they can be spared by the tenant, so as he may 
 not be put to unnecessary inconvenience thereby. 
 
 981. Dwelling- House. — Mason's Work. To open out, and lay bare the quarry where 
 pointed out ; and to get from it all the stones necessary for the mason-work ; to dig proper 
 trenches for all the walls, of the different thicknesses, and to the depth required for a 
 good foundation, and also for sleeper walls to the parlour floor. To build stone footings 
 to all the walls, from good foundations, of the different thicknesses described on the 
 drawing ; the first footing to be 3 feet, and the second ditto 2 feet and a half. To carry 
 up all the external walls 2 feet thick, and the internal walls, and walls of coal-house, 
 privy, &c., 20 inches thick, to the heights required, as shown by the elevation and section. 
 The front of the house to be built with good blocking courses of hewn stone ("good 
 blocking courses" does not mean, in Northumberland, hewn work, but only stones 
 dressed with the pick end of the hammer, and laid in regular courses, which courses are 
 generally of such a thickness, as that two of them range witli one course of coins, as 
 in fig. 975). The jambs of the doors and windows to be carried up in in and out tie (in 
 and out tie, or in-bands and out-bands, are analogous to headers and stretchers in brick- 
 work J and, in the case of windows and other openings, will be understood by fig. 976, 
 
 975 976 977 978 
 
 b I 
 
 in which a is the in-tie, in-band, or heading stone ; and 6, the out-tie, out-band, or 
 stretching stone ; and c, the pulley style of the windows ; the external elevation of in 
 and out tie may be seen in fig. 977) ; checked (rebated) to receive frames ; the inside 
 of the jambs to be splayed ; to have wooden bricks built in for fastenings of the beads, 
 and recesses left for window seats. The gables of the house and back side to be built 
 with good common walling ; the whole of the walls to have a bond stone (binding 
 stone) laid through the full thickness of the wall every superficial yard, and to be 
 properly pointed outside. Windows and doors to have stone heads and sills, chiseled and 
 set. The sills to have proper drips, and to project 2 inches from the face of the wall. 
 The coins (corners) for all the walls to be chiseled, and to be from 12 to 14 inches 
 deep, 20 inches long, and 10 inches in the bed. Two courses of blocking in the front 
 wall to range fair with one of coins. The chimneys to be carried up with gables, 
 as shown in the drawing. The vents (flues) to be well pargeted inside, with hair and 
 lime ; and the tops above the roof to be built with hewn stone, well jointed ; each joint 
 to have a wrought-iron cramp, three eighths of an inch square, and 5 inches long, run 
 with lead. Stone water-tables to be laid up the gables on each side, and to be wrought 
 with saddle top, chiseled and set ; the first stone to be fixed with an iron stud, run with 
 lead, into coi-bel coins (summer stones, as shown in fig. 977), also a stone ridge, 
 wrought fair to a mould, well jointed and laid straight on the roof. To pave the two 
 kitchens, dairy, pantry, passages, and closet under the stairs with flag-stones, 3 inches 
 and a half thick, from Erring Craig : the whole to be dressed, jointed, and well bedded 
 in sand. The front and back doors to have stone steps and thresholds, chiseled and set. 
 The fireplaces in the front kitchen and back ditto to have stone jambs and mantels 
 chiseled and set. The mantels not to be less than 15 inches deep, and the jambs the 
 breadth required. Each fireplace to have a furnace pot (boiler) and oven (the front 
 kitchen pot to contain 12 gallons of water ; the oven to be 20 inches in diameter) ; and 
 standard grates, (kitchen grates supporting themselves by feet in front,) 20 inches 
 wide, set with hewn stone fronts, coved behind for the pot mouth (boiler mouth, 
 as in fig. 978 ; in which d is the pot or boiler ; e, the coving ; /, the jamb ; and g, 
 
FARM HOUSES AND FARMERIES IN VARIOUS STYLES. 489 
 
 the bottom of the standard grates) ; the back-kitchen fireplace to have a standard grate, 
 20 inches vs^ide, and the pot to contain 16 gallons of water. The whole to be properly 
 set with cast-iron dampers and fire bricks ; to have end plates and a hook fixed for 
 the top bar to fall down. The fireplaces in the bed-rooms and parlour to have polished 
 stone jambs, mantels, and fire slabs, and side slips where required ; each to have a 
 sham stove of the value of 15s. each, the parlour fireplace to have metal cove plates 
 (metal side pieces, coved to the jambs above the stoves, as in fig. 97 9, 
 in which h h are the cove plates), and the whole to be properly set. 979 
 To pebble-pave the yard to the house, coal-house, ash-house and J — L 
 shed ; the privy t<3 be flag-paved. The front and back doors to have f/i j=j ^ \ 
 
 flags lard in the front of the steps, 4 feet by 4 feet. To build the -Ml B - 
 garden v/all, as shown in the plan, with common walling, 20 inches 
 thick, and 6 feet high, with coins at the angles, and to have the coins of the gate 
 openings scappled (broached ashlar dressed roughly -with the pick end of the hammer). 
 
 982. Plasterer^s Work. To plaster all the walls of the house with two-coated plaster; 
 and also all the jambs of doors and windows. The soffits of the same to be lath-plastered 
 where required. The ceilings of all the rooms, passages, and of the staircase with stooth- 
 ing partitions, to have two-coated lath-plaster ; also the partitions forming closets to have 
 tlie same. The privy to have two coats of wall-plastering, and the ceiling to have two 
 coats of lath-plaster. The lime for the whole of the above to be well prepared, and mixed 
 with a sufficient quantity of long beast's hair ; the whole to be well smoothed off, and left 
 free from blushes (blisters) and every other defect, when finished. The mason to cut all 
 the holes necessary for the carpenter's and joiner's work, and for the smith's work, &c. ; 
 also to provide lead for running in ditto. Grooves to be cut, when required, for the 
 slating ; and the whole to be done to the satisfaction of Mr. J. Green, Architect, or 
 whom he may appoint to inspect the same. 
 
 983. Carpenter and Joiner's Work. To provide and cut all the necessary wooden bricks ; 
 lintels for door and window openings, and wall plates for joisting, of such scantling as 
 will be hereafter specified. The joisting for the chamber floor to be laid level at top, 
 and fair underside for the ceiling, and not to exceed 16 inches apart, middle and middle 
 (from centre to centre). The joists to have 12 inches hold on the wall at each end, and 
 to be laid on wall plates ; to be trimmed for the chimneys and staircase, as may be re- 
 quired ; and to be of such scantling as will be hereafter specified. The joisting for the 
 parlour floor to be laid on sleeper walls, not to exceed 18 inches apart, middle and 
 middle. The fire hearths to be boxed with 1 inch and a quarter deal. The roof to be 
 framed, as shown in the section, with four pair of principals (principal rafters) ; the common 
 rafters to be laid so as not to exceed 18 inches apart, middle and middle, a course of 
 five-eighths inch deal sarking (boarding), 9 inches broad, to be laid along the eaves 
 and the ridge, on each side of the roof and chimney necks (shafts) ; also five-eighths 
 inch deal sarking laid up the gables, 2 feet wide on each side, to meet the slate laths in 
 the middle of the second spar from the gable. The beams to be laid on raising plates, 
 (wall plates) with a proper bearing on the same. The ceiling joists to be fixed to the 
 underside of the tie beams, and not to exceed 16 inches apart, middle and middle. A 
 trap-door to be made and fixed in the ceiling where directed, to give access to the roof. 
 Stoothing partitions to form rooms, pantry, closets, &c., to be fixed as shown on the 
 drawing; the stoothings (quartering) not to exceed 16 inches apart, middle and middle, 
 the scantlings to be hereafter specified. Partition door-frames to be beaded, rabbeted, 
 and fixed with stoothings, where shown in the drawing. The closet door-frames to be 
 beaded, and fixed with stoothings to form closets, as shown in the drawing. The 
 chamber floors and parlour ditto to be laid with inch-and-quarter white-wood battens ; 
 dressed and jointed, and well nailed to joists ; the battens to be dressed and jointed 
 immediately after the contract is made, and horsed (set up on end in 
 
 the open air to dry, against a horizontal spar or horse, the end of which 
 is shown at i, in fig. 984), so as to be properly seasoned before laying 
 down. The coal-house, shed, and privy, to be covered in with a pitched 
 roof (a roof raised in the middle, and not at one side only, as in lean-to 
 roofs), as shown in the drawing ; scantlings hereafter specified. — Scant- 
 lings. Chamber flooring joists, 9 inches by 2 inches and a half, 16 inches apart, middle 
 and middle; sleeper joists for parloiu-, 6 inches and a half by 2 inches and a half; 18 
 inches apart, middle and middle ; principal rafters, 9 inches by 3 inches ; tie-beams, 
 8 inches by 3 inches and a half; king-posts, 11 inches by 3 inches and a half; ridge- 
 pieces, 7 inches by 1 inch and a half; ribs, 5 inches by 3 inches and a half; strutts, 5 
 inches by 3 inches ; common rafters, 3 inches by 2 inches and a half; ragglings, 
 3 inches and a half by 2 inches ; stoothings, 3 inches by 2 inches and a half; wall plates 
 under joists, 4 inches and a half by 1 inch and a half ; raising plates under tie-beams, 6 
 inches and a half by 2 inches and a quarter ; lintels for doors and windows, 4 inches 
 
490 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 thick, by the breadth required ; wall plate at foot of spars, 9 inches by 1 inch and a 
 quarter ; partition door-frames, 4 inches and a half by 3 inches and a quarter ; closet 
 door-frames, 3 inches and a quarter by 3 inches ; external door-frames to house, 4 inches 
 and three quarters by 3 inches and a half ; principal rafters for shed and coal-house 
 roofing, 6 inches and a half by 2 inches and a half; common rafters, 2 inches and a half 
 by 2 inches and a quarter ; ribs, 4 inches and a half by 3 inches and a quarter ; wall 
 plates, 6 inches and a half by 1 inch and a quarter ; ridge pieces, 6 inches by 1 inch and 
 a half; pan plate, wall plate, and lintel, 3 inches and a half thick. — Windows. All the 
 windows for the house to have boxed sash fi-ames of red-wood deal. The frames to 
 have 1-inch pulley stiles (hollow stiles, containing the pulleys, lines, and weights, for 
 balancing the sashes), outside linings of three-quarters-inch deal; and beaded inside 
 linings of half-inch deal, with the sash sill double sunk (see fig. 981), 3 inches and 
 a half thick by the breadth required. The heads to be of 2 inch 
 
 deal, boxed out the breadth of the side frames ; three-eighths- r 1 981 
 
 inch parting (separating) beads grooved into pulley stiles; j i — 
 
 inside beads, three quarters of an inch and seven eighths of , 
 
 an inch broad; the sashes to be 1 inch and three quarters, | 
 stuck (worked) with astragal and hollow ; sash bar, five eighths ~~ ' 
 
 of an inch thick ; the stile of sashes to be 1 inch and three quarters broad. The 
 whole to be single hung with cast-iron weights and proper sash line ; and to have 
 cast-iron framed pulleys ; each window to have a brass sash fastener fixed, of the value 
 of Is. 9d. The low room (ground floor) windows to have inside shutters framed 
 of inch-and-quarter deal, in two panels, planted (inlaid) moulding, plain back 
 flaps of three-quarters-inch deal, clamped at the ends; shutters to be hung with 
 two inches and a half metal butt hinges ; and the back flaps with 1 inch and a half 
 wrought-iron ditto, and screws. Each shutter to have a plain brass knob, and a 
 window shutter bar, 2 feet and a half long, fixed to each window. All the windows 
 to have inch-and-quarter deal bottoms, with plain backs and elbows (casings round 
 the window seats) of 1-inch deal beaded ; the upper edge and plain sofl^ts to be of three- 
 quarters-inch deal, grooved and tongued. The parlour window to have framed backs 
 and elbows down to the floor, with a framed soffit of inch-and-quarter deal, to corre- 
 spond with shutters. The plinth to be fixed round the window, 4 inches and a half broad. 
 Framed grounds 4 inches and a half by 1 inch and a quarter, beaded and splayed inside, 
 to be fixed round the windows in the parlour and in the two kitchens, with a three- 
 quarters-inch ogee back moulding. The upper room windows to have a three- 
 quarters-inch angle bead fixed round the jambs and heads. The dairy and pantry 
 windows to be made with solid frames, 3 inches and a half by 3 inches ; to have sliding 
 trellises inside, with glass above, one square in height ; and to have inch-and-quarter 
 deal bottom made level with shelving. The jambs and heads to have a three-quarters- 
 inch angle bead fixed. The dairy and pantry shelving to be fixed, as shown on the 
 plan, by dotted lines ; to have three shelves in height ; their united breadths not to be 
 less than 4 feet ; and to have proper framed bearers. All the external angles of the 
 chimney breasts, jambs, and heads of door openings to have three-quarters-inch 
 angle beads fixed, and on such other places as require them. The closets to be fitted 
 up, as shown in the drawing, with 3 shelves in height, of 1-inch deal ; their united 
 « breadths not to measure less than 3 feet. The stairs to be fitted up in one flight, as 
 shown on the plan, with inch-and-quarter deal steps and risers. The steps to have 
 rounded nosings chimed (let in) at both ends into stringings, which are to be of inch- 
 and-half deal, and 10 inches broad ; with a dressed and beaded upper edge to answer 
 as skirting. A wrought deal handrail to be fixed to stoothings on each side of the 
 stairs. Moulded skirting to be fixed round the parlour of 1-inch deal, 6 inches broad ; 
 to be fixed to the wall with plugs. Plain skirting of three-quarters-inch deal, 4 
 inches and a half broad, to be fixed round the kitchen, back-kitchen, passages, bed- 
 rooms, &c. The parlour fireplace to have a plain pilaster chimney-piece, 4 inches and a 
 half broad, with shelf and frieze. The bed-room fireplaces to have a single fire moulding, 
 with a plain shelf and frieze. The two kitchen fireplaces to have each a chimney shelf 
 of inch-and-quarter deal, fixed with ogee brackets. All the room door-frames to 
 have a three-quarters-inch quirk ogee moulding, planted (fixed) round on each side, 
 also round the closet door-frames, to cover the plastering. The upper room doors, 
 and the dairv and pantry ditto, to be framed in four panels of inch-and-half deal, 
 finished and planted on one side. To be hung on frames, with 3 inches and a half 
 butt hinges, and each to have a good Norfolk latchet (latch). The cheese-room door 
 and pantry ditto to have iron-rimmed locks of the value of 2s. 6d. each, with escut- 
 cheons. The low room doors to be also framed in four panels of inch-and-half deal 
 finished, planted moulding, both sides hung on frames, with 3 inches and a half butts ; 
 the parlour door and kitchen ditto next to the stairs to have each an iron-rimmed lock 
 
FARM HOUSES AND FARMERIES IN VARIOUS STYLES. 491 
 
 with Scotch springs, and plain brass knobs of the value of 5s. 6d. each. The closet doors 
 to be framed in four panels of inch-and-quarter deal ; with planted mouldings on 
 one side, to be hung with 3-inch butt hinges, and to have closet door locks of the value 
 of 2s. 6d. each. The front door to be framed 1 inch and three quarters thick, in 6 
 panels, bead and flush outside ; and hung with 4 inches and a half butt hinges on frames 
 beaded and rabbeted, with a light above. The back entrance door to be framed 1 inch 
 and three quarters thick, in four panels, bead and butt, and hung on frames, beaded and 
 rabbeted, with 4 inches and a half butt hinges. Each of the above doors to have a stock 
 lock of the value of 6s., and a good Norfolk latchet. 20 feet run of pin rail (railing for 
 hat or cloak pins) to be fixed in the kitchen where reqmred. The trap-door, made for 
 the ceiling, to be of half-inch deal, grooved and tongued, with beaded lining round the 
 frame. The privy to have a boxed seat of inch-and-quarter deal, grooved and tongued, 
 and a battened door of 1-inch deal, hung on frames, beaded and 
 rabbeted, 4 feet by 3 feet, with T bands (hinges like fig. 982) 2 feet L-'^2 
 long, and to have a Norfolk latchet, with a small bolt inside. The 
 coal-house door, and ash-house ditto, to be of inch-and-quarter deal, 
 hung with bands (strap hinges) and crooks (hooks) run into stone 
 cheeks (jambs), 2 feet 2 inches long, with two screw-bolts and nuts 
 in each band. ( N. B. No doors or window shutters to be hung on mouldings fixed in 
 any part of the house where the plastering is unfinished, except on the window grounds 
 and skirting.) 
 
 984. Hardware (Ironmongery). To provide all the nails, spikes, screws, &c., that 
 may be necessary for the carpenter's and joiner's work ; also 
 all the hardware, as before specified ; two dozen of iron 
 crooks to be fixed in the ceilings of the kitchen, or in such 
 other parts as shall be directed. To fix along the eaves of 
 the roof on both sides half round metal spouts (see fig. 983^), 
 with two metal wall pipes. The whole to be fixed with a ^ 
 suflficient number of iron stays and holdfasts. 
 
 985. Slater's Work. To cover the roof of the house with Welsh slates called countesses, 
 laid with a suflficient overlap, and well nailed, with two nails to each slate, to Memel 
 laths 1 inch and a half by five eighths of an inch ; the laths to be well nailed to spars 
 (common rafters). The whole to be well pointed inside with good hair and lime 
 mortar, and inserted into grooves at the chimney necks ; also to be well pointed up the 
 gables and along the ridge ; the whole to be sound, and left perfectly watertight when 
 finished. 
 
 986. Glazier's and Paintei-'s Work. To glaze all the windows with the best Newcastle 
 second crown glass, to be well fitted and bedded in good oil putty. The windows to be 
 primed before glazing. Pantry and dairy windows to have glass above the trellises one 
 square in height, also the same above the front door. To paint all the outside joiner's 
 work, viz., doors, windows, &c., and all the metal spouts, with three coats of good white 
 lead and oil ; and all the inside joiner's work, viz. the doors, windows, mouldings, linings, 
 skirtings, handrails, &c. &c., with two coats of white lead and oil, or with such other 
 colours as may be required. The whole work to be well puttied up, and knotted (the 
 knots smoothed and filled up) previously to painting. 
 
 987. Farm Offices. — Mason's Work. To dig proper trenches for the foundations of 
 all the walls to the new buildings, the proper thicknesses, and to the depth required. To 
 take off the covering, and pull down the walls of such of the old buildings as are to come 
 down ; the old stones to be used for the inside of the walls to the new buildings ; and the 
 new stones wanted, to be from the aforementioned quarry. To build stone footings to all the 
 walls for the new buildings, as shown on the plans, 2 feet and a half wide, from good and 
 sufficient foundations. The walls above the foundations to be 21 inches thick, with good 
 common walling carried up to the height required, as shown in the plan, elevation, and 
 sections. A proper bond stone to be laid through the full thickness of the wall every 
 superficial yard (measuring on the face of the wall), and the face of the external walls to 
 be well pointed. The coins for all the external angles of the walls to be scappled, 
 jointed, and set; and to be 20 inches long, 12 inches deep, and 10 inches thick. Stone 
 heads and sills to be chiseled for all the windows, the frames to be built in with the 
 walls. The external doors to have also stone heads and sills chiseled ; the jambs to be 
 built in and out tie, scappled and cheeked ; (hammer-dressed, as above explained, with a 
 rebate cut out for the door to shut against,) the in-tie to go through the full thickness of 
 the wall, and to be 12 inches in the head ; the out-tie to be 20 inches long, and 10 inches 
 in the head. Iron crooks to be run into stone cheeks while building for the door bands, 
 which the carpenter will provide ; the lead to be provided by the mason. The two 
 byres at the west end of the present old farm house to be converted into two hovels, as 
 shown in the drawing. The present slated cart-shed to be lengthened with a new 
 
 4 
 
49^ COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 opening, arched, &c., as shown in the drawing. To build jambs and pillars to all the 
 hovels and cart-sheds, with hewn stone in and out tie both sides, well jointed and set ; 
 the stones to be 20 inches long, 12 inches deep, and 10 inches and a half thick, and the 
 space between the pillars to be carried up with good common walling. The arches to 
 have pen stones (arch stones) to go through the full thickness of wall, and not to be 
 less than 10 inches in the head; all the angles of the jambs to be cut off, making a 
 2-inch chamfer. The barn and straw-house to be flag-paved with flag-stones, 3j inches 
 thick, dressed and jointed, to be laid on a bed of rubblestones 8 inches thick, broken 
 small ; the flags to be bedded in sand, and the joints to be set with lime. To pebble-pave 
 the byres and calf-houses with proper cribstone and saddle (the 
 former, fig. 984, k, partitions off the crib ; and the latter, I, the gutter 984 
 behind) ditto, as shown in the plans. The cribs to be flagged at 
 bottom. To pebble-pave the new stable, fowl-house, hay-house 
 and pig-houses, with the yards to ditto. The stable to have 
 proper stones mortised, and set for stall-posts. To pebble-pave a 
 causeway 4 feet broad, with proper edge stones, in front of all the buildings inside 
 the fold; also along the east side of the east wing, as shown by dotted lines on 
 the ground plan. To build walls for the pig-houses, fold walls, stack-yard walls, and 
 crib walls, as shown in the plan. Proper stone gateposts to be set into the ground, 
 and those for the folds and stack-yard to have iron crooks run into the same with 
 lead, for gates to be hung on ; the whole to have scappled coins at the angles and gate 
 openings. The walls to be carried up 5 feet and a half high above the ground, in 
 common walling, with sloped coping. The ridge stone to be worked fair to a mould- 
 ing, and laid on all the ridges and hips of the roofing. The first stone of each hip to 
 be fixed with an iron spike. Stone water-tables to be laid on the pig-house gables ; 
 the first stone to be run into a corbel coin. The stone spouts to be wrought, and 
 fixed into the walls of the pig-yards. The crib walls in the folds to have stone posts 
 grooved to receive deal fronts, and to be flagged at bottom with common flags. The old 
 cottage at Hallington Hill to be taken down ; the byre to be converted into a cottage, 
 and the barn into a hovel, opening into ditto. The latter to have jambs carried up with 
 hewn stone and arch, as described for the other hovels. The chimney and fireplace in 
 the cottage to be done as hereafter described for the new cottages. The flagging and 
 plastering also to be the same. The walls for the fold and stack-yard to be done as before 
 described for those at the farm house. 
 
 988. Cottages. To build two cottages adjoining the cart-shed, as shown in the 
 drawing. The walls to be as before described. The chimneys to be carried up with 
 proper vents 14 feet by 10 feet, and to be well pargeted inside with hair and lime ; each 
 to have hewn stone jambs, mantels, and chimney-top. The fireplaces to have each a 
 cylinder oven, 1 5 inches in diameter ; a furnace pot to contain eight gallons of water ; 
 and a pair (front and bottom bars) of common grates 17 inches wide: the whole to be 
 set with hewn stone fronts, fire bricks, and dampers. The floors to be flag-paved with 
 3^-inch flags, dressed and jointed, and well bedded in sand. 
 
 989. Plasterer's Work. To plaster the cottages with two-coated plastering; the 
 stoothing partitions of the dairy and lobby, in the new cottages, to be plastered witli two 
 coats of lath plaster. The granary and barn walls to be plastered with one coat wall 
 plaster, 4 feet from the floor. The window-frames to be drawn about (pointed) with 
 hair and lime mortar on both sides. The lime to be well prepared for all the plastering, 
 and to be mixed with a sufficient quantity of hair. The mason to cut all holes for posts, 
 iron crooks, grooves, and all others necessary for carpenter's and joiner's work, and the 
 slating also ; to clear away all the surplus earth from the inside of all the buildings, which 
 are to be made level ; the earth to be wheeled out to a considerable distance for carting 
 away. The mason, also, to provide lead for running the ironwork into the stone ; and 
 to have the use of roofing timber, or any other old timber which may be spared, for 
 scaffolding ; but in case any of the same should thereby be broken or injured, to replace 
 them, or else allow the value thereof to the carpenter for damages. 
 
 990. The Carpenter's and Joiner's Work. To provide and cut all the lintels for the 
 doors and windows, of such scantlings as are hereafter specified ; and so as not to have 
 less than 12 inches hold on the wall at each end. The granary above the straw-house 
 to have joisting laid 1 8 inches apart, mid and mid ; and to have 1 2 inches hold on the 
 wall at each end. — Flooring. The granary floor to be laid with inch-and-quarter 
 white-wood battens, dressed and jointed : the battens to be laid loose, so as to take up and 
 relay after pining (shrinking). The roofing for all the buildings to be framed and 
 hipped, as shown in the drawing, with tie-beams laid on raising plates (wall plates), 
 the scantlings to be hereafter specified ; and the whole to have a sufficient number of 
 principals to make the openings between not exceed from 7 to 8 feet. — Scantlings.^ Tie- 
 beams, 6 inches and a half by 4 inches ; principal rafters, 8 inches and a half by 2 inches 
 
FARM HOUSES AND FARMERIES IN VARIOUS STYLES. 493 
 
 and a half; hip rafters, 10 inches by two inches ; common rafters, 3 inches by 2 inches 
 and a half, not to exceed 18 inches apart middle and middle; binders (tie beams) 8 
 inches by 2 inches and a half; ribs, 6 inches by 3 inches and a quarter ; ridge, 3 inches 
 and a quarter by 3 inches and a quarter ; granary joists, 10 inches by 2 inches and 
 a half; raising plates, 6 inches by 1 inch and a half ; lintels, 4 inches thick by the breadth 
 required for the low buildings. The lintels for the granary windows, 3 feet and a half by 
 the breadth required. Hinder posts to stalls, 5 inches by 5 inches ; fore posts, 5 inches 
 by 3 inches. Sarking of five-eighths-inch deal, 9 inches broad, to be laid on the 
 eaves and ridges of the roofing on each side. Gutter boards to the valleys to be laid 
 with three-quarters-inch deal, covered with sheet lead, 18 inches broad, 6 pounds 
 to the foot, which is to be provided, and laid at the carpenter's expense. — The stable to 
 be fitted up with stalls, as shown on the plan and section. The stall partitions to be 
 fitted up with inch-and-quarter deal, and to have a 9-inch batten placed horizontally 
 about the middle of each side. The top and bottom rail, 4 inches by 3 inches and a 
 quarter, to be grooved to receive the same. The rails to be tenoned into the stall posts ; 
 and the stall posts to be set into proper stones at the bottom, and fixed to girding 
 pieces at top, 5 inches by 3 inches, nailed to the under side of the tie-beams. The hinder 
 posts to be fixed at the top with a screw bolt. Mangers to be fixed between the stall 
 partitions, with fronts and bottoms of inch-and-half deal; the back to be of inch- 
 and-quarter, and the fronts to have a roller 2 inches and a quarter in diameter, grooved 
 and fixed : each manger to have a wrought-iron ring and staple fixed. The hay-racks 
 to be made 2 feet and a half wide ; the rungs (spokes) of 1 inch and a half deal ; the 
 rack sides, 3 inches and a half by 3 inches ; a harness rail 12 feet long, with proper pins, 
 to be fixed in the stables. — The cow-byres to be fitted up with partitions and stakes, 
 as shown in the drawing. The partitions to be cleaded (clothed) with inch-and- 
 quarter deal, and proper posts of the old materials, provided any of them can be 
 found suitable. The stakes to be let into the cribstones at bottom , and to be fixed 
 at the top to joists, 8 inches by 4 inches, laid through for that purpose. — The calf- 
 house to be fitted up with pens, as shown in the drawing ; and the partitions to be 
 formed with posts and rails, and paled. The posts to be 3 inches and a quarter square, 
 let into stones at bottom, and fixed to a joist at top, laid through for that purpose. The 
 partitions to have three rails in height, 3 inches by 1 inch and a quarter. The pales to 
 be 4 feet high, 2 inches and a half by three quarters of an inch, and to be well nailed 
 to the rails; each pen to have a small wicket, hung with small bands and crooks, and 
 each having a hasp and staple for fastening. — Doors. All the outside doors of the 
 farmery to be battened of inch-and-quarter deal, gi-ooved and tongued. The barn and 
 straw-house ditto to be hung in two halves. The whole to be hung with bands and crooks, 
 run into stone cheeks. To provide and fix on the same a common wrought-iron sneck 
 (latch), fig. 985, and catch, with ring handle to hang down. The barn, straw-house, 
 granary, and stable doors all to have stock locks of the value of 5s. 6d. 
 each, and proper iron bolts and staples to be supplied for all the other 
 doors. The cottage outside doors to have each a thumb sneck and 
 catch, and a stock lock of the value of 4s. The cottage inside doors 
 to be made of 1-inch deal, battened, grooved and tongued, and hung 
 on frames with 3 bands ; and each to have a Norfolk latchet. The 
 stable door to be hung in the middle with strap hinges, to allow the 
 door to fall back against the wall. The door between the straw- 
 house and barn to be of 1-inch deal, battened, grooved, and tongued ; hung on frames 
 with 7 bands, 22 inches long, and to have a sneck the same as the stable doors, with 
 an iron bolt and staples. — Windows. The cottage windows to be made with case- 
 ments, and iron bars, forming small panes, about 6 inches by 4 inches, to be fitted into 
 solid frames, leaded and rabbeted; 4 feet three quarters of an inch by 3 feet 7 inches 
 inside of frames; scantling of frame, 3 inches and a half by 3 feet: one casement in each 
 to be made to slide. The above to have outside shutters of three-quarters-mch 
 deal, grooved and tongued, hung on frames with small bands and crooks. 
 Each window to have an iron cotteral (a spring wedge, fig. 986) and an 
 iron turn (a fastening, see Index) to keep it back. The small windows for 
 the cottage dairies to be made with inside sliding trellises, 22 inches 
 square. The windows for the stable, granary, and foal-house to be made 
 3 feet high, 2 feet 10 inches wide; and to have inside sliding trellis 
 frames, 3 inches by 2 inches and a half. The stoothing partition and ragglmgs 
 to be fitted up so as to form a dairy and lobby in the cottages, with door-frames 
 for ditto, 4 inches by 3 inches ; and stoothings, 2 inches and a half by 2 inches and a 
 half. The dairies to be shelved, with two shelves in height, each 12 inches broad, 
 of inch-and-quarter deal, with brackets. The cottage windows to have mch-and- 
 quarter deal bottoms, nnd 1-inch deal backs. The jambs and heads of the doors and 
 
494 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 windows to have a three-quarters-inch angle bead for plastering. A chimney shelf 
 of 1-inch deal, with brackets, to be fixed above the fireplace in each of the cottages. 
 The windows in the granary to have inch-and-quarter deal bottoms, to project 1 inch 
 over the wall, and to be nailed to the window sill. — The hay-racks to be the same 
 as those in the stable, and to be fixed in each hovel the full length ; as are the rack and 
 manger in the foal-house. The hovel at Hallington Hill to have a partition put 
 across it with posts and rails ; and the gates to be hung with loops and crooks for 
 young cattle. The stairs in the straw-house to be fitted up with inch-and-quarter deal 
 steps and risers, and proper strings : the stairs to be partitioned off with stoothings, 
 and three-quarters-inch deal cleading next to the straw-house ; with inch-and-quarter 
 battened door at the bottom, hung on frames 4 inches by 3 inches and a quarter, with T 
 bands, and to have a stock lock and sneck as before described. A rail to be fixed round 
 the opening of the granary stalls, with skirting at the bottom of three-quarters-inch deal, 
 12 inches broad. The skirting to be fixed round the barn and granary of 1-inch deal, 
 4 inches and a half broad, and to be well nailed to plugs. — Gates. Nine gates to be made 
 for the folds and stack-yards, including those at Hallington Hill. Each to have 5 bars, 
 and to be braced. The bars to be 4 inches by 1 inch and a half, and the stiles to be 4 
 inches and a half by 3 inches and a half. Also, 5 wickets, with 5 bars and braces, for the 
 inside of the folds, &c. &c. The bars to be 3 inches and a half by 1 inch and a quarter ; 
 and the stiles, 3 inches and a half by 3 inches. The whole to be hung with proper iron 
 loops, and crooks run into stone posts, in the coins of walls, where necessary ; and to 
 have proper hasps and staples. Crib-boards to be fixed in all the stone cribs in the folds ; 
 to be 10 inches broad, and 2 inches and a quarter thick ; and to be made to take out and 
 in by grooves cut in the stone posts. Centres for the arches of the hovels and cart-shed 
 to be provided, and posts for setting ditto. 
 
 991. Smith's Work, and Hardioare. To provide and fix all spikes, nails, screws, &c., 
 necessary for the carpenter's and joiner's work ; and all the other hardware and smith's 
 work before specified. 
 
 992. Slater's Work. To cover the roofs of all the buildings of the farm offices, as 
 shown on the plan, with slates of the same kind, and done precisely in the same manner, 
 as before specified for slating the dwelling-houses. 
 
 993. Glazier's and Painter's Work. To glaze the casements of the cottage windows 
 with second crown glass ; the panes to be 6 inches by 4 inches, neatly puttied on each 
 side, and the casements to be primed before glazing. (N.B. The casements will be 
 provided ; and are, therefore, not to be estimated. To paint all the external doors and 
 frames ; also, the granary windows, the cottage ditto, and the stable ditto ; also, the inside 
 doors of cottages, and the window backs, with two coats of white lead and oil, on both 
 sides. The windows to have one coat before being built into the walls.) 
 
 994. All the Works, as before specified, to be done in a sound and workmanlike 
 manner, subject to the approbation of Mr. John Green, Architect, or whom he may 
 appoint to inspect the same ; and it is to be understood that, should it be deemed 
 advisable that any of the work before specified, for the dwelling-house or farm offices, 
 should be dispensed with during the progress of the building, the value of such work is 
 to be deducted from the amount of the contract ; and, on the other hand, should any 
 alteration or additional work be required, which is neither expressed nor understood by 
 the plans and foregoing specification, the expense of such alteration or additional work 
 is to be paid to the contractor, and agreed for previously to its being done, or else left to 
 the valuation of the inspector. (N.B. The iron-barred casements for the cottage 
 windows will be provided ; therefore the joiner need only estimate for the outside frames 
 for ditto, as specified.) 
 
 995. General Estimate. The following form was sent us with the foregoing spe- 
 
 cification : — 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 Building new farm-house, fig. 977, a, b, c, d 453 : 12 : 7 
 
 Building corn-barn, m 95 : 11: 2 
 
 Building straw-house with granary above, b 125 : 3 . 1 
 
 Building foal-house, p ; two cow-byres, q q ; and calf-house, r 176 : 6 : 3 
 
 Building two stables, h and o ; and a hay-house, i 189 : 3 : 10 
 
 Building one hovel, k 48 : 13 : 11 
 
 Building two cottages, u u 130: 8: 0 
 
 We have formed a rough estimate of the cubic contents of the farm house, which, we 
 find, contains 31,570 feet, which gives about S^d. per foot as the price of this descrip- 
 tion of building in Northumberland. The cottages estimated in the sann: manner cost 
 2^d. the cubic foot ; and the farm buildings 2d. These prices are not much more than 
 half what such farm houses and farmeries would cost in the neighbourhood of London, 
 
FARM HOUSES AND FARMERIES IN VARIOUS STYLES. 49^ 
 
 as will be evident by comparing them with the estimate of the Bury HiU Designs, 
 § 863 and § 880. One reason of this is, that in Northumberland stone is got for the 
 working, and the carriage of the greater part of the materials is found by the tenant. 
 
 996. Remarks. This Design is another of those so obligingly furnished us by John 
 Green, Esq., of Newcastle, the first Architect, as we are informed, for farm buildings, 
 in the extensive counties of Northumberland and Durham. It is one of twenty plans 
 and estimates which he made, in the year 1824, for renovating the farm buildings and 
 cottages on the estate of Beaufront, lying on the river Tjme, between Newcastle and 
 Hexham. By the advice of a kind friend, in the north of the county, we applied to 
 this gentleman through our esteemed correspondent Mr. Falla, the eminent nurseryman 
 at Gateshead, near Newcastle, and he has liberally permitted us to examine many of 
 the plans (accompanied by their specifications and estimates) which he has designed 
 and executed on different estates. From these we have selected seven, of which this is 
 the last, and they will give a complete idea to the Architect of the mode of arranging 
 farm houses, farmeries, and the dwellings of farm labourers, in that first of all English 
 agricultural counties, Northumberland. We must say, that, highly gratified as we have 
 been with these farm houses and farmeries, we have been proportionately shocked by the 
 scanty accommodation provided for the farm labourers. While the master is lodged in 
 a house which is fit for any gentleman of independent fortune, and the horses and cattle 
 have as ample accommodation as can be desired, the poor ploughman and hind are put 
 into single rooms, each generally about 22 feet long by 16 feet wide, with one door and 
 two small windows. At one end of this room a closet or dairy, 5 feet by 5 feet, is 
 partitioned off, and lighted by one of the windows ; and a corresponding space serves 
 as a sort of lobby to the outer door. This reduces the room to 16 feet by 1 65 feet, 
 which must serve the occupant for every purpose to which a dwelling-house can be 
 applied. The reader may turn to the plan of two of these cottages, marked u u, in 
 fig. 973, p. 487, which he may rest assured are fac similes of all the cottages built in 
 Northumberland for ploughmen and farm-labourers. Among Mr. Green's plans, we 
 have met with none with two rooms ; and only with two or three that have privies or 
 places for a pig. These last cottages, we are informed by Mr. Green, were built for 
 labourers to be employed by the landlord in different parts of his estate. To the 
 cottages marked u u, in fig. 973, there is attached no privy or exterior appendage 
 whatever ; though this is not much to be wondered at, since there is none to the farm 
 house. We are tempted to enquire by what strange circumstance it happens that the 
 art of farming should be carried to such a degree of perfection as it is in Northumber- 
 land, while the farmers, and more especially their servants, live in a state of comparative 
 destitution of many of the comforts enjoyed by the same class in the south of England, 
 where the art of agriculture is at the lowest ebb ; and we can only account for it from 
 the general ignorance both of the labourers and their employers, and from the 
 remaining habits engendered by the oppression of the feudal system. The truth is, 
 that almost the entire produce of the land, beyond the mere subsistence of the farmer 
 and the labourer, is paid to the landlord in the form of rent; because the landed capi- 
 talists, like the great capitalists in trade and manufactures, enjoy a complete monopoly 
 of the market, and they can command their own price for their land, as the others do 
 for the use of their capital. Thus, in the coimtry of great landholders, in the same 
 manner as in the great manufacturing districts, the operative is scarcely able to exist. 
 This evil can only be remedied by time, and a better system of government, which 
 will effect a more equal distribution of land and capital. In submitting these remarks 
 to the reader, we intend to make no reflections, in this or in any other case, on the 
 Architect, who must necessarily conform to the customs of his locality ; but we conceive 
 it to be the duty of an author, who is under no local influence, to express his opinion 
 freely on this, as on every other subject that comes within the range of his work. 
 We may add, that the chief point in which the farmeries of Northumberland excel 
 those of Scotland, is in the subdivision of the fold-yards into smaller yards ; which, 
 instead of being mere manufactories for manure, serve as enclosures for the growth, 
 improvement, or fattening of cattle. Weak and young cattle always suffer much when 
 many are placed together in the same yard ; and this, more especially, when the animals 
 are brought from mountainous or partially enclosed districts ; or even districts where the 
 enclosures are very large. Cattle fed loose in small enlosures or hammels of this kind 
 have their hair sleek and unbroken, and their feet are never so tender as to prevent their 
 travelling some distance to market. Nine tenths of the beeves or young cattle of 
 Northumberland, we are informed by one of the most intelligent farmers m the county, 
 are fed in small fold-yards, such as are represented in the ten preceding Designs, to the 
 number of from three to six, or even more, together, accordingly as they are found to 
 agree. In the rich flat pastures of Lincolnshire, Leicestershire, and other counties of 
 England, the larger breed of cattle, from their constitutional tameness and docilitv, will 
 
 Sh 
 
496 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 fatten together in large open yards, by dozens ; but this not the case with Scotch cattle, 
 more especially those from the Highlands. In looking over the specification, § 979 to 
 § 995, the reader will observe that many of the building terms used in Northumberland 
 differ from those in use about London ; and some even from those employed in the south 
 of Scotland, as given by Mr. Newall in his specification, § 907. We have shortly ex- 
 plained these terms, each when it first occurs ; but there are some of them which will 
 require to be more minutely defined, and compared with other local terms, in the Glos- 
 sarial Index. This specification will be found of great use to all persons intending to 
 build farmeries where stone is employed, and it also shows the practical man what is 
 considered, in a highly cultivated district, the best mode of finishing racks , mangers, 
 cribs, partitions, &c. The construction of the cribs is worthy of notice ; the sides and 
 bottom are formed of boards two inches and a quarter thick, which fit into grooves and 
 notches in stone posts. This seems an excellent plan, because the boards may be 
 taken out at any time, and cleaned, and at seasons when the cattle are not kept in the 
 yards they may be taken out altogether, and placed under cover, in a dry airy situation, 
 till again wanted. All the stables are fitted up with stalls and full-length partitions, so 
 that every horse securely enjoys the food placed before him. There appear to be a few 
 inches of slope from the head of the stall to the gutter behind, which is now generally 
 disapproved of in the best stables in England and France, though still continued in the 
 farm stables in Scotland, as appears by an article in the Highland Societt/'s Transactions. 
 
 Design XXII. — The Farmery at Calley in Kirkcudbrightshire, suitable for a Galloway 
 Crop and Pasture Farm of 400 Acres. 
 
 997. The Object of this Design is to afford accommodation for wintering young 
 cattle, and fattening others, as much or more than for affording stable room for 
 horses. In Galloway, we are informed by the contributor of this Design, Mr. Brown, 
 the factor or land agent at Calley, that the half of the rents is generally paid from the 
 corn crop, and the other half from black cattle ; so that a considerable proportion of 
 the farmery is required to be laid out as cattle-sheds, for wintering the animals when 
 young. The oldest and best Galloway cattle are generally wintered in the fields ; which, 
 in Galloway, where the winters are very temperate, are mostly well sheltered by hedges 
 and plantations. Cattle wintered in this way are less tender in the feet, have a finer skin 
 in the spring, and are in better condition to go to the English markets at that season, 
 than those wintered in sheds and yards. 
 
 998. Accommodation. The cattle sheds here shown at a, in fig. 987, with the yard 
 
 in front, b, are sufficient 
 for the accommodation 
 of forty or fifty-two head 
 of cattle. There are 
 a feeding-house, c, in 
 which six cattle may be 
 fed in stalls ; a cow- 
 house, d, 32 fee t long, in 
 which ten Galloway cows 
 may stand without stalls ; 
 and at their heads there 
 is a foddering-passage, 
 c, which communicates 
 with the straw-house, f, 
 the feeding-house, c, and 
 the cattle-sheds and yard, 
 a, b. There are a barn, 
 g, with a threshing- 
 machine driven by water; 
 a room for horses' corn 
 and cut straw, h ; a stable, 
 S3 feet by 17 feet, for 
 six horses, i; a cart-shed 
 with a loft over, k ; a 
 small office or count- 
 ing-house, I ; a boiling 
 or steaming house, m; 
 and a tool-house with a 
 smith's forge for occa- 
 sional use, n. One part 
 of the yard is left open. 
 
 987 
 
 a 
 
 —IS- 
 
 w 
 
 a 
 □ 
 
 a 
 a 
 
 □ 
 
 a n IT 
 
 i '»iip i i i "i 
 
 Ft. 10 0 
 
FARM HOUSES AND FARMERIES IN VARIOUS STYLES. 497 
 
 and the other part is enclosed by a fence of pales, o, p, as a fold for the wintering of 
 cattle. The general appearance of this Design is shown in the isometrical view, 
 fig. 988. 
 
 999. Construction. The walls are chiefly of the slate-stone of the country, a cold 
 and disagreeable stone for cottages and human dwellings, but less injurious for buildings 
 for cattle and for sheds. The roofs are of Baltic fir, covered with slates ; a covering 
 cold in winter, and too warm in summer ; and therefore, however fit for sheds, not 
 to be commended for stables without lofts, or for cattle-houses. It is true that the 
 prevailing prejudice, in the west of Scotland, is in favour of slates indiscriminately, from 
 their durability ; but even if thatch should be found less durable, and this is not 
 always the case with the thatch composed of chips, shavings, and spray, or heath, we 
 consider the latter as decidedly preferable for all buildings in which animals are to be 
 lodged. But, in Galloway, improvement is not yet so general, that long heath and 
 broom cannot be found ; and these, even the natives will allow, are nearly as durable 
 as any slate or tile whatever ; or, at all events, they are suflficiently so for constructions 
 which are undergoing the progressive improvements and changes which those of agri- 
 culture constantly are. 
 
 1000. Remarks. This Design has been furnished us by one of the most enlightened agri- 
 cultm-ists in the west of Scotland, and therefore it may be considered as a fair specimen 
 of a farmery for the agriculture of that district. It would be easy to add a farm house ; 
 but we have given so many good plans of this description of dwelling, that we consider 
 it unnecessary to add one on the present occasion. No arrangement for the collection 
 of liquid manure is shown ; because the farmers of Galloway, as those of most other 
 districts of Scotland, have not yet arrived at that degree of scientific refinement to be 
 fully aware of the advantages to be obtained by this important part of a perfect farmery^ 
 
 Design XXIII. — A Farmer?/ for a small French Farm, as given hy Morel- Vtnde. 
 
 1001. The requisiteFarm Buildings for a small Farm, our author observes, are the same 
 as for a large one, almost the only difference being in their magnitude. The plan ex- 
 hibited in the following figures is therefore to be considered as conveying the rudimental 
 idea of all farmeries whatever, where the objects of cultivation are those common to the 
 temperate regions of both hemispheres. The same constructions, which in the annexed 
 plans are only a width of two bays of ten feet each, by forty feet in length, might be ex- 
 tended to many bays of the same size. The following is the general type of this building: 
 — l.The stable and cow-house are in the same space without separation ; because by this 
 arrangement, on small farms where there are few or no servants and not much litter, the 
 animals are more easily looked after ; the litter from the horses is with little trouble 
 thrown under the cows, and the dung of both, being mixed, produces a better manure. 
 2. The poultry-house is placed alongside of the cow-house, and only separated 
 from it by an open grating in order to admit the heat of the former to the latter. 
 S. The barn is sufficiently large for containing one rick of 3000 sheaves, with additional 
 
498 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 space, in order that a 989 
 part of it may be used, 
 if necessary, as a cider- 
 house, for wine vats, 
 or for storing roots. 
 The space covered 
 by the entire build- 
 ing is eight hundred 
 superficial feet. 
 
 1002. Details. Fig. 
 989 is the surface 
 ground plan, showing 
 the barn for unthreshed 
 corn, a ; the cellar end 
 of the same barn, h ; the 
 threshing-floor, c ; the stable for three horses, d; cow-house for three cows, e\ harness-house 
 and general magazine, /j poultry-house, ; pigsty, A ; place for hatching poultry, z; 
 
 open shed for large im- 
 plements, k ; and two 
 porches, II. Fig. 990 
 is a plan of the foun- 
 dations. Fig. 991 is a 
 plan of the flooring 
 over the barn, stable, 
 &c., which is used for 
 containing unthreshed 
 corn. Fig. 992 is the 
 side elevation showing 
 the door of the porch. 
 Fig. 993 is the eleva- 
 tion of either of the 
 ends. Fig, 994 is a 
 longitudinal section ; 
 and fig. 995 is a per- 
 spective view. 
 
 991 
 
 990 
 
 992 
 
 11 
 
 1003. Construction, The foundations are of stone or brick, and the superstructure is 
 framed of timber, in lengths not exceeding twelve feet, and not measuring more than 
 
FARM HOUSES AND FARMERIES IN VARIOUS STYLES. 499 
 
 Ft. 6 0 6 18 Ft. 
 
 six inches on the side. The panels are filled in with studwork or quartering, and covered 
 with weatherboarding or plaster. 
 
 1004. General Estimate. The actual cost, in the neighbourhood of Paris, was £l50^ 
 that for the departments of France, £92. A bay may be added, in the neighbourhood 
 of Paris, for £^2 ; and in the departments, for £25. 
 
 1005. Remarks. 
 The great economy 
 of this construction 
 must be obvious. 
 This economy results 
 from the four cross 
 walls being used on 
 both sides; and from 
 two short lines of eaves 
 serving for the whole 
 structure. To be con- 
 vinced of this, it is 
 only necessary to ima- 
 gine the threshing- 
 floor, corn-bay, stable, cow-house, the two implement-houses, the two poultry-place^ 
 and the pigsty, arranged as separate buildings round a square or parallelogram 
 farm-yard, as in Britain. Add to this, the great advantage of the accumulation of 
 heat during winter, and the exclusion of heat during summer. The steepness of 
 the roof not only renders that part of the structure more durable, by preventing it 
 from ever being soaked with moisture, but it actually reflects off the heat more 
 powerfully in summer, and receives it more effectually, because at a larger angle, 
 during winter. If eaves-gutters are considered necessary, they are only required at the 
 two ends, and even the tubes for conducting the water from these gutters to the ground 
 are as short as it is possible to conceive them to be. We have examined all the French 
 and German works on Rural Architecture, and though we have found much to approve 
 of in Lasteyrie's Rural Architecture and the Landes Verschdnertmg, published periodically 
 at Munich, which, through the kindness of our friend Count Hazzi, we receive regularly, 
 we have found nothing at all worthy of being put in competition with the Architecture 
 Rurale of Morel- Vinde. We say this with the more confidence, having seen most, or 
 all (for we cannot bear all the circumstances exactly in our mind), of his designs 
 in actual execution, on his own beautiful estate, at Celle, in 1828. — In a wine 
 or cider country, or on a farm where potatoes were raised in great quantities, a cellar 
 might be made both under the threshing-floor and the bay for unthreshed corn. The 
 two porches convey an idea of shelter and comfort, and, in fact, produce both in every 
 building to which they are judiciously attached. We particularly recommend this 
 Design to our American and Australian readers, and, indeed, to those of all countries 
 where timber is the principal building material. 
 
 Design XXIV. — A Farm House and Farmery suitable for a Farm of from Three Hnn» 
 dred to Five Hundred Acres in France. 
 
 1006. The object of the following Design, which is taken from the work of Morel- 
 Vinde, is to show what is considered by one of the first agriculturists in France a model farm 
 
500 
 
 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 house and farmery for 
 a large farm. Like 
 all Morel- Vinde's de- 
 signs, it will be found 
 to be the result of 
 much consideration, 
 both in point of ar- 
 rangement and ac- 
 commodation, and of' 
 economy of construc- 
 tion; altogether it is 
 eminently worthy of 
 imitation, in countries 
 where small timber 
 forms the principal 
 building material. 
 
 1007. General Ar- 
 rangement. The farm- 
 ery with its different 
 courts, yards, and gar- 
 dens stands on a space 
 of about two acres: 
 the general appear- 
 ance is as in fig. 996, 
 and fig. 997 is the 
 general ground plan. 
 This plan is arranged 
 in four divisions. In 
 the first may be seen 
 the dwelling-house, a j 
 an open shed on posts, 
 h, under which linen 
 is washed and dried, 
 and maize, tobacco, 
 onions, herbs, and 
 various other garden 
 productions are hung; 
 the kitchen-garden, c; 
 and part of a large 
 pond, d u, for supply- 
 ing water for washing, 
 for watering the gar- 
 
 Ff. 20 
 
FARM HOUSES AND FARMERIES IN VARIOUS STYLES. 501 
 
 den, &c. The second division contains a large building, including a barn, stable, and 
 cow-house, e; stands for ricks,/; plots of turf, g ; and oblongs planted with apple 
 and pear trees for cider and perry, h. The third division contains the sheep-house, i ; 
 four form compost heaps, k ; the pit for stercorat, I ; two plots for cider fruits, m ; 
 and a part of the pond, d, which is divided by a fence, u. The fourth di\-ision contains 
 the cart and implement shed, with granary over, n; a plot planted with fruit trees, 
 o ; two dung-pits, r ; and the situations of open gutters, p p p, which collect the surface 
 water, and deliver it either into the dung-pits at q q, or into the pond, d, as may be 
 considered most desirable. These four divisions are surrounded by a wall, t ; and they 
 are separated from each other by hedges, v. The advantage of placing the different 
 buildings which compose the farm house and farmery in four divisions. Morel- Vinde 
 states to be as follows : — the absolute security against the communication of fire from 
 one to another ; the facility of maintaining an orderly administration of the business 
 of the farm ; and the thriving better of the different kinds of animals, as from their 
 being kept distinct, they will run less risk of being injured by each other. We shall 
 now give the details of each of these divisions. 
 
 1008. The Farm House is a model of excellent contrivance and economy. Its general 
 appearance is shown in fig. 998 ; and its details, which are given with such distinctness 
 and accuracy that the simplest country carpenter may build from them, are exhibited in 
 figs. 999 to 1008. The 
 plan of the house is 
 formed on the same 
 general model as that 
 detailed in § 742 ; but 
 it is necessarily larger, 
 in order to afford the 
 additional accommo- 
 dation required. The 
 living-apartments are 
 raised on four cellars, 
 which give a bake- 
 house and wash-house, 
 a beer and cider cellar, 
 a cabbage or green ve- 
 getable cellar, and a 
 cellar for potatoes and 
 other roots. All the 
 living-ropms and bed- 
 rooms for the family 
 are contained on one 
 floor over these cellars ; 
 and on the floor above 
 are the bed-room for 
 servants, and a place 
 for drying linen. The 
 only luxury which may 
 be said to distinguish 
 this plan from that 
 
502 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 before given is, that there is a bed-room for strangers. Fig. 999 is a plan of the cellar 
 floor, in which a is the wine, cider, and beer cellar ; b, the cabbage or green vegetable 
 cellar; c, the bakehouse and wash-house, with a square supporting post; and d, 
 the potato-cellar, also with a post. In the bakehouse there are an oven, e, and a 
 stove, f, which might be employed for heating the whole house. The foundations of 
 the stairs to the principal entrance, and for descending to the cellars, are shown at v ; 
 those of the back door and staircase a.t w ; of a small storehouse or fruit-room at p; of 
 the implement-shed at g ; of the shed for wood at r ; and of the cesspool of the two privies 
 at Fig. 1000 is a plan of the principal floor, in which g is the kitchen, with its dresser 
 
 and post, z, and sink stone, u; h is the parlour, with its double-sized or best bed, which 
 in French farm houses is but seldom used, the whole family sleeping together in one 
 large bed-room, I ; or the master and mistress using the stranger's bed-room, m ; i is the 
 master's office, or place of business, the window of which ought to command the entrance 
 gate to the farmery, and does so in the plan, fig. 997 ; A is a clothes-press, or linen and 
 china closet ; the children's bed-room, and room for sewing-work (cfiambre de couture) ; 
 m, stranger's room ; n, light closet ; o, pantry ; p, fruit-room ; q, shed for all the agri- 
 cultural implements used on the farm ; r, shed for wood and other domestic purposes ; 
 s s, privies ; v, entrance porch, with stair down to the cellar and stair up to the kitchen ; 
 w, staircase to the upper floor. In the centre of the building may be seen the octagonal 
 funnel which receives the heated air from the stove in the cellar, and communicates with 
 the parlour and the two bed-rooms through the lateral openings. Fig. 1001 is a plan of 
 the upper floor, in which are seen the sleeping-room for servants, and general lumber- 
 room, u; place for drying linen, w; and reserve bed-room, x. Fig. 1002 is the plan of 
 the joists of the principal floor. In this plan the situation of the upright posts may be 
 observed, from which it will be evident that neither girders nor joists are required of a 
 greater length than ten feet. Fig. 1003 is an elevation of the entrance front. Fig. 1004 
 is an elevation of one side, in which may be seen the entrance porch, and stair to the 
 principal floor, c, and the projection behind containing the staircase, d. Fig. 1005 is a 
 longitudinal section through the bed-rooms, in which may be seen two stoves, e e, one in 
 each bed-room ; the door of the oven, /, and of the ash-pit under it, g ; the stairs up to 
 the principal floor, h, and down to the cellar, i • the inside stair to the beer-cellar, k ; 
 the stair to the principal floor, I ; and to tli£ floor above, m. In showing in what manner 
 this dwelling is but an extension of that detailed in § 742, Morel- Vind^ remarks that 
 the kitchen has the addition of a pantry ; that the stove in the centre, which ought to 
 warm, dry, and ventilate the whole house, is enlarged in proportion to the dimensions of 
 the rooms which it has to heat ; and that the air which supplies combustion in this stove. 
 
must always be drawn from the exterior, which it will be, if the bakehouse door does not 
 fit very accurately, or if the window be left partially open. Instead of the ladder for 
 ascending to the garret in the smaller house, we have here a staircase ; and the garret, 
 which in the smaller house was intended chiefly as a granary, has now a ceiling and 
 boarded sides, and forms a servants' room, a room for drying linen, and the reserve bed- 
 room. 
 
 1009. Estimate. This building, with its two porches and sheds, covers 1580 superficia] 
 feet; and it costs, at Paris, ^546: 15s.: 10c?.; or, in the departments, £32S: 2s.: 6d. 
 As the cubic contents of the buildings amount to 25,280 feet, it thus appears that 5d. per 
 cubic foot is something near the rate from which to form an estimate for this description 
 of farm houses in the neighbourhood of Paris, and 3c?. in the provinces. 
 
 1010. Remarks on the Dwelling-house. A superficial observer, deeply imbued with 
 the prejudices common in Britain, and especially in Scotland and other stone countries, 
 against wooden buildings, and not taking into consideration the fitness of means to ends, 
 will be apt to despise the simplicity and homeliness of this farm house ; but to us, who 
 have entered into all the details of this Design, it appears perfect of its kind. The 
 accommodation is ample for the country and state of society for which it is designed ; and 
 it is contained in a form as near as practicable to that of a cube. The mode of heating 
 is the most perfect that could be devised ; and the room for drying linen is a great source 
 of comfort to the housewife, in rainy weather or in the winter season. It may be 
 thought that there are too few bed-rooms, and too many beds in one room ; and the bed 
 in the parlour will no doubt appear shocking in the eyes of an Englishwoman. It should 
 be recollected, howevei*, that the manners of the French are materially diflferent from 
 ours in this respect ; and that, with apparently less delicacy, they have not less moral 
 rectitude. Whoever has travelled much by the public conveyances in either France, 
 Germany, or Italy, must have frequently found himself going to bed in the same room 
 with strangers of diflferent sexes. 
 
 1011. The Barn, Stable, Cow-house, Calf-house, Dairy, Cheese-room, Poultry-house, 
 Pigeon-house, Piggery, ^c., for this large French farm, are all contained in the same 
 building. The problem to be solved is, to imite under the same roof, at the least cost, 
 and in the manner in every respect the most suitable, a stable for twelve horses, a cow- 
 house for as many cows or cattle, a calf-house, a dairy, a cheese-room, a poultry-house, 
 piggeries, a harness-room, and pigeon-houses, with a barn suflficiently large for containing 
 6000 sheaves of grain at a time, and with two threshing-floors for threshing it. This 
 
FARM HOUSES AND FARMERIES IN VARIOUS STYLES. 505 
 
 problem is solved in the plan, 
 fig. 1007, which presents the 
 best possible construction of 
 each particular requisite, and 
 the best mode of uniting them 
 together at the least possible 
 expense. Fig. 1006 shows the 
 general appearance of this 
 building, and fig. 1007 its 
 ground plan. The latter con- 
 tains a barn v/ith two thresh- 
 ing-floors : one for wheat and 
 rye, a ; and another for oats, 
 peas, and barley, c ; with a 
 space for either straw or un- 
 threshed corn between them ; 
 the corn being either brought 
 in from the ricks in small 
 quantities, as wanted to be 
 threshed, and the straw piled 
 up ; or in entire ricks, and 
 threshed by degrees as the 
 straw is consumed in the 
 stable, cow-house, &c. ; b and 
 d are porches, over which are 
 pigeon-houses ; e is a stable 
 for twelve horses, fitted up 
 with separate stalls, and 
 a rack and manger ;fisa cow- 
 house for twelve cows, with se- 
 parate stalls, and a manger, but 
 
 no rack, for reasons given § 757 ; is a dairy with two windows to the north, and two doors 
 to the east and west ; h is a cheese-room ; i, a calf-house ; k, a poultry-house, grated on the 
 side next the stable, with a view of admitting to it the heat from the horses ; I, a harness- 
 room ; and m, piggeries. There is a lobby to the north at N, and another to the south at 
 S. Fig. 1008 is a plan of the foundations. Fig. 1009 is a plan of the flooring over the 
 
 1008 
 
506 
 
 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 stables, cow-houses, and porch ; the threshing-floor being left open to the roof. Fig. 1010 is 
 an end elevation. Fig. 101 1 is a cross section. Fig. 1012 is a longitudinal elevation. Fig. 
 1013 is a longitudinal section through the threshing-floor. Fig. 1014 is an elevation of 
 the racks and mangers of the stable ; and 
 fig. 1015a section, showing the construction ^ 
 of the rack and manger. Figs. 1016 and 
 1017 contain an elevation and section of the 
 feeding-trough in the cow-house. 
 
 1012. Estimate. The actual cost of 
 this building, in the neighbourhood of 
 Paris was ^''438: 175.: 8c?.; and the price 
 for the departments of France is ^263: 5s. 
 As the cubic contents of the building are 
 24,052 feet, this gives 4|rf. per foot as a fair 
 price for estimating this description of 
 building in the neighbourhood of Paris, 
 and 2|d. per foot for estimating it in the 
 provinces. 
 
 1013. Remarks on the Building contain- 
 ing the Barn, Cow-house, &c. The author 
 observes on this plan, that the greatest care 
 has been taken to adjust every part with a 
 view to sufficient strength and economy. 
 The stables and cow-hou",es are 14 feet 6 
 inches wide, and 53 feet long, inside 
 measure; which, he says, is the smallest 
 space that ought to be allowed for 12 
 horses and 12 cows. The mangers, racks, 
 and troughs are of the proper dimensions, 
 and are placed at the precise heights from 
 the ground at which they ought to be. 
 No racks are placed in the cow-house ; 
 because, if they were put sufficiently low, 
 they would only incommode the animal when eating out of the trough ; and, if they 
 were placed as high as the racks of horses or nearly so, they would oblige the animal to 
 
 raise its head, and thus endanger abortion. All the doors to the stables and cow-houses 
 are grated, or formed with luffer-boards, in order to admit through them a continual 
 
FARM HOUSES AND FARMERIES IN VARIOUS STYLES. 50^ 
 
 1012 
 
 1=3 £3 f. 
 
 Li LI li UVUILTi 
 
 current of air. For the same purpose, and for light, there are four windows to the 
 threshing-floor, and one window at each end of both stable and cow-house, as may be 
 
 1013 
 
 seen in the plan. The partition which separates the poultry-house from the stables is 
 of trellis-work or lufFer-boarding, in order that the heat may enter the former, for the 
 
 1014 
 
 1015 
 
 1016 
 
 1017 
 
 r 
 Ti 
 
 lyiMiiiiiiiiiTni 
 
 SB 
 
 lun \' \ 1 - 1 ■ I L I t I - i 
 
 Ft. 5 0 10 20 30 40 50 Ft. 
 
 benefit of such hens as are laying eggs. The threshing-floor is 12 feet wide and 50 feet 
 long, which allows a considerable bay for un threshed sheaves in the middle, and space 
 for two threshers at each of the ends. Over the spaces for the two threshers at the ends, 
 may be floorings of joists for receiving sheaves. The middle of the threshing-floor, the 
 two floors over the stable and the cow-house, exclusive of the spaces over the threshers, 
 will hold two stacks of unthreshed corn, each containing 3000 sheaves (see § 815). The 
 two porches at the two extremities of the threshing-floor are for protecting the latter 
 from the weather ; and, at top, one of them contains a pigeon-house for wild or common 
 pigeons, and the other a cot for stockdoves. Morel- Vinde concludes by observing, that, 
 if any one will take the trouble of examining this Design with the most severe attention, 
 he wiU find that it leaves little to desire, unless the farm were of an extraordinary size. 
 We may add, that in this case the chief addition that would be necessary would be a 
 
508 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 threshing-machine, which might be placed at one end of the threshing-floor, and driven 
 either by water, or by a gin-wheel under a porch sufficiently large to cover the horse- 
 course. The building is composed of five bays 10 feet wide by 56 feet long, exclusive 
 of the porches ; hence, the expense of the two gable ends being already incurred, any 
 number of additional bays may be introduced, at the sixth part of the first cost of the 
 whole building. By this means the barn, stable, cow-house, &c. may be extended to 
 any degree of accommodation required. 
 
 1014. The Rick-stands for this farm, which are placed around the barn in the manner 
 shown in fig. 996, have already been described under § 815 and § 816. 
 
 1015. The Cart-^hed and Granary, also shown in fig. 996, have been described in 
 § 779. 
 
 1016. The Sheep-house has been described in § 767. 
 
 1017. General Estimate. The actual cost of the house, barn, stable, cow-houses, &c., 
 and of the cart-shed and granary, in the neighbourhood of Paris, amounted to ^1427, 
 and the average for the provinces would be about £855. The expense of the rick- 
 stands and of the drying-shed is not taken into this accoimt. 
 
 1018. Remarks on the Farmery as a whole. To the eye accustomed to admire only 
 the extensive quadrangles of stone covered with slate, common in the best agricultural 
 districts of Britain, neither beauty nor convenience will be seen in the scattered dis- 
 position of the objects in fig. 996 ; but let such consider the very different circumstances 
 which exist between a country where timber is the sole or principal building material, 
 and another where easily worked stone is abundant. The great object, in all agricul- 
 tural constructions, is, to attain the end in view in the most efiectual manner, by the 
 simplest and most economical means ; and this result will be found to be as completely 
 attained in the French farmery as in the British one. With respect to the scattered 
 appearance of the building, that is fully justified by the security which it affords from 
 the spread of fire ; and if we imagine the whole surrounded by fruit trees, as Morel 
 Vinde proposes, and as is generally the case in France, we shall find as much or more 
 beauty, though of a different kind, as in any of the farmeries of Britain. We have 
 already observed, that we have introduced this Design and others by Morel- Vinde, 
 chiefly with a view to new countries, for which they form admirable models. 
 
 Design XXV. — For a Court of Feeding-houses, huiU for the late Thomas Hzhhcrt, Esq., 
 at Chalfont Lodge, Buckinghamshire. 
 
 1019. The object of these feeding-houses was, to fatten cattle and swine at the least 
 possible expense ; and with the greatest product of manure, consistent with a due economy 
 of straw for litter. For this purpose, arrangements were made by open gutters in the 
 feeding-houses and pigsties, and by underground drains communicating with them, to 
 convey all the urine to one tank or pit. In furtherance of the same object, the dung, 
 consisting of the litter and droppings of the animals, was conveyed from the feeding- 
 houses, and sties directly to a dunghill under a roof, and there it was watered, by means 
 of a pump and spouts, with the liquid from the manure tank. Fig. 1018 will give a 
 general idea of the whole. 
 
 1018 
 
1019 
 
 FAEM HOUSES AND FARMERIES IN VARIOUS STYLES. 509 
 
 all sides as far as b b b b, which letters 
 
 mark the situation of oak posts, 16 feet 
 
 apart, and 8 feet high above the surface, 
 
 supporting a granary floor, over which 
 
 there is a pigeon-house, with the boxes 
 
 tor the pigeons fixed to the rafters of the 
 
 roofs, as indicated in the section fig. 1019 
 at c c. _ The floor of this granary is 
 divided into 7 bins, indicated by the 
 dotted lines forming the squares marked 
 d, and by the same, letter in the sec 
 
 IZ'^ ? ^ ^'^^ receiving 
 
 and delivering corn by means of a cran? 
 and pulley as mdicated at/ in the sec- 
 
 1020 
 
 
 
 
 
 ! 
 
 
 M 
 
 
 
 V 
 
 r 
 
 
 h ^ 
 
 ? 
 
 1 r- 
 
 
 40 Ft. 
 
 at any point There * 
 
 tlTi'^T'^''^''^'^^''^^^^^^ ^ above the surface at 
 
 oyer the dunghill, so as to coLey t^e itiWH nf *e pump all 
 
 kkoL^Pr^^^^ performed at Chd W T *^ P^^* l-«er. 
 
 ^ - - and at . iu tl^^^ ^rTj ^tl^ ^^Vr^ ^^^^^ 
 
510 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 are spouts, indicated in the section at u u, for shooting down corn from the granai-y 
 to the bins, o, there to be mixed up, 
 or used, as required. The cattle- 
 feeding houses, V V, are fitted up with 
 stalls, racks, and mangers, like stables, 
 and there are foddering-bays, at each end, 
 and at the angle, www, for hay, 
 oil-cake, turnips, &c. In one of these 
 there is a pump, x, which supplies water 
 to the divisions, y, in all the mangers, by 
 means of a spout, z, at the back of the 
 mangers, and between them and the par- 
 tition which separates tlie stalls from the 
 feeding-passage, Fig. 1021 is a cross 
 section of the feeding-houses, in the line 
 A B, in which are seen the passage behind 
 the stalls, a ; the partition between the 
 cattle, 6; manger, c; water gutter, d: 
 partition separating the foddering-passage 
 
 from the stalls, e ; foddering-passage, / ; hay-rack, g ; fodder-bay, h ; and roof over 
 the gateway, i. Fig. 1022 is a section, taken across two stalls in the feeding-house, in 
 which are shown, a a, oak posts, 5 
 
 1022 
 
 
 
 1- 
 
 ■ 
 
 a 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 h 
 
 h 
 
 inches square, let into the ground ; 
 h, a cistern for water, 3 feet in 
 length, 12 inches wide, and 15 
 inches deep, placed between two stalls 
 so as to supply water to each, and 
 being raised 3 inches above the 
 manger ; c c, mangers for dry meat, 
 3 feet long, 12 inches wide, and 12 
 inches deep ; and d, the situation of 
 the spout or trunk of wood, 2 inches 
 square, which runs along the back of 
 the manger, for supplying water to the cisterns. This line of spouts is on a perfect 
 level ; so that, when water is pumped into it at one end, it runs along it to the other, 
 supplying all the cisterns in its course. Where the spout crosses the foddering- 
 bays and the gateway, it passes under ground, rising up again to the same level on the 
 opposite side. These cisterns are intended to be pumped full every day, and the person 
 pumping is rendered aware of the cisterns being full, by the water first becoming stag- 
 nant in the trunk, and afterwards running over the end immediately under the spout 
 of the pump, which is purposely made one inch lower than the top of the cisterns. The 
 hay-racks are shown at e e ; // are the doors through which the cattle are fed ; g g, the 
 boards of the partition between the stalls and the foddering-passage ; and h h, the brick- 
 work on which the mangers and cisterns are placed. In the construction of these feeding- 
 houses, granary, and pigsties, all the posts which are fixed in the ground, and all the sills 
 into which the uprights are framed, are of oak ; and all the other scantling and boards 
 are of Scotch pine, grown on the premises. The granary and piggeries have tiled roofs ; 
 but the feeding-houses are "thatched with straw. 
 
 1021. Remarks. We received this Design from Mr. Main, who informs us that 
 it was built in 1796, by the late Mr. Howes, land steward at Chalfont Lodge, and who 
 was succeeded in that capacity by Mr. Main, a few years afterwards. We have made 
 some trifling alterations and additions, for the purpose of completing the square, and 
 giving the whole a more symmetrical form ; but we have in no respect altered the dimen- 
 sions of the stalls, or the different details. The arrangement and contrivance of the whole 
 we think most excellent in theory, and Mr. Main informs us that it was found to be not 
 less so in practice. The mode of conveying water to the different stalls may seem too 
 expensive for common commercial farms ; but it is not unfrequent on feeding farms in 
 Lincolnshire, where oil-cake is much in use for feeding cattle. Instead of a wooden 
 gutter, we have observed in the neighbourhood of Gainsborough, gutters, and also 
 mangers, and stall partitions, of freestone. In most other situations, lead or iron piping 
 would be found cheaper than wood. An immense quantity of dung, we are informed, 
 was produced by means of the tank, from which the dunghill was kept constantly moist, 
 and the roof over it, which prevented evaporation. We should have thought that the 
 exhalations from the dung would have affected the air, and consequently the corn in the 
 granary ; but we are assured that this was by no means the case ; because the latter was 
 double-floored and thickly covered, on the outer side, with several coatings of boiling pitch. 
 
FARM HOUSES AND FARMERIES IN VARIOUS STYLES. 511 
 
 Design XXVI. — A Farmery for extensive Iron- Works, erected at in 
 
 South Wales. 
 
 1022. The object in view, in this establishment, is, to prepare food and supply lodging 
 for fifty working horses, and the men who manage them. It was sent us by our esteemed 
 friend, Mr. Samuel Taylor, at once a practical and scientific farmer, and a literary man. 
 
 1023. Accommodation. Fig. 1023 shows the general appearance of the quadrangle; 
 
512 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 in ten divisions, marked a, containing five horses in each. In every division there is one 
 chafP-bin, marked h, and one harness cupboard, marked c. These bins and cupboards are 
 formed of boards in the manner of lean-tos, as shown in fig. 1025, at c. They are lighted 
 
 by the lower panes ot the windows, their roofs being carried high enough for that purpose. 
 The upper panes light the stable over the lean-to slope. There is a barn, d, in which is 
 a threshing-machine driven by a water wheel ; which wheel also drives a straw-cutter, a 
 machine consisting of a pair of rollers for bruising oats, and one for washing turnips or 
 potatoes. There is a turnip-house, e, in which turnips are washed by the tail dam, or 
 water from the overshot wheel, which is led through the house, in the underground 
 drain marked/, to the washing-pond in the centre of the yard, marked g. This pond is 
 about two feet and a half deep, and is paved at bottom, for the purpose of washing the 
 horses' legs. There is a cart and waggon shed, with a granary over, h ; a sick-horse 
 stable, i ; implement-houses, k ; two comfortable cottages, I, with six rooms each, three 
 having fireplaces, and three being without ; a workshop, m ; a tool-house, n ; and three 
 privies, o. The water from the overshot wheel, after passing through the horse-pond, 
 g, runs off by the underground drain marked p. 
 
 1024. Construction. The walls are of the slate stone quarried on the spot, the mortar 
 used being made from the limestone of Aberthaw, which was considered by the late cele- 
 brated engineer Smeaton as the best in Britain ; and, when mixed with clean sharp sand, 
 as equal to any cement known in his time. The roofs are of fir covered with slate. The 
 floors of the stables are perfectly level, with underground gutters, and gratings over them 
 under each horse. There are no partitions between the horses, except those between 
 every five ; but the space allowed for each horse is six feet, which is more than is found 
 in most farmeries. There are mangers of double the usual size, but no racks ; the horses 
 being fed with straw and hay cut into chaff, and mixed with corn, roots, salt, and water, 
 and given in a semifluid state. No horses ever thrive better than those so treated ; and 
 the expense was found to be less than that of the common mode of feeding in use among 
 farmers. 
 
 1025. Remarks. Little care seems to be taken, in this farmery, of the dung or liquid 
 manure ; but it is most gratifying to observe the striking difference between the labourers' 
 cottages shown in this Design, and those on the Scotch and Northumbrian farms. The 
 truth is, that the Scotch and Northumbrian farmers have the fear of their landlords con- 
 tinually before their eyes, and dare not venture to increase the comforts of their labourers, 
 lest they should be thought too comfortable themselves. In every country, all the comforts 
 which the labouring classes without fixed property enjoy above the starvation point, they 
 owe to the commercial classes. Where landed property is in immense masses, farms are 
 necessarily large, small properties few, and manufactures or commerce scarcely known. 
 Under such circumstances, there being only a demand for one description of labour, and 
 that of the rudest kind, the mass of the population are easily kept in a condition little 
 better than if they were the slaves of their employers. Hence the low state of the 
 agricultural labourers in the farm districts of Scotland and the north of England, and, 
 indeed, of all the purely agricultural districts of Britain, compared with their state in the 
 manufacturing, commercial, or mixed districts, where the different kinds of labour required 
 necessarily produces different degrees of remuneration, and where the laborious classes of 
 every description acquire higher tastes, a^id rise in the scale of comforts. All the comforts 
 which the lowest class of society enjoy, they owe to the introduction of manufactures and 
 commerce ; and it gives us pleasure to pay a tribute of respect to this great Welsh Iron 
 Company, for the comfortable cottages which they have built for their carters, as we did 
 before (§ 481) to Messrs. Jones and Wilcox, the eininent builders, for the dwellings 
 they provided for their workmen. 
 
 Design XXVII. — A Farmery for a Farm of 250 Acres in the Valley of Strathmore, 
 where a Rotation of Seven Crops is followed, the Grass Division being pastured the 
 Second Year. 
 
 1026. Accommodation. Fig. 1026 shows the general appearance, and fig. 1027 is the 
 ground plan. In the latter are seen three cow-houses, a ; with foddering-bays, b ; barn, 
 c; horse -course for threshing-machine, d ; straw-barn, e ; stable for ten horses with a 
 foddering-bay in the centre,/; house for potatoes or grass, g ; two-stall stable, h ; cow- 
 
FARM HOUSES AND FARMERIES IN VARIOUS STYLES. 513 
 
514 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 A place for poultry is supposed to be formed over the cow-house, i ; and entered by an 
 outside stair at r. 
 
 1027. Construction. The walls are of stone, and the roof slated. All the doorways 
 and window-openings have facings, sills, and lintels of dressed stone, and all the doors 
 are hung by strap hinges on hooks leaded into the stone ; and they shut into rebates in 
 the jambs. The feeding-houses have ventilators in the roof ; one upright tube, about a 
 foot square, with a cover to protect it from the rain, being placed in the ridge over each 
 stand of four cattle. Fig. 1028 is a section across the mill-shed and barn, on the line 
 
 A B ; and fig. 1029 is an elevation and two sections on the line C D. In the latter, the 
 stable window, «, is shown with the upper part of glass and the lower part of spars for 
 
 1029 
 
 the admission of air, with an inside shutter for occasional use. The stable-loft windows 
 over are shown luffer-boarded. 
 
 1028. Remarks. This Design has been sent us through our esteemed friend and 
 valuable correspondent Mr. Gorrie, by Mr. James Chalmers, land surveyor, and land 
 steward at Muithly, in Perthshire. Mr. Chalmers is evidently a good Architect as well 
 as land-surveyor, the Design being well arranged, and the elevation architectural. 
 
 Design XXVIII. — A Farmery for a particular Situation, suitable for Eighty Acres of 
 arable Landy and Three Hundred Acres of Pasture, in the Carse of Gowrie. 
 
 1029. Tliis Design is calculated for a steep declivity ; so much so, that the floor of the 
 granary and straw-loft, which is on a level with the ground on one side of the range, 
 is ten feet above it on the other. The general appearance is shown in the isometrical 
 view, fig. 1031. 
 
 1030. The Accommodations are seen in the plan, fig. 1032, in which a is a cart-shed 
 with a granary over ; b, the threshing-mill course ; c, the dressing-barn ; d, a stable ; e, 
 a feeding-house for cattle ; f, a cow-house ; p, a poultry-house ; h, a boiling-house; i i, 
 ploughmen's cottages, each sixteen feet by seventeen feet, and two stories high ; k, a 
 privy ; 1 1, cattle-sheds ; m m, open yards for cattle ; n, pigsty of the farmer ; o o, pig- 
 sties of the two cottagers ; and pp, the gardens of the cottagers ; each containing twelve 
 falls, or about one thirteenth of an acre. 
 
 1031. Construction. The walls are of the common stone of the country, and the roofs 
 slated. Fig. 1030 is a section m n 
 
 taken on the line A B, which 
 shows the steepness of the situ- 
 ation. 
 
 1032. Remarks. This Design 
 has been sent us by Mr. Gorrie, 
 accompanied by the following 
 remarks : — " The dung from 
 the stables, and cow and cattle 
 houses, is thrown into the 
 cattle-yard across the road, by which means it becomes mixed with the litter of 
 the yards in which young cattle are kept during winter and spring, and enclosed in 
 summer and autumn. The advantage offered by this form of farmery, when the 
 
FARM HOUSES AND FARMERIES IN VARIOUS STYLES. 515 
 
 1031 
 
 buildings are not of sufficient extent to enclose three sides of the straw or cattle yard, 
 and where the surface of the ground is a declivity, is, the facility of carting in corn to 
 the threshing-mill loft in winter, and turnips for the byres in sharp seasons; and clover 
 for the stable and byres in summer. The disadvantages of adhering strictly to this plan, 
 which is taken from an old steading, are the narrowness of the threshing-null course for a 
 
 103 
 
 h^i [ i — h-\ — 1 — ? — ^ — ' — ' ; 
 
 Ft. 10 0 20 40 60 80 100 F 
 
 mill of four-horse power. The machinery, too, being across the house, is too much con- 
 fined, admitting of only one shaker (a part of the machine), which throws the straw on 
 the loft, imperfectly freed from the grain. In the present instance the ground occupied 
 by the steading is on a dry freestone rock, and the lower part of the range does not suffer 
 from damp, to prevent which expensive draining would be necessary for a similar range 
 on humid soils. A turnip-house placed at the back of the feeding-byre is a desideratum 
 
516 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 in this Design, but was not thought of in laying it out; the culture of turnips not being 
 extensive when it was built. Potatoes are for the most part kept in pits, and a house for 
 that article is often dispensed with in this district." We consider this Design of con- 
 siderable value, as indicating how to manage farm buildings on decHvities. In such 
 situations, where there is a stream, very favourable opportunities frequently occur of 
 driving the threshing-machine by water, with very little expense in forming the head- 
 dam or tail-dam. At Underley Park, in Westmoreland, there is a very complete farm- 
 ery, built on the margin of a stream, the barn stretching across it, and the wheel of 
 the threshing-mill so contrived as to meet the whole of the water of the stream. The 
 banks being thirty or forty feet high on one side, and not much above the level of the 
 water on the other, the com is carted from the ricks into the barn, and shot down at 
 the feeding-board of the machine ; it is cleaned in the floor below, from which, through 
 a trap-door, it is dropped into the ground floor, or into carts to be taken to market. We 
 saw this farmery in 1811, and then considered it, in this and in various other respects, as 
 remarkably complete. 
 
 Design XXIX. — The Farm House and Farmery of Starston Place, near Harleston, in 
 Norfolk, suitable for a Farm of 350 Acres under the Norfolk System of Culture. 
 1033. Accommodation. The general appearance is shown in fig. 1033, and the ground 
 plan in fig. 1034. The house contains a vestibule, a; two parlours, &, cj an ofiSce, d; 
 
 1033 
 
 a lobby, e ; store-room, /; pantry, g ; kitchen, h ; back-kitchen and bakehouse, i ; back 
 entrance, k ; a dairy, Z; and larder, m. In the farmery there are : — 1 1, bams ; 2 2, 
 porches to ditto ; 3 3, cattle-sheds ; 4 4, cattle-yards ; 5 3, turnip-houses ; 6, cart- 
 horse yard; 7 7 7, cart-horse stables; 8 8, hay-houses; 9 9 9, chaflP-houses ; 10 10, 
 horse-sheds (open to yard); 11, yard for colts; 12, shed to ditto; 13, stable to ditto; 
 14 14 14, pens for sheep or pigs; 15 15, pigsties; 16 16, swill-house and cistern; 
 17, cow and sheep yard; 18, cow-shed (open); 19, cow-house; 20 20, calf-cribs; 
 21 21, hay and turnip-houses ; 22, horse-pond ; 23, sheds for waggons, carts, and imple- 
 ments, with granary over ; 24, stack-yard ; 25, house for horse-wheel ; 26, chaflT engine- 
 house ; 27, shed for implements ; 28 28, &c, passages ; 29 29, &c., lock-up gates ; SO, 
 riding-horse stable, chaise-horse, carpenter's shop, tool-house, &c. j 31, garden and 
 orchard; and 32, kitchen-garden. 
 
 1034. Construction. All the walls of the buildings and yards are of flintstone, as are 
 those of the bams, to the height of 6 feet, above which they are of studwork, boarded, 
 14 feet higher. The house and all the farm buildings are covered with slates. 
 
 1035. Remarks. This Design was contributed by Mr. Samuel Taylor, the nephew of 
 the proprietor of Starston, Meadows Taylor, Esq., of Diss. The general arrangement 
 seems good; all the cattle-houses and cattle-yards being conveniently situated with 
 regard to the two barns ; and the cart-shed, 23, and carpenter's shop, tool-house, chaise- 
 
FARM HOUSES AND FARMERIES IN VARIOUS STYLES. 517 
 
 1034 
 
 house, &c., 30, being detached fi-om the buildings and yards for animals ; and, con- 
 sequently, being free from straw, the obligation of opening and shutting gates, and the 
 risk of letting out cattle, &c. The farm house has the most ample accommodations. 
 Mr. Taylor has sent us a plan of Starston farmery, as it appeared some years ago, when 
 the same accommodation was scattered about in all directions, to the great inconvenience 
 of the occupant. In reply to some questions respecting the construction of the racks 
 and mangers, and the farm-yard management of Norfolk, Mr. Taylor has sent us the 
 following valuable information : — 
 
 1036. " The Norfolk System of Farming Management differs materially from that 
 pursued in most other coimties of England, in not having any stalls or divisions in the 
 stables, save, perhaps, one for a vicious or troublesome horse ; the rest stand close to each 
 other, each tied to the manger by a halter, at the end of which is a log of wood, as in 
 fig. 1035, sufficiently heavy to draw down the halter after its being raised by the horse, 
 in lifting up his head ; and thus, by keeping the line stretched, 
 preventing the horse from getting his feet entangled therewith. 
 The horses are not confined to the stable, except at feeding 
 and cleaning times, when they are tied up ; at other times they 
 are turned into a dry well-littered straw-yard, between the stable 
 and the horse-sheds, 10 10, which, being open to the yard, they 
 can resort to for shelter. The door of the stable is left open every 
 night. This is done in all seasons, and in all weathers ; and 
 it is a well-known fact, that, be the weather ever so rough, the 
 horses generally prefer lying in the open air. Of course, in 
 pursuing this yard system, it will be desirable to keep a good 
 look-out, especially in the first instance, that no horse of a 
 quarrelsome domineering temper be suffered to mix with the 
 
 1035 
 
518 
 
 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 rest. Again, in some stables, there may be a horse of a particularly timid disposition, 
 who seems a sort of butt of the whole stud ; and who, if he could speak, would doubtless 
 exclaim with FalstafF, ' Nags of all sorts take a pride to gird at me.' All such should 
 be separated from their fellows, or accidents will very likely happen. It is not well 
 to put too many horses together in one yard. In Lancashire and other parts of the 
 north of England, the farm horses are clothed up in warm close stables ; the consequence 
 of which is, that if a horse stand any little time in a cold wind, even though his cloth be 
 on, he is almost sure to catch cold, and be laid up. Now, a Norfolk man never clothes 
 his horses ; unless, perhaps, in very severe weather, when a carter throws a sack, or some 
 such covering, over the horse's loins, while corn or other articles are loading or unloading. 
 This is proper enough, but anything beyond it tends to make the animal tender, and 
 susceptible of cold." With respect to the keep of farm horses, Mr. Taylor is decidedly 
 in favour of cutting their fodder, whether it be hay, straw, or a mixture of both. The 
 best criterion of the excellence of this plan is the fact, that, in seasons when the hay crop 
 is unusually short, farmers invariably resort to it as a measure of economy, in order to 
 make their stock of fodder hold out. 
 
 1037. The Norfolk System of managing Cows and Cattle is the same as that for horses; 
 except that in the cow-houses and cattle-sheds there are no racks, but only troughs or 
 mangers from which they eat their food. 
 
 1038. The Sheep System of Norfolk is very simple ; though some persons go to a great 
 expense for movable racks and feeding-troughs. Mr. Taylor thus describes, in the Country 
 Times, a movable fold, with a sheep-rack attached, which he used for a number of 
 years: — " It is well known that, in setting and striking a fold in frosty weather, there is 
 not only great difficulty, but that the wear and tear of the hurdles is considerable ; to 
 say nothing of the loss of time incurred by the frequent repetition of this operation. 
 Wicker hurdles are made on a frame, with holes bored for the upright stakes ; around 
 and between which, the smaller wood is woven or wattled. The frame is usually six 
 feet long, and of course this is the length of* each hurdle. Instead of a six-feet frame, 
 get a larch pole, or oak stand that will square about five or six inches, and is about 
 eighteen or twenty feet long. Bore holes in this similar to, and at the same intervals as, 
 those of a hurdle frame ; then fix it on a pair of axletrees about four feet long ; each axle- 
 tree having attached to it a pair of cast-iron wheels, just high enough to carry the hurdle 
 when finished ; the whole presenting an appearance like that of fig. 1036. For greatei 
 strength, the end uprights may be of iron, fastened to the bottom with nuts and screws. 
 Fig. 1037 is an end view of the hurdle on its axle, with the addition of a small, or bank, 
 
 1036 1037 
 
 hurdle, as it is sometimes called, sloping outwards, and forming the economical hay-rack 
 of which we have been speaking. Being low, the strain on the main hurdle is but trifling, 
 and it is easily kept in its place by tar-line. The hay forms not only food but shelter 
 for the sheep. About a fourth of the total length of the movable fold may thus be 
 made into hay or straw racks in a very few minutes ; and the whole fold can be shifted 
 by a man and a horse in the tenth of the time it would take to remove it if formed of 
 common hurdles and stakes. Iron rings or staples are provided at the end of each 
 division of the fold, to which the horse is fastened when it is wanted to be moved. There 
 being but little wear on the hurdles, they will last treble thelime of those in general 
 use, and, even when the wickerwork decays, it may be replaced at the cost of a few 
 shillings. A fold on the same principle was invented by the late Mr. T. Plowman of 
 Broome, near Bungay, but it was made of sawn stuflp, painted, and of course vastly more 
 expensive in its construction." (^Country Times, vol. i. p. 27.) Mr. Taylor has 
 suggested a still cheaper sheep-rack and fold, which may be formed in a few minutes, of 
 wicker hurdles (which cost about 10s. or lis. per dozen), set sloping round a yard, as 
 represented in the section fig. 1038 ; the yard itself being supposed to be fenced in with 
 bush faggots (faggots composed of thorns from the hedges, which, when wanted for yard 
 fencing, ought to be cut with the leaves on, and stacked flatwise previously to using, in 
 order to render them close and compact; thus treated, they will also go further, 
 and make a better fence) ; a represents the line of hurdles, and h the faggot fence. 
 The hurdles may be secured at top to the stakes of the faggot fence with a piece of tar- 
 
FARM HOUSES AND FAR?vIERIES IN VARIOUS STYLES. 519 
 
 1038 
 
 line, c. Between the hurdle and the faggots is placed the fodder, which serves the triple 
 purpose of food, shelter, and protection to the sheep from the thorns of the faggots. 
 
 1039. The Norfolk System of managing Swine has nothing in 
 it which requires any variation of construction from the form of 
 pigsties in use in other districts. 
 
 1040. A Substitute for Bickstands, the invention of the late 
 ingenious and excellent Robert Paul (see his humane rat trap, 
 Gard. Mag. vol. vi. p. 584.), Mr. Taylor recommends as being 
 equal for ingenuity and utiUty to any of the more costly inventions 
 that have been published, having practised it himself for several 
 years. " At harvest time the stack, as soon as up (every thing 
 depends on this), is cut under a little at bottom; and immediately 
 a coat of mortar, or clay and horse-dung mixed, is applied round 
 the bottom to the height of about two feet and a half ; the stack, 
 when finished, presenting the appearance of fig. 1039 ; in which 
 a is the upper line of the composition spread round the foot of the 
 
 stack. If the soil on which the stack is placed be soft and sandy, it may perhaps be 
 advisable to form a bottom projecting from the stack, as shown at b, covered with the 
 same composition as the space between a and the ground ; but this • 
 need not occupy the whole area of the stack bottom, but only a circle 
 round its edges, formed somewhat like a quoit, as at c. It must not 
 be forgotten that the complete success of this plan depends on its being 
 executed as soon as the stack is built ; an horn* must not be lost, othei- 
 wise vermin may get possession. Too much caution cannot be taken 
 to suflfer no straw, ladder, nor stays, to remain near the stack, and in 
 con tact with it ; for by them mice may get in, and if once there, they 
 are not to be got out ; for they do not, like rats, leave the stack for 
 drink, not requiring it : they breed fast, and do a vast deal more harm 
 to wheat than rats. This plan of Mr. Paul's is adopted by Mr. Coke 
 at Holkham. The expense is only a few shillings for even a large 
 stack." Perhaps to some it may appear a deviation from Architecture 
 to enter into the uses of structures to the extent which we have done 
 here, and in other instances: but we are decidedly of a different 
 opinion ; feeling confident, from experience, that no real improvement 
 will ever be made in any class of buildings, with the uses of which the Architect is 
 not thoroughly acquainted. 
 
 1039 
 
 Design XXX. — A Farmery for a Farm of 300 Acres of arable Land, and 500 of 
 Pasture, in the West Highlands. 
 1041. Accommodation. The general appearance is shown in the isometrical view, 
 fig. 1040, and the ground plan in fig. 1041. The latter shows a pigsty, 18 feet and a 
 
 half by 12 feet, a ; a room for the corn-chest and horse-harness, 6 ; a working-horse stable 
 16 feet wide, and 48 feet and a half long, for ten horses, c ; a riding-horse stable, with two 
 
 3 L 
 
520 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 spare stalls, d ; a place for general purposes, e ; a tool-house, / ; cattle-sheds, g ; straw - 
 house, h ; a barn with a granary 
 over it, i ; a stair to the granary, 
 k ; a horse-course under the mill- 
 shed, Z; the turnip-house, m; cow- 
 house, n ; cart-sheds, o ; cheese- 
 room, p ; milk-house, q ; calf- 
 house, r ; and poultry-house, s. 
 
 1042. Construction. The walls 
 are built of the local stone, 2 
 feet thick where the buildings are 
 two stories high, and 18 inches 
 thick where th«y are only one 
 story in height. The stable and 
 cow-house doors are 3 feet and 
 a half wide, and the others 3 feet. 
 The door in the end of the sta- 
 ble is 4 feet wide, and those of 
 the pigsties, poultry-house, and 
 calf-house are 2 feet and a half 
 The mill-shed is 30 feet in 
 diameter, outside measure ; and 
 the horse-course is 4 feet wide. 
 The timber of the roofs is High- 
 land fir, and the slate is from 
 Westmoreland. Other particu- 
 lars of construction will be found 
 in the specification of a succeeding 
 Design. 
 
 1043. Estimate. Cubic con- 
 tents 114,912 feet ; which, at if J. 
 per foot, the price which it appears 
 such buildings cost in the High- 
 lands, is ^837 : 18s. 
 
 1044. Remaiks. This Design, and the three which follow, have been sent us by Wi 
 liara Ross, Esq., Architect, Bristol ; a native of that part of Scotland for which thes 
 farm buildings are intended, or in which they have been executed. The arrangement of 
 the ground plans of the whole, and the details of the specification given with the fourth 
 Design, show an intimate acquaintance, on the part of Mr. Ross, with the accommoda- 
 tions required; and we therefore consider them as well deserving a place in this collection. 
 Mr. Ross observes that the prevailing winds in the neighbourhood of Tarbat, in Ross- 
 shire, are from the N. W. ; for which reason he has put the low side of the square, and 
 the entrance gate, on the S.W. ; and generally placed the buildings which require to be 
 two stories high on the N.W. and N.E. sides. These are obviously judicious arrange- 
 ments. — In the Design before us, the barn and straw-house are centrally placed ; and 
 the feeding-passages from the latter are convenient. We should have preferred reversing 
 the position of the large stable, with those of the tool-house and turnip-house, for the 
 sake of connecting it with the feeding-passage ; but Mr. Ross informs us that it is 
 placed in its present position, agreeably to Waistell's maxim, that the stables and cattle- 
 houses should be near the dwelling-house, to hear when any thing is wrong among the 
 cattle. In a cold country like Ross-shire, it is very desirable to have the pigsties entirely 
 roofed in, as they are in this Design ; and we think the poultry-house should always 
 be placed adjoining the cow-house or stable, for the sake of heat. The corn-chest and 
 harness-room, connected with the stable, is good and convenient ; the horses are in 
 separate stalls, which ought always to be the case where they are fed on corn, unmixed 
 with cut straw or chaff ; because, otherwise, a fast-eating horse, when near a slow-eating 
 one, will take part of his share. Where horses are fed on oats, or succulent food, mixed 
 with chaff or cut straw, they may stand without stalls, as in Norfolk. 
 
 Design XXXI A Farmery for 200 Acres of arable Land, and 300 of Pasture, in the 
 
 West of Scotland. 
 
 1045. Accommodation. The general appearance is exhibited in fig. 1042, and the 
 ground plan in fig. 1043. In the latter are shown, in the house, a lobby, a, 10 feet 
 4 inches by 4 feet 6 inches, with a staircase and passage ; a parlour, 6, 1 1 feet and a 
 half square ; a dining-room, c, 13 feet and a half square ; a bed-closet, d ; a pantry, e ; 
 and a kitchen, /. On the floor above arc four good bed-rooms and a bed-closet. In th« 
 
FARM HOUSES AND FARMERIES IN VARIOUS STYLES. 6^1 
 1042 
 
 farm-yard are two cattle-sheds, ^ ; a stable, h, with 12 stalls, 5 feet wide each ; a too'- 
 house, i; straw-house, k; barn, I; shed, w; hen-house, n; pigsty, oj cart-shed, /j ; 
 calf-house, q ; and cow-house, r^20 , o /\ 
 
 1043 
 
 feet by 18 feet, for ten cows. The 
 construction is the same as in the 
 preceding, and in the two following, 
 Designs. 
 
 1046. Estimate. The cubic con- 
 tents of the house are 19,200 feet ; 
 which, at 3d. per foot, is £240: 
 those of the farmery are 97,370 feet; 
 which, at l^d., is ^608 : lis. : 3d. 
 
 1047. Remarks. The arrange- 
 ment of the farm buildings is 
 compact, though we do not approve 
 of the cattle-sheds fronting the 
 N.E. ; and as much is made of the 
 house as could well be desired ; the 
 only circumstance in it that we 
 regret is, the placing of the fire- 
 places in the outside walls. But 
 this plan of putting the fire-flues in 
 the outside walls is not without 
 some advantages : it renders thick 
 walls wholly unnecessary in the in- 
 terior of the building ; in which 
 case, as all the divisions between 
 the rooms can be formed of quar- 
 tering, lathed and plastered, such 
 houses necessarily cost much less 
 than those which, having thick out- 
 side walls at any rate, have also one 
 or more thick walls inside, for the 
 sake of the chimneys. It may also farther be observed, that, in countries where fuel is 
 abundant, it is a matter of much less consequence whether the fireplaces are in the out- 
 side walls, or in the interior ones. In most parts of the Highlands of Scotland the fuel 
 is peat, and hitherto it has been to be had in abundance. The idea of incurring any 
 expense in construction therefore, with a view to saving fuel, is entirely out of the ques- 
 tion. Equally so, we might add, is the idea of incurring expense to free the occupant 
 from the risk of a smoky house ; peat smoke being familiar to every inhabitant of the 
 Highlands, more especially to the farmers and the working classes. In fact, houses 
 regularly built of stone and lime mortar, are, comparatively speaking, luxurious in that 
 part of the island. The reader who wishes full information on this subject, may con- 
 sult Loch's Account of the Improvements made on the Marquess of Stafford's^ Estates in 
 Sutherland and Ross-shire. In this work it is stated that numbers of the inhabitants 
 refused to live in the new houses prepared for them, and others required some years to 
 be reconciled to the clean and cold appearance which they alleged was produced by the 
 want of smoke. 
 
522 
 
 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 Design XXXII. — A Farm House and Farmery for 200 Acres of arable Land, and 300 
 of Pasture, in Ross-shire. 
 
 1048. Accommodation. The general appearance is shown in fig. 1044, and the ground 
 plan in fig. 1045. In the latter, 
 the house contains a living-room, 
 a ; small office or business-room, 
 b ; and kitchen, c. On the garret 
 floor are two bed-rooms, d, e, 
 lighted from windows in the gable 
 ends, and with closets partitioned 
 off under the roof. The farmery 
 shows a place for hogs, f ; potato- 
 house, g ; boiling-house, h ; wash- 
 ing-house, i ; cattle-shed, k ; spare 
 stable, I; work-horse stable, m; 
 straw-house, n ; barn, with gra- 
 nary over, 0 ; mill-shed, p ; cow- 
 house, q ; tool-house, r ; dairy- 
 scullery, s ; dairy, t ; cattle-shed, 
 u ; cart-shed, v ; calf-house, w ; 
 temporary enclosure for calves, x ; 
 poultry-place, t/ ; and privy, z. 
 The construction is the same as 
 that of the two preceding, and of 
 the following Design. 
 
 1049. General Estimate. The 
 cubic contents of the house are 
 13,376 feet; which, at 3c?. per 
 foot, is ,£167 : 4s. : those of the 
 farmery are 112,708; which, at 
 l^d., is i:704 : 9s. : 4d. 
 
 1050. Remarks. This is a com- 
 pact well arranged Design, as F'' 
 far as respects the farmery ; and 
 the washing-house appears to be 
 a substitute for a back-kitchen to 
 the dwelling-house ; the latter 
 being on a very confined scale, 
 and, we suppose, intended for the 
 residence of the grieve (bailiff). 
 The cattle-sheds, k and u, are 
 judiciously contrived so as to 
 shelter the cattle both from the 
 north-east and south-west winds, 
 according to the prevalence of 
 either; these winds being most 
 severe. 
 
FARM HOUSES AND FARMERIES IN VARIOUS STYLES. 523 
 
 Design XXXIII. — A Farm House and Farmery for 500 Acres, half Pasture and half 
 arable, erected at , in the Parish of Tarbat, Ross-shire. 
 
 1051. Accommodation. The general appearance is seen in fig. 1051, and the ground 
 plan in fig. 1046. In the latter the house shows a dining-room, a ; parlour, 6; bed- 
 
 room, c ; kitchen, d ; and pantry, c ; and on the floor above are font garret bed-rooms. 
 The farmery shows a pigsty, /; place ior calves, g ; corn-chest, and harness-room, /* ; 
 stable, i; privy in the same, A; spare stable, /; barn, m ; covered horse-course, n ; stair 
 to granary over the straw-house and cattle-sheds, o ; straw-house, p ; cattle-shed, q ; 
 pump and water-trough, r ; cattle-shed, s ; poultry-house, t ; cart-shed, « ; cow-house 
 with feeding-passage, v ; boiling-house and dairy scullery, w ; dairy, x ; and coal- 
 house, y. 
 
 104^ 
 
 1409 
 
 n n n n n n T ogo] 
 
 1050 
 
524 
 
 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 1052. Construction. The materials and kind of workmanship will be found detailed 
 in the following specification, obligingly sent us by Mr. Ross ; and which is intended to 
 be elucidated by fig. 1047, a section and elevation on the line A B of fig. 1046; by 
 fig. 1048, a section on the line C D ; by fig. 1049, an elevation of the north side of the 
 same figure ; and by the section across the stables, fig. 1050. 
 
 1053. Specification of the Carpenter's, Mason's, Plasterer's, and Painter's Works, intejided 
 to be done in building and finishing a Farm Steading for , tacksman 
 
 (tenant on lease, a lease in the north of Scotland being called a tack) of , Parish 
 
 of , Ross-shire, under the direction and to the entire s;:tisfactuni of William Ross, 
 
 Architect, of No. 11. Pritchard Street, Bristol; and which is further explained by 
 drawings made for that purpose. 
 
 1054. It is to be understood that the following conditions apply to each trade respectively/. 
 
 1055. The Contractor is to find and provide every kind of materials, labour, hoisting, 
 carriage, scaffolding, rules, moulds, tools, and tackle necessary for the due execution of the 
 works, correspondent with this specification and drawings, to the full intent and meaning 
 of both, as no extra-charge or day-bill will be allowed for any thing implied, expressed, 
 or set forth, in either of them. 
 
 1056. The Materials are to be the best of their respective kinds, and the Architect, or 
 his agent, shall have full power to reject any materials that may be brought on the premises 
 which he may consider unfit for the purpose, or different from those described to be 
 used in the works ; and likewise the power to cause any unsound work to be altered, 
 at the contractor's expense, or any works that are not executed according to the true 
 intent and meaning of this specification and drawings, and to the directions which may 
 be given from time to time by the Architect or his agent. 
 
 1057. The Care of the Building is to be with the contractor, as (the proprietor) 
 will not be accountable for any thing that may be damaged, destroyed, or removed ; but 
 the whole must be left clean, perfect, and complete, in ever^ respect, at the conclusion of 
 the works. will not be bound to accept even the lowest tender, nor to pro- 
 ceed with the works, unless the amounts of the estimates are satisfactory. 
 
 1058. The Contractor must not allow any alteration to take place from this specification 
 or drawings, without first obtaining a written order for the same from the Architect, or 
 the proprietor, particularly describing such alteration ; but if (the proprietor) 
 or his Architect think proper to make any addition or omission, or to deviate in any 
 manner from the drawings and this specification, such alteration, whether an addition or 
 omission, shall not invalidate or make void this agreement, but the same shall be ascer- 
 tained in the usual and customary way by admeasurement, and either added to or 
 deducted from the amount of the contract (as the case may be), according to the list of 
 prices herein after mentioned ; and all extras or omissions not included in such list will 
 be monied out (calculated) in proportion to such list. 
 
 1059. Tenders must be delivered in separate amounts for each trade ; and it must be 
 distinctly understood, that in each case a detailed bill of every article contained in the 
 
FARM HOUSES AND FARMERIES IN VARIOUS STYLES. 525 
 
 estimate, together with the price at which each article was monied out, must accompany 
 such tender sealed up, or it will not be accepted ; and all variations from this specification 
 and drawings, which may be ordered, shall be monied out from such list, and which is to 
 remain in the hands of the Architect for that purpose. 
 
 1060. The Works to be executed in the most sound, substantial, and workmanlike manner ; 
 and, that the contractor may not consider himself in any way aggrieved, he must take 
 special notice that every circumstance appertaining to the well-doing of the works wUl be 
 most strictly insisted on, to the full intent and spirit of this specification and drawings ; 
 and that no indulgence will be allowed for any breach of covenants ; and if any difference 
 of opinion shall arise as to the quantity or quality of the workmanship or materials, or 
 upon any other matter connected with the works, the contractor must in all cases be boimd 
 by the decision of the Architect. 
 
 1061. The Works to be immediately begun by taking down those parts of the present 
 buildings that are intended to be removed, in the most carefrd manner ; shoring up as 
 will be necessary the adjoining walls, &c., which will be at the contractor's risk, until 
 they are fiilly secured; repairing and making good all the walls, &c., that may be dis- 
 turbed in consequence of this contract. 
 
 1062. TTie Contractor may see the Site, and he is expected to provide for every thing 
 required to execute the works, without any extra-charge whatever, for any thing omitted 
 in this specification or drawings. 
 
 1063. The Money is to be paid at the rate of ,£'75 per cent on the amount of work 
 done, by certificates to be signed by the Architect, and payable at fourteen days' sight ; 
 but the Architect will not certify for any sum less than £60, and the balance wiU be paid 
 upon the certificate of the Architect, that the works are completed to his satisfaction, by 
 bill at four months. 
 
 1064. Carpenter. The timber (unless where otherwise particularly described) is to be the 
 best natural-grown Spey timber (Scotch pine, grown in a native forest on the banks of 
 the Spey, and generally considered of superior quality) ; and, together with every other 
 species of timber which may be hereafter described, for carpenter's and joiner's work, is 
 to be well seasoned, for which affidavits must be given, if required by the Architect. The 
 whole to be perfectly sound, free from sap, shakes, dead parts, and large knots. 
 
 1065. All the Materials will be carted from Portmahomack by the proprietor; but the 
 contractor must not delay the carts unnecessarily, otherwise the proprietor will charge 
 for such detention, and will deduct the amount from the balance in his hands. 
 
 1066. All Timbers to be cogged (notched) down, so as to have a solid bearing on the walls 
 and plates; no joist, standard (quarter), or rafter, &c., to be more than 18 inches apart 
 in the clear. All lintels, and filling in lintels (lintels behind the front lintels), to be not 
 less than 2 feet longer than their respective openings, and 1 inch thick for every foot 
 the opening is wide, and shored up where requisite. All bridUngs (trimmings) and 
 bridling joists to be one eighth of an inch thicker than the other joists, for every 
 joist they support. The joists to be bridled (trimmed) for wells of stairs, for fire- 
 places and vents, and stiffened with herring-bone strutting, at distances not exceeding 
 4 feet apart. All scantlings and other dimensions given, must hold good, when the 
 works are completed, cleaned off, and finished. No panels to be, when cleaned oflP, less 
 than five eighths of an inch thick. To provide for all centring for arches, &c. ; also, 
 all blocks, studs, beads, stops, fillets, bilgets (wooden bricks). None of the flooring- 
 boards to be more than 6 inches wide, and they must be prepared, and brought on the pre- 
 mises five weeks before they are laid. All the framing, such as doors, sashes, &c., must 
 be got out in six weeks from the date of the contract ; but not to be wedged up until 
 the Architect or his agent directs. The door-frames are to be built in the walls, with 
 horns (the lintels with projections beyond the styles) and side arms (side pieces to bond 
 in), and tenoned into stone sills. The roof is to be formed as shown in the drawings, 
 and of the several scantlings thereon figured, and well nailed with double g^ron (6-inch 
 spikes) nails. All plates to be in long lengths, and chacked (notched or halved) ; or 
 dovetailed together, and well spiked. To lay the floors throughout (unless where other- 
 wise directed) of l|-inch Tarlogie (a native forest) deals, straight-jointed, ploughed, and 
 feathered. The stairs to be formed as shown in the plan, of l|-inch Tarlogie deals, glued 
 and blocked, complete, with 1^-inch wall string and torus on upper edge; and where an 
 open well is shown, to have 1^-inch front strings. All the treads and risers to be raggled 
 (housed) into strings, and the whole to have strong carriages complete; handrail to 
 be put from the barn to the threshing-floor, as shown, with |-inch balusters, with 
 three iron balusters, flanged and screwed complete : the handrails to be of Spey fir. 
 The locks, bolts, and fastenings to be found by the proprietor; and the contractor 
 will find screws, and fasten them on without any extra-charge for the same. The 
 roof must be ready to receive the covering on or before the day of 
 
 , and the whole of the works finished and completed on or before the 
 
526 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 day of , or else the contractor shall and will allow the sum of £5 per week, as 
 
 liquidated damages, for each week he may exceed the time allowed for being ready with 
 the roof, for covering in, or for the completion of the works ; and which sum or sums 
 will be deducted from the balance due to the contractor, remaining in the hands of the 
 proprietor. 
 
 1067. Joisting. All the wall plates to be 7 inches by 1 inch and a half. The sleepers 
 in the dressing-barn (the part of the barn appropriated for dressing corn) to be 6 inches 
 by 2 inches and a half, built in as described in the mason's work. The joisting of the barn 
 and granary floors to be 10 inches by 2 inches and a half, with 1 foot of wall hold. The 
 cart-sheds to have a joist 8 inches by 2 inches and a half, built into the wall at each 
 pillar, and chacked to the lintling beams, 9 inches by 12 inches, and screwed to the same 
 with a half-inch bolt, the other end of the same joist to be chacked to the wall plate in 
 the same manner. 
 
 1068. Doors. The whole of the doors to be made of Tar logic deals, not more than 
 6 inches wide, and 1 inch and a quarter thick, ploughed and beaded on the joists, with 
 three 1^-inch cross bars, and well nailed. The stable, byre, and barn doors to be 
 hung in two leaves. The whole of the doors to be hung with crooks and bands ; the 
 crooks to be laid on the bed of the rybats ; the crook to be split in the tail (in order to 
 serve instead of a rivet), and to have 7 inches hold of the stone, and to be well batted (run) 
 in with lead ; the pin of the crook to be 1 inch and an eighth in diameter ; each crook 
 to weigh 3 pounds and a half. The bands to be 22 inches long, three eighths of an inch 
 thick at the neck, and 2 inches broad, with |--inch screw-bolt to the neck of each ; 
 each band to weigh 4 pounds and a half. The band nails to have counter-sunk heads, 
 and properly riveted ; sunk ring latches to all the doors, and 8-inch stock locks to the 
 granary, barn, poultry-house, milk-house, and coal-cellar doors only. 
 
 1069. Windows. The fi-ames of the barn and milk-house windows to be 2 inches thick, 
 and filled in at bottom with boards 16 inches high, hung to frames on cross-tailed bands, 
 and glazed above with third crown glass ; those in the granary, stablesj &c-, to be filled in 
 with weather-boards 6 inches wide and 1 inch thick, chamfered on the outer edges, hung 
 with iron pivots in a frame 3 inches by 2 inches, having a strap of iron attached to the 
 inside, and movable up and down, to admit air when wanted. 
 
 1070. Stables. The hind posts of the trevises (partitions) to be octagons of 6 inches and a 
 half in diameter above the pavement, and sunk in solid masonry, as shown in the section, 
 fig. 1050 ; the part built in to be charred, and the tops to be rounded. The fore posts 
 to be 4 inches and a half by 2 inches, the foot set in a stone; U-inch trevise-boards 
 to be mortised into the hind post, which must be set 8 feet from the front wall. The 
 trevises to be 6 feet high at the front posts, and 4 feet and a half high at the hind posts ; 
 to have angle warpings (braces) 4 inches by 1 inch and a half, and to be nailed with 
 double double nails (20c?.). Mangers to be, as shown, of l^-inch Tarlogie deals. 
 The under racks to be 2 feet 3 inches high, and to have a run beam 4 inches by 3 inches, 
 rounded on the upper edge, with rings for fastening the horses. A piece of bond timber, 
 4 inches by 3 inches, to be built into the walls for harness-pins. 
 
 1 07 1 . Gates. The posts to be as the hind posts of the stables, and to stand 9 inches above 
 the gates ; the hinge post of the gate to be 5 inches by 4 inches ; the front post, 4 inches 
 by 3 inches ; the angle spar, 1 inch and a half by 3 inches ; the spars to be three quarters 
 of an inch by 3 inches and a half; the top spar will be l^-inch square iron, with 
 shoulder and eye at the hinge post, diminishing to three quarters of an inch square 
 at the front post, with a screw and nut. The crooks to be put into the gate-posts with 
 a screw and nut. 
 
 1072. Sundries. The linteling beams to the horse-course to be 12 inches square, and to 
 be tied at the angles with iron straps 2 inches and a half by three eighths of an inch, and 
 20 inches long, and to be chacked together ; the rafters tcT be 6 inches and a half, and 
 6 inches by 2 inches and a half, with 2 balks in height, chacked and spiked together 
 with double garron nails, and mortised into the octagonal post at top 6 inches in dia- 
 meter; f-inch square cat bars (a cat bar is an iron bar three quarters of an inch 
 square, for keeping a folding-door fast when shut ; it has a ring at one end for fastening 
 to the wall with a staple, and is bent at the other end, so as to hook into the door by 
 another staple on the inside) to all the two-leaved doors ; to provide a seat and riser to 
 privy, and a ventilator over the boiler in the milk-house. 
 
 1073. Mason. All the excavating will be done by the proprietor. The whole of the 
 stones used to be from the quarry of Balnascarrish. The mortar to be made of good 
 well-burnt English lime, and landed at Portmahomack, with sharp sand in the pro- 
 portion of two parts of lime to three parts of sand, the whole being well tempered and beat 
 before being used. The foundations to be laid with flat-bedded stones laid in regular 
 courses, and to be taken in by regular scarsements (sets back) as shown in the sections ; all 
 the internal gables to be carried up to the roof ; the sleepers to be laid and built into the 
 
FARM HOUSES AND FARMERIES IN VARIOUS STYLES. 5^7 
 
 same, and the dwarf walls to be 14 inches thick. The walls to be built of the heights 
 and thicknesses shown and figxired in the drawings, and the whole to be beam-filled at the 
 top. No wall to be at any time more than 3 feet higher than the other walls, until each 
 wall has been raised to its intended height. The door soles (sills) to be laid six inches 
 above the causeway (or pavement) outside ; the soles of the stable, byre, &c., to be laid 
 3 inches above the same, and the whole to be beveled (sloped outwards) on the top. 
 
 1074. Hewn Work. AU the external corners to be droved (tooled) with broached tails (a 
 regular breadth on each side of the angle of the corner stones to be hewn smooth, and 
 the remainder of the stone to be rough-hewn, like the rest of the waU). The rybats 
 (reveals), soles, and lintels of the doors and windows to be droved, with broached tails ; all 
 the rybats and corners to be 2 feet long at least, and the inband rybats (headers) to pass 
 through the thickness of the walls ; all the skews and tabling to be droved, and the shed- 
 piUars, arches, and the chimney-tops to be broached; the shed and gate pillars to be 
 chamfered 3 inches on the angles. 
 
 1075. Causewaying. The whole of the stables, byre, sheds, &c., to be laid with whin- 
 stone set in sharp sand; the settles (gutters or channels) to have 2 inches fall in 10 feet ; 
 the stable channels to be 10 feet from the front wall, and the rise from them to the rack 
 to be 5 inches. All the doors, windows, &c., to be saved with rough arches (to have 
 discharging arches) over the same. All the spurs (lower stones of the raking part of the 
 gable, called in England the summer stones) to be 2 feet and a half long each. The 
 whole of the rough walls to be pointed and harled (roughcast) outside, and the whole 
 to be pointed inside. 
 
 1076. Plasterer. To plaster the walls of the granary and the dressing-barn with one 
 coat of plaster with pounded glass mixed in the mortar, to prevent vermin from getting in. 
 
 1077. Painter. The whole of the doors, windows, gates, and all exposed wood and 
 iron work, to have three coats of oil paint, of a colour to be chosen by the proprietor. 
 
 Detailed Estimate of the Expense of erectiiig the Farm Steading of , referred to 
 
 in the above Specification. 
 
 1078. Mason. 
 
 308 roods (36 square yards in each rood) rough walls of the 
 standard thickness (2 feet), and harled 
 
 433 yards of causewaying with whinstone, laid in sharp sand.. 
 
 47 yards of paving with flags in the straw-house 
 
 365 superficial feet of droved hewn work (labour only) 
 
 200 superficial feet of broached do. (do. do.) 
 
 9893 superficial feet of run 4-inch tabling and skew stones ; the ma- 
 terials only ; the labour being included in the di-oved work 
 
 96 superficial feet of door and window soles and lintels, do 
 
 16 lineal feet of vent 
 
 1 copper and furnace to set 
 
 21 posts built in solid work, 3 feet in diameter 
 
 1 8 steps broached to the gangway to the granary 
 
 Tools, tackle, scaffolding, &c - 
 
 ^ 274 : 10 : 0 
 
 1079. Plasterer. 
 
 417 yards of one-coat plaster £ 14: 5; 0 
 
 1080. Painter. 
 
 428 yards of three-coat paint and knotting £ 21: 8: 0 
 
 1081. Carpenter. 
 
 169 cubic feet in lintels, &c , 
 
 1227 yards of roofing and cabers (laths for thatch) 
 
 271 yards of flooring and joists 
 
 264 yards of 1 ^-inch three-barred doors (ledged doors with 3 back- 
 boards) 
 
 193 yards of windows 
 
 56 yards of gates 
 
 43 yards of sleepers and flooring 
 
 45 yards of trevises, &c. complete 
 
 55 yards of racks, &c , 
 
 41 yards of do. in byre 
 
 75 yards of do. in cattle-sheds 
 
 93 yards of centres for arches 
 
5^8 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 105 yards of paling in the fold-yard 
 
 15 yards of water-trough and pump 
 
 29 yards of shelves and divisions for nests in the poultry-house 
 
 10 feet superficial 1 seat and riser in the privy 
 
 61 feet superficial of stairs 
 
 57 feet superficial run bond timber, and harness pins 
 
 48 pairs of large crooks and bands 
 
 14 pairs of small cross- tailed bands 
 
 4 8-inch stock-locks 
 
 8 cat bands and socket hinges (see fig. 1059, p. 533.) 
 
 20 iron straps for the cart-sheds and horse-course 
 
 1082. Recapitulation. £ 457 : 8 : 0 
 
 Carpenter £ 451 : 8 : 0 
 
 Mason 274 : 10 : 0 
 
 Plasterer 14: 5: 0 
 
 Painter 21: 8: 0 
 
 Thatcher, about 55 : 0 : 0 
 
 £ 821 : 11 : 0 
 
 1083. General Estimate. As the cubic contents of this farmery are 78,468 feet, the 
 above gives 2^d. per foot as the data for forming guess estimates for the north of Scotland. 
 
 1084. Remarks. We have given the foregoing specification and estimate chiefly on 
 account of some peculiarities in the details of construction, and of some local terms. The 
 first twelve paragraphs were taken from a printed form, which, being applicable to specifica- 
 tions generally, is calculated to save the Architect a good deal of trouble. Such forms, 
 both for specifications of buildings, agreements for leases, and even leases themselves, are 
 often printed, in the case of large estates, for the convenience of the agents. The farm 
 house to this farmery is remarkably small, and, with its chimneys in the gable ends, it 
 has the usual commonplace air of Scotch farm houses ; cold, formal, and comfortless. 
 There is a privy in a recess off the stable, which is all exceedingly well for the men, 
 but quite useless for the women, who ought, at least, to have had a similar convenience, 
 equally private, near the byre, but by no means in it, as cows are, in relation to such 
 places, much more delicate than horses. The barn here is remarkably well placed, con- 
 nected, as it is, with the stables on one hand and the cattle-sheds on the other. 
 
 Design XXXIV. — The Farmery at Greendykes, in Haddingtonshire, consisting of 500 
 arable Acres under a Six- Course Shift. 
 
 1085. Accommodation. The general appearance is shown in p. 535, and the ground plan 
 in fig. 1054. In the latter are seen an entrance gateway, a ; two stables for eight horses 
 each, b b ; hen-house, c ; two loose horse places, d d ; a. boiling-house, e ; two cart-sheds, 
 / f, with granaries over ; the tool-house with stairs to the granary, g ; gig-house, h ; two 
 riding-horse stables, ii; four cattle-sheds, k; potato-house, I; two cow-houses, mm; 
 straw-barn, n ; chaflT-house, o ; corn-barn, p ; engine-house, q ; boiler, r ; coal-house, s ; 
 smithy, t ; bailiff's house, u ; open courts, v ; piggeries, w ; feeding-troughs, x ; passage, 
 y ; and rick-yard z. Fig. 1055 is a plan of the roofs, and of those parts of the buildings 
 which are two stories high. In this plan are shown the two granaries, a ; boiling-house, 
 h, hayloft to the riding-horse stables over the gig-house, c ; barn, d ; and chimney to the 
 boiler of the steam-engine, e. 
 
 1086. Construction. The walls are of local freestone, and the roofs of Baltic timber, 
 covered with slate. Fig. 1052 is an elevation of the west front, and fig. 1053 is an 
 
 1052 ^ 
 
FARM HOUSES AND FARMERIES IN VARIOUS STYLES. 5^29 
 
 1054 
 
 elevation of the north front. All the various details of construction will be found clearly 
 set forth in the following specification : — 
 
 1087. Specification of a Plan for building the new Farm Offices at Greendykes, near 
 Haddington. — Foundations. The foundations to be dug down until a firm and solid 
 
 1055 
 
530 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 substratum is obtained for founding upon, and to be at least 1 8 inches below the level of 
 the door soles (sills). The foundation to be laid with large flat-bedded stones on a bed 
 of lime, and to be laid in 12 inches wider than the thickness of the walls, as figured in 
 the plan, and to be reduced to their regular thicknesses at the surface level. 
 
 1088. Rubble-work. The whole of the walls to be executed of the best rubble building, 
 with the stones laid all on their flat and natural beds, and properly hearted and packed 
 (the interior filled in solid with mortar and chips) with well prepared lime and sharp 
 sand ; and all the joints to be clean, and neatly drawn in with the edges of the trowel, 
 particularly the west elevation, which will be done in coursed work with the very best 
 picked stones from Bangley quarry. The whole of the external elevations to be executed 
 with new materials, and all the old stones to be used in the inside walls. All the gable 
 tops (upper parts of the cross walls) to be carried close up to the slates. 
 
 1089. Hewn Work. The whole of the corners, door and window rybats (reveals), 
 soles and lintels, stair-steps, crow-steps (barge-stones rising above one another like 
 stairs, see fig. 1053), balls and points (ornaments; see the figures), chimney-tops, 
 skews, pillars and arches, and arches of cart-shades (cart-sheds), archways for the gate- 
 way and bailiff's house, the jambs and hearths, also the pavement in the riding-stable, 
 gig-house, and at the stair foot, to be all executed in broached work, with droved mar- 
 gins (or draughted and broached ; that is, worked round the joints with a chisel, about 
 
 1056 three quarters of an inch on 
 
 the face, and the remaining 
 part of the face, roughly dont 
 with a pick, as in fig. 1056: 
 common broached ashlar is 
 without the draughted or 
 droved edges, and is simply 
 dressed with the pick, or 
 pointed or chisel edge of the hammer, as in fig. 1057) as will be directed. 
 
 1090. Heelpost Stones. The stable posts, and posts in front of the feeding-troughs, to 
 
 1057 have heel-stones 12 inches square and 18 inches long, 
 
 _. properly squared, and droved on the top; with a hole 
 ■ t for receiving the posts 2 inches deep. 
 
 1091. Causewaying (^Paving). The stables, loose- 
 
 
 WllllWil|l,il!)lillltlllAUllll)!ll;||ll|il!iiJ^;l 
 
 !lil.',!J|t"l!,!i!n| 
 iiiil!\'!niiill'ililt 
 
 ';;.-",,r,:-f';:ki',l'",'';fe'W''Ti 
 
 
 
 
 |ii^;®Jivi:; 
 
 iltill'n^'lll-i'iiFfilili'f 
 
 
 
 ^ house (stable or place for a sick horse, mare and foal, 
 
 fi'^i'^ about to calve, &c.), byres, and piggeries to be 
 
 « JV£AjJliii^: all neatly causewayed (paved) with good rubble cause- 
 
 way ; and all these apartments to have proper decUvities 
 and channels for carrying off the water into the open courts. 
 
 1092. Wall Coping. The walls in the open courts to have semicircular hammer- 
 dressed (dressed with the chisel end of the hammer) freestone copes (coping), and the 
 tops of the pillars or piei-s to the gateway openings to be finished with a square plinth 
 und semicircular droved stone ; the top stones (the course of stones immediately under 
 the coping) to be in single blocks. 
 
 1093. Troughs. The feeding-troughs to be built up solid with stone and lime to a 
 proper height ; and the soles to be laid with droved pavement close joined, and not less 
 than 3 inches thick. 
 
 1094. Engine-house. The engine stalk (shaft or chimney) to be carried up with 
 brick from the level of the wall heads to the height of 45 feet from the level of the 
 engine-house floor. The flues to be 20 inches square inside, and the sides of the flues to 
 be built with quicklime, and the floor of the engine-house to be laid with clean droved 
 pavement. A tunnel to be built for the engine 10 feet long, 6 feet deep by 2 feet 3 
 inches wide, the sides and ends of the tunnel to be built with rubble-work 2 feet thick, 
 and lined upon the face with droved ashlar, and the bottom to be laid with droved 
 pavement. The tradesman to build in the boiler for the engine, and to furnish what fire 
 and other bricks may be required for that purpose. The whole of the external corners 
 of the pillars of the cart and cattle sheds to be neatly rounded. 
 
 1095. Corn-barn. The floor of the corn-barn to be sunk down 15 inches deeper 
 than the level of the door sole, and dwarf walls built every five feet apart, and 12 inches 
 thick, for supporting the sleepers ; the whole space below the floor to be filled up close to 
 the under bed of the flooring, with small broken stones, and to be run full of thin grout 
 lime, on purpose to prevent vermin from getting through the floor. 
 
 1096. Stables. The wall heads of the stables, corn-barn, granary, hayloft, and cow- 
 house to be beam-filled close up from the top of the walls to the roofs. Recesses are to 
 be left in the stable wall behind the horses, seven feet high, as shown by the di-awing, for 
 the reception of the harness, and of the corn-chest. 
 
 1097. The Ventilators to be put through the front wall of the stable, as shown by the 
 
FARM HOUSES AND FARMERIES IN VARIOUS STYLES. 531 
 
 plan, 6 inches square, with a droved hewn stone on the outside of the wall 16 inches 
 square, with a 6-inch hole cut through it to ventilate the stable. 
 
 1098. Servants' Houses. The vents (chimneys) of the servants' houses and boiling- 
 houses to be carried up at 1 1 inches square inside, and to be properly plastered. 
 
 1099. Stonework generally. In building the pillars for the gates to the open courts, 
 proper care must be taken that large weighty stones be put at their proper places for 
 fixing in the iron crooks. The tradesman to get the old stones at Greendykes and 
 Arniston which will be pointed out by Mr. C. The tradesman will also furnish the whole 
 of the other stones, and the lime that will be required for finishing the building ; the hewn 
 and rubble stones are to be taken from the Jerusalem quarry, the whinstones for the 
 west front from Bangley, and the pavement from the quarries at Salton limeworks. AR 
 to be of the best quahty the several quarries will produce ; and Mr. C. to furnish the 
 whole of the carriages of every description ; but the tradesman must take down and 
 clear out the old stones, and prepare them for carting, and also furnish bricks for the 
 engine vent of the best quality. 
 
 1 100. Carpenter's Work. The soles and lintels to be 3 inches thick, with a wall-hold 
 (their ends deeply inserted into the wall) on each end of the head and siU of the frames, 
 9 inches in length, and of width sufficient to fill up the space required. The whole of 
 the joisting for the granary and barn to be 11 inches by 2 inches, and 16 inches apart, 
 with a wall-hold on each end of 9 inches ; and the joisting to be laid on wall plates 7 inches 
 by 14 inches. The joisting over the mill-loft (floor for the unthreshed corn, from which, 
 being fed into the upper part of the machinery, it comes out separated into corn and 
 straw, in the floor below) and granaries to be covered with a flooring of boards not 
 exceeding 6 inches and a half broad, and 1 and one eighth of an inch thick, and to be 
 ploughed and tongued on the edges. Two strong joists to be in the mill-loft, 11 
 inches by 6 inches, and three cross framings of the same size on each side of the shaker, 
 and one at the spur-wheel (a wheel on the main shaft with the cogs or teeth standing 
 outwards, which operates on a pinion), as shall be directed by the millwright. 
 
 1101. 77ie Corn-barn to be laid with sleepers and flooring; the sleepers to be 5 inches 
 by 2 itiches and a half, and 16 inches apart ; the flooring to be the same as above speci- 
 fied ; the wall-plates below the sleepers to be 7 inches broad by 1 4 inches thick. 
 
 1102. Roofing. The scantling for the roofing to be 6 inches at bottom by 
 
 5 inches at top, by 2 inches and a half thick, and placed 18 inches apart. Wall-plates 
 to be 7 inches by 1 inch and a quarter ; baulks (tie or collar beams) to be 6 inches by 
 2 inches and a quarter. The sarking to be three quarters of an inch thick, and close- 
 jointed on the edges. The flank-trees (valley rafters) to be 7 inches at bottom and 
 
 6 inches at top, by 3 inches and a half thick ; and the pien-trees (hip rafters) to be 
 
 7 inches broad and 2 inches thick. The partition in the corn-barn to be of standards 
 (quarters) 4 inches by 2 inches, 18 inches apart, and covered on one side with deals 
 a quarter of an inch thick, clean-planed, beaded, grooved, and tongued on the edges ; with 
 a door through to the chaff-hole. A trap-stair and wood-rail to be put up to the same, 
 and round the opening at the landing from the corn-barn to the mill-loft. There is to 
 be also a wooden trap from the straw-barn to the mill-loft, 2 feet wide, and of proper 
 strength for carrying up the refuse from the shaker. There are to be two skylights put 
 into the roof of the mill-loft, 3 feet long by 2 feet wide, for giving light to the machinery; 
 and these are to be glazed, having flashings of lead round the slates weighing 4 lbs. 
 and a half per foot. 
 
 1103. Working-Horse Stables. The working-horse stables to be fitted up with racks 
 and mangers, and trivess boarding. The trivess boarding to be 7 feet high in front, and 
 
 8 feet at the back end ; with hard-wood (oak, ash, elm, &c. ) coping on ditto. The 
 top of the coping to be 2 inches and a half by 2 inches, and the boarding to be 1 inch 
 and a half thick, and doweled on the joints. The mangers to be 10 inches wide at 
 bottom, and 14 inches wide at top, by 10 inches deep, and the boards 1 inch and a 
 quarter thick. A breast-tree (horizontal rail) to be put in front of the manger, 4 inches 
 by 2 inches and a half, rounded in front. This tree to be of oak, with proper iron rings 
 and staples for fixing the horses. The rack sides (top and bottom rails) to be 4 inches 
 by 2 inches and a quarter, and to be fitted in with turned rack staves, 2 inches in 
 diameter, with a rail 6 inches broad, opposite each trivess, and the rack staves to be made 
 of beech ; the back posts of the trivesses to be made of oak 6 inches square, rounded on 
 the angles, and mortised into a run-tree (a rail fixed along the tie-joists) at top, and 
 let 2 inches into the stone at bottom ; the front posts to be 4 inches by 2 inches and a 
 quarter, and one on each side of the trivess to be rounded on one side. There are to 
 be 16 tie-joists across the stables, 7 inches by two inches and a half; and clean-planed 
 for fixing the run-tree. The run-tree to go the whole length of the stable, to be 
 6 inches by 3 inches, and clean-planed. There are to be a sufficient number of harness- 
 pins and saddle-strees put up behind the horses and on the posts. 
 
532 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 1 104. The Riding- Horse Stable to have a manger the same as the other stables, with 
 circular racks in the angles. The stable to be divided in the middle with a deal partition 
 2 inches thick, clean-planed, beaded, and doweled on the joints, with a door of com- 
 munication formed in it. The door-framing to be 4 inches by 3 inches ; the door 
 to be hung with strong cross-tailed hinges (strap hinges with a cross, sometimes shaped 
 like a trefoil at the tail), and to have a sunk thumb sneck (a latch with the handle sunk 
 flush with the surface of the door), the partition to go the whole way up the height of 
 the ceiling. The front wall to be lined up with f-inch deal from the top of the manger 
 to the top of the rack, and to be planed, grooved, tongued, and beaded. 
 
 1105. Stable Arches. Elliptical arches to be put across between the back posts and 
 over the horses, with neat wood impost mouldings at the springings ; and a thin plate of 
 wood bent round the soffit of the arches. 
 
 1106. Trivess {Partition) Boarding. The trivess boarding to be of the same height 
 and thickness as in the other stables, and finished on the top with an ogee and sweep, and 
 hard-wood cope. The joists to be of the same materials, and the workmanship the same 
 as in the other stable. The stone wall next the west front to be lined with 1-inch deal, 
 and finished the same as the other trivesses. The ceiling to be lathed from the beam- 
 filling, round the couples, and back ; and the whole walls and ceiling to be finished with 
 three-coat plaster. There are to be two wood pipes made 6 inches square, to go up through 
 the ceiling, and 2 feet through the roof above the slates ; with a flashing of lead put 
 round the pipes to cover their joining with the slates. The 2 feet of pipes above the 
 slates to be bored full of holes on all the four sides, and covered on the top with a 
 moulded capital, on purpose to ventilate the stable. The bottom of these pipes to project 
 below the ceiling of the stable, on purpose to admit of a shifting board to shut them up 
 when required. 
 
 1107. Poultry -houses. A wooden stair to be put up from the turkey-house to the 
 hen-house, as shown by the plan ; and this hen-house and the hayloft to be joisted and 
 floored with the old materials, &c. The stair to be covered in round the sides up to the 
 ceiling in the turkey-house, and a door to be put up on the foot of the stair to keep the 
 two places separate. The hen-house to be fitted up with a wooden roost, and nests on 
 the north and east sides ; and the tops of the nests to be covered with a sloping thin 
 deal cover, on purpose to keep them clean from the roosts. The ceiling of the hen-house 
 to be lathed from the top of the walls, round the couples (rafters), and back ; and to be 
 finished with two coats of plaster ; and the walls both of the hen-house and of the turkey- 
 house to be plastered with one coat of plaster. A skylight to be put in the roof of 
 the hen-house, 3 feet by 2 feet, glazed, and made watertight with flashings of lead. 
 
 1108. Doors. The doors to be plain deal, and 1 inch and one eighth thick; the 
 boards to be 6 inches and a half broad, and ploughed, tongued, and beaded on the joints, 
 with three bars on the back of each ; to be all hung with strong cross-tailed hinges 
 (hinges like fig. 1058, which, of course, can only be used where there are wooden door- 
 frames, or hanging posts, on which to nail the tail part, a, of 
 
 the hinge) with an iron bolt through the neck, b, of each ; 
 except the doors for the straw-barn, which are to be hung with 
 strong crook and band hinges. The door-frames to be 6 
 inches by 2 inches and a half, and strongly batted into the 
 cheeks of the rybats ; the whole to have keeps (stops) three 
 quarters of an inch thick, and of proper breadth. 
 
 1109. The Servant's (Bailiff's) House to have a lath and standard partition on both 
 sides, and two doors inside, 1 inch in thickness, with hinges and sneck (thumb latch). 
 
 1110. Glazier's Work. The windows of the stables and byres to be glazed on the top 
 half ; the under half to be made to open with boards, and hinges and snecks. The 
 sashes to be 2 inches thick, with proper facings, keeps, and frames. The windows of the 
 riding-stable, boiling-house, servants' house, corn-barn, engine-house, potato-house, and 
 turkey-house to be made with sashes and cases ; and to be glazed with good crown glass. 
 The whole to receive one good priming coat of white lead before being glazed. 
 
 1111. The Beams (Lintels) for the Cattle Sheds to be 12 inches by 6 inches; to be 
 all clean-planed on the front and under sides, and to have 12 inches of wall-hold on 
 each end. 
 
 1112. The large Entrance Gate to be framed with 2|-inch wood ; styles 6 inches and 
 a half broad, with cross rails 9 inches, and cross angular (diagonal) braces to the same, 
 to be covered on the face with 1-inch deal grooved, tongued, and beaded on the joint, and 
 to be made in two leaves ; a wicket door to be in one of the leaves, to be framed in a 
 similar manner. The gates to be hung with centre-point hinges at the bottom, and 
 crook and band hinges at the top ; and fixed at top and bottom with a very strong sliding 
 bolt, and large thumb sneck. ( Centre point, or swing hinges, appear to be of two kinds ; 
 one with the pivot of the hinge turned down, to work in an iron socket let into a stone, 
 
I 
 
 FARM HOUSES AND FARMERIES IN VARIOUS STYLES. 533 
 
 as in fig. 1059 ; the other with two pivots, working on two hooks, as in fig. 1060, in 
 which a is the hanging style of the gate, with the double pivot hinge attached, b h being 
 the pivots J c is the hanging gate-post ; and d d, the two pivots leaded into it. The 
 
 1059 
 
 1060 
 
 object common to both is, to make the point of rest of tne gate the same as the shutting 
 point ; that is, the line in which the gate remains when it is shut. ) 
 
 1113. The Gig-house Door to be made with l^-inch deal, with three bars across each 
 half, 1 inch and a half thick, and with angular braces ; to have hinges and bolts of a proper 
 strength, the same as the large gate, and a good stock lock and sneck. This door to be 
 made with an opening three quarters of an inch wide between each deal (board), for the 
 admission of air, the deals not being more than 6 inches broad. 
 
 1114. The Byres to be fitted up as shown in the drawings; the sole trees to be ei lit 
 inches by four inches ; the top tree six inches by three inches ; and the stakes to be of 
 hard wood. 
 
 1115. The whole of the Doors to have good and suflScient locks, bars, and bolts, where 
 necessary; and all to have strong Scotch-made thumb snecks, with folding handles 
 (handles to hang down, or fold aside) to the same. 
 
 1116. The Gates for the open courts to be hung on two leaves, and framed with 1^- 
 inch thick framing and angle braces ; and to be covered on the outside with 1-inch 
 thick deal, ploughed, tongued, and beaded on the joints ; and finished on the top with 
 a cope 1 inch and a half thick. The gates to be hung with strong crook and band hinges 
 (in fig. 1061, a is the band, and h the crook ; tlie former is used in the case oi boarded 
 doors, which have no hanging styles ; the latter ^ 
 is either leaded into stone, or sharpened and , — , 1061 
 driven into wood), and the hinges to be made so ^ o 
 that the gate may open on the outside, and fold 
 back to the court walls ; and be fixed together, 
 when shut, with a hardwood swivel bar, and iron bolts and staples of sufficient strength. 
 
 1117. Granary IVindows. The windows of the granary to be fitted in with wooden 
 frames and round iron rods three eighths of an inch in diameter, and three fourths oi 
 an inch apart. The frames to be 2 inches and a half broad, and 2 inches thick ; tho 
 sole for the fi-ame to be 3 inches and a half by 2 inches and a half, and to be washed 
 off (sloped) on the outside to carry off the rain. There are to be inside shutters five 
 eighths of an inch thick, ploughed, tongued, and beaded on the joints, with a water 
 verge on the bottom (a slip nailed on, to throw off the rain), hinged on the two halves, 
 and fixed inside with a cross shifting hard-wood bar, and iron staples. There is to be a 
 standard and deal partition put round the top of the stair in the granaries 3 feet high. 
 Standards 3 inches square, and the boarding 1 inch thick, ploughed and tongued. 
 
 1118. The Hayloft to have a door 1 inch thick, with frames, hinges, and folding 
 thumb sneck ; the openings for putting the hay down to the horses to have doors three 
 fourths of an inch thick, with frames, hinges, and bars ; there is to be a light mov- 
 able trap-ladder to go up to the hayloft by the front door of ditto ; and saddle-trees 
 and pins to put up in the stable. 
 
 1119. The Gig-house is to be lathed on the ceiling, and to be finished on the walls 
 and ceiling with two coats of plaster. The floors of the straw-barn, servants' house, 
 potato-house, turkey -house, chafF-hole, and boiling-house to be all laid with a composi- 
 tion of lime, sand, and engine ashes (coal ashes), three inches thick ; to be laid on iu 
 due proportions, and properly rubbed and smoothed on the surface. Frames of wood 
 
 i3 
 
534 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 are to be fixed to the inside of the front wall of the cart-stable, opposite the openings 
 of the ventilators, with shifting boards, to slide and close them as may be required. 
 
 1 1 20. Beams. Two strong Memel planks will be required in the engine-house, to 
 be built into the walls, and to be 9 feet long and 12 ipches by 5 inches on the sides, for 
 fixing part of the machinery. 
 
 1121. Plaster-work. The working-horse stable, granaries, corn-barn, and mill-loft 
 to be finished with one coat of plaster on the walls ; and the corn-barn, mill-loft, and 
 granaries to have a skirting of Roman cement 8 inches round the floors. 
 
 1 122. Slaters' Work. The roofs to be covered with the best dark blue slate, from Mr. 
 Bell's quarry near Dunkeld ; to have a sufl^ciency of cover, to be well shouldered 
 in haired lime (the lower part of each row bedded in lime) ; and to be nailed on with 
 nails at 12 lbs. per thousand, well steeped in linseed oil when in a heated state (to 
 prevent, or at least diminish, oxidation) ; the slates to be all close-mitred (when two 
 planes meet against a diagonal line, they are said to be mitred) in the angles of the 
 flanks. 
 
 1123. The Ridge to be covered with lead 12 inches broad, and weighing 5 lbs. per su- 
 perficial foot ; the piens (hips) with lead 10 inches broad, and 5lbs. per superficial foot; 
 and the flanks with lead 8 inches broad, and 5 lbs. per superficial foot, to be all properly 
 dressed down to the slates, and firmly nailed to the wood battens. 
 
 1124. Description of Timber. The timber for the roofing, joisting, sarking, soles, 
 lintels, sleepers, gates, windows, trivess-boarding, racks and mangers, beams, and sole 
 and top trees, feeding-troughs, &c., to be all of the best Memel timber, and all the 
 flooring and doors, &c., to be of drawn (selected) battens. 
 
 1 1 25. Feeding-troughs. The front of the feeding-troughs, in the open courts, to have 
 a plank of wood 9 inches by 3 inches set on edge ; and to have a post every 10 feet 4 
 inches by 3 inches, and put 2 inches into a stone in the bottom, and fixed at top with a 
 long strong iron bat (stud) fixed into the stone sole, and a large screw-nut on the outside 
 of the posts. The planks to be all fixed to the posts, with two iron screw-bolts into each. 
 
 1 1 26. The Tradesman to furnish the whole of the material and workmanship, as par- 
 ticularised in the foregoing specification. Also the sea carriage of the slates, which 
 must be shipped to the harbour nearest Greendykes, and Mr. C. (the tenant) will furnish 
 the whole of the land carriage. 
 
 1 1 27. The whole Work, of every description and kind, must be finished in the most 
 substantial and workmanlike manner, and be liable at all times to the inspection of the 
 proprietor, or Mr. C, or any other person they may choose to appoint for that purpose. 
 The carpenter to furnish all the centring and moulds for the mason-work. 
 
 1 1 28. Estimate. The actual cost of this building, exclusive of the old materials, and 
 the expense of carriage, was about ^^2000 ; but it is estimated that if all the materials 
 had been new, and the carriage had been included, the total amount would have been 
 j^SOOO; which, at 6 per cent, would have been equal to an addition of ^180 a year to the 
 rent of the farm. The expense of the farm house is not included in either of the above 
 sums ; but as that for such a farmery would cost nearly ^700, this, at 6 per cent, would 
 give at least ^^200 a year of additional rent, or 12s. an acre. The total number of 
 cubic feet in the farmery, including court and fence walls, is 208,600 ; which gives 
 2^d. per cubic foot as the guess price for estimating buildings of this description in East 
 Lothian. 
 
 1129. Remarks. This Design was procured for us by our much valued contributor, 
 Patrick ShirrefF, Esq., of Mungos wells, near Haddington, well known as one of the most 
 scientific farmers in Scotland, as a specimen of one of the best farmeries in East Lothian. 
 
 It was designed by Swinton, Esq., Architect, Haddington; and built, under his 
 
 superintendence, at Greendykes, for David Anderson, Esq., of St. Germains. It will be 
 observed that, considering its extent, the courts or fold-yards are fewer in number, and 
 smaller in size, than those of the Northumberland Designs ; and that there are none of 
 these courts which are entitled to the appellation of hammels or fold yards. Hammels, 
 indeed, Mr. ShirrefF informs us, are out of repute in East Lothian ; that is, what are 
 called hammels in Berwickshire, which diflTer from those of Northumberland in being 
 much smaller. " My idea of a hammel," says Mr. ShirrefF, " is a range of shed-build- 
 ings divided by parallel partitions from ten to twenty feet asunder, and projecting beyond 
 the building, so as to form courts two or three times the size of the space included within 
 the building. Such hammels, within long narrow open courts, have gone out of use in 
 Haddingtonshire, and in Scotland generally ; and justly so, on account of the expense of 
 littering them, supplying them with food, and removing from these long narrow spaces 
 the accumulated manure. To a farmer who fattens short-horned cattle, so tame that 
 several of them may be put together in a very small space, ham-mels may be of use ; but 
 where, as with us, young active cattle from the Highlands and other northern districts 
 are put up to feed, it is often a month or more before only two or three cattle, bought 
 
XXXV. 
 
536 
 
 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 XXXVL 
 
FARM HOUSES AND FARMERIES IN VARIOUS STYLES. 537 
 
 promiscuously in a market, agree when put together into a hammel ; and the loss, in 
 consequence, is often considerable. In the neighbourhood of Haddington, there was a 
 set of excellent hammels erected about fifteen years ago, but open sheds with large courts 
 are now substituted for them. Well sheltered courts are almost every where employed, 
 in Haddingtonshire, for fattening cattle ; but it must be remembered that with us, it is 
 generally a difficult matter to convert straw into manure, from the abundance of it, and 
 the dryness of the climate." The ample details in the specification of this Design will 
 give a very complete idea, to the Architects of other districts, how farm buildings are 
 executed in the first agricultural district in the island ; and they cannot fail to observe 
 the substantial and durable nature of the materials and the workmanship employed. 
 There are two or three minor conveniences and comforts which we could wish to intro- 
 duce ; and that prominent feature, the chimney to the steam-engine, might, we should 
 hope, be placed centrally with reference to the range or side to which it belongs. But, 
 whether the shaft of the steam-engine can be placed centrally or not, we sincerely hope 
 that the landed proprietors of Scotland will not suffer their country to be disfigured with 
 the inelegant forms of engine-chimneys, which have hitherto been erected in those 
 farmeries where steam has been adopted*. We have little doubt that it will soon be pre- 
 ferred to either horses or wind, on all large corn farms on every part of the island. 
 Tall engine chimneys, therefore, promise to be as common in the corn districts, as they 
 are now in Lancashire, and we have only to point out the latter as beacons to be avoided. 
 Under the head of Exterior Finishing of Fanneries, in Section IIL, we shall give some to 
 be imitated. Since it is so difficult to turn straw into manure in East Lothian, we could 
 wish to see all that is used for fodder cut into chafi", and mixed with succulent food, 
 salted and watered ; and we could wish also to see the liquid manure collected in tanks, 
 and pumped up daily, or twice a day, and distributed over a covered dunghill, in the 
 manner which has been ab-eady described, § 1019. It will, no doubt, be considered 
 presumptuous in us to find fault with any agricultural practice prevalent in East 
 Lothian : let it be recollected, however, that great improvements have, within the last 
 twenty years, taken place even in this district, and that farther advances may be made. 
 The dryness of the atmosphere appears to us a strong argument in favour of covering the 
 dunghills, as well as of collecting liquid manure to moisten them ; and feeding horses 
 and cattle with cut straw and some liquid food, in order, among other advantages, to 
 increase the quantity of liquid manure. It will be observed that several local terms 
 are spelt differently in this specification from what they are in those of Mr. Newall, 
 § 907, Mr. Green, § 979, Mr. Ross, § 1053, and even the Committee of the Highland 
 Society, § 1200. We have deemed it better to give the spelling, in each specification, as 
 we received it, hoping to be able to discover and insert that which is preferable, and 
 also to generalise many of the local terms in the Glossarial Index. 
 
 Design XXXV. — A Farm House and Farmery at Elcho Castle, Perthshire, adapted 
 for a Farm of Six Ploughs, under the Turnip Husbandry. 
 1 1 30. The General Appearance is shown in the isometrical view, page 535 ; the 
 ground and chamber plans of the house in figs. 1062 and 1063, and the ground plan of 
 the farmery in fig. 1064. Figs. 1065, 1067, 1068, and 1069 are geometrical elevations. 
 
 1131. Accommodation. The ground plan of the house, fig. 1062, shows two parlours 
 a a ', a. family bed-room on the same floor, h ■ kitchen, c ; wash-house, d ; lobby and 
 staircase, e ; pantry, /; coal-house, g ; Aairy, K ; and cellar, i. The chamber floor, 
 fig. 1063, contains four good bed-rooms, k ; and a servant's bed-room, I. — In the farmery, 
 %. 1064, a and c are poultry-houses ; 6 is a boothy, or single men's lodge, with a bed- 
 
COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 \ 1 \ \ i i 1 1 1 1 
 
 Ft. 10 0 20 40 60 80 100 Ft. 
 
 room over ; ddd are houses for milch cows ; e e e, stables, with hay and straw lofts 
 above ; /, house for grass, or other green food for the horses ; g, house for feeding cattle ; 
 
 h, feeding-chamber ; i, straw-house ; k, corn- 
 room ; Z, chafF-huose ; m, mill-shed ; «, cart- 
 shed, and granary above ; o, potato-house ; 
 p, boiling-house ; r r, cattle-sheds ; s s, 
 turnip-houses ; t t, straw yards ; uuuu, pig- 
 geries ; V, water-cistern ; w w, water-tank ; 
 X X X X, turnip cribs or boxes ; yyyy, straw 
 racks, and z, watercourse for driving the 
 water-wheel of the threshing-machine, when 
 v/ater is abundant. 
 
FARM HOUSES AND FARMERIES IN VARIOUS STYLES. 539 
 
 1132. Constrtiction. The walls are of stone, eighteen inches thick, and those of the 
 bam and of all the other buildings of two stories, two feet thick at the surface of the 
 ground, and eighteen inches at top ; the roofs are covered with slate. Fig. 1065 
 
 1066 
 
 t 
 
 is a front elevation of the farmer's dwelling-house. Fig. 1066 shows the position 
 of the house relatively to the farmery, in which a is the house ; 6, the kitchen- 
 
 garden ; c, a grass field planted with fruit trees as an orchard ; d, the farmery ; and c 
 the rick-yard. Fig. 1067 is an elevation of the farmery from the south. Fig. 1068 
 
540 
 
 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 1068 
 
 Qpgnnnnn 
 
 is an elevation from the east, and fig. 1069 is a west elevation. Other particulars of 
 construction will be found ^ 1069 
 
 in the following descrip- 
 tive particular, sent by 
 W. M. Mackenzie, Esq. 
 Architect, the author of 
 the Design : — 
 
 1 1 33. The Situation fixed upon was nearly level, and the straw-yard was cut out 
 hollow in the centre, of a basin figure, that form being most advantageous for retaining 
 the moisture among the manure. 
 
 1134. In the General Arrangement, the highest of the buildings front the north and 
 east, as best suited for the purposes to which those parts of the steading are to be applied, 
 and at the same time adding to tlie comfort of the cattle in the sheds and straw-yards, by 
 sheltering them in the directions which are generally the coldest. The pigsties on the 
 south, and the byres, &c., on the west, being low buildings, do not shade the straw-yard 
 and cattle-sheds, but admit the rays of the sun to all parts of them. The farm house is 
 situated on the south-west of the steading with the kitchen court adjacent to the cow- 
 byre, calf- ward, &c. ; thus keeping the oflSces which are managed by the house servants in 
 the one division, and those under the management of the farm servants in the other divi- 
 sion, of the establishment. 
 
 1 1 35. The Threshing Machinery being placed in a corner of the square, discharges 
 the threshed corn into the clean-corn room, in the direction of the granary which occu- 
 pies the upper story of that side of the square, and the straw is thrown from it into the 
 straw-house, which is in the direction of the straw chambers, over the feeding-byre, 
 stables, &c., on the other side of the square. By this arrangement the clean-corn room 
 communicates with the granary, which comes three feet over it, and extends from this 
 point over the cart-shed and boiling-house. In this three feet of the granary which 
 comes over the corn-room is placed a trapdoor, through which the sacks are drawn up 
 by means of a wheel and axle, and are then placed in a miller's barrow, and wheeled into 
 the granary. In this way the clean-corn room occupies a side of the square apart from 
 the offices allotted for the bestial (beasts), and other apartments connected with them ; 
 and, as the corn-room can be locked up the moment the operation of thi-eshing is finished, 
 no opportunity is left for the grain being pilfered or injured. The granary, in this 
 situation, has not only the advantage of the ventilators in the side walls, but it has also 
 the benefit of the free air in the open cart-shed under it, which acts upon the grain 
 through the joints of the floor. The cart-shed under the granary, besides being bene- 
 ficial to it for air, is convenient, particularly where a farm is situated at a considerable 
 distance from a market town ; or, in the winter season, when the carts are required to be 
 loaded on the evening preceding the market day, as it can be done before yoking, and 
 without moving the carts from under their cover, by means of the trapdoor in the centre 
 passage of the granary, which passage is at all times kept clear from grain. In the straw- 
 house a trapdoor is placed over the straw-rack, and when the lower part of the house is 
 packed full, this trapdoor can be shut, and the straw carried along the upper floor to the 
 straw-chambers over the stables and feeding-byre. These apartments will contain the 
 straw of three large ricks, which will enable the farmer to keep difl^erent kinds under 
 cover, and in separate divisions. A door five feet square is placed opposite the 
 passage which extends along the centre of the straw-yard for taking out straw for the 
 cattle-sheds, cow-byres, &c., if at any time required, but in general these are supplied 
 from the low straw-house. The threshing-machine is one of six-horse power, and is im- 
 pelled by water, but is so planned that horses can be employed if the water run short : in 
 this Design, however, the horse-shed is not executed. 
 
 tl36. The circular Feeding-byre, which will contain eighteen cattle, is by far the 
 most commodious and convenient arrangement for a farm of this extent. The figure of the 
 stalls being broad behind gives more space for the cattle when lying ; and, as a greater 
 quantity of bedding (litter) is requisite, more manure, of course, will be made ; at the same 
 time admitting a more abundant supply of fresh air, by having the advantage of one large 
 ventilator in the centre of the circle serving the whole. The eighteen cattle are put up 
 in double stalls in pairs ; they are bound up one on each side of the travis (partition, pro- 
 bably from traverser, Fr. to cross), which is made high enough to prevent the horned 
 
FARM HOUSES AND FARMERIES IN VARIOUS STYLES. 541 
 
 cattle from touching one another, at the same time keeping the heads of each pair at 
 such a distance apart as not to be able to injure, or eat, one another's txirnips. The bands 
 are fixed to upright iron rods about three quarters of an inch in diameter, which are 
 screwed together through the travis. The lower part of the windows in the back wall 
 of the byre are filled with louvre (luffer) boarding, which can be opened to any degree 
 for admitting air, or shut altogether, at pleasure. The feeding-ports (openings), 
 which surround the feeding-chamber, have small doors hung with pulleys, lines, and 
 weights, similar to a common window, which by moving upwards, do not interfere with, or 
 occupy, any part of the feeding-chamber. The wall at the cattle's heads, surrounding the 
 feeding-chambers, is built to the full height of the joists, which keeps the turnip- 
 barrow out of the view of the cattle, and does not disturb the one division of them 
 while the man is in the act of feeding the other. This is important, as the quieter the 
 cattle are kept the better, quietness being no doubt essential to quick fattening. 
 
 1137. A commodious Straw-chamber is got o\ex the byre, in a connected range with 
 the straw or hay chamber over the stable; the roof, which is of considerable height, 
 serving the double pui-pose of covering the feeding-byre, and containing a very large 
 quantity of straw immediately over it. Racks are placed over the several stalls, which 
 are filled from the straw-chamber above. By this arrangement, the cattle have it in 
 their power to eat straw and turnips alternately, if inclined. The access to the straw- 
 chambers over the byre and stables is by a stair which is common to both, and upon the 
 plate (first landing-place) of the stair is placed a door, which divides the stable from the 
 feeding-byre ; the upper flight of the stair is understood to be a hanging one, leaving a 
 useful space under it for holding the byre implements. By the whole arrange- 
 ment half the labour of feeding and attending the cattle wiU be saved. 
 
 1138. The Stabling consists of eighteen stalls, three of which are separated from the 
 general farm stable, but are so situated as to admit of the racks being supplied from the 
 general straw or hay chamber over the common farm stable. They are understood to 
 have two sets of racks ; the upper one for hay or straw, and the under one for grass. 
 Although the under racks appear the most natural for the horses to eat from, it is found 
 that they do not eat the straw or hay so clean out of them as they do out of the upper 
 racks ; but these under racks are the most convenient for the grass, as it should always 
 be put in from the stall below, without passing through the hay-chamber ; being, in its 
 damp state, very hurtful to the wood floor above. 
 
 1139. T?ie Turnip-shed, which is right opposite the feeding-byre, is also conveniently 
 situated for supplying the cattle in the straw-yard ; and, as it is not required for turnips 
 in summer, it may be used for, and serve the double purpose of, a grass-house. 
 
 1140. The Cow-byres have ventilatoi's placed over each line of heads; they cross the 
 ridge, and are formed of lead of a triangular figure, the sill-piece being overlapped by 
 the sides far enough to prevent the rain from getting in. The calf house and ward, and 
 the cow-byres, which fall under the class of offices more immediately connected with the 
 house, have doors facing the kitchen court, which makes the access tothem convenientand 
 clean. The opposite doors are used for driving out the cattle, and for wheeling the dung 
 into the straw-yard. The causewayed court in front of the byres, besides being con- 
 venient for carting in the turnips, affords space for the cows to move about in, or to stand 
 in for a short time ; and, as the cattle always make dung when they are driven 
 out, by allowing them to remain for a few minutes in this passage or court, the 
 dung that irdght otherwise be wasted on the roads is preserved, and thrown into the 
 straw-yard. 
 
 1141. The several Drains leading from the byres, stables, and straw-yard have such 
 declivities as to discharge the liquid manure into the tank, which is constructed on one 
 side of the straw-yard, in a central situation for the byres, stables, &c. It is twenty-one 
 feet long, five feet broad, and seven feet deep ; and, if the nature of the soil be porous, 
 it should be plastered over with Roman cement, to prevent the thin liquid manure from 
 escaping. Being of this long and narrow figure, the tank can easily be covered with 
 pavement, which is much cheaper than arching, and takes up less space. The drains 
 should have cast-iron plugs placed at about fifteen feet apart, and at these openings a 
 jointed rod fifteen feet long could be put into the drain with a hough (hoe), or piece of 
 plate iron the figure (shape) of the drain, fixed to one end of it ; by which means the 
 drains may be cleaned without breaking up any part of the causewaying ; but, if the 
 drains are properly constructed, they will not require cleaning for several years. They 
 should have a fall towards the tank of at least four inches to the ten feet, and be nine 
 inches wide, six inches deep at the sides, and nine inches at the centre. By having this 
 kind of triangular bottom, the smallest quantity makes a run (current) and forces every 
 thing along with it. The drains through the straw-yard should have openings, with 
 grates over them, situated in the lowest part of the straw-yard, to draw off the surplus 
 water after falls of rain or snow. When these drains are not required, the grates may be 
 
542 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 easily covered over with dung ; and if, at any time, the dung is found too dry, movable 
 spouts may be attached to the pump which is placed in the tank, by which means the 
 liquid manure can be regularly spread over the whole straw-yard. A waste drain extends 
 from the tank to an open ditch in front of the steading ; by which means the liquid manure 
 in the tank, if neglected, is carried off when it rises to that level, and is thus prevented 
 from injuring the drains. 
 
 1 142. The Cattle-sheds, from their situation, face the south, which is of great advantage 
 to the cattle, though often overlooked in laying out farm buildings ; and they are divided 
 in the centre by a passage adjoining the turnip-shed, and opposite the straw-house. This 
 passage rises like an inclined plane, 4 feet from A to B, the side walls or parapets being 
 built up to that height, and forms a fence to both yards. All the dung from the 
 feeding-byre and stable is wheeled into the straw-yards by this passage ; which, from its 
 central situation, admits of the stable dung being equally distributed through both yards, 
 and this by the rising passage can be done without opening a door, which prevents the 
 one class of cattle from intermingling with the other, or getting out. Straw-racks are 
 placed in the sheds ; but, by also having them in the centre of the yard, and connected 
 with this passage, they can be conveniently fiUed, and the cattle are induced to divide, 
 which mixes the dung more generally through the yards. The racks on the extremities 
 of the passage are understood to be movable, and can be laid aside when carting out the 
 dung. The piggeries, from their situation, may be conveniently supplied from the kitchen 
 or boiling-house, and are in both yards. Pigs are very beneficial to the dung, from their 
 turning it over and mixing it : they also eat up any particles of corn among the horses* 
 dung that may not be digested. One small enclosure is provided in each yard, with a 
 trough for feeding young pigs ; thus protecting them from the cattle while eating : but 
 they have no house or sty, which induces them to go out among the cattle, and to lie 
 about the sheds. By this arrangement they have healthy exercise, enabling them at the 
 same time to provide a part of their food, and be beneficial to the dung in both yards. 
 Other two sties are provided for putting up two pair to feed. The gates to the straw- 
 yard may either be of the common form, or be hung with stout ropes, pulleys, and 
 weights. This last is perhaps the best plan, as it secures them from the risk of damage 
 when the dung is being carted out of the yard, and they can be also raised as the straw 
 in the yard rises. 
 
 1143. The Cistern-house is of such a height that pipes may be taken from it to the 
 dwelling-house, boiling-house, calf-ward, &c. It may be either supplied from a fountain, 
 if one can be found in the neighbourhood ; or a well may be dug, and a pump placed 
 within the cistern-house. A water-trough is placed in the division wall between the 
 straw-yards ; and a ball-cock is fixed in the centre of the said trough, and shut in by 
 boarding, overlapped by the upper part of the wall, protecting it from injury from the 
 cattle. The cock opens and increases running as the water falls low in the trough, and 
 when the trough is full, the floating ball shuts the pipe. By this self-acting supply, the 
 cattle at all times have the command of water, and none of it is wasted ; if supplied from 
 a fountain no attention is necessary, as the cistern will also shut itself in like manner, 
 and the overflow, if any, will go off at the fountain head. Two troughs are placed on 
 the outside for the horses, or the milch cows, and supplied with ball-cocks in the same 
 manner. 
 
 1 144. TJie Roof Water, in the inside of the court, is carried round with eave spouts, and 
 with rain-water pipes at the south extremities leading it into drains. It is a material 
 object to carry off the roof water without allowing its admixture with the manure in 
 the courts. 
 
 1 1 45. The Dwelling-house consists of the following apartments ; viz. upon the ground 
 floor two parlours, a bed-room, kitchen, servants' bed-closet, dairy, scullery or wash- 
 house, with a small cellar, which may be got under the stair, and a coal-house. The 
 upper floor consists of four bed-rooms and a servants' bed-room ; but, in cases where 
 more bed-rooms are required, an additional attic room could be got over the wash- 
 house, having access from the same stair. The upper rooms go partly into the roof. 
 
 1146. Estimate. — Mason's Work. £ s. d, 
 
 54 roods of rubble building, at 30s 351 : 0:0 
 
 810 feet of rybats, soles, and lintels, at Is 40 : 10 : O 
 
 802 feet superficial of hammer-dressed pillars in cart-sheds, at 4d.... 5 : 4:0 
 
 60 feet lineal of cart-shed arches, hammer-dressed, at Is. 6d. 4 : 10 : O 
 
 98 feet lineal of cattle-shed ditto, at 2s 9 : 16 : O 
 
 52 feet lineal of squares droved, at Is 2 : 12 : 0 
 
 378 yards ot causeway in stables and byres, at Is 18 : 18 : O 
 
 476 feet superficial of flag division at cattle's head, at 8d 15 : 17 : 4 
 
 1147. Wriff fit's and Slater's Work. 
 
 1589 yards of wood roofing, at 5s. 3d. 417 : 10 : 0 
 
FARM HOUSES AND FARMERIES IN VARIOUS STYLES. 543 
 
 51 roods 6 yards of slate work, at 75s 190 : 0:0 
 
 728 feet superficial of lead ridges, piens, and flanks, at Is 36 : 8:0 
 
 149 yards of sleepers in flooring in low barn, at 5s. 6c?. 40 : 19 : 6 
 
 511 yards of joisting in granaries and stable lofts, at 6s. 6c?. 161 : 1 : 6 
 
 390 feet cubic for safe lintels (inside lintels) and beams, at 3s 58 : 10 : 0 
 
 1523 feet lineal for skirting in granary and cow barn, at 4c? 8:14:4 
 
 140 feet superficial of weather-boards in ventilating the byres, at 6c?. 3 : 10 : 0 
 
 108 yards of plain doors, with 3 bars each, at 3s. 6d 18 : 18 : 0 
 
 192 feet superficial of lufFer board windows, at 6c? 4: 16 :0 
 
 126 feet superficial in straw-yard gates, at 6c?. 3 : 3 : 0 
 
 24 feet cubic in frames of hung gates, at 3s. 3c? 3 : 18 : 0 
 
 4 puUey chains and weights 2 : 5 : 0 
 
 36 feet cubic in beams at cattle heads, at 3s. 3c?. 5 : 17 : 0 
 
 32 stakes for binding cattle, at Is. 6d. , 2 : 8 : 0 
 
 50 feet cubic of trevis posts, at 3s. 3c?. .» 8 : 2 : 6 
 
 693 feet superficial of trevis boards, at 6d 17 : 6:6 
 
 222 feet superficial of racks, at 4c?. 3:14:0 
 
 185 feet superficial of mangers, at 6c? 4 : 12 : 6 
 
 36 pairs of crooks and bands for doors, at 5c?. 9 : 0:0 
 
 3 pairs of cross-tailed hinges, at 2s. 6d. 0 : 7 : 6 
 
 22 stock locks, at 2s. 6c? 2 . 5:0 
 
 8 sliding bolts of a large size, at 2s. 6d. 1 : 0 : 0 
 
 9 ditto of a smaller size, at 2s 0 : 18 : 0 
 
 45 feet superficial of three glazed windows, at 2s. 3d 5 : 1:3 
 
 175 feet superficial of stair, at 6c?. 4 : 7:6 
 
 46 yards of division walls in the poultry-house, piggery, and 
 
 necessary, at 2s 4 : 12 : 0 
 
 153 yards of plaster in granaries, at 5c? 3 : 3:4 
 
 46 feet cubic of anchor beams and posts in cart-shed at 3s 6:18:0 
 
 ^1478 : 3:9 
 
 1148. Remarks. This Design was procured us by our much esteemed friend Mr. 
 Gorrie, who informs us that it is built exactly on the model of one which obtained 
 a premium for its author from the Highland Society of Scotland. " The farm of 
 Elcho, where the above farmery stands," Mr. Gorrie remarks, " is partly clay and partly 
 black land, and may be considered as a fair medium average of Carse of Gowrie 
 farms, as to size, soil, and mode of cropping. Many of the best farms in the Carse of 
 Gowrie contain a proportion of black land, which admits of turnips being raised for 
 feeding. On Elcho, and such Carse farms, the whole is under tillage ; clover, standing 
 only one year in the course, admiting of little pasturage. On black lands, a pair of 
 horses with a plough are equal to the labour of 40 acres ; 6 ploughs with 1 2 horses, 
 and a few supernumerary, are equal to the working of 240 acres. On farms wholly 
 clay, 8 ploughs are necessary for the same extent, under the same rotation of cropping ; 
 and, on such farms, feeding-byres and additional stabling would be requisite. In other 
 respects the plan of Elcho farmery would be suitable, holding out many advantages. 
 Several mills go by water near the northern banks of the Carse, and this element is 
 available near the river Tay. Elcho is situated near the west end of the Carse of 
 Gowrie, and on the south side of the Tay." To us this Design appears decidedly 
 the most perfect of upwards of a hundred which have been sent us from different 
 parts of the country, and from which we have chosen those given in the present section. 
 Its excellence evidently depends on two things ; first, on the Architect being a thinking 
 and ingenious man, really intent on carrying improvement into every department of his 
 profession ; and, secondly, on his knjwmg thoroughly the uses of a farm yard. He is, 
 or appears to us to be, among the builders of farmeries, what Mr. Fowler of London is 
 among the builders of public markets, — an Architect of reason, and not a mere follower 
 of precedents ; a man, in short, anxious to do something more than leave his art exactly 
 where he found it. No Architect can improve the arrangement of a building of which 
 he does not thoroughly understand the use ; for which reason, in all our Designs, we have 
 endeavoured to show the uses of all their different parts ; and we have also enlarged on 
 this subject when treating of Fundamental Principles and Model Designs, in a manner 
 which, in a work professedly devoted to Architecture, must, no doubt, have surprised 
 many. This we have done, because we are convinced that the knowledge of the uses ®f 
 any building constitutes the essential foundation of all architectural improvements in it, 
 beyond that of mere design and taste ; which, it must be remembered, are to an edifice 
 only what dress is to a man, not the man himself. In perusing Mr. Mackenzie's 
 description of his plan, we find in every sentence evidence of his intimate acquaintance 
 
,544 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 with the business of the farm yard ; and we cannot help being delighted with the im- 
 provements which he has introduced. The circular feeding-house is a new and excellent 
 idea, the whole arrangements of the barn and straw-house are admirable, and, as the 
 author observes, must save a great deal of labour. The inclined plane, and its right and 
 left level elevated branches, for wheeling the manure from the stables into the middle of 
 the cattle courts, without the necessity of opening a gate, is excellent ; as is the idea of 
 the pump and general supply cistern being placed in a house, to protect them from the 
 frost. In a country where flag-stone abounds, long, narrow, liquid manure tanks are, 
 as shown, preferable to circular or square forms covered by arches, on account of their 
 cheapness. On the whole, we strongly recommend the young Architect to make himself 
 master of this Design in all its details ; because there are several points in it which he 
 may introduce in the very humblest of farmeries, and because most, or all, of them should 
 be included in all extensive ones. 
 
 Design XXXVI. — A Public House and Farmery ; the Publican being, at the same time, a 
 small Farmer and a Butcher. 
 1149. Accommodation. The general appearance of this public house and farmery 
 is shown in p. 536 ; the ground plan in fig. 1070 ; and we have received from the 
 
 1070 
 
 author, Williain Thorold, Esq., Architect and Engineer, of Norwich, the following 
 explanatory details: — " The words, ' Good entertainment for man and horse,'" 
 Mr. Thorold observes, « formerly appeared on the sign-board of every country alehouse ; 
 
FARM HOUSES AND FARMERIES IN VARIOUS STYLES. 545 
 
 and, in order that we should maintain the character of ' good,' it is necessaiy to make 
 the accommodations and appearances correspond with modern refinement, which v/e 
 have endeavoured to do in the present Design. In fig. 1070, to a scale of 48 feet to an 
 inch, the bar, a, is represented with a bow window, overlooking the road, and is sm-rounded 
 on the other sides by the entrance lobbies and stau-case, being warmed from the back of 
 the kitchen range. The dining or club room, h, is proposed to be occasionally used as a 
 magistrates' petty sessions room ; the two small parlours, c and d, have cellars under 
 them ; the kitchen, e, is approached from the yard, x, by a small porch ; and this kitchen 
 should have a cooking-range, copper, oven, &c., and must be used also as a back-kitchen ; 
 but the family washing can be done in the brewhouse, s. There is a dairy, /; pantry and 
 store-room, g ; and there are six sleeping-rooms on the first floor. There is a butcher's 
 sale-shop, h; a lock-up stable, i; a coach and gig-house, a slaughter-house, h; and an 
 open stable, I; with hay-houses, m m. Two open lodges are shown at n n, with stack 
 staddles over their flat stone roofs. There is a barn, o, with a wicket at each end to pitch 
 in the stacks. There is a cart-house stable at jo ; a loose box for a hackney, q ; a cow- 
 house, r ; brewhouse, s ; cart-lodge, t ; place for fowls, fuel, and women's privy, v ; a yard 
 for di-iven cattle, w \ ; a yard for farm cattle, w 2 ; and a paved yard, x, with pump and 
 water-trougli. The house and brewhouse are supposed to be supplied by underground 
 pipes. Tiiere is an orchestra at y ; and two verandas for playing at skittles, or for 
 separate alcoves or pavilions for taking refreshments in, z z. There is a kitchen-garden, 
 A ; a bowling-green and tea-garden, B ; a parish road, C ; and a turnpike road, D. 
 
 1150. Construction. The walls may be of rubblestone, bricks, or clay lumps; and the 
 roofs covered with slate. 
 
 1151. Remarks. This Design is supposed to be in the plainest possible style; and it 
 is intended to introduce drains, manure tanks, and every other economical arrangement, 
 in its details." We consider this a very complete Design of its kind; its author is not 
 only a scientific Architect and engineer of considerable practice, but he has also had 
 much experience in farming, in the county of Norfolk. 
 
 Design XXXVII. — A House and Out-buildings for a Cheese Dairy Farm of from 300 
 to 350 Acres, in Cheshire. 
 
 1152. Accommodation. The ground plan of the house, which we have not given, con- 
 tains a parlour, dining-room, kitchen, or, as it is called in Cheshire, a house-place, 
 
 cc 1071 
 
 staircase ; pantry, with a cellar under ; dairy, with cheese bench ; situation for cheese- 
 presses, and boilers, there are a milk-room, with a cheese-room over it • and a salting- 
 house, also with a cheese-room over it. The farmery contains four cow-houses for six 
 cows each, m ; and two for twelve cows each, o ; with foddering bays, n, and cleaning- 
 passages, p, between. There are in the barns two corn-bays, q, and a threshing-bay, 
 r, where the machinery would be placed if a threshing-machine were employed. Tliere 
 
 3 o 
 
546 
 
 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 is a stable for six horses, t, an hospital for sick horses, u ; a wheelwright's or carpenter's 
 shop, V, with a store-room over it ; a steaming-room, w ; a reservoir for liquid manure, x, 
 with a pump, y • four inner pig-cots, z, with outer pig-cots and two poultry-houses, aa ; 
 with a poultry-yard, hh. The stack-yard is in the situation, cc, and it contains sixty 
 feet in length of hay-sheds, twenty feet wide, and twenty-two feet high, in one or more 
 lengths, as may be most convenient. There are three calf-cots, <M, and sheds may be 
 continued at ee, with a wall atff, so as to form an additional straw or fold yard to that 
 in the centre of the farmery marked gg. 
 
 1153. Remarks. — This Design has been made, at our request, by Alexander Ogilvie, 
 Esq., of the Mere, near Knutsford, Cheshire. Mr. Ogilvie was a pupil of the late Dr. 
 Coventry, and has since had extensive practice both as a land steward and as a farmer. 
 We saw his crops and his dairy when we visited him at Mere, in July, 1830, and found 
 them greatly superior to any in the neighbourhood. His dairy practice waS' also of an 
 improved description ; and, at our request, he has furnished us with plans and elevations 
 of his improved cheese-press,which we shall give under the head of Farm House Furniture. 
 The plan of the farmery was accompanied by the following observations : — " This plan 
 is something near what I should think a house and set of offices ought to be on a farm 
 of from 300 to 350 acres, in Cheshire : but I am sorry to say that the poor tenants of 
 this district are obliged to put up with buildings of a very different description ; partly 
 owing to the landlords not liking to see a gentleman farmer in their neighbourhood, 
 and partly owing to the class of men who, in this country, generally have the charge of 
 landed property being incompetent to judge of the best system to be adopted for the 
 ultimate and permanent benefit of the estate. There are several things of minor im- 
 portance that have been omitted in this Design ; such as a coal-yard, &c. ; but these will 
 not affect the general merits or demerits of the plan. If I occupied such a farm myself, 
 with similar out-buildings, I should certainly have a threshing-machine, and that one to 
 be moved by a steam-engine of about six-horse power, by which I could thresh my 
 corn, cut my hay, straw, turnips, &c., and steam my potatoes and other articles. The 
 machine would stand in the one corn-bay, on a loft or platform raised eight feet from the 
 ground, with a winno wing-machine, &c., under it; then the threshing-bay, shown in the 
 plan, would be the place where the straw would be deposited when thrown from the 
 shaker of the machine, and the other corn-bay would become the straw-house. Behind 
 the cow-houses there might be a straw-yard, if required, with sheds for young cattle 
 and young horses during the winter months. This is shown by the dotted lines 
 ee and/]/." 
 
 Design XXXVIII. — A Mixed Stock Farm, in a high {hilly) Country, employing only 
 
 One Pair of Horses. 
 
 1 1 54. Accommodation. In the ground plan, fig. 1072, are shown a potato-house, a ; spare- 
 house, or place applicable for diflPerent purposes, b ; house for young cattle, c ; cow-house, d ; 
 
 1072 
 
 ■j m i | iiii | 
 
 larger cow-house, e ; small cow-house, / ; corn-barn, g ; part of the barn to be floored and 
 lofted, A ; house for holding wool, to be floored with boards, i ; hay-house, k ; stable, I ; 
 cart-shed, m ; poultry-house, n ; two sheep-sheds, o a ; two pigsties, p ; sheep-yard, q ; and 
 yard for dung, r. 
 
 1155. Construction. The walls are of stone, and the roof is slated. The surface on 
 which this farmery stands is supposed to have an inclination to one point, to which all 
 
FARM HOUSES AND FARMERIES IN VARIOUS STYLES. 54? 
 
 1073 
 
 the rain water which falls on the roofs of the houses and on the yards, and all the liquid 
 manure, are drained by open 
 
 gutters, or underground con- 1074 
 duits, formed in the manner 
 shown in the section fig. 1073, 
 which are discharged 
 into a tank, of which 
 fig. 1075 is a ground 
 plan, and fig. 1074, a 
 longitudinal section. 
 This tank is about 
 forty-four feet long by twelve 
 feet wide ; the water may 
 enter at one end, and there 
 may be a waste gutter at the 
 other, in case it should at any 
 time be allowed to overflow. 
 " The sediment is supposed to 
 settle in the basin. The chalF, 
 or other dry substances, that 
 it is wished to convert into 
 manure, and that are difficult to rot, may also be put in here ; and it is intended 
 that the width and slope of the basin should admit of carts passing through it for 
 carrying off the sediment. On one side, fig. 1075, u is supposed to be sunk about 
 four feet deep below the bottom of the basin, and the water to be drained thence 
 through a close grating, ^. A pump is proposed to be put into the well, and to stand 
 sufficiently high above the ground to throw the water into a barrel on a cart, which may 
 then be taken to the field, and discharged on the soil, in the same way as the streets are 
 watered in towns. If the grating should not make the water sufficiently free from mud, 
 a small bundle of wheat straw, well drawn, and loosely tied, put up against it, will be 
 found to answer the purpose. A hatchway, or manhole, should be made in the cover of 
 the well, in order to admit of a person going down occasionally to clear it out." (^High- 
 land Soc. Trans., vol. viii. p. 388.) The soil in which this tank or basin is formed is 
 supposed to be rocky or gravelly, in which case a layer of clay puddle should be placed 
 underneath the causewayed bottom, and a vertical stratum of the same material should 
 be put at the backs of the side walls ; but in clay soils this will not be necessary. In fig. 
 1075, s s are the side walls ; 1 1, vertical strata of clay puddle ; u, the well ; and 8f, the 
 grating. In fig. 1074, v is the layer of clay puddle under the causeway; w is the grating 
 before the opening to the well ; x, the point at which the water enters ; y, that at which 
 it escapes; and z, the coping of the side walls. Fig. 1076 is a suitable plan for a gate 
 for this description of 
 farm yard. " The right 
 side pillar is intended for 
 a situation where free- 
 stone can be easily ob- 
 tained ; and the left side 
 represents the finishing 
 in a situation where in- 
 ferior stone only is to be got, or where the expense of better finishing is not approved 
 of; but, if it should be thought preferable, a round pillar maybe formed of any kind 
 of inferior stone. The gate-posts are supposed to be ten inches in diameter, circular, 
 or in the octagon form, and sunk in the ground. As it frequently happens that gates 
 into straw-yards are obstructed in their opening, when the courts are becoming filled 
 with dung, it is proposed to hang this gate about nine or ten inches clear of the surface ; 
 and to make up the space between the surface and the gate by laying a piece of coarse 
 wood below the gate, about six or eight inches in diameter, which can be taken out, so 
 as not to obstruct the wheels of carts when the dung is removed from the court. A gate 
 put together in this way is very substantial ; and is easily repaired, when any part of it fails. 
 As a means of preserving the gates in spring, when the cattle leave the yards, they should 
 be all taken off, and put into the sheds, where they may remain till they are again required. 
 
 1156. Remarks. This Design, and those of the six following farmeries, have been 
 taken from a collection published in the Transactions of the Highland Society of Scotland, 
 vol. viii. These Designs were composed by Mr. Waddell of Berwickshire, an Architect 
 of great experience in the laying out of farm buildings, under the superintendence of the 
 committee of the society ; and we are informed by our much esteemed friend, David 
 Low, Esq., Professor of Agriculture in the University of Edinburgh, that he considers 
 
 1076 
 
,548 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 them, though capable of improvement, yet the best which have hitherto been published. 
 In consequence of our having received this opinion from such high authority as that of 
 Professor Low, we have deemed it our duty to make a selection, such as we consider will 
 render our series complete. The Designs in the Highland Society^s Transactions are 
 prefaced by a general specification, and some accompanying remarks, from which we 
 have made the following extracts and abridgments. 
 
 1157. The Designs published hy the Highland Society are contrived solely with a view 
 to utility, and to correct the prevailing errors in this description of buildings; viz., that 
 of crowding them together, under the idea of giving them greater compactness ; and that 
 of not giving them a sufficient extent of shelter-sheds for the feeding of cattle. " The 
 last is a fault so universal, that it is only on the larger class of breeding and feeding farms, 
 in the border counties of England and Scotland, that experience has taught builders fully 
 to avoid it." " In giving designs of the outhouses of a farm," it is judiciously observed, 
 that " little more can be done than to present useful examples. Although a certain 
 similarity must exist in the form and arrangement of the parts of all such buildings, yet 
 these must be modified according to the circumstances of the farm itself, the nature of 
 the soil, the situation with regard to markets, and the particular kind of management 
 to be pursued. No one rule that can be given is of general application ; and the judg- 
 ment of the Architect must be shown in adapting the size, form, and arrangement of the 
 buildings to the nature of the farm, and the wants of the occupier. While every suitable 
 accommodation should be afforded to the tenant, it is the province of the Architect to 
 take care that the heavy cost of such buildings be not unnecessarily enhanced, either by 
 erecting buildings that are useless, or by giving unnecessary dimensions to such as are 
 requisite. It may be particularly remarked, that the giving unnecessary breadth to the 
 buildings adds materially to the expense, by increasing the dimensions of the timbers, 
 and adding to the size of the roofs. At the same time, care must be taken that, in the 
 cow-houses and stables, the animals shall not be cramped from the want of necessary 
 room." {Ibid., p. 368.) 
 
 1158. The most convenient Arrangement of a Farmery " is in the form of a rectangle, 
 the side to the south being open ; and the farm house being placed at some convenient 
 distance in front of it. The most approved mode of keeping and feeding the larger and 
 finer kinds of cattle is in small sheds, with open yards attached, each capable of holding 
 two animals. In the Designs which follow, the sheds are of larger dimensions, but they 
 can be subdivided where this mode of managing the feeding stock is adopted." 
 
 1 159. In arranging this, and the Eight following Designs, " wherever uniformity and con- 
 venience could not be combined, the preference has been given to the latter ; and nothing 
 has been proposed but what has been found, from experience, to be useful and practicable. 
 But it is quite impossible, especially in the largest class of farm buildings, to get all the 
 apartments arranged so conveniently as could be wished, consistently with any degree of 
 regularity ; nor does it seem to be possible to lay down a plan that will suit the wish of 
 
 ' all farmers, there being so great a diversity in the modes of occupation, kind of manage- 
 ment, situation, soil, &c." 
 
 1160. Drainage. " It is recommended that the liquid manure from the stables, cow- 
 houses, and yards should be carried off, by causewayed open channels, to a pond or tank 
 near to the buildings. This mode of conveying away and receiving the urine and dung- 
 water is conceived to be better in ordinary cases than conduits below ground, which, 
 even when executed in the best manner, will be subject to be choked up from the want 
 of necessary Attention to cleaning : further, such sewers become nurseries for rats, not- 
 withstanding every precaution that can be taken. Conduits may be made through the 
 ranges of building, below the floors, at proper places, so as to discharge the liquid into a 
 pond or tank exterior to the farmery." 
 
 1161. Water. " With respect to watering the cattle in the yards, no indication of the 
 mode of doing so is given in the Designs, as this must depend on whether the water is 
 got from a stream, or from a well. If a stream cannot be obtained, there are few situations 
 where water cannot be got by sinking a vi^ell ; and the best way is to raise the water into 
 a cistern, which may be placed in any of the shelter-sheds or other houses, seven feet 
 above the ground ; or, if the water will not rise so high, a small apartment may be made 
 for it, and from this it may be conveyed to cisterns with ball cocks, in the different yards 
 and places where it is wanted ; care being taken to lay the pipes so as that they may be 
 easily emptied on the approach of frost." 
 
 1 1 62. The Shelter-sheds and Yards " should always be open to the south ; and the sheds, 
 unless where they are very large, will be found to answer better with only one opening 
 in front ; as by this means they afford more warmth to the cattle. The usual objection 
 to this is, that one ill-natured beast will keep out the rest : this, however, seldom 
 happens. A farmer of much experience recently told Mr. Waddell that last year he 
 built up all the openings, except one, in one of his sheds, and that he knew a great 
 
FARM HOUSES AND FARMERIES IN VARIOUS STYLES. 549 
 
 difference in favour of the stock in that yard, as compared with those in which there were 
 three or more openings in the sheds. The animals were finer in the skin, and, in other 
 respects, in better condition." 
 
 1 1 63. Passages. " It may appear, in several of these ground plans, that the passages 
 and the entrances to the different apartments are wider than necessary ; but it is a matter 
 of great consequence to have open and free access, where a nimiber of carts and cattle 
 frequently come in contact." 
 
 1164. Turnip-Jiouse. "As it is necessary to lay up a stock of turnips as a supply 
 when they cannot be got from the field either on account of frost or wet weather, a 
 turnip-house is delineated in some of the plans ; though it is to be observed that these 
 turnip-houses are of no great utility, since it is found that turnips keep much longer 
 when put together in a sheltered place in the open air, well covered with straw, than they 
 will do in a close house." 
 
 1165. Threshing-mills. " No Design has been given either of a water-mill or 
 steam-engine house for the threshing-machine ; as the erection of these is subject to 
 circumstances, and their size and position are naturally under the direction of the 
 millwright." 
 
 1 1 66. Gates. " In all the plans here designed, the gates are shown to be hung on 
 wooden posts, which are not so easily knocked down by carts as common stone pillars. 
 But this does not prevent the adoption of hewn-stone pillars, which both have a better 
 appearance and are much stronger." 
 
 1167. All the inside Gables " are intended to be carried to the top." 
 
 1 1 68. With regard to ventilating the Stables and Cow-houses, " it is recommended that 
 openings of about six inches high, and the same width as between the rafters, shall be 
 made in the roofs, and fitted up with boards, about three inches broad, suspended by 
 pivots, and moved by a crank, in the same way as the luffer-boards in a granary window. 
 One, two, or three of these, in a stable or cow-house, according to the length of the apart- 
 ment, will, if attended to, be found to be of great service." 
 
 1169. Boiling-houses and Stables. " In all the boiling-houses the roofs should be 
 lathed and plastered in the inside, round by the back of the cupple (couples, or rafters), 
 and should have a large ventilator to let off the steam. The saddle-horse stables should 
 be plastered in the same way." 
 
 1170. In the Construction of these Buildings, " the corners, ribbets (reveals), arches, 
 and skews are supposed to be of hewn stone ; the wood of Memel fir ; the slates from 
 Easdale ; and the ridges of flanks (gutters in the valleys) covered with lead. The cost 
 and workmanship of all the materials are included in the general estimate, except the 
 prime cost of stones. In most of the plans, metal pillai-s are designed for the cart-sheds ; 
 but, where stones can be easily procured, it is recommended that they should be made use 
 of, in preference to metal. The stones for the bases of the metal piilars should be one 
 foot eight inches broad, and one foot two inches thick." (Ibid., 372.) 
 
 1171. The Plan, fig. 1072, " being intended for a hill farm, principally in pasture, it 
 is supposed that only one pair of work-horses is employed ; but the stable is made to hold 
 four, because, on a farm of this sort, there should always be a third ready to be employed 
 occasionally, frequently a breeding mare ; and the fourth stall is i-equired for a riding- 
 pony. It is supposed that three or four cows are to be kept, and their calves brought up till 
 they are two or three years old, which will consume all the fodder produced by this 
 extent of arable culture. Should more horses be employed, or the farm produce much 
 meadow hay, more cattle might be kept ; and, consequently, the houses for cattle would 
 then require to be enlarged. A room is designed for holding wool, which by some may 
 be thought unnecessary, as the barn or cow-house is frequently made use of for holding 
 it till sold ; but it sometimes happens that, in bad markets, the wool is kept over the year ; 
 and in this case a house for it is necessary. There are also added shelter-sheds, and a 
 yard for handling sheep, which may be subdivided by hurdles, as required. Shelter of 
 this kind for ewes in lambing is of great service in bad weather. It is thought, on the 
 whole, that in this Design there is as small an extent of building as should be erected on 
 a considerable-sized farm of this description." (Ibid., p. 387.) 
 
 1172. General Estimate. The probable expense of executing this plan, exclusive of 
 the carriage of materials and prime cost of stones, will be about £410 ; and, if covered 
 with tiles, £'322. 
 
 Design XXXIX. — A Farmery for a Garden Farm of 200 Acres, situated near a Town, 
 employed wholly in Tillage, where no Stdck is kept but Horses and Family Coivs, and 
 where the whole Produce is sold. 
 
 1173. Accommodation. The general appearance is shown in fig. 1077, and the ground 
 plan in fig. 1078. The latter contains a potato-house, a; cart-shed, the pillars of which 
 are of iron, with stone bases and caps, b ; cow-house, c ; calf-house, or place for a mare and 
 
550 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 foal, d; straw-barn and dressing-barn, e; situation of the granary, or outside inclined 
 plane, up which the unthreshed corn is carried to the feeding-board of the threshing- 
 machine. / ; spare house, g ; stable, h ; hay-house, i ; riding-horse stable, k ; poultry-house, 
 
 ■;://: 1078 
 
 Ft. 10 0 10 30 50 Ft. 
 
 house for boiling or steaming food, m; two pigsties, n; dung-pit, o; and open court, 
 p ; privy, and place for a dog, q. One pump may be conveniently placed in the boiling- 
 house, and the other in the hay-house. 
 
 1 1 74. Remarks. This farmery is supposed to be situated on the side of a public road, 
 near a town. The doors on that account are placed on the inside of the court, with a 
 wall in front eight feet high, that they may be locked at night ; but in other situations 
 this wall will be unnecessary. The accommodation here shown will be found sufficient 
 for most situations. The dressing-barn might answer a few feet shorter than it is 
 represented; and, if the straw-barn sbould be thought too short, the space thus gained 
 could be thrown into it. It is proposed to make the straw-barn ten feet high to the 
 joists, which would hold a sufficient quantity of straw, and give room for putting it up 
 in bundles for the market, &c. The granary above this will be four feet six inches 
 high from the floor to the top of the wall, which, with six inches of beam-filling, will give 
 
FARM HOUSES AND FARMERIES IN VARIOUS STYLES. 551 
 
 five feet from the floor to the intersections of the cupples (rafters). If these offices were 
 not on the side of a public road, it would be an improvement to make the boiling-house 
 and poultry-house face the south. 
 
 1175. General Estimate. This Design, exclusive of the carriage of materials, and the 
 prime cost of stones, will cost, in the south of Scotland, about ^'550 ; and, if covered with 
 tiles instead of slates, the expense will not exceed £AQQ. Dividing these sums by the 
 number of cubic feet, we have, in the first case, 2\d. per foot, and, in the second, \\d. per 
 foot, which may be considered the guess prices for this description of buildings in Scotland. 
 
 Design XL. — A Farmery for a Farm of 500 Acres, kept in a Rotation of Corn Crops 
 and Pasture, producing Turnips, and employed partly in breeding, and partly in 
 feeding Stock. 
 
 1176. Accommodation. The ground plan, fig. 1079, shows an overseer's house, with 
 a kitchen, a ; two box-beds, 
 h b, partitioning off a light 
 closet, or bed-room : there is 
 besides, a small parlour, c. 
 Adjoining this are a gig- 
 house and harness-room, d ; 
 cow-house, e ; house for hay 
 or turnips, / ; mare and foal 
 house, g ; house for a bull, 
 h ; servants' cow-house, i ; 
 calf-house, k ; straw-barn, 
 I ; threshing-machinery, m ; 
 dressing-barn, n ; gangway, 
 or inclined plane, from the 
 rick-yard to the floor for 
 unthreshed corn, o ; under- 
 granary, p, with a granary 
 over ; spare house, q ; hay- 
 house, r ; stables, s « ; poul- 
 try-house and yard, t t; 
 pigsties, u ; stable for riding 
 horses, and saddle-room, v 
 V ; cart-shed, w ; carpenter's 
 shop, X ; foal-house, y ; 
 potato-house, z; house for 
 boiling and steaming food, 
 a ; smithy, b' ; open yard, 
 in which no litter or ma- 
 nure is placed, c'; shelter- 
 sheds, and fold-yards, with 
 cribs in the latter, d' ; 
 paved gutter for collecting 
 and conveying away the 
 surface water, e'; place for 
 storing turnips,/' ; and sup- 
 posed line of fence, g\ 
 
 1177. Remarks. This is 
 a very complete plan, though 
 we could wish some more 
 accommodation to the over- 
 seer's house. The separa- 
 tion of those houses which 
 require no litter into a 
 square by themselves, c , 
 is very judicious. The 
 poultry-house here, t, ought 
 to have a communication 
 with the stable, for the sake 
 of heat. The pigsties we 
 would remove, and add the 
 space they stand on to the 
 poultry-yard. Places for 
 pigs might be formed in 
 
552 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 the central shelter-shed. The following observations on this plan are by the committee 
 of the Highland Society : "The shelter-sheds are placed within the square ; and, should 
 they be thought too small for a farm producing a great quantity of straw, they may be 
 enlarged by throwing them a few feet forward. There are also designed an overseer's 
 house, and a smithy and carpenter's shop. Should these not be required, the cart-sheds 
 could be placed where the overseer's house is ; the boiling and potato houses at the west 
 end of the riding-horse stable, and the west wing done away with altogether. A poultry- 
 house could be taken off the straw-barn. By these means a considerable expense would 
 be saved. The lower and upper granary would still make an extent of seventy feet by 
 eighteen feet, which would be a suitable size for such a farm." ( Trans. High. Soc, vol. 
 viii. p. 382.) 
 
 1178. General Estimate. To executje this plan, exclusive of the overseer's house, 
 smithy, and carpenter's shop, and of the carriage of materials, and the prime cost of 
 stones, will cost about ^^1300 covered with slates ; if covered with tiles, it will cost about 
 ^1020. 
 
 Design XLI . — A Farmery for a Farm of 500 Acres of arable Turnip Land, kept under 
 alternate Corn and Pasture, and employed in breeding and in feeding Stock, as well as 
 in sending Corn to Market. 
 
 1179. Accommodation. The ground plan, fig. 1080, shows pigsties, a ; a poultry- 
 house, b ; house for boiling or steaming food, c ; potato-house, d ; foal-house, e ; stables 
 
 1080 
 
 for seventeen horses, / ; hay-house, g ; spare house, h ; straw-houses, i i ; threshing- 
 machinery, k ; dressing-barn, I, with loft for unthreshed corn, &c., over it ; lower 
 granary, m, with another granary of the same size over it ; calf-house, n ; cow-houses, 
 o 0 ; house for bull, p ; cart-shed, q ; gig-house, r ; shelter-sheds, s ; shed for young 
 horses or cattle, f, with a yard in front ; feeding-yards, u ; yard for young cattle, v ; and 
 yard for store cattle, w. 
 
 1180. Remarks. The committee observe that this plan will be found extremely 
 convenient, though it does not contain near so much accommodation as the preceding 
 one. The small yard, t, in the middle will be found to be very useful for different 
 purposes. On some farms the length of the straw-barn would be quite sufficient, were 
 it to terminate in a line with the front of the shelter-sheds. The cart-sheds would be 
 better arranged if they opened to the exterior of the yard, as the cows going out and in 
 are apt to be rambling among the carts, and injuring themselves. 
 
 1181. General Estimate. Exclusive of carriages, and prime cost of stone, this farmery 
 will cost about £""1190, covered with slates ; and, if covered with tiles, about ^"940. 
 
 Design XLII. — A Dairy Farm of 500 Acres, kept in a Rotation of Corn Crops and Grass 
 one half being supposed to be in Hay or Pasture. 
 
 1182. Accommodation. The ground plan, fig. 1081, shows four cow-houses, a, with 
 feeding-passages, b, and cleaning-passages, c ; another cow-house, d ; a calf-house, e ; 
 turnip-house, cow-house, g ; another cow-house, h ; straw-house, i ; situation of the 
 inclined plane from the rick-yard to the unthreshed corn-floor, ; and machinery, A ; 
 There are a spare house, I ; two stables, m ; hay-house, n ; place for a bull, o ; cart-shed, 
 p ; four cow-houses, q, each with a feeding-passage on one side, and a cleaning-passage 
 on the other ; a poultry-house, r ; gig-house, s ; potato-house, t ; boiling-house, u ; turnip- 
 house, V ; store-house, w ; superintendant's house, x ; pigsties, y ; and shelter-sheds, z. 
 
1183. Construction. Fig. 1082 is a section across the dressing-barn, by which the 
 space between the dressing-floor and the ceiling of the unthreshed corn floor appears to 
 
 1082 
 
 1083 
 
 be eight feet. Fig. 1083 is a section across 
 the straw-barn, with granary over ; showing 
 the height from the floor to the ceiling of 
 the straw-room to be ten feet. Fig. 1084 
 shows two sections across the boiling-house 
 and cow-house, exhibiting the cooling or 
 scalding troughs of the boiling-house, a a ; 
 the feeding-passage of the cow-house, b; and 
 the situation of the cleaning-passage behind 
 the cows, c. Fig. 1085 is a plan of the corn- 
 loft, or floor for unthreshed corn, of the barn ; in which is shown the entrance for bring- 
 ing in the sheaves by an inclined plane from the rick-yard, d ; the opening for the 
 
 1085 
 
 r 
 
 1084 
 
 admission of the horizontal shaft, connecting the outside gin-wheel with the inside spur- 
 wheel of the threshing-machine, e ; the hatchway or trapdoor for descending to the 
 dressing-floor of the barn, /; the situation of the machinery, g ; the opening by which 
 the straw is dropped by the shaker to the straw-house, h ; and steps from the corn-loft 
 to the granary, L 
 
 1 1 84. Remarks. « This plan is designed for a dairy-farm, and it is considered that a 
 great proportion of the cows are fed on boiled or steamed food. There are two boilers, 
 one being intended for steaming, and the other for boiling in the common way. The 
 stalls, except those in the cow-houses marked X, Y, Z, are designed for the cows fed on 
 boiled or steamed food, and may be fitted up with troughs of flat stones. On the sup- 
 position that a part of the cows are not giving milk, some of the cow-houses are designed 
 with stalls in the common way, that the cows may be fed with straw, hay, or turnips. 
 These cow-houses are marked X, Y, Z. In farm oflices of this kind, a turnip-shed may 
 be necessary, in order that a supply of turnips may be obtained, free from frost, in winter. 
 Those cow-houses intended for the cows feeding on boiled or steamed food are all placed 
 as near as possible to the boiling and store houses, with large open passages for conveying 
 the food to the different places. The dung-pits are also constructed as near the cow- 
 houses as possible. The walls round these pits need not be higher than three feet. A 
 
 3 p 
 
554* COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 shelter-shed is designed on the west side, for a tevr young cattle. If this should be 
 required, the waU around it should be six feet high. On a farm of this kind, a consider- 
 able number of pigs may be kept ; a number of sheds for them are therefore laid out in 
 a convenient situation, and more can be added if necessary. A good supply of water to 
 a steading of this description is of great importance ; and the cistern may be put up over 
 the gig or store house. A superintendent's house is also designed, it being necessary 
 that such a person should be near the establishment at all times. It will also be proper 
 to attend particularly to the architectural arrangements for cleaning and ventilating the 
 cow-houses. In some farm buildings of this description, the dairy is connected with the 
 outhouses ; and the same pov/er that drives the threshing-machine gives motion to the 
 churn : but it is conceived that it would be more convenient to attach the dairy to the 
 farm house at a little distance from the outhouses, where there would be purer air, and 
 where the work is to be performed under the eye of the mistress of the farm. As 
 the dairy does not, in the present Design, form a part of the houses, no plan of it is 
 given." 
 
 1 1 85. General Estimate. This plan, exclusive of the carriage of materials and the 
 prime cost of stones, will cost about ^^1300, covered with slate; if covered with tiles, 
 about £1000. {Ibid., p. 386.) 
 
 Design XLIII. — A Farmery for a Clay- Land arable Farm of 500 Acres, not producing 
 Turnips, and kept chiefly, or wholly, in Tillage. 
 
 1186. Accommodation. The ground plan, fig. 1088, shows a cart-shed, a; tool-house, 
 b; gig-house, c; stable, d; harness-room, with a flue for a stove, e; three stables, /; 
 hay-house, g ; spare house, h ; straw-barn, i ; dressing-barn, k, in which are indicated the 
 place for the machinery, and the stair to the corn-loft ; granary, I ; two cow-houses, m ; 
 house for bull, n ; calf-house, o ; potato-house, p ; boiling-house, q ; poultry-house, r ; 
 two pigsties, s ; shelter-sheds, t ; yard for 
 
 young cattle, u ; yards for feeding cattle, 1086 1087 
 
 V V ; situation of the gangway, or inclined 
 plane to the corn-floor, w ; and rick-yard, x. 
 
 1187. Construction. Fig. 1086 is a i nr ^ ^ 
 section, A B, across the barn, or granary. 
 Fig. 1087 is a section, C D, across the 
 stable. With the exception of the barn 
 and granary, all the out-buildings are only 
 one story high ; the walls of tlie straw-house are 10 feet high, and those of all the others 
 8 feet. 
 
 1 1 88. Remarks. " In this plan, the stables and cart-sheds are conveniently situated, 
 and the barns are well placed for supplying the courts or yards with straw. The dung 
 from the stables and cow-houses is designed to go into the yards by the small gates. 
 The yards here may be differently divided, if it be thought expedient. The extent of 
 granaries above and below, together, is 88 feet by 18 ; perhaps more than in some, but 
 not more than in other cases, might be required. The boiling-house, in this plan, is not 
 so near the stables as could be wished ; but, as there is not room for it and the potato- 
 house in the same range where the stables are, and it being necessary to keep it near the 
 outside of the square, and as far from the barn yard as possible, there is no other part 
 where it could be so properly placed, except it were placed where the cart-sheds are, and 
 the cart-sheds were made in the west range, which would be found to be attended with 
 inconvenience. The flue of the boiling-house here may go round the back of the poultry, 
 house, and the chimney be erected on the west side of it. There is also a plan for a 
 small stove in the harness-room, next the saddle-horse stable, which will be found to 
 be of great use in winter or damp weather." ( Trans. High. Soc, vol. viii. p. 384.) We 
 have not, either in this case, or in most of the others, copied the elevations given by the 
 Highland Society ; because they are all of the very plainest description, and without the 
 slightest pretension to architectural style. We must say, we deeply regret this circum- 
 stance ; because a public body, so influential as the Highland Society of Scotland, might 
 easily effect important improvements, not only in the economical arrangements, but also 
 in the architectural taste, of farm houses, farm buildings, and cottage dwellings. 
 Indeed, the farm buildings, and especially the farm houses, of the northern half of the 
 island, are as far behind those of the south in point of architectural taste, as they are 
 before them in point of arrangement. Where, for example, shall we find, in Scotland, a 
 farm bailiff's house like that at Bury Hill, § 847 ; or, in the south of England, a farm- 
 yard like that of Elcho ? It is true that a mere farmery affords but slight op})ortunities ol 
 displaying architectural style ; but, slight as these are, they are such as would render 
 the most common-place arrangement of walls and roofs as different from the external 
 appearance which they now present, as a wall of mud is from one of hewn stone. 
 
FAIiM HOUSES AND FARMERIES IN VARIOUS STYLES. 555 
 
 Besides, there are always 
 the gable ends : and every 
 farmery must have one 
 of three things highly 
 susceptible of architec- 
 tural style ; viz. a shed 
 to the gin-wheel of 
 a threshing-machine ; a 
 water-wheel ; or a chim- 
 ney to a steam-engine. 
 Most farmeries have a 
 boiling-house; and many 
 have a ploughman's 
 lodge ; both of which 
 give rise to chimney-tops, 
 which may always be 
 rendered sources of con- 
 ferring style. Neither 
 should it be forgotten that 
 there are such things as 
 ventilators in the ridges 
 of the roofs, respecting 
 which the same remark 
 may be made. As to 
 the farm house, and the 
 cottages of the married 
 labourers which are com- 
 monly to be found ad- 
 joining the farmery ; it is 
 clear that, if the landlord 
 wishes it, they can be 
 rendered as beautiful as 
 any other dwellings. But 
 the grand feature of the 
 modern farmery, on a 
 large scale, is the chim- 
 ney to the steam-engine ; 
 and to its form we would 
 particularly direct the at- 
 tention of Architects, and 
 their employers ; and, 
 also, that of the Highland 
 Society, which among 
 its other committees, 
 ought to have one of 
 taste. 
 
 1189. Ge7ieral Esti- 
 mate. " This plan, ex- 
 clusive of the carriage of 
 materials and the prime 
 cost of stones, will cost, 
 if covered with slates, 
 about £\260; and, if 
 covered with tiles, about 
 ^1020." {Ibid.) 
 
 Design XLIV. — A Farmery for a Farm of 150 Acres, kept in a Rotation of Crops and 
 l asture, producing Turnips and Potatoes; and employed partly in feeding and partly 
 in breeding Stock. f y t n J ^ 
 
 1 1 90. Accommodation^ The ground plan, fig. 1089, shows a potato-house, a ; house 
 tor stormg turnips, b ; two cow-houses, c ; calf-house, d ; house for mare and foal, e; straw- 
 barn,/; dressing-barn, g ; machinery, h ; gangway, or inclined plane to the corn-loft, 
 horse-course, 30 feet in diameter, and covered with a conical roof, k-, cart-shed, l -, hay- 
 house, m ; stables, nn- spare house, o; poultry-house, » ; pigsty, g ; shelter-sheds, r: 
 and yards, s. r j x- 7 r » a 
 
 1191. Remarks. 
 
 This plan will afford all the accommodation that coviM be wished 
 
550 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 for in a farm of this size. The form of a horse-cowrse is here added; for, unless sufficient 
 water can be easily procured for turning a wheel, a farm of this extent will not afford 
 the expense of steam or a wind power, and horses must be employed. The stables, con- 
 taining but 4 horses, will answer very well at 15 feet wide." 
 
 1 1 92. General Estimate. " This plan, exclusive of the expense of carriage and prime 
 cost of stones, will cost about £600; if covered with tiles, about ^476." (Ibid. p. 383.) 
 
 Design XL V. — A Farmery for a Cottage Farm of 25 Acres. 
 
 1 193. Accommx)ddtion. The general appearance is shown in fig. 1091, and the ground 
 plan in fig. 1090. The latter 
 
 exhibits a court for calves, a ; 1090 
 poultry-house, h, open to the 
 cow-house, in order to partake 
 of its heat ; calf-house, c ; cow- 
 house, d; calf-crib, e; cart-shed, 
 f ; stable, g ; barn, h ; part of the 
 barn to be lofted over, i ; potato- 
 house, k ; pigsty and yard, / ; and 
 dung-pit, m. 
 
 1194. Remarks. « This De- 
 sign for a cottage-farm is plain 
 and simple, and calculated for a 
 country situation where orna- 
 ment is not required. It is pro- 
 posed to joist and floor a small 
 part of the barn, laying the 
 
 joists about 1 foot below the nmrimi ■ ' i i i 
 
 top of the walls. This will be 
 
 found very useful, by admitting a draught of air near the bottom of the roof, for dry- 
 ing wet corn, grass seeds, &c." It would be easy to render this Design ornamental, 
 by giving the openings the character of the old English style ; but we can hardly think 
 it in good taste to bestow much ornament on this class of buildings, which may be truly 
 said to be, " when unadorned, adorned the most." With a comfortable cottage and garden 
 
FARM HOUSES AND FARMERIES IN VARIOUS STYLES. 557 
 
 in front, which, however may, 
 and indeed ought to be, orna- 
 mented, and with an orchard 
 and rick-yard behind, what 
 object can harmonise better 
 with the sentiments called 
 forth by the appearance of a 
 simple tract of cultivated 
 country ? 
 
 1195. General Estimate. 
 To execute this plan, we are 
 informed, will require, exclu- 
 sive of the carriage of mate- 
 rials and the prime cost of 
 stones, about £l64, covered 
 with slates; if covered with 
 tiles, about £130. 
 
 Design XLVI. — A Farmery for a Cottage Farm of 30 Acres, with Remarks showing how 
 it may be extended so as to serve for a Farm of 50, 80, or 100 Acres. 
 
 1196. Accommodation. The general appearance is shown in fig. 1093, and the ground 
 
 1092 
 
 J * 
 
 plan in fig. 1092. In the latter 
 is seen a potato-house, a ; stable, 
 with a bay at one end for hay, b ; 
 cart-shed, c ; barn, d ; part of 
 the barn to be lofted at the 
 height of ten feet from the 
 ground, e ; house for turnips with 
 a pump, / ; cow-house, g ; calf- 
 crib, h; poultry-house, i; pig- 
 sties, k, with yards, / ; and dung- 
 pit, with liquid manure tank 
 under, m. 
 
 1197. Remarks. This plan 
 resembles the preceding one, but 
 the different apartments are ° 
 
 somewhat larger. The same arrangement, with a small additional increase, will serve 
 for a farm of fifty acres, and double the extent of barn and stable room, with the same 
 accommodation in every other 
 
 respect, might serve for a farm ot 1093 
 eighty or a hundred acres, under 
 a course of alternate grass and 
 corn. In this case the turnip- 
 house, /, would serve as a second 
 cart-shed, and there might be a 
 lean-to formed by the farmer 
 himself, placed against the stable 
 and potato-house wall, as a 
 shelter-shed for cattle, and there 
 might be a fold-yard in front 
 of it, formed of bush faggots in 
 Mr. Taylor's manner, § 1038 
 
 1 1 98. Estimate. This plan, exclusive of the carriage of materials, and prime cost 
 of stones, will cost about 190, covered with slates; covered with tiles, it will cost 
 about £150. 
 
 1 1 99. General Estimate applicable to the Nine preceding Designs. On calculating the 
 cubic contents, and on comparing these with the actual estimates, it appears that the 
 average price per cubic foot, exclusive of the carriage of materials and the prime cost of 
 stones, is, when the buildings are covered with slates, 2^d, and when they are covered 
 with tiles, 2c?. 
 
 1200. General Outlines of a Specification to the Nine preceding Designs.- — Dig- 
 ging. The trenches for the foundations to be 2 feet below the surface of the floors, or 
 more, if necessary, to obtain a good solid foundation. 
 
 1201. Mason^s Work. The foundations to be laid with flat-bedded stones laid in regular 
 -courses, breaking joint alternately, and to be taken in by regular scarcements, as shown 
 in ike sections. The whole area of the dressing-barn and low granary floors to be laid 
 
o5S COTTAGE, FARM,^ AND VILLA ARCHITECTUREr 
 
 over with small broken stones, forming the thickness of 9 inches. The sleepers to be laid 
 on the inside scarcements, and the whole remaining space of 14 inches to be filled up with 
 solid mason- work of stone and lime properly packed ; to have a coat of plaster three 
 fourths of an inch thick on the top, the surface of the plaster being kept one fourth of 
 an inch below the top of the sleepers ; care to be taken that the sleepers are resting on 
 flat stones, at short distances ; the lime which is applied next the walls all round, to be 
 inixed up with a portion of broken glass. This, if careftilly done, will keep the barn- 
 floor clear of vermin, and also prevent it from sinking, as frequently happens. This 
 under-building to be properly dry before the boards are laid on the top. The straw- 
 barn to be done in the same way, with this difference, that the rubble-building above the 
 small stones is to be only 1 2 inches deep, and to have a composition floor laid above of 
 3 inches thick, 9 feet broad, and, where the straw falls from the rakes, to be laid with 
 large flags. The foundations of the low buildings to be 2 feet 9 inches at the bottom, 
 and taken in by regular scarcemcnts. 
 
 1202. Door- Soles. The door-soles of the barns to be laid 6 inches above the surface 
 of the causeway, on the outside ; those of the stables, cow-houses, &c., to be laid 3 inches 
 above it, and beveled on the front. 
 
 1 203. Walls. The thickness of barn-walls above the door-sole to be 2 feet 3 inches ; 
 above the second floor to be 2 feet, and beam-filled at the top. The thickness of the 
 walls for the low buildings above the door-sole to be 2 feet, and likewise beam-filled at 
 the top. The division walls to be 1 foot 6 inches thick, and carried to the top. The 
 foundation of the walls of the courts or yards to be at least 1 foot below the general 
 surface, founded 2 feet 3 inches at the bottom. 
 
 1204. Hewn Work. AU the external corners in the houses and gate-pillars to be 
 droved, with broached tails. The ribbets (rybets, rebates, or reveals), soles, and lintels 
 of doors and windows to be droved with broached tails ; all the ribbets and corners to 
 be at least 2 feet long, the inband ribbets to pass through the thickness of the wall. 
 The ribbet heads (outside facings or architraves) for barn windows to be 9 inches ; 
 the skews to be droved. The shed-pillars, arches, and chimney-tops to be of broached 
 ashlar. The slied and gate pillars to be champhered (chamfered) or rounded on the 
 corners 3 inches. The yard walls to be coped with flat, hammer-dressed, or Galloway 
 cope (large irregular stones, projecting on both sides of the wall), as stones can be 
 procured. The cooling-troughs, and the feeding-boxes for the cows on the dairy-farm, 
 to be constructed with pavement. 
 
 1 205. Conduits. If the water be carried away by under-drains or conduits, the great 
 common sewer, or discharging conduit, to begin in a central part of the offices, to be 
 2 feet 3 inches wide, and 3 feet 6 inches high, so as to allow a person to go up to clean 
 it. It may be arched or covered, as shall be most convenient ; and the size of the side 
 conduits to be according to the distance from the common sewer, namely, from 1 foot 
 to 1 foot 6 inches wide, and from 1 foot 6 inches to 2 feet high, with chisel-jointed 
 angle bottom, according to the sketch fig. 1073. 
 
 1206. Causewaying. The whole of the stables, cow-houses, calf-houses, pig-houses, &c., 
 to be laid with whinstone causeway set in sharp sand. The settles (gutters) for carrying 
 off the urine to have 1 inch and a half fall to 10 feet, or 2 inches to 10 feet, if the situ- 
 ation admits, or all the fall which can be had. The run channels (gutters) for stables 
 to be 10 feet from the wall, and the rise from the channel to the rack to be 5 inches. 
 The channels for cow-houses to be 9 feet from the wall ; the rise from the channel 
 to the sole-tree (the sill into which the posts to which the cows are tied are mor- 
 tised) to be 4 inches. The area round the yard to be causewayed, and to have proper 
 channels, with 2 in. declivity to the 10 feet, so as to carry the water to the settling-pits 
 (liquid manure tanks). In situations where the extent of causewaying in the areas 
 round the offices is considerable, by making the causewayed channels 4 feet broad, that 
 is, 2 feet on each side of the run, the space between that and the buildings will answer 
 nearly as well to be made up with small broken stones 9 inches deep, and blinded (the 
 interstices filled up) on the top with small clean water sand. This, in a short time, 
 will become a smooth hard substance, and will be obtained at less expense ; or, if con- 
 duits are adopted, gratings must be made at proper places to communicate with the 
 conduit : the gratings should be strong, and have the ribs well bent upwards, as in that 
 form they are not so liable to be choked up. 
 
 1207. Carpenter's Work. — Roofing. The cupple (couple or rafter) sides for the 
 ;fiouses of 15 or 16 feet wide, to be 6 inches and a half at bottom, 5 inches and a half at 
 top, and 2 inches and a half thick, with a balk (baulk or tie-beam) 6 inches by 2 
 inches and a half, fixed as near the middle of each cupple as possible with double garron- 
 nails, and properly riveted. The cupple sides for houses 18 feet wide to be 7 inches at 
 bottom, 6 inches at top, with a balk or scantling to each, 6 inches and a half by 2 inches 
 and a half, fixed as above. The cupples to be set at 20 inches from centres, on a wall* 
 
FARM HOUSES AND FARMERIES IN VARIOUS STYLES, '559 
 
 plate 7 inches by 1 inch and a half, the sarking to be three fourths of an inch thick, 
 well seasoned, and jointed closely. The sarking on the granaries to be half checked on 
 the joints. Ridge-bottoms to be 2 inches by 1 inch and a quarter, fixed to the roof 
 with iron spikes 3 feet apart. 
 
 1208. Joisting and Flooring. The sleepers in the dressing-barn and the low granary 
 floors to be 6 inches by 2 inches and a half, biiilt as described in the mason-work. ^ The 
 joisting in the loft for unthreshed corn and granaries to be 10 inches deep by 2 inches 
 and a half thick, with 1 foot of wall-hold. Joisting and sleepers laid at 20 inches from 
 centres, all covered with Dram timber battens (battens from Drammen, a sea-port in 
 Norway, supposed to be of spruce fir) ; under floors to be plain-jointed, and doweled with 
 iron dowels; the upper floors to be tongued and feathered on the joints, and fixed down with 
 good flooring sprigs. The cart-sheds to have a joist built into the wall at each pillar, 
 8 inches by 2 inches and a half, and the wall-plate nailed down on the top of it. Those 
 that have metal pillars should have linteling-beams 9 inches by 12 inches broad and the 
 end of the joist tenanted 2 inches into the lintel to have an iron strap, spHt on the c-nd, 
 and put on the top with screw bolts, to fix the joist and the lintel together ; the joist 
 going through the back -wall; and the under side to be checked mto a piece of wood 3 feet 
 long, 2 inches and a half thick, and about 6 inches broad, built into the middle of the wall; 
 also the wall-plate nailed on the top : this will keep the pillars firm in their position. 
 
 1209. Safe-Lintels. The whole of the safe-lintels (inside lintels) to have a wall-hold 
 of 1 foot, to be 1 inch thick for each foot of the openings they cover, and from 9 inches 
 to 12 inches broad; the whole breadth filled in like manner behind, and arched above 
 where there is room. 
 
 1210. Doors. The whole of the doors to be made of deal not more than 6 inches 
 and a half broad, 1 inch and a quarter thick, beaded on the edges, and grooved and 
 tongued on the joints; with three crossbars to each, 9 inches broad, 1 inch and a quarter 
 thick, and well nailed. The stable, cow-house, and barn-doors to be 3 feet 6 inches 
 wide, and hung ui two leaves where necessary, which is the case in some of the stables. 
 The straw-barn and granary doors to be 4 feet wide, the whole of the doors to be hung 
 on crooks with bands, the crooks to be laid on the bed of the ribbet. The crook to be 
 split in the tail, to have 7 inches hold cf the stone ; the pin of the crook to be 1 inch and 
 an eighth in diameter, each crook 3 pounds and a quarter in weight, well batted in with 
 lead ; and for 4-feet wide doors the crooks to be 4 pounds each, and the pin to be 1 inch 
 and a quarter in diameter. The bands for 3 feet 6 inches doors to be thi-ee eighths 
 of an inch thick at the neck, and 2 inches broad, 22 inches long, having a proper 
 taper, both in breadth and thickness, from the neck to the tail, and to have a |-inch 
 screw bolt to the neck of each, the weight of each to be 4 pounds and a half. Those 
 for 4-feet doors to be 23 inches long, half an inch thick by 2 inches and a half broad at 
 the neck, with a bolt as above, and to be 5 pounds and a quarter weight each. The 
 band-nails to be counter-sunk, and properly riveted. The latches for the doors to be 
 of the kind which has a sunk ring, but stronger made than in general. Locks to be 
 selected according to the use of the different places where they are applied. 
 
 1211. Windows. The frames of the lower windows of barns, stables, cow-house, &c., 
 to be made 2 inches thick, with boards below 16 or 18 inches high, hung on the frames 
 with cross-tailed bands, and glazed above with second crown-glass ; those in the granaries, 
 and other places where glass is unnecessary, to be filled with weather-boards 6 inches 
 broad, 1 inch thick, champhered on the outer edges, hung with iron pivots, in a frame 
 3 inches by 2, having a strap of iron attached to the inside, and moved up or down to 
 admit air into the places when required. All the lower windows of the barn to be 
 secured by iron bars 1 inch square, and not more than 5 inches apart, batted into the 
 sole and lintel, and to have a cross bar in the middle, and the upright bars passing 
 through it. The dressing-barn and granaries to have skirting-boards, 8 inches broad by 
 1 inch thick, nailed on bond timber built in the walls. 
 
 1212- Trevises, Racks, and Mangers. The hind-posts of the trevises to be 8 feet 
 6 inches long, 6 inches and a half square, made in the octagon form above the level of 
 the pavement ; to be sunk 3 feet and a half below the level of the pavement, and to be 
 solidly built round, 3 feet in diameter, with stone and lime mortar ; the parts of the 
 posts to be properly charred on the ends, as far as they go below the ground, their tops to 
 stand 6 inches above the trevise-boards, and to be rounded. The height of the fore-posts 
 to be 9 inches above the top of the racks, 4 inches and a half by 2 inches, the foot of each 
 to be set in stones, one on each side of the boards, and a piece of wood the thickness of 
 the trevise-boards fitted in between the posts above the trevise-boards. The trevises to 
 be 8 feet long from the wall to the outside of the hind-posts. The trevise-boards to be 
 1 inch and a half thick, mortised 1 inch and a half into the hind-post, and properly nailed 
 into the fore-posts with 20d. nails ; and the boards to be put together on the joints with 
 iron dowels, at 2s. to the hundred. The trevises to be 4 feet 6 inches high at the hind- 
 
560 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 posts, and 6 feet high at the front posts, and to have angle spars or warpings (diagonal 
 braces) on each side 4 inches by 1 inch and a half, and properly nailed. 
 
 1213. Racks. The racks to be 2 feet 10 inches broad, the sides to be 6 inches by 
 2 inches and a half, and the spars to be 2 inches and a quarter by 1 inch and a quarter, 
 sunk five eighths of an inch into the sides, at the distance of 3 inches and a quarter 
 apart, and well nailed. 
 
 1214. Mangers. The mangers to be 20 inches at the top by 16 at the bottom, and 
 10 inches deep ; the wood to be 1 inch and a half thick at the bottom, and the sides to be 
 1 inch and a quarter thick. The under racks (standard racks, or racks standing on the 
 ground) to be 2 feet 3 inches high ; the rails at the top and bottom to be 3 by 2 inches 
 and a half, and to have a run-beam (front rail) rounded on the top, 4 by 3 inches, fixed 
 along the top of the racks, with rings for securing the horses. Each box or manger to 
 have a back lining or skirting on the top, where it joins the wall, sloping backwards, to 
 prevent any of the corn from being lost. A piece of bond wood, 5 by 3 inches, to be 
 built into the wall for fixing the harness-pins. 
 
 1215. Plaster-work. The stables for saddle-horses and the boiling-houses to get all 
 one coat of plaster on the walls, and the ceilings to be all lathed and plastered round the 
 back of the cupples and balks with two coats of plaster. A ventilator to be made in the 
 ceiling of the boiling-house. The front walls of the work-horse stable also to get a coat 
 of plaster, to prevent the harness from being injured by rubbing against the rough waU. 
 The dressing-barn and granaries all to get one coat of plaster, and especial care to be 
 taken to have the plaster applied close down to the floors, and close up to the under side 
 of the boards over the joists, to prevent vermin from being admitted. 
 
 1216. Slate-work. The whole of the roofs to be covered with Easdale or Ballachou- 
 lish slates. The slates to have 2 inches of cover over the nail at bottom, and diminishing 
 gradually to 1 inch and a half at the top, all being put on with nails of 12 lbs. to the 
 thousand, and boiled in linseed oil. The whole of the ridges and flanks to be covered 
 with milled lead 12 inches broad, 6 lbs. to the superficial foot. The piends (piens, or 
 ridge pieces) to be covered with lead 10 inches broad, 6 lbs. to the superficial foot. 
 
 1217. Court or Yard Gates. The gate-posts to be sunk 3 feet into the ground, and 
 burned or charred as far as they go into the ground ; the posts to be 9 inches square, 
 champhered on the corners, and set 3 inches clear of the piUars, and to stand 9 inches 
 above the gate, rounded on the top, and built in the ground with stone and lime 4 feet 
 in diameter. The hanging style of the gate to be 5 by 4 inches ; the falling style to be 4 
 by 3 inches ; centre piece to be 3 inches and a quarter by 2 inches and a quarter ; angle 
 spar to be 1 inch and three eighths thick, 4 inches and a half broad at the foot, tapering 
 to 3 inches and a half at the top. The uppermost spar to be of 1^-inch iron at the end 
 next the hanging style, diminishing to the falling style to three quarters of an inch ; to 
 go through the posts with a shoulder and an eye at the hanging style, and a screw nut on 
 the end at the falling style. The crooks to be put into the gate-posts with nuts on the 
 ends. The spars of the gate to be 4 inches broad at the hind end, diminishing to 3 
 inches and a half at the front, by 1 inch and a quarter thick; the intersections put 
 together with |-inch screw bolts. 
 
 1218. Painting. The whole of the outside doors, windows, and gates to get three 
 coats of oil paint, the windows to get a coat before being glazed. 
 
 1219. Wood. The whole of the woed used to be of Memel timber, well chosen. The 
 barn and granary floors may be laid with Dram battens. 
 
 Sect. II. Examples showing the Manner of displaying Architectural Style in 
 Farm Buildings^ 
 
 1220. To display Style in Farm Buildings, the main resource is the expression of the 
 walls ; and, as these are for the most part only one story high, it is chiefly to be effected 
 by the vertical bond ; or, in other words, by the supports of the roof. The form of the 
 roof is also another source of style ; and that of the openings, or doors and windows, a 
 third source. Something also may be effected by the display of the ornaments peculiar to 
 different styles ; but this resource is altogether unsuitable for buildings of so simple a 
 character as those in use for carrying on the business of a farm. The three styles most 
 easily displayed in farm buildings are, the Grecian, the Roman or Italian, and th - G othic. 
 
 1221. A Farmery in the Grecian Style is represented in the perspective view, fig. 1094, 
 the ground plan in fig. 1095, and the exterior elevations in figs. 1096 to 1098. On 
 inspecting the ground plan, it will be found that, instead of common walls, the found- 
 ations of the different buildings consist of pillars, either equidistant, or at double 
 distances from each other. The smallest distance between these pillars or piers is such 
 as is considered suitable for the opening of a door or window ; so that, by removing a 
 pillar, an opening of a double width is formed, or one suitable for a cart or carriage 
 way. In the plan before us, fig. 1095, we have adopted such a width as is not only 
 
FARM HOUSES AND FARMERIES IN VARIOUS STYiES. 56l 
 
 suitable for a door or windovr, but also for a single stall in a stable or cow-house, viz., 
 5 reet and a half from centre to centre ; but this is by no naeans necessary, and we have 
 only adopted it for the sake of illustrating some observations on temporary and portable 
 
 3 a 
 
56^ CdtTAGE, J-AKMj Alf^D VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 1095 
 
 farmeries, which will be found in our succeeding subsection. The buildings on the 
 north side of the square are two stories high ; and the foundations of the pillars are 
 
 1096 
 
 3 
 
FARM HOUSES AND FARMERIES IN VARIOUS STYLES. 563 
 
 1098 
 
 shown larger, and at exactly double the distance apart, centre from centre ; because the 
 lower part of this building, on the exterior side, is chiefly appropriated to cart-sheds, and 
 on the inner side to cattle-sheds. The elevations show at 
 once, to an architectural eye, how much is to be made of 
 these piers. That of the east side is not given ; but a glance 
 at the plan will show to every Architect that it will be by 
 far the handsomest. The panels, or spaces between the 
 piers, may be filled up in various ways, according to the 
 kind of materials which the locality affords ; the plinth or 
 base on which they are placed being, in every case where 
 permanency is any object, formed of brick or stone. On 
 the supposition that brick is the material employed, all the 
 small piers may be 14 inches on the side, all the large ones 
 18 inches, and all the panels filled in with brick in bed, 
 or 4-inch work. This 4-inch work may be either kept in 
 
 the ntiiddle of the line of piers, as in the plan, fig. 1098, 
 
 or, what would be preferable, as showing the pillars on 
 the external elevation in bolder relief, ranging with the 
 inside pillars. In countries where freestone is the cheapest 
 building material, the small piers may be of the same width 
 on the face ; but instead of projecting from the panels 5 
 
 inches, as in the case of the brick piers, they may be flush 1^)- \ 
 
 with the walls in the inside, and only project 3 inches on 
 the outside ; the piers being of hewn stone, and the panels 
 of common ashlar, in regular or irregular courses, as may 
 be most convenient. Where a coarser and more un- 
 manageable stone than freestone is used, the piers may be 
 18 inches or 2 feet in thickness, and the thickness of the 
 panels may be 1 8 inches or 20 inches. In this case, in order 
 to obtain the same room in the interior, all that is neces- 
 sary is to place the piers a few inches farther apart, in order 
 that the spaces between them may be of suitable dimensions 
 for common doors and windows, and two of the spaces of 
 suitable width for gateways for carts. The plinths below 
 and the architraves above should always be of stone; the latter 
 worked in the same manner as the piers or pillars, and the 
 former in a coarser style. In countries where timber is the 
 
 principal building material, the plinth ought to be of stone l|T: ^ 
 
 or brick, the piers and architraves of squared timber, and 
 the panels filled in with studwork, either lathed or plastered 
 on both sides, or covered with weather-boarding outside, 
 and lathed and plastered inside. The roofing to a farmery 
 in this style should, of course, be at a low or Grecian pitch ; 
 and we should prefer slight iron rafters, judiciously com- 
 bined of cast and wrought metal, with rebated laths, in 
 Tugwell's manner, or a corrugated iron roof. In cold 
 climates, prepared paper, or, in warm climates, composition 
 or cement may be used. If the roof were to be made 
 perfectly flat, tiles covered with Roman cement in three 
 coats and courses, would be found to form one of the most 
 efficient and durable of roofs. As we prefer slates, and 
 Tugwell's manner of laying them appears to us a decided 
 improvement on that in common use, we shall here shortly 
 describe it. 
 
564 COrTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 1222. TugwelVs Mode of Slating. The chief peculiarity of this mode consists in 
 using rebated laths ; the upper half of the lath rising above the lower half, as much as 
 the thickness of the slate ; by which means the slate incumbent on the upper part can 
 be nailed in its middle. The laths are 2 inches wide and an inch thick. Fig. 1099 
 is a section of part of a roof slated in this manner : in which a is a rafter ; 6, the 
 laths J and c, the slates. Fig. 1100 is a plan, or vertical profile, of a portion of the 
 
 1099 
 
 1100 
 
 < 
 
 3 
 
 same roof. " The laths, in the mode of slating generally practised, are made of deal 
 only an inch in width ; and, as a nail piercing the slate lying on such inch- wide laths 
 wiU appear to have fastened it to the middle of that inch, the slate, with the wind lifting 
 at its lower end, becomes a lever, with its fulcrum at the head of the nail j its short arm 
 being only half an inch in length above the nail, and its longest arm (supposing the 
 slates as in the figure, to be 18 inches long) 17 inches and a half below it ; thus giving 
 the wind a power to raise the slate as 35 to 1. In the method here proposed, that 
 power will be only as 1 1 to 7 ; the short arm of the lever, in this case, being 7 inches 
 long, and the other arm only 1 1 inches ; which will, in all probability, enable the slate 
 to resist the most violent hurricane or tornado evei experienced in Europe." {Bath 
 Society's Papers, vol. x. p. 269.) 
 
 1223. That, in point of accommodation, no inconvenience will result from rendering a 
 farmery architectural, will, we think, be obvious from going into the details of fig. 1095 ; 
 in which are shown, a family potato-house, a ; poultry-house, h ; family cow-house, c ; 
 gig-house, d ; gig and riding-horses table, e ; gateways, / ; tool-house, g ; carpenter's 
 shop, h ; smith's shop, i ; bailiff's house, k ; house for boiling or steaming food for the 
 pigs, family cows, and saddle-horses, Z; cart-sheds, m; unthreshed corn barn, n- straw- 
 room, o ; place for boiling horse food, p ; loose horse stable, q ; stables for eighteen 
 horses, r ; fodde ring-bay, s ; house for a bull, t ; hospital or house for a sick animal, u ; 
 implement-house, v ; cattle-sheds, w ; pigsties and calf-pens, x ; open space between the 
 
FARM HOUSES AND FARMERIES IN VARIOUS STYLES. 565 
 
 cattle-sheds and straw-room for loading a cart with straw, y ; and ramp or inclined 
 plane for ascending to the unthreshed corn floor with loaded carts from the rick-yard, z. 
 On examining this plan, it will be found as convenient as any of those which are com^ 
 posed without any regard to architectural style. It is intended for an arable farm under 
 asix-course shift, in such a county as East Lothian. It will be observed that we have 
 placed the chimney of the steam-engine centrally, for effect ; a result that can easily be 
 attained by a little contrivance in the disposition of the machinery, the engine-house, 
 and the fuel-room. On the supposition that a farmery of this kind were occupied by the 
 proprietor, it would be found to combine a certain degree of elegance with a con- 
 venience of inspection not commonly to be met with in farmeries. The master may 
 enter at a', and proceed down the passage to having the cribs for the cattle of the 
 yards on both sides ; he may then enter the straw-barn, and ascend to the floor for un- 
 threshed corn, out of which doors open to the granaries over I, m, Wy andja; having 
 visited these, he may either descend and return by I, inspecting all the houses on the 
 west side ; or he may enter p, and proceed through the stables, and the other houses on 
 the east side. The bailiff's house will be found very conveniently situated, as he may 
 enter I, and proceed by m to and o (where the most important part of his charge lies), 
 under cover, and with great facility. We have shown the barn with a portico and a 
 semicircular ramp ; knowing, from experience, that it is a great saving of labour to be 
 able to cart in a rick direct from the rick-yard to the threshing-floor. The floor for 
 unthreshed corn has two bays, 6', c', where two different kinds of unthreshed corn may 
 be kept, while a third sort may be stored, or carted in, as passed through the machinery 
 at d!. We suppose that all the straw intended to be eaten is carried by a travelling 
 shaker to a straw-cutting machine, and cut into lengths of from three to six inches, in 
 which state it is supposed to be partially steamed, or moistened with salt and water, or 
 both, before being put in the cattle-cribs or horse-mangers. There is abundance of 
 room under the floor for unthreshed corn, not only for the clearing-room, chaff-house, 
 engine-house, boiler, and coal-house, but also for a room for crushing bones for manure, 
 bruising grain, cutting turnips, &c. Of the three small doors shown in the elevation, 
 fig. 1097, at e, the centre one is to the places connected with the steam-engine, and the 
 others to places in which bones may be crushed, or turnips sliced, &c. It may be 
 observed, in favour of displaying architectural style in farm buildings consistently with 
 good arrangement, that there are certain houses or places in every complete farmery, 
 the situation of which may be varied considerably, and which may therefore be always 
 placed where they will contribute most to symmetry or regularity : these are the houses 
 for loose cattle or horses, the hospital, and the open shed or shelter for cattle. Should 
 the yards in this farmery be thought too large, which they probably would in Northum- 
 berland, though not in East Lothian, they may be divided by walls or hurdles at 
 
 1224. With respect to the extra-expense of displaying Architectural Style in a Farmery, 
 liiuch will depend on the kind of building material. In the case of bricks, the plan, 
 fig. 1095, would obviously cost less than if the walls were solid, and nine inches thick ; 
 and, in the case of pillars of squared wood and panels of studwork, the expense would not 
 be greatly increased ; but in the case of stone the hewing of so many pillars would no 
 doubt be attended with considerable outlay. From this, however, would have to be de- 
 ducted the expense that would otherwise have been bestowed in hewing door and window- 
 coins, lintels, and sills. The roof, as we have already observed, need not be more 
 expensive than in any common farmery. Half the expense of the ramp to the portico of 
 the barn may be saved by carrying out, instead of the curved roads, one road in a 
 straight line from the centre opening of the portico, as indicated by the dotted lines g' 
 in fig. 1098, and the same letter in fig. 1095 ; the barn being wide enough to allow a 
 cart to turn within it. The chimney to the steam-engine is shown higher than may be 
 necessary ; but as such chimneys are built of brick with a simple description of scaffolding 
 carried up inside (the invention, we believe, of our friend Charles Capper, Esq., engineer, 
 Birmingham), the expense is much less than might be supposed. The spire of the Tron 
 Church, Edinburgh, was rebuilt, in 1831, in a similar manner. The ventilators over the 
 stables and cow-houses are formed to imitate chimney-tops, in order to harmonise with 
 actual chimneys in the bailiff's house and the smithy. 
 
 1 225. A Farmery in the Roman or Italian Style would differ little from the preceding 
 Design. The piers might either support architraves or arches ; for both would be alike 
 Romans or Italian, The roofs ought to project farther, for the sake of shade to the 
 vvindows and doors ; and the windows ought not to be carried down so far as in the 
 Grecian Design, but rather to exceed in breadth than in height ; the architrave, or, in 
 the case of arches, the soffit, forming the lintel of both doors and windows. To com- 
 plete the idea, whether of the Roman or Italian style, the semicylindrical tile of Mr. 
 Peake, fig. 24, § 50, may be used. An improvement on this tile, by Mr. Peake, and a 
 
566 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 beautiful pattern for the joint tile to be used at the eaves, will be hereafter figured and 
 described. 
 
 1226. The Gothic style may be displayed, in farm buildings, either by piers in the 
 place of the Grecian pillars, with the heads of the panels pointed, and high steep roofs, 
 as in fig. 788, § 752; by angular piers, terminating in low roofs ; by buttresses, with 
 parapets, and a moderately high roof ; or by pointed openings and parapets, with 
 battlements. 
 
 1227. The OH English Cottage Style of building might be easily conferred on farm- 
 eries by steep roofs, covered with plain tiles, with barge boards at the gable ends, and 
 latticed windows. 
 
 1228. The Swiss Style would require far-projecting roofs, and there might be a con- 
 tinued gallery or veranda round both the exterior and the interior of the low buildings, 
 which would also be found useful in various ways. 
 
 Sect. III. Oti constructing temporary, portable, and ambulatory Farmeries, and on 
 altering Mansions, Monasteries, Manufactories, and other Buildings, so as to render them 
 fit for agricultural Purposes. 
 
 1229. A complete Farmery can seldom be required to be constructed either in a tem- 
 porary or portable manner, or for the purpose of being readily moved from place to 
 place ; but in all countries where the farms are large, and the farmers men of consider- 
 able capital, it will, occasionally, be desirable to thresh out corn on the spot where it 
 grew, and to consume the straw, or to convert it into manure there. 
 
 1230. The Construction of a Temporary Farmery is founded on the same principle as 
 that of the Grecian Design, § 1221 ; that is, all the walls are formed of props at regular 
 distances, and these distances are such that the space between the props is of suitable 
 width for a door, a window, or a stall for a horse or cow ; while the removal of a prop 
 affords a suitable opening for a cart or carriage. The panels between the props may be 
 filled in with wattled work, faggots, straw, hurdles or matting, or clay nogging ; or with 
 slight horizontal rails, to be clothed with fronds of spruce fir, furze, broom, holly 
 branches, &c. All the doors may be formed of wattled hurdles, as may also the shutters 
 for the openings to be left as windows. The props, or posts, may be formed of young 
 trees of any kind, more particularly lar ches, or spruce fir, with the bark on, and the 
 lower ends charred ; or, if the bark be removed, the extreme ends may be charred, and 
 the entire prop kiln-dried and smoked with wood, so as to have its exterior surface 
 powerfully impregnated with pyrolignous acid. The spray of hard- wooded trees, such 
 as beech, elm, oak, ash, birch, &c., is preferable to that of resinous trees for producing 
 this smoke ; and if the kiln be close at top, with no other opening than the door, a very 
 few faggots will suffice to keep it filled with smoke for several weeks. All the tie-beams 
 may consist of young straight spruce fir trees, and they ought to project so far at the 
 eaves, as completely to protect the side walls ; across them may be laid branches, and 
 thatch over the whole, to be held on with turf. In some cases, a roof of shingles, tiles, 
 or prepared paper laid on thin boards, or of corrugated iron, § 420, may be preferable to 
 those of a more temporary description. In Poland, America, and other countries where 
 timber is abundant, farmeries of this kind, if proper pains were taken to char the ends 
 of the props, and to put on a roof that would completely exclude the weather, would last 
 as long as the oak-built farmeries of England, some of which have stood for centuries. 
 
 1231. A Portable Farmery might be easily formed by having the props made to stand 
 on stone, slate, or tile plinths, and the tie-beams of the roof made to fix on the tops of 
 the props by wooden pins. All the rest is easy and obvious. Instead of wooden props 
 and tie-beams, slight props of cast iron might be used with tie-rods of wrought iron, and 
 all the roofing and panels might be formed of corrugated sheet iron. Well tarred or 
 painted, such a farmery would last at least during a twenty-one years' lease ; and the 
 time may probably come when farmeries of this kind will be erected by the tenant, as 
 being cheaper than paying a high interest to the landlord for fixed buildings. In some 
 parts of the country it might be cheaper to form the panels and doors of slate, of boards, 
 or of wattled hurdles plastered, or the interstices stuffed with moss ; or they might be 
 formed of clay nogging or straw matting ; but nowhere, we believe, could roofing of a 
 durable nature be found cheaper than of corrugated iron. 
 
 1232. An Ambulatory Farmery may seem to some a visionary structure; but there 
 are already ambulatory covers to ambulating threshing-machines, and there seems no 
 reason why there should not bo ambulatory barns, granaries, and shelter-houses for 
 cattle. In France the shepherds have ambulatory houses, which are placed on wheels, 
 and dragged from one part of the farm to another, as the pasturage of the flock or herd 
 is changed. We have seen, § 1038, Mr. Taylor's ambulatory sheepfold ; and it is evi- 
 dent that the sides of any building might be formed and placed on wheels in a similar 
 manner. Tlie floor, where a boarded floor was necessary, and also the roof, could be 
 
ALTERING MANSIONS, ETC., TO FARMERIES. 567 
 
 transported on wheels ; or every particular building or apartment requisite might be 
 framed and placed on wheels, so as to be dragged from place to place by horses or steam, 
 in the manner of our ambulatory cottages, § 516. When steam shall once be employed 
 in agriculture, not only for threshing, but for cutting all the straw not to be used as 
 litter or thatch, into short lengths, and for ploughing, harrowing, hoeing, &c., great 
 changes will be required in the arrangement and construction of farmeries ; and the hints 
 in this subsection are thrown out to give Architects some idea of their resources. 
 
 1233. Substitutes for the Walls of Straw Yards, Mr. Taylor has shown, § 1038, may 
 be formed in the most econonaical manner of bush faggots ; and, indeed, in countries 
 where capital is scarce among farmers, bushes, furze, straw, and clay form almost the 
 only materials used in the construction of farmeries. This is a good deal the case in 
 some parts of Huntingdonshire. The timber for the roof, in such cases, consists of willow 
 or poplar trees, with the bark on. In Norfolk, Suffolk, Kent, and various other parts 
 of England, the straw-yards are enclosed by wattled fences, and sometimes even by 
 wattled hurdles. The low price of labour, and the circumstance of wood being the sole 
 or principal fuel, render temporary means of this sort more economical than may at first 
 sight appear. At all events, in a work like the present, intended for new countries as 
 well as old ones, different means of effecting an end ought to be pointed out ; not always 
 as subjects for imitation, but for the sake of leading to comprehensive views. 
 
 1234. The Alteration of Buildings of different Kinds, so as to render them suitable for 
 agricultural Purposes, though very uncommon in Britain, is yet frequent on the Continent. 
 Monastic buildings of every kind, even churches and chapels, have been converted, not 
 only into manufactories, barracks, and dwelling-houses, but into barns, stables, cattle- 
 houses, and other buildings requisite for carrying on the operations of agriculture, in 
 almost every part of the Continent, from Riga to Naples. As these buildings are seldom 
 more than two stories high, and as they generally spread over a considerable surface, and 
 are placed in the form of a quadrangle open to the south, they make, at little expense, 
 very excellent farmeries and farm-houses. The ground floors are employed for lodging 
 animals, and for storing roots and other food, and the floors above are used as granaries^ 
 for the farmer's dwelling-house, and as lodgings for his servants. The upper floors are 
 sometimes, in Poland, used as hay and corn barns, the window openings being, in that 
 case, left without glass. In one instance we recollect having seen the upper floor converted 
 into a sheep-house, the sheep entering by an inclined plane, formed fi-om a ruined part of 
 the building, at one end. It is much to be regretted that large buildings, erected at 
 enormous expense, should not be converted, when their owners can no longer afford to 
 dwell in them, or when, from any other cause, they are obliged to be sold, to some useful 
 purpose, rather than suffered to go to decay, or be pulled down. For this reason we 
 shall briefly point out how mansions of different kinds may be converted to agricultural 
 purposes. 
 
 1235. To convert Mansions into Farm Buildings, the first object is, to consider whether 
 the accommodation is contained in several stories in height, or spread out to a consider- 
 able extent in length and breadth. The former class of buildings include most Gothic and 
 Elizabethan mansions, which, it must be acknowledged, are much better adapted for being 
 changed into manufactories, colleges, inns of recreation, schools, or cooperative dwellings, 
 than farmeries. Still, however, the ground floor, and the kitchen and stable offices^ 
 might be used for the latter purpose, and the upper parts of the building converted into 
 a manufactory ; in which case, one large steam-engine on the ground-floor might suffice 
 for both establishments. But, even where it was necessary to use the second and third 
 floors of houses of this description for agricultural purposes, they might be ascended by 
 inclined planes, either formed on the outside of the building, or in the interior. In 
 some of the large inns in London the horses are lodged both on the cellar floor and on 
 the first floor, the carriages being on the intermediate or ground floor. The ascent and 
 descent are by inclined planes, at an angle of fi-om twenty-five to thirty degrees, kept weU 
 covered with litter. In country houses, however, where there is ample space, the inclined 
 planes need not be so steep, and they ought not to be covered with litter ; which is a 
 clumsy contrivance, and, in London at least, renders the air of stables of this description 
 intolerable. The upper floors of lofty houses should be used as wool-lofts, and for storing 
 other bulky yet light articles ; the next floor for poultry, rabbits, or other small animals ; 
 the floor below for ewes and lambs, or swine ; the first floor for cattle and horses ; the 
 ground floor for barns, cart-sheds, tool-houses, &c. ; and the cellar floor for storing roots. 
 Where the mansion consists of only two, or, at most, three stories, as in most Grecian 
 buildings, and some of the old English houses, the conversion is easy, and may follow in 
 the manner common in Poland. We must confess we should deeply regret to see any 
 fine specimens of Architecture occupied as farmeries ; but as we have not a doubt that, 
 with the progress of society, many such buildings in England will be sold by their 
 ■present owners, we have thought it a duty to throw out these hints, with a view at least 
 
568 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 of preventing them from being rashly pulled down. In comparatively uncivilised ages 
 and countries, all great changes are accompanied with destruction ; and much of the 
 accumulated labour of mankind is lost for ever to society ; but under a higher degree of 
 civilisation, conversion takes the place of destruction, and things merely change their 
 owners or their uses. 
 
 Sect. IV. Designs for various Buildings, such as Corn-Mills, Kilns, Malt-houses, 
 Cider-houses, Sfc., connected with Agriculture and rural Economy. 
 
 1236. The Designs to he included in this subsection are such as do not necessarily belong 
 to a common farmery ; but which, nevertheless, form prominent structures in particular 
 districts. We might have added considerably to their number, by including buildings 
 for carrying on different manufactures of agricultural produce ; such as crushing seeds 
 for oil ; extracting dyes from wood, weld, madder, &c. ; preparing hemp and flax ; 
 making flour or starch, or distitb'ng spirit from potatoes ; making sugar from beet root, 
 &c. : but such buildings come much more within the province of the engineer than the 
 Architect, being altogether subordinate to the machinery which they are to contain. 
 We have limited our designs to such as are of a more general description, and which are 
 required in every country where corn and fruit are grown. These are the wind and 
 water corn-mills, the hop-kiln, the malt-house, and the cider-house. We have also 
 added an improved limekiln, as of essential importance in limestone countries ; a brick 
 or tile kiln, which will enable every farmer to burn his own bricks, and also to burn 
 clay or lime, and even to serve for a malt or hop kiln, on a small scale, and for a variety 
 of other purposes ; and a poultry-house for farms where poultry are kept on a large scale. 
 Among the letter-press accompanying these designs we have been fortunate enough to 
 be able to include some of the best directions for the manufacture of cider, for the manage- 
 ment of hop and malt kilns, and for the care of poultry, which have yet been published. 
 The directions for managing poultry are from the pen of Mr. Main ; and, we think, from 
 their great simplicity, and from their being founded entirely on his own experience, that 
 they will be found particularly valuable. We have added to the article some remarks, 
 accompanied by Designs, relating to the management of poultry by cottagers, and espe- 
 cially by the wives of farm labourers, being particularly anxious to direct the attention of 
 our readers to this subject. We may observe generally, respecting the Designs of this 
 subsection, that we have confined our attention chiefly to economical arrangement, or, in 
 other words, to fitness for the end in view. It would have been a most agreeable 
 recreation to us to have bestowed more attention on the architectiiral style of the different 
 buildings, but we feared that this would have drawn the attention of our readers from 
 the ground plans. Almost all of them, however, might be rendered highly architectural, 
 and this every Architect will readily assent to when he finds that the ground plans of 
 the chief of them, when constructed on the best principles, such as the windmill, malt 
 kiln, hop kiln, &c. are circular. There is nothing in the nature of a circular kiln to 
 prevent it from assuming the forms and proportions of the temples at Tivoli, or the 
 Temple of the Winds at Athens ; that is, if such models ought to be imitated in such 
 cases. 
 
 Design I. — The Construction of a Building for containing the Machinery of a Corn- 
 Mill to he impelled by Water, with introductory Observations on Buildings for Mills 
 generally, on Flour-Mills, and on the different Kinds of Water-wheels. 
 
 1237. Buildings for containing Mills require to be of greater strength than ordinary 
 farm buildings, chiefly on account of the vibratory motion communicated by the action 
 of the machinery. This vibratory motion differs materially in different descriptions of 
 mills. Where the machinery is in a great measure independent of the building, and is 
 placed on the ground floor, as in the case of the threshing-machine, it is trifling ; but 
 where the machinery is so connected with the structure as to be inseparable from it, or is 
 in an upper story as in the case of the windmill, the vibration is considerable. In cases 
 of the latter description, the side walls of the buildings must be securely tied together by 
 the system of flooring, and the walls must be thicker than in a common house of the 
 same height ; they must be begun on solid foundations, and carried up in the most sub- 
 stantial manner, with the best materials. As in this part of our work, it is chiefly our 
 object to illustrate by example, we shall make no further observation, but refer to the 
 plans, elevations, and specifications of Unsted mill, which forms the main object before us, 
 previously introducing some remarks on mills generally, on flour-mills, and on water- 
 wheels, most obligingly prepared for us by our valuable contributor, Mr. Varden. 
 
 1238. " Mill, in its most general signification, applies to all machines whose action 
 depends on a circular motion. Of these there are several kinds ; and, according to the 
 various methods of applying the moving power, they are called windmills, water-mills, 
 horse-mills, or steam-mills. All of these kinds are employed for numerous purposes. 
 
MILLS, KILNS, MALT-HOUSES, ETC. 
 
 569 
 
 and are named according to their several uses ; as corn, snuff, bark, colour, fulling, gun- 
 powder, cotton, linen, oil, paper, sawing, sugar, or threshing mills, &c. Of these, corn- 
 mills are the most important, as they are requisite to convert corn into flour, the state 
 in which it is most fit for the food of man, and they are on that account indispensable in 
 all civilised countries. 
 
 1239. " Corn Mills. Few persons are ignorant that corn Is ground between tv/o 
 stones placed one above the other without touching. The lower millstone is im- 
 movable, but the upper one turns upon a spindle. These stones are usually from about 
 4 feet to 6 feet in diameter, and vary in thickness from 12 to 18 inches. The opposite 
 surfaces of the two stones which are to grind the corn are not plane or fiat ; but the 
 upper one is hollowed about an inch, and the under one swells up about three fourths of 
 an inch, so that the two millstones come nearer and nearer towards the circumxference, 
 whereby the corn that falls from the hopper has room to insinuate itself between them, 
 as far as two thirds of the radius, which is the place where it begins to be ground, and 
 where it makes the greatest resistance it is capable of ; the space between the tvro stones 
 being in that place about two fifths the thickness of a grain of corn. But as the 
 millers have the power of raising or sinking the upper stone a little, they can proportion 
 the distance from the lower one according as they would have the flour finer or coarser. 
 The stone used for grinding corn was formerly brought from France, and was called 
 burr stone ; but, latterly, stones proper for this purpose have been discovered in different 
 parts of Britain. From a quarry near Conway, great qviantities are dug every year ; 
 and when first cut out, they are much softer, and more easily worked than when they 
 have been exposed to the air ; even a single day makes a difference. From Abbey 
 Craig, near Stirling, a great number of millstones are sent to various parts of the king- 
 dom, that are considered to be in some respects superior to the French. In order to cut and 
 grind the corn, both the upper and under millstones have channels or furrows cut in them, 
 proceeding obliquely from the centre to the circumference ; and these furrows are each 
 cut perpendicularly on one side and obliquely on the other, into the stone, which gives each 
 furrow a sharp edge. In the two stones they come against one another like the edges 
 of a pair of scissors, and cut the corn so as to make it grind the easier when it falls upon 
 the plane between the furrows. These are cut the same way in both stones when they 
 lie upon their backs, which makes them run crosswise to each other when the upper 
 stone is inverted by turning its furrowed surface towards that of the lower. When the 
 furrows become blunt and shallow by constant wear, the running stone must be taken 
 up, and both stones new dressed with a chisel and hammer. But, by this operation 
 being often repeated, their thicknesses, and consequently their weight, are diminished ; and 
 it has been observed, that, when they have lost one fouJ th or one half of their original 
 thickness, they produce but three fourths or one half the flour which they did wlien new. 
 The circular motion of the upper millstone brings the corn out of the hopper by jerks, 
 and causes it to recede from the centre towards the circumference, where, being quite 
 reduced to flour, it is thrown out by the centrifugal force of the stone through a hole 
 provided on purpose. Millstones will commonly last from thirty to forty years. 
 
 1240. " Water-Mills. In water-mills the moving power is the momentum of the 
 water, communicated to the wheel ; and it is used in three different ways : first, where the 
 force of the water is applied from below the wheel, which is called an undershot wheel ; 
 secondly, where the water strikes nearly against the middle of the wheel, which is 
 called a breast wheel ; and, thirdly, where the water is applied above the wheel, which is 
 called an overshot wheel. Of these, the first is the least, and the last by far the most, 
 powerful." 
 
 1241. " Undershot Water-wheels in a great measure act by the impulse of flowing water 
 and are considered to be the most ancient form of water-wheel. At first they were 
 wheels provided with vanes or wings on the circumference, called floats (see d, in fig. 
 1101), and were placed in a river or running stream ; the floats at the lower part of the 
 wheel being placed so as to dip into the stream in such a manner as to intersect the 
 v/ater. But, in wheels constructed thus, when the planes of the floats become perpen- 
 dicular to the direction of the current, or nearly so, they will resist or oppose the m^otion 
 from it, in proportion to the quantity of motion they have abstracted from the water of 
 the stream. The power thus obtained will be found to be only a small proportion of 
 the power of the stream ; because the water easily escapes sidewise from the floats, 
 particularly if it should be attempted to take away any considerable share of its velocity 
 by resisting or loading the wheel, so as to make it move slowly. This being discovered, 
 it became an obvious improvement to contract the stream to the exact size of the float- 
 boards of the wheel, or to make a close channel into v^^liich the wheel might exactly fit. 
 The next impi-ovement was, to intercept the river or stream of water by a dam or 
 obstacle, in order to make it pen up or accinnulatc, till it had risen to the greatest height 
 which could be obtained j and to let the water out of the dam or reservoir into the 
 
570 
 
 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 channel or wheel-course through an aperture level with the bottom of the wheel 
 course. In this way the water is urged by the pressure of the water in the dam, and 
 rushes out from the aperture in a stream or spout, with a velocity proportionate to the 
 perpendicular pressure, striking the float-boards of the wheel, so as to urge them forward. 
 Such is the form of the undershot wheels still generally employed in France and other 
 parts of the Continent ; but in England they have long been superseded by more effectual 
 applications of the water, and are very rarely met with. Undershot wheels of this 
 description are generally called groundshot wheels, because the water shoots along the 
 ground or floor of the channel in which the wheel works. Fig. 1101 is the vertical 
 
 section of an undershot wheel, as now in iise ; in which a is the axis, which, if not of 
 metal, should be made of hard and durable wood, of a length and size proportioned to 
 the size and weight of the wheel. Into each end of this axis a gudgeon or centre-pin 
 should be fixed, for the wheel to turn upon. There are two methods of fixing the 
 gudgeon into a wooden axis : one is by forming the gudgeon with a cross, which is let 
 into the end of the tree, and fastened by screws, the wood being compressed round the 
 cross by two or three iron hoops, fitted on the end of the tree, and wedged. The other 
 method is, to make a strong iron box in a piece with the gudgeon, into which box the 
 end of the tree is received and secured with wedges : in the latter case, the box being of 
 an octagonal shape, and the wood being cut to the same form, it cannot slip round with 
 the box. Of late years it has been usual to make the axis of water-wheels of cast-iron 
 tubes, which is a very good plan if they are of suflficient dimensions. In an iron axis, 
 it is advisable to make the bearings of the axis close to the side of the water-wheel ; and 
 to leave the ends of the axis projecting beyond the bearing, in order to attach the cog- 
 wheel. This diminishes the length of the axis between the bearings, and renders it 
 much stronger. The arms supporting the circular rim of the wheel h h, are usually 
 eight in number, framed together so as to intersect each other at right angles, and leaving 
 a square opening in the centre for the reception of the axis ; the corners round which 
 being filled up by adding pieces of wood to it, and the wheel being fastened on by 
 wedges. The only objection to this mode of framing is, that the arms ai-e weakened by 
 intersecting each other ; and support the circular rim of the wheel in unequal segments : 
 but on the whole it is considered superior to the method of mortising diverging arms 
 into the axis, because by so doing the axis is much weakened, and the water, being 
 admitted into the centre of the tree, soon causes it to decay. Another objection is, that 
 an arm cannot be easily replaced without taking all the wheel to pieces. The very best 
 method of uniting the arms to the axis is to have a cast-iron centre-piece, or strong 
 hoop, to fit on the axis, with a broad projecting flanch round it, against the flat surface 
 of which the arms of the wheel are applied, and the intervals between them are filled 
 up by wooden blocks or wedges : the arms and blocks are firmly bound to the iron flanch 
 by iron rings applied to the arms on the opposite side to the flanch with screw bolts to go 
 through the whole. The circular rim, c, is made of wood put together in two or three 
 thicknesses, the joinings of one ring not coinciding with those of the other ; and there being 
 eight or ten segments in each thickness, according to the size of the wheel. The thicknesses 
 are united by rivets. The arms are attached to the ring by notching them into it, and 
 securing them by bolts. Cast-iron rings are now generally used, and with great 
 advantage ; because the necessary mortises can be made in the iron without weakening 
 the ring, but the strength of a wooden ring is greatly impaired by the mortises through 
 it. The number of rings in a wheel must depend on its breadth ; when the wheel is 4 
 
MILLS, KILNS, MALT-HOUSES, ETC. 57 1 
 
 feet wide, two rings will support the float-boards ; but the rings should never be more 
 than 5 feet asunder, or tue float-boards may bend. Each ring is formed with its 
 separate set of arms, so that every one derives its strength from the axis. When a 
 wheel is of very great breadth, much additional strength may be gained by bracing it 
 obliquely. The float-boards, d d, are twenty-four in number : they are formed of 
 wood, and are nailed to pieces of wood called starts, which are fixed into mortises in the 
 rings, and project outwards for that purpose. The velocity of the float-boards should 
 be about equal to half the velocity of the stream ; not more than one half of the float 
 should ever be below the water, and from three to five should be immersed at once, 
 according to the size of the wheel. When the stream is very rapid, the float-boards 
 should be inclined towards the rim, so that the water may heap upon them, and act by 
 weight as well as impulse. When the velocity of the stream is 1 1 feet per second or 
 upwards, the inclination should not be less than 30 degrees ; but as the velocity lessens 
 so should the inclination diminish. When the velocity is only 4 feet per second or less, 
 the floats should not be inclined at all, but should point to the centre of the wheel. To 
 prevent backwater, the floats should be made to rise from the water as perpendicularly 
 as possible. The circular sweep of masonry, e, is to prevent the escape of the water ; 
 the float-boards approach it as nearly as possible without touching. Beyond this sweep 
 should be a step, or fall, /, of not much less than 9 inches, having a slope of about 45 
 degrees ; in order that the tail-water may run off quickly, and not retard the motion of 
 the wheel : beyond this step, the bottom of the tail-water channel should be paved for 
 about 50 feet, having a declivity of an inch in every 6 feet : beyond this the bottom 
 should slope about 4 inches the first 200 yards, 3 inches the second 200 yards, and 
 decreasing gradually to the usual faU of the river. In places liable to floods, this fall 
 must be increased so as to prevent the water running back upon the wheel. The 
 tail-water course must be wider than the wheel. The slope g must be paved. The 
 pen-stock is marked h. The diameter of the wheel should be the largest of which cir- 
 cumstances will admit ; and, as it is of great importance that none of the water should 
 escape without contributing to turn the wheel, either below the float-boards or at tl^e 
 sides, the breadth of the float-boards should be greater than that of the sheet of water 
 that strikes them. 
 
 1242. " Breast Wlieels are very commonly called also undershot wheels, because the 
 water runs beneath the wheel ; but they differ essentially, since the principal power is 
 derived from the weight of the water, and not from its impulse. A breast wheel 
 partakes of the nature of both over and under shot wheels, and is constructed as repre- 
 sented in fig. 1102. The lower part of the wheel is surrounded by a sweep of masomy, 
 
 which is made concentric with it ; the float-boards are exactly adapted to this masonry, 
 so as to pass as near as possible to it without touching, and the side walls are, in the like 
 manner, adapted to the ends of the float-boards; the intention being, that as little water 
 as possible shall be able to pass by the float-boards, without causing them to move before 
 It. The water is poured upon the wheel over the top of the breasting at a ; the efflux 
 from the mill-dam, h, being regulated by the sluice or shuttle, c, which is placed in the 
 direction of a tangent to the wheel, and is provided with a rack and pinion, d ; by which 
 
57^ COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 it can be drawn up, so as to make any required degree of opening, and admit more or 
 less water to flow on the wheel. The framing of this wheel is all of cast iron ; and the 
 floats are forty-two in number. The water first strikes upon the float, and urges it 
 forward by impulse ; but when the floats descend into the sweep, they form, as it were, 
 close buckets, each of which will contain a given quantity of water, and from which the 
 water cannot escape except the wheel moves ; at least this is the intention, and the wheel 
 is fitted as close to the race as it can be with this view. The float-boards are inclined to 
 the rira, and there are other boards, e e e, placed obliquely, which extend from each float- 
 board to the rim of the wheel, and nearly fill the space between one float and the next. 
 These are called rising boards, and the UKO of them is to prevent the water flowing over 
 the float-board into the interior of the wheel. The edges of these boards are not con- 
 tinued so far as to join to the back of the next float, because that would make all the 
 boards of the wheel close, and prevent the free escape of the air when the water entered 
 into the spaces between the floats. In breast wheels, the greatest constant height of 
 water should be made use of for the fall ; as water acts with much more effect by its 
 weight than by its impulse. Any greater height that the water in the mill-pool may 
 attain in wet seasons can only be employed in the way of impulse, unless a shuttle be 
 used, which would allow of the water being discharged at different levels : this is some- 
 times done, and it is considered to be a great improvement. The velocity of the floats 
 of a breast-wheel should be from three to four feet per second. 
 
 1243. ^' An Overshot Water-wheel is simply a circular ring of open buckets, so disposed 
 round the circumference of a vertical wheel, as to receive the water from a trough placed 
 over it in such a manner as to have the buckets on one side of the wheel always loaded, 
 while those on the other side are empty. The weight of water on the loaded side of 
 the wheel will cause it to descend ; and by this motion the water runs out of the lower 
 buckets, while the empty buckets of the rising side of the wheel, each in their turn, 
 come under the spout, and are filled v/ith water. Fig. 1103 is a vertical section of an 
 
 overshot water-wheel, the framing of which is of cast iron aa a a are the buckets. As is 
 is of consequence to have them so formed as to retain the water on the descending side 
 as long as possible, much attention has been paid to their make : those in most general 
 use are called elbow-buckets, because each partition is formed of two boards, which are 
 put together with an angle or elbow ; and this is the kind represented in the figui-e. It 
 is a great advantage to make the partitions of the bucket thin ; particularly the edges, 
 which meet, and divide the stream of moving water flowing upon the wlicel. If the 
 edges are not sharp, they will splash the water about ; and they are, tlierefore, generally 
 finished by iron plate, or, what is better, all the inclined parts of tlie partitions are made 
 of iron plate. The greater number of buckets, and the shallower they arc, the more 
 regularly the wheel will act. The mouth of the buckets should be of such a width as 
 to allow the air to escape at the same time that the water flows in. To facilitate (his, 
 in some v/heels, the buckets are made longer than the width of the stream of water 
 acting on them, which allows the air to escape freely at the ends, and likewise affords 
 
MILLS, KILNS, MALT-HOUSES, ETC. 5^3 
 
 room for the water to spread. In this case, the buckets at the top of the wheel are 
 not filled so completely as they otherwise would be, by which means less water is 
 spilt when they first change their position, and, consequently, there is less waste of 
 power, as the water is longer retained in them. The cast-iron trough for the water is 
 marked h, and the sluice, also of iron, c. The inclined boards of the buckets should be 
 exactly in a line with the stream of water when it issues from the spout, passing beneath 
 it ; and, if the edges are made thin, there will be but little splash. The velocity of the 
 periphery of the overshot wheel should be from 6 feet and a half to 8 feet and a half 
 per second, and the higher the wheel is in proportion to the whole descent of water, the 
 greater will be the effect ; provided the water, when it first impinges upon the wheel, has 
 an equal or greater velocity than the bucket-boards ; otherwise it will cause a splash, 
 which will, in a slight degree, retard the motion of the wheel. A fall of two or three 
 inches, in most cases, will be sufficient for this. A greater impulse in the water will of 
 course accelerate the speed of the wheel ; but the power will not be increased so much 
 as if the diameter of the wheel were sufficiently enlarged for the water to act by its 
 weight. In general, when the fall of water is between 4 feet and 10 feet, a breast 
 wheel should be erected ; an undershot should be used when the fall is below 4 feet, and 
 an overshot wheel when the fall exceeds 10 feet." 
 
 1244. As an example of the hind of Building requisite for a Corn-Mill to he impelled 
 by Water acting on a Breast Wfieel, we shall give the following, erected at Unsted Lock. 
 It is one of a number of Designs that have been furnished us by John Perry, Esq., of 
 Godalming, Surrey, which have been executed by him in that county and the adjoining 
 one of Sussex. Fig. 1 104, to a scale of 9 feet to an inch, is an elevation of the up-stream 
 end of the building, the down stream end being the same. In this figure the dotted line 
 
574- COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 a h represents the level of the water in the mill pond or head, below which the wall of 
 the mill-house is of stone ; c represents the thorough or space in which the water-wheel 
 works ; c? is a stone wall ; and e e brick cheeks, or facings, to confine the water to the 
 wheel. (This Design, our readers will probably say, is plain enough; but in case they 
 should wish to confer architectural style upon it, we shall show them how it is to be 
 done. In the first place, more expression may be given to the walls by constructing 
 them, or by exhibiting a style of construction founded, either on the wooden model or 
 the stone model. By the wooden model, we mean the primitive style of building with 
 timber, in which all walls are formed of a vertical bond of square pillars, and a hori- 
 zontal bond of architraves or lintels placed over, or intersecting them. This may be 
 exhibited with equal ease in a building constructed either of brick or stone ; pilasters 
 representing the vertical bond, and architraves the horizontal ties. The stone model is 
 that in which small stones are used piled up in piers for the vertical bond, and forming 
 arches in horizontal lines, or courses for the horizontal bond. This, it will be readily 
 allowed, can be done with equal ease, whether the building is of brick or stone. Here, 
 then, are the rudiments of two distinct styles of composition, of each of which styles 
 there may be several varieties or manners, according to the kind of stone or brick 
 used, and also according to the kind of timber imitated. We say nothing of the 
 forms of the openings, or of the gable ends, which afford other sources of style 
 and architectural interest, preferring, for the present, to leave the young Architect 
 to develope and amplify the ideas which we have thrown out.) Fig. 1105 is an 
 
 1105 
 
 elevation of the building facing the thorougli, in wliich tlie dotted line /// represents 
 the circumference of the wheel ; g g, the position of the checks, or ollset of brickwork, 
 
MILLS, KILNS, RJALT-HOUSES, ETC. 
 
 two inches in projection, to confine the water to the breast of the wheel : the same space 
 indicates the pi'oportionate extension of the buckets, relatively to the circumference of 
 the wheel ; the square included in the dotted lines ^ A A A is to be faced or built to the 
 depth in the wall of nine inches with Roman cement ; the dotted line i i represents 
 the head-water line ; the parallelogram included m. k k k h is to be built solid in Roman 
 cemei t ; III are inverted arches under the windows ; the line m m represents the top 
 of the pavement of the race for tail-water way ; m nis a. space technically called the 
 sweep, which is to be built of Pulborough stone (a species of green sandstone, found 
 to resist the action of water, and which is cheaper than any other freestone in the 
 neighbourhood of Godalming); o is the axle of the wheel. Fig. 1106 is the front 
 
 1106 
 
 elevation, in which the line p p represents the level of the head water, the wall below 
 which is built of stone, and the wall above of brick ; q is the main entrance, and r 
 a door by which corn or flour is taken up or let down by means of a crane and pulley 
 tackle ; 1 1 1 1 are inverted arches, as in the preceding figure. (In these two elevations 
 our readers will observe that there is naturally more expression than in the end view, 
 fig. 1104, on account of the number of windows. We shall now show how this ex- 
 pression may be increased, independently altogether of either the pilaster and architrave, 
 or the pier and arch styles. In the first place, there is always a degree of expression 
 given to a building when the openings are on one axis, or series of axes, both hori- 
 zontally and vertically ; or, in other words, when all the windows and doors of the 
 different stories are directly over one another, and when all those on the same story have 
 their sills and lintels in the same plane. To be convinced that this gives expression, it is 
 
COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTUIIE. 
 
 only necessary to suppose a contrary position of these openings, and to imagine the doors 
 and windows placed at random. Now, the expression, prodiiced by uniformity and con- 
 tinuity of axis, whether vertically or horizontally, may be greatly increased by lines 
 expressive of this uniformity and continuity ; for example, by a continuity of the sills and 
 lintels horizontally, and of the jambs vertically, somewhat in the manner shown in Hg. 
 459, § 532. It surely will be allowed that this would give a marked expression to 
 the two elevations before us, independently of every other resource. The angles or 
 corners of all buildings, it will be admitted, contribute to expression by the mere circum- 
 stance of their furnishing vertical lines : now, the expression of these lines may be 
 heightened by doubling them, or producing the appearance of a bold, massive pier, 
 pillar, or pilaster at the angle; and this, again, may be varied and heightened by giving 
 the expression of the individual stones which compose it ; either simply, as of stones of 
 the same size ; or, compound! y, by showing stones of different sizes, as in what is called 
 in and out bond. Here, then, are two distinct sources of expression, which may be 
 added to plain walls varied by plain openings.) Fig. 1107 is a section from c to d 
 
 1107 
 
 at 
 
 on the plan fig. 1108. In thi s figure, 1 1 U arii inverted arches, and o, the axle of 
 the wheel, as in fig. 1105; s s h the ground floor; t t, the floor in wliidi the millstones 
 work ; u L, the warehouse floor ; v v, the floor in tlie roof. Tlie spaces w w 10 w are left 
 open. Fig. 1108 is a i)lan of the ground floor, in which .r is tlie cog-i)it. or i)lace for 
 the cog-wheel, on the lying or horizontal sliaft of the water-wlieel, paved with brick ; 
 y is the bed or bolster of the gudgeon of the cog-wlieel ; zzz are the upright posts 
 which support the stone floor ; a is the brick on edge paving of the race, or tail-water 
 
MILLS, KILNS, MALT-HOUSES, ETC. 
 
 1108 
 
 577 
 
 
 II nil 
 
 nil nil 
 
 ,11 
 
 II nil 
 
 nn nil 
 
 II 
 
 II nil III! ill! II 
 
 II nil im iir .11 
 
 II nil nn mi n 
 
 II nil iii[ nil II 
 
 
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 II nn n 
 
 nil nil 
 
 il II 
 II 11 
 
 II nil' II 
 II nil II 
 
 III! iri-f-Thi nil 
 
 II II 
 
 II nil' II 
 
 
 11 A 
 
 .11 iin II 
 
 
 11 1 
 
 ii; iiH II 
 
 
 w \ 
 
 V 1 
 
 D 
 
 P™1 
 
 course ; 6, the Pulborough stone paving of the wheel sweep ; c, the paving, forming the 
 commencement of the sweep, under the buckets of the breast wheel, of Bargate stone 
 (a species of hard limestone found in the neighbourhood of Godalming, more durable 
 than the Pulborough stone, but not a freestone, and consequently worked by fracture, 
 called heading or hammer-dressing, and not by the saw and chisel) ; d, e, /, and g, 
 are pieces of oak for supporting the axle of the water-wheel. Fig. 1109 is a plan of 
 
 the stone floor ; 2; « z are the continuation of the posts for supporting the floor above, 
 h h h axe trap doors for raising or lowering sacks of corn or flour ; i, the stair or step- 
 
 3 s 
 
578 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 1110 
 
 
 1 
 
 -1. 
 
 
 / \ 
 
 
 ^ — \ 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 1 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 i_ 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 T 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 i 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ladder. Fig. 1110 is the bin floor, in which may be seen the situation of the upright 
 posts, the trapdoor, and the stair, as in the preceding figure. Fig. 1111 is a plan of 
 
 1111 
 
 n r>=:.^=rh] 
 
 A 
 
 |l[J_=:4 J ^ qj3 
 
 the floor in the roof, showing a trapdoor, and a stair. Fig. 1112 is a section from A to 
 B, in the plan, fig. 1108, in which k is the pit for the cog-wheel; I, the bolster for its 
 axle ; m, the bolster for the same axle, which passes through the water-wheel ; «, the 
 thorough, or place for the water-wheel ; o, the centre of the axle of the water-wheel ; 
 "p, the bottom of the water-wheel ; q, the head-water line ; r, the tail-water line ; s, 
 surface of a natural stratum of gravel ; t, the bottom of the footings of the walls ; u, the 
 top of the water-wheel; «, the space between the inverted arches and the ground floor, 
 filled in with masonry ; w, the top of the stonework ; x, caps to the upright posts ; y, the 
 floor in the roof ; and z, the framing of the window in the roof ( As one great object 
 which we have in view, in giving this plan of a watermill, and that of the windmill 
 which follows, is to show the simplest mode of construction, with a view to their bemg 
 adopted by residents in new countries, such as America and Australia, we may observe 
 that the business of constructing the floors of mills is very much simplified, as well 
 as their durability increased, where timber is abundant and cheap. In the interior 
 of Poland we have seen windmills in wliich there were neither joists in the floors, nor 
 standards nor quartering in the wall ; both were formed of thick planking, closely 
 joined by wooden pegs, or dowels, which served both for the skeleton and the covering; 
 and in that country cost less altogether, than it would have done in Britain to saw up 
 the same materials into joists, quartering, and boards. ) 
 
MILLS, KILNS, MALT-HOUSES, ETC. 
 
 579 
 
 1 245. Particulars of the several works to be done in building a water corn mill at Unsted 
 Lock, for J. S. Esq., according to the plans, elevations, sections, and details, and the 
 conditions of the subjoined contracts severally signed by the parties undertaking the 
 same. 
 
 1246. Bricklayer's Work. The trenches for the foundations of the respective walls and 
 cross walls are to be dug out of the proper depth and width, and the groxmd round the 
 same properly secured, filled in, and rammed round the work. The water to be raised 
 from the cavities, and carried therefrom as occasion may require. All the bricks to be 
 used in the building, or brought upon the premises, to be sound and good well-burnt 
 stocks, those to the external parts of the building to be of an even colour, and the whole 
 laid and flushed solid in mortar of the several heights and thicknesses with the apertures 
 specified in the drawings ; and none of the bricks to be brqught upon the premises shall 
 be slack-burnt, or over-burnt, but all warranted to stand the frost. The mortar to be 
 composed of the best well-burnt grey lime, and clean sharp river sand, well tempered 
 together. The work of the foundations, and up to within one foot of the upper side of 
 the ground floor, to be of Bargate stonework, grouted with hot lime and sand every two 
 courses, and with brick coins. The external face of the whole of the brickwork to be 
 laid in a close, neat, flat-ruled joint ; and the inside of the mill to be worked fair for lime- 
 whiting, with a three-course Welsh cornice under the eaves, and on the gables. Nine- 
 inch brick discharging arches to be turned over all the apertures to within 4 inches of the 
 face of the respective walls, and common skew-back arches to be turned over the several 
 openings externally. Fourteen-inch brick inverted arches to be turned the whole thickness 
 
indicates the pi'oportionate extension of the buckets, relatively to the circumference of 
 the wheel ; the square included in the dotted lines A A ^ A is to be faced or built to the 
 depth in the wall of nine inches with Roman cement ; the dotted line i i represents 
 the head- water line ; the parallelogram included in k k k h \% to be built solid in Roman 
 cemei t ; III are inverted arches under the windows ; the line m m represents the top 
 of the pavement of the race for tail- water way \ m n is a space technically called the 
 sweep, which is to be built of Pulborough stone (a species of green sandstone, found 
 to resist the action of water, and which is cheaper than any other freestone in the 
 neighbourhood of Godalming) ; o is the axle of the wheel. Fig. 1 106 is the front 
 
 1106 
 
 elevation, in which the line p p represents the level of the head water, the wall below 
 which is built of stone, and the wall above of brick ; q is the main entrance, and r 
 a door by which corn or flour is taken up or let down by means of a crane and pulley 
 tackle ; 1 1 1 1 are inverted arches, as in the preceding figure. (In these two elevations 
 our readers will observe that there is naturally more expression than in the end view, 
 fig. 1104, on account of the number of windows. We shall now show how this ex- 
 pression may be increased, independently altogether of either the pilaster and architrave, 
 or the pier and arch styles. In the fii-st place, there is always a degree of expression 
 given to a building when the openings are on one axis, or series of axes, both hori- 
 zontally and vertically ; or, in other Avords, when all the windows and doors of the 
 different stories are directly over one another, and when all those on the same story have 
 their sills and lintels in the same plane. To be convinced that this gives expression, it is 
 
580 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 of the walls below the ground floor under all the lower tier of windows, doors, and story- 
 posts. Openings through the external walls to be left to admit air under the boarded 
 floor, on the ground story of the mill, where directed. All the plates, lintels, and templets 
 to be properly bedded level ; and all the windows and door frames pointed with good lime 
 and hair mortar. If any damage should happen to all or any part of the brickwork or 
 stonework during the progress of the work, either from the inclemency of the weather 
 or other causes, the same from time to time to be repaired and pointed. The mill wall 
 against the thorough (the space in which the water-wheel works) to be set in Roman 
 cement, where shown in the plan. The bricklayer is to find scaffolding, and the fixing 
 and refixing the same, and all manner of ropes, boards, ladders, tackle, tools, and things 
 necessary for the business, and all the bricks, lime, and sand, and the carriage thereof; 
 and all the materials, workmanship, and ironwork required for the completion of his 
 work, in the best, most substantial, and workmanlike manner, except the Bargate stone. 
 The bricklayer is to find and lay a sweep of Pulborough stone, 8 inches thick, set in 
 Roman cement, and laid on a proper foundation ; and to pave the thorough above the 
 sweep (a surface of masonry concentric with the wheel) with Bargate stone, and below 
 with bricks on edge set in mortar. The employer is to find and deliver on the spot the 
 Bargate stones for the foundations at his own expense ; but the bricklayer is to head 
 and prepare them at his expense. 
 
 1247. Plasterer's Work. To dub out and plaster the space from the edge of the 
 wall-plates to the underside of the respective floor-boards. To lime-white twice over the 
 whole of the interior of the walls of the mill. The plasterer is to find all kinds of 
 materials, tools, and the carriage thereof ; and all the workmanship required for the com- 
 pletion of his work, in a sound and workmanlike manner. 
 
 1248. Slater^s Work. The roof of the mill to be covered with the best countess slates, 
 nailed with wrought copper nails, 1 inch and a quarter long, the eaves laid double. The 
 slater to find all kinds of materials, tools, and the carriage thereof, and the workmanship 
 required for the completion of his work, in a sound and workmanlike manner. 
 
 1249. Mason's Work. To put Yorkshire stone quarry sills, 8 inches wide, beveled, 
 throated, and tooled, to all the windows, finding all materials, workmanship, fixing, and 
 carriage. 
 
 1250. Memorandum of Agreement made this twenty-fifth day of April, 1831, between 
 J. S. of G., Esquire, of the one part; and W. M. the elder, and J. M. of G., Brick- 
 layers, Plasterers, and Masons, of the other part : viz. ; In consideration of the sum of 
 money, and the conditions herein after mentioned, the said W. M. and J. M. do hereby 
 contract and agree to and with the said J. S. to perform the whole of the works described 
 under the titles of Bricklayer's, Plasterer's, Slater's, and Mason's Work, in the foregoing 
 particular, as the same are also exemplified in the plans, elevations, and sections, and 
 details, which are identified by the signature of the parties hereto ; and to complete the 
 same in the best and most workmanlike manner, to the entire satisfaction of the surveyor 
 appointed by the said J. S. to superintend the same, finding all materials, carriage, and 
 workmanship of every kind soever, which may be required in the said works, except 
 Bargate stone, and the carriage thereof, for the sum of two hundred and thirty-five 
 pounds twelve shillings and sixpence ; and to complete the whole of the said works as 
 aforesaid, on or before the thirtieth day of July next ensuing the date hereof. And the 
 said J. S. doth hereby agree to deliver upon the spot the Bargate stone required for the 
 foundations, as described in the particular and drawings, and to pay unto the said W. M. 
 and J. M. during the progress of the work, such sum or sums, on account of the said sum 
 of two hundred and thirty-five pounds twelve shillings and sixpence, as the surveyor may 
 direct ; provided such sum or sums shall not exceed two thirds of the value of the work 
 then done, and the remainder thereof on the thirtieth day of August next, provided 
 that the said works are certified by the surveyor to be complete and finished according to 
 the true intent and meaning of the foregoing particular and drawing referred to, and this 
 agreement. And in case any difference or want of accordance shall appear between the 
 drawings and the particulars, or any part thereof, the same shall be construed in the way 
 most favourable to the substantiality of the work. And if any material shall be brought 
 upon the premises which is disapproved by the surveyor, or any workman employed 
 whose skill is considered insufficient by him, the said materials or workman to be removed 
 or discharged immediately, upon the said W. M. or J. M. receiving notice from the 
 surveyor so to do. And in case any alteration shall be directed by the said J. or his 
 surveyor, in the nature of the work during progress, or any deviation shaU be ordered by 
 them from the foregoing particular and plans aforesaid, the same shall not vitiate or 
 annul this agreement, but the difference shall be valued by J. P. of G., Surveyor, between 
 the parties, and shall be added to or deducted from the amount of the present contract 
 (as the case may be), and his decision shall be final. And further, if any or all of the 
 said work should be performed in any way inferior to the description and intention of the 
 
MILLS, KILNS, MALT-HOUSES, ETC, 
 
 581 
 
 particulars and drawings, or shall be deteriorated below a fair standard of good quality 
 or sound workmanship, the same shall also be valued by the said J. P. as aforesaid, and 
 deducted from the amount of the contract by the said J. S., and his decision in this case 
 shall also be final. Such parts of the work as affect or appertain to the machinery of the 
 mill are to be done under the direction of W. B. of G., Engineer. 
 
 As witness our hands the day and year before written. J. M. for self and father. 
 Contract, £235 : 12s. : 6c?. 
 
 1 25 1 . Carpenter's and Joiner's Work. The whole of the timber, except where otherwise 
 mentioned, to be of the best yellow Dantzic, Riga, or Memel fir, of the several dimensions, 
 scantlings, and framings as herein after described and shown in the drawings. The 
 lintels to all the openings to be 4 inches and a half thick, with a 9-inch bearing on each 
 pier beyond the splay of the jamb, and in width 4 inches less than the thickness of the 
 respective walls. The wall-plates and rising-plate to be 5 inches by 3 inches, and 1 tier ot 
 bond, 4 inches and a half by 2 inches and a half, in the warehouse floor story, laid allrotind, 
 properly halved and spiked at the laps, and dovetailed at the angles. An oak chain-plate 
 is to be put in the centre of the external wall of the mill, all round, 5 inches by 4 inches, 
 where shown in the drawings, well lapped and pinned at every length, and dovetailed and 
 pinned at the angles. The centres to the arches, trinuners, and all other apertures, to be 
 substantially made, fixed, and refixed, and left as long as may be necessary ; and all 
 moulds prepared and framed where requisite for the inverted arches, and other places 
 where wanted. — Ground Floor. To have 2 oak front and back sills, 8 inches by 10 
 inches ; 2 oak sleepers, 8 inches by 8 inches ; 2 oak ground siUs, 8 inches by 10 inches ; 
 fir joists not more than 1 2 inches apart, 7 inches by 2 inches and three quarters, laid on oak 
 sleepers, 4 inches wide, and 1 inch and a half thick. — Out Doors. Oak front sill, 10 inches 
 by 10 inches; oak back sill, 9 inches by 9 inches; and 2 oak sleepers, 8 inches by 8 
 inches. — Stone Floor. To have 3 girders, 14 inches by 12 inches, with joists framed 
 into the same, and trimmed to the stairs and sack-hole, 9 inches by 3 inches, not more 
 than 12 inches apart, with trimming joists and trimmers, 9 inches by 6 inches. — Ware- 
 house Floor. To have 3 girders, 14 inches by 12 inches, with joists framed into the same, 
 and trimmed to the stairs and sack-hole, 9 inches by 3 inches, not more than 12 inches apart, 
 with trimming joists and trimmers, 9 inches by 6 inches. — Floor in Roof. To have 
 joists, 8 inches by 3 inches, not more than 12 inches apart, framed into the tie-beams, 
 trimmed to the steps and sack-hole with trimmers and trimming joists, 8 inches by 6 
 inches. All the girders to be laid on an oak templet at each end, 4 inches and a half by 
 9 inches, and as long as the respective piers will admit. All the floors to be of good well 
 seasoned yellow deal, listed, free from sap, wrought, and edges shot ; none of the boards 
 to exceed 5 inches and a half in width. The groimd floor and stone floor to be 1 inch 
 and a quarter thick ; the warehouse floor and floor in roof to be 1 inch thick, rebated. 
 There are to be 3 wrought story posts, with chamfered edges in each story, 9 inches by 
 9 inches, with an oak cap properly stub-mortised, 2 feet 6 inches long, and 8 inches deep, 
 and 2 pairs of oak wedges to each, with a cast-iron sole piece to each story post. — Roof. 
 Tie-beams joggled to the plates, 7 inches by 1 2 inches ; framed principals, 8 inches by 3 
 inches and a half at bottom, and 7 inches by 3 inches and a half at top ; struts, 6 inches 
 by 3 inches and a half; collars, 7 inches by 3 inches and a half; king posts, 9 inches by 
 3 inches and a half, with |-inch iron screw pins, 18 inches long, with nuts mortised 
 through the king posts; common rafters, 4 inches by 2 inches and a half, 13 inches apart, 
 notched on the back of principals, and laid horizontally. The principals to be fixed to 
 the tie-beams, as also the collars at each end to be fixed to the principals, with iron 
 screw pins and nuts, and to put 6 f-inch wrought-iron screw pins with nuts, &c., as queens. 
 The ridge to be of l^inch yellow deal rounded for lead, 9 inches wide. The roof to be 
 covered with |-inch white spruce slate boarding match planed, together with a |-inch 
 feather-edge eaves board, 8 inches wide. To put inch yellow deal wrought and 
 rounded window boards to aU the windows. — Note. The windows, doors, and frames 
 are to be of iron, and will be provided by the employer. The step-ladders to each story 
 to be of 2-inch wrought yellow deal, the sides 9 inches wide, with the steps housed into 
 them with 2 |-inch wrought-iron screw bolts to each ladder. All the carpenter's and 
 joiner's work to hold the several scantlings and thicknesses named in the foregoing par- 
 ticular when finished. The carpenter and joiner to find all the materials, and the carriage 
 thereof, and workmanship, and tools, and ironwork required for the completion of his 
 work in the best and most substantial and workmanlike manner. All the timber to be 
 free from shakes, or sap, or large knots. Wood bricks to be foimd where necessary ; and 
 also all fillets, linings, beads, stops, &c., where required. The girders and tie-beams to 
 be each in one length, without joint or scarf. 
 
 1252. Memorandum of Agreement made this twenty-sixth day of April, 1831, between 
 J S. of G., Esquire, of the one part ; and H. B. of G., Carpenter, of the other part ; 
 
COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 viz. ; In consideration of the sum of money, and the conditions hereinafter mentioned, the 
 said H. B. doth hereby contract and agree to and with the said J. S., to perform the 
 whole of the works described under the title of Carpenter's and Joiner's Work, in the 
 foregoing particular, as the same are also exemplified in the plans, elevations, and sections, 
 and details, wlrich are identified by the signature of the parties hereto ; and to complete 
 the same in the best and most workmanlike manner, to the entire satisfaction of the 
 surveyor appointed by the said J. S. to superintend the same, finding all materials, 
 carriage, and workmanship of every kind soever, which may be required in the said 
 works, for the sum of two hundred and forty seven pounds ; and to complete the whole of the 
 works as aforesaid, on or before the thirtieth day of July next ensuing the date hereof. 
 And the said J. S. doth hereby agree to pay unto the said H. B., during the progress of 
 the work, such sum or sums on account of the said sum of two hundred and forty-seven 
 pounds as the surveyor may direct, provided such advance shall not exceed two thirds of 
 the value of the work then done ; and the remainder thereof on the thirtieth day of August 
 next, provided that the said works are certified by the surveyor to be complete and 
 finished according to the true intent and meaning of the foregoing particulars, the 
 drawings referred to, and this agreement. And in case any difference or want of 
 accordance shall appear between the drawings and the particulars, or any part thereof, 
 the same shall be construed in the way most favourable to the substantiality of the work. 
 And if any material shall be brought upon the premises which is disapproved by the 
 surveyor, or any workman employed whose skill is considered insuflScient by him, the said 
 materials or workman to be removed or discharged immediately, upon the said H. B. 
 receiving notice from the surveyor so to do. And in case any alteration shall be directed by 
 the said J. S. , or his surveyor, in the nature of the work, during progress, or any deviation 
 shall be ordered by them from the foregoing particulars and plans aforesaid, the same 
 shall not vitiate or annul this agreement ; but the difference shall be valued by J. P. of 
 G., Surveyor, between the parties, and shall be added to or deducted from the amount of 
 the present contract (as the case may be), and his decision shall be final. And further, 
 if any or all of the said work should be performed in any way inferior to the description and 
 intention of the particulars and drawings, or shall be deteriorated below a fair standard 
 of good quality or sound workmanship, the same shall also be valued by the said J. P. 
 as aforesaid, and deducted from the amount of the contract by the said J. S., and his 
 decision in this case shall also be final. Such parts of the work as affect or appertain to 
 the machinery of the mill are to be done under the direction and to the satisfaction of 
 W. B. of G., Engineer. 
 
 In witness whereof, I the undersigned have hereunto set 
 Contract, ^6*247. my hand, the day and year before written. H. B. 
 
 1 253. Plumber's, Painter's, and Glazier's Work. The ridge of the roof of the mill to be 
 covered with cast lead, 7 pounds to the superficial foot, 1 8 inches wide, properly dressed, and 
 nailed with lead-headed nails. All the sashes to be back puttied, and glazed with the 
 best second Newcastle crown glass. All the sashes and frames, doors, shutters, and door 
 frames to be properly primed, and painted three times inside and four times outside with 
 the best white lead and oil colour, the doors and shutters lead colour. 
 
 1254. Memorandum of Agreement made this twenty-fifth day of April, 1831, between 
 J. S. of G., Esquire, of the one part, and T. O. of G., Plumber, Painter, and Glazier, 
 of the other part : viz. ; In consideration of the sum of money and the conditions herein 
 after mentioned, the said T. O. doth hereby contract and agree to and with the said J. S. 
 to perform the whole of the works described under the title of Plumber's, Painter's, and 
 Glazier's Work, in the foregoing particular, as the same are also exemplified in the plans^ 
 elevations, and sections, and details, which are identified by the signature of the parties 
 hereto, and to complete the same in the best and most workmanlike manner, to the entire 
 satisfaction of the surveyor appointed by the said J. S. to superintend the same, finding 
 all materials, carriage, and workmanship of every kind soever, which may be required in 
 the said works, for the sum of twenty-two pounds eight shillings and eiglitpence ; and to 
 complete the whole of the said works as aforesaid, on or before the thirtieth day of July 
 next ensuing the date hereof. And the said J. S. doth hereby agree to pay unto the said 
 T. O. the said sum of twenty-two pounds eight shillings and eightpence, provided that 
 the said works are certified by the surveyor to be complete and finished, according to the 
 true intent and meaning of the foregoing particulars, the drawings referred to, and this 
 agreement. And in case any difference or want of accordance shall ajjpear between the 
 drawings and the particulars, or any part thereof, the same shall be construed in the way 
 most favourable to the substantiality of the work. And if any material shall be brought 
 upon the premises which is disapproved by the surveyor, or any workman employed 
 whose skill is considered insufficient by him, the said materials or workman to be removed 
 or discharged immediately upon the said T. O. receiving notice from the surveyor so to 
 
MILLS, KILNS, MALT-HOUSES, ETC. 
 
 583 
 
 do. And in case any alteration shall be directed by the said J. S., or his surveyor, in 
 the nature of the work, during progress, or any deviation shall be ordered by them from 
 the foregoing particular and plans aforesaid, the same shall not vitiate or annul this agree- 
 ment, but the difference shall be valued by J. P. of G., Surveyor, between the parties, 
 and shall be added to or deducted from the amount of the present contract (as the case may 
 be), and his decision shall be final. And fiirther, if any or all of the said work should be 
 performed in any way inferior to the description and intention of the particulars and 
 drawings, or shall be deteriorated below a fair standard of good quality or sound work- 
 manship, the same shall also be valued by the said J. P. as aforesaid, and deducted from the 
 amount of the contract by the said J. S., and his decision in this case shall also be finaL 
 
 In witness whereof, I the undersigned have hereunto set my 
 Contract, £22 : 8s. : 8d. hand, the day and year before written. T. O. 
 
 1255. Remarks. The foregoing mill was built as an auxiliary to a larger one close 
 adjoining it; and, to make it complete as a district mill, another, viz., a dressing-floor, 
 would be required to be added. The floors required- in a complete mill are, the ground 
 floor, the stone floor, the dressing-floor, the bin floor, and the stage floor in the roof. 
 
 Design II. — The Construction of a Building for containing the Machinery and Apart- 
 ments belonging to a Vertical Windmill, with Remarks on the different Kinds of Windmills. 
 
 1256. Windmills are supposed to have been brought into France from the East in the 
 sixth century. They are of two kinds, the vertical and horizontal ; but the latter are 
 rarely, if ever, used for commercial purposes, though they might sometimes be employed 
 in gentlemen's grounds for raising water to supply the house, and other purposes, where 
 the sails of the vertical windmill would be considered so unsightly as to render its 
 erection inadnfiissible. 
 
 1257. The Vertical Windmill is the kind in most common use, and consists of an axis 
 or wind-shaft, placed in the direction of the wind, and usually inclining a little upwards 
 from the horizontal line. At one end of this, four long arms or yards are fixed per- 
 pendicularly to the axis, crossing each other at right angles ; into these arms small cross 
 bars are mortised at right angles, and other long bars are joined to them which are 
 parallel to the length of the arms, so that the bars intersect each other in the manner of 
 latticework ; and form a surface on which a cloth can be spread to receive the action of 
 the wind. These are called sails : they are in the form of a trapezium, and are usually 
 nine yards long and two yards wide. The circular motion is produced by the obliquity 
 of the planes of these surfaces from the plane in which all the four arms are situated. 
 By these means, when the wind blows in the direction of the axis, it does not impinge 
 upon the sails at right angles to the surfaces, but strikes obliquely : hence the effort of 
 the sail to recede from the wind causes it to turn round the common axis, and the four 
 sails are aU made oblique in the same direction, so as to unite their efforts for the common 
 object. For the wind to act with the greatest efficiency upon the sails, it is requisite for 
 the wind-shaft to have the same direction as the wind ; but as this direction is constantly 
 changing, some apparatus is necessary for bringing the wind-shaft and sails into the 
 proper position. This is done by turning the axis of the sails round in a horizontal 
 direction. There are two methods of effecting this. 
 
