ADVERTISEMENT. It is coining dollars for others.... ^^^Why not for you? Our Rotary Cylinder ^'J^equtd^" Has a magical effect on Profits. It produces more fabri It runs 10 to 25 per c speed. It does away with t' It has but One Cylinde Double Crank and Two-Lever the harness is simple as A. Our Catalogue No. 12 v repeat orders from manufai Jacquard machine. 5c Second and i Jf. B.— To reach our wo Franklin Institute {j^kar^ es the cards safely at any ditions of the loom. Our I our method of adjusting y we are getting stacks ol J worth of this ingenious er, •HIA, U. 5. A. Class Accessioi^.^.^...\..^ ^ Beading K.B. to ADVERTISEMENT. Knowles Loom Works WORCESTER, MASS., U. S. A. FiuB Awards AT THE World's . Columbian Exposition. Makers of Power Looms of Every Description, Also Jacquards and Dobbies. The extraordinary demand for our Rise and Fall 3ingle-Leuer Jacquards is sufficient evidence that they are s uperior to all others. They can be operated at a Higher Rate of Speed than any other (Rotary not excepted). V: We manufacture Jacquards for every class of Weaving for which such machines can be used. The "Mford Dobby" is too well known to need more than mere reference, over 16,000 being in use. It is adapted for Lenos, Double Weaves, Towels, or any class of goods requiring fancy effects, not sufficiently elaborate to require Jacquards. SEND FOR CATALOGUES AND PRICES OF ALL OUR MACHINERY. THE "KNOWLES LOOM" FOR FOREIGN COUNTRIES i^Buiitby HITTCHINSON. HOLLINQWORTH & CO., DOBCROSS, ENGI-75ND. WE ALSO HAVE BRANCH WORKS LOCATED AT PROVIDENCE, R. I., U. S. A. (See also Outside Back Cover.) ADVERTISEMENT. of every description. Silk Yarns In Gray or absolutely FaSt ColOFS, WARRANTED TO STAND FULLING. In Skein or Chain Warps and on Spools, Cops, Cones and Shuttle Bobbins. S. Friedberger, 435 Bourse Building, Philadelphia. LONQ DISTANCE TELEPHONE CONNECTION. CORRESPONDENCE SOLICITED. ESTABLISHED 1831.. CURTIS & MARBLE MACHINE COMPANY, MANUFACTURERS OF Wool Burring, Picking and Mixing Machinery. CLOTH Finishing Machinery, For Cotton, Woolen, Worsted, Plush Goods, Etc. SHEARING MACHINES A SPECIALTY. Office and Works, Webster Square, WORCESTER, MASS. WOOL PREPARING MACHINERY. Shake Willows or Dusters ; Feafnoughts or Tenter Hook Pickers ; Goddard Burr Pickers ; Steel Ring and Solid Packing Burring Machines, with Steel Ring Feed Rolls, for Woolen and Worsted Cards. FINISHING MACHINERY. Shearing Machines for all kinds of Cotton, Woolen and Worsted Goods, Plushes, Carpets, Rugs, Mats, etc ; Up and Down, Double Acting, Steam, and Gessner Gigs ; Gessner Rolling Teasel Gigs ; Endless Felt Gigs ; Wire Nappers for Satinets, Blankets, Knit Fleecings, etc. ; Single and Double Acting Brushing Machines ; Cotton Brushing Machines ; Gas Singeing Machines ; Steam Finishing Machines ; Stretching and Rolling Machines ; Patent Doubling and Tacking Machines ; Gessner Rotary Steam Cloth Press ; Reversible Flock Cutters ; Flock Renovators ; Rag Cutters ; Cloth Winders and Measurers ; Cloth Folding and Measuring Machines ; Shear Grinders ; Railway Sewing Machines, etc., etc. Machine Brushes of all kinds made and repaired. Particular attention paid to repairing and grinding Shear Blades and Burr Cylinders. SEND FOR OATALOQUE. iii ADVERTISEMENT . JAME3 BARKER, cotton and¥oolen machinery S. E. Cor. 2d and Somerset Ste., Philadelphia, Pa. Double Apron Condenser 1. Increases production 10-40%. 2. Improves quality. 3. Adaptable to fine or coarse numbers of yarn. 4. Equipped with perfect aprons, plain or "pocket." 5. Now working on every grade of stock carded. 6. Necessary to profitable yarn making. Fast Running Non-Oil- Leaking Doffing Comb For cotton, woolen and worsted cards. Can be run at highest speed. Working parts always in oil. Adjusted by single screw. Durable and cheap. New Automatic Spur-Gear Cutter Compact and sturdy construction. Driven by one belt. Speed limited only by strength of cutter. 4. Minimum amount of over-run. Cutter table returns at rate of 90 inches a minute. Perfect spacer, steady cutter. Entirely automatic. Moulders' Improved Flask 1. Prevents shifted or shotover castings. 2. Saves time and labor. 3. Increases production. 4. Perfect lift, less patching. 5. All parts renewable. 6. More work done by hinge lift. 7. Positive pin guide. 8. No fins — less work in cleaning shed. ADVERTISEMENT. Griswold Worsted Co. LIMITED. ^""^r/""-^^^ Worsted Yarns Spun Silk Yarns SUITABLE FOR HOSIERY, UNDERWEAR, UPHOLSTERY FABRICS. WARPS FOR PLUSHES AND DRESS GOODS ON CONES OR SPOOLS CaSSimere ftilk V^rng Fast colors on spools. - - Office, 322 Chestnut Street, Philadelphia, Pa. JosiAH Gates & Sons MANUFACTURERS OF Oak Tanned Leather Belting Lace Leather, Worsted Apron Leather, Picker Leather, Loom Strapping and Worsted Aprons, Rubber 3^Iti'^S^ and ]*\ill S^PP^^^^* 307 Market St., Lowell, Mass. AnVRRTISEMENT. Fairmount Machine Co. Twenty=second and Wood Sts., PHILADELPHIA, PA. Textile Machinery: Patent Looms, of superior merit, entirely new, patent of 1895. Patent Harness Motions, best for the manufacturer, best for the weaver, can be j&tted to any loom. Patent Warp Tension Attachment, absolutely prevents "smashes" and makes even cloth, applicable to any loom. Patent Cop and Bobbin Winding Machines, save yarn and give perfect bobbins. Plain and Pressure Beaming Machines . Plain and Pressure Spoolers. Dyeing and Sizing Hachines. ** Bridesburg " Looms and flachinery. Power Transmitting flachinery: Self=oiling Bearings, cleanly, most economical. Patent Friction Pulleys, simple, eflBcient, can be depended upon. Vertical Shaft Transmission, the bearings will run cool. Patent fluley Driving, adjustable, self-oiling. Patent Belt Tighteners, capable of fine adjustment. special Forms of Driving, for difficult situations. Rope Transmission. vi ADVERTISEMENT. W 00LENS/.>^^"^|1UALITY / ORSTEDS V/UANTITY ..PRODUCED ON THE... Qrompton High speed Close Shed ^001118 Witli " 189r> » Patent Harness Motion :— Giving absolute freedom from mispicks. With " 1 89.> " Positive Take-up The number of teeth in the ratchet indicat- ing the exact and corresponding number of picks. Wifli Patent Adjustable Driving Motion:— Allowing quick change of speed without removal of pulleys or belt. CROMPTON " 1895 " WOOLEN AND WORSTED LOOM. ^ROMPTON pANCY (j INGHAM LoOMS ALL OTHER MAKERS TAKE AS THEIR STANDARD. Are built vf ith a Positive Take-up Motion. Number of teeth in gear produces correspond- ing number of picks in cloth. WEAB and TEAR guaranteed at a minimum point. Our Patent Positive Compound Lever Sliding Tooth Box Motion, ^as no rival for maximum speed and accuracy. All Combinations of Shuttle Boxes. CROMPTON STANDARD QINQMAM LOOM 4 x 1 BOX. Crompton Loom Works, WORCESTER, MASS. Correspondence Solicited.. vii Fosselt's Textile Library, Volume I. TEXTILE CALCULATIONS Being a Guide to Calculations relating to The Construction of all kinds of Yarns and Fabrics, The Analysis of Cloth, Speed, Power and Belt Calculations. For the use of Students, Operatives, Overseers and Manufacturers, —BY— B. A. POSSKLT, Consulting Expert on Textile Designing and Manufacturing. Editor of *' The Textile Record.^'' Editor of Textile Terms in '"''Standard Dictionary '''' Iconographic Encyclopizdia of the Arts and Sciences?'* Author and Publisher of '"'' Technology of Textile Design''\' " The Jacquard Machine Analysed and Explained'''' ; '■^ Structure of Fibres^ Yarns and Fabrics.^'' Principal of PosseWs Private School of Textile Design ; formerly Head Master of the Textile Department of The Pennsylvania Museum and School of Industrial Art^ Philadelphia, WITH NUMEI^OUS ILLUSTRATIONS. PHILADELPHIA : B. A. POSSELT, Author and Pubi^ishbr, 2152 N. Twenty-first Strejkt. LONDON : SAMPSON LOW, MARSTON AND COMPANY, LIMITED, St. Ddnstan's Housb, Fktter IvAnb, Fi,«st Strskx. 1896. • [Copyrighted 1896, by B. A. Posselt] ADVERTISEW-ENT. M. A. FURBUSH & SON MACHINE CO. PHILADELPHIA MAKERS OF WOOLEN CARDING, SPINNING AND WEAVING MACHINERY ALSO WORSTED CARDING MACHINES, MURKLAND INGRAIN CARPET LOOM. ILLUSTRATED CATALOGUE WITH FULL PARTICULARS ON APPLICATION, viii THE GETTY CENTr., LIBRARY LIST OF ADVERTISERS. Altemus, W. W. & Son , American Drosophore Co. Philadelphia ... ix Boston ...... xxiii Barker, James Philadelphia ... iv Beer Paul . Philadelphia . . . xxxi B^nazet Heddle Co. . . • . Darby, Pa xxiv Borchers & Co., Richard C. . Philadelphia . . . xxxix Branson Machine Co. . . . Phila. (506 St. John st.) Brophey, D Philadelphia . . . xxvii Crehore, C. F. & Son . . . Boston xviii Crompton Loom Works . . Worcester .... vii Curtis & Marble Worcester .... iii Danforth Belting Co. . . . Philadelphia . . . xxxviii Dolan, Thomas B Philadelphia . . . xxvii Draper, George & Sons . . . Hopedale, Mass. . xiii Elliott & Hall Worcester, Mass. . xviii Entwistle, T. C Lowell, Mass. . , . xvi pairmount Machine Co. . , Philadelphia ... vi Firth, William Boston '. xvi Fleming & Chapin Philadelphia . . . xxiv Friedberger, S Philadelphia ... iii Funk & Wagnalls Co. . . . New York .... xxxi Furbush, M. A. & Son Mach, Co Philadelphia . Gallagher, D J. & Co. . . . Phila. (245-7 N. Broad st.) Gates, Josiah & Sons .... Lowell, Mass. . Globe Machine Works . , . Frankford, Pa. . . xxii Gould, M. A Philadelphia . . . xviii Griswold Worsted Co. , . . Philadelphia ... v Griibnau, Carl Philadelphia . . . xxii Hall, Amos H Hall, I. A. & Co Halton, Thomas ... Holbrook M'n'f'g. Co. . . Houghton, B. F. & Co. Howson & Howson . . . Howard & Bullougli . . Hunter Machine Co., James Philadelphia Paterson, N. J. Philadelphia New York . , Philadelphia Philadelphia Pawtucket, R, I. North Adams, Mass Insinger & Co Philadelphia Janes, S. Walker Boston . . . Jones, F. & Co Philadelphia Kitson Machine Co Lowell . . Knowles Loom Works . . . Worcester xxiv xxxviii xxxx XX X xxii xiv xvii XXX xxiv Leigh, Bvan Arthur Lord, George W. . . Boston . . . Philadelphia IVIalcolm Mills Co Frankford, Pa Mauger & Avery Boston . . . McCloud, C Philadelphia Muhlhauser, F. Co Boston and Cleveland, O. xxxx xxiv XXX xxiv ii and back cover Nye & Tredick Parks & Woolson Mach. Co Paterson Reed and Harness Co. Paton, James H Pettee Machine Works . . . Phila Photo. Bngraving Co. Posselt, B. A (Publisher) . . Phila. (606 Arch St.) Springfield, Vt. ^ . i Paterson, 'N. J.', . . Bost6i ' ... Newton Up'r Falls, Mass. ...... Philadelphia .; . . Philadelphia . . . XXlll XXX Posselt's Textile School . Queen & Co Rhoads, J. B. & Sons . . . . xxxvii . . . xxix . . XXV , . . XXX xxxiii-xxxvi . . X xviii . . . xviii Ring, Thomas F. . . . Rogers, Gorham & Co. Rojde, John & Sons . Schaum & Uhlinger . Schnitzler, Charles H. Schofield, George L. . Sellers, Wm. & Co. . Sprowles & Houseman Stewart, Thomas . . , Sturtevant Co., B. F. . Sullivan, Richard T. . Philadelphia Philadelphia Phila. (239 Market) and Wilmington, Del Boston xxx Boston . . Paterson, N. J. . . . inside back cover , Philadelphia Philadelphia Philadelphia Philadelphia Frankford, Pa Philadelphia Boston . . . Boston . . . Textile Record Co Philadelphia Troemner, Henry Philadelphia Wilder, Jacob Paterson, N. J. . . WhitinsvilleSpin'g Ring Co. Whitinsville, Mass. Wilson, D. H Lowell, Mass. . . Windle, J. B Worcester, Mass. . Wolf, W. & Sons Boston Woolford, George Philadelphia . . . Woonsocket Machine and Press Co Woonsocket, R. I. . Zentmayer, Joseph Philadelphia . . . 1 xxii xviii xii xxxviii xviii XV xxx xxxii xviii xxxi xix xvi xvii xxx xxiv xxi xxvi CLASSIFIED INDEX. Belting Danforth Belting Co Josiah Gates & Sons J. B Rhoads & Sons Geo. L- Schofield Blowers Chas. H. Schnitzler B. F. Sturtevant Co. Boiler Compound Geo. W. Lord Books B. A. Posselt Burlaps Gorham Rogers & Co. Carbonizing Machines Kitson Machine Co. Card Clothing B. A. Leigh Card Cutting and Lacing Machinery John Royle & Sons ' Schaum & Uhlinger Card Grinders T. C, Bntwistle B. A. Leigh Cards for Jacquard Looms C. F. Crehore & Son Coal D. Brophey Colors Queen & Co. Condensers James Barker M. A. Furbush & Son Mach. Co. Coppersmiths Paul Beer D. H. Wilson Cranes Wm. Sellers & Co. Dictionaries Funk & Wagnalls Co. Design Papers F Jones & Co. Queen & Co. Dyeing, Prisiting, and Sizing Machines Fairmount Machine Co. Sprowles & Houseman Dryers Kitson Machine Co. E. A. Ivcigh Dye Kettles D. H. Wilson & Co. Edgings S. Friedberger Fleming & Chapin Engraving Phila. Photo-Engraving Co. Finishing Machinery W W. Altemus & Son Richard C. Borchers & Co. Curtis & Marble Elliott & Hall James Hunter Machine Co. E. A. Leigh Parks & Woolson Mach. Co. J. E. Windle Woonsocket Mach. and Press Co Jacquards and Dobbies Crompton L,oom Works M. A. Furbush & Son Mach. Co. Thomas Hal ton Insinger & Co. Knowles Loom Works John Royle & Sons Schaum & Uhlinger Heating and Ventilating American Drosophore Co. B. F. Stiutevant Co. Hydro- Extractors Schaum & Uhlinger Journals Textile Record Co. Knitting Machinery Branson Mach. Co. E. A. Leigh Nye & Tredick Looms Crompton Loom Works Geo. Draper & Sons Fairmount Machine Co. CLASSIFIED INDEX — Continued. M. A. Furbush & Son Mach. Co. Insinger & Co. Knowles Loom Works Schaum & Uhlinger Woonsocket Mach. & Press Co Machinery (Cotton and Woolen) W. W. Altemus & Son James Barker Richard C. Borchers & Co. Crompton Loom Works Curtis & Marble Geo. Draper & Sons Fairmount Machine Co. Wm. Firth M. A. Furbush & Son Mach. Co. Globe Machine Works Howard & Bullough James Hunter Machine Co. Insinger & Co. Kitson Machine Co. Knowles Loom Works Evan Arthur Leigh Parks & Woolson Machine Co. Pettee Machine Works Schaum & Uhlinger Geo. L. Schofield Sprowles & Houseman J. E. Windle Woonsocket Machine Co. Machine Tools Wm, Sellers & Co. Microscopes Queen & Co. Joseph Zentmayer Mill Supplies B^nazet Heddle Co. Danforth Belting Co. Geo. Draper & Sons Josiah Gates & Sons M. A. Gould I. A. Hall & Co. Thomas Halton Paterson Reed and Harness Co. I J. E. Rhoads & Sons Thomas Stewart Jacob Walder Moulder's Flasks James Barker Oils E. F. Houghton & Co. Patent Solicitors Howson & Howson Pick Measures See Microscopes Pnenmatic Conveyors Charles H. Schnitzler Press Papers C. F. Crehore & Son Printing D. J. Gallagher & Co. Publications See Books and Journals Raw Materials Carl Griibnau S. Walker Janes Mauger & Avery The F. Muhlhauser Co. James H Paton Thomas F. Ring Richard T. Sullivan W. Wolf & Sons. Scales Henry Troemner Schools Posselt's Private School of Textile Design Shafting, Pulleys, and Couplings Fairmount Machine Co. James Hunter Mach. Co. Geo. L. Schofield Wm. Sellers & Co. Woonsocket Machine and Press Co. Slasher and Dresser Cylinders D. H. Wilson & Co. Silk Yarns S. Friedberger Griswold Worsted Co. Chas. McCloud Soaps Holbrook Mfg. Co. Spinning Rings Geo. Draper & Sons Whitinsville Spinning Ring Co Spur Gear Gutters James Barker & Co. Stokers Wm. Sellers & Co. Tanks Geo. Woolford Amos H. Hall Warping, Beaming, and WIndiig . Machinery W. W. Altemus Geo. Draper & Sons T. C. Entwistle Fairmount Machine Co. M. A. Furbush & Son Machine Co. Globe Machine Works Insinger & Co. Schaum & Uhlinger John Royle & Sons Wool-Scouring Machinery Wm. Firth James Hunter Mach. Co. Kitson Machine Co. E A. Leigh Yarns Fleming & Chapin S. Friedberger Griswold Worsted Co. Chas. McCloud ADVERTISEMENT. W. W. ALTEMUS. J. K. ALTEMUS. eSTKBI-ISHED 1B65. W.W. ALTEMUS & SON, Textile • • Machinery 2816 North Fourth St., Philadelphia. BOBBIN WINDING MACHINE Patented November aa, 1887, and Variable Motion Patented September 6, 1893. BUILDERS OF ALL KINDS OF COP AND BOBBIN WINDING MACHINES, 3^ SPOOLERS, WARPERS, REAMERS, J^m* CHENILLE CUTTING, CARPET ROLLING, SINGEING MACHINES, AND SPECIAL MACHINERY TO ORDER. WE MAKE MACHINERY FOR ALL KINDS OF YARN. Correspondence Solicited ADVERTISEMENT. E. F. HOUQHTON & CO. OILS: 211 8. FRONT ST. PHILADELPHIA, PA. To Textile Manufacturers. Gentlemen*. For over a quarter of a century we have made a careful study of the requirements of the textile in- dustries in oils and greases. Commencing with the steam cylinder of the engine, we have ascertained the exact requirements necessary for a lubricating oil to reduce the coefficient of friction on all classes of textile machinery to the lowest possible minimum, thereby effecting for our customers a large saving in fuel and repairs. We have studied the best and most economical oils for oiling wool, softening cotton, counteracting the effect of harsh dyes, etc. In fact, there is nothing pertaining to oils and greases for textile mills to which we have not given much time and attention, and, as a result, we are making special oils for the various special purposes, which are superior in quality and more economical than oils made for general purposes. Do not worry along with oils that are * * good enough," when you can easily obtain perfect oils and save money in the bargain. It is always a pleasure for us to respond to in- quiries and give to the textile manufacturers the benefit of our extensive experience. Yours respectfully, E. F. HOUGHTON & CO. General Manager. TABLE OF CONTENTS. Yarn and Cloth Calculations. PAGB Grading of the Various Yarns Used in the Manufacture of Textile Fabrics According to Size or Counts 5 Cotton Yarns • 5 Table of Lengths from No. i to 240's S Grading of Two-Ply , Three-Ply, etc. , Yarns 5 To Find Weight in Ounces of a Given Number of Yards of a Known Count 6 To Find Weight in Pounds of a Given Number of Yards of a Known Count 6 To Find the Equivalent Size in Single Yarn for Two, Three or More Ply Yam Composed of Minor Threads of Unequal Counts 7 Woolen Yams ^ A. "Run "System ■ ^ Table of Lengths from to 15-run ^. ^ To Find the Weight in Ounces of a Given Number of Yards of a Known Count 8 To Find the Weight in Pounds of a Given Number of Yards of a Known Count 9 B. "Cut "System 9 Table of Lengths from i-cut to 50-cut Yarn 9 To Find the Weight in Ounces of a Given Number of Yards of a Known Count 9 To Find the Weight in Pounds of a Given Number of Yards of a Known Count 9 Grading of Double and Twist or More Ply Yarns Worsted Yarns Table of Lengths from No. i to 200's » - Grading of Two-ply, Three-ply, etc., Yarns 1 1 To Find the Weight in Ounces of a Given Number of Yards of a Known Count n To Find the Weight in Pounds of a Given Number of Yards of a Known Count 12 To Find the Equivalent Size in Single Yarn of Two, Three or More Ply Yarn Composed of Minor Threads of ■ Unequal Counts Silk Yarns, ^3 A. Spun Silks '3 B. Raw Silks • — •• '3 Length of raw Silk Yams per Pound and per Ounce from i to 30 Drams 14 Linen Yarns, Jute Yarns, China Grass and Ramie 14 To Find the Equivalent Counts of a Given Thread in Another System 14 A. Cotton, Woolen and Worsted Yarns ^4 B. Spun Silk Yarns Compared to Cotton, Woolen or Worsted Yarns l6 C. Linen Yarns, Jute and Ramie D. Raw Silk Yarns Compared to Spun Silk, Cotton, Woolen or Worsted Yarns 16 To Ascertain the Counts of Twisted Threads Composed of Different Materials 17 If Compound Thread is Composed of Two Minor Threads of Different Materials. ... , 17 If Compound Thread is Composed of Three Minor Threads of Two or Three Different Materials 17 To Ascertain the Counts for a Minor Thread to Produce, with Other Given Minor Threads, Two, Three or More Ply Yarn of a Given Count 18 A. One System of Yarn • ^® ^. Two Systems of Yarns... .........f..... » ' *5 2 To Ascertain the Amount of Material Required for Each Minor Thread in Laying Out Lots for Two, Three or More Ply Yarn 19 A. Double and Twist Yarn 19 Composed of Minor Threads of the Same Material 19 Composed of Minor Threads of Different Materials 20 B. Three or More Ply Yams 20 Composed of Minor Threads of the Same Material 20 Composed of Minor Threads of Different Materials 21 To Ascertain the Cost of Two, Three or More Ply Yarn 22 Composed Either of Different Qualities of Yam only, or of the Latter Item in Addition to Different Counts of Minor Threads 22 If One of the Minor Threads is of a Different Material than the Other 22 If a Three-ply Yarn is Composed of Minor Threads of Unequal Counts as well as of a Different Price 23 If a Three-ply Yarn is Composed of Minor Threads of different Materials as well as of Different Prices 24 To Find the Mean or Average Value of Yarns of Mixed Stocks 24 To Ascertain Medium Price of a Mixture when Price and Quantity of Each Ingredient are Given 24 To Find Quantity of Bach Kind Wool to Use in a Mixture of a Given Value 25 To Find Quantity of Bach Kind to Use when the Quantity of One Kind, the Different Prices of Each Kind and the Prices of the Mixture are Given 26 Reed Calculations 27 To Ascertain Ends in "Warp Knowing Reed Number, Threads per Dent and Width of Warp in Reed 27 To Ascertain Reed Number if Number of Ends in Warp and Width in Reed are Known 27 To Ascertain Width of Warp in Reed if Reed Number, Threads per Dent and Threads in Warp are Known 28 Warp Calculations ■. 29 To Find Weight of Warp if Number of Ends, Counts and Length are given 29 If Two or More Different Kinds of Yarn are Used 29 If Weight of Warp is Required to be Found for One Yard only 31 When Required to Ascertain the Weight of a Warp Dressed with Yarns of Various Counts and Answer Required is for the Total Weight of Warp 31 To Find the Counts for Warp Yarn if Number of Ends in Warp and Amount of Material, Length and Weight to be Used are Given 33 To Find Threads to Use if Counts of Yarns, Lengths and Weight of Warp are Given 34 To Find Length of Warp if Number of Ends, Counts and Weight of Yarn are Given 34 When Two or More Different Materials are Used in the Construction of Cloth 35 Filling Calculations 37 To Find the Length of Filling Yarn Required for Producing One or a Given Number of Yards of cloth, if Picks per Inch and Width of Cloth in Reed are Known 37 To Find Weight of Filling Yarn Required, Expressed in Ounces, producing One Yard of Cloth, if Picks per Inch, Width of Cloth in Reed and the Counts of Yarn are Known 37 To Find Weight of Filling Yarn Required, Expressed in Pounds or Fraction Thereof, for any Number of Yards if Picks per Inch, Width of Cloth in Reed and Counts of Yarn are Known 37 If Two or More Different Kinds of Filling Yarn are Used, and it is Required to Ascertain Weight of Material for Bach Kind 38 If the Counts are Equal, and Lots Differ only in Color or Twist 38 If Filling Yarns of Different Counts of Materials are Used 39 To Find Counts for a Filling Yam Required to Produce a Given Weight per Yard Cloth 40 If Such Example Refers to Weight Given in Ounces for One Yard 40 If Example Refers to a Given Number of Yards and Weight is Expressed in Pounds 40 To Find the Picks per Inch for a Piece of Cloth of which Counts of Yam, Length of Cloth to be Woven, Width in Reed and the Amount of Material to be Used are Given 41 If Two or More Different Counts of Filling Yarn are Used 41 If Arrangement as to Counts of the Filling is of a Simple Form 41 If Arrangement of Filling has a Large Number of Picks in Repeat 42 To Ascertain Number of Yards of Cloth Woven for a Certain Amount of Yarn on Hand 42 To Ascertain the Amount and Cost of the Materials Used in the Construction of Fabrics 44 A. Find the Total Cost of Materials Used, and Find the Cost of the Same per Yard Finished Cloth 44 Fancy Cassimere •' 44 Worsted Suiting .' 44 8 PAGB Cotton Dress Goods 45 Woolen Tricot Suiting 46 Worsted Suiting 46 Fancy Cassimere 48 Fancy Cotton Dress Goods 50 Worsted Suiting 52 Beaver Overcoating 53 Ingrain Carpet (IRxtra Fine ; Cotton Chain ; Worsted Filling) 54 Ingrain Carpet (Extra Super ; Worsted Chain) -. 55 Structure of Textile Fabrics. The Purpose of Wear that the Fabric will Be Subject to 57 The Nature of Raw Materials 57 Counts of Yarn Required to Produce a Perfect Structure of Cloth 58 To Find the Number of Ends which, in Cotton, Woolen, Worsted, Linen and Silk Yarns, can Lie Side by Side in One Inch 58 Table Showing the Number of Ends of Cotton Yam from Single 5's to 2/160's that will Lie Side by Side in One Inch , 60 Table Showing Number of Ends of Woolen Yarn "Run Basis," from i-run to lo-run, that will Lie Side by Side in One Inch 60 Table Showing the Number of Ends of Woolen Yarn "Cut Basis" from 6-cut to 50-cut, that will Lie Side by Side in One Inch 61 Table Showing the Number of Ends of "Worsted Yarn," from 5's to 2/160's that will Lie Side by Side in One Inch 61 Table Showing the Number of Ends of Raw Silk Yarn, from 20 Drams to i dram, that will Lie Side by Side in One Inch , 6r Table Showing the Number of Ends of Linen Yarns, from id's to 100' s, that will Lie Side by Side iu One Inch... 62 To Find the Diameter of a Thread by Means of a Given Diameter of Another Count of Yarn 62 To Find the Counts of Yarn Required for a Given Warp Texture by Means of a Known Warp Texture with the Respective Counts of the Yarn Given , 63 A. Dealing with One Material 63 B. Dealing with Two or More Materials 64 Influence of the Twist of Yarns upon the Texture of a Cloth 64 To Find the Amount of Twist Required for a Yarn if the Counts and Twist of a Yarn of the Same System, but of Difiierent Counts, are Known 65 Influence of the Weave upon the Texture of a Fabric... 66 To Find the Texture of a Cloth 67 To Change the Texture for Given Counts of Yarn from one Weaver to Another 70 To Change the Weight of a Fabric without Influencing its General Appearance 70 1. Given Cloth 71 2. Required Cloth 73 1, Given Cloth 72 2. Required Cloth , 73 To Find number of Ends Per Inch in Required Cloth 73 Weaves which will Work with the Same Texture as the ^ Twill 74 Weaves which will Work with the Same Texture as the — - — etc. Twill 74 34 • Selections of the Proper Texture for Fabrics Interlaced with Satin Weaves 75 Selection of the Proper Texture for Fabrics Interlaced with Rib Weaves 75 Warp Effects 75 Filling Effects 76 Figured Rib Weaves 76 Selections of the Proper Texture for Fabrics Interlaced with Corkscrew Weaves 76 Selection of the Proper Texture for Fabrics Constructed with Two Systems Filling and One System Warp 77 Selection of the Proper Texture for Fabrics Constructed with Two Systems Warp and One System Filling 79 Selection of the Proper Texture for Fabrics Constructed with Two Systems Warp and Two Systems Filling 82 One End Face, to Alternate with One End Back in Warp and Filling 82 Two Ends Face, to Alternate with One End Back in Warp and Filling -> > 83 4 Analysis. PAGE How to Ascertain the Raw Materials Used in the Construction of Textile Fabrics 85 Miorosoopioal Appearance of Fibres 85 Cotton 85 Silk, Wild Silk, Weighted Silk 86 Wool, Untrue Fibres, Kemps, Shoddy, Mungo, Extract, Foreign Wools, Mohair, Cashmere, Alpaca, Vicugna, Llama, Camel's Hair, Cow's Hair , 86 Flax, Hemp, Jute and China Grass 90 Tests for Ascertaining the Raw Materials Used in the Construction of Yarns or Fabrics 91 Cotton, Linen, Jute, China Grass, Silk and Wool 91 How to Ascertain the Percentage of Each Material Constituting the Fabric 93 Wool and Cotton. Silk and Cotton, Percentage, Wool and Silk, Cotton Wool and Silk 93 How to Test the Soundness of Fibres or Yarns 94 Illustration and Description of a Testing Machine 95 How to Test Given Counts of Yarn 96 How to Ascertain the Weight of Cloth per Yard from a Small Sample 96 How to Calculate the Weight of Finished Cloth 97 How to Test and Analyze the Various Finishes of Cotton Goods 98 The Best Size for Cotton Goods 99 To Ascertain the Percentage of Size 100 Substances Used in Finishing Cotton Cloth 100 Cotton Spinning , loi Power Required to Drive the Various Machines in a Cotton Mill — Speed of the Various Machines in a Cotton Mill— Heat and Moisture Required for Good Cotton Spinning and Weaving— Sliver Table — Roving Table — Calculation for Yarns 20's to 26's from the Lap to the Yarn — How to Ascertain the Capacity of a Carding Engine — How to Find the Number of Carding Engines to Give a Regular Supply of Cotton to Each Drawing Frame — How to Find the Quantity of Filleting Required to Cover a Card Cylinder or Dofifer — Traveler Table for Spinning at Medium Speeds— To Calculate Loss of Twist in Ring Spinning— To Find the Per- centage Cotton Yarn Contracts in Twisting— How to Ascertain the Number of Yards of Cotton Yarn on Bobbin — Twist Table— Draper's Table of the Breaking Weight of American Warp Yarns per Skein— Table Giving the Amount of Twist for the Various Kinds of Twisted Yarns — Production of Drawing Frames — Table Giving Production per Spindle for Warp and Filling Yarn from 4's to 6o's— Production of Cards at Various Speeds with Various Weights of Slivers. Speed, Belting, Power, Etc. Speed 107 How to Find the Circumference of a Circle or of a Pulley — How to Compute the Diameter of a Circle or of a Pulley — How to Compute the Area of a Circle — How to Determine the Speed of a Driven Shaft— A Pair of Mitre Wheels— How to Compute the Velocities, etc., of Toothed Gears— The Pitch of a Gear— ^Bevel Gears — The Pitch Line of a Gear— To Measure the Diameter of a Gear — To Ascertain the Pitch of a Gear— Driving-Driven — How to Distinguish the Driver from the Driven Wheel — How to Find the Speed of the Driving Wheel— How to Obtain the Size of the Driving Wheel— How to Obtain the Size of the Driven Wheel— Worm Wheels— A Mangle Wheel— How to Change the Speed of a Driven Pulley, Shaft or Wheel- To Increase the Speed by Increasing the Size of the Driver— To Increase the Speed by Decreasing the Size of Driven Wheel — How to Ascertain the Circumferential Velocity of a Wheel, Driver or Cylinder — How to Find the Speed of Last Shaft— How to Ascertain the Number of Revolutions of the Last Wheel at the End of a Train of Spur Wheels— How to Ascertain the Number of Teeth in Each Wheel for a Train of Spur Wheels —How to Find the Number of Revolutions of the Last Wheel of a Train of Wheels— How to Straighten a Crooked Shaft— How to Cool a Hot Shaft— Cooling Compound— Steel and Iron— How to Harden Cast Iron. Belting ..^ m Rules for Calculating the Width of Leather Belting (Single) Required for Given Power— Table of Safe, Actual Width of Single Belts to Transmit Given Power at Given Speeds— To Find the Length of a Driving Belt Before the Pulleys are in Position— How to Find Where to Cut Belt-Holes in Floors. How to Manage Belts 112 Water Power 114 Steam Power 114 Heat 115 Arithmetic 116 U. S. Measures i43 Metric System i44 YARN AND CLOTH CALCULATIONS Grading of the Various Yarns Used in the Manufacture of Textile Fabrics According to Size or Counts. The size of the yarns, technically known as their "Counts'' or numbers, are based for the ditferent raw materials (with the exception of raw silks) upon the number of yards necessary to balance one (1) lb. avoirdupois. The number of yards thus required (to balance 1 lb.) are known as the "Standard" and vary accordingly , for each material. Tha higher the count or number, the finer the yarn according to its diameter. COTTON YARNS. Cotton yarns have for their standard 840 yards (equal to 1 hank) and are graded by the number of hanks 1 lb. contains. Consequently if 2 hanks, or 2 X 840 yards = 1680 yards are necessary to balance 1 lb. we classify the same as number 2 cotton yarn If 3 hanks or 3 X 840 or 2520 yards are necessary to balance 1 lb., the thread is known as number 3 cottou yarn. Continuing in this manner, always adding 840 for each successive number gives the yards the various counts or numbers of cotton yarn contain for 1 lb. Table of Lengths for Cotton Yarns. (From number i to 240's.) No. I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 II 12 13 14 15 16 Yds. to I lb. 840 1,680 2,520 3.360 4, 200 5.040 5,880 6,720 7,560 8,400 9,240 10,080 10,920 11,760 12,600 13,440 No. 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 Yds. to I lb. 14, 280 15,120 15,960 16,800 17,640 18,480 19,320 20,160 21,000 21,840 22,680 23,520 24,360 25,200 26,040 26,880 No. 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 Yds. to I lb. 27,720 28,560 29,400 30,240 31,080 31,920 32,760 33,600 34,440 35,280 36. 120 36,960 37,800 38,640 39,480 40,320 No. 50 52 54 56 58 60 62 64 66 68 70 72 74 76 78 Yds. to I lb. 42,000 43,680 45.360 47,040 48,720 50,400 52,080 53.760 55,440 57,120 58,800 60,480 62, 160 63.840 65.520 67,200 No. 85 90 95 100 no 120 130 140 150 160 170 180 i'90 200 220 240 Yds. to I lb. 71,400 75,600 79,800 84,000 92,400 100,800 109, 200 117,600 126,000 134,400 142,800 151,200 159,600 168,000 184,800 201,600 Grading of 2-ply, 3-ply, etc., Cotton Yarns. Cotton Yarns are frequently manufactured into 2-ply. In such cases the number of yards required for 1 lb. is one-half the amount called for in the single thread. For Example. — 20's cotton yarn (single) equals 16,800 yards per pound, while a 2-ply thread of 20's cotton, technically indicated as 2/20's cotton, requires only 8400 yards, or equal to the amount called for in single lO's cotton (technically represented as lO's cotton). Single 7's cotton yarn has 5,880 yards to 1 lb., and thus equals 2-ply 14's cotton yarn ; or 2/14's cotton yarn equals one-half the count (14-^-2=7), or number 7 in single yarn. If the yarn be more than 2-ply, divide the number of the single yarn in the required counts by the number of ply, and the result will be the equivalent counts in a single thread. Example. — Three-ply 60's, or 3/60's cotton yarn, equals in size (60 - 3 = 20) single 20's cotton yarn, or 16,800 yards of single 2G's cotton yarn weigh 1 lb., and 16,800 yards of 3/60's cotton yarn weigh also 1 lb. Again, 4-ply 60's or 4/60's cotton yarn equals in size {^rXu^efcl^nfr} { Number of pi,.} {^^^^^S^^^ ^ \ (60 4 = 15) single 15's cotton yarn ; or single 15's cotton yarn has 12.600 yards, weighing 1 lb., which is also the number of yards required for 4/60's cotton yarn. Rule for finding the Weight in Ounces of a given Number of Yards of Cotton Yarn of a known Count. Multiply the given yards by 16, and divide the result by the number of yards of the known count required to balance 1 lb. Example (single yarn). — Find weight of 12,600 yards of 30's cotton yarn. 12,600X16= 201,600 ; 1 lb. 30's cotton yarn=25,200 yards. Thus, 201,600-^-25,200=8. Answer. — 12,600 yards of 30's cotton yarn weigh 8 oz. Example (2-ply yarn).— Find the weight of 12,600 yards of 2/30's cotton yarn. 12,600X16= 201,600 ; 1 lb. 2/30's cotton yarn=-12,600 yards. Thus, 201,600-r-12,600=16. Answer. — 12,600 yards of 2/30's cotton yarn weigh 16 oz. Example— {Z-])\y yarn).— Find the weight of 12,600 yards of 3/30's cotton yarn. 12,600X16= 201,600 ; 1 lb. 3/30's cotton yarn=8,400 yards. Thus, 201,600-^-8,400=24 oz. Answer. — 12,600 yards of 3/30's cotton yarn weigh 24 oz. Another 'rule for ascertaining the weight in ounces for a given number of yards of cotton yarn of a known count is as follows : Divide the given yards by the number of yards of the known count required to balance one ounce (being yards per lb. ^16). Example (single yarn). — Find the weight of 12,600 yards of 30's cotton yarn. 25,200-^16 = 1,575 yards 30's cotton yarn=l oz.; 12,600^1,575=8. An^er. — 12,600 yards of 30's cotton yarn weigh 8 oz. Example (2-ply yarn).— Find the weight of 12,600 yards of 2/30's cotton yarn. 12,600--1G= 7871 yards 2/30's cotton yarn=l oz.; 12,600-^787|=16. Answer. — 12,600 yards of 2/30's cotton yarn weigh 16 oz. Example (3-ply yarn).— Find the weight for 12,600 yards of 3/30's cotton yarn. 8,400-^16=525 yards 3/30's cotton yarn=l oz. ; 12,600-4-525=24. Answer. — 12,600 yards of 3/30's cotton yarn weigh 24 oz. Rule for finding the Weight in Pounds of a given Number of Yards of Cotton Yarn of a known Count. Divide the given yards by the number of yards of the known count required to balance 1 lb. Example (single yarn).— Find the weight of 1,260,000 yards of 30's cotton yarn. 30's cotton yarn=25,200 yards to 1 lb. Thus, l,260,000--25,200=50. Answer. — 1,260,000 yards of 30's cotton yarn weigh 50 lbs. 7 Example (2-ply yarn). — Find the weight of 1,260,000 yards of 2/30's cotton yarn. 2/30's cotton yarn=l 2,600 yards to 1 lb. Thus, 1,260,000^12,600=100. Answer. — 1,260,000 yards of 2/30's cotton yarn weigh 100 lbs. Example (3-ply yarn).— Find the weight of 1,260,000 yards of 3/30's cotton yarn. 3/30's cotton yarn=8,400 yards to 1 lb. Thus, 1,260,000--8,400=150. Answer. — 1,260,000 yards of ^/30's cotton yarn weigh 150 lbs. To find the Equivalent Size in Single Yarn for Two, Three, or More, Ply Yarn Composed of Minor Threads of Unequal Counts. jlU the manufacture of fancy yarns the compound thread is often composed of two or more minor threads of unequal counts. If so, the rules for finding the equivalent in single yarn is as follows : Mule. — If the compound thread is composed of two minor threads of unequal counts, divide the product of the counts of the m-inor threads by their sum. Example. — Find the equal in single yarn to a two-fold thread composea of single 40's and 60's. 40X60=2400^100 (40+60)=24. Answer. — A two-fold cotton thread composed of single 40's and 60's equals a single 24's. Bule. — If the compound thread is composed of three minor threads of unequal counts, com- pound any two of the minor threads into one, and apply the previous rule to this compound thread and the third minor thread not previously used. Example. — Find equal counts in a single thread to a 3-ply yarn composed of 20's, 30's and 50's. 20x30=600-^50 (20+30)=12; 12x50=600^-62 (12+50)=9li Answer. — A 3-ply cotton yarn composed of 20's, 30's and 50's equals iu size a single 9fr's thread. A second rule for finding the'^quivalent counts for a yarn when three or more minor threads are twisted together is as follows : Divide one of the counts by itself, and by the others in succession, and afterwards by the sum of the quotients. To prove the accuracy of this rule we give again the previ- ously given example. Example.— ¥md equai counts in a single thread to a 3-ply yarn composed of 20's, 30's and 50's. 50--50=l 50^30=11 50^5i=9H 50-T-20=2l . - 6i Answer. — A 3-ply cotton thread composed of 20's, 30's and 50's equals in size a single OIt s thread. Example. — Find equal counts in a single yarn for the following 3-ply yarn composed of 40's, 30's, and 20's cotton threads. 40^40=1 40-^30=11 40-^4i=9A 40^20=2 41 Answer. — The 3-ply yarn given in the example equals a single 9t\ cotton thread. Memo. — In the manufacture of twisted yarns (composed either out of two, three, or more minor threads) a certain amount of shrinkage will take place by means of the twisting of the threads around each other. No doubt if both minor threads are of equal counts this shrinkage will be equal for both, but if the sizes of the yarns, or the raw materials of which they are composed, are different, such ''take-up'' will be different for each minor thread. For example: a strong and heavy minor thread twisted with a fine soft thread ; in this case the finer thread will wind itself (more or less) around the thick or heavy thread, not having sufficient strength to bend the latter, thus the finer thread will take tip more m proportion than the heavy thread. Twisting a woolen thread with a cotton thread, both supposed to be of the same counts, will stretch the former more than the latter; i. e. it will lose less in length during twisting compared to the latter. Again two or more minor threads twisted with differ- ent turns per inch will accordingly take up differently. In giving rules for any of the yarn calcula- tions in 2, 3, or more ply yarn, no notice of shrinkage or take-up by means of twisting the minor threads is taken in account, since otherwise an endless number of rules of the most complicated char- acter would be required with reference to raw materials, the different counts of threads, turns of twist per inch and tension for each individual minor thread during the twisting operation. Such rules would thus be of little value to the manufacturer since his practical experience regarding this subject will readily assist him to calculate quickly and exactly by rules given, with a proportional allowance for a take up of minor threads as the case may require. WOOLEN YARNS. A. "Run" System. Woolen yarns are with the exception of the mills in Philadelphia and vicinity, graded by " runs " which have for their standard 1600 yards. Consequently 1 run yarn requires 1600 yards to 1 lb., 2 run yarn— 3200 yards to 1 lb., 3 run yarn— 4800 yards to 1 lb., etc., always adding 1600 yards for each successive run. In addition to using whole numbers only as in the case of cotton and worsted yarn, the run is divided into halves, quarters, and occasionally into eighths, hence — 1000 yards equal f run 1200 " " I " 1400 " " I " 1600 " " 1 " &c. Table of Lengths for Woolen Yarns {Run System). (From one-fourth Ruu to fifteeu Run) 200 yards equal ^ run 400 " " 1 " 600 " f " 800 " " 1 " Run. I 2 ' 2 3/ Yds. to I lb. 400 800 1,200 .1,600 2,000 2,400 2,800 3,200 3,600 4,000 4,400 Run. 3 3X 3.^ 3^ 4 4X 4/2 4H 5 5X 5/2 Yds. to I lb. 4,800 5,200 5,600 6,000 6,400 6,800 7,200 7,600 8,000 8,400 8,800 Run. Yds to I lb Run. Yds to I lb 5^ 9, 200 8>^ 13,600 6 9,600 8^ 14, 000 6X 10,000 9 14,400 6)4 10,400 15,200 10,800 10 16,000 7 11,200 11,600 10;^ • 16,800 7% II 17,600 12,000 12 19, 200 7^ 12 400 13 20,800 8 8X 12,800 14 22,400 13,200 15 24,000 Rule for Finding the Weight in Ounces of a Given Number of Yards of Woolen Yarn of a Known Count Graded After the Run System. The run basis is very convenient for textile calculations by reason of the standard number equaling 100 times the number of ounces that 1 lb. contains ; thus by simply multiplying the size of the yarn given in run counts by 100, and dividing the result into the number of yards given (for which we have to find the weight), gives us as the result the weight expressed in ounces . Example.— F'mdi the weight of 7200 yards of 4 run yarn— 4X100=400. 7200-^400=18. Answer. — 7200 yards 4 run yarn weigh 18 ounces. Example.— F'mdi the weight of 3750 yards of 3| run woolen yarn— 3750-^375=10. Answer. — 3750 yards of 3| run woolen yarn weigh 10 ounces. 9 Rule for Finding the Weight in Pounds of a Given Number of Yards of Woolen Yarn of a Known Count Graded After the Run System. If the weight of a given number of yards and of a given size of woolen yarn, run system, is required to be calculated in pounds, transfer the result obtained in ounces into pounds or fractions thereof. Example.— Find the weight of 100,000 yards of run yarn— 100,000-^-625=160 oz. --16=10. Ansioer. — 100,000 yards of 6J run yarn weigh 10 lbs. B. "Cut" System. As heretofore mentioned, woolen yarn is also graded by the " cut " system. 300 yards is the basis or standard, consequently if 300 yards of a given woolen yarn weigh 1 lb., we classify it as 1 cut yarn ; if 600 yards weigh 1 lb. we classify it as 2 cut yarn ; if 900 yards weigh 1 lb. we classify it as 3 cut yarn, and so on ; hence the count of the woolen yarn expressed in the cut multiplied by 300 gives as the result the number of yards of respective yarn that 1 lb. contains. Table of Lengths for Woolen Yarns (Cut System), (From I cut to 50 cut Yam.) Cut. Yards to lb. Cut. Yards to lb. Cut. Yards to lb. Cut. Yards to lb. Cut. Yards to lb. I 300 12 3,600 23 6,900 34 10,200 45 13,500 2 600 13 3,900 24 7.200 35 10, 500 46 13,800 3 900 14 4,200 25 7,500 36 10, 800 48 14,400 4 1,200 15 4,500 26 7,800 37 II, 100 50 15,000 5 1,500 16 4,800 27 8, 100 38 11,400 54 16,200 6 1,800 17 5,100 28 8,400 39 11,700 58 17,400 7 2,100 18 5,400 29 8, 700 40 12,000 60 18,000 8 2,400 19 5,700 '30 9,000 41 12,300 65 19,500 9 2,700 20 6,000 31 9,300 42 12,600 70 2 1 ,000 ID 3,000 21 6,300 32 9,600 43 12,900 75 22,500 II 3.300 22 6,600 33 9,900 44 13,200 80 24,000 Rule for Finding the Weight in Ounces for a Given Number of Yards of Woolen Yarn of a Known Count Figured by the "Cut" Basis. This rule is similar to the one given for cotton yarn. " Multiply the given yards by 16 and divide the result by the original number of yards for the given count of cotton yarn that 1 lb. contains." Example.— Find the weight of 12,600 yards of 40-cut woolen yarn. 12,600X16=201,600; 1 lb. of 40-cut woolen yarn=12,000 yards. Thus, 201,600-f-12,000=16.8. Amwer. — 12,600 yards of 40-cut woolen yarn weigh 16.8 oz. The other rule for ascertaining the weight in ounces for a number of yards of cotton yarn of a known count is as follows : Divide the given yards by the number of yards of the known count required to balance one ounce. Example. — Find the weight for 12,600 yards of 40-cut woolen yarn. 12,000-f-16=750 12,6OO--750=16.8. Answer. — 12,600 yards of 40-cut woolen yarn weigh 16.8 oz. Rule for Finding the Weight in Pounds of a Given Number of Yards of Woolen Yarn of a Known Count, Graded by the Cut Basis. This rule is also similar to the one previously given for cotton yarn. Divide the given yards by the original number of yards for the given count of woolen yarn (cut basis) in 1 lb. The result expresses the weight in pounds, or fractions thereof. 10 Example. — Find the weight of 1,260,000 yards of 40-cut woolen yarn. 40-cut woolen yarn= 12,000 yards to 1 lb. Thus, 1,260,000--1 2,000=105. Answe?'. — 1,260,000 yards of 40-cut woolen yarn weigh 105 lbs. Grading of Double and Twist or more Ply Woolen Yarn. Woolen yarns are sometimes manufactured in double and twist (c?<$;^?