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Digitized by the Internet Archive 
 in 2015 
 
 A 
 
 https://archive.org/details/woollenworstedclOObeau_0 
 
TECHNOLOGICAL HANDBOOKS. 
 
 EDITED BY H. TRUEMAN WOOD. 
 
 Secretary of the Society of Arts. 
 
 WOOLLEN AND WORSTED CLOTH 
 MANUFACTURE. 
 
TECHNOLOGICAL HANDBOOKS. 
 
 WOOLLEN AND WORSTED CLOTH 
 MANUFACTURE: 
 
 BEING A PRACTICAL TREATISE FOR THE USE OF ALL 
 PERSONS EMPLOYED IN THE MANIPULATION 
 OF TEXTILE FABRICS. 
 
 BY 
 
 EGBERTS BEAUMONT, M.S. A., 
 
 LECTURER AND DEMONSTRATOR IN THE TEXTILE INDUSTRIES DEPARTMENT 
 OF THE YORKSHIRE COLLEGE, LEEDS. 
 
 {Endowed by the Worshipful Company of Clothworkers 
 of the City of London.) 
 
 WITH OVER TWO HUNDRED ILLUSTRATIONS 
 (including sketches of machinery, designs, cloths, etc.) 
 
 LONDON: GEOEGE BELL AND SONS, 
 YORK STREET, COVENT GARDEN. 
 1888. 
 
/ 6' 5^ 6 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 PRACTICAL and intelligible Manuals of Technology 
 are greatly needed by those whose employments are 
 associated with the industrial arts. Especially are such 
 works wanting on textile subjects. There is reason to 
 anticipate, however, that the establishment of technical 
 schools — which have received such munificent support 
 from the Cloth workers' Company — combined with the 
 technological examinations appointed by the City and 
 Guilds of London Institute, and the publication of in- 
 teresting trade journals — which bring to the notice of 
 those interested in the advancement of British industries the 
 improvements effected from time to time in machinery, as 
 well as the most economic methods of manufacture — will, 
 by operating in a beneficial manner on the intelligent and 
 skilled artizan, ultimately result in producing men capable 
 of supplying this want of the times. In a word, technical 
 training having created the " want " for this class of 
 literature, will discover the means of supplying it. Already 
 there are evidences of its power to do this ; for, during 
 recent years, several useful books have been published on 
 woollen, worsted, and cotton yarn manufactures, and also 
 on weaving. But it is remarkable that no treatise has 
 appeared dealing with the whole routine of any class of 
 textile production, such as cotton, wool, or silk. At least 
 in this particular this Manual may claim to be unique and 
 distinct in character. 
 
vi 
 
 PREFACE. 
 
 Thus the object of the book is to place within the reach of 
 the reader, in as concise a form, and jet in as comprehensive 
 a manner as possible, information on the following sub- 
 jects : — The physical structure and clothing properties of 
 the raw materials or fibres used in the production of 
 woollen and worsted fabrics ; the processes of yarn con- 
 struction ; the preparation of the yarns for weaving ; 
 the manipulation of the loom ; designing and colouring the 
 texture, and the operations to which the cloth is submitted 
 subsequent to weaving. 
 
 Separate chapters have been devoted to the manufac- 
 ture of the woollen and worsted threads respectively, and 
 also to fancy yarns, including two and three-ply twists, 
 and knopped, curled, and cloud threads. The special uses 
 of these yarns in pattern formation have also been carefully 
 noted. 
 
 As the loom forms a very important department of a 
 cloth factory, a considerable portion of the book is utilized 
 in describing the various classes of both hand and power- 
 looms now employed in the production of textiles. In 
 order to simplify, as much as possible, the difficult ques- 
 tion of loom mechanism, many original sketches of the 
 principal motions of the loom are introduced into the text. 
 By consulting these illustrations, probably the reader will 
 more readily arrive at the principles of loom construction 
 than if elaborate and detailed descriptions had been fur- 
 nished without such drawings. 
 
 With regard to Designing, it has received attention so 
 far as it relates to woollen and worsted cloths ; while the 
 general principles of textile design underlying the orna- 
 mentation of all classes of woven fabrics have also been 
 explained. Special attention has been given to the pro- 
 duction of pattern by the employment of fancy yarns. 
 Colour, it is needless to observe, is the 'prima materia of 
 many classes of woven ornament, and yet in the works 
 previously published on Weaving, pattern or design re- 
 sulting from the amalgamation of coloured threads has 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 vii 
 
 obtained but brief consideration. An attempt has been 
 made in the following pages to treat this branch of textile 
 design in a practical manner. The effect of weave on 
 various systems of colouring, and the principle of apply- 
 ing colour to designs of a single make and combination 
 character, are the points which directly concern the textile 
 designer, and which should, before all others, receive de- 
 tailed explanation in a work of this class. A portion of the 
 illustrations, and also of the text relating to Design, was 
 embodied in a series of articles written by the author for 
 the "Textile Manufacturer." The inquiries the editor of 
 that journal received from correspondents respecting their 
 republication in book form, is one of the reasons why they 
 have been used in this Manual. 
 
 Under the heading of " Cloth Analysis," the system of 
 dissecting woven fabrics, whether composed of wool, wor- 
 sted, cotton, or silk yarns, has been described ; including 
 explanatory notes on the method of calculating the weight 
 of warp and weft used in the production of goods of a pre- 
 scribed length and width. E-especting calculations, it may 
 be observed that the most important occurring in cloth 
 manipulation have been dealt with in a simple manner. 
 There is no calculation in the whole routine of cloth 
 manufacture which cannot be worked by anyone possess- 
 ing the rudiments of arithmetical knowledge. 
 
 One further remark need only be added, and that in re- 
 ference to finishing. It has not been possible to allude to 
 the construction of finishing machinery, but information 
 is furnished on the various processes through which the 
 cloth passes subsequent to weaving, and also on the 
 characteristics of the different kinds of '^finish," giving 
 the reader a succinct idea of the modifications the fabric 
 undergoes after it leaves the loom. 
 
 The thanks of the publishers and of the author are 
 heartily rendered to the proprietors of the " Textile 
 Manufacturer " for loan of blocks of designs and patterns ; 
 to the editor of the " Textile Recorder," for illustrations 
 
viii 
 
 PREFACE. 
 
 of textile fibres and textile threads ; to Messrs. Taylor, 
 Wordsworth, and Co., Leeds ; and to Messrs. Rhodes and 
 Sons, Moreley, for the use of blocks of machines of which 
 they are manufacturers. 
 
 Should the book have a satisfactory sale, other works 
 dealing with specific branches of manufacture may subse- 
 quently be prepared. 
 
 R. B. 
 
 Leeds, Se^ptember, 1887. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 Materials. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 1. Four Methods of Diversifying a Woven Product— 2. Textile 
 Materials — 3. Materials used in Woollen Manufacture — 
 4. Wool — 5. Felting Property — 6. Wool a good Absorbent 
 of Colour — 7. Properties of Clothing Wools — 8. Wools of 
 Different Countries— 9. Mohair, Alpaca, and Cashmere — 
 10. Wool Substitutes — 11. Noils— 12. Mungo and Shoddy 
 — 13. Differences betv^^een Wool and Mungo — 14. Mungo 
 Production — 15. Extract Wool— 16. Flocks— 17. Cotton — 
 18. Silk 1-23 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 Woollen Thread Manufacture. 
 
 19. Sorting — 20. Wool Washing — 21. Detergents used in 
 Scouring — 22. Wool Steeping — 23. Methods of Scouring — 
 24. Scouring Machines — 25. Utilization of Waste Scour 
 Liquor — 26. Drying — 27. Teazing — 28. Burr-Extraction — 
 29. Oiling— 30. Blending— 31. Preparing the Blend— 32. 
 Fearnongiit — 33. Carding — 34. Systems of Carding— 35. 
 Actual Operation of Scribbling — 36. Parts of a Scribbler — 
 37. Speeds of the Cylinders — 38. Modes of Conveying the 
 Scribbled Wool from one Engine to another — 39. Condensing 
 — 40. Spinning — 41. Mule or Spinning Frame — 42. Duplex 
 Spindle Arrangement 24-66 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 Worsted Thread Construction. 
 
 43. The Worsted Thread — 44. Principle of Construction — 45. 
 Preliminary Processes — 46. Backwashing — 47. Gilling — 
 48. Combing — 49. Nip and Square Motion Combs — 50. 
 Scribbled and Combed Wools — 51. Drawing — 52. Drawing 
 Machines — 53. Roving — 54. Worsted Spinning . . . 67-94 
 
X 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 Yarns and Fancy Twist Threads. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 55. Woollen, Worsted, and Cotton Yarns — 56. Lustre of the 
 Worsted Thread — 57. Two Methods of imparting Twist — 
 58. Openband and Crossband Twists — 59. The efPect of 
 Twine on Twills — 60. Methods of applying Twine to Twilled 
 Weaves — 61. Twine in relation to Buckskins and Doeskins 
 — 62. Arrangement of Yarns for Herring-bone styles— 63. 
 Twisting— 64. ^^Selfs" and Twist Threads— 65. Difference 
 in effect of Twists and Selfs— 66. Threefold Twists— 67. 
 Cloud, Knopped, Curled, and Diamond Twists . . . 95-113 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 Loom-mounting, or Preparation of the Yarns for the Loom. 
 
 68. Meaning of the Term "Loom-mounting" — 69. Warping 
 — 70. Woof and Creel — 71. Leasing — 72. How to Reckon 
 the Number of Threads Warped — 73. Warping on the Mill 
 — 74. Sectional Warping Machines — 75. Warping, Sizing, 
 and Drying Machines — 76. Fancy Warping on the Sectional 
 System — 77. Sizing — 78. Beaming — 79. Raddling — 80. 
 Healding or Drawing-in — 81. Irregular Healding Drafts — 
 82. Sleying or Reeding— 83. Reeds 114-142 
 
 CHAPTER VL 
 
 The Principles of Cloth Construction. Fundamental Weaves. 
 
 84. Woven and Knitted Fabrics— 85. Warp and Weft— 86. 
 The Heald Shafts— 87. Plain or Tabby Weaving— 88. De- 
 sign or Point Paper — 89. Twilling — 90. Cassimere Twill — 
 91. Sateens — 92. Derivatives of the Sateen — 93. Cork- 
 screw or Round Twills — 94. Construction of Twills — 95. 
 Hopsacks or Mats 143-163 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 Hand Looms. 
 
 96. Motions of the Loom — 97. Uses of the Hand Loom — 
 98. Parts of the Loom— 99. Setting-up Motion— 100. Let- 
 ting-off Motion— 101. Shedding Motions — 102. Treadle 
 System— 103. Tie-up or Cording Plans— 104. The Witch 
 or Dobbie — 105. The Lags— 106. Relative Advantages of 
 the Treadle Loom and Witch Machines — 107. The Jacquard 
 Machine — 108. Block and Cylinder — 109. Upright and Cross 
 Wires— 110. The Harness— 111. The Pattern Cards— 112. 
 Double-lift Machines— 113. Harness and Shaft Mounting — 
 114. Uses and Advantages of the Jacquard Shedding Motion 164-196 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 XI 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 Power Looms. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 115. The Power Loom — 116. Development of the Loom — 117. 
 Past and Slow Running Looms — 118. Methods of Driving — 
 119. Timing of the Motions — 120. Open and Closed Shedding 
 — 121. Various Shedding Arrangements — 122. Principle of 
 the Tappet Motion — 123. Methods of Depressing the Healds 
 in Tappet Looms — 124. Variation of the Speed of the Tappet 
 Shaft— 125. Construction of Tappets — 126. Stroke of the 
 Tappet — 127. Dobbie Shedding in Heavy Power Looms — 
 128. Principle of Actuating the Upright Dobbie — 129. Lag- 
 ging and Picking-back Motion — 130. The American Shed- 
 ding Motion — 131. Various parts of the American Dobbie 
 — 132. Formation of the Shed in the American Loom — 133. 
 Special Points in the American Shedding Motion — 134. 
 Picking Motions — 135. Cam and Cone Pick — 136. Over-pick 
 Arrangement — 137. Under-pick Motion — 138. Positive Let- 
 ting-off Motion — 139. Winding of the Cloth on to the Piece 
 Beam — 140. Change Wheel Setting-up — 141. Lever and 
 Catch Motion — 142. Shuttle-box Mechanisms— 143. Link 
 and Chain Box Motion — 144. Effects of the Links of the Box 
 Chain — 145, Lag and Peg Motion — 146. Bowl and Rod 
 System— 147. Circular Box Motion — 148. Weft Forks — 
 149. Shuttle Box Swell 197-252 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 Weave-Combinations. Drafting. 
 
 150. Four Methods of Producing Textile Design — 151. Weave 
 Combinations — 152. Points for Consideration in Combining 
 Weaves — 153. Some Weaves applicable to Worsted and 
 other Weaves to Woollen Fabrics — 154. The Fineness of 
 the Texture a Factor for Consideration — 155. The Weaves 
 Combined should be equal in Wefting Capacity — 156. Com- 
 bination Patterns divisible into Three Classes — 157. Uses of 
 Drafting — 158. Principle of Drafting — 159. Method of Con- 
 structing the Draft — 160. Drafting large Designs — 161. 
 Figured Patterns Drafted — 162. Principle of Producing New 
 Designs in a given Draft 253-274 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 
 Pattern Design. 
 
 163. The Function of Weave in Coloured Patterns— 164. Effect 
 of Fancy Warping and Wefting on the Plain Weave — 165. 
 
xii 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 Hairline Stripes in the Plain Weave — 166. Hairline Stripes 
 of Three Colours — 167. Figured Hairhnes — 168. Hairline 
 Stripes of Four Colours — 169. Solid Stripes in Mat and other 
 Weaves — 170. Examples in Colourings for Simple Striped 
 Cloths — 171. Figured Patterns in the Plain Weave — 172. 
 Over-check in the Plain Weave — 173. Fancy Check — 174. 
 Diagonal and Fancy Coloured Patterns — 175. Mixtures in 
 the Plain Cloth 275-295 
 
 CHAPTER XI. 
 
 Colour Applied to Twilled and Fancy Weaves. 
 
 176. Uses of the Cassimere Twill in Coloured Patterns — 177. 
 Difference between the Effects obtained in the Cassimere and 
 Plain Weaves — 178. Broken Diamond in the Cassimere — 
 179. Stripes in the Four-end Twill— 180. Shepherd Plaid— 
 181. Fancy Check — 182. Colour applied to Five-End Makes 
 —183. Effects in the Six-End Twill— 184. Checks in the 
 Six- End Twill— 185. Patterns in the Mayo— 186. Colour 
 in Relation to the Eight-Shaft Diagonal — 187. Arrangement 
 of Colourings for Twilled Hopsack — 188. Colour applied to 
 Weave Combinations — 189. How to Colour Intricate Weave 
 Designs — 190. Cloths Figured by Weave and Colour — 191. 
 Ribbed Patterns 296-318 
 
 CHAPTER XII. 
 
 Backed and Double Cloths. 
 
 192. Definition and Uses of Backed Cloths— 193. Two Methods 
 of Backing — 194. Cloths Backed with Weft — 195. Principle 
 of Backing Simple Twills — 196. Effect of Irregular Tieing 
 — 197. Systems of Backing Check Designs with Weft — 198. 
 Figured Weave Backed with Weft — 199. Principle of Back- 
 ing Union Fabrics — 200. Cloths Backed with Warp — 201. 
 How to Back Cloths with Warp — 202. Patterns on the 
 Under Surface of Backed Goods — 203. Features of Double 
 Cloths— 204. Various Types of Double Cloths— 205. Method 
 of Constructing Double Makes — 206. Tieing or Stitching — 
 207. Weft Tieing— 208. Structure of the Double Plain 
 Crossing— 209. Stitching Double Plain Cloths— 210. Double 
 Plain Stripes — 211. Three and Four Single-thread Stripes 
 — 212. Figured Double Plains or Reversibles — 213. Charac- 
 teristics of Cut Double Cloths — 214. Principle of Construct- 
 ing Cut Double-make Patterns — 215. Drafting and Setting 
 of Double Cloths 319-354 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 xiii 
 
 CHAPTER XIII. 
 Analysis of Cloths and Calculations. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 216. Textile Analysis — 217. How to find the Weave of a Given 
 Texture — 218. Ascertaining the sizes of the Yarns — 219. 
 Calculation on Setting — 220. Method of Calculating the 
 Weight of the Warp Yarns — 221. Estimating the Size of 
 Twist Yarns — 222. Finding the Weight of each sort of Yarn 
 in the Warp— 223. Estimating the Weight of Weft Yarns of 
 one Size and Colour only — 224. Calculating the Weight of 
 Weft composed of various kinds of Yarns — 225. Ascertain- 
 ing the Weight of a Worsted Fabric— 226. Method of Finding 
 the Size of the Weft Yarn for Weaving a Piece of Cloth of 
 a Given Weight — 227. Calculating the Picks per inch for 
 Weaving a specified Weight of Cloth 355-371 
 
 CHAPTER XIV. 
 
 Cloth Finishing. 
 
 228. Effect of Finishing — 229. Finish in Relation to Worsted 
 Cloths— 230. Variety of Finish in Woollens— 231. Nature of 
 Fulling— 232. Process of Milling — 233. Milling Reduces the 
 Size of the Pattern — 234. Raising and its Effects — 235. 
 Differences between Wet and Dry Raising — 236. Boiling 
 and Crabbino; — 237. Pressing — 238. Doeskin Finish— 239. 
 Velvet Finish— 240. Dry Finish — 241. Scotch and Melton 
 Finish— 242. Worsted Finish 372-386 
 
 Index 
 
 387-391 
 
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Textile fibres 10 
 
 Rag macliine . . . . . . . . . .19 
 
 Wool steeper 31 
 
 Scouring machine ........ face page 32 
 
 Petrie's dryer „ „ 35 
 
 Teazer or willey .......... 38 
 
 Section of teazer .......... 39 
 
 Oiling apparatus . . . . '. . . . . .43 
 
 Gray blends ........... 45 
 
 Fearnought ........... 48 
 
 Scribbler ........... 51 
 
 Card clothing 51 
 
 Condenser . to face page 5^ 
 
 Mule 63 
 
 Duplex spindle arrangement • 65 
 
 Back-washer 71 
 
 Section of gill box . . . , 72 
 
 Gill box . 73 
 
 Noble's comb to face page 77 
 
 Drawing-in rollers of Noble's comb 78 
 
 Centre vertical rollers of Noble's comb 80 
 
 Small circle of Noble's comb 81 
 
 Delivering rollers of circular comb . . . . . .81 
 
 Cone drawing frame 87 
 
 Section of spinning frame 90 
 
 „ cap frame 93 
 
 „ ring frame ......... 93 
 
 Textile threads . . 97 
 
 Open and cross-band yarns 100 
 
 Angled or herring-bone pattern 104 
 
 Buckskin weave . . . . . . . . . .104 
 
 Fine twilled cloth 104 
 
 Twist yarns 110 
 
 Warping woof 115 
 
 „ creel 117 
 
 6 
 
xvi LIST OP ILLUSTEATIONS. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Sectional warping and beaming machine 121 
 
 Leasing reed for sectional warping machine . . . . .123 
 Sized and unsized worsted threads . . . . . .127 
 
 Raddle 131 
 
 Healds 132 
 
 Angle and sateen healding draft 133 
 
 Irregular healding draft ........ 135 
 
 Sley or reed 138 
 
 Cassimere twill 139 
 
 Six-end twill 140 
 
 Sample of plain cloth 146 
 
 Heald shafts when shedding . .147 
 
 Design or point-paper . . . . . , . . .149 
 
 Plain or tabby weave 151 
 
 Twills 153 
 
 Sample of cassimere cloth . . . . . . . .154 
 
 Sateens 157 
 
 Derivatives of the sateen ........ 158 
 
 Eight-heald diagonal 162 
 
 Hupsacks or mats . ......... 163 
 
 Guing-part 167 
 
 Setting-up motion for hand-loom 170 
 
 Letting-off „ „ 171 
 
 Shedding arrangement for treadle loom 173 
 
 Tie-up or cording plan „ 175 
 
 Witch or dobbie 177 
 
 Lags 179 
 
 Cording plan for several weaves . . 181 
 
 Jacquard machine . . . . . . . . .184 
 
 Upright and cross wires of Jacquard 185 
 
 Method, No. 1, of tieing up the harness 187 
 
 No. 2, „ „ 190 
 
 Stamped card 191 
 
 Crank and low shafts of dandy power loom 200 
 
 Driving gear for Knowles' loom 202 
 
 Crank and crank arm of main shaft ...... 204 
 
 Tappet shedding motion ........ 206 
 
 Stocks and bowls 208 
 
 Change wheel arrangement for tappet shaft 210 
 
 Tappet 213 
 
 Shedding motion for Dobcross loom . . . . . .215 
 
 Shell for upright lever 216 
 
 Dobcross power loom 217 
 
 Cylinder gears of Knowles' loom, position of .... 220 
 Vibrators and connectors . . . . . . . .221 
 
 Heald jacks of Knowles' loom 223 
 
 Head gear „ „ 225 
 
 Cam and cone pick 230 
 
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. xvii 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Over pick motion 233 
 
 Worm and wheel letting-off motion 235 
 
 Change wheel setting-up motion for dandy looms .... 238 
 Setting up motion for Dobcross and Pearson and Spurr's looms . 240 
 
 Box motion for Dobcross loom 242, 243 
 
 Link for box chain 244 
 
 Box motion for Pearson and Spurr's loom 245 
 
 „ Knowles' loom 248 
 
 Circular box motion ......... 250 
 
 Weft fork motion 251 
 
 Box swell 252 
 
 Sample of plain and mat fabric . . . . . . .257 
 
 Designs of a striped class 258, 259 
 
 Check combinations ......... 260 
 
 Figured „ 261 
 
 Diaper or check design, composed of two distinct threads . . 263 
 Striped design, composed of eight distinct threads . . .266 
 „ ten „ ... 268 
 
 Figured pattern for drafting 270 
 
 Draft for figured pattern 271 
 
 Pegging plan for figured pattern 272 
 
 Diagram of check pattern . . . . . . . .274 
 
 Patterns obtained in the plain weave . . . . . .278 
 
 Plain weave hairline ......... 279 
 
 Stripe pattern of three colours 280 
 
 Sketch of basket pattern 283 
 
 Stripe effect of four colours 284 
 
 Stripe in the mat weave . . . . . . . .286 
 
 Figured plain cloth 287 
 
 Over check in the plain cloth 289 
 
 Fancy „ „ „ 292 
 
 Diamond and figured patterns > . . 294 
 
 Mixture effect 295 
 
 Diagonal pattern in the cassimere twill . . . . .297 
 
 Check pattern in the cassimere ....... 299 
 
 Stripe patterns „ ....... 300 
 
 Shepherd plaid „ 301 
 
 Shaded check 301 
 
 Pattern in doeskin . , . , . , . . .302 
 
 Stripe in 5 -end twill 304 
 
 Small figured pattern in 6-end twill 305 
 
 Stripe pattern in 6-end twill 306 
 
 J, jj jj j5 ....... 307 
 
 Check „ „ „ 307 
 
 Pattern in the mayo 308 
 
 Check in 8 -end diagonal 310 
 
 Stripe in twilled hopsack 310 
 
 Sketch of pattern due to weave and colour 315 
 
xviii 
 
 LIST Oir ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Rib design 316 
 
 Rib effect 317 
 
 Examples in designs backed with weft 322 
 
 55 ?J 5J 55 ..... , 324 
 
 Check design 326 
 
 „ backed with weft 327 
 
 55 5) 55 ....... 328 
 
 Figured pattern, backed with weft 329 
 
 Design for union cloth, backed ....... 329 
 
 5» ,5 55 330 
 
 Examples in designs backed with warp 331 
 
 55 5, ..... 333 
 
 Diagrams of designs for double cloths 337 
 
 Double weave .......... 339 
 
 Double weaves, tied on different principles 341 
 
 ,5 „ in the weft 342 
 
 Double plain 342 
 
 Sketch of double plain fabric ...... 342 
 
 Double plain stripe 343 
 
 „ „ „ 344 
 
 55 5, 55 ........ V 345 
 
 „ 346 
 
 Figured double plain design 347 
 
 Sketch of double-make cut pattern 348 
 
 Cut double -weave stripe . . 349 
 
 „ „ check . . 350 
 
 Draft for cut double-weave . . 352 
 
 Pegging plan for cut double-weave 353 
 
 Sketch of cloth prepared for analysis 356 
 
 Design for dissected pattern 358 
 
 Pegging plan and draft for dissected pattern . . . .359 
 
 ERRATUM. 
 
 Page 45. By accident the Nos. to figs. 9 and 9b were transposed. 
 
WOOL MANUFACTURE. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 MATERIALS. 
 
 1. Four Methods of Diversifying a Woven Product — 2. Textile 
 Materials — 3. Materials used in Woollen Manufacture — 4. Wool — 5. 
 Felting Property — 6. Wool a good Absorbent of Colour — 7. Properties 
 of Clothing Wools — 8. Wools of Different Countries — 9. Mohair, 
 Alpaca, and Cashmere — 10. Wool Substitutes — 11. Noils — 12. Mungo 
 and Shoddy — 13. Differences between Wool and Mungo — 14. Mungo 
 Production— 15. Extract Wool— 16. Flocks— 17. Cotton— 18. Silk. 
 
 1. Four Methods of Diversifying a Woven Product, — 
 \ Apart from actual weaving, in the manufacture of textiles, 
 there are four distinct and important methods of modify- 
 ing the character of a woven pattern, and also the texture 
 of cloths produced in the loom. These methods, when 
 classified in the order of sequence, are as follows : 
 
 1. By the employment of a diversity of materials. 
 
 II. By blending materials of various properties or 
 colours together. 
 
 III. By the use of different classes of yarns. 
 
 IV. By varying the " finish " applied to the woven 
 fabric. 
 
 2. Textile Materials. — The materials used in textile 
 productions include fibres of an animal, vegetable, and 
 mineral origin. Bach fibre, of whatever species, possesses 
 certain properties, which, of a necessity, characterize the 
 woven fabric in which it appears. The quality, softness, 
 
 B 
 
2 
 
 WOOL MANUFACTURE. 
 
 elasticity, strength, and lustre of a texture depends, in a 
 primary sense, on the nature of the material or materials 
 used in its manufacture. Skilful carding, spinning, 
 weaving, and finishing cannot possibly produce a soft, 
 fine piece of goods from a coarse, hard material. In 
 fact, the art of manufacturing does not consist in changing, 
 but in retaining, the natural peculiarities of the fibre 
 employed ; or, in other words, it consists in reducing the 
 material into a thread-like form, and of weaving it into 
 a wearable fabric at a minimum detriment to its original 
 properties. In the processes of manufacture, all fibres 
 necessarily undergo modification. Firstly, in the applica- 
 tion of colour, or in dyeing ; and, secondly, during the after 
 processes of spinning, weaving, milling, and finishing, where 
 the filaments of the material are re-adjusted tp suit the ends 
 of cloth production. Yet in all cases the principal qualities 
 of the fibre characterize the appearance of the finished goods. 
 In a word, the same features which distinguish the materials 
 from one another in the raw state are also the distinguish- 
 ing features of the finished cloths in which they are 
 separately used. Allowing this, it follows that fabrics 
 made of wool, silk, cotton, hair, jute, mungo, and other 
 substances, not merely difier from each other on account 
 of having passed through processes of manufacture slightly 
 dissimilar to each other in character, but also, and in a 
 more important sense, a difierence arises in the texture 
 and properties of these several fabrics from the individual 
 characteristics of the materials of which they have been 
 separately made. Thus a woollen cloth, providing it has 
 been made of a fair quality of wool, is soft and full in the 
 hand, and possesses in a large degree the natural charac- 
 teristics of the wool, namely, firmness, elasticity, strength, 
 and durability; a cotton fabric, on the other hand, although 
 it may handle firm, yet it is comparatively hard and lean, 
 lacking elasticity and suppleness. Fabrics made of silk 
 possess a character of richness, brilliancy, and fineness un- 
 approachable by any other material. Cloths produced par- 
 
MATERIALS. 
 
 3 
 
 tially, or wholly, from such secondary materials as mungo, 
 shoddy, and extract possess to a certain extent the cha- 
 racteristics and general appearance of goods composed of 
 pure wool, but are greatly wanting in suppleness, bright- 
 ness of tone and durability. 
 
 It is scarcely necessary to give further illustrations of 
 the variety of textile goods resulting solely from the 
 manufacture of different classes of fibrous substances, for, 
 in addition to the fibres just referred to, cashmere, camel- 
 hair, alpaca, jute, China grass, and flax are also made 
 into other styles of woven goods. Not only is it possible, 
 however, to produce a variety of cloths from totally diffe- 
 rent types of fibres, such as silk, cotton, and flax, but 
 also when limited to the use of one material, like, for 
 example, that of wool. Some wools, such as those of 
 Silesia, Saxony, and Port Philip, are specially suitable 
 for the finest woollens, and dressed or boiled-faced goods ; 
 others possessing a fine hair and long staple for worsted 
 fabrics ; and a third class, small in the fibre, but only of 
 inferior milling or felting property, for flannels ; while 
 the coarser wools with a strong and thick hair are used 
 in the production of blankets and goods of a similar 
 character, — showing that if wool were the only textile 
 fibre known to manufacturers, it would be possible, by its 
 use, to produce a considerable variety of effects in the cloth 
 without any material change in the operations of the loom. 
 
 3. Materials used in Woollen Manufacture, — The fibres 
 used in woollen and worsted manufacture are divisible 
 into three great classes — first, the animal class, of which 
 wool, silk, alpaca, and mohair are standard representa- 
 tives ; second, the vegetable class, in which cotton is the 
 principal, jute and China grass having only been applied 
 to the woollen industries to a very limited degree, while 
 flax and hemp, as yet, have found no place in wool fabrics, 
 being used mainly in the production of carpets and bagging; 
 and, third, the artificial or re-manufactured class, which 
 includes noils, mungo, shoddy, extract, and flocks. The 
 
4 
 
 WOOL MANUFACTURE. 
 
 latter class of materials, as will afterwards be sliown, 
 forms a prominent factor in the manufacture of so-called 
 woollen and worsted fabrics. 
 
 Animal fibres, which, in woollen cloth production, are 
 the most valuable, may readily be distinguished from 
 vegetable fibres as follows : when a flame is applied they 
 curl up, carbonize, and emit a disagreeable smell, whereas 
 the latter burn with a flash. A chemical test consists in 
 applying strong nitric acid to the respective fibres, thus, 
 if this acid is applied to wool it turns it a bright yellow, 
 but efiects no material change in the colour appearance 
 of cotton. Again, cotton may also be detected from 
 wool by subjecting the fibres to a bath of bleaching liquor, 
 which whitens the former, and gives a light brownish 
 shade to the wool. As for shoddies, mungoes, extracts, 
 &c., the want of fulness, softness, and length of fibre 
 make it almost impossible to take them, in the raw state, 
 for pure wool. 
 
 4. Wool. — Wool, the natural product of the sheep 
 alone, is, undoubtedly, the most important fibre used in 
 the manufacture of goods for clothing purposes. From 
 the earliest times it has been employed in the production 
 of textile fabrics. For ages before the invention of spin- 
 ning and weaving the skin of the sheep, with the wool on, 
 may have been worn as a garment, as in the case of 
 Elijah's mantle. By what means it was originally con- 
 verted into thread it is impossible to say, but it may be 
 assumed that its soft, warm, lustrous, and elastic character 
 would recommend it to the pre- historic producer of woven 
 fabrics. 
 
 Wool has been defined as a very fine hair. This defini- 
 tion may be said to be theoretically correct. Practically, 
 however, hair and wool are two very different fibres. 
 Thus while hair (that of the rabbit and beaver, for example, 
 or cow's hair, which is sometimes used in the making of 
 low imitation sealskins) is stiff* and straight, wool is curly, 
 flexible, and wavy. When camel's hair, the fibre of the 
 
MATERIALS. 
 
 5 
 
 Angora goat, or mohair, are considered, then the resem- 
 blance which these filaments bear to wool is more pro- 
 nounced ; but even here the same disposition of straightness 
 is apparent. Microscopically, these fibres also possess a 
 very difierent formation. Hair is one smooth, level, stem- 
 like structure, while wool is a combination of serrations or 
 notches of irregular sizes overlapping each other, and 
 tapering from the root to the tip of the fibre. These 
 scales, or thin plates, are sometimes funnel-shaped, and 
 completely surround the fibre. (See b, fig. 1.) 
 
 5. Felting Property, — When a lock of wool a num- 
 ber of fibres) is drawn between the forefinger and thumb 
 in a reverse direction to the order of growth, or from tip 
 to root, these serrations are more or less evident to a 
 sensitive touch, according to the class of wool examined. 
 This peculiarity in the mechanical structure of the fibre 
 comprises the essential difierence between wool and all 
 all other materials employed in textile manufacture. It 
 is, in short, the factor to which the milling or fulling 
 power is primarily due, or the quality which causes a 
 woollen fabric, when submitted to heat, moisture, and 
 pressure, to mat, felt, or, in other words, to decrease in 
 length and breadth and increase in thickness or bulk. 
 For instance. Saxony wool — possibly, the finest, softest, 
 silkiest, and, in many particulars, one of the best wools 
 grown, and, moreover, a wool of acknowledged superior 
 milling power — contains no less than from 2,700 to 2,800 
 serrations in an inch. Australian, another excellent 
 clothing wool of good milling property, contains 2,400, 
 while Leicester wool of comparatively inferior felting 
 quality only contains 1,800 serrations in an inch of 
 fibre. From such particulars as these it would appear as 
 though the degree of milling power extant in wool might 
 be ascertained from its structure as revealed by the 
 microscope. Generally, it will be found that the felting 
 property is the highest in wools containing the largest 
 number of imbrications, but there are exceptional fibres. 
 
6 
 
 WOOL MANUFACTURE. 
 
 Cape wool, for example, although fine in the hair, and full 
 of serrations, is not a good milling wool. According to the 
 microscope, its fibres possess all the characteristics of a 
 wool of excellent felting powers, whereas, practically, it is 
 regarded as only a secondary wool in this respect. Port 
 Philip and Buenos Ayres wools might be instanced as two 
 other fibres which would, if the milling characteristic de- 
 pended entirely on the multiplicity of serrations in a 
 given length of fibre, be similar to each other in this 
 particular. But instead of this being the case they are 
 almost as difierent in felting power as it is possible for the 
 produce of the same genus of animals to be. Port Philip 
 is almost without a parallel in point of fulling property, 
 while the defectiveness of Buenos Ayres in this essential 
 may be said to be proverbial. 
 
 That the milling quality is determined by the serrations 
 in the fibre is indisputable ; the lack of such serrations 
 would imply a fibre of little or no fulling power, but there 
 are other features in wool which act as auxiliaries to its 
 scaly, undulated surface, for unless ifc also possesses elas- 
 ticity and strength, and a wavy and crimpled form, it is 
 not likely to felt well. There are two causes, therefore, 
 to which the felting property of wool is attributable : first, 
 the mechanical formation of the fibre ; second, the strength 
 and elasticity of its staple, combined with the resisting 
 power of the individual imbrications of which the fibre is 
 composed. 
 
 6. Wool a good Absorbent of Colour. — Possibly there is 
 no fibre used in textile manufacturing easier to dye than 
 wool. Aniline colours may be fixed on this material by 
 simply bringing the fibres into contact with the liquid con- 
 taining the colouring matter. Silk has a strong affinity 
 for dye substances, but permanency of colour is not so 
 readily procured on this as the wool fibre. Both these 
 filaments have been known to absorb the dyeware out of 
 the solution and leave the liquid quite clear. 
 
 When cotton is used along with wool, great care has to 
 
MATERIALS. 
 
 7 
 
 be exercised in fixing the colour, otherwise it is liable to 
 run or " bleed " in the finishing processes. Goods have 
 been made in which a cotton thread has formed a part of 
 the warp, which when submitted to scouring, the vegetable 
 fibre has parted with a considerable proportion of the 
 colouring matter applied in dyeing, damaging the texture. 
 The tubular structure of the cotton fibre does not admit of 
 that free absorption of the dye-solution which is necessary 
 to efiect permanent colouring. The infinitesimal inden- 
 tions or undulations in the wool fibre caused by the serra- 
 tions overlapping each other are at the foundation of its 
 colour-absorbing capacity. 
 
 The application of dye substances in some cases im- 
 poverishes the wool, the agents used destroying in some 
 degree the natural clothing properties of the fibre. A 
 wool dyed scarlet, brown, or russet, for instance, invari- 
 ably handles more harsh and dry in the dyed than in the 
 raw state, while a blue or green colouring agent often 
 feeds the wool, even going to the extent, in the case of 
 indigo, of increasing its weight. 
 
 7. The Properties of Clothing Wools » — Fineness of fibre, 
 strength and elasticity of staple, softness of handle, a dis- 
 position to felt, and a clear white colour, are the properties 
 which a good clothing wool ought to possess. 
 
 Fineness op Fibre. The fibre of some wools is extremely 
 fine, varying in the superfine qualities from a fifteen hun- 
 dredth to an eighteen hundredth part of an inch in diameter. 
 The finest wool grown by any breed of sheep, both in 
 respect to smallness of fibre and quality of staple, is called 
 " lambs,'* so termed on account of its being clipped when 
 the animal is about six months old. The second clip, 
 which is somewhat thicker in fibre, and both longer and 
 stronger in staple, is styled yearlings,'' while all the 
 subsequent growths are indiscriminately designated 
 "fleece," which is generally rather coarser in the hair than 
 the two first yields. Nevertheless there are some very fine 
 fibred wools in this class. In the spinning of small yarns 
 
8 
 
 WOOL MANUFACTURE. 
 
 it is necessary to use wools possessing a fine fibre. A 
 wool thick in the hair is not capable of being spun to the 
 same length as a fine wool. When it is required to 
 spin a woollen thread to the extent of 16,360 yards to 
 the pound, or, in the case of worsted, a thread to twice 
 this number of yards to the pound, a small, fine fibre 
 is of primary importance. Wools capable of being spun 
 into threads of such fineness (amongst which may be 
 classed Silesian, Saxony, Port Philip, Sydney, and, when 
 blended with other fibres of a stronger growth, Western 
 Cape) are invaluable in the production of yarns for twist- 
 ing purposes, or for yarns composed of two or more single 
 threads, and technically designated twists. In the manu- 
 facture of Cheviot cloths and fabrics of a medium fineness, 
 in which the yarns may vary from 2,560 to 5,120, or, in a 
 few instances, 7,680 yards to the pound, this characteristic 
 of smallness of hair is not so essential in the wool used. 
 It is of more importance in making cloths of this type to 
 procure a wool with a sound, healthy staple, such, for in- 
 stance, as a half-bred New Zealand, which possesses a 
 strong and moderately thick fibre, and a good general 
 character. This wool, in the fabrication of tweeds, is 
 sometimes blended with Cheviot or skin wool (obtained 
 from animals slaughtered for food, hence sometimes called 
 " dead " wool), or if a cheap piece is required, probably 
 Cheviot wool with mungo. 
 
 Strength and Elasticity of Staple form two of the most 
 important qualities of wool. The resisting capability of 
 the fabric is dependent upon these properties of the raw 
 material. Whether the cloth is fine or coarse, if made of 
 wool, it should be elastic and strong, supple and firm in 
 the hand. 
 
 The term elasticity as applied to wool signifies the power 
 it possesses to assume its former condition after being sub- 
 jected to pressure. The extent to which this property is 
 present in wool may be illustrated by comparing it with 
 cotton and mungo. If a sample, say, of good Egyptian 
 
MATERIALS, 
 
 9 
 
 cotton is taken in one hand, and a sample of fair Austra- 
 lian or New Zealand wool in the other, it may be roughly 
 estimated how superior the latter is to the former in point 
 of elasticity. As the materials are pressed in the hands 
 the cotton almost yields without resistance, and handles 
 comparatively " unkind ; " the wool, however, resists the 
 force applied, and possesses a soft, full, lofty handle. 
 
 Compare, in the second place, a " union " fabric made of 
 cotton warp and mungo weft with a Scotch Cheviot made 
 of pure wool. The superior fulness, elasticity, and sub- 
 stance o£ the Cheviot texture is at once apparent, the 
 original or natural strength of the wool imparting to it a 
 thickness and body that are remarkable by their absence 
 from the cotton and mungo production. 
 
 Length of Staple is a quality of more importance in 
 worsted than woollen yarn manufacture. By " staple " is 
 meant a group or lock of fibres. The staple " varies 
 from what may be termed scarcely any definable length to 
 from fifteen to twenty inches. The finest wools are gene- 
 rally short in staple, yet by no means invariably so. Long, 
 strong, healthy wools, though costly, usually prove the 
 most economical in the manufacture of worsted yarns. 
 The necessary sequence to the use of wools defective in 
 these features is an unsatisfactory thread and an increase 
 of waste fibre. On the other hand, a short stapled wool, 
 providing it possesses the other clothing essentials enu- 
 merated, is, all things considered, the most suitable for 
 woollen yarn spinning. 
 
 Softness of Handle is a property that, strictly speaking, 
 varies according to the quality of the wool. It is very 
 much sought affcer in the woven article. A cloth defective 
 in this primary essential very seldom obtains an extensive 
 sale, whatever its other features may be — hence the im- 
 portance of the raw material from which goods are made 
 possessing a soft, warm touch. 
 
 That the wool should possess a Disposition to Felt is 
 absolutely necessary to produce such fabrics as doeskins, 
 
10 
 
 WOOL MANUFACTURE. 
 
 plain broads, beavers, pilots, and Moscows, or goods 
 where the texture of the cloth is completely hid by milling 
 the threads of which it is composed firmly together, pre- 
 senting the appearance of one felted mass of fibres. The 
 short wools of England, such as Norfolk and Southdown, 
 could not be made up into cloths of this description. 
 Possessing but little felting property, and being moderately 
 fine in the hair, they are more suitable for fabrics of a 
 
 flannel class in which milling is not an absolute requisite ; 
 consequently they are sought after by the producers of 
 these goods. 
 
 Purity op Colour is a fifth essential. A snow-white 
 appearance is an important auxiliary to the dyeing of 
 fancy colours. In piece-dyed fabrics, or in dyeing dark 
 shades, a pure white foundation is not of such vital con- 
 sequence, but brilliant colours cannot be so readily nor so 
 
 ^ This diagram is printed here by permission of Professor Beaumont, 
 having been taken from his lecture on the " Twine in Woollen Yarn," 
 published in the " Textile Eecorder," October and November, 1885. 
 
MATERIALS. 
 
 11 
 
 satisfactorily obtained from a dingy yellow as a pearly 
 white material. Some classes of wool, Port Philip for 
 example, after scouring, are of a pure white character, 
 and hence, with careful and skilful manipulation, may be 
 dyed any shade. A good white is also essential in wools 
 intended for yarns about to be used in the undyed or 
 scoured state. It should be observed that certain wools, 
 amongst which may be mentioned some classes of East 
 Indian, Egyptian, and Spanish, are not white, but of a fawn, 
 gray, or brown colour, and are often spun into yarn and 
 made into cloth in their natural shades. 
 
 8. Wools of different Gowitries, — Soil, climate, food, and 
 skilful farming all affect the character of the wool pro- 
 duced by any particular breed of sheep. English sheep 
 imported into Australia in course of time yield a much 
 finer quality of wool than in this country, the staple 
 gradually becoming more uniform in length, and the fleece 
 evener in fineness throughout. The Downs' wools of 
 England are said to be softer and cleaner in staple when 
 the sheep graze on the rich pasture land of Kent and 
 Sussex than if fed on the herbage grown on the sandy 
 soil of Norfolk or the chalk hills of Wiltshire, where they 
 have been found to assume a somewhat harsh and dry ap- 
 pearance. That careful attention to the animals is also a 
 'cause to which the growth of fine wool is more or less due 
 is attested from the excellent wool now obtained from 
 Germany. Formerly, Spanish wool was esteemed as the 
 finest grown ; however, since the importation of the merino 
 sheep into Germany from Spain, in consequence of unre- 
 mitting care having been exercised in breeding, &c., a 
 better wool both as regards regularity of staple and small- 
 ness of fibre is now produced in Germany than in the 
 latter country. 
 
 Wools may be said to differ from each other in quality 
 according to the country from which they are obtained. For 
 this reason a few of the typical wools coming from the most 
 important wool- growing countries will be briefly described. 
 
12 
 
 WOOL MANUFACTURE. 
 
 As German wools are unsurpassed in quality and general 
 characteristics, they may be treated of first. Saxony and 
 Silesian are the two most important. They are both 
 wools of excellent clothing properties. The fibre is fine 
 and full of imbrications, staple short, strong, and elastic, 
 felting power excellent, and colour good. These wools 
 are invariably selected for the finest woollen fabrics where 
 much milling is required, as in doeskins, dressed or 
 boiled-faced fabrics, and felt cloths for piano hammers. 
 
 Next, as to Colonial Wools. Large as the quantity of 
 Australian wool shipped into this country is, its value and 
 importance can only be understood when its quality and 
 fineness are taken into consideration. Such are the superior 
 clothing properties of this wool that only the best clips of 
 the Continent could supply its place. British wools are 
 almost invariably unsuitable for the purposes to which 
 colonial wools are applied. The high repute in which the 
 produce of the merino sheep in Australia is now held arises 
 from the peculiar softness and fulness of the cloths in 
 which these wools appear. 
 
 Fort Philip^ Sydney, and Adelaide are three of the best 
 Australian wools imported into this country. The former 
 is one of the most useful wools grown. Practically, it is 
 suitable for the best qualities of yarns, whether woollen or 
 worsted. Though its fibre is not so fine as Saxony, yet it 
 is a wool that spins well, and generally makes a true 
 thread. It possesses a sound staple of a fair length, while 
 its colour is invariably good. Being an excellent milling 
 wool, it may be employed in the manufacture of fabrics 
 requiring excessive felting. 
 
 Sydney Wool, which is shipped from Port Jackson, New 
 South Wales, usually possesses a fine fibre and a medium 
 length of staple, but is occasionally wanting in strength. 
 Sometimes it is defective in colour, containing yellow locks, 
 which prevent it from being dyed into light shades. As 
 the felting property is high, it is a wool that may be em- 
 ployed to advantage in making goods of a doeskin type. 
 
MATERIALS. 
 
 13 
 
 Adelaide does not compare favourably either with Port 
 Philip or Sydney in general character. While only mode- 
 rately fine in the hair, the staple is not of a uniform 
 length, nor can the colour be said to be exceptionally good. 
 However, it mills moderately well, and is a fairly useful 
 wool in the manufacture of both woollen and worsted goods. 
 
 Van Wool, grown on the island of Tasmania, possesses 
 many excellent clothing properties, for it is small in the 
 hair, long and strong in staple, of a bright, snow-white 
 appearance, and mills remarkably well. It is suitable for 
 both combing and carding purposes. 
 
 The fibre of New Zealartd Wool is moderately fine, the 
 staple sound and of a medium length, while its colour and 
 milling property are all that can be desired. As it generally 
 imparts a full, substantial handle to the woven fabric, it is a 
 wool highly esteemed for blending with mungo. It is also 
 largely used in both woollen and worsted yarn production. 
 
 Cape Wool, from the Cape of Good Hope, South Africa, 
 has a fine small hair, but is generally short in staple, and 
 rather deficient in strength, while that known as Eastern 
 Cape, although very much improved of recent years, still 
 contains many bright, dead fibres, termed "kemps." 
 These, if not carefully picked out, as they do not dye along 
 with the healthy wool, produce faulty places in the woven 
 fabric. It is an indifierent milling wool, but possesses a 
 fair colour. Generally it is used in the manufacture of 
 yarns for shawls and other fabrics where felting is not 
 essential. Sometimes this wool is also blended with others 
 possessing strength and elasticity of staple in the produc- 
 tion of small yarns for twisting purposes. 
 
 The wool coming from Buenos Aijres, South America, is 
 usually fine in the hair, but dirty and burry — that is, full 
 of seeds, motes, and twigs. It also lacks strength and 
 elasticity of staple, and is deficient in milling property. 
 After destroying, by a chemical process, the burrs, &c., this 
 wool contains, continental manufacturers use it largely in 
 worsted yarn spinning. 
 
14 
 
 WOOL MANUFACTURE. 
 
 Odessa is a very important Russian wool, with a strong, 
 vigorous staple, fibre of medium thickness, and colour 
 milky white. The latter characteristic occasionally causes 
 it to be used in making yarns to be employed in the white 
 state. Australian and Odessa wools, when blended to- 
 gether, produce very satisfactory goods. Odessa wool is 
 suitable for a large diversity of fancy woollen fabrics. 
 
 British Wools, — These are divided into two classes — the 
 long or lustre wools, and the short stapled wools. In the 
 former class are included Lincoln, Leicester, Romney 
 Marsh, and the Black-faced breed ; while South Down, 
 Hampshire, Oxford, and Norfolk Downs, as well as Cheviot, 
 Welsh, and Shetland, all belong to the short-stapled class. 
 Lincoln and Leicester are the most important of the lustre 
 wools. Possessing a long, bright, silky, and strong staple, 
 and also being fairly fine in the hair and of a good colour, 
 they are suitable for a large variety of combed or worsted 
 yarns. Leicester is somewhat smaller in fibre than Lin- 
 coln, but its staple is not so soft and lustrous ; it is, never- 
 theless, a valuable wool for combing purposes. Romney 
 Marsh resembles Leicester in general properties, and is 
 also used for similar goods. The Black-faced, or High- 
 land Breed is, strictly speaking, a medium wool, its staple 
 being of a middle length ; it is, however, technically classed 
 as ^'long." This wool possesses a coarse fibre and varies 
 very much in quality, and is consequently almost entirely 
 confined to the manufacture of rugs, Scotch carpets, and 
 blankets. 
 
 Slwrt Wools. — South Down is one of the most valuable 
 short-stapled wools. Though somewhat harsh and brittle, 
 it possesses what may be defined as a fine hair, about 
 one-eleven-hundredth part of an inch in diameter. Its mill- 
 ing property is only moderate. The shorter varieties of 
 this wool are carded and made into flannels and other 
 light woollen fabrics, while the longer qualities are combed. 
 
 Hamjoshire only difi'ers from the preceding in being some- 
 what longer and coarser in staple, while Oxford Downs is 
 
MATERIALS. 
 
 15 
 
 of a more open growth still, Norfolk Doivns is compara- 
 tively a fine, soft wool, but slightly deficient in strength 
 and elasticity. Cheviot is a fair average wool. The staple 
 is of a medium length, handle soft, fibre sound and strong, 
 milling property good, and colour bright. It enters into 
 a large variety of both fancy woollen and worsted cloths. 
 
 Welsh Wool, which lacks waviness of character and 
 fineness of hair, is used largely in the manufacture of the 
 flannels of this name. Shetland is not unlike Welsh wool 
 in general character, but, if anything, slightly finer in fibre 
 and softer in handle. It is principally employed in the 
 fabrication of knit goods of a shawl and handkerchief class. 
 
 9. Mohair, Aljpaca, and Cashmere, — These are three 
 materials more largely used in the manufacture of fabrics 
 for ladies' than gentlemen's wear. Mohair is obtained 
 from the Angora goat. Its staple is lustrous and silky in 
 appearance, about five or six inches in length, and hangs 
 in wavy ringlets. The colour is of a milky white. Along 
 with woollen yarns, it is used in the manufacture of Astra- 
 kans, or fabrics covered with short curls. Another style 
 of goods in which it figures largely is plushes, or velvets, 
 where its lustre imparts a desirable richness to the pile, 
 which may vary from one-eighth to half an inch in height. 
 
 Alpaca wool is derived from the Peruvian sheep, or 
 Llama. Like mohair, it possesses a soft, lengthy staple, 
 but the fibre is not so silky. It is principally employed 
 in the production of dress fabrics. Naturally, it is either 
 white, brown, fawn, or black in colour. 
 
 Cashmere is another fibre commercially classed as wool. 
 It is the product of the goats of Thibet, which are covered 
 with felted tufts of hair of a black or dark-brown colour, 
 underneath which grows a brownish-gray down that can 
 be readily separated with care. This down is the Cash- 
 mere of commerce. The soft, fine, silky texture of this 
 material has caused it to be appropriated to the manufac- 
 ture of those beautiful productions of the loom known as 
 Cashmere shawls. 
 
16 
 
 WOOL MANUFACTURE. 
 
 10. Wool Substitutes. — In the manufacture of so-called 
 woollen and worsted goods, various materials are used as 
 substitutes for wool proper. The employment of such 
 fibres has tended to cheapen, to a very considerable extent, 
 the productions of the loom, and made it feasible to weave 
 an attractive article at a surprisingly low price. The trade 
 generally has also been largely extended by the entrance 
 of re-manufactured fibres into textile productions. The 
 following are the most important and valuable wool sub- 
 stitutes now in use : noils, mungo, shoddy, extract, and 
 flocks. 
 
 11. Noils, — N'oil is the short, curly fibre cast out as 
 waste in combing wool for worsted yarns. Strictly speak- 
 ing, it is the pure produce of the sheep. It does not, how- 
 ever, possess the same degree of elasticity and wavy ful- 
 ness as the original fleece from which it is extracted. 
 This arises from the preliminary processes of worsted yarn 
 production to which the material is subjected previous to 
 the noil being formed, tending to comb the curl out of the 
 wool, or to straighten the fibres. 
 
 Noils are of four classes — Botany, English, Mohair, and 
 Alpaca. The first class is the outcome of combing Aus- 
 tralian and other fine wools. The second class is obtained 
 from English wools of a Lincoln and Leicester type ; while 
 Mohair and Alpaca noils result from combing the produce 
 of the Angora and Alpaca goats. 
 
 Botany Noils sftre the most valuable. The uses to which 
 they are put are almost too numerous to mention. How- 
 ever, it may be stated that such noils occupy an important 
 place in the materials used in the production of fancy 
 woollen fabrics. They are blended with wool in making 
 yarns for shawls, and are also suitable for mixing with 
 cotton in spinning small twist threads. 
 
 English Noils are of a coarser and broader quality, but 
 are, nevertheless, used for similar purposes as Botany, 
 only in lower classes of goods. Cheviot fabrics consume 
 a large proportion of English noils, many cloths thus de- 
 
MATERIALS. 
 
 17 
 
 signated being made entirely of noil. Sometimes these 
 noils, when used in the black, are mixed with black shoddy, 
 or with shoddy and cotton, the latter fibre assisting the 
 materials to spin to a greater length. 
 
 Mohair and Alpaca Noils are much brighter in appear- 
 ance, as well as softer and more silky in the hand, than 
 the two preceding kinds. They possess but little milling 
 property, and are, therefore, not selected for cloths where 
 felting is essential. In combination with shoddy and 
 cotton they are occasionally spun into weft yarns for low 
 goods ; but the principal trade which absorbs these noils 
 is that of the Scotch, or Kidder carpet manufacture. As 
 the chief essentials in yarns intended for this class of goods 
 are strength, brightness, and thickness, Alpaca and Mohair 
 noils are highly adapted to their production. 
 
 12. Mwngo and Shoddy, — Although these materials are 
 obtained from different sources, yet, as the mechanical 
 operations to which the rags are subjected from which 
 they are derived are practically the same, they may be 
 treated of together. Both fibres are wool products, being 
 obtained solely from wool garments. Mungo is the result 
 of grinding into a soft, fibrous form rags of a hard cha- 
 racter, such as milled cloths, whereas - shoddy originates 
 from soft rags of a blanket or comforter class, and also from 
 knit goods. There are two descriptions of mungo — new 
 and old. The former is produced from new rags, i,e.^ 
 tailors' clippings, pattern clippings, &c., while old mungo 
 is got from fragments of cloth that have, at one time, ap- 
 peared in a made-up garment. The smallness of the cost 
 of these materials, as well as the diversity of shades in which 
 they can be obtained — for mungoes and shoddies can be 
 purchased in the black, brown, blue, or almost any colour 
 or mixture desired — causes them to be employed in almost 
 all classes of woollen goods. The method of applying 
 mungo or shoddy to the better qualities of fabrics with a 
 warp face consists in blending them with wool in the 
 formation of the weft thread. In other cloths mungo 
 
18 
 
 WOOL MANUFACTURE. 
 
 forms the bulk of the material used in the construction of 
 the backing yarn, or the thread used in producing the 
 underneath surface of the texture. The method of intro- 
 ducing this fibre into low goods is somewhat different to 
 the preceding. Here it is the principal and most expensive 
 material used in the composition of the fabric, the weft 
 thread generally being mungo simply, and the warp cotton. 
 Both warp and weft yarns used in medium-priced fabrics are 
 usually a combination of wool and mungo, the proportions 
 varying according to the quality of the texture produced. 
 
 13. Difference between Wool and Mungo, — The properties 
 of a good wool are necessarily of a very superior character 
 to those of mungo. Under the microscope there is not 
 always a marked dissimilarity between the fibres, the fila- 
 ments of some mungoes being in a far more perfect state 
 of preservation than others. Sometimes the fibres are par- 
 tially stripped of serrations, but probably others might be 
 examined from the same handful of material possessing, 
 when microscopically examined, the complete mechanical 
 development of the wool fibre. Evidently the difference 
 between mungo and wool does not arise in the main from 
 any necessary dissimilarity in the structure of the fibres. 
 Practically, mungo possesses no definite length of fibre — 
 staple, as compared with wool, it has none — while in 
 elasticity and strength it is also deficient. Doubtless some 
 of these deficiencies are due to the mutilation of fibre occa- 
 sioned in the grinding process to which the rags are sub- 
 mitted, and in which filament is forcibly torn from fila- 
 ment, causing, as a natural consequence, the material to 
 be short, brittle, and wanting in elasticity. 
 
 Of course the milling power of mungo depends entirely 
 on the nature of the wool used in making the cloth from 
 which the fibre has been obtained. If the rags ground 
 up were originally made from an excellent fulling wool, 
 then the mungo will undoubtedly possess a certain degree 
 of felting property. Shoddies, though longer in the fibre 
 than mungoes, do not usually felt so well — the wools em- 
 
MATERIALS. 
 
 19 
 
 ployed in the production of the rags from which they are 
 recovered being principally of an inferior fulling power. 
 
 14. Mungo Production, — Rags intended for conversion 
 into mungo pass through various processes before they 
 assume the fibrous appearance of wool. Dusting is the 
 first operation. It consists in shaking the dust and dirt 
 out of the rags before they are transferred to the hands of 
 the sorter, who classifies them according to quality and 
 colour. Considerable care and judgment have to be exer- 
 cised in this preliminary work in order to ensure the pro- 
 duction of a regular and uniform stapled material. Both 
 
 c 
 
 Fig. 2. 
 
 old and new rags are submitted to this process. As many 
 as from twenty to thirty varieties have been collected 
 from one bale. 
 
 Seaming follows sorting. It applies solely to rags ob- 
 tained from cast-off garments, and consists in removing all 
 the cotton threads used in stitching. The rags are now 
 oiled to soften the material and facilitate grinding. The 
 machine in which this, the principal work in mungo pro- 
 duction, is efiected is shown in fig. 2. It consists of feed- 
 sheet, fluted rollers, main cylinder, or swift, and funnel for 
 conducting the mungo out of the machine. The swift s, 
 which may be said to be the leading feature of the 
 machine, is enclosed in the framework ; it is about 
 18 inches long, 42 inches in diameter, has a surface space 
 
20 
 
 WOOL MANUFACTURE. 
 
 of 1,638 square inches, and contains from 12,000 to 14,000 
 strong iron teeth. The speed at which it runs varies from 
 640 to 800 revolutions per minute. The rags, having been 
 spread on the feed-sheet f, are conveyed to the fluted 
 rollers, on emerging from which they are seized by the teeth 
 of the cylinder, which not only separates thread from 
 thread, but literally tears fibre from fibre, and thus reduces 
 the whole to a flossy, wool-like state. As the rags are 
 ground up, the material is forced down the funnel A, and thus 
 finds an exit from the machine. Any hard fragments of 
 cloth only partially torn to pieces fall into the cage C, from 
 whence they are replaced on the feed-sheet. The weights, 
 w, allow the upper fluted roller to rise should the machine 
 be overcharged, and by this means admit of the rags being 
 conveyed without retention direct off the feed-table on to 
 the cylinder, which continues to throw them into the cage 
 until the machine gets properly cleared. 
 
 15. Extract Wool, — This material is obtained from 
 rags of which the threads are composed of cotton and wool 
 respectively, as in stufi* goods with a cotton warp and 
 mohair or lustre worsted weft, or in low union fabrics 
 which have a similar warp thread, but thick woollen weft. 
 As the object in extracting is to recover the animal fibre, 
 the vegetable thread is destroyed by a process of car- 
 bonizing. To effect this, the tissue is steeped in a solution 
 of sulphuric acid and water, and then heated in an en- 
 closed chamber. This drying process causes the water to 
 evaporate, leaving the sulphuric acid in a very concen- 
 trated form upon the fabrics, in which state it has a very 
 powerful action on the vegetable matter they contain, 
 entirely transforming it, and reducing it to such a condi- 
 tion that it powders when friction is applied. Washing- off 
 now takes place, to remove the acid from the reclaimed 
 woollen thread. This effected, the material is run through 
 a coarse, open carder, which gives it the required woolly 
 appearance of a textile fibre. 
 
 As to the properties of extract — it is not a good milling 
 
MATERIALS. 
 
 21 
 
 wool-substitute, and is wanting in fullness, elasticity, and 
 substantial feel. It can be obtained in a large variety of 
 colours, and is used in the manufacture of low tweeds 
 and, when blended with wool, medium-class fancies. 
 
 16. Flocks. — These are soft, fluffy fibres cast out of the 
 different machines used in the various processes of cloth pro- 
 duction. They are of three kinds, "milling," "cropping," 
 and " raising." The first class, which is formed in the milling 
 or fulling machine, is of more value to the textile pro- 
 ducer than either cropping or raising flocks. White full- 
 ing flocks always command a high price, and are suitable 
 for blending with wool in the production of a large variety 
 of goods of a Cheviot class. As fulling flocks sometimes 
 possess a bright colour and generally diffusiveness of cha- 
 racter, they are largely used by sale yarn spinners. 
 
 Gutting or cropping flocks are the fibres removed from 
 the cloth in what is termed the cutting operation. Such 
 flocks are not frequently selected by manufacturers as a 
 fit material for yarn making, being principally used in the 
 production of what are called flock-papers for decorative 
 purposes. 
 
 Raising flocks are derived from the teazles of the "gig," 
 which retain a certain quantity of the short fibre, drawn 
 from the surface of the cloth in the raising process. Such 
 fibres, when removed from the teazles, are designated 
 raising flocks, and are similar in character to those formed 
 in the fulling process, hence they are employed for like 
 purposes in textile productions. 
 
 17. Gotton. — Wool and cotton fibres do not only differ 
 from each other in mechanical structure, but also in those 
 special properties which they both possess, making them 
 highly suitable for clothing purposes. The cotton fibre (c, 
 fig. 1) is short, fine, and brittle, possessing the appearance 
 of a flattened and somewhat twisted tube, or resembling a 
 wrinkled, twisted, irregular ribbon. Commercially, cotton 
 wool is divided into long and short stapled, the former 
 being used for warp and the latter for weft yarns ; but 
 
22 
 
 WOOL MANUFACTURE. 
 
 these distinctions are by no means always adhered to, the 
 two qualities being blended in such proportions as will 
 result in making a cheap and satisfactory thread. 
 
 The length to which cotton may be spun is very remark- 
 able, as many as 252,000 yards of yarn having been spun 
 from one pound of material. Its spinning quality causes it 
 sometimes to be mixed with wool to facilitate the production 
 of cheap and finely-spun yarns. The fineness and strength of 
 the cotton fibre and its downy nature are at the basis of its 
 spinning capabilities. The large variety of fabrics in which 
 it is used is proof of its adaptability to textile threads, thus 
 it is employed in the production of fine lace, muslins, stout 
 calicoes and sheetings, velveteens, cords, and fustians. In 
 addition to being blended with wool and other materials 
 in woollen cloth production, it forms the warp thread in 
 union cloths ; and also, on account of its fineness, it is 
 used in various styles of backed goods, where its function 
 is to bind the yarns employed in the formation of the face 
 to those constructing the back of the texture. 
 
 18. Silk. — This fibre is also used to some extent in the 
 making of woollen and worsted goods. Of all fibres, it 
 possesses the least diversity of physical construction, re- 
 sembling, when magnified, a transparent glass rod, and 
 possessing but few surface creases. (See a, fig. 1.) In 
 reality it is a longitudinal body of flexible gum, chemi- 
 cally termed Sericin, and is totally void of cellular 
 structure. When the fibre is heated to 110° C. it loses its 
 natural moisture, while at 170° C. it decomposes. 
 
 Silk threads, in the better qualities of fancy wool fabrics, 
 are twisted with worsted and woollen threads, while in 
 other cases they are introduced into the fabric in the 
 single state to give tone and richness to the pattern. These 
 are the two principal methods of applying this fibre to 
 textiles made of wool. Of course in more elaborate fabrics, 
 such as mantles, vestings, figured plushes, and some 
 classes of dress goods, it forms the most important yarn 
 employed in the production of the texture. 
 
MATERIALS. 
 
 23 
 
 The silk imported into this country is of two classes, 
 that which arrives in the hank form, and is wound direct 
 from the cocoon, and receives the name of neat silk ; and, 
 second, s^un silk, or the thread which results from com- 
 bining and spinning the cocoons which are too entangled 
 to be wound, and the waste made in the winding process. 
 Before silk is capable of being used as a warp or weft 
 thread it is converted into one of the following forms : 
 singles^ tram, and organzine. 
 
 Singles is simply a reeled thread to which twist has 
 been added to give it strength and firmness, Tram^ which 
 is generally used as weft, consists of two or more reeled 
 threads twisted firmly together. Organzine, or thrown silk, 
 is formed of several singles twisted together in a contrary 
 direction to that in which the twine is introduced into the 
 individual threads of which it is composed. 
 
 Strength and lustre are the distinguishing characteristics 
 of silk yarns. There is, in fact, no weavable thread in pro- 
 portion to its fineness comparable in elasticity with that 
 obtained from this material. For this reason an ordinary 
 silk ribbon will sustain as much tension and friction as a 
 woollen fabric which has been felted for several hours and 
 is many times its thickness. The lustrous quality of silk 
 is, however, the one most esteemed in textile manufac- 
 turing. Mohair is the only animal fibre which possesses 
 anything approaching its bright, shiny appearance. China 
 grass and jute, both vegetable fibres, are more or less lus- 
 trous, but they are incapable of being spun to the same 
 degree of fineness as silk. As both alpaca and mohair 
 possess a lustrous staple, they are sometimes employed in 
 the stufi* trade as substitutes for this rich and costly fibre. 
 
24 
 
 WOOL MANUFACTURE. 
 
 CHAPTER 11. 
 
 WOOLLEN THREAD MANUFACTURE. 
 
 19. Sorting — 20. Wool Washing — 21. Detergents used in Scouring 
 — 22. Wool Steeping — 23. Methods of Scouring — 24. Scouring Ma- 
 chines — 25. Utilization of Waste Scour Liquor — 26. Drying — 27. 
 Teazing— 28. Burr-Extraction— 29. Oiling— 30. Blending— 31. Pre- 
 paring the Blend — 32. Fearnought — 33. Carding — 34. Systems of Card- 
 ing — 35. Actual Operation of Scribbling — 36. Parts of a Scribbler — 
 37. Speeds of the Cylinders — 38. Modes of Conveying the Scribbled 
 Wool from one Engine to another — 39. Condensing — 40. Spinning — 
 41. Mule or Spinning Frame. 
 
 19. Sorting, — The initial process in wool manufacturing 
 is that of sorting or classifying the fibres of the fleece, as 
 clipped from the sheep's bodj, according to length, fine- 
 ness, elasticity, and soundness of staple. The necessity 
 for this operation arises from the wool varying in quality 
 in different sections of the fleece. Coarse, fine, strong, and 
 tender locks being present in the wool in its natural con- 
 dition, it is, until sorted, unfit for textile purposes. An 
 attempt to utilize it in the fleece state would result in the 
 spinning of uneven, faulty, and unsatisfactory yarns. 
 About thirteen or fourteen sorts may be obtained from one 
 fleece, but very frequently not more than five or seven are 
 made. The following table shows the relative qualities 
 of the wools grown on the various parts of the body of a 
 merino sheep : — 
 
 The wools grown on these parts 
 are remarkable for length and 
 strength of staple, softness of feel, 
 and uniformity of character. They 
 are usually the choicest wools found 
 I in the fleece. 
 
 1. The shoulders. 
 
 2. The sides. 
 
WOOLLEN THREAD MANUFACTURE. 
 
 25 
 
 3. Lower part of 
 the back. 
 
 4. Loin and 
 back. 
 
 5. Upper parts 
 of the legs. 
 
 6. Upper portion 
 of the neck. 
 
 7. Central part 
 
 of back. 
 
 8. The belly. 
 
 9. Root of tail. 
 
 10. Lower parts 
 of legs. 
 
 This is also a wool of good, sound 
 quality, resembling in staple that 
 obtained from the shoulders and 
 sides, but not so soft and fine in 
 fibre. 
 
 The staple here is comparatively 
 shorter, hair not so fine, but the 
 wool on the whole of a true cha- 
 racter. In some cases, however, it 
 is rather tender. 
 
 Wool from these parts is of a 
 moderate length, but coarse in fibre, 
 and possesses a disposition to hang 
 in loose, open locks. It is generally 
 sound, but liable to contain vege- 
 table matter. 
 
 The staple of the wool clipped 
 from this part of the neck is only of 
 an inferior quality, being frequently 
 faulty and irregular in growth, as 
 well as full of thorns, twigs, &c. 
 
 This wool is nearly like that ob- 
 tained from the loins and back, 
 being rather tender in staple. 
 
 This is the wool which runs quite 
 under the sheep, between the fore 
 and hind legs. It is short, dirty, 
 and poor in quality, and frequently 
 very tender. 
 
 Fibre coarse, short, and glossy, 
 and the wool often run with kemps 
 or bright hairs. 
 
 Principally a dirty and greasy 
 wool, in which the staple lacks cur- 
 liness and the fibre fineness. Usually 
 it is burry, and contains much vege- 
 table matter. 
 
26 
 
 WOOL MANUFACTUEE. 
 
 The wools from these parts are- 
 in some places classed together, all 
 having the same characteristics ► 
 The fibre is stifi*, straight, coarse,, 
 and covered with fodder, the wool 
 also being kempy. 
 