 1258. In the oldest windmills, the whole of the building which contains the machinery 
 is sustained upon a vertical post firmly fixed as a stand or foot, upon which the whole of 
 the machine can be turned by a lever so as to present the sails to any quarter of the 
 horizon whence the wind blows ; and hence these are called post windmills, and are neces- 
 sarily made of wood. They are of small size, and can only contain one pair of stones. 
 The mill-house is of a rectangular form, but narrow in the direction which is presented 
 to the wind. It is two stories high, the main shaft and millstones being in the upper 
 chamber, while the lower is only used to contain sacks of flour, and to receive the post 
 on which the mill turns round horizontally to face the wind. The whole building is 
 turned by means of a lever, that also serves for a step-ladder into the upper chamber ; and 
 when it is wished to prevent the mill from turning, it is fastened to the posts by a cord. 
 There is also a small windlass to assist in moving the mill round. These windmills are 
 generally used for grinding corn or expressing oils ; being unfit for other purposes, on 
 account of there being so little room for machinery. 
 
 1259. The other kind of vertical windmill is called a smock, or tower, windmill, in which 
 only the dome cap or head, which contains the axis of the sails, and covers the great cog- 
 wheel, turns round horizontally ; the other parts of the machinery being contained in a 
 fixed building, which rises up in the form of a conical tower, and is composed of masonry, 
 brick or timber framing ; being surmounted by this movable cap or dome, which is sup- 
 ported on rollers, so as to turn round easily. 
 
 1 260. The Smock, or Tower, Mills are considered the best, because the building which con- 
 
584 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 tains the machinery may be made of any required dimensions, the sails and turning cap 
 being all at the top of the house. Smock mills are built of timber, covered with boards ; 
 and tower mills are built wholly of brick or masonry. Fig. 1113 is a perspective view o 
 
 1II3 
 
 a smock mill, as it appears with the sails spread to the wind. Fig. 1 114 is a plan of the 
 ground floor, showing the basement wall, which is of masonry, 20 inches thick, the cross 
 wall for supporting the joists, and the story post, on the top of which rests the gudgeon 
 pivot of the main axis or vertical shaft. This wall is of masonry, 14 inches thick ; the 
 joists are of oak 4 inches by 3 inches, and there is an oak sleeper on the cross wall 1 inch 
 and a half thick and 4 inches wide. This floor is used for bolting and dressing the meal, 
 and for filling the sacks with flour, &c. Fig. 1 1 15 is a plan of the floor on which the mill- 
 stones are placed, in which is shown the situations of the vertical shaft, a, the places of 
 
 1114 
 
 1115 
 
MILLS, KILNS, MALT-HOUSES, ETC. 
 
 585 
 
 the two pair of stones, h, and of the sack-hole, c, for allowing the corn to be raised by the 
 tackle into the bin floor. The trapdoors of the sack-hole fold upwards, so as to give passage- 
 way to the rising sack, and they fall close down again directly after it has passed. There 
 is a hole between the two flaps for the chain to hang through ; and d is the step-ladder. 
 The framing is of foreign fir ; the plate is 6 inches by 7 inches; and the joists, 12 inches 
 apart, and 6 inches by 2 inches, are mortised into girders 10 inches by 10 inches ; as 
 also are the trimming joists which support the stones, and are 8 inches by 9 inches. Fig. 
 1116 is a plan of the bin floor, on which the corn to be ground is kept for supplying 
 the stones, for which purpose the bottom of the bins slope to a centre, where there is a 
 wooden trunk passing downwards through the floor*, to convey the corn to the stones. 
 The dotted lines represent the sides of these bins, which are generally about 3 feet 
 6 inches high, and are formed of inch wrought deal boarding nailed on fir bearers. The 
 plate is 6 inches by 6 inches, the girders 8 inches by 10 inches, with the joists 5 inches 
 by 3 inches mortised into them; e is the sack-hole. Fig. 1117 is the upper floor to 
 
 1116 1117 
 
 1118 
 
 get at the machinery : the plate is 6 inches by 6 inches ; the girders 9 inches by 8 inches ; 
 and the joists 4 inches by 3 inches. Fig. 1118 is a plan of the horizontal framework 
 which carries the wind-shaft, and forms 
 the base of the head or cap of the mill. 
 The plates are 10 inches by 12 inches ; 
 the diagonal braces 7 inches by 6 inches ; 
 and the centre brace 10 inches by 8 
 inches. On the under side of this fram- 
 ing, and bolted to it, is a circular curb or 
 wooden ring, /. There is a similar curb 
 on the top of the fixed building. These 
 curbs are to allow of moving round the 
 head or cap ; for it is necessary, as the 
 wind changes its direction, to turn the 
 sails about so that the axis or wind-shaft 
 may be always in the direction of the 
 wind. This motion is effected by turn- 
 ing the head of the mill round upon the 
 fixed part on the curb at the top of the 
 framing of the house of the mill, and is 
 represented in section by I, in fig. 1119, 
 between which and the movable curb, m, 
 attached to the bottom of the frame of 
 the head are fixed a number of rollers. 
 The movable curb, m, of the cap lies 
 upon these rollers, which are kept equi- 
 distant from each other by the centre-pins 
 being fitted into a circular hoop. By 
 these means, though the head of the mill with the wheels and sails weighs several tons, 
 they can be made to turn round to face the wind by a shght force ; n is the centre- 
 brace of the head, turning on the pivot, o ; p, the top of the vertical shaft on which, a 
 short distance down, is a wheel called a trundle or lantern, which works into the cog- 
 wheel on the wind-shaft, and so gives the rotatory motion to the shaft ; q is one of the 
 ribs of the head. In fig. 1118, the wind-shaft or horizontal axis, r, is made of cast iron, 
 and is octagonal, thickest at the end next the sails, and having two cylindrical necks 
 
 3 T 
 
586 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 Illy 
 
 where it rests upon its bearings. It generally is placed a little inclined from the hori- 
 zontal line ; the highest end being towards the sails. At the end, it has a kind of box, 
 which has two mortises through it in perpendicular directions to receive the sails. At 
 the back of one of these mortises, and on the front of tlie other, a projecting arm is left 
 in the casting to receive screw bolts which hold the sails fast in the mortises. The cog- 
 wheel, s, is fixed on by bolting its arms against a flanch cast on the vertical axis ; t is 
 the commencement of a curved piece of timber 10 inches by 12 inches at top, and 6 
 inches by 6 inches at bottom, being the lever by which the heads of the old-fashioned 
 mills are turned round to the wind. Attached to the lower end is a windlass, a cord 
 from which fastened to any one of the posts that are fixed round the mill in a circle 
 (see fig. 1113) enables a man to move the head in the direction desired. There are also 
 two pieces of wood aflixed to the bottom 
 of the lever by staples, made sharp at 
 the lower end, to stick in the ground, and 
 to steady the mill against any side-gusts. 
 There are several plans now in use for 
 making the liead turn itself when the 
 wind varies : this is done by having small 
 sails at the back of the head that do not 
 revolve while the head is in its proper 
 position, but as soon as the wind varies, 
 these sails are set in motion, and by 
 machinery bring the head again into its 
 proper direction. This is considered a 
 great improvement ; but, as all the plans 
 for this purpose involve much machinery, 
 a detailed description of them is oirdtted, 
 as they may be considered to come more 
 under the control of the millwright than 
 the Architect. 
 
 Fig. 1121 is a section across the roof, 
 showing the framing of one end of the 
 
 1121 
 
 where there is a door that may 
 be opened to give light when any repairs 
 of the machinery are going on. 
 
MILLS, KILNS, MALT-HOUSES, ETC. 587 
 
 Fig. 1120 is an elevation of the east side of the structure, in which t is the com- 
 mencement of the lever. 
 
 Fig. 1122 is an elevation of the north side, showing the front of the sails, the arms 
 
 of which pass through mortises in the end of the wind-shaft, and are bolted to pro- 
 jecting arms. The sails are clothed and unclothed by a line fastened to the upper corner 
 of the canvass, passing over a pulley, and down the side of the arm to the bottom, where 
 it is fastened. By these means, the canvass can be spread out at the end nearest the 
 axis from below, in the same manner as a common window-curtain ; the lower part is 
 spread out by hand, and tied. When the mill is not at work, the canvass is gathered up 
 in a roll over the arm. There are patent windmill sails now in use, in which a number 
 of flaps or shutters of thin wood supply the place of canvass. They can all be moved 
 from below, so as to present their edges to the wind when the mill is not at work. The 
 computed power of a windmill, with four sails, measuring 66 feet French from the ex- 
 tremity of one sail to that of the opposite one, and 6 feet wide, or a little more, is, that it 
 will raise 1000 French lbs. 218 feet in a minute, and is capable of working eight hours 
 in a day upon an average. This is equivalent to the work of 34 men ; 25 square feet of 
 canvass performing about the daily work of one man. 
 
 Fig. 1 123 is an elevation of the west side, in which t is the commencement of the lever, 
 which serves for turning the sails to the wind. 
 
 Fig. 1124 is a transverse section of fig. 1118, from C to D, showing the framing 
 of the mill. The corner or principal posts are 8 inches by 8 inches ; the principal 
 quarters and braces are 4 inches by 4 inches ; and the common quarters are 4 inches by 
 3 inches. The clear height of the ground floor is 9 feet 8 inches ; the clear height of 
 the stone floor story is 7 feet 6 inches ; that of the bin floor story 6 feet 8 inches ; and 
 
588 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 that of the upper story, to the under side of the frame of the head, is 4 feet 4 inches. 
 The ribs of tlie roof are 4 inches by ;> intfhes, cut to a sweep. The roof is covered with 
 1^-incli yellow deal feather-edge boarding, wrought on both sides, and the whole of the 
 timber framing of the mill is likewise covered with lA-inch yellow 1125 
 deal feather-edge boarding, wrought on both sides, and having a quirked j 
 bead forming a drip (see fig. 1125) run on the lower edge of each ' 
 board. / 
 
 1261. Remarks. This Design has been sent us by Mr. Varden, who / / 
 
 has also compiled the preceding historical notice of the different kinds / 
 of windmills. We insert this Design, considering it extremely useful / 
 for new countries, where the inhabitants must necessarily be content to 
 commence with simple machines. There are, however, windmills to be 
 met with of a highly improved construction ; and Mr. Thorold, who, / 
 being a Norfolk engineer, is well acquainted with the subject, informs 
 us that, " in some parts of England, windmills are now brought to such 
 perfection, as to be little inferior, in point of uniform motion, to either 
 steam or water power. For grinding corn, threshing, draining land, 
 or, in short, any operation, to perform which few hands are required ; 
 windmills are more economical than mills worked by either steam or 
 water ; and they may be rendered applicable to towns, by building the 
 tower high enough to permit the lowest part of the sails to swing over 
 the houses." Mr. Varden accompanied this Design by a scientific dis- 
 sertation on the principles of windmills, which we have been obliged to 
 leave out, not that we thought it irrelevant to the subject ; but that 
 its introduction would have extended this work beyond our proposed 
 limits. We can only refer the reader to Smeaton^s Works, Brewster's 
 Mechmiics, Gregory's Mechanical Dictionary^ and the Dictionnaire 
 Technologique. It is singular that there is not a single work on wind- 
 mills in the English language ; there are some remarks on gravitating sails by Hesel- 
 dine, but no work embracing the whole subject. 
 
MILLS, KILNS, MALT-HOUSES, ETC. 
 
 589 
 
 Design III. — A Malt-hiln, with the requisite Appendaaes, and Directions for their 
 
 Use. 
 
 1262. Malting. In order to understand the uses of a malt-kiln, and of the buildings and 
 details generally connected with it, it will be advisable to commence by describing the 
 process of malting ; and this has been done to our hands by a correspondent at once 
 scientific, and experienced in this important department of rural economy. " It is not very 
 easy to give specific rules for the process of malting, because the practice of each year 
 must vary with the temperature, and the quality of the barley. The experience of one 
 year is no sure criterion for that of another ; but there are general rules and broad 
 principles that will apply to any season ; and it is to these that I mean chiefly to confine 
 myself in the following memoranda. — In the first place, the barley about to be malted 
 should be of a plump kernel, dry, and well dressed. The policy of dressing well will 
 be suflSciently obvious when we consider that the swimmings, or light grains that are 
 skimmed off in the cistern, are generally worth but 9d. per bushel ; and, to fetch even 
 that, they must be sold immediately, because they will not keep ; whereas, if taken out 
 in a dry state by a winno wing-machine, they will sell for, perhaps, three or four times 
 the sum, and will keep for any reasonable length of time. The water, or liquor as it is 
 commonly called, is in general pumped to the required height in the cistern, before the 
 barley is admitted : experience will determine this, but in Britain the present vexatious 
 excise laws will insist that all the barley shall be covered, so that enough ought to be 
 admitted to allow for the swelling of the barley during the process of steeping. It is not 
 my present purpose to enter into all the minutise of the excise interference in this 
 branch of business, but it is of such frequent occurrence as not to admit of being passed 
 over, even in such a mere sketch of the process as the present one. The law, then, has 
 determined forty-eight hours as the minimum period for steeping ; the maltster may steep 
 longer if he chooses ; but first, I should have said, the barley is skreened, or dribbled 
 into the steep, from a chamber above. Having lain the required time, the water is let 
 off, and the barley is emptied into the couch, a square frame formed of battens, or deals, 
 each, by law, two inches thick, and also, hij law, not exceeding tliirty inches in depth ; 
 here it remains, hy law, twenty-six hours. The couch is then unloaded, and its contents 
 laid into a tolerably thick bed. It may here be noticed, that a malt-house may have two, 
 and sometimes three, working-floors : if two, then the corn steeped (which when it 
 comes out of the couch is called the piece) is divided ; one half being worked on the 
 upper, and the remainder on the lower floor : or, if three, then the piece is equally shared 
 by each floor, that is, provided the weather is not too warm ; if it is, tlie upper floor 
 must be either stopped altogether, or considerably ' curtailed of its fair proportion,' this 
 floor of the building being usually the first to feel a change of temperature. It is quite 
 impossible, after the barley leaves the couch, to lay down any fixed rules for the number 
 of times a piece ought to be turned. This, and the thickness of the piece, must entirely 
 depend on the state of the weather. If any sudden increase of temperature takes place 
 (a circumstance of frequent occurrence, especially late in the season) not only must the 
 piece be almost constantly kept turning, but the 
 
 maltster will have to ' give it all the ground,' i. e. 11 26 
 
 lay it as thin on the floor as he can. Besides 
 actually turning, a piece is occasionally ploughed 
 to lighten it up, and check the root. The plough 
 is a light implement, constructed like fig. 1 1 26, the 
 whole being of wood, and about four or five feet 
 long. Be the weather what it may, the maltster's 
 eye must be almost always on his floors ; on the 
 one hand to check exuberant vegetation, by which 
 the quality of his malt would be prematurely ex- 
 hausted ; and, on the other, to see that it is not 
 injured by being untimely checked. There is a just medium in this matter, only to be 
 insured by strict and unremitting attention on the part of both the master and his men. 
 The root should not be long and 
 straggling, like fig. 1127; but short 
 and curly, like fig. 1128, bushy, and 
 
 having a tendency to turn back. Yet — f ^ 
 
 even this checking should be done " ^S^^^^^^^ S^**^^! 
 
 with judgment. If the piece be " --^"ixx^^*'^ ("vL 
 
 moved injudiciously often, or have too -"^^ 
 great a proportion of cold drying wind 
 
 admitted into the house, the root will turn rusty, die away, and vegetation will be difli- 
 cult, It not impossible, to restore. The main object of the maltster is to obtain the 
 greatest quantum of saccharine matter from the bailey ; and this is found to be best 
 
590 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 attained by ' getting the back well up,' as it is technically termed ; that is, by forcing 
 and encouraging tlie seminal shoot, or acrospire, as it is called, till it is nearly fit to 
 start through the skin, not actually to show itself ; but only the protuberance occasioned 
 by its progress under the skin. To effect this is the great art in malting ; and it requires 
 from ten to fourteen days to accomplish it, after the barley has left the couch. Some 
 maltsters are in the habit of loading the kiln before the acrospire is fully up, and of getting 
 it up by means of a slow fire, and, of course, very gradual drying. I see no-advantage in 
 this ; preferring the getting it well up in the back, before loading the kiln, and then of 
 drying it off in half the quantity, and about half the time, say forty-eight hours. During 
 the operation of drying, the malt should be turned three or four times, or one part would 
 get more fire than it ought, while another would perhaps, be raw. An equality in the 
 drying process is essential to the manufacture of good malt. I do not stop to describe 
 the different sorts of malt ; pale, amber, high-dried, &c. : the maltster ascertains the 
 quality he wishes to make, and gives it more or less fire, according to circumstances. 
 The quantum of fire is ascertained by chewing it till reduced to pulp (using as little 
 saliva as possible), and then examining it between the thumb and finger ; or, in default 
 of that necessary article, good teeth, a small mill, somewhat like a pestle and mortar, 
 only made of bone or hard wood, is frequently resorted to by way of substitute. Malt, 
 when once well dried, should be kept in a dry room, as close as possible, or it will soon 
 get clung (withered), and lose its fire (its crispness). 
 
 1263. " The Malt-kiln, to be hereafter described, is calculated to dry off a whole 
 piece (say from 100 to 104 bushels) at once. The time required for this is about thirty- 
 six hours ; sometimes (as, for instance, in close foggy weather) a few hours longer. The 
 fuel may be either coke or stone-coal ; perhaps a mixture of each may be better, say two 
 thirds of the former (by measure) to one third of the latter." Our contributor next 
 describes, in succession, the upper working-floor, the lower working-floor, the kiln, and 
 the furnace. 
 
 1264. The Upper Working- Floor \s shown in fig. 1129, from a to 6, 81 feet long, 
 and 10 feet 6 inches wide ; c is the cistern, 8 feet 4 inches long, 9 feet wide, and 2 
 feet 4 inches deep, in one corner of which there may be a plug to let off the water, and 
 close to the outside of which may be a pump for supplying water ; d is the couch, of the 
 same dimensions as the cistern ; e, a trapdoor, through which a part, generally one half, 
 of the quantity steeped, is thrown from the couch down to the lower working-floor. 
 There is another trapdoor at /, up which the contents of the lower floor are brought 
 when sufficiently worked, in order to be put on the kiln. Over the upper working-floor 
 there is, or ought to be, a floor or chamber for a stock of barley, which m.ay be hoisted 
 up to it with a crane, and there is a spout in the floor, to let it down into the cistern. 
 
 1265. The Kiln and Malt- Chamber. The kiln, fig. 1129 g, is 17 feet square; it 
 is connected with the malt-chamber, h, by the door, i. Into this chamber the malt is 
 thrown after being dried. There is another malt-chamber over this, the opening to which 
 is shown at y, in fig. 1132. 
 
 1266. The Lower Working- Floor, fig. 1130, k, as it includes, in addition to the length of 
 the upper floor, the length of the cistern and the couch, is about 100 feet long by 10 
 
 1129 
 
MILLS, KILNS, MALT-HOUSES, ETC. 
 
 591 
 
 feet 6 inches in width. In this figure, m shows the dunge (supposed to be a corruption 
 of dungeon, from its appearance when looked down to from the kiln floor) or space be- 
 tween the kiln floor and the furnace ; n is a passage taken off the dunge, but which does 
 not interfere with the furnace, as may be seen by the same letter n, fig. 1131, which is a 
 section on the line A B ; o is the space in front of the furnace-door, 6 feet wide ; and 
 p is a place for stowing fuel. In fig. 1131 are seen the furnace and ash-pit doors, q, 
 and the two shutters of the draught-hole on each side of the furnace, r. These draught- 
 holes are about 1 foot wide and 1 8 inches high ; and the admission of air is regulated 
 
 1133 
 
 This section, and also the plan 
 
 by plates of sheet iron, which slide in frames and are 
 balanced by weights, as shown by fig. 1133; in which 
 5 s are the draught-hole covers ; f the furnace-door, and 
 u the ash-pit door, with its ventilator. Fig. 1132 is a 
 section of the kiln, dunge, malt-chamber, and conical roof ; 
 in which ai-e shown from vtov the ends of the iron joists on 
 which the flooring is laid : they are sixteen in number, and 
 are supported by stronger iron cross-beams or girders, let 
 into the walls, and also by the upright iron posts ww, 5 feet 
 high, the situations of which are shown hy w w in fig. 1 134. 
 
 fig. 1130 show the diminution of the dunge from 17 feet to about 1 feet square. The 
 cone is about 16 feet high from the floor v v to the top or kerb x ; here the opening 
 is two feet in diameter, which gives an area equal to that of the two draught-holes on 
 each side of the furnace, and of the ventilator in the ash-pit door, agreeably to the prin- 
 ciple laid down in § 798 ; y is the opening to the upper malt-chamber ; and z the door 
 to the lower m^alt-ch amber. Over the opening at the summit of the cone there is a flat 
 circular plate of iron, a, supported by rods, b, to protect the opening from the weather. 
 The kiln floor is square at bottom ; but at the height of 1 foot 6 inches at the angles it 
 is gradually gathered into a circle, as shown by the dotted lines c c, in fig. 1132. It 
 will be observed, that, while fig. 1131 exhibits a front view of the furnace with the two 
 draught-holes, one on each side, fig. 1132 shows a back view of the same, with their 
 openings into the dunge. The furnace-bars are 3 feet long. Over the mouths of the 
 furnace and draught-holes is suspended from the floor-joists of the kiln a plate of iron 
 7 feet 6 inches long by 5 feet wide (d in fig. 1 132, and d d in fig. 1 134), which is called 
 a dispenser, the use of which is to equalise the heat in the upper part of the dunge, so 
 that the kiln floor, fig. 1134, e e, may receive it equally in every part. The furnace,^ 
 
 1134 
 
 is 3 feet long ; it is 18 inches wide, and 20 inches high, the ash-pit under it is of the 
 same width, and 16 inches high ; gg are the sloping sides of the dunge; and h the cen- 
 tral part. 
 
 — 1267. The Kiln Floor may be either of tiles or of wirecloth ; but the former are 
 generally preferred. The under side of a kiln-tile presents a sort of honeycomb appear- 
 ance, fig. 1135, i; but the upper surface on which the malt is laid is perforated with 
 small holes, and has the 1135 
 appearance of k. A tile 
 one foot square contains 
 120 large openings on 
 the under side, with 8 
 smaller openings to each 
 of the large ones on the 
 upper side ; thus giving 
 a total of 960 apertures in every square foot. The openings of the small holes are larger 
 on the lower than on the upper side, in order to prevent them from being choked with 
 the malt dust or combs before mentioned. (See § 798.) 
 
 1268. Construction. All the walls may be of brick or stone ; the cone over the kiln 
 floor should either be of brick, or, if economy be very much studied, it may be composed 
 of a frame of iron rods hung over with plain tiles, and covered with cement. The 
 bottom and sides of the couch may either be of wood, stone, slate, or of brick lined with 
 cement. The malting-floors may be paved, tiled, or laid with composition. The fiimace 
 
59^2 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 may be built with fire-brick, and there should be a ventilator in the ash-pit door for 
 regulating the draught of air through the fire. The dispenser may be of wrought iron, 
 or of an iron frame filled in with large slates. The orifice at the summit of the kiln 
 may be either protected by an iron plate, or by a tiled cover with sides of luffer-boarding. 
 Other details have been given in the course of the description. 
 
 1269. Remarks. Various improvements have been attempted in malt-kilns of late 
 years, and patents have been taken out for particular modes of construction ; but of none 
 of these have we been able to liear a favourable account. The most probable source of 
 improvement appears to us to be the adoption of the circular form, and of the mode of 
 heating by brick or iron flues, distributed through the dunge, in the manner practised 
 by Mr. Read in his hop-kiln, to be hereafter described. INIr. Read, who has examined 
 numerous malt-kilns in all parts of the country with a view to their improvement, 
 informs us that he considers the plan adopted in his hop-kiln as equally applicable to a 
 malt-kiln ; but that he has found the proprietors of malt-kilns so strongly prejudiced 
 in favour of existing forms, that he ha.s never had an opportunity of trying the experi- 
 ment. 
 
 Design IV. — A Hop-oast, or Kiln for drying Hops. 
 
 1270. The Variations from other Kilns formerly required in a Kiln for drying Hops 
 will be exhibited in the following plans and sections, which have been obligingly sent 
 us by our contributor, Mr. Varden. These figures from 1136 to 1148, Mr. Varden 
 informs us, exhibit part of a range of building consisting of a repetition of similar parts 
 situated at Farnham. The packing-house, fuel store, Sec, are under the same roof. 
 The six oasts are capable of drying at one time on the first haircloths, twenty-five bags 
 of hops ; each bag containing from sixteen to twenty bushels. These generally require 
 twelve hours' drying before they are fit to be packed, unless they have previously been 
 spread upon the upper haircloth, which is not often the case, except when there is a 
 great quantity to be dried off in a short time. " The Design sent is that which I under- 
 stand is generally considered to be the best. Some hoji-growers, a short time ago, fitted 
 up their kilns with a succession of drawers one above the other, having hair bottoms ; 
 but the extra-labour of these is found to be so great, that they intend removing them, 
 and adopting the method about to be detailed. Fig. 1136 is a plan of the oast floor. 
 
 1136 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 , E 
 
 ,b 
 
 '■\ 
 
 •1 
 
 
 
 • iCr. ■■(J 
 
 I 
 
 ! 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 '-'7} 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 line external walls are of 14-inch stonework, the internal ones are brick; that against 
 the passage a is 9 inches, and the two partitions, b b, are 4 inches and a half thick. The 
 building is 58 feet 4 inches by 14 feet in the clear, and contains six oasts or kilns, c. 
 
 1137 
 
 Fig. 1137 is a plan of the first hair, or floor for the haircloth, showing the timbers, &c. 
 The joists are 3 inches and a half by 3 inches ; the arris girder 5 inches by 5 inches, 
 
 1138 
 
MALT-HOUSES, KILNS, HOP-OASTS, ETC. 593 
 
 and the story-posts 5 inches by 4 inches and a half. Fig. 1138 is a plan of the second 
 hair. The joists are 3 inches by 3 inches and a half; and the arris girders 5 inches 
 by 5 inches. Fig. 1139 is an elevation of the front. The small windows have 
 
 1139 
 
 □ □ □ n n □ 
 
 wooden shutters. Fig. 1140 is an elevation of the back. The windows are filled in 
 with lufFer-boarding. Fig. 1141 is a plan of a part of the building to a larger scale. 
 
 1140 
 
 I 1 ! 1 . ... I M M I 
 
 Ft. 30 10 0 10 Ft. 
 
 The pavement, d, is brick on edge covered with plain tiles ; and the small square openings, 
 f, e represent the orifices of air flues ; /, is the ^rnace. Fig. II 42 is a plan of a part or 
 
 1141 1142 
 
 the first hair, showing the laths of which the floor is composed : they are 1 inch and a half 
 by 1 inch, and 1 inch and a half apart. These open floors are used to allow of tlie warm 
 air rising from below ; and a large liaircloth is spread over the whole, before the hops ar^ 
 laid out. Along the side, about 1 7 inches above the lathing, is a stage 20 inches wide for 
 the men to walk upon without damaging the hops. This stage is made to fold up against 
 the wall when not in use. Fig. 1143 shows part of the second hair. The arris 
 girders are hung to the roof by wrought-iron rods, as shown in fig. 1145. Fig. 11 44 is 
 an elevation of a part of the wall at the mouth of the oasts, showing the fireplace g, ash- 
 
 3 u 
 
59i COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 hole h, and the mouths of the air flues, t, which latter have hinged flaps, k, to close 
 occasionally. Fig. 1145 is a transverse section of the building; in which a is the pas- 
 sage shown by a in fig. 1136 ; 6 is the mass of pigeon-hole brickwork, which encloses 
 the furnace shown bye, in fig. 1136, and by/, in fig. 1141 ; c is the brick floor, in which 
 
 1143 
 
 arc the openings for the ascent of air, shown l)y e, in fig. 1141, and by the dots in fig. 
 1136; is the lower hair, at it is locally termed, or lower drying floor; c e are the 
 supports to the girders of this floor ; / is a door of communication in the partition 
 between the kilns ; and g is the iron rod which supports the middle of tlie girders of 
 the upper hair, or upper drying floor, h. The upper half of the roof is half tiled, to 
 allow the steam to escape. When this method is adopted, cowls are not requisite. 
 Fig. 1146, to a scale of 5 feet to an incli, is a plan of one of the oasts; in whi*'h / 
 is the fireplace covered with a brick arch to the depth of 1 foot 8 niches. The fuel 
 made use of is charcoal or culm (by culm is meant the charcoal from the smaller 
 wood and sprays), and the fire is made on a cast-iron grating. No chimneys are required, 
 the quantity of smol. e being so very trifling. Fig. 1147 is a side elevation of the oast, 
 
 showing the open brickwork for letting out the warm air ; the fireplace m, and the ash- 
 hole, n. The timbers, o, are covered with two courses of plain tiles set in cement or 
 mortar, and are 4 inches by 3 inches, and 4 inches apart. The fireplace arch is seen 
 at p, and the soil under it at q. In the roof, the plate is 6 inches by 4 inches, the tie- 
 beam 9 inches by 6 inches, the couplings 5 inches by 4 inches, the conunon rafters 
 4 inches by 2 inches and a half, and the struts 4 inches by 4 inches and a half." 
 
MALT-HOUSES, KILNS, HOP-OASTS, ETC. 
 
 595 
 
 1271. Remarks. This appears to be an expensive mode of drying hops, compared 
 with that practised by many of the growers in Kent, who have adopted the improved 
 circular kilns invented by Mr. Read, which will be next described. 
 
 Design V. — A Hop-kiln or Oast, on an improved Principle, erected in 1832, at Teston, 
 
 in Kent. 
 
 1272. Hops have been dried from time immemorial on kilns with cockles, furnaces, 
 or other fireplaces beneath them ; the smoke and heated air being allowed to ascend 
 through the hops, and to pass off by an opening in the apex of the roof, as in the case or 
 the kilns for drying malt, com, &c. About the year 1796, Mr. John Read, then a 
 practical gardener at Horseraendean, in Kent (ha\'ing had extensive experience in 
 heating hot-houses by smoke flues, and having also tried steam in pineries so early as 
 1802), began to turn his attention to the subject of building hop-kilns. Mr. Read has 
 subsequently invented his well-known improved garden syringe, his stomach pump, and 
 various other surgical instruments of acknowledged importance ; and it may easily be 
 conceived that so ingenious a mind would improve any object to which he might turn 
 his attention. The idea of applying flues like those of hot-houses to generate heated air, 
 for the purpose of drying hops, very naturally occuiTed to him ; and he soon found an 
 opportunity of carrying his ideas into execution. Mr. Read has, since he began to erect 
 hop-kilns on his plan, made various improvements in them ; and he has furnished us with 
 the Design about to be described, in which the whole are combined. 
 
 1273. The object in view, in kiln-drying Hops, is to discharge the water contained in 
 the flowers. This, Mr. Read has ascertained to be, when the flowers are newly gathered, 
 about 500 lbs. in every hundred bushels ; and he finds that this moisture may be converted 
 into vapour, by the expenditure of one bushel of common coals to every hundred- weight 
 of hops, in twelve hours, the hops being spread on the floor of the kiln, in the proportion 
 of one bushel to every square foot. 
 
 1274. The Process of drying Hops is as follows : — After being gathered from the bine, 
 or stalk, the flowers are immediately carried in bags to the kiln, on which they are spread 
 out to the thickness of from six to ten inches all over the surface of the kiln. The fire is 
 then lighted, and kept burning briskly night and day, so long as there are any hops ready 
 to be dried. It is found that a kiln of Mr. Read's construction may be charged once 
 in every twelve hours. After the hops are dried, they are swept off the kiln into a cool 
 well ventilated loft adjoining, and generally attached to it ; this loft being formed over a 
 cart-shed, or some other building open on one or on all sides. Being cooled here for a 
 day or more, or according to convenience, the hops are bagged, or pocketed ; the bag 
 weighing two hundred-weight and a half, and the pocket one hundred- weight and a half ; 
 that is, packed in bags, which are suspended by a hoop from a round opening in the floor, 
 and into each of which a man enters, to consolidate the hops by treading them down. 
 When the bag is full, it is released from the hoop, and pulled up, still being retained over 
 the hole, till it is beaten into shape, when it is sewn up, and let down into the shed, 
 whence it is carried to market, or to the store loft, where it may be kept a year or more, 
 if carefully excluded from the air. Hops di-ied on Mr. Read's kiln have been known to 
 keep four or five years ; but those dried by the common methods, and especially those 
 of Farnham, seldom keep even twelve months, froin the imperfect manner in which the 
 process of drying has been performed. There are several excise regulations connected 
 with the drying of hops in Britain, which we think it unnecessary to enter into in a work 
 intended for both hemispheres ; more especially as we anticipate the entire removal of 
 the excise duties, and the substitution of a graduated per-centage or property tax for this 
 and all other government taxes. 
 
 1275. The Situation of a hop-oast ought to be airy ; and the external opening to it, for 
 the admission of the air, ought to face that point of the compass from which the wind 
 blows most frequently at that season of. the year when hops are being dried. In England, 
 the hop harvest is in the month of September, and the wind, in that month, is generally 
 in the direction of the south-west. When several kilns are built together, and not in 
 a straight line, but so as to form two rows or a group, as in the Design before us, this 
 rule cannot be followed ; but the next best rule is, to have the openings to the fireplaces 
 facing the north-west and south-east, by which means they will catch a part of the current 
 from the south-west as it passes. 
 
 1276. The circular form for the kiln has been adopted by Mr. Read, because it 
 contains a greater area than any other figure with the same quantity of exterior walling; 
 and because both the walls and roof can be made stronger than they can in any rectan- 
 gular form, with fewer materials. Hence, while the circular kilns possess more strength 
 and durability than the rectangular ones, the expense of construction is less. 
 
 1277. Details of the Oasts erected at Teston. Fig. 1148 is the ground plan; in which 
 
596 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE, 
 
 a a are two kilns, twenty feet in diameter internally ; and b b two other kilns, sixteen 
 feet in diameter internally ; c is an open space between the kilns, to which air is freely 
 admitted by the openings to the south-east, south-west, and to the north-east, at d d e 
 
 I-. I I I 1 « I I I 1 c 1 
 
 shows the openings to the dunge, and cockles or furnaces for the admission of air to the 
 fire, and to be rarefied by the flues, previously to its ascending and passing through the 
 drying-floor ; /, the furnaces made of cast iron, with doors to the fuel-chambers and ash- 
 pits of the same material ; g, termination of a portion to the extent of one yard of the 
 flues next the furnaces, which ought to be built of fire-brick, or which may be formed 
 entirely of cast iron, as in this Design. The remaining part of the flues to be built of 
 common brick on edge three courses deep, and covered with bricks or tUes, twelve inches 
 long by six inches broad ; h, the situation of the chimney shafts ; i, the staircase for 
 carrying up the hops to the drying-floor ; and k, a cart-shed, over which is a floor on 
 which the hops are cooled. Fig. 1149 is a transverse section on the line A B, or nearly 
 so, in which I is the fuel-chamber, with the doors open ; m, the thoroughfare between the 
 two kilns ; n, the flues ; o, the chimney shafts ; p, the drying-floor ; q, the situation of the 
 wall-plate ; r, the doors to the drying-floor open j s, the floor of the loft, with the movable 
 
MALT-HOUSES, KILNS, HOP-OASTS, ETC. 597 
 
 stairs to the drying-floor ; t, the roof of the cooling-loft ; and «, collar beams for supporting 
 the spindle of the cowl. Fig. 1150 is a longitudinal section on the line C D, in which 
 V V show the situation of the movable steps from the common floor of the passage loft, 
 and cooling-room, to tlie double doors, w, of the drying-floor ; x, bottom boards of the 
 
 doors, eighteen inches deep, which fit into grooves, and have two holes in each for lifting 
 them up every time the drying-floor is to be emptied. While this operation is going on, i 
 the step-ladders are removed, and the hops are swept through the door, and fall down 
 into the passage loft, whence they are swept along to the cooling-chamber j z is the 
 ridge of the roof from the cooling-chamber and passage loft. Fig. 1151 is a cross 
 section of one of the larger kihis on the Kne E F, for the purpose of showing the 
 returns of the flues, from the centre to the sides in the lower part of the dunge, and 
 from the sides to the chimney shaft in the upper part of the dunge. Fig. 1152 is 
 a dissected plan of the drying-floor, in which a a are the iron girders, the strength 
 of which may either be such as to require no supports between the ends ; or they may 
 be so slight as to require one or more pillars as props between the extremities ; when 
 they are of cast iron, they may be in two lengths, four inches deep in the middle, and 
 half an mch thick, each length of sixteen feet, supported by two iron columns: b h are 
 
598 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 1151 
 
 the laths, which may be either of cast or wrought iron ; when of cast iron, they are four 
 feet long, roach-bellied, that is, forming the segment of a circle on the under side, two 
 inches broad at top, and a quarter of an inch on the under edge ; when they are of 
 wrought iron, they are one inch and a half broad (that breadth being necessary to form 
 a bed for the tiles), and half an inch deep ; in this case the extended length across the 
 girders is from one of the kilns to the other : c c are the tiles pierced with holes, in the 
 same manner as the tiles of malt-kilns, fig. 1135, § 1267. 
 
 1278. Construction. The exterior walls are of brick, with eighteen-inch footings, 
 and are carried up a foot or more of the width of fourteen inches, after which their 
 width is nine inches, up to the eaves of the roof, which are eighteen inches above the 
 drying-floor. The rafters are four inches by two inches at the bottom ; and three inches 
 by one inch and a half at the top, where they abut against a circular curb or rim under 
 the cowl. The furnaces or fuel-chambers are entirely of cast iron, and the ash-pits have 
 iron doors. At the further extremity of the fuel-chamber there is an opening six inches 
 square at top, through which the smoke and heat ascend into the flue. The flue for the 
 first three or four feet is either built of fire-brick, or formed entirely of cast iron six 
 inches in diameter ; after which its sides are formed of three bricks on edge, not plastered 
 either outside or inside ; and its top is covered with two courses of tiles, breaking joint, 
 six inches by three inches. The reason why narrow tiles are chosen is, that duty is saved ; 
 and two courses breaking joint are employed, in order to prevent the risk of smoke 
 getting through the joints into the dunge. The flues are supported by piers formed of 
 open brickwork on edge, and joined by arches four inches in thickness, beveled on the 
 top so as to form the base of the flue. Two flues proceed from each fireplace, ascending 
 at an angle of 15°, or more if the height of the dunge will permit, in the direction 
 indicated by the arrows, meeting at e, in the plan fig. 1148, and each there returning 
 over itself, and agair^ meeting at the chimney shaft, h. These flues may be easily cleaned 
 by the removal, at short distances, of some of the covering-tiles ; or, what is a much 
 simpler mode, by burning in the fuel-chamber a few handfuls of dry brushwood, or dried 
 hop-bine, or any thing that will quickly create such a draught as will carry all the soot 
 in the course of a few minutes out at the chimney top. About London the washer- 
 women clean the chimneys of their boilers on the same principle, by throvdng in, in rapid 
 succession, small quantities of gunpowder. The 
 cowl should project about a foot on every side 
 over the orifice in the summit. This orifice is, 
 to that for the admission of air to the dunge, as 
 one to one and a quarter. In the building of the 
 walls of the kiln, in order to preserve them truly 
 circular, an upright pole is fixed in the centre, 
 and a guide-rod, fig. 1153, d, is framed on to it, 
 of the requisite radius. The lower end of the 
 central perpendicular pole is fixed in the ground, 
 and the top kept steady by braces to other poles 
 outside the circumference of the plan, so as not 
 to interrupt the free revolution of the guide-rod. 
 For every course of bricks laid on the wall, a 
 course is also laid in mortar round the upright 
 pole xmder the guide-rod, so that the latter is 
 always kept level. So rapidly can bricks be laid in this manner, that Mr. Read finds such 
 walling cost less than straight brickwork. The course of bricks immediately under the 
 flooring tiles, twenty inches from the top, ought to project an inch inwards for the tiles 
 to rest on. The exterior opening to the dunge should be kept low, it being found that 
 
MALT-HOUSES, KILNS, HOP-OASTS, ETC 599 
 
 when this is the case the draught is always greatest ; its height need never exceed four 
 feet six inches, which is sufficiently 
 
 1154 
 
 1155 
 
 high to admit a person to enter the 
 dunge. When the manager of the 
 furnace is once within, he imme- 
 diately finds six feet of head room ; 
 there being a pier, e, nine inches by 
 eighteen inches carried up on each 
 side of the door, along with the 
 outside wall, in as fig. 1154, which 
 is a section on the line L M, for 
 the purpose of forming abutments 
 for the four-inch arch, f, which 
 carries the double flue, the end 
 of which, at the point where one 
 returns on the other, is shown at g. 
 The furnace and flues should be 
 blackened exteriorly, in order to 
 increase the radiation of heat, and the inside of the surrounding walls ought to be white- 
 washed, to prevent them as much as possible from absorbing it. The cowl moves 
 altogether independently of the curb which 
 forms the opening under it: it consists of 
 one strong back piece, into which the upright 
 spindle is framed, as may be seen in the 
 section, fig. 1149, at I. Attached to the 
 spindle and the back board is the fly-board, 
 fig. 1155, h, which serves, like a rudder, to 
 keep the back of the cowl to the wind. The 
 boards forming the cowl overlap each other 
 from the back piece, or rib, towards the sides ; 
 and they are nailed to iron hoops, as indicated 
 in the section I K, fig. 1155, and also in the 
 section, fig. 1149. In the former section, h 
 
 is the fly-board ; i, the back rib ; k, the upright spindle ; I, the iron hoop ; and m the 
 boarding. Fig. 1 1 56, which is a section on the line G H, shows the manner in which 
 the upright spindle works against a collar-piece, 
 which is fixed across the centre of the curb, at 
 the kiln top. This piece being fixed, and the 
 collar containing the spindle bolted on to it, the 
 bottom piece, in which the pivot of the spindle 
 works, can, before it is fixed, be moved backwards 
 and forwards on the collar beam till the spindle 
 is brought to a perfectly upright position, and 
 made to work freely. 
 
 1279. Estimate. The expense of these four 
 kilns, exclusive of the cooling-room, was about 
 £700, which amounts to about 2^d. per cubic foot. 
 
 1280. Remarks. The great superiority of the 
 circular kiln to that described in the preceding 
 Design is so obvious, that we only wonder, con- 
 sidering it has been extensively used in Kent 
 and Sussex for upwards of thirty years, that it has not found its way to Farnhara. 
 It must be obvious that not only any description of fuel may be used in Mr. Read's 
 kilns, but that, from the great length of the flues, a much greater quantity of heat 
 will be rendered available for passing through the drying-floor. The circumstance 
 of the flues ascending at a considerable slope is highly favourable for promoting 
 a draught, and consequently for thoroughly consuming the fuel. Mr. Read informs us 
 that he has superintended the erection of some hundreds of these kilns ; and that in one 
 year he erected seventy, all within the counties of Kent and Sussex. This being the 
 case, it strikes us with astonishment that Mr. Read's improvement has not been adopted 
 by the hop-growers of either Farnham or Worcestershire, and the proprietors of malti* 
 kilns every where. For our own part, we have no hesitation in saying, that we con- 
 sider the malt kiln, Design III., though it be of the most improved construction, and 
 the Farnham hop kiln. Design IV., though it comes from a district so celebrated for its 
 hops, as discreditable to the science of this country. No man who understands Read's 
 kiln would erect either. 
 
 1156 
 
600 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 Design VI. — An improved Limekiln. 
 
 1281. Limestone is burnt in a variety of ways. The object is, completely to deprive 
 the stone of its carbonic acid gas with the smallest quantity of fuel, the least amount of 
 labour, and in the shortest time. The rudest mode of burning lime is by mixing the stones 
 with coal or other fuel, in large open heaps, and then setting fire to the coal or fuel. 
 The first improvement on this mode consisted in covering up the heap with earth or turf, 
 so as to confine the heat; a practice wViich, we are informed, is still followed in the 
 islands of the West Indies. The next improvement was the forming of a well for burn- 
 ing the lime in the face of a bank, so that the stones and fuel could be thrown in at top, 
 and drawn out, as burnt, at bottom. The ordinary form employed for this purpose is 
 that of an inverted cone, or an egg with the broad end uppermost. The first improve- 
 ment on this form was made by Booker of Dublin. The section of Booker's kiln forms 
 two long narrow truncated cones, placed end to end, giving a width, or diameter, at the 
 base and apex of three feet, and in the middle of seven feet. A suitable height for these 
 dimensions is from twenty-five to thirty feet. On the top is a cast-iron cap or cover, 
 which turns on a pivot, and rests on a curb-ring fixed on the top of the masonry of the 
 kiln. The use of this cover is to prevent the escape of more heat than is necessary to 
 keep the fuel burning, and, therefore, the opening at the top of the cap is a circle of not 
 more than twelve inches in diameter. Very little heat is thus lost, and lime may be 
 burned with as little fuel in winter as in summer. Another great advantage of this plan 
 is, that by closing the orifice at the top of the cap and the furnace-doors below, the fire 
 may be kept alive for four or five days, which, in situations where the demand for lime is 
 not regular, is an object of some importance. Booker's limekiln has subsequently been 
 materially improved by C. J. Stuart Menteath, Esq., the proprietor of extensive lime- 
 works at Closeburn, in Dumfries-shire ; and it is this kiln which constitutes our present 
 Design. Booker's, and a variety of others, will be found described in our Encyc. of 
 Agr., 2d edit. § 3862. 
 
 1 282. The Closeburn Limekiln is oval in the plan at top, and perpendicular in the sides to 
 nearly half its depth ; below which it is gradually contracted to the size of the grating of 
 the furnace. The advantage of the oval form is, that the combustion is more regularly sup- 
 plied with air than in the case of a kiln of large diameter. " Narrow kilns," Mr. Men- 
 teath finds, " also burn much faster, admit of there being drawn out of them every day 
 (if fully employed) more than two thirds, or nearly three fourths, of what they contain 
 of well-burnt line ; and afford fully three measures of calcined lime for one measure of 
 coal, when large circular kilns will not give out one half of their contents every day, 
 and require nearly one measure of coal for two measures of lime burnt." In a country 
 sale of Ume, Mr. Menteath remarks, " the quantity sold every day is liable to great 
 fluctuations : two or three cart-loads wiU sometimes only be required from an establish- 
 ment which the day before supplied forty ; and, as lime is known to be a commodity 
 which, when exposed to the action of the air, becomes more bulky and heavy, and in that 
 state does not admit of being carried to a distance without additional labour, it has been 
 an object of importance with me, to find out a construction of a kiln which will allow of 
 iime being kept for several days without slaking, and, at the same time, to prevent the 
 fire escaping at the top of the kiln, if the kiln stands twenty-four hours without being 
 employed, especially during the autumn and winter, when the air is cold, and the nights 
 long. I now employ kilns of an egg-shape, and also oval. The oval-shaped kilns are 
 divided by arches across the kiln, descending four feet from the top. The object of the 
 arches across the kilns is to prevent the sides of the kilns from falling in or contracting, 
 and also for the purpose of forming circular openings for feeding in the stone and coal 
 at the mouth of the kiln. Upon this plan, a kiln of any length might be constructed 
 with numerous round mouths." Having placed a lid to the cover of Booker's iron cap, 
 Mr. Menteath is enabled " to prevent the escape of heat at the top, and by cast-iron doors 
 at the bottom the air is prevented from passing through the kiln ; so that by these pre- 
 cautions the limeburner can regulate the heat, and prevent its escape for several days ; 
 when without them the fire, in winter, would be extinguished in the course of twenty-four 
 hours. This is an object of great importance, as it enables one to burn lime as well, 
 and with as small a quantity of fuel, in the winter as in the summer season ; and to sup- 
 ply the farmer with well-burned lime at any time of the year : an object which cannot 
 be obtained by the common construction of kilns, open both at top and bottom, for the 
 reasons before stated." 
 
 1283. Burning Lime with Coke instead of Coal. " From the great expense attending 
 the carting of fuel from a distance of twenty-five miles from my own coal-pits, I have 
 g,dopted the practice of coking the coal, which is a saving of eight twentieths of the 
 weight ; and I find that equal measures of coal and coke give the same quantity of 
 heat in burning lime, which appears paradoxical, but is not the less true. The coal 
 
MALT-HOUSES, LIMEKILNS, BRICK KILNS, ETC. (501 
 
 is found to have little effect upon the stone till it is deprived of its bitumen, or is coked 
 in the kiln ; for, during the time the smoke is emitted from the top of a limekiln, 
 ■ little or no heat is evolved ; or, in other words, the smoke carries off the heat, which is 
 not given out from the smoke till it is inflamed ; a circumstance which does not take 
 place in the ordinary limekilns. When coke is employed for burning lime during the 
 day, small coal should be used in the evening ; in order to prevent, as much as possible, 
 the escape or waste of heat during the night, from the rapid circulation of air through 
 the limestone in the kiln. A kiln in which coke is the fuel employed will yield nearly a 
 third more calcined lime (or shells, as they are termed in Scotland) in a given time, 
 than one in which coal is the fuel. Coke may, therefore, be used occasionally, when a 
 greater quantity of lime is required in a certain time than usual. It is well known to 
 lime-burners that the process of burning is done most economically when the kiln is in 
 full action, so as almost constantly to have a column of fire from the bottom to the top 
 of the kiln, with as short intervals as possible in working the kiln." 
 
 1284. Regulating the admission of air to the bottom of the kiln. Mr. Menteath has 
 found that limestone is apt to be vitrified during the' process of calcination in stormy 
 weather. This proceeds from the increased circulation of air through the kiln, which, 
 by increasing the rapidity of the combustion, evolves in any given time a greater quan- 
 tity of heat from the fuel employed. From having experienced the bad effects of too 
 great a circulation without properly providing against it, Mr. Menteath considers it 
 desirable to have it in his power to throw at pleasure an additional quantity of air into 
 the bottom of the limekiln ; both for the purpose of saving fuel, and, when the lime- 
 stone is burned, to cool it, that it may be the sooner ready to be drawn out of the 
 kiln. It is well known that, with kilns as they are commonly constructed, it requires 
 nearly twenty-four hours to cool the limestone in the bottom of the kiln to such a 
 degree as to prevent its burning the wooden carts in which it is to be carried away. 
 (^Highland Society'' s Transactions, \o\. \in. p. 131.) The power of throwing in an 
 additional quantity of air at the bottom of the kiln is easily attained by increasing the 
 length of the bottom, and by having two or more furnace doors opening to it, instead of 
 one. 
 
 1285. The proportion of coal to limestone will vary according to the softness, hardness, 
 or density of the stone, and the strength and size of the pieces of the coal used. The 
 same weight of coal will burn a greater quantity of lime, when in pieces of from 
 half a pound's to a pound's weight each, than when in fragments of from half an ounce to 
 an ounce. Hence those who employ small coal in burning lime, from its cheapness, are 
 often performing the operations at greater expense than those who employ larger, and 
 consequently dearer, coal. In working a kiln Avith narrow circular mouths, such as that 
 about to be described ; the stone and coal shoixld be measured, in order to enable the 
 workmen to proportion the one to the other. Th^tone and eoal being in separate 
 heaps at the top of the kiln, and both broken into small pieces, a fire is lighted on the 
 iron bars at the bottom of the kiln. When this is fairly kindled, limestone and coal are 
 dropped from the top in small quantities at a time, so as never to check the current of air 
 through the fire. This operation is carried on till the kiln is filled, after which it is 
 allowed to stand for several hours tiU a complete combustion of the fuel has taken place. 
 If the calcined lime be wanted immediately, the furnace doors below are opened, and the 
 cover at top removed, in order to produce a current of cold air through the kiln ; if not 
 wanted for some days, the top and bottom are closed to exclude the air, and to prevent the 
 escape of heat. In Mr. Menteath's kilns there is a door both to the ash-pit and to 
 he fuel-chamber over it. Through the upper door the calcined lime is drawn out ; 
 and through the under door are drawn out the lime ashes, which are a clear gain to the 
 lime-burner where lime is sold by measure ; because, if not separated from the larger 
 pieces, they would only serve to fill up the interstices between the stones. 
 
 1286. The situation most suitable for building a limekiln is the face of a steep bank; 
 but if this cannot be obtained, it may be built on a level surface, with a ramped road, or 
 inclined plane, for carrying up the fuel and limestone to the top of the kiln ; or, the 
 sides of the building may4)e carried up perpendicularly, and the limestone and fuel 
 hoisted to the top by means of a crane and windlass. 
 
 1287. Details of the plans and sections. Fig. 1157 is a section across a bank, on the 
 face of which it is desired to build a limekiln. In this section, abed indicate the space 
 to be occupied by the mass of masonry containing the kiln ; and c d ef, the situation of 
 the shed over the kiln mouth. Fig. 1158 is a ground or foundation-plan, in which may 
 be seen, at h, the fuel chamber, two feet square, with iron bars laid across ; two side 
 openings for occasionally admitting an extensive quantity of air, i i, which openings may 
 be blocked up with stones, to save the expense of iron doors ; and p hg, the space in which 
 the cart stands when loading with the burnt limestone, as drawn out of the kiln. Fig. 
 1159 is a horizontal section of the kiln at the height of eighteen feet from the grating of 
 
 3 X 
 
602 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 Fig. 1161 is a plan of the top 
 
 the fuel chamber ; that is, on the b'ne A B, in fig. 1 160. 
 of the kiln enclosed and 
 covered by the kiln-shed. 
 In this plan, k k k are the 
 three circular openings in 
 the covering arch of the 
 kiln, through which the 
 broken stones and coal are 
 introduced : these open- 
 ings may either be covered 
 with a flat plate of cast-iron, 
 or with one of Booker's 
 cast-iron covers ; this last 
 is a truncated cone of cast- 
 iron, the opening at the 
 truncated part of the cone 
 being a foot in diameter, 
 with a lid to cover it oc- 
 casionally ; I is the place 
 where the broken coal is 
 laid down ; and m, that where the broken stone is laid ; a cart for bringing these 
 materials into the kiln may pass in at one door and out at the other. Fig. 1160 is a 
 longitudinal section of the kiln 
 
 115S .f— 
 
 on the line E F, in which n is the 
 side opening to the back of the 
 fuel chamber ; o, cast-iron covers 
 (with openings in the centre, and 
 lids over them) to the feeding 
 apertures; and p, the springing 
 of the covering arch. Fig. 1162 
 is a transverse section of the kiln 
 and kiln-shed, on the line C D, 
 in which is shown the ash-pit, 
 under the fuel-chamber, q ; the 
 space between the double doors of 
 the fuel chamber, r ; the covered 
 area on which the loading carts 
 stand, s ; and the cast-iron cover 
 to the feeding aperture, and the 
 protecting cover to the chimney 
 of the kiln-shed, u. Fig. 1 1 63 is 
 
 a front elevation of the kiln, with the shed over it 
 
 
 
 J , 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 1159 
 
 1288. Construction, The walls should either be 
 built of fire-brick, or firestone ; but they are 
 sometimes built of limestone of the same quality 
 as that to be burned within ; but having the stones 
 in large masses, so to prevent their being as much 
 affected by the heat as the smaller stones in the 
 kiln, which are mixed with fuel. The upper part 
 of the kiln may either be arched over, or covered with 
 cast-iron joists and flag-stones; leaving square or 
 longitudinal holes for the admission of air, which 
 
MALT-HOUSES, LIMEKILNS, BRICK-KILNS, ETC. 603 
 
 161 
 
 may be covered with a plate of east-iron, regulated so as to give the exact degree of 
 draught required. This contrivance will be found cheaper than the conical kilns of 
 Booker ; and, where there is a 
 kiln-shed, it will answer equally 
 well. When there is not a kiln- 
 shed, Booker's covers are un- 
 doubtedly preferable ; as they 
 not only keep in the heat, but 
 throw off the rain. The shed 
 over the mouth of the kiln is of 
 the greatest use in keeping dry 
 the stones and fuel before they 
 are thrown into the kiln ; and 
 not only keeping them dry, but 
 heating them, and thus evapor- 
 ating part of their moisture. 
 These materials, therefore, 
 ought always to be kept as near 
 as possible to the feeding mouths ; 
 and when the heat of the kiln 
 
 is to be continued for some time 
 
 by closing both the bottom and ' ' 
 top openings, the coal and un- 
 burnt limestone should be 
 heaped up over the latter, in 
 order that they may absorb as 
 much as possible of the escaping 
 heat. The double iron doors 
 to the fuel chamber should be 
 nine inches or a foot apart, to 
 prevent the escape of heat ; but 
 single doors will suffice for the 
 ash-pit below. The two side 
 openings, for the admission of 
 additional supplies of air at 
 pleasure, may, when not wanted, 
 be blocked up with stone, to 
 save the expense of doors. The 
 bars of the grating of the fuel- 
 chamber may be two feet and 
 a half long, two inches wide, 
 and three inches deep, cast 
 hollow ; and the two cross bars 
 
0O4. COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 on which they rest may be three inches broad, and five inches deep, also cast hollow. 
 The thickness of the metal, in either 
 case, need not exceed a quarter of an 
 inch ; as the hollow in the centre, by 
 admitting a current of air, keeps the 
 bars cool, and prevents their decay. It is 
 to be observed, that the opening behind 
 the fuel-chamber, for the admission of 
 an extra quantity of air, must have a 
 grating where it enters the fuel-cham- 
 ber, to prevent its being choked up by 
 the lime while burning, or being drawn. 
 
 1289. Remarks. This Design for a 
 limekiln we consider decidedly the best 
 we have ever seen or heard of. We 
 examined it, and several others of ^iif- 
 ferent kinds, at Closeburn, in 1831 ; 
 we saw Heathorn's kiln in 1828, and 
 we liave seen, we believe, every variety 
 of limekiln in xise in Britain, having 
 had occasion to build one for ourselves 
 some years ago. We therefore con- 
 sider that we are entitled to pronounce 
 an opinion on Mr. IMenteath's im- 
 provements. The same form of kihi 
 is admirably adapted for burning clay, 
 either to use as a manure, or to form 
 walks or roads ; and we shall presently show liow it may be used for burning bricks. 
 Heathorn's limekiln has for its object the preparation of coke as well as of quicklime. 
 For this purpose, the kiln may either be a narrow vertical cylinder, with coking ovens 
 placed around, and opening into it ; or, it may be a long narrow kiln, like Menteath's, 
 with a row of coke ovens on eacli side. Tlie kiln is filled with broken limestone, and 
 the process of burning is effected entirely by the combustion of the bituminous matter of 
 the coal to be coked. A patent was taken out for this kiln some years ago; and one was 
 erected at Maidstone, by the patentee, wlio lias recently informed us that it continues 
 to answer his expectations. Only one other kiln of the same kind, liowever, has been 
 erected ; which we conclude to be owing to tlie expense of building, and the greater time 
 and care required to burn the lime in tliese kilns. Where lime is to be burned in small 
 quantities, and where there is a great demand for coke, this description of kiln may 
 perhaps be recommended ; but the first cost, and the slowness of the oj)eration of burning, 
 are great drawbacks. This kiln will be found figured and described in our Encyc. of 
 Agric. § 3868. It is evidently founded on the model of a perpetual limekiln, described 
 by Count Rumford, in his sixth Essay, p. 181. The objects proposed to be attained by 
 the perpetual kiln were, first, to cause the fuel to burn in such a manner as to consume 
 the smoke, by obliging the latter to pass through the ignited fuel ; and secondly, to cause 
 the flame from the fire to come in contact with a large quantity of the broken limestone, 
 so as to prevent the heat, as much as possible, from escaping into the atmosphere. The 
 latter object was effected by making the kiln very high in proportion to its width ; by fill- 
 ing it quite to the top with limestone ; and by having the fireplace near the bottom of 
 the kiln. The third object in view, was to render the process of burning lime perpetual, 
 in order to prevent the waste of heat, which unavoidably attends the cooling of the kiln, 
 in emptying and filling it. A fourth object was, so to arrange the process, as that the 
 burnt limestone, while cooling, might give off its heat in such a manner as to assist in heat- 
 ing the fresh quantity of cold limestone with which the kiln was replenished, as often as a 
 portion of burnt lime was taken out of it. To show how tliese purposes might be effected. 
 Count Rumford had a model erected in the court-yard of the Dublin Society, and 
 another in the farm of the English garden at Munich ; and he has given an engraving 
 and description of the latter in the Essay referred to. Whoever will take the trouble of 
 examining it, will find that Heathorn's kiln only differs from that of Count Rumford in 
 saving the coke ; this object not being proposed by the Count. The fuel in both kilns is 
 not mixed with the limestone, but is burned in a closed fireplace, which opens into the side 
 of the kiln, at some distance from the bottom. For large kilns built on these principles, 
 Rumford observes, there may be several fireplaces, all opening into the same cone; that shape 
 of kiln being employed both by Count Rumford and Mr. Heathorn. At the bottom of Count 
 Rumford's kiln there is a door, which is occasionally opened to take out the lime ; and at 
 the bottom of Heathorn's there are movable bars, which can be taken out, for the same 
 
MALT-HOUSES, LIMEKILNS, BRICK-KILNS, ETC. 605 
 
 purpose. When a portion of the burnt lime is taken away either by Count Riimford's 
 manner or Mr. Heathorn's, the empty space formed in the top of the kibi, by the sub- 
 sidence which necessarily follows, is immediately filled with fresh limestone; and, 
 when the opening at the bottom, through which the burnt lime is taken away, is closed, 
 a very small aperture is left, to admit as much air as will create a draught through the 
 hot limestone, now occupying the place of that which was removed, in order to carry up 
 its heat to the limestone in the upper part of the kiln. This aperture in both kilns is 
 furnished vidth a register. We observe by the Dictionnaire Technologique, and the article 
 Four d chaux, in the Cours Complet d" Agriculture, that the perpetual kiln is recommended 
 for France ; but there is no evidence of any of them having been actually erected in that 
 country. The form given as that now in general use in France is egg-shaped, with 
 the upper orifice about two feet in diameter, and the lower one somewhat larger ; be- 
 cause wood is burnt there on a hearth, and the calcination of the stone is effected by the 
 flame passing through it, and not by the mixture of fuel with the limestone. In the 
 turf and peat districts of France, these kinds of fuel are mixed with the stone to be 
 burnt, in the same manner as it is commonly done in Britain. 
 
 Design VII. — A Kiln for burning Bricks or Tiles, or other Earthenware used in the 
 Construction of Buildings ; and which may also he used as a Kiln for burning Lime or 
 Clay for Manure, or coking Coal or Peat, or charring Wood, impregnating Timber 
 
 with Pyrolignous Acid, kiln-drying Corn, or drying Corn in the Sheaf in tvet Seasons, 
 
 and for other agricultural Purposes. 
 
 1290. The Art of Brickmaking was, probably, one of the first inventions of man after 
 the art of agriculture ; because houses and utensils are only second, in point of necessity, 
 to food and clothing. Bricks may be formed in three ways : by compressing loamy soil, 
 in an intermediate state between wet and dry, into convenient shapes of a rectangular 
 form ; by moulding moistened clay, and drying it in the sun ; and by \atrifying these 
 moulded forms by the application of fire. As the art of preparing the clay for making 
 either bricks or tiles must be of great importance to the settlers in new countries, we 
 shall, previously to describing a farm or country brick-kiln, give a short account of the 
 manner of preparing the clay, and moulding it into bricks. 
 
 1291. The Soil most suitable for making Bricks is a clayey loam. The surface should 
 be removed from it in the autumn, and the subsoil dug up, and mixed with about one 
 sixth part of coal-ashes, during the winter; the whole being, diuing this season, exposed 
 to the weather. In spring, it is turned over once or twice, and, after all risk is past from 
 frost, the clay is prepared or worked, either by chopping and beating it, as dough is 
 worked and kneaded by a baker, or by passing it through a mill, called a pug-mill, 
 which effects the same object mechanically. The mass being suflJiciently mixed and 
 kneaded, it is laid on a table sprinkled with dry sand, from which it is taken in small 
 portions, and pressed into moulds of the shape of the brick or tile which it is desired to 
 form. These are first dried in the sun, or in the open air, under sheds, and afterwards 
 burned in one or other of the modes which we are about to describe. 
 
 1 292. Clamp-kilns for burning Bricks are nothing more than stacks or masses, com- 
 posed of bricks, interspersed with layers of coal cinders. The first three or four layers 
 or courses of bricks are placed on edge, diagonalwise, an inch or more asunder, and the 
 superincumbent course breaking joint ; the second, third, and fourth courses on edge over 
 them are also placed diagonalwise, and so as to leave considerable interstices for being 
 filled up with the cinders. Thus, the lower part of the clamp, or kiln, is formed of about 
 three fourths of the cubic contents of imperfectly burned bricks, and one fourth of coal 
 cinders in the interstices between them. The superincumbent part of the clamp is formed 
 of new-moulded bricks set close together on edge, every layer having a stratum of half 
 an inch of small ashes placed under it. The size of the kiln is without limit as to length 
 and breadth ; but it is found that the weight of more than fifteen or twenty courses of 
 unburned bricks, laid one over the other, will crush or deform those at the bottom. In 
 placing the lower stratum of four courses of open brickwork and cinders, there is a kind 
 of horizontal tunnel, or channel, continued through the work upon the ground, about a 
 foot broad, and eighteen inches high, which is filled with wood and coal, to serve as the 
 means of lighting the cinders among the bricks on each side. When the contents of this 
 tunnel are once thoroughly lighted, its ends are closed up with brick or clay. The stack 
 or clamp is carried up in sections, or vertical strata, of between three and foui* feet in thick, 
 ness ; and when as many bricks are put together as it is desired to burn, the whole is 
 surrounded by a double casing of refuse bricks, or such as are imperfectly formed, for the 
 purpose of keeping in the heat, as well as of, to a certain extent, reburning them. A 
 clamp-kiln generally continues burning twenty days, and is used for burning bricks 
 only. 
 
606 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 1 293. Covered Kilns for burning Bricks or Tiles are very simple in their construction. 
 Like limekilns, they may be formed either above the surface, or more or less under it. 
 The objects are to generate an intense heat, to equalise it as much as possible over a given 
 space, and to continue it in that space for a certain length of time. The form which we 
 have already given for a limekiln would answer perfectly for a brick-kiln ; provided 
 arched ribs were thrown across it, at the height of ten feet one above another, in order to 
 prevent the pile of unburned bricks from being crushed or deformed by their own weight. 
 Where the situation admits, a brick-kiln will always be constructed on the most durable 
 plan when the body of the kiln is sunk in a dry soil ; because, in this case, the side walls 
 may be much narrower, and also because the escape of heat by them will be much more 
 difficult. A kiln to burn 20,000 bricks at a time need not have the chamber more than 
 sixteen feet by fourteen feet, and eight feet high ; above which, the sides may be gradually 
 gathered in, so as to terminate, at the height of twenty or twenty-five feet, in an opening 
 of two or three feet in diameter. The fire is supplied below the floor of the kiln ; this 
 floor being of open work, and at such a height above the fire as that the flames and heat 
 may be equally diffused in their ascent through the openings in the floor. The fire is 
 made in two or more furnaces, which generally extend the whole length of the kiln ; and 
 these furnaces are made larger or smaller, according as they are intended to burn coal 
 or faggot wood. Those who are desirous of building a complete brick and tile kiln may 
 consult Ware's Architecture, chapters xii. and xv., in which they will find the plan 
 and description of one for burning 34,000 tiles ; and, at the same time, about half as many 
 bricks. We shall confine ourselves here to a kiln of a very small size, which will burn 
 bricks, tiles, lime, or clay, at pleasure. It may also be used for coking coal, to be 
 employed for chamber fires, or French cooking ; for making charcoal of wood, or peat ; 
 and various other purposes. For example, when the kiln is employed in burning bricks, 
 or charring wood or peat, a quantity of timber to be saturated witli the pyrolignous 
 acid of the smoke may be placed over the mouth of the kiln, under the tiled roof ; and 
 all the large openings in the latter closed. In wet seasons, corn in the sheaf may be placed 
 under this roof ; and coke, coal, or peat, burned below. By removing the arched top, 
 and replacing it by a Hat one, like that of a malt or hop kiln, it is evident that malt, 
 hops, and corn, previously to being ground into meal ; peas, before being split ; or sliced 
 potatoes, to be preserved ; and other articles, may be dried, using coke or charcoal as the 
 fuel. 
 
 1294. Details of the Design. The situation of this kiln is supposed to be similar to 
 that of the limekilns, on the face of a steep bank ; but it may be built on a level surface, of 
 the same dimensions, surrounding the brickwork with two iron hoops. The walls of the 
 ground plan are shown curved outwards ; in which form they are found to expand 
 and contract with less injury than when they are built straight. In the latter case, they 
 contract to a concave line, and ultimately give way. Fig. 1164 is the ground plan; in 
 which a shows the walls two 
 
 feet thick; h, an outer wall \\S4i 
 of nine inches, with a vacuity ^ 
 of six inches between ; c is 
 the ash-pit, sixteen feet long, 
 and two feet six inches wide ; 
 d, part of the iron bars laid 
 over it, two inches deep, one 
 inch broad, and half an inch 
 apart : these bars are cast 
 hollow, and laid loose ; e is 
 the opening or doorway over 
 the furnace by which the 
 kiln is charged with brick or 
 other materials to be burned, 
 after which the door is built 
 up. Fig. 1 165 is a dissected 
 horizontal section from A to 
 B in fig. 1167, in which 
 / is part of the ash-pit ; 
 g, part of the grating; h, 
 part of the bearing arches 
 over the grating ; i, the 
 first layer of open brick- 
 work on edge over the bear- 
 ing arches ; k, the second 
 layer crossing the first, which 
 
MALT-HOUSES, LIMEKILNS, BRICK-KILNS, ETC. 607 
 
 forms tne floor of the kilu; and I, the sill of the door of the kiln. Fig. 1166 is a 
 
 transverse section on the line 
 1166 C D, in which m is the ash- 
 
 pit ; n, the fuel-chamber j o, 
 the bearing arches over it; 
 p, the open brickwork, form- 
 ing the floor of the kiln ; q, 
 double arches over the kiln 
 mouth ; there being in the 
 lower arch six small openings 
 on the sides for the escape of 
 the smoke, and in the upper 
 arch four larger openings 
 along the top ; the united 
 areas of the openings in each 
 arch being equal to the area of 
 the ash-pit door; r, coverings 
 of iron or stone to the upper 
 openings, for use when it is 
 desired to retain the heat in 
 the kiln ; s, roof covered with 
 tUes for enclosing timber to be 
 smoked, corn in the sheaf to 
 be dried, &c., and for serving 
 as a roof when the covering 
 arches are taken off, and the 
 kiln used as a malt or corn 
 kiln ; t, a vacuity between the 
 inner and outer walls. Where 
 t t the kiln is likely to be used 
 
 alternately for burning bricks and lime, and for drying corn, instead of a fixed arch of 
 miisonry over the top, an arch may be built on a cast-iron frame placed on wheels, and 
 
 1167 
 
 n 
 
 in 
 
 ^ M t/l 1^ 
 
 drawn off and on at pleasure by windlasses, as practised at Closeburn, and figured and 
 described in the Ency. of Agric. 2d edit. § S864. Fig. 1167 is a longitudinal section on 
 the line E F, in which u is the roof of the fuel-shed, and the shed under which the 
 moulded bricks are dried before being put in the kiln ; r, the kiln floor j the open 
 
Cos COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE, 
 
 TT 
 
 brickwork under it ; x, the 
 bearing arches ; y, the iron 
 bars of the fuel-chamber ; 
 z, the ash-pit ; a', the open- 
 ings in the under arch ; fc', 
 the openings with covers 
 to the upper arch ; c' a tri- 
 angular opening in the 
 upper part of one end for 
 the escape of the smoke; 
 and d', an entrance door. 
 Fig. 1 1 68 is a groimd plan 
 of the fuel-shed, and the 
 shed over the kiln, in which, 
 e' is the fuel-shed on the 
 lower level ; the upper 
 arch of the kiln ; g', the 
 under arch ; h', the kiln 
 chamber, and i', the door 
 to the upper shed. Fig. 
 11 C9 is a section through 
 the plan at G H, showing 
 the roof and pillars of the 
 fuel-shed, and the elevation 
 of the wall of the kiln, and 
 the end of the upper shed. 
 In the lower part may be 
 seen the furnace and ash- 
 pit doors ; above tliem the 
 door to the kiln. A'; and in 
 the end of the uppe» roof 
 the opening for permitting 
 the escape of smoke, /. In 
 this elevation, as in those 
 of all the preceding De- 
 signs of kilns, no attention 
 has been paid to effect, and 'i | 
 
 very little to architectural 
 style; but every building ^' . ■ 
 may be made to have an 
 appearance, expressive not 
 only of architectural design, but even 
 of some particular architectural cha- 
 racter. This character may be de- 
 rived from its use, its locality, or from 
 historical allusion. For example, a 
 brick-kiln may be built on the face of 
 a bank, like that before us, with no- 
 thing more than simple architectural 
 expression ; that is, having the walls 
 marked as such by the proper sizing, 
 squaring, jointing, and laying in ho- 
 rizontal beds, of the stones compos- 
 ing them ; or, by other means, in 
 connection with these, by this time 
 well known to the reader. Now, the 
 expression of use may be given by a 
 kiln chimney being made the leading 
 feature ; that of local connection and 
 character by the same forms of arches, 
 or other openings or prominent parts, 
 being adopted, as those which are most 
 striking in an adjoining bridge, or other 
 public building ; and historical allu- 
 sion may be created by carrying up the 
 kiln-shed as a castellated tower, or 
 fragment of a ruin. 
 
 1168 
 
 CD 
 
 IT 
 
 I e 
 
MALT-HOUSES, LIMEKILNS, CIDER-HOUSES, ETC. 609 
 
 Design VIII. — A Cider-house, MiU, and Press, according to the Plan most generally 
 approved of in the Counties of Hereford and Worcester. 
 
 1295. The Cider-house is shown in figs. 1170, 1171, and 1172. Fig. 1170 is the 
 ground-plan, in which a is the entrance door, and h the door to a cellar, where a stone 
 
 1171 
 
 1 
 
 fV_r 
 
 tudinal section through the centre of the building, in which may be seen the cider-mill, 
 with its stone trough, / ; upright shaft, g ; grinding wheel, h ; and horse-shaft, i. Fig. 
 1 172 is a cross section on the line C D ; in which are seen the cider-press, k ; the door 
 to the vat-cellar, i ; and the window, m. 
 
 1296. The Cider-Mili is shown in the plan, fig. 1173, and in the sections on the line 
 
6lO COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 A B, fig. 1174, and on tlie line C D, fig. 1175. In each of these figures, the same 
 letters represent the same parts : a represents an upright shaft or spindle four inches and 
 
 1173 
 
 a half in diameter, with an iron band and gudgeon on each end ; the top one working on 
 an iron plate with a hinge joint and staple to release the spindle. The bottom gudgeon 
 is shouldered, to prevent it going too far up the shaft, and it works in a cast-iron cap, b ; 
 fixed to the cross-piece or arm, c, which is bedded in the stonework, d. There are three 
 other arms, e, halved on c, at right angles to it, for the purpose of securing the circular 
 rim, /, to which the cogs or teeth, g, are fixed. There is an axle or spindle, h, one end 
 of which works in the upright shaft, a, and which is compelled to revolve on its own 
 axis, when taken round with the spindle, by means of the spokes, 7', which work in between 
 
MALT-HOUSES, LIMEKILNS, CIDER-HOUSES, ETC. 611 
 
 the cogs or teeth, g ; the other end works in an iron collar, k, which is attached by 
 means of the iron bar, /, to the horse-shaft, m, so that the power of the horse, when 
 
 1175 
 
 applied, causes the axle, h, which has a millstone, n, fastened on it, to revolve in the 
 circular channel, o ; into which the fruit intended to be ground is put. The channel 
 and millstone must both be of siliceous or grit stone ; and the former must be guarded 
 by the oaken curb, p ; and by two bands of strong hoop iron around the periphery of the 
 mill at q. The pole, r, is a piece of oak three inches square, fastened to the upright 
 shaft, a, and to the horse-shaft, m ; and from the top of the upright shaft, a, there is an 
 iron bar, s, for the purpose of supporting the pole near its junction with the horse- 
 shaft, m. 
 
 1297. The Cider-Press is shown in figs. 1 176 to 1 179, in which the same letters repre- 
 sent the same parts. Fig. 1178 is a plan of the press; fig. 1176 is a section on the line 
 A B, in fig. 1178. Fig. 1177 is a section on the line C D; and fig. 1179 is an 
 isometrical view. The letter a represents the oak sill 6 feet long, 14 inches by 7 inches, 
 the top of which is level with the ground; to this sill, the upright, 6, 14 inches by 9 
 inches, is framed and pinned, the angles being further secured by 4 pieces, c, nailed to 
 both ; <i is a piece of oak 14 inches by 12 inches, framed to the upright, &, for the purpose 
 of supporting the bed of the press, e, which is of oak, 3 inches thick, doweled together. 
 
612 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 3 feet 9 inches wide, and the same 
 in length, with the angles canted off. 
 (Dowels, in timberwork, are pins, or 
 tenons, generally of oak, which are 
 let into two pieces intended to be 
 joined in their interior, so as not to 
 be seen externally: it differs from 
 the mortise and tenon, in the tenon 
 or dowel being a separate piece from 
 the two which it connects. In fig. 
 1180, a a are round oak pins for 
 dowelling two fir planks together, 
 and b b two dovetail pieces of wood 
 or iron, or sometimes of stone, for 
 dowelling two stones together.) A 
 groove or channel 2 inches wide is 
 cut on the bed, within 2 inches of its 
 edge all round, being half an inch 
 deep at the back, and 1 inch and a 
 half at the front, where the middle 
 plank projects 3 inches beyond the 
 others ; and a channel is cut through 
 at /, called the lip, which is throated 
 underneath, to prevent the liquor 
 being wasted ; is a loose plank, 3 
 feet 9 inches by 3 feet 1 inch, of 3- 
 inch oak, framed flush on both sides, 
 used for the purpose of placing on 
 the haircloths containing the pulp or 
 cheese ; h is the presser, which is of 
 cast iron, 8 inches by 2 inches and a 
 half in the centre, and 6 inches by 
 2 inches at each end, where a groove is cut 1 inch and a half by 1 inch to admit the 
 oak guides that are nailed on the uprights, b. The presser is suspended by means of two 
 slots, i, to the bottom of the iron screw, 
 
 k, which has a groove turned imme- c-» 
 diately under its nave for the slots to 
 work in. The nave of the screw is 
 about 9 inches long and 8 inches in 
 diameter, with two holes through its 
 centre at right angles to each other, 
 to adinit an iron lever bar. The screw 
 is 4 inches in diameter, and has a 
 square thread of about one-seventeenth 
 pitch, or 16 revolutions to the foot, 
 working in an iron box, /, which has 
 two lips cast on it to prevent it from 
 turning round, being mortised and 
 pinned into the top beam of the press, 
 m, which is of the same size, and framed 
 and pinned to the uprights, b, in a 
 similar manner to d. 
 
 1 298. Specification of the works to be 
 performed in the erection of a cider- 
 house, mill, and press, according to the 
 plan most generally approved of in the 
 counties of Hereford and Worcester, as 
 detailed in the accompanying drawings, 
 figs. 1176 to 1179. 
 
 1299. Excavator. To excavate the 
 earth to the depth of 3 feet 6 inches, 
 and of such breadth as may be necessary 
 to allow for working-room. The space 
 between the wall and the solid earth to 
 be filled in on each side of the walls 
 eijudlly, as they are carried up, and the 
 
 1177 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 d 
 
 
 a C j 
 
 1 1 ' 
 
MALT-HOUSES, LIMEKILNS, CIDER-HOUSES, ETC. 6l3 
 
 remainder of the earth that may be 
 excavated to be used to fill up the 
 bed of the mill, or to be wheeled 
 away to any distance required, not 
 exceeding 20 yards. 
 
 1300. Bricklayer. The walls to be 
 commenced with good brick or stone, 
 18 inches wide and 6 inches high, 
 and reduced on that to 14 inches 
 wide and 6 inches high ; whence 
 they are to be continued 9 inches 
 thick to the roof; the whole of the 
 bricks being of good quality. Com- 
 mon bricks are to be used laid in 
 English bond in good mortar, made 
 with the best lime and sand that 
 can be obtained, or is used for such 
 purposes, in the parish. The door 
 and window cases to be properly set, 
 and a brick on edge arch and platting 
 course (a brick flat arch, over a brick 
 on edge one) over each. The templets 
 
 (short pieces of timber laid under the beams, to distribute the weight), bond, and 
 raising plates to be well bedded in mortar on the walls, and a 3-brick diagonal dentil 
 cornice to be worked under the eaves. 
 
614 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 1180 
 
 1301. Carpenter and Joiner. To provide two 5 inches by 4 inches oak beaded and 
 rebated door-cases, 7 feet by 3 feet 9 inches in the clear ; with 2 iron dowels in the bottom 
 of each, 6 inches long and 1 inch square ; and 2 1-inch centre-boards on each ; having 
 1^-inch red deal ledged, ploughed, tongued, and beaded doors hung to them with 20-inch 
 hooks and hinges, put on with 1^-inch screws, and a good fine plate copper ward-lock 
 of the value of 4s. on each door. Two one-light windows, 3 feet by 2 feet in the clear, 
 to be provided, of 3 inches by 4 inches oak, with 2 1-inch centre-boards, and 3 iron bars 
 1 inch square each ; 1-inch deal ledged doors, ploughed, tongued, and beaded, to be 
 hung outside each window with 10-inch hooks and hinges, and fastened inside with hasps 
 and staples. The templets under the tie-beams, and the bond timbers through the 
 gables, to be of 3 inches by 4 inches oak, each in one length. The tie-beams to be of 
 Memel timber, 10 inches by 6 inches ; and the raising plates to be properly cogged down 
 upon them, in one length of 6 inches by 3 inches Memel timber ; the rafters to be also of 
 Memel fir, 5 inches and three quarters by 2 inches, and 1 8 inches from centre to centre ; 
 the ridge-board, 8 inches and a half by 1 inch and a half, of red deal ; the ridge roll (a 
 piece over which the lead is turned on ridges and hips,) to be 1 inch and three quarters 
 in diameter, supported by proper ridge spikes 4 feet apart; the tie-beam in which the top 
 of the upright spindle works to have two diagonal stays of 6 inches by 4 inches Memel 
 fir from its centre to the ends of the other tie-beam, being mortised, tenoned, and pinned 
 to each other. An -^ak curb to be made to go all round the mill, and the millwright 
 assisted in rimming it, and spindling the stone. 
 
 1302. Slater. The roof to be covered with Welsh blue duchess slates, having a 21- 
 inch lap on 2 inches by 1 inch red deal battens, and nailed on them with 2-inch copper 
 nails, and torched (plastered at the crevices, to keep the wind out) on the underside with 
 hair mortar. 
 
 1303. Ironmongery. To provide and fix cast-iron spouting with proper brackets 
 at intervals of 3 feet ; hopper head 2 inches down pipe, and shoe to each side of the 
 buUding. 
 
 1304. Plumber and Painter. The ridge to be covered with 5-pound milled lead 22 
 inches wide, and both the doors, door and window cases, shutters and cast-iron spouts to 
 be well painted with good white lead and oil paint three times. 
 
 1305. Stone Mason. To provide and set 2 pair of plinth stones and lead in dowels, 
 each stone being 9 inches square and 6 inches thick. To provide and set stones for the 
 bed of the mill as shown in drawings ; the stones to be well and properly cramped with 
 iron, and joggled together with good hard stone joggles (the same as doweled in car- 
 pentry ; the use of the stone joggles is to prevent two pieces of stone joined together 
 from sliding apart at the joint) where necessary. The stones to be of the best siliceous 
 or grit kind that is usually procured for the purpose, and the millstone to be of similar 
 quality. The millwright to be assisted in spindling the millstone, and in rimming the 
 mill. 
 
 1306. Millwright. To provide every description of labour, and all kinds of materials 
 that may be requisite for the completion of the mill and press, except the wood rim.and 
 stone bed of the mill, which will be provided by the carpenter and stone mason, both of 
 whom will assist the millwright to rim the mill and spindle the millstone. 
 
 1 307. General Particular. The whole of the works must be performed in a good, sound, 
 and workmanlike manner, and every part made complete and perfect ; using the best 
 materials in every department of the works, and the whole being in conformity with the 
 foregoing specification and the accompanying drawings. 
 
 1308. Detailed Estimate of Cider Mill-house, Mill, and Press. £ s. d. 
 
 92 feet of lineal trenches excavated 0: 10: O 
 
 1013 feet superficial 9-inch brickwork (or 2 rods 131 feet 4 inches), 
 
 at 6d. per foot, or ^^10 : 4s. per rod 25 : 6 : 6 
 
 55 feet lineal dentil brick cornice, at 2d. per foot 0 : 9 : 2 
 
 S squares 43 feet 9 inches of duchess slating, torched underneath, and 
 
 copper-nailed, at 36s. per square 6 : 3 : 9 
 
MALT-HOUSES. LIMEKILNS, CIDER-HOUSES, ETC. 6l5 
 
 40 feet of lineal 3 inches by 4 inches oak ties and templets, at 4§rf. 
 
 per foot 0 t 15 : 0 
 
 60 feet cubic red pine timber, the beams, wall-plates, rafters, &c. at 
 
 3s. 6(/. per foot 10 : 10 : 0 
 
 40 feet lineal 3 inches by 4 inches wrought oak rebated and cham- 
 fered one-light window cases, at 7^d. per foot 1: 5: 10 
 
 40 feet lineal 5 inches by 4 inches ditto, and beaded doorcases, at Is. 
 
 per foot 2:0:0 
 
 52 feet 6 inches superficial l^-inch ledged, ploughed, tongued, and 
 
 beaded doors, at lid. per foot 2 : 8 : 1^ 
 
 26 feet 3 inches superficial 1-inch ditto ditto shutters, at 9d. per 
 
 foot 0 : 19 : 8 
 
 10 feet superficial 1-inch beaded centre boards and blocks at 8^d. per 
 
 foot 0 : 7 : 1 
 
 27 feet 6 inches lineal ridge roll, at 4c?. per foot • 0 : 9 : 2 
 
 2 cwt. 2 qrs. 15 lbs. 51b. -lead on ridge, at 24s. per cwt j 3 : 3 : Ig 
 
 35 yards and one third painting in oil, 3 coats, at 9c?. per yard 1 : 6 : 6 
 
 55 feet cast-iron eaves-spout and brackets, at Is. l^c?. per foot 3 : 3 : O 
 
 16 feet 2 inches wall-pipe, at Is. 6d. per foot ; 2 hopper heads, 10s. ; 
 
 2 shoes, 6s 2 : 0 : 3 
 
 9 3 feet 1 inch by 1 inch iron window bars, 31s. 6<?., and 3 pair 
 
 10-inch hooks and hinges, at 3s. 6c?. 1 : 15 : 0 
 
 2 pair 20-inch hooks and hinges, 4s. ; 4 6-inch dowels, 3s 0 : 7 : 0 
 
 2 fine plate locks, copper wards 0 : 8 : O 
 
 3 keys and pins to shutters 0: 3: 6 
 
 4 plinth-stones 0 : 10 : O 
 
 Mill 10 feet diameter, 21s., ^10 : 10s. ; runner, £l : Is 11:11: O 
 
 Wood and ironwork to mill, complete 5: 0: 0 
 
 with iron screw... ^ 11 : 0 : 0 
 
 Total £91 : 11 : 8 
 
 1309. Remarks. The foregoing Designs, descriptions, and the specification have been 
 sent us by Thomas Prosser, Esq., Architect, Worcester, at the request of our kind friend, 
 J. C. Kent, Esq., of Levant Lodge. The fidelity of the drawings, and the completeness 
 of the details do the greatest credit to the Architect, who must be no less skilled in me- 
 chanics than in Architecture ; and, what is of the greatest value, appears to be well 
 acquainted with the uses of the different articles he describes. It may be observed, that 
 in the following Design for a cider-mill and press, by Mr. Kent, there are some little 
 differences in the details of construction. The principal of these are, that, in Mr. Kent's 
 cider-mill, the grinding-stone is beveled towards the inner edge ; whereas, in Mr. 
 Prosser's, it is alike square on both edges. In Mr. Kent's press, the large square board, 
 
 in fig. 1179, is loose; whereas, in Mr. Prosser's, it appears to be fixed to the bridge h. 
 Another difference is, that the wheel moves directly on, instead of with the axle ; thus 
 lessening labour, and avoiding the necessity of cogs. The reason for having the square 
 board or shooter loose, is to admit of blocks being placed between, to equalise the pres- 
 sure, as (and that chiefly in the single screw presses) if the pile of must is not made 
 perfectly even, it is liable to slip aside. By the use of blocks, also, a smaller quantity 
 may be pressed with the single screw ; as, without them, if the pile be low, the screw is 
 drawn out too far from its purchase. It is evident that this last is a difference of very 
 little moment ; but, perhaps, beveling the inner edge of the grinding-wheel may render 
 it easier to move along. 
 
 Design IX. — A Cider-house, Mill, and Press, with the different Implements connected 
 
 with Cider-making. 
 
 1310. The Cider-house is usually a building with only one floor; or sometimes with 
 a hay, straw, or hop loft over it. It is constructed of brick or of wood, in the same 
 manner as a barn. For a mill of the following dimensions, viz., 12 feet in diameter, it 
 should be, as a minimum, 22 feet long by 1 9 feet wide ; and not less than 7 or 8 feet in 
 height ; being solely for the purpose of containing the mill and press made use of in 
 extracting the juice from the fruit. The mill is erected at one end, leaving 3 feet and a 
 half space between it and the wall, to allow the horse room to pass round. At the other 
 end, facing the mill, is placed the press. It is advisable to have it sufficiently near the 
 cellar to admit of an open pipe or trunk conveying the liquid from the lip of the press 
 vat to a receiver placed in the cellar ; thereby avoiding the waste of time and labour 
 which would be otherwise consumed in carrying it down. 
 
616 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 1311. 7%e Cider-Mill for the purpose of grinding the fruit is constructed as follows : — 
 Two, three, or four stones, as may be required, each being the segment of the horizontal 
 section of a cylinder, are fitted and cramped together. In the Design before us, the 
 diameter of the section of the cylinder is 12 feet, and its axis 2 feet ; that is, it stands 
 about that height from the ground. Into the surface of the upper end is cut a circulal 
 trough, within 2 inches of the periphery, termed the chace, fig. 1 181, a ; the side towards 
 
 1181 
 
 the centre is perpendicular, but the outer side slopes oflP, to allow the fruit to work up on 
 that side when the roller passes over it, as being more convenient for the driver to push 
 it down again to be recrushed. At the bottom the width is 1 foot 3 inches, at the top 
 2 feet, giving 9 inches for the slope. When first cut it is usually 5 inches deep, and a 
 rim of wood, 4 inches high, called the nut, raises it on the outer rim, while a platform 
 of wood to the same depth is fitted on the bed of the mill. This is removed when, by 
 continual wear, the trough has become that much deeper. A circular stone roller, called 
 the runner, h, is set on its edge, and revolves in the chace. It is 4 feet and a half 
 in diameter, and 1 foot 2 inches wide on the edge, which is beveled off inwards on a 
 slope of about three quarters of an inch in a foot, to facilitate its circular motion round 
 the trough, and counteract the centrifugal tendency it would have, were it cut quite 
 square. The inner side or face of the stone is perpendicular ; but the outer is gradually 
 rounded off from the edge, so as to be about 4 inches thicker at the axle. The surface 
 of the edge of the wheel, as well as that of the bottom of the trough, should be rendered 
 perfectly smooth, though it is a frequent custom to leave them rough, and even with 
 inequalities, whereby the kernels, &c., of the fruit in great part escape untouched. This 
 is done to prevent the roller from sliding; but the same object is better attained by a cog- 
 wheel. In the Design before us, however, there is no danger of sliding, even without 
 the aid of cogs. Through the centre of the runner is fixed a square bush of wood, to 
 contain the iron boulk, or baulk, for the axle, also of iron, on which it turns to work. 
 This axle passes into a larger wooden one, c, 5 inches thick ; and is held firm by a pin, 
 or key, fitting in a hole through both. This larger axle extends over the bed of the 
 mill to a perpendicular spindle or shaft, d, through which passes a flat iron pin fixed 
 edgewise in the axle. The hole in the spindle is elongated an inch upwards and down- 
 wards, with a width just enough to admit the pin freely. This prevents straining, by 
 
MALT-HOUSES, LIMEKILNS, CIDER-HOUSES, ETC. QVJ 
 
 allowing the short end of the axle to rise or fall as the stone does so, over the fruit in the 
 chace. The spindle^ also 5 inches thick, protected as well as the wooden axle by iron bands 
 round each extremity, revolves by a pivot at either end ; the lower one is provided with 
 a shoulder working in the socket of a brass box fixed in the bed of the mill, the upper 
 in a beam of the roof above. Attached to this, at the breast height of a horse, measur- 
 ing from the ground, is a pole, e, 3 inches and a half square, passing horizontally, close 
 before the runner ; and being shaped so as to run directly out parallel to the axle. This 
 pole extends about 3 feet beyond the mill, having two shafts, /, 2 feet 3 inches long and 
 3 inches square, 2 feet apart, projecting at right angles from it. Between these shafts 
 the horse employed in grinding is yoked, his head being over the pole, and a short chain 
 of a link or two from his collar being hooked on the projecting end of each shaft. The 
 horse, having no other encumbrance save a head stall, is left quite free behind, allowing 
 him to turn much more readily than when hampered with traces, which, moreover, con- 
 tinually rub against and gall his haunches. An iron rod from the top of the spindle to 
 the pole, about 4 feet from the former, selves to strengthen it ; and an iron box, in which 
 the outer end of the axle is pinned close to the wheel, is also connected by an iron bar 
 with this pole, which bar is also attached by a side stay to the inner shaft. Thus, then, 
 the circular motion of the runner round the chace is effected by the revolving spindle, 
 while the runner has a rotatory motion on its axle, instead of with it, as is the case 
 with the runners in general use. By this method, the labour of the horse is diminished, 
 and the necessity of cogs is superseded ; because the wheel is much less liable to slide. 
 This mill will grind about 90 bushels of fruit in a day, which on an average will yield 
 3 hogsheads of cider, of 100 gallons each ; but the quantity ground depends much 
 on the degree of care used in grinding. The stone employed in constructing cider-mills, 
 or the vats of cider-presses, should invariably be of a siliceous nature ; the malic acid 
 having a stronger affinity for lime than the carbonic, which is present in all calcareous 
 stone that could be made available for this purpose. The grey gritstone is preferable 
 to the old red stone (in very common use), from its being less liable to crack and split, 
 and from its wearing away much more slowly, owing to its greater hardness. 
 
 1312. The portable Implements used with the mill are all made of wood, metal being 
 found objectionable. They are as follows : 
 
 1313. The Stirrer, fig. 1182, for stirring the pulp from the sides, into the bottom of 
 the chace. 
 
 1314. The Reever, fig. 1183, to push it up together for removal when ground. 
 
 1315. The Scoop, fig. 1184, to take it from the chace. 
 
 1316. The Cider- Press, for extract- 
 ing the juice after the fruit has been 
 ground to a pulp by the mill, consists 
 of a sill of wood, fig. 1185, k, 5 feet 
 6 inches long, and 18 inches square, 
 let into the ground about 4 inches. 
 On this is placed the bed or vat, I, 
 which is 4 feet wide by 4 feet and a 
 half, and canted off at the corner: 
 it is 3 inches in thickness, with an 
 inch-square rim (preferable to a mere 
 channel cut in the vat), which is 
 raised round the edges to conduct 
 the liquid to a lip cut through it 
 in front whence it runs into a re- 
 ceiver. The vat should be of stone, 
 though wood is often employed for the purpose. On either side, standing 6 feet 
 from the sill, is an upright wrought-iron pillar, passing quite through it, and pinned 
 on the under side by wedges driven 
 
 through a keyhole. These pillars, for 
 2 feet 6 inches of their height, are 
 square, the sides being 2 inches and 
 a quarter, and smooth ; above this 
 square part they are cut into a screw, 
 with a square thread, 2 inches in dia- 
 meter, which makes 16 or 18 revolu- 
 
 3 z 
 
tions in a foot, extending 2 feet 10 inches, and the remaining 8 inches are finished off to 
 an inch in diameter. This passes into a cross beam, m, 4 inches thick, strengthened by 
 supports to the beams of the roof above. The screws pass freely through holes in a 
 bridge, n, which is 4 inches thick, and a foot wide ; and is suspended at each end by 
 two slots (cross bars) playing on a rim round the lower extremity of the nuts, whicli 
 serve to work it up and down. The nuts are each about 7 inches long, and turned by a 
 collar, with 3 horns fitting into the nut, and prevented from slipping round by 3 lips 
 on the nuts, corresponding to as many grooves in the collar. The horns are 1 foot 5 
 8 inches long, being turned up for 5 inches at the ends, to afford a more ready clutch. A 
 square board, termed a shooter, o, and a number of oak blocks, 3 feet long and 
 4 inches square, are made use of; the former to lay flat on the pile of must, and the 
 blocks to place two and two, crosswise, as many as may be necessary to raise it to the 
 height required. These serve to equalise the pressure on all parts of the must. If 
 the cellar be not suflftciently near to admit of an open trunk conveying the liquor at 
 once from the lip of the press vat to a receiver in the cellar, a permanent stone cistern 
 sunk into the ground beneath it is requisite. 
 
 1317. This press differs from that in general use, in which a single perpendicular screw 
 works downwards through a fixed nut, and has an advantage over it in giving an increase 
 of power, and as commanding greater certainty of an equality of pressure. The pair ot 
 screw pillars cost from £6 to £7 ; but they effect a great saving of timber and labour 
 in its erection. In its use, care should be taken to screw down both the nuts equally, 
 otherwise there is danger of breaking or bending the screws. On first commencing to 
 press, this may readily be done by a man standing on the front of the vat, and turning 
 one with each hand : but subsequently, when greater force is required, first one and then 
 the other must be screwed down, only a little at a time ; or, if two men are employed 
 
MALT-HOUSES, LIMEKILNS, CIDER-HOUSES, ETC. 6l9 
 
 1186 
 
 1187 
 
 they may be turned simultaneously. To obviate this inconvenience, some presses are 
 provided with a cog wheel turning jon a pivot on the centre of the bridge, and working 
 on a rack fixed on each nut ; so that, by turning the one, the other is turned also, and all 
 danger of straining the screws is entirely prevented. 
 
 1318. The Implements made use of are: — the racking-can, tun-pail, dropping-bag, 
 bottling-bench, and box for carrying bottles. 
 
 1319. The Racking- Can, fig. 1186, is made of oak staves in the same manner as a tub 
 or cask. It is about 10 inches inside diameter at the top, and 
 somewhat larger at the bottom, and about 1 1 inches high. 
 The handle is of iron, and is fastened on by the hoops under 
 which it passes. Round the top is an iron rim which clips the 
 can for about an inch down, and then is bent out at right angles, 
 to furnish hold for the hand in raising it. It contains about 
 three gallons. 
 
 1320. The Tun- Pail, fig. 1187, is made in the same manner 
 as the can. The diameter inside is about 1 foot 3 inches, and 
 the height is 7 inches and a half ; the back part being 3 inches 
 and a half or 4 inches higher than the front. There is a leg, 
 a, which, with a similar one opposite to it, serves to steady the pail when the spout 
 which is fixed in the bottom of the pail in the direction b, is 
 placed in the bung-hole of the cask to be filled. This spout is 
 of copper, 1 inch and a half in diameter, and about 3 inches 
 and a half from the raised back 
 
 1321. The Dropping-Bag, fig. 1188, is formed of a yard 
 square of stout canvass : the hoop at the top is about 1 foot 6 
 inches in diameter, and from the hoop to the point is 2 feet. 
 When used, these bags are suspended on a ladder-like frame 
 made for the purpose, to support any number that may be 
 required. 
 
 1322. Tlie Bottling- Benc/i, fig. 1189, consists of the seat, a ; 
 a basket for corks, b ; and a tin cylinder fixed to the bench, c, to which a leathern bottle 
 of the same shape fits closely in, to contain the bottle 
 while being corked. The machine, d, is made use of 
 for pressing the corks, to render it easier to put them in 
 the bottles : it consists of two flat pieces of iron, each 
 curved in an opposite direction, and joined at one end 
 by a hinge ; to the top one a handle is attached, the under 
 one being fixed by legs to the bench. Both parts are 
 toothed, to take a firmer hold of the cork. There is a 
 circular hole, e, to receive a small can to hold a portion 
 of the liquor, with which to wet the corks, in order that 
 they may slide in the more readily. 
 
 1323. The Box for carrying Bottles is generally made 
 to hold from 4 to 1 2 bottles. Fig. 1 1 90 is made to hold 
 six. The square divisions on each are just large enough to 
 admit a quart bottle, which should stand in nearly up to 
 its shoulder. 
 
 1324. The Use of the Cider-Mill, and the Process of the 
 Manufacture of Cider. The period for cider-making 
 iommences in September, but at that time only the wind- 
 
 fells are ground : most sorts of pears are ripe towards the middle and end of October ; 
 
620 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 and, as they do not bear keeping so well as apples, perry is generally made at that season. 
 The best sorts of cider should not be made before 
 the beginning of November ; and, in general, the 
 later it is made, the better is the product. After 
 being gathered, the fruit is usually placed in 
 shallow heaps on the ground, in the open air, 
 until signs of decay become visible in the ripest ; 
 but later in the season they should be placed under 
 cover, to protect them from frost and rain : indeed, 
 it were better, where space is at command, that this 
 should always be done, provided the place where 
 they are deposited be airy. Cider is made on 
 almost every farm in Worcestershire and Herefordshire ; as, even where there is no 
 regular orchard, the isolated trees dispersed through the hedgerows furnish con- 
 siderable quantities of fruit. The apples or pears (for when cider is mentioned it 
 applies equally to perry, unless specifically stated otherwise) intended for grinding are 
 scattered over the bottom of the chace ; as, if they are put very thick, they cannot be 
 crushed properly; care being taken to pick out any that are what is termed black 
 rotten, as a few only of those would inevitably taint the liquor, and impart an un- 
 pleasant flavour to the whole. There is no objection to the fruit being what is called 
 mosy, roxy, or sleepy, nearly synonymous terms, and all signifying fruit beginning to 
 decay. The wheel being once set in motion, a boy or girl (and one of ten or twelve 
 years old can efficiently perform the office) continually follows the runner, pushing down 
 the pulp by means of the stirrer, fig. 1182, from the sides of the chace, up which it is con- 
 tinually squeezed, in order that it may again be crushed by the next revolution of the 
 wheel. When the fruit is sufficiently ground (that is, when it is perfectly reduced to 
 a pulp, the rind and kernels being thoroughly bruised), it is pushed or drawn up together 
 by the reever, fig. 1183; and then with the scoop, fig. 1 1 84, it is put into buckets, and 
 carried to the press. More fruit is then thrown in, and the grinding proceeds as before. 
 Those who are very choice in their cider put it aside in large tubs, to be exposed to the 
 air for twenty-four hours, after which it is pressed, and it is even sometimes reground. 
 There can be no doubt that exposing the liquor to the air is attended with good 
 effects. Even during the short process of grinding, the air turns the pulp of a deep red 
 colour ; though whether this change takes place from the absorption of oxygen, or only 
 from the mutual action upon each other of the different parts of the fruit, has never been 
 accurately ascertained ; but it is most probable that both causes have an influence depend- 
 ent on each other. Certain, however, it is, that, if the juice of the apples be expressed 
 at once from the fruit, it is a poor and thin liquid ; whereas the juice of the commonest 
 fruit, when exposed a good deal to the air, becomes quite red, and runs sweet and luscious 
 when submitted to the press after being well ground. The pulp is placed in haircloths 
 made for the purpose, from three feet and a half to four feet and a half square. One is 
 first spread out in the vat, I ; and when that is filled, another is put above it, and so on ; 
 just so much being placed on each haircloth as to allow of the ends being folded nearly 
 into the centre. The workman (and one only, with the assistance of a little boy, is suf- 
 ficient for all purposes) spreads the pulp, and beats it with his hands, kneading it close 
 into the sides and corners of the haircloths as he folds them over. A mould is some- 
 times used to keep the pile to an equal and regular form. When from ten to twelve 
 haircloths have been filled, the large square board or presser, termed a shooter, 
 0, is placed on the top, and oaken blocks or bars are placed two and two, crosswise, 
 as many as may be necessary, above ; of course taking care that the top pair are at 
 right angles with the bridge of the press, n. These blocks insure a more equal 
 pressure over every part of the cheese (as the mass is called when in this state), and 
 as the must, or pulp, sinks, it is sometimes necessary to increase the number of 
 blocks in order to raise it higher. The press is then screwed down gradually, until it 
 has extracted all the juice the fruit can yield. The must, or cheese, is then shaken 
 from the haircloths, and put again in the mill to be reground (unless in very abundant 
 years, when it is not worth the labour), and water is poured with it into the trough 
 or chace. The must is afterwards again pressed, and about one hogshead of what is termed 
 washings is obtained from the same quantity that had previously afforded about three 
 hogsheads of cider. The cheese is finally dried for fuel, or by some used to feed pigs. 
 A prejudice exists against its use as a manure, probably owing to its having been occa- 
 sionally put fresh on the land in too large quantities, and in that case found injurious. 
 Mr. Knight, however, states that he has known it to be beneficial, when mixed with 
 quicklime, and allowed to remain until wholly decomposed. When family drink is 
 required, which is that consumed by the household servants and farm people (and, indeed, 
 on ordinary occasions, by the farmers ftiemselves, and by most residents in cider coun- 
 
MALT-HOUSES, LIMEKILNS, CIDER-HOUSES, ETC. 621 
 
 tries who drink it at all), a portion of water is poured into the chace with the fruit when 
 even it is first ground. It is a singular fact, that, notwithstanding the immoderate quan- 
 tities of this their sole beverage, which the labourers are in the habit of drinking at 
 harvest time, when it is almost always extremely harsh, and very often quite acid, yet 
 not an individual case of cholera has occurred in the county of Hereford, though few towns 
 of the adjoining counties have wholly escaped. The juice is commonly received in a 
 stone cistern sunk in the ground immediately under the lip of the press, and is thence 
 conveyed to the cellar, which should be near. When practicable, an open spout may be 
 used to convey it at once to a receiver placed therein. What is sold to the merchants, 
 who buy the greater part of the prime and unwatered cider, is at once tunned from the 
 press into hogsheads, and sent off by loads of three or four casks in a waggon, to the 
 purchaser, who superintends its after-management himself. Although this immediate 
 removal is liable to be prejudicial to the liquor, should rapid fermentation commence before 
 it is stowed under the cider-merchant's care ; yet, from his greater knowledge of its due 
 treatment, and his paying it more attention, it is in . most cases far superior in richness 
 and flavour to what can be procured from the cultivators themselves. Cider drinkers, 
 in the counties in which it grows, generally prefer that which is stout and rough (in fact, 
 what others would term harsh), to the more refined and luscious beverage exported to 
 distant places, where vinegar would be deemed a more appropriate name for what the 
 cider-makers themselves prefer and retain. In the cellar it is usually tunned into 
 hogsheads of a himdred gallons each, leaving a few gallons ullage. Larger hogsheads, of 
 two, three, or four hundred gallons, are frequently made use of ; and they are to be pre- 
 ferred, more especially after the liquor has become quite bright, and all active ferment- 
 ation has ceased. Long ranges of casks are, however, in abundant seasons, placed on 
 trams, and allowed to remain for a considerable period in the open air ; where, unless the 
 weather be very severe, the working (as it is called) proceeds equally well with that 
 removed to the vaults or cellars. In forty-eight hours, or thereabouts, according to the 
 temperature of the weather, &c., after the cider has been tunned, the feculent parts of the 
 fruit, which have passed through the haircloths with the juice, are separated from the 
 liquor, and thrown to the surface. When this is the case, no time should be lost in 
 racking the liquor ; for, if taken at this juncture, it runs off perfectly bright; but should 
 it be neglected, the extraneous matter is again mixed with the liquid by the internal 
 motion occasioned by the fermentation. After a few days it subsides to the bottom, 
 though, when the weather is (as often happens in the season for cider-making) mild and 
 warm, this period is protracted, and the cider is in proportion deteriorated. With this 
 single racking the farmer is generally content ; for he prefers a good, stout, rough be- 
 verage, to one of a more luscious quality, and moreover dreads the expense of continual 
 care and rackings. The common family drink and washings most frequently receive no 
 care whatever, from the time when the liquor is tunned, to that when it is tapped for use ; 
 and the grounds remaining in it cause a continual fermentation until it becomes acid, 
 often so much so as to be fit for nothing but making vinegar. If it is intended for the 
 cider to attain the highest perfection of which it is capable, it must be carefully watched, 
 to prevent any active fermentation taking place ; and, if this should be the case, it must 
 be again racked, and this course be pursued until it becomes perfectly quiescent. The 
 fewer the rackings required, the better the cider will be ; for dturing each successive rack- 
 ing a portion of the spirit evaporates, and, if they be repeated too frequently, the liquor is 
 rendered poor and thin. In this lies the great art of managing cider ; and, in warm 
 seasons especially, it is still a desideratum to discover some means of checking its too 
 rapid fermentation, which is always induced by increase of temperature. When it has 
 remained a short time quiet, and shows no disposition to renewed fermentation or 
 fretting, if not perfectly star-bright, which it seldom is, it should be fined with isin- 
 glass ; an operation which will, in some cases, require to be repeated two or three times, 
 ere the maximum of transparency is obtained. The cask may then be stopped down 
 close, but must be occasionally examined. It is usual to heighten the colour of the cider 
 by the addition of a small quantity of sugar boiled with water until black : none is ever 
 added to perry. Every time the liquor is racked, a certain quantity of lees will be found ; 
 and it is the presence of these which excites the fretting. These lees must on every occa- 
 sion be put into bags, termed dropping-bags, suited for the purpose, by means of which 
 the liquor mingled with the grounds is obtained clear, the fectJency remaining behind. 
 Some preserve the product of this separate ; for from its having dripped drop by drop 
 from the bags, and its long exposure to the air in the receiving-tub, it becomes quite 
 flat, having, at the same time, parted with much of its spirit. Others, on account of that 
 very flatness, return it back to the cask, as tending to check fermentation. Among other 
 unfounded, absurd, and ignorant accusations which are alleged against merchants for 
 doctoring their cider, it is aflfirmed that they are in the habit of mixing with it bul- 
 lock's blood. The only use to which sheep's and bullock's blood is applied in the manu- 
 
6^2 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 facture of cider is, to mix a little of it, and but a very little, while warm from the animal, 
 among the lees, previously to their being put into the bags: in cooling, it coagulates, and 
 aids the separation of the feculencies from the liquor. With the merchants, the time for 
 putting cider and perry into bottles is in the spring following the season of its make ; 
 . when it is necessary to mix a portion of old and sound liquor of the previous season's 
 growth, to anable it to bear the transit, without endangering the loss of the whole by 
 the bursting of the bottles from fermentation. Where not intended for sale, it may 
 remain till the autumn, and may then be safely bottled, without any admixture ; but the 
 summer months being the season for consumption, when intended for the market it is 
 absolutely necessary that the bottling should be done in the spring, about the month of 
 March. The corks must be tied down with wire, and the bottles placed on their sides, 
 without straw or sawdust. Mr. Kent desires us to add that " the above directions have 
 been given empirically, without allusion to the theory of fermentation, and the chemical 
 laws which govern the different changes that take place ; beginning from the admixture, 
 by grinding, of the fermentative, saccharine, aromatic, and astringent principles contained 
 in the fruit, until the expressed liquid arrives at its state of a sweet and rich, a strong 
 and rough, or a thin and acetous liquid. To have entered into such details would have 
 occupied too extended a space, and, moreover, have appeared foreign from the general 
 tenor of the work. " 
 
 Design X. — A House for breeding and fattening Poultry on a large Scale, with Re- 
 marks on their Management, and on the Suitableness of Poultry as Live Stock for the 
 Farm Labourer ; and Designs for altering or building their Cottages accordingly. 
 
 1325. The Object of this Design, which was furnished us by our much esteemed con- 
 tributor Mr. Main, is to show the arrangement and details of a house, in which hens, 
 ducks, geese, and other barn-yard fowls, may be hatched or fattened, and also the mode 
 of hatching, breeding, and fattening them. Fig. 1191 is the ground plan of a poultry- 
 house for general purposes ; in which is shown the surrounding line of laying-boxes or 
 
 1191 
 
 : ; 
 I I 
 
 I 
 
 fatting-coops, or both, according as the house may be used for either or both purposes. 
 Fig. 1192 is the elevation, in perspective ; showing the 1192 
 entrance hatch with its stair. Fig. 1193 is a cross 
 section ; in which may be seen the laying-boxes, a a ; 
 and the perches, b b, suspended from two purlins 
 resting on the tie-beams. Fig. 1 1 94 is a front view of 
 the laying-boxes; and fig. 1195 is a front view of 
 the fatting-coops. Both these are divided into lengths 
 of three feet each, and the bottom, back, and top, in 
 the divisions, are of boards. The front of the fat- 
 ting-coops is closed with laths, about two inches 
 wide, and about one inch and three quarters between. The centre lath of each 
 coop is framed into a movable sill or foot, which foot has grooved or forked ends, 
 
MALT-HOUSES, POULTRY-HOUSES, ETC. 
 1193 
 
 623 
 
 1194 
 
 n 
 
 n 
 
 to admit of its traversing on the edge of the laths on each side, as shown at c. 
 When this lath and its foot are lifted up, 
 the space opened is sufficiently wide for the 
 admission or exit of the fowl. The lath 
 may be kept raised by a pin inserted in it 
 through a hole in the top i-aih Fig. 1196 
 is a section across this fatting-coop ; in 
 which may be seen, at d, the trough for food 
 and water, of which there is one to each 
 coop, and all are movable, in order that they 
 may be cleaned. 
 
 1326. Construction. « Poultry-houses," Mr. Main observes, « are generally lean-tos, 
 or they may be built with a pitched roof, as in fig. 1192. The foundation, whether of 
 
 1195 
 
 stone or brickwork, should be laid pretty deep, and solidly buUt, to prevent the bur- 
 rowing of rats, stoats, and weasels. The walls are constructed of sills, plates, posts, and 
 quarters, weather-boarded ; the roofs of beams and rafters, connected by laths, or old 
 hurdles thatched. The entrance opening, or hatch for fowls, should always be two or 
 
6^4 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 three feet from the ground, with little ladders within and without, to prevent the visits 
 of pigs. This hole has a slip shutter, within rebated cheeks, open in the daytime, but 
 let down every evening, lest dogs, cats, or foxes should enter. Care should be taken 
 that this opening be not so large as to admit the thief s little son or confederate, unless 
 secured by a keyed bolt in the inside. The perches for fowls and turkeys are fixed at 
 different heights from the floor, observing that no one perch be directly over another, 
 nor should they extend over the laying-boxes. A flat board with steps nailed on is 
 placed against one of the most central perches, to assist in mounting the chickens to 
 their roost. All round the fowl-house, except at the door, is fixed a range of boxes 
 for nests, as in the plan, fig. 1 1 93. Ducks and geese have their breeding-boxes close to 
 the floor ; the doors being open during the day, and shut at night. On this account the 
 doors should open into the orchard, or other enclosure where pigs are not allowed to 
 come. These nestling-places, as well as those of fowls, are always bedded with clean 
 straw frequently changed ; and chalk eggs lie in them to attract the notice of the layers. 
 
 1 327. General Management of Poultry. The following valuable practical remarks are by 
 Mr. Main. They well deserve the attention of all those who are about to build poultry- 
 houses, or who possess them already. Few persons are now aware of the great importance 
 of such an arrangement of places, for all manner of fowls, as will admit not only of the most 
 perfect cleanliness in management, but even of the renovation of the floor, sides, and 
 fittings up, by extraordinary purification, every two or three years. Mr. Main's remarks 
 on this subject are the result of much experience and long observation ; and we have no 
 doubt they will have their due weight both with Architects and poultry-feeders. " Every 
 kind of poultry," Mr. Main observes, " should have a separate house, different kinds 
 being exceedingly pugnacious towards one another. The individuals of every species are 
 also veiy pugnacious among themselves; and, on this account, the number of cock birds 
 is always limited. One cock to seven hens, one gander to six geese, one drake to six 
 ducks, are the general proportions with regard to the commoner kinds of fowls ; and one 
 turkeycock and one peacock, are considered quite enough, on a moderately sized farm, 
 for breeding purposes. The turkey, guinea-hen, and peahen are very fastidious in the 
 choice of nests, and therefore require watching. If the latter fix on some secluded spot 
 in the wood or hedges, she must not be removed ; and, while sitting, will come home, 
 call for food, and fly back to her nest. In such places they are in great danger of being 
 killed by the fox ; but, if a circle of peeled rods be placed archwise on the ground, at 
 some distance round the nest, it will scare the marauder. Pea-fowls seldom roost in 
 houses, preferring the tops of buildings, or the branches of trees. Every farm should have 
 a place for fatting poultry, containing coops like those shown in figs. 1 1 94 and 1 1 95, 
 fitted up for that purpose. Fowls are usually fattened with barley-meal and milk or water; 
 and, if this is made thin enough, they need no drink. Geese are fattened with oats, given 
 them in shallow earthen pans of water. Turkeys are best fattened with barley-meal and 
 milk ; but, with professional feeders, many rich and unnatural ingredients are mixed 
 with their food, and forced down the throats of the helpless birds. Ducks are fattened 
 like fowls, but must be allowed plenty of water. The flesh of poultry acquires flavour 
 according to the quality of the food on which they have been fed. Musty or otherwise 
 damaged grain is sure to be tasted in the fowl, goose, turkey, or duck that has been fed 
 on it, however dressed : on the other hand, general cleanliness and sweet food improve 
 the flavour of the flesh. Rotten or musty litter wiU taint the birds as well as their eggs. 
 In fact, no poultry of any kind will thrive, if not kept perfectly clean ; and, even with the 
 utmost care, a place where poultry have been long kept becomes what the housewives 
 call tainted, and where they will thrive no longer. The surface of the ground 
 becomes saturated with their exuvice, and therefore no longer healthy. To avoid this 
 eflPect, some poulterers, in the country, frequently change the sites of their poultry-houses, 
 to obtain fresh ground ; and, to guard against the same misfortune, farmers, who cannot 
 change their hen-houses and yards, purify the houses by fumigations of blazing pitch, 
 by washing with hot lime-water, and by strewing large quantities of pure sand, both 
 within and without the poultry-houses. Washing the floor of the house every week is 
 necessary ; for which purpose it is also necessary that it be paved either with stones, 
 bricks, or tiles. The insides of the laying-boxes, fig. 1 1 93, require frequent washing 
 with h^t lime-water, to free them from vermin (Pediculus gallina; and Pulex irritans 
 Lin.^, which greatly torment the sitting hens. For the same purpose poultry should 
 always have a heap of dry sand laid under some covered place, or thick tree near their 
 yard for them to dust themselves in ; this being their resource for getting rid of the lice 
 and fleas with which they are annoyed. Geese may hatch eleven or thirteen eggs ; ducks 
 the same ; fowls thirteen ; turkeys, guinea-hens, and pea-fowls choose their own number. 
 Turkey chicks cannot be reared, if hatched after the end of September. Chickens are 
 pubject to a disease called the roop or croope, which seizes them when about three weeks 
 old, or just as the feathers appear on the head. It is caused by small worms breeding 
 
MALT-HOUSES, POULTRY-HOUSES, ETC. b25 
 
 in the windpipe, in such numbers as to stop respiration, andwhich, if they cannot cough them 
 up, soon kill them. An infusion of the yellow toad-flax (Linaria vulgaris), a nauseously 
 bitter weed, is given as a preventive, but is seldom successful." We have already 
 (§ 770) noticed the great advantage of heat for the common hen, when laying, hatching, 
 or rearing in the winter season. Mr. Main's remarks are so complete, that we can 
 add nothing to them, except strongly recomonending the poultry-house always to be 
 placed in some position in the farm-yard where it may benefit either from the warmth 
 of cattle, fermenting dung, or a fireplace in constant use. 
 
 1328. The peculiar suitableness of Poultry as Live Stock to a Farm Labourer will not be 
 doubted by those who have attended to the subject. A correspondent observes that it 
 has long been a common saying, that none but Scotch highlanders or Irish cottagers 
 have the luxury of fresh eggs in winter, or very eai-ly chickens in spring ; and, as their 
 poultry are of the common breeds, the cause of their continuing to lay eggs when others 
 stop, can only be, that they roost in the same rooms with their owners, enjoy some 
 little warmth, and probably live partly on cooked food. On the other hand, the poultry 
 which are lodged in places fitted up for them in farm buildings, or other outhouses, are 
 forced to endure a much lower temperature, during winter, than is suitable for their 
 laying at that season, and to live almost entirely on uncooked food. We may add, also, 
 another important consideration, which is, that the poultry which live with their owners 
 enjoy a superior degree of cleanliness to those who live in even the cleanest poultry- 
 houses. Even in the lowlands of Scotland, the poultry roost, in many places, over the 
 box-beds, or on the collar beams over the living-room ; and the laying-place is well 
 known to be in the straw at the bottom of the box-bed. In several parts of France and 
 Germany the peasants rear and fatten poultry for the market as a business, and in most 
 places every man who has a house has also poultry, which, as in Scotland, are lodged 
 within its walls ; and fed chiefly on cooked food. On both sides of the Lower Rhine, 
 almost every peasant fattens one or two geese, and sells the livers (les foies grasses) to 
 the nearest inn, or rich man, or takes them to market, and counts on obtaining for them 
 as much as will pay for the food of the geese, retaining the flesh and feathers as clear 
 profit. Every Englishman who has travelled in the north of France and the south of 
 Germany must have been struck with the superiority of the poultry which he meets 
 with at the inns in those countries, to that which he finds in the inns of his own. The 
 cause appears to be, that the breeding and fattening of this description of live stock is in 
 the hands of those who can afford sufficient time to enter into all the minute details 
 necessary for insuring complete success, attended at the same time by profit. In Britain, 
 the large farmer cannot do this, while the labourer is precluded from doing it by dif- 
 ferent causes, but chiefly, we believe, from ignorance of the practice ; and of the benefit 
 which he might derive from it. We except, however, from this charge the families of 
 labourers in particular districts : such as the neighbourhood of Wokingham in Berk- 
 shire, famous for its fat fowls ; and the neighbourhood of Aylesbury, for its early ducks, 
 &c. Were the mode pointed out to the wives of farm labourers by which they could 
 rear and fatten poultry in the best manner, and induce hens to lay and hatch in the 
 winter season, the profit they would soon obtain from taking the articles to market 
 would be an inducement for them to carry it on. It is well known that poultry have 
 been long hatched, in the neighbourhood of Paris, by hot water, and they might easily 
 be so any where, either on a large or a small scale. (Sec Gard. Mag., vol. iv. p. 305.) 
 Chickens have also been hatched in the bark-bed of a hot-house, by sinking a half hogs- 
 head barrel in the tan, placing the eggs in a basket at the bottom covered by a piece of 
 flannel, and covering the top of the cask with a flat board. For details see Gard. Mag.. 
 vol. viii. p. 688. It is not our business, in this work, to enter into farther details on the 
 subject ; but it is our duty to show the architectural arrangements, in cottages, which 
 are required for putting it in practice. 
 
 1329. The Poultry-house for the Cottager, who would have his hens lay during the 
 winter, must in some way or other derive heat from the fireplace of his living-room. 
 There are several ways in which this may be accomplished, both in cottages already 
 existing, and in new cottages. In cottages already existing, the living-room fire is either 
 placed against one of the exterior, or one of the interior walls. When it is placed against 
 an exterior wall, a poultry place is easily formed by a small lean-to building, erected 
 outside the house, against the back of the fireplace ; and, if the wall behind the fire be 
 so thick as not to admit of much heat escaping to the outside, a part of it may be taken 
 out, and either a thinner wall, or a fire-stone or fire-brick partition, or, what will be most 
 effective, a cast-iron plate, substituted for it. Where the principal fuel is wood or peat, 
 and the fire is made on the hearth, less heat will escape through the wall, and in that 
 case there may be a pit formed under the fireplace, of its full width, and extending under 
 the wall, and the entire floor of the poultry-house outside. Into this pitj the ashes from 
 the fire may be allowed to drop through a grate, and the heat from them will thus be 
 
626 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 1197 
 
 communicated to the floor of the poultry-house. In all cases, the walls of this poultry 
 place should be of svifficient thickness to retain heat, and more particularly the root, 
 which should have the space between the ceiling and the slates or tiles filled in with hay 
 or straw, as in Holland. The wails and doors may also, in very severe weather, be 
 covered with straw mats of the kind used by gardeners in covering hot-beds ; or the 
 entire lean-to, roof and sides, may be thatched. When the fireplace of the living-room 
 is against an interior wall, there are three ways in which heat may be derived from 
 it for warming a poultry place. That the most readily practised, we believe, will 
 be, to form a small lean-to, on the south or south-east side of the house, with a hol- 
 low floor, having a stone or plate of iron to lift up, and admit of placing hot ashes 
 or embers beneath it. If the hovel be properly constructed for retaining heat, as 
 just recommended, and hot embers be put under the floor once a day, it will be suf- 
 ficient to keep up a temperature of from fifty degrees to sixty degrees, in even the most 
 severe weather. It must be recollected, however, that we suppose, in this case, either 
 double doors and windows, or external coverings to them of straw. A second mode is, 
 to communicate heat to a cistern of water, or a bed of stones, under the floor of the 
 poultry hovel, by pipes passing through the kitchen fire ; but this, though an extremely 
 simple mode, and by no means expensive, is yet so much out of the common way, that 
 the farm labourer could hardly be expected, in his present state, to consent to its adoption. 
 We shall, however, show with what ease it might be accomplished. Fig. 1197 is the 
 plan of a cottage, in which it is desired 
 to heat the poultry-house, a, from the 
 fireplace, b. Care being taken to form 
 the floor of the poultry-house not much 
 lower than that of the room containing 
 the fireplace, place in the former a stone 
 or wooden cistern, a foot or more in 
 depth, and of any convenient length and 
 breadth. A poultry-house containing 
 10,000 cubic feet of air need not have a 
 cistern containing above 100 cubic feet of 
 water. Let either the bottom or the 
 top of the cistern be placed on a level 
 with the bottom of the fireplace. Then, supposing the former, which is preferable, to be 
 the case, take a small iron pipe, rather more than twice the length of the distance 
 between the cistern and the kitchen fireplace 
 (that used as gas-pipe, about an inch in 
 diameter externally, and which may be had 
 for about 4d. per foot, is the best), and 
 bend it in the middle, so that the bent end 
 may lie in the bottom of the fireplace, and 
 the open ends in the bottom of the cistern 
 
 s6[ 
 
 198 
 
 u 
 
 in the poultry-place, as shown in the section fig. 1198, in which c is the fireplace; 
 d, the two pipes ; and e, their ends in the cistern. The end of one of these pipes is shown 
 turned up one inch, and the other several inches, to promote the circulation by destroying 
 the equilibrium which necessarily exists when the orifices of both tubes are on the same 
 level. If, instead of the bottom of the cistern being on a level with the bottom of the 
 fireplace, its top is on that level, then it is only necessary to reverse the pipes, as shown 
 in fig. 1199, taking care that they are first filled with water, when the circulation will 
 take place on the siphon principle ; and be effective in heating the air of the poultry- 
 liouse, either directly by radiation, or through the medium of a coat of stones or gravel, 
 as may be considered best. The cistern, or receptacle for water, may be an old iron pot 
 or kettle, or a large jar. A body of water will very soon be heated by either of these 
 methods ; and that body may be surrounded by a mass of stones or gravel, which will 
 thus accumxilate a quantity of heat, to be 
 given out by degrees, according to the tem- 
 perature of the poultry-house. Where gas 
 pipe cannot be got, even lead pipe will 
 answer for a short time ; because it will 
 not melt, while there is a circulation of 
 water at a lower temperature than 200° 
 going on within it. An excellent de- 
 scription of apparatus for being placed 
 in the fire might be made of cast iron, or of terro-metallic earth ; and, at the 
 distance of a foot from the fireplace, a lead or wooden pipe might be joined to it, 
 either of which would answer as well for circulating the water as pipes made of any 
 
 L-T 
 
 1 
 
DWELLINGS FOR FARM SERVANTS. 
 
 627 
 
 other matel*ial. Thus, there cannot be a question as to the cheapness of this mode, and 
 still less of its effectiveness. The variations, also, which this mode admits of, are almost 
 endless ; for the pipes may be so arranged as to heat a cistern of v/ater, or poultry-house, 
 not only on the same level with the fireplace, but on any floor above its level, or on the 
 cellar floor below it. A perfect level, however, will always be found the cheapest mode. 
 The third manner of conveying heat from the fire of a cottage living-room to a place for 
 poultry, is to form a chest or box, say three feet wide, three feet high, and six feet long, 
 which will afford room for two floors of eight nests each ; and either to keep this in the 
 living-room, its top serving as a table or di'esser ; or to place it in a garret, back-kitchen, 
 or outhouse ; and supply it with heat by earthenware bottles of hot water, set in the 
 corner of each nest ; or by a vertical cistern of water, which might form the separation 
 between the nests. Where a box of nests was adopted, however, the best plan would be, 
 to place it in a garret or other floor over the living-room ; for we cannot recommend the 
 practice, not unfrequent in the small farm houses in France, of hatching poultry in large 
 quantities under the kitchen dressers. Where there is an oven in frequent use, a poultry- 
 house may be very advantageously placed in contact with it j and where the floor of the 
 dwelling is heated by flues, or by steam in a bed 
 of stones, there never can be any difficulty in 
 conveying a part of the heat to an outside poultry- 
 house. It is only necessary to extend the flues 
 under its floor. Neither can there be the sKghtest 
 difficulty in contriving a poultry-house to be 
 heated from the fire of the living-room, when a 
 new cottage is to be built ; for, in the case of a 
 double cottage, two poultry-houses may be placed 
 between the two dwellings, as in fig. 1200, in 
 which f is one dwelling, and g its poultry-house ; 
 and A another dwelling, and i ' its poultry-house. 
 In the case of single cottages, the poultry-house 
 may either be a lean-to, as proposed for old cottages, or it may be a recess, as in fig. 
 1201 ; in which k is the dwelling, and I, the poultry-house; the back of the fireplace, 
 
 1201 
 
 m, being su^Dposed to be a cast-iron plate. Perhaps 
 we have gone more into details on this part of our 
 subject than to some may appear necessary ; but 
 we are extremely anxious to introduce poultry- 
 houses of an improved kind, generally, into the 
 cottages of farm laboiirers ; and an important step 
 to this is, to make Architects and their employers 
 aware of what is wanted. 
 
 Sect. V. Designs for Farmery Dwellings for riouglimen and other Yearly Servants 
 
 employed on the Farm. 
 
 1330. Every Scotch Farmery has some human Dwellings belonging to it, in addition 
 to that of the master ; and, in most districts, there is a room, or a couple of rooms, in 
 some places called a bothy, for the single men, with one or more cottages, in a line, not 
 far distant from the farmery, for men having families. This is one of the great advan- 
 tages which the modern farmeries of Scotland, and of the north of England, have over 
 those of most other parts of the island. In consequence of these dwellings, the men 
 employed in taking care of the horses, and in other agricultural labours, being always on 
 the spot, are enabled to commence their work in the morning, without being previously 
 fatigued by getting up very early, and perhaps walking a mile or more to the farm ; and 
 they can also aflTord to stay later on extra occasions ; always arriving at home less fatigued 
 in the evenings, than they could do under other circumstances. The wives and families 
 of such men must evidently be much more comfortable than when the man has to go a 
 distance to his work ; and the master must feel proportionately satisfied by being enabled 
 to consider his ploughmen as forming part of his family. It is well known in Scotland, 
 that the ploughmen who live with their families on the farms on which they work, and who 
 are paid partly in money and partly in kind, are the most comfortable, moral, and laborious 
 of country workmen ; and it appears to us to be very desirable that the same practice should 
 be introduced into the midland and southern districts of England. We have seen, in 
 § 795, that those in Scotland are sufficiently wretched ; and, in § 996, that those in the 
 north of England are little better. In the agricultural counties of the south and west of 
 England, the cottages of the ploughmen are generally more commodious than those in 
 the north ; though those of some of the midland counties, Buckinghamshire for example, 
 may be referred to in proof of a contrary opinion. Various attempts have been made 
 fco mtroduce improvements into this class of dwellings, and we shall here bring together 
 
628 
 
 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 a few plans devised by different individuals for that purpose ; previously giving the plan 
 and interior arrangement of ploughmen's cottages as they now exist in Scotland, in 
 Northumberland, and in Wiltshire. 
 
 1331. No great Improvement in the Cottages of Farm Labourers, however, can be 
 expected, till the farmer looks upon his labourers in a very different point of view from 
 what he does at present. The relative situation of these two classes is that of seller and 
 buyer, or rather master and slave ; the one trying to get a maximum of labour for a 
 minimum of remuneration, and looking upon his labourer as a being inferior to himself, 
 and, in short, as little better tlian a l)east of burden ; and the other regarding his master 
 as his natural enemy, to be taken advantage of on every occasion where it can be done 
 with impunity. With a superior degree of knowledge in both parties, the labour of the 
 servant, and the wages and accommodation of the master would be merely looked upon 
 as articles of exchange, inferring no degree of obligation on either side ; and, in those 
 fluctuations in the price of labour which must ever take place, implying no greater 
 personal subjection, or inferiority of dignity, than now takes place between foreign and 
 British merchants, when regulating their accounts according to the rate of exchange 
 between their respective nations. This desirable result can only be brought about by 
 universal education, by which every man will be enabled to rise in the scale of being, 
 in proportion to his native intellect ; and all will be essentially alike in what relates 
 to manners; which, after all, have more influence than even intellect in conferring 
 personal dignity. 
 
 1332. When every Farmer and the Labourers settled on his Farm shall consider them- 
 selves more in the light of a small cooperative society, and it shall be the interest of the 
 one party to act for the benefit of the other, as well as for his own advantage ; then 
 will the comfort and happiness of both be greatly increased : the labourer will cease to 
 look upon his employer as a hard taskmaster, and the master upon his servant as a 
 mere instrument of labour, or an miwilling slave ; then will kindly feelings be again 
 awakened in both bosoms, and the wish to confer mutual benefits revive. Tyranny and 
 servility have alike a tendency to harden the heart and to stifle all the better feelings of 
 human nature : thei e is much of both in the present situation of labourers and their 
 employers ; but let labour find its fair value in the market, and be regarded only as an 
 article of barter given in exchange for wages, and the moral condition of the labourer 
 will be raised ; he will feel himself restored to the dignity of a responsible agent, and 
 all the nobler feelings of his nature will be called forth. 
 
 1333. One of the first Residts of a right understanding between farmers and their 
 labourers will be, the enjoyment of certain accommodations in common ; such as an oven, 
 a brewhouse or cider-house, a wash-house and washing-machine, a mangle, and a mode 
 of heating. We will not go farther than this, though we might anticipate something 
 nearer patriarchal equality ; for the height of refinement is to return to simplicity : 
 but there is this difference, that tl>e one is the simplicity of knowledge, and the other 
 the simplicity of ignorance. One of the first sources of comfort which, in cold countries 
 such as Britain, the farm labourer will enjoy in common with his emj)loyer is, we think, 
 artificial heat. Of all the laborious, wasteful, and extravagant modes of procuring this 
 necessary of life, that of employing open fireplaces is the worst ; being scarcely more 
 than one step removed from the savage practice of lighting a fire in the middle of a hut, 
 sitting round it, and feeding it with boughs. The Chinese, and the Continental nations 
 of Europe, even the semi-barbarous Russians, are far in advance of us in this respect. 
 We have suggested the mode of heating by smoke-flues under the floors ; but even this 
 is a comparatively imperfect mode, to what may be practised in every farmery, after 
 steam shall have been as generally introduced for driving threshing and other machinery, 
 and cooking food for cattle, &c., as we are persuaded it very soon will be. Our attention 
 has been called to this subject by an enlightened correspondent residing in Edinburgh, 
 whose communication, given in his own words, will enable the Architect, with the 
 greatest ease, to devise the means of heating the floors of farm houses, farm labourers' 
 cottages, and farmery bothies, from the same steam-apparatus which is erected in the 
 farmery for cooking food for the live stock. 
 
 1 334. Heating the Floors of Cottages by Steam. " The excellent method you propose 
 for heating the dwellings of the working classes is, lanfortunately, limited to situations 
 where a fireplace can be established on a lower level than the floors which are to be 
 heated ; and is, besides, objectionable in localities where the nature of the coal employed 
 causes a rapid deposition of soot, by which the heat abstracted from the fuel is, in great 
 part, forced along into the exterior atmosphere. In such situations, an arrangement may 
 be adopted, which has been successfully applied here, in the following case : — The Police 
 Office being built on the side of very steep ground, the front of the building is about 
 20 feet higher than the back part. A range of cells for prisoners had been added on 
 the lowest level, and were so situated that it became a difficult question how they were 
 
DWELLINGS FOR FARM SERVANTS. 
 
 6^9 
 
 to be heated and ventilated during cold weather. I suggested the following method, 
 which was adopted, and succeeded. In the floor of each cell a pit, fig. 1202, a, was 
 
 formed, of 4 feet long, 2 feet wide, and 1 foot and a half deep, lined and floored with 
 brick and mortar, and covered by an Arbroath or Caithness flag, h, forming part of the 
 permanent floor of the cell. This pit was filled with hard materials, such as very- 
 coarse gravel, road metal of broken whinstone, &c. A close steam-boiler, which was 
 erected in a higher part of the premises, was made to transmit steam to a pipe, c, which 
 was laid along the passage in which were situated the doors of the cells, and from this 
 pipe a branch, with a stopcock, d, went off to each pit. The pits were laid with a 
 little declivity towards one corner, from which a piece of bent lead pipe, e, carried off 
 condensed water, or allowed steam to escape if its pressure exceeded an inch of water. 
 The doors of the cells were left half an inch free from the floor, as shown at / ; and from 
 the ceiling of each cell, at the extremity farthest from the door, a flue was carried into the 
 exterior wall of the building. From this disposition it results, that, when, by opening 
 the branch cock, d, steam is admitted into any of the pits, it is condensed among the 
 hard gravel, and parts with its heat, until the whole mass has acquired a high temperature ; 
 after which, if allowed to continue to pass into the pit, it would blow off by the bent lead 
 pipe, e. The whole pavement of the cell soon becomes warm ; and the air, on being 
 heated, gradually rises, and passes off by the flue near the ceiling ; its place being 
 supplied by a stratum which flows in under the door at /, immediately over the hottest 
 part of the floor. The cells, though small, are in this way well ventilated, and when 
 washed out they dry immediately. In such an arrangement, care should be taken that 
 the pipes be all laid to a declination at which the condensation may escape by a 
 hydraulic joint. In the first fitting up of the apparatus at the Police Office, a lead 
 main was emjjloyed, which was supported only at certain distances. It soon, however, 
 bagged between the supports, when water lodging in the bends stopped up the steam- 
 way. This lead pipe being removed, and a small cast-iron gas main being substituted, 
 every cell, or any particular one, became capable of being heated to any degree required. 
 The turnkeys, from experience, know the time a cock requires to be left open to com- 
 municate heat enough for the whole day to a cell ; and they find that, though the 
 necessary quantity be rapidly imparted to the mass of stones, it is so gradually given out, 
 that a very equable temperature is easily maintained. The last is a valuable property of 
 this method, when the source of heat is to be the kitchen fire, which is naturally of 
 variable strength at different periods of the day ; and, therefore, not available for 
 applying heat by means of the surface of steam-pipes, or by currents of heated air." Of 
 all the different modes of heating rooms on the basement story of a house, in which the 
 floors are of brick, stone, or composition, there can be no doubt that much the most 
 efficient mode is by steam ; we do not think that there is any mode of applying it more 
 economical than that suggested by our correspondent. It is a great recommendation 
 to this plan, that the heat may be deposited among the stones at any period of the day, 
 so as to be given out in proportion as the temperature of the air over the floor is lowered. 
 Though it would seldom answer to heat a single cottage in this manner, yet in most 
 districts no plan could answer better for a number of cottages, when placed together. 
 The same mode has been applied to the heating of hot-houses, and especially pine stoves 
 and pits, by Mr. Hay, Garden Architect, Edinburgh, (whose invention, we believe, it 
 is,) with the most perfect success. {See Gard. Mag. vol. viii. p. 330 and 730.) 
 
 Design I. — Two Ploughmen's Cottages, such as are in common Use in the Carse of 
 Gowrie ; with a Notice of the Bothies, or Lodges for single Men, in the same District. 
 1335. Our object, in giving the present Design, which, at our request, has been fur- 
 nished by Mr. Gorrie, is to show how a nrdnimum of accommodation may be maximised 
 in use. Fig. 1203 is a ground plan of two cottages, one with only one fireplace and 
 two windows, and the other with two fireplaces and two windows. The first shows the 
 method of partitioning off a small apartment by means of two box-beds ; and the second, 
 or that with the two fireplaces, shows how the box-beds are disposed when there is more 
 
630 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 1203 
 
 Fi. 10 " m 20 Ft. 
 
 ' ■ I ' ' I I ■ ■ I t I I 
 
 space, and a partial partition in tlie middle. In both cottages, the disposition of the 
 principal articles of furniture is shown. In the smaller cottage, « is the porch ; b, the 
 living-room, eight feet by fourteen feet ; c, the dresser; d d, two box-beds (one of which 
 opens into h, and the other into e) ; e, a small bed-room or jjassage, four feet by fourteen 
 feet ; /, a chest of drawers ; and f/, a cupboard, or i)ress. In the cottage with two fire- 
 places, h is the porch ; i, the living-room, fourteen feet by nine feet and a half ; k, the 
 dresser ; /, a box-bed opening into the kitchen j m, a chest of drawers ; 7i, a box-bed, 
 opening into the ben, or parlour ; and o, a press. The ben, or parlour, p, is, like the 
 kitchen, fourteen feet by nine feet and a half. It will be observed that these dimensions 
 are from wall to wall ; so that the areas of the floors are very much diminished by the box- 
 beds, the chests of drawers, and the dressers. The elevation is of the rudest kind, the 
 roof is covered with ihatch or grey slate, with shapeless chimney-to])s formed of straw, 
 sticks, and mud, and window-openings about two feet and a half high, and eighteen 
 inches wide, with a frame containing four small panes of glass hinged at one side. 
 
 1 336. T/ie following Description of these Cottages has been sent us by Mr. Gorrie : — 
 " The accompanying sketch, fig. 1203, shows two houses for ploughmen having wives 
 and children, in the style most prevalent here. The largest is twenty-two feet by four- 
 teen feet within the walls, and seven feet high. The dotted lines show the site of the 
 box-beds, press, and the bride's chest of drawers ; the latter ])eing always a part of her 
 dowiy, and made of mahogany. The porch, you will see, is within-doors, and its walls 
 are made of straw or clay, about four inches thick, covering wood sujjports (clay nog- 
 ging). The outer walls of the cottage are built of rubble-stone, without any hewn- 
 work. The chimney-flues are formed of the same material as the porch partitions, faced 
 with wood. There is a hearth-stone, three feet by two feet and a half. The floor is 
 laid with clay, and is quite smooth ; seldom with wood or flags. The walls are not, I 
 am sorry to say, often plastered within ; but they arc sometimes whitewashed. The 
 rooms have seldom plaster ceilings, but they are uniformly formed of small wood laid on 
 joists, and covered with turf. On this primitive loft, fuel, such as split wood, is laid, 
 being conveyed to it through a hatchway above the porch : it is also a receptacle for 
 lumber. The roof is thatched with reeds or wheat straw ; or, if near any slate quarries, 
 -where that article is cheap, and reeds and straw scarce and high-priced, slates are used; 
 tiles are very seldom to be met with. The ridges are covered with turf, and the chimney- 
 tops are of the same materials as the porch partition below ; that is, straw ropes, clay, and 
 wood. The largest cottage may be reckoned a specimen of many cottagers' houses built 
 about forty years since : recently they are more tastefully erected. In all cases they have 
 a hut and a hen, although two fireplaces in ploughmen's houses are not common. Such 
 a cottage as the smallest of these, rents (for labourers) at 35s. a year, and this is con- 
 sidered as part of the wages of a married ploughman. This, with ten falls of garden 
 ground, twenty falls of field potato-ground, (a fall is 36 square yards,) a cow kept, six 
 bolls and a half of oatmeal, and £8, is about a ploughman's yearly wages. A foreman 
 who sows, and builds ricks, has about £^ more." 
 
 1337. " Bothies (boothies," or little booths), Mr. Gorrie continues, " are of long stand- 
 ing as dwellings for ploughmen ; and they arc very simple erections. The beds are 
 generally on the same floor as the cooking-rooms ; a very bad arrangement, as it affords 
 temptation for men, when fatigued with labour, to recline on them, without much attention 
 to cleanliness or comfort. The size of the bothy, or lodge, is regulated by the number 
 of the men for whom it is designed, reckoning two for each bed ; the only other fur 
 
DWELLINGS FOR FARM SERVANTS, 
 
 631 
 
 niture being a four-legged stool, some meal-boxes, and the ploughmen's boxes, which 
 contain their linen and Sunday clothes, of which they are generally careful. Bothies 
 now erecting have an wpper story for beds, and a box for holding meal in the cooking- 
 apartment. The utensils consist of one pan or boiler, and each man pro\ddes himself 
 with a wooden plate and spoon." 
 
 1338. Remarks. Our readers cannot fail to observe the important service rendered 
 by the box-beds, in the division of these cottages into two rooms : without them the 
 apartment would be a miserable hovel ; for no description of open bed could ever either 
 be so comfortable in itself, or admit of such an arrangement as would give any privacy 
 to any part of the enclosure. At the same time, it must be acknowledged that the 
 closeness and concealment produced by these beds, and the general crowding together of 
 so much in so small a space, are any thing but favourable to cleanliness and even delicacy. 
 The remark made by Mr. Gorrie, on the temptation afforded by ha\ing beds in the 
 living room, " to lie down in them without much regard to cleanliness or comfort," is 
 most important. The very circumstance of having to go up stairs to a bed- room is 
 favourable to cleanliness, as well as to health ; because, in proportion to the completeness 
 of the division of purposes or uses in a dwelling is the perfection to which each may be 
 attained. The first step towards both cleanliness and comfort is order, or having a place 
 for every thing ; and this can never be obtained, that is, no person can be orderly, where 
 things used for totally different purposes are crowded together in a small space. Very 
 little improvement, therefore, can be expected in the taste of the Scotch ploughman or 
 his wife, till they have more room ; and till they have beds in rooms by themselves, 
 which admit light on every side, and a free circulation of air, above, below, and around. 
 The box-beds form an admirable partition ; and, indeed, taken altogether, ai-e astonishing 
 contrivances for surmounting difficulties ; for, when we consider that the Scotch plough- 
 men are liable to change their masters, and, of course, their hovels, once a year, by what 
 other means could they render such miserable abodes so habitable, without incurring the 
 expense of fixed partitions, which, on removal, they could not carry with them ? When 
 two separate bed-rooms are obtained, the bride's chest of drawers will be placed in the 
 best of them, and this will pave the way for a bookcase, combined with a writing-desk, 
 as an appropriate piece of parlour furniture. Supposing, then, that a ploughman's cottage 
 consisted of two rooms below separated by fixed partitions, and two above, separated in 
 the same manner, the box-beds being no longer necessary, the furniture of the four 
 rooms would be as easily moved as that of the two now is. A great improvement in 
 the condition of ploughmen, both with and without families, who live on farms, would 
 result from their having one common kitchen, wash-house, boiler, oven, washing-machine, 
 mangle, &c., as we have before indicated, § 1333 ; and when the ploughmen, and other 
 labourers in agricultural districts, become as enlightened as the manufacturing classes, 
 they will feel the necessity of having these things ; and, when they do, they will obtain 
 them. We have said nothing of the want of those exterior appendages to cottages which 
 are essential to decency as well as cleanliness, because the evils resulting from the want 
 of them must be sufficiently obvious to every one who has perused the preceding pages 
 of this work. 
 
 Design II. — Two Country Labourers' Cottages, built at Showerdown Braes, on the 
 Beaufront Estate, in Northumberland. 
 
 1339. The Ploughman's Cottage, in Northumberland, is every whit as bad as that in the 
 Carse of Gowrie. The plan, fig. 1204, it is to be observed, does not represent two cottages 
 
 1204 
 
 for common ploughmen, but for 
 general day labourers ; the ex- 
 terior appendages, indicated by 
 the dotted lines in the figure, 
 never being added to those built 
 on farmeries, as already observed, 
 § 996. We have given the plan 
 here to show the interior arrange- 
 ment of these cottages, which we 
 have been enabled to do through 
 the assistance of Mr. John Ander- 
 son, many years a respectable 
 Northumbrian farmer. He in- 
 forms us that box-beds are in 
 general use in the ploughmen's 
 
 cottages in Northumberland, for the same purposes as in the Scotch cottages ; but that, 
 the hovel having only one window, the former can never be so usefully divided as the 
 latter. In fig. 1204, the outer walls of each cottage enclose a space tw^enty-two feet by 
 
632 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 sixteen feet : a is the porch inside the house, as in the Carse of Gowrie, and four feet 
 square in the clear ; 6 is a space seven feet by four feet, marked in one cottage to show 
 where a bed may be placed lengthwise, so as to face the fire ; or two may be placed 
 endwise, and back to back, as in the other cottage at c ; d is a small closet or dairy, 
 four feet square in the clear ; e e show one mode of placing the beds, by which, the 
 one bed opening to the fireplace, and the other behind, some privacy is obtained for 
 the occupiers of both ; / is the situation of the dresser ; p, of the chest of drawers ; 
 and h, of the press : articles not in use are placed at b, and the fuel, generally coal, is 
 kept outside the door, in the open air. A different disposition of two beds is shown 
 in the other cottage at i i ; as well as that before mentioned at c c. The last seems 
 the best of three methods, none of which are good. 
 
 1340. Remarks. What we have said respecting the improvement of the Scotch 
 labourer's cottage will equally apply here. The progress of the age requires that there 
 should be a chamber-floor over the living-room, the stair to which might be at h, entered 
 by a door from a. This would give a lumber closet under the stair, wliich, witli the 
 pantry, or dairy, and the press (the latter ought always to be a fixture, to lessen the 
 inconvenience of removal), would render the living-room commodious, and leave ample 
 space for order and cleanliness ; and two bed-rooms up stairs would enable the occupier 
 to keep every thing, in both floors, orderly and comfortable. It is almost needless to 
 observe that the pigsty or poultry-house, /i, would be a most desirable addition to every 
 ploughman's cottage, as well as I ; and that m should be roofed over. It gives us 
 pleasure to obseire one of the first Northumbrian farmers acknowledging the necessity, 
 § 972, of enlarging the accommodation of ploughmen's cottages, by the addition of a 
 chamber-floor. What objection can there jiossibly be to rendering ploughmen's cottages 
 much more comfortable than they are? The expense first, and the increase of wages 
 which the ploughman would in a short time require, in order to gratify his improved 
 taste, are the obvious answers. But where is the evil of this state of things ? It would 
 3nly diminish the rent of the landlord, who, if he were not content to take less, could 
 become the occupier himself It may also be said, that it would increase the price of 
 farm produce to the public ; but price of every kind depends upon supply and demand. 
 The only question, then, is, what evil would result to society from raising the characters 
 of the ploughman and the country labourer ? Every one knows our answer. 
 
 Design III. — Two Ploughmen's Cottages, in a Village near Salisbury, Wiltshire. 
 
 1341. The genuine English Cottage has a very diflTerent character from either the 
 Northumbrian or the Scotch one. It is undoubtedly constructed less favourably for 
 retaining heat, because in the south that is less wanted ; but, being airy and light, it is 
 much more favourable for health and cleanliness. The Design we are about to descrilie 
 has been sent us as a genuine specimen of a Wiltshire farm labourer's cottage, by a 
 much esteemed correspondent resident in its neiglibourhood. 
 
 1342. Accommodation. The smaller cottage contains one living-room, fig. 1205, a, 
 with a fireplace at b, a closet 
 
 under the stairs, and a door 
 out of this closet to the dairy 
 or pantry, c ; there is an oven 
 from the back of the fireplace,(f ; 
 and the chamber-floor is divided 
 into two rooms. This cottage 
 is entered from the front by 
 three steps at e ; and it has a 
 garden and orchard of about 
 the eighth of an acre at /. 
 The larger cottage is entered 
 behind by one step at g, into 
 a porch, as the ground rises 
 from the fi-ont to the back : it 
 contains a kitchen, A, with a 
 fireplace at i; a closet at k ; 
 another imder the stairs ; an 
 oven at Z: a wash-house at m 
 
 1205 
 
 and 
 
 pantry at n. The space over is divided into 
 one large and two smaller bed-rooms. There are a garden and orchard belonging to 
 this cottage at o ; and the public road passes on the two sides, p and q. Fig. 1206 shows 
 the external elevation of the two dwellings. 
 
 1343. Description. The following observations accompanied the above Design: — 
 " This old double cottage was originally a small farm house. It is built of stone, except 
 the gable, which is of flint and stone in narrow layers : the smaller tenement is more 
 
DWELLINGS FOR FARM SERVANTS. 
 
 633 
 
 modern than the other. The wrindows have all stone frames and mullions, except that 
 in the roof ; the window with the label over it is a very handsome one. The ground 
 plan is just as it is here represented. The stairs in the larger cottage might be better 
 placed ; and the smaller cottage should have a good window, instead of the small one 
 near the fireplace ; but they are both comfortable dwellings in summer, though in winter 
 the floors are damp. In the smaller cottage a spring rises close to the fireplace, although 
 the floor is one foot and a half above the general surface. The village is situated in a 
 deep valley, and the subsoil is chalk ; consequently there is scarcely a dry house in the 
 parish. The water springs up from the saturated chalk in the cottages, and even in the 
 roads, after much rain or snow ; so that on such occasions several of our cottages are not 
 fit to live in. With us, the only remedy for a damp floor is, to dig out the chalk three 
 feet deep, and fill up the vacancy with flints ; and even this is scarcely eflfectual, if there 
 be a spring beneath, or any earth against the outer walls above the level of the floor. A 
 raised platform would, therefore, be useless in such a situation. Indeed, I fancy it is 
 impossible to have a dry house in low situations on chalk ; for even our few brick houses 
 are damp ; and it is the same in all this district. I do not send this Design as a model 
 for imitation, but merely to illustrate my opinion, that an old cottage, even of the simplest 
 form (especially near freestone quarries), has generally a more pleasing effect, and con- 
 tains more accommodation, than modern erections of this kind ; and this leads me to be 
 an advocate for the old style of building. You will, perhaps, object to the bed-rooms 
 being in the roof. They are not so in all cases ; but, when they are, they have generally 
 the advantage of being airy and spacious, though the shape of them is not handsome. 
 They are generally ceiled high up in the roof, so that they are lofty in the centre, and, 
 where the roof is of thatch, such rooms are cool in summer, and warm in winter ; and 1 
 observe that poor people, who care little for the shape of a room, generally prefer a good 
 bed-room in the roof to one on the ground floor. When I add to the account I have 
 already given of our damp situation, that we are close to water meadows, which are con- 
 stantly irrigated during six or eight months in the year, you will, perhaps, think this a 
 most unhealthy village. The fact is quite the contrary. We have even very few persons 
 aflflicted with rheumatic complaints, and people live here to a great age. With our small 
 population we have few old people ; but, of these few, more than half are between eighty 
 and ninety. We have no stagnant water even in the meadows, and the water here is as 
 clear as glass. Still, a damp residence is a nuisance to be remedied, if possible ; though 
 this village affords an instance that it is not in all cases prejudicial to health." 
 
 1344. Remarks. The interior of these cottages, it will be observed, is very diflTerent 
 fi'om that of either the Scotch or Northumbrian ones : irregularity and variety charac- 
 terise the former, as much as plainness and simplicity do the latter. The one gives the 
 idea of the cottage of a serf, and the other of that of a free man. We strongly suspect, 
 however, that the occupants of the former cottages are the happier party ; for, from the 
 manner in which they are paid their wages partly in kind, they have always abundance 
 of plain food, and of heat. This may be said of all serfs, of the slaves of the West Indies, 
 and of the feudal vassals of Russia and Hungary. The country labourer of England is 
 in a transition state, between slavery and freedom ; in which he has lost the security of 
 the one condition, without having obtained the independence of the other. For this 
 end, he requires a degree of knowledge which has not yet come in his way. 
 
 4 B 
 
634 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 Design IV. — A roomy Cottage for Farm Labourers, erected in Gloucestershire, on the 
 Estate of William Lawrence, Esq., near Cirencester. 
 
 1345. Accommodation. There are, in this cottage, an entrance, fig. 1207, a, with a 
 staircase down to the cellars and up to the bed-rooms ; a living-room, 6, with an oven, 
 
 rt. 
 
 ZO Fir. 
 
 c; a back-kitchen, or room for washing utensils, &c., d; a covered pigsty, e; a yard to 
 ditto, /; a shed for fuel, g ; and a privy, h. There is a cellar under the passage and 
 cellar stair ; and the lobby, and place under the ascending stairs, in the summer season, 
 may serve as a sitting-room. Fig. 1208 is a plan of the chamber story, in which are a 
 
 1208 
 
 good bed-room with a fireplace, i, and another bed-room, k. Fig. 1209 is a geometrical 
 elevation of one end, and fig. 1210 a perspective view of the front. 
 
 1346. Construction. The walls are of the native limestone, two feet thick at the base, 
 tapering to nineteen inches at the waU-plate of the roof ; the floors of the living-rooms 
 are boarded, and those of the other places paved with the local flag-stone ; the roofs are 
 covered with grey slate. 
 
 1347. Estimate. The actual cost of this cottage, in the neighbourhood of Cirencester, 
 was £260. As the cubic contents are 14,209 feet, it thus appears that the proper 
 amount for a general estimate, in the given locality, is ^d. per foot. 
 
 1348. Remarks. Such cottages were erected on the estate of the celebrated surgeon, 
 and translator of Blumenbach, William Lawrence, Esq. ; a man alike distinguished in 
 his profession for his scientific knowledge, and in the moral and political world for his 
 liberal and enlightened ideas. His estate is under the care of his brother, Charles Law- 
 rence, Esq., who not only possesses great taste in landscape-gardening and ornamental 
 
DWELLINGS FOR FARM SERVANTS. 
 
 635 
 
 horticulture, but is a most judicious philanthropist. At our earnest request, he contributed 
 this Design, and that which follows. 
 
 Design V. — A double Cottage, intended for Farm Labourers, in Gloucestershire. 
 
 1349. Accommodation. The ground plan, fig. 1211, contains, for each cottage, a 
 living-room, a, with oven, b ; staircase, c, down to the cellar and up to the bed-room ; 
 back-house, c?; place for fuel and tools, e; pigsty,/; and privy, g. The chamber-floor, 
 fig. 1212, contains two good-sized bed-rooms, though without fireplaces, h h ; and a stair- 
 case, i. Fig. 1213 is a front elevation; fig. 1214, an end elevation; and fig. 1215 a 
 perspective view. 
 
 1350. Descriptive Remarks, and Estimate. This Design, also sent us by Mr. Charles 
 Lawrence, was intended to be erected on an estate under his management. With these 
 Designs he has sent us the following remarks, with a form of agreement and specification 
 for building them combined. « These cottages will appear to you small ; but I can 
 assure you they are deemed magnificent dwellings by the labourers placed in them, who 
 are objects of envy among their brethren. They are extremely pleased with the con- 
 venience of them, and especially with the cellar, which enables them to stow away their 
 potatoes, carrots, parsneps, &c.,' out of the reach of frost or depredation. Such cottages 
 would be commonly let at £5 or £6 ; but we have let them at 52s. per annum ; con- 
 ceiving that, in such cases, the capacity of the tenant to pay is the more fit criterion in 
 assessing the rents for labourers, than the sum of money expended. I saw, about two 
 years ago, various calculations of the expense of living in labourers' families, and of the 
 
636 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 1211 
 
 I I 
 
 0 
 
 I 
 
 35 Ft. 
 
 prices of the articles of their consumption ; showing that they could not exist on less than 
 wages varying from 15s. to 20s. per week. This would be a most serious matter if it 
 
 1212 
 
 ] c 
 
 were true, because there is 
 not the slightest prospect of 
 their obtaining such wages. 
 It is a consolation to know, 
 practically, that a labourer, 
 with a moderate family, not 
 exceeding four children, rent- 
 ing a cottage at Is. per week, 
 and a quarter of an acre of 
 good land at 10s. a year, 
 and earning, on an average, 
 by piecework and daywork, 
 10s. a week, can live with- 
 out parish aid, except in case 
 of illness or accident. I 
 know a man who has brought 
 up seven sons and two daugh- 
 ters, renting a cottage at jt4. 
 per annum, and potato land 
 of farmers at the rate of £7 
 per acre, for which they have 
 not paid their landlords above 
 25s. at the outside ; and 
 neither the father nor his 
 children, all of whom are 
 upwards of twenty years of 
 age, have ever received a 
 shilling from any parish. I 
 
 saw this patriarch, with his seven sons, on three several occasions, give their votes for the 
 city of Gloucester as freemen (they are now disfranchised as non-residents), and I shall 
 not soon forget the indignation they felt at an examination by the agents of the other 
 
DWELLINGS FOR FARM SERVANTS. 
 
 637 
 
 candidate, as to whether they had received parochial relief. Would that this spirit were 
 more generally diffused, and that it were cherished and fostered by the owners of land as 
 
 it ought to be ! Of the plans I have sent you, fig. 1210, p. 653, has been executed ; but 
 fig. 1215, though a more pleasing elevation, was given up, as it involved a lead gutter 
 between the roofs, which increased the expense ^£"'10; and, what was a far more serious 
 objection in my mind, it incurred the risk of damage from snow in winter, as you could 
 never rely on a labourer taking the precaution of throwing it off." A simple and eflfec- 
 tual remedy for this evil has been pointed out to us by John Robison, Esq., Secretary to 
 the Royal Society of Edinburgh ; who says, " A frequent cause of annoyance is the 
 water which finds admittance in roofs when the valleys and gutters get obstructed by 
 melted snow, on the occurrence of a sudden thaw. This is easily and effectually pre- 
 vented by any contrivance by which a waterway can be preserved in the gutters, into 
 which the snow cannot find access until it be melted : slates, or boards, supported so as to 
 leave a hollow imder them ; ranges of tiles with their convex sides uppermost ; damaged 
 slates, &c., may be applied in this way with perfect success. In towns, many roofs get 
 injured by the persons sent up to throw the snow off them ; but if the above simple pre- 
 caution be taken, the greatest accumulation of snow can do no harm, however rapid the 
 thaw may be." Fig. 1216 shows a valley-gutter between two roofs, with a ridge-tile. 
 
638 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 1217 
 
 or draining tile, or one of Peake's semicylindrical tiles, placed in it as a drain when the 
 valley is filled with snow. Fig. 1217 is a single gutter with a common pantile placed 
 in it in an inverted position, for the same puqiose. It 
 may be observed that these tiles, in summer, will be 
 useful, by protecting the lead from the intense heat 
 of the sun, which in many situations produces cracks, 
 and causes the lead to turn up at the edges. Mr. 
 Lawrence continues: — " With regard to the cost of 
 the two cottages which were executed, fig. 1207, I 
 consider the shortest and the most satisfactory plan 
 will be, to send you a copy of the specification, 
 showing the quantity and quality of the work done for the money. You are aware 
 that, in general, a mere statement that a building cost a given sum is very unsatis- 
 factory, without knowing exactly what the contract comprised ; 
 for there is often much subsequent expense not provided for, 
 and the mode in which the building is finished makes all the 
 difference in the cost. In this case you will see the contract 
 provided for every thing, except timber, and cast-iron frames 
 for the windows. The price in the contract was £199. The 
 bill for the cast-iron frames was £9: 15s. There being no 
 timber cut sufficiently seasoned, the contractor was to furnish 
 such as might be required, except joists and rafters, which were 
 cut out of larch poles, worth, perhaps, £10 or <£12 to 
 sell; and his bill, including shelves, &c., amounted to £40. 
 The entire cost may be estimated at £260. The old cottages 
 
 need not affect the account ; for they furnished nothing in value exceeding that of 
 the labour employed in their removal. Tlie using of cast-iron window frames is a notion 
 of my own. I have for some time got them made by Stothert of Bath, and much prefer 
 them to wood or lead. Where they are used, the stonework should be left somewhat 
 smaller in the opening than the intended size when finished ; and it should be worked to 
 its proper size when the frames are ready to be put in, as they are sometimes slightly 
 warped in the casting, and a better and closer fit is thus insured. Design V., 
 fig. 1211, would have cost £"10 more than Design IV. In situations where effect is of 
 more consequence than a few pounds more or less, and two cottages are built side by 
 side, according to Design IV., a gable should be thrown up in the centre, to relieve the 
 length of roof: barge-boards may be introduced in these gables, and a rustic porch set 
 round each door, formed by four small trees about six inches in diameter, or of larch 
 poles with the bark on, connected on the sides by the crooked branches of oak, which are 
 found at the barking season to be too rough for stripping." 
 
 1351. Specification and Agreement. To take down the two old cottages, and in the 
 stead thereof to erect, build, and complete for habitation, two new cottages on the site 
 to be fixed on by William Lawrence, Esq., in a substantial and workmanlike manner, 
 according to the following specification ; that is to say : — to dig out and form foundations, 
 cellars, and privy vaults, to be walled ; to build the two new cottages according to the 
 plans and elevations hereunto annexed, and to provide, at the expense of John Jordan 
 
DWELLINGS FOR FARM SERVANTS. 
 
 639 
 
 (the contractor), all necessary hauling and labour, and all materials and woi-kmanship of 
 every description, except timber; the timber to be supplied by the said William Lawrence 
 in the rough, and sawed out and worked up by the said John Jordan (the floors to be fur- 
 nished in plank) ; and abo the windows, except the cast-iron frames, which are to be found 
 by the said William Lawrence, but to be glazed at the expense of the said John Jordan. 
 The walls to be built in a strong rough manner, with rusticated ashlar coins, the sills 
 to the windows to be of weathered stone. The chimney tops to be formed of weathered 
 stone ashlar, with proper heads and drips. The ovens to be formed of fire-brick with 
 iron stoppers. The floors of the lower rooms and passage (except that of the largest 
 room on the ground floor) to be of good clean close-jointed paving. The floors of the 
 lean-to and privy and pigsty to be laid with common rough paving. The floors of the 
 large room on the ground floor, and of the upper rooms and staircase, to be of elm board, 
 framed and laid in a good manner. All the roofs to be pointed to the pin (mortar to be 
 laid under each course of slate, from their lower edge, to the pin which fastens the slate 
 below). All the doors to be ledged doors, ploughed and tongued, well fitted, and hung 
 on good strong hinges. All the walls of the house and privy to be plastered and 
 troweled down smooth and washed. The walls of the lean-to and pigsty to be pointed ; 
 and the walls of the court of the latter to be covered with weather-coping. To provide 
 spouts of wood or cast-iron, and fix them at the front and back of the cottages, and a 
 downright spout to each, to convey the water into a reservoir. All the outside wood 
 and ironwork to be painted with three coats of oil paint To cover in the said cottages 
 and outbuildings, on or before the 1st of July next; and to complete the same in all 
 respects fit for habitation and use, and to clear away all the rubbish from the new, and 
 the site of the old building, by the 1st of September following, to the satisfaction of 
 the said William Lawrence, or his agent or surveyor. 
 
 Design VI. — A Cottage for a Farm Labourer and his Wife, without Children. 
 
 1352. An Essay on Labourers' Cottages, by Mr. Tugwell, the celebrated agriculturist, 
 and the inventor of the Beverstone plough, which appeared in the Bath Society s 
 Papers, vol. xii., was accompained by two very economical plans for ploughmen's 
 dwellings, which we have tliought it useful to copy (with some alterations, which we 
 consider improvements) into this work, as particularly suitable for being erected on farms. 
 We shall commence with that of the smallest size. 
 
 1353. Accommodation. There are a cellar the entire size of the gi-ound floor, a living- 
 room and pantry over the cellar, and two small bed-rooms over these. Fig. 1218 is a 
 plan of the ground floor, in 
 
 which a is the living-room 
 twelve feet by eleven feet, with 
 its open fireplace, b, oven, c, and 
 small boiler, d. The open fire- 
 place has the jambs widely 
 splayed, in order to throw as 
 much heat as possible into the 
 room ; the flue of this fireplace 
 is circular in the horizontal 
 section, as shown at e, and the 
 throat is narrowed, to diminish 
 the draught, as much as is con- 
 sistent with freedom from smoke. 
 The boiler, d, Mr. Tugwell pro- 
 poses to be a Papin's digester, 
 to enable the occupant to pre- 
 pare soups, Irish stews, bouil- 
 lies, &c. from bones which 
 would be otherwise thrown 
 away. The oven, c, is supposed 
 to be built of one brick in 
 thickness (two inches and a 
 quarter), both at bottom and 
 
 sides, and not more than one in breadth (four inches and a half) on the top; the 
 whole to be bedded, and surrounded on all sides, above and belov/, with four inches 
 of well-rammed wood ashes ; these being bad conductors of heat. Mr. Tugwell observes, 
 that he can affirm, from experience, that an oven of this construction wUl not require 
 more than a third part of the fuel usually consumed in heating. Small-sized earthen- 
 ware ovens, he observes, are made at the potteries in one entire piece ; and these woidd 
 
640 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 be very suitable for being bedded in ashes. The fireplace of the digester, he recom- 
 mends to be surrounded by the same non-conducting substance. There are a small 
 pantry,/, and a place, 5^, for 1219 
 the stairs down to the cel- 
 lar, and up to the bed-rooms. 
 Behind are a privy, A, a place for 
 ashes, i, for fuel, k, and for such 
 rubbish as will not convert into 
 manure, I. The last four ap- 
 pendages are ours. Fig. 1219 
 is the plan of the bed-room 
 floor ; in which there is a bed- 
 room, m, twelve feet by ten feet, 
 with a fireplace and circular 
 flue at n, and a recess for shelves 
 at 0 : there is another bed-room, 
 p, twelve feet by nine feet. 
 Fig. 1220 is the elevation in 
 perspective. 
 
 1354. Construction. The outer walls arc proposed to be built hollow; either entirely 
 of brick or entirely of stone ; or with tlieir outsides of stone of twelve inches in thick- 
 ness, with an encasing of brick 
 
 of about six inches, and an f^3=J 1220 
 
 interval of six inches between, 
 with cross ties carried up from 
 the bottom to the top. The 
 vacuities in the walls are pro- 
 posed to be made by means 
 of a hollow light deal box, 
 fig. 1221, three inches in 
 thickness, three feet long, and 
 two feet deep. This box is to 
 be used as a gauge for preserv- 
 ing the vacuities of the proper 
 width : it has two rings in its 
 upper side, by which means it 
 may be easily drawn up to 
 about two thirds of its height; 
 at which height, two catches, 
 fig. 1221, <7 <7, at each end, 
 Avill fly out, by means of 
 weights at their tails, as shown 
 in fig. 1222; and these will 
 hold the gauge box in its proper station, till it may require again to be raised. The 
 width of this cottage being only twelve feet, the roof is made to slope from the front to the 
 
 back, so as to throw all the water 1222 
 into one gutter, which may convey 
 it to a barrel, tub, or tank, or a 
 cistern over the closet, k, in fig. 
 1218. The elevation of the roof 
 is supposed to be not more than 
 twelve degrees ; that slope being 
 most suitable for a covering of 
 Grecian or Italian tiles, figs. 23 
 and 24, in § 50 ; or with large 
 slates, fig. 1100. § 1222 ; cast-iron 
 plates, § 1 53 ; corrugated iron, 
 § 420 ; or with cement, in a manner which will be hereafter described, 
 common slate, the roof will require to be raised to an angle of thirty-six degrees ; if 
 for reeds, hoop chips, or holm (drawn wheat straw), forty-five degrees; and if for common 
 thatch of broken straw, from fifty degrees to fifty-five degrees. The upper wall-plate is 
 proposed to be six inches by two inches ; the under wall-plate eight inches by two inches, 
 and the rafters and foot-beams four inches by two inches. The foot-beams are to be con- 
 sidered as ceiling joists, and are to be lathed and plastered : between this ceiling and the 
 roof, Mr. Tugwell proposes to place coal-ashes, as a non-conducting substance ; but, if these 
 should not be had in sufficient abundance, hay, straw, moss, chaff, or leaves may be used; 
 
 1221 
 
 If intended for 
 
DWELLINGS FOR FARM SERVANTS. 
 
 641 
 
 □ 
 
 o 
 
 O 
 
 or 
 
 o 
 
 □ 
 
 the Dutch and Germans use hay in similar cases. If slates are used, they are proposed 
 to be pointed with a composition of quickKme, sharp sand, and smith's ashes, made into a 
 stiff mortar, with bullock's blood and a little linseed oil, previously mixed over the fire. 
 This mixture, Mr. Tugwell says, should be well beaten together every day, for five or six 
 days successively ; and, when used, it should be worked into a soft consistence with lime- 
 water. Small openings for ventilation may be made in the ceilings, close by the chimney- 
 flue, and carried up in the wall so near the latter as to be influenced by its heat : all such 
 ventilations should have sliding stops, so as to close them during winter ; their chief use 
 being while cooking or baking is going on, during the hot weather of summer. See 
 § 21, 
 
 1355. General Estimate. Cubic contents, 5,661 feet, which, at Sd. per foot, is 
 £'70 : 15s. : Sd. ; at 2d., £47 : 3s. : 6d. ; and at l^d., £2>5 : 7s. • 7^d. 
 
 1356. Remarks. This is a well-considered Design, in point of accommodation and 
 eseonomy. The original elevation, as given in the Bath Society^s Papers, is without archi- 
 tectural beauty, but we have varied it a little ; and also added the appendages, h, i, k, 
 and I, behind. Two of these cottages placed together, with a bold stack of chimneys in 
 the centre, would have a good appearance. The blank space in the centre might have a 
 lean-to placed against it, and be subdivided, for the benefit of each house : or a vine or 
 frnit tree might be placed against the wall ; or the cottager who could aflford it might 
 have there a summer-house or a green-house : the latter would be kept sufficiently warm 
 by the heat from the two aigesters or boilers. But the addition which, above all others, 
 we should wish to see made to a single cottage of this kind, would be a thatch-covered 
 lean-to, on the back of the fireplace, fitted up as a forcing-house for poultry ; or, where two 
 such cottages were placed together, to see poultry places formed for each cottage between 
 them. Fig. 1223 shows the two ends, or living-rooms, of two such cottages, placed back 
 to back, with two poultry 
 
 places between. The porch, 1223 
 a, to each poultry place, may 
 serve for ducks or geese on 
 the ground floor, and for 
 young fowls to roost over ; 
 the ducks being protected 
 from tlie droppings from the 
 roosts by projecting boards. 
 The laying and hatching 
 places, h, may be separated 
 by doors, c, eighteen inches 
 wide, from the porches, in 
 order to keep the former 
 warm. Over the passages in 
 the inner places may be 
 roosts for hens expected to 
 lay, and, if it is thought fit, 
 the height may be extended 
 to the roof, and two places for 
 pigeons obtained over the 
 roosting-place for the fowls. 
 If this is not considered desir- 
 able, two closets, one to the 
 bed-room of each house, may 
 be formed over the poultry 
 places, and lighted, the one 
 by a window to the front, as 
 shown in the elevation fig. 1224, and the other by a window to the back. In the porches, 
 rabbits may be kept, as well as ducks and geese. It is gratifying to find Mr. Tugwell 
 recommending, besides his excellent oven and digester, " whereby the small quantities of 
 animal food that fall to the farm labourer's share may be rendered solacing, nutritive, 
 and strengthening, large well constructed windows, in order to give light during many 
 hours in the year, that would otherwise require the use of candles." He also recommends 
 a quarter of an acre of garden ground to each cottage ; and gives directions for making a 
 kind of stew, in a pot with a cover, a common stewpan, or, by preference, the digester 
 (because this utensil, from its great strength and close cover, admits of raising water 
 to a degree of heat somewhat above the boiling point). This stew is composed of 
 alternate layers of whole potatoes, the refuse parts of mutton, beef, or pork, cut small ; 
 and a little thyme from the cottager's garden, together with celery, onions, and savory, 
 either or aU j the whole to be seasoned with salt and pepper, and barely covered with 
 
 4 c 
 
 Ft. 10 
 
 10 Ft. 
 
 _J 
 
642 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 1224 
 
 water : the ingredients are then to be simmered till tender, and a few peas, a little 
 l ice, or Scotch barley, may also casually be added. " Could the ploughman's wife 
 (equally interested) be only induced to pique herself a little on a knowledge of simple 
 cookery, then, and with other corresponding economy, would the poor but healthful 
 man's life be comparatively a heaven on earth ; then, from his daily avocations con- 
 stantly returning, with the utmost relish, to his healthy and thriving children, would he 
 consider his home as his best and only asylum, and his industrious careful wife his most 
 deserving friend and companion. Then would he partake of enjoyment in his repasts 
 unknown to the most luxurious epicure ; and only procurable by the constant toil allotted 
 him as his indispensable portion in life." {Bath Societijs Papers, vol. xii. p. 372.) 
 We have quoted the above, in the anxious hope that some of our readers will convey 
 Mr. Tugwell's useful instructions to their poor neighbours, who do not know how to 
 make the most of what they already possess. Half the enjoyments of the poor are lost 
 for want of a little knowledge of cookery, which, indeed, ought to be taught them at school, 
 with other female works, agreeably to the German practice. 
 
 Design VII. — Cottage for a Farm Labourer with several Children; or a Bothy (a 
 Boothie, or little Booth^ for three unmarried Ploughmen. 
 
 1357. Accommodation. There is a cellar floor for storing roots and fuel, and for 
 keeping milk, beer, or other liquors. The ground floor, fig. 1225, contains an entrance 
 
 porch, a ; living-room, J, sixteen feet by twelve feet, with fireplace, oven, and boiler, as 
 in fig. 1218; a pantry, c; staircase to cellars and bed-room, rf; privy, e; place for 
 ashes, / ; another for fuel, g ; and another for refuse not convertible either into fuel or 
 manure, h. Fig. 1 226 is the bed-room floor, in which are shown, a bed-room, nine feet 
 by twelve feet, with a fireplace, A; and two others without fireplaces, kk. Fig. 1227 
 shows the elevation. 
 
 1358. The Construction of this Design is the same, in all respects, as the last; the 
 difference being confined to length : the breadth and height, and consequently the 
 thickness of the walls, and the details of the roof, are the same as before. 
 
 1359. General Estimate. Cubic contents, 8,017 feet; which, at 3c?. per foot, is 
 £\00 : 4s. 3c?. ; at 2c?., £66 : 16s. 2c?; and at l^d., £50 : 2s. : ]^d. 
 
DWELLINGS FOR FARM SERVANTS. 6i3 
 
 1526 
 
 1360. Remarks. This may be considered as, on the whole, a very comfortable cottage ; 
 more especially if the cellar floor is fitted up with all the conveniences of which it is 
 
 susceptible. If the ploughman has a cow, which, in Scotland and in the north of Eng- 
 land, is almost always the case, there may be a proper dairy ; or, in the south of England, 
 where the great dependence of the occupant of such cottages is upon a pig, there may 
 be a proper salting-place. 
 
 Design VIII. — The improved Farm Labourer'^ s Cottage of France, as given by Morel- 
 
 Vinde. 
 
 i361. The habitations of the country labourers, Morel- Vinde observes, being of more 
 frequent occurrence than any other, are, on that account, the most important of all ; and, 
 notwithstanding the great improvements which this enlightened and benevolent pro- 
 prietor has made on the other buildings requisite for a farm, those which he has intro- 
 duced in the cottage of the ploughman he considers the best. In speaking of these, the 
 principles on which Morel- Vinde has constructed his labourers' cottages are thus given. 
 His first condition is, care of the occupant's health , which requires the sleeping-room to 
 be raised above the level of the surrounding soil, with a circulation of air underneath. 
 To fulfil this condition, he raises the floor of his house three feet above the surface, form- 
 ing a dry cellar under the sleeping-room, which serves as a bakehouse. His second 
 condition is, sufficient space; for trhich he has given two rooms, one for cooking and 
 living in, and the other for sleeping in. His third condition is heat ; for which, in addition 
 to the common kitchen fireplace, and the oven underneath, he has given a. stove in the 
 centre of the building. His fourth condition is, economy of fuel ; for which he has given 
 a shed for containing it when collected. His fifth is, decency and economy of manure ; 
 for which he has given a privy of a particular description. His sixth requisite comprises 
 the cottager's sources of living, in addition to the common wages of labour ; for which he 
 jfives a cow-house, a place for poultry, another for a pig, another for rabbits, another fpr 
 
644 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 pigeons, and a garden of a quarter of an acre. All these conveniences of the house he 
 has contrived to get within a space of 640 superficial feet, as shown in the details given 
 in figs. 1228 to 1235. 
 
 1362. Details. In fig. 1228 are seen the ascending steps, a, to the hvmg-room, b ; the 
 
 1228 
 
 sleeping-room, c, with its small iron stove, d, and its two beds, the larger for the master 
 and mistress, and the smaller one for the youngest cliild. The grown-up children are 
 supposed to sleep in the beds, e e, in the living-room. The two rabbit places arc shown 
 at //; the wood-shed at g, the pigsty at h, the poultry-house at i, the privy at k, the 
 cow-house at I, the dairy at m, and the stair down to the cellar at n. It should be 
 remarked, with respect to the poultry place, that it is of the greatest importance to the 
 occupant to keep it warm ; and that it might even be worth while (with a view to this 
 end) to have a communication between this and the kitchen, or the oven. Were this 
 done. Morel- Vinde says, the occupant might have hens to lay in the middle of winter j 
 and might rear broods of chickens for sale early in the spring, when they fetch a very 
 high price. Without artificial heat, he says, fowls are no great benefit to a farm 
 labourer, who must necessarily purchase at least a part of their food ; but with it they 
 may prove a source of considerable profit, according to the skill of the mistress, and the 
 distance of the market. Fig. 1229 is a plan of the foundations, in which o is the stair 
 
 1229 
 
 down to the bakehouse ; p, the bakehouse, and q, the oven. Fig. 1230 is a plan of the 
 garret-floor, which forms the ceiling of the two rooms. Fig. 1231 is a front elevation. 
 Fig. 1232 is an end elevation. Fig. 1233 is across section. Fig. 1234 is a longi- 
 tudinal section, in which are seen the oven, r ; the kitchen fireplace, s ; the sleeping- 
 room stove, with its funnel, t ; the garret, entered by a ladder to a door seen in the front 
 elevation, u; the Jevelof the wood-shed and pigsty, v, and cow-house, if. Fig, 1235 is 
 
DWELLINGS FOR FARM SERVANTS. 
 
 645 
 
 a perspective view, with some improvement made in the chimney-tops, with a slight 
 porch, and with three panes of glass, shown in the garret-door. 
 
 1363. General Estimate. The 1230 
 actual cost of this habitation, with 
 its dependencies, in the neighbourhood 
 of Paris, is £160; and the average 
 for the departments, £96. As the 
 cubic contents of the building are 
 12,852 feet, this gives 2|c?. per foot 
 as the price for estimating buildings 
 of this description in the neighbour- 
 hood of Paris ; and l|t/. per foot for 
 the provinces. 
 
 1364. Remarks. We cannot suf- 
 ficiently express our approbation of 
 the generous feelings which induced 
 the author of this Design to bestow 
 so much attention on all its various 
 details. He may be truly said to have done more for the habitation of the farm 
 labourer than all the other French and British Architects put together. Indeed, it has 
 
 never formed any part of the business of Architects of eminence, either in France or 
 Britain, to study the improvement of the habitations of the poor; for these obvious 
 
 1232 
 
 1233 
 
646 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 reasons, that the poor cannot pay them, and that the rich, unlike tlie benevolent Morel- 
 Vinde, care little how the poor ou their estates are lodged, lu proof of tliis, we may 
 
 refer to the great majority of the cottages of farm labourers in France (which Morel- 
 Vinde informs us are miserable ruins, not only insufficient to keep out the weather, but 
 incommodious and unhealthy), and to the miserable dwellings of the farm servants in the 
 best cultivated districts of Scotland and in Northumberland. 
 
 Design IX. — A double Cottage for Farm Labourers, with places hetween the Two 
 Dwellings for hatching and fattening Poultry early in the Season. 
 
 1365. The Object of this Design is, to show the application of the advice which we have 
 already given, that the wives of cottagers in the country should be encouraged to prepare 
 some article for the public market, as supplementary to the wages of their husband's daily 
 labour, and to supply a motive for exertion, as well as to afford a source of income and, a 
 feeling of property, independent of manual labour. Independent cottagers may have 
 recourse to garden produce, useful and ornamental, or the smaller kinds of manufactures, 
 such as lace, strawwork, toys, &c. ; but the objects for the farm labourer to attend to, we 
 think, are decidedly poultry, sucking pigs, and rabbits. There is no cottage whatever 
 that may not have a suitable place for these purposes formed in it, or added to it, at 
 very little expense. 
 
 1366. Accommodation. Each of these cottages contains a porch, a, fig. 1236, with a 
 
DWELLINGS FOR FARM SERVANTS. 647 
 
 1236 
 8i 
 
 Vt.\rt .3 0 10 F;. 
 
 ^^T .J '..I -I I I 1 1 , Y .1 
 
 place in it for tools or fuel, b ; a living-room, c, with a press, d, and stair to the bed-rooms, 
 e. There is a back-kitchen, /, with a boiler ; and, beside it, there may be cither an open 
 fireplace or an oven, according to the given locality : there is also a pantry, g. The 
 yard behind, h, contains a place for fuel, roofed in, i ; a place for a water-barrel or a pump, 
 k ; a privy, I ; pigsty, m ; a place for ashes, n ; and for inconvertible refuse, o. Behind the 
 living-room fire, and reaching from the front door, p, to a door into the back-kitchen, r, 
 is g, space, three feet wide, separated from the living-room by a four-inch wall, for 
 hatching, rearing, and fattening poultry. The nests are shown on one side of a passage, 
 twenty inches wide ; and there is a partition and door at s, between the hatching and 
 rearing places, t and q. The bed-room plan, fig. 1237, contains three bed-rooms, u, v, 
 and w ; a light closet, or child's bed-room, over the poultry place, x ; a press, y ; and a 
 
64-8 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 landing from the staircase, z. The liquid manure tank from the privy and pigsty is at 
 Sf, in fig. 1236. 
 
 1367. Construction. The walls are shown as if built of brick, and they are supposed 
 to be hollow, as in Design I. § 25. In this case the partition between the living-room, c, 
 and the poultry place is supposed to be of four-inch work, or brick in bed ; but if this 
 cottage should be built in a stone country, as the walls wiU then necessarily be eighteen 
 inches or two feet thick, according to the kind of stones made use of, and as they will 
 be not less thick if built of mud or compressed earth, the partitions in both cases should 
 be of studwork, filled in with brick or clay nogging; the back of the fireplace being 
 formed of a cast-iron plate, through which abundance of heat will pass to the poultry 
 place. If, in the summer time, this heat should be too groat, it can be moderated by 
 building, in a temporary manner, stones, brick, turf, or mud, against the back of the cast- 
 iron plate. The outside door of the poultry place being supposed to face the south-east, 
 as indicated in the plan, it would be a saving of heat if the upper part of it were formed 
 of glass, to admit the rays of the sun in spring, with a shutter for putting on at night. 
 
 1368. Remarks. The plan of this double cottage is commodious. We took the first 
 idea of its arrangement from a plan published in the benevolent Mr. Marriage's Letters 
 on the Distressed State of the Agricultural Labourers ; but we have added the poultry 
 places, the yard behind and its offices, and altered the situation of the staircase. We 
 have given an elevation in the Italian style, fig. 1241, simply because it would have taught 
 nothing to the young Architect to give a commonplace one. In this elevation, the flat tile, 
 fig. 1238, which is a recent improvement by Mr. Pcakc, on his flat tile, fig. 24, a, § 50, 
 is supposed to be employed ; the joints being covered with semicylindrical tiles, like 6, 
 fig. 24, and the tile at the caves either terminating in a plain end, as in fig. 1239, a; 
 in an ornamented end, like c; or in a still more ornamented one, as h. In conse- 
 
 quence of the raised bead, or water stop, across the upper part of the tile, fig. 1 238. 
 roofs to be covered with these tiles need not have a greater slope than an angle of fifteen 
 degrees ; an immense saving of 
 timber and other materials, as well 
 as a source of great classical beauty. 
 The tiles, being formed of terro- 
 metallic earth, have somewhat of 
 the colovu- of cast iron : they are 
 almost equally hard ; and must, 
 from their nature, be incomparably 
 more durable. In short, we con- 
 sider them as the best of all cover- 
 ings for roofe, whether of small 
 or large buildings, provided the 
 timbers be sufficiently strong to 
 sustain them. On the terrace 
 we have shown vases, which we 
 propose to be of a kind recently 
 manufactured by Mr. Peake in one 
 piece, fig. 1240, two feet high and 
 eighteen inches wide, of great 
 beauty, and remarkably cheap, 
 being formed of the same material 
 as the tiles. There are suitable ridge-tiles, gutter-tiles, valley-tiles, and barge and 
 summer-stone tiles, all manufactured by Mr. Peake in the same superior style, at the 
 same pottery. As the terro-metallic earth is of the greatest durability, Mr, Peake is of 
 
DWELLINGS FOR FARM SERVANTS. 649 
 
 opinion, that flat tiles made with grooves in their edges, such as are shown in the section 
 fig. 1242, for the purpose of admitting a tongue or seam of putty, vrould completely 
 
 keep out the rain; while they would, by rendering the bridge or semicylindrical 
 tile which covers the joint unnecessary, fomm a lighter roof, and require less strong 
 timbers. It must be confessed, however, that such a roof would not be so beautiful as 
 the other, because it would not recall to the imagination Italian, Moorish, or classical 
 forms. While recommending classical tiles, and other ornamental objects for labourers' 
 cottages, it will never, we trust, for a moment be supposed that we consider such appen- 
 dages as at all essential to them, or mean to put them, in the slightest degree, in compe- 
 tition with arrangements for insuring commodiousness,warmth, convenience, or cleanliness. 
 Nevertheless, we are not without an object in introducing exterior ornaments, and even in 
 being profuse in their introduction. That object is, to tempt the higher classes to erect 
 comfortable cottages, for the sake of their ornamental effect. Now, though, in our opinion, 
 a plain cottage, with every comfort belonging to such a dwelling, is perfectly beautiful in 
 itself, without the aid of exterior ornament ; yet this is by no means the case with those 
 who judge only by the outward appearance, who, probably, never entered a cottage in their 
 lives, who have little sympathy with its occupants; and who, therefore, are unfit to 
 appreciate the beauty of fitness. Classical and picturesque ornaments are within the range 
 of what is allowed to be beautiful by such persons, and they like to display such evidences 
 of their taste for beauty on their estates, without caring for, or without having at all 
 taken into consideration, the interiors of the buildings they thus decorate. What has led 
 to the small degree of improvement that has been made in the lodges, gardener's and 
 bailiff's houses, and the houses of other servants, on gentlemen's estates ? The comfort 
 of the occupants? By no means: it is simply the desire of producing objects that will 
 be ornamental in the landscape ; and the convenience of the interior is seldom, if ever, 
 thought of, even by the Architect. To be convinced of this, it is only necessary to enter 
 the houses alluded to, or to examine the works on the subject, published by professed 
 Architects. We admit that there are honourable exceptions, but they are very few. The 
 Highland Society of Scotland lately offered a premium for the best design for a labourer's 
 cottage ; and, though there were a number of competitors, we are informed by a corre- 
 spondent, that the designs were so indifferent, that none of them were considered worthy 
 of the premium : " none contained any thing beyond the usual routine ; not one showed 
 a floor above the level of the soil they stood on ; most of them had their chimneys in the 
 external walls ; and scarcely any attention had been paid in any of them to certain 
 appendages, on which the comfort and cleanliness of every family must, in a greftt 
 measure, depend." " How can we find fault," our correspondent asks, " with the Scottish 
 peasantry for not being neat and cleanly in their habits, if those who build theii' 
 dwellings do not encourage their amendment by furnishing facilities for it?" 
 
 4 D 
 
650 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 Sect. VI. Of the Exterior and Interior Finishing, and the Fittings-np and Furniture, oj 
 Farm Houses and Farmeries. 
 
 1369. The Exterior and Interior Finishing of the dwellings of farmers differ little from 
 those of other houses ; and, as we have already entered at some length into the subject, 
 when treating of cottages, our observations in this section will necessarily be few. The 
 finishing of farmeries differs considerably from that of dwellings, though, being neces- 
 sarily of a very inferior description, it will not require a lengthened discussion. Nearly 
 the same observations will apply to the fittings-up of both classes of buildings. 
 
 1370. The Furnishing of Farm Houses includes some articles peculiar to the kitchen 
 court; and that of the farmeries comprehends a variety of machines, implements, instru- 
 ments, and utensils ; but most of these are so much more intimately connected with 
 agriculture than Architecture, that we intend only to notice them in so far as they 
 influence the form, size, or disposition of the building or apartment in which tliey are 
 to be contained. We consider it essentially necessary to do this, on the principle 
 already repeatedly laid down; viz., that to design a building, or any part of it, in the 
 fittest manner to answer the end in view, it is necessary to know what that end is. At 
 the same time, we shall be careful, in this work, not to repeat any thing that has already 
 appeared in our Enci/clopa;dia of Agriculture. We shall include tiie finishing, fittings-up, 
 and furniture of the farm house and kitchen court in the same subsection ; and we shall 
 devote another subsection to the finishing, fittings-up, and furniture of the farmery. 
 
 SuBSECT. 1. Of the Finishing, Fittings-up, and Ftimiture of the Farm House, and the 
 Offices of the Kitchen Court. 
 
 1371. Generally the Finishing and Furniture of the Living- Rooms of Farm Houses ought 
 to be substantial, and rather plain than highly ornamented : because the occui)ation of 
 the farmer is less delicate and refined than that of the followers of most other trades 
 and professions ; by wliom a highly finished and elegantly furnished house would be less 
 likely to be soiled or injured, than by the thick and earth-stained shoes of the working 
 farmer. Be it obs rved, however, that the mind of the farmer, and also his manners, 
 may be as high in the scale as those of the others ; and, of course, the wealthy farmer may 
 have his drawing-room as highly finished, and richly furnished, as the independent land- 
 owner. 
 
 1372. Recesses fur Cupboards, Closets, and Pantries ought to be more numerous in 
 farm houses than in dwelling-houses near towns or villages; because the farm must 
 generally be considered as situated at some distance from either, and consequently a 
 greater quantity of groceries, and other stores purchased in shops, will be required to be 
 kept in the house. The fittings-up of these recesses, &c., must l)e regulated by the 
 uses to which they are to be applied. In general, open shelves are much better than 
 drawers, as being easier got at, and cleaned ; exposing more readily their contents, so as 
 to save time in looking out for articles ; and ventilating them better. Shelves, for dresses 
 or numerous small articles, may be formed like trays, to draw out ; those for the finer 
 articles of dress should have close fronts like drawers, or drawers in this case may be 
 substituted for trays. The backs of recesses in outside walls should always be lined 
 with boards kept an inch at least from the wall, with an opening the whole breadth of 
 the recess at bottom, and another of the same size at top, to admit of free ventilation. 
 
 1373. A very suitable Parlour Fireplace for farm houses has been sent us by a phi- 
 losophic domestic economist of Edinburgh, which he adopted some years ago in his 
 own house, except in 1243 
 
 the large public rooms. 
 It is nearly allied to our 
 figs. 533 and 535, in 
 § 599 and § 600 ; and has 
 answered so well, that the 
 pattern has been adopted 
 in the Edinburgh foun- 
 deries, and is made there 
 for general use. The 
 general appearance is as at 
 fig. 1243; in which a is 
 a cast-iron plate, either 
 as it comes from the 
 mould, or ground and 
 inlaid, according as it is 
 intended for a principal or 
 secondary chamber; b b b 
 
INTERIOR FINISHING OF FARM HOUSES. 
 
 651 
 
 1244 
 
 are three large fire-bricks, or Welsh lumps, which reach up to the horizontal line at c. 
 The fire-grate may be lifted out to be cleaned ; and, as all the patterns of the grates are 
 alike, a single spare one is sufficient to avoid the necessity of cleaning them within the 
 rooms. The peculiarities of this grate are as follows: — First, the bars of the grate are 
 principally vertical ; both these bars and the horizontal ones present their angles, and 
 not their sides, to the front ; consequently, there is no surface on which ashes can rest, 
 and the appearance of the grate is always clean and neat : secondly, the whole fabric is 
 very firm, and easily set up. The three fire-bricks or lumps, hbb, are first set up, and 
 filled in solid behind as high as the dotted line in fig. 1243. The front plate, a, is then 
 put in its place, having two roughly forged pieces of 
 iron, d, attached to it by the screwed knobs, c c ; the 
 building is then carried on till the pieces of iron, d, are 
 embedded in the brickwork, which is allowed to set ; 
 after which, by unscrewing the knobs, c c, the plate 
 a is again removed, and free access obtained to finish 
 the building. This is rendered more obvious by 
 the section across the fireplace, fig. 1244, in which 
 the same parts are designated by the same letters as 
 in fig. 1243. These fireplaces, in their simplest form, 
 are very cheap, and yet they are very handsome ; but 
 with some additional expense they may be made 
 suitable to the most highly finished apartments. 
 They are economical, both from the small quantity 
 of fuel required to warm the apartments, and from 
 the unusually small portion of dust which they throw 
 out into the rooms, or on the furniture. A grate, 
 eighteen inches wide in front, nine inches high, ten 
 inches from front to back, and one foot wide at the 
 back, fig. 1245, burning good splint or Newcastle coal 
 
 is sufficient to keep a room 
 
 /I 
 
652 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 1246 
 
 I Ll!! 
 
 containing 6000 cubic feet of air at a comfortable temperature, during the most 
 severe weather of an Edinburgh winter. The same excellent correspondent observes, 
 that a convenient improvement in register grates with polished bars is, to have the 
 fronts of the grates made to lift off, so as to allow them to be taken out of the room 
 to be cleaned. When several grates of the same pattern are in the same house, a 
 spare front may be hooked on, when the blackened one is taken away ; and this, in its 
 turn, when polished, may be used as a spare one in another room. As much of the 
 light dust which lodges upon furniture arises from tlie stirring of the fire, this may be in 
 a great measure prevented, in register grates, by having a horizontal slit, or row of holes 
 made through the back plate, just under the grate bottom: as a current of air will always 
 be flowing by such, openings into the space between the back plate and the wall, the 
 light dust which is separated by stirring the fire will be carried in by this current, insteag 
 of partly eddying out into the room. 
 
 1 374. The Furniture for the Living and Sleeping Rooms of a Farm House have nothind 
 in them which is peculiar ; and therefore we refer our readers to what we have said 
 respecting the furniture of cottages, for farm houses of the smaller size; and to what we 
 shall say^f the furniture of villas, for those of a larger description. As all educated 
 persons living in the country must necessarily derive a considerable portion of their 
 enjoyment from books, the parlour of the farmer ought always to be provided either with 
 a large bookcase, or, for economy's sake, 
 with one or more recesses in an interior 
 wall or partition, fitted up with book- 
 shelves. In either case, where glass, or 
 glazed bookcase doors are considered too 
 expensive, we would recommend a blind 
 of canvass working in two grooves, as 
 an equally efficacious protection for the 
 books. This is the invention of a very 
 ingenious architect, Charles Vokins, 
 Esq., who has adopted it in his office 
 bookcase. In the styles or sides of the 
 frame of the shelves, fig, 1 246, a a are the 
 grooves, and 6 b the laths to which the 
 canvass is attached, which work in them. 
 The blind thus formed being pulled down 
 by the knob c, and pulled up by the cord 
 d, the last operating on a spring roller, 
 enclosed in a tin case fixed in the top of 
 the bookcase ; e is the scutcheon of a 
 lock in the lath, for locking up the whole 
 or any number of shelves. The book- 
 shelves, where economy is the main 
 object, may be fixed ; but where they 
 are movable, and supported by pins, we 
 would recommend another improvement, 
 invented also by Mr. Vokins. This is, 
 having the pins of metal broad and flat, 
 
 so as to fit into grooves in the under sides no 63 o 1 2 3 
 
 of the shelves ; by which means two more , , , , 1 . t ^'' 
 
 books are got upon each shelf than it 
 
 would otherwise hold, without raising it the thickness of the pin above the height of the 
 books, which would thus lose a space of an inch or more the whole length of the 
 shelves. Two flush brass bolts in each shelf would effect the same object, but in a 
 more expensive manner. 
 
 1375. SanVs Bookcase and Writing-desk Clock forms a curious and useful piece of 
 furniture for the farm-house parlour. This clock, fig. 1247, Mr. Saul observes, " differs 
 from any I have seen ; and may, at first sight, appear expensive : but this is by no means 
 the case ; for there are few mouldings about it, beads looking equally well, and being 
 much cheaper. Long before I made this piece of furniture, I always considered the 
 common clockcases defective, from the room taken up by them, when compared with the 
 very small space occupied by the works of the clock ; and I therefore endeavoured to 
 make every part of use. In describing this clock, I may commence with the face. As 
 my name has twelve letters in it, I have placed them on the clock face, instead of the 
 figures which denote the hours ; the figures in the inner rim represent the hours also ; 
 but those on the outer rim are on an entirely new plan. Those to the left of six o'clock, 
 and twelve o'clock, representing how many minutes it is to such an hour, and those to 
 
 i 
 
INTERIOR FINISHING OF FARM HOUSES. 653 
 
 the right representing how many minutes it is past such an hour. This arrangement 
 will be more easily understood by looking at the face of the clock in the drawing, than by 
 any description. I think it particularly useful for farm servants, and such sort of people, 
 in the country; many of whom I have known, who could not tell the minutes otherwise 
 than by guess. At the angles of the face I have the four seasons painted, and on each 
 side I have an urn lined with lead, in which I can put water for keeping cut flowers. The 
 upper part, a, of this urn, takes off, to admit of changing the water and arranging the 
 flowers. Under the head of the clock I have shelves fixed for books, as the pendulum 
 
654 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 and weights only occupy a space of seven inches square, which I have enclosed as a 
 trunk or case, so that the books can be removed without ever interfering with the 
 working of the clock. Being an eight-day clock, it only requires the lines of the weights 
 to be two feet ten inches long ; so that I have the whole of the lower part of the stand 
 for drawers or whatever I choose. This lower part I have fitted up with a writing- 
 desk in a drawer, with a slider b, for writing upon, which moves from c to d, and from 
 which you have received many a letter. Under this writing-drawer I have two doors, 
 which enclose three sliders or trays, like fig. 1248, which I use for keeping paper in. 
 When I am writing, I keep the doors open, as I find this more 
 convenient for drawing out the sliders, and referring to the 
 papers they contain.'' This piece of furniture, which we have 
 taken the liberty of calling Saul's Bookcase and Writing-desk 
 Clock, and for which, Mr. Saul being a cabinet-maker and 
 joiner, we could wish he had 10,000 orders, is seven feet high, in 
 three divisions. The lower division is two feet four inches high, 
 by three feet wide, and two feet deep from front to back ; the middle or bookcase division, 
 is two feet ten inches high by two feet wide, and the top is twenty-two inches high by 
 twenty inches wide. The diameter of the large turned baluster is three inches in the 
 widest part ; and that of the small balusters is two inches in the widest part. The 
 shelves are sufficient for containing a select agricultural library, and the writing-desk 
 below, with slides for papers, must be amply suflRcient for the correspondence and accounts 
 of any ordinary farmer. 
 
 1376. The Introduction of Iron into the Furniture of Farm Houses would be attended 
 with considerable economy, at least in the article of dining-tables, sideboards, bedsteads, 
 and hall, lobby, or porch chairs. The sideboards may be 
 formed of slabs of native marble in some districts, and slate 
 in others, supported by enriched cast-iron feet, fig. 1249, or 
 by brackets of various kinds, fig. 1250. Sideboards of this 
 kind have a massive architectural effect, very suitable for all 
 houses whatever, and especially for houses in the country, where 
 j'oom is not an object. For our own part, we should even 
 prefer slabs of finely polished stone, as sideboards, to wood of 
 any kind ; but cast iron may be substituted ; and, where neither 
 metal nor stone is approved of, wood of some kind is always 
 to be obtained, and rnay be worked and polished at pleasure. 
 Fig. 1 25 1 is a circular table, the top of which may be made of 
 mahogany, or any other finely grained wood, and the supports 
 of cast iron bronzed. The idea of having iron bedsteads will, we have no doubt, shock 
 those who have been always accustomed to consider mahogany as essential for this piece 
 
 1250 
 
 of furniture : but we can assure them that they are to be found in the houses of people 
 of wealth and fashion in London ; sometimes even for best beds. 
 
 1377. The Kitchen of the Farm House requires a good kitchen range or grate, which 
 should always be accompanied by a boiler on one side, to aflford a constant supply of hot 
 water ; and an oven on the other, for baking, or keeping things hot. Both should be 
 heated by the same fire. There are numerous cast-iron kitchen grates with a boiler on 
 one side and at the back, and an oven on the other side; and we have already (§ 592) 
 figured and described what we consider one of the simplest and best. For a farm house 
 it should generally be on a larger scale than for a cottage ; and the most abundant choice 
 may be obtained at the shops of the ironmongers in every part of Britain. In 
 Derbyshire there are square cast-iron boxes, with iron or stone lids built in, at the sides 
 of the kitchen fireplaces of farmeries ; and Mr. Farey, in his elaboiate, accurate, and 
 most philosophical report of the county, informs us that they have been found great 
 sources of usefulness and comfort, in supplying abundance of hot water at all times. 
 
INTERIOR FINISHING OF FARM HOUSES. 
 
 655 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1251 
 
 
 In Northumberland and Berwickshire, the kitchen fireplaces are fitted up in a very 
 economical manner, so as 
 to supersede, in many 
 cases, the necessity of hav- 
 ing a back-kitchen ; a 
 plan, however, not favour- 
 able to cleanliness, essen- 
 tial requisites for which 
 are space and separation. 
 The jambs or sides of the 
 fuel-chamber are built of 
 a kind of stone which 
 resists fire, or of fire- 
 brick. One cast-iron grat- 
 ing, fig. 1252, is built in 
 as a bottom, and another 
 grating, fig. 1253, is let 
 into the stone at both ends 
 as a front. On one side in 
 the masonry is built in a 
 cylindrical cast-iron oven, 
 seen in fig. 1254 ; and in 
 
 the other is built an open boiler, generally, also, of cast iron, with a wooden cover, and 
 separated from the fuel-chamber by an upright plate of stone or iron, coved behind, and 
 
 1252 
 
 1253 
 
 arched over at top, as shown in the figure. Beneath the oven, and beneath and around 
 the boiler or pot, as it is called in those counties, flues are formed opening from the fuel- 
 chamber, as shown in the section, fig. 1255, in which a is the opening or commence- 
 
 1254 1255 
 
 ment of the flue of the oven ; b, the front grate ; c, the bottom grate ; and d, the throat 
 of the chimney. This forms the cheapest description of efficient kitchen range that we 
 know of for a farm house ; and, for a country where the fuel is coal, and abundant, it 
 answers every purpose. A somewhat better kitchen range is formed by employing what 
 is called a standard grate, fig. 1256, the upper bar of which lets down at pleasure by 
 lifting up the catch, e, in fig. 1257. In this section, / is the bottom grate let into the 
 stone at g ; h, the flue of the oven or boiler ; and i, the tie bar of the standard grate, which, 
 being let into the stone at k, keeps it from falling forward. There are cast-iron kitchen 
 grates suitable for farm houses, manufactured in large quantities at the Shotts iron- 
 
656 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 works, at Whitburn, near Glasgow, and sold there at various prices, from 30s. to 90s. by 
 retail. Where timber is the principal fuel, there is no stove better adapted for throwing 
 out heat than the American stove, fig. 1258 ; but it is not so well adapted for cooking 
 as the British cast-iron ranges. It 
 might, however, be much improved 
 in this respect, by having the project- 
 ing shelf or cap, «, hinged, so as to lift 
 up ; and by having a hook fixed in its 
 underside, from which a pot might be 
 suspended. Where stoves of this kind 
 are used, the oven and boiler are 
 necessarily built apart from the open 
 fire, and heated separately ; though it 
 would be an easy matter to connect 
 with this stove both an oven for 
 baking, and a square cistern for heat- 
 ing water, either for the purposes of 
 cookery, or cleaning, or for circulation 
 to heat some other apartment, or to 
 hatch eggs, or keep warm a poultry 
 place. Great benefits have been ex- 
 perienced from the introduction of 
 the American stove into some farm 
 houses in Kent ; where, from the large 
 open chimneys, it was before their 
 introduction found impossible to keep 
 the kitchen, which is there generally 
 the farmer's living-room, comfortably warm. Such kitchens were only rendered 
 habitable by elderly people, in consequence of the use of the large chair or settle, ^^ 636, 
 fig. 636. When anthracite or blind coal is the principal fuel, Hinton's American 
 cooking-stove, figured and described in the Mechanics' Magazine, vol. xiv. p, 273., may 
 be employed. In all cases where wood is the principal fuel, we believe it will be found 
 decidedly the most economical method to heat the air of the kitchen, as well as the 
 living-rooms, by stoves, as in Germany ; by benches of flues, as in China ; or, better still, 
 by underground flues, or steam -pipes under the floor, to heat a mass of masonry, as we 
 have before proposed ; and to make the fires used in cookery on raised hearths. 
 
 1378. The Back-Kitchen or Scullery of the farm house should always be fitted up 
 with a large sink for dirty water, with a trap and drain communicating with the liquid 
 manure tank ; and in many cases it may be found worth while to have a second sink 
 communicating with the tank for pig's food. There are excellent sinks formed of cast 
 iron ; sometimes also they are formed of wood, and covered with lead ; but most generally 
 they are hewn out of stone ; and this kind, as the most durable and the simplest, we think 
 the best adapted for farm houses. Cast-iron sinks are, however, very much used ; and 
 some excellent forms have been sent us by Mr. Mallet, who has made great numbers of 
 them. We shall here give fig. 1 259, which may serve as a pattern either for a stone or 
 
 1258 
 
INTERIOR FINISHING OF FARM HOUSES. 657 
 iron sink, or one of wood covered with lead. 
 
 The sloping plate, a, which ought to be grooved, 1 259 
 
 is found particularly useful for draining the 
 water from vegetables, fish, &c., and should 
 never be omitted in any kitchen sink. 
 
 1379. Among the Furniture of the Store-room 
 of a farm house, there ought to be proper 
 weighing and measuring machines, for proving 
 the weight or measure of articles purchased. 
 One of the most ingenious and generally appli- 
 cable weighing-machines is the farm and family 
 steelyard, invented by Mr. Ruthven of Edin- 
 burgh. It may be made to any size, so as to 
 weigh either a pound or a ton ; and only one 
 weight is necessary, its power being increased or 
 diminished by the weight used being moved 
 along a lever. (See Enci/c of Jgr., 2d edit. 
 § 2570, fig. 280.) Fig. 1260 is a weighing- 
 machine, for either grocery goods, bread, 
 butcher's meat, or any similar articles, which, 
 
 though it is not so extensively useful as the other, yet is more simple ; and, occasioning 
 very little trouble, and not 
 being liable to go out of 
 repair, is well adapted for 
 general use. The dial weigh- 
 ing-machine, also, occasions 
 very little trouble ; but, as 
 its accuracy depends on the 
 elasticity of the iron spring 
 continuing always the same, 
 it cannot, we think, be so 
 durable an instrument as 
 either of the two above 
 mentioned. 
 
 1380. The Fittings-up and 
 Furnishing of the Dairy have 
 been noticed § 729. The 
 
 dairy furniture consists of the churn, of which there is a great variety of kinds ; but 
 the cheapest and best, on a very small scale, is the box-churn (Encyc of Agr.y 2d edit, 
 fig. 1214), already recommended for cottages. For a dairy on a large scale, there are 
 several excellent sorts figured in the same work, which may either be impelled by manual 
 labour or by machinery. There is a model of one, worked by a windmill, in the 
 museum of the Highland Society of Scotland ; and there is also a model, in the same 
 museum, of a double chum, to be worked by manual power applied to a pendulum, 
 the invention of Mr. Vallance of Libberton, Lanarkshire, an engineer ever fertile in ex- 
 pedients, and the author of many valuable inventions. Of cheese-presses there are many 
 excellent ones ; there is one of cast-iron manufactured at the Shotts ironworks, in which 
 the pressure is produced by a combination of a wheel and pinion with a lever and 
 weight, and the cost of which is only 65s, This press, fig. 1261, is used in the dairy of 
 Mr. Ogilvie of Mere (see Design XXXVII. § 1153), who informs us that his dairy- 
 maid had a strong prejudice against it at first, but that before she had used it for three 
 months, she greatly preferred it to the old-fashioned box-press or stone press ; as she 
 could with this new press regulate the pressure to the greatest nicety, and with the 
 greatest ease, by means of the weight on the lever, which is capable of communicating 
 a pressure of from one ton and a half to two tons and a half. A swing frame for turn- 
 ing cheeses has lately been invented by Mr. Blurtan, and is described in vol. xlviii. of 
 the Transactions of the Society of Arts, p. 19. It may be described as a double shelf 
 which turns on pivots, by which means the cheeses are not only turned but placed on 
 new surfaces. There are various descriptions of milk-pans, of wood, earthenware, and 
 metal ; but the cheapest and best, we believe, are those of cast iron, invented by Mr. John 
 Baird, manager of the Shott's ironworks. These pans or dishes cost from Is. 6d. to 
 8s. 6d. each, according to their sizes, which are from one quart to ten gallons. Their 
 shapes are either circular or oval ; the largest circle being twenty-one inches and a quarter 
 in diameter* This gives the maximum of width for dairy shelves ; but square pans, by 
 covering every part of the surface of the shelf, are the most economical. Milk-pans have 
 been formed of zinc, and these are said to throw up cream better than pans formed of 
 
 4 E 
 
658 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 any other material. Zinc, however, is one of those metals which are most readily acted 
 on by acids ; and all the soluble 
 salts so formed are poisonous. 
 Zinc, therefore, is a dangerous 
 metal to introduce into a dairy. 
 A thermometer should be 
 placed in every dairy, and the 
 dairy-maid should be taught 
 to regulate the temperature 
 according to some fixed prin- 
 ciple. It has been found, by 
 experiments made at the in- 
 stance of the Highland Society 
 of Scotland, " that the most 
 proper temperature at wliich 
 to commence the operation of 
 churning butter is from 50° 
 to 55°, and that at no time in 
 the operation ought it to ex- 
 ceed 65° ; while, on the con- 
 trary, if at any time the 
 cream should be under 50° in 
 temperature, the labour will 
 be much increased, without 
 any proportionate advantage 
 being obtained ; and a temper- 
 ature of a higher rate than 65° 
 will be injurious to the qua- 
 lity as well as the qi'antity of 
 the butter." {Highland Soc 
 Trans.) 
 
 1381. Among the Furniture 
 for the Wash-house we would 
 strongly recommend an im- 
 proved washing and wringing machine, fig. 1262, as calculated to save a great deal of 
 
INTERIOR FINISHING OF FARM HOUSES. 659 
 
 severe labour. In this machine, a is the box containing the water and the clothes to 
 be washed by the movement backwards and forwards of the washer, 6 ; c c c are three 
 rollers, two of which are covered with flannel, and between the largest of which the 
 clothes to be wrung are passed, and the water pressed out of them, the pressure being 
 increased or diminished by changing the position of the weights, d, on the levers, e. The 
 other parts of the machine require no further description in a work merely intended to 
 recommend it to general adoption, as one of the very best washing-machines that have 
 ever been invented ; being, we believe, the only one that has a really efficient wringing- 
 machine. In the case of all large farm establishments, we would recommend the wash- 
 house and laundry to be detached from the house ; and to contain, besides the washing- 
 machine mentioned, a mangle and drying-closet, the use of all which should be allowed, 
 for one or two days in every week, to the families of the diflferent workmen employed on 
 the farm. There is a number of different mangles ; but we are informed by a ma- 
 nufacturer of several kinds, on whose judgment we can place the utmost reliance, that 
 none have yet appeared preferable to the common mangle, ^vith the improved reversing 
 movement, known as Baker's Patent, fig. 1263, by which the mangle may be moved 
 backwards and forwards while the handle is turned continually one way, instead of the 
 operator being required every minute to reverse the motion of his arm. This is effected 
 by a wheel, a, having teeth in the form of pegs on the side, into which works a pinion, 
 
 1263 
 
 fixed on the end of a spindle, which rises and falls in a vertical groove, c, and works 
 first on the under side, and then turns round in a channel at d, and works on the 
 upper side. The opposite end of the spindle has a 
 pinion, e, which is operated upon by a small wheel, 
 which is turned by the handle, f. Where space 
 is wanting, there are short mangles, which operate 
 entirely by the pressure of leverage ; such as Saul's 
 Reform Mangle, and the Edinburgh Reform Mangle, 
 and a number of others. We shall describe a very 
 economical mangle, given in the Mechanics' Ma- 
 gazine, vol. xi. p. 104, and Saul's Reform Mangle. 
 Fig. 1264 is an end view of a cheap family mangle, 
 which is one foot four inches high, eight inches 
 broad, and the rollers are two feet two inches 
 long ; a is a screw fixed to a piece of wood in 
 which the upper roller works, for the purpose of 
 raising it so as to put the linen between the two rollers ; 
 b, c are the pieces of wood in which the rollers work, 
 fitted into grooves, in the upright standards, d, e; 
 
 
 iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiimiiilT 
 
 
 Mg 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 d 
 
 '' ^ \ 
 \ © ; 
 
 e 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
660 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 f f are two strong iron screws to screw on the top, g, in which the larger screw, a, 
 works : h is the handle fitted on the lowest rollers. The rollers are one foot eleven 
 inches in length, and four inches in diameter. The uprights are one inch and 
 a half square. When the linen is to be put on, the upper roller is raised up by 
 turning the screw. Saul's Reform Mangle is stated by its inventor " to differ from any 
 other mangle ever yet made public. Fig. 1265 is a perspective view of it as at work. 
 
 Its total length, when che flaps at each end are raised up, as in the figure, is six feet, and 
 when they are let down, it is two feet two inches square, and about two feet six inches 
 high ; so that the whole space which it occupies is little more than eight cubic feet. 
 Altliough this mangle stands in and occupies so little space, yet it works in the same 
 length as the common mangles, by means of an endless cloth fixed so that it passes 
 round two small rollers, a a, at the extreme ends of the mangle, and under tlie bottom 
 roller, b, as indicated by the endless dotted line c. The linen is placed on the endless 
 cloth at d, and then, by turning the handle e, it is carried through over the roller 6, and 
 under the roller f, till it reaches the roller a. It is then turned back, or, by placing 
 another mangling cloth upon the endless cloth, the linen to be mangled may be carried 
 entirely round. Thus far it is to be considered as only eflfecting the purpose of a com- 
 mon mangle ; but the iron roller, is hollow, and admits of a heater l)eing placed in it; 
 and, when this is done, the machine becomes an ironer as well as a mangle. To give 
 pressure on the rollers, there is a box, g, on the two levers, h h, which box may be moved 
 backwards and forwards at pleasure. This box may be loaded with stones, by which, 
 and by altering its position on the levers, any degree of pressure may be given. The large 
 roller is four inches and a half in diameter, and the small ones two inches and a quarter." 
 We saw this mangle, when nearly completed, in July, 1831, and it appeared to us 
 likely to answer the end proposed. A common mangle, with Baker's improved move- 
 ment, costs, in London, from £% to £\2. The cheap mangle may be got up for 20s., 
 and Saul's ironing mangle costs from £2 to £5. 
 
 1382. The Fittings-up and Furniture of the Brewhouse are generally known. We have 
 before hinted at the advantage of having the boiler so high that the wort can descend 
 from it to the coolers : these being still suflSciently high to admit of the liquor descending 
 in a similar manner to the vats or to the cellars. Domestic brewing utensils are so well 
 known, that we shall not enumerate them : we shall notice, however, one improvement, 
 w^hich is that of keeping ale or beer to be drunk within the year in casks set on end, and 
 formed rather wider at top than at bottom, gradually tapering downwards, and not 
 bellied in the middle, as is generally the case ; by which means, as the liquor descends, 
 in consequence of being drawn oft" for use, the head or scum which has formed on its 
 surface still covers it entirely, and preserves it effectually from the air. This is by no 
 means the case with liquors kept in cylindrical casks placed on their sides ; or with 
 casks placed on end, which are not widest at top, and gradually tapering to the bottom. 
 A highly improved method of keeping beer, by Mr. Mallet, is described in the Mechanics' 
 Magazine, vol. v., and will be noticed under public-house furniture. 
 
 1383. The Fittings-up and Furniture of the Cider-house have been already (§ 1312) 
 given in sufficient detail. Vv here home-made wine is manufactured either from goose- 
 
INTERIOR FINISHING OF FARM HOUSES. 66l 
 
 berries or grapes, there is a veryexceUent machine, comprising a hopper, crushmg rollers, 
 a trough, and press, sold by Weir and Co., Oxford Street, London, for the purpose of 
 bruising the fruit and expressing the juice. There is also a simple and economical, but 
 very effective, gooseberry crusher and press, figured and described m the Gardiner s 
 Magazine, vol. viii. pp. 542. 544. 
 
 1%84. The Furniture of a Cleaning-house, or Knife and Shoe House, may either contain 
 a wheel for cleaning both knives and shoes, and all movable parts of grates, such as 
 we shall hereafter recommend as particularly suitable for inns ; or, the very simple knife- 
 cleaner, fig. 1266, may be used. In this figure, a b are two boards twenty inches long, 
 
 six inches broad, and one inch thick, joined together, but not quite close, by a hinge at 
 c ; e are two pieces of buff or belt leather stretched over the interior surfaces, and nailed 
 on the exterior ones, and/is a handle, to assist in holding the apparatus steady. " In using 
 it, lay powdered Flanders brick, or any similar dust, on the lower leather, shut the 
 boards together, lay the left arm on the upper board holding the handle, put the knife, 
 well wiped from grease, between the leathers, and four or five rubs forwards and back- 
 wards, not sidevvise, will produce a beautiful polish on both sides ; the shoulders and 
 back may be polished by rubbing on the part of the leather turned over." This knife- 
 board has been found to give great satisfaction. (Mech. Mag., vol. ii. p. 409.) No 
 machine for beating and brushing clothes has yet been invented ; but it would be easy 
 to make such additions to the knife and shoe cleaning machine, above mentioned, 
 as would not only beat and brush clothes, but beat carpets. Already a machine for 
 scouring floors has been patented in America ; and we sincerely desire that it may soon 
 come into use in this country, as well as the other machines mentioned ; for there are 
 few labours more unsuitable for women than scouring floors, cleaning grates, and 
 wringing clothes. The American scrubbing-brush is to be worked backwards and 
 forwards by a lever, operating in the manner of a pump-handle. A flat board, on which 
 the operator stands, is placed upon the floor on castors ; and from this rise two uprights, 
 to sustain the pin that is the fulcrum of the lever. To the lower end of this lever the 
 scrubbing -brush is attached. It would be easy to modify this machine in such a manner 
 as to render it fit for rubbing tables. (See Mech. Mag., vol. xv. p. 109.) 
 
 1385. For the Ashpit of the Kitchen- court a cinder-sifter is a very useful utensil. 
 For the small ashpits or dustholes belonging to houses about towns, there is a portable 
 box, in which is placed a sieve ; and, the ashes being put in, the lid put on, and the box 
 shaken, the dust passes through the sieve, and remains in the bottom of the box ; without 
 any dust having escaped to annoy the operator. But this machine is on too small a scale 
 for a farm-house, which would either require a portable one, of double or treble the usual 
 size, or a screen operating in a large box. When the intention is thoroughly understood, 
 such a machine may be easily contrived by the commonest country carpenter. The 
 object is not merely to sift the cinders, which never can be done more effectually than 
 by a common riddle or sieve; but to sift them in such a manner as not to incommode 
 the sifter by the dust. For this purpose, all that is necessary is to make such an 
 arrangement, as that the riddle may be worked in a large box, by a rod passing through 
 the box, and attached to the riddle within ; the latter resting on two laths or rails, and 
 having suflfiicient room in the box to admit of its being worked backwards and forwards. 
 A friend of ours, and a valuable contributor, Mr. Laxton, has his dusthole enclosed on 
 all sides, with a door in front ; and through a hole in this door, the rod passes, which 
 works the riddle. The riddle is square, and rests on two laths, placed horizontally 
 about 3 feet from the ground ; and when the riddle is pushed as far back as it will go, 
 the handle projects beyond the door when the latter is shut, just as much as to enable 
 a person to take hold of it. In the morning, when the girl carries out the ashes, she 
 opens the dusthole door, and empties the cinders into the sieve, without changing its 
 position ; she then shuts the door, and, taking hold of the handle, draws it to her and 
 pushes it from her for ten or a dozen times, according to the quantity of ashes which 
 she has put into the riddle. She then leaves it, without opening the door, in order that 
 
662 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 the dust may subside ; and, returning after breakfast, gives one single movement to the 
 handle of the riddle, merely to shake off the dust which may have settled on its rim. 
 She then takes out the riddle, and empties it into a cinder-box or scuttle for use. 
 Trifling as all this may appear to some, it is yet of great importance ; because, how can 
 a servant be expected to be cleanly in her person or her work, if the very first operation 
 which she has to perform in the morning covers her with dust ? We have shown above, 
 § 1373, how the dirty and disagreeable operation of cleaning grates in a room may be 
 avoided, and we have now, we trust, pointed out a mode of sifting ashes, whether on a 
 large or small scale, so as to avoid the disagreeable consequences of covering the 
 operator with dust. We may add, also, that the operation is more likely to be well 
 performed by this contrivance, and fewer cinders lost among the ashes. 
 
 1386. The Finishing of the Surface or Floor of Kitchen-courts and their offices 
 should always be sloped, so as to lead all the water which falls on them to a trap over a 
 drain at one point. This will greatly facilitate the process of cleaning, whether with a 
 scrubbing-brush or broom : and it also promotes the rapidity of the drying process, by 
 natural evaporation, which must necessarily contribute materially to the purity of the air, 
 and the healthiness of all houses where there are a number of apartments or offices on 
 the ground floor. 
 
 SuBSECT. 2. Of the Finishing, Fixtures, Fittings-up, and Furniture of Farmeries. 
 
 1387. The External Finishing of Farm Buildings ought to be simple and durable. 
 All the woodwork exposed to the open air ought to be well covered with paint, of 
 which, the anti-corrosive kind before mentioned, § 546, is the best. When the roofs 
 are covered with tiles, painting them with tar during the hottest weather in summer adds 
 to their durability, as well as harmonises their colour with that of the surrounding ob- 
 jects. The walls, when not of a very durable material, may be roughcast, or white- 
 washed ; but the last should never be resorted to under the pretence of adding to 
 their beauty, by those whose standard for that quality rises higher than mere glare and 
 smartness. As it is extremely probable that steam will soon be very generally employed 
 for impelling threshing-machines ; and as nothing disfigures the country more than red 
 brick chimney-shafts, like those common in the manufacturing towns of Lancashire, we 
 would strongly recommend some attention to elegance of form in these very conspicuous 
 parts of a modern farmery. We have already referred to the chimney built by Mr. Capper, 
 at Birmingham, as a model of excellence in this respect ; and a correspondent having 
 cited " Glasgow as a good example, both for the remarkable elegance of the shafts or 
 obelisks, and the happy terminations by which ornament is given, and yet so as to be 
 conducive to utilityj" we have applied to our architectural correspondent there, Mr. Reid, 
 for sketches of some of them ; and he has sent us a view of the three which happened to 
 be nearest to his residence. In this sketch, fig. 1267, o is 130 feet high, five feet 
 in diameter at the top, nine feet in diameter about ten feet from the ground, and 
 circular throughout ; b is eighty feet high, square throughout, and four feet on the side 
 at the top ; c is 150 feet high, five feet six inches in diameter at the top, and ten feet in 
 diameter at the height of ten feet from the ground. Fig. 1268 is the chimney built by 
 Mr. Capper at the Union rolling-mills, near Baskerville House, Birmingham : it is 162 feet 
 high, the pedestal being thirty-one feet high ; the diameter at the top is four feet six inches, 
 of the plinth at the bottom of the circular shaft fourteen feet, and of the octagon dado 
 of the pedestal fourteen feet ; it contains 200,000 bricks ; and cost, in building, £"'420. 
 Of the Glasgow steam-engine chimney shafts, Mr. Reid observes that till lately they 
 were made square in the plan, and built from scaffolding placed on the outside ; but 
 that now they are generally built circular, from the inside. All the scaffolding employed 
 is a continued central post, in the centre of the flue, from which cross pieces, at intervals 
 of a foot or eighteen inches, are fixed with their ends in the brickwork, to serve as a stair 
 by which the workmen, in building, may ascend and descend ; the materials being hauled 
 up outside with tackle. Formerly winding staircases were built outside these chimney- 
 shafts ; but Mr. Reid says they have a bad effect, and, therefore, he has paid no atten- 
 tion to them in his sketch. Could a few such shafts as those of INIr. Capper be 
 introduced into the farmeries of Scotland and Northumberland, the effect in the land- 
 scape would be excellent. It is only necessary to imagine them, as the traveller moves 
 along the public road, rising into view one after another, on the prominences of the 
 plains, and on the cultivated sides of the hills, backed by the mountains, which appear in 
 the distance in every part of that beautiful and picturesque portion of Britain. Perhaps 
 the time may come, when, from almost every large farmer being the proprietor of the 
 land he occupies, there will be a competition among them as to who shall erect the hand- 
 somest shafts, similar to what there was in former ages among the Catholic clergy as to 
 the building of spires to their churches and monasteries. Like the spires and towers of 
 churches, the column and the obelisk are forms that, though without variety in them- 
 
EXTERIOR FINISHING OF FARMERIES. 
 
 663 
 
 selves, yet, when higli, and elegantly proportioned, never tire in the general view, how- 
 ever often they may be repeated. We strongly recommend this subject to the attention 
 of Architects. The public have surely a right to expect that such conspicuous objects 
 as engine chimney-shafts are, in the country, should be built in what is considered good 
 taste, no less than spires of churches. Every farmery has one or more common chimney- 
 shafts ; and on the form of these, as well as on that of the chimneys of the farm house, of 
 the cottages, and of the boothy, much of the architectural and picturesque beauty of 
 every farmery will depend. It should never be forgotten, that the chimney-tops are the 
 first parts of dwelling-houses which strike the eye at a distance in most cases ; and that 
 our first impression, as to the architectural style of the edifice to which they belong, is 
 generally taken from them. 
 
 1388. The Internal Finishing of Farm Buildings, we have seen by the different spe- 
 cifications, is very simple. The stable, the barn, and the granary, are almost the only 
 buildings which are generally plastered within, and none but the better description 
 of riding-horse stables have a plaster ceiling. In general, the internal surface of the 
 walls ought to be built as fair and smooth as possible ; by which means, more especially if 
 the materials of the walls be brick or freestone, no plastering of the walls can be wanted 
 in any part of the farmery. In almost every part of the farmery, it is desirable to 
 have the ceiling open, and the timbers of the roof freely exposed to the air. To promote 
 this end, openings ought to be left all along the side walls, immediately under the eaves, 
 except in situations where these openings would admit too much of the exterior air in 
 winter for the health of the animals lodged within. It may be laid down as a general 
 principle, that the durability of the timbers in the roofs of farm buildings depends 
 entirely on their thorough ventilation. After these general remarks, we shall proceed to 
 the fittings-up and furniture of the component parts of the farmery, and take them in the 
 same order in which we treated of their plans in the preceding section. 
 
 1389. The Stable, if the surface of the interior walls be not very smoothly built, ought to 
 be plastered on that side on which the harness is hung, or else lined with boards. There 
 ought either to be small cupboards, or recesses formed in the wall, for the currycombs. 
 
664 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 brushes, pickers, &c., or wooden bins for keeping them in ; and there should be a harness- 
 room, for harness not in common use, with a fireplace or stove for heating it in damp wea- 
 ther, as well as proper openings for ventilation. The harness is generally hung on hooks 
 or pegs, which are sometimes formed of wood, and nailed to the rafters, but most 
 generally of hooks driven into the wall. Fig. 1269 is a double harness-peg, or bracket, 
 of cast iron, for nailing against the wall, from which it projects ten inches, and which 
 costs Is. 6d. Fig. 1270 is a saddle-bracket of iron, which projects twelve inches, and 
 which costs 2s,; and fig. 1271 is a saddle-bracket and bridle-hook, which projects twelve 
 
 inches, and costs 2s. 6d. In some places, small cast-iron hollow cylinders, the tubular 
 part being about an inch in diameter, are built into the walls of stables and harness-rooms, 
 so as not to project beyond the inside face of the wall ; and, in these, wooden pegs are 
 inserted and taken out at pleasure. This we believe to be much the cheapest and best 
 mode for common farm stables. There is a cast-iron halter-ball, which costs, by retail, 
 6d. orSrf.; in some districts they might be made of stone; and where terro-metallic 
 potter's earth abounds, they would answer well, as would mangers and other fixed cattle- 
 troughs, of that harJ and durable material. Where 
 expense is not an object, all balls of this sort ought to 
 move up and down in a trunk, so as not to incur the 
 risk of becoming entangled with the horses* feet. 
 Among the stable utensils, such as pails, &c., we shall 
 only notice Cottam's cast-iron gruel-trough, fig. 1272, 
 fifteen inches long, ten inches wide, and nine inches 
 deep, for giving bran mashes, which may be con- 
 veniently set in the manger. Two and three pronged 
 forks, brooms, and shovels, complete the stable imple- 
 ments. 
 
 1390. The Cou>-housef as -we liave already shown, admits of a variety of finishing and 
 fittings-up, with respect to the troughs and mangers, and the mode of tying. Fig. 1273 
 
 shows a mode of riveting cast-iron plates together, so as to form troughs for dry food, a, 
 and others for water or moist food, b. Figs. 1274, 1275, and 1276 are modes of 
 fastening milch cows, in use about London. By the first mode the cow is fastened to the 
 stall partition ; by the second, to the post which supports the manger ; and by the third, 
 to the bottom rail of the manger. Fig. 1277 is the Noiinandy brechin, which is com- 
 monly put on cows in France, to prevent them from tossing up their heads, and thus 
 risking abortion, and which also prevents them from cropping the branches of fruit trees 
 
INTERIOR FINISHI>fG OF FARMERIES. 
 
 665 
 
 in orchards; for the latter purpose it well deserves adoption in this countrv-. Fig. 1278 
 shows the manner in which it is used. 
 
 1274 
 
 1275 
 
 1276 
 
 while it 
 division 
 
 1391. Cattle-sheds and Calf-houses require 
 scarcely any fitting-up beyond what has been 
 already mentioned. There are various descriptions 
 of cribs, of wood, stone, and iron, for foddering- 
 yards. It is objected by some, to fixed stone 
 troughs, that they are not so easily cleaned as 
 portable wooden ones. In some places oblong 
 cribs are fixed to the tops of posts, so as to turn on 
 pivots in their centres ; in others they are placed 
 on the top of a wall. Hay- racks are also often 
 placed on the tops of the division walls of farmeries, 
 as indicated in the section, fig. 1279; which, 
 provides a double rack for twoyards, saves the expense of heightening the 
 walls. The iron tethering-stake, fig. 1 280, which is twenty inches long, and 
 
 costs 5s., is useful both for tethering calves and other young animals, when first taken 
 out to the open air. 
 
t)66 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 1 392. 
 
 Various 
 1279 
 
 Fittings-up for Piggeries have been shown in the miscellaneous designs 
 for farmeries ; and in the way of furniture, there are @=n. 
 numerous iron troughs, both for sties and open yards. ^-^^ 
 Fig. 1281, which is twenty-six inches in diameter, and 
 costs 26s., is well adapted for open straw- yards. Fig. 
 1282 is a section of this trough on a larger scale. 
 There are sheet-iron pails, exceedingly useful for car- 
 rying out pigs' food, and for various fiarmery purposes, 
 which cost from 4s. to 7s. each ; and which, when 
 heated nearly red hot, and immediately afterwards 
 rubbed over with oil or grease of any kind, will last 
 many years, without requiring paint. 
 
 1 393. For Sheep-houses there are various descriptions 
 of racks and mangers, but little that is peculiar. For 
 
 1280 
 
 the open air there is a covered iron rack, fig. 1283, with a trough below, formed wIk Uy 
 of iron, six feet long, which costs, by retail, in London, £4. 
 
 1394. Of the Fittings-vp of Rabbit-houses, Poultry-houses, and Pigeon-houses scarcely 
 any thing requires to be added to what will be found in § 769 to § 771. The side walls 
 of pigeon-houses are fitted up with holes nine inches 
 square, with a shelf from four to six inches wide in 
 front ; the material used being either wood, slate, 
 brick, or stone, according to convenience. When a 
 pigeon-house is formed chiefly in the roof of any 
 building, the holes or boxes may depend from the 
 roof, like a reversed stair, as we have seen in fig. 
 1019, § 1020. There are iron hutches for rabbits, 
 and even small iron rabbit troughs, such as fig. 1284, which is fourteen inches long, 
 four inches wide, three inches deep, and costs 2s. 6d. 
 
 1395. The Fittings-up of the Bam, when there is a threshing-machine, embrace a 
 variety of considerations. When the machine simply beats out the corn, and separates it 
 
INTERIOR FINISHING OF FARMERIES. 
 
 667 
 
 from the straw, one floor on the ground is sufficient ; but when, in addition to separating 
 the corn from the straw, the corn is to be winnowed and sifted by the machine, a loft or 
 second floor, from eight to ten or twelve feet, over the first, is essentially necessary. This 
 floor is used for containing the unthreshed com, which is commonly carried into it from 
 the rick-yard, on hand-barrows, up an inclined plane or gangway ; but which is some- 
 times also carted into it, up a broad inclined plane, the cart being unloaded and turned 
 round in the loft. This mode of carting the corn into the loft is only to be met with 
 on very large farmeries, or where the buildings are particularly situated ; such as being 
 on a declivity : a more common practice is, to set back a cart loaded with sheaves within 
 the barn on the ground floor, and unload it, forking up the sheaves to the threshing- 
 floor, as in Mr. Donaldson's very excellent Design, § 891. From this floor there is a 
 communication by a stair, or step-ladder, with the floor below on Avhich the corn is 
 cleaned, and from this cleaning-room there is a communication with the chaff-room 
 adjoining, in which the chaff and refuse are contained. A clear idea of the arrangement 
 of threshing-machinery, impelled by horses or water, relatively to the walls and floors of 
 the barn, may be obtained by referring to our Encyc. of Agr., 2d edit. § 2786 to 2790, 
 and the following Design will give an idea of the arrangement where steam is em- 
 ployed. 
 
 1396. The Fitting-up of a Steam Threshing-machine. The application of steam to 
 agricultural purposes has hitherto been very partial, and almost entirely limited to im- 
 pelling the threshing-machine. Till lately, low-pressure engines only were used for this 
 purpose ; but Mr. Burstall, an ingenious engineer at Leith, has now introduced, very 
 extensively, the high-pressure or non-condensing engines. " These seem to be superior 
 to the low-pressure engines in various respects; first, such engines are considerably 
 cheaper in the original cost ; secondly, they do not require more than one twelfth or 
 one twentieth part of the water which is requisite for a condensing engine ; and, thirdly, a 
 knowledge of their management is more easily acquired. They are thus rendered more 
 fit for farm labour ; and, when properly made, are certainly as safe as, if not more so 
 than, condensing engines." 
 
 1397. The Application of Mr. Burstall's method of employing a high-pressure engine 
 for moving a threshing-machine is extremely simple. It is well known that there are 
 two modes by which, in mechanics, a slow motion with great power may communicate a 
 rapid motion. The first is, by means of wheels and pinions ; the second, by means of 
 smooth or iron cylinders, to which a broad strap adheres by its friction, and conveys the 
 power from the prime mover to the acting agent. In the one case, there is a constant 
 and definite number of teeth acting on each other ; in the other case, there is what may 
 be considered as an infinite number of teeth : that is, the surfaces of the belt and cylinder, 
 applied to each other, produce the same result. The use of the belt to drive machinery 
 is of much later date than that of toothed wheels ; but it may be safely affirmed, that, 
 where high velocities are required, the former method has considerable advantages, and is 
 gaining ground in the practice of machinery. Mr. Burstall is, we believe, the first who 
 has made a successful attempt to drive the main cylinder or drum of a threshing-machine 
 by the direct application of this principle ; and among other great advantages of the 
 belt over gearing is this, that, should foreign substances get into the irdll, the belt is at 
 once thrown off", and this is all the injury that results ; whereas, when with wheels and 
 pinions a like accident occurs, an expensive wheel or shaft is generally broken. For 
 these reasons, Mr. Burstall comiuunicates directly the motion to the machinery of a 
 threshing-mill by means of a belt. The method will be seen from the accompanying 
 figs. 1285 and 1287. The application of the steam power, in this case, is made to an old 
 threshing-mill, formerly driven by horse power and gearing, and altered to steam and 
 belts. The machinery for driving the rakes and rollers has been retained, although it is 
 clear that, as the main machine is well driven by a strap, the subordinate parts, which do 
 not take one sixth of the power, can be so driven likewise. 
 
 1398. Details. Fig. 1285 is a ground-plan of a threshing-mill, with the barn walls 
 and steam-engines. Fig. 1286 is the end elevation of the steam-engine as placed out- 
 side of the barn walls in the engine-house. Fig. 1287 is a front elevation of the 
 steam-engine. The letters of reference are the same in the three figures ; a a are the 
 rakes ; b, the drum and scutchers ; c, the feeding or supplying roller ; d, the feeding- 
 table ; e, a rigger, or smooth cylinder, fixed upon the end of a shaft that couples to the 
 drum-shaft of the threshing- mill ; / is the belt, from eight to ten inches wide, accord- 
 ing to the power of the mill ; g, the fly-wheels of the steam-engine, lined up with wood, 
 to form a drum for the belt to run upon ; h, the shafts and gearing to drive the rakes 
 and rollers ; i, the barn wall ; k, the wheel and pinion from the main shaft. It is under- 
 stood that the machines erected by Mr. Burstall on this simple principle have given 
 great satisfaction. {Highland Sac. Trans., vol. xi. p. 235.) 
 
 1399. Of Threshing-machines driven by Water, the most complete which we know of 
 
INTERIOR FINISHING OF FARMERIES. 
 
 669 
 
 are those at the farmery of Bagshot Park, Berkshire ; and at Wynnstay, Flintshire. 
 The former has been figured and described in the Appendix to the second edition of our 
 Ency. of Agr. It cleans the corn most completely, having a chain of buckets for bring- 
 ing up, to pass a second time through the mill, the short stalks and imperfectly threshed 
 ears, which are delivered into these buckets by the \^innowing-machine. There is also 
 a travelling sheet or corn elevator, fixed at an angle of about thirty degrees, with laths of 
 wood across it at regular distances, which acts as "buckets in carrying up the com from 
 the lower winnowing-machine to the upper one, to be passed through a second time. 
 There is a power of throwing, not only any part of the machinery out of gear, but even 
 of reversing the motion of any part. There is a pair of French burr-stones for grinding 
 meal, a turnip-slicer, a straw-cutter, and a bone-crusher ; besides which, there are 
 arrangements and room for adding any other machine that might be required. This 
 machine was executed under the direction of Mr. Burns, the Duke of Gloucester's most 
 ingenious bailiff, by a local millwright. The machine- at Wynnstay was erected by the 
 late Mr. John Gladstone of Castle Douglas fthe ingenious inventor of several agricul- 
 tural implements and machines), about the year 1812 ; and complete plans and descrip- 
 tions of it were furnished to us, in 1830, by his nephew, Mr. John Gladstone, engineer 
 to the Chester lead works ; a young man of great modesty and ingenuity. The site of 
 the Wynnstay mill is on a declivity, and the barn has three floors. The upper one 
 opens into the stack-yard, being on a level v^^th its surface ; the second floor contains 
 the first winnowing-machine, with a chaff'-house, which descends to the floor below, and 
 has one door into the straw-house and another into the cattle-yard. When the corn is 
 only wanted to pass through the first winnowing-machine, the corn elevators and the 
 second vidnnowing-machine are thrown out of gear, and the corn is delivered on the 
 second floor. Here a bruising-machine is fixed. The under floor contains the second 
 winnowing-machine, with the lower end of the corn elevators. The corn may be deli- 
 vered on this floor, instead of into the trough of the elevator, by throwing the latter out 
 of gear. The elevator trough conveys the corn to a room on the upper floor, which 
 serves as a granary, and there throws it into a weighing-machine, which is connected 
 with an index in the barn, placed on the partition wall facing the man at the feeding- 
 table, and consequently showing him the quantity of corn threshed. The chaff and 
 short straws from the first winnowing-machine are elevated to the feeding-board by a 
 chain of buckets, as in the threshing-mill at Bagshot (which appears to be, to a certain 
 extent, an imitation of the Wynnstay machine), and passed through the machinery a 
 second time. This chain of buckets is a very useful appendage to a threshing-machine, 
 as it takes from the winnowing-machine all the refuse which generally accumulates on 
 the cleaning-floor, and, by passing it through the machinery a second time, separates it 
 into corn and chaff. The water-wheel is in a house beside the barn. In a room above 
 the wheel is a Scotch barley-mill, and, beyond that, a very complete saw-mill ; both 
 driven by the same wheel, and both easily turned out of gear when the threshing- 
 machine is at work. In the middle floor is an oat-bruiser and a straw-cutter ; and there 
 is every convenience for adding such other machines as may at any time be considered 
 desirable. We have noticed what is effected by these two machines, to show that, when 
 once steam shall be generally applied in farmeries, the labour both of men and horses 
 will be diminished in an almost incredible degree. By applying the steam-engine to the 
 plough and other instruments of aration, and to reaping and mowing implements, very 
 few horses would be wanted, even on the largest farms. The good that will result from 
 such a change will be immense ; even the superior degree of intelligence requisite to 
 put up, to work, and to repair steam-engines, will in a short time have an influence 
 on the condition of the farm labourer, and approximate him more nearly in intellect to 
 the mechanic. The result will also benefit the quadrupeds and fowls kept on a farm ; for, 
 as soon as farmers become familiarised with steam, we are persuaded they will have all 
 the straw, not to be used as thatch, cut into chaff, and all farm-yard food whatever 
 cooked, either by steam or hot water, before being given to the animals. This will not 
 take place without carrying with it the heating of the cottagers' floors by steam. 
 
 1 400. A Saw-mill is a most valuable machine, wherever there is much timber to be 
 cut, and, in all new countries, may be considered not less essential than the limekiln or 
 brick-kiln. Any building ten or twelve feet wide, twenty or thirty feet long, and open 
 at one end, so as to admit long trees, may be adapted for a saw-mill, by excavating a 
 trough in the floor for the action of the saw. 
 
 1401. Portable Threshing-machines, to be worked by horses, commonly thresh only, 
 without cleaning the corn ; and therefore they require no particular modification of the 
 barn. There is an excellent cast-iron machine of this description, invented by Mr. 
 Baird of the Shotts ironworks ; and there are some in England which are impelled 
 by steam, and employed to thresh out a crop in the fields, on a movable floor, under a 
 temporary roof, a few weeks after the crop has been cut; the straw being in that case 
 
670 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 consumed, or turned to manure, in a temporary cattle-yard on the spot. Hand threshing- 
 machines have been constructed of various kinds ; but they have never yet given much 
 satisfaction. On small farms, however, a machine of this kind, requiring less skill to 
 use it than the common flail, must be a considerable advantage, since a thresher is paid 
 higher wages than a common labourer. A design for a hand threshing-machine is 
 given in the Transactions of the Highland Society of Scotland, vol. viii. p. 262 ; where it 
 is observed, that, the labour required to move these machines being very considerable, 
 it has been found that the labourers employed on them must be relieved at intervals. 
 This is thought to be the reason why these machines have not been so generally adopted, 
 in the smallest class of farms, as might at first view be supposed. To diminish this 
 labour, it is recommended to confine the operation of the machine to the beating out the 
 grain by the action of a revolving drum or roller, and not to attempt separating the grain 
 from the straw, or winnowing it. 
 
 1402. The other Machines, Implements, and Utensils of a Dam arc, the winnowing- 
 machine, now brought to great perfection ; the barley-chopper, or hummelling-machine, 
 or which is sometimes substituted the implement, fig. 1289, which costs 8s. ; the smut- 
 
 machine, shovels, forks, rakes, sieves, a sack-weigher, a sack-carrier, and a bushel 
 and other measures, according to the locality or country. A very ingenious tub for 
 measuring and w^eighing corn has been invented by our esteemed contributor, Mr. 
 Taylor ; it has been in use for some time at the Whittington malt-houses, near Stoke 
 Ferry, Norfolk, and will be found figured and described in the Gardeners Magazine, 
 vol. viii. p. 466. All the other machines and implements required by the British agri- 
 culturist will be found in our Encyc. of Agr., 2d edit. 
 
 1 403. Am.i)ng the Farmery Fixtures and Furniture, which may be placed in the chafF- 
 house, the steaming-house, store-house, foddering- bay, or cattle-food house, may be 
 enumerated the oat-crusher, bone-crusher, the turnip-cutter, the straw-cutter, and the 
 portable corn mill. All or any of these, and several others, might be placed in a 
 building adjoining the threshing-machine, and, as already mentioned, § 1223, might be 
 driven by the same machinery. Our correspondent, Mr. Thorold, has sent us a drawing 
 of an oat-crusher, fig. 1290, which he manufactures, and sells at ^'8 : 8s. ; he has also 
 
INTERIOR FINISHING OF FARMERIES. 
 
 sent us a turnip-cutter of his invention, fig. 1291, for which he received a premium from 
 the London Society of Arts. Tlie most complete turnip or potato-cutter, or sheer, that 
 has been hitherto made knovs^n, is that recently invented by Mr. Baird. It costs ^4, 
 and, with an extra- wheel to cut potatoes, £l additional. This machine, with a man and 
 boy, will cut a cart-load of turnips or potatoes, in twenty minutes, into very small pieces. 
 We have no doubt that this machine might be advantageously applied to the cutting ot 
 cabbage, in countries where sauer kraut is used. 
 
 1404. A portable Com- mill of a very superior description, manufactured by Mr. Iho- 
 rold, and sold by him for £^250, is shown in fig. 1288. In this figure, « cast-iron hurst 
 frames are represented, capable of being erected independently of any building, only 
 requiring a solid foundation, and containing wheelwork, and two pairs of French stones, 
 four feet in diameter. The iron spur-wheel and two pinions are shown, for giving the 
 
67^ COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 requisite speed to the millstones ; the spur-wheel has wooden cogs, and the pinions iron 
 cogs neatly pitched and trimmed. The pinions are hung upon cones attaclied to the 
 stone spindles, and may be thrown out of gear by a ring attjiched to a lever and rack- 
 work, not shown in the figure. When it is intended to drive the mill by wind, the 
 upright shaft of the spur-wheel is continued upwards until it reaches the cap-works of 
 the windmill ; when it is to be driven by steam, a mitre-wheel is fixed on the upright 
 shaft just above the spur-wheel, which is intersected by another mitre-wheel hung on 
 the fly-wheel shaft of the steam-engine. When driven by water, a similar arrange- 
 ment is made, with different speed, to assimilate with the speed of the first mover. 
 The slip brasses of the stone spindles pass tlu"ough bored boxes, so as to be free from 
 shaking ; they then rest upon a steelyard connected with a screw which serves to adjust 
 the millstones at the pleasure of the miller. These, with the spouts and meal-troughs, 
 are omitted in the figure, for the sake of showing the wheel-work, the whole of which 
 forms a complete and substantial piece of machinery. In this machine, mitre-wheels 
 may be attached to the upright shaft, so as to adapt it for a steam-engine ; which 
 might also drive the threshing-machine of the farm." 
 
 1405. The Fittings-up of the Boiling and Steaming Hcuse are exceedingly simple to 
 those who know any thing of steam. We shall give as an example, an apparatus invented 
 by Mr. David Liddell, junior, and described in the Highland Society's Transactions. It 
 consists of a furnace, and cast-iron boiler containing about sixty gallons, fig. 1292, a, 
 " furnished with a safety-valve, to render it secure from danger, even in the hands of the 
 most ignorant person. This boiler is intended to supply warm water for any domestic 
 purpose, as \vell as steam, the water being drawn oflP by a cock in the lower part of it. 
 The boiler is supplied with water from a cistern, b, placed five or six feet higher than the 
 boiler. This cistern may contain about thirty gallons, and, when filled, requires no 
 further attention, as the boiler regulates its supply of water, by means of a float in the 
 inside of the boiler, attached to a valve in the cistern, which contains as much water as 
 will boil ten hundredweight of potatoes. The two casks, c and d, are for holding the 
 produce to be steamed. They contain about three hundredweight each. The steam 
 is conducted from the boiler to them by a pipe (one-inch) branching off to each by 
 stopcocks. As many casks as may be necessary for the supply of food m.ay be attached 
 in the same way. The casks are furnished with sliding hatches in the bottom, for taking 
 out the food when ready, and are raised as far from the ground as will allow a trough, 
 
INTERIOR FINISHING OF FARMERIES. . GTJS 
 
 1^92 
 
 or barrow to be introduced under them, to receive the contents- For boiling grain, the 
 cask for holding it differs from those used in steaming potatoes only by not having a 
 hatch in the bottom, as the hatch could not be easily made tight, which is necessary in 
 boiling barley, as water must be mixed with it in the same quantity, or nearly, as if it 
 were to be boiled in a boiler the common way. It may be added, that the hatch rot 
 being tight, in boiling potatoes, is an advantage, and even necessary for allowing the con- 
 densed steam to run out, and also all the earthy matter from the skins of the potatoes. 
 In the figure, one of the casks is represented with the lid pressed down, by mear.s of 
 the vertical bar, which is employed for this purpose during the operation of steaming or 
 boiling. In the other cask, the lid is represented as opened, with the vertical bar moved 
 to one side. (Highland Soc Trans., vol. viii. p. 322.) 
 
 1406. The Fixtures and Fuiniiture of Farm Labourers" Cottages differ in nothing from 
 those already given for cottages generally. The grates ought always to be landlord's 
 fixtures, and so ought the presses, cupboards, and di essers. It would add greatly to the 
 comfort of the occupant if the bedsteads were also the property of the landlord ; because 
 he would be saved the trouble of carrying them with him on removal. This is some- 
 times the case in gardeners' houses, where even the chairs, tables, and carpets are land- 
 lord's property, and taken by one occupant after another at a valuation. All the 
 fixtures and furniture of the boothy, or single men's room, ought to belong to the 
 landlord ; and the valuable hint of Mr. Gorrie, that the bed-room ought never to be on 
 the same floor with the sitting-room, in order to avoid the temptation of lying down on 
 the beds at unseasonable times, ought not to be forgotten. Wrought-iron bedsteads are 
 well suited for the married cottager ; and, where great strength and durability are the 
 objects, there is a cast-iron bedstead, which may either be a fixture, as in fig. 1293, or made 
 with four feet and portable, which is well adapted for the ploughman's room. These 
 beds are the invention of Mr. Mallet of Dublin, and have been extensively used in 
 Ireland. Most of the vessels for the boothy may be of cast iron tinned, such as are 
 manufactured by Cottam in London, and Baird near Glasgow. The latter has lately 
 invented excellent cast-iron tea or coffee pots, at 2s. 6d. each ; and he sells tinned 
 tumblers at lOd. each, tea-kettles at 2s. 6rf. each, together with a number of other 
 articles particularly suitable for the boothy, because they are little liable to be injured or 
 broken. These articles, which might be purchased by the landlord, would last for many 
 years, and contribute materially to the comfort of the inhabitants of the boothy. We 
 have already shown how, in the case of all farmeries where there is a steaming apparatus 
 for cooking food for cattle, the floors, both of the boothy and the adjoining married 
 men's cottages, might be heated by steam, which to them would be a great source both of 
 economy and comfort. 
 
 1407. ^s Fixtures belonging to the Farmery in general, rather than to any one part in 
 particular, we include a pump ; of which the most suitable kind for farmeries is that of 
 cast iron, fig. 1 294 ; which, according to the bore, or diameter, may be had at various 
 prices from ^2 upwards ; the total price depending on the length of tube required to 
 reach the bottom of the well. With the pump is necessarily connected a cistern, or 
 
 4 G 
 
67i COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE, 
 
 1294 
 
 supply trough, which should communicate with other troughs in different yards, accord- 
 ing to circumstances, as already explained, §824 and § 1143. 
 All farmeries whatever, ought, in our opinion, to liave a turret 
 clock, § 505, placed in some conspicuous situation fronting 
 the kitchen-court and the farm house, to regulate the hours 
 of going to and returning from labour. Very good turret 
 clocks may be had for 10 each, without the addition of a bell, 
 and surely j^lO in this way w ill pay the farmer better than the 
 same sum laid out on a pocket watch. In large farmeries, 
 to the turret clock ought to be added a bell to strike the hour ; 
 and this bell may be so hung as to serve for a bell to ring at the 
 different times for going to and returning from labour. We 
 have shown such a clock and bell in our own Design, § 1221, 
 but we have not added them to the plans and elevations which 
 have been sent to us by others, because these have, for the most 
 part, been executed in different parts of the country without 
 them. As much will depend on the accuracy of clocks of this 
 kind, we consider it wise policy to procure them from some 
 clockmaker in the neighbourhood, who may contract for wind- 
 ing them up, and examining them once a week, at so much a 
 year, in order that they may be always kept in correct time. 
 Whether there be a clock or not, there ought always to be a 
 
 vane fixed on some lofty and airy part of the farm buildings, in order to show the 
 direction of the wind ; apd no farmer who can afford it ought to be without a barometer, 
 measuring-rods, and a measuring-chain. There is also such a thing as an index to 
 ploughs, made by our most ingenious correspondent, Mr. Wilkie of Uddingstone, near 
 Glasgow, one of the greatest improvers of the plough and the brake, or cultivator, of the 
 day. The plough index shows how much ground the plough has gone over in a day, 
 and consequently how much it has ploughed ; but this, and similar instruments we can 
 only recommend to amateurs, preferring in all cases the labour dictated by a sense of 
 justice, duty, and good-will, to that obtained by constant watching and espionnage. 
 When the relative duties of masters and servants are clearly understood by both parties, 
 no eye-watching, measuring, or instruments of this kind, can ever be wanting ; and farm 
 labour, like most other kinds of labour, will come in time to be let by the job. For the 
 hinges of farm-yard gates, those of Collinge are so decidedly preferable to all others, 
 that all who can afford them ought to have them. (See Mech. Mag.y vol. xiv. p. 392.) 
 As a fixed rat-trap for farm-yards, we know of none superior to that invented by Paul 
 of Starston, and alluded to by Mr. Taylor, § 1040. A great number of other fixtures, 
 fittings-up, and furniture, belonging to or connected with farmeries, might be men- 
 tioned, but they will all be found described or figured in our Enci/. of Agr. We trust 
 we have made such a selection, in this work, as to attain the end we proposed in the com- 
 mencement of this section ; viz., that of showing the necessity of Architects studying the 
 uses of all the buildings which they are employed to design. 
 
COUNTRY INNS AND PUBLIC HOUSES. 675 
 
 Chap. III. 
 
 Designs for Country Inns and Public Houses of various Degrees of Accommodation, from 
 the Hedge Alehouse to the Mansion Inn, with its Gardens, Farm, and Park. 
 
 1408. An Inn differs from a private dwelling-house chiefly in having certain apart- 
 ments and stores open to the public generally. In a private house all is private ; but in 
 an inn, one of the recommendations to the traveller is to see a well-stored larder, and a 
 spacious public room, in which he may take his meals, either at a common table or at 
 a separate table. Another characteristic of an inn is the bar, or office, to which all 
 enquiries are addressed, and from which all orders are issued. This is always placed in 
 a conspicuous part of the interior, so as to be seen on entering, and so as the bar mistress 
 may observe all comers and goers as they pass, and have her eye as much as possible upon 
 the servants of the establishment. 
 
 1409. All Inns ought to be buUt fire-jnoof When the number of persons lodged in 
 such dwellings are considered, the necessity for this will appear obvious. There are two 
 ways in which this may be effected ; first, by forming all the floors of flat arches of 
 brick or tiles, and cement; or of hollow bricks, the abutments being of cast iron, tied 
 with wrought-iron rods ; or, secondly, by laying all the floors over the joists with brick 
 or stone pavement. The staircases ought always to be of stone ; and all the partitions 
 either of that material, or of brick, or of quartering covered on both sides with tiles and 
 cement. All the ceilings, where wooden joists are used, ought to be formed of flat tiles 
 and cement, and all the skirtings of the same material. The roof is easily made fire- 
 proof by being arched on the same principle as the floors of the rooms, and, like them, 
 covered with tiles and cement. In inns so constructed, there would remain no combus- 
 tible matter but the doors, the window- shutters, and the furniture. The two foi-mer 
 might be rendered incombustible by being saturated with sulphate of iron, or coated over 
 with a solution of silex under the paint. We are the more anxious to direct the atten- 
 tion of Architects to fire-proof houses, in consequence of the following communication 
 from one of our most scientific correspondents : — " The new process for smelting iron l)y 
 raw coal and hot air blast, is producing a great change in the iron trade ; and it is antici- 
 pated by good judges, that no long period will elapse before cast iron of the quality 
 known as No. 1 . will be manufactured at the cost of about 40s. or 45s. the ton. When 
 this takes place generally, it must inevitably produce an effect which will pervade almost 
 every condition of society. Rich and poor will, by degrees, find themselves enclosed in 
 iron cages ; and fir joists, and slate roofs, will become things to be alluded to as betoken- 
 ing something venerable from antiquity. The introduction of iron into building oper- 
 ations will, no doubt, spread rapidly, as the price of cast iron falls; and, if unskilfully 
 done at the outset, we may have a number of imperishable monuments of bad taste 
 before our eyes wherever we go. It is, therefore, of importance that good examples 
 should be given in time, and that Arcliitects should be prepared for the change, so as 
 not to leave the matter to the caprice or taste of the workmen of the founderies." 
 
 1410. Inns and Public Houses for the country, like private dwellings there, are of various 
 kinds, and include various degrees of accommodation, from what is found in the small 
 hedge alehouse, to what is afforded by the mansion inn, with its places for amusements, 
 garden, farm, and perhaps park. In all of them the object is to provide entertainment 
 for the public ; and, consequently, the kind of accommodation afforded by the inn must 
 be adapted to the wants of that portion of the public for whose use it is intended. Inns 
 of evei-y kind are the result of high civilisation, and the consequent intercourse of society 
 by public roads, rivers, or canals. In rude countries, without roads or other regular 
 means of communication, there can be no inns, because there can be no regular travellers. 
 In countries imperfectly civilised, and with defective roads, the inns, like the caravanseras 
 of Persia, or the post-houses in the interior of Russia, are little better than empty houses, 
 or hovels, where the traveller, who carries his ow^n bedding and provisions, may take 
 shelter for the night. In the north of Germany and Poland, the country inns are 
 little better. At one end of a small cottage occupied by the postmaster, or furnisher of 
 horses for travelling, is an immense shed, closed in on the two sides, and with gateways 
 at each end. Into this shed, the traveller drives, at the end by which he approaches; 
 and, ^yhen he has refreshed his horses and himself, he drives out by the other. If his 
 intention be to stop for the night, he sleeps in his carriage, or spreads the bed he has 
 brought with him on the floor of the hovel, which, in most parts of the countries alluded 
 to, is occupied by the horses, cows, and other live stock of the postmaster, and the horses 
 of other travellers. On the contrary, inns in a wealthy and highly civilised country like 
 England contain all the luxuries of a private mansion ; and the traveller who stops in 
 them, with plenty of money, may enjoy many of the comforts of home, without its cares. 
 In other countries, such as the south of Germany and many parts of North America, 
 
676 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 the inn is frequently a place where greater luxuries are to be obtained than in the private 
 houses of most of the citizens. With the progress of things in all countries, this is 
 likely to be more and more the case ; for, as equality of education and rights become 
 general, it will be followed by a comparative cquahty in the distribution of property ; 
 and great entertainments, such as are now given by wealthy merchants and princes, will 
 only be obtainable by public assemblies or associations at inns. This will, in time, give 
 rise, in every country, as it has already done in Britain, to inns of recreation and enjoy- 
 ment, as well as inns of accommodation and convenience for travellers. 
 
 1411. Inns of Recreation seem destined to contain all the comforts and luxuries which 
 arc now almost exclusively found in the mansions and palaces of the aristocracy of 
 Europe ; as those comforts and luxuries were in ancient times only to be met with in the 
 richer convents and monasteries. Such inns will, therefore, not be confined to in-door 
 conveniences, but will embrace also all that can be afforded by gardens, pleasure-grounds, 
 parks, forests, and farms ; all the sports of the field, and all the games and exercises that 
 have been known to contribute to human gratification. In one word, all that now can 
 only be obtained l)y sovereign princes or the most wealthy nobles, will, by the modern 
 system of inns of recreation, be within the reach of every one who has a little spare 
 money and time. In ages and countries of ignorance, and of a privileged and con- 
 sequently wealthy and all-grasping aristocracy, there will necessarily be many enjoy- 
 ments, the very nature of which cannot be even imagined by the mass of society, much 
 less can the spectacles displayed by them be seen ; but, in an age such as we contemplate, 
 there will not be a single enjoyment which is not within the reach of all to see and un- 
 derstand ; and in which most of the inhabitants may not be able to participate. 
 
 1412. The Model Designs for Inns and Alehouses, therefore, must obviously be founded 
 on the accommodations afforded by private houses; and tiiis will reduce this first section 
 to the business of laying down principles for arranging the architectural characteristics 
 of inns ; after which we shall illustrate them by a few miscellaneous Designs. It is 
 previously necessary, however, that we repeat what we have before stated, § 701, that 
 the subject of country inns is but a very subordinate part of our work, and that we, con- 
 scfjuently, do not profess to give a complete treatise on the subject. 
 
 Skct. I. General Principles for composing Model Designs for Country Inns and 
 
 Public Houses. 
 
 1413. A complete Country Inn may be considered with reference to its accommoda- 
 tion, arrangement, or distribution, its situation and architectural style. The accom- 
 modation includes that of the house, of thy stal)le offices, and of the gardens and 
 grounds. 
 
 1414. The Accommodati^m of the house, v,c have already said, is essentially that of a 
 private house, with tlie housekeeper's room, or bar, placed in a conspicuous situation, 
 instead of in a private one; and with the store-room and larder also exposed to public 
 view. The inn contains an entrance hall, in which there ought always to be a porter to 
 announce the arrival of guests, by ringing one bell for the hostler, and another for the 
 waiter; an ante-room or strangers' room, into which the guests are first shown, and 
 where they are waited on by the master, mistress, or some upper servant, to ascertain 
 the kind of accommodation which they desire. A complete inn ought to have large 
 rooms for parties to dine in on public occasions, or in which may be held public meet- 
 ings, assemblies, balls, &c. : it ought also to have suites of apartments, consisting of one 
 or two sitting-rooms, one or two bed-rooms, a maid-servant's or nurse's room, and a 
 water-closet ; such suites of apartments being frequently required in first-rate inns, by 
 wealthy families who travel with their own carriages and horses, and who wish to live at 
 an inn as privately as if they were at home. There ought also to be suites of apartments 
 for single persons, consisting of a bed-room and sitting-room each. There ought to be 
 small dining-rooms for small parties to dine together ; and numerous bed-rooms, some 
 with dressing-rooms, and some without them. In a large inn, there ought to be also a 
 billiard-room for exercise and amusement during bad weather and long evenings ; and 
 also one or more musical instruments ; and in every inn, whether large or small, there 
 ought to be a library of books; which may be put under the care of the bar- woman, and 
 lent out to guests at a small sum per volume. Among the conveniences, there should 
 be hot, cold, saline, vapour, and air baths ; and, in general, whatever is found mentioned 
 in the first chapter of our succeeding book, as appropriate to villas. 
 
 1415. The Bar or Office of an Inn being its characteristic feature, it is proper that it 
 should be shortly described : its situation ought to be central in the interior of large 
 buildings, commanding views of the front entrance hall and back entrance ; and, as far 
 as practicable, of the foot of the principal staircase, and along the principal passages. 
 These objects can only be obtained by having the room of some size, almost insulated 
 by broad passages, and wdth windows on all sides ; or having the sides formed by glazed 
 
COUNTRY INNS AND PUBLIC HOUSES. 
 
 677 
 
 partitions. Considerable assistance might be afforded to the bar- woman, to enable her 
 to see in every direction, by looking-glasses, judiciously disposed without and within the 
 bar, as these would reflect places and persons which could not otherwise be seen. The 
 situation of the bar, in a narrow building, may be at the end of the entrance-hall, with 
 one side looking towards it, and the one opposite looking towards the yard. In size, the 
 bar need never be large; because, though, in small public houses and inns, it is used as a 
 shop or store-room, as well as an office, yet, in general, it is used in the latter capacity 
 only. Here the books of the inn are kept, and orders given to the cook, the keeper of 
 the cellar, the ostler, or the stable-yard keeper ; and here also all monies are given in, 
 which have been received by the different servants or waiters. Adjoining the bar there 
 is usually the private room of the master and mistress of the house j and the larder and 
 general store-room are com.monly near, and within sight of it. 
 
 1416. The Accommodation of the Stable-court ought to be proportionate to that of the 
 house. In a conspicuous situation, at the entrance to the court, there ought to be the 
 office of the superintendent of this department, which should command a view of the 
 interior of the stable-yard ; and also, if possible, be seen from, and look to, a window in 
 the bar-room. In very extensive country inns, the stable-yard should be a distinct part 
 of the establishment from the farm yard, for obvious reasons ; but in small establishments 
 they may often be combined, the cattle-courts being altogether separated from the courts 
 for post horses, travellers' horses, and carriages. The principal buildings in the stable- 
 yard of an inn are the stables, coach-houses, and houses for corn and fodder. There 
 ought also to be an ample harness-room, a room for boiling or steaming food for sick 
 horses, an hospital, a shoeing-house or smithy, and a wheelwright's shop, or place for 
 repairing carriages. There are other minor accommodations which will readily occur. 
 In all large establishments there ought to be a riding -house ; and the business of a riding- 
 master might be very well combined with tliat of innkeeper. 
 
 1417. The Accommodations in the Grounds are first and principally a dairy, a poultry- 
 house, and an icehouse ; there ought also to be a complete farmery ; a kitchen-garden, 
 with forcing-houses ; an orchard or a vineyard, according to the climate ; and a large 
 park for guests to take exercise in on horseback or in carriages, and for a herd of deer, 
 as well as other animals ibr profit and pleasure, including what is called game. Near 
 the house there ought to be lawns and pleasure-grounds for pedestrian exercise. 
 
 1418. In Public Houses, or Inns of an inferior Description, all these accommodations 
 must necessarily be very limited : the park may be dispensed with ; the farmery 
 included in the stable-court ; and the pleasure-ground limited to a bowling-green, 
 tea-gardens, and place for playing at skittles or other games. 
 
 1419. The Situation of an Inn, or Public House, for ordinary purposes, should in 
 general either be on or near a public road, or on the margin of a canal or river ; but 
 the particular points along roads or other lines for public conveyances on which inns 
 should be placed are subjects which require some consideration, especially in new coun- 
 tries, where most people travel in stages or coaches, which stop for refreshment only at 
 certain distances. The great object ought to be, so to arrange the stopping places, as 
 that the inns may always be built in dry healthy situations, with extensive and agreeable 
 prospects ; we say extensive, because one object, with all travellers, is, to form some 
 general idea of the country through which they pass. With respect to inns of recreation, 
 it is obvious, that to place them on any other spot than one of gi eat natural beauty can 
 never be a voluntary act ; since situation and accompaniments, much more than the 
 plan of the dwelling, will naturally be the principal inducements to guests. Under inns 
 of this sort, we of course include those of watering-places, baths, springs, fishing and 
 siiooting stations, and various others, which it would lead us beyond our proposed limits 
 to describe. 
 
 1420. The Architectiiral Style of an Inn in the country maybe as various as that of 
 any dwelling-house, and there is no beauty within the whole range of cottage and villa 
 architecture tliat may not be conferred on it. Indeed, as country inns on public roads 
 are likely to be among the most permanent of country dwellings, it is very desirable, 
 with a view to the general beauty of a country, that they should be built, not only in a 
 substantial manner, but in a highly improved style of design. In old countries, such 
 as Europe, it is seldom found necessary to erect a building expressly for the purpose of 
 an inn of recreation ; as there are generally mansions of decayed nobility, or convents, 
 or other buildings belonging to wealthy individuals or public bodies, which are to be 
 purchased at a moderate rate, with gardens and grounds, and every requisite accom- 
 paniment and appendage. Many houses of this description are in the finest natural 
 situations which Europe affords, and their eligibility for inns of recreation is so de- 
 cided, that they could not in general be turned to any other use with half the advantage. 
 In America, the building of country inns appears to be an art yet in its infancy ; but, 
 with the progress of wealth and the improvement of manners in that country, it is pro- 
 
 i 
 
678 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 bable that country inns, along the great public roads, will be almost the only permanent 
 and substantial palace-like dwellings. Our opinion is, that, with the advancement of 
 civilisation, country inns, in all parts of the world, will, as architectural objects, rank next 
 to buildings for public offices. 
 
 Sect, 1L Miscellaneous Designs for Country Inns and Public Houses. 
 
 1421. The Designs submitted under this section embrace but a very few of the nu- 
 merous varieties of inns and public houses which are suitable for the country ; but, as 
 whoever can compose a good villa is equally competent to compose a country inn, we 
 consider the following selection amply sufficient. We have, besides, already given a 
 Design for a country inn combined with a farm, § 11 49, which we consider exceedingly 
 well arranged ; and many of our cottages in Book L will answer, with very little alter- 
 ation, for hedge alehouses. 
 
 Design I. — A Country Inn in the Italian Style ; having, besides public Roo7ns, Thirty 
 Bed-rooms, and Stabling for Twenty Horses. 
 
 1422. Accommodation. Tiie general appearance is shown in fig. 1295 ; and the 
 
 ground floor, fig. 1298, consists of an entrance i)orch, « ; vestibule and staircase, b 
 1296 1297 
 
COUNTRY INNS AND PUBLIC HOUSES. 679 
 
 1298 
 
 two parlours, c; passage, d, to the garden, x; store-room, e; bar,y; family sitting-room, 
 g ; back parlour, h; back stairs, i ; water-closet, k ; tap-room,/; kitchen, with oven 
 and hot water boiler, m ; back-kitchen and scullery, n ; coal-house, o ; larder and pantry, 
 p; dust-hole, q ; boot-closet, r ; covered yard for gigs, chaises, &c., s ; stables, 1 1; coach- 
 house, u ; privies for servants, v v ; stable-yard, w ; garden, x ; veranda for skittles, y ; 
 and liquid manure tank, z. The chamber-floor, fig. 1296, has two sitting-rooms, aa; 
 and a large room for balls, or public meetings, b ; the ceiling of this last room is on a 
 level with the ceilings of the rooms of the attic story, and is marked, in fig. 1297, by the 
 same letters. All the other rooms in the chamber-floor and attic story, figs. 1296 and 
 1297 (thirty in number), are sleeping-apartments. 
 
 1423. Construction. The walls are supposed to be of brick, and the roof covered with 
 Peake's Italian tiles, such as are shown in § 50 or in § 1368 ; the eaves being supported 
 by wrought cantalivers. To render the bed-rooms fire-proof, the joists may be covered 
 wdth plain tiles bedded in Roman cement, and having a coating over them of the same 
 material ; the tiles and cement being closely joined to the brickwork of the walls, and 
 the skirting being formed of stucco or cement. The floors, after being made a year or 
 more, may be washed over with oil, and painted either a plain colour or an imitation of 
 any particular kind of wood, marble, or stone. The ceilings may be formed in the 
 same manner. The staircases may be of cast-iron, the treads being covered with stone- 
 plates. The garden, x, is shown with a circular grass-plot in the centre, and a border of 
 evergreen and deciduous shrubs and flowers next the walls. The kitchen-garden and 
 farm are not seen in this plan. 
 
 1424. General Estimate. The cubic contents of this building are 201,908 feet; which, 
 at 5d. per foot, is £4203 : 8s. : 4d., the probable cost of an edifice in this style, plainly 
 finished, in the neighbourhood of London. 
 
680 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 1425. Remarks. The ground plan of this Design was contributed by Mr. Taylor, 
 and the elevation has been supplied by Mr. Robertson. The inn seems well adapted 
 for country business ; having large rooms for meetings, a spacious covered yard for the 
 protection of carriages of every description, and abundance of stabling. A large kitchen- 
 garden will be required for such an establishment, unless there be a market-garden close 
 at hand. 
 
 Design II. — A small Country Inn, unth Stabling, Skittle- Ground, Tca-Garden, and 
 
 Boicling- Greeiu 
 
 1426. The Situation is supposed to l)e in a right angle, formed by the intersection of 
 two roads, or by a branch from one road. Tlie principal front, which is seen in fig. 
 1299, is to the main road; and the stables, carriage-house, and yard open to the cross 
 or branch road. 
 
 1299 
 
 1427. Accommodulion Infig. I'JOI is an entrance passage, a, wliich leads to a hall 
 and staircase, out of which open t\>o other passages; tliat to the left, leading to the 
 skittle-ground, i ; and that to the right to the yard, h, the tea-garden, t, and the bowling- 
 green, s. Between the passage and the tap, c, is the bar, b, which is also very conveniently 
 situated for observing comers and goers by the different passages, and to and from the 
 kitchen, e. The bar, it is to be observed, has glass windows on three sides, and the 
 upper half of the kitchen door, and of those of the passages, is also of glass. In the 
 back-kitchen, /, is an oven. There 
 are a wine and spirit cellar, g ; a brew- 
 house, k ; beer-cellar, / ; and cow- 
 house, m ; and these last three build- 
 ings have a floor over them for malt, 
 corn, hops, &c. There is a malting- 
 house, n, over which, at one end, 
 there may be a kiln for drying the 
 malt, or this may be placed in an 
 adjoining building in the yard, j). 
 There is a stable for four horses, q ; 
 a place for two carriages, r; a 
 bowUng-green ; s, and a tea-garden, 
 t, \/ith a fountain in the centre, and 
 five alcoves on the sides, w. The 
 chamber floor, fig. 1300, contains 
 six good rooms, five of them with 
 fireplaces, and a water-closet. 
 
COUNTRY INNS AND PUBLIC HOUSES. 
 
 1301 
 
 681 
 
 □ 
 
 w P 
 
 n 
 
 a 
 
 1 — r~F^ 
 
 1428. Construction, The materials of the walls may be those in common use in the 
 given locality ; and hence they may require to be either thicker or narrower than those 
 shown in the plan. 
 
 1429. The Skittle- Ground ought to be rendered hard, smooth, and perfectly level, by 
 a composition of quicklime, sharp sand, and smithy ashes, being spread over a layer of 
 small stones or coarse gravel, and rolled or floated so as to be perfectly smooth, before 
 it has had time to set. We have shown this appendage, and that following, in con- 
 formity with modern usage in Britain ; though we are convinced that when mankind 
 generally are more highly educated, such childish amusements as playing at skittles will 
 never be thought- of. As to the exercise which the game affords, perhaps something 
 may be said in its favour in crowded cities ; but, even in them, exercise may surely be 
 
 4 H 
 
COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 obtained by means equally amusing, and, at the same time, somewhat more rational. 
 When cities are self-governed by a regularly organised representative system, there will 
 always be public gardens sufficiently extensive, and furnished with abundance of botanical 
 and zoological specimens, to supply the means of agreeable exercise and recreation in 
 walking through and examining them. We are justified in this opinion by the fact, 
 that rude games have disappeared in all countries, in proportion as civilisation has ad- 
 vanced and been equalised. 
 
 1430. The Boiding- Green ought to be well drained, and to have gratings communi- 
 cating with under-ground drains along the sides. The surface of the ground ought then 
 to be reduced to a perfect level, and, by treading or ramming, to an equal degree of 
 solidity ; after which it should be covered with turf of uniform thickness, and after- 
 wards well watered and rolled. It is usual to form a small gutter, about a foot broad, 
 and three inches deep, round the margin of a bowling-green, for the purpose of receiving 
 the water from its surface ; and in the bottom of this gutter the gratings to the drains 
 are placed. When properly drained, however, and turf from a sufficiently porous soil 
 is used, the rain will sink down through it direct to the under drains. The nature of 
 the soil and the drainage are important considerations to be attended to, as one of the 
 greatest beauties of a good bowling-green is to present a dry surface immediately after 
 rain. 
 
 1431. The Tea- Garden should be planted with deciduous and evergreen shrubs; 
 taking care that the nurseryman who sup})lies them does not plant more than two of a 
 sort, and that the sorts have showy and odoriferous flowers. The -ilcoves may be formed 
 of trellis-work, and covered with honeysuckle, virgin's-bower, and other creeping shrubs; 
 and, in general, where nothing else will grow, and it is desirable to have a covering of 
 vegetation, Virginian creeper and ivy may be planted. The fountain may be of artificial 
 stone, if real stone is found too expensive ; or it may be of cast iron. 
 
 1432. General Estimate. The cubic contents of this building are 107,508 feet ; which, at 
 Gd. per foot, is £'2687 : 4s. The extra-expense of the skittle-ground, tea-garden, and 
 bowling-green will be at least if 100, exclusive of enclosure walls, booths, the alcoves, 
 and the fountains. 
 
 1433. Remarks. This Design was furnished us by William Ross, Esq., Architect, 
 Bristol ; and we consider it a very judicious arrangement, with reference to the purpose 
 in view. The yard, o, may be covered ; and the floor over the brewhouse and beer-cellar 
 proportionably increased. From the passage, v, between the tea-garden and the bowling- 
 green there might be a door to a large kitchen-garden, always a most valuable appendage 
 to a country inn ; as are also proper yards and buildings for pigs and poultry, rabbit- 
 hutches, and a dovecot. These, in this case, are supposed to be placed on the other 
 side of a lane opposite the yard gate, w. An elegant banqueting-room might be erected 
 on the bowling-green, in the situation, x. If smoking is not permitted in the house, 
 there is a small tower, 7/, in the skittle-gronnd for that purpose, independently of the 
 alcoves in the tea-garden. The upper part of the tower, y, contains the pole of the 
 signpost. 
 
 Desi<yn III. — A small Village Inn, or Alehouse, in the Italian Gothic Mariner. 
 
 1434. Accommodation. The general appearance is shown in fig. 1302. and the grourid 
 
 [)]an in fig. 1303. In the latter will be found the following rooms: a, a porch, or 
 colonnadef intended for the more convenient reception of company, as also for the accom- 
 modation of the tap-room visiters, who might have seats placed there in summer ; b, the' 
 
COUNTRY INNS AND PUBLIC HOUSES. 
 
 130S 
 
 OSS 
 
 tap-room, ten feet by eleven feet six inches ; c, the bar, which has a projecting window, 
 and a light into the passage ; this room measures twelve feet by nine feet six inches, 
 including the bay window ; d and e are the parlours for the use of the more distinguished 
 visiters ; f is the kitchen, twelve feet by twelve feet ; g is the scullery, twelve feet by 
 seven feet six inches, which opens into the fold-yard ; h is the staircase to communicate 
 with the chamber story; and i is a small pantrj', or store-closet. Cellars are supposed 
 to be under the two parlours and the bar ; and from the latter room a staircase gives 
 access to them. In the chamber floor, fig. 1304, there are five bed-rooms and a small 
 
 1304 
 
 closet, from which a communication may be made to servants' bed-rooms in the roof. 
 It is not deemed necessary to show the yard and out-buildings, as the arrangement 
 depends entirely on circumstances of a local nature; but they must, of course, include 
 brewhouse, wash-house, stables, poultry-houses, pigsties, sheds, &c., the cost of which 
 is not included in the estimate. 
 
 1 435. Conslruction. The cellars must be sunk at least eight feet below the under side 
 of the plinth ; and the walls built of rough stone ten inches in thickness, well grouted 
 and throughed (with cross-tie stones), with ten-inch brick arches turned over the whole. 
 An area is to be formed for each of the windows, walled to finish, with a stone curb, 
 rebated for an iron grate. The steps into the cellars from the bar to be common flags 
 with brick risers. The external walls to be of stone eighteen inches thick, walled rough 
 for stucco or sand-dashing (rough-casting). The plinth, sills, and labels to be of 
 ashlar tooled. The internal walls to be brick, nine inches in thickness ; the chimney- 
 flues to be about ten inches in diameter, well pargeted. The shafts and caps to be 
 wrought according to the drawing, fig. 1305, in tooled ashlar. Tiiere are to be flagged 
 floors to the porch, tap-room, kitchen, and scullery ; \vell-squared solid stone steps to 
 the portico, twelve-inch tread, and seven-inch rest ; there are to be six reveals to all the 
 openings in the building, and the jambs inwards are to be splayed. Stone chimney-pieces, 
 and cleansed (rubbed) hearths to all the rooms. The construction of the roof is simple ; 
 the internal wall is intended to rise to the ridge, therefore one pair of principals only will 
 be required ; the purlins to project in the gables, as shown in fig. 1 302. The framing 
 of the eaves is shown in fig. 1306, ky which it will be seen that the spout is supported 
 
C84 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 1305 
 
 1306 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 by the cantalivers, and fixed to the eaves-board. The columns of the porch are to be of 
 oak, turned true, and having caps wrought according to the drawing, fig. 1305. A 
 strong lintel or architrave will be required to carry the roof. There are to be one-inch 
 boarded floors in the parlours, bar, and all the bed-rooms. The staircase to be of wood 
 with strings, moulded nosings, turned newels, and plain balusters ; there are to be six- 
 inch torus plinths to all the rooms on the ground floor ; and five-inch ditto to the 
 chambers. The windows are to be framed as shown in the drawing, fig. 1307, with 
 casements opening inwards, 
 
 1307 
 
 those on the ground floor 
 having transoms ; and there 
 are to be plain splayed wood 
 casings, with ovolo mould- 
 ings round them, to the 
 whole. There are to be six- 
 paneled l;|^-inch doors to all 
 the rooms on the ground 
 floor, with five-inch single 
 architraves round them ; 
 there are to be four-paneled 
 single doors to all the cham- 
 bers, with plain mouldings 
 round them. The large 
 window in the bar is to be 
 framed of wood, with side- 
 lights and casements simi- r 
 lar to the other windows. 
 The roof is to project, and 
 to be slated to correspond 
 with that of the house. 
 The plastering of the rooms 
 on the ground floor is to be 
 
 three-coat work ; the ceil- 
 
 ings on laths, and the walls 
 
 stuccoed. The cornices are to be plain. The bed-rooms are to have set ceilings 
 and two-coat walls. The exterior of the building to be rough-cast, or pebble-dashed 
 (dashed with pebbles). The woodwork to be painted three times over. The roof to be 
 covered with Welsh slate, fastened on with copper nails ; and well pointed and made 
 weather-proof. 
 
 1436. General Estimate. The estimated cost of this erection, if executed according 
 to this plan and particulars, and at the prices generally allowed in this part of England 
 (Doncaster), will be about £750; to which £150 may be added for the out-offices, and 
 fencing, planting, and laying out the site. The choice of material, the value of labour, 
 and other local circumstances would materially alter the estimate ; but the Design may 
 
 T 
 
COUNTRY INNS AND PUBLIC HOUSES. 
 
 685 
 
 be executed in almost any part of England, in a plain and substantial manner, for the 
 above sum. 
 
 1437. Remarks. The style here attempted is Italian, the principal features of which 
 are the Tuscan colonnade, and the projecting eaves. These, with the broad-capped chim- 
 neys, give to the house a comfortable and sheltered appearance. The windows have 
 no decided character ; but it is presumed they harmonise with the building, at least 
 sufficiently so to produce the effect required. The site would be better if elevated on a 
 platform ; the advantages gained by which should never be overlooked, where it can be 
 applied : but, if this erection were placed by the side of a road or street, its application 
 would be a difficult matter. This, however, is entirely dependent upon circumstances ; 
 and, if the situation admitted it, a raised terrace should be introduced, which would add 
 greatly to the general effect of the whole." This Design has been sent us by M. E, 
 Hadfield, Esq., of Doncaster ; and all the preceding observations are by that gentleman. 
 All the liberty we have taken is confined to the title; and that is, to designating the 
 inn as in the Anglo-Italian style, which we have done on account of the Gothic labels 
 over the windows, and the mullions and transoms in them. We like the chimney-tops, 
 though we are not sure that the projection all round them will be in favour of the 
 draught of the cliimneys : but this fault is not peculiar to Mr. Hadfield. A practical 
 philosopher observes, on this subject, " Many of the desigus for chimney-tops and pots 
 which occur in your work appear to me to be liable to objection, from their being so 
 massive, at the orifice of the summit, that the wind will be thrown into eddies by them ; 
 which, in chimneys of uncertain draught, may interfere with the free discharge of the 
 smoke. I apprehend, that, whatever may be the form of termination which may be 
 adopted for chimney-tops, the last portion of them should approach, as nearly as can be, 
 to a thin tube, which may interfere as little as possible with the flow of the external air, 
 which is to carry away the smoke laterally. I mean, that, whether in a simple chimney, 
 or in a group of chimneys, the termination should be like that shown at a in fig. 1 308, 
 rather than that shown at 6." These observations of our correspondent are very im- 
 portant ; and the soundness of his opinion 1 308 
 seems to be confirmed by the fact, that the 
 great majority of chimney-pots, in every part of 
 Britain, are formed of thin earthenware tubes, 
 or tubes of iron, copper, or zinc. It must be 
 confessed, however, that there are many broad 
 far projecting chimney tops, for example in 
 Switzerland, and in the lake districts of 
 England, the flues of which appear to draw 
 very well ; and that, let a chimney be built 
 and terminated as it will, very little can be 
 affirmed, by the builder or Architect, till it has 
 been tried, as to whether it will draw or not. With regard to this alehouse, as a whole, 
 we think the interior arrangement good, and the effect not bad ; though it does not 
 possess any strong expression of style. Gothic labels, or, indeed, labels or drip mould- 
 ings of any sort, under a far-projecting roof, we disapprove of, for reasons already given, 
 § 476. 
 
 Design IV. — Jn Inn in the Italian Style. 
 
 1438. Accommodation. The general appearance is shown is fig. 1309, and the ground 
 plan in fig. 1310. In the latter are shown an entrance-hall, a ; bar, b ; kitchen, c ; ante-room 
 for stranger guests, before they are shown to their apartments, d ; public room, e ; 
 back-kitchen, y ; dairy, g ; place for fattening poultry and rabbits, h ; brewhouse, i ; 
 store-room, and boiling-house for horse-food, k ; hay-room, I ; coach-houses, m ; fod- 
 dering-bay or hay-room, n ; pigsties, o ; stabling for nine horses, p ; assembly-rooms, 
 
 r; and ante-room, s. 
 
 1439. Construction. The walls may be of brick or stone ; the floors of cast-iron 
 girders, tied and braced with wrought iron, supporting flat brick arches ; and the roof of 
 
 1440. General Estimate. The cubic contents of this building are 221,940 feet ; which, 
 at 6d. per foot, will give, as a guess price, ^5548 : 10s. 
 
 1441. Remarks. The plan of this inn is from the portfolio of Mr. Kempshot, a Lon- 
 don Architect, who has built numerous public houses, and also some country churches, 
 and one or two mausoleums. The elevation is by Mr. Robertson, and we think that 
 our readers will agree with us in opinion that it does him great credit. There is one 
 point in which this Design is deficient, but which might be very easily remedied; 
 and that is, there is no place to drive under, and take up or set down company, during 
 
686 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 heavy rains. In all inns whatever, we would have the main entrance cither under an 
 archway to the yard or court, 
 or under such a porch or portico 
 as would admit of a carriage of 
 the largest size. We have ex- 
 perienced tlie great comfort of 
 carriage entrances of this kind, 
 both in inns and in private 
 houses on the Continent ; and 
 we are surprised that Architects, 
 who have travelled, should not 
 have introduced them more 
 generally in this country. We 
 do not recommend that arch- 
 ways through the building, with 
 apartments over them, should 
 be adopted as substitutes for 
 projecting porticoes : these, 
 where they occur, we would 
 rather consider as adjuncts, to 
 be used when two carriages 
 chanced to arrive or depart at 
 the same time. W^hat we should 
 wish to see would be bold 
 projecting porticoes, or Gothic 
 porches, form a prominent part 
 of the front, such as we see to 
 some villa residences. Three of 
 these, which occur to our recol- 
 lection at this moment, are Lord 
 Winchelsea's, in Kent, for a 
 Grecian example ; Eaton Hall, 
 for a carriage-porch in the 
 Gothic style ; and General St. 
 John's cottage, in Sussex, for a 
 carriage-porch in the oldEnglish 
 cottage style. The ground plan does not show the wings, which may consist of ^wo 
 rooms and a passage on each floor. 
 
 Design V. — A Suburban Public House in the Old English Style. 
 1442. The principal object of this Design is to show the arrangement of the bar ana 
 counter in those public houses which are supported chiefly by the sale of liquors in small 
 quantities, either drunk in the shop, standing at the counter, or carried home in brought 
 vessels by the purchasers. The general appearance of this house is shown in fig. 1311'. 
 
COUNTRY INNS AND PUBLIC HOUSES. 
 
 687 
 
 1443. Accommodation. The ground plan, fig. 1312, shows a tap-room, a, thirteen 
 feet by twenty feet, with a porch to a skittle-ground behind ; a bar, 6, with a counter 
 separating it from the shop, or place for standing customers, c : d is the bar parlour for 
 
 1312 i 
 
 the master and mistress ; e» a company parlour, with a porch to a garden containing a 
 bowling-green, quoit-ground, cricket-ground, swimming-pond, and baths ; / is the 
 kitchen ; and g, the pantry. The main entrance is at h ; the house yard and its offices 
 are at i ; the skittle-ground and the garden for the tap-room company are at k ; and the 
 gardens for the parlour company at I. Fig. 1313 is the plan of the chamber or one pair 
 story, showing a club-room, m ; a waiting-room or bed-room, n ; a room for hats, great- 
 coats, and other conveniences connected with the club, o ; and best bed-room, p. The 
 basement story is similar in plan : in it, m is a beer-cellar ; n, a store-cellar ; a, a 
 coal-cellar ; and j?, a spirit and wine-cellar. Fig. 1314 is the plan of the attics, showing \ 
 three good bed-rooms with fireplaces and presses. Fig. 1 315 is a perspective view of the bar ■ 
 room, which is eleven feet six inches by ten feet, and ten feet high, with a fireplace for a ■ 
 stove on one side, a door opposite, and another door in the back as seen in the ground 
 plan, fig. 1312, b. The view is taken looking towards the bar from the shop, c, and sup- • 
 posing the coimter, fig. 1316, to be removed. In this view, a shows sm^l casks for ^ 
 gin, brandy, rum, and other spirituous liquors simple or compound, holding from ten to I 
 twenty gallons each, for retail sale, chiefly in single glasses. The casks are supplied some- ; 
 times from the bar-room by means of a small forcing-pump, or by a can called a jack, but " 
 more frequently through a trap-hole in the floor of the room above ; from which hole, a 
 
688 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 1S13 
 
 
 i 
 
 
 n " 
 
 1 — '--J 
 
 f 
 
 
 ' w 
 
 t n 
 
 ... ^ _j 
 
 Ft.lO 
 
 0 
 
 I ... 1 1 
 
 10 20 Ft. 
 
 I 
 
 Y 
 
 ^ 1S14 
 
 FH — — 
 
 h i 
 r 
 
 d 
 i 
 
 lTIj 
 
 N , — 
 
 
 
 1315 
 
COUNTRY INNS AND PUBLIC HOUSES. 689 
 
 flexible tube is conducted to each particular cask. The liquor is supplied to what is called 
 the fountain, on the counter (r, fig. 1316), by pipes, which communicate with the cask«;, 
 and are connected with them by means of union joints (that is, male and female screws, witn 
 a nut generally of brass). The pipes are brought down in a case or trunk against the wall, 
 are led along the back of the counter close under its top, and are afterwards carried 
 up the hollow column of the fountain, in the upper part of which they are united to 
 the different cocks by which the liquors are drawn off. There are store vats, b b, for 
 such liquors as are sold in larger quantities, and these are drawn directly from the vats by 
 cocks. There are bins for wine and liqueurs kept in bottles, which bins are here shown 
 with the doors shut at c ; at rf are shelves for glasses and similar articles ; at e, shelves 
 for pewter or stone pots for beer, ale, &c. ; at f are pigeonholes for bottles containing 
 choice compounds, cordials, &c. ; and at g, cupboards for various articles ; /^ is a fire- 
 place, with a boiler for hot water round three sides, and a cock to draw it off for constant 
 use ; and i is the case or trunk, containing the pipes which lead from the upper casks to 
 the counter fountain. Fig. 1316 is a view of the inside of the counter, looking from the 
 bar-room, in which ^ is a six-motion beer-machine to draw the beer and ale of different 
 ages and qualities from the butts in the cellar. Beneath this machine, at is a projecting 
 tray, the bottom of which is formed of a grating, or of a pierced plate of pewter, the 
 holes being about the eighth of an inch in diameter ; over this the beer is drawn into 
 the pots, and the droppings are collected by this grating, and passed down, by means 
 of a tube, to a vat in the cellar. This waste beer is taken back by the brewers, and an 
 equal quantity of new beer given in exchange ; at m are shelves for glasses, liquor 
 measures, &c. ; at n is usually placed a portable apparatus for beating elder wine, gin 
 and ale, or other liquors ; it consists of a funnel connected with a worm tube, which 
 passes through a vessel filled with hot water ; the water is sometimes kept hot by an iron 
 heater like that of an urn, or a !^pirit lamp ; and at other times, by a tube connected 
 with the boiler at the back or sides of the kitchen fire. Sometimes there are two funnels 
 and worms, so that two sorts of liquor can be warmed at once. To warm the liquor, it 
 is poured into one of the funnels at top, and in about half a minute it is drawn off by 
 a cock at bottom ; the length of the worm in the hot water allowing time for the latter 
 to communicate its heat during the passage of the wine through it. There are drawers, o, 
 for tobacco, cheese, biscuits, sugar, lemons, &c. ; places for bread and other articles, p ; 
 a recess for pipes, q ; and a fountain, r, with twelve cocks, connected with the small 
 casks, a, in fig. 1315, and with a basin and water for rincing glasses below. In some 
 places this basin is supplied with two cocks, one for hot and the other for cold water, 
 with a waste-plug and chain in the bottom of the basin ; and in others there is, imme- 
 diately beneath the fountain, a saveall, or pierced plate of pewter, through which the 
 drippings from the glasses percolate, and are collected in a shallow basin below, from 
 which they are taken out occasionally, and sold at a low price to the poorer customers, 
 or given away in charity. All the wood-work of this counter is mahogany, and the 
 metal is pewter, with the exception of the cocks, which are sometimes of brass, though 
 pewter is considered preferable, as being less liable to corrode. 
 