^.), seldom in' a more ply. If produced in dMw, and if both single threads are of the same counts, the established custom is to consider the compound thread one-half the count of the minor. Thus, a d&tw. 6-run woolen yarn will equal a single 3-run ; or either yarn figures 4,800 yards to a lb. A d&tw. 7|-run woolen yarn will equal a single 3|-run woolen yarn ; or either yarn requires 6,000 yards per lb. A d&tw. 30-cut woolen yarn equals a single 15 -cut, or both kinds of yarn required 4,500 yards per lb. If the compound thread is composed of three or more single threads, divide the number of the single yarn by the number of ply, and the result will be the required counts in a single thread. Examples. — Three-ply 10-run woolen yarn equals a (lO-f-3) 3|^-run single thread, or requires 5,3331 yards per lb. A 3-ply 45-cut woolen yarn equals a (45-^3) 15-cut single yarn, or requires 4,500 yards per lb. Double and twisted woolen yarns, used in the manufacture of ^* fancy cassimeres," are frequently composed of two minor threads of unequal counts. If so, the rule for finding the equal in a sin- gle thread as compared with the compound thread is as follows : Divide the product of the counts of the minor threads by their sum. Example. — Find the equal counts in single woolen yarn (run basis) for a double and twist thread composed of single 3-run and 6-run woolen yarn. 3 X6=18-f-9(3 + 6)=2. Answer. — A 3-run and 6-run woolen thread being twisted equal a single 2 -run woolen thread. Example, — Find the equal counts in single woolen yarn (cut basis) for a double and twist thread composed of single 20-cut and 30-cut yarn. 20X30=600^50 (20+30)=12. Answer. — A 20-cut and 30-cut woolen yarn twisted equal single 12-cut woolen yarn. As previously mentioned, we may in a few instances be called on to calculate for a 3-ply yarn. If such a compound thread is composed of three minor threads of unequal counts, compound any of the minor threads into one, and apply the previously-given rule for d&tw. Ecample. — A 3-run, 6-run and 8-run thread being twisted together, what are the equal counts in one thread for the compound thread ? 3X6=18^9(3 + 6)=2. (A 3-run and a 6-run thread compounded equal a 2-run single thread) Thus, 2x8=16--10(2+8)=l/<5=lf. Answer. — Compound thread given in example equals 1| run. Example. — A 20-cut, 30-cut and a 36 -cut thread, being twisted together, what is its equal size in a single yarn? 20X30=600^50(20+30)=12, and 12x36=432-^-48(12 + 36)=9. Answer. — Compound thread given in example equals a single 9-cut thread. As already mentioned, under the head of cotton yarns, a second rule for finding the equivalent counts for a yarn where three or more minor threads are twisted together is as follows : Divide one of the counts by itself, and by the others in succession, and afterwards by the sum of the quotients. To prove this rule, we will use examples heretofore given. Example. — Find equal counts in one thread for the following compound thread, composed of a 3-run, 6-run and 8-ruu thread. 8-4-8 = 1 8--6 = li 8^5 = li 8 ^ 3 = 24 6 11 Answer. — Compound thread given in example equals If run. Example. — A 20-cut, 30-cut and 36-cut thread, being twisted together, what is its equal size in a single yarn ? 36H-30=:li 36--4=9 36-5-20=H 4 Answer. — Compound thread given in example equals a single 9-cut thread. WORSTED YARNS. Worsted yarns have for their standard measure 560 yards to the hank. The number of hanks that balance one pound indicate the number or the count by which it is graded. Hence if 40 hanks each 560 yards long, weigh 1 lb. such a yarn is known as 40's worsted. If 48 hanks are required to balance 1 lb. it is known as 48's worsted. In this manner the number of yards for any size or count of worsted yarns is found by simply multiplying the number or count by 560. Table of Lengths for Worsted Yarn. (From No. i to 20o's). No. Yds. to I lb. No. Yds. to 1 lb. No. Yds. to I lb. No. Yds. to I lb. No. Yds. to I lb. I 560 15 8,400 29 16,240 46 25,760 74 41,440 2 1,120 16 8,960 30 16,800 48 26,880 76 42,560 3 1,680 17 9.520 31 17,360 50 28,000 80 85 44, 800 4 2,240 18 10,080 32 17,920 52 29,120 47,600 5 2,800 19 10,640 33 18,480 54 30,240 90 50,400 6 3.360 20 11,200 34 19,040 56 31,360 95 53. 200 7 3,920 21 11,760 35 19,600 58 32,480 100 56,000 8 4,480 22 12,320 36 20,160 60 33,600 no 61,600 9 5>o4o 23 12,880 37 20,720 62 34,720 120 67,200 ID 5,600 24 13.440 38 21,280 64 35.840 130 72,800 11 6,160 25 14,000 39 21,840 66 36.960 140 78, 400 12 6,720 26 14,560 40 22,400 68 38,080 160 89, 600 13 7,280 27 15,120 42 23,520 70 39, 200 180 100,800 7,840 28 15,680 44 24,640 72 40,320 200 112,000 Grading of 2-ply, 3-ply, etc. Worsted Yarns. Worsted yarn is like cotton yarn, very frequently produced in 2-ply. If such is the case, only one-half the number of yards as required per pound for the single yarn are required to balance the pound of 2-ply yarn. Hence 40's worsted (technically for single 40's worsted) requires 22,400 yards per lb. and 2/80's worsted (technically for 2-ply 80's worsted) requires also 22,400 yards per pound. 2/60's worsted has 16,800 yards per pound corresponding to single 30's worsted. If the yarn be more than 2-ply, divide the number of yards of single yarn by the number of ply. Examples. — 3-ply 90's (3/90's) worsted yarn equals in size (90-4-3) a single 30's thread; or both kinds of yarn require 16,800 yards to balance 1 lb. — 4/80's worsted yarn equals a (80-f-4) single 20's. Rule for Finding Weight in Ounces for a Given Number of Yards of Worsted Yarn of a Known Count. Multiply the given yards by 16, and divide the result by the number of yards the given count of worsted yarn contains balancing 1 lb. 12 Example (single yarn). — Find the weight for 12,600 yards of 40's worsted. 12,600X16=201,- 600. 1 lb. of 40's worsted =22,400 yards, thus:— 201,600-^22,400=9. Answer-. — 12,600 of 40's worsted weigh 9 oz. Example (2-ply yarn).— Find the weight of 12,600 yards of 2/40's worsted. 12,600X16= 201,600. 1 lb. of 2/40's=ll,200 yards. Hence 201,600-^-11,200=18 Answer. — 12,600 yards of 2/40's worsted weigh 18 oz. Example (3-ply yarn).— Find the weight of 12,600 yards of 3/40's worsted. 12,600X16=201,- 600. 1 lb of 3/40's=7,466f yards, thus 201,600 -f-7,466f =27. Answer. — 12,600 yards of 3/40's worsted weigh 27 oz. Another rule for ascertaining the weight in ounces for a given number of yards of worsted yarn of a known count is as follows : Divide the given yards by the number of yards of the known count required to balance 1 oz. Example (single yarn).— Find the weight for 12,600 yards of 40's worsted. 22,400-7-10= I, 400. 12,600-^1,400=9. Answer. — 12,600 yards of 40's worsted weigh 9 oz. Example (2-ply yarn).— Find the weight of 12,600 yards of 2/40's worsted. ll,200-f-16=700 12,600 --700=18. Answer. — 12,600 yards of 2/40's worsted weigh 18 oz. Example (3-ply yarn).— Find the weight of 12,600 yards of 3/40's worsted. 7466f-^16= 4661 and 1 2,600 ^466f =1 2600 ^^*/^= Hm^-='-=27. Answer. — 12,600 yards of 3/40's worsted weigh 27 ounces. Rule for Finding the Weight in Pounds of a Given Number of Yards of Worsted Yarn of a Known Count. Divide the given yards by the number of yards of the known count required to balance 1 lb. Example (single yarn).— Find the weight of 1,260,000 yards of 40's worsted yarn, 40's worsted= 22,400 yds. to 1 lb. Thus, 1,260,000—22,400=561 . Answer. — 1,260,000 yds. of 40's worsted weigh 56^ lbs. Example (2-ply yarn).— Find the weight of 1,260,000 yards of 2/40's yarn. 2/40's worsted= II, 200 yards to 1 lb. Thus, 1,260,000^11,200=1121. Answer. — 1,260,000 yards of 2/40's worsted yarn weigh 1121 lbs. Example (3-ply yarn).— Find the weight of 1,260,000 yards of 3/40's worsted yarn. 3/40's worsted=7,467 yards to 1 lb. Hence, 1,260,000^7,467=168|. Answer. — 1,260,000 yards of 3/40's worsted yarn weigh 168f lbs. To Find the Equivalent Size in Single Yarn of Two, Three or More Ply Yarn Composed of Minor Threads of Unequal Counts. Worsted yarn is also occasionally manufactured in 2, 3, or more ply yarn in which the minor threads are of unequal counts ; if so the rules for finding the equivalent in a single yarn are similar to those given for cotton and woolen yarns. If the compound thread is composed of two minor threads of unequal counts, divide the product of the counts of the minor threads by their sum. 13 Example. — Find the equal in single yarn to a 2-fold thread composed of single 20's and 60's. 20X60=1200^80 (20+60)=15. Answer. — A 2-fold worsted yarn composed of 20's and 60's equals a single 15's. If the compound thread is composed of 3 minor threads of unequal counts, compound any two of the minor threads into one, and apply the rule given previously to this thread and the third minor thread not previously used. Example. — Find equal counts in a single thread to a 3-ply yarn composed of 20's, 40's, and 60's. 20X40=800--60 (20+40) =13^. 131- X 60=800^731 (131+60) =10H. Answer. — A 3-ply 20's, 40's, and 60's worsted thread equals in size a single 1 Oil's. These examples can be proved by the second rule, viz. : Divide one of the counts by itself and by the others in succession, and after this by the sum of the quotients. Example. — Find equal counts in a single thread to a 3-ply yarn composed of 60's, 40's and 20's worsted. 60--60=l 60-^40=11 60h-51=10H. 60h-20=3 Answer. — A 3-ply 20's, 40's and 60's worsted thread equals in size a single lOxi's. SILK YARNS. A. Spun Silks. Spun silks are calculated as to the size of the thread, on the same basis as cotton (840 yards to 1 hank), the number of hanks one pound requires indicating the counts. In the calculation of cotton, woolen or worsted, double and twist yarn, the custom is to consider it as twice as heavy as single ; thus double and twisted 40's (technically 2/40's) cotton, equals single 20's cotton for calculations. In ihv calculation of spun silk the single yarn equals the two-fold ; thus single 40's and two-fold 40's require the same number of hanks (40 hanks equal 33,600 yards). The technical indication of two-fold in spun silk is also correspondingly reversed if compared to cotton, wool and worsted yarn. In cotton, wool and worsted yarn the 2 indicating the two-fold is put in front of the counts indicating the size of the thread (2/40's), while in indicating spun silk this point is reversed (40/2's), or in present example single 80's doubled to 40's. B. Raw Silks. The adopted custom of specifying the size of raw silk yarns is in giving the weight of the 1000 yards hank in drams avoirdupois ; thus if one hank weighs 5 drams it is technically known as " 5 dram silk," and if it should weigh 8J drams it is technically known as " 8 J dram silk." As already men- tioned the length of the skeins is 1000 yards, except in fuller sizes where 1000 yard skeins would be rather bulky, aud apt to cause waste in winding. Such are made into skeins of 500 and 250 yards in length and their weight taken in proportion to the 1000 yards; thus if the skein made up into 500 yards weighs 8 J drams, the silk would be 17-dram silk ; if a skein made up into 250 yards weighs 4 drams the silk would be 16-dram silk. The size of yarn is always given for their "gum" weight; that is their condition " before boiling otf," in which latter process yarns lose from 24 to 30 per cent, according to the class of raw silk used ; China silks losing the most and European and Japan silks the least. The following table shows the number of yards to the pound and ounce from 1 dram silk to 30 dram silk. The number of yards given per pound in the table is based on a pound of gum silk. 14 Length of Gum Silk Yarn per Pound and per Ounce. (From I dram to 30 drams.) Drams per Yards Yards Drams per Yards Yards Drams per Yards Yards 1000 yards. per lb. per oz. 1000 yards per lb. per oz. 1000 yards. per lb. per oz. I 256,000 16,000 5 51,200 3,200 16 16,000 1,000 ^% 204,800 12,800 5)4. 46,545 2,909 2,667 17 15,058 941 889 170,666 10,667 6 42,667 18 14,222 146,286 9143 6K 39,385 2.462 19 13,474 842 2 128,000 8,000 7 36,571 2,286 20 12,800 800 % 113.777 7,111 1% 34,133 2,133 21 12, 190 762 ^% 102, 400 6,400 8 32,000 2,000 1,882 2;2 11,636 727 ^Va 93,091 5,818 30,118 23 11,130 696 3 85,333 5,333 9 28,444 1,778 24 10, 667 666 3X 78,769 4,923 9/2 • 26,947 1,684 ^5 10, 240 640 1% 73, 143 4,571- 10 25,600 1,600 26 9,846 615 68,267 4,267 II 23,273 1.455 27 9.481 592 4 64,000 4,000 12 21,333 1,333 28 9 143 571 60,235 3,765 13 19,692 1,231 29 8,827 551 56,889 3,556 14 18,286 1,143 30 8.533 533 53.368 3,368 15 17,067 1,067 •LINEN YARNS. Linen yarns are graded, or have for their standard 300 yards to the hank or " lea," which is the same basis for calculations with reference to size, count, or diameter of thread, as the one given for the woolen yarn, viz., (cut system) ; hence, rules given for woolen yarn (cut system), will also apply to linen yarns by simply changing the denomination. Jute Yarns, Chinagrass and Ramie Are also graded similar to the woolen yarn (cut system), with 300 yards to the hank, the number of hanks required to balance 1 lb. indicating the size or count of the yarn. For Reproducing Fabrics in a Required Material From a Given Fabric Made Out of Another Material it is Often Necessary to Find the Equivalent Counts, Thus we Give Rules for Finding the Equivalent Counts of a Given Thread in Another System. A. COTTON, WOOLEN AND WORSTED YARN. Mufe. — The counts of a given thread are the counts of an equal thread (in size) of a different material, or a thread of the same material but figured after the different " standard " in the same pro- portion as the " standard number " of the one to be found is to the " standard number " of the one given. Example. — Cotton-Worsted. Find equal size in worsted yarn to 20's cotton yarn. (Cottou standard.) : (Worsted standard). 840 : 560 =3:2 Thus 20: x: : 2: 3 and 3X20=^60^2=30. Answer. — A thread of 20's cotton yarn equals (in size) a thread of 30's worsted yarn. 15 Example. — Cotton-Wool (run system). Find equal size in woolen yarn (runs) to lO's cotton yarn. (Cotton standard.) : (Run standard.) 840 : 1,600 =21 : 40 Thus 10 : X : : 40 : 21 and 21 X 10=210--40=5i. Answer. — A thread of lO's cotton equals (in size) a thread of 6|-run (wool). Example. — Cotton-Wool (cut system). Find equal size in woolen yarn (cut basis) to lO's cotton yarn. (Cotton standard.) : (Cut standard,) 840 : 300 = 14 : 5 Thus 10:x :: 5:14 and 14X10=140^5=28. Answer. — A thread of lO's cotton yarn equals (in size) a thread of 28-cut woolen yarn. Example. — Worsted- Wool (run system). Find equal size in woolen yarn (run basis) to 20's worsted yarn. (Worsted standard.) : (Run standard.) 560 : 1,600 =7:20 Thus 20 : X : : 20 : 7 and 7 X 20=140-^20=7. Answer. — A thread of 20's worsted equals (in size) a thread of 7-run woolen yarn. Example. — Worsted- Wool (cut system). • Find equal size in woolen yarn (cut basis) to 15's worsted yarn. (Worsted standard.) : (Cut standard.) 560 : 300 =28:15 Thus 15: x:: 15:28 and 15x28=428-^15=28. Answer.— A thread of 15's worsted equals (in size) a thread of 28-cut woolen yarn. Example. — Worsted- Cotton. Find equal size in cotton yarn to 30's Worsted. 30 : X :: 3 : 2and 30 X 2=60^3=20. Answer. — A thread of 30's worsted equals (in size) a thread of 20 s cotton yarn. Example. — Wool (run system) -Cotton. Find equal size in cotton yarn to a 5J-run woolen yam 5.25:x :: 21:40 and 5.25X40=210^-21=10. Answer. — A 5J-run woolen yarn equals (in size) a lO's cotton yarn. Example.— V/ool (run system) -Worsted. Find equal size in worsted yard to a 7-run woolen yarn. 7 : X : : 7 : 20 and 7 X 2=140--7=20. Answer. — A 7-run woolen yarn equals in size a 20's worsted yarn. Example. — Wool (run system) -Wool (cut system). Find equal size in the cut basis for a 6- run woolen thread. 6 : X : : 3 : 16 and 6 X 1 6=96^3=32. Answer. — A 6-run woolen thread equals (in size) a 32-cut thread of the same material. Example. — Wool (cut system) -Cotton. Find equal size of cotton yarn to a 28-cut woolen yarn. 28:x :: 14:5 and 5X28=140^14=10. Answer, — A 28-cut woolen yarn equals (in size) a lO's cotton yarn. 16 Example. — Wool (cut system) -Worsted. Find equal size worsted yam to a 28-cut woolen yarn. 28 :x:: 28:15 and 28X15=420^28=15. Answer. — A 28-cut woolen yarn equals (in size) a 15's worsted yarn. Example. — Wool (cut system) -Wool (run system). Find equal size of the run basis for a 32- cut woolen yarn. 32:x:: 16:3 aud 3X32=96-^-16=6. Answer. — A 32-cut woolen yarn equals (in size) a 6-run woolen yarn. B. SPUN SILK YARNS COMPARED TO COTTON, WOOLEN OR WORSTED YARNS. As already stated in a previous chapter the basis of spun silk is the same as that of cotton ; therefore the rules and examples given under the heading of " Cotton " refer at the same time to spun silk. C. LINEN YARNS, JUTE AND RAMIE. These yarns have the same standard of grading as woolen yarn (cut system) ; thus examples given under the latter basis will also apply to the present kind of yarns. D. RAW SILK YARNS COMPARED TO SPUN SILK, COTTON, WOOLEN OR WORSTED YARNS. Rule. — Find the number of yards per pound (in table previously given) in raw silk and divide the same by the standard size of the yarn basis to be compared with. Example. — Raw Silk-Cotton (or spun silk). Find equal size ia cotton yarn to 9-dram raw silk. 9-dram raw silk=28,444 yds. per lb. Thus 28,444^-840 (cotton standard)=33f. Answer. — 2-dram raw silk equals (nearly) 34's cotton. Or if calculating without a table proceed as follows : 1 lb.=16 oz. 1 oz.=16 drams. Thus 16 X 16=256 drams per lb. (Counts given.) : (Yards in i hank.) (Drams per lb.) (Yards per lb. ) 9 : 1000 :: 256 : x 256 X 1000=256,000-^9=28,4441 yds. per lb. of 9 drams raw silk. (Yards per lb.) ; ; (Basis of yarn to compare with.) 28,444 ^ 840 =33f being with the same result as before. Example. — Spun Silk or Cotton to Raw Silk. Find equal size in raw silk to 38's cotton. 38's CO tton=(38 X 840) 31,920 yds. per lb. Refer to previously given table for raw silk, where you will find 8 drams to equal 32,000 yards per lb. Answer. — A 38's cotton thread equals (nearly) an 8-dramraw silk thread. Or if calculating without table find result by : Rule. — Divide the standard measure (number of yards per lb.) of the given yarn by 1000 (yards in one hank) and the quotient thus obtained into 256. (drams in 1 lb.) Example. — Find the answer by this rule for previously given question. 38's cotton=31,920 yards. Thus 31,920^1000=31.92 and 256--31.92=8.02. Answer, — A 38's cotton thread equals (nearly) an 8-dram raw silk thread, 17 Ascertaining the Counts of Twisted Threads Composed of Different Materials. The above question may often arise when manufacturing fancy yarns and of which it is requisite to know the compound size for future calculations. RULE A.— If the compound thread is composed of two minor threads of different materials, one must be reduced to the relative basis of the other thread and the resulting count found in this system. Example. — Find equal counts in a single worsted thread to a 2-ply thread composed of 30's worsted and 40's cotton yarn. 40's cotton=60's worsted. Thus, 30X60=1800^90 (30+60)=20. Answer. — Compound thread given in example equals a single 20's worsted thread. Example. — Find the equal counts in single cotton yarn to a 2-ply thread composed of single 30's worsted and 40's cotton yarn. 30's worsted=20's cotton. Thus, 40X20=800^-60 (40+20)=13|. J.nswjer.— Compound thread given in example equals a single cotton thread of number 1 3^. Example. — Find the equal counts in single woolen yarn (run basis) to a 2-ply thread composed of single 20's cotton yarn and 6-run woolen yarn. 20's cotton=10i-ruu woolen yarn. Thus, 10JX6=63-=-16| (10i+6)=3A. Answer. — Compound thread given in example equals a single woolen thread of 3TT-run. Example. — Find the equal counts in single woolen yarn (cut basis) to a 2-ply thread composed of single 40's cotton and 28-cut woolen yarn. 40's cotton=112-cut. Thus, 28X112=3136--140 (28+112)=22/(t. Answer. — Compound thread given in example equals a single woolen yarn of 22|-cut. Example. — Find the equal counts in single worsted yarn to a 2-ply thread composed of single 20's worsted and 60's spun silk. 60's silk==90's worsted. Thus, 20X90=1800^110 (20+90) 16A. Answer. — Compound thread given in example equals a single 16i*r's worsted. RULE B. — If the compound thread is composed of three minor threads of two or three different materials, they must by means of their relative length be transferred in one basis and the resulting count found in this system. Example. — Find equal counts in single woolen yarn, run basis, for the following compound thread composed of a 3-run, a 6-run woolen thread, and a single 20's cotton twisted together. 3X6=18^9 (3+6)z^2. (3-run and-6 run threads compounded, equal a single 2-run thread.) 20's cotton equals 10|-run, thus 2XlOJr=21--12i (2+10^) =1H. Answer. — The three-fold thread given in example equals in count a single woolen yarn of lU (nearly 1|) run. The previously given example may also be solved as follows : — 20's cotton =10|-run woolen yarn, thus, 10i--10J=l 101^ 6 =lf 10i^6J=m. 101-- 3 =31 6i Answer. — A 3-run, a 6-run woolen thread, and a single 20's cotton twisted together equal in size a lU-run woolen thread. 18 Ascertaining the Counts for a Minor Thread to Produce, with Other Given Minor Threads, Two, Three, or More Ply Yarn of a Given Count. A. ONE SYSTEM OF YARN. In some instances it may be required that the compound thread produced out of two, three, or more, minor threads must be of a certain count. We may be requested to twist with a minor thread of a given count a minor thread of unknown count (to be ascertained) ; both threads to produce a com- pound thread of known count. If such is the case proceed after the following Rule : Multiply the counts of the given single thread by the counts of the compound thread, and divide the product by the remainder obtained by subtracting the counts of the compound threads from the counts of the given single thread. Example. — Find size of single yarn required (run basis) to produce with a 4-run woolen yarn a compound thread of 3-run. 4X3=12--1(4— 3)=12. Answer. — The minor thread required In the present example is a 12-run thread, or a 4-run and a 12-run woolen thread compounded into a 2-fold yarn, are equal in counts to a 3-run single woolen thread. P/-oo/.-^4Xl2=48^16=3-run, or compound thread, as required. Example. — Find size of single yarn required (worsted numbers) to produce with a 48's worsted thread a compound thread the equal of 16's worsted yarn. 48 Xl 6=768 --32(48— 16)= 24. Answer. — The minor thread required in the present example is a 24's worsted thread, or a 48's worsted thread and a 24's worsted thread compounded into a two-fold yarn, are equal in counts to a single 1 6's worsted thread. Proof. — 48X24=1152-T-72=16's worsted or compounded size required. Example. — Find size of single yarn required (cotton numbers) to produce with an 80's cotton thread a 2-fold yarn of a compound size of equal 30's cotton yarn. 80X30=2400^-50(80— 30)=48. Answer. — The minor thread required in. the present example is a 48's cotton thread compounded into a 2-fold yarn equal in this compound size to a single 30's cotton thread. Proof. — 80 X 48=3840^ 128=30's cotton, or compound size required. If one of the minor threads is to be found for a 3-ply thread of which two minor threads are known, use the following Rule: Compound the two minor threads given into their equal -in a single thread, and solve the question by the previously given rule. Example. — Find minor thread required to produce with single 30's and single 60's worsted a 3- ply yarn to equal single 12's worsted. 60's and 30's worsted compound =(60x30=1800-f-90-(60 + 30)=20) single 20's worsted. Thus 20 X 12 :=240--8 (20 — 12) =30 C size IS known. J ( J' J"^^ ■ J size is known. J \^ j j j Answer. — The size of the third minor required to be ascertained in the given example is single 30's worsted yarn, or a 3-ply thread composed of single 30's, 60's, and 30's worsted yarn equals single 12's worsted counts as shown by the Proof— 60 60 = 1 60 -f- 30 = 2 60^5=1 2's worsted. 60 -f- 30 = 2 5 19 B. TWO SYSTEMS OF YARNS. In the manufacture of fancy yarns we may be called on to select the proper minor thread required in another material. This, however, will not change previously given rules, for after finding the counts in the given system we only have to transfer the same to the required system. Example (2-ply yarn). — Find the size of single worsted yarn required to produce with an 8-run woolen yarn a compound thread of 6-run yarn. 8x6=48-4-2(8 — 6)=24-run woolen yarn required. 24-run woolen yarn=38,400 yards per lb. and 38,400H-560=68i Answer. — The single worsted thread required in given example is GSf^s. Example (3 -ply yarn). — Find the size of the spun silk required to produce with a 40's and 60's worsted a 3-ply yarn of equal count to single 12's worsted. 40 X 60=2,400-=- ipO (40-^60)=24=com- pound size of 40's and 60's. 24X12=288-4-12 (24 — 12)=24's worsted size required to be trans- ferred in spun silk. 24X560=13,440--840=16 Answer. — 16's spun silk is required in present example. Ascertaining- the Amount of Material Required for Eacin Minor Thread in Laying Out Lots for Two, Three, or More Ply Yarn. A. DOUBLE AND TWIST YARN. Composed of Minor Threads of the Same Material. For producing a certain amount of fancy double and twist yarn it is necessary to ascertain the amount of stock required for each minor thread. This question will readily be solved by — Rule. — The sum of both counts is to the one of the counts, in the same proportion as the amount of double and twist yarn required is to the amount of the yarn required for producing the other minor thread. Example. — Find amount of material required for each minor thread for producing 1000 lbs. of double and twist yarn made out of 6 and 7-run minor threads. (6+7)=13:6:: 1,000 :x (6 + 7)=13:7 :: l,000:x 6 X l,000=6,000--13=461i^j 7 X 1,000=7,000-4-13=538tV 1,000 Answer. — In previously given example the following amount of yarn (of minor threads) js required : — 461tV lbs. of 7-run yarn. 536A " " 6-run yarn. Proof.— 461tV lbs. of 7-run yarn=(46lTVX ll,200)=5,169,2301f yds. SSSA lbs. of 6-run yarn=(538TVX 9,600)=5,169,230^:f yds. Example. — Find amount of material required for each minor thread for producing 250 lbs. of double and twist yarn made out of 32's and 40's worsted for the minor threads. (32+40)=72:32:: 250:x (32+40)=72:40:: 250 :x 32X250= 8,000^72=11H 40X250=10,000^72=1381 250 20 Answer. — For producing 260 lbs. of double and twist worsted yarn composed of 32's and 40*s for minor threads, 111^ lbs. of 40's and 1381 lbs. of 32's are required. Proof.— 1 Hi lbs. of 40's worsted equal (llliX22,400)=2,488,888f yds. 1381 lbs. of 32's worsted equal (1381 X17,920)=2,488,888I yds. Example. — Find amount of material required for each minor thread for producing 1,000 lbs. of double and twist cotton yarn made with 60's and 80's for minor threads. (60 + 80) = 140 : 60 :: 1,000 : x (60 + 80) = 140 : 80 :: 1,000 : x 60 X 1,000 = 60,000 140 = 428f 80 X 1,000 = 80,000 -f- 140 = 671f 1,000 Answer. — For producing 1,000 lbs. of double and twist cotton yarn made out of single 60's and 80's the following amount of each are required : 428f lbs. of 80's 571f lbs. of 60's Proof.— 428f lbs. of 80's cotton equal (428tX67,200)=28,800,000 yards. 5711 lbs. of 60's cotton equal (571f X50,400)=28,800,000 yards. Composed of Minor Threads of Different Materials. If the minor threads are of different materials transfer either one to the relative length of the other, and solve example by previously given rule. Example. — Find amount of material required for each minor thread to produce 100 lbs. double and twist yarn made out of 40-cut woolen yarn and 60's spun silk. 60's spun silk equals 168-cut. Thus, (40 + 168) = 208 : 40 :: 100 : x (40 + 168) = 208 : 168 :: 100 : x 40 X 100 = 4,000 ^ 208 = 19fV 168 X 100 = 16,800 208 = SOU 100 Answer. — To produce 100 lbs. of double and twist yarn as mentioned in example, 19tt lbs. of 60's spun silk and 80H lbs. of 40- cut woolen yarn are required. Proof— 19A lbs. of 60's spun silk equal to (19AX 50,400)==969,230if yards. 80if lbs. of 40-cut woolen yarn equal (80}t X 1 2,000)=969,230H yards. As already mentioned in a previous chapter, if twisting silk yarn with a woolen yarn the former thread will twist proportionately more around the latter, thus we must add an allowance for it to the silk yarn, which in turn we must deduct from the woolen yarn. But as this difference (or allowance) is regulated by the turns of twist per inch, also the tension of the yarn when twisting it will vary (as little as it will be) in each different d & tw. yarn ; but will be readily ascertained by the manufacturer in his practical work. B. THREE-PLY YARN. Composed of Minor Threads of the Same Material. Sometimes it may be required to find the amount of material for each minor thread for a given weight of a 3-ply yarn. If so the example must be solved by 21 Rule. — Transfer the given three counts to their equivalent in a single thread and find number of yards required to balance given weight. Afterwards divide each standard (number of yards necessary to balance 1 lb.) of the three given minor threads in the number of yards required, the result being pounds necessary for each count. Example. — Find amount of material required for each minor thread for 100 lbs. of 3-ply yarn, produced out of 5, 6 and 7-run woolen yarn for the minor threads. 5, 6, and 7-run. 7-f-7=l 7--6=l/7 7-^5=lM 3iff 7-=-3H=1t§7 equivalent count in a single thread for 5, 6 and 7-run. Ixtf Xl,600=3,140A'V yards per lb., XlOO lbs. (total amount of yarn wanted) =314,01 8i^/t total number of yards of 3-ply yarn required. 314,018-4- 8,000 (Standard for 5-run)=39.25 314,018 -f- 9,600 (Standard for 6-run)=32.71 314,018-5-11,200 (Standard for 7-run)=:28.04 100.00 Answer. — The amount of yarn for each minor thread in given example is as follows : 39.25 lbs. of 5-run woolen yarn. 32.71 lbs. of 6-run woolen yarn. 28.04 lbs. of 7-run woolen yarn. 100 lbs. Total amount of yarn wanted. Composed of Minor Threads of Different Materials. If in a 3-ply yarn one of the minor threads is of a different material (compared to the other two), transfer this thread to its equivalent count of the other basis, and solve example by previously given rule. Example.-^'FvaA amount of material required to produce 1,000 lbs. of 3-ply yarn made out of 30's worsted, 45's worsted and 60's spun silk. 60's spun silk equals 90's worsted yarn, thus : 30 — 45—90 90-5-90=1 90-5-45=2 90-5-6=1 5*8 equivalent count in single thread. 90-r-30=3 6 15X560=8,400 yards per lb. X 1,000 lbs. (total amount of yarn wanted) =8,400,000 total number of .yards of 3-ply yarn required. 8,400,000^-16,800 (Standard for 30's worsted)=500.00 8,400,000-^25,200 (Standard for 45's worsted)=333.33-f (J) 8,400,000^50,400 (Standard for 90's worsted)=166.66-f (f) 1000.00 Answer. — The amount for each minor thread in given example is as follows : 500 lbs, of 30's worsted. 333^^ lbs. of 45's worsted. 166f lbs. of 60's spun silk. 1,000 lbs. Total amount of yarn wanted. 22 Ascertaining the Cost of Two, Three, or More Ply Yarn. COMPOSED EITHER OF DIFFERENT QUALITIES (AS TO PRICE) OF YARN ONLY, OR OF THE LATTER ITEM IN ADDITION TO DIFFERENT COUNTS OF THE MINOR THREADS. If a 2-ply yarn is composed of minor threads of equal counts, but different qualities, (as to cost) the average between the two prices will be the cost of the 2-ply thread. Example. — Find the price for 2/40's worsted composed of minor threads worth respectively $1.00 and $1.36. $1.00+$1.36=$2.36^2==$1.18. Answer. — The price of the yarn in question is $1.18 per pound. By means of the average we will also find the price for a three or more ply yarn provided the counts of each minor thread are the same. Example. — Find the price for a 3-ply yarn composed of minor threads of equal counts, but costing respectively 60 cts., 80 cts. and $1.00 per pound. $0.60+$0.80+$1.00=$2.40h-3=$0.80. Ayiswer. — The price for the yarn in question is 80 cents. If a 2-ply yarn is composed of minor threads of unequal counts as well as of different price we must find the cost per pound of the compound thread by — Rule. — Multiply each count by the price of the other yarn, next divide the sum of the products by the sum of the counts. Example. — Find cost per pound for 2-ply yarn composed of 32's and 40's worsted. The price of the 32's to be $1.04 and that of the 40's $1.60. 40X$1.04=$41.60 - _* t 32 X 1.60= 51.20 $92.80--72— $1.28t 72 $92.80 Answer. — The price for the yarn in question is $1,281 or nearly $1.29. Proo/.— 40's and 32's. 40 X 32=1, 280^72(40 +32)=1 7 J compound size of thread. 171X560=9,957 standard number of yards in compound thread, or number of yards of each minor thread required. 40's worsted = 22,400 yards per lb. s. 32's worsted = 17,920 yards per lb., thus: q ■>/ 1 60 22,400:1.60:: 9,957 :x or ' =$0.7112— = 71.12 cents. ' ' 22,400 Q 057 V 1 04 17,920:1.04:: 9,957 : x or '^ ' :;^ ^ - = $0.5777— = 57.77 " Answer.— 128tVo cents = $1.29. If one of the minor threads is of a different material than the other, reduce the one thread to its equivalent counts in the basis of the other and find the cost per pound of compound yarn by previously given rule. Example. — Find cost per pound for 2 ply fancy cassimere yarn, composed of 5-run woolen yarn and 40's cotton yarn for minor threads. Value of the single woolen yarn 86 cents per pound, and value of the cotton yarn 36 cents. 23 40's cotton equals 21 -run woolen yarn thus : 5-run at 86 cents, and 21 -run at 36 cents. 5X36== 180 iQQR.ofi 7fiQ« 21X86.^1,806 1,986^26=76.38 26 1,986 Answer. — The price of given 2-ply fancy cassimere yarn is 7Qt\% cents (or about cents.) Proof. — 5 and 21-run. 5 X 21= 105h-26(5 + 21)=4^V compound size. 42^6 X 1,600= 6,461.5 yards length of each minor thread. 5 run = 8,000 yards per lb. 21 " =33,600 " " " thus : 8,000:86 :: 6,461.5: x or ^^XM61-5 ^ 69.46 cents. 8,000 33,600:36 :: 6,461.5: x or 3^X^>461.5 ^ 6.92 cents. ' ' 33,600 Answer. — 76AV cents. If a 3-ply yarn is composed of minor threads of unequal counts as well as of a differ- ent price, we must find the cost of the compound yarn by Rule. — Find average price and compound counts between any two minor threads given, and after- wards proceed in the same manner between the respective results and the third minor thread. Example. — Find cost per pound of 3-ply fancy yarn composed of the following minor threads : 60's worsted costing $2.00 per pound; 40's worsted costing |1.50 per pound ; and 30's worsted costing $1.00 per pound. 60's at $2.00. 40's at $1.50 60 X 1 .50=90 J 70.00^ 1 00=1 .70. 40X2.00=80 100 170.00 $1.70 average price between 60's worsted at $2.00, and 40's at $1.50.- 60 X 40= 2,400 -^100 (60 + 40)=24. 24's worsted compound counts for 60's and 40's worsted ; thus ; 24's worsted at $1.70. 30's worsted at $1.00. 24X1.00=24.00 75.00^54=1.3888. 30X1.70=51.00 54 75.00 AnMoer. — The price for the 3-ply yarn given in the example is $1.3888 or nearly $1.39. Proo/.— 60's, 40's and 30's worsted. 60--60=l 60—40=11 60^30=2^ 4| 60-f-4J=13|^'s worsted compound counts for 60's, 40's and 30's. l^ worsted=13|X560=7,466| yards per pound. 60's worsted=33,600 yards per lb. at $2.00 40's worsted=22,400 yards per lb. at $1.50 30's worsted^ 16,800 yards per lb. at $ 1 .00 $0.4444 $0.5000 $0.4444 Answer :— $1.3888 Answer. — The price as found before ($1.38) is correct. If a 3-ply yarn is composed of minor threads of different materials as well as different prices, and we must find the cost per pound for the compound yarn, reduce the different counts to their equivalent counts in one basis and find the result by previously given rule. To Find the Mean or Average Value of Yarns of Mixed Stocks. In the manufacture of mixed yams wools of different price are frequently mixed together. To ascertain the medium price of a mixture when the price and quantity of each ingredient are given, use — Rule. — Divide the cost of all the ingredients by the sum of the quantities mixed, the quotient will be the average value. Example.— ¥md the mean or average value of the following wool mixture: 160 lbs. costing 75/ per lb. 160 " " 86/ " " 40 " " $1.10 " " 40 " " 1.16 " " 400 lbs. total amount of wool used in this lot. 75/X160 lbs.=$120.00 85/X160 lbs.= 136.00 $1.10 X 40 1bs.= 44.00 $1.16 X 40 1bs.= 46.40 400 lbs. $346.40 (Cost of all the Ingredients .) (Sum of the Quantities.) $346.40 400 lbs. =$0,866 The value of the wool mixture is 86iV per lb. -Find the value per lb. for the following mixture of wool. 680 lbs. costing 66/ per lb. 300 " " 68/ " " 20 " « 98/ " « 1,000 lbs. in lot. 65/X680=$442.00 68/x300= 204.00 $665.60--l,000=$0.6656 98/ X 20= 19.60 $665.60 Answer. — Wool mixture in question is worth 66fA/ per lb. 33,600:2.00:: 7,466|: x 22,400: i.50 :: 7,466|: x 16,800:1.00:: 7,466f: x 2.00X7,4661 33,600 1.50x7,466f 22,400 1.00X7,4661 16,800 Answer. — Example.— 25 Another question frequently appearing in the mixing of lots for the manufacture of " Mixed Yarns " is — To Find the Quantity of Each Kind of Wool to Use in a Mixture of a Given Value. In such a mixture the total loss on the kinds of wool used of the several prices or qualities must equal the total gain. Rule. — Arrange the prices of the diiferent kinds of wool, we have at our disposal, in a vertical column with the mean price at the left. Next find the gain or loss on one unit of each ; take such au' additional portion of any as will make the losses balance the gains or vice versa. Example. — Two kinds of wool at respective values of 56/ and 63)^ per pound are required to be mixed to produce a mixture worth 60/. Find quantities of each kind wanted. 56+4X1 =4 gain. 63— 3Xli=4 loss. Answer. — 1 part of the wool costing 56/ and " " " " 63/ are required for 2^ parts to produce a mixture of the required value of 60/. Proof.— 1 lb. @ 56/=56/ H " @ 63/=84/ 21 140/ 140X3 140-f-2J=140-j-l= — ^ — - =420-f-7=60/ average price of mixture per lb. Example — Three different qualities of wool at respective values of 60/, 68/ and 70/ per lb. are required to be mixed to produce a mixture worth 64/ per lb. Find quantities of each kind required. 70—6x1 =6 64 68—4X1 =4_ 10/ loss. 60+4X21= 10/ gain. Answer. — To produce mixture of a value of 64/ per lb., use — 1 part from the wool costing 70/ 1 part from the wool costing 68/ 2| parts from the wool costing 60/ in 4|^ parts. Proof.— 1 lb. @ 70/= 70/ 1 " @ 68/= 68/ 21 " @ 60/=150/ 41 lbs. 288/ 288-4-4.5=64/ average price of mixture per lb. Example. — Four different qualities of wool at respective values of 80/, 85/, 96/ and 98/ per lb. are required to be mixed to produce a mixture worth 92/. Find quantities of each kind required. 92 80+12x1 =12 85+ 7X1 =_7 19/ gain. 96— 4X1 — 4 98— 6x21—15 19/ loss. 26 Answer. — To produce mixture of wool of a value of 92/ use — 1 part of the wool costing 80j^ 1 part of the wool costing 85 1 part of the wool costing 92 2| parts of the wool costing 98 m 5^ parts. Proof.— 1 lb. @ 80/= 80/ 1 lb. @ 85 ■= 85 1 lb. @ 96 = 96 21 lbs. @ 98 =245 51 lbs. 506/ 506/-^5.5=92/ being the average price of mixture per lb. Another question frequently arising in laying out " wool-lots " is — To Find the Quantity of Each Kind to Use When the Quantity of One Kind, the Different Prices of Each Kind and the Prices of the Mixture, are Given. Example. — What quantity of each kind of wool costing 60/, 80/ and 90/ must be mixed with 20 lbs. at 71/ so as to bring the mixture to a value of 75/ per lb. / / lbs. 60 + 15X 1=15/ 71+ 4X20=80 — 95/ gain. 80— 5X 1— 5/ 90— 15X 6—90 — 95/ loss. 28 Ansfwer. — Use 1 part or lb. of the wool costing 60/ 20 parts or lbs. " " " 71 1 part crib. " " "80 6 parts or lbs. " " "90 28 parts or lbs. Mixture so as to bring the price of the latter to 75/ per lb. Proof.— 1 lb. @ 60/= 60/ 20 lbs. @ 71 =1,420 1 lb. @ 80 = 8 6 lbs. @ 90 = 540 or 28 lbs. at 2,100/. Hence 2,100/-^-28=75/ average price of mixture per lb. Example. — Having four diiferent lots of wool at respective values of 70/, 74/, 82/ and 84/ on hand, how many lbs. of each kind must we use to make up a lot of 500 lbs. costing us 78/ per lb. 70+ 8X1 =8 74+ 4X1 =4 70 — 12/ gain. 82— 4Xli=6 84— 6X1 =6 12/ loss. 27 500-^41=1 Hi ]Xllli=llU lbs. @ 70 1X11U=11U " @ 74 lXllU=166f " @ 82 1X11U=11H " @ 84 500 lbs. Ansioer. — We must use 11 U lbs. of the lot valued at 70/ per lb, 11 U " " " " 74 " . 166! " " " " 82 " llli " " " • " 84 " to make up a lot of 500 lbs. at a value of 78/ per lb. Proof.— llliX70/=$77.77i 11UX74 = 82.221 166fX82 ==136.661 11UX84 = 92.331 $390.00— and 500 lbs. at 78/ = also $390.00. Reed Calculations. The reed is named by numbers, the number in each case indicating how many splits are in each inch, Thus a number 8-reed means a reed with 8 splits in every inch over the required width. If we call for number 16|-reed, we want a reed having 16| splits in one inch, equal to 33 dents in every 2 inches over the entire width of the fabric. Whole numbers or half numbers alone are used for grading of reeds. Example. — Suppose we have a number 9-reed, four threads in one split or dent, how many ends are in one inch ? How many are in full warp if 70 inches wide in reed ? Answer. — 9 X 4=36 ends of warp in one inch. X 70 width of warp in reed. 2,520 ends in warp. Rule for ascertaining the number of ends in the warp if the reed number, the threads per dent and the width of the warp in the reed are known : Multiply the reed number by the threads per dent and multiply the result by the width of the warp in reed. Example. — How many ends are in the warp if using 13|-reed, 6 threads per dent, 80 inches wide in reed ? 131X6=81X80=6,480. Answer. — 6,480 ends are in warp. Rule for ascertaining the reed number, if the number of ends in the warp and the width in the reed are known, the threads per dent, either given or to be selected, according to the fabric : Divide the number of ends in the warp by the width in the reed, which gives the number of threads per inch ; divide this result again by the number of threads in one dent according to the weave or pattern required, the answer being the reed (number) required. 28 Example. — 6,480 ends in warp, 80 inches wide in ree5. How many ends per inch and what reed is required if 6 ends per dent are to be used ? 6,480-^80=81 -4-6=131. Answer. — 81 ends per inch and 13^ is the reed number required. Rule for ascertaining the width of the warp in the reed if the reed number, the threads per dent, and the number of threads in the warp are known : Divide the number of ends in the warp by the number of ends per inch, giving as the result the number of inches the warp will be in the reed. Example. — Find width In reed for fabric made with 3,600 ends in warp, reeded 3 threads per dent in a number 12-reed. 12X3=36 3,600^36=100. Answer. — The width of the fabric in reed is 100 inches. Example. — Find width in reed for fabric made with 4,752 ends in warp, reeded 4 threads per dent in a number 16|^-reed. 16|X4=66 4,752--66=72 Answer. — The width of the fabric in reed is 72 inches. The number of ends to put in one dent has to be regulated according to the fabric and the weave. Experience is the only guide for this. The coarser the reed, to a certain extent, the easier the picks go into the fabric. The finer the reed, the smoother the goods, and with perfect reeds, the less reed marks. The same number of ends are not always used in each dent, but in such a case the preceding rules may be used with the average number of threads per dent. Example. — "What are the threads per inch ? Reed number 20, using one dent, 4 ends — one dent 5 ends. (Average threads per dent.) (Number of reed.) 4+5=9^2 = 4J X 20 -= 90 Answer. — 90 threads per inch. Example. — What are the threads per inch? Eeed number 18, using 1 dent, 3 ends — 1 dent, 4 ends — 1 dent, 3 ends — 1 dent, 6 ends. (Threads in four dents.) (Average thread per dent.) (Number of reed.) 3+4+3+6 =16 -5- 4 X 18 = 72 An^er. — 72 threads per inch. Sometimes it happens that the average number of threads includes an inconvenient fraction. To avoid a calculation with this fraction, multiply the sum of the contents of the dents by the dents per inch, and then divide by the dents per set. Example. — What are the threads per inch, warp reeded as follows in number 12-reed : 1 dent, 5 threads — 1 dent, 3 threads — 1 dent, 3 threads. 3+3+5=11X12=132^-3=44. Answer. — 44 threads per inch. Example. — What are the threads per inch, warp reeded as follows in a number 15-reed: — 1 dent, 4 threads — 1 dent, 4 threads — 1 dent 5 threads. 4+4+5=13X16=195^-3=65 Answer. — 65 threads per inch. 29 Warp Calculations. TO FIND WEIGHT OF WARP IF NUMBER OF ENDS, COUNTS AND LENGTH ARE GIVEN. Multiply number of ends in the width of the cloth by yards in length (dressed), and divide pro- duct by the number of yards of the given count per pound. Example. — Cotton Yarn. Find weight of warp, 50 yards long, 2, 800 ends, single 40's cotton in warp. 2,800 X 50=140,000 yards. 40 X 840=33,600 yards per lb. in 40's cotton. 140,000-^-33,600=4i Answer. — The weight of the warp in the present example is 4i lbs. J^xample. — Woolen Yarn (run system). Find weight of warp, 40 yards long, 3,600 ends, 4^- run woolen yarn. 3,600X40=144,000 yards. 4i-run= 7,200 yards. 144,000^7,200=20. Answer. — The weight of the warp in present example is 20 lbs. Example — Woolen Yarn (cut system). Find weight of warp, 45 yards long, 4,800 ends, 32-cut woolen yarn. 4,800X45=216,000 yards. 32-cut=9,600 yards. 216,000--9,600=22i Answer. — The weight o^ the warp in the present example is 22|^ lbs. Example. — Worsted Yarn. Find weight of warp, 60 yards long, 6,000 ends, 2/60's worsted yarn. 2/60's worsted=l 6,800 yards. 6,000X60=360,000 yards. 360,000^16,800=21f. Answer. — The weight of the warp in present example is 2I7 lbs. If two or more different kinds of yarn are used, ascertain number of threads in warp for each kind by proportion, and solve answer (for each kind) by previously given rule. Example. — Find weight of warp, 50 yards long, 6,000 ends. Dressed. — 2 ends 2/60's worsted. 1 end 2/50's cotton. 3 ends in repeat. 6,000^3=2,000 2,000X2=4,000 ends 2/60's worsted in warp. 2,000X1=2,000 ends 2/50's cotton in warp. 6,000, complete number of ends in warp. 4,000X50=200,000 yards. 2/60's worsted=l 6,800 yards. 200,000^16,800=1111. 2,000X50=100,000 2/50's cotton=21,000 yards. 100,000^21,000=41! Answer. — The weights of the warp in present example are : lliflbs. of 2/60's worsted. 4M " " 2/50's cotton. 16M lbs.