 This is another short, thick^ 
 straight, and shinny-fibred wool^ 
 commonly called shanks. 
 
 Such terms as picklock, prime, choice, super, head, 
 seconds, abb, and breech are applied to the several varieties 
 into which the fleece is divided. PicMock comprises the 
 very choicest qualities of the wool, both as regards fine- 
 ness of fibre, elasticity, and strength of staple ; 'prime is a 
 similar wool to the preceding, only of a slightly inferior 
 character ; the staple of choice is true, but the fibre is not 
 so fine as prime ; swper is similar in general properties to 
 choice^ but not, as a rule, so valuable ; head includes the 
 inferior sorts and the wool grown on this part of the 
 sheep ; downrights is derived from the lower parts of the 
 ribs or sides ; seconds consists of the best wool clipped off 
 the throat and breast ; ahh contains the skirtings and 
 edgings of the fleece ; while hreech consists of short, coarse 
 fibres obtained from this part of the animal's body. 
 " In the worsted trade these names are not used, the 
 following being those generally adopted : blue, from the 
 neck ; fine, from the shoulders ; neat, from the middle of 
 the sides and back ; brown- drawing, from the haunches ^ 
 breech, or britch, from the tail and hind legs ; cow-tail, 
 when the breech is very strong ; and brokes, from the 
 belly and lower part of the front legs, which are classed 
 as super, middle, and common, according to their quality. 
 For finer sorts of wool there are no special names, and 
 Botany and similar fleeces are sorted according to their 
 numbers or the counts of yarn they will spin to, such as 
 50's, 70's, 80's, and so on." 
 
 11. The head. 
 
 12. The throat. 
 
 13. The chest. 
 
 14. The shins. 
 
WOOLLEN THREAD MAN0FACTUEE. 
 
 27 
 
 The sorter prepares for the work of classification by 
 spreading the fleece on a table with a wire cage surface, 
 through which a portion of the dust, sand, and other hard 
 particles of matter in the wool falls into a drawer beneath, 
 during sorting. The centre of the back of the sheep 
 forms an indefinite line down the middle of the fleece, 
 which the sorter follows in dividing it into two portions 
 before commencing the actual work of analysis. His 
 work may be said to consist, firstly, in removing a portion 
 of the loose vegetable substances the fleece contains, such as 
 seeds, twigs, and bits of bark ; and, secondly, in cutting off 
 the hard tufts of fibres which have by some means or other 
 got fastly adhered together. These preliminaries having 
 been attended to, he proceeds to analyze the fleece care- 
 fully, casting the locks according to quality into different 
 skeps with which he is provided. He judges of the wool 
 mainly by its soft, silky handle, and by thickness or 
 density of growth — weakness of staple, harsh, or unkind 
 handle, and want of rankness of hair, are all indications of 
 an inferior wool. 
 
 20. Wool Washing, — Wool is naturally impregnated with 
 a greasy substance termed yolk or suint, an unctuous 
 varnish caused by the perspiration of the skin, and partly 
 by the animal secretion which lies at the root of each hair 
 finding its way to the tip of the fibre. Yolk is a com- 
 pound of potash and animal fat. It also contains small 
 quantities of acetate of potash, lime, and chloride of potash. 
 Such is the amount of foreign substances present in some 
 wools that they lose as much as seventy per cent, of their 
 /^weight in scouring. Certain merino wools contain, in 
 addition to yolk, a considerable proportion of earthy and 
 greasy matters, for according to Chevreul's analysis they 
 decrease, on an average, nearly two-thirds in weight during 
 the washing process. He states the composition of this 
 class of wool in its natural state to be as follows : 
 
28 
 
 WOOL MANUFACTURE. 
 
 Earthy substances 
 
 26-06 
 
 Suint, or yolk .... 
 
 32-74 
 
 Fatty matter .... 
 
 8-57 
 
 Earthy matter fixed by grease . 
 
 1-40 
 
 Clean wool .... 
 
 31-23 
 
 
 100-00 
 
 Several of these substances are recovered by chemical 
 agents from the refuse scouring solution previously con- 
 ducted into large tanks, and pass into commerce under 
 different forms and under new names. The yolk, for 
 example, after having been separated from the other in- 
 gredients of the waste lye, has recently been utilized in 
 the production of a soap said to be specially valuable, on 
 account of the animal fat it contains, for medical purposes. 
 Crude carbonate of potash is obtained in considerable 
 quantities from the residuum of the used scour liquor. 
 Another substance which results from a method (which 
 will afterwards be described) largely practised in chemi- 
 cally decomposing this otherwise worthless solution is a 
 class of oil used to some extent in lubricating rags for 
 shoddies and mungoes. 
 
 'Now the object in scouring is not simply to remove the 
 greasy product from the material, but also the dirt and 
 other extraneous matter with which the wool may be 
 covered. This should be effected without injury either 
 to the physical structure or chemical composition of the 
 fibre. A wool thoroughly cleansed should be of a pure 
 colour, should handle soft and elastic, dye readily, produce 
 a true thread, and ultimately form a texture full and velvet- 
 like to the touch. On the other hand, wool only partially 
 scoured resists the action of mordants, and takes a streaky 
 colour, the dyes not penetrating the fibre, but remaining 
 on the surface. Indifferent scouring endangers good scrib- 
 bling and spinning, and also causes the woven fabric to be 
 hard, stiff, and unkind in feel. A generally accepted 
 
WOOLLEN THREAD MANQFACTURE. 
 
 29 
 
 opinion amongst manufacturers is, that if the raw material 
 is impartially cleansed, every one of the subsequent pro- 
 cesses will to some extent suffer therefrom ; the imperfection 
 arising from this cause becoming, in some cases, the most 
 perceptible in the finished cloth. For these reasons too 
 much intelligence and skill cannot be exercised on this 
 preliminary process of cloth manufacture. 
 
 21. Detergents used in Scouring, — Potash, carbonate of 
 soda, silicate of soda, ammonia, and soap are all more or 
 less used in wool washing. Soda is sometimes employed 
 alone in scouring wools of a coarse, open growth, but as 
 this alkali is well known to have a corrosive and ener- 
 getic action on animal fibres, it should seldom, if ever, be 
 used for this purpose. As a detergent, it destroys the 
 natural mellowness of the hair, and, instead of acting as a 
 bleaching agent, imparts a yellow tinge to the wool. 
 Potash, on the contrary, being present in the fibres of the 
 raw material, is, so to speak, the alkali naturally most 
 suitable for whitening and purifying wool, to which it 
 gives a diffusive character and soft feel. Silicate of soda 
 is said to be used largely on the Continent, with good 
 results. However, if this detergent should be employed, 
 precautions should always be taken to thoroughly squeeze 
 the scouring liquor out of the material before rinsing with 
 cold water — if this is done it is held the wool will be white, 
 clean, open, and soft, and also dye freely. Ammonia is 
 milder in its action than either soda or potash. Formerly 
 it was extensively used for wool-scouring purposes, for 
 which it is well adapted, removing the dirty, greasy 
 matter froui the wool without injuring the staple. Soaps 
 are now generally the scouring agents selected. Those 
 in which potash enters should invariably be chosen, soda 
 soaps being more energetic, and having a tendency, for 
 reasons stated above, to dissolve the wool. For wool- 
 washing a soap containing an excess of alkali is perhaps 
 the best, there being a certain percentage of grease on 
 the fibres. 
 
30 
 
 WOOL MANUFACTURE. 
 
 The quantity of water in soaps may be ascertained by 
 reducing a sample to parings and placing in a hot oven, in 
 which it should be allowed to remain until it ceases to 
 become lighter, when the difference between its original 
 and dried weight will indicate the percentage of water 
 evaporated. Other adulterations may be detected by 
 immersing the soap in a strong solution of alcohol and 
 applying heat, which dissolves the soap, but leaves the 
 impurities insoluble. 
 
 Wool may be injuriously acted upon by being subjected 
 to too hot a scouring solution, or from being brought in 
 contact with powerful alkalies. No rigid rule as to tem- 
 perature can be furnished, this being a feature of scouring 
 which varies according to the nature of the wool in hand. 
 However, the liquor should never be at a higher tempera- 
 ture than is absolutely necessary to cleanse the material. 
 For wools open, broad, and free in staple, from 32^ C. to 
 54^ C. is a good average, but for fine wools the temperature 
 may range from 48"^ C.to 60^ C. To avoid unsatisfactory 
 consequences, the heat and alkalinity of the liquor should 
 always be tested before a batch of wool is submitted to the 
 scour bath. This might readily be done by dissolving the 
 detergents to be used and diluting until a milky solution is 
 obtained which feels soft and smooth to the hands. A few 
 samples of wool might now be dipped, and the heat and 
 alkalinity of the solution varied, until the material readily 
 parts with the dirt and grease it contains, and possesses a 
 soft, silky handle. The hardness and softness of water 
 is a question of importance. Soft water dissolves the soap 
 the best, and is, in consequence, the most preferable for 
 cleansing wool. The hardness of water varies according 
 to the proportion of salts, lime, chalk, and other mineral 
 substances it may contain. To use hard water for wool 
 washing without previously softening it is a very uneco- 
 nomical course, as a considerable proportion of the soap 
 is taken up by the lime, <fec., before any of it can be 
 available in purifying the wool. When water is not 
 
WOOLLEN THREAD MANUFACTURE. 
 
 31 
 
 softened the lime forms with the detergents what is called 
 an insoluble lime soap — a compound perfectly useless as a 
 scouring agent. It is also very difficult to remove when 
 fixed on wool. A general mode of softening water for wool 
 scouring consists in collecting it in tanks, when from two 
 to six pounds of refined carbonate of potash per 1,000 
 gallons is added, which in a short time precipitates the 
 lime and leaves the water ready for use. Sometimes the 
 potash or soda is added in the scouring machine previous 
 
 Fig. 3. 
 
 to introducing the soap into the solution, but the former 
 seems to be the more preferable plan. 
 
 22, Wool Steeping, — Of recent years an apparatus has 
 been invented for preparing greasy wools for scouring by 
 subjecting them to a process of steeping, the object being 
 to drive ofi* the acid which the fibres contain and dissolve 
 the hard, dirty substances, without removing any of the 
 yolk in the wool. The apparatus shown in fig. 3 consists 
 of three steepers. A, b, and 0, similar to each other both in 
 
32 
 
 WOOL MANUFACTURE. 
 
 size and construction. Each steeper has two bottoms, the 
 upper one being perforated as indicated by the dotted lines. 
 The water is kept in tanks, t and t, the pipe connections 
 with which are so arranged as to admit of the steepers 
 being worked separately or together. The steam enters 
 the vessel containing the material at the bottom, and is 
 forced upwards, passing through the hard, dirty, clotted, 
 and entangled masses of wool ; thus the whole is opened 
 and softened, and a large amount of extraneous matter 
 removed. As there are no chemical agents used in the 
 process the natural pliability, lustre, and colour of the 
 fibre are perfectly preserved. 
 
 The main advantage arising from steeping dirty, greasy 
 wools, previous to washing, is the considerable saving 
 thereby effected in soap. The cost of steeping, when once 
 the apparatus has been obtained, is not to be compared 
 with the difference in the quantity of detergents used 
 when the wools are submitted to the scouring process 
 without having the hard limy matter with which they are 
 coated softened or dissolved, as is the case with those that 
 have passed through this operation. After steeping, the 
 material readily parts with the dirty substances it contains, 
 the fibres being in a more expanded state and the im- 
 purities more readily acted upon, so that the time required 
 in scouring, and the quantity of soap used, are consider- 
 ably decreased, while cleansing is accomplished with less 
 injury to the properties of the wool. 
 
 23. Methods of Scouring. — Wool is scoured both by hand 
 and machinery, but the former method is almost entirely 
 out of date, having been superseded by machine washing, 
 and hence need only be briefly described. The wool, in 
 such a case, is placed in a large vat or tub which possess 
 a false perforated bottom that rests on small supports about 
 6 inches from the bottom proper ; it is freely agitated for 
 some time in the solution contained in this vat, when it is 
 lifted on to a large scray to allow some of the liquid it 
 contains to drain off. Rinsing follows, and is performed 
 
WOOLLEN THREAD MANUFACTURE. 
 
 33 
 
 in the " rinse " box, a long, narrow trough also having a 
 perforated bottom to admit of any hard, dirty particles, that 
 may have not been removed in the scouring bath, to escape. 
 Here the material is subjected to a stream of clean fresh 
 water, which thoroughly cleanses it of the " scour " it con- 
 tains on being removed off the scray. One workman on 
 this system of scouring will cleanse from five hundred 
 to a thousand pounds of greasy wool per day. 
 
 24. Scouring Machines. — There are various kinds of 
 machines now used for wool -washing purposes, but the 
 one generally regarded as constructed on the best prin- 
 ciple is that shown in fig. 4. Usually two tanks or bowls 
 are employed (one of which is given in the engrav- 
 ing), so that if necessary a stronger scouring solution may 
 be used in one than in the other. Another obvious ad- 
 vantage in this arrangement is, that a certain percentage 
 of the dirt having been cleansed from the wool before it 
 leaves the first tank, the second tank may be employed 
 more for rinsing than scouring purposes. In some classes 
 of scouring machines the wool is considerably disturbed 
 by swing rakes during its passage through the scour 
 liquor. This treatment has a tendency to cause the fibres 
 to felt or mill, which^ in washing, should, if possible, always 
 be obviated. Scouring being more a chemical than a 
 mechanical operation, it is important to bring the suds 
 into contact with the fibres, for the required length of time, 
 at a minimum mechanical disturbance, and thus cleanse 
 the wool, not so much by tossing and beating it about as 
 by dissolving the dirt and grease that cover the staple. 
 To attain this result the system of propelling the wool 
 when in the scour bath by reciprocating swing rakes has 
 been substituted in this machine by a series of iron prongs 
 set at uniform distances apart. The wool is carried into 
 the tank by the feed sheet, A. The frame, c, in which the 
 prongs are fixed, has both a lateral and vertical movement. 
 At the feeding end of the machine it carries what is called 
 a perforated immerser plate, B, some few inches deep and 
 
34 
 
 WOOL MANUFACTURE, 
 
 the entire width of the inside of the tank. As the wool 
 is conveyed into the machine by the feeder, A, it is imme- 
 diately immersed, and held for some time in the liquor by 
 the plate, b, by which means it is thoroughly saturated, 
 and the fibres prevented from floating on the surface of 
 the scour. The wool is not now forked along the trough, 
 as is the case in some machines, but gently propelled 
 forward by the prongs of the frame, C, which ultimately 
 deliver it to the squeezing rollers, d, where the liquid it 
 contains is pressed out and conducted into what is termed 
 the receiver, when the revolving buckets, e, replace the 
 scour in the tank. On this system the wool is scoured in 
 a fully expanded or open condition, which allows the suds 
 to act with greater freedom on the fibres, and thereby 
 effects a material saving in soap. Even before the wool 
 passes into the second bowl, where the same process is 
 repeated, it is comparatively clean, soft, open, and free in 
 the hand. 
 
 25. Utilization of Waste Scour Liquor. — The waste suds, 
 resulting from scouring both wool and cloth, are, in all 
 well-conducted factories, run into a series of tanks in the 
 open air, with the object of reclaiming the fatty ingredients 
 which they contain. In order to separate the grease from 
 the other substances in the solution, sulphuric acid is intro- 
 duced into the tanks. The fatty matter is thus liberated, 
 and rises to the surface, whilst the soda and ammonia 
 compounds remain in solution. The greasy substance thus 
 formed is, after the water has been drained off, pumped 
 into a shallow filter. It remains here until partially solid, 
 when it is cut into blocks about 18 inches square. By 
 applying pressure and heat a quantity of oil is reclaimed, 
 which is used in lubricating rags before grinding, while 
 the residuum, after pressing, is bought up by soap manu- 
 facturers. 
 
 26. Drying, — Now the wool has been cleansed of im- 
 purities it only remains to remove the moisture it contains 
 on leaving the scouring solution. A very common mode 
 
36 WOOL MANUFACTURE. 
 
 of drying consists in spreading the wool on a table pos- 
 sessing a wire cage surface, the apertures in which admit 
 of hot air being forced through the wool. The stand on 
 which these cages are fixed is built in a semicircular form, 
 and contains a number of steam-pipes and huge revolving 
 fans for driving the heat rapidly through the material. It 
 is important when using the drying table that the wool 
 should be spread as evenly as possible, and turned over at 
 regular intervals, to prevent scorching some of the fibres 
 and partially drying others. If these points are carefully 
 attended to, the material will be well and uniformly 
 dried. 
 
 Another machine used in wool-drying is constructed on 
 the continuous feed and delivery system. This is, with- 
 out doubt, the safest method of drying, as the material is 
 always on the move. A representation of such an appa- 
 ratus is given in fig. 5. It consists of an enclosed chamber - 
 (containing a series of five shelves, or tables, one over the 
 other, and some 18 inches apart), about 20 feet long, 4 
 feet 6 inches wide, and 11 feet high. Hot air is forced 
 through the machine by a rapidly revolving fan, which 
 makes about one thousand turns per minute, and is situate 
 underneath the chamber. The current of air it creates 
 passes through the tubular heater, and from thence into 
 the chamber, as indicated by the arrows. The heat of 
 the air can be regulated as required. The tables consist 
 of two classes of bars, stationary and movable ; the latter 
 convey the wool through the machine. As the material 
 reaches the end of the respective tables it is deposited on 
 to the one below, and so on till it reaches the bottom table, 
 where it is passed on to the delivery lattice. 
 
 Drying being on this system accomplished in an enclosed 
 chamber, the washing machine may be in the same room 
 as this apparatus, thus admitting of the wool being con- 
 veyed by the delivering table of the scouring machine on 
 to the feed-table of the " dryer." This mode of transferring 
 the material from one machine to the other is shown in fig. 5. 
 
WOOLLEN THREAD MANUFACTURE. 
 
 37 
 
 Here the parts t, r, and c are the delivering end of the 
 scourer/' being the tank, pressure rollers, and delivery 
 lattice respectively. ^Necessarily this arrangement econo- 
 mizes both space and labour. The usual method, however, 
 is to place the wool on the feed-table by hand, when it is 
 at once carried into the chamber and forced by a strong 
 blast of hot air on to the upper table. It now travels 
 over the separate shelves in succession, being dried and 
 opened to some extent during its entire passage through 
 the machine by the current of hot air which moves in the 
 same direction as the wool. There being no beating, toss- 
 ing, or teazing of the fibres in this drying apparatus, it is 
 suitable for all varieties of wools. As many as from three 
 to five thousand pounds of material can be dried in this 
 chamber in one day. 
 
 A third contrivance, that may be briefly described, 
 difi'ers from the two preceding arrangements in the heat 
 applied being somewhat difi*erently difi'used. Here there 
 is no blast of hot air, but the wool is conveyed by a series 
 of small revolving rollers fixed across the machine and close 
 together, over a number of steam pipes. Thus the interior 
 of this chamber consists, firstly, of two levels of pipes 
 charged with steam ; secondly, of two series of small 
 rollers, the lower series carrying the wool from the feed- 
 ing to the delivering end of the machine, and the upper 
 series vice versa; and thirdly, of a large spiked drum, 
 which throws the fibres ofi* the lower on to the top row of 
 rollers. About one hundred pounds of material are fed 
 into the machine at one time, and allowed to remain until 
 perfectly dry, when a door is opened, and the cylinder 
 rapidly casts the wool on to the floor. 
 
 27. Teazing. — The condition of the material after dry- 
 ing is such as to necessitate its being subjected to some 
 operation that will, in a measure, open and disentangle its 
 fibres before being passed on to the scribbling machine. 
 The technical name for this operation is teazing, or willow- 
 ing. Fig. 6 is a representation of the machine in which 
 
38 
 
 WOOL MANUFACTURE. 
 
 the work is carried on. Its principal parts are a large 
 skeleton cylinder, or drum, C, (shown in the sectional draw- 
 ing, fig. 7), with ten arms, each mounted with two rows 
 of teeth tapering from the base to the point ; and three small 
 rollers, w, termed workers, fixed above the cylinder, and 
 studded with teeth, which work between those of the latter 
 when the machine is in motion. These parts are all en- 
 closed in a strong case, and are driven by wheel-gearing 
 on the outside of the framework. The wool is weighed out 
 in regular quantities and spread on the feed-sheet, s, which 
 
 carries it into the interior of the machine, where it is re- 
 ceived by the teeth of the main cylinder. 
 
 The principle of the machine is this : a large and centre 
 drum, making from 400 to 500 revolutions per minute, 
 charged with wool, working against, or turning in a con- 
 trary direction to, a series of three smaller rollers, making 
 from 30 to 40 revolutions per minute. So that no sooner 
 is the material forced round by the main cylinder than the 
 teeth of the workers come in contact with the felted and 
 entangled locks, effecting a thorough separation amongst 
 the fibres. In addition to thus opening the wool and im- 
 parting to it a pliable and diffusive character, preparing it 
 
 Fig. 6. 
 
WOOLLEN THREAD MANUFACTURE. 
 
 39 
 
 for the reception of the oil and for the action of the wire of 
 the scribbler, teazing also removes any particles of dirt or 
 other impurities which the fibres retain after the scouring 
 process. 
 
 28. Butt 'Extraction, — At this stage in the manipulation 
 of the fibres some classes of wools, Buenos Ajres, for in- 
 stance, have to be submitted to a special process, arising 
 from a troublesome sort of seed, known as burrs, being 
 frequently entangled in the fleece. In size and form these 
 seeds, which possess a coating of minute prickles, causing 
 
 them to cling tenaciously to the fibres of the wool, resemble 
 very closely an ordinary bean. Of course the purpose 
 of the humng process is as far as possible to remove the 
 burrs from the staple with little or no waste of fibre, and 
 without injury to the strength and other properties of the 
 wool. Should the wool be allowed to pass on to the card- 
 ing operation previous to the burrs having been thoroughly 
 extracted, they will occasion serious waste both in that 
 and the subsequent processes. When not properly re- 
 moved before reaching the scribbler, they are liable to enter 
 in small portions into the condensed sliver, and thus prove 
 injurious to the spun thread. 
 
 Fig. 7. 
 
40 
 
 WOOL MANUFACTURE. 
 
 Burrs may either be chemically or mechanically ex- 
 tracted. The former process consists in steeping the wool 
 in a solution of vitriol and water (standing at about 9^ 
 Twaddle) for about half-an-hour, when it is taken out, 
 allowed to drain, and then removed to the drying-room 
 and submitted to a temperature of about 100"^ F. When 
 the moisture has been absorbed out of the material the 
 acid attacks the burrs and other small seeds, reducing 
 them to carbon, after which the wool is rinsed in soda and 
 water to remove the acid, and then again dried, when it 
 is ready for oiling. It will be observed that in this pro- 
 cess the vegetable substance is dissolved by the sulphuric 
 acid, while the wool remains sound ; but in the mechanical 
 mode of removing the burrs they are not destroyed, but 
 actually beaten or shaken out of the material. 
 
 The burring machine in general use consists of the 
 following parts : feed-sheet and rollers, revolving fan, 
 lattice-sheet, revolving brush for 'passing the ivool on to the 
 swift, or cylinder ; main cylinder, burr rollers, grid, and a 
 large roller for beating the burrs on to the same ; and, 
 lastly, revolving brush for removing the wool off the cyli/nder. 
 These parts are all enclosed in a strongly-built frame, 
 somewhat similar in construction to that of the teazer, or 
 willey. The wool, after having been placed on the feed- 
 sheet, is conveyed by the feed-rollers into the interior of 
 the machine, when the fan forces it on to the lattice- sheet. 
 This sheet immediately conveys it to the revolving brush, 
 which yields it up to the teeth of the cylinder. Now, as 
 the latter revolves, the burr roller, which tarns in the 
 opposite direction, beats, lashes, and opens the wool, the 
 result being that in a short time the larger burrs com- 
 mence to hang somewhat loosely on the surface of the 
 cylinder, in which condition they are readily knocked on 
 to the grid by a roller mounted with spiked arms for that 
 purpose. The distance at which the burr roller is set from 
 the cylinder varies according to the length of the staple of 
 the wool operated upon. As the material gets free from 
 
WOOLLEN THREAD MANUFACTURE. 
 
 41 
 
 burrs it is remoyed out of the machine by the delivering 
 brush. 
 
 For wools containing a large quantity of broken and 
 small burrs, motes, and seeds, the chemical mode of " ex- 
 tracting " is generally held to be the most preferable ; but 
 for fine wools full of large burrs the burring machine is 
 usually employed, which possesses one material advantage 
 over the chemical process : it preserves the natural strength 
 and colour of the fibres. 
 
 29. Oiling, — Having deprived the wool, by scouring, of its 
 natural lubricant, the yolk, its condition is such that if 
 passed on to the scribbler without being oiled, much waste 
 of fibre would ensue. After washing and drying, the 
 fibres lack adhesiveness, and hence a large quantity of 
 them would, if not lubricated, be cast ofP the difierent 
 cylinders of the carding machines in the scribbling pro- 
 cesses, and go to form what are called flyings or drop- 
 pings. Oil is applied to the wool to minimize the produc- 
 tion of such flyings, and also to soften and impart 
 smoothness to the fibres. By affording these qualities to 
 the material, it causes the individual filaments to glide 
 past each other with as little friction as possible, and 
 facilitates separation and re-adjustment of the same, pre- 
 serving, by so doing, to some extent, the natural length of 
 the staple. 
 
 There are various compositions used in oiling wool, but 
 one of the best lubricants is olive or Gallipoli oil. Being 
 unctuous to the feel, and almost colourless, it is very suit- 
 able for this purpose. About two gallons of this oil are 
 applied per 120 pounds of wool. 
 
 Oleines, which are also largely used as wool-lubricants, 
 are obtained by pressure from animal fats, and are known 
 in the trade as tallow oleines, lard oleines, and neat's-foot 
 oil. That, however, applied to wool is mainly derived 
 from oleic acid, previously separated from stearine, a 
 mixture of which occurs as a result of one of the processes 
 in the manufacture of candles. By distillation, oleine or 
 
42 
 
 WOOL MANUFACTURE. 
 
 elaine is obtained from the oleic acid, while the stearine 
 is used in candle production. If due care has not been 
 observed the oleine thus obtained is liable to be contami- 
 nated with the sulphuric acid employed in some stages of 
 its manufacture, which injuriously affects the wire teeth, or 
 card clothing, covering the cylinders of the scribbling 
 engines. This necessitates frequent grinding and cleaning 
 of the cards. The wool is also impoverished by the action 
 of the acid, its colour being injured, which implies the pro- 
 duction of a less valuable cloth and consequent loss. Good 
 oils are therefore recommended, as the wool is by far the 
 most expensive article, and should, as far as practicable, be 
 preserved sound throughout all the processes of manu- 
 facture. 
 
 A common method still practised in oiling wool is that 
 of using an ordinary can with a large T-shaped nozzle. A 
 layer or " lighter " of material is spread on the floor, then 
 the oil distributed over it as evenly as possible, the opera- 
 tion being repeated till a large sheet or bed of wool has 
 been piled up. 
 
 Fig. 8 shows a contrivance for oiling the wool as it 
 enters the fearnought. The tank, a, underneath the feed- 
 sheet, F, contains the oil, which is pumped into the cistern, 
 B, to be conveyed by the arm, c, on to a ridged plate, from 
 whence it trickles on to a revolving brush, which distri- 
 butes it in a fine spray on the fibres. The supply of oil is 
 quite uniform, and can be regulated as required. It 
 should be observed that whatever method of lubrication 
 is adopted, the object should always be to impart the 
 same quantity of oily substance to every portion of the 
 wool. 
 
 30. Blending, — A large variety of fabrics results from 
 mixing two or more materials together, such as cotton and 
 wool ; mungo, cotton and wool ; flocks and wool, &c. Of 
 course, the principal object to be attained in mixing such, 
 materials with the more costly fibre of wool is that of 
 reducing the cost of the yarn, and also of the manufac- 
 
44 
 
 WOOL MANUFACTURE. 
 
 tured article. Perhaps in no single instance will the cloth 
 be improved in texture, or enhanced in value, from the 
 entrance of these fibres into the blend, parcel, or stock 
 previous to the scribbling process ; on the contrary, the 
 fabrics, generally speaking, are low in quality in conse- 
 quence of the yarns employed being a composition of pure 
 wool, and of a re-manufactured material only possessing 
 inferior clothing properties. However, the decrease in the 
 value of the woven product that takes place in proportion 
 to the quantity and quality of the adulterating material 
 used in the blend does not alter the fact that the scrib- 
 bling and spinning of two or more distinct classes of fibres 
 into the same thread is the source of an extensive range 
 of textile goods, necessarily approaching in their general 
 characteristics those of woollen and worsted fabrics, but 
 sufficiently different as to be distinguished in the market 
 as inferior articles. There are cases, as in the mixture of 
 silk with wool, where the object is to obtain a smarter, 
 and in every sense of the word a more stylish, thread, 
 which ultimately adds to the beauty of the woven fabric in 
 which it is employed ; but in such instances the manufac- 
 turer does not seek to reduce the cost, but to improve the 
 appearance of the goods produced. 
 
 Blending, in addition to allowing of various fibres being 
 introduced into the same thread, also comprises a com- 
 bination of several colours, or shades of the same or 
 different materials. It thus affords ample scope for the 
 origination of novelties in the shape of mixture yarns for 
 cheviots and other classes of goods of a similar character. 
 Such fabrics derive their leading features from the nature 
 of the yarns used in their production, which have their 
 characteristics formed, so far^ as colouring goes, in the 
 blending operation, for the quantities of the various colours 
 combined all contribute, according to their intensity and 
 richness of hue, to give tone and bloom to the spun 
 thread. Hence in this preliminary process of cloth fabri- 
 cation there is considerable scope not only for making a 
 
WOOLLEN THREAD MANUFACTURE. 
 
 45 
 
 cheap yarn, but, at the same time, a thread that will 
 be valuable to the designer in the production of new 
 styles. 
 
 One or two illustrations will clearly show how the pro- 
 cess of blending can thus change the character of the 
 yarn. Supposing, for example, that it is required to make 
 three neutral gray mixture yarns, namely, dark, mid, and 
 light gray respectively. Now, as black and white when 
 mixed with each other produce graij^ it will only be neces- 
 sary to blend, card, and spin certain quantities of black 
 and white wool together, varying in the proportion of one 
 to the other, according to the tone of the mixture yarn 
 
 Fig. 9. Fig. 9 a. Fig. 9 h. 
 
 required. Thus, three pounds of black wool blended with 
 one pound of white wool would give the dark gray shown 
 in fig. 9 ; two pounds of black wool blended with two 
 pounds of white would give a similar shade to that of 
 fig. 9 a y while the light gray (fig. 9 would be formed 
 by blending three pounds of white wool with one pound of 
 black wool. For practical purposes other colours would 
 probably be added in small quantities to give bloom and 
 warmth to the blends ; but these illustrations are sujficient 
 to show the efi'ect of combining black and white in the 
 formation of gray shades. 
 
 Take another example of a slightly difierent character, 
 namely, an olive mixture. Such a shade could be obtained 
 by blending black and yellow-olive in equal quantities, 
 whether in wool, mungo, extract, or any combination of 
 fibres. Other illustrations are unnecessary, as the most 
 
46 
 
 WOOL MANUFACTURE. 
 
 elementary colourist will understand that as there is no 
 limit to the variety of tints and shades that are obtained 
 by combining several colours in different proportions, so 
 in like manner there is practically no end to the variety 
 of mixture yarns made for manufacturing purposes, in 
 browns, bronzes, olives, greens, grays, &c., resulting from 
 diversifying the combination of the shades used in the 
 blend : a valuable proof that blending should be regarded 
 as a useful auxiliary to the weaving process in imparting 
 a new feature to the finished cloth. 
 
 31. Pre]paring the Blend. — As the object in blending is 
 to mix the several fibres together as they will form a thread 
 in which they cannot be distinguished from each other, 
 much care is taken in preparing them for the machines in 
 which yarn construction is performed. Blending does not 
 alter the individual characteristics of the fibres combined, 
 each retaining its own nature and properties, and yet the 
 amalgamation is so complete that a perfectly uniform 
 mixture is the result. The materials about to be com- 
 bined, after having been teazed, are bedded or arranged in 
 layers one above the other, in regular succession. Thus, 
 if the blend consists of different classes of wools of the 
 same shade, a foundation layer some few inches in thick- 
 ness of one wool is distributed evenly over a prescribed 
 place on the floor. This ^'spreading" having been oiled, 
 a layer of a different class of wool is added and oiled, the 
 processes of spreading and oiling being repeated to the 
 completion of the "bed." In order to preserve the con- 
 dition of the blend, when passing the material on to the 
 teazer with the object of forming a more promiscuous 
 mixture, the sheet is cut into vertically, and not trans- 
 versely, with a strong, stout stick. When two or more 
 colours — say, for instance, black, tan, and green — are in- 
 troduced into the blend, the routine is as follows : A layer 
 of black is uniformly spread ; then comes a layer or 
 " lighter " of tan, and lastly a layer of green, the order 
 being repeated to the top of the pile. The thicknesses of 
 
WOOLLEN THREAD MANUFACTURE. 
 
 47 
 
 the individual layers vary according to the quantity of 
 each colour required to form the proper mixture. Each 
 lighter also receives its proportionate share of lubrication. 
 A blend of this character, in order to ensure the produc- 
 tion of an even thread, may be passed through the teazer 
 two or three times. 
 
 If the mixture thus obtained is intended to be used 
 with other stock, that is, for combining with cotton, silk 
 waste, (fee, it is sheeted up till required, in which condi- 
 tion it is designated "mellowing," or "melling." 
 
 In cases where cotton forms a portion of the bed the 
 main point to be observed is to prevent, as much as 
 possible, oil from getting on to this fibre. A layer of 
 teazed cotton is, in such blends, first spread for a founda- 
 tion, then lighters of wool and cotton alternately, the oil 
 being distributed on the wool alone. Should mellowing 
 be used, no oil is required. When wool, mungo, and 
 cotton are blended together the order is to deal with the two 
 former first, by making a bed of teazed wool and cotton 
 in alternate stratas — this is now run through the teazer and 
 forms an *' angola*' mellowing, i.e., a mixture of wool and 
 cotton. A new bed is next composed of this angola blend, 
 and mungo of one or several shades, each being taken in 
 succession in spreading the layers, however many colours 
 are employed. If necessary, a little oil is imparted to the 
 mungo. This bed complete, the whole is submitted to the 
 action of the cylinders of the teazer, when it is ready for 
 the scribbler. 
 
 32. Fearnought, — To better disentangle the fibres, and 
 more perfectly mix the materials before carding proper, 
 they are generally passed through the fearnought, or 
 tenter-hook willey (fig. 10). Probably the latter name 
 has been applied to this machine on account of the 
 peculiar shape of the teeth inserted in the swift or main 
 cylinder. The back part of these teeth is slightly bent 
 in the form of a bow, while the other side gradually 
 tapers from the base to the point. The main cylinder 
 
48 
 
 WOOL MANUFACTURE. 
 
 is about 45 inches in diameter, and makes from 150 
 to 200 revolutions per minute. The smaller cylinders, 
 w, are called workers, and those lettered s, strippers. 
 There are three pairs of these rollers over the swift. The 
 material, after having been spread on the feed lattice, is 
 passed forward to the main cylinder by a couple of feed 
 rollers, when the workers and strippers engage the tufted 
 and matted locks, and cross and intermix the fibres to- 
 gether. The fan, f, draws the wool from the cylinder and 
 casts it out of the machine. In order to prevent waste 
 arising from loose fibres flying off* the cylinders, the rollers 
 
 are covered with a casing of sheet-iron when in operation. 
 The machine is similarly enclosed underneath, but here 
 there are perforations in the casement to allow any hard, 
 dirty substances to escape, while the loose fibres remain 
 on the grating. 
 
 33. Carding. — This process is, in one sense of the word, 
 a continuation, on a more systematic principle, of the 
 separation and mixing of the fibres of the wool com- 
 menced in the teazer and fearnought. In fact, carding 
 perfects the work of these two machines and prepares the 
 wool for spinning. On the scribbling, or carding engines. 
 
 Fig. 10. 
 
WOOLLEN THREAD MANUFACTURE. 
 
 49 
 
 the felted locks are not simply opened and disentangled, 
 but actually divided into their component parts, the fibres 
 being literally separated from each other, and afterwards so 
 efiectively crossed and blended together as to produce one 
 promiscuous mixture of uniform density throughout. The 
 operation consists, in the first place, in destroying the 
 natural condition or order of the fibres ; and, secondly, in 
 re-adjusting them with such mechanical nicety as to cause 
 them to amalgamate, in subsequent processes, in a thread- 
 like form. In scribbling there is no attempt made to lay 
 the fibres in parallel lines — the very opposite of this 
 effect being designed, namely, to mix and intermingle 
 them on one common but uniform system. After carding, 
 the filaments of the wool, to a large extent, bear the same 
 relation to each other as to closeness of contact, for they 
 hang loosely together in one endless film or gauze-like 
 combination ; but, in other respects, they are as dissimilar 
 from each other in arrangement as possible, for they point 
 in all conceivable directions. Every species of fibre takes 
 its place in the carded sliver — curly, straight, short, long, 
 fine and coarse. From these facts it is evident that the 
 condition of the material undergoes an entire change in the 
 scribbling operation, for the felted locks are here reduced 
 to individual fibres, and the wool is made pliable, diffusive, 
 and expansible. These, in short, are the elements of the 
 carded material which distinguish it from the wool in the 
 raw state. 
 
 The scribbling machine (fig. 11), in which this work 
 is accomplished, consists, briefly speaking, of a number of 
 cylinders of various dimensions, revolving in opposite 
 directions and at different speeds. These are all covered 
 with fine, pliant, wire teeth, called card clothing. The 
 wool is reduced to an open, fibrous condition by the con- 
 tention, so to speak, which takes place between the wires 
 of adjacent cylinders for possession of the fibres. The 
 principle of the operation is this : the teeth of one cylinder 
 work against those of an adjoining cylinder in recovering 
 
 E 
 
50 
 
 WOOL MANUFACTURE. 
 
 and drawing out the material which they both possess, 
 while a third cylinder, with a larger surface velocity, is 
 constantly propelling the fibres from one couple of rollers 
 to another. Supposing, for illustration, the wire of any 
 particular cylinder is charged with wool, and that it comes 
 in contact with the teeth of an adjacent roller, revolving 
 either at a difierent speed or in a contrary direction, then 
 the material will necessarily be expanded, straightened, 
 crossed, and, in a measure, combed between their move- 
 ments — a condition which is no sooner acquired than the 
 propelling roller (i.e., the main cylinder) takes the fibres 
 in charge and conveys them a stage nearer the exit end of 
 the machine. This is an epitome of what is repeatedly 
 transpiring in the scribbling and carding operations. 
 
 An idea of the amount of dislocation and blending of 
 fibres which such teeth subject the wool to may be gathered 
 from their multiplicity. For example, it has been estimated 
 that there are upwards of fifty-six millions of points in a 
 machine similar to that shown in fig. 11 ; fifty millions of 
 which engage the wool, carry it forward, and resist the 
 action of the wires of other cylinders when they come in 
 contact with the material. Six million points, on the 
 other hand, play the part of extractors and springers, 
 drawing or lashing the fibres from between the teeth of 
 other rollers. According to this data it is further calcu- 
 lated that in an ordinary scribbling engine the wool is 
 continually submitted to the disturbing and intermixing 
 action of 25,000 points. When it is considered that in 
 carding three separate machines are sometimes employed, 
 containing an increasing number of points, it will be 
 obvious that nothing less than a perfect separation and 
 re-adjustment of the fibres can fail to ensue from passing 
 the wool through this operation. 
 
 34. Systems of Carding, — There are two systems of 
 carding. In the one most generally adopted in the woollen 
 textile centres of Great Britain a complete set of carding 
 machines consists of scribbler (containing breast cylinder 
 
52 
 
 WOOL MANUFACTURE. 
 
 and two swifts), intermediate (containing two swifts), and 
 carder (containing two swifts and condenser). The inter- 
 mediate is not always employed. In the second system, 
 which is almost universally adopted in America, and in 
 recent years to a limited extent by English manufacturers, 
 there is the same set of three machines — scribbler or 
 breaker, intermediate, and carder or finisher, with con- 
 denser attached — but in this case each engine has only one 
 swift or large cylinder (see fig. 12, which is a drawing of 
 the carder and condenser of this build of machines), and 
 hence does not occupy so much floor space as the former 
 set. There are usually five pairs of rollers over the swifts 
 in both the breaker and intermediate in the machines of 
 this class, but only four pairs over the carder. Both these 
 methods of wool-carding are practised with satisfactory 
 results. It may be said of the two-swifted-system that it 
 is applicable to all classes of materials, both for fine and 
 coarse work, whereas the one-cylinder principle has, thus 
 far, in this country, been mainly confined to wools in- 
 tended for medium and fine counts of yarns. 
 
 In the limited space that can be devoted to this subject 
 here the first-named system of carding will alone be de- 
 scribed in detail. However, as the principle of scribbling 
 is identically the same in both sets of engines, the expla- 
 nations given will also be more or less applicable to the 
 latter system of carding. 
 
 35. The Actual Operation of Scribbling , — The passage of 
 the material through the scribbler will now be described. 
 (The reader is referred to fig. 11, which is a correct repre- 
 sentation of the scribbling engine, and will assist him to 
 understand the principle of this important operation in 
 woollen yarn manufacture.) The wool is, in the first place, 
 laid on the feed-sheet. A, which is divided transversely 
 into equal sections, to facilitate even spreading. Uneven 
 distributing of the wool on the feed-table causes irregular 
 and faulty scribbling. Mechanical feeds are now largely 
 employed for laying the wool on the travelling lattice, and,, if 
 
WOOLLEN THREAD MANUFACTURE. 
 
 63 
 
 anything, equalize the supply more efficiently than by 
 weighing, as adopted when feeding by hand. Before the 
 fibres are conveyed to the breast-cylinder, b, the wool is 
 subjected to a preliminary mixing, which has a tendency 
 to regulate the quantity of material passed on to the 
 breast-cylinder, as well as to prepare the fibres for the 
 more minute dislocation they undergo in other parts 
 of the machine. The blending referred to is accom- 
 plished by five rollers, three of which are termed feed 
 rollers, one the licker-in,'' and the other the "angle- 
 stripper." The relative positions of these rollers are as 
 follows : — the three-feed rollers are fixed one above the 
 other ; directly behind them is placed the licker-in, and 
 over it the angle-stripper. As the wool is carried into 
 the machine by the feed-sheet it is taken possession of by 
 the bottom feed " and then transferred to the licker-in. 
 The middle roller also gathers up a portion of the wool, 
 which, in conjunction with the top " feed," it opens and 
 delivers to the licker-in, which, in turn, yields it up to the 
 angle-stripper, from whence it is received by the wire of 
 the breast cylinder. 
 
 Now it is at this juncture that the real process of scrib- 
 bling begins. The wire of the breast cylinder propels the 
 material forward until it comes in contact with the first 
 pair of small rollers, w^ and s\ called workers and strip- 
 pers. The worker, which is placed behind the stripper, 
 is the larger roller, and removes the material ofi" the 
 cylinder, while the stripper takes it off the worker and 
 delivers it over, after it has been worked, to the rapidly 
 revolving cylinder. This process is repeated by each pair 
 of workers and strippers in the machine. 
 
 It is not the object of the scribbler to effect at a single 
 operation a perfect separation and blending of the fibres, 
 for, in so doing, it would be liable to break the staple of 
 the wool ; hence the several small cylinders employed in 
 disentangling and re-mixing the fibres. The first pair of 
 rollers are only intended to operate upon the largest en- 
 
64 
 
 WOOL MANUFACTURE. 
 
 tanglements, being set the furthest off the cylinder, and 
 also the coarsest in the wire, or containing the smallest 
 number of teeth. The material which escapes their points 
 is dealt with by the second couple of rollers, while the 
 smaller tufts of fibres still are engaged by the third set of 
 workers and strippers, and so on throughout the operation. 
 By this repeated transfer from one cylinder card to another 
 a continuous opening and blending of the material is 
 carried on from the time when it enters the machine at 
 the feed -sheet to leaving the same at the doffer. 
 
 It will be more clearly understood how the wool is 
 transferred from cylinder to worker, from worker to 
 stripper, and from stripper back again to cylinder, if the 
 character or bend of the wire in the card clothing of the 
 different cylinders is taken into consideration. A repre- 
 sentation of this wire is given in fig. 11 A. There are 
 three ways in which the wires meet each other : first, 
 point to point ; second, point to smooth side ; third, smooth 
 side to smooth side. The wool is most effectively " worked " 
 when it passes between two rollers in which the points of 
 the wires of their respective surfaces oppose each other. 
 Such is the case with the wire of the swift and that of the 
 workers, the points of the latter leaning in a contrary way 
 to those of the main cylinder. The points of the card 
 clothing of the stripper come in contact with the smooth 
 side of those of the worker, enabling it to remove the 
 wool off this cylinder ; for a similar reason the wire of the 
 swift can readily recover the material off the strippers. 
 The high speed at which the main cylinder revolves, in 
 addition to its using the points of its card clothing, gives 
 it the power to force the wool forward, and ultimately to 
 deliver it to the doffer. 
 
 To return to the wool at the point where it is reclaimed 
 by the breast cylinder from the first stripper, s^ — from 
 thence it is conveyed to the second pair of rollers to be 
 submitted to further blending, and then to the third set, 
 the amount of crossing and separation the fibres undergo 
 
WOOLLEN THREAD MANUFACTURE. 
 
 55 
 
 increasing as the wool progresses from point to point on 
 the surface of the breast. Having escaped from the second 
 stripper, s^, it is again engaged by the active cylinder 
 and carried forward to the fancy, p \ The function of this 
 roller is not to " work " the wool, but merely to lift, or 
 lash it on to the surface of the wire of the breast and main 
 cylinders. As the material is being subjected to the action 
 of the different workers and strippers, and in consequence 
 of its repeated transfer from these rollers on to the cylinder, 
 it becomes embedded in the card clothing of the latter, the 
 fibres sinking below the points of the teeth. The wire of 
 the fancy is long and elastic while it revolves at a high 
 velocity, hence it brushes up the wool, raises it on to the 
 points of the clothing of the cylinder, and facilitates its 
 removal by the doffer. The points of the wires of the 
 " breast " and the swifts work against those of the doffers, 
 but, as the material is well brushed up by the fancy, the 
 action of the two cards is considerably modified, and the 
 latter may be said to receive rather than take the wool off 
 the cylinders. After leaving doffer, b d, the angle -stripper 
 of the first swift, A s \ places it on the wire of that cylinder, 
 where the passage from card to card already described is 
 repeated. 
 
 To take the scribbled wool off the last doffer, a steel comb 
 or doffing knife, d c, is employed. It is the entire width 
 of the machine, and moves rapidly up and down, imparting 
 as it descends a shaving stroke to the surface of the card, 
 and thus removes off the wire of the doffer a continuous 
 fleecy web of fibre. 
 
 36. Parts of a Scribbler. — Having described the order in 
 which the fibres pass over the wires of the various cylin- 
 ders, explanations may now be given on the special func- 
 tions of the different parts of the scribbler. It should be 
 observed before doing so that the arrangement of the 
 rollers is precisely the same in the scribbler as in the in- 
 termediate and carder, only the two latter engines do not 
 possess a breast cylinder and its accessories. 
 
56 
 
 WOOL MANUFACTURE. 
 
 Passing by the feed sheet and rollers, licker-in and 
 angle- strippers, attention will first be directed to the 
 hreast cylinder. This roller is about 36 or 38 inches in 
 diameter and is generally mounted with two sets of 
 workers and strippers. It is the first large cylinder in the 
 machine, and is, in reality, a miniature swift performing the 
 same functions as the latter. 
 
 WorJcers. — These operate upon the wool at different 
 points on the surface of the breast and main cylinders. 
 They are about 8 inches in diameter. The points of their 
 wires should be sharp and fine to lay hold of the wool, and 
 yet smooth in order to release it with as little friction as 
 possible. Both workers and strippers are set closer to the 
 swift, and increase in fineness of wire progressively, or 
 according to the positions they occupy in the machine. 
 
 Strippers, — Sometimes these rollers, which are from 3 
 to 5 inches in diameter, are termed cleaners. After open- 
 ing the wool, in conjunction with the workers, they yield 
 it up to the wire of the swift. 
 
 Main Cylinders or Swifts, — These are generally about 48 
 inches in diameter, and make from fifty or sixty to one 
 hundred revolutions per minute. Strictly speaking, they 
 are more the conveyers than carders of the wool, forcing 
 it from worker to worker, and finally delivering it up to 
 the doffer. 
 
 Fancy or Fly. — This roller is covered wdth long elastic 
 wires, and somewhat resembles a strong metallic brush. 
 It is some 12 inches in diameter, and has a surface velo- 
 city exceeding that of the swift by about one-fifth. Gene- 
 rally it is set moderately deep in order to extract the 
 imbedded fibres from between the wires of the main 
 cylinder ; but it should not work so deeply as to throw 
 the wool off* the cylinder, its function being merely to 
 raise the material on to the points of the wires. 
 
 The doffer removes the fibres brought on to the surface of 
 the swift by the fly. In fine work it is about 24 inches, 
 and in coarse work 36 inches in diameter. It should be 
 
WOOLLEN THREAD MANUFACTURE. 
 
 57 
 
 set as close as possible to the swift, while its points should 
 be both sharp and keen, to secure a clean removal of the 
 fibres from the main cylinders. 
 
 The doffing comb is fixed slightly above the axle of the 
 doffer. When carding short wools it requires a high 
 up-stroke, but for long wools, with a greater speed of 
 doffer, a low down-stroke. The comb should not touch 
 the doffer, but be set quite close. Its action should 
 also be as slow as convenient with a satisfactory delivery 
 of material. 
 
 37. Speeds of the Cijlinders. — This is another matter that 
 in practical work requires careful adjustment. One series 
 of speeds is not suitable for all classes of blends and wools. 
 The main cylinders, for example, vary from sixty to one 
 hundred revolutions per minute, and the doffers from five 
 or six to over twenty. For all wool blends intended to be 
 spun into fine yarns, ninety is a good average for the swifts ; 
 for coarse, strong wools, or blends of mungo and wool, 
 seventy to eighty is the standard velocity. If the cylinders 
 revolve too quickly when carding coarse blends, the quan- 
 tity of fibres which fall underneath the machine in the 
 form of " droppings " is largely increased. The fancies, 
 for a like cause, have in such cases to be run slowly, other- 
 wise they cast off a lot of loose fibres as " flyings.'' The 
 motion of the workers and strippers, on the other hand, 
 should in this class of work be accelerated, the speed of 
 these rollers generally being the highest when the mate- 
 rials are coarsest in quality ; but in wools requiring well 
 " working," or much carding, the speed of these cylinders 
 is at the lowest, because the longer the material remains 
 on the main cylinder the more effectively is it opened. 
 In fine work the doffer should make from five to six revo- 
 lutions per minute; in coarse work the first doffer might 
 make as many as twenty; but the other doffers should be 
 speeded somewhat more slowly. As this roller " doffs " 
 the wool off the swifts, the lower its velocity the better 
 are the fibres carded, opened, and blended. 
 
58 
 
 WOOL MANUFACTURE. 
 
 38. Modes of conveying the Scribbled Wool from one Engine 
 to another, — The object aimed at in transferring the mate- 
 rial from one carding machine to another is, as much as 
 feasible, to prevent the production of an unevenly scribbled 
 material, by presenting the fibres in a new form to the 
 cylinders of the intermediate or carder, as the case may be. 
 There are no less than three distinct modes of doing this. 
 First, there is the la^ system, in which the material as it 
 leaves the scribbler is conveyed in successive layers by a 
 travelling apron, set at right angles to the dofier, on to a 
 huge drum ; hence the fibres are distributed on to the 
 carder in the opposite direction to what they come off this 
 machine. Second, there is the Scotch feed, a contrivance 
 which reduces the scribbled material into a flat ribbon or 
 band some 5 inches broad, and from a quarter to half an 
 inch thick. This " sliver " is laid on the feed of the 
 carder by what is called the carriage, in a slightly diagonal 
 sense, each layer being arranged to overlap its predecessor 
 to such an extent as to ensure a level and uniform dis- 
 tribution of the material. Third, the balling or side-draw- 
 ing system, so called on account of the fibres being delivered 
 in the form of a rope to which a little twist is imparted as 
 it passes through what is known as the funnel, on its way 
 to the balling machine, where it is conducted between guide- 
 pins on to bobbins 3 inches broad. These bobbins, when full, 
 are placed in the creel, and the separate ends passed be- 
 tween another series of guides on to the feed rollers of 
 the carder. A remarkable feature about this system 
 consists in the fibres being spread in the same direction on 
 the carding engine as they leave the doffer of the preceding 
 machine ; whereas in both the lap and Scotch systems 
 the fibres are delivered, say, lengthways, and fed on to the 
 carder transversely. Another characteristic of the balling 
 feed is that the fibres are twisted into a rope condition 
 (which implies that a certain degree of twist or twine has 
 been introduced amongst the filaments), and that in this 
 state the material goes on to the cylinder of the carder. 
 
WOOLLEN THREAD MANUFACTURE. 
 
 59 
 
 where the primary object is to reduce the wool into one 
 thin, level film of fibres. 
 
 39. Condmsing, — The condensing machine is attached 
 to the carder, the wool being stripped off the last swift of 
 this engine by the ring doffer or doffers of the condenser. 
 The object of this operation is, as its name implies, to con- 
 dense or reduce into compact slivers, the sheet of fibres 
 delivered by the last main cylinder of the carding engine. 
 By pressure and friction it divides the material into a 
 series of soft, round, flabby threads, technically designated 
 slivers, supplying to them a sufficient degree of uniformity, 
 solidity, and adhesiveness as to make them capable of 
 bearing the tension brought to bear upon them in the 
 twisting process. 
 
 There are three descriptions of condensers : — 
 
 I. Single-doffer and single-stripper machine. 
 II. Single-doffer and double-stripper machine. 
 III. Double-doffer and double-stripper machine. 
 
 The construction of the single-stripper machine will 
 first be considered. The doffer in such a condenser is 
 covered with rings of card clothing about 13-16ths 
 of an inch in width, allowing a space of 3-16ths between 
 each sliver stripped off the cylinder of the carder. So 
 that if the cylinder were 72 inches wide there would be 
 about 13| inches of its surface that the wire of the doffer 
 would never operate upon. To prevent the accumulation 
 of fibres on the uncleaned parts a twofold action is sup- 
 plied to the workers on the second swift of the carding 
 machine, for they have both a rotatory and transverse 
 motion, so that any fibres escaping the action of the ringed 
 clothing of the doffer are re-distributed on the surface of 
 the cylinder. This arrangement, in time, places the fibres 
 in such positions as they cannot fail to be laid hold of by 
 the wire of the condenser. The narrow bands of fibres are 
 taken off the doffer by the stripper and passed by it on to 
 a pair of rubbers which deliver them up to the bobbins in 
 
60 
 
 WOOL MANUFACTURE. 
 
 the creel. " The characteristic feature of roundness the 
 slivers attain in this process is due to the action of the 
 rubbers, which not only revolve on separate rollers, but 
 oscillate from side to side. The slivers, which are in an 
 extremely soft and pliable condition when leaving the 
 doffer, gradually become rounder and rounder, firmer and 
 firmer, under the continued transverse motion of the 
 rubbers, until they ultimately assume the appearance of 
 loose, untwisted threads." 
 
 The construction of the single-dofier and double-stripper 
 machine is similar to the one described, only there are two 
 pairs of rubbers, and the slivers are rounded and solidified 
 by both at one time, the yield of each being wound on to 
 separate bobbins. 
 
 In the double-dolFer and double-stripper condenser 
 (fig. 12) there is a slight difference in the method of re- 
 moving the wool from the swift of the carder from that 
 adopted in the two preceding machines. 
 
 Both of the doflPers, d ^ and d ^ are clothed on the ^^ring" 
 principle, but the stripes of card clothing in d ^ are oppo- 
 site to the spaces in d ^, and vice versa, so that the fibres 
 which escape the teeth of one are engaged by those of the 
 other doflPer. There is a stripper and a pair of rubbers, 
 R ^ and R ^, to each doffer, which increase the working 
 power of the machine very materially. This class of con- 
 denser is now very largely employed, as it not only turns 
 out more work, but more perfectly cleans the swift of the 
 carder than the single-doffer machine. 
 
 There is another method of condensing to which allusion 
 should be made. It is a Belgian arrangement, and is re- 
 garded by some scribbling engineers as the best principle 
 of condenser yet invented. In the English machines de- 
 scribed it will have been observed that the continuous 
 width of fibre formed on the swifts of the carder is divided 
 into longitudinal bands by the ring clothing of the doffer 
 of the condenser. It is found that although two such 
 doffers are employed, yet the removal of the fibre from the 
 
WOOLLEN THEEAD MANUFACTURE. 
 
 61 
 
 wire of the carder is not satisfactorily effected. The 
 Belgian condenser has no cylinder ringed with card cloth- 
 ing, the doffer in this case being completely covered with 
 wire, and has the wool taken off its surface by the action 
 of an ordinary doffing knife. The sheet of fibres pass 
 from this doffer between a pair of iron cylinders divided 
 into as many parts as there are slivers condensed. The 
 rollers of a 60-inch cylinder machine may contain as many 
 as 120 divisions. Each alternate section is grooved, 
 the smooth parts of one roller opposing the grooved 
 parts of the other. Leather bands of the same width as 
 these divisions pass the material between the grooved 
 cylinders. The slivers on the narrow straps of each roller 
 are next wiped off, entering different rubbers, where they 
 are rounded and condensed in the usual manner. The 
 principal advantage of this system of condensing over 
 some others consists in the use of a doffer the entire sur- 
 face of which, being mounted with wire, plays against the 
 card of the swift, securing, by this means, a more perfect 
 removal of the wool, and also admitting of a larger number 
 of slivers being formed from a given width of material. 
 
 40. Spinning, — "There is but one process, after that of 
 condensing, the wool has to pass through, namely, spin- 
 ning, before a weavable thread or yarn is obtained. The 
 condensed sliver is nothing less than the basis of the spun 
 yarn, for all that is requisite to make it suitable for 
 weaving purposes is the addition of twist. This, of 
 course, is necessary to impart strength, firmness, and 
 solidity — three essentials which are not present in the 
 soft thread yielded by the condenser. A sliver is the 
 result of rubbing a limited number of fibres together, but 
 the yarn produced on the mule or spinning frame is ob- 
 tained by two distinct motions — firstly, that of twisting, 
 compressing, and twining the individual fibres of which 
 the sliver is composed firmly round one another, affording 
 thereby strength, compactness, and tenacity to the 
 thread ; and, secondly, that of extenuating the sliver, 
 
62 
 
 WOOL MANUFACTURE. 
 
 which increases its length in the same ratio as it decreases 
 its thickness or circumference." 
 
 Professor Beaumont, in his lecture on a " Lock or Fibre 
 of Wool from the Bale to the Finished Cloth/' thus de- 
 cribes the nature of the condensed thread and the purpose 
 of the spinning process. This much will be gathered from 
 the above description, that the sliver of the condenser 
 possesses little or no adhesiveness. It has the form of a 
 thread, but lacks weaving capabilities. When tension is 
 applied it readily breaks. This arises from the relation 
 which the fibres sustain to each other. They are simply 
 balled or rolled one over the other into a continuous 
 circular longitudinal form, without any motion being 
 applied to secure them permanently in this condition. To 
 impart strength and elasticity to the sliver thus formed, 
 and, in a word, to transform it into a thread or yarn 
 capable of bearing the friction and strain of the weaving 
 process, a binding affinity or cohesion of the fibres must 
 be brought about. The method of efiecting this, as already 
 noted, consists in imparting into the sliver twist, or twine, 
 a factor which forces the individual fibres into closer con- 
 tact with each other, reducing as a natural sequence the 
 thickness of the thread, and substituting solidity, resist- 
 ing power, and tenacity for softness, lack of firmness, and 
 lack of elasticity. 
 
 41. Mule, or Spinning Frame, — The mule, or spinning- 
 frame (fig. 13), in which this work is done consists of the 
 headstock, A (which like the crank shaft in a power loom 
 either directly or indirectly communicates motion to all 
 the parts of the machine), the carriage, b, and the 
 stationary frame, c. The carriage travels backwards and 
 forwards, and contains the spindles on which the bobbins, 
 or tubes, for the formation of the cops of yarn are placed. 
 In the frame the condenser bobbins, d, are fixed. The 
 principle of the machine is this — to give out from the small 
 rollers, r, fixed in the frame, a certain length of sliver simul- 
 taneously with the imparting of a degree of twist, when 
 
64 
 
 WOOL MANUFACTURE. 
 
 the rollers cease to revolve, but the carriage continues to 
 recede, elongating the sliver by so doing ; meanwhile the 
 spindles are speeding round at an increased velocity, fur- 
 nishing what may be called the finishing twine. 
 
 The rollers supply the length of sliver to be operated 
 upon, the carriage extenuates, and the motion of the 
 spindle generates the twist. The method of introducing 
 twine into the sliver deserves detailed notice. Running 
 from one end of the carriage to the other is a metallic 
 cylinder, or drum (see G, fig. 14), which, by means of a 
 central shaft, receives motion by wheel and other gearing 
 from th^ headstock. Round this drum and each spindle 
 is wrapped a cord, h, called the spindle band, which causes 
 the spindle to revolve when the cylinder is in motion. A 
 contrivance has been recently invented and patented for 
 driving the spindles by bevel wheel gearing. Each 
 spindle is driven ofi* the same shaft, which extends from 
 end to end of the carriage like the cylinder, but is 
 mounted with as many wheels as there are spindles, giving 
 a regularity of movement scarcely attainable by the use 
 of cords. In fact, the band system has several drawbacks. 
 Should the cords, for example, not be of one uniform 
 tightness an uneven spin is sure to be the result ; and, as 
 the bands are always liable to give after being on the 
 stretch for a short time, and vary according to the 
 temperature of the room, it will readily be understood 
 there are important defects in this principle of spindle- 
 driving. 
 
 Now, as the threads are being twisted, they are held 
 slightly above the tops of the spindles by what is called 
 the faller (f, fig. 13), to prevent the yarn being wound up. 
 When a sufficient degree of twist has been added, the 
 spindles make a few turns backward to undo the extra 
 twine imparted to the yarn nearest the point of the 
 spindle ; this done, the faller, f, guides the yarn on to the 
 cop in formation. The counter-faller, f\ keeps the threads 
 at an even tension during the winding operation. 
 
WOOLLEN THREAD MANUFACTURE. 
 
 65 
 
 42. Duplex Spindle Arrangement. — Usually tlie carriage 
 only contains one row of spindles, but a contrivance is 
 shown in fig. 14 by which the cylinder is made to give 
 motion to two series, thus increasing the working capacity 
 of the mule. The back spindles, s, are somewhat longer 
 
 Fig. 14. 
 
 than the front row, to keep the two yarns as distinct as 
 possible. Without this difference in the heights of the 
 respective series of spindles the yarns, in twisting, would 
 get entangled and foul, or break each other down. Each 
 row of spindles has its own delivering rollers, the points of 
 the front spindles being exactly the same distance from, 
 
66 
 
 WOOL MANUFACTUEE. 
 
 and on the same level with, rollers A as spindles s are with 
 B. Both s and are driven off the same drum, so that 
 they have precisely the same velocity. The ordinary fallers, 
 carrying the guide and building wires, are replaced by light 
 arms, c and d, worked by the shafts, e and f. These arms 
 operating on the yarns of each row of spindles in the 
 same manner, the cops are built exactly alike in every 
 respect. Of course, the principal advantage claimed by 
 this arrangement is increased turn out. A secondary 
 advantage is said to be that the mule requires less atten- 
 tion in proportion to the number of spindles, while the 
 piecers " having their worker in a smaller compass can do 
 it more efficiently. The smallness of the space between 
 the individual spindles, when a mule is mounted on this 
 system, is possibly the main objection to this duplex- 
 motion. But this difficulty has in a measure been sur- 
 mounted by the separate rows of spindles being kept 
 distinct from each other. In open pitch machines (say 
 spindles 3J inches apart) this arrangement has been 
 known to give every satisfaction. 
 
WORSTED THREAD CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 67 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 WORSTED THREAD CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 43. The Worsted Thread — 44. Principle of Construction — 45. Pre- 
 liminary Processes — 46 Backwashing — 47. Gilling — 48. Combing — 
 49. Nip and Square Motion Combs — 50. Scribbled and Combed Wools 
 — 51. Drawing — 52. Drawing Machines — 53. Roving — 54. Worsted 
 Spinning. 
 
 43. The Worsted Thread, — The unique structure of the 
 worsted yarn makes it invaluable in the production of 
 textile fabrics. Lustre and uniformity of surface are its 
 distinguishing characteristics. The method on which it is 
 formed causes it to be capable of sustaining more tension, 
 in proportion to size or thickness, than the pure woollen. 
 This characteristic, combined with its lustrous quality, 
 gives it a pre-eminent position in the manufacture of fine 
 coatings : in fact, it is questionable whether any other 
 textile thread is so highly adapted as the " worsted " to 
 this important branch of the weaving industry. A finer 
 cloth, possessing a brighter and clearer surface, is certainly 
 produceable with worsted than with woollen yarns. The 
 mechanical system of adjusting the fibres in the formation 
 of the latter is such as to produce a thread with a some- 
 what indefinite and fibrous surface, which neutralizes the 
 character of the weave, or destroys, in some degree, the 
 effect in the woven goods due to crossing warp and weft 
 threads at right angles with each other. As the fibres are 
 prepared on a different system in worsted yarn construc- 
 tion, a class of weave ornamentation of a decided or marked 
 type may be obtained by employing this kind of thread. 
 There is, in a word, more scope for pattern production of 
 a weave description in the use of worsted than carded or 
 
68 
 
 WOOL MANUFACTURE. 
 
 woollen yarns ; for the level and regular structure of the 
 former imparts a distinctness to every section of a pattern 
 resulting from a combination of diflPerent weaves, and hence 
 the variety of effects which obtain in worsted trouserings 
 and coatings, both in highly-coloured patterns and in 
 piece-dyed goods or fabrics of one shade throughout. The 
 advantages which the worsted possesses over the woollen 
 thread for some classes of goods are twofold : (a) a smarter 
 texture, i,e,, a clearer surface ; and (h) a more definitely 
 pronounced weave effect. As to the carded thread, it is 
 more suitable than the " worsted " for cloths in which the 
 colourings of the pattern require to be well blended to- 
 gether, the texture fibrous, or the fabric well milled ; e.g., 
 fancy tweeds (both Saxonies and Cheviots), and thick, 
 heavy cloths, comprising doeskins, meltons, pilots, naps, 
 and beavers, and also fine twilled goods of a buckskin 
 and Venetian class. 
 
 44. Principle , of Construction, — Worsted yarns may be 
 said to be of three distinct kinds. An important class to 
 the clothing manufacturer is that obtained from short and 
 medium stapled wools, which are made into yarn by card- 
 ing, gilling, and combing. Secondly, there is a valuable 
 variety of thread produced from long wools, possessing a 
 fibre, on an average, of not less than four or five inches in 
 length. Such wools are not carded, but simply gilled and 
 combed after the fibres have been regularly straightened 
 and adjusted by hand. To card long wools would be very 
 injurious to the material, for it would result in breaking 
 the fibres, and so produce a large quantity of noil — a point 
 which cannot be too closely guarded against in making 
 worsted yarns. When a soft, open thread, with plenty of 
 fullness and fibre, is required, as in carpet and some classes 
 of knitting or fingering yarns, then the wool is neither 
 gilled nor combed, being first carded and afterwards drawn 
 and spun. 
 
 Whichever system of thread production is adopted, the 
 principle of manufacture is the same, for in all worsted 
 
WOESTED THEEAD CONSTEUCTION. 
 
 69 
 
 yarns the fibres are more or less straightened and arranged 
 in one order. The more combing and gilling the wool passes 
 through the higher the degree of parallelism attained. 
 
 This should be particularly noted, that in worsted yarn 
 making it is not so much a blending and frequent re- 
 mixing as a systematic separation, drawing out, and 
 arranging of the fibres in one common line that is sought 
 after. Of course a perfect combination of the fibres used is 
 necessary ; but, although the distinctive feature of woollen 
 thread manufacture is that of mixing the fibres thoroughly 
 together, so as to produce a level sliver, yet there is no 
 regular system of amalgamation adopted, for fibres may, 
 in the condensed material, lay either across or lengthways 
 of the thread : on the other hand, in worsted yarn con- 
 struction, in addition to forming a continuous ribbon of 
 fibres, uniform in thickness throughout its length and 
 breadth, the several filaments must be arranged side by 
 side on one distinct system — in a word, they must be 
 parallel to each other. 
 
 The actual condition of fibres now to be attained may 
 be illustrated by taking a strand or lock of raw wool 
 and drawing out the fibres between the forefinger and 
 thumb of each hand — a process which first straightens, 
 and then brings the fibres into one common line. This 
 is the principle on which a worsted thread is produced. 
 Carding in worsted yarn making, when adopted, is only 
 a secondary operation. The adjustment of fibres it 
 secures is not intended to be permanent, but simply to 
 facilitate the formation of an even ribbon. By separating 
 the fibres it prepares them for the drawing out and extend- 
 ing in the same direction to which they are subsequently 
 subjected to in the gill box and combing machine. The 
 various changes the wool undergoes in being transformed 
 into a worsted thread, when the first method of construc- 
 tion is adopted, may be briefly defined as follows ; — (1) 
 Opened and separated, but crossed and intermingled on the 
 wire of the carder; (2) Straightened, extenuated, and 
 
70 
 
 WOOL MANUFACTURE. 
 
 levelled in gilling ; (3) The short and curly fibres extracted, 
 and the straight and long laid parallel one to the other in 
 combing ; (4) An even ribbon formed on the drawing frame ; 
 (5) The thick, rope-like thread produced in roving twisted 
 into a weavable yarn on the spinning machine. 
 