 1444. Remarks. For this Design we are indebted to Mr. Laxton, who has had 
 great experience in fitting up public houses. We may observe here, that the fitting up 
 of public house bars in London forms almost a distinct trade; and that the expense 
 incurred in this way by the owners of public houses is almost mcredible, every one 
 vying with his neighbour in convenient arrangement, general display, rich carving, brass- 
 work, finely veined mahogany, and ornamental painting. The carving of one ornament 
 alone, in that of Mr. Weller, the Grapes, in Old-street Road, cost ^^100; the work- 
 
 4 I 
 
690 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 manship was by one of the first carvers in wood in London. Three public houses, or 
 rather gin-shops, have been lately fitted up in Lamb's Conduit Street, at an expense, for 
 the bar alone, of upwards of i,'2000 each. We have no doubt, however, that progressive 
 improvements will be made, even in these bars. The fireplace, for example, is a clumsy 
 mode of heating water, in an apartment where there is but little room to spare. In 
 every town and village where gas is laid on, not only in bars but in kitchens, the heat- 
 ing of water, and various operations of cookery, might be readily effected without the 
 aid of common fires in any form. A correspondent has sent us the following important 
 comnmnication on this subject, to which we invite the attention of all who live in locali- 
 ties where gas can be obtained. 
 
 1445. Heating Water and cooking In/ Gas. " Mr. Strutt, many years ago, affirmed that 
 coal gas, properly applied, would be the cheapest fuel for cooking. This has been so 
 fully confirmed by late trials here (Edinburgh), that I have no doubt that, in all 
 cases when it can be had, it should form part of the arrangement of a working man's 
 dwelling, to have the means of so applying it. The plan, wliich has succeeded here, is as 
 follows : a case or tube of thin rolled iron is made of about two feet, or two feet and a half, 
 long, with a soldered joint ; its diameter may be from three inches to ten inches, according 
 to the use it is to be put to. Over the mouth of this a piece of wire gauze, of about 
 forty-five wires to the inch, is fixed by an iron hoop : from the sides of the tube, close to 
 the hoop, three pieces of iron are made to project, by means of which the tube may be 
 supported by the edges of a circular hole in a table or shelf, shown by the dotted circle 
 n fig. 1317. When so placed, if gas be admitted at the lower extremity of the case or 
 
 tube, it will mix with the common air within it; and, ^ _ 
 
 the mixture being lighter than the common air, it *■ \s.lf^ ^ 
 
 will rise and pass through the meshes of the wire > \ 
 gauze. If the mixture be set fire to above the gauze, \ 
 it will continue to burn there, without igniting what 
 is below it ; and, although the flame gives scarcely any 
 light, it gives out "-reat heat, and quickly boils any fluid 
 in a vessel placed on a stand two inches over it. 
 
 Cases of three or four inches diameter answer well for || !|| ^'"^ ' 
 
 tea-kettles, sauce or stew pans ; and one of nine or ten 
 inches is fully sufficient for a large fish-kettle, or a 
 round of beef, or for sending off' steam to heat a bath. 
 The consumption of gas of such a stove costs, at the 
 prices charged here for gas, about -\d. an hour. To use the gas conveniently and econo- 
 mically in such an apparatus, each gas branch should be furnished with two stopcocks, 
 one of which only sliould be accessible to the cook : by the other, the workman who fixes 
 the apparatus should regulate the maximum (juantity of gas which can i)ass when the 
 accessible cock is fully opened. The cook will then liave the power of diminishing and 
 shutting off' the gas, but not of admitting an undue quantity. The point for regulating 
 is the commencement of the appearance of yellow flame on the tip of the blue cone. If 
 more gas be admitted after this, carbon is deposited on the bottoms of the cooking- vessels, 
 from the combustion not being completed ; while, if the due proportion be observed, the 
 cooking may be performed in briglit-bottomed vessels without sensibly tarnishing them. 
 If these gas stoves be placed in the surftice of a table, the sides and ends should be boxed 
 up from the under side of the table nearly to the ground, to prevent disturbing currents 
 of air from interfering with the regular rise of the gas mixture in the cases." 
 
 Design VI. — A Hedge Alehouse of the smallest Size. 
 
 1446. The general Appearance is shown in the perspective view, fig. 1S18, and 
 tlie ground plan in fig. J 31 9. The latter, to a scale of one inch to nineteen feet, 
 
COUNTRY INNS AND PUBLIC HOUSES. 
 
 691 
 
 contains a porch, a; vestibule, 6 ; tap-room and kitchen, c; bar, having' a command of 
 the tap-room and parlour, by borrowed lights on both sides, d; parlour, e; pantrj-j^"; 
 china-closet, g ; master's bed-room, /t ; and water-closet, i. There is a staircase, h, to 
 the floor above, which contains three good bed-rooms ; over which, and over the parlour, 
 are garrets. Two of these garret bed-rooms have fireplaces, as sliown in the section 
 A B, fig. 1320. 
 
 1447. Construction. The walls are supposed to be of brick, the chimney tops of 
 artificial stone, and the roofing of grey slate. 
 
 1448. General Estimate. Cubic contents, 27,634 feet; which, at 4d. per foot, is 
 ,€460: lis.: 4rf. 
 
 1449. Remarks. This Design is also by Mr. Ross of Bristol, and seems good in 
 point of arrangement; though Mr. Ross suggests that it might be an improvement if 
 the bar and staircase were to change places. It would make a very comfortable private 
 cottage, d being a store-room, instead of a bar, and the other places remaining in their 
 present state ; unless, indeed, the large porch, a, were made a green-hovise, or aviary, or 
 place for sculpture, antiquities, or a museum. 
 
692 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 Design VII. — A Country Public House in the Italian Style. 
 1-450. Accommodation. The general appearance is shown in the elevation, fig. 1321, and 
 the ground plan in fig. 1322, which contains a carriage entrance, a, with a passage, 6 
 
 between it and an entrance-porch, c. There are a bar, d ; bar-room, c ; parlour, /; kitchen, 
 g ; staircase, h ; small parlour, i ; loggia or place for drinking in, k ; and outside stair- 
 case to rooms for r jmpany in the upper part of the tower, which is circular, and also 
 over part of the house. 
 
 10 5 0 10 20 30 
 ft, I I n 1 I I I t Ll L 1 : ^ft. 
 
 145L Remarks. This Design has been sent us by Edward Buckton Lamb, Esq. 
 Architect, As an elevation, it is very picturesque, and weU calculated for a public house 
 of recreation in a country commanding fine views. The carriage entrance is a most 
 desirable feature, and, as already observed, § 1441, ought never to be omitted. 
 
COUNTRY INNS AND PUBLIC HOUSES, 693 
 
 Design VIII A small Inn or Public Home in the Swiss Shjle. 
 
 1452. Accommodation. The ground plan, fig. 1323, consists of an entrance to the 
 bar, a; bar, h; cellar, c; family parlour, d \ kitchen, e; store -closet,/; pantry, water- 
 closet, h\ entrance lobby, i\ tap-room, k\ public parlour, l-, lobby, m; bakehouse, n; 
 
 1323 
 
 I J > i i-J L 
 
 dust-hole, o ; wood-house, p ; coal-house, q ; privies, r r ; entrance to cricket and quoit 
 ground, s; situation of the baths, t ; garden, w; teirace, v v; terraced walk to the stairs 
 leading to the balcony, w ; skittle-ground, x. The first floor consists of a club-room 
 fig. 1324, a; large bed-room, b; staircase, c ; lobby, d; bed-room, e ; family bed-room f- 
 terrace, g g. There is one large bed-room and two small ones in the attic floor. ' 
 
 1324 
 
 d 
 
 -d Lr 
 
 / 
 
694< COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 1453. Construction. The foundations are to be built of stone or brickwork, and 
 carried up two feet above the level of the terrace ; the walls containing the flues and the 
 chimney stacks are also to be of stone or brickwork. The platform on which the terrace 
 is raised is to be formed of the earth dug out of the foundations ; and, after being pro- 
 perly rammed, and allowed time to settle, it is to be paved with flat tiles. The railings 
 surrounding the terrace are to be formed by wooden posts driven firmly into the platform 
 at tlie angles, and the intermediate spaces are to be filled in with roughly turned 
 balusters, coped with a light wooden rail. The balconies to be supported by wooden 
 brackets, as shown in the elevation ; and the balusters of the outside stairs are to corre- 
 spond with those of the terrace. The walls above the solid stone or brickwork are to be 
 framed of wood in the Swiss manner, and covered with boards both outside and inside. 
 The roof is to be covered with shingles or with tiles, and the projecting caves are to be 
 supported by brackets, and by a continuation of the common rafters; the projections over 
 the gable ends are also to be supported by solid wooden brackets. The tops of the 
 chimney shafts are to be covered with tarred boards, or with thin flag-stones ; and the 
 smoke is to escape at the lateral openings, as shown in the elevation. The ornaments on 
 the roof are to be of very light cast iron, painted of an oak colour. The windows may 
 be common sashes, hung in the usual way; or they may be framed in the Italian or Swiss 
 manner, and hinged so as to open 
 
 1325 
 
 inwards. The oven is to be built of 
 fire bricks, having the joints radiat- 
 ing to centres. All the ornamental 
 woodwork to be roughly carved and 
 notched with the axe and chisel. 
 The water-closet and privies are 
 to be lined with |-inch deal two 
 feet above the seats, and are to 
 have proper pans, traps, and drains. 
 The inconveni'mce often occa- 
 sioned by leaving the lid of the 
 seat off, may be remedied by the 
 following very simple contrivance, 
 shown by fig. 1325. Immediately 
 behind the lid, when up, let a small 
 fillet of wood be hinged by a piece 
 of leather at the upper end, a, and 
 a cord fixed at its lower end, 6, 
 passing over the pulleys fixed in the 
 ceiling at c c, to the door, rf. It %vi!l 
 be seen that if the door be opened 
 outwards, the cord passing over the 
 pulleys raises the fillet of wood, and 
 if the lid has been left open, it 
 throws it down with such force as . 
 not only to correct the omission, but to make every one in the house aware ot it. 
 
 1454. Remarks. " The terraces in front may have seats for the accommodation of 
 those who wish to sit in the open air; and the balcony may be a comfortable retreat m 
 mild rainy weather, being well protected by the projecting roof ; it will also be a very 
 convenient place for invalids. A stove is shown in the bar, both for warming the 
 apartment, and for keeping water hot to mix with the liquors. The bar or shop, at a, is 
 for retailing liquors to those who are to carry them away ; and a temporary division is 
 thrown across the bar, to separate the shop department from the company passing into 
 the lobby, i. The platform opposite the bar communicates with the terraces on each 
 side, and a walk is shown from the terrace opposite the family parlour, passing through 
 the porch, and descending a few steps to the garden, v. The garden may also be entered 
 by the kitchen, e, and also through the cricket-ground, s. The bar, the fami y parlour, 
 and the kitchen, are arranged as near to each other as possible, for the sake of con- 
 venience; and an additional door is made to enter into this parlour close by the kitchen 
 door, both to prevent the inconvenience of carrying hot dishes through the lobby, and 
 to afford more private access to the water-closet, h. The covered yard m front of the 
 privies will be found very useful in keeping the skittles and quoits from the weather 
 when not in use. Warm, cold, and shower baths may be erected at t ; and swimming- 
 ponds, surrounded by boarding, may be made at the extremity of the cricket-ground If 
 more cellarage be required than the small cellar, c, cellars might be made under the tap- 
 room and family parlour, descending by a staircase where the present cellar is shown. 
 The club^-room, a, may be used as a room for public meetings; and, at election time, it 
 
FINISHING OF COUNTRY INNS. 
 
 695 
 
 might be used as a committee-room, at which times the balcony would be a suitable 
 place from which the candidates might deliver their opinions to the electors. The out- 
 side entrance staircase will be found a very convenient means of access to the club-room, 
 and will prevent company from being annoyed by those who may be enjoying themselves 
 on the terrace in front. If this building were situated in a district where there were no 
 scientific institutions, the club-room might be occasionally used as a place for delivering 
 lectures in to a small company, on mechanics and chemistry, and other branches of 
 experimental philosophy ; and, in this case, the room over the bar might be used as a 
 reading-room or library. It would, however, be preferable to have a regular mechanics' 
 institution, that would accommodate a greater number of persons, if the inhabitants 
 could afford to support such an institution ; and the possibility of this being made a 
 lecture-room is only suggested in order that refreshments for the body and mind might 
 be supplied in the same quarter, to suit the various tastes of various individuals." This 
 Design, and the preceding description and remarks, have been composed by Mr. Robertson ; 
 and we think they do credit to his judgment in arrangement, and his taste in composing 
 
 elevations. Its general appearance, fig. 1S26, reminds us of the very beautiful wine- 
 liouse and pleasure-garden, in the Swiss style, at Silberberg, near Stuttgard, 
 
 Sect. III. Of the Finishing, Filtings-iip, Fixtures, and Furniture of Country Inns and 
 
 Public Houses. 
 
 1455. The Finishing, Fittings-%ip, and Fixtures of Inns diWer from those of private 
 houses chiefly in the extent of those belonging to the kitchen and its offices ; and the 
 peculiarity of those required for the bar. We shall take in succession the bar, the 
 kitchen, and the store-room, larder, and other offices. 
 
 SuBSECT. 1. Of the Finishing, Fittings-^ip, Fixtures, and Furniture of the Bar of an Inn 
 
 or Public Hotise. 
 
 1456. The Finishing and Fittings-vp of the Par include, in large inns, an iron safe 
 or chest, for books, valuable papers, and money ; pigeonholes, marked with the letters 
 of the alphabet, for letters, accounts, and general purposes ; and other pigeonholes, 
 marked with the numbers of all the different apartments, for letters or other articles 
 left for, or belonging to, any of the guests. In small inns, there is a cupboard for glass 
 and china, together with drawers and shelves for tea and coffee urns, tea-pots, coffee- 
 pots, and punch bowls, and a variety of miscellaneous articles ; there are also vertical 
 divisions for tea-trays, waiters, and similar things : and, in public houses, there is a supply 
 of hot and cold water from cocks over a sink ; and, as we have seen, Design V, 
 § 1443, a complete system of tubes or pipes, for drawing liquors from casks, either in 
 the bar-room, in an adjoining room, or in the cellar beneath. In presses and drawers in 
 the bar are also kept, in the smaller inns, the table linen, napery, and plate of every 
 description. Some years ago, an invention was exhibited in London, called a domestic 
 telegraph, which was considered to be well adapted for very large inns. A dial, with 
 a face like that of a clock, but with the names of the articles most in use in coffee- 
 rooms inscribed round the plate, instead of the figures of the hours, and with a hand 
 
696 
 
 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 to point to the articles required, was fixed up in the coffee-room or in the bar, and was 
 united by wires and machinery with a corresponding dial in the kitchen. The move- 
 ment of the hands being sympathetic, orders were thus communicated from the one to 
 the other, a bell being previously rung to direct attention. Speaking pipes, however, 
 are much better adapted for this purpose, though either can seldom be wanted in a 
 country inn. A bell to the kitchen, another to the stables, a third for the waiter, and a 
 fourth for the chambermaid, are indispensable in the bars of large inns ; but in small 
 ones, a bell for the hostler, and another for the head waiter, are deemed sufficient. 
 
 1457. Rising Cupboards. There is a contrivance, in some coffee-houses in London, 
 for sending up articles from the kitchen to the bar, or to any other upper room, in a 
 vertical tube or trunk. This is effected in two ways. The first is by a single box, or 
 cupboard, suspended by a cord and pulleys, and balanced by a weight, as in fig. 1 327, 
 in which a is the box or cupboard, with a shelf in the middle ; b b, two pulleys, over 
 which the cord passes which is attached to the lid of the box at one end, and to the mass 
 of iron, c, of equivalent weight, at the other ; d is a wooden rod, attached by a piece of 
 cord, or two or three links of a chain, to a staple in the bottom of the box, by which the 
 person in the kitchen below pulls it down, or pushes it up ; e is the top of the counter of 
 the bar; and/ the surface of the bar floor. In some cases the cupboard is balanced by 
 two weights, one on each side, when the centre pulley becomes unnecessary, and the top 
 of the cupboard, on which articles may be placed, rises to the level of the surface of the 
 counter, or of any table to which the apparatus may be affixed, so as to appear a part of 
 
 1327 
 
 it. By the second mode there are two cupboards, fig. 1328, g g, which balance each 
 other and are attached by cords, fastened to staples in the exterior surfaces of the tops 
 and bottoms o^^^^^^^^^ These cords run on the two cast-iron wheels, /. h, each 
 
 o?whichTabout twenty inches in diameter, and the cupboards are so placed as that 
 whin one i': at the top of the trunk, or place of delivery, i, the other is at the bottom or 
 Place of reception k In order that the cupboards may move up and down with perfect 
 'e as afd steaSe^^^^^^^^ nailed on each of their — ^^^^^^^^^^^^ 
 
 fig. 1329, at Z and grooves are formed in the sides of the trunk, by fillets nailed on, as 
 
FINISHING OF COUNTRY INNS. 
 
 697 
 
 at m m. When the second description of rising cupboard 1329 
 is used, it is necessary to have one for each floor ; but the 
 former kind may serve all the floors of a house, openings 
 being made at the proper height in each floor, for a person 
 to put in his hands in order to take out, or to put in, 
 articles, and to move the cord either upwards or down- 
 wards, as may be required. The second mode is much the 
 most convenient for large inns ; but the first is suflBcient 
 for small ones. One of the cupboards, in fig. 1328, is sup- 
 posed to contain the principal dishes of a single course ; and while the other is at the 
 bottom, ready to receive the dishes of the second course from the kitchen, it is at the side- 
 board in the dining-room, or in any other convenient place near it, for receiving and taking 
 down the empty dishes. Fig. 1327 may be seen in action at the shop of Mr. Rope, Con- 
 fectioner, in Lamb's Conduit Street; and fig. 1328, adapted both to the ground floor and 
 the first floor, at the Albion Tavern, Drury Lane Theatre, The latter was constructed 
 by Mr. Argent, Bricklayer and Carpenter, Seabright Place, Hackney Road, and is 
 found to save a great deal of labour in carrying the dishes up and down stairs, besides 
 keeping the articles hot. Indeed, by having a cast-iron plate, heated by steam, at the 
 bottom of each trunk, it may be rendered a hot closet, for all its length ; and, when the 
 apparatus of the rising cupboard is not used, it might serve for conveying heat from the 
 kitchen to the upper rooms. In some inns the cupboard is raised or lowered at pleasure 
 by a cord and pulley, operated on by a rack and pinion in the kitchen ; orders being 
 given by the waiter above through a speaking-tube, and attention being directed to the 
 tube by the waiter in the bar or upper room first ringing a bell. In some eating- 
 houses, in London, the tube is circular, and about a foot in diameter, that size being 
 suflBcient for sending up dinners for individuals in two or three covers placed one over 
 another ; but in inns where large parties are given, the tubes are two or three feet 
 square, and the boxes, which move up and down in them, are fitted up with shelves, and 
 may be kept perfectly hot by a vessel of hot water or an iron heater being placed in the 
 lowest shelf. The tubes in which these boxes move are generally formed alongside the 
 staircase. In some private houses in Russia, for example, at Astankina, near Moscow, 
 there is, or was, when we saw it, in 1814, a contrivance for the descent and return of 
 the entire dining-table to and from the kitchen ; the dining-table, in this case, being sur- 
 rounded by a fixed margin, on which the wine was kept. This also can, however, be 
 seldom wanted in a country inn, where the kitchen may almost always be on the same 
 floor with the principal dining-rooms. A horizontal tube, or hot tunnel, with grooves 
 for a small carriage like a railway waggon, to be drawn from one end to the other by 
 cords, one at each end, for conveying the dinner from the kitchen to a distant part of 
 the house, may possibly, in some cases, be wanted, and could easily be constructed along 
 the side of a straight passage. 
 
 1458. Among the Fixtures of the Bar may be included a folding register grate, 
 which costs, in London, £l : 7s., and is one of the best things of the kind in use 
 either for a bar, a library, or any other room where valuable papers are kept ; 
 or for a sick-room, or nursery, or even for common bed-rooms, where the expense is not 
 an object. The doors of this stove are in two parts, the upper and the lower ; and each 
 part consists of four divisions, which are hinged to each other, and fold back so as to 
 present the appearance of fig. 1330 when not in use. When it is desired to blow the 
 fire, after being newly lighted, or if it gets low, the upper half of the doors may be 
 shut, as in fig. 1331. On the other hand, when the fire burns too rapidly, or it is not 
 wanted, the lower doors may be shut ; which, by excluding the draught of air through 
 the fuel, will prevent combustion. On leaving the room at any time, or on retiring to 
 1330 1331 
 
698 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 bed, all the doors may be wholly or partially closed, so as to put out the fire, or keep it 
 barely alive. This description of stove has also the farther advantages, that it increases 
 the draught of slow-drawing or smoky chimneys ; and that, in summer, when fires are 
 not wanted, it may be shut close, to prevent the descent of air from the chimney into the 
 room. By filling in the panels of the shutters with talc instead of iron, a very perfect 
 description of fireplace might be formed ; and, while many of the advantages of a close 
 stove might be obtained, the English prejudices in favour of the sight of the fire might 
 still be gratified. This might also be done, and, at the same time, safety and ventilation 
 insured, if the panels were filled in with brass wire. 
 1459. In the Scullery or Back- 
 
 ICitclien of an inn, a large sink will 
 be required, of which there are 
 numerous convenient kinds made 
 in cast iron. Fig. 1332 is manu- 
 factured by Mr. Mallet of Dublin. 
 It has three divisions : n is a com- 
 mon sink, from which the water 
 or other fluid runs away without 
 impediment through the adjacent 
 column or sup])ort ; 6 is a trough, 
 which may be filled with water for 
 washing vegetables, and which is 
 furnisiicd with a plug and waste-pipe 
 at bottom ; c is an inclined ])lane 
 grooved on the surface, for draining 
 vegetables, fish, &c. ; and d d are 
 cocks for supplying water. Side- 
 tables or dressers, either in the 
 kitchen or scull ry, or in any of 
 ipartments connected with 
 
 1332 
 
 the other 
 
 them, may be fixed to the wall, and supported by 
 cast-iron brackets, fig. 1333, in the manner recommended for cottage and farm furniture. 
 
 1333 
 
 Kitchen tables are generally formed of the wood of the ash, as being white, hard, and 
 durable. 
 
 SuBSECT. 2. Of the Finishing, Filtings-up, Fixtures, ami Furniture for the other Offices 
 
 of InnS' 
 
 1460. The general Store-room is fitted up with large presses and drawers for the bed- 
 room linen and for furniture, such as curtains, table-covers, &:c., not in common use. 
 The carpets, inats, and floorcloths of different descriptions are kept in closets on the 
 particular floors to which they belong. In the general store-room are also kept all 
 groceries, and other dry goods usually purchased in large quantities. Coffee, pepper, 
 and spice mills are fixtures generally placed here, or, in small inns, in the bar-room. A 
 napkin press, fig. 1334, is one of the most useful articles of inn furniture, since table- 
 cloths, napkins, towels, &c., after having been used, but not soiled, if neatly folded 
 and pressed, may be made to look as if newly washed and mangled. 
 
 1 46 1 . The Larder ought to be in a cool shady situation, and should be well ventilated 
 by windows or other openings on, at least, two sides, covered with wire or haircloths ; 
 and also by openings or flues from the ceiling or top of the side walls, conducted to 
 the side of some chimney, in which there is constantly kept a fire ; in order that the 
 heat of the smoke flue, by passing through to the air flue, may create a continual 
 draught through the larder. In complete inns, there are separate larders for butcher's 
 meat, fresh and cooked, venison, game, fish, and even vegetables : there ought also to be 
 a salting-room, and a house for smoking hams, tongues, &c. The fish larder has a well 
 or cistern for ice, in which fish are kept during summer, with troughs of water for 
 
FINISHING OF COUNTRY INNS. 
 
 699 
 
 live eels, and cisterns for feeding oysters, and also for crawfish. In summer, the fish is 
 kept on a table under a case of 
 fine wirecloth, that it may be 
 seen, for the purpose of selection, 
 by guests, without uncovering it 
 to admit the flies. Cold meat, and 
 also raw meat for steaks and chops 
 are covered in a similar manner 
 in some of the London larders. 
 The vegetable larder, as we have 
 already observed, § 737, ought, 
 if convenient, to be near the ice- 
 house. In addition to larders 
 for preserving these different 
 kinds of provisions, there ought 
 also to be a cellar or other place 
 for intenerating such meat as 
 may be required to be dressed 
 before it has hung the usual 
 time. As coating poultry or 
 butcher's meat with yeast, or rub- 
 bing it over with, or immersing 
 it in, charcoal, tends to freshen it when it has been kept too long, so burpng it 
 in earth, by accelerating putrefaction, serves to render it tender. It is well known, 
 that a fowl of any kind, not many hours killed, if buried five or six hours in common 
 garden soil, becomes as tender as if it had been kept above ground two or three days. 
 Fowls newly killed, and dressed before they are cold (savagelike though the practice is), 
 are always perfectly tender ; as are also all the internal parts of animals. Hanging 
 fowls or meat in the shade of a fig tree, or any tree of the same natural order, is also 
 found to make them tender. Nettles belong to the same natural order ; and it is said 
 that slices of meat, such as beefsteaks, &c., rubbed over with nettle leaves, or laid on 
 and covered with them, will become quite tender in a few hours. 
 
 1462. The Fittings-up of the Cellars of Inns have nothing peculiar. Cast-iron bins 
 for wines have been employed in London, to save room ; but, as they are not so durable 
 as brick or stone, they are not approved of in cases where there is abundance of space. 
 It is also said that the eflPect which the changes of temperature produce upon iron has 
 some influence on the state of port wine stored in iron bins, it being well known that 
 this wine is more liable to be rendered muddy by cold than any other. 
 
 146S. The Cellar Furniture for an Inn includes a machine for racking wine from one 
 cask to another, of which there are various sorts ; one, recently invented by Mr. Hilton, 
 is figured and described in the Trans, of the Soc. of Arts, vol. xlviii. p. 70 : and a 
 machine for bottling wine ; one of which has been invented by Mr. Masterman of 
 London, by which a number of bottles may be filled at the same time, and this with 
 such rapidity, that six dozen of common quart bottles may be filled in ten minutes. 
 The same gentleman has also invented a machine for corking five or six bottles at 
 a time ; so that, in extensive concerns, the business of bottling and corking may be 
 reduced to a tenth part of the usual labour. Both machines cost vei*y little ; they will 
 be found figured and described in the Repertory of Arts, new series, vol. i. ; and the bot- 
 tling-machine, which is a very beautiful and effective apparatus, may be seen in operation 
 in the extensive wine vaults of Carbonell and Company, Regent Street, London. The 
 common bottling-machine we have already given, § 1324, fig. 1189. An improved mode 
 of preserving beer from souring has been invented by our correspondent, Mr. Mallet of 
 Dublin, which is well deserving the attention of those who know what it is to drink 
 table beer charged with carbonic acid gas. By Mr. Mallet's apparatus the external air 
 is not only completely excluded, but the beer may be impregnated with gas, as in the 
 manufacture of soda water. The cost is little more than that of the patent vent peg.- 
 (See Mech. Mag. vol. xv. p. 264.) 
 
 1464. A Washing and Wringing Machine for a farm house has been already given ; 
 and we shall now recommend one for an inn, which is in use in the Derbyshire Infirmary 
 and in other establishments. This machine may either be turned by manual labour, by 
 a horse, or by steam ; and as, in a lai-ge inn, a steam-engine of one-horse power might 
 always be combined with the steam apparatus for other purposes, it might be em- 
 ployed for driving different kinds of machinery, such as a washing-machine, a churn, 
 a straw-cutter, oat-bruiser, &c. It has been remarked to us by a correspondent, who has 
 paid great attention to the subject of domestic economy, that the machine we are about 
 to describe is the only one he ever saw which did no injury to linen. It was adapted 
 
700 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 by Mr. William Strutt, from the common washing- wheel ; and is thus described in 
 Sylvester's Doinestic Economy : — " Two 
 sides of the wash-house are provided with 
 stone benches. In the centre of the roon 
 is a boiler, containing 100 gallons of water, 
 and near it stands the washing-machine. 
 There are also several wooden tubs foi 
 the purpose of washing by hand occasion- 
 ally. Fig. 1335 is a perspective view 
 of the washing-machine ; c is a water- 
 tight cistern, in which the cylinder a 
 revolves. The interior of this cylinder is 
 divided into four revolvers. One quarter 
 of the end of the cylinder is removed in 
 the figure, to show the interior of one of 
 these cavities. The proper entrances 
 into these are by small doors, of which 
 there is one in each, as seen at h : here 
 the linen is introduced, and the doors are 
 then closed. The perforations in the cy- 
 linder, and in the separations of the ca- 
 vities, are for the admission of water ; the 
 linen is wetted, and rubbed with soap, the 
 night before washing. Before the opera- 
 tion commences, as much cold water is put 
 into the outer vessel, c d, as will rise to tlie 
 height of four or five inches in the cylinder, a. The vessel, c rf, is provided with a steam- 
 pipe from the steam-engine boiler. The steam is let in until the water and linen are heated 
 to the maximum, which is something below the boihng point. The part b being turned 
 down, the inner cylinder is put in motion, and the holes in its sides freely admit the hot 
 water and steam. The velocity of the cylinder should be such that the linen may be heard 
 to fall from one side to the other every time it is raised onX. of the water. This discliarges 
 most of the water from it, and it becomes filled with a fresh portion every time it dips into 
 the water below. If the motion be too rapid, the linen remains against the sides of the 
 cylinder ; if too slow, it slides down the sides. In either case, little or no effect is pro- 
 duced. When the machine moves at a proper speed, one change of linen will be washed 
 in less than half an hour. It must be observed, that during this process the quantity of 
 soap in the machine should be such as to produce a strong lather ; so that, if a sufficient 
 quantity has not been rubbed upon the clothes before they were put into the machine, 
 more soap must be added, either in the state of thin shavings, or previously dissolved 
 in hot water. A great advantage will be derived from the use of an alkali, wlien it is 
 used in a proper state, and with caution. The operation of the machine consists merely 
 in letting the clothes fall from one side of the compartment to the other, so that the 
 texture is less injured than by any otlier mode of washing, and the water, being nearly 
 at the boiling point, has a much greater effect in dissolving the dirt, than at the low 
 temperature which can be borne by the hand of the washerwoman. The dirty water 
 may be let off* in a few seconds by a cock in the bottom of the fixed vessel, which may be 
 immediately supplied with fresh water, and with steam to heat it. All the labour of 
 lading the dirty water out, and pouring fresh water in, is saved by pipes being laid for its 
 admission and exit ; and the constant supply of steam renders the presence of fireplaces 
 unnecessary. After the clothes are removed from the machine, some of them require to 
 be looked over, and sometimes a little hand-washing is necessary ; but the greatest pro- 
 portion are finished by the machine alone. The next process is boiling the clothes, 
 which is performed in the boiler above mentioned : it is placed in the middle of the 
 wash-house, for the pui*pose of getting round it. There are three pipes attached to it : 
 one introduces cold water, a second steam, and a third carries the waste water away. 
 During the boiling process, the boiler is covered ; the edge of the cover fits into a 
 groove, which goes round the top of the boiler. This groove, being filled with water, 
 prevents the escape of steam, and by that means economises the heat. The linen is now 
 taken from the boiler, and laid upon a board or tray, filled with small holes, and placed 
 over the boiler ; by which means the water, which contains much soap, is drained 
 out, and used for the process of washing in the machine. Near the ceiling of the wash- 
 house, there is an opening into a chimney, which is for the express purpose of carrying 
 off" the vapour." (^Sylvester's Philosophy of Domestic Economy, p. 27.) 
 
 1465. The Mode of Wringing is as follouis : — " The linen is placed in a square bag 
 of strong sacking, kept open by wire rings ; this bag is contained in a cast-iron box, which 
 
FINISHING OF COUNTRY INNS. 
 
 701 
 
 opens on one side to admit the linen, and then closes firmly. The interior surface of 
 the box is grooved, to receive the water when pressed out. The pressure is applied by 
 means of a sliding plate, which fits the box, and is forced against the end of the bag by 
 a rack and pinion, and turned by a winch. The sides of box prevent the bag from be- 
 coming wider ; the pressure applied has therefore the effect of shortening the bag, till all 
 the water is pressed out into the grooves. By this machine, the clothes are squeezed 
 much drier than by the common method ; and, the pressure upon all parts being uniform, 
 less injury is done to the texture of the linen." {Ihid. p. 62.) 
 
 1466. In the Laundry of an Inn there might be a drying-closet, heated either by steam 
 or by a hot-air stove, in the very superior manner described by Mr. Sylvester, as being 
 in use in the Derbyshire Infirmary. Instead of the cockle employed in that institution, 
 a furnace and flues, the latter of cast iron, might be made use of. In this case, the flues 
 might be arranged in the manner adopted by Mr. Read in his hop-kiln, § 1272, the con- 
 volutions being brought into a space not exceeding the area of the bottom of the drjdng- 
 closet. On this subject we refer our readers to the drying-closet which we have already 
 given, § 306, and to that described in the work of Mr. Sylvester. 
 
 1467. For the Water-closet of the Kitchen Courts and Stable Courts of Inns, we should 
 recommend the very excellent plan adopted in the Derbyshire Infirmary, and thus 
 described by Mr. Sylvester : 
 — " The great superiority 
 of this water-closetabove all 
 others is, its preventing any 
 smell, without the least care 
 of the person using it. The 
 person who enters it fills it 
 with fresh air, which is left 
 behind on coming out. The 
 manner in which this is ef- 
 fected we shall now explain. 
 Fig. 1336 is a plan of the 
 water-closet: a, the en-, 
 trance into the first part ; 
 6 is a door attached to, and 
 turning upon the arbor (a 
 spindle or axis) c, which 
 is shown more at large at 
 the same letter in fig. 1 338 ; 
 tZ is a bar of wood inserted 
 into the same, and having 
 the same radius with the door. By pushing against the door, which from top to bottom 
 fits the concave cy- 
 lindrical space, the 
 air is driven before 
 d, and escapes at the 
 ceiling over the seat, 
 c; by this motion the 
 door is brought up 
 to the wooden divi- 
 sion, f, and the end 
 of the bar, d, is 
 brought to the point 
 g; /t is a small closet, 
 made for the pur- 
 pose of reducing the 
 space in front of the 
 seat to what is suf- 
 ficient room. When 
 the person returns, 
 he is obliged to 
 push the bar, c?, 
 which now is in the 
 position c g, before 
 him, till he brings 
 
 it close against the other side of f During the returning motion, one of the panels 
 of the door, {, in fig. 1337, is made a valve, and, opening inwards, lets in fresh air 
 to supply the^ place of that driven out on entering the closet. At one particular 
 
702 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 1338 
 
 point in returning, the arbor c, in fig. 1338, gives motion to certain machinery, which 
 lets the water through the seat in the same manner as in the common water-closet. 
 Indeed, the seat part of this closet is the same, in every respect, as those invented by 
 Bramah ; by which the water is made to flow by 
 raising a lever. The construction of this part is 
 shown in fig. 1337. The arbor c, in fig. 1338, by 
 its motion carries round the wheel, A /, which, in 
 entering the closet, does not act upon the lever, »n, 
 but raises it on its return, and opens the valve, «, 
 which allows the water above to descend through 
 the seat, e. It will be seen by examining the wheel, 
 k I, which is better seen in fig. 1338, how it affects 
 the lever on its return only. The part /, to a 
 certain extent, towards k, is a steel spring, which 
 bends upwards ; so that, if the wheel be moving from 
 k towards /, the part I will go over the pulley, o, 
 and when it gets to the protuberance at //, the lever, 
 m, will be pulled down, the valve, n, raised, and the 
 water will flow till llie protuberance at k passes 
 over. When the closet is entered, the opposite side 
 of the wheel passes under tlie pulley, o, and, moving 
 from k to I, the spring is bent downwards, and the 
 lever, m, is not acted upon. The cylindrical cavity 
 is formed of brickwork, and plastered inside. The 
 
 plaster, while wet, is scraped by the door, which gives it its proper cylindrical shape." 
 (Phil, of Bom. Econ. p. 49.) This water-closet, we are informed by Mr. Sylvester, was 
 invented by Mr. William Strutt, in the year 1806; and it has been in use in his own 
 faiuily, and in those of several of his friends, ever since. We agree with Mr. Sylvester, 
 in tliinking it t' e most perfect of all water-closets; because, besides answering com- 
 pletely the intention of a water-closet, it does so independently of any care of the person 
 using it, and is not likely to go easily out of repair, unless it is so placed as to admit 
 of the water being frozen during very cold weather. In thus noticing it, we cannot 
 help expressing our admiration of the genius and the benevolent mind of Mr. Strutt, 
 and also paying a tribute to the memory of the late amiable and scientific engineer, 
 Mr. Sylvester, vA\o has so ably portrayed Mr. Strutt's inventions, in a work which 
 ought to be in the hands of every Architect and furnishing ironmonger. 
 
 14G8. A Chmiing House or Shed is essential to the kitchen court of every inn; and 
 perhaps no part of such establishments stands more in want of improvement. We refer, 
 for hints on this subject, to what we have said when treating of the interior finishing of 
 the kitchen court of farm houses, § 1384 and § 1385. 
 
 1469. Other Details for the fittings-up and furniture of this department of Country 
 Inns will be found in the corresponding sections in Book I. ; and under Farm House 
 Finishing, Fittings-up, Fixtures, and Furniture, § 1371. 
 
 SuBSECT. 3. Of the Finishing, Fittings-vp, Fixtures, and Furniture of the Inn 
 
 generally. 
 
 1470. All Inns on a large Scale ought, in our opinion, to be heated by steam, hot 
 water, or hot air. The last mode is much better adapted for an hospital, a college, or a 
 large dwelling-house, than an inn ; because, in the former cases, it is supposed that the 
 whole house is to be regularly heated, whereas in the latter, only one room will require 
 to be heated at a time, as guests arrive. For this purpose, steam and hot water, 
 especially the former, are much better adapted than hot air. By having proper vessels 
 for containing steam in every apartment, they may be filled with it from the steam 
 apparatus in the kitchen, a few moments after the arrival of every guest ; and these 
 vessels may, in like manner, be deprived of their steam at the instant of his depar- 
 ture. As the same instantaneous effect could not be produced by the hot-water system 
 of heating, and would occasion too much expense by the hot-air system, we necessarily 
 arrive at the conclusion, that heating by steam is the mode best adapted for inns and 
 public houses, in countries where heating by common stoves is not adopted. 
 
 1471. JVhen an Inn is to he heated by common cast-iron Stoves, decidedly the best, in 
 our opinion, is that of Mr. Nott, recently brought into notice. When once lighted and 
 filled with coal, it requires no more attention during twelve hours : it consumes its own 
 smoke, shows the fire through a window of talc, and gives out a continued moderate heat, 
 never so intense as to decompose the water held in suspension in the air, but always 
 sufficient to keep a room warm. The two important features in this stove, by which it 
 
FURNITURE OF COUNTRY INNS. 
 
 703 
 
 dFects so much with so little fuel, are, that it is lined with fire-brick, and that the ignited 
 fuel is protected from the sudden rushing in of cold air by a grating which may be com- 
 pared to that of a safety lamp. The display of the burning fuel through a window of 
 talc is a happy mode of meeting half-way the prejudices of Englishmen in favour of an 
 open fire. 
 
 1472. Tlie general Lighting of an Inn by Gas seems an improvement suited to the 
 progress of the age ; and perhaps, when the art is brought to a greater degree of perfec- 
 tion than it now is, the consumption of gas in sitting-rooms may be no more objectionable 
 than Ihe consumption of oil or tallow. At all events, it seems highly desirable that the 
 outside lamps, halls, passages, staircases, and public rooms should be lighted by gas; and 
 this by creating a demand for gas for lighting, will lead to its use for cooking also. 
 
 1473. The general System of Bells and Speaking- Pipes for an inn requires the con- 
 sideration of the Architect in planning the building. Where the edifice is a cube or a 
 parallelogram, great simplicity, and at the same time efficiency, may be obtained by 
 conducting all the principal vertical wires in one trunk, and all the horizontal ones in 
 another, in the upper part of the house ; but when there is great irregularity in the out- 
 line of the ground plan, and the height of different parts of the elevation, all that the 
 Architect can do is to trust to the ingenuity of the bell-hanger. Speaking-pipes, as we 
 have before observed, are chiefly for the use of the master and his domestics. 
 
 1474. In lofty Inns, we have often thought that it might be desirable to have an 
 ascending and descending platform, on the principle of the ascending and descending 
 cupboards or waiters, § 1457; not only for the ascent and descent of domestics, but even 
 for guests. Such a platform was constructed by the late General Bentham, in the 
 Panopticon erected for the Empress Catherine at Petersburgh ; and we have ascended 
 and descended it with an incredibly small degree of exertion. The principle might be 
 easily applied to inns, and we leave it to the ingenious Architect to do so. 
 
 1475. Water, both hot and cold, may easily be supplied to all the rooms of an inn, by 
 having two cisterns sufficiently elevated, in any part under the roof, where they will be 
 protected from the frost. The water in one of these cisterns may be heated by steam, 
 and there may be a pipe from each cistern into every bed-room, terminating over a wash- 
 hand stand, with a waste pipe attached. It is not desirable, however, to take the supply 
 for the lower rooms from cisterns of a greater height than one story above them; 
 because, when taken from a greater height, the pressure of the water on the cocks soon ' 
 occasions leakage. The best mode is, to have cisterns on each story for the use of that 
 immediately underneath ; and one close under the roof, for the supply of the garrets. 
 It is interesting to reflect on the very small amount of manual labour which would be 
 required in an inn where all the roasting was performed in a roaster, or by gas, or in one 
 of Perkins's hot-water ovens ; all the rooms heated by steam, and supplied by hot and 
 cold water pipes, not only over a wash-hand basin, but over a seat, fitted also with a 
 waste pipe, to serve for a water-closet ; all the passages and public rooms lighted by gas ; 
 and all the heavy operations, such as pumping, churning, washing, wringing, mangling, 
 kneading, mincing, pounding, chopping, brushing, cleaning shoes, knives and forks, &c., 
 done by a one-horse steam-engine. A great step in the progress of civilisation will be 
 gained by dispensing altogether with the out-door labours of females, and diminishing, as 
 much as possible, the severity of their in-door services. No enjoyment, from the sight of 
 a polished parlour grate, can compensate to us for the painful thought of the quantity of 
 female labour which has been employed every morning to maintain its brightness. 
 
 1476. One or more Bath Rooms ought to be formed in every chamber fioor in a 
 country inn. The bath, which should be placed in a recess, or on one side of the room, 
 for the convenience of having the water-cocks fixed to the wall, should have one supply 
 pipe for hot, and another for cold water, with a waste pipe in the bottom ; and all the three 
 should be of easy access by the bather. The size of the vessel should not be less than 
 six feet long, two feet and a half wide at the top, and two feet wide at bottom. It may 
 be formed of cast iron, in one piece ; of wrought-iron plates, riveted together ; of copper 
 brazed ; or of wood, lined with lead. Of whatever material it is made, the inside should 
 be painted of a light marble colour, and the outside cased with wood, painted and other- 
 wise finished in a style to correspond with the rest of the room. There may be one 
 broad step formed by the side of the bath, to facilitate getting into it ; and over it, about 
 two feet from the head, a cord firmly fixed to the ceiling should be suspended, with a 
 cross piece of wood for the bather to hold by, when letting himself down into the water, 
 or raising himself out of it. The same room should also contain a shower bath, which, 
 by means of a grated bottom, having a pipe communicating with the steam apparatus, 
 may also serve as a steam or vapour bath. 
 
 1477. Among the Fixtures and Furniture for the public Rooms of an Inn may be 
 enumerated the Anglo-American stove, which, by projecting several feet into the room, 
 throws out a great deal of heat, and yet shows the fire, and draws well. In the tap- 
 
704 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLAGE ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 rooms and commoner rooms of country Inns, considerable economy and great durability 
 might be insured, by employing either sideboards and tables, wliolly of cast iron, or 
 boards fixed to a wall, and supported by cast-iron feet or brackets. All stationary 
 
 1339 
 
 tables and seats in taverns and coffee-houses may be supported by cast-iron in ornamental 
 shapes, bronzed; and this is already becoming frequent in London. The Albion 
 Tavern, at Drury Lane Theatre, may be referred to as an example. Fig. 1339 shows 
 
 1340 
 
 four varieties of cast-iron brackets for this purpose; and figs. 1340 and 1341 show eight 
 varieties of Gothic framing as supports for independent tables. The manner in which 
 
 1341 
 
FURNITURE OF COUNTRY INNS. 
 
 705 
 
 iS44 
 
 very suitable for inns. Fig. 1343 represents the frame of a chair of cast and wrought 
 iron : the seat is not shown, but it is intended to be of wood ; oak or chestnut, or an imi- 
 tation of either. The whole frame of the chair is so contrived that it can be cast in one 
 piece, with all the wrought-iron posts cast in, so as to need no subsequent fitting. The 
 small diagonal stays are of wire, three sixteenths of an inch in diameter. The legs are 
 of rolled gas tubing, " swagged taper," and the collars are slipped hot, by the oper- 
 ation which is technically called " sinking on." 
 This chair, which is, with the other cast-iron 
 articles mentioned above, the invention of Mr. 
 Mallet, weighs, when finished, no more than 
 sixteen pounds, which does not much exceed 
 the weight of a common parlour chair, with hair 
 cushions. Fig. 1 344 is a Gothic chair wholly 
 of cast iron. It is cast in three pieces, which 
 are afterwards riveted together. If roughly 
 used, it might be liable to fracture, but it would 
 form an excellent chair for the entrance hall of 
 an inn, or even of a villa. Fig. 1345 is another 
 hall chair, with an iron framework, in two pieces, 
 and a wooden seat. This chair would do well 
 for a luggage chair in inn bed-rooms ; it being 
 found convenient to have one strong chair with 
 a boarded tottom in each bed-room, on which 
 to set the trunks, &c., belonging to the guests, 
 to prevent the lighter chairs from being injured 
 by the weight. Fig. 1346 is a bench or settle 
 for the veranda of a common public- house ; and 
 fig. 1347, one of a more enriched character, 
 suitable for the hall of a country inn in the 
 old English style. Both are taken from 
 
 4 1, 
 
706 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 existing specimens. Fig. 1348 is a village alehouse table of a very simple but useful 
 construction. When the flaps are down, it forms a small triangular table, as in this 
 figure ; but, as the centre board to which the flaps are hinged turns on a pivot, fig. I3-49, 
 
 «, by lifting up the flaps, and turning the triangle half round, a table twice the size, and 
 of a circular form, is produced, as indicated in fig- 1350. The commonest country car- 
 penter can make this table, which is surpassed 
 by none in cleanliness and usefulness. In 
 general, a great deal might be saved in inns, by 
 having the bedsteads, which at present form a 
 main article in the expense of furnishing, of 
 wrought iron, and the table-stands of cast iron. 
 There are even a number of other articles which 
 might be very properly made of this material, 
 and painted or bronzed, which would come very 
 cheap ; for example, a towel-horse, such as fig. 
 1351, which in that pattern, made of mahogany, 
 would cost 25s., in cast and wrought iron may 
 be had for 10s. 6rf. ; and one of a simpler descrip- 
 tion, such as fig. 1352, for 5s. 6d. In every 
 department a saving might be made by em- 
 ploying this material ; for example, in the simple 
 
KITCHENS COUNTRY INNS. 
 
 70? 
 
 1352 
 
 i353 
 
 article of clothes-posts, which, when of wood, are cumbersome, and require 
 sockets built into the ground, in which to fix them, a considerable saving is 
 effected by having them of iron, such as fig. 1353, which costs 85. 6d-, and is 
 seven feet six inches high. These posts require no sockets ; but, when wanted 
 for use, may be stuck into the common ground, and removed at pleasure. We 
 consider it unnecessary to say more on the subject of the fittings-up, fixtures, 
 and furnitui-e of inns and public houses ; having already observed that they are 
 essentially the same as those of cottages and villas. All large inns ought to have 
 turret clocks, similar to those recommended for farms ; and, whether they be 
 built fireproof or not, there ought always to be a nightly watch ; but as this also 
 is practised in first-rate villas, it confirms the position with which we set out, 
 that villas and mansions are the models for inns. 
 
 1478. The Furniture of the Bar consists chiefly of two or three chairs, with a 
 common round table, a work-table, and a bureau, or writing-desk. There is also 
 generally a clock. 
 
 1479. For the Signs of Inns we would recommend, as substitutes for the 
 common daubs now generally stuck up, excellent oil paintings by superior 
 artists, protected from tlie weather by projecting cornices ; handsome statues 
 of public characters placed on pedestals, or over the entrance porch or portico ; 
 or medallions of celebrated men affixed to obelisks. As the public taste in works 
 of art improves, the present signs will go out of repute, and a better class will 
 be substituted for them. 
 
 SuBSECT. 4. Of the Finishing, Fittings-up, Fixtures, and Furniture of the Kitchen and 
 Sculler]/ of Inns and Public Houses. 
 
 1480. TJie Kitchen. In order to prepare ourselves for treating of the fittings-up and 
 fixtures of kitchens, we have carefully reperused what has been written on the subject 
 by Franklin, Rumford, Sylvester, and other modern authors of less note ; and we have 
 also visited the kitchens of most of the principal club-houses, inns of court, and public 
 inns, in London, besides those of several private houses. In 1811 and in 1826 we exa- 
 mined what had been done at Derby by the Messrs. Strutt ; and at diflTerent times we 
 have had an opportunity of seeing the kitchens in various parts of the Continent ; and in 
 1829, in particular, those of some of the public establishments at Munich, erected under 
 the superintendence of Count Rumford : we have further had an account sent us of the 
 success of the attempts lately made in Edinburgh to boil and stew by gas, described 
 § 1445 ; and have seen the very recent invention by Robert Hicks, Esq., of London, of 
 a method of roasting by gas. To fit us for speaking on ovens, we have examined many 
 of those of the principal bakers and confectioners in London ; the new oven of the 
 Bread Company at Pimlico ; the oven and the kneading-machinery at Oxgate Farm ; 
 and have seen bread baked by steam alone, in the working-model of Mr. Hicks. The 
 general impression made on us by all that we have read, heard, and seen, is, that very 
 little improvement has taken place in the fitting up of kitchens, and in the construction 
 of ovens, since the time of Coimt Rumford ; or, perhaps, we should rather say, that a 
 very slight approximation in practice has been made to the improvements which he 
 pointed out, and illustrated by experiments. The inventions of Mr. Hicks, indeed, are 
 exceptions, and may be considered as some of the most beautiful and extraordinary 
 applications of chemical and mechanical science to the purposes of domestic economy, 
 which have been made in this or in any other country. Two causes appear to us to have 
 retarded the improvement of kitchens : the first is, the ignorance of cooks as to the 
 science of the generation of heat, and the fundamental principles of cookery ; and the 
 
708 COTTAGE, FARM; AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 second, the wealth, and consequent indifference to economy, of their employers. The 
 consequence of the first is, that a host of prejudices is raised up against every new mode 
 of practice proposed to be introduced ; and of the second, that there is an utter dislike 
 to the trouble necessary to introduce them. Perhaps a third cause may be assigned ; 
 viz., that of the heavy rents, taxes, and other charges, to which the tradesmen who fit up 
 kitchens, &c., are liable; and which induce them rather to favour the .manufacture of 
 articles which amount to considerable sums, and on which alone they can put such a 
 profit as will enable them to live. There has hitherto, therefore, been no effective 
 demand for economical improvement, nor is it likely that there will be, till it is created 
 by necessity ; or, in other words, by the diminished incomes of those who now constitute 
 the wealthy classes. We are confirmed in this opinion by observing the economical con- 
 struction of the stewing-hearths on the Continent, where the incomes of the higher 
 classes are much lower than in this country ; where the price of fuel is much higher ; 
 and where, at the same time, the cookery is of a very superior description to what is 
 generally to be met with in Britain. We shall shortly point out the imperfections of 
 modern British kitchens, and afterwards suggest improvements ; commencing with the 
 kitchen-range and stewing-hearths, and taking next the baking and roasting oven, the 
 steaming apparatus, and, lastly, the art of cooking entirely by the use of gas. 
 
 1481. In examining the Kitchen-ranges and Cooking Apparatus of the principal Club- 
 houses and Inns of London, we have found the construction such as to occasicm the most 
 extraordinary waste of fuel, as well as the most disagreeable labour to those employed in 
 cooking, from the excessive heat. This results chiefly from the construction of the 
 apparatus made use of, including its connection with the building ; but partly, also, 
 from the ignorance or indifference of the operators, in regard to the adjustment of the 
 degree of heat to the time required for any particular kind of cookery. For example, 
 Count Rumford has shown that meat may be boiled, or, in other words, dressed in 
 hot water, when that fluid does not exceed 209 degrees ; he has also sliown that when 
 the water is heated so as to throw off a great deal of steam, an immense quantity of heat 
 is wasted, withe it the meat being better dressed than by the previous mode. He has 
 proved that the processes both of boiling and stewing are carried on to much 
 greater advantage, with reference to the excellence of the dishes produced, when they 
 proceed slowly and at a low temperature, than when they are conducted rapidly and 
 at a high temperature. In most kitchens, however, it will be found that these oper- 
 ations are carried on with a degree of heat far beyond what is necessary, at once to the 
 injury of the meat, and the inconvenience of the operator. One reason, we believe, why 
 this rapid mode of cooking is preferred by the cooks is, the excessive annoyance which 
 they experience when long exposed to the heat reflected from the stewing-hearths and 
 the open fires. In one of the principal inns in London, which has been lately rebuilt, 
 and fitted up with a stewing-hearth of the newest construction, we found this hearth to 
 consist of a plate of cast iron about six feet long and four feet broad, heated by a fur- 
 nace and flue below, to a red heat. On this plate the dishes for boiling and stewing are 
 placed, and also the gridirons for broiling. The operations are rapidly performed ; but the 
 heat of the kitchen is so intense, as to be scarcely bearable, even by the cooks ; and the 
 effect of the radiation from the red-hot cast iron on their eyes is such as to endanger 
 their becoming blind. The reason why this cast-iron plate is adopted, rather than a 
 stewing-hearth, with several small fireplaces, is, we are informed, that common coal may 
 be burnt underneath it in one furnace, and thus the whole may be heated by one coal fire, 
 instead of requiring several, in which only coke or charcoal could be burned. Even in 
 all the more improved stewing-hearths which we have seen in the principal inns and 
 club-houses, more than double the quantity of fuel is used that is necessary for the 
 pui-poses of cooking ; and aU the excess of heat produced is either carried up the chim- 
 ney, or thrown out so as to annoy the cook, and heat the kitchen to an intolerable degree. 
 The most economical stewing-hearths that we have seen in London are those of the con- 
 fectioners ; and, next, those of the French restaurateurs and hotels. 
 
 1482. The great Fault of British Kitchens, Count Rumford observes, is, that the fire- 
 places in them are not closed. " The fuel is burnt in long open grates, called kitchen- 
 ranges ; over which the pots and kettles are suspended, or placed on stands : or fires are 
 made with charcoal in square holes, called stoves, in a solid mass of brickwork, and 
 connected with no flue to carry off the smoke ; over which holes, stewpans or saucepans 
 are placed on tripods, or on bars of iron, exposed on every side to the cold air of the 
 atmosphere." In addition to the loss of heat and waste of fuel in such kitchens, the 
 noxious exhalations from the burning charcoal, and the currents of cold air occasioned 
 by the strong draught up the wide open chimneys, are both unpleasant and dangerous to 
 the cooks. To complete the machinery of an ordinary British kitchen-range, which 
 seems to be calculated for the express purpose of devouring fuel, a smoke-jack is generally 
 placed in the chimney. No human invention, Count Rumford adds, ever came to his 
 
KITCHENS OF COUNTRY INNS. 
 
 709 
 
 knowledge, that was so absurd as this : it would not be difficult to prove, he says, « that 
 much less than one thousandth part of the fuel that is necessary to be burned in an open 
 chimney fireplace, in order to cause a smoke-jack to turn a loaded spit, would be sufficient 
 to make the spit go round, were the force evolved from the combustion of the fuel, if it 
 were properly directed, through the medium of a steam-engine." Besides this waste of 
 fuel and of power, smoke-jacks require a large fire when it would not otherwise be 
 wanted, by the necessity which they create for a great current of air up the chimney, to 
 prevent it from smoking. This also increases the current of cold air from the doors and 
 windows to the fireplace ; and thus, while the side of the cook next the fire is burned, 
 the other is chilled. A jack moved by a weight or spring, if roasting must still be 
 performed by the barbarous practice of turning meat on a spit before an open fire, is much 
 preferable ; and the trouble of winding it up, which is the general argument against it, 
 is much less than that of burning coals to feed the immense fire that is requisite to cause 
 a common smoke-jack to move. 
 
 1483. The Objects in view, in the Arrangement of a Kitchen, Count Rumford observes, 
 ought to be the following : — 
 
 " 1st, Each boiler, kettle, and stewpan should have its separate closed fireplace. 
 
 " 2dly, Each fireplace should have its grate, on which the fuel must be placed ; and its 
 separate ash-pit, which must be closed by a door well fitted to its frame, and furnished 
 with a register for regulating the quantity of air admitted into the fireplace through the 
 grate. It should also have its separate canal for carrying off the smoke into the chim- 
 ney ; which canal should be furnished with a damper or register : by means of this 
 damper, and of the ash-pit door register, the rapidity of the combustion of the fuel in 
 the fireplace, and consequently the rapidity of the generation of the heat, may be regulated 
 at pleasure. The economy of fuel will depend principally on the proper management of 
 these two registers. 
 
 *' 3dly, In the fireplaces for all boilers and stewpans which are more than eight or ten 
 inches in diameter, or which are too large to be easily removed with their contents by 
 the strength of one hand, a horizontal opening just above the level of the grate must 
 be made, for introducing the fuel into the fireplace ; which opening must be nicely closed 
 by a fit stopper, or by a double door. In the fireplaces which are constructed for smaller 
 stewpans this opening may be omitted, and the fuel may be introduced through the same 
 opening into which the stewpan is fitted, by removing the stewpan occasionally a moment 
 or two for that purpose. 
 
 " 4thly, All portable boilers and stewpans, and especially such as must often be re- 
 moved from their fireplaces, should be circular, and they should be suspended in their 
 fireplaces by their circular rims ; but the best form for all fixed boilers, and especially 
 such as are very large, is that of an oblong square ; and all boilers, great and small, 
 should rather be broad and shallow than narrow and deep. A circular form is best for 
 portable boilers, on account of the facility of fitting them to their fireplaces ; and an ob- 
 long square form is best for large fixed boilers, on account of the facility of constructing 
 and repairing the straight horizontal flues under them and round them, through which 
 the flame and smoke by which they are heated are made to circulate. When large 
 boilers are shallow, and when their bottoms are supported on the tops of narrow flues, 
 the pressure or weight of their contents being supported by the walls of the flues, the 
 metal of which the boiler is constructed may be very thin, which will not only diminish 
 very much the first cost of the boiler, but will also greatly contribute to its durability ; 
 for the thinner the bottom of a boiler is, the less it is fatigued and injured by the action of 
 the fire, and the longer, of course, it will last ; which is a curious fact, that has hitherto 
 been too little known, or not enough attended to, in the construction of large boilers. 
 
 " 5thly, All boilers, great and small, should be furnished with covers, which covers 
 should be constructed in such a manner, and of such materials, as to render them well 
 adapted for confining heat. Those who have never examined the matter with attention 
 would be astonished, on making the experiment, to find how much heat is carried off by 
 the cold air of the atmosphere from the surface of hot liquids, when they are exposed 
 naked to it, in boilers without covers ; but in culinary processes it is not merely the loss 
 of heat which is to be considered ; a great proportion of the finer and more rich and 
 savoury particles of the food are also carried off at the same time, and lost ; which 
 renders it an object of serious importance to apply an effectual remedy to this evil." 
 ( Count Rumford^s Essays, essay x. p. 28. ) 
 
 1484. We have given the five preceding rules in Count Rumford's own words, because 
 they contain the fundamental principles of the construction of stewing-hearths ; because 
 no directions of equal merit have been given since his time ; and because they are as 
 requisite now as when fii-st published, in 1799. 
 
 1485. The Covers for Boilers should, if possible, be made of some nonconducting 
 substance: and wood would be the best, were it not for the changes which it is liable to 
 
710 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 undergo from cold and heat, dryness and moisture : for this reason, Count Rumford 
 prefers covers of thin sheets of tinned iron, made double, with a vacuity of an inch or 
 more between. 
 
 1486. For the Covers or Stoppers to small Fireplaces or Stewing- Hearths, when they 
 are not in use, fire-bricks or fire-stones are the most suitable materials ; a ring or staple 
 being let into the centre of the brick or stone, to admit of its being readily put on and 
 taken off. By putting on a nonconducting cover or stopper, as soon as the boiler or 
 stewpan is removed, much less heat is radiated into the kitchen during the cooling of the 
 ignited fuel. 
 
 1487. To prevent one Stewpan or Boiler being mistaken for another^ Count Rumford 
 recommends having their diameters expressed in inches on their handles or brims, and 
 also on their covers, and on the margins of the fireplaces which they fit. He also recom- 
 mends the diameters of boilers and stewpans, and of the fireplaces into which they are to 
 be fitted, to vary at the rate of two inches ; and he mentions six, eight, twelve, and four- 
 teen, as suitable gradations of size. In order that fireplaces of the same diameter might 
 be rendered of different capacities, he recommends their being made of three different 
 depths ; viz., one third, half, and two thirds of their horizontal diameter. These different 
 depths should also be marked on the boilers and stewpans, and on the margins of the 
 fireplaces. 
 
 1488. The Number and Size of the separate closed Fireplaces of a Kitchen should be 
 regulated by the extent of the entertainments which it is contemplated may at any time 
 be required, and not by the average style of living. With this view. Count llumford's 
 recommendation, of having a separate closed fireplace for every boiler, kettle, and stewpan, 
 is of the utmost importance ; since, when very little cooking is required, not more than 
 two or three of the separate fireplaces need be used ; and, consequently, no waste of fuel 
 is produced. In large kitchen-ranges, on the contrary, an enormous quantity of fuel is 
 swallowed up, even when only a very small quantity of food is provided. More fuel. 
 Count Rumford observes, " is frequently consumed in a kitchen-range to boil a tea-kettle, 
 than, with proper management, would be sufficient to cook a good dinner for fifty men." 
 ^Essay x. p. 31.) 
 
 1489. The Distribution of the different Fittings-up and Fixtures of a Kitchen ought to 
 be regulated by convenience to the cook, cleanliness in all the operations of cookery, and, 
 as far as practicable, architectural symmetry in the general appearance. An Architect, 
 before he arranges a kitchen, Count Rumford remarks, will do wisely to consult the 
 cook ; because it will be in vain to attempt to introduce any improvement which does not 
 meet with the approbation of those who are to use it. He recommends an exact plan of 
 the kitchen being taken, and the exact situation of all the doors, windows, and flues dis- 
 tinctly marked ; as well as a list made of the number and dimensions of all the boilers, 
 roasters, stewpans, &c., which are to be fitted up in brickwork. 
 
 1490. In making a Plan for fitting up a Kitchen, the readiest way of proceeding. 
 Count Rumford observes, is to form it on the floor of the room ; and, in doing this, the 
 work will be much facilitated by the following very simple contrivance. Cut out of thick 
 pasteboard, detached pieces to represent the boilers, saucepans, &c., which are to be fitted 
 up in the brickwork ; and, placing these in different ways on the plan of the room, see in 
 what manner they can best be disposed or arranged. As these models (which must be 
 drawn to the same scale as that used in drawing the plan of the room) may be moved about 
 at pleasure, and placed in an infinite variety of different positions in regard to each other, 
 and to the different parts of the room ; the effect of any proposed arrangement may be 
 tried in a few moments, in a very satisfactory manner, without expense, and almost 
 without any trouble. To facilitate still more these preliminary trials with these models 
 of the boilers, several slips of pasteboard, equal in width to the distance at which one 
 boiler ought to be placed from the other in the brickwork, measured on the scale of the 
 plan, should be provided, and used in placing the models of the boilers at proper distances 
 from each other. This distance, in fitting up or setting kitchen boilers and saucepans, 
 may be commonly taken at the width of a brick, or four inches and a half; and may be 
 allowed the same space (four inches and a half), for the distance of the side of the boiler 
 from the outside or front of the mass of the brickwork in which it is set. When this 
 point is settled (that respecting the distance which should be left between the boilers), 
 the arranging of the pasteboard models of the boilers on the plan will be perfectly easy. 
 
 1491. As soon as the Distribution of the various Boilers, §-c., is finally settled, a ground 
 plan of the whole of the machinery should be traced on the plan of the room ; and a 
 sufficient number of sections and elevations should be drawn, to show the situations, 
 forms, and dimensions of the fireplaces, and of all the other parts of the apparatus. When 
 this is done, and when the boilers and the materials for building are provided, and every 
 thing else that can be wanted in fitting up the kitchen is in readiness, the Architect or 
 amateur may proceed to the laying out of the work. As this will not be found to be 
 
KITCHENS OF COUNTRY INNS. 
 
 71! 
 
 difficult, and as it is really a most amusing occupation, Count Rumford earnestly reconv- 
 mends gentlemen, and even ladies, to superintend and direct these works. 
 
 1492, In laying out the Work, when a kitchen is to be fitted up, the first thing to be 
 done is, to draw, with red or white chalk, or with a coal, a ground plan of the brickwork, 
 of the full size, on the floor or pavement of the room. When the kitchen is neither 
 paved nor floored, this drawing must, of course, be made on the ground. In this drawing, 
 the ash-pits, and the passages leading to them, must be marked ; and, when the ash-pit 
 is to be sunk into the ground, that is the first thing that must be executed. As soon as 
 this ground plan is sketched out, the ash-pit doors should all be placed, and the found- 
 ations of the brickwork laid. To assist the bricklayer, and to prevent his making mistakes, 
 several sections of the brickwork, of the ftxU size, and particularly sections of the boilers, 
 represented as fixed in their fireplaces, should be drawn on wide boards, or on very large 
 sheets of paper, or they may be drawn with charcoal or red chalk on the sides of the 
 room. These sections, of the full size, where the bricklayer can readily take measure of 
 the various parts of the work to be performed, will be found very useful. (Essays, 8fc., 
 p. 36.) 
 
 1493. As an Example of one of the most complete Kitchens ever fitted up by Count 
 Rumford, we give that of the Baron de Lerchenfeld at Munich, which, though very dif- 
 ferent from most British kitchens, may yet serve as a model for the best of them, provided 
 economy of fuel and labour, cleanliness, the beauty of fitness, and the comfort of the 
 cook, were the leading objects of the Architect. Count Rumford observes that this 
 kitchen has been found to answer even to the entire satisfaction of the cook, who began, 
 however, by entering his formal protest against it. Fig. 1354 shows a perspective view 
 
 of the kitchen plan, seen nearly in front. The mass of brickwork in which the boilers 
 and saucepans are set projects out into the room, and the smoke is carried off by flues 
 that are concealed in this mass of brickwork, and in the thick walls of an open chimney 
 fireplace ; which, standing on it, on the further side of it where it joins to the side of the 
 room, is built up perpendicularly to the ceiling of the room. At the height of about 
 twelve or fifteen inches above the level of the mantel of this open chinmey fireplace, the 
 separate flues for the smoke concealed in its walls, end in the larger flue of this fireplace, 
 which last-mentioned larger flue, sloping backwards, ends in a neighbouring chimney, 
 which carries off the smoke, through the roof of the house, into the atmosphere. A 
 horizontal section of this open chimney fireplace, at the level of the upper surface of the 
 mass of brickwork on which it stands, may be seen in fig. 1358, p. 714. In this section, 
 the vertical flues are distinctly marked which carry off the smoke from the boilers into 
 the chimney ; as also the stoppers which are occasionally taken away to remove the soot, 
 when these* flues are cleaned. These stoppers, which are made of earthenware, burnt 
 like a brick or tile, are eight inches long, six inches wide, and three inches thick ; and, 
 
712 COTTAGE, FAKM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 on their outsides, they have two deep grooves, that form a kind of handle for taking hold 
 of them. When they are fixed in their places, their joinings with the doorway into 
 which they are fitted are made tight by filling up the crevices with moist clay. The 
 flues are cleaned by means of a strong cylindrical brush, made of hog's bristles, fixed to 
 a long flexible handle of twisted iron wire. The open chimney fireplace was constructed 
 in order that an open fire might be made on its hearth (which, as appears by the plan, 
 was on a level with, or was a continuation of, the top or upper surface of the mass of 
 brickwork in which the boilers were SGt)y should any such fire be wanted ; but the fact 
 is, that, although this kitchen had been in daily use more than five years when Count 
 Rumford wrote, it had not yet been found necessary to light a fire in this place. When 
 any thing is to be fried or broiled, the cook finds it very convenient to perform these 
 processes of cookery over the two large stoves that are placed in the front of this open 
 fireplace ; as the disagreeable vapour that rises from the frying-pan, or from the gridiron, 
 goes off immediately by the open chimney : and these stoves serve likewise occasionally 
 for warming heaters for ironing, and also for burning wood to obtain live embers for 
 warming beds, or for keeping up a small fire for boiling a tea-kettle, or for warming 
 any thing that is wanted in the family. When this fire is not wanted, the register in the 
 ash-pit door is nearly closed ; and the top of the stove is covered with a fit cover of earthen- 
 ware, by which means the fire is kept alive for a great length of time, almost without 
 any consumption of fiiel ; and may, at any time, be revived, and made to burn briskly in 
 less than half a minute, merely by admitting a larger current of fresh air. Near the 
 right hand corner of the room may be seen a front view of one large roaster, and part of 
 the front view of a smaller one, situated by the side of it ; both with their separate fire- 
 place doors. The fireplace door of the larger roaster, as also both its blowpipes, are 
 represented as being open ; but the ash-pit door of this roaster is hid by the mass of 
 brickwork in which the boilers are set. The convenience, in a family, of being able to 
 have a brisk fire in the kitchen in a moment, when wanted, and to check the combustion 
 in an instant, without extinguishing the fire, and without even cooling the fireplace, 
 when the fire is no longer wanted, can hardly be conceived by those who have not been 
 used to any othei methods of making and keeping up kitchen fires than those commonly 
 used in the kitchens in Great Britain. 
 
 Fig. 1355 shows a front view, or, more strictly speaking, an elevation, of the 
 
 kitchen. In this plan, the ash-pit doors, with their registers, are distinctly seen ; and 
 also the ends of the earthen stoppers, which close the openings into the fireplaces of four 
 of the principal boilers. The covers of the principal boilers, as also of several of the 
 stewpans, are seen above the level of the upper surface of the mass of brickwork. The 
 height of this mass of brickwork, a h, measured from the floor or pavement of the kitchen, 
 is just three feet. 
 
 Fig. 1356 shows a horizontal section of the mass of brickwork, in which the boilers, 
 &c., are set, taken at the level of the horizontal flues that carry off the smoke from the 
 boilers, stewpans, and saucepans into the vertical flues, which convey it into the chim- 
 ney. The smoke from three of the principal boilers, situated on the left hand, is carried 
 
KITCHENS OF COUNTRY INNS. JiS 
 
 1356 
 
 by separate flues to a circular cavity, over which a large shallow boiler is placed ; in 
 which water is heated (by this smoke) for the use of the kitchen, and more especially for 
 washing the plates and dishes. (This boiler is distinctly seen, with its wooden cover 
 consisting of three pieces of deal, united by two pairs of hinges, in fig. 1358.) The five 
 fireplaces on the left hand side of the mass of brickwork are represented without their 
 circular grates, and the eight fireplaces that are situated on the right hand are shown 
 with their circular grates in their places. The fireplaces of the four largest boilers, 
 which are situated in front of the brickwork, have doors or openings, closed with stoppers, 
 for introducing fuel into these fireplaces ; and three of these openings are represented in 
 the plan as being closed by their stoppers ; while the fourth (that situated on the right 
 hand) is shown open, or without its stopper. As all the rest of the fireplaces (or stoves, 
 as they are commonly called in this country) are without any lateral opening for intro- 
 ducing the fuel, when any fuel is to be introduced into one of these fireplaces, the stew- 
 pan or saucepan covering it must be removed for a moment for that purpose. 
 
 1494. Several of the horizontal Flues that carry off the smoke trom the boilers are 
 divided into two branches, which unite at a little distance from their fireplaces. This 
 contrivance is very useful, especially for closed fireplaces that are without flues under 
 the boilers, as it occasions the flame to divide under the bottom of the boiler, and to 
 play over every part of it in a thin sheet. Dampers to the flues are omitted in these 
 diagrams, in order to avoid confusion, but they must on no account be left out in prac- 
 tice ; for they are of such importance that there is no possibility of managing fires pro- 
 perly without them. It is of very little importance whether they be placed near the fire 
 or far from it, or what is their form, provided they be so constructed as to diminish at 
 pleasure, and occasionally to close entirely, the flue by which the smoke makes its 
 escape. 
 
 1495. The dotted lines leading from the front of the brickwork to the fireplaces show 
 the position and dimensions of the ash-pits. The whole length of the mass of brickwork 
 from c to d is eleven feet, and its width from c to e is seven feet four inches. The space 
 it occupies on the ground may be conceived to consist of six equal squares of forty-four 
 inches each, placed in two rows of three squares each ; these two rows being joined 
 to each other by their sides, and forming together a parallelogram. In laying out the 
 work, when a kitchen is to be fitted up on the plan here described, it will always be best 
 to begin by actually drawing these six squares on the floor of the kitchen. Nearly the 
 whole of the middle square of the back row is occupied by the open chimney fireplace, 
 and by its thick hollow walls ; and the greater part of the middle square of the front 
 row is left as a passage for the cook to come to the open chimney fireplace, or rather to 
 the stoves that are situated near it. 
 
 Fig. 1357 represents a vertical section of the mass of brickwork through , the 
 centres of the fireplaces of the four principal boilers ; and is chiefly designed to show the 
 construction of those fireplaces, and also that of tlie boilers. Sections of the circular 
 grates, on which the fires are made to burn under the boilers, are here represented ; and 
 
 4 M 
 
714 
 
 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 1357 
 
 also sections of the ash-pits, and of the contractions of the fireplaces immediately below 
 the grates ; and in one of the fireplaces, which is shown without its boiler, the openings 
 of the branched flue by which the smoke goes off horizontally towards the chimney are 
 also marked. 
 
 Fig. 1358 shows a birds-eye view of the upper surface of the brickwork, with all the 
 
 1358 
 
 boilers and saucepans in their places, except one ; three of the principal boilers and one 
 saucepan, with their covers on ; and the rest of them without their covers. It likewise 
 represents a horizontal section of the open chimney fireplace, four inches above the level 
 of the top of the mass of brickwork, in which the boilers and saucepans are set. It is 
 to be observed, that all the boilers, stewpans, and saucepans are fitted into circular rings 
 of iron, which are firmly fixed to the brickwork ; and that they are suspended in their 
 fireplaces by these circular rims. All the stewpans and saucepans that are not too large 
 to be lifted, with their contents, in and out of their fireplaces by the strength of one 
 hand, have iron handles attached to their circular rims ; but the four principal boilers, 
 which are too large to be managed with one hand, have each two rings fitted to their 
 
KITCHENS OF COUNTRY INNS. 
 
 715 
 
 rims. These handles and rings are so constructed that they do not prevent the sauce- 
 pans and boilers from fitting the circular openings of their fireplaces ; neither do they 
 prevent their being fitted by their own circular covers. 
 
 1496. Deep Boilers economise Space in a Kitchen; and when their fireplaces are pro- 
 perly constructed, and, above all, when they are furnished with good registers and 
 dampers, the additional quantity of fuel they will require more than what is necessary 
 for shallow boilers, will be too trifling to be considered. The walls of their fireplaces 
 will absorb more heat in the beginning, but the greater part of this heat may afterwards 
 be emitted in rays, and at last find its way into the boiler. 
 
 1497. A Kitchen of this Construction is warmed in cold weather by the mass of brick- 
 work forming the stewing-hearth, which is made suflficiently hot by the fires that are 
 kept up in it when cooking is going on every day, to keep the room comfortably warm 
 in the coldest weather. It is prevented from being too warm in summer by opening one 
 of the windows a very little ; and by opening, at the same time, the register of a wooden 
 tube or steam chimney, which, rising from the ceiling of the room, ends in the open air, 
 and which is always opened to clear the room of vapour when it is found necessary, and 
 especially when the victuals are taken out of the boilers ; or when any other operation is 
 going on that occasions the diffusion of a considerable quantity of steam. 
 
 1498. The Dimensions of the Boilers in this Kitchen are as follow : — 
 
 Wide at 
 brim. Deep. 
 Inches. Inches. 
 
 One large boiler for hot water heated by smoke 20 8 
 
 Two large boilers 16 16 
 
 Two ditto, used occasionally in the fireplaces of the two boilers last 
 
 mentioned 16 8 
 
 Two smaller boilers... 12 12 
 
 Two ditto fitted to the same fireplaces 12 6 
 
 The diameters of the stewpans and saucepans are twelve, ten, and eight inches, and their 
 depth is made equal to half their diameters. 
 
 1499. The Fuel burnt in this kitchen is wood ; and the billets used are cut into lengths 
 of about six inches. In Britain, coke, or even coal, may be \ised ; but coke is preferable. 
 
 1500. In the Construction of these Fireplaces, common bricks were used; but care was 
 taken to lay them in mortar composed of clay and brickdust, without any sand, and with 
 only a very small proportion of lime. (^Essays, ^-c, p. 50.) 
 
 1501. As an Example of the present Mode of fitting up Stewing- Hearths in Britain, we 
 may refer to fig. 1359, engraved from a sketch, which has been furnished us by 
 
 Mr. W. Jeakes of Great Russell Street, London. This gentleman has fitted up the whole 
 of the extensive cooking apparatus in the kitchens of the principal club-houses in the 
 metropolis ; of which that of the Travellers' Club, and that of the United Service Club, 
 are the best. The Design before us, which, as compared with those of the club-houses, 
 may be considered to be on a small scale, consists of two parts. The first part from a to 
 & is a range of three charcoal or stewing stoves, the front of which is made of cast iron, 
 with an opening, having an iron shelf dividing the space into two parts, upon one of 
 which, i, fall the ashes of the consumed charcoal. The space, e, underneath the shelf, is 
 
710 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 intended to contain a store of charcoal for immediate use. The body of the mass within 
 the iron front is composed of common brickwork, and paved, or covered at top with 
 paving tiles, cut so as to fill the exact space. The stoves are made of cast iron, about 
 four inches deep, and from six to twelve inches square, with bottom gratings also of cast 
 iron. The second part, extending from b to c, is a boiling-stove, with an oven attached, 
 heated by the same fire. It is considered one of the most useful and convenient apparatus 
 that have yet been invented, and one which, Mr. Jeakes says, no kitchen should be without. 
 There is no branch of cookery, he adds, that cannot be effected by it, except roasting, 
 which, he is of opinion, ought always to be done before an open fire. From the peculiar 
 construction of this hearth, fuel of any kind may be burnt in it, without the least smoke 
 or effluvia. From & to c is an iron front, with an opening at f for receiving a store of 
 fuel, of which the most suitable kind is coke mixed with a little coal ; ^ is a square iron 
 oven with double doors, and movable grated shelves, in which may be baked either meat 
 or pastry ; ^ is a sliding door by which the ashes are removed that fall from the l)roiling- 
 stove. The top of the stove is made of cast iron, about one inch and a quarter thick, 
 with three movable plates fitting into each other, and forming a close cover over the fire. 
 The pan or stove on which the fire is placed, is in the form of fig. 1360, and is made of 
 cast iron, with a loose bottom grate, which may be renewed when 1360 
 required, without taking down any part of the framework. This 
 stove is fixed iinmediately under the movable plates, or ovens, 
 shown as if in one piece under the gridiron, k. When stewing 
 or boiling is to be performed instead of broiling, one or more 
 of these plates is to be removed, according to the size of the boiler 
 or stewpan ; and the whole may be taken away when the open 
 fire is required for the gridiron. The flue from this fire is so 
 
 arranged, that the smoke and flame pass under the top plate, I, and over and down the 
 sides of the oven in the direction of the dotted arrows, and enter the chimney at m. In 
 this chiiTiney a damper must be fixed, in the most convenient situation, to regulate the 
 draught. The iron plate / is fitted with a pair of movable standards, d d, by means of 
 which, a gridiron made for the purpose is suspended immediately over the fire, and may 
 be adjusted to any height, from the standards being furnished with a number of holes for 
 the purpose of receiving the prolonged ends of the side styles of the gridiron. When it 
 is desired to broil over the fire, it is usual to remove the two inner covers or plates, and 
 to shut the sliding door, g. When the plate I is required to be heated throughout, the 
 sliding door, g, must also be closed. Judging of this plan by the principles and models laid 
 down by Count liumford, we should say that it errs in having so large a surface of cast 
 iron for the radiation of heat into the kitchen; and, also, in having the fireplaces square, 
 instead of circular, and formed for burning charcoal, instead of having flues for burning 
 coke or coal. These may be called sins of commission ; those of omission are, the want 
 of deep round furnaces, by which small boilers may be let into the brickwork, in the 
 manner shown in the plan of the Munich kitchen, § 1493, fig. 1356; the want of a 
 reflector over the gridiron ; and the want of a means of ventilating the oven, so as to render 
 it a substitute for an open fire for roasting meat. The reflector, or dome, for the gridiron, 
 may be made in the form of a cone, of either iron or copper ; and its use is to prevent the 
 meat, while broiling, from cooling above, while it is being cooked below. The ready 
 answer of all ironmongers to such objections is, that brickwork is soon loosened and 
 deranged by servants, and that economy of fuel in the kitchen is seldom an object with 
 great families. As to a smoke-jack, the London ironmongers, so far from agreeing with 
 Count Rumford that it is a source of the greatest waste of fuel, affirm tlwt it creates a 
 draught in the chimney ; which is about as correct as if it were asserted that a boat 
 carried down a stream were the cause of that stream ; or a windmill the cause of wind. 
 After all, this is only the operation of cause and eflTect ; and the adjustment of means to 
 ends ; for, if there is not a demand for a maximum of elFect with a minimum of expense, 
 what use would there be in producing it ? It is suflScient for every tradesman to accom- 
 modate himself to his customers. Such is the language which we are obliged to hold, in 
 a country where it requires the utmost exertions of health, intelligence, and industry, to 
 exist. 
 
 1502. The Cooking- Hearths of Confectioners in London are among the most economical 
 which we have examined. In these there is one vertical flue, into which all the hori- 
 zontal flues from the different furnaces are conducted. These furnaces are circular, and 
 they are sunk, like those of Count Rumford, in a hearth of brickwork ; each furnace 
 consisting of a cast-iron pot, in shape exactly like a common flower-pot, with a 
 grated bottom, and covers of three different sizes. The pot and the bottom are cast 
 in one piece ; and the sides are, in general, nearly one inch in thickness. Within a short 
 distance of the top, in some instances two inches, in others four, according to the depth 
 of the saucepan which is to be inserted in them, are two lateral openings, about three 
 
KITCHENS OF COUNTRY INNS. 
 
 inches long by one inch deep, for conveying away the smoke, in two horizontal tunnels 
 or flues, to the vertical chimney which forms a common flue to the whole. Under each 
 furnace there is a separate horizontal tunnel for the admission of air to supply combus- 
 tion ; and this tunnel is furnished with a register in front of the hearth, or, sometimes, 
 with a block or stopper of fire-brick or fire-stone fitted to the opening ; which stopper, 
 by being inserted partially or wholly, regulates the admission of air. With four such 
 furnaces, of six, eight, ten, and twelve inches in diameter, a very extensive confectionery 
 business may be carried on ; and it must be recollected that the business of a confectioner 
 in London includes the cooking of dinners and suppers for large parties, with the excep- 
 tion, in general, of roasting joints of meat. When the cast-iron pots wear out (which 
 they do, even if the sides are an inch in thickness, in two or three years, where there is 
 a full business), they are taken out and replaced by new ones. It will be observed that, 
 in this arrangement of a cooking-hearth, there is no exterior surface of cast iron ; and, 
 in consequence, very little heat is radiated into the kitchen : indeed, we have been in 
 some confectioners' kitchens when the cooking of a large supper was going forward, and 
 found the temperature not exceeding that of a common room. If we were asked how we 
 would fit lip a kitchen either in an inn, or in a private house, so as to perform every 
 description of cookery, French, German, Italian, and English, in the most perfect and 
 in the most economical manner, we should say, take your hints for a stewing-hearth from 
 the hearths of confectioners ; and, for roasting, construct one of Strutt's roasters, or an 
 improved baker's oven. We shall hereafter show that, for a country inn, by far the 
 cheapest mode of roasting meat is in a baker's oven ; and that, however contrary may be 
 the common opinion, when the meat and the oven are both properly attended to, the 
 former is, in all respects, as good as that roasted before an open fire. 
 
 1503. An Oven for Roasting Meat, so as to make it equal in flavour to that roasted 
 before an open fire, was, we believe, first brought into notice in this country by Count 
 Rumford ; though this mode of roasting had been long before practised by the French. 
 The art of roasting in an oven meat, which shall have the same flavour as that roasted 
 before an open fire, consists simply in producing a continual current of hot air around it. 
 How this is to be done in an oven of sheet iron, heated by a furnace below, has been 
 shown by Count Rumford, in the Second Part of his Tenth Essay, published in 1799; 
 but the same thing was invented by, and used in, the family of William Strutt, Esq., of 
 Derby, in 1797. Mr. Strutt's roaster has been Tised in his own family, and in the 
 families of his relations and some of his friends, from that time to the present, for roasting 
 meat of every description, and for general baking. We examined, in 1810, a roasting- 
 oven, and very complete arrangements for cooking in ovens and closed vessels, without 
 any other open fire than a very small one, which had been just erected in the house of 
 Mr. Joseph Strutt, at Derby, on Mr. William Strutt's principles; and, in common with 
 most strangers who visit that town, we have seen the roaster in the Derbyshire General 
 Infirmary. We have also seen one in Mr. Sylvester's house in Great Russell Street, and 
 others at several ironmongers' in London, where they have been set up, by way of experi- 
 ment. Among these, we may particularly refer to Mr. Stephens, ironmonger, in Great 
 Russell Street, who has long been in the habit of fitting up kitchens with all the im- 
 provements introduced by Mr. Strutt, and recommended by the late Mr. Sylvester, at 
 one time a partner in the house, and by his son, the present eminent domestic engineer. 
 The construction of Mr. Strutt's roaster, and also of that of Count Rumford, is such, that 
 an equal degree of heat is communicated to the bottom and to the four sides ; and that 
 a current of heated air is constantly passing through it. Roasting-ovens of iron, how- 
 ever, belong more to ironmongery than to Architecture, and therefore we shall not enter 
 into details. Count Rumford's will be found minutely described in the Second Part of 
 his Tenth Essay ; and that of Mr. Strutt in Sylvester's Philosophy of Domestic Economy, 
 p. 33. The principle common to both is, first, the placing of an oven, or box, within a 
 box, and the circulation of the heat from the fire equally, in every part of the vacuity 
 between the two boxes ; and, secondly, the introduction of a tube between the two boxes, 
 which shall heat a current of the external air, and introduce it into the inner box at or 
 near the bottom, on the one side; with another tube, having its orifice near the bottom of 
 the opposite side, to carry it off. This tube, as well as the fire flue, has a register for 
 regulating the current of heat ; so that the proper temperatvire and current of air can, at 
 ail times, be maintained in the oven. 
 
 1504. The Union of Roasting and Baking Ovens with Kitchen Ranges has been 
 attempted, and with considerable success, by a great number of ironmongers, since the 
 publication of Count Rumford's Essays. The first effort consisted in piercing one open- 
 ing in the cast-iron door of the oven, near its bottom, for the introduction of fresh air, 
 and another near its top, for the exit of air, in order to occasion circulation within. But 
 this was found to chill the meat, and prevent its being suflSciently roasted. These ovens 
 had no double sides, bottoms, or tops ; and, without very careful management, meat 
 
718 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 could not be properly roasted in them. The fire was generally introduced underneath 
 the oven, either from the open fireplace on one side, or from a small separate furnace 
 beneath ; but this arrangement was found to overheat the oven in one place, and, con- 
 sequently, to burn on one side whatever was roasted or baked in it. This defect led to 
 the adoption of double bottoms and double sides next the open fireplace ; and, in some 
 cases, to the introduction of the heating flue over the oven, or at the back of it, instead 
 of under it. Ultimately, an approximation was made, by double sides, bottoms, and tops,- 
 to the ovens of Mr. Strutt and Count Rumford. We shall here describe one of these, 
 frequently used in connection with the open fire of the kitchen range ; protesting, how- 
 ever, against the open fire, as much too large, and repeating our opinion, that it ought 
 to be altogether dispensed with in every kitchen whatever, on a large scale. The De- 
 signs for this roasting-oven were furnished to us by Mr. Jeakes before-mentioned. 
 
 Fig. 1361 shows the inside of the oven or roaster, with the bottom removed; in which 
 a a are openings for the 
 admission of air, which cir- 
 culates through the double 
 bottom to the back of the 
 oven at h, the two streams 
 joining in one at c, and 
 returning to the front of 
 the oven at ; e e are 
 grooves for two shelves, 
 which ought always to be 
 of open work, in order not 
 to impede the circulation 
 of air. 
 
 Fig. 1362 shows the 
 inside of the roaster with 
 the bottom put on ; in 
 which a a repre ents the 
 holes for the admission of 
 air to be heated, and d the 
 opening for the ascent of 
 the air when heated, in 
 order that it may circulate 
 in the roaster. 
 
 Fig. 1363 is a front view of the oven with the door put on, but with the front casing 
 and top of the flue round 
 
 it removed. The smoke 1362 
 enters from the open range 
 at/, and proceeds to g and 
 h, where there is a partition, 
 I, which forces the smoke 
 to come from the back to 
 the front, before it ascends 
 the upright flue, k ; I and 
 m are the bottom and two 
 top bars of the range, which 
 are riveted into the style, 
 n; the intermediate bars, 
 being subjected to greater 
 heat, are let in loose into 
 the style, to allow of their 
 contraction and expansion. 
 The openings, a a, in this 
 figure, are shown with 
 projecting caps, to prevent 
 dust from getting into 
 them ; which caps may be 
 prolonged downwards, so 
 as to act as a sort of blower. 
 
 Fig. 1 364 is a transverse view of the roaster, with the outer casing removed, in which 
 are shown the end of the latch of the door of the oven, o ; the direction of the smoke up 
 the side, and under the top of the roaster, p ; the upright flue, q ; and a cast-iron tube, 
 r, at the back of the top of the roaster, the lower end of which projects down to within 
 six inches of the bottom, for the purpose of carrying off the air which has been circulated 
 
KITCHENS OF COUNTRY INNS. 7I9 
 
 1364 
 
 among the articles cooking ; and the upper end may be carried as high as the chimney- 
 bar or lintel will adinit. This tube terminates in a register at s, by which the circulation 
 of air in the oven is accelerated or diminished. We have introduced this kitchen range 
 roaster to show Architects who have not made themselves acquainted with the subject of 
 roasting in ovens, what sort of kitchen ranges they ought to recommend. For want of 
 this knowledge, we continually see inns fitted up with ranges and large ovens, entirely 
 without a system of ventilation by heated air, and which, therefore, are comparatively 
 useless, or at all events unprofitable, to their owners. Such is the ignorance of the public, 
 and impudence of some ironmongers, on this subject, that, in the first week of the present 
 year (1833), a large furnishing ironmonger in Holborn advertised what he called the 
 " best kitchen range in London" for country inns, &c. On calling to see this range, 
 we found it nothing more than a common one of a large size, with a brass register in the 
 oven door for admitting cold air direct to the articles baking, but with no system of 
 ventilation. The seller, as a recommendation, declared it to be constructed on Count 
 Rumford's principles, with all the latest improvements. 
 
 1505. An Oven for baking Bread is essential to every country inn; and in the same 
 oven it will generally be found that meat can be roasted, in large quantities, more econo- 
 mically than by any other means. We shall first describe a rude kind of oven adapted 
 for new countries, where it is frequently necessary to use for fuel green boughs ; and 
 next give a plan of the most improved description of oven for baking bread and roast- 
 ing meat, calculated for being heated by dried billet wood, peat, or coal. The ordinary 
 size of bakers' ovens is from eight to twelve feet square ; those of confectioners are 
 smaller, and frequently higher, with portable shelves of iron. The height of a baker's 
 oven is about eighteen inches in the centre, in ovens of the smallest size, and two feet in 
 those which are larger. The lower and flatter the arch is, the more easily is the oven 
 heated, and the more equally does it give out its heat. The sides of the oven need never 
 
7^0 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 be higher than a foot ; that height giving sufficient room for a large loaf, and there can 
 be no reason why the roof of the oven should be higher in the centre than at the sides, 
 except that it is impossible to build the soffit of an arch perfectly flat. The floor of 
 the oven is laid with tiles, and the arch is formed of fire-brick, fire-stone, or trap, set in 
 fire-clay, or in loam mixed with powdered brick. The whole is surrounded by a large 
 mass of common brickwork, to retain the heat. A variety of details on the subject of 
 ovens will be found in White's Treatise on the Art of Baking (chap. iii. p. 158) ; a book 
 which will repay perusal, if only for the quaintness of its style, and the variety of 
 extraneous matter which it contains. 
 
 1506. Oven for Green Wood. Fig. 1367 is a ground plan of a common country oven, 
 in which a is the floor of the oven ; h, the sill of the door ; and c c, holes in the floor, 
 communicating with a tunnel below, for the purpose of admitting air to urge combustion, 
 when green wood is burned. Fig. 1 368 is a longitudinal section on the line A B, in 
 which d is one of the openings for the introduction of fresh air to the green fuel, but 
 which is closed by a fire-brick, or by building up the entrance to the funnel, h, when dry 
 fuel is used ; e is a flue from the highest part of the arch of the oven, for conveying away 
 the smoke to the chimney, g, when green fuel is used, but which is closed by a 
 stopper at i, when the oven is heated by dry fuel ; / is the door to the oven, and g the 
 chimney. When dry fuel is used, the orifices at d and i are closed, and the fuel, being 
 introduced at /, is ignited there, and pushed forward to the centre of the oven, where it 
 burns till consumed, or till the oven is sufficiently heated ; the smoke passing out by the 
 upper part of/, and ascending the chimney, g. When sufficient heat has been obtained, 
 which is between 250° and 300°, and which the baker knows by experience, never using a 
 thermometer, the floor of the oven is cleaned out, and the bread introduced ; the door, f, 
 and the stopper, i, are then closed for a short period ; after which a very small opening 
 is made, by loosening the stopper, i, to admit the escape of the vapour exhaled from the 
 bread. This vapour, or whatever proceeds from the door, /, when it is opened either to 
 examine or to take out the bread, ascends by the open chimney, g. Fig." 1 365 is a trans- 
 
KITCHENS OF COUNTRY INNS. 
 
 verse section on the line C D ; and fig. 1366 is a front elevation, showing the door to the 
 oven, kj and the opening to the tunnel below, I. Ovens of this description are in general 
 
 A 
 
 use in France ; but m those of Paris, where dry wood is always used, the funnels, d and e. 
 are seldom made use of, but to cool the oven, or to admit of the escape of the vapour 
 from the bread. It may be observed, also, that, in some of the ovens of Paris, the fuel, 
 instead of being burned on the general surface of the hearth, is consumed in iron 
 gratings or baskets, placed over the openings, c c ; which is found a more rapid and 
 economical mode of heating, than that of making a fire on the floor of the oven. 
 
 1507. Oven for Coal. Ovens like that just described, but most frequently without 
 the funnel, e i, in fig. 1368, were almost the only kind used in Britain, till about fifty 
 years ago, when an improvement was made in them, in order to admit of heating them 
 with coal, by Powell, an oven-builder in Lisle Street, London. A subsequent improve- 
 ment has since been made by Waugh, of Rowland Mews, Tottenham Com-t Road, which 
 consists in the introduction of a register or damper for the oven flue. That this damper 
 should not have been introduced sooner is a proof that very few have looked at the oven 
 with a scientific eye. We have examined a great number in London, and found most of 
 them of a very rude construction ; but, rude as this construction is, we have found no one 
 acquainted with it, but a particular description of bricklayers, whose exclusive business 
 is that of building ovens. The process of heating an oven by coal is rather interesting 
 to those who have never seen an oven heated otherwise than by wood. After lighting 
 the fire, the roof of the oven in a short time is perfectly black with soot ; some time 
 afterwards, in consequence of the intensity of the fire, the soot begins to ignite, and 
 eventually becomes red ; in this state it remains only a few minutes for the intensity of 
 the fire being continued, it turns white, and drops, like a shower of volcanic ashes, on the 
 floor of the oven. The oven is now considered to be suflSciently heated ; the furnace 
 door is thrown open, and the floor of the oven wiped out, so as to be ready to receive the 
 bread. We shall shortly describe the best sort of baker's oven now in use in London 
 for baking bread and roasting meat ; suggesting certain additions to it, calculated for 
 performing the latter operation in a higher degree of perfection. 
 
 Fig. 1369 is a ground plan of an oven, rather under the middle size; in which a is 
 the furnace, for heating it by coal or wood, as may be most convenient ; b is the door of 
 
 4 N 
 
722 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITEQyURE. 
 
 1S69 
 
 ft' 
 
 J ft. 
 
 the oven ; and c, the opening to a smoke flue wliich is regulated by the damper, d. This 
 flue passes over the oven door by e to f, where it ascends a vertical flue, in order to escape 
 into the atmosphere. Directly over e is a valve or register, which opens into the flue 
 over it, and which is found extremely useful when the baker opens the oven to draw the 
 bread ; as it admits of the ascent of the steam and vapour, which would otherwise prove 
 a great annoyance to the man, besides overheating the bakehouse. This register or 
 valve is a plate so nicely balanced by two pivots, that it is opened and shut with the 
 greatest ease ; .9 is a vacuity round the mass of brickwork, for the sake of retaining heat. 
 On the furnace side of the oven is shown a place for fuel, h ; and on the otlier side, t, 
 may be kept certain pieces of quartering, which are jmt in the oven between the bread 
 and its sides ; here also may be kept the peels, or long-handed shovels, used in drawing 
 the bread, and other oven implements. 
 
 Fig. 1370 is a longitudinal section, in which is shown the door of the oven, with the 
 register over it open at j ; the 
 smoke-flue above, k ; the entrance 
 to tlie smoke-flue, I; and a small 
 oven, or proving place, ni, in 
 which certain descriptions of 
 bread are put, to undergo a heat 
 of from seventy to eighty de- 
 grees, to prove or raise the 
 dough before it is put into the ,- — ^ 
 principal oven. This heat is 
 communicated through the bot- 
 tom of the oven above, and is 
 retained by keeping the door 
 always shut, except when ar- 
 ticles are to be put in or taken 
 out. There is another oven, n, 
 of the same description, over the 
 central oven, for proving at a 
 temperature of eighty degrees. 
 In order to save the whole of 
 the heat generated by the oven, 
 except what is radiated from 
 the front of it, which we suppose 
 to be barely sufficient in winter 
 to keep the bakehouse at a proper 
 temperature, we have shown it 
 covered with a poultry-house, 
 o, fitted up with nests, in the 
 
 '11 
 
 
 n 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 1 1 
 
 4 
 
 □ 
 
 
 , , - 
 
 
 m 1 
 
KITCHENS OF COUNTRY INNS. 7^3 
 
 manner already described, § 1326; p is the stair or ladder, by which this poultry- 
 house is entered. Fig. 1371 shows its ground plan; in which q is the flue of the oven; 
 r, the bakehouse ; s, the nests ; and t, the stair and door. It is almost needless to observe 
 that the poultry-house may be omitted when not wanted. 
 
 Fig. 1372 is a section across 
 the bakehouse, showing the 
 front view of the oven ; in which 
 u is the door of the furnace, 
 over which is placed a square 
 copper for heating water, which 
 is drawn off, as wanted, for 
 mixing with the flour, by the 
 siphon and cock, v\w'\?, the pipe 
 which supplies the water ; x is 
 the register to the smoke flue, 
 from which the smoke proceeds 
 to the chimney top, as shown 
 by the dotted arrows ; y is the 
 place for bakehouse implements; 
 z tlie compartment for fuel ; 
 and the door of the principal 
 oven, over which may be seen 
 the door of the upper proving- 
 oven, and under it that of the 
 lower proving-oven. 
 
 1508. To fit a Baker's Oven, such as this, for roasting Meat, which shall in all respects 
 be equal in flavour to meat dressed in the roasters of Mr. Strutt or Count Rumford, or 
 
 1372 
 
 before an open fire, only a very slight addition to the plan is necessary. Let a small 
 flue, fig. 1369, d, be formed under the tiled floor of the oven, commencing under 
 the shelf of the door at b', and continued round by a' to c, where it may ascend the 
 side wall a few inches, and then open into the oven. This will suffice for the purpose 
 of introducing a stream of heated air ; and after this air has circulated in the oven, it 
 may be carried off by another flue, of the same dimensions, in the back wall, com- 
 mencing a few inches above the floor, as shown at df, in fig. 1370. This flue may be 
 carried up to the vacuity in the wall of the poultry-house ; and the air, after circulating 
 there, may be allowed to escape by the highest point, e'. In fig. 1372, at /', may be seen 
 a sliding register for closing the orifice to this flue, when baking alone is to be per- 
 formed; and for opening it. Or regulating the opening, when roasting is going forward. 
 Another improvement might be made hi an oven of this description, which would be 
 
724 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 that of having a smoke-flue around it, commencing at the furnace, a, and ending at the 
 damper, dc, as indicated by the dotted lines, g'. The use of this flue is to admit of 
 throwing heat into the oven at pleasure, while roasting is going forward ; and this might 
 easily be done, by having a register at /t, to the furnace a, which would render a second 
 furnace unnecessary. A little alteration would be required in the construction of this 
 furnace, so as to admit of fixing the register ; and working it on the outside with ease : 
 but whoever has ingenuity enough to execute such a plan will readily anticipate this 
 and other minutiae. It may be observed, that there is a description of register now in 
 use in coal ovens, which would answer for this purpose quite well, in default of a better. 
 It is simply a cast-iron plate, with a foot or bottom, by which it is kept upright. This 
 plate, which stands inside the oven, is shut from the inside, close against the mouth of the 
 furnace, when it is desired to prevent the introduction of heat, the outer door being 
 opened ; or it is placed obliquely against the inner opening of the furnace with the outer 
 door closed, to guide the flame and smoke in particular directions. 
 
 1509. Mr. Hicks^s Oven is a great improvement on those in common use ; but, as it is 
 more adapted for towns, and for baking on a very large scale, than for country inns, we 
 deem it sufficient to refer to the engraving and description of it in the Mechanics^ Maga- 
 zine, vol. xiv. p. 417. We have seen this oven at work in the magnificent baking esta- 
 blishment at Pimlico ; and also witnessed bread baked in a small model of it in Mr. Hicks's 
 drawing-room, in Wimpole Street. The main object of Mr. Hicks's improvement is, to 
 collect the alcoholic vapours, which are given out by every fermenting substance ; and this 
 Mr. Hicks's apparatus effects most completely. The spirit comes over along with a large 
 proportion of water, perhaps equal to three fourths of the weight of the dough when put 
 in, and is afterwards separated by distillation. Count Rumford found that rye bread, 
 which is but very slightly fermented, lost an eighth part of its weight in baking. There 
 can be no doubt that the spirit might be as effectually collected and condensed, in the 
 small ovens of private families, as in the large ovens of public establishments ; but the 
 excise laws of this country are too troublesome to render this worth while : and in other 
 countries, where spirits are cheap, the expense of the machinery would be an objection. 
 
 1510. Baking hy high-pressure Steam. Mr. Hicks has subsequently invented an 
 apparatus for baking by high-pressure steam, which may justly be considered as a very 
 superior mode to the process of direct fire heat. The dough is not only baked, but is 
 previously divided by the apparatus into equal-sized loaves. We have seen full-sized 
 loaves baked in Mr. Hicks's working-model, and have no doubt of the excellence of the 
 plan for public companies ; but we are not so certain of its suitableness for inns or 
 private families, from the largeness of the first cost, and from the intricacy of the 
 machinery. 
 
 1511. Baking hy hot Water. An oven to be heated by hot water circulated in her- 
 metically sealed tubes, and consequently capable of being heated to 300° and upwards, 
 is constructing by M. A. Perkins, Esq., of London, the inventor of the mode of cir- 
 culating hot water in hermetically sealed tubes (described Gard. Mag. vol. viii. p. 292), 
 which will give ample heat for either baking or roasting, and which, we think, promises 
 well, both for public and private establishments. 
 
 1512. Among the Implements and Machines of the Bakehouse may be reckoned a knead- 
 ing-machine, of which several have long been in use in Paris, but of which none have 
 yet been permanently adopted in this country, with the exception of that worked by 
 steam in the large establishment at Pimlico. The French strongly recommend a knead- 
 ing-machine invented by Cavalier and Company, of Paris ; one of which was lately ex- 
 hibited in the National Repository in London, and which will be found figured and 
 described in the Mechanics' Magazine, vol. xiii. p. 145. We have seen this machine at 
 the Oxgate Farm bread establishment ; where, as well as at Dill's bakehouse, in Oxford 
 Street, where it had been previously tried, it did not give satisfaction to the men ; and 
 the masters in both cases were obliged to yield to them. There is another kneading- 
 machine now in progress at Rogers's bakehouse in Snowhill. We do not think there 
 will be any difficulty in getting one perfected, both for kneading common dough and the 
 dough of biscuits ; but there must previously be a demand for such a machine ; and if 
 bread-eaters, generally, knew as much of the details of the process of breadmaking, and of 
 the economy of the bakehouse, as we do, in consequence of our having lately explored 
 a great number of London bakehouses and ovens, this would soon be the case. 
 
 1513. A Steaming Apparatus can scarcely be dispensed with in the kitchen of an inn ; 
 because steam may not only be used for cooking food, especially vegetables, but also for 
 boiling water ; for heating hot closets, sideboards, and even dining-tables ; for heating 
 baths however distant from the fire ; and, what, in many cases will be of greater im- 
 portance than any of these, for heating the whole house, but more especially the lobby 
 hall, staircase, and passages. The management of steam is now so generally understood 
 that it is unnecessary here to dwell on the subject. In Sylvester's Domestic Economy 
 
KITCHENS OF COUNTRY INNS. 
 
 725 
 
 p. 43, will be found described an excellent mode of boiling water by steam. In some of 
 the London club-houses, and particularly in that belonging to the Travellers' Club, 
 which was fitted up by Mr. Jeakes, under the direction of the eminent architect, Charles 
 Barry, Esq., steam is brought most extensively into use in cooking; in heating hot 
 closets, tables, and benches ; in boiling water for baths, and for various other purposes. 
 For whatever end a steam apparatus is erected, the boiler ought always to have a manhole 
 for cleaning it out ; and this operation ought to be performed frequently, otherwise the 
 earthy material deposited on the metal, being a non-conductor, will render the water 
 every day more difficult to heat, and hasten the burning out of the bottom of the boiler. 
 It may also be remarked, that thin-bottomed boilers of wrought iron, or copper, not 
 only are sooner heated, but last longer, than boilers witJ^i thick bottoms, such as those of 
 cast iron. Cast-iron boilers are also much more dangerous, in cases of explosion, than 
 those made of malleable materials. 
 
 1514. Hot Closets for keeping plates, or food warm, or for other purposes, may be 
 formed in any convenient part of the kitchen, by surrounding them with a double case 
 of iron, into the interstices of which the steam is admitted. The shelves may also be 
 double, and connected with the sides, to admit of their being heated in the same manner. 
 A long kitchen-table, for setting out dishes before they are carried up to the dining-room, 
 may have the centre formed of a double plate, and the steam admitted under it, to keep 
 the dishes hot, while standing there. Hot closets may also be formed under the side- 
 boards in the principal dining-rooms, and connected with the steam apparatus by a pipe. 
 
 1515. An Apparatus for roasting Meat of every Kind hy Gas has been recently invented 
 by Mr. Hicks, the patentee of the improved iron oven, by which spirit is obtained 
 from the exhalations of fermented bread while baking, before noticed, § 1509. This 
 apparatus is so extremely simple and beautiful, that a very few words will suffice to 
 explain it. The gas is admitted to a metallic circle, fig. 1373, a, through a very 
 narrow continuous opening, round the outside of which the gas issues, and forms a ring 
 of blue flame. In the centre, supported by two lateral gas tubes joined to the circle, is 
 an upright spike, c, serving as a spit on which the meat to be roasted is stuck. From 
 the centre of the circle the 
 
 pipe, d, which supplies the gas, : : 
 
 passes down to the gas main, 
 e ; having a cock, f, with a 
 regulating lever, g, by which 
 the gas can be turned on or 
 off, and the degree of flame 
 produced can be regulated 
 with the greatest nicety. The 
 circle is raised a few inches 
 above a bench or table, h, so 
 as to admit of the introduc- 
 tion of a convex tin dish, 
 furnished with a spout for 
 receiving the dripping, under 
 each spit. From this dish 
 the dripping runs off by the 
 spout, and is collected in any 
 common dish placed under it. 
 Over the bench, at the height 
 of three or four feet, is a 
 projecting boarded canopy or 
 hood, for receiving the heated 
 air and smell from the gas 
 and meat, and conducting 
 them to a flue, so as to pre- 
 vent them from accumulating 
 in the kitchen. Directly above 
 the gas circle is a cone of 
 polished copper, suspended by 
 a weight. This cone is two 
 inches wider in diameter at 
 the base than the gas circle, 
 and it has a small orifice at the 
 top. When the oper ation of 
 roasting is to be performed, all 
 
 that is necessary is to spit the meat, and light the gas, regulating it so as to produce only 
 
 
 
 < 
 
 
 
 f 
 
 >/ 
 
 d 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 : ^ , it 
 
 
7^6 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 a blue flame, closely resembling a blue riband round the base of a black turban ; and 
 then to bring down the copper cone, until its lower edge is on a level with the base of 
 the gas circle. A vessel to receive the dripping is then placed under the spout of the tin 
 ^ dripping-dish, and the process of roasting goes on, without basting or any other oper- 
 ation whatever being requisite. The heat produced by the gas is radiated from the 
 copper cone on tlie meat, and, this being done equally on all sides, the latter never requires 
 turning, while, the heat not being so intense as that from an open fire, the meat is neither 
 dried nor burned ; and, consequently, does not need basting. It is, in fact, roasted by 
 heated air, but air which is constantly renewed ; and, therefore, this operation has no 
 affinity with baking. The time required for roasting in this manner is shorter than that 
 before an open fire, in the proportion of about twelve to fifteen ; it requiring fifteen 
 minutes for roasting every pound of meat before an open fire, and only twelve minutes 
 for roasting the same quantity by gas. As the cones are nicely balanced, in the manner 
 of chandeliers suspended from lofty ceilings, the cook, when she wishes to look at the 
 meat, can raise and lower the cone hanging over it, with the greatest ease. The fat drops 
 slowly, and as pure as water, into the dish placed to receive it ; and when the period of 
 dressing is nearly completed, it is indicated by the appearance of gravy being mixed 
 with the fat. For different joints, and for fowls of different kinds, and game, there are 
 rims and covers of different sizes ; and for a sirloin of beef, the cone approaches to the 
 form of a cylinder with a domical top. The operation, when the meat is once spitted, 
 and the gas properly adjusted, is conducted or rather goes on of itself, with all the quiet 
 precision of a chemical jjrocess in a laboratory ; and, in short, with so mucli cleanliness, 
 neatness,, and absence of smell and heat, that it would not be offensive in a drawing-room. 
 On the evening of January 5. 1833, we were present, along with a number of gentlemen, 
 in Mr. Hicks's kitchen, in Wimpolc Street, when a part of a sirloin of beef, a leg of 
 mutton, two fowls, and a pigeon, were roasted in this manner, and afterwards tasted by 
 the company ; when they were found to be in all respects equal, if not superior, to 
 meat and fowls roasted in the common way. Mr. Hicks's apparatus had been only 
 erected a few weeks, and was, at the time we saw it, not made known to the public. 
 The expense of g.'S is much less than might be imagined, the effect being produced 
 not so much by intensity of heat as by its concentration. Mr. Hicks has found 
 sixteen cubical feet of gas, which costs 2|t/., sufficient for roasting twelve or fourteen 
 pounds of meat ; which is considerably less than a farthing per pound. When it is con- 
 sidered that bread is baked and browned at from 280"^ to 300° Fahr., and that meat is 
 roasted in bakers' ovens after the bread is removed, the circumstance of gas affording a 
 sufficient degree of heat for roasting will not occasion surprise. We have before, § 1445, 
 described the mode by which boiling and stewing by gas have been for some time practised 
 in Edinburgh ; and it is clear that, as roasting can be also effijcted by it, so may baking. 
 The whole business, therefore, of the preparation of human food by the application of 
 heat may be performed by gas, and that with great economy, in all families who roast 
 and bake at home. This is only realising what was long ago anticipated by the late 
 William Strutt, Esq., of Derby. There can be no doubt that oil, or any liquid fat 
 burned in the same manner, would effect the same end ; and, indeed, this is proved 
 by the portable machine for the use of ships and ambulatory cottages, § 516, invented 
 by Mr. Cochrane, and sold by Josse, in Regent Street. How far the art of cooking by 
 gas wiU be suitable for country inns, may be considered uncertain in the present infancy 
 of the invention ; but as, on calcuLition, it is found in London to be much cheaper 
 than roasting by open fires of coal, and, for small joints, equally cheap with sending 
 meat to be cooked in a baker's oven, it appears highly probable that, wherever gas is used 
 for lighting, it will answer to employ it also for cooking. In cities, which are now 
 generally lighted with gas, it will probably soon effect an important revolution ; for, since 
 every house may be supplied with heat by steam or hot water from public companies, 
 domestic fires will become unnecessary ; and, as the smoke may be burned in the engines 
 of all manufactories by Witty's furnaces, our atmosphere may be left comparatively pure, 
 and our town Architecture be displayed to as great advantage as town Architecture now 
 is on the Continent. 
 
 Chap. IV. 
 
 Designs for Parochial Schools. 
 
 1516. The Subject of the Education of Youth is one of such vast importance, that we 
 feel some difficulty in entering upon it, in such a manner as to suffice for the object 
 which we have in view ; and, at the same time, not to exceed the limits suitable for a 
 chapter treating upon School Architecture, rather than upon school management. The 
 
MODEL DESIGNS FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 
 
 art of teaching, like all other arts, began by efforts made by individuals on individuals ; and 
 it is only in modern times, at least in Britain, that the discovery has been made of tiie art 
 of teaching children in masses. This art is nothing more than a branch of that general 
 system of improvement which consists in the cooperation of numbers for the good of the 
 whole. We shall make no attempt to trace the history of this art, which seems to have 
 existed for an unknown length of time in India ; but it would be withholding what is 
 due to meritorious exertion, not to mention the names of three eminent individuals, who, 
 in modern times, have brought it to the perfection in which it now is. We allude to 
 Mr. Lancaster, who, without any knowledge of what had been done in India, invented 
 a similar system, and applied it in this country ; Mr. Wilderspin, who invented, and it 
 may be said perfected, at least in principle, the system of infant instruction ; and Dr. Bell, 
 who improved the Indian system at Madras, and afterwards imported it into Britain. 
 Having paid some attention to these three systems of teaching, both in Britain and on 
 the Continent, and looking upon universal education as the grand moral lever which is 
 to raise the human world, we can hardly refrain from entering into the subject at some 
 length ; but we must content ourselves with observing that the three modes are essentially 
 one and the same; viz., that of educating in masses; and, that we consider this art as of 
 as great importance in the moral and political world as the invention of the steam- 
 engine is in that of the world of arts and manufactures. It is not one of the least 
 advantages of this system, that it lightens the labours of both the master and the scholar, 
 and renders that an amusement which formerly was a task. We shall first lay down the 
 fundamental principles for designing and fitting up schools of these three descriptions, 
 and next give two or three miscellaneous examples. 
 
 Sect. I. Of the Fundamental Principles, and the Rules derived from these Principles, for 
 designing and fitting up Schools for the Education of Children in Masses, 
 
 1517. The Education of Children in Masses comprises that of infants under five years 
 of age, and that of children from that age upwards. The education of infants not five 
 years old must necessarily be almost wholly effected by teachers who have attained the 
 years of discretion ; but that of children farther advanced may be in great part effected 
 by the mutual instruction of the children themselves, under the direction and superintend- 
 ence of a competent master or mistress. This necessarily divides our present subject into 
 two subsections; viz., that of designing schools for training infants, and that of designing 
 schools for mutual instruction. We shall treat the subject very concisely in both sub- 
 sections, happy in being able to refer to works accessible to all Architects who may be 
 required to design or execute schools; viz., Wilderspin on Infant Education, 4th edit. 
 12mo, 18S2, 5s. ; Brown on the Cultivation of the Infant Mind, 4th edit. 12mo, 1832, 
 2s. 6d. ; Wilson on the System of Infant Schools, 3d edit. Svo, 1826, 4s. 6d. ; Manual of 
 Model Schools of the British and Foreign School Society, Svo, 1831, 5s. ; and Stoafs 
 System of Circulating Classes, as an Improvement on the Madras System, 12mo, 1826, Is. 
 
 SuBSECT. I. Fundamental Principles, and General Rules deduced from them, for designing 
 Schools for Infant Instruction. 
 
 1518. In the Choice of the Situation for an infant school, the first consideration is, the 
 physical health of the children ; and the next, their moral health. The principle derived 
 from the first consideration is, that the spot should be dry and airy ; and the rule deduced 
 from this principle is, that the building should be placed on a site elevated, either 
 naturally or by art, and so that the sun may shine on each of its sides on every day, or on 
 most days, of the year. The principle derived from the second consideration is, that the 
 school should be so situated as not to expose the children to the risk of moral contamina- 
 tion ; and, to effect this, it should be a rule always to place infant schools in a decent and 
 orderly neighbourhood. There are other subordinate rules respecting the construction of 
 these buildings, to be derived from these principal ones ; which, after what has been said 
 on the subject of drainage, ventilation, cleanliness, and decency, in the preceding pages 
 of this work, we shall leave to the Architect. " Much," it is observed by Mr. Brown, 
 the excellent master of the Spitalfields Infant School, " may be done by forethought and 
 contrivance, to secure healthiness and convenience, and to save expense ; and not only so, 
 but to give the children such a prepossession in favour of order, neatness, and cleanliness, 
 as shall lead to the most beneficial results in their after-lives. I could wish," he adds, 
 " for the good of society at large, that the poor were disgusted with the wretched hovels 
 in which they dwell ; and which, in London at least, often let for higher rents than com- 
 fortable houses." (Essay on the Cultivation of the Infant Mind.) 
 
 1519. The Desiderata of the School-room are, ample dimensions, free air, light, 
 sunshine, and cheerfulness. The rule, therefore, should be, to have high walls, in order to 
 obtain a lofty ceiling; and to have abundance of windows exposed to the sun. The size 
 of the room must depend on the number of children to be instructed in it j and the 
 
 ♦ 
 
7^8 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 maximum for one master and mistress is 150 children. The minimum space for this 
 number of children is 150 lineal feet of bench or form for seats, and at least six square 
 feet for each child for standing room ; independently of room for the master and mistress, 
 and the monitors, and without including two or more additional rooms, of not more than 
 a fourth part of the size of the principal one, for giving instruction on particular branches 
 of knowledge to small classes, or to the whole school in a compact mass. 
 
 1520. The Form of the Room should be deduced from the mode of teaching. One of 
 the principal objects, in an infant school, is to gain the attention of tlie pupils, and fix it 
 on one person placed on one spot ; and hence, the form should be such as to occasion the 
 least possible trouble to the infants in their efforts to direct their attention to the master. 
 It is also requisite that the voice of the master or mistress should be heard equally well 
 in every part of the room by every infant, without effort on their parts. " If," says 
 Mr. Wilson, " the master be obliged to raise his voice, in order to be heard by tliosc 
 who are at a greater distance than others, his tone will almost necessarily seem to approach 
 to that of anger, and the good feelings of his little flock will, in consequence, be dis- 
 turbed ; while, on the other hand, distance will encourage carelessness in those whose 
 attention is not yet sufficiently secured." 
 
 1521. A Model Design, in conformity tvith these Principles, fig. 1374, is given in 
 Mr. Wilson's work, in which a a are seats round the room ; b, a double rostrum, in the 
 front part of which the monitor (who is to lead the rest when the school is engaged in a 
 united lesson) takes his stand; and on the back part of which the superintendent jilaces 
 himself whenever he may wish to obtain tlie attention of the whole school at once, and 
 to convey a lesson to them all at the same time. There is a gallery, r, in which all the 
 children may be occasionally assembled within a smaller compass, for general examination. 
 This gallery must have scats, at least ecpial, altogether, in length, to all the other seats 
 round the room. There are seats, r/, against the wall behind the rostrum. The advantages 
 of a room in the form of a broad parallelogram over a narrow one are, that the distance 
 of the several seats from the rostrum ai)proaches more nearly to equality, and that the eyes 
 
 1374 
 
 g 
 
 a 
 
 C 
 e 
 
 O 
 
 e 
 
 O a 
 
 o 
 
 c 
 
 g 
 
 of the children are more easily airected to that point. The seats for the monitors, e, 
 must be placed at a sufficient distance from the benches against the walls, to leave room 
 for the free passage of the children when they walk round the school two and two. They 
 should be placed at the terminating line of each class, and be so broad as to allow the 
 monitors room to stand upon them when the lesson is given out from the rostrum. There 
 are two smaller rooms, f, one of which, at least, forms an essential part of the infant 
 school, for gi^ang instruction in separate classes. One may be used for boys and the 
 other for girls ; or one may be used for school furniture or lumber. There is a yard, 
 embracing three sides of the school, and which may be extended in the direction of h. 
 
MODEL DESIGNS FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 
 
 1522. Another Model Design, fig. 1375, is given by the same author, and is preferred 
 by him, because in it the children may be so arranged in the circumference of a circle, as 
 f hat their eyes, necessarily, and without effort, are directed to the rostrum. All the children 
 
 arc here equidistant from the acting monitors or superintendents. From the position 
 jf the scholars, also, the necessity for a raised gallery is removed. The more advanced, 
 whose examinations will principally take place in the class room, will be seated along the 
 straight wall, i. Those next in progress will occupy the inner circle of scats, k ; and 
 the smaller children will take their seats on the benches, /, attached to the circular wall. 
 The roof of this place should be so constructed as not to reverberate the sound, for which 
 purpose it should be without a ceiling. There are two class rooms, m m, to this Design, 
 and a yard embracing it on three sides, as in the preceding one. 
 
 1523. The Form of the School-room, according to Mr. Wilderspin and Mr. Brown, 
 ought to be rectangular ; and fifty feet long by twenty-five feet wide v/ill, they say, contain 
 as many infants as the most laborious master and mistress can conveniently manage. 
 The middle of the room is kept quite clear of fixed seats, and the height, to the roofs, 
 should be fifteen or twenty feet, without any intervening ceiling, as that is found to pro- 
 duce echo. In addition to a room of fifty feet by twenty-five feet, there should be at one 
 end a gallery fourteen feet wide and fifteen feet deep, and a class-room ten feet wide and 
 fourteen feet deep. The gallery is fitted up with steps rising above each other, for the 
 purpose of instructing the children with greater facility in particular branches. The 
 first bench or seat in this gallery should be seven inches high, and seventeen inches in 
 depth ; the second should be seven inches and a half high, and the same in depth ; and so 
 on, increasing in height half an inch in every seat, till the ten seats which the space 
 aflPords are completed. The class-room, which is placed alongside of the stage or gallerj^, 
 is fourteen feet by ten feet, on the plan, allowing one foot for a partition between them. 
 At the end of this cla&s-room a stage of two or three seats is erected for the larger 
 children. The large room is fitted up with seats round its sides, from six inches and a 
 half to nine inches and a half in height, and eight inches wide, with a small bead or fillet 
 nailed on the floor, about a foot from the seat, as a line of demarcation for the childi-en's 
 feet. The wall is covered with boai-ding to the height of four or five feet, terminating 
 in a row of hat pins. The portion of sitting-room allowed by Mr. Wilderspin for each 
 child is twelve inches in length ; so that a school fifty feet long, and twenty-five feet wide, 
 with a bench along three sides, and two doors into the gallery and class-room at one end, 
 will contain from 125 to 150 infants. 
 
 1524. A Play-ground and other Conveniences should be connected with each school; 
 and Mr, Wilderspin is of opinion that this play-ground should not be IcvSS than 150 or 
 200 fett long, and 50 feet wide, for a school of the size above-mentioned ; Mr. Brown, 
 when speaking of London Infant Schools, says, fifty feet by twenty-five feet will be large 
 enough for a play-ground for 150 children. Much will depend on the age of the infants, 
 
 4 o 
 
730 
 
 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 One object for inducing children to play together is to give them a knowledge of one 
 another, and to elicit their individual character, so as to enable the master and mistress 
 to apply instruction accordingly. For this purpose, in the case of very young infants, 
 concentration must be more avourable than dispersion ; and, consequently, the size of the 
 play-ground must be regulated by tlie size of the infants. 
 
 1525. The House for the Master and Mistress should be connected with, or contiguous 
 to, the school; and should, at all events, command a complete view of the play-ground, in 
 order to enable them to look over the children during their dinner-time. The places of 
 convenience should not only be near the school, with a covered way leading to them, but 
 there should be small windows looking into them, from tlie class-room, or some other 
 convenient situation, tlirough which the master or mistress may, when a child has been 
 long absent, ascertain in tlie easiest manner that no accident has befallen it. 
 
 1526. The Accommodation of the House for the Master and Mistress should consist of 
 at least two sitting-rooms, one for constant use, and the other, in which there ought to 
 be a school library, for receiving visiters. The kitchen and other conveniences ought to 
 be in proportion ; and in the country there ought always to be a garden, not only for 
 the supply of vegetables to the master and mistress, but for their recreation and enjoy- 
 ment during the liours of leisure. 
 
 1527. The Infant School, near St. VincenVs Square, Westminster, may be considered a 
 very good model for a country infant school. It is placed in an irregular piece of ground 
 serving as a yard, and consists of one large room, fig. 1376, a, forty-two feet by twenty- 
 
 two feet, with seats on each side ; one fire at each end ; two large ventilators in the 
 ceiling ; and with sliding doors opening into a gallery, h. There are about one hundred 
 feet of seats, so that the school may be considered as adapted for that number of chil- 
 dren. At one end is a class-room, c, and at the other is the house of the master and 
 mistress, d. There are yards and lean-tos at each end ; one at e, for the children ; and 
 another at/, for the master and mistress. From the class-room, c, there are small holes 
 filled in with panes of glass looking into the yards, through which, when any child has 
 stayed out longer than ordinary, the master or mistress can ascertain, without trouble, 
 whether or not an accident has happened in that part of the premises. The whole of 
 the front yard can be inspected in a moment from the entrance-door, g. This school 
 was established through the influence of Mr. Owen ; and the present excellent teachers, 
 Mr. and Mrs. Buchanan, were brought to superintend it from Mr. Owen's establishment 
 at New Lanark. Every child brings twopence with him on the Monday morning, which is 
 understood to pay for his week's instruction, or, in other words, the salary of the master ; 
 the rent, taxes, and expenses of heating and lighting, being paid by the patrons and sub- 
 scribers to the school. 
 
 SuBSECT. 2. Fundamental Principles, oMd Rides deduced from them, for designing Schooh 
 for Mutual Instruction. 
 1 528. Schools for Mutual Instruction are of two kinds : those on the Madi-as or Bell's 
 system, or on the improved system founded on it by Stoat, the characteristic of both 
 of which is, that the school is at all times taught in separate classes ; and those on the 
 Lancasterian plan, by which the greater part of the teaching is carried on while the 
 
MODEL DESIGNS FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 
 
 731 
 
 school is formed into one class. We shall first notice what is common to both systems, 
 and afterwards describe each system separately. 
 
 1529. The Systems of Bell and Lancaster agree in what is necessary for all schools; 
 viz., in being placed in a dry, airy, light, warm, cheerful, and respectable situation. 
 They agree also in requiring ample school-rooms, and a general form, nearer a square 
 than a narrow parallelogram, for the move ready inspection of the whole school by the 
 master or mistress : in most other particulars they differ. 
 
 1530. By the Madras System, the children are taught in classes forming squares; and 
 as these squares may be increased or diminished at the pleasure of the teacher, almost any 
 form of room will suffice for carrying on either this mode of teaching, or the very superior 
 variation of it by Stoat, denominated the circulating system. On the supposition that 
 the squares are nine feet on the sides, this will give, at eighteen inches in length of form 
 for each individual, eighty-one feet for twenty-four scholars, or about four superficial 
 feet for each, deducting the space of one scholar for the room occupied by the monitor. 
 It may be remarked, both of the original system of Bell and. of the improvement on it 
 by Stoat, that no author who has written on either has ever given or described one 
 plan or form for a school, as preferable to another ; a clear proof that no particular 
 form is necessary. 
 
 15S1. The School on the Madras System, in Baldwin's Gardens, is shown in the ground 
 plan, fig. 1377. It is divided into nine squares, six of which are shown with the forms, 
 a a a, on three sides ; the fourth being occupied by the teacher. In each square there 
 is a box for books, &c., 6; c c are cast-iron columns which support the roof. Three of 
 the nine squares which compose this school are shown vacant, merely because at the time 
 we took the plan (Nov. 1832), there happened not to be a sufficient number of scholars 
 to fill the school. Against the four exterior walls there is a continued writing-desk, d, 
 with a form before it, e. There is a cupboard for books and papers in one corner, / ; 
 and an entrance-door at another, g. Adjoining this school is one for girls, of exactly the 
 same plan and dimensions ; and on examination days, and times of public display, the two 
 
 1377 
 
 schools are united by opening the sliding doors at A, and the children of both are 
 arranged along the open space, i, down the middle. To admit of this, the desks which 
 are placed against the door, h, are movable ; but all the others are fixed. There is a 
 play-ground beneath each school, of the same size as the apartment over it, and a small 
 yard, with the usual conveniences. The space from the floor to the roof of these schools 
 is open, as indicated by the cross section, fig. 1378 ; in which there are windows for light 
 
732 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 7 
 
 1379 
 
 and ventilation at k k and II: the desk round the wall is shown at m ; the box for 
 books at n, and the forms at o. The room is heated in cold weather by stoves. The 
 master has a movable desk and seat on castors, so that he can fix his position in any part 
 of the room that he may choose. The forms, fig. 1379, arc supported by cast-iron feet, 
 and the desks against 
 the walls by cast-iron 
 brackets. Each school 
 is a square of sixty-one 
 feet on the side, and 
 is capable of containing 
 three hundred scholars, 
 
 that is, twenty-seven forms of eleven or twelve scholars each. The boys' school is 
 managed by one master and nine subordinates ; the girls' school by a mistress, with a 
 subordinate for each class ; and there is a head-master, or rector, who has the general 
 inspection of both schools, and is himself under the guidance of a committee of manage- 
 ment. The scholars ])ay a trifle weekly. 
 
 1531. The Circulating System of Stoat, of the Islington Parocliial School, is so great an 
 improvement on the Madras system, that it can hardly fail to be substituted for it by all 
 who are so circumstanced as to be able to examine both systems without prejudice. As 
 far as architectural objects it may be sufficient to observe, that, by the 
 
 Madras system, the children are arranged on three sides of squares ; while by Stoat's 
 system, they are placed in the circumference of a circle, or in those of concentric circles. 
 Hence, for this plan, there ought to be no forms or fixtures of any kind in the centre of 
 the school ; and hence, also, double the number of scholars can be taught in the same 
 space. For example, within an outer circle of sixteen feet in diameter, boys may be 
 placed in concentric circles, so as to include ninety-one in a single class. But the great 
 advantage of the circulating system, according to Mr. Stoat, is, that the superior and 
 inferior children are constantly mixing together in every part of the class ; and that the 
 former are every where at hand, to assist the latter by their instruction and example. 
 By the INIadras system, the school is arranged into classes composed of children of 
 the nearest degrees of proficiency ; and, as soon as any of the boys begin to evince any 
 superiority over the others, they are placed out of the reach of their inferiors ; that is, at 
 the head of the class. By the circulating system, on the contrary, all the children in the 
 circle are continually changing places; and, instead of merit being indicated by the 
 position of a boy at the head of his class, it is marked by the number of times that he 
 has circulated round it ; he receiving a badge marked with a fresh number every time 
 he passes a certain pole fixed in the ground for that purpose ; and at the conclusion of 
 every week the boys possessing the highest numbers become entitled to medals. But 
 we refer the reader to the interesting little work of jMr. Stoat before-mentioned, § 1517, 
 which deserves to be in the hands of every teacher whose mode of conducting his school 
 is founded on the Madras system ; indeed, in the hands of all teachers whatever. We 
 have, in perusing this work, been delighted to find so much improvement introduced by a 
 single individual into a system which was before considered to be nearly perfect. We 
 have had a plan taken of Mr. Stoat's school, fig. 1380. It occupies, including the yards, 
 about an acre of ground, and contains a master's house, a boy's school and yard, a girls' 
 school and yard, an extra-school for either boys or girls, and a master's garden. Here are 
 a gravel court of entrance, a ; school for boys, 6, -vrith its yard, c ; a school for girls, d ; 
 with its yard, e ; an extra-school for supernumeraries, or for teaching particular sub- 
 jects, /. The master's house contains a kitchen lighted from a skylight, p ; a back- 
 kitchen lighted in the same manner, h ; a committee-room, i ; and parlour, k ; besides 
 closets and other conveniences on the ground floor, and four bed-rooms over. There is 
 an entrance porch, Z, to the boys' school, and another, m, to that of the girls. There is 
 a large garden, exclusively for the use and enjoyment of the master and mistress, n. The 
 dimensions of the schools, d and b, are forty-eight feet by thirty-six feet ; and in each of 
 
MODEL DESIGNS FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 
 
 733 
 
 1380 
 
 5 7 f " / 
 
 brIH 
 
 /i^.liiiilimL 
 
 1 
 
 them may be taught 400 children. The circles round v hich the children are to stand 
 are drawn on the floor with chalk : there are writing-de ;k . 
 round the walls as in the Madras school in Baldwin's Gar- 
 dens, fig. 1377, and writing is also taught on slates. The 
 schools are well lighted from the south-east and north-west ; 
 and in the roof are ventilators formed in the manner shown 
 in fig. 1381, in which the iron spindle which supports a 
 board, or the pane of glass, p, is raised by two lines, 
 
 9? passing 
 
 over the pulleys, r, when the card, s, is pulled by a person 
 standing on the floor of the school. The weight forming the 
 handle, t, is such as to balance the ventilator in whichever 
 position it may be placed. 
 
 1533. By the Lancasterian System the children are placed 
 in lines across the room, with a form and desk to each line, 
 and are chiefly taught in one mass when so placed; but 
 they are also taught in small classes in the form of semicircles 
 round the room. The desiderata for a school to be taught 
 on this system have been given in a very complete manner 
 'n an appendix to the work, already named, entitled Manual 
 of the Model Schools of the British and Foreign School Society^ 
 from which we shall make a succinct abridgment. 
 
 1534. The Situation of the School should be retired and 
 quiet, and the ground high, and open to the south. To 
 preserve the pupils from the inconvenience of cold and 
 damp, it will be better to raise the ground two or three feet 
 above the surrounding level. There should be a play-ground 
 or yard, in which the children may assemble before they 
 
 go into school, or during the hours of recreation. The soil of this yard should he of 
 gravel, to the depth of one foot. It should be enclosed by a wall of suitable heigLt, and 
 have a communication with the street or road, without passing through the school-room. 
 There ought to be a good supply of fresh water, either from a pump, or a cask or cistern, 
 with conveniences for the children to wash their hands and flices. One side of the vard 
 
734} COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 should be furnished with seats, and a part covered, in order to protect the children from 
 inclemency of weather. 
 
 1535. General Arrangement of the Schoolroom. The schoolroom should be a paral- 
 lelogram, the length about twice the breadth. The height of the walls should be pro- 
 portioned to the length of the room, and may be varied from eleven to nineteen feet. 
 They should be worked fair, and lime- whitened, in order to give a neat and clean appear- 
 ance, reflect light, and contribute to the preservation of health. There should be a con- 
 siderable number of windows, each of which should be fixed in a wooden frame, and 
 movable upon pins or pivots in the centre, so that, by drawing the upper part into the 
 room, the lower part may project outwards, so as to admit air above and below ; by which 
 means the school may be suflSciently ventilated in hot weather. The lower parts of the 
 windows should be at least six feet from the floor, in order that the light may not be 
 inconvenient, and the wall be at liberty for the boards or placards containing the reading- 
 lessons, &c., which are attached to it : if piers or buttresses are required, they should be on 
 the outside of the wall. Fig. 1382 is a plan of a Lancasterian school for 304 children. 
 It is sixty-two feet six inches long, and thirty-four feet wide, inside measure. It contains 
 nineteen tbrms, a, for holding sixteen children each ; and with a desk, b, to each form. 
 There is a platform at one end, c ; a desk for the master, d ; and twenty-eight semi- 
 circles, e, for small classes of nine children each. The situation of the monitor-general 
 is at /; of the monitor of the writing classes at g ; and of the monitors of inspection at 
 h. The diameter of the semicircles is four feet, and the passage between the wall and 
 the forms five feet ; i i are two doors opening into the adjoining road or street ; and k, a 
 door opening into the play-ground. The roof should be slated on boards, in order to 
 prevent the reverberation of sound which is frequently occasioned by plastered ceilings. 
 When this reverberation takes place, it may always be checked by suspending pieces of 
 baize from the ceiling, from one side of the room to the other ; and these may be so 
 festooned as to form an agreeable drapery. Openings, with sliding covers for ventilation, 
 should be formed under the eaves. All projections in the walls, as well as pillars to 
 support the roof, ought to be avoided ; for they interfere with the arrangement of the 
 school, and obstruct the view of the master and of visiters. If pillars are necessary, they 
 should be placed at each end of the desks, but never in the middle of the room. The 
 floor may be paved with bricks or tiles, or prepared with a mixture of clay, slacked lime, 
 and scales of iron from a smith's forge. The earth being previously levelled and conso- 
 lidated by a heavy roller, or by ramming, the mixture should be applied, and well beaten 
 down. Wooden or stone floors are objectionable, on account of the noise they produce 
 by the trampling of the feet. 
 
 1536. A good Flooring may be formed of Roman cement, cast into flags, and jointed 
 with the same material ; it is perfectly dry and durable, and emits but little sound, 
 
 1537. In order that all the Children may he completely seen hy the Master, it is of great 
 importance that the floor should be an inclined plane, rising one foot in twenty from the 
 master's desk, to the upper end of the room, where the highest or eighth class is situated. 
 At the lower end is the platform, elevated, in proportion to the length of the room, from 
 two to three feet. The length and breadth of the platform must be in proportion to the 
 size of the room. The centre of the platform is the place for the master's desk ; and on 
 each side there may be a small desk for the principal monitors. 
 
 1538. The Entrance-door should be on the side of the platform, in order that visiters, 
 on entering the school, may have a commanding view of all the children at once. 
 
 1539. The School may he warmed, whatever may be its size, by means of one or two 
 stoves placed at the extremities of the apartment. But the most uniform temperature 
 is obtained by steam or hot water, when conducted along the lower parts of the room, 
 through pipes ; or by heated air conveyed into the room through tubes communicating 
 with a stove, which is surrounded by a close casing of iron, having a sufficient space for 
 a current of fresh air to be brought in through a tube : the current of air coming in 
 contact with the stove, and the outside of the flue, or iron chimney, which passes through 
 the casing, is heated, and may be discharged into the room by means of iron pipes. 
 This method has been found to answer extremely well. 
 
 1540. The Forms and Desks occupy the middle of the room, a passage being left 
 between the ends of the forms and the wall, five or six feet broad, where the children 
 form semicircles for reading. 
 
 1541. The Forms and Desks must be fixed firmly in the ground ; the legs or supports 
 should be six inches broad and two inches thick : but cast-iron legs are preferable, as 
 they support the desk-board with equal firmness, occupy less room, and have a much 
 neater appearance : their number, of course, will be in proportion to the length of the 
 forms. A form twenty feet long will require five ; and they must be so placed, that the 
 supports of the forms may not be immediately opposite to those of the desks. The 
 corners of the desks and forms are to be made round, in order that the children may not 
 hurt themselves. 
 
MODEL DESIGNS FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. ^S5 
 
 1382 
 
 10 5 0 10 
 
 1542. The Desks of the Writing Classes are arranged next after those of the first or 
 sand class (those who write in sand) : they are to be four inches higher than the latter. 
 The forms are six inches broad, and sixteen inches in height. The desks are inclined 
 planes, rising two inches : they are nine inches broad, and are furnished with beads along 
 the least elevated sides, in order to prevent the slates from falling and being broken. At 
 
736 COTTAGE, FAllM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 tlie right-hand extremity of all the desks a board is fixed perpendicularly in the ground, 
 and nailed against the further side of the desks. This board is of the same breadth as 
 tlie desk, and rises about one foot and a half above it. Upon this the dictating lessons 
 and class marks are to be hung. 
 
 1543. Telegraphs arc small boards, six inches long and four inches broad. One of 
 these boards is attached to each class, except the first. Upon one side of the board is 
 inscribed the number of the class, and on the other the letters E X. The telegraphs 
 are made to turn freely on an iron rod, about twelve inches in height, the other end of 
 which is firmly screwed into the perpendicular standard at the end of the desk : by fur- 
 nishing the top of each of these standards with a screw nut, the telegraphs may be changed 
 from one to another, as occasion requires. 
 
 1544. Drawers for the Peiicils. In schools situated in a country where slate pencils 
 are dear, it is best not to allow the children to take away the pencils with them when 
 they leave tlie school : the pencils may in that case be deposited in drawers placed under 
 the first desk of each class. 
 
 1545. Semicircles for Reaaing. On the floor of the passages, semicircles are formed 
 opposite to the wall : they may consist of a wooden or iron hoop sunk in the ground to 
 the level of the pavement, or be marked by an incision in the floor, which will be found 
 to answer better. Round these semicircles the children are to be arranged for reading. 
 The diameter of each semicircle must be four feet, and a space of two feet and a half 
 should be left between each of tliem. The passages, in a school of more than three hundred 
 children, should be six feet broad ; in a school of from one hundred to three hundred 
 children, the breadth of these passages should be five feet ; in a very small school, the 
 desks may be brought close to the wall on one side, and passages of five feet left on the 
 others. Each semicircle will contain nine cliildren, or from that to twelve, if they 
 stand close to each other. When the number of children in attendance is greater than 
 can be accommodated in the passages of the school, one or two classes may remain in their 
 seats, and continue at those exercises which are performed sitting; or they may be ar- 
 ranged in small divisions between the desks, by suspending the lesson on a movable 
 standard, which mav be inserted in a staple fixed at the edge of some of the desks, at 
 convenient distances ; but it rarely happens that this is necessary, as experience proves 
 that a considerable number of the children are always absent, on account of illness, and 
 from various other causes. 
 
 1546. Slates and Pencils are substituted in these schools for paper and pens, which are 
 only used by those children who have made considerable proficiency in writing. This 
 plan is economical ; and greatly accelerates the progress of the children. The slates 
 should be of an even grain, ground flat, and polished ; the red slate is generally harder 
 than the blue, and answers remarkably well. The jiencils must be made of the softest 
 kind of slate, that they may be more easily pointed, and leave a fuller and clearer mark ; 
 the flat slate, being harder, grinds off a portion of the pencil at every stroke. The slates 
 are to be about a quarter of an inch in thickness, and without frames. The slates of the 
 second, third, fourth, and fifth classes are five inches broad and eight inches long ; those 
 of the sixth are five inches broad and nine inches long ; those of the seventh class are 
 five inches broad and eleven inches long ; and the slates of the eighth class are five inches 
 broad and twelve inches long. All these slates have a hole made in them, through 
 which is passed a piece of string, Avell twisted, by which they may be suspended. The 
 length of this double string is from three to five inches : they are hung upon round- 
 headed screws. These screws are fixed upon all the desks in the school, except those of 
 the first class, at the distance of half an inch from the highest edge ; and serve to mark 
 the seats of the pupils, opposite which they should be placed. The distance between 
 two screws should be eighteen inches, or fifteen inches, if no more space can be allowed 
 to each child. The first screw in every desk should be placed at half the distance 
 allowed to each child, or at nine inches from the end ; in this manner every pupil will 
 have his slate suspended opposite to him. It is found convenient, in some schools, to fix 
 a rail under the desk board, at about two inches from its under surface, for the purpose 
 of holding the slates. In small schools, where it is necessary to fix the desks very close 
 to each other, with the view of saving room, this arrangement is indispensable. 
 
 1547. Paper, Pens, and Ink. Most of the pupils in the eighth class write occasionally 
 upon paper. They must each of them, therefore, be provided with a copy-book and pens : 
 these, as well as penknives, may be distributed as rewards. The copy-books are placed 
 in a drawer of the master's desk. 
 
 1548. Copies for Writing. The children who write in copy-books are all provided 
 with engraved copies, which they are to endeavour to imitate. These copies should be 
 very short ; one or two lines are sufficient : they are pasted upon thin pieces of wood, 
 to preserve them. The copies give examples of large or small letters, and of words 
 written in large or small hand, or in running hand. 
 
MODEL DESIGNS FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 
 
 737 
 
 1549. Alphabet Board. This board is from twenty to thirty feet long, and two feet 
 broad. The letters of the alphabet, both large and small, are painted on it, in the 
 writing character. The large letters should be written in one line, on the upper part of 
 the board, and the small ones immediately under them. The board is painted white, 
 and the letters black. The board should be fixed against the wall of the room, behind 
 the master's platform, and at such an elevation as to be conveniently seen by all the 
 children in the school. 
 
 1550. Lesson Boards, ^c. All the lessons used in the school are printed on sheets of 
 paper, in a large type, and pasted on each side of boards half an inch in thickness. The 
 boards for the smaller dictating lessons have handles by which they may be held, and 
 which preserve them from being torn or soiled. When these boards are not in use, 
 they are suspended in regular order, according to their numbers, from screws, which are 
 fixed in a rail, attached to the walls of the schoolroom, at the height of six feet from 
 the floor. This rail should be six inches wide, and one inch thick. A second rail is 
 fixed against the wall, parallel to the above, of the same dimensions, and at the height of 
 four feet from the floor : on this rail the lessons are to be suspended when the children 
 are reading : a pointer, and a badge for the first boy, are also hung on this rail, at 
 each semicircle or reading station. 
 
 1551. Badges and Class Marks. Each class is furnished with a set of these marks : 
 they are small labels, which describe the offences common in all schools, as " Talking 
 Mark," " Idle Mark," " Dirty Mark," &c. There are also badges of approbation, as 
 " Good Mark," '< First Mark," &c. These marks and badges are pasted on boards, and 
 suspended from the standard at the head of each class. By the help of these marks, the 
 monitors are enabled to report to the master the good or bad conduct of the children 
 under their care, without leaving their places, or neglecting their classes. 
 
 1552. Class Lists. These lists are used to mark the attendance of the children at 
 school, and show to what class they belong : they are fixed on boards in such a manner 
 as to be easily removed without defacing them, in order that they may be preserved 
 when filled up : they are suspended in a convenient place in the schoolroom. 
 
 1553. Pointers are small sticks used by the reading monitors, to direct the attention 
 of the children while reading ; they are about two feet in length, and their termination 
 should be round, in order that the children may not hurt themselves. One of these 
 pointers is suspended on the lower rail, against the school wall, at every reading station. 
 
 1554. The Bell. A small hand bell is used to direct the movements of the children, 
 in order as much as possible to avoid verbal commands : it should be placed on the 
 master's desk. It is also desirable that a large bell should be fixed on the outside of the 
 building, to assemble the children at the appointed hours. 
 
 1555. The Wliistle. The master makes use of a whistle to enjoin silence. This should 
 be placed on the master's desk. 
 
 1556. The Clock. A clock should be fixed to the wall behind the master's desk. 
 
 1557. Registers and Report Books. These are foiu- in number: 1st, Register of can- 
 didates for admission ; 2d, Alphabetical or school register ; 3d, Report of daily attend- 
 ance ; 4th, Report of attendance on religious worship on Sundays : besides which, 
 sundry small books are kept in the master's desk, as reward books, a book to receive 
 the names of visiters, the inspector's report book, &c. 
 
 1558. The Library. The school should have a collection of entertaining and instruc- 
 tive books, chosen by the committee, which may be lent to the best pupils in the school, 
 as a reward for their good conduct. The library is placed upon the platform behind 
 the master's desk. 
 
 1559. General Rules for fitting up Schoolrooms. 
 
 1. The space or passage between a form and the desk is one foot. 
 
 2. The horizontal space between a desk and its form is three inches. 
 
 3. The breadth of a desk is nine inches ; the breadth of a form six inches. 
 
 4. The height of a desk is twenty-eight inches ; the height of a form is sixteen inches. 
 
 5. Every child, being seated upon his form, is allowed a space of eighteen inches 
 
 in length of the desk. 
 
 6. The passage between the walls and the ends of the forms and desks, is from 
 
 five to six feet. 
 
 1560. Dimensions of a Scheolroom for 500 Children, the same Rule to be followed f 01 
 a larger Number. Length, eighty feet and a half ; breadth forty-two feet. Viz., length 
 of platform, six feet ; passages, twelve feet ; twenty-five desks, two feet and a half each, 
 sixty-two feet and a half: total length, eighty feet and a half. Breadth of passages on 
 both sides, twelve feet ; length of desks, thirty feet : total breadth forty-two feet. Allow- 
 ing eighteen inches to each child, one desk will hold twenty : 20 by 25 equal to 500. 
 
 1561. Dimensions of a Schoolroom for 400 Children. Length, seventy-five feet and a 
 half; breadth, thirty-seven feet and a half. Viz., length of platform, six feet; passages, 
 
 4 p 
 
738 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 twelve feet; twenty-five desks two feet and a half each, fifty-seven feet and a half: total 
 length, seventy-five feet and a half. Breadth of passages, twelve feet ; length of desks, 
 twenty-five feet and a half: total breadth, thirty-seven feet and a half. Allowing eighteen 
 inches to each child, one desk will contain seventeen ; which, multiplied by seventy-three, 
 gives 391 seats; a number sufficiently near, since, as before mentioned, some children, in 
 every school, are always absent, from sickness or other causes. 
 
 1562. The Dimensions of a School for 300 Children are sixty-two feet and a half by 
 thirty-four feet, inside mejisure. The space is thus disposed of : length of the platforiTi, 
 five feet ; passages, ten feet ; nineteen desks, two feet and a half each, forty-seven feet and 
 a half: total length, sixty-two feet and a half Breadth of passages, ten feet ; length of 
 desks, twenty-four feet : total breadth, thirty-four feet. As each desk will contain sixteen 
 children, nineteen of them will seat 304. 
 
 1563. The Dimensions of a Lancasterian School for 200 Children should be Fiftij-five 
 Feet long and Twenty-eight Feet broad. Viz., platform, five feet ; passages, ten feet ; sixteen 
 desks, two feet and a half each, forty feet : total length, fifty-five feet. Breadth of pas- 
 sages, ten feet ; length of desks, eighteen feet : total breadth, twenty-eight feet. As each 
 desk will contain twelve children, sixteen will contain one hundred and ninety-two. 
 
 1564. For a School to contain 150 Children, the length should be fifty-two and a half 
 feet, and the breadth twenty-five feet. The width of the i)latform and of the passages, 
 in this case, are the same as in the last two ; and the length of the desk will, therefore, be 
 fifteen feet. The width occupied by each desk, including its form, being two feet and a 
 half, there will be fifteen desks for ten children each. 
 
 1565. For a School to contain 72 Children the ground i)lan may be thirty feet long, 
 and eighteen feet wide, inside mccisure, arranged as in lig. 1383. 
 
 1383 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2. 
 
 1566. For a ViUage School to contain 40 Children, the inside dimensions may be 
 sixteen feet by sixteen feet ; and it may be furnished with a master's desk, fig. 1384, a ; 
 five desks, each eleven feet long, 6 ; and four class circles, c. 
 
 156?. The Expense of building a 5cAooZroom will vary in different places, accordmg to 
 the price of materials, and other circumstances. A very complete bnck schoolroom, with 
 a slaved roof, capable' of containing 300 children, has been built, m the ne.^M,ourhoo^^^ 
 of London for about £400. As the difficulty m raismg ftinds for the buildings has 
 been one of the great impediments to the establishment of these schools, we recommend 
 the following plan, which has been successfiiUy acted upon. ,„ntract for the 
 
 1568. Tontine System of School-building. When the amount of the contract tor the 
 intended building is ascei4ned, let the sum be divided into a certain J-b-^^^^^^^^^^^ 
 each of which shall bear an interest of £5 per cent during the hfe of the subscriber 
 Tut at hildeath, the principal is to fall into the school fund, and his proportion of interest 
 L to L pi^^^^^^^^^ s'urvivL. Suppose the total ^-^Jf%^^lfZsZZ sho^ldt 
 scribers of £lO each ; the total charge of interest would be £25, and this sum should be 
 ::"A^eLr.ong the survivoi? equally, until the remaining ^^^^^^^^ 
 the rate of £25 per annum upon his ^^10 share. All the parties should have security 
 
MODEL DESIGNS FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 
 
 739 
 
 Upon the building, and this security would become more and more valuable in proportion 
 to the decease of the subscribers. There mixst, of course, be a limitation as to the age 
 of the person subscribing. 
 
 1569. Expense ofjitting-up a School for 120 Boys. 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 12 desks and forms, 12 feet long, with legs complete 12 : 0 : 0 
 
 Sleepers in the floor, for them to rest upon, and to be fastened to 1 : 0 : 0 
 
 100 lesson-boards, at 4d. each 1 : 13 : 4 
 
 Master's desk ^ - 0 '• 0 
 
 4 windows, 3 feet by 4 feet, glazing and framing 4 : 0 : 0 
 
 Total £19 : 13 : 4 
 
 1570. The Annual Ex- 1384 
 pense of Schools upon the 
 Lancasterian Plan will consist 
 principally of the following 
 items: rent, master's salary, 
 lessons, slates, &c. (which will 
 cost about £^15 per annum for 
 a school of 400 or 500 chil- 
 dren), rewards, fuel, &c. 
 
 1571. The Expense of 
 educating a Child is from 
 4s. 6d. to 12s., according to 
 the size of the school ; for, as 
 the salary of the teacher is 
 the principal expense, and as 
 one only is required in any 
 .case, the larger the number 
 of children the smaller the 
 charge will be per head. 
 One set of lessons, &c., wiU, 
 if carefully used, be sufficient 
 for the use of schools of from 
 100 to 500 children, for 
 several years. (Manual of 
 the British System, &c. p. 79.) 
 
 1572. A Country School, whether for infants or other children, but more especially 
 in the latter case, ought always to be accompanied by a certain extent of garden ground ; 
 in order that all childi-en may be taught experimentally something of botany, and of the 
 universal arts of gardening and agriculture. A girls' school should, in our opinion, 
 always be accompanied by a kitchen completely fitted up with a stewing-hearth, roasting 
 or baking oven, &c., in order that they may be taught experimentally the most useful 
 part of cookery, the art of making the most of human food. Besides a garden, we 
 would have a large apartment, in which should be placed various descriptions of tools and 
 benches, to teach the boys the more conunon mechanical exercises, particularly those Oi 
 carpentry and masonry. Adjoining the girls' kitchen there should be a washhouse and 
 laundry, in which the arts practised in these places should be taught them ; and in the 
 general schoolroom they might be taught all the different kinds of sewing and making 
 clothes, and every other description of housewifery. 
 
 1573. The Extent of Garden Ground which ought be attached to a country school 
 ' will vary according to circumstances ; but, to contain a tolerable collection of usefiil 
 
 plants, and to afford space for displaying different kinds of culture, it should, in the very 
 smallest schools, never be less than half an acre. The childi'en may be taught the 
 names of the plants, their natural history, and the different operations of culture, with 
 the scientific reasons on which these operations are founded. Pursuits of this kind are 
 so congenial to man, that very little instruction would be sufficient; and it might 
 generally be given rather as a reward for good conduct than as a task. Believing, as 
 we do, that the happiest state of society is that in which the majority, whether em- 
 ployed in agriculture, manufactures, or commerce, shall possess each a house, and a small 
 portion of land, either adjoining it or detached from it ; and believing, also, that the 
 progress of things is approaching to this state even in Britain, we attach considerable 
 importance to the instructing of the rising generation in these ptirsuits ; not only as 
 tending to create in them a desire for this state of things, but to fit them for the enjoy- 
 ment of it when obtained. In Wirtemberg and Bavaria, where the system of parochial 
 schools is far in advance of those in any part of Britain, land is attached to every school- 
 
740 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 house, and the children, all of whom are obliged to be kept at school from infancy to the 
 age of puberty, are not only taught agriculture and gardening by catechisms and other 
 books, but practically in the parish garden. Much might be written on this important 
 subject ; but we have no wish to say more here, than to awaken the attention of the 
 Architect to the requisites for a country school and its appendages. He will find farther 
 details in our pamphlet De$ Etahlissemens pour V Education puhlique en Baviere, et dans le 
 Wirtemherg, et a, Bade, &c., published at Paris, in 1829, and to be had of Treuttel and 
 Wiirtz, London ; and to our article entitled Parochial Institutions ; or, an Outline of a 
 Plan for a National Education Establishment, &c., in the Gardener's Magazine, vol. v. 
 p. 692. 
 
 Sect, II. Miscellaneous Designs for Parochial Schoola. 
 
 1574. Our Miscellaneous Designs for Parochial Schools are few, principally because 
 we have already said so much on the subject in our section on Model Designs. 
 
 Design I, — A Parochial School, in two Stories, fur 400 Children, with a House for the 
 
 Master and Mistress. 
 
 1575. The Object of this Design is to show how the accommodation required may be 
 obtained by placing one schoolroom over another, and the whole executed in an 
 economical manner, and at the same time with some regard to architectural style. The 
 Design has been executed, and it was furnished to us by its Architect, I. J. Kent, Esq., 
 of London ; a gentleman who has made himself fully master of the subject of scliools, 
 both by study and the examination of the princii)al erections of this kind in Eng- 
 land. Mr. Kent has besides designed and superintended the execution of some of the 
 handsomest and best schools about London. We shall give elevations of the Design 
 before us, and leave the young Arcliitect to put them in perspective for himself; but, to 
 give the general reader an idea of the effect of Mr. Kent's style, we shall place before 
 him fig. 1386, which is a perspective view, by IMr. Kent, of the Paddington Charity School* 
 built from one ot his designs, with the exception of the porch, which was omitted on 
 account of the expense. 
 
 1576. Accommodation. The ground plan, fig. 1385, shows, a, an enclosed yard, with 
 three covered privies open in front, for the girls, and one ditto, with a door, for the mistress; 
 b, a similar yard with privies for the boys, and for the master. The drainage from the 
 yard, e, also all the water from the roof of the building, are carried through these privies ; 
 by which means, and by water laid on to the master and mistress's privy, they are kept 
 clean and sweet. This will be more distinctly seen in the plan of the foundations. The 
 roofs of the privies are flat, and covered with plain tiles, in cement. There is a small 
 yard, c, for fuel, 8 feet by 8 feet 6 inches, to which access is obtained by the door from 
 the yard, a, or through the kitchen door, o ; d, is a small yard for fuel, to supply the 
 boys' school ; e is a yard for the girls to assemble in, the entrance being on the south 
 side, /. This yard will be found useful in the summer time for the girls to go into in 
 the afternoon, when the heat of the weather is found oppressive in their schoolroom, it 
 being on the upper floor ; f, entrance for the girls from the road or street ; g, stone 
 staircase leading into the girls' school ; h, jwivate staircase leading to the dwelling apart- 
 ments for the master and mistress : under the two staircases, g and h, is a kitchen, 9 feet 
 6 inches square, with a cistern, sink, dresser, fireplace, &c., as shown in the plan of 
 the foundations, fig. 1389; i is a committee-room, 21 feet by 13 feet; and, when not 
 wanted for that use, the large folding doors, r, may be opened, and the room used as 
 part of the boys' schoolroom, k. The boys' schoolroom, k, is 44 feet by 32 feet, and 
 1 1 feet 6 inches high ; the windows are placed high, 6 feet from the floor, so as to leave 
 the full use of the walls under them for desks, forms, and hats. The windows open up 
 to the level of the ceiling, and are hung on pivots, thereby affording a thorough venti- 
 lation above the boys' heads : they are placed facing the south and north, in order that 
 the extreme heat of the afternoon sun shall not be fuU upon them ; there being abun- 
 dance of light without the large window in the west front, should the heat from it be 
 found oppressive ; I, a yard for the boys to assemble in ; m, entrance to the boys' school 
 from the yard, I ; n, gateway or entrance from the road or street, for the boys in the west 
 front. These entrances are placed in the different fronts, to prevent, as much as pos- 
 sible, the boys and girls associating together, when they assemble morning and evening 
 before the school hom-s. The yards enable the children to assemble in an enclosed space, 
 thereby preventing them being a nuisance to the neighbours. The kitchen under the 
 staircases, g and h, is lighted by the doorway and window, o. The closets, p, on the half 
 space of the staircase, h, are for the use of the master and mistress. On a stone, s, 
 on a brick trimmer (brick arch), is placed a stove, with a pipe through the floor 
 above, into the upper or girls' school, to which it has been found to afford suflScient heat. 
 
PAROCHIAL COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 
 
 1385 
 
 741 
 
 The upper floor, fig. 1387, shows a stone staircase, a, from the girls' school down to the 
 yard, it should be formed of granite or Colalla stone (a quarry of sandstone, of great 
 hardness, in Fifeshire), for the sake of durability ; 6, wooden staircase up to the bed-rooms 
 
COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
PAROCHIAL COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 
 
 743 
 
 1387 
 
 for the master and mistress . c, sitting-room, 13 feet by 11 feet 6* inches and 8 feet high> 
 with a fireplace ; d, bed-room, 13 feet 
 by 9 feet 6 inches ; e, upper or girls' 
 school, 12 feet 6 inches high at the 
 sides, and 18 feet high at the ridge, 
 as shown in the section, fig. 1388 ; f, 
 stove, with iron pipe from the stove 
 in the lower or boys' school. The 
 girl's schoolroom, in addition to the 
 windows, is ventilated by circular 
 lights filled with lufFer-boards in the 
 pediments ; by which the heated air, 
 that would otherwise accumulate 
 among the rafters and other timbers 
 of the roof, will be carried off. 
 
 1577. Construction. In the plan 
 of the foundations, fig. 1389, are seen, 
 a, the drain built in cement to the 
 girls' privy ; 6, the di'ain to the boys' 
 privy; c, drain from the girls' yard, 
 or play-ground; d, cesspool to the 
 privies; e, drain from the boys' yardj 
 f, drain from the foundations of the 
 committee-room; g, drain from the 
 sink in the underground kitchen ; h, 
 dresser and shelves in the kitchen ; i, 
 foundations for four cast-iron pillars 
 to support the girders of the floor of 
 the girls' school ; and k, foundations 
 for the sleepers. Fig. 1 388 is a section 
 on the line A B, in the ground plan, 
 fig. 1386, in which are shown, g g, 
 masses of concrete, 2 feet 6 inches 
 deep, and 2 feet wider than the bottom 
 of the footing, to be used where the 
 foundation is of soft wet clay ; h, cast- 
 iron columns, 3 inches and a half in 
 diameter, to support the girders and 
 
 floor of the upper schoolroom ; i, yard fence wall, a brick and a half or 13 inches and 
 a half thick for 2 feet above the ground, and above that one brick or 9inches thick, with 
 piers of the width of the lower part of the wall, at the distance of 8 feet centre from 
 centre; ^ is the floor of the boys' schoolroom ; I, the floor of the girls' schoolroom; and 
 
744 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 1389 
 
 c 
 
 " — " 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 the left the door into the boys' assembUng yard. Fig. 1391 is the south or exterior 
 elevation of one side. . . , i ^ i £ :cV,:„«. 
 
 1578. Specification of sundry works to be done m erecting and completely finishing 
 a charity school, including a residence for the master; for the committee of managers ot 
 
PAROCHIAL COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 
 
 the charity school, in , conformably to the drawings made and to 
 
 be made for that purpose, and agreeably to this description ; and under the direction and 
 to the satisfaction of the said committee or their surveyor. 
 
 1579. The Contractor to find all and every kind of material, labour, workmanship, 
 scaffolding, carriage, &c., necessary, proper, and requisite for the due execution of all and 
 every part of the works ; and no alterations that may be made in any part thereof shall 
 set aside the contract, but shall be added to or deducted from the contract, as the case 
 may be ; and the said additions or deductions shall be measured and valued, in proportion 
 to £ per rod, for the best stock brickwork ; per foot cube, for the 
 best Memel fir timber, framed and fixed in the building ; and per foot superficial, 
 for l^-inch deal, wrought both sides, and fixed. 
 
 1580. The whole of the works must be executed with the best materials of their respec- 
 tive kinds, and in the most substantial and workmanlike manner, and the rooms, &c., 
 scoured and cleaned down, the chimneys cored (the sweep sent up them, to clear out 
 pieces of mortar, &c., left in building), the windows cleaned, and the whole building left 
 perfect and complete. The contractor to pay the district surveyor his fees, and all fees 
 and expenses on entering the sewer (if within the operation of the Metropolitan Building 
 Act, but not the expense of building the sewer), and fees for laying on water, &c. 
 
 1581. Digger. Dig, wheel away to a distance of fifty yards on an average, spread and 
 level, as may be required, the ground from the whole surface to be covered by the school 
 building, and yards for it and for the privies, the depth of 2 feet ; and dig out and wheel 
 away the ground for the footings to the several walls, privies, &c., of the buildings, and 
 for the garden fence walls, privies, drains, and cesspools, and to an extra-depth for the 
 kitchen, and for the foundation of steps, &c. ; and cart away all ground not required to 
 fill up the ditches, &c. Prepare, level, and ram the ground, provide and lay good gravel 
 at least 6 inches thick, well beaten and rolled over the whole surface of both yards, with 
 a fall for surface water as to be directed. 
 
 1582. Slater. Cover the roof of the building with strong duchess slates of the best 
 quality, laid with 2 and a half lap, strong copper nails, and continued eaves (the first 
 row of slates laid all along touching one another : in general the first row only breaks 
 joint with the row over it). 
 
 1583. Bricklayer. Build the walls of the several dimensions and thicknesses, and 
 with proper footings, as set forth and described in the plans, sections, &c., with good, 
 sound, hard, well burnt, stock bricks and mortar, composed of well burnt fresh Dorking 
 lime, and sharp dry seasoned road grit under ground, and with Thames sand to the 
 parts above ground, mixed in the proportion of at least one part of lime to two parts of 
 sand ; and work all the walls above tiie ground on both sides in a neat flat joint, jointed, 
 except to the committee-room and master's residence. Face the pilasters, arches, 
 plinths, tablets, chimney-shaft, &c., with the best coloured second marl bricks, picked 
 square, and cut and rub all the closers for the pilasters, &c. ; face the whole of the 
 remainder of the external work with the best coloured Cowley stock bricks, picked care- 
 fully for that purpose ; but rub and set in putty all the gauged arches to the doors and 
 wmdows with the best picked marl bricks. Properly bed all the bricks, rub them well 
 
 4 Q 
 
746 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 up full and flush in all the joints, and take care that no headers are executed with any 
 but whole bricks, except wliere absolutely necessary to use half bricks. Turn brick 
 trimmers in cement for all slabs, and turn arches over all the openings and the ends oi 
 all the girders. Bed all the door and window frames and sills in lime and hair, and point 
 them all afterwards with cement ; parget the flues with lime and brickdust cement. 
 Build all half-brickwork at the back of the windows, &c., the three upper courses of the 
 chimney-shafts, and the open drains under the privies in Parker's cement, and render 
 ditto inside. Build the garden fence walls all round the ground (which is 105 feet net 
 from east to west, and 50 feet net from north to south) of the same kind and descrip- 
 tion as is shown in the plan, fig. 1385, and in the section, fig. 1388, with one doorway 
 complete (opening to tlie intended road), in the soutli fence wall, 10 feet from the south- 
 east angle of the school building, of the same size as the one in the west garden wall 
 in the west front. Provide and fix eight cast-iron air gratings, 9 inches by 6 inches, 
 and splay off' the brickwork for ditto, to give air to the foundation. Splay oflT all the 
 reveals of the windows, &c., in the schoolrooms, and render ditto with cement. Splay off 
 very neatly the angles of the piers to the openings to the yards for the privies, and to the 
 opening for the stone staircase, &c. Render all the drains half round inside with cement, 
 and also those inside the building half round on the top. Make good (join tliem) to the 
 sewer in cement. Provide for three rods of reduced brickwork of the foregoing descrip- 
 tion to be used in the drains, walls, ^c, not set forth in the drawings; and to provide for 
 digging and carting the same, to be deducted if not re(]uired. Build a cessjwol at the 
 south end of the jjrivies in cement, and render ditto in the inside and at the bottom with 
 cement, size 2 feet G inches wide, and 7 feet long, and cover ditto with two 3-inch York 
 stones, with two manholes in ditto, 15 inches in diameter (for cleaning out or examining 
 the cesspools), and stones to fit the holes with strong iron rings let in for the convenience 
 of raising them; and fix two 3-inch York stones across the cesspool let 4 inches into 
 the sides, to form traps. Bed all the timbers that require it with lime and hair. Pro- 
 vide and fix proper iron chimney-bars to all the openings, 2 inches and a half l)y half 
 an inch. Fix 3-inch York corI)el-stones, to project 4 inches, for the ends, ^c, of all the 
 timbers, near tl.j flues. Provide and fix twelve pieces of strong iron hoop worked into 
 the fence walls at the angles, and turned up to keep on the brick on edge ; lay four courses 
 of the brickwork round all the walls of the building, and to the cross walls and to all 
 the piers, in good Parker's cement, and grouted with cement. Build counter-arches 
 under all the openings of the doorways, &c., under the ground floor. 
 
 1584. Carpenter. The whole of the timber to be good st)und Riga or Memel fir; the 
 deals good, sound, well seasoned, Christiania deals, or of etjual (juality ; and the oak to 
 be of English growth, free from knots and shakes. — Roof. Frame and fix a span roof, 
 with four sets of jjrincipals, braces, struts, i)urlins, rafters, ridge-pieces, pole-plates, &c., 
 all wrought undersides, and ])rincipal timbers chamfered, of the several scantlings set 
 forth on the plans, &c. Fix blocks at the back of all the purlins and pole-i)lates on the 
 princijjals, and on the bond, &c., well spiked. Fix on each side of the principals two 
 long double wrought-iron straj) irons i^binding plates of iron), and to go over the top of 
 the timber, 2 inches and a half by five eighths of an inch, and four ditto shorter, and to 
 run down each side of the upper principals, 2 inches and a half by five eighths of an inch, 
 secured with thirteen screw-bolts, wasliers, nuts, and screws, five eighths of an inch 
 in diameter ; and two strap irons, with strong washers, nuts, and screws, to the ends of the 
 principals, 2 inches and a half by three quarters of an inch. Fix eight |^-inch bolts, 
 nuts, screws, &c., to the wall-})lates at the angles, and four wrought-iron diagonal and 
 dragon ties (straps to tie together the wall-plates at the external angles of the building) 
 to the upper wall-plates, 3 inches by five eighths of an inch, turned down at both 
 ends. Fix four angle ties to the pole-plate, 2 feet long each way, 1 inch and a half 
 by half an inch. Fix eight bearing irons to the ends of the purlins, and four ditto to the 
 ends of the pole-plates, 3 feet 6 inches long, inch by inch, turned up and down, to carry 
 the rafters of the pediment. Fix a rounded roll for the lead on the ridge-piece, with 
 strong irons every 4 feet. Provide and fix four long raking temporary braces from the 
 wall-plates under the roof to the girders, bolted together where they pass. Cover the 
 roof with J-inch yellow boarding for slates, edges shot (planed straight), and rough- 
 planed, with tilters (tilting fillets). Lay on small joists, 4 inches by 2 inches, to the 
 pediments ; inch yellow deal for lead, with proper fillets, firrings (pieces of wood fixed 
 on the joists under the boarding, thicker at one end than at the other, to give a current 
 to the water), and rolls (pieces of wood rounded, to dress the edges of the lead over). 
 Fix inch wrought and rabbeted fascia, 6 inches wide ; and fix 1 inch and a half wrought 
 and weathered fillet scribed (to scribe is to cut the edge of a board or fillet, so as to 
 make it fit and touch every point of an irregular surface,) under the eaves of slates 
 aU round, and up the pediments ; and to fix all round under the soffit a square fillet, 
 2 inches square. Frame and fix small ceiling joists, 3 inches and a half by 2 inches. 
 
PAROCHIAL COUNTRy SCHOOLS. 
 
 under the eaves of the roof and the pediments. Frame and iix pole-plates under 
 the rafters, returned in the pediments; wall-plates throughout vmder principals and 
 joists, &c., and fix templates under girders 3 feet long, 9 inches by 5 inches; the wall- 
 plates and pole-plates, purlins, girders, and chain bond, to be in one length each, without 
 laps. Frame and fix two floors of joists for girls' and boys' school, and three floors of 
 joists for dwelling-rooms, &c., all carefully strutted and trimmed for flues, slab, stair- 
 cases, &c. ; and frame and fix ceiling joists for attics to the roof, and in the kitchen. Plane 
 on three sides, and chamfer the edges of the two girders over the boys' school, and sup- 
 port the girders with four (3 inches and a half in diameter) cast-iron columns, with 1^-inch 
 caps and bases, 6 inches and a half square, let into 6-inch York bases on piers. Frame 
 and fix quarter partitions on the one pair and the two pair floors of the house, with heads 
 and sills, principals, quarters, door-heads, puncheons, and horizontal braces, let in flush, 
 &c. Provide and fix all necessary lintels, wood bricks, centring to apertures, templates, 
 blocks, fillets, wedges, angle beads, &c., and feather-edge pieces to trimmers, and fillets, &c. 
 generally, for plasterers. Provide and fix oak wrought octagon posts in the west front, 
 3 feet high out of ground, 6 inches in diameter, and large buts to ditto, 3 feet underground 
 charred, and oak wrought arris rail framed into ditto, feet long, 4 inches by 4 inches, 
 and dig and ram holes for ditto : the boards to be prepared and stacked (horsed) by the 
 1st of September. 
 
 1585. Joiner. Floors. Lay 1 inch and a half wrought yellow straight joint batten 
 floors scribed to the brickwork, on the whole of ground floors, and in the girls' school- 
 room. Lay inch deal straight joint floors on the one pair and two pair in the master's 
 house, bordered to slabs. — Skirtings. Fix |-inch deal skirting, 4 inches and a half wide, 
 blocked (small pieces of wood fixed at the back of the skirting, to keep it a little distant 
 from the brickwork or the partition), to rooms on the two pair, and to all the closets, &c., 
 on the two pair and one pair, and inch deal quirk ogee bead skirting, 7 inches wide, with 
 narrow grounds and fillet, in the rooms of the one pair, staircases, and in the committee- 
 room. Fix narrow grounds, and moulded chair rail, round the walls of the committee- 
 room, 6 inches in girth. — Windows. Frame and fix in the window openings eighteen fir 
 wrought and framed frames, 6 inches by 3 inches ; muntins, 6 inches by 2 inches and a half ; 
 heads, 6 inches by 4 inches, lined outside with |^-inch deal, scribed and splayed. Put oak 
 wrought framed and weathered sills, 7 inches by 4 inches ; 2-inch deal splayed bar sashes, 
 the side sashes fixed, and the centre sash hung on hardened steel centres, with brass pivots, 
 &c. Put proper beads inside and out, and patent lines, brass pulleys, and hooks, &c. 
 Fix in the two pair, at the east end, a solid frame, sill, sashes, &c., hung as above, with cir- 
 cular head. Fix a large solid Venetian frame (a frame in three divisions, the two side 
 divisions being narrower than the centre one), with sill, muntins, sashes, &c., with circular 
 head, &c., at west end of boys' school. Fix in two openings in the one pair, and in one 
 opening in the kitchen, deal-cased frames, oak sunk and weathered sills, 2-inch deal ovolo 
 sashes, double hung, brass pulleys, patent lines, and iron weights. The Venetian window 
 in the one pair sitting-room to be hung with lines and weights to the centre part, as above. 
 Fix to the circular window in the two pair, to the upper part of the vrindow in the bed-room, 
 to the window in the kitchen, and to the window in the committee-room, inch deal staff 
 beaded linings, and 1 inch and a quarter wide rounded deal window boards. Fix to the 
 three other windows on the one pair, inch deal staff beaded and tongued linings, 1 inch 
 and a quarter square framed window backs, and tongued cappings. Fix one brass patent 
 sash fastening to each window. Fix on the roof over the staircase a 2-inch deal ovolo bar 
 skylight, made to open with a quadrant fastening, hinges, &c. Fix 1 inch and a quarter 
 wrought, beaded, and tongued linings, round the opening, and a narrow gutter at the 
 back. Fix in the circular opening, or bull's-eye, at the west end, a fir wrought framed 
 rabbeted and beaded circular frame, 4 inches by 4 inches ; and fix in ditto eight tiers of 
 l:^-inch deal luffer-boards, wrought, splayed, and fixed on splayed fillets. Form a 
 segment head for the plasterers in the committee-room to the window. Plane the face 
 of the plate through the east window, and fix a |-inch deal soffit to ditto. — Doors. All 
 the doors to be put together ready for wedging up by September 1st. Fix in the three 
 openings on the two pair floor, the three openings on the one pair floor, and also in the 
 two openings on the ground floor, 1 inch and a quarter double-rabbeted and double-beaded 
 linings ; those for the folding doors to be framed and moulded, with dovetailed rails for 
 ditto, and inch framed grounds and moulding round on both sides, and hang seven 2-inch 
 deal four-panel square-framed doors, with 3^-inch wrought butt hinges and screws; and 
 fix one 7-inch brass knob best three-bolt lock on each door ; and hang in the other door- 
 way in the committee-room, 2-inch deal four-panel each flush folding doors, with three 
 pair of 5-inch wrought butts. One 7-inch lock like the last mentioned, one 12-inch and one 
 3 feet I inch iron rod bai-rel bolt, with strong iron plates ; and cover the doors with strong 
 best green drugget on both sides, with gilt nails and tape, to form panels on ditto. 
 Frame and fix to the entrance in the girls' school, 2-inch deal flush and square framing, 
 
74-8 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 7 feet high, with four-panel square door to ditto, hung with 4-inch butts ; and fix on 
 ditto a 9-inch strong copper ward best drawback lock, and two keys ; the style to franoing 
 next window to be turned flat against the wall, and to be 5 inches by 2 inches, rabbeted 
 and spiked. Fix on the top l|-inch deal styles, and proper ledged flap, hung with 
 18-inch strong garnets and screws, and fastened with a strong hasp and staple. Scribe 
 and fix 1 5-inch deal lining up to the sash frame and the glass. Frame and fix in the 
 doorway to the boys' school a fir proper doorcase, 6 inches by 4 inches, let into the 
 stone steps, the head 9 inches by 4 inches, moulded outside ; and hang to the doorcase 
 2-inch deal four-panel three large beads flush and square folding doors, hung with three 
 pair of strong 5-inch wrought-iron butts and screws. Fix a 10-inch solid brass knob 
 drawback lock, with copper wards, and brass bolts, and two keys. Fix two §-inch iron 
 rod bolts, 2 feet long, with strong iron plates. Fix scribed linings round the inside, and 
 a moulding along the door head, and a solid sash frame, sill, and sashes over, hung ; the 
 whole to correspond with the other sashes, and to be framed. Fix a fir wrought framed 
 rabbeted and double-l)eaded frame to the opening of the doorway to the house, G inches 
 by 4 inches, with head 9 inches wide, weathered and moulded; and hang to ditto a 2-inch 
 deal four-panel three large beads flush and square door, with 4-inch butts, one 9-inch 
 brass knob best copper ward drawback lock, and two keys ; two 10-inch brass knob 
 strong barrel bolts. Fix over ditto a 2-inch deal square rabbeted fanlight frame, and 
 metal fan, and glass; and inside, inch staff beaded lining and moulding over the door. 
 — Closets. Frame and fix two l|-inch deal double closet fronts on the staircase, with 
 square doors, two in width ; tiie ujjper closet 7 feet high, with inch deal divisions, and 
 shelves 18 inches wide, three in each closet, and inch deal rounded top to the upper one; 
 inch deal floors and joists, l)earers, &c. ; 2^-inch butts and screws, and 3-incli brass 
 tumbler lock and key on each door (the tumbler of a lock is a piece of iron, or other 
 metal, inside the lock, to make the bolt act truly and easily) ; prepare and fix, in the 
 boys' and in the girls' school, a large closet for books, 3 feet by 1 foot 6 inches, and 
 7 feet high each, of 1^-inch deal square framed front and door, and inch deal ends, 
 wrought on both sides, and ^-inch deal back, all wrought, ploughed, and tongued, 
 &c. ; four inch deal shelves in each, and top, and bearers, 2.^-inch iron butts, and 3-inch 
 brass locks and keys to each. — Desks and Forms. Prepare and fix on each side of 
 the girls' school and of the boys' school, l^-inch deal desks and forms, witli legs and 
 bearers to the forms and desks, 5 feet apart ; a scribed fillet against the wall, and 
 14^-inch beaded rail under the desks, and ^-inch deal on each side of the forms, and 
 holes for lead inkstands, and to supply them. Fix a form only, of a similar kind, all 
 along the east end of the boys' scliool, and provide six loose unfixed forms of a similar 
 kind, each 8 feet long, for the girls' school. Provide and fix in the girls' school two 
 lengths of inch deal rail (3 inches wide), with iron pins 8 inches apart, all along over the 
 desks. Provide and fix wrouglit iron on the edges of the desks, 1 inch and a (juarter wide 
 by one sixteenth of an inch thick, screwed on. — Staircase. Fix I^-inch deal, rounded 
 treads, inch deal risers, and double carri;ige, with the steps pro])erly housed into it, 
 and the nosings returned, from the kitchen up to the two pair; 1^-inch beaded wall 
 strings and ca])ping, ramped; l^-inch deal framed raking string, rabbeted, staff-beaded, 
 cut, mitred, and sunk ; turned deal newels, red oak moulded handrail, framed strong 
 deal bar balusters, 1 ^--incli deal rounded nosings, |^-inch deal staff-beaded trimmer linings, 
 gussets (the string board continued beyond the newel up to the ceiling in a triangular 
 shape), &c. ; proper 1^-inch landings, carriage, &c. Fix inch deal boarding, ploughed 
 tongued and beaded on both sides up to the ceiling of the ground floor, and down 
 to the kitchen floor, to enclose the staircase. — Kitchen. Frame and fix 1^-inch 
 deal front, to enclose the staircase on the ground floor, with 1^-inch deal 4 inch 
 panel square door and hinges, and 7 inch lock, as to the other doors, with stops, &c. 
 Fix a 1^-inch deal dresser-top |-inch pot-board and bearers under, proper framed legs, 
 rails, and runners (pieces of wood for the drawers to slide on, and to guide them), 
 one drawer stock and two japan handles ; inch framed end and backrail ; two l^inch deal 
 sunk shelves, and cut standards, f-inch beaded fascia and top, and quirk ogee bead, 
 and bead on the dresser to keep the plates from slipping. To put l^-inch chimney- 
 shelf, with roimded corners, and two holdfasts ; 1^-inch deal, ploughed and tongued, 
 with dovetailed cistern rims and bottom, and flap ; and linings, in the ceiling floor to 
 get at ditto, carriage for ball-cock, casings for pipes, &c. — Privies. Frame and fix two 
 fir plates under flat, 6 inches by 4 inches, wrought and beaded, and l|^-inch square fillet 
 on ditto, and under ditto 1^ inch wrought and framed oak uprights 4 inches wide ; and 
 fix between the privies inch oak divisions, ploughed, tongued, and beaded, and ledged, 
 with back boards, and l^-inch oak seats and bearers, with holes cut in ditto to six privies, 
 and inch oak risers, ledged water boards and wide fillet; and fix in two privies l^-inch 
 deal scats, risers and bearers, clamped and beaded flaps and frames, |^-inch plain 
 skirtings, two inch butts, cut holes in seats, and for cocks, water pipes, &c., and fix 
 
PAROCHIAL COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 
 
 in two doorways fir proper doorcases 4 inches by 4 inches let into the stone, and 
 lintels over them, and hang two l|^-inch deal bead butt and square doors, with 
 3^-inch butts, two 4^-inch best brass-bushed dead locks ^iron locks with brass linings 
 to the keyholes) and keys, two 4-inch strong bolts. — Yards. Fix in two openings in 
 the fence walls fir proper doorcases, 6 inches by 4 inches, -with heads 2 feet longer 
 than the openings, the posts let in 2 inches into the stone sills ; and hang to ditto 
 
 2- inch deal two large reed flush and square two folding doors, 2 panels, each with 
 three pair of 4-inch wrought butts and screws to each pair; three 3 feet 10 inch strong 
 rough rod-bolts, plates, and staples, and one strong wrought-iron latch to each door- 
 way. Fix two strong stud posts and iron catches to keep the gates open. 
 
 1586. Mason. Fix sixteen Bath stone moulded caps on piers 3 feet 3 inches 
 long, 10 inches by 6 inches each, and sixteen Bath stone neckings (members which are 
 always used on the top of a column or pilaster, in Tuscan and Roman Doric orders, 
 under the cap), 2 feet 10 inches long, each 7 inches by 2 inches. Fix Portland 
 stone sills to all the window openings and blanks, 6 inches longer than the openings, 
 
 8 inches by 4 inches in one stone, sunk, weathered, and throated, and cut away bond 
 timber at back for ditto. The sill to the east and west window to be 10 inches by 
 6 inches. Fix two pieces of 4-inch York landing (an extra-sized stone laid down 
 before doors, and in the landing-places of stairs) in the openings in the fence wall, 4 feet 
 
 9 inches long, 2 feet wide each, worked fair on both edges ; and cut mortise holes (holes 
 for the projecting ends of the wooden framework) for the doorcases round corners. Fix 
 three rubbed York stone steps to the doorway into the boys' school, and three ditto to the 
 doorway to the house; each in one stone and 9 inches longer than the openings, 13 
 inches by 7 inches each, neatly rabbeted, and back-jointed to the floor ; the ends worked 
 fair, and the corners of the bottom steps rounded ; cut mortise holes, and let in scrapers 
 4 inches deep, run with lead. Fix six York steps rabbeted, 13 inches by 7 inches, 3 feet 
 9 inches long each to the yards for the privies, &c. Pave the yards for the privies, 
 and all privies and coal-yards, with 3-inch York paving in straight courses. Provide 
 two pieces of 3-inch York stone, 18 inches square, for the yards; and provide and fix 
 five 8-inch iron bell air-traps. Fix on two entrance doorways in the fence walls 3-inch 
 York coping, rubbed and throated to all the edges, 22 inches wide and 7 feet 7 inches 
 long each, in two stones bedded in cement, and double cramped with strong copper 
 cramps run with lead. Fix, for the staircase to the girls' school, Purbeck stone steps, 
 rabbeted and let into the walls. The first five steps and the four upper steps 4 feet 2 
 inches long, and the other ten flyers (straight steps in contradistinction to winders) 4 feet 
 9 inches long ; the four winders (diagonal steps for the corners) may be out of 4-inch 
 York landings, with risers of the same ; the ends to be securely pinned in with cement, the 
 bottom step to be rounded, and set on brickwork, with cut holes for iron bars. Fix two 
 
 3- inch York slabs in boys' and girls' schools for stoves, 3 feet 9 inches by 3 feet each, 
 bedded in cement, the edges rubbed fair. Fix three neat solid Portland chimney- 
 pieces, to show as profile chimneys, with l;|-inch shelf, slab, and York hearths to each, in 
 the two pair and one pair and committee-room ; and fix 2-inch rubbed York mantel and 
 jambs, 8 inches wide, in kitchen. Pave the kitchen all over with 2|-inch York paving laid 
 on brickwork two courses high. Fix a 7-inch York sink in kitchen, as shown on plan, 
 2 feet wide, cut holes for pipes, and let in bell trap, and provide and let in one 84nch iron 
 bell ail-trap, with brick shaft under ditto into drain, in cement. Provide and fix two 
 3-inch York stones in flues for pipes in boys' and girls' school, 14 inches by 9 inches, 
 fitted so as to be removed when required, and let iron pipes through ditto, and make 
 good and flanch off brickwork with cement across flue, to prevent the soot from falling. 
 Fix two York sink-st5nes, and form shafts in cement from ditto, into drain in coal-yards. 
 
 1587. Plasterer. Properly stop and lime-white twice over the walls all round in 
 boys' and girls' school, and the boarding rafters, and timbers of girls' school, the inside 
 wall and roof of the privies. Lath, lay, and float, and set, and whiten the ceilings and 
 partitions on both sides of all rooms, closets, staircase, &c., throughout the dwelling-house, 
 and the ceiling of boys' school and committee-room, and the soffit outside round building, 
 and render float and set the walls in all the rooms and closets and staircase, and stucco the 
 committee-room. The laths to the ceiling in boys' school and cominittee-room, and 
 outside soffits, to be done with lath and half- laths ; and the walls»&c., in the rooms of the 
 one pair of stairs, and the staircase, and committee-room, to be coloured drab. Cover the 
 plinth neckings and upper part of chimney shaft with Parker's cement, jointed, coloured, 
 and tinted as stone, with proper arises and throats, the tops weathered. Cover the tablets 
 at the east end with Parker's cement, and work on ditto, in raised letters, the name 
 of the present school, date of erection, &c. Cover the roof of the privies with three courses 
 of plain tiles in cement rendered top and bottom with cement, and work plain cornices 
 along both fronts, throated, and colour ditto, and form current for water, and fix two 
 cement rain-water trunks to take water into the drains. Render inside of the open dj'uin 
 
750 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 under the privy seats, all round up to the oak seats, with cement. Point up neatly with 
 cement, round all the floors in schoolrooms, and after all the tradesmen generally. Run 
 circular beads and quirks to tlie windows in two pair, and in the committee-room, and to 
 doorway of the master's entrance ; cut all the quirks ; render two coats behind all the 
 skirting, and to all the chimney openings, and lath and lay two coats beliind the skirtings 
 to all the partitions. Render with cement behind the window backs in first floor, and 
 render the face of the half-brickwork to the windows with cement, and black ditto. 
 Render and float with Parker's cement all round the walls in the kitchen, 2 feet high, 
 1^-inch thick, and colour ditto. 
 
 1588. Smith. Fix six wrought-iron bars, inch square, 3 feet long, on the steps to the 
 girls' school, and strong iron brace, and handrail ramped 2 inches and a half by five 
 eighths of an inch rounded. Fix four strong iron scrapers let 4 inches into steps ; five 
 |-inch square wrouglit-iron guard bars to the kitchen window, and top rail, 2 inches and 
 a half by five eighths of an inch. 
 
 1589. Plumber. Fix step flashing (pieces of lead flashing let into the joints of the 
 brickwork above one anotlier) 9 inches wide, round chimney shaft, of 4-pound lead, and 
 fix on the ridges milled lead, 5 pounds to the foot, 20 inches wide, dressed round the 
 roll. Strong lead-headed nails every two feet on both sides. Fix milled lead round 
 tlie skylight, 5 pounds to the foot, 14 inches wide, and gutter, 18 inches wide. Fix 
 milled lead on the base of the i)ediment at i)oth ends, G pounds to the foot, to turn up 
 4 inches, and flashing, 6 inches wide, 4 pounds to the foot, over ditto, fixed with 
 holdfasts ; put 20 dots (studs, or broad-headed tacks) to keep the lead down, line the 
 cistern in the kitchen with lead, 7 pounds to the foot at the bottom, and G pounds to 
 the foot on the sides. Lay on water from the main in the road with inch extra-strong 
 pipe and joints to sujiply the cistern, with ferrol (ferrol, in pluml)ing, is a brass tube 
 soldered to the lead j)ii)e at one end, and then driven into the main water-pipe), ball- 
 cock and ball, l^^-inch waste jiipe to the sink from the cistern, and j-inch service pipe 
 from the cistern to supply the sink, with cock and boss, 3-inch brass grate and bell 
 trap soldered in ; 2-inch waste-pipe from the sink into tlie drain ; and lay on a piece of 
 inch pipe from ti'.e service-pipe to the branch to the two best privies, with cocks to turn 
 on the seats. 
 
 1590. Glaziers and Painters. Glaze all the sashes, skylight. Sec, with good picked 
 thirds glass ; paint all the sashes and frames, sills, doors and frames, privies, outside 
 soffit and fascia, ironwork to steps, closets, skirtings, window-backs and linings, and 
 other woodwork and walls, &c., of the committee-room four times in oil and good 
 colour, but not the oak-boarding and seats in the i)rivy. Cover all the ironwork to the 
 roof, iron angle ties, &c., with boiled oil and lamp black, and paint them twice in oil- 
 colour, black. 
 
 1591. General Estimate. The actual cost of this school was £l2S7 ; and, as it con- 
 tains about 62,000 cubic feet, this gives 5d. per foot as the guess rate of such buildings in 
 the vicinity of London. 
 
 1592. liemarhs. The specification of this Design appears remarkably complete; and 
 it is the more likely to be so, because the contract was made from it, and it received its 
 last corrections from Mr. Kent, after the work was executed. Having examined the 
 school, we can answer for the excellence of the workmanship, and the completeness of 
 the system of draining, heating, lighting, and ventilation. The system of underground 
 drainage, as will be seen by reference to the foundation plan, is very complete ; and the 
 stone traps to the cesspools of the jjrivies deserve the particular attention of builders : 
 without them, all privies constructed and arranged so as to have currents of water passing 
 through them, to wash away their contents, must necessarily smell ; with them, all smell 
 is eflTectually prevented ; because, as the trap reaches down within 3 inches of the bottom 
 of the drain, there will always be water more than sufficient to prevent air from entering 
 by so small an opening. Many of the privies of the small houses in the suburbs of 
 London are intolerable, solely from the want of traps of this sort ; which, unfortunately, 
 it would cost the occupant too much to build in ; and the consequence, we have no doubt, 
 is, that the stench gives rise to various diseases. We could have wished doors to all the 
 privies without exception, for we do not like marking out a difference, even bet%veen 
 children and their teachers, in any thing that relates to coiufort or cleanliness : if a/lis- 
 tinction is to be made, it should be in things which relate only to luxury and ornament. 
 On mentioning the subject to Mr. Kent, however, he gave us a very sufficient reason for 
 the omission. The mode of covering the privies with flat roofs, formed of three courses of 
 flat tiles, laid in cement, is good, and of great strength and durability ; more especially if, 
 after laying the first coat, a week or more is allowed to elapse before the second is laid, and 
 after laying the second, two months is allowed to elapse before laying the third. The mode 
 of laying two courses of brick in cement, in the outside walls, and also in the cross walls 
 and piers, immediately under the sleepers, ought always to be followed with every building 
 
PAROCHIAL COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 
 
 751 
 
 erected on soft moist soil ; and so should the practice of forming foundations of concrete, and 
 coating over the surface under the ground floor with the same material. The iron gratings 
 in the walls, to admit of a thorough circulation of air, ought never to be omitted in similar 
 cases ; nor the excellent mode of ventilating the timbers of the roof. The principal 
 cause of the durability of the roofs of churches, and, indeed, of all buildings erected 
 above two centuries ago, is chiefly owing to the thorough ventilation given by leaving 
 the eaves entirely open ; a secondary cause may be, that, from the great abundance of oak 
 timber all over Europe about that period, the builder could make choice of the very best : 
 but, undoubtedly, the other is the principal cause. Providing yards for the children to 
 assemble in, with sufficiently high walls to exclude them from the public road, so as to 
 prevent them from being troublesome to the neighbourhood, is an excellent idea ; and, 
 from living at no great distance from this school, we can vouch for its success. Mr. Kent 
 has suggested, that, in situations whei'e the ground is dry and the drainage good, a base- 
 ment story might be got, as an infant school ; in which case the school-house would 
 consist of three floors, and would be remarkably complete. The infant school is the 
 pivot on which, in all countries, will turn the regeneration of mankind. 
 
 Design II. — A Parochial School, on One Story, for 100 Boys and 80 Girls, including a 
 Residence for the Master and Mistress. 
 1593- The object of giving this Design is to show a parochial school of moderate size, 
 duly proportioned for its uses in all its various parts, and rendered an agreeable architec- 
 tural object externally. It has also been contributed to us by Mr. Kent, and bears all 
 the marks of that gentleman's thorough acquaintance with the subject of schools, and his 
 minute practical knowledge of Architecture and building. The general appearance ot 
 this school and dwelling-house is shown in the perspective view, fig. 1394. Fig. 1392 
 
 is an elevation of the south-east front, showing the entrance to the boys' school. 
 Fig. 1393 is an elevation of the south-west front, with the entrance to the girls' school. 
 The elevation of the north-east front is exactly the same as that of the south- east front. 
 
 1594. Accommodation and Construction. The ground plan, fig. 1395, shows a porch, 
 a ; a schoolroom for boys, b, 40 feet by 15 feet, 12 feet 6 inches high at the sides, and 
 16 feet in the centre, capable of containing 100 boys, allowing 6 feet superficial for each 
 boy. This space Mr. Kent has found from experience to be sufficient, when the apartnaent 
 is so proportioned as to throw the area into the most available shape ; that is, when it is 
 either 15 feet wide, in which case it will admit of one (Madras or Stoat's) class in 
 
PAROCHIAL COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 
 
 1395 
 
 its 'mdtlT; or if it be 29 feet wide, when it will admit two classes. The windows are 
 placed 5 feet 6 inches above the floor, to allow the space under them to be occupied by desks, 
 forms, and a hat-rail. There are privies, c c, to each school ; and, if thought advisable, a 
 doorway may be made under the window of the boys' schoolroom, direct from that room 
 into the yard where the boys' privies are placed ; the same may be done with regard to 
 the girl^' school. There is a porch to the girls' school, d, which, like that to the boys' 
 school, may be enclosed with doors ; e e are places for fuel ; /, girls' school, 26 feet by 16 
 feet 6 inches, 12 feet 6 inches high at the sides, and 16 feet in the centre, capable 
 of containing 80 girls. The height of both rooms is obtained in the manner sbown in 
 section CD, fig. 1397. Both schools are to be ventilated by openings for air in the 
 gables near the ridges, by which means a current of air will be always passing into and 
 through the upper part of the roof; g, a sitting-room for the master and mistress, 13 feet 
 by 10 inches, and 9 feet high, with a fireplace and closet; h, a small bed-room, 10 feet 
 6 inches by 6 feet 6 inches, and 9 feet high, with a closet under the staircase leading to 
 a bed-room over h and g, 13 feet by 11 feet 6 inches, and 8 feet high : the sides are 
 formed into closets, as shown on the section A B, fig. 1396 ; ^ is a porch to the master's 
 dwelling ; I, a larder ; m, a place for fuel ; n, boys' play-ground ; and 0, girls' play-ground. 
 In fig. 1397, drawn to a scale of 10 feet to an inch, a a is the collar-beam which forms 
 the ceiling to the boys' school-room ; h is the king-post ; c, the ridge-piece ; d, the purlin ; 
 
 4 R 
 
J54t COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 inches thick ; k, two courses of brick laid in cement, to prevent the moisture of the 
 ground from ascending higher up the wall ; wall under the sleepers of the floormg 
 joists, 18 inches thick; m, lower footing, 2 feet 3 inches wide; n, level of the ground; o, 
 footing, 10 inches wide, to the wall, jo, 9 inches wide, which supports the sleeper, 9.- 
 
PAROCHIAL COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 
 
 This wall has also two courses laid in cement immediately under the sleeper. The joists 
 r, are of oak, 6 inches deep ; s shows the end of the chain bond, which is continued com- 
 pletely round the building at that height ; t is the cast-iron eaves guttering, and n, the 
 level of the platform. In %. 1396, a is a dry drain to keep the damp from the platform 
 off the foundation walls ; b, the door into the master and mistress's living-room ; c, the 
 door to their bed-room ; e e, two light closets off ditto ; /, garret in the roof, lighted 
 from the ends ; g, privy ; h, 9-inch drain to a liquid manure tank ; and i, the surface of 
 the platforms. 
 
 1595. Specification. — Digger. Dig out the ground over the whole surface to be 
 covered by the building to the depth of 12 inches, also for the footing which must be 
 1 2 inches deeper, and proportionately deep for the drains and cesspools. The depth of 
 these excavations must depend on the nature of the soil, which, if dry, need not be re- 
 moved deeper than what is requisite to procure the necessary quantity of earth to form 
 the terrace round the building ; but, if the soil be of a damp or soft clayey nature, it 
 should be taken out deeper for the footings of the walls, say 1 foot more ; that is, 3 feet. 
 The trenches for the footings should then be filled in with concrete (already described 
 as a composition of clean gravel and hot lime mixed with water). The proportions are, 
 one bushel of lime to five bushels of gravel ; the whole to be well mixed and thrown in, 
 then levelled, rammed, and beaten down every stratum of 9 inches in thickness. The 
 whole surface under the floor should be covered with the same composition, and rammed 
 12 inches thick. If the drainage be good, this composition wiU form an excellent bed 
 for a plaster or cement floor ; but a deal, elm, or oak floor is better, being much drier 
 and warmer for the children's feet. If the floor were formed of concrete or paved, a 
 mass of stones under it might be heated by steam or flues, as shown § 20 and § 500 ; 
 if boarded, a stove may be employed, as in Design I., or there may be two open fire- 
 places, as may be thought best. Cover the raised terrace with gravel, 6 feet wide, all 
 round the building, 9 inches thick, well rammed and rolled. 
 
 1596. Bricklayer. Build the walls of the several heights and thicknesses, and with the 
 footings as shown in the plans, &c. The walls at the south-east end of the boys' school, 
 and at the south-west end of the girls' school, to be carried up in one brick thick from 
 the level of the wall plates to the underside of the boarding of the roof, with holes in 
 them, 6 inches square and 1 8 inches apart, for ventilation under the ridges. Build all 
 the walls with a fair face on both sides, and strike the joints inside of the schoolrooms 
 flush and fair for lime-whiting, as they are not intended to be plastered. Splay off all 
 the reveals of the windows, and point up all the frames inside and outside with cement. 
 Build two courses of all the walls, piers, &c., in cement, immediately under the sleepers, for 
 the floors. Build brick piers for the sleepers, 6 feet 6 inches apart from centre to centre, 
 each pier 9 inches square, 1 foot high, with two courses of footings, 14 inches square. 
 Build 9-inch brick fenders for three fireplaces. Pave the fuel places and larder with stock 
 bricks on edge. Build 200 feet of barrel drains (cylindrical in the section), 9 inches in 
 diameter, and half a brick thick, all round the bottom of the privies, the lower half of the 
 drains to be rendered with cement. Build a dry drain round the foundations, as shown in 
 the section fig. J 396, two courses in one brick, and ten courses to form the arch in half a 
 brick, in thickness. Cover roofs of the privies, places for fuel, larder, and porches to north- 
 east and south-west fronts with three courses of plain tiles in cement. Cover the roofs of 
 the building and the south-east porch with countess slating, nailed on with copper nails. To 
 put on ornamental cement chimney-shafts, 6 feet high, with bases, and artificial stone 
 ornaments on the top of the pediments, 4 feet 6 inches high, and 7 inches square, as 
 shown in the drawings, fig. 1396, and fig. 1397. 
 
 1597. Carpenter. Frame and fix the roofs, with principal rafters, kingposts, and 
 collars (chamfered on their edges) every 6 feet 6 inches, and purlins, common rafters, 
 pole-plates, ridges, &c. Fix a wall-plate to serve as a lintel over the windows, and con- 
 tinue it all round, except where interfered with by the flues. Fix a chain-bond under 
 the window-sills, continued all round in the same way, and extra-lintels over the upper 
 windows in all the gables, to serve forbearing the ends of the purlins ; cover the rafters 
 with |-inch yellow deal boarding for slates, edge shot (planed on the edges), and planed in 
 one side, with proper tilting and slab fillets. Fix ceiling joists for the bed-room, and floor 
 joists, trimmed for the staircase and the chimney for the dwelling-rooms. Fix quarter ash- 
 lering (partitions framed in quartering for lath and plaster), to form the sides of the bed- 
 room, and to enclose the staircase. Provide and fix all necessary centring for the windows, 
 doorways, drains, &c. Fix |-inch yellow staff-beaded fascia and soffit round the roofs, 
 9 inches in girth, and cast-iron 4|^-inch semi cylindrical troughs, supported by strong 
 wrought-iron brackets. — Scantling of Timbers. Rafters, 4 inches and a half by 2 inches 
 and a quarter ; principals, 4 inches and a half by 3 inches and a half at top ; ditto, 9 inches 
 by 3 inches and a half in at bottom. Fir cut brackets, 14 inches long, 3 inches and a 
 half by 3 inches and a half. Collars, 6 inches and a half by 3 inches and half j king- 
 
7o6 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 posts, 8 inches by 3 inches and a half; purlins, 4 inches by 4 inches; pole-plates, 
 
 5 inches by 3 inches ; ridges, 9 inches by 1 inch and a half, rounded for the lead ; vaUey- 
 pieces, 1 1 inches by 2 inches. — Partitions. Head and sill pieces, 4 inches by 3 inches ; 
 posts, 4 inches by 3 inches ; quarters and braces, 4 inches by 2 inches and a half ; wall- 
 plates or lintels over the windows, 9 inches by 4 inches ; wall-plates in the return-walls, 
 4 inches by 4 inches ; chain-bond under the windows, 5 inches by 5 inches ; common 
 bond, 4 inches by 2 inches and a half ; ceiling joists, 3 inches and a half by 2 inches ; 
 sleepers and floor-joists for sitting-room, &c., 6 inches by 2 inches; floor-joists for one 
 paii-, 8 inches by 2 inches, and all to be strutted ; plates under the flooring joists, 
 4 inches by 4 inches ; quartering for ashlering, 3 inches by 2 inches and a quarter ; 
 posts to ditto, 3 inches by 3 inches. The rafters to be planed on the under side, and all 
 the other timbers of the roof on three sides. 
 
 1598. Joiner. Floors. Lay inch deal straight joint yellow deal floor, in the parlour 
 and bed-rooms of the dwelling-house, with borders to slabs. Lay 1^-inch yellow batten 
 straight joint floors in both schoolrooms, on oak joists and sleepers, 4 inches by 3 inches ; 
 the sleepers, 6 feet 6 inches apart, laid on brick piers. Fix |-inch deal skirting, 6 inches 
 and a half wide, round the dwelling-rooms and closets. — Windows. Prepare and fix 
 thirteen solid proper frames of sound yellow fir ; the sides and heads, 4 inches and a half 
 by 3 inches and a half, chamfered on one edge, and rabbeted ; the muntins to be 4 inches 
 and a half by 2 inches and a half, chamfered on two edges, and double-rabbeted ; the sills 
 to be of oak, splayed and sunk, 5 inches by 3 inches and a half Hang 2-inch deal ovolo 
 bar sashes, 4 feet 6 inches by 1 foot 6 inches each, in five squares high, and two squares 
 wide, with 3-inch butt hinges at bottom ; with a chain, staple, and hook, to each centre 
 sash, 12 inches long, so as to let them fall inwards to ventilate the room, and a 4-inch 
 bolt to each. The windows to be glazed with second crown glass. The sashes to the 
 dwelling-rooms to be hung on the sides. Fix 1-inch deal tongued and splayed and 
 staff-beaded linings to three windows, and 1^-inch rounded window-boards, 6 inches wide. 
 Fix in each of the square openings in the gables, an inch deal board, chamfered at both 
 ends, the size of the openings, with iron pivots at each end, to work in the lintel and sill, 
 and a 4-inch bolt on each. — Doors. Hang if -inch deal four-panel square doors, one in 
 the upper bed-room, and four in the lower rooms and larder, with 3-ineh butt hinges, 
 and a good 3-bolt and 6-inch knob lock on each. Fix l^-inch single- rabbeted and 
 rounded linings to the doorways, and 1-inch framed grounds, 3 inches wide, staff-beaded 
 on edge round one side. Fix to the opening from the porch a fir proper doorcase, 4 inches 
 by 4 inches, and an inch deal staflf-beaded lining round inside. Hang in the ashlering 
 of the bed-room, 3-inch deal two-panel square doors to the low closets at the eaves on 
 each side of the room, 4 feet by 2 feet each, with 2^-inch butt hinges, and turn buckle 
 latch to each ; and fix 1^-inch rabbeted and beaded linings for the doors. Fix I^-inch 
 square framed spandril and door under the staircase, and up to the ceiling, and on the 
 one pair. To enclose a closet from the lower bed-room, and put on hinges, and turn 
 buckle. Fix fir proper doorcases to the boys' school and the girls' school, 4 inches by 4 
 inches and half; and hang l:|^-inch deal ploughed and tongued and ledged doors, 
 with moulded fillets on the joints outside, with 24-inch fancy hinges, and a strong fancy 
 iron latch of Chubb's patent (a latch invented by Mr. Chubb, of St. Paul's Churchyard, 
 which cannot be picked), to answer the purpose of a lock. To fix a 1^-incli deal framed 
 and beaded closet front in the sitting-room, with square door, 2i-inch butt hinges, and 
 closet lock. To fix 3-inch deal shelves in ditto, 16 inches wide. — Privies. Fix l^-inch 
 oak seats, risers, and bearers, and divisions, 2 feet 6 inches wide, and 6 feet 6 inches high 
 each, all wrought, ploughed, tongued, and ledged. Fix two iron bars to support the brick- 
 work over the opening of the cesspool, 7 feet 6 inches long, turned up and down at both 
 ends, 3 inches deep, 1 inch thick, and 3 inches wide at the top. Fix 26 feet of oak cleft 
 fence to enclose the yards of the privies, 6 feet 6 inches high, with three strong arris 
 rails, cut out of stuflP 4 inches by 4 inches, including two doors, each hung with 24-inch 
 strong garnet hinges, and hung to fall to, and 6 feet oak posts, chamfered, 9 feet long, 
 
 6 inches by 6 inches, and spurs ; and fix oak arris capping, cut out of stuff, 3 inches by 
 3 inches. 
 
 1599. Mason. Fix four plain solid Portland chimney-pieces, with chamfered edges; 
 1^-inch Portland slabs, and Yorkshire stone hearths. Lay three solid Yorkshire stone 
 steps to the porches. Lay Yorkshire stone paving, 2 inches and a half thick, in the 
 porches, privies, and in the yards to ditto, and to the outer doors to the fuel places ; all 
 the paving to be supported on bricks, so as to be hollow underneath. Fix Bath stone 
 copings on the gables, moulded on the edges, 1 8 inches wide, and 4 inches thick, with 
 copper cramps (iron is apt to stain the stone). Fix Bath stone plinths to both chimney- 
 shafts, 2 feet high, grooved for lead flashings. Fix Bath stone moulded cornices, 9 inches 
 wide, 3 inches thick, with a moudled front edge, and Bath stone ashlar (or blocking course) 
 on ditto, 1 2 inches high to the two porches, and 9 inches high to the fuel places ; 5 inches 
 
COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 
 
 wide at bottom, and 2 inches and a half wide at top ; and fix stone round the three openings 
 in the gables, and the same, 5 inches wide, round the opening in the east gable. Fix 
 moulded Bath stone labels, 3 inches thick, over the two openings in the gables, and over 
 the opening at the east end ; and fix two trefoil-shaped plain sunk panels. Fix 1 3-inch 
 York quarry sills, throated, 8 inches wide, and rubbed on the front edge, 3 inches and a 
 half thick. 
 
 1600. Plumber, Fix ridges and valleys, 16 inches wide, 5 pounds to the foot, with 
 lead-headed nails, &c. Fix step flashings, 9 inches wide, 4 pounds to the foot, to both 
 of the chimney-shafts. Fix four stacks of 3-inch iron water-pipes, 15 feet long each ; 
 four ditto, 10 feet long each ; two ditto, 9 feet long each ; and ten shoes ; all to be fixed in 
 the drains with cement. Fix six heads to the pipes. 
 
 1601. Plasterer. Lath, lay, set, and whiten the ceilings and partitions of the three 
 dwelling-rooms, staircase, and closet, &c. ; and render, set, and whiten the walls. Stop, 
 smooth, and colour twice over the whole of the walls, rafters, timbers, boarding, &c., in 
 the two schoolrooms, and privies, and larder ; and colour twice over the whole of the 
 exterior brickwork, and the inside of the porches and fuel-places ; and splash ditto with 
 colours, to imitate granite or porphyry stone (see § 542), carefully protecting the stone- 
 work from being discoloured while the work is going on. 
 
 1602. Painter. Paint the woodwork usually painted in the dwelling-house, and the 
 inside and outside of all the doors, windows, &c., four times in oil, of oak colour; and 
 paint the fillets, hinges, and other ironwork, in imitation of green bronze. 
 
 1603. General Estimate. This school, if built in the neighbourhood of London, 
 Mr. Kent informs us, will cost from ^^700 to ^£^800. It contains 25,649 cubic feet ; 
 which gives about 6^d. per foot, as the guess price for buildings of this description in 
 or near the metropolis. 
 
 1604. Remarks. Our readers, we think, will agree with us in considering this an 
 excellent model for a parochial school of the simplest description, where there is neither 
 an infants' school, nor a room for lectures or discussion. In point of architectural style, 
 the effect is good ; and the care with which the skeleton specification, as it may be called, 
 is drawn up, will form a useful study for the young Architect ; and, with the specification 
 of the preceding Design, may supply some valuable hints to the many benevolent persons 
 who are now, in all parts of the country, erecting schools for mutual instruction on the 
 Bell or Lancasterian system. 
 
 Design III. — -A Country School, in the Italian Style, including a Dwelling for the Master 
 
 and Mistress. 
 
 1605. Accommodation. The general appearance is shown in fig. 1398, and the ground 
 plan in fig. 1399. In the latter, a is the entrance of the master's house, and to the 
 
 infant school ; 6 is a passage for the use of the master and mistress, by which the three 
 schools are connected ; c is the infant school ; d is the girls' school, and e its entrance 
 porch ; f is the boys' school, and g its entrance porch ; h is the parlour of the master and 
 mistress, with a kitchen under it ; and bed-rooms over both it and the infants' school ; 
 i is a yard to the infant school ; h, a yard to the boys' school j and Z, a yard to the girls' 
 school. 
 
 1606. Remarks. "We are indebted for this Design to Mr. Lamb, to whose taste in 
 composing Italian elevations it does great credit. As in country situations it is seldom 
 that so many infants can attend a public school as is the case in towns, the room for the 
 infant school in this Design is much smaller than those for the boys and girls, and 
 neither a gallery nor a cla^s-room is considered necessary. With respect to the architec- 
 tural style of this Desigti, the genius of the Italian manner is finely kept up by the 
 masses of unpierced wall in some places, and the groups of openings in others ; thus 
 producing strong contrasts both in construction and in effect. 
 
758 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 1399 
 
 Sect. III. Of the Finishing, Fittings-up, Fixtures, and Furniture of Parochial Schools. 
 
 1607. The Finishing of both the Exterior and the Interior of Schoolrooms ought to be 
 simple and substantial, as being less liable to be injured by the children ; and because, 
 when children are brought \ip in the midst of simplicity and plainness, they are rendered 
 more independent in after-life. The interior surface of the walls should be built so 
 smooth as not to require plastering ; or, if plastering becomes requisite, the plastered 
 surface ought to be lined out so as to indicate brick or stone ; in other words, so as to 
 give the expression of the simplest description of wall. Instead of lime- whiting such 
 walls once a year, we would wash them over with alkali (pot or pearl ashes) or lime 
 water ; which, wliile it did not obliterate the forms of the stones or bricks, would, equally 
 with lime-whiting, contribute to the purification of the air. The lower parts of the walls 
 all round the schoolroom should be wainscoted, or lined with boards, to the height of six 
 feet ; not only for warmth to the backs of the children when seated against them, but to 
 preserve their clothes, and the hats of the boys, from the lime of the wall. Instead of a 
 plastered or bordered ceiling, it is preferable to leave the space from the floor to the roof 
 perfectly open, because ceilings are found to reverberate the soimd. The timbers of the 
 roof inay be occasionally oiled ; but, as a matter of taste, we certainly should neither 
 whitewash them nor paint them, because we would not destroy the genuine expression 
 of strength produced by the real veins of wood. Where iron is substituted for wood, 
 painting, of course, is unavoidable. 
 
 1608. The Fittings-up and Fixtures of schools depend on the age of the children, and 
 on the system of instruction according to which they are to be taught. The fittings-up 
 of an infant school diflfer from those of a school for children of a greatei age, in having 
 the seats from nine inches to a foot high, instead of sixteen or eighteen inches high. The 
 
 ^ hat pins are also proportionately lower, and are generally about 
 
 1400 p three feet from the ground; while those in other schools are five 
 
 ^ feet. A form or seat for an infant school, when fixed, and with a 
 
 back, should not be more than nine inches wide, in order to keep 
 the children upright ; and, for the same reason, there ought to be a 
 ^ bead along the floor, about six inches from the front line of the seat, 
 
 for the infants to place their heels against, to aid them in keeping 
 themselves up. Fig. 1400 is a section of the wall seats in the infant 
 school in Baldwin's Gardens, in which a is the bead ; b, the seat ; 
 and c, a row of pins for hanging the 
 lessons on, and also their hats. The 
 stage or gallery peculiar to infant 
 schools and its pi-oportions have 
 been already mentioned, § 1521. 
 
 Fig. 1401 is a section of the gallery 
 
 in the infant school in Baldwin's 
 J Gardens, and fig. 1402 is a front 
 
riTTINGS-UP AND FIXTURES OF SCHOOLS. 
 
 elevation of the same ; in which may be observed the inclined plane which passes up 
 the middle, and by which the children ascend and descend 
 to their seats. In some cases, for this inclined plane is sub- 1402 
 stituted a stair, with very low steps, which is, perhaps, safer 
 for the infants, being less liable to cause them to slide. The 
 lesson station is a fixture, which the infant school has in 
 common with the others. It is the segment of a circle, 
 generally formed of a brass hoop, let edgewise into the floor, 
 with a socket in the point to which it is concentric, for 
 holding a pole or rod, from which a lesson is suspended. 
 Fig. 1403 represents one of the lesson stations in Baldwin's 
 
 Gardens, in which e is an arc or segment, the size of which is three feet two inches and 
 a half, for six infants to stand round, 
 with their toes touching the bright edge of 
 the brass hoop, and looking towards a les- 
 son, suspended by a rod fixed to a socket, 
 four inches by three inches, at /; g g 
 are two brass lines, twenty inches long, 
 to connect the segment with its central 
 point, and to aid in guiding the eyes of 
 the infants to the lesson suspended at f. 
 
 1609. The Fittings-up and Fixtures 
 of a School on the Madras System consist 
 of little more than the hat and lesson 
 pins, and the writing-desks which sur- 
 round the walls. The latter are about 
 the same dimensions in height as those 
 given for the Lancasterian schools, § 1541. Fig. 1404 is a view of one of the desks 
 in the Madras School, at Baldwin's Gardens ; of which a is a cross section, or end view, 
 
 showing the cast-iron supports, h, and the plugs, c, by which the upper part is fixed 
 to the walls ; d is the row of pins for hats, slates, lesson-boards, &c. ; every boy being 
 allowed two pins for these purposes. In some schools the pins are in two rows on 
 different levels. The efficiency, and even beauty, of the cast-iron supports are worthy of 
 notice. 
 
 1610. The Fittings-up and Fixtures required for Stoafs Circulating System of Instruc- 
 tion consist chiefly of single circles of sixteen feet in diameter, or of a circle of this 
 diameter, with three concentric circles within it, marked on the floor by grooves, into 
 which brass hoops are fitted ; or which are filled with iron cement, or other composition, 
 so as to form distinct lines for the children to stand round. Along the walls of the 
 schoolroom are desks and benches, with two rows of pins fixed over them into the 
 wainscoting, the same as described for the Madras system, from 
 
 which Mr. Stoat's differs only in adopting the circulating mode ^^lii^m 140'; 
 of teaching, instead of the square or fixed one. 
 
 1611. The Fittings-up and Fixtures of Lancasterian Schools 
 haye already been given at such length, § 1540 to § 1545, that 
 
 little remains to be said of them, except to give a section of the I ff \t ' ' im 
 
 desks and seats, fig. 1405, the dimensions of which have been 
 already stated, § 1559. Hat pegs, and pegs for pointers, lessons, 
 &c., are fixed against the wainscoting round the room, in the 
 manner already described, § 1535. (See plate 11. of the 
 Manual of the System of Primary Instruction, ^-c.) The semi- « 
 circles, according to the Lancasterian method, are marked in the 
 
760 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 floor by a groove filled with black putty, or by brass studs driven into the floor, in the 
 exact position of each child. 
 
 1612. Tlie Fitting s-up and Fixtures for the Parochial Schools in the Country, where 
 some of the children may have to come a considerable distance, and, of course, usually bring 
 their dinners with them, should include cupboards for holding these dinners till the 
 children are ready to eat them. In such cases, there should also be glasses, or mugs, and 
 other articles, for the use of the children. The shelves in the cupboards should be of 
 suflicient height to admit of a common corked bottle standing upright ; a bottle of milk 
 generally forming the liquid part of a country boy's dinner, at least in the agricultural 
 districts. 
 
 1613. The Furniture of Schoolrooms depends chiefly on the number of subjects 
 taught in them ; and on these we shall make some observations in a succeeding paragraph. 
 As the schools of Britain are at present arranged, the greatest variety of portable articles 
 are required for the infant school ; and of these we shall briefly enumerate the chief. It 
 may be premised, that the great object, in an infant school, is, to keep alive the attention 
 of the infants ; for which purpose the founder of these schools, Mr. Wilderspin, proposes 
 no particular limits to the mode of teaching, or the furniture, or other means of carrying 
 on the business of the school. He admits of every description of innocent amusement, 
 of musical instruments, models, pictures, games, experiments, fire and water works : in 
 short, of every harmless contrivance which may prove conducive to his grand object ; viz., 
 that of keeping alive the attention of the little creatures committed to his care. This 
 latitude is one of the most remarkable features in Mr. Wilderspin's system, and one 
 altogether worthy of the present age. Hitherto, when any system has been laid down, 
 it has been assumed by its authors to be perfect, and therefore absolute ; but the infant 
 school system, and also that of Mr. Lancaster, contain in themselves, like the constitution 
 of the United States of North America, the seeds of regeneration and perpetual improve- 
 ment. As a proof of what is to be effected by genius and comprehensive views in the 
 conduct of the education of youth, without reference to any preceding system, we may 
 mention the Hazlewood school near Birmingham, and the Academic Institution at 
 Hanwell, near London, founded by . Morgan, Esq., the celebrated author of the 
 Revolt of the Bees, Sec. Both are admirably conducted ; and, in both, the business of 
 teaching, and that of being taught, are converted into matters of recreation, rather than 
 considered as tasks. For the beau ideal of a school for universal instruction, we may 
 refer to our own tract, JDes Establissemens, &c., mentioned § 1573 and to A Plan of 
 Universal Education, by William Freund, Esq. 
 
 1614. For the Furniture of Infant Schools, we have examined two at Westminster, two 
 at Chelsea, one in Bishopsgate Street, and one in Baldwin's Gardens ; and the principal 
 portable articles which we have observed in them are the following : fig. 1406 is a frame 
 on castors, containing a slate or black board for showing letters, figures, pictures, or other 
 
FITTINGS-UP AND FIXTURES OF SCHOOLS. 
 
 761 
 
 objects. This frame moves on two pivots, so as to admit of presenting its surface at right 
 angles to the eyes of the infants, whether these may be standing or sitting on the benches 
 round the walls of the room, or sitting or standing in the gallery. Below this board is a 
 wire, a, on which are strung black and white beads to teach notation, and numeration. 
 There is besides, an alphabet frame, containing shelves or compartments, each of which 
 holds twenty-six letters. These letters are painted on small square tablets, which are 
 put into the shelves by one or more at a time, according as the object of the master is 
 to teach single letters or syllables, printed or written letters, small or capital letters, 
 letters in the old English style, &c. When the lesson is to be proved, all the letters are 
 put in, and the infants are directed to take them out by name. Fig. 1407 is a portable 
 stand, combining an arithmetical board, 6, for teaching the first four rules of arithmetic 
 by different-coloured beads, with an alphabetical board, for teaching letters and syllables 
 at c, a section of which is shown on a larger scale at c. Fig. 1408 may be called the 
 
 1407 
 
 — — 1408 
 
 infant's show-box, as the upper part contains two rollers, on which there is an endless 
 sheet with a great variety of pictures and names painted, and which, by turning one of 
 the rollers, are shown at the opening, d. This may seem a very trifling and useless con- 
 trivance to some ; but we are assured, and we can easily conceive it, that it is a source 
 of great entertainment to the infants ; and, as the objects shown include many articles 
 in general use, and many of the leading objects in natural history ; also the names of 
 eminent persons, and of countries, on each of which, as the roller brings them to 
 view, the master delivers a short lecture, it must be very instructive. Below this 
 show-box is an open space, e, into which a variety of objects are introduced, at the 
 pleasure of the master; the space being closed by a piece of pasteboard while the 
 lecture on the show-box is going forward. A circular plate containing a mariner's 
 compass on one side, and the dial of a clock on the reverse, is a common resource ; and 
 often square frames of pasteboard containing pictures are put in, and lectures delivered, 
 or questions asked. The lower part of this stand, f, is formed into a box for books. 
 Fig. 1409 is a rostrum or pulpit for a little monitor, with a reading-desk, g \ a drawer, 
 A; and a box for books, i; k shows the steps of ascent. Fig. 1410 is a rostrum of the 
 commonest kind. Besides these, there are various other portable articles belonging to 
 infant schools, which will be found figured and described in the works of Wilderspin, 
 and other writers on the subject. 
 
 1615. The Portable Furniture of a Madras School consists of little more than forms, 
 fig. 1379, and square boxes for books, which are shown in fig. 1378 at o. These forms 
 are supported by cast-iron feet, in the same manner as the desks, as shown by the section 
 
 4 s 
 
76^ COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 or end view, fig. 1404, a. The boxes for 
 books are of deal, two feet and a half long 
 eighteen inches wide, and eighteen inches 
 high. In the girls' school, the boxes are 
 made larger, with a division for work ; or, 
 there are two boxes to each class. The seat 
 of the master, having a desk fixed before 
 it, is portable in both the infant and INIa- 
 dras schools, and moves on castors, to 
 enable the head maf^ter to station himself 
 where he chooses ; there is also a portable 
 bookcase, or cupboard for books and other 
 articles not in use. 
 
 1616. The Portable Articles of Furniture 
 for a School on StoaVs Circulating System 
 are still fewer than those required in the 
 Madras system. In Mr. Stoat's concentric 
 circles there is no room for boxes, and the 
 books are therefore kejjt in cupboards, 
 either fixed or portable, placed against the 
 walls, or in any convenient situation. 
 The only essential portable article in Mr. Stoat's system is the medal-stand or point 
 of reckoning, fig. 1411, unless we reckon among the articles of furniture the medals, 
 lessons, slates, &c., common to all 
 
 1410 
 
 the four systems. This medal- 
 stand is made of cjist iron, or wood 
 with a cast-iron base. 
 
 1617. The Articles of Furniture 
 necessary for a Lnncasterian School 
 we have already enumerated at 
 length, § 1543 to § 1558. 
 
 1618. All the Furniture of Schools 
 according to tlie infant system 
 may be obtained from Mr. lieilby, 
 Chelsea ; all those for the Madras 
 system, from the central school, 
 Baldwin's Gardens , all those for 
 Stoat's system, from Mr. Stoat, 
 Islington ; and all those for the 
 Lancasterian system from the Bo- 
 rough school. 
 
 1619. Such are the Fittings-up, 
 
 Fixtures, and Furniture of common Schools, according to the present most improved prac- 
 
 tice in Britain ; but, if general school education were carried to the i)oint to 
 which we think it ought to be, and to which we trust it will be at no distant 
 period, every parochial school would contain most of the ]ihilosophical apparatus 
 and models now almost exclusively to be found in colleges and universities ; 
 and, besides these, many of the " implements, utensils, instruments, and 
 machines necessary for the practice of the more useful arts. Our opinion is, 
 that, when the social system comes to be better understood by the mass of 
 society, and the greatest happiness of the greatest number is acknowledged to 
 be the end of all government; education, like every thing else, will be com- 
 paratively equalised, and this high and equal degree of education will be 
 acknowledged, by all governments founded on the universal will of the governed, 
 to be as much the birthright of every individual as food or clothing. The 
 kind and degree of education that we think ought to be given to every human 
 being in this, and in every other country, and in every state of civilisation, may 
 be thus defined : — All the knowledge and accomplishments that a child's body 
 or mind, and the state of knowledge and the art of teaching at the time, will 
 admit, previously to the age of puberty ; giving preference to those branches 
 of knowledge which may be considered the most useful, and those accom- 
 plishments and manners considered the most humanising, by the wise and 
 good of the particular age and country. We consider this degree of cul- 
 tivation to be as much the birthright of a child, in a highly civilised com- 
 munity, as food and clothes are in the rudest state of society. 
 
 1411 
 
PRINCIPLES FOR DESIGNING VILLAS. 763 
 
 BOOK in. 
 
 DESIGNS FOR VILLAS WITH VARIOUS DEGREES OF ACCOMMODATION, AND IN DIFFERENT 
 STYLES OF ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 1620. A Villa we intend, in this Book, to consider as a country residence, with land 
 attached, a portion of which, surrounding the house, is laid out as pleasure-ground ; or, 
 in other words, with a view to recreation and enjoyment, more than profit. In this 
 view of a villa, the dwelling is to be considered as only an amplification of the cottage; 
 and the lands, as those of a farm, in which ornament and effect have been studied in 
 the vicinity of the house. The humblest cottage, in our opinion, ought to contain 
 all the essential comforts of a villa dwelling ; and the lands of a farm, all that is useful 
 ill the grounds of a villa. The cottage and the farm are occupied as the means of 
 obtaining and enjoying the comforts of life ; and the villa of adding to these the gratifi- 
 cations resulting from the display of wealth and taste. In countries where all the 
 inhabitants are in possession of equal rights, every industrious individual, not living in 
 a town, will possess a cottage and a garden ; and every man who has been successful in 
 his pursuits, and has, by them, obtained pecuniary independence, may possess a villa. Ac- 
 cording to this view of the subject, it is not necessary that the dwelling of the villa should 
 be large, or the land surrounding it extensive ; the only essential requisites are, that the 
 possessor should be a man of some wealth, and either possess taste himself, or have sense 
 enough to call to his assistance the taste and judgment of others, who profess to practise 
 this branch of the art of design. 
 
 1621. TAe Art of arranging Villas in Britain h far better understood than the con- 
 struction of cottages, or the laying out of farms. The reason of this is, that the occu- 
 pants of the two latter descriptions of residences have hitherto been deficient in that 
 degree of cultivation which is necessary to the display of what is considered good taste ; 
 and have been too poor to be able to call in the assistance of the taste of professional 
 men. The occupiers of villas, on the contrary, have not only possessed more cultivation 
 and taste than the others, but, from their wealth, have been able to command the services 
 of all who professed an ability to render them assistance. Hence it has followed, that 
 the villas of Britain, though deficient in some particulars, are yet decidedly superior to 
 those of every other country. It is easy to point out in them numerous faults ; but 
 where, in any other country, will be found half so many beauties in the Architecture 
 and scenery, or so much real comfort and luxurious refinement in their accommodation 
 and arrangements? In consequence of the comparatively improved state of Villa Archi- 
 tecture, this department of our work will require to be much less copious than those 
 which have preceded it ; and this the more especially, because there are already many 
 excellent works which treat on the subject, imder the titles of Designs for Villas, and 
 Treatises on Landscape- Gardening, 
 
 1622. The Principal Defect of English Villas is in the want of a sufficient union 
 between the house and the grounds ; or, in other words, of cooperation between the 
 Architect and the landscape-gardener in fixing on situations, and in laying them out. 
 « Our parks may be beautiful," Laing Meason observes, " our mansions faultless in 
 design ; but nothing is more rare than to see the two properly connected. Let the 
 Architect, by study and observation, qualify himself to include in his art the decorations 
 round the immediate site of the intended building ; and the improving taste of the 
 gentry of England will second him in his efforts." Viewing the subject in the same 
 light as Meason, we shall, in the present Book, first direct the attention of the reader to 
 Fundamental Principles ; next depict the Beau Ideal of an English Villa ; afterwards, 
 give Miscellaneous Designs for Villas, and Designs for Appendages to Villas ; and, lastly, 
 Designs for their Finishing, Fittings-up, Fixtures, and Furniture. 
 
 Chap. I. 
 
 The Fundamental Principles of laying out a Villa, including the House and the Grounds. 
 
 1623. The End in view, in forming a Villa, is to produce a healthy, agreeable, and 
 elegant country residence; and the means for attaining this end are, a judicious choice of 
 situation, a fitting arrangement of the gi'ounds. and a correspondent excellence in the 
 interior accommodation and the external Architecture of the house. We shall take 
 these three subjects in succession. 
 
 Sect. I. Of the Choice of a Situation for a Villa Residence. 
 
 1624. In the Choice of the Situation fm a Villa Mesidence, two classes of circum- 
 stances require to be taken into consideration ■. the one includes such as are absolute or 
 
764 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 permanent ; and the other such as are accidental, or liable to vary from temporary 
 causes. The permanent considerations include climate, elevation, surface, aspect, soil, 
 water, and the sea ; and the temporary or accidental circumstances are chiefly its locality, 
 present state, prospective improvement, and the personal peculiarities of the intended 
 possessor. 
 
 1625. Climate is, perhaps, the most important of the permanent circumstances which 
 require to be kept in view in fixing on the situation of a villa ; because it is less subject 
 to human improvement than any other. In every country of any extent, the climate 
 differs in different parts of it, and the popular divisions may be stated to be, the cold, 
 the warm, and the moist. The last is unquestionably the least desirable ; because it 
 admits of least amendment by human means. The cold climate, provided it be dry, is 
 often one of the healthiest ; and it may always be improved by planting to afford shelter, 
 and by increasing the dryness of the soil by draining. The warm climate, if it be dry, 
 is always agreeable ; and if the heat be intense during summer, it can be readily moder- 
 ated by the shade of trees. A wet climate can scarcely be improved : it must necessarily 
 be unhealthy compared with a dry one, on account of the moisture with which the 
 atmosphere is always charged ; and it precludes the exercise of the greatest of rural 
 improvements, the. surrounding the house with i)lantations. All other circumstances, 
 therefore, being suitable, a dry warm climate must always be the best for a villa 
 residence. 
 
 1626. Elevation is, in our opinion, the next most important circumstance to climate, 
 though some may assign the SL'cond i)lace to the character of the surface. The great 
 advantage of elevation is, that it gives a command of prospect, without which a villa may 
 be beautiful, picturesque, or romantic ; but it never can be dignified or grand, and 
 scarcely even elegant or graceful. The term elevation must always be considered as 
 relative; and not to be determined by measurement. In a flat country, a knoll of 
 100 feet in height, by raising the ground floor of the house above the level of the tops 
 of the highest trees in the surrounding plain, will allow the eye to range over an exten- 
 sive distance ; to catch a view, in all probability, of some river or stream ; and, in a 
 cultivated country, to command towns, villages, farms, and human dwellings. On the 
 other hand, where the whole surface of a country is hilly, he that prefers elevation must 
 fix on a hill somewhat higher than those by which it is surrounded, so as, at all events, 
 to look over some of them. It is not necessary to dignity of effect and variety of pro- 
 spect, tliat a house in a hilly country should enjoy such extensive views as a house in a 
 plain ; because, in the former case, the variations of the surface i)roduce that expression 
 in tlie landscape which in the flat country is unknown, and but faintly compensated for 
 by the movement of the clouds, and other atmospherical changes. In every country, 
 however, there is a limitation to the height at which it is desirable to build dwelling- 
 houses; and this limitation is clearly determined by the growth of the jjrincipal timber 
 trees of the country, indigenous or acclimatised, and the ripening of the hardy fruits. In 
 other words, it is determined by the capacities of the situation for gardening. Whenever 
 a situation is so hign that trees will not attain sufficient dimensions to shelter the house, 
 or fruit not ripen on the garden walls, it ought to be abandoned, unless a better one 
 cannot be found. 
 
 1627. The Character of the Surface on which to build a villa is the next consideration, 
 and is also one of great importance. A surface may be uniformly hilly, or irre- 
 gularly so ; and may consist of ridges and valleys, or of ridges on the sides of hills, rising 
 above each other, without valleys. The variety, in short, is so great, that it can scarcely 
 be classified with sufficient distinctness. It is hardly possible, however, to conceive a 
 liilly surface in which excellent situations may not be found for setting down a villa. 
 Perhaps one of the most desirable is, where a prominent knoll stands forward from a 
 lengthened irregular ridge ; and where the latter has a valley with a river in front, and 
 higher hills rising one above another behind. One of the worst is, perhaps, the steep 
 uniform side of a high hill, closely surrounded by other hills equally high and steep. On 
 the whole, it may be observed, that though an irregular surface affords the greatest variety 
 of excellent situations for building on, yet, at the same time, it is one in which the inex- 
 perienced are likely to commit the greatest errors ; and one, also, respecting which it is 
 more difficult to lay down general rules than any other. 
 
 1628. Aspect is next in the order of importance. There are some considerations 
 respecting as])ect which apply to every country ; and others to particular countries, or 
 districts of country only. Nothing in the Architecture or appendages of a house can com- 
 pensate for its being set down on the north side of a high hiU or ridge ; where it is pre- 
 cluded from partaking of the direct influence of the sun during three or four months of 
 the year. In most countries, there is some point of the compass from which rain and 
 storms are more frequent than any other ; and to set down a house in such a maimer as 
 to be exi)osed to these tempests is evidently injudicious. An aspect exposed to high 
 
PRINCIPLES FOR DESIGNING VILLAS. 
 
 765 
 
 wind is less objectionable than one exposed to driving rains ; since shelter may be afforded 
 fi-om the former by trees, but not from the latter by any means. 
 
 1 629. Soil and Subsoil are very generally reckoned among the primary considerations 
 in the choice of a site for a villa ; and they are undoubtedly the first, as far as respects 
 the value of the estate. But it must be recollected that the soil about a house can be 
 totally changed by art, v^hile the previously mentioned requisites of climate, elevation, 
 surface, and aspect, hardly admit even of improvement. Where these circumstances are 
 favourable, the nature of the soil and subsoil, though of secondary importance, have yet 
 still considerable influence, both in regard to the health and enjoyment of the occupant, 
 and the grovs^th of the plantations. A soil which retains moisture on its surface, which 
 is the case with most clays and loams with retentive bottoms, may be considered as the 
 least healthy ; and the one which admits of being walked on without wetting the feet 
 the soonest after a shower of rain, is the most so. For the present purpose, it will be 
 sufficient to consider all soils as either clayey, sandy, gravelly, or chalky ; and all subsoils 
 as either based on granite, argillaceous rock, sandstone, limestone, or chalk. Soils based 
 on rocky subsoils, whatever may be the nature of the stone, may always be considered 
 healthier than alluvial soils, sands, or gravels. Soils superincumbent on calcareous and 
 sandstone rocks are found to produce healthier surfaces than those on chalk or slatestone ; 
 and surfaces, also, which are much better adapted for cultivation and the groAvth of trees. 
 Unquestionably, the best substratum for the site of a house is a limestone or sandstone 
 rock ; and the worst, soft black peaty soil, or strong tenacious clay. But, in jud^ng of 
 the soil for a villa residence, regard must also be had to its suitableness for garden pur- 
 poses, and for the growth of trees. In this respect the subsoil is sometimes of more 
 importance than the soil : for the latter, in general, can be improved by draining ; and 
 its susceptibility of this improvement varies materially, according to the nature of its 
 subsoil. The most difficult subsoils to underdrain are those composed of moist retentive 
 clays ; and, when to this subsoil is joined a flat surface, the situation, as far as respects 
 the enjoyment of walking in the open air, is one of the most hopeless kind. A bad sub- 
 soil is an effiictual barrier to the thriving of timber trees ; and, as these constitute the 
 finest ornaments of every country seat, the importance of choosing a subsoil either natu- 
 rally congenial to them, or capable of being rendered so by art, is sufficiently obvious. In 
 an economical point of view, it is always more desirable to choose a poor soil than a rich 
 one, provided it be dry, for the immediate site of the house. Rich soils are better re- 
 served for cultivation ; and, indeed, for the purpose of lawns and kept grounds, they only 
 serve to increase the expense of mowing and weeding, by the luxuriant growth of their 
 herbage. On the whole, therefore, the most important consideration, in respect to the 
 soil of the site of a villa, is, that it should be dry, and placed on a subsoil favourable to 
 the growth of trees. 
 
 1630. Water is the remaining consideration; but it is one of very secondary import- 
 ance. For all domestic purposes, it can be procui'ed almost every where by boring or 
 sinking wells ; and pieces of artificial water, where expense is not an object, may be 
 supplied by machinery from natural sources, at the distances even of miles. It is 
 singular, that in England, where immense sums have been laid out on the grounds of 
 villas, and where the steam-engine is familiar to every body, so little should have been 
 done in the way of bringing water from a distance by underground pipes, and forcing 
 it to higher levels by means of machinery. Some of the noblest parks, with the surface of 
 the soil finely varied, and beautifully enriched with v/ood, lose half their effect, from 
 the want of as much water as might be supplied from a distance by an engine of one- 
 horse power, which might be kept up at a less expense than a footman or a groom. 
 
 1631. The Situation of a Villa, relative to the Sea, is a consideration that chiefly 
 applies to islands, and countries bordered by the ocean ; but in these it merits particular 
 attention. Some of the differences between an inland and a maritime situation are of a 
 permanent nature, and can never be affected by human improvement. Of these, some of 
 the principal are, the dryness or moisture of the air, its moderate temperature, and the 
 unfitness of most maritime situations for garden purposes. The uniformity of temper- 
 ature on the sea-coast is a great recommendation to persons of particular constitutions ; 
 and so is the dryness of the air on the east coast of our island, and its moisture on the 
 west coast. The grandeur and variety of a marine prospect at every season of the year 
 are powerful considerations ; and, to those who have little relish for gardening pursuits 
 they may compensate for their absence. In choosing a marine situation, it is an importan 
 point to ascertain whether or not it will admit of the free growth of trees and the cul- 
 ture of garden productions. On the western shores of the British islands, especially 
 when there are hills or mountains at no great distance in the interior, timber trees grow 
 freely to the water's edge : on the eastern shores, on the contrary, they will scarcely grow 
 at all. 
 
 1632. Among the iemporanj Circumstances which influence the choice of a situation 
 
766 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 for a villa, are included, its locality, its present state, its prospective improvement, and 
 the peculiarities of its possessor. 
 
 1633. By Locality is to be understood the distance from the capital of the country in 
 which it is situated ; from a smaller town or village ; from a road or canal ; from 
 another villa ; or from neighbours of any sort. The distance from a town, at which it is 
 desirable to place a villa, must depend so much on the style of living, and the taste of 
 the occupier, that it is scarcely requisite to say any thing on the subject. Where taste 
 is free, however, the villa ought to be at such a distance from the town as to be decidedly 
 a country-house ; and, for the same reason, it does not appear desirable that the villa 
 should command a view of the town, even in the extreme distance. This sentiment will 
 be felt with more force by the citizen engaged in business, who goes to the town almost 
 every day, than by the country gentleman or retired tradesman. In the first case, the 
 associations recalled by the appearance of the town are those of toil and occupation ; in 
 the second case, they are those of society and gaiety. The circumstances of a neighbour- 
 hood materially affect the character of a villa. Hitherto the prevailing ideas in England 
 have been in favour of exclusive enjoyment ; and the great object, whether in small 
 villas or extensive ones, has been, to shut out every thing belonging to the neighbour- 
 hood, which could indicate that there was any other proprietor or resident in the 
 vicinity. The only objects that might be legitimately shown were, wood, pasture, water, 
 rocks, ruins, and public buildings. In short, the end aimed at by this exclusive system 
 was, to appropriate in idea the whole of the surrounding country. The extent to which 
 this has been carried by the higher classes in England can scarcely be conceived by the 
 proprietors of other countries ; and is not at all understood by them. The possessors of 
 extensive parks abhorred the appearance of a human habitation, however humble or 
 however distant ; and the first object of a new settler, of the rank of a gentleman, was, 
 generally, to purchase every thing around him ; and to seclude himself in a sort of 
 artificial forest, for his own exclusive enjoyment and that of his friends. Happily, this 
 antisocial spirit is beginning to give way before the general spread of intelligence, and, 
 what is of more i ffect, the salutary influence of diminished wealth. Notwithstanding 
 this, we consider it perfectly natural and in good taste, to plant out a number of objects 
 which serve to recall the idea of a town, or of manufactories, and thus to diminish the 
 idea of the country and of rural life. 
 
 1 634. The present State of a property adapted for being formed into a villa residence 
 involves a great variety of circumstances. It may be with trees and plantations, or 
 without them ; in aration, or under pasture ; in a high state of improvement, or in a state 
 of neglect. No man can determine for another which of these states is most desirable. 
 To an intended purchaser who is desirous of avoiding trouble and uncertain expense, the 
 less there is to do, the more immediate will be his gratification. To another who under- 
 stands the improvement of land, and who takes delight in it, the more there is to do, the 
 j-reater will be his satisfaction in doing it. A young purchaser will generally prefer 
 forming his own plantations ; one who retires for quiet enjoyment, or because he con- 
 siders it a mark of distinction to possess a villa, will give the preference to a situation 
 where nearly every thing is ready prepared to his hand ; and where he has little more to 
 do than to take possession. 
 
 1635. The prospective Improvement of a villa residence is but a secondary consider- 
 ation, where it has not the addition of an extensive landed estate ; and hence it cannot 
 have much to do with Architecture. Nevertheless, it ought not to be lost sight of ; and, 
 where two situations are equally desirable in other respects, that which is likely to be 
 improved by the growing prosperity of the neighbourhood will be preferred by every 
 reasonable man. The difference of situation, in this respect, is very considerable. Al- 
 most all inland towns, which are the seat of manufactures, are either in a state of pro- 
 gressive improvement, or on the decline. Hence the great change in the value of 
 property in their neighbourhoods ; and the consequent profit or loss on estates which 
 derive their chief value from their local situation. Accidental circumstances, also, fre- 
 quently increase or diminish the value of a villa residence as such. In general, whatever 
 has a tendency to approximate the surrounding country to the character of a town, has 
 the latter effect, however much it may add to the actual value of the land. 
 
 1636. The peculiar Tastes or Circumstances of the intended Occupant of a Villa often 
 determine his choice of situation. A man engaged in business every day must have his 
 villa within a certain distance of the place of his occupation ; and another, not engaged 
 in business, may prefer a spot with which he has some peculiar associations ; such as, the 
 parish in which he was born ; property which once belonged to his ancestors ; or the 
 vicinity of some river for fishing, or of a fine country for sporting, &c. 
 
 1637. All these Considerations, and a Variety of others, require to be taken into view 
 before fixing on the situation of a villa residence. It must be confessed, however, that, in 
 a country like Britain, where by far the greater part of the landed property is in large 
 
PRINCIPLES FOR DESIGNING VILLAS. 
 
 7G7 
 
 masses entailed on particular families, there has hitherto been very little room for choice. 
 Commercial men, who, after having made fortunes by trade, have retired to the country 
 to enjoy them, have had hitherto little opportunity afforded them of making a judicious 
 choice, and have generally been obliged to set themselves down where they could. 
 Hence the great number of villas which are to be found in dull, low, and damp situations, 
 undistinguished by a single feature of external beauty. Hence, also, the little attention 
 that has hitherto been paid to the situation of villas by Architects ; so that, when an oppor- 
 tunity does occur of making a choice, they are not, in general, competent to take 
 advantage of it. A new state of things, however, is gradually arising : in a few years 
 landed property will be more equally distributed ; its value will be diminished ; and, in 
 consequence of a greater number of possessors, there will be an increased demand for 
 villas, and a consequent improvement in the taste of Villa Architects. 
 
 Sect. II. Of the Position of the House, and the Arrangement of the Grounds of a Villa 
 
 Residence. 
 
 1638. The Arrangement of the Grounds of a Villa Residence includes the position of 
 the house, relative to the natural features or accidental circumstances of the grounds ; 
 and the disposition of the offices, roads, gardens, farm, and other component parts of 
 the whole. 
 
 1639. The Position of the House should, in every case, be pointed out by some striking 
 natural feature ; or, where no such natural feature exists, an approximation to one should 
 be created by art. Whenever a house is so placed as to display no sufficient reason why 
 it has been erected in that precise spot, rather than in any other, something must 
 decidedly be wrong. There is no surface on which a house can be built, which may 
 not be so managed as to create an artificial reason for making choice of the exact spot on 
 which it stands. This is to be effected, first, and principally, by elevating the base or 
 platform from which the structure appears to rise ; and, secondly, by the disposition of 
 the plantations by which it is connected with the surrounding scenery. On the dullest 
 and flattest surfaces, by raising the house on a platform of twenty or thirty feet high, 
 or more, according to the dimensions of the house ; and by connecting this platform with 
 the surrounding grounds and plantations, by gradations of terraces and shrubberies, the 
 main body of the house will be raised higher than the highest of the surrounding trees ; 
 and this, by giving, at a distance, the same effect as though it were placed on a knoU, 
 will afford at once a satisfactory reason to the stranger, why it was erected on that spot, 
 in preference to any other. The space under the arches which support the platform 
 may always be made use of as cellars or offices, and the surface over them can be laid 
 out as Italian or terraced gardens. Even if only a part of the space under the platform 
 were made use of, still the important effect produced would justify the means. In the 
 case of a uniformly sloping bank or hillside, on which it is desired to create an artificial 
 position for a house, the Architect should proceed in one of two ways, according to the 
 nature of the ground. In a dry soil and subsoil, he may scoop out a recess, with the 
 earth of which he may form two prominences on each side of it ; and in an elevated posi- 
 tion in the back part of the recess he may place the house, so high as to raise its main 
 body considerably above the surrounding trees. When the two projecting points or 
 prominences are properly planted, the house, at a distance, will appear to be placed in a 
 natural recess on the side of the hill, backed and flanked by wood. When the soil and 
 subsoil of such a bank are moist, a platform may be raised, projecting boldly forward, 
 and a recess excavated behind ; with the soil from which, terraces may be formed in front 
 of the house, and at two of its sides ; the space behind, and also the sides, being planted. 
 The effect of this at a distance will be, to give the house the appearance of being built 
 on a projecting point or promontory ; which, from being the only one on the otherwise 
 uniformly sloping bank, would appear clearly pointed out by that circumstance as the 
 position for a house. These examples will be sufficient to give every Architect, who has 
 studied the effect of scenery in the country, an idea of the mode of proceeding, to create 
 artificial situations in the most hopeless cases. 
 
 1640. When there are natural Indications of Features in the Grounds, they may always be 
 heightened by the foregoing means, as well as by others. A knoll, if too small, may be 
 enlarged ; a rock (a most desirable feature on which to found a house, when it can be 
 obtained, but which is very rarely taken advantage of as it might be) may be increased 
 in magnitude upwards, by additions ; or downwards, by the removal of earth. The bend 
 of a river may be widened, or the course of a stream may be changed : in either case, 
 heightening the natural expression, and creating a most desirable site. Where a house 
 is to be built on the margin of a lake with a tame uniform shore, the common practice 
 is, to keep it a certain distance from the water, and to form a lawn between it and the 
 house : but a bolder and more striking mode of proceeding would be, to carry the plat- 
 form on which the house is placed to the very margin of the lake, and even projecting 
 
768 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITRCTURE. 
 
 into it ; or to bring an estuary from the lake to the house ; or to give it the etfect of 
 being placed on a promontory or a peninsula. Whatever mode is adopted, the platform 
 on which the house stands should always be raised considerably above the level of the 
 water, and the main body of the house above the tops of the highest trees j not only for 
 the sake of "effect, but for the health of the occupants. 
 
 1641. JVhen a striking natural Situation occurs, it should not be rejected, because it may 
 be on the boundary of the estate, unless there be something decidedly offensive in tlie 
 adjoining property. Some of the noblest situations of villas, in Britain, are on the sia- 
 shore, or on the steep rocky banks of rivers, or on lofty cliffs overhanging public roads. 
 The proximity of the sea, of a river, or even of a public road, to a house, can never be offen- 
 sive to the occupant ; because, though they do not belong to him, they belong to no one 
 else, and the grandeur of their effect overpowers every other consideration. 
 
 1642. The accidental Circumstances ivfiich influence the Position of a House are, chiefly, 
 the boundary of the property, and the existing trees, roads, buildings, fences, and other 
 artificial objects. The most desirable position for a house, all other circumstances being 
 alike favourable, is the centre of the estate. The advantages of being at an ecjual dis- 
 tance from every part of the boundary ; of having, as much as possible, on every side, 
 that which we can call our own ; of not being overlooked by near neighbours ; and of 
 reposing, as it were, in the bosom of our own tenantry, cottagers, cattle, woods, and 
 gardens, are obvious, and felt by every one. It is seldom, however, that natural features 
 correspond so exactly with accidental circumstances as to render this practicable ; and, 
 therefore, all that the Architect can do is, to make the nearest approach to such a 
 combination that the case will admit of. 
 
 1643. To he guided hy existing Trees, Roads, or other artificial Objects, in fixing on 
 the position of a house, is obviously bad judgment ; on the general jjrincijjle, that what is 
 intended to be permanent should never be made subservient to wliat is only temporary. 
 Nevertheless, this is very frecpiently the case ; and nothing is more common than to see 
 good houses deprived of half their effect from being placed in some inferior situation, 
 merely because contained a few old trees, or was the site of a former mansion, the 
 cellars of which, perliaps, remain ; or because it was near very good offices, which it was 
 thought a pity to pull down. Such are the shortsighted prejudices with which Architects 
 have frequently to contend. 
 
 1644. The Offices of a Villa include those of the kitchen-court, those of the stable- 
 yard, and those of the farm. In small villas, or in what may more properly be called 
 villa farms, these may be all arranged around one court : but, in general, they are placed 
 apart ; the kitchen-court being attached to the house, the stable-yard adjoining the 
 kitchen court, and the farm being placed at some distance, according to the situation 
 and the kind of farm. The principle by which the position of botli the kitchen and sta- 
 ble offices is determined is, that of having free access to them without coming in sight of 
 any of the fronts of the house. This is, perhaps, one of the most important points in 
 determining the position of a villa and its offices ; for, if the latter are i)laced so as not 
 to be accessible by servants and tradesmen without their passing the front of the house, 
 it is scarcely possible to make a perfect villa. It is not necessary to the attainment of 
 this object that the offices should be concealed : on the contrary, they should always be 
 visible, and be rendered subordinate and supporting parts to the main body of the man- 
 sion, and should cooperate with it in forming a whole. In general, there is only one 
 approach to a villa ; and, in that case, the offices should always be on the side by which 
 the approach road advances towards the entrance front. When there are two approaches, 
 advancing towards the entrance front in opposite directions, then the offices ought to 
 be placed on that side which is most likely to be the principal road for tradesmen and 
 servants. This will, of course, generally, be the side which is next the nearest village or 
 town. In scarcely any case that we can conceive is it desirable to have the kitchen- 
 court on one side of the main body of the house, and the stable-court on the other, as 
 wino^ ; though this was formerly much the practice in large mansions. The incon- 
 veniences of such an arrangement for a villa are too obvious to require pointing out ; 
 and they could only be tolerated in times when the proprietors of such residences 
 were surrounded by servants, and when the highest ambition of taste was ostentatious 
 display. 
 
 1 645. The Farm Offices of a Villa should always be placed on the side next the stable 
 offices • so as that a free communication between them may take place, without inter- 
 fering with the entrance front on one side, or the lawn front on the other. Where the 
 farm is large, the offices should be central to it, whatever may be their distance from 
 the house ;*but where it is small, and chiefly used for raising produce to be consumed at 
 home, the farmery may be placed near the stable yard, and may compose a subordinate 
 part of the general architectural group. 
 
 1646. The Kitchen-garden of a villa should always, if possible, be on the side next 
 
PRINCIPLES FOR DESIGNING VILLAS. 
 
 769 
 
 the oflSces ; not only that a free communication may take place between the kitchen and 
 the garden, without interfering with either the entrance front or the lawn front ; but 
 that the stable dung may be taken to the garden, from the stables, by the shortest and 
 most private route. In general, it is desirable to have the kitchen-garden close to the 
 stable offices, so as to make some use of the walls of the latter for training fruit trees, 
 and to shorten all the lines of communication for servants, as also the walk to the 
 garden from the lawn front. Wherever it is practicable, the farm should adjoin the 
 kitchen-garden, and, as it were, follow in the train of offices and useful appendages. 
 In this view of the general arrangement of a villa and its offices, it appears that all the 
 latter should be placed on one side of the dwelling-house, so as to leave the three other 
 sides free. Wherever three sides of the dwelling-house are not free to be disposed of 
 as the combined judgment of the landscape-gardener and Architect may direct, either 
 the case must be anomalous, or some gross fault must have been committed. We would 
 strongly recommend this to be kept in view, both by Architects and their employers, as a 
 leading principle in determining the position of the offices relative to that of the house. 
 
 1647. TJie Approach Road. The whole train of offices and useful dependencies being 
 disposed of, the subject next in importance is the direction of the road by which the 
 dwelling-house is to be approached. Though this, like every other part of the subject, 
 is necessarily treated of separately in a book, it must be considered together with all the 
 other parts, and more especially the offices, in practice. The side of the house on which 
 the offices are placed must, as has been already observed, in a great measure be deter- 
 mined by the direction in which the approach road advances to the house ; so that these 
 two parts are so intimately connected, that the one cannot be considered witliout the 
 other. In the modern or natural style of disposing of the grounds about a house, the 
 approach road almost always advances towards it in such a manner as to show two 
 fronts at the same time. This is one principle ; and, as we have already laid it down as 
 another, that the offices must always be on that side by which the principal approach 
 advances, it follows, that the first view of the house will generally show the dwelling as the 
 principal mass, and the offices as subordinate and cooperating parts of the whole. ^\ hen- 
 ever the first part of the dwelling, therefore, which comes into view, is the offices, there must 
 be something defective in their position, in the direction of the road, or in the disposition 
 of the trees and scenery by which the house and offices are united with the grounds. In 
 the ancient or geometrical style of laying out grounds, the approach road or avenue ad- 
 vances directly in front of the house ; and here, also, the dwelling-house is the mass which 
 ought first to meet the eye. The offices, in this case, are generally concealed from the 
 view ; either altogether, or till the spectator has arrived almost at the entrance front. 
 The great object, in the ancient style, is, to present a full geometrical view of one front ; 
 that of the modern style, to show two fronts at once, or what is called by Architects an 
 angular view. The beaxities aimed at by the ancient style, whether with respect to the 
 house or the grounds, were, to present regular, symmetrical, architectural views ; the end 
 aimed at in the modern style is, to present views which are irregular, picturesque, and 
 natural. The direction of the approach road from the public road, till it advances 
 nearly to the entrance front, may be considered as more legitimately within the province 
 of the landscape-gardener than within that of the Architect ; yet, still, the general 
 principle by which it is directed ought to be alike known to both. In the ancient 
 style, the grand object is, to obtain a straight line ; because such a line is more archi- 
 tectural, and displayed, in a rude age, more decidedly a character of art and design. In the 
 modern style, a winding line is preferred, as being more easy and natural, and, by displaying 
 a greater variety of scenery, evincing a more refined taste. The ancient style of approach 
 is displayed to greatest advantage over an even surface ; the modern style, over a surface 
 which is irregular. In the ancient style, when the two extreme points were once deter- 
 mined on, nothing could be easier than to lay out the road between them. In the 
 modern style, when the two extreme points are determined on ; tnat is, the point of 
 departure from the public road, and that of arrival at the entrance front of the mansion ; 
 the laying out of the road between them calls into exercise a considerable degree of 
 taste and judgment. As it is essential to this style that the line of road should be more 
 or less curvilinear, the artist is required duly to consider what ought to be the extent of 
 these curves, and how far they ought to deviate from a straight line. If he should be 
 guided entirely by the surface ; that, if very irregular, may induce him to trace a line 
 too circuitous ; and if even, to adopt a line without ease or grace. It may be laif*^ 
 down as a principle, that no winding approach can be beautiful whei t; tl ere is not an 
 obvious reason for each of the windings. It may also be admitted as another principle, 
 that, when the surface is very irregular, and the i-oad changes its direction with every 
 little obstruction, it will cease to have the character of a work of refined art. A third 
 principle here occurs, to correct the tendency to error in either of the extreme cases of a 
 very hilly or a very flat surface. This principle is, that the road, in every case, should be 
 
 4 T 
 
770 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 easily ti'avelled over; and from this principle are derived the following rules ; viz., that, 
 on a flat surface, this road should never deviate so far from the straight line as to be 
 obviously very circuitous ; that, on an irregular surface, it should never be turned aside by 
 surmountable inequalities, so as to produce the same effect ; and that, if not turned aside 
 by inequalities, it should never pass over them in such a manner as to interfere with 
 facility of communication. An expression of art, therefore, requires to be given, not only 
 to the direction of the road, but to its inclination in the direction of its length. For 
 this reason, on irregular surfaces, it will frequently be required to cut into or lower 
 eminences, and to fill up or raise the surface of hollows or declivities. In effecting this, 
 the greatest degree of skill is required, to maintain the ease and grace of a work of art, 
 and to avoid the mere straightforward character of an improved turnpike road. Hap- 
 pily for the artist, trees can at all times be called in to his assistance ; and the effect of 
 these, in hiding defects and eliciting beauties, is all-powerful. Along the sides of a road 
 passing over an irregular surface, trees may be placed so as to conceal bends in its 
 direction, which would, if seen all at the same time, be considered too numerous ; and 
 on a flat surface they may be arranged so as to create an artificial cause for bends which 
 could not otherwise be made without forfeiting all pretensions to good taste. 
 
 1648. The Pleasure- Grounds. In order to make the most of a villa residence, it is 
 found desirable to have the grounds around the house laid out in two distinct characters. 
 The surface on the entrance front should be so disposed as to be in a less refined 
 style of design and ornament than that on the other fronts ; or, at least, on that generally 
 designated the lawn front, or that on the drawing-room side of the liouse. This side 
 should, in all cases, look towards the best views which the situation affords ; and the fore- 
 ground to these views should be in the highest style of design, order, and keeping 
 which it is intended that the villa should display. It is always desirable that this high 
 style of art should embrace two sides of the house, a third side being the entrance front, 
 and the fourth connected with the offices. We are here assuming the general outline 
 of the ground plan of the house and kitchen-court to be a square or a parallelogram, 
 merely to simplify discussion ; but what we shall advance will apply alike to every form 
 of ground plan. As the style of the grounds on the entrance front is decidedly inferior 
 in degree to that on the drawing -room front, and as the former are generally depastured 
 by sheep, deer, or cattle, it becomes necessary to form such a line of demarcation between 
 them as will serve also as a fence. To conceal this fence, or so to manage it as to render 
 it a work of art, or an architectural appendage to the house, is one of the nicest points of 
 management in disposing of the connecting links between the house and the grounds of 
 a villa residence. The most common resource is an iron fence ; sometimes avowedly 
 displayed, and at others studiously concealed, or formed so slightly as to be considered 
 invisible ; but in all cases a meagi e and paltry contrivance, utterly unworthy of a high 
 style of art. The sunk fence is another resource, which has been employed for separating 
 the grounds of the entrance front from the lawn ; but this also is unarchitectural, and, 
 like the iron and wire fences, only to be adopted at such a distance from the house as 
 never to be supposed to form any of the appendages which connect it with the grounds. 
 The iron fence and the sunk fence being rejected, to what, then, are we to have recourse? 
 Most decidedly, to a bold and avowed line of demarcation, of an architectural character, 
 and in a style of design which shall harmonise with that of the house. Even a plain 
 wall, broken in its lines by trees and shrubs, is superior to any fence not avowedly dis- 
 played as such, and not decidedly architectural. Here, then, is a medium of connecting 
 the house with the grounds on one side of the entrance front, while the kitchen-court 
 and stable offices afford a more conspicuous means of effecting the same object on the 
 other. Here, also, the Architect will have an opportunity of displaying, in the wall, his 
 inventive powers, in its line of direction, its height, its projections and recesses, the orna- 
 ments with which it is decorated, and in its partial concealment, and connection with the 
 scenery, by occasional groups of trees and shrubs. To fit a Villa Architect for this 
 purpose, he should stuby, above all other works, the writings of Uvedale Price, the 
 work of Gilbert Laing Meason on the landscape-architecture of the great painters of 
 Italy, and the essay on uniting the house with the grounds, by the late Thomas Hope. 
 " In recommending to Architects to study the picturesque effects of buildings, the site 
 adapted for them, and the accompaniments of terrace walls, architectural gardens, and 
 other decorations, to set off their designs for villas," Meason observes, " we are influenced 
 by a desire to raise and extend the theory and the practice of Architecture, to all that we 
 consider belongs to the art. This was the case in Italy when the fine arts were in per- 
 fection, and great villas were laid out by artists who often combined the practice of paint- 
 ing with that of Architecture ; and, until it be adopted in Britain, the designs of the 
 Architect will never have justice done to them in the execution." 
 
 1649. The Separation of the Lawn from the Scenery beyond it may be considered as a 
 continuation of the same subject ; for here, also, the sunk wall or the iron fence has. 
 
PttlNCIPLES FOR DESIGNING VILLAS. 
 
 771 
 
 been almost invariably resorted to. We do not object to these fences at a proper distance 
 from the house ; that is, at such a distance as to render it unnecessary for them to be 
 made architectural appendages for connecting the house with the gi-ounds; neither 
 should we object to the wire fence in front of the house, in the case of cottages and 
 cottage villas, where the house, from its smaller dimensions and picturesque low form, 
 blends with the scenery, without the necessity of architectural appendages. In the case 
 of all villas of any magnitude, however, we consider the architectural accompaniments of 
 terrace walls, gateways, alcoves, stone seats, steps, pedestals, urns, and other mural and 
 sculptural ornaments, essentially requisite to prevent the incongruity so ably exposed 
 by Mr. Hope, of " launching from the threshold of the symmetric mansion, in the most 
 abrupt manner, into a scene wholly composed of the most unsymmetric and desultory forms 
 of mere nature." " These forms," he adds, " are totally out of character with those of the 
 mansion, whatever may be its style of Architecture and furnishing." With him, we desire 
 to surround the house with a garden, into which " the cluster of highly adorned and 
 sheltered apartments that composes the mansion may, in the first instance, shoot out, as 
 it were, into certain more or less extended ramifications of arcades, porticoes, terraces, 
 parterres, treillages, avenues, and other such still splendid embellishments of art, calcu- 
 lated, by their architectural and measured forms, at once to offer a striking and varied 
 contrast with, and a dignified and comfortable transition to, the undulating and rural 
 features of the more extended, distant, and exposed boundaries ; before, in the second 
 instance, through another link, and a still farther continuance of the same gradation of 
 lines and forms, the limits of the private demesne are made, in their turn, by means of 
 their less artificial and more desultory appearance (increasing with their distance from 
 the house), to blend equally harmoniously with the still ruder outlines of the property 
 of the public at large." An eloquent writer on this subject, in the Gardener'' s Magazine^ 
 after objecting to the general incongruity between the English villa and its garden, on 
 the same principles as Mr. Hope, observes, " We should condescend to borrow from our 
 neighbours on the Continent some of that architectural taste in gardening in which many 
 of them have so much excelled ; we must engraft upon our own romantic harshnesses 
 something that will accord better with the equipment of the interior of our residences ; 
 something like furniture and ornament ; and not leap from our windows into jungles and 
 steppes, and wildernesses, where the lion and the panther would be more at home than 
 the ' lady with her silken sheen.' We must, in fact, adapt our gardens, those, at least, 
 which adjoin the house, to the building, and make them a part of it ; appropriate, and 
 such as, in the times when those buildings were erected, were considered suited to each 
 particular class. If we take a review of our country residences, we shall find them to 
 be, or to have been, either the baronial castle, or the monastic and conventual houses, 
 such as, at the dissolution of the monasteries, were granted to the great and powerful of 
 their time, of which the greater part of many now remain, and are private dwellings ; 
 or the Elizabethan and Inigo Jones buildings ; or the great square edifices, with 
 projecting roofs, of William and Mary's time ; or the Palladian palace and villa. 
 To give these buildings gardens appropriate to their individual styles and eras of build- 
 ing would not only add truth and consistency to the character of each place, — an object 
 hitherto sadly neglected, although generally allowed to be desirable, — but it would give 
 also to the possessor an opportunity of introducing that description of garden ground 
 which I contend to be best adapted to our climate. Each style of building would give 
 us permission, as it were, to ornament, to furnish highly our gardens, to decorate them 
 with masonry ; to place statues, and vases, and balustrades, and steps about them ; and 
 to enrich them with that most charming of all garden ornaments, the terrace : all of 
 which rich accompaniments, by carrying the eye from the interior ornaments of the 
 chambers to the garden, would in a manner so connect our gardens with our houses, as 
 to make them, what all, I believe, would wish them to be, a pleasurable part of them. 
 The want of colour, so necessary to a cheerfulness of scene, would, at those seasons 
 when flowers have ceased to bloom, be compensated for by the lights which would be 
 constantly falling upon and playing about the architectural ornaments ; and that court- 
 ing of sunshine, which is so desirable, would be generally gained." 
 
 1 650. Rules for laying out Architectural Gardens, the same writer observes, might be 
 given without much difficulty. Each of the above-mentioned eras of building villas or 
 mansions admits of architectural ornatnents ; " the taste in their disposition, and the 
 skill in their execution, being determined by the style of the individual building. The 
 terrace, or succession of terraces, of the baronial castle will not require the same orna- 
 ment as the monastic terrace ; nor will that, again, be so richly or gorgeously adorned 
 as the Palladian terrace : and let it here be observed, by the way, that by a terrace is 
 not always implied that elevated spot whence a commanding and distant view is obtained 
 (a misconception of this description of ornament to a building entertained by many) ; 
 but any raised, straight, and broad, paved or gravelled walk, on a level, running parallel 
 
77- COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 to, or surrounding, a building. Many, in these times, have chosen to misinterpret the 
 original intention for which terraces were formed ; and because some of the remains of 
 them, and, no doubt, therefore, tlie finest and most agreeable, enjoy distant and extensive 
 prospects, have imagined that, without that, no terrace could strictly so be called : 
 whereas, I conceive, the main object of a terrace to have been for the jiurpose of ob- 
 taining in most, but particulaily in bad, seasons, a dry and healthy promenade ; and, no 
 doubt, if from this promenade an extensive view were commanded, the enjoyment of the 
 exercise taken thereon would be greatly enhanced. If we define a terrace merely as a 
 long and spacious straight walk, no one will object to the introduction of it ; and I think 
 I may affirm, that all who possess one will agree with me in confirming the enjoyment 
 they have derived thereon. Of those houses built in the reigns of Charles IL, James 
 II., William and Mary, and Anne, some exception to my original position may be 
 judiciously made ; for, to follow strictly the trim style of gardening which was originally 
 adopted by their possessors, and considered then as appropriate, would be, in truth, to 
 return to a style which was introduced in 1 ad taste, and which ought, therefore, to be dis- 
 carded. Where such houses remain, it will be well, perhaps, to keep up their gardens 
 partially, introducing with them, or engrafting upon them, the better style of I'alladian 
 <rardening, that, too, which immediately succeeded ; by which we can only subject 
 ourselves to the same sjjecies of reproach, if rejiroach it can l)e called, as that given to 
 our munificent ancestors, when they completed the Saxon and Norman cathedral with 
 the then newer style of Gothic." 
 
 1651. The Italian Architectural Garden. "It is a mistaken notion to suppose, that, 
 because we do not enjoy tlie climate of Italy, we cannot, therefore, ajjprojjriate to this 
 country the Italian style of garden. It is also a mistakeji notion to suppose the Italian 
 style of gardening peculiarly adapted to the Italian climate. Tliose who have visited 
 Rome in the winter season will agree with me in enthusiastic admiration of the Roman 
 gardens, at that period of the year. By an Englishman the gardens of the Villa 
 liorghese and Doria I'amfili can never be fi)rgotten. Rut, then, he must have visited 
 them in winter ; he must have seen and enjoyed them at that season, for the amelioration 
 of the rigours of which they have been constructed ; for even at Rome a winter has its 
 rio-ours. I^et him visit these gardens in summer, and he will find them a very Pande- 
 monium. If his eyesight recover from the glare of their blazing ornaments, he will 
 not so easily forget the intolerable heats he has found collected in tliem, and tlieir almost 
 total want of shade; for the shade of evergreens, even though they should be tiie 
 beautiful /'lex or spreading stone pine, is not true shade to an Englishman, accustomed 
 as he is to the delicate and umbnigeous foliage of our deciduous natives, the oak, &c. Ry 
 as much, therefore, as our climate throughout the year a])proachcs to the climate of 
 an Italian winter, by so much should we do wisely in adojiting the Italian style of 
 "•ardening. It is true, we have not marble in the same abundance ; and, if we had, we 
 have iK'itlier artists to execute figures and vases in that material at a moderate jjrice ; 
 nor would those, when executeil, bear the frost or damp of this country ; and so far the 
 Italian style is not fitted for this climate : but we have stone, and that in abundance, 
 and of tlie most beautiful description, such as the Portland, the Bath, and the Ancaster, 
 which will stand all weathers ; and the two latter of which are so easy to cut, and so dur- 
 able when cut, that the place of marble ornaments may be supplied by them at a very moderate 
 expense. A i)lot of ground, of one acre only, attached to the mansion, laid out in the Italian 
 manner, with its terrace, steps, balustrades, vases, fountain, and rectangular gravel walks, 
 will add more to the cheerfulness of both the exterior and interior of that mansion, 
 throughout the greater portion of the year, than five times the quantity of land laid out 
 according to our present English style of gardening. What flower-beds, and those 
 formal ones, corresponding in lines parallel to the gravel walks, may be introduced, will 
 be made gaudy and rich for the summer season by annuals, of which, in colour, there 
 is a great variety ; and roses, care being taken to put but one kind of plant into each 
 flower-bed ; bulbous roots, such as snowdrops, crocuses, tulips, hyacinths, &c., will 
 aflford a spring crop of many colours ; China asters, chrysanthemums, georginas, pelar- 
 "•oniums, &c., will decorate the autumn ; and but a few winter months will reniain for 
 tiie architectural ornaments to display fully and solely those powers which, with the 
 conjunction of the flowers, they have through the spring, summer, and autumn main- 
 tained. A garden of this sort is < an extension of the splendour of the residence into a 
 certain limited portion of the demesne ; it is a sort of chapel of ease to the apartments 
 within doors.' If it cannot justly be called a part of the mansion, it is at least a link of 
 connection between that and the other gardens ; and, for such other gardens, our own 
 English style is as good as. and perhaps better than, the style of any other nation. In 
 these gardens this rule should be observed, that, as they approach the park or forest, the 
 wilder'^andmore in character with that adjunct they become, till, by an apparently natural 
 and easy step, the one amalgamates with the other. However strong contrasts, and 
 
PRINCIPLES FOR DESIGNING VILLAS. 
 
 773 
 
 happy and unexpected transitions from one style of gardening to another, may be permitted, 
 and perhaps with good effect, within the garden ground, yet, when the park is approached, 
 no such trick should be allowed. The simple grandeur of our park scenery requires no 
 raree-show work to attract attention ; it stands unrivalled with its hundred accompani- 
 ments of wild splendour, which cannot but be materially deteriorated by any contrivances 
 to show it off to advantage." i^Gard. Mag.., vol. iv. p. 214.) 
 
 Sect. III. Of adapting the Architectitral Style and interior Arrangement of the House 
 to the Character of the Situation. 
 
 1652. Certain Characters of Ground and Scenery axe supposed, by many, to have an 
 analogy with certain styles of Architecture. Rude, rocky, hilly, and very irregular sur- 
 faces are said to require the Castle Gothic ; fertile valleys, the Abbey Gothic, or monastic 
 style ; and rich extensive plains the Grecian or Roman manner. It is, no doubt, very 
 natural to associate a rude style of scenery with the baronial castle ; and an abbey or 
 monastery with surrounding fertility ; but the connection between Grecian Architecture 
 and tame or rich scenery is not so obvious. However, in so far as these prejudices or 
 associations exist, they ought to be taken advantage of by the Architect, in his choice of 
 style. In so far as Architecture is entitled to be considered a fine art, the style adopted 
 ought to exercise some influence on the imagination ; and, therefore, whichever style 
 may be selected, it ought always to be accompanied, as far as practicable, by such cir- 
 cumstances as may serve to heighten its effect on the mind. Thus, a castellated man- 
 sion, with towers and battlements, will more powerfully affect the imagination, when 
 placed in a position favourable for defence, by its altitude, its rocky base, its proximity 
 to a river or the sea, or by various other circumstances, than when placed on a tame, flat 
 surface. At the first glance the spectator immediately concludes that it may have been 
 a real castle in former times ; and he readily becomes a party, as it were, to the illusion 
 which it is desired to create. There are similar associations connected with villas in the 
 monastic style ; but few, at least in Britain, with purely Grecian villas. Tlie associations 
 connected with them are either classical, and of a description which can only affect the 
 minds of those classical scholars who have studied Architecture ; or purely architectural, 
 and therefore confined almost entirely to Architects. Whenever, therefore, the artist 
 wishes to affect the imagination, and to raise emotions of grandeur and beauty, or recall 
 the images of antiquity in general observers, he must adopt one or other of those styles 
 with which general observers are familiar. The truth is, that, in order thoroughly to 
 enjoy an object, we must first understand it : now, for one person who knows and can 
 comprehend the uses of the component parts of a Grecian elevation, there are numbers 
 who are familiar with all the details of Gothic Architecture. Towers, battlements, 
 buttresses, pointed windows, mullions, and porches have been, from infancy, before the 
 eyes of every one who has been in the habit of attending his parish church ; and, when- 
 ever they occur in other buildings, they recall a thousand images connected with the 
 place of our birth, the scenes of our youth, the home of our parents, and the abodes 
 of our friends. In this frame of mind how easy it is to be pleased ! 
 
 1653. In order to compare the Grecian Style with the Gothic, or any of those which 
 may be considered as indigenous to this country, with reference to their effect on the 
 imagination, it is only necessary for us, first to take a view of a newly built villa in the 
 one style, and then of one, also newly built, in the other. Let us imagine a Grecian villa 
 now before us, with its portico, and regular symmetrical front ; perfect in all respects as 
 an edifice. What are the sentiments which arise in the mind on viewing it ? Very few 
 which can respond to any feeling already existing in the mind of the general observer. 
 The columns, no doubt, carry back the ideas to the Grecian temples of antiquity ; but 
 these do not possess half the interest, in the present age, which attaches itself to a Gothic 
 church. There are no ancient villas in the Grecian style, at least in Britain, to recall 
 associations in their favour ; and, that style of Architecture being chiefly prevalent in 
 newly built cities, a villa in the Grecian style generally reminds us more of the town 
 than of the country. A style of building which has this effect cannot be well adapted 
 for a villa. What, then, are the inducements to build villas in the Grecian style ? Is there 
 any particular fitness in this style for the internal arrangement of a house in the country? 
 Can such houses be rendered more commodious, more durable, or built more economi- 
 cally ? No one will answer these questions in the affirmative. If, then, Grecian 
 Architecture has but few associations connected with its external appearance to recom- 
 mend it for the country, and if it be found not better than other styles in point of fitness 
 and utility, by what means has it happened that it has been, till lately,'' so generally 
 adopted in country houses? We believe that the principal reason why it was first 
 introduced in the reign of James I. was its novelty at that time ; and that, having then 
 become the fashionable style, it has since been continued, partly for that reason, and 
 partly from the general deference which is paid to any thing Grecian. The style is, we 
 
77^^ COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 believe, frequently adopted, merely as evidence which the love of it is supposed to afford 
 of scholarship and taste. Let us next take a view of a newly built villa, either in any 
 of the varieties of the Gothic style which have long existed in Britain, or in any of the 
 mixed styles which have prevailed, or which still prevail, on the Continent. How various 
 the associations which rise up in our minds, when viewing a successful imitation of a 
 baronial castle, or of an old Enghsh manor-house ! Even an Italian villa has its interesting 
 associations ; and though these associations can never be so generally agreeable to a native 
 of Britain, as those raised up by the forms of Gothic Architecture, yet still they are 
 recognised in such a manner as to excite emotion, from their frequent recurrence in the 
 landscapes of the great artists of Italy. We thus arrive at the conclusion, that the styles 
 of Architecture that have been most familiar to those wIkj are to inhabit the edifices to 
 be erected, are the best calculated for general use. It follows, also, from this, that any 
 style which has been long in use will raise emotions ; and thus, that, after a long period 
 of time, the associations connected with tlie Grecian style will call up feelings in the 
 mind of a Briton, as interesting as those now excited in him by the Gothic. Our 
 approbation of the Italian style, which is of a mixed character, and has long been applied 
 to domestic purposes, has, no doubt, its origin in this cause. 
 
 1654. The Fitness of a Style for Accommodation, Comfort, and Convenience may natu- 
 rally be supposed to influence our judgments in respect to its external effect ; but, in this 
 point of view, our belief is that the Grecian, Gothic, and Italian styles are altogether 
 equal. It is true, that if we consider it necessary that the Grecian style, when adopted 
 in the country, should be as essentially symmetrical as it is, when applied to temples, 
 there will be an end, at once, of all its pretensions to fitness for a villa residence : but 
 this exact symmetry, though it seems essential for a temple, or any large public building, 
 the principal use of which is to assemble great masses of men in one room, is not 
 absolutely necessary where the occupants of a building are to be lodged in different 
 rooms ; and, when this is the case, the Grecian style is as applicable to a villa as the 
 Gothic. It will not, we think, be denied, that all the details of the Gothic style are 
 as much taken from a cathedral, as the details of the Grecian style are taken from a tem- 
 ple; and yet, in a private building in the Gothic style, it is never considered necessary 
 that we should be guided by tlie general form and symmetry of the cathedral. The 
 difference betv.-een the styles unquestionably lies much more in men's minds, and in the 
 historical associations connected with them, than in the abstract forms belonging to them. 
 We assert tliis with the more confidence in regard to forms, because those essential to use 
 and occupation are precisely the same in both; viz., the square and the parallelo- 
 gram for the ground plan ; or the cube and long cube for the plan and elevation. 
 
 1655. The Difference between a House in the Town and a House in the Country lies 
 much deeper than in mere style, important though we allow tliat to be. The great 
 object of a house in town is concentration ; the great object of a house in the country, 
 the enjoyment of free air and of the external scenery. In the town, there is nothing to 
 admire but what has been created by man and all that is beautiftil to the eye is archi- 
 tectural. In the country, on the contrary, there are not only architectural beauties to 
 enjoy, but the extensive and varied beauties of verdant scenery. It would appear, there- 
 fore, that much greater attention ought to be paid to Architecture in towns than in the 
 country ; and this, taking a general view of towns ancient and modern, will invariably 
 be found' to be the case. Country houses, or villas, on tlie other hand, will invariably 
 be found to be less architectural ; and, especially, less symmetrical, than dwellings in 
 towns. This difference is clearly founded on the sound principles of utility and enjoy- 
 ment, in the country, there are two leading principles which direct the disposition of 
 the different apartments : the one is, shelter from the particular winds and storms which 
 prevail in the particular situation ; and the other is, the enjoyment of the particular 
 views which are to be obtained of the surrounding country. The influence of these 
 two principles we shall find pervading the villa residences of every age and country ; 
 and hence it is that, as town houses have in all ages and countries been concentrated and 
 symmetrical, so country residences have, in all ages and countries, been comparatively 
 scattered and irregular. The conclusion which we draw from these observations, as 
 applied to our present subject is, that a villa residence ought to be characterised by 
 extent and irregularity ; and this conclusion agrees with that arrived at by Mr. Hope 
 and other writers. j j /. i 
 
 1656. The Irregularity of the Style of Villas has been illustrated and contended tor by 
 Price, Knight, Hope, Meason, and a number of other authors ; while the concentrated 
 and symmetrical style has never, so far as we are aware of, been advocated by any one 
 writer as the most suitable for the country. We shall not here repeat the mvaluable 
 observations of Sir Uvedale Price, who, in his Essays on the Picturesque, was the first 
 in the order of time, as he still is in the order of excellence, to draw attention to the 
 beauty of irregularity in all country buildings, where the object aimed at is any thing 
 
PRINCIPLES FOR DESIGNING VILLAS. 
 
 775 
 
 beyond bare shelter and utility ; but, having already recommended the essay of Mr. 
 Hope (which will be found in vol. ix. of the Gardener's Magazine'), we shall conclude 
 this section with some quotations from the work of Meason. 
 
 1657. The Landscape Architecture of Italy, Meason observes, is the result of time and 
 of a great variety of circumstances. The Roman villas were, no doubt, originally Grecian 
 edifices adapted to the particular situations in which they were placed ; and we are cer- 
 tain, from the descriptions which remain of them, that they extended over tlie surface 
 rather than towered in stories one above another. After Italy was invaded by the Goths 
 of the north and the Saracens of the south, and became a prey to barbarians from one 
 end of the country to the other, those who remained stationary, as proprietors of the 
 soil, left their villas in the plains, and betook themselves to situations where they could 
 with facility fortify themselves against the attacks of invaders. Hence the few villas, 
 which we know to have existed in the middle ages, are in a mixed style of Roman and 
 castellated Architecture ; and this mixed style has prevailed in the villas of Italy from 
 that period to the present. 
 
 1658. The Transition from the Roman Villas to the Italian castles or monastic esta- 
 blishments of the middle ages is thus given by Castellan, and G. L. Meason. Castellan 
 maintains that several monasteries, built on the ruins of Roman villas, retain the ancient 
 distribution of the parts of the buildings : the courts surrounded with porticoes, which 
 are used for walks ; the rooms entering upon the portico, without communicating with 
 one another ; the basins, with fountains in the courts ; the terraces upon arcades ; the 
 oratories in the gardens; all these have a striking analogy to the ancient villa. At 
 an ancient villa near Brundusium, our author found the ambulacrum, or covered walk, 
 pretty entire. " One of the celebrated villas of Lucullus," observes G. L. Meason, 
 " formerly belonging to Marius, and afterwards an imperial residence of Tiberius, 
 situated on the promontory of Misenum (Capo Miseno), existed a. n. 480. To this 
 retreat was sent, by the clemency of Odoacer, king of the Heruli Goths, the last feeble 
 representative of the Roman emperors of the West, called in derision Augustulus. 
 The villa had gradually been changed into a strong castle, to protect it against the sea 
 attacks of the Vandals. These invasions by sea of the Vandals, and, subsequentlv, of 
 the Normans and Saracens, ruined probably the crowd of Roman villas on the Nea- 
 politan shores. The villas on the fertile plains of Italy would suffer from the invasions 
 by land ; but many villa castles or fortified residences remained after the tenth century, 
 in the hilly districts of the Vicentine and Veronese territories ; as their rural nobility 
 descended into the cities of Padua, Verona, Vicenza, and Trevisa, and took part with 
 the Guelf faction. In the thirteenth century, 150 castles were computed to be in the 
 Milanese. It was probably to a Roman villa that Avitus, lieutenant of the emperor 
 Maximus, and afterwards himself a short-lived emperor, retired, a. d. 460. It was 
 situated near Clermont in Auvergne, on the margin of a lake, into which rushed a 
 torrent of mountain cascades. The villa contained baths, summer and winter apartments, 
 and porticoes. Sidonius, the son-in-law of Avitus, has, in imitation of Pliny, given a 
 prolix but obscure description of it." (Landscape Arch, of Italy, &c.) The same author 
 ( G. L. Meason), in his graphic illustrations, has given an example, from a landscape of 
 Giotto, of what appears to be « a monastery, constructed on a more ancient edifice." 
 
 fig. 1412. He has also given an Italian baronial castle of the fourteenth or fifteenth 
 century from Titian, characterised by round towers, fig. 1413; one from Breemberg, 
 
COTTAGE, FAUM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE 
 
 characterised by square towers, fifr. 1414 ; and one from (iiulio Roaiano, in wliicli both 
 round and stjuare lowers arc combined, wi;h something of the monastic character main- 
 
 tained by gable ends, and a spire-like turret, fig. 1415. A fine example of a picturesque 
 country-house, of the seventeenth or the beginning of the eighteenth century, is given 
 
 1415 
 
1659. The Beau Ideal of the Italian Style of Villa Architecture, it is justly observed by 
 Meason, is to be found in the landscapes of the great Italian painters, and more especially 
 in the backgrounds of their pictures. Speaking of the examples which Italy and her 
 artists afford to the rest of Europe, he says, " that there are no petty ornaments to detract 
 from the effect of sim])licity and breadth in the Architecture. None of the sky lines are 
 broken by trifling turrets or meagre pinnacles. The towers are plain, or simply embat- 
 tled ; and the varied line is produced by the different heights of large massive parts. 
 The projections in the facade may be considered, in many of these buildings, as too 
 sudden and unconnected ; owing, no doubt, to the additions made at different times : but 
 the Architect has to study the value of bold breaks in a picturesque composition, which 
 may produce strong light and shade in almost every position of the sun, yet so as not to 
 interfere with the interior convenience of the mansion. The various forms of projections 
 by which the parapets, whether of towers or of the whole facade of the building, may be 
 supported, deserve the particular attention of the Architect ; and here the Tuscan Archi- 
 tecture of Florence, and that of many existing Italian villas of the fifteenth century, will 
 supply him with excellent examples. These objects in irregular Architecture, combined 
 with the power of the owner of the future mansion to arrange his apartments in any 
 way that his taste, or fancy, or habits may guide him, give to the ArcJiitect an endless 
 variety of architectural compositions, in which his genius has ample room for display. 
 Such edifices, spread over the country, would contribute most essentially to the beauty of 
 British landscape. But, in following out this style, our artists ought to work on a large 
 scale. No tower, round or square, should be elevated that cannot be made into useful 
 rooms of proper dimensions, so that effect and utility may always be combined. The 
 upper parts of the towers should never be loaded with unmeaning hanging watch-turrets, 
 nor the grandeur of the general outline be broken down by ill-placed tasteless pinnacles. 
 We must condemn the present taste for pinnacles, rising above the simple square tower, 
 of the new churches around the metropolis. In correct Gothic Architecture, no pinnacle 
 was uselessly introduced. ' An Italian,' Rose observes, ' wisely considers the Architec- 
 ture of a house as connected with its position, precisely as he meditates a picture with 
 reference to the light in which it is to be placed.' " {Land. Arch. Italy, &c.) 
 ^ 1 660. The present Country Seats of the Italians have been, more or less, copied by most 
 civilised nations of Europe, celebrated by poets, and " visited and admired by travellers : 
 they have not, however, been described or represented as they deserve. They are 
 arranged so as to produce the best effect ; and advantage of the nature of the site has 
 been taken with admirable skill. The regularity of the garden is, as it were, an accom- 
 panying decoration and support to the Architecture. The Architecture, sculpture, and 
 gardens of these villas are often designed by the same hand, and concur in the general 
 effect to produce perfect harmony. Many of the great painters, besides Michael Angelo, 
 were Architects. Raphael superintended the building of St. Peter's tor a time ; he built 
 a few palaces and churches ; and we hope to see published a collection of his original 
 architectural designs, found in the valuable library at Holkham. Giulio Romano planned 
 several buildings at Mantua. Domenichino is said to have been too picturesque in his 
 
778 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 city buildings. Paul Veronese was an Architect of great merit ; and evcMi Pietro 
 Cortona practised extensively in this branc' of the fine arts." (Land. Arch. Itali/, Sec.) 
 
 1661. As Examples of the Specimetis of Italian Landscape- Architecture, and Meason's 
 remarks on them, we give the following : — 
 
 Fig. 1417 is from Raphael. " This fine edifice deserves the attention of an Architect. 
 The outline against the sky is very picturesque, and the introduction of the column 
 
 gives an agreeable pyramidal figure. The whole is so wvW connecti-d, tliat it lias iIk 
 appearance of having l)een built at the same period. Drawn on a large scale, the build- 
 ing would have a much greater air of simplicity and grandeur." 
 
 Fig. 1418 is from Titian. " We have in this chaste design a very beautiful building, 
 varied, yet extremely simple, and having all the parts well combined ; which is o>ving 
 
 much to the elevation of the central square mass, producing not only a fine general figure, 
 but uniting the whole into a connected body. The large round tower, as a termination, 
 adds the character of firmness to the whole edifice." 
 
 Fig. 1419 is from Claude Lorraine. " To the original part of the building, placed behind, 
 
PRINCIPLES FOR DESIGNING VILLAS. - 779 
 
 have been joined much more modern additions in front. Here, again, the commanding ele- 
 vation of the square tower gives that consequence to the edifice, without which it would 
 have no effect. Hence Architects may observe how important it is to have one bold 
 well-placed part in an irregular pile of building." If the reader imagine this square 
 tower removed, the whole pile will not only appear tame, but there will be a want of 
 that central resting place for the eye, which is essential to produce the effect of a whole. 
 Let him also imagine a tower of equal height, raised over the lower mass to the right of 
 the picture, and he will find the idea of a whole materially lessened ; simply, because 
 there would then be no centre to the field of vision. Place a higher tower than either 
 between the two, and the idea of a whole will be restored. 
 
 Fig. 1420 is from Michael Angelo. " This edifice is taken from the picture of the Rape 
 
 of Ganymede. It has a very picturesque appearance ; and here, again, the high central 
 tower unites the whole, and gives a pleasing sky line. The termination of such buildings 
 by a massive round tower based 
 
 a little below the rest of the m , I'l^ 
 building, gives, we think, the Iji^^^^' 
 look of stability and firmness 'l^'^^ 
 to the whole." In this picture, 
 the trees, and the background 
 of the centre of the building, are 
 in some measure necessary to the 
 completion of a whole ; but they 
 might have been dispensed with 
 by a small tower, or even lofty 
 chimney-tops rising out of the 
 large square tower. The re- 
 moval of the pyramidal top to 
 the small tower on the right, 
 would have also produced the 
 same effect. The embattled 
 terrace harmonises with the em- 
 battled parapets of the towers 
 and of the right wing, and con- 
 trasts advantageously with the 
 roofs of the square and round 
 towers to the right of the pic- 
 ture. 
 
 Fig. 1421 is from Claude. "We 
 have here a singular group of 
 towers taken from a drawing by 
 this great master. The whole is 
 built for strength and security." 
 Viewed as a dwelling, there is little appearance of habitableness in this collection of 
 towers ; but that very circumstance contributes to its effect as a castle. The whole group 
 consists of eight towers, contrasted in dimensions, in height, in position, and in light and 
 shade. Imagine the eight towers placed in a line rising from one level basis, and the 
 building would have had little or no claim to attention, and certainly none to approbation. 
 
780 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 With a view to modern Villa Architecture, this vignette suggests fewer hints than any 
 which have preceded it. There are no projecting parts or appendages " shooting out," 
 as Mr. Hope expresses it, in all directions among the surrounding garden scenery ; no 
 terrace serving as a basement ; no steps or porch indicating an entrance ; and no colonnade 
 or arcade suggesting the idea of elegant enjoyment. Still, we may imagine a situation 
 where such a tower might be built as an ornament, as a ruin, as a prospect tower, or for 
 the purpose of commemorating some ancient castle, which may be supposed to have 
 formerly stood upon the spot. 
 
 Fig. 1422 is from Sermonita. " The main tower appears to have on one side a semi- 
 circular shape which we have not before met with. The sky line of the whole deserves 
 
 the notice of Architects. We have here another example of low circular towers on the 
 left, built to abut upon and protect the foundation of the large square tower." 
 
 Fig. 1 423 is from Gaspar Poussin. " Tliis is one of the largest edifices we have selected, 
 and appears to form two sides of a square. Both in the fa9ade and sky line there is much 
 variety of outline. The other two sides of the square are formed by the walls enclosing 
 the garden. If these walls had originally been higher and embattled, the whole would 
 
 have been a very strong baronial castle of the largest dimensions. The building has a 
 simple picturesque appearance, and may be advantageously compared with many large 
 irregular structures lately erected in different parts of Britain." 
 
 Fig. 1 424 is from Domenichino. " The round tower has been apparently the nucleus of 
 this mansion. The other parts are likely to be the work of the fourteenth or fifteenth 
 century ; but whether the portico be ancient, or merely the addition of the painter, we 
 cannot determine. The scenery is similar in the original picture. In calling the 
 attention of Architects to the sky line of irregular buildings, we do not mean that the 
 upper lines should cut against the sky ; on the contrary, we think this has always a 
 harsh effect. Buildings appear most agreeable when backed by wood or rising ground." 
 
PRINCIPLES FOR DESIGNING VILLAS. 
 
 781 
 
 Fig. 1 425 is from Nicolas Poussin. " The arcade, over which there appears to be an 
 upper terrace, has a grand and imposing effect, and the lower terrace unites the whole 
 with the surrounding scenery. The round tower brings the pile to the pyramidal shape." 
 
 1662. Remarks. The preceding vignettes are taken, with some slight alterations and 
 additions, from the work of G. L. Meason (of which only a very few copies were 
 printed) ; and we may state that they were taken with the author's permission ; since, in 
 a correspondence with him in the spring of 1831, just before his departure for Italy, he 
 consented to our making whatever use of his work we pleased. Mr. Meason, at the same 
 time, proposed to us to edit a new edition of his Landscape Architecture, incorporating 
 with it a great variety of new matter, which, we hope, will not be lost to the public. 
 Having stated this, we have now to recommend the young Architect to pause, and, 
 turning back to those vignettes, to examine each separately, endeavouring to discover the 
 causes of the satisfaction which they afford him. We advise him to do this before perusing 
 the remaining part of this paragraph. 
 
 Fig. 1412. The beauty here depends a good deal on the different forms of the 
 terminations of the towers. Two of these to the right are of the same figure, and two 
 on the left are of different figures ; but the greater distance of the tower on the extreme 
 right renders it smaller in appearance ; and, by a difference in dimension, completes the 
 variety. The contrast between these smaller pointed towers, and the square tower 
 with battlements in the centre of the group, contributes materially to the impression or 
 effect of the picture ; and the height of this square tower contributes, with that of the 
 highest spire, to the formation of a centre to the field of vision ; or, in the language of 
 art, to the production of a whole. 
 
 Fig. 1413. The effect here is produced by the same form in contrasted positions. In 
 the preceding vignette, the contrasts in the forms and styles of Architecture was so great 
 as to produce a variety almost approaching to discordance ; here the sameness of the forms 
 is such, that, notwithstanding their contrasted position, the result is a variety of an opposite 
 kind, so tame as almost to border on monotony. 
 
 Fig. 1414. This picture consists of the same forms, of diflferent dimensions a,nd 
 heights, with two small towers, which may be considered as chimney-tops, and which 
 
782 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 serve to attract the eye towards a centre, and to form a whole ; this whole, however, 
 depends a good deal on the exterior scenery. 
 
 Fig. 1415. Considerable variety of form, disposition, and outline; and the idea of 
 a whole produced by the central round tower, and its spire-like termination. 
 
 Fig. 1416. Great variety in disposition, and the group completed by an elevated 
 rectangular tower, terminating in a smaller division of the same with pinnacles. 
 
 Fig. 1417. A still greater variety of form and disposition, finely scattered over an 
 irregular surface, and the unity of the whole maintained by an elevated central column. 
 