=16| lbs. total weight of both kinds of yarn. 30 Example. — Find weight of warp for each kind of yarn separately in the following example : Lengths of warp 50 yards. Number of ends 4,800. Dressing. — 4 ends 4-run woolen yarn blue 4 " 4 a " black 4 " 4 U " brown 4 " 4 a i( " black 16 . 4 (( u " olive mix 2 " 4 (C u " blue 2 " 4 required per yard of cloth woven. 2.016X3 or 6.048 oz. black " J Proof. — (+) 10.080 total weight of filling required for one yard cloth woven. 39 Example.— Find weight in pounds of filling required for weaving 2,000 yards of cloth of the following dimensions : Reed space 64 inches — picks per inch 66. Arrangement.— 2 picks 2/32's worsted black. 2 « 2/32's brown. 2 " 2/32's " black. 2 " 2/32's " olive. 8 picks in repeat of pattern. 66 X 64=4,224 X 2,000=8,448,000 yards of filling required for 2,000 yards of cloth. 2/32's worsted=8,960 yards and 8,448,000--8,960=942f lbs. total weight of filling required for the 2,000 yards cloth. Black 4 picks in one repeat of color arrangement =2 Brown 2 " " " « « _2 . Olive 2 " " " « « =1 8 picks. . 4 Thus : 942f--4=235f Answer.— 235f Xl=235f lbs. 2/32's olive worsted ^ Amount of filling required 235fXl=235f « 2/32's brown " I for weaving 2,000 yards 235fx2=471f " 2/32's black " j cloth. Proof.— (+) 942f lbs. total weight of all 3 kinds filling for 2,000 yards cloth. If filling yarns of different counts or materials are used, find number of yards of yarn of each kind required for g^ven number of yards, and transfer the same to their respective weight (in oz. or lbs. as required) by means of rules given previously under the heading of " Grading Yarns." Mcample.— Find weight in ounces for filling required per yard in the following fabric : Arrangement. — 10 picks black 4 -run woolen yarn. 2 " blue 6 " " " 12 picks in repeat of pattern. 70 inches reed space of fabric. 64 picks per inch. 64X70=4,480 yards of filling required per yard of cloth. 10 picks black =5 2 picks blue =1 12 picks in repeat 6 Thus : 4,480-j-6=746f 746fXl= 746f yards blue 6-run l 746| X 5=3,7331 " black 4-run / ^^^'"^ required for one yard of cloth. 746f yards 6-run=( 746f --600)= 1.24 oz. 3,7331 « 4-run=(3,733i--400)=9.33 oz. Answer. — 1.24 oz. 6-run blue filling and 9.33 " 4-run black filling, or 10.67 oz. complete weight of filling required for weaving one yard cloth. 40 Sample.— Find weight in pounds of filHng required for weaving 3,500 yards of cloth of the following details : Reed space 72 inches, 84 picks per inch. Arrangement. — 2 picks 32-cut woolen yarn, brown. 1 pick 14 " " " black. 2 picks 32 " " " blue. 1 pick 14 " " " black. 6 picks in repeat. 84X72=6,048X3,500=21,168,000 complete yards of filling required. 2 picks 32-cut brown=l 2 " 32 " bkie =1 2 " 14 " black =1 . 6 picks in repeat. 3 Thus : 21,168,000-4-3=7,056,000 yards of filling required of each kind. 7,056,000^9,600 (standard of 32-cut)=735 lbs. 7,056,000=4,200 (standard of 14-cut)=l,680 lbs. Answer. — In given example the following amounts of filling are required : 735 lbs. 32-cut brown woolen yarn. 735 " 32-cut blue " " 1,680 " 14-cut black " " or 3,150 lbs. complete weight of filling required for weaving the 3,500 yards of cloth. TO FIND THE COUNTS FOR A FILLING YARN REQUIRED TO PRODUCE A CERTAIN GIVEN WEIGHT PER YARD CLOTH (in which also the picks per inch and width in reed are knownv If such example refers to weight given in ounces for one yard, use— i^t^Ze.— Multiply picks by width of fabric in reed, and divide product by number of oz. given, and the quotient by the sixteenth part of the number of yards in the basis of the yarn in question. Example.— Worsted Yarn. Find counts for filling yarn required of following cloth. 90 picks per inch, 58J inches width of fabric in reed. 5 oz. weight for filling to be used. 90X58i=5,250^5=l,050^35(560^16=35)=30. Answer.— The counts fi)r. filling yarn required are either single 30's or 2/60's worsted yarn, p^oo/.— 90 X58i=5,250(yards wanted) ^l,050(yards per oz.)=5 oz. weight of filling per yard. Example.— Woolen Yarn (cut basis). Find counts for filling yarn required of following cloth : 45 picks per inch, 75 inches width of fabric in reed, 9 oz. weight for filling to'be used. 45X75=3,375^9=375^181=20. Answer. — The counts for filling yarn required are 20-cut woolen yarn. If example refers to a given number of yards and weight is expressed in pounds, use— EwZe.— Multiply width of fabric (in loom or in reed) with the number of picks per inch, and the result with the given yards of cloth to be woven ; the result thus obtained divide by the given weight, and the quotient by the basis of the yarn. 41 Example. — Woolen Yarn (run basis). Find counts for filling yarn required of following cloth : Reed space occupied 66f inches, 72 picks per inch, 40 yards length of cloth to be woven, 30 lbs. amount of filling to be used. 66f X 72=4,800 X40=192,000^30=6,400^1,600=4. Answer. — Counts for yarn required are 4-run woolen yarn. Example. — Cotton Yarn. Find counts for filling yarn required for following cloth. Reed space occupied 30 inches, 80 picks per inch, 70 yards length of cloth to be woven, 10 lbs. amount of filling to be used. 30 X 80=2,400 X 70=168,000-^10=16,800-^-840=20 Answer. — Counts for yarn required are 20's cotton yarn. TO FIND THE PICKS PER INCH FOR A CERTAIN PIECE OF GOODS OF WHICH THE COUNTS OF THE YARN, LENGTH OF CLOTH TO BE WOVEN, ITS WIDTH IN REED, AND THE AMOUNT OF MATERIAL TO BE USED, ARE GIVEN. In such a case use — Rule. — Multiply counts by basis of yarn and amount of material to be used, the product thus obtained divide by the yards given and the quotient by width of fabric in reed. Example. — Woolen Yarn (run basis). Find number of picks necessary to produce the follow- ing fabric : 6-run woolen yarn, 80 inches width of cloth in reed, 40 yards length of cloth woven, 20 lbs. weight of filling to be used. 6 X 1,600=9,600 X 20=192,000-^-40=4,800^80=60 Answer. — 60 picks are required. Proof.— m X 80=4,800 X 40= 1 92,000 yards required. 6 X 1,600=9,600. Thus : 192,000--9,600=20 lbs., weight of filling to be used. Example. — Worsted Yarn. Find number of picks required to produce the following fabric : Single 15's worsted filling, 60 inches width of cloth in reed, 40 yards length of cloth woven, 22 lbs. weight of filling to be used. 15 X 560=8,400 X 22=184,800h-40=4.620^60=77 Answer. — 77 picks are required. In some instances there may be two or more different counts of filling used. For example in fabrics made with one system of warp and two or more fillings, or fabrics made on the regular double cloth system, etc. If the arrangement as to counts of a filling is of a simple form, com- pound the counts of the respective number of threads in one thread, and solve answer in compound size by previously given rule. Next multiply compound number thus derived by number of picks compounded, and the result will be the answer for picks wanted in fabric. Example. — Woolen Yarn (cut basis). Find number of picks necessary to produce the following fabric. Arrangement of filling. — 2 picks 32-cut woolen yarn (face). 1 pick 18 " " " (back). 3 picks in repeat. 36 yards length of cloth woven, 26 A lbs. weight of filling to be used, 74 inches reed space to be occupied. 42 32-^-32=1 32-^3l=8TV-cLit compound size. 32--32=l 8tVx300=2,541tVX 26^=66,600 32^18=1^ 66,600-^-36=1,850^-74=25, compound number of picks required. 25 X 3 (number of minor picks compounded) =7 5 3^ Answer. — 75 picks are required. Proof. — 2 picks 32-cut. I 75 picks per inch. 1 pick 18-cut. \ 36 yards length of cloth. 3 picks in repeat. 74 inches reed space occupied. Find weight (26A). 75X74=5,550^3=1,850. 1,850— 18-cut— (18X300=5,400 yards per lb.) 3,700— 32-cut— (32 X 300=9,600 yards per lb.) 1,850X36= 66,600--5,400=12i=12A lbs. 3,700 X 36=133,200^9,600=13|=13fHbs. 26z? lbs., being the same weight as given in example. If the arrangement of filling has a large number of picks in repeat proceed as follows : Ascertain weight of filling for one repeat of number of yards required woven and find answer by pro- portion, for picks in one repeat are to their weight in the same proportion, as picks required (or x) to given weight. Example. — Cotton Yarn. Find number of picks required for the following cloth: Width of fabric in reed 30 inches. Length of cloth woven 60 yards. Weight of filling to be used 1 2 lbs Arrangement of filling. — 20 picks single 20's cotton. 24 " 12's " 44 picks in repeat. 20X30=600X60=36,000 ) 24 X 30=720 X 60=43,200 i ^""^ ^^^^^ 24 X 30=720 X 60=43,200 44 picks. 20's cotton =16,800 yards per lb. and 36,000 yards are required. 12's " =10,080 " " " 43,200 " " " 36,000-f-16,800=2} lbs. 43,200^10,080=4! lbs. 6f lbs., weight required for one repeat (=44 picks) of given counts of cotton yarn. 44:6f::x:12 44Xl2=528^6f=82A Answer. — 82 picks (actually 82tt picks) are required. Proo/'.—82Ax30=2,464 X 60=147,840-^44=3,360. 3,360X20=67,200^16,800=4 lbs. 3,360 X 24=80,640^10,080=8 lbs. 12 lbs., weight of filling to be used in given example. To ascertain the number of yards of cloth woven, a certain amount of yarn on hand will give. Such examples will frequently arise in working up old lots on hand ; again every time at weaving the last pieces cloth of large orders, where the superintendent wants a final review before the 43 last or last few looms may have to wait for filling, or cut warps short. In such instances, width of fabric in reed, counts of yarn, and picks per inch are known. Thus : find number of yards for which material on hand by — Rule. — Ascertain weight of filling required per yard, and divide the latter into the total weight of yarn on hand. Example.— 'Woolen Yarn (run system). Find number of yards of cloth we can weave with 92 lbs. 4-run woolen yarn filling in a fabric, which is set 70 inches wide in reed and for which we use 60 picks per inch. Picks J r Width of) ( Yds of filling ) C6,4oo-f-i6-) per >• \ fabric V < wanted for [• i or yards >■ inch ) (. in reed. ) ( i yard cloth. ) ( per oz J 60 X 70 = 4,200 -H- 400 =]0J oz., weight of filling wanted per yard cloth woven. j Lbs. of filling M Oz. in M Total amount ) j Oz of filling in | ( on hand. \ \ i lb ){ of oz. H i yard of cloth, j 92 X 16 = 1,472 10.5 =140.19 yards. Answer. — Filling in hand will Weave 140 yards (140.19) of cloth. Example. — Woolen Yarn (cut system). Find number of yards of cloth we can weave with 42 lbs. 32-cut woolen yarn filling in a fabric, which is set 72 inches in reed and for which we use 84 picks per inch. ♦ f Picks) (Width of) ( Yds. of filling ] T 9,600-^16) -j per >• < fabric >• \ wanted for I -j or yards [• (inch.) ( in reed. ) ( i yard cloth. J ( per oz. ) 84 X 72, = 6,048 ~- 600 =10.08 oz.,weight of filling wanted per yard cloth woven. ( Lbs. of filling M Oz. in M Total amount! ( Oz. of filling in ) \ on hand. f | i lb. H ofoz. J | i yard of cloth f 42 X 16 = 672 10.08 =66f yards. Answer. — Filling on hand will weave 66 yards (66f) of cloth. Example. — Worsted Yarn. Find number of yards of cloth we can weave with 52 lbs. of 2/36'8 worsted filling in a fabric, which is set 62 inches wide in reed and for which we use 70 picks per inch. f Picks] f Width of] f Yds. of filling ] f 10,080^16 "] per N fabric [ I wanted for \ \ or yards \ (inch.) ( in reed. J ( i yd. of cloth. J [_ per oz. j 70 X 62 = 4,340 h- 630 =6.888 oz,,weight of filling wanted per yard cloth woven. / Lbs. of filling \ / Oz. in ) f Total amount 1 f Oz. of filling in ) 1 on hand. / \ i lb. f \ ofoz j 1 1 yard of cloth f 52 X 16 = 832 -J- 6.888 =120.79 yards. Answer. — Filling on hand will weave 120 yards (1201) of cloth. Example. — Cotton Yarn. Find number of yards of cloth we can weave with 18 lbs. of single 40's cotton filling in a fabric, which is set 30 inches in reed and for which we use 60 picks per inch. r Picks] f Width of] f Yds. of filling ] f 33,600-^-16 < per V fabric j- < wanted for M or yards [ inch, } iin reed J [ i yard of cloth. J [ per oz. 60 X 30 = 1,800 H- 2,100 =7 oz., weight of filling wanted per yard cloth woven. j Lbs. of filling "I j Oz in M Total amount ) j Oz. of filling in ) \ on hand. /( i lb. f] ofoz. fl i yard of cloth [ 18 X 16 = 288 -f- f =336 yards. Answer. — Filling on hand will weave 336 yards of cloth. (Answers are given in these examples without reference to any waste of material during the weaving process.) 44 Ascertaining the Amount and Cost of the Materials used in the Construction of Fabrics. A. FIND THE TOTAL COST OF MATERIALS USED, and B. FIND THE COST OF THE SAME PER YARD, FINISHED CLOTH. Fancy Cassimere. Warp.— 3,600 ends 4-run brown mix. Price of yarn, 85 cents per lb. Length dressed, 50 yards. Reed, 12|X4. Selvage. — 40 ends, 2-ply 4-run. Reeded, 4 ends per dent. Price of yarn, 50 cents. Filling. — 52 picks, 3|-run gray mix. Price of yarn, 65 cents per lb. Length of fabric from loom, 43 yards. Length of fabric finished, 40 yards. \ Bnds. [ { Va^ \ j ^' [ \ \ { "S.^" [ Warp.— 3.600X50 go 000 ^ 6,400) 28| X 85/ = $23,905, price of warp. 6,400 ^ f Total \ r Yards \ \ Price per 1 t yards. / \ per lb. j | lb. J Selvage.— 40X2=80endsX50yds.=4,000 3,200=1 i lbs. X 50/ = 6 2i/, price of selvage. Filling. — 3,600h-50=72 inches, width of warp in reed. f II " width of selvage (80-^4=20-5-121=11). 73f inches, width of warp and selvage. ( ) ( ) ( Yards filling; ) ( Yards ) j Total yards ) j Yards per ) j Weight of ) ] Width. [ ] Picks J j per yard cloth, f j Woven. ^ | filling. M lb. f] filling, f 73i X 52 = 3,8271 X 43 = 164,582.1 6,000 = 27.43 lbs. ^ X 65f , price per lb. $17.8295, price of filling. $23.90|, price of warp. 621 price of selvage. $42.36 --40=$1.059 or $1.06, price of material per yard finished. 17.83, price of filling. $42.36, total cost of all. Answer. — A. $42.36, total cost of all materials. Answer.— B. $1.06, cost of materials per yard of finished cloth. Worsted Suiting. Warp.— 3,968 ends, 2/32's worsted. Price of yarn, $1.05 per lb. Length dressed, 45 yards. Reed, 16X4. Selvage.— 30 double ends, 2/30's worsted, 3 doable ends per dent. Price of yarn, 75 cents per lb. Filling.- 66 picks, 2/32's worsted. Price of yarn, 95 cents. Length of fabric from loom, 40 yards. Length of fabric finished, 39^ yards. Warp.— 3,968X45=178,560 yards of warp wanted. 2/32's worsted=l/16's=8,960 yards per lb. 178,560^-8,960=1911 lbs., weight of warp. 19HX1.05=^X 1.05=?^^^|^^=292.95^14=$20.921, cost of warp. 45 Selvage. — 60X2=120X45=5,400 yards of selvage are wanted. 2/30's=l/15's=8,400 yards per lb. KA Q (Price per lb.) 5,400^-8,400= ^or^ X 75^ = 675h-14=48tV, cost of selvage. Filling.— 3,968^-64=62 inches width of warp. 10 dents each side for selvage=20 (both sides) -^16=1J inches, width of selvage. 62 inches, width of warp. 11 " " selvage. c Yards filling [ ■ I . I wanted per yard. ) total width of fabric in reed, and 631X66=4,174.5 X 40 length of cloth from loom. 166,980 yards of filling wanted. 166,980^8,960=18fff lbs. of filling wanted. f Price I tper lb. f 18111 X 95^ = 17.70HI-i-100=$17.70i, cost of filling. Warp, $20,921 Selvage, 0.48t\ $39.1175-=-39.25=$0.996 or 991/, cost of material per yard. Filling, 17.70i $39. 11 A, total cost of materials. Answer A. — $39,111, (practically $39.12) total cost of all materials. Answer B.— $ 0.991, (practically $1.00) cost of materials per yard of finished cloth. Cotton Dress Goods. Warp. — 1,392 ends, single 18's cotton. Price of yarn, 22 cents per lb. Length dressed, 60 yards. Reed, 24X2. Selvage. — 12 ends, 2/20's cotton, 3 ends per dent. Price, 20 cents per lb. Filling. — 54 picks, single 26's cotton. Price, 24 cents per lb. Length of cloth from loom, 56 yards. Length of cloth finished, 56J yards. Warp.— 1,392 X 60=83,520^16,120(840 X18)=5t¥7 lbs.X22/=$1.20iH, price of warp. Selvage.— 24 X 60=l,440-5-8,400=iM or ^% lbs. ^X20=(120-=-35)=3f/, price of selvage. Filling.— 1,392^48=29 inches, width of fabric in reed. ^ inch " " both selvages. 29J inches, total width of fabric and selvages. • 29^^X54=1,584 yards of filling wanted per yard. X56 " length of cloth from loom. 88,704, total number of yards wanted. 5 Yards per lb. ) \ in 26's cotton, f (lbs.) 88,704 21,840 = 4.061 X 24/=.97AV, price of filling. 46 1.21, price of warp .031, " " selvage .97i " filling $2.22-^-561=3x73 or nearly 3^ price of material per yard finished. $2.22, total price of material used in the fabric. Answer A. — $2.22, total cost of material used. Answer B. — $ .03|, (practically 4 cents) cost of materials per yard finished cloth. Woolen Tricot Suiting. Warp. — 4,608 ends, 32-cut woolen yarn. Price of yarn, $1.15 per lb. Length dressed, 40 yards. Eeed, 16X4. Selvage. — 40 ends, single 10-cut, 2 ends per dent. Price, 54 cents per lb. Filling. — 76 picks, 36-cut woolen yarn. Price, $1.08 per lb. Length of cloth from loom, 36 yards. Length of cloth finished, 32 yards. Warp.— 4,608 X 40=1 84,320-f-9,600(300x32)=l 9.2 lbsX$1.15^$22.08, price of warp. Selvage.— 40X2=80 X 40=3,200^-3,000(300 X10)=1tV lbs. X$0.54=$0.576, price of selvage. Filling.— 4,608 ---64=72 inches, width of warp. 21 " « selvage. (40x2=80--2=40-^-16==2i) 74| inches, total width of fabric. 74|X 76=5,662 yards filling per yard. X36 yards of cloth woven. Warp, $22.08 Selvage, .576 Filling, 20.383 203,832, total yards filling wanted. 203,832--10,800=18,873 lbs., weight of filling. 18,873 lbs.X$1.08=$20.383, cost of filling. $43,039-4-32=11.345, or $1,341, cost of materials per yard finished. $43,039, total cost. Answer A. — $43,039, (practically $43.04) is the total cost of the materials used ; and, Answer B. — $1.34|, is the cost of the same per yard finished. Worsted Suiting. Warp. — 3,960 ends. Length dressed, 45 yards. Reed, 16X4. Take up of warp during weaving, 12 per cent. Dressed. — 4 ends black 2/32's 1 ^ j . > 4 times over=24 ends. 2 " slate 2/36'sj 4 " black 2/32's =4 " 1 " 30/2's lavender spun silk =1 " 1 " 30/2's red " " = 1 " 30 ends in pattern. Price of black worsted, $1.05. Price of slate worsted, $1.12. Price of silk, $6.50. Selvage. — 30 double ends, 2/30's worsted each side, 3 double ends per dent. Price of yarn, 75/ per lb. 47 Filling. — 66 picks per inch, 2/32's worsted. Arrangement of colors. — 28 picks black worsted 2/32's (price 95/ per lb.) 1 pick lavender spun silk 30/2's (price $6.50 per lb.) 1 pick red " " 30/2's (price 6.50 per lb.) 30 picks in repeat. Loss in length during finishing, IJ per cent. 20 ends black 2/32's worsted=10 8 " slate 2/36's " =4 2 " spun silk 30/2's « = 1 30 ends in pattern =15 3,960-f- 15=264 repeats (of half patterns.) 264X10= 2,640 ends of 2/32's black worsted X 45= 11 8,800 yards. 264 X 4= 1,056 " " 2/36's slate " X45= 47,520 " 264X 1=/ " " 30/2's lavender silk X45= 5,940 " I 132 " " 30/'2s red silk X45= 5,940 " 3,960 ends of warp X 45=1 78,200 yards. 2/32's=l/16's=16X 560=8,960 yards per lb. 118,800-f-8,960=13i¥^ lbs. X$1.05=iii?^Xl.05=(l,485X 1.05=155,925^112=) $13,921. 1 1 Z Price of 118,800 yards 2/32's black worsted is $13.92. 2/36's=l/18's=18X 560=10,080 yards. 47,520--10,080=4f lbs. X $1.12=$5.28, price of 47,520 yards 2/36's slate worsted. 30/2's silk=25,200 yards per lb. 5, 940 --25, 200= 0.23 5 lbs. X $6.50=$1 .52750. Price of 5,940 yards 30/2's lavender silk=$1.527. Price of 5,940 yards 30/2's red silk=$1.527. Black worsted, $13.92 Slate, " 5.28 Lavender silk, 1.527 Eed silk, 1.527 $22,254, total cost of warp. Selvage.— 2/30's=l/5's=15 X 560=8,400 yards per lb. 54 9 120X45=5,400 yards. 5,400--8,400=g^=j^lbs'. x75/=48.2/, price of selvage Filling.— 3,960^64=6 lit inches, width of cloth in reed. 60^3=20 dents^l6=lT?=lHnch, width of selvage. 61U, width of cloth. Its, width of selvage. 62x1 inches=63i inches, Avidth of cloth and selvasre. 505 ^ 63iX66=-g-X66=(505X66=33,330--8=)4,166i yards filling wanted for 1 yard cloth from loom. 45 yards length dressed. — 5.4 " 12 per cent, take up. 39.6 yards, length of cloth woven. 4,166.25X39.6=164,983.5 yards, total amount of filling wanted. 48 164,983.5-^15=10,998.9 10,998.9X14=153,984.6 yards of 2/32's worsted wanted. 10,998.9 X 1= 10.998.9 " " 30/2's silk wanted. 164,983.5 153,984.6^8,960=17.185 lbs. X 95^=$16.326, price of the black worsted filling. 30/2's silk=25,200 yards per lb. 10,998.9^25,200=0.436 lbs. X $6.50=$2.834, total price of silk. $2.834--2=$1.417, price for each kind silk. $16,326 black worsted filling. 1.417 lavender silk " 1.417 red " " Cost of warp, $22,254 " " selvage, .482 " " filling, 19.160 $19,160, total cost of filling. 39.6 yards, length of cloth woven. .594 " 1 J percent, loss in finishing. 39.006 yards, finished length. $41,896, total cost of materials. 41.896-J-39.006=1.074, cost of materials per finished yard. Answer. — A. Total cost of material, $41.90. Armoer. — B. Cost of materials per yard finished cloth, \ Fancy Cassimere. .071 =1 end. =36 ends. Warp. — 4,032 ends. Reed, 14X4. Length of warp dressed, 50 yards. Take-up of warp during weaving, 10 per cent. Dressed. — 4 ends 5-run black 1 . , . or* j , „ ^ „ , ^ 4 times over - - - - =32 ends. 4 " 5 " brown J 4 ends 5-run black - - - - - - - - - =4 ends. 3 " 5 " brown - .- .-----=3 ends. r 5-run black wool and 30's blue spun silk twisted together ^ 1 end twist < take up of silk, 12 per cent. ^ I" " " wool, 3percent.|^"^^"g*^^'^^°^- 2 ends 5-run black 1 r» j.' ^ „ ^ „ ^ y 9 times over _ _ _ _ > 2 " 5 " brown / 2 ends 5-run black - - - - - - - - - =2 ends. 1 end 5 " brown - - - - - - - - - =1 end. 1 " twist (the same as above) - - - _ - - - = \ end. In pattern 80 ends. Price of the 5-run warp yarn, 96 cents per lb. Price of the 5-run woolen yarn (soft-twist) as used in twist, 96 cents per lb. Price of the spun-silk as used in twist, $5.60 per lb. Selvage. — 40 ends of 2-ply 4-run listing yarn for each side, 4 ends per dent. Price of yarn, 50 cents. Filling. — The same arrangement as the warp, ouly using 5|-run yarn in place of the 5-run. For twist use the same material for both minor threads as in warp. 60 picks per inch. Price of the 5|-run filling yarn, 85 cents. Loss in length of fabric at finishing (fulling), 6 per cent. Warp, r. T f ^8 5-run ,032 ends. I ^ ^^.^^ 4,032--80=50 repeats plus 32 ends. 80 ends in repeat. 50X78^3,900-1-32=3,932 ends of 5-run 50X2=100 ends twist. 49 (Ends in warp.) (Yards long.) (Yards wanted.) (5X1,600) 3,932 X 50 = 196,600 - 8,000 =24,575 lbs.@96/=$23.592,priceof5-run warp. 100 ends of twistX50 yards (dressed)=5,000 yards, total length of twist yarn wanted. Take-up of silk (during twisting) 12 per cent. Thus : (100 : 88 : : x : 5,00O)=5,681.81 yards of 30's spun silk are wanted. Take-up of wool (during twisting) 3 per cent. Thus : (100 : 97 : : x : 5,000)= 5, 154.64 yards of 5-run woolen yarn are wanted. (30X840) (Weight wanted.) (Price per lb.) 5,681.81 ^ 25,200 = 0.2254 lbs. X $5.60 = $1,262, price of silk yarn used in twist for warp. (5X1,600) (Weight wanted.) (Price per lb.) 5,154 64 - 8,000 = 0.6443 lbs. X 96/ =$0,618, price of the 5-run minor yarn for twist. $23,592 cost of 5-run warp yarn. 1.262 " " 30's spun silk \. , 0.618 " " 5-run soft twist / $25,472, total cost of warp. Selvage.— 80 ends X 50 yards dressed=4,000 yards of yarn--8,200 (2 X 1,600) =1^ lbs. 1| lbs @ 50/ = 621/, price of selvage yarn u.^ed, (Ends in warp.) (14X4) Filling.— 4,032 56 = 72 inches, width of cloth in reed. 80 (ends selvage) --4 (ends per dent) =20 dents-^14=lf inches,, width of selvage. 72 inches, width of cloth, H " . " " selvage, f Width of 1 j Picks ) \ cloth. / j per inch. ) 514 30 840 ) '^^ I 73f X 60 =-y-x60=-^^ — X45 |— ^=1^ per cent, take up V = 198,257|, total number of yards of filling wanted. 198,2571^40=4,956.43 X 1= 4,956.43 yards of twist. l and 4,956.43X39=193,300.77 " " 5i-run. /^^''"^ wanted. 5|-ruu=8,800 yards per lb. Thus : 193,300^8,800=2111 lbs. @ 85/=$18.671, price of the 5i-run filling. Twist yarn. / ^^^^ take-up 12 per cent., thus : (100:88 :: x:4,956.43)=5,632H yards are wanted. IWool " 3 " " " (100:97 ::x:4,956.43)=5,109i? " 30's spun silk=25,200 yards per lb. Hence : 5,632-25,200=0.2235 lbs., weight of silk wanted @ $5.60=$1.251, price of silk. 5-run woolen yarn=8,000 yards per lb. Hence : 5,109^-8,000=0.6386 lbs., weight of woolen yarn @ 96/=61.3/, price of the woolen yarn. $18,671 cost of 5J-run filling. 1.251 " " 30's spun silk. \. , . 0.613 " " 5-run soft twist, j $20,535, total cost of filling. 60 $25,472, cost of warp. 0.625, " " selvage. 20.535, " " filling. 45 yards, woven length of cloth. 2.7 " (6 per cent, shrinkage in ful ing). $46,632, total cost. 42.3 yards, length of cloth when finished. 46.632-4-42.3=1.124 Answer.— A. The total cost of materials used are $46,632 ($46.64) and Answer. — B. The cost of the same per finished yard is $1,124 ($1.13.) Fancy Cotton Dress Goods. (27 inches finished width.) 2,204 ends in warp. Reed, 38X2. Length of cloth from loom, 80 yards. Dressing : 1 end dark blue 1 end white 1 end light blue 2 ends " " 1 end " " 8 ends tan 1 end flesh 2 ends " 1 end " 1 end white 2 ends " 1 end " 1 end dark blue 1 end white 1 end maroon 2 cuds " 1 end . 8 ends tan 1 end white 2 ends " 1 end " 24 ends tan (ground) (pile) (ground) (( a (pile) (ground) (pile) (ground) a (pile) (ground) (( (pile) (ground) X4= 8 ends = 1 end = 2 ends = 1 end = 8 ends — 1 end = 2 ends = 1 end = 1 end = 2 ends = 1 end }x4= = 8 ends = 1 end = 2 ends = 1 end = 8 ends = 1 end = 2 ends = 1 end =24 ends 1/20's 2/30's 2/24's 2/30's 1/20's 2/30's 2/24's 2/30's 2/30's 2/24's 2/30's 1/20's 2/30's 2/24's 2/30's 1/20's 2/30's 2/24's 2/30's 1/20's (pile) (ground) (pile) (ground) Dressing : — continued. 1 end dark blue (ground) 1 end white " 1 end maroon 2 ends " 1 end " 8 ends tan 1 end white 2 ends 1 end " 1 end light blue " 2 ends " " (pile) 1 end " " (ground) 1 end dark blue " 1 end white " 1 end " " 2 ends " (pile) 1 end " (ground) 8 ends tan " 1 end flesh " 2 ends " (pile) 1 end " (ground) 24 ends tan " X4= 8 ends 1/20's }x4= 1 end 2 ends 1 end 8 ends 1 end 2 ends 1 end 1 end 2 ends 1 end 2/30's 2/24's 2/30's 1/20's 2/30's 2/24's 2/30's 2/30's 2/24's 2/30's 8 ends l/20'8 : 1 end : 2 ends : 1 end : 8 ends : 1 end : 2 ends = 1 end =24 ends 2/30's 2/24's 2/30's 1/20's 2/30's 2/24't 2/30's 1/20's Repeat of pattern, 152 ends. Take-up of ground-warps during weaving, 8 per cent. Take-up of pile-warp during weaving, 70 per cent. Price of warp yarns (including coloring or bleaching) as to their respective counts, are : 1/20's ground, 30 cents. 2/30's ground, 38 cents. 2/24's pile, 36 cents. Selvage.— 10 two-ply ends of 2/20's white cotton for each side. 2 double ends per dent. 8 per cent, take up during weaving. Price of yarn, 22 cents. 51 Filling. — 78 picks per inch. Arrangement of colors. — 4 picks white 8 " tan Counts for all the filling 1/20's cotton. Price of all the filling yarn, inclusive of coloring and bleaching, 28 cents. Length of cloth from loom to equal length finished. Warp.— 1/20's ground=112 ends in one pattern 2/30's " = 20 " " " " 2/24's pile = 20 " " " « 4 8 6 8 4 28 maroon tan white tan light blue tan 70 picks in repeat. 152 ends in one repeat of pattern. 2,204 (ends in warp) h-152 (repeat of pattern) =14i repeats of pattern in width of fabric. Pattern, with reference as to counts, repeats twice in one repeat of pattern. Thus : fTake-updur-l f Yards of yarn ^ fLength of I • ^ ! I wanted per ! | ^ " 1 1 2 X 141=1,624 ends of 1 /20's cotton- 20X14J= 290 " " 2/30's « - 20X141= 290 " " 2/24's " - ing ing. ? per cent. — (Yards of yam wanted ) for the entire piece. [ 141,217.392 yards. 25,217.392 " 77,333.328 " Yards per lb. 16,800 J 2,600 10,080 -70 " " — fivbs. of yarn ] wanted for the |- entire piece. J 8.4058 2.0013 7.6719 yard cloth woven. 1,765.2174 X 315.2174 X 966.6666 X cloth woven. 80 80 80 Yards of y ar n | > wanted for the > entire piece. = 141,217.392 yds. = 25,217.392 " = 77,333.328 " 1 Price of ^ the yarn per lb. X 30/ X 38 X 36 Value of yarn $2.52 0.76 2.76 Filling. — 29 inches, width of fabric in reed. " " " selvage in reed. 29i^? inches, total width of cloth in reed. 556 29AX 78= ( —x 78) =2,282.5263 yards of filling per yard cloth woven. 6.04, price of warp yarn. I o^f^cfoth !. \ T«tal yards of filling ) I woven. H wanted. f 2,282.5263 X 80 = 182,602.1040 yds. -f-' 16,800 = 10.8691 X 28/ 20X840 Us. of yarn { \ Price of yarn | j ^ajue ^of J {_ ing yarn. wanted. per lb. J.04 Selvage. — 10 ends, cloth woven. 8 per cent, take-up (100: 92 :: x:40) required 43.478 yards yarn per yard Length ) f Yards of selvage T of cloth )■ \ wanted for the \ woven. ) [ entire piece. J 43.478 yards X 80 10X140 =^ 3,478,24 yards ^ 8,400 f Total \ weight of (, selvage. r Price 1 1 r 0,414 lbs. X 22/=9/, total price of selvage. 52 ^6.04 cost of warp, 3.04 " " filling, 0.91 " " selvage, 9.99^80=12.487. $9.99, total cost. Answer. — A. The total cost of materials used in fabric is $9.99, and Answer. — B. The value of this stock, per finished yard, is 12.487 cents, practically 12^ cents. Worsted Suiting. 3,968 ends 2/32's worsted. Length of warp dressed, 45 yards. Reed, 16X4. Arrangement of dressing. — 4 ends black, 4 ends brown, 4 ends black, 4 ends indigo blue. 16 ends in repeat. Price of yarn in the white, (scoured) $1.05 per lb. Allowance for waste during spooling, dressing and weaving, 5 per cent. Selvage. 30 double ends of 2/30's white worsted for each side, 4 double ends per dent. Price, per lb., 75 cents. Filling. — 66 picks, 2/32's worsted. Same arrangement of colors as in warp. Price of yarn in the white, (scoured) 95 cents. Allowance for waste during spooling and weaving, 6 per cent. Length of fabric from loom, 40 yards. Length of fabric finished, 39^ yards. Cost of coloring yarn, black, 6 cents per lb. ; brown, 6 cents per lb. ; indigo blue, 15 cents per lb. (Weight of yarn before coloring to equal its weight when colored.) Cost of weaving, 16 cents per yard, from loom. Cost of finishing, 12 cents per yard, finished. General mill expenses, 10 cents per yard, finished cloth. Warp. — f Yards 1 ( Total 1 3 Price ) (Ends) Idressed.l j yards. | (16X560) (Lbs.) ] per lb. f (Cost.) 3^968 X 45 = 178,560 8,960 = 19.928 X $1.05 = $20.9244 19.928 -f- 4 = 4.982 X 1 = 4.982 lbs. @ 15^ (indigo blue) = .7473 4.982 X 3 = 14.946 " " 6/ (black and brown) = .8967 $22.5684 6 per cent, allowance for waste, 1.1284 Total cost of warp yarn, $23.6968 Selvage.— 60 double ends 2/30's worsted = 20 single ends 2/30's. 120x45=6,400-^8,400=11= A lb. @ 75/=48.214/ 5 per cent, allowance for waste, 2.410 Cost of selvage, $0,562 Filling. — Reed, 16X4=64 warp threads per inch. (Ends in full warp. (Ends per inch.) 3^968 -f- 64 =62 inches, width of cloth in reed. width of selvage (60h-4=15 dents, reed 16=if inch). 15 (( 62H inches, total width of fabric (including selvage) in reed. 53 ( Width ) j Picks ) j Yards of filling wanted "I j Yards ) { in reed. \ ( per inch, j | per yard of cloth woven, J | from loom. ) 62tI X 66 = 4,153| X 40 =166,155 yards of filling wanted in cloth. -|- 9,969 yards, 6 per cent, allowance for [waste. 176,124 yards, total amount of filling wanted. (Total length.) (15 X 560 ) (Total weight.) 176,124 8,960 = 19.6567 lbs. @ 95^ =$18.6739, cost of filling yarn. 19.6567-^4=4.9141X1= 4.9141 lbs. @ 15 = 0.7371, " " indigo blue color. 4.9141X3=14.7426 lbs. 6 = 0.8845, " " black and brown colors. $20.2955, total cost of filling yam. 40 X 1 6/=$6.40, cost of weaving. 391x12 =$4.71, " " finishing. 39 J X 10 =$3.93, general mill expenses (ofiice insurance, watchmen, mechanics, per cent, on capital, etc.) $23.70 cost of warp. 0.51 " " selvage. 20.30 " " filling. 6.40 " " weaving. 4.71 " " finishing. 3.93 general mill expenses. $59.55-v-39i=$1.517. $59.55 Ansioer, — A. $59.55, total cost of the fabric. Answer. — B. $1.52, cost of fabric per finished yard. Beaver Overcoating. {Piece-dyed.) 4,800 ends in warp. Reed, 10X6. 42 yards long, dressed. Arrangement of dressing. — 2 ends face, 5J-run. Price of yarn per lb., $1.25. 1 end back, 5-run " " " " " .84. 3 ends in repeat. Filling. — 2 picks face, 5|^-run. Price of yarn per lb., $1.18. 1 pick back, l|-run. " " " " " .40. 3 picks in repeat. 16 cents for weaving. 80 picks per inch. 4 " general weave room expenses. 20 cents per yard from loom for weaving. Selvage. — 40 ends of 2-run listing yarn (each side). Price, 50 cents per lb. 3 ends per dent (outside dent 4). Take-up of warp during weaving, 11 per cent. Take-up of cloth during finishing (fulling), 10 per cent. Flocks used during fulling process, 20 lbs. at 8 cents per lb. Cost of finishing and dy ing, 25 cents per yard, finished. General mill expenses, 10 cents per yard, finished. Warp.— 4,800^3=1,600. (Yards wanted.) 1,600X2=3,200 ends 5i-runX42= 134,400 --8,800=15A lbs. @ $1.25=$19.09. 1,600X1=1,600 ends 5-run X42= 67,200 ^8,000= 8 f lbs. @ .84= 7.06. Cost of warp, $26.15. 54 (Yards wanted.) Selvage.— 80 ends 2-run X 42= 3,360 --3,200=1.05 lbs. @ 50/=52i^ (53/), cost of selvage. Filling. — Reed, 10X6=60 ends per inch and 4,800^60=80 inches, width of cloth in reed. 2.6 " " " selvage (80^3=26 dents=2.6 inches). 82.6 inches, total width. 82.6X 80=6,608 yards (total amount of filling per yard woven). 6,608 ^3=2,202f and 2,202f X 2=4,405 J yards face filling. 2,202|Xl=2,202f " backing. 1 1 per cent, take-up of warp during weaving. 100:89 :: 42 :x=89X 42=3,738^100=37.38 yards, woven length. Hence: 4,4051X37.38=164,671.35 yards 5i-run=18.712 lbs. @ $1.18=$22.10 2,202f X37.38= 82,335.67 " If " =29.456 " @ .40= 11.78 Cost of filling, $33.88 37.38 X20/=$7.47, cost of weaving. 10 per cent, shrinkage of cloth during finishing. Hence : 100:90 :: 37.38 :x=(90X37.38=)3,360.20^100=33.64 yards, finished length 126.15 cost of warp. .53 " " selvage. 33.88 " " filling. 7.47 " " weaving. 8.41 " " finishing. 3.37 " " general expenses. 1.60 " " flocks. 33.64 X25/=$8.41 cost of finishing. 33.64X10 = 3.37 general mill expenses. 20 X 8 = 1.60 cost of flocks. 81.41^33.64=2.42. .41 Answer, — A. $81.41, total cost of the fabric. Answer. — B. $ 2.42, cost of fabric per yard, finished. Ingrain Carpet. [Extra fine ; Cotton Chain, Worsted Filling) 832 ends in warp, 2/14's cotton, 5 per cent, take-up by weaving and shrinkage in finishing, etc. Finished length of fabric, 60 yards. Cost of yarn, 17 / per lb. Cost of color, 5 " (average price). Winding and beaming, 2| " 24|j^, price of warp yarn per lb. on beam. Selvage. — Four ends of 4/10's cotton on each side. Price, 20 cents per lb. (same amount o^ take- up as warp). Filling. — 10 pair, (in finished fabric) 36 inches, width of fabric in loom. Yarn used : One-half the amount 5/8's single, light colors (50 yards per oz. in the grease). Price, 16 J cents per lb. in the grease, or 26 J cents per lb. scoured and colored. One-half the amount 5/8's single, dark colors (48 yards per oz. in the grease). Price, 12 cents per lb. in the grease, or 20 cents per lb. scoured and colored. Loss (average) of weight for filling in scouring and dyeing, 15 per cent. Waste of filling (average) in winding and weaving, 15 per cent. 55 Length of tlie yarn to remain uniform from the grease to colored. Weaving and weave-room expenses, 10 cents per yard finished fabric. General mill expenses, 5 cents per yard finished fabric. ^arp. — 832 ends 2/l4's cotton, 5 per cent, take-up, 60 yards finished length, 24^ cents per lb. 100:95 :: x:832=83,200-^-95=875tIx60=52,547.37 yards, total amount of yarn wanted. 2/14's=5,880 yards per lb. Hence : 52,547.37^5,880=8.9536 lbs., total weight of yarn wanted. 8.9536 lbs. @ 24i/=|2.1936 (=$2.20) cost of warp-yarn. Selvage.— 4 X 2=8 X 60=480. 100: 95 : X :: 480=48,000-^-95=505.26 yards, total length of selvage yarn wanted. 4/10's=2,100 yards per lb. Hence : 505.26-=-2,100=0.24 lbs., total weight. 0.24 lbs. @ 20^=4.tV (=5/) cost of selvage. Filling. — 20 picks per inch in finished fabric. 36 inches, width of fabric. 36X60=2,160X20=43,200 yards, total amount wanted in fabric. 21,600 yards light colored yarn, at 50 yards per oz. in the grease. 21,600 yards dark colored yarn, at 48 yards per oz. in the grease. 50X16=800 yards per lb. for light colors. 48 X 16=768 yards per lb. for dark colors. 21,600^800=27 lbs., weight in the grease. 85X27 100:85 :: 27: x = =22.95 lbs., weight of yarn scoured and colored. 22.95 lbs.@26i^=$6.082, cost of light colored filling used in fabric. 21,600^768=28.12 lbs., weight in the grease. ' 85 X 28 12 100:85 :: 28.12:x= ' =23.90 lbs., weight of yarn scoured and colored. 23.9 lbs. @ 20/=$4.78, cost of dark colored filling used in fabric. $ 6.082 light colored. 4.780 dark " 24.01 H-60=0.40 $10,862, total value of filling used in fabric, subjected to 15 percent, waste of material in winding and weaving. Hence : 100:85 :: x: 10.86= "*^^'^^'^ ^^^ =12.776, cost of filling, including of waste made in windingand weaving. 85 Cost of warp, $ 2.194 Cost of selvage, 0.048 Cost of filling, 12.776 Weaving and weaveroom expenses, 6.000 (60 yards X 10 cents) General mill expenses, 3.000 (60 yards X 5 cents) $24,018 . Answer. — A. $24.02, total cost of the fabric. Answer. — B. 40 cents, cost of fabric per yard finished. Ingrain Carpet. (Extra Super ; Worsted Chain.) 1,072 ends in warp, 2/1 4's worsted, 5 per cent, take up by weaving and shrinkage in finishing, etc Price of yarn, including coloring (average) and winding and beaming, 52J cents per lb. Selvage, — Four ends of 4/1 0's cotton on each side. Price, 20 cents per lb. (same amount of take up as warp). Filling. — 13 pair (in finished fabric) 36 inches, width of fabric in loom. 56 Arrangement. — 1 pick, double reel yarn (60 yards per oz. in the grease.) Price, 22 cents per lb. in the grease, or 33 cents per lb. scoured and dyed. 1 pick, 6/8's single, light color (50 yards per oz. in the grease). Price 16J cents per lb. in the grease, or 26 J cents per lb. scoured and dyed. 1 pick, double reel (as before). 1 pick 5/8's, single dark color (48 yards per oz. in the grease). Price, 12 cents per lb. in the grease, or 20 cents per lb. scoured and dyed. Loss of weight (average) for filling. in scouring and dyeing, 121 per cent. Waste (average) of filling in, winding and weaving, 12^ per cent. No shrinkage for yarn during scouring and coloring. Weaving and weaveroom expenses, 12 cents per finished yard. General mill expenses, 6 cents per finished yard. Warp.— 1,072 ends, 2/14's worsted, 5 per cent, shrinkage. Price, 52| cents per lb. 100:95 :: x : 1,072=107,200^95=1,128.421 X 60=67,705.26 yards, total amount of warp yarn wanted. 2/14's=3,920 yards per lb. Hence: 67,705.26^3,920=17.27 lbs., total weight. 17.27 lbs.@52i/=$9.066, value of warp yarn. Selvage. — (The same as in previously given Example) 5 cents. Filling. — 26 picks, 36 inches, 60 yards. Hence : 26X36X60=56,160 yards, total amount of filling wanted in fabric. 56,160-^-4=14,040. Hence : 1 4,040 X 2=28,080 yards of double reel yarn@33/ per lb. 14,040X1=14,040 " " 5/8's single light color@26i^ per lb. 14,040 X1=14,040 " " 5/8's single dark color@20 per lb. 60 X 16=960 yards per lb. and 28,080^-960=29^ lbs. @ 33 /=$9.652, vahie of double reel. 50X16=800 yards per lb. and 14.040--800=17.55 lbs. @ 26i =$4.65, value of 5/8's light color. 48X16=768 yards per lb. and 14,040-^-768=18.28 lbs. @ 20 =$3,656, value of 5/8's dark color. $9,652 value of double reel. 4.650 " 5/8's light color. 3.656 " 5/8's dark color. $17,958, total value of filling used in carpet (subject to 12| per cent, waste in winding and weaving). 100:87.5 :: x : 17.958=l,795.8-^87.5=$20.523, cost of all the filling in fabric and waste. Memo— The same answer as to the cost of filling, may be obtained by calculating the 13^ per cent, loss of ma- terial during winding and weaving to the amount of filling wanted in the fabric, as follows : 56,160 yards total amount of filling wanted. Thus : 100:87.5:: x : 56,160=5,616,000^87.5=64,182.856^4=16,045.714. 16,045.714X2=32,091.428 --960=33.428X33 =$11,031 16,045.714--800=20.057X26.5= 5.315 16,045.714^768=20.891X20 = 4.178 $20,523, being the same answer as before. Cost of warp, $ 9.066 Cost of selvage, 0.048 Cost of filling, 20.523 Weaving and weave-) 7.20O (60 yards @ 12f) room expenses, j General mill expenses, 3.600 (60 yards @ 6/.) $40,437 Answer. — A. $40,44, total cost of fabric. Answer. — B. 67/, cost of fabric per yard, finished. 40.437^60=0.67. STRUCTURE OF TEXTILE FABRICS To produce a perfect fabric the following points must be taken Into consideration : The purpose of wear that the fabric will be subject to, the nature of the raw material to be used in its construc- tion, the size <.r counts of the yarns and their amount of twist, the texture (number of ends of warp and filling pt-r inch) to be used, the weave and ''take up" of the cloth during weaving, the process of finishing an I the sliriukage of the cloth during this operation. THE PURPOSE OF WEAR THAT THE FABRIC WILL BE SUBJECT TO. This point must be taken into consideration when calculating for the construction of a fabric for the following reasons : The more wear a fabric is subject to, the closer in construction the same must be; also the stronger the fibres of the raw material as well as the amount of twist of the yarn. For this reason upholstery fabrics, such as lounge covers, must be made with a closer texture and of a stronger yarn than curtains. Woolen fabrics, for men's wear, are in an average more subject to wear than dress goods made out of the same material; hence the former require a stronger structure. Again, let us consider woolen cloth for men's wear by itself, such as trouserings or chinchilla overcoatings. No doubt the student will readily understand that such of the cloth as is made for trouserings must be made of a stronger construction, to resist the greater amount of wear, compared to such cloth as made for the use of overcoatings which actually are subject to little wear, and for which only care must be taken to produce a cloth permitting air to enter and remain in its pores, assisting in this manner in producing a cloth with the greatest chances for retaining the heat to the human body. THE NATURE OF RAW MATERIALS. The selection of the proper quality of the material to use in the construction of a fabric is a point which can only be mastered by practical experience. No doubt a thorough study of the nature of raw materials, as well as the different processes they undergo before the thread as used by the weaver, (either for warp or filling) is produced, will greatly assist the novice to master this subject. For this reason the different raw materials, as used in the construction of textile fabrics and the different pro- cesses necessary for converting the same into yarn, have been previously explained. As known to the student every woven fabric is constructed by raising or lowering one system of threads (technically known as warp) over threads from another system (technically known as filling). This will readily illustrate that the warp threads of any woven cloth are subjected to more or less chafing against each other during the process of weaving. There will be more chafing the higher the warp texture, and the rougher the surface of the yarn. In some instances the manufacturer tries to reduce this roughness by means of sizing or starching the yarn during the process preceding weaving and known as " dressing ;" but sizing will correspondingly stiffen the warp yarns, and reduce their chances for bending easily around the filling, and the warp will take up the filling harder than if the yarn was not sized. If, by means of sizing, the chafing is not dispensed with, we must reduce the warp texture to the proper point where perfect weaving is possible. No doubt the using of proper warp texture is so greatly neglected, that many a poor weaver's family is suffering by its cause. To illustrate the roughness of the different yarns as used in the manufacture of textile fabrics the five illustrations. Figs. 1 to 5 are given : Fig. 1 represents a woolen thread ; Fig. 2 represents worsted yarn ; Fig. 3 represents mohair ; Fig. 4 represents cotton yarn ; Fig. 5 represents silk yarn. (57) 58 An examination of these five illustrations shows flie silk yarn to be the smoothest, followed in rotation, getting gradually rougher by cotton, mohair and worsted, until reaching the woolen thread which represents the roughest surface. These illustrations will also show that (in an average) a woolen fabric requires a lower texture than a worsted cloth, or a cotton cloth, and a silk fabric a higher texture Fig. 1 Fig. 3 Fig. 3 Fig. 4 Fig. 5 compared to fabrics made out of other materials. In addition to the roughness of the surface of a thread, we must also take into consideration the pliability of the fibres, for the softer the pile of the yarn the less the chafing will influence the strength of the yarn, whereas a coarse and stiflP fibre will produce the reverse result. COUNTS OF YARN REQUIRED TO PRODUCE A PERFECT STRUCTURE OF CLOTH. In speaking of the size or counts of a thread we mean the weight of solidity, or the bulkiness of a thread, or in other words the diameter of the same. These diameters in threads do not vary in the direct ratio to the respective counts, but do vary as to the square roots of their counts. Thus, if we find the diameter of a thread it will be easy for us to ascertain how many of those threads can rest side by side in one inch. Rule for finding the number of ends which in Cotton, Woolen, Worsted, Lfinen and Silk Yarns can lie side by side in one inch. Find number of yards per pound for the yarn in question and extract the square root of this number. From this square root deduct four per cent, for raw-silk yarns, seven per cent, for cotton, spun silk and linen yarris, ten per cent, for worsted yarns, and sixteen per cent, fur woolen yarns. The answer in each case indicates the number of threads that will lie side by side in one inch (without being interlaced at right angles by another system). JiJxample.~¥ind number of threads of I's cotton yarn which will lie side by side in one inch. 840 yards per lb. Thus: t/840=28.9 28.9 — 2.0 (7 per cent.) 26.9 Answer. — threads (practically 27) of single I's cotton yarn will rest side by side in one inch. Example. — Find number of threads of 2's cotton yarn which will lie side by side in one inch. 840X2=1680 yards per lb. Thus: l/ 1^680=40.9 40.9 — 2.8 (7 per cent.) 38.1 Answer.