 45. Preliminary Processes, — The preliminary processes 
 of scouring, oiling, blending, and carding are much the 
 same in both woollen and worsted yarn production ; in fact, 
 they only diflPer from each other in a few minor details, 
 hence it is unnecessary to describe them lengthily here, 
 seeing they were fully discussed in the previous chapter. 
 Some brief allusion may, however, be appropriately made 
 to the worsted carder, as it is somewhat dissimilar in build 
 to the woollen machine. Sometimes it contains as many 
 as four lickers-in, or openers, as they are called, garnished 
 with very strong steel teeth, increasing in fineness from 
 one roller to the other. The speed of these cylinders also 
 varies in a similar manner, that of the last roller being 
 the highest. Fixed in close proximity with the two front 
 lickers-in are what are termed the burring rollers. These 
 are not covered with card clothing, but with steel blades, 
 which knock the burrs out of the wool on to a tin tray. 
 In some machines a triple burr-roller arrangement is 
 applied. In such a case each burr-roller has a separate 
 guard-roller for lashing the burrs, seeds, &c., out of the 
 material. The burr-rollers are all covered with fine steel 
 teeth, inserted into the surface of the cylinders, that on 
 the first roller being of the coarsest pitch, that on the 
 second of an intermediate pitch, and that on the third of 
 the finest pitch. On this system the large burrs are re- 
 moved by the first guard-roller off the front burring 
 cylinder, the medium-sized burrs by the second, and the 
 broken burrs and seeds by the last guard-roller. 
 
 When the material reaches the swifts, it passes through 
 the same process of opening as in carding for woollen 
 yarn. The wool is, however, delivered in the ball or 
 ribbon form, the sheet of fibres being focussed in the 
 
WORSTED THREAD CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 71 
 
 centre of the machine, as stripped by the doffing-comb off 
 the last cylinder, and passed through a kind of a tunnel 
 on to a large bobbin which, having both a lateral and 
 rotatory motion, winds the lap of fibres regularly on to 
 its surface. After carding, the material is ready for those 
 processes which belong, strictly speaking, to worsted yarn 
 manufacture, namely, backwashing, gilling, combing, 
 drawing, roving, and spinning on the throstle frame. 
 
 46. BacJcw ashing, — On the material leaving the carder, 
 it is somewhat discoloured in consequence of the oil added 
 to facilitate its passage through the carding-machine, and 
 it also contains a certain percentage of dirty substances. It 
 is very desirable, before gilling, to remove such impurities 
 
 'Fig, 15. 
 
 and thoroughly cleanse the " cardings " of all greasy and 
 foreign matter. This is done in the backwashing machine, 
 to which is frequently attached a screw gill-box, as shown 
 in fig. 15 [kindly lent by the makers, Messrs. Taylor, 
 Wordsworth, and Co., Leeds]. The machine consists of a 
 couple of sud bowls, each of which possesses a pair of im- 
 mersing and a pair of squeezing-roUers, of drying cylinders 
 C, and gilling apparatus D. The sliver or slivers, in the first 
 place, pass between the guide-pins A, and from thence into 
 the front bowl and between the " immersers " on to the 
 squeezing-r oilers, leaving which the fibres enter the second 
 bowl, where the process of immersing is repeated, and then 
 the scour completely pressed out of the material by passing 
 it through the second pair of squeezing- rollers. From here 
 
72 
 
 WOOL MANUFACTURE. 
 
 the wool travels over a number of drying cylinders C, 
 charged with steam, where it is perfectly dried, and deli- 
 vered np to the rollers of the gill-box part of the machine, 
 the principle of which will be described nnder the head of 
 gilling. 
 
 Another system of backwashing consists in squeezing 
 the material at four separate times, thus — first, in the suds, 
 called a wet nip ; second, out of the suds ; third, when in 
 the scour ; and fourth, when out of the scour. It is held 
 by the users of this class of machine that when the wool 
 is only squeezed out of the liquid, the oil applied previous 
 to carding is not perfectly removed, which is said to 
 cause the yarns, after being made into cloth, to be sus- 
 ceptible to suddenly presenting a shiny appearance. 
 
 A 
 
 Fig. 16. 
 
 Whether this theory holds good or not, there seems to be 
 one feature in favour of this system of backwashing — the 
 car dings necessarily part more readily with the greasy 
 matter they contain when squeezed alternately in the 
 suds and out of the suds than if only squeezed when in 
 the latter condition. 
 
 47. Gilling, — The object of this process is to straighten 
 the fibres, draw out and level the carding, and prepare the 
 material for the combing-machine. The main parts of the 
 gill-box in which the operation is carried on are the re- 
 ceiving and delivering rollers, the fallers containing the 
 gill -pins, and the screws on which the fallers travel from 
 one end of the machine to the other alternately. The 
 arrangement of these parts in the machine is shown in the 
 sectional drawing given in fig. 16. Here rollers a first 
 
WORSTED THEEAD CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 73 
 
 receive tlie wool, which is forcibly drawn between the pins 
 of the f allers by rollers B, the latter revolving more quickly 
 than the " receivers "a. The fallers move forward on the 
 upper screw, o, at a somewhat quicker rate than the fibres 
 are delivered by rollers A. When they reach the end of the 
 traverse they are knocked down on to the lower screw by 
 an eccentric, travelling to the end of which they are re- 
 placed by a lever on the upper screws. The lower screws 
 are coarser in pitch than the top set, thus admitting of a 
 larger number of fallers being up than down at one time. 
 The principle of the gill-box is that of a number of fallers 
 
 or bars of iron, studded with steel pins, travelling on two 
 sets- of screws. While the fallers are on the upper set, 
 the fibres of the wool are straightened and elongated be- 
 tween the gill- pins ; but the action of the gills on the 
 material is suspended when the fallers are moving on the 
 lower screws. Fig. 17 [kindly lent by the makers, 
 Messrs. Taylor, Wordsworth, and Co., Leeds] is a perspec- 
 tive drawing of the gilling-machine. At A the slivers from 
 the backwasher are fed into the box and pass between the 
 
 Fig. 17. 
 
74 
 
 WOOL MANUFACTURE. 
 
 fluted rollers b, and the gill-pins of the fallers on to the 
 drawing, or delivering, fluted rollers c, from whence the 
 ribbon is balled by the appliance e, called the balling head. 
 By means of screws d, or in some cases weights and levers, 
 pressure is put on to the rollers, causing them to firmly 
 grip or nip the lap of fibres. 
 
 It will be observed that in fig. 16 the screws are divided 
 into two sections. The object of this is to admit of two 
 sets of fallers being used, those on the first screws c 
 travelling slowly, or making a draft of about two from 
 the rollers a, while the fallers on the second set of screws 
 travel three times as fast as those on screws c. Unless 
 this arrangement is adopted in the first gill-box, the staple 
 of the wool is likely to be very seriously mutilated, and 
 the fibres shortened and broken by being forcibly drawn 
 from the nip of the receiving rollers by the gill-pins of 
 the fallers, and again by the delivering rollers through the 
 gills. The first set of fallers in a gill-box constructed on 
 this principle prepares the lap of wool for the second 
 fallers where drafting proper is efiected. Drawing out 
 and straightening of the fibres, or drafting, is thus efiected 
 with as little injury to the length of the wool as possible. 
 
 A complete set of preparing-boxes contains five or six 
 machines, all similar to each other in construction. For 
 the first and second boxes a double set of fallers is recom- 
 mended, but it is not so important in the third and subse- 
 quent machines, as the fibres are well straightened and 
 uniformly arranged after leaving the first box. The lap 
 of fibres resulting from first gilling is taken and passed 
 through the second box, to be again balled and delivered 
 in the lap condition — of course, the material being more 
 minutely straightened, and the fibres more uniformly 
 arranged. In the third box a change is made in the 
 method of delivering the fibres. Here they are, after 
 leaving the delivering-rollers, passed through a brass oval 
 hole, and then between a pair of perfectly smooth pressing- 
 rollers, which causes them to be delivered in the ribbon 
 
WORSTED THREAD CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 75 
 
 form, not on bobbins, as in the previous boxes, but in long, 
 deep cans. To further level and equalize the ribbon, some ' 
 six of such cans are placed behind the fourth box and 
 drawn out to the thickness of any of the single ribbons 
 combined. A similar number of extenuated ribbons are 
 taken and re-drafted, or reduced to the size of one of the 
 six in the fifth box, the process being repeated in the 
 sixth machine, if such a box is employed. It will at once 
 be evident that this amount of combining and extenuating 
 of the ribbons will necessarily result in the production of 
 a level and uniform band of straightened fibres. 
 
 The efiect of gilling on the wool will now be readily 
 understood. The laps of material are kept at full tension 
 during the time they are being drawn between the pins of 
 the fallers, a process which not only separates and adjusts 
 the fibres, but draws out the curl, elongating the ribbon, 
 and bringing the filaments into one uniform line. 
 
 A gilling machine of a somewhat difierent construction 
 to that described has recently been invented. Instead of 
 drafting in this case by two pairs of rollers revolving at 
 difierent speeds, it is done entirely by the fallers, the 
 speed of which gradually increases as they approach the 
 terminus of the top traverse. This is accomplished by 
 employing screws graduating in pitch or fineness. The 
 machine is in two sections, each of which has its upper 
 and low^er pair of screws. Between these are a pair of 
 rollers which simply keep the lap of wool between the 
 pins of the fallers. Drafting is due to the variable speed 
 of the gills, for as the screws increase in fineness of pitch 
 the gills move quicker, each faller gaining speed on its 
 successor, and so drawing out the fibres between them. 
 The speed at which each faller travels is constantly ac- 
 celerating, from the moment it rises until it falls ; and 
 exactly as the speed of the traverse augments, the distance 
 between one faller and another increases. In the two 
 screws of a gill -box of this description, which have a 
 combined length of 42 inches, the gain in speed is as 
 
76 
 
 WOOL MANUFACTUEE, 
 
 12^ is to 1. The advantage claimed for this method of 
 gilling is less breakage of fibre, in consequence of the 
 material not being dragged through the pins of the fallers 
 by the delivering rollers. 
 
 48. Combing, — There is a twofold object to be attained 
 in combing — first, to thoroughly adjust the fibres in 
 parallel form ; and, second, to remove the short, curly 
 fibres present in the wool. Gilling, as has already been 
 explained, produces a fairly level ribbon, but if it is closely 
 examined it will be found to be a combination of short and 
 long, crimpy and straight, fibres. All ^' neppy " and wavy 
 filaments, until straightened, are unfit for utilization in 
 worsted yarn construction. For this reason the wool, in 
 the combing operation, is divided into two distinct classes 
 — that is to say, the long fibres of the gilled ribbon are 
 combed, and go to form what is called the top, while the 
 short and wavy fibres are cast out as noil. A worsted 
 thread is distinctly the result of utilizing the straightest 
 and longest filaments contained in the stock, whatever that 
 may be, and hence the importance of the combing opera- 
 tion. By frequent gilling a level ribbon may be obtained, 
 but to form the basis of a lustrous thread, with a smooth 
 uniform surface, something more is essential ; the fibres 
 which retain their crimpy character, and resist the action 
 of the gill-pins, must be extracted, and, if possible, totally 
 removed out of the ribbon ; consequently, one of the main 
 functions of the combing machine may be defined as that 
 of separating the short and curly from the long and straight 
 fibres. 
 
 There are several classes of combing machines, but the 
 principal makes used by English top producers are the 
 circular, nip, and square motion. As the circular comb 
 is the most extensively employed in preparing yarns made 
 of medium and short-stapled wools, it will be treated of 
 first. A drawing of this comb is furnished in fig. 18 
 [kindly lent by the makers, Messrs, Taylor, Wordsworth, 
 and Co., Leeds]. It will be noticed that the machine 
 
WORSTED THREAD CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 77 
 
 is built in a circular form — hence its name. In the trade 
 it is also designated the Noble's comb, after the inventor 
 of this principle of combing. 
 
 When this machine is used the ribbons of prepared wool 
 from the last gill-box are wound on bobbins in fours on a 
 balling machine specially constructed for this purpose. 
 These bobbins rest on the rollers A and B, fig. 18. The 
 outside roller is made to impart motion to the bobbin, and 
 give off the same length of ribbon to each revolution of 
 the frame, or creel, in which they are fixed. Each of the 
 four slivers on the bobbin is passed through a separate 
 feed-box. All the boxes are of the same dimensions, and 
 are so constructed that they are open on the outside of the 
 machine, as seen in the engraving. Having the hinge at 
 the back, they allow the lids to compress or nip the ribbons, 
 thus preventing them from falling backwards. The part 
 D is the dabbing brush. There are two in the machine, one 
 on each side of the comb, and they rise and fall alternately, 
 working at an immense speed. The circumference of the 
 wheel C, which is called the stroker, or divider, is covered 
 with pointed teeth, which can be adjusted altogether as to 
 length, with the greatest nicety. The machine is driven 
 off the pulley p, keyed on to the centre of the horizontal 
 shaft s. By means of bevel wheels motion is imparted to 
 the two upright shafts inside the castings m, m ^ These 
 shafts, in turn, by other wheel gearing, communicate 
 motion to the various parts of the comb. 
 
 The interior of the machine, where the actual process 
 of combing is effected, consists of three circular combs and 
 a number of vertical drawing-off rollers. The large or 
 main circle is from 48 to 60 inches diameter, and the 
 small circles only from 16 to 20 inches in diameter. The 
 three combs, which rest on a steam chest to heat the 
 wool during combing, along with the creel, boxes, and 
 bobbins, all revolve together, and in the same direction. 
 The wool is combed by being stretched between the pins 
 of the main and small combs. The latter only touch the 
 
78 
 
 WOOL MANUFACTURE. 
 
 large circle at one point, and that on opposite extremities 
 of the comb. Each circle is studded with several sets of 
 fine teeth, which increase in fineness of pitch from the 
 outer to the inner set. The material is drawn into the 
 machine from the feeding boxes at the point where the 
 large and small combs come in contact with each other, 
 and is immediately pressed between the pins of each circle 
 by the dabbing brush, d. Both combs carry off* a propor- 
 tion of the wool received. As the angle between them 
 increases, the fibres are gradually drawn out between the 
 teeth of the respective circles. In the case of the main 
 comb the wool forms a continuous fringe on the inner 
 
 Fig. 18 A. 
 
 edge, but in the small comb it hangs on the outside edge. 
 The divider, c, operates on the fibres at the juncture where 
 they are drawn out between the pins of the two combs. 
 
 This part equalizes the lengths of the filaments by always 
 dividing the wool stretched between the circles at the 
 same point, and, also, by stroking the ends downwards, 
 instead of allowing them to project straight out, facilitates 
 the action of the drawing-ofi* rollers. The material hang- 
 ing on the inside of the large comb, along with the fibres 
 on the outside of the small comb, go to form the top, 
 while the short filaments remaining in the small circles are 
 removed by steel blades or knives, and constitute the noil. 
 
 The order of the process will be described by referring 
 
WORSTED THREAD CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 79 
 
 to fig. 18 A. In this sketch a section of the large circle, 
 with its accompanying pair of vertical drawing- off rollers 
 R r', are shown. The opposite side of the comb possesses a 
 similar pair of rollers ; but each of the small combs possess 
 two pairs, one for removing the top and the other the 
 noil. The action of rollers rr' will first be considered. 
 They are set in close contact with the comb, and draw off 
 the fringe of fibres as it is formed between the teeth oi 
 the two circles. For instance, supposing the fibres have 
 been pressed by the dabbing brush between the pins of 
 both combs, then, as the circles revolve, they draw the 
 fibres out of each other, stretching and straightening them 
 at the same time. At this juncture the strap s guides the 
 fibres between the rollers. Up to this point the wool 
 projects from the comb, having been drawn out by the 
 small circle, but after it has passed R R^, it is, on the 
 inside, quite clean. The fibres which still remain between 
 the teeth are lifted out by a number of knives, to be again 
 fed on to the teeth of both circles. Thus, between each 
 row of teeth the comb contains, there is a knife, K, which 
 gradually tapers down to a point. As the circle c revolves, 
 the knives lift the wool entirely out of the comb, when it 
 is conveyed over a steel-plate on to the dabbing-brush, to 
 be re-placed on the combs of the respective circles. By 
 this arrangement the large circle is not only twice cleaned 
 (once immediately before it reaches each dabbing-brush) 
 every time it revolves, but a fresh supply of wool is fed 
 into the machine. This is effected by the boxes travelling 
 on an inclined plane, which causes them to be on a level 
 with the top of the pins in the comb when passing the 
 dabbing-brushes. The plate, on which the wool glides 
 after being lifted out of the comb by the knives, is also 
 fixed just before the dabbing-brush, so that the wool 
 gliding over it is immediately pressed between the teeth of 
 the circles, the respective movements of which draw the 
 ribbons off the bobbins in the creel into the interior of the 
 machine. The f ceding- l)oxes, on passing the point of contact 
 between the two circles, fall with the delivering end below 
 
80 
 
 WOOL MANUFACTURE. 
 
 the top of the comb, causing the fibres to be well embedded 
 in the teeth during the removing of the combings by the 
 drawing-off rollers. 
 
 On the combed material leaving the rollers R r', it is 
 conveyed to the brass tube s, which guides it between the 
 rollers c c^, fig. 19. These are called the centre vertical 
 pressing rollers, and are situate in the centre of the large 
 circle. The four combings, two from the large circle 
 and one from each of the small circles, are passed between 
 
 c c' 
 
 Fig. 19. 
 
 them. The part s is simply a brass tube or tunnel, which, 
 being made to revolve quickly, imparts sufficient twist 
 into the combing to keep up a continuous supply of 
 top, or combed wool, from the drawing-off rollers, r r', 
 fig. 18 A, and also from rollers c, fig. 20, of the small 
 circles. The combings produced by the latter circles pass 
 through s^ and of fig. 19, and from thence between the 
 centre-pressing rollers. The four combings are then, 
 by these rollers, delivered as two, those from the smaller 
 
WORSTED THREAD CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 81 
 
 circles forming one, and those from the large circle a 
 second. The ribbons thus obtained travel separately up 
 to the brass oval hole seen in sketch 21, where they are 
 combined and passed between a pair of smooth horizontal 
 pressing rollers into the funnel, from which the ribbon 
 drops into deep cans provided for the purpose. Should 
 the can coiler (see f, fig. 18) be employed, the centre 
 pressing rollers are dispensed with, the separate combings 
 passing through what is called the trumpet, simply a 
 metal tube, in which they are collected together in the 
 centre of the machine. The top from here is conducted 
 to the can-coiler, an arrangement for giving a little false 
 twist to the ribbon, and for coiling it into the can. 
 
 Ficr, 20. 
 
 Fig. 21. 
 
 Having followed the process of top production, atten- 
 tion must now be given to the noil. This, as has been 
 previously stated, is formed solely by the small circles. 
 It is nothing but the fibre which the rollers C, fig. 20, fail 
 to draw out of the teeth of the comb. Each time the circle 
 passes these rollers all the short fibre it contains is lifted 
 out by steel knives set between the rows of pins, and at 
 once removed by the rollers N. Escaping from between 
 these, the noil is conveyed by a spout out of the 
 machine. 
 
 49. Nip and Square Motion Combs, — These are two very 
 important machines. The " nip " is considered the best 
 
 G 
 
82 
 
 WOOL MANUFACTURE. 
 
 comb extant for long lustre wools of a Lincoln, Leicester, 
 or Romney Marsh character, while the square-motion ma- 
 chine is largely employed in combing fine Australian 
 wools. Each machine will be briefly described. Com- 
 mencing with the nip comb, it may be observed that it is 
 built on an entirely different principle to the Noble. It is 
 so called on account of the employment of two plates 
 which close together or nip the material when drawing it 
 out from the fallers of the machine. Strictly speaking, 
 it consists of two distinct motions ; for, in the first place, 
 there is an ordinary screw gill-box, attached to which is 
 the nip contrivance, and, in the second place, the circular 
 comb. The former part of the machine resembles in its 
 main features the gill-box previously described. In this 
 case, however, the wool is pressed between the teeth of 
 the fallers by the action of a dabbing brush. On the 
 material being released by the last faller it is immediately 
 taken in charge by the nip, which forcibly draws it 
 through the gill-pins, stretching and combing the fibres 
 all the while. The wool is now delivered to what is 
 called the carrier comb, which simply conveys it, in con- 
 junction with a second dabbing brush, on to the circular 
 comb. The drawing-off rollers next operate upon the 
 fibres by gathering the material off the revolving comb. 
 Ultimately, the combing or top is transferred to the 
 funnel, by which it is delivered from the machine. The 
 short fibres, retained by the pins of the comb, are lifted 
 out by knives set for that purpose, and deposited into a 
 can or box. It will, perhaps, have been observed that in 
 this machine the wool is subject to four separate comb- 
 ings. First, between the fallers and the nip ; second, 
 between the nip and the carrier comb ; third, between the 
 carrier and the circular comb ; and fourth, between the 
 latter comb and the drawing-off rollers. At the end of 
 this route the fibres can scarcely fail to be arranged on 
 one uniform system. 
 
 The Holde7i or Square Motion Comb ought also to be 
 
WORSTED THREAD CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 83 
 
 briefly sketched, as it is considered by some worsted yarn 
 spinners as a very suitable machine for combing certain 
 classes of wool. Here the material is carried to the main 
 comb, which is constructed on the circular principle, in 
 the shape of two thick ribbons, by a pair of feeding- 
 rollers. These rollers have a peculiar come-and-go motion, 
 swinging backwards and forwards, like the going-part of 
 a loom. They almost touch the teeth of the comb, on 
 which they distribute a portion of wool and then recede, 
 drawing or combing the fibres out in the meantime. That 
 which remains on the inner side of the comb constitutes 
 the noil. As the feeding-rollers keep up a constant supply 
 of material to the comb, a considerable proportion of the 
 fibres hang loosely from the pins over its side or edge. In 
 this condition they are carried round until they come in 
 contact with the square motion, which simply consists of 
 a set of some seven fallers constructed in an arc form to 
 work within the convex of the comb. They have a very 
 rapid motion, and are, consequently, very frequently intro- 
 duced into the wool. Each one of them, on rising, carries 
 off* a portion of the fibrous fringe formed on the edge of the 
 comb. Any noil they may contain is removed by a small 
 comb, which is inserted between the pins as they are de- 
 scending. A series of drawing-oS* rollers finally takes charge 
 of the combings, and conveys them from the machine. 
 
 There is still another machine that is deserving of 
 notice, because it may be said to be a combination, to some 
 extent, of both the circular and nip principles. It is a 
 comb said to be well adapted for combing short wools ; 
 and will also comb wools with a staple of six or seven 
 inches in length. Briefly speaking, it consists (a) of the 
 circular comb about 3 feet 6 inches in diameter, and 
 mounted with two rows of pins ; (h) of the feeding head, 
 situate inside the comb, and comprising screw-gill con- 
 trivance arranged for eight fallers up at one time, and nip 
 cylinder, which contains six pairs of jaws ; (c) of drawing- 
 ofi" rollers for circle, and stripper for noil ; and (d) of 
 
84 
 
 WOOL MANUFACTUEE. 
 
 coiling motion for delivering combed top in cans. The 
 action of the machine is as follows: The gilled or pre- 
 pared wool, in the form of three laps, is fed on to the 
 fallers by a pair of rollers having an intermittent motion. 
 It is drawn by the jaws of the nip cylinder through the 
 pins of the fallers, and deposited by it on the teeth of the 
 circle. Such is the action of this cylinder that it places 
 the wool on the comb with the uncombed ends behind the 
 pins, while the combed wool hangs on the outer edge of 
 the circle. The drawing-off rollers now come into action, 
 and, by drawing the fibres through the pins, straighten 
 the ends not combed between the nip cylinder and the 
 fallers. The short fibre or noil remaining in the comb is 
 removed by stripping-knives. On this system of combing 
 the circle receives the wool with one end already combed 
 (that hanging over its outer edge), so that there is less 
 friction occasioned in drawing the wool out of the comb 
 than if all the fibres were combed between its pins. Length 
 of fibre is also by this means preserved, while the quantity 
 of noil resulting from the process is reduced to a minimum. 
 
 50. Scribbled and Combed Wools. — The combed top, 
 which forms the basis of the worsted thread, consists of a 
 very difierent arrangement of fibres from the sheet or flat 
 ribbon of scribbled wool. Fibres in the top are comparatively 
 straight, curliness having been combed out of the wool, and 
 the short crimpy filaments removed^ In ^he scribbled condi- 
 tion the fibres retain their curly character, and occupy the 
 very opposite to uniform or parallel relationship to each 
 other. The top is, moreover, composed of the longest 
 and straightest fibres contained in the wool, whereas the 
 carded sliver is a combination of every species of filaments 
 the stock possesses, whether curly or straight, short or 
 long. In one particular, however, there is some resem- 
 blance between combed and carded wool, for in both con- 
 ditions the fibres are so arranged as to be capable of 
 readily being transformed into a weavable yarn. 
 
 51. Drawing, — The principle of drawing is simply this : 
 
WORSTED THREAD CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 85 
 
 that of combining several ribbons, and extenuating them 
 to such an extent as to produce a thick soft thread which, 
 when twisted, will form a yarn capable of bearing the 
 tension and friction of weaving. If a single ribbon of 
 fibres from the combing machine were taken and drawn 
 out without doubling, it would be liable to tear across, or 
 at least form a defective thread irregular in thickness. 
 
 To prevent such an unsatisfactory result, several ribbons 
 are drawn out together to a length equal to the sum of 
 their combined lengths ; that is to say, if six ribbons were 
 drawn into one, a yard of such would be attenuated to six, 
 and of course reduced to the same size as one. This 
 system of equalizing and levelling the top also further 
 adjusts the fibres, while the amount of doubling that takes 
 place is alone sufficient to regulate any defects in indi- 
 vidual slivers. Some six or nine machines are employed 
 in this process, all built on a similar principle. Bach 
 machine possesses two pairs of rollers, travelling at 
 different speeds, one pair receiving the ribbons and the 
 other delivering them. Drafting or attenuation is in 
 every machine effected on this system. The " ratch " or 
 distance between the pairs of rollers is regulated accord- 
 ing to the average length of the fibres in the wool, a slight 
 reduction being made as the top progresses from one frame 
 to another. It will be readily understood that if both sets 
 of rollers revolved at the same speed, the ribbon would 
 undergo but little modification in this operation ; but if 
 the " deliverers " turned twice as fast as the " receivers," 
 the ribbons would, in traversing from one to the other, be 
 doubled in length, the increase in the length or the amount 
 of draft put into the ribbons being in the same ratio as the 
 speeds of the respective rollers to each other. When six 
 drawing machines are employed, the tops are doubled 
 about 6,760 times ; the order of doubling being as follows : 
 six ribbons at the first and second frames, five at the 
 third, four at the fourth and fifth, and two at the roving 
 machine. Should, however, nine machines be used, as is 
 
86 
 
 WOOL MANUFACTURE. 
 
 generally the case in fine short wools of a Botany quality, 
 then the roving produced results from combining, in the 
 drawing operation alone, the enormous number of 288,000 
 tops. The order of doubling in a series of machines of 
 this class is eight at the first frame ; six at the second ; five 
 at the third, fourth, and fifth frames ; four at the sixth ; 
 three at the seventh ; two at the eighth ; and two again at 
 the roving frame. 
 
 While referring to doubling and drafting, it should be 
 remarked that the tops or ribbons of fibres should never 
 be attenuated twice the same way in succession. The 
 reason for this is obvious — to prevent the formation of an 
 uneven ribbon, and to equalize or distribute the tension 
 put on the fibres in drawing as much as possible. It is 
 easy to understand that a band of filaments will be more 
 level and uniform throughout if attenuated from each end 
 alternately than if drawn out from one end time after 
 time. By adopting the former system of lengthening out, 
 the opposite ends of the fibres have alternately to bear the 
 strain of drawing, but on the latter principle the same 
 ends have the tension mainly to sustain. 
 
 52. Drawing Machines, — There are two distinct classes 
 of drawing-frames, English and French. The former may 
 be subdivided into open and cone drawing machines. In 
 English frames the arrangement of the rollers for drawing, 
 as stated in the previous paragraph, is always the same, 
 similar to what it is in the gill-box ; but for wools 
 that have only been carded, and neither combed nor 
 gilled, fallers are not used. As the short fibre remains 
 in ribbons prepared on this system, to pass the wool 
 between a number of gill pins in drawing would impair 
 the regularity of the ribbon, for as each faller dropped out 
 of the material it would leave a series of short filaments 
 extending across the sliver. Although all drawing-frames 
 are alike so far as the arrangement of taking in and de- 
 livering rollers is concerned, yet they diff'er from each other 
 in important details. For instance, the wool is delivered 
 
WORSTED THREAD CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 87 
 
 from the first machine in the flat ribbon form and in cans, 
 but in all the subsequent frames it is twisted into a soft 
 slubbing and wound on to bobbins, the size of the latter, 
 as well as that of the slubbing, decreasing as the material 
 passes from frame to frame. Again, the first two machines 
 are mounted with fallers, gills, and screws like the gill- 
 box, but the remainder of the frames only possess two 
 sets of rollers between which the slubbing is drafted. 
 The only difierence between open and cone drawing con- 
 
 Fig. 22. 
 
 sists in the method of varying the speed of the bobbin as 
 it gets larger in circumference by coil upon coil of soft 
 thick thread being wound upon it. To explain the principle 
 on which this is efiected in open drawing, reference will be 
 made to fig. 22 [kindly lent by the manufacturers, Messrs. 
 Taylor, Wordsworth, and Co., Leeds] . This is a cone drawing 
 machine, but as the flyer and spindle are the same in open 
 frames, it will serve to illustrate the method of winding the 
 drawn or elongated thread on to the bobbin in both systems. 
 In all drawing machines the bobbins are loose on the 
 spindle while the flyer is fixed on it. Round one arm of the 
 flyer the thread is twisted, and then passed through a 
 
88 
 
 WOOL MANUFACTURE. 
 
 guide or twizzle on to the bobbin. The flyer, as it revolves 
 with the spindle, drags the bobbin round ; the more resist- 
 ance the latter offers the motion of the flyer, the greater 
 its speed. It follows, therefore, that the heavier the bobbin 
 becomes {i,e,, the fuller of yarn), the less will be the 
 difference between its speed and that of the flyer ; thus the 
 gradual increase in the weight of the bobbin as it fills with 
 yarn, by increasing the drag between it and the flyer, 
 causes its speed to accelerate as the slubbing is wound 
 upon it. By this means the same length of slubbing is 
 wrapped on the bobbin whether full or empty. Now it 
 will be observed that on the variation of the drag on the 
 slubbing depends, in open drawing, the speed of the bobbin. 
 In cone drawing it is sought by mechanical arrangement 
 to so vary the speed of the bobbin that the tension on the 
 slubbing will always be uniform. The bobbin again runs 
 loose on the spindle, but receives motion from the plate on 
 which it rests, the latter being driven by wheel-gearing off 
 two conical drums. One of these drums, A, is shown in 
 the drawing. The base of the top cone is opposite the 
 apex of the lower cone. By means of a strap the upper 
 cylinder, which always revolves at the same speed, drives 
 cone A. This strap travels from the base to the apex of 
 the top drum during the filling of the bobbin. When the 
 bobbin is empty, there is a 5-inch cylinder driving a 2- 
 inch, but when full a 2-inch driving a 5-inch ; so that the 
 speed of the plate on which the bobbin is fixed gradually 
 increases as the latter is filled with slubbing. 
 
 The principle of the French drawing frame is, in one 
 particular, similar to the English, namely, there are two 
 pairs of rollers for drawing out the ribbons. Thus the 
 combined slivers in this machine pass between a pair of 
 taking-in rollers, then over the porcupine roller (i,e,, a 
 cylinder studded with fine pins), leaving which they pass 
 on to the front rollers. These revolve somewhat quicker 
 than the porcupine cylinder, so that the fibres are straight- 
 ened and lengthened by being drawn between its teeth. 
 
WORSTED THREAD CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 89 
 
 After leaving the front rollers the ribbon passes between 
 a pair of rubbers, which, like those of the condenser in 
 woollen carding, transform it, without adding twist, into a 
 thick slubbing, or roving, when it is wound on to bobbins. 
 The essential difference between English and French 
 drawing is that while in the former twist is imparted into 
 the slubbing, there is no twine added to the material in 
 the latter till it reaches the spinning process. 
 
 53. Roving, — This is the last operation through which 
 the slubbing passes before spinning. It may be defined 
 as a combination of drawing and twisting, with an excess 
 of drawing^ while spinning is a combination of the same 
 processes with an excess of twisting. In the roving box 
 two of the thick slubbings from the preceding machine 
 are combined and reduced in size, but increased in length, 
 as in the drawing machines, the operation being the same 
 with the exception of imparting more twine to the soft 
 thread formed. 
 
 Before passing on to spinning, a word or two may be 
 said on the respective nuclei of worsted and woollen yarns. 
 The roving on the French principle of drawing resembles 
 very closely the sliver of the woollen condenser, only the 
 fibres are more parallel ; but being minus twist it may be 
 said to be a very similar thread. Between the roving 
 resulting from the English drawing frames and the con- 
 densed sliver there is not this marked similarity. The 
 roving having been twisted, may be again attenuated on 
 the spinning frame before additional twine is imparted ; 
 the sliver, on the other hand, being devoid of twist, is so 
 soft as to be incapable of sustaining drawing out until 
 twine is added — the fibres in the condensed thread being 
 simply balled or rubbed together. There is yet another 
 important dissimilarity between them, namely, the fibres 
 in the sliver in many instances lie transversely, while in 
 the roving they are arranged longitudinally, or in the 
 direction of the thread. 
 
 64. Worsted Spinnvng, — The spinning frame used in 
 
90 
 
 WOOL MANUFACTURE. 
 
 worsted yarn manufacture differs very materially in con- 
 struction from the mule. There is an important reason 
 for this : It is not required to impart twist into the roving 
 
 Fig. 23. 
 
 in the same manner as into the condensed sliver. As 
 already pointed out, the roving contains a deguee of twist, 
 and may correctly be called a spun thread. In the 
 
WORSTED THREAD CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 91 
 
 worsted spinning frame, or throstle, the rollers are so 
 arranged as to draw out the roving before any twist is 
 furnished. Worsted spinning machines are of three 
 classes, flyer, cap, and ring. When the roving has been 
 formed on the French principle it is spun on an ordinary 
 mule, giving really four methods of spinning worsted 
 yarns. Whether the flyer, cap, or ring principle of 
 twisting the roving and winding the yarn on to the 
 bobbin is adopted, the method of drawing out the roving 
 is the same. Thus the roving bobbins having been fixed 
 in the frame on pegs provided for that purpose, the ends 
 are passed between rollers A, &, c, cl^ and e, fig. 23, and 
 then conducted on to the bobbin. The drafting takes 
 place between a and e, the distance between which, as in 
 the roving frame, is called the "ratch," and varies 
 according to the average length of the fibres in the sliver. 
 The small rollers &, c, and d are termed " carriers," and 
 merely convey the roving to the front rollers e, the top 
 one of which is styled the pressing roller, and is covered 
 with leather, while the bottom roller is furrowed. The 
 rovings no sooner escape these rollers than twist is quickly 
 imparted to them as they pass on to the bobbin in the 
 form of finely spun yarns. To drive the spindles (or 
 tubes in cap spinning), a large cylinder, or drum D, 
 similar to that in the carriage of the mule, runs from end 
 to end of the machine. As the frames are generally con- 
 structed double, this cylinder gives motion to the spindles 
 on both sides. Each spindle, or wharl, has its separate 
 cord. In some machines a strap travels round two spindles 
 on each side of the frame, and thus one belt drives four 
 spindles. Where this system of driving is applied the 
 cylinder slightly rises and falls with the bobbin, to keep 
 the straps at one uniform tension throughout the ascending 
 and descending traverse of the bobbin on the spindle. 
 
 When the flyer principle of spinning is adopted, which 
 is the most suitable for low counts of yarns, the bobbin runs 
 loosely on the spindle. The flyer, as shown in the drawing, 
 
92 
 
 WOOL MANUFACTURE. 
 
 gives motion to the bobbin. The amount of twist put 
 into the yarn depends on the respective speeds of the 
 bobbin and the flyer. If, for example, the latter makes 
 sixty turns per minute, and the bobbin fifty, there will be 
 ten wraps of yarn on the bobbin for sixty turns of the 
 flyer, or six turns in each wrap of yarn on the bobbin. 
 The flyer in reality serves a threefold purpose : first, it 
 keeps the thread at one regular tension ; second, it inserts 
 the twist ; and third, winds the yarn on to the bobbin. 
 In fig. 23 the arrangement of the twisting and winding 
 parts of the "fly" frame are given. Here d is the driving 
 drum, c the spindle cord, s the spindle, b the bobbin, f 
 the flyer, and r the roving. The spindle receives motion 
 from the cylinder d, and imparts movement to the flyer 
 which is screwed on to it. The bobbin is moved up and 
 down on the spindle on what is called the lifter plate. By 
 twisting the thread round the arm a of the flyer it is 
 tensioned as it is wound on to the bobbin. 
 
 The principle of cap spinning is very difierent from 
 that of the flyer. Here the spindle has no rotatory motion. 
 A tube, or shell, which receives the bobbin is placed on 
 it. The shell is mounted with a wharl, and receives 
 motion ofi* the driving-drum on the same principle as the 
 spindle in the " fly " frame. Sketch 24 will give an idea 
 of what this arrangement for spinning is like. The 
 spindle, s, and cap, c, are the stationary parts. The latter is 
 a hollow cup shaped like the bobbin. Its lower rim is 
 perfectly smooth and polished, to occasion as little friction 
 as possible on the thread as it rapidly whirls against it. 
 Around the wharl, w, the driving cord or strap travels — 
 this wharl gives motion to the tube and the latter to the 
 bobbin. By an up-and-down motion being given to the 
 bobbin by the spindle the yarn is regularly distributed on 
 its circumference. For fine yarns cap spinning is better 
 adapted than the "fly " principle, as there is scarcely any 
 limit to the speed at which the bobbins may be made to 
 run; but for lower qualities, there being nothing to protect 
 
WORSTED THREAD CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 93 
 
 the thread as it whirls through the air on the rim of the 
 cap, it is not so suitable as the flyer, the yarns in this case 
 being reduced in value by the friction they have to sustain. 
 Low counts of yarns, made of coarse long wools, when pro- 
 duced on this system are liable to possess a wild, fibrous 
 surface. 
 
 ^sText as to ring spinning. A drawing of the parts of 
 the ring frame which effect the twisting and uniform 
 distribution of the yarn on the bobbin is given in fig. 25. 
 
 Here b is the bobbin, r the ring, t the traveller, a the 
 ring rail, S the spindle, and Y the yarn. The bobbin is 
 fastened on to the spindle, and hence revolves along with 
 it. The rail, a, constantly moves up and down during the 
 winding of the yarn on to the bobbin. Winding and 
 twisting are effected by b and the traveller, t. The latter, 
 under which the yarn is passed on to the bobbin, revolves 
 on the rim of the ring, R. In this case the bobbin gives 
 motion to the traveller, which is just the opposite to the 
 
 s 
 
 Fig. 24. 
 
 lJ 
 
 Fig. 25. 
 
94 
 
 WOOL MANQFACTURE. 
 
 ''fly " principle, where the flyer actuates the bobbin. The 
 bobbin here twists the yarn while the traveller winds it 
 on its circumference. As to the shape of the bobbin of 
 spun yarn, it is regulated by the up-and-down motion of 
 the rail A. The ring frame, in worsted yarn production, 
 is more largely used for doubling — that is, making twofold 
 yarns — than for spinning. For this purpose it is admirably 
 adapted — in fact, the same principle, so far as the ring and 
 traveller are concerned, is adopted in twisting two or 
 more woollen threads together. Cotton yarns are very 
 largely spun on this system. 
 
TARNS AND FANCY TWIST THREADS. 
 
 95 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 YARNS AND FANCY TWIST THREADS. 
 
 55. Woollen, Worsted, and Cotton Yarns — 56. Lustre of the Worsted 
 Thread — 57. Two Methods of imparting Twist — 58. Openband and 
 Crossband Twists— 59. The effect of Twine on Twills— 60. Methods of 
 applying Twine to Twilled Weaves — 61. Twine in relation to Buck- 
 skins and Doeskins — 62. Arrangement of Yarns for Herring-bone 
 styles— 63. Twisting— 64. " Selfs" and Twist Threads— 65. Difference 
 in effect of Twists and Selfs— 66. Threefold Twists— 67. Cloud, 
 Knopped, Curled, and Diamond Twists. 
 
 55. Woollen^ Worsted^ cmd Cotton Yarns, — The character 
 and general appearance of a woven texture is dependent, to 
 a certain extent, on the mechanical structure of the thread 
 used in its production. A good illustration of the effect 
 different systems of making yarn have on the nature of the 
 woven fabric is to be found in worsted and woollen goods ; 
 where, although both cloths may be manufactured from a 
 similar class of wool, and dyed to the same shade, yet they 
 are almost as distinct from one another in the finished 
 state as cloths produced from separate classes of textile 
 fibres. Such difference is entirely due, in some cases, to 
 the structure of the yarns used in weaving. Woollen and 
 worsted threads may be said to be as dissimilar from each 
 other as possible in formation. Perhaps, all things con- 
 sidered, the former is the most characteristic and re- 
 markable in construction ; yet both, on account of their 
 individual weaving characteristics, deserve close examina- 
 tion. An entangled arrangement of filaments forms the 
 very basis of the woollen yarn, whereas in forming a 
 worsted thread the aim is to lay, as far as practicable, the 
 fibres in a uniform line with each other in the direction of 
 the thread. As has been shown, teazing, scribbling, and 
 
96 
 
 WOOL MANUFACTUEE. 
 
 carding all tend to effect a complete separation and re- 
 blending of the fibres in one common but confused order. 
 Condensing simply consolidates the mixture produced in 
 the previous operations, and transforms it into a series of 
 threadlike slivers ; while in the compound operation of 
 spinning the meshlike condition of the fibres' is not only 
 increased ; but, during the rapid convolutions of the 
 slivers occasioned in twisting, more permanently and 
 firmly secured. In producing worsted thread there is, 
 as in woollen yarn manufacture, one simple object in view ; 
 but, while in the case of the so-called woollen or carded 
 thread a perfect separation and re-adjustment of the fibres 
 is required, irrespective of any particular order, or of the 
 length and disposition of the individual filaments, in the 
 ivorsted, from the entrance of the wool into the gill-boxes 
 to the spun yarn, the fibres are not only arranged in one 
 parallel form, but those that are too curly, too short, or 
 otherwise unfit for the thread being produced, are cast out 
 in the combing machine as noil. From this it is evident 
 that these yarns differ very materially from each other in 
 the principle of construction or build. The system on 
 which a woollen thread is formed may be defined as that 
 of separating and of re-crossing the fibres of the material, 
 and finally of twisting the individual filaments firmly 
 round one another when in a doubled or entangled state. 
 Undoubtedly it will have been observed that the opposite 
 principle of construction obtains in worsted yarn ; for, 
 throughout the processes of its manufacture, the fibres of 
 which it is composed are mechanically arranged accord- 
 ing to one regular order of parallelism, producing by this 
 method a more symmetrical thread than the pure woollen, 
 where the fibres project from the main body, or central 
 core, of the yarn on all points of its circumference. 
 
 Another remarkable feature in these yarns is the solid 
 and compact centre or foundation of the woollen thread, 
 and the large number of fibres of which it is made as com- 
 pared with the even and regularly formed, but compara- 
 
YARNS AND FANCY TWIST THREADS. 
 
 97 
 
 tivelj open structure of the worsted thread. (See A and b, 
 fig. 26.) "No doubt this important difference in the character 
 of these two representative types of all-wool yarns arises 
 from the short or curly fibres being removed in the comb- 
 ing process when preparing wool for worsted ; while, on 
 the other hand, if the material is intended for woollen 
 yarns every class of fibres contained in the stock is 
 scribbled, condensed, and spun into one and the same 
 
 Fig. 26. 
 
 A = 30 skeins woollen yarn. C = 40's cotton. 
 
 B = 2 -fold 30's worsted. d = 2-fold 60's silk. 
 
 This diagram is printed here by permission of Prof. Beaumont, having 
 been taken from his lecture on a Lock or Fibre of Wool," which was 
 published in the " Textile Recorder/' Manchester. 
 
 thread. Microscopically, these yarns also differ very 
 materially from each other in structure. When thus 
 examined the woollen thread " resembles one continuous 
 mesh of entangled fibres, tightly clustered together, espe- 
 cially in the heart of the thread, where they form one 
 solid mass, which gradually decreases in density towards 
 the edges. The worsted yarn appears comparatively more 
 
 H 
 
98 
 
 WOOL MANUFACTURE. 
 
 regular in construction, the multiplicity of the fibres not 
 being so large, nor yet so compactly twined round each 
 other ; the object of the processes of manufacture in this 
 instance being to use the strongest, straightest, and 
 longest of the fibres, and also to arrange them, as far as 
 possible, in parallel lines. As to cotton, it resembles in 
 general appearance, when examined under the microscope, 
 a solid cane ; it possesses, however, a slightly undulated 
 surface, while a few straggling filaments are distin- 
 guishable here and there on its circumference. In the 
 silk yarn the individual fibres are so firmly grouped 
 together that it scarcely seems to have been produced 
 from a material of a fibrous character." ^ 
 
 56. Lustre of the Worsted Thread. — The superior lustre 
 which the " worsted " is acknowledged to possess, when 
 compared with a carded yarn, is probably due to two 
 causes : in the first place, a parallel arrangement of fibres 
 admits of a more powerful reflection of light than if crossed 
 at every imaginable angle with one another as in the con- 
 struction of a woollen thread ; in the second place, the 
 large variety of fibres that are scribbled together, in making 
 woollen yarns, causes a high degree of twist to be neces- 
 sary in order to reduce the size of the sliver and impart 
 the required strength and elasticity to the spun yarn, 
 which twist or twine, by forcing the fibres into the centre 
 of the thread, naturally gives solidity and compactness, but 
 at the same time detracts from the reflecting power of the 
 individual fibres which help to form the yarn. Threads 
 possessing such totally difierent characteristics as these 
 two standard wool yarns cannot possibly be made into 
 the same classes of goods, the structure of each asserting 
 itself in the weaving process, and leaving its mark in- 
 delibly on the woven fabric. In order to thoroughly 
 understand this subject, and also to point out the special 
 woven efiects for which each thread is suitable, the character 
 
 ^ Lecture on a Lock or Fibre of Wool from the Bale to the Finished 
 Cloth," by Professor Beaumont. 
 
YARNS AND FANCY TWIST THREADS. 
 
 99 
 
 and properties of a superfine doeskin may be contrasted 
 with those of a fine worsted coating of a corkscrew pattern. 
 The qualities of lustre, softness of handle, and fineness of 
 texture are common to both these fabrics ; but, however 
 carefully the doeskin may be examined, if the pile or nap 
 raised on the face is not removed, either by friction or 
 singeing, the crossing of the threads will be found to be 
 completely hidden from view, causing the cloth to appear 
 more like the result of felting wool than of interlacing 
 individual threads of warp and weft with each other. 
 
 On taking up the worsted cloth, although the crossing 
 of the threads may not be followed without the aid of an 
 analyzing glass, and perhaps not even then, yet it is clear 
 to the casual examiner of the cloth that its leading feature 
 is obtained by the mode of interlacing the threads. This 
 leads to an important conclusion — namely, that the soft, 
 pliable, and mellow condition, or rather structure, of a 
 woollen thread make it capable of admitting of a different 
 finish to that of the worsted, while the latter is most 
 suitable for fabrics where the weave is intended to be a 
 prominent feature of the pattern. The well-defined sur- 
 face of such a thread fully develops the effect of the make or 
 design in the woven goods, and hence the large variety of 
 weave effects seen in worsted fabrics for both ladies' and 
 gentlemen's wear. 
 
 57. Two Methods of imparting Twine, — All yarns used 
 for weaving purposes, whether made on the woollen, 
 worsted, or cotton systems, providing the material em- 
 ployed in their manufacture is of a fibrous character, and 
 has to be submitted to the process of spinning before it 
 assumes the form of a weavable thread, may be divided 
 into two great classes — namely, openhand and crosshand 
 twists. The origin of this classification obtains in the 
 twisting process. Here, as a simple experiment will show, 
 there are two distinct methods of imparting twist to the 
 attenuated sliver of the condenser or roving of the roving 
 machine. Suppose, for example, a number of wool fibres, 
 
100 
 
 WOOL MANUFACTURE. 
 
 which had previously been reduced into a compact thread- 
 like condition, were about to be twisted together by hand ; 
 in order to accomplish this, one end of the thick fibrous 
 thread might be held in a fixed position between the fore- 
 finger and thumb of the left hand, while the right could be 
 engaged in imparting twist amongst the fibres, causing them 
 to twine round each other from left to right, and forming, 
 in so doing, what would be termed an openband thread. A 
 sketch of such a yarn is given in b, fig. 27, in which the 
 direction of the twine is clearly indicated. To produce 
 
 the opposite kind of twine, that show^n in a, called cross- 
 band, it would only be necessary to reverse the motions of 
 the right hand, and thus cause the fibres during the im- 
 parting of twist into the sliver to revolve from right to 
 left. In making this, or a similar experiment, the left 
 hand corresponds to the wooden frame, which was, in 
 Hargreaves' machine, substituted for the hands of the 
 spinner, or to the giving-ofi* rollers of the spinning frame 
 in present use ; for these grip the thick thread while the 
 spindles give the necessary twine, the direction in which 
 
 Eig. 27. 
 
YARNS AND FANCY TWIST THREADS. 
 
 101 
 
 the latter revolve, like the motions of the right hand, de- 
 termining the character of the twist of the spun thread. 
 
 58. Openhand and Crossband Tiuists. — As to the terms 
 applied to these twists, " openband " and " crossband," 
 they probably originated in the earlier days of cloth pro- 
 duction, when the one- spindle spinning wheel was the 
 most improved apparatus in use for preparing yarns for 
 the loom. If the cord, which was wound round the wheel 
 and wharl of the spindle in such a wheel, were crossed, it pro- 
 duced a crossband yarn, or, in other words, the fibres of 
 the thread were twisted from right to left ; but, if the 
 cord were open, or merely wrapped round the wheel and 
 the spindle without being crossed, the thread formed would 
 be twisted from left to right, and received the name of 
 open'ba7id, 
 
 59. The Effect of Twine on Twills. — Now the method 
 adopted in furnishing twist to the thread materially alters 
 its efiect on the design in the woven fabric. This would 
 scarcely appear possible on a casual examination of this 
 subject, and but little importance might consequently be 
 attached to the two varieties of twisting just described. It 
 is remarkable, however, that if two fabrics were made of 
 the same blend of materials, size, and colour of yarns, and 
 also of the same make or plan of weave, this difference in 
 the structure of the threads would be sufficient to produce 
 two distinct classes of cloth, the strong individuality of 
 the yarns, whether twisted to the right or to the left, giving 
 character to the respective fabrics in the manufacture of 
 which they have been employed. A diflPerence of this kind 
 in woven goods is possibly more perceptible in woollen and 
 worsted fabrics than in any other kind of textiles, and, if 
 anything, more distinctly marked in the use of woollen than 
 in the use of worsted threads. This is probably due to the 
 large number of fibres that compose a given length of a 
 pure woollen thread, as compared with a similar length of 
 worsted equivalent in size and thickness. The fibres of 
 the material in woollen yarn, as previously indicated, are 
 
102 
 
 WOOL MANUFACTUEE. 
 
 forcibly twisted by the rapid revolutions of the spindles 
 into certain permanent relationships with each other, and 
 as unity in combination with numbers gives strength, the 
 unique character of the twine in such a thread may be 
 specially attributed to the multitude of fibres that are to a 
 very large extent twisted together in the same sense or 
 direction in the process of its construction. But yarns 
 made on the worsted principle must not be regarded as 
 lacking the characteristics of twine possessed by openband 
 and crossband woollen threads. The mention of a worsted 
 fabric, produced for dress goods, in which the pattern was 
 solely obtained by the use of two kinds of twists in both 
 warp and weft yarns, is a practical indication that here, as 
 in woollen goods, effects may be got by a combination of 
 threads twisted to the right and left respectively. The 
 pattern referred to was a piece dyed brown, made entirely 
 of a simple four-thread twill, hence the check figure dis- 
 tinctly seen on its surface in certain lights was due to 
 causes outside the provinces of colour or weave. To the 
 uninitiated it would certainly seem as though two shades 
 of brown, one of a lustrous and the other of a non-lustrous 
 character, had been used in its manufacture ; but on analyz- 
 ing the cloth and comparing the threads forming the re- 
 spective parts of the check it was evident that they were 
 exactly of the same size, material, and shade or colour. 
 Now, when the weave and colours of the yarns are not the 
 figuring agents of a woven fabric, there is bat one other 
 method of producing the pattern that can be consulted — 
 viz., that of using two kinds of threads, the fibres in some 
 of which are twisted to the right, and in others to the left 
 hand. Such, in fact, was the method of producing the neat 
 and stylish check of the fabric under consideration, the 
 pattern being obtained by weaving twenty-four threads 
 crossband and eight threads openband, in both warp and 
 weft. This is but one example of the nature of the so- 
 called woven effects resulting from using yarns of opposite 
 twists. Perhaps the special character of the effect each 
 
YARNS AND FANCY TWIST THREADS. 
 
 103 
 
 yarn has in the woven state will be better understood by- 
 referring to an illustration of a different stamp to that 
 just considered, namely, what is known as an angled stripe. 
 
 In fig. 28 a sketch of a style of this class, or of a 
 simple double-sided twill pattern, is furnished. It might 
 be supposed that as the weave in both sections of this 
 stripe is precisely the same, only moving in opposite 
 directions, that it would be equally effective whether 
 twilling to the right or to the left, in the woven product. 
 Such, however, is not the case, for, on examining the 
 separate stripes in the cloth, there is a marked diffe- 
 rence between them, apparently arising from a variation 
 in the crossing of the threads. In one stripe the twill 
 of the weave is bold and clearly developed, but in the 
 other it is indistinct, undecided in character, and wanting 
 in fullness. Knowing, for a fact, that the respective 
 stripes are composed of the same four-thread make (i.e., of 
 the same crossing or plan of intertexture), the cause of 
 this difference in the character of the effect of the twill in 
 sections A and b of this pattern will be readily understood. 
 Of course it is not now the difference in effect of twilling 
 to the right and left that has to be considered, but what 
 is the cause of the weave in one part of the pattern 
 possessing, in the woven fabric, a more perfectly defined 
 character than in the other part, although the same 
 classes of yarn are used in the formation of each stripe. 
 Now it would be found that if the warp yarn used in 
 weaving this design were crossband twist, the twill when 
 moving to the right, as in section A, would be more fully 
 developed than when moving to the left hand, as in b. 
 This implies that if the twine in the yarn (which in this 
 case, being crossband, is twisted from right to left) opposes 
 the direction of the twill in the weave, the effect of the 
 latter in the cloth will be well and clearly defined ; while, 
 on the contrary, if the twine in the yarn and the twill on 
 the design move in one and the same direction, the 
 character of the weave will be dull and undecided. 
 
104 
 
 WOOL MANUFACTURE. 
 
 Accepting this conclusion, the cause of the diflPerence seen 
 in the effect of the weave in the two divisions of an angled 
 stripe is quite apparent ; for in one section of the pattern, 
 as in A, fig. 28, the twill opposes the twine in the yarn, 
 while in the other section, as in b of the same design, the 
 direction in which the twill crosses the piece corresponds 
 with the direction in which twine is imparted to the 
 thread, and hence, in the cloth, one side of the pattern 
 appears more prominently brought out than the other. 
 
 60. Methods of applying Twine to Twilled Weaves. — The 
 following are the three methods of altering the effect of a 
 twilled weave by a suitable application of open and cross- 
 band twists : — 
 
 (1) If the twine of the fibres in the yarns opposes the 
 
 Fig. 29. Fig. 29 A. 
 
 twill of the weave, the latter will be well defined in the 
 woven texture. 
 
 (2) If the twine of the fibres in the yarns runs in the 
 same direction as the twill in the cloth, the weave will 
 possess a dulled, indefinite appearance. 
 
 (3) If the warp contains both classes of twists, arranged 
 thread and thread alternately, the twine in the respective 
 yarns will neither assist to develop, nor yet to detract 
 from, the effect of the weave or design employed. 
 
 61. Twine in Relation to Buckshins and DoesTcins. — 
 Keasons have already been adduced in support of the two 
 first inferences, but they may now be followed up with 
 one or two practical illustrations. In making a buckskin 
 cloth, for example, in which a clear decided twill is 
 
YARNS AND FANCY TWIST THREADS. 
 
 105 
 
 essential, care should always be taken to cause the twisting 
 of the fibres in the warp threads to cut the direction of 
 the twill in the weave. The warp, and not the weft, is 
 specified, because in such goods the warp contains those 
 threads that appear by far in the largest proportion on 
 the face of the cloth ; the buckskin weave, fig. 29, giving 
 what is termed a warp twill, or an efiect similar to that 
 seen in fig. 29a. The relation of the twine in the warp 
 and weft threads to the twill in the weave in making such 
 a fabric is shown in fig. 27. Here c is the warp thread 
 twisted from right to left, D the weft thread twisted in 
 the opposite direction, and T T ^ the twill running from left 
 to right, or cutting the twine in the warp. This is what 
 gives the definite and pronounced weave efiect in buckskin 
 cloths ; for it necessarily follows that the deepest furrow 
 or smartest twill will be obtained across the piece where 
 the twine of the fibres in the individual threads of the 
 warp opposes the crossing of the weave, and consequently 
 the leading and characteristic feature of a buckskin cloth 
 is that of a small, but bold and smartly defined twill. In 
 making a doeskin fabric, however, where the object is to 
 obtain a soft, smooth face, the fibres of the warp yarns 
 are twined round each other in the same direction as fche 
 twill runs in the production of the cloth, thus prevent- 
 ing a clear, smart development of the structure of the 
 weave. 
 
 62. Arrangement of Yarns for Herring -hone Styles. — The 
 crossing in both parts of an angled design, or herring- 
 bone, may be made equally decided in appearance in two 
 ways : first, by arranging the yarns one thread crossband 
 and one thread openband alternately ; and, second, by 
 arranging for the twine in the yarn to oppose the twill in 
 both sections of the pattern. The former method would 
 not develop the make, and hence is very seldom adopted. 
 According to the latter method the warp yarns for a 
 pattern similar to that shown in fig. 28 would be ordered 
 as follows : — 
 
106 
 
 WOOL MANUFACTURE. 
 
 8 threads of crossband yarn for section A. 
 8 „ openband B. 
 
 Such an arrangement of threads would cause the weave 
 to be well pronounced in character in the respective 
 stripes. 
 
 63. Twisting, — One important feature that should not 
 be overlooked in connection with the subject of preparing 
 yarns for weaving purposes is that of twisting two or 
 more threads of different colours together; thus, an 
 ordinary or plain twist thread simply implies that two 
 yarns, such as black and scarlet, black and blue, black 
 and olive, or black and white, have been twisted into one 
 and the same thread. Yarns of this description play a 
 prominent part in the formation of the patterns applied 
 to woven fabrics. They may be considered, in fact, as 
 more or less applicable to every class of textile production, 
 and are specially adapted to the broken, blended, all-over 
 effects generally sought after in woollen goods. However, 
 as the leading characteristics, in many of the designs 
 in worsted coatings and trouserings, are smartness, clear- 
 ness, and, withal, uniformity of effect, this class of yarns is 
 not so largely applied to these goods as all-wool fabrics ; 
 self-coloured threads in several cases being considered 
 more suitable ; firstly, because they admit of more definite 
 or decided development of the pattern, and, secondly, 
 because they are of a less expensive character. What, 
 apparently, has caused them, to some extent, to be dis- 
 carded in worsteds has given them preference and pre- 
 eminence in woollens. Here fancy twists are, without 
 doubt, invaluable, as their extensive use in all classes of 
 woollen fabrics plainly indicates. It should, however, be 
 remarked that quite recently twist yarns have been largely 
 used with very good results in making the better classes of 
 worsted goods, some fabrics being composed entirely of 
 " twists." 
 
 64. ''Selfs^^ and Twist Threads , — Highly- coloured yarns, 
 
YARNS AND FANCY TWIST THREADS. 
 
 107 
 
 such as scarlet, green, blue, and orange, would invariably 
 be regarded as too loud in tone to be applied to the 
 general run of fancy woollen coatings, trouserings, and 
 suitings, unless previously twisted with other colours to 
 assist in breaking the continuity, so to speak, of the 
 coloured effect single yarns have on the woven cloth. J^o 
 matter how sparingly such threads were interspersed in 
 the warp and weft of the pattern, they would fail to 
 amalgamate with other shades of a more sober character. 
 Instead, therefore, of imparting bloom and freshness to 
 the whole blend, as intended, they would stand out 
 prominently, and appear separate and distinct from the 
 rest of the colourings, attracting the eye of the beholder, 
 and preventing him from noticing the beauty or excellence 
 of the general colouring of the pattern. From this it 
 would appear that yellows, blues, and reds, or other 
 colours equally as loud in tone, unless employed as twist 
 threads, are comparatively useless in making patterns for 
 woollen goods ; for a good blend of colourings is one in 
 which each shade appears to have its individual part to 
 play in giving tone to the whole, and not where some 
 colours are so strong and effective as to prevent others 
 from being noticed. The importance and advantage of 
 employing twist in place of self-coloured yarns in such 
 goods can be readily illustrated. Let it be required, for 
 instance, to make a small check pattern in which scarlet 
 and blue are to be the fancy colours, the arrangement of 
 threads in both warp and weft being as follows : — 
 
 1 thread of Scarlet. 
 
 2 „ Black. 
 
 3 „ Olive- green. 
 
 1 „ Blue. 
 
 2 „ Black. 
 
 3 ,, Olive-green. 
 
 Single fancy yarns in such a combination in ordinary 
 woollen goods would not produce a satisfactory check. 
 
108 
 
 WOOL MANUFACTUEE. 
 
 The scarlet and blue threads would prove bj far too 
 powerful to give a soft, mellow, although lively contrast, 
 which would naturally be looked for in such a style. Yet 
 it is not the shades themselves that are out of harmony 
 with one another ; for when these highly-coloured threads, 
 which are now destroying the harmony of the pattern, 
 are twisted with black they impart a desirable tinge of 
 freshness to the otherwise sober, dull, and heavy black- 
 and-olive check which forms the ground of the design. 
 The cause of this difference in the effect of these two 
 kinds of yarns (single and twisted) should next be con- 
 sidered. A twist thread, as it has been stated, is com- 
 posed of two or more colours, as russet and green, each 
 colour alternating throughout the length of the thread, 
 and is not formed of one continuous colour. This is the 
 feature in twist yarns which, by breaking the separate 
 colours in the thread into fragmentary patches, as it were, 
 detracts from the power it possesses to alter the tone 
 of the pattern. JSTote, the original intensity of the colour 
 does not suffer by changing the thread from a self to a 
 twist, but that its purity is retained, only undergoing 
 those modifications which are due to contrast, and placing 
 two or several colours in juxtaposition. A feature of 
 great moment, because it is frequently found in pattern 
 making that it is not the colours themselves which are too 
 strong in character to produce harmony of colouring, but 
 that the flushes in the weave do not sufficiently break up 
 the continuity of the effect of the fancy yarns. In other 
 words, highly-coloured threads, if used in the single state, 
 produce in the woven fabric lines of unbroken colours, ex- 
 cepting in those places where they are crossed by the weft 
 yarns in weaving. This can be successfully obviated by 
 using twist threads, for if in the style to which attention 
 has just been called the blue and scarlet had been pre- 
 viously twisted separately with black threads, they would 
 have had an intermittent instead of a continuous effect in 
 the pattern ; thus the blue thread would have been alter- 
 
TARNS AND FANCY TWIST THREADS. 
 
 109 
 
 nately black and blue and the scarlet thread alternately 
 black and scarlet from the beginning to the end of the 
 piece. This is one of the qualities which these yarns pos- 
 sess that may be said to make them of inestimable value 
 in the production of woollen patterns. If limited to weak 
 or sombre shades, as would necessarily be the case, in a large 
 measure, in woollen fabrics, without the use of twist yarns, 
 the styles seen in all wool goods would soon lack bright- 
 ness and freshness of colouring. It is frequently neces- 
 sary, in order to relieve the sameness and vary the heavi- 
 ness of the combination of shades in the pattern, to resort 
 to such colours as scarlets, greens, &c., which it has been 
 pointed out would not enhance, but rather detract from the 
 harmony of the colourings if employed in the shape of 
 self-coloured threads ; from which it may be concluded 
 that twists are primarily of importance, on account of ad- 
 mitting with good results of the introduction into woollen 
 and worsted goods, more especially the former, bright and 
 highly-coloured fancy yarns. In some cloths both warp 
 and weft, or at least those yarns which form the face of 
 the fabric, are composed entirely of twist yarns, the effect 
 produced resembling small patches of colour interspersed 
 irregularly over the surface of the cloth : a type of pattern 
 which cannot be so effectively produced with single threads. 
 There ai-e also certain classes of worsted goods in which 
 twists may be advantageously employed. When fancy- 
 coloured worsted coatings were first introduced into the 
 market about the year 1870, the neat, but simple, check 
 patterns then in vogue were obtained by employing fine 
 worsted twists in both warp and weft. Some of the best 
 styles seen in these goods since that date have been figured 
 on a similar principle, the yarns in modern productions 
 being fancy twists composed of worsted and silk threads, 
 thus proving that twists, when judiciously applied, give 
 good results in both worsted and woollen textures. 
 
 65. Difference in Effect of Twists and Selfs, — To further 
 illustrate the special characteristics of patterns formed 
 
110 
 
 WOOL MANUFACTURE. 
 
 of twist yarns, attention may be called to two fabrics : 
 one made, say, entirely of black and white twists (such 
 as A, fig. 30), and the other of similar shades, but of 
 single threads. In order to produce as striking a contrast 
 between the efi'ect of these two descriptions of threads as 
 possible, in making the latter cloth two ends of warp — 
 black and white respectively — should be drawn through 
 the same heald, or, in other words, be elevated and de- 
 
 Fig. 30. 
 
 pressed together as though they formed one simple thread, 
 thus making the movements of the two yarns equivalent to 
 that of one compound or twist thread, which they should, 
 when thus combined, also equal in size or thickness. 
 
 A black thread and a white thread should be wound to- 
 gether on to the weft bobbin, and then woven as one simple 
 yarn, which, in combination with the arrangement of yarns 
 to be adopted in the warp, would aflford every facility for 
 making the pattern resemble that produced by twist yarns. 
 
YARNS AND FANCY TWIST THREADS. 
 
 Ill 
 
 But what is the result ? The mixture or blend of black 
 and white is proportionately balanced, and equally effec- 
 tive, in both cloths ; but this is the only particular in 
 which they can be said to approach each other either in 
 style or general appearance. In other respects they are as 
 different from each other as goods made of totally opposite 
 shades. For, while the effect in the pattern made of self 
 threads may be described as consisting of lines of black 
 and white, of irregular lengths, running longitudinally and 
 transversely in the cloth, the surface of the twist fabric is 
 completely covered with a beautiful blend of indefinite 
 patches of black and white, the broad or small effect of 
 which varies according to the amount of twine imparted 
 to the yarns in the twisting operation. A second advan- 
 tage which these threads possess over those designated as 
 selfs may therefore be defined as that of producing a more 
 complete intermingling of colours. 
 
 66. Threefold Tivists. — Thus far, twist yarns made of 
 two colours have only been considered. Threefold fancy 
 twists may now be briefly described. These are simply 
 composed of three separate shades, and sometimes of dif- 
 ferent materials, as a black (worsted), russet (worsted), 
 and green (silk) twist, or a black (worsted), blue (worsted), 
 and gold (silk) twist. Woollen twists are sometimes three- 
 fold. Some very stylish threads are produceable by such 
 combinations, but, on account of their cost, are only 
 sparingly used, more, in fact, for imparting character to the 
 general appearance of the pattern than anything else. 
 
 67. Cloud, Knopped, Curled, and Diamond Twists »—Gloudi 
 yarns are generally made of wool, or of a combination of 
 wool and silk, but they have also been produced in limited 
 quantities in cotton. The construction of this thread may 
 be better described by referring the reader to b, fig. 30. 
 A remarkable feature that will at once be noticed is the 
 unevenness in its thickness or circumference. This irre- 
 gularity in size is probably the main cause why yarns of 
 this description are not so generally and permanently 
 
112 
 
 WOOL MANUFACTURE. 
 
 fashionable in woollen and worsted fabrics as ordinary or 
 simple twists. The alternate variation in thickness is 
 obtained by an intermittent motion being applied to one 
 pair of the delivering rollers of the twisting frame, the 
 thick thread, or in some cases the condensed sliver, being 
 given off in this manner, while the small thread is delivered 
 quite uniformly, and hence the irregularity seen in the 
 turns per inch in these yarns. In the smallest part of a 
 medium-sized cloud yarn, corresponding to a, fig. 30, there 
 may be from fifteen to twenty turns in the inch, but in the 
 thickest part, corresponding to 6, only about three to five 
 turns on the inch. Some very good intermingled colour- 
 ings have appeared in cloths made of these yarns. Thus, 
 if a warp were made of cloud twists and woven in a simple 
 twill with one colour of weft, the pattern would consist of 
 elongated patches or spangles of colour running length- 
 ways of the cloth ; but if the same warp were afterwards 
 woven with cloud twists, similar patches of colour would 
 be produced by the weft yarn across the piece, forming an 
 irregular check pattern. 
 
 The knopped twist, c, fig. 30, is in one sense more irre- 
 gular in structure than the cloud. In such a yarn com- 
 plete knops, or buttons, are formed at uniform distances 
 apart on the circumference of the thread. It is used in 
 the production of fancy woollens, shawls, and other goods. 
 The pattern, in the making of which threads of this cha- 
 racter are employed, is figured with small knops of colour, 
 giving, in some cases, a novel appearance to the design. 
 
 The curled or looped yarn, d, fig. 30, may be a twist of 
 either two or three colours, for it is composed of three 
 separate threads, e, and /. The curl, from which 
 characteristic the yarn receives its name, is the result of 
 twisting thread e round threads d and /. There is a me- 
 chanical contrivance in the twisting frame which at regular 
 intervals forms the curl as the twist is being introduced 
 into the combined thread. Recently this class of yarn has 
 been used to a considerable extent in fancy woollen coat- 
 
TARNS AND FANCY TWIST THREADS. 
 
 113 
 
 ings and suitings ; the cloth, however, made of curled 
 twists has not a desirable handle, although it possesses a 
 certain freshness of character due to the loops of colour 
 which form the leading features of the pattern. 
 