 Fig. 1418. An extensive hal)i table-looking assemblage of grand forms. The 
 character is decidedly grand from the breadth ; but the idea of a whole less complete 
 than in the preceding and following vignettes, from the want of a central elevated pro- 
 jection, or tower. This very want, by rendering the edifice less measurable by the eye, 
 contributes to its grandeur. 
 
 1663. Wliatever may he the Style of Architecture adopted for a Villa, and whether the 
 general form of the house be symmetrical or irregular, there are three points which 
 require the particular attention of the Architect : these are, the porch, or portico ; the 
 colonnade, arcade, or veranda ; and the chimney-tops. We can hardly conceive a country- 
 house, of any beauty, in which considerable attention has not been paid to these three 
 requisites, so as to render them prominent features in the dwelling. 
 
 1 664. A Porch, or Portico, can never be dispensed with in a country-house ; because 
 independently of its real utility in protecting the door and entrance, it serves to point 
 out that part of the house to a stranger, to lend importance to it, and to afford an 
 opportunity of architectural display. The porch, or portico, is, indeed, in a great measure, 
 a characteristic of a country-house, since it is not generally found in ordinary street- 
 Architecture ; and, where it does occur, it indicates a superior description of dwelling : 
 whereas, the humblest cottage in the country has, or ought to have, its porch. Porches, 
 then, being comparatively indispensable in the country, and as, in order to enhance the 
 interest of any class of buildings, it is desirable to take advantage of every circum- 
 stance which can add to their distinctive character, this is another argument why the 
 porch should never Le omitted. Where a carriage is kept, we think the porch, or portico, 
 ought always to be of sufl^cient dimensions to admit of driving under. 
 
 1665. Colonnades, Verandas, and Arcades, though not so essential to a country-house 
 as the portico, or porch, are yet so characteristic of a dwelling in the country, that we 
 think one or other of them should very seldom be omitted. They are not only cal- 
 culated to be useful, as connecting passages between one point and another ; but as places 
 of shelter and protection for walking in during inclement weather, or for sitting in 
 during hot sunshine. At all events, even if they were of less use than they are, they 
 are so ornamental, and such evidences of elegant enjoyment, that we would rather court 
 an opportunity of introducing them, even if they were of little or no use, than forego 
 their effect in an architectural group. Every style of Architecture admits of its particular 
 character of arcade or veranda ; and the forms of the supports, the roofs, the parapets, 
 and the openings between the supports, admit of endless variety of form and decoration. 
 A Grecian house in the country, without a portico or a colonnade, is one of the most 
 dreary of architectural elevations, and is calculated to, call up any associations rather than 
 those which belong to the Tusculan villa of Pliny, which " had a spacious portico, 
 a porch built after the ancients, a second portico, and an enclosed portico." But it is 
 frequently contended, a judicious critic observes, that the Roman portico is but ill 
 adapted to our climate ; and that colonnades and porticoes, so delightful beneath the 
 sunny skies of Greece and Italy, are, in this country, at best but beautiful and costly 
 absurdities, in which propriety and comfort are sacrificed to display. It is urged, that, 
 however tasteful they are considered as mere decorations, the application of them, in 
 modern Architecture, is at variance with one of the first principles of correct taste ; 
 namely, that nothing can be essentially beautiful that is misplaced and misapplied. 
 That the colonnade was admirably adapted to the latitude of Greece and Italy, no one 
 can dispute ; but, surely, it does not thence follow, as our objectors would have us infer, 
 that it is worse than useless in our island. As well might these critics say, that an 
 umbrella is excellently contrived to serve as a screen against the rays of a tropical sun ; 
 its very name indicates its destination ; and, consequently, that it is highly absurd to 
 use it for any other purpose than as a parasol. Those who inveigh against the applica- 
 tion of the colonnade, as a mere architectural luxury, at once expensive and inconvenient, 
 appear not only to forget that the sun does sometimes actually unveil his face to us, and 
 that shade is desirable during some portion of the year, even in this formidable climate 
 of ours ; but, also, to forget that what, in a hot climate, is adopted for the sake of shade, 
 may here, with equal propriety, be employed for the purpose of shelter. Neither do 
 they consider that we can derive both advantages from it : shade in summer, when the 
 sun is high ; and shelter in winter, when that luminary is too low in the horizon for the 
 
PRINCIPLES FOR DESIGNING VILLAS. 
 
 788 
 
 colonnade to cast a shadow of such depth as to darken the rooms before whose windows 
 the columns project. (Lib. of the Fine Arts, vol. i. p. 188.) To arrive at a just con- 
 clusion on this subject, it seems to be only necessary to determine the principle on which 
 exotic Architecture is introduced at all. Now, we conceive, it will not be contended that 
 it is introduced because its interior arrangements are better adapted to our wants than 
 those of our indigenous Architecture. It must, therefore, be introduced on account of 
 the beauty of the style ; and, as porticoes and colonnades are essential to this style, it is 
 evident that, for this reason, independently of all other considerations, they cannot be 
 dispensed with. In our opinion, it is quite a sufficient argument for the introduction 
 of every component part of this sort in a viUa, that it adds to the beauty of the general 
 effect, and is not inconsistent with convenience and enjoyment. After a certain point has 
 been passed on the road from necessities to superfluities, beauty is use. 
 
 1666. On the Subject of Chimney-tops we have enlarged at some length in Book I. 
 They are essential features to human dwellings of every description ; more especially in 
 climates where they must be used for heating as well as cooking. Many consider that 
 the chimney-tops ought not to be shown in Grecian Architecture ; but they can assign no 
 reason for this, except that they are not seen in Grecian temples. We know nothing 
 of the Grecian villas, and very little of those of the Romans ; but, if we were even 
 perfectly certain that, in the villas of Pliny and other men of taste of his time, the 
 chimney-tops were concealed, we should say that the taste which dictated their conceal- 
 ment was bad. Our opinion is, that the chimney-tops ought to be as conspicixous in 
 a dwelling in the Grecian style as in any other ; and that the British Architect, so far 
 from having to regret the necessity of introducing chimney-tops into his dwellings, 
 ought to hail that necessity as one cause why the British villa might excel every other 
 in the world, and in many examples does excel them. How much do the Italian villas not 
 owe to their chimney-tops, their campaniles, their balconies, and their open watch-towers ! 
 
 1667. The two grand Defects of the Villa Architecture of Britain are, want of 
 union with the ground and the surrounding scenery, and want of skill in the manage- 
 ment of the chimney-tops. Our main object, in this chapter, has been, to draw 
 the attention of the young Architect to these two points ; believing them to be by far 
 the most important for producing the kind of effect and beauty required in a viUa. 
 Perhaps the next point is the disposal of the principal apartments in such a manner as 
 that they may command the best views which the situation affi^rds. When this is done, 
 it will generally produce an irregular ground plan, extending over a considerable sur- 
 face ; and this is always highly favourable to the character required in a villa. Villa 
 Architecture ought, in our opinion, to form a distinct part of the profession of an Archi- 
 tect ; and with this branch ought to be united the profession of a landscape-gardener. 
 This union was long ago recommended by Knight, Uvedale Price, Hope, Meason, and 
 other writers ; and we believe its necessity is felt by some of the first Architects of the 
 present day. Our opinion, decidedly, is, that no great improvement can take place till 
 the professions are united ; and, with a view to this end, we shall subjoin another para- 
 graph to this already too long section, to suggest a mode of study for acquiring both 
 professions. 
 
 1668. As Graphic Illustrations of the Principles which we have endeavoured to lay 
 down in the preceding paragraphs, we shall refer to the villa of the late Thomas Hope, 
 
 Esq., at Deepdene, Surrey, and to the architectural gardens formed by the late Earl of 
 Shrewsbury, at Alton Towers, in Staffordshire. The first is one of the finest examples 
 
784 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 in England of an Italian villa, united with the grounds by architectural appendages ; and 
 the second exhibits one of the most extraordinary combinations of garden building with 
 garden scenery, any where existing in Europe. 
 
 Fig. 1426 is the entrance front of Deepdene ; in which the offices to the right are not 
 shown, but they extend to a distance equal to the length of the house, and are highly 
 varied, and architectural. 
 
 Fig. 1427 is a view of the south front of Deepdene; showing the conservatory, and tlic 
 terraced garden in front of it. 
 
 Fig. 1428 is a lew of the north-west, or garden, front ; in the centre of which wil) he 
 seen a projecting semicircular terrace, with a j)arapet, ornamented by vases, ana on the 
 summit a prospect tower. It is proper to mention that these views, which are reduced 
 from those published in NeaVs Views of Emjlish Coutitry Seats, do not do justice to this 
 
 very beautiful place, because they are not sufficiently extended to the right and left to 
 show the skilful manner in which the architectural and sculptural ornaments are blended 
 with the garden scenery : but we hope, imperfect as these views are, they are sufficient 
 to show how much Deepdene deserves to be visited, and attentively studied, by the Villa 
 Architect. Both the house and the grounds were arranged entirely from the designs 
 of Mr. Hope, under the direction of P. Atkinson, Esq., Architect. 
 
 1669. The Valley Garden at Alton Towers was formed in a scene richly varied with 
 wood, water, and rocks, and nattirally in a high degree romantic. The late Charles 
 earl of Shrewsbury began to ornament it with walks and garden buildings about 1814, 
 and continued employing on it hundreds of labourers, mechanics, and artisans, from that 
 time till his death, in 1827 ; consulting a number of artists, and, among others, ourselves. 
 The Architects employed were chiefly Thomas Allason, Esq. and Robert Abraham, Esq. 
 To ihe present earl, and to his very ingenious and obliging clerk of the works, Mr. 
 
PRINCIPLES FOR DESIGNING VILLAS. 
 
 785 
 
786 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 Fradgley, we are indebted for a oumber of plans and views, some of which we shall 
 here lay before our readers. 
 
 Fig. 1429 is a general view of the north side of the valley, as seen from a point in 
 the south side, taken from a drawing obligingly lent us by Mr. Abraham, and made by 
 Mr. Abraham, jun., on the spot in 1827. 
 
 Fig. 1430 is a view by Mr. Fradgley, taken from a point on the south side of the 
 
 valley, and showing part of the north side. The conservatories are here conspicuous 
 objects ; and to the left is seen an imitation of Stonehenge. 
 
 Fig. 1431 is a view from a point on the north side of the valley, showing the pagoda 
 fountain in the bottom; and to the left, in the background, the towers of the house. 
 
 Fig. 1432, which is taken fiom a point on the north-west side, shows a fountain, 
 casciidc, and basin in the bottom, to the right part of the large conservatories, and in 
 
PRINCIPLES FOB DESIGNING VILLAS. 
 
 787 
 
 the distance an arcade, which separates the upper part of the valley from the lawn in 
 front of the house. 
 
 1670. We visited Alton Towers in 1826, and again ia 1831. On the former occasion 
 we arrived at the house, from Uttoxeter, in the month of October ; and on the latter, 
 from Cheadle, in July. By the road leading from Uttoxeter, we came unex- 
 pectedly close to the house, and near the head of the north side of the valley, which 
 contains the chief wonders of the place. The first objects that met our eye were, the 
 dry Gothic bridge and the embankment leading to it, with a huge imitation of Stone- 
 henge beyond and a pond above the level of the bridge alongside of it, backed by a mass 
 of castellated stabling. Farther along the side of the valley, to the left of the bridge, 
 is a range of architectural conservatories, with seven elegant glass domes, designed by 
 Mr. Abraham, richly gilt. Farther on, still to the left, and placed on a high 
 and bold naked rock, is a lofty Gothic tower or temple, on what is called Thomson's 
 rock, also designed by Mr. Abraham (and seen on the right of fig. 1429), consisting of 
 several tiers of balconies, round a central staircase and rooms ; the exterior ornaments 
 numerous, and resplendent with gilding. Near the base of the rock is a corkscrew 
 fountain of a peculiar description, which is amply supplied from an adjoining pond. 
 Behind, above, and beyond the range of conservatories, are two lakes ; and beyond 
 them is another conservatory, curiously ornamented : below the main range of conserva- 
 tories are a paved terrace walk with a Grecian temple at one end, and a second terrace 
 containing a second range of conservatories. The remainder of the valley, to the bottom, 
 and on the opposite side, displays such a labyrinth of terraces, curious architectural walls, 
 trelliswork arbours, vases, statues, stone stairs, wooden stairs, tm'f stairs, pavements, 
 gravel and grass walks, ornamental buildings, bridges, porticoes, temples, pagodas, gates, 
 iron railings, parterres, jets, ponds, streams, seats, fountains, caves, flower-baskets, water- 
 falls, rocks, cottages, trees, shrubs, beds of flowers, ivied walls, rockwork, shellwork, 
 rootwork, moss-houses, old trunks of trees, entire dead trees, &c., that it is utterly im- 
 possible for words to give any idea of the effect. There is one stair of 100 steps ; a 
 cottage for a blind harper, as large as a farm house ; and an imitation cottage roof, 
 formed by sticking dormer windows, and two chimneys, accompanied by patch^es of heath 
 to imitate thatch, on the sloping surface of a large grey mass of solid rock. This, seen 
 at a distance, protruding from a steep bank of wood, bore naturally some resemblance to 
 the roof of a cottage grey with lichens ; and the chimney-tops and windows were added, 
 to complete the idea. As the sandstone rock protrudes from the sides of the valley in 
 immense masses, abundant use has been made of it to form caves, grottoes, caverns, 
 and covered seats ; it has even been carved into figures : in one place we have Indian 
 
7^8 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 temples excavated in it, covered with hieroglyphics ; and in another, a projecting rock 
 is formed into a huge serpent, with a spear-shaped iron tongue and glass eyes. There 
 is a rustic prospect-tower over an Indian temple, cut out of solid rock, on the highest 
 point of the north bank ; and in the lowest part of the valley there are the foundation 
 and two stories (executed before the death of the late earl) of an octagon pagoda. 
 This pagoda was intended to be eighty-eight feet high. It is placed on an island, 
 in the centre of a small pond, and was to have been approached by a Chinese bridge 
 richly ornamented. The diameter of the base of the pagoda is forty feet, and there 
 were to have been six stories, the lower one of stone, and the others of cast iron. 
 From the angles were to have been suspended forty highly enriched Chinese lamps, and 
 these were to be lighted by a gasometer fixed in the lower story. Besides the lamps, 
 there were to have been grotesque figures of monsters projecting over the angles of the 
 canopies, which were to spout water from their eyes, nostrils, fins, tails, &c, ; a column 
 of water v/as also to have been projected per])endicularly from the terminating ornament 
 on the summit of the structure, which, from the loftiness of the source of supply, would 
 have risen to the height of seventy or eighty feet. This fountain was designed by 
 Mr. Abraham ; but only the lower story has been executed. The pagoda, the Gothic 
 temple (seen to the right of fig. 1429), the range of gilt conservatories, and the imitation 
 of Stonehenge, fig. 1433, form the leading artificial features of the valley. The valley 
 
 itself is upwards of a mile in length : it gradually widens from its commencement at 
 the stone bridge, with the pond above it, till it terminates by opening into the wide 
 valley containing the Chumet (there a considerable stream) and a navigable canal. 
 This immense valley, it is said, the late earl intended to cover entirely with water ; and, 
 as it would have saved the canal company several miles of canal, they offered to form 
 the dam, or head, at their own expense. This lake, of some thousands of acres, would 
 have been as easily produced as that of Blenheim was by Brown. 
 
 1671. In approaching from Cheadle, we arrive in front of the castellated stables, 
 and see the abbey, fig. 1 434, across the pond above the level of the bridge. Proceeding 
 a little farther towards the dry bridge, Stonehenge appears in the foreground, and 
 the tops of the seven gilt glass domes of the main range of conservatories below (as in 
 fig. 1433.). Raising the eyes, the lofty Gothic temple appears on the left of the picture ; 
 and on the right, across the valley, the harper's cottage. In the centre of thp picture 
 over the domes in the foreground, the valley loses itself in a winding bank oi wood, in 
 a style of great grandeur and seclusion. None of the details of the valley here obtrude 
 themselves ; and the effect, after passing through a wild country exhibiting no marks of 
 refinement, is singularly impressive. It fills the mind with astonishment and delight, 
 to find so much of the magnificence of art and the appearance of refined enjoyment, 
 amidst so much of the wildness and solitary grandeur of nature. The imitation of 
 Stonehenge, too, is a feature in artificial landscape which we have not elsewhere seen ; 
 
PRINCIPLES FOB DESIGNING VILLAS. 
 
 789 
 
 and a stranger is puzzled and confounded by finding a stream and a small waterfall 
 supplying a lake on what he conceives to be the highest point of high ground. 
 
 1672. The Scenery of the Valley of Alton Towers is not here presented as a model for 
 imitation : on the contrary, we consider the greater part of it in excessively bad taste, 
 or rather, perhaps, as the work of a morbid imagination, joined to the command of 
 unlimited resources. Still, however, there are many excellent things in it, and both the 
 good and the bad well deserve the attentive study of the young Architect. Indeed, wc 
 know no place in Britain, and only the Isola Bella on the Continent, capable of affording, 
 both by faults and beauties, so much instruction to the young artist. We say faults, as 
 well as beauties, since we are of opinion that the study of the former, in order to trace the 
 causes which have produced them, may be quite as useful to the student as that of the 
 latter. The house at Alton Towers is a magnificent pile of castellated and abbey Archi- 
 tecture ; and the gallery of armour, the picture gallery, and the conservatory, are in a 
 high degree extensive and splendid. A more detailed description of Alton Towers, 
 illustrated by numerous engravings, will be found in the Gardener's Magazine, vols. vii. 
 and ix. 
 
 1673. The Architect who intends also to he Landscape- Gardener should begin b)' pass- 
 ing a year in a botanic garden, or in such a garden as those of the London or Caledonian 
 Horticultural Societies, in order to acquire a correct knowledge of the names, heights, 
 characteristic forms, and colour of foliage of all the trees and shrubs which will stand 
 the open air in this country ; and of some of the principal families of herbaceous plants. 
 To do this effectually, he ought to make a distinct sketch of one individual of every 
 species and variety of tree and shrub ; and at the same time he ought to make other 
 sketches combining different species and varieties in groups. By reading, he will become 
 acquainted with the native countries of trees, and with the associations connected with 
 them, as to soil, character of surface, &c. For example, certain trees, such as willows, 
 alders, &c., always growing in low moist situations, are associated with the idea of 
 damp, and should never be planted near a house, or where it is intended to convey the 
 idea of dryness. The time thus spent would also familiarise him with the routine 
 practices of gardening, and with the construction and uses of hot-houses and other 
 garden buildings, to such an extent as to enable him to profit from afterwards reading 
 gardening books ; and thus, by thoroughly understanding the uses of garden structures, 
 to be able to improve them. One year thus employed by a youth of seventeen or 
 eighteen, who had previously received a scientific education, and was accurate and expert 
 in sketching from nature, would form his elementary instruction in landscape-gardening. 
 Let him then be put under an Architect whose practice lies chiefly in the country ; and, 
 after acquiring a thorough knowledge of architectural drawing in all its departments, 
 and making himself master of all the best books on the subjects both of Architecture and 
 landscape-gardening, let him endeavour to become an assistant to aVilla Architect. While 
 in this capacity, let him lose no opportunity of sketching landscapes containing villas and 
 garden scenery, from nature ; and at the same time let him refresh his memory from 
 time to time with the names of trees and shrubs, and their characteristic forms and 
 modes of growth. By such a course of study and practice, a young man who has a 
 natural genius for the arts of design (and no other should attempt the villa department 
 of Architecture) will acquire a suflScient knowledge of landscape-gardening to enable 
 him to lay out grounds, with the same assistance from the kitchen-gardener, as he receives, 
 in designing and estimating a house, from the builder. One thing, however, is essential, 
 and, without it, all the other acquirements are insufficient for enabling any young man 
 to join the two arts ; and that is, a thorough knowledge of perspective, joined to a great 
 facility in sketching every description of object, more especially landscape and architec- 
 tural scenery, from nature. If there is one test rather than another by which the taste 
 or no taste of an Architect can be detected with certainty (always supposing that he is 
 master of the mechanical rules of the art), it is the degree of perfection which he has 
 attained in sketching general scenery. 
 
790 
 
 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 1674. To enable an Architect already in practice to acquire a knowledge of Landscape- 
 Gardeningi we recommend him to procure access to some botanic garden containing a 
 rich arboretum, of which there are only two in the neighbourhood of London ; viz., that 
 of the Messrs. Loddiges at Hackney, and that of the Horticultural Society, at Chiswick. 
 Having done this, let him take portraits of all the trees and shrubs of which the arbo- 
 retum consists, in the same manner as we have before recommended for the pupil to do ; 
 and let him, at the same time, endeavour to acquire all the knowledge of gardening 
 generally that he can. The mornings, from six to nine, during the three months of 
 summer, may suffice for the garden visits, provided the Architect be an expert draughts- 
 man. (For a work which we contemplate on Landscape- Gardening, we have had 
 sketches taken of most of the species and varieties of trees and shrubs in Messrs. Loddiges' 
 arboretum ; and we find that one month, at the rate of nine hours a day, would be 
 sufficient to take portraits of the whole. ) After this we would recommend the Architect 
 to visit all the villas that he can, and to take memorandum ground plans of the general 
 distribution of the house, offices, gardens, roads, and walks belonging to each ; and also 
 to make views of the diffijrent houses, in connection with the scenery around them. While 
 going through this course of study, let the Architect, at his leisure, make himself master 
 of the gardening works of Shenstone, Gilpin, Whately, G. Mason, Mason the poet, 
 Allison, Price, Knight, Repton, Dugald Stewart, Hope, G. L. Meason, Gerardin, De- 
 lille. Morel, Watelet, Hirschfeld, and Quatremere de Quincy. We may add to these 
 the perusal of a number of papers on the subjects of Landscape- Gardening and of 
 Garden Architecture, in the Gardener's Magazine. Many persons think that all that is 
 required to constitute a landscape-gardener is, to have studied and sketched natural 
 scenery, and to be able to imitate that scenery in artificial grounds ; but unless this 
 imitation be made in the spirit of art, which it can only be, in the native or modern 
 style, by the use of exotic trees, it becomes, instead of an imitation, a mere mimicry of 
 nature ; and to this mimicry on the one hand, and a tame monotony on the other, may 
 be referred half the villa landscape or park scenery of Britain. 
 
 Chap. II. 
 
 The Beau Ideal of an English Villa. 
 
 1675. In order to give our readers a Picture of a modern English Villa as it ought to 
 be, we here present them with the description of an imaginary one, which has been 
 drawn up, and illustrated with plans and elevations, by a highly esteemed contributor and 
 amateur Architect. Our readers, we think, will allow that this gentleman is singularly 
 well fitted for the task which we have prevailed upon him to undertake. So complete a 
 knowledge of the subject, so much power of conveying his ideas both by verbal descrip- 
 tion and graphic illustration, and so much taste and discriminating judgment in Villa 
 Architecture, are seldom, indeed, to be found united in the same person. For our own 
 part, we know nothing of the kind that can be compared with the following description, 
 unless it be that which Pliny has given us of his own villas ; but the value of our modern 
 Pliny's description is greatly enhanced by its being accompanied by graphic illustrations. 
 We have applied to this picture the term beau ideal, not that there is any thing in it 
 that may not be found in hundreds of villas in England ; but because there may be few 
 at the present time in which the whole are united. Indeed, the time for such villas is 
 rapidly passing away in this and in every other country ; and we must confess, that, did 
 we look forward to the continuance of such a state of society as that here depicted, in 
 which one portion of mankind is placed so immeasurably above another, it would have 
 given us pain to present this picture. Our consolation, however, is, that it will soon 
 become matter of history, and only be referred to by Architects to affi^rd hints for smaller 
 villas, and for inns of recreation. We shall first lay before our readers the verbal de- 
 scription, and afterwards give the delineations, with their references. 
 
 Sect. I. The Beau Ideal of an English Villa described. 
 
 1676. The Situation. The word villa was originally used by the Romans to denote 
 a farm house, with the offices requisite for the accommodation of a husbandman. After- 
 wards, when luxury increased, the term villa was applied to the country residence of an 
 opulent Roman citizen ; and it is in the same sense that we now use it to signify a 
 gentleman's residence in the country. As a villa is to be a place of agreeable retirement, 
 
BEAU IDEAL OF AN ENGLISH VILLA. 
 
 791 
 
 and not one of seclusion from the world, it should be situated, if possible, in a beautiful 
 country, within reach of a public road, and at an easy distance from the metropolis. 
 Were I to select a situation for a residence of this description, I should choose a country 
 neither flat nor mountainous ; varied with hill and vale, and rather approaching to the 
 mountainous than to the dull monotony of a level surface. I should prefer a situation 
 removed about a mile from a great public road, and about ninety miles, or a day's journey, 
 from the metropolis. Here I would enclose a park of 100 or 150 acres ; bounded on the 
 north and west sides of it by lofty wooded hills ; on another side, by a road ; and, else- 
 where, by the enclosed country of the district : the surface of the park varied, but 
 generally inclining to the south, with a rapid stream of water passing through it at no 
 great distance from the site of the house. The park, in form, should be irregular, neither 
 round nor square, but the length greater than the breadth. The country itself would, 
 in great measure, determine the line of the boundary fence. Near to the woody hill, 
 on the north side of the park, on a gentle eminence, should be the situation for the house ; 
 and I would so place the principal front as to be seen from the public road, and to com- 
 mand a beautiful and extensive prospect over a fertile country ; having in the middle 
 distance a town or village, with its " heaven-directing spire " reflected in the broad 
 reach of a noble river, and in the extreme distance a moimtainous country, or the sea ; the 
 foreground of the view to be well broken up by the timber in the park. The house 
 should stand near the north boundary, nearly but not quite in the centre of the length of 
 the park, which I would divide into three unequal portions. That portion which would 
 be before the house should be an open lawn of an irregular shape, crossed obliquely by 
 the stream widened in parts, and having the banks fringed with underwood and a few 
 trees ; the lawn itself being bordered irregularly with thorns, holly, furze, fern, and trees ; 
 and varied, where the surface indicated a place for them, with groups or single trees. 
 The other two portions I would make unequal, the smallest towards the village. These 
 should be laid out in imitation of forest scenery, with open glades and thickets, an 
 irregular lawn in each, with occasional openings to the principal lawn before the house, 
 and to the distant prospect, or any picturesque object in the surrounding country ; taking 
 advantage of the inequalities of the surface, and following as closely as possible the mosfe 
 beautiful natural scenery. An irregular green drive or walk might be formed round 
 the whole. As to trees, I would have every kind of forest tree that the soil and space 
 would allow ; lout I should prefer the oak, sycamore (one of the noblest of forest trees 
 when old), the elm (narrow-leaved), Spanish and horse chestnuts, the maple, hornbeam, 
 and a few others. Of course, I should add lower growths, such as thorn, hoUy, broom, 
 fern, and even furze. To have a close even turf, which is one of the chief beauties in 
 park scenery, I should keep it well stocked with cattle, young horses, sheep, and, if 
 possible, a few deer. I have seen many parks, beautiful in themselves, but conveying 
 an unpleasant feeling of dulness and solitude. Cattle, &c., always give a certain air 
 of cheerfulness to a park scene ; but still the effect is often solitary, where there is no 
 appearance of human habitation besides the mansion. To obviate this loneliness, I would 
 introduce a few buildings. Thus, I would have the church within the enclosure of the 
 park, near the entrance gaXe, concealed partly by wood ; but so situated that the tower 
 and a portion of the church might be seen from the house. An ornamental temple or 
 summer-house ; a pigeon-house, often a very picturesque object ; the keeper's lodge ,which 
 should be within the park ; and even a few gables of the farm buildings, seen at a dis- 
 tance ; would all contribute to give the effect of cheerfulness and a pleasing variety to a 
 richly-wooded park. I should even wish to have a public footpath across it, and within 
 sight of the house ; though at such a distance as to be no inconvenience. To me, nothing 
 is more cheerless than that exclusive solitary grandeur so much affected in the present 
 day, which forbids the poor even to set a foot within the precincts of greatness. As the 
 most beautiful landscape is incomplete without figures, so the general effect of a park is 
 always lonely, unless it have a footpath frequented by the picturesque figures of the 
 labouring classes, and giving life and interest to the scene. Even the line of a footpath 
 is in itself beautiful, and breaks the monotony of the green turf. If it be objected that 
 a footpath is a nuisance, I answer, it is seldom found to be so in a retired situation, where 
 the comforts of the poor are properly attended to ; where the labourers have constant 
 work, good wages, comfortable cottages, and ground on which to occupy their leisure time ; 
 and where there are proper national schools, in which the children are taught their duty, 
 and kept out of mischief. They are the neglected poor who are mischievous and dis- 
 honest ; and in a populous neighbourhood, abounding with squalid poverty, a footpath 
 might ha a nuisance, which I should willingly dispense with. 
 
 1677. The Approach to a residence is commonly one of the most important features 
 about the place. A villa should always form part of a village, and be placed, if 
 possible, on rather higher ground, that it may appear to be a sort of head and protector 
 of tne surrounding dwellings of the poor, as it ever was formerly ; many of the finest of 
 
792 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 our ancient residences being close to towns and villages. Supposing, then, that the estate 
 is bounded on one side by the great public road, about a mile from the house ; I would 
 form a good parish road from the most convenient point in the public road, through a 
 pretty enclosed country, watered by the stream from the park, which I should cross by a 
 bridge of one or two arches, near the parish mill, and thence gently ascend to the village, 
 passing among the scattered farm houses and cottages, with their pretty gardens and 
 orchards, crossing the village green, on which should stand the school- house shaded by 
 lofty trees, to the other extremity of the village, where a handsome arched gateway 
 should form the entrance to the park. Passing through the gateway into an open glade 
 of oaks, the church would be seen at a little distance among the trees, through which the 
 road is continued with a gentle ascent, till the house suddenly presents itself, with its 
 stables and offices, backed by a woody eminence ; and, sweeping across the plain in front, 
 through some scattered trees and hollies, you at length reach the steps of the porch. 
 
 1678. Exterior Architecture and general Arrangement of the House. Before I describe 
 the interior of the villa, it will be proper to say something of the style of the building, 
 and of its external appearance. There are many reasons which lead me to give a 
 preference to the mixed style of Architecture, called the old English style, for a gentle- 
 man's residence in the country. For instance, it is more picturesque and ornamental ; it 
 accords best with rural scenery ; and, as it admits of great irregularity of form, it affords 
 space for the various offices and conveniences necessary in a country-house. It is also^ 
 I think, better suited to our climate than the Grecian style, which requires porticoes, pro-^ 
 jecting cornices, and windows of moderate size, &c. ; all which circumstances tend to make 
 the house gloomy, and intercept the light. The old style, also, allows more variety of 
 ornament upon the roof, such as the stacks of chimneys, gables, pinnacles, turrets, and 
 other things of importance to the general effect of a building to be seen at a distance : 
 whereas, in the Grecian style, which requires perfect symmetry of form, and the prevalence 
 of straight lines, the offices and chimneys are commonly excrescences offensive to tlie eye 
 of genuine taste. For these and other reasons, therefore, I should erect a villa in tlie 
 old English style, and in that ornate manner of it called the Elizabethan, as being most 
 adapted to the habits of refined and peaceable times. Of the various forms of houses 
 of which we have examples in the old English style, that of a blunt H, is, perhaps, 
 best suited to a villa residence of the second order. Supposing, then, that our villa 
 be in the English style, and in the form above alluded to ; the front would present a 
 centre and two projecting wings. The centre would contain the hall and dining-room, 
 with a gallery and staircase behind them. One wing would be occupied by the drawing- 
 room and library, with the saloon between them. The other wing might contain a 
 sitting-room, and superior offices for servants ; the inferior offices being in the basement, 
 or in a separate building in the kitchen-court. The principal front should be highly 
 ornamented, and form a symmetrical whole. In the centre would be the porch of two 
 stories, with its rich gable, small pillars, escutcheons, &c. ; the wall on either side (broken 
 into compartments by pilasters, or handsome buttresses, and proper string courses) would 
 contain large muUioned windows ; the whole supporting a battlement or a parapet, with 
 its appropriate ornaments, such as busts, urns, heraldic animals, &c. The ends of the 
 projecting wings would present each a bay window of two stories, square or semicircular 
 in form, with balustrade or stone covering above ; the gables of the wings corresponding 
 with that of the porch. The high and steep roof should be varied by ornamental 
 chimneys, of different patterns, placed in their proper situations ; and, rising above them, 
 the tower containing the grand staircase, appearing at a short distance behind the porch ; 
 its wavy cupola roof terminating in a rich lantern, and supporting a weathercock or 
 dwarf spire. The general dfect of such a building would be dignified and imposing ; 
 the projecting wings, the high roof, the numerous chimneys, and the lofty staircase tower 
 rising in the background, all conveying an idea of magnitude which the edifice would not 
 in fact possess. But, however beautiful the house might be in itself, it would require the 
 aid of certain picturesque accompaniments to connect it with the site, and to make it 
 harmonise with the surrounding scenery. 
 
 1679. Architectural and Gardening Accompaniments to the House. The superior taste 
 of our early Architects led them to enclose their ornamented edifices in a rich framework 
 of courts and gateways, balustraded terraces, and architectural gardens ; which the ruthless 
 hand of modern improvement has swept away, as being inconsistent with the habits of 
 more refined life. We should, however, soon learn the value of such embellishments, 
 could we compare the effect of an Elizabethan mansion, in its ancient glory, with its 
 present forlorn appearance, after suffering the mutilations of some levelling improver,' 
 who has robbed it of its gorgeous framework, and exposed its nakedness on a bald ex- 
 panse of turf, where it frowns in sullen majesty, and communicates a gloom to all around 
 it. Indeed, much of the gloomy effect so often observed in a handsome modern residence 
 arises from this defect of architectural embellishment around the house ; without which, I 
 
BEAU IDE4L OF AN ENGLISH VILLA. 
 
 793 
 
 am persuaded, no important mansion can be either picturesque or cheerful. Now, though 
 I admit that some of the appendages to our ancient residences are inconsistent with 
 present habits ; yet there are many which might be retained without inconvenience, and 
 with great advantage as to general effect. Thus, terraces and architectural gardens 
 are of this description, and are particularly ornamental. At that end of the villa, there- 
 fore, which contains the drawing-room and library, with the saloon between them, I 
 would form a spacious terrace, with a handsome balustrade supporting urns at proper 
 intervals ; the ends of the terrace in some projecting form, one of which would be seen 
 as you approached the house, and would unite with a low ornamental wall enclosing 
 the garden from the park. Opposite to a door in the saloon should be a flight of steps 
 descending to the garden, across which should be a broad walk ending with a stone seat 
 built in the garden wall, immediately opposite to the saloon door. Another principal 
 walk should cut the above at right angles ; and at the intersection I would place a 
 marble basin and fountain : this walk should terminate at one end with a temple or 
 conservatory in the shubbery under the hill, and at the other with a rich gateway leading 
 to the park. The garden I would divide by broad gravel walks into squares of turf, on 
 which should be beds of flowers and shrubs, and an urn or statue at the corner of each 
 square. Beyond the garden, the pleasure-ground should extend behind the house to the 
 kitchen-garden, and, communicating with walks in the woody hill which backs the whole, 
 be a substitute for the wilderness which was the ordinary appendage to an ancient 
 mansion house. As a substitute for the bowling-green, which was formerly indispens- 
 able, I would have a ground for archery, with its proper butts and seats ; it might be 
 made highly ornamental, and would be introduced with good effect at a short distance 
 from the house. The remaining outward embellishment of an old residence is, perhaps, 
 the most inconsistent with the habits of modern life : this was, a court-yard surrounded 
 by a high wall before the principal front. Opposite to the porch was usually a handsome 
 gateway, from which a paved walk led to the house. It appears from a drawing, still 
 preserved, that a large court of this description was originally before the principal front 
 of Longleat, adorned with a handsome gateway, and two fountains ; and it would 
 improve the appeai-ance of that princely edifice if it had now something of the kind, 
 instead of the bare turf at present before it. The objections to the court are, that it 
 excludes the view, makes the house gloomy, and prevents a carriage-approach to the 
 house, without which no residence can be now complete. I think, however, that this 
 ornamental appendage might be so modified as to be no inconvenience in these respects ; 
 and propriety suggests to us that the entrance should be protected by an enclosure, from 
 the nuisances occasioned by cattle in the park. I would, therefore, retain the court, 
 which might be either square or semicircular. Supposing it the latter, I would enclose 
 it with a low wall, which could be ornamented in various ways ; having opposite the 
 porch an arch, or lofty gate-piers, adorned with arms, &c. The wall might be accom- 
 modated to the height of the piers. Within the court a carriage drive should wind 
 round a circle of turf, on which might be compartments of low shrubs, with urns 
 or sculptures intermixed, and in the centre a fountain, or obelisk supporting a lamp. 
 A square court might be adopted, with a gateway in two of the sides, leaving the view 
 unbroken in front ; and even a few obelisks or statues might be placed around the 
 entrance, to vary the sameness of the level green lawn which is now a substitute for 
 the ancient court. But, if managed as above described, the court, so far from being 
 an inconvenience, would give a richness to the approach ; the view in front would 
 not be interrupted ; and the ornamental gate piers would, in most cases, give an 
 interest to the foreground of the landscape, which we look for in vain upon a broad 
 expanse of turf. Assisted by these embellishments, the villa would be in keeping with 
 the surrounding scenery. The stables and offices at one end of the house would balance 
 the terrace and parterre at the other ; and in front would be the court. The whole, if 
 properly mingled with groups of cedars, cypress, ilex, &c., would form a composition 
 striking even to the ignorant, and, I hope, not iminteresting to the more fastidious eye of 
 the painter and man of taste. 
 
 1680. TAe Porc/tj in an old English mansion, was commonly much enriched with 
 sculptured ornaments, heraldic devices, &c. ; as ' I imagine, because the stranger is 
 supposed to observe it carefully, while he is waiting to be admitted into the house. 
 I would ascend to the porch by a flight of stone steps, to give dignity to the house, 
 and an idea of dryness : it should be floored, as the hall, with a pavement of stone ; the 
 ceiling should also be much enriched, and the door and doorway highly ornamented, be- 
 cause exposed to minute examination. As you are supposed to wait for a few minutes 
 in the porch, there should be a seat on each side, on which servants might rest while 
 in waiting for their masters. The porch is the proper place for the door-mats ; the 
 scrapers being at the foot of the steps, and outside the porch should be a bell-pull, 
 besides that at the court-gate ; since, if the latter were rxmg on entering the court, the 
 
 4 Y 
 
79^ COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 door might be opened before the visiters reached it. The porch should be the only entrance 
 to the house, for visiters ; that from the garden ten-ace being confined exclusively to the 
 use of the family, who would generally dislike to have tlieir privacy interrupted by the 
 sudden intrusion of strangers. These observations upon the porch are equally applicable 
 to the Grecian portico. The porch would admit you to the entrance-liall. 
 
 1681. The Entrance- Hall, in regard to character and size, must depend upon the scale 
 of the principal apartments. If the latter are spacious and elegant, the hall should be 
 large and handsome : indeed, an old English residence would not be in good keeping 
 without a spacious hall, as it was formerly the dining-room and place of rendezvous for 
 the servants and, retaine; s ; and, in a Grecian mansion, a large entrance-liall is necessary 
 for effect. If the apartments are small, and devoid of ornament, I would then substitute 
 for the liall a smaller kind of entrance, with a vaulted roof ; and, moreover, rather gloomy, 
 to increase tlie general effect of the rooms which open into it. In the old English and 
 in the Grecian style, the hall is generally high ; often reacliing to the ceiling of the 
 upj)er story of the building. In the English style, this should always be the case in 
 houses of much pretension ; but, in a Grecian house, a hall witli a low ceiling, supported 
 by lines of columns and jjilasters, has generally the best effect. In the latter, the 
 entrance-door should be in the middle; in the English style it should be at one end of the 
 outer side. An English hall admits of much picturesque embellishment, such as a carved 
 oak roof or ceiling, either flat or semicircular, enriched with highly wrought bosses or 
 coats of arms ; a music gallery across the end, sui)i)orte(l by ])illars or a carved screen ; 
 a chimney-piece reaching to the cornice of the roof, and a carved wainscot covering half 
 the height of the walls. Tlie decorations of a (irecian hall have more of the beautiful 
 than the picturestpie, and more grandeur of effect. Besides the columns sui)i)orting an 
 embellished or coved ceiling, a fine effect is produced by dividing the side walls into 
 compartments by ])ilasters ; and having, in tliese compartments, handsome doorways, 
 Ijanels, wreaths of fruit and flowers, reliefs, busts or statues in niches, a noble chimney- 
 piece, and other architectural embellishments. It might also have a floor of various- 
 coloured stone >r marble. A liall in the old English style should be so furnislied 
 as to have an appearance of use beyond that of a mere entrance to the other 
 apartments : it was formerly the gener^d eating-room, and might still be the ban- 
 Tjueting-room on great festiv;il occasions. The furniture of a liall in this style should 
 be rather plain and massive ; consisting of massive oak chairs and benches, a high 
 table across the ujjper end, formerly placed on a ])latform (called the dais) raised a 
 step above the floor, and other tables cajjable of being united in one upon great occa- 
 sions ; one to be used as a sideboard, and jilaced against the wall, at one end of the high 
 table ; carved chests to contain less valual)le papers ; window-curtains of cloth, of the 
 simplest form ; a few books, and writing imjilements ; and a massive lamp suspended from 
 the ceiling. The walls, painted to imitate stone, might be hung with a few of the 
 oldest family portraits, the founder in the panel over the fireplace ; and a few other 
 pictures, such as hunting-pieces, Dutch fairs, and other amusing subjects. To assist in 
 furnishing the walls, armour and curious specimens of defensive arms, and ancient sj)ort- 
 ing weai)ons, together witli tlie horns of stags and other animals taken in the chase, 
 might be hung around. The hall is the proper place for all sporting instruments, as 
 guns, bows and arrows, fishing tackle, &c. There might also be a few fire-buckets hung 
 up under the gallery ; and a letter-box, with notice when the post goes and arrives, might 
 be placed near the door. Where state is observed, the porter's staff would be an 
 appropriate ornament, in its place, near the front door. The family arms, and the arms 
 of those connected with the family, should be among the ornaments of the hall. They 
 might be introduced on painted glass in the windows, on the cornice of the wainscot, on 
 the pediment of the fireplace, in the roof, and front of the music gallery, and even on the 
 chairs and benches. The floor should be of stone, uncovered by a carpet, unless it were 
 a Turkey carpet placed under the high table, when the hall is used as a dining-room. To 
 make the hall comfortable, it shoidd be warmed with hot air, to which, on state occasions, 
 I would add a fire of large logs of wood, burnt upon handsome dogs in the open chim- 
 ney, to which there should be a back plate of cast iron, ornamented in high relief. I 
 remember seeing a plate of this kind at Birmingham, on which was the representation of 
 a battle in bass-relief; and a beautiful thing it was. (In the hall at Persfield near 
 Chepstow, we have heard that cinnamon and other spices were thrown into the hall fire 
 upon great occasions. ) There should be but few doors iji a hall of this kind ; there 
 were seldom more than three in old English halls; viz., the front door, and the one 
 opposite, and the buttery-door in the middle of the lower end, all under the gallery, and 
 shut out from the hall by the screen, which formed a sort of passage at the lower end. 
 The hall of a Grecian house would require less furniture than a hall in the English style, 
 as it could seldom be used for any other pin-pose than that of an entrance. But, to give 
 it a furnished appearance, I would fill the vacant panels with the oldest family portraits. 
 
BEAU IDEAL OF AN ENGLISH VILLA. 
 
 795 
 
 the founder in the place of honour, over the fireplace, opposite the great door. Busts 
 on pedestals, and statues, might be placed around it ; armour, I believe, would be out 
 of keeping. There should be handsome chairs and benches of carved wood, ornamented 
 with the family arms ; and marble tables on carved frames ; plain cloth curtains ; and 
 lamps suspended from the roof. To these might be added a few of the articles above 
 enumerated, such as the sporting implements, letter box, &c., for which the hall is the 
 most convenient place. The floor should be uncovered, except, perhaps, in winter, when 
 a few strips of India matting between the doors of the rooms would give it an appear- 
 ance of comfort. It should be warmed with heated air and have a wood fire on particular 
 occasions. In a hall of this kind there might be doors ad libitum, provided they were 
 regularly placed. 
 
 1682. The Gallery. To return to our old English villa : having entered the porch 
 door, you would cross the lower end of the hall to the opposite door, opening into the 
 lower gallery, extending the whole length of the hall , and dining-room, fifteen feet 
 wide, and twelve feet high. Opposite the door by which you enter is a broad arch, 
 through which appear the staircase, and the lower division of its painted window. 
 The gallery windows are on the same side as the staircase ; at the end, on your right, 
 is the saloon door ; and, at the opposite extremity, the door leading to the offices. The 
 floor is of stone, like the hall, with a broad strip of India matting extending the 
 whole length of the gallery. The walls might be painted of stone, or any sober 
 colour, and be ornamented with the inferior pictures, and family portraits, and a few 
 glazed prints. The ceiling might be either coved or plain. There might be a 
 few ebony chairs and settees, with a table or two, against the side opposite the windows, 
 which should have curtains, without draperies, of crimson cloth. At the end near the 
 saloon door would stand the wood basket and coal scuttles ; and near the same a door 
 might lead to the billiard-room, a low building in the garden. This gallery would 
 form a sort of promenade, and place of recreation for the children and young people 
 in wet weather, and would be an ornamental appendage to the house : it should be 
 warmed with hot air. The door (which should be of two leaves) at the end of the 
 gallery should be in the centre of tlie side next the saloon, and should be handsome 
 both in its proportions and decorations. 
 
 1683. The Salbon, which is generally a sort of vestibule to the living-rooms, might 
 be in form either a square, a long parallelogram, an oval, or circle ; but a parallelogram of 
 good proportions is the most usual form. In the present case, I will suppose the saloon 
 of this last form. The door, by Avhich you enter it, being in the centre of the side next 
 the gallery, in the centre of the end on your right would be the drawing-room door, also 
 of two leaves : opposite to it, at the other end, should be a like door into the library. In 
 the other side should be two windows, with a glass door between them, opening to the 
 terrace and garden. As this arrangement of the doors would leave no proper place for 
 a handsome chimney-piece, the room might be warmed with hot air (the best mode of 
 heating it), or have a small fireplace on each side of the gallery door. As the saloon is 
 often used as a music-room, we will suppose it to be so in the present case, and furnish 
 it accordingly ; and, as it is generally rather a splendid apartment, I would attempt to 
 render it something of the kind in this instance. The walls I would divide into rich 
 panels, in which might be some of the full-length portraits of the family, or which 
 might be filled with fresco paintings upon the walls ; and the divisions between the 
 panels should be painted with wreaths, including musical emblems. The doors should 
 be of oak in frames, painted like the walls. Above a rich cornice, the ceiling should 
 take the form of a half cove, leaving a compartment in the centre. In the coved 
 part, over each dooi", might be painted gi-oups of figures ; or the family arms might be 
 introduced, surrounded by wreaths of flowers, musical instruments, &c. The corners 
 also might be painted in the same style. In the centre of the middle compartment of 
 the ceiling, from a i-ich boss, should be suspended a handsome lamp, and the boss might 
 be surrounded by a group of figures. A warm fawn colour might be the ground of 
 the whole painting, and a good deal of gilding might be introduced in the cor- 
 nices and mouldings. A saloon requires but little furniture, and, when used as a 
 music-room, should have none that is calculated to deaden sound. Modern ideas of 
 comfort, however, make a carpet and curtains indispensable. The carpet should be of 
 thin material, covering great part of the room, but showing about a yard all round it of 
 the polished oak boards. It should, of course, be a bordered carpet ; the colour of the 
 ground a shade of fawn ; the pattern chiefly shades of crimson. The curtains I would 
 have of crimson watered silk, without draperies, supported by large rods of gilt brass, 
 with handsome knobs. The chairs and seats should be without cushions, and of rather 
 a plain description, so as not to interfere with the splendid effect of the drawing-room. 
 I Avould have the chairs of ebony, or an imitation ; and there are old carved ebony chairs 
 which might be taken as a pattern. The seats might be of cane, gilt. I would have 
 
79ti COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 seats of various forms : a few arm-chairs ; chairs without arms ; long benches, supportea 
 bv twisted legs and frames, such as are met with in old galleries, and stools. Against 
 tne piers, between the windows and door to the terrace, might be slabs of dark-coloured 
 marble, supported by carved rosewood frames ; and, in the corners of the room, rose- 
 wood tripods, slightly gilt, supporting china vases of flowers. I would also have two 
 plain rosewood tables standing against the wall ; on one of which the flat chamber-candle- 
 sticks might be placed at night, one of the candles being lighted : the other table would 
 be useful for the servants to place any thing upon ; such as the tea-tray, while the drawing- 
 room door was opening, &c. The musical instruments and music-stands would com- 
 plete the furniture of the saloon. The grand piano-forte should be placed not close to 
 the wall, say between the library door and the window, so that the back of the performer 
 should be to the light. The harp would be at the opposite end of the room; the 
 other instruments, in their cases, on a proper stand against the wall ; and the music 
 stools and stands so placed as to leave the centre of the saloon open, so as to have a free 
 passage between the drawing-room, library, and gallery. In arranging the contents of 
 the room, a crowded effect of furniture is to be especially avoided, as being at variance 
 with an air of dignity and elegance which is proper to the saloon. 
 
 1684. Tlie Drawincf-room. We next proceed to the drawing-room, which, being the 
 sitting-apartment of the ladies, should be distinguished by the elegance of its jjropor- 
 tions, decorations, and furniture. Though two drawing-rooms are necessary in a London 
 house, one will be found sufficient in an ordinary country residence, containing a saloon 
 and library; as the latter would be used as the family sitting-room on common occasions. 
 Our villa would, therefore, contain only one drawing-room, which I shall proceed to 
 describe. The drawing-room should be larger than the saloon. In the present case, 
 we will suppose it to be 2:3 feet in width and [\5 feet long, exclusive of a bay at the end, 
 and at least 12 feet high. Tliis would make the ])ro))()rtions nearly equal to tliose wliieh, 
 according to Palladio, are proper for a room of this description ; viz., the length twice the 
 breadth, and the height two thirds, five sevenths, or three fourths of the breadtii. En- 
 tering our dra\. ing-room from the saloon, at the end o{)posite would be a s(juare or 
 circular bay window, commanding a view of the park and the distant country l)eyond 
 it. On the right side would be the fireplace, and on the ojjposite side two windows 
 looking over the terrace and parterre. In this room I would have a splendid white 
 marble chimney-piece, copied from one of the most magnificent designs common 
 in old English houses. Tliese are usually of stone or coloured marble : but white is the 
 most elegant, and most in accordance with our jjresent taste. I have one in my eye 
 which reaches to the ceiling, and is divided into two coni])artments. In the lower com- 
 partment is the fireplace, surrounded by a broad moulding, and on each side double 
 Corinthian columns, supported by ornamented pedestals. Above this is a broad cornice 
 which forms the mantel shelf, and the base of the upper division ; the middle of which luis 
 a panel surrounded by a rich moulding, the centre filled with projecting heads, and a large 
 basket of fruit and flowers, in high relief. On each side are double Corinthian columns, 
 similar to those below, but having a sort of niche between them. The whole is finished 
 above by a handsome cornice, ornamented with shields and fruit. A chimney-piece, of 
 this design, of white marble, with coloured shafts to the columns, say verd antique or 
 scagliola, with a historical subject in alto relievo filling tlie panel over the firejjlace, 
 would have an elegant effect. Gilding might be sparingly introduced in the capitals 
 and cornices, and the shields might be painted with the family arms. All the wood- 
 work of the room should be unpainted, say polished oak. The panels of the doors 
 and shutters should be copied from handsome old wainscot, and the mouldings partially 
 gilt. The ceiling should be a specimen of that gorgeous lacework, in stucco, common 
 in old houses, with ornamental pendants to support the lamps, and varied with shields 
 of arms, the whole tinted to suit the colour of the walls, and partially gilded. As I do 
 not pretend to any taste in colours, indeed cannot correctly discriminate their various 
 shades, I should be rather at a loss in selecting the prevailing colour of the drawing- 
 room furniture. I think dark colours have most dignity of effect in furniture ; and 
 perhaps light colours most elegance. Of dark colours, crimson is the richest, and is the 
 l)rcvailing colour in modern drawing-rooins in our most splendid palaces, as it was in 
 old houses. Orange and yellow were much chosen formerly for beds and furniture. 
 The yellow contrasted well with the dark wainscot, and heavy style of cabinet-work 
 common at that period ; but, where yellow is the prevailing colour of the walls and 
 furniture, the effect is usually gaudy. Generally speaking, there should be always 
 some contrast between the colour of the walls and curtains. The drawing-rooms 
 at Earlstoke Park were furnished with apple-green satin ; the walls hung with 
 watered rose-coloured silk ; the ground colour of the carpets dark mulberry, on v>'hich 
 were groups of flowers. There was a profusion of gilding, and the effect was strikingly 
 elegant. As I am reserving crimson for the colour of the dining-room furniture, I really 
 
BEAU IDEAL OF AN ENGLISH VILLA. 797 
 
 do not know what to choose for the drawing-room ; suppose, at a venture, we fix upon blue 
 satin ; I mean a pale blue, which is a good candlelight colour, and is a sort of medium 
 between dark and light. The next difficulty is, what should be the colour of the walls : 
 perhaps buff would do ; and, as we cannot discuss the point, I will suppose the walls hung 
 with silk of a buff colour, watered, or having satin and watered stripes alternately. Or, the 
 walls might be formed into panels ; the framework painted a very pale blue ; the panels, 
 which should be large, filled up with silk having a gilt moulding round it. If silk 
 were merely hung upon the walls, of course it must be surrounded by a gilt moulding. 
 Where silk or velvet is used for the furniture of a room, a papered wall has generally a 
 poor effect ; except, perhaps, a plain flock paper, which has the appearance of cloth, 
 or a paper printed in imitation of striped or watered silk : but I should prefer a hand- 
 somely painted wall to paper, if silk curtains were to be used. In the drawing-room 
 I would hang some of the finest pictures that were not of a large size. A small Claude, 
 a curious portrait or historical subject, or rare cabinet picture ; indeed, any beautiful 
 picture of moderate dimensions, would here be in its proper place, provided the subject 
 were pleasing. A few busts, or curious small sculptures, might also be introduced. I 
 would have the fringe of the curtains blue ; the draperies simple, and in large folds ; the 
 cornices massive and gilded. There should also be inner curtains of figured muslin, 
 edged with blue silk ball fringe. In the pier between the windows should be a large 
 looking-glass filling up the whole. Below it, a marble slab, say of Florentine mosaic, 
 and in the gilt stand supporting it a bookcase, filled with handsome books of an 
 amusing kind, such as the best poets and novelists, &c., and curiously embellished works. 
 On the slab might be china vases filled with flowers. On each side of the entrance- 
 door might be a rich inlaid cabinet, on a carved and gilt frame ; under it some large 
 jars of china ; and some curious specimens of old china, arranged on a rising frame, on 
 the top. I would have an Axminster carpet and rug, of colours suited to the furniture. 
 The frames of the chairs and sofas might be buff or cream colour and gold. The 
 seats covered with blue satin, edged with buff-coloured gymp (a kind of laced bordering, 
 made of cord). The frames of some of the chairs should be carved and rather massive, 
 and the chairs themselves should be of various kinds ; such as large reposing-chairs, 
 others with and without arms, some of a lighter kind with gilded cane seats, and others 
 which unite intb a kind of sofa against the wall. These latter might fill up the space 
 in that end of the room which is not occupied by tlie bay window. There should be 
 two sofas placed not against the wall ; they usually stand on each side of the fire- 
 place. At the end of the room, near the bow, might be a modern kind of seat, like two 
 sofas placed back to back : persons sitting on one of the seats would look through the 
 bay window upon the park, and before the other scat might be a sofa table, on which 
 should be placed a handsome silver ink and taper stand, writing-cases, books of prints 
 and drawings, and bijouterie of the better kinds : settees, and perhaps a table, would fill 
 up the bay window. A large round table is usually placed in the middle of the drawing- 
 room, on which are generally books of pi'ints and other things to amuse the company; 
 a china plate, made into a sort of basket, to hold visiting cards and all sorts of things ; 
 and a variety of odd matters which I cannot enumerate. Two card tables would stand 
 one on each side the fireplace : and, besides all these, we must have tables of various sizes, 
 some small ones on pillars ; a chess table, with an inlaid marble top, the men placed 
 upon it ; a large china dish set in a gilt sort of tripod ; a sort of table flower-stands ; 
 and I cannot tell what besides. Most of the tables must also have something upon 
 them, to make them appear of use. There might be candelabra near the fireplace, or in 
 the corners at the lower end of the room, supporting lamps. There should be screens of 
 various kinds placed near the fire ; one I would have, like the large old screens, of 
 embroidered silk, in a carved gilt frame ; and various sorts of footstools, chiefly with 
 carved gilt frames. Writing, work, and drawing boxes of handsome kinds, and every 
 thing amusing, curious, or ornamental, is in its place in the di-awing-room ; but the host 
 of trumpery toys so often seen there would be unworthy of a place in a room like this. 
 Tlie arrangement of the multitudinous furniture and ornaments must be left to the taste 
 of the lady of the house ; none but a lady can do it. The chief thing to be avoided, in 
 the disposition of the articles, is a vulgar crowded effect ; every thing should seem to 
 contribute to comfort or amusement, and there should be nothing superfluous. I had 
 nearly forgottefi an important feature in the room, viz. the grate, which should be large 
 and low, of polished steel, with handsome back plate, showing itself above the fire. If 
 the fire is of wood, as is sometimes the case, the dogs should be very handsome, and 
 the back plate particularly so. The fender and fire irons might be plated. The lamps 
 suspended from the ceiling might be also plated, or of the handsome gilt brasswork now 
 in fashion ; and I would light the room entirely with wax, to the exchxsion of oil. which 
 always produces both smoke and an unpleasant smell. 
 
 1685. The Library. Having now, I hope, made my escape from the drawing-room, 
 
798 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 let us proceed across the saloon to the library. This, in form and proportions, I will 
 suppose exactly similar to the drawing-room, having the same sort of bay window at the 
 end opposite the door, from which is a home view over the pleasure-grounds to the rising 
 woods behind them. The two windows opposite the fireplace would look upon the 
 flower-garden and the church tower rising from the trees in the park. The library, 
 though it ought to be a handsome room, should present a great contrast to the light 
 elegance of the drawing-room. The furniture should be substantia], the hangings of a 
 warm but dark colour. In the present instance we will choose claret or maroon colour. 
 That part of the wall not covered by bookcases might be painted to imitate old oak 
 wainscoting of a handsome pattern, or it might be formed into panels, filled with plain 
 flock paper edged with a narrow beading of gold, the framework dark oak ; or it might 
 be papered with plain flock paper in the usual manner, with gilt mouldings. The colour 
 of the paper maroon. The ceiling and cornice after some rich old pattern, with pendent 
 oi-naments to support the lamps. It should be of a heavier description than that in the 
 drawing-room, with more numerous coats of arms blazoned in their proper colours. I 
 should paint and pick out the ceiling with some light warm colour. The chimney-piece 
 should be handsome, but it might be lower and heavier than in the drawing-room, and 
 might be made of the best sorts of stone, or of British marble ; for instance, Purbeck 
 marble is a handsome material for chimney-pieces. It might contain a low arched fire- 
 place with a rich cornice above, supported at the sides by small ])illars or pilasters. In 
 the fireplace I should have a hirge low grate, with a rich back-plate, on which should be 
 a classical subject in relief, say the Destruction of Troy. Tlie grate, or dogs fi)r a wood 
 fire, of dead steel, the fender of the same. The vacant walls of the side in which is the 
 fireplace, and that of the two ends, would be covered with oak bookcases, two thirds of 
 their height. The lower jjart of the c:ises should l)e enclosed by doors of brass wire, in 
 which might be kept the more curious and valuable books, prints, drawings, &c., the 
 shelves above being open. In the piers that divide the cases might be closets for rolls 
 of maps, &c. On the cornice above the cases might be a series of busts of i)hilosophers 
 and eminent scholar'^> ; and on the wall seen above the book shelves, scripture subjects, 
 and portraits of distinguished authors, statesmen. Sec. A full-length portrait of some 
 celebrated person, or member of the family, might be hung over the fireplace ; and in 
 the pier between the windows opposite would be a place for maps on spring rollers fixed 
 to the wall. Below them might be a dark marble slab on a carved frame, and under the 
 slab a sort of frame for large folio books of maps, engravings, &c. The slab might have 
 upon it small bron/e statues and things of that kind. The curtains should be of maroon- 
 coloured merino damask, lined with glazed stuff (this sort of damask l:as a poor eflect 
 without a lining as it is commonly used), and trinnned with silk fringe, &c., all of the 
 same colour. The cornices niigiit be maroon colour and gold. I would have inner 
 curtains of plain muslin, edged with maroon silk fringe. There should be a large Turkey 
 carpet, or an Axminster carjiet, with a maroon-coloured ground, showing round it the 
 polished oak floor, and a hearth rug to match. Tlie library should contain an abundance 
 of various sorts of seats and tables, made of some dark wood, the more carved the better. 
 There should be two or three large easy chairs, with movable desks and candlesticks, 
 some smaller arm and other cushioned chairs, and a few light chairs with gilt cane seats. 
 The patterns of the chairs should be old-fasliioned ; and some real old high-backed chairs 
 might be introduced with very good effect. There should also be a sofa or two, and 
 some stools and settees ; the cushions of the chairs, sofas, &c., being covered with 
 maroon-coloured leather, with silk tufts and gymp edgings. As the library would be 
 the common family sitting-room, a round table would be necessary, for tea, &c. There 
 should be also one or two regular library tables, with drawers, and maroon leather tops. 
 One might be placed across the room at the end near the bow, with a settee before it; 
 the other would stand near the window at the right hand, as you enter the room ; the 
 round table being in the centre near the fire. Besides these, there should be smaller 
 tables of various sizes, some forming reading-desks for large and small books ; others 
 on pillars and claws, to be placed about the room. A pair of globes on a stand miglit 
 occupy one corner ; the library steps, shutting into a strong table, would stand in another. 
 One or two old embroidered screens, in carved frames, and a few others, and some foot- 
 stools, might be placed near the fire. The bay window might be fitted up as a recess for 
 reading in, with a small reading-desk or table, and settees. I think I have noticed 
 all the furniture of a library, except the lamps, which I would have of bronze, as most 
 in keeping with the sober character of the apartment. As to the smaller ornaments to 
 be placed'about the room, they should be curious and interesting, and on no account 
 frivolous. Handsome silver inkstands, a few curious fossils, or models of celebrated 
 buildings ; all sorts of writing-cases and implements, taper stands of silver, boxes of coins, 
 old china in large jars, and any thing of these kinds, with handsome books, might 
 decorate the tables : and, as nothing gives a room a more dismal effect than an appear- 
 
BEAU IDEAL OF AN ENGLISH VILLA. 
 
 799 
 
 ance of idleness, every thing should be so arranged, both here and in the di*awing-room, 
 as if the persons using the rooms had been employed in some way or other. This effect 
 would be produced by the daily papers, and some periodical works, and open letters 
 received in the morning, on the principal tables ; and, on other tables, some of the blotting 
 books might be open : the inkstands not thoroughly in order, with some unfinished 
 writing and open books or portfolios, would give at least the appearance of industry. 
 I do not recommend such foolish tricks, which are, I know, often used by idle people, 
 who have sense enough to feel the bad taste of indolence ; and in a sensible family, who 
 spent their time rationally, this would be, in fact, the usual state of the room, at least during 
 the morning. I do not think that drawings and drawing implements would be out of 
 their place in a library. The ladies would generally draw ; and every country gentleman 
 ought to have some knowledge at least of architectural drawing, so as to be able to design 
 the buildings to be erected upon his estate, which are now often built from the coarse 
 plans of ignorant workmen. Drawing would also add to the in-door amusements of a 
 country gentleman ; it would give him a taste for the picturesque, and enable him to 
 improve judiciously his park and grounds, and understand the beauties of the natural 
 scenery around his place. It Avould also open to him a source of innocent enjoyment, 
 by giving him a taste for the fine arts, which every gentleman should patronise as far as 
 his income will permit. But to return from this digression to the suite of living- 
 apartments. When there is company in the house, the library would be the morning 
 sitting-room for the gentlemen, who might here read the papers and new publications, 
 write and answer letters ; and thus, with a stroll round the garden or farm, and a look 
 into the stables and kennels, employ the time till luncheon, after which some would join 
 the ladies in an excursion on horseback, while others rode with their host to see some 
 improvements upon the farm or estate. In the sporting season, those who are sportsmen 
 would be of course engaged in the sports of the field. The ladies would occupy the 
 drawing-room and saloon, and there amuse themselves, some with needlework, others 
 with a book or a drawing, others with writing or music, till they met the gentlemen at 
 luncheon ; and afterwards the equestrians would probably ride with the gentlemen, while 
 the rest took a carriage airing, or made calls Avith the lady of the house. This would 
 be a frequent arrangement for the morning ; but, of course, it would be varied as much as 
 possible. Sometimes the whole party would make an excursion in carriages, and on 
 horseback, to view something interesting, or make a visit at a distance ; at other times the 
 ladies would take walking exercise in the park and gardeiis, or visit the schools and 
 cottages in the village, as the weather and inclination might suggest. After luncheon, 
 and in summer evenings, the doors of the living-rooms would be thrown open ; and on 
 the return of the party, they would, probably, arrange themselves in groups in each of 
 the rooms. Thus, in the library, a gentleman may, perhaps, be referring to a book, 
 while he explains something to the ladies with whom he had conversed during the 
 morning ride. In the saloon a lady is, perhaps, playing a lively air, while the young 
 ladies and some of the gentlemen are lounging about the room engaged in plajrful convers- 
 ation. In the drawing-room Avould most likely be another group, some sitting upon 
 a couch, while others stood round the table collecting their work, books, or drawings, 
 before they retire to dress ; and all talking over the place or people they had visited in 
 the morning. While we have them in these positions, let me ask what you think of the 
 general effect of the sitting-rooms now seen together through the open doors. Stand for 
 a moment near the bay window at the end of the library, and look at the perspective 
 view of the whole, terminating in the distant prospect seen through the opposite bay 
 window in the drawing-room. I hope the effect is not disagreeable ; but, we cannot wait 
 to speak of its merits or defects : the half-hour bell has rung, the ladies are hurrying 
 to their dressing-i'ooms ; and, as the gentlemen slowly follow, let us take a look at the 
 dining-room, while the party are engaged at the toilette. 
 
 1686. The Dining-room. To get to the dining-room we must proceed through the 
 saloon and lower gallery into the hall, where a door of tAvo leaves in the centre of the 
 loAver end admits you to the room. Here I would have double doors. We Avill suppose 
 the room of the same width as the hall, but six or eight feet shorter. The Avails covered 
 Avith old oak Avainscot ; the ceiling rising from them Avith a slight cove to the flat com- 
 partment, which Avouldbe formed into panels of various shapes by rather heavy mouldings 
 of stucco. Scattered over the Avhole Avould be groups of fruit and flowers, shields of 
 arms, and three pendent ornaments to support bronze or gilt lamps. The coved part of 
 the ceiling should be also richly adorned Avith devices in stucco : a large shield of the 
 family arms Avould be an appropi'iate ornament for the centre of each side, surrounded 
 by emblems of hospitality. The wainscot should have a broad handsome cornice round 
 the upper part of it, and might be covered nearly Avith pictures in handsome gold frames, 
 of any subject (except, perhaps, scripture pieces), such as portraits, landscapes, historical 
 pictures, amusing subjects, and pictures of feasts. The chimney-piece should be very 
 
SOO COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 handsome. I would have it reaching to the ceiling, and somewhat resembling that in 
 the drawing-room ; but of coloured stone or marble : above the large low arch for the 
 fireplace, a panel containing the representation of a feast, sculptured in white marble in 
 relief; the ornaments, chiefly fruit, and emblems of hospitality. Here I would always burn 
 wood in large logs. The dogs for this purpose should be massive dead steel, the back plate 
 particularly handsome. The curtains in this room should be of crimson velvet, trimmed 
 with gold lace and fringe, the cornices carved and gilt. The furniture would consist of 
 a handsome carved mahogany sideboard on each side of the door, supported by piers, in 
 which are plate-warmers, and a hot closet lined with tin ; also another closet, which 
 would be of use for some purpose ; and under each a sarcopliagus, one of them lined with 
 lead to contain ice to cool liquors ; the other would be of the same sort, to contain the 
 beer jugs, or it might be a cellaret. A lamp over each sideboard might hang from a 
 supporter in the wainscot. On tlie sideboards would be placed, at dinner time, the useful 
 and ornamental plate and glass ; and near the sideboards, against the walls, might be, 
 perhaps, two side tables, one on each side of the room. One might be a hot table, on 
 which to put the vegetables, &c., during dinner ; the other for cold meat, and the things 
 usually kept upon the side table. A handsome wide dining-table would stand in the 
 centre of the floor ; and a table to place before tlie fire when the ladies have left the room 
 after dinner, would stand against the wall at the end of the room. This table is usually 
 in the form of a horseshoe, and is furnished with a sort of box, to protect the bottles from 
 the heat of the fire, which moves by a brass apparatus, or in a groove, from one person 
 to another. A brass rod supported on the side of the table next the fire is hung with 
 silk curtains, to l)e drawn occasionally as a screen. Some of these horseshoe tables can 
 have the centre of the horseshoe filled up, and will tlius form fireside dining-tables for 
 very cold weather. Against the pier, between the windows, a marble slab might be 
 supported on a carved frame : it would be useful at dinner-time, and help to furnish the 
 room. The side tables are also frequently of marble, on frames carved with the family 
 arms, &c. The chairs shoidd be very handsome, massive, and without arms ; the seats 
 crimson leather, with silk tufts, and gymp edging. A crimson leather easy chair would 
 be well placed on each side of the fire. Dumb waiters, with a japanned frame for clean and 
 dirty plates, and knives and forks, besides the usual shelves, might be wanted occasionally, 
 and would furnish two corners of the room. The floor might be covered with a Turkey 
 carpet, showing round it some of the polished oak floor, with a rug of the same pattern 
 as the carpet. A footstool or two might be useful after dinner. I do not remember any 
 other necessary article of furniture for the dining-room ; but, there is a certain convenience 
 rather indispensable, viz. a closet to hold utensils sometimes required by gentlemen 
 after dinner. This closet might be made in the thick outer wall, large enough for a 
 person to stand in, Avith shelves in the corners for the utensils. A part of the wainscot 
 might open as the door, contrived so as not to be observed. Near the sideboard a similar 
 door in the wainscot might be formed, through which the servants might jjass at dinner 
 time, without opening the principal door at the bottom of the room. In the plan we 
 have in view, there would be another wainscot door leading to the master's private or 
 business room. Unless in very large houses, it is usual to take every meal in the dining- 
 room, except tea. A regular breakfast-room is not, therefore, generally necessary in a 
 house of moderate size ; and it is desirable, on many accounts, to have no more sitting- 
 rooms than those which are in constant use. I shall, therefore, omit a description of the 
 breakfiist-room, and proceed to the gentleman's private sitting-room, without which the 
 country residence of a ])erson of property would be very incomplete. 
 
 1687. Gentleman's Study, or Business Room. A gentleman of studious habits would 
 use his private room as a study ; and here, also, he will see persons on business, and 
 administer justice, if he happens to be in the commission of the peace. The private 
 room should, therefore, be apart from the family sitting-rooms, and near to the back 
 entrance and the servants' offices, for the convenience of admitting people who come on 
 business, without interruption to the family. It should be a comfortable apartment, of 
 good size, but not a handsome one. The furniture should be neat and simple. The 
 curtains inight be of moreen ; and the chairs, and tables, and carpet, of any unexpensive 
 kinds. The walls might be papered with any cheap paper ; and the woodwork would 
 probably be painted oak colour, to hide dirt. Against the wall might be hung portraits 
 of favourite horses, cattle, or dogs ; and any glazed prints. There should be, of course, a 
 bookcase, with a good collection of books of a general kind, including law books ; the 
 best publications upon farming, building, planting, gardening, and other subjects of 
 rural economy. Some of these might be lent out to persons living on the estate. Under 
 the cases shonld be a range of presses, in which to keep papers and accounts ; and an iron 
 closet for deeds of value, &c., built into the wall. A large map of the estate upon a 
 spring roUei-, and a map of the county, would be often useful. There should also be a 
 bureau with drawers under it, a large library table also having drawers, and one or two 
 
BEAU IDEAL OF AN ENGLISH VILLA. 
 
 801 
 
 large leather easy chairs. A washing-stand which shuts up would be also required here 
 occasionally, and a neat wardrobe also, if the gentleman used it as a dressing-room, which 
 is sometimes the case. 
 
 1688. Principal Staircase. Having now gone through the principal apartments on 
 the ground floor, the next thing to be considered is the great staircase, which will lead 
 us to the bed-rooms. I have already supposed the staircase to be in a separate tower, 
 built out behind the centre of the gallery, from which you approach it under a broad 
 handsome arch. When you are within the arch, on the right and left, under the landing 
 of the stairs, are the doors of the gentlemen's water-closets ; those for the ladies are above, 
 and are approached from the landing-place over. The staircase is an important con- 
 venience in every house, and it should always be a striking feature in a mansion of any 
 elegance. The tower, which I suppose to contain the staircase, would be square as 
 high as the ceiling of the upper floor, where it would take a sort of octagon form ; the 
 roof coved, and ending in a lantern : in the centre of the lantern a boss would support 
 a lamp. In the side, opposite to the arch by which you enter, would be a tall mullioned 
 window, filled with stained glass. Advancing a few steps, you would reach the first 
 flight in the middle of the tower, and ascend to the first landing-place ; you would find 
 a flight of stairs on the right and left leading to the second landing, in the centre of 
 which is the upper gallery-door, immediately over the arch below. As the house is to 
 be in the old English style, the stairs might be either of oak or stone ; but the balusters 
 must be of oak handsomely carved, and rather heavy. They might begin at the foot of 
 the stairs with a richly carved sort of pedestal, and the same at each corner as they 
 ascend. In old staircases, there was frequently an animal of some sort sculptui ed in 
 wood, supporting the family arms placed on these pedestals, especially at the foot of the 
 stairs ; or the animal had a substitute in a ball or pine-apple. The centre part of the 
 stairs might be carpeted or not ; the walls of the tower might be painted like the lower 
 gallery, and on the right and left walls a large picture on any subject would be very 
 ornamental : for instance, a large scripture piece on each of the side walls would be well 
 lighted from the lantern above. 
 
 1689. 2%e Upper Gallery. From the upper landing, an arched doorway wovdd 
 admit you to the upper gallery, of the same dimensions as the one below, but not so 
 high. The windows should be on the same side as the staircase, and the wall opposite 
 should have doors leading to the bed-rooms and dressing-rooms. The walls should be 
 painted like the lower gallery ; and as there would be little space for pictures, a collec- 
 tion of glazed prints might be arranged upon the vacant spaces in the walls. I should 
 carpet the floor ; and a few side-tables and settees would be all the furniture required, 
 except lamps suspended from the ceiling, to light the gallery at night. There might 
 be also crimson cloth window-curtains, on large brass rods, without drapery. The col- 
 lection of fossils, or old china, might be placed in glass cases between the windows. This 
 gallery, besides its use as an entrance to the bed-rooms, would be a promenade, or place 
 of recreation, for the ladies and young people in wet weather. As there woiild be a 
 great many doors in the gallery, it would be convenient to have them numbered : the 
 number on a brass or japanned circle over each. I have known strangers much plagued to 
 find their rooms in large houses, for want of a proper mark upon the doors. 
 
 1690. Bed-rooms and Dressing-rooms. The doors of most of the bed-rooms and 
 dressing-rooms should open into the upper gallery, or communicate with it. Generally 
 speaking, I would not have the bed-rooms of a very large size. Twenty or eighteen feet 
 square is a comfortable size for a room to contain a large four-post bed ; sixteen feet 
 square is sufficient for a bed-room for a single person. A dressing-room should be 
 attached to all the principal bed-rooms ; I believe modern luxury, in great houses, requires 
 two : this would not be necessary in a villa of the second class ; but even in this I would 
 have two dressing-rooms to the state bedchamber, as, occasionally, persons accustomed 
 to such luxuries might visit at the house. Generally, however, one dressing-room would 
 be suflficient for the company-rooms ; but if the gentleman of the house did not dress in 
 his private apartment, I would have two dressing-rooms to his bed-room, that for the 
 lady rather large and elegant, as she would probably use it occasionally as her private 
 sitting-room. The family bedchambers might be at that end of the house where the 
 offices are situated ; those for company over the principal apartments. In large houses, 
 the master and mistress frequently have their bed and dressing-rooms upon the gi-ound 
 floor ; but I should prefer the floor above, as being more airy and quiet. A bedcham- 
 ber should be an airy, cheerful-looking apartment, rather elegantly furnished, but in a 
 plainer style than the living-rooms. The walls look best when papered ; the doors and 
 woodwork painted to suit the paper ; the ceiling plain ; the chimney-piece rather plain, 
 of marble or stone ; and the grates such as are easily cleaned. I should prefer a floor 
 that could be washed ; that is, not a polished oak flooi-, and would not have the whole 
 covered with carpet. In all the company rooms I would have four-post beds, double 
 
 4 z 
 
802 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 or single beds according to the size of the rooms. Four-post beds- are most airy and 
 comfortable ; and I have seen single fovn--post beds of a very elegant appearance. The 
 bed and window curtains should be of silk, woollen stuff, chintz, dimity, or printed 
 calico, according to the fortune or taste of the owner. For beds used by the family, 
 perhaps printed calico or dimity furniture is best, as it may be occasionally cleaned or 
 washed. There is room for the exercise of much taste in the hangings of beds, both in 
 the choice of the colour and material, and in the disposition of the hangings. In the 
 houses of great personages, bed furniture was formerly of a very costly description, and 
 made of such stout materials that in many cases the hangings have lasted through several 
 generations to the present time. At Boughton House, in Northamptonshire (formerly 
 the seat of the Montagues), there were, a few years ago, some curious specimens of 
 ancient bed furniture, of considerable antiquity, and much timeworn, but originally of 
 great splendour. Some of these hangings were of a sort of stag velvet, others silk, or some 
 other costly material, em])roidered with coloured silk. The testers were generally rather 
 low, and the valances ])ut on i)lain, but cut into a form at the lower edges. Though 
 simple, the effect of these beds was dignified, but rather gloomy. They were often sur- 
 mounted by plumes of feathers ; and many such beds are still preserved in old mansion- 
 liouses. A bed of rather more modern date than those at Boughton may be seen in the 
 state apartments at Warwick Castle, put up, I think, for Queen Anne, and in good pre- 
 servation. Our modern cheaj) stuffs are not likely to last so long. I have often slept, 
 in a house which once belonged to a family much attached to the Stuarts, in a bed which 
 was said to have been put up for the young I'retender. Tlie furniture was of fine 
 •woollen j)laid, of a scarlet ground. Tiie valances were put on ])]ain, but cut into elegant 
 forms, and ornamented with silk binding, sewn on in a very elaborate pattern; and in the 
 same way the appearance of a rich head board was given by binding, sewn on at the head 
 of the bed. The cornice was particularly elegant, cut into the form of the prince's 
 feathers, and other devices, and covered with plaid : the effect of the whole was very 
 handsome and cheerful. A rich modern material for the company beds, in a gentleman's 
 residence, is merino damask, which, if lined with glazed stuff of the same colour, would 
 have rather a handsome effect, and look well in almost any colour. Besides the bed, 
 the furniture of the room consists of l)ed-steps, containing a night-stool and pot -closet, 
 on each side of the bed ; carpets, and a hearth-rug before the fire ; a neat coal-box, with 
 a cover ; a sufficient number of light chairs, a large easy-chair, and a dressing-stool. A 
 lai-ge dressing-table, and swing gl.xss ; a washing-table, with the necessary basins, jugs, 
 and glasses ; a wardrol>e, and a sort of box for caps and l)onnets, which is made an orna- 
 mental piece of furniture, and a cabinet of any kind for trinkets, papers, &c. A small 
 table on which to jilace books, writing implements, &c., and footstools and screens, are also 
 necessary comforts in well furnished rooms ; and, in gentlemen's rooms, a boot-rack and 
 boot-jack. Of course, there shoidd be every article used for washing the person, as bidets, 
 feet-pans, water-bottles, and glasses, &c. A few jjictures or glazed prints upon the walls 
 would add to the cheerful appearance of the room. Window-curtains and blinds are 
 indispensable ; and a small clothes horse or two, for airing linen, drying towels, &c. A 
 closet in a bed-room is convenient, in which to i)ut away trunks and boxes, and other 
 unsightly necessaries. A door in the bed-room should open into the dressing-room, 
 which should be fiu-nished to match the apartment to which it is attached. A complete 
 dressing-room, besides what is necessary for wasliing and dressing, already enumerated 
 in the bed-room, should have .some other articles of furniture used in sitting-rooms : 
 for example, a sofa, which could be made into a bed ; a large easy-chair ; a sofa-table ; 
 a bookcase, containing a small collection of instructive and amusing books; and a chiffon- 
 nier (literally a ragcase, used for placing books or papers in) : a few pictures and 
 prints might decorate the walls. The floor might be covered entirely with carpet ; the 
 chairs might have cushions. In an elegant dressing-room for a lady are usually work- 
 tables and a full-length swing dressing-glass, and many useful and ornamental articles in 
 plate and china, as inkstands, toilette suite, scent pots, caudle service, &c. &c. Of 
 course, there must be what is necessary for containing wearing apparel, as wardrobes, 
 cap-boxes, &c. A cabinet to contain jewel-boxes and small valuables may be also added. 
 There should be a fireplace in every dressing-room, and a door communicating with the 
 passage, or gallery. 
 
 1691. The Sitting and Sleeping Nurseries should be on the bed-room floor, and in 
 a retired part of the house: they should be light airy apartments, with fireplaces 
 in each. It is unnecessary to describe their furniture, which should be plain and 
 strong. 
 
 1692. The Governess's Sitting-room, furnished like any other sitting-room, is usually 
 on the first floor, and should be in a quiet part of the house. 
 
 1693. The Servants' Bed-rooms are commonly on the highest floor, approached by 
 the back staircase ; the men-servants' rooms should, if possible, be apart from those of the 
 
BEAU IDEAL OF AN ENGLISH VILLA. 
 
 803 
 
 females. The rooms for the under servants might contain two beds each, with curtains 
 of woollen stulf. The furniture should include every thing necessary for cleanliness and 
 comfort, of a plain and stout kind. The upper servants should have each a separate 
 bed-room, neatly and comfortably furnished ; and there should be a sufficient number of 
 similar rooms for the servants of visiters, the males and females apart. The bed-rooms 
 of the upper servants should be near those of the inferiors. I should choose to have 
 plaster floors, such as are common in the north of England; and woollen bed-curtains 
 in all the servants' rooms, to prevent accidents from fire. These floors, when kept clean, 
 and whitened with pipeclay, have a very neat and comfortable appearance ; more so, in- 
 deed, than the coarse wooden floors usual in servants' rooms. 
 
 1694. The Housemaid's Closet is a necessary convenience in the upper part of a gen- 
 tleman's house : in this closet are kept the pails, brooms, dusters, &c., used in cleaning the 
 house. It should be a light roomy closet, with a plaster floor, containing an inner closet 
 for the bed-room night lamps, or rushlight cases, &c., with drawers under for cloths and 
 dusters. There should be pegs and shelves, on which to put any thing out of the way. 
 As warm water is much used by the housemaids, their closet, in a large house, should 
 contain a small copper for heating water ; and, if possible, it should be supplied with 
 water by a leaden pipe, say from a cistern of rain-water upon the roof; a sink-stone, 
 communicating with a drain, would also be a great convenience in this closet. In large 
 establishments, the labour of carrying up and down the clean and dirty water is very 
 great ; so that a pipe supplying soft water, and a sink for the slops, is necessary in a place 
 of this kind, which should also contain a large box, in one corner, for a supply of coals 
 to be used in the upper part of the house. Another closet, apart from the housemaid's 
 closet, would be also useful to contain spare bedding, blankets, and other things of the 
 kind, when not in use. 
 
 1695. A Bath-room is a cheap and useful luxury, which would be considered by 
 many persons an indispensable requisite in a perfect villa. A room of moderate size 
 would contain the warm and shower baths ; the cold bath would be in the park, in an 
 ornamental building on the side of the stream. I would place the bath-room in such a 
 iituation that it could be supplied with hot water from the offices, by means of a pipe 
 connected with the boiler, say in the kitchen or scullery. There should also be a supply 
 of cold water by another pipe, and a drain to convey away the waste water. ^^ here the 
 house is supplied with water from a spring in some of the high ground adjacent, as is 
 often the case, the bath-room and housemaid's closet might easily be furnished with an 
 abundance of water. The bath-room would be most conveniently placed near the family 
 sleeping-rooms. 
 
 1696. Servants' Offices. Having now, I believe, noticed what requires attention in 
 the upper floors, let us descend, by the back stairs, to the servants' offices ; of which, the 
 first to be described is the housekeeper's room, with its appurtenances ; viz., the still-room, 
 store, and china closets. 
 
 1697. The Housekeeper's Room should be a spacious comfortable apartment, furnished 
 as a respectable parlour ; and so situated that the other offices may be easily overlooked 
 by the housekeeper. The furniture should comprise all that is necessary for use and 
 comfort, in rather a plain way. The walls might be stencilled, or covered with a cheap 
 paper, and ornamented with a few prints. There might be plain windoAv-curtains, a 
 carpet covering part of the floor, some mahogany chairs, a dining-table that could be 
 enlarged at pleasure, a Pembroke table, and a good-sized side-table. There should be a 
 small looking-glass against the wall ; the chimney-piece plain ; the grate black, with 
 large hobs. A bureau, in which to keep account-books, &c., with drawers under, and a 
 small bookcase above, containing some instructive books, would be a very useful piece of 
 furniture here. On one side of the room should be a row of neat lock-up closets painted ; 
 one of which should be a wardrobe for the house-linen ; another for cakes and such 
 things ; and one for the tea-china and dessert-service in use, and other things of the kind. 
 Here would also be the butler's writing-desk, and place for his accounts. Inkstands, and 
 other useful small articles, would help to furnish out the room. 
 
 1698. The Still-room. A door in the housekeeper's room should open into the still- 
 room, in which the housekeeper, assisted by the still-room maid, would make preserves, 
 cakes, &c. ; it would also be the common sitting-room of the under female servants. 
 It should be furnished as a better kind of kitchen, containing a fireplace, with boiler, a 
 small oven, a range of charcoal-stoves, with a cover ; a small shut-up sink, with a water- 
 pipe for a supply of water. A range of small closets for the maids, to keep their tea- 
 things, and tea and sugar, and things used at the housekeeper's table ; a large table, with 
 drawers, in the centre of the room, and a smaller round table for work ; and a dresser 
 against the wall, to let down when not in use, would be convenient : shelves would also 
 be useful for the pans, &c., used by the housekeeper. There should be also a roller for 
 a round towel, and a basin in the sink for washing hands ; a small looking-glass might 
 
804i COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 promote tidiness of person, and a piece of common carpet would add to the comfort of 
 the room. The chairs and stools should be neat and substantial ; and a small case of 
 well-chosen books should hang against the wall. 
 
 1699. The 5'tore-cfose< should be dry and airy, and it should open conveniently into 
 the still-room, in which the stores might be unpacked before they were put away, and 
 given out as wanted by the housekeeper. The store-closet should be properly furnished 
 with shelves, drawers, and pegs, to receive all the stores and preserves, &c., under the 
 housekeeper's care, which should be arranged in proper order, so that every thing might 
 be found immediately, when it happened to be wanted. It might be kept dry in winter 
 by a small pipe of hot air or water, from the still-room fireplace. 
 
 1700. The China-closet. Where the collection of china is not large, a proper place 
 might be made for it in the store-room ; but where a china-closet is required, it should 
 be near the housekecper's-room, and be furnished with shelves to receive the spare china 
 and glass, and a table on which to place it when given out and returned. It should be 
 a dry closet, and light. 
 
 1701. The Butler's Pantrij. The next office to be considered is the butler's pantry. 
 In the case of a large establishment, this should be a light spacious room, with a fireplace 
 in it, or stove. The door and window-shutters should be strong ; and the floor boarded. 
 The furniture would consist of a strong table and some chairs ; a long sort of dresser, 
 with several drawers under it : at one end a part of the top of the dresser should open 
 to a sink, lined with lead, and suj)])lied with water by a pipe. A wash-hand stand M-ould 
 be necessary, and i)egs on which to hang hats, coats, aprons, &c., and a boot-jack and 
 place for shoes and boots would be perhaps convenient. There should also be a stand in 
 which to put away the trays, and a connnon tray-stand, and proper convenience for drain- 
 ing decanters, A napkin-press is generally found here, and under it a cliest of drawers for 
 tablecloths and napkins. Against the wall should be spacious closets for glass and china 
 and lamps, drawers for knives and forks ; the latter lined witli baize. An indispensable 
 requisite here is a roomy fire-proof plate closet, in the lower part of which would stand the 
 chests of i)late not in common use, and above should be shelves and conveniences lined 
 with baize, to receive the silver articles used by the family. To tliis closet I would have 
 double doors ; one of them of iron, to be closed and locked at night. The doors should 
 have different locks, the key of the iron door to be in the sole keeping of the butler. As, 
 for security, a man-servant often sleeps in the pantry, tliere should be for this purpose a 
 closet bed complete : a round towel roller and pot closet would be also necessary. A 
 plain lamp should hang from the ceiling, and a small looking-glass near the window 
 against the wall. It would be convenient to place this pantry near the housekeeper's 
 room, and out of the way of the back entrance to the house. 
 
 1702. The Servants'' Hall should be near the back entrance; and so situated that 
 strangers might pass to and from it without intruding upon the other offices. The size 
 of the servants' hall will depend upon the nature of the establishment and the number 
 of domestics kept. Here all the under servants would dine, and it would be the common 
 sitting-room for the males. It should, therefore, be rather a large apartment, and I 
 would have it, if possible, a cheerful and comfortable one, with plenty of light. It 
 should have a stone floor, and a good large fireplace ; or perhaps a stove would make it 
 warmer, with less expense of fuel. The furniture of a servants' hall is very simple. It con- 
 sists of a long stout oak table, generally placed rather on one side of the room, with strong 
 benches on each side. This table the servants use for dinner and their other meals. There 
 is generally a large chair at one end, for the servant who presides. There should also be 
 a sort of side-table, and a small movable table, a few chairs and small benches. A large 
 high-backed settee, with drawers under the seat, near the fire, might be so placed as to 
 screen the fireplace from the draught of air from the door. Against the wall should be 
 rows of pegs for the servants' hats, &c., and there should also be a roomy closet, in 
 which to keep the jugs, drinking-horns, knives and forks, and many other things used by 
 the servants. A dial-clock would be useful, and a lamp hanging from the ceiling, to 
 light the room at night. In a conspicuous place upon the wall, the rules of the house 
 to be observed by the servants are frequently hung up : there should also be a small case 
 of useful and instructive books. A horse for brushing coats on, or to hang a great-coat 
 upon to dry, would be useful in the servants' hall. 
 
 1 703. Men's Washing and Dressing Closet. Where many men-servants are kept, a neces- 
 sary appendage is a small room, adjoining the servants' hall, for them to wash and dress in. 
 It should have fixed washing-places, with a pipe to supply them with water, and a drain 
 to convey away the dirty water. It should have round towels, a small looking-glass or two, 
 and a large press in which to put things away ; also a horse on which to brush clothes. 
 In small establishments, a corner washing-stand, such as is described at page 292, might be 
 placed in the servants' hall, with a cover to conceal it when not in use. It should be 
 supplied with water by a pipe, so that it could be used at any time, and a towel should 
 
BEAU IDEAL OF AN ENGLISH VILLA. 
 
 805 
 
 hang on a roller near it. A small leaden box, with holes in the bottom, might be fixed 
 in a corner of the washing-place, to contain the soap. I would on every account 
 encourage cleanliness among the servants ; and they would have no excuse for being 
 dirty, if proper conveniences for washing were provided. 
 
 1704. The Knife and Shoe Cleaning Place should not be far distant from the servants' 
 hall ; and would, of course, contain the necessary conveniences for cleaning knives and 
 shoes, which it is unnecessary to describe. 
 
 1705. The Kitchen is one of the most important offices in a house; and is often, in large 
 residences, a very handsome apartment. I remember to have seen one, at a nobleman's 
 house in Warwickshire, which struck me particularly. The kitchen, scullery, larder 
 &c., formed a range of building on one side of the kitchen-court, separate from the 
 house, but there was a covered way between them. The building was of two stories, the 
 kitchen occupying the centre. It was a large lofty room, of good proportions, as high as 
 two stories of the building. You entered it at one end, by large folding-doors, from a 
 passage through the building ; at the opposite end was the fireplace with the screen before 
 it ; on one side of which was the door to the scullery and bakehouse, on the other side a 
 range of set coppers of different sizes. On one side of the room were two rows of windows, 
 and under the lower row a range of charcoal stoves and hot plates : the latter to keep 
 things warm. The other side had only the upper row of windows, and against the wall 
 was a dresser, above which the copper cooking utensils, &c., were ranged in a very orna- 
 mental way. A long table was in the centre of the room, and over the door a dial-clock. 
 The ceiling had a very handsome cornice, and a boss in the centre, from which hung a 
 brass lamp. Opposite the entrance door, another door admitted you to a passage, on one side 
 of which were the larders, on the other salting-rooms, &c. ; and at the end a staircase led to 
 the cook's apartments over. There was a sort of turret on the centre of the roof, contain- 
 ing a capital clock, which struck upon the dinner bell. The other offices were in the base- 
 ment story of the mansion, and the kitchen was detached, to prevent the annoyance of the 
 smell of cooking, which commonly ascends from a kitchen beneath the house. I thought 
 the arrangement particularly convenient, and the kitchen was really an elegant apart- 
 ment. As, in a large establishment, there is cooking going on through the whole day, 
 it is of importance to the comfort of the family, to place the kitchen in such a situation 
 that the smell of Cooking, wliich is particularly offiinsive, may not be an annoyance to the 
 principal apartments. A house with the kitchen in the basement story is generally 
 subject to this inconvenience, and it is usually avoided by having the kitchen and offices 
 in a separate building adjoining the house. Underground offices are also dark and 
 uncomfortable ; and, in a country-house of any consequence, it may always be contrived 
 to have them above ground. The kitchen described will give an idea of the principal 
 requisites in this office, and I am not able to enter into the details. A kitchen should 
 always be a light airy room, with the windows, if possible, looking north or east ; and in 
 no case west, where all the windows are on one side. 
 
 1706. The Sculleri/. The kitchen should open into the scullery, in which the dishes, 
 &c., are washed, and all the dirty work done. I suppose it should contain proper sinks, 
 a fireplace, a small brick oven and a large oven, if the bread be baked there ; coppers 
 for heating water for the use of the kitchen-maid ; dressers and tables ; plate-racks, 
 shelves for saucepans, &c. ; and it should be well supplied with water. It would be con- 
 venient that the scullery should have a door opening into the kitchen-court near to tlie 
 coal place, to which there should be a covered way. In the houses of great personages, 
 where a service of plate is in constant use, I believe there is commonly an office called 
 the silver scullery, in which the plate is washed ; but I am not able to describe its 
 requisites ; and it would be unnecessary in a villa of the second class. 
 
 1707. The Larders should be placed close to the kitchen. There are usually four 
 offices of this kind in great houses ; viz. the wet and dry larders (the former for un- 
 dressed, the latter for cold meat), a game larder, and a pastry. In ordinary gentle- 
 men's residences, a wet and a dry larder would be sufficient ; to which, in the case of a 
 lai-ge family, a small pastry might be added. Both larders should have windows, at least, 
 on two opposite sides, and should be cool and dry. The windows should be covered 
 with wirecloth, to exclude flies and insects ; the dry larder having glass windows inside, 
 to be shut when the weather requii-es it. I once saw a very pretty convenient larder, 
 which was used only for game, but it would be a good model for an ordinary wet 
 larder. It was built out from the wall of the kitchen, in the form of an octagon, having 
 windows on every side, except that formed by the kitchen wall, and in this was the 
 door. The roof projected over the windows, to protect them from the sun and rain. 
 The ceiling in the interior was coved, and from the centre hung an octagon rack with 
 hooks for the smaller birds all ranged in order ; and round the wall was another rack 
 for pheasants, hares, rabbits, &c. A common wet larder might be built in this form, in 
 which the meat might hang on the rack in the centre, with the chopping-block under. 
 
806 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 The game might be hung round the wall, and under the game might be a dresser on which 
 to cut and salt meat, and salting-troughs lined with lead, and having covers like the 
 dresser. It should also have a machine to weigh meat as it is brought in. A dry 
 Jarder is the place in which the cold dressed meat is kept. In the centre is a large 
 table of wood or stone covered with a tablecloth, on which the cold meat is arranged in 
 dishes. If the windows are not fly-proof, which they always should be, a sort of safe 
 made of coarse muslin, or wire, on an arched frame, is sometimes used to cover the whole 
 table. This might hang on a cord and pulley from the ceiling, so as to be pushed up 
 out of the way while the cold meat is taken out. A broad dresser and a row of shelves 
 might be placed round the dry larder, on which to make and place the pastry and other 
 things usually kept here. (A fish larder, § 1461. and also a vegetable larder, such as 
 we have already noticed, § 737, might be added.) 
 
 1708. The Salting-room. Except in very large families, a separate salting-room is 
 seldom necessary. When required, it should be a cool place, containing proper salting- 
 troughs of lead with covers for meat in pickle, with taps or holes in the bottom, to let off 
 the brine ; and a stone table on which to salt bacon, with a groove round it, to convey 
 the brine by a small pipe to a vessel placed beneath it. 
 
 1709. The Smokimi-chimncy, or Room for smoking Hams and other Provisions, should 
 be detached from the house. Its forms, &:c., will be found described at length, § 739. 
 
 1710. The Wash-house, described, § 725 ; the Laundry, § 726 ; the Brewhouses, § 728 ; 
 and the Bakehouse, § 727, are, of course, separate ofllices, and are nearly the same in all 
 sorts of residences, varying only in size. Unless in very large establishments, a separate 
 room for a bakehouse would seldom be recjuired ; and it would save trouble in cleaning 
 the house, were the oven placed in the scullery, where it would be no inconvenience, 
 as the bread for the family would seldom be baked more than once a week. 
 
 1711. The Kitchen- Court and its Appurtenances include the places for coals, wood, and 
 ashes, which should be conveniently situated so as to be approached under cover. The 
 ash-hole should be furnished with a proper screen of wire, and be so contrived that, the 
 cinders being put in at one door, tliey would pass down the sloping screen to another, 
 where they might be taken out cleared from the ashes. The ashes could be removed 
 from under the screen, and taken away by a door in the outer wall of the kitchen- 
 court. Tliere should be doors of the same kind, with locks, by which the coal and wood 
 houses might be stocked without making a litter in the court. The racks for emjjty 
 Dottles should be in this court, enclosed by railed doors locked ; and there should be also a 
 sort of store-place for potatoes, &c., for the use of the house ; and here might be put away 
 any unsightly articles, when not used. Privies for the servants should be in a retired 
 corner : and a pump in the centre to wash the court, which should be paved throughout, 
 and have proper drains, so as to be always dry and clean. 
 
 1712. The Cellars are very important offices; and, in a large mansion, should be exten- 
 sive and convenient. Their construction and arrangement have been already given, § 713 
 to § 718, and recurred to in § 1462 and* § 1463. The descent to the cellars should be 
 near the butler's pantry and housekeeper's room, to be within the observation of the 
 upper servants. There should be separate cellars for small and strong beer, one or more 
 large cellars for the general stock of wine, and a smaller one for the wine under the care 
 of the butler, which is taken out occasionally from the general stock under the master's 
 inspection. There should also be a root-cellar, and a spare one in which to put hampers 
 before they are unpacked, and other things as occasion required. 
 
 1713. Cellar- Closets. A closet on each side of the foot of the stairs would also be 
 convenient. In one might be kept, in covered pans, placed each in a pan of water, the 
 cheese in use, and in the other the butler might lock up the wine left in decanters, 
 which is commonly spoilt when kept above ground. Another closet might probably be 
 convenient for the use of the housekeeper or cook, such as to place ice-cream in while 
 freezing, and other things in very hot weather. 
 
 1714. An Ice-house is an indispensable appendage to a villa; but its construction has 
 been already described, § 736. The dairy would be at the farm, which I suppose to be 
 at a distance from the house (see § 729). 
 
 1715. The Stable Offices. We proceed next to the stables, which should have one 
 ornamental front, to be seen as you approach the mansion. As a villa of the size 
 described would require extensive stabling, it would be convenient to build the stables and 
 coach-houses in the form of a quadrangle, with a paved yard in the centre. The front 
 to the park should have gables at the ends, resembling those of the mansion ; and in the 
 centre should be an arched gateway with a clock turret over it. The doors should all 
 open into the yard, and be so contrived that the whole might be secure when the gates 
 were closed at night. For greater security, a comfortable bed-room might be formed in 
 the clock turret over the gateway, in which some of the grooms might sleep. The side 
 of the quadrangle which formed the principal front might contain, besides the gateway, 
 
BEAU IDEAL OF AN ENGLISH VILLA. 
 
 807 
 
 the coach-houses and the harness and saddle rooms ; the latter in the two angles. 
 The side joining the harness-room should be occupied by the coach-horse stables, di\dded 
 by a sort of open vestibule, in which a gig might be put out of the rain, or a horse 
 rubbed down in wet weather ; over this open vestibule would be a loft for hay or straw, 
 or the granary for the horse corn. Joining to the saddle-room, the riding-horse stable 
 would occupy another side, arranged like the coach-horse stable opposite. The remain- 
 ing side would contain stabling and harness-room for visiters' horses, and loose boxes for 
 hunters. In the centre of this side might be a passage through to the dung-yard, and 
 in this passage the wheelbarrows would stand under cover. 
 
 1716. A Riding-house is a luxury seldom required by persons of moderate income; 
 but, if it were necessary, it might be built out at right angles to the side of the stable- 
 yard last mentioned, and be approached by the thorough passage above described. As 
 the roof of the riding-house would probably appear above those of the stables, it should 
 be ornamented with a lantern or cupola, for the sake of effect at a distance. 
 
 1717. The Stable-yard should at least have a broad pavement round the four sides, 
 sloping from the walls to a drain ; that before the coach-house wider than the rest, to 
 wash carriages upon, or there might be a square pavement for this purpose near the 
 pump, which I would place in the centre with a large lamp over it to light the yard, the 
 ground having a gentle slope from the pump to the edge of the pavement before the 
 stables. If the extent of the yard woiild admit of it, there might be a ring of fine loose 
 gravel between the pavement and the pump, of sufficient width to exercise sick horses 
 upon, or other horses in cold dirty weather ; but the park would generally afford a dry 
 sheltered situation for this purpose. 
 
 1718. The Coach-houses should be airy and spacious, the floors dry; in low damp 
 situations, the floor might be of stout boards. They should also be light, that the 
 coachman may be able to rub over the carriages in damp weather without ojoening the 
 doors. A closet in one of them would be convenient to receive the brushes, leathers, 
 sponges, &c., used for cleaning carriages ; the jacks for washing the wheels would 
 stand in the passage before mentioned, with the wheelbarrows. If the harness and 
 saddle rooms joined the coach-houses, as they ought to do, a stove in the party wall 
 would serve to air both ; and, if the carriages were moved every day in moist weather, 
 each would stand -near the stove in its turn, and all would be constantly fit for use. If 
 a carriage be allowed to get damp, it is soon spoiled, and is also dangerous to ride in. 
 The coach-houses should, of course, be ceiled, and the walls plastered and coloured, or 
 whitewashed, and be kept particularly clean and free from dust and cobwebs. There 
 should be blinds to the windows, and, where the doors front the south or west, it would 
 also be necessary to have blinds to the doors, to protect the carriages from the heat of the 
 sun when the doors are open, which they always should be in dry warm weather. 
 
 1719. The Harness and Saddle Rooms, in large stables, should always be distinct apart- 
 ments. They should be light airy rooms adjoining the stables, but, if possible, not 
 opening into them, as the moist heat of the stable would be injurious to the saddles and 
 harness. The harness-room should in all cases have a stove to keep it dry. The ceiling 
 and walls should be neatly plastered and whitewashed, or coloured. Round the room, 
 at a sufficient height from the floor, should be a row of large and small pegs, on which to 
 hang harness, bridles, &c. ; and some saddle-trees to support the saddles. From the 
 row of pegs to the floor, the wall should be boarded, or covered with canvass painted, to 
 keep the harness from touching the wall. A small closet, in which would be kept the 
 brushes, leathers, &c., used in cleaning harness, would stand in one corner of the room, 
 and a movable horse, to clean saddles upon, would occupy another corner. In the centre 
 of the room a table v/ith lock-up drawers would be useful, to which might be added a 
 few strong chairs, as the stable-men sometimes sit in the harness-room in cold weather, 
 when they happen to be unemployed. The saddle-room should be exactly like the 
 harness-room, except that it should have more trees to support saddles, and the pegs 
 should be such as are required to hang bridles upon, &c. Both rooms should be clean, 
 and free from cobwebs and dust. 
 
 1720. The Stables should be lofty, airy and spacious, well lighted, and furnished with 
 proper ventilators to keep up a circulation of air. There should be a wide open space 
 behind the horses. Other arrangements are described in § 750. I believe the plan of 
 supplying the racks with hay, through a hole in the floor of the loft above, is now gene- 
 rally discarded, as being prejudicial to the health of the horses. A sort of closet ad- 
 joining the stable, into which the hay is thrown down from the loft, and where it would 
 be properly shaken before it was put into the racks, would be very convenient. To 
 avoid haying the corn bin in the stable, the corn is often kept in a bin in the loft above, 
 from which it is let down into the stable by a wooden pipe with a small trap spout at the 
 bottom, from which the corn may be let out at pleasure, and measured as let out, by 
 having two traps or stoppers in the trunk, with such a space between them as will con- 
 
808 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 tain a quarter of a peck of corn, or whatever quantity may be considered a feed. Loose 
 boxes have been already described, § 755. One, at least, should always be reserved for 
 sick horses. 
 
 1721. The Kennel for Sporting Dogs would be well situated somewhere near the stables, 
 though, as dogs are rather noisy and unsavoury neighbours, some people would place their 
 residence at a greater distance from the house, probably at the keeper's lodge. Their 
 larder and kitchen are certainly great nuisances in many cases. I scarcely need describe a 
 dog-kennel, wliich consists, in all cases, I believe, of sleeping-houses, with a bed against 
 the wall raised a foot or more from the ground, and filled with straw. In front of 
 these are yards enclosed by a wall or paling ; and, in the yards, proper troughs for the 
 food and water. The sleeping-houses and yards should both be paved, kept particularly 
 clean, and frequently whitewashed. A stream of water should, if possible, run through 
 the yards. Adjoining should be a room containing a chest for meal, and a set copper in 
 which to prepare the dogs' food. A pump to supply the troughs and copper with water 
 would also be necessary, if there were no running water near. 
 
 1722. Back Yard for Dung, Rubbish, §t. Behind the stable should be a yard enclosed 
 by a wall, to contain the stable-dung, wood stacks, ;uid refuse from the gardens and house. 
 Here might be cisteras to receive the li(juid manure from the stables and the contents of 
 the house-drains ; and here would also be the privies for the stable-men and gardeners. 
 As I suppose this yard to be bounded on one side by the garden wall, it would form a 
 receptacle for the rubbish from the garden ; so that, all the manure produced about the 
 jjremises being accumulated in one })lace, it might be removed, as wanted, to tlie farm. 
 The fuel, and all the ])rovender recjuired for the stable would be brought in here, the 
 .stable-men having a proper lock-up coal-house for their allowance of fuel ; and as I 
 .suppose the back entrance to the garden to be through tiiis yard, every thing the gar- 
 dener required, such as coals, earth, manure, cS:c., would jjass this way to the garden 
 gate. All the litter of the premises would thus be confined to the back yard, and nothing 
 unsightly would appear about the liouse. 
 
 1723. Kitchcn-aarden. I shall not venture to say any thing of the arrangement of the 
 kitchen-garden ; but, with regard to its situation, as a garden wall is always an ugly 
 object, I would place the garden in a retired sheltered spot, and endeavour to conceal it 
 by plantations and shrubberies. The principal entrance to it should be from the plea- 
 sure-ground, by a handsome gateway. This gateway might be so designed as to fxppear 
 at the extremity of a lawn or vista, and form an architectural embellishment to the 
 grounds. In the situation we suppose, the kitchen-garden would probably be in the 
 form of a long parallelogram, the long sides north and south. The entrance would be 
 in the middle of the east end, and might o])en upon a broad gravel walk, extending the 
 whole length of the garden, having a border for herbaceous plants on each side of it ; 
 and, beyond this border, the compartments for vegetables. At the end opposite to the 
 entrance might be the gardener's lodge, a comfortable dwelling, showing on this side an 
 ornamental front, with a few flower-beds, and jicrhaps a sundial before it. Beyond the 
 lodge would probably be a separate enclosure for the hot-houses, stoves, pits, &c. ; with 
 the seed and store rooms, and labourers' sitting and sleeping rooms, and other necessary 
 buildings of that kind ; beyond this might be the orchard, properly enclosed. The 
 ground for dung frames would, I suppose, be near tlie back entrance to the garden, 
 which, as I have already said, would be through the yard behind the stables. To make 
 the most of the wall for fruit trees, there might be a narrow outer garden, or slip as it is 
 usually called, round the south and west walls. 
 
 1724. The Pleasure-gardens would comprise the enriched parterre before the windows 
 of the drawing-room, saloon, and library ; the pleasure-grounds reaching to the woody 
 eminence behind, and filling the space between it and the back of the house, and the end 
 of the parterre. In this space there would be room for great variety of effect in garden 
 scenery ; such as shaded winding walks, open glades, small lawns, &c. &c., with orna- 
 mental seats interspersed. Between the kitchen-garden wall and the woody hill would 
 be a sheltered spot for a small winter-garden, planted with the best evergreen trees and 
 shrubs. On a small lawn, in the centre of it, might be a few beds filled with laurustinus, 
 mezereon, Cydonia japonica, and any early-flowering low shrubs and plants ; with bulbs, 
 such as all the varieties of crocuses, &c., in great abundance. A conservatory on the warm 
 side of it would not be ill-placed. 
 
 1725. In the Pleasure-grounds, I would have very few clumps or masses of shrubs. 
 Both trees and shrubs have generally the best effect, and attain to greater beauty of form, 
 when scattered judiciously in groups upon turf ; the groups properly connected and 
 mixed with lower growths, so as to form a whole : what is called dotting, I would espe- 
 cially avoid. Masses are, however, sometimes required for boundaries, and to conceal 
 disagreeable objects. One of the most delightful pleasure-grounds I have seen is at 
 Packington Hall, in Warwickshire, in which I do not remember to have observed a clump, 
 
BEAU IDEAL OF AN ENGLISH VILLA. 
 
 809 
 
 properly so called. The surface slopes from the south and west fronts of the mansion to 
 a lake and parklike pastures. The pleasure-ground is extensive, and has an undulating 
 surface, which is planted with groups of trees and shrubs on the turf, forming lawns, 
 thickets, &c. The walks through it are judiciously arranged ; and, indeed, the whole is 
 so contrived, that it appears much more extensive than it really is : it contains a variety 
 of trees, including a group of noble cedars on the highest ground, and some ancient 
 yews and cypresses near the house. In a bright summer evening, the view from 
 the western terrace to the lake and rising grounds beyond it, bounded by wood, presents 
 a beautiful natural picture. 1 would attempt something of this kind at the back of the 
 villa ; the principal lawn in the pleasure-ground being in front of the bay window at 
 the end of the library, with some architectural embellishment, as a seat or temple within 
 view. The pleasure-ground should communicate v/ith extensive walks through the 
 natural wood of the eminence behind the villa. These would be merely wood walks, 
 not highly kept, with occasional openings through the trees at those points where a fine 
 distant view, or any interesting object in the surrounding scenery, could be commanded. 
 A few rustic seats placed at these points would be appropriate ornaments for the wood 
 walk. 
 
 1726. The Farm. The next appendage to the villa, which requires attention, is the 
 farm. Every country gentleman possessing a residence such as we have described should 
 occupy a farm of sufficient extent to supply the family with provisions ; such as meat, 
 bread, beer, poultry, milk, butter, cheese, &c. The perfection of rural economy is to 
 purchase nothing which the estate can be made to produce ; and the advantage of this 
 system, under judicious management, is, that you have an abundance of every thing, and 
 a liberal style of housekeeping, at prime cost. Thus, under the system of management 
 supposed, besides the ordinary provisions supplied by the farm, the estate generally would 
 afford game and wildfowl ; the park and the waters in it would supply venison and 
 freshwater fish of several kinds ; and the gardens and orchards all sorts of fruits and 
 vegetables ; so that there would be nothing to purchase for the house, except groceries 
 and chandlery. I have often partaken of very elegant dinners at a house in one of the 
 midland counties, where the table was supplied almost exclusively with home produce. 
 We had not, perhaps, a dish of sea-fish ; but we had what was much better than half-stale 
 fish, procured from London at great expense, or from a neighbouring town when it had 
 been, perhaps, ten days out of the water ; instead of this, we had a dish of the finest carp 
 or tench I ever met with, or probably a jack, or eels, each taken from the stew-ponds 
 immediately before dinner, and thus eaten in the highest perfection. The meat, poultry, 
 and game were all home produce ; and, perhaps, a dish of oranges was the only foreign 
 article at the dessert, which always presented a display of the finest sorts of forced and 
 natural fruit. If it be said that it would be, perhaps, better economy to buy than to 
 produce these luxuries, I answer, that, in that case, things are not well managed ; and 
 probably the owner of the place is a thoughtless idle person, who does not make him- 
 self properly acquainted with his own concerns. But, supposing it to be rather more 
 expensive to produce than to purchase luxuries ; at all events, when you produce them, 
 you have them in great abundance ; they are always ready on any sudden emergency; and, 
 in fact, you have them much oftener than you would do, were you obliged to procure 
 them from a dealer. Besides this, by producing, you afford employment and a comfort- 
 able maintenance to many of your dependants, who would otherwise, perhaps, be supported 
 by the poor's rate, or be breaking stones upon the roads. But the most important 
 reason why a country gentleman should farm to a certain extent is, that it introduces 
 him to a knowledge of agriculture, and every thing connected with land, and thus 
 qualifies him to superintend the management of his own estate. The produce of his 
 own farm would enable him to form a correct judgment as to the rent he should receive 
 from his tenants. He may try experiments, and introduce useful modern improvements 
 among the neighbouring farmers. A knowledge of agriculture will also increase his 
 ability to be useful as a country gentleman and justice of the peace ; and will cause him 
 to be more thouglit of by his neighbours, who are apt to despise those who are wholly 
 ignorant of rural pursuits. The management of a farm is also an additional source of 
 out-door amusement to a person residing in a retired part of the country ; and it more- 
 over adds to his weight and consequence, by increasing the number of his dependants ; 
 besides giving him a knowledge of the condition of the labouring classes, and enabling 
 him to do them many little kindnesses, such as finding an industrious man a job when 
 he is out of work, which he probably could not do if he did not occupy a farm. For these 
 and other reasons, I think every country gentleman should be a farmer to a certain 
 extent ; the size of the farm to be determined by the wants of his family. But I would 
 not have him a large farmer, because a large farm is more a source of anxiety than 
 amusement : it would occupy too much of his time and attention; and, if not Avell managed, 
 would be attended with considerable expense. I would have him also a good farmer, 
 
 5 A 
 
810 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 hut not an expensive one. His object should he, to produce abundant crops by a judi- 
 cious but not a costly mode of liusbandry ; to adapt his production to his consumption , 
 and to have little to do with buying and selling ; because in this he is at the mercy of 
 salesmen and dealers, and would generally purchase at the highest and sell at the lowest 
 price. To turn the park to account, he would probably be a breeder of cattle and horses 
 for his own supply, as well as a grazier and arable farmer. He might keep a large stock 
 both of sheep and cattle, as he would have an excellent summer run for them in the park, 
 which I would stock hard, as it is termed, both to enliven the scene, and to keep a close 
 turf ; long rough grass being of all things most unsightly about a gentleman's place ; 
 indeed, the use of the park, as a place of recreation, in our moist climate, would depend 
 upon the closeness of the turf. 
 
 1727. The Farm Buildings should be placed at an easy distance from the house, either 
 within the boundary of the park, or contiguous to some part of it near a parish road. 
 The farm itself would, of course, be around the buildings ; and a dry gravel-walk, 
 among the trees in the park, should be formed between it and the house. The buildings 
 would comprise all the requisite conveniences of a complete farmery, built round a yard, 
 having on one side of it a very pretty comfortable residence and garden for the bailiff, 
 whose wife would superintend the dairy and poultry. 
 
 1728. The Dairy. As the ladies would probably take an interest in the dairy and 
 poultry-yard, I would have both complete and ornamental. The plan you have given 
 for a dairy, § 729, is, I am aware, the best that can be adopted ; but in the present case 
 I would, in some degree, sacrifice utility to ornamental effect, and not have the dairy 
 entirely under ground. Let us suppose it to l>e a pretty cottage, sunk 3 feet into the 
 ground, with a projecting thatched roof. At the principal entrance might be a pretty 
 rustic porch, over the steps which descend to the passage ; in which a door on the right 
 would admit you to the dairy ; the floor being paved with black and white marble in 
 diaraoiwis, or a mosaic pavement that would admit of being washed and occasionally 
 flooded in hot weather. I once saw a dairy in whicli a spring rose into a marble basin in 
 the centre, where the pats of butter were cooled. Round the room marble slabs might be 
 supported on low . rches ; the slabs being below the level of the outer surface, on which the 
 white milk-pans would be placed. The china cream-pots would stand in the two arched 
 recesses at one end. From the slabs to the cornice of the coved ceiling the wall might 
 be covered with Dutch tiles, coloured or white. A good deal of china might be intro- 
 duced in the dairy, both for use and ornament ; and a lady of taste might make the 
 dairy a pretty little bijou to show to her visiters. A second door might open to a place 
 where the cheese was made and jiressed, or to a passage connected with the bailiffs 
 house, in which any airy garret would do for a cheese-room. I need not add that the 
 dairy scullery should be abundantly supplied with water, and that the whole should be 
 properly drained; having a sink connected with the wash-vat for the waste milk and whey, 
 and every thing as convenient for the dairy-maid as possible. It should be in a shady 
 place, say in an open grove of trees, and might be built of flints or any rude masonry, 
 with the roof thatched ; the porch should be of unbarked trunks and boughs of trees ; 
 the door might be made to correspond with the porch, by covering it with the thick 
 stems of ivy, in a pattern, which I have seen done with a very pretty effect. 
 
 1729. The Farmerij. After your description of one, it will be needless to give an 
 account of the various agricultural buildings ; but one thing is indispensable in a gentle- 
 man's farm yard, and that is, a clean path around it, paved perhaps, or dry and clean at 
 any rate, so that even ladies may inspect the whole, and look at the cattle without being 
 over shoes in dung and dirt. Farm yards are too frequently offensively dirty places, 
 without being necessarily so ; and cleanliness should prevail in every thing connected 
 with a gentleman's residence, even in the pigsty. 
 
 1730. Farm- Labourers' Lodge. As labourers expect, and perhaps justly, rather more 
 attention to their comforts from a gentleman than from a renting farmer, I would add to 
 the ordinary farm-buildings a small-sized room, with a fireplace, and a few benches and 
 a table, over which I would have a bed-room, containing say two plain but comfortable 
 beds. When labourers work at a distance from home, they usually bring their dinner 
 with them, which they eat, in a comfortless way, in the barn, or sometimes in the stable. 
 Had they such a room as I have described, they might light a wood fire, and warm their 
 provisions, and thus take their meals in some sort of comfort. At haytime and harvest, 
 and at other seasons, many labourers go a great distance for work, and are often some 
 weeks from home. During their absence they are frequently obliged to sleep in barns, 
 and have scarcely as many comforts as the cattle in the yard : but, in the building I 
 have mentioned, they would have a comfortable sitting-room and bed-room, which the 
 dairy- maid might keep clean ; it might also be part of her duty to dress their provisions, 
 and thus they would have most of the ordinary conveniences which they find at home. 
 Where the under carters or ploughboys sleep at the farm, as they do in some countries 
 
BEAU -IDEAL OF AN ENGLISH VILLA. 
 
 811 
 
 in miserable lofts over the stables, I would have a bed-room provided for them in the 
 bailiff's lodge, that they might be under his inspection. Young labourers often acquire 
 habits of drunkenness and immorality by sleeping at the farm, where they are away from 
 the control of parents and masters ; one of the many evils which have arisen to the 
 peasantry from the system of large farms. When the land was in small farms, the young 
 carters and ploughboys usually slept and boarded in the master's house. 
 
 1731. The Keeper's Lodge. I believe I have now mentioned all the usual appur- 
 tenances to a gentleman's country residence, except the keeper's lodge, which should 
 be a pretty picturesque cottage, on a woody eminence in the park, where it would be 
 extremely ornamental. 
 
 1732. The Village. I will add a few observations upon the sort of village which would 
 contribute to the general beauty of the place. I should choose to have the village at no 
 great distance from the house, for the sake of cheerfulness. A pretty comfortable village 
 is always a pleasing object, and even the " rural sounds " of a village, when heard at a 
 distance, would remove that unpleasant feeling of cheerless solitude, which is often expe- 
 rienced at a secluded country-house. The large mansion of a nobleman is often placed 
 in a very retired situation, in the centre of an immense park. The numerous visiters, 
 and the host of servants and retainers, produce a sort of bustle and cheerfulness about 
 it, while the family is resident there ; but, when silence reigns around the deserted 
 mansion, it is commonly as cheerless as a palace in the wilderness. As I should desire, 
 therefore, to have the villa in the immediate neighbourhood of a village for the sake of 
 cheerfulness, I should, of course, wish it to be a pretty village ; because no other can be 
 cheerful. Now, there are several kinds of pretty villages. The effect of an ii-regular 
 street of old-fashioned cottages is often highly picturesque ; but I should prefer a scattered 
 village, in which the houses are arranged in groups, as being more convenient, and gene- 
 rally more pleasing. Cottages crowded together in a continued row have too much of 
 the appearance, and have in fact many of the inconveniences and nuisances, of a dirty 
 back street in a country town. The people live too close together ; if the street be 
 narrow, the houses are dark ; there is not a free circulation of air, nor space for proper 
 drainage, and the gardens are necessarily small narrow slips, shaded by the numerous trees 
 and hedgerows, and of course unproductive. These inconveniences are avoided, and a 
 more cheerful effect produced, where the houses are scattered in irregular groups, and at 
 irregular distances, on each side of the road, and aromid the village green ; some of the 
 farm houses, with their numerous buildings standing at a little distance in fields, and the 
 whole embellished by the surrounding pastures and hedgerow timber. Under this 
 arrangement you have not the nuisance of a dirty village street ; the cottages are more 
 light and cheerful ; the gardens and orchards would be more extensive and more pro- 
 ductive ; and the cottage allotments, whether of arable land or pasture, might be con- 
 tiguous to the houses. Supposing, then, that the approach to the park entrance of the 
 villa was through a scattered village, we will suppose, in the first place, that a good road 
 passes through it, wide and open, and always dry and clean. At the beginning of the 
 village the liouses would be thinly scattered on one or both sides of the road. Perhaps 
 the first dwelling you would observe, would be a respectable farm house and buildings 
 standing retired from the road, in a field, with a few old trees around it. A little farther 
 on, perhaps a pretty double cottage, with its orchards and low outhouses, would stand 
 on a gentle eminence backed by a copse ; opposite to it a break in the hedgerow timber 
 would probably let in a view with a group of cottages in the fields at a short distance. 
 As you proceed, the groups of cottages would most likely increase in number, some close 
 to the road, others a little removed from it, all well sheltered by hedgerows and trees ; 
 till you pass by a rude bridge over a shallow stream which crosses the village green, and 
 runs along a rocky channel for a short distance near the road ; the banks fringed with 
 underwood. At that end of the green where the high road crosses it would be some of 
 the village tradesmen's houses ; in a retired spot, at the other end, would be a pretty 
 building for the school ; and round the whole a few scattered cottages and farm houses, 
 and plenty of trees. A narrow road would in all probability branch off from the main 
 road across the green, passing through the brook by a ford ; the green would also be 
 intersected by footpaths, and there Avould most likely be stepping-stones , or one or two 
 rude foot-bridges over the brook : it would not be a pretty green without a few old thorns, 
 and two or three old trees, or groups of trees, scattered over it. Of course, there would 
 generally be a donkey or two, or perhaps two or three of the cottagers' cows, or some 
 geese grazing on it ; and there would always be children playing, and the villagers passing 
 to and fro, to contribute to the rural effect of the scene. When the road had passed the 
 green, the cottages would probably be less frequent, and the trees thicker in the hedge- 
 rows as you advance to the park gate, which would appear to terminate the road ; which 
 v^ould, however, branch off to the right or left as convenience required before you reached 
 the gate. The above is a description of hundreds of villages to be seen in all parts of 
 
812 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 England. A person having such a village near his place would, probably, not improve 
 it by altering the accidental arrangement of the groups of cottages ; and, if these chanced 
 to be old and picturesque, much taste and judgment would be required in rebuilding or 
 repairing them. I should scarcely have courage to pull down a fine old specimen of a 
 picturesque cottage, unless in a case of extreme necessity. Generally speaking, an old 
 cottage rnay be so repaired and restored as to preserve tlie picturesque exterior, while the 
 interior was made convenient and comfortable : but when an old cottage stands in a 
 damp unpleasant situation, and presents an exterior too wretched and ruinous to be 
 pleasingly picturesque, in that case it is a nuisance, and should of course be rebuilt upon 
 a better site ; a ruin of any kind, though generally a picturesque object, being never a 
 pleasing one, when it is supposed to be the squalid habitation of a wretched fellow-creature. 
 In rebuilding the cottages, I should use the material most prevalent in the neighbourhood, 
 that the village might form a whole. Every district produces its proper building 
 material : thus, in some counties, stone is the prevailing material ; in others, brick ; in 
 others, chalk and flints. A mixture of houses of all these materials would only have an 
 appearance of propriety, where all were procured in the immediate neighbourliood. Stone 
 is generally the best and most picturesque material ; and most people have taste enough to 
 perceive the staring disagreeable effect of a new red brick cottage, when placed in contrast 
 with old stone buildings. There is an exception to this in favour of a mixture of wooden 
 framework, filled up with brick or plaster ; this being an early mode of building, of which 
 some specimens remain in most neighbourhoods ; and such cottages are always ])icturesque. 
 In the case of rebuilding a village, great judgment would be required in selecting the 
 designs, as, however beautiful the situation might be, the pleasing effect of the whole 
 would depend chiefly ui)on the style of the buildings. In selecting the designs, there- 
 fore, there are two or three things that I would especially avoid. In the first place, I 
 would on no account have the cottages all alike ; and in the second place, I would discard 
 those fanciful comfortless dwellings which are often erected as ornamental cottages. In 
 my opinion, a cottage should present a picturesque simple exterior, conveying an idea of 
 internal comfort and convenience ; and models of this kind are most common, I think, 
 among our old-fashioned English cottages. I would build them chiefly in this style, 
 beginning with that style of cottage in which wooden framework prevails, and imitating 
 all the various kinds of picturesque houses which are suitable to cottage residences. In 
 many cases a cottage might be rebuilt exactly as it was in its old state, and, in pulling 
 down, some of the old parts might be sufficiently good to remain ; and I should, there- 
 fore, suffer such parts to remain, and build to them when they happened to present a 
 pleasing specimen of picturesque Architecture. If the cottages were thus managed, 
 judiciously grouped, and properly mixed with the enclosures and timber trees, a pretty 
 interesting village might be produced in almost any situation ; but, its beauty would be 
 greatly increased, if it chanced to stand on a well wooded varied surface, and near to the 
 boundary of the richly wooded park of a gentleman's residence. 
 
 1733. The Village Church. The beauty of the village would be very incomplete with- 
 out a handsome village church ; and, though I describe it last in order, I consider it first 
 in importance, and would make it the most interesting feature about the place. In all 
 rural scenery, the towers and spires of churches generally form the most striking objects 
 in tlie landscape. To a man of cultivated mind, who has resided much in the country, 
 there is always something interesting in the appearance of a village church, in which he 
 and the lowly rustic can both forget their cares, and worship God in peace ; and 
 where all must be laid " each in his narrow cell," when the cares and enjoyments of this 
 life are quenched in death. But I am far from considering this as a mere matter of 
 taste. I will suppose the owner of the villa I have described a perfect specimen of a 
 respectable country gentleman, formed after the model of Evelyn of Wootton : a man of 
 taste and refinement, a respectable scholar, an affectionate husband, a good father, a 
 kind master, a considerate landlord, the true friend and general resource of his poorer 
 neighbours, and a man of sincere and unaffected piety. A person of this character 
 would think it a discredit to his taste and better feelings to have a comfortless dilapidated 
 church. He would rather wish to have it a beautiful interesting edifice, worthy of the 
 purpose to which it is devoted. We will suppose it, therefore, a fine old building, in 
 the florid style of Gothic, preserved by his ancestors, with religious care, in its original 
 state. As the population of the parish would be small, we will suppose the church to 
 consist only of an ample nave and chancel, with two small transepts ; and a handsome 
 tower or spire at the west end, or over the intersection of the transepts. The windows 
 would be small, except the great east window, and all filled with stained glass ; those 
 in the nave having old coats of arms ; and in the east window a fine scripture subject. 
 Entering the church by a rich porch at the south side, near the lower end, on your left 
 would be the beautiful old Gothic font ; over it the richly carved oak loft, for the organ, 
 schools, and singers. Standing under the loft there would be a perspective view up the 
 
BEAU IDEAL OF AN ENGLISH VILLA. 
 
 813 
 
 aisle to the chancel, terminated by the east window. On each side the aisle would be 
 old oak benches, the ends richly carved with ornamental fineals ; facing you on one side 
 of the chancel arch would be the carved oak pulpit, on the other the reading-desk. 
 One transept would be the vestry, in which would be the stairs to the pulpit ; the 
 other transept would contain the descent to the hot air stove under the church ; and the 
 coals, &c., used about the church. I would have the chancel wainscoted with carved 
 oak, in the manner of cathedral choirs, as high as the windows ; the floor paved with 
 marble ; the ceiling of the chancel vaulted, having very rich tracery and bosses ; that of 
 the nave, oak in a rich framework, embellished with coats of arms, and supported by 
 handsome corbels. I do not mention pews, as I would not have any in the church. 
 The most beautiful interior of a village church I have seen, was that of one rebuilt by 
 a peer of high rank, now deceased, and one of the most excellent of men in every 
 relation of life. It did not contain a single pew. The peer and the peasant each sat 
 on the same sort of seat ; an open bench with a desk affixed to the back, such as are still 
 seen in many of our old churches. Pews are comparatively a modern introduction, and 
 often greatly disfigure a beautiful church. The churchyard shoidd have a handsome 
 gateway. It would probably contain a few picturesque yews or cypresses, numerous 
 tombstones, and, perhaps, a handsome erection covering the entrance to the vault of the 
 principal family in the parish ; and the whole would acquire a secluded and rather 
 solemn effect from the surrounding timber in the park. Such a religious edifice would 
 be worthy of its situation ; and with it I shall conclude my description of the villa and 
 its appendages. 
 
 Sect. II. Map of the Demesne and Park, and Ground Plan and Elevations of the 
 House, of JBeau Ideal Villa. 
 
 1734. The Engravings which form the subject of this section are from drawings sent by 
 the author of the preceding description (Sehm). The map of the grounds has been 
 very slightly altered by us, in order to vary the form of the boundary of the park, and 
 to show, somewhat more in detail, the gardens and pleasure-grounds. The plans and 
 elevations of the house have been kindly revised by one of the most distinguished 
 Villa Architects of the present day, Charles Barry, Esq. 
 
 1735. The Demesne is shown in fig. 1435, in which a is the entrance court to the 
 mansion J 6, the kitchen-court; c, the stable-court; d, the gardener's house. On the 
 north-west front is an ancient geometrical garden, with a straight walk to the ter- 
 race, e, on the side of the steep and thickly wooded hill. The upper and under sides 
 of this terrace arc supposed to be planted with evergreens and bulbs, so as to form 
 a winter garden. There are three alcove seats on it, open to the south. The two 
 extremities of this walk join other narrower walks, which descend to the American 
 garden at the west end, and a botanic garden at the end opposite. In front of the 
 drawing-room side of the mansion there is a descent from the terrace into an ancient 
 English parterre, ornamented with statues, vases, fountains, and a sundial. The walks 
 on the side of the wooded hill are of turf, but those in the lower parts of the grounds 
 are chiefly of gravel, f The situation of the ice-house, in a rising bank near the river, 
 for the convenience of filling it with ice ; g, the keeper's lodge, and dog-kennels, on 
 rising ground, and partially concealed by wood ; h, the deer-sheds, with hay-stacks in 
 front, for feeding the deer during winter ; i, a circular Grecian temple, on rising ground, 
 seen from the house ; j and Ic, waterfalls, seen from the house ; I, ornamental pigeon- 
 house ; m, dairy-house and farmery to the mansion ; n, entrance lodges and garden ; 
 0, school-house on the village green ; p, road through the village to the turnpike ; 
 q, parish road, passing through the estate ; r, farms belonging to the proprietor of the 
 demesne ; s, water-mill ; t, parsonage-house, garden, and glebe ; u, church ; v, cottages 
 of the village ; w, common, for the pasturage of the cottagers' cows during summer ; 
 X, stone quarry ; y, rocky copse ; z, thick copsewood, and rising hills thickly covered 
 with wood, intersected by green walks and grassy glades ; a', orchard; b', sunk fence, 
 enclosing the gardens and pleasure-ground, and changing into an iron fence where it 
 enters the wooded hill; c, a portion of the park beyond the parish road; the fence on 
 each side of the road being either a sunk wall or ha-ha, or open iron fencing, so as to 
 show the passengers from the house ; d', a hedge, allowed to remain, in order to har- 
 monise the park with the enclosures beyond ; e', protruding hedges, for the same purpose ; 
 f'f', two points, between which the boundary of the park is formed by an iron fence 
 
 concealed in the natural copsewood ; g' g\ walks on each side of the river, open at all 
 times to the villagers and the public. The other walks, and the public rooms of the 
 house, may be supposed to be open for public inspection two days in the week, k' //, 
 Continuation of enclosed country, divided into farms, and interspersed with copses, the 
 distance rising into hills ; i', great public road to the metropolis ; k' V and I' l', con- 
 tinuation of the estate. 
 
814 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 1435 
 
BEAU IDEAL OF AN ENGLISH VILLA. 815 
 1435 
 
/ 
 
BEAU IDEAL OF AN ENGLISH VILLA. 
 
 819 
 
820 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 drawingroom ; d, the saloon ; e, the library ; f, the terrace, with a descent to an ancient 
 flower-garden; g, the lower gallery; the lower housemaid's closet; {, the principal 
 stairs ; k, the back stairs, which descend also to the cellars , /, the dining-room ; 
 m, gentleman's private room ; n, china closet ; o, butler's pantry ; p, store-room ; 
 q, still-room ; r, housekeeper's room ; 5, passage to the offices ; t, back entrance to the 
 house; u, entrance to the kitchen-court, in which court there is an outer entrance to 
 the cellars; v, servants' hall; w, kitchen; x, back kitchen; servants* dressing-room; 
 2, place for cleaning shoes ; a', cleaning place ; b', dry larder ; c', wet larder ; d', coal- 
 house ; e', wood-house ; place for ashes; g, entrance to the kitchen-court ; h', brew- 
 house, with laundry over it; i' , covered passage; /c', wash-house; /', store-room, the 
 laundry extending over it also ; 7,1', gentlemen's privy, entered from the garden ; upper 
 -servants' privy; 0', privy for female servants ; yj', men-servant's privy; q', stable-yard; 
 r', park; s', drying-court; t', garden; and kitchen garden. 
 
 Fi"'. 1440 is a plan of the chamber- floor ; in which a is an entrance to the upper 
 gallery from the stairs ; b, a closet ; c, bed-rooms ; d, dressing-rooms ; e, dressing-room ; 
 f, bed-room ; g, dressing-room ; h, dressing-room, or small bed-room ; i, lady's dressing- 
 room ; A:, gentleman's dressing-room, both connected with the family bed-room, m; 
 /, bath-room ; m, dressing-room ; n, back stairs ; 0, men-servants' bed-rooms ; p, closet ; 
 q, stairs • and r, bed-rooms for the men-servants of strangers. Besides these bed- 
 
VILLAS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 
 
 821 
 
 rooms, there should be a floor of rooms for the female servants, and a nursery over the 
 wing next the offices, the windows looking over the offices. The bed-rooms in this 
 wing would be occupied by the family ; and, if they were a few feel lower than the 
 other rooms on the best chamber floor, the garrets would be of a good height, and 
 might be made comfortable rooms. In some large houses, a number of the under 
 servants sleep in one room, without any regard to age, habits, &c. : but there are many 
 objections to this plan, which is often a source of great discomfort to the servants ; for 
 instance, those who have to sit up late, disturb those who have gone early to bed, &c. 
 The upper servants should have separate rooms ; and the servants of visiters should 
 never sleep in the same rooms with the servants of the family. The bed-rooms for the 
 men-servants are therefore purposely divided, so that they ^vill not contain more than 
 two beds each. Fireplaces are shown in them, in case of sickness, and in order to 
 ventilate the rooms. 
 
 Chap. III. 
 
 Miscellaneous Designs for Villas, with various Degrees of Accommodation, and in different 
 
 Styles of Architecture. 
 
 1 736. The Designs submitted in this Chapter are a selection from more than treble the 
 number sent us by different Architects. They are not all to be considered perfect ; 
 though a number of them are so nearly so, in our eyes, that we can only speak of them 
 in terms of admiration. Others, though not in all respects to be held up as objects of 
 imitation, yet contain points of excellence in arrangement, or in style, calculated to afford 
 instruction. In a few, there are what we consider to be positive faults ; but these we 
 have endeavoured to turn to the advantage of the student ; convinced that as much, or 
 even more, instruction is to be given by pointing out faults and their causes, as by 
 exhibiting and explaining beauties. The order followed, as in the preceding chapters 
 of the same kind, is miscellaneous. 
 
 Design I. — A Grecian Villa, of a medium Size, for a Gentlem/in of Fortune. 
 1737. The Situation is supposed to be in a park, as shown in the general plan, 
 fig. 1441, in which a a are two approaches; b, the wire fence separating the park from 
 
COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 the pleasure-ground ; c, a lake, with island 
 house, and gradually becoming narrower 
 as it recedes from it on each side, till, 
 at the distance of the American garden, 
 I, on the right, and the flower-garden, k, 
 on the left, it is reduced from twelve feet 
 to eight feet ; and when it arrives at the 
 bridges, it is reduced to six feet; e e, 
 the bridges over the lake ; /, the kitchen- 
 court ; g, the stable-yard ; h, the melon- 
 ground j i, the kitchen-garden; k, the 
 flower-garden ; Z, the American garden ; 
 and m, irregular groups of showy flowers 
 and shrubs. The house, as seen at the 
 point n, on the approach from the left, 
 will appear as in fig. 1443. 
 
 1738. Accommodation. The ground 
 floor, fig. 1442, contains a portico, a; 
 entrance hall and billiard-room, 6, twenty- 
 four feet by eighteen feet ; drawingroom, 
 c, forty feet by twenty feet ; library, d, 
 twenty-four feet by eighteen feet ; prin- 
 cipal staircase and lobby, e ; and dining- 
 room,^ twenty-eight feet by twenty feet : 
 all these apartments are thirteen feet 
 high. There are a butler's pantry, g, 
 with plate-closet, h, adjoining; back 
 staircase, i ; pantry, k ; dairy, / ; servants' 
 hall, m ; scullery, n ; kitchen, o ; entrance 
 to the oflSces, p ; place for cleaning shoes, 
 q ; place for cleaning knives, r ; dust-hole, 
 s : place for wood, t ; place for coals, u ; 
 groom's room, v ; laundry, w, twenty feet 
 by eighteen feet ; wash-house, x, twenty 
 feet by eighteen feet ; dung-pit, y ; three 
 coach-houses, z • nag stable for two 
 horses, o'; saddle-horse stable for three 
 horses, twenty-six feet by eighteen feet, 
 6'; harness-room, </; coach-horse stable 
 for three horses, twenty-six feet by 
 eighteen feet, (/'; stable-yard, e'; kitchen 
 and drying yard,y'; covered way to the 
 laundry, by the stable, g, leading into the 
 kitchen-lobby at one end, and into the 
 stable-yard lobby at the other. Fig. 1 444 
 is a plan of the chamber floor, containing 
 a principal staircase, a ; four best bed- 
 rooms, i; bath-room, c; four dressing- 
 rooms, d ; corridor, e ; nursery, f ; four 
 family bed-rooms, g ; linen-closet, h ; and 
 back staircase, t. 
 
 1739. Construction. The walls are 
 supposed to be of brick, covered with 
 Roman cement, coloured in imitation of 
 stone, and the roof slated. 
 
 1740. General Estimate. The entire 
 contents of the house are 164,648 feet, 
 which may be estimated at nine-pence per 
 foot, or ^^'6174 : 14s. : 4d.; those of the 
 offices, 67,764 feet, which may be esti- 
 mated at sixpence per foot, or £169"^ : 2s. 
 
 1741. Remarks. This Design has been 
 furnished us by an eminent ViUa Archi- 
 tect. It is remarkably complete, more 
 particularly in respect to its kitchen and 
 stable oflSces. We have supposed it to 
 
 ; d, the main walk, broadest in front of the 
 
VILLAS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 
 
 823 
 
 be placed on a gentle eminence, in a tame fertile country ; and we have disposed of the 
 
 of a villa residence, in the 
 
 approaches, walks, kitchen-garden, and other details 
 manner which is now generally considered as in 
 the best modern English taste. The water is 
 supposed to be on a considerably lower level than 
 the house, and to have such a supply as to keep 
 it always clear ; and it is therefore less likely to 
 generate mephitic vapours. The grouping of the 
 trees and shrubs, the botanical interest of their 
 different kinds, the water, the grass, and the gravel, 
 constitute the home or foreground beauties of such a 
 residence ; and those of the distance are very seldom 
 of any marked character in the midland counties of 
 England. A hill is rarely to be seen, a mountain 
 never ; and all that can be hoped for, is a peep at the 
 spire of the village church. A village, a town, a 
 farm-house, a cottage, or the appearance of another 
 villa, at a nearer distance than two or three miles, is 
 considered an intolerable nuisance by the high 
 aristocracy of England. The great object, in laying 
 out the grounds of villas for this class of society, is, 
 to produce the appearance of an interminable natural 
 forest ; the villa being placed in one of its most 
 agreeable glades, and every thing seen around ap- 
 pearing to belong to it : such is the kind of solitary 
 grandeur described as the summuni honum of an 
 English country residence. The essential cause of 
 this feeling is to be found in the immense chasm 
 which exists between the rich and the poor in this 
 country, not only in point of wealth, but in point of 
 cultivation and taste. 
 
 Design II. — The Accommodations of a Villa of moderate Size, exhibited in the GrouJid Plan 
 of the House and Offices, and their relative Connection with the Gardens and Grounds. 
 
 1742. The Object of this Design is, to show by lines, rather than words, the requisite 
 arrangement of a moderate-sized villa, where accommodation is more the object than 
 architectural display. It has been furnished us, at our request, by James Main, Esq., of 
 Chelsea, and evinces his knowledge of what is requisite to constitute a country residence, 
 as well as his good taste and great experience as a landscape-gardener. No elevation is 
 given, because we have judged it expedient to afford the young Architect an opportunity 
 of devising one, either in the Gothic or Grecian style. Besides, the object, in this 
 Design, is to confine the attention to the accommodation required, and to the connection 
 of the house and the offices with the kitchen and other gardens, the pleasure-ground 
 fence, and the approach-roads and walks. 
 
 1 743. The General Arrangement is shown in fig. 1 445. The grounds consist of a kitchen- 
 garden, containing about two acres, and dressed ground exterior to it, and including a 
 Juwn surrounding the house; the whole separated from the park by an endless dotted 
 line in the figure, representing an open iron railing, or a sunk fence, or ha-ha. Beyond 
 this dressed ground, the park may extend to fifty or one hundred acres, or upwards. In 
 the general plan, a is the entrance-court and offices ; b, the coach-yard court, with two 
 dung-pits surrounded by low walls ; c, drying-ground ; d, conservatory, with flower- 
 garden around ; e, ice-house, formed under a raised mound planted with evergreens ; the 
 door is in the sunk fence, indicated by the dotted line which encloses the whole of the 
 dressed ground and the kitchen-garden, and /, the melon-ground ; g, compartment for 
 
8^4i COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 1445 
 
VILLAS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 
 
 825 
 
 asparagus, sea-kale, rhubarb, and other articles, with two mushroom sheds marked 1, 2; 
 h, slips, enclosed by thorn or holly hedges ; the outside boi-ders planted with small fruit 
 trees and fruit shrubs ; i, range of hot-houses ; viz. , two peach-houses, a vinery, and two 
 pineries ; k, sheds behind the hot-houses ; mould-yard ; ?«, orchard ; n, aquarium and 
 rockwork ; o, gate of the cart-road to the coach-yard, mould-yard, and sheds ; p, basin 
 of water in the centre of the garden ; q q, lines of approach to the entrance-court. The 
 advantages of this disposition of the house, offices, and pleasure-ground of a villa, 
 Mr. Main observes, " are, the compactness and unity of design which it presents. Every 
 thing, whether useful or ornamental, necessary to render such a residence complete, is 
 here included within the sunk fence. From the endless walk within this fence is seen, 
 over a foreground of lawn and trees and shrubs, the scenery of the park, and the 
 features of the surrounding country, whatever they may be. Any necessary sub- 
 divisions of the park, for agricultural purposes, may be made, without in the slightest 
 degree interfering with the ground consecrated to the house. Various statues, sculptures, 
 vases, and other architectural ornaments, may be distributed among the flower-beds near 
 the house, and along the endless walk. A gardener's house may be placed in the 
 orchard, or behind the vinery at k, exactly in the centre of the range of glass ; and the 
 living and sleeping rooms should be so high as to overlook the whole of the garden and 
 the orchard. 
 
 1744. Accommodation. The ground plan is shown in fig. 1447. The main entrance 
 is through the archway, a, into the court, h ; from which there are a portico, c, and 
 passage leading to the central hall, d ; round this hall are arranged the following apart- 
 ments ; viz., dining-room, e; drawing-room, y"; small drawing-room, g ; library, A; 
 breakfast-room, i ; housekeeper's room, j ; passage, leading from the kitchen and back 
 stairs, k ; butler's pantry, I ; passage, with linen closets and presses along the walls, 
 leading to the housekeeper's room, m; entrance to the cellars, and laundry-stairs, &c., n; 
 laundry, with coal-cellar under, o, ; wash-house, p, with a cellar under it, and back stairs 
 to the drying-ground, which is on a level with the floor of the coal-cellar ; coal-house, q ; 
 knife-hole, r ; wood-house, s ; ash-hole, t ; man's water-closet, u ; groom's harness-room, 
 with a bed-room over it, v ; riding-horse stables, with a loft, w ; archway between the 
 stables, x ; coach-horse stables, with loft over them, y ; coach-harness room, and bed- 
 room over, z; coach-houses, §• ; bakehouse, a ; scalding-house, with pump, b'; dairy, c'; 
 covered passage, with stairs to the rooms over the scullery and dairy, d'; scullery, e' ; 
 larder, kitchen, g'; passage from the kitchen to the main body of the house, A'; 
 servants' hall, i' ; open alcove, k'. There is a drying-yard at I, a kitchen-yard at m', 
 and a dung-pit in the direction of n. The chamber floor, fig. 1446, contains a gallery 
 into which all the bed-room doors 1446 
 
 open, a ; four bed-rooms, 6 ; with four 
 dressing-rooms, c ; a bath-room, or 
 bed-room for an upper servant, d ; and 
 back stairs, e. There is a ladies' water- 
 closet, f, with a lobby, and screen-door 
 from the gallery. 
 
 1745. Remarks, There is a great 
 deal of comfort in this Design, and 
 much economy of both room and 
 labour is produced by entering through 
 the general court, in which the carriages 
 of strangers may stand, so as to be 
 easily called at all times. The whole 
 of the doors to the servants' oflSces 
 around this court are so contrived as 
 to be directly under the eye of the 
 housekeeper. The distance of the 
 kitchen from the dining-room will be 
 objected to by some, as incurring the 
 risk of cooling the dinner ; while it 
 will be approved of by others, as insur- 
 ing the absence of all kitchen smells in the main body of the house. Many will consider 
 the central hall much too large, and object to all the doors of the bed-rooms opening 
 into one ga lery ; others, on the contrary, will approve of this arrangement, on account 
 ot Its simplicity. In laying out the grounds about the house, a terrace, and those 
 other architectural appendages for which we have been contending, Chapter I., § 1648 
 to ^ 1674, wall, of course, not be forgotten, either in this Design, or in the preceding 
 one ; though, m both cases, the ground plans are too small to show, them properly. 
 
 5 c 
 
826 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 Design III. — A Suburban Villa of Two Acres and a half, the House ajid Grounds built 
 and laid out by an Architect for his own Residence. 
 
 1746. The Situation of this villa is within a mile and a half of London, on a surface 
 which originally sloped gently to the north ; but which had been rendered as irregular 
 as could be desired, by pits excavated for gravel and brick earth. By deepening and 
 extending the largest pit, a basin for a considerable piece of water has been obtained ; and, 
 by taking advantage of three heaps of earth, one knoll has been formed, on which to 
 place the house; another, of irregular shape, to crown with wood; and a third, smaller, and 
 very steep on one side, to face with rock as a promontory projecting into the water, and 
 concealing its boundary from every point, and as a nidus for rock plants, ferns, &c. 
 
 1747. The Grounds. Fig. 1448 is a general plan, showing the position of the house, 
 
828 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 and the manner in which the grounds are laid out. In this plan, a is the main entrance ; b, 
 the entrance portico of the house ; c, the kitchen and stable court ; d, the stable and coach- 
 house ; e, a door in the wall bounding the entrance court, by which the grounds may be 
 entered without passing through the house ; /, a circular group to be filled with 
 geraniums, or other showy green-house plants, during summer ; g, a billiard-room, with 
 a concealed entrance in the back of an alcove seat, the room lighted from the roof ; h, 
 a rosary in the shape of a horseshoe, a dial being placed in the centre, the pedestal of 
 which is formed of one of the balusters of Old London Bridge ; i, a basin witli a bronze 
 fountain in the centre, in the form of a dolphin, which spouts up water to a considerable 
 height ; the margin of the basin is of marble, surmounted by pedestals and vases, and 
 the space of lawn between it and the walk is varied by choice evergreen herbaceous 
 plants, such as pinks, carnations, swectwilliams, double wallflowers, &c. ; k, rubbish 
 ground, with gardener's working-sheds for pots, tools, &c., as well as for protecting during 
 winter the vases and statues which are set out in summer ; I, a grotto, having the ap- 
 pearance of a rock externally, and partially covered with ivy and creepers ; in the interior 
 is a circular marble table, on which, during summer, are kept a machine for procuring 
 Instantaneous light, and a box of cigars in a double wooden case, disguised as a book, to 
 preserve them from the damp ; m is an American garden comprising a choice collection of 
 shrubs and plants, and ornamented with several select statues and vases, the pedestals of 
 which alone remain during winter ; n is a collection of herbaceous plants ; o, summit of the 
 wooded knoll, covered with an open grove of pine trees ; p, shady grass walk for the 
 hottest days of summer ; 7, a wire fence on the top of a concealed wall, which admits 
 an interesting view of the country beyond ; r, wall and fruit border facing the south ; s, 
 the gardener' s cottage, the plan of which will be hereafter given ; t, a plot devoted to 
 aromatic herbs ; u, the melon-ground, sunk three feet beneath the general surface of the 
 garden, and surrounded by a hedge of l)ox ; v, kitchen-garden ; w, a high knoll with a 
 steep side covered with rockwork and creepers on the west, and crowned with a terminal 
 statue of colossal dimensions from the antique, supported on a pedestal of granite ; x, 
 fruit wall and border with western aspect ; y, octagon bower having in the centre a 
 magnificent bacchanal vase from the antique ; 2, descent of three steps from the dining- 
 room ; the fall from this part of the walk to the surface of the water is nearly twenty 
 feet ; and &,', a descent of three steps from the drawingroom to the garden. 
 
 1748. The Planting of the Grounds. The objects in laying out the grounds of this 
 villa were, to obtain a suflScient extent of walks for all necessary exercise and recreation, 
 within the boundary wall ; to produce as much variety as possible, independently of 
 architectural beauty and distant scenery ; to include a small kitchen-garden ; to 
 mature the best hardy fruits ; and to display a collection of the most select ornamental 
 trees, shrubs, and flowers. For this purpose, the more choice peaches and nectarines 
 are placed on the wall r, in fig. 1448, having a south aspect; the grapes to be covered 
 with glass, on the same wall, next the gardener's liouse ; and figs, apricots, and the more 
 choice cherries, plums, and pears, on the wall x, having a western exposure. Apples, are 
 distributed through the grounds, and also such pears, plums, and cherries as will bear in 
 the climate of London (and most kinds do so), on standards. One or two specimens of 
 walnuts, sweet chestnuts, mulberries, quinces, medlars, azaroles, true service, cornels, 
 and similar fruit trees, are also distributed through' the grounds. There is a collection 
 of rock plants on the rocky precipice which forms the steep side of the peninsula, w ; of 
 herbaceous plants in the circle n ; of American trees, shrubs, and herbaceous plants in 
 the circle m ; of bulbs among the rose trees at h, and in the circle f, among the pelar- 
 goniums ; both of which are taken up when they have done flowering, and the bed filled 
 with box trees, and similar shady evergreens in pots. In the other planted parts of the 
 grounds are select trees, shrubs, and flowers grouped so as to have all the species of each 
 genus at no great distance from one another, and so as not to repeat any genus twice, 
 except those including fruit trees, American evergreens, and bulbous-rooted plants. 
 These are distributed generally, in order to harmonise the whole. In the melon-ground, 
 the frames are supported on brickwork, in an improvement of M'Phail's manner, with 
 narrow paths of brick between each range of frames, and with the dung linings covered 
 with boards, so that the whole is as clean, orderly, and neat, as a flower-garden, at all 
 seasons of the year. . . 
 
 1749. The House. The general appearance of the entrance front is shown in tig. 
 1449 • and the view of one end from the garden is shown in fig. 1452. Fig. 1450 is the 
 basement plan, in which a is tlie kitchen-yard ; b, a place for bottles, empty casks, jars, 
 &c • c, a dust-hole ; d, coals ; e, scullery, with sink and boiler ; /, kitchen, with Metheley s 
 improved roaster, and hot closet over ; and with a stewing-hearth and dresser ; ^ is a 
 store-cellar; A, a beer-cellar ; i, cellar for ale, cider, perry, &c. ; A, wine-ceUar (m this 
 cellar are two large bins, capable of holding a pipe of port, and another of sherry, 
 besides fifty other bins, subdivided by slate, in which, when we saw it in 1828, were 
 
VILLAS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 
 
 829 
 
 fifty different sorts of wine, besides spirits and liquors in bins, with temporary sub- 
 divisions) J /, butler's pantry, fourteen feet by ten feet ; m, larder, beside which there a» e 
 
 a closet for common liquors, and other articles, and n, butler's sleeping-room. Fig. 1451 
 is the plan of the principal floor ; in which o is the porch ; p, the entrance hall and 
 
 staircase, eighteen feet by nine feet ; g, the library, twenty-five feet by twenty feet, 
 having folding-doors, so as to separate it at pleasure into two rooms ; and r, the dining- 
 room, twenty feet by eighteen feet, with a principal entrance and servants' entrance, and 
 the sideboard placed in a recess between them. Behind the sideboard is a magnificent 
 mirror (filling the whole of a semicircular recess, the diameter of which is of the length 
 of the sideboard), which reflects the garden, including the lake, the knoll to the left, and 
 the promontory, crowned by the colossal terminal statue. In the centre of the dining- 
 room is a fixed circular table, on a principle which will be shown under Villa Furniture, 
 capable, in its ordinary form, of dining eight persons ; and, by addition of marginal rims, 
 each of which is a segment of a circle, twenty inches broad, of dining twenty persons. 
 In the floor, at the upper and lower ends of the table, are springs attached to the under 
 
1452 
 
VILLAS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 
 
 831 
 
 side of movable boards, covered, like the rest of the floor, by the carpet, but distinguished 
 by their adjoining the claws of the column which supports the table. By pressing on 
 these parts slightly with the foot, the master or mistress can ring a servant's bell, at 
 pleasure, without rising from the table. The drawing-room is shown at s, twenty- 
 five feet by twenty feet, exquisitely finished, with a fireplace by Metheley, having 
 polished steel sides placed at an angle of 45°, which reflect the fire, and produce a 
 singularly brilliant effect, as well as throw out great heat ; the ceiling is beautifully 
 painted in imitation of sky and clouds, and the cornices are richly carved and gilt. 
 Fig. 1453 is the plan of the chamber floor, in which ttt are three principal bed-rooms^ 
 
 and u a dressing-room with a bath. At any moment throughout the year a hot or 
 cold bath may be obtained, without troubling the servants, by the following means : there 
 is a cold-water cistern under the roof, and a hot-water cistern at the back of the kitchen 
 fireplace : in this last cistern there is a coil of lead pipes, one end of the pipe commu- 
 nicating with the cold-water cistern above, and the other with the bath. By turning a 
 cock in the bath-room, the water descends fiom the cistern under the roof, is heated 
 in passing through the coil of pipes behind the kitchen fire, and ascends by the pressure 
 of the atmosphere on the cistern to the bath. Another cock and pipe, leading directly 
 from the cistern, admit cold water to the bath, so as to temper it at pleasure ; and a 
 third pipe serves to convey away the water when done with. The cover of the bath is 
 fitted with a basin, so as to serve as a dressing-table. We have seen this bath filled in 
 the course of a few minutes, and can attest its answering most completely. There are 
 two small bed-rooms, vv; a water-closet, w ; a linen-closet, x ; and a dressing-room or 
 nursery, y, to one of the bed-rooms. 
 
 1750. Construction. The walls are of brick, eighteen inches thick, and laid in Ro- 
 man cement to the height of the principal floor; above which they are hollow, and 
 about fourteen inches in thickness ; exteriorly, they are covered with Roman cement, 
 drawn (that is, with the courses and sizes of the stones marked by lines), and tinted in 
 imitation of Bath stone. The roof is covered with blue slates, and the chimney-tops 
 are terminated by square chinmey-pots, also tinted in imitation of stone. The basement 
 floor has the pavement laid hollow, and the outside walls are protected by half arches, so 
 that this floor is as dry as any part of the house. Cast-iron bricks are built in the out- 
 side walls, so as to admit a circulation of air between the floors and ceilings. The 
 billiard-room, fig, 1448, g, is finished within, in imitation of stone, with a coved ceiling, 
 double skylight, and boarded floor ; it is heated by one of Sylvester's low air-stoves, to 
 be hereafter figured and described. The billiard-table is of cast iron. 
 
 1751. The Gardener's House is a model of contrivance and eflSciency in its way. Fig. 
 1454 is the ground plan ; in which a is the living-room, an octagon fifteen feet in 
 diameter, with a fireplace, b, and a large closet or pantry, c. There is a trapdoor in 
 the floor at d, to a store-cellar below ; and in the centre of the ceiling there is another 
 trapdoor, to a seed-loft and herb-room in the roof. The stepladder, by which the loft 
 is entered, stands under the trapdoor to the cellar, serving as a stair to it, so that it is 
 always at hand to be used for going into the loft. It will be observed that this room 
 commands the diagonal of the space within the garden, and an entire square of space 
 without it, as indicated by the letters k k. The bed-room, e, commands by its two 
 windows the south and north sides of the wall, which lies east and west (or what, from 
 its aspect, is commonly called by gardeners the south wall, as indicated by the letters 1 1. 
 There are a scullery, /, with a sink, g ; a coal-house, h ; and water-closet, i. From 
 the two windows of g and i, the east and west sides of the eastern bovmdary of a square 
 garden are commanded by the gardener, as indicated by the letters m m. The gardener, 
 or his wife, seated in the centre of the living-room, with the bed- room and scullery 
 
83^2 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 k 
 
 doors open, will command, from that position, the whole of the interior of the garden. 
 If it were desired to add to the accommodation of this dwelling, it might easily be done 
 by a staircase taken from the living-room, descending to a floor below, containing the 
 apartments /, g, h, i, and a kitchen ; and ascending to a floor above, of either one octagon 
 room in the centre, or three rooms. Fig. 1455 is a perspective view of this house, as 
 
 seen placed in the north-east corner of a walled garden. To the right and left are seen, 
 portions of the south and west walls, and in the centre is the entrance door. 
 
 1 752. Remarks. Considering the size of this villa, its completeness, and the extent 
 of its accommodation, conveniences, and luxuries, exceed any thing of the kind we have 
 ever before met with. If we had only seen the plan, or heard of such a villa, we should 
 have spoken of it with some hesitation ; but having been familiar with the ground before 
 it was built, and when it had the appearance of heaps of rubbish, and holes filled with 
 water; and watched the whole of its progress, from 1825, when our friend commenced 
 his operations, to the present time, we can speak with confidence relatively to the effect 
 of the whole, and the complete success of all the details j we could even say a great deal 
 
834 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITLCTURF. 
 
 more, did we not fear being considered partial. We shall, however, sum up our opinion 
 in one sentence, which is, that, taking the place altogether, we do not believe there is such 
 another in the neighbourhood of London. Such a villa, indeed, is only to be expected 
 from an Architect of taste, and of ample means, working for himself. Had the situation 
 been more favourable, the effect might have been more brilliant ; but the contrast be- 
 tween its present and its former state, and, by consequence, the gratification to the owner 
 and improver, would have been less. Notwithstanding these encomiums, we are aware 
 of some objections which may be made to the laying out of the grounds, as shown in the 
 plan, fig. 1448, and also to the exterior Architecture of the house, fig. 1449. It may be 
 objected to the plan, that the lines are too formal and unbroken ; but it must be recol- 
 lected, that scarcely any of these lines, except those of the walks, can be recognised as 
 lines in the reality. The plan, fig. 1448, is, in short, a working-plan, calculated to 
 show the gardener what ground is to be dug and planted, and wliat is to be laid down 
 in grass ; together with the direction of the gravel walks. The single trees and small 
 groups, whicli are indicated in the plan by crosses ( x x ), will break all the lines both of 
 the dug groups and the water, and produce an ^flfect altogether diflferent from that 
 shown in fig. 1448. Even the spreading of the shrubs over the margins of the dug 
 groups will totally destroy that appearance of lines which forms the prominent feature 
 of the plan, as it appears on paper. However, independently altogether of the breaking 
 of these lines by vegetation, there is a certain degree of beauty which belongs to lines 
 and forms simply considered, and without any reference to the substance of which the 
 forms are composed. Now, the question is, how far our Architect lias succeeded in this 
 kind of beauty. In most parts of the plan we think his success perfect ; but in others 
 we should, perluqjs, have made some variation ; and the principle by which we should 
 have been guided in so doing would have been that of adapting the forms to their local 
 situations alongside of the walks. The extent, however, to which we should have done 
 this is not great. The effect which we should desire from such a plan as that before us, 
 we have endeavoured to show in fig. 1456; and this is, as nearly as possible, the actual 
 eflfect on the grounds. The great beauty which, in fig. 1456, is added to fig. 1448, is 
 that of intricacy ; which is a main source of visual enjoyment, by nourishing curiosity, 
 keeping alive attention, and stimulating the process of examination. The mind takes 
 delight in penetrating into recesses, and making discoveries of new beauties at every step; 
 in tracing, in the forms of nature and chance, something of those of art ; in bringing 
 shape and figure out of apparent irregularity and confusion ; and in finding every where, 
 the principle of connection and cooperation towards the formation of a beautiful and 
 expressive whole. The kitchen-garden is not to be considered as having any beauty as 
 such, further than as it produces good crops of vegetables. It is placed and arranged so 
 as not to interfere with the idea of extent, which is always an idea to be cherished in a 
 limited space ; and which, in England, is sought after by most people, as creating allu- 
 sions to the extensive parks and pleasure-grounds of the aristocracy. The full and cha- 
 racteristic beauties of a kitchen-garden are only to be obtained when it is surrounded by 
 walls, and laid out in right lines ; but such a garden would have totally destroyed the 
 efllect aimed at in the place before us. With respect to the interior arrangements of 
 the house, and all its fittings-up, fixtures, and furniture, we are altogether incapable of 
 doing them justice. No room is lost in passages, not an inch of s]iace is wasted on any 
 floor, and every comfort and accommodation is included that can be desired in a villa of 
 this size and description. 
 
 Design IV. — A Villa in the Anglo- Italian Style, with Tliree principal Rooms, and with a 
 Stable and Coach-house. 
 
 1753. The Situation intended for this villa is in the neighbourhood of Guildford in 
 Surrey, on the south-east of the turnpike road between Kingston and London. The 
 ground rises gradually from the footpath of the road, at the rate of about one foot in ten, 
 and the house was intended to be placed back from it about fifty feet, with the yards and 
 gardens arranged as shown in fig. 1457. The general appearance of the side next the 
 road is shown in the perspective view, fig. 1458, which is taken at the distance of 300 
 feet from the angle of the building. In the general plan, fig. 1457, to a scale of fifty 
 feet to an inch, a a are the two main entrances from the public road, o ; 6 is the prin- 
 cipal door of the house ; c, terraces ; d, road to the yard ; e, yard ; /, green-house ; g, 
 kitchen-garden ; h, beds and borders of flowers ; i, beds and borders of trees and shrubs; 
 k, lawn ; /, an iron fence separating the garden from the meadow ; and m, communication 
 between the stable-yard, e, and the meadow, n. The contents of the garden, lawn, 
 yard, house, &c., are three roods twenty-six poles, and of the meadow, three roods three 
 poles. 
 
 1754. Accommodation. The basement plan, fig. 1460, shows a kitchen, twenty-four feet 
 by fifteen feet and a half, a ; scullery, h ; coal cellar, c ; footman's bed-room, d j footman's 
 
836 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLAGE ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 pantry, e ; beer-cellar, / ; wine- 
 cellar, g ; larder, h ; closet, i ; 
 stair communicating with the 
 brewhouse, k, and house stair, 
 I. The ground plan, fig. 1459, 
 shows an entrance lobby, m ; 
 hall, n ; store-room, o ; draw- 
 ing-room, p ; twenty-four feet 
 by fifteen feet nine inches, and 
 twelve feet high ; dining-room, 
 q, twenty-four feet by fifteen 
 feet nine inches, of the same 
 height; morning room, r, fif- 
 teen feet nine inches by four- 
 teen feet nine inches ; areas 
 to the windows of the basement 
 story, s ; terrace with veranda 
 over, t ; brewhouse, u ; coach- 
 house, V ; place for cleaning 
 knives and shoes, &c., i^; ; tool- 
 house and servants' privy, x ; 
 three-stalled stable, with loft 
 over, bin- room, z ; and har- 
 ness-room, The chamber 
 floor, fig. 14G'l, contains a cham- 
 ber, a, twenty feet by fifteen feet 
 nine^inches, and nine feet high, 
 with one window to the south- 
 east, and another opening to a 
 balcony or loggia fronting the 
 south-west ; a chamber, h, of 
 similar dimensions, opening to 
 a loggia facing the south-east ; 
 a chamber, c, witli a dressing- 
 room and bath, d, adjoining ; 
 another bedchamber, e, and a 
 water-closet,/. Over the brew- 
 house and coach-house are two 
 other rooins, g and h. The 
 plan of the attics, fig. 14G2, 
 shows a large servants' room, 
 », another, k ; two closets, / and 
 in, and another servants' room, 
 n. Fig. 1 463 is the plan of the 
 hayloft, entered by a trapdoor. 
 
 1755. Construction and Ar- 
 rangement. Fig. 1464 is the 
 entrance front elevation; and 
 fig. 1465 is the back elevation 
 of the garden front. Fig. 1466 
 is an elevation of the north- 
 east side, and fig. 1467 is an 
 elevation of the south-west side. 
 Fig. 1468 is a section at the 
 eaves, in which are shown a 
 cut bracket four inches thick, 
 o; false rafter, one foot five 
 inches by four inches, p ; rafter, four inches by two inches and a half, q ; concealed eaves 
 gutter, r ; slate-boarding, s, and deal soffit, t. 
 
 1756. Remarks. This villa was designed for a person who died just before the period 
 fixed for carrying it into execution. The drawings were kindly sent us by John Pen y Esq. ; 
 accompanied by the following remarks, by his assistant, Mr. Varden : — " The terrace was 
 not to go all round the building, as it would have interfered with the offices. The vases were 
 to be of Austin's artificial stone, or of Peake's earthenware. The walls were to be built 
 of brickwork, and faced with the best grey stocks, carefully picked of a uniform colour ; 
 the stringing courses, cornices, &c. , were to be of Bath stone, and the sills of Portland. 
 
VILLAS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 
 
 837 
 
 1460 
 
 iJ 
 
 i 
 
 1 L 
 
 1 — r 
 
 The latticework was to be of inch deal, two inches wide, three inches apart, halved together. 
 The chimney-shaft, which is of Bath stone, and the flower galleries at the lower windows 
 of woodwork, are both similar to those in my Design, § 231. The two rooms over the 
 
 coach and brew houses were for the occupation of an elderly couple, the coachman and 
 his wife, who were to live on board-wages. The disposition of the rooms on the prin- 
 
 1462 
 
 1463 
 
838 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
840 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 cipal floor was regulated by the aspect, &c., of the locality. The lobby was placed in 
 an angle, the better to shelter the entrance door of the hall from the northerly winds, 
 
 1 i6 
 
 which are very cutting in that neigbbourhood. The window of the morning room 
 commands a view of the road; the dining-room window is to the south-east, and 'C 
 drawingroom has one in the same direction, and another to the south-west that reacnes 
 to the ground, and opens on to the terrace ; but it is sheltered by a veranda from tiie 
 afternoon and evening sun, which would otherwise be very annoying. A store-room 
 consider indispensable in every country residence. The morning room, Z^^" 
 cupied, could be used to usher visiters into while being announced. The chamocrs 
 have nothing uncommon about them, unless it is those over the dinmg and drawmg 
 rooms, which have windows down to the floor opening under the porticoes. If either oi 
 these, but especially the former, should be for the use of an invalid for whom it migxii 
 be considered desirable to retain an equable temperature throughout the night, 
 
VILLAS IN VARIOUS STYLES, 
 
 841 
 
 might be in a great measure accomplished by having close shutters, partly glazed, that 
 could be placed across the 
 openings of the portico, so 
 as to exclude the airj thus 
 the chamber would be insu- 
 lated, and would not be af- 
 fected by any sudden alterations 
 of the weather. There is but 
 one staircase in the house; but 
 this was in consequence of the 
 proposed occupant not desir- 
 ing a separate one for the 
 servants, except from the 
 basement ; and that is carried 
 up from the open or beer 
 cellar into the brewhouse, and 
 so into the yard. The brew- 
 house was to serve as a wash- 
 house, &c. The large room 
 on the attic floor, if used as 
 a nursery or play-room for 
 children, would require more 
 air and light, and this might 
 be obtained by opening win- 
 dows towards the north-west 
 that would not interfere with 
 the present elevations. Over 
 the dressing-room there 
 
 might be a large cistern to ' 
 receive a part of the water 
 
 from the roof, which would supply the water-closet, and might, if desirable, be conveyed 
 by pipes into the principal chambers. The closet in the larder was intended for table- 
 cloths, &c , in use. The tool-house could be used for storing potatoes, as well as for 
 depositing garden implements." The general effect of this Design is remarkably good, 
 and the arrangement and details are most carefully considered. The plan for laying out 
 the grounds shows Mr. Varden to have a very good taste in that department. 
 
 Design V. — A Parsonage House for a particular Situation in Somersetshire. 
 1767. Accommodation. The general appearance is shown in fig. 1469, which is a 
 perspective view of the garden front. In the ground plan, fig. 1470, a is the drawing- 
 
 1469 
 
 il, 
 
 room, twenty-eight feet by fifteen feet, with bay window, a, seven feet and a half wide, 
 and two side "outlets to the terrace; b, dining-room, twenty feet by sixteen feet, with 
 company and service entrances^ c, library, twenty-two feet by seventeen feet, with bath 
 sunk in the floor and private water-closet ; d, hall with oak staircase, closet for sticks, 
 
 5 K 
 
842 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 Ft. 10 0 10 20 30 40 50 mFt. 
 
 in n 1 ■ ■ ■ ■ I 1 1 ! ! ' 
 
 &c., and inner lobby ; e, housekeeper's room, with sink supplied by hot and cold water 
 pipes from the kitchen, presses, &c. ; /, butler's pantry, with sink, &c., presses, &c. ; g, 
 servants' passage ; h, entrance porch ; i, water-closet and lobby ; k, servants' cleaning-room, 
 and I, passage thereto from servants' hall ; to, servants' hall, thirteen feet by twelve feet, 
 with oak dining-table and presses ; n, dairy fitted up with slate shelves, and zinc fly- 
 wire in the windows, &c. ; o, pantry and larder, fitted up with slate shelves, and with 
 zhic fiy-wire in the windows, &c. ; p, scullery, with oven, copper, hot-closet, sink, &c., 
 dresser, &c. ; q, kitchen, with steam range and close boiler at the back of it, for the 
 supply of the bath, and the several sinks on the ground floor, and the housemaid's sink 
 on one-pair floor; r, covered way from the kitchen-gate to the kitchen-porch, s; it, coiu-t- 
 yardj t', flap and entrance to cellarage under the whole of the house, for ale, beer, 
 wine, coals, coke, wood, lumber, &c. &c. ; «, stable-yard; r, turfed terrace; w, lawn ; x. 
 
VILLAS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 
 
 843 
 
 J 
 
 =11 
 
 V 
 
 
 
 r 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 — ^ 
 
 0 
 
 In I 1 I 
 
 lawn and shrubberies ; y, entrance, foot, and carriage gates ; z, shrubbery between house 
 and church-yard; and public road, with footways on each side. Fig. 1471 is the one 
 pair of stairs plan ; in which a is the best bed-room, with entrance lobby ; h, a boudoir, 
 with bay window; c, d, e, f, andg, family bed-rooms; h, staircase; i, lobby ; k, water-closet; 
 I, linen and store closet ; m, servants' staircase ; n, passage through the house, with venti- 
 lation and light at each end ; o, housekeeper and lady's maid's bed-room ; p and q, ser- 
 vants' bed-rooms ; r, servants' passage, with housemaid's sink and closet, s ; t, upper part 
 of the kitchen. There are lofts above the main body of the house ; and space for addi- 
 tional bed-rooms. 
 
 1758. Remarks. This Design has been sent us by Charles Barry, Esq., the dis- 
 tinguished Architect of the Traveller's Club-house, and of the Manchester Institution, 
 &c., to whom we have before acknowledged our obligation for revising the plans and views 
 of our correspondent Selim's Beau Ideal villa. " This Design," Mr. Barry observes, " was 
 made for a parsonage, to be erected in a most delightful situation in Somersetshire, com- 
 manding an extensive view of the Mendip and Wrington Hills, the Bristol Channel, &c. ; 
 and having the parish church, which is a very picturesque Gothic building, adjoining it, 
 and in view from the windows of the principal rooms. These circumstances suggested 
 the character of the Design, and the form of the window in the lawn front, which admits 
 of a convenient view of the surrounding scenery from the drawing-room and boudoirSi. 
 The building is proposed to be erected of the stone of the country, a close grit, and of a 
 cream colour ; the coins, window-dressings, parapets, bonding, and lacing courses (vertical 
 and horizontal bond), being rubbed, and the intermediate spaces faced with rough wall- 
 stone (rubblework) in regular courses, and hammer-dressed. The cost of the building 
 will be about ^1800." Our readers, we are sure, will admire with us the great beauty 
 and marked character of this Design externally ; no less than the fitness, completeness, 
 and luxury of its internal distribution. Mr. Barry states that the local circumstances 
 
844 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 gave rise to the style, and to the form and situation of the principal rooms and windows. 
 This is what ought always to be the case in designing buildings for the country ; and, if 
 it were so, every Design would be an original composition belonging to its particular 
 locality. We admire in this Design the manner in which the principal pieces of furniture 
 in each room are disposed, and could wish that in all plans this mode were adopted. As 
 Villa Architecture improves, it will go hand in hand with furnishing and landscape- 
 gardening; and the Villa Architect will eventually find himself under the necessity of 
 studying and directing both these accessary departments. 
 
 Design VI. — A Cottage Villa in the Gothic Style. 
 1759. The Situation is supposed to be on a gently elevated surface, on the Surrey side 
 of the metropolis ; the garden and pleasure-ground not occupying more than half an 
 acre, and laid out so as to include a kitchen-garden, orchard, and drying-ground, aviary, 
 green-house, and pits in frames ; the two latter being supposed to be heated from a fire 
 and hot-water apparatus in a hot-house and potting-shed behind the green-house. The 
 general appearance of the house, on entering from the road, will be as in fig. 1472. 
 
 1760. Accommodation. The principal floor, fig. 1473, shows an entrance hall, a, with 
 billiard-table, h ; dining-room, c kitchen, d ; staircase down to the cellar floor, and up to the 
 bed- rooms, e ; library,/ ; and draw- 
 ingroom, g. The dining-room and 
 drawingroom are each twenty feet 
 square, and twelve feet high to the 
 top of the cornice ; the dining-room 
 is two feet higher in the centre 
 than at the sides, having a groined 
 ceiling; or showing the entire struc- 
 ture of the roof. The chamber plan, 
 fig. 1474, contains a sitting or dress- 
 ing room, i, communicating with 
 the best bed-room, h ; two bed- 
 rooms, k ; and a nursery, /. 
 
 1761. Construction. The walls 
 are supposed to be of brick, either 
 covered with cement, and coloured 
 to imitate weather-stained stone ; or of brick stained in imitation of the effects of time. 
 All the exterior timberwork is sup- 
 
 posed to be either oak, or well-seasoned 
 deal painted in imitation of that wood ; 
 and the covering of the roof should be 
 tiles. Fig. 1475 is an elevation of 
 the entrance font. Fig. 1476 shows 
 the barge-board and pendant of the 
 entrance front. Fig. 1477 shows 
 the corresponding barge-board of the 
 garden front. Fig 1478 is a fac- 
 simile of the gable of a house at Ypres, 
 in Normandy, taken by the Architect, 
 and intended occupier of this house, 
 which it is proposed to imitate on one 
 of the end gables. 
 
 1474 
 
 J 
 
 m 
 
 [in 
 
VILLAS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 845 
 
 1762. General Estimate. Cubic contents, 91,896 feet; which, at 6d. per foot, amounts 
 to ^'2297 : 8s. If the external Gothic ornaments were added, the expense would be 
 increased by at least ^100. 
 
 1763. Remarks. This Design was furnished us 
 by William Frome Small wood, Esq., a young Ar- 
 chitect of great taste ; who has devoted his attention 
 chiefly to the Gothic style, and who has lately spent 
 a considerable time in Normandy and the Nether- 
 lands, delineating the antiquities of those countries. 
 Mr. Smallwood intended to erect this cottage for 
 himself J and the villa-like arrangement of the 
 interior, and the highly enriched Gothic of the 
 elevation, evince the great elegance of his taste. 
 The first villa-like feature, speaking with refer- 
 ence to the ordinary construction of buildings of 
 this size about London, is the largeness of the hall. 
 Every body knows, that, in houses with even double 
 the accommodation here shown, the entrance is com- 
 monly into a narrow passage or lobby, generally 
 serving also as a place for the staircase. The effect 
 of this upon a stranger is to show want of ease and 
 ample means on the part of the occupant ; and con- 
 sequently to indicate that he cannot belong to that 
 class of society, whose means are comparatively 
 unlimited, and whose taste, being um-estrained by 
 considerations of expense, is supposed to be good. 
 Perhaps it may be said, in defence of these narrow- 
 entranced small houses, that they are suited to the 
 fortunes of their occupants ; and are therefore more 
 true to nature, than any attempts at a style which 
 properly belongs to men of greater wealth. We 
 allow the force of this argument ; but, at the same 
 time, we feel that the source of all improvement has 
 its origin in the desire of individuals to better their 
 condition ; and we consider that individual to be 
 higher in the scale of worth, who endeavours to 
 raise his taste, and give evidence of it to his friends 
 and the world, than he who merely endeavours to increase his wealth. We therefore 
 cannot but approve of displaying this taste, in a preeminent manner, on houses, gardens, 
 furniture, and evei-y thing connected with home. But, if this may be said of builders 
 of houses in general, how much more might be said of an Architect, who builds his own 
 house, and who is unquestionably bound to set an example to the public ! The second 
 feature which we shall notice in this Design is the ceiling of the dining-room being open 
 to the roof, which affords a fine opportunity for an Architect to display his knowledge 
 of the principles of dynamics, as well as of the characteristic features of the different 
 varieties of Gothic Architecture. The barge boards for the entrance and garden fronts, 
 and the small dormer window, are of highly appropriate beauty ; that for the end is not 
 less curious, and, if executed, would at once be a standing memorandum of the Architect's 
 taste, and of his travels. 
 
84f) COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 Design VII. — A Villa in the Old English Manner, adapted to a gently elevated Sititation, 
 with good Views on three Sides. 
 1 764. The Situation of this villa is supposed to be at a moderate distance from a town, 
 on a surface rather elevated than otherwise j and commanding views of the surrounding 
 country in at least three different quarters, as from a by 6 to c, in fig. 1480. The 
 
 1479 
 
approach road, d, should, in this case, as in most others, enter the grounds on the side next 
 the offices ; a distant glimpse of the house, bosomed in wood, may be seen from d ; and a 
 complete view, somewhat similar to that given in fig. 1479, at e ; / is the kitchen-court ; 
 g, the stable-court ; h, the kitchen-garden ; i, a glazed veranda leading to it ; j, hot-houses ; 
 and k, the pleasure-ground, bounded by a wire fence shown by the dotted lines, I. A great 
 addition to a place of this sort would be a zone of water in the direction of m m, to serve 
 as a foreground to the distant scenery ; and, when once it shall be thought worth while 
 to make the most of situations for villa residences, and to study beauty rather than 
 extent, water will be raised from deep wells, or distant streams, by means of steam and 
 machinery, for this and similar purposes. Wherever water is introduced, it must never be 
 forgotten that its effect depends almost entirely on the wood with which it is accom- 
 panied : there is hardly such a thing in nature as water beautiful by itself alone. Besides 
 the walk round the pleasure-ground, there is an open walk through the park ; which, 
 proceeding from the pleasure-ground, crosses the approach at n ; and, after going through 
 the most beautiful parts of the grounds, re-enters the approach at o. 
 
 1765. Accommodation. The ground plan, fig. 1481, contains an entrance porch, a, 
 with a window, which in summer can be taken out ; a hall and staircase, h ; a dining- 
 room, twenty-two feet by sixteen feet, and twelve feet high, c ; a green-house, d ; drawing- 
 room, twenty-five feet by sixteen feet, and twelve feet high, e : in this room the fireplace 
 has a window over it, as appears by the section C D, fig. 1484. There is a library, 
 sixteen feet by fourteen feet, f ; and this completes the principal part of the house. The 
 offices are in a building, the floor of which is eighteen inches lower than that of the hall. 
 
848 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 c 
 
 and the general proportions of which are less lofty than those of the living-rooms and 
 family apartments. There is a screen across the hall, under the stair at g, opening to 
 the door of the kitchen-passage, which commences by a descent of three steps seen at g, in 
 the section, A B fig. 1483. There will thus be double doors between the kitchen and the 
 hall, which will effectually prevent the entrance of smells from the former to the latter 
 There are a small closet at A ; a water-closet at i ; and a stair to the cellars at A : / is a 
 butler's pantry ; m, a kitchen ; n, a becr-cellar ; o, a pantry ; and p, the kitchen-court. 
 The chamber floor, fig. 1482, shows tlie well-hole of the stair, p ; water-closet, q ; the best 
 bed-room, with dressing-room adjoining, r ; three good bed-rooms, s s descending 
 
VILLAS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 
 
 849 
 
 steps to the servants' passage, t ; nursery, v. ; maids' bed-rooms, y, w ; man's bed-room, 
 X ; closet to the nursery, y ; and ladies' water-closet, z. 
 
 1766. Construction. The walls are supposed to be of brick, eighteen inches thick, 
 and the roofs slated. The chimney-tops, and other stone-like finishings, to be formed of 
 cement. Fig. 1483 is a section on the line A B, in which the relative heights of the 
 
 1483 
 
 different floors may be observed. Fig. 1484 is a section on the line C D. Fig. 1485 
 is an end elevation, showing the window over the fireplace, and the front of the green- 
 house ; and fig. 1486 is an 
 
 elevation of the entrance IHT 1484 
 
 front, in the chimney of 
 which there may also be a 
 window, if the prospect 
 from it is worth displaying 
 from the dining-room ; 
 which, in a villa of this 
 description, is generally 
 the living-room. 
 
 1767. Remarks. This 
 villa, which has been exe- 
 cuted, is the contribution 
 of Charles Fowler, Esq. 
 (the distinguished Archi- 
 tect of Covent Garden and 
 Hungerford Markets, and 
 of the magnificent con- 
 servatories at Syon). Mr. 
 Fowler is so well satisfied with the plan of this villa, that he informs us, were he to 
 
 build a country-house for him- 
 
 self, he should adopt it as a ^ 1435 
 
 model. The entrance at once 
 to a large hall has a good effect, 
 and immediately stamps the 
 house as the abode of gentility ; 
 and the architectural green-house 
 strengthens the same idea. The 
 hall, at the same time that it 
 confers so much character, is 
 useful as containing the stair- 
 case. By having the kitchen 
 and all the offices in a separate 
 building, the height of the 
 rooms, and of the doors and 
 windows, is not required to be so 
 great as that of the principal part 
 of the house ; by which a con- 
 
 5 F 
 
850 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 siderable saving in building is effected. The door to the screen at in fig. 1481, and at 
 the head of the stairs, in the same figure, will effectually exclude all sounds and smells. 
 It is proposed to have cellars only under the hall and library ; but these may be 
 extended if thought necessary. The kitchen-court and stable offices for this villa 
 have not been sent by Mr. Fowler ; but they may be formed on the plan of some 
 of those already given, or to be given, in this department of our work. 
 
 Hannar/j Esq., in the 
 
 Design IX. — The Villa of Hannayfield, the Residence of 
 Neighbourhood of Dumfries. 
 
 1 768. The Situation of this house is on the face of a bank, sloping to the west, at the 
 bottom of which is the vale of Nith, and at the top an extensive tract of table land. 
 The approacii ascends from the public road, along one side of the grounds, through a 
 plantation which conceals the house : when it arrives, by a winding course, at the top of 
 the bank, it turns to 
 the right, so as to 
 enter from what may 
 be called the back 
 front. The area be- 
 fore the entrance 
 floor is raised nearly 
 to a level with the 
 principal floor on 
 that side ; while, on 
 the other side, the 
 kitchen floor ap- 
 pears entirely above 
 ground. Fig. H89 
 
 will give a general idea of the situation of the house, a ; relatively to the approach, 
 b ; the public road, c ; the sloping 
 bank from the west front, d ; and 
 the level platform on the entrance 
 front, e. The stable offices are 
 shown at f; g is a path, partly 
 under ground, between them and 
 the house ; h is the walk to the 
 kitchen-garden ; and t, the back 
 way to the stable offices. Fig. 1487 
 shows the general appearance of 
 the building, independently of the 
 surrounding scenery, as seen on 
 coming up to the entrance front. 
 
 1769. Accommodation. The 
 ground floor, fig. 1488, shows a 
 servants' entrance, a, with two large 
 closets on each side ; a laundry, 6; two 
 water-elosets, c ; two linen-closets, d ; 
 housekeeper's bed-room, e ; stairs to 
 
 1488 
 
VILLAS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 
 
 851 
 
 1490 
 
 the principal floor, /; housekeeper's sitting-room, g; bath-room, h; the bath being 
 placed in the scullery, for the convenience of supplying hot water, and the opening 
 to it being into the bath-room; 
 kitchen, i; scullery, with cistern 
 and sink, k ; pantry, I. From the 
 area, m, under the made ground, 
 there are coal, wine, beer, and 
 other cellars, a water-cistern, and a 
 man-servant's water-closet. Fig. 
 1490 is a plan of the principal 
 floor, showing the main entrance, 
 m ; vestibule in the centre, lighted 
 from the roof, n ; bed-room, 'o ; 
 dining-room, p ; library, q ; even- 
 ing-room, r ; bed-room, s. There 
 are two large closets on each side 
 of the entrance, one of which is 
 a water-closet, and the other a 
 place for keeping hats, sticks, and 
 shoes; both being lighted from 
 the vestibule : there is another 
 closet under the stairs. Fig. 1491 
 is a plan of the upper part of the roof, in which are shown five small bed-rooms, t ; and 
 a lumber-room, u. The roof over these rooms is flat, and covered with lead ; and there 
 is a staircase to it with a trap-door. The flat part of this roof is surrounded by a 
 
852 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 slight iron railing ; and benches are placed on it for enjoying the prospect down the 
 vale of Nith, and over Dumfries, 1491 
 towards the mountainous interior 
 of the county ; than which there 
 are few more beautiful views in any 
 part of Scotland. 
 
 1770. Construction. The walls 
 are of pale red sandstone ; the lower 
 part rusticated, and the upper part 
 smoothly polished, and set in putty. 
 The workmanship of the whole is 
 of the very best description. Fig. 
 1492 is an elevation of the upper 
 part of the entrance-front, showing 
 the height of the principal floor, 
 above the level of the platform on 
 which it appears, on entering, to 
 stand. Fig. 1493 is an end view, showing the relative height of the platform, t»; and 
 the sloping lawn on 
 the garden front, w. 
 Fig. 1494 shows the 
 transverse framing 
 of the roof, with the 
 bed-room, <, and the 
 lumber-room, m. 
 Fig. 1495 is a lon- 
 gitudinal section, 
 showing the framing 
 of the roof. 
 
 1771. Remarks. 
 This villa, which 
 
 was designed by Walter Newall, Esq., and executed under his superintendence, is 
 
 1493 
 
 replete with conafort, convenience, 
 over every part of it, with the 
 owner and Mr. Newall, and were 
 much gratified with the substantial 
 manner in which the whole was 
 executed, and with the high style 
 of finish of the different rooms. 
 The effect of the views from the 
 windows of the three principal 
 rooms is a good deal injured, in 
 the eyes of a stranger at least, by 
 the want of trees, or even evergi-een 
 shrubs, such as hollies and laurels, 
 to the right and left of the entrance 
 front. We have shown in the plan 
 how these ought to be disposed ; 
 in the reality, there are no 
 
 and even luxury. In the summer of 1831, we went 
 
 1494 
 
 I 
 
 but. 
 
 trees within twenty or thirty yards 
 of the house, in any direction. The 
 
 1495 
 
 1 
 
VILLAS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 
 
 853 
 
 consequence of this is, that the stranger, on arriving at the point of the approach, 
 b, in fig. 1489, obtains a view of the house, much as it appears in fig. 1487, with 
 the magnificent prospect beyond, which he ought not to have seen till he was ushered 
 into the library, or the drawingroom. If the situation were low, there might be 
 some excuse for not planting trees so near the house ; but it is high and dry ; and 
 therefore there is none but what we consider to be want of good taste. The dignity 
 of the house is much lessened by this deficiency in its accompaniments, which, 
 fortunately, however, can be very easily remedied from the large hollies and laurels 
 now growing in the adjoining plantations. In fig. 1489, we have taken some liberties 
 with the line of approach and the situation of the stables, which, like the disposition 
 of the trees, is done more with a view of showing what we think ought to be, than 
 what is. Mr. Hannay was his own landscape-gardener. 
 
 Design IX. — A small Villa, or Parsonage, in the Italian Style. 
 1772. The Situation is supposed to be on a gentle eminence, in the neighbourhood 
 of a small village ; and the approach to be conducted to the entrance porch, in the 
 manner shown in fig. 1496 ; in which a is the point from which the house appearsf. 
 
 as shown in fig. 1497 ; &, a court, communicating with the stable and the kitchen- 
 garden ; c, the kitchen-garden ; d, lawn and flower-beds ; e, village church ; /, lodge, 
 serving also as a belfry, and being occupied by the sexton ; g, the village inn and tea- 
 garden ; and h, a wire fence, which separates the paddock, i, from the lawn, k. 
 
 1773. Accommodation, The principal floor, fig. 1498, contains a porch, a; hall, 6; 
 staircase and passage, c; study, d; drawingroom, e, twenty-four feet by fifteen feet • 
 breakfast-room, /, fourteen feet by eleven feet and a half; porch, g ; dining-room, h, 
 twenty-four feet by fifteen feet; green-house, t; kitchen, A; scullery, pantry, m- 
 
854 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE, 
 
 1497 
 
 dairy, n; stable, o ; chaise-house, p; open terrace, a; and terrace with a veranda 
 over, r. 
 
 1498 
 
 1774. General Estimate. Cubic contents, 61,587 feet; which, at 9c?. per foot, is 
 i£'2309 : 10s. : 3d.i at 6d., £1339 : 13s. : 6d. ; and, at 4c?., £"1026 : 9s. 
 
 1775. Remarks. The effect of the whole is good, and the interior arrangement con- 
 venient and commodious. There is, no doubt, a good deal of room occupied by the 
 porches, hall, staircase, and central passage : but extension, and not concentration, is a 
 characteristic of the Italian style. On observing the relative position of the different 
 doors and windows, it will be found that the house may be ventilated by thorough 
 draughts in every direction at pleasure. Double doors are very properly shown to the 
 kitchen, to prevent smells from penetratmg into the passage ; and this effect may be 
 
VILLAS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 
 
 855 
 
 mmm 
 
 1499 
 
 1500 
 
 further aided by a good ventilator, in, or close under, the kitchen ceiling, directly over 
 the fireplace, communicating with an air flue, in close contact with the smoke flue. 
 When there is most cooking, there wUl be most fire, and, consequently, most heat in 
 the smoke-flue ; and this heat, operating upon the air in the air-flue, will increase its 
 draught, and, consequently, the carrying off of smells in proportion. An outer ventilator, 
 or an iron grating, or iron brick, as they are called, see fig. 1499, in the lower part of 
 the side wall, should always be 
 introduced in connection with 
 such interior air-flues or venti- 
 lators, in order to increase their 
 action ; because, where much 
 air is carried off, much also 
 must enter, in order to supply its 
 place. There should be shut- 
 ters, or regulating valves, of 
 brass or iron, to both ventilators ; 
 the valve for the ventilator close 
 under the ceiling, should have 
 two handles or arms to the centre 
 pivot, to be worked by two 
 strings, as indicated in fig. 1500; 
 or there may be a pulley-wheel affixed to the centre, and an endless cord brought over 
 it, and worked in a pulley rack, like a common window-blind. The green-house is very 
 conveniently and economically heated from the kitchen-fire ; we should not object to 
 its being made wider and longer, so as to range with the south and east fronts of the 
 building. The effect of the tower is exceUent, and its windows harmonise well with 
 those of the dining-room and the green-hoxxse, and with the openings of the porch. 
 
 Design X. — A Cottage ViUa, showing how Advantage may he taken of a sloping Bank, 
 
 1776. Accommodation. The general appearance is given in fig. 1502 ; fig. 1501 shows 
 the ground plan of the principal floor, which contains a porch, a j an entrance lobby, 6 ; 
 
 30 Ft. 
 
 _l 
 
 staircase, c; dining-room, e?, 18 feet by 16 feet 6 inches, and 12 feet high; drawing- 
 room, 19 fbet and a half by 17 feet, e; business room or library, /; sitting-room, gi 
 kitchen, h ; servants' room, i ; water-closet, k ; closets fitted up with shelving, 1 1 ; and 
 
856 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 back entrance, m. The chamber floor may be divided in a similar manner into bed- 
 Tooms and a nursery; there being no rooms over the kitchen department. Fig. 1503 
 
 1503 
 
 "M 1^ 
 
 1) 
 
 m 
 
 (D 
 
 I 
 
 shows the arrangement of the cellar floor ; in which n is a milk-house ; o, a cellar for 
 potatoes and other roots ; p, laundry, with trays instead of tubs, a boiler, and space for 
 s mangle, &c. ; g, a coal-cellar ; r, staircase ; s, privies ; t, dust-hole ; and u, foundations. 
 1777. Construction. Fig. 1504 is a front or southern elevation, showing the entrance 
 
 1504 
 
VILLAS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 8^7 
 
 porch. Fig. 1505 is the northern elevation, showing the terrace wall, with stairs down 
 *Vom the terrace, &c. Fig. 1506 is the western elevation, with a section of the sloping 
 
858 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 1778. Abridged Specification. The walls are supposed to be of rubble building, 2 feet 
 thick, above the level of the cellar floor, having droved base courses, 21 inches deep, and 
 droved string-courses at the eaves, and coins at all angles. The windows to have 
 droved facings round them, with jutted (projecting) sills and blocks, and projecting 
 slabs, where shown. The chimney-stalks to be droved, having moulded plinths and 
 cornices. The walls above the level of the base course to be rough-cast ; and below that 
 level to be of hammer-dressed coursed rubble ; which will form a contrast, and give the 
 effect of a level basement to the main part of the building. All apartments and passages, 
 
 , &c., in the ground or cellar floor to be laid with droved pavement, 3 inches thick, 
 closely jointed, and well bedded in sand. The kitchen, staircase, entrance lobby, and 
 porch, to be laid with polished (rubbed) pavement. The stair to the cellars, and the 
 outside stair, to be droved ; the steps to be checked down on (notched into) each other, 
 and having sufficient overlap. The stair to the bed-room floor to be polished with 
 moulded nosings. The staircase, as well as all the apartments where paved, to have 
 stone skirting 7 inches deep. All the remaining floors to be laid with 6-inch battens, 
 grooved and tongued l^-inch thick, resting on strong joisting. The roof to be formed 
 of rafters 7 inches by 2j inches ; ties, 7 inches by 2^ inches ; and baulks, 6 inches by 
 2 inches ; and to be covered with |^-inch sarking, closely jointed ; having proper ridge 
 and piend battens. The soffit of the projecting part of the roof to be lined with |-inch 
 deal, 6 inches broad, grooved and tongued. The blocks to be boxed up with |-inch deal, 
 4 inches broad on the face. All the stone walls, except those in the cellar floor, to be bat- 
 tened, lathed, and plastered. The internal partitions, where not of stone, to be formed of 
 brick on bed. All the walls and ceilings to be covered with three-coat plaster ; and all 
 the apartments to have neat plain cornices, except the cellar floor, which may have only 
 two-coat plaster, and no cornices The windows to have 1^-inch frames and 1^-inch 
 sashes, with centre stiles, as shown m the figures, hinged to open ; and to have bound 
 shutters and linings, and 6g^-inch moulded facings. Doors to be framed, moulded, and 
 sunk-paneled, with 6-inch moulded facings. The door from the porch to the lobby 
 to be glazed in the upper part, and to be in two halves. The milk-house windows to 
 have Louvre (lufflr) boarding, as shown, with wirecloth inside ; and the walls to be 
 fitted up with proper shelving. All the doors, window linings, and shutters, in this 
 floor, to be of planed deal. The dining and drawing rooms and study to have 10-inch 
 moulded foot base, and marble chimney-pieces, valued each at ^^12. The other apart- 
 ments to have plane skirting, 7 inches deep ; with wood chimney-pieces, having pilasters, 
 and friezed and moulded shelf. The roofs to be covered with slates, having lead ridges, 
 piends, and valleys. 
 
 1779. General Estimate. In the neighbourhood of Edinburgh, a villa such as this 
 could be executed for about ^650 ; which, as it contains 51,300 cubic feet, is about 3d. 
 per foot. 
 
 1780. Remarks. For this Design we are indebted to David Cousin, Esq., Architect, 
 Edinburgh. The plan exhibits comfortable accommodation ; and though this is obtained 
 at a considerable expense of foundations, yet it must be recollected that the Design is 
 adapted to a sloping surface, and for a country where building stone is abundant, and obtained 
 for little more than the trouble of working it. The elevation, being in no particular style, 
 can only claim attention as an assemblage of architectural lines and forms ; and, examined 
 in this point of view, there is nothing of any marked character about it ; nothing to find 
 fault with, but, at the same time, nothing to raise emotion. This, however, is no fault 
 of the Architect, who had a different object in view. Plain designs of this kind, when 
 contrasted with designs in particular styles ; such, for example, as that for an old Scottish 
 manor-house (Design XV.), by the same Architect, or SmaUwood's cottage villa 
 (Design VI.), are well calculated to show the great difference to the cultivated eye 
 between style and no style ; or, perhaps, we should rather say, between a marked or 
 decided style and a plain style. A person who had never cultivated a taste for Archi- 
 tecture would perhaps be just as well satisfied to live in Mr. Cousin's cottage as in that 
 of Mr. Smallwood, provided they were equally comfortable within ; but very diflferent 
 would be the feelings of a man of cultivated architectural taste, as to which he would 
 prefer. On the other hand, a man who had not cultivated a taste for Architecture, 
 more than a taste for painting, sculpture, or landscape-gardening, and^ who had little 
 feeling for any of the arts, from either an original deficiency of imagination, or from not 
 having cultivated it, would, in all probability, prefer a plain cottage like that before us ; 
 because he ivould not be able to conceive a sufficient reason for going to the additional 
 expense requisite to raise plainness into style. It is not uncommon, indeed, for persons 
 of this description, talking of a plain house, regularly pierced with windows, and without 
 a single external mark either of style or of elegant enjoyment, to designate it as genteel 
 or gentlemanlike ; and perhaps there may be some truth in the remark, if it has refer- 
 ence to the commonplace manners of a man who has the tone of good society, but who 
 
VILLAS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 
 
 859 
 
 is without talent or intellect. According to the present state of architectural knowledge 
 and taste among the middle classes of Britain, ten persons would prefer building the 
 Design before us, for one who would risk his reputation for gentility by attempting 
 Design VI. 
 
 Design XL — A Villa in the Modern Style of Architecture, fire-proof, and suitable for a 
 Marine Residence, for the occasional Occupation or the peimanent Abode of a small 
 Family of Fortune. 
 
 1781. The Situation of this building, its designer, Mr. Varden, states, may be on the 
 north-west of the sea-shore, or on the bank of a large river or lake, the ground sloping 
 gently to the south or east, and the pleasure-grounds reaching to the shore, or the 
 water's edge. The elevation of the ground floor of the house above the surface of the 
 water should on no account be less than ten feet; but twenty feet, or from that to 100 
 feet or upwards, would be far more desirable. 
 
 1782. Accommodation. The general appearance is shown in fig. 1508, which is a view 
 taken at a distance of 150 feet from the angle of the building. 
 
 1608 
 
 1509, to -a scale of thirty feet to an inch, is the plan of the basement story, in 
 
 1509 
 
 [ ^ 
 
 Fi: 
 
 which a is the staircase ; bbb 
 are passages; c, the pantry, 
 eight feet six inches high, and 
 twenty-four feet by ten feet ; it 
 is ventilated more eflfectually 
 than is usual, by having the 
 ceiling pierced in several places, 
 to allow the foul air to pass 
 through, and be conveyed into 
 a vertical flue, like that of a 
 chimney; and so carried up 
 the corner pier of the portico, 
 where it escapes through the 
 shaft ; d is the dairy, nineteen 
 feet six inches by ten feet six 
 inches, also ventilated by an air shaft ; e, the footman's pantry, seventeen feet by ten feet, 
 with warm water laid on from the furnace and warming apparatus ; and cold water from 
 the cisterns on the roof ; /, the servants' hall, twenty-one feet by fifteen feet six inches ; p, 
 the furnace, boiler, &c., for heating the hall, staircase, and passages with hot water; h, 
 coal-cellar, eleven feet six inches by ten feet; i, the wine-cellar, twenty-three feet by 
 ten feet, with an air shaft for occasional ventilation ; k, beer-cellar, nineteen feet by 
 sixteen feet, ventilated in the Uke manner, the beer casks, &c., being brought in from the 
 yard under the terrace by an inclined plane, through the doorway, m; I, footman's 
 bed-room, twenty-three feet six inches by ten feet, having a fireplace in the corner, 
 the flue of which is carried up the pier of the portico. 
 
 Fig. 1510 is the plan of the principal floor. The main approach to the house is by a 
 flight of steps, a, to the terrace, b, which is continued all round the building ; there is 
 another flight of steps, c, on the opposite side, giving access to the garden. A smaller 
 flight of steps, d, leads from the kitchen to the offices and stables, and is intended for the 
 use of the servants, and of the tradespeople bringing provisions and articles of daily con- 
 sumption to the house. The dotted lines, e e, represent panels of slight ironwork, to 
 separate the portion of the terrace used by the servants from the part frequented by the 
 family. ^ The terrace nowhere approaches the walls of the building nearer than three 
 feet six inches ; that space being absolutely requisite for the area, in order to give light 
 
860 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 and air to the basement story. This area is represented by the dotted line / The 
 walls of the projections at the angles of the terrace are of masonry, fourteen inches thick ; 
 and each of these projections forms a portion of a square, the external dimensions of 
 which are nine feet on the side ; h h are pedestals for vases and statues. The vestibule, 
 fifteen feet nine inches by four feet, is shown at i ; in its external wall are three arched 
 openings, reaching down to the level of the terrace, the centre opening serves as an entrance, 
 but the side ones have each a panel of enriched open cast-ironwork, two feet nine inches 
 high, as a protection from the area ; k, the hall and staircase. The hall is fourteen feet 
 by fifteen feet nine inches, and the floor of the hall is six inches higher than that of the 
 vestibule or porchway ; the geometrical staircase is to be of stone, three feet nine inches 
 wide, with metal hand-rail and balusters. A small lobby, ten feet by six feet, is shown 
 at / ; it is lighted by a window from the vestibule. The morning or lady's work room, m, 
 is seventeen feet by ten feet, and eleven feet high ; the window is to the west, because this 
 apartment will be occupied only in the early part of the day, and, consequently, the after- 
 noon and evening sun shining on it will not occasion any inconvenience. The fireplace 
 is on one side of the room, and " the flue is carried up in the wall over the drawingroom 
 door into the wall against the staircase, and so up to the shaft." The drawingroom, n, 
 is twenty-four feet by sixteen feet, and eleven feet high ; the windows, three in number, 
 are to the south. The library, o, communicates with the drawing room, and is twenty- 
 three feet by ten feet, with two windows to the east. The dining-room, p, is twenty-one 
 feet by sixteen feet, and eleven feet high, with the window to the east. In the ceiling 
 of this room there are to be ornamental pateras for ventilation, as there is to be an air 
 flue provided for carying off the heated air ; the store-room, q, is seventeen feet by 
 six feet, with an air flue and pateras in the ceiling ; r is a passage ; s, the kitchen, 
 twenty-four feet by fifteen 
 feet nine inches, with an 1511 
 air flue to carry off the j d 
 
 steam ; t, the scullery, 
 fourteen feet six inches by 
 ten feet, containing an 
 oven, and copper, also 
 ventilated by an air shaft ; 
 K, the larder, ten feet by 
 eight feet ; and v, the back 
 staircase, constructed Oi 
 stone, with metal balus- 
 ters and handrail. The 
 iitairs break into the kit- 
 chen, but at such a height 
 as not in any way to be in- 
 convenient. For the pur- 
 pose of getting additional 
 
 -□ zr 
 
 c 
 
 "O- 
 
 J- — Q □ ^ □ — L 
 
VILLAS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 
 
 861 
 
 headway, the flat roof over the staircase is raised about one foot six inches above the 
 rest ; but this will not be observable from below, on account of the balustrading. 
 
 Fig. 1511 is a plan of the chamber floor; in which a is the principal staircase; 6 
 is the back staircase ; c c, porticoes ; d d, galleries ; e, the flat roofs ; f, bed-room, sixteen 
 feet by fifteen feet six inches, and ten feet high ; ^, bed-room, twelve feet by twelve feet ; 
 A, bed-room, twelve feet by twelve feet : this room is to have a small fireplace, the flue of 
 which may either be concealed by the blocking course, or may terminate ornamentally 
 at the corner of the end wall, but in the latter case there must be a false flue on the op- 
 posite side, to preserve uniformity ; i, water-closet ; k, bed-room ; and I, servant's room, 
 twelve feet by twelve feet, with a fireplace like that of h. Another bed-room might be 
 obtained where the front portico now is, by an alteration of the staircase; but, as the men- 
 servants are supposed to sleep over the stables, it would seldom be requisite. Either of 
 the bed-rooms might be converted into a dressing-room, by opening a door of communi- 
 cation with the adjoining chamber. 
 
 1783. The Stable and other Offices belonging to this villa are supposed to be placed at 
 the distance of about 100 yards from it; they are shown in detail in fig. 1512, to a scale 
 
 !5I2 
 
 2J 
 
 J 
 
 E 
 
 of thirty feet to an inch ; a is a knife and shoe house ; 6, pigsties ; c, potato-house ; d 
 fruit-room ; e, seed-room ; /, tool-shed ; g, conservatory ; h, dung-pit ; i, stable ; k, harness- 
 room; ?, bin-room; mm, coach-houses; n, brew-house; o, dog-kennel; jo, kitchen-garden; 
 q, drying-ground ; r r, poultry-houses ; s, cow-house ; t, fuel-house ; u, laundry ; v, car- 
 riage-road ; w, yard ; and x, pleasure-ground. In the centre of the yard there may be a 
 space enclosed for a hay-rick, and this rick may be built on a stone basement, and under 
 a roof supported on pillars ; the roof being carried so high as to form an ornamental 
 tower, and central point to the picture of the offices, when seen at a distance. The 
 basement on which the rick is placed may be raised on stone or cast-iron pillars, so as to 
 leave a space underneath for poultry to run under during rain. On one side of this 
 small rick-yard there ought to be a pump, with a basin to contain water for the aquatic 
 fowls ; unless water should be laid on from some elevated source, in which case the pump 
 may be dispensed with. 
 
VILLAS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 
 
 863 
 
 1785. The Walls of the Building and of the Terrace are to be of brick, faced with 
 wrought stone ; or, if that should be considered too expensive, good picked grey stocks 
 may be used, with stone dressings. The terrace may be paved with rubbed Yorkshire 
 stone, with landings at least six inches thick to cross the area ; but the effect of the whole 
 building will be much increased if tessellated pavement is used instead of stone. This 
 kind of pavement may be produced by the use of bricks of different colours ; for example, 
 of red bricks and grey stocks, disposed so as to form patterns in the manner exhibited by 
 the thirteen Designs shown in figs. 1517 to 1529. The floor of the hall and passages, and 
 
 1517 
 
 wrmM 1 r~i 1 P- 
 
 1521 
 
 151S 
 
 1522 
 
 t 
 
 
 
 m 
 m 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 p 
 
 El 
 
 
 I— 
 
 1 
 
 
 , 1 
 
 IT 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ( 
 
 f 
 
 
 
 
 -11- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 \ 
 \ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 i 1 
 iil 
 
 
 -I - 
 
 i 
 
 i 
 
 1 
 
864 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 1525 
 
 1527 
 
 
 IH 1 'r-\ 
 
 ! i I-? 
 
 
 »rp 
 
 
 J 
 
 
 
 ih-IIH 
 
 
 
 If 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 r 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 1 
 
 
 tt 
 
 r ■ 
 
 r 
 
 — 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1526 
 
 
 as 
 
 III* 
 
 
 
 
 
 H - 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 IjT 
 
 llEiLHIHIMIH 
 
 1528 
 
 1529 
 
 the flat over the library, &c., may be laid with tessellated pavement, or with the ornamental 
 quarries, or paving tiles, of Mr. Wright of Shelton, near Newcastle under Line, Staf- 
 fordshire ; of which we shall give some account, accompanied by figures, when treating of 
 the finishing and fitting up of villas. The vases at the front and at the garden entrances 
 are to be of baked earth or artificial stone, and the statues either of artificial stone or of 
 marble. If the cost of the latter material be objected to, terra cotta or Austen's artificial 
 stone may be employed, as both are of moderate expense, and stand well in the open air. 
 Should it be preferred, however, vases of a larger size than those near the entrance, and of 
 a different form, may be substituted for statues. The small vases on the piers of the balus- 
 trading are to be of baked earth ; the sculpture group in the centre of the elevation is to 
 be of stone ; and the latticework of the portico of wood, painted stone colour. The 
 piers, &c., of the upper walls are to project four inches and a half; and all the semi- 
 circular-headed openings are to have architraves round them. The iron railing of the 
 terrace is to be according to fig. 1530, to a scale of one inch to a foot, though a plainer 
 sort is shown in the elevations, in order to prevent confusion in the drawing. 
 
 1786. To render the Villa Jire-proof, various plans may be adopted. We shall first 
 describe one suggested by Mr. Varden, and shall afterwards give some others. 
 
 1787. Mr. Farden's Plan. *' It appears probable that common fir or oak joists with 
 their lower edges chamfered, and coated over with a mixture of alum, black lead, clay, and 
 lime, or some similar composition, would (if closely floored above with earthenware tiles, 
 bedded all round into the plastering, the joists being made air-tight) resist the action of 
 flames, at least for a considerable time. Fire could not descend through such a fldoring 
 so as to communicate with the rooms below, till the tiles used in it had become red hot ; 
 neither could it ascend until the tiled floor above gave way from the burning of the 
 joists ; which, if coated as proposed, would not take fire from below, tiU the tiling over 
 them acquired a suflScient heat to cause the distillation of the turpentine from the wood. 
 In general, there is not furniture enough of a combustible nature in any room to do this. 
 The battening against the outer walls might be of larch, as that wood burns less freely 
 than most others ; but if the walls were brick, or lined with brick, battening of any kind will 
 be unnecessary. If this plan should be thought likely to answer the end proposed, houses 
 built in the common manner might be altered at a moderate expense, by taking up the 
 
VILLAS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 
 
 865 
 
 <)oarded floors, and substituting earthenware tiles, plain or ornamented, according to the 
 character of the house. 
 
 1530 
 
 1788. Mr. Frost's Plan for constructing fire-proof Buildings is, to form the floors of 
 hollow earthenware tubes embedded in cement, and combined in such a manner as to be, 
 in effect, one artificial flag-stone of the size of the room. These hollow tubes, for which 
 Mr. Frost took out a patent some years ago, are square in the section, about an inch and 
 a half on the side externally, with a tubular space of an inch and a quarter on the side 
 internally. They are formed of brick earth, prepared in a superior manner, and pressed 
 through moulds by machinery. The tubes are each about two feet long ; and the mode 
 of forming a floor or roof of them is as follows : — The centring, after being prepared 
 and fixed in the usual manner, is first covered with a coating of cement of a quality 
 suflRciently fine to form the ceiling of the apartment to be floored over ; and, if it is 
 desired that there should be mouldings or ornaments in this ceiling or its cornices, 
 moulds for them can be placed in the centring, so as to form a part of it. One, or, in 
 some cases, two coats of cement being laid over the centring, a stratum of the squaa*e 
 tubes, laid side by side, and breaking joint, is next to be bedded in fine cement, and the 
 interstices between them also filled in with that material. One thin coating of cement 
 is then laid over the whole stratum ; and, in a week, when this is dry, another stratum of 
 tubes is laid over the first, in a contrary direction, bedded and filled in with cement as 
 before, and finished by a coating of the same material ; which, when dry, may have a 
 second coating to serve as the floor of an apartment, or the covering of a roof, as the case 
 may be. Where the space to be covered is not wider than ten feet, Mr. Frost conceives, 
 and indeed has found upon trial (at a house. No. 6, Bankside, London, where he resided 
 when he explained to us his process), that two strata of tubes would be suflBcient ; but 
 for greater widths he would employ three, four, or half a dozen strata ; or he would 
 introduce iron girders to support artificial flag-stones of less thickness. There can be 
 little doubt of the success of this plan ; but, as both cast and wrought iron are now so 
 cheap, a simpler and less expensive mode is to tie cast-iron or stone abutments together 
 with wrought-iron rods, and to form the flooring or roofing between by four-inch brick 
 arches, or layers of plain tiles bedded in cement. Flat roofs and floors of immense 
 strength are formed in this manner, in and about London. Near us, at Bayswater, 
 there is a public house with a flat roof so formed, which, on Sundays and other holidays, 
 is crowded with guests ; and a veranda, ten feet broad, with a flat roof formed of two 
 courses of tUes bedded in cement, is brought to a level at top with that material, and. 
 supports as many persons as can sit upon it. 
 
 1789. Fire-proof Floors and Roofs formed of Arches of Coombs or Earthenware Pots, 
 This is an old French invention, described in the Mechanics^ Magazine, vol. viii. p. 354, 
 •as having been adopted in that architectural deformity the new palace at Pimlico. 
 There the arches are formed of hollow pots, as being lighter than solid bricks. These 
 arches spring from stone abutments which rest on the flanges of iron girders placed five 
 feet apart. The length of the cast-iron girders is from twenty to thirty feet. The pots 
 are like flower-pots, but are without rims ; they are four inches in diameter at the 
 mouth, and six inches deep outside measure ; the diameter at the bottom is such as that,, 
 in an arch of five feet span, the rise in the centre may not be more than six inches. The 
 
 5 H 
 
866 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 space above the arches may either be brought to a level, with bricks and cement ; or a 
 flooring of ornamental tiles, or marble ; or a boarded floor on joists, or in panels without 
 joists, may be formed over it. Where a roof is to be placed over the arches, their 
 haunches may be brought to a level with brickwork ; and afterwards covered either with 
 common cement, or, as in the case of the Pimlico Palace, with what is called Lord Stan- 
 hope's composition. This is composed of chalk, coal-tar, and sand ; and is laid on hot, 
 and gauged to the thickness of five eighths of an inch with a templet made for that pur- 
 pose. The composition is then smoothed with large heated flat irons ; and several coats 
 of it are required. Over the last coat slates are bedded, while it is yet boiling hot. For 
 details, see Mech. Mag., vol. xviii. p. 339. 
 
 1790. To render the commonest Description of Houses fire-proof; or, at aU events, 
 greatly to diminish the risk from fire, two things are requisite : first, to form all stair- 
 cases of stone, or to have the skeleton of the staircase of ironwork, and the treads of the 
 steps of stone ; and, secondly, to avoid having any hollow partitions or floors. A house 
 having a stone or iron staircase, and having all the partitions either of four-inch brick- 
 work, or of brick nogging, in whatever way it might be set on fire, could never be burnt 
 down, if ordinary exertions were made to extinguish the flames ; and, at all events, could 
 never endanger human life. One apartment might be set on fire, but before the flames 
 could spread to that under it or over it, or to a staircase adjoining it, the fire might 
 readily be put out. In a house so constructed, there would be no piece of timber that 
 was not in close contact with mortar, at least on one side ; and all the strong pieces of 
 timber, such as joists, rafters, quartering in partitions, &c., would be closely embedded 
 in mortar on two sides. Where the partitions could not be made entirely of brick 
 or brick nogging, the interstices might be filled up with a mortar prepared of clay 
 with a small proportion of lime. The same material might be filled in between the 
 joists, and, where it was desired to render the roof fire-proof, the rafters might be made 
 of iron, or the space between wooden rafters might be filled in with this mortar. We 
 are aware that one objection to this practice would be, the greater length of time that 
 newly built houses would require to be rendered sufficiently dry for habitation, and also 
 the risk of decay from dry rot when imperfectly seasoned timber was used j it would also 
 add something to the original cost. All these objections, however, may be considered of 
 minor importance compared with the degree of security which would be thus obtained 
 from accidents by fire. Where the expense of cast-iron girders is an objection, arches of 
 brickwork may be formed, nine inches thick, and of a rise proportionate to the resistance 
 of the walls against which they are made to abut. In the spandrils of these arches, walls 
 may be carried up to such a height as to form, like the girders, abutments for lateral 
 arches, which may be formed of pots, like those before mentioned. This would take 
 the greater part of the thrust of the floor from the side walls, by reducing it nearly to 
 a perpendicular pressure. Were the public fully alive to the importance of having their 
 houses fire-proof, a plan of this sort would very soon be brought to perfection. The 
 panels of all doors and window-shutters in a fire-proof house may be formed of sheet iron, 
 which, kept well painted, would last many years ; and the astragals of the windows 
 might be formed of wrought iron, or hollow brass or copper, like those used in hot- 
 houses. 
 
 1791. To render Houses already built comparatively fire-proof, aU the interstices between 
 the floors, in the partitions, and in the roof, where there was a ceiling formed to the 
 rafters, might perhaps be filled in with earthy matter in a state of powder. This powder 
 might be clay or loam mixed with a small proportion of Roman cement ; it might be 
 injected into the vacuities, through small orifices, by some description of forcing-pump 
 or bellows, which, while it forced in the powder, would permit the escape of the air ; and, 
 while this operation was going forward, steam might be injected at the same time, so as 
 to mix with the powder, and be condensed by it ; by which means, the whole mass 
 would be solidified with a minimum of moisture. In short, in rendering houses fire., 
 proof, the next important object to using fire-proof materials is, that of having all the 
 walls and partitions, and even the steps of wooden staircases, filled in with such materials 
 as will render them in effect solid. On examining into the causes of the rapidity of 
 the spread of the flames in London houses when on fire, it will almost invariably be 
 found, that, whatever may have occasioned the fire to break out, the rapidity of its pro- 
 gress has been in proportion to the greater or less extent of the lath and plaster par- 
 titions, the hollow wooden floors, and the wooden staircases. Were the occupiers of 
 houses sufficiently aware of the danger from lath and plaster partitions, especially 
 when they enclose staircases, they would never occupy such houses, or, if they 
 did, they would not give such rents for them, as they would for houses with brick- 
 nogging partitions. It appears to us to be the duty either of the general or local 
 government or police to see that no houses whatever are built without stone or iron 
 staircases ; and that no partitions or floors are made hollow ; or, if they are, that 
 
VILLAS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 
 
 867 
 
 the materials should be iron and tiles, or slates, or stones, or cement, or other earthy 
 composition. 
 
 1792. Any Building might he rendered completely fire-proof hy avoiding the use of timber 
 in every thing, except fittings up and finishing. The floors niight be formed of 
 flat tiles and cement, and covered with ornamental tiles ; or flooring may be made of 
 composition, and polished in imitation of scagliola, or artificial marble. The roofs might 
 be made flat, and covered in the manner already described, § 1789 ; and the outer walls 
 of the building might be tied together in all directions by wrought-iron rods made fast 
 to stone bond, as broad as the wall is thick, the stones cramped or dovetailed together, 
 and carried completely round the walls, about the level of the centre of each floor. The 
 netting or latticework of iron rods, connected with this chain of stone bond, being thickly 
 embedded in cement, and cased with strata of flat tiles, would be kept from extremes 
 of temperature throughout the year ; so that the difference in their contraction and 
 expansion, during summer and winter, would be of no practical importance. Every 
 floor of a house thus formed, would be, in effect, a single flag-stone, and, as the iron 
 rods would be prevented from oxidising, it would probably last for ages.^ It is easy to 
 conceive the skeleton of an entire house, thus constructed, the perpendicular supports 
 being brick or stone piers, three, four, or six feet apart ; the horizontal bond on these 
 supports, of flag-stone of the width of the intended thickness of the walls or partitions, 
 and all the horizontal floors or vertical panels of iron rods and wires covered on one or 
 on both sides with plain tiles coated with cement. Even the staircases might be so con- 
 structed and covered. In the case of the floors of rooms, square or nearly so, there 
 might be circles of thin flat cast iron, laid on the horizontal rods, and made fast to them, 
 which would serve as struts ; and oblong rooms might have two or more cast-iroji 
 circles, or ovals with plates of cast iron in the direction of their short diameters, 
 to serve the same purpose. The outer walls might have double panels of wrought-iron 
 rods and wires with intervals between, so as to form hollow walls ; so that houses con- 
 structed in this manner might be rendered equally impermeable by cold or heat as 
 those with thick walls, or with hoUow walls of masonry. There would be no objection 
 to houses of this description, having all the doors and windows framed of timber, pro- 
 vided the panels and astragals were filled in with iron. As the iron rods and wires need 
 not be of great diameter ; perhaps, in ordinary cases, of half an inch for the rods, and one 
 eighth of an inch for the wires, and half an inch in thickness, with three inches in breadth 
 for the cast-iron circles ; the expense, even for the smallest houses, would not be an insu- 
 perable objection. Were the attention of the legislature turned to this subject, with the 
 view of protecting those who at present cannot protect themselves, we mean dwellers 
 in town houses of the commoner kinds ; the government would probably direct experi- 
 ments to be made, so as to bring this mode of construction, or some similai' mode, to a 
 degree of perfection which would soon render it general. 
 
 1793. Protection against Fire. Next in importance to the building of fire-proof houses, 
 is the mode of arranging a general system of police for the extinction of fires, both in 
 town and country. On this subject, a correspondent, J. Robison, Esq. Sec. R.S.E., whose 
 letter, dated Feb. 8th, 1833, we have received since we commenced these paragraphs, 
 has the following observations. : — "I have long entertained the idea that the protection 
 against fire is inadequate, though sometimes costly establishments are maintained, as has, 
 until lately, been the case in Edinburgh and London. In Edinburgh, matters have been 
 put on a better footing since the year 1825, and I believe there is now no city in Europe 
 where property is so well protected, or at so small an expense. I have had some corre- 
 spondence with the last and the present administrations, about a plan for extending a uni- 
 form system of fire-engine establishments all over Britain, by forming a regular disciplined 
 corps of firemen at Woolwich, and furnishing officers and instructors from it to pro- 
 vincial corps to be established by the municipal authorities on the spot. I have not suc- 
 ceeded so far as I could wish, but I have made some impression ; and the first fruits of 
 it are now developing themselves in your metropolis, where the Insurance Companies have 
 begun to act in concert in getting up a regular corps on the model of the Edinburgh one, 
 and have bribed away the superintendent from this place to put him at the head of it. 
 The connection with the police will follow next, and, when experience shall have shown 
 the truth of what I have urged, some person about the government oflSces will step for- 
 ward with the whole of my plan, claiming it as his own, and will, perhaps, get public 
 4;hanks for it. Provided the plan be adopted, I care but little who gets the credit of it." 
 The most complete fire-police with which we are acquainted is that at St. Petersburgh. 
 It is entirely under the management of the general police there, which, it is well known is 
 a regularly organised body, such as our correspondent contemplates. We passed the winter 
 of 1813 in tha;t city, during which several large fires happened, and were very promptly 
 extinguished. Among other apparatus, we recollect a system of ladders attached to a 
 frame, which could be elevated to any particular point by machinery worked on the 
 
868 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 ground. The ladders were slid past one another in the manner of a pocket telescope,' 
 and could be elevated to any angle, or projected horizontally. There was also a plat- 
 form formed by a frame five or six feet square, filled in with wirecloth, which worked 
 on pivots, and could be elevated or projected at any angle with the greatest rapidity ; 
 the wirecloth platform, or frame, in consequence of turning on pivots, being always in a 
 horizontal position, for the purpose of receiving those who had no other chance of escape 
 than by jumping on it. These apparatus were invented by a gentleman of the name of 
 Hastie, a Scottish Architect and engineer in the service of the Russian government. 
 Similar, and various other fire engines will be found described in the Mechanics' Maga- 
 zine, and in the very excellent work of Mr. Braidwood on Fire Engines, published at, 
 Edinburgh in 1830. 
 
 1794. The Chimneys, in this Design, Mr. Varden observes, « are all brought pretty 
 much into the centre of the house, and are arranged in two lines, in pairs, at equal dis- 
 tances, with the view of making them ornamental ; for, where they cannot be concealed 
 (and it is doubtful if that attempt should ever be made), the only alternative is to make 
 their appearance as agreeable as possible. Our modern Architects have long been 
 endeavouring to do this, though but few of them have succeeded in the attempt ; and 
 hence it is, that, in buildings of the present day, the chimney-tops are generally the most 
 unsightly parts of the edifice. This often arises from their terminating too abruptly,, 
 and being treated as pots, not as shafts. There are no remains of antiquity that give us 
 any hints on the subject of chimneys ; we are, therefore, left to our own ingenuity, which, 
 has hitherto, in most cases, proved insufficient. In the old English country-houses, the 
 chimney shafts form one of the most prominent and agreeable features of the style ; and 
 there does not appear any reason why the chimneys of modern buildings should not be 
 equally conspicuous and ornamental. Of course, the form must be in some degree 
 altered, in order to assimilate with the style of Architecture ; and, whenever there is any 
 attempt at classical effect, perhaps an adaptation of the elegant Roman candelabra would 
 be more suitable than the diminutive altar-like forms we are in the habit of seeing 
 employed for chimney-tops. In the present Design, it has been attempted to exemplify 
 the above principles. The chimney-tops of this villa are to be of cement, of baked earth 
 or artificial stone, or of real stone. Of these materials, cement is the least to be de- 
 pended upon ; as it is generally found to crack, and scale off, after having been exposed 
 to the weather for a few years. Figs. 1531 to 1537 are patterns of chimney-tops, froin 
 
 ^ 1531 
 
 which a choice may be made. In the elevation, fig. 1515, the first flue from the left 
 hand is the air-shaft from the wine-cellar, that passes up the corner pier of the portico : 
 the second flue is for ventilating the hall and staircase ; the third shaft is from the chim- 
 ney of the morning room ; the fourth is an air-shaft from the beer-cellar ; the fifth is 
 the drawingroom flue ; the sixth is the bed-room flue ; the seventh an air-shaft from 
 the servants' hall ; the eighth is the dining-room flue ; the ninth, the dining-room 
 air-shaft ; the tenth, the bed-room flue ; and the eleventh and twelfth, the flues of the 
 library and the footman's bed-room, both of which pass up the piers of the portico. 
 In tlie elevation of the north end, fig. 1516, the first shaft; from the left hand is the 
 
VILLAS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 
 
 1535 
 
 1536 
 
 1537 
 
 oven flue, arid the second is the air-shaft from the scullery, both of which pass up one of 
 the piers of the portico. 
 
 The third is the air-shaft ^ ^ J \^ 
 
 from the pantry; the 
 fourth is the flue from 
 the copper in the scul- 
 lery ; the fifth is the 
 flue of the servants' hall; 
 the sixth is the bed- 
 room flue ; the seventh 
 and eighth are the kit- 
 chen flue and air-shaft ; 
 the ninth is the air- 
 shaft of the dairy ; the 
 tenth, the air-shaft of 
 the store-room ; the 
 eleventh is from the 
 furnace; and the twelfth 
 from the footman's pan- 
 try : the last two pass 
 
 up the corner pier of the portico. If air-flues should be considered unnecessary, a 
 row of single shafts will be sufficient for the smoke-flues. The walls on which these 
 shafts stand are twenty-two inches thick, to allow of the flues being gathered, that is, 
 inclined either to the right or left, so as to bring them up to their proposed places 
 without disfiguring the rooms. The diameter of the shafts should be ten inches in the 
 clear ; that of the flues may be an inch or two larger, and the latter may be lined with 
 earthenware tubes, or built with Chadley's chimney bricks." 
 
 1795. Cisterns, for containing hard and soft water, to supply the different apartments, 
 may be placed on the roof. 
 
 1796. Columns, Mr. Varden observes, « are not introduced in this villa, as they 
 cannot be employed with propriety in such small buildings. The bad effect of columns 
 in the porticoes of, many villas near London has been frequently noticed by Architects of 
 taste ; and the similarity that exists among them is so great, that they look as though 
 they were all bought ready made. The builders seem quite indifferent as to their form 
 or size, or their suitableness to the building which they are designed to decorate. To 
 them a portico is a portico, and whether it is put to a large or a small house, in front or 
 at the side, is of no consequence ; the same kind is applied every where, and very fre- 
 quently with great impropriety. A column, when of a large size, is the most noble 
 feature in Architecture ; but the little wooden posts dignified by that name, stuck about ; 
 some modern English villas, bring the beautiful orders of antiquity into disrepute, ^ 
 without in any way improving the taste of the public, or disseminating architectural ' 
 knowledge." 
 
 1797. The Entrance Door of a Villa, says Mr. Varden, " should never be near the 
 corner of the building, for this produces the idea of a badly arranged ground plan. In 
 every case the entrance should be distinctly marked, in order that a stranger may not 
 have to look for it twice : when the spectator has hastily glanced over the whole building, 
 the doorway should be the first thing for his eye to rest upon ; and, that this may be the 
 case, it must display stronger contrast of light and shade than any other part of the 
 structure. In the present Design, I have endeavoured to accomplish this by having a 
 vestibule and arches, that must always be in deep shadow, brought into proximity with a 
 projecting gallery that will receive the strongest light ; and which, in its turn, is relieved 
 by coming in front of a deep portico." 
 
 1798. When <iny peculiar feature, either of form or ornament, is introduced, Mr. Vai:den 
 considers, " that it should always be in some way repeated, with slight variation, in other 
 parts of the Design ; and, if masses of ornament are repeated two or three times, it wiU 
 generally be advisable to have between them some little enrichment of the like descrip- 
 tion, for the purpose of connecting the parts, and harmonising the whole. In the present 
 Design, the form of the arches of the vestibule is repeated by the three windows of the 
 drawingroom, but with less depth of shadoAv, and the window of the morning r6ora 
 serves to unite them. The gallery over the entrance is repeated at the end of thfe 
 building, and the two are connected by the smaller gallery over the morning room ; so 
 likewise the four small vases on the entrance front are repeated on the garden front ; 
 the one at the corner being the connecting link." 
 
 1799. Remarks. This Design is very much to our taste. It is highly architectural 
 in its expression, and in every part arranged for comfortable and elegant enjoyment. 
 We highly approve of the mode of ventilating the kitchen offices by flues, which is at 
 
870 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 once a most effectual mode, and one which, by giving rise to a number of external pin- 
 nacles or chimney-tops, is a source of the very greatest ornament. 
 
 Design XII. — A Double Suburban Villa, adapted for a particular Situation in the 
 Suburbs of Leicester. 
 
 1800. The Situation is where four roads meet; the principal road or street, fig. 1538, 
 a, proceeding direct from the centre of the town, and three other streets, b, c, d, diverg- 
 
 ing from it in different directions. There are double carriage entrances to each house 
 e e, and//, and a garden to each, g g. The general appearance is shown in fig. 1539. 
 
 1801. Accommodation. The kitchen and oflSces are in the basement story, one half of 
 which is shown in fig. 1540j in which a are steps leading down into the area, the dotted 
 
VILLAS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 
 
 871 
 
 If 
 
 o 
 
 [ 
 
 c 
 
 lines at /A showing the steps over the entrance front area; &, open area partly under 
 the terrace ; c, situation 
 
 of a forcing-pump for sup- 1 540 
 
 plying the cisterns of the 
 water-closets, &c. ; d, dust- 
 hole under the steps from 
 the terrace ; e, water- 
 closet ; /, place for coals, 
 having a projection with 
 a hole over it, p, for shoot- 
 ing them down ; g, back- 
 kitchen ; A, china and 
 glass closet; t, beer-cellar; 
 j, passage from the wall 
 lighted from the risers of 
 the steps shown by the 
 dotted lines ; I, pantry and 
 larder; m, best kitchen; 
 w, soft-water pump, sink, 
 and boiler, in back-kit- 
 chen ; and o, wine-cellar. 
 
 Fig. 1541 is a ground 
 plan of the principal floor 
 of both houses. In this 
 are seen, a broad flight of 
 steps, h, supposed to be 
 covered with pots of plants 
 in the summer season, 
 leaving an ascent to the 
 principal entrance, open- 
 ing into a hall and stair- 
 case, i, with conserva- 
 tories to the right and left, 
 k ; dining-room, I, and 
 drawingroom, m ; both 
 
 1541 
 
872 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 fOoms having glass doors at n, opening into the conservatories. Each house has a veranda 
 on the south-west side, o ; and stairs in the area to the kitchen floor, p. The conservatories 
 are proposed to be heated from stoves, connected with the kitchen-ranges, by flues pass- 
 ing along the haunches of the arches which form the kitchen ceiling ; which flues will at 
 the same time heat the hall and staircase. This Design, which has been contributed by 
 Messrs. Parsons and Gill, Architects, Leicester, was accompanied by the following con- 
 ditions and specifications : — 
 
 Conditions and Specifications for building a Double Villa near to the Town of Leicester. 
 
 1802. Conditions. The contractor to find all materials, and every thing necessary 
 to complete the building according to the plans, sections, elevation, and specification 
 hereunto annexed ; and the various works to be done in the best and most workmanlike 
 manner, and to the satisfaction of the Architect employed to superintend the same. If 
 at any time there should be delivered on the premises any materials whatever, which, in 
 the opinion of the Architect, may be of an unsound quality, or otherwise defective, the 
 same to be immediately removed by the contractor ; and, in default thereof, or refusing so 
 to do, the Architect to have the power of causing the same to be removed within twenty- 
 four hours after a notice in writing to that effect, signed by the Architect, has been de- 
 livered to him the said contractor, or his foreman, and the expense thereof to be deducted 
 froni any money that may be (or may become) due to him upon his contract ; and, in 
 case' any such imperfect materials shall have been used in the work, the same shall be 
 taken down by the direction of the Architect, and the work perfectly restored, at the 
 expense of the contractor, which expense shall likewise be deducted as aforesaid. If, by 
 the direction of the Architect, any alterations are made in any part of the Design, the 
 same shall not invalidate the contract ; but, whether such alteration be an addition to, or 
 a deduction from, the work contracted for, the value thereof shall be ascertained in the 
 usual way, and the amount be added to, or deducted from, the sum total, as the case may 
 be. The contractor to be paid by instalments, in the following manner ; that is to say, 
 when he shall have performed work to the amount of £200, he shall be paid such sum, 
 except £\0 per cent of the same, and so on in proportion throughout the progress of the 
 building till its completion ; and upon its being so completed, half the said sum of 10 per 
 cent shall be paid to the contractor, and the other half shall remain in hand for six 
 months afterwards, as a security against the failure of any part of the work. The whole 
 to be completed by the day of , under a penalty of ^""lO per week, for every 
 week that shall intervene between that period and that of its actual completion. The 
 contractor will be required to enter into a bond (with two sureties, if required), for the 
 due and proper fulfilment of these conditions, and the following specifications. 
 
 1803. Specifications. — Digger and Bricklayer. To excavate for the basement story, 
 cisterns, foundation, &c., as shown by the plans and sections, of a suflScient width and 
 depth ; afterwards to fill in and well ram the same ; to level the ground as directed, and 
 to cart away all spare earth and refuse that may remain on the completion of the works. 
 To sink and steen a well, using the required quantity of oak curbing, with proper well 
 bricks to the depth of 18 yards below the level of the basement floor, which is to be 
 3 feet six inches within when finished ; also to well puddle the same with good and well, 
 tempered clay to the depth of 3 yards, and to cover the same with a rough slab, Swith- 
 land quarry. To build all the walls of the respective heights and thicknesses shown by 
 the plans, sections, and elevations, with good and well-burnt common bricks, laid in 
 English bond, and left rough for stucco : those that are not described as to be stuccoed to 
 be neatly pointed. Immediately above the ground line lay three courses deep in Roman 
 cement, well flushed up between the joints (to prevent the moisture from rising into the 
 walls above). The whole of the basement story to be arched over with 4|^-inch brick- 
 work, and the kitchens to have 9-inch brickwork, extending 4 feet each way from the 
 abutment, {fig. 1542.) To lay the floor of the best kitchen with quarries, bedded and 
 jointed in beaten mortar ; also the passage under 1542 
 
 the hall floor, the back kitchen, the pantry, 
 and the china-closets, with dressed bricks in 
 
 beaten mortar, as before. The two cellars, 
 shoe-place, coal-hole, and area, to be laid with 
 common bricks bedded in mortar. To build, 
 where directed, a rain-water cistern, 9 feet 
 by 5 feet, and 5 feet deep, to the springing 
 of the arch. When finished, the arch to be of 
 ^-brick, leaving in the arch two openings ; one, 
 2 feet by 1 foot 6 inches, the other, 9 inches ; 
 square for pump. The walls to be l| brick thick, and those with three floors to be laid 
 close in beaten mortar : the walls of the first two floors to be of the best hard-burnt and 
 
VILLAS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 
 
 873 
 
 picked l)ricks ; the third floor of dressed flooring bricks ; and afterwards the whole to 
 have one coat of cement inside. A waste drain to be laid from this into one of the 
 principal drains conveying the v/ater into the main culvert in the street (which, in this 
 case, is below the basement floor), but first a proper stench-trap to be formed. A 12-inch 
 culvert to be laid in cement from the water-closets into the main culvert or sewer ; 
 smaller drains intersecting the kitchens, &c., where directed; the whole to enter into 
 one drain in each area, where a proper stench-trap and grate are to be formed. To build 
 in the back-kitchen the necessary brickwork for supporting the stone sink, with a brick 
 bench, 2 feet 6 inches by 2 feet, at one end ; and also the brickwork for a copper and 
 furnace, the inside of which is to be lined with fire bricks. All the flues of the respec- 
 tive fireplaces to be built circular, 12 inches in diameter, when the pargeting is laid, 
 except those of the kitchens, which are to be 14 inches in diameter. Two circular flues to 
 be formed in the haunches of the arches, with openings where directed, for the conveyance 
 of hot air from the stoves to the conservatories and other parts. To set aU the grates, 
 ranges, and stoves, required for the several fireplaces, using -fire-brick facings ; to dig out, 
 and form a cold-air duct to supply the stoves as required. To build arches, &e., for the 
 outside steps ; also area walls to the windows, and ^-brick trimming arches to the fire- 
 places of the chamber and attic story. To build the columns of the conservatories with 
 the required reveals, &c., as per plan ; and those of the portico with circular bricks ; both 
 laid in cement. 
 
 1 804. Carpenter and Joiner. All the timber used for the carpenter's work to be of the 
 best description of Memel or Riga fir (except where otherwise directed), perfectly well 
 seasoned, and free from dead knots, shakes, or other defects. The roof to be framed as 
 per plan and sections, the king-posts to be of oak, well screwed up with inch bolts and 
 screws ; the wall-plating and bond to be dovetailed and halved at their angles, and pro- 
 perly scarfed at their joinings. A tier of bond to be laid immediately under the 
 chamber floor throughout all the walls ; and lintels to be laid over the openings of the 
 doors and windows, of the width of the internal walls, and within half a brick of the out- 
 side on the external wall. A proper quantity of old oak wooden bricks to be laid in the 
 jambs of the openings, for the doors and windows. The ground floor joists to be of oak 
 on oak sleepers, and the floors above to be framed (as directed) with two girders in each 
 room, notched down on oak templates, 2 feet 6 inches by 4| inches by 3 inches, with 
 bridging joists, and ceiling beams and joists. The floors to be trimmed at the fire- 
 places ; and each trimming joist to be 9 inches by 3 inches. To provide and fix all the 
 necessary centres for the window, door, and chimney arches, and for the arches support- 
 ing the ground floor; which is to be of l^-inch split battens laid close, and constructed 
 on strong framed ribs, not more than 2^ feet apart, forming the required groins for the 
 doors, windows, &c. The guttering to be laid with inch boarding on Scinch by 3-inch 
 bearers, and the boards to lie 9 inches up the roof ; the valley boards to be |-inch deal, 
 9 inches wide on each face. No floor or ceiling joists, or studs to the partitions, to be more 
 than 12 inches apart. The scantlings of the principal timbers to be as shown and figured 
 on section. The conservatories and part under the portico to be covered with inch 
 boarding, on 3-inch by 4-inch deal bearers (for lead). 
 
 1805. Joiner. All the deals used in the joiner's work to be the best Petersburg or 
 Christiania deals, free from sap and other defects, and well seasoned ; and if any of the 
 work executed by the joiner shall, within the space of six months from its completion, 
 shrink or fly, to the extent of one eighth of an inch, or in any other respect fail, the con- 
 tractor shall, when required by the Architect, make good the same : he is to provide and 
 fix the ironmongery, and all other ironwork mentioned, but not provided for, in the 
 smith's work.— Basement Floor. The doors to the two cellars, shoe-place, pantry, and china- 
 closet to be li-inch proper ledged doors, hung with 12-inch cross garnet hinges, to 
 
 3- inch by 4.inch oak door frames, and on each is to be fixed a 9-inch stock lock, and a 
 Norfolk thumb latch. The two kitchen doors to be l^inch thick, 4 panels and squares, 
 hung with 3-inch cast butt hinges, to l^-inch rebated and rounded jambs ; on each is to 
 be a 7-inch iron and rimmed lock. The outward door (into area) to be 2-inch 6-panel bead 
 flush and square; hung with 4-inch butts to 4-inch by 2i-inch rabbeted frame, and a beaded 
 casing 4 inches by half an inch, and fixed round the jambs and soflSt to the outside. 
 On it fix a 10-inch best iron-rimmed lock, and two 10-inch barrel bolts. The water- 
 closet door to be 1^-inch, 4-paneled and square, hung with 3-inch butts to a 3-inch by 
 
 4- inch door-frame ; and on it fix a 4-inch spring latch. The door to the coal-place to be 
 l|-inch proper ledged ; hung with hooks and riders (bands), fixed in the wall ; with a 10- 
 inch stock lock and Norfolk latch. The ash-pit door to be inch-ledged, hung in the same 
 way, and with a thumb latch. The windows to the best kitchen to be l^-inch ovolo 
 sashes, single hung, with deal-cased frames and oak sills ; and l^-inch framed bead butt 
 shutters, to be made to fold (in two flaps, with a rule joint) against the wall, with a small 
 inch boxing, or architrave, made to receive them ; also inch rounded window boards. 
 
 5 I 
 
874" COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 On each fix proper sash fasteners, and find lines, weights, and pulleys to the sashes. The 
 back kitchen window frame to be a three-light transom, the sill of oak, with l|^-inch 
 York sashes, the centre made to slide ; and in each to fix a sufl^cient nmnber of iron 
 stanchions. Round the inside fix |^-inch linings, with mouldings round, and inch 
 window board. The windows to the pantry, china-closet, and shoe-place to be in two 
 lights made to slide, and in every other respect as the last ; there is also to be a small 
 one-light in the water-closet. Round the best kitchen is to be fixed a 7-inch torus 
 plinth, plugged to the wall ; and a by 1-inch do. round the back kitchen pantry, 
 
 closet, and passage, and also up the (stone) steps leading to the hall. Three tiers of 
 inch shelving, with proper bearers, to be fixed on each side of the pantry and china- 
 closet ; and in the arch of the pantry to fix a meat rail, with meat and game hooks. 
 The water-closet to be fitted up with inch oak, wrought, framed, and clamped seat 
 board on deal bearers ; the flap to be of the same description, hung with 2^-inch butts ; 
 round the seat is to be a 5-inch by ^-inch oak skirting ; and round the floor is to be a 
 5|^-inch by 1-inch deal do. To fix f -inch casings to the pipes where required. — Ground 
 Floor. The front or entrance door to be 2;j-inch double margined, in four panels (as 
 drawing, to be given), with mouldings laid on outside, and reeded and flush inside ; 
 hung with one pair and a half 4-inch butts, to 5-inch by 3-inch jambs. Round the jambs 
 and soffit outside fix 3^-inch by ^-inch beaded casing (behind which the stucco will 
 finish). A moulded and rabbeted transom i-ail to be framed in the jambs; and over 
 the door provide and fix a metal fanlight. A 12-inch best iron-rimmed drawback lock, 
 with brass furniture, to be fixed on this door; also two 12-inch brass barrel bolts, and 
 an iron door-chain. The doors to the two sitting-rooms to be of l|-inch stuff, in four 
 panels, double margined, and moulded on both sides; to be hung to l|^-inch rabbeted 
 linings, with 4-inch brass rising butts. On each is to be fixed a mortise-lock, with 
 ebony furniture, the prime cost of which is to be 15s. each. The door to the basement 
 to be 1^-inch deal, in four panels, moulded and square, hung with 3^-inch butts, to 
 5-inch by 1^-inch rabbeted jambs ; and to have a 9-inch iron-rimmed lock fixed on it. The 
 doors from the hall to the conservatories to be 2|^-inch sash-doors, with diminished 
 styles, hung to 5-inch by l^^-inch jambs, with one pair and a half 3-inch butts, having a 
 best mortise lock, with ebony furniture on each ; l|^-inch shutters to be provided for these 
 doors, with proper fastenings and bars (the whole more fully described by the working 
 drawings) ; the two doors leading out of the rooms into the conservatories to be of the 
 same description, with shutters, &c. (which will also be described more fully by draw- 
 ings at large). The doors to the hall and sitting-rooms to have 52^-inch by l|^-inch 
 architraves round, with frieze and cornice. The windows to the sitting-rooms to have 
 2-inch sashes and cased frames, with oak sills and pulley pieces ; the sashes to be double 
 hung with l|-inch best brass axle pulleys, having patent sash fasteners, lines, weights, &c. 
 Each window to have boxing shutters, framed with 1^-inch moulded front flap, the other 
 J^-inch square; to make also proper boxings, with inch back lining and grounds, and 
 a 5^-inch moulded architrave round. Also a l|-inch framed and moulded dado to 
 correspond with the shutters, backs, elbows, and soffits. On each set of shutters to fix 
 two 1 8-inch shutter bars, and two brass shutter latches, with ebony furniture. The 
 sashes to the conservatories to be of 2-inch double hung, with frames, &c., as last de- 
 scribed. The finishings, &c., shown by the working drawings. The floors of the 
 sitting-rooms to be laid with inch red deal, in narrow boards, and edge-nailed. Proper 
 margins to be laid round the hearth-stones : 2^-inch by f-inch grounds to be fixed 
 round these rooms, as well as the hall and staircase; and upon them is to be a 10-inch 
 double-moulded plinth, with backings and furrings. — Chamber Floor. The doors in 
 this story to be of 1^-inch deal, moulded and square, hung with 3-inch butts to 1^-inch 
 linings. Round the door in the landing is to be a 5^-inch moulded architrave, and on 
 the inner side of rooms a single moulding ; and on each is to be fixed a mortise-lock, 
 with ebony furniture ; except the closets, which are to have 7-inch iron-rimmed locks. 
 The windows to have if -inch sashes, double hung, with case frames, oak sills, and pulley 
 pieces, with lines, weights, &c., complete, as before described on the ground floor. A 
 |-inch lining, with single mould, and inch window-board to be fixed to each window. 
 The floors to be of inch deal narrow boards, laid folding, with proper margins. The 
 grounds to be fixed as chamber floors where required; and a 7-inch by 1-inch ditto 
 moulded plinth to be fixed round each room and closets. The plinth round the landing 
 to be the same as that on the ground floor. The water-closet to be fitted up with 
 inch clamped Spanish mahogany seat, on deal 3|^-inch by 3-inch bearers and stand- 
 ards ; the flap to be of the same description, beaded and clamped ; and on one side 
 there is to be a 12-inch by 6-inch paper-box, to be framed with coves. The riser to be 
 ^-inch mahogany, fiamed and beaded in one panel ; round the closet is to be a 6-inch 
 by i-inch mahogany moulded skirting. To fix proper linings and casings to the pipes. 
 To frame a cistern over the closet, out of I^-inch dovetailed. Angle beads to be fixed to 
 
VILLAS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 
 
 all angles. — Attic Floor. The doors to be of l:i-inch deal, four-panel and square ; hung 
 with 2|-inch butts to l:|-inch rabbeted linings, and rounded, and a spring latch with a bolt 
 to each. The windows to have l|-inch moulded sashes and frames as before, single 
 hung, &c., complete ; to have J-inch linings, with inch window-board and mouldings 
 round. A 5|^-inch by 1-inch torus plinth, plugged, to be fixed round each room, land- 
 ing, &c., on this story. The floors to be of inch deal, laid folding as below. — The 
 staircase is to be built on three deal carriages, geometrically hung on three bearers, and 
 fastened at the bottom to an oak sill. The carriages to be 4 inches by 2^ inches, laid 
 flatwise ; and the bearers and sills to be of old oak, 6 inches by 4 inches. The treads to 
 be of l^-inch deal, the riser of inch deal, and boxed to string, with moulded and returned 
 nosings and cut brackets. The strings to be moulded to correspond with the skirting in 
 the hall, in the ground plan. The bottom step to be curtail (the bottom step to be 
 longer than the others, and made to curl round in the same manner and form, and to the 
 same extent, as the scroll of the handrail). The handrail to be of the best Spanish ma- 
 hogany, 2^ inches by 2^ inches, moulded and sunk, and French polished, with proper 
 ramps, scroUs, twists, &c., to sweep of stairs. The fascia round the landing, and string 
 to the stairs, to be of inch deal, double sunk and beaded to receive the plaster ceiling. 
 The balusters to be of inch deal, and in every third step a wrought-iron one to be fixed ; 
 and on the curtail step is to be fixed a turned iron newel. To provide the necessary 
 screws for the rail. The upper staircase to be of inch deal treads and risers on two 
 carriages, with bearers and brackets. Rail skirting, &c., as before. 
 
 1806. Slater and Plasterer. To cover the whole of the building with the best imperial 
 slates, nailed in two places with copper nails, on 2-inch by |-inch deal sawn laths ; 
 the whole to be well torched. The walls and arches of the two kitchens, the passage, 
 the china-closet, the water-closet, to be rendered and set : those of the hall staircase, 
 and landing above, and the two rooms on the ground floor, to be finished, troweled with 
 stucco (three coats). Those of the chamber and water-closet to have three coats of bastard 
 stucco, as well as all partitions. The walls of the attic story to be rendered and set ; 
 the ceilings to the ground floor to be L. P. F. (lath, plaster, and float), and set white ; 
 also the chamber story. Those of the attic story to be two coats on reeds, and three 
 times white. The contractor to include the sum of £ 30 in his estimate for inside 
 plaster cornices and flowers. — The outside to be stuccoed with quicklime and river 
 sand, in the proportion as directed, except the cornices, frieze, columns, and all other 
 projections, which are to be in cement, as particularly shown by drawings at large, 
 &c. The chamber floors and partition to the water-closet to be well pugged (pugging 
 is a composition of sand and plaster, or common mortar, laid between the joists or studs, 
 to prevent the transmission of sounds, or dust rising from the joints of the floor). 
 
 1 807. Stone-Mason. To provide and fix Mansfield stone front steps, and all other 
 stonework connected therewith, as particularly shown by drawings at large ; as well as a 
 Mansfield stone terrace, 3 inches thick. Fix stone curbs to the area gratings of the 
 windows, 6 inches by 4 inches and a half, well cramped and leaded together. Also a 
 stone, 2 feet square, over the rain-water cistern, as well as one to an opening to the coal- 
 place. A stone sink with plug-hole, 4 feet by 2 feet 4 inches. To cover the water- 
 closet of the basement with stone as terrace. To provide and fix Attleborough stone 
 sills to all the windows, 10 inches by 6 inches and a half, properly weathered and 
 throated : to provide a proper Mansfield stone for the pump. To lay the hall floor 
 with rubbed Hopton stone in diagonal quarries. To lay Hopton stone hearths, and 
 Yorkshire back hearths to the two sitting-rooms, 4 feet by 1 foot 10 inches ; to lay 
 rubbed York stone hearths (and back hearths) in eaqh fireplace of the bed-rooms, 
 3 feet 8 inches by 1 foot 8 inches. The staircase to the basement story from the hall, 
 as well as the steps into the area, and from the terrace into the garden, to be of solid 
 Mansfield stone ; to provide and fix stone architrave over the columns and through the 
 walls (as shown by the plans). 
 
 1808. Plumber and Glazier. To lay aU the lead gutters with 7-pound cast sheet-lead, 
 with 2-inch drips, to extend, in all places, 9 inches up the roof and 4 inches up the 
 wall ; with a lead flashing of 5 pounds to the foot, at least 5 inches deep. All the hips, 
 valleys, and ridges to be laid with 5-pound lead ; the top of the conservatories, and 
 under the portico, with 6-pound lead. To line the cistern of the water-closet with 
 7-pound lead. To fix a pump with 3|^-inch brass forcing apparatus, with every thing 
 necessary for the same, oak standards, stage, stays, cheeks, &c., complete ; and 2^-inch 
 suction pipe, stop, bib, cock, and 2-inch best screw bottom. To branch a 2-inch rising 
 main into the cistern of the water-closet ; also a branch of l|^-inch pipe from this main, 
 with best brass cocks, &c., for the copper in the back kitchen. To put a half-inch 
 warning-pipe from the cistern to a convenient place near the pump ; and another 
 1^-inch pipe, with brass cock, &c., to be laid into the conservatory, where directed. 
 To provide and fix in the back kitchen a lead rain-water pump, with 2-inch suction 
 
876 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 pipe, and 3^-inch cylinder, with oak standard plank, wrought-iron lift, and cheeks, 
 complete. To provide and fix a set of Hardcastle's best water-closet apparatus, with 
 service cistern and pipe, cranks, wires, &c., complete; and a 4-inch soil pipe to the 
 culvert ; also a self-acting water-closet in the area below, with lead service pipe, wires, 
 cranks, and soil pipe, as for the otlier water-closet. The conservatories, and the whole 
 of the windows, to be glazed with the best crown glass, except those of the basement 
 floor, which are to be of the best seconds. The whole of the work usually painted to 
 be done three times over in oil, and the outside to have four coats in oil. 
 
 1 809. Remarks. Considering this as a suburban dwelling, where the great object is 
 concentration, we think its Architects have been successful in adopting an economical 
 form ; and in making the most of the different floors. The arrangement of the base- 
 ment story is very satisfactory, and the idea of adding to the width of the open area by 
 vaulting, open in front, is worthy of imitation in other places. This might even have 
 been carried farther, and a wash-house and cleaning-place might have been obtained in 
 this manner at h h. The flue from the boiler might easily be carried across the area 
 over an arch or buttress. The operation of washing ought never to be performed in 
 the basement story of a house, if it can possibly be avoided, on account of the soapy 
 steam which must inevitably ascend into the living-rooms. When washing must be 
 carried on in the basement story, a hood should be formed at a convenient height above 
 the boiler, and from it there should be a funnel connected with an air-flue, built so close 
 to the flue of the furnace, as that the Avarmth of the latter might create a di-aught in the 
 former. Air-flues for ventilation should indeed always be formed in kitchens, sculleries, 
 and wash-houses. The party wall between the two dwellings appears to be only nine 
 inches thick, which seems to us to be dangerous, with reference to the chance of fire 
 happening to break out in either house. About London, the party wall of such a building 
 is required by law to be not less than eighteen inches in thickness ; but even that is too 
 little, where this wall, as in the case before lis, contains all the flues. The flues in this 
 Design are carried up in thick projections, as indicated by the jambs of the fireplaces in 
 fig. 1542. There a^ e, however, no lath and plaster partitions, the absence of which is a 
 great impediment to the spread of fire, when it has once broken out. Whoever lives in 
 a house, the interior of which is subdivided by lath and plaster partitions, and which has 
 hollow boarded floors, with a wooden staircase, is scarcely safer that if he dwelt over a 
 mine of gunpowder ; as, if any part of such a house should be accidentally ignited, it 
 would be hardly possible to stop the rapid spread of the flames. The plan of arching 
 over the whole of the basement story with brickwork, § 1803, is excellent, in point of 
 strength, safety from fire, and for deadening the sounds proceeding from below. Indeed, 
 we are persuaded that the time must shortly arrive when all houses will either have 
 arched floors of this kind, or floors of some other description of masonry, to prevent the 
 spread of fire either upwards or downwards from any apartment where it may break out. 
 By means of iron girders, flat arches may be formed over wide apartments ; and, for small 
 rooms of every kind, we see no objection whatever to semicircular arches, which, as they 
 have no lateral thrust, would require no extra thickness in the walls. A great object in 
 point of external effect would be gained by highly arched ceilings ; because the character 
 of strength would be heightened by the increased depth of space between the tops of the 
 windows on one floor, and the sills of those over them. This is one grand cause of the 
 expression of strength in ancient castles, and in the buildings of Florence and other cities 
 of Tuscany. Great care is requisite in heating so small a house by hot air ; which, even 
 when managed in the best manner, is, in a confined space, apt to come in currents, and the 
 effect of a current, whether of hot or cold air, is much more powerful in suddenly raising 
 or lowering the temperature than a greater degree of heat or cold without motion in the 
 air. In consequence of this, we have observed that persons who live in houses heated 
 by hot-air stoves are particularly liable to catch cold, even without going out of the 
 house. We are quite satisfied on this point by our own experience, having had our own 
 house heated several years since in the most scientific manner by the late Mr. Sylvester, 
 and having been obliged, from the cause mentioned, to give it up, and adopt hot water. 
 Mr. Sylvester's plan is by no means liable to the same objection, in the case of heating 
 very large houses. The great extent of steps on each side of the entrance front seems 
 out of proportion to the entrance itself ; but these steps must be looked upon as a con- 
 trivance to conceal the area, and more as a stage for plants in pots, than as a flight of 
 steps. In point of taste, we should have preferred enclosing the two green-houses, or 
 plant cabinets, with piers and flat arches, to employing either round or square columns ; 
 but still we acknowledge that the round Doric columns, shown in the Design, admit 
 more light, both to the plants and to the glass door which connects the green-house 
 with the room. It will be observed by the plan, fig. 1541, that the glass case which 
 encloses the plants is totally distinct from the circular columns. This is highly proper, 
 because nothing is more inconsistent with the principles of strength and fitness, than to 
 
VILLAS IN, VARIOUS STYLES. 
 
 877 
 
 see round columns joined either to panels of glass or wood, or to flat walls. Had 
 piers and arches, or square columns been employed, of course the glazed panels would 
 have been joined to them, which would have been equally proper ; because the junction 
 is equally consistent with strength, and more so with fitness, than if the glass case had 
 been an independent structure ; for its junction with the right-angled supports offers a 
 sufficient reason for their being so. Whether round or square columns were employed 
 in front of the conservatory, we should in either case have omitted altogether the pro- 
 jection above, supported by four Corinthian coluntms, which gives the edifice the expres- 
 sion of a public building, and which we consider as quite uncalled for in a private house, 
 even if the whole of this double villa were but one dwelling. We are quite aware that 
 the introduction of columns and projections in this manner is justified by the practice 
 of many who bear great names among modern Architects ; but we have no more doubt 
 of its being essentially in bad taste, than we should have of the bad taste of a labourer, 
 who arrayed himself in his holiday clothes to do his every-day work. In short, this 
 projection is a mere excrescence ; a kind of mimicry of "a part of Roman Architecture 
 rather than an adaptation of it; and, in point of fitness, it is rather injurious than useful, 
 because it shades the windows under it. Were it entirely removed, and a part of the 
 roof, and the chimney-stacks shown, the effect of the edifice would be highly respectable 
 as a dwelling-house ; as it is, the expression is something between that of a dwelling- 
 house and that of a public building. 
 
 Design XIII. — A small Grecian Villa or Casino, to he placed on an Eminence, com- 
 manding extensive Prospects in two Directions only. 
 
 1810. The Situation is supposed to be elevated, and the approach to be a straight 
 avenue, bordered by an irregular phalanx of evergreen trees and shrubs, so as to be 
 impenetrable to the eye on both sides, as shown in the general plan, fig. 1543, in which 
 
 a is the avenue, and h b the direction of the two principal views ; c, walks round to the 
 kitchen court and back entrance ; d, a wire fence enclosing the lawn ; e, groups of low 
 shrubs and flowers ; and /, scattered groups of trees. On approaching the house, the 
 view within 300 yards will be as in fig. 1544, and the stranger will enter without any 
 expectation of enjoying a prospect from the rooms ; but whether he is ushered into the 
 dining-room or drawingroom, he will be agreeably surprised to find that he has been 
 mistaken. 
 
878 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 1811. Accommodation. The plan of the principal floor, fig. 1545, shows a vestibule, 
 a, circular in the plan, ten feet in diameter, and with a domed ceiling ; the dining-room, 
 
 Fi-ip 0 10 20 30 Ft. 
 [ t ^ ' ^ ' ' ' ' ' ' I I i 
 
 b ; drawingroom, c, eighteen feet by twelve feet, and ten feet and a half high ; a 
 kitchen, d ; scullery, e ; pantry, /; water-closet, ; and closets to the dining-room 
 and drawingroom, h h. The bed-room floor contains three good bed-rooms, a smaller 
 bed-room, and two bed-rooms for servants. The space marked x , in the dining-room 
 and drawingroom, is roofed flat, and covered with lead, so as to form balconies to two 
 of the bed-rooms. . 
 
 1812. General Estimate. Cubic contents, 24,560 feet; which, at 6c?., is .£614. 
 
 1813. Remarks, This is an elegant Design, well adapted for a particular situation; 
 
VILLAS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 
 
 879 
 
 and for the occupation of a family of not more than two or three persons, with two ser- 
 vants, but without children. The author of this Design, and also of the Italian parsonage 
 Design IX., is William Bardwell Esq., a London Architect, who has distinguished 
 himself by erecting cottages for the poor, on his own estate at Blackheath, and letting 
 them at moderate rents; by a magnificent plan for the improvement of Westminster ; and 
 by various other benevolent and patriotic schemes. 
 
 Design XIV. — A Villa in the Old Scotch Style, erected, in 1831, at Springfield, near 
 
 Glasgow, 
 
 1814. The Situation of this house is three miles north of Glasgow, on a hilly and 
 somewhat irregular surface. The oflSces at Springfield are at a short distance from the 
 house, owing to some local peculiarities ; but in this Design they are placed near to 
 it ; as being more convenient, supposing the whole to be executed in a locality where 
 nothing prevented the adoption of this arrangement. The general appearance, on 
 
 approaching the entrance front, is as shown in fig. 1546, and a nearer view of the same 
 front is given in fig. 1547. The principal views are towards Ben Lomond, the Vale of 
 Clyde, and the Campsie Fells. Every one who has seen the house of a Scotch laird, 
 
 erected during the seventeenth century, will allow that this is a very good imitation of 
 the old Scotch manner, which, like the laird himself, was dignified but severe, and 
 forbidding Yather than inviting. There is something too commonplace and town-like 
 in the iron rails and sunk area ; and, though porches were xmknown to the old Scotch 
 villa, yet the Architect would have been perfectly justified in adding one to this Design , 
 provided, in doing so, he adhered to the generalstyle, and manner of the building. It 
 must always be recollected, that, in imitating any style we are not limited to copying par- 
 ticular forms ; but are required to enter into the spirit of the subject or style to which they 
 belong, and to form a new composition in that spirit, adapted to whatever use it may be 
 required for. When we hear, therefore, of Architects statiner that there is no precedent 
 
880 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 for such and such things in the models which they take for imitation, we consider that 
 it shows a want of comprehensive views, and indicates that man is a slave of his profes- 
 sion, rather than the master of it. It is, however, proper to observe that the object of 
 the Architect may be, to produce such an imitation as may actually be mistaken for the 
 thing imitated. For example, Mr. Cleland may wish his villa to be taken for a real old 
 Scotch house ; in which case nothing that is not generally found in such houses should 
 be introduced. This, however, is a low style of art, and is to original composition 
 in Architecture what portrait painting is to historical painting ; drawing from an 
 individual instead of from the species. Any builder may copy a style, but it requires an 
 Architect to compose in it. One reason why churches afford so little pleasure as archi- 
 tectural compositions, in proportion to their great cost, is, that they are, for the most 
 part, fac similes of one another ; or, at any rate, that they are more so than any other 
 class of buildings, public or private, whatsoever. 
 
 r ' 
 
 A 1 
 
 k 
 
 } 1 
 
 
 m. 
 
 i 
 
 
 154H 
 
 Ft. 10 5 0 
 
 i I M t J I i -l-L-U 
 
VILLAS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 
 
 881 
 
 1815. Accommodation. The principal floor, fig. 1548, contains a vestibule, a, opening 
 to a hall and staircase ; a parlour, 6 ; store-room, or study, c ; dining-room, d ; butler's 
 pantry, e ; and sunk area, /. There is a back court, g ; two-stalled stable, h ; place for 
 fuel, i ; chaise-house, k ; wash-house, I ; and dung-pit, m. The basement floor, fig. 1549, 
 
 1549 
 
 Ft. 10 
 
 contains a wine-cellar, n ; beer-cellar, o ; laimdry, p ; servants' room, q ; kitchen, r ; 
 scullery, s; bath-room, t; and sunk area, u. The upper floor, fig. 1550, contains a 
 
 1550 
 
 small bed-chamber with a fireplace, v; drawingroom, w; bed-chamber, x; principal 
 bed-chamber, y, in which there is a water-closet ; chil(^en's bed-room, or dressing- 
 room, z J and another water-closet, a'. 
 
 5 k 
 
COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 882 
 
 1816. Construction. Fig. 1551 is the elevation of the entrance front, and fig. 1552 
 that of one end. The walls are of stone. The roofs are supported by corbel-stones. 
 
 shown in fig. 1553 : the roofs have no guders at the eaves, but there are lead gutters 
 along the roofs, a little way above the eaves, which collect most of the water, and 
 
 carrv it across the garrets to a central gutter, from which it descends by pipes at each 
 eXftersuTplyTnf^^ above the level of the two upper water-closets. In houses 
 
 of this kin7t&^ on the basement are invariably arched over wxth masonry, which 
 t no only an efficient defence against the spread of fire, but, m feudal ^"^^^^^^^ 
 added to the security of the family living in the floors above. In houses so constructed 
 
VILLAS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 
 
 883 
 
 there will invariably be found a large blank space in the external walls between the 
 small windows of the offices in the basement story, and the larger lofty windows of the 
 living-rooms over it. 
 
 1553 
 
 Ft. 1 1 0 20 40 Ft. 
 
 1 ■ 1 1 I I : ■ . I 1 [ : ] ^1 
 
 Fig. 1554 shows the stone cornice under the eaves of the roof, to a scale of two inches 
 and three quarters to a foot. 
 
 Fig. 1555 shows the moulding to the tops of the chimney shafts. 
 
 Fig. 1556 shows the moulding to the sills of the windows, a; and tliat round the 
 windows, b. 
 
884 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 Fig. 1557 shows the section of the architraves of the doors and windows of the two 
 principal floors. 
 
 Fig. 1558 shows the mouldings round the panels of the principal doors. • 
 Fig. 1559 shows the moulding on the ceiling of the drawingroom cornice. 
 Fig. 1560 shows the skirting of the parlour. 
 Fig. 1561 shows the skirting of the dining-room. 
 
 Fig. 1562 shows the moulding on the wall under the coving of the drawingroom 
 cornice. 
 
 Fig. 1563 shows the dining-room cornice, and fig. 1564 shows the parlour cornice. 
 All these figures are to the same scale, of two inches and three quarters to a foot. None 
 of the cornices or mouldings are enriched. 
 
 1817. Estimate. The following is the actual cost of this building: — Mason's work, 
 £495; carpenter's work, £S20; plumber, £60; slater, £30; plasterer, £50; * 
 marble for chimney-pieces, &c. £45 : in all, £1000. This sum does not include the 
 offices nor the turrets. 
 
 1818. Remarks. We are indebted for this Design to William Reid, Esq., Architect, 
 Tradestown, Glasgow, by whom it was planned and executed for David Scales Cleland, 
 Esq., in 1831. It is rendered particiolarly valuable by the sections of the mouldings, and 
 by the other details of construction. 
 
VILLAS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 
 
 885 
 
 Design XV. — A Mansion, in the Style of a Scotch Baronial House of the Sixteenth 
 Century, with the Accommodation and Arrangements suitable to a Villa of the Nineteenth. 
 Century. 
 
 1819. Accommodation. The general appearance of this villa is shown in fig. 1566, 
 and the ground plan in fig. 1565. In the latter are, a, outer lobby; b, inner lobby; 
 c, butler's room ; d, waiting-room ; c, housekeeper's room ; /, great staircase ; g, servants' 
 hall ; h, passage ; i, water-closet ; k, kitchen ; I, back stairs to the dining-room ; m, covered 
 passage ; n, scullery ; a, wash-house and laundry ; p, men-servants' water-closet ; 
 q, women-servants' ditto ; r, lobby ; s, coal-house ; t, dairy ; u, potato-house ; v, coach or 
 gig-house ; w, stable for four horses ; x, cow-house ; y, open court ; z, gratings to the cellars, 
 
 1565 
 
 
 
 
 
 < 
 
 
 
 
 
 * i 
 
 1 
 
 w 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 4^ 
 
 below the back part of the house, for wine, beer, &c. Fig. 1567 shows the plan of the 
 principal floor, which contains, a, stairs to the bed-rooms or attics ; b, lobby ; c, diaw- 
 ingroom ; d, boudoir ; e, closet off the boudoir ; f, water-closet off ditto ; g, library ; 
 h, great staircase ; i, dining-room ; k, passage ; I, parlour, or principal bed-room j 
 m, back stairs from the kitchen, and leading up to bed-rooms above. 
 
 1820. Construction. The walls, in this style, are invariably of stone; the windows 
 and doors of the principal part of the building have hewn facings, and also the chimney 
 tops, the battlements, the cornices, and the crow-steps. The roofs are steep, and covered 
 with grey slate. Fig. 1568 is the south or front elevation; in which, on the left, may 
 
 9 
 
888 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 be seen a projection, n, serving as a finish to the turret, which formed the bartisan, or 
 watchtower; the watchman walking backwards and forwards between that and the 
 corresponding projection, o, at the other end of the line of battlements. Fig. 1569 is 
 the eastern elevation ; and fig. 1570 the western elevation. 
 
 1821. Description and Observations. This Design has been sent us by David 
 Cousin, Esq., Architect, Edinburgh, accompanied by the following observations : — 
 «' In this Design, I have endeavoured to adhere closely to examples of the style cha- 
 racterised by turrets, gables, steep roofs, high chimneys, bartisans, &c., which may, with 
 propriety, be called the style of the Scottish Manor House. The examples which I have 
 taken for precedents are the following : — Gogar House, near Edinburgh ; the Dean 
 House ; Audie Castle, and Tulliebole, in Kinross-shire ; Friars' Carse (an engraving of 
 which may be seen in Picturesque Views of Scotland, by A. De Cardonnel) ; Dairsie 
 Castle; Castle Grantully; and Craig Crook; some idea of most of which may be 
 formed from views of them in Forsyth's Beauties of Scotland. I am not antiquary 
 enough to hazard any decided opinion as to the proper age to which this peculiar style 
 
VILLAS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 
 
 889 
 
 of Architecture may be assigned; and, as I have not been able to lay my hands on any 
 work treating on the subject, I speak merely from the opinions which I have formed 
 perhaps hastily enough, from examining some of these interesting remams of antiquity. 
 It appears to me that the existing combinations which we find in many of the best 
 examples, and which I have endeavom-ed to imitate, have not been the result ot one 
 effort, but of several ; and that the massive square or circular tower, with its loopholes 
 and battlements, which gives these edifices such a lofty and commanding aspect, was the 
 original part of the fabric, the other parts being subsequent additions, suited to the 
 increased wants and refinement of a later age. The date of the one part, I think, we 
 may, with propriety, assign to the end of the thirteenth or the beginning of the fourteenth 
 century ; that of the others (the additions, if we may so call them), to the early part or 
 middle of the sixteenth century. The leading features of these additions are evidently 
 different from those of the original building (which was generally castellated), and were 
 
 5 L 
 
890 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE, 
 
 probably introduced into this country from France. This appears the more likely, as 
 we find, in many instances, that the French have had great influence on the manners 
 and customs of the Scots ; and whoever has seen any of the French chateaux of the 
 sixteenth century, will at once recognise the striking resemblance which subsists between 
 them and buildings of the same age in Scotland. The wine and beer cellars, &c., 
 I propose should be under the ground floor, and communicate with it, either by a stair 
 from the interior, commencing below the steps of the great staircase, or by an outside 
 stair from the court, placed m the circular tower. The whole of the ground floor of 
 this Design, I propose to appropriate to the servants' apartments ; not only because I am 
 borne out, in this manner of arrangement, by almost all the examples of this style of 
 building which I have seen, but because the expression of the elevations requires it 
 should be so ; as they do not admit of large windows on the ground floor ; small open- 
 ings being used, as possessing greater security. The walls of the ground floor, in this 
 description of dwelling, were, in general, very thick ; and the ceilings were formed of 
 stone arches, of a semicircular form. The great staircase, I propose, should be carried 
 no higher than the level of the first flat (floor) ; and that the ceiling should be formed 
 on the same level with the other apartments. By this means we get rid of the attic 
 window shown in the elevation, which would come in rather awkwardly. The stairs to 
 the attics are there placed in the space above the entrance lobbies. The interior finishing 
 ought to be plain, rather than otherwise ; this style not admitting of groined ceilings, 
 pointed Gothic arches, or other details of finishing peculiar to the Old English Manor 
 House; but rather of that mongrel Grecian sort, which sprang up in the sixteenth 
 century, at the introduction of what has been called the classic style of Architecture." 
 
 1822. Remarks. This style, whatever may be its origin, is obviously highly character- 
 istic ; and, like that of the Old English Manor House, it admits of an unlimited extent 
 of additions, spread out in any, or in every direction. Both are, therefore, essentially- 
 progressive styles, and are suitable for an age and country where mankind generally are 
 improving in their manner of living; or where individuals are fluctuating in their 
 fortunes. It cannot he recommended as the most economical style, because it departs 
 too far from the cube, or plain parallelogram ; but, in a country where the majority of 
 mansions are in one or other of the economical styles, this may be resorted to as a source 
 of variety, and of original character. As the residence of a Scotsman, in a foreign 
 country, it might raise up many associations connected with his native land ; and, though 
 many of these might not be of the most agreeable kind to a liberal and enlightened 
 mind (for the Scots, in the sixteenth century, and long afterwards, were in a state of 
 feudal bondage), yet still, every thing connected with a man's native land, and with the 
 days of his youth, recalls pleasing emotions to his mind. When the Americans have 
 increased in wealth and refinement, and have leisure, not only to build commodious and 
 substantial houses, but edifices displaying architectural style and taste, then it is probable 
 that they will have recourse to the ancient Architecture of the parent country ; and to 
 those kinds or varieties of it which prevailed in the particular localities of their ancestors. 
 In this point of view, the collection of published views of ancient British buildings wUl 
 be of great value to future American Architects ; for an American family, in the twen- 
 tieth century, may order a design for a villa, in the style that prevailed in the particular 
 locality of the parent country, at the time of the emigration of their ancestors. 
 
 Design XVI. — A Cottage Villa, built at Chailey in Sussex, for General St. John. 
 
 1823. The Situation of this residence is on an eminence facing the south, and com~ 
 manding extensive views of the South Downs and the adjacent country to the right 
 and left. Some idea of the general arrangement may be obtained from the bird's-eye 
 or isometrical view, fig. 1571 ; in which a is the approach ; b, a pond in the return circle 
 of the approach ; c, rising grounds, beautifully wooded in the natural style ; d, sunk 
 fence, separating the pleasure-ground from the park ; e, flower-garden ; /, candelabra 
 fountains, of Austin's artificial stone, supplied from the pond, g ; h, kitchen-garden ; 
 i, melon-ground ; k, orchard ; /, rocky ridge, covered with bushes and trees ; m, the 
 river Newick ; n, natural oak woods ; o, terrace walk ; p, border for flowering shrubs ; 
 and q, the park. 
 
 1824. The House is shown on a larger scale in fig. 1572; and fig. 1573 is the ground 
 plan. In this last figure are shown, a, a porch twelve feet wide, and sixteen feet six 
 inches long, under which carriages drive to set down or take up ; b, an entrance hall, 
 entered by two folding doors ; c, lobby, entered by a glass door ; d, principal staircase, 
 lighted from the roof; e, back staircase to the servants' sleeping-rooms in the roof; 
 /, dining-room, twenty-four feet four inches by eighteen feet four inches ; g, billiard- 
 room, twenty-three feet four inches by sixteen feet four inches ; and h, drawingroom, 
 twenty-four feet four inches by eighteen feet four inches. The height of these three 
 rooms is twelve feet. The billiard-room may be separated from the drawingroom by 
 
a 
 
VILLAS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 
 
 893 
 
 housekeeper's room, with a large closet, and a door communicating with the laundry, p ; 
 q, conservatory, twenty-seven feet by twelve feet : r, paved walk from the conservatory 
 to the veranda ; s, servants' hall ; t, butler's pantry ; u, kitchen ; v, swing-door to ex- 
 clude smells ; w, larder ; x, scullery, lighted by a sash-door, y ; k, trap-door to cellar ; 
 and z, kitchencoixrt. The stable-offices are at some distance. 
 
 1825. Construction. The walls are built of a compact sandstone, dug from quarries 
 in the neighbourhood. When highly finished, this stone is more expensive than brick ; 
 but in common rubble work, for outbuildings, workmen's cottages, &c., it is scarcely 
 more than two thirds of the price of nine-inch brickwork. The roof and the veranda 
 are thatched with reeds; these are more expensive than slates, but they contribute 
 powerfully to give a cottage character to the building ; and, where there are rooms in 
 the roof, reeds are found both cooler in summer and warmer in winter, than either slates 
 or tiles. 
 
 1 826. Remarks. What we particularly admire in this Design is, the carriage entrance 
 porch. It is seldom that porches, sufficiently wide for carriages to drive under, are built 
 to any house beneath the character of a mansion ; but they contribute so much to the 
 comfort of the occupant and his visiters, that we think every house or cottage which boasts a 
 coach-house or gig-house ought also to have a carriage porch. The necessary width of 
 such a porch will often prevent it from looking well as a lean-to ; but we have here an 
 admirable specimen of the manner in which not only width, but length and height, may 
 be obtained, consistently with character and beauty. We are indebted for this Design 
 to the kindness of Joshua Mantell, Esq., of Newick, for whom the sketches were made 
 by James Hurdis, Esq., of the same place, the Architect, we believe, of the cottage. The 
 interior arrangement is good, and the general appearance qviite characteristic of a cottage 
 villa. The grounds, as far as we can judge from fig. 1571, want grouping, and connection 
 
 ; among the parts ; and some of the lines formed by the fences and walks are objectionable. 
 A few single trees, and small groups, however, would go far towards removing this de- 
 formity. It must be confessed, however, that it is extremely difficult to judge of what 
 ought, or what ought not, to be done with grounds, without seeing them. In a bird's- 
 eye view, like fig. 1571, a good deal of the pictorial effect is often sacrificed for the sake 
 of giving the information of a map, or general plan. Objects may, also, appear scat- 
 tered and imconnected in a bird's-eye view, which may yet form connected and har- 
 monious landscapes, when viewed by the eye at the ordinary height of a man walking 
 or riding. 
 
 Design XVII. — A Villa in the Old English Style, the Idea taken from the Ruins of 
 Berwick House, in Wiltshire. 
 
 1827. The General Appearance of this villa is shown in fig. 1574, and fig. 1575 is an 
 elevation of the porch. Fig. 1576 is a cross section of the porch, showing the oak door. 
 
 which is four feet wide, and eight feet high. Fig. 1577 is the parapet over the bays, 
 the open work of which is two feet and a half high, with a plinth of ten inches high, a 
 frieze of six inches, and a coved, cornice of eight inches Fig. 1578 is a view of the fire- 
 
894^ COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 Fig. 1579 is a 
 
 place of the entrance hall, seen immediately opposite the entrance door, 
 view of one of the chimney tops. 
 
 1828. Accommodation. The 
 plan of the principal floor, fig. 
 1580, shows an entrance porch, 
 a; and hall, twenty feet by 
 eighteen feet, and twelve feet 
 high, h ; dining-room, twenty- 
 one feet by eighteen feet, c ; 
 drawingroom of the same di- 
 mensions, c?; library, twenty 
 feet by eighteen feet, e j princi- 
 pal staircase, /; stairs to the 
 kitchen, g • servants' hall, h j 
 butler's pantry, i ; housekeeper's 
 room, k ; with closets for stores, 
 I; back stairs up to the bed- 
 rooms, m ; and passage, lighted 
 from the back stairs window, n. 
 Fig. 1581 shows the kitchen 
 floor, which extends below the 
 back part of the house only, in 
 which o is the kitchen ; p, the 
 cooking stoves ; q, the kitchen- 
 range ; r, the back entrance ; 
 
 s, the scullery, containing an open fireplace, oven, and boiler ; t, the dry larder, with a 
 1576 
 
 1577 
 
 1578 
 
 table in the centre, u, for cold meat; r, the meat larder; zr, the coal 
 for bottles, shoes, lumber, &c. ; y, stairs up to the principal 
 floor, indicated by g in fig. 1580; and z, the sunk areas. 
 Fig. 1582 is a plan of the chamber floor, in which a and c are 
 the two best bed-rooms, with their dressing-rooms, h and d ; e 
 is a passage lighted from the back stairs window ; /, four bed- 
 rooms ; and g, a dressing-room. 
 
 1829. The Stable Offices are shown in figs. 1583 and 1584. 
 The former contains two double coach-houses, thirty feet by 
 thirteen feet, a ; two three-stalled stables, twenty feet by twenty 
 feet, h ; a two-stalled stable, seventeen feet by thirteen feet, c ; 
 a lobby, twenty feet by ten feet, d, with a staircase to the hay- 
 loft ; a harness-room, ten feet by ten feet, with a fireplace, e ; 
 and two loose boxes for hunters, /. In the two principal stables 
 are two trunks for letting down the hay from the lofts, g ; 
 and corn bins, the lids of which serve as seats, h. ^ The trunks 
 are about twenty inches square, and the corn bins eighteen inches 
 wide, two feet deep, and six feet long each. There are two 
 dung-pits, i i ; and behind is the farm yard, k. 
 
 1830. Construction. All the walling is of freestone, and the 
 roofs are covered with grey slate. The width of the principal 
 
 ■cellar ; x, places 
 
VILLAS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 
 
 1580 
 
 895 
 
 front is about sixty feet ; the bays are twelve feet three inches and a half wide, anil 
 
 581 
 
 r 
 
 Ft. 5 t 
 l_LXl I L. 
 
 project four feet outside measure, and the clear width of the windows is ten feet six 
 
 I 
 
 r 
 
 1582 
 
896 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 !!icljes; the stanchions, or muntings, are six inches wido ; each light is fourteen inches 
 w'idii, and three feet high. The width of ths front of the porch is nine feet eight 
 
 inches ; the width of the two pillars in front is two feet four inches ; the height of 
 the pillars is five feet three ipches, and that of the cornice above them seven inches and 
 a half. The height of the front arch, which is semicircular, is nine feet from the floor. 
 The height of the frieze above the imposts on the piers is two feet four inches, and the 
 cornice above is seven inches and a half. These dimensions are given for the benefit of 
 the curious follower of precedents. 
 
 1831. Remarks. For this Design we are indebted to our invaluable correspondent, 
 Selini,_^th€ author of the description of the Beau Ideal of an English Villa, § 1675 to 
 § 1735. He observes of the Design before us, , that the front is nearly that of the old 
 house at Berwick St. Leonard, of which there is an engraving after Backler in Hoare's 
 Modern Wiltshire. The plan is adapted to this front by our correspondent. He says, 
 " I am not altogether satisfied with the plan that I have composed for the interior. 
 The hall, dining-room, and drawingroom are much as they were in the old house ; but I 
 think they are too square, and I do not like the kitchen being b^low stairs. All the 
 offices appear to have been below in the original ; but, in the present state of the ruins, 
 it is impossible to trace the plan of any part except the front, the remainder being 
 converted into a barn and farm offices. The stairs appear to have been in the centre of 
 the house. The house was evidently one of some consequence, though not large. In- 
 deed, the Howes, who, I suppose, built it, were an old family of rank in this county. 
 It stands in a most extraordinary situation for such a house ; being let into a bank, and 
 the front is within twenty yards of a dry ditch, which receives the water from several 
 springs in winter. On the back front, the earth is up to the first floor windows. How 
 strange that they did not build it on the top of the bank ! It is so let into a hole, that, 
 although not above forty yards from the public road, it can scarcely be discovered by 
 strangers. As such a house would be expensive to build, I have made the plan suited 
 to a person of fortune ; but it wants a fourth room, as the gentleman's room for trans- 
 acting business." The plan, notwithstanding what the author says against it, has, we 
 think, much merit ; and the elevation is characteristic. The hall door is a fine speci- 
 men of the carpentry of the time of Henry VIII. or Elizabeth. The same kind of 
 
VILLAS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 
 
 897 
 
 radiating raised panels are found in the cabinets, and other pieces of furniture, of that 
 time, still extant, which belonged to Cardinal Wolsey. 
 
 Design XVIII. — A Villa Residence, in the Tudor or Old English Style, 
 
 1832. Introductory Remarks. This Design has been contributed by an able and 
 zealous architectural critic, W. H. Leeds, Esq., the stores of whose portfolio evince him 
 to be as proficient with his pencil as with his pen ; and we shall give his observations 
 upon it in his own words : — " Whatever merit they may possess in themselves, 
 very few published designs are at all satisfactory as regards explanatory description. 
 The greater number, indeed, are lamentably deficient in this respect; so that the 
 Architect's ideas would be but imperfectly elucidated, by even a more copious 
 graphic illustration than it is usual to give. It very rarely happens (at least in English 
 publications of the class here alluded to) that any notice is taken of the interior of 
 a building ; or, at most, only a general section of it is exhibited, as if the interior oi 
 a residence required no other consideration than that of plan alone, nor afforded 
 any scope for the display of taste and invention. This extreme reticence, whether 
 arising from the excess of modesty, or the opposite quality, is not only sufficiently 
 provoking in itself, but tends to deprive architectural works of this class of the 
 interest they might be made to possess ; so that, at present, they have rarely attrac- 
 tions for any save the professional man, or the devoted amateur. It will, perhaps, be 
 said, that a design ought to speak suflflciently clearly for itself, without any assistance from 
 the pen, or interpretation on the part of the Architect. Were every part completely dis- 
 played, this might be the case ; but, even then, the Architect's silence might be a positive 
 injustice towards himself, since, for want of stating his own views, or the circumstances by 
 which he was directed, he may be criticised for not having done what it was out of his 
 power even to aim at ; and, on the other hand, he may obtain no credit for having sur- 
 mounted difficulties which, because they have been felicitously conquered, may not even 
 be suspected to have existed. Besides all this, there are a variety of collateral circum- 
 stances which, although it may not be indispensably necessary that they should be no- 
 ticed, might very properly be pointed out, certainly without in any degree diminishing 
 the interest of the Architect's performance. If the author of a design do not care to ex- 
 plain his own ideas — which, it is to be presumed, he must be better acquainted with than 
 any one else, he can hardly expect that others will take the pains to investigate them 
 very studiously. In an article entitled ' A Visit to Monplaisir' (see Library of the Fine 
 Arts, vols. ii. and iii.), I lately gave a description, at some length, of an imaginary man- 
 sion. The present Design is far more sober in every respect : there I indulged in rather 
 lavish extravagance of embellishment ; particularly in those favourites of my imagination, 
 the four transept galleries, and the ' saloon of the four oriels : ' here, upon a moderate 
 scale, not exceeding that for the residence of a private gentleman of fortune, I have had 
 some regard to economy, although greater attention has been had to decoration and 
 effect, than is observable in many houses of much greater extent. By no means does it 
 follow, that embellishment is to be regulated according to the actual size of the struc- 
 ture ; nor is there any reason why architectural elegance should not be aimed at in a 
 private residence, merely because the owner does not keep up an establishment equal to 
 that of a nobleman. There is no province of his art which opens so delightful and varied 
 a field to the Architect ; none which affords him so many captivating combinations as 
 Domestic Architecture, provided he possess any imagination or invention, and be at 
 all at liberty to display them. What my own notions are on this subject may be partly 
 gathered from some hints thrown out in the introductory chapter to Mr. Britton's work 
 entitled ' The Union of Architecture, Sculpture, and Painting ;^ which, together with 
 the greater part of the remaining letterpress, proceeded from my pen. To that publica- 
 tion I must refer those who care to learn more of my opinions on this point. 
 
 1833. General Description. The present plan was originally designed for a villa 
 in a very different style of Architecture, namely, the Grecian. It would then have 
 had an advanced but enclosed Ionic portico in the centre, distyle in antis (a portico 
 of two columns, between pilasters), flanked on each side by a lesser colonnade, ex- 
 hibiting a different example of the same order, and raised upon a stylobate (pedestal) 
 concealing sunk areas. The walls behind the columns would, in this case, as a specimen 
 of decoration unusual in this country, have been painted with subjects in fresco ; the space 
 between the walls and these lateral colonnades, which would have been two columns 
 in depth, having skylights so as to protect the paintings from the weather, and yet 
 throw down the light upon them, which would be relieved by the shadow of the 
 inner columns, and that of the soffit. The centre portico would have exhibited quite as 
 striking a deviation from usual practice, inasmuch as the back or inner wall would have 
 risen no higher than the vestibule, so as to admit a view between the antse (pilasters), 
 
 5 M 
 
898 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 insulated in the upper part of their shafts, to the wall bounding the open space beyond, 
 and from which the vestibule itself would have been lighted from above. Thus, much effect 
 of light and of perspective would have been obtained, together with a novelty of character 
 seldom, if ever, aimed at in such parts of a structure ; all our porticoes, however they 
 may differ in other respects, being nothing more than a single row of columns before a 
 wall. (See an Essay on Porticoes, in the Library of the Fine Arts, vol. i.) Although 
 this description may appear quite irrelevant to my present subject, I trust that, on con- 
 sideration, it will not be deemed so ; because it may not be altogether uninteresting — to 
 some, at least, to note, as far as they can do so from what has just been stated, the changes 
 occasioned by adapting a plan exactly the same in dimensions, and in the arrangement 
 of the principal floor, to a style requiring in many respects so opposite a mode of treat- 
 ment. In either instance, my aim has been, to combine architectural effect with as per- 
 fect convenience as possible, and, while faithful to the general character of the style, to 
 impart to the Design a tolerable degree of originality. It is not enough that there be a 
 certain air of architectural propriety ; there must be feeling and flavour likewise. It is 
 far better that there should be a strong relish, though even of a questionable quality* 
 than those insipid decencies which it is hazardous to censure, yet utterly impossible to 
 commend ; tolerably correct, perhaps, yet most intolerably dull. 
 
 1834. General Plan. In the annexed sketch, fig. 1585, which is intended rather to 
 
 1585 
 
 convey some idea of the relative localities as imagined by myself, than positively to deter- 
 mine the choice of site, it will be seen that the house, a, is placed at a moderate distance 
 from the road, h, which, as there is no direct view from any of the principal apartments 
 on that side, is not at all objectionable. On the west side, fronting the drawingrooms, 
 &c., are parterres and pleasure-grounds, c ; and on the opposite side is a paddock, d, 
 screened from the road by trees and shrubberies. On this side, too, is placed the general 
 entrance to the offices, e ; and, in order to obviate, in some degree, the disadvantage of 
 placing the kitchen offices in the basement story, while the conveniences of such a plan 
 are retained, the ground is here supposed to fall abruptly ; so that, if any descent at all 
 be required, one or two steps leading down to that entrance will be sufficient. Should 
 such a plan be selected for a level site, either an artificial decKvity must be formed in the 
 same place, or else a commodious area. On the north side of the house is the kitchen 
 court, /, on the same level with the offices themselves, consequently much lower than 
 
VILLAS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 
 
 899 
 
 the other ground. Immediately attached to this are the stables, g, and such other build- 
 ings of that description, h, as the particular establishment kept up may render necessaiy. 
 In this direction may be the kitchen and fruit gardens, and the orchard, adjoining the 
 more ornamental grounds, i. AU this might be accomplished within a very moderate 
 compass of land, not more than is usually attached to a country residence not seated in a 
 surrounding demesne of its own. Having thus, as far as it is practicable to do so before- 
 hand without any positive data, put these particulars into some kind of tangible shape, 
 the different elevations and the external character of the house are next to be considered. 
 1835. The Entrance Front is shown in the perspective view, fig. 1586, and in the 
 
 elevation, fig. 1587. The lower part of this front is little more than a plain 
 unbroken surface, with no other finish than that imparted to it by the base mould- 
 ings below and the ornamental string-course above. The recessed porch seen in this 
 front is certainly of a richer character than is usually given to porches in private 
 
 residences erected in a similar style ; yet, so far from being out of keeping with the 
 blank surface on either side of it, it both gives to, and receives from, the latter an 
 additional value; namely, that of harmonic contrast. The eye is at once directed 
 
900 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 to the centre, which is rendered of sufficient importance in itself to fix the attention, 
 and prevent any sense of nakedness that might else be occasioned by the display of so 
 much blank surface ; while the latter produces not only the pictorial quality termed 
 breadth, but repose likewise, and thereby relieves and sets off the somewhat floridly 
 decorated centre. Were the same degree of plainness extended upwards, the result 
 would be monotony and baldness rather than simplicity : to avoid this defect, the chimney 
 shafts are made prominent and appropriately characteristic features in the upper lateral 
 divisions of this front. While they immediately and distinctly announce, even in the 
 mere elevation, that we behold a domestic habitation, they pleasingly diversify the sur- 
 face, carry up the eye to an apex on either side, and serve also, by the moulded splays 
 below them, to break the squareness of the lower divisions, and to dovetail, if I may so 
 express it, the inferior and superior portions of the elevation together. The splays, and 
 the ornamental panels with coats of arms immediately above them, are indeed essential 
 points in the comjiosition, unaffected as decoration, and withal congenial to the style 
 here generally followed ; although the particular combination here adojjted may pro- 
 bably offer to other eyes than my own much that is questionable. The clusters of 
 enriclied chimney-pots wliich terminate tlie shafts j)reserve a due balance in the general 
 scheme of decoration with tlie porch below ; and, at the same time, in combination with 
 the gables with which they are as it were incorporated, and with the jjinnacles that crown 
 the buttresses, produce such a diversity of outline as by that single circumstance alone 
 to impart a more animated character to the insemhle than it would otherwise possess. 
 On the U])per floor there is a smaller window on each side, between the chimney shafl 
 and tlie l)uttress. As regards tlie interior, these windows might certainly have been 
 dispensed with without particular inconvenience ; yet, even although the plan had been 
 in every respect as good without them, they are of so much importance to the elevation, 
 that either they, or sometliing similar, ought to be introduced in that situation. Were it 
 not for them, not only would the upjier part seem too much a repetition of that beneath, 
 but the centre and sides would apjiear like tliree upright divisions, the former of which 
 would be pierced by an opening above and below, while the two latter would bean almost 
 plain surface. By these two windows being thrown in, the eye is directed horizontally, 
 and by the numerical increase in the features a slope is formed upwards from the porch 
 to the summit of the chimneys, producing an inverted pyramidal figure opposed to the 
 outline of the gables. There is likewise a pleasing kind of numerical harmony, yet 
 without the least formality, obtained by the same means : below, there are three 
 voids coml)ined in the centre compartment, viz. the porch and two niches ; above, 
 there are likewise three, the larger and the two smaller windows, stretched out on a 
 wider line ; and the same system of triplicity is observed also in the composition of the 
 centre window, and in the gables and ornamental embattlement which crowns the 
 middle division of the elevation. Another circumstance, which deserves to be pointed 
 out, is, that these two windows not only give a certain pitjuancy of expression to the 
 general physiognomy of this front, suggesting the idea of some degree of intricacy 
 within, but serve likewise to produce an agreeable symmetrical irregularity ; for, although 
 each of the side divisions, considered by itself, is not perfectly uniform, the regularity of the 
 whole composition is strictly preserved, and the two antagonistic qualities, harmony and 
 discord, or symmetry and irregularity, completely reconciled. The last observation I shall 
 allow myself on this part of the Design is, that, owing to these two windows, the character 
 of lightness is in a similar manner combined with that of solidity, and the latter at the 
 same time pronounced more decidedly than if these lateral divisions had no apertures 
 whatever ; because, there being only one window between the chimney and the centre, 
 the plain space on the other side of the chimney indicates firmness where it is most 
 wanted, both for actual propriety and artistical expression, namely, at the angles. Were 
 the situation of the window reversed, the alteration would be materially for the worse. 
 