— 38jo threads (practically 38) of single 2's cotton yarn will rest side by side in one inch. 69 Example. — Find number of ends of 2/50's cotton yarn which will lie side by side in one inch. 2/50'scotton=l/25's=849X 25=21,000 yards per lb. Thus: T/2i^000=:144.9 144.9 — 10.1 (7 per cent.) 134.8 Answer. — 134f threads (practically 135) of 2/50's cotton yarn will rest side by side in one inch. Example. — Find nnmber of threads of 6-run woolen yarn which will lie side by side in one inch. 6-run=9,600 yards per lb. Thus : t/9,600=97.97 97.97 — 15.67 (16 per cent.) 82.30 Answer. — 82t(t threads (practically 82) of 6-run woolen yarn will rest side by side in one inch. Example. — Find, number of threads of 22-cut woolen yarn which will lie side by side in one inch. 22-cut^6,600 yards per lb. Thus: t/6^600 =81.24 81.24 — 12.99 (16 per cent.) 68.25 Answer. — 68^ threads (practically 68) of 22-cut woolen yarn will lie side by side in one inch. Example. — Find number of ends of 2/32's worsted that will lie side by side in one inch. 2/32's=single 16's=560 X 16=8,960 yards per lb. Thus : V 8^=94.6 94.6 — 9.4 (10 per cent.) 85.2 Answer. — SSA threads (practically 85) will lie side by side in one inch. Example. — Find number of threads of 40/3-ply spun silk which will lie side by side in one inch. 40/3-ply=33,600 yards per lb. Thus: t/ 33,600=183.3 183.3 — 12.8 (7 per cent.) 170.5 Answer. — 170| threads (practically 170) of 40/3-ply spun silk will rest side by side in one inch. Example. — Find number of threads of 4-dram raw silk which lie side by side in one inch. 4-dram raw silk=64,000 yards per lb. Thus : t/64,000=252.9 252.9 — 10.1 (4 per cent.) 242.8 Answer. — 2421 threads (practically 243) of 4-dram silk will rest side by side in one inch. To illustrate clearly to the student that the diameter of a thread {i. e., respectively the number of threads which will lie side by side in one inch) does not vary in the direct ratio to its counts, but in the ratio of the square root of its counts, we give three examples, using for the first example a single yarn ; for the next the same number in 2-ply ; and for the third the same number in 3-ply. Examples. — Find number of threads that will lie side by side for the following yams : Single 30's cotton, 2/30's cotton, and 3/30's cotton yarn. 30's cotton=25,200 yards per lb. Thus: 1/25,200=158.7 158.7 — 11.1 (7 per cent.) 147.6 threads (practically 1 48) of 30's cotton yarn will lie side by side in one inch. 60 Thus: t/ 12,600= 11 2. 2 2/30's cotton=12,600 yards per lb. 112.2 — 7.9 (7 per cent.) Thus: 1/8,400=91.6 104.3 threads (practically 104) of 2/30's cotton yarn will lie side by side in one inch. 3/30's cotton=8,400 yards per lb. 1.6 — 6.4 (7 per cent.) 85.2 threads (practically 85) of 3/30's cotton yarn will lie side by side in one inch. Avunoer. — Single 30's cotton=148 threads per inch. 2/30's " =104 " " " 3/30's " = 85 " " " Table Showing the Number of Ends of Cotton Yarn from Single 5's to 2/160's that Will Lie Side by Side in One Inch. Counts. Single. Double 5 2/10 6 2/12 7 - 2/14 8 2/16 10 2/20 II 2/22 12 2/24 13 2/26 14 2/28 15 2/30 16 2/32 17 2/34 18 2/36 19 2/38 20 2/40 Yards per Pound. Square Root. Per Cent. 4,200 5,040 5,880 6,720 8,400 9,240 10,080 10,920 11,760 12,600 13,440 14,280 15,120 15,960 i6,8oo 64.8 70.9 76.6 81.9 91.6 96.1 100.3 104.4 108.4 112. 2 II5-9 1 19.4 122.9 126.3 129.6 Diameter, or Ends per inch . 4.5 5-0 5-4 5-7 6.4 6.7 7.0 7-3 7.6 7-9 8.1 8.3 8.6 8.8 9.0 60.3 659 71.2 76.2 85.2 89.4 93-3 97.1 100.8 104.3 107.8 III. I II4-3 II7-5 120.6 Counts. Single. Double. 22 2/44 24 2/48 26 2/52 28 2/56 30 2/60 32 2/64 34 2/68 36 2/72 38 2/76 40 2/80 45 2/90 50 2/100 60 2/120 70 2/140 80 2/160 Yards per Pound. 18,480 20, 160 21,840 23,520 25,200 26,880 28,560 30, 240 31,920 33,600 37,800 42,000 50,400 58,800 67,200 Square Root. 135-9 141. 8 147-7 153 3 158.7 163.8 168.9 173-8 178.6 183-3 194.4 204.9 224.4 242.4 259.2 Per Cent. Diameter, or Ends per inch. 9-5 9-9 10.3 10.7 II. I II-5 11.8 12.2 12.5 12.8 13.6 14- 3 15- 7 17.0 18.1 126.4 131-9 137-4 142.6 147.6 ^52.3 I57-I 161 .6 166. 1 170.5 180.8 190.6 208.7 225.4 241. 1 For Spun Silks use also above table, but only refer to single count column for reference for any number of ply of spun silk. Table Showing the Number of Ends of Woolen Yarn ''Run Basis," from i-run to lo-run, that Will Lie Side by Side in One Inch. Run. 2 . 2X 2^ hx 4 - 4X Yards per Pound. 1,600 2,000 2,400 2,800 3,200 3,600 4,000 4,400 4,800 5,200 5,600 6,000 6,400 6,800 7,200 16 Per Cent. 40.0 44-7 49-7 52-8 56.5 60.0 63.2 66.3 69.2 72.1 74-8 77-4 80.0 82.4 6.4 7.2 8.0 8.4 9.0 9.6 10. 1 10.6 II.O II-5 11.9 12.3 12.8 13-I 13-5 Diameter, or Ends Per Inch. 33-6 37-5 41.7 44-4 47-5 50.4 53-1 55-7 58.2 60.6 62.9 65.1 67.2 69-3 71-3 Run. Yards per Pound. 4^ 7,600 5 8,000 5X, 8,400 5 'a 8,800 sH 9,200 6 9,600 6X 10,000 6^ 10,400 6U 10,800 11,200 1% 8 12,000 12,800 13,600 9.0 14,400 10 16,000 Square Root. 16 Per Cent. Diameter, or Ends Per Inch. 87.2 14.0 73-3 89.4 143 75-1 91.6 14.7 76.9 93-8 I5-0 78.8 95-8 15-3 80.5 97.9 15-6 82.3 100.0 16.0 84.0 101.9 . 16.3 85.6 103.9 16.6 873 105 8 16.9 889 109-5 17-5 92.0 113.1 18. 1 95-0 116.6 18.6 98.0 120.0 19.2 100.8 126.4 20.2 106.2 61 Table Showing the Number of Ends of Woolen Yarn " Cut Basis," from 6-cut to 50-cut that Will Lie Side by Side in One Inch. Cut. Yards per Square 16 Diameter, or Ends Per Inch. Cut. . Yards per Square 16 Diameter, or Ends Pound. Root. Per Cent. Pound. Root. Per Cent. Per Inch. - 6 1,800 42.4 6.8 35-6 22 6,600 81.2 13.0 68.2 Q 0 49-7 8 0 AT '7 23 6j 900 8^ 0 ^o-o 6q.7 9 2,700 51-9 8.3 43-6 24 7,200 84.8 86.6 13-5 71-3 10 3,000 54-7 8.8 45-9 25 7,500 13-8 72.8 . II 3.300 57-4 9.2 48.2 26 7,800 88.3 14. 1 74.2 12 3,600 60.0 9.6 50.4 27 8,100 90.0 14.4 75-6 13 3.900 62.4 10. 0 52.4 28 8,400 91.6 14.7 77 -o 14 4,200 64.8 10.4 54-4 29 8,700 93-2 14.9 78.3 15 4.500 67.0 10.7 56.3 30 9,000 94.8 15-2 79.6 16 4,800 69.2 II. 0 58.2 32 9,600 97-9 15-7 82.2 17 5,100 71.4 11.4 60.0 34 10, 200 10,800 100.9 16 I 84.8 86.9 18 5,400 73-5 11.8 61.7 36 103.4 16.5 19 5,700 75-4 12.0 63-4 40 12,000 109.5 17-5 92.0 20 6,000 77-4 12.3 65.1 45 13,500 116. 1 18.6 97-5 21 6,300 79-3 12.7 66.6 50 15,000 122.4 19.6 102.8 Table Showing the Number of Ends of "Worsted Yarn," from Single 5's to 2/160 that Will Lie Side by Side in One Inch. Counts. Yards per Pound. Square Root. 10 Per Cent. Diameter, or Ends per Inch. Counts. Yards per Pound. Square Root. 10 Per Cent. Diameter, or Ends per inch single. Double. Single. Double. 5 2/10 2,800 52.9 5-3 47.6 22 2/44 12,320 no. 9 II. I 99.8 6 2/12 3,360 57-9 5-8 52.1 24 2/48 13.440 II5-9 11.6 104 3 7 2/U 3,920 62.6 6.3 56.3 26 2/52 14,560 120.6 12. 1 108.5 8 2/16 4,480 66.8 6.7 60 I 28 2/56 15,680 125.2 12 5 112. 7 10 2/20 5,600 748 7-5 67-3 30 2/60 16,800 129.6 13.0 116.6 II 2/22 6,160 78.4 78 70.6 32 2/64 17,920 133-8 134 120.4 12 2/24 6,720 81.9 8.2 73-7 34 2/68 19,040 137-9 13-8 124. 1 13 2/26 7,280 85.3 8.5 76.8 36 2/72 20, 160 141.8 14.2 127.6 14 2/28 7,840 88.5 8.8 79-7 3§ ^/76 21, 280 1458 14.6 131. 2 15 2/30 8,400 91.6 9.2 82.4 40 2/80 22,400 149.6 15-0 134.6 16 2/32 8,960 94.6 9-4 85 2 45 2/90 25, 200 158.6 15-9 142.7 17 2/34 9.520 97-5 9-7 87 8 50 2/100 28, 000 167.3 16.7 150.6 18 2/36 10,080 100.3 lO.O 90.3 60 2/120 33. 600 183.3 18.3 165.0 19 2/38 10,640 103. 1 10.3 92 8 70 2/140 39, 200 197.9 19.8 1 78. 1 20 2/40 11,200 105.8 10.6 95-2 80 2/160 44,800 211. 6 21.2 190.4 Table Showing the Number of Ends of Raw Silk Yarn, from 20 Drams to i Dram, that will Lie Side by Side in One Inch. Dram. Yards per Pound Square Root. 4 per Cent. Diameter, or Ends per inch. Dram. Yards per Pound Square Root. II Per Cent. Diameter, or Ends per inch. 20 12,800 113.1 4-5 108.6 5 51,200 226 2 9.0 217.2 18 14,222 119. 2 48 114.4 4%' ^ 53,368 231.0 9-2 221.8 . 16 16,000 126.4 5-0 121. 4 4/2 56,889 238.5 9 5 229.0 14 18,286 135.2 5-4 129.8 4X 60,235 2454 9.8 235 -6 12 21.333 146.0 5-8 140.2 4 64,000 252-9 10. 1 242.8 10 25,600 160.0 6.4 1536 3^ 68,267 261.2 10.4 250.8 9% 26,947 164. 1 6.6 157.5 3^ 3X 73,143 270.4 10.8 259 6 9 28,444 168.6 6.7 161 9 78,769 280.6 II. 2 269 4 30,118 173-5 6.9 166.6 3 85.333 292.1 11.7 280.4 8 7/2 32,000 178.8 7^1 171.7 2^ 93,091 305-1 12.2 292 9 34,133 184.7 7-4 ^77-3 2/2 102,400 320.0 12.8 307.2 7 36,571 191 .2 7.6 183.6 2X 113,777 337-2 13-5 323-7 e/z 39.385 198.4 7-9 190.5 2 128,000 357-7 14-3 343-4 6 42,667 206.5 8.2 198.3 170,666 413-1 16.5 396.6 5/2 46,545 215.7 8.6 207.1 I 256,600 505-9 20.2 485-7 62 Table Showing the Number of Ends of Linen Yarns from lo's to loo's that Will Lie Side by Side in One Inch. Counts. Y arcls per Pound. bcjuare IVOOL. 7 i cr v_ciiL Diameter, or Ends Per Inch. Counts. Yards per Pound. ■ocjuare ivOOt. 7 Diameter, or Ends Per Inch. lO 3,000 54.7 3-8 50-9 40 12,000 109.5 76 101.9 12 3,600 60.0 4.0 56.0 42 12,600 112. 2 7.8 104 4 14 4,200 64.8 45 60.3 44 13,200 114.8 8.0 106 8 16 4,800 69.2 4.8 64.4 46 13,800 117.4 8.2 109.2 18 5,400 73-5 51 68.4 48 14,400 120.0 84 III. 6 20 6,000 77-4 5-4 72.0 50 15,000 122 4 8.6 II3-8 22 6,600 81.2 5 7 75-5 55 16,500 128.4 9.0 119 4 24 7,200 84.8 5-9 789 60 18,000 134 I 9 3 124 8 26 7,800 88.3 6.1 82.2 65 19- 500 139 6 9.8 129 8 28 8,400 91.6 64 85.2 70 21,000 144.9 lO.O 134-9 30 9,000 94.8 6.6 88.2 75 22,500 150.0 105 139 5 32 9,600 97.9 6 8 91. 1 80 24,000 154.9 10 8 144 I 34 10,200 100.9 7.0 93-9 85 25,500 1596 II. 2 148.4 36 10,800 103.9 7 2 96.7 90 27,000 164.3 II.5 152 8 38 11,400 106.7 7 4 99-3 100 30,000 173.2 12. 1 161. 1 TO FIND THE DIAMETER OF A THREAD BY MEANS OF A GIVEN DIAMETER OF ANOTHER COUNT OF YARN. If the- number of threads of a given count which will lie side by side (i. e., its diameter) in one inch (without riding) are known, the required number of threads (which will also lie side by side) for another count of the same system can be found by — Rule. — The given counts of which we know the diameter are to the counts for which we have to find the diameter in the same ratio as the given diameter squared is to the required diameter squared. Example. — As shown in a previous example, 148 threads of single 30's cotton yarn will lie side by side in one inch (or the diameter of a thread of 30's cotton yarn is the rh part of one inch) ; required to find by rule given the number of threads that will lie side by side in one inch for 2/30's cotton yarn. 2/30's=singlel5's. \ Given counts, i : ] Required counts. \ \ Diameter squared of ) j Diameter squared of ) \ ) ( ) ( the given counts, ) ( the required counts, ) 30 : 15 :: 148^ : x 1/15X148 X 148 30 Thus: 15X148X148=328,560^30=10,952, and i/10,952=104 Answer. — 104 threads of 2/30's, or 1/1 5's cotton yarn, will lie side by side in one inch. Proo/.— 2/30 cotton yarn= 12,600 yards per lb. Thus: i/T2;600=112.2 112.2 — 7.9 (7 per cent.) 104.3 (practically 104) being the same answer as previously received. Example. — 85 threads of 2/32's worsted yarn will lie side by side in one inch, required to find the number of threads which will lie side by side in one inch with 2/40's worsted yarn. 2/30's=l/16's 2/40's=l/20's. 16:20::85^x, or ^"20X85 X85 85X85X20=144,500^16=9,031 1/9^031^95 16 Answer, — 95 threads of 2/40's worsted yarn will lie side by side in one inch. 63 Proo/.— 2/40's worsted=560X 20=1 1,200 yards per lb. Thus: p/ll,200=105 105 — 10 (10 per cent.) 96, being the same answer as received by the previous process. Example. — 84 threads of 6^-run woolen yarn lie side by side in one inch, required to find the number of threads which will lie side by side in 4-run woolen yarn. 6i:4::84^ x or ^l><|i^ and 84x84=7,056 X4=:28,224-f-6i=4,515 and VI^=%1.2 Answer. — 67 threads (actually 67.2) of 4-run woolen yarn will lie side by side in one inch. Proo/.— 4-run =4 X 1,600=6,400 yards per lb. Thus: 1/6,400=80.0 80.0 —12.8 67.2, being the same answer as previously received. Example. — threads per inch is the average number of threads which will lie side by side for 22-cut woolen yarn, required to find the number of threads for 30-cut woolen yarn. 22:30:: 68i': X or 68iX68iX30 -^-22^ • 68.25X68.25X30=139,741.875^22=6,351. VQ^=1^ Answer. — 79 threads of 30-cut woolen yarn will lie side by side in one inch. Proof. — 30-cut woolen yarn=9,000 yards per lb. Thus: v/ 9,000=94 94 — 15 (16 per cent.) 79, being the same answer as received by previously given process. TO FIND THE COUNTS OF YARN REQUIRED FOR A GIVEN WARP TEXTURE BY MEANS OF A KNOWN WARP TEXTURE WITH THE RESPECTIVE COUNTS OF THE YARN GIVEN. A. Dealing with One Material. If we know the number of ends of a given count of yarn that will lie side by side in one inch (technically their diameter), and we want to ascertain the counts of yarn required for a certain number of threads to lie side by side (diameter), we must use — Rule. — As the given diameter squared is to the required diameter squared, so is the given count to the required count. Example. — 85 threads of 2/32's worsted lie side by side in one inch, required to find the counts of yarn for 95 threads per inch. 85' : 95* :: 16: x (85X85):(95X95):: 16: x 7,225 : 9,025 ::16: x 9,025 X 16=144,400^7,225=20 Answer. — 1/20's or 2/40's worsted yarn is the number of yarn wanted. 64 Proof. — 2/40's or 1/20's worsted yarn =11, 200 yards per lb. Thus: ya 1,200=105 105 — 10 (10 per cent.) 95 threads of 1/20's worsted will lie side by side; being the same answer as texture given in example. Example. — 84 threads of 6^-run woolen yarn, lie side by side in one inch, required to find the counts of yarn for 68 threads per inch. 84' : 68' ::6i :x (84x84):(68X68)::6i :x 7,056 : 4,624 ::6.25:x 4,624 X 6.25=28,900-f- 7,056=4.09 Answer. — 4-run (actual counts 4.1 -run) yarn must be used. Proof. — 4.1-ran=6,560 yards per lb. Thus: 1/6,560=81 81 —13 68 threads of 4-run (4.1) woolen yarn will lie side by side in one inch, being the same number as given in example. B. Dealing with Two or More Materials. Frequently it happens that we have to reproduce a cloth from a given sample or texture, etc., in another material. For example, a worsted cloth may be required to be duplicated in woolen yarn. If such is the case, transfer counts of yarn given, or as ascertained from- sample given, into its equivalent counts of the required grading, and take care of the difference of 6 per cent, between the diameters of threads that will lie side by side in one inch of a woolen yarn compared to worsted yarn. In a similar manner proceed if dealing with other yarns. P. S. — The allowance for worsted yarn in all the samples given is based (as also previously men- tioned) on 10 per cent.; for cotton yarn and spun silk on 7 per cent.; for raw silk on 4 per cent, and for woolen yarn on 16 per cent. These allowances refer to a perfect and smooth yarn ; but if such should not be the case, we are required to make, according to the yarn, a proportional allowance of one, two, or three per cent. more. INFLUENCE OF THE (AMOUNT AND DIRECTION) TWIST OF YARNS UPON THE TEXTURE OF A CLOTH. The influence of the twist of a yarn upon the number of warp threads to use per inch depends upon the amount of the twist, as well as the direction of the latter. It will easily be understood by the student that the more twist we put in a yarn the less space the same will occupy ; i. e., the smaller its diameter, and the less chances for a chafing; hence, we can use a "heavier" texture (more ends per inch) with a hard-twisted yarn compared to a soft-twisted yarn. But it must be remembered that the amount of twist to use is again regulated by the character of the fabric the yarn is used for, since the yarn will lose on softness the harder we twist it, and that a hard-twisted yarn will reduce the fulling properties of the cloth during the process of finishing. Again, hard-twisted yarn will not bend as easily around the filling during weaving as a soft yarn, which no doubt might injure the general appearance of- the face of the cloth. This will also illustrate another point; i. e., the width of the cloth to use in loom. As previously mentioned, the harder we twist a yarn the less chances there are for fulling ; hence, fabrics made with hard-twisted yarn must be set narrower in loom than fabrics made with a softer twisted yarn. Thus we will set a fancy worsted suiting (in an average) only from 60 to 62 66 inches wide in loom, and a fancy cassimere or fancy woolen suiting (in an average) from 70 to 72 inches wide, and yet the finished width for both will be 64 inches. To explain the influence of the direction of the twist of the yarn upon the texture of a cloth. Figs. 6 and 7 are given. Fig. 6 illustrates the interlacing with yarns spun with its twist in the same direction ; i. e., from left to right (technically known as right hand twist.) Fig. 7 illustrates the inter- lacing of a similar cloth with right hand twist yarn for the warp, but left hand twist yarn (the direc- tion of the twist being from the right to the left) for the filling. It will readily be seen by the student that if, using in both examples the same counts of yarn for warp and filling, the combination, as shown in Fig. 7, will allow a readier compressing of the filling for forming the cloth, compared to the Fig. 6 Fig 7 using of warp and filling, as illustrated in diagram. Fig. 6 ; i. e., if using the same direction of twist for warp and filling yarn, larger perforations will appear in the cloth than if using opposite twist for both systems, since in the first instance, the twist of both yarns will cross each other, thus resisting compression ; whereas, if using opposite twist in the spinning of the two systems of yarns, the twist of both yarns will be in the same direction when interlacing, and thus a falling of the twist in each other be produced. Rule. — We may use a heavier texture for warp and filling, if using opposite twist in the spinning of the yarns, than if using the same direction of twist for both systems. The finer in quality and the longer in its staple the material is, as used in the manufacture of a yarn, the less twist is necessary to impart to the thread for giving it the requisite strength ; whereas, the shorter and coarser the material the more twist we must use. The actual amount of twist to use depends entirely upon the material and counts of yarn, as well as weave and process of finishing required. For a fabric requiring a smooth, clear face, we must use more twist in the yarn than for such as used in the manufacture of cloth requiring a nap ; i. e., much giging, or " velvet finish." TO FIND THE AMOUNT OF TWIST REQUIRED FOR A YARN, IF THE COUNTS AND TWIST OF A YARN OF THE SAME SYSTEM, (AND FOR THE SAME KIND OF FABRIC) BUT OF DIFFERENT COUNTS ARE KNOWN. The points as to amount of twist to use for the different counts of yarn manufactured are based between each other upon the fact that the diameters of threads vary in the same ratio as the square roots of their counts. Example. — Find twist required for a 40's yarn, if a 32's yarn of the same material requires 17 turns per inch (twist wanted in proportion the same). 32:40:: 17': x, ^40X17X17, y^6i:2~5=19. '32 Answer. — 19 turns per inch are required. or, i/32 : i/40 :: 17: x l/32 =5.65 l/40=6.32. Hence: 5.65:6.32:: 17: x 6.32X17=107.44^5.65=19. Answer, — 19 turns per inch are required (being the same answer as previously received. 66 INFLUENCE OF THE WEAVE UPON THE TEXTURE OF A FABRIC. In the previous chapter we have given a clear understanding as to the number of threads of any counts of yarn, and of any kind of material, that will properly lie side by side in one inch. We now take this same item into consideration, but in addition, with reference to the different weaves as used in the manufacture of textile fabrics ; i. e., give rules for constructing with a given weave and given count of yarn, a cloth which has a proper texture. Rule. — The less floats of warp and filling (i. e., the greater the number of interlacings between both systems) in a given number of threads of each system, the lower the texture of the cloth (the less number ends and picks per inch) must be ; and consequently the less interlacings of warp and filling in a given number of threads of each system, the higher a texture in the cloth we can use. For example, examining the 8-harness twill shown in Fig. 8, we find each thread to interlace twice in one repeat of the weave, thus actually 8 + 2—10 threads will lie side by side for each repeat (since by means of the interlacing of the filling with the warp the former takes, at the places of interlacing, the place, with regard to its diameter, of one thread of the latter system). Suppose we used 64 warp threads to one inch, we find the threads that will lie side by side in one inch as follows : ■■DDDO mcaaar □□□□r- □□nr f Warp threads in | f Warp and filling | J ^ ^^^^^^^ ^ i inreads lying ■{ one repeat of >- : ^ threads m one re- ^ :: < r^S:„r.u r ■ •< side by side in !□■■■■ [ the weave. j (. peat of the weave. J [ per men. j ^ one inch. □DMBiSa 8 : 10 :: 64 : x W. 8. 1^ = 80 8 Answer. — 8-harness - — ? twill, 64 warp threads per inch, equals 80 diameters of threads per inch. Sample. — Find the number of diameter of threads per inch, using the same number of warp threads as before (64) per inch, and for weave the plain weave shown in Fig. 9. The repeat of the latter weave is 2 threads, = 2 interlacings in repeat ; thus, with reference to the 64 warp threads per inch used, we find 64 interlacings of the filling. fgg Hence: 2:4::64:x and 4X64 1^ — - — . = 128 Fig. 9. 2 Answer. — Plain weave, 64 warp threads per inch, equals 128 diameters of threads per inch. No doubt these two examples will readily demonstrate to the designer the value of examining the number of interlacings of any new weave. If, in given examples, the first mentioned " make up" - — ? 8-harness twill, 64 warp threads per inch, using the required material and counts of yarn is producing a perfect fabric, and we want to change to plain weaving, using the same yarn, we must deduct I of the number of warp threads (and correspondingly also of the filling) to produce the same number of diameters of threads side by side as in previously given example ; i. e., we must only use 40 warp threads per inch, since those 40 diameters of the warp yarn, plus 40 diameters of the filling, by means of the principle of the interlacing of the plain weave, produce the (equal number as before) 80 diameters of threads side by side in one inch. Hence we may put down for — Rule. — The weave of a cloth has an equal influence on the number of ends per inch to use as the counts of the yarn we are using. We mentioned previously that by the diameters of threads per one inch we mean the number of ends that could lie side by side per inch, providing there were no interlacings of both systems of threads ; but since such interlacing or intertwining of the warp and filling must take place in order to produce cloth, we must deduct the number, or average number, of interlacings per inch from the originally obtained diameters of threads that will lie side by side per inch, to obtain the correct number of warp ends and picks we can use per inch. Thus far given explanations will readily assist the student to ascertain the number of threads of any material that will lie side by side (without riding) in one inch of the fabric (single cloth). Hence » 67 TO FIND THE TEXTURE OF A CLOTH USE— We.— Multiply the number of threads of a given count of yarn that will lie side by side in one inch by the threads in one repeat of the pattern, and divide the product by the number of threads in repeat, plus the corresponding number of interlacings of both systems of threads found in one repeat of the weave. By the number of interlacings of a weave we understand the number of changes from riser to sinkers, and vice versa, for each individual thread in each system. Examples.— Fig. 10 represents one pick of the common twill known as ^ i ' i ' ^ and shown imd^i^S&^dq" oiie full repeat in Fig. 11. Diagram Fig. 12 illustrates the correspondmg section to pick 1 shown in Fig. 10. BaggSgBaS? The full black spots represent one repeat, whereas the "agSaSgsS commencement of the second repeat is shown in dotted 'aKBag'gg lines. A careful examination of both diagrams. Figs. 10 and 12, will readily illustrate to the student the number of interlacings in one repeat (6), as indicated by corresponding numbers below diagram Fig. 12. Thus, in order to find the number of warp threads of a given count per inch for a cloth made with this weave, we must multiply the number of diameters of threads that will lie side by side with 10 (being one complete repeat of the weave) and divide the product thus derived by 16 (10 plus 6, or repeat plus number of interlacings). The result will be the required number of warp threads per inch. If given iM5in«nBnn illustrations would refer to a 32-cut woolen yarn, we Fig. 13 fin^ answer as follows : agagagBBM 32-cut yarn =9,600 yards per lb. gSSSgaga 32-cut yarn=82.2 threads A\^ill He side by side. 'aSgSgBgag V. Thus: 82.2Xl0-822-f-16=51i or '''rT'"" t^l warp threads per inch (or actually 51| per inch, or ^ • • 103 threads for every two inches; of 32-cut woolen yarn will be the proper number to use. In diagram Fig. 13 we illustrate a pick of another 10- harness twill weave. Fig. 14 represents the corre- sponding section, and Fig. 15 one complete repeat of the weave. All three diagrams show 8 points of interlacings for each thread in one repeat; hence, if applying counts of yarn from previously given example for this case we find : 32-cut yarn=82.2 threads will lie side by side. Thus: 82.2x 10=822^18=45|, or 46 warp threads per inch (actually 45f) of 32-cut woolen yarn are the proper number of threads if using the 2-^1 — ^ -J O-harness twill. Answers. — For both given examples are as follows : Warp yarn used 32-cut woolen yarn. -2 10-harness twill=6 interla(;ings=5U warp threads per inch. ^T-^-^i-^ 10- " =8 " =451 " " " A careful examination and recalculation of these two examples will readily illustrate to any student the entire modus operandi. Example.— Find number of threads for warp for a fancy worsted suiting, to be interlaced with the 6-harness ^ — t twill (see Fig. 16) and made of 2/32's worsted yarn. (Fig. 17 illustrates number 1 pick separated and Fig. 18 its corresponding section.) ggi: 2/32=1/16=16x560=8,960 yards per lb. a3:Sg'§ 1^8,960 less 10 per cent.=85 threads of 2/32's worsted yarn will lie Fig. 16 side by side in one inch. And 1 2 3 4 5 6 \ Diameters ) ^ j Repeat of ) j E<.epeat of ) , j Interlacings ) iBBB^QD ] per inch, f ^ ] weave, f ] weave. [ + j in repeat. \ Fig. 17. 85 X 6 =510^8 (6 -f 2) =64. 68 Answer. — 64 ends per inch is the proper warp texture for fabric given in example. Example.— Find proper number of threads to use for a woolen dress good, to be interlaced with the 9-harness -^-r~^-"-^^ twill (see Fig. 19), and for which we have to use 6J-run woolen yarn. gSsSSSSB (Fiff. 20 represents pick 1 separated, and Fig. 21 its corresponding □■■nanaai. section.) Fig. 19. 6-run=10,000 yards per lb. '■■i¥pA¥p8 t/10,000, less 16 per cent. =84 threads of G^-run woolen yarn, will lie side by side in one inch. mS^mfiUfi^gfS^I^^ 84X9=756^17(9+8)=44A 1. 2. 3. H. I k. ri. Answer.— U threads per inch (actually 44iV) is the proper warp texture for cloth given in example. ^a-amp^e.=Find the proper number of warp threads to use for a cotton dress good, using the plain weave (see Fig. 22), with single 40's cotton yarn for warp. 'T9 40's cotton=40 X 840=33,600 yards per lb. i/33;60()=183— 13 (7 per cent.)=170 threads of 40's cotton yarn will lie side by side in one inch. ^|2^=170-2=85 Answer.—Sb threads of 40's cotton yarn, and interlaced with the plain, will produce a perfect texture. It will be proper to mention here another point which must also be more or less taken into con- sideration. During the process of weaving both systems of threads press more or less against each other, thus each thread is pushed to a certain degree out of position, consequently we may add to each system a slight advance, according to counts, texture and quality of material in question, without influencing the process of weaving or the handling of the fabric; but in all cases such an advance in threads (and picks) will be very small and is readily ascertained after finding, by rules given, number of ends and picks per inch, that could be used if no pressure from one system upon the other was exercised. If using a soft-twisted yarn for filling, the latter will have less influence for pressing the warp threads (harder-twisted yarn) out of position ; i. e., the filling will stretch and thus in proportion reduce the counts of the yarn, consequently a higher texture for such filling may be used. We may thus also mention this fact in the shape of a — Eule.— The softer the filling yarn is twisted, the more readily the same will interweave and the higher a warp texture we can use. Warp yarns are in most all cases harder twisted than the filling yarn as used in the same fabric, for the simple reason that the warp threads are subject to more strain and wear during the process of weaving compared to the filling. The softer a yarn is twisted, the softer the finished cloth will handle; and, if we refer, regarding this soft twist specially to the filling, the easier the same can be introduced in the warp during the process of weaving. This will explain the general method of using a few more picks per inch compared to the warp threads as used per inch in reed. But as everything has a limit we also must be careful not to use too many of these additional picks, for if " piling-in " even a soft filling too hard in a cloth during weaving, it will ultimately result in an imperfect fabric when finished. Frequently we would thus produce fabrics which require too much fulling, or which with all the fulling possible, could not be brought to its required finished width. The same trouble will also refer to the setting of a fabric too wide in reed, for the sake of producing heavier weight of cloth. Again, if setting a cloth too loose, either in warp or filling, or both systems, it will produce a finished fabric handling too soft, flimsy or spongy ; consequently great care must be exercised in the " setting of cloth " in order to produce good results, and rules given for foundation weaves (with reference to an average fair and most often used counts of yarn, producing what might 69 be termed staple textures and correspondingly staple fabrics) will form a solid basis to build upon for other fabrics as may be required to be made. Special fabrics, such as Union Cassimeres, Chinchillas, Whitneys, Montagnacs and other pile fabrics, are left out of question. □■■n FiG. 23. Example. — Fancy Cassimere: Weave - — ^ twill (see Fig. 23). Yarn to use, 22-cut. Question. — Find the proper number of threads for one inch to use. 22-cut=22 X 300=6,600 yards per lb. And l/ 6,600, less 16 per ceut.=68^ threads of 22-cut woolen yarn will lie side by side in one inch. 68iX4 -^-^=68iX4=273^6=45i Answer. — 45 threads per inch (actually 91 threads for two inches) are the proper number of threads to use for the cloth given in example. In this weave (? ^ twill) warp and filling interlace after every two threads. In previously given example (the plain weave) warp and filling interlaced alternately; hence, if comparing the plain weave and the 4-harness even-sided twill we find: Plain weave=4 points of interlacings in 4 threads. 2 twill=2 points of interlacings in 4 threads. Previously we also mentioned that the space between the warp threads where the intersection takes place must be (or must be nearly as large) equal to the diameter of the filling yarn (also vice versa) ; thus, if comparing both weaves, using the sanle yarn for warp and filling in each example, we find in the plain weave : ' 4 points of interlacings of the filling in 4 warp threads, giving us 8 diameters of threads in four threads, or two repeats of the plain weave, and in the 4-harness even-sided twill we only find : 2 points of interlacings of the filling in . 4 warp threads, giving us twill weave. 6 diameters of threads in four threads, or one repeat of the — Again in the plain weave we find : 4 intersections of each warp thread in 4 picks, giving 8 diameters of threads in four threads, or two repeats of the plain weave, and in the 4-harness even-sided twill we find : 2 intersections of each warp thread in 4 picks, giving 6 diameters of threads in four threads, or one repeat of the ? ^ twill weave. Hence, the proportion of the texture between a cloth woven with the plain weave and the 4-har- ness twill will be as 6:8 or 3:4. Consequently if 60 ends per inch (in each system), woven with the plain weave, produce a well- balanced cloth, and we want to use the same yarn for producing a similar perfect cloth, woven with the ? - twill, we find the number of threads required readily by the following proportion : \ Ratio of the plain weave com- \ . . j Texture used with the plain ) . \ Texture to be used with the ( pared to the 4-harness twill. J ' " \ pared to the 4-harness twill. 3 : 4 4X60 weave. 60 4-harness twill. X =4X20=80 threads must be used in proportion with the 4-harness even-sided twill to produce a well-balanced cloth structure. 70 This example will also explain that the less points of intersecticms we find in a given number of threads interlaced with one weave, compared to the same number of threads interlaced with another weave, the higher a texture we must employ, producing at the same time a proportional heavier cloth. TO CHANGE THE TEXTURE FOR GIVEN COUNTS OF YARN FROM ONE WEAVE TO ANOTHER. Jlule^ — The repeat of the given weave multiplied by repeat plus points of intersections of the required weave is to repeat of the required weave, multiplied by the repeat, plus points of intersections of the given weave, the same as the ends per inch of the given cloth are to the ends per inch for the required cloth. Thus we will find answer to previously given example by this rule, as follows • (2X(4+2) (2X12) 12 (4X(2 + 2)) :: 60: x and (4X4) :: 60: x and 16 :: 60: x ; hence. — 1^=16X5=80 threads must be used, being the same answer as previously received. 1 2 Example. — Fancy Worsted Suiting. Weave ^ 6-harness twill (see Fig. 24). Warp and .filling *S5anS! 2/32's worsted. Texture, 64X64. Question : Find texture required for producing a well jcSKm balanced cloth using the same counts of yarn with the — 3 9-harness twill (see ± ig. 25) Fig. 24. ^eave. (6X(9+4)) (9X(6+2)) (9X8) 72 64: X 64: X 64: X ■□S-BH 72X64 _ 12x64 i2x64=.768-^13==59xV Fig. 25. 78 13 Answer.— The number of ends to be used with 2/32's worsted, and the ^ ^ ^ ^ twill are 59 ends per inch. TO CHANGE THE WEIGHT OF A FABRIC WITHOUT INFLUENCING ITS GENERAL APPEARANCE;. Previously we mentioned "the less points of interlaoings we find in a given number of threads the higher a texture (more threads per inch) we can use in the construction of a cloth." This will also apply to the use of a heavier count of yarn, or both items (higher texture and heavier yarn) at the same time. In the construction of a new fabric we are frequently required to produce a fabric of a given weight per yard ; hence, after we find by rules given that the yarn we intend to use will, with its corresponding texture and weave, produce a cloth either too heavy or too light, we must carefully con- sider how to remedy this. In some instances the diiference could be balanced by either laying the cloth wider or narrower in the reed, or shorter or longer at the dressing, and regulate the weight during the finishing process ; i. e., full the flannel to the required weight. By some fabrics (of an inferior grade) we might also regulate the weight to some extent during the fulling process (by adding more or less flocks, the latter of which will felt during the fulling to the back, and partly between both sys- tems of threads the fabric is composed of But in most fabrics a too heavy or too little fulling or addi- tional flocking (according to the class of cloth) would reduce or destroy the beauty of its face, and thus decrease its value ; hence we must regulate texture, weave, and counts of yarn to be used, to a cer- tain extent, to suit the weight per yard of the finished fabric required. Most always the heavier a weight is M^anted, the heavier a yarn we must use, and in turn suit texture to the latter. Again, the lighter in weight a cloth is required, the finer counts of yarn we must use, also with a proportional regulation of the texture. If the weight per yard in a given fabric is required to be changed (either 71 increased or reduced) without altering the weave, or the width in reed, or length dressed {i. e., want the new cloth to be fulled about the same amount as the given), we must alter the counts of the yarn in the process of spinning, producing a heavier yarn if a heavier cloth is wanted, and a lighter yarn if a lighter cloth is wanted. Rule. — The ratio between the required weight per yard squared and the given weight per yard squared, is in the same ratio as the counts of yarn in the given cloth are to the counts of yarn required for use in the new cloth. Example. — Suppose we are making the following cloth : 'ggjg Fancy Cassiraere : 3,240 ends in warp. 10 per cent, take-up during weaving. Weave 1 * given in Fig. 26. 72 inches width in loom. Warp and filling, 22-cut woolen yarn. wea!!l^ twill. Weight of flannel from loom, 17.2 oz. Question. — Find the proper counts of yarn to use if given weight, 17.2 oz., is to be changed to 19.1 oz.; i. e., a flannel of 19.1 oz. is required (from loom). Memo. — 111 this, as well as the following example, no reference to any selvage is taken. 5 Required weight ) ( squared. \ 19.r (19.1X19.1) 364.81 / Given weight ) \ squared. \ 17.2^ (17.2X17.2) 295.84 j Counts of yarn in | ( given cloth. \ 22 22 22 295.84x22 = 17.9 \ Required counts for ) J the new cloth. \ X X X 364.81 Atrnjoer. — 18-cut yarn is required. Example. — Prove previously given example for each texture ; a, as to weiglit, and 6, as to the proper construction according to rules given. I. Given Cloth. a. Ascertain given weight (17.2 oz.). Fancy Cassimere : 3,240 ends in warp. 10 per cent, take-up during weaving. Weave, ^ — 4-har- ness twill. 72 inches width in loom. 48 picks per inch. Warp and filling, 22-cut woolen yarn. 3,240 ends in warp. 10 per cent, take-up. How many yards dressed ? 100: 90=x : 3,240 and 324,000-^90=3,600 yards of warp required dressed per yard of cloth woven. 22-cut=300X 22=6,600 yards per lb. -^16 =4121 yards per oz.; hence— 3,600--412."5=8.8 oz. weight of warp. 72X48=3,456 yards of filling required per yard. 3,456^-412.5=8.4 oz., weight of filling. Warp, 8.8 oz. Filling, 8.4 oz. Answer. — 17.2 oz., total weight per yard from loom. b. Proof of Proper Structure of Given Cloth. 22-cut =6,600 yards per lb. and less 16 per cent. =68^ threads of 22-cut yarn will lie side by side in one inch. 5 twill =2 points of interlacings in one repeat of the weave. Thus: ^i^=68iX 4=273^6=451, or practically— Answer. — 45 warp threads per inch should be used, and this is the number of ends used, since.— n (Threads in full warp.) ~- (Width of cloth.) = (Ends per inch.) 3,240 72 45 2. Required Cloth. h. Find Proper Texture for Warp. 18-ciit woolen yarn to be used =18X300=5,400 yards per lb., / 5,400=73.49, less 16 percent. (11.74)=61f threads of 18-cut woolen yarn will lie side by side in one inch. 4-harness twill contains 2 points of intersections in one repeat. ?li^=247^6=41i, or practically— Ansioer. — 41 threads per inch must be used. a. Ascertain Weight for Required Cloth. Using the same width in reed as in the given cloth (72 inches). 41 X 72=2,952 ends must be used (10 per cent, take-up). 100:90 :: x: 2,952 and 295,200^90=3,280 yards warp required for one yard cloth from loom. 18-cut yarn =5,400 yards per lb. ^16=337| yards, per oz. 3,280-^337.5=9.7 oz. warp yarn required. 44X72=3,168 yards filling required, and 3,168-^337.5=9.4 oz., filling required. Warp, 9.7 oz. Filling, 9.4 oz. Anmer. 19.1 oz., total weight per yard from loom, being exactly the weight wanted. Memo.— In calculating weight for both fabrics we used three additional picks compared to the warp threads, which is done to illustrate practically the softer twist of the filling compared to the warp yarn (and which item has already previously been referred to). In the calculations we only used approxi- mately the decimal fraction of tenth, since example refers only to illustrate the procedure. In examples we exclude any reference to selvage. Example.— The following cloth we are making : Worsted Suiting. 3,840 ends in warp, 8 per cent. 6 take-up, 60 inches width in loom, warp and filling 2/32's worsted, weight of flannel from I'SSK loom, 14.6 oz. For weave, see Fig. 27. (No reference taken of selvage.) iSSSsS Question.— Find the proper yarn to use if given weight, 14.6 oz., must be changed to Fig. 27. |g 3 (from loom); e., a flannel of 16.3 oz. is wanted (exclusive of selvage). Weaye 3__ 16.3^ 6 -harness twill. 14.6^ 16: X 16: X 16: X (16.3X16.3):(14.6X14.6) 265.69 : 213.16 213.16 X 16=3,410.56-^-265.69=12.9 An^er. — 1/1 3's or 2/26's worsted yarn is required. Example.— Frowe previously given example for each structure; a, as to weight; b, as to the proper construction according to rules given. I, Given Cloth. a. Ascertain Given Weight (14.6 oz.). Warp.— 3,840 ends, 2/32's worsted, 8 per cent, take-up, weave ^ 6-harness twill. 60 inches width of cloth on reed. Filling. — 66 picks per inch, 2/32's worsted. 3,840 ends in warp, 8 per cent, take-up, how many yards dressed ? 73 100: 92 :: x : 3,840 384,000--92=4,173ll yards (practically 4,174) of warp required dressed per yard of cloth woven. 2/32's worsted=-16X 560=8,960 yards per lb.-f-16=560 yards per oz. Hence: 4,174-^-560=7.5 oz., weight of warp. 66 X 60=3,960 yards of filling required per yard. 3,960-4-560=7.1 oz., weight of filling. Warp, 7.5 oz. Filling, 7.1 " Answer. — 14.6 oz., total weight per yard from loom. b. Proof for Proper Structure of Given Cloth. 2/32's worsted =8,960 yards per lb., and l/8,960— 10 per cent. =85 threads of 2/32's worsted will lie side by side in one inch. 3 twill=2 points of interlacings in one repeat of the weave. Thus : -^^32^=510-7-8=64. Answer. — 64 threads per inch must be used, and since 3,840^60=64, this is the number of ends used per inch in given cloth, the structure of the given cloth is perfectly balanced. 2. Required Cloth. b. Find the Proper Texture for Warp. 2/26's worsted =13X560=7,280 yards per lb. ' l/7,280=85.3 less 10 per cent. (8.5)=76.8 diameters of threads of 2/26's worsted will lie side by side in one inch. 76.8 X 6 3 twill=2 points of interlacings in one repeat. Thus: —g;j;2^ =460.8-^-8=57.6, or practically — Answer. — 58 threads per inch must be used. a. Ascertain Weight for Required Cloth. Using the same width in reed as in the given cloth (60 inches). 58X60=3,480 ends must be used (8 per cent, take-up). 100 : 92 : : X : 3,480. 348,000 --92=3,782 yards required for one yard cloth from loom. 2/26's worsted=7,280 yardsperlb. -^-16=455 yards per oz.; thus : 3,782-=-455=8.3oz. warp yarn required. Using 61 picks we find — 61 X 60=3,660 yards filling (2/32'8 worsted) wanted. 3,660^455=8 oz., weight of filling yarn wanted. Warp, 8.3 oz. Filling, 8.0 oz. Answer. — 16.3 oz., total weight of cloth (exclusive of selvage) from loom, being exactly the weight wanted. To Find the Number of Ends per Inch in the Required Cloth. The two examples previously given will also assist us to illustrate the next rule ; i. e., " Finding number of ends per inch in the required cloth." Rule. — The weight per yard of the required cloth is to the weight per yard of the given cloth in the corresponding ratio of the warp ends per inch in the given cloth to the warp ends per inch in the required cloth. Example. — Prove rule by previously given example of a fancy cassimere. Given Cloth. — Weight per yard=17.2 oz. Ends per inch=45J (for 45). 74 Required Cloth. — Weight wanted, 19.1 oz. Find ends per inch required, or x. 17.2X45.5 19.1:17.2 :: 4o.5:x. ^ =17.2X45.5=782. 60-^-19.1=40^1, or practically-. Answer. — 41 warp threads must be used, and this is exactly the answer previously derived in the same example (see page 72). Example. — Prove rule by previously given example of a worsted suiting. Given structure. — Weight per yard, 14.6 oz. Ends per inch, 64. Required structure. — Weight wanted, 16.3 oz. Find ends per inch required, or x. 14.6X64 16.3:14.6 :: 64:x 16.3 :14.6 X 64=9,344--16.3=57i¥3 (See answer on page 73, being 57.6.) Answer. — 58 warp threads (practically) per inch must be used ; this being the same number as derived previously in the same example. (See page 73.) WEAVES WHICH WILL WORK WITH THE SAME TEXTURE AS THE ? ^ 4-HARNESS TWILL. The following few weaves (given for examples) have the same number of interlacings as the 4-harness even-sided twill : ^ Memo. — Weaves indicated by u. are uneven-sided twills. Weaves indicated by e. are even-sided twills. 1 1 1 6 1 1 2 5 1 1 3 4 1 4 6 2 1 5 3 1 4 4 1 5 2 2 1 4 2 2 2 4 3 3 2 3 1 3 1 4 2 3 1 3 2 2 2 3 3 2 1 2 2 2 5 1 1 2 2 4 1 2 2 2 3 1 3 2 2 3 2 2 1 2 2 1 3 3 1 2 2 1 4-harness twills. 