 The diamond or chain twist, E, fig. 30, is also a combi- 
 nation of three distinct threads, namely, of the centre or 
 ground thread g, and of those which form the chain or 
 diamond, h and ^ which may either be of the same or of 
 different colours, while sometimes a silk thread is em- 
 ployed, resulting in the formation of a good useful yarn. 
 
 I 
 
114 
 
 WOOL MANUFACTURE. 
 
 CHAPTER Y. 
 
 LOOM-MOUNTING, OR PREPARATION OF THE TARNS 
 FOR THE LOOM. 
 
 68. Meaning of the Term ''Loom-mounting" — 69. Warping — 70. Woof 
 and Creel — 71. Leasing — 72. How to Reckon the Number of Threads 
 Warped — 73. Warping on the Mill — 74. Sectional Warping Machines — 
 75. Warping, Sizing, and Drying Machines — 76. Fancy Warping on 
 the Sectional System — 77. Sizing — 78. Beaming — 79. Raddling — 80. 
 Healding or Drawing-in — 81. Irregular Healding Drafts — 82. Sleying 
 or Reeding — 83. Reeds. 
 
 68. Meaning of the Term " Loom-mounting,^^ — The general 
 term of " loom-mounting " includes all operations through 
 which the yarn passes from the spinning frame to the loom. 
 Such operations are practically the same in the manufac- 
 ture of all classes of textile fabrics. They may be enu- 
 merated as follows : — Warping, sizing, beaming, healding, 
 and sleying. A thorough knowledge of these processes is 
 both useful and necessary to the textile designer. 'Not 
 that it is absolutely essential that he should be a compe- 
 tent warper, sizer, beamer, or healder, no more than a prac- 
 tical loom-turner, but that he should so thoroughly under- 
 stand this preliminary work as to be in a position to say 
 what can and what can not he done. Then, again, this sub- 
 ject of loom-mounting forms, on account of these processes 
 preceding in actual work the operation of weaving, not 
 only a suitable, but a necessary introduction to a theo- 
 retical analysis of the art of cloth fabrication. In a word, 
 to give an explicit explanation on the principles of weaving 
 it is important that something should be said relative to 
 the operations intervening spinning and weaving, and 
 hence they will be fully described in this chapter. 
 
 69. Warping. — This is the first operation through which 
 
LOOM-MOUNTING. 
 
 115 
 
 the yarn passes en route to the loom. It consists in col- 
 lecting into one body, and of reducing to one uniform 
 length, those threads which are intended to be stretched 
 longitudinally in the cloth. If the. pattern about to be 
 produced is composed of various colours and sizes of yarns, 
 warping then also implies the arranging of the fancy 
 threads after a given order, and in such a manner that this 
 
 Fig. 31. 
 
 order will be preserved to a thread throughout all the subse- 
 quent operations of manufacture. This important work may 
 be accomplished either on the warping-woof or on the warp- 
 ing-mill — two machines which differ very widely from each 
 other in construction. The mill may be used either auto- 
 matically or otherwise, but the woof is confined to hand 
 manipulation. In making warps for pattern ranges, the 
 latter is, perhaps, the most preferable machine, because of 
 
116 
 
 WOOL MANUFACTURE. 
 
 the convenient manner in which changes may be effected 
 on it, while sometimes the woof is also employed in pre- 
 paring fancy woollen and worsted warps for piece lengths. 
 Warping on the woof will be treated of first on account of 
 its being the oldest and simplest method of preparing 
 yarns for the loom. As, strictly speaking, warping, on this 
 system, is a manual operation, the principles of forming the 
 chain may be more clearly described as performed on the 
 woof than either on the mill, or on any of the patent 
 sectional warping machines so largely employed in the 
 manufacture of some classes of goods. 
 
 70. Woof and Greet, — The woof, fig. 31, is made either 
 of wood or iron, and stands on two upright posts, each of 
 which is mounted with a series of pegs or pins over which 
 the threads are passed during the production of the warp. 
 These upright posts are connected at the top and bottom 
 by two rails, from which project the healding lease pins, A 
 and B, and the footing lease pins, c and d. Before the 
 threads intended to constitute the warp can be transferred 
 in a regular order on to the woof, they are previously 
 arranged in the creel (fig. 32), a frame specially built to 
 contain the cops or bobbins of yarn, and a necessary appa- 
 ratus in any system of warping. Creels vary in size and 
 construction, but those in general use in hand warping are 
 similar to the one shown in the drawing. 
 
 In the part lettered A the cops or bobbins are arranged 
 according to the plan indicated in the pattern of ivar]). If, 
 for example, it were required to make a warp in which the 
 yarns were arranged in the following order : — 
 
 4 ends of black 
 2 „ mid grey 
 2 „ black 
 2 „ white 
 
 then the first thread of black would be placed in the first 
 hole of the back row b, the second thread in the first hole 
 of the front row c, the third thread in the second hole o£ 
 
LOOM-MOUNTING. ^ 117 
 
 the back row b, the fourth thread in the second hole of the 
 front row c, and so on to the end of the pattern. This 
 arrangement of threads is clearly shown in fig. 32. 
 
 71. Leasing, — Having mounted the creel with cops or 
 
 Fig. 32. 
 
 bobbins of yarn, the warper proceeds to enter the threads 
 from the back series of cops through the eyelets lettered d, 
 and the threads from the front series of cops through the 
 eyelets lettered e, thus forming an important distinction 
 bet ween the two series of threads. In commencing to transfer 
 
118 
 
 WOOL MANUFACTURE. 
 
 the yarns on to tlie woof, it is necessary to form what is 
 termed the "lease" by crossing the alternate threads with 
 each other between the lease pins of the woof a and b, 
 fig. 31. This crossing is of the utmost importance, because 
 the immutability of position each thread is supposed to 
 possess in the warp depends on this work being perfectly 
 carried out ; when any of the threads pass over the lease 
 pins in pairs they produce what are technically called 
 " flats or " sisters," and make it impossible to ascertain 
 by an examination of the warp, which thread ought to be 
 first in order in the woven cloth. 
 
 The manner in which the lease is obtained may be ex- 
 plained by referring the reader to fig. 81. Here it will 
 be observed that while thread No. 1 is carried over pin a 
 and under pin B, the route taken by thread No. 2 is just 
 the reverse ; that is to say, it moves under A and over B, 
 and thus a perfect crossing is produced between the even 
 and odd threads, which cannot fail, so long as the lease is 
 kept secure, to prevent each thread from leaving the place 
 assigned to it in the pattern of warp. Of course the 
 length of the chain or warp may be varied according to 
 the number of times the yarns cross the woof. When the 
 required length has been obtained the " footing " is formed 
 on pins C and D, at the base of the woof. This is simply 
 a lease on an enlarged scale, the threads forming crossings 
 in groups of 4's, 6's, 8's, 12's, or 16's, and not in singles, 
 as in the lease proper. 
 
 72. How to Reckon the Number of Threads WarpecL — By 
 counting the crossings or "rounds " at the footing end of 
 the chain the warper can readily ascertain when a sufficient 
 number of threads has been warped ; a " round " including 
 both a downward and upward movement of the yarns on 
 the woof, and hence twice as many ends as there are 
 bobbins in the creel. Before a warp can be completed, 
 however, it is necessary to calculate the number of threads 
 it will be required to contain. This may be accomplished 
 by taking the number of threads per inch in the fabric 
 
 i 
 
LOOM-MOUNTING. 
 
 119 
 
 intended to be woven and multiplying by its width in inches 
 in the loom. It has just been stated that in order to ascer- 
 tain the number of threads passed on to the woof the warper 
 examines the footing and not the lease end of the warp. 
 He does this for obvious reasons — firstly, because it is, 
 comparatively, an easy task to count the rounds ; and, 
 secondly, because the number of rounds, and not the 
 number of threads or ends, are generally given on the 
 warper's ticket. Suppose, for example, a warp or chain 
 is about to be made for a cloth containing 64 threads on 
 the inch, and set 66 inches wide in the loom, and that the 
 creel is supplied with 48 cops or bobbins, then 
 
 64 threads per inch x 66 inch width of cloth in loom 
 
 96 twice the number of cops in creel. 
 = 44, the number of rounds in the warp. 
 
 The warp or chain being now completed, it is only 
 necessary to secure the healding and the footing leases 
 by interlacing cords through the openings between the 
 yarns on the pins A and B, and C and D respectively ; 
 when this has been safely effected the warp is removed off 
 the bar-trees and is ready for the sizing bath. 
 
 73. Warping on the Mill. — Warping, as performed on 
 the woof, having been described in detail, possibly it will 
 only be needful to give a brief sketch of the mill machine, 
 which, as has already been stated, resembles a huge 
 vertical reel, varying in height and diameter. The bobbin 
 creel attached to this machine differs very considerably in 
 construction from that employed when warping on the 
 woof ; thus the bobbins are arranged in horizontal tiers so 
 that the creel admits of a large number of bobbins being 
 set in at one time, which may be considered an advantage, 
 as the larger the number of threads used in warping the 
 more expeditiously can the warp be completed. About 
 five or six feet from the creel stands an upright frame 
 mounted with an apparatus for forming the lease. This 
 apparatus bears the name of " hecJc-hox,^^ and consists of a 
 
120 
 
 WOOL MANUFACTURE. 
 
 series of well-polished and hard-tempered vertical pins, 
 fixed in a wooden frame in such a way that half of the 
 pins, taking every other, may be raised alternately. Now 
 each pin possesses a small eyelet through which the 
 threads pass from the bobbins in the creel on to the mill, 
 hence if half of the wires were elevated, taking every 
 other, 1, 3, 6, etc., the odd threads would be lifted, which 
 forms an alternate crossing of the yarns or one division 
 of the lease ; the opposite crossing is obtained by raising 
 the wires 2, 4, 6, etc., which elevates the even threads, 
 and thus completes the formation of the lease. The 
 yarns are now transferred on to the lease pins fixed in 
 the lower part of the machine, and the mill set in motion. 
 As it revolves from right to left the leasing appliance or 
 heck-box gradually rises, distributing the warp on the 
 arms of the machine until it arrives at full height, when 
 the mill is stopped and the threads divided into groups of 
 what are called porties, that is, into 19's or 20's, and 
 carried in this form on to the footing pins. After this 
 has been done the machine is again set in motion, this 
 time revolving, however, from left to right, and the heck- 
 box gradually descending to its normal position, where 
 another heal ding lease is taken, and the operation of 
 winding the warp yarns on to the mill repeated to the end 
 of the chain. The warps are invariably calculated by the 
 porty, which contains in some districts 38 and in others 
 40 threads. The latter number is the most suitable, and 
 ought, in order to simplify the working of subsequent 
 calculations, to be invariably adopted. The mill, which 
 was formerly used in the production of warps in the fancy 
 vesting trade, is now the principal machine employed in 
 making worsted, silk, and cotton warps. 
 
 74. Sectional Warping Machines. — These machines are 
 so called on account of the warps being made in sections 
 or cheeses of about 4| inches in width. The principal 
 difierence between this and the two previous systems of 
 warping consists in the warp being run through a coarse 
 
122 
 
 WOOL MANUFACTURE. 
 
 sley on to a miniature beam during its production. By 
 this means the threads are maintained at an uniform ten- 
 sion throughout the making of the warp. On the mill 
 and the woof slack or loose ends are almost unavoidable, 
 but, in sectional warping machines, by passing the yarns 
 through a sley or reed as they are wound on to the cheese, 
 such defects are largely prevented. A sketch of a warping 
 machine constructed on this principle is given in fig. 33. 
 The principal parts are c, the creel, h, the heck-box, s, 
 the sley, and b, the sectional beam or cheese. To arrange 
 the yarns in the creel the warper commences by placing 
 the first thread of the pattern in the top row, and takes 
 the rows or tiers in succession until he reaches the 
 base of the frame. No sooner are the threads mounted 
 in the creel than they are passed separately through the 
 holes in the pins of the heck-box and between the reeds 
 of the sley. (See sketch.) Here, by sleying or running 
 four or six ends in one split or dent, the warp is brought 
 within a compass corresponding with the width of the 
 cheese. The lease is formed in the heck-box at the com- 
 mencement of each section. This done, all the attendant 
 has to do is keep the creel well supplied with bobbins, the 
 yarns after leasing being drawn through the sley in regular 
 order, and wound on to the sectional beam by the auto- 
 matic movements of the machine. A number of cheeses 
 are now combined on what is called the block or shaft, to 
 form the entire warp. 
 
 75. Warping^ Sizing^ and Drying Machines, — This class 
 of machine is also constructed on what is called the 
 sectional principle. For the production of plain woollen 
 and worsted warps it is admirably adapted, and has com- 
 pletely superseded the hand woof or bar-trees. In such 
 machines, as in the old system of warping, the yarns have, 
 in the first place, to be arranged, according to pattern, in 
 the creel. Bach thread is then passed through a coarse 
 sley ; this keeps the threads at equi-distances apart, and 
 also brings them into a smaller compass, preparing the yarns 
 
LOOM-MOUNTING. 
 
 123 
 
 for entering the sizing bath, which is placed immediately 
 behind the sley. Passing from thence between a pair of 
 brass pressing rollers, the sizing solution is pressed out of 
 the thread and returns into the trough. When the warp 
 is composed of woollen yarns, on escaping from these 
 rollers it is passed directly over a large cylinder charged 
 with steam, and also a smaller cylinder (called the angle 
 roller, on account of it being set at an angle with the 
 cylinder containing the steam) ; whilst in this position the 
 warp is subject to a rapid drying process, the heat from 
 the cylinder absorbing the dampness the yarns contain. 
 But if the warp is made of worsted thread it is passed 
 over an additional series of small rollers before drying. 
 The reason for this is the size requires more time to pene- 
 trate worsted than woollen yarn, and hence this has to be 
 
 Fig. 34. 
 
 arranged for in the mechanism of the machine, otherwise 
 the process would not be satisfactorily accomplished. 
 After drying, every string or 10 feet of the warp is auto- 
 matically marked, when the yarns are carried forward to a 
 second sley in which the lease is formed. One peculiarity 
 about this sley is that every other split is partly solid both at 
 the top and the bottom, as shown in fig. 34, consequently, 
 when the attendant by means of a rod presses all the threads 
 down, those in the spaces lettered A remain up, while 
 those in the spaces lettered b are depressed ; this gives 
 the first crossing of the lease. The second crossing is 
 secured by lifting the threads, which gives the opposite 
 result — viz., the threads in spaces A below and those in 
 spaces B above. The lease having been completed, the 
 section of the warp now made is wound evenly, as it passes 
 
124 
 
 WOOL MANUFACTURE. 
 
 through the sley, on to the cheese or miniature beam. 
 The cheeses are collected together when the proper number 
 has been warped and placed on a strong iron shaft, from 
 whence they are run on to the loom beam. The advantages 
 of this system of preparing the yarns for the loom over 
 that of warping on the mill or woof, sizing in a trough or 
 bowl, and drying on the balloon, are very evident. Three 
 processes are here enacted at one time, while, if anything, 
 sizing and drying are better and more regularly effected 
 than on the old system of treating the processes separately. 
 
 76. Fancy Warping on the Sectional System, — Sectional 
 warping machines are not, all points considered, as well 
 adapted to the making of extreme fancy as simple or plain 
 warps. When the number of threads in each repeat or 
 pattern is not a multiple of the number of threads the 
 cheese is, according to the " set " or number of ends in 
 the warp on the inch, calculated to contain, some com- 
 plication is liable to ensue. The standard width of the 
 cheese in machines for medium goods is, as already stated, 
 4^ inches, but in those constructed for coarser yarns, as 
 in the blanket trade, the width is 9 inches. Each sec- 
 tional or miniature beam must contain the same number 
 of threads, and, if possible, a complete and not a fractional 
 number of patterns. Warps in which a whole number of 
 patterns cannot practically be applied to each cheese 
 occasionally incur a loss of time in resetting the creel. 
 An uneven beam, and ultimately, an irregular texture, 
 results from some cheeses receiving more threads than 
 others. Possibly, in heavy woollen goods, a few extra 
 threads on some sections to give the required total in the 
 warp may not make any perceptible difference to the 
 regularity of the fabric ; but in fine cloths, as in worsted 
 coatings, the utmost uniformity in the beam should be 
 aimed at, so that two points are evident : (a) that each 
 cheese ought, if practicable, to receive a complete number 
 of patterns, and (h) that the same number of patterns 
 ought to be warped on each section. 
 
LOOM-MOUNTING. 
 
 125 
 
 Bearing these points in mind, the method of dealing 
 with complicated patterns on these machines may now be 
 considered. Let it be supposed that a given pattern of 
 warp contains 104 ends, and that the fabric is intended to 
 have 96 threads on the inch, and is to be set 66 inches wide 
 in the loom. The warp would thus contain 6336 ends. 
 The first work would consist in ascertaining the number 
 of patterns in the entire warp ; thus 6336, divided by 104, 
 the number of threads in a pattern, equals 60 patterns 
 or repeats, and 96 threads over. To find the requisite 
 number of cheeses, divide the width of the warp in the 
 loom (66 inches) by the width of the cheese (4^ inches). 
 In this case 14 would be the number. Next ascertain the 
 number of patterns to be warped on each section by 
 dividing the total repeats in the warp by the number of 
 cheeses, as 60 repeats divided by 14 cheeses, equals 4 
 patterns to each cheese and 4 patterns remaining ; showing, 
 that if this number of cheeses were employed, the warp 
 would be 4 patterns, or 416 ends (not including the 96 
 threads, or fraction of a pattern) to narrow in the loom. 
 This would imply that the warp would be 63 inches wide 
 in the beam, but only 61 in the sley instead of 66. The 
 question is, how may such a reduction in the breadth of 
 the warp be avoided ? or how may the missing ends be 
 added to the warp ? Fourteen cheeses, each contain- 
 ing 4 patterns, give (that is, 14 x 4i) 63 inches of 
 warp on the loom beam, so that if an additional cheese 
 were employed it would only cause the warp to occupy 
 67 instead of 66 inches on the beam, and yet provide 
 space for the 416 threads required. Fifteen cheeses 
 would contain 60 patterns, or all the threads of the 
 warp, with the exception of 96 ends. These, unless 
 absolutely necessary, would not be warped, as they would 
 necessitate either the employment of another cheese, or 
 overcrowding some cheeses with yarns. Take a second 
 example. In this case the pattern contains 23 threads ; 
 there are 48 ends on the inch, and the fabric is calculated 
 
126 
 
 WOOL MANUFACTURE. 
 
 to be set 36 inches wide in the loom. First find the 
 number of patterns in the warp ; thus, 48 threads on the 
 inch, multiplied by 36 inches, width of the cloth in the 
 reed, would give 1,728 ends in the warp. Divide this 
 number by 23, the number of threads in the pattern given, 
 and the result is 75 patterns. The requisite number of 
 cheeses is obtained by dividing 36 by giving 8. Next 
 divide the total number of patterns, 75, by the number of 
 cheeses, which gives the number of repeats to be warped 
 on each cheese, namely, 9. Nine cheeses would, however, 
 only contain 72 patterns (9 patterns x 8 cheeses = 72 
 patterns) or 34| inches of cloth. By making use of seven 
 cheeses, and mounting each with eleven patterns, the warp, 
 although containing two repeats too many, would be Cl- 
 inches narrower on the cheeses than required to be in the 
 healds ; so that it would, in fine goods, probably be neces- 
 sary to raddle it out to the full width in running it on to 
 the loom beam, and, at the same time, remove the excess 
 of threads. 
 
 From these examples it will be evident that the method 
 of calculating the number of cheeses and patterns for each 
 cheese on sectional warping machines is as follows : — First, 
 ascertain how many patterns are required to give the 
 proper width of warp ; second, divide the total number of 
 patterns by the number of cheeses nearest the required 
 width on the beam. If such a number, when complete 
 patterns are applied to each section, will not admit of the 
 whole warp, then fewer or more cheeses, and a larger or 
 smaller number of patterns are adopted as required. In 
 the first example given the cheeses were increased, but in 
 the latter they were reduced, and an extra pattern placed 
 on each. It will generally be found that by a little con- 
 triving of this description that the warping of the most 
 irregular patterns on these machines is feasible. 
 
 77. Sizing, — The mechanical structure of worsted, 
 woollen, or cotton yarns necessitates the application of 
 some glutinous substance to their surfaces before subjecting 
 
LOOM-MOUNTING. 
 
 127 
 
 them to the weaving process, the object being to cause the 
 individual fibres which compose the threads to cling more 
 tenaciously together. Although a high degree of evenness 
 and regularity of structure may be attained in worsted 
 yarn manufacture, yet, when microscopically examined, a 
 large proportion of the fibres appear to hang loosely on the 
 outside of the thread. An illustration of this is given in 
 thread a, fig. 35, which is a two-fold hundred's worsted 
 
 Fig. 35. 
 
 yarn previous to sizing, while thread b is taken from the 
 same hank, but has been passed through the sizing bath. 
 There is a very noticeable difierence in the appearance of. 
 these yarns. In A the fibres seem to be but loosely 
 attached to each other, and hence if tension were applied 
 to the thread those fibres that form the body or centre of 
 the yarn would have it principally to sustain, but in 
 B, in consequence of the fibres having been more firmly 
 united to one another, the strain when applied is more 
 
128 
 
 WOOL MANUFACTURE. 
 
 equally received, from which it may be inferred that a 
 sized yarn will weave better, and is capable of sustaining 
 more friction and tension, than one that has not been 
 sized. A good size is of considerable importance in the 
 manufacture of worsted and woollen fabrics whenever the 
 warps are made of small, tender, or long-fibred threads^ 
 For, as has just been shown, sizing tends to give solidity, 
 smoothness, and compactness to the individual yarns, and 
 by fastening the somewhat loose and straggling fibres that 
 cover the surface of the thread together, or rather by 
 binding them to the body of the yarn, it increases the 
 weaving properties of the warp, more or less preparing it 
 for the tension, friction, and wear and tear it must neces- 
 sarily undergo on its way to the woven fabric, and espe- 
 cially when passing through the healds and sley during 
 the process of weaving. 
 
 One of the simplest, and, at the same time, most primi- 
 tive methods of hand-sizing consists in immersing the 
 warp in a large trough or tub containing the sizing so- 
 lution, care being exercised in distributing the size as 
 equally as possible over every portion of the warp ; in 
 fact, it is advisable that it should be thoroughly saturated 
 in order to give the solution time to act on each thread of 
 the warp. The size is afterwards squeezed out by wringing 
 the warp or chain in the hand, which is finally exposed to 
 the atmosphere in some convenient place where it can be 
 well stretched and frequently opened by running the 
 raddle from one end to the other to prevent the threads 
 from fastening or becoming matted through the action of 
 the size. If the sizing solution is too strong or not well 
 pressed out, the threads are almost certain to glue to each 
 other, and when this happens serious trouble is sure to 
 ensue after the warp has been mounted in the loom. 
 In weaving each thread has to pass through a separate 
 mail in the healds, and it will be obvious that if half-a- 
 dozen or more are stuck fast together, before this single 
 passage can be effected some breaking and repairing of 
 
LOOM-MOUNTING. 
 
 129 
 
 threads must necessarily occur, showing the importance, 
 whether sizing by hand or by machinery, of guarding 
 against over or irregular sizing. 
 
 The sizing trough in common use is very simple in 
 construction. The warp enters at one end and passes 
 through the size on to the pressure rollers, which free it 
 of the solution it may have absorbed in the trough. It is 
 now raddled and wound on to the arms of the balloon, a 
 huge cylindrical frame revolving on its axis, and generally 
 partitioned off from other machinery and surrounded with 
 steam pipes, the heat arising from which speedily dries 
 the warp. Sometimes the warps are beamed direct from 
 the balloon, but at others they are rolled up into a large 
 ball, to be passed on to the beaming frame. Very fine 
 worsted and cotton warps are frequently sized or dressed 
 in a very different manner from the methods already de- 
 scribed. The warps in this case are first beamed and 
 sleyed, and then wound off the beam of the beaming frame- 
 on to the beam of the loom. The beamer, having stretched 
 a portion of the warp across the frame, takes the size, 
 which in this instance consists of fine flour paste, and 
 spreads it as evenly as possible over the warp yarns with 
 a pair of hand-brushes. A fan is then employed to acce- 
 lerate drying, which has no sooner been accomplished than 
 the length of warp thus sized is wound on to the loom 
 beam, so that in reality sizing, drying, and beaming are 
 carried on at the same time. 
 
 78. Beaming, — There are but few indications of any 
 specific object having been in view in the warping process, 
 with the exception of obtaining a certain number of threads 
 of a uniform length, when the warp reaches the beaming 
 frame. The order of the various colours of yarns, as ob- 
 tained on the warping machine, seems to have been en- 
 tirely destroyed in sizing and drying, the warp being 
 one confused multitude of threads, to all appearances 
 bundled together without any definite object. On exa- 
 mining it a little more minutely, however, with a view of 
 
 K 
 
130 WOOL MANUFACTURE. 
 
 preparing it for the loom, it will be discovered that every 
 thread has retained its original position, or that place 
 assigned to it in the operation of warping. Now, the 
 object of beaming is to spread the warp ends evenly and 
 regularly on the beam of the loom. If this work is not 
 properly done the cloth will suffer both in texture and 
 appearance. To obtain an even surface in the woven 
 fabric it is necessary to have the threads of warp uniform 
 in tension, which cannot be effected with an irregular 
 beam, and hence one of the first matters that should be 
 carefully attended to — especially in the manufacture of 
 fine goods — when preparing the warp for weaving, is that 
 of good, even beaming. Such is the importance of having 
 the warp yarns under proper control during the operations 
 of the loom, that, in some classes of fabrics, two, and even 
 three beams are employed. These are adopted when cer- 
 tain threads rise and fall more frequently than others, and, 
 as a result, " take-up " more quickly in weaving ; hence, 
 if beamed with the rest of the warp, they would ulti- 
 mately become so tight, as the piece was being woven, as 
 to seriously damage its texture. To prevent such being 
 the case, those threads which are so frequently intersected 
 with weft are placed on a separate beam, and tension 
 applied accordingly. 
 
 The beaming frame is generally of the simplest con- 
 struction. It consists of four upright posts, connected 
 together at the bottom by wooden rails ; fixed to each of 
 these posts, at one end of the frame, are the two supports 
 for the loom beam, while the other end of the frame is 
 mounted with an additional rail for the warp to pass over 
 as it proceeds to the beam. The operation of beaming is 
 commenced by drawing the warp footing end first over 
 the rail, and carrying it forward to the loom beam. It is 
 here that the lease taken on the footing pins of the warping 
 machine first proves to be of practical service. Through 
 the last division of this lease a wooden or iron rod is 
 passed, enabling the beamer to hold the warp tight while 
 
LOOM-MOUNTING. 
 
 131 
 
 he performs the preparatory work of "raddling," which 
 always precedes beaming proper. 
 
 79. Eaddling. — The raddle, fig. 36, is employed to 
 maintain the warp at one required width, and also to 
 open the warp threads as they are being wound on to 
 the beam. It is simply a wooden bar mounted with a 
 series of upright pegs set at equal distances apart, and 
 varying in number according to fineness ; thus a 5's raddle 
 is equivalent to five pegs to the inch, a 6's to six pegs to 
 the inch, and so on. The raddle cap, c, is removed during 
 the time the warp is being raddled. Bach space between 
 the pegs receives one section of the footing lease — that is 
 to say, whatever number of threads is grouped in one 
 
 Fig. 36. 
 
 crossing over the footing pins of the woof or mill, the 
 same occupies one division in the raddle. After the warp 
 has been equally distributed between the pegs, the rod 
 previously inserted in the footing lease is fixed in the 
 groove of the beam, and the warp wound once round, 
 merely to prevent the rod from springing out, while 
 the flanges, which keep the warp straight and even at 
 the edges, are being adjusted on the beam, the distance 
 between them corresponding with the required width of 
 the warp in the healds and sley. In beaming warps 
 for hand-looms, flanges are very seldom used, the weaver 
 building the side supports for the warp with narrow slips 
 of cloth or listings ; this he does by wrapping layer 
 upon layer tightly round the beam. The loom beam 
 
132 
 
 WOOL MANUFACTURE. 
 
 is turned either by hand or power, and the warp held 
 at a regular tightness by being passed round a large 
 cylindrical drum, the revolutions of which are controlled 
 by a twitch rope or tension brake. As the warp passes 
 on to the beam the workman slightly alters, ever and 
 anon, the position of the separator to distribute the threads 
 as evenly as possible over the circumference of the beam. 
 When beaming has thus been completed, the healding 
 lease of the warp is preserved by inserting a pair of 
 lease rods in the positions of the lease bands ; these are 
 fastened together at both ends to prevent them from slip- 
 ping out, and also to retain the alternate crossing of the 
 threads characterizing the lease. The raddle cap is next 
 
 Fig. 37, 
 
 removed, which permits the raddle to be easily taken out 
 of the warp, when the latter is ready for the succeeding 
 operation, namely, healding. 
 
 80. Healding^ or Dmwing-in, — Attention has just been 
 called to what is termed the " footing " when raddling ; 
 but it is the lease proper that will not only be found 
 a useful adjunct in healding, but an absolute essential. 
 If the warp about to be drawn-in is intended for the 
 handloom, the work will, in all probability, be performed 
 in the loom ; but if it has been prepared for the power- 
 loom, the shafts and the beam, around which the warp has 
 been wound, will be suspended at a convenient height for 
 the weaver and his assistant, or for the drawer and the 
 reacher-in. The simplest plan of healding is generally 
 
LOOM-MOUNTING. 
 
 133 
 
 termed "straight draft" or "straight gate" (a draft 
 indicating the methodical order observed by the work- 
 man in passing the threads through the healds of the 
 shafts), and simply implies that the warp ends are entered 
 in regular succession through the mails or loops of the 
 healds, beginning with the first heald to the right of the 
 first shaft, and taking the corresponding healds on the 
 following heddles — no matter how many there may be — 
 until the first heald of the last shaft is charged with a 
 thread, when the second heald of the first, second, third, 
 and other shafts are similarly dealt with, this order being 
 repeated to the last thread of the warp. This will be 
 somewhat simplified by consulting fig. 37. Here are four 
 heddles, a, b, C, and d ; A representing the front and D 
 
 O O D 
 
 ? ? ^ 1 
 
 O • ? T 
 
 Q 0 A ^ I y 
 
 Fig. 38. Fig. 39. 
 
 the back shaft. The beam having been hung behind the 
 shafts, the reacher-in takes the first end in the warp from 
 between the lease rods, and places it on the hook passed 
 through the first mail of the first shaft, A, by the 
 drawer-in ; the second thread is then drawn through the 
 first mail of the second shaft, B; the third thread 
 through the first mail of the third shaft, c ; and the 
 fourth thread through the first mail of the fourth shaft, 
 D. This completes one course or what is technically termed 
 a gate," and has to be repeated to the very last end in 
 the warp. If the passage of the threads through the 
 healds in a straight draft on four shafts is analyzed, it 
 will be found that the first, fifth, ninth, and thirteenth 
 threads are drawn on the first shaft ; the second, sixth, 
 tenth, and fourteenth, &c., on the second shaft ; the third, 
 seventh, eleventh, fifteenth, &c., on the third shaft ; and 
 
134 
 
 WOOL MANUFACTURE. 
 
 the fourth, eighth, twelvth, sixteenth, &c., on the fourth 
 shaft, showing that in all straight drafts a course just 
 includes as many threads as there are different shafts, 
 which is seldom, if ever, the case in irregular drawing. 
 
 In fig. 38 a backward and forward or angled healding 
 draft is given ; the horizontal lines A, B, c, and d, represent 
 the shafts, and the lines 1 to 8 inclusive the threads of the 
 warp. A "gate" in this draft occupies eight threads, the 
 first thread being drawn through the first heald of the 
 front shaft; the second, through the first heald of the 
 second shaft ; the third, through the first heald of the third 
 shaft ; and the fourth, through the fourth heald of the 
 fourth shaft, but instead of the fifth thread falling on the 
 second heald of the first shaft, as in straight drawing, it 
 takes the second heald of the second shaft, while the sixth 
 thread takes the first heald of the first shaft ; the seventh 
 thread the second heald of the fourth shaft, and the eighth 
 thread the second heald of the third shaft. This method 
 of drawing has a two-fold effect on the weave in the cloth ; 
 for it twills it to the left and right alternately, and produces, 
 by so doing, an angled stripe or herring-bone, and hence 
 the term "angled" draft. Another well-known plan of 
 healding that should be briefly noticed is that furnished in 
 fig. 39. It is generally called the sateen draft or "skip- 
 shaft," because the threads always miss one heddle for 
 each draw ; thus the second thread falls on the third shaft, 
 the third on the fourth, the fourth on the second, and so 
 on. This mode of healding is occasionally adopted in 
 making fine goods, when the warp contains a large number 
 of threads to the inch, or is drawn on a large body of 
 shafts. Of course the weave has, in such cases, to be 
 made to work with the draft. 
 
 81. Irregular Healding Drafts, — Two methods of heald- 
 ing or drafting are sometimes employed on one series of 
 shafts. This is generally the case in double-make cloths, 
 and goods backed with warp. In such instances the 
 shafts used in forming the back or under side are kept 
 
LOOM-MOUNTING. 
 
 135 
 
 distinct from those which form the face of the fabric. Fig. 
 40, for example, illustrates this system of healding. Thus 
 shafts A and b in this draft are simply mounted with the 
 backing chain, while shafts from c to J inclusive, contain 
 the face warp, or those threads which appear on the upper 
 side of the cloth. Two beams would probably be employed 
 in weaving a backed fabric of this character, one contain- 
 ing the face and the other the backing warp. Let it be 
 supposed that these have been fixed or suspended behind 
 the shafts, and that the threads require to be healded ac- 
 cording to the draft given under this figure. The opera- 
 tion would be commenced by the reacher-in taking the 
 first thread from the lease of the backing warp, which 
 
 Fig. 40. 
 
 would be drawn through the first heald of shaft a. The 
 first thread of the face warp would next be passed through 
 the first heald of shaft c, and the second face thread 
 through the first heald of shaft d. The second thread of 
 the backing warp would now be dealt with by passing it 
 through the first heald of shaft B, after which the third 
 face-thread would be entered into the first heald of shaft 
 E, and the fourth face-thread entered into the first heald 
 of shaft P : in this manner healding would be proceeded 
 with, the exact order or arrangement of threads indicated 
 in the draft being strictly followed out to the last thread 
 in the respective warps. 
 
 The number of healds on each shaft, in a given space, 
 in drafts where all the heddles contain an equal number 
 
136 
 
 WOOL MANUFACTURE. 
 
 of threads, varies according to the required number of 
 threads per inch in the warp, and also according to the 
 number of shafts mounted in the loom. Thus, supposing 
 a piece of cloth is intended to contain 60 threads in the 
 inch, and that 12 shafts are employed in its manufacture, 
 then take the threads per inch, 60, and divide by 12, the 
 total number of shafts, and the quotient 5 will be the re- 
 quired number of healds on each shaft. If 20 instead of 
 12 shafts had been used there would only have been three 
 healds per inch on the separate shafts ; while, on the other 
 hand, if the fabric had contained 96 in the place of 60 
 threads on the inch, and 12 shafts had been employed, each 
 shaft would have contained eight healds per inch. It is 
 plain, therefore, that to ascertain the set or healds per 
 inch for any given number of shafts, providing they all 
 contain the same number of threads in the draft, it is only 
 necessary to divide the total number of shafts given into 
 the threads required per inch in the warp. Sometimes, 
 however, every shaft does not receive the same number of 
 threads, and, when such is the case, it is needful to 
 examine the draft and calculate for each shaft separately. 
 In fig. 40, which has already been alluded to, a draft of 
 this kind is given. It is for a backed fabric set 72 threads 
 on the inch, and warped two threads face and one thread 
 back, or, in other words, 48 threads of warp to the inch 
 are proportioned to shafts c, d, e, f, &c., and 24 threads to 
 shafts A and b. So the question is reduced to the follow- 
 ing : A face cloth on eight shafts, containing 48 threads 
 per inch, and a backing cloth containing 24 threads per 
 inch, on two shafts. Adopting the rule laid down above 
 48 -7- 8 = 6 healds per inch on each of the face shafts ; 
 24 -T- 2 =12 healds per inch on each of the backing 
 shafts. These results are not so easy to obtain when the 
 draft is of a broken or of an irregular character. This will 
 be obvious by consulting fig. 41. Here is furnished a draft 
 for a single cloth containing 64 threads on the inch, in which 
 some shafts receive a larger number of threads than others. 
 
LOOM-MOUNTING. 137 
 
 Hence it is not possible to divide it into two sections as in 
 fig. 40. Some other method of calculation must therefore 
 be adopted. It will be found on examining this draft that 
 it contains 32 threads. This number should be divided 
 into the number of threads in the set, thus, 64 -7- 32 = 2 
 repeats of the draft in one inch of the warp. N'ow ascer- 
 tain the number of threads on the separate shafts in the 
 healding plan ; four threads on shafts 1 and 2 ; three 
 threads on shafts 3, 4, 9 and 10 ; two threads on shafts 5, 
 6, 7, 8, 11 and 12. If the number of the repeats of the 
 
 4-^ ' M-« 1 I I I I I I 1 X * 0 2 
 
 J — 'u-n 1 A I 1 . r- « 1 
 
 Fig. 41. 
 
 draft in the set is now multiplied by these threads sepa- 
 rately it will give the results required as follows : — 
 
 2x4 = 8 healds per inch on the 1st and 2nd 
 
 shafts ....... 16 
 
 2x3 = 6 healds per inch on the 3rd, 4th, 9th 
 
 and 10th shafts 24 
 
 2x2 = 4 healds per inch on the 5th, 6th, 7th, 
 
 8th, 11th and 12th shafts .... 24 
 
 64 
 
 Of course there are various methods of counting healds, 
 the system of " healds per inch," although applicable to 
 all classes of goods, is only adopted in some manufacturing 
 districts. In Batley and Leeds, for instance, one speaks of 
 a 90's, a 120's, and a 140's set or gear, implying that in 
 
138 
 
 WOOL MANUFACTURE. 
 
 one quarter (nine inches) there are 9, 12, or 14 porties of 
 38 threads each. In ordering a gear, therefore, in either 
 of these places it would be necessary to state not only the 
 set, but also the number of shafts required ; thus, an 80's 
 set on six shafts, a 40's set on four shafts, &c. To ascer- 
 tain the equivalent to any gear of this class in the " healds 
 per inch " system, which is practised in Huddersfield and 
 several other important textile districts, take the set given 
 and multiply by the threads in a porty, and divide by the 
 number of inches in a quarter multiplied by the number of 
 shafts the set occupies. Example : Required the healds 
 per inch in a 90's set, on two shafts. A 90's set equals 9 
 porties to the i, therefore, 
 
 9 porties x 38 threads in a porty =19, the number of 
 
 ^ . . o T_ .ci. — healds per inch 
 
 9 m. in a ^ X 2 shafts. ^^^^ ^^^^^^ 
 
 Fig. 42. 
 
 82. Slaying or Beeding. — After healding the work of 
 loom mounting is comparatively simple, the only operation 
 requiring attention being that of sleying. The primary 
 object of this process is to keep the threads of warp at 
 equal distances apart, and also in the same relative posi- 
 tions throughout the whole operation of weaving. The 
 sley, fig. 42, is divided into splits or dents, the number of 
 which in a standard width regulates its fineness. The 
 threads of warp are drawn through the splits, in the order 
 in which they succeed each other in the healds, in 2's, 3's, 
 4's, &c., according to the character of the fabric being pro- 
 duced. As the sley is fixed vertically in the going-part of 
 the loom it carries or drives the weft picks against each 
 other as they cross the warp in regular succession, in fact 
 it is used as much for this secondary object as for that of 
 
LOOM-MOUNTII?G. 
 
 139 
 
 separating the threads in a systematic manner. Perhaps 
 no satisfactory rules can be given for ascertaining, by ma- 
 thematical calculations, the proper method of sleying any 
 particular warp or specific make of cloth ; this is a matter 
 subject to such a multitude of exigencies, such as the 
 nature and sizes of the warp yarns, or any speciality in 
 the structure of the fabric, that experience and general 
 knowledge of textile productions are probably the only 
 safe guides to accuracy in this particular. For whatever 
 rules were framed they would require to have a fixed basis, 
 or, in other words, a certain size of yarn and count of 
 
 Fig. 43. 
 
 reed would have to be regarded as a standard to work 
 upon, and, unfortunately, the results obtained from such 
 arithmetical calculations would be comparatively value- 
 less if a special thickness and weight of cloth had to be 
 produced from a given grist of yarn and twill or design. 
 In such an emergency rules would have to be laid on one 
 side, and experience and practical knowledge brought to 
 bear on the subject. Further, what one textile producer 
 would regard as a suitable reed or sley for a given size of 
 yarn, another would, in all probability, discard either as 
 too fine or too coarse, for some manufacturers believe in 
 making the cloth in the loom, while others would weave 
 similar goods in more open sets, and impart the required 
 strength or solidity in the process of milling. For these 
 
140 
 
 WOOL MANUFACTURE. 
 
 reasons any rules bearing on sleying or setting can only 
 have a limited application, and possibly are only of prac- 
 tical value so far as furnishing to the inexperienced weav- 
 ahle sets for stated grists of yarns and simple makes of 
 cloth. Diversity of weave, yarn, and structure of fabric, 
 all tend to prevent the formulating of one regular propor- 
 tional system of reeding established on such a basis as to 
 make it applicable to every branch of textile industry. 
 However, it may be stated that, generally speaking, the 
 
 Fig. 44. 
 
 two main factors to be taken into consideration are the 
 structure of the weave or design, and the circumference, 
 or thickness, of the yarns employed. It may be useful to 
 point out how these two conditions regulate the fineness 
 of the counts of the reed or sley. To begin with the 
 weave, figs. 43 and 44 are two very simple and common 
 twills running at the same angle in the piece, but, never- 
 theless, somewhat different from each other in appearance. 
 This diff'erence in effect is traceable to the breadth of their 
 respective furrows, or to the fact that while weave 44 
 flushes three threads and three picks in succession, weave 
 43 only flushes two threads and two picks. A slight dif- 
 
LOOM-MOUNTING. 
 
 141 
 
 ference of this kind in the flush of the make is sufiicient 
 to necessitate the counts of the reed being altered. Thus 
 let both of these twills be woven in a warp composed of 
 20 skeins yarns — a yarn 20 yards of which will 
 weigh one dram) and what is the practical result provid- 
 ing the set is the same in each case ? If the reed or sley 
 employed produces a good firm cloth in fig. 43, it will be 
 correspondingly poor and lean in fig. 44 ; while if the cloth 
 is all that can be desired in the latter weave, it will be hard, 
 stiff, and unsaleable in the former, the threads of warp in 
 this instance being too rankly sleyed for a make of such 
 limited flushes. Fig. 43 would yield a satisfactory piece 
 of goods if it were made of 20 skeins yarns, and woven 
 in a lO's reed, 4 threads in a split (that is a sley contain- 
 ing 10 dents or splits in one inch, and 4 threads in each 
 split, or 40 threads on the inch) ; but to produce a cloth 
 equally full and firm in the hand in fig. 44, it would be 
 necessary to use a 12's reed, and sley 4 threads in a dent. 
 Hence one general principle that should be observed in 
 reeding is, the faster the make of the weave, or the smaller 
 the floats or flushes of warp and weft, and the opener the 
 set to be employed. Again, as to the thickness of the 
 yarn. The set for a 10 skeins thread, or a yarn twice as 
 thick as the 20 skeins already alluded to, would have to 
 be reduced from a lO's to an 8's reed, 4 threads in a split, 
 or from 40 to 32 threads to the inch. Unless this was 
 done there would be considerable difficulty in introducing 
 the same number of threads to the inch in the weft as 
 there are in the warp, and weaving would be a difficult 
 task to accomplish. The reduction of the set, on increas- 
 ing the size of the warp yarns, is a practical necessity if 
 the weave or make is to remain unchanged. To increase 
 the size of the yarns without any regard to the set would 
 imply overcrowding the splits or reeds in the sley, the 
 movements of which would, as a necessary sequence, chafe 
 the warp, and produce an uneven texture hard and board- 
 like in the hand. On the other hand, to decrease the 
 
142 
 
 WOOL MANUFACTURE. 
 
 thickness of the yarns and not to increase the fineness of 
 the set would produce a cloth as materially defective in 
 other respects — it would in this case be thin and open in 
 texture and lack body and firmness. A second principle 
 that deserves notifying in connection with the question is, 
 therefore, that when the weave remains the same and the 
 sizes of the yarns are increased the fineness of the set 
 should be decreased^ but if the warp threads are decreased 
 in thickness, the set should be proportionately increased, 
 
 83. Beeds, — Reeds are counted in a variety of ways, al- 
 most every manufacturing locality having its own peculiar 
 system. In some districts the calculations are based on 
 the number of sets, of 40 threads each, in a stated width of 
 the sley, as in Bradford, where 36 in. forms the basis of 
 calculations. A 40's set, therefore, in this place would be 
 equal to 
 
 40 X 40 threads to the set 
 36 inches 
 
 or nearly 44^- threads to the inch. In Glasgow the reeds 
 counted by the hundred, thus a 1,300's set is equivalent to 
 thirteen hundred reeds in 37 inches of the sley. In some of 
 the woollen districts of Scotland a system is practised based 
 on the number of splits in l-Z. in., and the number of threads 
 in each split or dent. For example, a 20's reed sleyed 2's 
 would be equivalent to 40 threads in l|-in. 
 
 It will be noticed that this system resembles in prin- 
 ciple that of so many reeds to the inch, and sleyed in 2's, 
 3's, &c., according to the structure of the fabric, which is 
 undoubtedly the most rational system that has yet been 
 adopted, and the one which is gaining supremacy in the 
 trade. It is a mode of sleying that reduces reeding into 
 the simplest practicable form, and that can be applied to 
 every class of weaving, whether silk, cotton, linen or wool, 
 and hence there is reason to believe that ultimately it will 
 become the acknowledged standard system throughout 
 the whole textile industry. 
 
CLOTH CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 143 
 
 CHAPTER VL 
 
 THE PRINCIPLES OF CLOTH CONSTRUCTION. FUNDAMENTAL 
 WEAVES. 
 
 84. Woven and Knitted Fabrics — 85. Warp and Weft— 86. The 
 Heald Shafts— 87. Plain or Tabby Weaving-^88. Design or Point 
 Paper — 89. Twilling — 90. Cassimere Twill — 91. Sateens — 92. Deriva- 
 vatives of the Sateen — 93. Corkscrew or Eound Twills — 94. Construc- 
 tion of Twills — 95. Hopsacks or Mats. 
 
 84. Woven and Knitted Fabrics, — Every variety of 
 woven fabric, whether plain or figured, results from cross- 
 ing, or rather from interlacing two distinct series of 
 threads together. Thus, when a woven cloth is submitted 
 to analysis, it is found to be composed of two classes of 
 yarns : first, those which extend longitudinally in the piece 
 and are termed collectively ivarp, chain, or web ; and, second, 
 those which extend transversely in the piece, and are de- 
 signated zi^e/'^, ivoof, alb, ov filling^ according to the district 
 in which the goods are manufactured. 
 
 Warp and weft may be considered as the two essential 
 factors of every type of loom production. They are of 
 paramount importance both in weaving the plain cloth 
 and the artistic tapestry hanging. There is, however, a 
 class of goods made on the stockinette frame, which, 
 although only containing one body of threads, is often 
 regarded as a woven texture. But, strictly speaking, 
 such a cloth is not ivoven but h^iitted. By a process 
 of knitting, and not by weaving, the individual threads 
 of which a stockinette fabric is composed are interlaced 
 into one regular texture. The work is performed in 
 a kind of a frame or loom, in which the yarns are 
 arranged in parallel order, at uniform distances apart, as 
 
144 
 
 WOOL MANUFACTURE. 
 
 in ordinary weaving. Of course the machine is automatic 
 in its movements, and capable of producing a great length 
 of cloth in a very short time. The fabric thus formed is 
 ornamented with a fine ribbed pattern, similar in character 
 to that seen in common knit goods. This article generally 
 handles soft, full, and elastic, but lacks those valuable 
 characteristics of strength and firmness of texture, or make, 
 which obtain in a woven cloth proper. The difference 
 between the structure of this fabric and that resulting 
 from weaving warp and weft yarns together may be illus- 
 trated as follows : Take a sample of stockinette cloth and 
 try to withdraw a thread, and what is the result ? The 
 whole construction is unravelled. Next submit a loom 
 product to a similar examination, and it will be found that 
 if a longitudinal or warp thread is removed, the transverse 
 or weft threads will remain ; while, on the other hand, if 
 the latter are withdrawn, the warp threads will, although 
 the texture may be partly destroyed, still remain, to a cer- 
 tain extent, undisturbed. Again, the manner in which a 
 knitted fabric is constructed limits the designer to one 
 class of weave effects — these being of a stockinette 
 character — whereas the principles of weaving are of such 
 a description as to admit of unlimited change or variation 
 in design. 
 
 85. Warp and Weft, — The two series of yarns, warp 
 and weft, already alluded to, are not only the principal 
 agents in forming the texture but also the figure or de- 
 sign which embellishes the face of the cloth, and hence the 
 inference that all kinds of woven goods, whether orna- 
 mented with the most elaborate figures, or completely void 
 of ornament or design, have the same principia of con- 
 struction ; from which it will possibly be evident that, in 
 order to explain the structure of a woven fabric, it will be 
 necessary to carefully examine^the evolutions made by the 
 warp and weft threads used in its formation. The warp 
 may be considered first. It is always understood to con- 
 tain those threads that are arranged, as described in 
 
CLOTH CONSTRUCTIOJ^. 
 
 145 
 
 Chapter V., in the healds and sley of the loom previous to 
 the commencement of the operation of weaving. When 
 the warp is mounted in the loom, the various threads run 
 parallel to each other at equal distances apart, and are as 
 perfect in arrangement and as complete in number at the 
 beginning as at the end of the piece. The picks, shoots, or 
 threads of weft are, on the contrary, introduced one by one 
 in regular succession into the interior of the warp, and, 
 consequently, they increase in multiplicity as the cloth is 
 woven and wrapped round the piece-beam of the loom. 
 The weft is woven or interlaced into the warp, and not 
 the warp into the weft. The warp forms the foundation 
 of the cloth, or comprises those threads which are inter- 
 sected by the picks of weft during the production of the 
 fabric. Weaving may, therefore, be defined as the art of 
 interlacing weft threads between warp threads ; but not a 
 simple crossing of the weft over the warp, for such an 
 arrangement, instead of producing a firm texture would 
 merely result in the formation of two layers of threads one 
 above the other. 
 
 86. The Heald Shafts. — Now, in order to accomplish 
 this object, the warp is subjected to certain mechanical 
 operations, which prepare it for the introduction or cross- 
 ing of the weft yarns. The elevation and depression of the 
 healds, which contain the warp threads, regulate the con- 
 struction of the fabric. In order to prepare the warp for 
 the picks of the filling yarn, certain shafts are elevated 
 and others depressed, lifting and sinking those threads 
 with which they are individually charged. This motion 
 causes a division, or shed, as it is technically termed, in 
 the warp, through which a pick of weft is passed and the 
 shafts brought simultaneously into their normal position. 
 Another order of shafts is next raised and depressed re- 
 spectively, forming a secojid shed for the reception of an 
 additional pick of weft, which is conducted across the warp 
 by the shuttle, and in this manner the amalgamation of 
 the warp and weft yarns is proceeded with. This leads to 
 
 L 
 
146 
 
 WOOL MANUFACTURE. 
 
 an important conclusion — namely, both warp and weft 
 threads appear alternately on the face and under sides of 
 the cloth, for whenever a warp thread is depressed, a weft 
 pick will flush or pass over it, but whenever a warp thread 
 is elevated, a weft pick will flush or pass under it. In short 
 it is this interlacing passage of the weft threads which 
 binds the warp threads — previously hanging loose — to- 
 gether, forming, by securing each thread to its neighbour, 
 one continuous breadth of cloth. 
 
 87. Plai7i or Tabby Weaving. — The order in which the 
 yarns cross each other in woven productions may be 
 
 readily described by the aid of fig. 45. This is nothing 
 more than an enlarged sample of plain or tabby cloth. A 
 very brief study of the arrangement of the threads here 
 shown will indicate that there are only four difierent move- 
 ments of the yarns in the whole construction. The warp 
 is represented by the lines A and b, and the weft by the 
 lines figured 1 and 2. The weaver, to secure this result 
 in the cloth, elevates the front shaft which contains the 
 odd threads, and depresses the back or second shaft which 
 contains the even threads ; by this means he divides the 
 warp into two equal parts, and into the opening thus 
 formed introduces a shoot of weft. The second shed, which 
 
5 i 
 
 >^ O 
 
 II ^ 
 
 75 
 
 eg c; 
 
 5-g 
 
148 
 
 WOOL MANUFACTURE. 
 
 receives another pick, is obtained by reversing the move- 
 ments of the heddles, or by elevating the second and de- 
 pressing the first shaft. The object in furnishing fig. 46 
 is to point out the special functions of the shafts in the 
 formation of the sheds in the warp. In this figure the 
 healds are almost shown in front view, while the warp 
 threads are sketched, as much as possible, from a side 
 view, so that the principle on which the former lift and 
 depress the threads can be clearly illustrated. To simplify 
 the subject, the shafts only contain four healds each, and 
 the warp eight threads. The first shaft, h\ carries the 
 first, third, fifth, and seventh threads, and the second 
 shaft, H", the second, fourth, sixth, and eighth threads, the 
 healding plan for the warp being straightgate. The eleva- 
 tion of the front shaft and depression of the back shaft 
 will cause, therefore, half of the warp threads to be raised 
 and half of them to be drawn down, forming the shed s 
 for the reception of the shuttle. 
 
 Two heald shafts only admit of two methods of inter- 
 lacing the warp and weft threads, for in such a mounting 
 the weaver would be limited to the production of woven 
 effects with either the even threads up and the odd threads 
 down, or vice versa. The texture could, however, be varied 
 in appearance by entering two or three picks of weft into 
 one shed, which would produce a kind of rep, or warp cord, 
 varying in size or breadth according to the number of 
 shoots inserted into one division of the warp. And this 
 may be regarded as a summary of the movements of the 
 shafts, and also of the threads and picks in plain weaving, 
 showing that when pick 1 of fig. 45 enters the warp, it 
 passes under the threads lettered A, and over the threads 
 lettered b, but when the second pick enters the warp, it 
 flushes over the threads A and under the threads b, resulting 
 in the production of the fastest, firmest, but simplest cloth 
 that can possibly be woven. 
 
 88. Design or Point Taper, — It will probably have been 
 already inferred from the explanations given on the struc- 
 
CLOTH CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 149 
 
 ture of a woven cloth, that the whole art of textile design- 
 ing, so far as weave effect is concerned, consists in the 
 origination of new plans or methods of inserting the weft 
 yarns into those of the warp. Accepting this as an accu- 
 rate inference, the uses of what is termed design or point 
 paper will soon be evident. This paper is supposed to be 
 a representation of at least one series of the threads em- 
 ployed in the production of a woven fabric. Thus the 
 blank spaces from a to correspond to the warp threads 
 hanging loose, or in an unwoven state, in the loom. These 
 spaces or squares are dotted precisely in that order in 
 
 Fig. 47. 
 
 which the threads cross over, or under, each other in 
 weaving. The dots, or marked spaces, fig. 48, indicate 
 where the weft passes over the warp, while the blanks in- 
 dicate where the warp passes over the weft. It might be 
 said that previous to any dots being arranged on the paper, 
 all the warp threads are in an elevated condition, while the 
 weft yarns, without a single exception, are under the warp. 
 Hence the dots or marks represent the effect of the weft 
 in the cloth, and the blanks the effect of the warp. This, 
 however, is not invariably the case ; in fact, in some mills 
 the practice is to dot the warp and leave the weft blank, 
 but possibly the more rational system is that of marking 
 the effect of the latter, because during the operations of 
 
150 
 
 WOOL MANUFACTURE. 
 
 the loom the filling is added to the warp, and not the warp 
 to the filling. 
 
 The manner of representing a weave on design paper 
 may be pointed out by referring to fig. 45. This small 
 sample of cloth only contains five threads and six picks, or, 
 on the point paper, fig. 48, the five spaces lettered a and 
 B in a longitudinal sense, and the six spaces figured 1 and 
 2 in a transverse sense. Let it be understood that one 
 thread of warp is represented by one series of blank squares 
 from a to a^, fig. 47, and one shoot of weft by one series 
 of blank squares from h to h^, ITow the first pick of fig, 45 
 is represented on point paper as follows : One square blank 
 and one square dotted for five threads ; the second pick, 
 one square dotted and one square blank for five threads ; 
 the third and fifth picks are like the first, and the fourth 
 and sixth like the second, as shown in the plan given in 
 fig. 48. This is the general method of arranging weaves 
 or designs on point paper for practical purposes, and the 
 form in which the plans are given to the weaver when in- 
 tended to be tried in the loom. 
 
 In addition to each longitudinal series of squares being 
 synonymous to a thread in the warp, it also corresponds to 
 one shaft in the witch or dobbie, and one needle in the 
 jacquard machine, while each transverse series from h to 
 V' represents one lag in the witch or one card in the jac- 
 quard loom. If a number of lags were applied to the 
 dobbie machine without being pegged, all the shafts 
 mounted in the loom would be depressed, or if a blank 
 card were applied to the jacquard cylinder, all the threads 
 would remain unlifted. The lags must be pegged, and 
 the cards must be stamped, before the former can supply 
 any motion to the heald shafts, and before the latter can 
 be made to elevate indirectly the threads in the warp. 
 Again, if a sample of point paper were completely void of 
 dots it would simply be understood to represent a number 
 of loose warp threads, but add the dots or marks, and the 
 pegging plan or design is produced, or, in other words, a 
 
CLOTH CONSTRUCTIOX. 
 
 151 
 
 weave indicating to the weaver where in the lags he will 
 require to insert pegs to form the desired pattern in the 
 cloth. 
 
 The " counts " of the paper is regulated bj the number 
 of small squares contained in a large division. Fig. 47 is 
 what is called 8 by 8 paper. The larger squares are also 
 of importance when preparing elaborate designs for the loom. 
 They aid the card cutter very materially in his work, en- 
 abling him at a glance to ascertain exactly what thread or 
 pick of the design he last worked upon. For this purpose 
 each large square contains as many smaller divisions as 
 there are holes in the card-cutting plate. There are other 
 kinds of paper in addition to that shown, such as 10 by 
 10, 12 by 12, 8 by 12, 12 by 8, and 8 by 16. These various 
 
 ABABA 
 
 Fig. 48. 
 
 types are all necessary to the manufacture of the different 
 classes of textile goods. The 10 by 10 is principally em- 
 ployed in the production of designs for jacquards of 100 
 harness or a multiple of ten, and is extensively used in 
 the preparation of figured patterns for tapestry cloths, 
 where two five-shaft sateen weaves are combined, warp 
 and weft flush respectively. The 12 by 12 paper is ad- 
 vantageously used for 600 jacquards, where each of the 
 transverse rows of the card-stamping machine plate con- 
 tain twelve holes. The other classes of point-paper men- 
 tioned are essential in designing for fabrics in which the 
 warp and weft do not contain an equal number of threads 
 per inch — that is to say, in cloths where there is either an 
 excess of warp or an excess of weft. An 8 by 12 paper 
 would be employed in cloths containing 12 picks of weft 
 
152 
 
 WOOL MANUFACTURE. 
 
 to 8 threads of warp, while a 12 by 8 type would be used 
 in designing for goods where the proportion of warp 
 threads to weft threads was as 12 is to 8. 
 
 89. Twilling, — In a twilled fabric parallel diagonal 
 lines, or ribs, extend from side to side of the cloth. 
 When the twill is of a simple kind (see fig. 49a) the 
 spaces between the lines are blank, but when the weave 
 is termed a broken or irregular twill (see fig. 49b) the 
 equal distances between the furrows are interspersed with 
 small figures or cross diagonals. A few simple but useful 
 twills of the first class are furnished in figs. 50 to 54. 
 These makes form the basis from which a large variety of 
 other twills of a more complicated character originate. 
 The plain weave as given in fig. 48 possesses no ap- 
 
 pearance whatever of a twilled pattern, but, on the con- 
 trary, seems to form a small check efi'ect. In fig. 50, 
 which is the next change in the interlacing of warp and 
 weft to the plain make, there is every indication of a 
 twilled weave ; in short this plan is the simplest twill or 
 diagonal that can possibly be obtained. It is known in 
 the trade as the three-shaft or three-end prunelle twill, 
 warp flushed. In reality it only occupies three threads 
 and three picks, but it has been repeated on the point 
 » paper in order to furnish a better idea of the twill efiect 
 it produces in the cloth. Whatever number of threads 
 and picks form a crow or swansdown (fig. 52) twill, the 
 principle of intertexture is always regular, the weft passing 
 pick after pick from one thread to another in the warp 
 until an oblique furrow extends from side to side of the 
 piece. The size of the warp flush depends on the number 
 
 Fig 49 A. 
 
 Fig. 49 B. 
 
CLOTH CONSTEUCTION. 
 
 153 
 
 of threads the weave occupies. Thus a 4-end swandown 
 would give a three flush, a 5-end a four flush, and a 6-end 
 a five flush in the warp. 
 
 90. Gassimere Tivill. — The shalloon or cassimere twill 
 is given in fig. 51. This weave occupies four threads and 
 four picks, and would, consequently, require a similar 
 number of shafts and lags in weaving. As it is one of the 
 most useful weaves employed in the manufacture of both 
 woollen and worsted goods, a sketch is furnished in fig. 55 
 of the order in which the warp and weft threads cross 
 
 
 
 41 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Fig. 50. 
 
 Fi^. 51. 
 
 Fig. 52. 
 
 Fio^. 53. 
 
 Fiof. 54. 
 
 each other in the production of the woven fabric. The 
 following is an analysis of the method of intertexture 
 shown in this figure : — 
 
 Pick ]^o. 1 floats over a and B and under c and D. 
 „ No. 2 „ B and c ,, A and D. 
 „ No. 3 „ c and d „ A and B. 
 „ No. 4 „ A and d b and c. 
 
 This weave may be said to resemble the plain or tabby 
 make in one or two particulars in its construction, for, in 
 both crossings, half of the warp threads are raised and 
 depressed respectively in the formation of the separate 
 
154 
 
 WOOL MANUFACTURE. 
 
 sheds for the reception of the individual picks of weft. 
 The warp and weft furrows in this twill, unlike those 
 in the serge, are equal in flush, forming a very diffe- 
 rent effect to the latter in the w^oven fabric. It was 
 observed that in a swandown weave no single thread re- 
 mained depressed for more than the intersection of one 
 pick, the flush of the warp to that of the weft in fig. 52 
 being in the proportion of 3 to 1 ; now, however, in the 
 cassimere make, each warp thread, whether elevated or 
 
 Fig. 55. 
 
 depressed, flushes two picks, while each weft shoot, 
 whether on the face or under side of the fabric, flushes 
 over two threads of warp. On a further examination of 
 the structure of this useful make it will be noticed, on a 
 reference to fig. 55, that two adjoining threads are always 
 up and down during the insertion of the weft yarns. 
 • Thus, as pick 1 crosses the warp, the thread lettered C, 
 which rises with D, is elevated for the last time, while 
 D is elevated for the first time ; on the other hand thread 
 
CLOTH CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 155 
 
 A is depressed for the last time, and b for the first time, 
 the threads of the warp rising in pairs in the following 
 order : — c and d, d and A, a and B, and B and C. The flush 
 of each warp thread takes hold of the flushes of the ad- 
 jacent threads on both sides, and continues the direction 
 of the furrow or twill until perfect and uniform connections 
 in the flushes are formed on every side of the weave, both 
 by the threads of warp and the picks of weft, so that the 
 two and two flush in the twill, is continued from side 
 to side of the cloth, and from one end of the piece to the 
 other. 
 
 In the few examples given in simple twills in figs. 50 
 to 54 inclusive it will be observed that the weaves vary in 
 the angle which they form with the first pick. The furrow 
 of the twill in fig. 54, for example, runs at an angle of 
 about 30° in the cloth, that in fig. 51 at an angle of about 
 45", while that in fig. 53 forms an angle of about 60". 
 By combining twills of a similar character to the above, it 
 will subsequently be shown, that a variety of designs may 
 be produced both in stripes, checks, and figures. 
 
 91. Sateens, — In considering the fundamental methods 
 of intertexture, such an important class of weaves as the 
 sateen deserves some explanation. The term applied to 
 this type of crossing partly implies the nature of its 
 efi*ect in the woven texture, sateen weaves generally 
 imparting a soft, full appearance to the fabric. JS'ow, 
 although this kind of make is not so largely applicable 
 to the manufacture of worsted and woollen goods as the 
 cassimere, prunelle, or even the plain or tabby weave, 
 yet it is more or less employed in the production of 
 both fancy and piece dyed fabrics, such as doeskins, and 
 other classes of fine twilled cloths for overcoatings. The 
 structure of the weave, however, limits its use in so-called 
 fancies, for it is of such character that the cloth produced 
 always possesses either a weft or a ivarp face. The prin- 
 ciple of constructing a sateen is that of depressing or ele^ 
 vating one thread in the weave on each pick or shoot: 
 
15G 
 
 WOOL MANUFACTURE. 
 
 thus, in fig. 56, wMcli is the 5-heald sateen or doeskin, 
 the following is the order of intertexture : — 
 
 Pick A, 1st thread depressed, and 2nd, 8rd, 4fch, and 5th 
 threads elevated. 
 
 Pick B, 4th thread depressed, and 1st, 2nd, 3rd, and 5th 
 threads elevated. 
 
 Pick c, 2nd thread depressed, and 1st, 3rd, 4th, and 5th 
 threads elevated. 
 
 Pick D, 5th thread depressed, and 1st, 2nd, 3rd, and 4th 
 threads elevated. 
 
 Pick E, 3rd thread depressed, and 1st, 2nd, 4fch, and 5th 
 threads elevated. 
 
 This analysis shows that each pick of the weave not only 
 takes down a separate thread, but only flushes over one 
 thread out of the total number the make occupies — a prin- 
 ciple that obtains in all types of sateens. The 4-heald 
 broken swansdown, fig. 59, is sometimes described as the 
 simplest sateen that can possibly be produced ; but, strictly 
 speaking, this weave is simply an irregular serge or 
 broken crow twill, the two picks A and b twilling to the 
 left, and the two picks C and d twilling to the right in 
 weaving. 
 
 It should be remarked that all crossings of a sateen 
 character, with the exception of that formed on six healds, 
 give an upright twill in the cloth when the* warp is flushed, 
 and an oblique twill when the weft is flushed. The six- 
 shaft make is what may be termed an irregular sateen, 
 forming a broken twill in the fabric, while, unless arranged 
 on the principle given in fig. 57, two threads of warp are 
 depressed, a, a, fig. 58, in succession, a feature which 
 should never prevail in weaves of this description, 
 
 92. Derivatives of the Sateen, — Sateens possess one cha- 
 racteristic which makes them useful for other purposes 
 than simply that of forming a suitable method of interlac- 
 ing warp and weft yarns — they form a broad basis for the 
 origination of new weaves, while in figured designing they 
 
CLOTH CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 157 
 
 are frequently worked to as the plan of arranging the 
 various parts of the design. Their derivatives are not 
 only more diversified in character, but also more perfect in 
 structure than those obtained from other simple modes of 
 crossing. In fact, a weave made on a sateen basis, if sys- 
 tematically constructed, cannot fail to produce a regular 
 or uniform texture. There is, however, considerable skill 
 required in this class of elementary designing. The origi- 
 nation of new weaves is always a difficult task. It implies 
 
 Fig. 56. Fig. 57. 
 
 Fig. 58. Fig. 59. 
 
 both the exercise of ingenuity and of a knowledge of cloth 
 production. 
 
 Such valuable makes as the corkscrew, twilled hopsack, 
 and Mayo or Campbell may all be formed on the sateen 
 principle. As examples of the diversity of crossings re- 
 sulting from employing these weaves as a basis the designs 
 given in figs. 60 to 71 inclusive, may be considered. In 
 each of these cases the full square dots, B > represent the 
 sateen weaves proper and the spaces marked in diagonal 
 lines, , the additions made to produce a new effect. 
 What are designated the 8-shaft and 12-shaft twilled hop- 
 sacks are shown in figs. 62 and 66. The former is one of 
 
CLOTH CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 159 
 
 the most useful weaves employed in the manufacture of 
 worsted coatings. The characteristic feature of these 
 weaves is that the small squares of which they are formed 
 are always arranged in such a manner as to produce en 
 hloc, not only a mat or hopsack, but also a twilled effect. 
 The manner in which these makes have been constructed, 
 and also that of the Mayo, fig. 63, is made evident by the 
 two classes of marks used in the figures. 
 
 Perhaps a few of the most striking illustrations that can 
 be furnished of the variety of weave effects obtainable on 
 this method are given in figs. 68, 69, and 70. Here are 
 three as differently constructed weaves as it is possible to 
 make, and yet they have all been obtained from the same 
 fundamental weave, which may be traced in the respective 
 designs. In the first of these crossings, fig. 68, the addi- 
 tion of the small squares marked in diagonal lines pro- 
 duces a weave of a basket character suitable for fine worsted 
 cloths. The same base is made to do duty in the forma- 
 tion of an irregular twilled pattern in fig. 69, by arranging 
 a pair of diagonal-marks on both sides of each square dot 
 in the weave. When the latter dot is removed it leaves 
 (fig. 70) a weave of the corkscrew class, while the addition 
 of the marks as indicated in fig. 71, results in forming a 
 good useful weave of a twilled mat character. Figs. 65 
 and 67 are simply further illustrations of the readiness 
 with which this plan of constructing weaves can be adopted 
 on any number of shafts. 
 