 1836. The West, or DrawmgrGom, Front, shown in fig. 1588, exhibits a different 
 character, in regard to mere composition and actual physiognomy, from the preceding 
 one, although decidedly of the same cast and style; and, like that, having little extraneous 
 embellishment beyond what arises from the parts themselves. Neither has it that air of 
 pretension so frequently affected in modern Gothic mansions, where almost all possible 
 varieties of feature are huddled together ; and sash windows, with no other badge of the 
 general livery than mere label-mouldings, are mixed up with buttresses, turrets, towers, 
 and embattled projections, till the whole looks more like an assemblage of fragments 
 than parts of one and the same design. For what effect it may possess, this elevation 
 depends chiefly on the windows and their disposition. The five lower ones, which are 
 those of the two drawingrooms, are level with the low terrace upon which they open, 
 and from which there is a grass slope, on the same angle as the steps ; there being no 
 parapet, except at the end ; because the terrace itself is so low, that any sort of parapet, 
 while it would have interfered with the prospect from the rooms, and have been no 
 
VILLAS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 901 
 
 improvement to the external design, would have had a degree of heaviness not very 
 consistent with the character of the place itself. On the upper floor there are but three 
 windows ; for otherwise, as this portion of the elevation is quite flat, without any breaks 
 or divisions, two series of windows, exactly the same in number and position, and 
 differing in little more than their heights, would have had a formal, monotonous, and 
 also crowded appearance, not very agreeable in itself, and certainly not befitting the 
 particular style here aimed at. This, I am aware, will be reprobated by those who con- 
 sider it unorthodox to place a solid in one floor, over an aperture in that below. Without 
 appealing to actual examples, as authorities, I shall content myself with observing, that, 
 if it be imperiously required, in the case of windows, to have a perfect corresponderrce of 
 opening over opening, and bearing upon bearing, the principle ought to hold good in all 
 other instances ; yet, I have never seen or heard it remarked, as a solecism or defect, 
 where a lofty and almost solid mass has been erected over a gateway. Neither is it 
 considered any violation of this principle, to have either one or more doors, or other 
 apertures, in the lower part of an otherwise blank side of a building, where there is solid 
 brickwork carried up to the height of, perhaps, several stories above. At least, let us be 
 consistent; and, if the want of bearing under bearing is to be accounted a solecism 
 even in a style where such licenses seem natural and characteristic, let us boldly say, 
 that Sir Christopher Wren has been guilty of it to a most enormous extent, in the very 
 finest of all his works, our metropolitan cathedral, where he has carried up a second 
 order of solid masonry over one pierced with large windows ; and, strange to say, 
 although some critics have ventured to question the propriety of a second order at all 
 above the first, not one seems to have noticed this circumstance. — The dormer windows 
 of the attics, which seem to spring up from between the battlements, give character and 
 variety to the upper part of the elevation, and possess suflScient embellishment in their 
 gables, with crockets and finials (crockets are studded or curled ornaments, running up 
 the upper edge of a gable wall or pinnacle, and terminating in a pointed ornament or 
 finial), to be reckoned among the decorative features of the Design. The circumstances 
 of the plan — which, as I have already observed, was predetermined for another design, 
 rendered it rather difficult to give sufficient character to this side of the building ; and 
 perhaps it would appear somewhat tame and insipid, were it not for the receding portion 
 at the north end, which gives variety and support to the whole. This is treated inde- 
 pendently of the rest, and kept somewhat subordinate to it; almost all its decoration 
 consisting merely in the bay window of the library, and the group of chimneys on 
 the roof. 
 
 1837. The Dining-room, or East, Front is shown in the perspective view, fig. 1586. 
 and in the half-elevation, fig. 1589. Although there is much similarity, in many respects, 
 between this front and that described, it is by no means a repetition of the latter. It is 
 more irregular in itself, owing to the inequaUty of the ground, which, as already noticed, 
 has a considerable descent on this side of the house, to the north-east angle ; in consequence 
 of which, the building here seems to gain an additional story. As the bay of the dining-room 
 produces a sufficient diversity between the upper and lower floor, five windows are here 
 given to the former, for the sake of deviating from the arrangement observed in the 
 west, or drawingroom, front. Another diflference is, that the lower windows do not 
 reach quite down to the floor of the rooms, there being an area beneath those of the 
 breakfast-room, and the others being at softie distance fi'om the ground. The portion 
 
90^ 
 
 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 to the l ight, or north, which answers to the library in the preceding elevation, but docs 
 not retire back so much beyond the general line of the front, is so treated as distinctly 
 to mark it as being of a subordinate 
 character; yet so that, while it 1590 
 tends to set off the rest, it is suf- 
 ficiently in keeping with it. The 
 features are plainer, but neither 
 neglected nor destitute of a certain 
 sobriety of adornment; and the 
 solidity of the lower part, in wljich 
 there is only the door, forming tlie 
 entrance to the offices, is as valu- 
 able for the effect it produces to 
 the eye, as it is desirable in itself. 
 
 1838. The Ground Floor, fig. 
 1590. In this plan, the porch, 
 a, eleven feet by five feet six 
 inches, opens into an inner porch 
 or recess, b; adjoining to which 
 is a small staircase, c, leading down 
 to the servants' hall, &c. In b 
 are a few steps, forming an ascent 
 into the vestibule, d, twenty-one 
 feet six inches by fifteen feet. 
 Beyond this (from which it is 
 detached by an open screen) is the 
 
 staircase, e, seventeen feet square, and thirty-four feet to the summit. On the right 
 of the vestibule is a breakfast, or morning, room, /, twenty feet six inches by 
 nineteen feet ; and, next to this, is the dining-room, thirty-two feet by nineteen feet, 
 with a bay window on one side, and an alcove for the sideboard opposite it, making 
 the entire^ width, including these two recesses, twenty-nine feet six inches. On the 
 opposite side of the vestibule are two drawingrooms, /* and i, twenty feet six inches 
 by nineteen feet, and thirty-two feet by nineteen feet, communicating with each other 
 by folding doors, so as, when required, to give an extent of upwards of fifty feet. Com- 
 municating with the larger of these, but not in a direct line, is the library, twenty- 
 
 10 
 
VILLAS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 
 
 903 
 
 four feet by nineteen feet, exclusive of the bay, five feet deep, and of the entrance 
 recess, eight feet two inches in depth. Behind the library, and beyond the diriing- 
 room, is the back staircase, /, from which access is obtained to the vestibule, through 
 the other staircase. Adjoining I are the butler's pantry, m, and his bed-room, n. The 
 height of the rooms on this floor is fourteen feet six inches. 
 
 1839. Plan of the Basement Story, fig. 1591. Either descending the back staircase, 
 or entering by the door seen in the east 
 elevation, fig. 1589, there is, first, a small 
 lobby, a, lighted by the window over the 
 door, those on the staircase, and one, at 
 some distance from the floor, in m. Next 
 comes h, the housekeeper's room, with a 
 store-closet, c. Both these are under the 
 dining-room ; and the first has a bay 
 window, with a side light, through which 
 whoever comes to the private entrance 
 may be observed. The servants' hall, d, 
 is under the morning room, and con- 
 tiguous to the stairs at the extremity of 
 the passage, e, which lead directly up to 
 the inner porch and vestibule. By means 
 of this staircase some light is admitted 
 into the passage at this end of it ; and, 
 besides what it receives from a, and through 
 the window in m, it obtains some from 
 the window (near the ceiling) in c, and 
 from the servants' hall, the door of which 
 is glazed with ground glass. The letters 
 f, g, and h indicate three cellars ; viz. 
 for coals, wine, and beer ; i and I are 
 pantries ; k, the kitchen ; and m, a scullery, 
 or back kitchen, opening into the kitchen 
 court, w, where there might be an additional place for coals and wood, for the service 
 of the kitchen, &c., and for whatever further accommodation and convenience should 
 be found necessary, as the extent of this court would be ad libitum. Since it will be 
 hardly necessary to advert again to this plan, we may as well make here, at once, the 
 few observations that seem called for. The kitchen and scullery, being towards a spacious 
 court to the north, would be as well situated as if they were entirely above ground ; 
 while no inconvenience would be experienced from their present position, as their 
 windows are in another side of the house from that in which ii the bay of the library ; 
 neither are there any windows or areas beneath the drawingroom windows. The house- 
 keeper's room is well situated for observing all that goes on below stairs, being placed 
 near the entrance and back staircase, and between the kitchen and servants' hall. 
 Although, too, the door of her room directly faces that of the kitchen, yet, owing to the 
 plan of the latter, the view into it would not be so direct as to prove awkward or dis- 
 agreeable. The servants' hall is equally advantageously placed for immediate access to 
 the vestibule, and, consequently, to any of the rooms, by means of the stairs leading up from 
 that end of the passage. Were it not for these stairs, the servants would have to traverse 
 the whole length of the passage, pass 
 up the back stairs, and then return 
 again through the other staircase and 
 vestibule, in order to reach the en- 
 trance door, or the drawingrooms. 
 It is hardly necessary, then, to point 
 out the convenience of having a 
 coal-cellar immediately by these 
 stairs. 
 
 1840. The Chamber Floor, fig. 1592. 
 On this floor there are five principal 
 bed-chambers, with as many dressing- 
 rooms, or at least dressing-closets, at- 
 tached to them, and instead of opening 
 directly into a common corridor, each 
 separate apartment has its own lobby, 
 whereby greater privacy and quiet are 
 secured. Instead, too, of forming a 
 
 1591 
 
 n 
 
 1592 
 
904 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 spacious landing or vestibule on this floor, where it would have been rather out of character, 
 and would have seemed too much a positive loss of room, a dressing-room lighted by a sky- 
 light has been made out of this void above the vestibule, by which means two perfectly 
 distinct corridors are formed, one on the east, the other on the west side ; whereby 
 not only some degree of intricacy is given to the plan, but the entrances to the rooms 
 are less exposed. There are also two other chambers on this floor, next to the back 
 staircase ; one over the library, which might be used as a nursery, or as a double-bedded 
 room for children ; the other the housekeeper's sleeping-room, with a light closet attached 
 to it. In the space between the former of these rooms and the principal staircase, 
 which should have double doors, the outer one being made to appear like the rest 
 of the wall, the most valuable part of the plate might constantly be kept, it being at 
 so short a distance from the butler's pantry and dining-room, while the place itself is 
 such as almost to secure it from the possibility of robbery ; for the housekeeper's bed-room 
 is close by ; and that of the butler, on the floor beneath. By means of a little contrivance, 
 this closet might be rendered a place of still greater security, such as to render robbery, 
 unless by some extraordinary conspiracy among all the servants themselves, hardly possible. 
 Instead of making a single closet, it should be formed into two by a strong partition ; 
 and in this partition there should be, not a door, but a panel that woidd slide up, 
 and which would be well secured by locks ; the keyholes to these locks being them- 
 selves concealed by a smaller panel or metal plate, removed by touching a secret spring. 
 After whatever was wanted to be deposited there had been put into this inner closet, 
 and all properly secured, a frame of shelves made so as reiidily to fix on, would be put 
 up against the partition, and articles of inferior value set upon them : thus no one could 
 have any idea that there was another closet beyond the first. To render * assurance 
 doubly sure,' there might be a wire communicating with an alarm bell on the roof of the 
 house to hook on to the outermost of the two doors to the first closet, so that, should 
 only that be forced open, the robbers would think it time to decamp ; or, should that not 
 have the desired effect, but they actually obtained admission, a few handsome-looking 
 plated articles in the first closet would be seized upon without suspicion. 
 
 1841. The Plan of the Attics will be sufficiently understood from that of the chamber 
 floor, and from the elevations. On either side there are three rooms, two of which are 
 sufficiently large to admit of being double-bedded ; and the passage leading to them is 
 carried over the corridor below, turning oflT either to the right or left, till it comes over 
 the northernmost of the lobbies on that side, where a door is made through the wall, con- 
 tinuing the passage over the other lobby ; which variation of the plan is occasioned by 
 the necessity for leads, and open space, on each side the skylight of the dressing-room in 
 the centre of the chamber floor. 
 
 1842. Detailed Examination. The reader will now be able to form an adequate idea 
 of the whole house, and the accommodation it affords ; and, consequently, will be prepared 
 for a more minute examination of such parts as stand in need of further description, or 
 call for critical remark. We will therefore commence with the porch. 
 
 , 1843. The Porch, Vestibule, and Screen to the Staircase. In the porch are stone 
 seats for the accommodation of servants, who may be waiting with visiters' carriages. 
 Instead of the whole of the vestibule, and the doors of the several apartments, being 
 entirely exposed to view immediately on entering, only the perforated screen on the 
 opposite side, and the upper part of the staircase beyond it, are shown. It is per- 
 haps, rather a favourable circumstance than otherwise, that, in order to obtain sufficient 
 room for the stairs, it was necessary to place arch the opening into the staircase at 
 one angle ; since the staircase is now less exposed than if that arch had been in the 
 centre ; and, while a sufficient degree 
 
 of symmetry is kept up, upon the 
 whole, this species of irregularity is by 
 no means disagreeable. Owing to this, 
 too, the screen, fig. 1593 (which is a 
 section on the line CD), is perhaps 
 more decidedly expressed as such to 
 the eye, at the very first glance on 
 entering, or as viewed through the 
 glazed door of the porch, than it 
 would have been had the opening into 
 the staircase been facing the entrance. 
 While the utility of, or rather the ne- 
 cessity for, this screen is obvious, both 
 because a perforated partition is re- 
 quired here, since the vestibule receives 
 its chief light from the staircase ; and 
 
 1593 
 
VILLAS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 
 
 905 
 
 because, for the reason already assigned, only the upper half of the partition could be so 
 pierced ; this screen becomes a striking feature, gives character to the Architecture, 
 and produces a pleasing degree of scenic effect, without seeming liable to the reproach 
 of making a more ambitious display than is consistent with the rest of the mansion. 
 On the contrary, it rather serves to moderate the quality of mere space ; for, while 
 it permits the eye to catch a partial view of the staircase, and the arches of the 
 corridor above, in a manner well calculated to interest the imagination ; it also strictly 
 defines the limits of the vestibule, so that tiiis shall not appear too large ; yet, as far as 
 picturesque effect is concerned, have all the advantage arising from the space beyond it, 
 and with which it thus becomes in some measure identified. To many, I am aware, 
 the kind of merit I am willing to impute to the Design, in this respect, will seem a most 
 extraordinary one. They cannot comprehend how, under any circumstances, a limited 
 space can be preferred to a more extended one, magnitude and mere size being, in their 
 opinion, positive merits, for the sake of securing which, we are at liberty to make 
 sacrifices that no other consideration could justify. Such persons forget — in honester 
 language, they have yet to learn — that in Architecture many beauties are entirely relative 
 and conditional ; that what is an advantage in one case may in another become a defect ; 
 and that, consequently, it is necessary to consider what it is that actual circumstances 
 render most eligible. The most obvious is not always the greatest advantage ; nor is 
 the most unquestionable kind of beauty invariably the happiest that could be adopted. 
 
 1844. The Vestibule. In a house of this size, any thing beyond a mere vestibule 
 would be rather out of character ; the vestibule here is not therefore treated as a 
 hall, occasionally to be used as any other room, or as having such appearance ; because, 
 after all, such a place will rarely, if ever, be so used, according to the present style of 
 living. For this reason, it professes to be nothing more than an approach to, and com- 
 munication between, the different sitting-rooms. Hence, it is on every account desirable 
 that, while this entrance suflJiciently answers the expectations raised by the exterior, it 
 should not even seem to occupy too much space ; or become so important by its size, as 
 itself to excite expectations the plan would not allow of being realised. It is obvious 
 that, but for these considerations, it might have been made considerably larger, and that, 
 too, without any difficulty or study ; or rather, with far less study and thought than have 
 now been bestowed upon it, by merely taking in the whole space, instead of abridging it 
 in the manner here adopted. Equally obvious is it that this would have been attended 
 with material drawbacks, as far as mere convenience is concerned, because then either the 
 staircase immediately communicating with the servants' haU in the basement must have 
 been omitted altogether, or have been exceedingly awkward and confined, and the door 
 from it must have opened immediately into the hall ; whereas it is now so situated as to 
 be perfectly out of the way. In like manner, tlie water-closet, which now occupies the 
 corresponding space on the other side, could hardly have been introduced in such a 
 situation ; as it must have opened immediately into the vestibule, and the door would 
 have been almost contiguous to that of the porch. Independently, however, of these 
 circumstances — granting that such change would not have interfered in the slightest 
 degree with those parts of the plan, still the alteration would be materially for the worse 
 as regards effect. According to the present plan, the view is confined, framed in, if I 
 may so term it, by the sides of the inner porch, in such a manner that the whole of the 
 vestibule, and the doors opening into the apartments, are not exposed to sight as soon as 
 we enter the house ; which, certainly, must be allowed to be rather an advantage than 
 otherwise. A pleasing air of variety — intricacy it can hardly be termed, is likewise 
 produced by this combination of inner porch and vestibule, instead of the whole being 
 thrown into one space; and this effect is again heightened by the difference of level, 
 slight as it is, between the floor of the one and that of the other. Another point in 
 favour of this arrangement is, that, on the one hand, the recess or interior porch contri- 
 butes by contrast to the importance of the vestibule, which is thus made to seem to 
 expand ; and, on the other, instead of appearing, as it actually does, to abridge the extent 
 of the vestibule, it rather conveys the idea of so much space being added to it. Let us 
 now consider what would be the result, were the other mode to be adopted, and the whole 
 space included in the vestibule. Besides the loss of those positive advantages, and of 
 that degree of effect now obtained, by converting the vestibule into a mere simple paral- 
 lelogram, twenty-one feet and a half by twenty-three and a hvalf, which would then be 
 its dimensions, it would be rendered larger than either the breakfast-room or the 
 corresponding drawingroom on the opposite side ; consequently, would detract from their 
 appearance, and make them seem comparatively insignificant apartments : in the next 
 place, it would become too wide for its heigJjt : and, thirdly, it would then seem dark 
 and gloomy ; for, although it has light enough for what it now is, a mere piece de com- 
 munication, it would not have sufficient, if converted into a larger room, which would 
 
 , 5 N 
 
906 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 require a few articles of furniture, in order to prevent its looking absolutely naked. At 
 present, one or two chairs, and a slab table with a large bust, or something of the kind, 
 standing upon it (and perhaps a rich carpet cover partly thrown over the slab, by way of 
 presenting some object for the eye to dwell on in the centre of the screen), are quite suf- 
 ficient. Taking all the above circumstances together, they furnish very sufficient reasons 
 for giving the preference to that disposition which has been adopted in our Design. 
 There is, however, still another point to be considered, and this is one that has not been 
 without its influence in determining our choice, even had every thing else been nearly 
 balanced on both sides. It is evident that what are now the ends, or shorter sides, of the 
 vestibule, would have required to be very different, had any other plan been determined 
 upon. Either there must have been a sham door, to correspond with that of the 
 dining-room, or the door opening into the breakfast-room, and that into the opposite 
 drawingroom, must, instead of being at the angle, have been in the centre of the side of 
 the room. Were the former method adopted, there would be three doors on each side 
 of the vestibule : so that the centre one would look like that of a mere closet or passage ; 
 as there would evidently not be space for any thing wider, between the two other doors : 
 besides which, the whole would have had a crowded appearance. If, on the contrary, 
 the other mode were preferred ; as far as regarded tlie vestibule, no objection would arise ; 
 but then the two rooms to which those doors belong would be far from being improved 
 by such a change ; for, as they are not very spacious, by placing the door in the centre of 
 tlic side opposite the windows, we should bring them too near the fireplace end of the 
 room, where persons most generally sit ; besides too much exposing, both to observation 
 and to currents of air from the door, the centre of the apartment, where there would 
 most likely be a table. The objection would not be altogether so great, did the door 
 communicate with another sitting-room; but, as it would ojjen from the entrance hall, the 
 comfort of the room woidd thus be considerably diminished. 
 
 1845. Three Sides of the Vestibule (for the one in the section exactly resembles that 
 opposite it) have now been shown, and in the elevation of the fourth, fig. 1594, is seen 
 the arch opening fr^nn the inner porch. For the sake of obtaining a sufficient degree of 
 general symmetry between this and 
 the opposite side, both in the ele- 
 vation itself and with regard to the 
 rib-mouldings on the ceiling, a slight 
 break is made in the wall in which 
 the arch is placed, so as to have 
 exactly four jianels to the right and 
 left of it, as is the case with the 
 screen. Through the arch is seen 
 the entrance door, with dotted lines 
 continued below it to point out tlie 
 level upon which it is placed. The 
 upper panels and tracery of this 
 door are glazed, for the purpose of 
 affording additional light to the ves- 
 tibule besides vvliat it receives from 
 the staircase, so that it would have 
 qiu"te as much as is desirable ; because a demi jour here will set off the adjoining rooms 
 to so much the more advantage. As the external door is glazed, there must, for 
 greater security, be an inner door, with a double fold on each side like a shutter, so 
 as to fall completely back into a hollow in the wall made to receive it ; and this would 
 be closed, and firmly fastened to, every night. It has not been thought necessary to show 
 this in the elevation, because, unless on such a scale as to exhibit all its details of con- 
 struction, it would be of no use ; and, besides this, there would be nothing to indicate it as 
 to appearance : for these shutters on each side of the door would be quite flush with the 
 wall, and be plain surfaces, coloured exactly to resemble the wall itself ; consequently, they 
 would hardly be at all distinguishable from the rest of it. Or there is still a better 
 mode to be adopted : this is, to shut up the porch itself every night by a strong porte- 
 coiilisse, contrived to slide forward on either side from grooves made in the wall, in a 
 hollow between the vertical mouldings of the archway of the porch. This door would 
 be fastened from within, and externally would present no lock, or any thing of the kind, 
 by which an attempt might be made to force it open. Another advantage attending 
 this latter mode is, that the porch would be kept quite dry from rain during the night ; 
 and this door might likewise always be closed whenever the family were not resident in 
 the house. It must be admitted that this scheme would be attended with some difficulty 
 in the present plr.n, -w hich v. ould require a door of this kind to be formed of several 
 
VILLAS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 
 
 1595 
 
 parts sliding behind each other, there not being sufficient space for half of it on each 
 side, a window being in that situation, as will perhaps have been noticed in the ground 
 plan, although none appear there in the elevation. 
 
 1846. The Invisible Window. The lower part of the waUs of the vestibule are paneled 
 for about seven feet from the floor, and the two centre panels, to the right of the arch in fig. 
 1 594, form a concealed door, open- 
 ing into a passage lighted from the 
 porch, and leading to a water-closet. 
 Both this latter and the staircase on 
 the other side of the porch are 
 lighted through the external niches, 
 by the very simple contrivance ex- 
 hibited in fig. 1595. It will now 
 be perceived that these niches are 
 something more than mere archi- 
 tectural ornament ; that they are 
 of direct utility ; and, although 
 small windows might certainly have 
 been employed in this instance, 
 niches must be considered prefer- 
 able to them, because the others 
 would, besides cutting up and de- 
 stroying the breadth of the com- 
 position too much, have clearly 
 indicated that there was some small closet or other just here. Now these apertures 
 are completely concealed, and, by being made to slope downwards, transmit the light 
 more directly than common windows of the same dimensions woidd do in a wall of 
 the same thickness. In regard to the situation selected for this water-closet, some difference 
 of opinion may be entertained as to its propriety. Many will say that the door leading 
 to it is too close to those on that side of the vestibule ; and so, undoubtedly, it would be, 
 were there not an intervening passage, which removes much of what might be considered 
 objectionable. - 
 
 1847. The Staircase. Although tliis leads only to a few sleeping-apartments above, 
 and would rarely be ascended by visiters, as the house itself is not upon a scale to afford 
 much accommodation for resident guests, it being more of a villa than a mansion, it has 
 been thought proper to render it one of the most effective parts of the interior, as well 
 because it forms the approach to the library, as because it would be very conspicuous 
 from the vestibule, whence it would be viewed through the open screen. The staircase 
 is a square of seventeen feet by thirty-four feet in height, or a double upright cube. 
 On two of the sides are three open arches, and on the others three blank ones to cor- 
 respond, so as to produce perfect symmetry of design. The ceiling is arched and groined, 
 with fans at the angles ; and the upper panels of these latter, together with the compart- 
 ments formed by the intersecting ribs of the groining, are filled with ground glass of a 
 warm tint, just sufficient to shed a mellow Claudish glow over the whole space. Above 
 this transparent roof is a second external skylight, which not only serves as a protection 
 to the lower one, and to exclude wet more completely, but helps to preserve a more 
 equable temperature on the staircase, which, together with the vestibule, might be 
 warmed by hot air, steam, or hot water. By lining the walls in the space between the 
 upper and lower skylight with white glazed tiles, the light would also be considerably 
 increased, and powerfully reflected down ; and as there would be a small door from the 
 passage leading to the garrets opening into this intermediate space (which door would, 
 of course, always be kept locked, to prevent the possibility of accidents, by any one incau- 
 tiously stepping out), the under skylight could at any time be cleaned and dusted with 
 very little trouble ; a plank, or some small machine constructed for that purpose, being 
 laid on the ribs of the ceiling, to securely support the person so employed. As to the 
 decoration, it may perhaps be thought in too expensive a style, yet would in reality be 
 far less costly than it appears ; for most of the ornamental work would be of cast iron or 
 composition painted to resemble stone ; and, as their situation would preclude the possi- 
 bility of their being closely inspected, the embellishments might, with very little actual 
 finish, be made to appear even elaborately wrought. Were the staircase rather more 
 spacious in itself, and did it also lead to a number of bed-chambers and dressing-rooms 
 for strangers, the compartments formed by the blank arches might be painted either in 
 chiaro-scuro or fresco, as their subjects could be distinctly viewed from the open corridors, 
 with which they would be upon a level; yet, such not being the case, it would hardly be 
 worth while to do so ; and most readers will perhaps be of opinion, that there is already 
 
908 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA 'ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 quite embellishment enough bestowed upon this part of the interior, to be consistent with 
 the rest of the house. We will now enter the sitting-rooms. 
 
 1848. The Morning Room calls for hardly any remark: it should be simple and un- 
 pretending, aiming merely at cheerfulness of character. The walls might be of a pale sea- 
 green tint ; the window-curtains either of the same hue, but rather darker ; or, if contrast 
 in this respect, and in some other parts of the furniture, should be preferred to unitbrmity, 
 buff, orange, or some colour of that kind, lined with a still paler green than the walls. 
 A few paintings, or choice prints, with an upright piano, might form part of the furniture 
 of this room. 
 
 1849. The Dininrf-room. In its general dimensions, this room is of the same size as 
 the larger drawingroom on the other side of the vestibule, viz. thirty-two feet by nine- 
 teen feet ; but, by the addition of the alcove for the sideboard, and a bay window opposite, 
 its extreme width across the centre is increased to twenty-nine feet and a half. By this 
 means a sufficient difference both of form and extent is obtained ; nor is the one apart- 
 ment, in any respect, a mere repetition of the other. We have seen how far the bay 
 window contributes to architectural character externally in the elevation in the east side 
 of the house, fig. 1586 ; but it was originally suggested entirely by circumstances belong- 
 ing to the plan, it being judged desirable to combine here as perfect a symmetrical 
 arrangement as possible, with variety and extent. Towards the room, both the bay and 
 the alcove present uniform openings, for their arches are perfectly alike ; and this 
 similarity is still farther increased by their having sliding curtains hanging within the 
 arch ; in order that, when drawn close, none of the architectural features of the room 
 should be concealed. The window of the dining-room, behind the recess for the side- 
 board, is proposed to be carried up higlier than the arch within the room; a disposition 
 contributing to variety of effect, and in many cases preferable to that of making no 
 division between the ceiling of the bay and that of the room itself. Except what regards 
 these two recesses, very little is to be learned from a section of this room, beyond its 
 general proportion. Here I may remark, that, although it has not been done in the plan, 
 there would be nr» great objection to forming a central door of a handsome character, 
 rather larger than the others, at one end of the apartment, opening from the breakfast 
 room, so that the latter might, at a large dinner party, serve as an anteroom, from which 
 this might be entered. In such case the first coup d'ceil would undoubtedly be far 
 more imposing ; and there would be far better keeping between tlie different sides of the 
 ai)artnient. The design of the doors on the alcove side of the dining-room, fig. 1596, it will 
 
 1596 
 
 be observed, is somewhat unusual, and rather more ambitiously decorative than a strict 
 adherence to actual precedents in the domestic style would, perhaps, warrant. The chief 
 part, however, that calls for detailed notice, is the alcove itself : this has somewhat less 
 depth than could be wished, but qi^te as much as the plan would allow ; still, if it does 
 not, in this respect, produce all the effect that, under different circumstances, it might 
 have possessed, it acquires some degree of architectural energy, if it may be so termed, 
 from its being made an expanding recess. ( By the epithet expanding I would designate 
 any recess which is wider in itself than the opening towards the room ; by rising, one 
 whose ceiling is carried up higher than the soffit of the arch or opening. According to 
 this vocabulary, therefore, such a recess as the present one, Vi^ould be termed " expand- 
 ing rising," by which simple terms two important circumstances would be distinctly 
 expressed.) By employing this kind of recess, greater variety of perspective and a pleas- 
 
VILLAS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 
 
 909 
 
 ing degree of intricacy are obtained. Some indication of a sideboard is introduced in 
 the sketch, rather for the purpose of serving as a scale, and showing how it would come 
 in, than of giving any positive idea of its design. In order to give a definite expression 
 to the recess, and to keep it rather distinct from the room, the lower part of the wall ia 
 wainscoted and paneled ; and the panels at one extremity of it form the door by which 
 the servants enter to serve up dinner, and which is in a straight line with the butler's 
 pantry. Thus, when it was closed, there would be no appearance of a door at all ; and 
 even when opened it would be hardly observable j nor could there be any draught from 
 it into the room, as it retires so much beyond the opening of the arch. Without verbal 
 explanation it would be impossible to understand what the compartment above the side- 
 board itself really is : it is, therefore, any thing but superfluous, to infoi-m the reader that 
 the divisions between the muUions would be fiDed with mirror, so as to form, in appear- 
 ance at least, a kind of window, answering to, and reflecting, that in the opposite bay. 
 Mirrors, indeed, very seldom form any part of the embellishments of a dining-room ; yet, 
 when applied as they are here, they assume altogether a. different character from their 
 usual one, as articles of furniture. Considerable light would thus be given to the alcove, 
 and the idea of spaciousness greatly heightened ; while a striking vista would be created, 
 as seen from the bay. In the evening the effect would be stiU more brilliant ; for then 
 the lights on the sideboard, and those of the chandelier (suspended from a richly carved 
 boss in the centre of the middle compartment of the ceiling), would be vividly reflected 
 in this mirror window. So far, however, there is no great invention shown; for — I do 
 not know whether in this particular style or not, or exactly in such a situation — apparent 
 apertures formed by mirror, and other effects, have been frequently executed on a con- 
 siderable scale. We must now see, therefore, whether we can hit upon any other device 
 that shall produce additional effect. Each panel of the upper series should be made to 
 draw down behind the lower one, like a common window-sash ; which being done, there 
 would appear a series of rich compartments of stained glass, strongly illuminated from 
 behind by lights within the staircase. Or a nearly equal effect might be obtained by 
 painted blinds, executed in a superior and tasteful style. By this contrivance all the 
 purposes of a music gallery would be answered, without any of its objections, since a 
 harper, or one or two performers, stationed on the adjoining staircase, would be distinctly 
 heard, without either seeing or being seen by the company. It has not been considered 
 necessary to indicate this in the sections ; for unless this stained glass was required 
 to be exhibited, which would not be very often, it might be entirely concealed on the 
 side towards the staircase by one or more sash-shutters, made to slide down behind 
 the paneling on that side, and forming externally either ornamental compartments above 
 the wainscoting, or m.ade level with, and just like, the surface of the wall : thus the 
 painted windows or blinds, as might be, would be enclosed between the mirror panels on 
 one side, and the panels just mentioned on the other. The walls should be stuccoed, 
 and coloured of a clear and warm reddish tone ; and, in order to gi^'e the vivacity of decided 
 yet ^Jiarmonious opposition to them, the curtains would be fine merino, of a bright 
 purple, lined with silk of rather a light red colour. The balance of colour throughout 
 would be tolerably well preserved by the cm tains within the arch of the alcove ; and, in 
 addition, there ought to be similar ones on each side of the mirror window, hanging 
 down as far as the sideboard. The panels of the doors, too, might be covered with the 
 same material, enriched with gilt studs ; and, if this were done, the panels within the 
 alcove also ought to be so covered. This wainscoting and the doors should be pale oak. 
 As to the carpet, with the exception of a wide border, of a bold and rich pattern, where 
 reds and purples would be the predominating colours, aU the rest might be without any 
 figure, and of some agreeable neutral tint ; because, in a dining-room, when the table is 
 set out, and the company seated, very little of the carpet is seen or noticed, so that it can 
 contribute little to the general effect : the carpet alone, therefore, would form one marked 
 distinction between an eating-room and a drawingroom. 
 
 . 1850. Drawingrooms. The vestibule, staircase, and dining-room exhibit several 
 strictly architectural features, keeping up the character of the exterior of the house ; but 
 there is no reason for being particularly strict as to this, in these departments, which 
 would possess sufficient agremens of a different description ; and where an air of cheerful- 
 ness, and the lighter elegancies which modern refinement has introduced, ought at least to 
 be as much considered, as a rigid adherence to certain prescribed forms. Although, 
 however, peculiarity of style would be here less defined than in the preceding instances, 
 it would not be entirely laid aside, but merely lowered in its tone ; it being still so far 
 retained as to preserve a due degree of consistency throughout. The design of the 
 windows, which are both transomed and muUioned, and have their compartments arched, 
 requires such a degree of consistency ; and these, with corresponding paneling in the 
 window-shutters and doors, with hollowed corbel cornices, decorated at intervals by 
 delicately carved blocks, and with ribs on the ceilings dividing them into compartments, 
 
910 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 would almost suffice to produce architectural expression enough. The pattern of the 
 carpet, too, might contribute to the same purpose, as would in some degree the general 
 style of the furniture ; yet an attempt to Gothicise the latter, even did every thing else 
 seem to require it, must be strenuously deprecated. Backs of chairs exhibiting copies of 
 church windows, and other things of that sort, are not only complete caricature, but 
 downright vulgarities, hardly one remove from those Gothic patterns for paper-hangings, 
 which no person of the least taste can look at with satisfaction. Both rooms would be 
 furnished en suite, as they communicate by wide folding doors, so as to form one spacious 
 apartment, larger than would, perhaps, otherwise be consistent in a house of this size. 
 The doors themselves should be square-headed ; but they might appear to be carried up 
 higher than the real opening, forming a low arch, with tracery in the arched part of the 
 doors. The doors themselves would be oak, with panels (as would be the case with those 
 of the other doors) of choicer specimens of the same wood. Over each chimney- 
 piece should be a lofty mirror, which might terminate above in an arch, with foils and 
 cusps (small arches meeting in points, which are often used as an enrichment in tracery) ; 
 and on each side might be a narrower compartment in the frame, divided by rich 
 transoms, and each division filled with silk in flutes, and of the same colour as the window 
 curtains. A framing of this description, which, as it would probably be wider than the 
 mantel-piece, ought to seem to rise up on each side of it, and include that as a lower 
 division of itself, would give the mirror more importance than, independently of such 
 additions, its actual dimensions could do. The walls would be hung with either silk, or 
 very rich paper of elegant designs, in which brown, fawn, grey, and ash tints, with a 
 slight intermixture of positive red, should be so combined as to produce an effect rich 
 and warm, yet sober and delicate. The hollow part of tlie cornice, and the sculptured 
 blocks, might be picked out with deep red or scarlet, in wliich case the lower edge of the 
 wall might have a border of the same colour. The general pattern of the carjjet should 
 present a combination of somewhat similar hues to the walls ; but the border, which 
 should be sufficiently wide to extend a little beyond the furniture, should be mostly of 
 scarlet, and some other shades of red, to balance that colour in the cornice and window- 
 curtains. These latter, wliich, like those in all the other rooms, would be without 
 cornices or hanging draperies, and merely draw upon an ornamental rod, immediately 
 below the cornice of the ceiling, would be of scarlet silk, lined with pearl-colour. There 
 might be muslin curtains or not, in addition to these ; but, in order the better to exclude 
 the sun, to which from their aspect these rooms would be mucli exposed, there ought 
 also to be spring blinds, made so as to be tightly fastened below at each angle. These 
 might be made to contribute very materially to the general elegance of the rooms, 
 by being painted so as to represent the windows themselves, with their mullions 
 and transoms, but entirely filled with stained glass of a diaper pattern; or, this 
 might be confined to the upper compartments, the lower ones appearing to be open, so 
 as to show a continuous view through them, adapted to the natural horizon. Unless, 
 however, this were done in a very superior style, and with perfect taste, it would be far 
 more advisable not to attempt any thing of the kind ; as, so far from being ornamental, it 
 would be the very reverse. The mouldings of the ceilings, and the ornamental inter- 
 sections, ought to be gilt ; but merely jiartially, so as to exhibit rather sparkling streaks 
 of gilding than entire surfaces of it ; and the blocks in the cornice oxight to receive the 
 same embellishment, the edges of their foliage being just tipped with metallic lustre. 
 Instead of a bright white hue, the ceiling and cornices should be of a cream or ivory 
 tint, and perhaps varnished, so as to give it something of the character of the last- 
 mentioned substance. On the sides opposite the windows there would in both rooms be 
 space for sofas, besides other furniture ; and against the window piers might be low 
 cabinets, book-stands, or other articles of that description, with a few pieces of ornamental 
 porcelain and bijouterie placed upon them, A few ornaments, tastefully disposed on the 
 walls, would nearly complete the embellishments. In respect to pictures, there is one 
 tiling to be considered, namely, their size ; for, however valuable they may be in them- 
 selves, small cabinet pieces or drawings can seldom be so arranged as to be placed in 
 good situations for viewing them, and yet not interfere with the general effect of the 
 room, supposing it to possess any ornamental character in itself. Should there be many 
 of them, they must either form nearly a continued line, with a plain space above them; 
 or many of them must be placed considerably higher than they ought to be, to be pro- 
 perly seen. If, on the contrary, there are only a few, comparatively with the size of the 
 room, distribute them as we will, they will be apt to form spots upon the walls, and to 
 look rather insignificant ; in this case, too, their situations must be determined by the 
 proper height for viewing them, and not by the actual height of the room. Even where 
 there are many large and small pictures together, they can hardly ever be so well arranged 
 as a regard to general effect requires ; because, instead of the larger ones being so hung 
 that each of them shall form the central point, as it were, around which smaller frames 
 
VILLAS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 
 
 911 
 
 should be symmetrically disposed ; the former must inevitably be placed above the latter, 
 and thereby create a certain disproportion and irregularity, by no means very pleasing in 
 itself. These inconveniences might generally be obviated by placing pictures of small 
 dimensions, whether there be any others in the apartment or not, in a pinacotheca. 
 
 1851. The Pinacotheca, As this piece of furniture is quite a novel contrivance, never 
 before described, some explanation of it may not be unwelcome. It is a small upright 
 cabinet, enclosed in front with a door of plate glass, to secure the paintings and their 
 frames also from dust, and to prevent their being touched or accidentally rubbed against* 
 Its depth need be little more than that of the frames of the pictures which are arranged 
 in it one above another (not more than three or four), in such a manner as that the 
 uppermost shall be exactly on the right level for properly viewing it. When a person 
 wants to examine any of the lower paintings, he is able by a simple piece of mechanism 
 to shift its place, and elevate it for that purpose ; and, as the pinacotheca would stand 
 upon castors, and be a light piece of furniture, it might easily be turned so as to catch 
 the most favourable light. Besides being thus of express utility, pinacothecas might be 
 rendered exceedingly ornamental pieces of furniture, both by their materials and their 
 embellishments. We will decide, then, on having two in the larger drawingroom, either 
 against the window piers, or one on each side of the folding doors at the end. Two 
 rosewood cabinets of this description, lined within with crimson velvet, puckered, and 
 surmounted by busts, with a rich socket for a wax taper on each side of them, springing 
 up from the carved work at the angles, would form, independently of what they might 
 contain, rather tasteful accessories to the rest of the furniture. With these two rooms a 
 stranger would most likely judge that all the reception apartments terminated ; at least, 
 he would hardly suppose that there was another sitting-room ; or, at all events, none 
 of any importance beyond these, since he would rather imagine that the farther door must 
 lead into some passage behind the staircase ; consequently he would hardly be much dis- 
 satisfied with the plan, on discovering that 
 
 1852. The Library is so immediately connected with the drawingrooms as to form, 
 although not in a direct line, a suite of three rooms all opening into each other. I can- 
 not help considering this disposition far preferable to one that would produce merely a 
 straight enfilade, certainly presenting a more imposing vista at the first glance, but 
 exhibiting no art or contrivance, and keeping nothing in reserve to make amends for the 
 monotony which would be felt after the first impression had subsided. In a very spacious 
 mansion, where there is scope for great variety in other respects, a lengthened enfilade 
 contributes to dignity : but here, considering both the size of the house and the limited 
 number of rooms, it should rather be avoided than the contrary ; because it would display 
 almost the whole of the interior at once ; whereas, by making a turn off from the direct 
 line, and at an angle, where, from the known situation of the staircase, there seems 
 hardly any possibility for communication with an adjoining room except through some 
 passage, a pleasing degree of variety and intricacy is produced. The house, too, appears 
 thus much larger than it really is ; for even the mere circumstance of turning again from 
 the recess into the library conveys an idea of distance and extent. Between the drawing- 
 room and library should be double doors, so as to exclude all sound, and keep the latter 
 room quite quiet, and distinct, as it were, from all the others on this floor, notwithstand- 
 ing that it is so completely connected with them. Whichever way it be entered, whe- 
 ther from the staircase, so as to have a direct and central view on opening the door, or 
 from the drawingroom, the effect would be pleasing, and somewhat picturesque. In 
 the latter case, the effect would be even the more striking of the two ; because, as the 
 doors in the entrance recess would be paneled with mirrors, on opening that from the 
 drawingroona, an apparent vista onward into another drawingroom, through the library, 
 would display itself. Were they not so situated, so many doors close together would be 
 objectionable ; yet, being placed within a recess, they seem quite independent of the room ^ 
 itself ; and are so far from causing any interruption when opened, that the centre door is 
 removed more out of the way than if there were no recess here at all. The door opposite 
 that leading into the drawingroom, by communicating almost directly with the back 
 staircase, yet not so as to expose it, is a great convenience, as it allows of persons who 
 come on business with the master of the house to be shown up, after entering the back 
 way, immediately into the library to him, without passing through the staircase, or 
 being seen by any one. It also affords a direct and private passage to the water-closet 
 adjoining the back stairs ; which is also most conveniently situated for ready access from 
 the dining-room likewise, through the private door by the sideboard : an accommodation 
 of some importance, as it would remove all occasion for that of another kind, which is 
 
 a more useful than elegant appendage to a dining-room. This library, nineteen feet by 
 twenty-four, would be not only agreeably diversified in its form, but also rendered more 
 spacious by the entrance recess and the bay window. This room, however, and the whole 
 house, m.ight be materially improved by an addition to the first plan, viz. a conservatory. 
 
912 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 1853. ^ Conservatory would also form a very desirable screen between the garden 
 and the kitchen-court below. This extension of the original limits of the plan is shown 
 m fig. 1597, where it will be seen that the bay of the window is made somewhat deeper 
 than before, in order to obtain sufficient 
 space for a door leading to the conservatory, 
 a ; and opposite to that is another, opening 
 into a small closet, b, for papers, &c. These 
 additional doors, however, would occasion 
 no alteration in the room itself, but leave 
 just as much wall as before for book-shelves. 
 The only other change this alteration would 
 occasion would be, that, instead of folding 
 back, the shutters must be drawn up from 
 a box made to receive them below ; wliich, 
 as there are no windows beneath the bay, 
 would be easily accomplished, and for a 
 mullioned window such shutters would be 
 rather more convenient than not; since, 
 instead of the whole shutters being drawn 
 up before the window, which, owing to the 
 width, would be troublesome, each compart- 
 ment would have its separate shutter to slide 
 up in a groove in the mullions. By this 
 means each would be securely fixed, beyond 
 the possibihty of its being removed, when a 
 bolt was put in it below, to prevent its being pushed down again. In order to give suf- 
 ficient width to the conservatory, and yet not to bring it so far forward as to seem to shut 
 up the library too much between two buildings, the south-west angle is cut off; which 
 would be rather favourable than otherwise in regard to its elevation ; and decidedly so as 
 catching the sun earLer in the day. Should, however, any deviation from the original 
 Design be adopted at all, I would not stop here, but would suggest that a considerable 
 improvement should be effected, by throwing out another bay or oriel towards the kitchen- 
 court, though not so as to look into it ; for, although it would have a window, it would 
 be about seven feet or more from the floor ; and there would be a book-case under 
 it. The window itself would be of stained and ground glass, thereby occasioning, together 
 with the expanse produced by the oriel itself (which might be raised a single step above the 
 level of the floor, and also carried up higher than the ceiling of the room), a very beauti- 
 ful eflfect as viewed from the opposite entrance. The dotted lines at c, in the plan, show 
 the situation and extent of this oriel. Should this plan be adopted, the door leading 
 into the conservatory would be made in the oriel, as affording a better entrance than 
 that from the bay ; and it might be covered witli the backs of sham books, as the side 
 facing it would have book-shelves. The whole room might be rendered more symme- 
 trical and beautiful by making a shallow or blank recess on the chimney side of the room, 
 corresponding with the other three sides, and placing the chimney-piece in it ; thus con- 
 fining the shelves to the spaces entirely on each side of these four arches ; and as we have 
 already provided for shutters without having any occasion for them in the bay, there 
 might be shelves in the sides of that also, as well as in the oriel. A still more important 
 improvement here suggests itself to me, which is, to extend this bay, or rather to make it 
 a second but not a separate room, by advancing it as far as the dotted lines, d, leaving 
 the arch of the present bay, which would open into a space about thirteen feet by 
 twenty-four. Were the wall, e e, removed, not only would all symmetry, and even regu- 
 larity, be utterly destroyed, but the room itself would appear much too low for its extent; 
 to say nothing of the loss of space for book-shelves against both sides of the piers or 
 walls, e e. Neither need we be apprehensive that, owing to this division in the room, 
 and the distance of the window from the fireplace side, the part of the library where this 
 latter is situated would be dark and gloomy, because we have already obtained a spacious 
 window in the oriel. Taken altogether, this apartment would thus be rendered a most 
 delightful one : full of contrast and eflfect from every point of view ; complex, yet 
 full of order ; irregular, yet abounding in symmetries. This extension of the library 
 would afford additional accommodation on the floor above, as there might be a chamber 
 over this second or western division of the library, a passage to it being cut off from the 
 other, the window of which must then be placed on the north side. That this is ex- 
 ceedingly practicable, will be instantly seen by referring to the plan of the chamber floor, 
 fig. 1592. With regard to the conservatory itself, while it would be a material recom- 
 mendation to have it immediately connected with the house, nothing would, certainly, be 
 detracted from the value of its eflfect, by its appearing externally a separate building, as 
 
VILLAS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 
 
 913 
 
 there would be no obvious communication between that and the library. Supposing, 
 however, that the Avhole of the alterations just described should be carried into effect, 
 nothing would then be easier than to make folding doors in the centre of the south 
 end of the conservatory, opening into that angle of the second library ; which would 
 certainly afford more direct and convenient access, and a pleasing vista down the con- 
 servatory ; and as it would be rather an impropriety to place a large doorway quite 
 in a corner, and without any thing to balance it, this objection might be removed at 
 once, by making this door, on the library side, to appear a continuation of the book-cases, 
 and one of their compartments. Nor, in adopting this latter entrance, would it be at all 
 necessary to abandon the other, for the passage from the oriel might also be retained ; 
 thereby securing a double effect. The erection of a conserv'atory in this situation would, 
 besides, be attended with a collateral advantage, which is, that it would enable us to build 
 a laundry and additional offices beneath it towards the kitchen court ; whereby the accom- 
 modation afforded by the present plan would be greatly increased. 
 
 1854. Concluding Remarks. When I commenced, it was my intention to make a 
 few remarks relative to the chamber floor, somewhat similar to those on the sitting- 
 rooms ; but the latter have extended to such length, that all I can now allow myself is, 
 to make a few remarks as to how far the house, supposing these last-mentioned improve- 
 ments to have been adopted, would be calculated for effect and display on occasion of a 
 grand entertainment. The first thing that would present itself to the company might be 
 the appearance of a splendid painted window illuminating the vestibule, which piece of 
 decoration would be produced by merely filling the compai-tments of the screen with 
 small transparencies, with lights behind them. The visiters would then enter the 
 drawingrooms, which, brilliantly lighted up, would lose none of their effect by the 
 contrast they would offer to the subdued splendour of the vestibule ; and which would 
 be greatly heightened by the mirrors over the opposite chimney-pieces reflecting the 
 chandeliers into a lengthened vista of tapers. Hence they would turn into the spacious 
 library, where their eye would be caught by the view imaged in the mirror door facing 
 them, and next by the oriel window illuminated from behind. On turning into the 
 second library, the whole length of the conservatory, splendidly lighted, and fitted up 
 as a ball-room, with shrubs and exotics ranged on each side, would present itself 
 through the folding doors. On returning, the company might pass through the passage 
 leading into the oriel, and so regain the library. They would then either re-enter the 
 drawingrooms, or proceed straight forward to the staircase, which would also be lighted 
 up ; and have perhaps transparencies in the arches of the upper corridor. Here, too, a 
 splendid effect, of a different character from the rest, would be obtained ; for, on directing 
 the eye immediately upwards, would be seen, high over head, a brilliant transparent roof; 
 to produce which, nothing more would be necessary than to have lamps in the space 
 between that and the upper skylight. As the lights behind the transparencies in the 
 screen would destroy all effect here, if visible, they must be concealed by a plain wooden 
 partition lined with tin, both to increase the light, and to prevent accident by fire, for 
 the lamps would be affixed to it ; and this partition would in its turn be concealed by 
 draperies nailed up against it. After admiring, or, if not admiring, criticising, the stair- 
 case, the company would enter the vestibule, and turn into the dining-room, and the 
 adjoining one, where the supper tables would be laid out; and, having conducted 
 the company to what will hardly be considered an anti-climax, the arrangements of the 
 entertainment, we may now take leave of them. — It is by no means my wish to be 
 understood as recommending the present Design as an express pattern. Upon nearly 
 the same scale, the same accommodation might be arranged in numberless ways ; some 
 far more varied and picturesque ; all decidedly different from each other ; and yet 
 each distinguished by some particular merit of its own. The art of laying out houses 
 or other buildings, by which term I would express something more than merely forming 
 a plan, — something analogous to what is understood by 'laying out grounds,' — that 
 is, planning for effect as well as convenience, is one that admits of unlinaited di- 
 versity." — W. H. L. 
 
 [There may be some difference of opinion as to the merit of the Design itself, but 
 every one, we think, will allow that its author has explained and analysed it in a copious 
 manner, pointing out his aim in all he has done, and assigning reasons in support 
 of it. It is, too, no more than justice towards him, to apprize our readers that, even 
 extended as his description is, some parts have been omitted by us, rot because they were 
 either uninteresting in themselves, or irrelevant to the subject, but principally because we 
 had no other alternative than to make such retrenchments, or 'exclude his paper altogether, 
 in consequence of the space it would have occupied. Still, abridged as it is, it may serve 
 as a model for the explanatory text that should accompany published designs ; and it is 
 probable, that, were Architects to consider what they should say of them, they would 
 frequently bestow more study and consideration upon the designs themselves.] 
 
 5 o 
 
914i COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 Design XIX A Villa in the Grecian Style, for a large Family, residing chiefly in the 
 
 Country, with an Income of from ^6000 to £ 10,000 a Year, 
 1855. The Situation of this villa is on the high and steep bank of a river in Devonshire, 
 where it was built, a few years ago, from the designs and under the direction of Charles 
 Vokins, Esq., Architect, Pimlico. Fig. 1598 shows the relative situation of the house, 
 
 1598 
 
 offices, and garden ; a is the approach ; b, the entrance front of the house ; c, the stable 
 and kitchen court ; d, the kitchen-garden ; e, the flower-garden ; /, the family entrance, 
 and road to the gardens ; g, drive to the wooded hills behind the house ; and h, iron 
 fence separating the lawn from the woods. This lawn is not mown, but pastured by 
 sheep and deer, which are also kept fVom the plantations between the house and the 
 kitchen and flower gardens by a similar iron fence, in the direction indicated by the 
 letters ii; k is a river ; and I, a stream which joins it ; the point of the junction is about 
 200 feet below the level of the floor of the house. The grounds behind are wooded, and 
 rise to hills to the height of several hundred feet. The gersral appearance of the house, 
 as seen within 300 feet of the entrance front, is as shown in fig. 1599. 
 
 1856. Accommodation. In the ground plan, fig. 1600, a is the entrance hall; 6, the 
 library; c, drawingroom ; d, dining-room; e, great staircase; /, breakfast-room; g, bed- 
 
VILLAS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 
 
 915 
 
 room for an elderly person ; h, dressing-room; i, water-closet ; k, stairs ascending to the 
 bed-rooms, and descending to the cellars ; I, closet for great-coats, &c. ; m, business- 
 
 1600 
 
 room, or study; n, fire-proof closet adjoining; o, fire-proof staircase ; p, steward's room; 
 q, back entrance for the children and family ; r, biUiard-room, lighted by a lantern 
 above, with a stained-glass Avindow at one end ; s, water-closet ; t, butler's room ; strong 
 
916 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 closet for plate ; v, housekeeper's room ; w, kitchen j x, scullery ; y, wet larder ; z, vege- 
 table larder ; dry larder ; a, game larder ; b', servants' hall ; c', cleaning and dressing 
 room for men-servants ; d', servants' entrance from the yard ; e and coal-cellars ; 
 g' and h', beer-cellars ; i', brewhouse and bakehouse ; k', open yard ; I', maid-servants' 
 privies ; m', privies for stable-men, &c. ; n', four-stalled riding-horse stable ; o', loose box 
 for a sick horse ; p', harness-room ; q', coach-house ; r', entrance to stable-yard ; s', coach- 
 house ; t', harness-room ; u, loose boxes for sick horses ; v, hay-room ; w', clock- 
 house ; x\ corn-room ; y', coach-horses' stable ; z', double coach-house ; (^', stable-yard ; 
 aa, private entrance from the lawn ; bb, space for conservatory. The apartments, g, h, 
 and i, are shut in by a door at k, and may form a suitable bed-room, dressing-room, and 
 water-closet for an infirm person, unable to go up stairs. The business-room, m, com- 
 mands a view of the yard. The gentlemen's water-closet, s, is situated near the billiard- 
 room and dining-room. The large vegetable larder, z, is only roofed to the line of 
 columns, and the outer half is left open as a yard. The ground is high opposite the 
 coal-cellars, e and /, and the coals are let down, in the usual way, by an opening in the 
 roof. The malt and hops are delivered into a gallery in the brewhouse, from the same 
 elevated ground. On entering the hall, a, a vista presents itself, 300 feet in length, ex- 
 tending through the billiard-room, r, and terminating in a beautiful stained-glass window 
 at its farther end. The billiard -table is fixed, altogether independently of the floor, in the 
 following manner : — Stone piers, two feet square, are carried up from the foundation, 
 which is here a freestone rock, directly under the position of each foot of the table. The 
 piers are terminated by cones of stone, whose bases cover the area of the piers, and whose 
 summits are truncated, the diameter of the section being four inches, or about half an 
 inch more than that of the feet of the table. The height of the upper surface of these 
 cones is on an exact level with the intended floor of the room ; and this floor is not put 
 down till the billiard- table is set and levelled. This being done, the floor is put down 
 altogether independently of the cones ; the object being to prevent the possibility of 
 communicating the slightest motion to the billiard-table, by the players or others walking 
 round it, while the game is going forward. The billiard-table is lighted during the day 
 by a lantern skylight (a skylight with upright sides, glazed, and an opaque cover), of the 
 exact size of the table, twelve feet by six feet, and directly over it ; and in the evenings 
 there is a lamp suspended from the centre of the roof of the lantern. The roof of the 
 billiard-room is flat, and forms a flower balcony to the dressing-room of the lady of the 
 house. The entrance hall, finished with niches, and lighted by a glass dome, has a very 
 handsome effect. 
 
 1857. The Chamber Floor, fig. 1601, shows, a, great staircase; best spare bed- 
 
VILLAS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 
 
 room ; c, dressing-room ; d, spare bed-room ; e, dressing-room ; /, bed-room ; g, spare 
 bed-room ; h, dressing-room ; i, water-closets ; k, back staircase for company's servants ; 
 I, family bed-room ; m, ladies' dressing-room, with an outlet to the flat roof oyer the 
 billiard-room ; n, passage ; o, bed-room, or dressing-room ; p, fire-proof staircase ; 
 q, stairs leading to the nurseries ; r and s, housemaids' closets, supplied with hot and cold 
 water, wood, and coals; t, water-closet; u, light to lower water-closet ; bed-room ; 
 w, governess's room ; upper part of kitchen ; y, z, and ^, sleeping-nurseries ; a', day 
 nursery ; &', plunge bath. Each of the spare bed-rooms is shut in by a door, having 
 a dressing-room and water-closet to each. The family part of the house is quite dis- 
 tinct, from the visiters' apartments, and has no communication with them but by the 
 passage, n. 
 
 1858. The Attic Floor, fig. 1602, contains, a, fire-proof staircase; 6, room containing 
 a furnace and boiler for heating water to supply all the bed-rooms in the floor below ; 
 
 c, closet ; d, passage to the bed-rooms ; e, stair for company's servants ; /, concealed 
 passage for bell wires, &c. The other apartments, eleven in number, except the closet g, 
 are bed-rooms. All the bell wires rise perpendicularly in tubes from the different rooms, 
 to the concealed passage, /, and descend in one tube or trunk to the bells, which are 
 hung in the passage, Z, in the 
 plan of the principal floor, fig. 
 1 600. The boiler, b, supplies the 
 whole of the house with hot water. 
 
 The Basement Floor, fig. 1603, 
 contains an inclined plane, a, for 
 sliding down pipes of wine ; 6, 
 cellar stairs; c, large cellar for hot- 
 air stove to heat the whole house ; 
 
 d, cellar for wine in wood ; e, large 
 wine-cellar ; f, store-ceUar ; and g, 
 butler's wine-cellar. 
 
 1859. Construction. The walls 
 are built of freestone, from a 
 quarry on the .spot (indeed, partly 
 taken out of the foundations of the 
 house), and internally they are 
 lined with brick. All the partition 
 walls are of brick, and, for the most 
 part, are nine inches in thickness, 
 except those in the attic story, 
 which are of brick nogging. 
 There is not a single lath and plaster partition in the house ; in consequence of 
 which, the danger from fire, if it should break out in any part, is greatly diminished. 
 The roofs over the billiard-room, over the staircase, 
 over the smaller buildings between the staircase and the 
 court, and over the passage leading to the nursery, 2, 
 are flat, as may be seen in the vertical profile of them 
 shown in the general plan, fig. 1598. 
 
 1860. General Estimate. The cost of this building, 
 in a^country where freestone is abundant, and easily 
 worked, would not exceed ^10,000 ; but in the neigh- 
 bourhood of London, if it were built with brick and 
 covered with cement, the amount would not be less than 
 i;" 20,000. The cubic contents are 460,464 feet ; which 
 gives about 5^1. per foot for the country, and about 11 <i. 
 for the neighboiu-hood of London. 
 
 1861. Remarks. This Design, in point of style, 
 affords a very good specimen of a Grecian villa, in 
 what may be called pure architectural taste, with the 
 chimney tops entirely concealed. This concealment of 
 the chimney tops has almost always been aimed at by 
 Architects, when the object in view was what is called the pure Grecian ; and certainly 
 the absence of chimneys is favourable to the expression of the temple-like style of 
 Architecture, which is characterised by porticoes, pediments, and low-pitched roofs. 
 Mr. Joseph Wood, for whose taste in Architecture we have the highest respect, and with 
 whom we agree in almost every thing, has given a sketch of a Grecian villa, to illustrate 
 his Essay on Villas, published in the first volume of the Essays of the London Archi- 
 tectural Society. We have copied a part of this sketch, fig. 1604, for the sake of showing 
 
 1603 
 
 Jl 
 
 irrd 
 
918 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 that chimney tops form no part of ]\Ir. Wood's idea of a Grecian villa. It would, how- 
 ever, be difficult to construct such a villa as is indicated by this vipjnette in such a man- 
 ner as to have open fire-places in the apartments, and yet to be without the appearance 
 of chimneys externally. In the case of Mr. Vokins's villa, this is mucli more easily 
 done, because the high parapet affords an opportunity of concealing such of the chimney 
 tops as may be in tVe outside walls ; and those in the cross walls, and in the interior 
 walls need not be carried higher than the ridge of the roof, by which means, and by 
 drawing the flues to the inner slope of the roof, none of the shafts will appear on the 
 outer slopes of the roof, and consequently none be seen in the elevation. Notwithstanding 
 the facility of concealing the chimneys in the Design before us, we should, for our own 
 particular taste, have greatly preferred them displayed, for the sake of giving the building 
 th-j expression of a dwelling-house. Looking at the edifice as it is, and without rcfer- 
 CL:ce to surrounding scenery, it is not easy to determine whether it is a private house or 
 a public institution. The true principle of imitating Grecian Architecture in a villa, in 
 our opinion, is, not to produce a building, like that of Mr. Wood's villa, without chimney 
 tops, which might be mistaken for a temple, or a combination of temples; for that would 
 be mere mimicry ; nor, like the Design before us, a house without chimney tops, because 
 that gives false expression, or, at all events, is defective in that quality ; but to imitate 
 the style and manner of Grecian composition, and adapt it to the particular purpose 
 in view. Mr. Vokins's Design wants only chimney tcps to make it come up to this idea, 
 and, indeed, the same may be said of the villa of Mr. Wood. The same principle will 
 apply to the imitation of any of the varieties of Gothic Architecture. Indeed, the 
 young Architect may always bear it in mind, as a fundamental principle, that all fac- 
 simile imitation ranks no higher than mimicry ; and that imitation, to belong to elegant 
 art, must be the imitation of spirit and manner, not of individual forms. — With respect 
 to the interior arrangement of INIr. Vokins's Design, it is admirable. The cubical 
 mass of the main body of the building admits of getting a great deal in little space, and 
 with much less expense of walling than if the general form had been a parallelogram. 
 The manner of setting the billiard-table (§ 1856) is worthy of notice ; and also the mode 
 in which hot water is supplied to all the bed-rooms, and to the nursery in the chamber 
 floor, from a boiler in the attics over it. The concealed passage for the bell wires in the 
 attic floor, and the trunk for their descent, are also judicious contrivances ; and we may 
 state here, that all the pipes from the roof, and from the water-closets, as well as ^11 the 
 pipes connected with cisterns, and the cisterns themselves, are so placed and protected as 
 never to be liable to be frozen. In short, the interior arrangements of this house are 
 among the most commodious and complete that we have seen, and Mr. Vokins has intro- 
 duced some ingenious inventions in the internal finishings and fittings-up, which will be 
 found in the chapter which will hereafter be given on those subjects. We cannot say 
 much in favour of the laying out of the grounds. It is evident that the best views must 
 be obtained before entering the house, which is at variance with one of the fundamental 
 principles of landscape-gardening. (See Gard. Mag., vol. ix. p. 3.) The flower-garden 
 is separated from the house in such a manner that a back road has to be crossed in 
 walking to it, which is also in bad taste. 
 
VILLAS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 
 
 919 
 
 Design XX. — .^ Villa for a small Family, in the Castellated Style of Gothic Archi- 
 tecture. 
 
 1862. The Situation for a villa, in this style, according to general associations, should 
 be on a bold commanding rocky prominence, where it might be supposed that, in some 
 former period, a baronial castle for actual defence may ha^^e been placed. It is not 
 necessary on that account, however, that it should be accompanied by fortified outworks ; 
 but still the terrace-walls, and other ornamental architectural appendages which accom- 
 pany it, should either be in some degree marked by the lines and finish of fortified walls, 
 or should imitate their ruins. Even, in point of architectural harmony, the crests (tops) 
 of such walls should be more or less embattled, like the parapets of the house. A slight 
 degree of acquaintance with Military Architecture, or with the existing ruins of castles 
 of the fourteenth century still to be found in Britain, or on the continent of Europe, will 
 aflTord many excellent hints for designing the external Architecture of the main body, 
 and especially of the appendages, of buildings in this style. For the arrangement of 
 the interior, recourse must be had to the wants of modern society ; for, as we have 
 said before, the object, in cases of this sort, is never to mimic individual examples, 
 but to imitate the general spirit of the style and manner. Fig. 1605 is a perspective view 
 of the Design before us. 
 
 1606 
 
 1863. Accommodation. Fig. 1606, is the plan of the piincipal floor; in which a is 
 the entrance porch ; 6, the hall ; c, the dining-room ; and, d, the drawingroora ; each of 
 which has a light closet 
 attached to it; e, water- 
 closet ; staircase ; g, coat- 
 closet ; A, butler's room ; i, 
 passage ; j, library ; k, back 
 staircase ; /, servants' hall ; 
 TO, kitchen ; n, scullery ; o, 
 pantry ; and, p, house- 
 keeper's room. Above the 
 dining-room area bed-room 
 and dressing-room, and 
 there are similar apartments 
 above the drawingroom, 
 hall, and porch. Above 
 the other rooms, the ar- 
 rangement of the bed-rooms 
 and dressing-rooms is ob- 
 vious. Above the servants' 
 hall and pantry are sleeping 
 and day nurseries ; and in 
 the attic story are the 
 servants' apartments, and 
 bed-rooms for single gentle- 
 men. 
 
920 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 1864. Construction. The walls may be of brick, or of stone lined with brick ; all 
 the partitions on the principal floor should be of nine-inch brickwork, and all those on 
 the chamber-floor of 4-inch brickwork. The partitions in the attic story should be of 
 brick nogging. The two staircases ought to be of stone, or the principal staircase may 
 be of solid stone and the back staircase of cast-iron framing ; the risers of grating, and the 
 treads of flagstone. Even the principal staircase may be formed in this manner, the effect 
 of which is very elegant, and which, sometimes, is useful in affording light to the stairs 
 below. The roof n^y be flat, covered with plain tiles bedded in cement, and coated over 
 with three thin layers of the Stanhope composition, described § 1 789. The flooring of all 
 the rooms may be of Wright's ornamental tiles. The battlements may either be finished 
 in stone, which is the preferable mode ; in brick, covered with cement, and coloured in 
 imitation of stone ; or in brick alone ; those for the copings and mouldings being 
 moulded of suitable shapes before being burnt. This practice, as we have already 
 observed, § 274, is as old as the time of Henry VIII., and the bricks produced are 
 almost as durable as stone. The richest Gothic building in England, the house of the 
 late Countess of Stafford, at Jerningham, near Norwich, designed by J. Buckler, Esq., 
 Jun., has all the principal ornaments of the chimney tops and mouldings executed in 
 brick made on the spot. 
 
 1865. General Estimate. The cubic contents are 138,422 feet; which, at 6d. per 
 foot, is £3,460 : Us. 
 
 1866. Remarks. The internal arrangement of this Design is excellent, and, from the 
 compact, cubical form of the building the expense must necessarily be moderate in pro- 
 portion to the accommodation afforded. Corbeled, or far-projecting cornices, like those 
 here shown, were only used in ancient times, when castles were built for defence. The 
 parapet being thus projected from the wall, and openings being left between the stones, 
 missiles of different kinds could be thrown down on the assailants. Such edifices were 
 never placed but in situations that afforded some natural means of defence ; such as 
 eminences, prominences projecting into lakes or the sea, or rocky steeps. Hence, to 
 build such a castle in a tame flat situation would be improper, because the illusion would 
 not be kept up. For this Design we are indebted to the author of the preceding one. 
 
 Design XXI. — A Villa in the latest Style of Pointed Architecture, with an Essay on the 
 Application of that Style to domestic Purposes. 
 
 1867. Tliis Design, of which fig. 1607 is a small perspective view, has been con- 
 tributed, together with the essay that accompanies it, by E. Trotman, Esq., a young 
 
 Architect, who bids fair to rise to the very summit of his profession. We consider it 
 unnecessary to say any thing on the architectural beauty of the elevations of this Design, 
 because it must strike the eye of every reader ; but we must request the careful perusal 
 of the essay, which we do not hesitate to affirm that we consider one of the best which 
 has hitherto been published on the subject of which it treats. 
 
 1868. Accommodation. In the ground plan, fig. 1608, a indicates the porch; b, the 
 hall, sixteen feet by ten feet, lighted by sash-doors, as expressed in the elevation ; c, 
 dining-room, twenty-eight feet by sixteen feet, and fifteen feet high, to which the old 
 appendage of the oriel window is attached, though with some difference of character and 
 position ; d, conservatory, eighteen feet by eight feet, which may conmiunicate or not 
 
VILLAS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 
 
 921 
 
 with tlie former by the doorway shown ; e, drawingrooin, twenty-five feet by sixteen 
 feet ; /, library, seventeen feet by fifteen feet, which, being arranged en suite with « and 
 may command a pleasing view, if the vista be increased by a large chimney-glass ; ^, 
 water-closet ; h, principal staircase ; i, passage, cut off from the hall by a door, and lead- 
 ing to the back staircase and offices butler's room ; k, kitchen, with pantry or larder, Z, 
 and large closet, m ; n, scullery ; o, the kitchen court ; p, coach-house ; q, a four-stalled 
 stable; r, harness-room; *, servants' water-closet; and t, an ornamental screen and fence 
 wall, to conceal the kitchen court. Ample cellarage for coals, wine, beer, &c., may be 
 obtained in the basement. On the chamber floor, fig. 1609, a designates the landing 
 
 of the staircase, lighteu by a skylight ; 6, passage to the chambers ; c and /, dressing- 
 rooms ; d, e, g, bed-chambers ; h, staircase continued up to an additional room on the 
 second story, over the porch ; i, passage to the servants' apartments, k and Z; and m> store 
 or linen-room ; n is the hay-loft over the stable ; and o o, the coachman's living and 
 sleeping-rooms. 
 
 1869. Construction and Architectural Character. Fig. 1610 is an elevation of the 
 entrance front. 
 
 Fig. 1611. Elevation of the garden front. 
 
 Fig. 1612. End view from the stable court. 
 
 Fig. 1613. Elevation of the stable and coach-house. 
 
 Fig. 1614. Section through the house on the line A B. 
 
 This Design (which is composed in the latest style of Pointed Architecture) might be 
 executed with propriety and effect in brickwork ; with the dressings, or ornamental parts 
 in stone. Lead lights in quarry (or lozenge) squares would have by far the most 
 characteristic appearance for the windows ; but in this matter considerable latitude may 
 be allowed. The ornamental members throughout have as much simplicity as is con- 
 sistent with the character of the masses and of the style ; and a design of this kind, if 
 correct in its simpler state, may easily be enriched at pleasure by the use of tracery, 
 foliage, grotesques, &c. ; care being taken to equalise the decorations of aD parts which 
 
 5 Y 
 
9^4 
 
 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 F:. la 0 10 30 Ft. 
 
 1870. General Estimate. The cubical contents of the house itself will average 
 117,713 feet; which, at \0d. a foot, amounts to £4904: 14s. : 2c?. Those of all the out- 
 buildings, together, are 24,645 cubic feet, which, at 9d. a foot, is i;'924 : 3s. : 9c?., making 
 the whole expense £5?>2S : 17s. : 11 cf. 
 
 1871. The preceding Design illustrates an attempt at the con^position of a villa in the 
 latest style in which Pointed or Gothic Architecture existed in its purity. It has not, 
 indeed, been our object here to present to the eye an elaborate and costly display of all 
 the domestic resources of Tudor magnificence, or to please the fancy of the staunch anti- 
 quary with the representation of a quadrangular pile, rigidly fashioned after the models 
 of the year 1 500 ; but to offer to the man of moderate fortune, and Old English taste, a 
 Design which may be characterised by convenience, architectural propriety, picturesque 
 effect, and simplicity of decoration, while it possesses the essential recommendation of 
 being within the limits of economy in the execution. Its general character and various 
 accommodation will, it is hoped, be sufficiently comprehended upon a comparison of the 
 drawings with tlieir references. The understanding, however, of its constituent parts, 
 
VILLAS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 
 
 » 
 
 925 
 
 as a composition, will perhaps be most effectually promoted by the introduction in this^ 
 place of some observations upon Pointed Architecture in general (for, on the ground of 
 correctness and significancy, the term " Pointed," is far preferable to the nickname of 
 " Gothic "), and more especially as applicable to the principal subjects of winch this 
 work professes to treat. 
 
 1872. The claims lohich Pointed Architecture has upon the favour of an Englishman are 
 indeed of a supreme and unrivalled order. It was in England that that style, the last 
 and finest of the great general systems of human taste, found a congenial home, and dis- 
 played its most luxuriant beauties, as well as much of its most impressive grandeur. It 
 was here that, in its progressive growth and developement, it exhibited its happy adapt- 
 ation to the wants of the people, the exigencies of the climate, and the diversities of 
 circumstances; and it was on this land that it threw the last lingering beams of its 
 effulgence, which still struggled amidst the gathering darkness, until overpowered by the 
 night of blind affectation and lawless extravagance. Happily, however, for the interests 
 of sound taste, our country, after having given trial, for nearly three centuries, to the 
 merits of what was called Classic Architecture, both the true and the false, has begun 
 to discern that the native style, so long neglected, has claims to admiration which the 
 pretensions of foreign art can never eclipse or invalidate. Accordingly, our own nation 
 has been the most forward to compensate for its past indifference, by exhibiting, of late 
 years, the efforts of a laudable zeal in the preservation and restoration of some of the 
 most interesting remains of antiquity ; and, if we cannot profess any admiration for the 
 great mass of what are called " Modern Gothic" compositions, we must, at the same time, 
 confess, that the fact of their existence demonstrates, at least, a favourable direction of the 
 public mind, and affords a hope that future attempts will assume a far more successful 
 character. Indeed the daily increased extension of general knowledge involves the over- 
 throw of false principles and unreasonable prejudices in art ; and, when to the removal of 
 these is added a comprehensive acquaintance with the resources and characteristic spirit 
 of a system of such richness and amplitude as that of Pointed Architecture, we shall be 
 relieved from all fear lest that style should be undervalued, and shall suffer no appre- 
 hension for the purity of the new specimens therein, or the security of the old. We. are 
 not sanguine enough to expect that Pointed Architecture should again become as fashion- 
 able among us as it formerly was, when it imparted a character even to the hovels of the 
 poor ; nor, indeed, are we disposed, upon the whole, to wish that it should be so ; for, in 
 these times of increased population, of extended building, and of freedom of opinion in 
 matters of taste, we should fear that, under the best practicable state of public culture, 
 the propagation of deformity, and of the gingerbread style of art, would be far 
 more rapid than that of the chaste and the beautiful. At the same time, it is our 
 
926 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 anxious hope, that, in those works over which enlightened individuals or collective 
 bodies are the arbiters of taste, and in which, from their locality and destination, the 
 adoption of such a style would be appropriate, the mode of Architecture under con- 
 sideration may receive a yet greater measure of patronage than it has hitherto obtained, 
 accompanied, however, with a more vigilant degree of scrutiny. That it deserves such 
 favourable yet watchful patronage, a few remarks, we think, will suffice to prove. 
 
 1873. As an ornamental Science, the Merits of Pointed Architecture are of the highest 
 order, arising from a combination and consummation of excellencies, which earlier styles 
 exhibited only in an imperfect degree. The classical structures of Greece affected 
 the beautiful and the simple ; those of Rome the bold and the picturesque. The former 
 could not have attained the masculine force and variety of the latter without the 
 sacrifice of their distinctive character ; nor, without a correspondent loss, could the latter 
 have assumed the feminine grace and detailed beauty of feature peculiar to the former. 
 In the maturity, however, of Pointed Architecture we see this happy union of properties 
 completely effected. The contour of its masses displays the very essence of the pic- 
 turesque; the prevailing lines of composition, the aspiring and the curved, unite 
 dignity with grace ; while the ornamental detail exhibits the most gratifying alternations 
 of light and shade, and often the most luxuriant richness of a playful imagination. Nor 
 is this all, as applicable to tlie style in general ; for, in its adaptation to particular pur- 
 poses, its universal power is ever discernible. Thus, in York Cathedral it becomes 
 solemnly grand ; in King's College Chapel, Cambridge, it mingles in equal proportion 
 beauty with grandeur ; in Henry the Seventh's Chapel it assumes an aspect of dazzling 
 richness ; in Windsor Castle it rises bold and lordly ; in the colleges of our universities it 
 unites the domestic with the ecclesiastical ; and, in passing thence down to the simple 
 forms of the humblest cottage, it varies its character according to circumstances ; being 
 no less consistent and successful in the last than in the first. Great as are thus its 
 powers, and varied as are its resources, independently considered, the merits of Pointed 
 Architecture are highly enhanced by the aptitude with which its productions harmonise 
 with the scenery anil atmospherical effects of nature. How hai)pily, as contrasted with 
 the square masses of Classic Architecture, do the towers, the turrets, the pinnacles, the 
 gables, the battlements, and the chimneys of the pointed style mingle with the sylvan 
 objects of the painter's study ! Observe these, gilded by the warm beams of the setting 
 sun, or standing in strong relief against a moonlit sky, and say where is the Greek or 
 more picturesque Italian structure that can hazard a comparison with them. The 
 terminating lines of the latter styles are almost always of a hard and square character, 
 setting art in marked opposition to nature ; those of tlie former are ever of a varied form 
 and aspiring tendency, mingling with all the objects of landscape aerial and terrene. 
 
 1874. Suitableness of Pointed Architecture for interior Composition. In addition to 
 these last observations, which affect Pointed Architecture in its external developement, 
 we may remark, that, for success in internal composition, no other style can for a moment 
 compete with it. This success is of course exhibited, to its full extent, only in eccle- 
 siastical interiors. In introducing a comparison between these in the pointed style, 
 and ecclesiastical interiors in other modes of art, we must be distinctly understood as 
 confining our notice exclusively to those features which come within the province of 
 Architecture. In buildings, however, of domestic application, and with which we are 
 in this place more immediately concerned, no limits can be assigned to the display 
 of the impressive or the ornamental ; and, indeed, with this class of Architecture, the 
 ecclesiastical is not unfrequently associated, as in the instance of domestic chapels. 
 Few, confessedly, are the apartments of modern construction that can claim a dignified 
 beauty, equal to that possessed by the halls and galleries of many of our old domestic 
 and collegiate edifices; yet it would be frivolous to assert that even those venerable 
 specimens had obtained an unapproachable degree of splendour, or had exhausted the 
 resources of the art. 
 
 1875. 77ie Perpendicular Pointed Style, There is one further consideration worthy of 
 notice in favour of the style before us, ornamentally regarded, and it is this, that the 
 perpendicular pointed mode of Architecture, of which we shall have occasion hereafter 
 to speak more fully, and which is the only genus of the style capable of application to 
 modern domestic purposes, is exclusively/ English. The finest Continental remains belong 
 to what we shall denominate the middle period of the art ; it is to a later and more 
 finished class that we now refer, in which an Englishman will be proud to rank many of 
 the brightest architectural gems of his country, with King's College chapel at their head. 
 That this mode has therefore a strong claim upon the national attention and favour, 
 appears to us a reasonable inference ; our only hope is, that that favour may be attended 
 with an enlightened vigilance, in order that modern productions may be rendered in 
 some degree worthy of their antique and admirable exemplars. There are, however, 
 other considerations of weight on the side of Pointed Architecture, as founded on its 
 
VILLAS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 
 
 adaptation to the exigencies of our climate, and to the purposes of convenience. Thus, 
 in the former case, we have, instead of the gently sloped coverings of southern climes, the 
 high roof, with its picturesque concomitant the high gable, in order the more effectually 
 to throw off the rain and snow of our less hospitable region. To obtain more, also, of 
 the light of day than was needed in the Greek or Roman structure, we have windows 
 of ample dimension, while of firm construction. To enjoy the benefit of the Greek 
 peristyle for walking in shelter, we may have the yet more closely sheltered cloister. 
 To screen our entrances, we are provided at pleasure with the porch ; and, to protect our 
 less substantially constructed walls, we are allowed to finish our roofs with projecting 
 eaves and ornamental verge-boards. The ample fireplace and picturesque chimney- 
 stack are features suited to our climate, of which ancient classic remains afford no 
 example. Nor must we forget to notice the facility with which, in Domestic Architectiu-e, 
 the Old English style accommodates itself to the opportimities, and means of building, 
 prescribed by diversified circumstance and locality. Thus, let freestone, brick, flint, or 
 timber be the prevailing material of construction in any given district, it will suit itself to 
 either, and assume alike a picturesque and interesting aspect in all. A further advantage 
 connected with the use of this mode, on the ground of convenience, is the aptitude with 
 which it admits of additions and alterations. Its rules of composition are not fettered 
 by that strict regard to uniformity which is displayed in works of Greek or Italian 
 origin : such a principle would tend at once to destroy the varied interest which con- 
 stitutes so powerful a charm in the works of that class for which we plead. Hence it is 
 that those alterations and additions to any given Design, which in other styles occasion 
 deformity, become in this, if judiciously treated, the means of improving the character of 
 the primitive pile, by diversifying its outline, varying its light and shade, or enhancing, 
 by contrast, the importance of the principal masses. 
 
 1876. Comparative Expense of Buildings in the Pointed Style. If, then, it be admitted, 
 from the observations already offered, that the considerations of architectural beauty, 
 fitness, and convenience, as well as those of association, are in favour of the Old English 
 or pointed style, let us enquire how the question stands with regard to expenditure. 
 And here we must candidly allow, at the outset, that, if it be asked whether Pointed 
 Architecture, when simplified to its utmost extent, is as economical as our ordinary kind 
 of domestic construction, when that is in like manner simplified, we are compelled to 
 reply in the negative. For, indeed, to put the question in this form, is to ask whether 
 that which is of a genuine architectural character can be executed for as little cost as 
 that which makes no claim to character whatever. If, however, the comparison be 
 formed, as it should be, between a building in the Old English mode, and one of equal 
 pretension in either of the classic styles, we are fully prepared to maintain that the 
 former will, in judicious hands, be as economical as the latter ; and in this opinion we 
 shall be supported by a reference to the comparative cost of various works of recent date, 
 more especially churches. The great secret of cheapness in this style is to know how 
 far ornament is essential ; where it may be introduced with the greatest expression and 
 character ; and how its place may be most effectually supplied by force of outline and of 
 shadow. There cannot be a more gross error in art, than that of supposing that elabo- 
 rate ornament is essential to real beauty ; or, on the other hand, that the application of 
 such ornament can render correct that which is not consistent and spirited when reduced 
 to its very first elements. It is to the neglect of this fundamental principle that we 
 attribute the existence of heaps upon heaps of contemptible trash called Gothic, not only 
 in the way of metal-work, furniture, and the like, but even of Architecture itself. Let 
 the character and application of primitive forms, both in the mass and in the detail, be 
 well understood, and the pointed system may then fairly challenge a comparison with 
 all other modes, as well on the ground of economy as on that of taste itself. 
 
 1877. Causes of the Neglect of the Pointed Style in Villa Architecture. Such, then, being 
 the recommendatory qualities of the style under consideration, it may be natural to ask 
 whence it arises that our own national department of art has, till lately, so completely 
 yielded to systems of foreign origin. This, we imagine, may be accounted for upon 
 various suppositions. Of these, the first is, that, under the increased pursuit of classic 
 literature in the reigns of Henry VIII. and Elizabeth, our ancestors affected a corre- 
 spondent admiration of classic art ; an admiration increased by the charm of novelty, 
 and, for a while, of exclusiveness. While, too, the more polished men of the time thus 
 cultivated their newly acquired taste, it is reasonable to suppose that the progress of the 
 principles of the Reformation would have a tendency to excite in the minds of the people 
 an indifference to that mode of Architecture which they had been accustomed to regard 
 as associated with the observances of Popish superstition. The Italian style, then, being 
 once established in the land, even with such an intermixture of crudities and rudeness, it 
 was natural to expect that, as its merits (great as they unquestionably are) became 
 more fully developed, they would be but the more steadfastly supported, especially as 
 
928 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECl URE. 
 
 Architecture began now to be studied as an independent profession. The practitioners 
 of that time, too, like many of our own, found it a much easier thing to fall in with the 
 fixed and mechanical rules of Italian composition, than to venture on a species of design 
 for which there are no such absolute laws; and which, on the other hand, demands 
 of the Architect the exercise of a vigorous fancy, in connection with patient and ex- 
 tensive study ; placing the great test of excellence in the correctness and depth of 
 feeling by which he is influenced. Besides this, we may remark that the Italian 
 Style, by the period at which it had attained any thing like purity in this country, had so 
 accommodated itself to, and identified itself with, the conveniences which the now daily 
 increasing refinement of the times demanded, that it threw a shade over the old system, 
 which had no precedents to offer for the architectural contrivances of a more luxurious 
 age. Not, indeed, that there then were, or even now are, any of the conveniences of 
 domestic construction to which Pointed Architecture is essentially incapable of appli- 
 cation ; but that the artists of the times were more willing to improve upon examples of 
 such features already numerous and suited to their own taste, than to exercise their 
 judgment and feeling in the task of adapting an obsolete style of building to new and 
 unprecedented purposes. Indeed, even in our own day, it is to be apprehended that the 
 pointed style may have been depreciated, on account of a supposed intractability of cha- 
 racter ; when, in truth, the fault attaches, not to the style itself, but to the precipitancy of 
 those who reject it, without having studiously endeavoured to become acquainted with 
 its resources. We will not, however, deny that there are some essential characteristics in 
 the adaptation of this class of Architecture to ordinary purposes, which are calculated, at 
 first sight, to place considerable difficulty in the way of the practitioner ; and of which 
 the two following may be regarded as the chief, being, at the same time, matters funda- 
 mentally opposed to the procedure of the classic styles. 
 
 1878. Difficulties in the Pointed Style. One of the characteristics of the pointed 
 mode is, that, for the maintenance of strict consistency, no mass of material should ever 
 receive its apparent support from a horizontal bearer, but always from the intervention 
 of an arch ; the othei is, that, in the details of this style, decoration is obtained rather by 
 a cutting-out of the solid than by an application of mouldings to the surface. The 
 former of these principles entirely forbids the use of a square-headed door, a square- 
 shaped chimney-piece, or a straight beam on columns ; and scarcely even admits of the 
 adoption of a flat ceiling : the latter altogether rejects decorations so easy of attainment 
 as those of pilasters, fascias, and architraves, knowing only the embellishments of moulded 
 jambs and reveals, solid muUions, tracery sunk into the substance of its material, and the 
 like. These matters are, however, difficulties only in the way of the learner ; the judicious 
 practitioner will find it easy to turn them to the most advantageous account, while he 
 discerns in them a test for the skill and feeling of competitors around hira. 
 
 1879. The Progress and the Characteristics of Pointed Architecture in general, from tht 
 Time of its Rise down to that of its Disuse, next demand our attention ; and, where the 
 nature of the subject will permit, cur remarks will tend chiefly to the illustration of 
 Domestic Architecture. This latter application, however, we shall not be able to effect with 
 any success, in reviewing the more remote history of the pointed style, which we shall, 
 therefore, notice only for the sake of displaying to the reader the connection which subsists 
 between the earlier and later varieties of the art ; and the increase in refinement and 
 beauty by which those varieties are progressively characterised. The limited extent of 
 our information on the subject of domestic construction, so far back as the thirteenth 
 century, or, perhaps, we should rather say, the non-existence in that age of what might 
 be considered fair specimens of Domestic Architecture (in the sense in which we ordi- 
 narily understand the term), will compel us to illustrate our remarks upon the earlier 
 modes by a reference to ecclesiastical remains. Indeed, the ideas of our ancestors, as 
 exemplified in the construction of those domestic structures which have been transmitted 
 to our own times, were so obviously formed upon the models of ecclesiastical works, 
 subject to reasonable modifications, that we shall find an investigation of the latter the 
 means of introducing us to a comprehensive knowledge of the former. It is not, how- 
 ever, our intention to make this the place for a disquisition upon Sacred Architecture ; 
 or, indeed, to notice it to any greater extent than may be absolutely requisite for the 
 felucidation of the pointed style in general, and, eventually, of Domestic Architecture in 
 particular. 
 
 1880. Origin of the Pointed Style. It would be of little benefit or interest to the 
 general reader, to enter into a review of the various opinions that have been entertained / 
 upon the obscure subject of the origin of the pointed arch. To say nothing of the 
 influence of capricious fancy, which might have suggested the trial of so novel a device, 
 
 we think the only two hypotheses to which any plausibility whatever can attach are, that 
 tlie pointed arch was either introduced from the East, after the expedition to the Holy 
 Land under Richard I., or that it was a feature suggested by the forms arising from 
 
VILLAS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 
 
 9^29 
 
 1615 
 
 1616 
 
 the intersection of semicircular arches, as perpetually instanced in ornamental works of 
 the Anglo-Norman period, fig. 1615. Be that as it may, a considerable time inten-ened 
 between the crusade in question and the appearance, 
 m this country, of any thing which may be de- 
 nominated Pointed Architecture ; and, when the 
 adoption of that style to any extent took place, the 
 form of arch universally prevailing was that result- 
 ing (according to the second supposition) from 
 curves described from the extremities of the base of 
 
 an equilateral triangle ; and did not exhibit that latitude of figure observable in the 
 Oriental specimens. 
 
 1881. Pointed Architecture assumed the Character of a System at the beginning of the 
 reign of Henry III. ; the commencement of that reign being dated from the year 1216. 
 Its progress from the first was rapid; and, accordingly, it had been so extensively 
 adopted, and so assiduously cultivated, by the middle of the same century, as to have 
 attained all those decided characteristics which we shall consider indicative of the first 
 of the three great denominations under which we shall, in our present remarks, classify 
 the varieties of the system in general. 
 
 1882. Of the Earhj Pointed Stijle (for so we designate the species of this kind of Archi- 
 tecture now referred to) we have endeavoured to exhibit the most prominent features in 
 the accompanying sketch, fig. 1616. These features are, the high roof and gable; the 
 single or (as it is here represented) the triple 
 lancet window ; the simply bold doorway, 
 frequently divided, as here shown, by a central 
 column or cluster, and headed (as, indeed, are 
 the blank compartments on each side, and the 
 divisions of the window above) by an arch or 
 arches, of the curvature before alluded to ; the 
 massive buttress, with its deep weatherings 
 or water-tables between each graduation or 
 stage of the height, splayed angles, or angle 
 columns, frequently to the different faces, and 
 a simple pinnacle surmounting the whole. Add 
 to these features, that the parapets of the period 
 under notice often project from the face of the 
 wall below, receiving an apparent support 
 from the introduction of little ornamental 
 blocks, masks, grotesques, &c. Ornaments of 
 grotesque and foliage, indeed, are here, as in 
 the later modes, frequently made to enrich 
 string or cornice mouldings, base mouldings of 
 pinnacles, &c. On turning from external to 
 internal decorations, we observe the high 
 groined stone ceiling, adorned, but with severe 
 simplicity, by its moulded ribs ; and springing 
 from light columns, which are sometimes formed 
 by an independent cluster of shafts, and some- 
 times by shafts attached like reeds around a 
 greater cylinder, and apparently bound to- 
 gether by mouldings at intervals. A corre- 
 spondent degree of simplicity is found to 
 prevail in all the minor matters of embellish- 
 ment. Such a style of Architecture is that 
 to which Salisbury Cathedral, and much of that 
 of Lincoln, belong ; and the same may be 
 instanced in the body of the Temple Church, 
 London, and the Lady Chapel, Southwark. 
 The style of this date is of so restricted an 
 
 application, that it has nothing in common with Domestic Architecture ; and we must, 
 therefore, refer to ecclesiastical specimens to illustrate it. That we are justified in 
 saying that such a style has nothing in common with the purposes of domestic structures, 
 will, we think, be sufficiently e\ident upon a glance at the unmanageable character 
 of lancet and triple-lancet windows, clustered columns, lofty groined ceilings, &c. ; 
 features in which resides the very soul of this kind of Architecture. In addition to this, 
 we may observe, that, however effective the early pointed style is in the mass, its details 
 are far from possessing that beauty, variety, and flexibility of form so naturally sought for 
 
 5 Q 
 
930 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 1617 
 
 by the eye that is familiar with the works of later date. Hence it is that Architects 
 who will endeavour to imitate the more ancient mode are so constantly seen to run into 
 the error of adopting with it 
 the ornamental details of later 
 periods; since they find their 1618 
 nominal style of too strict a 
 character, both for their taste 
 and their convenience, when 
 applied to minutise. Thus, the 
 embellishment of tracery (the 
 well-known kind of ornament 
 expressed in fig. 1617), with- 
 out which little of richness 
 can be bestowed on the detail 
 of Pointed Architecture, ex- 
 hibits, during the period under ^ 
 consideration, only the rude- ^ 
 ness of the primitive form, as^ 
 shown in the door-head, gable 
 aperture, &c., of fig. 1616; 
 being, indeed, not far removed 
 from the style of ornament 
 characteristic of the " Carpenter's Gotliic," of which we 
 shall have occasion to say more hereafter. The mould- 
 ings, also, in use at this time had not acquired either 
 that variety or that distinctiveness of character possessed 
 by those of after works. The moulded capitals and 
 bases of columns miglit readily be traced to tlieir 
 Norman and thence to their Roman origin, fig. 1618, a, c. 
 The ribs of groinea arches, ivc (h, in the same figure), 
 show in their section an excess of serpentine line ; and a 
 want of that significancy and fitness wliich characterise 
 the mouldings of the fifteenth century. The foliage, 
 likewise, of this date, was not unfrequently liny and 
 poor, as compared with the full, undulating, and sliadowy 
 
 forms of a subsequent period. In sliort, the whole range of this species of the 
 style exhibits Pointed Architecture in its infancy, sufficiently dignified and picturesque, 
 indeed, to assert the superiority of the master jjrinciple ; but not yet suflFiciently refined 
 to demonstrate the possibility of uniting qualities which later science has so successfully 
 combined, the impressive in the total, and the exquisitely beautiful in the detail. 
 
 1883. The Middle Period of the Pointed Style. But, before the close of the reign of 
 Henry III., the pointed style had entered upon that which we will designate its middle 
 period of developement, which may be considered as extending thenceforward throughout 
 the first half of the century following; viz., the fourteenth. The limits of this period 
 we fix less with a regard to the lapse of years, than to the variation of style ; and thus 
 we consider such a work as Westminster Abbey to belong rather to this period than to 
 the former, as having a greater affinity to the prevailing style of York Cathedral, which 
 also comes under this middle class, than it has to that observable in the cathedral at 
 Salisbury ; although its completion may be said, on the average, to have followed that of 
 the latter only at an interval of some twenty years. In the efficiency of the style, then, 
 during its middle period, we discern very rapid 
 advances towards perfection. Instead of a triple 
 window, headed by three distinct arches, v/e see 
 now single windows of as large dimensions, sur- 
 mounted by one arch of the same tall proportion 
 as before, being divided into two, three, four, six, 
 or eight days (bays, lights, or compartments), by 
 mullions, which, rising into the head, branch out 
 into a great variety of ornamental outlines, enriched 
 with, tracery. The earlier and smaller attempts of 
 this kind exhibit simple combinations on the same 
 principle as that shown in fig. 1619. In larger 
 subjects, the composition of the window head be- 
 came, of course, much more complex ; sometimes, 
 indeed, imiting in one several such examples 
 ■fis fig. 1619, with that more elaborate one, 
 
 1619 
 
VILLAS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 
 
 931 
 
 fig. 1620, as a centre. In addition to the ordinary shape of windows, the builders 
 of this period now adopted various forms of circular, Catherine wheel, or rose window : 
 of such, fig. 1620 is properly an example; as is also that composition of which fig. 
 1621 shows a fourth part. Fig. 1622 is another variety of the same, sketched in 
 
 outline, without its tracery. Triangular lights were also among the results of tlie esuberaiit 
 fancy and taste of the day. Fig. 1623 is copied from one out of macy examples of these. 
 Of the composition of windows belonging to tlie 
 period now under notice, it may be remarked that 
 the earlier works exhibit a great profusion of that 
 kind of design which is founded upon geometrical 
 diagrams; in which the pi-evailing outlines are 
 either curvilinear, as in fii^s. 1619, 1620, and 1623 ; 
 or angular, as in fig. 1622. As, hov/ever, the 
 resources of regular geometrical figures became 
 exhausted, the artists of the time began to indulge 
 in the use of compound curves, as in fig. 1621 ; and 
 at length to design many of their window heads on 
 such principles as those explained by fig. 1624, in 
 which a disposition of parts takes place similar 
 to that of leaves upon a stem. Besides ihe deco- 
 rations of windows (the composition of which 
 includes the elements of all the principal features 
 of the style), those of doors became, during this period, much more elaborate and 
 varied. A very common form of finish for the door head was that of the pyramidal 
 label, or hood moulding (see outline, 
 fig. 1625), which was enriched with 
 crockets (such ornaments of foliage as 
 those on the pinnacle top, fig. 1626), 
 and sustained at the springing line by 
 busts, masks, or knots ; the space 
 between the lines of the arch and 
 those of the label being filled with 
 compartments of tracery, &c. But- 
 tresses also assumed a more decorative 
 character, being frequently graduated, 
 or diminished in their projection 
 upwards, by the use of little gables, as 
 shown in fig. 1627, which were often 
 finished with crockets, &c. Pinnacles, too, as the terminations to buttresses, began now 
 to exhibit the enriched aspect described by fig. 1626, springing from gables, and dis- 
 playing much elegance and variety in their crockets and finials (the finial being that part 
 of fig. 1626 cut oflT by the band of moulding at a). Embattled and perforated parapets 
 aflbrded an elegant decoi-ation to works of this period ; and, without entering into a more 
 
 1624 
 
032 
 
 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 1626 
 
 1627 
 
 1628 
 
 detailed notice, we may add that a corresponding improvement in design characteii 
 all the details of internal composition, whether 
 groined ceilings, clustered colunruis, arches, screens, 
 niches, or other features. It must, however, be 
 confessed, that even this middle species of Pointed 
 Architecture is, with all its merits as compared with 
 that of the former period, imperfect in decorative 
 character, and inadequate to the purposes of modern 
 application in general, and to those of domestic 
 fitness in particular. We have, indeed, given one 
 example, tig. 1628, of a window of the middle of 
 the fourteenth century, which may be considered of 
 a legitimate character for domestic use ; but it is to 
 be viewed as assimilating rather with specimens of a 
 subsequent, than with those of a previous, date. The 
 style of the middle period is rendered unfit for 
 ordinary application, by the unmanageable character 
 of its high-pointed windows, doors, and ceilings ; 
 and, as to the question of beauty in matters of detail, 
 we may remark, in general, that the composition of 
 its window heads, and of its various decorations of 
 tracery, though at first sight dazzling, docs not 
 or the most part offer to the eye, on a close 
 examination, that graceful developement of curves, 
 and continuity of line, and that union of delicacy with dignity, which constitute tlie 
 great excellence of works of a subsequent date. Subject to the same comparison, too, 
 the mouldings of the middle period exhibit a want of distinctive 
 character and of systematic application ; being frequently tortured 
 into the forms of t -acery, or made to do the office of columns, Avhen, 
 from their profile, they are rendered incapable of answering either 
 purpose without clumsiness. 
 
 1884. The Third and last Period in the History of Pointed Archi- 
 tecture displayed not only its master power and beauty, but also 
 its universality of adaptation. This last period we shall consider 
 as occupying a century and a half, from about the year 1370, which 
 was towards the close of the reign of Edward III. The style of 
 Architecture which then rose into prevalence has been denominated 
 the " Perpendicular Pointed," tlie sigiiificancy and fitness of which 
 term will be apparent to all who contrast the principles of com- 
 position in window heads and ' tracery at this period, with those 
 which regulated the specimens of the former age. We may here 
 observe that a distinction is drawn by some writers between the 
 earlier and later varieties of the period, the works of which we here comprehend 
 under one denomination ; a distinction founded upon the fact, that the flattened or 
 obtuse arch, which had its origin at the beginning of this period, was, till about 
 the middle of it, made use of only for minor purposes, and in subordination to the 
 simple-pointed or two-centred arch ; whereas, in the latter part of the same period, 
 the flattened arch assumed the predominance, giving a character of additional complexity 
 and elaborate finish to all inferior matters of accompaniment. This distinction, however, 
 is of little moment as compared with the greater differences which separate the perpen- 
 dicular modes, both the early and the Tudor, from the classes which we have before 
 noticed. Indeed, the unity of feeling which prevails throughout the whole of Perpen- 
 dicular Pointed Architecture is so entire that we might safely adopt all its varieties of 
 feature in one and the same work, provided such work were of suflScient extent to avoid 
 crowded composition and violent contrasts. An example 
 of the principal lines of window head appropriate to the 
 early part of this period is given, divested of its tracery, 
 in fig. 1629 ; and it will be observed that in this figure 
 the perpendicular lines predominate in a manner which 
 has no parallel in the case of either of the before- 
 noticed instances. Indeed, the prevalence of per- 
 pendicular lines constitutes not only the distinction of 
 this species, but forms also, as we before observed, 
 one of the most striking characteristics of Pointed 
 Architecture generally, as opposed to the classic styles ; 
 and it is in the works of the period now under con- 
 
 1629 
 
VILLAS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 
 
 933 
 
 iideration, that we see this characteristic producing its finest results, m airy lightness, 
 loftiness, and dignity. It is observable, too (in noticing some of the principles of eflfect 
 in the style before us), that the use of the pointed arch cooperates in a double manner 
 with the tendency of perpendicular lines ; for while, negatively considered, it supersedes 
 the want of such features as beams and entablatures, and thus removes the depression of 
 aspect consequent on numerous horizontal lines, it has a positive advantage in carry ing 
 the eye up both its curves to a lofty and decided point ; unlike the semicircular form, 
 which conducts the eye round, and downwards again, without fixing its attention any 
 where. It follows, therefore, more especially in internal composition, that loftiness is 
 essential to the attainment of the imposing ; length being likewise so, as presenting to 
 the eye a greater succession of lofty forms : and again, that perpendicular lines in an 
 interior should not only be numerous, but continuous ; as having thus a strong tendency 
 to increase still further the apparent height, and more effectually to connect the 
 various minor features of design. Force of shadow also contributes to the effectiveness 
 of this style, no less than dignified forms of lines, and fine proportions. Porches, 
 bold buttresses, octagonal turrets, oriel or bay windows, breaks, niches, &c., afford 
 opportunities for the most striking management of light and shade; as well as for 
 the multiplication of vertical lines. Besides these features, there are others which, to the 
 varied effects of light and shade, add the interest of excited curiosity and imagination, 
 resulting from a partial interception of the view ; as in the case of screens^ cloisters, pro- 
 jecting and retiring distributions of plan, &c. 
 
 1885. The Perpendicular Pointed Style, as applied to Domestic Architecture. But, not 
 to enlarge upon these and similar points, as affecting the style in general, we will consider 
 that style with reference to Domestic Architecture in particular. Indeed, it is only (as 
 before implied) in the perpendicular system, and that in its later practice, that 
 we shall find either principles or precedents to direct us in domestic designs after the 
 pointed mode ; and, even those examples of the mansicms of Tudor times which have 
 reached our own day are to be regarded only as establishing, to a certain extent, a style 
 of architectural decoration, and not as affording rules either for the arrangements of 
 plan, or the minutia2 of practical construction. Before we proceed, however, we will just 
 remark that we use the term " Tudor Architecture, " in this place, under a limited appro- 
 priation, as referring only to the style in use during the reign of Henry VII., and the first 
 part of that of his successor. The application of one and the same epithet to the pointed 
 style of that period, and to the heterogeneous mode which succeeded it, and which pre- 
 vailed through the reign of Elizabeth, though historically correct, is not architecturally 
 explicit ; and may have, we fear, a tendency to create a confusion of ideas as to the 
 peculiarities of styles, not only essentially distinct, but diametrically opposite. 
 
 1886. Of the Character of the more extensive Mansions of the Tudor Times, a tolerably 
 correct idea may be formed, by any one who is familiar with the Architecture of our 
 English universities, on a reference to the arrangements of individual colleges. Indeed, 
 we are disposed to think that the varieties of College Architecture may be fairly con- 
 sidered as open to domestic application, where the subject of execution is on a large scale ; 
 and that the strictness of character which some would make essential to propriety in 
 dwellings, however extensive, is neither founded upon a comprehensive view of the sub- 
 ject, nor is favourable to variety and spirit in composition. We would not, however, be 
 misunderstood as to this observation ; for when a house is so small that it cannot be 
 reasonably supposed to possess such appendages as a chapel and a dining-hall, it becomes 
 a piece of contemptible affectation to finish its exterior with members which are naturally 
 applicable to those appendages alone ; and the only course, therefore, which good taste 
 can sanction in such a case, is, to treat the subject as what it is ; uniting an honest and 
 obvious character with correct detail, and as much of the picturesque as circumstances 
 will permit. The resemblance to which we alluded, as subsisting between the larger 
 Tudor mansions and many of our collegiate structures, may be traced in the use of the 
 gate-house, the first and second courts or quadrangles with their central fountains, the 
 cloisters, the chapel, and the refectory or hall : the last standing distinguished by its 
 characteristics of the oriel window, light louvert or lantern, open-framed roof, dais or 
 raised platform at one end, and perhaps a screen and music-gallery at the other. In 
 other instances, the necessary accommodation was comprised within the form of a paral- 
 lelogram ; a figure, of course, more suited to the purposes of economy than to those of 
 display. In this case, the porch frequently took place of the gate-house, and the use of 
 stone was often avoided by the execution of the plainer part of the work in brick, as 
 became the practice in the reign of Henry VIII. ; a favourite embellishment of such 
 brickwork being that of lozenges and frets formed out of the over-burnt and vitrified 
 bricks, sorted and used with a regularity which turned even accident to account. Then, 
 again, we meet with smaller works of this period, the walls of which, except at the quoins 
 and around apertures, were formed of flints, or of nibble covered with rough-cast ; iw 
 
934j cottage, farm, and villa architecture. 
 
 which case the eaves and gables of the roofs were very appropriately made to afford 
 shelter to the walls by their great projection, while their ornamental character was 
 improved by the use of carved verge-boards, showing either a continued pattern of foliage, 
 or a profusion of undulating line and elegant tracery. One more variety of external 
 character is that which results from the substitution of timber and plastering for solid 
 walls, as seen in the streets of many of our old towns. Here, too, there is great oppor- 
 tunity for picturesque effect, as derived from the use of overhanging stories, each pro- 
 jecting beyond the face of that below it, to protect it from the weather, and being sustained 
 by the continuation of the floor joists ; the ends of which thus assume the appearance of 
 a line of ornamental blocks, or corbels. The timber framing of the sides themselves, 
 according to the old practice, is made to unite expression with economy, by giving an 
 ornamental character to the crooked and less serviceable timber, and applying it to the 
 purposes of diagonal braces in the squares formed by the vertical posts, and the horizontal 
 plates and rails ; in addition to wliich, the surface of the plastering is also occasionally 
 relieved by various forms impressed upon it while moist. To this style of work, such 
 finishings as the carved verge-board, &c., are also applicable as before ; it is a style, liow- 
 ever, which requires considerable discrimination, lest Elizabethan specimens, of which we 
 have a great multiplicity', should be actually imitated, when those of an earlier date are 
 professedly so. 
 
 1887. Decorative Peculiarities of Domestic Pointed Architecture. Having thus glanced 
 at the varieties of general aspect exhibited in the dwelliqgs of the end of the fifteenth, 
 and the beginning of the sixteenth centuries, it may be enquired wherein consist the 
 decorative peculiarities of Domestic Pointed Architecture, as opposed to the decorative 
 characteristics of ecclesiastical 
 examples. We may rei)ly that 
 one striking point of dificrence 
 ia, that Domestic Arcliitecture 
 rarely makes use of pointed 
 windows, but generally of square- 
 headed ones, as in figs. 1G28 and 
 1630, while the practice in the 
 ecclesiastical style is just the 
 reverse: both, however, are 
 subject to variations. Domestic 
 Architecture, again, is scarcely 
 ever seen to adopt the coimnon 
 pyramidal pinnacle, not very 
 frequently the buttress, and 
 never the flying buttress; the 
 place of the former being ordi- 
 narily supplied by the ogee 
 pinnacle, and that of the others, 
 in many instances, by a slender 
 polygonal pier. High-pointed 
 doors with pyramidal labels, 
 niches and canopies, towers, 
 spires, &c., are excluded from 
 the features of the domestic 
 style; as, in fact, are all those 
 objects generally which have 
 a tendency to produce an effect 
 of solemn grandeur, rather than an air of liveliness and social comfort. The various 
 members of Domestic Pointed Architecture we shall however proceed to notice more in 
 detail ; observing, at the outset, that it is with them that we have to do, rather than with any 
 general modes of domestic arrangement and collocation pursued by our forefathers. 
 If, indeed, the principles that regulate the form, application, and utility of such members 
 individually, and their effects collectively, be well understood, we shall lose nothing of 
 beauty or of character in departing from the old peculiarities of plan and disposition of 
 rooms, while modifying component features to suit our wants. To pursue imitation 
 farther than this would be, in fact, not only to check invention, and sacrifice sound judg- 
 ment, but to oppose the example of our ancient predecessors in a most important point ; 
 namely, the readiness with which they modelled their architectural works to meet the 
 changes of time and circumstance, and the demands of convenience. 
 
 1888. The Windows in the Pointed Style of Domestic Architecture. In turning to the 
 individual members of Domestic Pointed Architecture, the first to occupy our attention 
 is the window, a feature upon which our old builders delighted to lavish their skill and 
 
VILLAS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 
 
 935 
 
 fancy. It may be worthy of remark, that, as another difference in procedure between 
 the style under consideration and the classic modes, the former endeavours to make 
 those members most attractive which are the most indispensable ; while the latter bestows 
 the greatest share of ornament upon parts which are rather the result of luxury than of 
 necessity. Hence, while the remains of Grecian and Roman Architecture produce their 
 •finest effects by the decorations of porticoes and colonnades, those of the middle ages, in 
 our own land, make the window and the door the main sources of interest, causing 
 even solid masonry to assume a playful arrangement and a luxuriant richness, which, if 
 we could suppose such a subject beheld by an ancient Greek, would seem to him little 
 less than the work of enchantment. Though this is the case, as viewed in general, it is 
 not, certainly, in Domestic Architecture that we can see the composition of the window 
 carried to its finest display. Indeed, by some, the use of the pointed window, for domestic 
 purposes, is entirely prohibited ; the only appropriate forms being supposed to be those 
 of the square-headed window, and the oriel or bay. In all works that are on a small scale, 
 the introduction of the pointed-headed window, sharp or obtuse, would certainly indicate 
 a very erroneous taste. We cannot, however, at all understand how the strictness of the 
 prohibition can be maintained under circumstances wherein a domestic building assumes 
 the character of magnitude and complexity. It assuredly cannot be maintained on the 
 ground of precedent ; for, in the old dining-halls, pointed windows were features of con- 
 stant recurrence : witness the halls of Eltham, Hampton Court, and Croydon ; or, if it 
 be objected that these are instances of a palatial and not an ordinary domestic character, 
 take a more unassuming, but not less interesting, example in Crosby Hall. Neither are 
 we disposed to admit as valid the objections to pointed windows, founded upon the sup- 
 lX)sition that they must necessarily be insecure, because they cannot be closed their 
 whole height by shutters ; and that they must also be inconvenient, because not suited to 
 the ordinary arrangement of drapery. As to the question of security, we should think 
 that shutters might be altogether dispensed with, where a window is divided into narrow 
 spaces by stone mullions, and these, again, by stout iron stay-bars to hold the lead-lights ; 
 or, if not, still the part which remains undefended by shutters, being the window head, 
 is the very part that is best guarded by an increased strength and intricacy of masonry. 
 As to inconvenience on the question of drapery, we have only to say that a pointed 
 window is misapplied unless it be in a large, or at least a lofty apartment, and one in 
 which sufficient space may be spared between the window head and the ceiling to allow 
 of the necessary provision on the part of the upholsterer. Of pointed window heads, as 
 applicable to our present subject, figs. 1631 and 1632 exhibit sketches; the former from 
 
 Hampton Court, the latter 
 from Crosby Hall. If, how- 
 ever, compositions of a more 
 elaborate character be at any 
 time required for domestic 
 purposes, the chief points for 
 attention will be, first, the 
 subdivision of the window, 
 when of more than three 
 lights, into principal and 
 minor portions, by the use 
 
 of greater and smaller mullions, as shown in fig. 
 KiiiO, without which there can be no force or expression of design; and, secondly, 
 the i)reservation of continuous and flowing lines, without which there can be no grace- 
 fulness or repose : of course, we are presupposing a regard to propriety in the forms 
 of moulding and of tracery. The other kinds of window belonging to Domestic Archi- 
 tecture are the square-headed and the oriel. Of these the former will be understood 
 by reference to fig. 1630. It is frequently (as there shown) divided in height as well 
 as width by a transom bar, or cross m.ullion ; each compartment being usually headed 
 Avith a flattened arch, — usually, we say, for the practice is not without variation ; and,, 
 though some writers have considered the omission of this arched head, whether above or 
 below, as a mark of Elizabethan taste, it certainly is not exclusively so. Indeed, windows 
 divided by mullions into compartments of the simple oblong form were in occasional use 
 a century befpre the time of Elizabeth; nor j^re they at all opposed to that principle of 
 Pointed Architecture which requires the use of an arch for the support of superincum- 
 bent weight ; since, from the smallness of the spaces in proportion to the solids, the 
 openings of such windows come under the rule of panels, rather than under that which 
 governs the management of larger apertures. Simple as these windows may thus be 
 rendered on the one hand, they are susceptible, on the other, of as miich richness of 
 decoi-ation as may be required. An elaborate specimen, for one out of many, of the 
 ornamental kind, may be seen in the cloisters of Christ Church, Oxford. The square- 
 
 1631 
 
 1632 
 
936 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 headed window is for the most part finished above with a label, as in fig. 1630, passing 
 down the sides to the springing line of the arches (if there be arches to the different 
 lights), and finished ordinarily with a plain elbow ; sometimes with a twisting of the 
 mouldings into the form of a lozenge, or occassionally that of an octagon ; and sometimes 
 with a shield, bust, or figure. The oriel, or bay window, may be described as being, for 
 the most part, a kind of three-sided compound of the last-mentioned description. Of 
 this there are two principal varieties ; the one of large proportion, rising immediately 
 from the ground ; the other of a smaller character, and standing out from the surface of 
 a wall upon projecting or corbel mouldings. The former was that generally in use in 
 dining-halls, and may be seen finely exemplified at Eltham Palace, at Crosby Hall, and 
 in many of the halls of Oxford and Cambridge ; the latter was more appropriate to the 
 chamber, and is instanced in beautiful taste at John of Gaunt's Palace in Lincoln, Mag- 
 dalen College in Oxford, and numerous other places. In the adoption of either of hese 
 varieties, it is highly desirable, wherever it may be at all compatible with modern con- 
 venience, that the old style of glazing in lead-lights and quarry (or lozenge) squares 
 should be continued, as greatly conducive to the character and picturesque effect of the 
 whole ; and though the old casements formed in this manner were not remarkable for 
 soundness, or retention of warmth, there can be no reason why the application of modern 
 improvement should not make our own as commodious as are the French casements of 
 the present day. If, however, wooden sashes must occasionally l)e used, great care will 
 be needed to render their appearance as unobtrusive as possible, and to prevent their dis- 
 figuring the muUions of the window, either externally or internally. A window of ordi- 
 nary width, undivided by a mullion, and filled in with regular broad sashes, be it dubbed 
 Gothic or what it may, is only fit to be classed with the execrable designs of Batty Langlcy. 
 The management of window-shutters, if, indeed, they arc to be adopted at all, is a point 
 attached to the former that is attended with considerable difficulty. The com- 
 mon boxed shutters may and do answer their purposes in our ordinary style of domestic 
 construction ; but they have nothing in common with Pointed Architecture ; and, if used 
 at all in connection with it, will need to be altogether remodelled. It would require an 
 elaborate drawing to aflford an adequate idea of our views on this subject ; the principal 
 point, however, to be borne in mind, is, that a window, when closed up by its shutters, 
 ought to present as perfect and architectural an appearance in all parts as when open. 
 The customary finishings of architrave, sofl^t, &c., are entirely out of the question; the 
 character which the whole comjjosition must assume, to conform to the massiveness of 
 die pointed style, being just that of a windo^v enclosed with folding doors. 
 
 1889. Doors in Pointed Domestic Architecture. We may next proceed to the door, or 
 rather the doorway, of which the perpendicular pointed style furnishes us with several 
 varieties applicable to domestic purposes. For the large proportions of the principal 
 entrance doorway, a common and simple form is that of the obtusely arched opening, 
 shown in fig. 1 633, with a label to correspond with the curvature of its head. ^ Some- 
 times this label assumes the outline of the double ogee, as in fig. 1634; being then 
 
 terminated by a finlal, and often enriched also with crockets. At other times, and for 
 all subjects, the square form of label is of frequent use ; the decorations of the doorway 
 being filled out to a similai and suitable shape by the introduction of spandrils of foliage 
 or tracery, fig. 1635. This variety is applicable, like the others, to the simple pointed 
 or two-centred arch ; but is more frequently found in connection with the flattened or 
 obtuse. There are many instances of pleasing forms besides those already noticed ; but 
 they occur only under circumstances of minor importance, and do not belong to the 
 
VILLAS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 
 
 937 
 
 class of regular features. As to the details of doorways, it will be obser^'ed, in genes ul 
 that their jamb mouldings are of a somewhat more 
 complex character than those of windows, abounding 
 in slender columns, based beads, ogees, and quarter 
 and casement hollows ; which are ordinarily brought 
 down, and made to terminate upon a splayed face at 
 some distance from the ground, so as to produce a neat 
 developement of their profiles ; or at other times, as 
 economy or simplicity may require, the mouldings 
 appear only in the arch of the doorway, being made 
 to die away about the springing line against the jambs, 
 which remain plain. The character of solidity which 
 is necessary for effect in door jambs may appear to be occasionally attended with difficulty 
 of treatment; as, for example, in the instance of a door in a common lath and plaster 
 partition. Hence, some modem imitators have not scrupled to adopt, in cases of that 
 kind, such incongruities as architraves on the Grecian or every-day principle; though 
 it would be far better that the pointed style should be left unattempted, than affected in 
 
 so barbarous a manner. 
 
 1636 
 
 Tz: 
 
 The case which we have 
 supposedis one which cer- 
 tainly admits of little de- 
 coration, but that little will 
 " have sufficient merit in 
 being consistent, whether ^ 
 simple ^ 
 
 1637 
 
 I L ' 
 
 ^^^ ^^^^^ 
 
 638 
 
 it be that of 
 moulding, like fig. 1636, 
 or a mere splay, as in fig. ^1 
 1637 ; the general rule 
 being, that the mouldings of door or window jambs should commence with the surface 
 of the wall or substance, and cut into the solid at an angle of not less than forty or 
 more than sixty degrees, fig. 1638. Together with the varieties in doorways, we have 
 also, in the style before us, varieties as numerous of 
 doors themselves. The simplest of these is the ledged 
 door, studded with nails, and frequently adorned with 
 massive flourished hinges and strengthening irons. 
 Some specimens there are of doors covered with con- 
 tinuous patterns of wrought iron ; exhibiting, with con- 
 siderable delicacy, successive ramifications of foliage 
 and flower-work. Others, again, are framed in panels, 
 the rails and styles being thick, narrow, and deeply 
 moulded ; the mouldings very similar to those of 
 mullions in windows, and the fillet, which usually forms the most prominent of 
 them, being studded with nails. In folding doors of this kind, the outer meeting 
 style (as it is technically called) was usually finished with a little buttress, or columnar 
 bead, to hide the joint. A degree of additional richness was given to such doors by the 
 introduction, in their panels, of compartments of foliage, or, very frequently, of long- 
 opened scroUs ; but the greatest display was that which arose from the use of tracery, 
 with which doors were sometimes so elaborately ornamented as to equal in intricacy and 
 beauty of design the most costly tabernacle-work. Here the same difficulty as before is 
 presented to the ordinary modern imitator, when he finds himself obliged to attempt con- 
 sistency under more economical circumstances, and with doors of a less substantial 
 character than those in ancient use. Hence, under the notion that the sum of propriety 
 consists in the imitation (no matter how distant) of arches and tracery, he plants on the 
 panels of his " square-framed " door some thin laminee of deal, just cut through into trefoils 
 orquatrefoils, and considers his work as performed to admiration. Such an imitation, how- 
 ever, would be far surpassed by a door framed quite plain and flush on both sides ; for the 
 latter exhibits at least nothing faulty, while the former is 
 altogether a caricature. In a paneled door of thin sub- 
 stance, the only kinds of moulding which can be used with 
 correctness are the simple hollow, or the splay, as in 
 fig. 1639; because these are the only mouldings out of 
 which tracery can be formed, and all paneled work in 
 Pointed Architecture is presumed to be susceptible of the 
 finish of tracery, though it may not actually possess it. 
 Projecting (or what are technically called bolection) mould- 
 ings are quite inadmissible in doors and framing of the style before us ; and we need scarcely 
 
 5 R 
 
 1639 
 
938 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE, 
 
 add to what we have already said, that such things as a square- topped door and opening, 
 in however obscure a situation they may be placed, are as much opposed to the 
 character of that style, as a pointed door would be out of place under the great portico 
 of St. Paul's. In fact, though the judgment which some entertain as to matters of taste 
 may be satisfied with giving an architectural ajjpearance to the prominent parts, or to 
 the exterior of a building, while all the rest is left destitute of cJiaracter ; we cannot think 
 very highly of any structure claiming the name of Gothic, which does not preserve 
 uninterruptedly the charm of association, and which is not at unity with itself, from the 
 largest decorations of masonry down to the minute finishings of the ironmonger. For 
 even in this last department there is a style of design which also requires attention ; and 
 there is no want of precedents for knockers, hinges, locks, escutcheons, latches, drop- 
 handles, and the like, all which should be in keeping with the rest, though they will cer- 
 tainly adrait of some modification, to suit the various improvements of more recent times. 
 
 1890. Gables in Domestic Pointed Architecture. Of external features the window and 
 the door must be undoubtedly regarded as tlie most important ; next to these the gable 
 is that which, perhaps, contributes most to tlie characteristic effect of Domestic Archi- 
 tecture, and, indeed, to that of Pointed Architecture in general, by harmonizing with 
 the tendency of perpendicular lines. In this style we liave the simple gable of two lines, 
 following the rake or slope of the roof ; and the stepped gable, which may be comj)ared 
 to a pile of battlements, or to the form of line called by heralds " battled embattled." In 
 the later practice of the Tudor times, we frefjuently see the apex of tlie gable finished 
 by the introduction of a little octagonal shaft, bearing a moulded cajjping cut into battle- 
 ments, and crowned with a pinnacle, of whicli the outline (as before noticed) was that o. 
 the double ogee ; such jjinnacle being frequently enriched with a leaf omament, not unlike 
 fish scales, or with a kind of honeycomb pattern of mouldings. A substitute for the 
 pinnacle was often found in the figure of an animal, as a heraldic supporter or cog- 
 nizance, sustaining a flagstaff, on which the banner acted as a vane, at the same time 
 displaying in full blazon the armorial bearings of the i)roi)rietor. The same style of 
 termination prev iled very generally also at the various angles of buildings belonging to 
 the Tudor period ; such pinnacles or finishings being made to siu-mount slender octagonal 
 piers or shafts, which rose from the ground to fortify the corners ; and which, in the time 
 of Henry VIII., commonly superseded buttresses for domestic purjioses. In dwellings 
 of a date prior to that period, there are, however, instances of the adoption of the buttress 
 quite sufficient to prove that it was not then regarded as a feature exclusively ecclesias- 
 tical, though some modern writers have pronounced it such. The truth is, that the 
 buttress was used by the old builders with a primary reference to its utility ; and it is 
 because the stone vaulting and massive roofs of churches so frequently demanded a resist- 
 ance to their great pressure, that we find the buttress almost identified with Ecclesiastical 
 Architecture. Where, however, the same necessity for its adoption arose in domestic 
 work, it was applied without hesitation, as it is, for instance, against the walls of 
 Eltliam Hall, to counteract the thrust of a roof as ponderous as it is fine. In fact, the 
 buttress, like the pointed window, must be used sparingly ; and only where it conduces, 
 at least apparently, to the addition of necessary strength and stability, as weU as to the 
 purposes of decoration : to apply either to dwellings whose construction is simple, and 
 whose extent is small, would be unmeaning and improper. 
 
 1891. Chimney- Shafts are additional features which contribute greatly to the 
 picturesque eflPects of Domestic Architecture. These are sometimes square, arranged 
 diagonally in clusters ; sometimes octagonal, occasionally having the faces curved inwards ; 
 and sometimes round. Under the latter form especially, their decorations are often very 
 elaborate, the shafts being fiequently traversed by a succession of spiral reeds, or by the 
 same again in opposite directions, so as to divide the whole into small lozenges. Some- 
 times a similar moulding forms the surface into hexagonal figures ; and at other times, 
 in connection with hollows, exhibits parallel arrangements of zigzag lines. Other varieties 
 show the shafts covered with a repetition of the fleur-de-lis, lion, rose, &c. These are aU 
 finished above with a polygonal capping, frequently cut into battlements ; and, below, with 
 the usual plinth and plinth mouldings, following the same plan, and all sinking into 
 (uniting with) the inclined upper faces of a general block or pedestal. 
 
 1892. The High Roofs of Pointed Domestic Architecture, also, though subjects whicb 
 admitted of little ornament, were not left without relief by our old builders. This relief 
 they derived, variously, from the use of numerous lead rolls, when lead was the covering ; 
 yr, in other cases, from the employment of shingles or wooden tiles of different shapes, 
 producing a pleasing alternation of line ; besides which, there are instances of a finishing 
 for the ridges of roofs, formed of what were called crest tiles, a little ornament of open 
 work, bearing an application very analogous to that of the ridge tiles of the Greek 
 temples. 
 
 1893. The Octagonal Turret (which in the old style of arrangement was frequently 
 
VILLAS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 
 
 939 
 
 made to contain the staircase) was another feature possessing as much of external effect 
 as of internal utility. Finished with its loop-holes and battlements ; decked (as, indeed, 
 were the parapets in general) with " gargoyles," " gargells," or spout-heads, or otherwise 
 terminated with the crocketed ogee cupola, it always imparted to the mass relief, dignity, 
 and ornament. This, however, together with the porch, a member of kindred interest, 
 belongs to the various principles of composition in detail, and will not admit of any fixed 
 definition in this place. 
 
 1894. Internal Effect. We pass from the notice of these subjects of external design, 
 to the consideration of those which are most essentially concerned in the production of 
 internal effect. Of such, the ceiling undoubtedly possesses the greatest share of import- 
 ance in works that pretend to the maintenance of a decorative character throughout. The 
 varieties of ceiling, or (to use a more comprehensive term) of internal covering, are 
 numerous ; belonging to the departments both of masonry and carpentry. In ancient 
 specimens of the former, we have the groined and ribbed ceiling, the simple vault with 
 transverse ribs, the fan-groin, and the disgiaised flat ceiling ; in the latter we have the 
 open-framed roof, the enriched wooden vaulted ceiling, the ceiling of two inclined 
 planes, and the flat ceiling in panels : each of these, however, wiU demand a separate 
 notice. 
 
 1895. The Simple Groined and Ribbed Ceiling will be understood by every person of 
 ordinary observation, as being the sober kind of vaulting most frequent in our larger 
 ecclesiastical structures. It is, however, very rarely to be imitated with propriety in 
 domestic works, since it requires a loftiness of proportion altogether foreign to the usual 
 character of habitable apartments. In situations where the width is small in comparison 
 to the height it may be adopted with effect, as in cloisters, porches, and entrance halls ; 
 but it is totally misapplied when made to encroach upon the sides of a room whose height 
 is barely equal to its width. 
 
 1896. To the Plain Vault traversed by Ribs of Moulding the same observations will 
 apply, though this form is somewhat more manageable than the preceding one, in con- 
 sequence of its requiring less curvature than is necessary for the display of groining 
 (which term the reader will understand to refer to the figure produced by the intersection 
 of one pointed vault with another, whether lofty or flattened). This second and simpler 
 kind of ceiling admits of much pleasing decoration, from the introduction of tracery in 
 the compartments formed by the cross ribs, accompanied by the use of foliage in the 
 springing cornice, and sometimes of little corbels or pendants, as attached to such cornice, 
 under the feet of the principal ribs. 
 
 1897. The Fan Groin is the next description of ceiling, the general character of which 
 is that of a number of circles in contact, each divided by radiations of moulding and tracery, 
 springing from a pendent centre ; and thus producing the outline of a flattened arch 
 between every two adjacent centres. This variety is susceptible of a richness of deco- 
 ration far greater than that of any other ceiling in Pointed Architecture (beautiful as they 
 may all be rendered), exhibiting, even when least adorned, an airiness of character, and 
 a play of light altogether enchanting. It is a variety, also, that may be applied with 
 facility to the purposes of Domestic Architecture ; though it will be proper to bear in 
 mind that we should not, in lath and plaster, multiply pendants, &c., to an extent that 
 would involve impracticability of execution, supposing the subject to be attempted in 
 masonry. 
 
 1898. The Disguised Flat Ceiling is another kind which is not without example, as 
 being executed even in stone. This consists of a horizontal plane, relieved with the 
 customary forms of moulding and tracery, the principal lines of which have a little 
 curvature at the points whence they diverge ; so as to give to the whole outline, at first 
 sight, an appearance somewhat analogous to that of the arch. Of the application of this 
 variety we shall speak hereafter. 
 
 1899. In their ornamental Carpentry, both as to roofs and ceilings, our forefathers 
 were no less successful than in their masonry. The open-framed roof, which we have 
 before named, exhibits, in several remaining instances, proofs of their skill in uniting the 
 ornamental with the useful, and giving to their subject depth of shade and colour, and 
 fulness of design. Witness the roofs of Westminster Hall and the hall at Eltham; 
 compositions which will afford valuable hints to the Architect, as to the covering-in of 
 large and lofty apartments, for which boldness of character is desirable. Another variety 
 we have noticed as being that of the vaulted ceiling of wood, of which the decoration is 
 very siixiilar to that of the parallel feature in masonry already described. Its ornamental 
 appearance may be also enhanced by the introduction of trusses of arched ribs, with 
 spandrels (or corner pieces) of tracery, enriched corbels, pendants, &c. For instances of 
 both of these we may refer to Crosby Hall. Another kind of ceiling, very common in 
 old churches, but very applicable, also, to domestic purposes, is that formed (as before 
 mentioned) of two inclined planes, as in fig. 1641 ; the ceiling and the roof being, in 
 
940 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 such cases, generally one and the same thing 
 The roof, thus simply constructed, showed 
 its principal timbers and rafters, moulded on 
 the under side, as greater and secondary 
 ribs ; the lead boarding forming the faces of 
 the panels, and the points of intersection 
 being often profusely adorned with knots of 
 foliage, and the like. Some examples we 
 find, of a date subsequent to the introduction 
 of plastering, in which the plainer parts are 
 of that material, the ribs only being of wood. 
 To the principal ribs were often attached 
 curved springing pieces (fig. 1641), so as 
 
 to give to the whole the contour of the flattened arch ; the weight being then 
 sustained, on each side, by an ornamental 
 corbel or capital. One more variety is 
 that of the flat ceiling in wood ; sometimes 
 simj)ly divided by ribs into square or oblong 
 panels, and at other times disguised by 
 uuich the same kind of treatment as the 
 flat stone ceiling of which we have taken 
 notice. On a principle not very dissimilar 
 to this is executed the wooden ceiling of 
 the withdrawing-room at Hampton Court 
 Palace (fig. 1G42), exhibiting a succession 
 of stars, bearing some analogy to the 
 arrangement of tlie fan-groin; an example which, if purified from its admixture of 
 Italian detail, might claim as much merit as a flat ceiling may generally be expected to 
 possess. 
 
 1900. The Form of Ceiling 1642 
 which is most applicable to the 
 combined Purposes of Taste 
 and Convenience in Domestic 
 Architecture, we consider to be 
 that of two inclined planes. 
 The flat ceiling must neces- 
 sarily have the advantage over 
 every other kind, in point of 
 economy ; but it is greatly 
 deficient in character, as, in 
 its general form, it recognises 
 nothing of the principle of 
 the pointed arch ; a principle 
 upon which the effects of the 
 pointed style primarily de- 
 l)end; and a regard to which 
 is conspicuous in each of the 
 other varieties which we have enumerated. Even m the simplest of these, the ceiling of 
 two inclined planes, though the rise in the mj(i;lle may not be greater than eight or nine 
 inches, in a width of sixteen or seventeen feet, tliere is still a distinct and sensible analogy 
 to the form of the vault, in the upward tendency of the lines, and in the preservation of 
 a lofty central point. When, on the other hand, so important and prominent an object 
 as tlie ceiling is destitute of a characteristic form, let decoration be applied as it may, it 
 will fail to supply the deficiency, or to relieve the composition from the charge of 
 ambiguity. If there be any circumstances under which the use of the flat ceilin^j 
 may be considered excusable, it becomes so only when used in rooms whose windows 
 finish with square upper lines ; in which case, such lines may harmonise, to a certain 
 extent, with the horizontal surface above. To place the flat ceiling over pointed windows 
 IS to destroy, all unity of feeling, as well as to show a great misapplication of economy. 
 
 1901. Floors, in the Pointed Domestic Style. But the lowest as well as the most elevated 
 objects shared the attention of our old builders, and contributed to the completeness of 
 composition. Hence, in their more finished structures, the decoration even of floors 
 >yas not neglected ; the practice being to intermix, with stone paving, ornamental glazed 
 tiles, of varied colour and device. For these the achievements of heraldry afforded the 
 most copious exemplars ; the subjects being disposed of in circles, quatrefoils, lozenges, 
 &c. At other times, single and ordinary objects were adopted; or, for more cconoinical 
 
VILLAS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 
 
 941 
 
 purposes, mere alternate patterns of different colours. The best of these tiles were 
 executed by indenting the required ornament in the substance of the clay while moist, 
 and filling up the vacuities with clay of a different colour, after which they were subjected 
 to the fire. Unfortunately, however, many of them appear to have had their embellish- 
 ments applied only to the surface, and their subjects have consequently been soon obliter- 
 ated. In porches, halls, conservatories, &c. in which the pointed style is imitated, the 
 paving might be consistently interspersed with tHes of this description, which, probably, 
 would not prove expensive, when their manufacture had once been tried with success. 
 [Mr. Wright's tiles (§ 1785) are exactly what is here described, but are manufactured 
 in a superior manner.] 
 
 1902. Chimney-pieces are matters of internal design which require much judgment, 
 and which would admit of considerable decoration, were excellence of workmanship pre- 
 ferred to expensiveness of material. As it is, indeed, the pencil is often fettered by the 
 fear of massiveness on the one hand, and of waste on the other (when marble is the sub- 
 stance to be employed), no less than by the want of spirit and feeling. Boldness, however, 
 is here essential to character, the composition of a well-designed chinmey-piece differing 
 little from that of a gateway in miniature, reduced to a flattened proportion, and some- 
 times finished above with a course of tracery compartments, and a ledge, scarcely to be 
 called a shelf, arising from the projection of a massive cornice moulding; the whole 
 being bounded on each side, perhaps, by a slender column, or octagonal shaft, attached to 
 the jambs. On the other hand, this featiire may be reduced to an extreme of simplicity, 
 equal in economy to that of an ordinary bed-room chinmey. It is, however, to be so 
 reduced by a regard to the primitive forms of arch and jamb, and not by the sinking of 
 a quatrefoil on the blocks of an every-day article, and calling it Gothic. 
 
 1 903. The Staircase. One conspicuous object of internal arrangement which ren^iains 
 for our notice is the staircase. For this, unfortunately, we have scarcely any precedents 
 in old works applicable to the modern principle of construction ; the common arrange- 
 ment being, anciently, that of the corkscrew stone staircase, still used in church towers, 
 of which the steps become the radii of a circle, each lending its aid to form a round 
 newel up the centre. The great staircase of Christchurch College, Oxford, is one 
 example more closely resembling the 
 modern plan ; but it is one upon a 
 scale of splendour rarely to be ap- 
 proached under the economical re- 
 strictions of the present day. It 
 will, however, afford many useful 
 hints to the student; hints which 
 will be seconded by every principle 
 of architectural analogy and right 
 feeling ; and this, among the first, — 
 that Pointed Architecture knows no 
 such finishings as those of the com- 
 mon rail and baluster; but that, if 
 an equivalent to such be wanted, it 
 must be gained under the form of 
 the coping-moulding and the mul- 
 lion. Another point of observation 
 will be, that what are called con- 
 tinued handrails (even supposing 
 their section to be correct), are 
 neither so manageable nor so charac- 
 teristic for Pointed Architecture as 
 those with newels, belonging to the 
 form of the square well-hole, or to 
 what is technicaDy termed the dog- 
 legged staircase. In figs. 1643 and 
 1644 we have offered some ideas 
 upon this subject, as applicable to 
 the purposes of modern domestic use. 
 In fig. 1 643 the staircase is finished 
 with a close string-board, and with 
 balusters which take the character 
 of plain mullions. It is easily to 
 be perceived that the forms here 
 simplified will admit of any degree 
 of decoration, by the introduction, 
 
942 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 at pleasure, of arched heads and tracery to the different compartments, and the enrich- 
 ment of the string-board, if requisite, in a correspondent style. Fig. 1 644 shows the 
 same principle adapted to the form of the cut string, or that which leaves exposed the 
 ends of the steps. In this, therefore, it is necessary to give to the muUion baluster a 
 kind of base, to prevent its receiving an abrupt termination upon the step ; and this 
 we have sketched as attainable in several M^ays, of which the uppermost form will be 
 perceived to be reduced to its simplest principles. The compartments produced under 
 this mode of arrangement are, of course, susceptible of additional decoration by the same 
 means with those of the former figure ; and, on the other hand, the ornamental string- 
 board which we have here introduced will admit of simplification if necessary. 
 
 1 904. External Colouring. Not to pursue our notice of detailed features to an extent 
 which might perplex the reader with minutice, we shall conclude by offering one or two 
 remarks upon some matters which have a close collateral reference to the subject in 
 general. Of such matters, primary and evident importance attaches to the circumstance 
 of colour. This, tliough it does not, strictly speaking, come under the cognizance of 
 Architecture, has a very powerful influence upon its productions. Hence, viewing the 
 subject with a reference to external effects, a building newly erected is, notwithstanding 
 the entirencss of its finishings, far less pleasing to the judicious eye than that which has 
 had its tints softened by the wear of years. The attention of the Architect should 
 therefore be directed to a consideration of the effect which the lapse of time will have 
 upon the materials of his works. He will accordingly see the propriety, in matters of 
 external woodwork, doors, verge-boards, &c. &c., of employing, where practicable, 
 a sound wood, like oak, in preference to an imitation in i)ainted deal, of which the tone 
 of colour can never be improved by time. In instances where a partial restoration of 
 old remains causes a spotted and unharmonious appearance in the general aspect, he will 
 do wisely to subdue the glare of new materials ; as may be done, in stonework, by the 
 application of boiled oil, coloured water, &c. In cases where the fiery tone of red brick 
 requires to be lowered, or where blank spaces may demand relief, his object may be 
 effectually answered by the training of ivy, or any of the varieties of American creeper, 
 against his walls ; a mode of natural embellishment which imparts even to simple objects 
 an air of shadowy richness ; subdues, in rural scenery, the violence of the transition from 
 objects of nature to those of art; and even bestows upon the architectural subject of 
 recent date somewhat of the charm belonging to the venerable. He will, at all times, 
 shun the use of lime-white for external objects ; and, if imitating, at any time, the old 
 style of erections in timber and plastering, he will act judiciously in modifying the 
 antique character of colouring, by substituting, for the favourite red and white, a brown 
 and a deep and softened stone tint. 
 
 1 905. The Application of Colours for internal Purposes may be made productive of 
 great effect. The old style of painting upon minute architectural subjects often exhibits 
 tlie richness of appearance resulting from the deep colouring of hollows, striping of 
 beads, and gilding of fillets and foliage ; and, at other times, displays the effect of painted 
 foliage in trelliswork ; of figures, with bands and inscriptions of mottoes, *' posies," and 
 proverbs ; thence advancing, even to the full extent of the skill of the times, in paintings 
 of a historical character. Beyond this, the effects of colour were occasionally heightened 
 by the use of painted glass ; the principal subjects for domestic application being those 
 of armorial bearings, badges, mottoes, and foliage. 
 
 1906. Fittings-vp and Furniture, i?i the Pointed Style. We might here particularise the 
 old decorations of hangings and tapestry ; fi-om which we might pass to a detailed investi- 
 gation of the peculiarities of ancient furniture, as another collateral matter affecting 
 unity of character and feeling. We should, however, be unable to do justice to this 
 latter subject, without multiplying our sketches and remarks so as to exceed our proposed 
 limits ; and can only, in this place, express our regret that the execution of furniture, as 
 appropriate to works in the pointed style, should ever be confided to tradesmen, who 
 cannot, in reason, be supposed to have studied this class of Architectiu-e with that patient 
 attention which is necessary to a comprehensive acquaintance with its spirit ; not to say 
 that, of all the regular subjects of the style, scarcely any require the display of such 
 feeling and judgment as do these collateral objects of fittings-up and furniture. 
 
 1 907. Conclusion. We shall not extend our observations to matters of a more minute 
 description, or a less intimate connection with our subject ; and shall only beg to observe, 
 in conclusion, that we have not offered the foregoing sketches and remarks with any such 
 view as that of qualifying the reader to become at once a composer in Pointed Archi- 
 tecture ; an attainment for which the study of years will not be more than suflficient. 
 Our object is, rather to lead the student to seek a more intimate acquaintance with the 
 characteristics of this unrivalled style of art ; and to suggest to him and to the amateur 
 a few ideas which may place them on their guard against the pretensions of false taste, 
 and the innovations of ignorant and soulless imitators. This caution will be the more 
 
VILLAS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 
 
 943 
 
 readily received, when it is remembered that men of no less celebrity than Inigo Jones 
 and Sir Christopher Wren exhibited the most miserable failures, whenever they attempted 
 Pointed Architecture : and it is, therefore, evident, that nothing short of an entire devotion 
 of mind can insure an adequate command of the style ; a style which must necessarily 
 be profound in its principles, to stand, as it does, supreme in its effects. 
 
 Design XXIL — A Villa in the Gothic Style. 
 
 1908. Situation and Accommodation. This villa is supposed to be placed on the 
 summit of a knoll, in a country rather flat than otherwise. For this reason, the general 
 
 outline against the sky is rendered more irregular than it would be in a country where 
 the surface was greatly diversified. As the building is supposed to be viewed on every 
 side, and to have no immediate background of either wood or hills, the different projec- 
 tions in the sides, as weU as the sky outline, are calculated to produce a picturesque 
 effect from every point of view. The basement on which the whole is intended to be 
 placed, should be raised and supported by an architectural terrace, irregular in the plan, 
 and displaying projections corresponding, for the most part, to those of the building. 
 This terrace should not be less than three feet above the surface of the adjoining grounds, 
 and on the entrance front there should be an inclined plane, by which carriages may 
 ascend to the porch. The terrace wall should be finished with battlements at the more 
 enriched parts of the garden front ; and it may be finished with a plain parapet and 
 coping on the entrance front. Fig. 1646 is the elevation ; fig. 1645 is the ground plan. 
 In this last, a is the porch ; 6, hall ; c, dining-room ; cZ, breakfast- room ; e, drawing- 
 room ; f, library ; 9, picture gallery, serving also as a billiard-room ; h, principal 
 staircase; i, boudoir; k, ante-room; Z, archway to the garden scenery; in, passage, at 
 the end of which is the bell turret ; n, lobby ; 0, ante-room ; p, back stairs ; and q, open 
 screens. The dotted lines indicate the manner of finishing the different ceilings. Some 
 of these (for example, the porches and the octagon boudoir) indicate groined ceilings ; 
 but the square and parallelogram plans contain lines which indicate the mode of finish- 
 ing by panels between oak beams, familiar to every one who has seen an old Gothic 
 dining-hall in any of our colleges or inns of court. The domestic offices are in the 
 basement ; there is one story over the principal floor for bed rooms for the family, and 
 an attic story for the sleeping-rooms of the servants. 
 
 1909. Construction. Fig. 1647 is an elevation of the hall door. Fig. 1648 shows 
 
VILLAS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 
 
 94o 
 
 the houses of the 
 
 part of the open staircase. Open staircases, Mr. Lamb, the author of this Design, ob- 
 serves, were not generally used until 
 the middle of the reign of Queen 
 Elizabeth ; but the effect of the in- 
 terior of this Design will be very 
 much improved by one. The stairs 
 to the stalls in Henry VII. 's Chapel 
 afford a sufficient precedent, if one be 
 necessary. Previously to the period 
 alluded to, staircases were placed in 
 smaU towers, and called turnpikes; 
 the steps of which were of stone or 
 solid oak, winding round a large 
 newel, and without any nosing ; the 
 handrail was cut out of the material 
 of the wall and flush with it, but in 
 the inferior staircases no handrail 
 was provided. The octagon tower 
 in the elevation, fig. 1646, is a stair- 
 case of the above description from 
 the basement to the upper story ; the 
 large open staircase serving only to 
 ascend from the ground to the rooms 
 on the first floor. Fig. 1650 is an 
 elevation of the haU chimney-piece 
 and grate. Fig. 1651 shows part of 
 the ceiling of the library. Ceilings, 
 during the time of Henry VII. and 
 
 throughout the whole period when Tudor Architecture prevailed in 
 nobility and gentry of England, 
 
 extending to near the middle of 164S 
 the reign of Queen Elizabeth, 
 were generally divided into com- 
 partments, with moulded ribs, 
 and elaborately carved bosses 
 at their junction, 
 the hollow mould- 
 ings frequently 
 charged with va- 
 rious ornaments 
 at certain dis- 
 tances from each 
 other ; or with 
 continued foliage ; 
 the panels were often painted 
 blue, and studded with gold 
 stars, or emblazoned with the 
 family arms. Some of the mouldings and ornaments were gilt, and others painted 
 m rich colours; leaves and 
 flowers were often represented 
 with their natural tints ; ex- 
 pensive modes of decoration, 
 but rich in their effects. 
 Fig. 1649 is a plan of the 
 mouldings of the entrance-door 
 jambs. 
 
 1910. Remarks. This De- 
 sign has been contributed by 
 Edward Buckton Lamb, Esq., 
 the author of several preceding 
 designs, and the reviser of that 
 following. It displays a rich 
 fund of knowledge of the details 
 of the pointed style of Do- 
 mestic Architecture ; and is. 
 
 1649 
 
 taken altogether, a very original composition. 
 
 5 s 
 
946 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 1651 
 
 Design XXIII. — An Italian Villa on a considerable Scale. 
 
 1911. 77«s Design has been furnished by Robert Mallet, Esq., an amateur Architect 
 of great taste, and by this time well known to our readers by the designs for iron fur- 
 niture, and by various scientific contrivances, some of the more remarkable of which 
 remain to be described. All the general masses, and the principal features of the interior 
 arrangement, are the work of Mr. INIallet ; but the arcliitectural details and finishings 
 are by E. 13. Lamb, Esq., whose thorough knowledge of the Italian villa style is evinced 
 by the details given as an appendage to this Design, and whose excellent taste in their 
 display is conspicuous in his revision of Mr. Mallet's elevations. 
 
 1912. The Situation of this Villa, Mr. Mallet observes, should be on a rather rapid 
 declivity facing the south-east, so as to give ample scope for forming, at comparatively 
 small expense, those magnificent terraces which vary and dignify the Architecture of the 
 Palladian era. The upper part of the declivity is supposed to be covered with wood, 
 terminating in hills, and the lower part should display garden scenery and pastures, ter- 
 minating in orchards and hop-grounds, beyond which may be a fertile valley, watered 
 by an ample river. There are many such situations in Scotland and Wales, and a number 
 also in England, particularly in the lake district. If the Duke of Devonshire's villa at 
 Chatsworth were to be rebuilt on the same site, something in the style of this Design 
 would be suitable to the situation. 
 
 1913. The General Appearance of this mia is shown in figs. 1658 to 1660. 
 
 1914. This Villa should he lighted with Gas, by burners placed outside the windows, 
 with jiarabolic reflectors, as has been done in some places in England. The exterior 
 effect in a dark night, I am informed, is magnificent beyond description. By these means 
 the heat and smell of the gas in the rooms is avoided, and the light, coming from one side, 
 like that of day, is much more natural and agreeable. As windows are the apertures 
 through which natural light is admitted, nothing can be more appropriate than th^ir 
 employment for the admission of artificial light. The burners, and reflectors, &c., should, 
 of course, be removed during the day. 
 
 1915. Accommodation. Fig. 1652 is the ground plan, in which a is the avenue or 
 approach road ; b, the entrance court, flagged with stones of irregular form, as in the 
 streets of Florence and Pompeii, where the material is lava, here it might be granite ; 
 c, situation of the house-porter's lodge, shown in fig. 1653; rf, hall ; e, gallery of 
 paintings, &c. ; /, dining-room ; g, drawingroom ; h, library ; i, breakfast-room ; h, 
 principal staircase ; /, lobby and water-closet ; m, ante-room ; n, boudoir ; o, ladies' 
 private room ; p, family bed-room ; q, lady's maid's room ; r, nursery ; s, dressing-room ; 
 t, children's play-room ; u, butler's pantry ; v, plate-closet ; w, pantry ; x, housekeeper's 
 room ; y, dry larder ; z, stairs from the basement to the oflfices on the ground floor ; 
 a, kitchen lighted from the north ; scullery ; c, servants' hall ; d', covered passage 
 from the scullery to the laundry; e, laundry; /'/', porticoes, or temples provided with 
 terraced seats, and decorated with sculpture; g' g', colonnades to the hall, &c., forming 
 an uninterrupted covered way for servants ; li, portico ; i', conservatory ; k', aviary ; 
 I', corridor ; m', portico ; n', parterre ; o', museum, ball-room, chapel, or billiard-room ; 
 p', first terrace eight feet lower than the entrance court, b • q', second terrace fifteen feet 
 lower than the first, with a covered colonnade for walking under in wet weather ; r, 
 third terrace, with a carriage approach, laid in grass ; s', grass lawn ; t', situation of 
 stables, shown in fig. 1653; terrace seats; v', open area to light and ventilate the 
 passages to the offices ; w', these passages ; and x', fountain. The chamber plan may 
 Oe easily conceived. 
 
VILLAS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 
 
 949 
 
 Fig. 1653 is a vertical profile, showing the connection of the buildings with the roads, 
 walks, and scenery ; in which a is the principal approach ; h, an entrance to the lower 
 part of the porter's tower ; c, entrance for servants to the basement story ; d, private 
 entrance to the staircase in the tower ; e, carriage road, serving as a private approach to 
 the garden front, and forming, at the same time, part of a drive through the estate ; f, 
 carriage road to the museum ; g, walks leading to the flower-garden, h ; i, stable court ; 
 h, back entrance to the hot-houses ; Z, m, walk connecting the kitchen with the stable 
 court ; n, walk descending a steep bank, forming a private entrance to the museum ; o, 
 sloping surface, forming part of the park ; and p, steep wooded banks, connecting the 
 park with rising hills. 
 
 1916. Construction. All the walls niay be of brick, covered with cement, and the 
 roof may be covered with Italian or Grecian tiles. The building may be rendered fire- 
 proof by brick arches, abutting on cast-iron girders ; or by joists of timber, with floors 
 of large slates or tiles laid in cement, and covered with mastic (a cement formed of 
 powdered stone, mixed with oxide of lead and oils) ; the slates or mastic may be painted 
 either in imitation of mosaic pavement, of oak or other timber, or of carpeting. In 
 Italy, fire-proof floors are often formed of what is called composto (composition), in the 
 following manner : — The joists of the floor are first covered with coarse boards, and 
 afterwards with a layer of straw, though the boards are frequently omitted, more espe- 
 cially when reeds can be substituted for the straw. .On the straw is spread a layer of 
 common mortar, and on this a stratum of from one to three inches in thickness of ter- 
 razza (terrass, a compound of powdered brick and lime). The terrass is well beaten ; 
 
 afterwards rolled smooth with a heavy roller, and, finally, polished with sandstone. 
 When it is desired to imitate a marble floor, fragments of marble of different colours, 
 and all reduced to equal sizes, that is, about the sixteenth of an inch in diameter, are 
 spread on the terrass before it is dry, in regular patterns, by the same process as that 
 employed in stencilling, and these are first beaten down, afterwards rolled, next polished, 
 and finally lines are drawn round the different forms, and filled in with lampblack and 
 oil. The result, when properly done, is a very successful imitation of different-coloured 
 
 marbles. Such floors are common m Genoa and Venice. (See Quairemere de Quinci/ 
 Dictionnaire Historique d\4rchitecture, art. Composto ; and BorgniSf Traite Elementaire de 
 
950 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 Construction, &c. p. 234. The terrace seats, m', may 
 the elevation is shown in fig. 1654; the section in 
 fig. 1657. 
 
 1917. Remarks. " The great scarp, or upright 
 wall of the terrace on the entrance front," Mr. 
 Mallet observes, " with its two flanking towers, 
 would be imposing ; and the building intended as 
 a museum or ball-room at the extreme end of the 
 upper terrace would have a fine effect, as would the 
 long colonnade with its covered walk. Coal-vaults, 
 cellaring, &c., may be made, communicating with 
 the underground passage to the kitchen ; and the 
 upper terrace might also be vaulted, if that were 
 desirable. It is to be remembered, that a villa is 
 generally to be considered as a summer residence, 
 and that, therefore, open passages, and the generally 
 open style of Italian construction, are not only ad- 
 missible, but characteristic. There are some minor 
 apartments and offices, which have no place in this 
 Design, which, however, may be placed under the 
 main court or terrace, and liglited from a range of 
 windows in the grand or entrance front scarp. The 
 other terrace might also be made subservient to the 
 same end, and lighted in the same manner. The 
 long and lofty range of Palladian windows that 
 would thus become requisite would have a mag- 
 nificent effect. Fireplaces are still retained in this 
 Design ; because, although, as they are commonly 
 constructed, they are the very worst manner of 
 heating a room, habit has rendered them necessary 
 to our comfort. To prevent the draught of air to 
 the backs of those who sit near the fire, air tubes 
 from the exterior of the house, with openings under 
 the ash-pan of the grate, and ventilators covering 
 them, should be provided to each fireplace. These 
 tubes might have cocks to regulate the admission 
 of air; and thus, by increasing or diminishing the 
 draught up the chimney from the air of the room, 
 to regulate its temperature at pleasure. In addition 
 to these advantages, air so admitted would be an 
 effectual preventive of smoky chimneys. The prin- 
 cipal staircase in this Design is proposed to be 
 heated by hot water from a boiler placed under the 
 hall, and supplied with fuel, &c., from a short sunk 
 passage, entering from beside the grand portico, and 
 from its situation, hidden from view. Architectural 
 pedestals in each room, jilaced where taste and con- 
 venience may dictate, would diffuse the heat through- 
 out the apartments. Such pedestals," continues Mr. 
 Mallet, " I have been and am constantly erecting. 
 They are susceptible of much variety, and of a great 
 display of beauty and rich ornament. They may be 
 made in various forms ; and one of the best of these, 
 when it is applicable, is a series of concentric circles 
 of plate iron, with alternate spaces between them for 
 the heated air to pass through. Concentric cylin- 
 ders thus formed are surrounded by a case, which 
 may be rendered as ornamental as is deemed proper. 
 Under no circumstances should pipes for circulating 
 steam or hot water be admitted into dwelling- 
 rooms J for I have uniformly observed that when 
 these are introduced as skirtings, &c., they fail, from 
 the walls absorbing most of the heat. The heat 
 usually wasted at the back of the kitchen grate, in 
 such a Design as the present, may be made sub- 
 
 be formed as shown in fig. 1655; 
 f^. 1656; and the end view in 
 
 lc-58 
 
 19 <^ 
 
VILLAS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 
 
 951 
 
 servient to heating the 
 whole of that wing; 
 while a boiler fixed 
 under the staircase in 
 the other wing would 
 heat the whole of that 
 part of the house. 
 Flat pipes will not 
 stand pressure, and 
 must be used with 
 great caution at all 
 times ; for, as they are 
 usually made, they 
 abound in bad weld- 
 ings, which are not 
 discovered till, by the 
 pressure, and conse- 
 quent expansion, of 
 the heated fluid, they 
 burst or leak." 
 
 1918. The follow- 
 ing Observations on 
 Italian Architecture 
 are chiefly by Mr. 
 Lamb. I'he Archi- 
 tecture of modern 
 Italy, in a general 
 point of view, is of 
 two distinct kinds ; 
 viz. that of the towns 
 or cities, and that of 
 the villas or country- 
 houses. The Archi- 
 tecture of the cities is 
 finely exemplified in 
 the buildings of Rome 
 and Florence, and is 
 characterised by great 
 simplicity in the gene- 
 ral masses, and great 
 distinctness in the de- 
 tails. We have only 
 to refer to the street 
 palaces of Rome, Flo- 
 rence, and Genoa, or 
 to the successful imi- 
 tation of this style, in 
 all its simplicity and 
 severity, in a palace, 
 fig. 1661, just com- 
 pleted at Munich, by 
 the king of Bavaria. 
 
 1919. The Villa 
 Architecture of Italy, 
 on the other hand, 
 when on a large and 
 magnificent scale, is 
 either characterised by 
 low horizontal forms, 
 extending over con- 
 siderable space, and 
 symmetrical in the 
 plan and elevation ; 
 or, when on a mo- 
 derate scale, by scat- 
 
952 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 tered irregular masses, great contrasts of 
 light and shade, broken and plain sur- 
 faces, and great variety of outline against 
 the sky. The blank wall on which the 
 eye reposes; the towering campanile, 
 boldly contrasted with the horizontal line 
 of roof only broken by a few straggling 
 chimney tops; the row of equal-sized 
 closely placed windows, contrasting with 
 the plain space and single window of 
 the projecting balcony ; the prominent 
 portico, the continued arcade, the terraces, 
 and the variously formed and disposed 
 out-buildings, all combine to form that 
 picturesque whole which distinguishes the 
 modern Italian villa from every other. 
 
 1 920. As an Example of a Villa of the 
 regular Kind of Italian Villa Architecture, 
 we may refer to that lately built from the 
 designs of the Italian Architect, Salucci, 
 in the park of Ilosenstein, near Stuttgardt, 
 of which fig. 1664 is a general view ; fig. 
 1663 the entrance front elevation; and 
 fig. 1662 a ground plan. The general 
 effect of this palace is simple and grand ; 
 and it is as admirably fitted for the country 
 where there is abundance of space, and no 
 occasion for piling one story over another, 
 as the Tuscan palate of Munich is for the 
 confined space of a city, where the repe- 
 tition of one story over another becomes 
 a necessary part of the design, and con- 
 sequently a characteristic feature. The 
 Rosenstein villa or palace affords a very 
 good example of the internal arrange- 
 ment of the principal apartments, com- 
 mon to Italy and the Continent generally 
 One room communicates with anothei 
 throughout every floor; differing only in 
 size, and in the number of windows. 
 There are no fireplaces shown, but stoves 
 are placed in one or more of the angles of 
 the rooms, according to their size. As 
 these stoves are heated only once or twice 
 a day, mornings and evenings, and as wood 
 is the fuel used, little or no smoke is pro- 
 duced; and, therefore, there is the less 
 occasion for conspicuous chimney tops, 
 which could not have the same character 
 of use as in a coal country, where the rooms 
 are heated by open fires, and smoke is 
 issuing from the chimneys during the 
 whole ot the day. In the ground plan, 
 fig. 1662, a is the entrance hall; b, a 
 grand hall for dining in on extraordinary 
 occasions, lighted from the sides and from 
 the roof, with galleries at each end for 
 music ; c is the principal saloon ; d d, 
 ascent for carriages to drive under the 
 entrance portico ; e, a flight of steps to 
 the main entrance portico ; /, steps to five 
 other porticoes ; and p, flights of steps to 
 loggias or recesses, each with two columns 
 and antae. 
 
 1921. The irregular Italian Villa may 
 
VILLAS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 
 
 953 
 
954 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 the French manner, on the one hand, with its high roofs, as exemplified in Voltaire's 
 hous(j at Ferney, fig. 1668; or the Swiss style, on the other, as exemplified in Silber- 
 
 berg, near Stuttgardt, fig. 1669. It is unnecessary to produce examples of the modi- 
 fications of the Italian and French villas adopted in Germany and Russia ; or of the 
 
 1666 
 
VILLAS IN VARIOUS STYLES, 9^5 
 
 1667 
 
 more tame country-houses of Holland and the Netherlands, as neither of these can ever 
 be mistaken for the Italian manner. 
 
 1922. The Details of the Italian Style o f Architecture include roofing tiles, wall stones 
 chimney tops, brackets, cornices, window-dressings, doors, turrets, and porches. 
 
 Statues, urns, and other such picturesque objects belong to external ornament or finish- 
 ing, and will be noticed in a subsequent chapter. 
 
 1923. Rooming Tiles. Much of the beauty of small Italian villas depends on the 
 marked character arising from the forms of the tiles employed to cover them. We have 
 
956 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 already given several of these (see list of engravings, art. Tiles), and shall here add two 
 other modes. 
 
 1 924. A Mode of Tiling adopted by the ancients, and of which there are specimens 
 
 still to be found in Rome, is thus described by Borgnis ( Traite de Construction, p. 253. ) : 
 
 Fig. 1 670 a is a dissected view of a portion of a roof covered in the manner alluded to ; 
 
 and b shows plans and sections ot the separate tiles. The flat tile, with the turned-up 
 margins, is two feet long, and twenty inches wide at the broadest end ; and the hollow 
 semicylindrical or bridge tiles are eight inches in diameter at their widest end. The 
 flat tiles were laid in mortar, either on brickwork, masonry, or boards, as the case 
 might be ; and ornamental tiles were placed at the eaves, somewhat in the manner shown 
 in the following mode of tiling. It is to be observed, that, by having the tiles both flat 
 and semicylindrical, broader at one end than at the other, they are made to dovetail 
 into each other in such a manner that no nails are required to keep them in their places, 
 provided the tiles of the eaves and of the ridge of the roof are securely fixed by mortar 
 or cement. 
 
 1 925. The Mode of Tiling exhibited in the Temple of Diana Propylcea is given in the 
 engravings of that temple in the Unedited Antiquities of Attica. Fig. 1672 a is an 
 elevation of part of a roof of the temple, in which the crocket-like ridge tiles are shown 
 at b, and their vertical profile at c. Fig. 1671 c? is the upper surface of one of the 
 flat tiles, and e its under surface. Fig. 1673 shows a perspective view of one of 
 the bridge tiles, /, and a longitudinal section through the same, g. The effect of 
 these tiles is remarkably good, and imitations of them might be introduced in villas 
 and cottages with excellent effect. 
 
 1 926. The Kind of Face of the Stones, and the Manner in which they are disposed in 
 Courses in Italian Buildings, often form a source of great beauty. In England, when- 
 ever the surface of a wall is otherwise than smooth, it is said to be rusticated ; 
 but the varieties in common use are so few, that they have not received designa- 
 tions as in France and Italy. The rocky surface, the stalactited, the vermiculated, 
 and the punctured, are among the kinds used by the Italians ; and the divisions 
 between the stones are either triangular in the section, curved, square, or composed 
 of modifications of these. In fig. 1674, a is a vermiculated surface; b, a surface cut 
 
VILLAS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 
 
 1672 
 
 1671 
 
 
 uu L U U L 
 
 ~ L li li IJ LI ti 1 
 
 Ll Li li U LI 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 " ■ 
 
 
 m 
 
 1673 
 
 in imitation of stalactites ; c, a surface punctured in imitation of rude rock ; and rf, 
 convex surface. 
 
 1927. Chimney tops are features of consider- 
 able importance, . more especially in the irregular 
 villas of the north of Italy. That eminent 
 artist, Williams, has selected six : of which fig. 
 1675 is from Rome; fig. 1676 is from Lucca; 
 fig. 1677 from Perugia; fig. 1678 from Flo- 
 rence; fig. 1679 from Zante ; and fig. 1680 
 from Corfu. Fig. 1681 shows four commoner 
 forms ; of which e is the most complicated. Fig. 
 1682 is a large chimney top containing several 
 flues, covered at their terminations with Italian 
 tiles. It must be observed, that, as wood is the 
 common fuel in Italy, the flues in the chimney 
 shafts are much smaller than in Britain, as the 
 
 1674 
 
 
 
 
 
 0 0 Do 
 
 
 smoke of wood ascends in far less space than that of coal, and produces very little soot. 
 Great care is requisite in distributing chimney tops, so that, when viewed in perspec- 
 tive, they may form groups; and, while they break the general outline of the roo^ 
 may not fritter it into small parts on the one hand ; or, on the other, assume so much 
 importance as to render other parts insignificant. 
 
958 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 1675 
 
 1676 
 
 1677 
 
 1§28. Brackets and Cornices are striking features in Italian buildings. In fig. 1683, 
 a and b are the details of brackets which may be executed in wood, such forms being 
 
 1678 
 
 1679 
 
 1680 
 
 common both in Italy and Lorraine ; c is a cantilever cornice, which may be executed 
 either in wood or stone. The great projection of the corona or upper part produces that 
 
 1681 
 
 1682 
 
 deep shadow, which is the striking characteristic of the Italian cornice. An 
 modillion with rustic coins is shown at d, and is a common feature in the better 
 tion of Italian villas, and also in 
 the street palaces of Rome and 
 Florence. Of block cornices, such 
 as e, /, g, there is a great variety, 
 many of which might be executed 
 with common bricks. Such cor- 
 nices are often introduced as 
 string courses, or horizontal belts 
 or bands in the walls of buildings, 
 and also so as to serve for the 
 sills of windows. Frequently they 
 are made use of as a finish to the 
 terrace or parapet walls of a villa. 
 Few features of the Italian style are less expensive, more generally applicable 
 
 enriched 
 descrip- 
 
VILLAS IN VARIOUS STYLES, 
 1683 
 
 959 
 
 1& \^ ^L/— -^- 4_J U 
 
 'I lj II II il II I I I >^ 
 
 productive of effect. A building in all other respects plain, with rusticated coins, 
 and a blocking cornice, such as e, with similar cornices under the window sills, will 
 produce a striking effect, without any other exterior decoration. 
 
 1929. Window Dressings are fine sources of character. In fig. 1684, a and b are the 
 
 1684 c 
 
 lllililiiliiiiiliiiiiiiiiliiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiirii — 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 g 
 
 
 
 
 plainest forms in general use ; and, when properly and not too profusely introduced in an 
 elevation, their effect is excellent. Palladio occasionally uses the form c. In fig. 1685, 
 
 d is a specimen of a circular-headed 
 window with a balcony. Balconies 
 are used by the Italians in most 
 situations ; and they are most desir- 
 able objects, not only for their in- 
 dividual beauty, and theii* architec- 
 tural effect, but as places for dis- 
 playing flowers ; and, as a writer in 
 the Mechanics' Magazine has observed, 
 as places to go out on in case of fire, 
 when there are no means of internal 
 descent. The straight-headed window, 
 e, in this figure is highly architectural, 
 and is weU fitted for a rustic basement. 
 
 Fig. 1686 is a row of circular- 
 headed windows, with a balcony, which 
 forms one of the most striking features 
 in the elevations of Italian villas. It 
 
 1685 
 
 
 r 
 
 
 
 
 
960 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 1686 
 
 L 
 
 "II"' 'ir""'i " 
 
 will be observed that the effect is produced chiefly by the contiguity of the windows, and 
 the repetition of parts of the very simplest description. Few features in any style are 
 calculated to produce so much effect, at so little expense. An arch is always expres- 
 sive of strength, more particularly when it is semicircular ; and the cooperation of these 
 arches, in this instance, is an idea at once simple and grand. In this as in many other 
 features of Italian Architecture, we see combined the science of the Architect and the 
 knowledge of effect of the painter. 
 
 Fig. 1687 is a window-head with an architrave, and a moulded sill supported by 
 blocks. 
 
 Fig. 1688 is a window with a plain facing, supposed to be placed in a projection from 
 a plain wall, and protected by a pent-roof of tiles. 
 
 1687 
 
 1688 
 
 1689 
 
 h 
 
VILLAS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 
 
 961 
 
 perhaps, the very cheapest mode of forming a semicircular arch. The use of tne tiles is 
 in preserving the rubble from being thrust out of form ; while they confer, at the same 
 time, an architectural character. The door, 6, in this figure shows a double arch of 
 rustic work. In fig. 1690, d is a door-head of rustic work of a peculiar description, 
 
 1690 
 
 having the angles cut off ; and c is a door-head, supposed to be constructed of rough, 
 stone, in which also is shown part of the door. Fig. 1691 is a doorway with a pro- 
 jecting head and rustic jambs, which 
 
 shows also part of the wall, built of j , ,. / 1691 
 
 diagonal masonry. 
 
 1 93 1 . Bell Turrets assume various 
 forms. Fig. 1692 is one of the sim- 
 plest, being the mere continuation of 
 a wall, commonly a gable end, or the 
 termination of any division wall, carried 
 a few yards above the roof. Figs. 
 1693 and 1694 are forms of watch- 
 towers, common on the smaller villas, 
 and even farm-houses, in several parts 
 of Tuscany. Fig. 1695 is a cam- 
 panile or watch-tower of a highly 
 architectural character, which is cal- 
 culated to produce an excellent effect. 
 
 1932. Porches smted to the Italian 
 manner are exemplified in figs. 1696, 
 1697, and 1698, which are from the 
 portfolio of Marriott Field, Esq., a young Architect, lately returned from a profes- 
 sional tour through Italy, In many of the smaller Italian villas, instead of pro- 
 
 1692 
 
 169} 
 
 jecting porches, the entrance is formed within a recess, which has columns or an 
 arcade in front. In others, instead of a portico, porch, or recess, a projecting colonnade, 
 arcade, or veranda, extends the whole length of the entrance front, and the principal 
 
 5 u 
 
962 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 1694 
 
 1695 
 
 doorway may be under any part of it. In most large villas the entrance doorway is 
 either protected by a portico that may be driven under, or it is formed on the side 
 
 1696 
 
 of an archway through which carriages drive into an inner court, as in some of our 
 public inns. This is a comfortable con- 
 trivance, but by no means an elegant one. 
 In the first place, it indicates want of space; 
 and, next, want of means for display and de- 
 coration ; lastly, such entrances are always 
 gloomy. 
 
 1933. The modern Italian Style of Ar- 
 chitecturCf the characteristics of which may 
 be given in two words — painter-like effect, 
 — has in this country the recommendation 
 of novelty ; a quality which always makes 
 a strong impression on the general observer. 
 It is not, however, a style which can be 
 trusted in the hands of any Architect not a 
 master in the art of composition. The 
 great object, in designing every building, as 
 ikr as exterior effect is concerned, is the pro- 
 duction of a whole : now, in regular symme- 
 trical Architecture, this is comparatively 
 easy ; for, a centre being fixed upon, the 
 two sides can easily be made to correspond 
 with it. A bcautifid design may not be 
 
APPENDAGES TO VILLAS. 
 
 963 
 
 the result, but, whatever it may be, it will have pretensions to being a whole. Italian 
 Architecture, on the other hand, is characterised by irregularity, by strong contrasts, and 
 by other painter-like effects. The whole, which is the result of this style, is of a more 
 refined kind ; it is addressed to a more highly cultivated taste ; and to produce it requires 
 a much higher degree of talent, than to compose in any species of regular Architecture. 
 No Architect, therefore, ought to attempt the Italian style, who has not studied the com- 
 position of landscape scenery generally. If we were to look out for a young Architect to 
 design an edifice in the Italian style we should first show him a landscape, and ask him to 
 analyse it ; and next we should show him a view of an Italian building, and ask him to point 
 out the causes of its beauty. From the Design before us, and the excellent illustrations 
 of the details of Italian Arcihtecture which accompany it, it will be e^^dent to our readeI^ 
 that Mr. Lamb is an artist of first-rate merit in this style. One great recommendation 
 of the Italian manner in our eyes is, that, from the cheap nature of its finishing and 
 decorations, it is suited to a people in moderate circumstances — to a democracy. 
 Another is, that, from the irregularity of its masses, which adinit of a house receiving 
 additions in every direction, it is suited to a prosperous and improving people, — such as 
 the Americans. 
 
 ClIAP. IV. 
 
 Designs for Appendages to Villas. 
 
 1 934. All the Architectural Appendages of a Villa should obviously partake of the 
 character of the house ; not only in point of general effect, but in proportionate dimen- 
 sions, and in architectural style. This is a leading principle ; to whicli, however, there 
 may sometimes be exceptions, arising from local circumstances. For example, we see no 
 sufficient reason for laying it down as an absolute rule, that a Grecian or a Gothic villa 
 should never have a simple cottage for a lodge ; as situations and circumstances may 
 occur where such a deviation from the usual practice may become desirable. Neither 
 do we see why a Gothic house should have no bridges but what have pointed arches ; 
 that form being, in flat situations, unsuitable for a bridge, on account of the rise it re- 
 quires in the road over it. Unity of architectural style with the house is, however, 
 essential in all those buildings which are in its immediate vicinity ; or where they arc 
 seen before a view is obtained of the house, and where a marked and different style would 
 create false expectations in the spectator as to that of the principal object. In garden 
 buildings, which are presented as specimens of Architecture, of course all styles may be 
 admitted, because the whole there may be considered as an architectural museinn. We 
 shall submit a few designs for, and observations upon, stables, riding-houses, dog-kennels, 
 ornamental dairies and poultry-houses, aviaries and menageries, architectural conserva- 
 tories, terraces, parapets and other mural ornaments, ornamental garden buildings, and 
 entrance lodges and gates. 
 
 Sect. I. Stable Offices. 
 
 1935. The Situation of the Stable Offices of a villa, and various other particulars 
 respecting them, have already been noticed in the first and second chapters of this Book ; 
 and we shall, therefore, confine ourselves, in the present section, to describing one or two 
 designs. 
 
 1936. Stable Offices for Beau Ideal Villa. Fig. 1699 is the elevation of the stables 
 intended for Beau Ideal Villa, as contributed by Selim, and revised by Charles Barry, 
 Esq. ; and fig. 1700 is the ground plan, which is supposed by Selim to contain adequate 
 accommodation for the horses and carriages, &c., of the occupant of such a house. (See 
 § 1715 to § 1720.) — All the manure from these stables is wheeled every morning into 
 the dung-yard, u, and thrown into a large pit, where it remains till taken away for hot- 
 beds by the gardener ; the walls of the melon ground forming the N. E. boundary of the 
 dung yard. The liquid manure from all the stables is conducted through drains to a 
 tank, from which it may be pumped up into bai-rels, and conveyed to the farm. Stacks 
 of wood for fuel, stacks of litter, and various articles for the gardens, stables, and kitchen 
 court, may also be placed here. Over all the stables and coach-houses are lofts for 
 containing hay, drawn straw for litter, and corn ; with close-jointed floors, so as to prevent 
 the dust from dropping through on the horses. The corn is let down by a fimnel, 
 fig. 1701, a, connected with a square tube or shoot, b ; this shoot has two sliding stoppers, 
 the handles of which are seen at c and d ; and the space between the slides being ad- 
 justed so as to hold a feed, any quantity is readily measured out. When this is done. 
 
964 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 the lower slide is locked up by the head stable-keeper. The general construction of 
 these stables should correspond with that of the house ; the Architecture displaying the 
 
 1699 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 i i l\ 
 
 1 1; 
 
 mil mil 
 
 p ■ ^ 
 
 ll 1 
 
 I HJ 
 
 same character of ornament, though in an inferior degree. In fig. 1700, a is the en- 
 trance, with a clock-room and bed-room over it : over the clock-room is a turret-bell, the 
 rope for ringing which hangs down in the closet, 6 ; c, staircase ; d d, coach-houses, each 
 
 'fft 
 
 h 
 
 il 
 
 1701 
 
 
 
 
 
 1700 
 
 
 
 OS 
 
 
 
 
 to 
 
 r 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 d 
 
 0 
 
 
 
 V' — 
 
 with a stove: 
 
 e, harness-room, also with a stove ; ////, staircases to the lofts ; g g, 
 
 also for the car- 
 
 coach-horse stables; h lobbies open to the yard to clean horses also for the car- 
 riaees of visiters to back into in wet weather; i, sick-horse box; k k, stabhng for the 
 horses of strangers ; passage through to the back yard, where the dung is placed ; 7n, 
 harness-room to the coach-house, n, for strangers; o o, boxes for hunters; p;), saddle- 
 horse stables; q, saddle-room, with stove ; r, broad pavement m front of the coach- 
 houses; s, pump and trough, with large lamp over; 1 1 1 1, smks for carrymg off the 
 
 surface-water ; m, dung-yard. j /: i nr>o o«/l 1 7n<t aro 
 
 1937. Circular Stables. Fig. 1704 is the ground plan, and figs. 1702 and 1703 are 
 suitable elevations of a building containing extensive stablmg, coach-houses and other 
 accommodations of the stable-yard, with a yard in the centre for y«"^g ^^^^^^^^P^^"" 
 loose in occasionally. This yard contains an open bmldmg for covering a hayrick, a 
 pump, and hay-racks. Over the stables, &c., are lofts for hay, corn, &c., and a 
 
STABLE OFFICES. 
 
 965 
 
 billiard-room. The grotind plan of these stables was designed by us, m 1809, for 
 the late Colonel Mytton of Garth, Montgomeryshire; and it is proper to observe that a 
 
 !702 
 
 principal object- in view was, to provide accommodation for breeding and breaking in a 
 superior description of riding-horses. The situation on which these stables were placed was 
 the summit of an elevated knoll, ">rotruding from the side of a hill ; and their effect was 
 remarkably good from all the surrounding country. The elevation actually executed 
 
 from our Design was different from either of those now given, and, we need not say, 
 much inferior ; the latter having been suggested and sketched for us by Mr. Barry, and 
 prepared for the engraver by Mr. Lamb. Fig. 1702 is in the Italian style, and fig. 
 1703 is in the Tudor Gothic. The plan in the last case, being a polygon of as many 
 sides as the plan for the Italian elevation has intercolumniations. In both elevations 
 the roofs are concealed, because they are considered to be flat, and covered with lead or 
 
966 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 tiles laid in cement, in the manner known about London as terrace roofs. The reasons 
 for omitting the roofs as features in the Design are, that the building may have a more 
 imposing and architectural character, and that the great expense of constructing circular 
 sloping roofs to be both sightly and weather-proof, which can only be effectually done 
 by using tiles made on purpose, might be avoided. The following are the details of the 
 
 ground plan : — a, veranda for exercising horses, or for riding or driving under during 
 rainy weather, being ten feet wide in the clear, fifteen feet high, and nearly two hundred 
 feet long ; b, gateway to the inner court ; c, stable for farming horses ; d, coach-house ; 
 e, harness-room, with fireplace ; f, stall for a single horse ; g, stair to a billiard-room 
 over d, e, and/; h, hay-bin; t, saddle-horse stable; entrance to the stable and cen- 
 tral court ; I, stable for hunters ; m, hay-bin ; n, stable for coach-horses ; o, hay-bin ; 
 p, harness-room with stove ; q, coach-house ; r, two-stall stable ; s s, hay-racks for 
 horses running loose in the inner court ; t, Dutch barn, covering a hayrick ; u, pumps 
 and troughs for supplying water ; v, situation of a cesspool, in which all tfne liquid 
 manure of the stables is collected, and from which it is conveyed by an underground 
 drain to another cesspool, where it is preserved till wanted for use. The dung-pit is at 
 some distance, walled in, and covered by a roof. 
 
 Sect. II. Riding- houses. 
 1938. A Riding-house, it is observed by our correspondent Selim, § 1716, is a 
 luxury not often wanted in villas of moderate size ; and we shall, therefore, only notice 
 the subject briefly. The form of a riding-house is generally that of a parallelogram ; 
 though that at Brighton, some in London, and the veranda at Garth, as well as others 
 in different parts of the country, are circular. When the latter form is adopted, the 
 diameter should not be much less than one hundred feet ; the centre of the circle may 
 contain one or more columns, or a tower for the support of the roof, though it is more 
 convenient, for the exercise of horsemanship, to construct the roof without any supports 
 from the ground. A parallelogram riding-house cannot well be less than one hundred 
 feet long, and forty feet broad ; but riding-houses of this shape are generally built of 
 larger dimensions. In general, at the ends of a parallelogram riding-house there are 
 •small galleries, and seats for spectators ; and in circular riding-houses the galleries are 
 placed round a single column, or within a circle of columns, in the centre of the structure. 
 
RIDING-HOUSES. 
 
 967 
 
 When a tower is used as a central support, it may have a staircase and balconies round 
 it. To show how these galleries are placed in a parallelogram house, we shall here give 
 a portion of the plan of the manege of Monaco, built for the king of Sardinia, by the 
 late Architect Quarenghi, from a drawing given to us by him, in St. Petersburgh, 
 in 1814. Fig. 1705 is half the ground plan, in which a is the inclined plane to the door 
 
 1705 
 
 by which the horses are taken in, and b the door for persons ; c is the platform, on which 
 those who are to ride wait till the horses are brought up to them ; d, railings which open 
 inwards ; and e, a staircase to the gallery over. One of the finest elevations that could 
 be employed for a building of this kind would be that of a Grecian temple, with open 
 porticoes at each end, and the spaces, between the window openings, arranged as pilasters. 
 Quarenghi's elevation was as bad as could well be imagined : the roof was hipped (almost 
 always a negative fault) at the two ends ; and pediments were raised on the sides, over the 
 entrance doors for the horses. Quarenghi was any thing but an Architect of reason. 
 
 1939. The Construction of the Roofs of Riding-houses is the most expensive part of the 
 edifice, as well as that requiring the most consideration from the Architect. Tlie 
 following communication on this subject, by Mr. Mallet, we present as particularly 
 appropriate : — " For riding-houses, barns, large sheds, and other buildings requiring roofs 
 of considerable space, I conceive a roof I have some time since invented the best I have 
 seen. It is constructed partly of cast and wrought iron, and partly of wood ; and may 
 be finally covered with slates, copper, zinc, or any other material usually so applied. 
 Fig. 1706 is a side view of one principal, or couple, of a roof for a riding-house, supposing 
 
 it to be from thirty feet to eighty feet span. The main ribs, a a, are of east iron, in 
 section as in s ; and each is trussed by a round wrought-iron rod, h b, cottered into each 
 end, and passed under the projection, or bracket, c. Thus, each principal rafter becomes 
 trussed ; and, at the meeting of the rafters above, a vertical bar, d, descends, and meets 
 the two inclined rods, e e, which proceed from the lower extremities of the principal ribs 
 or rafters, z. In this manner the whole system is resolved into two triangles, d i/ z; 
 in which the sides d y and z y are subjected to tensile, and the side d z to com- 
 pressing forces. Thus, the whole principal, or couple, is firmly trussed. Fig. 1 707 is an 
 enlarged view of the centre joint of the principal rafters ; a a are the ribs ; 6, the vertical 
 tension bar ; and c, its cotter. The lap joint of the ribs is obvious at df c?; c € are the 
 
968 COTTAGE, FARxM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 side view of the main centre joint : 
 1708 
 
 lID- 
 
 _t±L 
 
 XL 
 
 tension rods of the main ribs. 
 Fig. 1708 is an edge view, or 
 bird's-eye plan, of the same. 
 Fig. 1709 shows the extreme 
 lower terminations of the prin- 
 cipal rafters ; o, the rib ; p, the 
 lower end of the tension bar ; n, 
 the retaining pin passed through 
 the projection attached to the 
 rib ; and t, the tension rod of the 
 main rib. The cast-iron gutter 
 inside the parapet, when a parapet 
 is used, is also shown. When 
 there is no parapet, any kind of 
 cave-shoot may be employed. Fig. 1710 shows j 
 a is a vertical rod ; and b b, the 
 
 main diagonal stays to the bottom 
 
 of the main ribs. Fig. 1711 is a 
 plan from the top of the same. Tlio 1^:^^^ — D 
 
 same letters refer to the same parts ■—. ^ 
 
 in both figures. Tliis completes the 
 details of the trussing ; and I shall 
 now show the application of the filling-in rafters. 
 
 1 940. Application of 
 the Filling-in Rafters. 
 Rafters are usually ap- 
 plied either lying parallel 
 to the principals, or at 
 right angles to them. In 
 the first case, purlins are 
 necessary ; in the latter, 
 each rafter is exposed 
 to two strains (like a 
 purlin); one vertically, 
 and one parallel to the 
 rake of the roof ; and, 
 as each rafter so placed 
 is unaided by any other, 
 they all soon swag. To 
 remedy this defect, and 
 save material, I propose 
 placing my rafters dia- 
 gonally ; and, for this 
 purpose, certain sockets 
 
 are cast in the sides of the vertical part of the main ribs 
 appear as in fig. 1712. The rafters are cut to the 
 proper form, and driven into the sockets, n n. A 
 hole is then bored right through both rafter ends, 
 and through a hole cast in the iron, and an oak 
 trenail or dowel (to keep the rafters from blowing 
 off) is driven through, as shown by the dotted lines 
 in the figure. The arrangement of the rafters is 
 somewhat as in fig. 1713, supposing the centre couple, 
 or principal, a a, to be that in the centre of the 
 length of the roof. The rafters, being thus arranged, 
 either stout laths for slating (sawn to two inches and 
 a half by three quarters of an inch) are to be spiked 
 down upon them ; or they are to be sheeted over 
 with thin boards, and covered with zinc or copper. 
 Thus, it is seen, each rafter corroborates all the rest, 
 both as regards the vertical and the diagonal strain ; so that no one of these wooden 
 rafters can either swag, or bend aside, without bringing others with it. By this means 
 much timber is saved; moreover, all wall-plates, foot rafters, rafter-plates, purlins, 
 &c., are dispensed with. The ends of the couples rest on stone, built into the walls. 
 There is no waste of timber in cutting the rafters diagonally ; as, when proper gauges 
 are made, tliey will cut out of one another (by the property of the rectangle), like the 
 
 which, when seen on edge, 
 a 
 
 710 
 
RIDING-HOUSES. 
 
 969 
 
 hipping of an ordinary roof. The ridge pole of such a roof is made exactly like one 
 of the main ribs of the principals, with a 1713 
 
 similar sockets for the rafters. The slates 
 are fastened to the laths in the ordinary 
 way; and, where a metallic covering is 
 used (which is usually cheaper, as requiring 
 a substruction of far less strength), it is 
 laid in the common form. It will ge- 
 nerally be cheapest to put perforated or 
 solid gables to such a roof as this ; but, 
 when of great length and span, it will need 
 to be hipped, the modification for which 
 is so simple, as not to need description. 
 The rafters may remain bare inside in 
 these roofs, or may be ceiled; but when 
 the slates are rendered smooth underneath, or the roof is sheeted with wood, and painted 
 inside, it looks very ornamental, and is more suitable to a riding-house than a plastered 
 ceiling. The wood is all exposed, so that it is not liable to the dry rot. For spans above 
 forty feet this roof will always, in this country, be cheaper by far than a framed timber 
 roof, and better too. I have never seen a roof, or heard of one, like this ; and, therefore, 
 it is original with me. The roof which most resembles it, of any I have seen, is that of 
 the sheds at the Clarence Docks, Liverpool ; but these sheds have been erected long 
 since I made my original drawings of this roof. 
 
 1941. For Roofs of less than Thirty Feet Span there may be a modification of the 
 main tension rods, as 
 in fig. 1714 ; and 
 ornaments may be 
 applied, particularly 
 in the Gothic style 
 (where appropriate), 
 as in fig. 1715. These 
 ornaments are pro- 
 duced by cast-iron, 
 cast on the wrought- 
 iron tension bars ; 
 but when great 
 
 strains are expected, they are cast with holes, and leaded on, as casting on injures the 
 fibre of the wrought iron." — We greatly admire the construction of these roofs, but we 
 
 cannot bring ourselves to consider as in good taste, the practice of applying ornaments 
 to the tension bars, either by casting on, or leading on. A tension bar of metal can 
 never be so expressive of its use, as when it is perfectly plain ; loading it with ornaments 
 
 5 X 
 
970 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 altogether counteracts the expression of tension ; and whenever an ornament either is, 
 or appears to be, at variance with the expression of tlie use of the part to which it is 
 applied, it becomes a deformity. All the struts, or pressure pieces, of an iron roof may 
 be ornamented without any offence against the principle of fitness ; and this Mr. Mallet 
 has done very judiciously, in the main ribs and pendent struts of fig. 1715. 
 
 1 942. A Cast-iron Roof for a Riding-house may be formed on the same principle as one 
 designed by the late 
 
 Mr. Tredgold, for co- 
 vering the corn market 
 at Norwich. Fig. 1716 
 is a section showing the 
 half of one of the cast- 
 iron rafters of this roof, 
 in the form of a Gothic 
 arch, with the spandril 
 filled in with tracery. 
 The span is fifty-four 
 feet ; the columns, a, 
 from which the cast-iron 
 arches spring, are of 
 stone; the walls of brick, 
 and the roof covered 
 with slates, nailed to 
 boards, supported by 
 wooden i)urlins and 
 rafters. The purlins, 
 shown at b, are eight 
 inches and a quarter by 
 five inches and a quar- 
 ter, and the raftei., are 
 four inches and a half 
 by two inches and a 
 half. This section was 
 kindly furnished to us 
 by our much esteemed 
 friend Mr. Thorold, 
 who, having been for 
 many years on intimate 
 terms with Mr. Tred- 
 gold, possesses his work- 
 ing-plans and calcula- 
 tions for this and for 
 various other great 
 works. It is evident 
 that a roof of this de- 
 scription, on a riding- 
 house, would have a 
 very grand and rich 
 effect: there might be 
 a row of Gothic win- 
 dows in each of the 
 side walls, and one 
 large window in each 
 gable reaching from the 
 
 ground to the roof; the lower parts of which windows might serve as doors. Above 
 the doors, in the inside, there might be galleries for spectators. 
 
 1 943. The Framing of a Timber Roof for a Riding-house of great Width, and where, 
 as in Russia and America, timber is abundant, might be constructed on the principle 
 of that of the Grande Salle d'Exercice at Moscow, one half of a single truss of which 
 is shown in fig. 1717. This magnificent exercising-house is 150 feet (French) 
 broad, and 502 feet (French) long; the walls are 40 feet high, and 8 feet thick 
 above the ground; and their foundations, which are 12 feet under ground, are 14 
 feet thick. The building was constructed in 1817, including the making and burning 
 of the bricks for the walls, and the cutting down of the timber for the scaffolding. 
 It was begun and finished in the short space of five months, in order to enable the Em- 
 peror (\lexander to exercise his troops in it, during the winter of 1817-18 which the 
 
DOG-KENNELS. 
 
 971 
 
 imperial family passed in Moscow. The roof is covered with sheet iron. It was the 
 invention of General Betancourt, who states that its principal merit, as a piece of con- 
 struction, consists in the manner in which the king and queen posts and struts are 
 joined to the principal rafter by iron shoes, by which the effect of compression on 
 timber is avoided. The various details, together with an interesting account of the 
 manner in which the strength of the rafters was proved before they were put up, will be 
 found at length in Betancourt's Description de la Salle de Moscou, &c. It appears, by 
 that work, that this is the largest building that has ever been covered by a single roof; 
 the next largest is an exercising-house, built by the Emperor Paul at St. Petersburgh, 
 which is 119 feet (French) broad, and 552 feet long. Beautiful as is the construction 
 of the roof of the exercising-house at Moscow, its exterior architectural effect, as shown 
 in Betancourt's perspective view, is completely spoiled by the walls being finished with 
 half columns, with semicircular-headed windows, and far-projecting cornices over them 
 in the intercolumniations. The utter destruction of simplicity by this arrangement is 
 to us quite intolerable. It is lamentable to see an Architect throwing away so fine an 
 opportunity of establishing his fame. There is nothing original in the construction of 
 the roof, as any one may see in the works of Borgnis, Kraft, Rondelet, and other 
 authors ; but there is the merit of greater dimensions than were ever before attempted. 
 In the works of Rondelet and Kraft, and from them copied into the Carpentry of 
 Mr. Tredgold, is a design for a roof of still larger dimensions than that of Betancourt, 
 which is there said to have been executed at Moscow ; but Betancourt informs us that 
 that roof never had an existence except on paper. 
 
 1944. Riding-houses in the Country are often used as tennis courts for playing at bowls 
 and other games ; and even for archery in wet weather during winter. When a riding- 
 house is to be used as a tennis court, the floor must be laid with flagstones for the latter 
 purpose, and the paving be covered with straw, sawdust, or sand, for the former. If, 
 instead of flagstones, chumps of wood are substituted for paving, the floor will serve both 
 purposes without any covering. Some hotels of extraordinary dimensions have lately 
 been erected at New York and Boston (Holt's House and Tremont House, for example), 
 and, as these cities increase in wealth and luxury, we have no doubt they will attempt 
 riding-houses of this kind ; which, in a country where the ground is covered with snow 
 for so many months in every year, and where the summers are so very hot, must be of 
 great use as places for recreation, either in severe weather or during hot sunshine. 
 
 Sect. III. Dog-kennels. 
 
 1 945. The requisite Accommodations for Kennels for Sporting Dogs have been given by 
 Selim, § 1721 ; and we shall, therefore, here merely describe a dog-kennel which was 
 erected from a Design of ours, at Garth, in 1811. The situation is on an eminence, con- 
 siderably higher than that on which the dwelling-house stands ; and forming with it 
 and the stables, described § 1937, three architectural groups on the side of a high, 
 irregular, richly wooded hill. The view is most extensive, and in order that the dogs 
 may see it from their yards, these should be surrounded by light open railings (and not 
 by walls as in figs. 1719 and 1720), it being found, as Somerville and others have observed, 
 that dogs are always quietest when their kennels command an extensive prospect ; on the 
 same principle, perhaps, that the most high-spirited horses become perfectly tame when 
 exercised on the sea beach. Fig. 1718 is the ground plan, in which a is the vestibule 
 and show-room, with a stair in the centre, behind which is a stove ; the stair leading to^. 
 
972 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 a store-room for food and for various articles required for hounds, pointers, &c. ; 6 is a 
 room for pointers ; c, breeding-rooms ; d, couches in these rooms for the dogs to sleep on ; 
 e, room for hounds ; /, boiling-hoa<:e, the flue from the boiler serving to heat the show- 
 room in ordinary weather, there being a separate stove for use in severe weather ; 
 ff, place for carrion ; place for fuel ; i i, hospitals ; k k, small yards sloping one inch 
 in two feet; //, large yards with the same slope; m, reservoir of water supplied by a 
 spring ; n, channels for irrigating the yards and washing the rooms. These channels 
 are only one inch deeper in the centre than the general surface of the yard, and their 
 sides are sloping, so that, wlien the water is turned on by raising the sluices of the 
 reservoir, it spreads over the whole surface of the yards, and, with very little assistance 
 from a broom, soon renders them perfectly clean ; o o, drains which lead to a cesspool 
 for the deposition of the solid part of the manure carried off by the water ; the liquid 
 part overflowing in gutters, so formed as to irrigate a sloping water-meadow. We 
 have given two elevations of this Design, both different from that which was actually 
 executed ; and both having walls surrounding the yards, instead of open iron railings, 
 
ORNAMENTAL DAIRIES AND POULTRY-HOUSES. 
 
 973 
 
 which, as before stated, are preferable. Fig. 1719 is a perspective elevation in the 
 Tudor Gothic style; and fig. 1720 is an elevation in the Italian manner: both are 
 designed by Mr. Lamb. The peculiar shape of the open courts in the plan was indicated 
 by the form of the ground, and by the necessity of having such a slope as would carry 
 off the water rapidly. If, in designing country buildings. Architects were to take hints 
 for the general forms and dispositions of the masses, from the ground on which they are 
 
 to be placed, and from the surrounding scenery, much more than they appear to do, 
 we should not have such frequent repetitions of the same form, and so many common- 
 place structures, such as may be set down any where. This principle ought to be 
 attended to even in the humblest buildings ; for by it, even independently of architectural 
 details, the interest created by them may be much enhanced. By this means a buUding 
 may be made to appear to have arisen out of the situation in which it is placed, instead 
 of appearing to have been brought there from some town or village. 
 
 Sect. IV. Ornamental Dairies and Poultry-houses. 
 
 1946. The Principles for constructing Dairies and Poultry-houses have already been 
 laid down at sufficient length (see § 729, 1728, for dairies; and 770, 1325, and 1356, 
 for poultry-houses), and we shall here content ourselves with giving an example of each, 
 rendered ornamental, and suitable for an appendage to a villa. 
 
 1947. The Dairy, Cottage, and Poultry-house, at Syndal House, Kent, is shown in the 
 general view, fig. 1723, and the ground plan in figs. 1721 and 1722. Fig. 1721 
 
 shows the ground plan of the dairy, and cottage for the dairyman, with the position of the 
 poultry-yard. The dairy-cottage consists of two sitting-rooms, a a; a bed-room, b ; dairy, 
 c ; scalding-room, d ; and two covered sheds, e e : the situation of a pump, well, and 
 cistern in the poultry-yard is shown at /. The cow-lodge is at a short distance from 
 the dairy, but it is surrounded by plantations, and completely hidden from the view. 
 Fig. 1722 shows the elevation and ground plan of the poultry-houses; in this, g is a 
 pigeon-house fixed on a post ; ^ is a pond ; i i are two houses for hens ; ^ is a house for 
 ducks ; I, one for geese ; m, one for turkeys ; and n, one for fatting-coops. The lower 
 
974- COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 ventilation of the place, and the health of the fowls, this latticework is left open during 
 summer ; but each division is furnished with wooden shutters, attached to the plates 
 inside by hinges, which, during the winter nights, and especially in frosty weather, are 
 kept closed. The centre of the dairy-cottage is for the dairyman and his wife to reside 
 in ; and the large sxcting-room is intended as a room in which the family at the villa 
 might occasionally eat strawberries and cream, &c. The dairy, which forms the corre- 
 sponding wing to that containing this room, is of a greater height inside, as the floor, which 
 is paved with square 14-inch tiles, is sunk about 2 feet below the level of the ground. 
 The upper shelf for the milk-pans is made of black slate, supported by brick arches, each 
 arch forming a recess below for a pan of milk, fig. 1724. In the space between the 
 doors is a small stone trough, supplied with water from 
 a cistern at the well in the poultry-yard, by a pipe laid 1724 
 under ground. In the centre stands a large marble or 
 stone table. The two small windows marked o o, in fig. 
 1721, are blanks, forming niches in the inside, in which 
 are placed terra-cotta figures of a bull and a cow. In 
 the centre of the angles formed by the arches support- 
 ing the slate shelves are fastened small rams' heads. These internal decorations give 
 the dairy an air of finish and taste. Instead of the marble table, there might be a 
 marble or stone basin, with a jet or fountain in the centre, and the floor might be 
 laid with Wright's tessellated paving-tiles, to be described more at length hereafter. 
 Where slates are abundant, they might be used, both for the floor and the central table, 
 and painted in imitation either of marble or oilcloth. Oil painting on slate is found 
 very durable, and will bear daily washing, and even scouring, without injury ; paint also 
 renders the slates warmer to the feet. The covered shed, fig. 1721, e, next to the dairy, 
 is fitted up with racks, in which the milk-pans and other dairy utensils are set to drain ; 
 and the corresponding shed on the other side has bins, &c., to keep the corn and pro- 
 visions for the poultry, and the dairyman's beer, &c. As coolness in summer and warmth 
 in winter are essential to a dairy, the wings of the building are neatly thatched with 
 a thick coat of reeds ; the centre is slated. 
 
 1 948. The Dairy at Alnwick Castle is surrounded by a deep veranda, the supports of 
 which are festooned with climbers ; this completely shades the wall, and its doors and 
 windows, from the sun ; except at mid-winter, and before and after that period till the sun 
 at midday is 25° above the horizon. The roofs are thickly thatched. These arrange- 
 ments are found to keep the interior of the dairy perfectly cool in summer ; and, with the 
 occasional introduction of vessels of hot water from the dairy scullery, and the heat of the 
 new milk itself, sufficiently warm in winter. The walls are lined with glazed white tiles, 
 the floor is paved with tessellated bricks, the shelves are of white marble, and the vessels in 
 which the milk is kept are of white Wedgwood ware. The ceiling is plastered, and 
 there is a handsome cornice. The middle of the floor is occupied by a very large and 
 
AVIARIES AND MENAGERIES. 
 
 975 
 
 thick white marble table, raised about two feet above the floor ; on this table are placed 
 the dishes of new milk. These dishes are of an oblong shape, haring at one extremity 
 the edge turned over in the shape of a lip, to facilitate the pouring out of the milk. 
 Large vases and jars of coloured china are placed as ornaments on the marble shelving 
 round the walls. ( Quart. Journ. Ag., vol. vi. p. 158.) 
 
 Sect. V. Aviaries and Menageries. 
 
 1949. Aviaries are of two kinds; those for birds of song, and those for birds of show 
 or curiosity. The former are not very common in Britain ; but, where they do exist, 
 they are usually joined to conservatories. Their general form and style should harmo- 
 nise with those of the house ; no particular shape or dimensions are requisite, but it 
 is always desirable to have the whole or a part of the roof of glass ; to have glass win- 
 dows on, at least, two sides ; and to have a complete lining of wire network within every 
 window and door, in order to prevent the escape of the birds, and the ingress of vermin 
 when the sashes are open for ventilation. There should also be a porch with double 
 doors, for the same purpose. Sometimes aviaries are formed on a large scale, and include 
 trees, shrubs, turf, and water ; the whole being covered with wire netting. In this case,, 
 the extent ought to be considerable, and the birds few, otherwise the trees and shrubs will 
 soon be injured, and the whole place rendered unsightly. Where the object is simply to 
 hear the song of the birds, it is found a more effective and cleanly plan to distribute a 
 few cages up and down a conservatory ; or along a veranda. The birds are found to 
 sing better when they are within hearing, but not within sight, of each other ; and the 
 cages prevent that appearance of dirt on the trees, plants, and paths, which is generally 
 offensive in a crowded aviary. To prevent the possibility of any dirt, seeds, &c., being 
 thrown down from birds in cages, the latter may be constructed with a small cellar or 
 box from four to eight inches deep in the bottom ; in which alone food and water may 
 be placed, the bird descending through an opening in the upper floor to eat his food, and 
 ascending again by a small stair or ladder. This construction is found effectually to 
 prevent birds from scattering the husks of their seeds ; and we have seen the same prin- 
 ciple applied on a large scale in chamber and conservatory aviaries, where the birds are 
 kept in niches, with fronts of open wirework, by forming concealed recesses in the sides 
 of the niches, where alone the birds can take their food. 
 
 1950. Aviaries for Birds of Show and Curiosity are not uncommon appendages to 
 English villas. The tender exotic birds are kept in structures with windows to the south, 
 and heated during winter by flues, or steam or hot-water pipes, as in the extensive aviary 
 at Knowlesly, near Liverpool ; and in those of the Zoological Gardens, London. Birds 
 which will endure the open air of Britain, are confined in rustic structures resembling 
 large cages or hen-coops covered with netting, and containing small houses for the birds 
 to retire into during the night, or heavy rains. These cages or coops often contain trees 
 and shrubs, which are renewed as they become injured or decayed. The most complete 
 aviaries of this kind in England are at Woburn Abbey. Some of them, as at Knowlesly, 
 and in the Zoological Gardens, include enclosed basins for aquatic fowls. Those who 
 desire more information on this head will find it in the published descriptions of the 
 London Zoological Gardens. A description of the Surrey Zoological Gardens, with the 
 ground plan and elevation of a circular building with a glass roof, combining at once a 
 conservatory, aviary, menagerie, and a running stream stocked with exotic fish, will be 
 found in the Gard. Mag., vol. viii. p. 693. 
 
 1951. Menageries are sometimes found in villa residences, and, when combined with 
 aviaries for hardy terrestrial birds, and formed on a large scale, with all the birds and 
 animals in one enclosure, are much more interesting than aviaries or menageries where 
 the birds and animals are confined in separate structures. The finest we know in Eng- 
 land is at Cobham Hall, in Kent; where the kangaroo, the opossum, the zebra, the 
 quagga, several kinds of goats, sheep, and deer, the ostrich, the emu, the cassowary, 
 and many other birds and beasts, live in harmony together on a lawn of several acres, 
 finely ornamented by foreign trees and shrubs, and surrounded by a wire fence fifteen 
 feet high. There are suitable ornamental structures for the animals to retire into, and 
 constant attendants to see that they are properly provided with food, and that they do 
 not injure one another. In a mixed aviary and menagerie of this kind at Chiswick, 
 the Duke of Devonshire had lately a great many species of aquatic fowls, a bear, several 
 kinds of monkeys, and an elephant ; the last being kept in an appropriate house, heated 
 during winter. 
 
 Sect. VI. Architectural Conservatories. 
 
 1 952. Conservatories are most desirable additions to villas, as indicating the residence 
 of ease and elegance ; as affording a useful source of exercise and recreation during 
 
97^ COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 severe weather, and in winter ; and as contributing an important architectural feature 
 to the general group of the dwelling-house and offices. There can be no reason why a 
 small house should not have a large conservatory ; because, the first cost once incurred, 
 the expense of keeping up a large one is not much greater than that of a small one ; and 
 more especially, because a large conservatory, unlike a large dining-room or drawing- 
 room, does not imply that the occupant sees much company, or is expected to indulge in 
 an expensive style of living. We shall consider the conservatory in regard to aspect, 
 dimension, modes of growing the plants, construction, mode of heating, and architec- 
 tural style. Our observations shall be brief ; because the subject belongs more to Gar- 
 dening than Architecture ; and because it will be found treated of more at length in our 
 intended EncyclopcEdia of Landscape- Gardening and Garden Architecture. 
 
 1953. Aspect and Position. The best aspect for a structure in which plants of any 
 kind are to be grown is, in general, the south, or any point between S. S. E. and S. S. W. 
 The chief advantage of a south aspect for large plants, such as those grown in conserva- 
 tories, is the heat gained from the sun's rays in winter and spring ; but where this heat 
 can be supplied by art, and where the economy of fuel is no great object, it matters little 
 what may be the aspect of the conservatory, provided it be not shaded by some other 
 building, or so placed as not to admit of ventilation. The most desirable position, when 
 the conservatory has glass on all sides, is that in which the length of the building is due 
 south and north ; because, as the principal walks in it wiU be in that direction, the sun 
 will shine on the sides of the trees next the walks, every day whenever it shines, through- 
 out the year. This is an important object to keep in view in laying out the walks in 
 aU conservatories ; for it will be observed that, both in them and in shrubberies, those 
 sides of the trees and shrubs which face the north are never so finely clothed with foliage 
 and blossoms as those which face the south, east, or west. For this reason, when the 
 position of a conservatory is east and west, the walk in the middle ought to be much 
 broader than when the position is north and south, in order to admit more free access to 
 the sun's rays. 
 
 1954. Dimensions. The laws of vegetation render it utterly impossible that a small 
 conservatory can ever look well. A conservatory is for the growth of trees and shrubs, 
 not, like a green-house, for mere pelargoniums and other small plants in pots ; and trees 
 and shrubs, to look well, must have room, and especially breadth, to expand themselves. 
 As every conservatory, however narrow, must be at least of the height of the apartments 
 with which it is connected, the width, if not considerably greater than the height, will 
 always occasion the plants within to have an etiolated appearance. Supposing the 
 height of a conservatory to be twelve feet, the width should never be less than eighteen 
 feet ; it being understood, as will be afterwards shown to be essential, that the whole of 
 the roof is to be of glass. 
 
 1 955. Mode of growing the Plants. There are two modes of growing plants in con- 
 servatories ; the one is by having them in large tubs, boxes, or pots, as in the case of 
 orangeries, which are properly called orange conservatories ; and the other, by having 
 them planted in the free soil. The first mode has several advantages belonging to it, 
 the principal of which is, that the trees may be removed from the conservatory, when in 
 an unhealthy state, and invigorated in a structure better adapted for their growth. This 
 also is the only mode by which trees can be kept in conservatories with opaque roofs. 
 In conservatories where trees are planted in beds of free soil, they almost invariably 
 grow with much greater vigour than when their roots are confined in tubs or boxes, 
 however large, and the allusion to a shrubbery in the open air is much greater ; the 
 expense is also very considerably less. For conservatories of this description, it is essential 
 that the roof be wholly of glass. Structures, where plants are kept in pots set on stages, 
 are called green-houses ; and, by some, these are preferred to conservatories, as admitting 
 of the display of a greater number of kinds of plants : but as the plants, in this case, are 
 always small, they can never thrive well in houses displaying architectural elevations, 
 from the distance at which the plants must necessarily be from the glass roof ; and from 
 the large proportion of opaque material which the construction requires in the front of 
 the edifice. Small plants in pots, in short, can only be weU grown in those shed-like 
 glass-roofed structures which belong to kitchen-gardens and nurseries ; and these, in our 
 opinion, are, from the associations connected with them, utterly unfit for combining with 
 architectural forms, so as to compose a whole, with the dwelling-house of a villa. Where 
 the trees in a conservatory are grown in tubs or boxes, these should always be covered 
 with cases exhibiting handsome architectural forms; such as vases, sarcophagi, &c. ; 
 unless a mode be adopted which is practised in some conservatories in Italy, as at 
 Monza ; and in England, as at Nuneham, near Oxford, of having trenches or pits sunk 
 in the floor of the conservatory, in which the tubs or boxes are placed, with a false cover 
 of boards over them ; this cover being again concealed by turf or moss. Conservatories 
 of orange trees (and these and camellias are among the best conservatory plants) look 
 
CONSERVATORIES. 
 
 977 
 
 remarkably well in this manner. Indeed, in our opinion, where conservatory plants 
 are not grown in the free soil, this mode is preferable to any other ; because the aEusion 
 to natural scenery is more complete. 
 
 1 956. Construction. The walls of the conservatory should always be formed of the 
 same material as those of the house to which it belongs ; because this is favourable to 
 the principle of unity of effect. Cast iron, however, is in many cases extensively em- 
 ployed as standards between the upright sashes ; and, in this case, the harmony may be 
 preserved by the introduction of stone or brick piers at the angles, or on each side of a 
 central door, or projection, or recess. In the conservatory of Mr. Mallet's Design for 
 a villa, fig. 1660, there is a great deal of ironwork exposed to view; but, by the intro- 
 duction of stone piers, a stone architrave, and a considerable mass of walling behind the 
 central semi-dome, the harmony is perfectly preserved. There is one point in the con- 
 struction of conservatories which ought never to be neglected ; and that is, as we have 
 before observed, to form the roof wholly of glass. Without perpendicular light no plant 
 whatever, and more especially no tree or shrub, will ever grow and look well. To be 
 convinced of this, it is only necessary to observe the plants grown in conservatories in 
 which the roof is partially or wholly opaque ; they will be found, even in the most 
 favourable cases, only to look well on one side. Provided the roof of a conservatory be 
 wholly of glass, the walks broad, so as to allow of a free circulation of air round the 
 trees, and provided the cost of fuel for keeping it at a temperature of 50° during the 
 winter months be no object, it signifies much less than is generally imagined what may 
 be either the aspect or the position of the conservatory. The floor of the conservatory, 
 where the plants are to stand in tubs and boxes, may be paved ; but, where they are to 
 be planted in the ground, space and sufficient drainage will be required for a bed of soil of 
 five or six feet in depth. As there must be walks between the beds, piers should be carried 
 up from the bottom, to support the pavement, or iron grating, which may form those 
 walks. 
 
 1957. TJie Mode of heating Conservatories is commonly by smoke flues, or tubes of 
 steam or hot water carried under the paths. Other modes have been practised ; such 
 as flues or tubes above the surface, cisterns, or cylinders of steam or hot water, and the 
 introduction of hot air from cockle stoves; but no plan, in our opinion, is so suit- 
 able as that of" introducing whatever medium may be adopted for conveying the heat, 
 under the pathways ; having such an arrangement of openings in the top or sides of the 
 paths as will insure a circulation of air round the heating body. Without this circu- 
 lation to carry off the heat from the tubes or flues, heat will be given out so slowly to 
 the house, that in severe weather it will hardly be possible to keep up the proper tem- 
 perature. The circulation may be produced by enclosing the tubes, for a considerable 
 length, by the walling which supports the pavement of the path ; and by having an 
 opening at the bottom of the funnel formed by this walling at one end, and another and 
 larger opening at the other end, in its top, or in the pavement over it, for the escape 
 of the heated air. In a conservatory of considerable length and breadth, in which the 
 tubes are conducted round the floor, and also along the middle of the house, there may 
 be several systems of circulation of this kind ; say, for example, one for every thirty feet 
 in length of the steam or hot-water tubes. These systems may be so arranged as that 
 the openings for the escape of heated air, and those for the drawing in of the lower 
 stratum of the air of the house, in order that it may be re-heated, may be regularly 
 distributed over the floor of the conservatory. This has been admirably effected by 
 Mr. Kewley, in the magnificent conservatory heated by him at Clarence Lodge. From 
 not attending to this mode of carrying off the heat from flues and tubes sunk under the 
 floors of conservatories, some have been imperfectly heated, and others heated at a 
 much greater expense of tubes than would have been at all necessary by a proper plan. 
 This subject is better understood by Mr. Kewley than by most of the engineers who 
 heat by hot water or steam jn the neighbourhood of London ; but a little attention to 
 the plan of Mr. Perkins for accelerating the production of steam by metallic linings to 
 boilers, will at once show the importance of it, and teach the manner of carrying it into 
 execution. (See Gard. Mag., vol. viii. p. 294.) In modern conservatories it is not un- 
 common to see the tubes or flues for heating, forming conspicuous objects along the 
 walks ; than which we can hardly conceive any thing more unsuitable to the idea of an 
 ornamental structure. It would be better far to have no conservatory at all, than to see 
 it thus reduced to the level of a nurseryman's show-house, or the forcing-house of a 
 kitchen-garden. A conservatory so constructed as not completely to conceal the mode 
 by which it is heated, is one of the most imperfect of villa appendages. Before the 
 mode of heating by hot water or steam was invented, there might have been, compara- 
 tively, some excuse for not concealing flues ; but now that we have Perkins's mode of 
 heating by hot water, by which the largest house may be heated by tubes not above an 
 inch in diameter, deformities of the kind mentioned are inexcusable. Pumps, cisterns, 
 
 5 Y 
 
978 
 
 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 and contrivances for watering, ought, in like manner, never to be displayed in a conser- 
 vatory ; nor, indeed, any thing which is likely to create an allusion to, or a comparison 
 with, a common-place garden green-house. 
 
 1958. The Architectural Style of Conservatories attached to dwellings, must obviously 
 be governed by that of the house to which they belong ; and there are few appendages 
 which afford better opportunities for displaying the grander features of every style of 
 building ; such as columns, piers, arches, &c. The elevation of a conservatory in the 
 Grecian style may be composed of square columns set on a plinth, and surmounted by 
 an architrave, frieze, and cornice ; a Roman or Italian elevation may consist of an arcade, 
 similarly placed, with a cornice and blocking course, or parapet ; and a Gothic elevation 
 may be formed of a series of pointed windows, with or without buttresses, or small 
 angular towers terminating in finials, between. 
 
 1959. One of the simplest and most economical Descriptions of Conservatories in the 
 Gothic Style is described in vol. vi. of the Gardener's Magazine. It was built by a 
 common village bricklayer and carpenter, in the neighbourhood of Nottingham ; and, 
 though forty-three feet long, and eighteen feet wide, the cost was little more than ^£"250. 
 
 Fig. 1725 is the ground plan, of which a a a are three doors, each dividing in the 
 middle. These doors are hung upon CoUinge's patent hinges ; and are lifted on and off 
 with the greatest ease. The letters h b are Gothic lights or windows, resembling the 
 
 doors. The letters c c are cast-iron pipes, conducting the rain water from the roof 
 gutters into the drains d d, which carry it into the tank /. The letters e e are beds 
 containing soil of the quality best suited to their respective plants. The tank / is 
 twelve feet square by ten feet deep, arched over, and covered with a movable flagstone 
 at the mouth, supplying the pump g, through the bottom of the trough of which, the 
 waste water is again returned into the tank ; to is a glass door opening into a library ; 
 and n a similar door opening into a drawingroom. 
 
 Fig. 1726 is a sec- 1726 
 tion of the main beam, 
 forty-four feet long, 
 extending through the 
 centre of the build- 
 ing, upon which the inner ribs and lights rest. The gutters lined with lead, h, are 
 cut out of the solid beam, and fall each way to the three hollow cast-iron pillars, c c c, 
 standing over the centre drain. 
 
 Fig. 1727 is a cross section of the roof, in which 1 1 1 1 are the rafters on which the 
 lights rest, exactly after the same manner as those 
 of the common cucumber frame ; with the addi- 
 tion of a slip of wood, five inches wide, extending 
 from the ridge to the gutters along the rafters, 
 to cover the outer woodwork of the lights, after 
 they are returned to their places in September. 
 Without this the rain water would find admission 
 
 down the openings of the sides of the lights. These slips of wood are essential to the 
 dryness of the house ; and if the two or three screws with which they are fixed are well 
 greased, they may be readily taken off from such lights as are removed during the 
 summer. The three lead gutters, h h h, should be wide enough in the centre to admit of 
 a person walking along them ; c is one of the cast-iron pipes, forming a pillar nine feet 
 high, supporting the longitudinal beam, and having five small wooden rods round it, to 
 train climbing plants upon. The ventilating shutter, I x, works upon two pivots, and is 
 raised by a wooden rod, which also props it open. 
 
 1727 I I 
 
CONSERVATORIES. 
 
 979 
 
 1728 
 
 Fig. 1728 is one of the upright lights, six feet eight inches to the spring of the arch, 
 and rising eight inches in the centre, fitting into a corresponding 
 frame, and secured merely by three bolts, h k kyjj are two windows, 
 fourteen inches deep, each opening upon a horizontal pivot at its 
 centre ; the panes of glass are four inches and a half by four inches. 
 
 Fig. 1729 is a slight sketch of the elevation, with the doors and 
 lights removed for the summer. The glazing of the roof is cur- 
 vilinear, each pane being only five inches and a half by four inches ; 
 the laps are rather more than one eighth of an inch, with putty 
 between, except a small opening in the centre. Where the best 
 crown glass is used, putty is unnecessary, where merely the usual 
 conservatory temperature is wanted. Not only is the original cost, 
 and the expense of repairs, considerably reduced by using frames of 
 small dimensions, but the risk of breakage from frost is completely 
 avoided when the laps do not exceed one fourth of an inch. Though this house is forty- 
 three feet by eighteen feet, the cost of the glazing did not amount to £50. Where the 
 substratum of the soil does not afford a ready escape for the water from the beds, drains 
 
 should be made on the outside, and far below the foundation of the house all round ; 
 small openings being left in the foundation walls, to allow the water to pass off freely 
 from the bottom of the beds. It is often more advisable to have the plants in pots 
 plunged in the soil, than to plant them in the bed itself ; as many species, if turned out 
 of their pots into the free soil, are apt to make a profiision of wood, and to bear but little 
 blossom. (Gard. Mag., vol. vi. p. 664.) 
 
 1 960. As Examples of Architectural Conservatories detached from Villa Dwellings, we 
 may refer to those of Syon House and Alton Towers. The former, designed by Charles 
 Fowler, Esq., is in the Italian style; the general plan is that of a crescent with a 
 parallelogram centre surmounted by a dome sixty feet high, with two parallelograms 
 terminating the extremities or wings. The central compartment is a stove conservatory, 
 having glass on all sides, with the supports in the outside walls, of stone ; the upright 
 glass of the wings is divided by stone piers on the south side, and the other walls are 
 without openings. The whole of the framework containing the glass is of cast iron. 
 A part of the roof in the centre is glazed with plate glass : the panes being large, and 
 their inclination to the horizon being oblique, it was deemed advisable to employ 
 this description of glass, in order the more effectually to resist hail. The detached 
 conservatory at Alton Towers is seen in fig. 1429, § 1669; and fig. 1730 is 
 its architectural elevation. The style may be considered as Grecian or Roman. The 
 back wall is of opaque masonry, and the front has stone piers and architraves, filled in 
 with cast and wrought iron and copper sashes. The roof and domes are also of iron- 
 work, and copper, glazed. The whole is richly ornamented with vases and sculptures, 
 and the domes are profusely gilt. The general effect is splendid to a degree, hardly, if 
 at all, equalled in Britain ; and the plants within, which are partly those commonly 
 grown in green-houses, and partly tropical or stove plants, being thinly planted, and 
 allowed to attain a considerable size, are as prosperous as could be desired. This Design 
 is in part the production of several Architects ; but chiefly, we believe, of Robert Abraham, 
 Esq., and Thomas AUason, Esq. There is another detached conservatory at Alton, 
 fig. 1731, designed by Mr. Abraham, the effect of which is remarkably good. There is 
 also a conservatory at Alton Towers connected with the house, in the Gothic style, of 
 large dimensions, but of simple Architecture, having externally the appearance of a plain 
 cathedral, in which the plants are as prosperous as in the common shed-like glass cases 
 of nurserymen. This conservatory, when we saw it in 1831, was richly ornamented 
 with choice sculptures, fountains, piscatories, vases, china jars, cages of singing-birds, 
 and other suitable objects ; and, taken altogether, it was then tlie most splendid thing of 
 
9H() COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 the kind which we had ever seen. All these four splendid con- 
 servatories are heated by steam-tubes, conducted under the paths. 
 
 1961. As an Example of detached Conservatories not architec- 
 tural, we shall give the glass dome erected in 1827, for Mrs. 
 Beaumont, at Bretton Hall, Yorkshire. This structure, fig. 173?, 
 was one hundred feet in diameter, and sixty feet high. It was con- 
 structed entirely of cast and wrought iron ; all the perpendicular 
 supports being of the former, and all the sash-bar composing the 
 ribs of the roof of the latter, material. It was ventilated by 
 horizontal shutters in a low upright wall, or rather iron screen ; 
 by upright windows, which opened inwardly at the base of the 
 upper dome ; and by a skylight which was raised by weights under 
 the terminating gilt coronet. It was heated by steam from a boiler 
 placed in a house at some distance from it, the tubes being conducted 
 under the floors of the paths. The cost for the ironwork alone 
 was between £3000 and i,^4000. It is worthy of remark, that 
 there were no rafters or principal ribs for strengthening the roof 
 besides the common wrought-iron sash-bar, which is two inches 
 deep, and half an inch thick in the thickest part, and weighs only 
 about one pound to the lineal foot. The upper dome had an in- 1730 
 dependent support from cast-iron pillars. When the ironwork 
 was put up, before it was glazed, the slightest wind put the whole of 
 It in motion from the base to the summit ; and so much alarm 
 did this create in the party for whom it was to be put up, or their 
 agents, that the contractors for the work, Messrs. W. and D. 
 Bailey, of Holborn, London, were obliged to covenant to keep it iii 
 repair for a certain number of years. As soon as the glass was put 
 in, however, it was found to become perfectly firm and strong, nor 
 did the slightest accident, from any cause, happen to it, from the 
 time it was completed, in 1827, till, on the death of Mrs. Beaumont, 
 in 1832, it was sold by auction, and taken down. It brought only 
 about £560, though it is believed to have cost in all upwards of 
 £14,000. In the north of Europe, the conservatory or orangery 
 is often used as an entrancc-hall, and sometimes it forms a pas- 
 sage, connecting the centre of the house with its wings, as in the 
 palace of Lazenki, at Warsaw ; or to connect the house with the 
 stables and farm oflfices, as in the elegant Italian villa of Count 
 Kownatski, near Brody, of which a sketch, partly from memory, is 
 given in fig. 1733. Plans and elevations of a number of other 
 architectural conservatories will be found in the Gardener's Maga- 
 zine, and in the Encyclopedia of Gardening. 
 
 1962. The Flower-garden should generally adjoin the conserva- 
 tory, or at all events be connected with it by a veranda, colonnade, 
 arcade, or covered way of some description. There is not a greater 
 luxury about a villa, either in winter or summer, than a broad 
 veranda facing the south or south-east, and looking out on a 
 flower-garden in the foreground, with pleasure-ground scenery in 
 the middle distance, and a fertile populous valley, with a river be- 
 yond. The last part of the landscape is by no means necessary 
 to the comfort afforded by the veranda, though it adds to the effect 
 of the view from it ; but the flower-garden in the foreground is 
 essential, because in early spring, the spectator may walk dry and 
 sheltered under the cover, and in summer in the shade, and in 
 both cases be interested by the flowers immediately under his eye. 
 There is a fine veranda of this sort at Ashridge Park, which con- 
 nects the conservatory with the French flower-garden ; and there 
 is one at Bayswater, where the roof is covered with glass, by which 
 means China roses and other early flowering half-hardy shrubs 
 may be trained on the back wall so as to flower early in the 
 season. Shade is produced so as to render the veranda agreeable 
 in summer, by training vines on a trellis under the glass. 
 
 1 963. Architectural Flower-gardens are very suitable garden de- 
 corations for adjoining conservatories and verandas. The walks of 
 such gardens are paved with flags, and the edges to these walks 
 are of worked stone. Sometimes also there are baskets, boxes, vases, 
 or other raised architectural vessels constructed entirely of stone' 
 
CONSERVATORIES. 
 
 981 
 
 1731 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 a crura j ■J'.j jTro-ij-crLrLf Q"u lj lt a- u l; crcrcru 
 
 
 llHMilli 
 
 so as to become fixtures. Some curious forms of this sort have lately been erected 
 in (he flower-garden in front of the house at Chatsworth. The oldest and the most 
 
 simple design for an architectural flower-garden is to be found in Caus's work on the 
 gardens at Heidelberg, the perspective view of which is given in fig. 1734. It will be 
 
 observed, that all the compartments in this garden contain Avater only, and that five of 
 them display fountains. Further details of this garden will be found in the Encydo- 
 
982 
 
 pcedia of Gardening, 3d edit., and in the Gardener's Magazine, vol. ix. Much may be 
 done in the way of architectural flower-gardens on the roofs of dwellings in towns and 
 their suburbs, and more especially on those of their offices. In Paris, Florence, and Naples 
 
 1735 
 
 there are so many examples, that a book has been written on the subject of taking care 
 of them. (See Jardinier des Fenetres, &c.) Figs. 1735 and 1736 are plans, which 
 may serve either for architectural or common flower-gardens, the walks of which 
 may either be of pavement, gravel, or turf, according to circumstances. The same forms 
 may also afford useful hints for designing mosaic flooring tiles. 
 
 1964. A Sculpture Gallery, a Picture Gallery, a Museum for Antiquities, a Library, 
 and other luxuries commonly contained within the walls of the dwelling-house of a villa, 
 are sometimes added to it as appendages ; and the advantage resulting from this arrange- 
 ment, in places which are shown to the public, is, that they may be thrown open at all 
 times, without encroaching on the privacy of domestic life. A truly liberal and bene- 
 volent man will take incomparably more pleasure in seeing the public enjoy his 
 gardens and grounds, than in having them exclusively reserved for his family and 
 friends. In this respect the German, the Italian, and even the Russian princes are much 
 more liberal than the English nobility. 
 
 Sect. VII. Terrace Parapets, and other mural Ornaments. 
 
 1965. The Value of Terraces and Parapets in uniting the house with the surface on 
 which it is placed, and with the grounds which surround it, has been already sufficiently 
 enlarged on § 1649, and we shall here confine ourselves to exhibiting a few Designs by 
 Mr. Varden, from which terrace parapets may be formed in the very cheapest manner, 
 with brick, wood, or even rope. These Designs are evidently the result of much care 
 and study ; and they are so distinct, that any builder or carpenter may carry them into 
 
CONSERVATORIES. 983 
 
 1736 
 
 
 ^^^^ J ^^^^ ^ 
 ^^^^ ^^^^^ 
 
 [Ml 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ ^^^^ 
 w 
 
 ^-^p. -^^M 
 
 
 
 
 
 Fig. 1737 is a brick parapet, ornamented with a projecting cornice a, formed entirely 
 of brick and supporting a top rail, b, which may be also formed in brick set in cement. 
 
 1737 1738 
 
984 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 Fig. 1 738 is a parapet constructed in the same manner as the former ; the railing, 
 in this case, may either be plain, or covered with cement ; or it may be formed of stone 
 or slate. 
 
 Fig. 1739 is a similar parapet, in a bold style, with an enriched cornice, and having 
 this great advantage, that it may be executed entirely in brick and common mortar, 
 without the use of cement. 
 
 Fig. 1 740 is a parapet formed of brick ; but with the top railing supported on iron 
 bars, or with the bricks built in cement in blocks, and then laid on without the aid of 
 iron. Lintels of doors and windows are frequently formed in this manner of brick and 
 cement, and then introduced into walls as though they were blocks of stone. Copings 
 to walls are also often executed in a similar manner. 
 
 Figs. 1741 and 1742 are brick parapets, of which it has been deemed unnecessary to 
 show the sections. 
 
 1741 
 
 1742 
 
 Fig. 1743 is a brick parapet, and corner pier, covered with cement so as to imitate 
 stone. The open work, and also the top rail, may be made with brick and cement, filled 
 into moulds, and then built in as if they were of solid stone. 
 
 Figs. 1744 and 1745 show the open work of a parapet, without the cornices or the 
 hand-rails ; which may be added at the pleasure of the Architect. 
 
 1743 
 
 1744 
 
 Wo 
 
 u u u"u u u u u u u Lnjmj u lj uiLnru li j u uT 
 
 \ I 
 
 Fig. 1 746 is a parapet, the open work or panels of which are formed of baked earth, 
 which may be slipped into grooves in the top rail, and in the plinth. It is evident that 
 a very great variety of parapets may be formed in this manner, and at a very little 
 expense. Balusters of various kinds may also be made of baked earth, and slipped in. 
 
 1746 
 
 1747 
 
 Figs. 1 747, 1748, and 1749 are parapets, which may be either formed of real stone, or 
 of baked earth, or cf artificial stone. 
 
ORNAMENTAL GARDEN STRUCTURES. 9^5 
 
 1748 1749 
 
 Figs. 1750, 1751, 1752, and 1753 are panels for parapets composed entirely of thick 
 old rope, twisted into patterns, and secured at the laps with copper wire or strong twine. 
 Covered with a thick coating of paint, panels of this sort will last probably for centuries ; 
 care being taken always to preserve the coating of paint entii-e, and free from cracks. 
 The top rail and the plinth may be of artificial stone, also well painted ; and there 
 should be standards at regular distances for supporting the rail. These standards may 
 either be of stone or iron, according as they are intended to be covered or concealed. 
 
 1750 1751 1752 1753 
 
 .j'\r\r\rLr\r\r\. 
 
 1754 
 
 1755 
 
 1756 
 
 1757 
 
 Figs. 1754, 1755, 1756, and 1757 are parapets in the Swiss style, cut out of flat 
 boarding. The enriched work is sawn out of thin boards, and nailed on blocks, so as to 
 project a little from the face of the rest of the work. 
 
 1 966. The Mural Ornaments for Terraces, Parapets, and other Walls about a Villa, are 
 chiefly vases ; but there are also other ornaments and finishings, such as statueS; globular, 
 oval, square, triangular, or pentagonal forms, hewn in stone, or moulded in clay or other 
 materials and burnt. These are supported on necks or bases, displaying architectural 
 forms ; and appeai-ing as finishings to piers, pillars, pilasters, and other component parts 
 of walls and parapets. The most favourable opportunities and legitimate sources for 
 these and such like ornaments are, the piers, lintels, or archways over doors, or other 
 openings filled in with open work. This department in general may be considered as 
 beyond the reach of rules, unless particular cases were given ; and, therefore, the Architect 
 must be left to his own application of general principles, and to his sense of beauty, in 
 tliis description of scenery. 
 
 Sect. VIII. Of ornamental Garden Structures. 
 
 1967. The architectural Ornaments for Gardens include prospect towers, seats of 
 various kinds, bridges, artificial cascades, fountains, artificial ruins, rockwork, statues, 
 urns, sundials, grottoes, root-houses and other rustic works, trelliswork, sepulchral 
 structures, &c. 
 
 1968. Prospect Towers are very desirable edifices in every country seat, and even in 
 the grounds of suburban villas. Their use is to show a stranger the beauties of the sur- 
 rounding scenery, and to admit of the occupant of the villa inspecting the appearance of 
 his neighbourhood, at different seasons of the year, &c. The architectural style may in 
 general be that of the house ; but it may also, in many cases, be different ; and, in all 
 small villas, the prospect tower should never indicate a great outlay of expense. In hilly 
 countries, a judiciously contrived artificial ruin will often have a good effect when so 
 applied ; it being understood, that the intention is less to deceive, than to create a useful 
 and picturesque object. It is almost unnecessary to observe that prospect towers should 
 have staircases of easy ascent, and should contain a dry airy room at top, furnished with 
 seats and a good telescope. The roof should be flat, in order that it may be used as a 
 terrace ; in towers in the Italian style, this terrace will, of course, have a covering open 
 on the sides, in the style of the campaniles, figs. 1694 and 1695. 
 
 5 z 
 
986 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE, 
 
 1969. Seats are essential objects in all pleasure-grounds. In those of the most exten- 
 sive and highly enriched description, where 
 a main part of the intention is to display the 
 wealth and taste of the owner, they may 
 appear as Grecian temples (fig. 1758, contri- 
 buted by M. Field, Esq.,) Gothic porches, 
 Chinese pagodas, or other foreign or antique 
 structures. In the grounds of less ambitious 
 villas, plain unarchitectural buildings may 
 be employed, or wooden structures, simply 
 protecting the seat from the weather, may be 
 resorted to. In England it has always 
 been customary since the introduction of the 
 modern style of gardening, to form what 
 is called rustic covered seats ; of which fig. 
 1759 and fig. 1760, erected on the Duke of 
 Marlborough's grounds at White Knights, 
 Berkshire (see Ho/land's Description, 8fc.), 
 may be considered as of a superior descrip- 
 tion. They are constructed of oak posts 
 formed from young trees with the bark on ; 
 and the panels between these posts are first 
 filled in with clay nogging or boards, and 
 afterwards covered in the inside with hazel 
 and other rods with the bark on, and on 
 the outside with slabs of oak, birch, larch, 
 or other durable woods, liaving the bark na- 
 turally varied with mosses and lichens. Birch, 
 from its light paoer-coloured bark, broad- 
 leaved elm grown in the shade, and alder, are 
 particularly useful in cases of this kind, from 
 the contrasts which they afford in rustic 
 inlaying. The whole of the Architecture 
 and building of structures of this kind may 
 be considered as a species of child's play, 
 wliich may fairly be left to the taste of those 
 who indulge in it. 
 
 1970. Bridges are among the noblest 
 structures which can be erected in pleasure- 
 grounds ; and, unlike rustic seats and root- 
 houses, they maintain this character even 
 when constructed of materials of temporary duration, from their obvious and unques- 
 tionable utility. A mere plank or tree, when thrown across a stream, assumes a character 
 of grandeur ; it commands respect for its power of eflfecting for man what he could not, 
 
 by any possibility, effect for himself. On the other hand, when a trifling stream, or an 
 artificial river, displays a highly architectural bridge of masonry or cast iron, the eflTect is 
 oflPensive ; because the means seem out of all proportion to the end. In short, a massive 
 highly architectural stone bridge, built across a tame piece of water, not perhaps more 
 than knee-deep, and an elaborate covered seat of rustic cabinet-work, which cannot 
 endure many seasons, offend precisely for the same reason ; viz., the unsuitableness of 
 means to ends. .... 
 
 1 971. Artificial Cascades are of two kinds : those which are constructed in imitation of 
 the natural ledges of rock which cross the beds of rivers in such a manner as to inter- 
 
ORNAMENTAL GARDEN STRUCTURES. 
 
 987 
 
 rupt their streams ; and those which are avowedly artificial, 
 constructed in the form of 
 
 1760 
 
 The latter are sometimes 
 
 semicircular upright walls, 
 the convex side facing the 
 stream, over which the water 
 falls in one sheet ; and some- 
 times, instead of the face of the 
 wall being left upright, a mass 
 of material is placed on the 
 under side of it in a sloping 
 direction, and either covered 
 irregularly with large blocks 
 of stone ; or smoothly paved 
 so as to form an undulating 
 surface, with a view of causing 
 the water to pass over it, 
 like the waves of a swelling, 
 but yet, not tempestuous sea. 
 Sometimes artificial cascades 
 are formed by conducting the 
 water along an architectural 
 aqueduct, and terminating 
 this structure in a ruined arch. This has been beautifully done in the gardens of 
 Schweitzingen, by an imitation of the ruins of a Roman aqueduct, fig. 1761. 
 
 Ill 
 
 1972. Fountains, Water, Switzer observes, is " the very life and soul of a garden," 
 whether it be the ground plot of a. suburban cottage, or the embellished lawn of an ex- 
 tensive villa. Two centuries ago, when picturesque beauty and botanical interest were 
 little attended to in the gardens of Europe, fountains and architectural decorations were 
 sought after as the grand sources of interest ; and one garden was distinguished from 
 another by the expense which had been incurred in its waterworks, and in its mural and 
 sculptural appendages. For the last century the construction of waterworks has been on 
 the decline ; and, in proportion as they engrossed too much attention before, they have, 
 during that period, been comparatively neglected. The manufacture of artificial stone 
 has contributed to the revival of this taste, by the facilities which it affords of forming 
 elegantly shaped basins, and diflferent forms of drooping fountains. By drooping foun- 
 tains we mean those in which water is conveyed to a height, and then left to trickle down 
 over an ornamental form, as opposed to jet or spouting fountains, in which water is 
 forced to spout up vertically, as in fig. 1762. Another circumstance favourable to the 
 construction of ornamental fountains is, the facility with which iron can now be cast 
 into the most beautiful shapes, at a very moderate expense. With the artificial stone of 
 Austin, or the kiln-burnt artificial stone of Coade and Seeley, which is as durable as the 
 hardest marble ; with cast-iron shafts and jets ; and with iron or leaden pipes, there is now 
 
1764 
 
 no difficulty in constructing the most beautiful garden fountains at a trifling cost, in tht 
 
 grounds of every villa. Figs. 
 1763 and 1764 are tazza 
 fountains, executed in arti- 
 ficial stone by Mr. Austin. 
 Fig. 1 766 is a Gothic foun- 
 tain, the lower part of which 
 may be executed in stone or 
 marble, and the upper part 
 in cast iron or bronze. This 
 Design is by Mr. Lamb. 
 
 1973. A fountain may he 
 formed wherever there is 
 either a natural or an artificial supply of Water some feet higher than the level of the 
 surface on which the fountain is to be placed. Where a drooping fountain is to be 
 adopted, such as fig. 1 763, the level of the water in the head need not be higher thar 
 the point at which the water issues from the tazza; but if, on the other hand, tht 
 water is to rise upwards, as in fig. 1762, the head must be higher than the height tc 
 which the jet is expected to rise, by at least several inches, according to the diameter 
 of the jet. Where the jet is small, say an eighth of an inch in diameter, the height ol 
 the head above it, provided the water in that head be always kept to the same level, need 
 not be above six inches ; but, as it is seldom practicable to keep the head to the same 
 level, it is better to have the bottom of the pond or cistern suflBciently high to effect the 
 desired object ; in which case, so long as there is any water in the cistern at all, the jet 
 will rise to the proper height. A great variety of designs for fountains will be found in 
 Falda's Recueil des Fontaines de Rome, Fontaines de Paris, De Clarac, 8fc. Some are also 
 given in the Choix d' Edifices Publiques, and in Coussin's Genie d" Architecture. 
 
 1 974. Where a natural head of water of the proper height cannot be obtained, recourse 
 may be had to artificial means of raising water to an elevated cistern or reservoir, or of 
 forcing the water upwards by the direct influence of machinery. When the water is 
 raised to a cistern, the latter may either be placed on a natural or artificial eminence, or 
 on the summit of a building. In pleasure-grounds, an artificial mount or piece of 
 conical rockwork, would afford a good situation ; and a simple tower, round or square, 
 
ORNAMENTAL GARDEN STRUCTURES. 989: 
 
 is also at once a cheap mode of elevating a cistern, and of adding to grounds an orna- 
 ment, which, if not very beautiful, can yet never be considered mean or paltry. The 
 water may be raised to the basin or cistern so placed by forcing-pumps worked by men, 
 horses, wind, water, or steam ; or by that very ingenious machine, the hydraulic ram 
 (described, Gard. Mag., vol. v. p. 594., as being in use at Bury Hill, Surrey), which has 
 lately been put up in various parts of the country, for this purpose, by Mr. Rowley. 
 However, the mode which we would recommend, as most directly applicable where there 
 is no natural power, is that of having a small steam-engine, say of two-horse power, which 
 might be placed in the lower part of the tower containing the cistern, or in any con- 
 venient situation near the well, pond, or other source of supply, and set to work once or 
 twice a week, as occasion might require. A horizontal windmill, so disguised in the 
 tower as not to be an oflPensive object, would, in all elevated situations, as we have else- 
 where observed (§ 1256), be the cheapest and best that could be employed; because 
 it would require little or no attention, and might be left to itself to work or stand still, 
 according to the wind. 
 
 1975. In conducting the water from the cistern or reservoir to the jet or fountain, the 
 following particulars require to be attended to : — In the first place, all the pipes must be 
 laid sufficiently deep in the earth, or otherwise placed and protected so as to prevent the 
 possibility of their being reached by frost ; next, as a general rule, the diameter of the 
 orifice from which the jet of water proceeds, technically called the bore of the quill, ought 
 to be four times less than the bore of the conduit pipe ; that is, the quill and pipe ought 
 to be in a quadruple proportion to each other. There are several sorts of quills or spout; 
 
990 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 which throw the water up or down, into a variety of forms ; such as fans, parasols, 
 sheaves, showers, mushrooms, inverted bells, &c., or (and which is one of the newest 
 forms) the convolvulus of Mr. Rowley, as shown in fig. 1767. The larger the conduit 
 pipes are, the more freely will the jets display their different forms ; and the fewer the 
 holes in the quill or jet (for sometimes this is pierced like the rose of a watering-pot), the 
 greater certainty there will be of the form continuing the same ; because the risk of any 
 of the holes choking up will be less. The diameter of a conduit pipe ought in no case to 
 be less than an inch ; but, for jets like those in the preceding figures, the diameter ought 
 to be two inches. Where the conduit pipes are of great length, say upwards of 1000 
 feet, it is found advantageous to begin, at the reservoir or cistern, with pipes of a diameter 
 somewhat greater than those which deliver the water to the quills, because the water, in 
 a pipe of uniform diameter of so great a length, is found to lose much of its strength, and 
 become what is technically called sleepy ; while the different sizes quicken it, and redouble 
 its force. For example, in a conduit pipe of 1 800 feet in length, the first 600 feet may 
 be laid with pipes of 8 inches in diameter the next 600 feet with pipes of 6 inches in 
 diameter, and the last 600 feet with pipes of 4 inches in diameter. In conduits not 
 exceeding 900 feet, the same diameter may be continued throughout. When several jets 
 are to play, in several fountains, or in 
 
 1766 
 
 the same, it is not necessary to lay a 
 fresh pipe from each jet to the reser- 
 voir ; a main of sufficient size, with 
 branch pipes to cacli jet, being all 
 that is required. Where the conduit 
 pipe enters the reservoir or cistern, it 
 ought to be of increased diameter, and 
 the grating placed over it to keep out 
 leaves and other matters which might 
 choke it up ought to be scmiglobular 
 or conical ; so that the area of the 
 number of holes ir it may exceed the 
 area of the orifice of the conduit pipe. 
 The object is, to prevent any diminu- 
 tion of pressure from the body of 
 water in the cistern, and to facilitate 
 the flow of the water. Where the 
 conduit pipe joins the fountain, there, 
 of course, ought to be a cock for 
 turning the water off and on ; and 
 particular care must be taken that as 
 much water may pass through the oval 
 hole of this cock as passes through the 
 circular hole of the pipe. In conduit 
 pipes, all elbows, bendings, and right 
 angles should be avoided as much as 
 possible, since they diminish the force 
 of the water. In long conduit pipes, 
 air-holes formed by soldering on up- 
 right pieces of pipe, terminating in 
 inverted valves or suckers, should be 
 made at convenient distances, and 
 protected by shafts built of stone or 
 brick, and covered with movable grat- 
 ings, in order to let out the air. Where pipes ascend and descend on very irregular 
 surfaces, the strain on the lowest parts of the pipe is always the greatest ; unless care is 
 taken to relieve this by the judicious disposition of cocks and air-holes. Without this 
 precaution, pipes conducted over irregular surfaces will not last nearly so long as those 
 conducted over a level. We shall here add a Design by Solomon Cans, fig. 1766, which 
 may be described as a conceit, and by no means in what may be considered the best taste. 
 Conceits, however, are sometimes admissible, since they can be enjoyed by those who have 
 not yet arrived at a just feeling for the simple and grand. 
 
 1 976. The perpendicular height to which water will rise in a jet has a limit, depending 
 on the diameter of the jet, and on the specific gravity of the water, and on that of the air 
 which it has to penetrate. A jet of salt water will rise higher than one of fresh water ; 
 a column six inches in diameter higher than one of three inches ; and a jet of water of any 
 dimension, higher at Madrid or Munich, than in Paris or London, on account of the dif- 
 ference of the elevation of those cities above the level of the sea, and the consequent 
 
ORNAMENTAL GARDEN STRUCTURES. 991 
 
 ' aifference in the density of their atmosphere. The most powerful garden jet in Europe 
 is that in the Nymphenburg gardens, near Munich. The water is there forced up the 
 jet by the direct influence of machinery, without the intervention of a head or reservoir ; 
 and it is found that a column of six inches in diameter cannot, even there, be raised higher 
 than 90 feet. 
 
 1 977. Fountains are generally constructed of Stone, combined with cast iron or copper. 
 In the fountain, fig. 1767, the quill which gives the form to the jet is new, having been 
 lately invented by Mr. Rowley ; it is of copper, the double vase with its column is of 
 cast iron, and the basin containing the water is of stone or white marble. In the very 
 elegant fountain, fig. 1768, which is from the pencil of Mr. Lamb, the whole of the part 
 above the water is of cast iron. 
 
 1978. Ruins, when artificial, are often ridiculous objects, and sometimes highly offen- 
 sive, from their petty mimicry of what, when real, is grand and venerable. Nevertheless, 
 as picturesque objects, we would in some cases admit of them ; for our motto is, let taste 
 be free. Ruins may be introduced where a fitting situation is pointed out by nature, or 
 by tradition or other accidental circumstances; and also where they can be applied to 
 -some useful purpose. "Where a ruin does exist, we think it may often be allowable to 
 
d9'2 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 lieighten its architectural character ; for example, by adding to the plain walls of an old 
 decaying castle, a tower, a turret, a window with mullions and tracery, or a corbel 
 cornice and embattlements. The use of artificial ruins has been so much abused in Eng- 
 land, that the tide of prejudice has for some time set in strongly against their erection ; 
 but this does not appear to us a sufficient reason for rejecting them altogether. Now 
 that cement is so universally manufactured, is so cheap, and its valuable uses are so well 
 understood by builders, artificial ruins may be constructed in a very superior manner to 
 what they have hitherto been ; and correct imitations of classical edifices, instructive 
 from their Architecture, might be introduced avowedly as imitation, which, besides their 
 historical interest, might serve as useful lessons in art. A ruin of this kind has been 
 erected in the grounds at Shugborough, in Staffordshire ; and a ruin in the Gothic style, 
 Radway Grange, fig. 1769, which has deceived many a traveller, has long existed on 
 both sides of the road leading from Banbury, in Oxfordshire, to Kingston, in Warwick- 
 shire. It is situated on the brow of Edgehill, the scene of a celebrated battle in the 
 time of Charles I., and may thus be considered to possess a certain degree of historical 
 interest. It was designed by a private gentleman of great taste, the late E. Miller, Esq., 
 of Radway (to whose son, F. S. Miller, Esq., we are indebted for fig. 1769), and was 
 executed by a local mason. Part of this ruin forms a prospect tower, as before recom- 
 mended, and the habitable part of the remainder is occupied as a public-house, and as 
 dwellings for labourers. In many parks in England, the farm buildings are placed on 
 rising grounds, so as to form conspicuous objects in the views from the house ; and their 
 ^exterior elevations are disguised as ruins, or as old castles partially repaired, as in fig. 1770. 
 1979. Rockwork is one of the most common ornaments of gardens ; though few of them 
 
ORNAMENTAL GARDEN STRUCTURES. 993 
 
 are worse understood. A rockery is too frequently a mere mass of stones of different sizes 
 and kinds, perhaps mixed with bricks, piled together without any attempt at expression or 
 character ; in short, more as a nidus for a particular description of plants, than for effect 
 as a mass of visible rock, or as fragments supposed to be connected with a mass under 
 ground. In small gardens this is unavoidable ; but in pleasure-grounds of any 
 
 extent the object ought to be the imitation of nature. For this purpose, the artist 
 should first conceive in his mind some description of natural rock, either above the sur- 
 face, which he intends to imitate ; or under it, which he intends to indicate. As the sub- 
 ject belongs much more to Gardening than to Architecture, we shall not here go into 
 details ; J)ut one essential point we must mention, which is, that, in all imitations of 
 nature, the stones employed ought to be of the same kind. Stoneries, as they are some- 
 times called, might be made little geological museums, and contain, besides natural stones, 
 scoriae, vitrified bricks, broken earthen vessels, architectural fragments, and old roots of 
 trees. One of the best imitations of the face of a rock we know of, is that in the garden 
 of the Colosseum in the Regent's Park, London. 
 
 1 980. Statues in the open air are objected to by some, as unsuitable to our climate ; 
 and by others, as a practical absurdity. How ridiculous, say such persons, it is to place 
 imitations of human beings on posts and pedestals in the open air, exposed to all 
 weathers ! The proper answer to this last objection is, that it would be still more 
 ridiculous to place them only in warm rooms. Statues are to be considered as works of 
 art, among other works of art ; and there seems no reasonable objection to placing them 
 anywhere among works of art of the like kind ; such as those of Architecture, an art the 
 productions of which have been in all ages closely associated with those of Sculpture. 
 Whenever architectural ornaments are introduced in a garden, therefore, we see no objec- 
 tion to including among them statues and other sculptural articles, where the materials 
 of which these are made are of a nature sufficiently durable. There is notliing in the 
 way of garden ornaments which we are more desirous of seeing introduced than statues 
 of cast iron, and we are persuaded that the time is near at hand when statues of this 
 material will be cast in one piece. Our patriotic correspondent, Mr. Robison, has lately 
 
 6 A 
 
994 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE, 
 
 1771 
 
 1772 
 
 produced an interesting article on this subject, in Jameson's Journal^ vol. xiv. p. 364. 
 Messrs. Cottam and Hallen have also lately had vases of a great variety of sizes, with 
 and without ornaments, east in iron in one piece, so as to sell at very low prices. 
 
 1981. The Disposition of Statues, in 
 Architectural Gardens, is a matter that 
 requires much taste and feeling; and 
 it would occupy too much space to lay 
 down either principles or rules for it. 
 As a general guide, we would suggest 
 that no statue ought ever to be placed 
 where it may not be viewed in con- 
 nection with some architectural produc- 
 tion ; such as placed on the piers of a 
 balustrade, on the side walls of a stair, 
 or simply on pedestals among flowers ; 
 but so as always to have a spreading 
 architectural base, and to be seen backed 
 
 by a wall, or some part of a building. Statues may also be placed 
 where they are seen in connection with each other ; though even 
 this will not be entirely satisfactory without some mural appendages. 
 Statues placed in woods, in green arbours, verdant alcoves, in the 
 midst of naked grass lawns ; or, in short, in any place where they 
 are surrounded only by vegetation, are, from their want of har- 
 mony with the scene, decidedly objectionable. The streets, squares, and market-places 
 of cities are indeed the true situations for statues ; next to them, the exterior elevations 
 of edifices of any kind ; and, next to these, 
 architectural gardens. The subject of in- 
 door sculptures is not here under consider- 
 ation. 
 
 1982. Busts, Therms, Vases, Urns, Sun- 
 dials, and similar architectural and sculptu- 
 ral objects, are subject to the same laws 
 as statues. Busts alone are more adapted 
 for decorating the walls of an edifice, than 
 for being placed on the walls or piers of a 
 garden; but, when they are placed on therms, 
 they then approach more nearly to statues, 
 
 and may be treated like them. The difference between a vase and an urn is, that the 
 
 The vase, being an open one, has frequently soil and a 
 plant placed in it ; 
 but this, in the great 
 majority of cases, and 
 at all events in the case 
 of all sculptured vases, 
 we consider to be in 
 bad taste. It is re- 
 ducing a work of art 
 to the level of a mere 
 
 garden flower-pot, and dividing the attention between 
 the beauty of the form of the vase, and of its sculp- 
 tured ornaments, and that 
 of the plant which it con- , 
 tains. Two kinds of beauty ^^^^^f^' 
 so different cannot be felt, 
 examined, and enjoyed by 
 the mind at the same time ; 
 for unity is the essential 
 principle of every work, 
 the end of which is to 
 please. It is seldom, therefore, that vases, when used archi- 
 tecturally, can, with propriety, be made to serve as flower- 
 pots. The Italians sometimes employ them in this manner, ^"^^"^ 
 but not always with a proper effect. The least objectionable 
 cases are those in which, on the pier of a gate, a vase contains 
 that stiff architectural-looking plant, the American aloe ; and 
 so sensible are the artists of Italy of the superiority of this plant to most others in such 
 
 1773 
 
 1774 
 
 latter is always a covered vessel. 
 
 1775 
 
 1776 
 
ORNAMENTAL GARDEN STRUCTURES. 995 
 
 1781 
 
 a situation, that imitations of it are commonly made of copper and painted green ; in 
 order that the plant may 
 appear always to remain 
 of the proper size, and 
 retain its proper archi- 
 tectural shape. A sun- 
 dial is one of the most 
 agreeable and useful of 
 architectural appen- 
 dages, and in this coun- 
 try is become venerable, 
 as a piece of garden fur- 
 niture. Its situation 
 should always be central, 
 and where it can be 
 walked round, and 
 viewed on every side. 
 There are many elegant 
 forms in artificial stone 
 by Coade and Seeley ; 
 and also by Austin, fig. 1771 ; in pottery, by Peake; 
 and in cast iron, by Cottam and Hallen. Figs. 1772, 1773, 1774, 1775, 1776, and 1777> 
 are vases of Austin's artificial stone. Figs. 1778, 1779, and 1780 are urns of artificial 
 stone, also by Austin, and, with the 
 vases of the same artist, are well adapted 
 for decorating parapets, walls, or other 
 architectural objects in gardens. Fig. 
 1781 is a pedestal of Austin's artificial 
 stone, on which may be placed either 
 vases or urns. 
 
 1983. Grottoes, Root-houses, and si- 
 milar structures, were formerly common 
 in English pleasure-grounds. The idea 
 of a grotto iu a British garden is of 
 Italian origin ; as in Italy the grotto, 
 in the summer season, is frequently the 
 In Britain they are generally damp, un- 
 wholesome places, fit only to be glanced at in passing through. 
 However, they add to the number of interesting objects of a demesne ; and, in certain 
 stages of society, grottoes, like many other objects, may form appropriate overflowing 
 places for superfluous wealth. The same may be said of root-houses and other rustic 
 structures; which, in landscape gardening, may be compared to tapestry and other ancient 
 needlework in furnishing, or the elaborately enriched ornaments of Gothic Architecture 
 in the old cathedrals. In an enlightened age, labour employed in this manner will be 
 considered as in a great measure thrown away. The same observation will also apply to 
 the rustic stands and vessels for plants, formed of roots, bark, and pieces of branches, 
 which are found scattered about in various pleasure grounds, often to the utter destruc- 
 tion of harmony and repose. They no doubt serve to amuse the proprietor, and to 
 employ labourers ; but the same labour, bestowed on a more durable material, would be 
 equally beneficial to the labourer, and much more advantageous to the public. But the 
 possessors of wealth must be free to spend it as they choose ; and therefore all that an 
 author, writing on the subjects now treated of, is entitled to do, is, to state his opinion, 
 and his reasons for having formed it, with a view to the improvement of the general 
 taste. Decidedly the best grotto in England is that at Pain's Hill, Surrey. 
 
 1 984. Trelliswork is a frequent ornament in gardens ; and, in many cases, forms a 
 useful structure for training climbing plants on ; for forming a shady arcade ; or for 
 clothing a naked wall. In ancient geometrical gardens, it was customary to form 
 arbours entirely of trelliswork, and to cover them with vegetation, so that the carpentry 
 or iron wire forming the trelliswork became a mere frame for the plants. In this case, 
 it ceased in a great measure to be considered an architectural object, and might 
 be set down in any situation where a seat was desirable. The employment of trelliswork 
 as arcades to connect one scene with another is very frequently overdone : there is 
 nothing either grand or beautiful in walking under such an arcade, covered with a 
 thick roof of unpruned plants, with their decayed leaves or twigs ; or with the sickly 
 green appearance in their leaves and young shoots which is the inevitable consequence 
 of the want of direct light. On the other hand, where the plants covering a trellis 
 
 family dining-room. 
 
996 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 1782 
 
 are vines, annually pruned, and the locality is such that grapes will ripen in the open 
 air, the effect is good ; as every one knows who has walked under such trellises on 
 the Continent. The hardy fruits of Britain, gooseberries, currants, apples, plums, 
 &c., trained on trelliswork, and properly pruned, have a very good effect, and afford 
 convenient modes of eating the fruit from the tree, agreeably to the practice of the pos- 
 sessors of villas in Holland and other places on the Continent. It was also the custom, 
 in the ancient style of gardening, to form skeletons of trelliswork, in the shapes, archi- 
 tectural or sculp - ^f' 
 
 tural, into which 1 
 
 it was desired to 
 clip the trees or 
 shrubs. The 
 j)lants ini'^ended 
 to form the fi- 
 gures, statues, or 
 other architec- 
 tural forms, or 
 green walls, be- 
 ing planted with- 
 in the trellis 
 frame, all that 
 the gardener had 
 to do was to 
 cut off* such 
 branches as ob- 
 truded them- 
 selves beyond it. 
 On the whole, 
 trelliswork in 
 gardens is to be 
 considered more 
 with reference 
 to floriculture 
 and horticulture, 
 than to landscape 
 Gardening or 
 Architecture. 
 
 1985. Sepul- 
 chral Structures 
 are frequently 
 erected on the 
 grounds of villas. 
 As cenotaphs, or 
 memorials of the 
 dead, and as 
 enclosing and 
 
 marking, in a particular manner, a 
 place of burial, they are worthy of 
 respect ; but an architectural tomb, in 
 which the remains of human beings 
 are built up, and prevented from mix- 
 ing with our mother earth, is a struc- 
 ture indicating a practice altogether 
 unworthy of an enlightened age. Far 
 preferable, in our opinion, was the 
 grave of Thomas Hollis, Esq., of Cors- 
 combe in Devonshire, one of the most 
 worthy and most benevolent of men ; who ordered his body to be buried in one of his 
 fields, and the field to be ploughed immediately afterwards, that the precise place of his 
 interment might not be known. Cenotaphs, which may be considered as monuments, and 
 not as tombs, may often find a place among the architectural decorations of pleasure 
 grounds, and they may vary in magnitude and style, from a simple block or a tablet of 
 stone, to a Grecian temple or a Gothic tower. In America, it is very common for families 
 living on their own estates, at a distance from towns, to have their « grave-yards" generally 
 in an orchard near the house. They are simple enclosures, to exclude cattle or other 
 animals, and to convey the idea of consecration. A simple and elegant manner of en- 
 
ENTRANCE LODGES AND GATES. 
 
 997 
 
 closing such burial-places would be by a circular arcade, the arches being open from the 
 foundations to the soiBits, in order to admit of the spreading of the roots of trees and 
 shrubs in the soil, whether planted inside or outside, and the free circulation of air and 
 the weather. The openings may be lilled in with iron palisading. Fig. 1782 is a 
 perspective view of a Design of this sort, made, at our request, by Mr. Lamb ; and fig. 
 1783 is a Design for a Grecian cenotaph by the same author. Fig. 1784 is a cenotaph 
 in the Gothic style, also 
 by Mr. Lamb. The De- 
 sign, fig. 1782, might be 
 greatly simplified, and still 
 have an excellent effect ; 
 perhaps better than it now 
 has. The circular form is 
 so beautiful in itself, and 
 the repetition, at equal 
 distances, of the uniform- 
 sized semicircular-headed 
 openings, produces an effect 
 at once so simple, so grand, 
 and so much in unison with 
 the general form, that the 
 whole of the mouldings, 
 the impost stones, the cor- 
 nice, and especially the 
 breaks in the blocking 
 (which last are in fact a 
 deformity), might be dis- 
 pensed with. P or our own 
 particular taste, we should 
 prefer such an enclosure to 
 a burial place, without a 
 single ornament -of any 
 kind ; retaining none of 
 the architectural lines in the figure before us, but those showing an enlarged basement 
 or plinth. If the walls were raised on secure foundations, and built of brick laid in 
 Roman cement, they would last for thousands of years ; the ironwork would no doubt 
 fail, but, if a holly were planted in the centre (and this tree, which forms a conical head, 
 is far more suitable for such a building than that shown in the figure), its branches, long 
 before that took place, would spread out from all the openings, and form an adequate 
 defence, without the necessity of rails. 
 
 1986. The subjects slightly noticed in the preceding paragraphs of this section being 
 principally those which connect Villa Architecture with Landscape Gardening, their 
 treatment belongs as much to the one art as to the other. As we contemplate a 
 separate work on Landscape Gardening and Garden Architecture, we have not considered 
 it desirable to discuss these svibjects more at length in the present volume, it being 
 already suflSciently expanded by those which it was more especially intended to include. 
 
 Sect. IX. Entrance Lodges and Gates. 
 
 1987. The Entrance Lodge and Gate to a Villa may either form one architectural 
 composition ; or the lodge alone may display architectural style, and the gate be of a very 
 simple inconspicuous construction. In the former case, the principle of unity seems to 
 require that the style of the lodge and gateway should correspond with that of the house 
 to which they belong ; but in the latter case the necessity for this principle is not so 
 obvious, and, provided the gate be without conspicuous piers, and be kept altogether sub- 
 ordinate, the lodge may be in any style. This style, as Mr. S. Gilpin has remarked 
 (^Practical Hints on Landscape Gardening, see Gard. Mag., vol. viii. p. 700), may be 
 determined by some peculiarity in the situation ; to which we may add, or by any 
 peculiarity of taste in the owner. 
 
 1988. When the Lodge and Gate jorm one Composition, it is essential that the piers be 
 rendered architectural ; because on them mainly depends the union of the dwelling with 
 the gate. There are various ways in which this is to be accomplished ; by detached 
 stone piers ; by a single arch thrown over the roadway, and only connected with the 
 lodge by an intervening foot-gate ; by two, three, or more arches ; by columns united 
 by an architrave ; or by the most effectual method of all, that of having a lodge on each 
 side of the road, and forming them into one architectural whole, by a colonnade or arcade 
 
998 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 carried across it. These being the general principles, and the rules derived from them, 
 a very few examples will serve to illustrate their application. 
 
 Fig. 1785 is a view of a double Roman lodge: we call it Roman, because it con- 
 tains columns superadded to the archway. The ground plan of this lodge, fig. 1786, 
 shows a dwelling consisting of a kitchen, scullery, two bed-rooms, and other conveniences, 
 on each side of the road. Though this lodge was contributed by a very eminent Archi- 
 tect, we cannot bring ourselves to approve of the columns in the piers, on account of the 
 large intercolumniations, and the consequent idea of weakness produced by such a length 
 of architrave. It is true that the Romans introduced columns in this manner in their 
 triumphal arches, but they did not carry the architrave through from one column to the 
 other ; by which means, though the column was degraded to a mere ornament, yet no 
 appearance of weakness was produced. Whoever wishes to see, from an existing example, 
 the bad effect, when executed, of columns and architraves arranged as in the Design 
 before us, has only to look at the new gates leading into Hyde Park from Piccadilly. 
 Neither in this Design, nor in the gates of Hyde Park, can the architrave be formed of 
 a single stone ; in the Design before us, the stone would require to be thirteen feet six 
 inches long, and in the Hyde Park gates several feet longer. No doubt, such stones are 
 
ENTRANCE LODGES AND GATES. 
 
 access is to be had to the bed-room ; for, even supposing the appendages containing the 
 scullery, &c., to have flat roofs, there cannot be headroom to ascend by them into the 
 
1000 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 bed-room. There can be no doubt that this is a mere oversight in our contributor, 
 which it is easy to correct by placing the stair in the living-room. 
 
 Fig. 1789 is a view of an architectural lodge in the castellated style; and fig. 1790 is 
 its ground plan. In the latter, the small building to the left is for coals ; the dwelling 
 contains a sitting-room and scullery on the ground floor, and three bed-rooms over. 
 
 Fig. 1791 is a view of a castellated architectural lodge; and fig. 1792 is its ground 
 plan. The effect of this Design and tlie preceding one is good : in the latter, there is 
 a degree of symmetry, combined with variety, which is highly pleasing, and, at the same 
 time, there is nothing which is at variance with the laws of strength, or offensive to 
 reason or good sense. 
 
 1989. W7ien the Lodge is independent of the Gate, and does not form an architectural 
 composition with it, the gate-posts should be inconspicuous, and at some little distance 
 from the lodge ; at all events, never attached to it. We shall give three examples of 
 lodges of this description. 
 
ENTRANCE LODGES AND GATES. 
 
 1001 
 
 Fig. 1793 is a view of a lodge in the Grecian style ; and fig. 1794 is its ground plan, 
 in which the line of fence, a, and the gateposts, h, are shown at some distance from the 
 
 1793 
 
 dwelling. The view is taken from the interior of the park ; and the gateposts, though 
 of masonry, and forming with the trees one general composition with the lodge, are yet 
 not architecturally connected with it, and do not form an architectural composition. 
 
 — _J 
 b 6 
 
 1794 
 
 Fig. 1795 is a view of a Swiss cottage as an independent lodge; and fig. 1796 is its 
 ground plan. It will hardly be supposed that a cottage of this description could lead to 
 a villa in the same style; because the style itself is not adapted to large buildings. The 
 preceding Design, however, being in a style of Architecture adapted to large buildings, 
 might very reasonably be considered as a prelude to a Grecian house. The preceding 
 six Designs are by the distinguished Architect who contributed to us the plan of his own 
 villa, Design III. § 1746. 
 
 Fig. 1797 is a geometrical elevation of a cottage lodge in the Old English style; and 
 fig. 1798 is its ground plan. This Design, having two porches, a, b, would form a very 
 excellent lodge for placing between two gates, to two small villas ; a practice which is 
 sometimes adopted in the neighbourhood of large towns. There is a bench, c, placed 
 outside, which serves as an. apology for the canopy which projects over it, and which adds 
 to the harmony of the elevation. The tiles of the roof, it will be observed, are of different 
 forms, arranged in the manner recommended by Mr. Varden, § 759. This Design is 
 by Mr. Lamb, and would suit his very elegant Gothic villa, fig. 1646. 
 
 6 B 
 
100^ COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE, 
 
 1 990. Entrance Gates to Villas are constructed either of iron or wood ; and the h'nes 
 which prevail in them should be thos? of the mural Architecture to which they belong 
 The wrought-iron gates of the age of Louis XIV. were highly enriched with foliage and 
 
 1796 
 
 flowers ; and those of modern times, formed of cast iron, are still more so. The richest 
 metallic gates in the world are those of Tuscany, and especially of the cathedrals of Pisa 
 and Florence, formed of brass. Some of the gates in British cathedrals, for example in 
 Henry VII.'s Chapel in Westminster Abbey, are also highly enriched. The iron gates 
 
ENTRANCE LODGES AND GATES. 
 
 1003 
 
 1 1 i— 
 
 at Leeswold, in Flintshire, are among the most celebrated in England : they were erected 
 under the direction of Switzer, and will be found figured in the works of different tourists. 
 An excellent work on Roman Gateways, by Donaldson, contains many beautiful designs 
 adapted for towns ; aud Robertson's Gate Lodges affords resources for the Villa Architect. 
 Some elaborate designs for wrought-iron gates, which have been executed at Nancy, are 
 engraved in the Recueil des Fondations, §-c., of that city ; and some others will be found 
 in Vingboon's Architecture, and in that of Dietterlin. A number of rich designs executed 
 in cast iron are common to the Birmingham trade, and may be examined, together with 
 many original drawings, in the pattern books of Messrs. Cottam and Hallen. The most 
 elaborate cast-iron gates in England are those of the triumphal arch, which foxras the 
 entrance to the Green Park fi om Piccadilly ; they are bronzed, and, at all events, are 
 excessively rich, as are the cast-iron railings of the same kind flanking the entrance into 
 Hyde Park. These cast-iron gates and rails are bronzed, which is a very suitable 
 kind of colouring for them. In the palisading to the gardens of the summer palace at 
 Petersburgh, is a description of ii'on railing combining elegance with magnificence, in 
 which the ornaments are gilt ; but which are not so abundant as to be no longer con- 
 sidered as such. In the English gates the ornaments cover the whole. 
 
 Fig. 1799 is an elevation of a Gothic gateway in the style of Pointed Architecture, 
 prevalent during the time of Henry VII. It was furnished to us by Mr. Lamb, who 
 observes that " the arms of Henry VII. are used in the decorations to mark the date of 
 the style of Architecture. Such heraldic devices are peculiarly appropriate to the Gothic 
 style of art, and lend it great interest in a moral point of view, by marking the conse- 
 quence of the proprietor, and serving as a sort of index to the style of living which may 
 be expected at the villa, or baronial castle, to which they lead." In ages when mankind 
 were nearly on a par with regard to intellectual rank, distinctive marks of this kind 
 became requisite, not only to wealthy individuals, but also to professions : hence, while 
 the warrior was known by his arms, the priest was distinguished by his gown, and the 
 lawyer by his wig ; even physicians, till lately, carried with them gold-headed canes, and 
 they still wear black clothes. All these distinctions, even the bearing of arms, which 
 will be the last to pass away, will disappear with the universal diffusion of education. 
 
 Fig. 1800 is a design for a Chinese gateway, copied for us, from a Chinese drawing, by 
 Mr. Varden. The Chinese sometimes adopt an opening of the form of three fourths of 
 a circle as a gateway, which may be considered a caprice ; a doorway, the opening of 
 which is of the form of an egg, with the broad end uppermost, and the lower end cut off, 
 is a better approximation to the human form. 
 
 Fig. 1801 is a Design for a Grecian gateway, by Mr. Lamb; it may be supposed to 
 
ft'e I I I I f 1 I I I t 
 
 be the outer entrance to Mallet's Palladian villa. It would also suit very well for the 
 gateway to a public garden or park. 
 
 Fig. 1802 is an iron gate between stone piers. We have introduced it for the sake of 
 showing what we should call a gate utterly without taste, such as we might suppose a 
 blacksmith would design, who had few ideas 
 beyond the mechanical part of his profession ; 
 and who, in the figure before us, may be sup- 
 posed to have looked only to the arrangement 
 of the bars and braces, in such a manner as 
 to make them rivet readily together, and pro- 
 duce a strong whole. What he would consider 
 as beauty in this work would be tht svu-ving of 
 the secondary diagonal struts ; and he might, 
 perhaps, expect admiration for the contrivance 
 of the latch. How different the effect of such 
 a gate, in an architectural point of view, from 
 any of the preceding ones. In figs. 1799 and 
 1801 the lines of the gate cooperate in the 
 production of a whole, in which there is a unity 
 of direction in the lines, as well as of their 
 kind. The gate before us, fig. 1802, would 
 even have had a better effect, as a work of taste, by the omission of the curved diagonals, 
 
ENTRANCE LODGES AND GATES. 
 
 1005 
 
 /ti" I I I I r I III 
 
 ^ 
 
 which add nothing whatever to the strength of the gate. The straight diagonals do add 
 strength, and one of them is essential to each gate. Had only one been admitted, as in 
 
 fig. 1 803, the whole would have been in much better taste, because it would have been 
 without pretension, and without offence. 
 
 Fig. 1804 is an elevation of a carriage and two footway gates, designed by John 
 Perry, Esq., and erected, under his superintendence, at Denbighs, near Haslemere, 
 Surrey. We have introduced it here, chiefly to show the manner of fixing wooden gates 
 in the country. In this figure, a, h are the ground plans of the posts ; c, d, a plank or 
 beam sunk in the earth two or three feet under the surface, into which the posts are 
 
1006 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 1803 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 mortised, and supported by angle braces, e. By means of this horizontal sleeper or beam 
 and these braces, the gate-posts are kept perfectly erect and firm. 
 
 Fig. 1805 is a Design for a gateway to a menagerie, from the work of Caus, which was 
 intended by him to be executed as an entrance to the grotto, in the gardens at Heidel- 
 berg, which he laid c at for the Elector Palatine, afterwards king of Bohemia. It may 
 be considered as an extravaganza with reference to the grounds of villas, but would suit 
 very well for a garden containing a zoological collection, such as it is to be hoped will 
 soon become appended to all our cities and towns. 
 
 1805 
 
EXTERIOR FINISHING OF VILLAS. 
 
 1007 
 
 Chap. V. 
 
 Of the Finishings, Fittings-up, Fixtures, and Furniture of Villas. 
 
 1991. In studying the Subject of the Finishing of Villas, the reader will take into con- 
 sideration, with the first two sections of this chapter, what is stated in the first two 
 sections of Chap. III. of Book I. p. 258, and also Section VI. of Book II. p. 650. The 
 fixtures, fittings-up, and furniture of villas may in like manner be elucidated by reference 
 to those of cottages and farm-houses ; and the reader should, therefore, turn to the sections 
 in our second Book treating upon these subjects, the references to which he will find 
 in the Table of Contents, or in the General Index. 
 
 Sect. I. Of the Exterior Finishing of Villas. 
 
 1992. The Exterior Finishing of Villas maybe considered with reference to archi- 
 tectural style, and to general decorations applicable to all styles : the former includes the 
 projections, mouldings, lines, and forms which belong to each system of Architecture ; 
 and the latter such ornaments as statues, sculptures, &c., which may be introduced into 
 elevations in any style or manner. 
 
 1993. The Display of Architectural Style in the Exterior Fitiishings of Villas may be 
 obviously carried to a greater extent than in cottages, farm houses, or other dwellings of 
 an humbler and less expensive description. In a cottage, for example, the windows are 
 often left without architraves, or exterior facings ; but in a villa these should not be omitted, 
 unless in styles where some other mode of finishing is substituted. The entrance doors 
 to villas ought never to be without porches or porticoes, and these should be of a more 
 imposing and architectural character than those employed in cottages. Where the roof 
 is concealed by a blocking course or parapet, the latter may be rendered ornamental by a 
 balustrade, or by other open work, the piers of which may be terminated by vases, or other 
 sculptural ornaments. Blank windows, that is, openings in the shape of windows, without 
 glass in them, or without some other object that may leave no regret that glass is wanting, 
 we hold to be inadmissible, in either a cottage or a villa ; but, in a villa, blank windows are 
 more especially objectionable. In cottages and farm houses, the walls may be of mud, 
 of rubble-stone, of coarse bricks, or of some comparatively c^ieap material ; but in villas 
 the material ought always to be of a durable kind, and also, if possible, of an agreeable or 
 ornamental character ; stones ought to be squared, or, if rubble or coarse bricks be used, 
 the wall should be covered with cement, finished in the manner of squared stone. The 
 guiding principle in all this is, that, a villa being a dwelling of a higher class, there ought 
 to be a higher quality of building material used in its construction, and a higher degree 
 of architectural style displayed in its elevation. 
 
 1994. The Exterior Decorations of Villas which are common to different styles are 
 chiefly, statues, sculptures, vases, urns, and other ornaments of stone. Exterior window 
 blinds may also be included in this division of exterior finishing ; in addition to the 
 various objects common to diflferent styles, mentioned in preceding sections. 
 
 1995. Statues and Sculptures, as we have already observed, have at all times, and in 
 all ages and countries, been associated with Architecture ; and, indeed, in rude ages, as 
 is still the case in remote districts of country, the occupations of the mason and of the 
 sculptor are generally found united in the same person. There can, therefore, be no 
 more appropriate ornament to the exterior elevation of a house than statuary works ; and 
 this every one must feel who is capable of deriving pleasure from either sculpture or 
 Architecture. A correct feeling or taste, and a sound controlling judgment, however, 
 are necessary to guide the Architect in the disposition of statuary work. This disposition, 
 as in similar cases, ought never to be left to the sculptor, who, from the feeling for his 
 own art inseparable from artists, will be too apt to limit his views to his productions, 
 instead of taking a comprehensive view of the effect of the whole. In the disposition of 
 statues, either on the summits of the walls of a house, or on its pediments, porticoes, and 
 porches, the Architect must chiefly be guided by the general principles of composition, 
 though in some degree, also, by the style of Architecture which he has adopted. For 
 example, in the Grecian style, it is most common to place statues where they wiU be 
 seen backed by the sky, by some part of the building, or by the scenery surrounding it ; 
 whereas, in the Gothic style, they are chiefly placed in niches. From the nature of the 
 art of sculpture in entire relief, or statuary, which is altogether unsuitable for representing 
 iTfiotion, groups of figures can seldom be used with effect in exteriors, except in those 
 sculptures which are called in alto, or in bas relief. Not only single statues are to be pre- 
 ferred, but single statues in attitudes of repose ; never in attitudes implying motion, as in the 
 Discobolus, which, though an antique statue, is essentially in bad taste. We may also 
 notice, in this place, an error pointed out by Mr. Hope, which English sculptors> 
 
1008 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 he says, have fallen into, in imitation of the French sculptors of the last centuiy. This 
 is, the practice of representing in a bust, the head, not looking straight forward and in 
 the same direction as the chest, but turned over the shoulder, and looking sidewise. The 
 reason why this is wrong is, that " in the production of the pencil, which can only 
 exhibit a face in a single aspect, if the most striking or most favourable view of that face 
 be not a direct front view, there may, in the eligibility of bringing the features more 
 in profile, be a very good reason for turning the head somewhat over the shoulder. Nay, 
 even in a work of the chisel, if it be an entire statue, the peculiar attitude or action of 
 the body may present a sufficient motive for giving such a turn to the head. But if a 
 mere bust, which we may easily view in every possible aspect, by ourselves moving round 
 it, in place of being allowed to leave this task entirely to the beholder, be made itself to 
 turn its face away from our sight though it have not a body, to account for this less easy 
 and less usual position of the head, the portrait loses all claim to naturalness and truth ; 
 it forfeits the appearance of dignified simplicity, which is so essential and so fascinating, 
 for an air of inane and pompous affectation ; and it, moreover, from the different direction 
 given to the face and to the chest, can seldom be so situated as not to look ill placed and 
 awkward." He adds, " that the Grecian method of cutting the chest square, and placing 
 its whole mass immediately on a term or other solid support, seems much preferable to the 
 more prevailing Roman fashion of rounding off that chest, and balancing its centre only 
 on a slender and tottering pivot." {Designs for Furniture, p. 47.) 
 
 1 996. The Proportion between the Height or Size of the Statue, and that of the height 
 and size of an ordinary human being, is a point which has given rise to much discussion. 
 The most eminent authors are agreed that there ought to be a certain proportion 
 between the size of the statues and sculptures on a building, and the size of that building ; 
 and that the size of ordinary life is generally too small for interiors, and always so for 
 statues placed externally. This seems but reasonable, and in harmony with the practice 
 in all buildings, of forming the doors and the ceilings of rooms higher than is necessary 
 for the reception of human beings. No fixed rule or proportion has hitherto been given 
 for determining the height of statues relatively to the height of windows, doors, and 
 other openings ; an' • all that has been suggested by the best writers on the subject is, 
 that there should be some general proportion between the height of the statue and the 
 magnitude of the building. For example, a villa of the ordinary size of villas in the 
 given age, country, and style of Architecture, should have the statues used in decorating 
 its exterior, somewhat, perhaps from a seventh to a fifth part, larger than life ; and a 
 villa much larger than the common size of villas ought to have the statues proportion- 
 ately larger than life. This point, like various others, may be considered as beyond the 
 reach of rules ; the principle is clearly the idea of union with the building in forming a 
 whole ; and this includes union in size, as well as in expression, material, and style of 
 workmanship. 
 
 1997. The Style of Statues should correspond with the Architecture of the elevation 
 on which they are employed ; and there ought to be even a historical relation between 
 them. For example, in a highly finished Grecian elevation, the statuary ought to be 
 simple, classical, and highly finished ; in a bold Italian elevation composed of coarse 
 materials, and producing its effect by strong contrasts of light and shade, the statues may 
 be rudely chiseled, so as to produce effect rather by their general form than by minute 
 details ; and the statues on a Gothic building, in which perpendicular lines prevail, should 
 exhibit a preponderance of lines of the same character, in the folds of their drapery, &c. 
 Historically, Grecian buildings ought to have Grecian figures, in the costume employed 
 by the Grecian sculptors ; and the subjects ought to be heathen gods and goddesses, or 
 the heroes and great men of antiquity. The statues for decorating Italian elevations 
 may be those of eminent men of modern times. Gothic buildings ought to display 
 statues of men distinguished for their military gallantry or for their devotion ; while a 
 cottage, being comparatively a temporary structure, may, where a statue is admitted, 
 copy the costume of the times in which it is built, and of the particular country from 
 which its own style is borrowed. A Swiss cottage, for example, might be decorated 
 by a figure in Swiss costume carved in oak, and protected by a projecting canopy. 
 We offer these remarks, not as absolute, but rather to excite reflections on the subject 
 in the mind of the young Architect. 
 
 1998. Sculptures in high or low Relief are of far more general application to the 
 external elevations of buildings than statues ; and, indeed, they may be said to be, to the 
 exterior surfaces of walls, what paintings are to the walls of rooms. Wherever there is 
 a blank window that it is not desirable to disguise by a glazed sash, it may be filled in 
 with sculpture ; the boundary line of the opening forming a frame, and the subject ap- 
 pearing as though in a sunk paneL The size of the figures for sculptures of this kind 
 ought to be governed by the same principles as outside statues. Historically, we think, 
 some subject ought to be chosen relatively to the occupants of the building, rather than 
 
EXTERIOR FINISHING OF VILLAS. 
 
 1009 
 
 to persons or things foreign to it. For example, in one window, figures might appear as 
 if looking out at some object, and conversing about it ; another window might represent 
 part of the interior of a room with its occupants, and, indeed, where the panels or false 
 windows filled with sculpture are numerous, they might indicate the uses of the different 
 descriptions of rooms within. Thus, one blank window might represent some cha- 
 racteristic of a dining-room, another of a library, or of a drawingroom, a staircase, &c. 
 This is in pei l'cc L accordance with the original uses of sculptm-es in low relief, which, 
 according to Quatremere de Quincy, were originally a sort of writing, or hieroglyphics, 
 or signs ; and came at last to be improved into classical compositions. 
 
 1 999. Where Sculptures in relief are to be placed in panels so much smaller than 
 windows as never to be mistaken for them, the size of the figures may be proportionably 
 small. Reliefs of this kind may be classed with those employed by Architects in de- 
 corating friezes ; and they niay be introduced with excellent effect in a variety of posi- 
 tions, where it is desirable to enhance the interest of a particular part of the elevation, 
 or to oppose great richness of decoration to simplicity of form. Even single portraits, 
 in the manner of alto relievo busts, may be introduced in some parts of the exteriors of 
 buildings ; such as over an entrance door, over windows, in the tympanum of pediments, 
 in gable ends, &c. 
 
 2000. Armorial Sculptures are particularly suitable for the different varieties of Gothic 
 Architecture, and in no other style can so much interest be created with so little exertion 
 of skill or expense. The simple form of the shield, which any mason can execute, has 
 alone, from the train of historical associations connected with it, a powerful effect. ^ The 
 cross, whether in complete or in partial relief, is also an object of great interest in the 
 Gothic style. The same may be said of the fleur de lis, and other forms used in armorial 
 bearings. 
 
 2001. Other Decorations, such as vases, urns, chimney- tops, tiles, rusticated stones, 
 and sculptured bricks, or weather-tiling in imitation of bricks, have been already suf- 
 ficiently noticed in preceding sections. 
 
 2002. The Subject of outside Blinds has also, § 554 to § 560, been treated of ; but we 
 shall here describe the mechanism of what is considered the best description of cloth 
 outside blind. Fig. 1 807 is a view of a bonnet blind let down as far as it will go, the lower 
 
 and projecting part being what is denominated the bonnet ; and fig. 1 806 a view of the 
 same blind drawn up nearly to the top. In the former figure, a represents one of the 
 
 6 c 
 
1010 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 hooks for fastening the cord to when the blind is pulled up ; the other hook being a 
 little way above it, as shown at h, in fig. 1806. It will be observed that the hood or 
 bonnet is confined by the line and rod shown at c, in the same figure ; the line serving 
 to draw up the curtain. Fig. 1808 is a skeleton view of the interior of the blind; in 
 
 which a is one of the lines by which the hood is raised : it is attached to the front iron of 
 the hood, passes over the pulley b, proceeds along the top of the lath, passes over the 
 pulley c, and joins the other lines at the knot ; e is the second line of the hood, which 
 crosses the pulley /, passes along the lath, and descends over the pulley to the knot k. 
 h is the third line of the hood, which passeii over the pulley i, and meets the others at d ; 
 k is the knot where the two lines tmite, which raise the entire blind : one line passes over 
 the pulley Z, and is attached by a hook to the slip m, which slides in a groove, and to which 
 the rising bar of the hood, n, is hinged. The other line crosses the pulley o, proceeds 
 along the lath, descends over the pulley p, and is attached to the other sliding slip at q. 
 r is the thick cord, by pulling which the hood is raised ; s represents the front iron ; 
 t is the line which the bar reaches when the hood is drawn up ; and u is the thick cord, 
 which must be grasped together with r to raise the whole blind. An elegant imi)rovc- 
 ment on this description of blinds has been made by Mr. Vokins, in consequence of which 
 thev are much more easily drawn up, and arc less likely to get out of repair. 
 
INTERIOR FINISHING OF VILLAS. 
 
 1011 
 
 Sect. II. Of the Interior Finishing of Villas. 
 
 2003. The Interior Finishings of the Apartments of a Villa embrace a variety of 
 details, the principal of which may be included under those relating to architectural 
 style, and those relating to decorations independent of style. To the latter belongs 
 the consideration of the materials with which the walls, floors, and ceilings are covered, 
 and of the colouring with which the whole is finished. 
 
 2004. The architectural Style of an Interior, it is sufficiently obvious, should correspond 
 with the external appearance of the building ; and the degree of decoration should be 
 great, in the former case, in proportion as it is in the latter. The display of style in an 
 interior is in general made on the same parts as in the exterior ; viz., on the doors and 
 windows, also on the chimneys which correspond to the chimney-tops, and on the ceil- 
 ings which may be considered as corresponding to the roofs. The ceilings of rooms, 
 next to the walls, are the principal parts where the expression of architectural strength 
 requires to be given ; and this is admirably done, in the Grecian style, by horizontal 
 beams and rectangular compartments; and, in the Gothic style, by beams supported 
 by brackets, and other projections, in the manner of what are called groined ceilings. 
 
 2005. Internal Decorations tvhich are independent of Style are comparatively few. 
 They are chiefly the disposition of mirrors, or of chandeliers, or other fixed lights, and of 
 fixed sculptures and statuary. Perhaps the time is not far distant, when the regulators 
 for ventilation, and for the admission of heat, which are fixed in floors, walls, and ceilings, 
 will be included under this class of finishings ; but the improvements in warming 
 and ventilating are not yet sufficiently disseminated for this purpose. Though certain 
 interior decorations may be considered independent of style none whatever are inde- 
 pendent of construction. " The spirit of decoration," Percier and Fontaine observe (or 
 rather Quatremere de Quincy, who obviously wrote the introduction to their work 
 observes), " separated from that of construction, and not operating in concert with it, will 
 make light of absurdities and contradictions : it will not only pervei't the essential forms 
 of the edifice, but it will make them disappear. Looking-glasses ill placed, or tapestry 
 awkwardly fastened, will produce voids where there ought to be none, and vice versa. 
 Construction is to buildings what the bones are to the human body : it ought to be 
 embellished, without being entirely concealed. It is the construction which, according 
 to the country, the climate, and the sort of edifice, gives the motive for the ornaments. 
 Construction and decoration have thus an intimate connection ; and, if this connection 
 does not appear, the whole is vicious. The execution of the work, whatever may be its 
 extent and its importance, will have no effect on the mind, if the construction has not 
 dictated the embellishment ; if the first form does not seem in accordance with its acces- 
 saries ; and if, in short, it is perceived that two wills, without harmonising together, have 
 operated in the execution of the work." In accordance with this principle, whether a 
 chandelier hang from a Grecian or a Gothic ceilmg, it ought to be, or to appear to be, 
 suspended from a beam, or other part of the construction, obviously sufficient for its sup- 
 port. To suspend any light of this kind from a plastered ceiling, perhaps painted in 
 imitation of the sky, without any intervening decoration or preparation, but the hook to 
 which the chain is attached, every one must feel to be inconsistent with the principles 
 here laid down. 
 
 2006. The Materials with which the Walls and Ceilings of Rooms are covered have 
 varied in different ages, and with different styles of Architecture. In ancient times, 
 tapestry was the principal article employed, and this is still an appropriate covering for 
 the walls of rooms in the Gothic style, and even in the most ancient Italian manner of 
 building.^ To tapestry succeeded wainscoting, and to the latter the use of lime and 
 hair plaster and stucco, and of printed papers pasted to these, or to canvass. The most 
 durable mode, and that least susceptible of injury from fire, is the covering of plaster or 
 stucco ; even if this should require, from the style of Architecture, to be finished so as 
 to resemble wainscoting. 
 
 2007. Scagliola is a mode of finishing with stucco which deserves adoption, more par- 
 ticularly in houses in the Grecian or Italian manner. The object is an imitation of 
 marble, and the success is most complete. The art of making scagliola has been long 
 well known and extensively practised in Italy ; and also by Italian artists in most of the 
 capital cities on the Continent ; but it was not introduced into Britain till about the end 
 of the last century. " In order to execute columns and their antae, or pilasters, in 
 scagliola, the following remarks and directions are to be observed : when the Architect 
 has finished the drawing, exhibiting the diameter of the shafts, a wooden cradle is made, 
 about two inches and a half less in diameter than that of the projected column. This 
 cradle is lathed all round, as if for common plastering, and is afterwards covered by a 
 pricking-up coat of lime and hair : v/hen this is quite dry, the workers in scagliola 
 commence their peculiar labours. The scagliola is capable of imitating the most scarce 
 and precious marbles ; the imitation taking as high a polish, and feeling to the touch as 
 
1012 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 cold and solid, as the most compact and dense marble. For the composition of it the 
 purest gypsum must be broken in small pieces, and then calcined till the largest frag- 
 ments have lost their brilliancy. The calcined powder is then passed through a very fine 
 sieve, and mixed up in a solution of Flanders glue, isinglass, &c., with the colours 
 required in the marble about to be imitated. When the work is to be of various colours, 
 each colour is prepared separately, and they are afterwards mingled and combined, 
 nearly in the same manner as a painter mixes, on his pallet, the primitive colours which 
 are to compose his different shades. When the powdered gypsum, or plaster, is pre- 
 pared, and mingled for the work, it is laid on the shaft of the column, &c., covering over 
 the pricked-up coat, which had been previously laid on it, and is floated with moulds of 
 wood to the sizes required. During the floating, the artist uses the colours necessary 
 for the marble which he intends to imitate, and which thus become mingled and incor- 
 porated in it. In order to give his work the requisite polish or glossy lustre, he rubs 
 it with a pumice-stone, and cleanses it with a wet sponge. He next proceeds to polish 
 it with tripoli and charcoal, and fine soft linen ; and, after going over it with a piece of 
 felt, dipped in a mixture of oil and tripoli, finishes the operation by the application of 
 pure oil. This is considered as one of the finest imitations in the world ; the scagliola 
 being as strong and durable as real marble, for all works not exposed to the effects of the 
 atmosphere ; it also retains its lustre as long, and equal to real marble, without being one 
 eighth of the expense of the cheapest marble imported." (Nicholson's Practical Builder, 
 p. 382.) The principal scagliola worker in London is Mr. Brown, whose rich and 
 elegant museum, in University Street, contains the most beautiful specimens of vases, 
 columns serving as candelabras, stands for busts, and a great variety of other objects. 
 The chief use, however, of scagliola is for columns in rooms of a very superior descrip- 
 tion. Mr. Brown informs us that the art is brought to a much higher degree of per- 
 fection in London than it ever has been on the Continent ; the reason being, that there 
 it is considered as an inferior style of finishing next to marble, whereas here it is made 
 to serve instead of marble itself, and, therefore, more pains are bestowed upon it. 
 
 2008. The permanent Covering of the Floors of Rooms is, for the most part, of boards ; 
 though scagliola, ard various imitations of marble and stone, are common on the Con- 
 tinent, and especially in the villas of Italy, see § 1916. Mosaic pavement is also 
 frequently used. An improved description of pavement of this kind, invented by Mr. 
 Wright of Shelton, has already been mentioned. Figs. 1810 and 1811 show two squares, 
 or quarries as they are technically termed, in which the ground, or plain space, is of one 
 colour, and the ornament inlaid is of a different colour. Fig. 1809 is an octagon quarry 
 
 c u u VI, o^rrl^ T^iVres a, and centre pieces, b, in order to complete a square figure, 
 ^:^ntj 78 2 itZeTla; be the dimensions of the floor to be covered The .ugle 
 as in fig. 1812, whatever ma^^ of a different and darker colour than the ground, or 
 
 and centre piece are supposed to D ^^.^^ ornament is 
 
 pkin part, of the ^g^/^^ \^^f;^^;,ribed at length in the Repertory of Arts. A depres- 
 
 effected is very simple, and ^^^l'^" £ ^ ,v,„ i^t^nrlpd ornament, and the 
 
 sion is made on the surface of the tile, m 
 
 cavity thus formed is filled in w 
 so that the ornament may form 
 
 the form of the intended ornament, and the 
 ith coloured clay ; the tile is afterwards burned in the kiln, 
 one mass with the rest. Mr. Wright informs us that 
 
INTERIOR FINISHING OF VILLAS. 
 
 1013 
 
 1811 
 
 nothing can exceed the strength and durability of these tiles, and from their appearance 
 we do not doubt it : they are also very smooth, and highly ornamental. Another descrip- 
 tion of flooring tiles for halls, Mr. Peake of Tunstall informs us he has seen at Lillie's 
 Hall, in Shropshire, of which fig. 1813 will give a general idea. Various descriptions of 
 
 1812 1813 
 
 plaster floors are in use for villas, which may either be painted in imitation of marble, 
 or kept covered by carpeting. In some cases the preferable mode is to paint the margin 
 of the floor round the room in imitation of marble or other stone, or of oak, or of some 
 other dark wood ; or to finish this margin with scagliola, and cover the interior with 
 carpeting. A very successful imitation of Portland stone, which does not cost half the 
 price of that material, has lately been made by Mr. Bagshaw. "Were it not for the cold 
 impression made on the feet by stone, slate, tile, or plaster floors, their introduction in 
 all houses whatever would be very desirable, as lessening the risk of danger from fire. 
 
 2009. Boards have long been, and probably long will be, the principal covering for 
 the floors of villas in Britain. Three improvements have been made in them. To prevent 
 warping, and to lessen the risk of their being burned through by fire, they are some- 
 times laid down in large houses three inches thick. For the first of these objects, and 
 also to get rid of inequalities, and save the expense and disagreeable labour of continually 
 washing with soap and water, our correspondent, Mr. Robison, proposes, " when the 
 floors are newly laid and in good order, to cover them over with a copious soaking of 
 boiled and hot linseed oil, and afterwards to paint them with two coats of good oil colour. 
 Very little warping will probably take place after this, and a slight sponging with cold 
 water will at all times be sufficient to render them perfectly clean and clean-look- 
 ing." The third great improvement is the use of the planing machine, invented by 
 Mr. Milne, Engineer, Hutchesontown, Glasgow, by which a board of the ordinary 
 width, and twenty feet long, can be reduced to an equal thickness, planed perfectly 
 smooth on one side, and grooved on one edge and tongued on the other, in one minute. 
 This greatly lessens the labour of laying the boards down as floors, and insures the ad- 
 vantage of an even surface. 
 
 2010. Parquetted, or Inlaid, Floors took their origin from the circumstance of long 
 thin boards being liable to warp. The first and simplest kind of inlaid floor is formed 
 by using boards of three or four feet in length, and three or four inches in width, and 
 disposing of them as in fig. 1814. A second mode employs veneers three feet in length, 
 and from a quarter to half an inch in thickness, interlacing them so as to form a square 
 or panel, in the manner represented in fig. 1815; the smaller squares or quarries being 
 filled in with the same, or with a different kind of wood. A more refined description of 
 inlaying, which the French call marquetterie, consists in the employment of different 
 colours, which are laid down in such a manner as to imitate mosaic work. The practice 
 
1014 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 1814 1815 1816 
 
 was firet introduced in Florence, and it has subsequently been employed in most of the 
 great palaces of Europe. It has lately become fashionable in Britain, partly in conse- 
 quence of the recent inventions that have been made of machinery for sawing up 
 and planing wood, in which great improvements have been made since the first planing 
 machine was invented by General Bentham, about tlie beginning of the present century. 
 At tlic exhibition of the National Repository in 1829, a very handsome specimen of 
 inlaid flooring, fig. 1816 (from the Mech. Muff.), was exhibited by INIr. James White. 
 Each of the compartments, in this specimen, is formed of a different kind of wood, and 
 the colours are arranged so as to harmonise. Inlaid floors, when composed of different 
 colours, should never be entrusted to the sole management of a common joiner ; and 
 Architects need not consider them beneath their attention. 
 
 2011. Colour, next to the size and general proportions of a room, exercises the most 
 important influence on the eye of a spectator. Colour may be either communicated to 
 the walls by printed papers, by hangings of plain cloth or tapestry, or by painting. To 
 the ceiling it is, for the most part, only communicated in the latter manner ; and to 
 floors, in Britain at least, the carpet affords the principal medium of colouring. " A 
 handsome room may be quite spoiled by bad finishing, and by ill-chosen colours of the 
 walls and furniture ; and the defects of a poor one concealed, or at least much diminished, 
 by good management in this respect." ( JVood, vol. i. p. 451.) 
 
 2012. JFith respect to Hangings of Plain Cloth and Printed Paper, very little can be 
 laid down in the shape of rules that will not be included under the general principles, 
 and the rules drawn from them, taught by the art of painting or colouring apartments 
 generally. It must be confessed that this department of the art of interior decoration 
 has not been hitherto reduced to any regular theory, and that the subject appears to be 
 only understood by artists of a superior description, whose employment is necessarily 
 very limited. After consulting all the works that are considered the most valuable on 
 the subject of house and ornamental painting, we think that by far the best, and indeed 
 the only one that embraces princijjles, is a small work entitled the Laws of Harmonious 
 Colouring, 8^c., by INIr. D. Hay, House Painter, Edinburgh. For the mechanical part 
 there is a very complete work, in a thick quarto volume, by Mr. N. Whittock, called the 
 Decorative Painter's and Glazier's Guide j which also embraces the subjects of imitating 
 a great variety of woods and marbles, and of staining glass. From the former work we 
 have drawn the following paragraphs ; but to understand the theory of house-painting 
 so as to be able to act on it, the reader must consult Burnet, Syme, Lairesse, Hassel, 
 Reade, Schimmelpennick, &c., including an able article on painting in Brewster's 
 Encyclopcedia. For varnishing, the most useful work is by Tingry. 
 