1 1 4 1 1 2 3 1 1 3 4 2 1 1 3 1 2 2 3 2 2 1 8 -harness ^ twills. Proceeding in this manner, the student can readily find the different (common) twills which will work on the same basis of texture as the 4-har- ness even-sided twill. Amongst "derivative weaves," working on the same basis of texture as the ^ twill, we find — J 4-harness broken twill and the following weaves given in my " Technology of Teu tile Design" Figs. 398, 409, 411, 412, 416, 417, 420, 421, 445, 448,449, 470 (476 q==d), 479, 482, 492, 497, 499, etc., etc. ^ 12-harness twills. WEAVES WHICH WILL WORK WITH THE SAME TEXTURE AS THE ^ TWILL, TWILL, Etc. In the same manner as we previously found some of the different weaves to work on an equal basis with the ^ twill, it will be advisable for the student to use different other " standard foundation weaves " on the same basis. For exam- ple : the -g twill, the ^ . twill, etc. 75 SELECTION OF THE PROPER TEXTURE FOR FABRICS INTERLACED WITH SATIN WEAVES. As mentioned in my " Technology of Textile Design" fabrics made with satin weaves or ''Satins" are characterized by a smooth face. The principles for the construction of satins are to arrange as much as possible distributed stitching, for the more scattered we arrange the interlacing of warp and filling the less these points of intersection will be visible in the fabric. Thus, the method of construction of this third class of foundation weaves is quite different from the other two classes (the plain and twill weaves) ; hence, the setting of the warp for fabrics interlaced with satins requires a careful studying and possibly a slight modification towards one, two, or three threads more per inch ; but such an increase is regulated by the material. If we have an extra good and very smooth yarn we may do this, but if dealing with a rough or poorly carded yarn we must use ends per inch as found by rule. As previously mentioned, in cloth interlaced with satin weaves we want a smooth face ; hence, the warp yarn must cover the filling. Thus, as always one or the other of the threads in the repeat of the weave is withdrawn on every pick the remaining warp threads must cover this spot where the one warp thread works on the back of the cloth and the filling tries to take its place on its face ; and, as according to rules given, the interlacing of the filling is dealt with similar to warp threads, the remaining warp threads in this instance would have to be spread so as to cover the filling, which, no doubt, is more readily accomplished by using a heavier texture of the warp ; i. e., putting two or three more threads per inch than actually will lie properly side by side, less the customary deduction on account of the nap of the yarn. If we resort to this plan, it will be readily understood by the student that this will produce a closer working of the threads than they properly should ; hence, chafing or riding of threads (to a slight extent) will be the result. If, as previously mentioned, we are dealing with an extra good and smooth yarn and the warp yarn is properly sized and dressed, we may make use of those few ends, but otherwise in most every common fabric, threads as found by rule to lie side by side in one iueh will do, since the nature of the weave (hence, cloth with it produced) will by itself hide the filling to a great extent by means of the warp being nearly ail on the face, the filling forming the back and the one end warp r.s coming in the lower shed, having little power to pull the filling up, which for the main part forms the back of the structure. Example. — Find threads of warp to use for weaving a " Kersey," with the 7-leaf satin (see Fig. 28), using 6-run woolen yarn. Width of cloth in reed (setting) to be 84 inches (exclusive rmHoa selvage). 6-run woolen yarn =84 ends per inch, side by side. 84x7=588-^9=65^, or sSsSsS say 66 threads per inch. 66X84=5,544. , iSSbSsS 1 7 Anmer. — 5,544 threads texture for. warp to use, but which may be increased to 5,700 Fig. 28. ends if dealing with a good smooth yarn. 5,700 ends in warp equals nearly 68 threads per inch. (68X84=5,712) which is about 2 threads per inch in excess of proper number ascertained by the reg- ular procedure. SELECTION OF THE PROPER TEXTURE FOR FABRICS INTERLACED WITH RIB WEAVES. As mentioned in my " Technology of Textile Design" fabrics interlaced with rib weaves require, for either one system of threads (warp or filling), a high texture. Rib weaves classified as " warp effects," must have a high texture for warp, and Rib weaves classified as " filling effects," must have a high texture for filling. Warp Effects. In the manufacture of fabrics interlaced with warp effect rib weaves, the warp forms the face and back of the fabric, whereas the filling rests imbedded, not visible on either side. This being the case there is no necessity for calculating (in the setting of the warp) for a space for the filling to inter- lace; thus, the texture is ascertained by the number of threads that will lie side by side per inch. 76 Example. — Find the warp texture for a fabric interlaced with the rib weave (warp effect) as shown in Fig, 29, using for warp 6-run woolen yarn. *BSBS 6-run=9,600 yards per lb., and i/^9,600, less 16 per cent.=82.3. Answer. — 82 warp threads per inch must be used. Fig. 39. Example. — Find texture for a fabric interlaced with the rib weave, shown in Fig. 30, u.sing for warp 2/40's worsted yarn. egjoj 2/40's worsted=l 1,200 yards per lb., and 1^11,200, less 10 per cent.=95. ■§■□ 1 2 Answer. — 95 warp threads per inch must be used. Fig. 30. Filling Effects. As previously mentioned, for filling effects we require a high number of picks, since the latter system has to form face and back of the cloth, and the warp the interior. In most instances the filling yarn as used for these fabrics is softer spun than the warp, for allowing a freer introducing of the former ; thus, we may use even a few more picks per inch compared to the texture previously found fi)r rib weaves warp effects. Fierured Rib ^A/^eaves. □■□■□■□■■■■□□□■■■□□□□■□a ■'"^■□■■■■■□□•■■□□□gBBbBSB If dealmg with figured rib weaves, their texture for warp and hlluig is ■□■□■□□□■■■□□I „ " .. . , r^ i 1 MI T □■■■■□□■■■■■□■□■□■□■□SB! found by ascertaining the number oi threads lor both systems that will lie □■□□□■■■□□□■■■□■□■□■□■□B . , , . ., . . I ■■□□□■■■□□□□■□■□■□■□■DM »i<^i<^ uj 1" <^'"'= liK^n. □□■■■□□□■■■□■□■□■□■□■□■□ ■■□□□■■■□■□■□■□■□■□■^□□g □□■■■□ShSSSgySSnSnRSSSS" Example. — Find texture for a cloth to be interlaced with the figured ■■□□□□■□■□■□■□■□■■■■□□□■ ., 1 • rn • 1 o;o/^j i. j ■■■■■■□■■■■■■■□□■■■■□□□■ weave, shown m Fig. 31, using for w^arp and filling 2/36's worsted yarn, □□□■□■□■□■□■□■■■■□□□■■■a . , , / , r3gggSSS5ggBrggSS5g5SSS5 2/36's=10,080 yards per lb., and l/l0,080, less 10 per cent.=90. ■□■□■!□■□■□■■■■□,'}□■■■□□□□ 7 ./ A / i 1 ■□■□■□■□■□■□□□■■■□□□■■■□ Fig. 31. ' Answer. — 90 warp threads and 90 picks per inch must be used. SELECTION OF THE PROPER TEXTURE FOR FABRICS INTERLACED WITH CORKSCREW-WEAVES. On page 68 of my " Technology of Textile Design" I mentioned, amongst other points, referring to the method of construction of corkscrew weaves, "this sub-division of the regular 45° twills is derived from the latter weaves by means of double draws, which will reduce the texture of the warp for the face in the fabric ; hence, a greater number of those threads per inch (compared to fabrics inter- laced with the foundation weaves) are required." A careful examination of the different corkscrew weaves (see Figs. 345 to 383 in " Teehnology of Textile Design,") with regard to their setting in loom, will readily illustrate their near relation to the warp effect rib weaves as explained in the previous chapter. In both systems of weaves (speaking in a general way) the warp forms the face and back of the cloth and the filling rests imbedded between the former; the only difference between both being that the break-line, as formed by the exchanging of the warp threads from face to back, is in the rib-cloth in a horizontal direction compared to the running of the warp threads, whereas in the corkscrews this break-line is produced in a oblique direction. But as this is of no consequence regarding structure (in fact only in preference of the forming of a t»ettcr shed with the corkscrew weave, since not all the threads break — exchange positions — at the same time) we may readily use the setting of the number of warp threads per inch in corkscrews the same as done in rib weaves warp effects ; i. e., use the number of warp threads that will lie side by side in one inch for the texture of warp and again increase this texture one, two, three, or four ends, if dealing with an extra good yarn. 77 ^□■□■□■■□■□■□■□■■□5 Example. — Find warp texture required for a fabric made with weave Fig. 32, SfSS:Bi§S35:"s§SR: Yam to be used is 2/40's wors-ted. 2/40's worsted =11,200 yards per lb., ■□■□■□■■□■□■□■□■■a . :B5SaSSS8:Sg:§SS:B ^^^^ 1/11,200, less 10 per cent. =95. □■□■□■□■■□■□■□■□■a ^"■BSBSsSSSySSHSSS Answer. — 95 warp threads per inch must be used, and in case of extra good ■□■□■□■■□■□■°!BS£P yarn we may increase this warp texture to 98 ends per inch. ' Fig 3.'^ ^ Example. — Find number of threads in warp if fabric in previously given example is made 61 inches wide in loom. 95x61=5,795. Answer. — 5,800 threads in warp must be used to produce a perfect cloth ; i. e., perfect fabric, and 5,950 to 5,980 ends can be used with an extra good yarn (9;iX 61 =5,978). Example. — Find a, texture of warp per inch ; b, threads in warp to use if 61 inches wide in loom, for fabric interlaced with fancy corkscrew weave Fie;. 33, using 2/60's worsted /• „ „,„^.^ dBBDBaBnBaBnBBnBLiBDBDB tor warp. □BnBBQBnBDBaBiI'BBnBDBDB ^ □BaBaBBaBDBaBQBPBBDBQB 2/60's worsted=16,800 yards per lb., and l/l 6,800, less 10 per cent.=117. SsSsSSaSSSPSSSSSSgg: ' J J I ' ' ' i BDBDBDBaBBOBaBnBaBGBBD ■nBGJDBBDBnBOBDBaBBPBD Answer.— a, 117 warp threads per inch must be used; and 117x61 iBBhnSS!§SBSSSSB!§SBS| =7,137; thus b, 7,140 threads must be used in full warp. Fig 33 Memo. — In such fine yarn, and correspondingly high texture, it will be hardly necessary to use those two to four additional threads as made use of if dealing with a lower count of yarn. SELECTION OF THE PROPER TEXTURE FOR FABRICS BACKED WITH FILLING; i. e., CONSTRUCTED WITH TWO SYSTEMS OF FILLING AND ONE SYSTEM OF WARP. A thorough explanation of the construction of weaves for these fabrics has been given in my " Technology of Textile Design/' on pages 105, 106, 107 and 108. Thus, we will now consider these isHHHHHHna points with reference to the setting of cloth in the loom, since, no doubt, the additional back SBhSShhS filling will have more or less influence upon the setting of the face cloth. Weave Fig. 34 □|bdBbbB (corresponding to weave Fig. 558 and section Fig. 557 in Technology) illustrates the com- gg§ggg§| mon 4-harness twill ^ for the face structure, backed with the 8-leaf satin. □□■"□BBH In this weave, as well as any similar combinations, the texture of the face warp can DBBDDBBD • i i .... . « ibbBBbbBd remam nearly the same as if dealing with single cloth, a deduction of 5 per cent, from the Fig. 34. number ends per inch found for the single cloth is all that is required to be deducted for the same cloth made with a backing. ^ If we exchange the 8-leaf satin, as used for backing, with a twill, ~ j as shown in Sngg weave Fig. 35, we must deduct 10 per cent, from the warp texture, as found for 'the face of hSSd the cloth, to produce the proper chances for weaving. If we back the 4-harness ^ twill Fig 35 ^^^^^^ arrangement of 2 picks face to alternate with 1 pick back, and use for the interlacing of the latter filling (and warp) the ^ j 4-harness twill, (using every alternate warp thread only for interlacing) see weave Fig. 36, no deduction of the warp texture compared to single cloth is required ; or, in other words, if using a weave 2 picks face to alternate with 1 pick back, and zhhhhhhdh in which the backing is floating from ■ to ~ r (or a similar average), no reference must BaSSaHSS ^ ^ I 1 ^ ° ^ DBBDOBBn be taken of the back filling in calculating the setting of the warp ; or, in other words, the HgagGSyg fabric is simply to be treated as pure single cloth. The most frequently used proportions of gggg§gi§ backing to face are : 1 pick face to alternate with 1 pick back, and 2 picks face to alternate ^?"°°""°p with 1 pick back. Seldom we find other arrangements, as 3 picks face to alternate with 1 pick back; or irregular combinations, as 2 picks face 1 pick back, 1 pick face 1 pick back,=5 picks 78 in repeat, etc. If using the arrangement " 1 pick face to alternate with 1 pick back," be careful to use a backing yarn not heavier in its counts than the face filling; fur a backing heavier in its counts than the face filling will influence the closeness of the latter, and in turn produce an " open face " appear- ance in the fabric. ■■□□□■■■□□□a ■□□□■■■□□□■a □□□□□□□□□□□□ OjaaaBDDGHa □HEJHHHacaElGHC: □□aaaanaaaaa aaaaaarjaKaaa aaanGaaaaDan aajoaaaaaaQa a □□aaaoDGaa □□GHHtaHHHQHH □□□aaaoQGaaa □□aacaaDHaQHEa □□aaacDDGaaaa BaaaHHBaHBaa □aaaauuaaaDn aaaaaaaaaaaa laaaDQaaaaaDD Fig. 37. 12 Weave Fig. 37 shows the ? ^ 6-harness twill for the face structure, backed with the 12-leaf satin. Arrangement: 1 pick face to alternate with 1 pick back. It will readily be seen by the student that this combination of weaves (also any similar ones) will be very easy on the warp threads; thus, the setting of the latter per inch in the reed is (about) designated by the counts of yarn used with reference to the single cloth weave {- ^ twill), being the same as if dealing with no backing, for the most allowance we would have to make for fabrics inter- laced with this weave would be a deduction of 2 to 2| per cent, from the single cloth warp texture. Weave Fig. 38 shows the same face weave (^ ^ twill), arranged with 2 picks face to alternate with 1 pick back. There will be no difference experienced in the number of threads (warp) to use per inch between this weave and the single face weave (i. e., the face weave if treated as single cloth) ; hence, the setting of the warp for both will be the same. 'saaanaaBHaBGH aancoaaaanna arjn'^'aaanDi'aB BnBBBaBaBaBB □nnaaaGDaaaa □naaaoGDaaaa BBBBBBBHBBBD □aaaGGaaaana aaaaaaaaaaan BBBBBaBBBGBB aang-iaaacja IB BGdGaBBaGGaa BaaaaaaDBBBB t-ini '•aauDGBBB nLlHBrjGDBHG BBBBBaanaBBB GBBBaGGBBBGO IBBBGaDBBBGGG 12 Fig. 38. Example. — Find the proper number of warp threads to use for a worsted suiting, to be interlaced with the granite weave shown in Fig. 39. For warp yarn use 2/50's worsted. 2/50's worsted=l 4,000 yards per lb. and /i 4^000 less 10 per cent.=106.5 Points of interlacing in face weave=8 Warp threads in repeat of weave=18 106.5X18=19,170^26 (8 + 18)=73.7 — 3.7 (5 per cent.) 70.0 Answer. — 70 warp threads per inch of 2/50's worsted are required. Example. — Ascertain for the previously given fabric the proper filling texture, if using the same counts of yarn as used for warp, and find weight of cloth per yard from loom (exclusive of selvage). Required [ filling, 74 picks per inch (2/50's worsted). I Backing, 74 " " " (single 24's worsted). Width in loom, 60 inches (exclusive of selvage). Tak*e-up of warp during weaving, 12 per cent. 70 X 60=4,200 warp threads in cloth. 100 : 88 : : x : 4,200. 4,200x100=420,000-^88=4,772 yards of warp are wanted dressed for 1 yard cloth from loom. 14,000 yards per lb, in 2/50's worsted=875 yards per oz. 4,772-=-875=5.45 oz., weight of warp, 74 X 60=4,440 yards face filling wanted, 4,440-^875=5.07 oz., face filling, 24'sworsted=13,440 yards per lb.=840 yards per oz. 4,440-5-840=5.28 oz., weight of backing. 15.80 oz. ^'aBBQBaaBBBGBaaBBaa GGBBBGGBGGGBGGBBBD BaaBBBBBaaBBBBBBBG BGGBBBGGGBBBaGBGGG BBaBBaGaBBBBaBBBBB BGI 3BGCJGBGGBBBGGUBB HaaBBBBBBBBBBGBaHB BBGGGBaBGGBGGGBGGB aaGBBBaBBBBBBBBBBB GGGBGOBaBGGaaBBGGB BBaBBBBBBGaaBBBBBB GBBBGGBGGGBGGBBBGG aBBBaaaBBBBBBaaaGB GGBBBGGGBBBGGBGGGB BBaaaGBaBBBBBBBBBB GGBGGGBGGBBBGGGBBB BBBBBBBBBaBBGaBBBB BGaCIBBBGUBGQGBGGBB aGBaaaaaaBaBBBaaaB GGBGGBBBGL GBBBGGBG BBaBBBBQGBBBBBGQBB BBBGOBGCG BGGBBBQGG □BBaBBBBBBBBaBBGBa GBmaGGBBBCUBLlGGBG BaaaGaaaHBaHBaBEBB gbgggbggbbbggl:bbbg aaBBBaBGBBaGBaaaGB GGGBBBGGBGi iGBLJI.^BBB aaaBBBaaBBBGaaaaBB QBGOBBBGtJGBBB: ILJBGG BaaaaBBaBBBBBaBaaa ^ BBGGBGGCBGaBBBuGCB BBaBaBBBBaBaBBLDaaB BBBGGGBBBGCBGIjCBGG aBaGaBaaaaaBBBBaaa JBGGGBGGBBBGGGBBBGG T 18 Fig. 39. Warp, 5.45 oz. Face filling, 5.07 " Backing, 6.28 " Answer. — Weight of cloth per yard from loom (exclusive of selvage) is 15,8 oz. 79 Example. — Find the proper texture for warp and filling, and also ascertain the weight of flannel KHHHHHHQH pcr jard from loom (exclusive of selvage). Cloaking : Warp 5-run, filling 5-run, backing □□■■qhSS 24-run. Weave, see Fie;. 40 (8 warp threads and 12 picks in repeat). Take-up of warp, □■■□□■HQ TTT. 1 1 1 1 • 1 frr. • 1 / 1 • 1 \ "■□hhShh 10 per cent. Width or cloth in reed, 72 inches (exclusive oi selvage). ■□□■■□["•■ gggSBggg 5-run=8,000 yards per lb. ^^■□□■■uci 1/ 8,000, less 16 per cent.=75 ends of 5-run yarn will lie side by side in one inch. Fig. 40. 300-^6=50 ends of warp must be used per inch, and 50X72=3,600 ends must be used in full warp. 100:90 ::x: 3,600 3,600X100=360,000-^-90=4,000 yards of warp yarn are required per yard cloth woven. 5-run yarn=500 yards per oz. 4,000-5-600=8 oz. of warp yarn are wanted. 52 picks (50-1-2 extra) of face filling, 1 , i . , . , / T n ' ^ I n ^ r^ii- f wautcd pcr luch 26 picks (correspond mg to face picks) of back filling, J 52X72=3,744 yards of face filling are wanted. 3,744--500=7.5 oz., weight of face filling. 26X72=1,872 yards of backing are required. l,872-f-250 (yards of 2J-run filling per oz.)=7.5 oz., weight of backing. Warp, 8.00 oz. Face filling, 7.50 " Backing, 7.50 " 23.00 oz. Ansioer. — Total weight of cloth per yard from loom (exclusive of selvage), 23 oz. SELECTION OF THE PROPER TEXTURE FOR FABRICS BACKED WITH WARP; i. e., CONSTRUCTED WITH TWO SYSTEMS OF WARP AND ONE SYSTEM OF FILLING. To ascertain the texture of the warp in these fabrics we must first consider the counts of the yarn as used for the face structure, and secondly the weave. After ascertaining this texture (for the single cloth) we must consider the weave for the back warp ; i. e., the stitching of the same to the face cloth. If dealing with a weave of short repeat for the back warp (for example a ^ ^ twill) we must allow a correspondingly heavy deduction from the threads as ascertained for the face cloth (about 20 per cent, for the g twill) ; whereas, if dealing with a far-floating weave for the back (for example the 8-leaf satin) we will have to deduct less (about 10 per cent, for the 8-leaf satin) from the previously ascertained texture of the face cloth. Since the 8-leaf satin is about the most far-floating weave, as used for the backing, thus, 10 per cent, will be about the lowest deduction, and as the — — ^ twill is the most frequently interlacing weave, in use in the manufacture of these fabrics, thus, 20 per cent, deduction from the respectively found texture of the face cloth is the maximum deduction. To illustrate the subject more clearly to the student we will give both weaves as previously referred to with a practical example. Example. — Find warp texture for the following fabric : Fancy worsted trousering. 4anDnBE;«n Weave, see Fig. 41. Face warp, 2/36's worsted. Back warp, single 20's worsted. i555SBBSy 2/36's worsted =90 threads (side by side per inch). Fig. 41. Face weave ^ twill =4 threads in repeat and 2 points of interlacing. 90X4=360^6=60 threads, proper warp texture for the single structure. 60 — 12 (20 per cent, deduction caused by the back warp (^ ^) stitching in the face structure). 48 80 Face warp per inch, 48 threads 2/36's worsted. Back warp " 48 " single 20's worsted. 96 Answer. — 96 warp threads must be used per inch. Picks per inch must be 52 (4 extra over the texture of the face warp). Use 2/36's filling and find weight of cloth per yard from loom (exclusive of selvage), allowing 10 per cent, take-up for face warp, and 12 per cent, for back warp, using 62 inches as the width of cloth in loom. 48X62=2,976 ends of face warp, and 2,976 " " back warp. 5,952, total number of ends in the entire warp. 100 : 90 : : X : 2,976 297,600-^-90=3,306f yards or face warp are wanted per yard of cloth woven. 2/36's worsteds 1 0,080 yards per lb. --16=630 yards per oz. 3,306. 66 630=5. 25 oz.,weight efface warp. 100 : 88 : : X : 2,976 297,600-^88=3,381 tt yards of back warp yarn are wanted per yard of cloth woven. 1/20's worsted=l 1,200 yards. 11,200 yards per lb. -=-16=700 yards per oz. 3,381.81^700=4.83 oz., weight of the back warp. 52 picks per inch X 62=3,224 yards of filling wanted. 3,224-7-630=5.12 oz., weight of filling per yard of cloth woven. Warp, I ^^^f' ^-25 oz. ^' I Back, 4.83 " Filling, 5.12 « -laaaaamamaaaaama the weave as given m riff. 4^. .^-uj;5BnSSBSa5Dn3 This weave contains the same face weave {- ^ twill) as previously used, the Fig 42 " difference being the interlacing of the back warp, for which we use the 8-leaf 15.20 oz. Answer. — 15.2 oz. is the weight of the cloth per yard (from loom exclusive of selvage). To illustrate the difference regarding the weave as selected for interlacing the back warp, we will ^□□□■□■□□□□□■□■a next calculate the previously given example with the same counts of yarn but with aanoDmauaaanu ^□□□■□■□□□□□■3 aaaumaucnaaamnua az ■E satin in place of the ^~ ^ twill as used in the former example. Face warp and filling, 2/36's worsted. Back warp, single 20's worsted. 2/36's worsted=90 threads will lie side by side per inch. Face weave ^ g twill. 90X4=360-=-6=60 threads is the proper texture for face structure, and 60 — 6 (10 per cent, deduction by means of the back warp stitching with the 8-leaf satin in the face structure)- 54 Warp threads per inch 54 threads 2/36's worsted, for face. 54 " 1/20's « " back. 108 Thus : 108 warp threads per inch must be used. Picks per inch, 58 (the same 4 extra pick as in previous given example). Filling, 2/36's worsted. Take-up of face warp 10 per cent. Take-up of back warp 8 per cent. 62|^ inches for width of cloth in loom, since the 8-leaf satin will permit a readier milling (during the process of scouring) than the ^ — ^ twill. Question : — Find weight of cloth per yard and compare it with previously given example. 54X62.5=3,375 threads each of face and back warp are wanted. 100:90 :: X : 3,375. 337,500-^90=3,750 yards of face warp are wanted per yard of cloth woven. 2/36's worsted=630 yards per oz. 3,750-^630=5.95 oz., weight of face warp. 100: 92 :: X : 3,375. 337,500-^-92=3,6681 yards of back warp are wanted per yard of cloth woven. 1/20's worsted=700 yards per oz. 3,668.5-^700=5.24 oz., weight of back warp per yard of cloth woven. 58 picks per inch X 62. 5 inches width of cloth in reed=3,625 yards of filling wanted, and 3,625-1-630=5.75 oz., weight of filling per yard of cloth woven. 81 Face warp, Back warp, Filling, 5.95 oz. 5.24 " 5.75 " 16.94 oz. Thus : 16.94 oz. (or practically 17 oz.) is the weight of cloth per yard from loom. A comparison between both cloths results as follows : (Using weave Fig. 41.) (Using weave Fig. 42.) Face warp, 5.25 oz. 5.95 oz. Back warp, 4.83 " 5.24 " Filling, 5.12 " 5.75 « (Difference.) 0.70 oz. 0.41 " 0.63 " Weight per yard, 15.20 oz. Or, the difference between using the 8-leaf satin or i- 16.94 oz. 1.74 oz. 3 twill for the weave for the back warp is 1 .74 oz. Given two examples will readily illustrate to the student that he must select the weave for the backing with the same care as the face weave, for, as shown in examples given, we produced a differ- ence of If oz. simply by changing the weave for the back warp, using the same counts of yarn for warp and filling, leaving the face weave undisturbed. The most often used proportion of the arrangement between face and back warp is the one previously explained ; *. e., 1 end face to alternate with 1 end back, but sometimes we also use — 2 ends face warp 1 end face warp. 1 end back warp or 1 end back warp. — 2 ends face warp. 3 ends in repeat. 1 end back warp. 5 ends in repeat, or any similar arrangement. If using the arrangement " 1 end face warp to alternate with 1 end back warp," never use a heavier size of warp yarn for the back warp than for the face warp. (See previously given example and you find face yarn2/36's worsted, (= single 18's) and for back warp, single 20's worsted yarn used.) If using " 2 ends face warp to alternate with 1 end back warp " a proportional heavier yarn can be used for the back warp. (See the previous example where 2 ends face warp, 2/36's worsted, alternate with one end back warp, 3|-run woolen yarn). Great care must be exercised in selecting the stock for the face warp and back warp for such fabrics as require any fulling during the finishing process. The material in the back warp, which can be of a cheaper grade, must have about, or as near as possible, the same tendency for fulling as the " stock " which is used in the face warp. The student will also readily see that there will be a smaller deduction (after finding the face texture) necessary if using the arrangement of 2 ends face to alternate with 1 end back than if using the simple alternate exchanging of face and back warp explained at the beginning of the chapter. For example, take weave Fig. 43, illustrating an 8-harness Granite weave, backed 2 ends face warp, 1 end back warp. The back warp interlaces 1 pick up and 7 picks down = 8 picks in the repeat. Examining rules as given for the arrangement 1 and 1, we find a call for a deduction for the face texture of 10 per cent, (see weave Fig. 42), but which, if using the present arrangement, must be reduced to 5 per cent. ; tliis being one-half less reduction to make for 2 face 1 back ■□□□□□■□■□□■■□□□□□■□■anB □□■■□□■□■□□□□□■■□□■□■□ha □□□■□■□□■■□□□□□■□■□□Saba ■□□■□■□□□□□■■□□■□■□□□□□B ■□■□□■■□□□□□■□■□□■■□mn^ , ■□■□□□□□■■□□■□■□□□□□!■□□ Fig. 43. compared to 1 face 1 back Weave Fig. 44 illustrates the - back warp interlaces 1 given for the arrangement of 1 and 1, we find a call for a deduction from the face texture of 20 per cent, (see weave Fig 41), but which, if using arrangement to suit weave Fig. 44, must be reduced one-half ; i. e., deduct only 10 per cent. 2 twill, backed 2 ends face warp and 1 end back warp, pick up, 3 picks down=4 picks in the repeat. Examining rules as The ^□□□■■D □■□■□□ ■■□□□□ !■□□□■□ 1 6 Fig. 44. 82 Example. — Find warp threads per inch for the following cloth : Worsted suiting, Face warp, 2/36's worsted yarn. Back warp, 3|-run woolen yarn. Use a, weave shown in Fig. 43 ; b, weave given in Fig. 44. , . , , . 1 T , ry (8 threads in repeat, 2/36'8 worsted=^ inch diameter. Face weave, < ^ . • . i • ' (.4 points 01 interlacing. 60 — 3 (5 per cent.) 5^^=60 threads, proper warp texture for face. 57 Answer. — If using weave Fig. 43, use 57 warp threads per inch for face. Thus : 58 ends 2/36's worsted for face, and -|-29 *' 3|-run woolen yarn for back, giving us 87 ends of warp to be used per inch. , . -, f 4 threads in repeat, 2/36's worsted inch diameter. ace weave, < ^ . ^ - • ^ • ' 12 points 01 interlacing. 60 90X4 , , , 4^ 4- — 6 (10 per cent.) — g— =60 threads, proper warp texture tor lace. 54 Answer. — If using weave Fig. 44, use 54 warp threads per inch for face. Thus : 54 ends 2/36's worsted for face, +27 " 3|-run woolen yarn for back, gives us 81 ends of warp as total number of ends to be used per inch. SELECTION OF PROPER TEXTURE FOR FABRICS CONSTRUCTED ON THE DOUBLE CLOTH SYSTEMS; i.e., CONSTRUCTED WITH TWO SYSTEMS OF WARP AND TWO SYSTEMS OF FILLING. Under double cloth we comprehend the combining of two single cloths into one fabric. Each one of these single cloths is constructed with its own system of warp and filling, while the combination of both fabrics is effected by interlacing some of the warp threads of the one cloth at certain intervals into the other cloth ; hence, in ascertaining the warp texture of these fabrics we have to deal with a back warp and back filling, both exercising their influence upon the texture of the fabric at the same time. As mentioned and explained in my " Technology of Textile Design," double cloth may be con - structed with : 1 end face to alternate with 1 end back, in warp and filling. 2 ends face to alternate with 1 end back, in warp and filling. 2 ends face to alternate with 2 ends back, in warp and filling. 3 ends face to alternate with 1 end back, in warp and filling, etc. The two first mentioned arrangements are those most oflen used ; hence, we will use the same for illustrating the selection of the proper warp texture for the present system of fabrics. I End Face to Alternate with i End Back in Warp and Filling. For face warp use 4-run woolen yarn. For back warp use 4|^-run woolen yarn. Question. — Find texture for warp yarn : a, if using weave Fig. 45 ; 6, if using weave Fig. 46. First we have to ascertain the warp texture for the face cloth, dealing with the same as with pure single cloth. Face weave for both weaves is the - — ^ 4-harness twill, and the yarn to use is 4-run woolen yarn. ■□□□□□■ffl □DDDBfflBn Fig. 45. ■□□□□□■fflBDannnBD BDHBHQElBQDHaEaDHB □□□□■□■□□□□□■BBD □■□nBBHOHBHaHBHD □□■fflBDDDaQBDBOOa □□CaBHDHBHDHBHDHB ■□■□□□□□■fflBoonna □■□□□BQDHBHQHHHn ■□□□□□■□■□□□□□■ffl □□annanBQDHBcaDHB □BQaEJBBDQBSaQBQa Fig. 46. 83 4-ru n=6,400 yards per lb. 1/6,400=80 —12.8 (16 per cent.) jj f repeat of weave, 4 threads, I points of interlacing in one repeat, 2. 67.2 67 2x4 - \ =268.8--6=44.8 threads (or practically 45) required to be used if dealing with a single cloth. The next to be taken into consideration is the stitching of both cloths. In both weaves the back warp interlaces into the face cloth. In weave Fig. 45, we find the I . twill used for stitching, the proper allowance for the same is a deduction of 24 per cent, from the face structure; hence, in example : 45 threads, proper warp texture for face cloth, treated as single cloth. — 11 " (24 per cent, deducted for I stitching). 34 threads per inch must be used for each system if using weave given in Fig. 45. In weave Fig. 46, we find the 8-leaf satin used for stitching the same face cloth as previously used, the proper allowance for the same is a deduction of 16 per cent, from the face structure; In example given, we find — 45 threads, proper warp texture for face cloth, treated as single cloth. — 7 threads (16 per cent, deducted for the I stitching). 38 warp threads per inch must be used for each system if using weave given in Fig. 46. Answer.— Double cloth fabrics given in question require the following warp texture : a. If using weave Fig. 45, we must use— b. If using weave Fig. 46, we must use— 34 warp threads 4 -run woolen yarn for face, 38 warp threads 4 -run woolen yarn for face, +34 warp threads 4i-run woolen yarn for back. f 38 warp threads 4i-run woolen yarn for back; or 68 warp threads per inch. or 76 warp threads per inch. 2 Ends Face to Alternate with i End Back in Warp and Filling. For face warp use 4-run woolen yarn (same counts as used in previously given example). For back warp use 2|-run woolen yarn. Question.— Find texture for warp yarn : a, if using weave Fig. 47 ; 6, if using weave Fig. 48. The face weave in both weaves is the same as given in previous weaves, Fiffs. 45 and 4b, or the . twill, the counts of yarn bemg also the same ; thus, we can use texture for SyBKS face cloth required from previous example, being 45 threads per inch in loom. i^SaSBB In weave Fig. 47, we used the plain weave for stitching, the proper allowance for the ^7. same is a deduction of 8 per cent, from the face structure ; hence, 45 threads, proper warp texture for face cloth (single cloth), — 3 " 8 per cent. (3.6 actual) deducted for the stitching I 42 threads per inch to be used for the face system if using weave given in Fig. 47. In weave Fig. 48, we find the 8-leaf satin used for stitching the same face cloth as previously used. The manner in which the stitching is done in this example will be of very little, if any, conse- quence to the face cloth ; hence, the full number of ends (or as near as posible) as ascertained for the face cloth, treated as if single cloth, must be used. In the present example this would be 44 or 45 threads per inch to be used for face system if using weave shown in Fig. 48. Answer.— Bouhh cloth fabrics given in question require the following warp texture : a. If using weave Fig. 47, we must use— 42 warp threads 4-run woolen yarn for face. +21 warp threads 2J-run woolen yarn for back; or 63 warp threads per inch. 84 e>. it usinff weave r ig. lo, we mubi) u&e □□□■□■□□□■□■□□□■□■□□□■sb 44 warp threads 4-run woolen yarn for face. gBSBBBSBSgBSgiggaggBSSBB 4-22 warp threads 2i-run woolen yarn for back; or BBBglgBHBgBggBBgBgBBSgSg Afi warr» fVlrpf^^^ ripr men must be useci. ■□□□□■■□□□□■■□□□□■■□□□;Jb □□□■□■□□□■^■□□□■□■□□□■□B i/mmpfo.— Ascertain texture of warp required for a worsted suiting, to g|gSB§g§gS§ggBgg§gBgg^ be made with 2/40's worsted for face warp, and 2/28's cotton for back warp. gB§§Sg§§SB|S8§|^^^^ Arrangement of warp and filling to be 2 ends face to alternate with 1 end |i|§§§BSg§§g|§^^^ back. Weave to be used, Fig. 48. Next, ascertain the proper counts of filling ^ and the number of picks per inch, take-up of warp, width of cloth in reed, and ascertain total amount of each kind of material r equired per yard from loom (exclusive of selvage). 2/40's worsted=ll,200 yards per lb. l/ll,200, less 10 per cent.=95 threads will lie side by side in one inch. Face weave (in Fig. 48) is the ^ ^ twill=4 threads in one repeat, with 2 points of interlacings ; hence, ^^^^ ^380-f-6— 6-3£ warp texture to be used for the face cloth, the same being treated as if 6 single cloth. i - r, r i • ' In weave Fig. 48, the arrangement between face and back is 2 : 1 ; the weave used tor the back is the 8-leaf satin, and, as we mentioned when laying down rules and examples, for setting double cloth fabrics in the loom', that the ^ requires no deduction on account of the stitching of the back warp in the face cloth, texture to use in this example must be 64 face warp threads (2/40's worsted), and 4-32 back warp threads (2/28's cotton) ; hence, 96 warp threads per inch must be used. Take-up of warp during weaving 12 per cent, for face and 10 per cent for back. The width of cloth to use in reed will be 62 inches. For face filling use the same counts as for face warp, and for back filling use 3-run woolen yarn. Picks, 66 face. 4-33 back. 99, total picks to be used per inch. 64 X 62=3,968 threads in face warp— 12 per cent, take-up. Thus : 3,968X100=396,800^88=4,509 yards of face wlarp yarn are necessary for 1 yard cloth woven 2/40's worsted=.l 1,200 yards per lb.^l6=700 yards per oz. 4,509-7-700=6.44 oz., weight of face warp. 32X62=1,984 threads in back warp— 10 per cent, take-up. Thu^ : 198,400-^-90=2,204 yards of back warp yarn necessary for 1 yard cloth woven. 2/28's cotton=ll,760 yards per lb.^l6=735 yards per oz. 2^204^-735=3 oz., weight of back warp. 66X62=4,092 yards of face filling are wanted. 4,092^700=5.85 oz., weight of face filling. 33X62=2,046 yards of back filling are wanted. 3-run woolen yarn=300 yards per oz. 2,046^300=6.82 oz., weight of back filling. Hence : 6.44 oz., weight of face warp (2/40'8 worsted). 3.00 " " " back " (2/28's cotton). 6.85 " " " face filling (2/40's worsted). 6.82 " " " back " (3-run wool). 22.11 oz. -Answer.— Fabric given in example will weigh 22.11 oz. per yard from loom. ANALYSIS. How to Ascertain the Raw Materials Used in the Construction of Textile Fabrics. In many instances an examination of the threads (liberated during picking-out) with the naked eye, will be sufficient to distinguish the material used in the construction of the fabric, yet sometimes it is found necessary to use either the microscope, or a chemical test for their detection. As a means for merely distinguishing between the fibres the simplest and most generally applicable test is to make a microscopical examination of the fabric ; and for this reason it is necessary for the analyst to be acquainted with the appearance of the individual fibres. By means of the microscope the fibre used in the construction of a fabric is at once ascertained on account of the different surface structures of the various fibres used in the manufacture of textiles. This characteristic surface structure cannot be distinguished with the naked eye ; a common magnifying glass will not do either, but an enlargement of about 200 times will in most instances suffice. In order to prepare a fabric for examination with the microscope liberate (pick out), the threads forming the fabric ; next untwist a few threads so as to liberate the individual fibres composing the same. Place these fibres upon a slide of the microscope, carefully wet them with a drop of distilled or rain water, and cover them with a cover glass ; or smear the surface of a slide with glycerine or gum water, upon which the fibres, adhering slightly, may readily be arranged for examination. MICROSCOPICAL, APPEARANCE OF FIBRES. Cotton. Examining cotton fibres under the microscope shows them to be spirally twisted bands, containing thickened borders and irregular markings on the surface. The fibre is as a rule thicker at the edges than in the centre, and has, therefore, a grooved or channeled appearance. The spiral character is much more highly developed in some varieties than in others. Care must be taken not to mistake wild silk for cotton, since wild silk frequently has a similar spiral band like appearance. If any time in doubt remember that these two kinds of fibres can readily be distinguished by other tests. The accompanying illustration. Fig. 49, shows cotton fibres magni- fied. In fully ripe cotton the twisted form is regular and uniform, com- pared to unripe, half ripe or structureless cotton, which are now and then found amongst a lot of cotton, yarns or fabrics. For illustrating this subject the accompanying illustration. Fig. 50, is given. A represents an unripe cotton fibre ; a half ripe fibre, having a thin cell wall ; and C rep- resents the ripe fibre having a full A. B. C. Fig. 49. resents the ripe fibre having a full Fig. 50. twist and a properly defined cell-wall. Fig. 51 shows a structureless fibre as found occa- sionally. Half ripe, unripe, and structureless fibres, if found in a lot of cotton, yarn, or (85) 86 fabric, will greatly depreciate its value on account of their poor dyeing and spinning qualities, producing poor yarns and fabrics. Silk. In its natural state silk is a double fibre (see the accompanying illustration, Fig. 52) being two threads which are glued together. In the preparatory process of scouring or boiling off these two threads are separated and when examined by the microscope appear as structureless, transparent, cylindrical little glass rods, without whatever Fig. 51. Fig. 52. Fig. 54. illustration, Fig. a spiral character, some rather straight and of uniform thickness whereas others are slightly bent and irregular as to their diameter. Specimens of silk fibres as appearing under the microscope are given in the accompanying illustration. Fig. 53. Wild Silk. — The most important of these is Tussah. Its natural color is a silver drab, which requires bleaching of the fibres for bright colors. The accompanying illustration, Fig, 54, shows its microscopic appearance. Weighted Silk is readily distinguished by means of the microscope, the accompanying 55, representing weighted silk waste as appearing when viewed with the microscope. Wool is readily distinguished from other fibres by means of the micro- scope, being built up of an im- mense number of epithelial cells, scales or serrations as shown in the accompanying illustration Fig. 56, representing a typical wool fibre viewed under the mi- Fig. 56. croscope. The amount of scales found per square inch varies with reference to quality— the finer grades having more, and the coarser less. If these scales can not be readily seen treat the fibres in question with ammoniac copper^ and the scales will become distinctly visible to the eye during the swelling up of the fibres. Another prominent feature characteristic to wool is its Fig. 55. 87 wave of the crimp ' V-/ ^ ^ v-^ v which again varies with reference to the diflferent grades of wool found in the market. The more scales per inch, and the more wavy in construction the fibre, the more its felting capacity. ' Untrue Fibres (caused either by neglected or sick sheep,) now and then found in wool are readily ascertained by means of the microscope as seen by the accompanying illustration. Fig. 57, representing two such fibres as termed untrue, and which readily show that where these abnormal forms occur, there are changes in the form and size of the epithelial scales of the outer layer as well as in the diameter of the fibre, consequently the internal structure of the fibre must be equally aflfected, thus reducing the strength and elasticity of such fibres, and consequently decreasing the value and strength of such lots of wool, as well as fabrics, in which these fibres are more or less frequently found. Kemp or Kempy Wool Fibres are another kind of imperfect fibres found in wool. Kemp fibre is a hair of dead silvery white, thicker and shorter than the regular wool. They do not seem to differ in their chemical composition from the good or true wool fibres, but they present such different mechanical arrangement, and possess no absorbent power, thus resisting either entirely or partly, the entrance of dye-stuffs, and in the latter case even producing a different shade from the good fibres of the same lot, hence they will be readily detected in lots of wool, yarns, or fabrics. The accompanying Figs. 58 and 59, are given to illustrate the various degrees of these kempy fibres. Fig. 58, A, is a fibre where the kempy structure continues throughout the entire fibre which looks like a glass rod, yet has short and faint transverse lines Fig. which indicate the margins of the scales. When the change is a complete one, even the application of caustic alkali fails to bring out the lamination of the scales any degree of distinctness and they seem to be completely attached to the body of the fibre up J|? j, to the top of the scale. In some instances even the margins of the scales are quite obliterated, and the entire surface of the fibre has a silvery appearance resembling frosted silver. In Fig. /.^^ 58, B, a fibre is shown where the change from true wool to kemp is only partial. The lower part of the illustration shows wool structure (the scales being distinctly visible,) whereas the upper portion of the fibre shows the kemp struct- ure (having the scales closely attached to the surface, giving the fibre the usual ivory-like appearance). Both illustrations. Figs. 58, A, and B, are representations of fibres seen by reflected light. In Figs. 59, A, and B, illustrations are given of kemps seen by transmitted light. In Fig. 59, A, a kempy fibre is seen with transmitted light and where we see a gradual FiG. 59. passage of the kemp into wool. In this case 57- with rf 88 with transmitted light the kempy part retains almost the same transparency as the wool, but exhibits none of the interior arrangement of cells. Frequently fibres are noticed which have a tendency to kemp and which possess an unusual distinctness in medullary cells. Indeed, it frequently happens that the kempy structure tails oflf in the same fibre, not so much as we should have supposed so much on the outer surface, but down the interior of the fibre, as though the change commenced in the central cells and was gradually extended to the outer surface as the fibre grew. At the extremity, where the kempy structure first appears, the central cells are often not contiguous, as though the change commenced in a few cells first and then became more numerous both in the longitudinal as well as a diametrical direction. These kempy fibres often have a considerable degree of transparency when viewed with transmitted light, and in this respect they vary very much, but they are very seldom as transparent as the adjacent wool fibres. Sometimes, however, they are very opaque, as will be seen in the fibre shown in Fig. 59, B, where the light seems hardly to penetrate the centre of the fibre although it is refracted at the thinner edges, while the true wool, both above and below, is quite transparent to the same light. In this case, the same fibre, when viewed with reflected instead of transmitted light, exhibited no more signs of a dark color in the kempy than the true wool part, so that the want of transparency was not due to coloring matter. Kempy fibres are not always white, they are frequently found in coarse, dark colored, foreign wools, and even in colored fibres of more cultivated sheep. Shoddy are wool fibres re-manufactured out of soft woolen rags which have yet felting properties. Shoddy consists of long fibres of various diameter ; fibres are now and then found spoiled by scales being gone or the ends broken. If examining the shoddy- wool more closely its color will betray the inferior article compared to wool. The rags had previously to the redyeing. difierent colors and which will influence the second color accordingly. Of the Fig. 60. Fig. 61. Fig. 62. accompanying illustrations Fig. 60, shows Cheviot shoddy. Fig. 61, Thibet shoddy as visible under the microscope when magnified. Mungo is the name for wool fibres re-manufacture 01 t of hard woolen rags, i. e. a cheaper grade of shoddy, made out of rags from fulled cloth. During the process of re-manufacturing said rags into wool by means of picking, carding or garnetting a great many fibres get hurt, broken. Besides, on account of the rags coming from fulled cloth, this mungo wool has no more fulling properties left. The point regarding color previously mentioned at shoddy wool will also distinguish mungo wool from wool. Frequently cotton fibres will be found amongst 89 said Mungo, in some cases also silk fibres. Fig. 62, gives us a typical illustration of Mungo when seen under the microscope. Wool Extract also called Extract is such artificial wool produced from mixed rags from which the vegetable fibres were extracted by means of carbonizing. An examination of a sample of extract by means of the microscope will show traces of the process of carbonizing, by means of the carbonized vegetable refuse found. All three divisions of artificial wool are by some manufacturers simply collectively graded as shoddy, and in this manner will mostly be taken into consideration when dissecting woven or knitted fabrics with reference to materials used in their construction. Foreign Wools. Amongst these we find Mohair, Cashmere, Alpaca, Vicugna and Llama wool. Mohair is obtained from the Angora goat. The epidermal scales are extremely delicate and can only be noticed by giving the greatest of care to the experiment. The fibre gets smaller in diameter towards the top end, although not form- ing a point, and is of bright metallic lustre. Character- istic to it are the Fig. 63. Fig. 64. fine spots found all over the surface as shown in the accompanying specimen. Fig. 63. Cashmere is the product of the Cashmere goat. The fur of this animal is of two sorts, \)iz. , a soft wooley under coat of grayish hair, and a covering of long silken hair, that seems to defend the interior coat from the effects of winter. The under coat, i. ^ (grains in one oz.) = 22.21 Answer .