 93. Corkscrews or 'Bound Twills, — This class of weaves 
 has for several years been extensively employed in the 
 manufacture of worsted goods, more especially in cloths 
 intended for coatings and trouserings. In fact, the re- 
 markable success of the corkscrew fabric has had but one 
 parallel — namely, that of the cassimere or four-end twill ; 
 for, although the hopsack or Celtic, and the Mayo or 
 Campbell, are both very noted and useful weaves, yet the 
 quantity of cloth made of these crossings, in a given period, 
 will not bear comparison with that made of the corkscrew 
 
160 
 
 WOOL MANUFACTURE. 
 
 or round twill. Possibly it might be supposed, from the 
 style of the designation applied to this kind of make or 
 weave, that the effect in the woven fabric would be of a cork- 
 screw or wavy character, or, at least, possess the feature 
 of roundness ; but it should be noted that none of these 
 characteristics are sufficiently pronounced to lead to the 
 origin of these technical names. The latter designation — 
 that of round twill — is certainly the more applicable of the 
 two, because there is a fulness and general softness, which 
 may be said to approach roundness, about the effect of 
 such makes in the woven fabric that might probably have 
 given rise to this term, for it is a feature that is more or less 
 wanting in other classes of twills. But any person familiar 
 with goods produced from this type of weave would expe- 
 rience considerable difficulty in explaining either how or why 
 the terms corJcscreiu and round twill csime into use; unless the 
 object was to deceive the uninitiated, and, by giving the cloth 
 a novel and at the same time fantastical name, cause it to 
 be regarded as a new article. This, along with the fact 
 that the weave has only been in vogue for a comparatively 
 limited period in worsted cloths, has led to the assumption 
 that the corkscrew is a make of modern invention. It is 
 only necessary to refer to certain woven specimens, still in 
 existence, made of the weave shown in fig. 64? or of the 
 nine heald corkscrew, as long ago as 1860, to prove that this 
 generally accepted opinion is erroneous. These cloths 
 were then made in woollen and not in worsted yarns, the 
 following being a sample of the weaving particulars 
 adopted in the manufacture of the corkscrew goods pro- 
 duced about the year 1860: — Warp, 40 skeins woollen, 
 17'sreed, 4 threads in a split; Weft, 30 skeins woollen, 
 68 picks on the inch. The same weave may now be made 
 of twofold 48's worsted for warp, in a 24's reed, 4 threads 
 in a split, and 24's worsted for weft, 96 picks on the inch.. 
 So that the modern cloth not only excels its predecessor in 
 fineness of texture, but, on account of being made of worsted,, 
 it also possesses a more lustrous surface. 
 
CLOTH CONSTRUCTION. 161 
 
 The striTctureof what maybe termed the ordinary class 
 of corkscrews is based on the sateen or doeskin principle, 
 for, whether the 7, 9, or 11-heald make is examined, it 
 will be found that the common doeskin forms the basis of 
 the weave. N"ow the principle of a sateen make, as already 
 explained, is one thread down on each pick or shoot, no 
 matter how many threads it may occupy. Thus in figs. 
 61 and 64, the squares, B ? iii each case, form the sateen 
 basis, which may be readily changed into the corkscrew 
 proper by adding two, three, or four marks, according to 
 the size of the twill, and one above the other in succession, 
 as indicated in the respective figures. The ordinary buck- 
 skin and five-shaft Venetian are constructed on a very 
 similar principle. Here again the squares give the doe- 
 skin weaves, one mark only being required to be added on 
 each thread, and that above the squares, in order to pro- 
 duce in the former what is termed the fine twill or Vene- 
 tian, and, in the latter figure, the buckskin twill. 
 
 94. Construction of Tiuills. — Small twills and diagonals 
 are by far tlie easiest types of weaves to originate ; for it 
 will be obvious that to construct a new twill of a simple 
 character it will only be necessary to vary the base or first 
 pick of the weave. This arises from the fact that every 
 pick of a regular twill is simply a model of the first, moved 
 either one thread to the left or to the right of its pre- 
 decessor, according to the direction in which the twill 
 runs. 
 
 Thus, on examining fig. 72, it will be found that the 
 second pick is marked or figured exactly like the first, 
 but started on the second thread B, and finished on thread 
 A. Further, if the respective picks were similarly con- 
 sidered, they would each correspond, in arrangement, with 
 the base line of the weave. Take, for example, the last 
 pick in this design, ~No, 8, which commences, as indicated 
 by the numeral 1, on the 8th thread H, and reads as 
 follows : — 3 threads down, 1 thread up, 1 thread down, 
 and 3 threads up, ending on the 7th thread ; now this is 
 
 M 
 
162 
 
 WOOL MANUFACTURE. 
 
 precisely the order in which the threads are elevated and 
 depressed in the 1st pick, only the latter begins on the 1st 
 thread A, and ends on the 8th thread h. It is apparent, 
 therefore, that the difference between any two picks of a 
 simple twilled weave only arises from their relative posi- 
 tions in the make which they help to form. This will 
 probably so far explain the structure of a common twill as 
 to enable the reader to understand that when the base 
 line or first shoot of such a twill is given, in order to com- 
 plete it each succeeding pick will require to be a repeti- 
 tion of this base, but advanced one thread beyond its pre- 
 decessor either to the left or to the right ; the same order 
 
 □ 
 
 □□□□□□□□ 
 
 C 
 
 □ 
 
 □ □□□□lDQQ 
 
 L9TH. 
 
 □ 
 
 □□□□□□□□ 
 
 QsrH. 
 
 □ 
 
 [£]□□□□□□□ 
 
 C7rH. 
 
 
 □□□□□□□□ 
 
 LCTH. 
 
 
 □□□□□□□□ 
 
 
 □ 
 
 □□□□□□□□ 
 
 
 □ 
 
 
 L3(iD. 
 
 □ 
 
 □□□□□aag 
 
 C2ND. 
 
 □ 
 
 □□□□□□□a 
 
 List. 
 
 n 
 
 ni~innnnnn 
 
 r 
 
 
 G E C A 
 h F D B 
 
 
 
 Fig. 72. 
 
 
 of depressing the threads being repeated till the arrange- 
 ment of marks on the 1st pick recurs. This, it will be 
 noticed, takes place on the 9th pick in fig. 72. Of course, 
 in working out a weave from such data, each pick must 
 be confined to the number of threads the base pick occu- 
 pies. For this reason the numeral 5, on the 5th pick in 
 the figure just explained, is brought on to the 1st thread, 
 and not carried on to the 9th, which is not included in the 
 number of threads occupied by the first shoot. In some 
 classes of twills where there are two picks of weft in one 
 shed of the warp, or where in one portion of the twill the 
 depression of the threads is the same during two or more 
 succeeding shoots of weft, it is necessary, to enable the 
 designer to continue or complete the weave, to furnish 
 
CLOTH CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 163 
 
 such a number of picks as will indicate the character of 
 the make. 
 
 95. Hojosachs or Mats. — A word or two of explanation 
 may be given here on what are termed hopsaclc, Celtic, 
 hashet, or mat weaves. Next to the cassimere twill the 
 4-heald make of this class is one of the most useful weaves 
 employed in making woollen and worsted goods. Correctly 
 speaking, it is nothing but the plain weave on an enlarged 
 
 Fi^. 73. 
 
 Fior. 73 a. 
 
 Fio;. 73 b. 
 
 scale ; the principle of its structure coinciding with the 
 latter weave, as may be seen by consulting these makes as 
 mapped out in figs. 73, 73 A, and 73 b. Here it will be ob- 
 served that the largest of these weaves only contains, like 
 the plain weave, two classes of sheds, four threads and 
 four picks always working together, and performing the 
 same office as one thread in tabby weaving. These weaves 
 are made on a considerable variety of healds, such as 4, 6, 
 8, 12, and 16, but the numbers in most general use are the 
 three former. 
 
164 
 
 WOOL MANUFACTURE. 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 HAND LOOMS. 
 
 96. Motions of the Loom — 97. Uses of the Hand Loom — 98. Parts 
 of the Loom— 99. Setting-up Motion — 100. Letting-otf Motion — lOL 
 Shedding Motions — 102. Treadle System— 103. Tie-up or Cording 
 Plans— 104. The Witch or Dobbie— 105. The Lags— 106. Eelative 
 Advantages of the Treadle Loom and Witch Machines — 107. The Jac- 
 quard Machine — 108. Block and Cylinder — 109. Upright and Cross 
 Wires— 110. The Harness— 1 11. The Pattern Cards— 112. Double-lift 
 ^lachines — 113. Harness and Shaft Mounting — 114. Uses and Advan- 
 tages of the Jacquard Shedding Motion. 
 
 96. Motions of the Loom, — There are five principal 
 motions in weaving common to both hand and power 
 looms, namely, shedding, "piching, luefting, setting-up of the 
 cloth, and letting-off of the warp or chain. The shedding 
 motion, which is by far the most important, divides the 
 warp threads into two sections, elevating some ends and 
 depressing others ; the ]picking motion impels the shuttle 
 from side to side of the warp ; the setting-up arrangement 
 winds the woven cloth on to the piece-beam, while the 
 letting-off appliance unwinds the threads from the chain- 
 beam. The shuttle-box motion should also be mentioned, 
 as it is invariably applied to looms used in the production 
 of fancy cloths. In practical weaving the shedding motion 
 first effects a division in the warp, when the shuttle con- 
 taining the weft-thread is propelled by the picking motion 
 through the opening, or " shed," formed in the chain 
 between the elevated and depressed threads ; the move- 
 ment of the going-part, or the wefting motion, then beats 
 the weft yarn thus extended across the warp, before the 
 shed closes, or the warp yarns are brought on to one 
 common level, into close contact with its predecessor ; at 
 
HAND LOOMS. 
 
 165 
 
 this juncture the letting-off motion gives in the chain, the 
 setting-up appliance at the same time imparting move- 
 ment to the piece or cloth beam. 
 
 97. Uses of the Hand Loom. — Although the hand-loom 
 has during recent years been largely superseded by the 
 power-loom, yet it still holds an important place in the 
 weaving of some classes of textiles. As it is simple in 
 construction, it can be readily altered to suit the require- 
 ments of any particular branch of woven fabrics, For this 
 reason it is preferable to the automatic loom for pattern or 
 experimental weaving. Modifications in the motions of 
 the power-loom are comparatively difficult to make. If, 
 for example, a change had to be made in the order of 
 picking, or in the method of introducing the several 
 shades of weft yarns into the cloth, it would necessitate 
 either the construction of a new chain, the use of a fresh 
 set of lags, or of a different series of cards for the shuttle- 
 boxes, according to the class of power-loom employed. 
 But if a similar change in picking had to be effected in 
 the hand-loom, the w^eaver, having the shuttling arrange- 
 ment under complete control, could, without any altera- 
 tion in the mechanism of the loom whatever, introduce the 
 threads of weft into the cloth as required. Other advan- 
 tages in making pattern ranges on this loom consist in the 
 facility with which the cloth can be wefted, the warp 
 changed, and, in a word, the expeditious manner in which 
 a new fabric or pattern can be produced. 
 
 For figured goods, where an irregular and complicated 
 order of weft threads of several colours is used, the hand- 
 loom is again the best adapted, simply because the weaver 
 can readily control its motions so as to make them accord 
 with the required method of colouring the design. Plush 
 fabrics and various classes of tapestry cloths, carpets, 
 and figured shawls are also, to a limited extent, woven 
 on the hand-loom, but its special role, as stated above, is 
 certainly in pattern production. Hence in fancy woollen 
 and worsted mills of any note, a number of hand-loom 
 
166 
 
 WOOL MANUFACTURE. 
 
 weavers are engaged solely in the weaving of new pattern 
 ranges. 
 
 To the student of textile design this loom is specially 
 useful, for he can more feasibly put his ideas into prac- 
 tical shape by its employment than by using the power- 
 loom. Experiments are as necessary in a study of weaving 
 as in chemistry or any other practical science ; and as it 
 is, to say the least, inconvenient for the student to have a 
 power-loom in his laboratory or workshop, he cannot do 
 better than procure a hand-loom. Small hand-looms, as 
 simple and complete in construction as possible, are the 
 most suitable for this purpose. There is no advantage in 
 having a miniature power-loom which may be worked by 
 the foot alone, like a sewing-machine, as there is far too 
 much mechanism and gearing required in looms of this de- 
 scription. The less mounting a loom takes, the better for 
 the student. He ought to be able to vary the number of 
 weft threads to the inch in the fabric, alter the shuttling, 
 and change the design without re-adjusting the various 
 parts of the loom. This is necessarily impracticable in 
 looms that are workable by the foot alone. Possibly the 
 best hand-loom constructed for students' use is that 
 invented by Professor Beaumont, and of which there 
 are some eighty in use (in addition to full-sized hand- 
 looms, jacquards, and power-looms of various descrip- 
 tions) in the textile classes of the Yorkshire College. 
 This loom, while a combination of neatness and simplicity, 
 possesses a weaving capacity equivalent to that of the 
 largest power-loom mounted w^ith shafts or heddles, and 
 also every necessary contrivance for making pattern ranges. 
 
 98. Parts of the Loom, — The following are the principal 
 parts of the hand-loom : The frame, the warp-beam, the 
 piece-beam, the breast-beam, the going-part or batten, the 
 rock- tree, or rail, on which the going-part swings, the 
 shuttle-box lever, and the setting-up lever and wheels. 
 
 The frame is very similarly constructed, whether in- 
 tended for the treadle, witch, or jacquard shedding motions. 
 
HAND LOOMS. 
 
 167 
 
 It consists of four upright posts joined at each side in the 
 direction of the warp and also at the back by a lower and 
 an upper rail. In the front the low rail is dispensed with, 
 the breast beam, against which the weaver leans during 
 weaving, and over which the cloth passes to the piece- 
 beam, taking its place. The breast-beam, like the rail 
 over which the warp passes from the chain-beam to the 
 healds, is fixed a little higher than the mails of the healds 
 or harness. 
 
 Fig. 74. 
 
 One of the most important parts of both hand and 
 power-looms is the going-part or "batten." In fig. 74 one 
 end of the going-part used in ordinary hand-looms is re- 
 presented. The bottom part of this piece, A, is called the 
 race, the shuttle running upon it during weaving. The 
 sley or reed is fixed between the hand-tree, b, and the race. 
 Both ends of the going- part are mounted with a similar 
 series of boxes to that shown in the figure. In this sketch 
 only two boxes, c and d, are given, but as many as from 
 four to six may be employed. 
 
WOOL MANUFACTURE. 
 
 The sword, s, or the upright arms on which the going- 
 part oscillates, have several holes near the top by which 
 it can be lowered or elevated at the option of the weaver. 
 For this purpose cords are passed through the holes and 
 fastened round the " rock-tree," a stout wooden beam, 
 mounted with two iron pins, which move in grooves 
 screwed on to each of the upper side rails of the frame. 
 
 When the weaver desires to insert a pick of weft into 
 the warp, he presses the batten from him, which should 
 bring the race on a level with the depressed yarns, and 
 thus form the base on which these threads rest ; by the 
 aid of the picking^stick he forces the shuttle across the 
 warp, after which he draws the going-part forcibly 
 against the cloth already w^oven, pressing the pick or 
 shoot of weft into close contact with the one previously 
 inserted. The picking motion may also be fully explained 
 by referring to fig. 74. Here is the pickiag-stick, which 
 the weaver holds in his right hand, F the |)icker travelling 
 on the spindle S, ii the picking-arm, i the picking-arm 
 spring, and e the cord connecting the picking-stick to the 
 picker. The action of the parts is as follows : If j9 is 
 drawn from the boxes it causes the picker f to slide on s, 
 driving the shuttle out of the box. This is no sooner done 
 than the picking-arm to which f is also attached is drawn 
 back by the spring i, and again brought into striking 
 position. In order that the picker may be quickly drawn 
 out of the boxes, the weaver lets the cord e slack imme- 
 diately after imparting motion through F to the shuttle. 
 
 As the shuttle-box motion is connected with the going 
 part, it may now be described. The box lever, which is 
 not shown in the figure, is generally fixed on the left side 
 of the loom, and is in direct communication with lever K. 
 The box lever does not control the motion of the boxes, 
 but is simply employed to lighten the work of elevating 
 them to the weaver, being weighted at one end. The 
 parts which have directly to do with the elevation and de- 
 pression of them are shown in the sketch. The boxes rise 
 
HAND LOOMS. 
 
 169 
 
 and fall on the two spindles R, R, and are kept in position 
 bj sliding on to steps projecting from the rods P, P. These 
 rods are joined together at the top by the spring o, which 
 allows them to move backward in the slot in which they 
 are placed in the top of the framework of the boxes, as the 
 iron snecks on the back of the latter press against the pro- 
 jections ; but immediately after the snecks have passed 
 above them the rods are drawn forward, and the boxes 
 rest on the steps of P, p. To lift the boxes, the rod N is 
 depressed, drawing down lever J and L to which it is at- 
 tached at w^hich causes it to rise at at which point it 
 is in direct communication by cord m with the tops of the 
 boxes. To depress them, it is necessary to press the 
 trigger T, in the centre of the hand-tree, inwards, which 
 being connected with p p by a small cord, draws them back- 
 ward, and thus removes the supports from underneath the 
 snecks on the boxes, causing them at once to drop. The 
 parts N and T, on which the weaver keeps the thumb and 
 finger of his left hand, are thus made to control in a simple 
 and effective manner the boxes containing the several 
 shuttles employed. 
 
 99. Setting-itp Motion, — The setting up of the cloth is, in 
 hand looms, and also in many classes of power-looms, 
 primarily effected by the movements of the going-part. 
 Projecting from the top rail of the batten is a thick 
 wooden rod, round which a cord is fastened and attached 
 to a lever fixed in front of the loom. This lever at the 
 opposite end by cord e, fig. 75, is made to lift the setting- 
 up lever, A. It will be noticed that A carries the setting- 
 up catch B, w^hich imparts motion to the piece-beam wheel, 
 p, through the train of wheels shown in sketch. Here R 
 is the ratchet-wheel, and carries small pinion F, which 
 gives motion to the intermediates, H and d, and they in 
 turn to P. The holding-up catch, c, prevents the ratchet 
 from running back when the lever A is descending. The 
 cloth is only set uj) when the going-part moves backw^ard. 
 Thus if pressed from the cloth the rod projecting from the 
 
170 
 
 WOOL MANUFACTUKE. 
 
 rail w, of fig. 74, depresses the top lever at the end to 
 which it is attached, and raises it at the other, lifting A of 
 fig. 75, and giving motion to the piece beam as described. 
 
 100. Letting -off Motion, — The usnal method of maintain- 
 ing the warp threads at one uniform tension in hand- 
 looms is by what is called the friction-brake. This is a 
 thick rope wound on the head of the yarn-beam in a con- 
 trary direction to that in which the warp is delivered from 
 the beam. Some classes of power-looms are mounted 
 with a similar letting-oflP arrangement. The various parts 
 
 -Fig. 75. 
 
 of this method of tensioning the warp are shown in fig. 76. 
 In this sketch b is the warp beam, c the twitch rope, l the 
 weight lever, r the low rail of the loom, and d the weight. 
 The rope C having been fastened to rail r, is passed round 
 the beam, and thus supports the lever l, which is fastened 
 by cord E to the floor, while the weight is supported by the 
 opposite end of the lever. Of course the heavier the 
 weight, or the further the weight from the fulcrum, the 
 more tension put on the warp. When this letting-ofi" con- 
 trivance is applied to the power-loom, two levers and two 
 twitch-ropes are used, one for each end of the loom. The 
 levers in this case are fastened to castings bolted on to the 
 framework of the loom. 
 
HAND LOOMS. 
 
 171 
 
 101. Shedding Motio7is, — In hand-loom weaving there 
 are three methods of elevating and depressing the warp 
 threads, or of forming a shed in the warp ; first, the treadle 
 system ; second, by the witch or dobbie ; and, third, by 
 the jacqnard machine. The treadle system is the oldest 
 and rndest in construction. It is still employed in some 
 parts of Scotland in pattern weaving, and possibly its sim- 
 plicity and cheapness will retain it in use for some time to 
 come for this purpose. The witch machine is one of the 
 
 best principles of shedding extant. It is said to have been 
 first constructed in its present form in the West Riding of 
 Yorkshire, and has, ever since its invention, been regarded 
 as well adapted to the requirements of the woollen and 
 worsted trades. Up to the year 1830, or thereabouts, the 
 dobbie, as now built, was unknown, a machine styled the 
 drum witch or engine, which resembled it in many par- 
 ticulars in construction, being then employed in the 
 weaving of fancy woollens. The principle of the dobbie 
 forms the basis of construction of many of the power-loom 
 
 Fig. 76. 
 
172 
 
 WOOL MANUFACTURE. 
 
 shedding motions of the present day, in fact, there is 
 scarcely one system of automatic shedding, excepting the 
 tappet, which does not resemble the witch in some parti- 
 -culars. As to the third method of shedding, that of the 
 jacquard machine, it is the sjstem par excellence for figured 
 weaving. Practically there is no limit to the capacity of 
 this loom. Elaborately figured fabrics are always woven 
 on the jacquard. The great feature in which it differs 
 from other shedding mechanisms is in the use of harness 
 instead of shaft mounting, and cards instead of lags and 
 pegs, bowls and bushes, or tappets and treadles. It was 
 invented, about 1801, by Joseph Marie Jacquard, and 
 although the machine has undergone many modifications 
 since this date, it is still the same in principle as when 
 it first left the hands of the inventor. 
 
 102. Treadle Systems,— This shedding motion comprises 
 four series of levers, namely, treadles, long lambs, short 
 lambs, and jacks. The treadles are worked by the weaver's 
 feet, and both depress and elevate the heddles. The long 
 lambs are connected first to the treadles and then to the 
 jacks by what are termed the streamer cords. The jacks 
 are attached to the top of the heddles and the short lambs 
 to the bottom. The latter are also in communication with the 
 treadles. The elevation and depression of the heald shafts 
 depends entirely on two classes of cords, lo7ig and short, 
 used in connecting the treadles to the long and short 
 lambs respectively. The long cords being attached to the 
 short lambs depress, while the short cords being attached 
 to the long lambs lift the shafts. The positions of these 
 cords and of the several sets of levers are shown in fig. 77. 
 In this sketch, a a^ are the short cords, h the long cords, 
 T the treadles, l the long lambs, c the streamer 
 cords, J the jacks, and H the heddles or shafts. Wow 
 it will be obvious that if t were depressed it would draw 
 down long lamb being attached to it by short cord a. 
 Lever l^, by means of cords c\ would then depress at 
 and lift it at i. As at this point is in communication with 
 
Fig. 77. 
 
 Diagram of Shedding Mechanism of Treadle Loom. 
 
174 
 
 WOOL MANUFACTURE. 
 
 the upper shaft of heald b.\ it would, when depressed at g, 
 rise at i and lift this heddle. This is not the only result 
 of depressing treadle t, for as it is connected by a long 
 cord b to short lamb s, and as the latter by cord e is 
 connected to the lower shaft of heald h, when this treadle 
 is elevating heddle it is depressing h. It follows that 
 the threads drawn through the mails, m^, of will, when 
 treadle t is depressed, be lifted, while those drawn through 
 of H will be sunken, Next suppose the weaver de- 
 presses the second treadle, or ; this would just reverse 
 the positions of the threads, for this treadle would, by 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 - 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ,i 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 C 
 
 
 
 J 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 h 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 7 J 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 liot't 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Fig. 78. 
 
 means of a\ draw down l, lifting through the streamer 
 cord c, and jack, J, the first or front heddle, h. In the 
 second place would depress H^,for it is connected to the 
 bottom shaft of this heddle by 6\ s\ and e\ Possibly it 
 will now be clear how the lifting and depressing of the 
 heald shafts depends entirely on the method of attaching 
 the cords a and h to the treadles. 
 
 103. Tie-up or Cording Flans, — As the effect in the woven 
 fabric, in treadle weaving, is due to the principle on which 
 the healds are actuated by the long and short lambs, the 
 cords a and h are tied up according to the weave or plan 
 of fabric required. In the diagram referred to, they are 
 arranged to weave a plain cloth. To illustrate the prin- 
 ciple of cording, a tie-up " for the cassimere twill, given 
 
HAND LOOMS. 
 
 175 
 
 in fig. 78, will be arranged. In making a cording plan, 
 the first thing to do is to draw as many horizontal lines 
 parallel to each other as there are shafts or threads in the 
 weave. Across these rule four perpendiculars correspond- 
 ing to the picks a, c, and cl in fig. 78 and to the treadles 
 in the loom, as represented in sketch 79. This done, the 
 point to determine is which class of cords shall be marked 
 long or sliort. It is customary to mark the former, or those 
 w^hich lift. Thus on pick a of weave 78, the 1st and 2nd 
 shafts are elevated, hence they are marked in the cording 
 plan where treadle A cuts them. On the second pick, Z>, the 
 1st and 4th shafts are up, and the 2nd and 8rd down, 
 which is indicated in the cording plan by crosses being 
 placed on treadle b where it intercepts the 1st and 
 4th shafts. The picks c and d are then dealt with in 
 a similar manner, producing the cording plan sketched 
 in fig. 79. The marks made on this sketch indicate that 
 short cords are to be attached to the treadles and long 
 
 Shafts 
 
 >] 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 — ^ 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 2) 
 
 Tr 
 
 ui 
 ad 
 
 41 
 
 3 
 Trt 
 h 
 
 ad 
 
 1 
 Tr 
 ■i 
 ad 
 
 ,t 
 
 ad 
 
 Fig. 79. 
 
 lambs, while the absence of marks, from those positions 
 where the two series of lines cross each other, shows that 
 long cords are to be attached to the treadles and short 
 lambs. Thus, according to the above cording plan, the 
 following would be the method of attaching the cords to 
 the treadles and long and short lambs in mounting the 
 loom : I. Treadle A, for pick a, short cords to long lambs 
 1 and 2, and long cords to short lambs 3 and 4. 11. 
 
176 
 
 WOOL MANUFACTURE. 
 
 Treadle b, for pick short cords to long lambs 1 and 4, 
 and long cords to short lambs 2 and 3. III. Treadle O,for 
 pick c, short cords to long lambs 3 and 4, and long cords 
 to short lambs 1 and 2. TV, Treadle D, for pick d, short 
 cords to long lambs 2 and 3, and long cords to short 
 lambs 1 and 4. It should be observed that, as the lambs 
 run parallel to the shafts, and are fixed underneath them, 
 the first or front shaft takes the 1st lamb in each set, the 
 second shaft the 2nd, the third shaft the 3rd lamb, and so 
 on throughout the entire series of shafts. Another feature 
 about the cording plan that must be noted is the method 
 of arranging the treadles. It will be noticed that although 
 pick h of weave 78 is the second on the plan, yet it is 
 actuated by the 4th treadle. The reason for this will soon 
 be obvious. The weaver, in treading making use of both 
 feet, must, in order to avoid crossing them, either tread 
 from the outside or the centre of the complete set of 
 treadles. In the plan given he would start on the 1st 
 treadle with the right foot, then take the 4th treadle with 
 the left foot, the 2nd treadle with the right, and the 3rd 
 treadle with the left. 
 
 104. The Witch or Dohhie. — The various parts of this 
 shedding motion are given in fig. 80. The part B, called 
 the block, slides up and down between the tw^o ends of 
 the frame. It contains the knives or lifting bars, K. Eleva- 
 tion and depression of the healds are effected by the up- 
 right wires h and c. These wires are bent in the form of 
 a hook at the top, so that if over the knives when the 
 block rises they are immediately lifted. Uprights h and 
 
 are attached to the tops of the heald shafts, while up- 
 rights c and are, by the means of the streamer cords e e^, 
 connected to the jacks f, two sets of levers fixed under- 
 neath the healds in what is called the jack frame. These 
 levers, as will soon be pointed out, perform the same 
 functions as the short lambs in treadle weaving, for they 
 depress the shafts. There is one spring wire, a a\ to each 
 pair of uprights, b and c, and and respectively. The 
 
Fig. 80. 
 
 Diagram of the Witch or Dobbie Shedding arrangements. 
 
178 
 
 WOOL MANUFACTURE. 
 
 object of the spring wire is to actuate the uprights, thus a, 
 by means of the cross wire g, may be made to impart 
 motion to uprights h and c, for it is twirled round both of 
 them. When there are no lags on the cylinder, or when 
 the machine is out of action, the front row of uprights 
 are all off knife 1, whereas the second series are all on 
 lifting-bar 2. If, therefore, the spring wire a were 
 pressed forward it would force the upright h on to 
 knife 1, and upright c off knife 2 ; on the other hand, if 
 spring wire were not to be actuated, upright would 
 remain off knife 1, while would be lifted by knife 2. 
 This arrangement of wires is sketched in fig. 80, and the 
 effect it has on the healds will next be traced. Let 
 the result of lifting wire b and depressing wire c be 
 first considered. The shaft to which b is attached by 
 cord d is represented as up, because this wire has been 
 raised by the front lifting-bar. In order to allow it to rise, 
 the jack levers are elevated at the ends, where they are 
 attached to the shafts by cords /. They could not be thus 
 actuated if the upright c, to which they are attached, were 
 not depressed. This, however, is the case, for when the 
 front row of uprights rise, the back row fall, and hence, in 
 the drawing, b is shown to be elevated and c to be down. 
 I^ow turn to the method of depressing the healds. This is 
 always done by lifting the back row of uprights and sink- 
 ing the front row. Thus in fig. 80 upright is on 
 knife 2, while b^ is off knife 1. The effect is this, 
 being elevated by the block, by means of cord lifts the 
 jack levers f at i, and depresses them at m, thus drawing 
 down, through cords /\ heddle H^. In order to level the 
 shafts after they have been lifted and sunken, the block is 
 allowed to fall, which admits, first, of the heddles which 
 have been elevated being depressed ; and, second, of the 
 heddles which have been sunken being lifted. The lifting 
 or levelling of the healds is accomplished by the spring s 
 and eccentric e. A strap passes from the spring over e, 
 and is attached to the wooden support on which the base 
 
HAND LOOMS. 
 
 179 
 
 of the uprights rest. Both sides of the machine possess 
 this arrangement, so that when the block B falls not only 
 do the lifted shafts sink, but those which have been de- 
 pressed by the jack levers are drawn up by the spring, 
 strap, and eccentric on to one common level. 
 
 The various parts of the machine operate as follows : 
 The weaver first depresses the treadle drawing down the 
 lever to which it is attached, and lifting the block. As 
 the latter contains the knives, it elevates the upright 
 wires, which, in turn, actuate the healds, those in series h 
 lifting, and those in series c, in consequence of being in 
 communication with the jacks and the lower parts of the 
 heddles, depressing the shafts. The pick of weft having 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 
 J 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 8 
 
 
 6 
 
 
 •/ 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 
 -+-f- 
 
 Fig. 81. 
 
 rig;. 82. 
 
 been inserted into the shed, which such an arrangement 
 of healds would produce in the warp, the treadle is allowed 
 to rise, when the block descends, and the shafts are brought 
 into their normal position. 
 
 105. The Lags. — There is one important feature about 
 this machine which has not been referred to in the previous 
 paragraph, namely, the manner in which motion is given 
 to the upright wires. Both series of uprights being con- 
 nected to one spring wire, it is only necessary to actuate 
 the latter in order to impart movement to both h and c. 
 This is done by the lags (fig. 82) into which pegs are in- 
 serted according to the pattern it is required to produce. 
 These lags pass round the cylinder, which usually contains 
 eight grooves and makes one-eighth of a revolution each 
 time the treadle is depressed. It is fixed with its long 
 
180 
 
 WOOL MANUFACTURE. 
 
 sides to the spring wires in the supports, p, fig. 80, of 
 the upright posts of the witch frame. To show how the 
 lags are prepared for the loom, let it be supposed that 
 it is required to weave plan 81 ; then, as this weave 
 occupies eight threads and four picks, the lag would con- 
 tain eight holes, each hole representing a thread. The lag 
 may either be pegged from the right or left side, but it is 
 usual to commence with the first hole on the right ; that 
 is to say, the numerals 1 to 8 represent the same threads 
 in the weave. When the blank spaces on the design de- 
 note threads up, the holes in the lags representing such 
 spaces are pegged. Each lag corresponds to one pick ; 
 thus lag a is the 1st, h the 2nd, c the 3rd, and d the 4th 
 pick of the weave. On this design the 1st pick reads 
 thus : 1 thread dotted, 2 threads blank, 1 thread dotted, 
 1 thread blank, 1 thread dotted, 1 thread blank, and 1 
 thread dotted. The lag for this pick is pegged as follows: 
 1 hole empty, 2 holes pegged, 1 hole empty, 1 hole pegged, 
 1 hole empty, 1 hole pegged, and 1 hole empty. So that 
 in preparing the lags, pegs are only inserted into the holes 
 corresponding to the blank spaces in the several picks. 
 The principle of pegging the succeeding lags, Z>, c, and cZ, 
 is precisely the same as that observed in inserting pegs 
 into lag a. 
 
 106. Belative Advantages of the Treadle Loom and Witch 
 Machines, — In one particular, at least, the witch machine 
 has a very considerable advantage over the treadle loom. 
 Twelve or sixteen shafts in the latter necessitates the use 
 of as many treadles as it is possible for the weaver feasibly 
 to control. Moreover such a number of heddles is not 
 sufficient for the requirements of the fancy woollen and 
 worsted trades. The witch has, however, a weaving capa- 
 city of no less than forty-eight shafts, and these are all 
 workable by the same treadle. In the direction of the 
 weft there is no limit whatever in this machine to the size 
 of the pattern. While in the treadle-loom, as has already 
 been pointed out, each distinct pick requires a separate 
 
HA^^D LOOMS. 
 
 181 
 
 treadle to form it ; in the dobbie a weave or design may- 
 contain almost an unlimited number of picks, and yet be as 
 workable as if it only occupied four or eight. If the 
 treadle system can be said to possess any advantages over 
 the dobbie, it is in the variety of weave effects which may 
 sometimes be obtained with one " tie-up," whereas every 
 
 'b d f h s e c a 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 
 ( ■ 
 
 
 i > 
 
 
 
 ) 
 
 
 — ^ 
 
 
 
 
 e— 
 
 
 
 
 —7 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2> 
 
 •d 
 
 4 
 
 h 
 
 6/ 
 
 h 
 
 Si 
 
 21 
 2) 
 
 J' 
 
 4 
 
 d 
 4' 
 
 d 
 
 5 
 'h 
 
 S 
 
 J' 
 
 h 
 
 d 
 7t 
 
 hj 
 
 3 
 6 
 
 h 
 
 7. 
 
 ■d 
 
 I 
 
 21 
 1. 
 
 "d 
 3 
 
 ■d 
 
 4 
 
 'h 
 
 t 
 
 t ' 
 
 'd 
 
 st 
 
 h 
 
 A. 
 B 
 
 D 
 
 Fig. 83. 
 
 fresh effect in the dobbie necessitates the production of a 
 new set of lags. 
 
 A few illustrations will show how such changes are 
 possible in the treadle-loom. In fig. 83, part A, the tie- 
 up or cording plan is given for weave 84^. ]^ow it will be 
 obvious that all crossings composed of the same picks as 
 those which form this weave, but differently arranged, 
 will be producible in the same tie-up. For exam^Dle, in 
 plan 85, there are only two classes of picks — a and h being 
 
182 
 
 WOOL MANUFACTURE. 
 
 like a, and c and d like e of weave 84. It follows, there- 
 fore, that fig. 85 could, if the treadles were depressed, as 
 indicated at b, in fig. 83, be produced in the same tie-up as 
 the latter plan. Plans 78 and 86 could also be worked on 
 the same set of treadles and cording arrangement. Con- 
 sider plan 78 first. Pick a here is like a in weave 86, 
 pick h like c, pick c like and pick d like cj ; hence if the 
 treadles are depressed, as shown at c, fig. 83, allowing the 
 last four treadles to rest, they would give the common 
 twill required. Lastly, as to weave 86. Picks a and d 
 of this plan correspond to a of weave 84, picks h and g to 
 (/, picks c and / to c, and picks e and h to e of the same 
 figure. By treading as indicated at d, in fig. 83, this 
 
 Eig. 84. Fig. 85. 
 
 arrangement of picks may be obtained. If the last four 
 treadles of the cording plan were worked independently of 
 the first four, they could be made to form the plain cloth, 
 and also a large variety of warp cords, with two, four, or 
 six picks in a shed. 
 
 107, The Jacquard Macliine, — This shedding motion is in 
 reality divisible into two parts — the mechanism for pro- 
 ducing one repeat of the pattern as stamped on the cards, 
 and represented on the design paper, or the jacquard 
 machine proper ; and the harness which repeats the effect 
 produced by the cylinder and the cross and upright wires 
 from one side of the fabric to the other. 
 
 A harness instead of a shaft mounting, perforated cards 
 in place of wooden legs and pegs, are not the only features 
 
 d 
 
 b 
 
HAND LOOMS. 
 
 183 
 
 which characterize this machine. In fact there are some 
 power looms in which the cylinder and card apparatus is 
 employed in a modified form. Much of the dissimilarity 
 between the jacquard and the dobbie arises from the 
 arrangement of the upright and cross wires in the respec- 
 tive machines. In the dobbie there are but two rows of 
 uprights, one row of which is ofi" the front lifting-bar, and 
 the other row on the back lifting-bar. The uprights in 
 both rows are actuated by the same spring and cross wires. 
 A very different arrangement of wires obtains in the jac- 
 quard. Here the uprights are arranged in four, eight, or 
 twelve rows, each row containing twenty-five or fifty wires, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 A 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 /■ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 d 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 -- 
 
 -- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 c 
 
 T 
 
 
 
 
 — r- 
 
 -■ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 •- 
 h- 
 
 B 
 
 1- - 
 1- - 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 -- 
 
 H- 
 h- 
 
 -- 
 
 
 4-- 
 
 
 
 7 
 
 - 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 r -r -r-r -r T 
 1- +4-1-1- + - 
 
 - ^■- 
 ' -i- - 
 
 - + 
 
 
 V 
 
 
 
 
 
 rig. 86. 
 
 according to the capacity of the machine. The cross wires 
 are arranged on a similar system. There are no spring 
 wires, the cross wires or needles giving motion to the up- 
 rights. 
 
 108. Bloch and Cylinder, — An engraving of a 100 jac- 
 quard is given in fig. 87. It shows the principal parts of 
 the machine for actuating the harness. The block A, as in 
 the dobbie, contains the knives or lifting-bars. Here, 
 however, these bars vary in number according to the size 
 of the machine. Thus, in a 100 machine, there are only 
 four knives, in a 200, or 400, eight, and in a 600 machine 
 twelve. Each row of uprights requires a separate lifting- 
 bar. The knives are fixed obliquely in the block to pre- 
 
184 
 
 WOOL MANUFACTURE. 
 
 vent them from falling on the tops of the hooks of the up- 
 rights, and from thus destroying them when the latter drops. 
 
 The cylinder, c, has four sides, each of which contains as 
 many holes as there are cross wires in the machine. Each 
 series of holes corresponds to one row of cross or upright 
 wires. In a 400 jacquard there are eight, and in a 600 
 twelve series of holes. When the block is lifted, the 
 cylinder is pressed some slight distance from the front of 
 the machine, which brings the knoggers, d, into action, for 
 they are fixed to the frame, and the top catch rests on the 
 
 drumhead of cylinder, consequently as the latter is being 
 pressed back it makes one-fourth of a revolution. As the 
 cards pass over the cylinder, they are by this arrangement 
 brought one by one in regular succession against the ends 
 of the needles. To pick back the weaver simply raises 
 the catches, which brings the lower knogger into action, 
 causing the cylinder to turn in the opposite direction. 
 
 109. Upright micl Cross Wires, — The upright wires, w, 
 fig. 88, are bent in the form of a hook at both ends. The 
 upper hooks rest over the knives, h, of the block, while 
 the neck-bands of the harness, n, fig. 88, are attached to 
 
HAND LOOMS. 
 
 185 
 
 the lower hooks. Each upright, as previously stated, 
 must have its corresponding cross wire, the front end of 
 which plays against the card when the cylinder is brought 
 in contact with the needle-board of the machine. It is 
 
 Fig. 88. 
 
 completely twirled round the "upright," so that whether 
 pressed forward or backward it imparts movement to the 
 latter. The back of each cross wire is bent in the form of 
 a hook, a, fig. 88, admitting of the wire working between 
 the pins in the grate of the spring-box, c. To keep the 
 
186 
 
 WOOL MANUFACTURE. 
 
 wires steady when in action, and also perfectly straight, a 
 pin, B, is passed through the grate and the bends a. Each, 
 needle or cross wire works against a small spring, 
 s*, which gives it a forward motion on the card being with- 
 drawn, by the cylinder d, from the front of the needles. 
 In order to prevent the uprights from turning round, the 
 grate y, which contains as many bars as there are series of 
 uprights in the jacquard, is fixed between the lower bends 
 of the wires, rising and falling with them. 
 
 The number of upright wires in a jacquard, as in a 
 witch machine, defines its weaving capacity. On these 
 wires and the needles depends the transference of the 
 pattern, as impressed on the cards, on to the warp in the 
 loom ; for the cross wires communicate the motion received 
 from the card to the uprights, while the latter actuate the 
 neck-bands of the harness, n, fig. 89, which lift their re- 
 spective harness cords, and these in their turns the threads 
 of warp. 
 
 110. The Harness, — Thus far the construction of the 
 machine proper has only been considered. It is necessary 
 now to ascertain how the various parts already described, 
 when set in motion, reproduce the pattern, as stamped on 
 the cards, in the woven fabric. It is already understood 
 that in all cases the jacquard is a harness loom, and it is 
 the mounting of the harness and the functions it performs 
 in the weaving process that next comes under conside- 
 ration. 
 
 The first work to be done in connection with such a 
 mounting is, I. to decide on the capacity of the machine; 
 II. the set or number of threads per inch required in the 
 woven fabric ; and. III. the width of the harness in the 
 comber-board. Let it be supposed these points are settled 
 as follows : I. a 100 machine ; II. 32 threads per inch ; 
 and, III. 36 inches wide. There are only three distinct 
 parts in connection with the harness of the loom, so they 
 will be described separately. They are the neckbands, 
 comber-board, and harness cords. 
 
188 
 
 WOOL MANUFACTQRE. 
 
 The JSTeckband, Harness, and Comber-board. — In a 
 witch machine 24 upright wires, or jacks in the power- 
 loom, imply a weaving capacity o£ 24 shafts. Now each 
 of these shafts contains a definite number of healds to 
 the inch, and if the warp is straight drawn there will be 
 as many repeats of the design in one inch as there are 
 healds per inch on each shaft. Take an illustration : In 
 a loom mounted with 16 shafts and 48 healds per inch 
 there are 3 healds on the inch of each shaft, which 
 gives this number of " repeats " of the design in each 
 inch of the fabric, providing it occupies the complete set 
 or series of shafts. A witch machine with 16 shafts 
 €an only be made to produce by straight healding a 16- 
 thread design. In the 100 jacquard under consideration, 
 there being 104 upright wires, but probably only 96 
 wires for figuring purposes, and 8 wires for weaving 
 the lists, a design may occupy 96 ends ; but as there are 
 no shafts to repeat the pattern from side to side of the 
 fabric, some other arrangement has to be adopted. The 
 neckbands are employed for this purpose. They perform 
 the same functions in the jacquard shedding motion as the 
 shafts in the witch or dobbie ; for, like the shafts, they 
 carry the cords which repeat the design in the fabric. 
 Each neckband, after having been attached to the lower 
 hooks of the upright wires, is connected to as many har- 
 ness cords (equal healds in the dobbie) as there are in- 
 tended to be repeats of the pattern in the cloth. 
 
 The comber-board, c, fig. 89, is the wooden frame 
 through which the lower ends of the harness cords pass. 
 Each cord passes through a separate hole. Generally the 
 number of holes across this frame corresponds with the 
 number of upright wires across the neck or upper comber- 
 board, A. This comber-board determines the width of the 
 harness. 
 
 The harness consists, first, of the harness cords, e; 
 second, of the mails, c?; through which the warp ends are 
 drawn ; and, third, of the weights, or lingoes, I. As each 
 
HAND LOOMS. 
 
 189- 
 
 harness cord is mounted with a mail and a lingo, each 
 thread in the warp is depressed by a separate weight. 
 
 The number of harness cords actuated by each neck- 
 band depends entirely on the number of upright wires in 
 the machine, set, and width of the harness. Thus in a 
 104 machine, when 8 wires have been deducted from the^ 
 lists, it leaves 96 wires for the figure ; now, if this num- 
 ber is divided into the threads per inch, multiplied by the 
 width of the harness in inches, it will give the number of 
 repeats of the pattern in the fabric, or the harness cords 
 to be tied to each neckband. Thus : 
 
 32 ends per inch x 36 inches wide , , , 
 i- = 12 harness cords to- 
 
 wi^^s each neckband. 
 
 One method of tying up the harness very commonly 
 adopted is shown in sketch, fig. 89. In this case the 
 short sides or ends of the machine are parallel with the 
 long sides of the comber-board. Only two repeats" are 
 given in the drawing, and simply the first and last series 
 of uprights. The plan adopted in tying up the harness- 
 cords will be evident from the numerals on the upper and 
 lower comber-boards. For example, the harness-cords of 
 the neckbands of the uprights lu'^, iv^, lo^^ iv^, always take 
 the first series of holes of each repeat in the comber-board 
 c ; while the second series of neckbands, not shown in the 
 figure, would support the cords for the second rank of 
 holes in the comber-board, and so on to the last or 26th 
 set of neckbands, the harness-cords of which occupy the 
 row of holes in the comber-board lettered c^°^, c^°^, and 
 c^°^. It will be quite evident from the few cords sketched 
 in the figure, that the harness when completed will be very 
 much crossed on this system of mounting, causing con- 
 siderable wear and friction of the cords. 
 
 In the second method of hanging the harness such 
 an unnecessary crossing of the harness cords is avoided. 
 It consists in fixing the jacquard with the long sides of 
 the neck-board, b, fig. 90, parallel with the long sides of 
 
190 
 
 WOOL MANUFACTURE. 
 
 the comber-board, c, or with the cylinder of the machine, 
 either in the front or behind the loom. On this system, 
 as I shown in this sketch, the back row of uprights takes 
 the back row of holes in the comber-board ; the 2nd row, 
 
 Fig. 90. 
 
 the series h ; the 3rd row, the series 0 ; and so on through- 
 out the machine. 
 
 111. The Fattern Cards, — As previously explained, the 
 upright wires are, when the machine is not in motion, all 
 on the lifting bars, so that before any shed can be formed 
 in the warp it is necessary to press some of the wires off 
 
HAND LOOMS. 
 
 191 
 
 the knives before the block is lifted by the lever and treadle- 
 To effect this a series of cards, stamped according to the 
 design intended to be woven, are employed. These cards 
 perform exactly the same functions as the lags in the witch 
 machine, for they actuate the upright wires. They are 
 prepared on the card-stamping machine, the plate of which 
 bears an exact resemblance to one face of the cylinder. If 
 the whole of the card were cut, it would have precisely the 
 same effect as the cylinder without a card. A hole in the 
 card is always understood to signify a thread of warp 
 lifted, and a blank in the card a thread of warp depressed. 
 The cards when stamped and laced are a perfect repre- 
 sentation of the design on point paper in another form. 
 Each card represents one pick and the complete series of 
 
 /c^vOOOOOOOOOOCOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO^ 
 
 /ojeeoeeooeooooeeettoe*«ooo**oj 
 
 iO.'OOOOOOOOOOO ooooooooooooooo^ ^ 
 
 A 
 
 Fig. 91. 
 
 threads in the design, and hence the cards en hhc produce 
 the pattern in the woven fabric through the agency of the 
 upright and cross wires and the harness cords. 
 
 A card stamped plain for a 104 machine is given in fig. 
 91. The black spaces, or rows 1 and 3, represent holes 
 cut^ and the rows 2 and 4 spaces uncut. The former would 
 lift and the latter depress threads. The effect of the first 
 four spaces of this card, A, A, if applied to a machine 
 mounted in a similar manner to that sketched in fig. 89, 
 may be carefully traced. Take holes 1 and 3 first. These 
 would be opposite cross wires 1 and 3, and as all the cross 
 wires fit into the perforations in the cylinder before any 
 card is applied, if the card is stamped with holes the wires 
 will still remain stationary, so that the uprights, w^ and w^, 
 to which they are attached would be lifted, raising neck- 
 bands, and N-^, and harness cords, and c^, in both the 
 
192 
 
 WOOL MANUFACTURE. 
 
 first and second repeats in the comber board. The blanks 
 2 and 4 would have a different effect, covering the holes in 
 the cylinder opposite wires 2 and 4 they would press them 
 back along with the uprights, w^ and w^, admitting of the 
 block being lifted without elevating them, hence neck- 
 bands, N" and N^, with their accompanying harness cords, 
 would remain depressed. It will be observed that the 
 spaces in the card are numbered in the same relative order 
 as the upright and cross wires, the first space on the card 
 corresponding to the first needle in the jacquard. This 
 space also represents the first thread in the design. The 
 holes, p, fit on to the pivots, m, fig. 88, while the small holes, 
 Z, are for threading the lacing cord through when stringing 
 the cards together, 
 
 112. Double-lift Machine, — In the ordinary jacquard 
 machine, when forming the shed, those threads which are 
 not lifted remain in a stationary position. To produce a 
 division in the warp yarns in the dobbie or treadle looms 
 the threads are both elevated and depressed. This is cer- 
 tainly the most satisfactory method of dividing the yarns, 
 and is termed double shedding. There are certain arrange- 
 ments for attaining this result in the jacquard. One of 
 the simplest and most effective motions consists in employ- 
 ing two blocks, the lower one of which rises when the 
 upper one is descending and vice versa. Instead of the 
 bottom hooks resting on the neckboard as at A, fig. 89, 
 they rest on the lower block, which, when the shed is 
 being formed, falls, allowing those wires which have not 
 been engaged by the knives of the top block to be drawn 
 down by the lingoes attached to their harness cords. By 
 this simple contrivance the shed opens from the centre as 
 in treadle or dobbie weaving. To level the warp the upper 
 block or griffe lowers the uprights on its lifting bars, while 
 the lower griffe lifts the uprights resting on its sinking 
 bars. 
 
 113. Harness and Shaft Mounting. — For some classes of 
 figured fabrics it is necessary to have recourse to both 
 
HAND LOOMS, 
 
 193 
 
 harness and shaft mountings. The usual method of 
 arranging such a mounting is for the shafts to be placed 
 in the front of the harness just behind the lay or batten. 
 They are lifted by special upright wires and depressed by 
 weights. When weaving fine silk plushes the healds con- 
 tain the ground warp and the harness the figuring yarns. 
 By this combination of mountings a very fine, rich texture 
 can be produced. In other cases the heddles are employed 
 for weaving or inserting the ground into the figure or de- 
 sign formed by the harness. Thus some five ends might 
 be drawn through each mail in the harness and then sepa- 
 rated in the healds — the latter possessing mails of such a 
 length as to admit of a shed being formed in the warp by 
 the harness when they are all on one level. The process 
 consists in the jacquard or harness elevating the threads 
 in groups of fives to produce the required figure, when it 
 remains stationary until the necessary number of sheds 
 has been formed by the heddles to weave the ground of 
 the texture. This class of mounting is largely employed 
 in weaving figured damasks, and other fabrics elaborately 
 ornamented with design. 
 
 114. Uses and Advantages of the Jacquard Shedding Mo- 
 tion. — The jacquard is a principle of shedding entirely dis- 
 tinct from the witch or treadle motions. The machine is so 
 constructed that practically it aflPords unlimited scope for 
 pattern production. A design of 48 threads in size is the 
 limit to what may be feasibly obtained in the dobbie; 
 but in the jacquard, patterns may be woven containing 
 from 100 to 1,200 ends, or, in certain classes of damasks 
 for curtains and tablecloths, some 56 inches in size. It 
 is no uncommon thing to employ a 600 machine (that is, 
 a jacquard which admits of the production of figured 
 designs containing this large nnmber of individual threads, 
 each of which performs a distinct part in the construction 
 of the design) in the weaving silk fabrics and other 
 elaborately figured goods. By tying up the harness on 
 the pointed draft principle such a machine may be made 
 
 0 
 
194 
 
 WOOL MANUFACTURE. 
 
 to form a pattern of a diamond or lozenge shape, which 
 will contain 1,198 threads before there is a repetition of 
 the pattern. Moreover, it admits of these large facilities 
 for the production of woven figured effects, without any- 
 special complication of parts. In this respect it has proved 
 a great boon to the textile designer. The manufacture of 
 figured patterns on the draw-loom previous to its invention 
 was a very laborious task. However, it is not simply in 
 the production of figured goods in which this machine 
 is pre-eminently useful, but also in experimental weaving. 
 It is a principle of shedding that is adapted to all descrip- 
 tions of fabrics, whether plain or elaborately figured, as 
 the following extract from Professor Beaumont's lecture 
 on the ''Jacquard Machine" will show: — 
 
 " The witch or dobbie, tappet, and treadle looms are 
 very useful contrivances for weaving some classes of goods, 
 and are, without doubt, better adapted to the work on 
 which they are generally engaged than the jacquard 
 machine ; but while the weaving capacity of these looms 
 is limited to 36 shafts, or in some instances probably to 
 48 shafts, the jacquard may have a figuring capacity of 
 from 200 to 1,200 threads, which makes it suitable for the 
 production of almost any class of goods, whether made of 
 coarse or fine materials, or whether the patterns consist of 
 small figures or of large and complex designs. 
 
 " To clearly demonstrate the advantage of having access 
 to a jacquard loom in making trial patterns or "randoms," 
 it will be supposed that a designer has at command three 
 looms constructed on the witch principle, and mounted 
 with 24, 32, and 36 shafts respectively. In these mount- 
 ings, which may be said to afford the largest possible 
 scope for variety of weave and pattern, it is only practi- 
 cable to obtain eleven variations in the number of shafts a 
 design may occupy unless the looms are re-mounted, which 
 would imply the labour of re-drawing the warp, and cause 
 a considerable loss of time. Of course, the weaving 
 capacity of these machines opens out a fair field for the 
 
HAND LOOMS. 
 
 195 
 
 production of a diversity of figure and pattern, and would, 
 perhaps, be regarded by some manufacturers as affording 
 ample scope for designing the ordinary run of styles in 
 worsted and woollen fabrics. All this may be true, but 
 the point it is desirable to show with greater force is this, 
 that while eight variations necessitate the employment of 
 three looms, on the witch system — such as those just men- 
 tioned, — fourteen variations may be obtained in a 384 
 jacquard machine, including those weaves that may be 
 produced in the 24, 32, and 36 shaft dobbie looms, with 
 two exceptions. But in addition to these fourteen varia- 
 tions in the number of threads occupied by any weave, and 
 which, when woven, run out in the jacquard, and make a 
 perfect piece of cloth, it is possible to produce, without re- 
 drawing the warp, or any other alteration in the mounting 
 of the loom, weaves ranging from three to any reasonable 
 number of shafts used in the construction of a single make 
 cloth, although such weaves may not properly or evenly 
 divide into the total number of threads in the jacquard. 
 For instance, a 384 machine would give in a set of forty- 
 eight threads per inch a pattern of eight inches, in a set 
 of sixty-four threads per inch a pattern of six inches, in a 
 set of seventy-two threads per inch a pattern of five and a 
 third inches, and in a set of ninety-six threads per inch a 
 pattern of four inches in size. So that although the total 
 number of threads which forms the capacity of the jac- 
 quard may not be a multiple of the number of threads in 
 the weave, yet such a design may be tried, and a perfect 
 sample of cloth produced, without any time or labour 
 being spent in preparing the loom, further than that of 
 cutting a few cards. Supposing, for the purpose of illus- 
 tration, a 9 shaft weave is taken (and 384 is not a multiple 
 of this number), there would be in the woven fabric forty- 
 two repetitions of the weave before any brake would occur 
 in the pattern, which would form, if woven in the finest set 
 named — ninety-six threads per inch — a four inch sample 
 of cloth sufficiently large to show the effect of the design. 
 
196 
 
 WOOL MANUFACTUKE. 
 
 " This peculiar advantage makes the jacquard loom 
 highly suitable for the pattern weaving room, and gives it 
 an extraordinary pre-eminence over the dobbie or witch ; 
 for in the latter machine no weave can be woven to form 
 even the smallest perfect sample of a pattern in the piece, 
 unless the number of threads the weave occupies will 
 divide, without leaving any remainder, into the number of 
 shafts mounted in the loom. Moreover, any design that 
 can possibly be produced by drafting in a sixteen, twenty- 
 four, or a thirty-six shaft witch machine, providing the 
 number of threads it occupies does not exceed the capacity 
 of the jacquard at command, may, without labour being 
 spent in making either draft or pegging plan, be woven in 
 this machine." 
 
CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 POWER LOOMS, 
 
 115. The Power Loom — 116. Development of the Loom — 117. Fast 
 and Slow Eunning Looms — 118. Methods of Driving — 119. Timing of 
 the Motions — 120. Open and Closed Shedding — 121. Various Shedding 
 Arrangements — 122. Principle of the Tappet Motion — 123. Methods of 
 Depressing the Healds in Tappet Looms — 124. Variation of the Speed 
 of the Tappet Shaft — 125. Construction of Tappets — 126. Stroke of 
 the Tappet — 127. Dobbie Shedding in Heavy Power Looms — 128. Prin- 
 ciple of Actuating the Upright Dobbie — 129. Lagging and Picking- 
 back Motion — 130. The American Shedding Motion — 131. Various 
 parts of the American Dobbie — 132. Formation of the Shed in the 
 American Loom — 133. Special Points in the American Shedding Mo- 
 tion — 134. Picking Motions — 135. Cam and Cone Pick — 136. Over-pick 
 Arrangement — 137. Under-pick Motion — 138. Positive Letting-off Mo- 
 tion — 139. Winding of the Cloth on to the Piece Beam — 140. Change 
 Wheel Setting-up — 141. Lever and Catch Motion — 142. Shuttle-box 
 Mechanisms— 143. Link and Chain Box Motion — 144. Effects of the 
 Links of the Box Chain — 145. Lag and Peg Motion — 146. BoavI and 
 Rod System— 147. Circular Box Motion— 148. Weft Forks— 149. 
 Shuttle Box Swell. 
 
 115. The Power Loom, — Weaving, whether considered 
 from an artistic or a mechanical standpoint, is, unques- 
 tionably, one of the most important processes of cloth 
 manufacture. Other operations are only of secondary im- 
 portance, having for their object the preparation of the 
 raw material for the loom, or the improvement of the 
 appearance, handle, and surface of the woven product. 
 On the process of weaving depends, to a very considerable 
 extent, the success of manufacture in general. The em- 
 ployment of good, sound, even yarn cannot possibly 
 result in the production of satisfactory goods providing 
 
198 WOOL MANUFACTURE. 
 
 the motions of the loom are in anywise defective. Un- 
 doubtedly, this matter has weighed with both inventors 
 and loom makers, and induced them to endeavour to pro- 
 duce a perfect loom. Whether they have yet succeeded 
 can only be ascertained by an examination of the weaving 
 machinery in present use, which certainly ranks amongst 
 the finest and most improved of the factory. Even a 
 casual analysis of the mechanism of the power loom is 
 sufficient to evince the completeness, symmetry and uni- 
 formity of its various parts. As a mechanical invention 
 it may justly be classed with the foremost productions of 
 the human mind. 
 
 When considering its mechanism it should be remarked 
 that it is not merely a machine of one simple motion, but 
 of a considerable number, all of which work in conformity 
 with each other to attain one result, that of the weaving 
 of a perfect piece of cloth. The power loom is so con- 
 structed that it forms the shed in the warp according to 
 the required pattern or design, propels the shuttles in 
 consecutive order across the piece, beats the picks of weft 
 into close contact with each other ; in short produces a 
 woven fabric and figures it with design and colour, and 
 finally winds the woven cloth on to the piece beam. All 
 this, and much more, is accomplished by the modern 
 automatic loom ; for it is replete with many other minor 
 motions for facilitating quick weaving, such as, for ex- 
 ample, the arrangement by which the loom is brought to 
 a standstill without interference on the part of the weaver 
 should the weft yarn be broken or run ofi* the bobbin ; 
 and the motion for stopping the loom if the shuttles do 
 not reach their proper destination, 
 
 116. Development of the Loom. — Of course the loom has 
 gradually developed to its present improved construction. 
 When first invented it was simply sought to produce a 
 woven fabric without manual labour. Shuttle-box and 
 other important motions have all been subsequent inven- 
 tions — the natural outgrowth of the practical possibility 
 
POWER LOOMS. 
 
 199 
 
 of cloth weaving by power. Automatic weaving", barely 
 a century ago, was in itself a wonder. The process was 
 slow and imperfect, — the loom, when completed by Dr. 
 Cartwright in 1787, being heavy and ponderous, if not 
 clumsy in construction. Soon, however, the weaving or 
 figuring capacity of the shedding contrivance was en- 
 larged, shuttle-box, positive letting off, positive setting: up, 
 and weft fork motions added ; so that by stages the loom 
 was equipped with its present accessories. Such is the 
 progress that has been made in power loom construction 
 that now the most elaborate ribbons, carpet and damask 
 fabrics, as well as the simplest textiles, are producible 
 with astonishing rapidity and correctness. Pile or plush, 
 and gauze or leno goods are also woven by power, the 
 wires employed in the production of the former class of 
 textures, which in handloom weaving are inserted by a 
 lad engaged for this purpose, are, in power looms, specially 
 constructed for pile weaving, introduced into their proper 
 sheds and afterwards withdrawn automatically. 
 
 The range of textiles which has hitherto only been 
 made on the handloom is becoming, in consequence of 
 the constant development of the power loom, more limited 
 every year. It is only in the production of fabrics in the 
 weaving of which continual and elaborate changes have to 
 be made in the order of the weft colourings, and in which 
 the utmost care and intelligent skill are necessary to 
 produce a perfect texture^ that the former is still em- 
 ployed — excluding, of course, its pre-eminent uses as a 
 pattern loom. 
 
 117. Fast and Sloio Bunning Looms. — When the mechan- 
 ism of the loom had been so far improved as to be right 
 in principle, attempts were made, with, considerable 
 success, to increase the speed of its motive parts, or to 
 produce a fast or quick-running loom. The result is, that 
 now there are looms of every description — quick and slow 
 running, heavy and light in build, varying in speed from 
 54 to 300 picks per minute. The most improved loom for 
 
200 
 
 WOOL MANUFACTURE. 
 
 weaving fancy woollen and worsted cloths of a medium 
 thickness, although the shuttle travels for every pick 
 about 90 inches, runs at the rate, on an average, of 84 to 
 90 shoots per minute. 
 
 That a loom can be made suitable for producing all 
 classes of goods, such as light stuff fabrics and heavy 
 overcoatings, is totally impracticable. Experience has 
 taught both the loom maker and the cloth manufacturer, 
 that the weight and construction of the loom must corre- 
 spond with the strength and thickness of the texture it is 
 required to weave. For fine worsted fabrics or good 
 woollens made of sound, true, elastic yarns a quick run- 
 ning loom is a considerable advantage ; but in cloths re- 
 
 p 
 
 Fig. 91. 
 
 quiring heavy wefting, or in which the warp is tender, a 
 slow speeded loom of a heavier build would be preferable. 
 It does not necessarily follow that the most satisfactory 
 weaving is the quickest. A heavy loom for producing oxford 
 shirtings and light stuff cloths is no more a mistake than 
 running at an excessive speed when the yarns are of an 
 indifferent weaving quality. Cases have been known where 
 a more profitable turn-out has resulted from running at 
 the rate of 60 picks per minute than at from 84 to 90 ; the 
 cause of this anomaly being, the goods from the slow 
 loom were comparatively perfect while those from the 
 quick loom required extra mending and repairing in the 
 ■finishing operations, necessitating considerable expense 
 
POWER LOOMS. 
 
 201 
 
 to make them marketable. Obviously there can be no 
 advantage in using a fast running loom with, perhaps, 
 one-third as much more turn-out as a slow running 
 loom, if the cloths produced are imperfect or damaged. 
 As, however, fast running is frequently desirable, looms 
 should be employed, the speed of which may be varied to 
 meet, with the greatest facility, the requirements of the 
 change in the strength and elasticity of the warp yarns. 
 There is a plan of employing change wheels, varying in 
 size according to the speed required, each cog making a 
 diflPerence of five picks per minute, by which the loom can 
 be varied in sjDced. It is applied to the American or 
 Knowles open shed loom, and aflPords facilities for altering, 
 in a moment's time, the speed of the loom from 70 to 90 
 or 100 picks per minute. 
 
 118. Methods of Driving, — l^ow every class of motion 
 in the power loom is actuated, either directly or indirectly, 
 by the crank or main shaft, which extends from side to side 
 of the loom. In the ordinary top swing loom, such as that 
 shown in fig. 99, on one end of the main shaft the driving 
 pulley, round which the strap passes, is fixed : in low and 
 underpick looms the arrangement is very frequently that 
 represented in sketch 91. The pulley, p, drives the main 
 shaft, c, which by means of wheels, d and e, imparts 
 motion to the low shaft, L. The latter shaft carries the pick- 
 ing cams, and, in tappet looms, the loose tappet wheel, lo. 
 In both these instances, as the crank shaft is mounted 
 with the strap pulley, the loom is driven directly. There 
 is, however, a mode of driving the crank or main shaft ofi* 
 the low shaft known as indirect driving. Motion in such 
 looms is produced by a short, stout shaft placed at right 
 angles to the crank, connection with the latter being ob- 
 tained by a pair of bevel wheels, the smaller one of which 
 is the change wheel. This driving gear is shown in fig. 92. 
 Here a is the driving pulley fixed on the short shaft, 
 which, by means of the change wheel, /^, and the bevel 
 wheel, B, gives motion to the low shaft, r. Wheel C then 
 
202 
 
 WOOL MANUFACTURE. 
 
 imparts movement to D, which drives the main shaft, e. 
 The advantages of this method of driving are twofold : 
 first, steadier and more uniform movement in the various 
 parts of the loom ; and, second, the increased facility with 
 
 Fig. 92. 
 
 which the speed of the loom may be varied by altering the 
 size of the change wheel, h. 
 
 Assuming that the crank shaft has been set in operation, 
 the routine in which it transmits motion to the various 
 
POWER LOOMS. 
 
 203 
 
 parts of the loom, such, for example, as the shedding 
 apparatus, the shuttle-box motion, letting-off, setting-up, 
 and picking gearings, may be traced. These are the 
 principal motions in every variety of loom, and, when 
 understood, furnish a fair idea of the complete mechanism 
 of the machine, whatever the merits of its weaving capa- 
 city, or of its mechanical construction. 
 
 119. Timing of the Motions, — The order in which the 
 various motions of the power loom operate in relation to 
 each other is as follows : — I. the shedding apparatus 
 begins to raise and depress the warp threads when the 
 going part or lay touches the cloth ; II. the picking 
 motion begins to drive the shuttle across the web when 
 the going part is half its complete traverse from the cloth, 
 or when the crank is at the bottom ; III. the weft is driven 
 home by the forward movement of the reed as the shed 
 closes ; lY. the piece is set up and the warp let off simul- 
 taneously with the beating up of the weft ; and, Y. in 
 ^ drop box looms, the shuttle boxes rise and fall with the 
 shed. 
 
 As the timing of the motions is controlled entirely by 
 the movement of the crank shaft, the question may be 
 more clearly explained by referring to fig. 93. On the 
 position of the crank, c, depends the action of the various 
 motions. Thus, as the crank, by arm A, is connected 
 to the race of the going part, E, it moves the latter for- 
 ward and backward alternately as the shaft s revolves. 
 When C is at the top, as shown in the sketch, and travel- 
 ling towards the cloth the shed has just been closed, and 
 continues so until the crank is straight out or parallel 
 with the warp threads, when the lay presses against the 
 fabric : at this juncture the shed begins to open and is not 
 fully formed until c is at the bottom (see A, fig. 91) when 
 the shuttle is propelled across the piece, the shed re- 
 maining open until the crank points from the cloth, it 
 then begins to close, being quite shut on the crank attain- 
 ing the top position shown in the drawing. In the open 
 
204 
 
 WOOL MANUFACTURE. 
 
 shed loom the timing is the same, with this exception, 
 the shed remains open during the traverse of the crank 
 from the bottom to the top positions, the heald shafts 
 changing if necessary as c travels towards the piece. The 
 order of the motions in the hand loom is thus : — the shed 
 formed by the weaver depressing the treadle, the going- 
 part pressed from the cloth, the pick of weft inserted into 
 the warp, and lastly the going-part brought against the 
 cloth and held in contact with it till the treadle has been 
 again depressed. If this routine is observed, and an 
 expert handloom weaver always adheres to it, the timing 
 
 c 
 
 Fig. 93. 
 
 of the motions is synonymous in both hand and power 
 looms. 
 
 120. Open and Closed Shedding, — There are two distinct 
 systems of shedding, open and closed. Generally, fast 
 running looms are constructed on the former, and slow 
 running looms on the latter principle. On the closed 
 shed system the healds are levelled after the intersection 
 of each pick, and the shed is formed from the centre ; that 
 is, if a shaft for the preceding shed had been depressed 
 and afterwards required lifting, it would, in the first place, 
 be brought to the centre, and then lifted, the motion, in 
 reality, being of a twofold character. In other words, in 
 all closed shedding looms the shafts are brought on to 
 
POWER LOOMS. 
 
 205 
 
 one level after the insertion of each pick of weft into the 
 warp. This process is gone through whether the succeed- 
 ing shed is precisely the same in the design or not. In 
 open shedding the operation is very different. Here if a 
 shaft is down it can be elevated, and if up can be depressed 
 at one movement ; so that, in this particular, open shed- 
 ding has an advantage over closed shedding, inasmuch as 
 it saves time in the formation of the sheds. Moreover the 
 shafts in open shedding remain stationary, or elevated or 
 depressed for any number of picks as required. Other 
 advantages resulting from the use of this class of motion 
 are less strain and friction on the warp, thus affording 
 improved facilities for weaving tender or t witty yarns. 
 
 121. Various Shedding Arrangements, — The variety of 
 shedding motions in power looms is very large. Practi- 
 cally, however, there are only three principal systems, 
 namely : — 
 
 I. The tappet arrangement. 
 II. The close shedding mechanism as applied to the 
 heavy woollen loom. 
 
 III. The open shed motion, such as that applied to the 
 Knowles or American loom. 
 
 122. Principle of the Tappet Motion, — The tappet is of 
 all power loom shedding motions the simplest in construc- 
 tion. It consists of treadles, tappets, jack levers, square 
 shafts, and half-moon levers. These parts are all shown 
 in fig. 94. The treadles, l^, perform the same functions 
 as similar levers in the hand treadle loom, while the 
 tappets or wipers, t ^ T ^, correspond to the weaver's feet, 
 depressing the treadles when the loom is in operation. By 
 means of the streamer rods, C", the treadles are con- 
 nected to the jacks, J^, fixed on the ends of the square 
 shafts, A^, which are also mounted with the half-moon 
 levers, M'. The cords and straps, h and a, are attached 
 to the latter by the screw, s, and then to the upper shafts 
 of the healds. In the drawing the tappets are shown fixed 
 on the end of the low shaft and not in the centre as in 
 
Shedding Motion of Tappet 
 Loom. 
 A = Square shafts. 
 M = Half-moon levers. 
 J = Jacks. 
 
 c = Streamer or Connecting 
 
 Eods. 
 T = Tappets. 
 L = Treadles. 
 R = Friction Rollers. 
 H = Heddles. 
 