 2013. Harmony of Colours is produced by the juxtaposition of two colours, such as 
 red or yellow, with an intermediate colour, such as orange, to unite them. " Harmony 
 consists more in the media which unite the several colours, than in the colours them- 
 selves ; and therefore, in completing the arrangement of colours for an apartment, a 
 neutralising colour, possessing the properties of both contrast and harmony, should be 
 introduced, in order to give keeping and repose to the whole. The colouring of rooms 
 should be an echo to their uses. The colour of a library ought to be comparatively 
 severe ; that of a dining-room grave ; and that of a drawingroom gay. Light colours 
 are most suitable for bed-rooms. The colouring of all rooms depends so much for its 
 eflTect on the colour of the furniture, that this ought always to be known to the decorator, 
 before he determines his system of composition. " 
 
 2014. Defects in the Colouring of Rooms. " The first and most obvious defect m the 
 colouring of rooms is, when there is no particular tone fixed on for an apartment ; that 
 is, when one part of the furniture is chosen without any reference to the rest, and the 
 painting done without any reference to the furniture. This generally produces an in- 
 congruous mixture j and is, in comparison to a tastefully decorated apartment, as far as 
 
INTERIOR FINISHING OF VILLAS. 
 
 1015 
 
 regards colouring, what a child produces with its first box of paints, to the work of a 
 great master. A second and more common fault is, the predominance of some bright 
 and intense colour, either upon the walls or floor. It is evident that the predominance 
 of a bright and overpowering colour upon so large a space as the floor or wall of a room 
 must injure the effect of the finest furniture. This great error often arises from the 
 difficulty of choosing a paper hanging or carpet, and our liability to be bewildered 
 amongst the multitude of patterns which are produced ; the most attractive of which, on 
 a small scale, are often, from this very circumstance, the more objectionable in regard to 
 their forming a large mass in an apartment ; particularly as the artists who design them 
 seem to be regulated by no fixed principles ; but, from their repeated deviations from the 
 established rules of harmony, appear to give themselves up to the vague pursuit of 
 novelty alone. A third error is, introducing deep and pale colours, which may have been 
 well enough chosen in regard to their tints, but whose particular degrees of strength have 
 not been attended to. Thus, the intensity of one or more, may so affect those whicl 
 they were intended to balance and relieve, as to give them a faded and imfinished ap- 
 pearance. This may proceed from applying the fundamental laws without any regard 
 to the minutiffi ; for although it is always necessary to subdue and neutralise such colours 
 as are introduced in large quantities, yet, when they are reduced by dilution alone, the 
 effect is very different. There is a fourth defect, and rather a common one, and that is, 
 a want of the media which unite and harmonise an assemblage of bright colours which 
 may, in other respects, be perfectly well arranged ; for it is a rule in the higher branches 
 of the art, that confusion of parts of equal strength should always be avoided. A room 
 of this description resembles a Chinese landscape, where foreground and distance are 
 jumbled together. An opposite effect to this is monotony, or a total want of variety ; 
 for some are so afraid of committing errors in point of harmony, that neutral tints alone 
 are introduced, and sometimes one tint of this kind alone prevails. Variety is a quality 
 found to exist in the most trifling as well as in the grandest combinations of Nature's 
 colouring ; and it is, as already observed, in uniting and making an arrangement of 
 various colours, harmonious and agreeable to the eye, that the skill of the house-painter 
 chiefly consists. It is this which produces what is termed repose in a picture, a quality 
 equally desirable in the colouring of an apartment." 
 
 2015. Requisites for good Colouring. " All colours brought together, to form an 
 agreeable whole, should be considered not only in regard to tint, but tone, depth, quan- 
 tity, and situation. The tone is the first point to be fixed, and its degree of warmth or 
 coldness will be regulated by the use, situation, and light of the apartment. The next 
 point is the style of colouring, whether gay, sombre, or otherwise. Unison, or a proper 
 combination of parts, is the next consideration." 
 
 2016. The Tone of Colouring " is generally fixed by the choice of the furniture ; for as 
 the furniture of a room may be considered, in regard to colouring, in the same light as 
 the principal figures in a picture, the general tone must depend upon the colours ot 
 which it is composed : for instance, if the prevailing colour of the furniture be blue, grey, 
 cool green, or lilac, the general tone must be cool ; but if, on the other hand, it is red, 
 orange, brown, yellow, or a warm tint of green or purple, the tone must be warm. But, 
 as hinted before, there can be no pleasing combination of colours without variety ; this, 
 by judicious management, may be given without in the least interfering with the tone, 
 for it is merely the general colour of the furniture which ought to fix the tone, and there 
 may be the most decided contrasts in its parts, which, by the introduction of proper tints 
 upon the other parts of the room, can be reconciled and united. Apartments lighted 
 from the south and west, particularly in a summer residence, should be of a cool tone ; 
 but the apartments of a town house ought all to approach towards a warm tone ; as also 
 should be such apartments as are lighted from the north and east of a country residence. 
 When the tone of an apartment is therefore fixed by the choice of the furniture, it is the 
 business of the house-painter to introduce such tints from the ceiling, walls, &c., as will 
 unite the whole in perfect harmony ; and this, it may be observed, is a difficult task. 
 The colours of the furniture may be arranged by a general knowledge of the laws of 
 harmony ; but the painter's part can. only be done by the closest attention to all the 
 minutias of the art.'* 
 
 2017. The Style of Colouring " is the next point to be fixed, and will depend entirely 
 on the use of the apartment. In a drawingroom, vivacity, gaiety, light, and cheerfulness 
 should characterise the colouring. This is produced by the introduction of light shades 
 of brilliant colours, with a considerable degree of contrast, gilding, &c. ; but the brightest 
 colours and strongest contrasts should be upon the furniture, the effect of which will 
 derive additional value and brilliancy from the walls being kept in due subjection, 
 although, to a certain extent, they also should partake of the general lightness.'* 
 
 2018. The characteristic Colouring of a Dining-room " should be warm, rich, and 
 substantia] ; and, where contrasts are introduced, they should not be vivid. This 
 
101b COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 style of colouring will be found to correspond best with the massive description of 
 the furniture : gilding, unless in very small quantities, for the sake of relief, should be 
 avoided." 
 
 2019. Parlours " ought to be painted in a medium style between that of a drawing- 
 room and that of a dining-room." 
 
 2020. For Libraries, " the most appropriate style of colouring is solemn and grave, 
 and no richer colouring should be employed than is necessary to give the effect of gran- 
 deur, which can scarcely be done where one monotonous tint prevails ; but care should 
 be taken not to disturb the quiet and solemn tone which ought to characterise the colour- 
 ing of all apartments of this description." 
 
 2021. In Bed-rooms a light and cheerful style of colouring is the most appropriate. 
 A greater degree of contrast may here be admitted between the room and its furniture, 
 than in any other apartment; as the bed-curtains, &c., form a sufficient mass to balance 
 a tint of equal intensity upon the walls. There may also, for the same reason, be ad- 
 mitted gayer and brighter colours upon the carpet. 
 
 2022. Staircases, Lobbies, Vestibules, 8fc., " should all be of rather a cool tone; and the 
 style of colour should be simple and free from contrast. The effect to be produced is 
 that of architectural grandeur, which owes its beauty more to light and shade, than to 
 any arrangement of colours. Yet they ought not to be so entirely free from colour as the 
 exterior of a mansion, but should be in colouring, what they are in use, a link between 
 exterior simplicity and interior richness. Staircases and lobbies, being cool in tone, and 
 simple in the style of their colouring, will much improve the effect of the apartments 
 which enter from them." {Hay's Harmonious Colouring, p. 28.) We strongly recom- 
 mend Mr. Hay's work to every painter who aims at excellence in his profession, and to 
 every amateur who wishes to judge for himself. To those who are at such a distance 
 from Mr. Hay as not to be able to employ him, we would suggest the idea of sending 
 him descriptions of their rooms, with the kind of furniture, hangings, and carpets which 
 they are intended to contain, the mode of lighting, proportionate surface of pictures, &c., 
 and to procure from him directions for proceeding, together with specimens of the dif- 
 ferent tints which he would recommend to be employed. Next to this we would recom- 
 mend applying to an eminent scene-painter. This is the practice in Paris. In London, 
 the house-painter of the greatest taste that we know is Mr. Fair, of Mortimer Street, 
 whom we can strongly recommend. 
 
 2023. The Arabesque is a description of fanciful ornament, comprising a great variety 
 of objects, brought together apparently without order or reason. Though it chiefly 
 belongs to the Italian style, yet it is applicable to any manner of finishing ; because 
 the objects, brought together, may always be chiefly taken from the style of Architecture 
 employed, and from natural objects. At first sight of an arabesque, the mind of a 
 person unaccustomed to see this description of ornament, is apt to ask, what can be the 
 meaning of such a composition ? The answer, according to Quatremere de Quincy, is 
 to be found in the natural love of mankind for the marvellous. Man is not able to 
 create any particular object, but he can create combinations of objects already existing. 
 He can bring together objects which are never found together in nature ; he can compose 
 plants and animals different from any plants or animals now existing, by joining the parts 
 of one animal or plant to the parts of another ; or by joining parts of animals to parts of 
 plants. In short, the composition of arabesques is a capricious exercise of the imagin- 
 ation, by an artist whose mind is richly stored with ideas, and whose hand has great 
 facility with his pencil. Nevertheless, in all this, the same author observes, there must 
 reign a certain comparative regard to truth, and to the production of a harmonious 
 whole. For example, the most delicate foliage miist not be represented as supporting 
 an object of great weight ; solid bodies must not be shown as hanging in the air ; in every 
 thing, possibility must be kept in view, and the whole must express a unity of purpose, 
 and a harmony of lines, forms, and colours. No one ought to attempt the arabesque, 
 whose mind is not fertile in resources, and whose pencil is not apt in delineating every 
 description of object. The term arabesque, the author quoted has shown, is erroneously 
 applied to ornaments of this description ; for, so far from their having been invented by 
 the Arabs, they were found on the walls of the ruins of Herculaneum and Pompeii ; and, 
 indeed, the Arabs are forbidden by their religion to imitate the figures of men or 
 animals. In short, this mode of varying the forms of natural objects is seen more or 
 less in all architectural sculptures ; and, indeed, in all imitations of nature, not intended 
 to be fac similes, or scientific representations, of animals or plants. 
 
 2024. Egyptian Ornaments. Mr. Hope recommends young artists " never to adopt, 
 except from motives more weighty than a mere aim at novelty, the Egyptian style of 
 ornament. The hieroglyphic figures, so universally employed by the Egyptians, can 
 afford us little pleasure on account of their meaning, since this is seldom intelligible : they 
 can afford us still less gratification on account of their outline, since this is never agree- 
 
INTERIOR FINISHING OF VILLAS. 
 
 1017 
 
 able ; at least in as far as regards those smaller details which alone are susceptible of 
 being introduced in our confined spaces. Real Egyptian monuments, built of the 
 hardest materials, cut out in the most prodigious blocks ; even where they please not the 
 eye, through the elegance of their shapes, still amaze the intellect, through the immensity 
 of their size, and the indestructibility of their nature. Modern imitations of those won- 
 ders of antiquity, composed of lath and plaster, of calico, and of paper, offer no one 
 attribute of solidity or grandeur to compensate for their want of elegance and grace, and 
 can only excite ridicule and contempt." 
 
 2025. Gilding, as forming a part of decoration, is a subject on which there is some 
 diversity of opinion. All, however, are agreed, that its effect in interior finishing is 
 rich and magnificent beyond that of any other material. The richness seems to arise, 
 in a great measure, from the actual value of the gold, or the associations of value con- 
 nected with it ; because, in Architecture, as in all other arts, where two objects are equally 
 beautiful in regard to forms and lines, that will be most esteemed of which the material 
 is of the greatest intrinsic vahie. The magnificence appears to result from the brilliancy 
 of the colouring. Merely as a colour, therefore, gilding appears desirable where the 
 furniture of a room consists of rich-coloured woods. Where there are a number of 
 different-coloured marbles, and white cornices, with crimson or orange curtains, gilding 
 is a great addition. " Gilding, or a small portion of bright yellow," that excellent prac- 
 tical artist Hay observes, " will be found to heighten the effect of a room, wherever scarlet 
 is the prevailing colour." (p. 53.) Hence we find that artists generally prefer a crimson 
 or scarlet ground for the wall on which their gilt-framed pictures are hung. 
 
 2026. Plating or Silvering may sometimes be used in decorating rooms ; but the prac- 
 tice is by no means general. A correspondent informs us that a gentleman residing in 
 the neighbourhood of Edinburgh made the experiment on an extensive scale, at con- 
 siderable expense. He furnished a drawingroom with pale green, as the prevailing tint, 
 the hangings and furniture were silk damask, and the walls were covered with plain flock 
 paper. The mouldings and picture- frames were silvered, and likewise the door handles, 
 and some other matters. The effect was not satisfactory to most observers, who said 
 that the room had a raw look by daylight ; and that, by artificial light, the pictm-e- 
 frames, &c., appeared as though they were formed of tin or pewter, not well scoured. 
 
 2027. As an Example of the Finishing of a Room in a new style, we shall quote, from 
 a letter of Mr. Robison, an account of his own drawingroom, " I have lately ven- 
 tured to try an experiment in the finishing of my principal drawingroom, and I send 
 you the particulars, because they coincide in a curious manner with much of what your 
 correspondent Selim recommends, in his description of the interior of Beau Ideal Villa. 
 In the first place, there are only three colours throughout the whole ; viz., white (or 
 rather new-milk colour), pure crimson, and green. The ceiling, cornices, woodwork, 
 and canopies of the window hangings are white, enriched with gilding ; the hangings 
 (silk damask), the ground of the walls, and that of the carpet, crimson ; and the pattern 
 on the carpet a sort of tracery of creeping plants in shades of green. The chimney- 
 piece is of white marble, reaching nearly to the ceiling, with a panel, equal in width to 
 the opening of the chimney, filled with mirror, as in fig. 1817. The walls are 13 feet 
 3 inches high, and are painted in imitation jgjy 
 
 of morocco leather, enriched with roses in 
 gilding, shaded by hand; the whole var- 
 nished with copal. The woodwork (there 
 is no dado or surbase) is flat white, with the 
 convex mouldings gilded (in oil gold, and 
 varnished). The painter's work was done 
 by a most ingenious artist here, a Mr. D. 
 R. Hay, who has written a very instructive 
 work (before quoted) on the laws of harmo- 
 nious colouring as applicable to house work. 
 The imitation of morocco has been most 
 successful ; so much so as to deceive a book- 
 binder, who enquired where such enormous 
 skins were to be obtained. The window 
 hangings are of the simplest form; mere 
 large curtains, without draperies or fringes. 
 They hang in vertical lines, and catch no dust. They run on gilt wooden poles, 5 inches 
 in diameter, a in fig. 1818, having two slips of brass beading (such as is used by 
 coachmakers) laid along the top, so that the curtain rings, &, run on the poles without 
 injuring the gilding ; the curtains are hooked on at c, in the usual manner. This 
 arrangement is better than having brass poles, and makes little noise- In the inside 
 of the canopy or cornice (from which the large pole advances far enough to allow i-ooiv 
 
 6 D 
 
1018 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 for the rings to pass free) is a common French curtain-rod, on which runs a very fine 
 but plain muslin sun-curtain, edged with crimson cherry fringe. The 1818 
 cords for drawing the curtains, instead of being concealed, are made very 
 conspicuous, and contribute much to the general effect. They are about 
 the thickness of half an inch, of plaited worsted cordj with handsome 
 terminations. They run on sheaves of 6 inches in diameter, let into the 
 knobs at the extremities of the poles, and are long enough to admit the 
 ends to be reached by the hand in the extreme positions of the curtains, 
 when. Ox course, one is shortened and the other lengthened to the extent of 
 the width which the curtain has traversed. The long end is then looped 
 upon the bracket which confines the curtain. The idea of this arrangement 
 was suggested to me by an old picture. The whole of the crimson in the room is, as near 
 as practicable with the different materials, of the same hue ; the lake for the walls having 
 been first procured, and the silk and worsted dyed to match it. From this circumstance, and 
 from its being contrasted by the green, and relieved by the white and gold, it has no more 
 of a predominant hue in the arrangement than is perfectly agreeable ; while it gives great 
 distinctness to the pictures, and a general air of warmth and comfort, without appearing 
 glaring or gaudy. In the design and construction of every thing in the room, the aim 
 has been, to avoid harbourage for dust, and to reduce to a minimum the time required 
 for keeping it in order. If this principle were kept in view by cabinetmakers and 
 upholsterers, we should be spared the sight of such a variety of meaningless draperies and 
 dirty finery as are constantly exhibited ; and which, although often of flimsy and com- 
 mon materials, are made to cost more than properly made furniture, of materials of the 
 best and most lasting description. The room your correspondent, Selim, mentions at 
 Earlstoke must have been delightful. Titian could not have produced more harmonious 
 colouring ; the drawingroom proposed with bright blue hangings would be difficult to 
 carry through ; as the tints which would be required to make a regular optical harmony 
 by daylight would show quite different by artificial light, which has so little of the 
 yellow part of the spectrum in it, that even orange (the contrasting colour to the blue 
 of the spectrum,) would appear a dirty white by candlelight, while the blue would retain 
 all its clearness. I suspect it is from feeling this, that, in arrangements where delicate 
 blue is introduced as a principal colour, the contrast is generally sought in pure white 
 and gold." 
 
 Sect. III. Of the Fixtures and Fitiings-up of Villas. 
 
 2028. The Fixtures and Fittings-up of villas include many articles already described 
 when treating of the fittings-up, &c., of cottages, farm houses, and inns ; never- 
 theless, there are a few articles remaining to be noticed, which we shall include in two 
 subsections. 
 
 SuBSECT. 1. Of the Fixtures and Fittings-up of Villa Offices. 
 
 2029. The Kitchen. In the neighbourhood of Leamington, in Warwickshire, we 
 are informed, open fireplaces are entirely laid aside in the kitchens of a number of 
 villas. Instead of them, a fire is made in a furnace in the middle of a raised hearth 
 or brick bench : it is covered with a cast-iron plate, having an opening of about nine 
 inches in diameter, into which a lid is fitted. This lid is taken off when broiling is to be 
 performed, but at all other times it is kept on. Two flues pass from the furnace, one 
 to the right and the other to the left, and there is a damper to each flue, so that at any 
 time the whole of the heat can be turned into any one of the flues. There is also a third 
 flue, which communicates directly with the upright chimney, into which the whole of the 
 smoke and heat can be at any time thrown. To the right of the central fireplace, and 
 next to the fire, there is an oven, properly arranged for roasting meat ; beyond it, there 
 is another arranged for baking ; and farther on, a third, serving as a closet for keeping 
 articles hot. The fire, after having passed round these ovens, returns to the central 
 chimney in a flue with a cast-iron cover ; on which cover stewing may be carried on in 
 different saucepans. The flue which passes out of the furnace to the left has a cast-iron 
 cover, which can be rendered sufficiently hot to boil articles, and here both boiling and 
 stewing can be performed. In returning, this flue passes round a boiler, which contains 
 a perpetual reservoir of hot water, and round a second oven for roasting meat. We have 
 been informed by a gentleman who has paid great attention to subjects of this kind, that, 
 in kitchens thus fitted up, there is a great saving of fuel and labour ; and that the heat 
 of the apartment is much less than in kitchens having open fireplaces. 
 
 2030. A Kitchen and its Appendages, as designed by Mr. Mallet. In fig. 1819, A 
 is the entrance to the kitchen from the dining-room, and from the two corridors, m m, 
 running parallel to it, and communicating with the housekeeper's, steward's, and butler's 
 rooms, and other servants' offices ; B, the entrance to the scullery from the kitchen court ; 
 C, the kitchen, twenty-five feet by thirty feet ; D, the scullery, thirty feet by sixteen feet ; 
 
FITTINGS-U1> OF VILLA OFFICES. 
 
 1019 
 
 E, the larder, sixteen feet by sixteen feet ; F, the pantry, of the same size ; G, refrigeratory, 
 under an open shed ; H, apparatus-room, sixteen feet by sixteen feet ; I, pastry-room ; 
 K, store-room ; and L, fuel-room, each sixteen feet by sixteen feet. The fuel-room is 
 divided into six bins for charcoal, coal coke, wood for lighting fires, common coal, coal 
 cinders, and coke cinders, or coke breize as the cinders of coke are usually called. " The 
 details of this plan are as follow : — In the kitchen, C, a a are large kitchen tables, which 
 are fixtures with cast-iron legs and oak tops ; each table has a row of large strong drawers 
 beneath, nine feet long by three feet three inches wide ; h h are two long ranges of what 
 are commonly called ' stew-holes,' or apertures of various sizes in a cast-iron hot plate, for 
 the admission and application of various culinary vessels, all heated by one close fire or 
 small furnace at the end next the kitchen door. Beneath the flue which heats the 
 top plate and stew-holes may be placed a range of hot-closets for heating plates or other 
 things, or performing operations requiring a low heat ; c c are two plates, or hearths, on 
 which any large or wide vessels may be placed to boil, &c. ; beneath each is a cubical 
 oven, round which the flame of the fire or furnace, which is placed at the ends, y y, is 
 caused to play, and in these ovens such is the heat, that meat may be roasted, or baked, 
 by proper regulation of the fire. Dampers should be provided to all flues in kitchens, in 
 order that a perfect command of heat may be obtained. Both h b and c c may be about 
 two feet six inches wide ; the wall against which they are built should have a proper 
 cast-iron skirting, one foot above their top level ; d is a range of charcoal hearths or 
 grates, such as are in common use on the Continent. Each is simply a frustum ot 
 
1020 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 an inverted quadrangular pyramid, terminated at the less end by an open grate, and 
 dropped into a square hole formed in a cast-iron or earthenware table to receive 
 it, as in fig. 1820. They are especially used in Italy, and I have often watched the 
 dispatch and neatness with which cookery may be performed by this simple apparatus. 
 As a first-rate kitchen is but a kind of culinary laboratory, it is well to have such a uni- 
 versally available apparatus at hand ; as it can be used with effect at five minutes' notice, 
 while every other kind of appa- 
 
 ratus, except that for cooking by 
 gas, requires some time to be put 
 into working trim. Charcoal, of 
 course, is the fuel used ; which, un - 
 fortunately, involves the necessity 
 of having a hood over this appa- 
 
 ratus : this hood may be made of 
 wood, tin, coi)i)er, or iron, or it may be neatly and well made of earthenware tiles. 
 A table apparatus fitted up with gas burners for cooking, in a manner hereafter to be 
 more fully described, is shewn at e. The table itself is of cast iron, and underneath it 
 are several wrought-iron cylinders, made steam-tight, with manhole covers properly 
 secured for cooking, and particularly for making soup, by high-pressure steam, generated 
 by the boiler placed in the scullery immediately behind. Soup can be made, by these 
 means, from almost any kind of bones (say those of fish, for instance), superior, I think, 
 to any other." 
 
 2031. The Scvllery, D. In this room, / is a large cast-iron sink for washing fish, and 
 vessels of different kinds ; ^ is a similar sink, to be used solely for washing vegetables 
 (see figs. 1259 and 1332). A flap-board may be added to /, for laying down plates and 
 dishes, when washed, to drain. Each sink has a supply, by cocks, of hot and cold water ; 
 h is the high pressure steam-boiler before mentioned : it is of wrought iron, cylindrical, 
 with hemispherical ends, two feet long, and ten inches in diameter, and the iron is nine 
 sixteenths of an inch thick. It may be worked to eight atmospheres, and should have two 
 safety valves, each one inch and a quarter in diameter : one of them should be locked up, 
 in order to render it inaccessible to servants. The steam from this boiler may be used 
 to warm the store-room occasionally ; i is an open boiler for boiling and cleansing the 
 cloths used in culinary operations, such as pudding-cloths, &c., which are not things that 
 should be sent to the general laundry. It is also to be made, by the circulation of hot 
 water, subservient to heating the apparatus-room, pantry, and larder, through the line of 
 pipes shown by the dotted line, x. This open boiler will also afford a supply of hot 
 water to both the sinks, / and g. The cleaning of cloths may be done by night, so as 
 not to interfere with the purity of the water by day. This boiler must be self-supplied. 
 There are two tables, It k, of considerable magnitude, on which culinary materials, when 
 first introduced from the kitchen court, may be laid. Large plate drainers may be 
 placed in the corners, z z. 
 
 2032. T7ie Fuel- Room, L, must have an external door, as shown at w, for the intro- 
 duction of fuel : it should be divided into bins of brickwork for the various kinds of 
 fuel. 
 
 2033. Apparatus- Room, H. This is a room in which bright copper vessels, and all 
 the finer utensils of the culinary art, should be kept. No vessels are so safe, in a poisonous 
 point of view, as glass ; and, if cooks were only a little better educated, almost any 
 operation at present performed in copper vessels might be done in glass, or porcelain, 
 over gas flames, charcoal, or hot air. If this idea were reduced to practice, an apparatus 
 room would be essential. It should contain a knife-cleaner, and a broad band of buff 
 leathei*, coated with fine emery, to clean the vessels with rapidity ; this should be worked 
 by the foot. The room should be fitted up with shelves, racks, &c. ; and should have a 
 middling-sized table in the centre. 
 
 2034. Pantry and Larder, E and F. Both these rooms should be fitted up with 
 shelves, and drawers in abundance ; and a table, as large as convenient, should be placed 
 in the centre, on which should be fixed a pair of scales with weights. The windows 
 should have fly wirecloth, and be capable of giving abundant ventilation. 
 
 2035. The Store- Room, K, should be fitted up with shelves, drawers, hooks, &c. ; and 
 .ihould have a table with drawers and fixed scales of various sizes. A desk and books 
 may be placed here, for the clerk of the kitchen, or head cook. 
 
 2036. Pastry-Room, 1. This room is devoted solely to making and baking pastry. 
 It has a large capacious oven of bi'ick, cased in cast iron ; and nmst have abundant 
 ventilation. A table and scales must also be provided for this room, and various ovens 
 may be suggested; but I think one on the plan of the common confectioner's oven as 
 good as any. 
 
 2037. General Construction. The kitchen, scullery, fuel-room, and pastry-room should 
 
FITTINGS-UP OF VILLA OFFICES 
 
 1021 
 
 be flagged with Yorkshire or Scotch flagstone, rubbed smooth, and given one coat of oil, 
 to prevent grease from marking it. The store-room, larder, pantry, and apparatus-room 
 should be boarded. The kitchen court should be flagged ; and it should have a good fall 
 from the kitchen to a drain with an air-trap. The kitchen itself should be lighted by 
 skylights, as this mode throws the light best into open vessels. The roof may be constructed 
 as shown in the vertical profile, fig. 1821, and in the elevation, fig. 1822. The top, a, is 
 
 a copper flat platform, surrounded by a continuous skylight of rolled sash-bar, like the 
 roof of a hot-house, with principals strong enough to support the weight of the platform. 
 There should be large opening ventilators below the cornice of the building, as shown 
 at b ; there should also be a large gas burner in the centre of the kitchen, with several 
 over the hot hearths, &c., and in each other apartment one, except the scullery, which 
 should have four at least. In building the kitchen, as many flues should be provided as 
 possible, which may either join into one stack, or be carried up separately according to 
 convenience ; but none should be less than forty feet high, and they should not terminate 
 under any large or very close building. In the scuUei-y, both plate-drainers should be 
 enclosed in front and at top with wooden casing, one end being placed against the outer 
 wall, through which there should be a large aperture opening into the case, and covered 
 with fly canvass; and the other end, that is, that opposite, should be likewise only covered 
 with canvass. The casing should have doors in front, to take plates and dishes in and 
 out : by these means, a current of fresh air will always be rushing in through the plate- 
 drainers, which will, in a very short time, dry the plates perfectly. The chief ventilation 
 to the scullery and kitchen should be through these plate-di-ainers. A large heavy 
 block of wood should stand in the scullery, like an anvil block, for pestles and mortars to 
 be used on ; and, besides this, a heavy chopping-block, with a cover to keep the dust from 
 it, for meat. Above each of the main cooking apparatus should be placed some small 
 racks and shelves, in order that the cooks may have always at hand such utensils, as forks, 
 ladles, spoons, plates, &c., as are necessary for immediately removing matters cooked. 
 
 2038. The Walls of the Kitchen, for seven feet high from the ground, should not be 
 plastered, but built of rubbed sandstone, and left bare ; because plastering is continually 
 broken in such situations, looks ill when greased, and, if whitewashed frequently, is con- 
 tinually scaling off in small flakes, which fall into the cooking vessels, &c. 
 
 2039. A large Table should be appropriated solely to the purposes of dishing dinners 
 on ; and I would propose to make its surface of a suflScient number of two-feet wide 
 flat wrought-iron tubes, heated by means of hot water circulating in them, from the 
 waste heat of any of the neighbouring fires : an underground air tunnel should be pro- 
 vided, opening from the external air under this hot-water table, to be opened after the 
 dinner is taken to the dining-room, in order that this great heated surface may not 
 render the kitchen too hot. 
 
 2040. To prevent the Smell of the Kitchen from reaching the Dining-room various plans 
 have been proposed ; but the only effectual mode is, either wholly or in part, to ven- 
 tilate the kitchen by a current of air, from the direction of the dining-room passage, 
 and towards the kitchen ; and thus drive back the smell. 
 
 2041. A covered Shed, Veranda, or Passage, should be formed round the whole of the 
 kitchen buildings, on three sides, to keep off the sun in summer, and to serve as a place 
 for airing vessels, and for performing some of the coarser operations connected with 
 the kitchen. 
 
 2042. Among the Utensils of large Kitchens, a potato-washer by rotation may occa- 
 sionally be admitted ; and a sieve hung from a flexible pole in a large tub, with a constant 
 supply of water, for washing the softer vegetables, such as celery, &c., as in fig. 1823. 
 This is, in fact, a ready mode of sousing them, and is the only way to get the aphides, 
 Slc, out of them; unless, indeed, salt and water or lime water should be used, as 
 recommended in the first volume of the Gardener's Magazine. 
 
 2043. Evaporatory Refrigerating Apparatus, G. Most fluids of culinary use may be 
 rapidly cooled by means of certain little vessels, sold by ironmongers, on the principle of 
 
 t 
 
1022 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE 
 
 but others, as jelly, cream, ice, &c., can only be 
 
 the refrigerators used by brewers 
 cooled by contact of cold fluids, or 
 solids, in a state of rest. For per- 
 forming this more effectually and 
 rapidly, fig. 1824 is proposed as a 
 kitchen fixture : a is a parallelo- 
 piped pan of bright planished (a 
 planished surface is one first 
 polished, and then pressed by a 
 stamp with a smooth bright die) 
 tin for holding water, filled by 
 the cock, 6, emptied by c, and ar- 
 ranged to hold ice pails, &c. &c., 
 by immersion. From the upper 
 part proceeds a horizontal pipe 
 to a series of common one-foot flat wrought-iron pipes similar to those used for heating 
 by hot water ; the other extreme of which is connected with the bottom of the tin 
 
 vessel, by the pipe d. The flat pipes are covered loosely over with patent felt, kept 
 moist by the dropping of a cock placed over it. The series of flat pipes is placed in a 
 draught of air, or in an artificial draught caused by a tunnel, leading to the ash-pit of any 
 furnace in the kitchen ; and thus such an evaporation is kept up on their surface as cools 
 the water in them; and, a circulation taking place, the fluids in the tin vessel are cooled 
 likewise. Thus, blancmange, &c., may be readily cooled in the height of summer." 
 
 1825 
 
FITTINGS-UP OF VILLA OFFICES. 
 
 1023 
 
 2044. Mallefs Apparatus for Cooking hy Gas Flame. " Annexed you have two or 
 three figures (figs. 1825 to 1829) of my ideas for cooking by gas flame; a thing which 
 has long floated in my head, but which I have said nothing of, lest the folks should 
 suppose me ' daft, ' as they say in your country. Some few years ago, I had occasion to 
 make some weldings of iron where it was an important object that the metal should 
 not be burnt away in the fire ; and for this purpose I endeavoured to use a kind of huge 
 gas blowpipe. I got one made of the kind shown in fig. 1825 as far as each jet is con- 
 cerned, but of a much larger size. In this figure, a is the air tube ; h, is the gas tube ; 
 c, the gas cock ; and d, an end view of the point of the blowpipe, in which e is the circular 
 orifice for the emission of air, and/ that for the emission of gas. Mr. Daniell, of King's 
 College, London, has since published the same thing as new, and of his invention • 
 however, I can establish priority by my laboratory journal. To proceed : the jet, or 
 blowpipe, is so made, that a current of atmospheric air is forced into the centre of the gas 
 flame, by which means the latter is converted into a blowpipe of great power. Instead 
 of a mere circle of gas-burners, I use a certain number of such blowpipe flames, arrano"ed 
 as radii of a circle, as in fig. 1826, in which g is the air pipe, and h the gas pipe; and 
 each of the branches to the jets from these pipes has four small collars of leather or stuffing 
 boxes, so that any one can be approached to, or withdrawn from, the centre of the circle, 
 or raised or lowered, as occasion may require. 
 
 Fig. 1827 is a sectional view of such an apparatus complete, in action ; a circular main 
 tube, «, supplies the gas to all ; and another, k, supplies the current of air, the means 
 
 for producmg which I will describe hereafter. The article to be roasted, I, is suspended 
 from a bottle-jack, but with a swivel (such as those used by anglers) interposed; so that 
 It may be permitted to turn, or be stopped, the jack still going on, as may be required. 
 Above and below it are parabolic plated copper reflectors, mm ; the lower one with a 
 receptacle for dripping, n ; and the upper one with six or eight small discs of plate 
 glass, 0 o, inserted m proper places, to enable the operator to view the progress of coc- 
 tion. Each burner has a copper cone, p, placed so as to slide over it; by which means, 
 besides the radiated heat convergent on the roasting matter, a current of hot air is con- 
 tinually urged against it, as shown more fully in fig. 1828. The upper reflector 
 is hung by balance weights, so as to throw up in a moment ; and, besides a 
 cock to each individual gas tube of each burner, there is a general one to each of 
 the air and gas main-tubes, so as to diminish the heat generally, or in any particular 
 
1024 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 Arrangement over that of 
 to me to be, a much 
 
 Mr. Hicks, which you 
 economy in fuel 
 
 2045. The Advantages of this 
 have described, § 1515, appear 
 (as the waste heat from the upper re- 
 flector may be collected and conveyed 
 away in a tube, and applied for the 
 purposes of heating water, &c. ) ; per- 
 fect combustion at a greatly increased 
 temperature (viz., one sufficient to 
 melt wrought iron), without any 
 smoke ; the means of a more perfect 
 regulation, application, and adapt- 
 ation of the heat to any given sub- 
 stance ; a better form for the reflec- 1828 
 tors, and less escape of heated air by them ; the application of copper funnels to 
 the burners, by which a continuous current of hot air is urged against the article being 
 roasted ; and the capability of adapting the cordon of burners to an irregular mass, at 
 equal distances every where. 
 
 2046. The Expense of this Apparatus is far greater than that of Mr. Hicks; but 
 fewer sets of apparatus wiU answer by this than by that mode ; for the common circle 
 will only suit things of nearly the same size, while my apparatus may be applied to any 
 thing that can be admitted within it. 
 
 2047. The Current of Air may he produced by means of fanners, such as are occasionally 
 used for producing a blast on a large scale, in iron founderies. These are to be 
 worked either by a common jack, a smoke jack, or any other power at hand. The 
 fanners are simply a few vanes of sheet iron, revolving with great rapidity (1500 times per 
 minute) in a cylindrical case with a lateral aperture for the emission, and two others at 
 the axis for the admission of air, as in fig. 1829. 
 
 The vanes are set tangentially to the axis, and 
 so revolve, that, by communicating a centrifugal 
 force to the air in <he cylinder, it is expelled at 
 a, and fresh air drawn in at 6, to be, in its turn, 
 expelled likewise. Mr. Daniell proposed to 
 heat the air in a red-hot tube for the purpose of 
 this blowpipe, which would certainly be an im- 
 provement, and could readily be done by insert- 
 ing a tube in the kitchen fire. 
 
 2048. Blowpipe Flames for boiling or stewing 
 may be made on the same principles ; and those 
 described, only placed vertically, will do : all that 
 is necessary is, that several concentric alternate tubes of gas and air may be burnt. But 
 I do not conceive cooking generally by gas, in the present state of the gas manufacture, 
 and consequent high price of gas, economical ; I, however, esteem it admirably appli- 
 cable to cooking wildfowl, and similar exquisite morceaux of gourmanderie. When gas is 
 publicly made from the decomposition of water, and I think the time is not far distant 
 when that will be the case, it will be a cheap fuel for many purposes." 
 
 2049. Remarks. The foregoing very complete Design for a kitchen, and its appen- 
 dages, and machinery, is on too expensive a scale to be generally adopted ; but, once 
 understood, it will be easy for the Architect to reduce all its parts to a minimum ; or 
 to reduce the essential parts, and omit altogether such as may be totally unnecessary for 
 a villa on a very small scale. We do not offer an opinion on Mr. Mallet's plan for cook 
 ing by gas, as compared with that of Mr. Hicks ; but the more we see and hear on the 
 subject generally, the more we are convinced that the time is not far distant when cook- 
 ing by gas will become common in all towns where lighting by gas is employed. Our 
 correspondent, Mr. Robison, informs us that Messrs. Steele, brothers, ironmongers, in 
 Edinburgh, are about to erect a kitchen for a gentleman in the neighbourhood of that 
 city, on the plan given in p. 714 of this work, but substituting gas stoves for the coke 
 fires, and adding a roasting and a baking oven, both heated by gas. A canopy is to be 
 put up over the cooking hearth, like the sounding-board of a pulpit, and its apex is to 
 he connected with a flue in the kitchen wall, by which means all the smells produced by- 
 cooking will be carried away as fast as generated. Mr. Milne, an eminent brassfounder 
 in Edinburgh, who has had great experience in fitting up gas apparatus both in England 
 and in Scotland, is of opinion that, in the city just mentioned, gas, in the better classes of 
 houses, will soon take the place of coal fires, not only for cooking, but also for heating. 
 We have lately seen not only roasting, but boiling and stewing, performed at Mr. Hicks's, 
 and earthenware cones and radiating discs substituted for metallic ones, in a similar 
 manner to that suggested by Mr. Mallet. For broiling, a disc is substituted for a cone. 
 
 1829 
 
FITTINGS-UP OF VILLA OFFICES. 
 
 1025 
 
 A very complete plan of a brewery, which was fitted up in 
 
 2050. The Brewery. 
 Mr.Vokins's Gre- 
 cian villa, fig. 1 5 99, 
 has been furnished 
 to us by that gen- 
 tleman. Fig. 1 830 
 is the ground plan, 
 in which a is the 
 brew-house, having 
 an oven, B, on one 
 side, and two cel- 
 lars, C C, for ale 
 and beer, on the 
 other. In the brew- 
 house, A, z is a 
 dotted line indica- 
 ting the situation 
 of a gallery, by 
 which access may 
 be had to the two 
 boilers, a a ; 6 is 
 the situation of the 
 mash-tub ; c, that 
 of a tub or cistern 
 for receiving the 
 wort, or decoction 
 from the malt, pre- 
 viously to its being 
 pumped up to the 
 boilers; d d, &c., 
 are coolers, or 
 shallow troughs, 
 on different levels, 
 falling by steps 
 from the boiler at 
 y to the working tun at x ; e, x are two working tuns 
 the direction of D E ; in which 
 / is the gallery ; g g, the two 
 boilers ; h, the mash-tub ; and t, 
 the under-back, or tub for re- 
 ceiving the wort when it runs 
 off from the malt in the mash- 
 tub. In the process of brew- 
 ing, the malt is brought through 
 the door, into the gallery, /, 
 and dropped down into the mash- 
 tub, h, into which boiling water 
 is introduced by means of the 
 two cocks shown in the boilers, 
 g g. When the decoction is 
 completed in h, the wort is let 
 down through a hole in the 
 bottom of that tub, to the tub, 
 i, from which it is pumped up 
 to the boilers, boiled in them, and 
 then let off by cocks to the cool- 
 ers, d d, from which it passes 
 round nearly three sides of the 
 building to the tuns, e e, where 
 it is worked, and from these con- 
 veyed into the casks in the cel- 
 lars by a leathern pipe. In this 
 small building three hogsheads 
 can be brewed at a time; the 
 coolers being capable of hold- 
 ing that quantity when filled only 
 
 G K 
 
 tn 1 
 Fig. 1831 is a section, taken in 
 
 1831 
 
1026 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 to the depth of two inches. The coolers are eleven in number, and fall from the boilers 
 to the tuns, each the depth of itself. 
 
 2051. A very complete Brewery, on a smaller Scale, has been invented, and is now 
 manufactured, by Messrs. Cottam and Hallen; of which fig. 1832 is the ground plan, 
 
 and fig. 1 833 the elevation. In these figures, a is the boiler, which holds one hundred 
 gallons ; 6, the gallery for examining the boiler, and working the pump ; c, the coolers. 
 
 Seven inches and a half deep ; d, the mash-tub ; c, the cistern for receiving the wort 
 from the mash-tub over it ; /, the pump for drawing up the wort to be boiled ; g, the 
 cock by which the boiled wort is let into the coolers ; h, a cock by which the hot water 
 from the boiler is let down through the first cooler into the mash-tub upon the malt ; 
 and i, a cock and tube, by which the wort when cooled is returned to the mash-tub 
 (after the grains have been removed from it), in order to be worked. 
 
 2052. Remarks. The first brewery is one of the most complete things of the kind 
 any where to be met with on a similar scale ; and the second, not less so, on a smaller 
 scale. The coolers, in the plan of Messrs. Cottam and Hallen, are of sheet iron, and 
 they are taken down and put up in very little time. The mash-tub, d, can also be re- 
 moved, so as to be out of the way when the brewhouse is used as a wash-house ; and 
 there is a cover to e for the same purpose. To save trouble, on first filling the boiler 
 with water, it may be poured into e, and pumped up. 
 
 2053. Drying Closets, Mr. Mallet proposes to form in a different manner either from 
 that described by us, § 306, or that adopted in the Derbyshire Infirmary, and in a 
 number of private laundries, as noticed in § 1466. He proposes to dry household 
 linen " by its revolution over copper drums, heated by filling them with steam, as in the 
 calico manufactories. The diagram, fig. 1 834, shows at a the edge of a web of linen 
 passing over and under the rollers. The linen to be dried is laid on it at & j it then 
 
FITTINGS-UP OF VILLA DWELLING-ROOMS, 
 
 1027 
 
 183-1 
 
 passes over and under the heated rollers, and is removed at c, having been dried in its 
 course ; d is a roller pressed hard against the middle copper one, which is made strong 
 for the purpose. By these means the linen is mangled in its course of drying, so that 
 both operations are performed together. The linen web is contrived with endless 
 tapes, as in the patent printing machinery of Robson ; so that the piece of linen to be 
 mangled and dried may be carried over the rollers any number of times before it is re- 
 moved, when it is once settled. The details are not complex ; the steam goes into each 
 roller at the axis, which is a stuffing-box. There may be frames placed under the rollers, 
 to produce a current of air, and assist in the desiccation of the linen. The mangling 
 roller may be thrown out of gear at pleasure. The rollers at x merely sustain the linen 
 web. Two men's power would be sufficient to turn the whole machine, and one machine 
 would dry thirty or forty shirts, five or six pairs of sheets, or other matters equivalent 
 to that bulk at one operation. A boiler is indispensable in every laundry ; and that, by 
 having one of Perkins's linings, might be easily made to produce the steam both for 
 drying the clothes, and for heating the water for washing them." In the laundry at 
 Dunse Castle, near Dunse, Berwickshire, we saw in 1804, a mode of drying the family 
 linen, which was somewhat similar to this, and was found to succeed perfectly. " In 
 great houses," a correspondent observes, " unoccupied bed-rooms are sometimes damp. 
 Mr. W. Strutt had a compartment in the drying-closet in his laundry, into which the 
 whole bedding of x)ne bed (included in an open-sparred wooden frame) could be put, 
 like one of the clothes-horses. All the beds in his house were in turn aired in this way, 
 one or two being done each day that the closet was heated for other purposes." 
 
 SuBSECT. 2. Of the Fittings-up and Fixtures of the Dwelling- Rooms of ViUas. 
 
 2054. The Fittings-up and Fixtures required for heating and lighting are those of 
 most importance in villas, as in every other dwelling ; but we have not much to add to 
 what will be found in the sections on these subjects in our preceding books. 
 
 2055. Lighting Rooms hy Gas has hitherto been chiefly employed in towns and suburban 
 villas ; but we have no doubt that, with the progress of improvement, it will be found worth 
 while to adopt it in all country villas, except those of the smallest size : for example, in all 
 those where more than thirty lights are required for the living-rooms and offices ; and as it 
 is by no means improbable that gas may be soon employed not only for lighting, but for 
 cooking and heating, in that case it may become desirable for every villa to have a gasometer. 
 The saving in labour would be great ; but, what to us is still more gratifying to con- 
 template, it would render lighter and more agreeable the situations of cooks and house- 
 maids. It appears that the progress made in lighting private houses by gas has been 
 much greater in Edinburgh than in London ; though in the latter city there are some 
 houses (for example, that of Mr. Hicks, 18, Wimpole Street,) most beautifully and 
 perfectly lighted up with it. Our correspondent, Mr. Robison, speaking on this subject, 
 observes, " I have long looked on lighting by gas as the most elegant and comfortable of 
 all our domestic improvements. Every stationary light in my own house is of this sort, 
 and I have never experienced any inconvenience from it, except sometimes the heat ; and 
 that I have now done away with, by carrying away the hot air from the ceilings of the 
 drawingrooms between the lathing and the wall, through openings made over the archi- 
 traves of the windows, where they are concealed by the draperies. The walls and ceilings 
 of my drawingrooms are enriched by gilding, and there are multitudes of gilt frames, and 
 the draperies are of silk damask of a bright tint ; yet nothing has been injured by the gas, 
 although some part of the family use the rooms all the year round. The dining-room is 
 lighted by five argand burners, which have been in regular use since the year 1825, when 
 the ceiling was painted in cream-tinted flat oil colour, which is still as fresh in the middle 
 of the room as in other parts of it, and this could hardly be the case if any smoke 
 necessarily arose from the gas. I am aware that both the gas and the gas fittings are 
 better made in Edinburgh than in London ; but I am confident that, even as you are, you 
 might, by a little care, prevent almost all the inconveniences you complain of. Nine 
 
1028 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 tenths of all the dirt and smoke produced from gas lights are from the careless way of 
 lighting the burners without taking off the chimneys (funnels). If the cock be fully 
 turned before the match be applied, the gas catches fire with a sort of explosion, and a 
 cloud of dense black smoke is formed : if this be repeated daily on a number of burners, 
 it is no wonder that a ceiling should become coated with soot in a short time. The 
 method I cause my servants to foUow is this : every night, when the lights are put out, 
 the chimneys are taken off, and little metal caps are put over the burners to keep dust 
 from settling on their holes while not in use. When they come to be lighted next 
 morning, the caps are taken off, a match is applied, and the cock turned sufficiently to 
 let the gas just catch fire, but no more; the chimney is then set firmly in its place, and 
 the flame raised to two inches high, at which height, if your burners and chimyeys be 
 properly proportioned in number of holes and area of openings for air, you have nearly 
 a maximum quantity of light in proportion to the consumption of gas." Fig. 1836 is 
 one of the best and most easily managed burners and chimneys in use in Edinburgh. 
 In this figure, a represents the screw on which the burner is fixed ; b, the burner, drilled 
 with twenty-four holes ; or it may be drilled with thirty holes ; in which case, if the 
 funnel be diminished one fourth of an inch in diameter, it will burn most beautifully, 
 
 but the flame must be lighted and extinguished very gradually, in order to prevent 
 cracking ; c is the bell of the glass chimney, which is ground inside to the height of the 
 burner, in order to conceal it. A burner of this sort may be placed over each pier of a 
 chimney-piece, as in fig. 1835. Fig. 1837 is the gilt metal cap which is put over the 
 burner in the daytime, when the glass chimney is removed. In fitting up gas apparatus 
 in private houses, Mr. Robison observes, " great advantages result from having the 
 tubing and joints well executed, and of large capacity. Drawn block-tin tubing is the 
 best and safest. Copper tubing is much dearer, and is very apt to become leaky. 
 York cathedral is fitted up with copper tubing, which has been made of confined 
 diameters to limit the expense ; and,, although it has cost much more than it would 
 have done if it had been fitted up with tin tubing of due capacity, it will not give the 
 
FITTINGS-UP OF VILLA DWELLING-ROOMS, 
 
 1029 
 
 ^^^^^ 
 
 same satisfaction, and may even lead to accidents from leakage in the confined space of 
 the crypt, where the principal part of the tubing is laid." 
 
 2056. The Heating of the Rooms of Villas embraces the general heating of the air of 
 the house by a stove, or by a hot- water or steam apparatus, placed in the basement story, 
 whence the heat ascends into every part of the house ; and the heating by open fires, or 
 stoves of some kind, every particular room. We shall first notice a few of the plans for 
 general heating, and afterwards give one or two designs for open fireplaces. 
 
 2057. Among Stoiies for general Heating, to be placed in the basement story, one of the 
 most powerful is Mr. Sylvester's, as used in the Derby Infirmary, and fully described in 
 his Philosophy of Domestic Economy. A substitute for this stove, which is employed in 
 the large mansions built by Mr. Thomas Cubitt, in the neighbourhood of Belgrave 
 Square, London, is formed entirely of cast iron, cast in lengths, which fit into each other, 
 without requiring screws or rivets, and which for the sake of durability, are upwards of an 
 inch in thickness. The construction is simply 
 
 a furnace, or closed fireplace, with an up- 
 right flue which rises to the height of five or 
 six feet above it ; then turns downwards as 
 low as the level of the fireplace, and next 
 turns up, and at a convenient height enters 
 the chimney flue. A stove of this kind 
 costs a good deal at first, but, being of great 
 thickness, it is very durable, and retains a 
 great body of heat. The fireplace being 
 small, the iron is never so heated as to de- 
 compose the water of the atmosphere ; and 
 the whole is so strong, simple, and so easily 
 managed, that it cannot be broken, or put 
 out of repair by servants. One of the 
 greatest objections to all new stoves, and 
 other improvements which are to be managed 
 by servants, is their liability to be injured or 
 put out of order by. them ; partly from their 
 extreme ignorance of the nature of the ob- 
 jects to be taken care of, but chiefly, we 
 believe, from their carelessness, and that 
 utter disregard for the interest of their em- 
 ployers, which is the consequence of the 
 
 great distance at which they are kept, and the manner in which they are treated ; evils 
 which can only be 
 
 cured by the universal 
 diffusion of education, 
 and the comparative 
 equalisation of wealth. 
 
 2058. The German 
 Stove is one of the 
 most economical which 
 can be used for general 
 heating; but it is 
 troublesome to bviild 
 or repair, in countries 
 where the generality 
 of bricklayers are un- 
 accustomed to it. Ger- 
 man stoves are re- 
 markably well put up 
 by a London stove- 
 builder, Mr. Selane, 
 Vauxhal Road, who 
 has furnished us with 
 the plan, fig. 1838, and 
 the section, fig. 1839. 
 In the former, a is the 
 furnace; b, the first 
 column of smoke-flue 
 which rises to the 
 height of six or eight 
 
 1838 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ■ i 
 
 1 
 
 
 11 
 
1030 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 again rising by d, descending by c, and finally rising by^ 
 
 feet, and descends by 
 whence it passes into 
 the chimney-flue. The 
 walls of the partitions 
 of this flue are of brick 
 on edge; and the 
 bricks used are of a 
 particular quality, ob- 
 tained by washing the 
 clay, and mixing it 
 with fine sand, which 
 admits of their being 
 cut, or sawn, so as to 
 form the dovetails 
 shown in the plan, fig. 
 1838. The air is 
 heated in the spaces 
 between the smoke- 
 flues, it entering at gy 
 in the section, fig. 1839, 
 and passing off into a 
 trunk, or other means 
 of dispersion, at h. 
 These stoves are both 
 agreeable and econo- 
 mical, and they may be 
 designed in the most 
 architectural forms. 
 Some, built by Mr. 
 Selane, who also ma- 
 nufactures a very beau- 
 tiful description of 
 vases, and other or- 
 naments in artificial 
 stone, have the outside 
 casing of that material ; 
 and these are well 
 adapted for entrance 
 halls and staircases. It 
 must be confessed, how- 
 .iver, that in countries 
 where coal is the prin- 
 cipal fuel, the flues of 
 German stove become 
 so soon coated with 
 soot, that they either 
 do not give out the ne- 
 cessary supply of lieat, 
 
 or they require to be cleaned (which cannot be done without the aid of a bricklayer) so 
 often as to add greatly to the expense of using them. In Germany, where wood is 
 always employed for fuel, and consequently for heating these stoves, they are found to 
 answer admirably. In Britain, the best substitute for wood is coke. In most cases, we 
 should prefer a hot-water or a steam apparatus, for the general heating of a house ; but 
 still there are situations in which a brick stove may be found most eligible, and under 
 such circumstances we know of none equal to that of Mr. Selane. 
 
 2059. Nott's Stove may either be used for general heating, or for the heating of single 
 rooms. The following description of this stove has been sent us by Mr. Nott : — " The pro- 
 duction and the application of heat are two distinct processes, requiring distinct arrange- 
 ments and localities in the construction of a stove. The producing part of any apparatus 
 may be considered as a prism, or cylinder, of about thirty inches in height. The interior 
 is composed of fire-brick, and the exterior of iron. The cavity for receiving coals is nearly 
 twenty inches in height, rising from a base of six inches by seven inches, or ten inches, 
 as the case may be. The coals are put in at the top, and rest upon a grating of peculiar 
 construction. It is intended that the coals should be ignited at the bottom, and the 
 draught is through a lateral outlet immediately above the grating. Three fourths of aU 
 the fuel lies above this outlet, and, as the draught is not up through the incumbent fuel. 
 
FITTINGS-UP OF VILLA DWELLING-ROOMS. 1031 
 
 this part (the three fourths) will not become ignited ; but will remain as a supply to the 
 fire ; gradually becoming heated, and gradually sinking down to supply the place of the 
 lower portion which has been consumed. By elongating this chamber at its upper 
 extremity, it is apparent that this principle may be carried to any extent ; and that a 
 reservoir of coal may be formed, which will supply a continuous fire, for ten, twelve, or 
 any number of hours, or even days, if necessary. Upon the top of this pile of heating 
 coal there is placed a movable ceiling; consisting of an iron or brick slab, which 
 descends as the pile of coal sinks. The effect of this movable ceiling is, to keep the air 
 that enters through the crevices of the stove from acting upon the coal lying above the 
 outlet ; either by cooling it, or by supplying it with the means of combustion. The 
 foregoing arrangement insures the continued supply of heated coal, after an hour or two 
 has elapsed ; and the next thing to be pointed out is the contrivance by which a constant 
 supply of heated air is obtained for supporting combustion. This last is a condition of the 
 greatest importance ; for a much greater amount of heat is produced by burning hot coals 
 with hot air, than by an opposite arrangement. The grating before mentioned, as sup- 
 porting the coals, is of peculiar construction. It consists of thin bars which are segments 
 of circles bolted together ; and the whole, when bolted, is sustained by an axle protruding 
 through one side of the heat producer, or fuel-chamber. To this protruding end of the 
 axle, a winch is applied ; so that the grating may be either rocked from side to side, and 
 thus sift the ashes into the ash-drawer beneath ; or else it may be turned round, and thus 
 empty the fuel-chamber of its contents. The meshes of the grating, being thin and 
 numerous, present a great extent of heated surface ; by passing over which the air is 
 heated as it enters the stove. In one word, this rotatory grate approaches as nearly as 
 
 possible to the wire gauze of Davy's safety lamp, and its operation is precisely the con- 
 verse of that of the wire ^auze. In the lamp, the flame is cooled as it issues through 
 the meshes of the gauze ; in my stove, the air is heated as it issues through the numerous 
 insterstices of the grating. In the front of the fuel-chamber is placed a fine vertical 
 grating, covered with a sash glazed with talc, of several inches square, by means of which 
 
1032 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 the fire is seen, although burning in a close stove. Having shown in what manner heat 
 is produced by this stove, it remains for me to describe the receiver, or that portion of it 
 by which heat is applied. The receiver is connected with the fuel-chamber, at the 
 lateral outlet before mentioned. It is made of iron, and sometimes consists of one vertical 
 tube, sometimes of numerous parallel and vertical tubes, and sometimes of one or more 
 tortuous tubes or pipes. But, whatever may be its form, three things are uniformly 
 observed in its structure ; viz., to expose the greatest possible surface to the cooling 
 agency of the air, to govern the extremity of the tube with a damper, which has the 
 double office of regulating the rate of burning, and of compressing the elastic contents to 
 facilitate the escape of the heat ; and, lastly, to attach a ventilator, which, upon being opened, 
 allows the air of the room to enter the receiver, and thus at the same moment cools it 
 and ventilates the room. A review of the foregoing imperfect description, and an exa- 
 mination of the stove itself, will convince every one of the novelty of its structure. It 
 differs materially from the furnace of Watt, and that of Perkins; the only ones to which 
 it has any resemblance, even in shape. As a practical proof of the soundness of the 
 principles here detailed, it may be mentioned, that stone coals, and even black lead, burn 
 with freedom in these stoves, though with only a moderate draught, while the same 
 description of fuel requires an intense draught to be imperfectly consumed in ordinary 
 stoves." Figs. 1840 and 1841 are perspective views of two forms of Nott's stove, suit- 
 able for situations where height can be obtained. Fig. 1 840 is six feet nine inches high, 
 two feet wide in front in the lower part, and one foot seven inches thick, and costs ten 
 guineas. Fig. 1841 is six feet four inches high, one foot five inches and a half wide, and 
 one foot five inches and a half thick j and costs eight guineas. Fig. 1842 is a form 
 adopted in situations where much 
 
 height cannot be obtained, or as a 1842 
 handsome substitute for an open 
 fireplace : it is three feet one inch 
 high, two feet nine inches wide, and 
 one foot two inches thick; and costs 
 twelve guineas. Wherever an irMi 
 stove is to be used, we are inclined 
 to believe that this will be found 
 the most economical : it is decidedly 
 the most scientific in its construc- 
 tion, and, having had one of them in 
 use for a short time, we can assert 
 that the shining of the fire through 
 the talc window has a very cheerful 
 appearance. 
 
 2060. Other Stoves might be men- 
 tioned, possessing different degrees 
 of merit. One, in the form of a vase, 
 invented by Burges, and manufac- 
 tured at Birmingham by Gough and 
 Rowan, has been strongly recom- 
 mended, as showing the fire, and 
 radiating heat through openings in 
 the cover of the vase, yet not heating the iron so strongly as to decompose the water 
 in the air of the room. The common Dutch stoves, formed of thin plate iron, and covered 
 with a casing of the same material about an inch distant from the stove and its tube, we 
 know to be very economical and effective, where charcoal, or fuel which burns well and 
 produces very little smoke, is used. By means of the casing, a continual current of air 
 is kept passing over the heated surface, and thus rapidly carries off the heat, and dis- 
 perses It through the room, or wherever it may be desired. 
 
 2061. Mosefs open Fireplace for Rooms we consider one of the very best that has been 
 invented. Fig. 1843 is one of the plainest kind of these grates, which we have had in 
 use in our library for upwards of five years, to our entire satisfaction. The fluted back 
 and sides of the fire-chamber are formed of fire-clay in four lumps : two of these, which 
 enclose the lower part, are thicker than the others, and form a secure basis for them to 
 stand on, without any description of fastening. These blocks are manufactured by 
 Tatnell, Whitecross Street, Southwark, London, at the rate of 465. for a fireplace of the 
 dimensions of that figured. They are also manufactiu^ed at Stourbridge, and may be 
 made wherever fire-loam or fire-clay (which is an argil very free from sand) can 
 be procured. Our fireplace was furnished by Mr. Methley, ironmonger, of Frith Street, 
 London, successor to Mr. Moser. The card-case shown over the mantel-shelf may be 
 worth the notice of Architects and other professional men. The lower range of divisions 
 
FITTINGS-UP OF VILLA DWELLING-ROOMS. 103S 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 
 1 
 
 .uu 
 
 is for the cards of tradesmen, which are generally large, and the upper for those of 
 private persons. On the small projecting shelf between them are placed the cards of 
 persons who have called in the comse of the day, or of persons whose names and addresses 
 it may be desirable more particularly to impress on the memory. 
 
 2062. Sylvester's Fireplace exhibits one of the last improvements in this mode of gene- 
 rating heat. It pre- 
 sents a return to the 
 primitive simplicity 
 of making fires on the 
 hearth, but it has 
 joined to that sim- 
 plicity a beautiful ap- 
 plication of science. 
 One of the greatest 
 novelties in the ap- 
 pearance of this fire- 
 place, fig. 1844, is, 
 that it has no fender. 
 Fig. 1845 is the plan 
 of the fuel-chamber, 
 and a vertical profile 
 of the hearth ; in 
 which the latter 
 shown composed of 
 radiating spokes of 
 cast iron, the narrow 
 extremities of which 
 
 serve as the bottom bars of the grate. Fig. 1846 is a section through the centre of 
 the fireplace, in which a is the broad part of one of the spokes mentioned ; 6, the narrow 
 
 6 F 
 
lOSi COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 part forming the bottom grate of the fire ; 
 tain the ashes made 
 during a week; d is 
 a piece of firestone, 
 or fire-brick, forming 
 the back of the fuel- 
 chamber ; e is an ori- 
 fice by which air enters 
 under each spoke to 
 the ash-pit, and, rising 
 up among the bars, b, 
 supports combustion; 
 / is the hearth-stone ; 
 and g, cast-iron plates, 
 placed like luflTer- 
 boards; which form the 
 back of the fireplace. 
 Tliese plates are all 
 movable : and their use 
 
 c, the ash-pit, which is large enough to con- 
 
 1846 
 
 is to regulate the draught, by dividing the current up the chimney. In ordmary cases, 
 the whole of the plates may remain as in the figure ; but where it is desired to increase the 
 draught of the fire, by taking out only two of these lufFer-plates at the bottom, next the 
 firestone, d, a draught will be created like that of a close furnace ; and hence it is, that 
 this fireplace will cure any smoky chimney whatever. In the ground plan, fig. 
 1845, it will appear that the two sides of the fire- 
 place, h h, are not in contact with the jambs, /, or the 
 back, m ; in consequence of which, much heat will be 
 radiated into the space n, and will pass into the room 
 through the openings of the sides, k k. The use of 
 the screen shown 'a fig. 1844 is to conceal the open- 
 ings between the fuel-chamber and tlie jambs; yet, 
 at the same time, to admit of the free circulation of 
 the air. These stoves are of such very recent inven- 
 tion (1833), that little can be said respecting them 
 from experience. From theory these stoves appeared 
 to us superior to all other open fireplaces ; and we 
 accordingly (in 1833), had one of them, fig. 1844, 
 put up for our own use- After above a yeai-'s trial, 
 however, we found several objections to it, and have 
 now (1835) replaced it with one of Methley's, of the 
 same general character as fig. 1843. = 
 
 20G3. Chimney-pieces are conspicuous fittings-up of 
 the rooms of villas. As we have already given several 
 both in the Gothic and in the Grecian styles, we shall 
 here only observe that of late they may be obtained-'' - 
 of different kinds of marble, at much less expense 
 than formerly, in consequence of the application of 
 machinery to the sawing and polishing of that ma- 
 terial. In the London marble-works at Miilbank, 
 Westminster, such chimney-pieces as those shown in 
 figs. 1843 and 1844, which cost us, at the trade price, 
 in 1824, seven and ten guineas, may now be obtained 
 
 for four and six guineas, and of better workmanship. Designs of greater intri- 
 cacy, and requiring much manual labour, such as those of the age of Louis XIV., which 
 abound in curved lines ; and those in the Gothic style, which abound in carving, are not 
 cheap in proportion : nevertheless, they are also now very much lower than formerly ; 
 partly in consequence of the diminished price of manual labour, but principally on 
 account of the importation of many of the chimneys of Louis XIV.'s time, from France, 
 where they have been taken from the mansions of the decayed noblesse. America and 
 other countries might import such chimney-pieces, both from France and Italy, at a 
 very low rate ; or they might send designs to Genoa, Leghorn, or Bordeaux, and have 
 them executed in the native marbles of either country, at less than what Portland 
 stone costs in England- Some fine specimens of chimney-pieces in foreign marble, 
 at low prices, are generally on sale at the richly stocked museum of Mr. Brown, the 
 scagliola manufacturer, in University Street, London. We recommend to young 
 Architects Mr. Robison's plan of having a sort of upper chimney-piece over the lower 
 one, for forming a frame to the mirror usually placed over fireplaces. The most magni- 
 
 e 
 
FITTINGS-UP OF VILLA DWELLING-ROOMS. 
 
 1035 
 
 from this idea. Fig. 1847 is a chimney-piece and 
 
 1847 
 
 ficent designs might be formed 
 grate, furnished by Mr. 
 Lamb ; the object of 
 which, he says, is " to 
 show what can be done 
 in the adaptation of 
 ancient forms to modern 
 customs. This grate 
 represents as nearly as 
 possible the andirons 
 and creepers (terms 
 for the dogs, or fire- 
 irons, for supporting 
 logs of wood in open 
 chimney-pieces) used 
 for burning wood in 
 former times ; and it, at 
 the same time, possesses 
 all the requisites for 
 
 burning coals." Fig. 1848 is a Design for a chimney-piece in the style of Louis XIV, 
 up 
 
 1848 
 
 fitted up with 
 one of Sylvester's 
 open grates, and 
 with one of the 
 front screens re- 
 quired for those 
 grates, in the 
 same style. It 
 will be seen that 
 this grate differs 
 in somei respects 
 from that shown 
 in fig. 1844, and 
 that two of the 
 luffer-plates are 
 removed. This 
 rich Design is 
 by Mr. Lamb. 
 Some hundreds 
 of marble chim- 
 ney-pieces in this 
 style, and in that 
 of Francis I. 
 
 (which differs from that of Louis XIV. chiefly in giving greater elevation to the chimney 
 openings), have been lately imported by Nixon and Son, Great Portland Street, London. 
 These upholsterers more particularly devote themselves to furnishing in the style of 
 Louis XIV. ; a style which, though unsuitable for persons in moderate circumstances, 
 yet, couldTwe indulge in it, we would display in one room, as we would all the other 
 distinctive styles in so many different apartments. Our heau ideal of an amateur 
 Architect's house is, a display of all the styles of Domestic Architecture, that have ever 
 existed, in distinctive masses on the exterior ; and of all the styles of furnishing, that have 
 ever existed, in separate rooms in the interior. This would be to the Architect such a 
 practical school of his art, as the representative system of the whole vegetable kingdom, 
 which we have in our small garden at Bayswater, is of botany to the horticulturist. 
 There are few or no Architects, however, in the world, that could afford to indulge in 
 such a school ; but the idea may afford a useful hint to some wealthy citizen of America, 
 who may wish to leave a sort of architectural museum to his native town. We mention 
 America, because such a museum would be a much greater curiosity there than in 
 Fiurope ; and we suggest the idea of leaving it to a town, to prevent the risk of dispersion 
 in a country where, happily for the inhabitants, there are no laws either of entail or 
 primogeniture. 
 
 2064. The Ventilation of Rooms is equally imperfect with the usual mode of heating 
 them ; because the air, being carried off by the chimney, can never be much changed 
 higher than the chimney breast. The whole of the stratum above this height must 
 remain, when fires are used, comparatively unchanged. To remedy this evil, it is 
 requisite to have ventilators, concealed in the cornice or ceiling, communicating with 
 
1036 
 
 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 1850 
 
 flues adjoining the smoke flues, in order to create a draught : a valuable addition to this 
 plan would be, to have the fires principally supplied with air from tubfes descending to the 
 basement story, and opening there into a large air drain ; such tubes, of course, having 
 regulating cocks. The nearest approach to this arrangement seems to be that of 
 Mr. Sylvester's open fireplace ; in which combustion is supplied from a thin stratum of 
 the heaviest air of the room, which slides along the floor. With Mr. Sylvester's open 
 fireplaces, and concealed openings for ventilation in the cornices or ceilings, connected 
 with flues, so placed alongside of other flues as to create a draught, the system of venti- 
 1849 lation might, we think, be rendered as perfect as could 
 
 be reasonably desired. This, we know, was the opinion 
 of the late eminent Mr. Tredgold, with whom we have 
 had much conversation on the subject. ( Walk. Rem. ) 
 
 2065. The Wainscoting of Rooms in the Gothic style 
 is a source of very great beauty, and might afford ex- 
 cellent opportunities for admitting fresh air, and with- 
 drawing that contaminated by respiration. In some 
 cases, pipes of steam or hot water are concealed behind 
 the wainscoting, 
 and clothed with 
 other tubes, in 
 order to heat the 
 room, without 
 showing the appa- 
 ratus, by creating 
 on the surface of 
 the inner tube a 
 current of heated 
 air, on the prin- 
 ciple of Mr. Per- 
 kins's lining to his 
 
 steam boiler. When the pipes are clothed, this mode 
 is very effective, but not so, as Mr. Mallet has observed, when they are left naked. On 
 the whole, we prefer an imitation of wainscoting in plaster, painted to resemble oak, elm, 
 maple, or other wood, and introducing the heat in 
 ornamental vases or other vessels, as also suggested 
 by Mr. Mallet, and practised by him and others. 
 Fig. 1849 is an ornamental panel, supplied to us by 
 Mr. Lamb, similar to those sometimes found in old 
 English mansions, which may be easily executed 
 either in plaster or wood. Fig. 1 850 is an angle 
 for a panel for a dado, or door, &c., of oak ; a very 
 neat manner of finishing in use among ancient 
 joiners. This has also been 
 furnished to us by Mr. 
 Lamb. 
 
 2066. Windows. Much 
 of the comfort as well as 
 the beauty of a room de- 
 pends on the manner in 
 which light is admitted to 
 it. Whenever the main 
 object is to display pictures, 
 the windows should never 
 be continued down to the 
 floor; because the light, 
 when reflected upwards on 
 the picture, is at the same 
 time reflected on the eye 
 of the spectator, and pre- 
 vents him from seeing it 
 to advantage. On the 
 other hand, in the case of 
 rooms on the ground floor, 
 where it is desirable that 
 the windows should open, 
 so as to admit of going out 
 
 1852 
 
 1851 
 
FITTINGS-UP OF VILLA DWELLING-ROOMS. 
 
 1037 
 
 1853 
 
 on a terrace, or under a veranda, much of the comfort df the occupant will depend 
 upon these windows opening like doors, in what is called the French manner. The 
 mechanism of windows of this description has been carried to a high degree of per- 
 fection by Smith of Prince's Street, Haymarket, London. The great objection to 
 French windows used to be, the difficulty of making 
 them watertight, and even in some cases airtight ; 
 but these objections Mr. Smith has completely over- 
 come. Such windows have another advantage; viz., 
 that they are easily kept clean by common servants. 
 Modes of fitting-in the upper sashes of windows so 
 that they may revolve on centres, and thus be easily 
 cleaned by servants from the inside, have been devised 
 by Saul, by Tuely, and others : for the details of the 
 first two methods, we refer to the Mechanics' Maga- 
 zine, vol. i. p. 265, and p. 337. 
 
 2067. The Boors to the principal rooms of villas 
 should be hung with Redman's or other rising hinges, 
 which are a great improvement, as they raise the door 
 so as to make it to pass freely over the carpet. For 
 outside doors to Gothic villas, Mr. Laml) has supplied 
 us with the hinge, fig. 1851; the door-handle and 
 keyhole, fig. 1852; the door, or drawer, handle, fig. 
 1853; and the nail heads, figs. 1854 and 1855. It 
 is a great beauty in all buildings, but more especially 
 in villas, to have the outside doors formed of some 
 description of timber, which shall not require to be 
 painted. An entrance door of heart of o^k, with the 
 handles and fastenings of iron, oiled, but not painted ; 
 or, what is preferable, of copper, left to be bronzed by 
 the atmosphere, every , one must feel to be much more 
 architectural, and to convey a far greater idea of dura- 
 bility, than any description of material coated over with 
 paint. There are some other British woods, such as 
 chestnut, Scotch elm, and Highland fir, which might 
 answer for the same purpose ; and, among exotic woods, 
 there is the New Holland mahogany, which only costs 
 about double the price of deal, appears to be nearly as 
 durable as teak ; and is suitable both for outside and 
 inside work, without any paint whatever. Mr. Per 
 entrance- door and the fittings-up of his own house 
 
 y has used this timber for the= 
 and he considers, that, as it requires 
 
 jg^4 no paint, it is ultimately as 1855 
 
 much cheaper than deal, as it is 
 unquestionably far handsomer. 
 
 2068. The hanging of Pic- 
 tures in Rooms is sometimes 
 performed, in a clumsy manner, 
 by means of brass-headed nails 
 driven into the wall, in a line 
 immediately under the cornice, 
 from which the frames are sus- 
 pended by cords. There are 
 
 two improved methodsy however, 1 I I I 11 1 I lH 
 of efiecting this, the first of 
 which, as practised by Mr. Vokins, is as follows : — Fig. 1 856, a is a hollow iron rod or, 
 rail, coated on the outside with brass gilt, of any required length, which is fixed or screwed 
 to the wall by means of plates, as at h b, at regular distances. The pulleys, c c, have a 
 broad hook, which fastens on to the rod or rail, and can be moved along it as the pictures 
 are required to be shifted to the right or left ; these pulleys have also small iron pins 
 to which one end of each of the cords which support the picture must be fastened. 
 Iron staples, e e, are screwed into the back of the picture-frame, having two holes in 
 each to keep the cords or lines apart, and the frame from pressing against them. Pulleys, 
 //, are fixed to the bottom of the picture at each end ; and at g are male screws on which 
 brass ornaments, as at i, are fixed to hide the pulleys. It is evident that, by pulling the 
 cords A h, the picture may be raised to any height; and may be moved along the rail, 
 neither to the right or left, at pleasure. The second method, which is found to be 
 both neat and economical where numerous small pictures are to be suspended, is thus 
 
1038 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 described by Messrs. Cottam and Hallen : — Fig. 1 857, a is an iron rod sheatlied with 
 brass gilt, about three quarters of an inch in diameter, which is fixed to the wall by 
 kneed gilt studs immediately under the ceiling ; 6 is a rod of brass gilt, about half an inch 
 in diameter, and of such a length as to reach within about five feet of the floor ; c is a ball 
 or knob, about three quarters of an inch in diameter, which moves on this rod from one end 
 to the other, but which can be made fast in any position by the screw e, the head of which 
 serves at the same time as a hook on which to hang the pictures. It is to be observed 
 that the centre of this ball coincides with that of the diameter of the rod, so that it 
 keeps the latter at the distance of a quarter of an inch from the wall. The same effect is 
 produced by the knob d, at the end of the rod. When small pictures are to be 
 suspended, they may be hung by their centre of gravity one above another on a single 
 rod; but larger pictures should be hung on two rods, as shown atf. By this mode of 
 hanging, neither the pictures nor the rods touch the wall in any part; and, as the 
 perpendicular rods may be moved along the horizontal ones, the position of the pic- 
 tures may be shifted at pleasure. That the movement may not be interrupted, it is 
 essential that the studs be kneed or angled, otherwise they will prevent the horizontal 
 movement of the hooks of the upright rods. 
 
 2069. On the Subject of Bell-hanging we have nothing to add to what has been 
 already mentioned, § 590 and § 1473; and by Mr. Vokins in his description of his 
 Grecian villa, § 1858. The handles to bells may always be rendered highly ornamental. 
 
 2070. Water- Closets. " Where practicable, it is desirable that a cornmunication should 
 pass from the ceiling of every water-closet to a flue in the wall of the house, so situated, 
 in respect to chimney-flues, that the warmth they impart should cause a rising current 
 of air from the closet. Where a flue is made from the ceiling of the kitchen to carry oflf 
 the heated air which accumulates there, it may sometimes be possible to lead the com- 
 munications from some closets into it. When the water-pipes of a house, leading to 
 these closets, are subject to being frozen, they should be placed in a flue or trunk through 
 which warm air may be ascending from some source likely to be constant ; or the main 
 pipe, before it begins to rise, may be made to take a few circuitous turns in a fixed boiler, 
 under which a fire may be kept in time of frost. The water in the boiler will of course 
 keep the pipe hot, and will communicate suflficient heat to water flowing through it, to 
 prevent accidents from freezing. If the boiler be large; and the coil long, heat enough 
 may be given in this way to warm a bath, by regulating the supply cock so as to make 
 the bath fill slowly. No accident can happen from the heat while the cocks are shut." 
 
GRECIAN AND MODERN VILLA FURNITURE. 
 
 1039 
 
 Chap. VL 
 
 Of the Furniture of Villas* 
 
 2071. In giving Designs for the Furniture of Villas, our object shall be more to exhibit 
 variety and display style, than to enter into the details of construction ; because the 
 patrons of this branch of Domestic Architecture require rather to have a dii ection given 
 to their taste, than to have sources of comfort and economy opened up to them. It is 
 almost unnecessary to observe that the principle of unity of expression requires that the 
 style of the furniture should correspond with that of the house ; but it cannot be super- 
 fluous to remind the reader, and especially the young Arcliitect, of the necessity of the 
 building and furnishing of a house being under the control of the same mind, and that 
 this mind should be equally conversant with both departments. 
 
 2072. The principal Styles of Design in Furniture, as at present executed in Britain, 
 may be reduced to four ; viz., the Grecian or modern style, which is by far the most pre- 
 valent ; the Gothic or perpendicular style, which imitates the lines and angles of the 
 Tudor Gothic Architecture ; the Elizabethan style, which combines the Gothic with the 
 Roman or Italian manner ; and the style of the age of Louis XIV., or the florid Italian^ 
 which is characterised by curved lines and excess of curvilinear ornaments. The first or 
 modern style is by far the most general, and the second has been more or less the fashion in 
 Gothic houses from the commencement of the present century; since which period the third 
 and fourth are occasionally to be met with, and the demand for them is rather on the 
 increase than otherwise. Till the commencement of the present century, the most gorgeous 
 furniture in the great houses of England was in the style of Elizabeth, and made during 
 the reigns of Henry VIII., Elizabeth, and James I. ; or in the style of Louis XIV., and 
 made during the reign of Charles II. All the gorgeous furniture in the great houses of 
 France, and all the most sumptuous altar-pieces in the churches, were made during the 
 reign of Louis XIV. In consequence of the first French revolution, and the recent 
 changes in the fortunes of many of the English nobility, much of the furnitui-e of these 
 two styles, formerly almost exclusively used by the great, has been exposed to sale, and 
 consequently has attracted the notice of gentlemen of less opulence ; and this has called 
 into exercise a taste among them which had lain dormant for many years. Hence it is 
 that we have now upholsterers in London who collect, both in foreign countries and in 
 England, whatever they can find of curious and ancient furnitiu-e, including fragments 
 of tittings-up of rooms, altars, and religious houses ; and rearrange these curious speci- 
 mens, and adapt them to modern uses. Among these may be mentioned Wilkinson 
 of Oxford Street, Hanson of John Street, and Nixon of Great Portland Street, who 
 have curious collections ; made not so much with a view to gain, as from the pleasure 
 attending the pursuit of a favourite object. We have also a very curious work on the 
 subject of furniture, chiefly prior to the time of Queen Elizabeth, by Henry Shaw, Esq., 
 an artist of great antiquarian research, and devoted to the subject of displaying to the 
 world the taste of our ancestors. The designs in this chapter for Grecian or modern 
 furniture have been almost entirely made by Mr. Dalziel, and, indeed, have been exe- 
 cuted in his manufactory ; those in the Gothic style have been supplied by Mr. Lamb j 
 and those in the Elizabethan style by Mr. Lamo and Mr. Shaw. We have given 
 but few designs in the style of Louis XIV., on account of the great expense of 
 carrying them into execution, and because we think a style distinguished more by its 
 gorgeous gilding and elaborate carving than by any thing else, unsuitable to the present 
 advancing state of the public taste. We should make nearly the same observations on 
 the style of Elizabeth, distinguished by its rude and grotesque carvings, were it not that 
 it is seldom necessary to manufacture objects in this manner, farther than by putting 
 together ancient fragments which may be purchased at the sale of old buildings. 
 Whoever in the present time (1833) wishes to furnish and fit up a house in such a 
 manner as to produce a new and strange eflTect on the spectator, cannot attain his end at less 
 expense than by having recourse to Elizabethan fragments. We shaU arrange our designs 
 in the order of Grecian and modern furniture j Gothic furniture j and furniture in the 
 Elizabethan style. 
 
 Sect. L Grecian and Modern Furniture. 
 
 2073. Modern Furniture may either be arranged according to the rooms in which it is 
 to be placed, or to the particular denomination of the fm-niture : we adopted the latter 
 mode when treating of the furniture of cottages which consist but of few rooms ; but we 
 shall here take the former mode, and give, in succession, designs of furniture for the 
 kitchen and oflBces; for the porch, hall, and billiard-room; for the parlour and dining- 
 soom ; for the library ; for the drawingroom and music-room ; for the bed-rooms and 
 dressing-rooms ; and for the nursery. 
 
1040 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 SuBSECT. 1. Furniture for Villa Offices. 
 
 2074. The Subject of Kitchen Furniture may be considered as having been sufficiently- 
 noticed, when treating of that for cottages, farm-houses, and inns. The dressers and 
 tables recommended for those dwellings require only to be enlarged for villas, and chairs 
 are nearly the same every where, if their object be chiefly use. We shall only introduce 
 one or two articles in addition to what we have already given. 
 
 2075. The Wringing- Machine, fig. 1858, we can from experience strongly recommend 
 for small laundries. The articles to be wrung, 
 when large, are taken out of the washing-tub, 
 and, being passed over the pin at a, the two ends 
 tire put through the hole of the twister, 6, 
 which is turned round by the spokes, c. The 
 water drops into the trough, d, from which it 
 runs off into a tub or other vessel through the 
 tube, e. When small articles are to be wrung, 
 they are put into a coarse hempen bag, which 
 is then treated as above mentioned. By means 
 of this machine, which does not wear the linen 
 more than common wringing, all the most 
 laborious part of washing is done away with in 
 small families, as it is by the larger machine, 
 fig. 1262, in laundries on a large scale. 
 
 2076. There are two Washing- Machines for 
 small families; one of which is the washing part of fig. 1262, on a smaller scale, and the 
 other is fig, 1 335, also on a smaller scale. We have tried both these machines, and find 
 both good, the latter being best for small delicate articles. The objection brought against 
 the lever machine is, that it wears out the linen ; but this we believe to be chiefly pre- 
 judice, and in part neglect of putting into the machine a sufficient quantity of water. 
 The barrel washing-machine, as manufactured by Weir and Co., and the wringing- 
 jnachine, fig. 1858, are used in our family, and are found to save much labour, and not 
 to do the clothes the slightest injury. 
 
 2077. A Filtering- Machine, portable or fixed, and of a temporary or permanent con- 
 struction, ought to be considered essential in every family, whether poor or rich. We 
 have already pointed out a cheap filter for the cottager, and there are several which claim 
 the attention of the occupier of a villa. Mr. Melhuish, a plumber in Gray's Inn 
 Lane, not only filters water by a very simple process in kitchens, but has an apparatus 
 by which it may be filtered in ships, during their motion at sea. Mr. Struthers, in 
 Parliament Street, manufactures a cheap, expeditious, and most excellent filter, the case 
 of which is slate ; an article which he also applies to the construction of milk-coolers, 
 salting-troughs, dairy-tables, cellar-doors, and safes for the preservation of papers from 
 fire. There are, besides, the portable filtering-machines of Robins and of other can- 
 didates for public patronage. 
 
 ISuBSECT. 2. Grecian and Modern Furniture for the Porch, Entrance Hall, and Billiard- Room. 
 
 2078. Chairs. Figs. 1859 to 1862, to a scale of half an inch to a foot, are hall chairs. 
 
GRECIAN AND MODERN VILLA FURNITURE. 
 
 1041 
 
 which may be made either of mahogany or oak, or of deal painted and grained in imi- 
 tation of the latter wood. In the backs are tablets or panels, for heraldic shields or 
 crests, which are generally painted ; but which have a more architectural effect when 
 carved out of the solid wood, or when cast in composition, glued on, and painted after- 
 wards. Chairs of this sort cost in London, in 1833, from 35s. to 50s. each. With 
 respect to the taste of these chairs, we object to the front legs, as being too much orna- 
 mented for those behind. Who, on being shown the front legs, while the back legs 
 were concealed, would ever expect to find the latter united in the same whole with the 
 former ? Certainly no one would do so who understood the principle of unity of style 
 in composition. The reason why cabinet-makers are in the habit of bestowing so much 
 work on the straight legs of chairs and benches, and so little on those which are curved, 
 is, that the straight legs are readily ornamented at a cheap rate in the turning lathe ; 
 whereas, all the ornament that is bestowed on the curved legs mxist be carved by hand, 
 at a great expense. The question is, how far the designer of a chair is justified in 
 deviating from the principle of unity, for the sake of displaying more ornament than he 
 would otherwise be able to show. Ask a cabinet-maker, and he will tell you at once, 
 that his customers prefer the ornamented chair, and care nothing about the unity, or the 
 want of unity, of style. Their great object is to get a display of rich workmanship, at 
 as cheap a rate as possible. Our readers, we are sure, will agree with us, that this taste 
 on the part of the purchaser is of a vulgar and grovelling kind, and ought to be cor- 
 rected. This can only be done by enlightening the minds of the public in general on 
 the subject of taste ; and this is one of the grand objects of our work. 
 
 2079. Benches. Fig. 1 863, to a scale of three quarters of an inch to a foot, is a 
 hall bench for a porch, or a small hall, where there is not much room to spare. This 
 bench, made in London, costs from ^3 : 10s. to jg4 : 10s. The legs are all alike 
 ornamented, as are Ihe supports to the arms, so that there is a perfect unity of style 
 
 6 G 
 
.104^ COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 in these parts of the bench, and on the whole it affords a favourable contrast to the 
 chairs in the preceding paragraph. The front edge of the seat ought to have been carved 
 a little, to harmonise with the legs and arms. 
 
 Fig. 1864, to the same scale, is another hall bench, in which there may be a tablet in 
 the centre part of the back for heraldic insignia ; and castors may be sunk in the legs, 
 
 without being exposed to view. We consider this bench in very doubtful taste. In the 
 first place, the outline of the back, which is a principal part of the composition, is the 
 outline of a mere ornament ; and ornaments, in all compositions whatever, ought to be 
 accessories and not principals. We are satisfied that no man of correct feeling in matters 
 of form, or who could apply the principles of design and taste (a connected outline of 
 which will be found in our Fourth Book), would derive pleasure from looking at such a 
 bench as this. We are informed however, by Mr. Dalziel, that he has made great num- 
 bers of them, and that the shape is considered very fashionable. The great, recom- 
 mendation to it, in the eyes of its purchasers, is the quantity of ornament which is 
 displays. The unsuitableness of the front legs to those behind is sufficiently obvious. 
 
 2080. Brackets. Fig. 1 865 is a bracket for holding a lamp : it may be made of oak 
 or mahogany, or of deal, and bronzed. The upper moulding rises above the top, in order 
 to prevent the lamp from being pushed off. Fig. 1866 is a side view of fig. 1865. 
 
 Fig. 1 867 is another hall bracket with a raised bead at top, which may be used either 
 for supporting a lamp or a clock. The expense of these articles is from 20s. to 40s., 
 according to the style of carving introduced. Hall brackets of the most beautiful 
 forms may be executed in cast iron, and bronzed, as indeed may most articles of hall 
 furniture. These brackets, the supports to which are in the style of Louis XIV., may 
 be considered as in very good taste of themselves ; but the style to be adopted in such 
 articles must always be governed by the furniture and finishing of the apartment in 
 v.hich they are to be fixed. 
 
 2081. A Billiard Table forms a useful source of recreation, both for gentlemen and 
 ladies ; and no villa ought to be without one. It may be placed either in the hall, if 
 that be large, or in a room built on purpose, in the house, or connected with it by a 
 covered way. There is a smaller sort of billiard table for moving about from place to 
 
GRECIAN AND MODERN VILLA FURNITURE. 104f3 
 
 place; in which a spirit-level is fixed, and which contains screws for adjusting it to a 
 perfect level ; and large billiard tables are not unfrequently made of cast iron, the top 
 being in one piece, which is planed smooth by machinery. In general they are made of 
 mahogany, and covered with green cloth. 
 
 2082. Tables for other Games, such as bagatelle, trou madame, &c., which are kept 
 in the hall, library, or other rooms, we have not thought it worth while to describe or 
 figure ; considering the billiard table to be the only desirable piece of furniture of this 
 description, as contributing to the health of sedentary persons. 
 
 SuBSECT. 3. Grecian and Modern Furniture for the Parlour and Dining- Rooms. 
 
 2083. Sideboards. Fig. 1 868, to a scale of half an inch to a foot, is a pedestal side- 
 board ; there is a drawer in the centre, which pulls out by means of the lower part of the 
 front projecting downwards, thus rendering a knob unnecessary. In the right-hand 
 
 pedestal there is another drawer, partitioned into divisions for holding decanters, and 
 lined with lead, to hold ice round each bottle. The left-hand pedestal may have a drawer 
 for plate, with tray shelves below it. The locks are fixed to the inside ends of the 
 pedestals ; and, therefore, are not seen in front. The linings to the keyholes are of wood, 
 or brass bronzed. 
 
 Fig. 1 869 is a handsome but rather expensive sideboard. The expense may, however, 
 be reduced without materially injuring the eflfect, by omitting the carved foliage attached 
 
 to the drawers. There may be a panel of looking-glass introduced in the back-board. 
 A design of this kind will be spoiled, if the carving be not executed with skill and 
 taste. 
 
1044 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 Fig. 1871 is a pedestal sideboard, with carvings at the back, and in front. There are 
 four drawers under the top, and a cupboard at each end, divided as may be found most 
 
GRECIAN AND MODERN VILLA FURNITURE. 
 
 1045 
 
 convenient. There is an open sarcophagus-shaped wine-cooler beneath, standing on a 
 plinth. The inside of this wine-cooler may either be lined with lead, or it may contain 
 a block-tin case, with handles, to lift out. Ice is frequently put into these wine-coolers, 
 in order to surround the decanters or bottles set in them, when the wine is to be cooled. 
 Castors are sunk into the plinth of the sarcophagus, that it may be drawn out from 
 beneath the sideboard, and pushed in again at pleasure. 
 
 Fig. 1 872 is a sideboard supported in front by carved scroll standards, rising from a 
 hollow plinth ; there are two drawers under the top, and bronzed rods at the back. A 
 
 1874 
 
 1875 
 
 sarcophagus with a hinged lid below, 
 fixed on a hollow plinth with castors, 
 is partitioned and lined with lead, so 
 that ice can be put round each separate 
 bottle. 
 
 Fig. 1873 is a sideboard supported 
 in front by massive carved standards, 
 with what is called a " shaped sarco- 
 phagus" underneath ; the top of which 
 lifts olF by means of the carved handle. 
 There are bronzed rods at the back of 
 the sideboard. 
 
 Figs. 1874 and 1875 are end views 
 of figs. 1872 and 1873 ; by which 
 it appears that the carved standards are 
 a good deal in the style of Louis XIV. 
 Figs. 1876 and 1877 are two small sideboard tables, usually placed in large dining- 
 rooms, for the convenience 
 of holding the dessert, the 1876 
 plate, the glasses, and other 
 articles in use, while the 
 top of the principal side- 
 board is covered with ar- 
 ticles for display. These 
 side-tables should always 
 be placed on castors, for 
 the convenience of moving 
 them about from one part 
 of the room to another; 
 or out of the rooms occa- 
 sionally, when they are 
 covered with things to be 
 carried away. Most of the 
 articles in this subsection 
 we consider in very good 
 taste. There is not the 
 
104-6 COTTAGE, FARM, A^D VILLA ARCHITECTURE, 
 
 1877 
 
 5ame objection to the front legs of figs. 1872 and 1873 being carved, and the back sup- 
 ports being plain, that there 
 is in the case of chairs; 
 because the sideboard is 
 such a massive article as to 
 be in effect a fixture, and 
 the back pillars are always 
 at such a distance from the 
 eye, and so concealed by 
 the top, as not to be con- 
 spicuous. Nevertheless, a 
 little more ornament in 
 the pillars referred to 
 ■would be desirable. The 
 scroll ornaments at the 
 back of fig. 1871 are beau- 
 tiful of themselves, but 
 they are too conspicuous 
 features in the composition, 
 and aspire to being prin- 
 cipal parts, instead of being 
 accessories. Fig. 1868 is 
 ornamented, and at the 
 same time forms a harmonious whole, as does fig. 1869. We may observe that the plan 
 of drawing out the front drawers in these sideboards without the aid of knobs, by avoiding 
 the necessity of introducing these, adds much to the massive and architectural character 
 of furniture. Fig. 1876 is handsome, rich, and harmonious. Fig. 1877 is elegant : we 
 say elegant, because the supports, relatively to those in fig. 1876, and to those of tables for 
 dining-rooms generally, according to the modern taste, are light; and the forms indicate 
 great play of outline, and of light and shade, and, thus conveying impressions analogous 
 to motion, may be called graceful. 
 
 2084. Tahle-Jlap Cases. Figs. 1878 and 1879 are cases for holding the movable 
 flaps of dining-tables. They may be made either of oak or mahogany, according to the 
 
 879 
 
 87S 
 
 style of the furniture in the dining-room in which they are to be placed. They arc 
 made open, in order not to exclude the air ; and there are thin slips nailed on the 
 bottom, and under the top, between which the flaps slide in, and which keep them from 
 rubbing against or touching each other, and admit at the same time of a current of air 
 to pass between them. The price of fig. 1878 is about 50s.; of fig. 1879 from ^7 to 
 £12. In some cases, the flaps of tables are kept in the upper drawer of the sideboard, 
 the front of which falls down to allow them to be taken in and out ; and there are slips 
 on the sides, to keep the flaps apart. There ought also to be a concealed opening, the 
 whole length of the front, at the bottom of the drawer, for the admission of air ; and 
 
GRECIAN AND MODERN VILLA FURNITURE^ 1047 
 
 another, in the top part of the back, for its escape. Fig. 1880 is a sideboard case to 
 be placed in a dining- 
 room, for the purpose 
 of holding the loose 
 flaps of a dining-table ; 
 the top of which, in a 
 large room, is useful as 
 a sideboard. It is made 
 to suit the style of the 
 sideboard, fig. 1871. 
 Fig. 1881 shows the 
 top of this sideboard 
 case lifted up ; at one 
 end may be seen the 
 slips, between which 
 the flaps slide in. The 
 slips and the spaces be- 
 tween them are covered 
 with green baize. The top is supported, when thrown open, by a quadrant, by which 
 means one person can put the flaps in, or take them out. These are useful objects in 
 families where large 
 dinner parties are given. 1S81 
 We give the preference, 
 for our own particular 
 taste, to fig. 1880, as 
 being massive and ar- 
 chitectural ; and if care 
 be taken to have the 
 bottom open, and to 
 have proper openings 
 under the top to admit 
 of ventilation, the flaps 
 may be preserved -from 
 
 rotting in this case as well as in fig. 1878 
 while to steep such flaps in the deuto-chlo- 
 ride of mercury (corrosive sublimate) , as 
 suggested long ago by Sir Humphry Davy, 
 and as recently employed by Mr. Kyan for 
 the prevention of the dry rot, by neutral- 
 ising the cause of vegetable fermentation. 
 
 2085. Dining- Tables. The general form 
 of these is regulated by that of the room 
 in which they are to be placed ; round 
 or square tables being preferred for round 
 or square rooms, and oval or oblong tables 
 for oblong rooms. Round tables are 
 sometimes made so as to admit of the 
 addition of flaps or segments to their cir- 
 cumference, so as to increase their size at 
 pleasure. These segments are secured, 
 
 by lopers or other fasteners, to the body of the table, and to one another, 
 alluded to a table of this kind 
 as being in use in the villa. De- 
 sign III. § 1749. 
 
 Figs. 1882 and 1883 are small 
 dining-tables, called cottage or 
 Pembroke tables. They stand 
 on four legs, which should be 
 large and massive, and have good 
 castors, or large wheels. They 
 have two flaps, which fall down ; 
 and which, when up, are sup- 
 ported by fly brackets. They 
 divide in the middle, and draw 
 apart by means of lopers, or 
 slides, of a peculiar construction. 
 
 Perhaps it might be worth 
 
 have 
 
101^8 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 to any moderate length, from seven to nine feet, without requiring any additional legs 
 for their support. Thus, a table may be made nine feet long by any width, say four 
 feet, supported by four legs ; and this length may be reduced in one minute, so as 
 to form a table only two feet by four feet. The fork fasteners, by which the top flaps 
 are fastened to each other, are placed at a distance from the edge, so as to be completely 
 concealed, which adds to the strength of the table, and yet does not disfigure its appear- 
 ance. These tables were invented in the manufactory of Mr. Dalziel. 
 
 Figs. 1884 and 1885 are tables also invented at Mr. Dalziel's. They may be placed 
 together so as to form one 
 square table, made fast by 
 thumb-screws ; or they 
 may be taken apart, and 
 placed against the sides 
 of the room. 
 
 Fig. 1886 shows the 
 under side of fig. 1885, in 
 which a a indicate the 
 situation of the two corner 
 legs, and h b that of the 
 two inner legs. It will 
 be observed, that the two 
 latter are so far within 
 the edge of the top as 
 not to come in the way of 
 
 the feet of guests, and that the corner feet, such as a a, however near 
 offer any obstruction to the feet. Mr. Dalziel's dining tables 
 
 the edge, never 
 1886 
 
 are generally allowed to be of the very best kind manufac- 
 tured in London. It is a great advantage to be able to draw 
 out a table to the length of thirteen or fourteen feet, and to 
 support the whole securely on no more than four legs. 
 The advantage is, that such a table may be used where the 
 floor is not perfectly level, as well as on one which is so ; 
 and this cannot be done so well with tables having six or 
 more feet. This desirable result is obtained by compound 
 slides, which, when drawn out to their full extent, form, in 
 effect, a series of joists on which the flaps composing the toj) 
 of the table rest. These tables are sent by Mr. Dalziel to 
 all parts of the world. 
 
 Fig. 1888 is the view of a semicircular dining-table ; and 
 fig. 1887 is a plan of the top. It is chiefly used by gentlemen 
 after the ladies have retired to the drawingroom. This Uible 
 is then placed in front of the fire, with its convex side out- 
 wards, and the guests sit round that side, with their feet to the 
 fire. It has a triangular frame which works on a centre ; the 
 broad end of the triangle sliding in a groove on rollers, so as 
 to admit of the decanters being moved from side to side with 
 ease. There is an open space between the decanters and the 
 screen, which forms two sides of the triangle, and protects 
 the decanters from the fire, in order that the wine may be 
 kept cool. There are horseshoe tables for the same purpose, of 
 a simpler description, but without the moving bottle-stand, 
 about eighteen inches broad, and 
 not more than half an inch 
 thick ; the legs are slender and 
 tapering, in order, not only to 
 give an elegant appearance, but 
 to render the tables light, and 
 easily moved further from, or 
 nearer to, the fire, as may be 
 desired. The wine which stands 
 on the common horseshoe tables 
 is liable to be heated by the 
 direct radiation from the grate, 
 and thus to lose that refreshing 
 coolness which is the great j j * .v.:,.;*^ 
 
 luxury of wine drinking, as contrasted with the use ot malt hquors and ardent spirit. 
 
 The top of these tables is 
 
 1887 
 
GRECIAN AJs*D MODERN VILLA FURNITURE. 104^ 
 
 " If with hot wine we insack us 
 Say our name 's not Bacchus. 
 Serve, serve up a dozen, 
 But let it be frozen." Bacchus in Tv^c. 
 
 When such tables are used, if the 
 party is not sufficiently numerous to 
 finish a bottle before it has made twice 
 the circuit of the table, it is, after the 
 glasses are filled, set in a small vase 
 or sarcophagus, which stands on the 
 floor, and which sometimes contains 
 ice, and at other times only water. 
 Some, however, instead of a sarco- 
 phagus placed on the floor, make use 
 of what is called an earthenware wine 
 cooler placed on the table. This vessel, 
 every body knows, is made of porous 
 earth open at the top, and somewhat larger within than is sufficient to contain a quart 
 decanter. The earthenware cooler is steeped in water for half an hour, previously to 
 its being used ; after which, being emptied and set on the table, on a small mat or on a 
 stand of any kind, the decanter of wine is placed in it. The greater the heat of the fire, 
 the more rapid is the evaporation of the water which has been absorbed by the porous 
 earth ; and consequently the gi-eater the absorption, from the wine, of the heat which is 
 required to carry on this • 
 evaporation. jEarthen- 
 ware wine-coolers of this 
 description are manufac- 
 tured by Peake of Tun- 
 stall, of very elegant 
 shapes, and are sold at 
 moderate prices. 
 
 Fig. 1889 is a Pem^ 
 broke table with two 
 flaps ; the front is made 
 to imitate two drawers ; 
 but it falls down, and is 
 supported by a quadrant, 
 as in fig. 1890. 
 
 2086. Chairs. Figs. 1891 to 1894 are Designs which may be executed in mahogany, 
 the legs being supposed to be in the same style as those of the tables, and the seats 
 to be covered with morocco of the same colour as the curtains. The seats are 
 
 1889 
 
 1890 
 
 quilted, but, instead of tttfts, small rings are used, covered with the same leather as 
 the chair ; these rings being found to look as well as, and wear better than, tufts of 
 silk ; at the same time that they do not harbour dust. 
 
 Fig. 1895 is a dining-room chair, with a stuffed back and seat covered with morocco, 
 arid tufted. It is considered an easy and elegant seat. 
 
1050 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 2087. A Leg Rest, fig. 1897, called an "ease and comfort," is sometimes used in 
 dining-rooms by old gentlemen after the ladies are gone. It requires to be careftilly 
 stuffed, so as to fit the calves of the legs. 
 
 2088. Candlestick Stands, fig. 1898, are used in some dining-rooms to raise the candle- 
 sticks placed on the table, in order, by elevating the light, to throw it better over the 
 dishes. Each of these stands has a raised rim round the top, to keep the candlestick it 
 supports from falling off. 
 
 1896 
 
 2089. Fire-screens. 
 
 Fig. 1896 is a sliding fire-screen, which 
 mahogany, oak, or deal. The frame 
 has three slides; one draws up, and 
 two draw out to the right and left. 
 It should be covered with tammy 
 (a sort of worsted stuff) or moreen, 
 of the same colour as the curtains. It 
 moves on castors, which are sunk into 
 the feet. 
 
 Fig. 1899 is a fire-screen with two 
 swinging leaves, which fold out on 
 each side, and, being hinged with 
 
 may 
 
 be made of 
 
GRECIAN AND MODERN VILLA FURNITURE. 1051 
 
 centre-point hinges, turn round either way. This screen is considered handsomer than 
 the preceding one. 
 
 2090. The Win- 
 dow Curtains for the i*^''^^ ^ 
 dining-room may be 
 of the same patterns 
 as those exhibited in 
 figs. 705, 708, 710, 
 and 711. The hang- 
 ings should be of mo- 
 reen, cloth, or some 
 similar material, less 
 delicate and orna- 
 mental than silk, 
 chintz, &c. 
 
 2091. A General 
 View of the interior 
 of a dining-room in 
 the Grecian style, by 
 Mr. Lamb, is shown 
 in fig. 1900. In this 
 Design, Mr. Lamb 
 ODserves that " in the 
 centre of one side 
 there is a large pier 
 glass over the side- 
 board, and a window 
 in each side to the 
 right and left. The 
 servants' entrance to 
 the room is opposite 
 to the principal en- 
 trance, and communi- 
 cates directly with the 
 kitchen and other 
 offices. Appropriate 
 sculpture and ara- 
 besque ornaments are the principal decorations. The curtains are placed close to 
 the windows, and within the pilasters, in order that, when drawn, they may not interfere 
 with the Architecture of the room. — In taking a general view of the modem dining- 
 room furniture here given, we shall commence with the sideboards and wine-coolers 
 under them, which are, for the most part, very good. The idea of cooling wine in a 
 sarcophagus, however disagreeable it may be to those who know the meaning of the 
 word (flesh-devourer), and the original uses to which vessels of this shape were applied, is 
 yet so sanctioned by modern habit, as to be, in our opinion, quite imobjectionable. There 
 is no law in nature against the changing of the uses of objects ; and the laws of society 
 are, or ought to be, made by society for themselves, and not by past ages for those which 
 are to succeed them. The dining-tables, as we have already observed, are excellent ; the 
 legs, being all straight, are consequently all turned, and are ornamented in the same style, 
 so as to produce unity of effect. The dining-table, fig. 1887, is a luxury, worth the 
 attention of bachelors ; but unworthy of any family who do not prefer wine to the 
 rational conversation of women. Happily, in England, we are now borrowing a part 
 of the very superior manners of the French, with regard to the dining-table. The 
 circular table capable of enlargement, alluded to in § 2085, is an excellent article. All 
 the dining-room chairs are more or less liable to the objections made to the haU chairs 
 in § 2078 ; they are in other respects good, and we have no doubt would be sufiBciently 
 easy to sit upon. In the chairs seen in the interior, fig. 1980, there is just as much 
 carving shown on the front legs relatively to the back ones, as there ought to be ; per- 
 haps, indeed, there is too much, but some allowance must be made for the facilities 
 aflforded by turning for bestowing ornament. In the chairs designed by Mr. Hope, and 
 published in his great work, there will not be found any great difference between the 
 ornaments on the front, and those on the back legs ; and in the chairs in the Elizabethan 
 style, where both the front and back legs were generally turned, the ornaments on them 
 were exactly alike. Let the reader, if he has access to Flaxman's Eschylus, examine the 
 chairs in that work. The fire-screens are good, and the candlestick stand, fig. 1898, 
 convenient, where lamps are not used. The furniture in Mr. Lamb's interior is original, 
 and yet classical ; that is, it abounds in forms belonging to, or associated with, the antique. 
 
GRECIAN AND MODERN VILLA FURNITURE. 
 
 10d3 
 
 SuBSECT. 4. Grecian and Modern Furniture for the Library. 
 
 2092. Libraries on a large scale, and which are really intended to contain a collection 
 of books, are fitted up with fixed book-shelves, occupying every part of the sides of the 
 room, except the doors, the windows, and the fireplaces. If the books are enclosed by 
 doors, the panels are commonly filled in with brass wire. An architectural character 
 should always be given to the bookcases of a large library, corresponding with the style 
 of the house. In small libraries, where the collection of books is not numerous, portable 
 bookcases are resorted to ; and it may be observed of them, in general, that they ought to 
 be comparatively simple, and grave in expression. Panels of looking-glass in the doors 
 or styles of bookcases are, for this reason, in our opinion, always objectionable ; as there 
 seems to be a want of harmony between looking-glasses, excess of carving, arabesques, 
 and such finery, and the solid treasures of knowledge contained in the books enclosed. 
 
 2093. Bookcases. Fig. 1901 is a bookcase, the front of which breaks forward (pro- 
 jects). There are four doors below, the panels of which are wood ; and four doors in 
 
 r 
 
 the upper part, glazed with plate glass. There is a carved pediment in the centre of the 
 top. The doors may either be plain, like those in the centre ; or with ornaments, like 
 those on the outsides, which are introduced to enable the reader to make a choice 
 between them. 
 
 Fig. 1 902 is a bookcase having the lower part finished with pilasters, or carved capitals ; 
 and having what are called carved trusses (projections sei-ving, either really or apparently, 
 as supports) to the upper doors. The panels of the lower doors are of wood ; and those 
 of the upper of plate glass, or of flatted crown glass. (Flatted crown glass is produced 
 by heating the glass quite hot in an oven, on aflat iron plate laid perfectly level, to which 
 the heated glass adapts its surface ; the operation is performed for the cabinet manufac- 
 
1054 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 tnrers, and others who require perfectly flat glass, by a distinct class of artisans, called 
 glass annealers. ) 
 
 2094. A PedesToJ Case, for holding Papers and other Articles. Fig. 1 903 is formed of 
 mahogany outside, and encloses five boxes, which are made of pastel)oard and covered 
 
 «nth leather. Every box, a, takes out, and its top lifts up, which allows its front to fall 
 down, and its contents to be examined. There is a small ring in the front of each box, 
 to pull it out if required ; but it is not necessary to pull any box out its whole length, in 
 order to open it sufficiently to let down its front. The right-hand pilaster of the pedestal 
 
GRECIAN AND MODERN VILLA FURNITURE. 
 
 1055 
 
 is hinged at the side, and locks at the top ; the keyhole being covered by the patera, 6, 
 which slides over it in a dovetailed groove. By this means, all the boxes are secured by 
 one lock, and they may be all opened instantly. There may be spaces left for labels in 
 the front of each box if required, and the top may be made to rise up with a horse, like 
 the desk, fig. 1904, so as to serve for reading on. The top is lined with embossed leather, 
 of the same colour as that of the cases. Castors may be concealed in the plinth. This 
 is considered a very useful piece of furniture for keeping select papers. 
 
 2095. Library Tables. Fig. 1904 is a pedestal library table, which may have drawers 
 on both sides ; or doors and cupboards on one side, and drawers on the other. There is 
 a rising flap on the top, which may be raised to any height, to write or read upon ; and, 
 when not required, it can be let down flush with the top of the table. The ends are 
 hinged at the bottom, and fold outwards ; remaining open in consequence of being sup- 
 ported by a joint stay near the bottom. This forms a very convenient place for 
 portfolios, or large drawings. The depth of the recess may be varied according to the 
 width of the pilasters. The top is covered with embossed russia leather. For the private 
 room of an Architect, such a table may have a drawer immediately under the top, of 
 the same length and breadth as the table ; and of five or six inches in depth, for the purpose 
 of holding large drawing-boards with drawings on them, T squai es, &c. In this drawer, 
 the drawing in pro- 
 gress is kept com- 
 pletely from the dust ; 
 while the sightliness 
 of the room is pre- 
 served, at times when 
 drawing is not going 
 forward. A rising 
 portable desk, with 
 double horse and 
 rack, may be placed 
 on the table, and 
 raised to any con- 
 venient height for 
 reading, writing, or 
 drawing on, in a 
 standing position, in- 
 stead of the sinking 
 
 fixed desk shown in the figure ; or a false bottom may be made to the drawer, on which 
 the drawing-board and all the drawing materials may be placed, in such a manner as that, 
 when the drawer is pulled out, and the false bottom is raised to the required height by a 
 rack and horse, the artist may go to work without any previous preparation, or arrange- 
 ment of his instruments or materials ; and he may leave oflT, lower down the false bottom 
 and Its contents, and shut up the drawer, in an instant. 
 
 Fig. 1905 is a very handsome library table, on four carved legs, with four drawers 
 and a carved moulded 
 edge. The drawers pull 
 out from under the rail, 
 thus rendering knobs 
 unnecessary, and main- 
 taining an architectural 
 character. 
 
 2096. Writing. Tables, 
 or Secretaries. Figs. 
 1906, 1907 represent a 
 handsome writing-table, 
 with numerous drawers 
 and divisions for con- 
 taining papers, money, 
 &c. ; and having on the 
 
 top a shelf for books. - x;^- 
 The mechanism is such, that, notwithstanding its apparent intricacy, it can be opened 
 and its contents displayed, or shut up and locked, in an instant. 
 
 2097. A sloping Writing-Desk, such as fig. 1908, to a scale of one inch to a foot, is 
 frequently used for placing on a library table. A part of the top is made flat, with a 
 small lid which turns up, and displays inside the inkbottles, pens, wafers, &c. When not 
 in use, the flap turns down, to keep every thing clean. The sloping part may be covered 
 with embossed leather. 
 
2099. An enclosed Wash-hand Stand, such as fig. 1910, to a scale of half an inch to a. 
 foot, is commonly placed in a library closet, or in a gentleman's study or business room. 
 
GRECIAN AND MODERN VILLA FURNITURE. 1057 
 
 1908 
 
 There is a slip of wood fixed on the under side of the top, which drops down in front, 
 and completes the panel; thus shutting the whole up close. A glass is fixed on the 
 under side of the cover, which rises with a rack and horse. There are two doors below, 
 in the inside of which are shelves, and a space for keeping the ewer with the water ; or 
 it may be fitted up with any appropriate convenience that may be desired. 
 
 2100. Chairs. Figs. 1911 and 1912 are two easy reclining chairs for a library, parlour, 
 or other sitting-room. They are covered with morocco leather, with button tufts ; and 
 they are very easy to sit upon. 
 
 Fig. 1913 is a view of Dawe's reclining chair for an invalid : the position of the back 
 of this chair can be varied at pleasure, and the projecting part in front can be elongated, 
 or adjusted to any slope. When it is not wanted to be used as a reclining chair, the back 
 can be fixed upright ; and the front projection slid in, so as to produce the appearance of 
 a common easy chair. 
 
 2101. Library Glass. Fig. 1914 
 is a library chimney-glass, the frame 
 of which may be made of maho- 
 gany or maple wood, or of deal 
 gilt or bronzed. A plinth for it 
 to stand on, half an inch in thick- 
 ness, of ebony, ought to be added ; 
 not only for effect, but to prevent 
 the gilding or bronzing of the 
 frame from being injured by 
 washing the mantel-shelf. We 
 may observe here, that it is a 
 common and commendable prac- 
 tice, when housemaids are dusting 
 the walls of rooms, to have a 
 narrow slip of thin deal in one 
 hand to place against the edges of 
 the mouldings to prevent them 
 from being rubbed. 
 
 2102. The Window Curtains of 
 a Library may be formed of the 
 same shapes and materials as those 
 recommended for the dining-room, 
 § 2090. 
 
 2103. Tlie general Appearance of a library fitted up with a continued range of book- 
 shelvcij is so simple as not to require delineation in a work like the present. A very 
 
1058 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 chaste design for such a library was sent us by Mr. Field, from the following description 
 of which, by that gentleman, any young Architect may embody it in light and shade : — 
 " The dimensions of this room 
 are about thirty feet by eigh- 
 teen feet, and it is thirteen feet 
 high. The ceiling is surrounded 
 by a large cove, intersected by 
 arches over the divisions of the 
 book-shelves, five in number 
 lengthwise, and three breadth- 
 wise, of the apartment. The 
 walls are entirely covered with 
 shelves, except whore the en- 
 trance door is shown in the 
 centre of one end of the room, 
 and where there are spaces for 
 two or three windows, corre- 
 sponding with the recess for 
 the door, on the side opposite 
 to the fireplace. The pilasters 
 and entablature may be exe- 
 cuted in scagliola marble, and 
 the cove and ceiling may be 
 coloured a light tint, to con- 
 trast with the pilasters and 
 the graining of the woodwork. 
 The books are secured by brass lattice doors. If a sky-light in the ceiling were in- 
 troduced in lieu of windows, the uniformity of the Design, and the capacity of the library, 
 would be increased." 
 
 SuBSECT. 5. Grecian and Modern Furniture for the Drawingroom and Music- Room. 
 2104. Couches. Figs. 1915 and 1916 are two Designs for couches. In the second, 
 the castors are sunk in the legs ; and to each there is a loose squab (a sort of mattress 
 
GRECIAN AND MODERN VILLA FURNITURE. 1059 
 
 serving as a seat) and bolster of hair, and a pillow filled with down. These couches we 
 consider as handsome articles. The four feet, being all straight, are equally carved and 
 ornamented. The carved foliage, embracing the frame of the head, and the hand-rail at 
 the back, exhibits a happy specimen of the application of ornament, in such a manner 
 as to make it appear as if it arose out of the construction of the article ; the curvature 
 of the frame of the head is of itself highly beautiful, being a modification of the Greek 
 cyma (wave), the most elegant and graceful of all curves; and, as Mr. Hosking has 
 happily shown, identical with Hogarth's serpentine line of beauty. Couches in small 
 rooms are generally preferred to sofas. 
 
 2105. Sofas. Figs. 1917 and 1918 are two Designs for sofas; the ends of which, 
 if desirable, might be made of a similar pattern to those of the preceding couches. The 
 
 1917 
 
 coverings and finishings of couches and sofas should harmonise, in colour and material, 
 with the window curtains. The framework of these sofas we consider elegant; the 
 
 1918 
 
 ornaments harmonise with the arms on which they are placed, and with one another 
 the general outlines and forms are simple, and the details rich. 
 
1060 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHTJ ECTURE. 
 
 take off, leaving a well or cupboard beneath, for holding the loose linen cases by which 
 they are covered, when the drawingroom is not in use. 
 
GRECIAN AND MODERN VILLA FURNITURE. IO6I 
 
 2107. Ottoman Footstools. Figs. 1921 and 1922 are ottoman footstools, which may 
 have the same-coloured coverings as the ottomans, or as the cm-tains ; the material 
 being fine cloth. The carved part may be of mahogany or rosewood. 
 
 2108. Chairs. Figs. 1924, 1925, 1926 exhibit three varieties of easy chairs. They 
 may be covered with morocco, or with the same furniture as the sofas and window 
 curtains. 
 
 Fig. 1 923 is another easy chair, with a richly carved frame, and cane seat. It should 
 have a cushion covered with the same stuff as the curtains. These chairs are all to a 
 scale of three quarters of an inch to a foot. 
 
 Fig. 1927 may be made of maple, or any other veined wood; or of beech painted 
 or japanned. The variety of chairs of this kind 
 is endless ; they are not very strong, but their 
 appearance is light, and, their proportions 
 being slender, they may be considered as not 
 inelegant. 
 
 Figs. 1928 to 1932 are what are called 
 fancy chairs for drawingrooms ; they may be 
 made of rosewood, maple, satin, or any other 
 kind of fancy wood; and French polished 
 (that is, polished and varnished with a par- 
 ticular composition invented in Paris, and 
 brought to this country after the peace of 
 1814). The seats are first caned, and then 
 covered in patterns with willow (split willow 
 rods) of different colours, produced by stain- 
 ing, so as very successfully to imitate various 
 kinds of wood. These chairs, when not so 
 expensively finished in the seat, will also 
 serve for bed-rooms. Their great advantage 
 in a drawingroom is their lightness. They 
 may have hair cushions covered with the 
 same furniture as the curtains and sofas ; or 
 they may have stuffed seats covered with da- 
 mask. 
 
 Figs. 1933, 1934, and 1935 are also drawingroom chairs. The first has a carved seat 
 and back ; the other two are made of maple or satin wood with matted seats. The splats 
 (the middle part of the back, which either connects the top and bottom rails, or the two 
 side styles) are carved in the forms of the rose, the shamrock, and the thistle. 
 
 Figs. 1936 and 1937 are drawingroom chairs. Fig. 1936 has an open back, which 
 may be executed in rosewood or mahogany. Fig. 1937 has a stuffed back, and is a very 
 easy chair to sit upon, though rather expensive. In point of teste, the chairs from 
 
1062 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 fig. 1923 to fig. 1927 are objectionable, on account of the difference between their front 
 
 ^nd back legs in point of ornament. The front legs, and supports of the back and arms, 
 
GRECIAN AND MODERN VILLA FURNITURE, 1063 
 
 of the Designs alluded to, are most richly ornamented, and the decorations in general are 
 judiciously applied; that is, they appear as if they resulted from the construction; yet 
 the hind legs are as bald as those of the hall chairs, or of any chair which could be 
 constructed for the humblest cottage. A very little reflection will convince any one 
 
 that this cannot be in good taste. The Designs, fig. 1928 to fig. 1935, do not show so 
 great a discrepancy between the front legs and the back ones ; and to us they are, on 
 that account, much more satisfactory. There are none of these chairs, however, 
 entirely to our mind ; because there is scarcely one of them in which there is perfect 
 harmony in the direction of the lines. Not one of these chairs can have been designed 
 by an Architect, or other artist ; they are much more like the efforts of a mechanic in 
 search of novelty. Fig. 1937 is not bad, with the exception of the hind legs. 
 
 2109. The Polishing of Chairs and other Furniture is a matter which should not be 
 lost sight of by a purchaser. In large towns, such as London and Edinburgh, where 
 the art of polishing furniture forms a distinct occupation, what is called the French 
 polish is by far the best for bringing out the beauties of the wood, and giving it a bright- 
 ness and richness of colour which nothing ^Ise hitherto invented can produce. An 
 important advantage of the French polish is, that it is not liable to crack or show 
 scratches, like varnish. Wherever, therefore, tlie French mode of polishing is practised, 
 we would recommend its adoption at least for all drawingroom furniture, and for the 
 finer articles of libraries and dressing-rooms. For dining-tables, Mr. Dalziel states 
 that by far the best polish for the tops is cold-drawn linseed oil alone, rubbing them 
 
lOG^ COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE, 
 
 hard with any soft cloth for a period of several hours till they are got to a bright polish ; 
 which, when once obtained, can be kept up with little labour, and will stand hot dishes 
 and boiling water better than the French or any other polish. The ordinary polish 
 used by cabinet-makers consists of bees' wax mixed with spirits of turpentine and a small 
 proportion of rosin. When this has been all dissolved together, the wood to be polished 
 is thinly washed over with it, and it is immediately afterwards rubbed off by clean soft 
 cloths. For polishing carved work, a clean soft brush must be used for laying it very 
 thinly on, and another brush, in a very slight degree harder, must be employed for rub- 
 bing it off. 
 
 2110. Consol Tables. The term consol is applied from the form of the front leg or pillar 
 by which such tables are usually supported, which is that of a carved ornament called 
 a consol, frequently placed on the front of brackets, and on the keystones of arches. 
 
 Fig. 1938 is placed at the ends of drawingrooms, or against very broad piers between 
 doors or windows. The panels in the back are of looking-glass ; and the doors of the 
 
 two pedestals have panels filled in with fluted silk, or looking-glass may be substituted. 
 The tops of such tables are frequently formed of statuary marble, and the supports and 
 upper shelf of the finest rosewood ; sometimes the shelf is omitted. The looking-glass 
 is sometimes carried up to the height of five or six feet. On the bottom board, in front 
 of the lower glass, are placed vases for holding flowers, and a number of other ornaments. 
 Fig. 1939 is another table of the same description, but of a different pattern. 
 
GRECIAN AND MODERN VILLA FURNITURE. 1055 
 
 2111. Tier Consol Tables. Figs. 1940, 1941, 1943, 1944 exhibit four varieties of pier 
 consol tables, with marble tops, and silvered plate -glass backs. They are commonly placed 
 against the piers between windows. They are made of rosewood, and sometimes gilding 
 is introduced on the carving, especially when the style of Louis XIV. is imitated, as in 
 figs. 1943 and 1944. The looking- 
 glasses are placed in gilt frames, and 
 they are carried up nearly as high as 
 the ceiling. The tops of these tables 
 are sometimes covered with scagliola, 
 instead of marble, which comes a great 
 deal cheaper ; and, when executed in 
 Mr. Brown's very superior manner, 
 looks nearly as well. 
 
 2112. Pier Tables with Marble Tops 
 may be supported by cast-iron brackets, 
 or other stands of that metal, gilt or 
 bronzed, at very moderate expense, and 
 with excellent effect. We have already 
 given various Designs for brackets, and 
 for the ends of tables, to be formed of 
 cast iron, from sketches by Mr. Mallet ; 
 and we might here add a number of 
 others from the same fertile and tasteful 
 contributor, but we think it unneces- 
 sary. Almost every thing in the style 
 of Louis XIV. may be executed in cast 
 iron cheaper than in wood. Pier and 
 consol tables are great ornaments in 
 drawingrooms, and ought never to be omitted where splendour is an object to be desired, 
 and money is not wanting. One great advantage of them is, that the glasses which 
 form a part of them multiply every 
 object in the room, from the floor to 
 the ceiling, and not only every object 
 in the room, but the views of objects 
 reflected from without ; whereas chim- 
 ney-glasses only reflect objects at a cer- 
 tain height between the floor and the 
 ceiling. 
 
 2113. Chiffoniers. Fig. 1942 is a 
 chiffonier pier table for placing between 
 windows. These tables are usually 
 finished with white marble tops, with 
 plate glass behind, and a shelf supported 
 by brackets for holding ornaments. 
 The panels of the doors may be sil- 
 vered plate glass, or of fluted silk. 
 These are most useful objects for fa- 
 milies who cannot afford to go the 
 expense of pier or consol tables. In 
 parlours, and even lady's libraries, they 
 may be used as a sort of morning side- 
 board for containing any light species 
 of refreshment. 
 
 2114. Devonports (so called from 
 the inventor's name) are drawingroom 
 writing-cabinets used by ladies. Fig. 
 1 945 is a very convenient piece of furniture of this description ; the top part, forming 
 the desk, pulls forward to come over the knees when it is to be used. A sliding flap 
 draws out on each side, to hold papers, a candle, &c. The desk lid lifts up, and beneath 
 it is a space for papers, and several small drawers. There is besides a drawer which 
 pulls out at the side, and turns round, as shown in the figure, for pens, ink, wafers, &c. 
 Beneath the flap are drawers on one side, and the other side is finished with the appear- 
 ance of drawers to correspond. The back is handsomely paneled, so that each side of 
 this piece of furniture looks well. The flaps and sides are lined with morocco leather 
 embossed. There are castors concealed in the feet. 
 
 Fig. 1 946 is a Devonport v/hich stands on a plinth, having concealed castors, and 
 
 6 
 
1056 COTTAGE, FAIIM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 which resembles the preceding one in every respect, except in being rather plainer 
 These are very useful articles for 
 industrious young ladies. We have 
 seen some of them, and also of the 
 articles in the two preceding and two 
 following paragraphs, in Mr. Dalziel's 
 show-room, of much more elaborate 
 beauty, executed in the rarest exotic 
 woods, and finished with French polish ; 
 but we have preferred giving these 
 simple Designs, as likely to be more 
 generally useful. 
 
 2115. Ladr/s Work rabies. Figs. 
 1947 and 1949 are fitted up with 
 drawers for holding cottons ; and they 
 have bag frames, which are of wood, 
 covered with fluted silk, and fringed at 
 bottom for containing work. 
 
 2116. Sofa Tables. Figs. 1948, 
 1950, 1951, and 1952 are four dif- 
 ferent varieties of sofa or occasional 
 tables for drawingrooms. Drawers may 
 be introduced under the tops ; but the 
 effect is not then so good, as it requires 
 the upper part of the frame to be made 
 deeper, and consequently gives the table too massive a character for an article of drawing- 
 room furniture. In examining whether the tables, in this and the preceding paragraph, 
 
GRECIAN AND MODERN VILLA FURNITURE. 
 
 1948 
 
 106'^ 
 
 are in good taste, let us first see h w far they display unity of style. In the legs and 
 bottom rails this unity is con- 
 spicuous. Looking at the former 
 apart from the latter, we should 
 never expect to find the bottom 
 rails joined to them, square in the 
 section ; neither should we expect 
 cylindrical rails perfectly plain. 
 The legs being turned and carved, 
 the rails, to be in unison with 
 them, ought to be turned and 
 carved also ; and, as they are so, 
 they are therefore in good taste. 
 The style of the supports of the 
 table ought, of course, to give a 
 general idea of the style of the 
 top, and here we find that some 
 of the tops, for example those of 
 figs. 1949 and 1951, have carved 
 mouldings round the edges, and therefore they harmonise with the legs and rails, and 
 consequently may be considered in 
 good taste ; but the tables, fig. 
 1948, fig. 1950, and fig. 1952, 
 though their legs are equally en- 
 riched with those of the other De- 
 signs, have plain mouldings on 
 their edges ; hence we have no 
 hesitation in determining them to 
 be in comparatively bad taste. 
 The justness of this criticism will 
 appear more obvious, by applying 
 . it to the table, fig. 1948, which 
 has two supports more highly en- 
 riched by carving than those of 
 any of the other figures, and yet 
 has a plain top. This is in bad taste, and ought not, in a work like the present, to be 
 passed over without notice. In 
 order to show the utility of this 
 kind of criticism, and of giving 
 Designs which are less perfect 
 than they might be made, let 
 us suppose, for a moment, that 
 we had only given the tables 
 figs. 1949 and 1951, which we 
 allow to be in tolerably good 
 taste. All that we could have 
 said of these tables is, that they 
 were very good of their kind, 
 displaying unity of style and of 
 
1068 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE, 
 
 ornament; and, therefore, that 
 they deserved the approbation 
 of the reader. By intro- 
 ducing other tables, however, 
 less perfect with regard to 
 unity of style, we have an op- 
 portunity of contrasting the 
 good and the bad; and of 
 showing forcibly, in what the 
 difference between these qua- 
 lities consists. We think it 
 the more desirable to do this, 
 because these tables, both the 
 good and the bad, are made 
 in hundreds by the London 
 cabinet-makers ; and are purchased by their customers, without the latter thinking any 
 thing about their unity of style. 
 
 21 17. Card Tables. Fig. 1 953 is a card table with a carved pillar and a revolving top, 
 the principle of which has been already explained, § 630. 
 
 2118. Loo Tables. Figs. 1954 and 1955 are loo tables, which maybe executed in 
 rosewood, or in any other rare and handsome foreign wood. These tables, appear to us 
 unobjectionable, in point of taste ; the legs and bottom rails are of elegant forms, ex- 
 
 hibiting a great variety of lines, and of light and shade, all in harmony among them- 
 selves, and not inconsistent with the tops. 
 
 2119. Ecarte Table. Fig. 1956 is a table of this description, with the top open. The 
 oval part is lined with cloth or velvet ; the top revolves like that of a card table, and shuts 
 up so as to form a small work table, when not wanted for playing on, 
 
 2120. Chess Tables. Figs. 1957 and 1958 are two different patterns of chess tables 
 richly ornamented, and considered handsome. There is a semicircular compartment on 
 each side, on which to place the chessmen, or lights ; there is also a drawer to each table ; 
 and there are concealed castors in the legs. 
 
 2121. Stands for Books. Fig. 1960 is a pedestal stand for containing such books as 
 may be considered ornamental in a drawingroom. There are shelves on all the four 
 sides, and the angles are cut off* by coves, as shown in the plan. On the top of the stand 
 may be placed an elegant vase, with or without flowers ; a globe of water containing gold- 
 fishes ; or a bust, or other object, according to the taste and pursuits of the lady of the 
 house. 
 
GRECIAN AND MODERN VILLA FURNITURE. 
 
 1069 
 
 Fig. 1959, to a scale of one inch to a foot, is a bookstand to be placed on a table. 
 There is a drawer for letters or other papers, and at top a rack for holding cards ; and 
 
 two handles, for removing the whole when necessary. 
 Stands for books might be made in a great variety of 
 forms, and, to those who derive great part of their happi- 
 ness from reading, bookstands are always welcome pieces 
 of furniture. " One of the grandest detached bookstands 
 I ever saw," says an American correspondent, " was placed 
 in the centre of a square library, with a lofty ceiling, 
 lighted from the roof. It was in the form of a pyramid ; 
 the shelves rising above one another like the steps of a 
 stair to the height of twelve feet ; and each step, though 
 narrow, was yet sufficiently broad to admit any person to 
 walk up and walk down in order to take out or put in books 
 
 The whole was sur- 
 mounted by a statue of Jefferson, and at the angles 
 was a light mahogany handrail to assist in walking up 
 and down. The artificial light was from gas, placed 
 outside the skylight, and within an outer glass case. 
 Underneath the pyranrud was a pedestal filled with 
 steam-pipes, for heating the room. The four sides of 
 the room were fitted up with bookshelves to the height 
 of twelve feet, with a travelling step-ladder, similar 
 to one which I saw, when in England, in one of the 
 London club-houses." 
 
 2122. Piano-fortes. The forms of piano-fortes have 
 
 been lately much 1962 
 
 improved, so that 
 they now harmonise 
 with the general 
 forms of drawing- 
 room furniture bet- 
 ter than they ever 
 did before. The 
 first step in the road 
 to this desirable end 
 was made by the 
 manufacturer Sto- 
 dart, who invented 
 the upright and 
 
1070 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 cabinet pianos about the beginning ot the present century ; and the last by Wornura, 
 Store Street, London, in the year 1833. This last ma- 
 nufacturer, in that year, exhibited a piano-forte that 
 could hardly be distinguished from a library table. 
 The piano-fortes of this maker, which are most fre- 
 quently used, are the two sizes, figs. 1961 and 1962: 
 one of the smallest size, ex- 
 hibited in fig. 1962, costs 
 from thirty-six to fifty-five 
 guineas; and one of the 
 largest, shown in fig. 1 963, 
 costs from fifty to one 
 hundred guineas. The 
 first instrument is three 
 feet four inches, and the 
 second six feet six inches, 
 in height. There are nu- 
 merous other forms of 
 piano-fortes and organs ; 
 and also of what are called 
 harmonics, which produce 
 music by machinery. The 
 advantages of Wornum's 
 instruments are, that, with the same degree of tone and excellence, in a musical point of 
 view, as the horizontal pianos, and with the convenient form of the upright pianos, they 
 
 196 J 
 
 are finished behind in such a manner as to have a handsome effect whichever side is pre- 
 sented to the 
 
 to the company. 
 The old upright and ca- 
 binet pianos were generally 
 placed against walls. 
 
 2123. Music-stands. Fig. 
 1 963 is a stand for holding 
 music-books. The upper 
 part rises out of the pillar 
 to any convenient height ; 
 
 1967 
 
GRECIAN AND MODERN VILLA FURNITURE. 
 
 1071 
 
 and the pillar of support is round in the upper part, so as to change the position of the 
 desk at pleasure. 
 
 Fig. 1 964 is another music-stand, the desk of which also rises out of the pillar. The 
 top, when not wanted for music, folds down quite flat, and forms a small table. 
 
 Fig. 1 965, to a scale of three quarters of an inch to a foot, is what is called a music 
 Canterbury. Its use is to hold music-books ; and, as may be seen in the figure, the feet 
 have castors for moving it about at pleasure. 
 
 Fig. 1966 is another music Canterbury, of an elegant but rather expensive con- 
 struction. Musical instruments being, in all cases, articles of luxury, ought never to be 
 made otherwise than ornamental. For this reason, not only the most beautiful forms 
 ought to be employed, but rare and curious woods, shown off to the best advantage by 
 French polish. Brass candlesticks, and other brass ornaments attached to them, we, for 
 pur own particular taste, would avoid, and either use plated steel, or bronze ; possibly 
 ivory or ebony might, in some cases, be partially or wholly substituted for brass or any 
 other metal. 
 
 2124. Music- Stool. Fig. 1 968 is a music-stool, pillow-stufFed. It rises from the stand 
 by turning round the top, which raises a male screw contained in the female one formed 
 in the pillar. The screw is commonly made of wood ; but iron is preferable, as working 
 better, and lasting longer. 
 
 2125. Portfolio-stands are useful pieces of furniture both in libraries and in drawing- 
 rooms. Fig. 1967 is a 
 
 view of a stand for port- 
 folios, or large prints, in 
 which the portfolios can 
 be conveniently locked up 
 when the family are from 
 home. The two fronts fall 
 down to any degree at 
 pleasure, till they both be- 
 come level, as shown in 
 the section, fig. 1969, and 
 thus admit of ea'sily exa- 
 mining the prints or draw- 
 ings. Articles of this de- 
 scription are usually made 
 without tfce ends, and with 
 the two framed sides ; but 
 by this plan the portfolios 
 have to be taken out before 
 they can be opened, and, 
 besides, they cannot be 
 locked up. 
 
 2126. Flower-stands. 
 Fig. 1970 is a kind of 
 flower-stand, which is com- 
 monly called a jardiniere. 
 A tin pan fits into the top, which has a cover of trelliswork, or of pierced tin, through 
 which cut flowers are put into wet sand. A loose top of rosewood is made to fit into the 
 recess which contains the tin pan, to be put in when the stand is not wanted for flowers, 
 in order to render it useful as a small table. Prince Piickler-Muskau mentions a flower- 
 
1072 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 stand, in which the tray is placed in the bottom of a drawer which slides in under a 
 plate-glass top, which may be used as a writing or work table ; and, when the fragrance 
 of the flowers is desired as well as their sight, it is only necessary to pull the drawer out 
 a little. The prince expatiates on the luxury of a lady sitting at work by the table, 
 looking through the glass at the flowers, and now and then pulling out the drawer to 
 enjoy their fragrance. We hardly know whether this half-radical prince is in jest or 
 earnest when talking in this manner ; but we must say, for our own part, that we think 
 the idea much more suitable for the diseased feeling of pampered luxury than for healthy 
 active intelligent women. The woman who cultivates her own flower-garden, and 
 watches the progress of vegetation in it from day to day, has every chance of receiving far 
 more enjoyment from flowers than she who has them reared and gathered for her, and sees 
 them for the first time through a plate glass. 
 
 Fig. 1971 is another Design for a flower-stand, the top part being of a circular shape. 
 2127. Candelabra are isolated supports for lights. They are formed of wood or bronze, 
 with three feet, and an upright pole, carved and ornamented, and terminating in a capital, 
 on the flat top of which a lamp is placed. Sometimes, instead of terminating in a capital 
 with a flap top, the candelabrum ends in branches for candles. Some of the handsomest 
 lamp candelabra in present use are the scagliola columns manufactured by Mr. Browne 
 of University Street, London. The cost of these candelabra is seven guineas each. 
 2128. Fire- Screens. Figs. 1972, 
 1973, and 1974 are Designs for 
 drawingroom fire-screens. The 
 poles may be of brass ; as wood, 
 and especially rosewood, is apt to 
 warp or break. 
 
 Fig. 1973 is a fire-screen with 
 one slide, and a stuffed flat rail at 
 bottom for the feet. There is a 
 flap for holding a candle supported 
 by a bracket. The fluting is of 
 silk, of the same colour as that of 
 the other furniture in the room. 
 A fire-screen is an article of fur- 
 niture almost exclusively British, 
 because Britain is the principal 
 country in Europe where open 
 fireplaces formed, till lately, almost 
 the only mode of heating the rooms 
 of the wealthy classes. At present 
 fire-screens are less in repute than 
 formerly, because they are ren- 
 dered less necessary by the im- 
 proved modes of heating used in 
 connection with open fires, which, 
 by raising an equal temperature 
 in every part of the room, lessen 
 the inducement for the company in the room to collect round the fire, 
 in the screen part of this piece of furniture with fluted silk, a pic- 
 ture is frequently introduced; sometimes a map, and at other 
 times some curious performance of the needle. Large fire-screens 
 for parlours are frequently covered with odd prints, and especially 
 portraits of men, animals, plants,&c., and even with select passages 
 from newspapers; or with conundrums, riddles, enigmas, and 
 charades. For a large library fire-screen, nothing could be more 
 appropriate than good maps ; and, indeed, we have seen a globe 
 raised on a pole, and sliding up and down it at pleasure, used as 
 a small fire-screen. It is a great advantage for young persons to 
 have frequently put in their way, such instruments of education, 
 as globes, maps, chronological tables, tables of the heights of 
 mountains, the lengths of rivers, &c. ; for in this manner the 
 contents of these instruments, insensibly, and without effort, im- 
 press themselves on the mind. A material is sometimes used for 
 filling in fire-screens in some of the great houses in England, 
 which would not at first sight occur as eligible: this is glass, 
 through which the fire is seen, but through which it is found 
 that the heat of the fire will not penetrate. This opticians account for. 
 
 1972 
 
 Instead of filling 
 
 1974 
 
GRECIAN AND MODERN VILLA FURNITURE. 1073 
 
 circumstance of the spectrum being imperfect, and in a great measure deficient in 
 the calorific rays. Sometimes the glass is stained to represent a painting, like the 
 stained glass in church windows ; and in this case the effect is remarkably rich and 
 grand. Such a material is particularly suitable for filling in screens in the Gothic 
 style; and those who are acquainted with the stained glass windows of our ancient 
 cathedrals will readily conceive the endless source of variety and interest that might be 
 added to this description of firescreen. In all rooms where there is a great quantity of 
 furniture, and a great number of objects, it may be allowable, occasionally, to introduce 
 one or two of a subordinate description as articles of curiosity, and which, like all other 
 articles of curiosity, do not come within the pale of regular criticism. On this prin- 
 ciple, Chinese and Indian firescreens are allowable, even though there should be no 
 other article of furnituie in the same style in the room. 
 
 2129. Chimney-glass. Fig. 1975 is a Design for a Grecian chimney-glass, the beauty 
 of which will depend much on the carving. Chimney and pier glasses should correspond 
 
 in the style of their frames, with that of the room in which they are placed. A pier-glass 
 placed opposite the chimney-glass always has an excellent effect, as they reflect one another ; 
 so that the size of the room is doubled from whichever end the spectator directs his view. 
 A black ebony plinth, French polished, is preferred to a gilded one, on account of its not 
 tarnishing with the cleaning of the mantel-shelf. This plinth need not be above an inch 
 and a half deep. Chimney and pier glasses, being comparatively fixtures, and belonging 
 more to the permanent or constructive Architecture of the room, than to the furniture, 
 ought, in our opinion, to be treated in a different manner from what they generally are. 
 Their frames ought to be plainer, and more architectural ; and rather to harmonise with 
 the architraves of the doors and windows, and the marble of the chimney-pieces, than, as 
 they now do, chiefly with the gilt frames of the pictures. A marble frame for a glass, such 
 as Mr. Robison has introduced in his drawingroom, fig. 1817, we think in good taste; 
 not only over a marble chimney-piece, but over a marble-topped pier or consol table. 
 Perhaps there is no piece of furniture, put up by the London upholsterers, which is more 
 generally in bad taste than looking-glasses ; and this arises, as it appears to us, from that 
 fertile source of bad taste in articles formed for those who have abundant wealth, — an 
 excessive love of ornament. In this department of furniture, as in some others, we are 
 certainly far excelled by both the French and Germans. We should say, let small, land 
 especially portable, looking-glasses have highly enriched frames ; but let those for large 
 
 6 1, 
 
1074 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE 
 
 plates, to be placed against walls, always be simple and architectural, seeming to belong 
 to the construction of the room. 
 
 2130. Window Curtains. Fig. 1976 shows a window curtain with a gilt cornice and 
 handsome drapery, the hangings being either of damask or chintz, with bullion fringe 
 
 1976 
 
 (so called because it is made in the style of epaulets, the pendent part of which is called 
 bullion, though for what reason we have not been able to discover,) with silk drops. 
 The curtains are tied up with tassels and bands, instead of being fastened back with 
 brass pins ; a hook being placed on the architrave, on which the band is slipped. In 
 general the material and colour of window curtains should be the same as that of the 
 other drapery in the room ; for example, as the covers of sofas in drawing-rooms and as 
 bed curtains in bed-rooms. In the cases of dining-rooms and libraries, where there is 
 no other drapery than that belonging to the window curtains, the colour, and the ma- 
 terial of these should be such as to harmonise with the colouring, and style of finishing 
 and furniture, of the room- For example, if the furniture be chiefly mahogany, the 
 material of the curtains should be moreen or cloth ; and the colour should be of the 
 same tone, and strong or dark ; say some shade of red, brown, or scarlet. If, on the 
 other hand, the furniture be chiefly of oak, or of different-coloured foreign woods, the 
 or other light-coloured cloth, or moreen, or some description of chintzes or cottons, will 
 be more suitable ; in both cases the colours in the carpets should be in part those of drab 
 window curtains. When the chairs of a room are covered with cloth, the principle of 
 
GRECIAN AND MODERN VILLA FURNITURE. 1075 
 
 unity requires that this cloth, and that of the window curtains, should be the same both 
 in kind and colour. 
 
 Fig. 1977 is another drawingroom curtain, m which muslin hangings are shown 
 beneath the damask ones. The use of curtains in living-rooms is chiefly confined to 
 
 1977 
 
 cold and temperate climates ; and, even in these, they are found to convey the idea of 
 too great warmth in summer. We except, however, muslin curtains, the use of which 
 is to exclude insects, and in some degree to soften the direct light of the sun. In warm 
 climates, and during the heat of summer in the temperate regions, when it is desirable 
 to exclude heat, and, consequently, to a certain extent, light, the means which are most ef- 
 fective are the use of outside lufFer-blinds ; the glass of the windows being either altogether 
 removed, and replaced by wire gauze or fine muslin curtains ; or, as is commonly the 
 case in England, the sashes of the window being kept open at bottom and top. In all houses 
 whatever, it is a matter of considerable importance to moderate the light of the sun in the 
 hottest days of summer. The advantages of this are, coolness, the almost total exclusion 
 of insects, and the retention of colour in the different articles of furniture in the room. 
 For this reason, as it is very desirable, in every house, whether of the poor man or of the 
 rich, to preserve the colour of such expensive articles as window curtains and carpets, 
 and to exclude flies, which totally destroy gilt picture-frames, and gnats, which are a 
 personal annoyance, all houses that can afford it ought to have either shutter-blinds, or 
 some description of outside blinds, such as those mentioned, § 2002. 
 
1076 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 Fig. 1978 is a curtain with a richly carved and gilt cornice. 
 
 1978 
 
 Fig. 1979 is a drawingroora curtain with a fringed valance attached to gilt brass 
 rings, which move along a wooden pole sheathed in gilt brass. A silk drop is attached 
 to each ring, and from each ring the fringe forms a swag (curve). The curtains draw 
 behind the valance on a rod, as before described, § 669. As far as we have observed, 
 the taste of upholsterers is much more correct in window curtains, and in hangings and 
 draperies of every description, than in articles of furniture where form is chiefly con- 
 cerned. We can only account for this from their being, in this department, under the 
 control of a more enlightened public opinion, viz. that of women; who, from the 
 milliner upwards, have generally a more correct sense of harmony in colouring than men. 
 In the fashions of window curtains, as in almost every other article on which fashion 
 operates, the change is alternately from simple to complex, and from what is old to 
 what is new. The prevailing taste is for simple draperies, and the four Designs here 
 given we consider to be nearly unexceptionable. It is a great advantage, in every 
 description of hangings, to have them so put up, as to be easily taken down and 
 cleaned ; another desideratum is, that they can be easily drawn and withdrawn ; and a 
 third, as Mr. Robison judiciously remarks, is to have the folds perpendicular, in order 
 that they may not harbour much dust. A variety of useful details respecting the hang- 
 
GRECIAN AND MODERN VILLA FURNITURE. 1077 
 
 ing of curtains and window blinds will be found fi'om § 669 to § 675 ; and those ladies 
 who may wish to cut out their own curtains will find every thing they can desire in the 
 Upholsterer's Accelerator. 
 
 1979 
 
 2131. The General Appearance of a Drawingroom fMed up in the Grecian Style is given 
 in fig. 1980. This Design is by Mr. Lamb, who observes « that this room communi- 
 cates with a library through a conservatory. The opening to the latter should have 
 shutters with their backs lined with looking-glass, for effect when they are closed at night ; 
 it should also have glazed sashes to let down, when it may be found necessary to close the 
 room in the daytime. These shutters and sashes should be in three parts, to slide in 
 grooves ; the centre forming one panel. Within the room, on the sides of this opening, 
 are large looking-glasses, and in the four angles from the ceiling are suspended glass 
 vases for flowers. The whole of the decorations should tend to give a lively character 
 to the room, and flowers will materially assist in doing so. The opposite side of the 
 room should exactly correspond with this, and should open upon the lawn." We 
 need hardly say that we think this Design one of great beauty and novelty. The 
 idea of a suspended glass jardiniere appears to us much more elegant than shutting 
 flowers up in the drawer of a table, as before alluded to. Mr. Lamb's furniture is, like 
 his Architecture, always in good taste, and always combining novelty with correctness of 
 design and harmony of style. 
 
1980 
 
GRECIAN AND MODERN VILLA FURNITURE. 1079 
 
 SuBSECT. 6. Grecian and Modern Furniture for Bed-rooms and Dressing-rooms. 
 2132. Bedsteads. Fig. 1981 is a bedstead with a mahogany ogee cornice, in the 
 hollow of which is fixed a small brass or bronzed rod, a, by a bronzed or brass bracket, h, 
 which is placed on the angle of the cornice ; c shows the front of the bracket, looking 
 
 c 
 
 at it on the angle. The curtains are hooked on to the rings in the manner described 
 § 669, and there are small roses sewed on over each hook, which add much to the 
 effect. There is a fringed valance inside the cornice. The headcloth and tester are 
 fluted in a particular manner ; that is, with one wide flute and a narrow one on each 
 side of it, leaving a space between it and the next flute. The footboard, which is made 
 to slide out and in, is fluted to correspond with the head cloth and tester. The curtains 
 may be looped up by a small cord. All bedsteads should have castors with wooden 
 wheels ; a variety known as the French castor is considered the best. 
 
 Fig. 1982 is a four-post bedstead and furniture, with the cornice of mahogany, and 
 French-polished. The mahogany cornice is considered to be much preferable to a 
 painted and japanned one, both in point of effect and in durability ; though it is some- 
 what more expensive. The curtains of all beds ought to correspond with those of the 
 windows of the rooms in which they are placed. Chintz is generally preferred for bed- 
 curtains, as it admits of being washed. Bed curtains, when of chintz, are generally 
 lined with cotton of a different colour, sometimes plain and sometimes spotted. Dyed 
 
1080 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 1982 
 
 linings were formerly common, but they have now given way to plain white or spotted 
 ones ; the reason for which is, that the latter will admit of being washed, without injuring 
 the colour of the spots, which the former do not. Dimity curtains, for both beds and 
 windows, are considered in good taste, especially in the country, where they keep long 
 clean. Moreen used to be employed for the hangings of best beds and bed-room win- 
 dows; but it is now considered as apt to harbour moths and other vermin; and there- 
 fore, in these economical times, it is much less used than formerly. It has, however, the 
 advantage of not taking fire so readily as chintz or dimity ; but were these latter, imme- 
 diately after being washed, dipped in a solution of alum in clear water, they would be 
 '•endered much less liable to injury from fire than moreen, or any other stuflT of which 
 wool is the basis. Any one may prove this, by trying the effects of a solution of alum 
 on a cambric pocket handkerchief 
 
 2133. French Bedstead. Fig. 1984, to a scale of half an inch to a foot, is a French 
 bedstead with a circular top ; and with round projecting pillars in front, in which the 
 castors are concealed. The drapery may be of chintz, dimity, or muslin, so as to cor- 
 respond with the window curtains of the room. 
 
 2134. Bed Pillars. Fig. 1983 shows four patterns which may be executed in 
 mahogany, oak, or beech ; or they may be made of deal, and painted and grained. 
 These four patterns of bed-pillars will be considered by most persons, as well cabinet- 
 makers as others, to be very handsome ; and it may be worth while to enquire in what 
 their beauty consists. The first thing that strikes the eye in them, after surveying their 
 general form, is the quantity of carving with which they are decorated, and the different 
 narrow-turned necks or mouldings, which occur on that portion of the pillar, which is 
 
GRECIAN AND MODERN VILLA FURNITURE. 
 
 1081 
 
 1983 
 
 above the square, or rectangular part. How far then may this carving, and the intro- 
 duction of these necks, or circular parts, be admitted, and yet be consistent with archi- 
 tectural design and taste ? The answer on architectural principles is, just so far as they 
 do not interfere with the 
 expression of the pillar. 
 The next question is, what 
 ought this expression to be ? 
 First,suitableness of strength 
 and form to its use ; and, 
 secondly, the expression of 
 some kind of beauty or style, 
 for the gratification of the 
 beholder. The lower part 
 of the pillar is very properly 
 formed square on the sides ; 
 because that form is best 
 adapted for being mortised 
 to receive the tenons by 
 which it is joined to the 
 framework of the bed. 
 The upper part of the pillar 
 is conical or tapering ; and 
 it is smaller than the lower 
 part, because the same kind 
 of strength and application 
 is not there wanting ; this 
 part having only to support 
 the perpendicular pressure 
 of the roof. The feet, claws, 
 or bottom knobs, of the pil- 
 lars are brought to points ; 
 partly, we may suppose, be- 
 cause, the narrower the 
 space on which a foot can 
 stand, the more easily is it 
 adjusted to any surface on 
 which it may happen to be 
 placed ; and, partly, because 
 the only kind of strength 
 required there being that of 
 resisting perpendicular pres- 
 sure, the trouble of preserv- 
 ing the square form becomes 
 unnecessary. Thus it would 
 appear, that, as far as expres- 
 sion of purpose is concerned, 
 these bed-pillars are, at least, 
 unobjectionable ; and we 
 shall now, therefore, examine 
 them with respect to their 
 expression of beauty or style. 
 It is a fundamental principle, 
 both in nature and art, that 
 the stronger and more mas- 
 sive parts of any object 
 should support the lighter 
 and more elegant forms of 
 it ; and this it is, which is 
 the cause of the satisfaction 
 which we feel when we see 
 a cylindrical column placed 
 over a square pedestal, and 
 the conical upper part of 
 the bed-pillars, in the De- 
 signs before us, rising out of the rectangular part. 
 
 WD 
 
 The beauty of the conical part 
 of these pillars is great, in proportion as one part seems to arise out of another ; and 
 
 6 M 
 
GRECIAN AND MODERN VILLA FURNITURE. 
 
 1083 
 
 view, the most satisfactory of these piUars is that marked h ; because the base of the 
 conical part being commenced by the mouldings at e, the upper part of the cone appears 
 to rise beautiftiUy out of the foliage over it ; whereas, in the Design a, the continuity 
 of the cone is first interrupted by the hoUow at /, and afterwards by the neck at g, 
 though above this last letter, the cone rises in a satisfactory manner from the foliage 
 which embraces it. In the De- 
 sign c, the cone rises satisfactorily 
 from the double neck ; but the 
 Design d is altogether bad, from 
 the multiplicity of its parts, the 
 apparent weakness and want of 
 continuity and of cooperation 
 in its lines, and the obvious ef- 
 forts of the designer to display 
 ornament and produce novelty. 
 Of the feet of these different 
 Designs, that of a is unquestion- 
 ably the handsomest ; and that of 
 c the worst, in as much as it ap- 
 proaches nearer than any other 
 to the expression of weakness. 
 If the preceding reasoning be 
 found correct, it follows that, 
 beautiful as these bed-posts ap- 
 pear to be on the first glance, yet 
 that, when examined and tested 
 by principles, there is not one of 
 them to which great objections 
 cannot be made. If the foot, or 
 claw, as it is technically called, 
 of a were substituted for the 
 claw of h, then h .would be the 
 piUar most to our taste ; and next 
 would be the pillar c, with the 
 same change effected on it. In 
 this case, as in most others, the 
 great fault is the deviation from 
 simplicity. The cause of this 
 fault is, that, in London, so great has been the demand for cabinet furniture, and so 
 ardent the desire for novelty, that the great and incessant efforts of the upholsterer are 
 directed to the production of something new ; and that this demand for novelty, instead 
 of being met by taste and invention adequate to the supply, has only called forth mecha^ 
 nical changes or combinations of forms. The essential cause of this is the want of dis- 
 crimination on the part of the public, between \\ 
 what is a mere mechanical change in the dispo- 
 sition of parts, and what is really original design 
 in composition. 
 
 2135. Bed-steps. Fig. 1985 shows a set of 
 bed-steps, with two of the steps arranged as 
 cupboards. The tread of the top step is hinged, 
 and lifts up ; the middle step pulls forward ; 
 and when drawn out its lid lifts up, and shows 
 a space for a bidet, or other convenience. Where 
 there are steps of this kind on each side of a 
 bed, the middle step of the one may contain a 
 night convenience, and that of the other a bidet. 
 
 2136. Bed Cupboard. Fig. 1986, on a scale 
 of three quarters of an inch to a foot, forms a 
 very convenient cupboard, with a shelf and top having two flaps, which fold out for 
 books, &c., so as to form a table at pleasure, and thus disguise the use for which it is 
 principally intended. Pieces of furniture of this kind are often made in the shape of 
 pedestals, square or round, with marble tops, shelves within, and a hinged door opening 
 from top to bottom. 
 
 2137. Wardrobes. Fig. 1987, to a scale of half an inch to a foot, is a lady's wmged 
 wardrobe, to be made of any fine wood, French polished, and showing no brasswork in 
 any part of the front. The knobs are of mahogany or ebony ; the mouldings on the 
 
1084 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 doors are made to project ; and the fronts of the drawers are made to recede, and to have 
 a moulding raised upon them. Fig. 1989 shows the interior of this wardrobe. In one 
 
 1989 
 
 wing there is a rail with pegs, for hanging dresses, which folds out in the centre, so as 
 to enable a greater quantity of articles to be hung upon it. There is a shelf above the 
 rail, for holding shoes, &c. In the other wing are four shelves, for bonnets ; and below 
 is a locker, for dirty linen, the front of which folds down, and, when closed, fastens by a 
 catch. The centre part contains five tray shelves and four drawers. 
 
 Fio-. 1988 shows a portion of the interior of a wardrobe, containing a horizontal brass 
 rod, on which is hooked another article of brass, having two arms, or cross-pieces, to put 
 into the arm-holes of ladies' 
 dresses ; a number of which by 
 this means may be hooked on 
 to the rod, and slid backwards 
 and forwards on it, so as to 
 be examined, or taken off, at 
 pleasure. This is found by far 
 the most convenient and eco- 
 nomical mode of hanging up 
 ladies' dresses, without in the 
 slightest degree creasing or 
 otherwise injuring them. The 
 other part of this wardrobe 
 contains seven press shelves, 
 and a deep drawer for hold- 
 ing bonnets, &c., as described 
 in § 626. Presses are often 
 made four feet six inches, and 
 even seven feet, wide, for the 
 sole purpose of holding dresses, 
 with a horizontal rod, as in 
 the figure, and with a number 
 
GRECIAN AND MODERN VILLA FURNITURE. 1085 
 
 of brass arms hooked on it. A variety 
 of other forms for wardrobes will be found 
 among the cottage furniture, § 626. 
 
 2138. Dressing- Table. Fig. 1990, to 
 a scale of half an inch to a foot, is a lady's 
 enclosed dressing-table on pedestals. 
 There are three drawers in the frame, and 
 the pedestals have doors, with shelves or 
 drawers within. There is a glass fixed on 
 the top, and the castors are hidden in the 
 plinths of the pedestals. This very useful 
 piece of furniture is often made without 
 the glass being fixed. 
 
 2139. Dressing- Glasses. Figs. 1991 and 
 1992, to a scale of three quarters of an 
 inch to a foot, show patterns for dressing- 
 glass frames, which are now seldom made 
 with drawers. Drawers, however, seem not only to be useful for holding small articles 
 necessary for the toilette, but advantageous as forming an architectural plinth or base 
 for the support of the glass, as well 
 as to prevent it from being blown 
 over by the wind. When dressing- 
 glasses have no drawers, the frames 
 are generally loaded with lead, to pre- 
 vent them from being blown down. 
 
 2140. Cheval Glass. Fig. 1994 
 is a cheval dressing-glass, with 
 castors concealed in the feet, and 
 with the face of the frame beveled. 
 It has brass or bronzed candle- 
 brancher, which turn round with 
 joints; and the centres or screws 
 on which the glass turns have knobs 
 of wood fixed over the iron screws 
 to hide them. Fig. 1 993 is a cheval 
 glass of a more simple construction. 
 
 2141. Wash-hand Stand. Fig. 
 1995 is a wash-hand stand of ma- 
 hogany, with a marble top and wash-board. It contains two drawers, and a shelf 
 below with a circular piece of marble fixed on it, for the ewer to stand on. The best 
 
1086 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 kind of marble for wash-hand stands is the variety of French marble known in London 
 
 as St. Anne's : it is not 
 so light as some blue- 
 veined marbles, but it 
 is considered much 
 more durable than any 
 other, from the lime 
 being chemically fixed, 
 by combination with 
 iron, in such a manner 
 as to prevent the latter 
 from being easily acted 
 upon by the alkali of 
 the soap. The price 
 of marble being now 
 greatly reduced, in con- 
 sequence of the appli- 
 cation of steam ma- 
 chinery to its sawing 
 and polishing, the tops 
 of wash-hand stands, 
 and other articles of 
 bed-room furniture, are 
 very frequently made 
 of it. 
 
 Fig. 1996 is a vase, which may be of marble or of cast iron bronzed, or of various other 
 materials, supported on a cast-iron bronzed column, with project- 
 ing handles to serve as soap-holders. If this article were made a 
 fixture, two small tu^es could be conducted up the supporting co- 
 lumn, the one to supply clear water, and the other to carry oflT the 
 dirty water. This elegant Design is by Mr. Mallet. 
 
 2142. A small Ebony Waiter or Tray is frequently used for 
 holding jugs, &c., of hot water, for the washing-table : they are 
 eight or nine inches in diameter, turned, with the edges projecting 
 over, so as to serve as a substitute for handles. This, however, is 
 not the only article of ftimiture and furnishing that we have 
 omitted to fie;ure and describe in this work. The truth is, that 
 there are hundreds of small articles required in furnishing a house, 
 which might have been introduced in a work professing to describe 
 and figure all the utensils, implements, and instruments used in private houses : but 
 our principal object is, to communicate our ideas on the taste or no taste of the more 
 conspicuous articles of furniture at present generally fabricated. 
 
 SuBSECT. 7. Furniture for the Nursery. 
 
 2143. Bassinet (barcina, Sp., a rush basket). The first piece of furniture which an 
 infant can be said to use is a bassinet, or portable bed. Fig. 1 997 is a bassinet two feet 
 and a half long, the frame 
 of which is made of wicker- 
 work, with a hood which 
 falls backwards or forwards 
 as required. It is generally 
 lined with printed furniture, 
 or sometimes with dimity, 
 to keep out the draught. 
 The hood is covered with 
 furniture, and two little 
 curtains drop down from its 
 front, which are looped up 
 with tapes or ribands in the 
 same manner as tent-bed 
 furniture (see fig. 698). 
 A hair mattress stuffed very 
 
 soft, and a small down pillow, complete the bed. " The advantage of this bed," Mr. 
 Dalziel observes, " is great ; as the child, when asleep in it, is protected from currents 
 of air from whatever direction they may come. The child may also be removed in it 
 
GRECIAN AND MODERN VILLA FURNITURE, 
 
 1087 
 
 from one room to another without being disturbed. A mother will find such a bed par- 
 ticularly useful in the evening when the child is asleep beside her in the sitting-room ; 
 because it need not be disturbed, but may be carried in the bassinet to the bed-room, 
 and there placed by the side of the bed ; whereas, if the child were asleep on a sofa, its 
 removal, by taking it up in the arms, would be certain to awake it, and the mother might 
 lose her rest for several hours." 
 
 2144. Cribs have been already figured and described § 662. They come into use 
 after the bassinet ; that is, when the child is about a year old, and has been weaned. We 
 may here mention a description of crib, which has hooks or other fastenings ; by which, 
 when one side of it is taken out, the crib can be made fast to the side of the mother's bed, 
 so that she may have access to the child during the night, by merely stretching out her 
 arms, and taking it to her. 
 
 2145. Chairs are the next articles made use of 
 by children ; and those about London are of four 
 kinds. Fig. 1 999 is a child's chair of the first kind, 
 having a night pan, and a matted seat. A small 
 stuffed flannel of the size of the seat, and having a 
 round hole in the centre, is generally placed over 
 it when it is to be used, in order to prevent the 
 pan from hurting the child. (In some districts of 
 
 Italy, and other parts 
 of the Continent, 
 rings of stuffed 
 cloth, or stuffed lea- 
 ther, or of rush 
 matting, are used for 
 the same purpose by 
 grown-up persons.) 
 In England, infants 
 of ordinary health 
 and strength are 
 put into chairs of 
 this kind, when be- 
 tween three and four 
 months old. 
 
 Fig. 1998 is a 
 child's high chair, 
 
 to be used when it first begins to sit at table. There is a bar or stick put across between 
 the arms, to keep the child from falling out, and sometimes there is a foot-board. A 
 
 2000 
 
 stands on a stool, 
 
 child in average health 
 is put into such a chair 
 when about twelve or 
 fourteen months old. 
 
 Fig. 2000 is an Astley 
 Cooper's chair ; being a 
 form recommended by 
 that eminent surgeon, 
 with the view of pre- 
 venting children from 
 acquiring a habit of lean- 
 ing forward, or stooping ; 
 the upright position of 
 the back affording sup- 
 port when the child is 
 placed at table, and eat- 
 ing, which a sloping- 
 backed chair does not. 
 It is proper to observe 
 that some medical men 
 do not approve of these 
 chairs. 
 
 Fig. 2001 is a child's 
 elbow-chair, or bergere, 
 as it is commonly called 
 in England. This chair 
 to which it is attached 
 
 2001 
 
 thumb-screw ; 
 
1088 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 cliair is removed from the stool, 
 the latter forms a table for the 
 child to put its playthings on. 
 Tiie shelf for the feet is made to 
 move higher or lower as may be 
 required. The chair is only fixed 
 on the stool when the child is to 
 sit at table to eat, which it may do 
 wlien about eighteen months of 
 age. 
 
 2146. A Child's Washing-stand. 
 Fig. 2002 is a child's washing- 
 stand, consisting of a table about 
 eighteen inches high, with a large 
 basin and a soap cup sunk in one 
 side of the top. The table is made lower than a chair, in order that the nurse may 
 have the more power over the child when she is washing it. When the child is only a 
 few weeks old, it is immersed, or bathed in the basin ; but ;is it grows larger, it sits 
 on the top of the table, with its legs in the water. 
 
 Sect. II. Gothic Furniture for Villas. 
 
 2147. The Designs for Gothic Furniture vfhich. we shall submit are few; because 
 such designs are, in general, more expensive to execute than those for modern furniture ; 
 partly from the greater quantity of work in them, but chiefly because modern workmen 
 are unaccustomed to this kind of workmanship. What passes for Gothic furniture 
 among cabinet-makers and upholsterers is, generally, a very different thing from the 
 correct Gothic designs supplied by Architects who have imbued their minds with this 
 style of art. Wherever, therefore, a house is to be furnished in the Gothic style, we 
 repeat our recommendation to put the whole under the direction of a competent Archi- 
 tect. Indeed, it would be of great advantage to the wealthy, who have not leisure 
 themselves to attend to the subjects of taste and purity of design in furnishing their houses, 
 if they were, on every occasion, not only of furnishing a room, but even of adding or 
 changing a piece of furniture in a room already furnished, to consult an Architect before 
 doing so ; since nothing is more common than to find the style (in regard both to art 
 and expense) in which a house is furnished, totally at variance with its external Ar- 
 chitecture. Even in single rooms, we find the most heterogeneous mixtures of forms and 
 colours, arising from the desire of the occupant to possess such or such a particular 
 article of furniture, which has been seen somewhere else, without at all considering pro- 
 priety either with regard to expense, style, or effect. This arises from one of the most 
 common errors of mankind; viz., that of looking to parts by themselves alone, and not 
 considering them with reference to the whole to which they belong. We have before 
 observed, and it cannot be too deeply impressed on the mind of the reader, that the 
 first glance at the exterior of a house, like hearing the sound of the first bar of a piece of 
 music, ought to give a correct idea of the style of all which is to follow. Whoever has 
 cultivated a taste for architectural beauty must feel the force of this truth. 
 
 21 48. Previously to the Time of the Tudors, Mr. Hunt observes, " household furniture was 
 in general of a rude substantial character : the tables were formed of boards on tressels ; 
 the seats were massy oak benches or stools ; and the floors were strewed with straw." 
 ( Chaucer. ) The higher orders had, nevertheless, many costly and splendid articles : 
 such as embroidered beds, tapestry hangings, and magnificent plate. From the time of 
 Henry IV. to that of Henry VI. it appears that the same style of furniture prevailed 
 throughout Europe. An improved style was introduced into England during the reigns 
 of Henry VII. and Henry VIII., in consequence of the encouragement held out by 
 those monarchs to induce artisans of all countries to settle in their dominions. Some of 
 the handsomest pieces of furniture of those days belonged to Cardinal Wolsey, as ap- 
 pears by the fine specimens in the possession of John Thompson, Esq., of Frognall 
 Priory, Hampstead. 
 
 SuBSECT. 1. Gothic Furniture for Halls. 
 
 2149. The Hall of the manor-house, in the times when Tudor Architecture prevailed, 
 was the usual place for dining in. It was a large room, in the form of a parallelogram, 
 having an oriel window at the upper end, and other windows, filled with pamted glass, 
 high up in the side-walls. Near the oriel window was the dais, or raised floor, set aside 
 for the master of the house and his most distinguished guests. Under a screen was the 
 passage to the oflSces, and over it the gallery for the, minstrels. The fire was originally 
 
GOTHIC VILLA FURNITURE. 
 
 1089 
 
 placed against what was called a reredoss, in the middle of the floor, the smoke ascending 
 to the roof, and escaping there by one or by several openings, sometimes luflPer-boarded, to 
 keep out the rain. The timbers of the roofs were framed with pendants, carved, and more or 
 less emblazoned with heraldic insignia. The " top beam of the hall," and the " roof-tree " 
 of the Scotch houses, both terms signifying a beam of timber now seldom introduced in 
 roofs of such massive dimensions as formerly, were conunon toasts both in Wales and 
 Scotland. 
 
 2150. The Furniture of the Hall consisted chiefly of clumsy oak tables covered with 
 carpets ; of benches or forms of the same material ; of cupboards for plate and various 
 articles for the dining-table ; and in the centre the reredoss, or fire-iron, one of which 
 may still be seen in the hall at Penshurst, near Tunbridge "Wells, in Kent. Against 
 this fire-iron the faggots were placed which made the fire, and they were surrounded by 
 
 2004 
 
 a raised rim of stone or tile, on which lay a fire fork and tongs. We saw this interesting 
 haU in 1828, and Mr. Britton, who examined it in 1832, describes it at length in his 
 very interesting Sketches of Tunbridge Wells. " The south 
 side of the court is occupied by the fine old baronial hall, 
 which, though disfigured and mutilated, is still an apart- 
 ment of magnitude and architectural interest. It measures 
 about sixty feet in length by nearly forty in width, and at 
 least sixty in height. It is open to the roof, where there 
 was a louvre, or lantern, for ventilation. Beneath it, on the 
 floor, is the original fire-hearth, with a large andiron for 
 sustaining the blazing log." The designs for hall furniture 
 which follow are not to "be considered as servile copies of 
 what actually existed in the Tudor times, either at Pens- 
 hurst, or any where else, but as an exemplification of that 
 style of Architecture applied to articles suited to modern 
 habits of society. 
 
 2151. Benches. Fig. 2003 is a hall bench, designed by 
 Mr. Lamb. In the preceding part of this work will be found 
 two figures of hall benches, from existing specimens, both 
 copied from the work of Mr. Hunt (see figs. 1346 and 1347.) 
 
 2152. Chairs. Fig. 2004 is a hall chair, also designed 
 by Mr. Lamb, who observes « that the heraldic devices on 
 it should be painted in their proper colours." 
 
 2153. Tables. Hall tables, as we have already observed, 
 were of a simple massive construction, displaying little 
 ornament. The top was generally of oak planking, two or more inches thick, and the 
 frame supporting it consisted chiefly of two massive horizontal top rails, joined to 
 massive pillars. Sometimes there were both top and foot rails, but in the more massive 
 designs the latter were entirely wanting. 
 
 SuBSECT. 2. Gothic Furniture for Parlours and Dining-rooms. 
 
 2154. Sideboard. Fig. 2005 is an oak sideboard, which may be either executed in 
 that wood, or in deal ard painted and grained in imitation of it. 
 
 6 X 
 
1090 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 2155. Tables. Fig. 2006 is a dining-room table of oak or chestnut, or of any soft 
 (rood painted and grained. 
 
 2156. Seats. Fig. 2007 is a parlour chair turned in oak, chestnut, or any other 
 British wood that has 
 colour and variety in 
 its texture. It may be 
 painted, or even gilt, 
 according to the cha- 
 racter of the ro"m in 
 which it is to be placed. 
 The cushion may be 
 of figured chintz. For 
 a Gothic chair, Mr. 
 Lamb considers that 
 this Design would be a 
 cheap one. 
 
 Fig. 2008 is a din- 
 ing-room chair, having 
 a stuffed cushion of crimson damask 
 painted of their natural tints. 
 
 the vine leaves and grapes in the back should be 
 
GOTHIC VILLA FURNITURE. 1091 
 
 2009 
 
lt)92 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 2157. 27ie General Appearance of a dining-room finished and furnished in the Tudor 
 style is shown in fig. 2(X)9. In this Design, the curtains, Mr. Lamb observes, " are 
 to be transparent, in order that they may not hide the Architecture of the windows. 
 The ceiling is to be of oak, and the ornaments in the corners are to be gilt. The dado 
 should also be of oak. The dado did not come much into use till the latter part of the 
 Tudor period. Two additional patterns for chairs will be seen in this Design." 
 
 SuBSECT. 3. Gothic Furniture for Libraries. 
 
 2158. Bookcases. Figs, 2010 and 2011 are bookcases in two different varieties of 
 Tudor Gothic, both remarkably plain, so as to be easily executed by any joiner who has 
 been accustomed to fit up houses or churches in the Gothic style. Such a joiner will, 
 
 for the most part, have the proper tools for the different mouldings, and will understand 
 better what they are, than even a cabinet-maker, who has always been executing designs 
 in the modern style. 
 
 2159. Seats. Fig. 2013 is a carved oak arm-chair, with a cushion of green and gold. 
 
 2160. Tables. Fig. 2014 is an oak table, which will serve either for a parlour or a 
 library, the pillar might be of cast iron, properly painted, and the top might be of 
 marble. Our correspondent Mr. Robison has sent us a very handsome design for a 
 table somewhat resembling this in general form, but made entirely of cast iron and 
 marble, which he has had executed in Edinburgh, and finds to be " handsome, service- 
 able, and economical." The style of his house being modern, he had the base and 
 pillar bronzed ; the circular marble top was of Bordeaux marble, forty-two inches in 
 diameter, and cost, prepared and polished at Bordeaux, and finished with a raised border, 
 only about eighty francs. Without this raised border, it would not have cost more than 
 forty-two francs. The freight from Bordeaux to Leith is only 3s. 6d. per cwt. We 
 introduce these facts to show how much may be done, in the way of improving house- 
 
GOTHIC VILLA FURNITURE. 1093 
 
 hold furniture by the more general introduction of cast iron and marble. Were the 
 taste for marble greater, and the steam-machinery for workmg it more generally 
 known, there can be little doubt that the increased demand would stmiulate to such an 
 abundant supply, that the price would be lowered, and aU parties be gamers. 
 
 2161. The General View of the Interior of a Library in this Style is shown in tig. 2011. 
 
 2012 
 
1094 
 
 AGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 2013 
 
 The roof is of oak, with the bosses at the inter- 
 section gilt. The shields should be painted of their 
 proper colours. At the end of the room is an 
 enclosed bookcase, and opposite each window is a 
 corresponding recess for books ; these recesses may 
 have carved oak doors. In this Design, Mr. Lamb 
 has shown two elegant chairs, a library table, and 
 "a footstool. Those of our readers who have paid 
 any attention to the remarks which we have made, 
 in different places in the preceding section, on modern furniture, must, by this time, have 
 formed some idea as to what constitutes unity of style in this department of Domestic 
 Architecture. We would direct their attention to the whole of this interior of a 
 library, to the interior of a dining-room, and to each of the pieces of furniture in 
 this, and the two preceding subsections, separately. In every one of these will be 
 found the most perfec* unity of style. On examining the chairs, it will be seen that 
 there is not that discrepancy between the hind and the fore legs, that there is in the 
 designs for chairs in the modern style. The backs also of these chairs seem to arise out 
 of the seats, and to be firmly fixed to them, instead of being twisted about in all direc- 
 tions like the chairs in p. 1062. Their forms are no doubt what might be called stiff, in 
 comparison with the forms of the chairs alluded to ; but that stiffness belongs to the style. 
 The tables, we think, are eminently beautiful ; more especially the legs and pillars. 
 
 SuBSECT. 4. Gothic Furniture for Drawingrooms. 
 2162. SeaU. Fig. 2015 is an oak drawingroom chair, with a stuffed cushion of blue 
 
 2015 
 
GOTHIC VILLA FURNITURE. 
 
 1095 
 
 2017 
 
 2018 
 
 and silver edging and tassels. We may observe here, that there is no end to 
 the variety of form and combination which might be introduced in Gothic chairs. The 
 Gothic style of Architecture, is, of all others, that which affords the most fertile sources 
 
 of invention ; not 
 only in the forms 
 and disposition of 
 its masses, or prin- 
 cipal parts, but in 
 all its various details 
 and ornaments. The 
 Grecian style of art 
 is directly the re- 
 verse. The expense 
 of the Gothic style 
 is the only serious 
 objection which can 
 be made against it. 
 To a Briton this 
 style is rich in as- 
 sociations of the 
 most interesting 
 description. 
 
 Fig. 2016 is a 
 drawin groom chair 
 with a cane back 
 and seat. It may 
 
 be executed in oak, or oak and ebony, the ornamental carvings being gilt. The whole 
 chair may also be executed in any easily carved wood, and afterwards painted and gilt, 
 so as to imitate oak, ebony, ivory, and gold. This was not an uncommon practice in the 
 more magnificent articles of furniture of former times, as we may still see by the chairs 
 at Knowle, in Kent, and by those in the collection of Mr. Thompson of Frognall Priory. 
 
 Fig. 2017 is a" drawingroom chair of oak, partly gilt, and having the cushion of blue 
 damask. 
 
 Fig. 2018 is a light drawing- 
 room chair, made of any soft 
 wood, and painted. The hollow 
 moulding is supposed to be of a 
 light green colour ; the fillet gilt, 
 and the cover of the cushion green, 
 with gold edging. 
 
 Fig. 2020 is a stool with a 
 stuffed top, which may serve either 
 for a drawingroom, or a library. 
 
 2163. A Sofa in the Gothic 
 style will be found in the general 
 view, fig. 2021, and also a piano- 
 forte ; both of which are charac- 
 teristics of the drawingroom. 
 
 2164. Table. Fig. 2019 is a 
 drawingroom table. The top is 
 
 supposed to be inlaid with variously figured oak, ebony, and ivory ; the pUlar is of oak, 
 encircled with ebony, and striped with gold. 
 
 2165. A General View of the Interior of a Drawingroom, fitted up and furnished tn the 
 Gothic Style, is given in fig. 2021. « The tracery of the ceiling should be of oak, or of 
 
 stucco painted in imitation of that wood. The fillets and flowers 
 should be gilt ; the panels painted blue, and the ornaments of the 
 cornice also gilt. The dado should be of oak, painted and gilt. 
 In this Design are shown two different varieties of chairs, a 
 piano-forte, a music-stool, a music-desk, a Canterbury, a sofa, a 
 fire-screen, and a footstool." We need not express an opinion 
 of this interior ; for every reader, we think, must be pleased with 
 it. Even the studies of furniture which it affords are interesting ; 
 the Gothic piano-forte and music-stool, with the Canterbury on 
 the left hand, and the music stand on the right ; the Gothic couch, 
 with its footstool ; the two beautiful chairs; and, finally, the fire- 
 screen, all claim attention, and are each separately worthy of study. 
 
 2020 
 
1096 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 2021 
 
GOTHIC VILLA FURNITURE. 
 
 1097 
 
 SuBSECT. 5. Gothic Furniture for Bed-rooms. 
 2166. For Chairs, Tables, Chests of Drawers, and other common Bed-room Furniture, 
 we have here given no designs, because any one at all conversant with the subject may 
 easily confer a Gothic character on the different articles before given as modern furniture 
 for the bed-rooms of cottages and villas. We are enabled by Mr. Lamb to give one 
 Design for a bedstead, fig. 2022, which is suflScient to prove that there is no piece of modern 
 
 furniture whatever to which this style may not be applied with admirable effect. We 
 have seen a number of Gothic bedsteads executed under the direction of the late Duke 
 of Norfolk, in Arundel Castle ; but none of them are correct in regard to style, or at all 
 to be compared with Mr. Lamb's Design for splendour of general effect. Arundel Castle, 
 our readers are probably aware, was for many years the scene of the late Duke of Nor- 
 folk's trials at building ; by which, as his own Architect, he sought to instruct himself in 
 the Gothic style. After being occupied in this way for upwards of forty years, and 
 spending several hundred thousand pounds, he just arrived at last at that point where a 
 man discovers his own utter ignorance. We make no reflection on the memory of the 
 noble duke on this account, we merely state the fact. A man of overgrown wealth may 
 be allowed to spend it in any way he pleases, as the greatest injury he can do society is 
 to hoard it. Had the duke employed an Architect, he would, no doubt, have possessed 
 a castle in a very superior taste, both externally and internally, to what Arundel Castle 
 now is ; but it does not follow, on that account, that he would have been so happy in seeing 
 the more perfect works of his Architect, as he was in realising the crude ideas of his own 
 mind. These observations cannot be considered altogether irrelevant to a work of this 
 kind, because they will serve to teach by example the consequences of a man's attempt- 
 ing to be his own Architect, before he is sufficiently acquainted with the subject, to be 
 aware of the precise state of his own architectural knowledge. 
 
 2167. Remarks. For all the designs of Tudor furniture in the preceding subsections, 
 we are indebted to Mr. Lamb ; whose mind is richly stored with all the forms both of 
 modern and ancient Architecture, and whose pencil is as rapid and accurate as his con- 
 ceptions are fertile. Mr. Lamb is one of the few young Architects who, like Mr. Mallet, 
 
 6 o 
 
1098 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 can draw with equal ease whatever comes before them. Trees, plants, flowers, animals 
 human figures, landscapes, marine scenery, and buildings are aU transferred by him to 
 paper with equal facility and rapidity. When we mention that, in addition to this, he is, 
 like Mr. Varden (a young Architect similarly gifted), a practical surveyor, and a drawer 
 up of specifications and estimates, our readers may imagine how well we think him 
 deserving of public patronage. 
 
 2023 
 
 2026 
 
 Sect. III. Elizabethan Furniture for Villas. 
 
 2168. The Style of Finishing and Furniture which prevailed in England during the 
 Reigns of Elizabeth and James I. exhibits a mixture of the Italian Architecture with the 
 Gothic ; sometimes very rudely composed ; and, at other times, in consequence of being in 
 the hands of superior artists, forming harmonious compositions of lines and forms. The 
 remains of furniture 
 in this style are abun- 
 dant throughout the 
 country ; and, as we 
 have before observed, 
 it has of late become 
 fashionable among the 
 metropolitan cabinet- 
 makers to collect it. 
 We shall give a few 
 examples, for the sake 
 of showing that this 
 mixed style may be 
 easily appUed to all 
 the articles of mo- 
 dern convenience and 
 luxury. Those who 
 
 wish to see designs for Elizabethan furniture on a larger scale will find whatever they 
 could desire, by consulting the elegant work of Mr. Shaw, or the splendid description 
 of Hatfield House by 
 Mr. Robinson. Hat- 
 field House is one of 
 the most perfect exist- 
 ing specimens of Eli- 
 zabethan Architecture 
 externally, and of Eli- 
 zabethan finishing and 
 furniture within. Mr. 
 Robinson's descrip- 
 tion is, therefore, a va- 
 luable reference book 
 for Architects. The 
 object of Mr. Shaw's 
 work is " to extend 
 historical correctness 
 
 in art, by placing within the, reach of its professors a standard authority for all articles 
 used in domestic purposes ; from the earliest period in which such specimens exist, to the 
 reign of James I." We may here observe that the pleasure derived from seeing or 
 possessing curious ancient furniture, is of a kind often quite distinct from that derived 
 from seeing or possessing furniture in correct style, or in elegant forms. Let, for 
 example, any reader observe the chair given in the next paragraph, fig. 2027, and then 
 turn to any of the chairs shown in Flaxman's Compositions from Eschylus and Homer, or 
 even look on some of those in Mr. Hope's work, figs. 2023 to 2026. There is no one 
 who would not be desirous of possessing a chair both of the Grecian and the Elizabethan 
 kind ; but the Elizabethan chair would be valued merely as a curious piece of antiquity ; 
 while the other would be prized for its expression, for its suitableness as a seat, for its 
 simplicity, and for the great eflPect produced in it by a very few lines. This effect of the 
 Grecian chair being independent of all historical associations, since it is, in fact, merely an 
 imaginary composition, results wholly from the beauty of the design. A chair m the Tudor 
 style is equally expressive in its way ; and is a far more perfect object as a work of art, 
 independent of historical associations, than any description of mixed or Elizabethan 
 chair : but, though it possesses the beauties of unity of expression and of style in the 
 highest degree, it wants that beauty of simplicity, or that evidence of effecting the most 
 
ELIZABETHAN VILLA FURNITURE. 
 
 1099 
 
 (Hunt's 
 
 important ends by the simplest means, which the Grecian chair displays, and which indeed 
 is characteristic of the whole of Grecian art. The object of these observations is, to show 
 that the present taste for Elizabethan furniture is more that of an antiquary, or of a 
 collector of curiosities, than that of a man of cultivated mind. 
 
 2169. Chairs. In Elizabethan houses, Hunt observes, we find in most apart- 
 ments two great chairs : " these were arm-chairs, with stuflfed backs and sides, entirely 
 covered, and similar to the 
 lounging-chairs of the pre- 
 sent day. Others, described 
 as ' Flemish chairs,' ' scrolled 
 chairs,' and * turned chairs,' 
 were wrought in ebony, wal- 
 nut, cherry-tree, &c., with 
 high backs ; and either stuff- 
 ed in one long upright panel, ' 
 or filled in with wickerwork ; 
 the seats being also stuffed, 
 and covered with costly 
 kinds of materials, as various 
 as their shapes. To these 
 maybe added low arm-chairs, 
 tastefully turned, and carved 
 in ebony, enriched with ivory 
 knobs and inlayings, chiefly 
 of Italian or Flemish manu- 
 facture, with cushions or pil- 
 lows on the seats. Besides 
 these, there were ' some little 
 gilt chairs for women ;' and 
 long seats, with backs and 
 arms, resembling in form the 
 more ancient settle, and holding several persons, were also much in use.' 
 Tudor Architecture, p. 146.) 
 
 Fig. 2029 is a low arm-chair in the Elizabethan style, contributed by Mr. Shaw ; and 
 fig. 2027 is a drawingroom chair, sent us by the same gentleman. 
 
 Figs. 2028, 2030, and 2031 are chairs- now existing in the 
 neighbourhood of Haslemere, in Surrey, the drawings of 
 which were sent us by Miss Sarah Perry of Stroud House. 
 
 Fig. 2032 is a richly carved Dutch chair, in the possession 
 of a family at Bayswater, from a very beautiful and accurate 
 drawing of which our engraving was made. 
 
 Fig. 2033 is an arm-chair and cushion from Hunt, said to 
 be of the time of Henry VIII., and to be now existing. It 
 has nothing to recommend it but its antiquity : the form of 
 the seat is the very reverse of what may be called natural ; 
 since, so far from its affording relaxation and ease to the body, 
 the person sitting on it must inevitably be cramped and con- 
 fined. This is not the only chair or piece of ancient furniture 
 to which similar remarks may be applied. The truth is, that neither in ancient furniture, 
 dress, nor even Architecture, is there any thing to admire, in point of comfort or use 
 when viewed with reference to our own times. There is much of taste and beauty in many 
 parts and articles, considered with reference to their composition ; because excellence in 
 art depends more upon the natural talent and exertion of the individual, than on any 
 stores of scientific knowledge left him by his predecessors ; and art may, consequently, be 
 carried to a high degree of perfection in an age of general ignorance. Hence, numerous great 
 painters, sculptors and carvers existed in the dark ages, when philosophers and men of 
 science were rarely to be met with : hence, also, while science progressively improves, in 
 consequence of the discoveries handed down from one generation to another, the 
 imaginative arts, in any one age, depend mainly upon the individual exertions of the artists 
 of that age. No natural process of human improvement could produce a Shakspeare ; 
 but thousands now know more than Brindley did in his time. We state these facts to 
 show that the admiration which is bestowed on many of the works of art of the dark ages 
 may often proceed from the justest taste, and be neither the admiration of ignorance, nor 
 the mere veneration of antiquity. The finest proofs of this may be obtained from the 
 magnificent work of Seroux d'Agincourt; and also from Perrault, an Architect who, as 
 Mr. Hope finely observes, " knew how to vmite philosophy with bricks and mortar.'' 
 
1100 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 and simplicity of the work so concealed : the most elaborate embroidery wrought on the 
 finest grounds, velvets and satins fringed with gold and silver, Turkey carpets, and the 
 
ELIZABETHAN VILLA FURNITURE. 
 
 1101 
 
 choicest tapestry were devoted to these purposes." The ornaments, which consisted 
 principally of carving, were chiefly bestowed on the legs and pillars ; and of such tables 
 there are numbers to be met with in different ancient houses throughout the country. 
 
 Fig. 2034 is a hall table in this style, designed by Mr. Shaw ; and fig. 2035 is a side- 
 board table for a dining-room, by the same artist. 
 
 2171. Cabinets, Coffers, and 2034 
 
 Chests are well-known pieces 
 of ancient furniture, and are 
 to be found in every house 
 that has the slightest preten- 
 sions to antiquity. Cabinets, 
 Hunt observes, " were of 
 massive proportions, carved in 
 oak, ebony, walnut, and other 
 woods, and sometimes inlaid. 
 Some of these answered the 
 double purpose of depositories 
 and cupboards for plate ; and, 
 from having drawers and re- 
 cesses enclosed by doors, and 
 broad shelves between the tiers 
 of turned columns, were conspicuous objects." (p. 148.) Their exterior appearance often 
 displayed much carving and other decoration, with curious hinges, escutcheons, handles, 
 and angle ornaments. The 2035 
 coffers and chests were covered 
 with iron straps and bands, 
 and had curiously formed 
 locks, hinges, and corner orna- 
 ments. For the termination 
 of the strap and hinge bands, 
 the fleur de lis was often re- 
 sorted to; and .the general 
 form and proportion of these 
 ornamented bands of iron were 
 something like those of a 
 sceptre. The handles were of 
 curious workmanship ; and sometimes the chest was raised on feet, and at other times 
 on a plinth. Oak was the wood of which these chests were most frequently made, but 
 sometimes they were inlaid with different woods. In all houses in the country, where 
 there are large halls and passages, massive chests are most useful pieces of furniture, 
 for containing articles which it is desirable to conceal ; especially lumber or fuel. 
 The exterior of all such chests or wardrobes might be rendered curious, and highly 
 interesting, though we do not say in correct or architectural taste, by covering them with 
 the Elizabethan, Dutch, Louis XIV., or Francis L, ornaments, which are now to be 
 purchased in abundance, either at home or abroad. We have already, § 2063, referred 
 to Nixon and Son, for the two latter kinds of furniture ; and we may here observe that 
 Wilkinson of Oxford Street, and Hanson of John Street, have extensive collections of 
 Elizabethan and Dutch furniture and carvings, from which a judicious compiler of ex- 
 teriors might clothe skeleton frames, so as to produce objects of curiosity and interest, at 
 a very trifling expense. Kensett of Mortimer Street has also some curious specimens 
 both of Elizabethan and more ancient furniture. Among these, we may mention a 
 correct fac-simile of a chair taken from Tintern Abbey, and now in Troy House, Mon- 
 mouthshire ; and two other chairs from Glastonbury ; one of which, called the abbot's 
 chair, is of very elaborate workmanship, and the other no less remarkable for the sim- 
 plicity of its construction. Correct copies of these celebrated chairs are manufactured 
 by Mr. Kensett for sale. A fine specimen of the manner of fitting up a room with Eli- 
 zabethan fragments may be seen in Mortimer Street, at the oflSce of Mr. Fairs, a London 
 house-painter of the very first taste. 
 
 2172. Bedsteads, and the other Articles of Furniture in Bed-rooms, fitted up in the 
 Elizabethan Style, were curiously wrought and carved. The wood was generally oak 
 or chestnut ; but walnut, elm, holly, and box were used, painted more or less, and some- 
 times profusely gilt. It does not appear that curtains formed so important a part of the 
 ancient bed as they do of the modern one. The chief expense seems to have been 
 incurred in carving the posts ; in the head-boards, which extended from the pillow to the 
 canopy ; in the canopies themselves; and in the deep cornices, or rather architraves, which 
 surrounded the whole. In designing modern beds in this style, the artist should bear 
 
1 102 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 in mind, not merely the great cost of* such carving relatively to the effect produced, but 
 also that this kind of ornament is more apt to harbour dust, and that it is more difficult 
 ^to clean, than any other. This also is an argument against the extensive use of the highly 
 enriched Gothic style. In an age like the present when all, from the highest to the 
 lowest, are beginning to recognise their equal natural right of enjoyment, it will soon 
 become a part of the business of Architects and upholsterers to design and prepare 
 articles of furniture, both for use and luxury, in such a style, as will reduce the labour 
 of servants, in keeping them in order, to a minimum. Fig. 2036 exhibits six Designs 
 
 I 1 I I 1 2036 I 1 I 1 1 1 
 
 for balusters, selected, by Mr. Varden, from old specimens,' which at once afford hints for 
 bed-posts, staircase railings, backs to settles and to chairs, and open screens. It is 
 almost needless to add that all these forms might be enriched by carving ; or that they 
 are in any thing but good taste when considered with reference to abstract principles. 
 
 2173. Interiors in the Elizabethan Style. Fig. 2037 is a general view of a dining- 
 room ; and fig. 2038 that of a drawingroom : both are by Mr. Lamb. 
 
 2174. Remarks. Much more might have been said on the subject of Elizabethan 
 furniture, and it would have been easy to give numerous designs : it must, however, be re- 
 collected that our object, in this work, is, not to display antiquarian lore, or articles which 
 would require enormous expense to execute, but simply to give an idea of the style of 
 composition known as Elizabethan, and to show how it may be applied to articles in modern 
 use. No one ought to attempt it who is not a master of composition on abstract prin- 
 ciples ; but, indeed (in London, at least), the attempt is scarcely necessary ; since there 
 are abundant remains of every kind of Elizabethan furniture to be purchased of col- 
 lectors. These, when in fragments, are put together, and made up into every article of 
 furniture now in use ; and, as London has a direct and cheap communication with every 
 part of the world by sea, the American citizen or the Australian merchant, who wishes 
 to indulge in this taste, may do it with the greatest ease, and may purchase real antiques 
 at much less expense than he could have the articles carved by modern artists. To those 
 who wish to study the furniture and furnishing of the times of Elizabeth and James, we 
 recommend Mr. Hunt's very excellent and entertaining work on Tudor Architecture and 
 Furniture : and " the antiquary, who desires a perfect idea of any article of furniture 
 mentioned by Froissart, Chaucer, or Shakspeare ; the Architect, who wishes for standard 
 authorities for the restoration or imitation of ancient buildings ; the painter, who is 
 anxious to produce a historical picture which shall challenge the most fastidious cri- 
 ticism ; or the histrionic manager, who is ambitious, in scenery, to rival John Kemble's 
 correctness in costume, "we refer to Shaw's Designs for Ancient Furniture. 
 
ELIZABETHAN VILLA FURNITURE. 1103 
 2037 
 
PRINCIPLES OF CRITICISM. 
 
 1105 
 
 BOOK IV. 
 
 THE PRINCIPLES OF CKITICISM IN ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 2175. The Principles of Criticism, in any art, are nothing more than the principles on 
 which that art is founded. They are termed principles of criticism by those who consider 
 themselves judges, merely with reference to their application to the productions of art, 
 when a judgment is to be expressed upon those productions. Every person who forms 
 an opinion of, or passes his judgment upon, any work of art or literature, must do so with 
 refei-ence to some previously received ideas ; and these ideas, whether well founded or not, 
 are to him at once his scientific principles of the art which forms the subject of his 
 opinion, and his principles for criticising that art. This is one reason for the very dif- 
 ferent opinions formed of works of art by critics : but another reason, and one perhaps 
 more powerful, arises from the difference in the natural susceptibility of men's minds to 
 the impression of beauty ; in other words, from the original difference between men in 
 those perceptive powers, which, when united, constitute what is called the faculty of 
 taste. It is evident, therefore, that the principal causes of the differences of opinion 
 which exist among critics are their different degrees of knowledge of the first prin- 
 ciples of the art to be criticised ; and their different degrees of natural taste for its 
 various productions. 
 
 2176. The Productions of any Art maybe examined in two ways : first, with reference 
 to what they are in themselves ; and, secondly, with reference to what the artist intended 
 to make them. In the one case, the effect of the object, or the pleasure or dissatisfaction 
 which it occasions, is analysed, and referred to first principles, without the critic having 
 had any previous knowledge of the intention of the artist ; and, in the other case, the 
 design or intention of the artist being known, the beauties or effects which ought to be 
 the result of that design, are sought for in his production, which will be blamed or 
 praised according as these may be found present or wanting. The first mode of 
 criticism may be called analytical ; and the second, synthetical. Both equally suppose 
 in the mind of the critic a knowledge of the principles of art, and the power of applying 
 those principles to its productions. 
 
 2177. The Criticisms in the preceding Part of this Work have been chiefly analytical; 
 and they have, in few instances, embraced either the whole of the merits, or of the 
 demerits, of any one particular design. The reason is, that our object, as expressed in 
 the Introduction (p. 1.), was, to develope principles, " as it were, incidentally, and by 
 little and little ; " with a view first to excite, and afterwards gradually to increase, a taste 
 for the study of Architecture, in minds which had previously paid but little attention to 
 the subject. We trust that the reader has borne constantly in his mind, while perusing 
 the preceding pages, that such has been our intention ; for, unless this has been the case, 
 those who were previously masters of the subject must have been surprised to find that 
 we have sometimes passed over both faults and beauties without notice. All this, how- 
 ever, was the necessary consequence of the plan which we laid down as our guide when 
 we set out. As the result of that plan, we hope we may conclude that the causes 
 which we have assigned for the beauties and defects of the designs given, have, by this 
 time, impressed on the minds of our readers all the leading principles of Domestic 
 Architecture as an art of design and taste. 
 
 2178. The Object of the present Book is, to collect, and to present in a systematic form, 
 those leading principles of architectural criticism which have been scattered throughout 
 the work ; as well to show the reader their relative importance, as to afford him an easy 
 means of comprehending them as a whole, and of storing them up in his mind. By 
 finding here collected together, and connected by the relation which they bear towards one 
 another, those principles which he had before become acquainted with separately and in- 
 cidentally, their repetition, when thus combined, will reiterate the impression they had 
 already made on his memory, and will enable him, if he should re-examine our designs, 
 to complete those criticisms which we have only commenced; or, should he direct 
 his attention to the designs of others, to detect in them whatever faults or beauties 
 they may happen to possess. The use of the present work, in improving Domestic 
 Architecture in Britain, America, and Australia, will materially depend on its rendering 
 the reading classes architectural critics ; and more especially on the influence which it 
 has, in this respect, in improving the taste of women. The Designs we have given will, 
 no doubt, be of essential service as models ; but the grand and permanent effect of 
 this work must depend on the spirit of observation and inquiry which it excites in 
 the general reader. We have stated, in oiu- Introduction, that the principles of 
 Domestic Architecture as an art of design and taste, may be reduced to three: viz., 
 fitness for the end in view ; expression of the end in view ; and, expression of architec- 
 tural style. To each of these principles we shall devote a short chapter. 
 
 6 p 
 
1106 
 
 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 Chap. I. 
 
 Of the Principle of Fitness, as applied to Architecture. 
 
 2179. The Subject of Fitness, in Architecture, naturally embraces the fitness of the plan, 
 or arrangement, of the building for its uses ; the fitness of its construction for strength and 
 durability, and the adjustment of the whole design to the pecuniary means employed. 
 
 2180. The Fitness of the Arrangement of a Design for the uses for which it is intended 
 must necessarily depend on the knowledge which the Architect possesses of those uses. 
 The purposes for which buildings are erected are so various, that it is not to be expected 
 they can be all equally known to any one individual : nevertheless, the Architect must 
 be supposed to understand the uses of whatever building he undertakes to design ; for, 
 otherwise, we cannot with justice examine his works by fitness for the end in view, as a 
 principle. All buildings may be arranged under certain classes; such as, human 
 dwellings, lodging-places for animals, and buildings for carrying on trades or manufac- 
 tures, for public assemblies, for public instruction, for the purposes of the administration 
 of the laws, &c. The first class mentioned (that of human dwellings) may be sub- 
 divided into orders; such as, villas, farm-houses, cottages, &c., according to the different 
 habits or modes of living of the persons by whom they are to be occupied. The 
 second class of buildings (lodging-places for animals) may be divided in a similar 
 manner, according to the kind of animals that are to be lodged in them. The same may 
 be said of the class of buildings for carrying on trades and manufactures, which may be 
 divided into an almost endless number of orders, according to the respective arts or 
 manufactures to which they are adapted. Public buildings will admit of a still greater 
 number of divisions ; but, without attempting to enumerate them, the classification already 
 mentioned will sufficiently show the great extent embraced by the subject of architectural 
 design ; and how unlikely it is that any one Architect can be equally conversant with 
 the principle of fitness, as far as regards design or intention, in every order of buildings. 
 If we even take hu.nan dwellings, we shall probably find that the Architect is only master 
 of the subject of fitness for that description of dwelling in which he has been used to 
 live, or which he has been accustomed to construct. In proof of this, we may refer 
 to most of the books of designs by Architects for cottage dwellings and farm buildings 
 which have hitherto appeared ; and to the remark made by one of our correspondents, 
 on this subject, at the conclusion of § 1368. In like manner, the Architect's powers 
 of design, in contriving houses for lodging animals, will depend on the knowledge that 
 he has of those animals, and of their uses to man ; and thus, though most Architects 
 may design a stable, with which every one is familiar, yet those whose practice has been 
 chiefly confined to towns, and who may excel in designing street buildings for either men 
 or animals, may yet know very little of the requisites for a dairy, a poultry-house, or even 
 a pigsty. Hence it may be affirmed that, as far as respects design or intention with 
 reference to use, no persons can be so competent to point out the arrangement of a 
 building, as those who use, or whose business it is to direct the use of, such buildings ; 
 provided such persons are sufficiently enlightened on the subject to be able to conceive 
 improvements, and have the power of conveying their ideas to others. It does not follow 
 from this, however, that no Architect should undertake to design a building with the 
 uses of which he is not previously familiar ; but it does follow, that, when employed in 
 such a case, he should endeavour by every means in his power to make himself master 
 of those uses. Among the principal of these means, after referring to books, will be 
 found consultation with the user, or party for whom the building is to be erected. From 
 these observations three conclusions may be drawn : first, that all those buildings which 
 are not of frequent and general construction by Architects are more likely to be imperfect 
 in arrangement than those which are continually being erected by them ; secondly, that 
 a division of labour among Architects, by which each would devote himself solely to some 
 particular branch of his profession, is a very natural, and would be a very desirable, 
 arrano-ement ; and, thirdly, that very few architectural critics can be supposed to be com- 
 petent to judge of a building with reference to the most important point connected with 
 it ; viz., its fitness for the use in view. . 
 
 2181. The Fitness of the Construction for Strength, Durability, and the pecuniary Means at 
 the Command of the Architect, involves in it a variety of considerations; but the quali- 
 fications for this department may be all acquired by any individual who devotes himself 
 to Architecture as a profession. The strength of a building depends chiefly on the dis- 
 position of the materials ; and its durability on their nature, or chemical composition. 
 The fundamental principle on which all construction, which has for its object strength, 
 is founded, is the law of the gravitation of materials ; or, in mathematical language, the 
 law of motion. From this law has been deduced the problem of the composition and 
 
ARCHITECTURAL FITNESS. 
 
 1107 
 
 resolution of forces, by which every point relative to the strength of a building may 
 be tested. This problem was first given to the English reader by Emerson, in his 
 Mechanics, and will be found familiarly explained to the young Architect in Tredgold's 
 Carpentry, Gwilt's Rudiments, and other works. The practical object of the problem is, 
 to enable the builder to determine, with ease and absolute certainty, what parts of con- 
 struction, whether of timber, stone, iron, or walling, act as ties, or binding parts; and what 
 as struts, or parts supporting weight ; and what is the proportion or amount of tension or 
 pressure on each. Much of the strength of all modern buildings, of several stories, 
 depends on the walls being tied together by the different floors, and by the roof. De- 
 prive the walls of the greater number of the dwelling-houses in the principal towns 
 in Britain of these sources of strength, and they would be blown down by the first storm 
 of wind which occurred, notwithstanding the durable nature of their materials. The 
 durability of a building, no doubt, depends, in part, on its construction : but, essentially 
 and principally, it depends on the durability of the materials of which it is composed ; 
 and the tests for ascertaining this durability are derived from the principles of chemistry, 
 and chiefly from the law of attraction. A very strong construction may be formed of 
 timber ; but the duration of such an edifice could never be put in competition with that 
 of one t)uilt of bricks or stones, united by mortar or cement. From the preceding 
 observations on strength and durability, are drawn the following well known practical 
 precepts : viz., to have solid and secure foundations ; to use materials of the best quality : 
 to dispose of them in a manner suitable to their natures ; and, to employ only the best 
 workmanship. The following observations are illustrative of some of these precepts. 
 
 2182. The Strength of Building Materials, such as timber, brick, stone, iron, &c., may 
 readily be ascertained by subjecting them to pressure, tension, and torsion, by mechanical 
 means, or by loading them with weights. 
 
 2183. The Durability of Building Materials is more commonly ascertained from the 
 previous experience of builders, than by experiments made on scientific principles; never- 
 theless, there are some geological facts, relative to the stratification of rocks, which ought 
 to influence the builder as to the position in which stones taken from such rocks ought 
 to be placed in walls ; and there are some chemical facts, relative to the decomposition 
 of the integral particles of stone, from which conclusions may be drawn as to its 
 durability, previously to its being applied. The stones, or earths, which, when reduced 
 to powder, are made into mortars, or cements, may always be subjected to experiments, 
 so as to prove their value before employing them. With regard to timber, there are 
 compositions which have been applied to it for the purpose of increasing its natural 
 durability, and others for rendering it less destructible by fire. 
 
 2184. All stratified Stones used in Walls should have the plane of their layers or 
 laminae declining towards the outside of the wall ; or, at all events, placed horizontally. 
 The object of this position is, to present the edges of the laminae to the action of the 
 weather, and not their broad surfaces. There are some exceptions to this rule ; but 
 they are so few as not to require notice. When the face of the laminae forms the surface 
 of the wall, the water which runs down it after rains, sinks into the interstice between 
 the outside lamina and the next to it ; and in time, with the aid of frost, causes the 
 outside surface to scale off : and this process many times repeated, will at last so far 
 destroy the stone, as to undermine the superincumbent parts of the wall. On the 
 other hand, when the edges of the laminae are presented to the action of the weather 
 horizontally, and rather declining outwards, though the rain-water will still enter 
 between them, yet, as it cannot penetrate far horizontally, the injury done by it will be 
 comparatively trifling. 
 
 2185. Brand's Test for ascertaining the probable Action of Weather on Building Stone 
 is as follows : — Boil two one-inch cubes of the stone to be tried, in a solution of sulphate 
 of soda saturated at a common temperature, for half an hour : then expose the cubes to 
 the air for evaporation. The salt crystallises, and has the effect of freezing on the stone. 
 Then dip the stone in the cold solution until the crystals fall. After this, expose the 
 stones to the air. This experiment repeated, during five days, will produce the same 
 effect on the stone which exposure to the open air would do in many years. (^Lit. Gaz. 
 for 1829, p. 633.) 
 
 2186. The Art of mixing Earths so as to form Mortars which will set, or solidify, 
 either by themselves, or in conjunction with stones or bricks, can only be scientifically 
 understood through some knowledge of chemistry. All lime mortars depend for their 
 strength on their quality of absorbing carbonic acid gas and water, and solidifying them. 
 All cements, or rapidly solidifying mortars, though they depend for their strength on 
 the same qualities as lime mortar, owe their power of rapid solidification to the presence 
 of some metallic oxide, the value of which principally results from its capacity for 
 absorbing oxygen. 
 
 2187. The Solidity of Walls depends on their homogeneousness, on the position of 
 
1108 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 their materials relatively to the centre of gravity, and on the stability and security of 
 their foundations. The most durable of all walls are those built of brick with good 
 mortar, because they attain a degree of homogeneousness which no construction of 
 mortar and stone has ever yet equalled. The proof of this is to be found in the ancient 
 brick buildings of Italy. The walls next in durability are those formed of fragments of 
 porous stone, compactly bedded in good mortar or cement ; as in the remains of old 
 Roman castles in Britain and in Germany. The third in order are those (commonly 
 reckoned the first) which are composed of very large blocks of squared stone, and the 
 strength of which does not at all depend on mortar or cements of any kind. 
 
 2188. To preserve Timber in Buildings from Decay, the most certain means are so to 
 dispose it, as that it shall have efficient ventilation : but other methods have also been 
 employed. Among these are, steeping the timber, previously to use, in water, and after- 
 wards drying it in the air ; subjecting it to the action of steam, and afterwards drying it ; 
 removing the atmospheric pressure, and at the same time applying artificial heat, so as 
 to promote evaporation ; or steeping it in a solution of corrosive sublimate, which is now 
 found the most efficient remedy, next to ventilation, for what is called the dry rot. The 
 object of all these operations, except the last, is, to remove, by extraction and evapor- 
 ation, what is called the sap, or the watery part of the alburnum, or last-formed layers of 
 the wood, which are found to decay sooner than the interior and firmer, or less porous, 
 layers ; and the object of the last process is, to saturate the sap wood with a poison, 
 which, combining with the alburnum, will prevent its being attacked either by insects, 
 or by those fungi which identify themselves with decay. According to Mr. Kyan, who 
 has taken out a patent for preventing the dry-rot in timber, cloth, and a variety of other 
 articles, by steeping them in a saturated solution of corrosive sublimate, oak, fir, and 
 other woods, absorb about the same quantity of the solution ; viz., five ounces for 
 216 cubical inches, the cost of which is a mere trifle. A fir deal will take in a sufficient 
 quantity to saturate it in forty-eight hours ; but an oak beam will require a month. 
 Canvass, leather, &c., may be completely saturated in an hour or two. It is thought 
 that the outside wood, at present cut off as useless, the timber of young trees, and the 
 soft woods, such as poplar, American pine, &c., may by this means be rendered as durable 
 as the harder woods, and as heart wood. (See Quart. Rev., vol. xlix. p. 125.) 
 
 2189. To lessen the Destructibility of Buildings hy Fire is an important part of the prac- 
 tice of construction ; and one which ought never to be lost sight of by the architectural 
 critic. No building can be completely fire-proof, into which timber enters as a com- 
 ponent part ; but this timber may in some degree be made to resist fire, by saturation 
 with sulphate of iron : and fire can always be prevented from spreading in a building, by 
 having all the partition walls solid, the interior of them being filled up with brick, stone, 
 or mud ; and by having all the floors of stone, brick, or some earthy composition. Where 
 the floors are of timber, coatings of mortar may be introduced under the boards of the 
 flooring between the joists, in the manner invented by Lord Stanhope, and described in 
 the Annual Register, vol. xxii. Linings of sheet iron may also be applied between floors 
 and ceilings, and in the middle of partitions ; the panels of doors may be formed of 
 sheet iron, or of corrugated iron, for the same purpose. In all dwelling-houses, where it 
 is an object to guard against danger to life from fire, there ought to be stone staircases, 
 and a balcony to at least one of the windows of each story above the ground floor, to afford 
 means of escape. All houses of several stories ought to have the staircase continued to 
 the roof, not only to admit of easy escape in that direction in case of fire, but to afford 
 ready access to the chimneys when on fire, or when they may require sweeping ; and 
 also for general repairs. As Mr. Kyan's composition by neutralising the albumen of 
 woods, destroys the fermentative principle, and thus prevents decay, by putrefaction or 
 rot ; so, at no distant period, the discovery may be made of some solution of silex, or of 
 some other earth or metal for saturating timber, &c., and thus rendering buildings of com- 
 mon construction indestructible by fire. Such a discovery, added to that of the means of 
 preventing the dry rot, would prove of incalculable benefit to mankind, by diminishing 
 the expense and increaing the durability of the dwellings of the humblest classes, in 
 every part of the world. The architectural critic should be alive to all improvements of 
 such general application, whether realised or anticipated. 
 
 2190. To guard against the effects of lightning. The use of lightning conductors is 
 well known. They are commonly made of iron rods, pointed at the upper end, higher 
 than the highest part of the building to which they are attached, and having the lower 
 and inserted in the earth ; the rod following the outline of the building from the highest 
 part to the ground, and being prevented from touching it by glass studs. A more im- 
 proved form, however, has been introduced by a distinguished philosopher, John Murray, 
 Esq., who has paid the greatest attention to this subject, both theoretically and practically. 
 The following is a description by this gentleman, of a conductor, constructed and at- 
 tached to St. Paul's church, Huddersfield, in 1831, under his directions. " This con- 
 
ARCHITECTURAL FITNESS. 
 
 1109 
 
 ductor,'' says Mr. Murray, " is altogether unique, and without its counterpart in Europe, 
 as far as I know. It is constructed on principles deduced by me not merely from 
 electrical phenomena developed by artificial experiments, but from repeated and careful 
 inspection of the effects of lightning. It consists of copper gas-piping in lengths of 
 about ten feet, screwed into sockets. The conductor terminates at the summit, in a 
 pyramidal form, inserted by a joint into the hollow pipe ; the lightning therefore finds 
 a ready entrance, not only by the sharp point, but by the angles of the copper pyramid. 
 The pipe immediately beneath this joint is perforated, so that the lightning may be 
 diffused over both surfaces, internal as well as external, and the facilities of escape to the 
 earth will be further increased by the wet that penetrates the tube during the rain which 
 falls during the storm. This lightning rod is secured from oxidation by ribands of zinc 
 attached at specific distances, which operate on galvanic principles ; and the conductor, 
 thus constructed, enters the earth at a slight angle, and terminates in a stone trough, 
 which will be supplied with sufficient moisture by the pipe. Here it is split in two, 
 and its ramifications pass over the edge of the tank into the subsoil. Perhaps this con- 
 ductor is not only the cheapest but the best ever constructed. The first, because, from a 
 hollow pipe being employed, the weight of the copper, and consequently the expense, is 
 materially diminished ; and the second, because in these conditions all the principles of 
 security are provided. Copper is the best conductor of lightning, and, as lightning does 
 not penetrate a good conductor to any appreciable depth, an extensive and an ample con- 
 ducting surface is provided, and facilities both for its reception and final transfer to the 
 earth fully supplied. Add to these, last not least, in the train of securities, there is no 
 interruption whatever, from beginning to end, in the channel by which it descends from 
 its elevation. A conductor on these principles has also been attached to a private house 
 in the vicinity of Huddersfield." 
 
 2191. The Construction of Fireplaces and Chimney-flues in dwelling-houses is still 
 very imperfectly understood ; very little having been added to our stock of knowledge 
 on this subject since Franklin's Letter, &c., was written in 1785 ; or Count Rumford's 
 Essays, a few years afterwards. The principal requisites to insure the draught of a 
 chimney appear to be, a considerable height in the flue, such a construction at the fire- 
 place as will allow as small a quantity as possible of air which has not passed through the 
 fire to ascend the chimney, and a free supply of external air to the room in which the 
 fire burns. This supply should be obtained directly from the extei'ior atmosphere, either 
 by having the windows not to fit too tightly, by letting down the upper sash at the top, 
 or by having a tube of several inches in diameter, from underneath the fire-grate to an 
 under-ground drain of ample dimensions. Clavering, Chadley, and Hiort agree in 
 recommending circular or oval flues, as being more suitable to the motion of the smoke, 
 and being more easily cleaned, than square ones. They also agree in recommending a 
 zigzag or bending direction for flues, as preventing the wind from blowing down the 
 smoke by the resistance offered by the bends ; and, according to Chadley, even improving 
 the draught, which, it appears to us, they can only do, by producing a greater quantity 
 of heated material in the sides of the flue, in proportion to its direct vertical height, than 
 can be done in a flue carried up straight. It may also be observed, that the smoke, in 
 a perpendicular flue, ascends in a column composed as it were of straight lines, like 
 water running along a straight brook ; whereas, in a circuitous or zigzag flue, it 
 ascends in curved lines, or curls, or what may be called eddies, like water in circuitous 
 brooks. In the first case, it is evident that the wind, striking down on the smoke, when 
 it escapes the top of the flue, would produce such a pulsation as would force it out into 
 the room ; whereas, in the other case, the force of the stroke of the wind would have 
 to counteract all the different eddies, before the pulsation could reach the fireplace. In 
 general, by attending to these desiderata, those unsightly objects, chinoney-pots, may be 
 avoided ; and indeed, our opinion is, that every one who employs an Architect or 
 builder ought to engage with him, under a heavy penalty in case of failure, to arrange 
 his design and its execution in such a manner that no chimney-pots shall ever become 
 requisite. Thick walls for containing the chimney-flues, and for keeping them warm ; 
 placing these flues as much as possible in the interior walls ; having lofty and winding 
 flues, circular or oval in their section ; and having a supply of air to every hearth, or the 
 back part of every fireplace, from air drains of large capacity, seem to us to be the prin- 
 cipal means of insuring bright fires and freedom from smoke. Such fireplaces as 
 Methley's and Silvester's are also eminently favourable for this end. Methley's fire- 
 places, by having the breast or upper part beveled downwards towards the fire, not 
 only greatly diminish the quantity of cold air which enters what is called the throat of 
 the chimney ; but, this beveled space being of metal, must necessarily raise the temper- 
 ature of such air as does enter. In short, we do not know of any form of fireplace so 
 well calculated for preventing a chimney from smoking, unless indeed it be that of 
 Sylvester, fig. 1844, of which, however, we have only had a few weeks' experience ; 
 
1110 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 whereas we have proved Methley s fireplace, fig. 1843, for nearly six years. Circular 
 flues might readily be built, in a winding or zigzag direction, perfectly smooth in the 
 mside, and at a comparatively small expense, by using sections of earthenware pipes as 
 suggested, § 463 ; and, to render the walls containing such flues perfectly strong, they 
 might be built with mortar of a superior description, or with Roman cement. A pecu- 
 liar form of bricks for this purpose has been invented by Hiort, but they are found much 
 too expensive ; another and a very superior kind, which, from their shape, have the great 
 advantage of bonding in with the wall, have been invented by Chadley, and deserve to 
 come into general use. However, were Roman cement used in building the walls con- 
 taining flues, whether these walls were constructed of brick or stone, flues might easily 
 be formed circular in the section, and with perfect strength, by carrying them up round 
 a flexible mould, or leathern bag filled with sand, drawn up the flue as it proceeded. 
 One great use of circular flues is, that whatever may be their direction, they are easily 
 swept without the aid of climbing boys. About London, where houses are almost 
 always built on ground only held on lease for sixty or a hundred years, the thick walls 
 containing the flues are generally the weakest in the building, instead of being, as they 
 ought to be, the strongest ; and hence the great danger which exists, not only of their 
 tumbling down, but of their being penetrated by fire. Were such walls built with 
 Roman cement, though hollow, they would be as strong and perhaps stronger than if 
 they were solid. Nothing is more to be desired than that some mode of constructing 
 flues should be generally adopted, which would render climbing boys unnecessary ; and 
 this, the government might easily effect in all houses to be built, with very little addi- 
 tional expense to the builder, by enacting that all flues should be built circular, and be 
 perfectly smooth inside. This is a point which, we have no doubt, will be attended to as 
 it deserves, by the public, in a very short time ; and, wlien this is the case (as with every 
 thing else which the public decidedly wills), it will become law. It is well known that 
 (all other circumstances being the same) the short chimney flues of garrets and cottages 
 never draw so well as those of rooms which have very high chimneys. This is an 
 undeniable fact ; it was noticed by Franklin ; and, as it concerns servants and poor people 
 in every part of the world, it merits the particular attention of the Architect. How is 
 the imperfect draught of short chimneys to be remedied? On the same general principles 
 which we have laid down ; viz., increasing the height of the chimney as much as possible 
 (which is the reason why we have shown such high chimneys to most of our designs for 
 cottages) ; adjusting the throat of the chimney to the quantity of air and smoke required 
 to make the fire burn properly ; forming one or more bends in the flue, to prevent the 
 smoke from being driven down by the wind, and to increase the draught (which has the 
 additional advantage of preventing the rain from falling down perpendicularly, and car- 
 rying the soot before it) ; but, above all things, by having an opening at the tops of the 
 windows or near the ceiling, in each apartment, for the admission of external air to 
 supply the diaught. It may be laid down as an indisputable fact, that it is impossible 
 to have all the doors and windows of an apartment very tightly fitted, and at the same 
 time to have the fireplace draw well, without the addition of such openings as have been 
 mentioned, or of an underground air flue, and a communication between it and the 
 hearth. As this would occasion too much trouble and nicety in the construction of 
 common cottages, nothing remains in the case of such dwellings, but to provide openings 
 close under the roof, or over one door or window in each apartment, for a sufficient 
 supply of external air. These openings may be furnished with shutters so as to regulate 
 them at pleasure ; but, as even this might be too much trouble to a common cottager, 
 the simplest mode is for him to push down the upper sash of his window an inch or two, 
 or to open his outer door to the same extent. The whole of this subject merits the 
 attentive consideration of the architectural critic ; who will find, that, in proportion to the 
 perfection of the fitting and finishing of doors and windows, in the same proportion is 
 the risk created of having smoky chimneys. 
 
 2192. Ventilation is a subject intimately connected with that of the preceding para- 
 graph. The perfection of ventilation consists, not in suddenly expelling the air from an 
 apartment, and supplying its place with external air ; but in first gradually mixing the 
 external air with that of the apartment to be ventilated, and next in carrying off" this 
 mixture by degrees, and supplying, by degrees, a fresh mixture in its place. When warm 
 air is to be mixed with cold air, the latter ought to be admitted from above, in order that 
 it may descend, and intermingle with the former : on the contrary, when cold air is to 
 be mixed with warm air, the latter ought to be admitted from below to intermingle with 
 the cold air in ascending. Hence, for the first purpose, the best practical mode of venti- 
 lating a room is to have all the windows carried up as close to the ceiling as is prac- 
 ticable ; and, when the air of the room is to be cooled, simply to slide down the upper 
 sash of 'the window or windows, for a very small space, which, in few rooms, need exceed 
 an inch for each window. When the air of a room is colder than the external air, and 
 
ARCHITECTURAL FITNESS. 
 
 1111 
 
 is to be warmed by its admission, then the lower sash of the window ought to be raised 
 up ; but as this description of ventilation is seldom required, little need be said about it, 
 farther than observing that when any material, such as a coil of steam or hot-water 
 pipes, &c., in a room, is to be heated in order to increase the temperature of that room, 
 the heated body ought to be placed on the floor, or as near to it as possible. In like 
 manner, when a room is to be heated by the admission of heated air from a stove, that 
 air ought to enter through the floor, or by the skirting or bottom part of the walls. The 
 most convenient means for carrying off the air of the room, so as to induce a perpetual 
 current of entering and escaping air, is the chimney ; for which purpose, it is desirable 
 that the chimney breast should be somewhat higher than it generally is. As a higli 
 chimney breast is, however, inconsistent with a good draught, and with the throwing out 
 of a maximum of heat from a given quantity of fuel, builders generally content them- 
 selves with leaving this part of ventilation imperfect ; though they might remedy it by 
 taking the trouble of forming openings close under the ceiling of the room, communi- 
 cating with vertical air flues, placed in close contact with smoke flues, in order to create 
 a draught. This last improvement comprehends all that is necessary, for the most per- 
 fect ventilation of a room which can be conceived ; as a proof of which, we need only 
 •refer to Mr. Tredgold's excellent treatise on the subjects of warming and ventilation, 
 already mentioned. 
 
 2193. The Deafening, or Pugging, of Partition Walls, and of Floors in Houses of more 
 than one Story, is a subject that the critic ought not to lose sight of, in judging of the 
 fitness of the construction of a house for the end in view. There are two modes of 
 effecting this object ; first, by filling the interstices between the joists of the floor, and 
 the quartering or studwork of the partition, with some description of light material, such 
 as sawdust, wool, charcoal, ashes, moss, or even earth ; and, secondly, by introducing 
 interpartitions. The latter mode is by far the best, where lightness is the object ; and 
 where it is necessary to preserve ventilation, in order to guard against the dry rot. This 
 mode is also fully as efficacious against the spread of fire as the former. Supposing a 
 floor to be deafened in this way, the mode is, after the joists are laid down and fixed in 
 their places, to nail slips of wood an inch square along their sides, within two inches of 
 the bottom, and within three inches of the top. On these slips are laid short laths, 
 which are afterwards plastered on each side, care being taken that the coats of plaster are 
 not thicker than to leave a clear inch and a half between them and the lower and upper 
 edges of the joists. When the boards of the floor are nailed to such joists above, and 
 the lath and plaster of the ceiling is put on below, a section across the joists will show, 
 between each pair, one large cell in the centre, and two long narrow cells, the one over 
 the centre cell, and immediately under the boards of the floor, and the other under the 
 centre cell, and immediately over the lath and plaster of the ceiling. Through such a 
 floor no ordinary sounds will be found to pass, v/hether to persons above from people 
 talking in the room below, or to persons below from any one walking on the floor above. 
 Partitions may be treated in the same manner ; but, in general, one vertical stratum of 
 lath and plaster in the centre will be found sufficient. In extraordinary cases, two will 
 render a partition wall of nine inches thick as impenetrable by sound, as a solid brick or 
 stone wall of the same thickness. It must not be forgotten, that these measures for pre- 
 venting the spread of sound are known to be equally effective in preventing the spread of 
 fire; while, at the same time, they admit of complete ventilation to protect the timber 
 of the partitions and floors from the dry rot. — Such are a few of the particulars which 
 the architectural critic ought to attend to, in judging of the fitness of the construction of 
 a dwelling-house for the end in view ; for a great many others, as well for dwelling- 
 houses as for agricultural and other buildings, we must refer him to the three preceding 
 Books of this work. 
 
 2194. The Adjustment of the Construction of a Building to the pecuniary Means at the 
 Command of the Architect supposes an intimate practical knowledge, in the latter, of the 
 most advantageous manner of disposing of forms and quantities. Every architectural 
 critic ought to know that the cube is a form that encloses more useful space, with a 
 given quantity of walling, flooring, and roof, than any other. This was long ago ex- 
 plained at great length, and applied to the designs of a number of dwellings, by Morris, 
 an architectural writer of the last century : but a short extract from Gwilt's Rudiments 
 will be sufficient for our purpose here. " Suppose a square, the sides of which are forty 
 feet in length : it is manifest that the walling required to enclose this figure will be 160 
 feet in length, and the area enclosed will be equal to 1600 square feet: whereas, in a 
 building, the form of which, on the plan, is that of a parallelogram, and the opposite 
 sides of which are sixty feet and twenty feet respectively ; the same quantity of walling 
 Avill be required to enclose it, as was necessary for the square ; though its area will be 
 equal to only 1200 feet, or one fourth less than that of the square. Thus the square is 
 proved to be superior to the parallelogram, though , inferior in capacity to the circle. 
 
1112 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 Hence edifices in which the greatest symmetry exists are invariably (other circumstances 
 being the same) of the least cost ; and hence, also, simplicity and regularity in the 
 general plan and its parts are always conducive to economy." (G wilt's Rudiments of 
 Architecture, p. 6.) Though this knowledge can never enable an architectural critic 
 to discover whether the Architect has solved the problem of erecting the desired build- 
 ing for the given sum ; yet it will enable him to judge, from external appearances, of the 
 comparative expense of buildings. He may also deduce from it this rule ; viz., that, 
 when economy is the main object, the parallelogram form should never be preferred to 
 that of the cube, except in those cases in which the diameter of the cube would be so great, 
 as to prevent the proper admission of light and ventilation to the interior parts. 
 
 Chap. IL 
 
 Of the Expression of the End in View, in Architecture. 
 
 2195. The Expression of the End in View comprehends the expression of the use for 
 which the building was erected, and the expression of a suitable construction for that 
 end. Every building should appear to be what it is, and every part of an edifice ought 
 to indicate externally its particular use. When we are satisfied that we have discovered 
 the use of any building, or the intentions of the Architect in this respect, the next thing 
 which we enquire is, how far he has succeeded in carrying his intentions into eflPect ; 
 that is, whether the expression of the construction which he has adopted is in accordance 
 with the expression of the use. To give a familiar example : suppose a building, the 
 expression of which was that of a stable, and that the entrance to it was up steps. In this 
 case, the expression of construction would be decidedly at variance with that of use. 
 
 2196. That which constitutes the Expression of Use or Purpose, in the Exterior of a 
 Building, must be ;ome quality which we have been accustomed to associate with that 
 use or purpose. It follows, therefore, that all the various uses of buildings and their 
 different parts must be understood by the critic, before he can judge whether the uses 
 of those parts are properly expressed. As this is equally as impossible, with respect to all 
 buildings, as that an architectural critic should always understand what constitutes fitness 
 for the end in view ; it follows, that his judgment in this particular, as in various others, 
 must often be imperfect. Every one has some idea of what constitutes expression of 
 purpose, in the common dwelling-houses of the country in which he lives ; but no person, 
 who was not either an agricultural Architect, or familiar with agricultural buildings, 
 could recognise the expression of purpose in the separate buildings of a farmery ; nor 
 could any one who was not well acquainted with the appearance of manufactories, or was 
 not a constructor of them or of their machinery, expect to do this with reference to the 
 buildings in which manufactures are carried on. Still, the architectural critic may 
 acquire sufficient information on the general uses of all the classes of buildings con- 
 structed in the country in which he lives, or described in books, to enable him to judge 
 of their general expression. 
 
 2197. The Expression of Suitableness of Construction supposes a knowledge of what 
 constitutes strength and durability in buildings ; a kind of knowledge which, as we have 
 already observed, is much more within the power of either Architects, or architectural 
 critics, than a knowledge of the uses of buildings. In illustration of these two pi-in- 
 ciples, we. shall subjoin a few remarks. 
 
 2198. In Dwelling-houses, the expression of use is indicated, in a decided manner, in 
 all cold countries, by their having a number of chimney tops, or other outlets, for 
 permitting the escape of smoke from separate fires. In all countries whatever, a dwell- 
 ing-house is indicated by its windows, and by their being filled in with glass, more or 
 less, according to the nature of the climate and the character of the dwelling. A dwelling- 
 house is also known by its entrance door, which is generally ascended to by steps ; a 
 proof that it is not a door for any of the inferior animals, or for taking in and out heavy 
 articles in use in agriculture, trade, or manvifactures. These are general features of 
 expression, of which there are many shades ; but there are also a number of particular 
 features, indicative of the different apartments contained in the house, and of the style 
 of living of the occupants. In a cottage of the smallest size, having a living-room, a 
 bed-room, and a closet, the windows to each of these will be of different dimensions ; 
 the largest window will at once be recognised as that lighting the living-room, and 
 the smallest as thdt belonging to the closet. In dwellings of larger dimensions, the 
 windows of the different living-rooms will or should be formed, not only larger than 
 the others, but occupying what, in the given country and locality, is considered the 
 principal floor of the house. Large windows, with considerable space on each side 
 
EXPRESSION OF PURPOSE. 
 
 1113 
 
 and over them, indicate wide and lofty apartments within ; whereas numerous small 
 windows, with narrow piers between them, and small spaces over them, indicate nu- 
 merous small and low apartments, or apartments extending in length, but not in 
 height, and without space for large pieces of furniture ; consequently, ill-proportioned 
 and badly furnished. Windows in the roofs of dwelling-houses are also expressive of 
 imperfect accommodation and ventilation, as are small windows in sunk stories. The 
 windows of entresols (floors with low ceilings introduced between floors with high 
 ceilings), which are common in France and Italy, are expressive of servants' apartments, 
 and seldom fail to convey the idea of want of space, and of bad ventilation. When the 
 base line of the windows on the principal floor of a house is horizontal, it is favourable 
 to the expression of large rooms, and of rooms on the same level : on the other hand, 
 when the windows are placed irregularly, and on no regular axis, either horizontal or 
 vertical, they convey the idea of small rooms irregular in every respect, and altogether the 
 opposite of being either comfortable or elegant. Turrets and projections of every kind, 
 viewed with reference to use, convey the idea of commodiousness and convenience ; it 
 being supposed that their object, in modern houses, is to supply closets and cabinets, and 
 other minor apartments. A square house may have all these conveniences included 
 within its cubical form ; and they may have cost less, in building, than if they had been 
 contained in projections : but the cubical form will give no indication of their existence 
 to the external spectator ; and therefore, though it may be well adapted for economy, it 
 cannot be considered as one expressive of ease and comfort. It will merely express, 
 by its uniform-sized and regularly placed windows, apartments of equal dimensions and 
 regular arrangement. Porticoes, colonnades, verandas, and balconies are all expressive, 
 more or less, of comfort and elegant enjoyment on the part of the occupant. It is unne- 
 cessary, however, to pursue this subject farther ; for every person of the slightest observ- 
 ation can refer all the different external parts of a house, in the country where he lives, 
 to their internal uses : in other words, he recognises their expression. 
 
 2199. The Expression of Use in farm buildings, though it can only be perfectly 
 recognised by an architectural farmer, can yet be so, to a certain extent, by every one 
 accustomed to live in the country. The barn is known by its large roof, or by its 
 greater height ; or, in countries where threshing-machines are common, by the ap- 
 pearance of the mill-shed ; the granary by its luffer-boarded windows, and its elevated 
 floor ; the feeding-house by its porthole windows, &c. The expression of the particular 
 manufacture which is carried on in any large building can hardly be recognised by a 
 stranger to that manufacture ; nevertheless, the general appearance of the walls and 
 windows ; their great plainness, and even meagre effect ; the number and regularity of 
 the windows; and the comparative inattention shown to the beauty and clearness of the 
 glass, enable almost any one to decide that the edifice is destined for manufacturing 
 purposes. The expression of churches and chapels is recognised by all ; because all are 
 accustomed to enter them ; so is the expression of schools, and of other buildings with 
 which we are familiar, such as inns, corn mills, &c. That a building, when expressive 
 of its use, affords more satisfaction than when it is either not expressive of that use, or 
 expressive of some use to which it is not applied, every one must feel. A barn disguised 
 as a church would afford satisfaction to none but those who considered it as a trick. 
 The beauty of truth is so essential to every other kind of beauty, that it can neither be 
 dispensed with in art nor in morals. 
 
 2200. The Expression of adequate Construction is, to a certain extent, recognised by 
 every beholder. Every one knows walls of brick or stone to be more durable than 
 those of earth, of wood, or of plaster ; and no one considers a high and narrow building so 
 strong as one which approaches nearer to the cubical form. Roofs which project con- 
 siderably at the eaves, by exposing a part of their timbers to the eye, never convey the 
 idea of the same degree of durability as when the walls are terminated by stone or brick 
 cornices ; and walls thus finished never give the same idea of a permanent roof, as when 
 to the cornice is superadded a blocking course or parapet. The roof, in the latter case, 
 is supposed to be flat, covered with lead, and calculated to resist the effects of time. 
 The common precept, that openings ought in general to be made perpendicularly over 
 other openings, rather than disposed indiscriminately, is founded on the principle of 
 strength ; for every one feels that the lighter members should be carried by the stronger. 
 Without disputing this general rule, Mr. Wood observes, " perhaps two exceptions may 
 fairly be made ; the first in small biiildings of no pretensions to magnificence, where the 
 appearance of convenience may be allowed to overweigh the character of durability ; and 
 the second, where the general appearance is so solid, and the openings are so small, that 
 it matters not where they are put. In this last case, the very want of correspondence 
 announces an exuberance of power, which disdains attention to trifles ; and, what is, in 
 some degree, in ordinary cases, a source of absolute weakness, becomes a means of ex- 
 pressing strength." The indication of the thickness of wall, produced in a wall seen 
 
 6 Q 
 
COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 Only on one side, by those ledges, or " settings back," which become necessary when it 
 diminishes as it ascends, is expressive of strength ; and the excess of the length and breadth 
 of a building, relatively to its height, is indicative of stability. The value of these kinds 
 of expression is found by contrasting them with whatever, in the elevation of a building, is 
 indicative of weakness, temporary duration, or deformed construction. The reader will 
 easily be able to supply, from his own observations or experience, innumerable instances 
 of the same kind as those here given ; the tendency of all which is to prove, that the 
 expression of fitness of construction for the end in view, is a beauty in Architecture as 
 positive, as that of the expression of fitness for the end in view itself. 
 
 Chap. IIL 
 
 Of the Expression of Architectural Style. 
 
 2201. The Expression of Architectural Style, as may be inferred from the two preceding 
 chapters, is not an essential beauty in a building. An edifice may be useful, strong, and 
 durable, both in reality and in expression, without having any other beauties than those 
 of us'j and truth ; that is, of fitness for the end in view, and of expression of the end in 
 view ; or, in familiar language, of being suitable to the use for which it was designed, 
 and of appearing to be what it is. The object of Architecture, as an art of taste, is to add 
 to the beauties of use and truth other beauties, the creation of which is its peculiar pro- 
 vince. The beauties of use and truth address themselves chiefly to the reason ; those of 
 Architecture, as an art of taste, address themselves jointly to the reason and to the imagin- 
 ation. All the arts of taste produce their effect upon the mind through the senses. Thus, 
 music affects us by sounds, painting by colours, and poetry and oratory by words. 
 Architecture and sculpture operate almost exclusively by forms ; and they differ chiefly 
 in this respect, that sculpture has for its object the production of the imitations of 
 natural forms, while Architecture operates by combinations of forms entirely artificial. 
 
 2202. The Beauty of Architectural Forms arises from two causes : the expression of 
 certain qualities which result from combinations of those forms, such as unity, variety, 
 symmetry, &c. ; and the expression of certain forms and details which have been con- 
 secrated to Architecture by long-continued use. The first may be called the universal 
 and inherent beauties of all architectural styles ; and the second, the historical or 
 accidental beauties of particular styles. The first kind of beauty is altogether inde- 
 pendent of any style of Architecture which has hitherto existed, or which may here- 
 after exist ; its effect resulting entirely from organic impressions, and associations of a 
 general nature ; the second depends on the addition, to the first class of beauties, of the 
 associations connected with the known forms and details of the different styles of 
 Architecture hitherto in use, or which may hereafter come into use, in this and in other 
 countries. 
 
 Sect. I. Of the universal and inherent Beauties of Architectural Composition. 
 
 2203. The Production of a Whole is the first object in every composition ; because the 
 mind can only comprehend with ease and satisfaction one object at a time. If two objects 
 of different natures, in the same scene or view, present equal claims to attention, we can 
 derive pleasure from neither, unless we have the power of abstracting the mind from one 
 of them, and directing the attention wholly to the other. 
 
 2204. Unity. Hence it is that unity is the fundamental principle of all compositions 
 whatever. If the reader will turn to the designs given in this work, and examine them 
 one by one, without the slightest reference to their fitness for dwellings, or to their archi- 
 tectural style, he will find that a principal cause of the pleasure which he derives from 
 observing them arises from their expression of unity. He will find that their general 
 arrangement indicates a unity of mind and of system ; that the prevailing forms, in any 
 one design that strikes him as beautiful, are of the same kind ; that the shapes and sizes 
 of the openings are similar ; and that the prevailing or most conspicuous lines are chiefly 
 in one direction, and either perpendicular or horizontal. So much, indeed, is this the case, 
 that we will venture to assert, if the reader finds the lines of some of the masses in any 
 one design exceeding in a vertical direction, and those in other masses of the same design 
 exceeding in a horizontal direction, that design will not give him much pleasure. Hence 
 it is that a Grecian church with the long horizontal and depressed lines of its architraves 
 and cornices, and a lofty spire at one end with its preponderance of perpendicular lines, 
 never pleases so well as a Gothic church and spire, where the principal lines of the 
 buttresses, and even those of the steep roof, all tend upwards, in unity with those of the 
 spire. Hence, also, the reason why a portico to a cii'cular building never forms such a 
 
EXPRESSION OF STYLE. 
 
 1115 
 
 good whole with it as when it is placed against a right-angled building, or where the 
 pediment over it forms the termination of a roof. For the same reason, a dome rising 
 from a square base, or seeming so to do, is never so pleasing as one obviously forming 
 the termination of cylindrical walls. The Architect, therefore, must have constantly 
 in view the production, and the critic the discovery, of unity of system and principle, 
 unity of conception and composition, unity of plan and elevation, unity of decoration, 
 unity of style and taste, unity of the nature of the materials of which the building is 
 composed, and unity even in the age, the colour, and the appearance of those materials. 
 This fundamental principle of criticism the Architect ought to keep continually in view ; 
 not that the knowledge of this or of any other principle will insure his success in com- 
 position ; but that, having a composition before him, or in progress, the principle ol 
 unity is one of the very best by which he can test what he has done, or proposes to do. 
 To the critic this principle is also of more value than any other, from the great ease 
 and certainty with which it may be applied. 
 
 2205. Variety. In order to keep alive in the human mind an interest in any subject, 
 it is necessary that it should be operated upon by alternate excitement and repose. 
 Now, as unity, when carried to its utmost limits, degenerates into monotony, the introduc- 
 tion of contrasts into every composition is necessary for the purpose of relieving it, and 
 producing variety and hannony. Variety differs from harmony in having reference more 
 to the details of the different component parts of a building, than to the effect of 
 the building as a whole. Both variety and harmony are produced by contrast ; but 
 harmony, implying a greater combination of parts, admits of more numerous and 
 powerful contrasts. (See Harmony, § 2217.) To produce variety in any composition, a 
 certain degree of contrast becomes requisite in the lines, forms, colours, light and shade, and 
 even, sometimes, in the nature of the materials. In introducing contrasts, the dangers to be 
 avoided are, too great feebleness on the one hand, in which case they lose their effect, and 
 produce insipidity ; or, too great opposition on the other, when their effect is too powerful, 
 and they produce discords. Discordance of form is one of the most conspicuous faults in 
 Architecture ; because, form being the principal attribute of matter with which the artist 
 works, an error in this important feature of his composition is greater than one in 
 lines, in light and shade, or in the nature of the materials. The introduction of contrasts, 
 for the purpose of producing variety, is not only liable to end in discord, but it is also apt 
 to degenerate into diversity. Diversity differs from variety, much in the same manner 
 as complexity does from intricacy. Variety may be produced by a few kinds of lines 
 and forms varied in their disposition, but always with a certain degree of connection ; 
 diversity is produced by many different kinds of lines and forms, also differently disposed, 
 but having no leading principle of connection, and so little accordance among themselves 
 as not to compose a whole. In attempting to produce variety, therefore, by the only 
 manner in which it can be done, viz. the introduction of contrasts, the artist must be on 
 his guard against creating discord, by having his contrasting forms of too large a size ; 
 or diversity, by having them too numerous, and of too many different sizes and shapes. 
 For example, if to add some variety to the outline of a building, in which a square tower 
 arose above the roof, a circular tower were added beside it, of the same height and 
 general size, the effect would be discord ; because the two objects, being of the same 
 kind, of the same bulk, and at the same distance from the eye, would present equal 
 claims to attention : while, from the total difference of their forms, that attention would 
 be divided. Let, however, the circular tower either be of the same diameter as the 
 square one, and raised only a few feet above the roof ; or, let it be of the same height as 
 the square one, and only a few feet in diameter, and the effect will be variety ; because 
 the attention will be then directed to the large tower, and the very low or very narrow 
 one will not interfere with the claims of the large one. At the same time, the small 
 tower, by being something different from the large one, will also excite a certain though 
 less degree of attention, and thus occasion a varied exercise of that faculty. To show 
 hovir diversity or complexity may be produced under similar circumstances, we have 
 only to suppose that, instead of one tower, several were added, all of different forms, and 
 all of the same size, and equidistant. They would, consequently, have all equal claims on 
 the attention, which would thus be distracted ; and the mind would be unable to trace 
 any principle of order, by which so many different forms could be reduced to a whole. 
 
 2206. Intricacy is produced by number joined to variety, by which a certain degree 
 of concealment is effected. It is a beauty chiefly sought for in the details of ornaments ; 
 but sometimes also in the composition of elaborate elevations, or in extensive interiors. 
 The opposite of intricacy is confusion, into which this beauty is in continual danger of 
 degenerating. To prevent this, a certain degree of unity of system, and unity of forms 
 and lines, must pervade the whole composition ; the same forms must frequently occur, 
 and also the same manner of connecting them. " Nothing," says Alison, " is more 
 delightful than, in any subject where we at first perceived only confusion, to find 
 
1116 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 regularity gradually emerging, and to discover, among the a})parent chaos, some imiform 
 principle which reconciles the Avhole. To reduce a number of apparently dissimilar par- 
 ticulars under one general law of resemblance, as it is one of the strongest evidences of 
 wisdom and design, so it is also productive of one of the strongest emotions of beauty 
 which design can produce." {Essays, &c., vol. ii. p. 68.) Something of this kind of 
 beauty may be felt on approaching an extensive villa in the Gothic style, with numerous 
 towers and projections : seen in distant perspective, blended with trees, it appears a mass 
 of parts which the mind cannot reduce into any order ; in advancing towards it, some of 
 these parts appear larger than others, and the smaller seem to be grouped around them ; 
 but, on arriving at the front of the building, the whole assumes a symmetrical disposition, 
 and the mind and the eye become alike satisfied. 
 
 2207. Symmetry, Uniformity, and Regularity are terms which are considered by many 
 as constituting the principal beauties of architectural productions. The reason is, that 
 every one can recognise by these properties, in any object whatever, the evidence of de- 
 sign, and the idea of a whole. The rudest mind sees the evidence of design in a house 
 with a door in the centre of the front, having a window on each side of it. This is 
 symmetry ; and it conveys the idea of unity, or a whole, because every thing that is i o 
 be found on one side of the door is to be found also on the other. The prevalence of one 
 form for all the general masses, and of one form for all the doors and windows of a 
 building, is what is called uniformity or similarity ; and this gives pleasure for the same 
 reason as symmetry; viz., that it gives evidence of design, and indicates the idea of a 
 whole. The regular recurrence of any form at certain distances is also an evidence of 
 design, and gives pleasure for the same reason ; viz., that of assisting the mind in com- 
 prehending what is before it. These beauties are also more easily produced, and com- 
 prehended, than many others ; and are, therefore, very properly, of universal application. 
 The opposite extremes, into which they are apt to degenerate, are, dissimilarity in form 
 and irregularity in disposition. 
 
 2208. Irregularity, when not carried so far as to produce confusion, is, however, 
 desirable, as it joins to the beauty of uniformity the beauties of variety and of intri- 
 cacy. " In general," observes Alison, " regular figures are more beautiful than irregular 
 ones ; and regular figures of a greater number of parts are more beautiful than the same 
 figures of a smaller number of parts : they cease only to be beautiful when the number 
 of their parts is so great as to produce confusion, and, consequently, to obscure the 
 expression of design. It is the same principle which seems to produce the beaiity of 
 intricacy." (Essays, &c., vol. ii. p. 67.) See, on this subject, the remarks in § 119. 
 
 2209. Simplicity may be considered a negative quality in objects, since it does not 
 imply any thing produced, but merely the absence of something else ; that is, of com- 
 plexity. The value of simplicity chiefly consists in its facilitating the comprehension of 
 a whole ; but, by contrast, it may become a positive beauty. In situations where all the 
 buildings are of several stories, and elaborately finished, a shed or a cottage, with plain 
 walls and a plain projecting roof, will be hailed as an object of simple beauty, from the 
 repose which it affords to the eye, as contrasted with the excitement produced by the 
 variety and intricacy of the more finished edifices by which it is surrounded. Simplicity, 
 however, as Wood observes, " may be carried to an extreme, and persons of the best and 
 purest taste will differ as to the precise degree of it required." Mr. Hosking, the 
 author of the very excellent article on Architecture, in the seventh edition of the Encyclo- 
 pcedia Britannica, mentions simplicity as one of the fundamental elements of beauty in 
 Architecture. Simplicity in form and outline he considers above all things essential, 
 and he illustrates his opinion by reference to various existing examples. It appears to 
 us, however, that he has, in some cases, made use of the word simplicity, where the 
 term unity would have been more appropriate. For example, he says, " few can admire 
 the external effect of the Pantheon in Rome, or of the Colosseum in London, though 
 certain features in both may be indisputably good. To these may be added the church 
 in Langham Place, London. The complication of straight and circular in the com- 
 position of these buildings, and their consequent irregular forms and discordant outlines, 
 totally destroy both simplicity and harmony." We entirely agree with this criticism ; 
 but we think that the want of harmony is not produced by the absence of simplicity, 
 but by the want of unity of form. At all eveftts, this would be our mode of expressing 
 what we consider wanting in such a case ; and we have thought it necessary to state this 
 here, to show that two critics may entirely agree in their opinion of a work, and yet 
 differ in the use of terms for expressing that opinion. As a farther example of want of 
 simplicity, Mr. Hosking refers to the more simple form of the Egyptian obelisk, as 
 compared with the monumental column ; and in this use of the term simplicity we 
 wholly concur. Not so, however, in comparing the monument on Fish Street Hill with 
 the shot tower at Waterloo Bridge. " They are both of cylindrical form," Mr. Hosking 
 observes ; <' but the one is crowned by a square abacus, and the other by a bold cornice, 
 
EXPRESSION OF STYLE. 
 
 1117 
 
 which follows its own outline. The greater simplicity, and consequent beauty, of the 
 latter is such as to strike the most unobservant." To us it appears that the chief cause 
 of this beauty is the unity of form in the two parts, and not the simplicity of the cornice, 
 because the square projection, when taken by itself, is equally simple with the round one. 
 Langham Church is objectionable, not from its want of simplicity, because nothing can 
 be more simple than the form of the main body of the building, which is that of a 
 parallelogram, with a roof and sides as plain as those of a country barn ; or than the spire, 
 which is that of a cone ; but from the want of accordance between the forms of a cone 
 and a parallelogram ; or, in other words, from the want of unity in the whole, which is 
 thus attempted to be produced. Suppose the Architect had taken simplicity as a prin- 
 ciple by which to test his design before it was executed; how far would that have enabled 
 him to correct his work ? Not far, we think ; for both forms, as we have just shown, are 
 simple enough. Suppose, on the other hand, that he had tested his work by the prin- 
 ciple of unity ; the want of unity of form between the body of the church and its spire 
 must at once have taught him the risk which he incurred of producing that discordant 
 result, which is now one of the most glaring deformities in the public buildings of the 
 metropolis. It is singular that, among all the different criticisms which were made on 
 this church at the time it was completed, not only in the newspapers, but in parliament, 
 no one ventured to assign any cause for the dissatisfaction which every one felt. Had 
 the principle of unity been familiar to its critics, the cause would have been assigned at 
 once ; and, indeed, in all probability, the bad effect of such a discordance of parts would 
 have been foreseen before the building was erected, and an alteration would have been 
 made in the Design. 
 
 2210. Order and Propriety. Order, in Architecture, implies the relation of one part 
 to another, with reference to the production of a regular or symmetrical whole. The ap- 
 pearance of windows on one side of a building, if not followed up by windows on 
 the next side, indicates a want of order; as it does, to find the windows of one side 
 differ in size and disposition from those of the other. It is in the order of parts rela- 
 tively to uses, that a porch, or portico, should protect a door ; but, if, under such a 
 projection, we find a window, instead of a door, while the door is perhaps seen in the \ 
 same elevation without any protection at all, we feel the want both of order and pro- 
 priety. The indigation of a roof, where, according to the construction, a roof could not 
 
 be placed, or would not be required, is, in like manner, a violation of both these prin- 
 ciples. The opposite of order is disorder, which would be conspicuous in a building 
 showing, on the same floor, windows of different sizes, and scattered irregularly over 
 the surface of the elevation, without being grouped, or on a regular axis, vertical or 
 horizontal. 
 
 2211. Proportion is one of the principal beauties of Architecture, as an art of design, 
 though none appears to be more difficult to explain satisfactorily. Perhaps the principle 
 on which proportion is founded may be defined to be, that relation between the dimen- 
 sions of things of the same kind, which, in the given age and country, is generally con- 
 sidered the most pleasing. The origin of our received ideas on the subject of proportion 
 must have been habit, perhaps founded on some reasons relative to fitness in the material 
 employed. It is altogether unreasonable to suppose that the same proportions are in 
 their nature equally beautiful, when applied to supports of timber, stone, and iron ; but, 
 from the habit of studying, with profound deference, the proportions of the columns 
 used in Grecian Architecture, these proportions become familiar to the eye, and afford 
 satisfaction, even when applied to different kinds of materials. The idea of certain pro- 
 portions of columns, and of intercolumniations, possessing absolute beauty in themselves, 
 without relation to the associations connected with them, appears to us a species of archi- 
 tectural bigotry altogether unworthy of an enlightened mind. " Our sense of propor- 
 tion in every form," Alison observes, " keeps pace with our knowledge of the fitness of 
 its construction : where we have no acquaintance with the fitness of any form, we have 
 no sense of its peculiar proportions." {Essays, Sec, vol. ii. p. 134.) 
 
 2212. The Proportions of Rooms are nearly agreed upon by British Architects. Sir 
 William Chambers says " that these proportions depend, in a great measure, on the use 
 and actual dimensions of the rooms ; and that all figures, from a square to one in which 
 the length is to the breadth as three to two, may be employed in the plan, and great 
 licence taken witli regard to elevation. Inigo Jones extended the plan to a double 
 square ; and galleries are frequently made four or five times as long as they are wide. 
 When this is the case, however, they are better divided into moderate lengths, by piers 
 projecting from the sides, as in the galleries of the Louvre in Paris, and that of Sans 
 Souci, at Potsdam. " The heights of rooms," Sir William Chambers continues, 
 " depend upon their figures : flat-ceiled ones may be lower than those that are coved. 
 If the plan be a square, the height should not exceed five sixths of the side, nor be less 
 than four fifths ; and, when it is aj oblong, the height may be equal to the width. But 
 
1118 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 coved rooms, if square, must be as high as broad, and, when oblong, their height may be 
 equal to their width ; increasing the height one fifth, one quarter, or even one third of 
 the difference between the length and width, as may be thought desirable ; and galleries 
 should, at the very least, be in height one and one third of their width, and, at the most, 
 one and a half, or one and three fifths." ( Civil Architecture, &c. G wilt's edition, vol. ii. 
 p. 390. ) These precepts may be taken by the critic as those generally received by 
 most European Architects and amateurs ; and, though it is always a mark of a narrow 
 mind to judge of any work solely by a reference to rules, instead of trusting to first 
 impressions, and afterwards testing those impressions by general principles ; yet it is well 
 to know the limits within which an Architect supposes himself to be confined, in so 
 important a matter as the proportions of rooms. 
 
 2213. Magnitude. " The Architect Vanvitelli," Forsyth observes, " sought, in his 
 design of the palace of Caserta, grandeur from every dimension ; " and it is certain 
 that a building, like that palace, of great magnitude, regular in its general form, and 
 enabling the spectator from one point of view to conceive an idea of its height, its 
 length, and its breadth, produces an impression on the mind at once simple and grand. 
 " There is always," says Wood, " something to admire in works of great magnitude and 
 expense. One cannot walk along the covered way, about three miles long, from Bologna 
 to the church of Madonna del Monte, without feeling impressed with admiration at the 
 courage and public spirit which could undertake such a work, and the perseverance neces- 
 sary to complete it." (Letters, 8cc., vol. i. p. 285.) 
 
 2214. Magnificence is an expression produced by the union of magnitude with general 
 simplicity of form, and with great richness in the details. A large house, simple in its 
 general forms, with large spaces between the external indications of the different floors, 
 and between the windows of the same floor ; but with the walls terminating in a highly 
 enriched cornice, and with richly decorated architraves round the windows and doors, 
 must be felt by every one to convey an idea of large and lofty apartments within, and of 
 great wealth in the builder. " To produce the effect of magnificence in Architecture," 
 Wood observes, " thr e things seem to be necessary; viz., greatness of dimensions, sim- 
 plicity of design, and richness of decoration. To satisfy the mind after examination, three 
 other things are requisite ; viz., correctness of proportion in the parts; graceful drawing 
 of the details ; and delicate execution of the mouldings and ornaments. Great space left 
 between the ranges of windows gives an air of solidity and magnificence to the front, and 
 suggests the idea of lofty rooms within ; and it is a great point gained, when, in addition 
 to the magnificence which is seen, the artist can excite the idea of the magnificence which 
 is not seen." (Letters, &c.) In general, magnitude, in connection with any circum- 
 stance winch gives evidence of great wealth, is favourable to the idea of magnificence. 
 The stables of the Prince of Conde, at Chantilly, are magnificent, from their magnitude, 
 and their costly finishing ; though, as the traveller Duppa observes, they are in the 
 highest degree unfit for their purpose. They are without accommodation for a bushel of 
 corn, or a single truss of hay ; but they are upwards of forty feet high from the floor to 
 tlie ceiling, and 600 feet long, with walls of polished freestone, and a magnificent dome 
 in the centre. In the interior of towns and cities, it is an evidence of great wealth to 
 find mansions situated in the midst of trees and gardens, surrounded by lofty walls, and 
 entered by magnificent gates. Such mansions are more common in Moscow and Warsaw, 
 and even in Paris, than in any other cities in Europe. In London, on the contrary, 
 though there are numerous mansions, in all respects superior in accommodation, com- 
 fort, and luxury, to those of any other city in the world ; yet, from their being in close 
 contact with each other, and ranged in lines without any thing to distinguish them from 
 common street buildings, but the absence of shops, and their having a somewhat more 
 extensive frontage, they are totally without that expression of magnificence, to Avhich 
 tliey are amply entitled from the expense incurred, and the accommodation produced. 
 In the last great square which has been, or perhaps, ever will be, erected in London, 
 Belgrave Square, where the houses rent from 500Z. to 1000/. a year each, there is not 
 one of them that can have the slightest pretensions to magnificence. They have not 
 even an element of this quality; and if a city tradesman, on his entering the square for 
 the first time, were informed that houses, which are at present occupied by dukes, and 
 other nobles of the first families in the land, were the residences of city merchants, or 
 wealthy retired tradesmen, there is nothing in their appearance which could lead him to 
 express the slightest degree of surprise. Let such a person go to Paris, and observe the 
 hotels, which here and there occur, enclosed by walls, entered by magnificent gates, and 
 surrounded by thickly-wooded gardens ; and the evidence of great wealth, which these 
 appearances afford, will prevent a doubt from arising in his mind of the grandeur and 
 magnificence of their occupants. The impression will be still stronger if the traveller 
 proceeds to Warsaw, to Moscow, or to Florence, Rome, and some of the other great cities 
 of Italy. The truth is, that Englishmen excel in displaying magnificence only in the 
 
EXPRESSION OF STYLE. 
 
 1119 
 
 interiors of their town houses ; reserving all external magnificence for their palace-like 
 villas in the country. 
 
 2215. Elegance and Grace, in objects of art, are terms generally understood to imply 
 lightness of form, or delicacy of proportion, as contrasted with inelegance; that is, heavi- 
 ness or clumsiness of form, and want of proportion. The terms lightness and heaviness 
 are frequently applied to buildings by general observers ; but they seldom convey any 
 definite ideas to the mind. The term lightness seems to be commonly applied to 
 elevations, in cases where the openings are more numerous, in proportion to the plain spaces 
 of the wall, than usual ; and, when the contrary is the case, the term heaviness is made 
 use of. The same idea may be extended to the intercolumniations, and proportions of 
 the columns of porticoes, and to various other parts of buildings. 
 
 2216. Effect is a painter's term, and in some cases it is synonymous with the word 
 result ; but in others it refers only to the light and shade of a picture or a building. 
 Where there is a striking prominent part or principal light in a building, supported by 
 a broad, receding mass or a mass in shade, the effect is sard to be good ; but a building 
 so plain in its principal front as to produce no striking lights and bold shadows is said to 
 have no effect. The Italian manner of placing windoAvs close together in series, and, 
 alternating with these, large blank spaces without any openings (see § 1929.), produces 
 a result which, in building, may, to a certain extent, be considered analogous to the 
 effect of light and shade in painting. 
 
 2217. Harmony is a term transferred from music to Architecture, and implies such a 
 composition of lines and forms as will produce a powerful, a varied, and an agreeable 
 whole. Where great contrasts exist among the parts, and yet all of them are in accord, 
 the effect is harmony ; and this is the highest result, with reference to organic impressions, 
 that can be produced in an edifice, short of, or next to, the beauties of decoration and 
 chai-acter. Harmony, therefore, supposes unity, contrast, variety, order, proportion, and 
 various other subordinate beauties. Notwithstanding this, however, harmony in Archi- 
 tecture, as in music, may exist independently of ornamament or of any distinctive 
 character. ' 
 
 2218. Ornament or Decoration, in Architecture and furnishing, is the addition of some- 
 thing, not necessary to unity of expression, but added solely for the purpose of enrich- 
 ment. Considered in an abstract point of view, the effect is produced by a certain 
 degree of variety, and intricacy of outline ; and, by blending, in a harmonious manner, 
 lights, shades, and colours. The ornaments in exterior Architecture may be considered 
 as exclusively sculpturesque ; but those of the interior include colours, gilding, and 
 mirrors, and may be called scenic. The too general distribution of ornament, or rich- 
 ness, on an elevation or a piece of furniture, is destructive of that simplicity and repose, 
 which is necessary to the full enjoyment of any scene ; but, on the other hand, when 
 decoration is judiciously introduced, and correctly executed, it gives an air of high finish- 
 ing and completeness, which leaves in the mind of the spectator nothing to be desired. 
 Every thing in a building, or a piece of furniture, may be considered as ornament, which 
 does not form a necessary part of the construction. In this point of view, the Unes and 
 mouldings of architraves and cornices, the facings of windows and doors, and the pro- 
 jecting mouldings of chimney-tops and other parts of dwelling-houses, may all be con- 
 sidered as ornaments ; and, as they necessarily arise out of the construction, they may be 
 termed ornaments of the simplest, but, at the same time, of the most appropriate kind. A 
 step higher in the progress of ornament or decoration, consists in the introduction of 
 carving or sculpture, such as foliage and flowers, on the members of architraves and 
 cornices, or other appropriate ornaments. The introduction of sculptures in high or 
 low relief, in sunk or raised panels, or other compartments prepared on purpose to receive 
 them, constitutes a third step. The last step is that of introducing vases and detached 
 figures, in suitable situations, such as on the summits of pediments, or as terminations 
 for piers, pilasters, columns, &c. ; and these may be considered the noblest ornaments of 
 all, since they are without any other use than as such. This scale of ornament will 
 enable any one clearly to understand in what ornament consists ; and it will also show the 
 propriety of consistency, in the degree of ornament to be applied. For example, in a very 
 plain elevation of a house, without facings to the windows, or a porch to the door, or a 
 terminating cornice to the wall, it would be an improper style of decoration to add vases 
 or statues. The first step in ornamenting such an elevation would be, to add facings or 
 architraves to the doors and windows ; next a porch, and a cornice under the roof, or 
 near the top of the walls. After this was done, if a degree higher in the scale of orna- 
 ment should be considered desirable, perhaps vases might form terminations to the sup- 
 poi-ting pillars of the porch, or projecting balconies might be added to some of the windows. 
 Instead of proceeding in this manner, we frequently find Architects, when they are called 
 upon to decorate a naked elevation, introduce ornaments of the highest class, such as 
 sculptures or vases ; while all appropriate ornaments, such as finishings to windows 
 
1120 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 and doors, are omitted. It must be clear to our readers that this is in the very worst 
 taste : as bad as it would be in a lady to wear a pearl necklace and diamond tiara with 
 the costume of a kitchen-maid. A number of the Designs in this volume, when tested 
 by this principle, will be found sadly deficient. Let the reader turn to them, and 
 exercise his critical skill ; he will gain far more in doing so, than if we had presented 
 him with a series of faultless objects ; for we are convinced, with Wood, that the young 
 Architect will learn much more by the discovery of faults, and their causes, than by the 
 mere admiration of beauties. As affording much valuable instruction on this subject, 
 we would strongly recommend the young Architect to consult Quatremere de Quin- 
 cy's Essai sur V Imitation, and the Preface to Percier and Fontaine's Decorations 
 Interieures. 
 
 2219. Character, in Architecture, as in physiognomy, is produced by the prevalence of 
 certain distinctive features, by which a countenance, or a building, is at once distinguished 
 from every other of the same kind. Hence, numbers of buildings, like numbers of human 
 beings, may exist without exhibiting any marked character. On the other hand, there 
 may be edifices, which, from their general proportions being exalted, and from all their 
 parts being justly distributed, exhibit what is analogous to nobleness of character : 
 edifices having, as a conspicuous feature, a form not common in Architecture, will 
 assume a character of singularity ; others, having a common form placed in an un- 
 common position (such as a large window in a spire, or, as is the case in some of Sir 
 John Vanbrugh's buildings, and in the offices of one of the houses at the north-west 
 corner of Belgrave Square, a doorway introduced in the parapet to a roof), will appear 
 to possess a character of extravagance or caprice. In general, whatever is productive of 
 character in a building must be conspicuous and distinctive ; and it should rather consist 
 of one than of many features. 
 
 2220. Novelty. In all arts, novelty is a source of pleasure ; because every new object 
 that is presented to the mind excites it to action ; and the mind of man, to be kept in 
 a healthy state, requires exercise as well as his body. The effect of novelty can be felt by 
 the most ignorant and <i^so by the most learned observer ; and, though it has been customary 
 for critics to rail at it under the denominations of fashion and innovation, yet nothing 
 can be more certain than that this quality is what all artists are in pursuit of, in connec- 
 tion with other kinds of excellence. It is equally certain that this incessant desire for 
 novelty has been the cause of great departures from propriety of design in all the arts ; 
 and, therefore, though the artist ought to be unceasing in his endeavours to attain it, he 
 ought never to indulge in novelties which are in opposition to what are considered 
 established principles. Precepts and rules, however, are subordinate to principles ; and 
 a precept or a custom may be departed from for the sake of novelty, provided that in so 
 doing no infringement be made on such principles as those of fitness, utility, or propriety. 
 For example, it would be a novelty, in the elevation of a house, to have the windows 
 broader at bottom than at top, or circular at bottom as well as at top ; but, the unfitness 
 of these forms for the application of window-shutters, and other ordinary purposes, 
 would occasion the innovation to be instantly condemned, when examined by the 
 principle of fitness. It would be a novelty, in this country, to connect the different 
 apartments of a house by means of outside stairs and balconies, as in Switzerland ; or to 
 have the kitchen in the attics, as in Italy ; but these innovations would be objected to 
 in Britain, on the principle of unsuitableness for use. A window used as a door, and a 
 door used as a window, are also objectionable, from the obvious want of propriety in their 
 application. The attempts at novelty, which have ended in absurdities, have been much 
 more numerous in the interior and furnishing of houses, than those which have been made 
 in exterior elevations : the chief reason is, that the interior finishing and furniture of a 
 house are much more frequently changed and remodelled than the house itself; less care 
 and skill are bestowed upon them, and less exertions are made to procure the opinion 
 of Architects of taste (as we have before recommended), on every change, however small. 
 As examples of bad taste, resulting from a desire of novelty without regard to con- 
 sistency, we may mention, that of graining wood with blue veins, blue being a colour 
 never found in nature in the interior of timber ; and that of reversing the positions of 
 the vase and the sarcophagus when placed under sideboards as wine-coolers, thus 
 converting some of the most beautiful forms of antiquity into the clumsiest and most 
 inexpressive shapes. Yet, we have seen both these examples of bad taste perpetrated 
 in the houses of wealthy Londoners. The great aim of the artist ought to be to create, 
 and that of the critic to search for, the union of novelty with other beauties, without any 
 greater innovation of established rules than is consistent with fundamental principles. 
 For example, let the artist introduce a new style of Architecture and furniture, if he can ; 
 but, in doing so, let him never violate the principles of unity and harmony. Let him 
 introduce a new description of porch or chimney top ; but let the one always be a 
 protection to a door, and the other afford a favourable outlet to smoke. One of the 
 
EXPRESSION OF STYLE. 
 
 1121 
 
 safest manners of introducing novelty, without any violation of established precepts, is by 
 the revival of ancient styles of art ; by which is produced what is at once new and yet 
 familiar, instead of what is new and at the same time strange. Hence, the satisfaction 
 that has, for some time past, been produced, in this country, by the revival of the Gothic 
 style, in external elevations, and by its application to modern uses in internal finishing 
 and furniture. More recent examples of the same kind will be foimd in the present 
 taste for the Elizabethan style, and for that of Louis XIV. in furnishing. To imitate 
 freshness in an old building by renovation, or the appearance of age in a new building 
 by weather stains, are both sources of novelty, of no great value certainly, but still suitable 
 for occasional use. For example, the general effect of an old ruin may be increased by 
 renovating, and producing an appearance of freshness in a small part of, or in some 
 appendage to, it. In a line of detached villas newly built, all exactly of the same form, 
 material, and style of finishing, one may be rendered strikingly different from all the 
 rest, solely by weather stains. 
 
 2221. Other Terms of Art might here be introduced, and their application to Archi- 
 tecture explained; but to do justice to the subject would require much greater space 
 than would be admissible in this volume : it would, indeed, require a volume itself. The 
 truth is, that all the works of man are only manifestations of himself, representing the 
 qualities of his own mind, moral and intellectual, good or bad, ignorant or refined. 
 Hence, most of the terms that are applicable to manners and to mind are applicable 
 also to art ; and a building or a picture may exhibit beauty, deformity, boldness, timidity, 
 strength, weakness, nobleness, meanness, grandeur, littleness, wisdom, folly, reason, 
 caprice, and many other qualities. For example, the projections of the cornice of a 
 building carried rather farther than usual would be considered bold, and give that 
 character to an elevation ; carried too far, they would be considered rash ; and not far 
 enough, timid. Walls thick in proportion to their height indicate strength ; and the 
 contrary, weakness. Dimensions and proportions of all the parts, and especially those 
 which regard height, larger than what are usual, produce an impression on the mind 
 analogous to nobleness ; and smaller than usual, and especially as regards height, mean- 
 ness : to be mean, a building must be low. The expression of grandeur is easily 
 understood ; that of littleness is produced by comparative sraallness of dimension applied 
 to objects generally seen large. The want of wisdom will be conspicuous in any building, 
 the expression of which does not satisfy the mind as well as the eye ; for example, if the 
 artist appears to have bestowed too much strength or skill on one part, and too little on 
 another. The folly of an Architect would be conspicuous, were he to sacrifice the main 
 body of a building to any inferior part, as for instance to the portico ; or to attempt 
 tp build and ornament a cottage in imitation of a palace. Nothing is more common 
 in the works of Architects even of genius, such as Vanbrugh and Borromeo, than caprice. 
 It is the business of a critic, after he has allowed the full effect to be produced on 
 him by the first impressions of an object, to search for its deformities as well as its 
 beauties ; and to point out the one to public attention, as well as the other. 
 
 2222. Relation. After the critic has applied all the preceding principles to any edi- 
 fice, and various others of the same nature, which will readily occur to a thinking mind, 
 it remains for him to examine it in its several relations. If it is seen in the same 
 view with other buildings, it must be considered not merely as a whole by itself, but also 
 as forming a whole in connection with the other buildings which are near it. In this 
 point of view, an edifice may be so plain in itself, as to exhibit little or no variety or 
 intricacy ; and yet, when viewed along with the other buildings, it may produce one 
 general combination of harmonious forms. For example : suppose a line of five or six 
 detached but nearly adjoining houses, already existing, each house broken into several 
 parts, and that an Architect were required to add an additional house at one end of, or 
 any where near, the line ; it might reasonably become a question with that Architect, 
 whether it would not be advisable for him to render the additional house one simple and 
 grand mass, so as to form with the whole line, when taken together, a predominating and 
 principal part. In like manner, in judging of a building of any particular age or 
 country, the circumstances of that age or country at the time, require to be taken into 
 consideration. In judging of the modern buildings of Italy, for instance, it must not 
 be forgotten that almost all the modern Italian Architects were painters as well as 
 Architects ; and that almost the whole of their public buildings are addressed more to the 
 eye than to the reason. In judging of the buildings of the reign of Louis XIV., it 
 must be considered that the great object of the Architects was to follow the taste of the 
 court, which was that of extravagant decoration. In judging of the taste of churches, 
 and of sumptuous public buildings in all countries, it must not be forgotten that the 
 great object was to excite the admiration and the astonishment of the spectator. In 
 judging of those public buildings in Britain, in the Grecian style, which were erected 
 previously to the publication of Stuart's Athens or Wilkins's Magna Grcccia, it 
 
 6 R 
 
COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE, 
 
 would be altogether unreasonable to compare them with the designs constructed since 
 that period. The Gothic Architecture of Batty Langley (a name sneered at by 
 modevn critics), or even that of Inigo Jones, it would not be just to compare with the 
 Gothic of the present day ; a knowledge of which has been matured by the excellent 
 publications of Carter, Murphy, Britton, Pugin, Cottinghara, I<amb, and a number 
 of other authors. Thus, a critic must always have two standards of comparison to judge 
 by : the one, that (as well as he can conceive it) of the time when the building was 
 erected ; and the other the beau ideal of pei'fection in his own mind. There is another point 
 that must not be lost sight of, in judging either of ancient or of modern productions in 
 Architecture ; and that is, the means which the Architect had at his command, and the 
 control which he was under from his employers, at the time of erecting the building. 
 There is not, perhaps, one edifice in a hundred, either public or private, where free scope 
 is left to the Architect, even where he is previously informed of the amount which Aviil 
 be allowed to be expended for tlie work, and keeps within that amount. Numerous local 
 circumstances, which could not be foreseen, or over which he has little or no control, 
 continually interfere to prevent him from completing his designs agreeably to his own 
 taste and judgment. Since, then, few persons liave ever an opportunity of doing their 
 best, charity should, in all cases, be exercised by the critic. To those who wish to pur- 
 sue the subject of this section farther, it is satisfactory to be able to recommend three 
 works which are within the reach of every one; viz., Alison's Essays on Taste, Wood's 
 Letters of an Architect, and the Dictionnaire Historique (V Architecture of Quatremere de 
 Quincy. The works of Durand, Repton and Papworth, Aberdeen's Inquiry, and 
 Carlisle's Hints (or rather scraps), may also be read with advantage, by those who wish 
 to unite the study of Landscape Gardening with that of Architecture. 
 
 Sect. II. Of the different Styles of Architecture. 
 
 2223. The different Styles of Architecture have grown up with mankind, and are 
 easily recognised by every one as beauties of art, originally composed to be admired, and 
 subsequently sanctioned by the admiration of ages. Hence it is that the Architect who 
 endeavours to effect his object through the medium of any known architectural style 
 will be much more likely to attain it, than he who depends for success on the organic 
 impressions and general associations which form the subject of the preceding section ; or 
 on what an Architect might call the abstract composition of lines and forms. In that 
 section, we have chiefly endeavoured to show that every thing in Architecture connected 
 with use, tlie expression of use, and the expression of those qualities which are common 
 •^o all the fine arts, can be effected without the introduction of a single form or line 
 vhich is considered characteristic of any known architectural style. It must be obvious 
 to the reader who has understood our preceding observations, that, in the employment of 
 any of the architectural styles Avhich form the subject of the present section, the Archi- 
 tect, to produce a satisfactory whole, must be governed by the abstract principles of com- 
 position already laid down, as m.uch as if no style were resorted to. The principle of 
 unity must govern a composition, whether it consist of mere walls with openings ; or, as 
 a painter would say, of mere light and shade ; or of Grecian columns and entablatures ; 
 or Gothic gables and buttresses. Variety is required for a Grecian or a Gothic com- 
 position, as well as for one of mei-e lines and forms ; and simplicity is as necessary for the 
 general form of a Gothic cathedral as it is for that of a Grecian temple. There are, 
 however, great advantages in the employment of style in Architecture. 
 
 2224. By the Employment of Style in an Edifice, the Architect takes immediate pos- 
 session of the prejudices of mankind. He gains a positive beauty at once by the mere 
 exhibition of style ; because thousands of spectators in Europe and America, for example, 
 have some crude ideas of what is Grecian and what is Gothic, while comparatively few 
 understand what constitutes a whole in mere combinations of form. Style, therefore, 
 ought never to be neglected by Architects who wish to gain general applause. 
 
 2225. The different Styles of Architecture are so well known by Architects, and this 
 knowledge is so readily accessible to the general reader, that very little need be said 
 respecting them in a work like the present. All the styles which have ever existed, or 
 which now prevail in the world, may be reduced to two, the Gothic, or perpendicular, 
 and the Grecian, or horizontal; or that in which perpendicular lines, and that in 
 which horizontal lines, predominate. As it is essential that all walls be built erect, it 
 is not probable that, in any style whatever, curved lines should prevail over straight 
 lines ; unless, indeed, fitness and reason should be entirely laid aside. 
 
 2226. The Grecian Style may be considered as characterised by porticoes of columns, 
 with pediments joined to parallelograms, in regard to general forms ; and by a particularly 
 beautiful description of mouldings and ornaments in the details. The porticoes and 
 pediments are altogether unfit for private dwellings, and there is no evidence that they 
 were ever so applied by the Greeks. At all events, that there is " great difficulty," as 
 
DIFFERENT STYLES OF ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 11^3 
 
 Mr. Hosking observes, " in applying pure Grecian Architecture to modern practice," is 
 evident from the buildings of the Romans, and from the want of success which has 
 attended the attempts which have hitherto been made in Britain to introduce the pure 
 Grecian style into villas and private dwellings in the country. We may pass over this 
 style, therefore, for that modification of it known as the Roman or Vitruvian, which, till 
 the publication of Stuart's Athens, and similar works, was considered by Architects as 
 Grecian. Before proceeding to Roman Architecture, we may briefly notice the alleged 
 prototype of the pure Grecian style; viz., a wooden hut; the roof supported by trunks 
 of trees, and these trunks joined by horizontal beams. That there is a semblance of truth 
 in this is evident : a hut may have given rise to the Greciau style ; but if it did, still its 
 construction appears to us to afford little or no information as to the management of 
 Domestic Architecture in that style. All arts have had their origin in some very rude 
 beginning ; and the first artificial human shelters must, no doubt, have been either huts 
 formed by the trunks or branches of trees, or caves dug in the sides of hills or banks. 
 The hypothesis before noticed, of Laugier and others, that Architecture on this account 
 is an imitative art, we consider to be altogether fanciful ; and, if we were asked to refer 
 to any work where this hypothesis was disproved, we should point to the Dictionary of 
 Quatremere de Quincy, and to the articles in that work attempting to prove it. 
 
 2227. The Grecian Architecture of the Romans is characterised by the introduction ot 
 arches ; by the placing of several stories one over another ; and by great licence in every 
 thing relating to proportion. It may be described as having little or none of that sim- 
 plicity which is one of the greatest beauties of the Grecian temples ; but, on the other 
 hand, it admits of all that variety of form, disposition, and details which is suitable for 
 the construction of private houses. It is, in fact, the prevailing Architecture of Europe, 
 and of the civilised world ; simply because it is the easiest, and, when without columns 
 and decoration, the most economical, style of building. 
 
 2228. The Modern Roman, or Italian, Style of Architecture differs from the ancient Roman 
 partly in the introduction of still greater licence in regard to columns and their dis- 
 position, but chiefly in its aim to produce painter-like effects. There are several varieties 
 of the Italian style, distinguished by the names of the centuries in which they prevailed ; 
 and some of these varieties contain a mixture of Gothic forms and mouldings. The 
 great object of the modern Roman Architect seems to be, to produce harmony by means 
 of various contrasts of form, and of light and shade. Enough of Roman details are 
 exhibited by this manner, in even the plainest buildings used as country residences, to 
 keep up the idea of style, and to create allusions to Roman Architecture ; but, when this 
 is done, the next grand object appears to be, to please the eye of a judge of general com- 
 position, rather than that of a servile follower of the five orders. We have already 
 expressed (§ 1933) how highly we approve of this style, as being economical, and suit- 
 able for dwellings for the general mass of society. 
 
 2229. The Gothic Style, characterised, as we have already observed, by vertical lines, 
 or lines pointing upwards, consists of many varieties : some of them so delicate and 
 peculiar, that they are difficult to describe. In almost all of them, Hosking observes, 
 " the arch is considered the index to the variety, as the column is to the different orders 
 in columnar Architecture." After the very excellent essay by Mr. Trotman on this 
 style (§ 1872), it is unnecessary here to enter into details; but we must observe, that all 
 the different varieties of Gothic Architecture are, in an especial manner, adapted for 
 domestic use. In no style is unity of form and system more easily given and main- 
 tained ; and, in Britain more especially, none is better calculated for producing emotion, 
 for the reason before stated; viz., that almost every one who has been in the habit of 
 frequenting a country church is familiar with its details. The superiority of this style 
 to the Grecian, Roman, or Italian, in a scientific point of view, is well known to every 
 one at all acquainted with the principles of construction. This superiority was for the 
 first time pointed out in detail to the English reader by Dr. Anderson, in a series of 
 essays, published in his Recreations in Arts and Natural History. Before the appearance of 
 these essays, the merits of the Gothic style were not at all understood. It is now^ 
 acknowledged by the first Architects, that the ancients knew very little of the science of 
 construction ; and the precepts of Vitruvius and Pliny on that subject are considered as 
 imperfect or erroneous. It is also allowed that "the strength and duration of the 
 Egyptian, Greek, and Roman structures are more owing to the quantity and goodness 
 of their materials, than to any great art in putting them together." (Chambers.) There 
 is more constructive skill shown in Salisbury and others of our cathedrals," Mr. Gwilt 
 observes, " than in all the works of the ancients put together." An ingenious hypo- 
 thesis on the origin of Gothic Architecture, by Sir James Hall, who considered wicker- 
 work and the interlacing of young trees as its original type, is about as plausible as the 
 hypothesis of the hut as the type of Grecian Architecture. In the admirable work of 
 Seroux d' Agincourt, it is proved that the first Gothic building in Italy was an excavation 
 
I12if COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 in a soft rock ; the coved ceilings and the arches to the doors and other openings being 
 finished in imitation of the Grecian ogee moulding. It is clear also from Mr. Trot- 
 man's essay, and the work of Mr. Rickman, that the Gothic style originated in an 
 imitation of the Roman. The reader who wishes to study the different varieties o*' 
 Gothic, or Pointed, Architecture may turn back to Mr. Trotman's essay, or have recourse 
 to Mr. Rickman's succinct, and, at the same time, comprehensive, work on that subject. 
 
 2230. The Elizabethan, or Old English, Style, or rather manner, of building, is to the 
 Gothic, what the Modern Italian is to the Roman : it is a mongrel style (more so, indeed, 
 than the Italian), composed of Roman and Gothic details. From its extensive use in the 
 mansions of this country, at a time when some of the largest were built, it has come to be 
 considered as peculiarly appropriate to country residences. Perhaps, as a British domestic 
 style, it has more interesting associations connected with it than any other ; and 
 there is nothing in its forms and details but what may readily be adapted to every 
 modern convenience and luxury. 
 
 2231. There are various other subordinate Styles or Manners of building, to which the 
 student may have recourse, in order to store his mind with ideas, and enable him to 
 produce novelty in connection with excellence. There is the Egyptian style, character- 
 ised by its colossal forms and massive grandeur ; from which, however, but few ideas 
 can be derived applicable to domestic purposes ; and the Chinese style, the type of which 
 is a tent, but which, as far as it is known in this country, seems by no means a complete 
 system in itself. There appear to be two styles or manners in India ; one, the Hindoo 
 Architecture, analogous to the Egyptian, the type of both being an excavation in the 
 front of a rock, or on the side of a liill ; and the other, bearing some resemblance to the 
 European pointed style, and which has been called the Indian Gothic. This style is 
 also sometimes called Arabian, Saracenic, or Moorish Architecture ; and is an interesting 
 and fanciful style, which owes its birth to the Mahometan religion. All these styles 
 and varieties of styles will be found described in Letters on the Principles of Design in 
 Architecture, and in the History and Analysis of all the Principal Styles of Architecture ; 
 both small and cheap books, easily to be procured. See also the very excellent Treatise 
 on Architecture and Building, by William Hosking, Esq. 
 
 2232. On the Subject of Style in Architecture much more might here be said; but we 
 conceive it of far greater importance that the reader should understand the general 
 principles of composition, than that he should become learned in the details of any par- 
 ticular style. Hitherto Architecture has been too generally considered as consisting of 
 an accurate display of the features and details of the best precedents of some particular 
 style, without reference to abstract principles of composition ; but we think that the 
 student who would excel in this art should, in the first instance, have recourse to the 
 study of general composition ; and should consider the study of the Grecian and Roman 
 orders, and of their various proportions and mouldings, as altogether subordinate. We 
 are persuaded that the leading causes why Architecture has made such little progress in 
 this country are, the general neglect by Architects of universal principles, and the almost 
 exclusive attention paid by them to precedents and to established rules. Were we to 
 direct the studies of a youth intended for the profession of an Architect, the very last part 
 of the course of instruction which we should prescribe to him would be the study of 
 the five orders. We consider them about as necessary to good sense, and good taste, 
 in Domestic Architecture, as the study of the Greek and Latin languages is to the 
 knowledge of what is good sense and good taste in the general conduct of life. Before, 
 however, we recommended any youth to study Architecture as a profession, we would 
 endeavour to ascertain, upon phrenological principles, or from general observation, whe- 
 ther his organisation was favourable for that pursuit. One of the grand causes of the 
 slow advancement of all the arts of taste, and of the great prevalence of mediocrity 
 among artists, is, the utter neglect of this preliminary measure on the part of their parents 
 or advisers. Young men are articled to Architects, or sent to study painting or sculpture 
 in academies, on the same principle as they are brought up to the common trades of life ; 
 and the result is, that, instead of men of native genius being, by cultivation, rendered 
 skilful artists, the same degree of instruction, bestowed on men not possessing any natural 
 talent, only produces mechanical artisans, or servile imitators of what has been done 
 by their predecessors. 
 
GLOSSARIAL INDEX. 
 
 The References are to the Paragraphs where the Term occurs for the first times and where it is explained 
 and illustrated, ivhen necessary, by a Figure. 
 
 Abacus, a square forming the upper member of 
 the capit£il of a column, on which the architrave 
 rests. 
 
 Aberthaw limestme, 1024. 
 
 Abutment, the solid part of a pier from which an 
 arch springs. In carpentry, the junction of two 
 pieces of timber, one supporting the other, at right 
 angles. 
 
 Acrospire, 1262. 
 
 A. M., 857. 
 
 Angle of repose, 805. 
 
 Angle rack, 751, fig. 771. 
 
 Angular chimneys, 463, figs. 409 and 410. 
 
 AntcB, 1833. 
 
 Anthracite, or blind coal, a peculiar kind of coal, 
 
 emitting very little smoke. 
 Anti-corrosive paint, 546. 
 Apex, summit. 
 Apron for a veranda, 156. 
 Apron lining, 853. 
 
 Aprons of lead in Scotland, 85, fig. 77, 935. 
 Arabesque, 2023. 
 Arbor, 1467. 
 Arris, 235. 
 
 Arris girders are thicker in the middle than at each 
 
 end, 1270. 
 Arris rails, 869. 
 Ashlar work, 185. 
 Ashlering, or ash-lining, 1597. 
 Astragal and hollow sash bar, 239, fig. 233. 
 Astragals, 168. 
 
 B. 
 
 Back laps, 928. 
 Back putty, 85. 
 Back-filled rabbet head, 282. 
 Back-filled, or filleted, 200. 
 Backings, 239. 
 
 Backs and elbows, 239, fig. 237. 
 Bag of hops, 1274. 
 Bailey's composition, 527. 
 Balk, or Baidk, 1207. 
 Balls a?id points, 1089. 
 
 Baluster, a short circular pillar, from a Greek word 
 signifying the flower of the wild pomegranate : it 
 is commonly a small column, bellied out in the 
 middle, somewhat in the form of that fruit. See 
 figs. 154, 184, 241, &c. 
 
 Bands, 983. 
 
 Banker, a stone or wooden bench. 
 
 Bank hurdle, 1038. 
 
 Bargate stone, 1 244. 
 
 Barge boards, 200, figs. 181, 299. 
 
 Barge stones, 114. 
 
 Barn cloth, 889. 
 
 Barn-door lift, 889. 
 
 Barrel curb, 238. 
 
 Barrel drains, 1596. 
 
 Bartisan, 1820. 
 
 Bast matting, 688. 
 
 Bat, 1125. 
 
 Batted, 933. 
 
 Battening, 135. 
 
 Battering, 234. 
 
 Baulks, or Balks, 1102. 
 
 Bay window. See Oriel window. 
 
 Bays, divisions of a barn, 776. 
 
 Bead and batten, 57. 
 
 Bead, butt, and square back door, 239, fig. 238. 
 Bead flush door, 239, fig. 239. 
 Beading for ceilings, 470, fig. 418. 
 Beam-fiUing, 234. 
 Bearers, 83. 
 
 Beauchamp^s British plate, 698. 
 Bedding and pointing, 468. 
 
 Bedding bond plates and lintels in loam, 245. 
 
 Bedding ovens, Sfc. 1353. 
 
 Bedscrew, 662, fig. 701. 
 
 Bell trap, 237, figs. 222 to 224. 
 
 Beveled, 82 ; grounds, 239 : caps to gate-posts, 869. 
 
 Bilgefs, 1065. 
 
 Binders, tie-beams. See fig. 142, k. 
 
 Binding joists, 83. 
 
 Bird's-eye view, 1826. 
 
 Bird's-mouth splay, 442, fig. 375. 
 
 Blinded, 1206. 
 
 Blocked, 1585. 
 
 Blocking cornice, fig- 1683. 
 
 Blocking course, 74. 
 
 Blushes in plastering, 982, 
 
 Bolection mouldings, 1889. 
 
 Bond stone, 9S1. 
 
 Bond timber, 235. 
 
 Bonnet blinds, 558. 
 
 Boothy, or ^o^/%y, 1131. 
 
 Borders, 239. 
 
 i?o;r o/a /)M7wp, the hollow inside. 
 
 Bosses, 440, fig. 369. 
 
 Bothy, or Z?ooif%, 1330 and 1337. 
 
 Boulk, or 1311. 
 
 Box-beds, 658, 1338. 
 
 Boxes for blinds, 554. 
 
 Boxes fur hunters, stables containing each only ona 
 
 horse. 
 Braces, 83. 
 Bracing, 921. 
 Bradded, 238. 
 
 Breaking joint, laying bricks, tiles, &c., in such 
 manner as to have the joints of one line come in 
 the middle of the other. 
 
 Breaks forward, 2093. 
 
 Breast water-wheel, 1242. 
 
 Breast tree, 1103. 
 
 Brechin, l&l, 1390. 
 
 Brestsummers, girders. 
 
 Brick coins, 79. 
 
 Brick dressings, 459. 
 
 Brick nogging, 79. 
 
 Brick-on-edge walls, 302. 
 
 Brick trimmer, 1576. 
 
 Bricks laid in bed, 79. 
 
 Bridlings, 1066. 
 
 Broached, pointed. 
 
 Broached ashlar, 1089. 
 
 Broached tails, 1074. 
 
 w'o//: is a term applied to borders of coloured 
 wood or metal, let into articles of furniture. The 
 process is as follows: — Two pieces of veneer, of 
 two colours, are put together, with paper between 
 them, each being glued to the paper. Upon the 
 surface of the upper one is placed the print or 
 drawing of an ornamental border, the outlines of 
 which are cut through by means of a very fine 
 saw, made of a watch-spring. The parts are then 
 separated ; that which was taken from the dark 
 wood is let into the light wood, and vice versd. 
 
 Built in the heart, 910. 
 
 Bull's-eye, 1577. 
 
 Bull's-eye rack, 751, fig. 773. 
 
 But and ben, a kitchen and parlour. 
 
 Butt and square door, 84. 
 
 Butt back flaps, 239. 
 
 Butt hinges, 84, fig. 65. 
 
 Bush faggots, 1038. 
 
 Byres, cowhouses, 894. 
 
 Cabers, 1081. 
 
 Campanile, bell turret, or watchtower. 
 Canted corners, 939. 
 
 Canterbury, for holding music books, 2123. 
 
1126 
 
 GLOSSARIAL INDEX. 
 
 Cantilevers, 53. 
 Caoutchouc, Indian rubber. 
 Cap of a mill, 1260. 
 Capping, 239. 
 Carcass of a building, 524. 
 Carriage for staircase, 239, 250. 
 Cart shades, 1089. 
 Carved trusses,2093. 
 Catacombs, 916. 
 Cat bar, 1072. 
 Catch.pieces, 889. 
 Causeway, 1073. 
 
 Causewayed, i)aved with pebbles, or irregular- 
 shaped stones. 
 Cenotaphs, 1985. 
 Centre-point hinges, 1112. 
 Centring, 238. 
 CAace, 1311. 
 Chacked, 1066. 
 Chain.plate, fig. 884. 
 Chain-work, 327. 
 Chamfered, or Champhered, 1204. 
 Chased, 85. 
 Chasings, 79. 
 Checked down on, 1778. 
 Ckeek.pieces, 889. 
 CAc^'.se of apples, 1297 and 1394. 
 Chiffonier, 1690. 
 Ciiimed, 983. 
 
 Chimneys to gas-burners, 2055. 
 Chimney bar, 79. 
 Chimney breasts, 79. 
 Chimney jambs, 79, 228. 
 Chimney necks, 983. 
 
 Chimney pot, a short funnel, made of earthenware, 
 metal, or artificial stone, frequently placed on 
 the summit of the chimney shaft, to prevent 
 smoking. 
 
 Chimney shaft, called in Scotland chimney stalk, is 
 the part terminating a chimney or flue, which is 
 carried up above thu roof. 
 
 Chimney stack, a number of chimney tops joined 
 together, and placed on one base. 
 
 Chives, or Cooms, 798. 
 
 Clamp kilns, 1292. 
 
 Clamped, 629, fig. 595. 
 
 Cleaded, 990. 
 
 Cleansed hearth-stones, 1435. 
 
 C^eflr m /Ae Ao.r, fMZ>c, or tunnel, 245. 
 
 CA/w^ 1262. 
 
 Cob parer, 839. 
 
 Co6 t«a/^.v, 838 to 842. 
 
 Cockles, iron furnaces with inverted iron pots, for 
 
 generating heated air 
 Cogged, l(i66. 
 Coke breixe, 20S0. 
 Colalla stone, 1576. 
 
 Columns, a member, in architecture, the plan of 
 which is circular, and which consists of a base, a 
 shaft or body, and a capital, 177- 
 
 Combed wheat straw, 122. 
 
 Common chimneys, 228. > 
 Composition floor, 585. 
 Compound curves, 1883, fig. 1621. 
 Concrete, 492, 504. 
 
 Conservatory, a house for keeping exotic plants, 
 either planted in the soil, or in large tubs. When 
 the plants are kept in flower-pots on wooden 
 stages, the house is called a green-house. 
 
 Consol table, 2110. 
 
 Continued eaves, 1582. 
 
 Contracting the throat of a flue, 602. 
 
 Coombs. See Chives. 
 
 Cope, 942. 
 
 Copper-brazed, joined together by heat, in the same 
 
 manner as soldering. 
 Corbel coins, 981. 
 Corbel stones, 1816. 
 
 Cornice, a moulded projection which crowns or 
 
 finishes the member to which it is attached. 
 Cornice slides, 671, fig- 711. 
 Corrugated, wavy, wrinkled, or fluted. 
 Cotteral, 990. 
 Couch, 1262. 
 Countesses. See Slates. 
 Couplings, or Couples, principal rafters, 83. 
 Coursed rubblework, 910. 
 Coved ceilings, 463, fig. 41^ 
 Cove.plates, 981. 
 Coving chimneys, 1580. 
 Cotvbows, 869. 
 Cowl of a malt kiln, 798. 
 
 Cramp, a piece of iron for strengthening a stone or 
 
 wall, or holding two things together. 
 Crane for a kitchen fireplace, 593, fig. 327. 
 Cranks, figs. 271 and 272. 
 Crests of walls, l8Ci2. 
 Crib bedsteads, 662. 
 Crib boards, 990, 996. 
 Crippled walls, 839. 
 Crockets, 1836, 1883, fig, 1626. 
 Crooks and bands, 953, 1116, fig. 1061, 
 Cross braces, 775. 
 
 Cross-tailed hinges, 1104, 1108, fig. 1058. 
 
 Crow steps, 1089. 
 
 Crown glass, 241, 2093, 
 
 Cubic inches of surveyors, 250. 
 
 Culms, the hollow stalks of any reed, corn, or grass. 
 
 Cupple, 1169. 
 
 Curbed ceilings, 463, fig. 412. 
 Currented, 79, 84. 
 Curtailed step, 1805. 
 Cusps, 1850. 
 
 Cylindrical, a tube circular in the section. 
 D. 
 
 Dado, in rooms, is the space between the wash- 
 board or base, and the surbase, or moulding; 
 sometimes carried round, about the height of the 
 chair backs, to prevent them from injuring the 
 plaster of the wall. 
 
 Dais, raised platform. 
 
 Days of a window, 1883. 
 
 Dead locks, 1585. 
 
 Deal keys, 238. 
 
 Deal, matched, 297. 
 
 Deal slips, 83. 
 
 Deals, boards. 
 
 Dentils, 172; from the Latin word dens, a tooth ; 
 small square blocks or projections, used in the bed 
 mouldings of cornices. Their breadth should be 
 half their height; and their intervals, according 
 to Vitruvius, two thirds of their breadth. 
 
 Diagonal strut, or brace, of a gate, 828, fig. 841. 
 
 Dibber scraper, 690. 
 
 Diminished styles, 239. 
 
 Dirt.bin, or dust-hole, a pit or other place, in the 
 kitchen court, for the reception of ashes and 
 oiher refuse not fit for the pig tub. 
 
 Discharging arches, 234. 
 
 Dish and current, a basin in the centre of a cattle- 
 yard, with declining gutters to carry off the wet. 
 Dispenser, 1266. 
 
 Distemper, a mode of colouring walls, &c., 573. 
 District mill, floors wanted to render one complete, 
 1255. 
 
 Distyle in antis, 1833. 
 
 Dog-legged staircase, a staircase in which the stairs 
 rest on a spandril, or on a string, on one side» 
 and are housed into the wall, on the other, 1903. 
 
 Domestic telegraph, 1456. 
 
 Door of two leaves, or Folding door, a door opening 
 
 in the middle. 
 Door bracket, 65. 
 Door soles, 1075. 
 
 Dormer window, a window placed on the inclined 
 plane of the roof of a house, with its frame in a 
 vertical position. 
 
 Dots, 1589. 
 
 Double-hung, 927. 
 
 Double.margined styles, 239. 
 
 Double-sunk sill, 983. 
 
 Dovecote, "ill. 
 
 Dovetailed, 83, 238. 
 
 Dowels, 1297. 
 
 Dragon ties, 1584. 
 
 Dram timber battens, 1208. 
 
 Draught iiole, 1266. 
 
 Draughted and broached, 1089. 
 
 Draughted and scappled, 939. 
 
 Drawback lock, 239. 
 
 Drawn, 1750. 
 
 Drawn about, 989. 
 
 Drawn battens, 1124. 
 
 Dressed, 240. 
 
 Dressed paving-bricks, 234. 
 Dressing-barn, 1067. 
 
 Drip-tnoulding of a chimney, figs. 879 to 882. 
 Drip-mouldings to windoivs, fig. 877- 
 Droved margins, 1089. 
 Droved stone, 911. 
 Drum, or Cylinder, 1398. 
 Dry larder, YlQl. 
 
GLOSSARIAL INDEX. 
 
 1127 
 
 Drying-Jloory 798. 
 
 Dunge, 1266. 
 
 Dutch barns, 816. 
 
 Dutch rick-stand, 816. 
 
 Dynamics, the science of moving forces. 
 
 E. 
 
 Eaves, the margin, or edge, of a roof, overhanging 
 the walls. 
 
 Edges shot, 1584 and 1597. 
 Elbow-buckeis, 1243. 
 
 Endless cloth, a piece of cloth sewed together at the 
 
 extreme ends. 
 Enfilade, 1852. 
 English bond, 338. 
 