—"t^^e fabric in question weighs 22.21 ounce or practically 225^ ounces per yard. Above rule given in the proportion might thus be expressed for a standing .—Multiply weight in grains of sample with number of square inches in one yard of the piece of cloth and divide the product by number of square inches in sample ; the quo- tient divide by 437 >^ thus obtaining the weight of the fabric for one yard expressed in ounces. The same result is obtained if proceeding after Another Rule .—Cut your sample to a known size and divide the number of square inches thus derived into the number of square inches one yard of the fabric contains, multiply the quotient of this division with the weights in grains of your sample and divide the product by 437 97 The previously given example will figure according to this calculation :— 54" fabric = 1944 1944 9 =zz 216 X 45 = 9720 437.5 = 22.21 oz. weight of fabric per yard, being the same answer as before obtained. HOW TO CALCULATE THE WEIGHT OF FINISHED CLOTH. Little if anything on this subject can be found in print, since the subject is one which must be mastered mostly by experience, again rules would be hard even to apply to every fabric of a certain grade of cloth ; however points thus given will assist the student in his calculations. After mastering the rudiments of the grading of yarns it is an easy matter to ascertain the weight of cloth from the loom, since this is nothing but common arithmetic, however, it is not so easy for the novice to calculate the weight per yard for finished cloth. In cloth made of wool the variation in weight are caused by the loss of oil, grease and dirt in scouring ; loss of fibres in fulling, gigging j increase in weight on account of take up warp-ways of the fabric at fulling, and which contraction again may be varied at will according to circum- stances. With reference to cotton and linen the influences above mentioned are of no account since these materials have little, if any, felting properties. The only modifying influence to be taken into account by these materials is, the bending of warp or filling, or of both systems during weaving, and the amount of sizing, starching, put into the cotton, etc., during the pro- cess of sizing. With reference to silks, variation will also occur, regulated by the condition of the yarn, if the same contains a great amount of saliva (gum) left on the fibres quite a loss in weight to the fabric may be expected, whereas properly boiled-oflf silk will lose little, if any, during the process of finishing (especially at scouring) of these fabrics. With reference to woolen and worsted yarn, as previously mentioned already, the loss of oil, etc., which all yarns of this class contain, must be carefully taken into account. The best plan will be to reel ofi" a small amount of yarn, weigh it, next scour the same with soap at about 96° F., dry and leave the yarn lay for a few days, in order to regain its natural moisture, then weigh again, and calculate shrinkage. If you want to be very accurate, test a second sample, and proceed as before, and if not obtaining the same result, strike an average between both losses for the loss to use in your calculation. The next process which will influence the weights of woolen cloths is that of finishing and which is a subject that only can be mastered by experience on account of the various finishes to which said fabrics are subjected. In fact the only way for a test of this subject is the finishing of a sample piece. As previously already alluded to the weight of woolen cloth can be varied during the process of fulling by means of shrinking the fabric lengthways, also by tentering, crabbing, etc. ; however there are limits to the modifying influences of these operations, and these limits must be understood if good results are to be obtained. This fact of shrinking (take-up) fabrics warp ways during the process of fulling is of the greatest influence to the finished weight. Since cloth is sold at a certain price for a certain weight, and width of the fabric, any shrinkage (take-up) filling ways, will not influence the weight of the cloth per yard. The previously referred to shrinkage of a fabric warp-ways will best be explained by an Example— K fabric from the loom 50 yards long weighs 14 ounces per yard. Less in oil, fibres, etc., during fulling and scouring 13 per cent. Fabric fulled up to 40 yards. Question.— WixiA. weight of cloth per yard after fulling. 50 yards length of cloth from loom. X 14 ounces weight of cloth per yard from loom. 98 700 ounces total weight of the piece from loom ; and loo : 88 : : 700 : x 88X700 ^ 616 and 616 40 (yards in finished fabric) = 15.4 ounces. Answer. — 15.4 ounces weight of cloth per yard after fulling. The average loss in weight for woolen cloth, which is generally taken into consideration at calculations is thus ; for ordinary goods allow about \ on the calculation weight which will bring a fabric of a total weight of 100 pounds from loom down to 80 pounds. For clear face finished cloth allow about ^ on the calculation weight, hence a piece of cloth weighing 100 pounds from the loom will weigh 75 pounds finished. However, these weights will vary. After picking out a sample of cloth, the student will find on pages 263-268 of " Tech- nology of Textile Design," all the information necessary on the subject of " How to ascertain from a finished sample its texture required in loom ; how to ascertain counts of yarn required, and the amount and direction of twist ; how to ascertain the weight of cloth per yard from loom, etc." j HOW TO TEST AND ANALYZE THE VARIOUS FINISHES OF COTTON GOODS. The first to be done when required to ascertain how a fabric has been finished, is to examine the external or physical properties, since a practical eye can detect at once if the fabric in question has been simply calendered or glazed, or if starched on the reverse side, etc. By examining the fabric against the light, it is easy to observe whether it has been filled or not, besides a heavily weighted cloth will lose much of its stiffness by rubbing it between the fingers. If, in tearing the sample, a lot of dust flies off, this indicates a weighted finish ; and by the aid of the microscope we can readily see whether the thickening is superficial or whether it has penetrated into the fabric, and if it contains mineral substances. Next we must ascertain the amount of moisture the fabric contains by carefully weighing a sample of a known size, drying it in a stove until there can be no further loss of weight, then re-weighing the dried piece. The difference of weight is the amount of moisture in the cloth. Although we cannot come to a conclusion as to the quality of the finish by this process, yet it is better to make it, since cellulose by itself is less hygrometric than wheat and other starches. If there be a great difference in the weight, this is a certain indication of the cloth being heavily starched. To know exactly how much foreign matter a cloth contains, treat a large sample of the fabric with distilled water containing malt, let it disaggregate, wash afterwards and weigh. In this first experiment the difference in weight will indicate the quantity of foreign substances deposited on the fabric ; but even after this treatment, certain insoluble soaps may still remain in the fabric and it is necessary to again boil in weak acid to remove all fatty matters. Weigh again to obtain the actual total loss, and, from the difference in weight, the percentage of dry finishing substances is determined. In testing printed or dyed goods, we must bear in mind that all colors are more or less attacked by acids. The next process is to examine the components, and for which two operations are necessary ; first treat with boiling water for a few hours, this removes the feculae, starches, thickenings, gums, soluble salts, alum, sulphates, chlorides, etc., and minerals or earthy matters ; secondly, by filtering, separate the soluble from the insoluble substances. Soluble substances are detected in the following manner -.—evaporate part of the liquid, treat a few drops with tincture of iodine, which will reveal starchy substances by turning blue ; if no 99 starch be found, again concentrate the whole and add two or three times its volume of alcohol, when glue, dextrine and gum are precipitated. Gelatine is detected by a tannin solution which precipitates it. To distinguish gum from dextrine, use the Polariscope, when dextrine is diverted to the right, gum to the left. The mixture of the two can be sufficiently indicated by basic acetate of lead, which, when cold, precipitates gum, but not dextrine; when warm, both are precipitated ; if no precipitation be obtained, but an organic substance be still shown by the incineration oa the platinum blade, this indicates the presence of mosses, lichens, etc. Sugar is found by Fehling's liquor, before and after interversion ; add to the tolerably concentrated aqueous liquor a few cubic centimetres of pure hydrochloric acid, ordinary concentration, warm in water bath, in an apparatus with reflux refrigerator and treat with copper solution. If it is desired to examine still more closely the soluble mineral substances, recourse must be had to the usual methods of analytical chemistry. In the residue insoluble in water, we again find the earthy matters, which it is unneces- sary to examine closer, as generally the most economical are employed and China clay is one of the only substances which fulfils almost all the conditions and therefore is also the most frequently used ; alabaster, gypsum and talc or French chalk, are also found in this residue. If it is desired to detect resin, take a sample of the cloth, boil it with carbonate of soda, which dissolves the resin the presence of which is shown by the precipitate of sylvic acid obtained from the liquor when treated by an acid. The other fatty matters do not give any precipitate, but an oily fluid which swims on the surface of the liquor. Glycerine is found in the watery solution and can be detected, after the damping of the drying process by the acroleine reaction, which takes place after treating with sulphate of potash. To ascertain the quantity of fatty matters contained in a certain finish, a second opera- tion is performed by ether, which dissolves all fatty matters. After evaporation the weight of the residue expresses the quantity of fatty matter. An exact analysis of this mixture is not possible practically ; we must be satisfied with treating with boiling water and thus ascertain that there are no soluble substances in the water. In analysing the quality of a certain finish it is almost impossible to obtain the quantita- tive proportions : the various qualities of cloth requiring such varied treatment. The prin- cipal point is to know what substances are incorporated and this determination once made, it is for the practitioner to discover by preliminary experiments, the proportion of the various ingredients. THE BEST SIZE FOR COTTON GOODS consists of : Farina or flour. Chloride of magnesium to give the necessary moisture and consequent suppleness and pliability to the warp. Chloride of Zinc (Antiseptic) to prevent mildew in damp weather, consequent upon the necessary use of magnesium. Neutralized Fat (in place of Tallow) to prevent the yarn from sticking to the cylinder and breaking in the opening rods. This neutralized fat mixes readily with the size and does not swim on top same as tallow or oil. Sizing Wax (specially made to melt and dissolve in the size at a low temperature) used to smooth the yarn and lubricate the heddles and reed. Gum (white) to give additional strength. China Clay (or French chalk) for extra heavy weight. lOO Size Glue (Gelatine) or bone size, used for the purpose of fixing the other ingredients. The amount of each ingredient required is regulated by the kind of yarn used and cloth to be woven. TO ASCERTAIN THE PERCENTAGE OF SIZE (or finish) in a piece of cotton cloth, weigh sample, then wash and dry it and weigh it again, and the difierence represents the amount of size or finish in the sample. Example .—S^mii^ for testing 6" X 6" = 360'' weighs 7.46 grains. After scouring and drying this sample weighs only 5.32 grains. Question : — Ascertain percentage of size employed 5.32 : 7.46 : : 100 : x == 140.22 2. e, according to sample 100 pounds yarn have been sized to 140.22 pounds giving us Answer -.—"^^i^ fabric requires 40 per cent, (actually 40.22 per cent.) sizing. SUBSTANCES USED IN FINISHING COTTON CLOTH. For Stiffening. — Corn, wheat, rice, acorn, maize, barley, chestnut, potato or farina starches and diverse flours— Arrow-root, salep, sago, tapioca, linseed— Gums, dextrine, leiogomme, gelatine, isinglass, lichens, Iceland moss, algae, apparatim, dulcine, albumen, casein. For Softening . — Glycerine, glucose, fatty matters, tallow, paraffin, stearine, spermaceti, cocoa-nut oil, soluble oil, olive oil, bees or Japan wax, soda ash, ammonia, chloride of calcium or zinc. For Weighting .'—Oy-^sum, plaster of Paris, chalk, Spanish clay, the sulphates of lime, baryta, magnesia, soda, zinc or lead, talc, china-clay, chloride of magnesia or barium, car- bonate of barium, cellulose. For Coloring Size .—Ultramarine, blues, pinks, violets, greens, Prussian blues, indigo blues, Paris blue, soluble indigo blue, aniline blues of all kinds, cobalt blues, indigo carmine, ammoniacal cochineal, black, grey and dark mineral matters, etc. Ochres of all colors. Antiseptics :—Cd.iho\ic, salicylic, tannic, oxalic, boracic, formic, arsenic and arsenious acids, reosote, camphor, sulphate of zinc, chloride of zinc, borate of soda, alum, sulphate of alumina, chloride of sodium. To make Fabrics lVater-proof:—Or&3iSy matters of all natures, resin, paraffin, tannic acid, drying oils, salts of alumina, alums, carbonate of magnesia. To render Fabrics Incombustible .—Boracic acid, borax, phosphate of soda, lime or ammonia, carbonate of magnesia, alum, sulphate of soda or zinc, silicates in general, gypsum, salts of magnesia. To give Metalic Lustre .—Sulphides of lead, silver, tin, antimony, etc. Bronze, silver, copper and gold powders, argentine, etc. lOI COTTON SPINNING. Power Required to Drive the Various Machines in a Cotton Mill. Pickers 6 to 8 horse power Cards 3 to 5 cards per horse power Railway Head '% to 1% horse power Drawing Frame 4 to 6 deliveries per horse power Coarse Speeder 27 to 33 spindles per horse power Intermediate Speeder 37 to 50 spindles per horse power Fine Speeder 42 to 51 spindles per horse power Slubber Fly Frame . 40 to 50 spindles per horse power Intermediate Fly Frame 70 to 80 spindles per horse power Fine Fly Frame ... » 100 to 120 spindles per horse power Ring Spindles, Common 70 to 120 spindles per horse power Ring Spindles, Sawyer 90 to 130 spindles per horse power Ring Spindles, Rabbeth 70 to 90 spindles per horse power Spooler 250 to 400 spindles per horse power Warper 4 to 6 per horse power Slasher i >^ to i ^ horse power I^oom 4 to 6 looms per horse power Speed of the Various Machines in a Cotton Mill. Revs, per Min. Picker, Beater 1,300 to 1,600 Picker, Fan 1,400 to 1,700 Card, Cylinder 120 to 150 Railway Head, Front Roll . . 400 to 500 Drawing Frame, Front Roll . 300 to 400 Coarse Speeder, Flyer 720 Intermediate Speeder, Flyer .... 900 Fine Speeder, Flyer i)25o Slubber Fly Frame, Flyers 600 Intermediate Fly Frames, Flyers . . . 900 Revs, per min. Fine Fly Frames, Flyers 1,100 Ring Spindle, Common . . 6,000 to 7,000 Ring Spindle, Sawyer . . . 7,000 to 7,800 Ring Spindle, New Rabbeth, 7,000 to 10,000 Mule Spindles ..... 5,000 to 10,000 Spooler Spindles 700 to 900 Warper, Drum 30 to 40 Slasher, Pulley 350 to 400 Looms on Prints 170 to 190 Ivooms on Sheetings 150 to 170 Heat and Moisture Required for Good Cotton Spinning and Weaving. In Spinning use 68° F with 65 per cent, moisture ; In Weaving use 68° F with 80 per cent, moisture. SLIVER TABLE. Grains Per Yard. Number. Grains Per Yard, Number. Grains Per Yard. Number. Grains Per Yard. Number. 120 0069 86 0 097 66 0.126 52 0 160 no 0.076 83-3 0 100 62 0.134 50 0.167 102 0 082 82 0.103 60 0.139 45 0.185 98 0.085 78 0.107 58 0.144 40 0.208 94 0.089 74 0.113 56 0.148 35 0.238 90 0.093 70 0.1 19 54 0.154 30 0.278 102 ROVING TABLE. (This can be used with one or ten yards readily.) Grains No. of Grains No. 01 Grains "VTA NO. 01 ijrains INO. 01 Per Yard. Roving. Per Yard. Roving. Per Yard. Roving. Per Yard. Roving. 83-33 O.IO 6 41 1-3 2.38 3K I 234 6X 55-56 0 15 5-95 1.4 2.22 3X 1. 190 41.66 0 20 5 55 1-5 2.08 4 I 149 27.77 0 30 5.20 1.6 1.96 A'A I. Ill 20.83 0.40 4 90 1-7 185 A% I -075 PA 16.66 0.50 4 62 I 8 I 75 1.04 1 8 8^ 13-88 0.60 438 1-9 1.66 5 I.OIO 11.90 0.70 4. 16 2 1-58 5X 0 980 8^ 10.41 0.80 3 70 2X I-5I 5'A 0.952 8|^ 9 25 090 3 33 1.44 5H 0925 9 8.33 1. 00 3-03 2^ 1.38 6 7 57 1. 10 2.77 3 1-33 6% 6.94 I 20 2.56 3X I 28 Calculation for Yarns 20's to 26's from the Lap to the Yarn. Lap II ounces per yard, sliver 54 grains per yard, will give draft on card about 89, including loss by waste. In this example we will take three processes of drawing, leaving it optional whether we use two processes or three ; some spinners only using two, especially when there are three frames following. Doubling 6 and drawing 6 will produce the sliver at all the heads about the same weight, 54 grains or o. 154 hank. Product, 1000 pounds per delivery per week of 60 hours. Draft in slubbing 4.0 and 54 grains drawing, will give 0.62 banks slubbing. Product, 87 pounds per spindle per week. Draft on intermediate 4.5 and 0.62 double slubbing will give 1.4 hank intermediate. Product 40 pounds per spindle per week. Draft in roving 5.3 and 1.4 double intermediate will give 3.7 roving. Product, 12 pounds per week. Draft in spinning 7, from this roving will give 26's yarn. Production of Ring Throstles ly^io 1% pounds per spindle per week. Production of Self-acting Mule i pound to i^ pounds per spindle per week. How to Ascertain the Capacity of a Carding Engine. Rule. — Multiply the speed of the delivery roller by its circumference, which will give the inches turned off per minute ; multiply this result by 60 (minutes per hour), then by 60 (hours worked per week), this result by 36 (inches in a yard), multiply this again by the weight of i yard of sliver, and the result equals the card's capacity. How to Find the Number of Carding Engines Required to Give Regular Supply of Cotton to Each Drawing Frame. Multiply the inches taken in by the back roller per minute by the number of ends put up ; and divide the product by the inches delivered by each carding engine per minute. How to Find the Quantity of Filleting Required to Cover a Card Cylinder or Doffer. Rule. — Add the thickness of the filleting to the diameter of the cylinder or doffer, which total take for the diameter ; then the circumference of the cylinder or doffer, multiplied by its length, and divided by the breadth of the filleting, will give the length required. I03 Traveller Table for Spinning at Medium Speeds. Such as 4,000 per minute for lo's counts of yarn ; 5,000 for 12's; 5,500 for 14's ; 6,000 for i6's ; 6,500 for 20's ; 7,000 24's ; 7,500 for 30's ; 8,500 for 40's ; 9,000 for 50' s. Diam. of Diam of Rings I in. Rings iK in. Counts Counts Number Number of Yarn of Traveler of Traveler of Yarn 10 's require 0 s or 7 s 30 's require ii's " 0 s or 7 0 3 ' * 12's " 7's or 6's 6's or 5's 13's 7's or 6's 6's or 5's 33 's " 14's " 6's or 5's 5's or 4's 34's " 15's 6's or 5's 5's or 4's 35's " i6's " 5's or 4's 4's or 3's 36's " 1 7 's " 5's or 4's 4's or 3's 37's " i8's 4's or 3's 3's or 2's 38's " 19's " 4's or 3's 3 's or 2 's 39's " 20'S " 3's or 2's 2 's or I 's 40's " 2 1 'S " 3's or 2's 2 's or I 's 41's " 22 'S " 2 's or I 's I 's or 1 /o 42 's " 23'S 2 's or I 's I 's or i/o 43's 24 'S " I 's or i/o i/o or 2/0 44's 25'S I 's or I /o i/o or 2/0 45's 26 's " i/o or 2/0 2/0 or 3/0 46 's " 27's " i/o or 2/0 2/0 or 3/0 47's " 28's 2/0 or 3/0 3/0 or 4/0 48's 29 's " 2/0 or 3/0 3/0 or 4/0 50's Diam. of Rings 1% in. Number of Traveler 3/0 or 4/0 3/0 or 4/0 4/0 or 5/0 4/0 or 5/0 5/0 or 6/0 5/0 or 6/0 6/0 or 7/0 6/0 or 7/0 7/0 or 8/0 7/0 or 8/0 8/0 or 9/0 8/0 or 9'o 9/0 or 1 0/0 9/0 or 1 0/0 lo/o or ii/o lo/o or ii/o ii/o or 12/0 ii/o or 12/0 12/0 or 13/0 13/0 or 14/0 Diam. of Rings 1% in. Number of Traveler 4/0 or 5/0 4/0 or 5/0 5/0 or 6/0 5/0 or 6/0 6/0 or 7/0 6/0 or 7/0 7/0 or 8/0 7/0 or 8/0 8/0 or 9/0 8/0 or 9/0 9/0 or 1 0/0 9/0 or 1 0/0 lo/o or ii/o lo/o or ii/o ii/o or 12/0 ii/o or 12/0 12/0 or 13/0 12/0 or 13/0 13/0 or 14/0 14/0 or 15/0 Note.— When spinning long stapled cotton, such as Sea Island or Egyptian, a Traveler from four to six grades or numbers heavier than is shown in the above table may be used. To Calculate Loss of Twist in Ring Spinning. The usual way of calculating loss of twist through the various dias. of the bobbin as it fills is as follows : Each coil of yarn deposited on the bobbins is equal to a loss of i turn in twist in that length of yarn constituting the coil. Let it be assumed that the yarn (20's) has 16.75 turns per inch according to roller and spindle speed. Smallest circum. of bobbin 2>^ inches X 16.75 turns = i turn lost in 41.87 turns. Largest " 4-75 inches X 16.75 " =t " " 79 5^ || Average mean loss . . . . =1 " " 60. 7 " This calculation, however, is not correct, as the actual loss is more, and in order to get at the truth the layers of yarn deposited in one up and down motion of the ring rail must be measured and multiplied by the number of turns per inch, and the number of coils in the 2 layers of yarn must be counted, and divided into total number of turns. Thus, if the up motion of the ring rail deposits 72 inches of 20's yarn with 16.75 calculated turns per inch, then 72 X 16.75 = 1,206 ^ 20 coils = 1.8 per cent, of loss, and if the down motion deposits 178 inches of yarn with 16.75 calculated turns, then 178 X 16.75 = 2,981.5 — 46 coils = 1.6 per cent, or an average for one up and down motion of the ring rail of 1.7 per cent. Of course, the finer the yarn spun the less the percentage of loss in twist, as the rings are smaller and the difference between the diameter of empty and full bobbin is less, and the number of turns per inch is more. 104 To Find the Percentage Cotton Yarn Contracts in Twisting. ^«/(?.— Divide the number of the yarn by the product of the draught and hank roving, and subtract the quotient from i. Example. — 28's yarn spun from 4 hank rove, draught 7.25. 7.25 X 4= 29 28 H- 29 = 0.965 I. 000 — 0.965 0-035 Answer, — The contraction in length amounts to 3)^ per cent. How to Ascertain the Number of Yards of Cotton Yarn on a Bobbin. Multiply circumference of front roll (inches) with the number of revolutions per minute, and the product by time (minutes) required to fill the bobbin ; divide by 36 and deduct the contraction in twisting, the result being the amount (number of yards) of yarn on the bobbin. TWIST TABLE. Counts. Extra Warp Twist. Warp Twist. Extra Mule Twist. I 4.75 4.50 4.00 2 6 72 636 5.66 3 8.23 7 79 6-93 4 9 50 9.00 8 00 5 10.62 io.c6 8.94 6 II 64 11.02 9.80 7 12.57 II. 91 10.58 8 13 44 12.73 II. 31 9 14-25 13 50 12.00 10 15 02 14 23 12.65 II 15-75 14.92 13.27 12 1645 15 59 13 86 13 17 13 16.22 14.42 14 17.77 16 84 14.97 15 18.40 17-43 15 49 16 19 00 18.00 16.00 17 1958 18.55 16.49 18 20.15 1909 16.97 19 20 70 19.62 17.44 20 21.24 20.12 17.89 22 22.28 21. II 18 76 24 23 27 22.05 19 60 26 24.22 22 95 20.40 28 25 13 2381 21.17 30 26.02 24.65 21 91 32 26 87 25-46 22.63 34 27.70 26. 24 23-32 36 28.50 27.00 24 00 38 29.28 27.74 24.66 40 30 04 28.46 25 30 45 31-86 30.19 26,83 50 33-59 31 82 28.28 60 36.79 34.86 30.98 70 39-74 37-65 33-47 80 42 49 40.25 35 78 90 45 06 42 69 37 95 100 47-50 45.00 40.00 120 52 03 49-30 43.82 130 54.16 51.31 45 61 140 56.20 53 24 47-33 160 6o.c8 56.91 50.59 180 63.72 60.37 53-66 200 67 17 63 63 56 56 Mule Twist. Filling Twist 3.75 5-30 6.50 750 839 9 19 9-92 10.61 11.25 11.86 12.44 12.99 13- 52 14.03 14- 52 15.00 15.46 15 91 16.35 16 77 17 59 1837 19 12 19 84 20.54 21 21 21 87 22 50 23 12 23 72 25.16 26.52 29.05 31 37 33 54 35 58 37-50 41 08 42.76 44-37 47-43 50.31 53-03 3.25 4.60 563 6.50 7-27 7 96 8.60 9 19 9-75 10 28 10.78 11 26 11.72 12.16 12 59 13 00 13.40 13-79 14 17 14 53 15-24 15-92 16.57 17.20 17 80 1838 18.95 19-50 20.03 20 55 21.80 22.98 25-17 27 19 29 07 30 83 32.50 35.60 37.06 38.45 41 10 43.60 45-96 Twist for Doubling. 2.75 3.88 4.76 5-50 6.14 6 73 7-27 7-77 8.25 8.79 9.12 952 9.91 10.28 10.65 11.00 II 33 If. 66 11.98 12.29 12.89 13- 47 14.02 14- 55 15 06 15- 56 16.03 16 50 16.95 17-39 18 44 19 44 21.30 23 00 24 59 26 08 27 50 30.12 31 35 32 54 34 78 36 89 38.89 Twist for Hosiery Yarn. 2.50 3 53 4-33 5.00 5 59 6.12 661 7.07 7 50 790 8 29 866 901 9 35 968 10.00 1030 1060 10 89 11 18 11 72 12. 24 12 74 13 22 1369 I05 DRAPER'S TABLE OF THE BREAKING WEIGHT OF AMERICAN COTTON WARP YARNS PER SKEIN. (Weight given in pounds and tenths.) No. Breaking- Weight. NO. Breaking Weight. • Breaking Weight. No Breaking Weight. No. Breaking Weight. I 21 838 41 43.8 61 31-3 81 82 24.3 2 22 79-7 42 43.0 62 30.8 24.0 3 530.0 23 75-9 43 42.2 63 30 4 83 23-7 4 410 0 24 72.4 44 41.4 64 30.0 84 85 23 4 5 330.0 25 69 2 45 40.7 65 29.6 23 2 6 275.0 26 66.3 46 40.0 66 29.2 86 87 22.8 7 237.6 27 63.6 47 39 3 67 28 8 22 6 8 209.0 28 61.3 48 386 68 285 88 22.4 9 186.5 29 59-2 49 37-9 69 28.2 89 22.2 lo 168.7 30 57-3 50 37-3 70 27.8 90 22.0 II 154 I 31 55-6 51 36.6 71 27.4 91 21.7 12 142.0 32 54-0 52 36.1 72 27.1 92 21.5 13 131. .s 33 52.6 53 35 5 73 26.8 93 21.3 H 122.8 34 51-2 54 34-9 74 26.5 94 21.2 15 115-1 35 50.0 55 34.4 75 26.2 95 21.0 i6 108 4 36 48.7 56 33-8 76 25.8 96 20 7 17 102.5 37 47.6 57 33-4 77 255 97 20 5 i8 97.3 38 46.5 58 32.8 78 253 98 20.4 19 92.6 39 45-5 59 32.3 79 24 9 99 20.2 20 88.3 40 44.6 60 31-7 80 24 6 100 20.0 Table Giving the Amount of Twist for the Various Kinds of Twisted Yarn. Number of Yarn to be Twisied 2 Ply 3 Ply 4 Ply 5 Ply 6 Ply Number of Yarn to be Twisted 2 Ply 3 Ply 4 Ply 5 Ply 6 Ply Number of Yarn to be Twisted 2 Ply 3 Ply 4 Ply 5 Ply 6 Ply 1 2.83 2 3'^ 2.00 I 79 1.65 25 14.14 11-54 10.00 894 8.17 49 19 So 16.16 14.00 12 52 11-43 2 4.00 3.28 2.83 2 53 2 30 26 1442 H.78 10 20 9 12 832 50 20.00 16 33 14 14 12 65 II 54 3 490 4.00 346 3.10 2.83 27 14.70 12.00 1039 9 30 8.48 51 20 20 16.49 14 28 12.78 11.66 4 566 4.61 4 00 358 3 28 28 14.96 12.22 1058 9.46 8 64 52 20.40 1665 14.42 12 90 II 78 5 6 32 5-17 4-47 4 00 3 64 29 15-23 12.44 10.77 9 63 8.79 53 20 59 16.82 14.56 13 02 II 89 6 6 93 566 4 90 438 4.00 30 15-49 12.6'i 10.96 9.80 8 94 54 20.78 16.97 14 70 13 14 1 2.00 7 748 6.10 5-29 4-73 4-33 31 15-75 12.86 II. 14 996 9. TO 55 20. 98 17.12 14 83 13 26 T2 I I 8 8.00 6.54 5 66 5 06 4.61 32 16 00 13.06 II. 31 10. 12 9.24 56 21.16 17.28 14 96 13 39 12 22 9 848 6.93 6.00 5 37 4 90 33 16.25 13.26 11.49 10 28 938 57 21.36 17-43 15 10 13 50 12 33 10 8.94 7-30 6.32 5.66 5 17 34 16 49 13.46 11.66 10 43 9 52 58 21.54 17-59 15-23 13.62 12 44 11 938 7 66 663 5 93 5-41 35 16.73 13.66 1183 10.58 9.66 59 21.72 17.74 15-36 13 74 12 54 12 9 80 8 00 6.93 6.20 5-66 36 16 97 13.86 12 00 10.73 9.80 60 21.91 17.89 15 49 13 86 12 65 13 ro 20 832 7 21 645 589 37 17 20 14.04 12.16 10.88 9 94 61 22 c 9 18.04 15 62 13 97 12.76 14 10.58 8 64 7.48 6.69 6 10 38 '7 43 14.24 12 33 11.03 lo.o6 62 22.27 18 18 15-75 14.08 12.86 15 10 96 8.94 7-75 6. 93 6.32 39 17 66 14,42 12 49 IT. 17 10.20 63 22 45 1833 15 88 14 20 12.96 16 11.31 9 24 8 00 7 16 654 40 17.89 14 60 12.65 TI 31 10 33 64 22.62 1847 16. CO 14 3r 13 06 17 II 66 9 52 8.2;; 738 6-73 41 18 ir 14 79 12 81 11.46 10 45 65 22.80 1862 16 12 14.42 13 16 18 12 00 9 80 8 48 7-59 6.93 42 '833 r4.96 12 96 11-59 10.58 66 22 98 18 76 16.25 14 53 13.26 19 12 33 10 06 8 72 78) 7.12 43 18.55 15-14 13.12 73 1071 67 23-15 18 90 6.37 14.64 13 37 20 12.65 TO.33 894 8 00 7 30 44 18.76 15-32 13 26 ir.87 10 83 68 2332 1904 16 49 4 75 13-46 21 12 96 10.58 9. 16 8.20 748 45 18.97 15-49 13.42 12.00 TO 96 69 23 50 19 j8 16 61 1486 13 .s6 22 13 26 10 83 938 839 7 66 46 19 18 1566 13-56 12.13 11.08 70 23.66 1932 16 73 14.96 13-66 23 1356 IT. 08 959 858 7-83 47 1939 15.84 13-71 12. 26 II 19 71 23- 83 19.46 16.85 15-07 13.76 24 1386 II. 31 9.80 8 76 8 00 48 19 59 16 00 13 86 12.39 II 31 1 72 24 00 '9 59 16.97 15.18 13 86 Production of Drawing Frames. The front rollers of these frames vary from i}( to i}i inches ; i }i inches diameter is taken ; this with 60 grains sliver will produce in 60 hours as follows : Front Roller, i}i inches. Front Roller , inches. Revolutions per minute. Production, 60 hours. Revolutions per minute. Production, 60 hours. 300 320 340 1 ,000 lbs. 1,065 lbs. 1,135 lbs. 360 380 400 1,200 lbs. 1,265 lbs. 1,335 lbs. IvigHter or heavier slivers in proportion. io6 Table Giving Production per Spindle for Warp and Filling Yarn from 4's to 6o's. Warp Yarn Ring Frame. * Filling Yarn Ring Frame. Filling Yarn Mule. )f Yarn. ns per of oils. ns per of ns per of oil. u i) a J. ^ a O.P- rt ■ "^^ a •• 4) 4> a p-P- >f Yarn. umber c evolutio minute Front R evolutio minute > Spindle roductio Pounds day. evolutio minute Front R evolutio minute i Spindle, roductio Pounds day. iratches minute inches e v. a p.a 0) -J} M u a n a P< roductio Pounds Spindle day. umber c Pi W 4: 1550 4600 2.160 169 I 3400 2.305 4.610 5,322 1-330 4 153-5 5100 1. 716 168.0 3775 1-835 4 575 5,291 1.058 5 152.0 5600 1. 418 166.6 4100 1.520 4 540 5.260 .866 6 ? 150.4 5900 1.205 165.5 4400 1 297 4.505 5 229 .747 7 Q 148.9 6300 2.043 163 6 4650 1. 124 4 470 5.198 -650 8 f\ 9 1474 6600 .921 162.5 4900 .994 4-435 5.166 •574 9 lU 1459 6990 .822 160.5 5100 .885 4 400 5.134 •513 10 11 1443 7100 .741 159-0 5300 •799 4 365 5 102 .464 11 la 142.8 7400 .673 158 0 5500 -729 4 330 5.071 •423 12 Id 141 3 7600 .616 157-3 5700 .671 4 295 5.038 .388 13 14 139 7 7800 .566 155-6 5850 .618 4 260 5.C06 •358 14 15 138.2 8000 •524 154 2 6000 •573 4.225 4 974 -332 15 Id 136 7 8200 .486 151-7 6100 •529 4.190 4 941 -309 16 17 135. 1 8300 .453 149.6 6200 •492 4-155 4.908 .289 17 lo 133-6 8500 .424 147.8 6300 .460 4.120 4.876 .271 18 19 132-1 8600 •398 146 I 6400 •432 4085 4.843 -255 19 aO 130 6 8700 .374 144 6 6500 • 407 4 050 4.810 .241 20 al 129.0 8800 .353 143-3 6600 •385 4.015 4.776 .227 21 22 127.5 8900 .333 142. 1 6700 .365 3.980 4 743 .216 22 23 126.0 9000 •315 139.0 6700 •342 3 945 4.709 .205 23 24 124.4 9100 •299 136.1 6700 .321 3.910 4.676 •195 24 25 122,9 9200 .284 135-3 6800 .307 3875 4.642 .186 25 26 121. 4 9200 .270 134.6 6900 •295 3 840 4 608 .178 26 27 119.8 9300 .257 132-1 6900 •279 3 805 4.574 .169 27 28 1183 9300 .245 130.7 6950 .266 3 770 .I62 28 29 116.8 9400 •234 128.4 6950 .253 3 735 4.505 .155 29 SA Ov 115-3 9400 • 224 126. 2 6950 . 24 1 3 700 4.470 .149 ou 31 113-7 9400 .214 125. 1 7000 -232 3665 4.435 • 143 31 82 112. 2 9500 .205 123 I 7000 .221 3 630 4 401 .138 32 33 110.7 9500 .196 121. 2 7000 .212 3 595 4.366 .132 33 34 109. 1 9500 .188 119.4 7000 •203 3 560 4 331 .127 34 35 107.6 9500 .181 117.7 7000 •195 3525 4-295 .123 35 36 106. 1 9500 .173 116.1 7000 .187 3 490 4.260 .118 36 87 1045 9500 ,166 II5-3 7050 .181 3-455 4.224 .114 37 38 103 0 9500 .160 114.6 7100 .175 3 420 4.188 .110 38 89 101.5 9500 .154 1 13- 1 7100 .169 3385 4-152 .107 39 40 100 0 9500 .148 112.5 7150 .164 3 350 4 116 .103 40 42 98.0 9500 .138 1 10.5 7200 •154 3,280 4.044 ,096 42 44 96.0 9500 .130 108 0 7200 .144 3.210 3-971 .090 44 46 94.0 9500 .122 105.6 7200 •135 3.140 3 897 .085 46 48 82.0 9500 .115 103.4 7200 .128 3 070 3-823 .080 48 50 90.0 9600 .ic8 101.3 7200 .120 3.000 3748 •075 50 52 89.0 9600 .103 100.7 7300 •115 2.930 3.672 .070 52 54 88.0 9600 .099 98 8 7300 .110 2 860 3-597 .066 54 66 87.0 9600 .094 970 7300 .104 2 790 3 520 ,062 56 58 86.0 9800 .090 95-4 7300 .099 2 720 3421 -059 58 60 85.0 9800 .086 938 7300 .094 2.650 3-364 .056 60 Production of Cards at Various Speeds with Various Weights of Slivers. Speed of DofFer. 10 revolutions II 12 " 13 14 15 16 " 17 " 18 " Production in lbs. in 60 hours. 60 grs. Sliver. 55 grs. Sliver. 50 grs. Sliver. 665 610 555 730 670 610 800 730 665 865 790 720 930 850 775 1,000 915 835 1,065 975 890 1,130 1.035 940 1,200 1,100 1,000 With slivers of other weights the production will be relative. I07 SPEED, BELTING, POWER, ETC. SPEED. How to Find the Circumference of a Circle, or of a Pulley. Rule. — Multiply the diameter by 3. 1416 ; or as 7 is to 22 so is the diameter to the circum- ference. How to Compute the Diameter of a Circle, or of a Pulley. Rule. — Divide the circumference by 3.1416 ; or multiply the circumference by .3183 ; or as 22 is to 7 so is the circumference to the diameter. How to Compute the Area of a Circle. Rule. — Multiply the circumference by one-quarter of the diameter ; or multiply the square of the diameter by .7854 ; or multiply the square of the circumference by .07958 ; or multiply half the circumference by half the diameter ; or multiply tlie square of half the dia- meter by 3. 1416. How to Determine the Speed of a Driven Shaft when the speed of a driving shaft or wheel and the size of the gearing transmitting the power is given. Rule. — Multiply the speed of the first driving shaft by the size of the driving wheel or wheels, and divide by the size of the driven wheel or wheels. Example. — A line shaft in a weave room revolves 120 times per minute, and carries pulley 13 inches in diameter. The looms driven by them carry pulleys 10 inches in diameter. Question. — Find the speed of the looms ? Ansiver. — The speed of the looms is = 144 revolutions. 10 The term size of the wheel in before given rule includes either the number of teeth, dia- meter, radius, or pitch circle, and refers equally to bevel and other cog-wheels or rope or strap driving. A Pair of Mitre Wheels are bevels which have the same number of teeth, and which reverse the direction of the motion, consequently make no change in the speed. How to Compute the Velocities, etc., of toothed gears. The relative velocities of geats IS as the number of their teeth. Where idle or intermediate gears intervene they are not reckoned. The Pitch of a Gear is the distance apart of the teeth from each other, and gears of un- equal pitch cannot run together. Bevel Gears are employed for shafts fixed at various angles, and running at dijfferent velocities, governed by the respective bevels, which may vary in size, as with spur gearing. N. B. — These rules are practically correct. Though, owing to the slip, elasticity, and thickness of the belt, the circumference of the driven seldom runs as fast as the driver. Belts, like gears, have a pitch-line, or a circumference of uniform motion. This circumference is w^ithin the thickness of the belt, and must be considered if pulleys differ greatly in diameter, and a required speed is absolutely necessary. io8 In computing the velocities of gear-wheels their diameters on the pitch line may be taken instead of the number of their teeth. The Pitch Line of a gear is a circle struck from the centre, and passing through the middle of the teeth. It defines the diameter of a gear, which is not, as many suppose, the whole distance across from point to point of teeth, but half way from bottom to top of teeth. To Measure the Diameter of a Gear it is only necessary to take the distance from the bottom of the teeth on one side to the top of the teeth on the opposite side of the gear. To Ascertain the Pitch of a Gear.— Find the diameter as above, then count the teeth, and divide their number by the diameter. Example.— li a gear of 21 teeth measures 3 inches diameter on the pitch line, then the gear is 7 pitch. Driving-Driven.— The manner of describing the driving wheel must also be applied to the driven. If the diameter of the driving wheel be taken, we must also use the diameter for the driven wheel, and neither the radius or circumference. Example i. — An engine has a driving wheel 20 feet in diameter, revolving 40 times per minute, which drives, by means of ropes, a pulley on the second motion shaft 3 feet in radius. Question. — Ascertain the speed of the second motion shaft ? Two feet radius = 4 feet diameter, thus : 40 X 20 feet -r- 4 = 200. Answer. — 200 revolutions speed of the second motion shaft per minute. Example 2. — Speed of under shaft of a loom 80, the same carries a lo-teeth bevel, which gears with a 10 on an upright shaft at the top of which a 32-teeth wheel on a block of tappet wheels, is driven by an 8. Question. — Find the speed at which they revolve ? 80 X first driver, 10 X second driver, 8 -r- first driven 10 and second driven 33. 80 X 10 = 800 X 8 = 6400 10 = 640 -f- 32 = 20. Answer. — 20 revolutions per minute. How to Distinguish the Driver from the Driven Wheel.— If the gearing is in motion a glance will usually suffice to show this, since if a wheel is bright or worn on the front of the tooth, i. e., on the side in the direction of which the wheel is moving, it is the driver ; whereas the driven wheel is worn on the side of the tooth further from the direction of motion. With reference to bands or straps, one side of the band or strap is always tighter than the other since the driver is doing the pulling. How to Find the Speed of the Driving Wheel, when the speed of the last driven wheel and the size of the gearing are known. Multiply the speed of the last driven wheel by the size of the driven wheels and divide by the size of the drivers. Example. — A spindle revolving 1,500 times per minute, is driven from a line shaft by a 30 inch drum to a 10 inch pulley, which is fixed to a 10 inch tin roller driving the \}i inch wharve of the spindle. Question.— h.%Q.ti\.dxn speed at which the line shaft will revolve ? The drivers being 30 and 10, and the driven 10 and i^. 1500 X 10 X 13^ = 18750. 18750 30 = 625 10 = 62.5. Answer. — 62 revolutions per minute speed of line shaft. I09 How to Obtain the Size of the Driving Wheel the speed of the driven and driving shaft and the size of the driven pulleys being given. Rule. — Multiply the speed of the driven by the size of the driven pulleys, and divide by the speed of the driver. Example. — A shaft having a speed of 125 per minute, drives another at 100 per minute, on which is a 40-tooth bevel wheel. Question. — Ascertain the size of a bevel wheel on the driving shaft ? 100 X 40 -i- 125 = 32, Answer. — The bevel wheel on driving shaft has 32 teeth. How to Obtain the Size of the Driven Wheel if the speed of the driver and driven wheel or wheels are given and also the size of the driver. Rule. — Multiply the size of the drivers by the speed of the first driver, and divide by the speed of the driven, and by the driven pulleys given, if any. Example. — A shaft making 17 revolutions per minute carries a 15-tooth wheel, which drives a second shaft by means of a wheel the number of teeth in which it is desired to find. On this shaft is a 120-tooth wheel driving one of 64 teeth, which latter revolves at 16 revolu- tions per minute. Question. — Required the size of the first driven wheel? Drivers 15 and 120. Driven 64. 120 X 15 X 17 15 64 = 30. Answer. — 30 teeth required in wheel. Worm Wheels. — As drivers only are usually single threaded and are equal to one tooth as a multiplier of speed, worm wheels are used to rapidly diminish speed. Example. — A worm wheel revolving 750 times per minute, drives a 150-tooth wheel. Question. — What is the speed of the latter ? Answer. — 750 X i 150 = 5 revolutions per minute. If the worm wheel had been double-threaded it would have taken two teeth at one revo- lution, and the result would have been 10, obtained thus : 750 X 2 150 = 10. . A Mangle Wheel is a driven wheel only, and is used to reverse its own direction of motion. The speed for it is calculated as for an ordinary wheel, but since the tooth at each ena is used only once in a double revolution, (all the others being used twice) its size is taken as one tooth less than it actually is. Example. — A 12 pinion revolving 350 times in a minute, drives a mangle wheel of 140 teeth or pegs. Question. — How many times will the mangle revolve in a minute ?. 350 X 12 140 =30. Answer. — 30 revolutions (equalling 15 in each direction) speed of mangle in a minute. How to Change the Speed of a Driven Pulley, Shaft or Wheel. Rule. — Increase the size of the driver or decrease the size of the driven pulley in exact proportion to the increase of speed required. To Increase the Speed by Increasing the Size of the Driver. Example. — A loom now running at 85 picks per minute is required to be changed to 95 picks ; the diameter of the present driving pulley on the line shaft of the weave room is 15 inches. no Question. — Find size of new pulley required ? 95X15-^85=16!:. Answer. — Size of new pulley required 16^. To Increase the Speed by Decreasing the Size of Driven Wheel. Example. — The cams of a loom being set for eight-harness twill, it is desired to weave a six-harness twill, thus increasing the speed of the shaft carrying the cams in the proportion of 6 to 8. The driven wheel on the shaft being an 80. Question —To what size must the driven wheel on the shaft be reduced ? 80 X 6 8 = 60. Answer. — The driven wheel must be changed to a 60. How to Ascertain the Circumferential Velocity of a Wheel, Driver or Cylinder. ^a/^.— Multiply the circumference in feet by the number of revolutions per minute. Example.— K roller has a circumference of 4 feet and makes 12 revolutions per minute. Question. — Ascertain its circumferential velocity? 4 X 13 = 48. Answer. — Its circumferential velocity is 48 feet. How to Find the Speed of Last Shaft where several shafts and pulleys intervene, ^z^/^.— Multiply all the drivers into each other and the product by the speed of the first shaft, divide this product by the product of all the given pulleys multiplied into each other. How to Ascertain the Number of Revolutions of the Last Wheel at the End of a Train of Spur Wheels, all of which are in a line and mesh into one another. Multiply the revolutions of the first wheel by its number of teeth, and divide the ■ product by the number of teeth of the last wheel ; the result is its number of revolutions. How to Ascertain the Number of Teeth in Each Wheel for a Train of Spur- Wheels, each to have a given velocity. Multiply the number of revolutions of the driving wheel by its number of teeth, and divide the product by the number of revolutions each wheel is to make, to ascertain the number of teeth required for each. How to Find the Number of Revolutions of the Last Wheel of a Train of Wheels, and pinions, spurs, or bevels, when the revolutions of the first, or driver, and the diameter, or the number of teeth, or circumference of all the drivers and pinions, are given. Rule.—yiv\\.v^\y the diameter, the circumference, or the number of the teeth of all the driving wheels together, and this continued product by the number of revolutions of the first wheel, and divide this product by the continued product of the diameter, the circumference or the number of teeth of all the pinions, and the quotient will be the number of revolutions of the last wheel. How to Straighten a Crooked Shaft.— Set the shaft on the blocks at each end, and under the hollow side make a fire, or apply sufficient heat to make the shaft hot. Now,' with a swab, put water on the top, and the contraction will, by repeated operations, finally straighten the shaft. Ill How to Cool a Hot Shaft. — Make a belt of something of a loose, water-absorbing lature, and hang it over the shaft as near the fiot journal as possible, allowing it to hang iown and run loose on the shaft. A pail of water may now be fixed so the lower part of the '>elt will run in it, and in this simple way the shaft may be cooled while running. Another method consists in the use of black antimony and best castor oil ; you may, if you like, add a little black lead. Work it up nicely together and lay it on the shaft, first thick, and then taper down to nothing but the oil. Cooling Compound for Hot Bearings.