POWER LOOMS. 
 
 207 
 
 broad looms. Two sets of half-moon levers are necessary 
 for lifting the healds, one for each end of the shafts, but 
 only one set and a portion of the heald shafts are shown 
 in the sketch. It will be noticed that each heddle requires 
 treadle, tappet, jack lever, half moon lever, and square 
 shaft to elevate it, the mechanism for depressing the 
 healds not being represented in this ^figure. The method 
 of driving the tappets is given in fig. 91. The change 
 wheel, e, is fixed on to the crank shaft, and by means of 
 the intermediate, % drives the tappet wheel, w. This 
 wheel is cast with the tappet shaft and revolves loosely on 
 the low shaft, L. 
 
 The result of bringing the tappets into action, as indi- 
 cated in fig. 94, is the depression of the front and elevation 
 of the back heddle. Tappet t ^ is here shown in contact 
 with treadle L 2, while T ^ is completely out of action. The 
 efi'ect of this position of the tappets on the heald shafts 
 will be clearly traced, because it demonstrates the principle 
 of this shedding motion. Thus the parts operate as fol- 
 lows : T depressing l " draws down J ^, and so imparts 
 movement to the square shaft A which raises the half- 
 moon lever m ^, and the shaft to which it is attached. 
 Should the positions of the tappets be reversed, T ^ instead 
 of T " would be brought into action, which would result in 
 elevating h ^ and depressing H ^. Such are the successive 
 changes wrought by this mounting as the tappets revolve 
 on shaft N, producing, in practical work, a plain woven 
 fabric. 
 
 The tappet motion is a system of shedding extremely 
 well adapted to the weaving of simple make fabrics, com- 
 prising doeskins, Venetians, single worsteds, oxford and 
 cotton shirtings, towellings, and plain and twilled dress 
 fabrics. It is constructed on the open shed principle, and 
 it is generally applied to quick-running looms. There are 
 many drawbacks to the employment of tappets in fancy 
 weaving, the principal being the very narrow compass they 
 afford for pattern production of a weave character, ten or 
 
208 
 
 WOOL MANUFACTURE. 
 
 twelve healds forming a considerable number to be work- 
 able by this motion, 
 
 123. Methods of Depressing the Healds in Twppet Looms, — 
 The parts of the tappet motion considered only lift the 
 healds ; it now remains to explain the mechanism for de- 
 pressing them. Strong, stout springs, or weights, are 
 sometimes employed for this purpose, but the most general 
 and effective method consists of an arrangement of stocks 
 and bowls. This system of drawing down the shafts is 
 based on a simple lever, which is multiplied in power by 
 adding bowls or pulleys, round which straps are passed 
 and attached to the bottoms of the healds. In fig. 95 the 
 " draw " for working four heddles is shown. It consists of 
 
 o o 
 
 Fig. 95. 
 
 the lever, l, of the pulleys, a and &, and of the straps, s and 
 s \ The ends of the strap s, after having been passed 
 round the pulley 6, are attached to the 1st and 4th 
 shafts respectively ; while the ends of strap s \ which passes 
 round pulley a, are fastened to shafts 2 and 3. There 
 are two levers (similar to l) employed, one for each end of 
 the shafts. They are fastened to the framework of the 
 loom, and, of course, are fixed underneath the heddles. 
 
 To show that this " draw " would admit of any three of 
 the four shafts being up at one time, its effect will be care- 
 fully analyzed. Suppose, firstly, that shafts 1, 2, and 3, 
 are required up, and 4 down, then the lever would rise at 
 c, and fall at the strap s lowering at 4 and rising at 1. 
 
POWER LOOMS. 
 
 209 
 
 Secondly, suppose shafts 2, 3, and 4, are up, and 1 down, 
 then the lever would again rise at c, and fall at allowing 
 shafts 2 and 3 to be lifted together, while strap s would 
 be up at 4 and down at 1 : suppose, thirdly, shafts 1, 3, 
 and 4, are up, and 2 down, then the lever would rise 
 at d and fall at c, the strap s ^ being drawn up at 3 and 
 down at 2 : lastly, suppose 1, 2, and 4 are up, and 3 down, 
 then the lever would be lifted at d^ but depressed at c, 
 strap s ^ rising at 2 and falling at 3. 
 
 This analysis plainly proves that any arrangement of 
 heddles could be obtained, providing one shaft were de- 
 pressed in the series. If two additional pulleys were 
 worked by one end of each of the straps, and then two 
 other straps passed round the pulleys added, the lever 
 could be made to work six instead of four shafts. Where 
 there are more shafts depressed by one end of the lever 
 than the other, it is necessary to change the position of 
 the fulcrum, d. For this purpose the lever is divided into 
 equal parts, and the fulcrum pin altered to balance the 
 lighter against the heavier draw in irregular mountings. 
 In a seven-shaffc weave, for example, where four shafts are 
 depressed by one end of the lever, and three by the other, 
 the fulcrum pin would be moved to hole e, thus propor- 
 tionating the lever according to the draw, or as 3 is to 4. 
 The end of the lever lettered d would, if the fulcrum were 
 moved to e, for a seven-shaft draw, actuate four of the 
 heddles, and c end three of them. 
 
 124. Variation of the Speed of the Tappet Shaft, — The 
 tappets are keyed on to the tappet shaft, t, fig. 91, which, 
 as already stated, runs loose on the low shaft of the loom. 
 One revolution of this shaft represents one repeat of the 
 weave or design, that is to say, if there are six picks in 
 the plan it would revolve once to the loom picking six 
 times. 
 
 To each pick of weft inserted into the warp the crank 
 shaft in all classes of power looms revolves once. In the 
 tappet loom, therefore, as the tappet wheel is driven off the 
 
 p 
 
210 
 
 WOOL MANUFACTUEE. 
 
 main shaft, it follows that the latter will require to make 
 as many turns to oue revolution of the former as there are 
 picks or sheds in the weave. By referring to fig. 91 this 
 can be clearly explained. Wheel / here drives the tappet 
 wheel turning the tappet shaft, t. As every revolution 
 of T implies one repeat of the weave (in other words, if 
 mounted with nine distinct tappets, the insertion of nine 
 separate picks into the warp), its speed has to be varied 
 according to the plan of weave being produced. To ac- 
 
 Fig. 96. 
 
 complish this the size of the driver, e, is changed : this 
 wheel is frequently called the change wheel. The method 
 of ascertaining how many cogs it must contain for any 
 given weave up to six shafts, is extremely simple — thus the 
 tappet wheel, always contains 120 teeth, which number, 
 if divided by the number of threads the weave occupies, 
 will give the number of teeth in the change wheel, namely, 
 40 cogs for 3 shafts, 30 cogs for 4 shafts, 25 cogs for 5 
 shafts, and 20 cogs for 6 shafts. Beyond this it is not 
 possible to go, as there is not sufficient metal, after boring, 
 
POWER LOOMS. 
 
 211 
 
 for the formation of the teeth for a wheel smaller than 
 20 cogs. In weaves occupying more than six threads, and 
 also in weaves which do not occupy a number of threads 
 that is a multiple of 120, another train of wheels is em- 
 ployed, such as that outlined in fig. 96. Here a is the 
 change wheel, keyed on to the crank shaft, b the inter- 
 mediate, c the driver, and D the tappet wheel. Now, as 
 the objecfc is to run wheel a several times quicker than D, 
 according to the number of shafts occupied by the weave, 
 the formula for ascertaining the number of teeth in the 
 change wheel is as follows : 
 
 ^ ^ = difference between the speeds of A and d. 
 A X c 
 
 Thus, supposing it is required to weave a nine shaft make, 
 then A would have to revolve nine times to d once, there- 
 
 B X D 1 
 
 fore, = Now, assuming, for illustration simply, 
 
 A X c y 
 
 that B contains 45 cogs, c 15, and d 120, then ^ = 40, 
 
 9 X 15 
 
 number of teeth in the change wheel required. This 
 
 result can readily be proved by multiplying the two driven 
 
 wheels, b and d, into each other, and dividing by the 
 
 drivers, A and c, which should give the number of picks in 
 
 .1. .1. 120 X 45 ^ 
 
 the weave, thus : — = 9. 
 
 40 X 15 
 
 125. Construction of Tappets, — Each revolution made by 
 any particular tappet, as it turns on the tappet shaft, repre- 
 sents one complete series of the changes of the heddle it 
 actuates. Consequently, if a heald shaft is actuated six 
 separate times in the production of one round or repeat of 
 the weave, the circumference in which the tappet travels 
 is divisible into this number of parts, each section thus 
 obtained representing one pick, or one movement of the 
 particular shaft the tappet is mounted to work. Supposing, 
 for example, it were required to construct the tappet for 
 weave 97, then, as this make occupies eight shafts and 
 
212 
 
 WOOL MANUFACTURE, 
 
 eight picks, a circle would be divided into this number of 
 sections, as indicated in fig. 97a, which is a sketch of the 
 tappet required. The projections represent shafts elevated. 
 If the changes of the first thread in the weave are 
 analyzed, and compared with this tappet, it will be found 
 that the lifts of the former correspond exactly with the 
 projections on the latter. Thus, it is up on the first pick, 
 hence there is a projection on section 1 ; down on the 
 second pick, equalling no projection on section 2 ; up on 
 the third, fourth, and fifth picks, corresponding to the pro- 
 jections on these parts of the tappet ; and lastly down for 
 three picks, represented by sections 6, 7, and 8. Of 
 course, as every thread in this weave is like the first, 
 only commencing on diff"erent picks, the same tappet 
 
 Fig. 97. Fig. 97a. 
 
 would be used for all of them, the twilled efiect being 
 obtained, when keying the tappets on to the tappet shaft, 
 by placing each tappet one tread or section in advance of 
 the other, or in the same order as the threads in the 
 weave. 
 
 126. Stroke of the Tappet. — On the stroke of the tappet 
 depends very largely the depth of the shed formed. It does 
 not follow, however, that if the shed is 4 inches deep in 
 the healds the tappet has a 4-inch stroke. There are other 
 parts of the loom that also afiect the size of the shed 
 obtained, such as the length of the jacks, of the half-moon 
 levers, and of the treadles. An example will serve to 
 show how the size of the tappet required for producing a 
 given shed may be readily ascertained. Suppose, there- 
 
POWER LOOMS. 
 
 213 
 
 fore, a tappet loom is mounted with 9-inch jacks, 6-inch 
 half-moon levers, and 30-inch treadle, the friction roller of 
 which is 20 inches from the treadle pin, and that it is 
 required to ascertain the stroke or size of the tappet to 
 produce a shed 4 inches deep in the healds. l^ow, if the 
 jacks were the same length as the half-moon levers, it 
 would only be necessary to obtain a displacement of the 
 treadles equal to the size of the shed required, which 
 could be done by stating as the length of the treadle — 30 
 inches — is to the distance of the friction pulley from the 
 treadle-pin — 20 inches, — so is the latter to the size of the 
 shed given — 4 inches. Thus, 30 I 20 1 1 4 = 2|- inches 
 stroke of tappet. The length of the jacks and half-moon 
 levers has, however, to be taken into consideration, for if the 
 stroke of the tappet is 2|- inches when these levers are 
 equal in length, it will be larger to produce the same size 
 of shed when the jacks are 9 and the half-moons 6 inches 
 long, the result being obtained as follows : — 
 
 Multiply the length of the jacks, 9 inches, by the stroke 
 of the tappet (2|- inches) to give the required shed when 
 the jacks and half-moon levers are equal in length, and 
 divide by the length of the half-moon levers, 6 inches, thus : 
 9 X 24 
 
 — ^— = 4-inch tappet. 
 
 The method of finding the size of the tappet to produce 
 the requisite shed for a shuttle of given dimensions to 
 pass through, when the distance of the healds from the 
 cloth is known, is similar, after the size of the shed in the 
 healds has been ascertained, to that of working the problem 
 just considered. The latter particular can readily be 
 arrived at. Assuming, for example, a going-part makes a 
 stroke of 6 inches, that the healds are 12 inches from the 
 piece, and that the shuttle is 1^ inches deep, what will be 
 the size of the shed in the shafts ? All power looms com- 
 mence to pick when the crank is in the bottom position, 
 or half its traverse from the cloth, or, in this case, when 
 the going-part is 3 inches from the fabric, so that the shed 
 
214 
 
 WOOL MAmJFACTURE. 
 
 at tliis juncture must be equal to the size of the shuttle, 
 or l-i- inches deep. 'Now, it follows that if the shed at 
 3 inches from the piece is li- inches wide, it will be larger 
 at 12 inches, the exact size in the healds being obtained by 
 stating as the distance of the going-part from the cloth 
 when the loom picks, is to the distance of the healds from 
 the cloth, so is the latter to the size of the shed when the 
 shuttle enters the warp, equalling a 6-inch shed in the 
 shafts. The stroke of the tappet for giving this result 
 would then be calculated in the same manner as the pre- 
 ceding example. 
 
 127. Dohhie Shedding in Heavy Power Looms, — In this 
 system of shedding, which is extensively used in weaving 
 heavy woollens and backed worsteds, the shafts are elevated 
 by a series of jack levers fixed on the top of the loom. 
 Each lever of this kind is supplied with jack blade, needle, 
 and spring. Further, there are in machines of this cha- 
 racter two knives or rocking bars, one for elevating, and 
 the other for depressing the healds. All the jack blades 
 are on the lifting-bar before any lags are placed on the 
 cylinder, hence a peg is employed in this machine to press 
 the blades off the upper knife, and thus cause them to be 
 depressed by the falling-bar, k, fig. 98. The actuation of 
 the healds is entirely controlled by the jack blades ; if 
 these are elevated by the dobbie, the shafts are lifted, but, 
 if depressed, the shafts are sunken. This arises, in the 
 first place, from the levers having their fulcrum s in the 
 centre ; and, in the second place, from the upper heald 
 shafts being attached to the blade ends of the jacks, while 
 the lower heald shafts, by means of streamer wires, are in 
 connection with the opposite ends. The effect of these 
 levers on the movements of the heddles may be more 
 clearly pointed out by a reference to fig. 98, which is a 
 sketch of the position of the levers and jacks in the forma- 
 tion of a plain shed. In this drawing, B ^ and B ^ are the 
 jack blades; and l^, the top levers for lifting the 
 heddles ; J ^ and j ^, the bottom levers for depressing them ; 
 
POWER LOOMS. 
 
 215 
 
 w, the streamer wires ; c, the connectors ; and s ^ and s '\ 
 the shafts or heddles. The principle of the motion is as 
 follows : the blade, b \ of the top lever, l \ having been 
 depressed, in consequence of a peg forcing it off the lifting- 
 knife, it sinks at a, and rises at h. Now, as the long 
 
 Fig. 98. 
 
 streamer wires, w, are connected both to the top levers 
 and the jacks underneath the shafts, and as the latter are 
 also attached to the bottom of the heddles, if lever, L \ is 
 elevated at a, it will depress shaft s \ This is clearly 
 indicated in the drawing — J ^ having been lifted at c, and 
 sunken at d, depressing the heald shaft to which it is con- 
 
216 
 
 WOOL MANUFACTUEE. 
 
 nected. As to heddle s ^, it is elevated by l ^, the blade of 
 which has been raised by the upper lifting-bar of the 
 dobbie. It will be seen from this illustration that when a 
 shaft is raised, the jacks to which it is attached rise at the 
 opposite ends to what they do when the same shaft is 
 depressed. 
 
 128. Princijple of Actuating the Upright Bobbie, — On one 
 end of the crank shaft is fixed the balance wheel, b, fig. 99, 
 the inside of which contains the shell, fig. 99a. Within 
 the eccentric part of the latter works the stud of the up- 
 right connecting rod for giving motion to the lever, l, fig. 
 
 Fig. 99a. 
 
 99, which actuates the racks for elevating and depressing 
 the knives or lifting bars. The stud, s, fig. 99a, which is 
 fixed on to the upright connecting rod, c, fig. 99, runs in 
 the groove, AA^. When in the position shewn in the 
 sketch the heddles are all on the same level, but, as the 
 main shaft, c, revolves, s is made to travel a distance from 
 the centre from which it started equal to the space betwen 
 A and c. It must be understood that s does not revolve in 
 the groove aa\ but that it is quite stationary, the shell 
 turning on the shaft c. The upright connector is lifted, 
 therefore, by stud s, and maintained, by the eccentric for- 
 mation of the shell, elevated until the point A^ is passed, 
 when it suddenly but steadily falls. 
 
POWER LOOMS. 
 
 217 
 
 The manner in which the upright in turn gives motion 
 to the lever l, will be evident from consulting fig. 99, 
 which is a drawing of the loom in which this motion is 
 employed. There is just one more point about the shell 
 that should be noted, it is in reference to the " dwell," or 
 
 Fig. 99. 
 
 the time the shed remains open for the shuttle to pass 
 across the warp. This is determined by the groove A a\ 
 which is of such a character that when the shell is bolted 
 on to the balance wheel, the shed is closed when the crank 
 has just passed the top position, opening as soon as point 
 
218 
 
 WOOL MANUFACTURE. 
 
 A readies the stud, and continuing fully open till A^ passes 
 s, or the crank has made one complete revolution ; hence 
 the " dwell ^' determines the time the shed is retained open 
 for the shuttle to pass through. 
 
 The lifting bars or knives are worked on the cog wheel 
 and rack principle, that is to say they are fixed in a pair 
 of racks, so that when one rises the other falls. The jack 
 blades are primarily actuated by the pegs in the lags, A, 
 fig. 99. Bach peg works against a separate needle and 
 spring, and presses the blade, to which it imparts motion, 
 ofi* the lifting on to the falling bar. Pegs generally de- 
 press the healds. The lags revolve over the cylinder, 
 which makes one fourth of a revolution to each turn of the 
 crank shaft. The cylinder is brought into action by 
 the rods s and N, and bevel wheel gearing. As in the 
 hand-loom dobbie, the number of holes in the lag corre- 
 sponds to the number of shafts the machine is capable of 
 working. 
 
 This class of shedding motion is as positive in action as 
 the tappet loom, for those shafts which are not lifted are 
 in this dobbie depressed, the shed being formed from the 
 centre. For some classes of woollen fabrics it is question- 
 able whether a more suitable motion can be obtained, as 
 all classes of fancy woollen and worsted goods for coatings, 
 suitings and trouserings may be woven by it. 
 
 129. Lagging and Picking-hack Motions, — In power looms 
 mounted with dobbies or engines a simple and effective 
 reversing motion is very important and advantageous to 
 the weaver. It frequently happens that a broken pick has 
 to be turned back to, or the cloth unravelled for one or two 
 inches to undo some imperfection, and without the loom 
 were equipped with mechanism for turning back the 
 sheds, &c., this work would incur considerable loss of time. 
 The reversing motion for the heavy woollen shedding con- 
 trivance just considered is of a twofold character. It is 
 controlled by the handle H, and the wheel w, fig. 99. As 
 long as the handle remains in the position shewn in the 
 
POWER LOOMS. 
 
 219 
 
 engraving the loom weaves straight forward, but should it 
 be necessary to find a broken pick the weaver by removing 
 it to the centre of the frame, E, throws the picking gear out 
 of action. By wheel w he then turns the lags back as far 
 as he considers requisite to enable him to find the wrong 
 or broken shoot of weft. If several picks have to be un- 
 woven the handle H is removed to the point when, in 
 addition to the picking gear being put out of action, the 
 lag and box cylinders are reversed in motion causing the 
 loom to form shed for shed in the opposite order to that in 
 which they succeeded each other in weaving. The motion, 
 on the whole, is simple, eflPective and reliable, and is well 
 adapted to the upright dobbie machine to which it is 
 applied. 
 
 130. The American Shedding Motion. — The object in the 
 ordinary dobbie and tappet shedding motions is to lift and 
 depress the heald shafts by a series of levers, but in the 
 American invention the object is to attain the same result 
 by a system of pulleys. Instead of lifting and sinking the 
 heddles by jack levers they are, in this motion, dravm up 
 or down by a number of pulleys. To each heald there are 
 no fewer than three pulleys, two for elevating and one for 
 depressing purposes. The principle of this shedding me- 
 chanism and the manner in which it lifts the leaves or 
 shafts may be forcibly illustrated by passing a cord over 
 a pulley rigidly fixed at any convenient height. Let one 
 end of this cord be held in the hand some distance from 
 and slightly above the pulley and a weight attached to the 
 opposite end. The hand may now be supposed to repre- 
 sent the jack lever, and the weight the shaft. Wow, if the 
 former were drawn backward or away from the pulley, it 
 would necessarily lift or rather draw up the weight, and 
 this is exactly the kind of mechanical arrangement adopted 
 in this machine in raising the healds. For example, a 
 strap, in mounting the loom, having been attached to the 
 upper portion of the jack lever, h, fig. 102, it is then passed 
 over the pulleys or p"^, and fastened to the top of its 
 
220 
 
 WOOL MANUFACTURE. 
 
 proper heald shaft ; so that if the jack is pulled backward 
 it will elevate the heddle to which it is attached. 
 
 131. Various parts of the American Dohhie, — Before pro- 
 ceeding to give a detailed description of the manner in 
 which the various parts of this motion are brought into 
 communication with the shaft mounting, it will be neces- 
 sary to describe each piece separately. The advantage of 
 adopting this course will be obvious to the reader when it is 
 stated that all the parts are dissimilar from those employed 
 in the tappet and dobbie motions previously alluded to. 
 For instance, there is neither spring, needle, lifting bar or 
 knife, top lever, or jack blade in this loom, the following 
 
 Fig. 100. 
 
 parts performing their functions : cylinder gears, vibrator 
 levers, vibrator gears, connectors, and harness jacks. 
 Steel rods take the place of the lags, while bowls, small 
 pullies, or rolls, act as substitutes for pegs. 
 
 The Otlindee Gears. — (See a and b, fig. 100.) These 
 correspond, in their relation to the other parts of the machine, 
 with the knives in the ordinary dobbie ; the upper cylinder 
 elevating, and the lower cylinder depressing the healds. 
 One-half of the circumference of these gears, as will be 
 evident from referring to the sectional drawing furnished 
 in fig. 100, is in the form of a cog wheel, and hence they have 
 been called toothed cylinders. They are arranged so as to 
 regulate the heald, shuttle-box, and picking motions, and 
 
POWER LOOMS. 
 
 221 
 
 are made in such, a manner that the section which, works the 
 shafts is adjustable, admitting of the healds and boxes start- 
 ing at diflPerent times ; or the former a little in advance of 
 the latter, in order that the shed may be changed previous 
 to the picks or shoots of weft being driven home. This is 
 a considerable improvement to a loom constructed on the 
 open shed principle; because, in such a machine, the lay or 
 batten leaving the piece before the shed has been altered 
 by the engine, the pick or thread of weft last inserted is 
 very liable to spring or fall back ; this constituting one of 
 the main causes why looms shedding on this principle do 
 not generally admit of such heavy wefting as the closed 
 shedding motion. The difficulty, however, is satisfactorily 
 overcome in this loom by simply adjusting the heddle and 
 
 c 
 
 Fig. 101. 
 
 box gearings on the cylinder to start operating on the 
 vibrators at different times. Of course, it will be under- 
 stood that, whenever the toothed section of one cylinder is 
 changed, it is necessary to make a similar alteration in the 
 other. 
 
 Either the upper cylinder. A, fig. 100, or the lower 
 cylinder, B, must engage the vibrator gears, c ; if the 
 former, the shafts are elevated, if the latter, they are 
 lowered. 
 
 The Vibrator Levers, Vibrator Gears, and Connec- 
 tors. — These, in reality, being connected together, form 
 one piece, b, e, fig. 101. The vibrator lever performs 
 the same functions as the needle in the dobbie, receiving 
 the bowl (which is equivalent to the peg in the lag system), 
 of the pattern chain, and the vibrator gears to the jack 
 
222 
 
 WOOL MANUFACTURE. 
 
 blade, while the connectors communicate motion to the 
 harness jacks. One very important and notable feature 
 about the vibrator gears is the mode in which they, in 
 combination with the cylinders, operate upon the shafts. 
 'No doubt it would be observed, when transmitting motion 
 to the healds by a series of levers on the upright dobbie 
 principle, that strain and tension were applied very sud- 
 denly to the warp, and also as suddenly withdrawn ; but 
 the special characteristic of this motion is, that the strain 
 on the warp is slight and easy when the shafts commence 
 to move, augmenting until the shed is fully formed, or 
 until the vibrator gears have reached the centre, when the 
 strain gradually decreases to the other extreme of the 
 motion. As these gears are constructed on the crank 
 principle, the greatest speed is in the middle of the throw, 
 the commencement and terminus of the motion being 
 gradual. Thus, supposing the lower cylinder engages the 
 vibrator gear, it carries it forward, tooth by tooth, until it 
 has made one-half of a complete revolution, and lowered, 
 by so doing, its heald jack and shaft. The vibrator gear, 
 c, fig. 101, is rivetted on to the connector, e, at the 
 point lettered and revolves on a small pivot, or pin, 
 fixed in the lever b at (i ; the slot, /, and projection, a, de- 
 termining the extent of its movements. If the lower 
 cylinder engages the vibrator, c, it carries it round to the 
 other extremity of its slot, or until point i comes in con- 
 tact with the iron pivot, a, of the lever. This results in 
 E being propelled forward, and in lowering the heald of 
 the jack lever, to which it is secured. Providing the 
 upper toothed cylinder next engaged, c, it would reverse 
 the motion, causing the vibrator to assume its former 
 position, or that represented in the sketch, drawing back, 
 at the same time, the connector and jack, and thus raising 
 the shaft, to which the latter is attached. 
 
 The Haeness Jacks. — These are somewhat similar in 
 shape to those used in the ordinary loom, but are made all 
 in one piece with their fulcrum at the elbow. (See d ^ and 
 
POWER LOOMS. 
 
 223 
 
 D ^, fig. 102.) They transmit the motion of the vibrators 
 to the harness. When drawn backward, they elevate the 
 healds, bnt when propelled forward, they depress them. 
 
 The Pattern Chain. — This chain, as in other looms, 
 regulates and controls the movements of the heald shafts. 
 
 Fig. 102. 
 
 It has already been intimated that it is very differently 
 constructed from that employed in other descriptions of 
 dobbies or engines, for it does not consist of a succession 
 of lags, in which pegs are inserted, but of steel rods on 
 which bowls, or small pulleys and bushes are arranged ac- 
 cording to the plan or design intended to be produced. 
 Perhaps this method of imparting the pattern to the 
 mechanism of the engine is simpler and steadier than that 
 of the older plan of using lags. At any rate, it possesses 
 this considerable advantage over the latter, the bowls are 
 not liable to accidents by breakages as pegs are, while 
 
224 
 
 WOOL MANUFACTURE. 
 
 thej possess a smoother action, lifting the vibrator gears 
 gradually ; whereas the pegs are no sooner brought into 
 contact with the needles of the jack blades than they force 
 the latter off the lifting bar. Again, a competent work- 
 man would, perhaps, prepare a design for the loom as ex- 
 peditiously on this as on the former principle. He has 
 only to slip the bowls on to the ends of the rods, the dis- 
 tance between each being fixed by the insertion of thin 
 bushes or tubes, varying in size according to the flushes in 
 the pattern. The bushes serve two important and practical 
 purposes : — they keep the bowls in position, and they 
 define the floats of warp and weft in the cloth, or control 
 the skipping of the shafts like the empty holes in the lags. 
 
 132. Formation of the Shed in the American Loom, — The 
 method of actuating the healds by this shedding motion 
 will be described by referring to figs. 102 and 103. In 
 the latter diagram the mechanism for imparting movement 
 to the jack levers is given, while in the former sketch the 
 positions of the jacks, when the heddles are lifted and de- 
 pressed respectively, is clearly represented. 
 
 The machine is driven by the upright connecting shaft, 
 s, fig. 103, which receives motion through a pair of bevel 
 wheels, from the main or crank shaft of the loom. Up- 
 right s carries two cog-wheels for driving the toothed 
 cylinders A and B. The pattern chain shaft, that is, the 
 piece round which chains a and h travel^ is driven ofi* the 
 lower cylinder gear, B. Thus the shaft of this cylinder is 
 mounted with pinion L, working within the teeth of wheel 
 H, fixed on the pattern and box chain shaft i. It will be 
 evident that the connections with upright s are such that, 
 if it is set in motion by the crank shaft, it not only turns 
 the cylinders a and b, but also the pattern chain shaft i. 
 Once in motion the cylinder gears come in contact with 
 the vibrator plates, c, imparting either a forward or a back- 
 ward movement to the connectors, and the latter actuating 
 the jacks which they individually operate. Should the 
 lever of c be lifted by a bowl on the pattern chain, the 
 
226 
 
 WOOL MAJfUFACTURE. 
 
 vibrator is engaged bj gear A, and the connector drawn 
 back ; but if it is engaged by b, in copsequence of a bush 
 or tube having been placed underneath it on the rod of 
 chain a, it is carried forward, propelling the jack lever, to 
 which it gives motion, towards the heald shafts. Cylinder 
 A revolves from right to left, and cylinder b from left to 
 right. 
 
 Now turn to fig. 102. The vibrator gear of e ^ has been 
 lifted by a bowl, and hence engaged by the top gear a : 
 the lever of e ^, however, has rested on a bush of the 
 pattern chain, causing the vibrator to be carried round by 
 the lower cylinder, b. The eflPect of bowls and bushes, and 
 also of the respective cylinder gears, will now be apparent. 
 First consider the result of lifting e \ This connector, 
 having been drawn backward by the cylinder A coming in 
 contact with its vibrator plate, has given a corresponding 
 motion to D \ lifting, as a necessary sequence, by means of 
 the harness cord c, the front shaft h \ As the jacks have 
 their fulcrums at the elbow, when drawn backward at h 
 they sink at a ; but, when propelled forward at as in 
 the case of d ^, they rise at a. Unless the jacks thus 
 operated, the cords for drawing down the heddles, c ~, 
 would draw against those for lifting them. According to 
 the arrangement shown, jack d ^ having been pulled away 
 from the healds by connector e ^, has lifted h ^ ; the lower 
 shaft of this heddle has elevated levers J ^ at c?, thus main- 
 taining the connecting wires, M, and streamers, w, when 
 the jacks are lowered at a., at one tension. Next refer to 
 connector e ^, which has been engaged by the bottom 
 cylinder gear, hence it has imparted a forward movement 
 to D ^ and lowered heald shaft h ^. It will be noticed that 
 the jacks at point a are connected by streamer gearing to 
 the levers underneath the healds, which are employed 
 mainly for depressing the shafts. Thus the streamer wire 
 of D ^, having been passed under the heald pulleys, p ^, is 
 attached to J ^ at e, while the same jack is in communica- 
 tion with the bottom of the heddles. So that the final 
 
POWER LOOMS. 
 
 227 
 
 issue of D ^, being raised at a, is, that it draws J towards 
 the pulleys p ^ at which depresses it at /, and so sinks 
 the heald shaft to which it is attached, namely, H \ 
 
 133. Special Points in the American Shedding Motion, — 
 There are other specialities about this loom to those already 
 enumerated, such as the open shed arrangement, and the 
 contrivances for reversing the head gearing, and for level- 
 ling the healds, which merit a passing word. 
 
 The Open Shed Arrangement. — The principal appliance 
 to be considered in connection with the " open shed " is the 
 holding-up bar or lock knife shown at R, fig. 103. This part, 
 by means of an eccentric fixed on the shaft of the bottom 
 cylinder, b, presses the lever n backward, which imparts 
 a corresponding movement to R removing it from the 
 grate. The lock knife is only operated upon by the 
 eccentric when the shed is being formed ; this done it is 
 brought against the grate, and kept in position, to retain 
 the exact arrangement of the shafts of the shed produced 
 until the bowls and tubes of the succeeding rod of the 
 pattern chain occupy the places of their predecessors on the 
 chain shaft. In the diagram, R is shown when in contact 
 with the grate, or, in position when maintaining the order 
 of the heddles in the shed last formed. 
 
 Contrivance for Eeversino the Shedding Apparatus or 
 Head Gearing of the Loom. — Some reference has already 
 been made to the importance of a motion of this character. 
 Without an arrangement for reversing the movements of 
 the machine if a broken pick had to be removed from the 
 fabric woven, the weaver would be under the necessity..of 
 turning the pattern chain round and round until he found 
 the shed required, whereas in looms supplied with this 
 mechanism he has simply to reverse the shedding and 
 other motions and lag back to where the damaged or 
 broken pick was inserted. The facility with which this 
 work can be efiected in this loom ought not to be over- 
 looked. As the shed, pick, and shuttle-box movements 
 are all controlled by one shaft, it is accomplished by re- 
 
228 
 
 WOOL MANUFACTUEE. 
 
 versing its motions. Thus, the mechanical contrivances 
 are such that when the coupling, G, of the upright shaft, s, 
 has been disconnected by drawing the lever m towards 
 the front of the loom the knob i of cylinder b can be 
 drawn out. The disconnection of coupling g makes it 
 possible by handle p to turn the box and pattern chains, 
 and elevate and depress the shuttle boxes without actuafc- 
 ting any other parts of the loom. When the knob i is 
 pressed into the cylinder b, it causes a small pinion fixed 
 behind l to work wheel h, and turn the pattern shaft 
 from right to left. On the other hand should the knob be 
 drawn out, l turns pinion K, and the latter turns wheel h 
 from left to right ; so that by drawing out this knob, after 
 disconnecting shaft s, the pattern chain can be made to 
 travel backwards by turning the handle p forwards. 
 
 Aerangement for Levelling the Shed. — A very con- 
 siderable drawback to open-shed looms has been the diffi- 
 culty attending the piecing of broken ends in the warp, 
 with a formed or ojpen shed. Some loom makers saw this 
 difficulty several years ago, and supplied motions to their 
 looms for bringing all the healds on one common level, 
 when required. The apparatus for accomplishing this in 
 the American shedding motion consists of the flat piece, T, 
 fig. 103, which is fixed under the front end of the vibrator 
 levers, on to the grate, and is termed the " evener " slide. 
 When this slide is drawn out it raises the gears, c, above 
 the teeth of the bottom cylinder, so that by turning over the 
 upper cylinder gear, a, all the shafts are elevated or brought 
 on to one level, admitting of broken warp threads being 
 repaired with as much facility as in a closed shedding 
 loom. Another very valuable feature about this invention 
 is the system on which all the parts are positively con- 
 nected together, so that when turning back for a broken 
 pick the shuttle boxes, the shed, and the picking motions 
 always exactly correspond with each other at every point, 
 allowing the loom to be started right off on the fault being 
 repaired. This is not the case with the ordinary dobbie, 
 
POWER LOOMS. 
 
 229 
 
 for after the pick has been found in this machine the 
 shuttle boxes are still out of accord with the run of the 
 pattern, necessitating the shuttles being changed into 
 different positions before the loom can be started. There 
 can be no doubt but that this shedding motion is one of 
 the best extant. In point of weaving capacity, running 
 speed and facility with which its various motions may be 
 adjusted, it is, for the production of fancy tweeds, worsted 
 coatings, &c., superior to any other description of mecha- 
 nism for actuating the healds, whether applied to slow or 
 quick running looms. 
 
 134. Picking Motions. — There are three distinct kinds 
 of picking mechanisms : first, the cam and cone motion : 
 second, the over-pick motion; and third, the under-pick 
 motion. 
 
 The first class of " pick is applied to the tappet and 
 to other fast running looms of a light build. It is a simple, 
 steady and sure motion. The over-pick " arrangement 
 is mainly employed in heavy looms where the shuttle is 
 large and requires considerable power to drive it. The 
 woollen loom mounted with the upright or Dobcross dobbie 
 picks on this principle. An " under-pick " motion is one 
 in which the picking arms operate underneath the shuttle 
 boxes, and not over them as in the two preceding contriv- 
 ances. Fast running looms, mounted with the open shed- 
 ding motion, and in which the swords of the going part 
 swing from the bottom of the framework, are usually 
 supplied with the under-pick arrangement. 
 
 135. Cam and Gone Motion, — Diagrams of this motion 
 are given in figs. 104 and 105. The letters in both draw- 
 ings refer to the same parts. Thus, A is the picking arm 
 and carries the strap b, which is mounted with the picker 
 for driving the shuttle ; P is the upright shaft on which 
 the picking arm is fixed ; c is the cone, and is bolted on to 
 shaft p ; E is the cam ; and M is the low shaft of the loom. 
 It should be noted that only those parts are given in the 
 sketches which actuate the picking arm on one end of the 
 
230 
 
 WOOL MANUFACTURE. 
 
 loorQ ; those on tlie other side are, however, precisely the 
 same, only the cams of the respective ends are so arranged 
 as to engage the cones at different times. 
 
 In fig. 104, the picking arm, a\ is shown out of action, 
 or before striking. To impart a forward movement to it 
 the upright shaft, p^, is made to oscillate. This is done by 
 
 Fig. 104. 
 
 the cam and and cone arrangement. As the low shaft, m^, 
 revolves it carries ronnd with it cam e\ the point, &, of 
 which, coming in contact with the cone (see fig. 105) 
 presses it backward and so propels the picking arm towards 
 the centre of the loom. In order to secure a rapid and 
 definite movement of a the cam is curved inward jnst 
 
POWER LOOMS. 
 
 231 
 
 before tlie point After striking, the circular part of the 
 cam allows the picking arm to be gradually brought back 
 to its normal position by the spring, s, 
 
 136. Over-picJc Arrangement, — A much stronger " pick 
 is required in heavy looms than that of the cam motion. 
 When a shuttle, weighing from 3 to 4 lbs., has to be driven 
 
 Fig. 105. 
 
 across a loom 100 inches wide, and make from 64 to 72 
 traverses per minute, it is necessary to have a very effec- 
 tive driving or propelling arrangement. 
 
 A sketch of the general type of " over- pick " is given in 
 fig. 106, where C is the crank shaft ; the picking neb or 
 eccentric ; T, the picking lever or treadle ; R, the connect- 
 ing rod ; L, the lever for actuating shaft e ; A, the picking 
 
232 
 
 WOOL MANUFACTURE. 
 
 stick ; B, the picking arm for carrying the picker ; e, the 
 oscillating shaft for giving motion to the picking arm ; 
 and S, the spring for bringing A into position after striking. 
 The principle of the motion is this : as the crank shaft re- 
 volves it brings the eccentric, N, in contact with the pulley, w, 
 of the lever, t, which depressing l at causes e to oscillate, 
 and impart motion to A, which brings the picker carried by 
 B against the shuttle and so propels it across the piece. 
 The rapidity of the motion depends on the form of the 
 picking neb, which it will be noticed is almost tapered to 
 a point so that it depresses the lever, t, very quickly, and 
 allows it to rise with equal velocity, giving the spring, s, 
 power to draw b out of the shuttle-box as soon as the 
 shuttle has been forced across the warp. 
 
 The motion is controlled by the links in the box chain, 
 D, fig. 99. A projection on the links of the chain coming 
 in contact with lever p, causes it by means of rod R and 
 other mechanism to draw pulley w, fig. 106, which works 
 on a pin in the lever t, from underneath the picking neb, 
 so that the latter revolves on the crank without engaging the 
 pulley. Although the lever p, fig. 99, when lifted, throws the 
 picking motion out of action on the right side of the loom, 
 yet it brings the pulley of the lever t on the left side in 
 such a position as it is engaged by the picking neb. In 
 the cam and cone motion the loom picks from each end 
 alternately, but on this system it may be made to pick 
 several times in succession from one side — the order of 
 picking being controlled by the movements of the finger 
 or lever p. 
 
 137. Under-pich Motion. — This arrangement of picking, 
 like that of the cone motion, is driven ofi" the low shaft. 
 In sketch 92 the parts of the under-pick motion applied 
 to the American loom are shown. The tappet t is caused, 
 by the head gearing of the loom, to engage, as re- 
 quired, the part p, which by means of strap R draws the 
 picking stick, H, forward, and thus gives motion to the 
 shuttle. The picking arms are brought into striking 
 
POWER LOOMS. 
 
 233 
 
 position by a powerful steel spring fastened to their lower 
 ends. 
 
 As in the over-pick motion the loom can, on this prin- 
 ciple, be made to pick from either end several times in 
 
 Fig. 106. 
 
 succession. A bowl or pulley is used in this case to lift 
 what is called the pick jack ; which, when thus raised, 
 gives motion to the picking gearing on the right side of 
 the loom, while the absence of a bowl causes the loom to 
 pick from the left side. 
 
234 
 
 WOOL MANUFACTURE. 
 
 138. Positive LeUing-off Motions, — The letting-off motion 
 in dandy looms is generally on the twitch rope or friction 
 brake principle. This method of delivering the warp off 
 the chain beam has been described in the chapter on hand 
 looms. It is the positive letting-off arrangement to which 
 attention will now be given. In power loom weaving it is 
 very important that the warp should be delivered as regu- 
 larly as possible. As a definite length of cloth is set-up " 
 every time the loom picks, a corresponding length of 
 warp ought to be given off the warp beam. The object of 
 the positive motion is to effect this, hence it is actuated by 
 the same parts of the loom as the setting-up arrangement, 
 namely, either the crank shaft, or the sword of the going- 
 part. 
 
 The various parts of this motion, as it is usually con- 
 structed, are given in fig. 107. In this drawing b is the 
 warp beam head ; w, the perpetual screw or worm wheel ; 
 s, the letting-off shaft; d, the brake wheel; c, the catch 
 wheel ; h, the connecting rod ; e, the letting-off lever ; 
 M, the eccentric on the crank shaft ; and G, the support 
 for the rest roller over which the warp passes to the 
 healds. 
 
 Of course, the object is to impart motion to the wheel, 
 B. To accomplish this, the letting-off rod, s, carries the 
 perpetual screw, w, which works within the cogs of the 
 yarn beam-wheel, so that if this rod is set in motion, it 
 will turn B. Three catch-wheels, c — fine, medium, and 
 coarse in pitch respectively — are fixed on shaft s. The 
 catch d is lifted by rod h, the latter rising and falling as 
 the eccentric, m, actuates the lever, e. In some looms the 
 rod, H, is attached to the sword of the going-part. The 
 length of warp let off the beam depends on the screw, P, 
 and support, G, and also on the weight-lever, m, fig. 99. 
 The longer the screw, f, and the lower does the catch, 
 drop, imparting, when lifted by lever e, a corresponding 
 length of movement to shaft s, and wheel w. Sup- 
 port G, working on pin e, relieves the strain on the 
 
POWER LOOMS. 
 
 235 
 
 warp as the going-part presses against the cloth. It 
 does this by allowing the back roller, f, fig. 99, over 
 which the yarns pass from the beam to the shafts, to be 
 drawn slightly inwards. To prevent the roller from yield- 
 ing too much, G is connected by rod to the lever, M, 
 (fig. 99), which is weighted according to the tension it is 
 required to put on the threads. Of course, the more G 
 moves inward at ^ the greater the length of warp let 
 
 Fig. 107. 
 
 off the beam. Thus a thick thread of weft causes the 
 warp to be unwound more than a small thread ; for to 
 drive such a pick into close afiinity with the preceding 
 shoot, the going-part presses heavily against the cloth, 
 causing G to be drawn towards the healds to such an extent 
 as to allow the lever, e, to fall considerably at j9 ; so that, 
 when lifted by m, as the going-part travels from the piece, 
 it causes catch d to actuate one of the wheels c one or more 
 
236 
 
 WOOL MANUFACTURE. 
 
 cogs. Providing the weft yarn is small, it can be forced 
 to its destination with less pressure on the cloth, only im- 
 parting slight movement to support G, hence the stroke of 
 the lever, e, is correspondingly diminished, probably not 
 turning the worm shaft a single cog. To further describe 
 the principle on which this motion operates, let it be sup- 
 posed that the going-part is in contact with the piece, or 
 is pressing the last pick of weft inserted into the warp into 
 its proper position in the fabric, at this juncture, the sup- 
 port, G, would be drawn inward at ^. So long as it 
 remains in the position shown in the drawing, the screw, 
 F, prevents the lever, e, from falling at p ; but, as soon as 
 its pressure on hook A, is withdrawn, the catch, c?, de- 
 scends. It must be noted that e is always lifted to the 
 same height by the eccentric, m ; but, nevertheless, it has 
 a variable stroke, for it does not aways drop to the same 
 extent at p. The motion of the support, G, determines the 
 sweep of the letting-off lever. Thus, the less G is drawn 
 inward, the more diminished is the drop of the catch, and 
 hence a corresponding small length of warp is unwound 
 from the yarn-beam. IsTow, as the going-part moves from 
 the cloth, the eccentric, m, lifts lever e, and catch c?, un- 
 winding, by so doing, the warp oflP the beam through the 
 motion thus imparted to wheel b, by shaft s, and worm, 
 w. Lever m, (fig. 99), as screw w turns wheel b, 
 (fig. 107) draws the support, G, back into the position in 
 which in which it is sketched in the drawing. As to the 
 strap passed round wheel d, and the weight A suspended 
 to it, they are simply to check the action of catch d. 
 But for this weight shaft s would always be actuated 
 proportionate to the stroke of lever e. 
 
 139. Winding of the Gloth on to the Piece-Beam, — 
 Setting-up motions are of two kinds — that applied to looms 
 of a tappet class, and which invariably works in conjunc- 
 tion with the friction brake letting-off arrangement, and 
 that applied to power looms in which the positive motion, 
 described in the previous paragraph, for unwinding the 
 
POWER LOOMS. 237 
 
 yarn off the warp-beam, is employed. The former may 
 be termed the " change wheel," and the latter the " lever 
 and catch " setting-up motion. The change wheel system 
 is applicable to fast-running looms, made for weaving light 
 but fine fabrics, such as cotton goods and dress stuffs ; it 
 is not, however, a very useful motion for setting-up heavy 
 cloths, composed of medium or stout yarns, and requiring 
 "hard " wefting, or for fabrics having a large number of 
 picks on the inch. The " lever " arrangement, on the other 
 hand, is best adapted for looms in which heavy goods are 
 produced ; in fact, in such cases, it is by far the most pre- 
 ferable motion. 
 
 140. Change Wheel Setting-up, — This motion (fig. 108) 
 comprises setting-up lever, l ; catch, c ; ratchet wheel, R ; 
 change wheel, w ; friction roller wheel, a ; intermediate, b ; 
 pinion, p ; and holding-up catch, H. The piece-beam is 
 turned solely by friction, the sand or friction roller of 
 wheel A, being in close contact with it, so that the move- 
 ment of A is equivalent to that of the cloth beam. The 
 motion is driven off the sword. Thus, when s moves 
 towards the fabric, it presses the catch, by means of lever 
 L, to which it is attached by pin g, forward, imparting 
 movement to the ratchet wheel. Now, as the ratchet 
 works on the same stud as the change wheel, it follows 
 that, if it is set in motion, it will cause w to turn inter- 
 mediate B, which, through the pinion p, gives movement 
 to A. The holding-up catch is merely to prevent the 
 rachet from running back when c is carried backward by 
 the receding motion of the sword of the going-part. 
 
 The distinguishing feature of the motion is the change 
 wheel, w. By altering the size of this wheel, the number 
 of picks woven to the inch in the fabric can be varied 
 according to the weight of texture required. To find 
 the size of the change wheel, first multiply the picks given 
 by the circumference of the piece-beam in inches, and 
 divide by the number of teeth in the ratchet wheel ; 
 second, multiply the teeth in the friction roller wheel by 
 
238 
 
 WOOL MANUFACTURE. 
 
 Required the number of teeth in the change wheel for 
 weaving 56 picks on the inch, when the circumference 
 
POWER LOOMS. 
 
 239 
 
 of the piece-beam is 13 inches, and the ratchet wheel con- 
 tains 60 teeth, friction beam wheel 120, intermediate 120, 
 and the pinion 20. 
 
 56 (picks) X 13 (inches circumference of piece-beam) 
 ^* 60 (teeth in ratchet wheel) 
 
 12-/^ revolutions of the ratchet wheel to weave 13 inches 
 of cloth, or to 1 revolution of the piece-beam. That is, 
 supposing R = the ratchet wheel, w = the change wheel, 
 A = the friction beam wheel, B = the intermediate, and p 
 
 = the pinion, then, ^ ^ ^ = — ^ in another form w must 
 
 w X P 12tt 
 make 12-^-^ revolutions to A making I. Therefore, the 
 formula, according to Rule II., for completing the problem, 
 will be as follows : — 
 
 120 (teeth in friction beam wheel) x 120 (teeth in inter- 
 mediate) 
 
 12-j5_ (revolutions of ratchet wheel to weave 13 inches of 
 cloth) X 20 (teeth in pinion) 
 = practically 59 teeth in change pinion. 
 141. Lever and Catch Motion. — Here there is no change 
 wheel, any alteration in the setting-up of the cloth being 
 effected by the variable movement of the lever, s, fig. 109. 
 Suspended on the rod, n^ of this lever are a number of 
 weights, w. The larger the number of weights applied, 
 the more is the lever depressed, and the quicker is the 
 cloth wound on to the beam. The various parts of the 
 motion operate as follows : as the sword of the going- 
 part, D, lifts the connecting rod, A, and lever, s, it raises 
 the catch, c, thus giving motion to the catch wheel, R, and 
 also to the pinion, p, the latter driving the piece-beam 
 wheel, B. Holding-up catch, h, is of a two-fold character, 
 possessing two tongues, arranged in such a way that half 
 a cog of wheel R may be set up at one time. In the sketch 
 furnished of this motion, the method of driving off the 
 crank shaft adopted in some makes of looms is shown. It 
 simply differs from the above in the use of the lever, l, 
 
Setting-up Motion for 
 PIeavy Looms. 
 
 D = Sword of going part. 
 A = Connecting rod. 
 s = Setting-up lever, 
 c = Setting-up catch. 
 H = Holding-up catch. 
 B — Cloth beam. 
 L = Setting-up lever for 
 
 driving the crank shaft. 
 E = End of crank shaft and 
 
 eccentric. 
 
POWER LOOMS. 
 
 241 
 
 and eccentric, E, in place of the sword of the batten. 
 Thus, as the crank revolves, e raises the lever l, which 
 lifts the setting-up lever, s, to which it is connected by 
 rod A. 
 
 142. Shuttle Box Mechanisms. — For some reasons it 
 would have been advantageous to have considered the 
 various systems of shuttling in conjunction with the pick- 
 ing motions ; but as there are looms in which only one 
 shuttle can be employed, and hence in which a box con- 
 trivance is not a necessary adjunct ; and as there are other 
 looms in which the shuttling and picking arrangement are 
 quite distinct from each other, there is ample cause for 
 treating the subject separately. 
 
 A good shuttle-box motion is a very important ac- 
 cessory to a loom intended for weaving fancy fabrics. 
 The boxes, however controlled, should move at one uniform 
 speed, whether rising or descending, whether revolving 
 forward or backward ; and they should, moreover, all 
 work in perfect accord with the other motions of the 
 loom. 
 
 There are four distinct systems of actuating the shuttle 
 boxes in power looms, namely : — 
 
 I. The link or chain motion. 
 II. The lag or peg motion. 
 
 III. The bowl or pulley and rod motion. 
 
 IV. The circular box motion. 
 
 143. LinTc and Chain Box Motion. — In this motion the 
 shuttle boxes are lifted by a number of eccentrics, or cams 
 of different sizes. These eccentrics are so combined that 
 they may all be controlled by one lever. They are fixed 
 on the end of the main shaft, and have both a rotatory and 
 a lateral movement. In a 3-box loom the eccentrics are 
 of two sizes only, but in a 4-box they are of three sizes, 
 the largest lifting the fourth, the medium the third, and 
 the smallest eccentric the second box. Two levers, f and 
 p 1, fig. 99, are employed to bring these cams into action. 
 The motions of f are determined by the links of the box 
 
242 
 
 WOOL MANUFACTURE. 
 
 chain, d, revolving over the box cylinder e. This cylinder 
 is driven by rod and wheel gearing off shaft s, which re- 
 ceives motion through wheels J and K from the crank or 
 main shaft of the loom. In reality the motion is divisable 
 into two parts, first, the gearing for actuating the eccen- 
 trics ; and, second, the gearing for lifting and depressing 
 the boxes. The former gearing comprises the parts 
 sketched in fig. 110. The object here is to cause the disc, 
 
 Fig. 110. 
 
 D, which carries the eccentrics or cams for lifting the 
 boxes, to travel backward and forward on part / of the 
 crank shaft s. The extent to which it travels determines 
 the box lifted, or the size of cam which engages the box 
 lever. It will be evident, from the arrangement of the parts 
 shown in the drawing, that to impart motion to D it will 
 only be necessary to lift the lever f at point h. It should 
 be observed that there is a lever like f and its accompany- 
 ing parts for each series of boxes. Between them is placed 
 
POWER LOOMS. 
 
 243 
 
 the pick lever p, fig. 99, to which allusion has already 
 been made. 
 
 When the loom is in motion the box chain d, composed 
 of iron links of different sizes, passes over the box cylinder 
 C, and necessarily lifts P at ^, drawing it back at point y, 
 and finally, through the lever connections shown, presses 
 D on to the slide t The steel spring a, when p is liberated 
 by the links of the chain pressing against upright L, 
 draws the disc back into its former position. 
 
 Fig. 111. 
 
 'Next as to the parts for lifting the boxes represented in 
 fig. 111. Here d is the disc mounted with the eccentrics e. 
 The effect of lifting lever p in the previous drawing was to 
 bring the eccentrics into such a position on part t as they 
 would engage pulley p of lever t of this sketch. This 
 done, the connecting rod R sinks lever l at ^ and lifts it at 
 Jc, at which point it is connected to the top of the boxes, 
 as shown at 6, fig. 99. Upright H then holds the boxes up 
 as long as required, the projections i resting on the top of 
 this lever. To depress them the eccentrics are made to 
 
2U 
 
 WOOL MANUFACTURE. 
 
 engage h at m, thus forcing it from underneath the parts 
 i, and lowering lever l at Jc, 
 
 144. Effect of the Links in the Box Chain. — As there are 
 three levers over the box cylinder, two for controlling the 
 motions of the boxes, and a third for controlling the pick- 
 ing gearing, each link of the box chain may be said to be 
 divided into three sections. Thus, part A of the link shown 
 in fig. 112, actuates lever f \ part b the pick jack p, and part 
 c the lever f, fig. 99. Rod r is simply employed to con- 
 nect the links together. The efiect of the projections is as 
 follows : — 
 
 Fig. 112. 
 
 (1.) A projection on the right, as at A, lifts the boxes 
 on the right side of the loom. 
 
 (2.) A projection in the centre picks from the right. 
 
 (3.) A projection on the left lifts the boxes on the left 
 side of the loom. 
 
 (4.) The absence of a projection from the centre, as at 
 B, picks from the left. 
 
 The projections on parts A and c are of three heights. 
 The lowest projection, c, lifts the second box, the medium 
 projection the third box, while the highest projection, A, 
 lifts the fourth box. 
 
POWER LOOMS. 
 
 246 
 
 145. Lag and Peg Motion. — In large, or top swing looms, 
 such as that shown in fig. 99, the shuttle boxes may be 
 governed in two ways : by the engine or dobbie, or by a 
 chain composed of various kinds of links revolving over a 
 barrel or cylinder fixed behind the loom, that is the method 
 which has just been described in detail. In the lag and 
 peg motion the former is the system adopted in conveying 
 movement to the boxes. For this purpose two principal 
 levers, s, fig, 113, are employed, one for each series of 
 
 Fig. 113. Fig. 114, 
 
 boxes ; these, in a four-box loom, carry two smaller, or 
 swing levers, F, which are so arranged as to operate in- 
 directly, or through the agency of the levers proper. 
 Thus, if a peg were to strike the outside swing lever it 
 would give one-third of a complete movement to s, and 
 also to the part n, fig. 114, to which it is connected by rod 
 and lever gearing, elevating the second box ; the centre 
 swing lever, f, would, however, impart two-thirds of a 
 complete movement to s, raising the third box ; while, if 
 
246 
 
 WOOL MANUFACTURE. 
 
 the peg came in contact with the principal lever proper, 
 the fourth, or bottom box, wonld be lifted. Prom this it 
 is evident that a peg elevates a box, so that, having, when 
 fonr boxes are employed, three lifts at each end of the 
 going-part, the lag contains six holes for the shuttle boxes 
 and one for the pick jack. 
 
 In some looms on the end of the lever l, fig. Ill, a 
 large weight is fixed, called the balance weight, which 
 steadies the descent of the boxes ; but still the drop is 
 neither smooth nor regular. It will be clear that in such 
 a case the movement of the boxes cannot be so rapid at the 
 commencement as at the termination of the fall ; in fact, 
 they necessarily move comparatively slowly at first, but 
 gain speed as they proceed downwards, concluding the 
 drop with considerable vibration. There is the same 
 
 defect when a balance weight is not employed, only the 
 vibration caused is more lasting,* and even more injurious 
 to the loom, because in such machines, when the stay, or 
 sapport, H, fig. Ill, which maintains the boxes in an up- 
 right position, is withdrawn, as there is no checking or 
 balancing power to control the drop, the boxes descend 
 with increased weight on to the low framework of the 
 going-part. Now, in the peg system of actuating, the 
 boxes under consideration, if the mechanism employed is 
 that given in figs. 113 and 114, the speed of the boxes is, 
 whether travelling up or down, perfectly uniform. Fig. 
 114 shows the arrangement of the various parts of the 
 motion for lifting and depressing the boxes. Thus, lever 
 K, at point Z, is in direct communication with them, while 
 at m it is connected to balance weight levers by means of 
 the chain J, and pullies h and i. Fig. 115 is a plan of 
 
 o 
 o 
 o 
 
 Fig. 115, 
 
POWER LOOMS. 
 
 247 
 
 these levers, showing the method in which the piillies are 
 arranged in the block swinging on lever k at point m ; 
 although there is a separate balance weight lever, e, for 
 each lift, jet it will be noticed, there is only one lever 
 proper in direct connection with the boxes. The puUies, 
 H, fig. 115, of the block, are set at an angle with the 
 levers e, to allow the same chain to connect them to the 
 lifting lever. If the outside balance lever, e \ is raised, it 
 elevates the second box, but in combination with the centre 
 lever, e the third box, while, if the three levers operate 
 together, they lift the fourth box. The connecting chain, 
 J, can never run slack, for when any particular lever is 
 raised the weight of the boxes keeps it at one uniform 
 tension. Again, lever e, fig. 114, is attached to part d, 
 which carries a cam, or eccentric, C, mounted with a 
 pinion working between the two racks A and B. The 
 racks are the parts primarily acted upon by motion of 
 lever n, and convey movement through levers E and K to 
 the boxes. Part n has a twofold motion, receiving a come 
 and go movement from the box lever s, fig. 113, and an up 
 and down movement from a cam on the crank shaft. The 
 function of this lever is to engage the respective racks ac- 
 cording to extent of the motion imparted to it by the peg 
 levers. Box lever k is lifted by eccentric gearing on the 
 crank shaft. 
 
 A peg on the outside of the lag causes n to engage e \ 
 a peg in the second hole causes it to engage e ^, and a peg 
 in the third hole causes it to engage E ^. (See fig. 115.) 
 In this system of shuttling there need not, therefore, any 
 complication arise in preparing the box lags, or in chang- 
 ing the picking plan. 
 
 146. Bowl and Rod System, — This is the motion applied 
 to the American loom. The boxes, which are four in 
 number, are under the control of separate levers, similar in 
 construction to those used for raising the healds. One 
 material advantage this motion possesses over the link 
 system consists in its being worked by the same gearing 
 
248 
 
 WOOL MANUFACTURE. 
 
 as that for actuating the picking and shedding contriv- 
 ances. As the box, shed and pick motions are driven off 
 the. same shaft and by the same cylinder gears there is 
 always perfect accord between them. The levers are of 
 two classes — simple and compound — and one of each kind 
 is required for the complete set of boxes at both ends of 
 the loom. If the simple levers are raised by the bowls in 
 the rods they lift the second boxes, the compound levers 
 the third boxes, and both levers, in combination, the fourth 
 boxes. Still more clearly will this motion be understood 
 by consulting fig. 116. Only the gearing which controls 
 
 the motion, and not that in direct communication with 
 boxes is shown. It will at once be evident that it is simi- 
 lar to the gearing employed for actuating the shafts so far 
 as the vibrator levers, gears and connectors are concerned, 
 but necessarily different in the simple and compound 
 levers. Simple lever s\ and compound lever c\ have been 
 operated upon by the top cylinder gear A, fig. 103, which 
 would practically result in lifting the fourth box on the 
 left side ofthe loom. By passing the chain, which com- 
 municates motion to the boxes, from the simple lever over 
 the pulley of the compound lever, both and g\ can be 
 worked together. Lever s^ is sufficient to effect the eleva- 
 
 Fig. 116. 
 
 41 
 
POWER LOOMS. 
 
 249 
 
 tion of the second box, the elevation of the third box, 
 while, if acting in combination, they, as just stated above, 
 raise the fourth box. The boxes on the right side of the 
 loom are controlled by levers S" and c". 
 
 The principle of the motion may be defined as that of 
 two levers with arms of different lengths to produce three 
 lifts, the short- armed lever effecting the first lift, the long 
 armed lever the second lift, and the two, when combined, 
 the third lift. The advantages of this system of shuttling 
 are both numerous and important. Firstly, the chain is 
 simple to construct, for there is only one height and shape 
 of bowl and not several as in the use of links ; secondly, 
 the boxes like the healds are elevated gradually ; thirdly, 
 rising on a spring they may be pressed down by hand, and 
 yet, when released, they will return to their proper posi- 
 tions. 
 
 147. Circular Box Motion, — Cards in this motion (fig. 117) 
 are the agents for actuating the boxes. They revolve over 
 the cylinder c, which makes -|- of a revolution for each time 
 the loom picks. The boxes revolve on shaft e, which 
 carries a circular plate from which project as many pins 
 as there are shuttle boxes. The uprights b and engage 
 these pins and so impart motion to the boxes on the shaft. 
 A hole in the left side of the card brings b into action, 
 while a hole on the right side of the card sets b^ in opera- 
 tion. Of course these levers never engage the boxes to- 
 gether. 
 
 Over the cylinder c are placed two levers similar to F. 
 Each lever actuates a series of parts like those shown in 
 the drawing. The parts sketched are simply for actua- 
 ting B, those for imparting motion to b^ not being repre- 
 sented. Lever f, having its fulcrum at m, when lifted at 
 d presses back the jack J, the hook of which is thus brought 
 over the grate g. On the low shaft s an eccentric or cam 
 is fixed which, by lifting lever p, elevates j, and through 
 it the treadle t. Now as t has its fulcrum pin at ^, if lifted 
 at n it falls at r, and so draws down the upright b, the hook 
 
250 
 
 WOOL MANUFACTURE. 
 
 of which engages the projection on the circular plate of 
 the shaft e, on which the boxes revolve. 
 
 This class of box motion is principally applied to quick 
 running looms, and is well adapted to the production of 
 light fabrics of a check description, such as dress stuffs, 
 shirtings, &c. 
 
 148. Weft ForJcs, — The weft fork motion is employed to 
 stop the loom, when the weft yarn breaks, without the in- 
 
 Fig. 117. 
 
 terference of the weaver. One very excellent arrange- 
 ment for this purpose may be explained by referring to fig. 
 118. Here e is the low shaft carrying the tumbler, D, 
 The object is to throw handle b out of position. Every 
 time the weft is successfully carried across the piece the 
 prongs of the fork F are pressed backward lifting it at a, 
 and thus causing it to clear the projection on lever C. 
 Should, however, the weft brake the prongs of f pass be- 
 
POWER LOOMS. 
 
 261 
 
 tween the splits of the reed and hence it fastens on to the 
 top of C. As the tumbler d lifts C at /, each time the low 
 shaft revolves, it presses it back at g ; hence if F fastens on 
 to c it will be drawn backward by this lever, and A will 
 force the handle b off the catch which throws the strap off 
 the fast or driving pulley of the loom. 
 
 There are several other kinds of weft fork motions, but 
 the one described (which is applied to the tappet and 
 dandy looms) illustrates the principle on which they are 
 constructed. It may be remarked, however, that in broad 
 looms the fork is fixed in the centre of the race of the going 
 
 Fig. 118. 
 
 part, and is kept above the warp yarns as long as the 
 weft thread continues intact, but drops into a groove in 
 the race on the weft breaking, and so brings the contriv- 
 ance for knocking the setting-on handle out of gear into 
 action. 
 
 149. Shuttle Box Swell, — It is only necessary to allude 
 very briefly to this motion which is employed to stop the 
 loom when the shuttle fails to reach its proper destination, 
 or when it fails to "box." Unless the loom were quickly 
 brought to a standstill under such a contingency very 
 considerable damage would necessarily ensue. In the 
 illustration, fig, 119, s is the swell and consists generally 
 
252 
 
 WOOL MANUFACTURE. 
 
 of a strong steel spring, e the stop-rod finger, and b the 
 shuttle box. IN'ow when the shuttle properly enters the 
 box the swell by pressing e back raises it at and so 
 
 Fig. 119. 
 
 causes it to clear the iron projection a fixed on to the loom 
 frame. On the other hand, should the shuttle only par- 
 tially enter the box the swell not being pressed out to the 
 full extent the finger comes against a and stops the loom. 
 
WEAVE-COMBINATIONS. 
 
 253 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 WEAVE-COMBINATIONS. DRAFTING. 
 
 150. Eour Methods of Producing Textile Design — 151. Weave-Com- 
 binations — 152. Points for Consideration in Combining Weaves — 153. 
 Some Weaves applicable to Worsted and other Weaves to Woollen 
 Fabrics — 154. The Fineness of the Texture a Factor for Consideration 
 — 155. The Weaves Combined should be equal in Wefting Capacity — 
 156. Combination Patterns divisible into Three Classes — 157. Uses of 
 Drafting — 158. Principle of Drafting — 159. Method of Constructing 
 the Draft — 160. Drafting large Designs — 161. Figured Patterns Drafted 
 — 162. Principle of Producing New Designs in a given Draft. 
 
 150. Four Methods of Producing Textile Design. — In the 
 ordinary classes of woollen and worsted fabrics there are 
 four distinct methods of forming pattern or design in the 
 loom. The first method — that of the employment of single 
 makes in warp and weft yarns of the same colour — has 
 been alluded to at length in Chapter VI. The second 
 method consists in employing two or more different 
 weaves, but only one colour of threads. As to the third 
 principle of design, it comprises a combination of various 
 colours or sizes of yarns in both warp and weft of the 
 fabric, but only admits of the use of one weave. The 
 fourth method is the most comprehensive, including both 
 a combination of weaves and a combination of fancy 
 coloured yarns. 
 
 151. W eave-Combinations. — The effects resulting from 
 a combination of weaves alone — i,e,^ the second method of 
 producing pattern in the loom — forms the next step in 
 textile designing to the acquirement of a knowledge of the 
 structure of the various fundamental crossings. Designs 
 formed on this principle cover a very considerable range 
 of the productions of the loom. In all cases where a neatly 
 
254 
 
 WOOL MANUFACTURE. 
 
 figured effect is required — in clotlis made of the same shade 
 of yarns, in both warp and weffc, — this method of con- 
 structing the design is invariably adopted ; and hence 
 combinations, or patterns composed of several types of inter- 
 texture, are applied very largely to worsted trouserings, 
 mantle cloths, dress goods, and other classes of fabrics. 
 
 As every plan of crossing, whether twill, mat, diamond, 
 or small figure, produces a different style of pattern in the 
 woven texture, a considerable field for the production of 
 new effects is accessible by combining several distinct 
 types of weaves. 
 
 152. Points for Consideration in Gomhining Weaves, — 
 There are certain characteristics which weaves intended 
 for amalgamation with each other must possess in common. 
 Any variety or co-mixture of makes will not produce a 
 regular fabric. Some judgment has, therefore, to be 
 exercised in selecting weaves for combination purposes. 
 The constant modifications obtained in the structure of 
 single weaves makes it impracticable to catalogue those 
 crossings which are suitable for combining with each other 
 in the composition of the same pattern ; but it may be 
 remarked, that on no account should weaves be combined 
 without due regard being paid to their structure or plan 
 of formation. In fact, there are two important particulars 
 which should be examined before a combination of small 
 crossings is decided upon — first, the class of fabric intended 
 to be produced, whether wool, worsted, silk, or cotton, and 
 whether fine or coarse in texture ; second, the weaving 
 capabilities of the separate makes about to be combined. 
 
 153. Some Weaves applicable to Worsted and other Weaves 
 to Woollen Fabrics, — The former particular should be care- 
 fully considered, because there are some weaves specially 
 applicable to woollen and other weaves to worsted eff*ects. 
 The reason why the same makes are not always suitable 
 for both fabrics will be evident from the sequel. Pro- 
 bably the character of a simple crossing, or any weave 
 effect, is, as a rule, more fully pronounced or developed in 
 
WEAVE-COMBINATIONS. 
 
 255 
 
 worsted than woollen goods. This arises from the diffe- 
 rences in the mechanical construction of the two classes 
 of yarns employed in the manufacture of the respective 
 cloths. Complicated designs, resulting from a novel 
 arrangement of weaves, cannot be so advantageously ap- 
 plied to all-wool suitings and trouserings as to fabrics of 
 a worsted character. When selecting weaves, therefore, 
 for designs intended for woollen cloths, those of a very 
 regular or uniform structure, even if approaching each 
 other in effect, are generally considered the most prefer- 
 able. As the opposite characteristics obtain in worsted 
 goods, weaves of a very different description are sought 
 after. Here the design formed by the interlacing of the 
 warp and weft yarns is of paramount importance. So 
 much so, in fact, that the principal feature of a piece dyed 
 solid worsted, whether coating, trouseriag, or mantle, may 
 be termed a decided and clearly-defined make. Conse- 
 quently the weaves employed in combinations for these 
 fabrics may be as different from each other as possible in 
 the effect they produce in the cloth, providing they are 
 similar to each other in one particular, namely, in their 
 weaving or wefting capabilities. 
 