 Entablature, the horizontal mass placed upon 
 Grecian columns. It consists of three parts, the 
 architrave, the frieze, and the cornice. 
 
 Equidistant, 1221. 
 
 Escutcheon of a lock, 624, 
 
 Expanding recess, 1849. 
 
 Expanding rising, 1849. 
 
 Expression, such a disposition of the forms or lines 
 of a building, as to show or express the purpose 
 for which it is designed. See 60. 
 
 Facings, 168. 
 
 Fall of land, 36 square yards. 
 
 Falling style of a gate, the style in which the latch 
 
 is fixed. 
 False ebony, 551. 
 Fan blinds, 557. 
 Fan groin, 1897. 
 
 Fanners, a winnowing machine. 
 Farmery, 704. 
 
 Fascia, a band or broad fillet. 
 
 Fastening rods for cattle, 887, fig. 904. 
 
 Feather-edged, 83. 
 
 Feeding-ports, 1136. 
 
 Ferrol, 1589. 
 
 Figure of a drain, 1141. 
 
 Fillet, a narrow vertical band. The slips between 
 
 the flutings of pillars are also called fillets. 
 Filleted rooms, figs. 470 to 476. 
 Filling in li.it els, 1066. 
 Finials, 1836, 1883. 
 Finished off, 238. 
 Fir, as used by builders, 84. 
 Fir keys, strutting-pieces. 
 
 Fire-bricks are formed of a clay very free from sand 
 
 or iron, which does not vitrify from heat, 599. 
 Fire of malt, 1262. 
 Firestone, 238. 
 
 Firewood, wood used for building in Paris, of the 
 
 same dimensions as that employed as fuel, 767. 
 Firrings, 1584. 
 
 First floor. In Scotland, the first floor is the 
 ground floor; in England, the first-floor is up one 
 pair of stairs. , 
 
 Flagstones, large stones, sawn or split into thin 
 lamina, having a flat smooth surface. 
 
 Flanched up, 234. 
 
 Flanches of grating, 306, fig. 282. 
 
 Flanged. A flange is a projection round the edge of 
 a pipe, or other article in metal, to admit of its 
 being fastened to a similar projection by screws or 
 rivets. 
 
 Flank trees, 1102. 
 
 Flaps, 613. 
 
 Flat, 1821. 
 
 Flat-bedded stones, 909. 
 Flat-ruled joint, 234. 
 Flatted crown glass, 2093. 
 Flatted point, 242. 
 Flattened, or obtuse, arch, 1884. 
 Flemish bond, 338. 
 Floats, and Float-boards, 1241. 
 Floorcloths, 687. 
 
 Flush brass bolts, bolts let into the woodwork, so as 
 
 not to project beyond the face of it. 
 Flushed solid in mortar, 234. 
 
 Flushed up between the joints >■ pointed, or filled up 
 
 smoothjwith mortar. 
 Fly.board, fig. 1155. 
 Fly-brackets, 631. 
 Flyers, 1586. 
 Fly-wire, 853. 
 
 Fodder-cribs, 969. 
 Fodder-rack, 889, fig. 908. 
 
 Fodder ing-bay, a place in a stable or cow-house for 
 
 keeping green food, hay, &c. 
 Foddering-passage, for conveying food to cattle. 
 
 Foils and cusps, 1850. 
 
 Folding camp bed, called also a horse bed, 653. 
 Folding floors, 239. 
 
 Folding gates, gates opening in the middle ; or 
 hinged, like folding window-shutters, so that one 
 part may fold back over another. 
 
 Folding handles, lll5. 
 
 Folding hinge, 694. 
 
 Folding register grate, 1458. 
 
 Footing, foundations. 
 
 Footings of walls, fig. 883. 
 
 Fotherum, 942. 
 
 Frame, four pieces of wood joined together at right 
 angles. 
 
 Framed work, frames of wood, having the panels 
 filled in with mud, lath and plaster, turf, &c., to 
 serve as walls. 
 
 Freestone, any stone that can be worked by the saw 
 and chisel. 
 
 French casetnents, windows opening in the middle, 
 
 and hinged on the sides. 
 French polish, 2109. 
 Fresco, 578. 
 
 Fret, an ornament consisting of one or more fillets, 
 at equal distances either vertically or horizontally. 
 
 Fuel, ovfire, chamber of a grate, the space enclosed 
 by the bars, where the fuel is ignited. 
 
 Furnace pot, 981. 
 
 G. 
 
 Gable tops, 1088. 
 
 Galley, the kitchen of a ship. 
 
 Gallinaceous fowls, common cocks and hens, tur- 
 keys, &c. 
 Galloway cope, 1204, 
 Gangtvay, 1176. 
 Gargells, 1893. 
 Gargoyles, 1893. 
 Garnet hinges, 84. 
 Garreted joints, 79. 
 Garron nails, 1066. 
 Gauge for tiling, 849. 
 Gauged arches, 234. 
 
 Geometrical stairs, stairs having a circular well-hole 
 
 in the centre. 
 German silver, 698. 
 Getting malt well up in the back, 1262. 
 Gin wheel, a wheel with an upright shaft, and with 
 
 the teeth or cogs in a horizontal rim j used for 
 . raising materials from pits. 
 Girder, the principal beam of a floor. 
 Giving malt ground, 1262. 
 Glazed tiles, 954. 
 Go-cart, 697. 
 Go-gin, 697 
 
 Good astragal windows, 927. 
 Good blocking-eourses, 981. 
 Gothic Architecture, 1871. 
 
 Gothic framework for windows, 552, figs. 480 and 
 481. 
 
 Graining, a mode of imitating the veins of different 
 
 kinds of wood by painting. 
 Gravid, in calf. 
 
 G7 ecian aixhitraves and mouldings, 60. 
 Grey lime, 234. 
 
 Grey stocks, bricks made of marly clay, 234. 
 
 Grieve, 1050. 
 
 Grip, 941. 
 
 Grooved gates, 762. 
 
 Grounds, beveled, 84. 
 
 Grounds, in carpentry, 232. 
 
 Groundshot waterwheels, 1241 
 
 Ch-outed, 234. 
 
 Grouted foundations, 478. 
 
 Gudgeon, 609. 
 
 Guiding rod, 1278. 
 
 Gussets, 1586. 
 
 Gymp, 1684. 
 
 H. 
 
 Hair for hops, 1270. 
 Half-couples, 920. 
 
1128 
 
 GLOSSARIAL INDEX. 
 
 Half-tester bedstead, 656. 
 
 Halved and spiked, 83, 238. 
 
 Halved on joists, 444. 
 
 Hamlin's mastic, or Mastic cement, 527. 
 
 Hammels, 1129. 
 
 Hammer.dressed, 1092. 
 
 Handrail, or Upright rail, 239, fig. 241. 
 
 Hanging.post, tlie post to which a gate is hung. 
 
 Haras, studs, 751. 
 
 Hardware, 984. 
 
 Hardwood, 1103. 
 
 Hurling, or roughcasting, 529 and 530. 
 Harvesters, 972. 
 Hatch.hole, 888. 
 Hatchway, 1155. 
 
 Headboard, a board at the back of a bedstead, 
 covered with a part of the bed-hangings, called the 
 headpiece. 
 
 Headrail, fig. 695. 
 
 Headstyle of a gate, style to which is fixed the hasp 
 
 for the latch. 
 Headers and stretchers, 25. 
 Hearted and packed, 1088. 
 Heel-post, 753. 
 
 Hewn works, parts composed of hewn stone. 
 Hip rafters, 83. 
 
 Hipped. A roof is said to be hipped when the ends 
 present a sloping surface, instead of a gable or 
 pediment. 
 
 Hips, truncated parts of a roof. 
 
 Hips and valleys, 238. 
 
 Hobs, ledges by the side of a grate, GO], fig. 539. 
 Holdfast, 251. fig. 246. 
 Hollow tile drain, 79. 
 Hollow-worked frames, 445, fig. 576 
 Holm, 1354. 
 
 Hood-moulding, fig; 1625. 
 Hoop chips, 867. 
 Hop-bine, 1274- 
 Hnp.oast, 1270. 
 Horns to doors, 1066. 
 
 Horse bed, origin ol the common folding beds. 
 
 Horsed, 983. 
 
 Hot plate, 1481. 
 
 Hot-water box, fig. 276. 
 
 Hougfi, 1141. 
 
 Housed, 239. 
 
 House place in Cheshire, 1152 
 
 Hummelling machine, for taking the awns oft barley. 
 Husking oats, cleansing them from the husks. 
 Hutches, small boxes, or dens, for keeping rabbits. 
 Hydrostatic bed, 667. 
 
 I. 
 
 Imitation marble, 1916. 
 
 Impost, fig. 869. 
 
 /« and out bands, 981. 
 
 /« and out tie, 981. 
 
 Inband rybals, 1074. 
 
 Jn-bonds, 910. 
 
 Ingoings, 911. 
 
 Ingoing tvindows, 944. 
 
 Inlaid floors. See Parqueited floors. 
 
 Inverted arches, 234. 
 
 /> on AricA:, 1775. 
 
 /ron sAof*, 1943 ; cases of cast iron for the ends of 
 pieces of timber in the construction of roofs, or 
 bridges of large span. 
 
 Iron straight-edge, 234. 
 
 Iron turn, a piece of iron, two or three inches long, 
 
 with a square hole at one end, which works on 
 another piece of iron, of about the same length, 
 fixed in the wall like the hook of a strap hinge, 
 by means of two projecting studs. The lower part 
 of this hook is square, so as to fit the square hole 
 in the iron turn ; and the upper part is cylindri- 
 cal, so as to allow the turn, when lifted up, to 
 move round upon it. Hence, to fasten back a 
 shutter, the turn must be slipped on the square 
 part of the hook, where it will remain fixed ; and, 
 to relieve the shutter, the turn must be slipped 
 up, so that it may move round on the cylindrical 
 part. In the accompanying figure, a is the 
 shutter ; b, the turn ; c, the pin on which the 
 turn moves ; and d d, the two irons into which 
 the latter is riveted, and which are leaded into 
 the wall. 
 
 Isometrical perspective is a term applied to a pro- 
 jection made in rays parallel to the diagonal of a 
 cube, upon a plane perpendicular thereto. 
 
 Italian style, 1993. 
 
 J. 
 
 Jack can, 1443. 
 Jib brackets, 613. 
 Joggled on, 83. 
 Jointer, 234. 
 Jumper, 613. 
 Jumping-holcs, 613. 
 Jutted sills, 1778. 
 
 K. 
 
 Keeps, 1108. 
 
 King.post, the middle post of a roof, 83. 
 Kiln tile, 798. 
 Kneading-trough, 629. 
 Knot, 242. 
 Knotted, 986. 
 
 L. 
 
 Labels, 213, fig. 344, 485, 486, 488. 
 Lacing-courses, 1758. 
 Lancet window, 1882. 
 Landljig-stone, 237. 
 Landlord's fi: 'ures, 586. 
 Lantern skyU^ht, 1856. 
 Latchet, 983. 
 LatcTit, hidden. 
 
 Lateral thrust, the weight, or rather pressure, of 
 
 materials sidewise. 
 Lath, 80. 
 
 Lath, plaster, float, and set, 235. 
 Lathing diagonally, 235. 
 Lead aprons, 85, 240.' 
 Lead-headed nails, S5. 
 Lead flashings, 85, 234. 
 Lead lights in quarni, 1869. 
 
 Lean-to roof, a roof the rafters of which Icsn 
 
 against the wall of another building. 
 Lever handle, 754. 
 
 Lime riddlings, pieces ot lime which will not pas* 
 
 through a riddle. 
 Lime shells, 1283. 
 Lime-white, 80. 
 Linings, 83. 
 Lintels, 83, 228. 
 Lip of a cider press, 1297. 
 Liquor for making malt, 1262. 
 Listed boards, sorted, or rather matched, so as to 
 
 make the floor appear all of one colour 
 Listings, 849. 
 
 Lithic paints, stone paint, 528. 
 Loggia, a porch or small veranda, 1450. 
 Loose horse, a horse not tied up in a stall. 
 Loose house, 1091. 
 
 Loose stable, a stable not having any division of 
 
 stalls, or place for tying up a horse. 
 Lopers, 62-i. 
 
 Lord Stanhope's composition, 1789 
 Louvre. See Luffer-boards. 
 Louvert, lantern. 
 
 Low-pitched roof, where there is little slope from 
 
 the ridge-tiles to the eaves, 185. 
 Low room windows, 983. 
 L. P. R, 1806. 
 Lujffer-boards, 555. 
 Luggage chair, 1477. 
 
GLOSSARIAL INDEX. 
 
 1129 
 
 M. 
 
 Make good, 79. 
 
 Malic acid, acid found in apples, pears, &c. 
 
 Malt chamber, 1265. 
 
 Malt couch, 798. 
 
 Malt -plough, 1262, fig. 1126. 
 
 Mange, 1938. 
 
 Manhole, opening in a cess-pool, drain, &c., large 
 enough to admit a man to clean it out when re- 
 quieite. Manholes are usually fitted with a close 
 cover when not in use. 
 
 Mantels, 82. 
 
 Marquetterie, 2010. 
 
 Milled lead, 85. 
 
 Milled slate, 237. 
 
 Match planes, 297. 
 
 Mathematical tiling, 5i7, figs. 461 to 465. 
 Meglip, for painting in imitation of oak, 638. 
 Metal spouts, 984. 
 Middle to middle, 983. 
 Milk paint, 515. 
 Mill loft, 1100. 
 
 Mitre wheel, a wheel fitted in a particular manner, 
 
 so as to work one into another. 
 Mitred, 1122. 
 Monied out, 1058. 
 Mortise holes, 1586. 
 Mortised locks, 239. 
 Moulded nosings, 250. 
 Mowsteads, 889, fig. 909. 
 Mud tualls, 159. 
 
 Mullions, or Munnions, the fixed vertical divisions 
 of a window in the Gothic or Elizabethan style. 
 
 Munting, or MuntinSy the centre vertical piece 
 which divides the panels of a door, 512. 
 
 Must, 1324. 
 
 N. 
 
 Neckings, 1586. 
 
 Newcastle second crown glass. See Crown glass. 
 
 Newels, 239. fig. 241. 
 
 Noggingflat, 83. 
 
 Norfolk thumb latch, 84, fig. 67. 
 
 Northumberland mortar, 980. 
 
 Nosings to stairs, 849. 
 
 O. 
 
 Oak stages, 238. 
 Office-houses, farm buildings. 
 O^^ee moulding, called also cyma reversa ; a mould- 
 ing nearly in the form of an S. 
 Old tiles preferred, 849. 
 Open filleting, 869. 
 
 Open sparred frame, a frame filled in with lattice- 
 work at short distances asunder. 
 
 Oriel, or bat/, window, 2 ' ; called also a compass 
 window. An oriel window is a projecting window 
 in an upper story ; a bay window is a similar one 
 on the ground floor, generally consisting of two 
 1^-^veled sides and a centre; and a bow window 
 is a projecting window, also on the ground floor, 
 but semicircular, or curvilinear. 
 
 Overlap, 154. 
 
 Oversailing, 459. 
 
 Overshot water-wheel, 1243. 
 
 Ovolo moulding, or egg-shaped, generally applied to 
 
 Doric columns. 
 Ovolo sash-bars, 84, 239, fig. 234, 
 
 Pair of grates, 988. 
 Palliasses, 663. 
 
 Paneled piers, piers having sunk panels. 
 
 Panels, sunk surfaces in frames. 
 
 Pantiles, hollow tiles, 114. 
 
 Paper carpets, 685. 
 
 Papin's digester, 1353. 
 
 Parapet, a dwarf wall or palisading. 
 
 Pargetted, 79, 234, 849. 
 
 Pa-^quetted, or inlaid, floors, floors laid with smaU 
 pieces of wood, fitted into each other in regular 
 figures, 2010. 
 
 Parting, 983. 
 
 Paste for papering rooms, ^c, 685. 
 Patent thread line, 675. 
 
 6 
 
 Patent windmill saiis, 1260. 
 Patera, 851. 
 
 Pavilion roof, a roof sloping or hipped 'equally on 
 
 all sides. 
 Pebble-dashed, 1435. 
 
 Pebble-pave, lay with small round stones. 
 Pediment roof, roof with a pediment at one end. 
 Pendants, fig. 181. 
 Penstock, 1241. 
 Penstones, 987. 
 Penthome, 238. 
 
 Pickling wheat, steeping it in salt and water. 
 Piece, a quantity of half-malted corn, 1262 and 1263. 
 Piends, 1216. 
 Pien-trees, 1102. 
 Piens of a roof, 935. 
 
 Pier, a pillar without any regular base or capital. 
 Pigeon-hole manner of building walls, 374, fig. 334. 
 Pilasters, rectangular pillars. 
 
 Pillar, an upright support of some regular figure in 
 
 the plan. 
 Pinacalheca, 1851. 
 Pine, as used by builder 
 Pining, 990. 
 Pinnacle, 99. 
 Pin-rail, 983. 
 Pisd walls, 25. 
 Pitched roof, 983. 
 Pitching yards, paving yards. 
 Pivot, 79e. 
 
 Planceer, 239, fig. 241. 
 Planishing, 2043. 
 Planted moulding, 983. 
 Plate, 1137. 
 Plateau glasses, Qll. 
 Platting-course, 1300. 
 Plinth, 64. 
 
 Ploughed and tongued, 478, fig. 422. 
 Pocket of hops, 1214:. 
 Pointed, 79. 
 
 Pointed Architecture, 1872. 
 Pointed perpendicular, 1884. 
 
 Poleplate, 168 ; a beam, or piece of timber, supported 
 on the ends of the tie-beams, or principal rafters 
 of a roof, over which are fixed the lower ends of 
 the common rafters. See fig. 142, m. 
 
 Polished pavement, 1778. 
 
 Polygonal nails, 551, fig. 477. 
 
 Portable legs, 651, fig. 678. 
 
 Post windmills, 1258. 
 
 Pi-ess bedsteads, 655. 
 
 Prime, 242. 
 
 Poudrette, 743. 
 
 Principal quarters, 83. 
 
 Principals, 983. 
 
 Profile chimney-pieces, 237. 
 
 Proper boxings, 239. 
 
 Proper door-cases, 84, 239. 
 
 Proper ledged door, 84, 239. 
 
 Pr operly gathered, 234. 
 
 Puddled. Puddle is a mixture of clayey loam and 
 water, well incorporated together ; and to puddle 
 is to place this material in a stratum in any posi- 
 tion where it will prevent water from penetrating 
 through. 
 
 Pug mill, 1291. 
 
 Pugging, 1806. 
 
 Pulborough stone, 1244. 
 
 Pulley rack, 669, fig. 707 
 
 Pulley stiles, 983. 
 
 Puncheons, 869. 
 
 Purlins, horizontal pieces of timber, supported by 
 
 the principal rafters of a roof. 
 Puxzle latch, 832. 
 
 Puzzolana, volcanic earth, or rather decomposed 
 lava, found near Naples. It consists of silica, 
 alumina, and oxide of iron ; and is used princi- 
 pally to form cement under water. 
 
 Pyramidal label, 1883. 
 
 Pyroligneous acid, acid extracted from wood. 
 
 Q. 
 
 Quarries of brick earth, square paving-tiles. 
 
 Quarries of glass, 213. 
 
 Quarry-stone, 248. 
 
 Queen-posts, the side-posts of a roof. 
 
 Quill of a fountain, 1975. 
 
 Quirk moulding. A quirk in a moulding signifies 
 
 a sharp turn. 
 Quoins, corners, 
 s 
 
1130 
 
 GLOSSARIAL INDEX. 
 
 R, 
 
 Rab and dab, 840. 
 
 Rabbet-heads of windows, or RibbeUheads, 282, fig. 
 
 J80, 262. 
 Rabbit hutches, 769. 
 Race for tail-water, 1244. 
 Rack and horse, 630, fig. 610. 
 Rack sides, 1103 
 Ragalets, 940. 
 Raggled, 1066. 
 Ragglings, 980. 
 
 Rails, the cross-pieces of a frame. 
 Raising plates, 983. 
 79. 
 
 Raking tones wall, 239. 
 Ramp, inclined plane, 1223. 
 
 Ramped cap, crossing to the partitions between the 
 
 stalls made sloping or curved, 752, fig. 779. 
 Random-jointed ashlar work, 185. 
 Rebated laths, 1222. 
 Reduced brickwork, 88. 
 Reduced stonework, 88. 
 Reed, 840. 
 Reever, 1314. 
 
 Refectory, a hall used in religious houses, such as 
 
 monasteries, &c., for dining in. 
 Register, 602. 
 
 Reigner work, ornaments made by inlaying wood in 
 the manner of buhl work, with leaves, &c., of dif- 
 ferent colours. 
 
 Render float, 235. 
 
 Render set, 80. 
 
 Reveals, 234, 238. 
 
 Ribbets,im. 
 
 Rick-funnel, 810. 
 
 Rick-stand, 809. 
 
 Riders, 1805. 
 
 Ridge and piece batten rods, 935. 
 Ridge-pieces, pieces to support the apex of the roof, 
 83. 
 
 Ridge-roll, 1301. 
 
 Ridge-spikes, nails wiun broad heads for fastening on 
 lead. 
 
 Ridges of flanks, 1170. 
 Rigger, 1398. 
 
 Riser, the upright part of a step, 84. 
 Rising-boards, 1242. 
 Rising cupboard, 1457. 
 
 Riveted, two pieces united by an iron pin oeing put 
 
 through them, and fastened on the other side. 
 Roacfi-bellied laths, 1277. 
 Rod.bolts, fig. 68. 
 Roller blinds, 673. 
 Rollers for a cider mill, 801. 
 Rolls, 1584. 
 Roman cement, 527. 
 Roofs pointed to the pin, 1351. 
 Rose window, 1883, fig. 1620. 
 Rough arches, 1075. 
 Rough wall-stone, 1758. 
 Roughcasting, 478. 
 Rounding the chimney-breast, 602. 
 Rubble stone, 57. 
 Rule joints, 84. 
 
 Run, as used by plasterers, 235. 
 
 Ritn, or lineal, measure, length in a straight line. 
 
 Run beams, 1214. 
 
 Run channels, 1206. 
 
 TJmw tree, 1103. 
 
 TZmm iu?YA Zearf, vacuities filled up with lead. 
 Rungs, 990. 
 
 Runner for a cider mill, 131 1. 
 Runners, 1586. 
 Russian roofs, 419. 
 
 Rustic work, rough stones of any kind. 
 Rusticated corners, 74. 
 Rusticated stones, 1926. 
 ^ftc/s, 911. 
 
 S. 
 
 Saddle.bars, 239. 
 Saddle cow-byres, 987. 
 Safe lintels, 1147. 
 Sa/fe o/a windmill, 1257. 
 Sand-dashing, 1435. 
 Sapwood, 238. 
 
 Sarking, thin boards for lining, &c ; also boarding 
 
 for slates, 983. 
 Saveall, 1443. 
 Scagliola, 200". 
 
 Scantlings, 238. In carpentry, scantlings signify the 
 breadth and thickness of pieces of timber : small 
 pieces of timber are also sometimes called scant- 
 lings. 
 
 Scappled, 939, 981. 
 
 Scarp of a terrace, 1917. 
 
 Scarsements, 1073. 
 
 Scoo/), 1315. 
 
 Scored, 185. 
 
 Screw gutter, 738 
 
 Scre?^; jom, 669. 
 
 Scribed, 1584. 
 
 Scunclieons, 929. 
 
 Second glass, 85. 
 
 Self-opening gate, 831. 
 
 Servant's house, 1109. 
 
 Sff flwrf rendered, 234. 
 
 Set back hinges, 553. 
 63& 
 
 Settlements, 234. 
 Settling-pits, 1206. 
 
 Shaker, part of a threshing-machine. 
 
 Shakes, 238. 
 Shaped columns, 625. 
 Sheepfolds, 766. 
 Shii-ldofalock, 624. 
 Shingles, wooden tiles, 103. 
 Shooter, 1309 and 1316. 
 
 .S'/!00/5, 85. 
 
 Shouldered. Slates are said to be shouldered when a 
 thick layer of mortar is put on the upper part of 
 a row of slates, to serve as a bed on which to lay 
 the next row. 
 
 Shouldered in haired lime, 1122. 
 
 Shutting point of agate, Sfc, 1112. 
 
 Side-arms, 1066. 
 
 Sills, or soles, large pieces of stone fixed in the lower 
 frames of windows, so as to project beyond the 
 wall. 
 
 Silvered plate glass, looking-glass, 2113. 
 
 Simple hollow, or splay, moulding, fig.. 1639. 
 
 Single rebated jambs, 239. 
 
 Sink, 467, fig. 416. 
 
 Sinking on collars, 1477. 
 
 Sizes fixed for bricks, 274. 
 
 Skeleton roofs, 766. 
 
 Skcwback, 79, 234. 
 
 Skewstones, 947. 
 
 Skirting, 84, 237. 
 
 Slabs of trees, 549. 
 
 Slate-boarding, boards placed on the roof, on which 
 to nail the slates : the same as sarking. 
 
 Slates are generally known by the following names, 
 the sizes of each description being annexed : 
 Doubles, 1 ft. by 6 in. ; Ladies, 1 ft. 3 in. by 8 in.; 
 Countesses, 1 ft. 8 in. by 11 in. ; Duchesses, 2 ft. 
 by 1 ft. ; Imperials, and patent slates, 2| ft. by 2 
 ft. ; and Welsh rags, and Queen's, 3 ft. by 2 ft. 
 See Wyatt's patent slates. 
 
 Slates rendered, 935. 
 
 Sleepers, 442. 
 
 Sleepy Water, 1975. 
 
 Slider, 627. 
 
 Sliding hatches, covers or shutters fitted in grooves. 
 
 Sliding shackle, 942. 
 
 Slip centres to arches, 249, fig. 245. 
 
 Slips, 82. 
 
 Slots, 1316. 
 
 Sluice, 1243. 
 
 Small couples, 920. 
 
 Smithy, forge. 
 
 Stnock windmill, 1259, 1250. 
 
 Snech, 990. 
 
 Soffits, 234, 239. 
 
 Sole tree, 1206. 
 
 Sorted in courses, 81. 
 
 Span of an arch, 79. 
 
 Spandrils for door-steps, 79, 237 j for staircase, 239, 
 fig. 241. 
 
 Spare home, place for a sick horse, &c. 
 
 Spark-plate, 799. 
 
 Sparrow pot, 550, fig. 468. 
 
 Spars, common rafters. 985. 
 
 Spars, 985. 
 
 Specification, 233. 
 
 Speif timber, 1064. 
 
 Spiked, 83. 
 
 Spit, spade. 
 
 Spits for drying haddocks or herrings, 139, 
 Spits, or broaches, 122. 
 Splashing walls, 542. 
 Splats, 2108. 
 
GLOSSARIAL INDEX. 
 
 1131 
 
 Splayed elbows, 239, fig. 237. 
 Splays, 79. 
 
 Spring roller for closing doors, fig. 274. 
 
 Spring stay irons, 84, 239, fig. 236. 
 
 Spurs, 1075. 
 
 Spur-wheel, 1100. 
 
 Square of slating, 90. 
 
 Square of carpenter's work, 860. 
 
 Stacked, horsed. 
 
 Staff heads, 239, fig. 243. 
 
 Stalks for chimneys, 935. 
 
 Stanchion bars, 239. 
 
 Standard, 445. 
 
 Standard grates, 981. 
 
 Standard rack, 753, figs. 783, 784. 
 
 Steening a well or cesspool, 79. 
 
 Stellsfor sheep, 766. 
 
 Stenciling, 578. 
 
 Step.flashing, 1589. 
 
 Stepped gable, 1890. 
 
 Stercoral, 743. 
 
 Stink-trap, 38. 
 
 Stirrer, 1313. 
 
 S/oc/r /ocA:5, 84, fig. 69. 
 
 Stone for a cider mill, 801. 
 
 Stone joggles, 1305. 
 
 iS/owe model, 1244. 
 
 tabling, 363, fig. 321. 
 Stones laid in random courses, 79. 
 Stones prepared, 79. 
 Stones properly headed, 79. 
 Stoothed, 925. 
 Stoothing, 925, 980. 
 S/op*, 239 
 
 iS^ore rearing pigs. 
 
 Storm-head tvindows, 455, fig. 386. 
 
 5^07-^ ;)os<5, posts supporting a building, 
 
 39, fig. 
 
 Stourbridge lumps, 599. 
 Straighted, 936. 
 Strap-irons, 1584. 
 
 String-course, horizontal band, 451. 
 
 String courses, 344. 
 
 String mouldings, 440, fig. 370. 
 
 Strings of the stairs, '235, figs. 241, 242. 
 
 Struts, pieces of timber which support the rafters, 
 
 and rest against the centre post of a roof. 
 Strutting-pieces, 238. 
 
 mortise, a mortise which does not pass through 
 
 the article mortised. 
 Stud-work, 133. 
 83. 
 
 Stu?np bedsteads, 654. 
 
 Styles, side vertical pieces of the frames of windows, 
 
 doors, &c. 
 Stylobate, 1833. 
 Subsills, 867. 
 Summer-stones, 209. 
 
 sz7/s, 84. 
 SmwA: thumb -sneck, 1104. 
 
 Superficial measure, measure in height and breadth, 
 987. 
 
 Surface-draining, 824. 
 Surplice pins, hat pins, 691. 
 Swag, 2130. 
 
 Swagged taper, 1477. 
 Swallow-cornered chimney top, 190. 
 Sw^ejo, 1246. 
 
 iSioz// cisterns, cisterns for containing wash, and 
 
 pig's meat. 
 Swill house, place for preparing pig's food. 
 Swimmings of barley, 1262. 
 Swing chair, 697. 
 Swing door, 765, fig. 801. 
 Swing hinges, 1112. 
 
 T hinges, 983. 
 
 Tabling stones, 455, figs. 378 to 385. 
 Tacks, small nails made of iron tinned. 
 Tacksman, 1053. 
 TaU-water, 1241. 
 Tfl/; ftoys, 432. 
 
 Tammy, a kind of coarse worsted stuflf, highly 
 glazed. 
 
 Tanks, square or oblong pits, lined with cement or 
 metal, &c., for holding water, liquid manure, &c. 
 Tar logic deals, "1066. 
 
 Tarras, a volcanic earth, used as cement : it is de- 
 
 composed basalt: it is found in Germany and 
 Sweden, and is sent to this country from Holland. 
 
 Taxxa, 148. 
 
 Telegraphs, 1543. 
 
 Templets, 868. 
 
 Tenons, 239. 
 
 Terrazxa, 1916. 
 
 Tessellated pavement, mosaic work composed of 
 
 small stones, &c., called tessellee, 2008. 
 Tethering stake, 1391. 
 
 Therm, a pedestal increasing upwards for the recep- 
 tion of a bust. 
 
 Thill, or tram, horse, the horse which is put between 
 the shafts of a cart or waggon. 
 
 Thorough, the space in which a water-mill works. 
 
 Three-barred doors, 1081. 
 
 Threshing-mill course, the circular space upon which 
 the horse walks when turning the gin wheel be- 
 longing to a threshing-machine. 
 
 Throughed, 1435. 
 
 Throated, 82, 237. 
 
 Ticken, 665. 
 
 Tie, a piece of timber or iron, acting as a string or 
 tie, to keep two things together which have a 
 tendency to fall asunder. 
 
 Tie-beams, 83. 
 
 Tie-rods, 420, figs. 351, and 354. 
 
 Tilters, 1584. 
 
 Tilting fillets, 83. 
 
 Tongued, 239. 
 
 Tontine system, 1568. 
 
 Ton weight, ship measurement, 510. 
 
 Tooled, 82, 237. 
 
 Top plates, wall plates. 
 
 Top stones, 1092. 
 
 Torched, 1302. 
 
 Torus moulding, a semicircle between two rectan- 
 gles, 239, fig. 240. 
 Towel horse, 692. 
 Tower windmill, 1259 and 1260. 
 Tracery, 1882, tig. 1617. 
 
 Transept. When a church is built in the form of a 
 
 cross, the two shorter limbs are called transepts. 
 Transom, a cross beam forming the horizontal bar 
 
 of a window in the Gothic or Elizabethan style. 
 Tread, the horizontal part of a step or stair. 
 Trap to water-closet, 464, fig. 413. 
 Trelliswork, reticulated or netlike framing, made 
 
 of thin bars of wood, and generally used as sup. 
 
 ports for verandas, &c. 
 Trenail, 1940, a wooden pin, or nail. 
 Tressel, 235. 
 
 Trevises 1070, or Travis, 1136. 
 Trimmed, 83, 
 Trimmer arches, 234. 
 Trimmers, 234. 
 
 Tripoli, a kind of stone used by lapidaries for po. 
 
 lishing jewels, 2007. 
 Truncated, cut off. 
 Trundle, or lantern, 1260. 
 Trunks, or tubes of boards, for ventilation, 750. 
 Tubular legs for chairs, 639, fig. 650. 
 Tumbler lock, 1585. 
 Turn latch, 602, fig. 543. 
 
 Turnpike staircase, 1909 ; a staircase wherethe stairs 
 wind round a central newel reaching from the top 
 to the bottom. ^ 
 
 Tympanum, 1577. 
 
 U. 
 
 Urate, 743. 
 
 Underground braces, 867, fig. 
 Under-racks, 1214. 
 Underpinned sills, 234. 
 Undershot water-ivheel, 1241. 
 Union joints, 1443. 
 
 Valley gutter, 1350. 
 Vanes, 1241. 
 Venetian blinds, 556. 
 Venetian frame, 1585. 
 Vents, 981. 
 
 Vej-ge slates, end slates, 83. 
 Verges, 849. 
 
 Vertical and horizontal bond. Vertical bond is a 
 course of bricks, stone, or other materials, tend- 
 ing to support or strengthen the building verti- 
 cally : horizontal bond is a similar course, tending 
 
1132 
 
 GLOSSARIAL INDEX. 
 
 to bind or tie together the building horizontally. 
 See fig. 326. 
 Vertical windmill, 1257. 
 
 Vestibule, an ante-hall, or lobby, or inner porch- 
 Voussoir, 805. 
 
 W. 
 
 WalUlocliS, 925. 
 Wall head tahlings, 939. 
 JVall.hold, 1100. 
 Walt-hooks, 85. 
 Wall-plates, horizontal pieces of wood laid on wall s 
 
 to support the rafters, 83. 
 Wall-straps, 925. 
 Wanes, 238. 
 Warnings, 1070. 
 Washed off, 1117. 
 Water-boxes, in Derbysliire, 1377. 
 Water-tables, or Weatherings, a species of ledge left 
 
 in walls at the place from which upwards the 
 
 thickness of the wall is diminished. 
 Water.tru7iks, 84. 
 Watcr.vergcd, 1117. 
 
 Wattled tvork, frames filled in with stakes or osier 
 
 twigs, interlaced in the manner of basket work. 
 Wai/s, 2.34. 
 
 Weather-boarding, feathcr-edged boards, lapped 
 and nailed on each other, ^o as to prevent wind 
 or rain passing tiirough. 
 
 Weather-tiling, tiles for covering walls, 459, figs. 
 392 to 402. 
 
 Weathered, 939. 
 
 Webbing, 630. 
 
 Welding, the union of two pieces of iron by heating 
 
 and hammering. 
 Wcll-holes, 234. 
 Well-seasoned timber, 853. 
 Welsh cornice, 459. 
 
 Welsh lumps, large bricks made of fire-clay, 599. 
 
 Wet larder, 1101. 
 Whinstones, 912. 
 
 Whitewash, 533 to 536, and from 570 to 572, 
 
 Wicker hurdJes, 1038. 
 Winders, 1586. 
 Wind-pinnings, 23-1. 
 Wind-shaft, 1260. 
 
 Windlass, wheel and pinion for raising weights. 
 Window boards, rounded, 84. 
 Window canopies, 561, figs. 496 to 500, 
 Window dressings, 1929. 
 Window frames, deal-cased, 84. 
 Window frames, properly bedded, 79 
 Windows, hung folding, 445. 
 Windsor chair, 639. 
 Wire blinds, 560. 
 
 Wirecloth, very fine latticework of wire. 
 
 Wire springs, 665. 
 
 Wire stays, 639, fig. 650 
 
 Wooden bricks, 83, 238. 
 
 Jl'oodeu model for a mill, 1244. 
 
 Wooden palisade, 16 lig. 134. 
 
 Working floors, 1262. 
 
 Worm tube, for heating wine, 1443. 
 
 Wyatt's patent slates. Wyatt was Architect to 
 George III. : he introduced a new mode cf slat- 
 ing with very large thin slates, laid on rafters of 
 much less elevation than any other kind of slating, 
 and with the breadth of the laps much less. Im- 
 perial slates are usually employed for this purpose, 
 as they have their lower edges sawn smooth, and 
 liave, consequently, a much neater appearance. 
 
 York landing, 1586. 
 
 Zostlra tnar)na, or sea.wrack grass, 650. 
 
 V 
 
FIRST 
 
 ADDITIONAL SUPPLEMENT 
 
 TO 
 
 LOUDON'S ENCYCLOPJIDIA 
 
 OP 
 
 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA AECHITECTURE 
 AND FUENITURE. 
 
 1842. 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 Page 
 
 Chap. I. 
 
 Cottages for Country Labourers and Mecha- 
 nics, and for Gardeners, Foresters, Bai- 
 liffs, and other upper out-of-door Servants 
 in the Country, inchiding Gate-I>odges 
 and Gates ( Encjjc. of Cottage Arch., p. 8.) 1135 
 Sect. I. Designs for Model Cottages {Encyc. 
 
 of Cottage Arch., p. 8.) - - - 1137 
 Subs. 1. Agriculturist's Model Cottage, No. L 1141 
 Subs. 2. Agriculturist's Model Cottage, No. 
 
 IL 1143 
 
 Subs. 3. Mechanic's Model Cottage - -114-5 
 Subs. 4. Placing the Model Cottages in Rows 1148 
 Subs. 5. Forming Combinations of Dwellings 
 
 of the humblest Class - - -1149 
 Sect. II. A Selection of Plans of Cottages 
 which have been erected in diflTerent Parts 
 of the Country - - - -1150 
 Sect. III. Miscellaneous Designs for Cottages 
 
 (chiefly ornamental) - _ _ n55 
 
 I. A Cottage, with ornamental Elevations, in 
 
 the Style of the ancient half-timbered 
 Houses of England - - - 1 155 
 
 II. A Gate-Lodge, combining a Stable in the 
 Swiss Style - - - - 1158 
 
 III. A Gate- Lodge and Gates - - - 1161 
 
 IV. A Gate-Lodge at Ravensworth Castle - 1162 
 
 V. A Cottage in the Style of the Wingfield 
 Station House, on the North Midland Rail- 
 way 1164 
 
 VI. A Cottage in the Style of the Eckington 
 Railway Station - - - - 1165 
 
 VII. A Cottage in the Modern Italian Style 1166 
 Vin. A Cottage in the Style of the Belper 
 
 Railway Station - - - - 1167 
 
 IX. A Cottage in the Style of the Ambergate 
 Railway Station - . _ - 1168 
 
 X. The Edensor Gate-Lodges and Gates at 
 Chats worth - - - - 1169 
 
 XI. to XIV. Four Ornamental Cottages, 
 with the same Accommodation as in the 
 Model Cottage, No. I., p. 1147. - - 1170 
 
 XV. A Cottage in the Style of Heriot's Hos- 
 pital, Edinburgh - - - - 1172 
 
 XVI. The Dairy Lodge, erected at Chequers 
 Court, Buckinghamshire, for Sir Robert 
 Frankland Russell, Bart. - - - 1173 
 
 i 
 
 Page 
 
 XVII. to XXVI. The Cottages in Cassiobury 
 
 Park 1176 
 
 XXVII. A Gate-Lodge or Cottage - -1178 
 
 XXVIII. A Turnpike Lodge - -1179 
 
 XXIX. A Cyclopean Cottage - - 1181 
 
 XXX. The Penshurst Gate-Lodge at Redleaf, 
 
 the Seat of William Wells, Esq. - - 1182 
 
 XXXI. The Home Lodge at Chequers Court 1183 
 
 XXXII. The Keeper's Lodge at Bluber- 
 houses . - _ . . 1184 
 
 XXXIII. A Cottage in the Gothic Style for 
 
 an upper Servant - - - - 1185 
 
 XXXIV. Double Cottages for two upper Ser- 
 vants - - - - - 1187 
 
 XXXV. A Cottage in the Old English Style 1188 
 Sect. IV. Construction and Materials of 
 
 Cottages - - - - - 1189 
 Sect.V. Cottage Fittings-up and Furniture 1189 
 Sect. VI. Village.s - - - - 1190 
 
 Chap. II. 
 
 Cottage Villas and Villas - - -1195 
 
 I. A Villa in the Swiss Style - - . 1195 
 
 II. A V^illa adapted for a Situation in the 
 Neighbourhood of Ayr - - - 1196 
 
 III. A small Villa in the Modern Style - 1197 
 
 IV. A small Villa for a Gentleman much 
 attached to Gardening - - - 1197 
 
 V. Annat Cottage, near Errol, Perthshire - 1199 
 
 VI. A Cottage in the Old English Style - 1200 
 
 VII. A small Roman Villa - - _ 1203 
 
 VIII. A Roman Villa, designed for a particu- 
 lar Situation - - - - 1204 
 
 IX. to XII. Small Villas in the Gothic Style 1205 
 
 XIII. Sir John Robison's House, Randolph 
 Crescent, Edinburgh - . _ 1207 
 
 XIV. A Land- Steward's House in the Neigh- 
 bourhood of Inverness . _ . 1215 
 
 XV. A Villa in the Italian Style - - 1217 
 
 XVI. A small Gothic Villa, suited to the 
 Suburbs of a large Town - - . 122a 
 
 XVII. An Anglo-Grecian Villa < - 1229 
 
 Chap. III. 
 
 Farm Buildings _ - _ . _ 1234 
 
 Chap. IV. 
 
 Schools, Inns, Workhouses, and Almshouses 1241 
 6 T 
 
1134 FIRST ADDITIONAL SUPPLEMENT. 
 
 Page 
 
 I. A School in the Italian Style - - 1241 
 
 II. Description and Specification, with De- 
 tails, of Dunchurch Sunday School - 1243 
 
 III. A Union Workhouse - - - 1249 
 
 IV. The Almshouses at Oving - - 1252 
 
 V. A Public- House - - - - 1253 
 
 VI. The Hand and Spear Hotel, at Wey- 
 bridge, Surrey . - . - 1254 
 
 Chap. V. 
 
 Details of Construction applicable to Cot- 
 tages, Farm Buildings, Villas, &c. - 1255 
 Sect. I. Foundations and Walls - - 1255 
 Sect. II. Roofs and Floors - - -1259 
 Sect. 111. Windows and Doors - - 1263 
 Sect. IV. Chimney-Tops and Smoky Chim- 
 neys 1268 
 
 Sect. V. Ventilation - - - - 1270 
 
 Page 
 
 Sect. VI. Tanks and Cottage Privies - 1272 
 
 Sect. VII. Construction and Arrangement of 
 
 a Bath Room - - - - 1273 
 Sect. VIII. Gates and Fences - - 1275 
 
 Sect. IX. Miscellaneous Details - - 1277 
 Sect. X. Materials ... - 1297 
 
 Chap. VI. 
 
 Fittings-up, Finishing, and Furnishing - 1281 
 Sect. I. Modes of Heating - - - 1281 
 Sect. II. Interior Fittings-up and Finishing 1282 
 Sect. III. Kitchen Fittings-up and Furniture 1286 
 Sect. IV. Bed-room Furniture - - 1291 
 Sect. V. Furniture for Living-Rooms - 1292 
 
 Chap. VII. 
 
 Hints to Proprietors desirous of improving 
 
 the Labourers' Cottages on their Estates 1293 
 
 ADDITIONAL LIST OF BOOKS QUOTED. 
 
 Arch. Mag., 2433. The Architectural Magazine. 
 ByJ. C. Loudon, F.L.S., H.S., &c. London, 
 5 vols., 1839. 
 
 Brit. Farm. Mag., 2.534. The British Farmer's 
 Magazine. London, 1842. Continued. 
 
 Combe's Principles of Physiology applied to the Pre- 
 servation of Health, 2A1^^. 1841. l2mo. 
 
 Diet, of Arts,^c., 2-1 17. A Dictionary of Arts, Ma- 
 nufactures, and Mines. By Andrew Lire, M.D. 
 London, 1839. 8vo. 
 
 Donaldson's Treatise on Manures, S(c., 2233. A 
 Treatise on Manures, their Nature, Prepara- 
 tion, and Application. With a Description and 
 Use of the most approved British Grasses. To 
 which is added a Miscellaneous Article on 
 Farming. By John Donaldson, Land- Steward. 
 London, 1842. 8vo. 
 
 Gard. Chron., 2349. The Gardener's Chronicle. 
 A weekly Journal . 4to, London, 1842. Con- 
 tinued. 
 
 Gard. Mag., 2327. The Gardener's Magazine. By 
 J. C. Loudon, F.L.S., H.S., &c. London, 1842. 
 17 vols. 8vo. Continued. 
 
 Gilly's Peasantry of the Border, ^c , 2233. The 
 Peasantry of the Border. An Appeal in their 
 Behalf. i3y the Rev. Dr. Gilly, Canon of Dur- 
 ham. 1841. Pamph., 8vo, 5 plates. 
 
 Gilpin's Cumberland, p. 1254. Observations on 
 several Parts of England, parti(!ularly the 
 Mountains and Lakes of Cumberland and W^est- 
 moreland. By William Gilpin, A.M. London, 
 1808. 2 vols. 8vo. 
 
 The Grainer's Guide, 2520. By Charles Moxon. 
 Edinburgh, 1842. fol. 2/. 2s. 
 
 Hakewell's Attempt to determine the exact Charac- 
 ter of Elizabethan Architecture, 2308. 1835. 
 8vo. 
 
 History of Cassiobury Park, 2313. The History and 
 Description, with Graphic Illustrations, of Cas- 
 siobury Park, Hertfordshire. The Seat of the 
 Earl of Essex. By John Britton, F.S.A. Lon- 
 don, 1837. folio. 
 
 Minutes of the Committee of Council on Education, 
 p. 1241. London, 1840. folio. 
 
 Parker's Villa Rustica,p. 1241. 1842. 4to. 
 
 Proceedings of the British Association for 1838. 
 2442. 8vo. 
 
 Pugin's Christian Architecture, 2327. The true 
 Principles of Pointed, or Christian, Architec- 
 ture. By A. Welby Pugin, Architect. Lon- 
 don, 184). 4to. 
 
 Railway Stations, 2299. By Francis Thompson, 
 Architect. London, 1842. folio. 25s. 
 
 Ricauti's Rustic Architecture, 2278. By T. J. Ri- 
 cauti. Architect. London. 4to. 1840. 
 
 Sanitory Report of the Poor-Law Commissioners, 
 2233. London, 1842. 8vo. 
 
 Stuart's Diet, of Arch., 2283. A Dictionary of 
 Architecture. By Robert Stuart, Architect 
 and Civil Engineer. London. 3 vols. 8vo. 
 
 Suburban Architect, Sfc, 2474. The Suburban 
 Architect and Landscape-Gardener. By J. C. 
 Loudon, F.L.S., H.S., &c. London, 1838. 
 8vo. 
 
 Suburban Horticulturist, 2297. The Suburban 
 Horticulturist. By J. C. Loudon, F.L.S., 
 H.S.,&c. London, 1842. 8vo. 15s. 
 
 The London Farmer's Magazine, p. 1234. London, 
 1839. 8vo. Continued. 
 
 Trans. Ent. Soc, 2528. Transactions of the En- 
 tomological Society. 1839. 8vo. Continued. 
 
 Trans. Inst. Brit. Arch., 2446. Transactions of 
 the Institution of British Architects. London, 
 vol. i. 4to. Continued. 
 
 LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS. 
 
 ja— , c — , p. iu». 
 
 Curtis, John, Esq., West Rudham, near Rough am, 
 
 Norfolk, p. 1258. and 1263. 
 Dobson, John, Esq., Newcastle upon Tyne. p. 
 
 1186, 1187. 1188. 
 Donaldson, John, Land-Steward, Genwysk, Pont 
 
 Lenny, near lirecon. p. 1234. 
 Eales, C, Esq., Architect, London, p. 1249. 
 E. B. p. 1269. 
 
 Elliott, John, Esq., Architect, Chichester, p. 1252. 
 
 F. H. p. 1161. 
 
 G, B. IV. p. 1178. 
 
 Gorrie, Archibald, F.H.S., &c., Land-Steward, 
 Annat, near Errol, Perthshire, p. 1199. and 
 1269. 
 
 iTo!^,!)./?., Esq., George's St., Edinburgh, p. 1215. 
 Henderson, John, Esq., Architect, 16. London 
 
 Street, Edinburgh, p. 1172. 
 Hunt, Mr. Joseph, Ironmonger, Derby, p. 1288. 
 /. M. p. 1279. 
 
INTRODUCTION. 
 
 1135 
 
 J. R. p. 1268. 
 
 Lamb, Edward Buxton, Esq., F.I.B.A., Archi- 
 tect, 10. Burton Crescent, London, p. 1170, 
 1171. '1173. 1183, 1184. 1195, 1196, 1197- 1203, 
 1204, 1205, 1206. 1215. 1217. 1223. 1229. 
 
 Liddell, Hon. Thomas, Ravensworth Castle, near 
 Durham, p. 1163. 
 
 Menteath, James Stuart, Esq., Closeburn, Dura- 
 friesshire. p. 1151. 
 
 Milne, John, Esq., Architect, Princes Street, 
 Edinburgh, p. 1207. 
 
 Parker, Charles, Esq., F.I.B.A., Architect, Tavis- 
 took Street, Bedford Square, London, p. 1241. 
 
 Uicauti, T. J., Esq., Architect, 22. Duke Street, 
 Portland Place, London, p. 1155. 
 
 Robertson, John, Esq., Architect, Chatsworth, p, 
 
 1162. and 1200. 
 S. p. 1284. 
 S. T. p. 1263. 
 
 Thompson, Francis, Esq., Architect, Market-Place, 
 
 Derby, p. 1164, 1165, 1166, 1167, and 1168. 
 T. W. p. 1268. 
 
 Varden, R., Esq., Architect, Worcester, p. 1158. 
 Wild, J. W., Esq., Architect, 130. Piccadilly, Lon- 
 
 don. p. 12.53. 
 Wilds, W., Esq., Architect, Hertford, p. 1261. 
 Wilson. Thomas, Esq., The Banks, near Barnsley. 
 
 p. 1145. 
 
 Wood, Frederick, Esq., Architect, Rugby, p. 1243. 
 W. T. p. 1263. 
 
 INTEODUCTION. 
 
 Since the publication of this Encyclopsedia, in 1833, we have carefully watched the 
 progress made in the knowledge and practice of the subjects of which it treats, in order 
 to add to our stock of ideas with a view to a new edition, or a Supplement. For this 
 purpose we commenced the Architectural Magazine in 1834, and continued it for five 
 years, recording in it a variety of information, not only on the subjects embraced by 
 this Encyclopaedia, but on every other department of architecture, public as well as 
 private, with the view of rendering architecture a popular study. Though we gave up 
 the Architectural Magazine in 1839, yet we have been ever since not less eager in col- 
 lecting materials for this Supplement, We have examined all the recent publications 
 which bear on the- subject, including the Sanitary Beport of the Poor Law Commis- 
 sioners iwst published ; and we have inspected a great many cottages, villas, farmeries, and 
 schools, in different parts of England and Scotland. We have had designs of cottages 
 and villas submitted to us for criticism and amendment from all parts of the country, 
 and even from North America and Australia ; and we have been in the constant habit 
 of receiving architectural communications from professional friends and correspondents, 
 more especially since we announced, above a year ago, our intention of bringing out 
 this Supplement. From the great abundance of materials thus brought before us, we 
 have made a careful selection, which we have arranged under the heads of — 1. Cot- 
 tages for Labourers and Mechanics; 2. Cottage Villas and Villas ; 3. Farmeries; and 
 4. Schools, Public-houses, Union Work-houses, and Alms-houses. We have added, 5. 
 a chapter on Construction and Materials ; 6. one on Fittings- up, Finishing, and Furni- 
 ture, generally applicable ; and 7. one containing Hints to Proprietors desirous of 
 improving the Labourers' Cottages on their Estate ; and we have given a new General 
 Index, including in it the body of the work as well as the Supplement. 
 
 We have numbered the paragraphs in continuation from the last paragraph in the 
 Encyclopaedia, for the sake of uniformity both in the text and the Index ; and we have 
 frequently referred to paragraphs and pages in the body of the work, in which the same 
 subjects are treated of, for details which it would have been superfluous to repeat. 
 
 Chap. I. 
 
 Cottages for Country Labourers and Mechanics, and for Gardeners, Foresters, Bailiffs, and 
 other upper out-of-door Servants in the Country including Gate- Lodges and Gates. 
 (Encyc. of Cott. Arch., p. 8.) 
 
 2233. (1336. to 1341.) Present State of Labourers' Cottages. Instead of adding any 
 remarks of our own to those already given in the Encyclopaedia, on the present state of 
 labourers' cottages, or the benefits to labourers and to the country generally from 
 improving them, we give the following extracts from a recent pamphlet, entitled The 
 Peasantry of the Border, &c., by the Rev. Dr. Gilly, Vicar of Norham, in Northumber- 
 
 6 T 2 
 
1136 FIRST ADDITIONAL SUPPLEMENT. 
 
 land (1841), from the Sanitary Report of the Poor Law Commissioners (1842), and from 
 a recent work on Manures and Farming by Mr. Donaldson. We give these extracts 
 to prove to the reader the great necessity of improvement in the cottage of the la- 
 bourer, and more especially of the agricultural labourer. 
 
 " The general character of the best of the old-fashioned hinds' cottages in this neigh- 
 bourhood [Norham, on the banks of the Tweed, not far from Berwick] is bad at the 
 best. They have to bring every thing with them ; partitions, window-frames, fixtures 
 of all kinds, grates, and a substitute for ceiling ; for they are, as I have already called 
 them, mere sheds. They have no byre for their cows, no sties for their pigs, no pumps 
 or wells, nothing to promote cleanliness or comfort. The average size of these sheds is 
 about twenty-four feet by sixteen feet. They are dark and unwholesome. The windows 
 do not open, and many of them are not larger than twenty inches by sixteen inches. 
 And into this space are crowded eight, ten, and even twelve persons. How they lie 
 down to rest, how they sleep, how they can preserve common decency, how unutterable 
 horrors are avoided, is beyond all conception. The case is aggravated when there is a 
 young woman to be lodged in this confined space, who is not a member of the family, 
 but is hired to do the field-work, for which every hind is bound to provide a female. It 
 shocks every feeling of propriety to think that in a room, and within such a space as I 
 have been describing, civilised beings should be herding together without a decent 
 separation of age and sex. So long as the agricultural system, in this district, requires 
 the hind to find room for a fellow-servant of the other sex in his cabin, the least that 
 morality and decency can demand is, that he should have a second apartment, where 
 the unmarried female and those of a tender age should sleep apart from him and his 
 wife." {The Peasantry, he, \i. 20.) 
 
 The agricultural labourers' cottages in Bedfordshire, according to the Sanitary 
 Report, are not much better. " If we follow the agricultural labourer into his miserable 
 dwelling, we shall find it consisting of two rooms only. The day-room, in addition to 
 the family, contains the cooking utensils, the washing apparatus, agricultural imple- 
 ments, and dirty clothes, the windows broken and stuffed full of rags. In the sleeping- 
 apartment the parents and their children, boys and girls, are indiscriminately mixed, 
 and frequently a lodger sleeping in the same and only room ; generally no window, the 
 openings in the half-thatched roof admit light, and expose the family to every vicissi- 
 tude of the weather : the liability of the children so situated to contagious maladies 
 frequently plunges the family into the greatest misery. The husband, enjoying but 
 little comfort under his own roof, resorts to the beer-shop, neglects the cultivation of 
 his garden, and impoverishes his family. The children are brought up without 
 any regard to decency of behaviour, to habits of foresight or self-restraint ; they 
 make indifferent servants. The girls become the mothers of bastards, and return home a 
 burden to their parents or to the parish, and fill the workhouse. The boys spend the 
 Christmas week's holiday and their year's wages in the beer-shops, and enter upon their 
 new situation in rags. Soon tired of the restraint imposed upon them under the roof 
 of their master, they leave his service before the termination of the year's engagement, 
 seek employment as day-labourers, not with a view of improving their condition, but 
 with a desire to receive and spend their earnings weekly in the beer- shop ; associating 
 with the worst of characters, they become the worst of labourers, resort to poaching, 
 commit petty thefts, and add to the county rates by commitments and prosecutions. " 
 (p. 178.) 
 
 The same writer gives the following picture of an improved cottage : — 
 " On entering an improved cottage, consisting, on the ground floor, of a room for 
 the family, a wash-house, and a pantry, and three sleeping-rooms over, with a neat and 
 well cultivated garden, in which the leisure hours of the husband being both pleasantly 
 and profitably employed, he has no desire to frequent the beer- shop, or spend his evenings 
 from home; the children are trained to labour, to habits and feelings of independence, and 
 tauo-ht to connect happiness with industry, and to shrink from idleness and immorality : 
 the girls make good servants, obtain the confidence of their employers, and get pro- 
 moted to the best situations." In short, as another Bedfordshire writer observes, in 
 the same Report, the cottager feels that he is somewhat raised in the scale of society. 
 He sees his wife and family more comfortable than formerly ; he rises in respectability 
 of station, and becomes aware that he has a character to lose. Having acquired these 
 important advantages, he is anxious to retain and improve them. (p. 177.) On the 
 other hand, " a man who comes home to a poor comfortless hovel, after his day's 
 labour, and sees all miserable around him, has his spirits more often depressed than 
 excited by it. He feels that, do his best, he shall be miserable still, and is too apt to 
 fly for a temporary refuge to the ale-house or beer-shop. But give him the means of 
 making himself comfortable by his own industry, and T am convinced, by experience, 
 that, in many cases, he will avail himself of it." (p. 178.) 
 
DESIGNS FOR MODEL COTTAGES. 
 
 1137 
 
 Speaking of the cottages in the improved districts of Scotland and the North of 
 England, Mr. Donaldson, in his excellent work on Manures and Farming (London, 
 8vo, 1842), expresses a hope that improvement, now so general in every department 
 of rural economy, will soon be extended to them. " The square space," he says, 
 " forming one apartment, huddling together a numerous family as in a penfold, con- 
 stitutes a blot of no small magnitude in the social economy of those northern counties 
 where the genius of agriculture has been truly said to have fixed its chosen residence. 
 The accommodations provided for the farmer and the farm stock have formed a most 
 marked, and it may be added, a very discreditable contrast with the habitations pro- 
 vided for the labourers, without whom the former could not exist. The arrangement 
 of the dining and the drawingroom has engaged the attention of the farmer ; the skill 
 of the architect has been employed in erecting convenient accommodations for the 
 poultry and the pigs, the gig and the saddle horse, while any hovel is reckoned suffi- 
 cient for the labourer ; the moving power, the sinew and strength of every active 
 employment. Any improvements in cottage accommodations have mainly arisen from 
 the manufacturing class ; and wherever the number of tiiat class is greater, there the 
 country is richer, and the social condition improved in every respect ; for a purely- 
 agricultural district is ever a poor one for the labourers. Payment of wages partly in 
 produce is preferable for resident country labourers ; and a garden, and accommodation 
 for cow and pig, will add much to their comfort." ( Treatise on Manures, Sfc, p. 384.) 
 
 Though we are convinced that the only permanent security for the amelioration of 
 the lowest classes is to be found in enlightening and elevating their minds by education, 
 yet, as this can only apply to the rising generation, or rather perhaps, in this country 
 at least, to a generation yet unborn, the existing race can only be benefited by the 
 humanity and kindness of those of their employers who are men of wealth. The 
 unhappy unsettled habits of common British labourers, whether in agriculture or in ma- 
 nufactures, which, we believe, far exceeds anything of the kind which exists in any other 
 country, can only be changed by something which will induce them to forego a present 
 enjoyment for a future good ; and, in the present state of things in this country, we 
 know no way in which this can be so easily done, as by arranging so as that every 
 married country labourer may occupy a comfortable cottage and garden. 
 
 We shall arrange this chapter under the heads of — 1. Designs for Model Cottages. 
 2. Select Cottages erected. 3. Miscellaneous Designs partly erected. 4. Details 
 of Construction. 5. Cottage Fittings-up and Furniture ; and 6. Villages. 
 
 Sect. L Designs for Model Cottages. (Encyc. of Cott. Arch., p. 8.) 
 
 2234. (13.) The model cottages given in the body of the work are to be regarded 
 as exhibiting the beau-ideal of the accommodation and comfort which a building of the 
 humblest class may be made to supply : those which we are now about to submit are 
 progressive in accommodation ; and in the lowest of them there is absolutely nothing 
 that can be omitted without destroying the comfort of the occupant, and, in short, 
 reducing the accommodation to that afforded by those wretched Northumbrian 
 hovels, so feelingly described by the Rev. Dr. Gilly. We have given two fundamental 
 models : one calculated for agricultural labourers, and especially ploughmen, who, in 
 many parts of the country, keep a cow and pig, and have a garden of from one eighth to 
 one sixth of an acre ; the other calculated for working mechanics, living in outskirts of 
 towns or in villages, who are supposed seldom to keep a cow, though sometimes a pig, 
 but who, generally, in addition to a cottage, occupy a piece of garden ground of from 
 an eighth to a sixth of an acre, or more. 
 
 2235. The Cow-house and Pigsty. Many persons object to having these appen- 
 dages near a dwelling, as tending to render it unhealthy, from damp, smells, &c. ; but 
 practically, where the construction and management, and especially the drainage, 
 are good, we consider the objections as unimportant. On the Continent, where 
 the summers are much warmer than in England, the smell of a stable or a pigsty, 
 when under the same roof as the cottager's dwelling, is often a nuisance : but this is 
 chiefly when they are entered by the same door as the living-rooms ; for, when they 
 are entered at different doors at some distance apart, the case is totally different, more 
 especially in our comparatively cool climate. As a proof of this, we may refer to those 
 agricultural districts where the cottages, cow-houses, pigsties, &c., are properly con- 
 structed, and placed; as, for example, the Earl of Leicester's estates in Norfolk. 
 The agricultural labourers, in many parts of Scotland and the North of England, 
 are allowed the keep of a cow as a part of their wages. In the summer season the 
 cow is generally grazed in the fields along with those of the master, and sometimes 
 (and this we consider the best mode) the winter keep is given along with that of the 
 master's cows. In this last case no cow-house is required as an appendage to the 
 agriculturist's cottage. There are, however, many cases in which the master allows 
 
1138 
 
 FIRST ADDITIONAL SUPPLEMENT. 
 
 the ploughman so much food for the winter's keep of his cow ; and there are, besides, 
 a numerous class in agricultural districts who look upon a cow as essential to the 
 comfort of their families. Under these various circumstances, therefore, we have con- 
 sidered it advisable to provide a cow-house to this class of our model cottages. 
 
 2236. Pigs, Rabbits, and Poultry. Wherever there is a garden there is always a 
 quantity of refuse, and though this, with the waste of the family, will not fatten a pig, 
 yet it will keep it in a growing state ; and, when full-grown, corn, beans, or meal, may 
 be purchased for fattening it. At all events, if it will not keep a pig it will keep 
 rabbits. (§ 769. and 1394.) Poultry may almost always be kept by the cottager; and, 
 to derive the greatest advantage from it by having eggs in the winter season, the poultry- 
 house should always be in a warm situation. (See § 1329.) 
 
 2237. General Arrangement. In the models we have supposed the cottages to be 
 placed on platforms, raised eighteen inches above the natural surface, to insure dryness ; 
 and the floors of the yards behind we have supposed to be raised one foot, for the same 
 purpose. The terrace or platform may, however, be dispensed with, provided the floor 
 of the house be raised suflSciently high by any other means; in which case three or 
 four steps must be placed as an ascent to the door of the porch. When there is a plat- 
 form, the door in the porch of the house is ascended by a half step of three inches, and 
 the back door by a full step of six inches. The aspect of the porch is supposed to 
 be south or south-east, as the best aspects, or, as the next best, south-west ; the object 
 being that a north and south line should form a diagonal to the square or parallelogram 
 formed by the general mass of building ; in consequence of which (as observed § 124.) 
 the sun will shine on every side of the house during a portion of every day on which he 
 appears. Three aspects are mentioned, in order that the one may be adopted which may 
 be most suitable to the direction of the road near which the cottage is placed ; the pre- 
 ference, however, should always be given to the south-east when practicable, as the 
 wind, in most parts of Great Britain, blows seldomer from that quarter than from any 
 other, and when it does blow it is always warm. The south-west is a boisterous quar- 
 ter, and should only be had recourse to when it is necessary in order to obtain a diagonal 
 to the plan which shall be a south and north line. We wish it to be distinctly under- 
 stood, that it forms no part of our plan to have either the front or the back of the 
 cottage next to, and parallel with, the road ; on the contrary, we prefer, in almost every 
 case of single cottages, to have next the road an angle of the building, by which the 
 views across the road will be oblique instead of being direct ; as the former, in every 
 case, exhibits a longer perspective, which must consequently contain a greater number 
 of objects. The grand point to be attended to in putting down every cottage, single 
 or double, ought to be to have the diagonal to the main building a south and north 
 line. This rule ought to be considered as absolute. 
 
 The floors of the models have all a gentle inclination, from the front door to the back 
 door, of about three inches, so that no water can stand on any part of them ; and the 
 yards all slope to the tank for liquid manure, which is so low as to receive all the water 
 of the yard. An underground drain surrounds the house and yard, three or four feet 
 from the walls, as well for the purpose of cutting off the overflowings of the well or 
 rain-water tank, as for keeping the floor of the house quite dry. To avert damp 
 from the surface of the platform on which the house stands, and also of the back yard, 
 gutters are fixed all round the eaves of the roof of the house ; by which the water fall- 
 ing on it is collected and filtered, by some of the simple modes shown in the Ency- 
 clopaedia (§ 30. and 305.), or by a still more simple mode which will be described 
 hereafter, into a tank or well, from which it is drawn up by a pump placed in the back- 
 kitchen, close to the sink. From the sink, which has a bell-trap to prevent the 
 rising of smells, there may be a small drain or earthenware pipe to the liquid-manure 
 tank ; but a simpler and better mode is to have a tub or pail beneath the sink-stone, 
 for collecting the water, which renders it obligatory to carry it from time to time direct 
 to the privy, where it is necessarily poured through the pan into the liquid-manure 
 tank, thereby making certain of keeping the pan constantly clean and not losing any 
 of the liquid. The liquid is to be drawn from the tank by means of a well close to it, 
 eighteen inches square, and of the same depth as the tank, and covered with a stone in 
 which is a bell-trap to admit the water from the yard. When the liquid is to be 
 taken up, this stone or lid must be taken off, and the liquid lifted by dipping a vessel 
 into it ; but the best mode is to have a pump in one angle of the well. Between the 
 tank and the well there is an iron grating to prevent the escape from the tank of 
 grosser impurities. It may be built of brick or stone, and either arched over, leaving 
 a man-hole to be covered with a stone, or it may be covered with flag-stone; in either 
 case covering the whole with a layer of earth, to prevent the possibility of the escape 
 of smells. This tank will be described in detail in a future chapter. 
 
 The pit for solid manure may be four feet deep, and, if it be thought necessary, it may 
 
DESIGNS FOR MODEL COTTAGES. 
 
 1139 
 
 be covered with a boarded shutter, hinged at half its width, which can be kept closely 
 shut at all times, except when manure is being put in or taken out. 
 
 The principal difficulty which we feel we shall have with the cottager will be in 
 convincing him of the importance of the liquid manure tank. We consider the liquid 
 manure of a cottage as decidedly of more value to the garden than all the solid manure 
 which the cottager is likely to be able to collect ; and, therefore, in our opinion, wherever 
 there is a garden to a cottage, there ought to be a liquid manure tank. 
 
 2238. The Accommodation in the model designs varies from three to six rooms ; one 
 or more of these rooms in the latter case being intended as a working-place for village 
 mechanics, such as a tailor, shoemaker, weaver, &c. Besides these living and working 
 rooms, there are, in each cottage, a small back-kitchen or wash-house, a pantry, a place 
 for fuel, &c. ; and in the agricultural cottages, except the lowest in the scale, a dairy 
 and a pigsty. We have so arranged that the living-rooms in all the cottages may be 
 heated by flues under the floor, proceeding from an oven or furnace in an outbuilding. 
 We are aware that we shall have great difficulty in getting this arrangement adopted, 
 but we introduce it because we consider it by far the most economical mode of applying 
 fuel when that material is scarce, and, in particular, the only mode in which faggot- 
 wood, slender branches, or spray, can be made the most of. This we have shown in the 
 Encyclopaedia, in § 34. and 35., p. 17. At the same time there are open fireplaces in 
 the usual manner, to be used in conjunction with this mode of heating, or exclusive of 
 it, for those by whom it is not approved of. Such persons, therefore, will merely con- 
 sider the furnace to the flue as an oven for occasional use for baking ; or, if the place is 
 used as a poultry-house, for which it is well adapted, for communicating warmth to it. 
 
 2239. Construction. The materials with which these cottages may be constructed are 
 not limited to any particular kind or kinds. Whatever is most abundant or cheapest in 
 the locality where the cottage is to be built will be most suitable. In Britain, the most 
 general material for walls is stone, and for covering roofs thatch. We have, therefore, 
 shown the walls of sufficient thickness for being built of rubble stone ; but if, in any 
 part of the coiintry, brick should be found cheaper, hollow walls of that material (see 
 p. 25. 336. and 374.) may be adopted; or, in those parts of the country where the con- 
 struction of cob walls, or walls of clay lumps, is properly understood and practised, no 
 material can be better for cottages of this description. The roofs of most of the models 
 we have supposed to be covered with thatch ; because that material is found every 
 where, and because in the common mode of putting it on by the use of layers of turves, 
 instead of sewing, and by using turves also for the ridges and hips, it is both cheap and 
 durable. We have known many roofs of this kind in Scotland which have lasted the 
 length of a farmer's lease (nineteen or twenty-one years) without any repairs : the sur- 
 face of the thatch becoming covered with growing moss excludes air and moisture, and 
 prevents decomposition. In many parts of England, particularly in Sussex, instead of 
 thatch, the chips made in working up coppice-wood, with or without spray, are used ; 
 and this makes a warm and durable roof, which might, perhaps, be rendered still more 
 durable by steeping the chips in lime-water, or in Burnett's or some other preserv- 
 ative solution. The great advantage of roofs of thatch, chips, spray, or heath (which 
 forms a common and most durable roof in the Highlands of Scotland), is, that they 
 retain the heat of the rooms in winter, and exclude that of the sun in summer : but one 
 disadvantage is their liability to be consumed by fire, which, however, rarely happens ; 
 and another, that, in the case of straw roofs, a quantity of material is lost, which might 
 otherwise have been converted into manure. Those who disapprove of thatch may use 
 tiles or slates, with a ceiling parallel to the sides of the roof about eighteen inches 
 within it, so as to form, as it were, a double roof, which will, to a certain extent, 
 answer the same purpose as a roof of thatch. The floors should slope gradually, that 
 is, at the rate of one inch to seven feet, from the entrance porch, which should be the 
 highest point, to the outer door of the back kitchen, which ought to be the lowest ; in 
 order that, when they are washed with a mop, the water may run before the operator, in 
 whatever part of the house she may commence, towards the back door. The floors of 
 the upper rooms may either be laid with boards, or with a composition of lime and 
 clay, or lime and ashes, beaten smooth, in the manner to be hereafter described. This 
 kind of bed-room floor is not uncommon in the East of England, particularly in Nor- 
 folk and Huntingdonshire, and also in Staffordshire. The height of the rooms on the 
 ground floor should not be less than nine feet, nor should those in the roof be less in the 
 middle, though at the sides they need not be more than five or six feet. The windows, 
 where economy is the object, may be of cast iron, and either of the form used at Belper, 
 or that recommended by the Highland Society of Scotland, both of which will be de- 
 scribed in the chapter (v. ) on construction. 
 
 2240. The Elevations to the models are wholly without ornament, unless facings 
 or architraves to the doors and windows, a plinth to the walls, and a cornice to the 
 
1140 FIRST ADDITIONAL SUPPLEMENT. 
 
 chimney tops can be considered as such ; but we have given some ornamental elevations 
 to the same plans, and others to plans having the same amount of accommodation. 
 
 2241. The Gardens we have shown as surrounding the cottages ; being convinced 
 that a garden does not afford half the enjoyment to the possessor, when it is separated 
 from his dwelling, that it does when attached to and surrounding it ; and that, though 
 those portions of ground called cottage allotments are better than no garden at all, 
 yet they are, and ever will be, very far from answering the end of gardens at- 
 tached to dwellings. We have shown the garden to each cottage surrounded by a hedge, 
 which ought generally to be seven feet high for the sake of privacy ; and we have shown 
 it cut architecturally, because we think the cottager ought to be encouraged by 
 every means to show his taste in and about his garden, so as to win applause for his 
 exertions. Indeed, we are of opinion that all garden hedges that are cut or clipped 
 into regular forms ought to have piers at the angles and openings, and sometimes even 
 pilasters at regular distances, terminating in balls or other forms : in other cases there 
 may be arcades, open or recessed, and ornamented by verdant vases, or other objects 
 that can be readily formed in living materials, at no other expense than that of a little 
 labour with the hedge-shears. The planting, cropping, and culture of the garden, we 
 think, should in general be left to the cottager, as otherwise he cannot lake sufficient 
 interest in it ; assisting him with fruit trees, seeds, and ornamental plants, and with 
 advice, or a suitable gardening book, if he require it. The extent of garden ground, 
 in all ordinary cases, need not exceed one sixth of an acre, including the space occupied 
 by the house and court-yard. A greater space than the sixth of an acre a labourer 
 who has nearly constant employment cannot properly manage ; and even this space, 
 unless he has a large family, will admit of his occasionally producing articles for sale, 
 whether vegetables, fruits, flowers, seedling plants, or seeds. We have shown, in the 
 model designs, the gardens surrounded by hedges, as being cheaper than any other 
 kind of fence ; but we greatly prefer walls, as affording an opportunity of covering 
 them with fruit trees and ornamental plants, and as not exhausting the soil. 
 
 2242. The essential Requisites for a comfortable labourer's cottage may be thus 
 summed up : — 
 
 1. The cottage should be placed alongside a public road, as being more cheerful than 
 a solitary situation ; and in order that the cottager may enjoy the applause of the public 
 when he has his garden in good order and keeping. 
 
 2. The cottage should be so placed that the sun may shine on every side of it every 
 day throughout the year, when he is visible. For this reason, the front of the cottage 
 can only be parallel to the public road in the case of roads in the direction of north- 
 east, south-west, north-west, and south-east ; in all other cases the front must be placed 
 obliquely to the road, which, as we have previously shown, is greatly preferable to having 
 the front parallel to the road. (See § 2237.) 
 
 3. Every cottage ought to have the floor elevated, that it may be dry ; the walls 
 double or hollow, or battened, or not less than eighteen inches thick, that they may 
 retain heat ; with a course of slate or flagstone, or tiles bedded in cement, six inches 
 above the surface, to prevent the rising of damp ; the roof thick, or double, for the sake 
 of warmth ; and projecting eighteen inches or two feet at the eaves, in order to keep the 
 walls dry, and to check the radiation of heat from their exterior surface. 
 
 4- In general, every cottage ought to be two stories high, so that the sleeping-rooms 
 may not be on the ground floor, and the ground-floor ought not to be less than from 
 six inches to one foot above the outer surface. 
 
 5. The minimum of accommodation ought to be a kitchen or living-room, a back- 
 kitchen or wash-house, and a pantry, on the ground floor, with three bed-rooms over ; 
 or two rooms and a wash-house on the ground floor, and two bed-rooms over. 
 
 6. Every cottage, including its garden, yard, &c., ought to occupy not less than one 
 sixth of an acre ; and the garden ought to surround the cottage, or at all events to ex- 
 tend both before and behind. In general, there ought to be a front garden and a back 
 yard ; the latter being entered from the back-kitchen, and containing a privy, liquid- 
 manure tank, place for dust and ashes, and place for fuel. 
 
 7. If practicable, every cottage ought to stand singly and surrounded by its garden ; 
 or, at all events, not more than two cottages ought to be joined together. Among other 
 important arguments in favour of this arrangement, it may be mentioned, that it is the 
 only one by which the sun can shine every day on every side of the cottage. When 
 cottages are joined together in a row, unless that row is in a diagonal direction, with 
 reference to a south and north line, the sun will shine chiefly on one side. By having 
 cottages singly or in pairs, they may always be placed along any road, in such a manner 
 that the sun may shine on every side of them ; provided the point be given up of 
 having the front parallel to the road ; a point which, in our opinion, ought not for a 
 moment to be put in competition with the advantages of an equal diffusion of sunshine. 
 
DESIGNS FOR MODEL COTTAGES. 
 
 1141 
 
 8. Every cottage ought to have an entrance porch for containing the labourer's 
 tools, and into which, if possible, the stairs ought to open, in order that the bed-rooms 
 may be communicated with without passing through the front or back kitchen. This, 
 in the case of sickness, is very desirable ; and also in the case of deaths, as the remains 
 may be carried down stairs while the family are in the front room. 
 
 9. The door to the front kitchen or best room should open from the porch and not 
 from the back-kitchen, which, as it contains the cooking utensils and washing-appara- 
 tus, can never be fit for being passed through by a stranger, or even the master of the 
 family, where proper regard is had by the mistress to cleanliness and delicacy. 
 
 10. When there is not a supply of clear water from a spring adjoining the cottage, 
 or from some other efficient source, then there ought to be a well or tank partly under the 
 floor of the back-kitchen supplied from the roof, with a pump in the back-kitchen for 
 drawing it up for use, as hereafter described in detail. The advantages of having the 
 tank or well under the back-kitchen are, that it will be secure from frost, and that the 
 labour of carrying water will be avoided. 
 
 1 1 . The privy should always be separated from the dwelling, unless it is a proper water- 
 closet, with a soil pipe communicating with a distant liquid-manure tank or cesspool. 
 When detached, the privy should be over or adjoining a liquid-manure tank, in which 
 a straight tube from the bottom of the basin ought to terminate ; by which means the 
 soil basin may always be kept clean by pouring down the common slops of the house. 
 No surface being left from which smell can arise, except that of the area of the pipe, 
 the double flap, to be hereafter described, will prevent the escape of the evaporation 
 from this small surface, and also insure a dry and clean seat. 
 
 12. The situation of the liquid-manure tank should be as far as possible from that of 
 the filtered water tank or clear water well. It should be covered by an air-tight cover 
 of flag-stone, and have a narrow well adjoining, into which the liquid should filter through 
 a grating, so as to be pumped up or taken away without grosser impurities, and in this 
 state applied to the soil about growing crops. 
 
 13. In general, proprietors ought not to intrust the erection of labourers' cottages on 
 their estates to the farmers, as it is chiefly owing to this practice that so many wretched 
 hovels exist in the best cultivated districts of Scotland and in Northumberland. 
 
 14. No landed proprietor, as we think, ought to charge more for the land on which 
 cottages are built than he would receive for it from a farmer, if let as part of a 
 farm ; and no more rent ought to be charged for the cost of building the cottage and 
 enclosing the garden than the same sum would yield if invested in land, or, at all 
 events, not more than can be obtained by government securities. 
 
 15. Most of these conditions are laid down on the supposition that the intended 
 builder of the cottage is actuated more by feelings of human sympathy than by a 
 desire to make money; and hence they are addressed to the wealthy, and especially to 
 the proprietors of land and extensive manufactories or mines. 
 
 SuBSECT. 1. Agriculturists Model Cottage. — No. I. 
 The elevation of this cottage is shown in fig. 2040. 
 
 2243. The Accomynodatlon in this cottage is the lowest in the scale, and may be 
 considered as offering the first stage of improvement, in departing from those agricultural 
 
 6 u 
 
1142 FIRST ADDITIONAL SUPPLEMENT. 
 
 hovels in the South of Scotland and North of England which at present consist only of 
 a single room. (§ 2233. ) In this model we have two rooms, each seventeen feet square, a 
 back-kitchen or wash-house, and two garrets of the same size as the rooms over them. 
 The access to these garrets is by a step-ladder in the porch. The garrets may be used 
 as sleeping-places, the one for grown-up girls or a female lodger, or both ; and the other 
 for grown-up boys or a male lodger, or for both. The bed for the master and mistress, 
 and the bed or cradle for the infant children, may be in the best room on the ground 
 floor. The details, as shown in fig. 2041., are as follow: — a is the kitchen, seven- 
 
 ft Z . . -I 1 L ,, ,11 1 111 1 
 
 teen feet square, containing a boiler at one side of the fireplace, and, if necessary, 
 an oven may be placed at the other ; b, the best room, in which is a closet or press, A, 
 and room for two beds ; c is the back-kitchen, with a sink and pump ; d, the 
 pantry ; e, the dairy, or place for beer, &c. ; and /, a place for an oven, for occasional 
 baking, and to heat the floors of the two rooms, as indicated by the dotted lines g. 
 Should an oven not be wanted, or this mode of heating not be approved of, then this 
 compartment may be used for containing fuel or roots, poultry or rabbits, or for any 
 other purpose that may be wanted. The highest point of the sleeping-room floor is at 
 g, and of the kitchen floor at i ; the highest j)oint of the pantry floor is at d, and of the 
 dairy floor at e ; and from these four points the floors gradually slope, at the rate of one 
 inch to seven feet, to the sill of the back-kitchen door at m. A place for wood or other fuel, 
 or for a pig or rabbits, according to the taste or circumstances of the occupant, is shown'at 
 n, a privy at o, a tank for liquid manure communicating with the privy at p, a place for 
 pumping or lifting out the liquid manure at q, and a pit for solid manure at r. The sur- 
 face of the yard slopes from the entrance-door, s, to the liquid-manure pump, q ; and the 
 door to the back-kitchen, and the door to the porch in front, at t, are each entered by a 
 step. The terrace platform is entered by three steps, as at «. In the front garden there 
 are two plots, v v, which may be planted with low fruit trees or fruit shrubs ; and two 
 other plots, w w, which may be planted with standard fruit trees to shade and shelter the 
 back court : x shows the commencement of that part of the garden where culinary vege- 
 tables are supposed principally to be growing. The narrow borders, walks, the low box 
 hedge to the parapet, and the boundary hedge, require no explanation. 
 
 2244. Construction and Materials. The walls are supposed to be of rubble stone, or 
 
DESIGNS FOR MODEL COTTAGES. 
 
 1143 
 
 of prepared earth, and the roof of thatch. The floor of the kitchen is to be paved with 
 stone or brick, or, at all events, the flues are to be covered with these materials, and the 
 rest of the floor of composition of lime and clay, or of lime and smithy ashes, or of 
 whatever may be cheapest and best in the given locality. The floor of the best room, if 
 heated by a flue beneath, may be of the same material as that of the kitchen ; but if not 
 heated by a flue, then it ought to be of boards. 
 
 2245. The Garden is only partially shown, the portion omitted being a parallelogram 
 of the breadth indicated, and of sufficient length to make the contents of the whole plot 
 one sixth of an acre. It is surrounded by a thorn or holly hedge. The slope of the 
 terrace or platform may be covered with small stones, flints, or any other similar 
 material most abundant in the country, as requiring less labour to keep it in order than 
 turf : or it may be planted with chamomile or lavender, for the sake of the flowers, which 
 may be collected and sold ; with low creeping ornamental plants, such as ivy or peri- 
 winkle ; or with thyme, heath, or some other low flowering plant, for the sake of the bees. 
 The best effect, however, will be produced by covering it with the same kind of stone or 
 brick which is used in the walls of the house. No shrubs are proposed to be trained 
 against the walls of the house, except a vine, an apricot, or a pear, at each end, according 
 to the climate ; but a border six inches wide is shown close to the wall of the house, in 
 which may be planted a few China roses and some early flowers ; while currants, morello 
 cherries, or apples, may be trained on the outside of the walls of the court-yard. The 
 narrow borders next the hedge may also be planted with flowers ; and the larger com- 
 partments with gooseberries, currants, and dwarf apple trees. The culinary crops are 
 proposed to be grown in the back compartment, the commencement only of which is 
 shown in the plan. 
 
 2246. General Estimate. The cubic contents are 10,163 feet, which, at 2d. per foot, 
 is £84 ; at Id., £42 ; and the actual cost would not, it is believed, amount to much 
 more than the latter sum. As a proof of this we refer to § 2267. 
 
 2247. Remarks. The idea of this model cottage was suggested to us by the plan 
 of the Closeburn cottage, given in next section. It may be lowered in its accommo- 
 dation by omitting the bed-rooms in the roof, and making the porch narrower and 
 without a step-ladder. If the places for the oven or the dairy are not wanted, they may 
 be added as closets, the one to the kitchen and the other to the bed-room, by opening 
 doors in the back wall. An oven might be added to the kitchen fireplace on the opposite 
 side to the boiler. All the divisions in the lean-to behind, which now form the pantry, 
 dairy, back-kitchen, &c., might be enlarged by continuing the lean-to the whole length 
 of the house. Fig. 2042. is an elevation with a slate roof for this plan, by Mr. Lamb. 
 
 SuBSECT. 2. Agriculturist's Model Cottage. — No. II. 
 
 The elevation of this design is shown in fig. 2044., and a variation of it in fig. 2045. 
 
 2248. Accommodation. Here we have obtained one good room, fig. 2043. a, instead of 
 the cow-house and pigsty. This, with two bed-rooms over the two principal rooms, will 
 form a very commodious cottage, and enable the occupant to let out a room to a lodger. 
 
1144 
 
 FIRST ADDITIONAL SUPPLEMENT, 
 
 2043 
 
 The cow-house, fc, and pigsty, c, are separated from the house, and placed along with 
 the other buildings in the yard. There are a privy, d ; liquid-manure tank, e ; poultry- 
 house for heating the floor, / ; two flower-beds, g y ; and a passage to the back-yard, for 
 the cow, &c., serving for two cottages, h. 
 
 2044 
 
DESIGNS FOR MODEL COTTAGES. 
 
 1145 
 
 2249. Remarks. When the cow-house and pigsty are not wanted, they may be 
 united, and by opening a door in the parlour they may form a bed-room or work-room 
 communicating with it, and lighted by a window either at the end or at the back. 
 This may also be done with the dairy and oven rooms, should they not be wanted ; so 
 that, by this means, two additional rooms may be obtained on the ground floor. 
 
 SuBSECT. 3. Mechanics Model Cottage. 
 
 2250. The Mechanic's Model Cottage may be built singly, but the most economical 
 arrangement is obtained by building them in pairs, as in fig. 2046. For the idea of this 
 model we are indebted to Thomas Wilson, Esq., of the Banks near Barnsley, who sent 
 us the design, fig. 2048., on which our draftsman, Mr. Marks, made the improvement, 
 with a view to economy in building, shown in fig. 2049., which being sent to Mr. 
 
 Wilson, he completed the work by changing the entrance to the stair from the back- 
 room to the porch, as in fig. 2050., the advantages of which, to use his own words, " are 
 great : the sitting-room is altogether private ; and, in case of illness, there is an obvious 
 gain in not having to pass through the house from a sick-room. There is another point 
 not usually considered : when an inmate has to be removed to his last home, the pre- 
 
1146 
 
 FIRST ADDITIONAL SUPPLEMENT. 
 
 2047 
 
 parations, and particularly the carrying down stairs, would by this arrangement of the 
 stair, all be accomplished while the family were in the sitting-room. In cottages as they 
 are at present built, that which is never accomplished without difficulty, is almost 
 always rendered scarcely practicable by the narrowness and awkwardness of the stairs. 
 No architect of feeling should overlook this." In fig. 2047. a is the porch into which the 
 staircase opens ; h is the back-kitchen, with a pump and sink-stone, arranged in con- 
 nexion with a tank or well, as in the agriculturist's model cottage ; c is the principal 
 room ; d, a pantry ; and there is a light closet under the stair, e, in fig. 2050. There are 
 three bed-rooms shown in the plan of the adjoining cottage at e, f, g, in fig. 2048. In 
 the back-yard, h, there is a place for fuel, i ; a privy, k ; a liquid-manure tank, Z; and 
 place for ashes, &c., m. The gardens may be arranged as in the figure, or in any other 
 mode that is considered most convenient. The isometrical elevation of fig. 2047. is 
 shown in fig. 2046. 
 
DESIGNS FOR MODEL COTTAGES. 
 
 1147 
 
 2251. General Estimate. The 
 cubic contents of the two cottages 
 are 15,200 feet, at 6d. per foot, 
 £380; at 4c?., £253; at3rf.,£l90; 
 and at 2d., £126; or for each 
 cottage, £190, £126, £95, and 
 £63. 
 
 2252. Remarks. Our readers, 
 we are sure, will agree with us in 
 thanking Mr. Wilson for his most 
 economical and commodious plan, 
 and for his very humane and feel- 
 ing observations respecting it. We 
 consider the design, finally im- 
 proved, as uniting more comfort 
 at less expense than any other 
 given in this Supplement. The 
 only drawback to the arrangement 
 that we know is, that it is neces- 
 sary to pass through the back- kit- 
 chen in order to enter the best room ; 
 
 but this might be remedied, either by enlarging the porch, or by adding aporch in front. 
 In either case additional expense would be incurred. Where comfort is more the 
 object than expense^ we would recommend the fireplaces not to be placed in the angles, 
 but back to back, as in fig. 2048., 
 by which more room is obtained 
 for persons sitting round the fire, 
 and the heat is more equally radi- 
 ated through the room. For the 
 sake of economy we have shown 
 dormer windows in the elevation, 
 fig. 2051., and also" in the isome- 
 trical view ; but where economy 
 is not an object, we would prefer 
 having the side walls as high as 
 the tops of the windows. A cot- 
 tage of this form may be rendered 
 highly ornamental by enlarging 
 the parlour window, and project- 
 ing it with a bay ; by forming two 
 separate windows to the principal 
 bed-rooms, ornamenting the ga- 
 bles, and forming a group of co- 
 lumnar chimneys. It might even 
 be rendered more artistical by simply splaying the jambs of the doors and windows, 
 slightly rounding their upper angles, and either raising the side walls so as not to 
 have the windows in the roof, or 
 
 retaining them in the roof and 
 finishing them with pediments and 
 span- roofs. 
 
 As this design is not shown 
 placed on a platform, it is pecu- 
 liarly suitable for having the walls 
 covered with ornamental shrubs, 
 such as climbing roses, honey- 
 suckles, clematises, chimonanthus, 
 and Virginian creeper ; or with 
 fruit trees or vines. 
 
 All the ornamental climbers 
 which have been mentioned, with 
 the exception of chimonanthus, 
 may be planted about two feet 
 apart, and trained in direct lines 
 from the ground to the eaves ; 
 but the chimonanthus, being a 
 woody plant, should be trained 
 
 2050 
 
1148 
 
 FIRST ADDITIONAL SUPPLEMENT. 
 
 2051 
 
 more in the fan manner prac- 
 tised with plums, peaches and 
 apricots. 
 
 The fruit trees should be 
 trained differently, according 
 to their kinds : the pear and 
 the apple horizontally ; the 
 plum, cherry, apricot, and 
 peach, in the fan manner; and 
 the gooseberry and currant 
 perpendicularly, one shoot 
 only, or at most two, being 
 carried up from each plant. 
 
 The vine maybe trained in 
 the perpendicular manner, 
 placing the plants at two feet 
 apart, retaining only one 
 shoot to each plant, and ob- 
 
 taining the bearing wood by t.i > i ■ m ■ ' ' i — 
 
 spurring in that shoot : but 
 
 the best mode of training the vine against a house is to have the main branches of 
 every plant in the form of the letter T, and to train the bearing branches upwards 
 from the two horizontal arms, in the manner practised at Thomery near Fontainebleau, 
 on the houses in Stockbridge and Broughton in Hampshire, and in the vineyard of 
 Mr. Iloare at Southampton. These hints on training trees against the walls of cottages 
 will be sufficient for any one who knows a little of gardening ; for those who do not, 
 we would recommend the Suburban Horticulturist, in which the subject of training trees 
 is treated in detail, and more especially the training of vines against cottages. 
 
 With respect to the propriety of training fruit trees against cottages, much depends 
 on the climate and aspect. We cannot recommend it as a general practice in a wet 
 climate, because it would have a tendency to keep the walls damp after rain was driven 
 against them; nor on cottages that have one side to the south, and another to the north, 
 except on the south side, because on the north side fruit trees would do little good, 
 and any other description of deciduous plant would prevent the evaporation of the rain 
 oriven against them from the north. On the walls of all cottages placed witli their 
 diagonal line in the direction of south and north, trees may be trained on every side, 
 without danger of producing damp, as every side would enjoy sun. 
 
 SuBSECT. 4. Placing the Model Cottages in Rows. 
 
 2253. The Agriculttirisfs Model Cottage may be placed in rows in the manner shown 
 in fig. 2052. ; in which the entrance to the yards being from a back passage, and the 
 
DESIGNS FOR MODEL COTTAGES. 
 
 1149 
 
 public road being in front, the kitchen-garden to each cottage will be most conveniently 
 placed behind, on account of the manure, and especially the liquid manure ; which, if 
 the kitchen-gardens were in front, would either have to be carried through the house, or 
 a good way round. 
 
 2254. The Mechanics' Model Cottages may be placed in rows, in contact, by the addition 
 of a front porch to each cottage ; but much the best mode for this style of cottage is to 
 have them in pairs, as already shown in fig. 2047. 
 
 2255. Remarks. The objections to placing these cottages in contact in rows are, 
 that it lessens the privacy of each dwelling, and in many cases would prevent the sun 
 from shining on every side of them. It is a great source of independence and comfort 
 for a cottager, to be completely surrounded by his own garden. It is not pleasant, 
 when walking or working in our garden, to be overlooked by our neighbour ; or, when 
 sitting quietly in the house, to hear the sounds of his children through the party- walls. 
 It is a great mistake to suppose that this feeling is confined to the educated part of 
 society : it exists among all classes, and certainly much more strongly among persons 
 accustomed to a comparatively solitary life in the country, like agriculturists, than 
 among mechanics accustomed to live in streets. Where cottages of this kind are joined 
 in rows, and indeed in every case of cottages being joined, we would recommend 
 building the party- walls thicker than usual, and having the garden walls or hedges 
 seven feet high, with here and there a standard fruit tree in them, to break the view 
 from the bed-rooms of the adjoining dwellings. 
 
 SuBSECT. 5. Forming Combinations of Dwellings of the humblest Class. 
 
 2256. In the Encyclopa2dia (§ 493. ), we have shown with what economy combinations 
 of dwellings might be built, and how greatly the comforts of the individuals occupying 
 them might, in various ways, be increased by cooperation. It does not appear, how- 
 ever, that mankind is yet in a fit state for entering on this stage in the progress of 
 improvement. To be able to do so men must have been educated from infancy to 
 live in society ; and when this shall have been the case, then the increase of comforts 
 and enjoyments that may be obtained by living together in masses will be duly 
 appreciated by themselves. In the meantime, the working classes of society, in 
 common with every other class, appear to us to have a much greater taste for isolation 
 than for cooperation ; more particularly in every thing relating to domestic arrange- 
 ments. In short, we 
 are inclined to think 
 that little good will be 
 effected by arrangements 
 of this kind, till those 
 classes for which they 
 are intended, in conse- 
 quence of superior edu- 
 cation, see themselves 
 the benefits which would 
 accrue from them. They 
 will then endeavour to 
 procure their establish- 
 ment. 
 
 2257. A College for 
 single Working Men. 
 The only addition that 
 we shall make to what 
 we have already ad- 
 vanced on this subject is 
 a design, fig. 2053., 
 taken from one which 
 we made in 1819} and 
 published in the Me- 
 chanic's Magazine, vol. 
 xvi., for what may be 
 called a college for 
 single working men. 
 
 Each floor will contain •5 ° i^o j« y ' » <> , ., 
 
 eight distinct dwellings, 
 
 and each dwelling M'ill consist of a living-room twenty-one feet by thirteen feet, a ; 
 sleeping-room, ten feet by seven 6 ; and washing-room, with a sink and water-closet, 
 ten feet by seven c ; the circular stair is shown at d, and the landing to each floor at e. 
 
 6 X 
 
 2C53 
 
1150 FIRST ADDITIONAL SUPPLEMENT. 
 
 The building is supposed to be of a cubical fonn, of eight or ten stories high, with a 
 staircase in the centre, and a series of fire-proof rooms on each floor, communicating 
 with a common gallery. 
 
 The whole building we propose to be heated from one stove at the bottom of the 
 stairs; and in each separate apartment might be placed two jets of gas for 
 cooking, and one for lighting. As there would be a gas-meter to each apart- 
 ment, no individual would pay for more gas than what he consumed. The floorings 
 of all the rooms would be of flag-stone, the under side of which would form the 
 ceiling to the room below ; and as all the partitions would be of brickwork, or 
 might also be of flag-stone, the first cost of the building would be comparatively 
 low, and the expense of repair very trifling. On the lowest floor a house-keeper 
 might reside, who would have the general charge of the building, and who, if it 
 were thought advisable, might lay in a stock of such articles as were generally 
 wanted by the occupants, and retail them to them at nearly cost price. There might 
 also be a restaurateur and dining-room on the ground floor, arranged so as to supply 
 food on the most economical terms. The building, however, would be chiefly valuable 
 as supplying lodgings of the most comfortable kind at a very moderate expense. As 
 no fires would be wanted in the different rooms, there would be no occasion for fuel, 
 which would be a great saving both of labour and expense ; and as water would be 
 laid on to every apartment, to which also there would be a water-closet for waste water, 
 the labour of cleaning would be reduced to a mere trifle. In short, for large towns, 
 there could hardly be a more economical and comfortable mode of lodging single men, 
 such as clerks, shopmen, working mechanics and artisans of every description, and even 
 literary men and artists. 
 
 Sect. II. A Selection of Plans of Cottages which have been erected in different Parts of 
 
 the Country. 
 
 2258. This Sf'ection of plans is chiefly taken from the Sanitary Report of the Poor Law 
 Commissioners for 1842, which contains the best plans which the commissioners could 
 procure from their correspondents in every .part of the country. We have only given the 
 plans, because the elevations have no particular merit ; and the plans are, in our opinion, 
 defective in not in general showing the relative situation of the back-yard and ap- 
 pendages, and of the garden ground. On the situation of both these depends much 
 of the comfort and beauty of every country dwelling, from the palace to the cottage ; 
 and yet, in most cases, when cottages are put down, the situation and arrangement of 
 the garden are commonly left to chance. The garden, whenever it is practicable, ought 
 to surround the cottage, and the boundary ought always to be clearly defined by a 
 hedge or wall. Whatever be the direction of the road before the cottage, the cottage 
 ought always to front the south-east if 
 
 possible, if not the south-west. There 2054 : ! 
 
 is no comfort in a cottage in our cold 
 moist climate when it fronts either the 
 direct south or the direct north ; be- 
 cause, in either case, one side must be 
 in the shade for half the year. 
 
 2259. The Closebnrn Cottage. — Seve- 
 ral of these cottages have been erected 
 by Sir Charles Stuart Menteath, one 
 of the most enlightened and benevo- 
 lent men of his time and country, at 
 Closeburn in Dumfriesshire. Fig. 
 2054. shows the plan of the Closeburn 
 cottage, in which a is the kitchen, 
 sixteen feet square and eight feet 
 high ; 6, the sleeping-room, of the 
 same dimensions; c, the back- kitchen, 
 with a sink ; d, the dairy ; e, the pan- 
 try ; f the cow-house ; g, the privy ; 
 and h, a porch, in which there may 
 be a step-ladder to the garrets, if 
 
 these are used as bed-rooms. In the Closeburn plan, as published in the Sanitary Re- 
 port, the stairs are shown in the bed-room, but the porch is a much better situation for 
 them. The sleeping-room, b, may be warmed by having a sheet-iron back to the kitchen 
 fireplace, interposing a flag-stone or some bricks between it and the flue, to prevent 
 the sheet-iron from being too much heated. In the summer season the heat may be 
 
SELECTION OF PLANS OF COTTAGES. 
 
 1151 
 
 kept from entering the room by enclosing the iron plate with a case or box of 
 boards. If there should be bed-rooms over the two lower rooms, these may also be 
 heated by air warmed in the recess at the back of the kitchen fire, by the following 
 arrangement : — 
 
 Fig. 2055. is a ground plan of the kitchen fireplace and iron box, in which a is 
 the fireplace ; b, the orifice by which air is admitted 
 to the iron box by means of the under-ground tube 
 or drain, c ; and d, a wooden box for enclosing the iron 
 box in the summer season, when heat is not wanted 
 in the room, or when it is desired to enclose articles to keep them warm, or to dry 
 clothes in Mr. Sylvester's manner. (§ 306. and 2053.) 
 
 Fig. 2056. is a section through the kitchen fireplace and the iron 
 box, in which e is the orifice of the cold-air tube ; /, the iron box ; g, 
 the wooden box ; h, the tube for conveying hot air to the bed-rooms ; 
 and i, the kitchen fireplace and flue. When the air is not wanted for 
 the bed-rooms, it might be convenient to be able to let it escape by 
 turning it into another flue, which might be added to the stack of 
 chimneys ; but, if care is taken to open the bed-room windows a little, 
 the escape of the air through them would be advantageous, even in the 
 summer season. 
 
 Sir Charles Menteath's son, J. S. Menteath, Esq., in answer to our 
 enquiries as to how this plan was found to work in practice, says : " I 
 consider the introduction of these iron plates into our cottages, whereby 
 two apartments are most economically and most comfortably warmed 
 by one fire, as among my father's most valuable, and most benevolent 
 attempts to make our cottagers happy and healthful." Were we 
 called upon to improve this cottage, we would enclose a small yard be- 
 hind, the commencement of which is indicated by the dotted lines at 
 k, in fig. 2054. ; make the door of the cow-house open from the yard, 
 as indicated at I ; place a liquid manure tank behind the privy, as 
 indicated at m ; open a door from the back-kitchen to the yard, as at n ; 
 and place the whole on a platform, and surround it with a garden, as in fig, 2040. in 
 p. 1142. It is 'probable that some of these improvements may actually exist; but 
 they are not shown in the plan, or in a model which, in 1840, at the request of Sir 
 Charles Menteath, we placed in the Adelaide Gallery. 
 
 2260. The Dalmeny Cottage, fig. 2057. — This cottage has been erected by Lord Rose- 
 berry on his estates in the neighbourhood of Edinburgh, and has been justly con- 
 sidered, by the Highland Society and other competent judges, as a considerable 
 improvement on the habitations for country labourers as they now exist in most parts 
 of Scotland. The custom of having cottages of only one story, and of only two rooms, 
 and of having box beds (see § 658. 1338.) in the kitchen as well as in the other rooms, 
 is general in Scotland ; but it is evident that no great improvement can take place in the 
 habits of the people till they have back-kitchens for their cooking and washing utensils, and 
 till their beds are removed from their living-rooms. The very circumstance, as we have 
 observed (§ 1338.), of having to go up stairs to a bed-room is favourable to delicacy, 
 cleanliness, and health. Nevertheless, Lord Roseberry's cottage is a great improvement 
 on the kind of ploughman's cottage common in the neighbourhood of Edinburgh ; and 
 as such we have considered it desirable to republish here the plan and specification as 
 given in the Transactions of the Highland Society of Scotland, vol. xii. p. 527. 
 
 2261. Specification. The following is published in the work above referred to: 
 
 " The walls to be of the best rubble-work, founded with large flat stones, and all well 
 packed and pointed with properly prepared lime mortar. The rebates, soles, and 
 lintels for doors and windows, to be droved on the head and cheek, and broached on the 
 breast. Corners to have broached stone ; and both corners and rebates to be of a 
 proper size, and square-tailed ; the skews to be broached on the top, and droved on the 
 edges, with a proper raglin for the tile ; the chimney tops to be of broached stone, with 
 droved water berge, plinth, and cope ; the jambs, lintels, and hearths of fireplaces to be of 
 droved stone, and the vents made 12 inches by 13 inches, and plastered with haired lime. 
 The partitions to be of stone and standard, the standards to be 4i inches by 2 inches, placed 
 2 feet apart upon a sill-plate, laid on a proper stone footing ; all between standards to 
 be filled in with small flat stones, bedded and jointed with lime, and to have warpings 4i 
 inches by three fourths of an inch, every 2 feet in height, nailed to standards. The floors 
 of porches and privies to be laid with scabbled stone flags ; all the other floors to be laid 
 with a composition of lime and engine ashes, in proper proportions, well riddled, tem- 
 pered, worked, laid 3 inches thick, smoothed, and well rubbed in; under the compo- 
 sition, 9 inches in depth of small broken stones to be laid, the earth being first excavated 
 
1152 FIRST ADDITIONAL SUPPLEMENT. 
 
 to admit of their being put in. The floors of ash-pits and soil-pit in privies to be 
 kept 1 8 inches lower than floors of cottages, and an opening made in wall from soil 
 to ash-pit. 
 
 " The safe lintels for doors and windows to be of II -inch by 3-inch red Petersburg plank» 
 with 9 inches wall-hold at each end, the whole space covered and saved by a hammer- 
 dressed stone arch where there is room. Wall-plates to be of single battens, 7 inches 
 by 1 inch and a quarter. The rafters and balks of cottage roofs to be of Memel, the 
 size marked in the section, or of red Dram battens 6\ inches by 2^ inches, placed 20 
 inches from centres, and the balks half-cheeked to rafters with double-garron nails, three 
 in each joining. The roofs of coal-places and privy to be of the lean-to kind ; rafters 
 4 inches by 2 inches, cheeked to wall-plates at toes, and let 9 inches into wall at top. 
 Tile lath to be 1 inch and a quarter by 1 inch and five eighths each, cut out of red 
 Petersburg batten. The windows to be made of Memel, in the sliding manner, sashes 
 21 inches thick, well glazed, primed, and bedded in and drawn up with lime ; the win- 
 dows of kitchen and room to have counter-cheek screws and plain deal shutters, barred 
 and beaded on inside ; the i)antry window to be hinged, and to fasten by an iron button, 
 with ring, &c. The outside doors of cottages, places for coals, and privy, to be of plain 
 deal, 1 inch and one eighth thick, cut out of red Petersburg batten, three bars on 
 the back, hung on crooks and bands ; coal-))lacc and cottage doors to have stock-locks 
 of 4.S. 6d. value, and strong thumb-latclies; j)rivy doors, a tliumb-latch and iron bolt on 
 inside. The inside doors to be also of plain deal, barred and beaded, hung with 1. '5-inch 
 T bands upon door standards of red Dram batten 6 inches by 2^ inches, and all to have 
 plain beaded facings and keps, to have neat thumb-latches, and the press and pantry 2s. 
 press-locks. All angles to have ]-inch beads; and ceilings of cottages lathed with best 
 split lath. The pantries and i)resses to have three shelves each. A liatchway to be 
 made in ceiling of porch, with hinged cover. The privy to have a properly formed 
 seat of 1 1-inch timber. The inside doors, window-shutters, and other inside finishing, 
 may be of yellow American i)ine or white plank; all the other timbers to be of the 
 best red wood, of Baltic growth. The roofs to be covered with grey or red tile, 
 rendered with lime. Tlie walls of cottages to get one coat of plaster, the ceilings two 
 coats, and well finished." (//. Trans., vol. xii. p. 534.) 
 
 2057 
 
 2262. Accommodation. The cottages are built in pairs, and each consists of a porch, c ; 
 a kitchen, a, sixteen feet by twelve feet three inches, in which are two beds; a bed -room, 
 b, eleven feet six inches by seven feet, containing one bed ; a pantry, d, four feet by four 
 feet and a half; and, as appendages, a privy and a place for fuel, e e, and an ash-pit. In 
 general, these appendages are placed at one end, but they might be placed behind, as shown 
 by the dotted lines ; and sometimes there may be at the end a shed for fuel ; a place for 
 potatoes or other roots, or for poultry or a pig, / / ; with a privy, g; and the place 
 for ashes at the back, as indicated by the dotted lines. The gardens to these cot- 
 tages are placed there ; and there is a passage through to them between each pair of 
 cottages, as shown at /t, h. 
 
SELECTION OF PLANS OF COTTAGES. 
 
 1153 
 
 2263. General Estimate. Cubic contents, 14,100 feet, at 6d. per foot, £352; at 4<f., 
 £235; at 3rf., £176; at 2cZ., £117 ; or for each cottage, £176, £117, £88, or £58, 
 The actual cost of these cottages, it is stated in the work referred to, was generally 
 from £75 to £85 a pair. We have given the general estimate in this case and some 
 others, to show that for cottages of the simplest kind 2d. per cubic foot is much more 
 likely to be above than under the actual cost. 
 
 2264. Remarks. The Dalmeny cottages are certainly a step in advance of the com- 
 mon cottages of Scotland, where a taste for comfortable dwellings and for cleanliness is 
 just beginning to be cultivated. The improvements which may be made in them are, 
 the addition of a back-kitchen, which we consider indispensable to comfort, and the 
 detachment of the privies, and their connexion with liquid manure tanks, as shown in 
 our model designs; but, as most farmers in Scotland are not sufficiently aware of the 
 great value of liquid manure, it is not to be expeeted that their labourers can set a 
 due value upon it. Something ought to be done, however, to introduce these tanks, 
 for the sake of the great additional garden produce that would be obtained by the use 
 of their contents. We have generally found it easier to introduce a taste for ornamental 
 appendages to a cottage, than for improvements or changes which are merely useful ; 
 but the former, we also find, seldom fail to pave the way for the latter. We would, 
 therefore, have front gardens added to these cottages, solely for the cultivation of 
 flowers and flowering shrubs; and we would add porches, and either surround the front 
 gardens with low walls, or with hedges cut architecturally, or formed in some way 
 that would call forth the skill and taste of the occupant in managing them. 
 
 2265. The Holkham Cottage, fig. 2058.— Some of the cottages of the Earl of Leicester, it 
 is stated in the Sanitary Report, " are perhaps 
 
 the most substantial and comfortable that ^058 
 are to be seen in any part of England." 
 They are built in pairs, or in groups of 
 four cottages. The accommodation of a 
 single dwelling consists of a front room, 
 a, seventeen feet by twelve feet in width, 
 and from seven feet to seven feet six 
 inches high ; a back- kitchen, h, thirteen 
 feet by nine feet, and of the same height ; 
 a pantry, c ; and, on the floor above, three 
 bed-rooms. Behind is a wash-house, d ; a 
 dirt-bin, e ; a privy, /, and a pig-cot, g. 
 The drainage is excellent, and the water 
 from a pump-well good, and each cottage 
 has about twenty rods (an eighth of an 
 acre) of garden ground. 
 
 2266. Estimate. The actual cost of two 
 such cottages, as stated by Mr. Emerson, 
 the Earl of Leicester's builder, is from 
 £110 to £115 each; which a proprietor, 
 we think, might let for £4 a year, though 
 Mr. Emerson thinks £6 ought to be the 
 minimum rent for such a cottage. We 
 agree that this would be a proper rent to 
 one who had built them with a view to the employment of capital ; but we think a 
 landed proprietor, building on his own estate for his own workmen, ought to be content 
 with 3 per cent, or what he would procure from the government funds. 
 
 2267. Remarks. These cottages, it is observed in the Sanitary Report, show what may be 
 done "by a landed proprietor who takes as great a pride in his good cottages and farms 
 as others hi fine hunters and race-horses." It is remarkable that with so much lateral 
 accommodation^in the rooms of these cottages, they should only be from seven feet to 
 seven feet six inches high ; a height which, from the small quantity of air which it allows 
 for breathing in, must be utterly unwholesome in the bed-rooms, and only tolerable in 
 the rooms below in consequence of the frequent opening and shutting of the doors. 
 The improvement that we would make to these cottages would be, raising the rooms to 
 the height of nine feet, forming liquid-manure tanks to all the privies, adding porches, 
 and surrounding them by their garden ground. 
 
 2268. The Culford Cottages These are double and sometimes treble cottages, 
 
 built with bricks faced with blue flints, and with freestone facings to the doors and win- 
 dows. At the distance of a few feet behind there is a wooden building roofed 
 with tiles, which comprises a space for fuel, a privy for each cottagef and a 
 common oven. Fig. 2059. shows a double cottage, in which a is the principal room. 
 
1154 
 
 FIRST ADDITIONAL SUPPLEMENT, 
 
 2059 
 
 fourteen feet by twelve feet, and seven feet 
 high, with a small closet, d; b, a. back 
 room, or scullery ; c, a pantry ; and there 
 is a staircase, with a closet under, to two 
 bed-rooms. 
 
 2269. Estimate. The average cost of 
 these cottages, of which above fifty have 
 been built within the last twenty years, 
 by the Rev. E. Benyon, at Culford in 
 Suffolk, is stated to have been about £1 70, 
 or £85 each. Rent, £2 10s. to £3 'is. 
 
 2270. Remarks. The rooms have the 
 same fault as those of the Holkham cot- 
 tages, very few builders, until quite lately, 
 being aware of the importance, with a 
 view to health, of breathing in a large volume of air. There is an objection to the 
 door opening at once into the principal room ; which might be obviated by porches, 
 which would at the same time take away from the dull uniformity of the exteriors. 
 
 2271. The Harlaxton Cottages. — These cottages, which have been erected by Gre- 
 gory Gregory, Estj., at Harlaxton in Lincolnsliire, are chiefly remarkable for their 
 picturesque effect, and for the admirable management of the exterior aj)pendages with 
 a view to this result ; but at the same time most of them have large rooms, eight feet 
 or nine feet high, and all of them have large gardens. Fig. 2060. shows a plan of a 
 
 2060 
 
 double cottage, in which a is the living-room, thirteen feet s(juare, and eight feet high, 
 independently of room for two closets at h 6, and a large pantry at c. The stairs are 
 roomy, and lead to two good bed-rooms, the one opening out of the other. To each 
 cottage there is a building ajiart, forming a detached wing, containing a privy and 
 hovel, d, and a hogsty, with yard, e. There is a front garden to each cottage, and a 
 back garden of an eighth of an acre. 
 
 2272. Estimate. The actual cost of these two cottages is about £130, or £60 each ; 
 by which, allowing something for the garden, they might be let at 3 each. 
 
 2273. Remarks. A liquid-manure tank, with dung-pit or ash-pit over, might easily be 
 added behind the privy, as at/ ; and an oven at one side of the kitchen fire, and a boiler at 
 the other, as indicated by the dotted lines at g g, would be an improvement. A great 
 defect is the want of a back-kitchen ; but this might easily be obtained for each cot- 
 tage by lean-tos, as indicated by the dotted lines h. No cottage, in our opinion, 
 however humble, ought to be without some description of back-kitchen ; for even 
 though it had no fireplace, yet if it have a sink-stone and a window, it is well adapted 
 for washing in, and for keeping tubs and other vessels that ought never to be in sight. 
 A porch, as indicated by the letter i, would also be a great improvement. The combi- 
 nation of the privy and the hovel for fuel or pig's food is good. The elevation, like all 
 the others in the village of Harlaxton, is eminently picturesque ; the architectural taste 
 of the proprietor being of the very highest order, as will hereafter appear in our section 
 on villages. 
 
 2274. The Turton Cottages were built by Messrs. Ash worth of Turton, near Bolton 
 in Lancashire, for the accommodation of workmen attached to their manufactories ; and 
 they are calculated for being placed in close contact, in rows. In fig. 2061. a is the 
 living-room, five feet by thirteen feet ; b, the kitchen, fifteen feet by nine feet, with an 
 oven, grate, boiler, sink, and a closet under the staircase : above are three bed-rooms, 
 with separate entrances from the landing, as shown in fig. 2062. There is a back-yard, 
 c, twenty-five feet by thirteen feet, containing an ash-pit and a privy, with a door to a 
 piece of garden ground or a back lane. If a garden is attached, then assuredly we 
 
DESIGNS FOR ORNAMENTAL COTTAGES. 1155 
 
 2062 
 
 should recommend a liquid- 
 manure tank under the place 
 for ashes, as a certain means 
 of doubling the produce of the 
 garden. 
 
 2275. Street Cottages, or La- 
 bourers' Tenements in Towns. — 
 The plans of these supplied to 
 the Sanitary Report^ by the 
 committee of physicians and 
 surgeons of Birmingham, as 
 being the best in use in that 
 town, are considered by the 
 authors of the Sanitary Report 
 as the best they know of (see 
 
 Report, p. 185.); but, as street houses do not come within 
 our plan, we refer to the Report itself "We may observe 
 that the Turton street houses are among the best of the kind 
 that we know of in England. In Scotland, those at Dean- 
 ston are of a very superior description, as are those at New 
 Lanark, and at Crosslee near Paisley. Some at the latter 
 place, built by Archibald Woodhouse, Esq., have two good 
 rooms each, with a pantry and closets ; a cellar for fuel and 
 lumber ; a wash-house, privy, and dung-pit, common to six 
 families ; and a garden to each. They are let so as to pay 
 3 per cent on the prime cost. In general, the owners of mills 
 and manufactories in every part of the country build far 
 better cottages for their workmen, than the owners or occu- 
 piers of land, and the comfort of families lodged in them is 
 great in proportion. 
 
 Sect. IIL 
 
 of the ancient 
 Architect. 
 
 half. 
 
 Miscellaneous Designs for Cottages, chiefly ornamental. 
 
 Design I. — A Cottage with ornamental Elevations in the Style 
 timbered Houses of England. By T. J. Ricauti, Esq., 
 
 2276. Accommodation. In the ground plan, fig. 2063., a is a porch, which is for one 
 modification of this design shown in fig. 2064., but which, for the elevations figs. 2067. 
 
 and 2068., contains a stair; b is the 
 kitchen shown rather larger, seventeen 
 feet by fourteen feet, than the parlour, 
 c, which is fourteen feet by thirteen 
 feet; d is the back-kitchen, which 
 contains an oven and sink at e, and a 
 pantry, f; p is a dairy ; h, a pigsty ; 
 i, a water-closet, which, however, would 
 be better placed over or adjoining the 
 liquid-manure tank, n, because where 
 it is there will be a risk of its con- 
 taminating the air of the pantry ; k, a 
 place for poultry, most advantageously 
 placed adjoining the sources of heat ; 
 I, a place for fuel ; both these places 
 are low lean-tos. The cow-house, ten 
 feet by seven feet, is shown at m, and 
 the liquid-manure tank and dung-pit 
 at n and o; p is an open court, with a 
 door at q. 
 
 2277. The Elevations. Fig. 2064. 
 is a front elevation on the supposition 
 that the cottage contains only one 
 story. Fig. 2065. is a side elevation, 
 
 ' ' showing the cow-house, the entrance 
 
 to the court-yard, the porch, and the parlour window. Fig. 2066. is a perspective view 
 combining both elevations. Fig. 2067. is a perspective view on the supposition that the 
 cottage is raised higher, so as to contain two small rooms in the roof, and a small loft 
 over the cow-house. Fig. 2068. shows the walls of the cottage carried up higher so 
 
1156 
 
 FIRST. ADDITIONAL SUPPLEMENT. 
 
 This, it will be seen, greatly improves the 
 
 2065 
 
 as to contain two good 
 bed-rooms, and, if it were 
 thought necessary, a third 
 bed -room over the back- 
 kitchen, dairy, &c. It will 
 be observed, that in this 
 elevation the porch is roof- 
 ed in a different manner 
 from what it is in any of the 
 others, and that the addi- 
 tional height given to the 
 walls is contained between 
 a horizontal framework, 
 sufficiently high to admit 
 of bringing the roof of the 
 porch below the line of the general roof, 
 picturesque effect of the group. 
 
 2278. T/ie 
 Construction and 
 Materials. The 
 foundations are 
 of concrete, or of 
 whatever other 
 suitable material 
 the locality af- 
 fords, and they 
 are carried up 
 eighteen inches 
 above the gene- 
 ral surface of 
 the surrounding 
 ground. The 
 floor within is 
 
 raised one foot or two steps above the general surface, so that it is six inches lower 
 than the top of the plinth formed by the foundation. On this plinth the framework 
 is placed, which 
 
 consists of a sill, 2066 
 into which are 
 framed u])right 
 stancheons, form- 
 ing the angles 
 and the sides of 
 the doors and 
 windows, nine 
 inches square ; 
 and they are 
 framed into hori- 
 zontal pieces of 
 the same dimen- 
 sions, the interstices being filled in with diagonal pieces, as shown in the elevations and 
 views. The roof is proposed to be covered with thatch or reeds, in either case steeped 
 in lime-water, and the 
 chimney shafts to be of 
 brick, to be splashed 
 coarsely so as to imitate 
 weather-stained bricks 
 or stones. The fol- 
 lowing details are taken 
 from the descriptive 
 specification of Design I. 
 of Ricauti's Rustic Ar- 
 chitecture : — " In fram- 
 ing the roof, British fir 
 may be used for the 
 ridge piece, nine inches 
 by two inches, and the 
 
DESIGNS FOR ORNAMENTAL COTTAGES. 
 20G8 
 
 1157 
 
 wall-plates, six inches by four inches, which are continued through the walls, as 
 shown in the elevations. The ceiling joists are to be of rough wood, four inches by 
 three inches, also continued through the walls, as shown in side elevation, fig. 2065. 
 The collars of rough wood, five inches by three inches, notched down on the 
 joists, and the openings boarded, or lath and plastered, so as to form ceilings. 
 Forest timber, or the loppings of trees, may be chopped into shape, about six inches 
 by three inches, for the rafters ; these are crossed with light stuff, and covered 
 with thatch. The inside of the walls may be battened and lath and plastered, and co- 
 loured with the following preparation, which, when properly mixed, will cover twenty- 
 six square yards : — Quicklime, six ounces, rubbed down with a muller, to free it from 
 all roughness ; linseed oil, six ounces ; Burgundy pitch, two ounces ; skimmed milk, 
 two quarts. The pitch to be melted with the oil over a gentle fire, and gradually in- 
 corporated with the mixture. Any kind of colouring in- 
 gredient may be added, to bring it to the tint required. 
 The doors to be hung with T hinges, twelve inches long, 
 ornamented with rough wood ; a Norfolk latch and a 3s. 
 lock to be attached to each door. The ceiling joists, 
 collars, wall-plates, &c., in the interior, should not be 
 concealed; for it may be observed in the perspective 
 sketch, fig. 2069., that they may be rendered highly orna- 
 mental, both as a canted cornice and as a ribbed ceiling. 
 This will be quite in character with the exterior parts 
 of the building, with no additional expense, but only 
 the exercise of a little taste in applying the material." 
 Where such a cottage is to be considered principally as an ornamental structure in a 
 pleasure-ground, for example, as a place of repose, or to drink tea in occasionally, 
 Mr. Ricauti would recommend the finishing and furniture to be entirely in the rustic 
 manner, the bark being removed, and the wood, as well as the floor, when the latter is 
 of wood, stained with a decoction of walnut husks, to give it a subdued tone. 
 
 2279. Remarks. Half-timbered cottages are very picturesque objects, and seem 
 particularly appropriate to a woody country ; nevertheless, we cannot recommend them 
 for general adoption, even if the expense were not an object, on account of the thinness 
 of the walls, and the care requisite to keep the roof and other parts of the exterior in 
 nice order. As ornamental objects in parks they are very desirable, both on account of 
 their beauty and their historical interest ; carrying back, as they do, the mind to the 
 time when not only all the better kind of cottages in the central districts of England 
 were built in this manner, but, as Holinshed informs us, most of the houses of the 
 landed proprietors. A cottage built in the half-timbered style, in those parts of Eng- 
 land where stone is the building material, or in Scotland where this is also the case, is 
 not appropriate to the scenery of the country ; but it has a strikingly ornamental effect 
 in another point of view, that is, from its rarity and its contrast with the local cottages. 
 No architect, that we are acquainted with, has paid so much attention to timber con- 
 struction as Mr. Ricauti, of which this design and those in his published works bear 
 ample evidence. In some parts of England half-timbered houses have the roofs covered 
 with tiles, but this material is never so suitable as thatch or reeds ; or, what is still 
 better in point of economy and durability, as well as in appropriateness, the chips made 
 by woodmen in working up coppice wood into wattle- work, hurdles, &c. 
 
 2280. General Estimate. Cubic contents of figs. 2063. and 2064. are 10,336 feet at 
 6d. per foot, £258 8s. ; at Ad., £172 5s. 4d. ; and at 3c?., £129 4s. 
 
 6 Y 
 
1158 FIRST ADDITIONAL SUPPLEMENT. 
 
 Design II. — A Gate-Lodge, combining a Stable, in the Swiss Style. By R. Varden, 
 
 Esq., Architect. 
 
 2281. Description. The elevation is shown in fig. 2070. The situation of the cottage 
 relatively to the house, stables, and other buildings, is shown in fig. 2071., in which a is 
 
 fi-l-H I ! I I i I 
 
DESIGNS FOR ORNAMENTAL COTTAGES. 1159 
 
 the lodge ; b, the house ; c, the stable-yard ; d, the coach-houses ; e, the stable end of 
 the lodge ; and /, cottages, which are screened by the lodge in the view from the house. 
 
 The ground plan of the lodge, fig. 2072., shows the cottage, with stairs to bed-room, 
 a; outside stair, 6; upper gallery, c ; four-staU stable, d; seed-room, e; harness-room, 
 /; and lower -gallery, with balustrade, g. , , ^ 
 
 The chamber-floor plan, fig. 2073., shows the cottage bed-chamber, h ; loft over the 
 
 stable, i; granary, k; brackets, 1,1,1; and dotted lines, showing the distance which 
 the roof projects from the walls, m. 
 
 Fig. 2077. is an elevation of the cottage end of the lodge ; fig. 2078. is an end 
 view of the stack of chimneys ; fig. 2074. is a part of the ornamental weather-boarding 
 on a large scale ; fig. 2075. is an enlarged view of one of the brackets for the gables, in 
 which a is a section of the inner barge-board ; b, a section of the outer barge-board ; 
 c c, rafters, and d, the purlin ; fig. 2076. is an enlarged view of part of the balustrade. 
 
 2282. Description. This building is just erected at Powick in Gloucestershire, for 
 J. B. Morgan, Esq, It was designed under peculiar circumstances. A new approach 
 road having been formed in a cutting ten or twelve feet deep, almost in front of the 
 dwelling-house, and a screen being required on the farther side of this cutting, to exclude 
 the view of several unsightly cottages, /, in fig. 2071., from the dining-room and draw- 
 ingroom windows, it was decided to place there the stables and a small lodge residence, 
 which were to form one building, and be of a somewhat ornamental character. The 
 site being on the abrupt edge of the cutting, a bold and picturesque style of build- 
 ing was required, and the Swiss style was ultimately adopted. The walls under the 
 balustrades are made two feet six inches thick, to support the earth bank on which the 
 building is placed : they are built of unsquared granite, with garreted joints made very 
 rough to enhance the picturesque appearance, and suit the character of the architecture. 
 The walls of the building are formed of nine-inch brickwork, covered with deal weather- 
 
1160 
 
 FIRST ADDITIONAL SUPPLEMENT. 
 
 boarding. The boards for this purpose must be chosen free from knots, and are best if 
 cut out of Quebec red pine balk (log or squared trunk) or Riga balk. About one balk 
 out of five of the former, or one out of a hundred of the latter, will be found clean enough 
 for the purpose ; and as several must be opened to select from, the same description of 
 wood should be used for the timber framings, that the knotty balks may be converted 
 without loss to the builder ; and both these woods are suitable for the purpose. 
 
 Wood bricks, two feet three inches apart, should be inserted in every seventh course 
 of the brickwork ; and to them upright fir battens, three inches by one inch, should be 
 fixed, and the weather-boards nailed on. The weather-boards should be neatly wrought, 
 seven inches wide, seven eighths of an inch thick on one edge, and five eighths of an 
 inch on the other, nailed on the lower or thick edge only, which will be sufficient to 
 keep them firmly in their places, and allow them sufficient play to expand and contract 
 without splitting. , . , 
 
 The brackets are formed of oak, three inches by four inches, fixed with screw-pms to 
 the wall and plate, and are covered with i-inch boards. The edges of ^the framework are 
 wrought, and a ^-inch round fillet put on the centre. 
 
 The barge-boards are three inches thick, cut out of solid boards. 
 
 The roof is covered with patent slating, which is of more suitable character than the 
 common kind, and may be laid much flatter. 
 
 2283. Patent Slating. " In covering a roof with patent slates, which were first 
 brought into use by Mr. Wyatt, the common rafters must be left loose upon their pur- 
 lins, as they require to be so arranged that a rafter may lie under all the meeting joists ; 
 hence neither boarding nor battens will be needed; and, since the number of rafters 
 depends on the width of the slates, when they are large, very few are necessary. Ihis 
 kind of slating may be laid on a much less elevated rafter than any other, as, the laps 
 being much less than in common slating, it is considerably lighter. It is likewise com- 
 
DESIGNS FOR ORNAMENTAL COTTAGES. II6I 
 
 menced at the eaves, but is neither crossed nor bonded, the slates lying uniformly, with 
 each end reaching to the middle of the rafter, and butted up to each other through the 
 length of the roof The eave slates are screwed down to the rafters by two or three 
 strong 1^-inch screws, at each of their ends. The joints are secured by filleting, 
 or covering them with fillets of slates, about three inches wide, bedded in putty, and 
 screwed down through the whole into the rafters. Slating is sometimes laid in a lozenge 
 form, but it is much less durable than the common method, " ( Stuarfs Diet, of Arch. ) 
 
 2284. Roofs covered with this Description of Slating do not require lead hips and ridges, 
 for the slates, when properly fastened and puttied, are sufficient to exclude rain and 
 moisture. The projection of the eaves and gables being very great, it was feared strong 
 winds might raise and damage the roof, therefore a course of bond timber was built into 
 the walls, four feet from the top, to which the plate of the roof was attached by long 
 screw-pins. By this arrangement the weight of brickwork keeps the roof steady. 
 
 Buildings of this character might be formed of timber framing, or of any common ma- 
 terial, such as rough stone, concrete, chalk and straw, the consolidated earth or pise 
 walling, that would be cheapest in the particular locality. For the sake of additional 
 durability, I have sometimes had Roman cement substituted for the weather-boarding, 
 but worked into the same kind of pattern, and, when properly executed, it can scarcely 
 be distinguished from wood ; but, it must be acknowledged, the effect is rather inferior. 
 The boards may be painted or not, according to the taste of the owner. The building at 
 Powick is grained and varnished to imitate deep-coloured fir- wood ; but a less expensive 
 method I adopted at Cheltenham, by merely giving the boards two or three coats of 
 boiled oil, slightly tinted with burnt umber, which preserves the wood as well as paint, 
 and produces a lighter and more transparent effect, from the natural grain of the wood 
 remaining visible. If the boards are knotty, the painting is to be preferred. 
 
 2285. Remarks. It is quite unnecessary for me to offer any remarks on the strong 
 and picturesque character of the Swiss style of architecture, or of its applicability to 
 entrance lodges, park buildings, and small dwellings for gamekeepers, &c. I reget it is 
 not more frequently adopted, for it offers a pleasing variety from the Tudor and the 
 Italian styles, now so generally, indeed almost universally, adopted for such buildings: 
 it is no more expensive than other descriptions of ornamental building. With the ex- 
 ception of those I have erected, I do not remember having seen above three or four true 
 Swiss buildings in the kingdom, though my travels, as you are aware, have not been 
 confined to a few counties ; no doubt there are many others, but they have not come 
 under my observation. A suitable situation is of great importance to a Swiss cottage, 
 but such may generally be found in an undulating, and always in a hilly, country. The 
 edge of a steep bank, whether natural or artificial, is very appropriate. The slopes of 
 railway cuttings and embankments are features that point out this style as suitable for 
 small station-houses, if quite in the country ; but there the character of the masses and 
 the detail must receive more attention than railway engineers (who generally reject the 
 architect's aid) are in the habit of devoting to their miscalled Gothic structures, which 
 have become the laughing-stocks of every person conversant with the true principles of 
 Gothic architecture. — R. V. February 3. 1842. 
 
 Design III. — A Gate- Lodge and Gates. By F. H. 
 The elevation of the lodge is shown in fig. 2080., and of the gates in fig. 20hl. 
 
 2286. The Accommodation is shown in the ground plan, fig. 2079., and consists of a 
 living-room, a ; sleeping-room, 6 ; back-kitchen, c ; two closets, d, e; place for fuel and 
 lumber, /; and privy, g. 
 
 2287. Remarks. The exterior captivates at^the first glance by its air of simplicity 
 and elegance, produced by the general forms 
 and lines, the arches rising from the columns, 
 the arched windows, and the projecting eaves 
 and chimney shafts, which are taller and 
 much more elegant in the original than in our 
 figure. So far the general design is good ; 
 but the artist has failed in his manner of con- 
 struction ; in a word, the materials he has 
 used are not homogeneous. The walls are of 
 plain brickwork, with stone dressings (or 
 which, with respect to effect, is the same thing, 
 and quite unobjectionable, dressings of cement 
 in imitation of stone), and a freestone pronaos 
 or porch, consisting of an arcade of three 
 arches, of a very solid character, without archi- 
 
116^ FIRST ADDITIONAL SUPPLEMENT. 
 
 volt (an archivolt is the architrave of an arch) mouldings. Under this heavy mass of 
 finished masonry, represented in coloured cement, three columns with the bark on, 
 which may be taken for shores or props, are placed, provisionally, as it would appear, 
 till the stone columns are prepared to take their place. To see a mass of stone or 
 brickwork supported by props of wood, even though the latter should be hewn, is 
 unsatisfactory even in the wall of a common shed or cottage ; but to see green wood with 
 the bark on used in a regular architectural design, is contrary to all ideas of fitness and 
 propriety. The stone or compo arches over the green wood columns are without 
 
 dressings though with keystones ; whereas, to be consistent with the windows, they 
 ought, like them, to have had archivolts as well as keystones. We think these objec- 
 tions unanswerable, and yet perhaps it is hardly fair to make them, for the artist, in all 
 probability, intends, or intended originally, to clothe the wooden columns with cement, 
 and to put cement architraves over the arches. This may yet be done, and then the 
 building, as far as seen in the elevation before us, would, in our opinion, be unobjec- 
 tionable. The gate is handsome ; the piers and their terminations are designed in a 
 style adapted for being executed in wood, and not in stone, as are the forms which we 
 sometimes see given to wooden piers. We have not stated the name of the architect of 
 this lodge, nor the place where it is erected, lest by any means we should give offence ; 
 more especially as we requested the permission of both parties, whom we highly respect, 
 to publish the design. 
 
 Design IV. Gate-Lodge at Ravensworth Castle. By the Hon. Thomas Liddel. 
 
 The elevation is shown in figs. 2082. and 2084., and the ground plan in fig. 2083. 
 
 2288. The Accommodation shown in the latter is a porch, a ; living-room, b ; bed- 
 room, c ; pantry, d ; and back lobby, e. The other conveniences are in a detached 
 building. 
 
DESIGNS FOR ORNAMENTAL COTTAGES. Il63 
 
 2084 
 
 The walls are of stone, and two feet thick ; and the pitch of the roof is high, in order 
 to throw off the wet quickly, and it is covered with tiles, which are perfectly weather- 
 tight, and proof against any force of wind. The form 
 of the tile is shown in fig. 2085., and the appearance of 
 a portion of roof covered by them in fig, 2086. It will 
 be seen by fig. 2085., which shows only one tile, that the 
 semi -cylindrical part and the flat part of each tile are 
 moulded and cast together. The material of which the 
 tiles are formed is the Mulgrave cement, mixed with 
 coarse grit, in the proportion of equal parts of each. 
 The composition, after being put in the mould, sets in 
 a quarter of an hour. Each tile is eighteen inches 
 square, and it laps over the adjoining tile about three 
 inches, which renders the roof very little heavier than 
 one of ordinary slate, and perfectly water-tight. 
 
 2289. Remarks. We were struck with the hand- 
 some and substantial appearance of this lodge, when 
 in the neighbourhood of Durham in the autumn of 1841 ; 
 and having heard that it was designed by the Honourable Thomas Liddel, we applied 
 to him, and he kindly sent us the sketches from which the engravings have been made. 
 Mr. Liddel is an amateur 
 architect, whose architec- 
 tural knowledge and taste 
 are such, as to enable him 
 to design and superin- 
 tend the execution of the 
 additions which have been 
 making for several years 
 past to Ravensworth Cas- 
 tle, the seat of his noble father. The elevations of the gate-lodge are far from doing 
 justice to the originals, from the roofs not showing the peculiar character given by this 
 description of tile. 
 
1164^ FIRST ADDITIONAL SUPPLEMENT. 
 
 Design V. —A Cottage in the Style of the Wingfield Station- House, on the North Midland 
 Railwaij. By Francis Thompson, Esq., Architect to the North Midland Railway 
 Company. 
 
 The elevation, on the supposition that there is a bed-room Hoor, will be as in fig. 2087. ; 
 or should there be no bed-room floor, as in fig. 2089. 
 
DESIGNS FOR ORNAMENTAL COTTAGES. 
 
 1165 
 
 2290. The Ac- 
 commodation is 
 shown in the 
 ground plan, fig. 
 2088., in which 
 a represents a 
 terrace ; 6, a ve- 
 randa ; c, the 
 entrance-door ; d, 
 living-room ; e, 
 scullery ; /, bed- 
 room ; g, bed- 
 room ; h, dairy ; 
 
 i, pantry ; k, yard ; I, piggery ; m, cow-house ; m, coals ; o, privy ; p, liquid-manure 
 tank ; q, dust; r, dairy; s, garden; ttt, flower-beds ; m, terrace steps. 
 
 2291. Remarks. This will form a very comfortable cottage, as well as a handsome 
 one. The arrangement is good, particularly that of the detached offices. The two 
 parallelogram flower-beds are not of forms that harmonise very well with the situations, 
 but that is not the fault of Mr. Thompson, as the alterations were made by our 
 draughtsman. 
 
 By Francis 
 
 Design VI. — A Cottage in the Style of the Eckington Railway Station. 
 
 Thompson, Esq., Architect. 
 The elevation is shown in fig. 2091. 
 
 2292. The Accommoda- 2090 
 tion is shown in fig. 2090. , 
 in which a is a terrace ; h, 
 a porch ; c, a living-room ; 
 d and e, bed-rooms; /, 
 scullery ; g, pantry ; h, 
 dairy ; i, coals, &c. ; k, 
 passage leading to the 
 privy ; I, privy ; m, cow- 
 house ; n, liquid manure ; 
 0, dung ; p, pigs. 
 
 2293. Remarks. The 
 plan and elevation are both 
 original and handsome, and 
 the arrangement of the of- 
 fices admirable. This de- 
 sign and the others contri- 
 buted by Mr. Thompson 
 are very different in cha- 
 racter from ornamented 
 cottages generally. They 
 appear to us admirably 
 adapted for the dwellings ^ 
 of persons connected with 
 public or national works, 
 such as railroads, canals, 
 public parks, promenades, 
 gardens, &c. ; and they 
 would also be very suit- 
 able for country public- 
 houses along main roads. 
 With an additional room 
 or two, any one of them 
 might be rendered fit for 
 the occupation of a gentle- 
 man with a small family. 
 We cannot sufficiently express our admiration of the public spirit of the directors of 
 the North Midland Railway, in causing the erection of such architectural gems along 
 their line of works. They are great ornaments of themselves, and as they will be seen 
 by many thousands of all ranks, and remain, it is to be hoped, for several generations 
 standard models of cultivated design, they can hardly fail greatly to improve the gene- 
 ral taste of the country. Even the mechanics who have worked at their construction 
 
 6 z 
 
11 ()6 
 
 FIRST ADDITIONAL SUPPLEMENT. 
 
 must have had their ideas enlarnjcd, lu i in i m i m i, ,,i i, s u tiiicd ])y them. We 
 wish we could see the same spirit actuating the directors of all railroads, the result of 
 which would he, provided some attention were paid to the verdant scenery on the banks, 
 the most interesting public ways in the world. 
 
 Design VII. — A Cottage in the modern Italian Style. By Francis Thompson, Esq., 
 
 Architect. 
 
 The elevation is shown in fig. 2092. 
 
 2092 
 
 2294. The Accommodation is shown in fig. 20D:L, in which a is a terrace ; h, porch 
 
 2093 
 
DESIGNS FOR ORNAMENTAL COTTAGES. llGj 
 
 c, living-room ; d, scullery ; e and /, bed-rooms ; g, pantry j h, dairy ; i, cow ; k, pig 
 I, privy ; m, liquid manure ; n, coals ; o, dtmg ; p, yard ; and q, garden. ^ 
 
 2295. Remarks. The arrangement is remarkably good, and the elevation elegant. 
 
 Design VI 1 1. — A Cottage in the Style of the Belper Railway Station. By Francis 
 
 Thompson, Esq. 
 
 The elevation is shown in fig. 2094. 
 
 2296. Accommodation. Fig. 2095., which is to a scale of twenty-five feet to an inch, 
 shows a, terrace ; b, living-room ; c, scullery ; d and e, bed-rooms ; /, dairy ; g, pantry ; 
 h, piggery ; i, cow-house ; k, coals ; I, yard ; m, garden j n, privy ; o, liquid manure ; 
 p, dust ; q, dung ; r, back entrance. 
 
 1/ I i ^ I 
 
 2297. Remarks. The plan is commodious, and the elevation simple and grand. To 
 render this residence fit for a gentleman, we have only to turn b and c into living-rooms ; 
 f and g into bed-rooms ; d into a kitchen ; h and k into a pantry and dairy, or a ser- 
 vant's bed-room and pantry ; i into a bed-room ; and e into a general dressing-room 
 and cloak and boot room ; a very convenient room in the country, where the master 
 and his friends are much out of doors, and where visitors are received without much 
 ceremony. The cow-house, i, may be placed in the yard, adjoining p, and if a cow is 
 not kept it may be used as a stable, and a gig-house may be built adjoining it. The 
 place for coals, k, may be transferred to the space between the porch, r, and the window 
 to d. The piggery may be placed in the yard, beside n. We have now a very comfort- 
 
1168 
 
 FIRST ADDITIONAL SUPPLEMENT. 
 
 able small house, with a yard in which any additional offices may be erected that are 
 thought necessary. If the yard is enclosed by walls there should be a broad border for 
 flowers and ornamental climbers ; and, if it is enclosed by a hedge, there ought to be 
 ornamental standard trees in it, and flowers and roses in the border. If any plants are 
 trained against the house they ought to be confined to the plain spaces between the 
 quoins and the architraves, so as not to interfere with architectural forms and lines ; in- 
 deed, as a general rule, all edifices that show much of architectural design should be 
 left free from plants. If a few are introduced in any plain part, that part should first 
 be covered with a wooden trellis painted of a stone colour, on which to train the plants. 
 The subject of training plants, and especially vines and fruit trees, on cottage walls and 
 roofs, will be found treated of at length in our Suburban Horticulturist. 
 
 Design IX. — A Cuttafie in the Style of the Ambergate Railway Station. By Francis 
 Thompson, Esq., Architect. 
 The elevation is shown in fig. 2096. 
 
 2096 
 
 2298. Accommodation. Fig. 2097. shows a porch, a ; passage, h ; living-room, c 
 staircase, rf; bed-room, e; scullery,/; dairy, ^e; pantry, A ; back-entrance, 2. 
 
 z299. liemarks. Tliis 
 design is chiefly remark- 
 able for the elevation, 
 which is surpassingly 
 handsome. Those who 
 wish to see beautiful en- 
 gravings of the railway 
 stations which form the 
 types for these five de- 
 signs should have re- 
 course to Mr. Thomp- 
 son's splendid work enti- 
 tled Railway Stations, 
 folio, 1842, 25s. This 
 work also contains en- 
 gravings of three other 
 beautiful station houses, 
 on the same line of rail- 
 road, besides the splen- 
 did terminus at Derby, 
 which is upwards of one 
 thousand feet in length, 
 and replete with every 
 convenience required in 
 such a structure. 
 
DESIGNS FOR ORNAMENTAL COTTAGES. 
 
 1169 
 
 Design X. — The Edensor Gate- Lodges and Gates at Chatsworth. By the late Sir JefFry 
 Wyatville, Architect. The Description by John Robertson, Esq., Architect, Chats- 
 worth. 
 
 The elevation of one of the lodges is shown in fig. 2098., and of both, together with 
 the gates, in fig. 2099. The ground plans are shown in figs. 2100. and 2101. 
 2300. Description. Fig. 1 ts, ^ 
 
 2098 
 
 2100. is the plan of an old 
 English lodge, built of 
 bricks and timber, as shown 
 in fig. 2098. In this plan, 
 a is a covered way or open 
 porch ; b, porch ; c, lobby 
 or inner porch ; d, parlour ; 
 e, stairs ; /, pantry ; g, 
 another pantry ; h, a recess ^ 
 from the living-room, z ; k, ^} 
 kitchen ; privies ; to, shed 
 round the piggeries ; n, 
 
 yard ; o, gate to yard. Two families live in this house, which accounts for the two 
 pantries, and the parlour d is converted into a living-room. 
 
 Fig. 2101. is an Italian lodge, shown in the right side of fig. 2099., built of stone : 
 « is the entrance-porch, open ; b, porch ; c, lobby and staircase ; d, living-room ; e. 
 
 2100 
 
 2101 
 
 parlour ; /, kitchen ; g, pantry ; h, lobby and back-door ; i, covered way to privy, k ; 
 I, shed including pigsties ; m, yard ; n, gate to yard ; p, road leading to Pilsley and Bake- 
 well ; q, road to Edensor Inn ; r, gate ; s, road to Edensor and Chatsworth. Both 
 houses have chambers over the lower rooms. 
 
 2301. Remarks. These lodges were both built from designs by the late Sir J. Wyat- 
 ville : they were finished in October, 1839. They have no merit in an architectural 
 
liyO FIRST ADDITIONAL SUPPLEMENT. 
 
 point of view 5 l)ut tlie one is historically interesting^, fis showing the kind of building 
 which was formerly constructed of timber framing filled in with bricks, in no very scien- 
 tific manner ; and the other is a specimen of what, twenty years ago, was reckoned the 
 Italian manner. Such, however, is the grandeur of the scenery where they are placed, 
 and to which the road leads, that these lodges escape critical notice. " There are two 
 handsome lodges at the Baslow entrance to the park, nearly completed. They are also 
 from designs by the late Sir Jeffry. They are built of beautiful rubbed or polished 
 stone in the modern Italian style. Two are likewise to be built at the Beely entrance. 
 These lodges were the last productions of Sir Jeflfry for Chatsworth. An entrance- 
 lodge to the village of Edensor is now being built in the castellated style: it is one of 
 mine. — J. R. Chatsworth, March 15. 1842." 
 
 Designs XI. to XIV. — Four Ornamental Cottages, with the same Accommodation as in 
 the Model Cottaye No. I., p. 1141. By E. B. Lamb, Esq., F.I.B. A. 
 
 2302. Design XI., of which fig. 2102. is the elevation, and fig. 2103. the ground 
 
 plan, is in the Scotch style, and characterised by steep roofs, slated, and with the gable 
 walls furnished with what are called crow steps. The ground plan contains a porch a, 
 adjoining which is the staircase ; a kitchen, b ; best room, c; bed-room, d; back- 
 kitchen, e ; pantry, / ; dairy, g ; poultry-house or oven-house, h ; and cow-house, i. 
 The rest is supposed to be as in the agricultural model cottage. This design may be 
 
DESIGNS FOR ORNAMENTAL COTTAGES. 1171 
 
 considered as an example of the Scotch style, ennobled by the grandeur of the propor- 
 tions, and by the projection of the chimney from the gable wall ; a feature never seen m 
 the unimproved Scotch cottage, but one, as we have elsewhere observed, essential to 
 cultivated architectural expression. 
 
 2303. Design XII., of which fig. 2105. is the elevation, and fig. 2104. the plan, is in 
 the Italian style. The accommodation is much the same as in the model cottage No. T., 
 
 but somewhat differently arranged. The plan shows a porch, a ; passage, 6; kitchen, 
 c ; two bed-rooms, d, e ; back-kitchen, / ; pantry, g ; dairy, h ; and cow-house and pig- 
 sty, i, k. The other appendages are as in the model cottage. 
 
 2304. Design XIII., the elevation of which is shown in fig. 2106., is adapted for 
 a plan nearly the same as in the model cottage, but without a porch, or, rather, with 
 the porch inside of the house. The walls in this design are shown of great thickness, 
 
 which renders it suitable for being executed in rough stone, in compressed earth, or in 
 in cob ; or, where woi'kmen can be induced to take the trouble, in hollow walls of 
 brick on edge, two feet in thickness, and filled in with concrete or with a mixture of 
 clay and lime. Where a cottage is only one story high, we greatly prefer thick walls of 
 earth, on a solid foundation of brick or stone, to walls nine inches or a foot in thick- 
 ness, built of brick, or of any other material whatever, on account of their great 
 warmth. Such walls may always be finished within, in as good a style as brick or 
 stone walls ; as a proof of which we have only to refer to the houses built of com- 
 pressed earth at Woburn Abbey. 
 
 2305. Design XIV., of which fig. 2107. is the elevation, is a cottage of two stories, 
 containing exactly the same accommodation as the model cottage No. L, but in a 
 substantial massive style, and with the stack of chimneys carried up in a small 
 tower. 
 
117^ FIRST ADDITIONAL SUPPLEMENT. 
 
 2107 
 
 2306. Remarks. These designs are given to show how the liuinblest dwellinpf may 
 be ennobled, when it passes through the hands of an architect of genius like Mr. Lamb. 
 It will be observed, that in all of them the ornament is bestowed on the essential parts 
 of the construction, such as the porch, chimney tops, doors, windows, gables, &c., and 
 not tacked on the naked parts of the walls, Jis frequently practised by architects and 
 amateurs, who do not know the difference between covering an object with ornaments, 
 and enriching it. 
 
 Design XV. — A Cottage in the Style of HerioVs Hospital, EJinhuryh. By John 
 
 Henderson, p]s(|.. Architect. 
 The elevation is shown in fig. 21 OS. 
 
 2307. Accomnio- ^ 2108 
 dation. The plan, 
 fig. 2109., shows a 
 porch, a ; a lobby, 
 fe; a living-room, c; 
 a kitchen, rf; back- 
 kitchen, c ; a pan- 
 try, /; dairy, .9; a 
 bed closet, h ; store 
 closet, i ; fuel, k ; 
 cow-house, / ; pig, 
 m ; yard, n ; privy, 
 o ; liquid manure, 
 p ; dust and dung, q. 
 
 2308. Remarks. 
 The inhabitants of 
 Edinburgh are 
 great admirers of 
 this style of archi- 
 tecture, which no 
 
 man understands better than Mr. Henderson ; as his very beautiful design for a seed-shop, 
 connected with an agricultural museum, erected, the former for Mr. Lawson, and the 
 latter for the Highland Society of Scotland, on the Regent's Bridge, Edinburgh, 
 sufficiently proves. No person of taste can have visited Edinburgh without having 
 been struck by that splendid edifice, Heriot's Hospital, which is the central building of an 
 institution for the gratuitous education of natives of Edinburgh. Fortunately the 
 institution is rich, and the trustees have been enabled to erect branch schools indifferent 
 
DESIGNS FOR ORNAMENTAL COTTAGES. 
 
 1173 
 
 parts of the city, and 
 these, with all the 
 farm buildings and 
 cottage dwellings on 
 their extensive landed 
 estates, when rebuilt, 
 are erected in the 
 style of the parent 
 building. This, we 
 think, evinces much 
 propriety and good 
 taste on the part 
 of the trustees, and 
 cannot fail, by the ex- 
 ample which it exhi- 
 bits, to have a favour- 
 able influence on the 
 general progress of 
 improvement in agri- 
 cultural buildings, 
 schools, and labourers' 
 cottages. In Mr. Law- 
 son's seed-shop, every 
 part of the fixtures and 
 fittings-up, and even 
 the furniture, partakes 
 of the style of the ex- 
 terior ; and, in short, 
 it is, we believe, the 
 most complete seed- 
 shop in the world. 
 
 Heriot's Hospital was built in the beginning of the seventeenth century, and the archi- 
 tect is commonly said to be Inigo Jones, and the style that of James VI. or Elizabeth. 
 Many competent judges, however, are of opinion that Inigo Jones was not the architect, 
 the style of that artist partaking much more of the Roman and the Italian, as it existed 
 in his time, than of what we now call Elizabethan. According to Hakewell, in his 
 Attempt to determine the exact Character of Elizabethan Architecture (8vo, 1835), the 
 Elizabethan style, or, as its earliest manifestations are called, the style of James VI., 
 is a modification of the cinque-cento style of Italy. This style, he says, is wholly un- 
 mixed with Gothic forms or Gothic enrichments ; it has not the ornamented gable, the 
 bay, or the oriel window, of the domestic Gothic, for these were all in common use 
 long before : but it consists of a number of forms more easily executed than those of 
 either the Grecian or the Gothic styles ; and we may add that these forms were chiefly 
 such as could be delineated by the aid of the rule and compasses. A great many 
 Elizabethan houses were erected by John Thorpe, and there is a MS. book of plans 
 and elevations by this architect in the Soanean Library : the plans and elevations are 
 neatly drawn, but, wherever the smallest attempt is made to introduce ornament, or the 
 human figure, it is not above the execution of the most ordinary mechanic. Architects, 
 in those days, were not, as they frequently now are, good artists. Hence, as we have 
 just hinted, all the ornaments and ornam>ental finishings in the Elizabethan style con- 
 sist of combinations of geometrical curves and circles with straight lines, angles, and 
 cubes. The Elizabethan style, Mr. Hakewell continues, may be classed under two 
 divisions ; the first, or proper, being the cinque-cento style of Italy, as introduced at 
 Longleat and part of Hatfield ; and the second, or lower order, that in which, as far 
 as possible, the same forms were observed, but the decoration and enrichment confined 
 to such figures as the common mason or joiner could execute, as at Wollaton, Dorton, 
 and many other mansions. It would thus appear that the Elizabethan style, like every 
 other, arose out of a sort of necessity, viz., that of adapting the style of ornament to the 
 means of getting it carried into execution. In the present day the revival of this style 
 pleases by its novelty, and the skill of modern artists has carried it out to such an extent 
 as greatly to increase its beauty, and its distinctive characteristics as a style. 
 
 Design XVL — The Dairy Lodge erected at Chequers Court, Buckinghamshire, for 
 Sir Rohert Frankland Rtisselly Bart. By E. B. Lamb, Esq., F.I.B. A. 
 2309. The Chequers Dairy Lodge, of which fig. 2110. is an elevation, and fig. 2111. a 
 plan, is placed near the entrance to the beautiful valley called the Velvet Lawn, at 
 
1174 
 
 FIRST ADDITIONAL SUPPLEMENT. 
 
 the ancient seat of Chequers, in Buckinghamshire, for the protection of the property in 
 this situation, and also as a dwelling for an upper servant. It is about a mile from the 
 mansion, and a few yards from a beautiful and plentiful supply of water. 
 
 2.S10. The Lodge contains on the ground floor a porch, a; sitting-room, h; kitchen, c; 
 passage, d; pant'-y, c; and back entrance, /. On the one-pair floor are three bed- rooms. 
 The lodge is surrounded by a garden, s ; and from the back entrance, by the path g, 
 there is a communication to the dairy. Tiiere is a privy, /*, with a cesspool behind, 
 open at top ; i is a wood and coal house ; k, a churning-room ; /, passage and steps 
 descending to the dairy ; m, the dairy, the floor of which is three feet below the surface 
 of the ground. 
 
 The walls of the ground floor of the cottage are built with brick and flints in chequered 
 courses, flint being one of the common building materials of tins part of the country. 
 The sills of the windows, and the arches of the porch and back door, are of IJath stone. 
 The walls of the upper floor are forined of timber framing, covered with ornamental tiles 
 on the outside and plastered within. The verge-boards and pinnacles, also all the 
 muUions of the windows, are of INIemel timber, and painted to imitate oak. The tiling 
 is coloured to harmonise witli tlie other materials, and the roof is thatched. The whole 
 of the woodwork is prepared by Kyan's process ; and, indeed, all the woodwork for the 
 buildings recently erected and now erecting on this property is prepared in this manner, 
 a tank having been formed for that purpose. 
 
 2S11 . The Dairy, fig. 2111., m, is fitted up with stone shelves on three sides, and paved 
 with tiles : the window is in the north side ; and, when it is necessary to admit air, the 
 casement only is opened, gauze wire being fixed to keep out the flies. On the south 
 side, externally, every alternate rafter of the roof is continued down, so as to form a lean-to 
 shed, in order to keep the sun off the wall as much as possible ; and under this shed, 
 close to the ceiling of the dairy, are openings for ventilation. The shed is also useful 
 for placing pans, tubs, &c., to dry and season. It is covered with tiles, as in this situa- 
 tion thatch would be liable to be injured by the cows. The other part of the roof is 
 thatched. The walls of the dairy are built hollow. 
 
 2312. The Poultry-houses, n n, with a dove-house over them, adjoin the dairy. The 
 cow-house and pigsties form a group by themselves. The cow-house is erected with 
 unbarked timber, and covered with thatch ; o are the cow-stalls ; /), calf-pen, which is 
 made large enough to serve as an occasional stall for a horse ; q q, pigsties and yards ; 
 and r the yard to the cow-house, poultry, &c. This building is erected entirely with 
 unbarked timber, principally larch, and some beech. Young trees, from six inches to 
 nine inches in diameter, are sawn down the middle, and placed in upright, horizontal, 
 and diagonal forms, so as to produce an ornamental appearance. The whole of the 
 timber was cut down near the spot, and cut to the proper lengths and Kyanised. The 
 thatching is also Kyanised. This is a mere experiment. As the thatch absorbs a con- 
 siderable quantity of the liquid, the expense is greater than that of Kyanising timber. 
 The lodge is surrounded with a fence of wood in the same character as the building. 
 The posts have ornamental caps. The fence of the yard is of unbarked larch. 
 
DESIGNS FOR ORNAMENTAL COTTAGES. 1175 
 
1176 
 
 FIRST ADDITIONAL SUPPLEMENT. 
 
 Designs XVII. — XXV. The Cottages in Cassiohury Park. 
 
 2313. The late Earl of Essex ioo\i great delight in iin})roving the cottages on his 
 estate at Cassiohury, and many of them were built or improved from his own designs. 
 The following views and plans were published by Mr. Britton, in his very elegant and 
 interesting History of Cassiohury Park, published in 1837 ; and to that gentleman we are 
 indebted for the use of the engravings. " In different ])arts of the park and grounds," 
 Mr. Britton observes, " are various cottages and lodges, which are distinguished at once 
 for their exterior picturesque features, and for the domestic comfort they afford to their 
 humble occupants. Unlike the ragged wretched sheds and hovels which are too often 
 seen by the road side, and even in connexion with some of the large and ancient parks of 
 our island, the buildings here delineated are calculated to shelter, to console, and gratify 
 the labourer after his daily toil, and to make his wife and family cleanly and diligent. 
 The cottages at Cassiohury have been designed with the twofold object of being both 
 useful and ornamental. They are occupied, exempt from rent and taxes, by men and 
 women who are employed by the noble landlord in various offices about the park, the 
 gardens, and the house ; thus, the jjark-keeper, a gaine-keei)er, a shejjherd, a lodge- 
 keeper, a gardener, a car])entcr, a miller, a lock-keeper, <!lc., are accommodated." 
 
 In the interior arrangement of these cottages, most of them contain a porch, a sitting- 
 room, one or two bed-rooms, and a wash-house, with an oven and copjjer. 
 
 2.314. Design XVII. — Great Bitch Tret Cnttayt. Fig. 2112. is a plan of Great 
 Beech Tree Cottage, which, being of larger extent than the others, an(l highly orna- 
 mented exteriorly, may be considered in the light of a cottage ornee. It has live rooms 
 on the ground floor, and others up stairs. The ground plan contains, a, sitting-room ; 
 /<, bed-room ; r, porch and passage ; d, sitting-room ; c, housekeeper's room ; /, pantry ; 
 y, cellar; /<, back entrance; », kitchen ; k, porcii. 
 
 231 5. Design XVII I. — Ridye Lane Cottage. Fig. 21 1 3. is Ridge Lane Cottage, which 
 is of two stories, each appropriated to a family. In the elevation of this cottage (not 
 given) there is a porch of entrance for the family who occupy the ground floor, and a 
 porch at the toj) of an outside staircase, for the occupant of the upper floor. The ground 
 
 r^^gg^^^^^^ plan contains, a, kitchen ; h, sitting-room ; c, bed-room ; 
 d, wash-house, oven, &c. ; e, pantry ; /, staircase to a floor for 
 ^ another family ; g, porch. 
 
 231 6. Design XIX. — London Entrance Lodge to Cassiohury. 
 Fig. 2114. is the entrance lodge for two families, in which 
 a and g are sitting-rooms ; h, staircase; c, entrance; d, wood- 
 house ; e, passage, with dwarf wall ; f, gates ; h, octagon 
 staircase to bed-room ; i, wash-house. This cottage forms the 
 lodge to the London entrance, and is understood to have been 
 partly the design of Wyatt, and partly of the earl. It certainly 
 forms a very handsome group. The massive gates are hung 
 with Collins's hinges, and move so easily that they may be 
 opened or shut by a child. 
 
DESIGNS FOR ORNAMENTAL COTTAGES. 1177 
 
 2317. Design XX The Park- Keeper's Cottage. Fig. 2115. is a ground plan 
 
 of the park-keeper's cottage, in which a is a slaughter-house ; &, a dairy and larder ; c, 
 a sitting-room ; d, kitchen ; e, entrance ; /, porch ; and g, staircase. 
 
 2318. Design XXI. — Thorn Cottage, Fig. 2117. is a ground plan of Thorn Cottage, 
 in which a is the sitting-room ; h, bakehouse and scullery ; c, privy ; d, cellar ; e, shed 
 over well ; f, porch and covered way. 
 
 2319. Design XXII. — The Shepherd's or Keeper's Lodge. Fig. 2116. is the shep- 
 herd's or keeper's lodge, in which a is the sitting-room ; 6, wood-house ; c, wash-house 
 and oven ; d, pantry ; e, staircase ; porch. 
 
 2320. Design XXIII. — The Russell Farm Lodge. Fig. 2118. is called Russell Farm 
 Lodge, and is erected at the entrance to Russell Farm, by the side of the public road 
 between Watford and Berkhampstead. Russell Farm is occupied by General Sir 
 Charles Colville, Bart., who rents it from the Earl of Essex. The ground plan con- 
 tains, a, back porch ; h, kitchen ; c, sitting-room ; c?, bed-room ; e, wash-house, &c. ; 
 /, front porch, with seat. 
 
 2118 
 
 232 L Design 'XT^W.—RusseU Cottage. Fig. 2119. is Russell Cottage, for two la- 
 bourers' families. The ground plan contains, for the one cottage, a porch, a; sitting-room, 
 6; staircase, c; wash-house, c?; and oven and copper common to both cottages, e. The 
 other cottage contains a wash-house, communicating with a room containing the 
 common oven and boiler; a living-room, h; stairs to the bed- room, g ; and porch,/ 
 
 2322. Design XXV. — Cassio-hridge Cottage. Fig. 2120. is Cassio-bridge Cot- 
 tage, for two labourers' families. The walls of this cottage are covered with split hazel, and 
 other rods, the flat side being applied to the walls, and the bark exhibited externally to 
 the weather and the eye. The pieces are all of the same diameter, but of diflferent 
 lengths, and they are arranged so as to throw the surface into panels, variously composed, 
 in the manner of the Duke of Marlborough's garden structures at White Knights. 
 
1178 FIRST ADDITIONAL SUPPLEMENT. 
 
 The ground plan of each of these cottages 
 shows exactly the same accommodation as 
 in the Russell Cottage ; viz. two porches, 
 a, j ; two living-rooms, h, h ; two stairs, c, 
 g ; two wash-houses, c?,/; an oven and 
 boiler room common to both houses, e. 
 
 2323. Remarks. There is much to ad- 
 mire in the arrangement of the plans of 
 these cottages ; though there are none of 
 them that might not be improved, if we 
 apply the tests of the model cottages. 
 Nevertheless, they afford excellent hints for 
 composition, and do great credit to the me- 
 mory of the late Earl of Essex, who was a 
 man of great taste, as well as of active 
 benevolence ; his chief enjoyment, for the 
 latter years of his life, consisting in seeing 
 every one about him happy. 
 
 Design XXVI.— ^ Gate- Lodge or Cottage. By G. B. W, 
 
 2324. The front or principal Elevation is shown in fig. 2121. ; the other elevations, 
 being of less importance, are not given. Fig. 2122. is the ground plan, in which 
 
 2120 
 
 a is the porch; b, the living-room, or parlour, sixteen feet by twelve feet ; c, the 
 kitchen, sixteen feet by thirteen feet ; and d, a bed-room, fourteen feet by ten feet. 
 
DESIGNS FOR ORNAMENTAL COTTAGES. 1179 
 
 2325. Remarks. This plan is deficient in not having a back-kitchen or a pantry, 
 and also in the access to the stairs being through the best room. 
 
 Design XXVII.— ^ Turnpike Lodge. By A. C. 
 
 The front elevation is shown in fig. 2125., and the side elevation in fig. 2124. 
 
 2326. The Plan is shown in fig. 2 1 23. The room a is fifteen feet six inches by six feet ; one 
 side is to be used for 
 
 depositing the money 
 and keeping the tickets, 
 and on the other side 
 there is room for a chair 
 or two, for the accom- 
 modation of any person 
 that might be waiting 
 for the stages. The 
 room h is intended, in 
 the daytime, for the 
 collector to eat his meals 
 in, and at night as a 
 bed-room, having a 
 turn-up bedstead ; c is 
 a closet ; d, a water-clo- 
 set. 
 
 2327. Bemarks. The 
 marking of the stones in 
 the architrave is de- 
 ficient in the semblance 
 of truth ; half of them 
 appearing to rest on the 
 
 wall and not on the ' — ' — ' — ' — ' — ' ' -""^ 
 
 pilasters ; and the defective construction in this part is aggravated by its being con- 
 spicuously exhibited in the arches in the wall below, where it ought not to have ap- 
 peared ; since ostensibly 
 these walls have no 
 weight to bear, and 
 might, in fact, accord- 
 ing to the principle of 
 Grecian construction, 
 have been of earth. In 
 other respects the de- 
 sign may pass, though 
 the clock in the front 
 elevation ought to have 
 been placed on a raised 
 panel or frame, and 
 there ought to have 
 been a panel for the 
 name of the gate-keeper 
 on the frieze over the 
 door; and another at 
 the end, between the 
 pilasters, for the toll- 
 regulations. "What we 
 mean will be, perhaps, 
 better understood from 
 the following remarks on the buildings at the railway stations. We greatly admire 
 the expression of purpose in the bridges and other buildings connected with the rail- 
 ways, but instead of having the name of the station painted sometimes on one part 
 of the structure, and sometimes on another, we would have had it sculptured on a 
 conspicuous part of the front, especially designed and peculiarly characterised for that 
 purpose; and we would have had the name itself in sunk or in raised letters ; coloured, 
 if it should have been thought necessary, but, at all events, formed either by sinking or 
 in relief. At most of the railroad stations there are large boards, on which are painted 
 regulations, or other information relative to matters connected with the railroad ; 
 and as these regulations may be supposed to be occasionally altered, we would still 
 
1180 
 
 FIRST ADDITIONAL SUPPLEMENT. 
 
 '2125 
 
 continue to have them painted 
 on boards ; but we would form 
 panels on raised surfaces in 
 which these boards should be 
 fixed, or slipped in, in the same 
 way as a picture is slipped into 
 a frame. The panels should be 
 made sufficiently large to ad- 
 mit of a larger board than might 
 l)e wanted at the time the sta- 
 tion-house was built, in order 
 to provide room for additional 
 regulations that may be sup- 
 posed to become necessary as 
 the traffic on the railway in- 
 creases ; but the board, whether 
 covered with lines or not, should 
 always be sufficiently large to 
 fill the whole of the panel. 
 
 We would carry this principle 
 of rendering writing arcliitee- 
 tural to turnpike-houses and 
 gates, and to the signs and 
 names of inns, public-houses, 
 
 and shops; to names on the gates of niaiiuliictories ; to those on private doors ; to the 
 names of gentlemen's seats, which, wc tliink, ouglit to be sculptured on sunk or 
 raised jjanels or shields on their entrance-lodges or gates; to the names of cottages and 
 villages; and, in short, to every architectural structure where a name was re(|uired or 
 wouid l)e usjful. Had the art of writing been coeval with that of architecture, there is 
 little doubt that writing would have been introduced on buildings in an architectural 
 manner, as ornaments of leaves and flowers have been, and as writing is on ecclesiastical 
 buildings in the Gothic style. In this style the very character of the letters is archi- 
 tectural, and the words are always jjlaced on scrolls or labels. It is for the modern 
 artist to introduce writing on edifices artistically, and, in doing so, to produce sometliing 
 superior to the mode of putting the hieroglypliics on the Egyptian toinl)s or obelisks ; 
 or the letters on the jambs of the shop-doors in Pompeii, or over the doors and windows 
 of shoj)s in modern towns; something, in short, analogous to what is done in the Gothic 
 style of lettering. ( (.'anl. May. for lH-12, p. .GO.) 
 
 Tlie design fig. 2I'2(>. was made for a gate-lodge to a private road through a demesne, 
 and is very suitable for such a purpose, though by no means so for the gale-lodge of a 
 ])ublic road, 'i'he 
 
 latter seems to 
 require a more 
 severe style of 
 architecture, more 
 durable materials, 
 and a more per- 
 manent manner of 
 putting these to- 
 gether. There is 
 a curious omission 
 in figure 2126., 
 viz., that of the 
 verge-board,while 
 the hip-knop, or 
 finial and pendant, 
 are inserted both 
 in the gable end 
 and porch, with- 
 out any meaning 
 whatever. " Tiie 
 
 212G 
 
 [verge-boards, or] barge-boards, of gables were intended to cover and preserve the ends 
 of the purloins and covering of the roof, which projected over to shelter the front of the 
 building. The hip-knop which terminated the ancient gables was, in reality, a king- 
 post fixed at the junction of the barge-boards, and into which they were tenanted." 
 (P»qi7is Christian Architecture,]^. 39.) 
 
DESIGNS FOR ORNAMENTAL COTTAGES. 1181 
 
 Design XXVIII. — A Cyclopean Cottage. By William Wells, Esq. 
 2328. The term Cyclopean, as here used, applies only to the lower part of the walls 
 
 of the cottage, as shown in the elevation, fig. 2127., which are formed of irregular 
 blocks of sandstone, without the slightest indication of horizontal or vertical courses. 
 The effect, as contrasted with the nu- 
 merous straight perpendicular lines 
 formed by the studwork in the upper 
 part of the walls, and with the hori- 
 zontal lines of the roof, is exceedingly 
 good. The studwork is filled in with 
 brickwork plastered over ; the smooth- 
 ness and finished appearance of which, 
 as contrasted with the rudeness of 
 the Cyclopean part, is forcible, and 
 at the same time pleasing. A great 
 beauty in this cottage results from 
 the horizontal division of the main 
 body of the roof; the upper part 
 of which projects slightly over the 
 lower part. The chimney-top is 
 massive, and original. The whole 
 was executed by a local carpenter 
 and mason, from the sketches of 
 Mr. Wells, out of timber and stone 
 produced by the estate. The plan, fig. 
 2128., contains a porch, a ; kitchen, 
 6 J parlour, c; light closet, d; pantry, 
 c ; a staircase,/, to two good bed- rooms 
 above, and to the cellar under the 
 parlour below ; also an open shed, g, 
 for fuel ; ^ is a place for rabbits or 
 
 pigs ; and i, a privy. The oven in the kitchen is shown large, to suit the description of 
 fuel in general use by cottagers, viz. faggot wood. We have shown, in our Manual of 
 
 7 b 
 
1182 
 
 FIRST ADDITIONAL SUPPLEMENT. 
 
 Cottage Gardening^ how this fuel may be grown by every cottager for himself, provided 
 he has an acre of ground, instead of one sixth of an acre. 
 
 Design XXIX.— 2%e Penshurst Gate- Lodge, at Redleaf, the Seat of W. Wells, Esq. 
 
 The elevation is shown in fig. 2129. 
 
 2329. Accommodation. The plan, fig. 2130., shows an entrance-porch, a; lobby, h; 
 
 2129 
 
 kitchen, c ; parlour, rf; family bed-room, e; and back-kitchen,/. From the kitchen a 
 staircase leads to tl.ree sleeping-rooms in the roof, and down to a cellar, pantry, &c., 
 under the parlour and fa- 
 
 WM — wmwrnm 21 so 
 
 mily bed-room floor. A 
 shed for fuel, which in 
 this part of Kent is chiefly 
 wood, a drying ground, 
 small kitchen-garden, and 
 other needful conveniences, 
 are placed adjoining, and 
 appropriately arranged. 
 
 2330. Remarks. Much of 
 the beauty of this cottage, 
 and of the cyclopean cot- 
 tage at Redleaf, fig. 2127., 
 results from the break in 
 the roof, by which the 
 vulgarity of so large a plain 
 surface is removed, and a 
 second horizontal shadow 
 obtained, in addition to that 
 produced by the eaves ; thus 
 breaking up the plain surfaces 
 and rendering them more pic- 
 turesque. The connexion of 
 the rooms with the lobby, b, 
 is good, and there is no great 
 objection to the stair in this 
 case being in the kitchen, 
 because it leaves the entrance to the room free. 
 
 This cottage forms the entrance-lodge to one of the most remarkable country seats in 
 England ; one which combines the romantic with the pastoral, and wild nature with a 
 very high degree of horticultural cultivation and riches. A singular feature in the lawn 
 is a rocky flower-garden, formed in an excavation, two sides of which are masses of 
 native rock, and the other a smooth even surface, blending with the sloping lawn. In 
 consequence of this flower-garden being sunk, no part of it is seen from the house, 
 though it is within two or three hundred yards of it ; and hence all the beauties and 
 enjoyments of a flower-garden are obtained without injuring the romantic character of 
 the view from the house or the main walks. 
 
DESIGNS FOR ORNAMENTAL COTTAGES. 1183 
 
 Design XXX. — The Home Lodge at Chequers Court. By E. B. Lamb, Esq., F.I.B. A. 
 The elevation of the north front is shown in fig. 2131, and of the east front in fig. 2132. 
 
 2331. The Accommodation is shown in figs. 2133. and 2134., in which a is the entrance 
 porch, communicating with a stair up to the bed-rooms and one down to the kitchens ; 
 
 2132 
 
 b, the living-room ; c, the kitchen ; d, the back-kitchen or wash-house ; e, the pantry ; 
 f, a dairy ; and g, h, three bed- rooms. The position of the lodge relatively to the 
 road is shown in fig. 2135., in which i is the situation of the gate, and k, the block plan 
 of the lodge. 
 
 2332. Remarks. The plan is commo- 
 dious and convenient, and the elevation 
 
 picturesque. The position of the stairs 1 | / 
 
 in the tower, opening into the lobby, is ^MmmainzmnmmcA i iSiyiz. 
 
 good, and the descent of a few steps (11 86^4 
 
 from the living-room to the kitchens 
 
 9 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 
 2133 
 
 1 iN# 
 
 and pantry enables the latter places to be made of a go jd height in the ceiling, without rais- 
 ing the exterior elevation too high; while, at the same time, it reduces the number of 
 
1184^ 
 
 FIRST ADDITIONAL SLPPLEMENT. 
 
 2135 
 
 stops necessary for the main stair, the bed- 
 rooms being over that part of the house, and 
 not over the living-room. This way of ar- 
 ranging the stairs is a great comfort botli to 
 old people and young children. Tliis lodge 
 was executed some years ago, with some slight 
 variations in the tower and chimney-shafts. 
 Sir Robert Frankland Russell, Bart., the 
 proprietor of Chequers, is a gentleman of 
 high artistical knowledge and taste, and both 
 he and Lady Frankland Russell are devoted 
 to tlie im])rovement, not only of their estates 
 here and in Yorkshire, but of the churches 
 and schools in their neighbourhood : both of 
 them are amateur artists. 
 Design XX XT. — The Keeper's Lodge at Bluberhouses. By E. B. Lamb, 
 
 Esq.,F.I.B.A. 
 
DESIGNS FOR ORNAMENTAL COTTAGES. 1185 
 
 estate of Thirkleby Park, in the neighbourhood of Thirsk in Yorkshire, some years ago. 
 The entrance elevation is shown in fig. 2136., and that of the next best front in fig. 2137. 
 
 2333. The Accommodation, shown 
 in figs. 2138. and 2139., is a porch, 
 a ; stair and lobby, b ; parlour, c ; 
 kitchen, c?; back- kitchen, e ; pantry 
 and dairy, /; and four bed-rooms, 
 g, h, i, k. 
 
 2334. Construction. The walls 
 are of stone, and the roof is co- 
 vered with thin flag-stones, or what 
 are called in some parts of the 
 north, slate stones. One of the bed- 
 rooms is intended for a lodger. 
 
 2335. Remarks. The general ar- 
 rangement of the plan is consistent 
 with the greater part of our data 
 given in p. 1146., though by acci- 
 dent a small window has been omit- 
 ted in the porch. The spaces be- 
 tween the mullions in the bed-room 
 windows are narrower than the cor- 
 responding spaces in the ground-floor 
 windows, which, according to one of 
 Mr. Lamb's principles, ought never 
 to be the case without a sufficient 
 and obvious reason. The fault, 
 doubtless, has been committed by the 
 engraver, in reducing the drawings. 
 Mr. Lamb's principle is, that all the openings for light in the same building, whe- 
 ther these openings are singly between jambs, or two or more together between 
 jambs and mullions, ought to be of 
 
 the same width. A certain width is 
 taken as the element or type, and this 
 is repeated, singly or in combination, 
 according to the size of the apartment 
 to be lighted, and quantity of light 
 required, wherever a window is want- 
 ed. Another principle might be laid 
 down with respect to the height of 
 windows, viz., that the height of all 
 those on the same floor ought to be 
 the same. To this we may add a third 
 principle, viz., that stair windows 
 should never be on exactly the same 
 horizontal line, and of exactly the 
 same height, as room windows, in 
 order that they may give externally 
 the expression of a stair. Of course, 
 these principles must frequently be 
 modified by others of a higher kind ; 
 as where the window of a chapel 
 forms part of the elevation, or those 
 of a greenhouse or conservatory ; 'or 
 where the object is the imitation of 
 some old building, in which, to ren- 
 der it faithful as well as character- 
 istic, the accidental deformities must be imitated as well as the accidental beauties. 
 
 Design XXXII. — A Cottage in the Gothic Style for an Upper Servant. By John 
 Dobson, Esq., Architect. 
 
 The elevation is shown in fig. 2140., and is in the genuine style of English cottage 
 architecture, purified by the taste of an architect of genius, and of extensive experience, 
 not only as an architect, but as a landscape-gardener. Mr. Dobson 's taste in the latter 
 art, it delights us to say, is not inferior to what it is in the former ; and of his practice 
 
1186 
 
 FIRST ADDITIONAL SUPPLEMENT. 
 
 in both arts examples may be seen in almost every part of Northumberland and Dur- 
 ham. The ground plan is shown in fig. 2141. 
 
 2336. The Accommodation (as shown in the plan) consists of a porch, a ; sitting-room, 
 fourteen feet by sixteen feet, 6; kitchen, sixteen feet by fifteen feet, c; staircase, d; 
 scullery, thirteen feet six inches by sixteen feet, e; pantry,/; cow-house, ; dairy,/*; 
 pigsty, i ; privy, k ; dung and ashes, I ; and coal-house, vi. 
 
 ! M I 1 ! M I 1 t ( I I 
 
 2337. Remarks. This cottage was designed for Richard Ellison, Esq., of Lndbrook, 
 Lincolnshire, and contains accommodation fit either for an upper servant with a family, 
 or a single gentleman. Of this any one will be convinced by observing the plan ; the 
 upper floor of which may contain a drawingroom over the parlour, and bed-rooms over 
 the kitchen and scullery, or it may contain only bed-rooms. 
 
DESIGNS FOR ORNAMENTAL COTTAGES. 1187 
 
 Design XXXIII. — Double Cottage for Two Upper Servants, By J. Dobson, Esq., Arch. 
 The elevation is shown in fig. 2142., and the ground plan in fig. 2143. 
 
 2338. Accommodation. The ground plan of each dwelling exhibits a porch, a ; sitting- 
 room, fourteen feet by fifteen feet in one house, and ten feet by thirteen feet in the 
 other, with a bed-room over, h ; staircase, c ; kitchen, fourteen feet by fifteen feet in one 
 house, and eighteen feet by fifteen feet in the other, with a bed-room over, d; scullery, e ; 
 
 1" 5 0 10 20 30 
 l-LiJ ilT.'l I J L/^l 
 
 pantry,/; dung-pit,^; place for ashes, h; privy, *; coal -house, k\ pigsty, I', cow- 
 houses, m m ; pigsty, n ; coals, o ; dung and ashes, p ; privy, q ; liquid-manure tank, r. 
 
1188 
 
 FIRST ADDITIONAL SUPPLEMENT. 
 
 2339. Remarks. The arrangement of the plan is very ingenious, and the elevation is 
 eminently picturesque. With a view to the liquid manure, the two privies ought to 
 have been placed next to the two cow-houses, and next to the privies the pigsties ; be- 
 cause this would have facilitated the conducting of the liquids from these places to the 
 central tank. It is very possible, however, that this oversight may have been made in 
 sketching the plan, which Mr. Dobson most kindly did for us entirely from memory. 
 He also furnished us with a plan for a treble cottage, which we much regret that time 
 has prevented us from having engraved. We shall, however, publish it in the Gar- 
 dener's Magazine. We have shown, in the Suburban Horticulturist, how the walls and 
 roofs of fig. 2142. may be covered with grape-vines trained on Mr. Hoare's principle, 
 by which a pound of fruit is produced on every square foot of wall or roof 
 
 Design XXXIV. — A Cottage in the Old English Style. By John Dobson, Esq., 
 
 Architect. 
 
 The elevation is shown in fig. 2144., and the ground plan in fig. 2145. 
 
 2340. Accommodation. The ground plan shows a porch, a ; sitting-room, twelve feet 
 
 i m 2145 
 
 10 5 0 
 
 10 
 
 20 
 
 30 
 
DESIGNS FOR ORNAMENTAL COTTAGES. 
 
 118!^ 
 
 square, b ; kitchen, twelve feet by eighteen feet, c ; stair, three feet wide, d ; sculleryt 
 ten feet by twelve feet, e ; pantry and dairy, / ; coal-house, g ; privy, h ; dung and 
 ashes, i ; pigsty, k ; and cow-house, I. There is a communication from the cow-house 
 and the pigsty to a liquid manure tank, which is placed behind so as to be centrical to 
 both. There is a wood at m, and the garden is at n. 
 
 2S41. Remarks. The privy, as we think, ought to have been placed adjoining the 
 cow-house or the pigsty, for the sake of the liquid manure. We should have preferred 
 placing the staircase so as to open into the porch, for Mr. Wilson's reasons, men- 
 tioned § 2252. ; but this is perhaps being too fastidious. In every other respect we 
 approve of the plan, which is compact, and contains every thing that could be wished ; 
 and the elevation we think admirable. This cottage was executed at Lilburn, in 
 Northumberland. 
 
 Sect. IV. Construction and Materials of Cottages. 
 
 2342. We have little to add to what is contained in the Encyclopaedia. Some 
 improvements have been made in cottage windows by the Highland Society, and by 
 the Messrs, Strutt of Derby, which will greatly reduce their price and facilitate venti- 
 lation. A mode of building brick walls, fourteen inches in thickness, with a very few 
 more bricks than what are required for a solid nine-inch wall, deserves attention for its 
 greater economy and warmth, and also because a wall so constructed can be carried to a 
 greater height without piers than a solid nine-inch wall. The patent brick walls of 
 Mr. Hitch promise to be very durable and economical, though, like other deviations from 
 routine practice, they have not yet become so general as they deserve to be. The mode 
 of building walls of *' clay lumps," practised in Suffolk, appears to be both durable and 
 economical, and to make a very dry warm cottage. Cottages that have only walls nine 
 inches in thickness, and roofs covered with slates or tiles, must necessarily be exceedingly 
 cold in winter and too hot in summer ; in the former case requiring a great expenditure 
 of fuel, which is almost everywhere scarce and dear. If the walls of a cottage were 
 made two feet in thickness, and the roof covered with one foot in thickness of thatch, 
 heath, spray, or the chips of woodmen, they would be warmer in winter (the floor being 
 perfectly dry) almost without fire, than they are now with it. Whatever heat was gene- 
 rated in the cottage could neither escape through the walls nor the roof ; and if the build- 
 ing was placed so that the sun shone on every side of it every day in the year, great part 
 of the heat which was radiated externally from the walls and roof during the night 
 would be replaced during the day. As there is a prejudice against thatch in many parts 
 of the country, there should, where tiles or slates are used, always be a plastered ceiling 
 to the rooms in the roof, made air-tight, and enclosing a vacuity between the plaster and 
 the slates of at least a foot, so as, in fact, to form a double roof : this is the nearest 
 approach that can be made to a thatched roof. If the durability of timber, and espe- 
 cially of young native timber, could be increased by any of the compositions, such as 
 Burnett's, now being experimented with, it would greatly lessen the first cost of cottages, 
 as well as increase their duration. As most of the improvements in the construction 
 of cottages which we have to notice are applicable to farm buildings, and in part to 
 villas as well as to cottages, we have brought the whole together in our fifth chapter, 
 p. 1255., to which we refer the reader. (See Contents in p. 1 134. ) 
 
 Sect. V. Cottage Fittings-up and Furniture. 
 
 2343. Little Improvement has been made in this department. A cheap and econo- 
 mical cottage fire-grate is still a desideratum, and probably will continue to be so till a 
 change takes place in cottage cookery, roasting against open fires is dispensed with, 
 and the value of stews understood. The most economical stove for warming a cottage, 
 and at the same time for cooking food, is, beyond all doubt, in our opinion, the Bruges 
 stove, but unfortunately it cannot at present be procured under £7. If, indeed, there 
 were a general demand for these stoves, they might probably be manufactured at little 
 more than half the price, but the diflSculty is to introduce them at all. Next to this 
 stove we would recommend one in very general use, which has a small fireplace in the 
 middle, an oven at one side, and a boiler for water at the other ; they cost from £1 to £3 
 each at the wholesale cast-iron warehouses. If these are carefully set, and the throat of 
 the chimney contracted, so as not to create too great a draught, a good deal of heat will 
 be thrown out into the apartment, though nothing like so much as by the Bruges stove ; 
 which, being of iron except the fire-pot, supported on legs, and completely isolated 
 except by the connexion of its small smoke-pipe with the chimney, radiates heat on 
 every side. In various parts of the country a brick oven is used, heated by faggot- 
 wood ; and if it could be so contrived that this oven could be placed below the kitchen 
 floor, and the smoke conducted from it in a flue under the floor, a large portion of heat 
 now lost would be saved. There is, however, a prejudice against this mode of adding 
 
 7 c 
 
1190 
 
 FIRST ADDITIONAL SUPPLEMENT. 
 
 to the heat of a cottage ; and, therefore, though we have indicated it in our model de- 
 signs, we do not expect it will be much followed at the present time. Were some such 
 stove as the Bruges stove employed, such a mode of heating would be in a great measure 
 unnecessary. An improvement has been made in the box bedstead which deserves 
 adoption where that kind of bed is still used ; and some minor improvements in furni- 
 ture and fittings-up, applicable to cottages, will be found in our sections on fittings-up 
 and furniture, in a subsequent page. 
 
 Sect. VI. Villages. 
 
 2344. The congregating of Cottages in Villages is attended with many advantages ana 
 with very few inconveniences. The advantages are : society ; the use of certain articles in 
 common, such as a well or other source of water ; a common sewer for drainage ; a school ; 
 a public wash-house and drying-green ; a general play-ground for children ; a village 
 library and reading-room ; and, if the village is large, a church or chapel, not to mention 
 the proximity of village tradesmen, mechanics, &c. The chief disadvantage that we 
 know is, the distance to which agricultural labourers and out-of-door country me- 
 chanics, such as carpenters, masons, &c., have to go to and return from their work. On 
 the Continent, and in this country, cottages and farm-houses were formerly collected 
 together in villages for mutual protection against thieves and wild beasts, and in a more 
 civilised and refined state, they are, or will be, similarly congregated for social comforts 
 and enjoyments. These comforts and enjoyments might be greatly increased, were the 
 art of cooperation for their attainment properly understood ; were the village to have a 
 common kitchen, dining-room, wash-house, dairy, &c., as well as a common school and 
 church ; but the time has not yet arrived for improvements of this kind, and it would 
 be of little use attempting to introduce them, till every member of society is enlightened 
 and refined by a general system of education, which shall comprehend every kind of 
 useful instruction, communicated alike to all, even the poorest, up to a certain age. 
 Such a national education as we contemplate already exists in some parts of North 
 America and Germany, and will unquestionably, sooner or later, be introduced into this 
 country ; but, in the meantime, we must take men as they are, and endeavour to sug- 
 gest what may be useful for the present generation. 
 
 2345. Rows of Cottages. Next to congregating cottages together in villages, that of 
 placing them in rows or groups of half a dozen or a dozen is to be recommended ; be- 
 cause in this state one cottager may assist another in case of distress, and there is also an 
 opportunity given to the families to mix together occasionally, without which there can 
 be no civilisation. But though such a congregating of cottages as admits of the families 
 associating together at pleasure is desirable, it ought not, in the present state of things, 
 to be carried so far as to compel any two families to come constantly in contact. 
 The selfishness and bad passions are not yet sufficiently under control, nor the benevo- 
 lent feelings sufficiently developed, for this purpose. For this reason we would as seldom 
 as possible join a row of cottages like the houses of a street, but rather isolate each by 
 surrounding it with its garden. In some cases one family occupies the ground floor of 
 a cottage, and another the floor above, which is in general very disagreeable to both par- 
 ties. This is also the case when two families enter through the same porch, or through 
 the same front garden, or when cottages joined together have only thin party-walls. 
 Complete isolation, therefore, ought, if possible, to be joined to congregation. 
 
 2346. Solitary Cottages, such as gate-lodges, cottages for game-keepers, gardeners, 
 &c., are generally not merely isolated, but solitary; but common humanity requires that 
 this solitariness should be mitigated by building some dwellings for persons of similar con- 
 dition near them. For example, the habitations of the gardener and bailiff might fre- 
 quently be placed at no great distance from each other, and the dwellings of the carpenter, 
 mason, hedger, and woodman, of a large estate, might form a group. It is unnecessary, 
 however, to go into details ; it is sufficient to direct attention to the general principle, 
 founded as it is on the fact, that man is a social animal, and only to be improved in 
 manners and increased in happiness by social intercourse. 
 
 2347. Laying out Villages. The most beautiful villages in Britain are, for the most 
 part, the result of accident, heightened by the taste of the proprietor of the estate ; as, 
 for example, in the case of Dirleton, one of the handsomest villages in Scotland, or of 
 Hariaxton, one of the most picturesque in England. There are many very formal and 
 disagreeable villages, designed purposely to be ornamental, or to give consequence to the 
 entrance-lodge of a mansion ; and if we compare these with an agreeable village that has 
 sprung up by accident, we shall soon find what we should imitate and what we should 
 avoid. In villages the houses ought never to be put down in rows, even though de- 
 tached, unless the ground and other circumstances are favourable for a strictly regular 
 or symmetrical congregation of dwellings. There is not a greater error in forming ar- 
 tificial villages, or in placing houses by road-sides, either singly or in rows, than always 
 
VILLAGES. 
 
 1191 
 
 having one side of the building parallel with the road. Instead of making this a leading 
 principle in the country, it ought to be a subordinate one ; since it is unfavourable both 
 to the comfort and enjoyment of the cottager, and the beauty of the cottage and the 
 scenery. It is unfavourable to the comfort of the cottager, because it often requires his 
 cottage to be set down with one side to the south and another to the north ; whereas, as we 
 have shown in a hundred places, one of the fundamental principles of setting down a house, 
 whether a cottage or a palace, ought to be to place it so that the diagonal to its square 
 shall be a south and north line. It is unfavourable to the cottager's enjoyment, because, 
 as the principal room is generally placed next the road, the occupant is forced to look di- 
 rectly across the road, which is the'dullest and stupidest view that the situation admits, and 
 not for a moment to be compared with looking obliquely across or along the road; while, 
 if the front is to the south, it is impossible for the occupant to look out at the windows 
 during the finest part of a sunny day. These arrangements are unfavourable to the 
 picturesque beauty of the cottages composing the village, because it necessarily produces 
 a great degree of sameness in the manner in which they group with the scenery. On 
 the other hand, when the principle of the diagonal line is constantly kept in view, the 
 cottages on both sides of a road, even if they were built all of the same form, can never 
 be placed in the same manner ; and the moment the idea of the usual dull repetition of 
 the same forms in the same relative positions is got rid of, that moment the idea of pic- 
 turesque beauty begins: the cottages will be put down in all manner of positions; some 
 will be nearer the road than others, some will look across it at one angle, and some at 
 another ; if the general surface of the ground is uneven, some will stand on a higher 
 level than others ; and if the direction of the road should be any other than straight, 
 the general effect will be every thing that could be wished. It cannot be too strongly 
 impressed on the mind of the reader, that the idea of putting down all cottages that are 
 built along a road with their sides or ends parallel to that road is destructive of all 
 picturesque beauty. The idea of doing so can only have arisen from the practice of 
 building streets in towns, where the great value of the land obliges the builder to place 
 the houses as close together as possible, and where, in consequence of this, the only part 
 seen by the public is the front ; but even in towns, where this continuity of frontage 
 is interrupted by projecting buildings and retiring ones, the beauty and variety of the 
 elevations is greatly increased. 
 
 2348. Every Character of Surface is adapted for a particular Character of Village, but 
 on all surfaces it is necessary to the full enjoyment of the advantages of congregation, 
 that there should be a certain degree of concentration. Every cottage in a village 
 should be surrounded with its own garden ground, and nothing more. If fields are 
 allowed to intervene, the too great separation of the cottages will interfere with the 
 advantages of concentration. Nevertheless, we are far from asserting that all the 
 cottage gardens ought to be of the same size ; on the contrary, variety will be produced 
 by a difference in this respect, as well as by a difference in the accommodation and 
 slyle of the cottages. The dwelling of the clergyman and of the schoolmaster will not 
 only be larger than the others, but will have more ground attached ; and there may be 
 a row of almshouses with very little ground, and, in the outskirts of the village, 
 a union workhouse with a great deal. The most favourable surface for a regular or 
 symmetrical arrangement of roads and dwellings is one that is perfectly even. In a 
 village on such a surface all the water will generally be obtained from wells. A village 
 on a knoll, with the church or school in the centre, will not be so favourably supplied 
 with water ; but one on the side of a hill will generally have water in abundance, 
 which, as it descends from the upper to the lower part of the declivity, may form a 
 succession of fountains of different kinds, which is beautifully effected in the village of 
 Great Tew in Oxfordshire ; and will generally prove highly ornamental as well as 
 useful, because, without abundance of water, there can be no efficient cleanliness. In 
 all villages there ought to be a system of drainage for carrying off" the superfluous rain 
 and subsoil water, and the overflowings of the liquid-manure tanks ; though, if these 
 tanks are properly attended to, they will never be suffered to run their precious 
 contents to waste. Villages along rivers or streams ought always to have an inter- 
 cepting drain close to the river, and parallel with it, to keep its waters pure, and at the 
 same time to remove from the village what is superfluous. It is almost needless, to 
 observe that the main drain of a village, like that of a field, ought to commence at a 
 lower level than that of the surface to be drained, and that this may frequently be at 
 some distance. It is no part of our business here to speak of the sewerage of large 
 towns, otherwise we would recommend to notice the improvements suggested for the 
 London sewers by Mr. Roe in the Sanitary Report; nor does it form part of our plan to 
 speak of the formation of towns, otherwise we should refer to Fleetwood in Lancashire, 
 one of the best arranged artificial towns, and at the same time one of the most 
 prosperous in the empire. We shall conclude this section by an account of the village 
 
1192 
 
 FIRST ADDITIONAL SUPPLEMENT. 
 
 of Harlaxton in Lincolnshire, the property of Gregory Gregory, Esq., of Harlaxton 
 Manor, a gentleman of the most refined taste in architecture and gardening, and who 
 devotes his time and his income to the display of these arts on his estate in a manner 
 which we cannot sufficiently admire. 
 
 2349. Tlie Village of Harlaxton is situated about nine miles from Grantham, in Lin- 
 colnshire, and occupies a portion of the bottom of a broad fertile valley, through which 
 runs a stream of pure water, that expands into a broad pond near the ancient Manor 
 House of Harlaxton, one of the oldest manorial dwellings in England. We have seen 
 many ornamented villages, both at home and abroad, but none so original, and so much 
 to our taste, as this of Mr. Gregory's. Some of old date are too like rows of street 
 houses, such as those of Newnham Courtenay near Oxford, and Harewood near Leeds ; 
 others are too affectedly varied and picturesque, such as that at Blaize Castle near 
 Bristol; and some have the houses bedaubed with ornaments that have not sufficient 
 relation to use, as when rosettes and sculptures are stuck on the walls, instead of facings 
 being applied to the windows, porches to the doors, and characteristic shafts to the chimney- 
 tops. We recollect one near Warsaw, which is a repetition of the Grecian temple, with 
 a portico at each end ; and one at Peckra, near Moscow, every opening in which has a 
 pediment over it, with highly enriched barge-boards. In some villages, the attempt is 
 made to ornament every house by trelliswork round the doors and windows, which pro- 
 duces great sameness of appearance, and, if ornamental, is so at the expense of comfort ; 
 the creepers, by which the trelliswork is covered, darkening the rooms, and encouraging 
 insects ; while, in otlier villages, the cottages are so low and so small, that it is obvious to a 
 passing spectator that they cannot contain a single wholesome room. However, though 
 we find fault with villages ornamented in these ways, we are still glad to see them ; be- 
 cause any kind of alteration in the dwellings and gardens of country labourers can 
 hardly fail to be an improvement on their present state, both with reference to the 
 occupiers and to the country at large. 
 
 The great value of Mr. Gregory's improvements in the village of Harlaxton is, that 
 all the leading feitures have some kind of relation to use, and are, in fact, to be con- 
 sidered more as parts added to the very plainest cottages, in order to render them com- 
 plete, than as ornaments put on to render them beautiful. All the cottages were built 
 by Mr. Gregory's predecessor in the plainest possible style, but fortunately substantial 
 and comfortable, and two stories high ; some of them single, and some of them double; 
 and almost all of them of stone, some yards back from the street, and surrounded 
 by ample gardens. In improving them, Mr. Gregory would appear to have been guided 
 by the following considerations : — 
 
 1 . To bestow the principal expense on the main features, such as the porch, the chimney- 
 tops, and the gardens. Almost all the cottages have porches, some projecting from the 
 walls, and others forming recesses : the latter have sometimes open places like loggias 
 over them; and the former, sometimes roofs in the usual manner, sometimes balconies, 
 and occasionally small rooms with gable-ends, or pavilion roofs, according to the style. 
 The greatest attention has been paid to the chimney-tops, which are in some cases of 
 brick, and in others of stone ; sometimes of English domestic Gothic, at other times 
 local English, such as those common in the neighbourhood of the Lakes or in Derby- 
 shire, &c. ; Italian, French, or Swiss, chimney-tops, of different kinds, also occur. The 
 gable-ends are finished with crow-steps in the Belgian and Scotch style in some cases, 
 with Gothic parapets in others ; and various descriptions of barge-boards are used, 
 wherever the roof projects over the end walls. Porches, cornices of brick or stone, 
 ornamental cornice boards, and stone or wooden brackets, are also introduced in front, as 
 supports or ornaments to the roof Every garden has been laid out and planted by 
 Mr. Gregory's head gardener ; creepers and climbers being introduced in proper places, 
 in such a manner as that no two gardens are planted with the same climbers. 
 
 2. Always to have some architectural feature in or about the garden, as ivell as on the 
 cottage. For example, almost every garden here has its draw-well, and each of these 
 wells is rendered architectural, and ornamented in a different way. All the wells are 
 surrounded by parapets, either circular or square, of openwork or solid. Some are covered 
 with roofs supported by carpentry, others with roofs supported by stones, round or 
 square ; some are in the form of stone cupolas : in some, the water is raised by buckets 
 suspended from a picturesque architectural appendage ; in others, it is raised by pumps 
 attached to wooden framework of most original construction, massive and architectural ; 
 and so on. All the gardens are of course separated from the street by a fence, and there 
 are not two of these fences in the village exactly alike. Some are hedges rising from 
 the inside of dwarf walls ; some are walls like those of sunk fences, the garden in the 
 inside being of the height of the top of the wall, which is covered in some cases with a 
 plain stone coping, in others with a brick coping ; in some with a stone coping in the 
 Gothic manner, in others with an Elizabethan coping ; in some with a parajjet of open- 
 
VILLAGES. 
 
 119S 
 
 work, in others with stone or brick piers for supporting horizontal bars of wood for 
 creepers, as in Italy, or without being connected by bars of wood, but terminating in 
 rough earthenware jars for flowers. Each front wall must, of course, have a gateway to 
 enter to the garden and the cottage, and uo two of these gateways throughout the 
 village are alike. Some are wickets between wooden posts, others Gothic or Eliza- 
 bethan gates between stone piers, square or round ; some are close gates, in the manner 
 of many in Switzerland, in others the gates are under arches, some of which are pointed, 
 and others round-headed; some have pediments over the arches, others horizontal high- 
 raised copings, as in the neighbourhood of Naples ; and some have small wooden roofs 
 or canopies after the manner of the gateways to the country houses in the neighbourhood 
 of Dantzic. The gateways, in short, afford great variety of character. Besides the 
 front boundaries of the gardens, there are the side boundaries, which are also varied, 
 partly in a similar manner, and partly differently. In some cases, the boundary, though 
 sufficiently well known to the occupants, does not appear at all to the stranger; in 
 others it is of holly, of box, of Jaurel, of thorn, of flowering shrubs, of fruit trees, or of 
 a mixture of several or all of these, with or without architectural piers, bee-houses, 
 arbours, covered seats, tool-sheds, or other appendages. The gardens, it may be ob- 
 served, are all laid out differently. In some, the main walk from the street gate to the 
 porch is of flagstone, in others it is paved with small stones ; in some with wood, in 
 others with brick ; in some with gravel, and in others with broken stone It is edged 
 with box, with thyme, with ivy, with a broad belt of turf, with a raised edging of stone, 
 or with a flat belt of brick, and sometimes even with wood. The gardens are variously 
 planted, and in some there are very properly trees and shrubs clipped into artificial 
 shapes ; two spruce firs form very handsome balls. 
 
 3. Never to employ two sfyles or manners of architecture in the same cottage, or at all 
 events not to do this so frequently as to lead a stranger to suppose that it has been done 
 through ignorance. We omit what may be said on the necessity of keeping the recog- 
 nised eras of the Gothic distinct, as well as the Elizabethan, Swiss, Italian, &c., as suffi- 
 ciently obvious. In every cottage and its accompaniments, the appearance of one 
 system of construction should prevail, as well as one prevailing direction in the lines 
 of the masses. For example, in a Swiss cottage, with its far projecting eaves and 
 its surrounding balcony, horizontal masses, lines, and shadows are decidedly prevalent ; 
 and, beyond a certain point required for contrast, it is not desirable to introduce any 
 vertical masses, lines, or shadows. The windows, therefore, in such a house, should be 
 broad rather than high ; and, as those of the ground floor are protected from the 
 weather by the balcony, and those of the upper floor by the projecting eaves, the very 
 simplest form of dressings to the doors and windows is all that is required. To surround 
 them with rich dressings, or protect them by cornices or pediments, such as indicate the 
 purpose of throwing off the rain, or casting a shade on the glass, would be in bad taste, 
 because it would be superfluous, or working for an end that could not be attained ; it 
 would, in fact, be counteracting nature, and setting at nought the prmciples of art ; not 
 to speak of weakening the associations connected with style independently of the use of 
 parts of walls and roofs. 
 
 4. Not altogether to omit objects purely ornamental, where they can be introduced with 
 propriety. There is no reason why a cottage garden should not have its sculptural 
 ornaments as well as the garden of a palace ; and it is quite reasonable that in both 
 cases the occupant should endeavour to get the best ornaments he can afford. For- 
 merly, the doctrine used to be, that the dwelling of the cottager ought to be low, in 
 order to be expressive of humility ; and void of exterior ornaments except creepers and 
 flowers, to express the condition of life, or, in other words, the poverty of the inhabitant. 
 But the cottager is now becoming a reading and thinking being ; and having a taste for 
 health, comfort, and ornament, in common with other classes of society, he requires higher 
 and better lighted and ventilated rooms ; and these, as well as his garden, he will orna- 
 ment as far as his circumstances will permit. The time has gone by for one class of so- 
 ciety to endeavour to mark another with any badge whatever ; and therefore we would 
 wish all architects, when designing cottages, to abandon their long received ideas. " In 
 the construction of cottages, as well as of all other kinds of buildings, great care should 
 be taken that every part should be in its proper character ; for nothing can appear more 
 absurd or out of place, than to see mouldings or ornaments which belong to the regular 
 styles of architecture introduced in a cottage." This was published in 1805, in a work 
 on Labourers' Cottages, by an architect of eminence; but in 1840, in the recently im- 
 proved cottages throughout the country, we see the " mouldings and ornaments which 
 belong to the regular styles of architecture " as carefully applied as in larger dwellings ; 
 and, fortunately, vases of the most elegant forms are so cheap, that no cottage parapet, 
 seat, or bee-house, need be without them. What is most offensive to taste, both in the 
 gardens of the wealthy and of the poor, is the misplacing of sculptural ornaments. In 
 
1194 
 
 FIRST ADDITIONAL SUPPLEMENT. 
 
 Harlaxton village there are sundials and vases, of different forms and kinds, most ju- 
 diciously placed ; for example, as terminations to piers to gates, or along parapets on 
 piers or other preparations, on the piers at the ends of stone seats, &c. In how many 
 instances, not only in cottage gardens and on cottages, but in the gardens and on the 
 buildings of the wealthy classes, do we not see vases set down where they have no legiti- 
 mate right to be placed whatever ; in places from which they might be removed without 
 ever being missed, or without any derangement to the scene in which they were put, 
 but of which, in an artistical sense, they formed no part. Some of the situations proper 
 for vases are : where the vase forms a termination to an object, as to a pillar of a gate, 
 a pier or pilaster in a wall, or a detached column, &c. ; where lines of walks or of walls 
 join, meet, or intersect, as in the centre of a system of beds for flowers, or at the angles 
 made by the junction of walks in a pleasure-ground ; where niches in buildings, or gra- 
 velled or other recesses along walks, are prepared for them, &c. In all cases where a 
 vase is put down in a garden, it ought not only to have a base formed of one or more 
 plinths, but a pedestal to raise the vase nearer the eye, and above the surrounding vege- 
 tation, as well as to give it dignity of character. No ornament whatever, whether in a 
 garden or on a building, ought ever to be placed in an inconspicuous situation, or in the 
 less noble parts of the grounds or edifice ; and no ornament ought to be made use of 
 which is formed of a material of less value or durability than the material or object on 
 or against which it is to be placed. Hence the bad effect of rootwork and rusticwork 
 in many situations in gardens, and in verandas and other additions or accompaniments 
 to brick or stone houses, 
 
 5. To indicate the occupation of the inhabitant, where it can he done. For example, the 
 smithy, or blacksmith's forge, when properly introduced, can never be mistaken, nor 
 the carpenter's shop. These two village tradesmen require houses, yards, and gardens, 
 peculiarly arranged, and afford fine sources of variety. The shoemaker may have 
 his stall as a projecting appendage, and the tailor his workshop. Some of the cottagers 
 will possess cows, others pigs or rabbits ; some pigeons, and all more or less poultry. 
 The provision required to be made for these kinds of live stock affords interesting 
 sources of architectaral and picturesque effect ; though in small villages a common 
 cow-shed, as well as a common bakehouse, wash-house, and drying-ground, is frequently 
 found preferable. The house of the schoolmaster adjoining the village-school, and the 
 house of the clergyman near the church, will always be principal objects ; and shops for 
 the sale of different articles speak by their windows. Every large village ought to 
 have an open shed, or other public building, in a central situation, to serve as a kind of 
 market or gossiping place, and also as a playground, or place of amusement, for the boys 
 in rainy weather. 
 
 Whoever intends to ornament and improve a village, we would strongly recommend 
 to study Harlaxton. It is impossible to reflect on that village without imagining 
 what a continued scene of ornament and appearance of comfort all England, and even 
 all Europe, would present, if proprietors would follow the example of Mr. Gregory. 
 Happily, in this country, many have been engaged in this work for a number of years, 
 and considerable progress has certainly been made. Though the best mode to succeed 
 is to have the very best advice at the commencement, and submit every elevation that 
 is to be carried into effect to an architect of taste, yet let those who do not value advice 
 of this kind make the attempt with what knowledge they have, or can derive from 
 books, or from observing what has been done by others, and they cannot fail to do good 
 to a considerable extent. The way to insure artistical buildings throughout the 
 country is, not so much here and there to employ a first-rate architect, who may erect 
 a splendid mansion with a handsome cottage as an entrance-lodge, as to create a demand 
 for architectural taste and knowledge among country builders, carpenters, masons, and 
 bricklayers, generally, since it is by these persons that the great majority of country 
 buildings are both designed and executed. For the general improvement of cottages, 
 therefore, we must educate the eye of the country carpenter and mason, and give the 
 cottager himself a taste for architectural and gardenesque beauty. 
 
 The Village of Edejisor at Chatsworth, which was beginning to be improved when we 
 last saw it in 1839, is said by a writer in the Gardener s Chronicle to be a dell gradually 
 opening as it descends gently towards the park, profusely studded with architectural 
 gems. " The buildings embrace houses of almost every calibre, from the spacious farm- 
 house to the humble cottage, and they are distributed with admirable skill ; some on the 
 level ground at the mouth of the dell, and others on gentle declivities, while not a few 
 overhang the brow of a precipice, or occupy a snug position that has been excavated out 
 of the solid rock. The buildings are entirely of stone, except where enriched wooden 
 gables or other ornamental carvings have been introduced ; and they present a perfect 
 compendium of all the prettiest styles of cottage architecture, from the sturdy Norman 
 to the sprightly Italian." (Gard. Chron. for 18-12, p, 187.) 
 
COTTAGE VILLAS AND VILLAS. 
 
 1195 
 
 Chap. IT. 
 
 Cottage Villas and Villas. 
 
 Design I, — A Villa in the Swiss Style. By E. B. Lamb, Esq., F.I.B.A. 
 The elevation is shown in fig. 2146., and the ground plan in fig. 2147. 
 
 2350. Accommodation. The plan shows a covered doorway, with the house-bell over, a ; 
 entrance-court, b ; porch to the house, c ; hall, and staircase to drawingroom and bed- 
 rooms, d ; study, sixteen feet by twelve feet six inches, e ; dining-room, twenty feet by 
 
1196 
 
 FIRST ADDITIONAL SUPPLEMENT. 
 
 sixteen feet six inches, with drawingroom over,/; kitchen, sixteen feet by fifteen feet, 
 g ; back-kitchen, with boiler, h ; kitchen-court, i ; two buts for holding the water from 
 the roof, k k ; place for dust and ashes, I; for coals, m ; and servants' water-closet, n. 
 
 2351. Remarks. This design was made by Mr. Lamb for John Murray, Esq., the 
 author of many esteemed works on natural and experimental science, who intends it 
 for a very interesting situation on his property in the neighbourhood of Stranraer. 
 Here it will be backed by a steep wooded bank on which Mr. Murray has created various 
 interesting scenes and walks, and will have a rich garden immediately before it, bordered 
 by the magnificent bay of Stranraer, and in the distance a range of mountains. It will 
 be executed at a very moderate expense, from there being abundance of stone on the 
 spot, and from the great simplicity of the roof, which does not contain a single gutter, 
 and on which there are neither hips nor valleys. The estimated cost is about £G50. 
 In the neighbourhood of London it would cost considerably more. 
 
 Design II. — A Villa adapted for a Situation in the Neighbourhood of Ayr. 
 By E. B. Lamb, Esq., F.LB.A. " 
 
 The elevation is shown in fig. 2148., and the ground plan in fig. 2149. 
 
 2148 
 
 2352. Accommodation. The plan shows a porch, « ; hall, h ; dining-room, eighteen 
 feet six inches by fifteen feet, c ; parlour, fifteen feet six inches by thirteen feet six 
 inches, d; staircase, with closet under, e; kitchen,/; scullery, g ; pantry, A ; and back 
 entrance, i. In the floor 
 of the dining-room, e, there 
 is a bath, the lid to which 
 opens like a trap-door, and 
 the descent is by steps, as in 
 the design for a parsonage- 
 house, by Mr. Barry, in 
 p. 841. The bath is sup- 
 plied with hot water from 
 the boiler in the scullery,^, 
 and with cold water from 
 a cistern also in the back 
 kitchen. 
 
 2S53. Remarks. This de- 
 sign was made for a situa- 
 tion in the neighbourhood 
 of Ayr, nearly flat, with a 
 command of the sea. The 
 walls are of freestone, and 
 of considerable thickness 
 to insure warmth. The 
 design is massive and ori- 
 ginal. The estimated ex- 
 pense is about £500. 
 
COTTAGE VILLAS AND VILLAS. 
 
 1197 
 
 Design III. — A small Villa in the Modern Style. By E. B. Lamb, F.I.B.A. 
 The elevation is shown in fig. 2150., and the plan in fig. 2151. 
 
 2354. Accommodation. The plan shows an entrance-porch, a ; hall, h ; dining-room, 
 twelve feet by ten feet, c; parlour, ten feet by nine feet, d\ staircase, with closet 
 under, e ; kitchen, ten 
 
 feet by nine feet, f ; 
 water-closet, g ; back 
 entrance,/*; pantry, i; 
 scullery, k ; and place 
 for coals and lum- 
 ber, I. 
 
 2355. Remarks. 
 The staircase is 
 lighted from the 
 tower, and there may 
 be a borrowed light 
 either from the stair- 
 case or the passage 
 to the water-closet, 
 which, being com- 
 pletely within the 
 house, is less likely 
 to be injured during 
 severe frosts. As the 
 situation is on a le- 
 vel with the sea, and 
 quite near it, a salt- 
 water bath might 
 easily be contrived 
 in a cellar, or under 
 the floor of one of 
 the parlours. Estimated expense about £500. 
 
 Design IV. — A small Villa for a Gentleman much attached to Gardening. 
 
 2356. Covering the Walls with Vines or Fruit Trees. Fig. 2152. is the front elevation of 
 this design, in which is shown the manner of covering the walls of a house with vines 
 and fruit trees. There are seven vines, a to ^ ; and four fruit trees, h to I. The vines 
 d and e are trained in the Thomery manner, each with two arms, which produce short 
 bearing shoots, to fill that part of the wall which is under the sill of the parlour window, 
 and between the bed-room windows and the roof. The other vines are all trained in 
 Mr. Hoare's manner, each with two arms, and each arm producing only two shoots, viz., 
 one for bearing, shown by wavy lines in the figure, and the other for producing wood, 
 which is indicated by dotted lines. The length of the wavy lines may vary from five 
 feet to ten feet ; and there is no limit to the length of the main stems, but the height 
 
 7 D 
 
2357. Accommodation. The ground 
 plan, fig. 2153.,showsaporch,a; dining- 
 room, sixteen feet by fourteen feet, 6; 
 library, fifteen feet "by fifteen feet, c; 
 drawingroom, of the same dimensions as 
 the dining-room, d; water-closet, e; 
 kitchen, /; pantry, g ; back-kitchen, h ; 
 open court, i ; conservatory, opening into 
 the drawingroom,* ; tea-room, three steps 
 higher than the floor of the conservatory, 
 Z; propagating-house, m; and covered 
 way to the garden and to the stoke-hole 
 to the propagating-house n. The bed- 
 room floor, fig. 2154.; shows four good 
 bed-rooms, each with two closets, and a 
 water-closet, o. 
 
 2154 
 
COTTAGE VILLAS AND VILLAS. 1199 
 
 2358. Remarks. This design was made for a retired mercantile man, who has 
 given himself up to the culture of his garden, in the open air during summer, and in 
 his propagating-house during winter and early spring. 
 
 Design V. — Annat Cottage, near Errol, Perthshire. By Archibald Gorrie, Esq., 
 
 F.H.S., &c. 
 
 The elevation is shown in the isometrical view, fig. 2157. ; the plan in fig. 21 55., and 
 the section on the line a u in fig. 2156. 
 
 2359. Accommodation. The plan, fig. 2155., contains a lobby with flower-stage, a; 
 sitting-room, 6 ; stranger's bed-room, c ; kitchen, d ; writing-closet, e ; lobby or passage,/ ; 
 bed-room, g ; pantry, h ; greenhouse, i ; place for fuel, k ; raised terrace, with open ve- 
 randa, on which roses may be trained as seen in the isometrical view, I. 
 
 2360. Description. Lofty trees surround the cottage on three sides, and I feared 
 that this might cause the chimneys to smoke, to prevent which, on the plan of Dr. Dicks 
 of Broughtyferry, I caused the masons to contract the chimney flues about eighteen 
 inches above the lower part of the lintel to about seven inches square, widening gradually 
 to ten inches. This had the effect of promoting a draught, and keeping the rooms clear 
 from smoke. The place for plants in the lobby is two feet and a half above the floor ; it 
 contains a small space in the centre for silver or gold fish. The pots are plunged in 
 fine sand, removable at pleasure. Under this floor is ample room for cellarage. The 
 terrace, suggested by several plans in your excellent work, is generally admired. I 
 preferred reeds to slates, as more in character with the cottage and grounds. The 
 veranda pillars are covered with Noisette and other roses, reaching over the terrace 
 walk on cross rafters, three or four feet separate, to admit light. The cottage is happily 
 
1200 FIRST ADDITIONAL SUPPLEMENT, 
 
 situated, having a finely wooded background, with an extensive view of the rich vale 
 of the Carse of Gowrie in front, and is generally reckoned a good thing of its kind. 
 The artificial stone chimney-tops seem to stand the weather well, and, at a very cheap 
 rate, add to the safety from fire by conveying the sparks to a considerable height above 
 the reeds. They also, it is thought, improve the appearance of the roof, — J. G. 
 
 2361. Remarks. We admire this design exceedingly, and we are informed by our 
 friend, Robert Chambers, Esq., the editor of the most useful journal of the age, who 
 occasionally spends a day or two with Mr. Gorrie, that the house is as comfortable 
 within, as its exterior is picturesque. The terrace, the veranda, the plant-stage on 
 the entrance-lobby, and the greenhouse, heated from the room c, and doubtless looked 
 into through a window over the fireplace, have a fine effect in elevating the character 
 of the cottage, and bringing it within the regions of elegance and taste. 
 
 Design VI. — A Cottage in the Old English Style. By John Robertson, Esq., 
 
 Architect. 
 
 The elevation is shown in fig 2160. ; the ground plan in fig. 2158., and the bed-room 
 floor in fig. 2159. 
 
 2362. Description. This cottage is about to be built in Berkshire, for a gentleman 
 with a small family. The ground to be attached to it is chiefly level throughout, with 
 the exception of a raised bank near the adjoining property, which would have been the 
 best site for the intended building ; but the proprietor objected to this situation, lest at 
 a future period his neighbour should erect any thing near the cottage that might 'give 
 annoyance, or appear disagreeable. It was not likely that this would be the case ; but 
 its bare possibility led the proprietor and architect to adopt a situation at the opposite ex- 
 tremity of the ground, near the public road. The first object in choosing this latter site 
 
COTTAGE VILLAS AND VILLAS. 
 
 1^01 
 
 was to select the highest and driest spot, and that whence the most extensive and best 
 view could be obtained from the windows, as well as to secure the greatest seeming ex- 
 tent of pleasure-gardens when the ground should be properly laid out. 
 
 The entrance-porch was originally in the garden front, in the situation of the ante- 
 room, fig. 2159., and the approach swept round the east end of the building from the 
 public road behind ; but here again the proprietor suggested that, while the chief front 
 was to the south, and consequently facing the pleasure-grounds, he should like the en- 
 trance-porch to be behind, or to the north ; as it would, he thought, give the family, in 
 his absence, a feeling of greater security in so lonely a spot, by having the entrance' to 
 the public road, The plan was, therefore, altered to suit these views, and is here pre- 
 sented in its amended form. 
 
 The building is to stand about fifteen or sixteen yards from the road, and is to be 
 approached by a covered way to the entrance, from which no view will be had on 
 either side. This arrangement is intended to carry out the idea, that however ill chosen 
 or unsatisfactory the situation may appear to a visitor on his first entrance, yet, when 
 taken to the sitting-room windows, or to the lawn in front, he would be rather surprised, 
 and ready to give up his first impressions as to the inapropriateness of the site. 
 
 The family at present being small, the two servants kept are to occupy one of the up- 
 stairs bed-rooms ; but should the family become larger, it is intended to raise the wing 
 containing the wash-house, &c., and make two bed-rooms over for the servants. 
 
 2S6S. Accommodation. Fig. 2158. is the grovmd plan, in which a is the entrance- 
 porch, which is to be finished with a coved roof, and to have Gothic niches in the angles 
 for statues, &c. From this we pass to the hall and staircase, h, by a Venetian door, the 
 upper part of which is glazed with stained glass ; thence to a small ante-room, c, from 
 
 I . I I 1 I I I I I I \ ! i 
 
 i.0 1 10 2.0 30 
 
 which there is a door to the covered terrace, n. From the hall we enter the dinmg-room, d, 
 the two windows of which are to be brought down to the floor, and to open Eke French 
 casements, so as to admit of easy access to the ten-ace when the ante-room is occupied. 
 From the hall we likewise enter the drawingroom, e, which has a door to the ante- 
 room ; also the kitchen, f. The kitchen-door from the hall is finished on the staircase 
 side in the same manner as the doors of the principal rooms. This door will only be 
 occasionally used as an entrance from the porch to the kitchen, as there is a back 
 entrance through the yard and wash-house for servants, &c. From the kitchen there is 
 a coal-closet, g ; back-kitchen or wash-house, with copper, 7i ; place for cleaning knives, 
 &c., i; larder, A; store-closet or pantry, Z. There are two water-closets, m m, both 
 under cover, one entering from the porch, and the other from the terrace. Under 
 the principal stairs is a flight of steps, o, shut in by a door, descending to the wine and 
 beer cellars, &c., which are underneath the dining-room and terrace, and are lighted 
 from grated openings in the paved flooring of the latter. Behind the wash-house, at p, 
 there is a kitchen-yard hid by shrubbery in front, which contains the undressed meat 
 larder, coal-shed, wood-house, privy, well, drying-ground, &c. 
 
1202 
 
 FIRST ADDITIONAL SUPPLEMENT. 
 
 I ■ • . ■ ■ . ._^_J ; ! —J 
 
 Fig.2159. is the plan of the chamber floor, in which 7 and r show the landing and 
 stairs ; s, balcony over ante-room, entered from the staircase window ; t, principal bed- 
 room ; w, second bed- room ; v, third bed-room ; w, linen closet; x, lobby. 
 
 Fig. 2160. is a perspective view of the south and east fronts. 
 
 A few other apartments and conveniences might have been introduced in this design, 
 did the amount to be expended and the size of the family warrant it, but this not being 
 the case, the architect's endeavour was to make the most of the means allowed him, and 
 to produce a comfortable little habitation for a gentleman of limited income. His 
 instructions were, to design "a neat cottage in a Gothic style, with a covered terrace, 
 that should contain two sitting-rooms and three bed- rooms, with other conveniences, and 
 the estimate not to exceed from £650 to £700." How far he has succeeded he leaves 
 the reader to judge. 
 
 2S64. Specification. The foundations are to be eighteen inches thick, with proper 
 footings, and the walls carried up of fourteen-inch brickwork ; the best grey stocks to 
 be used externally, and to be picked of a uniform colour for the fronts, and finished 
 with a neat straight joint. The openings all round, and chimneys, to be faced with 
 
COTTAGE VILLAS AND VILLAS. 
 
 1203 
 
 cement in imitation of stone. The roof of the terrace to be supported by rustic 
 limbs of trees, having the bark left on, and placed on stone plinths, with wooden 
 caps, frieze, and cornice. The pendants and finials to gables to be of oak, and the 
 verges to be finished with moulded boards, and ornamental hangings, of li-inch well 
 seasoned deal, painted in imitation of oak. The bow window to be finished above the 
 level of the sills with wood painted in imitation of oak, and covered with lead. The 
 roofs to be covered with countess slates laid on |-inch deal boarding, with proper lead 
 flashings to chimney-shafts. The ridges and valleys to be covered with lead. The 
 windows to be splayed and .finished with mullions and transoms, as shown by the 
 drawings. The balcony to have an ornamental iron railing in front. The flues to be 
 ten inches by twelve inches, except that of the kitchen, which is to be twelve inches by 
 fourteen inches. The terrace wall, above the surface, to be bounded by a stone plinth, 
 and the door steps and steps from the terrace to the garden to be of York stone. The 
 bearing timbers to be of the best Dantzic or Memel fir, with oak sleepers for the ground 
 floor, and oak lintels over the openings, &c. The windows to be glazed with the best 
 second crown glass. 
 
 The interior to be finished with the best well seasoned yellow deal, in a plain but 
 substantial manner, and all the door panels, mouldings, room cornices, chimney-pieces, 
 and other finishing, characteristic of style, to be of a Gothic description. The stairs to 
 have an ornamental Gothic railing or balustrade, and boarded in from the string to the 
 floor. The upper part of the door from the hall to the ante-room to be glazed with 
 stained glass. The whole of the woodwork, externally, to be painted in imitation of oak. 
 
 2365. Estimate, including the out-ofl?ices, &c., about £670. 
 
 Design VII.— ^ small Roman Villa. By E. B. Lamb, Esq., F.LB. A. 
 
 An elevation of the garden front is shown in fig. 2161., and fig. 2162. shows the 
 ground plan. 
 
 2366. The Accommodation which the latter contains is, an entrance hall, a ; drawing- 
 room, h ; library, c ; dining-room, d ; passage to the kitchen and stairs to the bed- rooms 
 and cellars, e ; kitchen, / ; back-kitchen, g ; pantryf h ; conservatory, i ; and terrace 
 and stairs on the lawn front, k. On the floor above are three good bed-rooms and a 
 servant's bed-room ; and on the cellar floor there are a dairy, larder, and other conve- 
 niences required for servants' use. 
 
 2367. Remarks. This 
 casino was designed for 
 a citizen, chiefly for the 
 purpose of occasional re- 
 tirement. During the 
 greater part of the week, 
 the only occupants will 
 be the gardener and his 
 wife."; There is a stable, 
 coach-house, and other 
 oflflces, at a short dis- 
 tance ; and the whole is 
 surrounded by a lawn, 
 enclosed by a shrubbery, 
 in which the height of the plants, and especially of the evergreens, is calculated to exclude 
 other houses or buildings, and admit, as much as possible, such verdant scenery as is 
 characteristic of the country. Over the fireplaces in h and c there are windows into the 
 conservatory, each of which consists of one plate of glass, without bars. There is no 
 communication between the rooms and the conservatory by doors, a prejudice existing 
 in the family against the moist air essential to healthy and vigorous vegetation. 
 
1204 
 
 FIRST ADDITIONAL SUPPLEMENT. 
 
 Design VIII. — ^ Roman Villas designed for a particular Situation. By E. B. Lamb, 
 
 Esq., F.LB.A. 
 
 The front elevation is shown in fig. 2163. This villa was designed bv Mr. Lamb 
 for one of those beautiful knolls which occur on the Dover road, between Dartford and 
 Canterbury. Like the preceding design, it was made at the desire of a wealthy 
 r^,. .f i.i:. _ Yiim to display his wealth and taste to his 
 
 citizen, chiefly for the purpose of enabli 
 
 216 b 
 
 friends on holidays. Hence, as it will l)e observed in the plan, fig. 2164., all the rooms 
 are arranged for the purpose of display, and the whole building is surrounded by an 
 elevated paved terrace, which commands, on every side, the scenery of one of the richest 
 and best of England's counties, and her noblest river. 
 
 2368. The Accommodation contained in the principal floor consists of an entrance-porch, 
 a ; lobby, hall, and staircase, 6 ; library, c; drawingroom, c?; dining-room, e; back-stairs, 
 / ; water-closet, 9 ; dressing-room for day visitors, h ; statuary room, i ; conservatory, 
 k k k; and terrace, /. There is a passage between the conservatory and the house, 
 which is shut up at the ends so as to form an aviary, and the birds can be admitted to 
 the conservatory, the drawingroom,the dining-room, and the sculpture room at pleasure. 
 
 2369. Remarks. The windows to the offices have each small sunk areas, taken from 
 the terrace, and covered with iron grating. These windows, though not seen in the 
 elevation, being concealed by the terrace parapet, yet reach nearly three feet above the 
 level of the terrace, so that there is abundance of light to all the lower apartments. By 
 closing the doors at the ends of the covered passage m m, and taking out the conserv- 
 atory windows on that side, the width of the conservatory may be increased at pleasure ; 
 and by taking out the windows of the dining-room and drawingroom, the conservatory 
 
COTTAGE VILLAS AND VILLAS. 
 
 1205 
 
 2165 
 
 may be united to them, so as to have the appearance of the whole being only one 
 apartment, or, rather, one Oriental garden. In the centre of the aviary there may be a 
 fountain ; and in the sculpture saloon there ought only to be one group of statues in the 
 centre, and one statue against each of the eight piers between the windows, in order not 
 to interrupt the view of the conservatory and the fountain from the saloon and the two 
 principal rooms. The conservatory is heated by hot water, from the sunk story. 
 
 Designs IX. to XII. — Small Villas in the Gothic Style. By E. B. Lamb, Esq. 
 
 These villas are some out of a number that were designed by Mr. Lamb for a gen- 
 tleman who had taken an ex- 
 tensive tract of land in Kent, 
 not far from Gravesend, on a 
 building speculation. As it 
 ultimately failed, none of them 
 were erected, except one, 
 which, with some variations, 
 was built by a gentleman in 
 the neighbourhood. 
 
 2370. Design IX. is shown 
 in elevation in fig. 2165. ; and 
 theplan, fig. 2 166., contains on 
 the principal floor an entrance- 
 porch, a ; staircase, h ; lobby, 
 c ; drawingroom, d ; dining- 
 room, communicating with 
 the drawingroom by folding 
 doors, e ; kitchen, / ; back-kitchen, g ; a gravelled terrace, h ; and a paved terrace, i. 
 
 2371. Remarks. The ar- 
 rangement is good. The pas- 
 sage between the kitchen and 
 the dining-room affords a 
 convenient way out to the 
 kitchen-garden, and there is 
 a door in the back-kitchen 
 which communicates with a 
 small kitchen court not shown 
 in the plan. The elevation 
 is picturesque, and though the 
 situation of the barge-board 
 may be objected to by the 
 rigid followers of Pugin, yet 
 what is to be done in a case 
 like this, where the roof pro- 
 jects as much as the chimney? 
 
 2372. Design X. is shown 
 in elevation in fiff.2167. ; and 
 
 the plan, fig. 2168., contains an entrance-porch, a ; lobby, h ; dining-room, c ; drawing- 
 room, d ; kitchen, e ; back-kitchen,/; water-closet, with door to the kitchen-garden, g ; 
 stair to bed-rooms, h ; plant cabinets, Hi; and paved terrace, with steps to the lawn, k. 
 
 2373. Remarks. The recesses, i i i, are intended as plant cabinets, with glass roofs, 
 the windows of the room forming ornamental Gothic screens glazed with long strips of 
 glass. If these cabinets are separated from the rooms by sliding sashes, they may be 
 taken away in summer, and the space added to the room. 
 
 7 E 
 
1206 
 
 FIRST ADDITIONAL SUPPLEMENT. 
 
 2169 
 
 2.574. Design XI. is shown in elevation in fig. 2169. ; and the plan, fig. 21 70., con- 
 tains an entrance porch, a; dining-room, b; drawingroom, c; stair down to kitchens 
 and up to bed-rooms, d ; and glazed verandas, 
 open in front in summer, and closed by glass in 
 winter, e, e. 
 
 2375. Remarks. There is something grand in 
 this elevation, from the prevalence of vertical 
 masses, and the small proportion of wall pierced 
 with doors or windows, as compared with the 
 solid part. Add also, that both in the plan and 
 elevation the walls appear thicker than usual. 
 The design might crown the summit of one of 
 those low hills which often advance into the 
 plain from the lower part of ranges of moun- 
 tains ; such hills, sometimes rocky, sometimes 
 smooth, are frequently met with in the north of 
 Scotland. The unusual thickness of the walls is 
 required in consequence of their being of rubble. 
 The quoins are of scappled stone, and the mould- 
 ings and other dressings worked smooth or 
 finely tooled. The whole of the woodwork 
 throughout the house might be of larch, and, where it is used for doors, &c., it 
 should be either oiled or varnished ; painting would be quite unnecessary. The ap- 
 proach will be obtained of a very gradual ascent, so as to display the house in connexion 
 with the scenery, in a variety of combinations. 
 
 2376. Design XII. is shown in elevation in fig. 2171. ; and the plan, fig. 2172., con- 
 
 no 
 
 2171 A A 
 
COTTAGE VILLAS AND VILLAS. 
 
 1207 
 
 tains an entrance-porch, a; hall and staircase, b; dining-room, c; drawingroom, d; 
 library, e; reading-closets,/, ^ ; and conservatory, /*. The dotted lines show the manner 
 in which the ceilings of these rooms are to be finished. 
 
 2377. Remarks. This design is chiefly to be valued for the ingenious manner in 
 which the space is disposed of. Like the last design, it seems peculiarly adapted for 
 crowning an eminence. 
 
 Design XIII. — Sir John Rohisoris House, Randolph Crescent,Edinburgh. By John Milne, 
 
 Esq., Architect. 
 
 2378. Sir John Robison's House, Randolph Crescent, Edinburgh. This house is given 
 as an example of the most perfect application of the system of heating with hot air that 
 we have any where met with, except in the houses of the inventor, W. Strutt, Esq., and 
 his friends in the neighbourhood of Derby. This house is also equally perfect in every 
 other respect ; and, in short, it is allowed to be the most complete street dwelling in 
 Edinburgh. It is a first class house, forming one of a crescent built on a very steep 
 bank on the river Leith, presenting three stories to the street, and six stories to the 
 river, on the sloping side behind. There are small gardens on the slope, and a sunk area 
 of two stories next the street. The following account was drawn up by John Milne, Esq., 
 architect, Edinburgh, in November, 1839; and we had ourselves an opportunity of ex- 
 amining every part of the house in September, 1841, and found it exactly as described 
 by our correspondent. " Pursuant to your instructions, I applied to Sir John Robison 
 for the loan of the working-plans of his dwelling-house here, and for leave to view and 
 examine the house itself. Having obtained free access, and every information I required, 
 I have been enabled to make out the accompanying sections and relative details, figs. 
 2173. to 2184, In describing these, I shall confine myself to such points in the con- 
 struction or arrangement as appear to be improvements on the usual routine followed 
 in the laying out and fitting up of street houses of this class. The distribution of the 
 space is so managed, that, with the exception of two partitions in the first chamber 
 floor, which cross the floors without resting on them, all the internal walls reach from 
 the foundation to the roof. The two par- 
 titions above mentioned are likewise of stone, 
 and are supported ' in a manner which in- 
 sures their permanent stability. The walls 
 forming these partitions stand on cast-iron 
 
 beams, isolated from the floors, the joists of g, 
 
 which are supported by wooden beams placed te^^l^^^^^^^^^^^^^i^^^ l^^J 
 alongside, but not connected with the iron \ J ^ " r~7 
 
 beams, as shown in fig. 2173., in which m is . . 
 
 the cast-iron beam. The movements of the 
 flooring, therefore, are not communicated to 
 the partitions, which, not being subject to 
 vibration, remain secure. By this construc- 
 tion, also, the spreading of fire must be im- Wooden beams for supporting the floor, 
 peded and danger lessened, as it affords the m. Isolated cast-iron beam for supporting the 
 means of continuing a stone staircase to the brick partition. 
 
 attic chambers; see section, fig. 2174., and section, fig. 2177., at the chamber floor. 
 
 2379. The System of Ventilation employed in this house appears to be as perfect as 
 can be desired ; as, while the mass of air in the rooms and passages is constantly under- 
 going renewal by the escape of the vitiated air above, and the admission of large supplies 
 of fresh air from below, no currents are perceived in the apartments, which, even when 
 crowded with company and amply lighted, preserve a remarkable freshness of atmo- 
 sphere. The sectional area of the cold -air passages is equal to nearly fourteen square 
 feet ; in calm weather, however cold the season, both passages are quite open. 
 This is effected by means of cylindrical flues of earthenware, nine inches in dia- 
 meter, built into the gables, in close proximity to the smoke flues of each room. The 
 lower ends of these ventilating flues open into the spaces between the ceilings of the 
 respective rooms and the floors of those above them ; and there is one or more of these 
 exit air-flues in each room, according to its size and use. The heated and vitiated 
 vapours pass upwards through the ceilings by a continuous opening of about one inch 
 and a half wide (behind one of the fillets of the cornice) all round the rooms, and 
 having thus passed into the space between the ceiling and the floor immediately above, 
 they ascend by the flues in the wall, and are discharged by them into the vacant space 
 between the ceilings of the attics and the roof; from whence they find their way through 
 the slates to the open air. The passage for the air through the cornice is not visible 
 from the floor of any of the rooms, as you will see in section, figs. 2174. and 2177., and 
 on a larger scale in fig. 2178. The air-flues are made to terminate above the ceilings of 
 
 2173 
 
1208 FIRST ADDITIONAL SUPPLEMENT. 
 
 2174 
 
 Section through the 
 Buildins: on the Line ^ 
 A B in fig. 2175. 
 
 a. The cold-air passage 
 or tunnel from the 
 garden opening into 
 the stove place m, Hg. 
 2175. 
 
 b. Situation of the stove. 
 
 c. Opening to the bot- 
 tom of smoke-flue for 
 the removal of depo- 
 sited soot. 
 
 d. Opening, with sliding 
 damper, which, by ad- 
 mitting air to the flue, 
 checks the draught 
 when the fire is too 
 strong. 
 
 e. Pipe which convej , > 
 the smoke from the 
 furnace into the flue. 
 
 /, Warm air chamber. 
 //, exit passage for 
 the warm air from th 
 stove into the well of 
 the staircase. 
 
 g. Opening in the ceil- 
 ing of the dining-room 
 all round it, by whu h 
 the vitiated air escapes 
 into 
 
 h. The ventilating flue 
 for the dining-room. 
 
 I, The ventilating flue 
 for back drawing- 
 room ; both terminat- 
 ing as at XX in fig. 
 2177. 
 
 the attics, and below the roof of the house, rather than at the chimney heads, in 
 order to prevent the possibility of smoke being ever brought down by reverse cur- 
 rents ; and an advantage is likewise gained in protecting the attic story from the 
 cold which would otherwise be communicated from the roof during winter. The 
 
COTTAGE VILLAS AND VILLAS. 
 
 1209 
 
 2175 
 
 Plan of the Kitchen Floor, 
 showing only half the thickness 
 of each gable. 
 
 a. Sunk area. 
 
 bb b b. Cellars under the 
 foot-pavement of the street 
 in front. Two open into 
 the area, the others commu- 
 nicate with the interior. 
 
 c, Outer passages. 
 
 dd. Trap for shooting down 
 coals for the service of the 
 furnace. 
 
 e. Servants' hall, 19 feet by 14 
 feet. 
 
 f, g, h. Bed-places and press. 
 i. Press. 
 
 k, Flue of furnace. 
 m. Situation of heating appa- 
 ratus. 
 n, Inner lobby. 
 
 0, p, q. Presses. 
 >•, Kitchen, 20 feet by 17 feet. 
 s, t, Open grate and oven. 
 u, Steaming apparatus and 
 
 hot closet. 
 V, Ventilating flue from 
 
 kitchen ceiling. 
 vv. Smoke flue from laundry 
 
 below the kitchen. 
 w. Projection containing gas 
 
 cooking stoves. 
 X, y, Scullery, &c. 
 z. Staircase downwards to 
 
 ground floor, and upwards to 
 
 dining-room floor. 
 
 1, Housekeeper's room. 
 
 2, Bed alcove. 
 
 3, Press in passage. 
 
 continued supply of fresh air to the lower part of the house, to replace that which 
 goes off by the ventilators and by the chimneys, is brought m from the garden behind 
 
1210 FIRST ADDITIONAL SUPPLEMENT. 
 
 Plan of the Dining-room Floor and Entresol, 
 a. Street door. b. Sunk area. .> 
 
 c. Hall, 19 feet by 10 feet. 
 
 d. Parlour, 19 feet 6 inches by 19 feet. 
 
 e. Dining-room, 27 feet by 18 feet. 
 
 /, Well of main staircase, 16 feet by 15 feet. 
 
 g, Butler's pantry in entresol. 
 
 h, Stair to kitchen, from the landing in which is seen a water-closet. 
 
 i, Covered raglet (groove) in wall of staircase, in which the water service-pipe is situated. 
 
 j. Dotted lines showing the opening by which the warmed air enters the staircase under the stair. 
 
 the house by a passage, the sectional area of which is eight superficial feet. The cold 
 air admitted by this passage (or by another similar one from the front of the house) 
 is made to pass over a stove in the chamber b, in fig. 2174., on the principle of the late 
 William Strutt, Esq., of Derby, which has a surface of nearly ninety feet, by which means 
 
COTTAGE VILLAS AND VILLAS. 1211 
 
 Section of the Building on the Line C D in fig. 2176. " 
 
 0, Laundry. 6, Wine-cellar, c, Stove-room. Entrance from area to kitchen floor. 
 
 h, Door to garden, e, Steps to garden. //, Bins of wine-cellar. Kitchen, k. Ventilating flue 
 from cooking-stoves. 
 
 1, Exterior of staircase to the lower floors, m. Dining-room, n, Parlour. 
 
 0, Back drawingroom. oo. Front drawingroom. p. Chamber, q. Beam carrying the joisting 
 r, Iron beam carrying brick partition and attic stairs, s, Attic staircase, t. Chamber. 
 V, Passage to rooms on attic floor, w, Attic chamber, x x. Openings of ventilating flues over the 
 ceilings of attics, y. Cupola lighting the principal staircase, z, Chimney-heads, 
 a temperature varying from 64° to 70° of Fahrenheit is communicated to it. In very 
 cold weather 70° is occasionally given to compensate the cooling effect of the walls and 
 glass windows, so as to keep up the temperature at 60° throughout the house ; but 
 the usual temperature of the air issuing from the stove is as low as 64° The whole of 
 this air is discharged into the well of the staircase, which forms a reservoir from which 
 the rooms draw the quantity required to maintain the upward currents in the chimneys 
 and in the ventilating flues. The air in the staircase finds its way into the apartments 
 by masked passages, of four or five inches wide and four feet long, over the doors, and by 
 openings left under each door of about one inch wide. The sectional areas of these 
 passages are more than equal to the areas of the chimney and ventilating flues ; there is, 
 
1212 FIRST ADDITIONAL SUPPLEMENT. 
 
 2178 
 
 2179 
 
 Section of Part of the Ceiling and 
 Floor over. 
 The object of this section is to show the 
 manner in which the air passes into Continuation of the Section in the Direction of 
 
 the vacuity between them by means C D m^ig. 2176. 
 
 of concealed openings at n, which are „ ^^^^^ entrance under an open porch, b. Opening 
 also shown at g m fig. 2174. j,^ ^^e side of the street for shooting down coals, 
 
 with a cast-iron cover, c, Coal-cellar, d, Door and 
 window to the passage marked c in fig. 2175. 
 
 therefore, no rarefaction of the air within the rooms, nor any tendency of the external 
 air to enter at chinks of windows, or other irregular apertures. The course of the air, 
 from the great aperture over the stove, through the staircase, over and under the 
 doors, into the rooms, and thence through the ceilings and upwards by the escape- 
 flues, is shown throughout both sections by the direction of the arrows ; and the 
 quantity of escape is regulated by hand by means of throttle-valves at the mouth of 
 each escape-flue : hence, by opening or shutting these throttle-valves, the rate of 
 the ventilating current is augmented or diminished. In consequence of the peculiar 
 situation of this house, on the steep slope of the bank of the river Leith, there are two 
 complete stories below the level of the entrance from the street. This gives great ad- 
 vantage in the employment of Mr. Strutt's stove, for producing the temperature re- 
 quired to be given to the air so freely distributed in the upper parts of the building. 
 Circumstances might render this less easy in a house differently situated, and in some 
 cases it may be necessary to have recourse to hot- water pipes or other known methods of 
 communicating heat ; but, whatever means of heating may be employed, a proper system 
 of ventilation requires that the supply of fresh air should i)e large, and that the tempera- 
 ture of it at its issue from the stove be not higher than 70^ of Fahr. In houses where 
 the supply of external air is more limited, and where a higher temperature is commu- 
 nicated to it by the heating apparatus, its salubrity is always more or less impaired, as, 
 even at a temperature far below that of boiling water or of steam pipes, the air of towns 
 begins to give out unpleasant effluvia from the animal and organic matters held in sus- 
 pension in it ; and when a high temperature has been attained, air becomes so absorbent 
 of moisture, that it acts unfavourably on the lungs of those by whom it is breathed. 
 Again, when a heating apparatus of small extent of surface is used, and a small supply 
 of external air is admitted, this air is usually raised to a high temperature ; and, as a 
 sufficient supply of air must necessarily get in somewhere else, to enable the chimneys of 
 the house to draw, the hot air coming from the stove is speedily diluted by the cold air 
 entering furtively. The same temperature may be partially produced as in the ar- 
 rangement above described ; but the unequal distribution of the hot and cold currents 
 causes discomfort in some parts, while the over-heating of the portion which passes the 
 stove renders it less salubrious, and sometimes offensive. It is imagined by many that 
 air is not vitiated by artificial heat when under 100° of Fahr. ; but this is a mistake, as, 
 besides the ill effects arising from its too great avidity for moisture, a heat considerably 
 less than this is sufficient to extricate effluvia from it, as has been already observed : 
 hence, a copious supply of air at a moderate temperature is more agreeable and more 
 conducive to health than an atmosphere of the same temperature formed by a mixture 
 of cold and over-heated air, [On the occasion of our visit to Edinburgh, in September 
 last, we took the opportunity of enquiring whether experience had suggested any altera- 
 tions or improvements in these arrangements. Sir John Robison's reply was, that, if 
 the house were to be built again, the only difference he should make would be to form 
 the air-passages still wider.] 
 
 2380. The Kitchen is ventilated on the same principle as the rooms above stairs. One 
 flue proceeds from the ceiling over the fireplace, and another from over the gas cooking 
 
COTTAGE VILLAS AND VILLAS. 
 
 1213 
 
 2180 
 
 Section through Gas cooking 
 Stove Table. 
 
 a. Tube of sheet iron, thirty 
 inches long by four inches"' 
 diameter, open at the bot- 
 tom and covered at top by 
 wire gauze, tlirouph which 
 the gas, mixed with com- 
 mon air, passes before it 
 is inflamed. 
 
 b. Gas-pipe and regulating 
 stop-cock. 
 
 d, Siphon, forming a wa- 
 ter-joint to allow of the 
 escape of condensed water. 
 
 c. Nozzle of gas-pipe, ad- 
 mitting gas to mix and 
 rise with the air in a. 
 
 stoves, seen in section fig. 21 77. , and also in fig. 21 80. The first flue is built in the gable, 
 close to the smoke-flue ; and the second passes upwards by the back of the cistern and pipes 
 of a water-closet, defending them from the action of frost in 
 winter. The gas cooking stoves are of the form which you have 
 already described (p. 690. ). They are eight in number, the 
 mouth of each being four inches in diameter, a size which 
 experience has shown to be the most useful. An improvement 
 has lately been introduced in these stoves, which consists in 
 spreading a layer of tine gravel, or coarse sand, of half an inch 
 thick on the wire gauze tops. This completely protects them 
 from oxidation and over-heating, yet does not interfere with 
 the free passage of the current of mixed gas and air. The 
 kitchen fireplace is no larger than is requisite for roasting ; all 
 the other processes being performed either in the oven, the 
 steam vessels, or on the gas stoves. These stoves are placed 
 in the bay of a large window, giving the cook the advantage 
 of a good light above the level of the pans. A close boiler 
 at the back of the grate affords steam for the cooking vessels, 
 and for a hot closet. This boiler also contains a coil of iron 
 tubing, through which the water of a bath, placed in a dress- 
 ing-room in the chamber floor, is made to circulate when a 
 hot bath is wanted. 
 
 238 1 . The House is lighted by Gas in every part ; but no 
 offensive vapour nor inconvenience of any kind appears ever 
 to be felt from it. The distribution pipes are of greater 
 diameter than are generally employed, and the pressure or 
 current thereby so equalised, that no sinkings or flutterings 
 of the flame are caused by the opening and shutting of doors. 
 The forms and proportions of the Argand burners and glass 
 chimneys are also so arranged as to effect nearly a maximum 
 development of light (of an agreeable hue) from the gas, and 
 to prevent any disengagement of sooty vapour ; that this last object has been obtained, 
 the perfect purity of tint of the white and gold ceilings in the drawingrooms is a satis- 
 factory proof. The mirrors over the chimneys 
 have statuary marble frames, as shown in fig. 
 2181., and each chimney-piece has two gas-lights. 
 The convenience and economy of gas light being 
 undeniable, it is important to know that in cer- 
 tain circumstances, of easy attainment, it may be 
 rendiered as elegant and agreeable a light as any 
 that can be produced from more expensive ma- 
 terials. A paper on the subject of the best mode 
 of employing gas for illumination, by Sir J. Robi- 
 son, appeared in Jamesons Journal, and in the Me- 
 chanic's Magazine, in 1839 and 1840. 
 
 2382. In the Distribution of Water through the 
 house, the pipes and cisterns are, as far as possible, 
 placed out of the reach of frost. Instead of the 
 ball-cocks usually placed in cisterns, an apparatus 
 represented on an enlarged scale in figs. 2183. and 
 2184. is used. It has the advantage of not being 
 subject to wear or to leak, and is not liable to 
 cease to act from becoming stiff. 
 
 2383. Chimney-flues. As before mentioned 
 (§ 2379. ), the chimney-flues for carrying off heated 
 vapours from the ceilings are made of cylinders of 
 red earthenware, of eight or nine inches' diameter ; those by which the smoke of the fires 
 is carried away are cylinders of fire-brick clay from two to three inches thick, according 
 to their diameters, which vary from ten to seven inches according to the size of the fire- 
 place they belong to. In each fireplace, where the throat of the chimney is gathered 
 together over the grate, there is a valve made of rolled iron plate, which fits into a 
 cast-iron seat fixed in the brickwork : when this valve is in its seat neither soot nor 
 back smoke can pass ; and when it is thrown back the passage to the flue is unob- 
 structed. (See fig. 2182 ) 
 
 2384. Escape of melted Snow. There is a provision for the free escape of melted snow 
 from the root; which, I am informed, has been copied from the Derby Infirmary. It 
 
 Drawingroom Fireplace. 
 ',, Flat marble frame, similar in quality to 
 
 the marble jambs, with a narrow border 
 
 moulding. 
 , Mirror. 
 
1214 
 
 FIRST ADDITIONAL SUPPLEMENT. 
 
 Section of the Throat 
 of a Chimney. 
 
 a, The valve-seat and 
 valve when shut. 
 
 b. The valve when 
 open. A short chain 
 hangs from the un- 
 der side of the 
 valve, bv which it is 
 pulled (lown to the 
 seat. 
 
 2183 
 
 Part of a Water Cistern, showing the Substitute for 
 the common Cock. 
 
 I, The discharging orifice, shown enlarged in fig. 
 2184. 6, The float which, when it sinks, raises 
 the cross-piece at a, and opens the bullet valve. 
 d, The end of the lever, which operates on the 
 wires and cross-piece, e, Communication with 
 service-i)ipe. c, Air-vessel, to prevent rupture 
 of the service-pipe by sudden closing of the 
 valve. 
 
 seems so simple and obvious that it may be wondered why 
 it is not universally adopted. It consists in covering all the 
 gutters and the openings of the vertical pipes with thin 
 boards laid on cross bearers. When snow falls, it lies on 
 these boards and leaves a clear passage imderneath, by 
 which, when a sudden thaw takes place, the water runs 
 freely away, instead of being impeded by a mass of half- 
 melted snow, which would otherwise choke up the passages, 
 and might cause an overflow to penetrate the boards on 
 which the slates are laid, and to do damage to the ceilings 
 and walls below. 
 
 2385. The Ironmongery. Among the excellent articles 
 of ironmongery used in fitting up this house, I may notice 
 the mortise-locks on the doors of all the rooms, as they have 
 
 Enlarged View of the Termina- 
 tion of the Discharge Pipe at 
 a, in fig. 2183. 
 
 the advantage of being let into the doors without weakening 
 them, the latch being contained in a brass tube seven eighths 
 of an inch in diameter and eight inches long, and requiring only a hole of an inch 
 diameter for its reception. The latch is pressed out by a helical wire spring lodged within 
 the tube ; the action of the knob against this spring is particularly agreeable to the hand, 
 as there is no sensible friction. The doors are locked or bolted by a small bolt which 
 fixes the latch bolt. The two-way door-springs on the doors in the lobby and passages 
 are also remarkably good (made by Beattie, Canal Street, Edinburgh) ; they retain the 
 doors in their middle position with suflficient firmness to prevent them from yielding to 
 the ordinary pressure of the wind, on an external door being opened ; yet they do 
 not oppose an increasing resistance when pushed either way towards the wall, and there- 
 fore offer no diflficulty to servants when passing through them with both hands occupied 
 in carrying any thing. The locks were furnished by W. and P. Steele, George Street, 
 Edinburgh, and the door-springs by J. Beattie, Canal Street, Edinburgh. 
 
 2386. The Joiners' Work. As provision is made in the construction of the house for 
 an abundant supply of external air to maintain the necessary upward currents in all the 
 chimneys and ventilating flues, care has been taken to prevent the access of air by irre- 
 gular entrances. The window frames are very carefully fitted ; and of the French sashes 
 on the drawingroom floor, one leaf only in each room is made to open. In the usual 
 way in which French sashes are constructed, it is nearly impossible to make them weather- 
 tight, as, when pressed by the wind they yield sufficiently at the joints to allow of rain 
 being blown in. To prevent this here the leaf opens outward ; and its frame being 
 beveled, the joint becomes the closer the more pressure it sustains from the wind. 
 
COTTAGE VILLAS AND VILLAS. 
 
 1215 
 
 2387. I shall conclude these details by mentioning the way in which the drawing- 
 room suite of rooms has been painted, as it appears to me to be new, to produce a good 
 effect, and to be very durable. The walls have been prepared with several coats of 
 white lead grained to imitate Morocco leather ; on this a pattern of gilded rosettes has 
 been laid, and the whole varnished with copal (including the gilding). Another 
 pattern has then been superadded in flat white. The result gives the appearance of 
 a lace dress over satin and spangles, which harmonises with the doors, cornices, &c., 
 which are painted in flat white, with gilt mouldings J. M. Princes Street, Edinburgh." 
 
 2388. The Painting and Papering were executed under the direction of that eminent 
 decorator Mr. Hay, whose scientific work on the subject of his profession, The Laws of 
 harmonious Colouring, we have frequently referred to in the body of this work. On 
 applying to Mr. Hay, he sent us the following particulars ; — " There was nothing very 
 much out of my usual practice in the painting done in Sir John Robison's house in 
 Randolph Crescent, except the walls of the drawingrooms and staircase. The bed- 
 rooms were done in the usual way ; namely, ceilings sized on two coats of oil paint ; walls 
 papered with a white, embossed, satined ground paper, with small brown sprigs, and the 
 woodwork painted white, and finished with copal varnish. The dining-room and Sir 
 John's own room were both done in imitation of wainscot, with white ceilings var- 
 nished. The staircase ceilings and cornices, painted white and flatted ; and the walls 
 and woodwork painted also white, and varnished with copal. The drawingrooms and 
 ante-room were all painted white ; the ceilings and cornices, as well as the woodwork, being 
 finished flat, and heightened with gilding. The walls are, as I have already said, rather 
 peculiar in their style of painting. The groundwork is rendered regularly uneven by 
 being granulated, by working it over with the point of a dry brush, immediately after 
 applying the two last coats of paint. This is partly varnished and partly flat, the flat 
 parts forming large rosettes. Between these rosettes, are smaller ones gilded ; not in 
 the base metal used upon paper hangings, but in sterling gold leaf. This style of 
 decorative painting, from the great body of paint employed in producing the granu- 
 lated surface, the copal varnish, and the gold leaf, must be of the most durable de- 
 scription. I may here mention, that, during the last two or three years, I have painted 
 a very great number, of drawingrooms in various styles, some with rich borders, others 
 in my patent imitation of damask, and a few in styles similar to that employed upon Sir 
 J. Robison's ; and have papered very few. I feel very sure that as the advantages of 
 painting over papering, especially in the public rooms of a mansion, become generally 
 known, the latter style of decoration will be entirely given up. As to the colouring of 
 ceilings, that must be left in a great- measure to the taste of the proprietor; as some like 
 pure white, others delicate tints, and a few go the length of the most intense colours, or 
 polychrome. With this last class I myself agree ; but I am at the same time aware, that 
 if this be not done with the strictest attention to the laws of harmonious colouring, the 
 effect must be bad. It would be like a person unacquainted with the science of music, 
 running his fingers at random over the keys of a powerful organ. In the one case, white 
 or a light tint is better than colours; and in the other, silence better than such an at- 
 tempt at music. — D. R. Hay. Edinburgh, January 13. 1840." 
 
 Design XIV. — A Land- Steward's House in the Neighbourhood of Inverness. 
 
 The main features of this design were given by the gentleman by whom the house 
 is to be occupied, and the arrangement and details were improved under our direction. 
 The elevation, which is by Mr. Lamb, is shown in fig. 2185. The simplicity of the 
 general outline, and the compact rectangular form of the building, are favourable for 
 economical execution, and for interior warmth ; and we think the mode of heating the 
 air of the hall and staircase by an air-stove in the sunk story, and by the same means 
 preserving the water in the cisterns from freezing, is simple and likely to be effective. 
 The serving-room, and the butler's pantry, are placed conveniently for the dining-room. 
 Three sides of the building will appear rising from a terrace, on which, near the con- 
 servatory, there will be some flower-beds. In order that this house may be in some de- 
 gree fire-proof, the floors of the oflSce, the nursery, the kitchens, and all the bed-rooms, 
 are proposed to be laid with stucco. (§ 2457.) On the drawingroom front there will 
 be a terrace garden, connected with an orchard and kitchen-garden by an arcade of 
 trelliswork covered with creepers, and the whole will be sheltered by a plantation, in 
 which will be introduced all the trees and shrubs which will endure the open air in the 
 climate of Inverness, and are procurable in British nurseries. 
 
 2389. Accommodation. In the basement floor, fig. 2186., there is a scullery with 
 a sink and plate-rack (and it may also contain a baking-oven and boiler), a ; back- 
 stair, b ; wash-house, with fixed washing-troughs supplied with pipes of hot and cold 
 water, c ; servants' hall, d ; and White's warm-air stove, e. The flue from this stove 
 
1^216 FIRST ADDITIONAL SUPPLEMENT. 
 
 is to be conducted uj) the adjoining pier, and close to the cisterns of the three water- 
 closets; while the heated air is to ascend to the hall above, r, in fig. 2187. This floor 
 also contains a small door to the coal-cellar, for procuring coals for the hot-air stove, / ; 
 and a coal-shoot, g. The cover to this shoot or opening, by which the coals are to be 
 introduced, is a plate of cast iron, made to lift up when the coals arc to be thrown down ; 
 it may form the lower step to the side entrance, or it may serve as part of the floor or 
 path before the steps : by means of an iron rod, staple, and padlock, it can easily be 
 secured inside. A closet is shown at h ; a servants* water-closet at i ; the coal-cellar at 
 k ; wine-cellar at I; beer-cellar at m; stoke-hole to the conservatory at n ; conservatory 
 
 furnace at o ; cook's pantry at p ; and kitchen at q ; the kitchen grate being supposed 
 to contain a boiler behind, and a roasting-oven on one side. There are two back en- 
 trances ; one through the back-kitchen, a, and the other through the wash-house, c ; both 
 these doors open into a small kitchen-court, round which are ranged a place for ashes, 
 a cleaning-room, bottle- rack, &c., peat -house, wood-house, &c. 
 
COTTAGE VILLAS AND VILLAS. 
 
 1217 
 
 The principal floor, fig. 2187., contains an entrance-lobby, r ; a lobby to the business 
 room, s ; a separate entrance to the business room, t ; water-closet, u ; beneath which 
 is one for the servants, and over which is one for the bed-rooms ; the cisterns and pipes 
 being kept from frost by the heat of the stove, e, in fig. 2186. ; hall and staircase, v ; 
 business-room, w ; drawingroom, x ; and dining-room, y. By introducing a temporary 
 screen of glass, or sliding- doors of glass, so as to separate the bay in this room, a green- 
 house may be obtained in the winter season, and the same thing might be effected in 
 the drawingroom. The object in separating the plants from the general atmosphere 
 of the rooms is, to preserve them from the dust and dry air which they contain, which 
 is so unsuitable for plants, and partly also to make sure of their being kept near the 
 light. There is a school-room at z, and a bed-room connected with it at §• ; a staircase 
 to the bed-rooms at 1 ; a swing-door, 2, to exclude draughts of air and smells from the 
 kitchen or wash-house v a serving-room to the dining-room, 3, which may have a hot 
 closet and shelf, heated by the circulation of hot water from the cistern at the back of 
 the kitchen fireplace below ; and a butler's pantry, 4. Above this floor are three good 
 bed- rooms, with dressing-rooms, a nursery, and three small bed-rooms. 
 
 2390. Remarks. The accommodation and its arrangement being adapted to a parti- 
 cular case, have been studied with the greatest care, and we consider that the result is 
 satisfactory. 
 
 Design XV. — A Villa in the Italian Style. By E. B. Lamb, Esq., F.I.B. A. 
 
 2391. The Object of this design is to show the marked distinction of the Italian style 
 of architecture, as applicable to a moderate-sized English villa, where utility is more 
 attended to than expensive decoration. Fig. 2190. is the elevation of the garden front. 
 
 The style of architecture intended to be conveyed by the elevation is decidedly of 
 Italian origin, and the general form perfectly simple, the variety in the external eleva- 
 tions being produced by the terraces and projecting steps. The small balconies of the 
 chamber floor also tend to enliven the design, and are always an agreeable addition to abed- 
 room. If it were desirable to make the building fire-proof, or nearly so, the staircases 
 should be of stone, the walls of solid brickwork or stone, and the joists, girders, rafters, &e,, 
 of cast and wrought iron. If the ceilings are well plastered, they will be sufficient to cut 
 off any communication of fire. Unless very considerable expense is incurred, there must 
 be a certain quantity of combustible material in the construction of a house, such as floor 
 boards, window frames and shutters, doors, &c., but by some little contrivances, if fire 
 should happen, it might be confined to one spot, and would thus soon be extinguished. 
 
1^218 
 
 FIRST ADDITIONAL SUPPLEMENT. 
 
COTTAGE VILLAS AND VILLAS. 
 
 1^19 
 
 2189 
 
 Except in bed-rooms, the furniture of 
 private houses is not usually very com- 
 bustible, unless some pains are taken to 
 ignite it. 
 
 2392. Accommodation. On the plan 
 of the principal floor, fig. 2188., are 
 shown : a, the approach road ; 6, the road 
 to the under hall ; c c c, steps and land- 
 ings to the hall ; d, great landing ; e, 
 porch ; /, hall ; g stairs from the un- 
 der hall ; h h h, corridor ; i, breakfast- 
 room ; k, drawingroom ; I, library ; m, 
 dining-room ; n, principal stairs ; o, 
 back-stairs ; p, dressing-room ; q, water- 
 closet ; r, arcade ; s, landing ; t t, steps 
 to the lawn, &c. ; u u, terraces ; v, steps 
 to conservatories ; w, steps to billiard- 
 room. 
 
 In the basement plan, fig. 2189., a is 
 the approach road ; 6, the road to the 
 carriage porch ; c, the carriage porch ; 
 d, the under hall, with the staircases 
 leading to the upper hall ; e, alcoves 
 with seats ; this forms part of the found- 
 ation of the upper steps, and, for the 
 sake of giving some pictorial effect, has 
 been opened in this manner : /, kitchen ; 
 g, scullery ; h, pantry ; i, larder ; k, ser- 
 vants' hall ; Z, housekeeper's room ; m, 
 bed- room; n, passage ; o, stairs to the wine 
 and beer cellars ; p, china closet ; q, stores ; 
 r, stairs ; s, water-closet, and coat and 
 boot room ; tt t, coal and wood cellars ; 
 « u, archways shown in the elevation, 
 fig. 2190. ; u, w, X, z, a, men-servants' 
 bed-rooms ; y, stairs from the terrace ; 
 over z and a' is the billiard-room ; b', 
 yard ; c', d', e, under-gardener's rooms ; 
 
 conservatory vestibule, with the stairs 
 to the terrace ; this vestibule should 
 have an entire glass roof, but the walls, 
 stairs, and other parts, should be deco- 
 rated with sculpture and architecture, 
 interspersed with flowers in ornamental 
 pots or beds ; g', conservatories. The 
 principal chamber floor contains six bed- 
 rooms and three dressing-rooms ; and 
 the attics contain four maid-servants' 
 bed-rooms. 
 
 2393. Description. The house is 
 adapted to a situation near a high road, 
 within a short distance of a large town, 
 
 but placed suflBciently far from the road to prevent any annoyance from the dust, or 
 from idle gazers. The terrace walls divide the pleasure-grounds from the entrance 
 drive, giving as much seclusion to the grounds as possible. The principal floor is raised 
 upon terraces, as the views from the windows range a considerable distance beyond 
 the private groimds, and can be seen properly only from an elevated situation, such 
 as the terraces afford. The terraces, being extensive, afford an opportunity of obtaining 
 considerable variety in the prospects, and, by descending to the lawn and pleasure- 
 grounds, the scene becomes immediately changed, and we have numerous beautiful 
 views of another description. The main entrance is placed on the north-east, and is 
 ascended to from the double approach road by a double flight of broad steps to the 
 principal hall, landing, and porch. The porch is entered through the centre arch, which 
 is five feet wide, the side arches being smaller, and enclosed at the bottom, about three feet 
 from the ground, by open paneling and pedestals bearing vases for flowers. The hall is 
 entered through folding sash-doors, and is otherwise lighted by the side windows, which 
 
COTTAGE VILLAS AND VILLAS. 1221 
 
 correspond in size with the small arches of the porch. These windows are filled in with 
 stained glass. The double lines on the plan mark the situation of stone paneling, or balus- 
 trading, terminating at the ends in pedestals bearing appropriate sculpture, or candelabra. 
 This balustrade is the protection from the stone stairs to the lower hall, of which more 
 hereafter. It will be seen from the plan, that the hall forms part of the corridor, 
 extending the length of this floor, and lighted at each end by rich stained glass windows. 
 The hall ceiling is flat, divided into nine panels, by four beams intersecting each other : 
 these beams should be of wood, or in imitation of wood ; and in the centre is a panel 
 with a circular shield within a wreath, the shield bearing the family arms painted of 
 the proper colours. The ceiling should be supported by a deep bold block cornice, in 
 imitation of stone. The walls are of stone, or in imitation of stone, and jointed. The 
 corridor should be finished to harmonise, both in construction and decoration, with the 
 hall ; and at each end might be placed a vase for flowers or a statue; the vase, perhaps, 
 would be most suitable, as in this situation any object must be almost always presented 
 to the eye in shadow; but where the outline is of particular beauty, and the whole 
 subject does not depend so much upon minute detail as pictorial effect, in no situation 
 can it be better viewed ; and, in fact, figures have frequently a more imposing effect 
 when so placed than when in full light. A vase situated here might be properly and 
 agreeably used for containing flowers ; or a pedestal, with a glass globe, containing gold 
 fish, would look well. The paving of the hall and corridors should be in patterns, 
 resembling in their general form the panels of the ceiling t this may be effected with 
 Portland stone, and any other stone which would contrast with it ; or, if covered with 
 oil-cloth, simple patterns are best. All the doors from the corridor should be framed 
 in three panels, and moulded ; they should be of oak, and should be circular-headed 
 to correspond with the windows, so that all the openings should be of the same form 
 on this floor. The handles should be of wood ; ebony outside, and cut glass within 
 the rooms. The inside panels of the doors may be ornamented with gilt ornaments, 
 or painted upon the oak ground. If painted, the sort of ornament most suited for this 
 purpose is a flat pattern without projecting shadows, but merely depending upon 
 contrast of colour for effect, it being part of the architectural decoration : imitations of 
 real shadows, or a desire to give relief to flat objects, which, if embossed, would project 
 various shadows, is mean and unarchitectural, and can never produce the effect desired. 
 As a general practice, the imitation, by painting, of wood, stone, or other material, is 
 not satisfactory to the mind, and conveys mean impressions ; but increasing the beauty 
 of wood by varnish or polish, and of stone by delicate work, is far more suitable, as 
 presenting the actual material without any attempt to deceive. All deceptions in 
 architecture fail in producing the desired effect. Painting would also become infinitely 
 more beautiful, if applied in a legitimate manner as a decoration, and not merely as a 
 disguise to other materials, and more frequently to bad work. 
 
 The library should be furnished with book-cases all round the room ; but great 
 attention should be paid to their composition and arrangement, so that each side of the 
 room should be of an equally consistent architectural character. As the peculiar con- 
 struction of the room will not allow of recesses in the walls for book-shelves, without 
 considerable expense, we must endeavour to produce as much effect as we can by 
 detached book-cases, projecting from the walls, yet sufficiently connected so as to pre- 
 serve the unity of the design. The skirting of the room must necessarily form the 
 most important connexion ; by the breaking of which round all the cases, and then again 
 round the chimney-piece, though in this place of a different material, the line of 
 connexion is immediately preserved in a satisfactory manner to the eye. Another 
 connexion may be made in the cornice ; the impost of the arches may very properly 
 form the cornice of all the cases, and this would be quite high enough for book-cases 
 in a private library. Over the chimney-piece might be a large mirror, or a piece of 
 sculpture, and on the book-cases might be arranged, in a pleasing manner, the busts of 
 some of the most eminent authors. The ceiling should be paneled, and coloured in 
 imitation of wood ; the principal beams might be oak, and the panels of a lighter 
 wood. Some few raised ornaments might be placed upon the ceiling, and painted in 
 various colours, and some gilt. Painted ceilings in allegorical subjects, or skies, clouds, 
 moons, stars, and other things of the like nature, have happily gone out of fashion. 
 Nothing can be so ill adapted to a ceiling as a painting with figures and architectural 
 subjects; the situation being such, that when you do strain your neck to obtain a glimpse 
 of them, and endeavour to unravel their mysteries, you are generally puzzled to fix a 
 point where the design can be viewed without distortion. The painted ceilings of the 
 British Museum are sufficient evidence of the absurdity of this practice. The custom 
 is now completely altered, and from the dark gloomy coloured and painted ceilings 
 of the seventeenth century, tlie opposite extreme is frequently taken, and flat unmeaning 
 
 7 G * 
 
1^222 
 
 FlllST ADDITIOXAL SUPPLEMENT. 
 
 plaster, with wiry ornaments which it requires the keenest vision to decipher occupy the 
 place of learned allegorical mysteries. 
 
 In the dining-room many sculptural subjects may decorate the walls, and the ceiling 
 may be well and appropriately adorned with heraldic devices. The entrance to the 
 room is in the centre, and on each side should be placed pedestals, or side tables in 
 lieu of the large sideboard, which could not be so well placed in this room. These 
 little circumstances may frequently be the means of producing something out of the 
 common way in composition ; and in this room the door forms such an important 
 feature that its position should not be altered. The space on each side is sufficiently 
 wide to admit of handsome designs for the demi-sideboards, where as much display of 
 plate may be made as any j)erson can ])ossibly wish for. At the back of each might be 
 a large plate of looking-glass, which would greatly add to the splendour of the furnished 
 sideboards. Much may be done in this way witlj good effect, jirovided a little thought 
 were given to the subject. The windows, which should all open outside, should be glazed 
 with some stained glass and some plain figured glass ; the lower portions of the sashes 
 should be plate glass : and in the construction of the sashes, and also in the glazing of 
 them, care should be taken that no sash-bar should come in the way of the sight of a 
 person of ordinary height, either sitting or standing; and that the stained glass should 
 not be placed in tlie direction of a person's sight, so as to obstruct his view, except in 
 side borders : of course, there may be exceptions to this rule. 
 
 From the dining-room is an entrance to the loggia, the ceiling of which should be 
 paneled, so as to harmonise with the rooms to which it is attached ; the decorations 
 should partake of some of those of the other three rooms, l)ut still, as the loggia is a sub- 
 ordinate object, its ornaments should be unobtrusive. The heraldic devices of the dining- 
 room, the soml)re yet marked display of the library, and the elegant lightness of the 
 drawingroom, should all be united in this loggia ; and at the s^tnie time we should bear 
 in mind, that, as it is an entrance j)orch from the external part of the house, the walls 
 should be of stone, and in the ceiling alone can the connecting links be preserved. 
 
 The drawing»"oom, k, in fig. 2188., may be decorated upon the strictest architectural 
 principles, and still the lightness so necessary for this room may be maintained : beauti- 
 fully grained wood may be distinctly shown in the ceiling, as the apparent strength 
 might require ; this wood may be moulded and decorated with gilt and painted carved 
 work. Satinwood jjanels, with elegantly designed scroll ornaments upon them, would 
 have a rich and beautiful effect ; the centre jjanel should have a rich Hower, from which 
 should liang the chandelier. The skirting of the room might be in imitation of Sienna 
 marble, and the walls might partake of the hues most prominent in the ceiling, and so as 
 to combine with the skirting. Tiie centre panel of the door might be looking-glass, 
 upon which should be placed some decoration, picked out in appropriate colours. The 
 windows should have some ornamental stained glass in the upper jjarts ; and much deco- 
 ration and taste might be shown, not oidy in the arrangement of the stained glasri, but 
 also in the form of the inside of the window-frames, bearing in mind always, that al- 
 though the general character of the buildmg may be marked as of a particular sty le, yet 
 the spirit of that style may be strictly followed up without any of the minor details being 
 copied from known exami)les. However much we may err in our endeavours to produce 
 something new, this should not deter us from i)ersevering; and, if we do so upon fixed and 
 sound principles, success nmst ultimately be the result of our endeavours. 
 
 The decorations of this room niay appear at first rather extravagant; but, when we 
 consider the means that are employed for the purpose, it will be found, that in a house 
 where architectural decoration is required, the means here employed are not too great 
 for the end in view. Looking-glass, judiciously applied, it is scarcely necessary to 
 remark, gives great splendour to a room. 
 
 The chimney-piece I would wish to be of Sienna marble, or, at least, the lower portion 
 of it, which should be a continuation of the skirting or plinth of the room; this forms the 
 connecting link between the walls and the chimney-piece,.and this, in an architectural point 
 of view, is of the greatest importance. The upper portion of the chimney-piece may be 
 of statuary marble : it then becomes a separate part of the design, or, in fact, a part 
 added for a particular jjurpose to the plinth, which plinth then holds its proper situation 
 in the architecture of the room. It is the bearing part, the base of the whole, and its 
 office should be distinctly marked. A distinct material can be used for the upper part 
 of the chimney-piece with the greatest propriety ; for, as the walls of the room, the plinth, 
 and the ceiling, are of diff'ereiit materials, a variety or contrast in this situation will be 
 quite admissible. Connecting lines in the general composition, masses of colour, variety 
 of material, and a single prominent feature, make up the whole of architectural design. 
 This single prominent feature is the leading object from which all others emanate, and 
 it unites itself in its form and colour with the surrounding objects. Suppose, for instance, 
 the chimney-piece were made the most prominent feature in a room, the lines of the plint^ 
 
COTTAGE VILLAS AND VILLAS. 
 
 are continued round, and the upper portion is repeated in other objects in form and 
 colour, but in a less decorated manner, as they recede from the main feature : they 
 continue round the room till the least decorative parts, as they radiate from the centre, 
 meet and unite in each other. The blending of form and colour is much more difficult 
 in architecture than in painting. In the former, the crude nature of the materials, the 
 limited scale it must be brought to, and the necessity of making numerous and frequent 
 changes, are disadvantages difficult to surmount, and only, perhaps, to be properly sur- 
 mounted in the actual building ; but in painting, the subject is in the hands of the artist 
 at once, and when once finished no change can take place in it. 
 
 The breakfast-room, i, in fig. 21 88., requires but few words, as what has already been 
 said applies as much to this room as to the others. In many of the buildings designed 
 in the present day, too much attention and expense have been bestowed on the exterior ; 
 and when you enter the house, after seeing the hall and staircase, few of the rooms pre- 
 sent a better appearance than those of the meanest cottage : a cornice, with some en- 
 richments, but very moderately applied, and frequently in doubtful taste, and a centre 
 flower, supplied from the plasterer's stores, are usually the utmost decorations, even in large 
 houses. The ceiling is flat, and as white as possible ; but the walls are papered with 
 rich papers and gilt mouldings by the professional decorator. Now, it must have been 
 observed by nearly every person, that the bareness of the ceiling never unites with the 
 rich covering of the walls. Let us spare a little expense externally (and frequently it 
 may be spared without being missed), and apply it to internal decoration. Let us be 
 consistent in our designs ; and, if we have the means of giving a princely appearance to 
 the exterior, let us remember that it should only prepare us for equal, if not superior, 
 display within. The resources should be carefully husbanded, that the whole design 
 may be in proper unison, admitting only just such discords as are sufficient to prevent 
 monotony, and give zest to the general effect of the composition. 
 
 The principal stairs, n, in fig. 2188., should be of stone; the first flight enclosed, as 
 shown in the plan, for the dressing-room, p. The upper part of the staircase may be 
 open ; and, as these stairs lead to the bed-rooms, only a moderate degree of decoration 
 will be sufficient for them ; but some basso-relievo may be very properly placed here, 
 and some attention should be paid to the ceilings and walls, so as to preserve the strictest 
 unity in the design.- The back stairs, o, will be enclosed by a swing door. These stairs 
 lead from the basement to the different floors of the house. 
 
 The landing, s, in fig. 2188., from the arcade or loggia, r, is made broad and ample, 
 as it will form a delightful situation for flowers, for vases, or pieces of sculpture, or for 
 many other subjects of interest, which could not be placed in the open grounds. This, 
 with the terraces, u u, if supplied with seats of an architectural character, would form 
 very agreeable lounges when the grounds were too damp to walk in. The terrace from 
 the dining-room is properly terminated by the billiard-room, and that from the drawing- 
 room by the conservatory. The basement plan, fig. 2189., shows the entrance to the 
 conservatory at/', and the conservatory, g'. All the terraces are approached from the 
 grounds in the manner clearly indicated by the plan. — E. B. L. 
 
 Design XVI. — A small Gothic Villa, suited to the Suburbs of a large Town. By E. B. 
 
 Lamb, Esq., F.I.B.A. 
 
 The elevation is shown in fig. 2191. As a general remark, perhaps you will allow 
 me to say a word or two on the wood-engravings. Frequently the artist who draws the 
 design on the wood, previously to the cutting, from a want of knowledge of architectural 
 forms, or, perhaps, in many instances it may be carelessness, absolutely puts into the 
 drawing the very things I have been writing against, as in the instance pointed out in 
 the windows of the keeper's lodge, fig. 2335. in p. 1 1 35. In this design, fig. 21 91., the 
 parapet appears like a Grecian guilloch instead of Gothic perforated paneling ; the 
 arches do not present the easy curve of the Gothic four-centred arch, and the scroll label 
 over the projecting bays assumes also a different character. In other respects, this is a 
 good specimen of the art. It is rather provoking to see sometimes such mistakes that 
 the character of a design is completely altered : but I will not now bring a list of 
 grievances forward ; the subjects, I have no doubt, are difficult for wood-engravers, and, 
 at any rate, I cannot complain more than others. 
 
 The intention of this design is to show an ornamental style of architecture, to be 
 executed in a substantial manner at comparatively small cost, as all the external decora- 
 tions can be executed in Coade's terra cotta, which is certainly more durable than some 
 real stone : the colour can be made of any tint ; and, as the material is burnt in a kiln, 
 it is harder than most stone, and much less porous. It is also much better than common 
 cement, as it does not require colouring. 
 
 2394. Accommodatio7i. In the ground plan, fig. 2192., a is the porch; b, the hall; 
 
1 '2^24^ 
 
 FIRST ADDITIONAL SUPPLEMENT. 
 
 f c, corridor ; d, lobby to the staircase ; e, staircase ; f, dining-room ; g, drawingroom ; 
 A, library ; i, conservatory ; k, arcade ; /, landing and steps down to the grounds ; m, 
 landing, or terrace, and steps to the grounds from the conservatory ; n n, areas ; o o, 
 sunk or sloped ground to give light and ventilation to the basement ; and /?, approach 
 road. 
 
 2395. Description. To the entrance of every house a porch is not only a luxury, 
 but is necessary to protect the house from cold, and to form a suitable shelter in 
 inclement weather. The entrance archway of this porch, a, should be the largest opening 
 in this front, and it should be conspicuously decorated, in order that it may at once mark 
 the principal entrance. In the gable there should be a panel, with an enriched shield, 
 motto, crest, or other mark, distinguishing the owner. On the apex of the gable would 
 
COTTAGE VILLAS AND VILLAS. 
 
 12^5 
 
 be the best place for the crest. It may be objected to by some that heraldic devices have 
 the appearance of family pride, when conspicuously displayed in their buildings ; but 
 this is not considered to be the case by architects and antiquarians. They are forms 
 and decorations intimately associated with the style of architecture in which they are 
 employed, and constitute some of the most interesting and picturesque combinations. 
 In ancient architecture, they are frequently the only means by which we can trace the 
 founder of a building, or the contributor to its decoration or enlargement : in those days, 
 brass plates, with huge letters setting forth the names of benefactors, were seldom used, 
 as in the present time, in which the useful decoration is seldom properly applied, but 
 the brazen name shines forth in the most glaring manner. Heraldic forms, monograms, 
 rebuses, and other devices, in addition to rich sculptures and appropriate foliage, form 
 
1226 FIRST ADDITIONAL SUPPLEMENT. 
 
 the most interesting subjects for Gothic buildings ; but none should be used which 
 could not be shown as perfectly consistent, and connected, either with the building as a 
 work of fine art, or with the founder as the badges of his family, his name, or his occu- 
 pation. This was the custom of the " JNIasonic Craft : " but mark the difference of the 
 present time. The noble buildings of antiquity are copied, not only in their windows, 
 doors, and gables, but in their heraldic emblems ; and frequently we see the arms of 
 monarchs, palaces, and cities, monasteries, abbots, and colleges, jumbled together in one 
 confused mass on a modern domestic building, which, with a little thought, might liave 
 been appropriately decorated with the founder's own devices. In this porch I would 
 have the groining executed either in stone or in terra cotta, and not in plaster or papier- 
 mache (the latter method is now adopted at Ripon Minster for restoring the groining 
 of the transepts) ; and at the angles, suitable sculpture in corbels, arms, l)osses, cSjc. The 
 ribs of the groining might be executed on the same principle as in ancient buildings, and 
 the interstices built with scjuared chalk ; a common practice with the freemasons, and 
 very suitable from its lightness, and, if not exposed to the weather, durability ; and eacli 
 gusset being perfectly indejjendent of the rib, this method is found to be sufficiently strong. 
 All the heraldry should be properly emblazoned, and not indicated by the modern 
 method, which is poor and insipid, compared with the effect produced by the combina- 
 tion of colours and gilding. A little colour in the groining, and all tlie proper joints of 
 the masonry, showing the principle of tiie construction, is liighly satisfactory to the 
 mind : again, in the masonry, small forms of stone, in this situation, would be most 
 pleasing, as indicating a lighter method of construction in this manner than could be 
 produced by ponderous masses of material ; the latter, jjresenting a large surface to the 
 eye, conveys an idea of immense tliickness, and our sensations are unj)leasing, from the 
 apparent insufficiency of the walls, buttresses, or other supports, to bear the burden. At 
 the same time, and probably from the same cause, the large masses do not harmonise 
 with the small general forms so well as small masses. I have mentioned sculpture as 
 api)ropriate decoration, in foliage, flowers, fruit, and heraldic emblems: the judicious 
 study of ancient examples, for their forms, would be excellent, but then the spirit that dic- 
 tate(l the design, and the hand that executed the work, should be clearly understood and 
 impressed upon the artist, that he may do as has been before done, viz. invent new 
 forms, and execute them in the same bold manner, without stooping to the lazy expe- 
 dient of copying, or rather moulding and rei)ro(lucing, the ancient works, and placing 
 them in inappropriate situations. With regard to heraldry, the ancient forms must be 
 preserved : they should be considered as mere devices ; and when we see animals repre- 
 sented in form and colour as they never did exist in nature, we can only be reminded of 
 the uses which recjuired these incongruities: and, as in all countries, and almost in all 
 ages, these means have been resorted to for distinguishing persons, and are still handed 
 down to us for the same purpose, however incorrectly api)lied, we should preserve them 
 as symbols of an occasion now no longer required, and records of chivalric ages and his- 
 toric legends. But not so with regard to distinct grotes(jue figures, busts, corbel heads, 
 and such things : the artists of tlie middle ages knew not how to execute tlieir work 
 better ; but, at the present time, it would be absurd indeed to copy the faults of the 
 ancients. Figures should have their proper proportions ; grotesque corbel heads, if 
 used at all, should be sparingly used, and the execution should not be contrary to 
 nature. Perfect beauty in things of this kind is not so necessary as correct anatomical 
 proportion. Much of the good effect we observe in the application of sculpture (I 
 mean figures) in ancient buildings is owing to the material being of the same descrip- 
 tion as in the architecture, and to the method of disposing the drapery, so that it har- 
 monises with the architectural forms. In all ancient buildings the figures are fully 
 clothed : there are exceptions, of course, but these are few : they are generally placed 
 in niches (internally more especially), and have canopies over them, the niche is only 
 sufl^ciently large to admit the figure, and the parallelism of the folds of the drapery, the 
 closeness of the arms to the sides, and the perfectly upright position of the figure, em- 
 bodies it, as it were, with the architecture. 
 
 On each side of the porch is a window, which, to preserve its use and comfort, should 
 be glazed, and some small compartments of stained and painted arms, figures, or mot- 
 toes', mio-ht very appropriately be used here. The door to the hall should be of oak, with 
 the upper panels glazed, to admit light to the hall. The decorations of the hall, b, and 
 the corridors, c c, and the lobby, d, should be of the same character, and be groined m 
 the ceiling, in the same manner as the porch: the other decorations should be also of 
 similar character, partaking of the same forms, but in a richer degree. The two win- 
 dows should be glazed with stained glass ; and here might be some figures, emblems of 
 the arts of peace, mixed with the heraldry, as appropriate historical mementos. In the 
 hall there might be some ancient armour bung up, with banners and other appropriate 
 implements of war ; now merely preserved as matters of history, but all tending to in- 
 
COTTAGE VILLAS AND VILLAS. 
 
 1227 
 
 struct and give interest as well as picturesque beauty. The window in the lobby, <f, 
 should also have some painted glass. The efFect from the porch, looking through the 
 building to the lobby window, and then to the grounds, would, 1 think, be pleasing ; 
 as there would be a depth of shadow from the hall, with some half lights, forming a 
 varied foreground to the enriched window, with its brilliant hues, in the distance. Al- 
 though I would wish to have a great deal of stained glass in the lobby window, yet some 
 should be quite plain, that the scenery may be viewed from it with proper effect. 
 
 I pass now to the dining-room,/. Here a distinct contrast is produced from the 
 groining of stone to the ceiling of wood. Oak is the material usually employed in 
 these situations in ancient buildings, but I should not object to fir ; larch, for instance, 
 would have a beautiful effect, if varnished with boat varnish, or asphalt mixed with 
 varnish. These produce a rich brown tint without disguising the material. I know 
 we are apt to associate meanness with deal, but if the colour be sobered down, the effect 
 will be exceedingly good, and while much more satisfactory than painting in imitation 
 of more rare woods, is also cheaper. The ceiling should have transverse ribs, as 
 indicated by the dotted lines in the plan, fig. 2192., and might be curved at the ends 
 to form an open cusped spandril, the curve terminating with a corbel. The corbels 
 should be of stone or terra cotta : in the cornice might be carved wood ornaments, 
 appropriately interspersed with heraldic devices, monograms, &c. In the recess for 
 the sideboard I would have a window entirely filled with rich stained glass, which would 
 catch the eye as the main object when the plate was displayed here, and would group 
 the whole in the most pleasing manner. The other windows should be sparingly glazed 
 with stained glass, as it would be inconvenient for viewing objects in the grounds, and 
 would tend to give too sombre a character to the room. Where transoms are used in 
 Gothic windows, great care should be taken that they come above the eye when a 
 person is standing in a room, so that no disagreeable obstruction may prevent the view 
 from the window. The fireplace I would take care should form a component part of 
 the architecture of the room, and not be, what it too frequently is, of quite a different 
 and distinct character. This was frequently the case in old buildings. P'or the walls, if 
 I could not cover them with velvet hangings or tapestry (not subjects full of monstrous 
 figures), I would use flock paper in imitation of velvet hangings ; the effect would be 
 good, and at any rate it would be quite as consistent as painting them stone colour : 
 yet other colours might be used ; and, in general, the fewer imitations there are in 
 a building, the more perfect the effects will be. But there are some things that pre- 
 sent difficulties in our way, and therefore paper may with propriety be used as a 
 covering for a wall, where a covering is required in domestic architecture, and more 
 especially where the building is not on a large scale ; but in public buildings, churches, 
 or cathedrals, it would be quite inadmissible. The windows, or rather sash-doors, at 
 the end of the room, are convenient means of descending to the grounds or to the 
 arcade ; and the recess at the eud, with the arch corresponding with the sideboard arch, 
 would form an agreeable nook, but more useful as a " retiring place for conference " in 
 the drawingroom. 
 
 I will pass through the corridor, which should be similarly decorated to the porch, to 
 the drawingroom, g. The same principle which governed the composition of the other 
 parts of the building should be strictly followed here. The ceiling should be of wood, 
 but supported by two large ribs, and divided into panels, as indicated by the dotted 
 lines in the plan. A more lively decoration is necessary for this room, more colour may 
 bfi used, and gilding should be called in to aid the effect ; but the main supports of the 
 ceiling should be wood, and it should be clearly indicated as such. The panels might 
 be richly ornamented with diaper patterns in gold or coloured grounds, or colour on 
 gold grounds. But even in this kind of decoration in ancient times something of a 
 heraldic system was employed ; that is, metal formed the ground of colour, and colour 
 the ground of metal; but seldom was colour the ground for colour, or metal the ground 
 for metal ; and to these simple rules we owe the most brilliant effects. In their deco- 
 rations the ancients were not sparing of their positive colours. As much attention 
 should be paid to the forms of patterns. Large forms, as I have shown before, tend to 
 diminish the apparent size of the room, and small forms to increase the size : warm 
 colours also give the appearance of diminution, but, at the same time, of compactness ; 
 whereas cold colours produce distance or space, but frequently a want of cheerfulness ; 
 therefore, the proportion of warm colours should be greater than that of cold colours. 
 There are many little elegancies fitted for this room which my limits will not allow me 
 to mention ; but the cultivated and delicate tastes of the ladies would, if they built upon 
 such a plan, soon furnish the design, so as to make it perfectly suitable to its purpose. 
 
 I have mentioned the fireplace in the dining- voom, but not the material of which it 
 should be made. In the present time we generally look upon mantelpieces that are not 
 marble as mean and unsuitable. This occurs in consequence of their mean forms (I 
 
1228 
 
 FIRST ADDITIONAL SUPPLEMENT. 
 
 speak of moderate-sized buildings) being lost in their costly material. If the marble were 
 worked with suitable decorations and more beautiful forms, the expense would i)re- 
 vent its application ; but if the suitable forms and decorations were executed in free- 
 stone, the comparative meanness of the n)aterial would be doubly comi)ensiited by the 
 beauty and appropriateness of the composition. Therefore, however opposite to the jire- 
 sent received custom, I would not scruple to use a fine freestone for this buildin«ji:, appro- 
 priately carved and decorated, in preference to the mean form in the costly material. 
 
 The library, //, is divided from the drawingroom by an open screen, behind which, 
 when more ])rivacy was recjuired, a curtain would form an appr()])riate division. The 
 screen should be carved wood, and of the same colour as the other wood in the room, 
 with rich tracery, which might be partially painted and gilt, so as to i)roduce an exceed- 
 ingly rich effect, and should otherwise correspond with the decorations of the room. 
 It should be about seven feet high, and surmounted with a rich Tudor ])arapet. 'I'he 
 actual i)artltion of tlie room should l)e arched. This library, which, in fact, may be 
 considered only a small book-room, or boudoir, attached to the drawingroom, sliould 
 be fitted up much in the same maimer as the drawingroom, only preserving so nuich 
 difference as would give variety to the general comj)Osition. 
 
 Much of the effect of the conservatory (which we now enter), as an architectural 
 coujposition, will depend upon the walls being pierced with windows as little as possible ; 
 and to preserve the character of this ))<)rtion of the building some sacrifice must be 
 made as regards the ])lants. but, as the whole roof may l)e of ghi-ss, the sjicrifice will be 
 only to a small extent. In a house of decidedly architectural pretensions, if the con- 
 servatory is not kei)t up in the same manner, the |)leasure we sln)uld otherwise derive 
 from the buihling, as a work of art, would l>e destroyed. !!Many ways are enii)loye(l 
 lo give an architectural character 'o conservatories ; for exain|)le, by high decora! i(tn 
 with cast-iron or wood ornaments of an expensive nature : l)Ut seldom do we see any of 
 the forms of the main building repeated in the conservatory ; too often the design is 
 produced by a dill'erent person, wiiose patterns have l>een used in similar instances, and 
 the consefjuencc is, that the house and conservatory present totally opposite characters. 
 Although we see immediately what is intended by the erection, yet the flimsy wood or 
 iron so called (iothic architecture of the conservatory but ill accords with the massy 
 stone of the building : the horizontal lines of tin* framing, the thin sash-l)ars, the low 
 pitch of the roof, and the glaring white paint, offer too great a contrast to tlie vertical 
 cliaracter, the high-pitched gable, and the solid nudlion of the l)uilding to be pleasing. 
 These things, 1 am (|uite aware, are not so nuich observed when applied to a conser- 
 vatorv, as thev would be had the building been erected for anotlier j)urpose; so much 
 are we reconciled to mean forms when associated with agreeable objects. 
 
 I have yet to s;iy a few words t)n the staircase, which I would have constructed with 
 equal regard to the strict cliaracter of the building; but I would not bestow 
 upon it that high decoration which is so frecjuently done, as if the whole effect 
 of the building depended upon the splendour of the staircase. In this building the 
 stairs might be of stone, the balusters of bronze or iron, and the handrail of oak ; the 
 balusters should be ornamental, eitlier in single forms or in coimected paneling. 
 There are yet remaining several examples from which, without exactly copying, we 
 might obtain good ideas for these forms ; and if we attend to the j)urpose for which 
 we study them, a little more than to the wish of a])plying the same design, something 
 consistent will necessarily be the result. The handrail should be in straight j)ieces, or 
 merely curved upwards next the newels, whicli at each angle of the stairs should form 
 the abutments ; but in no case M-ould I use the distorted, ramped, and twisted slij) of 
 mahogany, which modern ingenuity calls a handrail : it is perfectly void of beauty, and 
 the only thing that can be said in its favour is, that the hand in descending the stairs 
 can slip from the top to the bottom without interruption. Can this usefulness make 
 up for its deformity ? 
 
 The general effect of these rooms, if constructed and decorated in the manner de- 
 scribed, would be, I think, satisfactory, as presenting the actual material, and using co- 
 loin- only as a means of giving to that material its best appearance. At once we should 
 observe, upon entering the building, that it was substantial and consistent in con- 
 struction, appropriate in decoration, and possessing an air of comfort with pictorial 
 effect, I dwell somewhat iii)on the necessity of applying materials properly, that is, 
 undisguised ; as of late years the decorator, instead of the architect, is called in to com- 
 plete the building, and the architect is dismissed almost immediately after the mere 
 shell is erected. Then come imitations of satlnwood, rosewood, oak, or other mate- 
 rials, with plaster ornaments, gilding, gaudy stained glass (if stained glass is used at all), 
 immense plates of looking-glass in frames of all conceivable forms, gold and embossed 
 papers of AUiambra (the fashion now) patterns; wretchedly designed furniture, with 
 Gothic windows and gables for chair -backs; gilt curtain cornices, with inverted crockets, 
 
COTTAGE VILLAS AND VILLAS. 
 
 pinnacles, and finials ; thickly folded drapery twisted into every variety of grotesque 
 form ; Gothic fire-screens, fireplaces, stoves, sideboards, in short, every subject where 
 two segments of a circle can be made to meet in a point : these things, which would have 
 thrown discredit upon Batty Langley, are, after the architect has terminated his 
 labours, thrust into his rooms, to the total destruction of all style, date, and harmony of 
 proportion or colour. I do not wish to quarrel with the decorators ; there are many 
 who, I dare say, are capable of carrying out a design with fitness and propriety ; but 
 now nearly every house-painter or paper-hanger, without having studied any thing 
 beyond the compounding and laying on of colour or hanging of paper, calls himself 
 a decorator, and performs his work without knowing one principle of composition, or 
 perhaps scarcely discerning Grecian from Gothic architecture ; and the miserable 
 result of his labour is the perversion of all good taste and sound principles. 
 
 In the elevation, fig. 2191., I have endeavoured, by appropriate decoration, to give 
 suitable character to a simple general outline, preserving all through the decorations 
 harmony of form : for instance, all the gables are of equal angles ; the mullions of the 
 windows of the same form and dimensions, and the openings between the muilions of the 
 same width ; and the arches only used where transoms would be liable to break from their 
 inconvenient length. The stones all through should be small, seldom larger than a man 
 can carry on his shoulder, and, if the walls are of brick, the jambs of the windows 
 should show the bond into the brick and never a vertical joint ; the former giving the 
 appearance of strength, the latter of weakness. With regard to windows, much of the 
 effect of modern Gothic, ay and of ancient too, is sometimes, destroyed by the variety of 
 dimensions in the mullions and openings. To produce harmony of form throughout a 
 building, very little difference in these dimensions should take place, except where suffi- 
 cient reason can be assigned for it. Mullions and openings of windows evidently 
 belonging to a series of apartments connected with each other should be of equal 
 dimensions ; but a chapel, an institution, or other building, joined to a range of domes- 
 tic buildings, and requiring windows of larger dimensions or otherwise, to mark its 
 character, should be designed upon the same principle, and the mullions should bear the 
 same proportion to the openings as in the domestic building. A little attention to these 
 rules would produce happy results, but a total disregard of them is mischievous in the ex- 
 treme ; since, if the mullions of a large window, where the openings would necessarily be 
 large, were of the same dimensions as those of the small windows, where the openings 
 are small, it would destroy the effect of the whole building, by presenting, by compari- 
 son, on the one hand heaviness, and on the other meagreness. To produce good effects, 
 the balance of parts should be equal. Of external colour I have little to say, except 
 one thing which has struck me in many instances, but more particularly during a late 
 visit to a modern castle in Scotland, viz., that the mullions of windows that are seen 
 from a distance should be of the same material as the jambs of the windows, and not 
 of a dark colour ; for if this be the case, the windows, at the distance the building should 
 be seen to advantage with the accompaniment of beautiful scenery, become mere square 
 unmeaning holes, combined with high gables, battlements, and pinnacles, apparently of 
 a totally diflferent character. This subject requires much consideration, and cannot be 
 too clearly impressed upon those who wish to build. Too frequently the fear of pro- 
 ducing heaviness in the windows obliges the architect to reduce the mullions until they 
 become, at a proper distance to view the building, mere clumsy sash-bars ; and at the 
 point where the sky line of the building would be seen to the best advantage, namely, 
 when the sun is behind it, the mullions are mere unmeaning lines, lose their distinct- 
 ness, and produce a poor and insipid effect. It only remains for me to say that the 
 domestic oflfices are in the basement, and that the chamber plan contains six bed-rooms, 
 all of which I would erect and decorate in suitable character. 
 