— Mercurial Ointment mixed with black cylinder oil and applied every quarter of an hour, or as often as expedient. The following is also recommended as a good cooling compound for heavy bearings : — Tallow, 2 pounds, plumbago, 6 ounces, sugar of lead, 4 ounces. Melt the tallow with a gentle heat, and add the other ingredients, stirring until cold. For lubricating gearing, wooden cogs, etc., nothing better need be used than a thin mixture of soft soap and black-lead. Steel and Iron. — To distinguish steel from iron pour on the object to be tested a drop of nitric acid ; let it act for one minute, then rinse with water. On iron the acid will cause a greyish-white, on steel a black stain. In case of wire, heat in the gas and dip in water ; if hard and brittle it is steel. How to Harden Cast Iron. — Heat the iron into cherry red, then sprinkle on it cyanide of potassium and heat it to a little above red ; then dip. The cyanide may also be used to case- harden wrought iron. BELTING. Rules for Calculating the Width for Leather Belting (single) required for given power. Multiply horse power with 33,000 and divide by velocity (in feet) of belt per minute and result is the tensional stress on belt ; allow for each inch in width a stress of 55 pounds and divide into the stress due to the horse power and given velocity, and the result is width of belt required. Example. — Horse power 75 X 33,000 = 2,475,000 pounds 2500 feet = 990 pounds (mean stress, both pulleys being same diameter) -r- 55 = 19 inch, single belt required to transmit 75-horse power at 2500' per minute. The actual stress depends, however, entirely on the relative diameters of the driving and of the driven pulley embraced by the belt ; the stress becomes less, the more the driven one is embraced (as the leverage of the driver in- creases) and vice-versa. Another Rule, but which only applies to the best quality of belting is thus : Multiply horse power by 7,000 length in feet of that portion of the belt which clips smallest pulley and divide again by velocity in feet per minute. Example.— ^dLutOid. width of single belt to transmit 75-horse power indicated (smallest drum 8'' diameter, belt clipping 11' of the periphery). 75-horse power X 7,000 — 525,000 11' = 47,727 -J- 3,000' V. = 15.9 or 16 inches. 112 Table of Safe Actual Width of Single Belts to Transmit Given Power at Given Speeds, allowing for Leather of Very Indifferent Quality. N. B.— The body of the table gives the width of the belts in inches. INDICATED HORSE POWER. Speed in feet per min. 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 400 20 36 48 60 600 16 32 40 50 60 800 12 20 30 42 48 60 1000 9 18 24 35 40 50 60 1200 8 16 20 28 34 40 50 60 1500 7 14 18 24 28 36 44 50 60 1800 6 12 16 20 24 30 36 44 50 60 2400 5 10 14 18 20 24 30 36 44 50 3000 4 8 12 15 18 20 24 28 32 36 (For double belts about half the width of single.) To Find the Length of a Driving Belt Before the Pulleys are in Position.— Add the circumference of the two pulleys, divide the product by 2, and add the quotient thus obtained to double the distance between the centres of the two shafts, which will give the length of belt required. For a cross belt, add the circumference of the two pulleys, multiply the product by 3, and divide by 2 ; the quotient added to double the distance between the centres of both shafts will give the length required. How to Find where to cut Belt-holes in Floors.— Measure the distance in inches from centre of driving shaft to underside of floor ; on the upper side make a mark over the centre of shaft. Now measure the distance from centre of shaft on machine to be driven to floor, making a mark on the floor immediately beneath the centre, then measure the distance between the two marks. Transfer these figures to a board or paper, draw off" the driving and driven pulleys after finding their diameters, at the distance from each other and the floor line previously obtained, and draw the lines representing the belt cutting the floor line, which will show where the belt passes through the floor. The drawing can be made to a scale to reduce it to convenient dimensions, maintaining the proportions. The holes may now be marked off" on the floor and cut with a certainty of being correct. In making the drawing it is best to make it full size on the floor, if room can be had ; and allowance must be made for the thickness of the flooring. HOW TO MANAGE BELTS. It is better for belts to relieve the strain upon them whenever they are out of use, as they last longer and pull better than if kept continually strained up. Machines requiring 3-h. p. and upwards to drive them should be from 16 feet to 25 feet between centre of driving and driven pulleys ; the length and width of belt, and diameter and width of pulleys to increase as the power required is greater. Avoid Belts made up of short lengths, varying in quality of leather, as they become crooked, causing trouble and expense. A Good Dressing for Leather Belts is to sponge them on the outside with warm water, then rub in some dubbin. This done once every four or six weeks keeps the belts supple, and prevents them from cracking. "3 Anotlier good dressing may be made by tl^^ use of castor oil mixed about half and half with tallow or other good oil. Castor oil makes not only an excellent dressing, but renders the belts vermin prooE For Slipping Belts. — First cleanse the inside by brushing, and drop a few drops of castor oil on the inside of the belt, or the side next to the pulleys. By no means use resin for belts when slipping, as it hardens the belt, and causes it to crack. Belts made of India-rubber, with plies of strong canvas interposed between their lengths are best in cases were they become constantly wetted. A Good Diameter for Drums or pulleys is 5 to 6 times the width of belt. A Good Distance from centre to centre of drums is from 2 to 2 >^ times the sum of their two diameters. A Pulley Covered with Leather^ with the Hair Side of the Belt Turned to it^ offers 50 per cent, more resistance to slipping than a pulley merely polished. When a belt is turned with the hair side to pulley, the contact is greater, from the fact of a more even surface being pre- sented, than when the flesh side is to the pulley ; and, again, as the outside of a belt must necessarily stretch more in bending over a pulley, it follows that if the hair side is the outer one it will finally crack ; but by reversing it, so that it must contract in wrapping around the pulley, it lays on with great smoothness, and the flesh side, being more open and irregular, experiences no difficulty or injury by the stretch from being outside. It is claimed, however, that, if belts are run with the flesh side to pulley, and tanner's dubbin applied thereto, they will become as smooth as the hair side, and will become more dur- able. It is also well to remember that the pliableuess of a belt has often more to do with its adhesiveness to the pulley, than the question of which side shall be presented to it, and for that reason they should always be maintained as pliable as possible. It is reckoned that leather belts, grain or hair side to the. pulley, will drive 34 per cent, more than with flesh side to the pulley ; 48 per cent, more than rubber ; 121 per cent, more than gutta-percha ; and 180 per cent, more than canvas. Direction of Running. — Belts where it is possible should always run from the top of the driving to the top of the driven pulley. Belts always run to the high part of a pulley when the shafts are parallel; but when they are not, the belt will always run toward the ends of the shafts which are nearest together, and this tendency is much stronger than to run to the highest part of the pulley. To Ascertain Length of a Roll of Strapping add inside and outside diameters in inches X numberof coils X 0.1309 12'' = length in feet. In Order to Preserve Belting in the best condition apply the following mixture while hot and thin, with a common hand brush while the belt is in motion, once every two or three months : Bee's wax .............. 2-5ths. f. Castor oil 2-5ths. Resin , , , . . . . . i-5th. To Keep Ropes from Fraying. — Apply a cake of paraffin wax once a month for a few minutes while the ropes are running. The adoption of belt and rope driving has been greatly influenced by the number of breakdowns where gearing was used. Where rope or strap driving has not been introduced — these instances, however, are very few — cast-steel wheels have been generally substituted for the broken cast-iron ones. 1 1^8 114 WATER POWER. Velocity of Water-. — To ascertain mean velocity of stream, find surface velocity by observ- ing rate of feet per minute with cork floats ; deduct 25 per cent, for friction and multiply by area in feet of cross section of river and product is discharge in cubic feet per minute = number of gallons. Water Power. English Rule : — (33,000 pounds raised i foot in i minute = i H. P. 200 pounds of water (20 gallons) 3 feet fall per second ==i H. P. or 60 gallons I foot fall per second — i H. P. Therefore : — I ton 224 gallons = 2240 lbs. X 3 feet X 60 seconds ^ ^^.2 H. P. calculated. 33,000 ' * ' . minus 25 per cent, on account of turbine loss = 9.8 actual or effective H. P. French Rule : — (75 kilos raised i metre high in i second = i H. P.) Therefore, I ton approx. ■ ' ^ N I cubic metre (1000 kilos or 1000 litres), i metre fall 1000 litres X i metre fall X 60 seconds per second = = 13.33 H. P. calculated. 75 X 60 seconds: minus 20 per cent, on account of turbine loss =10.67 effective H. P. 6 metres fall of i cubic metre or \ Qr>> tt p 1 I " "6 " I — Qo n. r. I minus 20 per cent. 6 " " 4 " 1 TT TD I turbine loss. 24 - " \ - I =32oH. P.J STEAM POWER, For each nominal horse power a boiler should have : — I cubic foot of water per hour (at least). I square yard of heating surface. I square foot of fire-grate area, I cubic yard capacity. 28 square inches flue area. I pint water evaporates into 206 gallons of steam. I gallon of water is converted into 1648 gallons of steam at the mean atmospheric pres- sure of 14.7 pounds per square inch. Nominal horse power of boiler = length in feet X diameter in feet. To Ascertain the Chimney Area lb. of coal per hour X 12 . . — — — r = area in square inches. y height m feet To Prevent Incrustation to Boilers use nothing but common soda. Put a bucket full into the feed water supply tank once daily, or more, according to quantity and quality of the water used. "5 To Ascertain the best Size of Injector for any given boiler, multiply the nominal horse power by lo, which gives the number of gallons of water required per hour. To Find the Number of Cubic Feet of Exhaust Steam emitted from cylinder per minute- multiply area of piston (in square feet) by speed of piston in feet per minute. A Horse Power (H. P.) is equal to 33,000 pounds lifted one foot high in one minute or equivalent motion against resistance. T 9 Find the Indicated Horse Power of an Engine : Multiply mean pressure in pounds per square inch on piston X the area of the piston in square inches X piston speed in feet per minute and the result is number of pounds engine will raise one foot high per minute. Divide by 33,000 for the indicated horse power, and deduct one-sixth for friction, which will then be the eflfective horse power of the engine. T 7 find the maximum efficiency of a theoretically perfect steam engine use the following T-T' Rule : — E -of which T = absolute temperature of steam on admission—?, e. , temperature Fahrenheit + 450°. T' =absolute temperature of exhaust steam— 2. e., temperature Fahrenheit + 459°. K =Maximum efficiency of theoretically perfect steam engine. HEAT. A Unit of Heat is the quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of i pound of water at or near its temperature of greatest density (31.9° F.) through 1° F. How to change degrees of Centigrade or Reaumur into degrees Fahrenheit and vice versa. F = Degrees Fahrenheit. C = Degrees Centigrade or Celsius. R = Degrees Reau- mur. Centigrade into Fahrenheit. F = 9 X °C given ^ Example— Vm.^ degrees F. for 40° C. 40 X 9 = 360 5 == 72 + 32 = 104. Answer. — 40° C ■ 104° F. Reaumur into Fahrenheit. p ^ 9 X °R given _^ 4 Example. — Find degrees F. for 32° R. 32-X 9 = 288 ^ 4 = 72 + 32 = 104. Answer. — 32° R = 104° F. Fahrenheit into Celsius. Q _ 5 X (degrees F. given — 32) Example.— degrees C. for 104 F. 5 X (104 — 32) 72 = 360 9 = 40. Answer. — 104° F = 40° C, Fahrenheit into Reaumur. ^ 4 X (degrees F given 32) Example. — Find degrees R. for 104° C. 4 X (degrees F given — 32) - 104 — 32 = 72 X 4 = 288 ^ 9 = 32. Answer. — 104° C = 32° F. Reaumur into Celsius. C = 5 X degrees R given • 4 Example. — Find degrees C.for 32° R. 5 X 32 = 160 -J- 4 = 40. Answer. — 32° R = 40° C. Celsius into Reaumur. R — 4 X degrees C given 5 Example. — Find degrees R. for 40° C. 4 X 40 = 160 -f- 5 = 32. Answer. — 40° C = 32° R, ARITHMETIC. ^{Specially Adapted for Textile Purposes). ADDITION. Addition has for its object the finding of a number (called sum) equal to two, three, or more numbers. The symbol + (read plus) is used to indicate the operation of addition. The symbol = (read is equal to, or are) is the sign of equality. Example. — 3 + 4 + 7 yards=14 yards. If adding higher numbers than units place figures that represent units in each number in the same vertical line, those representing tens in the same vertical line and continue in this manner with the numbers representing hundreds, thousands, ten-thousands, hundred-thousands and millions. Next draw a horizontal line under the last number, and under this line place (in the same arrangement as to value of positions) the sum of the given numbers ; i. e., commencing to add the right-hand column, writing the units of the sum beneath, and adding the tens, if any, to the next column, and continue in this manner with all the columns until writing the entire sum of the last column. Examples. — 206 lbs. 320 " +54760 " 55286 lbs. Question. — Find number of threads in pattern dressed : 10 threads black. 2 " blue. 4 " brown. 24 " black. + 2 " blue. Afiswer. — 42 threads in pattern. Question. — Find total weight for the fallowing lot of wool : 960 lbs. Domestic. 40 " Australian. 46 yards. 230 " 4377 " +57698 " 62351 yards. Anmer.- 1000 lbs., total weight. SUBTRACTION. Subtraction is the process of taking away a number (called subtrahend) from a larger number (called minuend). The result of a subtraction is termed difference. The symbol — (read minus, or less) denotes the operation of subtracting. To prove a subtrac- tion, remember that the difference and subtrahend, added, must equal the minuend. Example.— 8 — 3 lbs. = 5 lbs. Proof.— 5 + 3 = 8. If subtracting higher numbers than units, write the subtrahend under minuend, placing units of the same order in the same column. Next draw a horizontal line under the subtrahend and begin to subtract with the units of the lowest order, and proceed to the highest, writing the result beneath. ii6 117 If any order of the minuend has less units than the same order of the subtrahend, increase its units by ten and subtract ; consider the units of the next minuend order one less, and proceed as before. Examples. — 4322 lbs. (minuend) —2111 " (subtrahend) 4284 yards —3395 « 889 yards. 2211 lbs. (difference). Question. — Weight of cloth required, 21 oz. ; weight from loom, 19 oz. Find difference. 21 oz. —19 " 2 oz. Anm)er. — The cloth in question is 2 oz. too light. Question. — The weight of a lot of wool in grease is 100 lbs.; its weight after being scoured and dried is 67 lbs. Find loss during scouring process. 100 lbs. — 67 " 33 lbs. Answer. — The lot of wool in question lost during scouring 33 lbs. Question. — Basis of cotton yarn, 840 yards per lb. ; basis of worsted yarn, 560 yards per lb. Find difference. 840 yards. -560 " 280 yards. Answer. — The worsted yarn basis is 280 yards less than the one for cotton yarns. MULTIPLICATION. Multiplication is the process of taking one number (called multiplicand) as often as another number (called multiplier) contains ones. The sum thus derived, or the result of a multiplication, is called the product or result. The symbol X (read multiplied, or times) denotes the operation for multiplying. Example. — Multiplicand. Multiplier. Product. 4 'X 3 =12 Proof. — 4 4 ^ + 4 12 If multiplying higher numbers than units, begin the process with the ones, and write the ones of the product reserving the tens if any. Next multiply the tens of the multiplicand, adding number of tens reserved from the previous process, write tens in place for tens in product and reserve (if any) the hundreds; continue in this manner, always multiplying the next highest number of the multiplicand, adding number of same value (if any) from the previous part of the operation, until all the numbers of the multiplicand are taken up, writing in full the last operation. Example. — If weaving 212 yards of cloth in one day, how many yards will be woven, under the same circumstances, in 3 days ? 212x3=636. Answer. — 636 yards. ii8 The product for multiplying a number by 10, is obtained by simply annexing 0 to tiie multiplicand. Example.— 336 yards X 10=3,360 yards. By annexing 00 to the multiplicand, we multiply the latter by 100 ; by annexing 000, with 1000, etc. If required to multiply with a number having tens and zeros (0) for ones, we first multiply with the tens and annex 0 to the result. Examples.— 36 X 30=1,080 ; 36 X 300=10,800 ; 36 X 3,000=108,000, etc. Remember that the multipler and multiplicand can change places, without altering the product ; thus, if zeroes are found in the multiplicand reverse factors so as to apply previously given rules. Example. — How many picks per hour does a loom make if running 85 picks per minute? 1 hour=60 minutes; thus, 60X85=5,100. Answer. — The speed per hour is 5,100 picks. If the multiplier contains two parts, for example 5 and 60 (or 65), multiply the multiplicand first with the units (5 in example) and afterwards with the tens, using zero for ones (60 in example). In setting down this second result omit the zero, as it has no effect on the addition to be performed. Example. — If one loom produces 235 yards of cloth in one week, how many yards will 23 looms produce in the same time and on the same work ? oQKx/OQ rpu 235 X 3= 705 235X23 2,6b X 16 Ihus : ^ 30= 4700 705^(235 X 3) 470 = (235X20) 5405 5405 Answer. — 23 looms will produce 5,405 yards per week. If the multiplier is made up of three parts, multiply with the units and tens as before, next the hundreds, using zeros for tens and units, but omitting both zeros in setting down the third result. For similar reasons any future value of figures in the multipler requires corresponding increase of zeros not set down in the respective result. Example. — ' 783X233 2349 =(783 X 3= 2349). 2349 =(783 X 30= 23490). 1566 =(783X200=156600). Anmer.— 182439 In some instances we are requested to find the continued product of three, four, or more numbers. In such instances multiply the first two numbers, and multiply product derived with the third, etc. Example. — Find number of yards of filling wanted to weave 32 yards cloth, 72 inches wide in loom, 45 picks per inch. Thus: 32X72X45. 32X72=2,304X45=103,680 Answer. — 103,680 yards of filling are wanted. Some examples call for a number to be multiplied by itself once, twice, three times, or oftener. If so, the resulting products are called the second, third, fourth, etc., powers of the number. The pro- cess is termed involution, and the power to which the number 'is raised is expressed by the number of times the number has been employed as a factor in the operation. The raising of a number to the second power is called square ; the raising to the third power being termed cube. Thus : 16 is the square of 4, because 4X4=16 64 « « cube " 4, " 4X4x4=64 119 DIVISION. Division is the process by which we find how many times one number (called divisor) is contained , into another (called dividend) The quotient is the result of a division, and the part of the dividend not containing the divisor an exact number of times, is called the remainder. The symbol of division is -f- (read divided by), and is written between the dividend and divisor; for example, 8-7-4; but is also frequently substituted, either by writing the divisor at the left of the dividend with a curve, for example, 4)8, or by writing the divisor under the dividend, both num- bers to be separated by a horizontal line. Q For example, Dividend. Divisor. Quotient. 8 4 = 2 Example. — If dividing higher numbers than units, find how many times the divisor is con- tained in the fewest left-hand figures of the dividend that will contain it ; write answer as the first number of the quotient. Next multiply this number by the divisor ; subtract the product from the partial dividend used, and to the remainder annex the next dividend figure for a second partial divi- dend. Divide and proceed as before, until all the numbers of the dividend are called for, writing the last remainder (if there is one left), with the divisor under it (as common fraction), as a part of the quotient. Example. — Find number of repeats of pattern in the following warp : 3,904 threads in warp. 32 threads in pattern. 3904--32=122 32 70 64 64 64 Answer. — In the warp given in the example there are 122 repeats of pattern. Remember that the dividend is the product of the divisor and the quotient ; hence, use this as proof for the division in question. Divisor. Quotient. 32 X 122 = 3,904 (Dividend.) 64 64 32 3904 If we have to divide a number by ten, simply insert a decimal point between the last two figures (toward the right) in the dividend, thus expressing at once the quotient. Example. — 4,220 end in warp, dressed with 10 sections. Find number of ends used in each section. 4,220^10=422.0, or Answer. — 422 ends are used in each section. If the divisor is hundred, thousand, or more, always move the decimal point correspondingly one more point toward the left in the dividend, so as to get the quotient. Example.— i 25 lbs. of filling must weave 100 yards of cloth, how many pounds must be used per yard, to weave up all this filling? 125^100=1.25 Answer. — 1^ lbs. yarn must be used per yard. , , 120 Dividing or multiplying the dividend and the divisor by one number does not alter the quotient ; thus, if the divisor contains zeros for either units, units and tens, units, tens and hundreds, etc., we can shorten the process by throwing out such zeros and reducing the dividend correspondingly, by simply placing a decimal point in its proper place. Example. — 4,905 threads in warp, 30 threads in pattern. Find number of repeats of pattern in warp. 4905^30=490.5^3^=163.5 3 19 18 10 9 15 15 Answer.— There are 163| repeats of patterns in warp. Previous example also explains the multiplying of both the dividend and the divisor (without altering the proper quotient) towards the close of the division, when 1.5 is to be divided by 3. 1.5 X 10 = 15 1 3 X 10 = 30 2 PARENTHESIS OR BRACKETS. A parenthesis (expressed by symbol ( ) ), is used in calculations for enclosing such numbers as must be considered together. Hence, the whole expression which is enclosed is affected by the symbol preceding or following the parenthesis. Hence, (18 X 4)-7-(4 X 2)=72-=-8=9 ; whereas without parenthesis example would read as follows : 18X4--4X2=(18X4=72^4=18X2=) 36 If the main operation, as in the present example, is a division, we may use in the place of the parenthesis, the vinculum (expressed by symbol ), writing the dividend above the line, and the 18 X4 divisor below; thus, previously given example would read ■ . ^ = 9 4 X ^ 240^(7+4X2) means that twice the sum of 7+4 equal 22 is to be dividftd into 240. It might 11-1. . 240 also have been written - , . , 7+4x2 (3 X 4—2) X (6 X 9 +4) +43 means : Subtract 2 from the product of 3 multiplied by 4, and multiply the remainder (10) by the sum of 6 multiplied by 9, plus 4 (58), and add to the product (10X58=580) thus obtained 43, which gives 623 as the result or answer. Frequently brackets are made to inclose one another, if so, remove the brackets one by one, com- mencing by the innermost. Example.— (2+5X(4+82)+8)X(3+10). (2+5X 86 +8)X(3+10). ( 7 X 86 +8)X(3+10). ( 602 +8)x(3+10). 610 X 13 ^wswer.— (2+5x(4+82)+8)X(3+10)=7,930. 121 Example.— (3X(6+9-v-2x(4x8)+8) )X2. (3X(6+9-i-2X 32 +8)),X2. (3X( 248 ))X2. 744 X2. Answer.— (3 X (6 +9-^-2 X(4 X 8)-f 8) ) X 2==1,488. PRINCIPLE OF CANCELLATION. 18X4 Example given in previous chapter on brackets we will also use to explain the subject of cancelling or shortening calculations. The rule for this process is : Strike out all the numbers common to both dividend and divisor, and afterward proceed as required by example. 18X4 _ 18X^ _ 18 _ . ■ _9 4X2 - ^X2 - T - ^ - Another point for cancellation is to ascertain if a number in the dividend and in the divisor have the same common factor. 2 Example.— 36X9 ^^X9 2X9 18X5 ;^X5 1X5 1 = 18 -J- 5 = 3i Proof.— 36X9 324 = 324 90 = 31. 18X5 — 90 270 54 90 10 I 5 For reducing fractions to th^ir lowest denomination as in previous example ^ * ^ ^ \ 2_§~ as well as for assisting the student quickly to find the same common factor for two numbers, we give herewith rules by which he can quickly ascertain if a number is exactly divisible by 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10 or 11. If the last figure of the number is either zero or an even digit, such a number is exactly divisible by 2. Examples.— 420-r-2=210, 336^-2=168. If the sum of the figures is divisible by 3, such a number is exactly divisible by 3. Example.— 38,751-^-3=12,917. If the last two figures of a given number are divisible by 4, such a number is exactly divisible by 4. Example.— 396,564--4=99,141. If the last digit in a number is either 0 or 5, such a number can be exactly divided by 5. Examples.— 320h-5=64, 38,745-f-5=7,540. When the last three figures of a number are divisible by 8, such number can be divided by 8 Example.— 376,256-^8=47,032. A number is exactly divisible by 9, when the sum of its digits is divisible by 9. Example.— 887,670-^-9=98,630. A number is exactly divisible by 11, when the difference between the sum of the digits in the uneven places (commencing with the units) and the sum of the digits in the even places, is either zero or divisible by 11. Example. — 514,182,746-f-ll=46,743,886. 122 COMMON FRACTIONS. A common fraction is a fraction in which we write the numerator above, and the denominator below, the dividing ( — or / ) line. Example.- i = Zri^'rl/fSln } Both being the terms of the fraction. The horizontal dividing line is the one most frequently used, but the oblique (X) answers the same purpose. The denominator of a fraction indicates in how many equal parts the unit is divided ; and the numerator shows how many of those parts are taken. There are two kinds of fractions : (a) Proper Fractions, which have for their terms a numerator which is less than the denominator. For example, f , I, 7, etc. (6) Improper Fractions, which have for their terms a numerator, which is greater than the denominator. For example, I, 1, I, etc. An improper fraction can be changed to a mixed number by dividing the numerator by the denominator, setting down the quotient as the integral part, and making the remainder the numerator of the fractional part of the mixed number, whose denominator is the denominator of the original fraction. An integer {= whole number) can be expressed as an improper fraction, without reducing its value, for example, 6=t, 8=f, etc. The combination of an integer and a fraction is termed a mixed number. For example, 7| 7 f Numerator. \ ^ c 4 Denominator. X A mixed number can be changed to an improper fraction by multiplying the integer by the de- nominator of the fraction, adding to the product the numerator of the fraction. This sum is the nu- merator of the improper fraction of which the denominator is the denominator of the given fraction. 2x7 I 1 Example. — 21 = — improper fraction. A fraction is expressed in its lowest terms {i. e., cannot be reduced) when the numerator and de- nominator have no common factor except unity, or in other words, when both terms are not dividable by any number except one. For example, , f, etc. Thus, to reduce a fraction to its lowest terms, use Rule. — Divide the numerator and the denominator by their highest common factor. The highest common factor of a fraction is the highest number which will exactly divide each of the terms of a fraction ; for such small numbers, as are generally used for fractions, the highest com- mon factor is found at a glance. For example : I. Readily the student will see that both the 6 and the 8 can be divided by 2. Thus : f 2 = f , or f i. If dealing with large numbers, the highest common factor cannot always be determined by inspec- tion, but is found by Rule. — Divide the higher number of the fraction by the lower, and the latter (the divisor of the first operation) by the remainder ; continue the process until no remainder is left, the divisor used last being the highest common factor for the fraction. Example. — Reduce to its lowest terms UU; i. c, find the highest common factor for 2166 and and 2888, by previously given rule. 123 2166)2888=1 2166 722)2166=3 2166 or, 722 is the highest common factor. 2,166^722=3 ;h-722=4 Answer. — fill expressed in its lowest terms equals I Frequently we must change a given fraction to terms of a known denominator ; if so, proceed as follows : Divide the required denominator by the denominator of the given fraction and multiply by the quotient thus obtained with both terms of the given fraction. Example. — Change 1^2 to equivalent fraction expresseed in 60's. • 5 X 5 = 25 60^12=5 and ^ ^ 5 _ Anmoer. — A equals M in value. If two fractions are to be changed to equivalent fractions (fractions having the same denominator) find the lowest common multiple (see * below for explanation for lowest common multiple) for the two given denominators, which is the new denominator for each fraction. Next find the new numerators for both fractions, by means of previously given method for changing a given fraction to terms of a known denominator. This rule also applies for three or more fractions. Example. — Change f and f to equivalent fractions, having the same denominator. 4X7 (prime numbers) = 28, new denominator. 28 4 = 7 28 7 = 4 3 X 7 =21 5^X 4=^ 4' X 7 == 28 7 X 4 = 28 Answer. — f = |i and f = ii. Example. — Change I, I and f to equivalent fractions, having the same denominator. 3X4X7 (prime numbers) = 84, new denominator. 84 -f- 3 = 28 84 4 = 21 84 7 = 12 ^X 28 = 56 3^X21 = 63 X 12 = 60 3 X 28 = 84 4 X 21 = 84 v T X 12 ="84 ATiswer. — * The lowest common multiple of two or more numbers is the lowest number which is exactly dividable by each of them, and is obtained for two numbers by dividing one of the numbers by the highest common factor, and multiplying the quotient by the other number. If numbers are prime, their product is the lowest common multiple. If we have to find the lowest common multiple of three or more numbers, find the lowest common multiple of any two, next find the lowest common multiple of the resulting number, and of a third of the original numbers, and so on, the final result being the lowest common multiple wanted. ADDITION OF COMMON FRACTIONS. Only fractions having the same denominators can be added; thus, change fractions given to equivalent fractions having the lowest common denominator. Next add the numerators of the equiva- lent fractions and place the result as the numerator of a fraction whose denominator is the common denominator of the equivalent fractions. 124 Example. — Find sum of i and i oz. 8X3=24, lowest common denominator. Answer. — T oz. 4" I OZ. = H oz. 24-^-8= 3 _1^X3=^ 8 X3=24 24^3:^ 8 JL_X8=8_ 3X8=24 3 I S 9 t I 6 I 6 3 1 -j- ^5 -J- = ^ Example. — Find sum of ts and tV inches. The lowest common denominator of 20, 15 and 10 is 60, since ■ 60 ^20 = 3 60 H-15 = 4 60 --10 = 6 ^X3=_9 ^X4=J^ J_x6 = ^ 20 X 3 = 60 15 X 4 = 60 10 X 6 = 60 Answer. — inr + + tV = ih inches. Example. — Find the total yards for the following three pieces of cloth containing respectively 3 tV> 8A, and lOSA yards. The lowest common denominator of 16 and 20 is 80, since 80-5-16=5 and 80-^-20=4. 16 X S 80' 3A = 3H AX 5^10^ thus: 16 X 6 80' 4 X 4 16 ^Qg^4 ^ -^Qgie 20 X 4 80' II + If = -W- (101 --.a) = 1^ 3H 4- 8i§ -}- 108it = 119M Answer. — The total yards for the three pieces cloth given in question are 119fu yards. If the sum derived is an improper fraction, the same can be changed (if required) to a mixed number, by dividing the numerator by the denominator, the quotient obtained being the integer. The remainder is the numerator of the fraction which has the given denominator of the improper fraction for their denominator. Example. — Find sum of 7 and 1 lb. The lowest common denominator of 7 and 9 is 63, since 63-=-7=9, and 63-f-9=7. _^X»=±^and 1X7 = 66 7X9 = 63 9X7 = 63 Answer.— \\h. + f lb. = W, or 111 lbs. Previously given rule also applies if adding improper fractions. Example. — Find sum of I and i yards. The lowest common denominator of 5 and 3 is 15, since 15-^3=5, and 15-^5=3. _8^X3 = 24 ^X5 = 35 5 X 3 = 15 3 X 5 = 15 Answer. — \ yard -f- i yard = 3tI yards. If adding mixed numbers, first add the fractions ; if their product is a proper fraction, reduce the same to their lowest equal terms ; but if an improper fraction, change the same to a mixed number and put the fraction part down for the fraction of the sum. Next add the integral parts of the given mixed numbers plus the integral part from the addition of the fractions. Example. — Find the sum of 31, 41 and 21 inches. The lowest common denominator of 3, 8 and 7 is 168, since 168-^-3=56 3f(fxii)=3Hf 4f(lxii)=41ff 2f(IXit)=2T¥^ 9||2^ _l_f| = H (5.-^15): 168-5-8=21; 168-5-7=24. + 262- -168=111 + 9 lOH Answer,- 31 -I- 4! 4- 2i inches = 1011 inches. 125 SUBTRACTION OF COMMON FRACTIONS. Only fractions having the same denominator can be subtracted ; thus, change fractions given to equivalent fractions having the lowest common denominator. Next deduct the numerator of the smaller of the equivalent fractions from the numerator of the greater fraction. The difference place as the numerator of a fraction whose denominator is the common denominator of the equivalent fraction. This fraction is the difference of the given two fractions (can be reduced to its lowest terms by previously given rule). Example. — Find the difference between I and 7. The lowest common denominator of 8 and 7 is 8X7, or 56 ; and 56-i-8=7 ; 56-7-7=8. 6_X7 = 42 ^X8=16 H_-_H = if 8X7 = 56 7X8 = 56 Answer. — I — f = M. Example.— FM the difference between the weight of two pieces of cloth weighing respectively 23f and 20! lbs. The lowest common denominator of 7 and 9 is 7 X 9 or 63. 63 -T- 7 = 9 63 ^ 9 = 7. 23f = 23H 201 = 20M 3li lbs. Answer. — The difference between the two pieces of cloth given in example is 3li lbs. Previously given rule also applies, if dealing with improper fractions. In some instances we may iiave to deduct a fraction or a mixed number in which the value of the fraction of the subtrahend is greater than the one of the minuend. If so, we must change the fraction by adding one unit of the integer (changed to a fraction of the same denominator) to the fraction of the minuend. Example.— Find the difference between the weight of two pieces of cloth weighing respectively 28f and 281 ounces. The lowest common denominator of 7 and 8 is 8 X 7, or 56. 28f=28M=27l§ 22f=22M=22|| 611, or 511 oz. Ansu)^. — ^The difference in weight between the two pieces of cloth, given in example, is 511 ozs. MULTIPLICATION OF COMMON FRACTIONS. A fraction is multiplied by an integer, by multiplying the numerator of the fraction by the integer and leaving the denominator of the fraction unchanged, or divide the denominator of the fraction by the integer and leave the numerator unchanged. Example. — Multiply f with 2. 3 ^ ._SX2 _ 6 3 _X2-_g T'^'T |X2=^^=4 Example. — If 1 lb. filling weaves f yards cloth, how many yards will 26 lbs. weave ? 4-X 26 = = or 130-f-8=16i. 8 8 8 Answer. — 26 lbs. filling will weave 16| yards cloth. 126 A fraction is multiplied by a fraction by writing the product of the numerators over the product of the denominators. The product thus divided change either to a fraction of the lowest term, or, if an improper fraction to a mixed number. Example. — Multiply A by x? inches. A X — = 3X4 _ ^ X 4 ^ 4 ^ _£ 13 15 13X15 — 13x;^ 13X5 65 6 Answer. — t j X tV = ^S. Example. — Multiply I by 2f. ^ 8X7 8X7-8^-^^' 17^8_2| Answer. — | x 2f = 2i Example.— 1? one pound of filling weaves f yards of cloth, how many yards will 38| lbs. filling weave. I X 381= (f X -^f^) =* = 775-^-32=24/^ 8X4 Answer. — 38| lbs. of filling will weave 24^ yards. Previously given rules also apply to improper fractions. In the application of the rules to mixed numbers, change the latter to their equivalent value in improper fractions and proceed as in the fore- going example. Example. — Find square inches for a sample cut to the rectangular shape of 31X41 inches. (Mixed numbers.) (Improper fractions.) 31 = ^ 5 17^25 17 X^^ 17 X 5 85 „ Answer.— -The surface of the sample in question is (3IX4i) 14i inches. DIVISION OF COMMON FRACTIONS. A fraction is divided by an integer by multiplying the denominator of the fraction by that num- ber, leaving the numerator unchanged; or by dividing the numerator of the fraction by the integer, and leaving the denominator unchanged. Example. — (Fraction -r- Integer.) Divide v by 2. ±-^2=-A__A = A or±-2-iz:2_2 9 9X2 18 9 ' 9 * 9 ~ "9" Answer. — f 2 = f. • Example. — | lb. of filling weave 3 yards cloth, ascertain amount used per yard 7 _ 7 _ 7 8 ■ 8X3 24 Answer. — The amount of filling used per yard, is 5? lb. If we have to divide an integer by a fraction, we must change the integer to a fraction, and use the same rule as given next for 127 Dividing Fractions by Fractions. Rule. — Invert the divisor and proceed as in multiplication of fractions. Example, — (Fraction Fraction). Divide H by A. 6 11 . 3 _ 11 ^ 15 _ 11 _ 11X5 _ 55 , Answer. — H -i- -is = 4i^j. Proof. — The product of the quotient and the divisor must equal the dividend, thus : 11 1 V, a _ 55 ^ 3 _ _ 11X1 _ 4 3 4tV X tV = H, the same as \h -4- tV = 4tte Example (Integer-^ Fraction). Divide 8 by f. 3 8 . 3 _ 8 . 3 _ 8 9 8X^ _ 8X3 _ 8 ^ _______ X -3- or - 24 Answer. — 8 -4- I = 24. In the application of the rules for mixed numbers, change the latter to an improper fraction, and proceed as in the foregoing examples. Example. — (Mixed Number Fraction. Divide 91 by I. 91-^ 5 = A=75><1_^_ 8 • 9 ~ 8 ^ 7 8 X7 ~ 56 -^"^^^ An^er. — 9f -f- ^ = 12A. Example. — (Mixed Number -4- Mixed Number). Divide 41 by If. 3 8' 9~8 ^13~~8 x;^ 8 ~" Answer. — 4J -r- If = 31. DECIMAL FRACTIONS. A decimal fraction is a fraction whose unit is divided into tenths, hundreths, thousandths, ten- thousandths, hundred thousandths, etc. and is expressed without a denominator by means of the decimal point. Value of decimal fractions commonly termed decimals. it ^ . I i S id 2i « I 2i d .5 "S 3 . -2 u S a ,c S 3 3 Q h a H h K S .123456 (.123456) and so on, each digit decreasing tenfold advancing to the right. Above number reads : One hundred twenty-three thousand four hundred fifty-six millionths. The denominator of a decimal fraction (which as already mentioned, is not put down, but indicated by the decimal point) is 1 plus as many zeros annexed as there are places in the fraction. Hence : .4 reads, 4 tenths, t*^. .73 seventy-three hundredths, xVir. .821 eight hundred twenty-one thousandths, toVt, etc. 128 Some parties also use a zero one point to the left to indicate that the fraction contains no integer parts; thus, foregoing fractions may also be written 0.4, 0.73, 0.821, without changing their value or their reading. Zeros affixed to a decimal do not change its value. Hence, .38=.380=.3800, etc., 0.693=0.6930=0.69300 etc. Mixed numbers are made up of an integer and a decimal. For example: 3.25 read, three and twenty-five hundredths. 347.3 reads, three hundred forty-seven and three tenths. 1873.472 reads one thousand eight hundred seventy-three and four hundred and seventy two thousandths. ' To change a decimal fraction to common fraction of equivalent value, omit the decimal point and write the proper denominator as explained previously, next change the fraction to its lower terms. Example. — Change .25 to a common fraction. * 25= - 1 100 25 ~ 4 Answer. — .25 equals J. Example.— Change 43.625 to a mixed number having a common fractional part. 43.625=43TVA=(A¥<#4iW = 2 X 34 = 68 X 128 = 8704 12X8 ;^X^ Answer. — 8,704 yards will be woven. Proof. — 8 looms 12 days = 8 X 12 = 96 looms running 1 day. 1,536 yards are woven on 96 looms in one day; thus, 1536 -f- 96 = 16 yards per day (per one loom). 34 looms 16 days = 34 X 16 = 544 looms running 1 day; thus, 544 X 16 = 8,704 yards will be woven either on 544 looms in 1 day, or on 34 looms in 16 days. Example. — If weaving 9,448 yards of cloth on 12 looms in 9 days, running the looms 10 hours per day, how many yards of cloth will 20 looms, running 11 hours per day, produce in 12 days. (lyooms to Ivooms.) 12 : 20 (Days to Days.) 9 : 12 (Hours to Hours.) 10 : 11 (Yards to Yards.) 9448 : X 11 X 12 X 20 X 9448 _ 10 X 9 X 12 ~ 2 11 X X # X 9448 _ 11 X 2 X 9448 ;p X 9 X ;^ ~ 9 11 X 2 = 22 X 9448 = 207856 207856 ^ 9 = 23095^ ATiswer. — 23,095? yds. will be produced. 142 Proof. — 12 looms, 9 days, 10 hours = 1,080 hours for one loom 9,448 are woven in 1,080 hours on one loom ; thus, 9,448 ^ 1,080 = 8Hi yds. per hour on one loom. 20 looms, 11 hours, 12 days = 2,640 hours; thus, 2,640 X StI? = 23,095i yds. will be woven either in 2,640 hours on one loom, or on 20 looms running 11 hours per day in 12 days. ALLIGATION. Alligation has for its subject the mixing of articles of different value and different quantities. Alligation Medial. i^wfe.— Multiply each quantity by its value and divide the sum of the products by the sum of the quantities. Example.— Fin^ the average value per pound for the following lot of wool containing mixed • 380 lbs. @ 74/ per lb. 400 " 78 " " 200 " " 79 " " 20 " " 94 380 X 74 = $281.20 400 X 78 = 312.00 200 X 79 = 158.00 770.00 1000 = 0.77 20 X 94 = 18.80 1000 $770.00 Answer. — The price of the mixture is 77/ per lb. Proof.— 77/ X 1000 = $770.00. Alligation Alternate. i^w/e.— Place the different values of the articles in question under each other, and the averpge rate wanted to the left of them. Next find the gain or loss on one unit of each, and use an additional portion (of one, two or more) of any that will make the gains balance the losses. Example.— Ro^^ much of each kind of wool at respective values of 80/, 84/ and 98/, must be mixed to produce a mixture to sell at 88/ per lb. + 8X1= 8 + 4X1= +^ = 1 2 gain — 10 X U = =12 loss Answer. — We must use 1 part wool from the lot @ 80/. 1 (( << (( u (( '^34 U " " " " " " 98 in Proof. — By alligation medial. 3i parts, to produce a mixture to sell at 88/ per lb. 1 lb. X 80/ 80/ 1 lb. X 84 84 H lbs. X 98 1171 3^ lbs. 2811/ and 3i lbs. X 88/ = also 2811/ To Find the Quantity of Each Kind Where the Quantity of One Kind or of the Mixture is Given. Example.— A manufacturer has 200 lbs. of wool of a value of 92 cents on hand which he wants to use up and produce a lot worth 80 cents per lb. He also has another large lot (2400 lbs.) of wool 143 80 worth 73 cents per lb. on hand. How much of the latter must he use to produce the result ; i. e., a mixture worth 80 cents per lb ? 92 — 12 X 200 = 2,400 loss. 73 + 7 X 342f = 2,400 gain. Answer. — He must mix 200 lbs. of the lot at 92 cents per lb. on hand and add 342f lbs. of the lot at 73 cents per lb. to produce a mixture worth 80 cents per lb. Proof.— 200 lbs. X 92^ = $184.00 342f lbs. X 73^ = 250.28f 542f $434.28^ and 542f lbs. @ 80/ = also $434.28^. U. S. MEASURES. Measures of L#ength. Avoirdupois Weight. 12 inches (in.) = 1 foot (ft.). 16 drachms (dr.) = 1 ounce (oz.). 3 feet = 1 yard (yd.). 16 ounces = 1 pound (lb.). 5J yards = 1 rod (rd.). 28 pounds = 1 quarter (qr.) 40 rods = 1 furlong (fur.). 4 quarters = 1 hundred weight(cwt.). 8 furlongs = 1 mile (mi.). 20 hundredweight = 1 ton. 3 miles = 1 league (lea.). 1 pound Avoirdupois = 7,000 grains, Troy. 1760 yards = 1 mile. 1 ounce " == 4371 " " 6 feet = 1 fathom. Measure of Capacity. Surface Measure. 60 minims — ■ 1 fluid drachm (fl. dr.). 144 square inches (sq. in.)— 1 square foot (sq. ft.). 8 fluid drachms = 1 fluid ounce (fl. oz.). 9 " feet =1 " yard(sq.yd.) 20 fluid ounces = 1 pint (pt.). 30J " yards =1 " rod (sq. rd.). 2 pints = 1 quart (qt.). 40 " rods =1 rood (ro.). 4 quarts ~~ 1 gallon (gall.). 4 roods =1 acre (ac). 2 gallons = 1 peck (pk.). 4840 square yards =1 acre. 4 pecks = 1 bushel (bus.). 60 acres =1 square mile. 8 bushels = 1 quarter (qr.). 1 minim equals 0.91 grain of water. Cubic Measure. 1728 cubic inches (cu. in.)=l cubic foot (cu. ft.). 27 cubic feet =1 cubic yard (cu. yd.). Angle Measure. 60 seconds ('') are 1 minute ('). 60 minutes " 1 degree (°). 360 degrees " 1 circumference (C). Counting. 12 ones* = 1 dozen (doz.). 12 dozen = 1 gross (gr.). 12 gross = 1 great gross (gr. grs.). 20 ones = 1 score. Troy Weight. 24 grains (gr.) = 1 pennyweight. 20 pennyweights = 1 ounce. 12 ounces — 1 pound. Paper. 24 sheets = 1 quire. 20 quires = 1 ream. 2 reams = 1 bundle. 5 bundles = 1 bale. Apothecaries' Weight. 50 grains = 1 scruple. 20 grains 3 scruples 8 drams 12 ounces 1 dram. 1 ounce. 1 pound. 144 METRIC SYSTEM. The Metric System, of weights and measures, is formed upon the decimal scale, and has for its base a unit called a metre. Units. — The following are the different units with their English pronunciation : The Metre (meter).— The unit of the Metric Measure is (very nearly) the ten millionths part of a line drawn from the pole to the equator. The Litre (leeter). — The unit for all metric measures of capacity, dry or liquid, is a cube whose edge is the tenth of a metre (or one cubic decimetre). ^ The Gram (gram).— The unit of the Metric Weights, is the weight of a cubic centimetre of distilled water at 4° centigrade. The Are (air).— is the unit for land measure. (It is a square whose sides are ten (10) metres.) The Stere (stair). — is the unit for solid or cubic measure. (It is a cube whose edge is one (1) metre.) Measure of Length. Metric Denominations and Values. Equivalent in Denominations used in the United States. Myriametre (Mm.) Kilometre (Km.) Hectometre (Hm.) Decametre (Dm.) Metre (M.) Decimetre (dm.) Centimetre (cm.) Millimetre (mm.) Meters. or loooo equals " lOOO " " lOO " lO " I " O.I " O.OI " " O.OOI " Inches. 