 154. The Fineness of the Texture a Factor for Gonsidera- 
 tion, — The fineness of the texture should also be considered 
 when constructing a design formed of various weaves. 
 Generally speaking, the smaller the yarns the larger the 
 flushes admitted in the makes employed. A cloth made 
 of 10-skeins yarn, and containing 24 threads on the inch 
 would be very coarse and open in appearance, if formed 
 of the 8-heald twill, four threads up and four threads down 
 alternately ; but if formed of the plain or tabby weave, 
 it would be firm and regular in construction. This clearly 
 shows, that as certain weaves are only useful for some sizes 
 of yarns, it is important to have the fineness of the fabric 
 in view when selecting weaves for combination purposes. 
 The following table has been framed to give the reader 
 some idea of the class of makes suitable for certain yarns 
 
256 
 
 WOOL MANUFACTURE. 
 
 and sets or counts of reeds. What may be termed the 
 standard flush, both in the direction of the warp and weft 
 in the different weaves, has been given. Of course, these 
 flushes cannot always be adhered to, but they will afford 
 the student material assistance and prevent him from fall- 
 ing into gross mistakes, as well as from combining fantas- 
 tical weaves, which, although they possess a "pretty" 
 appearance on design paper, yet, when practically applied, 
 are perfectly valueless. The table is only applicable to 
 single-cloth combinations. The flushes refer more par- 
 ticularly to weaves of a simple twill and hop-sack 
 character. 
 
 
 Sizes or 
 Grists of 
 Yarns. 
 
 Counts of 
 Reeds. 
 
 Average 
 
 warp 
 flush in 
 
 Maximum 
 warp 
 flush in 
 
 Average 
 
 weft 
 flush in 
 
 Maximum 
 weft 
 flush in 
 
 
 
 weave. 
 
 weave. 
 
 weave. 
 
 weave. 
 
 
 10 skeins 
 
 8's Eeed 4's 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 20 „ 
 
 lO's „ 4's 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 
 20 „ 
 
 12's „ 4's 
 
 3 
 
 5 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 
 30 „ 
 
 14's „ 4's 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 
 2-fold 30's 
 
 12's Reed 4's 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 
 2-fold 30's 
 
 14's „ 4's 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 !{ 
 
 2-fold 40's 
 
 18's „ 4's 
 
 3 
 
 6 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 
 2-fold 50's 
 
 20's „ 4's 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 
 2-fold lOO's 
 
 20's „ 6's 
 
 6 
 
 8 
 
 6 
 
 8 
 
 155. The Weaves Combined should he Equal in Wefting 
 Capacity. — ISTow as to the wefting character of weaves 
 suitable for designs of a combination class. They should 
 in this respect be as nearly alike as possible ; if not, the 
 cloth is sure to be uneven in texture, and more or less 
 defective in appearance. However widely simple crossings 
 may differ from each other in structure, if intended to be 
 combined, they ought to possess a similar capacity for the 
 admission of weft, otherwise they cannot be made to 
 weave nicely together. The importance of this may be 
 better understood by referring to fig. 120. Here is given 
 a representation of a sample of clo*th of a striped descrip- 
 
WEAVE-COMBINATIONS. 
 
 267 
 
 tion. The threads in the section lettered A are intersected 
 on the six-shaft hopsack principle, while those in section 
 B are working plain. !N"ow, as the threads of warp and 
 weft interweave each other exactly twice as frequently in 
 B as in A, it will be readily understood that the alternate 
 crossing of the yarns will have a tendency to prevent the weft 
 threads from being as closely pressed against each other 
 in the former as in the latter stripe. The rule is, the more 
 frequently the warp and weft yarns cross each other, the 
 greater the difficulty in driving each pick of weft closely 
 
 B A 
 
 
 1 1 1 !!!! !!!! 
 
 
 nil nil III! p 
 
 
 nil INI nil II 1 11^ 
 
 Fig. 120. 
 
 against its predecessor. On the other hand, the more open 
 the weave, the better will it take weft. Hence, as three 
 threads of warp are depressed and elevated in succes- 
 sion in part A, this portion of the cloth admits of the weft 
 much more freely than part b. Of course, the larger 
 the stripes the more apparent does this defect become, 
 resulting in section b being cocJcled, and forming an un- 
 even surfaced fabric. Fast and open flush weaves should 
 rarely, if ever, be combined, as they can only be mani- 
 pulated with difficulty. Certainly, there are some in- 
 
 s 
 
258 
 
 WOOL MANUFACTURE. 
 
 stances where the flushes may be varied without detri- 
 ment to the regularity of the fabric, but very few. For 
 example, in figured designs, where the various parts are 
 not continuous from one end of the piece to the other, but 
 where a weave is simply introduced for a number of 
 threads and picks to give character to the figure, the diver- 
 sity of flush in the weaves employed is sometimes very 
 large. In certain classes of dress fabrics the figure or 
 design is formed of large flushes of warp and weft, although 
 such a fast make as the plain or tabby is used for the 
 ground of the fabric ; but in such cases the incontinuity 
 of the figured portion of the cloth prevents faulty results 
 occurring like those pointed out in reference to fig. 120. 
 
 Fig. 121. Fig. 122. 
 
 For general combinations, the weaves, although they may be 
 decidedly different from each other in the effect they pro- 
 duce in the woven fabric, should, if possible, be similarly 
 constructed so far as the admission of weft goes. 
 
 156. Combination Patterns Divisible into Three Glasses, — 
 The eff*ects obtained from a combination of weaves may be 
 classified as follows: — (1) stripes, (2) checks, (3) spotted 
 or figured patterns. One or two illustrations will be 
 furnished in each class. The striped patterns are, per- 
 haps, the simplest to construct. They are obtained by 
 combining a certain number of threads, varying according 
 to the size of the design, of two or more weaves. Thus, in 
 fig. 121, which is a simple combination of this character, 
 
WEAVE-COMBINATIONS. 
 
 259 
 
 suitable either for fine woollen or worsted trouserings, 
 only two weaves have been employed. Fig. 122 is another 
 stripe also composed of two varieties of crossivngs. The 
 section marked in crosses is termed a warp cord, and con- 
 trasts very strongly with the double-twilled efiect of the 
 adjoining weave. Three types of weave efiect are shown 
 in fig. 123. The first part, a, is composed of twilled hop- 
 sack ; the second part, B, of cassimere twill running to the 
 left ; and the third part, C, of the same weave twilling to 
 the right. It should be observed that the makes in each 
 of these designs have been combined in such a manner as 
 to prevent any increase in the flushes of the respective 
 weaves in those positions where they oppose each other. 
 
 Fig. 123. Fig. 124. 
 
 In other words, the makes, in each stripe, form what are 
 technically called correct junctions. The matter of fitting 
 the weaves together in such a way as the joinings cannot 
 be distinguished in the woven fabric is of great importance. 
 The makes have frequently to be started on various threads 
 and picks before a satisfactory joining position can be dis- 
 covered. As an example of weaves of this class examine 
 fig. 124, which, although but a stripe of two varieties of 
 crossings, yet to move either part A or b one shoot up or 
 down, or one thread to the left or to the right, would pro- 
 duce a number of irregular flushes or floats in the design, 
 such as would make a very defective pattern. In all combi- 
 
260 
 
 WOOL MANUFACTURE. 
 
 nations, if practicable, avoid increasing the flushes in the 
 weaves where they are brought in contact with each other 
 in the design. 
 
 Check patterns are more difficult to arrange than stripes. 
 In making simple striped designs, the weaves only cut 
 each other on either side, but in checks every side of the 
 
 D c 
 
 B A 
 Fig. 125. 
 
 weave has to be made fit neatly and perfectly on to the sides 
 of its adjoining weaves. Thus, in fig. 125, which is almost 
 as good a specimen of the effective patterns that may be 
 produced by reversing two weaves as can be furnished, the 
 various parts have been so arranged as to meet each other 
 without any extra flush whatever. This design makes an 
 
WEAVE-COMBINATIONS. 
 
 261 
 
 excellent manfcle cloth, producing four varieties of effect in 
 the fabric ; for it will be noticed that although parts A and 
 D are formed of the same weave, yet they are opposed to each 
 other in twill, giving, therefore, two distinct effects. The 
 same remark applies to sections B and c. Other examples 
 might be furnished in check patterns, but they occupy so 
 
 Fig. 126. 
 
 much space. A small figured combination is given in 
 fig. 126. It is suitable for a worsted mantlet. The figured 
 effect in the design is obtained by using a weave of a cord 
 or rep class, while the ground is cassimere twill, the weave 
 in one section, that marked in crosses, twilling to the 
 right ; while in the section marked in small round dots it 
 twills to the left. This arrangement of twilling and 
 
262 
 
 WOOL MANUFACTURE. 
 
 combination of weaves gives a very pleasing result in the 
 cloth. 
 
 157. Uses of Drafting. — It has been pointed out how 
 designs of a somewhat complex description may be formed 
 by combining simple plans of intertexture, and now it is 
 necessary to explain the manner in which these designs, 
 after having been arranged on point paper, are reducible, 
 in many cases, to such an extent as to render it possible 
 to weave them in the ordinary dobbie machines used in 
 both hand and power-loom weaving. The capacity of 
 such shedding motions ranges from 12 to 36 or 48 shafts, 
 so that any design occupying more than this number of 
 threads could not be produced in looms of this class unless 
 submitted to a reducing process ; for it has already been 
 explained that each thread in any weave or design repre- 
 sents a heald shaft in the loom. On this principle, there- 
 fore, a 64-thread design would, in a dobbie machine, 
 necessitate the employment of 64 heddles. Perhaps it is 
 unnecessary to say that not only would considerable diffi- 
 culty be experienced in manipulating the loom when 
 mounted with such an unusual number of shafts, but the 
 expenses of cloth production would also be largely in- 
 creased. So that here are two important reasons for try- 
 ing to bring large designs into as small a weavable com- 
 pass, in respect to the number of heald shafts absolutely 
 essential to their production, as possible. When jacquard 
 or harness looms are not at command, an assay has neces- 
 sarily to be made to reduce the number of healds the 
 design occupies on point paper. Of course it will be 
 understood that the reducing process to which a pattern 
 may be submitted does not in any way destroy its original 
 character, but rather re-arranges it on such a principle as 
 to make it weavable on a practicable number of healds. 
 The technical name of this process is drafting. It may be 
 defined as the method of reducing a design to its minimum 
 number of heddles. In some kinds of figured patterns, 
 more especially those obtained from combining a variety 
 
DRAFTING. 
 
 263 
 
 of small weaves, it not unfrequently happens that the same 
 design contains several threads which have precisely the 
 same movements during the making of the cloth ; in other 
 words, certain integrant parts of the pattern have a similar 
 formation. Now drafting makes it possible to dispense 
 with all the repeats of any particular section or sections, 
 and hence if a design occupies 192 threads, but only con- 
 tains eight different or individual threads, it could, accord- 
 ing to this system, be woven on eight shafts ; for, after 
 having been drafted, the latter threads would only be re- 
 quired for what is called the weaving or pegging plan. 
 
 158. Principle of Drafting. — This subject will possibly 
 be better understood if allusion is made to fig. 127. This 
 weave, although standing on 16 threads, may, if drafted, 
 be woven on two shafts. 
 
 That this should be practicable will almost appear con- 
 tradictory to the principles of design previously explained, 
 for does not each thread in this figure correspond to a 
 shaft in the loom ? How, then, is it possible to weave it on 
 two heddles ? This may be partly shown by considering 
 one or two elementary questions. For example, how is it 
 that while two shafts are only necessary to produce a 
 plain cloth, four shafts are requisite in the production of 
 
264 
 
 WOOL MANUFACTURE. 
 
 the cassimere twill ? Does it not arise from the fact that 
 there are only two methods of intersecting the warp 
 threads in the plain make, but no less than four methods 
 of intersecting them in the latter weave ? This shows 
 that only those threads in a design which work differently 
 from each other require separate heddles. Hence, no 
 matter how many threads a weave may occupy on point 
 paper, it may be produced on that number of shafts which 
 corresponds to the number of individual changes it con- 
 tains in the warp. Here will be found the reason why it 
 is possible to weave the 16-thread design given in fig. 127 
 on two shafts. Thus, on analysis, it will be apparent that 
 in reality this weave is simply a combination of the 
 two threads lettered a and 5, the remaining threads 
 in the design being simply repeats of these ; thus threads 
 1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 10, and 15, are all similar in arrange- 
 ment to thread a, while 2, 7, 9, 11, 12, 13, 14, and 16, 
 are all exactly like thread 6. It must not be supposed, 
 however, that if the two threads shown in fig. 129 were 
 taken and applied to the loom that they would, without 
 any special mode of healding being previously adopted, 
 produce the design in the cloth which they have, in fig. 
 127, been made to form. The weave under coDsideration 
 occupies 16 threads on the point paper, and hence, to re- 
 produce it in the woven fabric, this number of threads, in 
 the precise order in which they are here mapped out, must 
 be allotted to it in the loom. Such conditions are, for 
 obvious reasons, absolutely essential to the production of 
 any woven effect. From which it is evident that if the 
 reduced plan, fig. 129, is to be of any practical service it 
 must be accompanied by some adjunct or other which 
 will increase it to the required dimensions during the 
 weaving process, 
 
 159. Method of Constructing the Draft. — The arrange- 
 ment for the proper completion of a design, when such a 
 reduced plan is employed, is generally termed the heald- 
 ing draft. What has now to be discovered, then, is that 
 
DRAFTING. 
 
 265 
 
 method of entering the warp threads into the heald shafts, 
 which will so modify fig. 129 during the operations of 
 the loom, as to transform it into the design given in fig. 
 127, in the woven texture. The draft required can be 
 obtained as follows : — First carefully examine the design 
 with the object of ascertaining which threads correspond 
 to each other in arrangement ; these should be lettered 
 alike (see fig. 127). Here, as thread 3 is a repetition of 
 thread No. 1, it is lettered a, while thread 7, which 
 is dotted in the same manner as thread 2, is lettered &, 
 and so on throughout the design. This process gives the 
 number of individual threads the design contains, or the 
 
 h 
 
 — a 
 
 161514131211 10 987654321 
 
 Fig. 128. Fig. 129. 
 
 number of shafts required to weave it, which, in this case, 
 is only two. 
 
 The healding draft proper may be constructed from the 
 letters arranged on the threads of the design. The 
 horizontal lines, a and fig. 128, represent the heddles 
 required, or the two distinct classes of threads in fig. 127, 
 while the perpendicular lines correspond to the sixteen 
 threads in the design. The first thread being lettered a 
 it is placed on shaft a, while the second thread, for a 
 similar reason, is placed on shaft h ; so that the letters on 
 the threads in the design indicate the shafts on which they 
 have to be individually drawn in preparing the draft. 
 
 One important feature about the healding plan thus 
 
266 
 
 WOOL MANUFACTURE. 
 
 formed is that the threads have been dealt with exactly in 
 that order in which they succeed each other in the design. 
 Providing this order were not adhered to the draft could 
 not perform the functions for which it is employed. Now, 
 when the heddles have been charged with the warp threads 
 on the system indicated in fig. 128, they would, if elevated 
 and depressed according to the reduced weave or pegging 
 plan, fig. 129, produce the original pattern. In order that 
 this may be clearly understood let an analysis be made of 
 the efie'ct of draft 128 on this reduced crossing. Shaft a, 
 it will be noticed, carries the following threads 1, 3, 4, 5, 
 6, 8, 10 and 15, while the second shaft is mounted with 
 threads 2, 7, 9, 11, 12, 13, 14 and 16 ; so that if the former 
 
 dgbe h 
 
 c 
 
 fa 
 
 dgb eke fa dgb ehcf 
 
 a 
 
 hgfedc'b 
 
 ah 
 
 gf edcb a e fgh 
 
 a 
 
 bcdhgfedcha hg fed c b a 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
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 64 ea 60 58 56 54 52 DO 48 46 44 42 40 38 36 34 32 30 28 26 2.4 «2 2:0 t8 16 14 12 109 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1' 
 ^3 61 59 57 65 53 51 49 47" 4S 43 43^9 8? 35 33 31 29 2.7 26 23 19 i:?. J5 11 
 
 D C B i{ 
 
 Fig. 130. 
 
 heddle were depressed, and the latter heddle raised ac- 
 cording to the first pick of the pegging plan, the shed 
 formed would be exactly the same as that of pick No. 1 of 
 fig. 127, for in such a case the first series of threads given 
 above would be down and the latter series elevated. The 
 second pick in the design simply being the opposite of the 
 first it can readily be obtained by reversing the shed. As 
 the remaining shoots are but repeats in a difierent order of 
 the first and second, the reader will be able to trace for 
 himself the manner in which the peg plan and draft com- 
 bined, actually reproduce the design, from which they have 
 been deduced. 
 
 160. Drafting Large Designs. — The extent to which some 
 
DRAFTING. 
 
 267 
 
 classes of patterns are reducible may be illustrated by a 
 consideration of fig. 130. This design is one of the 
 examples given by Prof. Beaumont some years ago at the 
 Yorkshire College, and is published here by his kind per- 
 mission. It will be seen that it occupies 64 threads, and is 
 composed of four separate stripes, A, B, c, and d. Each of 
 these sections produces a distinct effect in the woven fabric. 
 The character of the pattern may be briefly described as 
 follows : — 
 
 63 61 69 57 55 63 51 49 4 7 46 43-41 39 37 35 33 3i 2 9 27 25 23 Z'' 19 17 15 1.3 9 7 5 3 1 
 64 62 60 58 56 54 52 50 18 46 44 4r2 40 38 3f6 34 32 30 28 26 2* £2 20 1.8 16 t4 42 10 8 6 4- 2 
 
 ^ — — -v-^.^^- , ^ 
 
 D C B A 
 
 Fig. 131. 
 
 A, a stripe of 16 threads of buckskin twill running to 
 the left. 
 
 B, a stripe of 8 threads of buckskin twill running to the 
 right. 
 
 C, a stripe of 16 threads of buckskin twill running to the 
 left. 
 
 D, a stripe of 24 threads of ordinary twill running to the 
 right. 
 
 The special feature for analysis here, however, is the 
 method of reducing the design. On examining the pat- 
 tern carefully and lettering the different threads as they 
 follow each other in the figure, it is found that the whole 
 results from eight individual changes. In other words, 
 
268 
 
 WOOL MANUFACTURE. 
 
 sections b and d are composed of exactly the same threads 
 as sections A and 0, only they are arranged on different 
 systems. Now, as the latter sections are simply obtained 
 from the first eight threads in the example, only this 
 
 hgfedcba 
 
 3 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 
 
 Fig. 132. 
 
 number of shafts will be requisite in weaving the design. 
 These have been represented in the draft, fig. 131, by the 
 lines from a to ^ inclusive. The method on which the threads 
 are entered into the healds of the shafts can be easily 
 traced by comparing the numerals on the threads in the 
 
 Fig. 133. 
 
 draft with those in the design. As the pegging plan to 
 any drafted pattern always consists of one of each sort of 
 threads it contains, arranged in consecutive order, in 
 this example it will be represented by the eight threads 
 given in fig. 132. The design given under fig. 133, is 
 drafted on a somewhat similar principle to that just con- 
 
DRAFTING. 
 
 269 
 
 sidered. But as it stands on 40 threads, and is formed of 
 a very different type of crossings, it may be briefly referred 
 to. Section a is composed of a simple twilled weave, 
 while the plan of intertexture in b is more of a fancy 
 
 Fig. 134. 
 
 diagonal character. Although these makes appear so very 
 differently formed from each other, yet the reader will find, 
 if he compares the threads of the respective stripes, that 
 the design only contains ten varieties, all of which are in- 
 
 Fig. 135. 
 
 eluded in the first ten threads of part A. The draft and 
 peg plan, figs. 134 and 136, being obtained in the same 
 manner as those of the previous illustrations, it is not 
 necessary to explain them in detail. 
 
270 
 
 WOOL MANUFACTURE. 
 
 161. Figwred Pattern Drafted. — The two last examples 
 are both of a striped description, but a design of a figured 
 character will now be considered ; it is given in fig. 136, 
 and is weavable on 16 heddles. It illustrates the variety 
 
 C' D' A' M' D C B A 
 
 Fig. 136. 
 
 of changes which, by drafting, may be produced on a 
 limited number of healds. The pattern may be said to be 
 composed of four parts, A, b, c, and d, each of which is 
 workable on four healds. The only difference between 
 
DEAFTING. 
 
 271 
 
 these parts and a^, c\ and is in the twill of the 
 weaves. Not only is it an excellent design on account of 
 
 the amount of figure obtained on such a small number of 
 shafts ; but, also, on account of the ingenious manner in 
 which the weaves have been combined, four varieties of 
 
272 
 
 WOOL MANUFACTURE. 
 
 g0|l9 ie ".7 4 3 £ 1 
 
 weave effect being produced in the 
 woven fabric by twilling each of 
 the makes employed in two direc- 
 tions. The principle on which 
 the draft and weaving plan, figs. 
 137 and 138, have been con- 
 structed is evident from the letters 
 placed on the threads of both de- 
 sign, draft, and pegging weave, 
 for these relate to the same 
 threads in each case. 
 
 162. Frincijple of Producing N ew 
 Designs in a Given Draft, — There 
 is still another branch of this sub- 
 ject which requires attention. It 
 is this : the principle of varying 
 the weave effect without necessi- 
 tating a re-drawing of the warp 
 when a complicated draft has been 
 adopted in healding. That there 
 is some difficulty in accomplish- 
 ing this will be evident from the 
 fact that a considerable propor- 
 tion of the threads in a drafted 
 pattern have their positions as- 
 signed to them in the woven 
 fabric by the healding plan. Thus 
 three parts of fig. 136 are formed 
 in the cloth, when the reduced 
 plan is employed, by the draft. 
 It will be clear, therefore, that 
 unless the healding plan in such 
 cases is taken into consideration, 
 the woven results will be un- 
 satisfactory. A primary point 
 that should be consulted in con- 
 nection with a draft of this class 
 
 Fig. 138. 
 
DRAFTING. 
 
 273 
 
 is the order in which the threads are arranged, whether in 
 3's, or In the draft furnished to fig. 136 they will 
 be found to move in 4's, hence any weave occupying this 
 number of heddles might be employed without danger of 
 producing an irregular fabric ; the effect of six shaft weaves, 
 on the contrary, would be completely destroyed. A 4-shaft 
 make in this draft could only be subject to one modification, 
 and this would arise from the order of healding in the latter 
 four sections being the reverse of the order adopted in 
 portions A, B, c, and D. If, for example, the cassimere 
 twill were applied to the loom after it had been mounted 
 with 16 heddles and healded as indicated in fig. 137, 
 it would be transformed into an angle stripe 32 threads 
 twilling to the left and 32 threads twilling to the right 
 alternately. 
 
 The method of obtaining a check effect in a draft of this 
 kind will next be alluded to. A sketch of the pattern it 
 is intended to produce is shown in fig. 139, which has been 
 repeated in order to better illustrate its effect in the woven 
 fabric. Each thread in the sketch represents eight threads 
 in the draft. Parts a, or the thread here marked in solid 
 black lines should, in the design, be formed of the 4-heald 
 hop-sack or mat, the blank squares of cassimere twill and 
 the squares marked in diagonal lines of the same weave 
 twilled in the opposite direction. To proceed with the 
 construction of the design, fill in eight threads and 64* 
 picks on the point paper with hopsack, corresponding 
 to section A of this figure. IN'ow, according to the draft, 
 the same section, in a slightly altered form, is repeated on 
 the threads represented by A^ By following out this 
 arrangement, two stripes, with 32 threads between them 
 on one side and 16 threads between them on the other 
 side, would be produced. In order to obtain the re- 
 quired check effect it is only necessary to cross them at 
 right angles with corresponding stripes, that is, by filling 
 in the sections represented by d and d^. The outline of 
 the pattern having thus been completed, the next work 
 
 T 
 
274 
 
 WOOL MANUFACTURE. 
 
 consists in adding the detail. The sections should be 
 dealt with in the order in which they occur in the draft. 
 Parts B, c, and D might all be differently formed if it were 
 thought fit, as they are drawn on separate sets of heddles 
 in the draft. The remainder of the pattern would require 
 to be completed thread for thread from the healding plan. 
 
 I D C B A C_ B_ 
 
 D I A B ~r~ D^A. 
 
 Fig. 139. 
 
 When this design is worked out in hopsack and twill, 
 as described above, it produces a very neat style for 
 worsted coatings. A variety of both striped and figured 
 patterns may also be formed in the same draft, but pro- 
 bably the illustration given is sufficient to show the prin- 
 vciples on which this class of pattern is obtained. 
 
PATTERN DESIGN. 
 
 275 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 
 PATTERN DESIGN. 
 
 163. The Function of Weave in Coloured Patterns— 164. Effect of 
 Fancy Warping and Wefting on the Plain Weave — 165. Hairline Stripes 
 in the Plain Weave — 166. Hairline Stripes of Three Colours — 167. 
 Figured Hairlines — 168. Hairline Stripes of Four Colours — 169. Solid 
 Stripes in Mat and other Weaves — 170. Examples in Colourings for 
 Simple Striped Cloths — 171. Figured Patterns in the Plain Weave — 172. 
 Over-check in the Plain Weave — 173. Fancy Check — 174. Diagonal 
 and Fancy Coloured Patterns— 175. Mixtures in the Plain Cloth. 
 
 163. The Functiofi of Weave in Coloured Patterns .—Thus 
 far the principles of textile design considered have related 
 solely to effects obtained by interlacing, after different 
 plans of intertexture, threads of warp and weft of the 
 same shade together. The method of constructing pattern 
 by employing a variety of fancy yarns in one weave, that 
 is, the second method of producing design in the loom, 
 will therefore be next examined. A considerable assort- 
 ment of styles in wool, worsted, silk, and cotton tabrics is 
 obtained on this principle. Weave in such cloths is, in 
 one sense of the word, a factor of secondary importance, 
 the design, whether check, stripe, or broken figure, result- 
 ing principally from blending several colours or kinds of 
 yarns together in producing the texture. Scotch tweeds 
 are purely illustrative of this type of textile ornament. 
 Strictly speaking, the weave in such fabrics is only useful 
 so far as it constitutes a firm substantial cloth, and en- 
 hances the effect resulting from a judicious commixture 
 of colours. Designs of a weave description are sparingly 
 applied to patterns of this character. Thus the weaves 
 used in the manufacture of fancy tweeds are of the simplest 
 construction, comprising such makes as the plain or tabby, 
 
276 
 
 WOOL MANUFACTURE. 
 
 the cassimere, the swansdown or crow, and the six-leaf 
 twills ; also, in a few instances, the mayo, eight-heald 
 twilled hopsack, and other regular crossings. There is, 
 therefore, considerable ground for the assertion that Scotch 
 woollen goods may be manipulated, in a weave relation, 
 with as little difficulty as any class of cloths produced ; 
 the success they have attained in the trade being due to 
 two causes, purity of materials, and bright and attractive 
 colouring. In the fancy worsted trade it is somewhat 
 different ; weave in this case is an important feature of the 
 pattern produced as well as colour, necessitating the use 
 of a large assortment of crossings, occupying from 2 to 36 
 shafts. From this it is evident that the effect of weave, 
 and of its applicability to pattern mainly due to a com- 
 bination of fancy yarns, are subjects for study in designing 
 for worsted coatings and trouserings. In woollen fabrics, 
 however, the art of producing saleable patterns consists 
 primarily in a proper selection and blending of shades. 
 
 One of the distinguishing characteristics of patterns 
 formed of blends of colours is neatness combined with sim- 
 plicity. This arises from employing uniform crossings 
 in the production of the cloths, for such weaves not only 
 materially assist in the formation of a neat effect but also 
 construct a good foundation for the application of colour. 
 To suitably develop the shades combined in the warp and 
 weft of the cloth respectively, an even surface on the tex- 
 ture is of the highest importance, and this can be most 
 readily secured by employing a simple weave. Intricate 
 weave combinations are generally more difficult to treat 
 satisfactorily with fancy yarns than an ordinary twill or 
 hopsack make. Then, as a rule, the simpler the crossing 
 the firmer and more durable the woven fabric ; so that 
 there are many causes why pattern development, more 
 especially in woollen tweeds, is mainly confined to very 
 simple weaves. 
 
 The changes producible in the appearance of plain, 
 twilled, and mat fabrics, by introducing fancy shades into 
 
PATTERN DESIGN. 
 
 277 
 
 the warp and weft yarns, are varied, interesting and nu- 
 merous. Of course some styles of coloured patterns can 
 be more effectively produced in one class of weave than 
 another ; thus a large variety of stripes, checks and mix- 
 tures may be woven in both the four and six-shaft twills, 
 but to produce a hairline stripe, either the plain weave, 
 the prunelle twill, or the broken swansdown make is essen- 
 tial. As a rule the ordinary styles of checked and striped 
 effects are formed in weaves of a twill or hopsack class, 
 where the flushes of warp and weft are about equal, but 
 other types of coloured patterns are only obtainable by 
 using special weaves. 
 
 164. Effect of Fancy Warping and Wefting on the Plain 
 
 Fig. 140. 
 
 Weave, — A few patterns of a striped order, resulting from 
 employing a simple arrangement of coloured threads in 
 the warp and weft of a plain cloth, may now be considered. 
 The simplest pattern obtainable in this weave is that re- 
 presented in fig. 140. Its method of production is so 
 simple that a passing allusion to it is all that is necessary. 
 Thus it will at once be evident that a series of black and 
 white checks, such as those sketched in this illustration, 
 would result from using a white warp and black weft in 
 weaving a plain fabric — the alternate crossing of these 
 two opposite shades giving the diapered or checked effect 
 represented. To further illustrate the principle of colour- 
 ing this weave reference will be made to fig. 141. Let it 
 
278 
 
 WOOL MANUFACTURE. 
 
 be supposed that the warp for the three sections of this 
 figure is arranged one thread black and one thread white 
 alternately, the order of wefting being, however, diflPerent 
 in each stripe. Thus in the first section, a, it is exactly 
 the same as the warp, producing two distinct lines of black 
 and white ; in the second section, Z>, it is all black, while 
 in the third section, c, the weft is all white. The eff'ect of 
 the black weft is to form a solid black line adjoining a 
 broken white line, while the white weft in section c gives 
 a solid white line adjoining a broken black line ; showing 
 that a variety of patterns may sometimes be originated 
 from interlacing one arrangement of warp yarns with 
 several distinct systems of wefting. 
 
 a "be 
 
 Fig. 141. 
 
 The same illustration may also be employed to demon- 
 strate the effect of different methods of warping on one 
 order of weft threads. Supposing, for example, this sketch 
 represents a fabric in which part a is warped as above, one 
 thread black and one thread white ; part warped all 
 black ; and part c composed entirely of white warp yarns ; 
 the weft for each stripe to be one pick black and one pick 
 white alternately ; then precisely the same results would 
 be obtained as just described ; from which it is evident 
 that the appearance of the cloth may be modified by apply- 
 ing fancy colours in two ways, (1) by varying the order of 
 warp yarns ; (2) by varying the arrangement of weft yarns. 
 To produce check, mixture, and other patterns, coloured 
 threads are introduced into both these series of yarns. 
 
PATTERN DESIGN. 
 
 279 
 
 165. Hairline Siripes in the Plain Weave. — The causes 
 to which the patterns sketched in fig. 141 are attri- 
 butable deserve some explanation. It may, therefore, 
 be useful to consider how, from a plain weave warped and 
 woven one thread black and one thread white, the solid 
 lines of these colours sketched in section a have been 
 formed. Such a pattern is called a " hairline" on account 
 of the smartness and smallness of the respective stripes in 
 the woven fabric. The separate lines of colour, in a 
 finished cloth of this character, are as solid and continuous 
 as if they were painted on the surface of the texture with 
 a fine brush. An efiect of this class can only be obtained 
 by covering the black warp with the black weft, and 
 
 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 
 
 11 II 
 
 
 
 11 
 
 
 
 4*1 
 
 
 Fig. 142. 
 
 the white warp with the white weft ; and unless the 
 weave used is constructed on such a principle as to 
 admit of this arrangement of yarns during weaving, the 
 formation of the separate lines is impracticable. That the 
 structure of the plain make allows of the production of this 
 pattern, however, is evident from the order in which the 
 two classes of yarns intersect each other in the construction 
 of the fabric. It follows that as this crossing only contains 
 two threads and two picks, the odd picks will always cover 
 the odd threads, and the even picks the even threads. A 
 reference to fig. 142 will show that this is the characteristic 
 which makes it feasible to produce a stripe of two solid 
 colours in the plain make. Here, it will be noticed, the 
 
280 
 
 WOOL MANUFACTURE. 
 
 black picks, 1, 3, 5, and 7, enter the warp when the black 
 threads are depressed and the white threads elevated ; 
 hence, while the solidity of the black stripes is thus pre- 
 served, that of the white stripes is not interrupted. The 
 same conditions are observed during the introduction of 
 the white picks — namely, the black threads are lifted and 
 the white threads are depressed, preventing the former 
 from being covered with an opposing shade, and also pre- 
 serving the continuity of the respective stripes. 
 
 166. Hairline Stripe of Three Colours. — It will be clear 
 from the analysis furnished of a thread-and-thread hair- 
 line stripe, that each line of colour in any pattern, provid- 
 ing it is solid from one end of the piece to the other, must. 
 
 Fig. 143. 
 
 in weaving, be crossed with a corresponding colour of 
 w^eft. This may be said to form the principle on which all 
 hairlines are produced. Hence, in order to form three or 
 four lines of different shades of yarn, weaves containing 
 these numbers of shoots, and in which each pick intersects 
 a separate warp thread, must necessarily be employed. 
 To make this clearer, the plan of constructing a stripe of 
 three distinct colours similar to fig. 143 will be described. 
 l^ot only is it essential to use a 3- shaft weave to procure 
 this pattern, but the weave must also contain at least three 
 picks in order to admit of each of the single thread stripes 
 being covered with such weft yarns as matches them in 
 colour or shade. The prunelle twill, fig. 143a, will be 
 
PATTERN DESIGN. 
 
 281 
 
 found to be the weave exactly adapted to these require- 
 ments. The pattern of both warp and weft of this striped 
 effect is arranged as follows : — One thread black, one 
 thread grey, one thread white. The first thread and first 
 pick of the weave according to this order of colouring will 
 be black ; the second thread and second pick grey ; and 
 the third thread and third pick white. On comparing the 
 plan of crossing the threads with the methods of warping 
 and wefting, it will be ascertained how the weave, and 
 arrangement of yarns alluded to, combined, produce the 
 pattern required. The following analysis of the inter- 
 weaving of the threads on the prunelle principle will ex- 
 plain the system on which the individual stripes of colour 
 are formed: — 
 
 The first pick (black), depressing the first thread (fig. 
 143ci), and elevating the second and third threads, floats 
 under the grey and white, but over the black yarns in the 
 warp, thus forming a solid black line. 
 
 The second pick (grey), depressing the second thread 
 and elevating the first and third threads, floats under the 
 black and white, but over the grey yarns in the warp, thus 
 forming a solid grey line. 
 
 The third pick (white), depressing the third thread and 
 elevating the first and second threads, floats under the 
 black and grey, but over the white yarns in the warp, thus 
 forming a solid white line. 
 
 167. Figured Hairlines. — The effect of the same order 
 of yarns in weave 143&, which is just the reverse of weav^e 
 143a, will next be pointed out. The first pick of this 
 crossing, depressing the second and third threads, floats 
 under the black thread, and over the grey and white 
 threads, producing a black line across the piece ; the second 
 pick, depressing the first and third threads, conceals the 
 black and white warp, and, in conjunction with the grey 
 threads, gives a grey line across the piece ; while the third 
 pick produces a white transverse line, because the black 
 and grey threads are down during its introduction into the 
 
282 
 
 WOOL MANUFACTURE. 
 
 warp. Instead, therefore, of giving stripes lengthways of 
 the fabric, this make forms them in a transverse direction. 
 This being so, by combining weaves 143(x and 1435, a con- 
 siderable assortment of patterns in checks and figures may 
 be produced. Take the design given under fig. 145 as an 
 illustration. This small checked weave when warped and 
 woven in the same order as the preceding styles gives the 
 basket check effect, sketched in fig. 144. The parts let- 
 tered A of the design form the longitudinal, and the parts 
 B the transverse stripes. As there are two repeats of the 
 weave in each section of the design, there is the same 
 number of black, grey, and white lines in every part 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 fh 
 
 it& 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 
 0 
 
 
 V 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 B 
 
 'a 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 <^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 (h 
 
 it\ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 
 G 
 
 ri 
 
 y 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 B 
 
 ac 
 
 -k 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Fig. 143 A. 
 
 Fig. 143 B. 
 
 of the pattern. This style of effect is very frequently 
 seen in all wool goods of a suiting, dress, and shirting 
 class. 
 
 The plan most frequently used, however, is that given 
 in fig. 146, which is usually warped and wefted two threads 
 of a dark shade, and one thread of a medium or light shade. 
 
 Of course, this arrangement only gives two lines of 
 colour, but as the weaves can, in producing this pattern, 
 be more correctly combined than in the design for fig. 144, 
 they form a better and evener texture. 
 
 168. Hairline Stripe of Four Colours, — Fig. 147 is a 
 hairline stripe composed of four colours. It may be ob- 
 
PATTERN DESIGN. 
 
 283 
 
 tained by employing weave 147 (X, and arranging the warp 
 and weft yarns as follows : — 
 
 Warp. ' Weft. 
 
 1 thread of black . . 1 pick of black. 
 
 1 „ dark grey . 1 „ dark grey. 
 
 1 mid grey . . 1 white. 
 
 1 „ white . . 1 „ mid grey. 
 
 The reason for changing the positions of the white and 
 mid grey yarns in wefting will be apparent from an exami- 
 nation of the structure of the plan of make used. 
 
 Thus the first and second picks of weave 147 a, depres- 
 sing the first and second, or the black and dark grey 
 threads of the warp, form continuous lines of these respec- 
 
 Eig. 144. Fig. 145. 
 
 tive shades ; but it will possibly be noticed that the third 
 pick takes down the 4th thread, which, according to the 
 pattern of warp is white, and hence to make the line of 
 this colour solid in the piece, this pick must also be white; 
 while the 4th shoot, for a similar reason, namely, because 
 it covers the light grey warp thread, it must also be of 
 this colour, and not white as the fourth thread in the warp. 
 The pattern produced by this arrangement is very largely 
 applied to woollen goods, being neat and quiet in appear- 
 ance, more especially if judiciously coloured. 
 
 169. Solid Stripes in Mat and other Weaves. — To produce 
 stripes of two threads in width, instead of one, the weaves 
 have to be diflPerently constructed. An illustration of one 
 type of makes used for this purpose is given in fig. 148. 
 This crossing is sometimes employed in making worsted 
 
284 
 
 WOOL MANUFACTURE. 
 
 trouserings. If the threads in the warp were arranged 
 2 black, 2 olive, 2 light drab, and 2 olive again, and the 
 weft 2 black, 2 olive, and 2 light drab, the pattern pro- 
 duced would be of the following description: — 
 
 1st, a continuous stripe of two threads of black. 
 
 2nd, „ „ „ olive. 
 
 3rd, „ „ „ light drab. 
 
 4th, „ „ „ olive. 
 
 The reason why the 7 th and 8th threads of the pattern 
 are exactly like the 3rd and 4th, is on account of the 
 structure of the weave, for it admits of both these pairs of 
 threads being covered with the olive weft during weaving. 
 By this means another style of effect from those already 
 described is secured. 
 
 Fig. 146. Fig. 147. 
 
 A simple two-and-two thread stripe is generally woven 
 in the 4-shaft hopsack. Fig. 149 shows the system on 
 which the warp and weft yarns intersect each other in 
 gaining an effect of this kind. The pattern obtained 
 strikingly illustrates how the character of a weave may be 
 changed in the woven fabric by the addition of colour. 
 This make, unless the threads are arranged on the prin- 
 ciple here indicated, invariably gives a mat or check effect 
 in the cloth, but in this example it has here been used in 
 such a manner as to be the agent in forming two solid 
 lines of black and grey respectively. 
 
 170. Examj)les in Colourings for Simple Striped Cloths. — 
 N"o allusion has been made, as yet, to the diversity of 
 
PATTERN DESIGN. 
 
 285 
 
 colourings that may be applied to the various styles described. 
 But it will, without doubt, be obvious that an almost end- 
 less variety of changes may be obtained, by a simple 
 modification of colours, in these weaves with the precise 
 orders of threads already given. Here are a few examples 
 of colourings to be woven in the same order as those pre- 
 viously furnished to fig. 141. 
 
 1 thread of black. 
 1 „ black and blue 
 twist. 
 
 1 thread of black. 
 1 black and olive 
 
 twist. 
 
 Fig. 147 A. 
 
 Fig. 148. 
 
 1 thread of olive. 
 1 white. 
 1 „ olive. 
 1 black. 
 
 If the weft for the latter pattern were 1 pick olive and 
 1 pick white, it would, in the plain weave, in which it is 
 intended to be woven, give continuous stripes of these 
 colours only, for the black thread in such a case would be 
 crossed with white. 
 
 The following colourings are given as a sample of the 
 class of shades which may be combined, with good results, 
 in fig. 143. 
 
 1 thread of white. 
 
 1 „ drab. 
 
 1 „ olive-brown. 
 
 1 thread of black. 
 
 1 ,, mid green. 
 
 1 „ black and blue twist. 
 
286 
 
 WOOL MANUFACTURE. 
 
 III. 
 
 1 thread of dark brown. 
 1 light brown. 
 
 1 blue-lavender. 
 
 These examples have simply been furnished to show 
 that when once the principle of producing any one of the 
 effects described is understood, ingenuity and taste may 
 be exercised on a variety of colourings almost ad in- 
 finitum. 
 
 171. Figured FoMems in the Flain Weave. — In the plain 
 weave, particularly in woollen cloths, a considerable variety 
 of patterns obtains of a check, mixture, and spotted or small 
 
 Fig. 149. 
 
 figured character. As the effect of this weave in the woven 
 fabrics is nil, such designs are developed entirely by the 
 systems of combining the fancy yarns in the manufacture 
 of the cloth. Consequently, the subject for analysis is 
 that of textile design, in a pZa^?^ fabric, as it results from 
 modifying the arrangement of warp and weft yarns em- 
 ployed in weaving the texture. In each of the illustra- 
 tions which will subsequently be given of fancy styles 
 applied to this crossing, the first pick is always understood 
 to enter the warp when the odd threads are depressed, but 
 the second pick when such threads are elevated. It would 
 materially assist the student in mastering the principle of 
 
PATTERN DESIGN. 
 
 287 
 
 pattern construction in the plain make, if he mapped out 
 on point paper the same number of threads and picks of 
 this weave as the patterns of warp and weft, or one repeti- 
 tion of the design contains. 
 
 As the hairline stripe, in the plain crossing, was obtained . 
 by thread-and-thread warping and weaving, it may next be 
 pointed out what style of effect results from arranging the 
 yarns, in both warp and weft of the fabric, two ends black 
 and one end white. This simple modification in the order 
 of the yarns produces a distinct difference in the style of 
 effect obtained, for it forms a pattern consisting of a num- 
 ber of small figures or lines of colour running lengthways 
 of the piece, each of which is crossed at right angles with 
 
 Fig. 150. 
 
 a figure of corresponding dimensions. The character of 
 this effect will be better understood on referring to fig. 
 150. Here, it will be observed, the black threads and 
 picks meet each other and form a solid black ground, while 
 the white threads form the short lines or figures. If the 
 warp had been arranged, two threads of white and one 
 thread of black, the pattern produced would have been 
 exactly the reverse of that sketched in the illustration, 
 namely, a series of short, disconnected black lines arranged 
 on a white ground. 
 
 In order to make it clear that these two classes of yarns 
 — black and white respectively, and warped and woven 
 two ends of the former to one end of the latter — cross 
 
288 
 
 WOOL MANUFACTURE. 
 
 each other in the plain weave on such a principle as to 
 form this pattern, the plan of construction will require to 
 be carefully examined. Suppose, therefore, that the first 
 two threads of the weave are black, the third thread 
 white, the fourth and fifth threads black, and the sixth 
 thread white ; and, further, that the warp yarns are drawn 
 on two shafts, and that the first heddle has been depressed 
 and the second heddle elevated for the reception of the 
 first black pick, then the black threads, 2 and 4, and the 
 white thread, 6, would be raised, but threads 1, 3, and 5 
 would at the same time be covered with the weft yarn ; 
 hence pick 1 allows the sixth thread, that is, the second 
 white thread in the design, to appear on the face of the 
 fabric. The elevation of the second and depression of the 
 first shaft allows the third thread in the warp, which is the 
 first white end in the pattern, to float over the second 
 black pick. The third pick, which is white, next enters 
 the warp, and not only continues the white line commenced 
 on the third thread by the previous pick, but also forms a 
 cross figure by floating over threads 5 and 7, and by 
 floating under thread 6 ; causing the line formed across 
 these ends — 5, 6, and' 7 — to be of the same length as if 
 the pick had flushed over three threads in succession. As 
 the fourth pick is exactly like the second both in the 
 weave and in colour, the white figure on the third thread 
 is again continued. The fifth pick is a repetition of the 
 first. The sixth pick, or second white weft thread in the 
 illustration, falls on the opposite shed of the weave to its pre- 
 decessor of the same shade, and, as a result, forms a white 
 cross line on threads 2, 3, and 4?. This it does in the 
 following manner : The first thread, being black and 
 elevated, covers the weft introduced ; the second thread, 
 however, being down, allows the white filling yarn to 
 flush over it ; the third thread of the pattern appears on 
 the face of the texture, but, as it is white and not black, 
 it continues the formation of the white cross line begun on 
 the previous thread ; the weft next crosses over the fourth 
 
PATTERN DESIGN. 
 
 289 
 
 thread, where it completes one transverse figure, then 
 under the fifth, and lastly over the sixth thread. 
 
 A very common mode of making this pattern consists 
 in arranging the threads thus : two ends of self-coloured 
 yarn, and one end of fancy twist yarn, as, for example, 
 two threads of black and one thread of black and olive 
 twist ; or two threads of dark brown and one thread of 
 black and lavender twist. In each case the weft would, of 
 course, be made to match the warp. 
 
 172. Over-Check in the Plain Weave, — The principle of 
 
 £4 23 2223 2fi1 9 38 17 16 1514 13 12 11 10 987654327 
 
 Fig. 151. 
 
 constructing a simple check pattern in this weave will 
 next be considered. A sketch of an example in this style 
 of efiect is furnished in fig. 151. This design is very fre- 
 quently seen in woollen suitings, and it is both neat and 
 efiective in appearance. It may be produced in either the 
 plain or hopsack. Should the checks be about the same 
 size in the cloth as represented in the illustration the 
 hopsack weave has been used in the production of the 
 fabric. The following is the order of the warp and weft 
 yarns for constructing this efiect in the plain weave : — 
 
 u 
 
290 
 
 WOOL MANUFACTURE. 
 
 2 threads of white. 
 
 2 „ „ black. 
 
 2 „ „ grey. 
 
 2 „ „ black. 
 
 2 „ „ grey. 
 
 2 „ black. 
 
 The white threads and white picks form in conjunction 
 with each other what is technically called an over-check ; 
 that is, in this case, a large check of white, containing a 
 number of smaller squares of black and grey. The object 
 of introducing these threads into the pattern is to impart 
 a freshness to the appearance of the cloth. The design 
 might be made more attractive and saleable by the follow- 
 ing combination of threads : — 
 
 1 thread of black. 
 
 1 „ „ black and blue twist. 
 
 2 threads of black. 
 
 2 5, „ black and white twist. 
 
 2 „ „ black. 
 
 2 „ „ black and white twist. 
 
 2 „ „ black. 
 
 The over-check in this set of colours would be formed of 
 black and blue twist yarns, and the small figures of black, 
 and black and white twists respectively. 
 
 An analysis of the process of producing this pattern will 
 no doubt be useful. On consulting the arrangement given 
 above of the warp and weft yarns, it will be noticed that 
 the first two threads are white. The first pick would, 
 therefore, in consequence of covering the odd threads, form 
 a three-flush of white with the 1st, 2nd, and 3rd threads, 
 and a similar flush with the 13th, 14th, and 15th threads, 
 because, on this pick the even threads, 2 and 14, which 
 are white, are elevated, while the black threads, 3 and 15, 
 are depressed. Pick 2, which is also white, entering the 
 warp when the even threads are down, forms flushes of 
 
PATTERN DESIGN, 
 
 291 
 
 three threads each on the 24th, 1st and 2nd threads, and 
 the 12th, 13th, and 14th threads respectively. 
 
 According to the arrangement of the threads already 
 mapped out for this pattern, the 3rd and 4th threads are 
 black, and hence the two succeeding picks of weft will also 
 require to be yarns of this colour. The part these shoots 
 play in the formation of the design is very distinctly 
 marked in the black figures covering the surface of the 
 texture. For instance, the first pick of black forms a 
 series of black flushes, each of which is equal to a float of 
 three threads in length, across the piece ; these are sepa- 
 rated from each other by the elevation of single threads of 
 grey or white, according to the positions they individually 
 occupy in the pattern of warp. Pick 4, it will be seen, 
 allows the 1st, 5th, and every 4th odd end, counting from 
 the latter thread, to show on the face of the cloth, which 
 causes each line of black to be moved one thread to the 
 right of its predecessor. By carefully going through the 
 design in this manner the reader will possibly be able to 
 arrive at the principle on which this effect has been 
 constructed. 
 
 173. Fanctj Check, — A check of a much more intricate 
 description than the one just described appears in fig, 152. 
 The order of colouring this style in both warp and weft is 
 as follows : — 
 
 2 threads of black. 2 threads of black. 
 
 1 „ ,, white. 1 ,, „ white. 
 
 1 „ „ black. 1 „ „ black. 
 
 1 „ „ white. 1 „ white. 
 
 1 ,, black. 1 „ „ black. 
 
 1 „ „ white. 1 ,, „ white. 
 
 2 „ „ black. 2 „ „ black. 
 2 „ „ white. 2 „ „ white. 
 
 This somewhat lengthy order of threads seems to indi- 
 cate, when the nature of the pattern is considered, that the 
 more varied the effect obtained, the more intricate the 
 
292 
 
 WOOL MANUFACTURE. 
 
 method of combining the yarns in both warp and weft. In 
 thin materials this style forms a very suitable design for 
 dress fabrics, and generally finds a sale in the market. It 
 is given here, however, as a practical illustration of the 
 variety of effect obtainable in the plain weave by two 
 colours. The method on which it is formed deserves 
 careful study. 
 
 No doubt it will be observed that parts a and^ a^ are 
 simply isolated portions of the hairline effect got by 
 thread and thread warping and picking ; while sections b 
 
 22 21 20 1918171615 141312 
 
 •■^ ^ IS -"^"^ •■^'^ "^1^ •■^"S -"^ ^ 
 
 ^ ^ ^4 ^ ^ ^ a; S ^ ^ 1^ J-i 
 
 cq ft; 
 
 Fig. 152. 
 
 and are the same stripes placed in a transverse instead 
 of a longitudinal direction. It is not necessary to go over 
 the ground of the principle on which parts A are formed, 
 so attention will be directed to section b. Now a brief 
 examination of this pattern will show that both b and b\ 
 although totally different parts of the design, occupy, re- 
 latively, exactly the same positions in the weave. Thus 
 section b commences to be formed on the thirteenth pick, 
 while B^ begins to be formed on the twelfth thread. If 
 the arrangement of the coloured threads employed ^is 
 consulted, it will be found that the thirteenth pick of 
 
PATTERN DESIGN. 
 
 293 
 
 section B is black ; the weave, it must be remembered, de- 
 presses the odd threads during the intersection of the odd 
 picks, hence the thirteenth thread will be down when the 
 thirteenth pick is entering the warp. Again the second 
 pick, on which the parallel horizontal lines of commence 
 to be formed, is also black, and enters the warp when the 
 twelfth and the remainder of the even threads are de- 
 pressed ; showing clearly that the threads of the respec- 
 tive sections intersect each other in precisely the same 
 order, although forming different portions of the pattern. 
 This being so, the matter is somewhat simplified, for the 
 remarks made on section B will also be applicable to b\ 
 An analysis of this part of the figure, from the 2nd to the 
 
 Fi^. 153. 
 
 Fig. 154. 
 
 8th pick, shows that the black picks enter the warp when 
 the white threads are down and the black threads are 
 elevated ; whereas the white picks are introduced into the 
 warp when the black threads are down and the white 
 threads up. In a, however, the black picks float over the 
 black threads and the white picks over the white threads, 
 hence in the former case the lines are formed across, and 
 in the latter case lengthways of the fabric. 
 
 174. Diagonal and Fa/ncy Coloured Fatterns. — This prin- 
 ciple holds good in all instances where the plain weave is 
 used — namely, colour over colour gives longitudinal stripes, 
 and colour under colour horizontal stripes in the woven 
 
294 
 
 WOOL MANUFACTURE. 
 
 cloth. As this is an invariable rule, some curious effects 
 can be got by a slight alteration of the weave. Take, as 
 examples of what is here alluded to, weaves 153 and 154. 
 If these designs were woven in self colours they would 
 almost present a plain faced texture ; in fact they are 
 merely the plain weave, in some parts of which the make 
 commences on the opposite threads to what it does in 
 others. Thus the odd threads of fig. 153, in the portions 
 formed in full square dots, are always depressed when the 
 odd picks interweave with the warp, but in the portions 
 marked in crosses the same picks cover the even threads. 
 This has a very pronounced effect on the simplest mode of 
 warping. 
 
 Supposing the plan of the warp and weft threads was, 
 
 for example, one thread black and one thread white, then, 
 in those sections of these designs where the plain is formed 
 in full black dots, upright lines would be produced, but in 
 the adjoining sections, marked in crosses, transverse lines 
 would be formed. The character of the effect given by 
 the former weave in the cloth resembles in appearance the 
 pattern shown in fig. 155. The curiously arranged design 
 seen in fig. 156 is obtained from the same order of warp- 
 ing as pattern 155, but by using weave 154. Here the 
 lines formed in the direction of the warp result from colour 
 floating over colour in the sections dotted in square cha- 
 racters ; in the portions of the design marked in crossed 
 dots, however, the plain starting on the opposite thread to 
 what it does in other sections, the relative positions of the 
 
 Fig. 155. 
 
 Fig. 156. 
 
PATTERN DESIGN. 
 
 295 
 
 warp threads to the warp picks are changed, which causes 
 shade to float under shade and thus produce black and 
 white lines of various lengths, running in the direction of 
 the filling yarn. 
 
 175. Mixtures in the Plain Oloth. — Another very neat 
 plain cloth effect is sketched in fig. 157. It is designated 
 a hird/s eye pattern. The method of production is of the 
 simplest character. The warp in such styles is generally 
 all one colour — say, in this example, all white woven one 
 pick black and one pick grey. Now, although the black 
 and grey yarns produce spots of these colours on the face 
 of the fabric, yet neither shade forms a continuous stripe. 
 One portion of the warp crosses over the black, and a 
 
 Fig. 157. 
 
 second portion over the white weft, causing the dots of 
 colour to be arranged on the check principle. 
 
 A few useful colourings in this style of pattern are 
 appended : — 
 
 I. 
 
 Warp : All black and white twist. 
 Weft : 1 pick black and white twist ; 1 pick olive. 
 
 II. 
 
 Warp : All olive. 
 Weft : 1 pick indigo blue ; 1 pick lavender. 
 
 III. 
 
 Warp : All black and lavender twist. 
 Weft : 1 pick black ; 1 pick black and olive twist> 
 
296 
 
 WOOL MANUFACTURE. 
 
 CHAPTER XL 
 
 COLOUR APPLIED TO TWILLED AND FANCY WEAVES. 
 
 176. Uses of the Gas mere Twill in Coloured Patterns — 177. Dif- 
 ference between the Effects obtained in the Cassimere and Plain Weaves. 
 178. Broken Diamond in the Cassimere — 179. Stripes in the Four- 
 End Twill— 180. Shepherd Plaid— 181. Fancy Check— 182. Colour 
 applied to Five-End Makes— 183. Effects in the Six-End Twill— 184. 
 Checks in the Six-End Twill— 185. Patterns in the Mayo — 186. Colour 
 in Relation to the Eight-Shaft Diagonal — 187. Arrangement of Colour- 
 ings for Twilled Hopsack — 188. Colour applied to Weave Combinations 
 — 189. How to Colour Intricate Weave Designs — 190. Cloths Figured 
 by Weave and Colour — 191. Kibbed Patterns. 
 
 176. Uses of the Cassimere Twill in Coloured Patterns, — 
 The practical worth of the cassimere twill as a weave 
 suitable for developing effects of a coloured character can- 
 not be over-estimated. Its neat and simple structure 
 make it adapted to all kinds of fabrics, and hence it is 
 employed in the production of fancy woollen, worsted, 
 cotton, and silk cloths. 
 
 There are some weaves which, on account of their irre- 
 gular construction, can only be used, with satisfactory re- 
 sults, in one class of yarns and one kind of set or reed, 
 and even when these conditions are complied with they 
 are only suitable for a very limited range of effects. Cork- 
 screw makes are of this class. Hence, although precisely 
 the same shades and order of threads may be employed in 
 both warp and weft of such twills, yet the colourings in 
 the woven pattern appear more pronounced in tone in the 
 direction of the warp than in the direction of the weft. 
 This is due to the principle on which corkscrews are con- 
 structed, for they are essentially what may be defined 
 warp-faced weaves. Obviously, then, crossings of this 
 
COLOUR APPLIED TO TWILLED AND FANCY WEAVES. 297 
 
 character are totally unsuitable for real check patterns. 
 A kind of a broken or an irregularly-formed check may, of 
 course, be woven in them, but the perfect rectangular 
 formation, characteristic of check effects, is never so clearly 
 developed in both warp and weft of the pattern if the 
 weave used allows either of these two classes of threads 
 to appear more on the surface of the fabric than the other. 
 It should be observed that there are cases where a decided 
 check is not required, but simply a pattern in which the 
 colourings of the weft are somewhat more subdued than 
 those of the warp, or an effect possessing the features of 
 both stripe and check. Weaves in which the warp flushes 
 predominate are frequently employed in such styles ; but 
 when a true check has to be produced, a make of an or- 
 dinary twilled stamp is the most likely to yield the best 
 
 Fig. 159. 
 
 Fig. 158. 
 
 results. As the cassimere twill is of this construction, it 
 affords unlimited facilities for a variety of arrangements 
 as to colourings. 
 
 177. Difference between the Effects obtai7ied in the Cassimere 
 and Plain Weaves. — The effects produced in this twill are 
 decidedly different from those obtained in the plain weave, 
 even when the method of colouring is precisely the same 
 in both cases. All patterns formed in the latter crossing 
 are completely void of ornament of a weave character ; in 
 effects obtained in the " cassimere," however, a twill or 
 small diagonal, in addition to the shades or colours com- 
 bined, ornaments the surface of the texture. Thread-and- 
 thread warping, as pointed out in the previous Chapter, gives, 
 in the plain weave, a hairline stripe, but in this twill it forms 
 a diagonal of a step character as shown in fig. 159. This 
 
298 
 
 WOOL MANUFACTURE. 
 
 indicates that when the arrangement or classification of 
 threads remains unaltered, if the weave is changed, a 
 complete modification of pattern results. A more striking 
 example of how the style of the design, under such condi- 
 tions, is entirely remodelled could not be furnished than 
 that represented in this illustration. By merely varying 
 the weave from plain to twill a striped pattern has been 
 transformed into a well-defined diagonal. The principles 
 of weaving which underlie this result deserve careful 
 analysis. The cassimere twill, fig. 158, contains four 
 threads and four picks, while the plain weave only con- 
 tains two ; that is to say, the former make repeats itself 
 on every fifth, but the latter on every third thread. This 
 alone, it will soon be apparent, is sufficient to impart a new 
 character to the woven effect although the same colour- 
 ings may be employed in both weaves. For, if the patterns 
 of warp and weft are arranged one end black and one end 
 white, one repeat of the weave in the plain crossing would 
 imply one complete repeat of the design, whereas the arrange- 
 ment of yarns would be twice repeated in one formation of 
 the twilled make. Let the plan and colourings be now 
 examined. Pick 1, weave 158, covers the first and second 
 threads and forms in combination with the third thread 
 (which is black and elevated during its intersection) a 
 black float of three threads, as indicated in the pattern, 
 fig. 159. When pick 2 enters the warp the second and 
 third threads are up and the fourth thread down, so that it 
 forms by joining on to the second thread a transverse line 
 of white. If this analysis were continued it would show 
 that the odd picks always form three-end flushes of black 
 and a one-thread flush of white ; while the even picks form 
 three-end flushes of white and a one-thread flush of black. 
 
 It will be noticed that although the twill of the weave 
 runs to the right hand, that of the pattern moves to the 
 left. To reverse the direction of the diagonal in the woven 
 pattern, the weave employed would require to go to the 
 left hand in weaving. 
 
COLOUR APPLIED TO TWILLED AND FANCY WEAVES. 299 
 
 178. Brohen Diamond in the Cassimere. — Fig. 160 is an- 
 other pattern which has been produced in the same order 
 of threads by using the check weave given in fig. 160a. 
 
 It is unnecessary to explain in detail how this broken 
 diamond, or, perhaps, more strictly speaking, irregular 
 check pattern has been constructed. The weave used, it 
 will be quite clear from the remarks made on the previous 
 pattern, is arranged on such a principle as to give this 
 result. Both the pattern and the weave may be divided 
 into four separate parts. The twill of the design in sec- 
 tions A and a\ forms those parts of the pattern in which 
 
 Fig. 160 A. 
 
 the diagonal moves to the left, while sections b and 
 produce the parts in which the diagonal runs to the 
 right. 
 
 When this pattern is enlarged (say about four or six 
 times its present size), it becomes a very eflPective style. In 
 these dimensions it often finds a place in both woollen and 
 worsted goods. The appearance of the design is some- 
 times improved by forming an over-check on those threads 
 of the weave which oppose each other, thus in this figure 
 it would be constructed on the 8fch and 9th threads and 
 picks. Not unfrequently this design appears in dress 
 
300 
 
 WOOL MANUFACTURE. 
 
 fabrics in exactly these colours, when its neat and plain 
 characteristics obtain for it a considerable sale. 
 
 179. Stri/pes in the Four-end Twill, — There are three 
 patterns of striped designs given in figs. 161, 162, and 
 163, which are extensively woven in this weave (see fig. 
 158). The first of these is warped two threads black and 
 two threads white alternately, and crossed with black weft. 
 Its appearance may be varied by introducing two fancy 
 yarns on the 15th and 16th threads and picks respectively. 
 Fig. 162 may be called a four-and-four-end stripe ; it is 
 made as follows : warjp, four threads of grey and four 
 threads of white ; iveft^ all grey. The last of these stripes 
 is warped exactly in the same manner as fig. 161, only 
 picked with grey. Each of these three samples when pro- 
 perly managed in colouring give useful and serviceable 
 
 Fig. 161. Fig. 162. Fig. 163. 
 
 patterns. By appropriate modifications in colours and 
 method of wefting, they may be varied to an almost un- 
 limited extent. In fact, the changes in style in woollen 
 goods, particularly of a simple striped class, originate, 
 generally, from the employment of new shades, and not 
 from varying either the order of warping, picking, or plan 
 of weave. 
 
 180. Shepherd Plaid. — The universally known black-and- 
 white shepherd plaid, such a favourite of former days, and 
 not yet completely discarded by fashion, is another effect 
 that is frequently produced in this weave. A sketch of a 
 sample of woven fabric thus ornamented is given in fig. 
 164. If the arrangement of the threads for warping and 
 weaving is furnished, no doubt the reader, by a little study, 
 will be able to trace its formation to the twilled make given 
 in fig. 158. Both warp and weft are composed of four threads 
 
COLOUR APPLIED TO TWILLED AND FANCY WEAVES. 301 
 
 of black and four threads of white alternately. Possibly 
 it is scarcely necessary to suggest that this order of yarns 
 may be put to very extensive service by combining such 
 shades as browns, olives, drabs, blues, greys and slates, or 
 any other neat, but sombre colours. 
 
 181. Fancy Chech, — Only one more pattern in the cassi- 
 mere twill need be described, that furnished in fig. 165. 
 The arrangement of threads in this illustration is four ends 
 of black, four ends of grey, four ends of white and four ends 
 of grey. The check thus formed is of a shaded class. Three 
 colours of brown — dark, mid, and light — or black, dark blue 
 and olive, if similarly arranged also give satisfactory patterns. 
 
 The style thus produced is bold and effective in character. 
 
 Fig. 164. 
 
 Fig. 165. 
 
 and is one that generally finds an extensive sale. It is, in 
 reality, a threefold check, the black ends forming one series 
 of squares, the white ends a corresponding series, while the 
 grey ends form checks adjoining both the black and white 
 squares. Perhaps this method of colouring is more promi- 
 nently developed in the cassimere twill than any other weave 
 to which it can be applied. The effect of the crossing is very 
 distinctly represented in the sketch. This species of pattern 
 is not confined to woollen and worsted cloths for gentlemen's 
 wear, but is extensively used in the production of mantle 
 and dress fabrics. 
 
 182. Gohur Applied to Five-End Makes. — Five-shaft 
 weaves are not very largely used in the production^of 
 
302 
 
 WOOL MANUFACTURE. 
 
 fancy woollen and worsted fabrics. The reason for this is, 
 that on four shafts, which is a far more convenient number 
 of heddles as well as a less expensive number to work, a 
 larger variety of patterns can be produced. However, 
 there are some styles which are only obtainable in five- 
 heald makes. Amongst these may be mentioned the 
 striped fabric sketched in fig. 166. The weave in this case 
 is doeskin (see fig. 56), while the pattern of warp is as fol- 
 lows : 3 ends of grey, and 2 ends of white; and the weft 
 1 pick grey, 1 pick white, 1 pick grey, 1 pick white, and 
 1 pick grey. Although one of these stripes contains three 
 and the other two threads, yet they are both solid colours 
 throughout, for the grey shoots, in weaving, cover the grey 
 threads and the white shoots the white threads ; an ar- 
 
 Fig. 16(3. 
 
 rangement of yarns which cannot fail to produce stripes of 
 grey and white respectively. This is the special charac- 
 teristic of this striped pattern that is due to the structure of 
 the weave, for the five heald doeskin is the only crossing that 
 can be made to develop a stripe thas arranged. A four- 
 heald sateen make would, of course, give a similar effect, 
 or a stripe 2 threads of grey and 2 threads of white alter- 
 nately ; while the six-heald sateen can be made to produce 
 a stripe of the same class, 3 threads of grey and 3 threads 
 of white alternately, but neither of these weaves will give 
 precisely the same efiect as that seen in fig. 166. 
 
 A very pleasing variation in the character of this style 
 may be obtained by employing twist yarns in the warp, 
 thus : 3 threads of brown and white twist, and two threads 
 of brown. The weft for such a pattern would be arranged 
 
COLOUR APPLIED TO TWILLED AND FANCY WEAVES. 303 
 
 1 pick of brown and white, 1 pick of brown, 2 picks of brown 
 and white, and 1 pick of brown. Another method of wefting 
 this .weave consists in employing the same colour of yarn in 
 the filling as that forming the principal shade in the warp : 
 that is, the weft for the previous example would be all 
 brown ; but for a pattern of warp composed of 2 threads 
 of drab and white twist, and 1 thread of drab, it would be 
 all drab. The latter order of warping and wefting gives 
 a smaller efiect than the preceding method, but it is, never- 
 theless, a popular mode of combining colours in this crossing. 
 
 When the doeskin make is employed — asin these examples 
 — in the production of fancy cloths, the patterns are in- 
 variably of a striped character. Being a warp-flushed, or 
 warp-faced weave, there is comparatively little opportunity 
 afforded for imparting any special effect to the cloth by a 
 diversity of weft yarns. It would be impossible to form a 
 check in a weave of this type, simply because the colourings 
 in the warp would overpower those of the weft. Four portions 
 of warp to one of weft appear on the surface of the texture, 
 so that, strictly speaking, the face of the fabric — so far as 
 appearances go — is all warp, while the underneath surface 
 is all weft. But if the pattern or design cannot be materially 
 varied in effect by the weft yarns, the smooth, uniform sur- 
 face, formed by the warp threads, somewhat compensates 
 for this drawback. The face of the cloth is as soft, fine, 
 and regular in texture as possible, the individual threads 
 of warp and weft being scarcely discernible. JS^ow the 
 flushing of the warp in this manner admits of a lower 
 quality of yarn being employed for weft than warp, which 
 in some cases reduces the cost of the cloth considerably. 
 An arrangement of this kind in such a weave as the 
 cassimere twill would prove detrimental to the face of the 
 pattern, but in the doeskin make, as the filling thread is 
 principally on the back of the cloth, if it is not too thick 
 and coarse, it will not affect the character of the face to 
 any perceptible degree. 
 
 The "Venetian'* (see fig. 60), another five-heal d make, is 
 
304 
 
 WOOL MANUFACTURE. 
 
 employed chiefly in the production of fine twist-warp 
 fabrics for light overcoats. The weft in such cases is 
 generally a single thread, as an olive and white twist- warp 
 crossed with an olive weft, or a drab and white twist- warp 
 woven with a drab weft. Effects of a striped character are 
 very seldom seen in this weave, in fact, its nse is almost 
 limited to the production just named. 
 
 The five-end twill admits of a much larger range of 
 patterns being produced by its crossings than can be 
 formed in the two preceding makes. It differs somewhat 
 in construction from the cassimere or four-end twill, for it 
 runs three threads up and two threads down on each pick. 
 The pattern shown in fig. 167, which it has been made to 
 
 Fig. 167 B. 
 
 produce, is of a simple striped description. The yarns are 
 ordered as follows : 
 
 Warp. Weft. 
 2 ends of black. All grey. 
 
 1 end of grey. 
 
 2 ends of white. 
 
 The black and the white threads both form broken stripes, 
 the former producing black lines, and the latter white lines, 
 crossed with grey ; while every fifth thread in the pattern 
 forms a continuous or solid stripe of grey in the piece. 
 When this pattern is woven, with the same colourings in 
 the weft as in the warp, it forms a neat, stylish check. If 
 worsted yarns are used, the single thread the grey 
 thread in fig. 167) might be either a silk yarn or a silk 
 twist ; as, for example, 2 ends of black, 1 end of black 
 
COLOUR APPLIED TO TWILLED AND FANCY WEAVES. 305 
 
 worsted and crimson silk twist, and 2 ends of olive green ; 
 or 2 ends of drab, 1 end of olive worsted and blue silk 
 twist, and 2 ends of white. Weft in both examples to be 
 same as warp. By reversing the weaves, as shown in 
 design 167 and warping and wefting five ends of black 
 and five ends of brown, or any other two contrasting 
 shades, a good, useful check pattern may be obtained. The 
 structure of this design causes the colourings in section A 
 to be more pronounced in tone in the direction of the warp 
 than in the direction of the weft, but in sections B more 
 pronounced in the weft than in the warp. If the lower 
 part of the design were used, or a stripe combination made 
 48 threads of a and 48 threads of b, and then coloured 
 five-and'five in both warp and weft, it would give a good 
 trousering pattern. 
 