 Design XVII An Anglo- Grecian Villa. By E. B. Lamb, Esq., F.I.B.A. 
 
 The elevation is shown in fig. 2193. 
 
 2396. Accommodation. In the ground plan, fig. 2194., a is the portico ; h, the hall ; 
 c, the saloon ; d d, ante-rooms ; e, drawingroom ; f, dining-room ; g g, library ; h, li- 
 brary ante-room ; t, portico ; k, breakfast-room, or music-room ; I, principal staircase ; 
 my water-closet ; n, passage to the oflSces ; o, housekeeper's or butler's room ; />, pantry ; 
 9, servants' hall ; r, s, china closets ; kitchen ; m, scullery ; r, servants' water-closet ; 
 20, back-stairs ; x, servants* entrance. The chamber plan contains seven rooms in the 
 principal body of the house, and six rooms in the wing. 
 
 2397. Description. The object of this design is, to show the application of decided 
 Grecian forms and character to modern purposes ; not as a copy from the works of an- 
 tiquity, but to be treated in the spirit of the style, as far as that style can be so treated 
 in a modern habitation. The remaining works of the Greeks are taken at the present time 
 as precedents, but seldom are they applied in a manner suited to our climate and customs. 
 Precedent has been the evil genius of the art, the trumpet sound of the employer, and 
 
 7 H 
 
FIRST ADDITIONAL SUPPLEMENT. 
 
COTTAGE VILLAS AND VILLAS. 
 
 1231 
 
 2194 
 
 Portico. 
 . Hall. 
 c. Saloon. 
 d d. Ante-rooms. 
 e, Drawingroom. 
 /, Dining-room. 
 g g. Library. 
 h. Library ante-room. 
 I, Portico. 
 
 k. Breakfast-room, or 
 
 music-room. 
 /, Principal staircase. 
 m. Water-closet, 
 n, Passage to offices. 
 0, Housekeeper's or 
 
 butler's room. 
 p, Pantry. 
 q. Servants' halt 
 r, s, China closets. 
 t, Kitchen. 
 u, Scullery. 
 V, Servants' water- 
 closet. 
 w, Back-stairs. 
 X, Servants' entrance. 
 
 the trammel of the genuine architect. Happily, a change is now taking place, and the 
 forms of Greek temples are seldom applied to domestic edifices. The application and 
 arrangement of columns in modern buildings should be quite different from what it was in 
 ancient temples ; nor would I scruple to alter the proportions of columns or entablatures, 
 if it suited my purpose. In blindly adhering to precedent, how many have failed in 
 producing the effect they desired ! How many temples have been erected with three 
 or four tiers of windows in the height of the columns ! How frequently have fitness 
 and propriety been violated by this mistaken predilection for ancient temples 1 How 
 absurd would it be to copy York Minster, or Westminster Abbey, and put floors into 
 them, for a dwelling-house ; and yet the religious edifices of the Greeks have been fre- 
 quently copied in this way, without the absurdity being noticed. The characteristic 
 
1232 FIRST ADDITIONAL SUPPLEMENT. 
 
 features of a particular style of architecture may be employed in a modern building, 
 without its presenting the appearance of a temple, and in this design I have attempted 
 to do so ; preserving, in the first instance, a prevalence of horizontal lines. The appli- 
 cation of columns, pilasters, and entablature, the introduction of square-headed openings, 
 and, although the pediment is omitted, the raised centre and lantern, will carry the mind 
 to that form as associated with the buildings of antiquity, and thus mark the proper ad- 
 herence to precedent. I speak of the precedent of temples only, as we know so little of 
 the private dwellings of the Greeks ; but, if we knew more, probably we should be less 
 able to apply them to our own climate than the temples. 
 
 The effect of the portico, a, in fig. 2194., will be greatly aided by the entrance-door 
 being placed in the partition wall of the hall at u, and thus forming a doorway of solid 
 masonry, and behind a less solidly moulded door-frame for the doors. In the recesses 
 might be placed figures on pedestals, or candelabra ; if the latter, it would be a novel 
 and pleasing way of lighting the hall through the large glass doors. There is much 
 difficulty in constructing the architrave over the intercolumns consistently in this style, 
 as wc Jire frequently at a loss to obtain so large a piece of stone as will take a solid bear- 
 ing upon the columns. For this reason, we are obliged to construct it on the principle 
 of an arch, and thereby destroy the propriety of the application of the architrave. This 
 is a difficulty only to be surmounted in the way mentioned, and few people consider the 
 impropriety of this construction, unless the architrave settles, and thus forms a curved 
 line between the columns ; it then becomes painful in the extreme to look at : this has 
 not unfrequently occurred in some of our new public buildings. In the choice of an 
 order of architecture, some care should be taken, if we do not use the exact copy of the 
 antique, that it is not one that is most elaborately sculptured, as, in a very short time, 
 the beauty of the ornament is lost l)y the discolorations and other effects of this climate. 
 In fact, the materials we use being of a coarser nature than the marbles of the Greeks, 
 the elaborate detail, however good it may be, has seldom sufficient brilliancy of light to 
 show it to advantage. We require more decided forms and bolder execution to produce 
 our effects. 
 
 The hall, 6, should be the height of both stories, and should be stuccoed with a marble 
 cement to receive a polish, if it was not entirely built with stone, which could be the 
 case only in certain situations. On the walls I would have some basso-relievo, of appro- 
 priate subjects, and let into the wall in such manner as to form a perfect connexion with 
 the architecture. All the doorways in the hall should have their mouldings of stone, or 
 marble cement ; the doors might be of maliogany or wainscot, or even of larch or other 
 wood appropriately paneled, but not painted, unless the painting were used as a deco- 
 ration, not a disguise. 
 
 The saloon, c, forms the connecting link in the composition between the drawingroom, 
 library, dining-room, and hall, and therefore it should partake of some of the character- 
 istics of each. It is a small apartment, but I prefer this division from the hall to making 
 that apartment of such large dimensions as it is usually of In this arrangement of 
 the rooms, the saloon becomes at any time a private apartment, and can be used as an 
 appendage to either of the other apartments, if required. Some sculpture, an ornamental 
 coffered ceiling, supported on cantilevers, the centre being figured glass, round which, 
 on the landing of the chamber floor, should be a close screen to protect it. llie lantern- 
 light shown in the elevation is, of course, the means of lighting that landing and the 
 saloon. The floor might be of mosaic or marble. 
 
 From this room we pass to the dining-room. Here, as in all modern rooms in this 
 style of architecture, there is great difficulty in keeping up a consistent construction. 
 The width of the room will, therefore, oblige us to use wood as the principal material for 
 all the ornamental paneling of the ceiling, but the walls might be scagliola ; and in this 
 situation I would place sculpture as the principal decoration. The sideboard should 
 form part of the architecture of the room, and the effect would be exceedingly good, by 
 having a large mirror covering the whole of the back of the recess, and reflecting the 
 windows, grounds, and sculpture. In the decorations of the ceiling for this room 
 I would provide two flowers or other ornaments, superior to the rest, from which 
 chandeliers should be suspended. The chimney-piece should be of sculptured marble, 
 harmonising with the walls of the room. The windows might have some coloured 
 glass, with characteristic ornaments painted upon them, but not in gaudy colours. 
 A severe style would be most suitable, as uniting better with the decorations of this 
 room. Generally, plate glass suits Grecian architecture admirably, as it preserves the 
 massy character and distinctness of form so essential to the style. Broad masses of 
 light and shade, continuous lines, and square openings, are equally necessary. The 
 general tone of colour should be warm ; some ornament might also be painted ; but 
 this should be done with great caution, as it would be difficult to make the painted 
 decoration harmonise with the sculpture. 
 
COTTAGE VILLAS AND VILLAS. 
 
 U8S 
 
 From the ante-room, c?, we enter the library, /, e, / The numerous breaks, and 
 varied form of these rooms, would produce a good effect, and are capable of high archi- 
 tectural decoration. The bookcases would require to partake of the same character as 
 the rooms ; but if placed in recesses terminated with pilasters, and the cases only about 
 eight feet high, the upper parts would form suitable pedestals for sculpture, bronzes, 
 vases, &c., so that a great interest may be given to this room, in addition to its 
 usefulness. The compartments in this room not being so large, stone might be used as 
 a ceiling, but still I think, in this country, wood is most suitable ; and by constructing 
 the ceiling in wood, and being directed by the principles of the ancients, we might pro- 
 duce some new arrangement, which, though different from the forms we are accustomed 
 to see, might be in the spirit of their buildings. An interesting question arises out of 
 this difficulty ; namely. What is the principle the ancients, when the arts were in 
 the highest perfection, would have adopted in their ceilings had they constructed them 
 of wood instead of stone? or, if any have been constructed in wood, what was the prin- 
 ciple? The ante-room, e, in the library, would form an agreeable adjunct, and an easy 
 means of passing to the grounds. 
 
 I will now speak of the drawingroom, which, to produce those pleasant sensations of 
 cheerfulness associated with rooms of this description in this country, must be light and 
 rather gay, not gaudy, in its decorations ; but all the consistency of construction miglit 
 as well be preserved here as in the other rooms of the house. The celling should be a 
 framing of wood in coffers or panels supported upon beams of wood having all the 
 strength necessary for the purpose. Great variety and beauty might be given by wood 
 of various descriptions, gilt mouldings, and painted ornaments. The columns at the 
 window recess should have their proper entablature, which should pass round the room, 
 and should support the wood ceiling. Some appropriate sculpture in the frieze, also 
 some, but sparingly introduced, in the walls, of figures, wreaths of flowers, &c. Within 
 the recess, between the columns and pilasters, might be pedestals for elegant glass vases 
 for flowers ; or even small statues of marble or bronze, or other little articles of rarity, 
 might be properly placed in this room ; but, unless the furniture was designed in the 
 same spirit, the effect would be destroyed ; so that, in fact, the wliole arrangement of 
 this room should be under the direction of one person. I would have a fireplace at 
 each end of the room, with a window over it : this should be of one sheet of glass, and 
 should slide back at night, and into its place a shutter should slide in the same manner, 
 but with a looking-glass on the inside. The effect, when the room was lighted in the 
 evening, would be exceedingly striking. 
 
 As much attention to style and consistency of construction should be preserved in 
 the breakfast-room, h, as in the drawingroom. The stairs, k, should be of stone, the 
 balusters of metal, and the handrail of mahogany or oak ; and, as I have mentioned in 
 another place, the handrail should stop at the angles of the stairs against the newels, 
 which should be solid and surmounted with some appropriate ornament to give picto- 
 rial effect, but not to make the staircase too prominent a feature. The arrangement 
 of the offices is sufficiently marked on the plan ; they are conveniently situated for the 
 accommodation required in this design. 
 
 There are several effects which would require more notice than I have now time to 
 give them. The vista from the dining-room through the ante-rooms to the drawing- 
 room and grounds, from the variety of lights and shades, would be exceedingly pleasing ; 
 and again from the drawingroom to the dining-room, but this would be terminated by 
 the blank wall of the room. The view, again, from the hall to the ante-library, e, and to 
 the grounds in this direction, would be striking. Other views will occur upon examining 
 the plan that may be pleasing, and would constantly be changing from the varied light 
 during the day : and when lighted up at night, with all the rooms open, showing the 
 proper distribution of sculpture, gilding, and other decorations, with appropriate furni- 
 ture, the effect then would be exceedingly interesting and satisfactory. 
 
 2398. Remarks applicable to this and the two preceding Designs. In a hasty way I 
 have endeavoured to give some account of three distinct styles of architecture, as 
 applied to moderate-sized villas. The elevations in themselves clearly distinguish these 
 styles, but, in addition, I will point out more clearly the marked difference of the styles 
 generally. In the Grecian, of course, the temple forms the type of the style ; the 
 horizontal lines predominate, the cornices continue round the buildings in an uninter- 
 rupted manner, columns are symmetrically disposed, the openings have all horizontal 
 lintels, the pediments have very obtuse angles, and the stones with which the buildings are 
 erected are of immense size, particularly in the architraves. The ceilings, at least those 
 we have any knowledge of, are flat, and constructed with stone, in coffers, or panels ; 
 the sculptured foliage also partakes of the same character, it is severe, but usually beau- 
 tifully executed. Their statuary, which has served as models for all the schools of 
 Europe, has still,- when connected with the architecture, a severity and even formality, 
 
1^234 
 
 FIRST ADDITIONAL SUPPLEMENT. 
 
 which completely unites the two arts. In a general view the buildings are flat 
 masses, with little variety, but possessing much sublimity from their simplicity of form* 
 the magnitude of the materials, and great antiquity. 
 
 The distinguishing character of the Italian style I have adopted is great breadth of 
 effect, by masses of blank walls contrasted with richly decorated openings, which 
 latter are frequently curved, combining with the horizontal lines in roofs and terraces ; 
 columns of different orders placed over each other, and only used the height of each 
 story ; arches used between columns, and constructed with several stones ; small stones 
 generally used in the construction : and, internally, coved ceilings coffered, arches rising 
 from imposts, great richness in the sculptured foliage, and generally much variety of 
 form and masterly execution ; a frequent application of colouring and fresco-painting ; 
 and statuary more varied in form, but not blending with the architecture so well as in the 
 Grecian edifices. In a general view, the Italian manner possesses more appearance of 
 comfort and pictorial efi'ect, but less sublimity, than the Grecian, and its forms are more 
 readily applied to modern architecture. 
 
 In the Gothic style, the difference is more obvious to every one ; the leading features 
 are the openings, and the prevailing character in the lines is vertical, the windows divided 
 by muUions and transoms, the roofs are generally acute angles, the columns seldom 
 single, but formed in clusters; no horizontal cornices upon them, but pointed arches of 
 complex mouldings ; the stones seldom larger than can be carried by one man ; immense 
 variety and beauty in the foliage ; frequent representations of fruit, flowers, and leaves ; 
 a profusion of heraldic emblems ; groined ceilings of the most elaborate tracery ; im- 
 mense quantities of statues, ill designed and executed, but still connected with the 
 buildings from the admirable disposition of the drapery and their compact forms ; gor- 
 geous display of colours in glass, but figures badly drawn ; great variety of colouring 
 and gilding in the ceilings, niches, and canopies ; rich tapestry, cloth of gold, and em- 
 broidery ; all combining to produce effects of the greatest variety and picturesque cha- 
 racter, and forming a style of architecture which it is almost impossible to believe 
 could ever be traced back to the simple grandeur of the Greek temples. Picturesque 
 and interesting, and intimately associated with our earliest history, and furnishing as it 
 does many valuable precedents to study from, there is still much difficulty in applying 
 this style of architecture to modern buildings. Our knowledge has extended, our 
 customs improved, and we wish to combine the useful portions of each style into one 
 that will meet our demands ; but this has not yet been done. Perhaps, when a few 
 years more have rolled over, some mightier mind than all who have passed before him 
 may blend in one perfect style all the useful and beautiful now scattered amongst so 
 many — E. B. L. 
 
 Chap. III. 
 Farm Buildings. 
 
 We are not aware of much improvement having been made in this class of buildings 
 since the publication of the Encyclopaedia. Several plans of farmeries have been given 
 in the London Farmer's Magazine for 1839 by Mr. Donaldson; and the same gentleman 
 has just published two plans in his Treatise on Manures and Farming, of which, as 
 they may be considered as models, we shall here, with his permission, give copies. 
 Mr. Donaldson is a native of Berwickshire, and has practised the most approved modes 
 of farming in that county, in Ayrshire, in Northumberland, in Leicestershire, and in Kent ; 
 and he is now engaged as land-steward in Breconshire. In short, we know no person 
 whatever so competent to give plans for farmeries adapted to the most approved systems 
 of agriculture, as Mr. Donaldson. 
 
 2399. An improved Farmery, Mr. Donaldson observes, will often induce a tenant to 
 pay interest on the cost during a lease of twenty years, besides offering a better rent for 
 the farm. But a new farmery, he says, is not always an improved one. " In many 
 places, where large sums of money have been expended in erecting farm buildings, very 
 glaring blunders have been committed, and much ignorance has been displayed, even of 
 the most simple and evident details of practice, arising from the incompetency and con- 
 ceit of the persons employed, who have never practised the art they pretend to assist, and 
 therefore do not know the wants they attempt to supply. The landowner generally 
 makes an unprofitable expenditure in unnecessary erections and in useless decorations, or 
 is led away by the plans of architects, who, however well qualified to build dwelling- 
 houses, Gothic windows, pointed arches, and spiral columns, experience has shown to be 
 miserably deficient in contriving and placing the accommodations required on a quantity 
 
FARM BUILDINGS. 
 
 of land in cultivation. The economy of labour that is derived from the juxtaposition of 
 objects that are required to act or to be used in combination has been wholly dis- 
 regarded ; barns and rick-yards have been placed at opposite sides of a large farmery ; 
 stables and cart-sheds in a similar manner, and the granary removed to a distance from 
 the barn, for the apparent purpose of creating useless labour in carrying the grain from 
 one place to the other. Farm horses are often allowed to enter by the fold-yards, and 
 in many cases must travel round the farmery to reach the cart-shed. Many similar 
 blunders might be pointed out, which must be obvious to any experienced person, and 
 which abound in the best publications on the subject. However simple the matter may 
 appear, no person is capable of devising plans of convenient farmeries without the most 
 intimate knowledge, from long and continued personal experience, of the most minute 
 details of practice ; and the first requisite is to ascertain the number and size of build- 
 ings that may be required for any lands under a certain system of cultivation, without 
 too much curtailment to create inconvenience, and without any useless appendages that 
 require an unnecessary expense, and the second how to connect them so as to afford the 
 greatest possible convenience with the least possible labour." 
 
 2400. In Mr. Donaldson's Modd Plans, the form of a square with an open front to 
 the south, as a warm exposure, has been adopted as the most suitable and convenient for 
 the purpose of combining the necessary accommodations, and at the same time separating 
 the different parts so as not to incommode each other. He has given two designs, each 
 adapted for three hundred acres of arable land, the one with the yard separated from the 
 buildings by a road, which leaves the yard detached in the centre of the square ; and the 
 other with the road exterior to the buildings, by which the yard occupies the whole in- 
 terior of the square. 
 
 2401. Model Plan No. 1., fig. 2195. In this plan of a farmery, « a road of fifteen feet 
 in width divides the covered houses from the open sheds, and admits no disturbance to 
 
 2195 
 
 Spare 
 House 
 13 X i6 
 
 I House 
 /or Bull 
 \ I3xl6 
 
 GiffKouse 
 
 Elevation, on ffie lineJL.B Length 180 J".*" 
 Rail^ 
 
 i CuNen\StrawJIarn 
 
 40 y jS 
 
 If I £a.nt 11 Car/- 
 
 8yii 
 
 Cart Shed 48x16 
 
 Zine A.B. 
 
 Paved Road 
 
 15 Feet 
 
 Shed l2xAf> 
 
 Pen 1 
 
 ,Cou> 
 Shed 
 
 36x16 
 
 Road 
 
 Yard 
 25 X lib 
 
 Shed 
 iz X 16 
 
 3 C 
 
 Yard for 
 25 X l6 
 
 Shed 
 12x38 
 
 Yard 
 
 Shed 12 X Jib 
 
 Yard 
 25 y. Ab 
 
 m 
 
 IT 
 
 Yard 
 38 X 3^ 
 
 Shed, 
 12x36 
 
 J 
 
 Road 
 
 \JHau or 
 
 I House 
 I 12 X /* 
 
 J Root 
 House ^ 
 I II X /S 
 
 Lee.Ji 
 
 25 50 /5 
 
 Scale 50 Ff to an Inch 
 
 the cattle, except in supplying them with food, which may be much lessened by deliver- 
 ing it through holes in the walls. This separation is of great importance, though the 
 road has met with the objection of occupying space unnecessarily in the interior of the 
 farmery, and hence our second plan, fig. 2196., is given, in which the road is outside 
 the houses, which saves room in the interior, but with the objection of causing a passage 
 through the feeding-yards, and with many persons this objection would have great 
 weight. The admission of any passages through yards, as the drawing of grain threshed 
 or unthreshed, the entry of any thing except the cattle and the carting of the food and 
 
1286 
 
 FIRST ADDITIONAL SUPPLEMENT. 
 
 dung, is discarded in this first plan, and each department is arranged so as to afford 
 mutual convenience, and at the same time admit carrying forward each separate business 
 without intruding on another. 
 
 2402. " The Dwelling-house, Garden, and Orchard are supposed to be placed on the 
 west side of the farmery, as being the most sheltered quarter in our climate; but in 
 particular situations either side may be adopted, and probably an eligible situation may 
 occur partly in front of the farm-yard, though that exposure may better be left open. 
 On the end of the west wing of the farmery, adjoining the dwelling-house, the cow- 
 shed is placed, for the sake of convenience, and extends thirty-six feet in length, and will 
 contain ten cows, and the inside width of sixteen feet will afford a feeding-passage, if 
 thought necessary. The calf-pen extends sixteen feet in length, and is divided into five 
 apartments, for one calf in each, either for weaning or when suckling, the bottom being 
 laid with thin laths, or with boards bored with auger-holes, and provided with a drain 
 or open space underneath, that the calves may be on a dry bed. An inside communi- 
 cation to the cow-shed admits the calves to be suckled with as little labour as possible. 
 A stable of two stalls of eight feet each in width, which may be converted into loose 
 boxes, is intended for the riding-horses, .ind a gig house is placed next to it; and both 
 houses may be opened to the west, for the convenience of the dwelling-house. A house 
 for a bull or any single animal opens into the yards, and the spare house at the end may 
 open westward, and also communicate with the straw- barn, and serve any purpose that 
 may be required. The exterior length of the wing is 1 14 feet. 
 
 " The back range of the buildings comprehends a straw-barn of forty feet in length, 
 in which machines are fixed for cutting straw, hay, and roots, which are driven by the 
 threshing machine when at work, and by a shaft for horse power when required. Wide 
 doors open on both sides, and all the roots and hay are introduced from the stack-yard, 
 which is placed inunediately behind the range of l>uildings. Tfie length of forty feet 
 may afford ample room for cutting all food for cows, feeding-cattle, and horses, for which 
 purpose deep mangers must be provided on the ground. Straw for litter may be cut by 
 the same machine, by making a change in the power of the feeding rollers. Doubts are 
 yet expressed of the utility of cutting any food for stock, and it certainly wants confirma- 
 tion if it be not adopted, the barn will contain the straw and trussed hay, and the root 
 which will be in daily recpiest during the winter, and the length of the house could be 
 partitioned for that pur])ose. The threshing-barn is jjlaced next, and may be used by 
 any kind of machinery ; the unthreshed corn is brouj^ht into the cartway adjoining, and 
 thrown to the second Hoor. .An inside stair leads to the granary over the cart-shed, 
 which is forty-eight feet in length, and consists of six arches for holding carts and other 
 implements, exclusive of a tool-house; the second floor extends over the end of the 
 stable, and affords an opportunity of conveying into a chest the grains allowed to the 
 horses, without any labour in carriage. When the grain is bruised by machinery, it may 
 be conveyed to the stable by the same method, and given out in measured quantities, 
 cut straw being used at pleasure, which may be lodged in a bin in the hay-house or 
 straw-barn. A range of granary does not appear to be an essential requisite on any 
 farm, but it may be useful in containing grain, cheese, and wool, and the expense of 
 raising side walls is not very great, nor the flooring that is required for the purpose. 
 The grain for market is let down into the carts in the shed by means of a pulley fixed 
 in the cross beams, and through a trap-door in the floor. The external length of the 
 back range of building is 180 feet. 
 
 " The east wing of the farmery comprehends a stable of seventy-two feet in length, 
 with a loose box in one end, and the corn chest in the other, and an end door leading to 
 the cart shed, and another in front for a communication with the yards. A hay-house 
 adjoins, and may be useful in containing cut food, and occasionally for a sick animal, or 
 any similar purpose. A root-house is placed next, and may open eastward, for the pur- 
 pose of receiving roots from the rick-yard ; and communicates inside with the steaming- 
 house, in which are prepared in vats and boilers all cooked food for any stock, cows at 
 calving, and particularly for pigs and poultry. The accommodation for the latter kind 
 of stock is shown separately, and will be hereafter described. 
 
 " A paved road of fifteen feet in width runs round the inside of the farmery, and gives 
 access to each yard and house, without entering into any one enclosure in order to reach 
 another. The interior space is divided into four yards, with sheds of fourteen feet in 
 width, which may be covered by a common roof, or raised in the front wall and slope 
 backwards, in the manner of an attached building, which will prevent the cattle dis- 
 placing the tiles or slates with their horns, if a roof of asphaltum be not preferred. The 
 bottom of the yards is sunk about two feet below the surrounding locality, and that of 
 the sheds is raised to throw the water outwards, that the cattle may lie in a dry apart- 
 ment. In order that the yards may be of a square compact form, a cross wall divides 
 the space equally, and the front yards have sheds placed longitudinally, that the sun may 
 
FARM BUILDINGS. 
 
 1237 
 
 not be excluded from the yards behind by a cross position of the sheds in front. The 
 piggery is placed in the middle of the interior space, and contains a yard and shed for 
 store pigs, which is supplied with litter from the stables, as that article forms an excellent 
 bed for the swine, which must be well supplied with green food during winter and 
 summer ; and a few small animals may be allowed to run at large in the yards, to pick 
 any offals that may be dropped, and they are found to move and turn the manure very 
 beneficially. Six or eight sties are built in the remaining space, for brood sows, and for 
 the feeding hogs ; and each house is provided with a back-door, by which the dung is at 
 once discharged into the yards ; and it is very necessary that all kinds of dung carried 
 into the feeding-yards be spread evenly and thinly over the whole surface, that an equal 
 mixture and quality may be obtained. A road of four feet in width divides the rows of 
 sties, and by it the food is brought forward in a wheeled carriage from the steaming- 
 house. 
 
 " A pump may be sunk in a convenient place, or a pond formed, and water may be 
 forced into a cistern placed in the roof of a shed or spare house, from which, by means 
 of pipes and ball-cocks, it may be supplied to the yards in troughs, which may be placed 
 in the division walls, and thus supply two yards by means of one article j or the water 
 may be supplied to the troughs, as it is required, by pipes leading directly from the 
 pump. The feeding-cribs may be placed in the sheds, and the turnips supplied through 
 openings in the walls, and the cattle may eat under cover. Cribs standing in the open 
 air, and made of wood or built with stones, with close bottoms, are found to retain 
 much filth ; and movable boxes, with latticed bottoms, are now preferred. The bottoms 
 of the yards are intended to be flat ; but if moisture be in excess, a declivity may be 
 formed, and the liquid matter carried in a drain to a sunk pit or reservoir, where it will 
 be absorbed by earths, along with similar substances. In most cases, the straw and 
 litter will absorb all the moisture, but if it abound very much, such an application will 
 be more useful than in a liquid state. The wings of the farmery are one story in height, 
 and the range of barns and granary extends to two floors, or sixteen feet : a height of 
 three stories has been proposed, that the grain may pass through two fanners, and be 
 prepared at once for the market. All the walls are supposed to be of stone and lime, or 
 brick ; the doors, gates, and all articles to be plain and substantial, and the posts of wood, 
 as they are easier repaired and less susceptible of damage. This farmery will cost about 
 £600." 
 
 2403. Model Plan No. 2., Jig. 2196. "In this plan, the road is outside the farmery. 
 The north range extends in length one hundred and seventy feet, and comprehends barn, 
 straw-barn, and stable, and spare house ; the straw-barn being considerably larger than 
 in the former sketch. The straw and roots introduced from the stack-yard are proposed 
 to be cut in the straw-barn, and then conveyed, cut or uncut, by the central road of ten 
 feet, which divides the farmery, and may be given to the cattle in the sheds on both sides, 
 through openings in the walls. The stable contains a walk to communicate with the 
 straw-barn, from which all the provender will be carried to be placed in the mangers. 
 The cart-shed, tool-house, and open shed for cattle in the front yard, occupy the east 
 wing, and on the opposite side of the yards, which are divided by a cross wall, there are 
 a steaming-house on the end of the buildings, and a root-house, which extend the length 
 of the front yard ; the remaining space affords a shed for the back yard, and a small shed 
 for the pig-yard, which is placed here to obtain the benefit of the litter from the stable, 
 and divided by an open paling fence to admit the heat of the sun. On the opposite side 
 of the central road, the longitudinal extent of the back yard is occupied by a shelter- 
 shed, and a small feeding-house where five cattle may be tied up to feed if desired ; the 
 extent of the front yard is occupied by a shed, and a house for a bull on the end of the 
 range. The cow-shed, calf-pen, riding- stable, and gig-house, all of the same dimensions 
 as in plan No. 1., occupy the west wing of the farmery, and are convenient to the dwell- 
 ing-house. The granary that may be required can be raised over the spare house, and 
 gig-house, and riding-stable, or over a part of the straw-barn, and not unfrequently over 
 the threshing-barn, but in both cases very inconveniently ; and the first position is most 
 eligible, as it affords an inside communication, which is an object of great convenience. 
 The pigsties are placed inside the front walls, and are convenient to the steaming and 
 root houses, and to the wash of the dairy and kitchen. A separate piggery, in the form 
 of a square, may be placed opposite the central road, with sties ranged round, and en- 
 closing a yard for store-pigs in the centre. This arrangement may be preferable, as it is 
 convenient for the steaming-house, and removes the smell of pigs, which is thought to be 
 very offensive to cattle. A pond of water in the yard would be useful, if it could be 
 got. The moisture from the yards is conveyed, if necessary, to a pit, as in the former 
 plan ; the walls are intended to be plain work, of brick or stone and lime, and the roof 
 to be slates or tiles. If decorations be wished, the eaves may project, and an arch may 
 
 7 I 
 
1238 
 
 FIRST ADDITIONAL SUPPLEMENT. 
 
 2196 
 
 Elevation on back range 
 
 Jiarn for Straw ■■ Cutters] 
 KaolsScllay i ! : 
 
 stable 
 
 Yard 
 
 1 
 
 1611.16 
 
 Feeding 
 House 
 
 ■I Yard 
 I42 X 38 
 
 Shed 
 
 25)1 16 
 
 fcBuH 
 IZ X 16 
 
 
 
 Sh*d Sc Yari for Store Pig. 
 /O orl2 Ff in Width 
 
 QalTnPaiin^lina 
 
 Cart 
 Sited 
 
 Rond 
 
 Jtpe 
 
 Sralc 50 Ff to an Inch 
 
 be thrown" over the south end of the central road, in both plans, and may contain a 
 pigeon-house, and be surmounted by a clock. Some small architectural decorations may 
 be added, which would vary the uniformity of plain building, and much improve the 
 appearance. 
 
 2404. " The Poultry-yards are here made a separate erection, which may be placed 
 on any dry sunny situation that may be convenient to the dwelling-house and farmery. 
 Suitable provision is seldom made for this kind 
 of stock, which is generally huddled into one 
 house in a corner of the farmery, without any 
 regard to distinction or separation. The small 
 square here shown in fig. 2197. may be built of 
 timber in warm latitudes, and may be very 
 cheaply erected in any place. Each kind of 
 animal is provided with a separate apartment, 
 which may be heated as the nature of the species 
 requires. The food is chiefly composed of boiled 
 or steamed potatoes, mixed with the flour of 
 light grain, cooked in the steaming-house, and 
 given to the poultry in troughs under the 
 shelter of the open sheds. The small cribs leaning on the ends of the wings of the 
 square are intended for the purpose of confining the young broods of any kind, until 
 they are grown sufficiently strong to go to the roosting-houses. Such separate confine- 
 ments may be found very convenient. 
 
 2405. " Pasture near the Farmery. A field of permanent grass, near the homestead, 
 to serve as a pasture for the cows, is a valuable acquisition, where it can be got well 
 sheltered and watered. If it does not exist, and if locality suits, a new formation should 
 be effected, in order to obtain_* convenience in labour and travel. A paddock is also 
 necessary, and in many places the orchard will suit admirably for the young calves that 
 are weaning, to which they may be brought in succession from the calf-pen, and taught 
 to eat green food, and may then be removed to the pasture- fields. A shelter- shed must 
 
 2197 
 Poullrif Yard 
 
FARM BUILDINGS. 
 
 1239 
 
 be provided ; and the same convenience will suit for lambing the ewes in the spring, 
 which process will be finished before the season admits the exposure of calves in the 
 open air. This enclosure and the cows' pasture must be enriched by top-dressing, fre- 
 quent rolling, harrowing, and duly provided with water and shelter. 
 
 2406. " The Rick-yard. In both plans, or rather in No. 2., the ricks of grain stand 
 in two rows, with a railway between them, along which a light four-wheeled waggon 
 will convey the unthreshed grain to the barn, and may be moved without horses, as the 
 railroad may have a slight inclination to favour that purpose. The way may be con- 
 structed with flat stones, or with cast iron, as may be found most convenient, and runs 
 directly to that part of the barn whence the unthreshed corn is supplied to the feeding- 
 board. But each rick might stand on a four-wheeled platform, in the same position as 
 shown in the plan, and at a sharp angle of divergence, for the purpose of running easily 
 into the railway ; and the entire rick would be conveyed to the barn, and placed under 
 a light covering on posts erected outside the barn walls ; and the unthreshed grain would 
 be pitched to the second floor, through a door with a lowered platform. A travelling 
 carrier, driven by the machinery, may be devised to convey the sheaves of grain from any 
 quarter, and deposit them on the second floor, which would add to convenience, and 
 save labour. By the plan of moving the entire rick under cover at once, any damage 
 from rain by exposure during the process of threshing would be avoided, which, on large 
 farms, is often attended with much inconvenience ; and the expense of the iron railway, 
 and of the wheeled platforms, will not much, if at all, exceed the cost of stone or iron 
 stands for each rick, and the yearly expense will be saved in horse labour by the usual 
 mode of carting, which on a farm of the extent now mentioned will amount to the sum 
 of £3. to £4. If the barn were built on a line with the western wing, the railway would 
 be lengthened, and would afford more room for ricks ; and as the straw-barn would be 
 enlarged, a house may be divided by partitions at the end near the open way, for the 
 purpose of containing the cut food of roots and straws. If the spare house form part 
 of the barn, the latter would project only about twelve or fourteen feet ; and in that case 
 the railway would run to the end of the barn, and deliver the unthreshed grain to the 
 second floor. A transverse motion of the machinery might be devised to throw the 
 straw longitudinally into the straw-barn. Covers for ricks may be adopted of caout- 
 chouc or waterproof clothing, which, being easily applied and removed, will protect 
 newly made ricks from damage, until time be obtained for threshing. If such coverings 
 be not adopted in the full number of ricks, a few of them on every farm, especially in 
 wet climates, will be found very useful for the above purpose. The rick-yards may be 
 laid with gravel and broken stones, and should be surrounded with a sunk fence, or a 
 wall with a hedge inserted near the top or midway. In a corner of the rick-yard, a 
 shed with a light roof may be placed, for the purpose of keeping dry a few loads of corn 
 over a wet night ; and it would be very useful in covering any implements not used con- 
 stantly during the year. 
 
 2407. " Machinery/ is adopted for threshing grain, on the principle that it produces the 
 result at one fourth or less of cost incurred by the usual mode of flails, and the necessary 
 accommodations are erected at one third less expense at the outset ; and the saving 
 effected in both ways may be applied to increasing the produce, which will afford profit- 
 able labour in the production, additional employment for the machinery, and a more 
 abundant supply of the necessaries of life. 
 
 2408. " Horses are preferred to Oxen in performing farm labour, and carts to waggons 
 in general, because experience has most amply demonstrated that lands can be cultivated 
 in the most improved modes by the former, without any assistance of the latter, but not 
 in any case by the latter without the aid of the former, and with equal profit and ad- 
 vantages in the despatch and economy of labour. 
 
 2409. " The Dwelling-house should be constructed to afford ample accommodation. 
 The dairy should be placed near the cow-shed on the west wing of the farmery, and, 
 being half-sunk into the ground, will enjoy the coolness of the eastern exposure, which 
 may be much assisted by a plantation of tall shrubbery. The cheese may be made in 
 the pressing-room, and may be half-dried on latticed racks, and may be afterwards re- 
 moved to an airy place in the granary, which may be separated and fitted for that pur- 
 pose. The offals of the dairy and kitchen may be collected in vats, and prepared by 
 cooking with farinaceous matters, and then given to swine ; and not unfrequently it is 
 given in an unmixed state. Of all kinds of live stock, pigs are most benefited by cooked 
 food, and it may be justly supposed that the cold mass produced by souring may be ad- 
 vantageously superseded by a cooked application of the different substances. 
 
 2410. " Six Cottages for Labourers Avill be required on a farm of this extent, and may 
 be placed not far distant from the farmery, in some situation where suitable spots can 
 be found for gardens, and where an unsightly intrusion shall not be made on a metho- 
 dical arrangement of the farm." ( Treatise on Manures^ §-0., p. 383.) 
 
1240 
 
 FIRST ADDITIONAL SUPPLEMENT. 
 
 241 1 . On the Management of the Farm-yard, and on various other matters connected 
 with it, many excellent practical observations will be found in Mr. Donaldson's work, 
 which we cannot too strongly recommend to the reader who is at all interested in farm- 
 ing. In the Book of the Farm, now in the course of publication, by Mr. Stephens, editor 
 of the Quarterly Journal of Agriculture, some good designs of farmeries will also be 
 found, ^adapted for the same style of farming as the model designs of Mr. Donaldson, 
 arranged on the soundest principles, guided by experience ; and all the fittings-up 
 and furniture of farmeries are given in that work in great detail, and illustrated with 
 engravings in a very satisfactory manner. 
 
 2412. The Park Farm-yard at Goodwood. In the London Farmers Magazine for 
 November, 1841, there is a plan of a farm-yard erected by His Grace the Duke of Rich- 
 mond in the park at Goodwood, Sussex. The editor observes of it, that " it is not 
 calculated for business upon an extensive scale, but taken as a whole is one of the best, 
 if not the best, and most convenient which he has seen." (Vol. iv. p. 320'.) The merits 
 of this plan, as compared with those of Mr. Donaldson's models, are not great, but, as 
 compared with Sussex farmeries in general, they appear to consist in keeping the cattle 
 yards distinct from the implement- houses and stable-yards. 
 
 Mr. Curtis of West Hudham, near Rougham in Norfolk, who has paid great atten- 
 tion to farm buildings in his part of the country and in Suffolk, says that the great 
 objection to most farm-yards is, that the barn communicates directly witli the yards, 
 which consequently become thoroughfares, and the stock in them, whether fattening or 
 otherwise, are disturbed whenever anything is carried to or from the barn. In the plan, 
 fig. 2198., a a are dung or cattle yards ; h, the rick-yard; c, the yard to the stables and 
 
 cart-house ; d d, barns, each eighty feet long by thirty feet wide ; e e, enclosed hovels 
 for implements ; //, open sheds for oxen, each sixty feet long and twenty feet wide ; 
 g g, hay-lofts ; h h, bed-rooms ; t i, stables, each forty-two feet long by twenty-three 
 feet wide ; k, poultry-house ; I, cart-house, sixty-five feet long by twenty-four feet wide ; 
 m, pond ; n, granary, thirty feet by twenty feet, supported on stone pillars, with pro- 
 jecting caps ; o, double cottage ; p p, washing-houses to cottages ; q, well ; and r, 
 garden. 
 
 2413. The Demesne Farm-yard at Putteridgebury, the seat of Colonel Sowerby, near 
 Luton in Bedfordshire, when finished, will be one of the most comprehensive and best 
 arranged park farmeries in England. Besides feeding-houses for cattle, it contains open 
 sheds and yards for feeding sheep, a complete range of poultry-houses heated by hot 
 water, an elegant dairy, a brewhouse, and a bailifTs house. All the stalls for the cattle 
 are supplied with water delivered into troughs by pipes from an elevated source, and 
 all the liquid manure is drained into one large tank. The buildings have brick walls, 
 and they are thatched with reed, the ridge of the roof being finished with plain tiles, 
 reaching down three feet on each side, to protect the reeds from pigeons. All the sub- 
 divisions of the yards are of strong fencing, formed of wrought-iron rods; and the whole 
 is so arranged, that every part may be inspected by the master and his friends from a 
 
SCHOOLS, INNS, WORKHOUSES, AND ALMSHOUSES. 1^41 
 
 path, sometimes under cover and sometimes through the open yard, without coming in 
 contact with or disturbing any of the animals, or walking among anything offensive or 
 that can soil the shoes. The effect of the whole group of buildings from the park and 
 the pleasure-ground is excellent, and from the latter scene there is a private entrance. 
 The arrangement is not yet quite completed, otherwise we should have applied for per- 
 mission to publish the plan. 
 
 Chap. IV. 
 
 Schools, InnSf Workhouses, and Almshouses. 
 
 A GREAT many schools have been built in different parts of the country within the 
 last ten years, and a great many plans have been published in the Minutes of the 
 Committee of Council on Education, printed for the House of Commons in 1840, but 
 we are not aware of any new feature in school arrangements. Some very handsome 
 elevations have been sent us by Mr. Lamb, Mr. Wild, Mr. Elliott, Mr. Henderson, 
 and others ; but we have preferred giving a design from Parker's Villa Rustica, and the 
 details of a small Sunday-school erected in Warwickshire ; because the former design 
 is in a style at present little used for schools, and the expense of the latter is within the 
 reach of a great number of persons. We have given only two public-houses, but they 
 are very handsome ones ; and we have added to this chapter a union workhouse, as a 
 specimen of that description of arrangement, and a design for a row of almshouses. 
 
 Design I. — A School in the Italian Style. 
 This design, of which figs. 2199. and 2200. are elevations, is taken from the Third 
 Part of Parker's Villa Rustica, by the kind permission of the author. The whole of 
 
 2199 
 
 this part of Mr. Parker's work consists of plans, elevations, and views of school-houses in 
 the Italian style. These are all of great originality and beauty, and we consider their 
 publication at the present time (1842) peculiarly fortunate, since there is a general 
 tendency throughout the country to build schools in the Gothic style, with but few 
 exceptions, even in favour of the Elizabethan manner. 
 
 The designs for schools published in the Minutes of the Committee on Education 
 being all by the same architect, and that architect also the author of the numerous 
 designs for union workhouses published in the Reports of the Poor Law Commissioners, 
 there is a degree of sameness of style in both schools and workhouses, and of meanness in 
 the elevations given for the schools, that in point of taste is to us quite intolerable. 
 
FlllST ADDITIONAL SUPPLEMENT. 
 
 This is a sul)jcct whicli, in our opinion, (ieinands the notice of the legislature, or of pub- 
 lic lH)dies ; for why sliouUI not the exterior appearance of sch(X)ls and workliouses be 
 cared as much for by the nation as tlic dress of soldiers or sailors, or the arciiitecture of 
 other public l)uildings? That only one artist should have been employed l)y the Poor 
 Law Commission to design tlie whole of their published plans, and that the same artist 
 should also have been employed by tlie Committee of Education to design the whole of 
 
 0 
 
 2201 
 
FARM BUILDINGS. 
 
 1243 
 
 the plans of schools published in their Report, amounting to twenty-three, when there are 
 so many able architects in the country, we consider to be disgraceful to these bodies, 
 
 2414. The Accommodation and the details, as shown in Mr. Parker's ground plan, 
 fig. 2201., consist of a school-room, a; class-room, 6; lobbies, cc; master's room, d; 
 shed, e ; play-ground for the senior division, /; for the junior division, g ; and master's 
 garden, h. 
 
 241 5. Description. " The building," Mr. Parker states, " has two entrances, with 
 lobbies for the children's hats, and a small class-room. It is intended to instruct the 
 boys and girls together, but, if this be found inconvenient, a movable partition of 
 wood affords the means of separating them. Communicating with the school-room is 
 the residence of the master, containing a sitting-room, two chambers on the upper plan, 
 with convenient offices in the basement. The play-grounds are divided into two com- 
 partments, one for the senior and the other for the junior scholars, and both are under 
 the master's supervision. The sketch given in fig. 2199. conveys the front view of the 
 building. At each end there are separate external entrances for the boys and the girls. 
 The light in the interior is obtained on three sides of the school-room, and the windows 
 are raised suflBciently above the floor to allow all the operations of the master to be 
 seen by the scholars without fatigue or distraction. The door- way, bell-turret, and 
 gable ends of the school and master's house, all severally features of Italian architecture, 
 tbrm portions of the view shown in fig. 2200. The principal window is composed of 
 two circular-headed openings, making together a graceful combination, and differing 
 from the apertures on the side of the building. The chimney-shaft of the master's 
 house, perceptible in the distance, is decorated with an enriched shield, on which the 
 arms of the patron are supposed to be carved." {Parker's Villa iZwsh'ca, explanation 
 of plates Ixv., Ixvi., and Ixvii.) 
 
 Design II. — Description and Specification, with Details, of Dunchurch Sunday- School. 
 By F. Wood, Esq., Architect. 
 This school has been recently erected at Dunchurch, adjoining the churchyard and 
 rectory. 
 
 ft T....^,Mf f £2 K ^ 'Jii 
 
 Fig. 2202. is the ground plan, surrounded by walls and railing, in which a is the 
 entrance gateway from the churchyard ; 6, entrance porch ; c, boys' school ; d, girls' 
 school, separated from the boys' school by folding-doors ; e, porch to boys' yard ; /, 
 porch to girls' yard ; g, boys' yard ; A, girls' yard ; i, shed ; k, coals ; I, dust ; m m, 
 privies ; n n, garden, or play-groimd. 
 
1244 
 
 FIRST ADDITIONAL SUPPLEMENT. 
 
 Fig. 2203. is a perspective view, showing the effect of the north and east elevations. 
 We have omitted some of the elevations and sections, which, though not necessary for 
 understanding the plan and elevation, are yet essential to the parties contracting to 
 execute the work. 
 
 2416. Description. The design is in a plain Gothic, or modernised old English 
 style; and by reference to the plan, fig. 2202., it will be seen that every essential 
 accommodation is supplied. The site was of rather a peculiar description, being 
 an old moat, and the foundations otherwise bad ; consequently, the footings were 
 carried much below the usual depth, and abutments were formed to carry an arch over 
 the moat under the floor of the school-rooms. The description and quality of the 
 materials is given at length in the subjoined particulars, therefore it is only necessary 
 here to describe the engravings. 
 
 24 1 7. Details. Fig. 2204. shows a plan and elevation of the doors ; they are surrounded 
 on one side by splayed bricks, and are six feet high to the springing of the arch. 
 
 Fig. 2206. is a section of the window centre mullions, one third the full size. 
 
 Fig. 2205. shows a plan and elevation of the chimney shafts ; the base and cap of which 
 are of stone, and the shaft and plinth rising from the roof of brickwork ; the diameter of 
 the flues, nine inches. 
 
 Fig. 2207. is a section of the stone coping for parapets, to a scale of an inch to 
 a foot. 
 
SCHOOLS, INNS, WORKHOUSES, AND ALMSHOUSES. 1*245 
 
 Fig. 2208. is an elevation of part of the verge-board of the east, west, and south 
 gables, showing also sections, to a scale of one inch to one foot. 
 
 Fig. 2209. is an elevation of part of the verge- board of the north gable, to a scale of 
 one inch to one foot. 
 
 Fig. 2210. is a section of the architrave for the doors, one half the full size. 
 
 2418. Specification (or 
 Particulars^ of the several 
 Works to be done in Build- 
 ing a Sunday- School at 
 D unchurch, according to the 
 Plans, Elevations, Sections, 
 and Details, severally signed 
 by the Parties undertaking 
 the same. 
 
 2419. Excavator'' s, Brick- 
 layer s, Plasterer's, and Sla- 
 ter^s Work. To dig out 
 the earth for the several 
 trenches and piers, for the 
 foundations of the whole of 
 the building, of the respec- 
 tive depths and widths re- 
 quired, and to fill in and 
 well ram round the work. 
 
 Raise the ground with good dry gravel, well rammed together, to the height of the 
 several floors, and back up and well cover over the arch over the moat under the girls* 
 school, to a uniform level with the boys' school, ready to receive the floors. Level the 
 ground all round the buildings, and clear away any rubbish that may accumulate during 
 the execution of the work, and leave the same in a clear and perfect manner. Lay- 
 drains from the rain-water spouts all round the building, and thence conduct the water 
 into a well on the west side of the building, with a drain tile set with compo on a brick 
 
 7 K 
 
1^46 
 
 FIRST ADDITIONAL SUPPLEMENT. 
 
 :2II 
 
 2212 
 
 2213 
 
 laid flat, as in fig. 221 1. Build the walls of the several dimensions and thicknesses, and 
 with proper footings, as set forth and described on the plans, sections, &c., with good, 
 sound, and hard, well-burnt bricks, and mortar composed of well-burnt fresh Neobold 
 lime, made up with sand, to be got on the ground or carted to the spot, in the propor- 
 tions of at least one part lime to two parts sand, 
 and work all the walls above the surface with a 
 neat flat joint, jointed and struck (struck with 
 lines between the bricks, by an instrument called 
 a jointer) on both sides. Lay two courses of 
 eighteen-inch work for the foundations of the main 
 building, and two courses of fourteen-inch work 
 to the walls where nine-inch work is intended 
 above. Set over, fourteen inches below the sur- 
 face of the ground, two inches and a quarter for a 
 plinth to tlie main building, on both sides of the 
 walls ; the outer side, a, to be carried up one foot 
 above the surface to form a plinth, and the inner 
 side, b, to be carried nine inches above the floor to 
 form a skirting, both to be neatly jointed, and to 
 finish in again to the fourteen-inch work with 
 proper plinth bricks made for the purjjose, with 
 the upper angles taken off, as in fig. 2212. No 
 plinth is requisite for the privy, yard, and mound 
 walls, which arc to l)e carried up with nine-inch 
 work from witliin six inches of the foundations, 
 the latter consisting of fourteen-inch footings; 
 these walls to be covered with proper cojjing 
 tiles, made for the purpose. The window jambs 
 and arches to be built and turned on l)oth sides, 
 within and without, with splayed bricks ; as also 
 tlie inner and outer side jambs and arches to all the 
 doors and openings, with projecting bricks round 
 above the arches on the tops of all the window 
 openings, to form a label to be worked in conipo, ' 
 as in fig. 2213. Put a rubbed anil gauged fourteen-inch brick arch over the opening 
 in the east porch. The whole of the external walls of the main building to be faced 
 with picked white bricks, and all the piers and chimney shafts to be built octagonal 
 shape, with bricks to be made on ])urpose, tlie bases and caps of which to be worked 
 in Attlebury stone (see § 2420., Stonemason). The pediment of the porch on the east 
 side to be carried up six inches above the ramp of the slates, and coped with stone. 
 To pave the porches on the west side, also the privies and shed, with seven-inch 
 square paving quarries, set in mortar and jointed. The school floors and east porch 
 to be laid with nine-inch red and blue Newcastle quarries, bedded and jointed in 
 mortar, and laid diagonally. No part of the walls, while building, to be carried more 
 than four feet above the other, but the whole to be carried up in a regular, uniform, 
 and equal manner. To fix all the wooden bricks and bed all the plates, bond 
 timbers, and lintels in mortar. To cut all the rakes and splays, and all chasings 
 required for lead flashings, and to make good and stop the same with Roman cement ; 
 to bed and point the door and window frames in lime and hair, and underpin all the 
 sills. Colour all the internal walls and roofs of a neat drab colour. To cover the 
 whole of the roofs with the best countess slates on |-inch deal laths, and nailed with 
 copper nails ; the ridges to be covered with the blue Newcastle tiles, and the whole 
 to be done with particular care, so as perfectly to exclude the snow, rain, and wind. 
 The fillets, listings, and vergings, to be of Roman cement. The bricklayer to find all 
 materials, ropes, boards, tackle, tools, centres, scaffolding, workmanship, and iron-work 
 for the completion of his work (exclusive of the carriage of the bricks, slates, and 
 quarries only), and to do the whole in the best and most workmanlike manner. To 
 do all the beam-filling and wind-pinning required, and the whole to be done subject 
 to the provisions of the general particulars at the end hereof. The plasterer to lath, 
 lay, float, set, and whiten the ceilings to the porches and privies. The inside of the 
 school walls to be left neatly pointed down in brick, and coloured over with a drab or 
 stone colour. 
 
 I, the undersigned, hereby undertake to perform the foregoing bricklayer's, slater's, 
 plasterer's, and excavator's work, for the sum of three hundred and fifty-nine pounds 
 eight shillings and fourpence. 
 
 (Signed) W. S. 
 
SCHOOLS, INNS, WORKHOUSES, AND ALMSHOUSES. 1247 
 
 2420. Stonemason. To put Yorkshire stone steps and riser to the entrance of the 
 east porch, and to provide and set seven Attlebury stone windovp-sills, according to the 
 enlarged drawing. To put moulded caps and bases to the two chimney shafts, and two 
 octagonal stone caps to piers ; also one date, one shield, and one inscription stone, as in 
 the drawings. To put York stone slabs to cover privy wells, and Attlebury stone 
 coping to the pediment of the east porch, with one projecting stone at gable, and key- 
 stone to the gauged arch in east porch. The contractor to find all materials, work- 
 manship, and carriage, and setting the same in a workmanlike and satisfactory manner. 
 
 I, the undersigned, hereby undertake to perform the foregoing stone-masonry, for 
 the sum of seventeen pounds two shillings and one penny. 
 
 (Signed) E. A. 
 
 242 L Carpenter and Joiner's Work. The whole of the materials to be sawed out 
 square, free from waste, and of the several scantlings and thicknesses herein specified ; 
 to be carted to the spot by the contractor, and to consist of the best yellow Dantzic or 
 Memel fir. The whole of the carpentry is to be framed in a workmanlike manner, 
 according to the drawings ; the carpenter finding labour, nails, and tools, and all kinds 
 of iron-work required for the purpose : the whole to be done subject to the general 
 particulars at the end hereof. To frame and fix a span roof, with four sets of prin- 
 cipals, braces, strutts, purlins, rafters, ridge-pieces, gutter-planks, wall-plates, &c., of 
 the several scantlings set forth in the plans and sections. The purlins to be let into 
 the principal rafters, so as to admit of the common rafters lying flush with them on the 
 upper side. All the timbers and scantlings to the internal part of the roof to be neatly 
 wrought and chamfered on the edges, and the principals ornamented with noggings 
 spiked on, and neatly wrought down to form one uniform appearance, according to the 
 section produced. A three-inch diameter staff-bead, neatly wrought, to be put round 
 the internal walls, to liide the intersection of the wall-plate with the rafters. The wall- 
 plates to be dove-tailed and bolted together at the angles, with three-quarter-inch bolts, 
 nuts, and screws. Proper lintels to be provided, and put over all the openings for 
 windows and doors, and wood bricks built in, as the building proceeds, for fasten- 
 ing the door-jambs, architraves, &c. Provide and fix four-inch diameter cast-iron 
 spouts round the eayes, supported from every other rafter by a wrought-iron bracket, 
 or holdfast, as shown in the section of eaves, with four upright cast-iron wall-spouts, 
 and heads properly fastened and connected with the spouts, and connecting with a shoe 
 to the drains. — Scantlings of timber. Principal beams, ten inches by eight inches; 
 principal rafters, nine inches by seven inches and by five inches; purlins, six inches by 
 five inches; king-posts, seven inches by five inches; strutts, four inches by five inches; 
 ridge-piece, eight inches by one inch and a half ; wall-plates, nine inches by three 
 inches; valley planks, nine inches by two inches and a half; common rafters, three 
 inches by two inches and a half The lintel over the folding-doors to be ten inches by 
 eight inches, and to have a bearing of at least nine inches at each end, with an inch bolt 
 through the middle, and keyed up to the arch. To put inch yellow deal gutter-boards 
 round all the eaves and chimney-shafts, &c. 
 
 2422. Joiner's Work to be done according to the several drawings and details. All 
 the stuff to be of the best yellow deal, listed free from sap and shakes ; the whole to be 
 neatly wrought and finished off in a workmanlike manner. To put four two-inch 
 paneled doors according to the drawings, with 4i-inch rebated and headed frames, to be 
 built in as the work proceeds. Two one-inch six-paneled doors, made with one fold 
 each, to turn back into the recesses between the two schools, each seven feet six inches 
 wide, by ten feet high (the openings being ten feet by fifteen feet), hung to two- 
 inch rebated jambs beaded on edge, and finished round on both sides with an architrave, 
 as shown by the drawings. To put one-inch ledge deal doors and frames with oak 
 sills between the boys' and girls' yard, and in the yard dividing the boys' yard and 
 church-yard. No doors are required for the privies. To frame five window-frames 
 with square heads and chamfered edges, of well seasoned yellow deal, with middle 
 mullions and Gothic heads to oak sills ; and two frames with pointed heads, as shown 
 by the drawings: these are to be set and built up with the brickwork. To put li- 
 inch well-seasoned yellow deal carved verge-boards, with crown mouldings and cham- 
 fered edges, to all the gables, with carved pendants of oak, as expressed by the 
 drawings. To put |-inch soffits to all the eaves and gable-hangings, with li-inch 
 staff- moulding in the angle against the wall. The carpenter and joiner to find 
 all materials, tools, labour, nails, glue, and every description of ironmongery, locks, 
 bolts, bars, hinges, and fastenings, and the carriage and fixing thereof, and every 
 thing required for the completion of his work in the best and most workmanlike 
 way ; and to prepare and fix all manner of beads, stops, fillets, grounds, linings, 
 and backings, required for the perfect execution of the work, whether the same 
 
1248 
 
 FIRST ADDITIONAL SUPPLEMENT. 
 
 may or may not be minutely specified in this particular ; and the whole to be done 
 subject to the general particular at the end hereof. 
 
 I, the undersigned, hereby undertake to perform the foregoing carpenter's and 
 joiner's work for one hundred and ninety pounds thirteen shillings and seven-pence. 
 
 (Signed) W. L. 
 
 2423. Plumber, Glazier, and Painter's Work. To put flashings of milled lead, eight 
 inches wide and five pounds to the foot superficial, chased into the brickwork, and fas- 
 tened with wall-hooks to each of the chimney-shafts, and where the roofing abuts 
 against the buildings and front parapet of porch. To put milled lead, fifteen inches 
 wide, to all the gutters and valleys. To glaze all the windows with second Newcastle 
 crown-glass in diagonal shape, properly leaded, and neatly pinned at convenient dis- 
 tances to cross-bars of iron ; with an iron casement in each window, to swing on a centre, 
 complete with staples, cords, and hooks. Paint all the woodwork, within and without, 
 of a drab colour, twice in oil. To put a lead pumj), with pipe and all complete, to the 
 soft- water cistern in the back yard, and leave all the windows, &c., in a perfect and com- 
 plete state. 
 
 J, the undersigned, hereby undertake to perfi)rm the foregoing plumber's and painter's 
 work for the sum of thirty-seven pounds ten shillings and three-pence. 
 
 (Signed) G. K. 
 
 2424. General Particulars. The contractors to find all and every kind of material, 
 labour, and workmanship, scaffolding, and carriage, &c. (except such as hath herein- 
 before been specified to the contrary), necessary, proper, and requisite for the due execu- 
 tion of all and every part of the works. And if any alteration shall be made in any part 
 thereof, by direction of the emjjloyer, during the progress of the works, it shall not 
 vitiate or aniuil the contract ; but the value of such alteration shall be ascertained ac- 
 cording to the annexed schedule of prices; and if to such other portion of the work to 
 which the annexed scliedule does not refer, then according to the customary prices of 
 the neighbourhood, by the architect, whose decision between the parties shall be final. 
 
 The whole of the works must be executed of the best materials of their respective 
 kinds, and in the most substantial and workmanlike manner ; and the rooms to be 
 scoured, and the chimneys cored, the windows cleaned, and the whole building left 
 clean and complete on or before the 10th day of October next. 
 
 rw. s. 
 
 Dated, Rmjby, Auy. 5., 1837. ( Siened J ^ ' 
 
 ( Signed) Fred. Wood, Architect. ^ ^ ^ j E. A. 
 
 Recapitulation. 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 Excavator's, bricklayer's, plasterer's, and slater's work (§ 2419.) 359 8 4 
 
 Stone-mason (§2420.) 17 2 1 
 
 Carpenter and joiner (§ 2421.) 190 13 9 
 
 Plumber, painter and glazier (§ 2423.) 10 3 
 
 Actual cost 604 14 3 
 
 2425. Remarks. The architect's fees are not included in the above sum. In mode- 
 rate foundations the above estimate would be less 70/. at least, the site of this school 
 being peculiarly situated over an old moat, the foundations consequently were bad, and 
 had to be laid at a great depth, and arched over, as expressed in the section of the 
 foundations. 
 
 Schedule referred to. 
 
 s. d.. 
 
 Nine inches reduced brickwork 4 6 per yard super. 
 
 Paving with seven-inch red quarries 3 0 do. 
 
 Do. do. nine-inch red and blue Newcastle quarries ... 4 4 do. 
 
 Tile drain on brick flat set in compo 0 6 per yard run. 
 
 Coping to nine^nch walls, with tiles 0 2 per do. do. 
 
 Ridge coping with Newcastle tiles 0 10 per foot 
 
 Lath and plaster to ceilings 1 6 per yard 
 
 Stucco on walls 1 1 
 
 Countess slating on long f-inch laths and copper nail*^ 36 0 per square 
 
 Paving with brick flat 1 10 per yard. 
 
SCHOOLS, INNS, WORKHOUSES, AND ALMSHOUSES. 1249 
 
 Design III. — A Union Workhouse. By C. Eales, Esq., Architect. 
 
 2426. Description. This design was prepared and submitted to the guardians of the 
 Horncastle Union, Lincolnshire, in the early part of the last year, for their proposed 
 workhouse, in accordance with the terms of an advertisement which appeared in the 
 daily papers ; viz. to accommodate two hundred inmates ; the expense not to exceed 
 ^^2,800. The drawings (figs. 2214. to 2218.) are accurately reduced from those sent in, 
 which, however, were not adopted. 
 
 Fig. 2214. is the elevation of the principal front of the main building. 
 
 Fig. 2215. ground plan of the work- 
 house. The first building, forming the 
 gate-house, is two stories in height, and 
 comprises on this plan every convenience 
 for the oflScers of the establishment ; viz. 
 a, porter's room ; &, relieving office ; c, 
 waiting-room for the poor ; d, searching- 
 room, together with a staircase leading to 
 the board-room on the story above. A 
 water-closet for the use of the guardians 
 is intended under these stairs. Right and 
 left of this building are the various offices 
 and receiving wards for the use of the 
 girls and boys, women and men's wards, 
 and general purposes ; e, work-rooms ; f, 
 receiving wards ; g, baths ; h, washing- 
 rooms, fitted up with troughs ; i, privies ; k, 
 refractory cells ; l, coal-house ; m, wood- 
 house ; N, bakehouse ; o, flour and mill 
 room ; p, bread and potato stores ; q, 
 laundry ; r, ashes. The main building 
 upon this plan comprises, s, chapel. It 
 is proposed, as the service will be attended 
 by the inmates on the sabbath only, that 
 during the week it should be appropriated 
 for the purpose of the girls' and boys' 
 school and dining-rooms, which could be 
 conveniently done by movable partitions 
 on the dotted lines, at the same time re- 
 serving ample space for the performance 
 of daily worship should it be necessary. 
 On either side of the chapel, t and u are 
 women's and men's dining-rooms, classi- 
 fied, each of which have staircases, v, con- 
 ducting to the dormitories on the stories 
 above ; w, staircase to master's and mis- 
 tress's rooms, each of which have separate 
 access to their respective departments ; x, 
 store-rooms, kitchen, scullery, and larder. 
 Considering it most essential, in an esta- 
 blishment of this nature, to keep the sick 
 in as isolated a situation as possible, par- 
 ticularly in case of an epidemic or con- 
 tagious fever, the building containing the 
 infirmary has been placed at the back of 
 the premises, forming a separate structure, 
 and contains, on this plan, y, dead-house 
 for each sex ; z, staircases for men and 
 women to infirmary, &c. 
 
 Fig. 2216. Plan of the first Story. The 
 gate-house comprises a spacious board- 
 room, A ; clerk's office, b ; strong room, c. 
 In the main buildings, d is the master's 
 bed-room ; e, master's parlour ; r, mis- 
 tress's parlour ; g, women's and men's dor- 
 mitories, classified, each of which have 
 
1250 FIRST ADDITIONAL SUPPLEMENT. 
 
SCHOOLS, INNS, WORKHOUSES, AND ALMSHOUSES. 1251 
 
 2218 
 
FIRST ADDITIONAL SUPPLEMENT. 
 
 staircases, h, conducting to the dormitories on the stories above. Two water-closets 
 and washing-troughs are provided in each dormitory, i, staircase and water-closet for 
 master's apartments ; k, women's ward, and women's sick and lying-in ward ; l, surgery ; 
 M, wards for the insane of each sex, with separate staircases and water-closets. 
 
 Fig. 2217. Plan of second Story. Tlie main building comprises, a, mistress's bed- 
 room ; B, staircase and water-closet ; c, boys' first class dormitory ; n, women's and 
 men's dormitories, classified, as in the story beneath. In the wings are staircases com- 
 municating with the story above ; e, men's sick ward, with separate staircase, water- 
 closet, and washing-trough : f, nurses' rooms. 
 
 Fig. 2216. Plan of third Story : the main building, a, girls' bedrooms, classified; 
 B, boys' second class dormitory ; c, nursery. 
 
 Summary of Accommodation. 
 
 1st Pair. 2d Pair. 3d Pair 
 
 Men 40 40 — 
 
 Women 40 40 — 
 
 Boys — 14 12 
 
 Girls — — 30 
 
 216 
 
 Total. 
 80 
 80 
 26 
 30 
 
 Design IV. — The Almshouses at Oving. By John Elliott, Esq., Architect. 
 
 The elevation is shown in perspective in fig. 2220., and the ground plan in fig. 2219. 
 This plan is shown in isometrical perspective with the walls raised the height of four 
 feet, a mode which renders plans much more easily understood, and consequently more 
 interesting tlian the ordinary mode. 
 
 2427. Accommodation. The dwellings at the two ends of this line of building are 
 larger than the others, and consist of a living-room, twelve feet by fourteen feet, a ; 
 scullery, twelve feet by ten feet, which contains a stair to two bed-rooms, h. The other 
 dwellings, of which there are four, are smaller, and each of them consists of a living- 
 
 room, twelve feet by ten feet, c ; a bed-room, six feet by seven feet, d ; and a scullery, 
 five feet six inches by six feet six inches, in which there is a stair to two small bed-rooms 
 over e. Behind each dwelling is a small garden ; and there is also in front a narrow 
 slip of ground, neatly laid out and planted with shrubs and flowers. The situation is on 
 a bank or ridge along the public road, and separated from it by a small watercourse. 
 The cost of these six dwellings was about ^^650. 
 
 2428, Remarks. These almshouses were built for Miss Woods of Shopwyke, the pro- 
 prietress of the village of Oving, near Chichester. This village she has greatly improved, 
 by rebuilding most of the cottages from designs by Mr. Elliott, adding large gardens to 
 them, and charging a rent for each cottage which does not pay more than between 2 
 and 3 per cent on the capital employed. The church of Oving has also been repaired 
 
SCHOOLS, INNS, WORKHOUSES, AND ALMSHOUSES. 1^55 
 
 and restored by Miss Woods ; and the churchyard we have noticed in the Gardener's 
 Magazine for 1841, p. 591., as reformed in the very best taste, under the care of the 
 rector, the Rev. G. H. Langdon. Miss Woods has also built a commodious school at Oving, 
 from the designs of Mr. Elliott, which, like all that gentleman's designs that we have 
 seen (and they are numerous), is in excellent taste. We regret much that time and 
 space prevent us from taking advantage of Mr. Elliott's kindness in offering us the use 
 of any of his designs for publication in this Supplement. 
 
 2221 
 
 Design \.—A Public-house. By I. W. Wild, Esq., Architect, 
 
 The elevation is shown in fig. 2222., and the ground plan in fig. 2221. 
 
 2429. Accommodation. j - 
 
 The plan shows a porch, a ; 
 lobby, h ; kitchen, c ; par- 
 lour, d, with a bay, o, which 
 may be separated in the win- 
 ter season by a screen of 
 glass, so as to form a small 
 greenhouse ; an open veran- 
 da, e, with seats for smoking 
 and drinking, the liquor be- 
 ing served out through the 
 small window shown at the 
 bottom of the staircase ; /, 
 the staircase, over which 
 there is a pigeon-house, and 
 from which the sign is pro- 
 jected; g is the back-kitchen ; 
 A, the pantry; i, the dairy; 
 k, water-closet ; I, open porch ; 
 m, cow-house ; and n, dotted 
 lines, showing in what man- 
 ner the bay of the parlour may 
 be extended, so as to afford a 
 larger space when partitioned 
 off* as a greenhouse. 
 
 2430. General Estimate, 
 
 The cubic contents are 1 8,583 
 feet; which, at 6d., amounts to £464 14s. 6d. 
 to £232 Is. 3d. 
 
 2431. Remarks. The walls of this cottage are supposed to be covered with stucco 
 between the principal timbers of their construction ; thus being divided into panels, 
 which, again, may be ornamented with patterns stamped by plates of wickerwork 
 upon the stucco while yet moist. The impression would resemble interlacing basket- 
 work, according to the disposition of the wicker, of which there may be many beautiful 
 patterns. Some of the panels might be ornamented with initial letters, appropriate 
 devices, foliage, &c., easily executed and of good effect ; as in ancient plastered houses 
 in many parts of this country. Perhaps the most beautiful example in the world, of 
 
 7 L 
 
 
 i 
 
 
 1 ^ 1 
 
 
 fi y 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 at 4d., to j£309 14s. 3c?. ; and at Sd., 
 
1254 
 
 FIRST ADDITIONAL SUPPLEMENT. 
 
 elaborate ornament in stucco-work, is tlie Moorish palace of the Alhambra in Granada, 
 In this building there is an endless variety of patterns, many of them so complicated 
 as to have three planes of ornament, one overlying the other, yet each perfectly distinct; 
 others, again, are simply formed by the intersection of geometrical patterns, in lines 
 slightly engraven in the stucco. This building, so elaborately illustrated by Owen Jones, 
 is a complete encyclopaedia of ornament, and deserves especial attention when the sub- 
 ject of enriched stucco is considered. The practice of covering walls with cements has 
 been condemned by some architectural writers, l)ut upon insufficient grounds. The 
 material, particularly, is of the greatest value, as it enables us to make a thin wall more 
 weather-proof than one much thicker and more costly without it. When used exter- 
 nally it should be protected by projecting eaves. 
 
 Design VI. — The Hajid and Spear Hotel, at Weyhridge, Surrey. 
 
 2432. A perspective view of this very picturesque hotel is shown in fig. 2223. We have 
 not given the plan, because there is nothing remarkable or characteristic in the arrange- 
 
 ment ; in short, it is merely an old public-house with some additional rooms. The 
 whole, however, is commodious and comfortable. The elevation, as it appears in the 
 figure, was designed by the Honourable Peter John Lock King, the proprietor of the 
 estate on which the inn is built, who, with his brother, the Earl of Lovelace, appears to 
 inherit a taste for architecture from their ancestor, Mr. Lock of Norbury Park, in 
 Surrey. (See Gilpin's Cumherland.) The view shows the inn as seen from the South- 
 ampton Railroad. 
 
FOUNDATIONS AND WALLS. 
 
 1255 
 
 2224 
 
 CHAP. V. 
 
 Details of Construction applicable to Cottages, Farm Buildings, Villas, Sfc. 
 
 As many of these details are alike applicable to several classes of buildings, we 
 have, for more convenient reference, brought them all together. We shall begm with 
 foundations, and take, in succession, walls, roofs, interior arrangements, and miscel- 
 laneous matters. 
 
 Sect. L Foundations ajid Walls. 
 243S Concrete The use of this mixture of lime, gravel, and sand, in foundations, 
 and for 'floors of sheds, and even of cottage dwellings, is nosv very general. In using it 
 in the foundations of a house, a trench is dug out about 
 eight inches wider than the lowest course of brickwork 
 or masonry, and to such a depth as is necessary to arrive 
 at firm soil. This is shown in fig. 22^24., in which a is 
 the floor line; &, the ground line; and c the concrete. 
 When the trench is made, coarse and fine gravel are 
 thrown into it, just as they come from the pit, to the 
 thickness of about four inches ; it is then grouted with 
 thin hot lime, just enough to bind the gravel together, 
 and afterwards rammed quite hard. Course after course 
 must then be laid, and so treated till the mass reaches within 
 about eighteen inches of the ground line. The proportion 
 of hot lime to the gravel is about one eighth part only. 
 Others use lime in the proportion of one to five of loamy 
 
 gravel. In countries where gravel is not common, dry brick rubb sh, broken stone 
 flints, or any material that will bind into one mass, will answer. Carter informs us that 
 the foundations of Westminster Abbey, erected in 1 245, consist of flmts, irregular stones 
 rubble, and mortar, forming an almost impenetrable body. In many of .t^^e ancient 
 castles particularly in Kent, the foundations are thus made. {Arch. Mag.,x. 248.) 
 
 243i Pre'.n<i4 Dampness in Foundation Walls. Fig. 2225. represents the section of 
 a wall built on a concrete foundation, c, formed within a trench, the sides of which 
 are pared down inwards, so as slightly to in- 
 crease the base. Around all the walls of the 
 foundation against which ground will lie a dry 
 area should be formed, in order to prevent 
 dampness within the building. This may be 
 done with a half-brick wall, placed at a little 
 distance from the part to be protected, as repre- 
 sented by the annexed sketch. The space thus 
 enclosed must be arched over at the top, just 
 below the level of the ground ; and if iron air- 
 bricks, or small gratings communicating with 
 the dry area, be introduced, wherever open areas 
 are formed, around windows or elsewhere, a free 
 circulation of air will be obtained. Should no 
 open areas occur in the basement story, small 
 flues, or throats, may be formed at certain in- 
 tervals within the wall, terminating just above 
 the ground, to receive an air-brick, as shown 
 at a in the figure. The wall of the dry area, 
 although under ground, should not be care- 
 lessly executed, as it must necessarily be sub- 
 jected to considerable pressure, and the work- 
 men should be directed to put in whole headers 
 at certain distances, that is, bricks placed length- 
 wise in the direction of the thickness of the wall, 
 
 " 24s/' %:iZe^Damp from rising in Walls, a vacuity may be left in the centre of 
 the wan ju7Ibove the surface of the ground as at a, in % 2226. laymg over it slabs 
 of stine or slate, chamfered off so as to form a neat finish to the plinth round the outside 
 of the building. At various intervals, small openings, communicating between this 
 la^nel and the interior of the building, should be made as at h, so that a current of air 
 may be driven through the vacuity and openings under the floors, in order to ventilate 
 them. {A. M.,i. 233.) 
 
V256 
 
 FIRST ADDITIONAL SUPPLEMENT. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 — r 
 
 
 
 
 
 / « J, 
 
 on L 
 
 ( 2226 
 
 2436. Tb prevent Damp from ascending the Walls of a House already built, introduce 
 a water-proof medium tlirough the wall, just above the level of the ground, in the 
 following manner : First, make a hole through the wall, over the ground course, taking 
 out two courses in height, and two bricks in length ; consequently, the hole will be six 
 inches high and eighteen inches wide. Then fill up half this hole, at one end, witli two 
 courses of sound bricks, laid in Roman cement. It is clear that the operation could 
 not injure the wall, the width of eighteen inches not allowing of any settlement. Two 
 courses more, of nine inches in widtli, are next removed, making the hole again eighteen 
 inches wide ; the half of which is then filled up with bricks and cement as before. The 
 operation is to be repeated until the whole of the walls of the iiouse are underpinned by 
 two courses of hard bricks and three joints of Roman cement ; constituting a water- 
 proof septum, through which the damp cannot rise, {A. aM., i. 123.) 
 
 2437. Brick Walls. In addition to the various modes of building hollow walls shown 
 in the Encyclopadiu, we give the following mode of building a wall fourteen inches in 
 thickness, with only a small additional 2227 
 
 quantity of bricks to what are required 
 for a nine-inch wall. Fig. 2227. shows 
 the plan, or first course of bricks, of 
 such a wall, and all the rest is mere re- 
 petition. Walls built in this maimer 
 may be carried to the height of ten or 
 twelve feet, without any piers, and hence they are suitable both for the walls of cottages 
 and gardens. For the latter purpose two courses of cross bond may be left out, on a 
 level with the surface of the ground, in order to leave room for a hot-water pipe, which, 
 in consequence of the vertical vacuities, will heat the whole wall. If we suppose 
 that only half the amount of cross bond is used, then the saving of bricks will be 
 still greater. A rod of solid nine-inch brickwork requires 4,500 bricks; a rod. of hol- 
 low fourteen-inch brickwork, such as fig. 2227., requires 3,600 bricks ; and a rod 
 with only half the amount of cross bond shown in fig. 2227. requires 3,200 bricks. 
 If the whole of the brickwork were set on edge, then, for a common nine-inch wall, 
 liollow, the number of bricks required per rod will be 3,000; for a fourteen-inch 
 wall, hollow, on the principle of fig. 222.5., but with bricks on edge, the number 
 required per rod will be about 2,800; and for a wall, brick on edge, with only half 
 the cross bond shown in fig. 2227., the number per rod recjuired will be about 2,500. 
 
 2438. It is evident that hollow walls might be made eighteen inches or two feet in 
 thickness, either with brick in bed or brick edgewise, on the same principle as fig. 
 2227.; and if such walls were filled in with concrete, they would form excellent walls 
 for cottages. When cottage walls are built hollow, it is necessary to have solid piers 
 to the doors, and to have a space carried up solid from the foundation to each window, 
 the jambs of which, like those of the doors, must of course be carried up solid. In 
 brick-on-edge work the solid parts must still be built with all the bricks set on edge, 
 but no bricklayer will find any difficulty in effecting this object. 
 
 2439. Brick Walls, seven inches and a half thick, and fair or smooth on both sides, 
 are convenient, not only for partitions, but even for the outside walls of sheds and 
 other buildings, and for garden walls. A common nine-inch wall, as every reader 
 of any experience in building knows, can only be built fair on one side, unless built 
 hollow, as in the one in the preceding paragraph, but 75-inch walls having no bricks 
 which pass right through the wall, the attention of the bricklayer is only required 
 to one side at a time. These 7^-inch walls are formed of bricks of the common size, 
 and of bricks of the same length and thickness, but of only half the width of the com- 
 
 mon bricks, by which means they can 
 be " worked fair " on both sides. 
 These are laid side by side, as in 
 fig. 2228. ; in which a represents the 
 first course, and b the second course. 
 The bond, or tying together of both 
 
 2228 
 
FOUNDATIONS AND WALLS. 
 
 sides of the wall, is not obtained by laying bricks across (technically, 2229 
 headers), but by the full-breadth bricks covering half the breadth of the 
 broad bricks, when laid over the narrow ones, as shown at &, and in the 
 vertical section, fig. 2229. Besides the advantage of being built fair on 
 both sides, there heiny no headers, or through and through bricks, in these 
 walls, the rain, when they are used as outside walls, is never conducted 
 through them, and the inside of the wall is consequently drier than 
 the inside of a wall nine inches in thickness. These walls are adapted 
 for a variety of purposes in house-building and gardening. The only 
 drawback that we know against them is, that the narrow, or half- 
 breadth, bricks must be made on purpose. 
 
 2440. Hitch's Patent Rebated Brickwork. The bricks are much larger 
 than usual, and the walls are said to be stronger, and twenty per cent 
 cheaper. Some walls and buildings at Brompton have been executed 
 
 with them under the direction of Mr. Godwin, but they are far from— U 
 
 being generally known. Fig. 2230. represents a longitudinal section of a nine-inch 
 header, and fig. 2231. part of one course of nine-inch work. From this it will be seen, 
 
 2230 
 
 ( 2231 
 
 that the headers and stretchers are rebated together, and form two external faces of brick- 
 work enclosing a hollow space, or series of hollow spaces. Each of the headers has two 
 dowel-holes through it, in the direction of its height, and is hollowed out on the under side 
 as shown in fig. 2230. ; so that these spaces communicate with one another, by means 
 of the dowel -holes, throughout the whole extent of the wall. Now, into these chambers, 
 as each course is laid, a concrete, properly compounded of gravel and lime, is intro- 
 duced ; and the whole, when finished, is thus rendered a solid and well-combined mass. 
 
 The appearance presented by walls built in this manner is uniform and bold (each 
 brick being five ipches high, and proportionally long) : very little mortar is required 
 for laying the bricks ; so that, if affected by frost, the work may be repaired at small 
 cost. Again, the importance of giving to the bricks the perfect shape of the mould 
 entails fthe necessity of previously well kneading the clay, and, when 
 moulded, the form of the brick allows full effect to the fire while burn- 
 ing ; so that, in composition also, these are generally superior to common 
 bricks : and, notwithstanding all these supposed advantages, brickwork 
 can be executed in this manner twenty per cent cheaper than by the 
 ordinary method. A variety of other bricks, besides those we have 
 mentioned, are used in this system of construction, such as bat-headers, 
 closers, reveal-headers, and angle-headers ; and this slight complexity 
 seems to be the chief objection to its general adoption, as common 
 workmen are unable to execute it without some little previous instruc- 
 tion on the subject. In thick walls, for the interior of which the patentee 
 uses what he calls a " clenched core-brick," to tie the whole together, and 
 prevent the walls from splitting, almost any degree of strength may be 
 attained ; and here, inasmuch as a greater propoi'tion of concrete is em- 
 ployed, a much larger saving than that mentioned above may be effected ; 
 probably as much, in some cases, as 40 per cent. For arches, Mr. 
 Hitch has made wedge-shaped bricks of various radius, by means of 
 which the larger mortar joint occurring when common bricks are em- 
 ployed for this purpose is avoided ; and ordinary vaults may thus be formed 
 of five- inch " arch bricks," having over them a thin layer of concrete, for 
 about 5s. per yard superficial. Several small bridges have been suc- 
 cessfully built with them. For garden walls, bricks are especially made 
 with merely two dowel-holes in them ; so that iron 
 
 rods or oaken stakes may be passed through, thus 
 
 stringing them together, the interstices being filled up 
 with concrete. Fig. 2233. shows 
 the plan of one of these bricks ; 
 and fig. 2232. exhibits a section 
 of garden walling constructed with 
 them, under Mr. Godwin's direction, in several places. A footing 
 of concrete, about twelve inches in thickness, is first thrown in. Upon 
 this is laid one course of nine-inch work, and one course of splayed bricks, made for the 
 
 2233 
 
1258 
 
 FIRST ADDITIONAL SUPPLEMENT. 
 
 purpose, from which commences the six-inch walling of doweled bricks, terminating 
 with a bead-brick and coping of the same material, set in cement. At certain intervals 
 angular piers are formed, to strengthen the wall ; and iron rods, as before mentioned, 
 are introduced in various places. One of the latter is shown in the engraving, passed 
 through the bottom courses into the concrete. The cost of a wall thus constructed, 
 with six-inch bricks, including the coping and piers, but exclusive of the concrete 
 footing, is about 5s. per yard (being little more than the price of wooden fencing, which 
 constantly requires repairs, and is, therefore, a continual source of expense) ; and a 
 similar wall may be built with four-inch bricks for 4s. per yard. For horticultural pur- 
 poses the patentee has occasionally glazed the face of his bricks: this is the case with a 
 garden wall in the garden at Hampton Court Palace, built by him several years ago. 
 {Arch. Mag., vol. i. p. 581.) 
 
 2441. Hitch" s Brick Drain, for which he has a patent, is of simple but excellent 
 construction, of which fig. 2235. represents a section. Each ^234 
 
 brick is about thirteen inches long, segmental, and wedge- t-^.^^,-.,^" 1^ 
 shaped ; and is rebated at the ends (as shown by fig. 2234., which ^^ ^T^^^^^^fe^^^^ 
 is a longitudinal section of a single brick), so as to fit together 
 accurately without much cement. On the top of each two 
 indentions are formed, in order to lessen the quantity of earth 
 required for making them, and afford a handle to the workmen. 
 Four bricks form a nine-inch drain, as represented by the sketch, 
 which can be executed comjjlete for 1 1 ^d. jier foot running ; 
 and six of them, having a slightly diHerent radius, make a twelve- 
 inch drain, costing Is. 4^ J. per foot: in both cases exclusive 
 of digging. The bricks themselves cost about 17s. per hun- 
 dred, and the amount of labour and cement required is very small. 
 
 2442. Bricks may now be made of ornamental Forms, or coloured, on payment of double 
 duty, which it is to be hoped may lead to the revival of brick cornices, architraves, &c., 
 such as were in use till ornamental bricks were heavily taxed. The fine effect of 
 coloured bricks is admirably shown in the Lombardo- Venetian church, recently built 
 from the design of IMr. Wild, at Streatham. How the colouring of bricks is effected 
 in the manufacture has been shown by John Dobson, Esq., in the Proceedings of the 
 British Association for 1838. 
 
 2443. Building Cottage Walls of Clay Lumps. John Curtis, Esq., of Rougham, in- 
 forms us that he has built cottages, barns, and farm-yard walls, with what are called 
 clay lumps. They are, he says, more durable than any thing except stone, very 
 dry, and from 600 to 700 per cent cheaper than bricks. " I have built the walls of a 
 farm-yard one foot thick with clay lumps; and, when at the desired height, made 
 a coping for it of a frame- work of boards one inch and a half thick, and six inches 
 wide. These, nailed together with cross pieces at every four or five feet's distance, are 
 laid on the top of the wall, which thus forms the eaves, by projecting two inches on 
 each side of the wall ; the outer edges of the boards being beveled or sloped off to fa- 
 cilitate the drip of the water from the wall, similarly to a drip brick. The coping is 
 then finished by covering it with worked clay, in the state that it is when ready for 
 making lumps. Tins, with a little occasional rejjairs, will last for many years." 
 
 2444. To make Clay Ltimps. Three loads of soft tender clay, which should be 
 yellow, not blue, the latter being too strong, will make one hundred lumps ; which, 
 when dry, will weigh six stones, of fourteen pounds each. The three loads should be 
 put into a heap, all large stones being carefully picked out, and soaked with as much 
 water as the mass will absorb ; then tread it with one or two horses, and, as it is trod- 
 den, mix as much short old straw as can properly be mixed with it, by adding more 
 water as may be required. The edges of the mass should be turned into the middle of 
 the heap from time to time ; and the horses should be kept treading it till all the clay is 
 thoroughly broken, and mixed so as to become like stiff mortar. All the secret depends 
 on well mixing the clay with plenty of straw. It should not be made too thin. As soon 
 as this quantity is properly prepared, men should be making it into lumps, which is done 
 by putting sufficient clay into a mould of wood, of the following dimensions : eighteen 
 inches long, twelve inches wide, and six inches deep, no bottom. The mould, when 
 well filled, by the men putting in the clay with a spade, and pressing it with the foot, 
 the top being smoothed with the back of the spade, should be lifted up, and the lump 
 will then be left perfect. Wet the mould with a wisp of oat straw, to prevent the clay 
 hanging to it, and place the mould about two inches from the first lump, and fill as 
 before ; then wet the mould and place it about two inches off, and proceed as before. 
 This filling of the mould is best done on level grass ground. As soon as the lumps get 
 a little stiff, that is, just enough to admit of handling them, they should be set on one 
 edge, and as they dry be turned ; and in doing this, place the wet side to the sun. The 
 
ROOFS AND FLOORS. 
 
 1259 
 
 rough edges must be trimmed with a spade, or any edged tool, as they become dry 
 enough to be haled (that is, built up in rows about three feet high, one brick wide, and 
 the lumps one or two inches apart at the ends, as new-made bricks are before they are 
 burned), so as that the wind can pass between each lump. Winter is the best time to 
 get the clay into heaps, that the frost may pulverise and mellow it. In March, as soon 
 as the severe frosts are over, begin to work the clay and make the lumps, and, if the 
 weather is favourable, they will be fit to build with in three weeks or a month. 
 
 2445. To build a Cottage, Barn, or any Building, with Clay Lumps, the foundation must 
 be good ; that is, built with brick or stone at least eighteen inches above the surface of 
 the ground. The larger the building, the higher the foundation should be ; say three 
 feet ; and it should be two inches wider than the lumps, so that one inch of plaster may 
 be put on each side of the wall ; the width of the walls being according to the size of 
 the building. Of course lumps can be made to any size, according to the building in- 
 tended. The expense of building the walls (which are eighteen inches thick) is 6d. per 
 yard ; and lc?.per yard, covering each side of the wall with cement, which is only common 
 clay mixed well with very short straw, being very particular in picking out every stone, 
 and treading it more than usual. Let it lie in the heap till the autumn, and then (in 
 October) apply it to the walls as a coat of plaster is applied to any common wall. — 
 J. C. Feb. 3. 1842. 
 
 The only objection that we see to these walls is, that they do not appear to admit of 
 finishing with common lime plaster within ; but on writing to Mr. Curtis on the sub- 
 ject, he informs us that he has no doubt lime plaster will adhere equally well with 
 plaster of clay. It does so in the pise walls of France. 
 
 Sect. II. Roofs and Floors. 
 
 2446. Terrace Roofs have of late years become very general in and about London. 
 They are formed of thin arches of tiles and cement, supported on cast-iron bearers or 
 ribs, which are placed about three feet apart. The arch is composed of three courses 
 of common plain tiles, bedded in fine cement without sand. In laying the tiles, laths 
 or small slips of wood are used, resting on temporary bearers between the iron ribs ; 
 the laths being shifted as the work advances, in the course of about half an hour after 
 the tiles are laid. Particular attention is required to bonding the tiles both ways ; and 
 they are rubbed down closely upon each other, much in the same manner as a joiner 
 glues a joint. Mr. Fowler covered a wing of his house with a roof of this kind, over 
 which he laid a bed of coarse gravel, and on that nine inches of soil, so as to form a 
 terrace-garden : he also covered the roofs of two taverns in Hungerford Market in this 
 manner, and found it a more agreeable surface for walking on than lead, both as to 
 texture, and from being a non-conductor of heat. Where a covering or roof of tiles 
 and cement is not intended to be walked on, two courses of tiles are considered sufl?- 
 cient ; but where it is liable to be loaded by persons standing on it in crowds, three 
 courses should be used. Two courses of tiles on iron joists amount to one third less 
 expense than covering with " eight-pound lead "and fir joists. ( Traiis. Inst. Brit. Arch., 
 vol. i. p. 48. ) This covering has the advantage over one of asphalte, in not being liable 
 to be softened by the heat of the sun ; but asphalte, being much lighter, may be laid on 
 wooden joists, covered with boards, in the same manner as if lead were to be used. 
 
 2447. Asphalte is one of the most remarkable introductions for building purposes 
 which has taken place since the publication of the Encyclopaedia. Asphalte had been 
 in use in France for many years, but was comparatively neglected there till the 
 stimulus given to improvement by the Revolution of 1830. It is now in very general 
 use in France for foot-pavements, flat roofs, and lining water-cisterns ; and in England 
 it has also been a good deal used for the same purposes, and for flooring to barns. We 
 are not aware that it has been used as flooring for cottages, but we know of no objection 
 to it, at least for rooms on the ground floor in which there are no fireplaces. Asphalte 
 is found in a natural state in the Obsaun and other parts of France ; but it may be 
 formed artificially in every respect equally good, and in England much cheaper. A 
 very good recipe is : eighteen parts of mineral pitch, and eighteen of resin, put in 
 an iron pot, and boiled for a little ; after which, sixty parts of sand, thirty of small 
 gravel, and six of slacked lime, are to be added. The foundation being rendered dry, 
 and being brought to a level with gravel or small stones, the mixture is taken out of 
 the pot, or caldron, in which it was boiled, with an iron shovel, in a boiling state, and 
 spread evenly over the prepared surface about the thickness of two inches for ordinary 
 pavements, and about a third part thicker for barn floors and flat roofs. According to 
 Dr. Ure, boiled coal-tar, mixed with powdered chalk or bricks, will make as good 
 asphalte as the natural kind. {Diet, of Arts, ^c, Bitumen.) 
 
 2448. Pocock's flexible Asphalte Roofing is intended to supersede the use of slates, tiles, 
 zinc, thatch, &c., in the covering and lining of farm buildings, sheds, cottages, and other 
 
1260 
 
 FIRST ADDITIONAL SUPPLEMENT. 
 
 erections ; and, from its durability, lightness, and economy, it is in very general use. 
 The weight of this manufacture being only sixty pounds to the square of one hundred 
 feet, the walls and timbers to support it are required to be but half the usual substance ; 
 it is also a non-conductor of heat, impervious to damp, and will bear a heat of two 
 hundred and twenty degrees without injury. Several architects and railway engineers 
 have already adopted the asphalte roofing for sheds and other buildings ; it has also 
 been used instead of mats or boards for covering glass frames in gardens. The materials 
 of which this roofing is composed are the refuse felt of hatters, and natural or artificial 
 asphalte, mixed together and compressed into thin plates. 
 
 2449. The new French Ronjivg Tiles (fig. 2236.) were introduced from Paris by Sir 
 John Robison in 1840. These tiles are square in form, about nine inches or ten inches 
 
 L ' ' ' ' ' M M I I I 
 
 on the side, with a raised ledge on two sides. They may be either laid with or without 
 mortar or cement, but they are better with a little, l)y which they effectually exclude 
 water. The boundary lines of the tiles being all diagonal, the rain-water tends to run 
 to the lower points (instead of hanging in the joints by capillary attraction), where 
 the nosing on the lower angle of the tile, shown in the section (fig. 22:57.), conducts the 
 
 2237 
 
 stream or drops, on to the flat part of the next tile below it. To finish the roof at the 
 ridge half tiles are placed there, analogous to those placed at the eaves, but having 
 a raised ledge along their upper edge, over which edge a peculiarly shaped ridge-tile is 
 inverted to complete the whole. These tiles are lighter than pantiles, in the proportion 
 of sixty-eight pounds to one hundred and ten j ounds per square yard, which is 
 the usual weight. The general aspect of roofs covered with them is agreeable, and 
 the cost will be evidently much less than that of any description of tile roof at present 
 in use. The Highland Society is endeavouring to introduce the tiles into Scotland, 
 and we have sent drawings of them to Mr. Varden, at Worcester ; Mr. Elliott, at 
 Chichester; and Mr. Wilds, at Hertford. 
 
 2450. Ctibitfs Improvements in Roofing are of a very ingenious character, and though 
 confessedly not adapted to first-rate or other houses requiring roofing of a permanent 
 ;md perfectly weather-tight description, will be found, nevertheless, of very extensive 
 application. Wherever quickness of construction, lightness, and cheapness are objects 
 of importance, and no more is cared for than protection overhead during ordinary states 
 of the weather, as in the case of colonnades, verandas, penthouses, drying-houses, tool- 
 houses, summer-houses in gardens, boat-houses, workmen's sheds, railway stations, &c., 
 these improvements will be found of great applicability and value. (Mech. Mag., vol. 
 xxxiii. p. 210.) It would occupy too much space to describe this mode of roofing, 
 which will be found illustrated with engravings in the work quoted. We shall only 
 add, that its appearance is very light and elegant, but that it could not be executed 
 without the aid of the circular saw. 
 
ROOFS AND FLOORS. 
 
 1261 
 
 2451. Suspension Roofs. The principle employed in suspension bridges is beginning 
 to be applied to roofs both in France and England. In the back premises of Messrs. Gil- 
 low, the extensive upholsterers in Oxford Street, part of a roof was suspended by a chain 
 in 1840, under the direction of Messrs. Abraham, architects; and Mr. Hansom of 
 Foley Place, architect, proposes a roof of this kind for the Metropolitan Music Hall, 
 now in contemplation, which, if carried into execution, will be the largest room in 
 the world. The four angles of the building are proposed to be carried up a sufficient 
 height to form the fulcrums for the suspension chains, which may, perhaps, be most 
 advantageously applied in the manner adopted by Mr. Dredge of Bath, in his suspension 
 bridges. (See Mech. Mag., vol. xxxiii. p. 500. ) 
 
 2452. Sunk Wooden Eaves- Trough for Cottage Roofs, figs. 2238—2240. This finish 
 to the eaves of a roof has now become very general for country-houses, and deservedly 
 so ; being the neatest, cheapest, and most durable of any, and adapted to the humblest 
 cottage as well as to the elegant villa. In order to obtain a fall in the old metal troughs, 
 they are obliged to be fixed a little slanting, which adds , to the otherwise unsightly 
 appearance of them; they are also liable to be crushed in by the weight of ladders, &c., 
 placed against them, as well as to a sagging or dropping down between the several 
 iron brackets which support them, and the water from time to time lodging in these 
 parts very soon renders them useless. This is made of the best clean seasoned fir timber, 
 with as few joints as possible, the mitred joints at the angles put together with a copper 
 
 tongue and white lead ; about four inches by four inches, more or less, according to the 
 character of the building. It is fixed perfectly level, the fall being within itself, which is 
 obtained by hollowing out the middle, beginning at x in fig. 2238., the highest part of 
 the fall, and proceeding gradually deeper to z, the lowest ; thus, a trough of this 
 description may be fixed along a front of forty or fifty feet in length, the fall being given 
 from the centre to the right and left. It requires no lining, but a thorough good 
 painting, which should be repeated every three or four years. A large moulding being 
 wrought on the front, it is thus made to represent the crowning member of a cornice. 
 Fig. 2239. represents the application of it to a cottage ; where a is the moulded 
 front of the eaves-trough; b, the hollow; c, the plastered soffit; d, bearer; e, rafter; 
 /, slating; g, front wall of house ; h, fascia; o, wall-plate. Fig. 2240., the same with a 
 higher style of finish. The same letters of reference answer : in addition, i shows a lead 
 moulding and fascia in cement, and the plancier, c, is curved. It may be finished in a 
 still more elaborate style, with dentils or cantilevers, if required. — W. Wilds, Architect, 
 Hertford. 
 
 2453. Cast-iron Gutters to Roofs, as a substitute for leaden ones, are found eco- 
 nomical and effective. Fig. 2242. is a section of a gutter between two roofs, in 
 which a a show the gutter, with a flange, h h, for joining the diflterent pieces together ; c c, 
 the slates ; d d, the rafters ; and e, the gutter-ljeam. The fall requisite to carry off 
 the water is found to be from a half to three quarters of an inch in the yard, and this 
 necessarily occasions the plane of the roof to rise towards the centre of the building, as 
 shown in the section, fig. 2241., in which the rise is indicated by the dotted lines////. 
 
 7 :\i 
 
1262 FIRST ADDITIONAL SUPPLEMENT. 
 
 All the care that this requires in slating or tiling is, to bring the upper edge of the 
 lower course of tiles to a level, as indicated in the longitudinal section through the 
 gutter, fig. 2243. ; in which g is the gutter ; h, the lower course of tiles ; i, the gutter- 
 
 beam ; and A, the hollow posts for supporting the gutter-beam, and serving as pipes for 
 conducting away the water from the gutter. Cast-iron gutters of this sort will be 
 found peculiarly adapted for ridge and furrow hot-house roofs. 
 
 2454. Roofs of native Scotch Fir. The Closeburn method of preserving the dura- 
 bility of timber consists in first cutting it to the size required, and then steeping it in a 
 pond of limewater for a fortnight, or more or less, according to the dimensions of the 
 pieces. It is found that the acid contained in the wood is crystallised, by combining 
 with the alkali of the lime. Sir Charles Menteath has now some farm buildings on his 
 estate, the timber in the roofs of which is the common young Scotch fir ; but, having 
 undergone the limewater process, it is as sound after a lapse of forty years as the day 
 it was put up. The same timber, under ordinary circumstances and in similar situa- 
 tions, would rot in from three to seven years. (Mech. Mag., vol. xxxi. p. 105.) Not- 
 withstanding this statement, the preservative effect of limewater is denied by some, but 
 there can be little doubt that sulphate of copper would be effective. 
 
 2455. Thatch may be rendered comparatively incombustible, by soaking it in whitewash 
 made of lime, or whitening and size, in the usual way, to every four gallons of which has 
 been added one pound, or rather more, of alum. Alum would suffice by itself, but the 
 rain would wash it off. The lime and size form a film over every straw, insoluble in 
 water. (Mech. Mag., vol. xxxvi. p. 106.) If the interior of a thatched roof be kept dry, 
 it will last as long as the timber which supports it. Possibly something might be gained 
 by covering a thin layer of thatch with Pocock's asphalte roofing. 
 
 2456. Martin's Fire- Proof Cement has been used in various cases by Mr. Cubitt as a 
 substitute for boards in flooring, and it is said Mr. Barry intends to use it in the new 
 Houses of Parliament. Applied to floors, stairs, and partitions, even though only as a 
 
WINDOWS AND DOORS. 
 
 covering to boards, it would go far to render private houses fire-proof. {Mech. Mag., 
 vol. xxxvi. p. 85. ) The principal ingredient in this cement is gypsum. 
 
 2457. Cement Floors for Cottage Bed-rooms have been strongly recommended for their 
 durability, and as, in some degree, rendering cottages fire-proof. They are common in 
 Italy, and to be found in some parts of France and Germany, but they are compara- 
 tively rare in England. The best that we know of are at Houghton, in Norfolk, which 
 we examined upwards of thirty years ago, and through the kindness of John Curtis, Esq., 
 who sent us the information respecting building walls with clay lumps (§ 2440.), we are 
 enabled to give the following account of them : — 
 
 2458. The Cement Floors at Houghton Inn, and in some of the farm-houses on the 
 Houghton estate, are thus formed. The floor joists are laid in the same manner as if 
 for boarding, but well stiffened by what is locally called bridging, which consists of 
 pieces mortised into each joist, as shown in fig. 2244., in which a is the plan and b the 
 section. But as this mode weakens the joists by cutting into them, a better one would 
 
 2245 
 
 be, to use cross strutts in the usual manner, as shown in fig. 2245., in which c is the plan 
 and d the section. Some floors are first laid with reeds, so as to bear the cement on a 
 floor of reeds ; and others (which is the better way) are covered with double laths, but 
 the ends of these laths should only just meet in the middle of the joists. The cement 
 is then laid on, half an inch or two inches thick, and the floor must not be left by the 
 workmen till it is quite finished ; that is, they must keep beating and smoothing it over, 
 night and day, till it is completely set, in order to prevent its cracking. This can only 
 be done by having a swinging scaffold from the ceiling for the men to work from. The 
 cement must be laid on directly it is made ; therefore, while some persons are making it 
 up, others must be laying it on. The cement is commonly called red plaster, which is 
 red gypsum. It is burnt for this purpose, by making a fire with small billets of wood, 
 and mixing small lumps of gypsum with the wood, and then covering the whole with 
 turves to prevent the fire escaping, in the same manner as billets are covered when they 
 are made into charcoal ; or a better way is, to grind the gypsum in the flour stones of a 
 mill, and then bake it in an oven, before mixing it into a cement, which should be done 
 with the iron dust which falls from a blacksmith's anvil, and not with the smithy ashes ; 
 the scales of iron being so much harder and better for the purpose. Chalk and lime 
 are both unfit for the purpose, though ground floors for cottages and barns are fre- 
 quently made of these materials, well beaten together. — /. C. 
 
 2459. Bed-room Floors, formed of two Courses of plain Tiles laid in Cement, resting on 
 joists lathed over in the manner described, would, we should think, make very good 
 floors ; but, unless they came cheaper than boards, it would scarcely be worth while 
 adopting them. Cottages might be roofed with semicircular arches of tiles, laid in ce- 
 ment, and covered with turf or creeping plants or ivy, so as to render them warm as well 
 as durable. 
 
 2460. Equal Parts of Lime, Sand, and Cinder-dust, worked up well together, make very- 
 good malting-floors ; but, as in the process of malting they are occasionally moistened, 
 this composition may not be so well adapted for the bed-room floors of cottages. — S, T. 
 
 2461. Clay Floors, that is, floors formed of a mixture of clay and marl, were formerly 
 a good deal used in Norfolk for barns, malt-houses, hay-lofts, cottages, &c. They are 
 composed of clay and marl mixed with chopped straw, well trodden by horses, and 
 mixed together in the manner clay lumps are to be made (§ 2444. ) ; and, when the 
 mixture is to be used for malt-floors, bullock's blood is added. Much of the excellence 
 of these floors depends on the thoroughly mixing and working of the material. — W, T. 
 
 Sect. III. Windows and Doors. 
 A great drawback to the improvement of cottages, both in Scotland and England, hi- 
 therto has been the expense of the windows; but these are now manufactured of cast iron 
 at so moderate a rate, that the expense can no longer be an object of solicitude. 
 
1264 
 
 FIRST ADDITIONAL SUPPLEMENT. 
 
 2462. Windows having been generally among the worst constructed parts of Scotch 
 cottages, the Highland Society offered a premium for the best cottage window, which was 
 awarded to Messrs. M'Culloch 
 and Co, of Glasgow, for the form 
 shown in figs. 224G. to 22^8. 
 This form, of the dimensions 
 shown in the figure, viz., three 
 feet three inches by two feet, 
 without the wooden frame, costs, 
 in cast iron, only 5s., and the 
 glass for such a window may 
 be purchased at 2^c/. per scjuare. 
 This kind of window admits 
 of being formed of any size, and 
 is equally adajjted for work- 
 shops, farm buildings where 
 glass windows are required, and 
 cottages. 
 
 The dimensions that have been 
 recommended for the windows 
 of ordinary cottages are, tliirty- 
 nine inches for tlie height, and 
 twenty-four inches for the widtli, 
 within the wooden frames. Tlie 
 size of glass required for these 
 frames is seven and a quarter 
 inches by five and a (juarter 
 inches. The sash is divided 
 into two unequal parts, the lower 
 part having three squares in 
 height, and the upper part two. 
 The lower part is permanently // i_i 
 fixed, while the upper part is 
 
 constructed to turn in the vertical direction on pivots, 
 its middle astragal ; and both parts are set in a sub- 
 stantial wooden frame, which may be either built in 
 while the wall is erecting, or may be set in afterwards 
 in the ordinary way, with or without checked rabbets 
 (§ 911.), according to the taste of the proprietor. 
 The window, and its arrangements, will be better 
 understood by reference to the annexed figures. 
 
 Fig. 2246. is an inside elevation, fig. 2248. a plan, 
 and fig. 2247. a vertical section, in each of which a 
 portion of the wall is exhibited, and the same letters 
 refer to the corresponding parts in each figure ; a is a 
 portion of the surrounding wall ; b, the wooden frame 
 of the window ; c, the lower sash, which is dormant ; 
 and d, the upper and movable sash. 
 
 In fig. 2247. the upper sash is represented as open 
 for ventilation ; when shut, the parts of the opening- 
 sash cover and overlap the fixed parts in such a man- 
 ner as to exclude wind and water ; but, when venti- 
 lation is required, the arrangement of the parts which 
 
 I ■ I 1 'I I 
 
 ^ \/t 
 
 whicli are situate in the line of 
 
 2248 
 
WINDOWS AND DOORS. 
 
 1265 
 
 produce this is such as to enable the housekeeper to admit air to any extent. For this 
 purpose the notched latch, e, is jointed to a stud in the edge of the sash ; a simple iron 
 pin or stud is also fixed in the wooden frame at s, and the notches of the latch being 
 made to fall upon this stud at any required distance, the requisite degree of opening is 
 secured, and when the sash is again closed, the latch falls down parallel with, and close 
 to, the sash. To secure the sashes when shut, the T bolt, /, in the middle of the meeting 
 bars, has only to be turned one fourth round, and the movable sash is held fast in close 
 contact with the other. The figures represent the window as finished up with single 
 dressings, viz., plain deal shutters, facings, and sole, which, at a small expense, would 
 give an air of neatness and comfort to the apartment, and promote a corresponding 
 taste in the other parts of the cottage. Though the dimensions of the window here 
 stated may be conceived sufficient for lighting an apartment of ordinary size, they can 
 nevertheless be varied to suit every purpose. This may be done either by employing 
 two such windows as above described, with a muUion of wood or stone between them, 
 or the single window may be enlarged by one or two squares in width, or in height, or 
 in both directions. " {Highland Soc. Trans., vol. xiii. p. 541.) 
 
 2463. The Belper Cottage Window is formed entirely of cast iron, and has a com- 
 partment in the centre which opens. It differs from the Glasgow window in the 
 nature of the fastening which keeps the window 
 open or shut. To give an idea of the value of 
 this fastening, it is necessary to observe that, in 
 the latticed windows of cottages, there is very 
 frequently either one entire frame, or a portion 
 in the centre of one, which opens, and is kept 
 open by an iron stay-bar, with an eye at one end 
 Avhich moves on a staple attached to the fixed part 
 of the sash, and a hook at the other which drops 
 into an eye in the part of the sash which is to be 
 opened. Now, the objection to this hooked fas- 
 tener is, that, as there is only one eye for the hook 
 to drop into, the window can only be opened to 
 the same width, whether the ventilation required 
 be little or much ; and when the stay-bar is not 
 in use, it hangs down and is blown about, and 
 very frequently breaks the glass. The new stay- 
 bar, on the other hand, opens the window or door 
 to which it may be applied to various widths at 
 pleasure, from an inch to the whole width of the 
 window or door, and the stay-bar can never hang 
 down, or run the slightest risk of breaking glass. The general apnearance of the new 
 stay-bar, supposing the window to be open to its full extent, is sliown in fig, 2249. ; 
 in which a is the stay-bar, which turns on the pivot b at one end, and slides along a 
 horizontal groove under the guide-bar, c, at the other. 
 
 Fig. 2250, is a view of the stay-bar apart from the window, showing the eye, d; the 
 handle, e ; and the stud, /, which drops into holes in the horizontal groove, so as to keep 
 the window open at any desired angle. 
 
 9 
 
 
 
 
 
 lU 
 
 2249 
 
 [] 
 
 
 D 
 
 r 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 ■ 1 
 
 
 
 
 2250 
 
 C 
 
 1 
 
 2251 
 
 \2i 
 
 2252 
 
 Fig. 2251 , is a view of the groove and the guide-bar ; g is the guide-bar, or small 
 rod, which is for the purpose of keeping the stay-bar in its place in the groove h; ii 
 are two plates with holes, by which the groove and guide-bar are riveted to the window; 
 k, vertical profile of the groove, the guide-bar being removed, so as to show the holes 
 into which the stud of the stay-bar drops. The groove is of cast 
 iron, and the guiding-rod is of wrought iron, let into it and riveted, 
 and both are bolted to the bar of the window by means of the 
 plates i i, which are of cast iron. Fig. 2252. is a section across 
 the groove, the guiding-rod, I, and the bar of the window, m, to 
 which the groove is bolted ; n is the handle of the guide-bar. 
 
 The window is cast in two pieces; the larger, fig, 2254., being two feet ten inches 
 high by two feet one inch broad ; and the smaller, fig. 2255., being one foot four 
 
1266 
 
 FIRST ADDITIONAL SUPPLEMENT. 
 
 2253 
 
 2255 
 
 □ 
 
 □ 
 
 incheshighby 
 a foot broad, 
 exclusive of 
 the lead along 
 bottom and 
 sides, which 
 forms the re- 
 bate, and co- 
 vers the joint. 
 In casting the 
 smaller win- 
 dow it is es- 
 sentially ne- 
 cessary that it 
 be somewhat 
 less in its di- 
 mensions than 
 the space into 
 which it is to 
 shut, in order 
 that it may 
 
 always move freely. The air is kept out from the room within, not only 
 by the tight fitting of the sides of the small window to the sides of the 
 frame, but by the contact of the edges of the sides of the small window 
 with the heads forming the rebates attached to the inside of the frame ; 
 and also by means 
 
 
 
 u 
 
 
 ■ ■■■ 
 
 2254 
 
 If 
 
 ILJ 
 
 n 
 
 
 
 
 □ 
 
 n 
 
 1 
 
 n 
 
 a 6 B JO 
 
 one, or frame 
 
 of the contact of the 
 beads, or rebates, oi 
 the small window 
 with the edge of the 
 sides of the large 
 into which it shuts. 
 
 2256 
 
 window moves with the greatest ease, wl 
 
 In consequence of the sides never touching, the 
 whether expanded by heat in summer, or con- 
 tracted by cold in winter, and whether painted and smooth, or unpainted and rusty. 
 Fig. 2256. is a horizontal section across the small window and the two side bars, 
 showing the outside beads at gg, and the inside beads at h h. Fig. 2253. is a vertioal 
 section through the small window and the top and bottom bars of the fixed frame, 
 showing a weather-fillet, or weather-table, which projects half an inch from the general 
 face of the window at h, and the stay-bar in the situation in which it rests when the 
 window is shut, and also the groove and guiding- rod at ?. The total weight of this 
 window, before being glazed, is about 61^1b., and the prime cost in Derby is 12s. 4^., 
 thus : — 
 
 Two castings, 60lb., at 1^. 
 Iron -work, I^lb. at Is. Irf. 
 Fitting-up, 6 hours, at 24s. per week 
 Scurfing castings, 4 hours, at 12s. per 
 Priming window, 3c?., and paint, 3rf. 
 
 .'eek 
 
 Prime cost - 12 4^ 
 
 We can bear testimony to the excellence of this window, having seen it extensively in 
 use at Millford and Belper, near Derby, where it was invented by Anthony Strutt, Esq. 
 
 2464. A Cast- Iron Window and Wooden Shutter, adapted to Warehouses, Granaries, and 
 ether Farm Buildings. The accompanying sketches, figs. 2257. to 2259. , are of a cast-iron 
 window and shutter, which, from the simplicity and security of the construction, appear 
 to be worthy of imitation. Fig. 2258. is a section of the window, in which a a repre- 
 sent the shutter open ; it being hung upon centres fixed to its two sides, and working 
 in the outside frame. The outside, or top, of the shutter is the longer, and, consequently, 
 the heavier, end ; or the shutter may be kept open by a bolt or wedge under it, as at 
 b. The sashes c and d are so far apart as to leave room for the shutter at e and /, 
 when it is closed ; and at g there is a fastening to secure the bottom of the shutter. 
 Fig. 2259. is an elevation of the window, with the shutter in the position in which 
 it is shown in the section fig. 2258. ; and fig. 2257. is an elevation of the window when 
 the shutter is closed ; both of which are suflSciently explanatory to render description 
 unnecessary. It will be seen that, by this mode of constructing warehouse or granary 
 
WINDOWS AND DOORS. 
 
 1267 
 
 2257 
 
 windows, there is, when the shutter is open, excellent 
 ventilation and light, as well as perfect security. Bru- 
 met and Cope's Venetian blinds of wrought iron have 
 been very generally employed in London, as protective 
 shutters to the windows of dwelling- rooms and to shops. 
 The Duke of Wellington first brought them conspicuously 
 into notice by employing them to protect his first-floor 
 windows in Piccadilly. When not in use they are rolled 
 up, and sheltered from the weather by a hood ; and, when 
 let down, they have rather an elegant appearance than 
 otherwise, from their resemblance to Venetian blinds. 
 They are commonly painted green ; but this colour seldom 
 harmonises with exterior architecture, 
 
 2465. The upper Sashes of Windows should not he fixed j 
 because, when this is the case, the room to which they give 
 light can never be properly ventilated (2475.). As an 
 additional argument against having the upper sashes of windows fixed, a practice com- 
 mon in the north of England and Scotland, the windows, whenever they are above 
 
 t 
 
 2259 
 
 six feet high, cannot be cleaned, painted, nor a new pane put in, without the use of a 
 very long ladder. (A. M., i. 247.) An apparatus for cleaning the outsides of lofty 
 windows of this kind is described and figured in Arch. Mag., vol. i. p. 392. 
 
 2466. Windows brought down to the Floor, by reflecting light up to the eye, are much 
 less agreeable than those that do not come lower than the height of a chair back, and 
 they also give the worst light for displaying pictures. Nevertheless, windows down ta 
 the floor are more cheerful where there is any thing near at hand worthy of being 
 looked out on. 
 
 2467. A Door Stay-bar. The Belper window stay-bar, it will readily be conceived^ 
 may be applied to the opening of doors to any angle, or keeping them closely shut.. 
 All that is necessary is to place the groove, 
 in which the bar works, against a wall or 
 other fixture, so that it shall stand hori- 
 zontally at right angles to the door or gate. 
 Fig. 2260. represents a horizontal section 
 through a door, a ; the wall of the hanging 
 style to which it is hinged, b ; and the wall 
 against which it shuts, c. The gate or door 
 is supposed to be shut, and it is held in its 
 place by the stay-bar, d, which moves on a 
 stud at a, and at the end along a groove 
 from / to g. If we suppose the end of the 
 stay-bar at / secured in its place by a pad- 
 lock, it will be next to impossible for house- 
 breakers to open the door, a ; because they 
 could not by any means reach as far as 
 to pick the padlock. Other details of this 
 door stay-bar, and its application to various 
 
1268 
 
 FIRST ADDITIONAL SUPPLEMENT. 
 
 kindsL of doors and gates, will be found by referring to the Gardener s Magazine for 1839, 
 p. 440. 
 
 2468. Cast-iron Angles for outside Doors would render them more durable. In fig. 
 2261., a is the upright style; h, the bottom rail; c, the horizontal section Q9g3 
 at e,f showing the top of the iron angle foot, and the section of the style. 
 There would be much saving of labour and great durability in making door- 
 frames in this manner. 
 
 2262 
 
 2261 
 
 2469. Cast-iron Sockets to Wooden Posts, fig. 2262., may be made very 
 light, and being fitted to the part of the post to be inserted in the ground 
 would render them much more durable, as well as much more architectural, 
 since the posts would rise out of a proper base. 
 
 2470. Doors to Booms should he hung on the Side nearest the Fire. First, 
 then, I have observed that when doors are not hinged on the side nearest 
 the fireplace, the smoke is drawn out every time they are used ; secondly, I 
 think I can account for this circumstance in a very simple way : the air 
 that is displaced by the motion of the door is supplied by that which is 
 near the fire ; and, consequently, a vacuum is created, or the current of air 
 that is feeding the fire is interrupted, and part of the air that had entered 
 the chimney returns with the smoke to supply its ])lace, or, in common 
 parlance, it " puffs out." In the case of the door being hinged on the op- 
 posite side, the vacuum is supplied either by the expansion of the whole 
 of the air in the room, or by some current, without disturbing the cur- 
 rent of air that flows to the fire. — T. W. 
 
 2471. To prevent the shimming of a Passage Door. Fig. 2263. represents one 
 side of the door-case. Instead of fixing the ])iece of wood which joiners call the check-plate 
 on this, a similar piece is taken and prepared by being cut hollow on the edge a, which 
 the door strikes on, and then cut down by saw-draughts (slits made by the saw), as repre- 
 sented by the lines bh m the figure, leaving a portion in the middle equal to one fourth or 
 one fifth of the length uncut ; it is then securely fixed by screws to the door-post, as shown 
 in the sketch at c. The door, of course, first strikes against the top and bottom extre- 
 mities of this check, and must press them back before it can reach the solid part of the 
 plate in the middle. If, therefore, the plate of wood be made of such breadth and 
 thickness as that the luiited resistance of its ten or twelve springs he a little greater than 
 the force the door strikes with, it will never reach the solid part at all, and its slamming 
 will be nearly inaudible, however strong the current of air may be. This has been 
 proved to succeed perfectly, after all sorts of iron springs and checks have failed to 
 remove the nuisance. — /. R. 
 
 Sect. IV. Chimney- Tops and Smoky Chimneys. 
 
 2472. Every Chimney or Stack of Chimneys, to be truly architectural, ought to be 
 treated as a column, or as a group or series of columns ; and as every column consists 
 of three parts, a base, a shaft, and a capital, so ought every chimney-top. As an 
 example of this we shall take fig. 2265., which is a column from a stack in Eastbury 
 House, in Essex. It is entirely built with brick, and rises seventeen feet above the 
 cornice of the base on which it is placed. In fig. 2264., a is the plan or horizontal 
 section of one half of the shaft at a in fig. 2265. ; and b in fig. 2264. is the plan of 
 the upper member of the capital at 6 in fig. -2265. There is a stack of five of these 
 shafts in the centre of Eastbury House ; and by their beautiful proportions, and com- 
 manding height above the roof, they produce a strikingly grand and picturesque eflPect. 
 There are many examples of brick chimney-shafts still remaining in the ancient 
 mansions of England well deserving the attention of the architect ; and as chimney- 
 
CHIMNEY-TOPS AND SMOKY CHIMNEYS. 1269 
 
 2265 
 
 shafts form a principal feature in modern domestic architecture, their forms and 
 situations cannot be too much studied. — i;. B. Every person that has a house 
 designed for him ought to 
 object to every chimney-top, 
 whether Grecian or Gothic, 
 that does not consist of an 
 obvious base, shaft, and ca- 
 pital, and the base ought in 
 general to be somewhat higher 
 than the ridge of the roof. 
 In general, all the upper ter- 
 minations of a building ought 
 to be bold and free ; and this 
 cannot be the case with chimney-shafts, unless they have 
 a distinct base, a shaft of considerable length, and a ca- 
 pital consisting of several members according to the style 
 of architecture employed. 
 
 2473. In Chimneys of Cottages built in Woods, and where 
 overhanging branches of trees may prevent the egress of 
 smoke, care should be taken to contract the smoke- 
 flue or vent, in an ordinary-sized room, to seven inches 
 square, at about eighteen inches above the grate, 
 gradually widening it to ten or eleven inches square. 
 The heat forces the smoke through the narrow aper- 
 ture, and it increases in volume the farther it rises from 
 the heat, as may be easily observed, as it ascends in ciirls, 
 gradually increasing above the chimney-top. By attend- 
 ing to this simple rule, which was with some difficulty 
 imposed on the masons who built Annat Cottage 
 (§ 2360.), which is surrounded with lofty trees, the 
 rooms are free from smoke. — A. G. 
 
 2474. A Chimney-pot for preventing Smoke from being 
 blown down a Chimney has been in use at Poole Park, 
 
 near Ruthin, Denbighshire, for se- 
 veral years ; and we are informed, 
 by Lord Bagot's agent there, that it 
 has answered, and continues to an- 
 swer, in every instance in which 
 it has been applied. It is formed 
 of cast iron ; and the appearance of 
 it as seen from below is shown in 
 fig. 2266. It is cast in eight pieces, 
 
 which are put together as shown in fig. 2267. a ; by which it ap- 
 pears that the upper part of the pot is one foot four inches in 
 height ; and the neck, which is inserted into the flue, is eleven 
 inches on the side. The length of the neck may be increased at 
 pleasure, so as to produce the appearance shown in fig. 2266. 
 A vertical section of this chimney-pot is shown at fig. 2267. 
 b : c and d are elevations of the two pieces, four of each of 
 which, when screwed together, form the pot. We have sent a 
 ^^^^ model of this pot, which was kindly forwarded to us by Mr. 
 Tumor, Lord Bagot's agent at Poole Park, to Messrs. Cottam and Hallen, iron- 
 founders and manufacturers, Winsley Street, Oxford Street, London ; from whom pots 
 
 6 (■ 
 
 2267 
 
 
 
 
 1 t 
 
 7 N 
 
1270 
 
 FIRST ADDITIONAL SUPPLEMENT. 
 
 of this kind may in future be purchased. Fig. 2268. shows the form of a cast-iron 
 chimney-pot, in use in the neighbourhood of Barnsley, in Yorkshire ; where it has been 
 tried for a number of years, and is considered to be an effective cure for a smoky 
 chimney, where the smoke is blown downwards by wind. Fig. 2269. shows the "-ene- 
 ral appearance of a chimney-top furnished with pots of this kind. The usual Iform 
 of this pot is that of a truncated pyramid, as in fig. 2268. ; but it might easily be 
 made to terminate in a Gothic pinnacle, or in any other ornament which was consi- 
 dered suitable to the style of the building to which it was to be applied. It might 
 even be made circular, and used in the case of cylindrical chimney -shafts, built^'in 
 the form of Grecian columns. Where the form is that of fig. 2268., the four sides 
 are cast separately, and bolted together ; and, where the pot is to stand alone, or with 
 a short distance between it and other pots of the same kind, each side is fitted up 
 with a hinged door, as sho^vM in figs. 2268. and 2269. ; but, where the pots are to 
 
 stand close together, these hinged doors 
 are only placed on the two exposed sides. 
 The top, in cither case, is closed with 
 an iron cap. Each hinged door is con- 
 nected with the opposite one l)y a rod of 
 iron, about two inches longer than the 
 diameter of the pot ; so that, when the 
 
 weather is calm, the lower part of each of the four doors projects from the chimney-pot 
 about one inch ; while, on the other hand, when the wind blows, it closes the door on 
 the side against which it strikes, and opens the door on the opposite side to the extent 
 of two inches. It is evident that the same kind of doors might be introduced near the 
 termination of each flue, in an architectural chimney-top without pots. Other modes of 
 curing smoky chimneys by pots, either ornamental in themselves, or rendered so by 
 architectural casings, will be found in the Suburban Architect, 8fc., chap. i. 
 
 Sect. V. Ventilation. 
 
 2475. Ventilation. The following extract is from a work which ought to be in 
 the hands of every individual, but especially in those of every architect, viz., Combe's 
 Principles of Physiology applied to the Preservation of Health, third edition. " One of 
 the evils of ignorance is, that we often sin and suffer the punishment, without being 
 aware that we are sinning, and that it is in our power to ^escape the suffering by 
 avoiding the sin. For many generations mankind have experienced the evil results 
 of deficient ventilation, especially in towns, and suffered the penalty of delicate 
 health, headachs, fevers, consumptions, cutaneous and nervous diseases ; and yet, from 
 ignorance of the true nature and importance of the function of respiration and of the 
 great consumption of air in its performance, architects have gone on planning and con- 
 structing edifices and houses, without bestowing a thought on the means of supplying 
 them with fresh air, although animal life cannot be carried on without it ; and, while 
 ingenuity and science have been taxed to the uttermost to secure a proper supply of 
 water, the pure air, though its admission is far more essential, has been left to steal in, 
 like a thief in the night, through any hole it can find open. In constructing hospitals, 
 indeed, ventilation has been thought of, because a notion is prevalent that the sick 
 require fresh air, and cannot recover without it ; but it seems not to have been per- 
 ceived, that what is indispensable for the recovery of the sick may be not less 
 advantageous for preserving from sickness those who are well. Were a general know- 
 ledge of the structure of man to constitute a regular part of a liberal education, such 
 
VENTILATION. 
 
 1271 
 
 inconsistencies as this would soon disappear, and the scientific architect would speedily 
 devise the best means for supplying our houses with pure air, as he has already sup- 
 plied them with pure water." (p. 236.) 
 
 Few modern practices in building are more absurd than that of making the doors and 
 windows of rooms air-tight, and yet expecting that there can be a sufficient draught in 
 the chimneys to prevent them from smoking. There ought to be a contrivance in 
 the upper part of every door and window for admitting air, merely for the sake of 
 supplying the chimney. (See Sir John Robison's House, § 2378. ) In the case of doors, 
 instead of having them to fit exactly at the top, we would leave from a fourth to half 
 an inch, according to the size of the room ; and, in the case of windows, we would leave 
 that space in all those that fronted the points from which the wind was mildest, and 
 half as much in the case of windows facing the north. The advantage of admitting 
 the fresh air at the upper part of the room is, that it comes immediately in contact 
 with the hottest air of the room, and is thus rendered temperate before it reaches 
 persons seated in the middle of the room, or near the fireplace ; whereas, when the air 
 is admitted or drawn in by the bottom or lower parts of doors or windows, it slides 
 along the floor towards the fireplace to supply the draught, at once cooling the feet of 
 every one in the room, and leaving the great body of the air of the apartment entirely 
 unchanged. It thus frequently happens that a person is seated in a room in which 
 there is a brisk fire, with his feet and legs in an atmosphere of forty degrees of air 
 continually changing, and consequently carrying off heat from him, and his head in an 
 atmosphere of a temperature of sixty degrees, which, unless the door of the room is 
 frequently opened and shut, or the breast of the chimney is higher than usual, is never 
 changed at all, and, consequently, is breathed and rebreathed by the occupants. We 
 have often been perfectly astonished at the ignorance of professional men on the subject 
 of ventilation, and equally so sometimes at their speculative impracticable notions ; such 
 as ventilating by small tubes, &c. The only practicable mode of judiciously ventilating 
 apartments in modern houses, without radical changes in construction, we venture to 
 state is that above suggested : but even that simple mode will not be adopted till the 
 occupiers of houses are aware of the importance of ventilation. One piece of advice we 
 would wish to impress upon every reader, viz. never to take a lodging, or rent a house, 
 in which the windo.ws are not carried up as high as the cornice of the room. Unless 
 this be the case, the ventilation, even by the mode we have suggested, must necessarily 
 be imperfect ; because the stratum of air between the top of the window and the ceiling 
 will remain unchanged, and of no sort of use to the occupants of the room. Many 
 hundreds of houses about London, which have a splendid appearance exteriorly, have 
 this defect within. It will be found in the bed-room floors of most of the houses round 
 the Regent's Park, and, indeed, more or less, in almost all the new houses everywhere, 
 that have any pretensions to exterior architecture, and especially to a frieze and cornice. 
 As these houses are generally built on speculation, by persons whose great object is to 
 get them sold as soon as possible, this utter neglect of the health of the occupant is not 
 to be wondered at, more especially as the occupant is generally too ignorant to detect 
 the evil ; but what excuse shall we find for architects who commit the same fault in the 
 country-houses of wealthy noblemen ? We could refer to many new country-houses 
 where this is the case: we have in our mind's eye the state bed-room of a noble 
 marquess lately married, in which the space above the windows is upwards of ten feet, 
 and, the whole height of the room being twenty feet, it follows that exactly one half of the 
 atmosphere of the room is rendered useless. The misery and suffering in cases of this kind, 
 however, are nothing to that which must be endured by those who have no other room 
 to live in but one, and that one perhaps not above seven or eight feet high. It is 
 lamentable to think that this misery must be endured by the passing generation, and 
 even by that which is rising to succeed it, till, as Dr. Combe observes, a general know- 
 ledge of the structure of man enters into a system of general education. There is no 
 better substitute for this defect in our education, that we know of, than Dr. Combe's 
 most excellent work. 
 
 2476. Ventilation in Public Buildings is most effectually obtained by having a fire 
 in the upper part of the building, which can only be supplied by air drawn from the 
 different rooms below by means of air-flues. In private buildings, instead of a fire, 
 these flues may communicate with, or be carried up alongside of, the smoke-flue of a fire 
 kept constantly burning, such as that of the kitchen. 
 
 2477. Ventilation of Bed-rooms. There should be a constant circulation of fresh air 
 in bed-rooms. The lungs must respire during sleep as well as at any other time, and it 
 is of great importance to have, when asleep, as pure an air as possible. It is calculated 
 that each person neutralises the vivifying principle of a gallon of air in one minute : 
 what havoc, therefore, must an individual make upon the pure air of his bed-chamber, 
 who sleeps in a bed closed snugly with curtains, with the doors and windows shut, and 
 
FIRST ADDITIONAL SUPPLEMENT. 
 
 perchance a chimney-board into the bargain. Our health and comfort depend more 
 upon these apparently trivial points than most people are aware of. (A. M., i. 87.) 
 
 2478. Warming and Ventilating. The objects to be aimed at are, pure and cool air 
 to breathe, and radiant heat to warm the person. The evils to be avoided are, currents 
 and draughts, whether hot or cold, and over-heated air for respiration. The larger and 
 loftier the room, the more effectually can fresh air be introduced, without any rapidity 
 of current. The impure exhalations rise to the ceiling, and their place is supplied by 
 fresh air from below. In short, the upper part of a room may be considered as a re- 
 servoir of the impurities which are generated in the lower part by the persons breathing 
 there. In ordinary houses, the simplest and best mode of warming and ventilating is 
 to have some description of hot-air stove placed at the bottom of the staircase, which 
 shall heat a current of air introduced from without, or, in small houses, drawn from the 
 air within the lower i)art of the house. The heated air so generated will ascend the 
 staircase, and, consequently, enter all the rooms which open into it. There are many 
 different kinds of stoves that may be used for heating the air ; one of the best is the 
 invention of White of Haddington, of which there are various sizes, at different prices, 
 from £3 10s. to £30 or £40. The smallest size will suffice for a house of ten or twelve 
 rooms. (See next chapter.) 
 
 2479. Cooling and Vetit Hating in warm Climates. Captain R. Wainhopc, R. N., has 
 shown, in Jamesons Journal, Oct. IS;}], that this may be easily effected by forcing in 
 air through porous earthenware tubes, kept moist exteriorly. The great evaporation 
 which will take place on the outer surface of the pipes will cool the air in its passage 
 through them. If, by some similar process, the air charged with moisture in cold cli- 
 mates could be dejjrived of that moisture l)cfore it entered dwelling-houses, the benefit 
 to invalids would probably be very great. 
 
 Sect. VI. Tanks and Cottage Privies. 
 
 2480. A Taiik for Rain-water, The ground having been taken out to the required 
 depth, ])ave the bo»^tom with one flat course of bricks grouted witli cement, and on this 
 set singly two courses of plain tiles in the same material Form the sides each of two 
 four-inch walls of bricks and cement, breaking the horizontal joints: and, when com- 
 pleted, render tiie whole of the interior with cement one inch in thickness. Turn a 
 brick arch in mortar over the tank thus formed, leaving a man-hole, two feet square, 
 with proper trimming stones, and a Yorkshire stone-paving cover ; or cover entirely 
 with flag-stones. The suction-pipe of a pump ])laced within a few inches of the bottom, 
 and a small drain introduced at tlie top of the tank, and conununicating with a sewer or 
 cesspool, to carry off the superfluous water, when there is any, are then all that are re- 
 quired to render the tank fit for use. 
 
 2481. Filtering the Water from the Roof of a Cottage into a Tank or Well. The 
 well, of which a in fig. 2270. is a ground jjlan, is supposed to be formed adjoining the 
 sink in the scullery, or partly within the scullery and partly without, as indicated in 
 the model plan in p. 1148. ; and the filter, b, is supposed to be formed adjoining the 
 wall, but outside the house : c is the situation of the pump, which ought to be such as 
 to deliver the water into vessels held over the sink-stone. Fig. 2271. is a section of the 
 
 well and of the filtering apparatus ; the latter being placed close to the wall outside the 
 scullery : d is the slate cover to the filter ; c, the tube which conveys the water direct 
 down from the gutters to a plate of slate or zinc, e, pierced with small holes ; /, sand 
 and charcoal, supported on a lower plate, also marked e ; the opening by which the 
 water passes into the well is shown at g ; and the cover to the well, consisting of a 
 Caithness flag-stone, at a short distance beneath the surface, is shown at The two 
 
TANKS AND COTTAGE PRIVIES. BATH-ROOM. l^JS 
 
 plates of slate or zinc, e e, rest on pieces of slate which project from the sides of the 
 filter-box, as indicated by the dotted lines, at b in fig. 2270. The sand and charcoal 
 can be taken out and cleaned at pleasure. 
 
 2482. Constructing a Cottage. Privy in Connexion with a Cesspool or Tank for Liquid 
 Manure. The privy may be either partially or wholly over the tank, which ought ta 
 be closely covered, on a level with the privy floor, 
 by a flag-stone, as shown in fig. 2272. In this 
 figure, a represents the seat, which is hinged, in 
 order that when the slops of the house are being 
 thrown in from a pail, or other large vessel, the 
 seat, or pierced flap, may be lifted up, to keep it 
 from being wetted (see page 1 147. No. 11.); & shows 
 the fixed and permanent seat, on which the move- 
 able seat, a, rests ; c shows the movable seat par- 
 tially raised up ; i, the flap or cover to the whole 
 raised up ; d, the basin of stone ware, cemented at 
 f into a tube, e, also of stone ware, or it may be of 
 wood or metal ; g is the surface of the water in the 
 tank, higher than which it can never rise, in con- 
 sequence of a waste drain ; and it will only fall 
 lower than the bottom of the tube e when the tank 
 is nearly empty ; h h, the walls of the tank, and of Ky; 
 the back of the privy. 
 
 24S3. The Liquid- Manure Tank. Fig. 2273. is 
 a section of the liquid-manure tank, supposed to 
 form also the tank for the privy. In this figure, 
 a represents the liquid ; b, a pierced slate or 
 grating, through which the liquid filters into the 
 well, c ; d, a bell-trap to admit the drainings of 
 the yard, and to prevent the rising of smells ; and e, 
 the covering of flag-stone and earth. On a level 
 with the surface of the water in the well, c, there is an opening to a small waste drain, 
 which, as it can only be entered by filtered liquid, cannot readily be choked up. 
 Wherever a proper value is set on liquid 
 
 maiuirc, however, the cesspool will never . c i-.-l. 2273 
 
 be allowed to overflow. The most conve- 
 nient mode of taking out the water from 
 the well, c, is by a pump ; but where this 
 is wanting, the cover, d, may be taken off, 
 and a vessel dipped into it. It is unneces- 
 sary, after what has been stated in § 2408., 
 to add, that the sides and bottom of the 
 tank and well should be built in Roman 
 cement ; or that occasionally, perhaps every 
 year or every two years, the tank will re- 
 quire to be cleaned out. Some recommend 
 mixing powdered gypsum with the liquid, 
 in order to neutralise the ammonia, 
 
 Sect. VII. Construction and Arrangement of a Bath' Room. 
 
 2484. The Bath- Room, comprising a common and Shower Bath. Invalids sometimes 
 require to know exactly the quantity of water which forms the shower, as well as its 
 temperature, and for this purpose there is a supply of both hot and cold water to the 
 shower cistern. A gauge to indicate the quantity of water in the cistern and its tem- 
 perature, and also the means of regulating them, is contrived in the following manner : 
 The gauge consists of a tube as high as the cistern is deep, fixed on the outside of the 
 cistern, and communicating with the bottom of the inside ; in consequence of which, 
 when water is let into the cistern, it rises to the same height in the tube. In order that 
 the water may be seen, the front of this tube, which may be about three inches in width, 
 and a foot in height, is formed of a narrow pane of glass, and one side of the case into 
 which the glass is fixed is divided into equal parts, like the scale of a thermometer, each 
 part or degree representing a pint of water. This tube is open at top, for the purpose 
 of cleaning the glass, should it get dim, but chiefly for the purpose of putting in and 
 taking out a thermometer with coloured spirits of wine, which shows through the pane 
 in front the temperature of the water admitted into the cistern and rising into the gauge. 
 There is a pipe of cold, and another of hot, water, communicating with this cistern ; and 
 
1274 
 
 FIRST ADDITIONAL SUPPLEMENT. 
 
 each is closed or opened by a trigger-stopper, operated on by a cord ; and hence the 
 temperature may be regulated by the thermometer at the pleasure of the bather. 
 
 Fig. 2274 is a plan of the bath-room, in which a is the door ; 6, a window ; c, the bath ; 
 d, a chaise percee, with a fixed waste-pipe ; e, a wash-handstand, with a fixed basin, sup- 
 plied with hot and cold water in tlie usual manner, with a waste-pipe for letting off 
 the water ; /, two steps to ascend to the batli ; and g, a movable seat in the bath, 
 formed of bars two inches broad, with intervals of two inches. The lateral dimen- 
 sions of the room are about ten feet by twelve feet, and it is twelve feet high. 
 
 2275 
 
 Fig. 2275. is a section on the line a b, in wliich h is the upper edge of the bath; 
 ?, the cbaise-percee ; /t, the steps ; /, the glass front of the gauge of the shower-bath ; and 
 m, the cistern of the shower-bath. 
 
 Fig. 2276. is a section on the line c n, in which are shown the bath with the stool, 
 n ; the steps, o; the chaise-perc^e, p ; the wash-hand stand, g; the shower-bath cistern, 
 r; and the glass gauge, in which is also kept the thermometer, s. 
 
 2485. Wlu-n a shower-bath is to be taken, the bather first pulls a string to admit the 
 cold water into the cistern ; or, if it is to be slightly warmed, he pulls a second string, 
 observing the gauge as to quantity, and the tliennometer within it as to temj)erature. 
 lie then takes a small tray of sheet lead, about eighteen inches square, with the sides 
 raised aboui two inches; he sets this on tlie top of the seat, having previously moved 
 it to the end of tlie bath from which the shower is to fall. lie next draws some water 
 from the cock in the wash-hand stand in a jug, and jiours it into the tray, to prevent his 
 feet from feeling the chill of the lead. He now ascends the baih. stands on the leaden 
 iray, having previously ojiened two doors, 
 which, when closed, appear as part of the 
 sides of the upper part of the bath, as indi- 
 cated by the double lines at t in fig. 2276. 
 These two doors, when fully opened, com- 
 pletely enclose the bather, who has only to 
 pull a third string, which furnishes the 
 shower. The doors may be kept in their 
 new position by a fastening, which may be 
 moved either from within or from without 
 (the latter in case of accident to the bather); 
 but this is only found necessary when the 
 risk of the bather falling is apprehended from 
 the violence of the shock. There are a great 
 many different kinds of baths, portable and 
 fixed, recommended by tradesmen, and, in 
 consequence of ill health at various periods 
 during the last forty years, we have had oc- 
 casion to try several of them. We are compelled to acknowledge that most of the 
 portable baths heated by small stoves with movable smoke pipes, the end:> of which 
 are inserted in the chimney of the bed-room to which the bath is brought, have, in our 
 case at least, proved unsatisfactory, from the length of time required to heat the water. 
 A good plan for small houses and ordinary establishments is, to have a bath-room on a 
 level with the kitchen or scullery floor, and to have, when a bath is wanted, the water 
 heated in the copper in the kitchen or scullery, and conveyed to the bath by pipes re- 
 
GATES AND FENCES. 
 
 1275 
 
 2277 
 
 gulated by cocks. We are aware of a great variety of modes by which the water may 
 be heated and conveyed to different parts of a house ; but, except where such kitchen 
 apparatus as that employed by Messrs. Steel and Co. is in use, or where there is a boiler 
 in the attics (see §1858.), they cannot, as we have experienced, be depended on. 
 
 This bath-room (described from one in a house in the neighbourhood of London) 
 is on the bed-room floor, and supplied with hot water from a boiler in the 
 floor above, which also supplies the nursery and all the other bed-rooms 
 and dressing-rooms. The cold water is supplied from a cistern in the 
 upper part of the house, which is completely excluded from the frost by 
 a double roof. The cold and the hot water are incorporated by stirring 
 with the pierced spatula, fig. 2277., in the usual manner ; the round 
 holes in the spatula having been made by a gimlet of large dimensions. 
 There is ready access to the cistern by a door, by opening which heated 
 air can be admitted at pleasure during severe frosts. From this cis- 
 tern pipes are conducted in situations where they are secure from frost, 
 and where they can be readily examined and repaired, to all the water- 
 closets, and fixed wash-hand basins, &c. There are two water-closets on 
 each floor, near the two extremities of the central passage, and there is 
 a iiousemaid's closet on each floor, with a sink supplied with hot and cold 
 M-ater, immediately adjoining the servants' stairs. The roof of the main 
 body of the house is of brick arches covered with lead ; and that of 
 the kitchen and other oflfices is formed of flat tiles and cement, in Mr. 
 Fowler's manner. (§ 2446.) All the waste-pipes lead to a large cesspool 
 in the yard, which has a man-hole for cleaning it out ; and adjoining it 
 is a well, into which the water overflows, and whence it can be pumped up 
 at pleasure, to be used as liquid manure. 
 
 Sect. VIII. Gates and Fences. 
 
 2486. A Lodge- Gate Fastening. Lodge-gates, when in one piece, or single, as 
 the technical term is, are commonly hung at the side farthest from the lodge, with 
 a view, it may be supposed, of bringing the latch as near the person who comes out 
 from the lodge to open the gate as possible. But it must be recollected, that, after the 
 latch is lifted, the operator (who is frequently an old person) must walk across the road, 
 perhaps in the night when it is dark, or during rain or snow, and he or she (for this 
 operation is generally performed by the female occupant of the lodge) must wait on the 
 opposite side, " gate in hand," till the carriage has passed through. Sometimes, also,- 
 when the horses are impatient in the day-time, or when it is dark at night, the gate- 
 opener, while crossing the road before the horses' heads, is liable to be knocked down by 
 them, or by the pole of the carriage. These and other inconveniences attending this 
 mode of opening gates are avoided by hanging the gate on the side next the lodge, and by 
 having a long horizontal rod, reaching from the latch to about the middle of the gate. 
 The gate-opener advances only half across the road, pulls the rod to raise the latch, and 
 walks a few steps backwards, opening the gate to its full width, and is at the same time 
 protected by it. The application of the rod by which the gate is to be opened depends 
 on the kind of fastening used. One of the simplest is, when the latch is retained in its 
 place by a spring, and the rod being used to pull it back so as to open the gate; when the 
 gate is again shut the latch returns to its place of itself The rod may either be con- 
 ducted along the top or the side of the upper bar of the gate, or under or along one side 
 of a bar from three to four feet from the ground. 
 
 Fig. 2278. shows the mode adopted at Bridge Hill and Allestree, in which a is the 
 latch, supported on a fulcrum at h, operated on by the S lever c, by means of the rod d 
 
 2278 
 
 and the handle e. This handle serves both for pulling the rod backwards towards the 
 hinges, so as to raise the latch, and for pulling the gate towards the operator, so as to 
 open it by his walking a few steps backwards. For this benevolent invention the public 
 is indebted to the late George Strutt, Esq., of Bridge Hill, Belper, near Derby. 
 
 2487. Cast- Iron Heads or Hanging- Styles to Gates, and Wrought- Iron Rods as diagonal 
 Braces, are common in field and other gates in the neighbourhood of Derby. The cast- 
 
1276 
 
 FIRST ADDITIONAL SUPPLEMENT. 
 
 2279 
 
 (L 
 
 iron hanging-styles have mortise holes for the ends of the wooden bars, and these arc 
 made fast in a very simple but effective mode, which consists in having the mortise wider 
 at one end than the other, as indicated in fig. 2279., in wliich a is a section of the mor- 
 tise ; b, the end of the bar which is fitted into it; and 
 •c, a wedge, which, by keeping the tenon of the bar 
 in its place, effectually prevents it from being 
 drawn out. The hinges of such a gate are much 
 less costly than the common ones, and the gate bars 
 are preserved in their full strength at the tenons. 
 Two wrought- iron rods pass from the bottom of 
 the falling-style through the top of the hanging- 
 style, where they are made fast by nuts on their 
 screwed ends, by which nuts they can be drawn up 
 as tight as may be desired. The wrought-iron 
 rods at the lower end are passed through a thin 
 wrought-iron plate, which forms a sort of shoe to the falling style. 
 
 2488. Cottmns Iron Field 
 Gate, fig. 2280., has not been 
 surpassed for strength of con- 
 struction or durability of ma- 
 terial. It is made of wrought 
 iron, and the horizontal bars 
 and braces are of flat bar iron, 
 riveted together at every in- 
 tersection, in order to prevent 
 the swagging or sinking of the ^ 
 
 head. The cost singly is 2G.s\, iT 2280 
 but by the dozen it will be charged much less, 
 
 2489. Buist's Fan Wire Gate, fig. 2281., is at once light, strong, and economical. 
 The wires whicli constitute the fan are fastened at their outer extremities by being 
 driven uj) like nail 
 heads ; and at the 
 point of their con- 
 vergence, at the 
 upper hinge of 
 the gate, they are 
 screwed up tight 
 by nuts. The gate 
 is so close as to be 
 nearly game-proof, ^ 
 and so strong, that 
 
 one of the form shown in the figure, with a weight of eight hundred and sixty pounds 
 at its extremity, after being made to swing for some time to and fro, did not undergo 
 the slightest alteration in shape. The weight of this gate is from eighty-five pounds 
 to ninety-five pounds, and its cost from .£1 15s. to £2. The same principle is equally 
 applicable to toll-bars as to park gates ; and, indeed, is the more important in its uses 
 the more extended is the span of the gate. Fig. 2282. is a park gate with wickets on 
 
 ^^^^^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 22SI 
 
 this plan. The span of the gate is twelve feet ; the wickets are two fe^t and a half wide 
 and six feet high. The supporters may be made of open iron castings. The wickets 
 could be made for about 18s. a piece, the gate itself for £4; or £5 10s. in all : a very 
 small fraction indeed of the price commonly paid for park gates of similar appearance and 
 .show. Much depends on the excellence of the workmanship of these gates, and Mr. Buist 
 the inventor, now in Bombay, strongly recommends Mr. John Douglas, blacksmith, 
 Cupar, Fifeshire. (See also Gard. Mag. for 1840, p. 19.S.) 
 
MISCELLANEOUS DETAILS. 
 
 12/7 
 
 2490. AfuU-down Gate-stopper, fig. 
 stopper standing up in the middle of the road 
 
 228 
 
 and horses, but, by having the 
 stopper to work on pivots, 
 as in the figure, it can be 
 raised up when the gate is 
 shut, as at a, and turned 
 down when it is open, as at 
 h. These stoppers are the 
 invention of Messrs. Cottam 
 and Hallen. 
 
 2491. A Gate Latch, which 
 cannot be shaken out by cat- 
 tle, is represented in fig. 
 2284., in which a is a side 
 view, and b a transverse sec- 
 tion. The upright latch, c, is 
 held in the catch by a spring, 
 so that it cannot easily be 
 shaken out by the rubbing 
 of cattle, or the shaking of 
 
 boys or idle persons, while it can be easily opened j 
 by a person on liorseback ])lacing the end of his 
 whip or stick in the hollow thumb-piece which, 
 acting as a lever on the upright piece e, pulls back c 
 
 Where double gates are used, the gate- 
 or walk is a great nuisance, both to men 
 
 which the gate is readily opened. 
 
 2492. A Cap for the' upper Rail of a IVboden Fence., in which 
 is shown in the section fig. 2285., in which a is the cap, having 
 one end of a strong wooden pin, c, driven tight into it; ee, 
 the angles of the cap, formed so as to drip the water clear of 
 the rails; dd, the rails, overlaid and fastened in the post b 
 by the pin c. The other rails need not have any fastening, 
 further than being halved and overlaid, as the bottom end of 
 the post is fast in the ground. Some very handsome designs 
 for rustic fencing and gates, by Mr. Ricauti, will be found in 
 the Gardener's Magazine for 1842; but more especially in 
 Ricauti's Sketches for Rustic Work, now publishing. 
 
 d compresses the spring, by 
 nails are to be used. 
 
 Sect. IX. Miscellaneous Details. 
 
 2493. To prevent Sash- Windoics from shaking and rattling with the Wind. This evil 
 arises from the sashes not having been tightly fitted to the grooves, and is to be pre- 
 vented by tightening them, 
 
 which may be done in two ways. ff \a 
 
 The most common is by a sash- 
 fastener, fig. 228G., one part of 
 which, e, is screwed to the side 
 of the lower rail of the upper 
 sash, and the other part, bed, 
 to the upper side of the upper 
 rail of the lower sash. Then 
 the part a being brought down 
 over the part b, which travels 
 backwards and forwards in the 
 box c, is made tight by the 
 thumb-screw d. In this way 
 both sashes ai-e drawn to press 
 figainst the parting bead which 
 separates the two sashes, and, in 
 consequence, they are effectually 
 prevented from shaking, or from 
 any lateral or perpendicular movement whatever, when the window is shut. Another 
 mode of effecting the same object, and keeping the sashes from shaking, whether the 
 window is shut or open, is by inserting a double bead of well-seasoned oak in the 
 groove of the window case in which the sash moves up and down. This is 
 .sl'own in fig. 2287. at «; and, ;^s the style of the sash moves up and down on this 
 
1^78 
 
 FIRST ADDITIONAL SUPPLEMENT. 
 
 2287 
 
 bead, it is kept firmly in its place, 
 altogether independently of the part- 
 ing beads or the outside beads. The 
 situation of the outer sash is shown at 
 6, and it works on a similar double 
 bead ; d is the boxed frame for the 
 shutters inside the room ; e is the box 
 for the weights ; /, the brick forming 
 the outside jamb of the window ; and 
 c, the outside sill. This is a very 
 effectual mode of preventing large old 
 windows from shaking, whether open 
 or shut, but it is rather expensive. 
 
 2494. A Hinge for a Jib-door. A 
 jib«door is a door which opens either 
 by being pushed from, or drawn to- 
 wards, the opener, and which, after 
 being opened, shuts of itself The 
 action of these doors is founded on tlie 
 construction and application of their 
 hinges, and hence various forms have 
 l)een adopted, aided by springs in 
 some cases, and weights and pulleys 
 in others. But the cheapest, and that 
 which operates with the greatest ease, 
 is the one which we are about to de- 
 scribe. The top hinge of the door is 
 merely a pivot, which works in a pro- 
 jecting eye ; and the folding-hinge is 
 fixed on the lower part, or heel, of the 
 hanging-style of the door. 
 
 Fig. 2288. is a general view of the 
 folding bent hinge, before being screwed on to the door ; c being tiie plate screwed to 
 the jamb, and /> that screwed to tlie style, both parts l)eing connected hy n. It may 
 be made cither of cast iron or of brass. Fig. 2289. is a horizontal section through the 
 
 2288 ^^^^^ 
 
 2289 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 hinge when the door is shut, in which I is the jamb ; /, the style of the door ; g g, screws ; 
 and /; //, parts of the folding hinge which project beyond the door on each side. Fig. 
 2290. is a horizontal section, showing the door partially opened. 
 
 2495. Lath and Plaster Partitions, when open from the bottom or from any floor 
 of the house, admit of a current of air from bottom to top, and in the case of fire 
 greatly accelerate its progress. It is, therefore, recommended to fill them in solid 
 behind the skirtings of the rooms, which can readily be done by common mortar, with 
 fragments of tiles or bricks, or by cement. 
 
 2496. Fire-proof Floors and Partition Walls. Much might be done to effect these 
 objects by iron joisting, laid two feet or thirty inches asunder, and covered with Caith- 
 ness flags, the flattest, the hardest, and the most tenacious of this class of stones. They 
 are incapable of being cut by masons' irons, but they saw easily ; and, being truly flat 
 by nature, they require no farther dressing than being sawn square. They are found of 
 all thicknesses, from a quarter of an inch to three inches and a half, and are so strong 
 at two inches thick that no accident which can occur, in ordinary cases, could injure a 
 square of thirty inches, or even three feet. If, therefore joists of iron, as shown in sec- 
 tion fig. 2291. (in which a is the line of flag-stones forming the floor; h, the cast-iron 
 
MATERIALS. 
 
 1279 
 
 joists ; and c, the wrought-iron rod for stiffening them), were covered with these flags 
 a substantial fire-proof floor might be made of any extent. In many cases, the natural 
 surface of the stone may do ; but, in conspicuous places, where neither carpet nor oil- 
 cloth is laid down, the slabs may be polished by rubbing one against another, and, 
 when finished in this way and oiled, they look as well as Tournay marble. Sir John 
 Robison heated a portion of this stone red hot, and quenched it in water, without iU 
 cracking, or appearing to lose its peculiar tenacity. This stone may be had in London 
 of Messrs. Freeman, MUbank Street, Westminster. 
 
 2497. Thin fire-proof partitions with Caithness stone, or with Arbroath stone, 
 may thus be formed. Suppose a set of upright iron standards, like a a or 6 6, in the 
 horizontal sections figs. 2292. and 2293., were erected, and stone slabs, grooved or plain 
 
 3E 
 
 IE 
 
 3E 
 
 2292 a 
 (according to circumstances), were dropped into the spaces, a very firm partition 
 might be built up, without requiring any fastening, except the top course, where, of 
 
 2293 
 
 necessity, there could be no feather or ledge, as all the stones would have to be let in 
 there. Other and better forms would probably occur on further consideration. J, R. 
 
 2498. Windows in Roofs. In introducing windows in roofs, care should be taken 
 that the panes of glass are flat, and not in any way globular, like what are called bull's- 
 eyes, it having been found that a house was set on fire by a bull's-eye being introduced 
 in the roof, in order to light a garret. The bull's-eye concentrated the sun's rays on a 
 muslin dress lying exposed on a large box beneath. From the flame communicating 
 to the box, its contents were soon set on fire, and the flooring and rafters were in a short 
 time completely in flames. This happened in the house of a gentleman on the Stroud 
 road, near Gloucester. (Scotsman, Aug. 3. 1839.) 
 
 2499. An Air and Vermin Trap for Drains. In fig. 2294. a a represent the drain, 
 
 the bottom of which 
 is straight or circular, 
 as the case may be ; 
 but it projects at b 
 over the water in the 
 trap c, from three 
 inches to six inches, 
 which prevents the 
 vermin from passing 
 one way, as will be 
 perceived. The level 
 of the water in the 
 trap is several inches 
 
 192.) 
 
 below the under side of the bottom of the drain. (A. M., iii. 
 
 2500. To giiard against Mice and Rats. The aliment of mice and rats consists of 
 nearly equal food and water. In farmeries the first cannot be withheld, but the latter 
 may. All drains should be made of close-jointed stone, or of bricks, with properly con- 
 structed air-traps, see fig. 2295. ; in which a is a stone, which is made to lift up, to clean 
 
 out the earth or other matter from the trap. Roof 
 gutters, if any, should be made as inaccessible as pos- 
 sible ; water troughs decidedly so. This is easily done. 
 Project a wooden fillet, or frame, all round within the 
 trough, making it project three inches or thereabouts 
 into the trough, and keep the surface of the water 
 about three inches below the frame. By this method 
 no rat of the ordinary size can get a drop. To prevent 
 them from getting up into the roof, let a flagstone be projected over each of the interior 
 angles. No walls, especially of dry stone, should be allowed near the buildings ; or, at 
 least, to come in contact with them near the level of the walls. — /. M. ^ 
 
 Sect. X. Materials. 
 
 2501 . Cements. Various kinds of cements have been introduced since the Encyclo- 
 pjedia was published, but none surpass that variety of the old Roman cement called 
 the Mulgrave Cement, and sometimes Atkinson's Cement. It is double the price of 
 
1280 
 
 FIRST ADDITIONAL SUPPLEMENT. 
 
 the common Roman cement, but it is proportionately superior in point of strength and 
 durability. As a proof, we may mention that houses built of stone in the neighbour- 
 hood of Whitby, and, among others, Mulgrave Castle, have been covered with it, to 
 protect the stone from the effects of the sea air. In our opinion, the walls of a house 
 built of brick, and covered with good cement, are far stronger than walls of brick with 
 outside casings of stone. In all cases, therefore, where walls of great strength and 
 durability were required, and where they could not be built wliolly of stone, we should 
 build them of brick, either laid in cement or covered with it. The facility which 
 cement affords of introducing architectural forms, such as architraves, cornices, &c., at 
 little expense, requires no eulogium, since it has contributed more than any thing else 
 to the present highly improved state of British architecture. When plain walls are 
 covered with cement, the surface ought always to be marked by lines, so as to give the 
 expression of stone ; and this imitation of stone ought not to be confined to stone with 
 a smoothly hewn surface, as it generally is at present, but every manner of hewing 
 stone ought to be imitated, including plain asiilar, tooled ashlar, random-tooled, 
 chiseled, boasted, pointed, rusticated, frosted, scajipeld, iiammer-dressed, &c. 
 
 2502. A Metallic Cement, formed of jjowdered scoria from copper-works and stone 
 lime, sets rapidly, and t::kcs a fine metallic polish. It is sold in powder, mixed in due 
 proportions; price 9d. per bushel. (A. M., i. 46'.) 
 
 2503. Aspfialte, Caithness Stone, and Slate. As])halte, as a material of recent introduc- 
 tion, and its various uses, have already been noticed (§ 2447.), as has Caithness stone 
 (§ 2496.). Slate is coming into very general use for shelves to pantries, dairies, &c. ; for 
 kitchen tables, for panels to doors, for flooring to rooms, and for a great variety of other 
 purposes. A layer of asphalte in a wall is found as effective in preventing the rising of 
 damp as a course of slate or flagstone, or a layer of Roman cement. Caithness flagstone 
 is at last acknowledged by some of the first architects, both in Scotland and England, to 
 be superior to all others for works in the open air. " As regards strength and hardness, 
 it is not to be equalled by any paving-stone used in London : it completely resists the 
 action of the severest frosts; it neither scales, flakes, nor becomes slip])ery ; and, from 
 not being porous, it dries rapidly after rains: in fact, none of the objections so common 
 to the Yorkshire i)aving, or any other freestone, seem to apply to the Castlehill Caith- 
 ness paving. The method of s(]uaring the stone, with sawn joints, is also of great ad- 
 vantage, by securing a close joint, aiul thereby contributing to the solidity and ornament 
 of the work." 
 
 2504. Ci/linrlricnl Earf/ienivare T'ubcs for Flues are in general use in building all good 
 houses in the North of England and in Scotland. 'I'iie cylinders are about ten inches in 
 diameter, one foot in length, and an inch in thickness; one end of every cylinder being 
 rectangular, and the other obFujue, in order to admit of building the flues either 
 straight or curved at pleasure. Wiien they are to be built curved, the oldique ends are 
 joined to straight ends, and when they are to be built straight, the oblique ends and 
 straight ends are put together alternately. The great advantage of this kind of flue is, 
 that it is easily swept by machinery, and that much less soot adheres to the sides than in 
 square flues. A series of bricks of different forms, for effecting the same purpose, has 
 lately been invented by Mr. Welch, architect, Liverpool. 
 
 2505. Sheet Glass for JHndows, and especially for saslies for greenhouses, has recently 
 come into use. This glass is thicker than common crown glass, though not much 
 dearer, and it can be obtained in panes of any length under six feet, and of any breadth 
 under two feet. It has been extensively used at Chatsworth, both in the roofs of 
 hothouses and in the windows of cottages. Its great advantage for hothouse roofs, 
 and sashes for garden frames of every kind, is, that very few joints are required, and 
 hence the heated air within is prevented from escaping, and the rain from being driven 
 in. In short, the introduction of this glass into hothouse buildings is one of the 
 greatest improvements that have been made in their construction since the substitution of 
 roofs of glass for roofs of opaque materials. Where the ridge and furrow mode of form- 
 ing hothouse roofs is adopted, there need not be a single glass joint in the entire roof. 
 Verandas may be glazed without joints, by using panes of the full length, and the ad- 
 vantage, both in point of beauty, admission of light, and saving of breakage, is in- 
 credible, as we have proved in our veranda here. This glass is manufactured by different 
 persons, and we can very strongly recommend Messrs. Claudet and Houghton, Holborn. 
 
 2506. Plate Glass, when it is to be ground on the surface, may be obtained of the 
 manufacturers at a very moderate rate, because the slightest defect in the material unfits 
 it for being polished, but is no drawback to its being ground. The ceilings of lobbies, 
 passages, and all rooms having skylights, may be finished with this glass below the sky- 
 light w^ith admirable effect, as may be seen in the houses of various gentlemen in New- 
 castle, Liverpool, and Edinburgh. The same damaged glass, without being ground, is 
 adin'rably adapted for cottage windows, not only because it is not easily broken, but 
 
FITTINGS-UP, FINISHING, AND FURNISHING. 1^81 
 
 because from its thickness it is a very bad conductor of heat, and might almost serve as 
 a substitute for window-shutters. 
 
 2507. Preservation of Wood. Sulphate of copper, which abounds in the mineral waters 
 of the mines in Cornwall and Anglesea, has been proved to be an excellent preservative 
 of timber which has been immersed in it. (See Mech. Mag., vol. xxxiii. p. 568., and 
 Card. Mag. for 1842, p. 174.) 
 
 In the last v/ork the following recipe is given for preparing the composition : — 
 Take fifteen pounds of sulphate of iron (7s. Qd. per hundredweight); twelve pounds of 
 sulphate of copper (45s. per hundredweight) ; twenty-four pounds of sulphate of zinc 
 (45s. per hundredweight) ; one quart of sulphuric acid(3d'. per pound). The sulphates 
 to be well pounded, and dissolved in hot water ; and then the sulphuric acid to be mixed 
 in the solution, and well stirred up with a scrubbing-broom. The above, added to 
 thirty-six gallons of water, is ready for the tank. Time of saturation : for one-inch 
 board, three days; three-inch plank, or scantling, seven days; five-inch to six and seven 
 inch scantling, all twelve to fourteen days ; large timber, twelve inches to fourteen 
 inches square, will require twenty-one days. 
 
 Creosote has been employed for ages in the preservation of animal structures for ana- 
 tomical purposes, and is found also the most eflfective in preserving timber. Mr. Be- 
 thel's mode of preservation consists in impregnating the wood to the centre with this 
 substance. (Mech. Mag., vol. xxxi. p. 309.) 
 
 2508. Ironwork coated with Gas Liquor, Tar, or Pitch, is found to be far less durable 
 than when painted with lead and oil in the usual manner. The oxidation is greatly 
 accelerated in a damp situation, but it takes place even in coal-scuttles kept in dry 
 rooms : of course this does not render gas liquor, tar, or pitch, less fit for preserving 
 wood, {Gard. Mag., 1840, p. 514.; 
 
 Chap. VI. 
 
 Fittings-up, Finishing, and FurnisJdng. 
 
 Sect. I. Modes of Heating. 
 
 2509. Many different Kinds of Stoves for heating the general air of a house have been 
 invented or brought into notice within the last seven years. Among these, the more 
 remarkable are Arnot's and Joyce's stoves. The latter needs only to be mentioned to be 
 avoided ; since, in effect, it is nothing more than burning charcoal without a flue to carry 
 oflT the fumes, the deleterious eflTects of which are so frequently exemplified in the 
 case of suicides. Arnot's stove is unquestionably the best apparatus of the kind that 
 has yet appeared, since the quantity of heat produced is regulated with the greatest 
 nicety ; the fuel, in consequence of being burned in an enclosure of fire-brick, is tho- 
 rouglily consumed, and, by regulating the supply of air, but a small proportion of heat 
 is allowed to escape witli the smoke. For the halls or passages of small houses, and for 
 large rooms, in addition to open fires, Arnot's stove is therefore one of the best ; but it 
 must be borne in mind that it introduces no fresh air, and is therefore altogether unsuit- 
 able in cases where ventilation is to be combined with warming. For this purpose it is 
 essential that a stream of fresh air should be introduced from without, as in Strutt's stove 
 (§ 2530. ), and be heated by the stove before being allowed to escape into the apartment. 
 This has been effected by many different stoves, and with Arnot's stove, by a modifi- 
 cation introduced by Mr. Jeakes. An excellent ventilating stove, combining an open 
 fireplace, has also been invented by Mr. Jeffery, the inventor of the respirator, and 
 may be seen in action at No. 148. Regent Street. The stoves of Mr. White, already 
 mentioned (§ 2478.), are calculated either to heat the air of the apartment, by passing 
 it through a flue or case, or to heat the external air by the same means. There are 
 various other stoves ; such as the Chunk stove, Kirkwood's stove, the Vesta stove, 
 Brown and Green's ventilating stove, the Olmsted stove, &c., but the three which deserve 
 the preference, in our opinion, are : Arnot's stove, alone for a small house, or with 
 Jeakes's improvement for a larger house ; White of Haddington's warm-air stove, and 
 Jeffery's warm-air stove, where it is desired to combine an open fireplace. The price 
 of one of White's stoves of the smallest size is £3 10s., which is about the same price as 
 Arnot's stove without Jeakes's improvement : Jeffery's stove is much dearer. The great 
 merit of Dr. Arnot's stove consists in the saving of fuel ; but, as ventilation by this stove 
 depends solely on combustion, it is diminished in proportion to the saving. It can 
 never, therefore, be recommended as the sole means of warming living-rooms ; but for 
 halls and staircases, or small houses where outer doors are being constantly opened. 
 
1282 
 
 FIRST ADDITIONAL SUPPLEMENT. 
 
 it will be found more economical than any other. To derive the fall benefit from 
 Arnot's stove, the outer casing ought to be of sheet iron, in order to disperse the heat 
 generated as rapidly as possible ; for, when cast-iron casings are used, great part 
 of the heat is carried up the chimney. In large houses, we repeat, White's stove 
 deserves the preference. It may be some recommendation of this stove, to mention 
 that it is the only one introduced into his new buildings by Mr. Burn, the most 
 extensively employed architect in Scotland. Much discussion on Dr. Arnot's stove, 
 and on the others mentioned, will be found in the Architectural Magazine. 
 
 2510. Heating the general Atmosphere of a House by Hot Water is occasionally resorted 
 to, as producing a more agreeable heat, from the moisture it contains, than dry air, 
 which, when too dry, abstracts moisture from the skin, and also as not admitting of 
 overheating the air by the apparatus. This mode of heating is variously effected, but 
 the best ajjparatus for the purpose, in our opinion, is that of Price and Manby of Nelson 
 Street, Bristol, and of Chester Place, London. The air is heated in a cellar by a series 
 of shallow flat closed vessels, or cases, of hot water, and rises through a trunk or flue in 
 the same manner as by Mr. Sylvester's mode (§ '2379.). As the air by this mode can 
 never be heated much above 100^, the risk of hres from the apparatus is much less than 
 by any mode of heating by a stove or cockle. 
 
 Sect. II. Interior Fittings-up and Finishing. 
 25\\. Fittings-up of Cottages. It has been suggested by the Highland Society, that, if 
 doors, shelving, and other wooden work for cottages, could be manufactured in the 
 wholesale way, like M'Culloch's windows, it would 
 materially lessen the .cx))ensc. We have suggested 
 in the Gardener's Magazine tlie idea of manufacturing s >:-»V ^ 
 cottage fittings-up and furniture in Norway, and im- 
 porting tliem in a state fit for use. Were there a 
 sufficient demand, the manufacture would be carried 
 on as regularly as that of Norway battens, and the 
 saving to the builder-^ and occupiers of cottages would 
 be very great. 
 
 2512. A Fold-up Step- Ladder is often a conve- 
 nient substitute for a stair in cottages. Fig. 229G. 
 shows a ladder of this description hinged at d, and 
 with a joint at v. When folded up it has the ap- 
 pearance shown in fig. 2297., there being a stud at f 
 which rests on the hook e. 
 
 2513. CowelFs Sash- Suspender enables sash-win- 
 dows to be cleaned, painted, or repaired, without 
 the operator's going outside for these purposes. The 
 line by which the sash is suspended, instead of being 
 nailed to it, is secured in a socket ])rovided with a 
 hook. To this is fitted a plate or eye, which is let 
 into the sash, so that it can be attached or detached in an instant, and with the greatest 
 ease. A complete set of the brass suspenders, including an ingenious brass bolt for 
 fixing the bead, instead of nailing it, costs 
 only 3s. 6d. (See the figures of this invention, 
 and farther details, in Arch. Mag.^ vol. iv. 
 p. 72.) 
 
 2514. The Rollers of Window- Blinds, for- 
 merly made cylindrical, are now made octa- 
 gonal or polygonal, which is found to give them a better hold of the blind or other 
 material to be rolled round them than cylindrical rollers. A pulley-rack for blinds, 
 invented by Messrs. Loach and Clarke, is considered a very great improvement, as is a 
 wedge-fastener by the same party. We have tried both, and consider the pulley-rack 
 very superior to that in common use. 
 
 2515. Preserving the Tapes of Venetian Blinds from the Sun. This object is attained by 
 two slips of wood the length of the blind, connected as a parallel ruler, and screwed 
 within the frame of the blind upon both sides. When the blind is about to be let down, 
 the preserver is drawn out, and the slip of wood covers the whole of the tape, which 
 would be otherwise exposed to the action of the sun. By this simplest of all con- 
 trivances, the durability of the blind is insured for a considerable period. 
 
 2516. Venetian Blinds made of Glass instead of Wood have recently been invented, 
 and may come into occasional use in dwelling-houses, water-closets, &c. (A.M., iv. 206.) 
 
 2517. The Poor Man's Window-Blind. The simple homely furniture of the poor cot- 
 tager requires to be protected from the scorching rays of the noonday sun as much as 
 
INTERIOR FITTINGS-UP AND FINISHING. 
 
 n83 
 
 the more elaborately finished articles which occupy the apartments of the citizen and 
 tradesman ; but the expense of the roller, the pulleys, the trap-rack or slide, the stretch- 
 ing-rod and line, as well as the holland (cotton cloth not being capable of being rolled 
 evenly), places that description of window-blinds which is generally used beyond the 
 means of the poor labourer ; therefore a simple window-blind may be made as follows. 
 After a piece of cheap thin calico of the proper size has been hemmed, attach a few 
 small rings to the upper edge ; fix a nail on each side of the window case at the top, 
 and extend a strong piece of cord across, on which the blind is to be hung in the 
 manner of bed-curtains. A small string is then attached to the last ring on the left 
 side, and hanging down on the same side, to pull the curtain on the window ; and an- 
 other string is to be fixed to the same ring, but passing through all the other rings, and 
 hanging down on the right side, to pull the curtain off. Each of the two strings to have 
 a small ring fixed at the ends, by way of finish to them ; and if the labourer has a tidy 
 wife, she will not fail to make a little frill or vallance, with a loop at each end, to hang 
 upon the nails, so as to hide the working of the rings. The whole would not, for an 
 ordinary-sized cottage window, cost above lOd. — 5*. 
 
 2518. Painting and Papering, as Modes of Finishing, compared, with Reference to 
 Salubrity. Of all the arts connected with domestic comfort, there is scarcely one on 
 which so little has been written, and consequently of which so little is known, as house- 
 painting. It is well understood that the ceilings and walls of all the apartments of 
 dwelling-houses and other buildings, in this country, are now almost uniformly finished 
 in plaster ; and the nature and properties of this composition are also well known. One 
 of these properties is its power of absorbing moisture, or, in other words, its facility in 
 attracting and imbibing dampness. Consequently, when an apartment is left for any 
 length of time without the benefit of a fire, or of heated air supplied by other means, 
 the plaster will continue to absorb a portion of the dampness from the atmosphere with 
 which the room is filled ; and it is natural to suppose that, when a fire is put on, or 
 heated air is otherwise admitted, this dampness will be gradually given out by exha- 
 lation from the plaster. This process of exhalation must affect the durability, not only 
 of the plaster itself, but of the woodwork under it, and must also render the apartment 
 much less comfortable than if it had been rendered incapable of such absorption. 
 It therefore becomes an enquiry of some interest, whether painting or papering (the 
 two methods by which the walls of our apartments are usually decorated) is the better 
 adapted to counteract these disadvantages. 
 
 2519. The Process of painting Plaster-work is as follows. White lead and linseed 
 oil, with a little litharge to facilitate the drying, are mixed together to about the con- 
 sistence of thin cream ; a coating of this being applied, the oil from it is sucked into 
 the plaster in the course of a few hours, leaving the white lead apparently dry upon 
 the surface. In the course of a day or two, when this coat has sufficiently hardened, 
 another is given a few degrees thicker, the oil from which is partially absorbed accord- 
 ing to the nature of the plaster. In the course of a few days more a third coat is 
 applied. This coat is made pretty thick ; and, if the absorption of the oil from the 
 second coat has not been great, about one fourth of spirits of turpentine is added ; but 
 when the absorption has been great a less proportion of the spirits of turpentine is 
 employed. Into this coat are put the colouring ingredients, to bring it near the shade 
 intended for the finishing coat. Should the plaster now be thoroughly saturated, the 
 flatting or finishing coat is applied ; before this is done, however, a fourth coat, thinned 
 with equal portions of oil and spirits of turpentine, is generally given, particularly 
 when the work is wished to be of the most durable kind. The flatting, or finishing 
 coat, is composed entirely of paint ; that is, of white lead, and the colouring ingredients 
 mixed together, and ground in oil to an impalpable paste. This mixture is of a very 
 thick consistency, and must be thinned with spirits of turpentine until it will flow 
 easily from the brush. The spirits of turpentine, being very volatile, evaporate 
 entirely, leaving the surface of the paint of a very compact and hard nature. By this 
 process, the plaster is rendered incapable of absorption ; and the surface of it is hardened 
 by the oil which it has sucked in from the first and second coats, and is thereby rendered 
 less liable to breakage, with the great advantage of being washable. 
 
 2520. Paper-hangings. It now remains to be seen whether paper-hangings are 
 equally well adapted to the comfort, cleanliness, and durability of the generality of 
 apartments, as a decoration for plastered walls. Every one knows that paper is more 
 or less absorbent, according to its quality. When it is manufactured into paper- 
 hangings, it is washed over with a coating of size colour, equally absorbent with the 
 paper itself, upon which a pattern is stamped with the same material. To prepare the 
 plaster for papering, it receives a coating of a weak solution of glue in water ; and the 
 paper, as every one knows, is fixed on the wall by paste. Paper-hangings, therefore, 
 cannot be considered, in a general point of view^ as being so well adapted to plastered 
 
1284 
 
 FIRST ADDITIONAL SUPPLEMENT. 
 
 walls as paint ; and there are particular situations in which serious disadvantages 
 attend paper, which a short explanation will make apparent to every one. Take a 
 dining-room for examjile. The papered wall has nothing in it to resist the absorption 
 of the steam of the dinner, or breaths of the large parties by which it is often crowded : 
 the glue and paste used in paper-hanging must be thereby softened, and the moisture 
 absorbed must, of course, l)e afterwards gradually given out in connexion with the 
 natural effluvia of these, the former of which all know to be extracted from animal 
 substances, not of the most cleanly nature, until the wall be again thoroughly dry. 
 Besides, a papered wall is liable to be injured past remedy by so common a casualty 
 as the starting of a bottle of table-beer, champagne, or soda-water. Lobbies and stair- 
 cases are sometimes papered, although the practice is not very common in Scotland. 
 This is very objectionable, as the condensation of the atmosphere, which always takes 
 place upon the walls of such apartments on a change of temperature, from cold to 
 warmth, must be absorbed, and again given out as before explained. They are like- 
 wise very liable to accidental injuries, and should therefore have the hardest and most 
 impervious covering. In regard to drawingrooms and bed-rooms, these particular 
 objections to paper-hangings do not apply, yet there are modes of painting drawing- 
 rooms superior, not only in point of utility (to which for the present these observations 
 are confined), but also in effect.— Z). IL Hay. Mr. Hay is at tiie head of his profession 
 in Scotland ; and we are happy to be able to state that Mr. INIoxon, who has been for 
 several years in Mr. Hay's establishment, and is equally enthusiastic in his art, has re- 
 cently commenced business in Bury Street, St. James's, London. Mr. Moxon is the 
 author of the Crainn's Guide, folio, i,2 2s., a work by far the best of its kind which has 
 yet appeared. 
 
 2521. Principles of pa j wring liooms. The following remarks are l)y Mr. Pugin. 
 " I will commence with what are termed Gothic pattern papers, for hanging walls, where 
 a wretched caricature of a pointed building is repeated from the skirting to the cornice 
 in glorious confusion ; door over pinnacle, and pinnacle over door. Tliis is a great 
 favourite with hotel and tavern keepers. Again, those papers which are shaded are 
 defective in princijWe ; for, as a paper is hung round a room, the ornament must fre- 
 quently be shadowed on the light side. The variety of these miserable jjatterns is quite 
 surprising; and as the expense of cutting a block for a bad figure is ecjual, if not greater, 
 than for a good one, there is not the shadow of an excuse for their continual reproduc- 
 tion. A moment's reflection must show the extreme absurdity of repeating a perspective 
 over a large surface with some hunilred different points of sight : a panel or wall may 
 l)e enriched and decorated at pleasure, l)ut it should always be treated in a consistent 
 manner. Flock jjapers are admirable substitutes for the ancient hangings, but then they 
 must consist of a pattern without shadow, with the forms relieved by the introduction of 
 liarmonious colours. Illuminated manuscrij)ts of the thirteenth, fourteenth, and fifteenth 
 centuries would furnish an iinmense number of exquisite designs for this purpose." — 
 Puffin. 
 
 2.522. Carpets. These observations will apply to modern carpets, the patterns of which 
 are generally shaded. Nothing can l)e more ridiculous than an apparently reversed groin- 
 ing to walk upon, or highly relieved foliage and perforated tracery for the decoration of 
 a floor. The ancient paving tiles are quite consistent with their purj)Ose, being merely 
 ornamented with a pattern not produced by any apparent relief, but only by contrast of 
 colour; and carpets should be treated in precisely the same manner. Turkey carpets, 
 which are by far the handsomest now manufactured, have no sliadow in their pattern, but 
 merely an intricate combination of coloured intersections. 
 
 2523. Curtains. IVIodern upholstery, again, is made a surprising vehicle for bad and 
 paltry taste, especially when any thing very fine is attempted. To arrange curtains 
 consistently with true taste, their use and intention should always be considered : they 
 are suspended across windows and other openings to exclude cold and wind, and, as they 
 are not always required to be drawn, they are hung to rings sliding on rods, to l)e 
 opened or closed at pleasure : as there must necessarily be " a space between this rod and 
 the ceiling, through which wind will pass, a boxing of wood has been contrived, in front of 
 which a valance is suspended to exclude air. Now the materials of these curtains 
 may be rich or plain, they may be heavily or lightly fringed, they may be embroidered 
 with heraldic charges or not, according to the locality where they are to be hung, but 
 their real use must be strictly maintained. Hence all the modern plans of suspending 
 enormous folds of stuff over poles, as if for the purpose of sale or of being dried, is quite 
 contrary to the use and intentions of curtains, and [therefore] abominable in taste ; and 
 the only object that these endless festoons and bunchy tassels can answer is, to swell the 
 bills and profits of the upholsterers, who are the inventors of these extravagant and ugly 
 draperies, which are not only useless in protecting the chamber from cold, but are the 
 de))ositories of thick layers of dust, and in London not unfrequcntly become the strong- 
 
INTERIOR FITTINGS-UP AND FINISHING. 
 
 1285 
 
 holds of vermin. It is not less ridiculous to see canopies of tomb and altar screens set 
 up over vi'indows, instead of the appropriate valance or baldaquin of the olden time. It 
 is proper in this place to explain the origin and proper application of fringes, which is 
 but little understood. Fringe was originally nothing more than the ragged edge of the 
 stuff, tied into bunches to prevent it unravelling further. This suggested the idea of 
 manufacturing fringe as an ornamental edging, but good taste requires that it should be 
 both designed and applied consistently. 
 
 1 . In the first place, fringe should never consist of heavy parts, but simply of threads, 
 tied into ornamental patterns. 
 
 2. Secondly, a deep fringe should not be suspended to a narrow valance. 
 
 3. Thirdly, no valance should be formed entirely of fringe, as fringe can only be sup- 
 plied as an ornamental edging to some kind of stuff. 
 
 4. F'ourthly, fringe should not be sewed upon stuff, but always on the edges. It is 
 allowable at the very top, as it may be supposed to be the upper edge turned over." 
 (Puffin's Christ. Arch., p, 29.) 
 
 2524. Metal-work. The Gothic architects, Mr, Pugin informs us, suited the design 
 to the material with which they worked ; and instead of concealing construction, they 
 avowed and decorated it, whether in the elevation of a house, or in the smallest article of 
 furniture. Hinges, locks, bolts, nails, &c., which are always concealed in modern 
 designs, were, in pointed architecture, rendered rich and beautiful decorations, not only in 
 doors and fittings, but in the smallest cabinets. The hinges, in former times, covered 
 the whole face of the doors with varied and flowing scroll-work ; and such hinges were 
 not less beautiful in design than they were practically good, by extending the whole 
 length of the door, and being bolted through it in various places. Stock-locks were 
 also avowed, and rendered very ornamental, but now they are concealed, by being let 
 into the styles of doors, which are often cut more than half through to receive them. 
 " A lock was a subject on which the ancient smiths delighted to exercise the utmost 
 resources of their art. Keys were also highly ornamented with appropriate decorations 
 referring to the locks to which they belong." (Pugin^s Christ. Arch., p. 21.) 
 
 2525. Cast Iron-work, when viewed with reference to mechanical purposes, Mr. 
 Pugin observes, " must be considered as a most valuable invention, but it can but 
 rarely be applied to ornamental purposes. Iron is so much stronger a material than 
 stone, that it requires, of course, a much smaller substance to attain equal strength ; hence, 
 to be consistent, the mullions of cast-iron tracery might be so reduced as to look painfully 
 thin, devoid of shadow, and out of all proportion to the openings in which they are fixed. 
 If, to overcome these objections, the castings are made of the same dimensions as stone, 
 a great inconsistency with respect to the material is incurred ; and, what will be a much 
 more powerful argument with most people, treble the cost of the usual material. More- 
 over, all castings must be deficient of that play of light and shade consequent on bold 
 relief and deep sinkings, so essential to produce a good effect. Cast iron is likewise a 
 source of continual repetition, subversive of the variety and imagination exhibited in 
 pointed design. A mould for casting is an expensive thing ; once got, it must be worked 
 out. Hence we see the same window in greenhouse, gate-house, church, and room ; 
 the same strawberry -leaf, sometimes perpendicular, sometimes horizontal, sometimes 
 suspended, sometimes on end ; although, by the principles of pure design, these various 
 positions require to be differently treated. Cast iron is a deception ; it is seldom or never 
 left as iron. It is disguised by paint, either as stone, wood, or marble. This is a mere 
 trick, and the severity of Christian, or pointed, architecture is utterly opposed to all decep- 
 tion ; better is it to do a little, substantially and consistently with truth, than to produce 
 a great but false show: cheap deceptions of magnificence encourage persons to assume a 
 semblance of decoration far beyond either their means or their station, and it is to this 
 cause we may assign all that mockery of splendour which pervades even the dwellings of 
 the lower classes of society. Glaring, showy, and meretricious ornament was never so 
 much in vogue as at present ; it disgraces every branch of our arts and manufactures, 
 and the correction of it should be an earnest consideration with every person who desires 
 to see the real principles of art restored." {Pugin s Christ. Arch., p. 30.) 
 
 2526. The Manner in which Fenders are fitted to Fireplaces is almost everywhere 
 unarchitectural ; and there is not a single feature in the interior of living-rooms that is 
 more in want of reformation. The meagre iron or brass rim of the fender abuts ab- 
 ruptly against the marble plinth of the chimney jambs, sometimes against the middle 
 of the plinth, and sometimes against one side. There is nothing either in the jambs or 
 in the fender to show that they are intended to be joined together ; nothing to indicate 
 whether the rim of the fender should abut against the jamb of the grate, middle of the 
 plinth, or its outer edge ; or whether it should not abut on the front of the grate within 
 the jamb altogether. It is astonishing that so glaring a defect in the adaptation of fur- 
 niture should so long have escaped the notice of architects, and that it should still 
 
 7 F 
 
1286 
 
 FIRST ADDITIONAL SUPPLEMENT. 
 
 pre\'ail in some of the most magnificent houses in Britain ; for example, in Windsor 
 Castle anfl Hamilton Palace, in both of which the principal rooms have lately been 
 newly fitted up and furnished in the most splendid style. There are various ways in 
 which this evil might be remedied. 1. The fender being of metal, might be so con- 
 trived as to fix into and connect architecturally with the grate, as being also of metal. 
 2. Grooves or recesses may be made in the plinths of the jambs, into which boxings of 
 metal might be fixed, and into these the fender might be made to drop, and be taken 
 out at pleasure ; or projections from the jambs might be made, either in marble or 
 metal, extending on the hearth as far as might be necessary, and between these the 
 fender miglit be dropped in. An idea of this mode may be formed from fig. 2298. In 
 
 this figure the two i)rojc'cting blocks may be of marble, stone, ( r of cast iron, hollow ; 
 and they may be attached to the hearth by two wooden pins in the under sides of 
 the blocks, which should drop into two small holes in the hearth. On the blocks 
 might be raised the supports to the fire-irons, as shown in the figure. Some further 
 discussion on the adaptation of fenders to fireplaces will be found in the Suburban Ar- 
 chitect and Landscape- Gardener, p. 125. to 127. ; and we would strongly recommend 
 the subject to the attention of architects, convinced that, if they were to see this de- 
 formity in the light we do, the evil would soon disappear, at least in first-rate houses 
 and palaces. 
 
 2527. Cornices, Ornaments in Papier- Mach^, and various Architectural and Sculptural 
 Details, are now very generally introduced in interior finishing. The principal manu- 
 facturer is Mr. Bielfield of Wellington Street, who has published several books of 
 cornices and ornaments, and other details, from which selections may be made. 
 
 2528. The Italian Mode of excluding the common House- Fly from Apartments, and 
 which is as old as the time of Herodotus, is simply to cover the openings of the windows 
 by a net of white or light-coloured thread. It is remarkable that the meshes of this 
 net may be an inch or more in diameter, so that there is actually no physical obstacle 
 presented to the entrance of the flies, even with expanded wings. The flies seem to 
 be deterred from entering from some inexplicable dread of venturing within the net- 
 work. It is even found that " if small nails be fixed all round the window-frame, at 
 the distance of about an inch from each other, and threads be then stretched across 
 both vertically and horizontally, the apparatus will be equally effectual in excluding the 
 flies." It is essential, however, that the light should enter the room on one side of it 
 only ; for if there be a thorough light, either from an opposite or side window, the flies 
 pass through the net without scruple. ( Trans. Ent. Soc.) 
 
 Sect. III. Kitchen Fittings-up and Furniture. 
 
 2529. Various Ovens and Kitchen- Ranges have been brought into notice since the En- 
 cyclopaedia appeared; but no oven has equalled that of Count Rumford as modified by 
 W. Strutt, Esq., a man of most extraordinary genius (§ 1503.), and no cooking and 
 warming apparatus for cottages has been produced that at all approaches the Bruges 
 stove (§594.). Nevertheless, some good kitchen-ranges have been invented, the most 
 
KITCHEN FITTINGS-UP AND FURNITURE. 1287 
 
 complete of which is one by Messrs. Steel of Edinburgh, adapted for first-rate houses, 
 and described in the Repertory of Arts, vol. xiv. p. 159. There are also three different 
 ranges of recent invention, each of which has a closed fireplace, and consequently not 
 only cooks very economically, with great cleanliness and with much less trouble or 
 excessive heat to the cook, but is an effectual cure for a smoky chimney. The most 
 complete of these is Braithwaite's, price £1S; and the most economical, Brown's of 
 Luton, price between £6 and £7. We shall first give a description of Mr. Strutt's oven, 
 next of an improved Bruges stove, and lastly of one of the closed kitchen-ranges. 
 
 2530. The Roasting- Oven which has been in use in the kitchen of Joseph Strutt, Esq., 
 of Derby, for upwards of thirty years, is represented by two sections and a plan, figs.' 
 2299. to 2301. The front section, fig. 2299., shows the interior of the oven (the door 
 
 being removed), and also the cavity surroimding the oven. The oven rests upon bricks 
 l)laced edgewise along each side, which forms a cavity under the oven, similar to that 
 seen on the top and its other sides in the above figure. An opening into this cavity is 
 seen at e, in the side section, fig. 2300. The fire, which is introduced at d, it will be 
 seen, does not immediately act upon the oven : the flame branches on each side along the 
 flues FF in fig. 2301., and then ascends perpendicularly, enveloping the back, the 
 two sides, and the top of the oven ; it is not, however, allowed to escape till it descends 
 to E in fig. 2300., there being a similar hole on the other side. It is now compelled 
 to pass under the oven, and thence into the chimney c, so that the bottom of the oven, 
 which is generally the hottest part in other ovens, is the coldest in this ; since the hot 
 vapour does not reach it until it has given the greatest part of its heat to the top and 
 sides. 
 
 In the front section, fig. 2299., is an opening, o, which indicates the mouth of a tube 
 fastened into an iron plate, which is seen to close the front of the under cavity. This 
 tube proceeds in a straight direction under the bottom of the oven, the whole length ; 
 it then turns with a curve, and comes back on the opposite side, where it terminates in 
 the bottom of the oven, which communicates with the cavity, as seen in the side sec- 
 tion, at c. This cavity is formed of sheet iron, similar to that of which the rest of the 
 roaster is formed, and screwed to the door g. Towards the top of this cavity in the 
 door is an aperture, h, opening into the oven. The tube p communicates with the 
 oven and the chimney above the damper d. Now it will be evident that, when the 
 door of the roaster is shut, a current of cold air will enter at o in the front section, and 
 will become heated in passing along the .curved tube under the oven ; it will then 
 enter the cavity e in the door g, and pass out at the hole h into the roaster, and thence 
 
V2SS 
 
 FIRST ADDITIONAL SUPPLEMENT. 
 
 2301 
 
 through the pipe p into the chimney, to the draught of 
 which it owes its motion. 
 
 This contrivance has two great advantages : its lieat is 
 sufficient to have a great effect upon the substances to be 
 baked or roasted, and the constant change of the air 
 contributes to the crusty brown so generally liked. Its 
 greatest advantage, however, consists in carrying off the 
 disagreeable smell complained of when meat is roasted in 
 a common oven. 
 
 A is a register-door, opening into the ash-pit ; d, the door 
 for the fuel : beyond this is a second door, which opens by 
 a hook attached to the first door. 
 
 Opposite to the cavity on each side and the cavity under 
 the roaster are three small doors, n,n,n, which are opened 
 occasionally for raking out the soot and ashes. This last 
 operation is not required very often. The top and sides, 
 which will soon become clogged with soot, are raked very 
 frequently by another contrivance, which we can better 
 describe than represent in the drawing. In the front 
 section, fig. 2299., suppose the dark space, s, which sur- 
 rounds the roaster to be a piece of sheet iron capable of 
 being moved backward and forward, by means of a rod of iron fastened into the middle 
 of that part which fits the cavity at the top of the roaster, and projecting to the front, 
 like the rod of the damper, d, in the side section ; then it will be evident that a rake of 
 this form will, by its motion, completely scrape the toj) and sides of the roaster; an ope- 
 ration frequently necessary. This rake brings the soot to the bottom of the cavities ; 
 and when it is accumulated there to a certain extent, it requires to be withdrawn from 
 the openings, n n 71. 
 
 The above description was sent to us by Mr. Joseph Hunt, ironmonger, Derby, who 
 put up Mr. Strutt's oven, and who informs us that one similar to that above described 
 may l)e fitted up complete in Derby for £10 10s. 
 
 Mr. Strutt h;is two of these ovens in his kitchen ; one similar to that described for 
 common use, and another about twice the size for extraordinary occasions. Nothing 
 has been roasted before an open fire in Mr. Strutt's kitchen for upwards of thirty years. 
 To the excellence of Mr. Strutt's table all who have enjoyed that gentleman's hospitality 
 will bear testimony. 
 
 2531. The Bruges Store, as improved by Messrs. Cottam and Ilallen, figs. 230'J. to 
 2304., appears to be better adapted both for warming a common cottage and cooking 
 at the same time, than any other either of British or foreign invention. The Fle- 
 mings are a rigidly economical people, and therefore whatever is in use among them 
 deserves serious consideration. This led us to figure and describe this stove in the 
 Encyclopaedia, p. 285., and we have now to present an improved form of it as exhibited 
 in the figures referred to. It will, no doubt, be extremely difficult to get a British 
 cottager, with all her prejudices for an open fire, to use this or any other cooking stove; 
 nevertheless, we cordially agree with Mr. Cottam, that this stove will do niore with a 
 given quantity of fuel than any other stove or fireplace whatever. It has the means 
 of stewing, boiling, broiling, roasting, and baking, at one and the same time, with a small 
 quantity of coke or cinders from any other fire. It is simple in form, and there is not 
 the slightest difficulty in its use. The holes in the top may be arranged as is found most 
 convenient for the situation in which the stove is to be placed, either in a line, as in 
 fig. 2300., or in the form of a triangle. One thing is indispensable for the proper 
 action of this stove, and that is a good draught. It must therefore have a separate flue. 
 
 2303 
 
KITCHEN FITTINGS-UP AND FURNITURE. 1289 
 
 As it stands quite detached, heat is radiated from „^ 2304 
 
 it on every side, and only that small portion is lost 
 which goes up the chimney. In the figures, a is the 
 top of the stove ; h is the fire-pot ; g is the lid of the 
 hole for feeding the fire-pot ; / is an ash drawer ; c 
 is the flue ; d is the oven door ; h is the oven ; e is a 
 space for the fire to pass to the flue, c, and for heat- 
 ing the whole of the top plate, any part of which 
 will produce suflficient heat for culmary purposes; 
 i i i have lids, which may be taken off, and the 
 battery of stew-pans or boilers will then be in con- 
 tact with the flame. A gridiron fits on any of these 
 openings, which has the advantage of not smoking the article broiled, the draught being 
 downwards. (Arch. Mag., i. 77.) Unfortunately, the cost is between £6 and £7. 
 
 2532. Brown of Luton's improved Kitchen-range, fig. 2305., is founded on the principle 
 of economising fuel. Its appearance is that of an ordinary range with oven and boiler, 
 
 with the front and top of the fire-grate shut in, and the space beneath the bottom of the 
 grate also partially enclosed. The fireplace is cased with fire-brick on the back and 
 sides, and an iron plate forms the front, which, becoming red hot, supplies the heat ne- 
 cessary for roasting ; when not in use for that purpose, it is screened by an outer plate 
 sliding in groves on either side : a portion of the top plate is removable at pleasure, to 
 afford an opportunity of boiling, frying, broiling, &c. The fire plays round the oven, 
 and partly under the boiler, and the vapour escapes by a pipe into a chimney or other 
 flue. The top forms a hot plate. The space under the grate-bottom in front is en- 
 closed in part with talc, and the drawer for receiving the ashes occupies the remainder. 
 There can be no doubt of the improvement effected in this range in the avoidance of 
 smoke and dust, economy of fuel, &c., over the common range ; the oven and boiler ap- 
 pear to act well in every respect ; and the inventor states that he had roasted a leg of 
 mutton by the red-hot plate of nineteen pounds and a half weight. This range is made 
 in different sizes, and sold at from six to ten guineas each, at Luton, in Bedfordshire, 
 and at 34. Gracechurch Street, London. Stoves very similar to that of Brown's are 
 manufactured by Braithwaite, White Lion Court, Cornhill, at nearly double the price ; 
 by Wright of Arthur Street, London Bridge, by Nicholson at the Baker Street bazaar, 
 and by E. Brown of Birmingham. They are all excellent in principle, cleanly, econo- 
 mical, and effectually cure a smoky chimney ; and Mr. Brown's of Luton has the merit 
 of being the cheapest. 
 
 2533. Saul's improved Cottage Fireplace. On the grate, fig. 2306., is placed a cast- 
 
1290 
 
 FIRST ADDITIONAL SUPPLEMENT. 
 
 It is eight inches and a half in 
 
 2306 
 
 
 r 
 
 Ml ' ^ • 
 
 L 
 
 
 iiiiiiiiii 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 iron plate, with a circular aperture in the centre at a 
 diameter, which just takes a 
 common tea-kettle, and answers 
 well for other-sized pans, as it 
 is of no moment if the pan is 
 larger than the aperture. By 
 this plan the heat is confined in 
 the grate ; and, by several expe- 
 riments, it has been proved tliat 
 any thing will much sooner boil 
 in this closed grate than in an 
 open one: and it also throws out 
 a greater heat in the room, and 
 prevents smoke ; and, when the 
 fire is not wanted for cooking, 
 there is a plate to cover the 
 aperture. It also consumes less 
 fuel, and is a sure remedy for a 
 smoky chimney. When an oven 
 is also made in the same fire- 
 place, as seen at b, the whole 
 heat is made to pass under the oven by turning the damper in the flue c, which is behind 
 the iron plate, when the smoke is carried up tlie oven flue, d. When the oven is not 
 wanted, the flue (/ is closed with the damper, and then the smoke rises through the flue 
 c. A small aperture is made on the top of the iron plate at e, to admit any smoke that 
 may arise when putting on the fuel, or changing the kettles or pans. Tliis jjlan nmy 
 be adapted to any grate now in use. It is only necessary to get a cast-iron plate the size 
 of the grate. It is to rest upon the top bar of the grate, and on the brickwork on the 
 back ; and a small aperture is to be made for the smoke to escape, and an iron plate 
 fixed in front, to ])revent the smoke from entering the room. {A. M., v. 226.) 
 
 2534. A portable Roaster, formed of tin, is considered a most useful and economical 
 apparatus for roasting meat before an open fire. The ordinary size of this roaster is 
 about three feet long, two feet high, and one foot deep ; but some are made nearly twice 
 ;us large. The front which faces the fire is open, and the back and sides are of tinned 
 iron. The spit is let into notches in the ends, and is turned by a small wind-up jack. 
 The American oven is formed of tinned iron, and when used is set before the fire, the 
 heat of which it receives directly in front, and by reflection from the inside of the bottom 
 and top, which slope, the one upwards and the other downwards, at an angle of about 
 40°. The editor of the British Farmer's Magazine, speaking of this oven says, " it is 
 one of the most valuable inventions of the kind we know, and ought to be in every farm- 
 house and every cottage in the kingdom. Our own family bread is chiefly baked in one 
 of these ovens placed before the fire, and better bread there cannot be from any oven 
 whatever. For roasting (not baking) small joints, we know nothing equal to it." (Brit. 
 Farm. Mag., new series, vol. vi. p. 98.) Another very economical oven is thus formed. 
 A circular bottom of sheet iron, eleven inches in diameter, has a rim raised round it 
 one inch and a half deep. To this bottom there is a cover four inches and a half, or at 
 most five inches deep, which fits easy within the rim of the bottom. This forms the 
 oven ; and it only requires a handle by which to suspend it over the fire, which handle 
 must be sufficiently high to allow of taking oflT and putting on the cover without incon- 
 venience. There is a movable small hoop of sheet iron, about five inches in diameter and 
 three inches and a quarter deep, to put the dish upon, and keep it from the bottom to pre- 
 vent burning. The cost is about 3«., and it bakes meat or bread well. A figure of this 
 oven is given in Mech. Mag., vol. xxxiii. p. 569. To these kitchen apparatus we must be 
 excused for adding Platow's automaton coffee-pot, which is universally allowed to be by far 
 the best utensil for making coffee that has hitherto been invented, price from 4s. upwards. 
 
 2535. An economical Hot Closet may be formed at very little expense, by taking 
 a common hastener for placing before a kitchen fire when meat is roasting, and closing 
 up the front, or side next the fire, with black sheet iron, forming a door at the back 
 for putting in and taking out the articles to be kept hot. Black iron absorbs the 
 heat powerfully ; and the heated air within not being allowed to escape, becomes very 
 hot. When it is desired to use this hot closet as a hastener in roasting meat, it is only 
 necessary to hang in front, before the black iron, a covering of tinned sheet iron, which 
 may be in two or more plates, according to the size of the hastener, for convenience 
 of lifting on and off. Fig. 2307. is a back view of such a movable hot closet, Avith 
 the door open, showing the shelves, &c. It is scarcely necessary to observe that 
 white sheet iron will, in many cases, be preferable to black iron ; because, while it 
 
BED-ROOM FURNITURE. 
 
 1291 
 
 2307 
 
 reflects the heat and hastens the meat, it will 
 conduct and radiate quite enough into the hot 
 closet ; and what is collected there will not be 
 so easily radiated through the tin as through 
 the black sheet iron. 
 
 2536. Fuller's Ice- Box. This box is one of 
 the most ingenious and useful inventions that 
 have been introduced into the domestic economy 
 of the wealthy classes for many years. It may 
 be described as one box within another, the 
 inner box being six inches apart from the outer 
 box on every side, and at the top and bottom. 
 The space between the outer box and the inner 
 box is filled up with burnt cork in a state of 
 powder, as being a better nonconductor of heat 
 than powdered charcoal of common wood. The 
 lid is double like the sides, and the vacuity 
 filled with charcoal in the same manner, to pre- 
 vent the possibility of air getting in to the con- 
 tents of the box when it is shut. The lid has 
 ledges which project downwards into a gutter 
 containing water, so as to render the junction airtight. The ice is contained in the 
 well or space thus enclosed and protected, which is lined with cork ; and which will 
 keep the rough ice for three, four, or five weeks, in the hottest weather of summer. 
 Mr. Harrison's box is three feet five inches by two feet eight inches, and three feet five 
 inches in depth, outside measure ; and the well, or inner box, will contain three hundred 
 l)ounds of rough ice. The cost of a box of this size complete is £25 4s. The cost of 
 the ice which is required to fill it, and which is supplied by a large wholesale dealer in 
 that article at Southgate, Mr. Symonds, is about 15s.; the price per cwt. varying 
 from 4s. to 6s., of three sorts, sweepings, mixed, 
 and pure, at different prices. The box three times 
 fille(l will serve an ordinary family a whole season. 
 When we consider the expense of building an ice- 
 house ; the uncertainty of its answering the end 
 proposed ; the expense of filling it annually with 
 ice, and of taking out a portion every two or 
 three days, or in the hottest weather every day ; 
 the saving by the use of the ice-preserver must be 
 obvious. In fact, there are few families who have 
 an ice-house, who would not save a considerable 
 sum every year by it, and be much more certain 
 of always having ice when they wanted it. The 
 ]>ox is the invention of Mr. Fuller, No. 60. J ermy n 
 Street. 
 
 2537. A temporary Table or Ironing -hoard. It is 
 a matter of some difficulty, in small cottages, to 
 place the shutters to the windows on the ground 
 floor in such a manner as to answer the purpose, 
 and yet be out of the way. The following plan 
 has been adopted in some buildings of that descrip- 
 tion which have been lately erected. The shutters 
 in fig. 2308. are hung on hinges in such a manner 
 as to fall down into a recess below the window 
 during the daytime; and, consequently, they are quite out of the wiiy when not wanted 
 for shutting up the house, or for temporary purposes. The idea suggested itself, 
 that shutters might be occasionally used as a table or ironing-board; and, to effect 
 this end, two movable bars, as supports, were let into mortises in the floor, and 
 made to abut against similar mortises made in the ledges on the under side of the 
 shutters. The two cornices were slightly rounded, and the upper surface was left 
 plain, without paint. Two swing iron or wooden brackets might be used, instead 
 of the two wooden bars, as they could be folded back into the recess also. (Arch. 
 Mag., v. 75.) 
 
 Sect. IV. Bed-room Furniture. 
 
 2538. A71 Improt^ement in the Box Bedsteads used in Scotch Cottages, made by Dr. "Wil- 
 son of Kelso, is shown in fig. 2309. It consists of a curtain-rod and curtains, which 
 
FIRST ADDITIONAL SUPPLEMENT. 
 
 serves both as a sitting-room 
 concealed wash-stand. Tiie 
 as a cupboard by a door in 
 
 may be drawn out about three feet from the front of the bed, so as to form sufficient 
 space between the curtain and the bed to serve as a dressing-room. Some of the Leith 
 and London steamers had the berths in the ladies' 
 cabins fitted up in this way some years ago. Another 
 improvement, introduced by Dr. Wilson, in these beds, 
 consists of the hinging of a part of the roof of the bed so 
 that it may be opened like a trap-door, at pleasure, for 
 ventilation ; and the hinging of boards at the foot and 
 at the back, for the same object, and for giving access 
 to a medical attendant. These improvements, we 
 trust, form one step towards getting rid of box bed- 
 steads altogether. They may be very desirable in the - 
 wretched hovels in which they are generally foimd, 
 but in comfortable cottages they are neither favour- 
 able to health nor to habits of cleanliness. 
 
 2539. Concealed IVashhand- stand. In a room which 
 and bed-room it may often be desirable to have a 
 recess by the side of the chimney is often enclosed 
 
 the usual manner ; against the inside of this door may be screwed a common wash- 
 stand, having its legs cut short enough to pass over the wash-board of the room 
 without tlnowing the basin too high for comfortable use. When the door is shut 
 the washing a])i)aratus is in the cupboard, but when the door is open the means of 
 washing are in the room in a most convenient situation. This contrivance, and a 
 sofa bed, together, afford the economist the uses of a bed-room without the appearance 
 of one. — ./. /. H. 
 
 2540. An oval Hip-hath, made of tin or copper. The depth of this bath, inside 
 measure, is twelve inches ; the base on which it stands is three inches ; the length of the 
 l)ath is thirteen inches and a half at the top, and nineteen inches at the bottom ; its breadth, 
 twenty-inches at t;ie top, and twelve inches and a half at the bottom ; the shoulder- 
 piece is eight inches deep. This bath may be used as a child's bath, hip-bath, foot-bath, 
 spunging-bath, or even as a washing-tub. A circular piece of oil-cloth, at least three 
 times the diameter of the bath, having the edges turned up over a piece of rope, so as 
 to form a water-tight rim, receives any splashings from the bath, and saves the carpet 
 or the floor. When not wanted, this oil-doth siiucer goes into very little bulk. 
 
 2541. A cheap portable Shower -hath, manufactured by Milne and Son, Edinburgh, is 
 described in the Architectural Magazine, vol. v. p. 4G8. 
 
 254'2. A Dressinff-tahle with a Bag Drawer, fig. 2310., is a most useful piece of bed- 
 room furniture. It is three feet seven inches long, two feet seven inches high, and two 
 
 feet six inches wide. There are , .. _ __, 
 
 two upper drawers, and a frame 
 resembling a drawer externally, 
 of the length of the table be- 
 neath. To this frame a bag of 
 fluted silk is attached, tapering 
 downwards, and reaching within 
 six inches of the floor, leaving 
 just enough of space to allow 
 room for the feet and knees when 
 the lady is sitting before the 
 table. The bag pulls out like a 
 drawer, and has a wooden bot- 
 tom, to which may be fixed 
 stands (fig. 587. in p. 304.) on 
 which to place bonnets; and 
 hooks may be attached to the inside of the wooden frame from which the silk bag 
 hangs, on which to place caps. — Selim. (The author of the " Beau Ideal of an English 
 Villa," in p. 790.) Every lady will see at once the saving of room that this kind 
 of dressing-table is calculated to effect. 
 
 Sect. V. Furniture for Living- Rooins. 
 
 2543. A handsome Architectural Commode is shown in fig. 2313. ; the top may be a 
 marble slab, and the panels of the doors filled in with green silk, protected by gilt 
 wire. 
 
 2544. Drau'ingroom Seats. Fig. 2316. is an hour-glass seat; fig. 2318. p. 1294. a read- 
 ing seat ; and fig! 2321. a circular Ottoman sofa. The last, besides its use in the drawing- 
 
FURNITURE FOR LIVING-ROOMS. 
 
 1293 
 
 room, may be made 
 of straw; or, in 
 some countries of 
 heath, and appro- 
 priately placed in 
 the centre of a large 
 rustic summer- 
 house. The read- 
 ing-seat, fig. 2318., 
 is by no means ele- 
 gant in form ; but 
 we can assert, from 
 experience, that 
 it is exceedingly 
 comfortable to sit 
 on ; not only the 
 back, but the head, 
 being supported 
 
 by the peculiar form of the upper part of the end, or support for the back, 
 stool is shown in fig. 2314. 
 
 2545. A Card- Table, fig. 5. 
 The concave curve at a, as con- 
 trasted with the convex curve at h, 
 has a good effect. The scroll foot, 
 exhibited at c, is rather plain, and 
 
 2313 
 
 A foot- 
 
 2314 
 
 would be improved, as it appears to us, by some such addition as we have shown at d. 
 2546. An occasional Table in the Elizahethan Style is shown in fig. 2317. It is very 
 
 handsome, and highly expressive of the most cultivated variety of that manner of 
 architectural design. 
 
 2547. Poys, or supported Tea- Chests, are shown in figs. 2319. and 2320. ; both 
 handsome. In the Ai-chitectural Magazine, a great many other handsome pieces of fur- 
 niture, including sideboards, dinner waggons, desks, bookcases, ladies' work-tables, &c., 
 will be found figured and described. 
 
 7 Q 
 
FIRST ADDITIONAL SUPPLEMENT. 
 
HINTS TO PROPRIETORS. 
 
 1^95 
 
 Chap. VII. ' 
 
 Hints to Proprietors desirous of improving the Labourers' Cottages on their Estates. 
 
 2548. On estates of moderate extent, where the proprietor looks into every thing 
 himself, much may be done by his personally examining, along with his carpenter, 
 the Labourers' Cottages already existing, and ascertaining their present state with 
 reference to the list of essential requisites in p. 1 140. This being done, the next step 
 is to devise improvements: — by draining; by additions of garden ground; by putting 
 the garden and the cottage, if practicable, in a ring fence ; and by such alterations and 
 additions to the cottage as may appear necessary for health and comfort. To assist in 
 this manner of improvement the following particulars may be found useful. 
 
 2549. Situation. It ought to be constantly borne in mind, that the main object 
 in building a cottage is to produce a comfortable dwelling; and that for this purpose a 
 dry airy situation, in which, if possible, the ground falls gently from the cottage on 
 every side ; an aspect that will allow the sun to shine on every side wall of the cottage 
 a portion of every day in the year ; thick walls, and thick or double far-projecting 
 roofs of high pitcli ; are most desirable requisites. Whether the front, the end, or 
 one side of the cottage is parallel to the adjoining road, ought to be considered a 
 matter of no consequence; indeed, so far from a parallel position being desirable, an 
 oblique one is in general preferable, as we have shown § 2237. 
 
 2550. Garden. The garden ought always, if possible, to surround the cottage, and 
 it ought never to be less in extent than a sixth of an acre ; but as in cottages already 
 existing it may often be found impracticable to surround the cottage with its garden, the 
 next best arrangements are, to have the garden before, or behind, or on one side ; or partly 
 before and behind and partly on one side. If the main body of the garden must of 
 necessity be separated from the cottage, then there should be a direct communication 
 with it by a path, so as to diminish as much as possible the inconvenience and dis- 
 comfort of an isolated garden. Cottage allotments, by which are to be understood 
 portions of ground in a field allotted to cottages at some distance, are much better than 
 no gardens at all ; but they are far from producing the comfort and enjoyment of a 
 garden in close contact with the cottage to which it belongs. 
 
 2551. Materials. When the walls are of pise, mud, cob, clay lumps, or any other 
 description of consolidated earth, the thickness of two feet may be obtained in solid 
 materials ; and tliis may also be the case where stone is abundant : but where brick 
 must, of necessity, be used, the thickness of eighteen inches or two feet is to be 
 attained most economically by building the walls with brick on edge hollow, and 
 filling them up with concrete. Cy this means we form a mass of solid material, 
 which will, of course, have a greater capacity for heat than a hollow wall, and con- 
 sequently give out more when it is wanted for heating the air of the rooms. The 
 advantages of thick walls, and of thick or double roofs, of high pitch, and projecting at 
 the eaves, with reference to retaining heat, are greater than can well be conceived by 
 those who have not dwelt in a cottage. A high and dry floor is essential, whether this 
 be obtained by placing the cottage on a terrace, as in the model cottage No. I. in p. 1 1 41. ; 
 or by raising the floor inside, and ascending to it by outside steps, as in the mechanic's 
 model cottage in p. 1 1 45. 
 
 2552. Designing Cottages. In page 1140 we have summed up the essential requisites 
 for a labourer's cottage, with a view to convenience, comfort, and other directly useful 
 properties. The following Rules are to be considered as additional to those given in 
 the page referred to, and as having for their object to superadd to comfort and conve- 
 nience. Architectural Design and Taste. 
 
 1. Every exterior wall should show a plinth at its base, and a frieze or wall-plate 
 immediately under the roof. In the case of earthen walls, the plinth should be of 
 brick or stone, and the wall- pi ate of wood. The stones of the plinth should be larger 
 than those used in the plain parts of the wall which are above it; and the upper 
 finishing of the plinth may be the outer edge of a course of slates, flagstone^ tiles, or 
 bricks, laid in cement, extending through the entire thickness of the wall, in order 
 to prevent the rising of damp ; the appearance of the edge of this course as a 
 moulding or string course crowning the plinth, will, therefore, be highly expressive of 
 utility : or the entire plinth may be built in cement, which will be equally eflfective 
 in preventing the rising of damp, as well as expressive of that important use. 
 
 2. The pitch of the roof, whatever may be the material with which it is covered, 
 should be such as to prevent snow from lying on it ; and for this purpose the cross 
 section should generally be an equilateral triangle. Cottages which form gate-lodges in 
 the Grecian or Italian styles form exceptions to this rule ; but such lodges never ex- 
 
1296 FIRST ADDITIONAL SUPPLEMENT. 
 
 press the same ideas of comfort as high-roofed cottages, with' high and bpld chimneys. 
 Such lodges, indeed, are commonly called " boxes ;" and in fact many of them are so 
 deficient in height, and in every other dimension, that they give rise to ideas the very 
 opposite of those of freedom and comfort, 
 
 3. When the wall is built of rubble-work small stones or bricks, a framing or 
 casing of larger stones as quoins to the exterior angles, and jambs lintels and sills to 
 the doors windows and other openings, seems to add to the strength and security of the 
 wall, by preventing the small stones or bricks from being loosened by the weather or by 
 accident, and so dropping out. Hertce all doors and windows in such walls should be 
 surrounded by facings of some sort, or have the jambs sills or lintels splayed. Hence, 
 also, the propriety of quoin-stones at the angles or corners, of coping-stones to the gables, 
 of cut and dressed stones to the chimney-tops, and of larger stones to the plinths than 
 those generally used in the plain parts of the wall above them. In the case of earthen 
 walls, the jambs may be splayed, or both jambs and lintels may be faced with boards 
 or formed of brick carried up from the plinth. 
 
 4. Every stack of chimneys should consist of four parts : a plinth, which should be 
 distinctly seen above the roof; one or more base mouldings, or splayed weatherings 
 resting on the plinth ; a shaft rising from the base mouldings, of analogous pro- 
 portions to the doors and windows ; and a capital or cornice moulding and cap or 
 blocking, as a termination to tlie shaft. The materials of the chimney-tops ought 
 in general to be superior in quality to those of the walls ; for example, if the walls are 
 of rubble stone, the chimneys sliould be of stone s(juared and dressed. Wiien the walls 
 are of earth the entire stack of chimneys will, of course, be built of brick or stone. 
 
 5. When the flues of the chimneys are carried up in the outer wall, there ought 
 always to be a projection outwards in that wall, beneath tlie chimneys, carried up from 
 the ground, so as to give the necessary space for the flues, the strength of a buttress to 
 the wall, with a sufficient breadth for supi)orting the chimney-tops, and the architec- 
 tural expression of all these i)urposes. 
 
 6. Eaves-gutters, and ridge and hip coverings, with similar details essential as "finish- 
 ings," as well as for habitableness and comfort, should never be omitted. The eaves- 
 gutters should be properly supported by brackets, these being of stone or brick, except 
 in the case of earthen walls, where they ought to be of wood. 
 
 7. Over the front door or porch of every cottage, there ought to be a worked stone, 
 on which should be cut the name of the cottage, the initials of the first occupant, a 
 number, a sign, or some distinctive mark of the cottage, by which it may be registered 
 in the Book of the Estate. See § 2327. 
 
 8. In rendering cottages ornamental, the most important parts and members of 
 structure are those on which most decoration should be bestowed ; such as the porch, 
 entrance door, window of the principal room, upper parts of the gables, chimney-tops, 
 &c. : and, in ornamenting each particular part, the most important details of that part 
 should receive the highest degree of decoration ; for example, the hinges and latch or 
 lock of a door should be made richer than the muntings and styles, and the munt- 
 ings and styles richer than the ])anels ; and, hence, a door in which no ornament is be- 
 stowed on the latch or the hinges ougiit not to have the muntings, styles, or panels, 
 studded over with ornamental nail heads as is often done. 
 
 9. Nothing should be introduced in any design, however ornamental it may appear 
 to be, that is at variance with propriety, comfort, or sound workmanship. 
 
 2553. For the Labourers' Cottages on Estates managed by Agents, we would recom- 
 mend a tour of inspection by a competent person, and a Report drawn up on their 
 present state, and on the means of their improvement. The Report should include the 
 character of the surface soil and subsoil on which each particular cottage stands ; the state 
 of surface and underground drainage; the aspect of the different sides of the cottage, and its 
 shelter or exposure; the sources of water and of fuel ; the state of the back-yard, &c., if any ; 
 the state of the garden ; and the connexion of the cottage with the nearest public road. 
 The cottage itself ought next to be examined as to plan and accommodation, height of the 
 side wallsfthickness of the walls, roof and gutters, floor, windows, stair, fireplace, bed- 
 rooms, exterior appearance, &c. The Report should then point out the additions and 
 alterations necessary to render the cottage what it ought to be, illustrating these by 
 plans, sections, and sketches, and giving lists of fruit-trees and shrubs, where these are 
 wantino- for the garden. Would that we could hear of some of the first landed pro- 
 prietors in the country having such Reports made on the labourers' cottages, and the 
 school-houses, on their estates ! The practice would soon after become general, and 
 the good that would ultimately result to the cottager and his children, and the accession 
 of beauty, and appearance of comfort, to rural scenery, would be immense. 
 
GENERAL INDEX. 
 
 *#* Where the letter p. does not occur, \ is to be understood. 
 
 A. 
 
 Acres, a farm of 500, 1176, 1182; of 25, 1193; of 
 30, 1106. 
 
 Adjustment of construction to pecuniary means, 
 
 principle of, 2181. 
 Agreement for building a water-mill, 1250, 1252, 
 
 1254. 
 
 Agricultural manufactures, buildings for, 803. 
 Agriculturist's model cottage, 2243, 2248, 2253. 
 Alehouse of the smallest size, design for an, 1446. 
 Almshouses at Oving, 2427. 
 
 Alton Towers, valley-garden of, 1669 ; scenery of, 
 1669. 
 
 Ambulatory farmery, 1232. 
 Ambulatory cottages, 515. 
 American scrubbing-brush, 1384. 
 American stove, 1377. 
 
 Ancient style of architecture, how applied to 
 
 modern buildings, 2397. 
 Annat Cottage, near Errol, Perthshire, 2359. 
 Air-trap for cottages, 237, 502. 
 Apartment, every one should convey the idea of 
 
 its use, 523. 
 
 Apparatus for cooking by gas, 1415 and 2044 ; for 
 baking by hot water, "1511 ; by steam, 1510. 
 
 Approach-roads to villas, principles of laying out, 
 1647. 
 
 Approach to a villa, 1677. 
 Arabesque ornaments for villas, 2023. 
 Arbroath flagstone, 334. 
 Arcades, 16G5. 
 
 Architect, the great object of the, p. 4. 
 Architects, their efforts hitherto chiefly directed to 
 
 public buildings, 1. 
 Architects, the study of furniture necessary to, 
 
 p. 1. 
 
 Architects study more the expression of style than 
 
 the expression of use or purpose, p. 4. 
 Architecture, its use as a fine art, p. 2. ; the study 
 of its first principles necessary, p. 2. ; its 
 excellence the result of its principles, p. 4. 
 
 false expression in, 1861. 
 
 character in, 2219. 
 
 its leading principle, p. 4. 
 
 associations of Gothic, 1652; of Grecian, 1653. 
 
 of Italy, the landscape, 1657. 
 
 fitness in, 2179 ; the different styles of, 2225. 
 
 expression of end in, 2195. 
 
 founded upon and guided by utility, 400. 
 
 influence of, on taste and morals, 1 . 
 
 style of statues adapted to, 1997. 
 
 the merits of the pointed, 1873. 
 
 causes of the neglect of the pointed style in 
 villa, 1877. 
 
 of the Greeks, how applied to modern build- 
 ings, 2397. 
 
 novelty in, 2220 ; symmetry in, 2207 ; irregu- 
 larity in, 2208 ; simplicity in, 2209 ; propriety 
 in, 2210 ; proportion in, 2212; on the subject 
 of style in, 2232. 
 
 rustic, 2278. 
 
 heraldry as applied to ancient, p. 1226. 
 of Britain, defects of the villa, 1667. 
 application of cast-iron work to, 2525. 
 expression of character in cottage, 2349. 
 Architectural conservatories, 1952. 
 commode, 2543. 
 flower-garden, 1963. 
 gardens of villas, 1650. 
 ornaments for gardens, 1967. 
 style in the exterior finishings of villas, 1993. 
 
 Architectural dravdng, the study of, p. 2. 
 
 style in a farmery, 1224. 
 
 style relatively to natural situation, 1652. 
 Armorial sculptures on the exterior of villas, 
 2000. 
 
 Arithmetic frame, for schools, 1614. 
 
 Art, origin of, pref. v, ; the study required for 
 
 eminence in, pref. v. 
 Art of brickmaking, 1290. 
 Art, principles of criticism in, 2175. 
 Arts, the causes which have retarded their pro- 
 gress, pref. V. 
 novelty in the, 2220; terms of, 2221. 
 the influence of society on, pref. v. 
 Artificial cascades, 1971 ; stone, 1972 ; ruins, 1978. 
 Aspect in building, importance of considering, 
 1628. 
 
 Aspects, best, for cottages, 2237. 
 Asphalte, 2447. 
 
 Associations of Gothic architecture, 1652 ; of 
 
 Grecian, 1653. 
 Aviaries and menageries, 1949 ; at Cobham Hall, 
 
 1951 ; at Knowesly Hall, 1950. 
 
 B. 
 
 Bakehouse for farmeries, 727. 
 
 Baker's oven, improved form of, 1507, 1508 ; with 
 poultry-house over, 1508 ; improved form by 
 Mr. Hicks, 1509 ; for high-pressure steam, 1510; 
 by hot water, 1512 ; by gas, 1515. 
 
 Baker's patent mangle, 1381. 
 
 Baking bread, an oven for, 1,505. 
 
 Bar, the fixtures of the, 1458. 
 
 Bar of an inn, 1415. 
 
 Barge-boards for cottages, and other external or- 
 naments, 550. 
 
 Barley-chopper, or hummelling machine, 1402. 
 
 Barn for hay, 781 ; for maize, 782 ; for corn, 774. 
 
 Barns, fittings-up for, 1395. 
 
 Baronial house, design for a, 1819. 
 
 Bath-room, construction and arrangement of a, 
 2484. 
 
 Beau ideal villa, 1675. See English villa, beau 
 ideal of. 
 
 Beauty in architecture, which is the most essen- 
 tial, p. 5. 
 
 Beauty of certain villages in Britain, 2347 to 2349. 
 
 Beauties of irregular buildings, 117, 119, 120. 
 
 Bed-cupboard, 2132. 
 
 Bedding. See Cottage furniture. 
 
 Bed-room and dressing-room, furniture of, 2128. 
 
 Bed-rooms, proper colouring for, 2021. 
 
 Beds. See Cottage furniture. 
 
 Bed-room furniture, 2538. 
 
 Bed-rooms, ventilation of, 2477. 
 
 Bedsteads for villas, 2128. 
 
 Bed-steps, 2131. 
 
 Bee-houses for a farmery, 792. 
 
 Bell-hanging for cottages, 590 ; for inns, 1473 ; for 
 
 villas, 2069. 
 Bell turrets, 1931. 
 Billiard tables, 1856, 2081. 
 Blinds, 2515 to 2517. 
 Blinds, outside, for villas, 2002. 
 Boards, to prevent warping in, 2009. 
 Boarding floors of villas, manner of, 2009. 
 Boilers for cooking in inns, 1483 ; covers for, 1485. 
 Boilers for cottage washihouses, 598. 
 Boiling-houses, 1169. 
 Bookcases for villas, 2093, 2185. 
 Book-stands, 2121. 
 
1298 
 
 GENERAL INDEX. 
 
 Bothies, or lodges for single ploughmen, 1335, 
 1337. 
 
 Bowling-greens for inns, 1430. 
 Box-beds, use of, 133G. 
 
 Brandt's test for proving building stone, 2185. 
 Brechin, 1390. 
 
 Brewery for villas, by Mr. Vokins, 2050 ; by Messrs. 
 
 Cottam and Hallen, 2051 . 
 Brewhouse of farmeries, 728. 
 Brick-kiln, 1290. 
 
 Bricklayer's work for a water-mill, 1246. 
 Bricklayer's work of a farmery, 849, 868. 
 Bricklayer's work for a cottage, 234, 295, 464, 849 ; 
 
 for a farm, 868. 
 Bricks made of ornamental forms, 2442. 
 Bricks of the time of Henry VIII., 274. 
 Brick walls, modes of building, 2437. 
 Bridges for gardens, 1970. 
 Bridle for cows, 1390. 
 Britain, villas of, 1667. 
 Bronze, to imitate by painting, 551. 
 Bruges stove, 594, 23^13, 2.)31. 
 Buist's fan wire gate, 24S9. 
 Building stone, test for proving, 2185. 
 Building, in the cubic f(jrm, advantages of, 2184. 
 
 the i)icturesque m, 1660. 
 
 importance of considering aspect in, 1628. 
 
 the first Gothic, in Italy, 2229. 
 Building cottage walls of clay lumps, 2443. 
 Building cotUiges, essential rcquisiles in, 2242. 
 Building a Sunday-school, specification for, 2418. 
 Building a water-mill, agreement for, 1250, 12-'j2, 
 1254. 
 
 Building brick walls, 2437 to 2440. 
 Building walls, 2:V12. 
 
 Buildings, their influence on the mind, p. 3. 
 beauty of irregular, 117, 119, 120. 
 foundations of, 2433. 
 
 the application of ancient architecture to 
 
 modern, 2397. 
 farm, 2399 to 2413. 
 
 by fire, to lessen the destructibility of, 2189. 
 Italian, masonry of, 1926. 
 Buildings which Raphael and other eminent paint- 
 ers superintended, 1660. 
 Buildings in the jjointed style, expense of, 1H76. 
 Buildings for agricultural manufactures, 803 ; for 
 
 containing mills, 1237, 1214. 
 Bullet-proof blinds, 556. 
 Hurges's stove, 2(KiO. 
 
 Bury Hill farmery and farm-house, 846; specifica- 
 tion for, K49. 
 Busts in gardens, 1982. 
 
 C. 
 
 Calf-houses and cattle-sheds, fixtures for, 1390. 
 Calf-houses, models for, 760. 
 Caithness flagstone, 334. 
 Caithness stone and slate, 2503. 
 Candelabras, 2127. 
 
 Canopies to doors and windows of cottages, .561 . 
 Card-table, 2117, 2545. 
 
 Carpenter's and smith's yard for farmeries, 820. 
 Carpenter's and joiner's work of a farmery, 852, 
 
 869, 919, 983, 989, 1061, 1100, 1207. 
 Carpenter's and joiner's work for a water-mill, 1251. 
 Carpenter's shop and smithy for a farmery, 790. 
 Carpenter's work for a cottage, 238, 465, 852 ; for 
 
 a farm, 869, 9H3. 
 Carpets, the kinds most suitable to cottages, 681 ; 
 
 geographical, 683 ; substitutes for, 6S4. 
 Carpets, 2522. 
 
 Cascades for garden scenery, 1971. 
 Casino, 1810. 
 
 Cassiobury Park, cottages in, 2313 to 2323. 
 Castellated style, design for a villa in the, 1862. 
 Cast-iron gutters to roofs, 2453. 
 Cast-iron work, its application to architecture,2525. 
 Cast-iron bedstead, 1407. 
 Cattle-houses, models for, 756. 
 Cattle-sheds, models for, 761 to 763. 
 Cattle-sheds and calf-pen, fixtures for, 1390. 
 Causewaying, 1160, 1206. 
 Cellars of farmeries, 713 to 718. 
 Cements for stuccoing cottages, 527, 532. 
 Cement, Mulgrave. 228S. 
 
 Cement. Marlin s fire-proof, 2456 ; various kinds 
 of, 2501. 
 
 Cement floors for cottage bed-rooms, 24-56 to 24-59. 
 Ceilings of large rooms, 564 ; plaster ornaments 
 on, 568 
 
 Ceilings, groined and ribbed, 1897. 
 painted, p. 1221. 
 
 Cess-pools for liquid manure, construction of, 16. 
 
 Chadley's chimney-bar for cottages, 602. 
 
 Chailey, cottage villa at, 1823. 
 
 Chairs for a nursery, 2145; for drawingrooms, 
 2108, 2162, 2168 ; for dining-rooms of villas, 
 2086, 21,56 ; for halls of villas, 2078, 2152. 
 
 Character in architecture, 2219. 
 
 Cheese-press, 1380. 
 
 Cheese-room of farmeries, 732, 733. 
 
 Chequers Court, home lodge at, 2331 . 
 
 Chess-tables, 2120. 
 
 Cheval-glass, 2140. 
 
 Chiffoniers, 2113. 
 
 Chimney-glass, 2129. 
 
 Chimney-pieces for cottages, .588, 589. 
 
 Chimney-pieces for villas, 206.3. 
 
 Chimney-pots called tall-boys, 432, 463. 
 
 Chimney-tops, designs for, 1794. 
 
 Chimney-tops for cottages, 29, 64. 
 
 Chimney-tops and smoky chimneys, 2472, 2474. 
 
 Chimney-flues, 2383. 
 
 Chiswick, menagerie at, 1951. 
 
 Chubb's patent latches, 1598. 
 
 Church, the village, 1733. 
 
 Churns for farm dairies, 1380. 
 
 Cider. house, 7.35, SUI. 
 
 Cider-house, mill, and press, 1295, 1310. 
 
 Cider-press, 1295, 1318; implements, 1312; Kent's 
 cider-press, 1316; stirrer, 1313; scoop, 1315; 
 racking-can, 1319 ; tun-pail, 1320 ; dropping- 
 bag, 1321 ; botlling-bench, 1322 ; bottle-box, 
 1313. 
 
 Cinder-sifter, 13^5. 
 Cinder-sifter for a farm-house, 1385. 
 Circular stables, 1937. 
 Clamn-kiliis for burning bricks, 1292. 
 Claude's, picture of, 1660. 
 Clay hnnps, building with, 2443, 2445. 
 Clay floors, 2461. 
 Cleaning-place of farmeries, 723. 
 Climate, in building, importance of considering, 
 1625. 
 
 Closeburn Cottage, plan of, 22-59. 
 Coal, oven for, 1507- 
 
 Coal-house and wood-house of farmeries, 721. 
 
 Cob walls, mode of forming, 8.39. 
 
 Cobham Hall, aviaries at, 1951. 
 
 Coke instead of coal, burning lime with, 1283. 
 
 College for single working-men, 22.57. 
 
 Colouring of furniture, 642 to (M6 ; of rooms, 2013 ; 
 
 the interiors of cottages, 570 to 574. 
 Colourint:, external, 1904 ; defects in internal, 
 
 2014 ; tone of. 2016, 2388. 
 Colours of carpets, 6H2. 
 Colonnades of villas, 1665. 
 Columns, effect of, 1796. 
 
 Combinations of dwellings of the humblest class, 
 22.56, 2344. 
 
 Compositions for the exterior colouring of cottages, 
 
 534 to -541. 
 Concrete, 2433. 
 
 Conditions, specification, &c., for building a villa, 
 1802. 
 
 Conductors, lightning, 2190. 
 Conduits, 1 160, 1205. 
 
 Confectioners' cooking-hearths, how formed, 1502. 
 
 Conservatories, architectural, 19-52 ; aspect and 
 position, 1953 ; dimensions, 1954 ; mode of grow- 
 ing the plants, 19-55; construction, 1956; mode 
 of heating, 1957 ; architectural style, 19-58 ; 
 economical conservatory, 1959; detached con- 
 servatory, I960; conservatory at Alton Towers, 
 1960 ; conservatory not architectural, 1961 ; at 
 Britton Hall, 1961. 
 
 Consol-tables, 2110. 
 
 Constructing a cottage privy in connection with 
 
 a cess-pool or tank for liquid manure. 2482. 
 Construction and materials of cottages, 2342. 
 
 of ovens for roasting meat, 1-503. 
 
 of cess-pools for liquid manure, 16. 
 
 of fire-places and chimney-flues, 2191. 
 
 of flties for heating floors of cottages, 20, 34, 
 35, 489. 
 
 of a hop-kiln, 1278, 1288. 
 
 of an ice-house, 737. 
 
 of conservatories, 1956. 
 
 of cottages, 25, 57, 62, 74, 103, 512 ; of farms, 
 999, 1024, 1155. 
 Construction and arrangement of a bath-room, 
 2484. 
 
GENERAL INDEX. 
 
 1299' 
 
 Cooking and heating by gas, 1445, 2044. 
 Cooking-hearths of confectioners, how formed, 
 1502. 
 
 Cooking-stoves for cottages, 594. 
 
 Cooling and ventilating in warm climates, 2479. 
 
 Cooperation of the working classes promoted by 
 
 combining tiieir dwellings, 2256. 
 Copper conductors of lightning the best, 2190. 
 Copper cramps, why preferred to iron, 1.599. 
 Coppice-wood chips, roofs made of, 2239, 2279. 
 Corn yard, 808. 
 Corn-mill, portable, 1404. 
 
 Corn-mills, 797; to be driven by water, 1240 ; by 
 
 wind, 12.56. 
 Cornices for cottages, 505. 
 
 Corrugated iron for roofs and other parts of con- 
 struction in farm buildings, 420. 
 Cottage, ambulatory, 615 ; ambulatory and co- 
 operative, 516.1 
 one constructed of turf, and lined with brick, 
 386. 
 
 at Chingford, in Essex, 438. 
 
 building, as generally practised, 400. 
 
 English, for ploughmen, 1341. 
 
 French, for ploughmen, requisites of, according 
 
 to Morel- Vinde, 1361 ; construction of the 
 
 oven and warming-stove, 1362. 
 for ploughmen, by Mr. Marriage, 1368. 
 ovens, how to form, 1.3.56. 
 portable, for emigrants, .509 ; sent to the Swan 
 
 River by Mr. Manning, 513 ; used as a 
 
 substitute for a country residence on the 
 
 banks of the Thames, 514. 
 villa in the Gothic style, 1759 ; at Edinburgh, 
 
 1776. 
 
 covering tiles for, 1368. 
 colleges, 486, 493. 
 decayed, improvement of, 359. 
 for a village tradesman, 362. 
 ovens, 596. 
 
 of one story, design for, 16, 43, 474 ; of two 
 stories, 47. 
 
 plan of the Closeburn, 2259 ; of Holkham, 2265, 
 
 the essential requisites for a labourer's, 2242. 
 
 a Cyclopean, 2328. . 
 
 architecture, remarks on, 2349. 
 
 in the stylo of the Wingfield station-house, on 
 
 the North Midland Railway, 2290. 
 in the style of the Eckington Railway station, 
 
 2292. 
 
 in the modern Italian styles, 2294. 
 in the style of the Belper Railway station, 2296. 
 in the style of the Ambergate Railway station, 
 2298. 
 
 in the style of Heriot's Hospital, Edinburgh, 
 2307. 
 
 in the Gothic style, for an upper servant, 2336. 
 
 in the old English style, 2340, 2362. 
 
 villas and villas, designs for, 2350. 
 
 fittings-up and furniture, 2343. 
 Cottages, designs for, exhibiting the greatest com- 
 fort and convenience, 14. 
 
 castellated, 164, 439 ; Indian, 171 ; Elizabethan, 
 164, 310, 320; Scotch, 455; in the Gothic 
 style, 1759. 
 
 cooperative, 308. 
 
 double, observations on, 370. 
 
 erected at Shooter's Hill, 480 ; at Abersythan, 
 481. 
 
 external ornaments for, 1368. 
 
 exterior finishings of, 517, 526 ; interior finish- 
 ing of, 518, 564. 
 
 fitting up of, 519, 686 ; fixtures of, 520, 591. 
 
 fpr farm labourers, competition, plans for, sent 
 in to the Highland Society of Scotland, 1368, 
 
 for ploughmen, fixtures and furniture for, 
 1406. 
 
 for ploughmen of the Carse of Gowrie, 1335. 
 for ploughmen, specification for, 1351. 
 for farm servants, 795. 
 
 for lodging horses and cattle in the ground 
 
 floor, 203. 
 for milestones, 142. 
 for Northumberland farmeries, 988. 
 furniture of, 521. 
 
 heating the floors of, by steam, 1334. 
 
 heating of, from the back of the kitchen fire, 
 314 ; heating of, from the back of the par- 
 lour fire, 340, 
 
 on the Duke of Buccleugh's estate, in Dum- 
 friesshire, 266 ; in Wigtonshire, 260. 
 
 illustration of expression in, 60. 
 
 Cottages, principles in finishing and furnishing, 523 
 ornamenting them by means of vegetation, 563. 
 designs for, in various styles, 54 to 516. 
 construction and materials of, 2342. 
 on platforms, advantages of placing, 2237. 
 by the road-side, position of, 2237. 
 in villages, 2344. 
 
 why their front should be placed obliquely to 
 the road, 2237. 
 
 training fruit-trees against, 2252, 2356. 
 
 built in woods, chimneys of, 2473. 
 
 in Northumberland described, 2233 : in Bed- 
 fordshire, 2233, 
 Cottages in Cassiobury Park, plans of, 2314 to 
 2323 ; the best aspects for, 2237 ; gardens to 
 2241 ; composition floors of, 2239. ' 
 Cottam's iron field-gate, 2488. 
 Couches, 2104. 
 Country school, 1.572. 
 Country seats of the Italians, 1660. 
 Covered seats for gardens, 1769. 
 Covering walls with vines or fruit trees, 2356 
 Cow-houses, models for, 757 to 759. 
 Cow-house, situation of, 2235. 
 Cowell's sash-suspender, 2513. 
 Creosote, preservation of wood by, 2507. 
 Cribs for villas, 2144. 
 
 Criticism of design in cottages, 366, 370, 371 
 
 Criticism, principles of, in architecture, 2175 • 
 analytical criticism, 2176 ; synthetical, 2176 • 
 fitness, 2179 ; of purpose, 2180 ; of construction! 
 2181,; .m strength and durability, 2182; mortar 
 2186; solidity, 2187; preservation from decay' 
 2187; from fire, 2188; expression of purpose 
 2195; of style, 2201. 1 "rpose, 
 
 Cubic form in building, advantages of, 2184 
 
 Cubitt's patent mill sails, 955. 
 
 Cubitt's improvements in roofing, 2450. 
 
 Cupboards, rising, for inns, 1457 ; rising cupboard 
 used by confectioners, 1457 ; in large inns, 1457. 
 
 Cupboards, corner, for cottages, 617. 
 
 Cupboard, bed, 2132. 
 
 Curb for well, 238. 
 
 Curtains, modes of hanging, 2623. 
 
 Cyclopean cottage, 2328. 
 
 D. 
 
 Dairy and poultry-house at S}Tidal House 1947 • 
 at Alnwick Castle, 1948. 
 
 furniture, fittings-up, &c., 1380. 
 
 of farmeries, 729 to 731. 
 Dahy lodge, erected at Chequers Court, Bucks, 
 
 Dalmeny cottages, remarks on the, 2264. 
 Damp in cottages, modes of preventing, 2237 2435 
 Decoration of villas, 1994. 
 Decoration, principles of, 2005. 
 
 of rooms, 2395. 
 Demesne and park of beau ideal villa, 1734. 
 Derby Railway terminus, 2299. 
 Designing cottages, architect's fee for, 254. 
 Designs, the guiding principle in, p. 6. 
 
 objects in the composition of, 15. 
 
 for buildings, use of, to an architect, 3. 
 
 for parochial schools, 1516. 
 
 for model cottages, 2234 to 2255. 
 
 for ornamental cottages, 2276 
 
 for cottage villas and villas, 2350. 
 Devenports, 2114. 
 
 Dining-room, proper colouring for, 2018. 
 
 Dining-tables for villas, 2085. 
 
 Dog-kennels at Garth, 1945 ; for farmeries, 793 
 
 Door hinges for cottages, 70, 84, 210, 317. 
 
 Door, to prevent the slamming of a passage 2471 
 
 Doors of cottages, 2462, &. 
 
 Doors of cottages, to render ornamental, 551. 
 
 of the rooms of villas, 2067. 
 Double cottage for two upper servants, 2338. 
 Drainage of a farmery, 821 to 825. 
 Drain to cow-house, 759. 
 Drain, Hitch's brick, 2441. 
 Drains, an air and vermin trap for, 2499. 
 Drawingroom, interior of, 2131 . 
 
 furniture of, 2104. 
 Drawingroom of a villa, 1684, 1850; seats, 2544. 
 Dressers and sideboards for inns, 1469. 
 Dressing-room and bed-room, furniture of, 2132. 
 Dressing-tables, 2138. 
 Dressing-table with a bag drawer, 2542. 
 Drying-closet for cottages, 306. 
 Drying-closets for villas, 2053. 
 
1300 
 
 GENERAL INDEX. 
 
 Drying-shed for farmeries, 734. 
 Dryness in cottages, modes of insuring, 2237. 
 Dry rot in timber, cause and cure of, 524. 
 Dwellings, their improvement, beneficial to so- 
 ciety, p. 1. 
 
 provisions for the fittings-up and fixtures of, 
 
 525. 
 
 Dwelling-houses and offices, gardens on the roofs 
 of, 1963. 
 
 Dwelling-rooms of villas, fittings-up and fixtures 
 of, 2054. 
 
 Dwellings of the humblest class, 2256. 
 
 Eaves-trough for cottage roofs, 2452. 
 Ecarte table, 2119. 
 
 Edifice, the employment of style in an, 2224. 
 Edinburgh reform mangle, 1381. 
 Egyptian ornaments for villas, 2024. 
 Effect of towers, 1662 ; of columns, 1796. 
 Elevation of a villa relative to scenery, 1626. 
 Elizabethan cottage, 310 ; furniture, 2169 to 2172 ; 
 
 interiors, 2173. . 
 Elizabethan furniture for villas, 2168 ; chairs, 
 
 2169 ; tables, 2170. 
 Elizabethan style, 2308. 
 Emigrants, portable cottage for, 509. 
 Engine-house to farm, 1094. 
 
 English villa, beau ideal of, 1675 ; situation, 1676; 
 approach, 1677 ; architecture, 167H; gardening, 
 1679 ; porch, 16H0; entrance-hall, 1681 ; gallery, 
 1682 ; saloon, 1683 ; drawingroom, 16h4; library, 
 1685 ; dining-room, 1686 ; study. 1687 ; staircase, 
 1688 ; upper gallery, 1689 ; bed-rooms, WM ; 
 nurseries, 1691 ; governess's sitting-room, 1692 ; 
 servants' bed-room. 1693 ; housemaid's closet, 
 1694 ; bath-room, 1695 ; servants' offices, 1696; 
 housekeeper's room, 1697 ; still-room, 1698 ; 
 store-closet, 1699; china-closet, 1700; butler's 
 pantry, 1701 ; servants hall, 1702 ; men's washing 
 and dressing closet, 1703 ; knife and shoe cle;ming 
 place, 1704 ; kitchen, 1705 ; scullery, 1706 ; lar- 
 ders, 1707 ; salting-room, 1708 ; smoking-room, 
 1709 ; wash-house, 1710; kitchen court and its 
 appurtenances, 1711; cellars. 1712; ice-house, 
 1714; stable offices, 1715; dop-kennel, 1721 ; 
 kitchen-garden, 1723 ; pleasur«'-gardcn, 1724 ; 
 farm, 1726, 1729 ; dairy, 1728; village, 1732 ; de- 
 mesne, 1734 ; appendages to, 1934. 
 
 Entrance-lodges and gates, 1987. 
 
 Estimate for a farmery, 8.56, 1078, 1128, 1146, 1199. 
 
 Estimates for cottages of various styles, 40, 58, 67, 
 71, 88 to 97, 116, 124, 146. 24.5, 2.'j3, 441 to 4.50. 
 
 Essay on Gothic architecture, by Mr. Trottman, 
 1871 to 1907. 
 
 Evaporatory refrigerating apparatus, 2043. 
 
 Excavator's work of a farmery, 849, 868, 908. 
 
 Expression in cottages, illustrated, 60. 
 
 Expression of end in architecture, 2195 ; of ad- 
 quate construction, 2200. 
 
 Expression of character in cottages, 2349. 
 
 F. 
 
 Fan wire gate, 2489. , „ ^ , 
 
 Farm house, model plan of, 740 ; larger plan, 741 ; 
 French model farm house, 742. 
 
 Farm house and offices, finishings, fittings-up, and 
 furniture for, 1369 ; recesses for cupboards, clo- 
 sets, and pantries, 1372 ; parlour fireplace and 
 grate, 1373 ; furniture for the living and sleepmg- 
 rooms, 1374 ; Vokins's bookcase, 1374 ; Saul's 
 bookcase and writing-desk clock, 1375 ; farm- 
 house sideboards, 1376; kitchens, 1377 ; tables, 
 1377 ; kitchen-ranges, 1377 ; back-kitchen furni- 
 ture and fixtures, 1378 ; washing-machine, 1381 ; 
 mangle, 1381 ; brewhouse fixtures and furniture, 
 1382 ; cider-house, 1383; cleaning house, 1384 ; 
 cinder-sifters, 1385. 
 
 Farm houses and farmeries, designs for, 703 ; model 
 designs, 709. 
 
 Farmeries, miscellaneous designs for, 845 ; Bury 
 Hill farm and bailifTs house, 846 ; Halstone farm 
 house and farmery, 882 ; Gatestack farm house 
 and farmery, 885 ; farm house and farmery in 
 Buckinghamshire, 888; in Ayrshire, 891 ; at In- 
 glestone, 894 ; at Alton, 896 ; at Grebten, 900 ; 
 in Dumfriesshire, 902 ; at Riddenwood, 904 ; in 
 Norfolk, with a windmill attached, 954 •, in North- 
 
 umberland, 956 ; at Cocklaw East Farm, 960 ; 
 at Newnham Barns, 964 ; in Northumberland, 
 for fourteen ploughs, 968 ; for three ploughs, 975 ; 
 at Hallington New-houses, 977 ; Calley, 997; 
 French farmery, 1001 ; Chalfont Lodge, 1019; 
 farmery in Strathmore, 1026; in the Car.se of 
 Gowrie, 1029; of Harleston, 1033; in the West 
 Highlands, 1041 ; in the west of Scotland. 1045 ; 
 in Koss-shire, 1048; in the parish of Tarbet, 
 1051; Greendykes, 1085 ; Elcho Castle, 1130; 
 for a publican and a butcher, 1149 ; for a cheese 
 dairy, 1152; for a mixed stock farm in a hilly 
 country, 1154; for a garden farm, 1173; for a 
 farm of .500 acres, 1176 ; for a dairy farm of 500 
 acres, 1182; for a breeding and feeding farm, 
 1 190 ; for a cottage farm of 25 acres, 1 193 ; for a 
 cottage farm of 30 acres, 1196 ; a farmery dis- 
 playing architectural taste, 1220 ; temporary, 
 portable, and ambulatory farmeries, 1229. 
 
 Farmeries, finishings, fittings-up, fixtures, and 
 furniture for, 1387 ; chimney-tops for the steam- 
 engines of threshing-machines, 1387 ; chimney- 
 tops for ploughmen's cottages, 1387 ; internal 
 finishings of stables, 1389; harness pegs, 1389; 
 gruel troughs, pails, and other utensils, 1389 ; 
 cow-house fixtures and furniture, 1390 ; Nor- 
 mandy kitchen, 1390; piggeries, 1392; rabbit, 
 poultry, and pigeon houses, 1394 ; barns, 1395; 
 steam threshing-machine, 1395 ; saw-mills, 1400 ; 
 portable threshing-machines, 1401 ; corn-mills, 
 1402 ; steaming apparatus, 1405 ; furniture and 
 fixtures for single ploughmen's rooms, 1407. 
 
 Farmeries, situation for, 833, 834 ; size of, 835 ; 
 position of the farm house, 836 ; materials of, 
 838 ; roofs, 843 ; details of construction, 844. 
 
 Farmeries, temporary, portable, and ambulatory, 
 1229 ; to convert monasteries, manufactories, 
 and other buildings into, 1234. 
 
 Farmeries, yards for, 807 ; corn-yard, 808 ; rick- 
 yard, 80«t to 816 ; hay-yard, 817 ; dung-yard, 818 ; 
 poultry-yard, 819; carpenter and smith's yard, 
 820. 
 
 Farmery, details of the various parts of, 744. 
 extra buildings for, 796. 
 
 Farm buildings, designs for, 2399 to 2413. 
 
 Farm-yard, on the management of the, 2411 ; at 
 Goodwoml, 2412 ; at Putteridgebury, Bedford- 
 shire, 2413. 
 
 Feeding-houses, 1019 ; feeding-byre, 1136. 
 
 Fenders, 678. 
 
 Field-gate, 828, 829, 830. 
 
 Fields, gates for, 827, 828, 829, 830, 
 
 Filtering water, 2481. 
 
 Filtering of water for cottages, 30, 305. 
 
 Filtering-machine, 698. 
 
 Filteriiig-m.ichine for villas, 2077. 
 
 Fireplaces for iims, 14-^8. 
 
 Fireproof houses, general remarks on, 1809. 
 
 Fireproof kitchen ceiling, 1803. 
 
 Fire-irons, 679. 
 
 Fire, protection against, by public institutions, 
 1793. 
 
 Fireproof villa, 1781 ; Mr. Varden's plan for ren- 
 dering villas fire-proof, 1787 ; Mr. Frost's plan, 
 1788 ; French method, 1789; to render common 
 houses fire-proof, 1790 ; to render houses already 
 built comparatively fire-proof, 1791 ; to render 
 any building completely fire-proof, 1792. 
 
 Fire-screens, 2128 ; for the dinmg-rooms of villas, 
 2089. 
 
 Fire-place for a cottage, a simple and economical, 
 600. 
 
 Fire-places, the manner in which fenders are fitted 
 to, 2526. 
 
 Fire-place for cottages, Saul's improved, 2533. 
 Fireproof floors and partitions, 2496. 
 Fitness in architecture, 2179 to 2194. 
 Fittings-up and fixtures of the dwelling-rooms of 
 
 villas, 2054. 
 Fittings-up and furniture to cottages, 2343. 
 Fixed comer cupboards for cottages, 617. 
 Fixed dressers for cottages, 614. 
 Fixed rat-trap, 1407. 
 
 Fixed washhand-basins, washing-troughs, and 
 
 slabs for cottages, 608. 
 Fixtures for cottages, .591; kitchen-ranges, 592; 
 cooking-stoves, 594 ; warming-stoves, .595 ; ovens, 
 596 ; wash-house boilers, 598 ; parlour and bed- 
 room grates, 599 ; American stoves, 603 ; sinks, 
 607 ; fixed washhand-basins, washing-troughs 
 and slabs, 608 ; towel-roller, 609 ; towel-rail, 
 610; hat and cloak-pins, 611; iron hand-mill. 
 
GENERAL INDEX. 
 
 1301 
 
 612 ; ironing-boards and flaps, G13 ; dressers, 614 ; 
 corner cupboards, 617. 
 Flagstone, Arbroath or Caithness, 334. 
 Floors of cottages, formation and ornament of, .585. 
 of villas, manner of boarding, 2009 ; of in- 
 laying, 2010. 
 Flour-mill, portable, 1402. 
 Flower-garden, 1962 ; architectural, 1963. 
 Flower-stands, 21 2u. 
 
 Flues for heating the floors of cottages, con- 
 struction of, 20, 34, 489. 
 Folding register-stove, 14.58. 
 Fountains for garden scenery, 1972. 
 French cottage for ploughmen, 1361. 
 French farm-house, 1008; French farmery, 1011. 
 Fruit-rooms of farmeries, 717. 
 Fruit-trees, how to train against cottages, 2252. 
 Fuller's ice-box, 2-536. 
 
 Furniture and furnishing of cottages, 620 ; side- 
 boards, 622 ; dumb waiters, 623 ; bookcases, es- 
 crutoires, secretaries, or bureaus, 624 ; book- 
 shelves, 625 ; wardrobes, 626 ; chests of drawers, 
 627 ; kitchen tables, 629 ; parlour tables, 630 ; 
 bed-room tables, 631 ; seats, 632 ; stools, 633 ; 
 footstools, 634 ; forms, 635 j benches, 636 ; chairs, 
 637 ; lobby chairs, 638 ; kitchen chairs, 639 ; 
 parlour chairs, 640, 647, 648 ; bed-room chairs, 
 649 ; sofas, 6.50 ; sofa-beds, 651 ; beds of various 
 sorts, 652; folding camp-beds, 653 ; stump 
 bedsteads, 6-54 ; couch beds, 6.57 ; box-beds, 658 ; 
 French beds, 659 ; tent-beds, 660 ; four-post 
 bedsteads, 661 ; cribs, 662 ; bedding, 663 ; sub- 
 stitutes for stuffing cottage-beds, 664 ; wire- 
 springs, 665 ; air-beds and cushions, 666 ; hy- 
 drostatic beds, 66r ; bed-furniture, 663 : window- 
 curtains, 669 to 672 ; window blinds, 673 to 
 675 ; looking-glasses, 676 ; dressing-glasses, 677 ; 
 fenders, 678 ; carpets and their substitutes, 680 
 to 685; hearth-rugs, 686; floor-cloths. 687 ; 
 mats, 688 ; ^scrapers, 689 ; hat and umbrella- 
 
 • stands, 691 ; towel-horse, 692 ; clock-cases, 693 ; 
 folding screen, 694 ; lire-screens, 695 ; clothes- 
 horses and stands for brushing coats, 696 ; 
 children's furniture, 697 ; other articles of cottage 
 furniture, 698 ; pictures, sculptures, and other 
 internal ornaments, 699. 
 
 Furniture for inns, 1470. 
 
 of villas, 2071 ; of villa offices, 2074 ; for halls, 
 &c., 2078. 
 
 Gothic, for villas, 2147 ; Elizabethan, 2168. 
 Furniture, bed-room, 2.538. 
 Flint walls, 331. 
 Floor-cloths, painted, 687. 
 Floors of cottages, composition, 2239. 
 Floors of cement, 24.57 to 2459 ; of clay, 2461. 
 Footstool, 2544. See Furniture. 
 Foundations of buildings, 2433. 
 Foundation walls, preventing dampness in, 2434. 
 
 G. 
 
 Gable-ends to Scotch cottages, 455. 
 
 Gates and entrance-lodges, 1987. 
 
 Gates for farm-yards and fields, 827 ; Buchanan's 
 field-gate, 828 ; Cottam and Hallen's field-gate, 
 829 ; the Closeburn field-gate, 830 ; gates to 
 open by machinery, 831 ; a gate with a puzzle- 
 latch, 832. 
 
 Gates of farmeries, 953. 
 
 Gate-lodge, design for a, p. 1180. 
 
 in the Swiss style, design for, 2281. 
 
 Gate-lodge or cottage, design for a, 2324, 2329. 
 
 Gate-lodges and gates at Chatsworth, 2300. 
 
 Gate-lodge and gates, design for a, 2286, 2288. 
 
 Gates to a lodge, design for, 2286 ; field, 2488 ; fan 
 wire, 2489. 
 
 Gate-stopper, 2490. 
 
 Gardens, rules for laying out architectural, 1650 ; 
 
 the Italian architectural, 1651. 
 Garden, value of liquid manure to a, 2237. 
 Garden structures, 1967. 
 Gardener's house, model of, 1751. 
 Gardens on the roofs of dwelling-houses and 
 
 oflSces, 19G3. 
 Garden hedges to cottages, 2241. 
 Garrets, ladder for cottage, 180. 
 Gas, apparatus for boiling water by, in inns, 1445. 
 Gas cooking-apparatus, by Hicks, 1445 ; by Mallet, 
 
 2041. 
 
 Gas-lighting the rooms of villas, 2055. 
 Gas cooking-stove, 2380. 
 
 Gas, house lighted by, 2381. 
 Geographical carpets, 683. 
 German stove, 2058. 
 Gilding in decorating villas, 2025. 
 Gladstone's improvement on the threshing-ma- 
 chine, 1399. 
 
 Glazier's, painter's, and plumber's work for a 
 
 wdter-mill, 12.53. 
 Glazier's, plumber's, and painter's work for a 
 
 farmery, 854. 
 Glazier's work for a cottage, 241, 298 ; for a farm, 
 
 870. 
 
 Goat-houses, 768. 
 
 Gothic architecture, essay on, by Mr. Trotman, 
 1871 to 1907. 
 
 Gothic architecture, as adapted to farmeries, 837. 
 
 Gothic furniture, 2147 ; for the hall, 21-i9 ; for the 
 parlour and dining-room, 2154 ■ for the library, 
 2158; for the drawingroom, 2162; for bed- 
 rooms, 216G. 
 
 Gothic architecture, associations of, 1652. 
 
 Gothic style, small villas in the, 2370. 
 
 Gothic style, 2398. 
 
 Gothic villa, suited to the suburbs of a large town, 
 
 design for a, 2394. 
 Gothic furniture, remarks on, 2395. 
 Granary, model for, 778 ; French granary, 779. 
 Granary windows, 1117. 
 
 Grass-plots for drying clothes for cottagers, form- 
 ation of, 1S8. 
 
 Grates for cottage parlours and bed-rooms, 599, 
 600, 601, 692. 
 
 Grecian architecture, associations of, 16-53; re- 
 marks on the characters of, 2397, 2398. 
 
 Grecian style, 2226. 
 
 Grecian and Gothic style, compared, 1653. 
 Grecian forms and character to modern purposes, 
 
 the application of, 2397. 
 Grecian villa, design for a, 1737. 
 Groined ceilings, 1895, 1897, 
 Grounds to a villa, planting of the, 1748, 
 Guttering for cottages, 180, 190. 
 Gutters between roofs, mode of preventing the 
 
 snow, when thawing, from penetrating the roof, 
 
 1350. 
 
 Gutters to roofs, cast-iron, 2453; of wood, 2452. 
 
 H. 
 
 Half-timbered houses, remarks on, 2279. 
 
 Hall, Cobham, aviary at, 1951 ; Knowesly, 1950. 
 
 Halls, Gothic furniture for, 2149. 
 
 Hand-mill for cottages, 612. 
 
 Hanging of pictures in villas, 2062. 
 
 Hangings for the rooms of villas, 2012. 
 
 Harness-room for a farmeiy, 787. 
 
 Harlaxton, village of, 2349. 
 
 Harmony of colours, 2013. 
 
 Hat and cloak -pins for cottages, 611. 
 
 Heating and cooking by gas, 1445. 
 
 Heating cottages by hot w ater, 306, 498 ; Perkins's 
 
 method, 500 ; by steam, 498. 
 Heating the rooms of villas, 2056. 
 Heating conservatories, mode of, 19.57. 
 Heating, modes of, 2509. 
 Hedge ale-house, design for, 1446. 
 Hedges for cottage-gardens, 128. 
 Height in building determined by the character of 
 
 the country, 1626. 
 Heraldic ornaments, remarks on the application 
 
 of, p. 1225. 
 Heriot's Hospital, Edinburgh, 2308. 
 Hewn-work, 1089, 1204. 
 
 Hicks's improved oven, 1-509, 1510 ; apparatus for 
 
 cooking by gas, 1515. 
 Hilly country, a mixed stock farm in a, 1154. 
 Hitch's patent rebated brickwoik, 2440. 
 
 patent brick walls, 2342. 
 History of pointed architecture, 1881 to 18S5. 
 Hinges, door, for cottages, 70, 84, 210, 317. 
 Hinge for a jib-door, 2494. 
 Hollow walls, 25, 336 to 340. 
 
 Hop-kilns, 799 ; as constructed at Farnham, 1270 ; 
 
 as improved by Read, 1272. 
 Hotel at Weybridge, Surrey, 2432. 
 Hope's villa, 1668. 
 
 Hospital, Heriot's, at Edinburgh, 2308. 
 
 Houses, remarks on fireproof, 1809. 
 
 House for a land-steward, 2389. 
 
 House in the town and a house in the country 
 
 compared, 1655. 
 
 7 R 
 
1302 
 
 GENERAL INDEX. 
 
 House, Sir John Robison's, Randolph Crescent 
 
 Edinburgh, 2:J78. 
 House, circumstances which influence the position 
 
 of a, 1642. 
 
 Houses for horned cattle, 756 ; for working oxen, 
 
 764 ; for sheep, 766. 
 Houses, half-timbered, 2279. 
 House-fly, the Italian mode of excluding it from 
 
 apartments, 2528. 
 
 Ice-box, 2536. 
 
 Ice-house, 736 to 738. 
 
 Implements for a cyder-press, 1312. 
 
 Implements of a barn, 1402. 
 
 Infant schools, models of, 1512, 1523, 1614. 
 
 Inlaid floors, 2010. 
 
 Inn, design for, in the Italian style, 1422, 1438, 
 1450; in the Gothic style, 1426; in the Italian 
 Gothic manner, 1434 ; in the old English style, 
 1442 ; hedge alehouse, 1446; in the Swiss style, 
 1452. 
 
 Inns and public-houses, principles for designing, 
 1413. 
 
 Inns, appendages to, 1417 ; garden, 1417, 1423, &c. ; 
 skittle-ground, 142'J ; bowling-green, 1430 ; tea- 
 garden, 1431. 
 
 Inns, finishing, fittings-up, and furniture for, 1460 ; 
 general store-room, 1460 ; larders, 1461 ; napkin- 
 press, 1460; cast-iron wine-bins, 1462 ; bottling 
 and corking machine, 1463 ; Mallet's air-peg for 
 ale and beer-casks, \-H'>3; washing and wrniging- 
 machine, 14(i4 ; drying-closet, 146(); water-closet, 
 1467 ; cleaning-shed 146H; heatin>;-slove, 1471 ; 
 apparatus for lighting by gas, 1472 ; system of 
 bells and speaking-pipes, 1473 ; descending table, 
 1474 ; system of distributing water, bath, 1476 ; 
 Anglo-American stove, 1477 ; chairs of cast and 
 wrought iron, 1477 ; benches and tables, 1477 ; 
 other articles, 147H and 147't. 
 
 Inns, fittings-up and .ixtures for, 1443 ; bar, coun- 
 ter, beer, and spirit apparatus, 1443 ; gascooking- 
 api)aratus, 1445 ; water-closet, 1453, 1467 ; for 
 the bar, 1456 ; rising cupboards, 1457 ; folding 
 register-grates, 1458 ; sinks, 14.V.» ; side-tables 
 and dressers, 145'J ; for the store-room and 
 larder, 1460,11461 ; cellars, 1463 ; washing and 
 wringing-machine, 1464, 14()5 ; for the laundry, 
 1466; cleaning-house, 1468 ; baths, 1470. 
 
 Inns of Germany and other countries, 1410; of 
 recreation, 1410; model designs for inns, 1413; 
 accommodations for the house, 1414 ; of the bar 
 or ollice, 1415; of the stable-court, 1416; of the 
 grounds, 1417. 
 
 Inns, situations for, 1419 ; style of, 1420. 
 
 Interiors of rooms in the Grecian style, 2091, 2103, 
 2131 ; in the Gothic style, 2157, 2161, 2165; in 
 the Elizabethan style, 2173. 
 
 Interior composition, suitableness of pointed ar- 
 chitecture for, 1K74. 
 
 Iron-boards and fixed flaps for cottages, 613. 
 
 Irregular buildings, beauties of, 117, 119, 120, 2208. 
 
 Iron bedsteads, cast, 1407. 
 
 Iron hand-mill for cottages, 612. 
 
 Iron sheep-rack, 1393. 
 
 Iron, preventing rust in, 2.508. 
 
 Iron roofs for cottages. 419 ; corrugated, 420. 
 
 Italian architects worked on the principles of the 
 painter, 1121 . 
 
 Italian villas, 1659. 
 
 Italian architecture, observations on, by Mr. Lamb, 
 
 1918 to 19.32. 
 Italian villa, 2391. 
 
 Italian styles, design for a cottage in the modern, 
 2294. 
 
 Italian style of architecture, characteristics of, 
 1933. 
 
 Italy, villas of, 1657 ; landscape architecture of, 
 1658. 
 
 Jeakes, his mode of fitting up stewing-hearths in 
 
 kitchens, 1501. 
 Jerningham, rich Gothic mansion at, 1865. 
 Joiner's and carpenter's work of a farmery, 852, 869, 
 
 919, 983, 989, 1064, 1100, 1207. 
 Joiner's work for a cottage, 239, 297, 445, 852, 983 ; 
 
 for a school, 1-584. 
 
 K. 
 
 Keeper's lodge at Bluberhouses, 2333. 
 
 Kilns for malt. 1262; for hops, 1270, 1272 ; for lime, 
 
 12S1 ; for bricks or tiles, and other purposes, 1290. 
 Kilns for malt, 798 ; for hops, 799 ; for general 
 
 purposes, 800. 
 Kinzigthal, cottages in, 205. 
 
 Kitchen-range in use near Leamington in War- 
 wickshire, 2029. 
 
 Kitchen-ranges and cooking-apparatus for inns, 
 1481 ; for cottages, 592. 
 
 Kitchen-ranges with baking and roasting ovens, 
 1504. 
 
 Kitchens of inns, finishings, fittings-up, and fixtures 
 for, 1480. 
 
 Kitchens of villas, fittings-up, and fixtures for, 
 
 2029 ; a kitchen, by Mr. Mallet, 2030. 
 Kitchens, principles and rules for fitting up, as laid 
 
 down by Count Kumford, 14H2 to 1500; practice 
 
 usual in London, 1501. 
 Kitchen fireplace for cottages, improvements in, 
 
 2().')5. 
 
 Kitchen-garden of a villa, 1646. 
 Kitchen-range, improved, 2632. 
 Knife-board, 1384. 
 
 L. 
 
 Labourers' cottages, 334, ;)S5. 
 Labourers' cottages in Bedfordshire, 2233 
 Labourer's cottage, the essential requisites for a, 
 2242. 
 
 Ladder for cottage garrets, 180. 
 
 Ladies, how they may educate themselves in archi- 
 tecture, and influence which that will have on 
 art, 1. 
 
 Lady's work-table, 2115. 
 Lancisterian schools, 1611. 
 
 Landscape architecture of Italy, specimens of, 1658. 
 
 Landscape drawing, the study of, p. 2. 
 
 Landscape-gardening, as connected with build- 
 ings, 9 ; how it may be acquired by an architect, 
 1674. 
 
 Land-steward's house, design for a, 2389. 
 
 Larder and pantry of farmeries, 719 ; of inns, 1461 . 
 
 Latches, Chubb's patent, 1598. 
 
 Latch, a gate, 2491. 
 
 Lath and plaster partitions, 2495. 
 
 Laundry of farmeries, 726. 
 
 Laying out villages, 2347. 
 
 Laxton's cinder-sifter, 1385. 
 
 Library, interior of, 2161. 
 
 Library furniture for villas, 2092, 21.58. 
 
 Library tables for villas, 2095, 2160. 
 
 Library, proper colouring for, 2020. 
 
 Lighting the rooms of villas by gas, 20.5.5, 2381. 
 
 Lime-kiln, 802. 
 
 Lime-kiln, as improved by Menteath, 1282 ; other 
 forms, 1289. 
 
 Limestone, modes of burning, 1281. 
 
 Liquid manure, tanks for, in a farmery, 825, 826. 
 
 Liquid manure tank, 22.37, 2483. 
 
 Lithic paints for covering cement, 528. 
 
 Locality, what is to be understood by it, 1633. 
 
 Locks and other fastenings for cottages, 84. 
 
 Lodge, in the Swiss style, 2281. 
 
 Lodge, a turnpike, design for a, 2326. 
 
 Lodge, the Chequers Dairy, 2309, 2331. 
 
 Lodge at Bluberhouses, keeper's, 2333. 
 
 Lodge, design for a castellated, 439. 
 
 Lodges, entrance, designs for, 1987. 
 
 Lodging-places for animals, principles for design- 
 ing, 745 to 749. 
 
 Loo-tables, 2118. 
 
 M. 
 
 Machine, barley-chopper, 1402; for filtering, 698, 
 2077. 
 
 Machines of a barn, 1402. 
 
 Machinery, gales to open by, 831 ; threshing, 1135. 
 Madras schools, 1530. 
 Maize, barn for, 782. 
 
 Mallet's cottage range, 593 ; apparatus for cooking 
 
 by gas, 2044. 
 Malt-houses, 798. 
 Malt-kilns, designs for, 1262. 
 Mangers, 751 to 753. 
 Mangle, Baker's patent, 1381. 
 
GENERAL INDEX. 
 
 1303 
 
 Mansions of the Tudor times, 1886. 
 Mansions, to convert into farmeries, 1234. 
 Mansions, Gotiiic, at Jerningham, 1865. 
 Manufactures, buildings for agricultural, 803. 
 Manure tank, 304. 
 
 Manure, underground gutters for liquid, 825. 
 Map of beau ideal villa, park and farm, 1734. 
 Mason's work for a farmery, 85 J, 871, 909, 981, 1073, 
 
 1088, 1201 ; for a water-mill, 1249. 
 Mason's work for a cottage, 237, 446, 851. 
 Mathematical tiles, 547. 
 
 Materials for walls of cottages, 330; for farm 
 
 buildings, 838. 
 Materials of cottages. 2342. 
 Matting of different sorts, 688. 
 Mechanic's model cottage, 2250. 
 Menageries and aviaries, 1949 ; at Cobham Hall, 
 
 1951. 
 
 Menagery at Chiswick, 1951, 
 Men's lodge for a farmery, 794. 
 Metal- work, 2524. 
 
 Mignonnette boxes of artificial stone or Stafford- 
 shire ware, 222. 
 Milk-pans for dairies, 1380, 1947. 
 Mill for cider, 1295, 1310. 
 Mills for grinding corn, buildings for, 1237. 
 Mills, water, 1240. 
 
 Model cottages, designs for, 2234 to 2255. 
 
 Models for calf-houses, 760 ; cattle houses, 756. 
 
 Modern Italian style, a cottage in the, 2294. 
 
 Monasteries, to convert into farmeries, 1234. 
 
 Moorish tiles, 382. 
 
 Mortar, principles of making, 2186. 
 
 Mulgrave cement, 2288. 
 
 Mural ornaments, 1966. 
 
 Music-rooms, furniture of, 2122. 
 
 Music-stands, 2123. 
 
 Music-stool, 2124. 
 
 . N. 
 
 Natural history'paper, 584. 
 Normandy brcchin, 1390. 
 Northumberland cottages described, 2233. 
 Nott's stove, description of, 2059. 
 Novelty in the arts, 2220. 
 Nursery furniture, 662, 696, 2143. 
 
 O. 
 
 Observations on Italian architecture, by Mr .Lamb, 
 
 1918 to 1933. 
 Offices of a villa, 1644. 
 Oil, painting rooms in, 576. 
 
 Old English style, design for a villa in the, 1764, 
 1827 ; cottage in the, 2340, 2362. 
 
 Order in architecture, 2210. 
 
 Oriel window for cottages, 215. 
 
 Ornaments, Egyptian, for villas, 2024. 
 
 Ornaments, mural, for terrace parapets and archi- 
 tectural gardens, 1966. 
 
 Ornaments, internal, 699 ; in papier mache, 2527. 
 
 Ornamental effect of half-timbered cottages, 2279. 
 cottages, designs for, 2302 to 2307. 
 
 Ornamental carpentry, examples of, 1899 to 1903. 
 
 Ottoman footstools, 2107. 
 
 Ottomans, 2106. 
 
 Outside blinds for cottages, 555 ; Venetian, 656 ; 
 other varieties, 559 ; wire blinds, 560 ; for villas, 
 2002. 
 
 Outside shutters for cottages, 553 ; shutter-blinds, 
 554. 
 
 Ovens for baking bread, 1505; for burning green 
 wood, 1506 ; for burning coal, 1507 ; for cottages, 
 596, 597 ; for inns, 1480; for roasting meat, con- 
 struction of, 1503. 
 
 Oving almshouses, 2427. 
 
 Oxen-houses, models for, 764. 
 
 P. 
 
 Pagoda at Alton Towers, 1670. 
 
 Paint, cheap sorts for cottages, 575, 577. 
 
 Paint, the most suitable for the outside work of 
 cottages, 540. 
 
 Painter's, plumber's, and glazier's work of a farm- 
 ery, 854, 870, 986, 993. 
 
 Painter's plumber's, and glazier's work for a water- 
 mill, 1253. 
 
 Painter's work for a cottage, 242, 299 ; for a farm, 
 870. 
 
 Painters, eminent, 1660. 
 
 Painted floor-cloths, 687. 
 
 Painted ceilings, p. 1221. 
 
 Painting rooms, 2388, 2393, 2518. 
 
 Painting of rooms, principles of, 2013. 
 
 Painting the woodwork of cottages, 544 ; tiles for 
 
 bricks, 545. 
 Pantry and larder for villas, 2034. 
 Papering the walls of cottages, 581 to 584 ; natural 
 
 history paper, 584. 
 Papin's digester, use of, for cottages, 1353. 
 Paper-hangings, 2520. 
 Papier-mache ornaments, 2527. 
 Parlour, proper colouring for, 2019. 
 Parapets for terraces, designs for, 1965. 
 Parochial schools, 1575, 1593, 1605, 1612. 
 Parqueted floors, 2010. 
 
 Parsonage house in the Old English style, 1757 ; in 
 
 the Italian style, 1772. 
 Particular for building a villa, 1802. 
 Particular. See Specification. 
 Partitions, fireproof, 2496. 
 Pastry-room for villas, 2036. 
 Patent slating described, 2283. 
 Paving with clumps of wood, 1944. 
 Penshurst gate-lodge, at Redleaf, 2329. 
 Perkins's oven for baking by hot water, 151 1. 
 Pianofortes, 2122. 
 
 Picturesque in building, 1660; effects of buildingSj 
 
 the study of, 1648. 
 Pictures in villas, hanging of, 2062. 
 Pictures, 699. 
 Picture gallery, 1964. 
 Pier consol tables, 2111. 
 Pier tables, 2112. 
 
 Pigeon-houses, 771 ; fittings up for, 1394. 
 Piggeries, models for, 765. 
 Pit for solid manure, 2237. 
 Planing machine, 2009. 
 Plastering cottages, 531. 
 Plaster-work, process of painting, 2519. 
 Plaster ornaments for cottages, 568. 
 Plasterer's work for a cottage, 235, 447, 850. 
 Plasterer's work for a water-mill, 1247; for a 
 
 farmery, 850, 936, 982, 989, 1215. 
 Platform or terrace for cottages, construction of, 
 
 26. 
 
 Plating, or silvering, in decorating the rooms of 
 
 villas, 2026. 
 Pleasure-grounds of villas, 1648. 
 Ploughmen, dwellings for, 1330. 
 Ploughmen's cottages of the Carse of Cowrie, 
 
 1335. 
 
 Ploughmen's cottages in Northumberland, 1339 ; 
 
 in Wiltshire, 1341 ; in Gloucestershire, 1345 ; 
 
 by Mr. Tugwell, 1352 ; in France, 1361 ; double 
 
 cottage, 1365. 
 Plumber's and painter's work of a farmery, 854, 
 
 870, 986, 993, 1110. 
 Plumber's, painter's, and glazier's work for a 
 
 water-mill, 1253. 
 Plumber's work for a cottage, 240, 448; for a 
 
 farm, 870. 
 Pointed architecture. See Gothic. 
 Police office of Edinburgh, mode of heating, 
 
 1334. 
 
 Polishing of furniture, 2109. 
 Ponds for farmeries, 806. 
 Porch for cottages, 28. 
 Porches of villas, 1664. 
 Porches, Italian, 1932. 
 
 Portland-stone chimney-pieces, a valuable sub- 
 stitute for, 589. 
 
 Portable cottage, design for^509. 
 
 Portable farmery, 1231, 1615. 
 
 Porticoes for cottages, 149.^ 
 
 Portfolio-stands, 2125. 
 
 Position of cottages by the roadside, 2237. 
 
 Post and clothes-pegs, 188. 
 
 Potato-washer for villas, 2041. 
 
 Poultry, management of, 1327 ; poultry-house for 
 cottagers, 1329. 
 
 Poultry-houses, 770, 1325 ; for a ploughman's cot- 
 tage, 1366 ; fittings-up for, 1394. 
 
 Poultry-yards for farmeries, 819. 
 
 Poultry-house, situation of the, 2236, 2404. 
 
 Poultry-yard, 2404. 
 
 Poussin, Nicholas, picture of, 1660. 
 7 R 2 
 
1304 
 
 GENERAL INDEX. 
 
 Poys, or supported tea-chests, 2547. See Furniture. 
 Preservation of wood, 2.')07. 
 
 Preserving the tapes of Venetian blinds from the 
 
 sun, 2.')!."). 
 Press for cyder, 129.5, 1310. 
 
 Principles in designing infant schools, 1518; 
 
 schools for mutual instruction, 1.528. 
 Principles in designing windows, 2335. 
 Process of painting plaster-work, 2519. 
 Projecting fixed canopies for cottage doors and 
 
 windows, ."ifJl. 
 Proportions of rooms, 2212. 
 Propriety in architecture, 2210. 
 Prospect towers, 19(58. 
 Public-house, design for a, 2429. 
 Public-houses. See Inns. 
 Pugging of walls and floors, 2193. 
 Pump, 1407. 
 
 R. 
 
 Rabbit-houses, 7fi9 ; fittings-up for, 1394. 
 Racks and mangers. 751, 752. 
 Radway (irange, ruins of, 1978. 
 Railway stiitions, 2299, 2327 ; terminus at Derby, 
 2299. 
 
 Raphael, the buildings he superintendetl, 1060. 
 Rebated brickwork. Hitch's patent, 2440. 
 Relief, sculptures in high and low, 1998, 1999. 
 Remarks on style of villas, 1652. 
 Register-stove, folding, 1458. 
 Regularity in architecture, 2207 ; relation in, 
 2222. 
 
 Rick-stands, various sorts, 809 to 816. 
 
 Riding-houses, designs for, 1938; roofs for, 1939; 
 riding-house of Monaco, 1938 ; of Moscow, 
 1943 ; cast-iron roof for, 1942; timber roof for, 
 of 145 ft. .span, 1943 ; riding-houses used as 
 tennis-courts, 1944. 
 
 Road-scrapings, when a substitute for sharp sand, 
 .527. 
 
 Roads, principles of laying out approach to villas, 
 1647. 
 
 Roaster, a portable, 2.534. 
 Roasting-oven, 2530. 
 Rockwork, 1979. 
 Roman mode of tiling, 1924. 
 Roman cements, .527. 
 
 Roman villas, the transition from the, 1658. 
 
 Romans, villas of the, I6.5S, 2366. 
 
 Roof, cast-inm, by Mr. Tredgold, 1942; timber, 
 
 1943 ; for riding-houses, 19:<9. 
 Roofs, iron, for cottages, 419; corrugated iron 
 roofs, 420. 
 of cast iron for cottages, 1.53. 
 of thatch, chips, spray, or heath, 2239; native 
 
 Scotch fir. 2154. 
 terrace, construction of, 2446 ; suspension, 
 
 2451 ; windows in, 2498. 
 of farm buildings. 843, 1 102. 
 Roofing, asphalte, 2448 ; improvements in, 24.50. 
 Room, account of one finished in a new style, 
 2027. 
 
 Room of all work for a farmery, 791 ; for smoking 
 
 hams and other dried provisions. 739. 
 Rooms of villas, gas-lighting the, 20.55. 
 proportions of, 2212. 
 
 painting and papering of, 2388, 2518, 2520, 
 2,->21. 
 
 Roughcasting, or harling, cottages, 529, .532. 
 Rows of cottages, remarks on, 2345. 
 Rubble -work, 1C88. 
 
 Ruins for garden scenery, 1978 ; of Radway 
 
 Grange, 1978. 
 Rustic architecture, 2278. 
 Rusticated work, 1926. 
 
 S. 
 
 Saloon of an English villa, 1683. 
 .Salting-room of farmeries, 720. 
 Sash-fastening, 2493; sash-suspender, 2513. 
 Saul's reform mangle, 1381 ; improved cottage 
 
 fireplace, 2.533. 
 Saw-mills, 1400. 
 Scagliola, process of, 2007. 
 Scenery, cascades for garden, 1971. 
 
 characters of, 1652. 
 
 of Alton Towers, 1609. 
 Scrapers, 690. 
 
 School fittings-up, fixtures, and furniture, 1607; 
 
 forms and desks, 1.540 ; telegraphs, 1.543 ; 
 drawers, 1.544 , semicircles, 1545; various other 
 articles, 1549 to 1.558; general rules for fitting- 
 up school-rooms, 1.559 ; fittings-up of infant 
 schools, 1608 ; of Madras schools, 1.530; of cir- 
 culating schools, 1610; of Lancasterian schools, 
 1611 ; of parochial schools in the country, 1612. 
 
 School in the Italian style, design for a, 2414. 
 in the Gothic style, 2202. 
 
 Schools for mutual instruction, principles for de- 
 signing, and model forms, 1528 ; according to 
 the Madras system, 1530 ; to the circulating 
 system, 1532: to the Lancasterian system, 
 1.5.33. 
 
 Schools, model designs for, 1521 ; miscellaneous 
 designs for, 1,574 ; a parochial school in the 
 modem style, 1575 ; specification for, 1-578; a 
 parochi.al school in the Gothic style, 1593; spe- 
 cification for, 1.595; a parochial school in the 
 Italian style, 1605. 
 
 Schools, parochial, principles for designing, 1516; 
 infant .schools, 1518; Wilson's model infant 
 school, 1521 ; Wilderspin's model infant school, 
 1.523 ; Westminster infant school, 1527. 
 
 Scotch cottages, gable-ends for, 455. 
 
 Scottish cottagers, habits of, 1049. 
 
 Scullery for villas, 2031. 
 
 Sculpture and picture gallery, 1964. 
 
 Sculptures, their application to the exterior of 
 villa'!, 1995; armorial sculptures, 2000. 
 
 Seats for gardens, 1969; hour-glass seat, 2.544. 
 
 Sepulchral structures in garden scenery, 1985. 
 
 Shafts, chimney, 1891. 
 
 Sheep-houses, models for, 766 ; French, 767. 
 Sheep-rack, iron, 1393. 
 Sideboards for villas, 2083 , 21.54 , 2170. 
 Sinks for cottages, 607 ; for inns, 1459. 
 Simplicity in architecture, 2209. 
 Single cottages, advantages of, 2242. 
 Situation proper for farmeries. 834 ; for infant 
 .schools, 1518; for villas. 1624, 
 
 style rel.itive to natural, 16.52. 
 
 ol a villa, 1676. 
 
 for buildings in the Swiss style, 2285 ; for a 
 labourer's cottage, 2242. 
 Skittle-grounds for inns, 1429. 
 Slater's work for farmeries, 1122, 1210; for a 
 water-mill, 1248. 
 for a cottage. 236, 443. 
 Slating, Tugwell's mode of, 1222. 
 
 patent, '>2K\. 
 Slaughter-house for a farmery, 789. 
 Small villas in the (iothic' style, designs for, 
 2370. 
 
 Smith's work for farmeries, 984,991. 
 
 Smithy .ind carpenter's house for a farmery, 790. 
 
 Smoke, the consumption of, 605. 
 
 Smoking-house, 739. 
 
 Smoky chimneys, 2472, 2474. 
 
 Snow, escape of melted, in roofs, 2384. 
 
 Sofa-table, 2116. 
 
 Sofas, 2105. 
 
 Soil, considerations of, in the choice of a villa, 
 1629. 
 
 South-east aspect the best for cottages in Great 
 
 Britain. 2237. 
 Specification for building a villa, 1802. 
 Specification, or particular, for a cottage, 78 ; for 
 
 a farm house and farmery, 849, 907, 979, 1053, 
 
 1200. 
 
 for building a Sunday-school, 2418. 
 Specifications and estimates for cottages, 78, 233, 
 294, 441. 
 
 Splashing the walls of cottages, 542. 
 Square buildings, advantages of, 118. 
 Stables for farmeries, 750 ; model farms, 752 to 
 755. 
 
 Stables for villas, 1935 ; for beau ideal villa, 
 1930 ; circular, 1937. 
 
 Staining furniture, process of, 641. 
 
 Staircase of a villa, 1688, 1847 ; ornamental, 1903. 
 
 Statues for garden scenery, 1980 ; their applica- 
 tion to the exterior of villas, 1996. 
 
 Steam, heating the floors of cottages by, 1334. 
 
 Steam-engine, purposes for which it may be ap- 
 plied in cottages, 498. 
 
 Steam threshing-machine, 1395. 
 
 Steaming-house and boiling apparatus, 1405. 
 
 Stencilling the walls of cottages, 578 to .580. 
 I Stfep-ladder, a fold-up, 2512. 
 
 Stone, artificial, of the time of Henry VIII., 274. 
 I Stone for building, test for proving, 2185. 
 
GENERAL INDEX. 
 
 1305 
 
 Stonehenge, imitation of, at Alton Towers, 1670. 
 Storehouse for a farmery, 773, 789 ; for pig's food, 
 783 ; for hair, wool, and feathers, 784 ; for im- 
 plements and machinery, 785, 786. 
 Storeroom for villas, 2035. 
 Stove, American, for cottages, 603. 
 Stoves for consuming smoke in cottages, 605. 
 Stoves for villas, 2057 ; Sylvester's, 2057 ; German, 
 2058 ; Nott's, 2059 ; Burges's, 2060, 2343 ; 
 gas-coolting, 2380. 
 for heating, different kinds of, 2509. 
 Street cottages, 2275. 
 
 Style of villas, remarks on, 1652 ; remarks on the 
 pointed, 1875 to 1885; origin of the pointed, 
 1880. 
 
 Stvle adapted to scenery, 1652; fitness of for com- 
 fort, &c., 1054. 
 
 Style of conservatories, architectural, 1958. 
 
 Style of statues adapted to architecture, 1997 ; of 
 colouring, 2017. 
 
 Style, Elizabethan, 2308. 
 
 Styles of architecture, on the different, p. 4., 2225 ; 
 
 Grecian, 2397 ; Gothic, 2398. 
 Suburban villa, 1746. 
 
 Sunday-school, specification for building a, 2418. 
 Surface in building, character of, 1627. 
 Suspension roofs, 2451. 
 Swiss style, design for a gate-lodge in, 2281. 
 Sylvester's mode of heating by a cockle stove, 
 1809, 2057. 
 open fireplace, 2062. 
 Symmetry in architecture, 2207. 
 
 T. 
 
 Tables of various kinds for drawingrooms, 2111 
 to 21 16; 2546 ; for dining-rooms, 2085; for li- 
 braries, 2095. 
 
 Tank for filtering and preserving water, 151, 722. 
 
 Tank, Mr. Mallet's plan for, 805. 
 
 Tanks for liquid manure in a farmery, 825, 826. 
 
 Tank for rain-water, 2480. 
 
 for liquid manure to cottages, 2237, 2483. 
 
 Tea-chests, or Poys, 2547. See Furniture. 
 
 Tea-gardens for inns, 1431. 
 
 Tea-pots of cast iron, 1338. 
 
 Tennis-courts, 1944. 
 
 Terraces and parapets, 1965. 
 
 Terrace, 26. 
 
 Terrace roofs, 2446. 
 
 Tesselatcd pavement with common bricks, 1785. 
 Thatch and thatched roofs, 2239, 2455. 
 Therms in gardens, 1982. 
 
 Threshing-machine, to be impelled by steam, 
 
 1.396 ; Burstall's mode, 1397 ; driven by water, 
 
 1399 ; threshing-machine at Bagshot and at 
 
 Wynnstay, 1399. 
 Threshing-machines, portable, 1401. 
 Tiles,Grecian, for cottages, 50 ; Italian, 50 ; curved 
 
 and angular, 172 ; semi-cylindrical Italian, 185 ; 
 
 Moorish, .382 ; weather-tiling, 459 ; pantile for 
 
 admitting light, of pottery, 490; of cast iron, 
 
 954 ; mathematical, 547. 
 Tiling for cottages, .547. 
 Tile, improved form of, 2289. 
 Tiles, the new French roofing, 2449. 
 Timber, British, price of, 293. 
 Timber, principles of preserving from natural 
 
 decav and dry rot, 2188 ; from destruction by 
 
 fire, 2189. 
 Timber roof of 145 ft. span, 1943, 
 Timber in buildings, to preserve, 2188. 
 Timber, preservation of, 2312, 2342. 
 Timber houses of England, 2279. 
 Timbers in a farm, 1066. 
 Titian's, picture of, 1660. 
 ToU-house, 347. 
 Toll-bar, the German, 831. 
 Towns, labourer's tenements in, 2275. 
 Towers, prospect, 1968. 
 Towell rollers for cottages, 609, 610. 
 Training plants against a house, 2252, 2297, 2356. 
 Trap, air, for cottages, 237, 502. 
 Trees, the injury they do on the windowed side of 
 
 a house, -59. 
 Trees against cottages, training, 2252. 
 Trellis- work in gardens, 1984. 
 Trivess boarding, 1106. 
 Tudor villa. 1832. 
 Tudor architecture, 1886. 
 Turf, cottage constructed of, L'86 
 
 Turnip-chopper, 1404. 
 
 Turnpike-lodge, plan and elevations of, 232S. 
 
 U. 
 
 Uniformity in architecture, 2207. 
 Union workhouse, design for a, 2426. 
 Use in architecture, expression of, 2199. 
 Urns in gardens, 1982. 
 Utensils of a barn, 1402 ; of kitchens, 2042. 
 
 V. 
 
 Vases in gardens, 1982. 
 Vault, 1896. 
 
 Vegetables, cellar for forcing some kinds of cu- 
 linary, 716. 
 
 Vegetable-washing machine for villas, 2042. 
 Venetian blinds, 556. 
 Ventilation of villas, 2192. 
 
 Ventilation, remarks on, 2475; in public build- 
 ings, 2476; of bed-rooms, 2477, 2478, 2379. 
 Verandas of villas, 166-5. 
 Verandas, ornaments for cottages, 156. 
 Vertical windmill, construction of, 1257. 
 Vestibule to a villa, 1 84-5. 
 
 Villa, beau ideal of, 1675 ; described, 1676 ; maps, 
 plans, and elevations of, 1734. 
 
 Villa, Grecian, 1736 ; Grecian, of moderate size, 
 1742 ; suburban, 1746 ; Anglo-Italian, 1753 ; par- 
 sonage-house, 17-57 ; cottage villa, 1759 ; old 
 English villa, 1764 ; villa at Hannafield, 1768 ; 
 cottage villa at Edinburgh, 1776; modern villa, 
 fire-proof, 1781 ; double suburban villa, 1800 ; 
 small Grecian villa, 1810 ; villa in the old Scotch 
 style, 1814 ; Scotch baronial house, 1819; cot- 
 tage villa, 1823 ; old English villa, 1827; Tudor 
 villa, 1832 ; villa in the Grecian style for a large 
 family, 18.55; villa in the castellated stvle, 1863; 
 villa in the latest stvle of pointed architecture, 
 1868 ; mixed Gothic" villa, 1908: Italian villa, 
 1911 ; in the Italian style, design' for a, 2391 ; 
 in the Swiss style, 2350; in the modern style, 
 23-">4 ; a small Roman, 2366 ; an Anglo- Grecian. 
 2396. 
 
 Villas, principles for laying out, 1623; choice of 
 situation, 1624 ; climate, 1625; elevation, 1626; 
 character of the surface, 1627; aspect, 1628; 
 soil and subsoil, 1629 ; water. 1630 ; vicinity 
 to the sea, 1631 ; locality, 1633; other circum- 
 stances, 1634 to 1637 ; position of the house, 1639 ; 
 features in the ground, 1640 ; various circum- 
 stances, J641 to 1646; approach road, 1647 ; 
 pleasure-grounds, 1648 ; architectural gardens. 
 16.50. 
 
 Villas, appendages to, 1934. 
 
 Villas, exterior finishing of, 1992; interior finish- 
 ing of, 2003 ; gates and (lodges to, 1987 to 1990 ; 
 heating rooms of, 2054. 
 
 Villas, Gothic furniture for, 2143. 
 
 Villas of Italy, 1657 ; of the Romans, 16-58 ; of 
 Britain, 1667; villa of Lucullus, 16-58; of Depe- 
 dene, 1688. 
 
 Villas in the Gothic style, designs for small, 2370. 
 
 Village, observations on the, 1732. 
 
 Village, every character of surface is adapted for a 
 
 particular character of, 2348. 
 Village of Harlaxton, 2349 ; of Edensor, p ] 194. 
 Villages, remarks on, 2344 ; laying out. 2347, 2349. 
 Vine, mode of training it against a house, 2252. 
 
 2356. 
 
 W. 
 
 Wainscoting of rooms for villas, 2065. 
 Walls, cob or mud, 839 to 842. 
 Walls, different modes of constructing, 158 ; mud 
 walls, 159. 
 
 Walls, hollow, 11 in. wide, formed of brick, con- 
 struction of, 25 ; Dearne's hollow brick walls 
 336 ; Silverlock's hollow brick walls, 374, ' 
 
 Walls, hollow, how to form when built of stone 
 1354, 
 
 Walls, materials for, 330 ; of flint, 331. 
 Walls, principles on which their solidity is founded 
 2187. 
 
 Walls, to prevent damp from rising in, 2434, 2435, 
 
 2436. 
 Wardrobes, 2137. 
 Warming stoves for cottages, 595. 
 
1306 
 
 GENERAL INDEX. 
 
 Warming and ventilating, 2478, 2379. 
 
 Wash-hand stand, 2141. 
 
 Wash-hand stand, a concealed, 2539. 
 
 Washing-machine for a farm house, 1381 ; for 
 villas, 2076. 
 
 Washing-stand for a nurserj% 214G. 
 
 Wash-house, brewhouse, and bakehouse of far- 
 meries, 724 to 728. 
 
 Wash-houses, boilers for cottage, 598. 
 
 Water, system of distributing, in inns, 1476; tank 
 for filtering and preserving, 151,722; mode of 
 supplying to a farmery, 804 ; distribution of, 
 2382; filtering of, 2481. 
 
 Water-closets for cottages, 37, 38. 39, 302, 464, 
 490 ; for villas, 2067 ; for inns, 1453, 1467. 
 
 Water-mill, agreement for building a, 1250, 12.52, 
 1 254. 
 
 Water-wheels, undershot, 1241 ; breast-wheels, 
 1242 ; overshot wheels, 1243. 
 
 Weather-tiling for cottages, 459. 
 
 Well, barrel curb for, 2:18. 
 
 Weighing-machine, l.'}79. 
 
 Well-digger's work of a farmery, 849, 868. 
 
 Westminster infant school, 1.027. 
 
 Westminster Abbey, foundations of, 2433. 
 
 Wheels, undershot water, 1241 ; breast, 1242 ; over- 
 shot, 1243. 
 
 Whitewashing cottages, 533, 543 ; internally, .570. 
 
 Window-curtains for drawingrooms, 2130. 
 
 Windows, iron, for cottages, 307. 
 
 Windows of cottages, to render ornamental, .552 : 
 of villas, 2066. 
 
 Windows, principles in designing, 233.5, p. 1229. 
 
 Windows of cottages, 2462 ; in roofs, 2498. 
 
 Window-blind, the poor man's, 2517. 
 
 Windmill, vertical, 1257 ; smoke, or tower wind- 
 mill, 12.58. 
 
 Wire outside blinds, 560 ; wire springs for stuflBng, 
 665. 
 
 Wood, oven for green, 1.506 ; paving with chumps 
 
 of, 1944 ; preservation of, 2.507. 
 Wooden fence, cap for the upper rail of a, 2492. 
 Wooden eaves-trough for cottage roofs, 24^2. 
 Woodhouse for farmeries, 721. 
 Workhouse, design for a union, 2426. 
 Working houses for a farmery, 788. 
 Wren, Sir €., remarks on his errors in the Gothic 
 
 style, 1K.36. 
 Wringing-machine, 2075. 
 Writing-tables for villas, 2096. 
 Wrought-iron chairs, 1477. 
 
 Y. 
 
 Yards for farmeries, 807 to 819, 2411 to 2413. 
 
 The Author may be consulted, either ■personally or by letter, on any of the subjects 
 treated of in this V. lunie, at the rate of One (hiinea per lumr ; or, if required to go from 
 home, at the rate of Fim Guineas a day, icith travelling expenses. The charge for Plans 
 and Reports may be ascertained by previous agreement. 
 
 THE END. 
 
 ERRATUM. 
 
 In p. 1162., in some copies, for "The Hon. Thomas Liddel," read " The Hon. Thomas Liddell." 
 
 London: 
 
 Printed by A Spottiswoode, 
 Ncw-Street-Square. 
 
GEHY CENTER LIBRARY 
 
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