393707.904 = 39370.7904 = 3937-07904 = 393.707904 = 39.3707904 = 3.9370790 = 0-3937079 0.0393707 6.21 miles. 3.280 ft. 10 in 328 ft. I in. 32.8 ft. 3.28 ft. almost 40 in. almost 4 in. U. S. Measures. Metric Measure. U. S. Measures Metric Measures. I. Inch = I Yard = 2-5399 Centimeters. 0.9143 Metre. I P'oot = I Mile = 3 0479 Decimetres. 1609.32 Metres. Measure of Capacity. Metric Denominations and Values. Equivalent in United States Denominations. Myrialitre (Ml.) Kilolitre (Kl.) Hectolitre (HI ) Decalitre (Dl.) Litre (I..) Decilitre (dl.) Centilitre (cl.) Millilitre (ml.) = 10000 litres = 1000 ' ' == 100 " — 10 == I " = 0.1 = O.OI " = O.OOI *' = 10 cubic meters = I " metre = 100 " decimetres = 10 " decimetres = I " decimetre = 100 " centimetres = 10 " centimetres = I " centimetre = 2200.9670 gallons = 220.0967 " = 22.0097 " — 2.2009 " = 1.7608 pints = 6.1027 cubic inches == 0. 61027 " " = 0.061 " Measure of Weight. Metric Denominations and Values. Equivalent in United States Denominations . Myriagram (Mg ) Kilogram (Kg. ) Hectogram (Hg.) Decagram (Dg.) Gram (G.) Decigram (dg.) Centigram (eg ) Miligram (mg.) = 10000 grams. = 1000 " = 100 " == 10 = I - 0.1 " = O.OI " = O.OOI " = 10 cu. decimetres of water = I " " " " = 100 " centimetres " " = 10 " " " << _ j; *' << il (( = 100 " millimetres " = 10 " " " " = I " " " " 22.046 lbs., Avoir. 2.204 " " 3.527 oz., " 154-323 grams. 15-432 1.543 0 154 " 0.015 " ADVERTISEMENT. INSINGER & CO. 0 ers of Textile Machinery Nos. I o to 30 East Canal Street, (Rear 1033 North Front Street) PHILADELPHIA, PA. Looms for Tape, Binding, Ribbon, Goring, Suspender, Fringe, etc. Jacquard Machines for Shafts and Harness Looms. Our new double-acting side Jacquard is specially adapted for fast running looms. Patented change motions for 2, 3, 4 or 6 banks of shuttles and positive in its action at any speed. Lathes and Battons, straight or circular shuttles, 2, 3 or 4 banks. insinger&co.'s 56 Space. Circuiar-shuttie Patent Quill Winders for shuttle quills. Narrow Fabric Loom. This cut represents our Fly Shuttle Looms, for weaving narrow fabrics such as Tapes, Prussian Bindings, Etc. - These I^ooms are 56 spaces (or can be made any number of spaces) and make 175 revolutions per minute, one person attending to two Looms at the same time. Our improved shuttle motion will allow any number of picks per minute, and is smooth and sure in its action, .These same Looms can have rack and pinion shutt'es for finer grades of work. xi At)VERTISEMEN'r. PHILADELPHIA, PA., Manufacturers of FOR WORKING IRON . . AND STEEL O O JVIACHINE TOOLS High Speed Traveling Cranes and Swing Cranes. Shafting, Pulleys, Hangers, lie. Couplings, Etc., Estimates Furnished for Work Delivered at nill and Erected in Position Ready for tlie Belts. The VICARS Mechanical Stokers^r For Automatically Feeding Fuel to Boilers, = = = = - = with entire absence of Smoke. Improved Injectors, Turntables, " Testing Machines, Etc. ADVERTISEMENT. Qeorge Draper & Sons • HOPEDALE MASS . . . Are Sole Agents. For the following Corporations And their Products Sawyer Spindle Co. DRAPER RABBETH WHITIN ^ SPINDLES SHERMAN McMULLAN Detail of Hopper Mechanism op the Northrop I,oom (other parts of loom erased) Shows fresh bobbin being inserted In shuttle with empty bobbin falling into box Hopedale Machine Co. TWISTERS WARPERS SPOOLERS REELS Dutcher Temple Co. TEMPLES, for all Goods Northrop Loom Co. PATENT LOOMS With Automatic Filling Changers and Warp Stop Motion Geo. ^ ^(L DOUBLE FLANGED SPINNING RINGS &^0l*2- RHOADES CHANDLER SEPARATORS — -^^^ PATENT CHAIN DYEING PROCESS BOBBIN HOLDERS, LEVER SCREWS COTTON BALE SHEARS, Etc., Etc., Etc. Address all communications .to us personally GEO. DRAPER & SONS xiii ADVERtlSEMEKt. HOWT^RD St BUL-L-OUGH, AMERICAN MACHINE COMPANY, ud. PAWTUCKET, R. I. manufart. Cotton Machinery COMBINED 5ELF=FEEDING OPENERS BREAKER AND FINISHER LAPPERS All made from new models, with many patented improvements, giving better and evener work. NEW PATENT revolving Flat C ARD The simplest and most accurate of • all cards Greatest Production Best Quality of Carding Least Waste ELECTRIC SLUBBINQ STOP=MOTION DRAWING FRAMES The quality of the sliver produced by these Machines can- not be surpassed. Waste, Sing'e and Roller Laps are pre- vented, production in- creased, and great saving effected. INTERMEDIATE and ROVING FRAMES New Patented Differen'ial Motion, Arrangement of Core Drums, System of Balancrg Top or Bobbin Rail etc. Our Machines contain many Valuable Patented Improvements. -AH parts are made by special tools, and are exact duplicates. XIV ADVERTISEMENT. C^T/!L0QUE5 QMEERFMLLT COnPflNT HANUPACTURERS OF THE 5turtevant Blowers, Etc. BOSTON, MASS., U. S. A. THE 5TURTCVflNT 5T5TEn For Heating and Ventilating Textile Hills. For Drying and Handling Raw Stock. For Drying, Tentering and Oxidizing Plants. For Removing Steam from Dye Houses, Slashers, ^^^k Dry Cans, Etc., Etc. Ml^^ Removing waste from French Nappers and ^mB| Collecting same. JB^^fe For Forced or Induced Draft on Boiler Plants. 3peciai glowers and Engines for E^ery D^ty- B, F. Sturtevant Company, 34 Oliver Street, Boston, Mass. 75 Q,aeen Victoria Street, London, E. C. Eng. 131 liberty Street, New York, N. Y. ai West Nile Street, Glasgow, Scotland, 135 North Third Street, Philadelphia, Pa. 87 Zimmerstrasse, Berlin, Germany. 16 South Canal Street, Chicago, 111. a Kungsholmstorg, Stockholm, Sweden. ADVERTISEMENT. WILLIAM FIRTH, Textile TV/Tachinery IMPORTER OF 220 Devonshire Street, BOSTON, MASS. SOLE IMPORTER OF Hetherington's Cotton Carding and Combing riachines, Drawing, Roving Frames and Mules. ALSO Pamsden Qros. & gtephenson patent Worsted jVJachinery for spinning on gnglish and prench 5ystems, Patent Wool W^^sher. --T. C. ENTWISTLE, MANUFACTURERS OF Patent Warping, Balling iffi Beaming riachines , , ALSO . . All kinds of Common Expansion Combs for Warpers, Beamers and Slashers, , AND Traverse Wheel Card Grinders for American or English Cards. 164 Worthen St., Lowell, flass. D. H. WILSON & CO., Coppersmiths, Plumbers, A Steam and Gas Fitters. JUanufactnrers of SLASHER CYLINDERS, SILK AND DRESSER CYLINDERS, COLOR AND DTE KETTLES. All Kinds of Copper Work for Mills. 279-283 Dutton St., Lowell, Mass. ADVERTISEMENT WIN CLOTH r r FINISHING MACHINERY, Friction Clutch Pulleys and Cut=off Couplings, 32 VINE STREET, WORCESTER. MASS. The illustration represents J. E. Windle's Latest Improved Machine for doub- ling and rolling all kinds of either Cotton or Woolen Goods. For Circulars, prices, etc., address the Patentee and Manufactuier, J. E. WINDLE, "Worcester, Mass. Parks & Woolson Machine Co. CLOTH FINISHING MACHINERY Send for New lUustrated Catalogfue. SPRINGF=IEI_D. FULLING MILLS. CLOTH WASHERS. SOAPING AND WETTING MACHINES. WOOL SCOURERS. POWER TRANSMISSION MACHINERY WITH ALL ACCOMPANIMENTS. James Hunter Machine Co., NORTH ADAMS, MASS. XVll ADVERTISEMENT. The Acme Microscopes Acme No. 4 Microscope. are famous for perfect fitting and finish ; we make them suit- able for every sort of textile work. We will send our cata- logue, and will write, if desired, making suggestions as to the instrument best suited to in- dividual needs. We also sell thread counters and other magnifyiug glasses, design paper and colors, and all scientific instruments and ap- paratus, which we manufacture or import. QUEEN & CO., Seientifie Instrament liJakeFs, 1010 Chestnut St.. PHILADELPHIA. Hurt! &, Crehore, Crehore &. Keal, lirumel Crehore, l^eiuuel Crehore &. Son, (Geo. C. Crehore,) Lemuel Crehore Co., (C. F. Crehore,) C. F. Crehore, C. F. Crehore & Son, (F. M. Crehore,^ 1825. 184:5. 1854. 1867. 1868. 1883. C, F. CREHORE (St SON, Established 1825 MANUfACTURERS OR Press Papers AND Cards for Jacquard Looms 87 Milk Street, M BOSTON, MASS. Elliot Cloth Folder and^^easurer FOR COTTON AND GINGHAM MILLS, BLEACHERIES, PRINT WORKS, BAG MFRS., Etc. MANUFACTURED BY ELLIOT & HALL, 54 Hermon Street, Send for Circular. WORCESTER, MASS. K. GOULD. Top roll and Clearer Coverer and Leather worker. Cots made to order for Spinning Mills Cotton or Worsted. 2207 East York Street, KENSINGTON, PHILADELPHIA, PA. GEORGE L. SCHOFIELD, Dealer in New and Second-Hand Cotton and Woolen Machinery Shafting, Pulleys, Belting, Pipes, Tools, etc., 123 North Front St., Philadelphia. THOMAS STEWART, MANUFACTURER OF STEEL loom: heeds, AND DEALER IN Carpet and Cotton Mill Supplies, 312 MASTER ST., PHII«ADBI«PHIA. HENRY TROEMNER, 710 Market St., Philadelphia, Pa., MAKER OF Fine Scales and Weights For Accurate Weighing. Special Scales and Weights Ma^e to orde r. PRICE LIST ON APPLICATION. ADVERTISEMENT. j^ IT50N f^ ACHINE Q o. - riANUFACTURERS OF = - Cotton Openers ^^Lappers Wool Washers Dryers and Carbonizers LOWELL, MASS. Establish ED,!873. 1 ADVERTISEMENT. GEORGE R. K. SMITH. FRANKLIN S. SMITH. STANTON M. SMITH. 466, 468, 470 Washington St., " NEW YORK. s 0 A P S Of Every Description For Textile IVIanufacturers. THE BEST IS GOOD ENOUGH. " Our Granulated Carbonate of Soda Is the Highest Grade ot Concentrated Sai=soda on the Market. XX ADVERTISEMENT. "52"ddnbdcket Press lyjACHINE^ C° WDDNBDCKET, R. I., U. B. A. MANUFACTURERS OF- The Celebrated City Machine ply F^SLtnes Patent Continuous Steam Cloth Press 1883 PATTERN, The Fisher Patent Card Feed for Wool, Worsted, Jute, Etc. cs z < UJ CQ UJ CO H UJ o 30 m C/3 > (p •t» m n > Cloth Trimming and Inspecting flachines Atlantic Fancy Cotton Looms The Chapman Pulley arid Coupling Forcing flachine Shafting, Pulleys, Couplings, Etc. IRON AND BRASS CASTINGS OF ANY DESCRIPTION See Our New Continuous Wool Spinning flachine JUST OUT □ffice and lisrarks^ WDDnsDcket^ R. I.^ TT. B. R. ADVERTISEMENT. Qlobe Machine Works, FRANKFORD, PA. MAKERS OF The Denn Warpers, Linking Warpers, Balling Warpers, Section Beam Warpers, Beam Warpers, From 100 ends to 3200 ends for COTTON, WOOLEN, SILK, PLUSH, ELASTIC WEB, SUSPENDER WORK. Electrical Stop Motions Applied to all Creels. Charles H. Schnitzler, PATENTEE AND SOLE MANUFACTURER OF The Pneumatic Conveyor For the handling of Wool and Cotton Stock, Rags, Excelsior, Jute and all kinds of Fibrous Material, wet or diy. Also Spool Elevators. Steam Heating and Ventilating and Mill Work generally. Blower and Fan Work a specialty. Satisfaction Gnaranteed. 215 N. Second St., Philadelphia, Pa, HOWSON & HOWSON, (Counsellors at Cau/, Solicitors of patents, 119 South Fourth St., Philadelphia. 38 Park Row, New York. 918 F Street, Washington, D. C. Patent Law Business in the Courts and before the Patent Office. UfllTED STATES Rfiti pOl^EIGn PATBflTS SBCUl^ED RliD TIRADE JWflt^I^S f?EGISTBI?ED. f^y\Q-'}f./A' ^^^'Ce-'^, XXll ADVERTISEMENT The American Drosophore Company, Drosophore Humidifier MAKERS OF THE FOR HUMIDIFYING COTTON, WORSTED, SILK FLAX MILLS. This system has been introduced into many of the largest woolen, cotton, silk and worsted miils in this and foreign countries, and used to the greatest advantage. It produces from 40 to 50 per cent, more moisture than any other similar device to purify the air and to remove all danger from elec- tricity generating in certain departments of the mill. The device hangs down about a foot from the ceiling, and cannot in any way interfere with any other part of the equipment of the mill. One of the Humidifiers will give the requisite moisture to 22,000 cubic feet of air. The superiority and popularity of this system is proved by the large number in use, References from the leading Textile Mills where this sys- tem is in use will be furnished by "William Firth^ who is Manager of this Company. 220 Devonshire Street, Boston, Mass. Works: 8 Medford Street, Boston. Correspondence Solicited. Write for prices before ordering elsewhere. xxiii ADVERTISEMENT. BeDazet Heddle Company, Ltd. SOLE MANUFACTURERS OF THE LATEST... PATENTED WIRE MEDDLES, DARBY, DEL. CO., PA. Malcolm Mills Co., FRANKFORD. PA. Office, 229 Chestnut St., Philadelphia. MANUFAOTURERS OF NOVELTY YARNS, BOUCLES, SPIRALS, KNOTS AND FANCY TWISTS, IN WORSTED, MOHAIR, COTTON AND SILK. CEDAR TANKS, VATS, DYE TUBS, ETC. GEORGE WOOLFORD, 2240 and 2244 r^onth flinth Street, PflllillDHliPJlIA. LORD'S BOILER CLEANSING COMPOUNDS, MANUrACTURED EXCLUSIVELY BY GEO. W. LORD, ANALYTICAL AND MANUFACTURING CHEMIST, 316 UNION ST., PHILADELPHIA, PA. mOb H. HALL, Established 1868. Cedar Vat Tank Factory North Second St., aboTe Cambria, Phila., Pa. All kinds of TUBS and TANKS for Dyers, Bleachers, Factories, etc.. Made at the Shortest Notice and on the most Reasonable Terms. Down Town OfSce, 14:0 Chestnut Street, cor. Second. Hours : From 12 to i. Fleming & Chapin, Tapes, Braids, Lrace Bdgingfs. TRIMMINGS FOR MANUFACTURERS A SPECIALTY. AGENTS FOR HADLEY COMPANY'S pipe (^ottop Yarps, U/arps, Jl7reads. Nos. 30 to 100 In single, a 3 or more ply. 215 Church Street, P^IIiRDEItPHlA, PR. FREDERICK JONES. QEO. H. aiLBERT. FREDERICK JONES k CO. X^xtile Design Papers 58 North Fourth Street, Philadelphia. WAVING the experience and facilities for making Design Papers in all sizes, we are enabled to supply manufacturers and public designers with the best at the lowest rates. Special sizes made to order. Will be pleased to quote you prices for any quantity or size 3 ou may need. xxiv ADVERTISEMENT. FOR SALS BY LIST OF THE LEADING BOOKS ON DYEING, PRINTING, FINISHING, ETC E. A. POSSELT, Publisher, 2152 North 21st St., Philadelphia, Pa (We only handle modern and out of date publications.) MANUAL OP DYEING, by Knecht, Rawson, and Loewenthal. In 3 volumes 910 pages, (6 x 9 inches) 116 illustrations and 144 dyed samples of wool and cotton fabrics on 24 plates. Cloth Bound, Price $15.00 Abstract of the Contents:— Chapter I. Theory of Dyeing. II. Chemical Technology of the Textile Fibres. III. Water. IV. Washing and Bleaching. V. Acids, Alkalies, Mordants, &c. VI. Natural Coloring Matters. VII. Artificial Organic Coloring Matters. VIII. Mineral Colors. IX. Machinery used in dyeing. X. Investigation into the Tinctorial Properties of Coloring Matters. XI. Analysis and Valuation of Materials Used in Dyeing. Appendix. THE DYEING OP TEXTILE FABRICS, by J. J. Hummel, F. C. S., Professor and Director of the Dyeing Department of the Yorkshire College, Leeds, England. Complete in one volume containing 534 pages, (6}i x 434^ inches) with 97 diagrams for illustrating the various Fibres and the latest and most improved Machinery as used in the diflFerent processes of Dyeing, also Scouring, Bleaching, Finishing, etc. Third edition, Cloth Bound, Price $2.00. Table of Contents : -Cotton, Flax, Jute and China Grass. Wool. Silk. Cotton Bleaching. Linen Bleaching. Wool Scouring and Bleaching. Silk Scouring and Bleaching. Water. About Dyeing. Use of Mordants. Notes on Cotton, Wool and Silk Dye- ing. Blue Coloring Matters. Red Coloring Matters. Yellow Color- ing Matters. Aniline Coloring Matters. Quinoline Coloring Matters. Phenol Coloring Matters. Azo Coloring Matters. Anthra- cene Coloring Matters. Artificial Coloring Matters Containing Sulphur. Chrome Yellow. Iron Buff, Manganese Brown. Prussian Blue. Fabrics of Cotton and Wool. Method of Devising Experi- ments in Dyeing. Estimation of the Value of Coloring Matters. The Detection of Colors on Dyed Fabrics. Tables of Color Tests. Tables of Thermometer Scales, Weights and Measures, &c. THE DYEING AND BLEACHING OP WOOL, SILK, COTTON, PLA.X, HEMP, CHINA GRASS, ETC , by Antonio Sansone, Late Direc- tor of the Department of Dyeing at the Manchester Technical school . Chemist to the Actiengesellschaft fuer AnilinFabrikation, in Berlin Germany. At present Head Chemist to the dyeworks of the Cotonificio Cantoni, in L,egnano, Italy. Volume I. 240 pages {S)4 x 5}4 inches). Text with 72 illustrations of Machinery on plates. Volume II. 221 dyed patterns on 29 plates. Both volumes. Cloth Bound, Price $8 50. Table of Contents: Chap. I. History of Dyeing. Chap. II. History of Coal Tar Colors. Chap. III. General Characteristics of Fibres. Chap. IV. Testing Coloring Matters by Dyeing. Chap. v. COTTON. Bleaching Cotton. Cotton Dyeing.Loose Cotton, Yarn and Cloth. Basic Aniline Colors. Acid Coal Tar Colors. The Eosines. Azo Colors. New Class Azo Colors. Alizarine Colors. Dyewood Extract Colors. Dyeing and Finishing Black Italian Cotton Cloth. Other Dyewood Colors. Browns, Yellows, Reds, etc. Indigo Blues. Chap. VI, lilNBN. Jute, China, Grass, etc. Chap. VII. WOOL. Scouring, Washing. Bleaching. Dye- ing, Mechanical Dyeing Processes. Basic. Acid. Alkaline Coal Tar Colors Alizarines. Dyeing Wool with Natural Organic Color- ing Matters. Indigo. Dyewoods. One Dip Dyes. Chap VIII. SIIiK. Anilines. Alizarine Colors on Silk. Weighting of Silk. Chap. IX. Alizarine Colors in Wool Dyeing. Various New Dyestuffs. Preparing Soaps for Wool Scourings. Gambine. New Series of Colors Directly Fixed on the Fibre. Stibine, Etc. Saluffer Cudbear and Archill. Hermite Bleaching Process. Cochineal Carmine. Black with Dinitrosoresorcine, etc. Benzidine Colors. Paraphenglene Blue. Rhodomine. China Grass or Rhea Ramine Fibre. Mordanting Wool and Wool Dyeing. Chap. X. Machinery Employed in Dyeing. Chap. XI. Explanation to the Dyed Patterns. Two Hundred and Twenty-one Patterns on Twenty- nine Plates form the second volume. THE HISTORY OP WOOL AND WOOL COMBING, by James Burnley, London, England. American Bound Edition, published by E. A. Posselt. Complete in one volume, containing 487 pages (6x9 inches), with numerous illustrations and portraits. Cloth Bound, Price $8.40. BfeCENT PROGRESS IN DYEING AND CALICO PRINTING, by Antonio Sansone, 136 pages of reading matter (8^ x 5)4 inches) with 5 plates of Machinery, and 28 plates of Dyed Sam pies. Cloth Bound, Price $5.60. Table of Contents :— Changes in Bleaching. Changes in Calico Printing. Further developments in Wool Printing. Changes in Cotton Dyeing. Aniline Black. Substantive Coloring Matters. Dixotized Colors. Basic Series. Acid Colors. Milling Colors for Wool, the Alizarine Colors. Natural Organic Dyestuffs. Chemistry of Cotton Dyeing. Cop Dyeing. Cotton Cloth and Yarn Dyeing. Paper Dyeing. Leather Dyeing. Skin Dyeing. Tin Foil Dyeing. Flower Dyeing. I^ X 9^ inches). Illustrated by 453 Engrav- ings. Cloth Bound, P/ioo $6.00. •Abstract of .• —Classification of Steam Engines. The Common Slide Valve Engine. Diagrams for Designing Valve Motions or Mechanisms. Link Pumps. Injectors. Steam Engine Governors. Steam Engine Indicator Side Valves. The Piston and its Rings Safety Valves. Steam Gauges. Practical Notes. THE COMPLETE PRACTICAL MACHINIST by J. Rose, M. E. 504 pages, x 7^ inches) Cloth Bound, Price $2.50. Abstract of Co«/^«/^.-— Cutting Tools for Lathes and Planing Machines Cutting Speed and Feed. Bor- ing Tools for Lathe Work. Screw Cutting Tools. Lathe Dogs, Carriers or Drivers^ Turning Eccentrics. Hand- Turning. Drilling in the Lathe Boring Bars. Slotting Machine Tools. Twist Drills. Tool Steel. Tapes and Dies. Vise Work Tools. Fitting Connecting Rods. Milling-Machines and Milling Tools. Grindstone and Tool Grinding. Lining or Marking out Work. Machine Tools. To Calcvdate the Speed of Wheels, Pulleys, etc. How to Set a Slide Valve. Pumps. 900 EXAMINATION QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS FOR ENGINEERS AND FIREMEN, by E. Edwards. 224 pages. Bound in Leather, Price $1.60. Motions and Reversing Gears. Link Motions with Rock Shaft. Adjustable Cut-off Engines. Varying the Point of Cut-off by Shifting the Eccentric Across the Crank- shaft. Examples from Practice. Automatic Cut-off Engines. The Compound Engine. The Condensing Engine. Compound Condensing and Triple Expansion Stationary Engines. The Marine Engine. Various Applications of the Steam Engine. Index. LINEAR DRAWING AND PROJECTION, by E- A. Davidson, 260 pages, (4 x (3% inches) with 250 illustrations Cloth Bound, Price $1.76. THE PRAOTIOAL MANAGEMENT OP DYNAMOS AND MOTORS, by F. B. Croker and S. S. Wheeler. Second Edition, revised and enlarged with a special chapter by H. A. Foster, i2mo., cloth, illustrated, Price $1.00. TWENTY YEARS WITH THE INDICATOR, by Thomas Pray, Jr., being a practical Text-Book for the Engineer or the Student, with no Complex Formulae. Illustrated. 8vo., cloth, Price $2.60. ADDRESS ALL ORDERS FOR THESE BOOKS TO E. A. POSSELT, Publisher, 2153 Nortli Twenty-first Street, PHILADELPHIA, PA. XXX ADVERTISEMENT. PAUL BEER, Coppersmith ..AND MANUFACTURER OF... Copper Kettles (PLAIN AND JACKETS.) COPPER STEAM PIPES, COILS, DIPPERS, STEAM BOARDS AND HEAVY-TINNED STEAM CYLINDERS. 831 North Fourth St., PHILADELPHIA. Repairing Neatly Done 188 RIVER STREET, Paterson, - N. J. Mnfr. of all kinds of Reeds, Harness, Lingoes, Mails, Shuttles and Quills. -DEALER IN— Weavers' Materials in General. Plush and Velvet Reeds a Specialty. 90th THOUSAND IN PRESS. THE FUNK & WAGNALLS Standard Dictionary of the English Language. 'The Standard Dictionary should be the Pride of Literaiy America, as it is the Admiration of Literary England.' ' -8t James Budget, London, July 27, 1895. (Weekly Edition of -VZ. James Gazette.) 301,865 Vocabulary Terms. l$i.^,000 Synonyms and Antonyms. 47,468 Entries in the Appendix. 4 5,000 Illustrative Quotations. $960,000 Expended in its Production. 000 Tllustrations. S4r7 Editors and Specialisis Department of Textile Terms Edited by E. A. Posselt. Many valuable Scientific Color Formulas, Tables, Plates, etc. THE TEXTILE COLORIST, PHILADELPHIA, says: " The Standard Dictionary is a work without an equal, great in its conception and perfect in its execution. " An important feature for the scientific reader as well as of special interest for the practical dyer, colorist, or chemist, is the definition of the six primary colors of the spectrum, containing the analysis of several hundred shades and tones, Many thousand samples were considered and compared in perfecting the beautiful color plate under ' spectrum,' and preparing the table of more than 4C0 formulas in connection with it. Under the words denoting the six primary colors extensive tablesof dyestuffs and pigments are given, showing their nature and chemical character." THE NEW YORK HERALD says: "The Standard Dictionary is a triumph in the art of publication. It is admirable from every point of view. It is the most satisfactory and most complete dictionary yet printed." THE NEW YORK MEDICAL ABSTRACT says : "It is as far in advance of the great Century Dictionary as the latter was in advance of Webster's." THE TEXTILE MANUFACTURING WORLD. BOSTON, says: "We have given special study to the treatment of textile and technical terms and phrases in the Standard, and have been sur- prised at the thoroughness with which special technical terms have been enumerated and accurately defined. This feature is quite unique in dictionary-making, and as far as our observation goes, in comparison with the Century and International , the Standard leads in this respect Technical men have been accustomed to look for strictly trade and technical definitions in technical dictionaries, but we believe the new Standard will in almost every instance give a satisfactory answer to the meaning of any trade term. We have made scores of tests, and with satisfaciory results. It is a complete dictionary, in a word; it ts The Standard." THE JOURNAL OF EDUCATION, BOSTON, says: " In thoroughness, completeness, accuracy, typography, style, and illustration it challenges criticism and commands admiration. It will make the world its debtor, and all who write must praise it evermore," THE NEW YORK INDEPENDENT says: " It is a noble example in which the modern tendency to popu- larize knowledge has risen to the highest level yet reached." PRICES : Half Russia, In One Volume, 915 00 Half Russia, In Two Volumes, $18 00 Full Russia, with Denison's Index, " " 18 00 Full Russia, with Denlson's Index, " " OO Full Morocco, " " " 2a 00 Full Morocco, " »' " " 26 OO This Work is not for sale in bookstores, and those who wish a copy at once should remit direct to the Publishers. Sold by Subscription. Intelligent Solicitors Wanted. Address : FUNK & WAGNALLS COMPANY, 30 Lafayette Place, New York. ADVERTISEMENT. THE TEXTILE RECORD, THE BEST TEXTILE JOURNAL. E dited by p A. POSSELT. Contains more original Practical Matter than any other Textile Journal. PAPERS ON PRACTICAL PROCESSES FOR THE WOOLEN MANUFACTURER, THE COTTON MANUFACTURER, THE DYER AND BLEACHER, THE CALICO PRINTER, THE KNITTER, ETC., ETC., ETC. Richly Illustrated Articles on New Textile Machinery. The best Correspondence. Able Editorials on Industrial Questions. New Processes translated from French and Qerman technical press. The TEXTILE RECORD confessedly ranks FIRST among American Journals as the representative of the great textile industries. IT IS THE ONLY PERIODICAL IN THE WORLD THAT FULLY REPRESENTS THE KNITTING INDUSTRY. Sample Copies on Application. The Textile Record Company 1 425 Walnut Street, PHILADELPHIA, PA. xxxii NOW ON ITS SIXTH EDITION. THE MOST COMPLETE TREATISE ON DESIGNING AND WEAVING OF ALL TEXTILE FABRICS EVER PUBLISHED. Technology of Textile Design, Being a Practical Treatise on the Construction and Application of Weaves for all Textile Fabrics, with minute reference to the latest Inventions for Weaving. Containing also an Appendix showing the Analysis and giving the Calculations necessary for the Manufacture of the various Textile Fabrics. BY E. A. POSSELT, ACCOMPANIKE) BY OVKR lOOO ILIvUSTRATIONS- In one volumBf Quarto, over SOO pages. Handsomely hound in cloth and gold. Price, Five Dollars^ including Expressage, ABSTRACT OF THE CONTENTS. Division of Textile Fabrics According to their Construction. SQUARED DESIGNING PAPER FOR THE DIFFERENT TEXTILE FABRICS. Purpose of the Squared Designing Paper— Practical Use of the Heavy Squares in Designing Paper— Selection of Designinf Paper for Textile Fabrics. WEAVES FOR TEXTILE FABRICS AND THE METHODS OF THEIR CONSTRUCTION. FOUNDATION V^EAVES. THE PLAIN OR COTTON WEAVE. Construction— Influence of the Twist of the Yarn— Fancy Effects Produced by Using Threads of Different Sixes ; or by the Combination of Two or More Colors. TWILLS. Construction— Influence of the Twist of the Yarn Upon the Various Textures — Division of Twill-Weaves — Combination of Two or More Colors for Producing Different Effects. SATINS. Methods and Rules for Constructing the Various Satin-Weaves — Influence of the Twist of the Yarn Upon Fabrics Interlaced with Satin- Weaves — Arrangement of Satins for Special Fabrics. - DRAWING IN OF THE WARP IN THE HARNESS. Description of the Operation — Principle of a Drawing-in Draft — Methods Used for Preparing Drawing-in Drafts— Division of Drawing-in Drafts— STRAIGHT DRAWING-IN DRAFTS— FANCY DRAWING-IN DRAFTS—^. Broken Draws— ^. Point Draws — C. Section-Arrangement Draws (ist Plain, zd Double)— Z>. Skip Draws — E. Mixed or Cross-Draws — Other Points a Drawing-in Draft May Require in Addition to the Indications for Drafting on Certain Harnesses— DRAFTING OF DRAWING- IN DRAFTS FROM WEAVES— PREPARING THE HARNESS-CHAIN BY FANCY DRAWING-IN DRAFTS— RULES FOR ESTIMATING THE NUMBER OF HEDDLES REQUIRED FOR EACH HARNESS— a. For Straight Drawing-in Drafts—*. For the Various Fancy Drawing-in Drafts-THE REED. AND RULES FOR CALCULATIONS. (Continued on next Page ) xxxiii DERIVATIVE WEAVES. FROM THE PLAIN OR COTTON WEAVE. I. Common Rib-Weaves— II. Common Basket-Weaves-III. Fancy Rib-Weaves— IV. Fancy Basket-Weaves— V Fieured Rib-Weaves-Efifects Produced by Using Two or More Colors in Warp and Filling of Fabrics Interlaced Upon Rib- and Basket-Weaves— VI. Oblique Rib- Weaves— VII. Combination of Common and Oblique Rib-Weaves. FROM THE REGULAR TWILL WEAVE. I. Broken-Twills— Using Two or More Colors for Producing Various EfiFects Upon Fabrics Interlaced with Broken-Twills- II. Steep-Twi.ls of 63° Grading or Diagonals-Ill. Steep-Twills of 70° Grading-IV. Steep-Twills having a Grading of 7s°- V. Reclining-T wills or Twills having a 27° Grading-VI. Curved-Twills-VII. Skip-Twills-VIII. Combination of Two Dif ferent Common Twills to Steep-Twills of 63° Grading-IX. Corkscrew-Twills-^. Derived from One Regular Twill-5 From Two Regular Twills-C. Figuring with the Filling Upon the Face-i?. Curved Corkscrew-Twills-^. Corkscrew Weaves composed of Warp and Filling Twills-/^. Corkscrew Weaves Figured by the Warp-G^. Corkscrew Weaves in which the Face and Back of the Fabric is produced by the Filliug-X. Entwining-Twills— XI. Twills having Double TwilUEfTects- XII. Twill Weaves Producing Checkerboard Effects-XlII. Combination of Warp and Filling Effects from a 45° Twill Weave after a Given Motive— XIV. Fancy Twill Weaves— XV. Pointed-Twills. DERIVATIVE WEAVES FROM SATINS. I. Double Satins— II. Granite Weaves. Combination of Different Systems of Weaves into One Weave— Figured Effects Produced by the Fancy Arrangement (of Two or More Colors) Upon Fabrics Interlaced with Derivative Weaves. WEAVES FOR SINGLE CLOTH FABRICS OF A SPECIAL CONSTRUCTION AND PECULIAR CHARACTER. Honeycomb Weaves— Imitation Gauze (Plain and Figured)— COMBINATION OF WEAVES FOR FABRICS CON STRUCTED WITH ONE SYSTEM OF WARP AND TWO SYSTEMS OF FILLING-Combining Two Systems of Filling to One Kind of Warp for Increasing the Bulk of a Fabric— Figuring with Extra Filling Upon the Face of Fabrics Interlace. I with Their Own Warp and Filling— Principles of Swivel Weaving— Explanation and Illustration of a Swivel Loom— COM BI NATION OF WEAVES FOR FABRICS CONSTRUCTED WITH TWO SYSTEMS OF WARP AND ONE SYSTEM OF FILLING— Two Systems of Warp and One System of Filling for Producing Double-Faced Fabrics— Using an Extra Warn as Backing for Heavy- Weight Worsted and Woolen Fabrics— Figuring with Extra Warp Upon the Face of Fabrics Otherwise Interlaced with the Regular Warp and Filling— Principles of Lappet Weaving— Explanations and Illustrations of the Laonet Loom-TRICOT WEAVES. ^«»ppet DOUBLE CLOTH. Description and Object of Making Double Cloth Fabrics— Rules for Designing Double Cloth Fabrics— DOUBLE CLOTH WEAVES DESIGNED WITH THE FOLLOWING PROPORTION OF FACE AND BACK IN WARP AND FILLING- A. Warp and Filling, One End Face to Alternate with One End Back-^. Warp One Face One Back, Filling Two Face One Back— C. Warp Two Face One Back, Filling One Face One Back— 2?. Warp and Filling Two Face One Back— £ Warp and Filling Two Face Two Back-K Warp Two Face Two Back, Filling Two Face One Buck-G. Warp and Filling Three Face One Back-DOUBLE CLOTH WEAVING WITHOUT STITCHING BOTH CLOTHS-Principle of Constructing Seam- less Bags, Hose and Similar Fabrics -DOUBLE CLOTH FABRICS IN WHICH THE DESIGN IS PRODUCED BY THE STITCHING BEING VISIBLE UPON THE FACE OF THE FABRIC-Worsted Coatings-Matelasses-Quilts (Plain Pique Fabrics and Figured Pique Fabrics)-RIB FABRICS-THREE-PLY FABRICS-Four-Ply Fabrics, Etc. PILE FABRICS. PILE FABRICS PRODUCED BY THE FILLING. Velveteens, Fustians, Corduroys-Chinchillas, Whitneys, Plain and Figured-Chenille for the Manufacture of Curtains and Rugs— Chenille Cutting Machine Illustrated and Explained. CHENILLE AS PRODUCED IN THE MANUFACTURE OF FRINGES. PILE FABRICS IN WHICH THE PILE IS PRODUCED BY A SEPARATE WARP IN ADDITION TO THE GROUND WARP. Description of the Structure of Warp Pile Fabrics-Terry and Velvet Pile-Explanation and Illustrations of the Method of Operation Necessary in Producing Warp Pile Fabrics— VELVET AND PLUSH FABRICS-FIGURED VELVET-ASTRA- KHANS, Their Various Methods of Construction— Illustrations and Explanations of Machines for Curling Warp-Threads for Astrakhans-TAPESTRY CARPETS-BRUSSELS CARPETS-DOUBLE-FACED CARPETS, in which the Pile is Produced by Inserting a Special Heavy Filling in Place of a Wire. DOUBLE PILE FABRICS. Principle of their Construction-Methods of Operation for Producing Double Pile Fabrics and Cutting the Same on the Loom During Weaving— Illustration of the Machine and Explanation of the Method of Operation for Cutting Double-Pile Fabrics After Leaving the Loom— Weaving Two, Three or More Narrow V/idths of Double-Pile Fabrics At Once— " Let-Off' ■ and "Take-Up" Motions of the Pile Warp in Double-Pile Fabrics-Double- Pile Fabrics as Produced with a ProDortional Higher Pile— Figured Double-Pile Fabrics. TERRY PILE FABRICS, IN WHICH THE PILE IS PRODUCED DURING WEAVING WITHOUT THE AID OF WIRES AS USED IN THE MANUFACTURE OF TURKISH TOWELINGS AND SIMILAR FABRICS. PILE FABRICS AND REGULAR DOUBLE CLOTH FABRICS OF A SPECIAL METHOD OF CON- STRUCTION. Smyrna Carpets and Rugs-Imitation Turkey Carpets— Two-Ply Ingrain Carpet. GAUZE FABRICS. Principle of Construction of Gauze Fabrics-Combination of Plain and Gauze Weaving-Jacquard Gauze-Imitation of the Regular Doup-Cross- Weaving, as Used for Chenille and Loom for Producing the Same Illustrated and Explained-Cross- Weaving, as Used for the Manufacture of Filtering Bags-Cross- Weaving for Inside Fast Selvages of Fabrics Produced in Two or More Widths on the Loom. THE JACQUARD MACHINE as Necessary for Figured Work— GOBELIN TAPESTRY. APPENDIX. BY THE SAME AUTHOR THE JACQUARD MACHINE ANALYZED AND EXPLAINED: With an Appendix on tlie Preparation of Jacqnard Cards & Practical Hints to Learners of Jacqnard Designing WITH 230 ILLUSTRATIONS AND NUMEROUS DIAGRAMS. By E. A. POSSBLiT, Expert in Textile Designing and;M:anuracturlng ; Principal of Posselt'* Private School of Textile Design, end Editor of The Textile Brcord of America ; Author and Pnblisher of " Technology % of Textile Design " " The Structure of Fibres, Yarns and Fabrics," etc., etc. This hook, quarto, handsomely bound in clolh, will be mailed, postage prepaid, to any address, npon receipt o^ Price, 93. ABSTRACT OK THE CONTENTS. History of the Jacquard Machine. The Jacquard Machine— General Arrangement and Appli- cation. Illustration of the different parts of the Jacquard Machine —Method of Operation, etc. The Jacquard Harness — The Comber-boards, lying-up of Jacquard Harness. I. — Straight-through Tie-up. II. — Straight-through Tie-up for Repeated Effects, in one Repeat of the Design. III. — Straight-through Tie-up of Jacquard Loom, having Front Harness attached. IV. — Centre Tie-up. V. — Straight-through and Point Tie-ups Combined. VI.— Straight-through Tie-up in Two Sections. VII. — Tying-up a Jacquard Harness for Figuring Part of the Design with an Extra Warp. VIII.— Straight-through Tie-up in Three Sections. IX.— Point Tie-up in Three Sections. X.— Combination Tie-up in Two Sections. XI. — Straight-through Tie-up in Four Sections. XII.— Tying-up of Jacquard Looms with Compound Har- ness attached. XIII. — Tying-up Jacquard Looms for Gauze Fabrics. Modifications of the Single Lift Jacquard Machine. I.— Double Lift Single Cylinder Jacquard Machine. II. — Double Lift Double Cylinder Jacquard Machine. III. — Substitution of Tail-cords for Hooks. Tying-up of Jacquard Harness for Two-ply Ingrain Carpet General Description of the Construction of the Fabric. Straight-through Tie-up. Point Tie-up. APPENDIX. Preparing and Stamping of Jacquard Cards. Dobby Card-Punching Machines. Piano Card-Stamping Machines. Stamping of Cards. Repeating Jacquard Cards by the Positive Aclioii Repeater. Lacing of Jacquard Cards. Lacing of Jacquard Cards by Hand. Lacing of Jacquard Cards by Machine. PRACTICAL HINTS TO LEARNERS OF JACQUARD DESIGNING-. Squared Designing Paper for the different Textile Fabrics executed on the Jacquard Machine. Selection of the Proper Brush for the different C! De- signing Papers. Colors used for Painting Textile Designs. Preservation of Textile Designs Sketching of Designs for Textile Fabrics to be executed on the Jacquard Machine. Methods of Setting the Figures. Size of Sketch Required. Enlarging and Reducing Figures for Sketches. Transferring of the Sketch to the Squared Designing Paper. Glossary Outlining in Squares. Rules for Outlining in Squares Inside or Outside the Drawing Outline. Illustration of a Sketch— Outling on n Paper— Finished Design— Fabric Sample (Single Cloth). Designs for Damask Fabrics to be executed on a Jac- quard Loom, with Compound Harness attachecf. Designs for Two-ply Ingrain Carpet. Designs for Dressgoods Figured with Extra Warp. Designs for Figured Pile Fabrics. The Shading of Textile Fabrics by the Weave. ABSTRACT OF COMMENTS OF THE LEADING TEXTILE PRESS ON THIS WORK. It is a thoroughly practical work, written by one who is master of the business in all its various branches. Wade's Fibre and Fabric, Boston, The work is well gotten up, and with its explanatory illustrations, cannot fail to be of great service both to the student and the advanced weaver. The Manufacturers' Review and Industrial Record, New York. This work has long been a serious need in textile mills, and amongst designers and card stampers, and we predict for it a wide circulation. Tributes to its value have reached us from most prominent manufacturers in the country. The Philadelphia Carpet Trade. The most important addition ever made on this side of the Atlantic to the literature of the textile industry, etc. Textile Record of America, Philadelphia, It is a great work, and is a credit to the author, etc., etc. The Bulletin of the Philadelphia Textile Association, now the Manufacturer. It is the only work in the English language that treats exclusively on the Jacquard Machine. No designer ■*'ho wishes to be up in his vocation should be without it. Boston Journal of Commerce. 49- Books by Mail, Free of Postage, to all Par-.S'z>.-— Enclosed check in payment' of book • Fibres, Yarns and Fabrics." Thank you for terms, etc. h^Tv^f?^ Technology of Textile Design " was the instruction book at the Lowell School of Design and therefore have one on hand, which is quite inexhaustive and its own talker. Yours, W. W. WiNDLE. MANUFACTURERS OF WOOI,EN HOSIERY, Milroy, Pa. Many thanks for the superb book you sent on Textile Fibres and their manipulations. It is excellent. Yours, etc., Thompson Bros. BRIDGEPORT SILK COMPANY, Bridgeport, Conn. . A. Posselt Esq., Dear Sir .--mease find enclosed amount of bill for last publication sent me. I now have all your works uo to aate, and sincerely wish you luck with your last exellent cflFort. What next? Send circular. Respectfully, F. M. Patterson. FROM CAXIAS, BRAZIL. "^f:^?- ?,°gSELT, Bear Sir .—Uave received the books fiit """^ .Fibres, Yarns and Fabrics," " Technology of Tex- !lfT,^^^'^°' Jacquard Machine." and am mulh pleased with them. Yours truly, Robert D. Wall. RAY'S WOOLEN COMPANY, Franklin, Mass. E. A. posselt, HsQ.,Dear Sir:- I have purchased more ihan »2^oo worth of books on manufacturing before purchasing yours, H^. w*",J';"i.'''^'?uy "Fibres, Yarns and Fabrics," il worth double all the others are. I am yours, Joseph Aldrich. MASCOMA FLANNEL COMPANY. E. A. Posselt Z)^a^5z>.— Enclosed please find check for pay- ment of enclosed bill for copy " Structure of Fibres, Yarns and Fabrics. Was much pl.ased with book, it is well worth the money to an experieoced manufactuier, and many times its cost to beginners in the art of manufacturing If I could have had such a work in my younger days of manufacturing, it would have learnedmemany points that I had to work out by study obser- vation and experience, attended with more or less mistakes on my part and expenses otherwise. M. E. George, Supt. JAMESTOWN, N. Y. Mr. E. a. Posselt, Dear Sir.— mease find enclosed monev S.^ V JJ°^ books send) I am well pleased with the books. The book Technology of Textile Design," and the book " Struct- ure of Fibres, Yarns and Fabrics." I would not be without for their weight m gold. Please acknowledge receipt and oblige Yours truly, T. D. Douglass EATON RAPIDS WOOLEN MILLS, Eaton Rapids, Mich. E. A. F0SSKI.T, Dear Sir .— I have further examined the books purchased of you, " Structure of Fibres, Yarns and Fabrics " and Technology of Textile Design," and find them just what I '^^^'^ed. You rs truly, Wm A Horner. HAMILTON, ONT., CANADA. Mr. E. a. Posselt, Dear Sir .—Wheti 1 was living in Maeoe Quebec, I sent for two of your books. I am well pleased with them and would not be without them for ten times the money Harry Marsh, 143 Pirton Street, East. THE ACME FELT COMPANY, Albany, N. Y. Mr. E. a. Posselt, Z>^ar 5tV.-— Book, "Structure of Fibres Yarns and Fabrics," received. Very much pleased with it Yours respectfully, The Acme Felt Company. - PROVIDENCE WORSTED MILLS, Providence, R. I. My Dear Posselt :— I have your latest work ," Structure of Fibres, Yarns and Fabrics," and I assume, in my opinion it is the best work of the kind ever published. H. Sheridan ADDRESS ALL ORDERS FOR BOOKS TO E. A. POSSELT, PUBLISHER, 2152 ISOPTH 21st ST., PHTLA. XXX vi ADVERTISEMENT. First American Builders-sUs^ Revolving Flat Carding Engine. Pettee Machine Works, NEWTON UPPER FALLS, MASS., U. 5. A. O^iR SPECIALTIES —^..m^m. REVOLVING FLAT CARDS, A RAILWAY HEADS, DRAWING FRAMES. SEND FOR DESCRIPTIVE CATALOGUE. xxxvii ADVERTISEMENT. Xhe Danforth — # Belting Qo. MANUFACTURERS OF Belting of Superior Quality APRONS FOR WORSTED AND SILK MACHINERY, ROLLER COVERS, RUB APRONS, LACE LEATHER AND BELTING SUPPLIES MANUFACTORY . . . 221 Chestnut Street , . . PHILADELPHIA, PA. MILLER SPROWLES. THOS. R. HOUSEnAN, M. E. sprowles & Houseman Reliance flachine Works Q eneral /M achinists f ^ngineers AMD Corner Hedge and grown 5ts., F^ankford, PHILADELPHIA, PA. Patented Dyeing Machinery General Mill Work and Gearing, Calico Printing Machines, and all Machinery for Print Works, Dye Houses. Foot and Power Presses. Special Tools built in the best manner. Estimates cheerfully given. E5TAOL13MED 166 O. TCLEPHONC t3J I REEDS. HARNESS, LINGOES,MAILS, SHUTTLES,QUILL5 , PICKERS AND GENERAL WEAVERS SUPPLIES. PULL STOCK OF ALL5TAN- DARD JACQUARD THREADS. REEDS 6HARNE5S & JACQUARD HARNESS BUILDING EOR RIBBON 6 BROAD SILK NAN- UPACTURERS A SPECIALTY. COR- RESPONDENCE SOLICITED. 30-36 Hamilton Ave., Paterson, N. J. xxxviii ADVERTISEM'ENT. Tlie Keptoie Uiiversal |sppiD(| MaEtiiDe, MANUFACTURED BY RICHARD C. BORCHERS & CO., Keystone Clutch and Machine Works, 12 DB and 1710 Dermantown Ave., PHILAnELPHIA, PA. These Machines are perfectly universal, adapted for all kinds of woven goods of cotton, wool, or both, with or without face finish. All adjustments necessary for the different kinds of goods can be made instantaneously, while the machine is running. WE ALSO MANUFACTURE The Keystone Measuring Marking Machine, For single width goods, which measures the goods exactly, and prints the successive numbers of the yards on the back to avoid claims for shortage. ^— WRITE FOR PARTICULARS. xxxix ADVERTISEMENT. U se the "Halton" Jacquard,"B'^t SINGLE LIFT, DOUBLE LIFT, RISE AND FALL, CROSS BORDER. CUMBER- BOARDS, LINGOES, HARNESS TWINES, MAILS, Etc. The Original ''Fine Index" Machine. THOMAS HALTON, 2627=29 Mutter Street, Lehigh A PHILADELPHIA, PA. EVAN ARTHUR LEIGH, (Successor to E. A. Leigh & Co.) 35 and 36 Mason Building, BOSTON, MASS. Cotton, Woolen and Worsted Machinery ^ ofthe j afe5>f Most Improved Patterns. PL ATT BROS. & CO.'S IMPROVED COTTON, WOOLEN AND WORSTED MACHINERY. Special attention called to their Patent Preparing, Opening and Lapping Machinery, Revolving Flat Carding Engines. Improved Machinery for Waste, and for Preparing, Combing, Roving and Spinning Worsted on the French System. JOHN MASON'S DRAWING, SLTJBBING, INTERMEDIATE AND ROVING FRAMES. CURTIS SONS & CO.'S "PARR'S" PATENT SELF- AC PING MULES, for both coarse and fine counts. COMBING MACHINES for either long or short staple cotton, with all latest improvements, for 7>^^' or loyi^^ wide laps, with or without double nip. JOS. SIKES BROS.' CARD CLOTHING FOR COTTON, with hardened and tempered plough ground polished steel wire. JAS. CRITCHLEY & SONS' CARD CLOTHING FOR WOOLEN AND WORSTED. MATHER & PLATT'S BLEACHING, DYEING AND FINISHING MACHINERY FOR COTTON GOODS. MORITZ JAHR'S SPECIAL MACHINERY FOR FINISHING WOOLEN AND WORSTED GOODS. WOOL WASHING AND DRYING MACHINERY. BLACKBURN, ATTENBOROUGH & SONS' HOSIERY MACHINERY for Knitting all classes of Hosiery Goods. GARNETT'S PATENT MACHINERY for Opening Woolen and Worsted Waste. DRONSFIELD'S PATENT GRINDING ROLLERS, CARD MOUNTING MACHINES AND EMERY FILLETTING always in stock, TATE'S PATENT ELECTRICAL APPARATUS FOR STOPPING STEAM ENGINES OR TURBINES from any part of the works ; also automatically stopping same from increased speed resulting from the breaking of main driving belts, gearing, etc ADVERTISEMENT. Jacquard CARD CUTTING MACHINERY Piano Machines For cutting regular French Index Cards, also for cutting Fine Scale (1304s) Cards. Our Piano Machines possess many points of superiority. Adjustable card guides are provided, permitting the use of cards of diflferent widths ; the punches and keys can readily be adjusted ; and the arrangement of treads, levers, etc., is such that the friction is greatly reduced and power transmitted to the punches with a minimum of effort. I^epeaterS repeating regular French Index Cards, also for repeating Fine Scale (1304s) cards. Our Repeaters are models of mechanical excellence and . surpass all others in perfection of design and finish. They are self-contained ; have great cutting power ; are equipped with improved feed motions which can readily be adjusted to harmonize with the tension in the lacing of the cards ; and all parts are carefully adjusted to work in perfect unison. In the Jacquard, cords, springs, etc., are done away with, positive-acting levers and wires being substituted therefor, resulting in accurately cut cards and reliable work at all times. Peg and Lace Hole Cutters automatically feeding, punching and stacking cards prior to passing them through the Repeater. These cutters are entirely automatic throughout and are a great improvement over the machines heretofore offered for doing this work. Combined Punching and Lac= ing Machines for automatically punching and lacing Jacquard cards atone operation . Quillers, Dobbies, etc., etc. John Royle Ei So ns 3 3125 00013 9564 KNOWLE5 See Inside Page 2