 Fig. 168. 
 
 183. Effects in the Six-End Tivill. — In the six- shaft twill 
 (see fig. 44) there is endless scope for variety. It is almost, 
 in fact, as useful a crossing as the cassimere. Its structure 
 being of a very uniform type, and flushing both warp and weft 
 yarns to the same extent on both sides of the cloth, it pro- 
 duces evenly-balanced effects. To commence with a very 
 simple arrangement of warp and weft threads, namely, 1 end 
 of black, 1 end of grey, and 1 end of white, it will be evident 
 from fig. 168 that by the use of this twill a pattern of some 
 importance in the trade is producible. One matter that 
 should be attended to in making patterns for this or any 
 other small weave is, that the colours in the aggregate 
 should generally meet or tally with the weave. Thus the 
 total number of threads in either pattern of warp or weft 
 for this weave should be a number that is either a multiple 
 
 X 
 
306 
 
 WOOL MANUFACTURE. 
 
 of six, or divisible, without a remainder, by six. For 
 example such numbers as 3, 6, 12, 18, and 24, &c., are all 
 right for this weave, as are also 9 and 15, although these 
 cannot be divided with six without a remainder of three. 
 As a remainder of three threads, however, divides the 
 weave exactly into two parts it is not so liable to produce 
 an unsatisfactory result as a remainder of 1, 2, 4, or 5. In 
 a word, some of the best broken effects produced in this 
 weave are obtained in patterns of 9 and 15 ends. But to re- 
 turn to the 3-thread pattern drawn in fig. 168. In the 
 cloth the grey and black yarns form two distinct diagonals 
 of a step character, while the white threads meet each 
 other, and produce a series of small figures arranged at 
 right angles one to the other. The order of warping and 
 picking forming this style is frequently applied to both 
 
 Fig. 169. 
 
 worsted and woollen goods, when it makes a saleable 
 fabric : the success of the pattern depending, in most in- 
 stances, on the colourings combined in its formation. 
 
 A well-patronized stripe, prominent amongst six-heald 
 twill patterns, is shown in the next sketch, fig. 169. This 
 effect is got by warping three ends of black and three ends 
 of white alternately, and crossing with black weft alone. 
 It is an order of threads that may be used in a large 
 variety of shades, such as black and blue, brown and 
 green, blue and olive, dark grey and white, &c. Not un- 
 frequently it is checked with corresponding colours in the 
 weft, when it makes either a suiting or a coating style. 
 Another method of producing a small stripe in this weave 
 is furnished in fig. 170. Here again the threads being 
 arranged two ends of black, two ends of white, and two 
 
COLOUR APPLIED TO TWILLED AND FANCY WEAVES. 307 
 
 ends of grey, the pattern only contains a total of six threads. 
 Although the effect produced in the woven fabric is com- 
 paratively small, yet it possesses a neat and decided 
 appearance in both woollen and worsted goods. Amongst 
 other colourings which come up well in this style, the fol- 
 lowing may be enumerated : — 
 
 I. 
 
 ends of black. 
 
 „ olive green. 
 
 „ black and tan twist. 
 
 II. 
 
 2 ends of dark blue. 
 
 2 
 1 
 
 black and 
 twist. 
 
 lavender 1 
 
 III. 
 
 slate. 
 
 black and scarlet 
 
 twist, 
 black and light 
 
 olive twist. 
 
 2 ends of dark brown. 
 
 2 „ olive brown, 
 
 1 „ black and blue twist. 
 
 1 „ black and green olive twist. 
 
 Fi^. 170. 
 
 Fig. 170 a. 
 
 The wefts for the respective patterns are black, dark blue, 
 and dark brown. 
 
 184. ChecJcs in the Six-End Twill. — Now a check effect 
 will be described. This pattern in the woven fabric is, 
 perhaps, as neat a style as can be produced in the six-shaft 
 twill. The threads in both warp and weft of this illustra- 
 tion (fig. 1700-) are arranged as follows : — 
 
 3 ends of black. 
 3 „ grey. 
 3 „ white. 
 
 As there are 9 threads in the colourings, the weave has to 
 be repeated three times and the pattern of warp and weft 
 
308 
 
 WOOL MANUFACTURE. 
 
 twice before any repeat of the design is effected. One 
 repeat has been sketched in the illustration. The success 
 of this style is, no doubt, due in some measure to its not 
 being of a stiff, formal character. The colourings are not 
 only congruous in tone, but are uniformly distributed over 
 the surface of the fabric, each shade forming a kind of 
 an irregular check. By introducing a fancy twist yarn 
 into the design on every 18th thread, the character of 
 the pattern undergoes a suitable modification. While 
 treating on the subject of checks in this weave, what is 
 known in the trade as a basket check may be alluded to. 
 This is simply an ordinary check of large dimensions. For 
 instance, such a pattern is sometimes obtained in the six- 
 end twill by warping and wefting in the following order : — 
 
 For 24 or 36 ends, according to ( 3 ends of black, 
 the size of check required. (3 „ grey. 
 
 ■I 
 
 and then — 
 
 For 24 or 36 ends. T ^ ends of black. 
 
 [6 „ grey. 
 
 Fig. 171. Fig. 172. 
 
 The six-and-six combination of this pattern forms a 
 large check (composed of a series of solid squares of black 
 and grey) which completely surrounds a number of 
 irregular and smaller checks formed by the three-and-three 
 thread arrangement. Ulsterings and some classes of 
 mantle cloths are figured on this principle. 
 
 185. Patterns in the Mayo. — Passing by the patterns ob- 
 tained in seven-shaft weaves, which, barring those got in 
 the corkscrew, are very limited in variety, allusion will be 
 made to a few characteristic styles appertaining to eight- 
 
COLOUR APPLIED TO TWILLED AND FANCY WEAVES. 309 
 
 heald makes. One or two effects obtained in the " Mayo " 
 (see fig. 63) will first be considered. Patterns 171 and 172 
 both result from the employment of this weave. The former 
 is warped and woven 2 threads of black and 2 threads of 
 grey ; and the latter 4 threads of black and 4 threads of 
 grey. In fig. 171 the weave produces a small figured 
 effect, but in fig. 172 a broken check pattern. Of course 
 in the woven fabric the designs would not be so distinct or 
 pronounced in effect as in these sketches ; they would be 
 on a more minute scale, and the parts somewhat better 
 blended together. These effects strikingly illustrate what 
 a diversity of pattern is due to a simple alteration in the 
 method of applying colour to any given crossing. While 
 the four-and-four effect in this instance belongs, strictly 
 speaking, to the family of checks, the two-and-two effect 
 belongs distinctly to figured diagonals. Both patterns 
 may be improved by the addition of a few fancy threads 
 here and there, according to the effect required. Fig. 171 
 is suitable for either coating or suiting fabrics, but fig. 172 
 is more adapted for trouserings. 
 
 186. Colour in Relation to the Eight Shaft Diagonal, — 
 The eight-shaft diagonal, (See fig, 72), is another weave 
 specially useful for colourings. It not only clearly developes 
 the arrangement of threads, but its plan of intertexture 
 beautifies the fabric. Only one example of colouring this 
 weave will be referred to — that given in fig. 173, which is 
 warped thus : — 
 
 2 ends of black. 
 2 „ white. 
 2 „ black. 
 2 „ grey. 
 
 Order of picking to be same as warp. The result is an 
 irregular check pattern, neat in combination and attractive 
 in appearance. There is nothing vulgar or stiff about its 
 formation ; on the contrary, although of a clearly- defined 
 character, yet it is neat, smart, and stylish. The character 
 
310 
 
 WOOL MANUFACTURE. 
 
 of the weave prevents the production of anything resemb- 
 ling a formal, set, printed article, for it breaks up the 
 colours into small patches of divers shapes, and inter- 
 mingles them with one another in a very pleasing and 
 taking manner. Stripes and checks of all sizes and 
 classes, in a large diversity of colours, are made in this 
 weave in woollen, worsted, cotton, and silk goods. 
 
 187. Arrangement of Colourings for Twilled Hopsach, — 
 There is still one more important eight-heald weave that 
 may be briefly dealt with, namely, the twilled hopsack, 
 (see fig. 62). This weave occupies a very exceptional 
 place in this class of textile designing. Particularly is it 
 valuable in the manufacture of worsted goods, where it 
 both ornaments the cloth with the character of its cross- 
 ings and the colourings applied in the warp and weft. 
 
 Some specially neat efiects can be developed in it by com- 
 bining shades of a similar colour but slightly different 
 from each other in depth of tone, as two shades of brown, 
 two shades of grey, and two shades of olive. The 
 pattern sketched in fig. 174 develops both the weave and 
 colourings. It is a striped fabric, warped four threads of 
 grey and four threads of white, and is woven with black 
 weft. These colourings are too loud for practical applica- 
 tion, but they serve to illustrate the style of effects ob- 
 tainable in this crossing. 
 
 188. Colour applied to Weave Combinations, — Quite a 
 different class of effects, to those resulting from the em- 
 ployment of colours in single weaves, are obtained in 
 woven goods by the application of a variety of shades to 
 designs formed of several crossings. Of a necessity this 
 
 Fig. 173. 
 
 Fig. 174. 
 
COLOUR APPLIED TO TWILLED AND FANCY WEAVES. 311 
 
 type of design is more difficult to manipulate than that 
 resulting from the interlacing of warp and weft threads 
 on various principles of crossing, or from colour as applied 
 to one simple weave. It requires a knowledge both of 
 design construction, and of the art of colouring. The 
 patterns produced on this system are in reality due 
 to two distinct arrangements, acting independently of 
 each other, that of a mixture of weaves, and that of a 
 mixture of colours. In such styles the combination of 
 makes should of itself form a figured effect in the cloth, 
 while the plan on which the colourings are blended to- 
 gether should, if applied to a simple weave, produce a 
 definite pattern. 
 
 Woven design based on a combination of weaves is of a 
 very different character to that based on a combination of 
 colours. Hence it is possible to be expert in one of these 
 classes of design, and yet deficient in the other. One 
 may be a good colourist, and still incapable of making a 
 saleable fabric ; or proficient in cloth construction, and yet 
 the blender of the most incongruous shades. A thorough 
 knowledge of the structure of woven goods, and an in- 
 ventive faculty, are the requisites to the attainment of 
 success in weave-design. But in the case of colour, in 
 addition to being capable of constructing a good, firm 
 texture, an acquaintance with the effect of colour on 
 weave, as well as a natural and cultured taste for colour- 
 ing, are indispensable. 
 
 Now, in cloths ornamented with both a blend of shades 
 and a combination of crossings, the effects due to each 
 should be clearly discernible in the woven product. To 
 employ an intricate arrangement of weaves when a simple 
 make would give a similar pattern, implies increasing the 
 difficulties of weaving, and the expenses of cloth produc- 
 tion, to no purpose. The matter of developing with 
 smartness and precision the effects due to weave as well as 
 colour is too frequently overlooked in designs of this 
 class. French patterns in both woollens and worsteds 
 
312 
 
 WOOL MANUFACTURE. 
 
 are occasionally faulty in this particular. Fabrics are 
 sometimes manufactured in which the designs are of a 
 very complicated description, but the effects which they 
 ought to impart to the cloths are completely destroyed by 
 the system practised in colouring them. When adding 
 fancy yarns to figured designs it should be recognized that 
 the latter have some part to play in the formation of the 
 pattern ; the effect of the various weaves they contain 
 should if possible be distinctly manifest, and not be made 
 next to nil by the application of loud colouring. Colour, 
 when introduced into such designs, should allow the 
 weaves to impart some special or novel appearance to 
 the cloth. If this object is not attainable by using an 
 intricate combination of small makes, a simple weave, 
 which can be manipulated in the loom with much more 
 facility, had better be employed. 
 
 189. How to Colour Intricate Weave Designs, — Before ap- 
 plying colour to a large design, the character of the various 
 weaves of which it is composed should be taken into con- 
 sideration. It has been previously shown that the effect 
 of any particular method of colouring on the woven fabric 
 may be completely changed by an alteration in the weave, 
 indicating that different crossings require special treat- 
 ment as to colour. Now if a modification in the plan of 
 a simple weave materially varies the style of the pattern, 
 an elaborate combination of makes, such as that furnished 
 in fig. 126, Chapter IX., would necessarily alter the effect 
 of the colourings on the woven production still more. 
 Precisely the same arrangement of fancy yarns as would 
 form a neat, regular check, in an ordinary twill, would give 
 a very broken, undecided pattern if applied to some classes 
 of weave combinations. There are, therefore, various 
 causes for considering the structure of the several weaves 
 in adding colour to a figured design. 
 
 The course that should be adopted in this kind of design- 
 ing is, when the weave-pattern has been constructed, to 
 examine its various parts and calculate as near as possible 
 
COLOUR APPLIED TO TWILLED AND FANCY WEAVES. 313 
 
 the effect they would each produce if a specified order of 
 threads were employed. Thus, supposing a check design 
 composed of two four-heald makes — cassimere twill and 
 hopsack — were warped and woven two threads black and 
 two threads white, the appearance of the colourings in the 
 respective weaves would be as different from each other as 
 possible. While they would produce in the twill a series 
 of small black and white checks, in the hopsack or mat 
 portions of the design they would form a series of solid 
 but narrow stripes of these colours. The mat weave, it 
 will be remembered, when thus woven produces a striped 
 pattern of the hairline class (see reference to fig. 149, 
 Chapter X). The application, therefore, of this two-and-two 
 order of colours to fig. 126, Chapter IX., would give a totally 
 different style of effect from that obtained in the check 
 design just alluded to. Certainly in the twilled sections of 
 fig. 126, these colourings would form precisely the same class 
 of pattern as the cassimere produces in the check example 
 just considered. But as the twill is here (fig. 126) ar- 
 ranged in the form of a figure instead of a check, the 
 small square effects resulting from the combination of 
 black and white threads would be grouped together on a 
 figured principle. As to the ribbed weave in fig. 126, 
 (marked in solid squares), its effect in these colourings 
 would be anything but pleasing. A diversity of weft yarns 
 is unsuitable for a warp rib crossing, while the two black 
 and two white system of warping would have a tendency 
 to destroy the characteristic effect of the weave. By 
 warping, fig. 122, Chapter IX., which contains four 
 threads of a ribbed weave (see the section marked in 
 crosses), four black, four brown, four black, four black- 
 and-white twist, and weaving with black weft, not only 
 would the rib crossing be preserved distinct from the 
 other portions of the design in point of colour, but also 
 in weave effect. Another example of how the various 
 effects produced by the several weaves in a large design 
 may be changed by the application of coloured threads will 
 
314 
 
 WOOL MANUFACTURE. 
 
 be found in fig. 136, Chapter IX. A four-and-four thread 
 order of yarns would form a decided check in those sec- 
 tions of this design marked in crosses. The checks formed 
 in the sections in which the twill runs to left would be 
 slightly different from those produced in the sections in 
 which the same weave is twilled to the right. But in the 
 upright twill introduced into this design, and marked in 
 full square dots, these colourings would present quite a 
 different aspect. The checks of black and white in these 
 parts would be both indefinite in appearance and irregular 
 in formation. 
 
 190. Cloths Figured hy Weave and Colour. — All-wool 
 mantles and ulsterings are sometimes figured on this prin- 
 ciple, but the bulk of the ordinary classes of woollen 
 
 Fig. 175 a. 
 
 fabrics is chiefly ornamented with colour, the weave usu- 
 ally being a simple twill or mat. As a rule woollen 
 cloths, unless skilfully managed, possess a vulgar cha- 
 racter when the designs are mainly of a weave description. 
 Of course there are exceptional patterns, and cases where 
 novelties in woollens, as well as in worsteds, are due as 
 largely to a combination of weaves as colours. N^either of 
 these modes of procuring woven effect should be discarded. 
 The drawback to the use of figured designs in the manu- 
 facture of woollen goods is the difficulty there is in con- 
 structing them in such a manner as to produce a uniform 
 texture. If there is one thing more than another which 
 has a tendency to depreciate the value of weave ornament, 
 in woollen fabrics, in the eyes of consumers, it is the irre- 
 gular fabric weave designs are liable to produce. In the 
 
COLOUR APPLIED TO TWILLED AND FANCY WEAVES. 315 
 
 plain weave, cassimere, six-end twill, and mat or hopsack, 
 a good regular fabric is ensured, but, when several makes 
 of different flushes are combined, the smoothness of the 
 cloth is not so much to be relied upon. A judicious selec- 
 tion and combination of makes materially prevents unsatis- 
 factory results arising from these causes ; but, in too many 
 instances crossings are combined that have no weaving 
 affinity for each other, and hence the production of an un- 
 even cloth which is rejected by the buyer as handling hard 
 and " unkind." There is, however, a probability of woollen 
 goods becoming more largely figured by a combination of 
 weaves. 
 
 Worsted fabrics are extensively ornamented on this 
 principle. A few illustrations in these goods will, there- 
 
 B A 
 
 Fig. 175. 
 
 fore, be considered. The weaves combined in the first 
 example, to which attention will be given, are simply eight- 
 shaft twill and eight-shaft hopsack, fig. V?ha, The twilled 
 make running both to the right and left hand in the de- 
 sign forms an angled stripe, adjoining which is a stripe of 
 sixteen threads of the mat or hopsack crossing. This 
 arrangement of weaves, when warped and woven four 
 threads black and four threads white, produces a very 
 effective pattern. Sections A and b show how reversing 
 the direction of a twilled make alters the appearance of the 
 pattern resulting from a mixture of colours. For instance, 
 the broken checks in part A, fig. 175, are of a different for- 
 mation to those seen in part B. In fact, there are three sepa- 
 rate effects produced by design 175a on this four-and-four 
 
316 
 
 WOOL MANUFACTURE. 
 
 order of shades, although only two weaves have been com- 
 bined in its construction : first, a series of checks in which 
 the patches of colours twill or lean to the left ; second, a 
 series of checks in which the colours move to the right ; 
 and third, a series of solid black and white stripes. Had 
 only one weave been employed, and that twilled simply to 
 the right hand, this order of yarns would merely have 
 given one style of pattern : but it is clear from the results 
 obtained in this illustration that any system of warping 
 and wefting may be made to produce, by the application 
 of designs containing a variety of crossings, several dis- 
 tiuct effects in the woven goods. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 <x> 
 
 < 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 <xx 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 x> 
 
 <x> 
 
 < 
 
 
 
 x> 
 
 <xx 
 
 
 
 
 
 ><X> 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 
 ■1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 "1 
 
 I" 
 
 
 
 
 ..„! 
 
 i 
 
 <x>< 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 x> 
 
 x> 
 
 <x^ 
 <:x> 
 
 < 
 
 
 
 x> 
 
 <xx 
 <xx 
 
 
 
 
 
 KX) 
 ><X> 
 
 <x 
 <x 
 
 
 
 
 ■^^ 
 
 x> 
 
 <x> 
 <x> 
 
 
 
 Ill 
 
 c 
 
 <xx 
 <xx 
 
 B A S A B A 
 
 Fig. 176 a. 
 
 191. Bibbed Patterns, — The next example in this class 
 of designing is what is known as a rib style. No doubt 
 the term rib has been applied on account of the furrowed 
 or ribbed effect this kind of weave combination produces in 
 the fabric. There is but one principle of constructing a 
 design of this class — the figuring or face picks of one weave 
 must oppose the backing picks of the adjoining weave. 
 On consulting fig. 176a, it will be better understood what 
 is here referred to. It will be noticed that in this figure 
 the cassimere twill in sections b always takes the even 
 picks while the rib weave, sections a, falls on the odd 
 picks. It is this cutting of the face picks of one weave 
 with the backing picks of the other that results in the for- 
 
COLOUR APPLIED TO TWILLED AND FANCY WEAVES. 317 
 
 mation of the so-called ribbed appearance. The rib proper, 
 however, is produced by the four threads of the weft-cord 
 weave forming those parts of the design lettered A. In 
 such positions in the cloth as where this make is intro- 
 duced, the weft picks, having been beat closely together, 
 completely conceal the warp threads and form, by so doing, 
 solid lines or ribs slightly elevated above the rest of the 
 surface of the texture. Fabrics figured on this principle, 
 when well managed in the weaving and finishing depart- 
 ments of manufacture, always possess a smart appearance. 
 Colours cannot be applied with such facility to these de- 
 signs as they are to goods made from simple crossings : 
 for there are only some parts of a ribbed design which 
 admit of weft colouring. Thus fancy threads inserted in 
 the warp in sections a would be useless so far as improving 
 
 Fig. 176. 
 
 the face of the texture goes, for in these parts the weft 
 covers the warp threads. However, if these yarns are of 
 no use in the warp, in weft-rib weaves, they can be advan- 
 tageously employed in the filling, for by a judicious com- 
 bination and application of fancy weft shades a style of 
 pattern can be obtained that is not producible in any other 
 description of make. The ribbed or furrowed sections, for 
 instance, are often woven of two or more colours, which 
 only show in the rib weave. For example, whatever colour 
 or colours of yarns were used in weaving the rib portion 
 of fig. 176a, they need not appear in the cassimere twill 
 sections of the design — this make falling on the even picks 
 could be woven of an entirely difierent shade. 
 
 An excellent effect is got in this class of combination 
 by employing two dark colours of weft and weaving, about 
 
318 
 
 WOOL MANUFACTURE. 
 
 12 or 16 picks of each alternately. Another method of 
 wefting consists in introducing into the rib, at from half 
 to three-fourths of an inch apart, a few picks of silk of a 
 bright colour, such as crimson or blue, the other weft being 
 a dark shade. Pattern 176 is coloured in the following 
 manner in the warp, while the weft is black : — 
 
 Fancy coloured yarns would give a more stylish pattern, 
 but these clearly show the character of the eflPect obtained 
 by this order of warping in weave 176a. Various patterns 
 might be produced in this arrangement of makes by em- 
 ploying a diversity of colours both in the warp and weft, 
 while the design might be altered in several ways to give 
 a different effect. Thus 4 threads of rib and 12 threads of 
 twill running to the right, and 4 threads of rib and 12 
 threads of twill running to the left would make a suitable 
 variation. Other methods of varying the colourings and 
 weave combination will no doubt suggest themselves. 
 
 For 
 20 threads. 
 
 '4 ends of black. 
 
 2 „ white. 
 
 2 „ grey. 
 
 2 „ white. 
 
 4 ,, black. 
 
 2 „ white. 
 
 4 „ grey. 
 
 2 „ white. 
 
BACKED AND DOUBLE CLOTHS. 
 
 319 
 
 CHAPTER XII. 
 
 BACKED AND DOUBLE CLOTHS. 
 
 192. Definition and Uses of Backed Cloths— 193. Two Methods of 
 Backing — 194. Cloths Backed with Weft — 195. Principle of Backing 
 Simple Twills — 196. Effect of Irregular Tieing — 197. Systems of 
 Backing Check Designs with Weft — 198. Figured Weave Backed with 
 Weft— 199. Principle of Backing Union Fabrics— 200. Cloths Backed 
 with Warp— 201. How to Back Cloths with Warp— 202. Patterns on 
 the Under Surface of Backed Goods — 203. Features of Double Cloths 
 — 204. Various Types of Double Cloths — 205. Method of Constructing 
 Double Makes— 206. Tieing or Stitching— 207. Weft Tieing— 208. 
 Structure of the Double Plain Crossing — 209. Stitching Double Plain 
 Cloths — 210. Double Plain Stripes — 211. Three and Four Single-thread 
 Stripes — 212. Figured Double Plains or Reversibles — 213. Charac- 
 teristics of Cat Double Cloths — 214. Principle of Constructing Cut 
 Double-make Patterns — 215. Drafting and Setting of Double Cloths. 
 
 192. Definition and Uses of Backed Cloths, — Single weave 
 cloths differ very materially in structure from backed cloths. 
 In the former there can only be one warp and one weft — the 
 threads of which appear on both surfaces ; in the latter 
 there may be either two warps or two wefts — the additional 
 warp or weft, as the case may be, forming the back of the 
 fabric. A backed cloth is a single texture, on to the 
 underside of which is woven a haclc or a layer of threads 
 distinct from, and independent of, those yarns which form 
 the face or upper side. Backed fabrics are not necessarily 
 double. Technically a marked distinction is made be- 
 tween a backed and double- make texture. In the finished 
 goods there are some features in which these cloths re- 
 semble each other, and hence backed fabrics are some- 
 times very erroneously designated double. But, practi- 
 cally, there is as decided a difference between the 
 construction of hacked and double as between hacked and 
 
320 
 
 WOOL MANUFACTURE. 
 
 single weaves, for while a double cloth is twofold in both 
 warp and weft, a backed cloth if twofold in the warp is 
 single in the weft, and if twofold in the weft is single in 
 the warp. 
 
 Without the backed principle of inter texture it would 
 be impossible to increase the weight or substance of the 
 fabric, and at the same time retain its fine, smart face. 
 To secure the fine face indispensable to some styles of 
 worsted coatings, and the better class woollens, small 
 yarns have necessarily to be employed. These, of course, 
 produce a comparatively thin and flimsy texture. Fine or 
 small threads do not possess sufficient thickness or body 
 to impart substance and fullness to a single weave cloth, 
 even when the largest practicable number of threads on 
 the inch in both warp and weft is adopted. Moreover, to 
 vary the thickness of a single fabric, the yarns used in its 
 production have either to be increased in size or more 
 rankly set in the loom. Such alterations, as a few 
 examples will show, always change the appearance of the 
 cloth. Thus, supposing, in the first instance, to gain 
 weight thicker yarns are employed. Then more open 
 setting would be an absolute necessity, which would cause 
 the weave in the piece to possess a broader or coarser 
 grain. In a second experiment suppose finer yarns are 
 used, and the number of threads on the inch propor- 
 tionately increased to the difference between the thickness 
 of the yarns in the original and the new woven sample ; 
 in such a case the crossing would be of a more minute 
 character. Providing that in a third example the same 
 sizes of yarns are used as in the original fabric, but more 
 rankly sleyed or set, this would cause the make in the 
 cloth to appear cramped or compressed, while the texture 
 itself would be unsatisfactory ; showing, that if weight or 
 thickness is to be added to a cloth already accurate in 
 structure or build, it will not have to be eflPected either by 
 varying the thickness of the yarns or the system of set- 
 ting, but by applying to it what is technically designated 
 
BACKED AND DOUBLE CLOTHS. 
 
 321 
 
 a hacTc, or attaching another fabric on to its under 
 surface. 
 
 193. Two Methods of Backing, — There are two methods 
 of constructing backed weaves ; first, bj employing two 
 series of weft and one series of warp threads ; second, by- 
 employing two series of warp and one series of weft 
 threads. The former is, perhaps, the simpler of the two 
 principles, but is not applicable to all the requirements of 
 backed goods. For medium and lower qualities of cloths 
 it is excellently adapted, as it admits of a very inferior 
 yarn being used for backing purposes ; a thread of such 
 coarseness, in fact, that it would almost be impossible to 
 weave it in the warp. On the other hand, there are cer- 
 tain advantages in backing with the warp yarns, such as 
 one shuttle only being required, and also the practicability 
 on this principle of figuring the back of the cloth with a 
 striped design of various colours. It is very important in 
 some styles of backed goods that both sides should 
 resemble each other as much as possible. Fancy colours 
 cannot be applied with any degree of success to the under 
 surface of goods backed with weft only. This method of 
 backing simply produces bars or stripes of colour across 
 the back of the piece. This is one of the reasons why the 
 warp back is preferable in the manufacture of the better 
 classes of fabrics. Some of the finest worsted styles 
 backed on this system are almost as neatly coloured and 
 figured on the back as on the face of the texture. As 
 backed cloths are in somewhat bad repute amongst buyers, 
 in consequence of the low materials used in some localities 
 in the making of yarns for the underside, more especially 
 when backing with weft, a good backed fabric, if a fancy, 
 is now invariably coloured on both surfaces, and hence 
 backed with warp, while, if a piece dye, the same quality 
 of thread is used for both face and backing warps. 
 
 194. Cloths Backed with Weft — These cloths may be 
 divided into two classes — (a), those woven one pick face 
 and one pick back alternately ; and (&), those woven two 
 
 T 
 
322 
 
 WOOL MANUFACTURE. 
 
 picks face and one pick back. Both these methods of 
 backing are extensively practised. When the one-and- 
 one principle is adopted, the backing should not be much 
 thicker than the face yarn. Unless this rule is strictly 
 adhered to, the face threads will fail to completely cover 
 those yarns used in the formation of the back. In order 
 to secure an even face in goods backed with weft, it is 
 essential that the same number of picks should be woven 
 
 ■■□n 
 
 Fig. 177. 
 
 □□□IS 
 
 □ □□□ 
 Fig. 177 6. 
 
 Backing weave 
 for Fig. 177. 
 
 □ □KG 
 
 □ □□KI 
 
 Fig. 177c?. 
 
 □□□Knnnn 
 ^□□□□□□n 
 
 □□□□□KDD 
 
 □□□□□□KD 
 Fig. 178, 
 
 □□nisinnnn 
 ^□□□□□□n 
 □□□□□^nn 
 □□^□□□□n 
 □□□□□□□SI 
 □□□□^□□a 
 □^□□□□□a 
 □□□□□□sn 
 
 Fig. 178 6. 
 Backing weave for Fig. 178. 
 
 in the inch on the upper surface as would be inserted if 
 the cloth were made minus the backing weft — that is to 
 say, if a piece of cloth contains 40 picks on the inch in 
 the single weave, it should, to preserve the exact propor- 
 tions of its structure when backed on the thread- an d- 
 thread system, contain about 80 picks. If such a texture 
 were backed on the two-and-one principle, 60 picks would 
 only be introduced, or 20 for back and 40 for face. To 
 compensate for the reduction in the number of picks on 
 
BACKED AND DOUBLE CLOTHS. 
 
 323 
 
 the back in this latter instance, the backing yarn would 
 be about half as thick again as that used for the face. 
 
 145. Principle of Baching Simple Twills, — Figs. 177 to 
 180 illustrate four different methods of backing the ordi- 
 nary four-heal d twill with weft. The crosses in each 
 example represent the backing and the solid squares the 
 face weaves. Figs. 177 and 179 are principally used in 
 the manufacture of medium and coarse set goods, the 
 backing picks never floating under more than three 
 threads, whereas in figs. 178 and 180 they float under 
 seven threads ; so that to produce a neat back in the latter 
 weaves a comparatively finer set is requisite. It will be 
 noticed that there is one principle observed in the struc- 
 ture of each weave — namely, the threads on which the 
 backing " ties " are placed are invariably down both pre- 
 vious to and after the insertion of the backiug picks. 
 Thus the first backing pick of weave 177 takes down the 
 second thread, which is not only depressed by the first but 
 also by the second face pick, causing the face yarn to be 
 flushed on both sides of the backing weft. The object 
 of fastening the backing weft on to the cloth in such 
 positions of the design as here indicated, is to admit 
 of it being entirely concealed by the face yarns. If the 
 backing weave were arranged on the system shown in 
 fig. 177 c, the warp threads being elevated on both sides 
 of the ties, the face weft could not possibly cover them ; 
 which would result in the production of a faulty texture, 
 for the backing yarns would destroy the regularity and 
 evenness of the face of the fabric. Let it, therefore, be 
 regarded as a primary principle of backing designs with 
 weft, that the ties should always (providing the structure 
 of the design admits of such an arrangement) immediately 
 be preceded and followed by flushes of face weft. 
 
 Fig. 178 forms one of the most satisfactory methods of 
 backing the cassimere twill, or any regular make occupy- 
 ing four or eight shafts. The back here, as seen from 
 weave 178 is a sateen or doeskin, and produces a soft, 
 
324 
 
 WOOL MANUFACTURE. 
 
 full texture. The backing weave for fig. 177 (which is a 
 very useful method of backing the cassimere twill when 
 only a limited number of shafts is at command), is swans- 
 down or crow twill. 
 
 The two-and-one principle of backing is illustrated in 
 figs. 179 and 180. The only difierence between this and 
 the one-and-one system consists in having two face picks 
 between each backing shoot instead of one, the principle 
 of constructing the hach being the same in both systems. 
 One drawback to the use of these weaves is, each warp 
 thread does not receive the same proportion of stitching or 
 crossing by the backing yarns. On examining the makes 
 it will be found that the backing picks only interweave 
 
 □□□□ 
 □□□□ 
 □□□Kl 
 
 ■ □CjB 
 
 □□□□ 
 
 4 3 2 1 
 Fig. 179. 
 
 □□□□ 
 □□□□ 
 □□□SI 
 
 □□□□ 
 
 4 3 2 1 
 
 Fig. 179 6. 
 
 Backing weave 
 for Fig. 179. 
 
 □ □□□□□□Kl 
 ■■□□■■□□ 
 
 □^□□□□□a 
 □■■□□■■□ 
 □□■■□□■■ 
 □□□^□□□n 
 ■□□■■□□■ 
 ■■□□■■□□ 
 □□□□□^□n 
 □■■□□■■□ 
 
 8 765432 1 
 Fig. 180. 
 
 □ □□□□□□Kl 
 □^□□□□□^ 
 
 □□□^□□□n 
 
 □□□□□^□G 
 87654321 
 
 Fig. 180^. 
 
 Backing weave 
 for Fig. 180. 
 
 with the odd threads in the design — in other words, they 
 always float under the second, fourth, sixth, and eighth 
 threads. Now, every thread in backed fabrics should, as 
 far as practicable, be stitched alike. Take fig. 178 as an 
 example of a design backed on this principle. Here each 
 thread in the pattern is stitched down once by the backing 
 weft in 16 picks ; in fig. 177 each thread is depressed once 
 in eight picks by the backing shoots. Both these designs 
 are constructed on the basis of one tie on each thread in 
 one "round" or repeat of the weave. 
 
 196. Effect of Irregular Tieing, — An important principle 
 obtaining in cloth construction is that those threads of the 
 warp which are crossed or interlaced the most frequently 
 by the weft yarns take up the fastest. This point can be 
 
BACKED AND DOUBLE CLOTHS. 
 
 325 
 
 explained by referring to sketches A and b, fig. 181. Let 
 it be supposed that A and b represent two warp threads 
 taken from the same cloth. Thread A is interlaced or 
 covered by the weft four times in ] 6 picks, while B is only 
 crossed once. The frequent semi-revolutions which A 
 makes in passing under the weft threads necessarily cause 
 it to take up more quickly than B. In order to weave the 
 same number of yards of cloth with A as B, the former 
 would require to be of a greater length, a matter which 
 could only be regulated by the use of two beams. Ad- 
 mitting this it will be at once evident that weaves 179 and 
 180 are not backed on the best possible system. True they 
 are often used as here given, but where the backing yarn 
 is much thicker than the face (as in low goods), after a 
 length of cloth has been woven, those threads on which 
 the backing ties fall work tight, and ultimately produce 
 
 streaky " places in the piece. The thicker the backing 
 thread, the more pronounced in character, as well as the 
 sooner, will defects arising from such stitching be apparent. 
 Where, however, the backing weft is only slightly thicker 
 than the face, a considerable length of cloth may be woven 
 of these designs without its appearance suffering to any 
 noticeable degree. 
 
 197. Systems of Baching Chech Designs with Weft, — In 
 figs. 183a and 183& two methods of backing a check pattern 
 are given. The face weave in both designs is twilled hop- 
 sack, checked, or the design given in fig. 182. There is, 
 however, a considerable difference in the systems adopted in 
 the respective weaves of fitting on the backing picks. In fig. 
 182a the first backing shoot is inserted between the second 
 and third picks of the face weave, and the second backing 
 pick between the third and fourth. This arrangement causes 
 
326 
 
 WOOL MANUFACTURE. 
 
 the "ties" on the fourth backing shoot, which falls between 
 the eighth and ninth face picks, only to be partially covered 
 with the weft flushes of these picks ; for it will be noticed 
 that the ninth thread in the design, on which one of the 
 ties in the fourth backing pick is placed, is elevated on 
 the preceding shoot, while the second thread in the pat- 
 tern rises immediately after the " tie " on the eighth or 
 last backing pick, so that in both these cases the backing 
 " ties " would only have flushes of face weft yarn on one 
 side of them. In fact, by the method adopted in pairing 
 
 ■ 16th 
 
 ■ 15th\ 
 
 □ Ji^^ 
 
 □ }3th 
 
 □ 12th 
 
 □ Igth 
 
 ■ 8th ^ 
 
 □ 7th 
 
 □ 6th 
 
 □ 5th 
 
 □ □■BBDD 4th 
 
 ■ 3rd 
 
 □ 2iid 
 
 □ 1st' 
 
 Picks. 
 
 ^ -U ^ +J +3 -(-> -U +J +3 ^ +J d CO 
 
 CO tf5 CO <M i-H O 0> 00 1- CO O -rfi CO cq i-l 
 
 TimummL^ / 
 
 Threads. 
 
 Fig. 182, 
 
 Face weaves for Figs. 182 a and 182 6. 
 
 the picks of the face weave in this design, it is impossible 
 to avoid defective tieing, for picks 1 and 16, and 8 and 
 9 (see weave 182) cut or oppose each other, i,e,, the white 
 or blank spaces of one pick meet the solid black squares of 
 the other, showing the impracticability of arranging for a 
 flush of face weft yarn to both precede and follow the 
 "ties " on those backing picks inserted between either of 
 these pairs of shoots. A difierent arrangement obtains in 
 fig. 183&. Here the picks of the face weave are paired as 
 follows: 2nd and 3rd, 4th and 6th, 6th and 7th, 8th 
 and 9th, 10th and 11th, 12th and 13th, 14th and 15th, 
 
BACKED AND DOUBLE CLOTHS. 
 
 327 
 
 16th and 1st ; providinef proper positions, as may be seen 
 by consulting weave 1826, for the insertion of the backing 
 ties. Each tie in this design is placed between weft 
 flushes of the face weave, while there are two ties on every 
 pick, and one tie on each thread. From these examples 
 in backed check designs it is apparent that those picks of 
 the face crossing which cut each other should be coupled 
 together. Generally, it will be found that the more com- 
 plicated the combination of weaves, the greater the difl&- 
 
 □□Kinnnnn 
 
 ■□□■BHDD 
 
 □□□□□KiaD 
 
 □ □□□□□KD 8th backing pick 
 ■ 16th face pick 
 
 □□□□lEnnn 
 
 □■□□■■■□I 
 
 □^□□□□□q 
 
 □□□□□□□K 
 
 □□□□□□KD 
 
 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 9 
 
 ^□□□□□□n 
 
 □■■□□□B 
 
 □ 9th face pick 
 
 □ □□□□□□Kl4th backing pick 
 ■ 8th face pi?k 
 
 □□■□□BH 
 
 □□□[^□□□a 
 □□□□□Kon 
 
 □□■□□BBB 
 
 □ □BBBODB 1st face ticP 
 
 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 
 
 Eig. 182 a. 
 
 culty experienced in backing the design in such a way as 
 to obtain an even surface on both sides of the texture ; 
 but, as a rule, by varying the plan of pairing the shoots a 
 passable back may be applied to almost any class of weave 
 pattern. 
 
 198. Figured Weave Backed with Weft, — A figured 
 weave (design 183) backed with weft will next be described 
 It is a 16-shaft design, and is woven two picks face and 
 one pick back. To back a plan of this character, first 
 
328 
 
 WOOL MANUFACTURE. 
 
 arrange the face weave on point paper, omitting the spaces 
 on every third pick on the paper. Now decide on the 
 number of ties " to be placed on each backing pick and 
 each thread of warp — say in this instance two " ties " on 
 the former and one on the latter. JS'ext take the blank 
 shoots in the order in which they occur in the design, and 
 insert the "ties " in such places as they will be properly 
 hid in the woven fabric. Thus, in treating fig. 184, begin 
 with the backing pick A, and carefully run the eye across 
 
 ^□□□□□□n 
 
 ■■■□□HDD 
 □□■□□HB 
 
 □□□□□□□K 
 
 LHHDHBDD 
 
 □□□□□KDD 
 
 ■□□□BBG 
 
 □^□□□□□n 
 ■□BBDnn 
 
 □□□BBDBB 
 
 □□□□□□KD 
 □BBnnOBB 
 □BBDBBDD 
 
 □□□□□^□D 
 
 16th face pick 
 8th backing pick 
 
 □□BBDBBD 
 BaDDDBBD 
 
 BBDBBDDD 
 □□□BBD 
 
 □□□□□□KD 
 □ BBDDDBB' 
 
 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 i 
 
 □ □□BB[:]B 
 □BBDaCH 
 
 □□^□□□□n 
 
 □□BBDBBD 
 BDDBDUB 
 
 □□□□^□□a 
 
 □BDDBBBD 
 □BBBDDBD 
 
 9th face pick 
 8th face pick 
 
 7th face pick 
 
 □□□snnnn 
 
 □□BDOBB 
 □□BBBDH 
 
 □□□□□□□ 
 BBDDBDn 
 □□BDDBBB 
 
 □□□□□□□K 
 □□BBBDDB 
 
 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 
 
 Fig. 182 b. 
 
 1st face nick 
 
 it to ascertain where the stitches or " ties " may be best 
 introduced. The 9th and 15th threads are those on which 
 this backing pick should be tied. Suitable positions for 
 stitching pick B occur on the 1st and 10th threads, and on 
 the 3rd and 12th threads for pick C. In this manner the 
 backing picks should be dealt with separately, care being 
 taken not to tie on the same warp thread twice. 
 
 199. Principle of Baching Union Fabrics, — Two other 
 classes of weaves backed with weft will also be alluded to. 
 The first is for a piece of cotton warp goods, the weft being 
 
BACKED AND DOUBLE CLOTHS. 
 
 329 
 
 worsted for face and woollen for back. The weave or 
 figured effect obtained in these fabrics is solely due to 
 flushes of worsted weft, the woollen yarn forming the back 
 of the texture, while the cotton is the thread employed to 
 knit the two wefts together, and, by limiting the sizes of 
 the floats of the respective yarns, to form the pattern de- 
 signed. Some good patterns for low-priced coatings are 
 produced on this principle of intertexture. The weave 
 given as an example (fig. 184) is an excellent style. The 
 
 □□^□□□□n 
 
 1 1 1 1 H 1 1 1 1 1 — I ™ 1 — 1 
 
 □□□□□□□K 
 
 □□^□□□□n H 
 
 □□□□□KDD 
 
 □□□^□□□n 
 
 □□□[^□□□a D 
 
 □□□□□□KD 
 
 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 9 
 
 □□□□□^□a c 
 
 □ □□□□□□K! B 
 
 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 
 
 ■□■□I 
 
 □ □^□□□□Kl 
 
 □ □□C 
 
 □ □KID 
 
 ■ □■■ 
 
 ■ ■□■ 
 
 ■■■□ 
 
 □■□■ 
 
 □□□K 
 ■□■■ 
 
 □>□■ 
 
 mmmo 
 
 »■□■□■□■ 
 
 '^□□□□^□n 
 
 □■□■□■■■ 
 
 □ □□Kl^^^^ 
 »□■■■□■□ 
 □■□■■■□■ 
 
 □ ^□□□□□a 
 
 ■■■□■□■□ 
 □■■■□■■■ 
 
 □□□□□□Ka 
 ■□■□■□■■ 
 ■■□■■■□■ 
 
 □□□□[^□□^ 
 ■□■□■■■□ 
 
 Fig. 184. 
 
 Fig. 183. 
 
 solid black square represents the effect of the worsted yarn, 
 and the crosses the backing picks. When making designs 
 of this class the main point to be observed is to so arrange 
 the structure of the face weave as the cotton warp will be 
 completely hid from view. In fact it is very desirable that 
 this yarn should not be discernible on either the right or 
 under side of the fabric. It is not a difficult matter to 
 back weaves of this type, as the long flushes of face weft 
 readily admit of a proper adjustment of the backing picks. 
 
330 
 
 WOOL MANUFACTURE. 
 
 Another class of backed goods in which cotton is nsed 
 is made of worsted yarn for warp, and woven with cotton 
 and woollen weft. Here the weave effect is due to the 
 system of flushing the worsted warp. The cotton weft 
 acts as the regulator of the dimensions of the warp flushes, 
 and causes them to be arranged in the precise order in the 
 woven cloth as in the design. Tieing on the backing weft 
 is eff'ected by depressing the warp threads. These goods 
 are more difficult to manage, both in the loom and in 
 
 □□□H 
 
 □□□K 
 
 LJLJLJMl— 11— ILJBi 
 
 □ □□□□□□Kl 
 ■□□□■□■□ 
 
 □ □□□□□KIO 
 □■□□□■□□ 
 
 □□□□□^□n 
 □□■□B^aG 
 
 □ □□□ 
 
 □ □□□ 
 
 □ □□□ 
 
 □□□□Kin^a 
 □□□»□□□■ 
 
 □□□^[□□□Ki 
 ■□■□□□Hn 
 
 □□^□□□Kin 
 
 ■□□□BGBG 
 
 □ □□□ 
 □ 
 
 □ □□IS 
 £!□■□ 
 □□KD 
 □■□□ 
 
 KGGGISGGG 
 GGGBGGDB 
 □GGKGG^G 
 □□■□■□□□ 
 GGKIGGGGG 
 GBGGGBGG 
 GKGGGGGD 
 BOBQ^GBQ 
 
 □□□Bp^GBGGnB 
 
 □ GBG BGGGBGBa 
 
 □ BGG GBGGGBGn 
 BGBGiGGBGBGGG 
 baGBIGGGBaGGB 
 BGGG BDBGGGBG 
 
 □ BGG GBGGGBGG 
 
 □ GBG BGGGBGBG 
 GGGB GGGBaGGB 
 BGBG GGBGBGGa 
 
 □ BGG GBGGGBGQ 
 BGGG'BGBGGGBQ 
 
 Fig. 185 a. 
 Face weave of Fig. 185. 
 
 Fig. 185. 
 
 backing, than the preceding class. In order to cover the 
 cotton and woollen yarns, the worsted warp has to be very 
 rankly set in the healds and sley. Fig. 185 is a design 
 constructed for these fabrics. The crosses represent the 
 stitches on the backing picks, and the solid black squares 
 the plan on which the cotton weft intersects the warp 
 threads. The blank spaces in fig. 185a show the efi*ect of 
 the worsted yarn on the face of the texture. In weaving, 
 the first pick of design would be cotton, and the second 
 pick woollen. 
 
BACKED AND DOUBLE CLOTHS. 
 
 331 
 
 200. Cloths Backed with Warp. — When baching with 
 weft one body of warp threads interweaves with two series 
 of weff or filling threads ; but when hacJcing with warp, one 
 body of weft threads interweaves with two series of warp 
 threads. Further, a weft back is stitched to the face of 
 the texture by bringing the backing weft yarns over the 
 warp threads, but the tieing in goods backed with warp is 
 effected by bringing the yarns of the backing web over the 
 picks or shoots. In all warp-backed fabrics the chain for 
 the back works independent of that forming the face — the 
 
 I^BKDKDKH KDDGXEXa 
 
 h ab ah ah a babahaba 
 8765 4321 
 
 8765 4321 
 
 warps are, in fact, drawn on separate shafts, and can in 
 consequence be made to produce different weaves. There 
 is not, however, much variety of crossing applied to the 
 under-surface of these cloths, the weave generally being of 
 a doeskin or buckskin character. The face weaves are not 
 so limited in variety ; here every diversity of crossing is 
 employed. Fine worsted fabrics are very frequently 
 backed on this system. The yarn used in the backing 
 warp is, as a rule, about the same size or thickness as that 
 used for the face, the cloths containing a large number of 
 threads on the inch. 
 
 Fig. 186. 
 
 □□BactaGii 
 
 87654321 
 
 □ CE~ilL_.GEa 
 □■□□HDHJ 
 
 ■□■□□HMD 
 
 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 
 
 Fig. 186 a. 
 
 Fig. 186 b. 
 
332 
 
 WOOL MANUFACTURE. 
 
 201. How to Bach Cloths with Wa/rp, — The order of the 
 threads in the warp in making this style of backed fabrics 
 is invariably one thread face and one thread back. To 
 arrange the threads two of face to one of back would ne- 
 cessitate the use of a coarser yarn for backing, and even 
 then would only produce a raw, open texture on the under 
 side of the cloth. The method of procedure when backing 
 any particular weave with warp is as follows : — Mark the 
 threads on the point paper intended to be occupied with 
 the face and backing weaves respectively, then run the 
 face weave on to the face threads and the backing weave 
 on to the backing threads. Suppose, for example, it is re- 
 quired to back design 186a with weave 186&. As each of 
 these crossings occupies eight threads, when combined 
 they will occupy sixteen, or those lettered a and h in 186. 
 The first thread of weave 186a is transferred on to the 
 first thread lettered a of 186, the second thread on to the 
 second thread a, the third thread on to the third thread a, 
 and so on throughout the weave. After the face crossing 
 has been dealt with the backing weave is added, taking 
 the threads in the order in which they are arranged in fig. 
 186&. There is still one other point that requires noting : 
 the " ties " (^.e., those places in the design where the back- 
 ing warp threads are elevated) should, if possible, be 
 planned to fall in such positions of the pattern as there 
 will be face warp threads elevated on both sides of them. 
 Just as flushes of face weft on each side of the stitches are 
 necessary to effect successful tieing when backing with 
 weft, flushes of face warp are necessary to cover the ties 
 when backing with warp. There should always be the 
 same number of ties on each pick. 
 
 Goods backed on this principle generally require twice 
 as many shafts as there are threads in the face design. 
 This feature of double-chain goods will, to some extent, 
 prevent backing with warp from becoming extensively 
 practised in the manufacture of low goods. Thus while 
 the cassimere twill may be satisfactorily backed with weft 
 
BACKED AND DOUBLE CLOTHS. 
 
 333 
 
 on four shafts, it requires no less than twelve shafts when 
 backed with warp — four for the face and eight for the 
 backing weave. (See fig. 187.) 
 
 202. Patterns on the Under Surface of Backed Goods, — 
 The eleven-shaft corkscrew backed with warp is given in 
 the next design, fig. 188. It will be seen that the system 
 of constructing this weave is exactly the same as that al- 
 ready demonstrated in referring to design 186 ; hence it is 
 unnecessary to give any explanations on its structure. The 
 principle on which a striped pattern of various colours is 
 obtained on the back of these cloths may, however, by its 
 
 B^nnnKB^ 
 
 OKBKBKDS 
 
 Fig. 187. 
 
 KBKDDH-Knnn^BKn 
 
 □ D^B^Di^-a^n^B^D 
 
 l^EIKB^G 
 KC^BKD 
 
 KCKBsn 
 KDiEBKn 
 
 SGDU^B 
 ^B^DKB 
 KBKD^B 
 ^B^D^B 
 
 KBKDKBKD 
 ^BKn^BKD 
 KB^DDDKB 
 □nKBKDKB 
 ^□^BKDKB 
 [^□KBKDKB 
 KDKBKDKB 
 KD^BKDnn 
 
 KBKDKBKin 
 
 ^BKD'^B^a 
 'iB'^DDDKB 
 □□KBKDKB 
 ^□KBKnKB 
 ^□^BI^DKB 
 ^□KBKinSIB 
 
 sjDi^B^nnn 
 
 KlDDD^BKin 
 KBKDKBKID 
 
 Fig. 188. 
 
 use, be illustrated. In reality, as there are two warps in 
 this class of backed designs, there are, when the face is 
 figured with one arrangement of colours and the back with 
 another, two distinct patterns of warp. Thus, supposing 
 the order of shades for the face were as follows — 
 
 end of black worsted. 
 „ brown „ 
 1 ,, black worsted and blue silk twist. 
 1 ,, black „ „ white „ 
 1 „ black „ „ blue „ 
 19 ends of black „ 
 
334 
 
 WOOL MANUFACTURE. 
 
 — then the backing warp might be a simple striped pat- 
 tern of two colours, say 11 threads of black and 11 threads 
 of brown alternately. As two beams are generally em- 
 ployed in weaving these cloths, the warps would be made 
 separately, although the sizes and quality of the yarns 
 might be the same in both cases. 
 
 203. Features of Double Cloths, — When backing with 
 warp or weft simply, although a different weave is pro- 
 ducible on the back from what obtains on the face of the 
 texture, yet the weave on the under surface, particularly 
 in weft backed goods, has invariably to be arranged to 
 meet the construction of the face design. On the other 
 hand, when backing with warp, the yarns are usually 
 warped one thread face and one thread back alternately. 
 
 Fig. 189. 
 
 If not thus arranged a satisfactory back is not obtainable, 
 for reasons named in a previous paragraph. Further, a 
 warp back in order to cover well and possess a full and 
 soft appearance, must necessarily be constructed on the 
 floating principle, that is to say the weaves must be of a 
 sateen or buckskin type, which implies that but few cross- 
 ings are suitable for backing this class of ^bric. An at- 
 tempt to back such cloths with makes of a common twill 
 or mat description would result in destroying the unifor- 
 mity of the face of the fabric. Hence it is apparent there 
 is little scope for varying the weave effect on the under 
 surface of cloths backed with warp. The same holds good 
 in backing with weft. In this case the backing weave 
 frequently flushes or floates a great deal, the dimensions 
 
BACKED AND DOUBLE CLOTHS. 
 
 335 
 
 and plan of the flushes being determined, as stated above, 
 by the structure of the design employed in the formation 
 of the face of the fabric. On both these principles of 
 backing, satisfactory cloths may be produced, but the 
 weaves only being partly double cannot be made to form 
 that diversity of texture which obtains in double-weave 
 goods proper. For example, reversibles or cloths figured 
 and wearable on both sides, can only be produced in double 
 weaves. Of course, as already explained, when backing 
 with warp one order of colourings may be applied to the 
 face and a second order to the back, but the pattern on 
 the under side being formed entirely by the warp yarns is 
 necessarily of a striped character. Again, there is a class 
 of carriage rugs made of the backed weave, given in illus- 
 tration 189, figured on both surfaces, but that such a fabric 
 is not reversible, strictly speaking, is evident from the 
 colourings in these goods always being applied in the weft 
 and forming stripes across the piece. Warp colourings in 
 this type of design would not in the least change the 
 appearance of the pattern, for the weft yarns on both 
 sides of the cloth completely hide the warp threads, so that, 
 as in union goods the warp threads in this weave simply 
 act as the agents for binding the two wefts together. 
 Evidently if these two systems of backing were combined 
 they would form a class of weave in which the same effect 
 could be woven on both sides of the fabric. What one 
 system lacks, the other possessess. Thus, while backing 
 with two chains affords facility for gaining pattern on the 
 under surface of the cloth, backing with weft admits of 
 colouring across the piece. A double- weave is nothing 
 less than a cloth backed with both warp and weft, or one 
 in which the two principles of backing, already described, 
 enter. Literally such a weave forms a twofold texture. 
 In a double make each weave regulates the elevation and 
 depression of a separate series of warp and weft threads, 
 thus making it feasible to apply the same style of pattern 
 to both surfaces of the fabric. The advantages of using 
 
336 
 
 WOOL MANUFACTURE. 
 
 double-weaves in backing woven goods over the system of 
 backing with warp or weft only may be said to be as 
 follows ; 1st, the same design and colourings may be em- 
 ployed on both sides of the cloth ; 2nd, a more regular 
 back may be constructed; and 3rd, a larger variety of 
 patterns is obtainable coupled with a more perfect tex- 
 ture. 
 
 204. Various Types of Double Cloths, — There are three 
 distinct classes of double-weaves. 
 
 I. Those in which there is an equal number of threads 
 on the back as on the face of the fabric, or cloths warped 
 and woven one thread face and one thread back. 
 
 II. Those in which two-thirds of the warp and weft 
 yarns appear on the face and one-third on the back of tex- 
 
 annHBHnn □□□□□□□□ 
 
 HHHnnBDn □□□□□□□□ 
 
 □□□□□□□□ 
 □□□□□□□□ 
 
 ■ ■□□■□□B □□□□^□□Kl 
 □■□□■HBD □□□□KKDD 
 
 □□□□□KKD 
 
 ■ □□■□□HH □□□□□□lEIKI 
 
 Fig. 190. Fig. 191. 
 
 ture, or cloths warped and woven two threads face and 
 one thread back. 
 
 III. Double makes in which three-fourths of the warp 
 and weft yarns appear on the face and one-fourth on the 
 back of the cloth, or fabrics warped and woven three threads 
 face and one thread back. 
 
 The first two classes of weaves are in very frequent use 
 in the manufacture of woollen and worsted goods, but the 
 third class is almost limited in application to the finest 
 fabrics for worsted coatings. 
 
 205. Method of Constructing Double-Makes, — In making 
 a double cloth design it is always necessary to determine 
 at the outset to which of the three classes just enumerated 
 it is intended to belong. Having decided this point, the 
 question arises as to what weaves are to be employed for 
 
BACKED AND DOUBLE CLOTHS. 
 
 337 
 
 the respective surfaces of the cloth ; because, although the 
 face of the fabric may simply consist of a small twill, yet 
 either the same, or another weave of a different construc- 
 tion, will require to be used for the underneath of the 
 texture, and until the weaves have been selected the con- 
 struction of the design cannot be proceeded with. Suppose 
 now it is required to make a double cloth, in which the 
 yarns are to be arranged one thread face and one thread 
 back alternately, and the face weave to be twilled hopsack 
 or fig. 190, and the backing weave cassimere twill or fig. 
 191 ; then mark out on point paper the threads intended 
 
 
 
 
 ~ 1 
 _ ~ - i 
 
 - -T- 
 
 ^— ^ 1 
 
 
 — - 1 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 b 
 
 f 
 
 b 
 
 { 
 
 f 
 
 b 
 
 { 
 
 f 
 
 b 
 
 ( 
 I 
 
 bf bfbf bf bf bf bfbf 
 Fig. 192. 
 
 / bf bfbf bf bf bfbf 
 Fig. 192 a. 
 
 to represent the backing yarns. These are represented in 
 fig. 192 by the threads and picks marked in parallel lines. 
 This done, run the face weave on to the unmarked threads 
 or those lettered,/, fig. 192a. IsText transfer the backing 
 weave on to the threads and picks lettered h. Although 
 the weaves have thus been placed on separate threads and 
 picks, yet the construction of the design is not complete. 
 A consideration of the positions of the yarns will show 
 that when the face picks are entering the warp all the 
 backing threads are elevated. One primary object in 
 making backed weaves is that of effectively hiding the 
 
 z 
 
338 
 
 WOOL MANUFACTURE. 
 
 backing yarns, or, in other words, of preventing the threads 
 used in the formation of the under side of the cloth from 
 damaging the face of the texture. It is not enough, there- 
 fore, to have placed one crossing on the threads and picks 
 of the design representing the face fabric, and a second 
 crossing on the threads and picks representing the backing 
 fabric. Something more must be done, in a word the 
 threads of the backing warp must be depressed en masse 
 during the introduction of the face picks into the face 
 warp. In fact the invariable rule is, that all the backing 
 threads (with the exception of those which tie or tack the 
 two cloths together) should be down on the face picks ; 
 while, on the other hand, the face threads should all be up 
 on the backing picks. In order, therefore, to complete 
 the design under consideration it will be necessary to 
 depress the backing threads on each of the face picks. 
 This can be done by dotting the threads as indicated in 
 fig. 192b by the diagonal lines thus \Z* The second con- 
 dition, that all the face warp should be up on the shoots 
 of the backing weft, is already complied with ; so that the 
 design should now form if put into the loom, two cloths, 
 the upper one figured with twilled hopsack and the lower 
 one with the cassimere crossing. The question is, will 
 the weave in fig. 192b give these results ? Let the con- 
 struction of the design be briefly re -examined. In the 
 first place the weave furnished in fig. 190 was transferred 
 on to the threads lettered /, then weave 191 on to the 
 threads h, so that thus far the two makes were kept to 
 their own threads and picks. It was then found that the 
 backing warp yarns being unmarked (see fig. 192a) were 
 elevated on the face picks, /. This, of course, would pre- 
 vent the formation of a proper face texture, for the back- 
 ing yarns would be floating on the upper surface of the 
 cloth. These threads were, therefore, dotted, which de- 
 pressed them, and admitted of the face weft being woven 
 into the face warp, and the backing weft into the backing 
 warp ; and, by this means, allowed of two distinct cloths 
 
BACKED AND DOUBLE CLOTHS. 
 
 339 
 
 being produced according to the structure of the weaves 
 given. From which it may be concluded that the diagonal 
 marks, 0, in reality do not in any way alter the weave 
 effect produced — they simply prevent the yarns of the 
 backing warp from rising during the formation of the 
 upper cloth. 
 
 206. Tieing, or Stitching, — The design, as now arranged, 
 would, if woven, make two fabrics separate from each 
 other. For some classes of goods, as in sacking, probably 
 the weave, as here formed, would do all that is required, 
 with the exception of tieing the two cloths together at the 
 
 bf bf b f bfbf bf bf 
 Fig. 192 b. 
 
 sides to save the labour of sewing. In goods for garments 
 this is not sufficient. The distinct fabrics must be fastly 
 stitched together, in order that they may be made to 
 handle and pass as a single cloth. If the cloths are only 
 indifferently tied, the wearing qualities of the twofold tex- 
 ture will suffer very materially. There have been goods 
 made in which the face has parted from the back fabric after 
 a brief period of wear, in consequence of indifferent tieing. 
 
 There are only two modes of stitching — first, by bring- 
 ing a backing warp thread over a face pick ; and second, 
 by bringing a backing weft thread over a face warp thread. 
 As to which is the best method, it may be said that the 
 
340 
 
 WOOL MANUFACTURE. 
 
 former gives the most satisfactory results for at least two 
 reasons — firstly, the yarns used for the backing warp are 
 invariably smaller in size and of a better quality than those 
 nsed for the backing weft, and hence are not so liable to 
 be seen when brought on to the face of the fabric ; secondly, 
 warp ties are better concealed in scouring and milling than 
 weft ties, in consequence of the cloths shrinking somewhat 
 more freely in direction of the weft than in the direction 
 of the warp yarns. When stitching with the warp, there 
 should always be, if possible, a face thread elevated on each 
 side of the tie. Thus in fig. 1926 the ties, n (which would 
 be lifted in weaving) are inserted in such positions in the 
 design as face threads are elevated on both sides of them. 
 Take, for instance, the tie on the first backing thread, 
 which, it will be noticed, has a face thread elevated on the 
 same pick on both sides of it. The elevation of such 
 threads has a tendency to hide the tie. Again, the stitches 
 should always be arranged on a sateen principle if the 
 weave admits of it. This type of crossing forms the best 
 possible plan on which to arrange the ties in backing 
 simple makes. If the stitches run in a diagonal line across 
 the design, they are apt to form a contrary twill in the 
 woven fabric to that of the weave employed in the pro- 
 duction of the face. Hence to back the four-shaft twill on 
 the principle given in fig. 193, and tie as there shown, 
 produces a cross twill ; while to arrange the ties as seen 
 in fig. 194 causes one furrow or rib of the face weave to 
 appear somewhat fuller than its neighbour. Tieing should, 
 therefore, always be done on a well-defined principle. 
 Stitches should not be introduced where there happens to 
 be face threads elevated without due consideration being 
 given to arrangement. A systematic basis should always 
 be adopted where possible, and for this purpose the sateen 
 is recommended, because it distributes the ties evenly and 
 yet is the least liable, on account of its indefinite character, 
 to alter the condition of the face design of any class of 
 crossing that could possibly be used. 
 
BACKED AND DOUBLE CLOTHS. 
 
 341 
 
 207. Weft Tieing, — Next as to tieing with the weft 
 thread. If the principle of backing cloths with weft simply 
 is thoroughly understood, this mode of stitching will not 
 afford any difficulty to the reader. On this system of tieing 
 the backing picks have to be made to depress the face 
 threads. They should, however, only do this in such 
 positions in the design, as they will be covered with face 
 weft, so that the rule in tieing double fabrics with the 
 backing weft is the same as in backing cloths with weft 
 only — namely, there should be flushes of face weft on each 
 side of the tie. This method of tieing is very useful in 
 some double weaves. Fig. 195, for example, is a design 
 in which it may be advantageously employed. The good, 
 solid flushes of face weft in weaves of this class completely 
 
 Fig. 193. Fig 194. 
 
 conceal the ties. Sometimes weaves are stitched on both 
 systems, but this is generally unnecessary and should not 
 be attempted, as it is liable to injure the face of the 
 goods. It should be observed that the ties, g, in weft 
 stitching represent threads depressed. 
 
 208. Structure of the Double Plain Grossing, — This is one 
 of the most useful weaves employed in the woollen trade. 
 West of England goods are very extensively woven on 
 this method of intertexture. The double plain weave is, 
 strictly speaking, a combination of two plain makes, which, 
 in the loom, under certain conditions, produces two dis- 
 tinct cloths, one above the other. In fig. 196 the threads 
 lettered a represent the face, and those lettered h the 
 backing weave. An analysis of the structure of the cross- 
 ing shows that picks a enter the warp when threads h are 
 
342 
 
 WOOL MANUFACTUEE. 
 
 depressed ; while threads a are all elevated on picks 6. 
 Consequently, if the threads and picks lettered a were 
 white, and those lettered h black, this weave would form a 
 plain white cloth over a plain black cloth. This point may- 
 be better explained by referring to fig. 197. From this 
 sketch it is clear what the effect of weave 196 is, in the 
 
 Fig. 195. 
 
 woven fabric, when the yarns are arranged as above. The 
 respective threads are, by this crossing, kept as distinct 
 from each other as if woven in separate looms — the black 
 warp weaving with the black weft, and the white warp 
 weaving with the white weft. On comparing the crossing 
 of the threads in this sketch with the plan of interlacing 
 
 Fig. 196. 
 
 h a 0 a 
 4 3 2 1 
 Fig. 197. 
 
 the threads indicated in the weave, it will be seen that 
 they are precisely the same in both cases. Thus the first 
 pick in both the weave and the sketch flushes over threads 
 1, 2, and 4, and under 3 ; the second pick under threads 
 1, 3, and 4, and over 2 ; the third pick under thread 1 
 and over threads 2, 3, and 4 ; the fourth pick under threads 
 1, 2, and 3, and over 4. 
 
BACKED AND DOUBLE CLOTHS. 
 
 343 
 
 209. Stitching Double Plain Cloths, — ^NTow, as the weave 
 furnished in fig. 196 gives two distinct cloths, it will re- 
 quire to be altered before it can be nsed in the production 
 of fabrics for ordinary wear. In a word, the weave re- 
 quires tieing. This is effected in the double-plain crossing 
 in making striped and figured patterns in a difierent 
 manner from what it is in the general run of two-ply cloths. 
 For instance, in double plain goods, stitching is accom- 
 plished by reversing the positions of the weaves, or by 
 bringing that weave which in one part of the texture 
 forms the back on to the face, and by causing that weave 
 to do duty on the back previously employed in the con- 
 struction of the upper surface. Reversing the positions 
 of the weaves also reverses that of the colourings of which 
 
 □□□Kinnnisi: 
 
 "□■■■nr 
 
 Fig. 198. 
 
 they are separately composed. Thus, if weave 198 were 
 warped and woven one thread black and one thread white, 
 it would form a stripe of four threads black and four 
 threads white in the piece. This arises from the fact that 
 in section A the black picks interweave with the black 
 threads and form a black over a white fabric, while in B 
 the position of the weave having been changed, the white 
 picks interweave with the white threads and produce the 
 opposite result — namely, a white over a black fabric. An 
 examination of the design will show how this eflPect is 
 obtained. It will be noticed that in the section A the 
 black threads appear on the face, while the white threads 
 form the back of the texture. Again, the 2nd and 4th 
 picks in this part being black, flush over the white threads, 
 
344 
 
 WOOL MANUFACTURE. 
 
 but produce a plain fabric in combination with the black 
 threads. In B, however, the white yarns form the face 
 while the black yarns form the lower texture, as will be 
 seen by carefully following the construction of this portion 
 of the weave. 
 
 210. Double Plain Stripes. — As double-plain weaves 
 always give a plain-surfaced texture, any pattern which 
 they are made to produce is solely due to the method of 
 arranging the colours. The structure of the weave has, 
 however, to be altered to make it tally with the order of 
 colouring. The invariable rule in constructing a double- 
 plain weave for a striped pattern is this — it must be so 
 arranged as to admit of the various shades of yarns used 
 in the weft covering corresponding shades in the warp, and 
 
 □■■■□□□H 
 □□□■□■BH 
 
 Fig. 199. 
 
 these alone. For example, suppose it is required to make 
 a double-plain stripe, one thread black and one thread 
 white on the face. Then the weave must be arranged in 
 such a manner as to allow the black picks to float over the 
 black and under the white threads, and the white picks 
 over the white and under the black threads. A crossing 
 for producing this effect is furnished in fig. 199, the order 
 of warping and wefting being 2 picks of black and 2 picks 
 of white. 
 
 To show what a variety of patterns may be woven in a 
 thread-and-thread arrangement of warping by suitable 
 alterations in the structure of a double-plain design, refe- 
 rence will be made to figs. 198 to 201 inclusive. Above it 
 was shown that this order of warping in fig. 198 produced 
 
BACKED AND DOUBLE CLOTHS. 
 
 345 
 
 a four-and-four stripe, while in fig. 199 it produced a 
 single thread stripe. Now, if the same order of threads 
 were applied to designs 200 and 201, it would give in the 
 former a two-and-two, and in the latter a four-and-two 
 stripe. Other examples might be furnished, but the prin- 
 ciple on which one arrangement of threads may be made 
 to produce four as difierent stripes as it is possible to pro- 
 duce, and yet each cloth possesses a plain surface, is the 
 feature of importance that requires explanation. Take the 
 last pattern — the 4-thread black and 2-thread white stripe 
 ■ — as suitable for illustrating the principle on which this 
 variety of efiects is obtained from one simple combination 
 of colours. The weave for this style, fig. 201, occupies 
 12 threads, the first 8 lettered c, working the 4- thread 
 
 □^□□■■■n Disnn 
 
 □ rjDKBDHH □□□^.■□BHBDBB 
 
 EnsnKunnn Ki^niE'BnnnBnnn 
 
 □ KIDDBBBn □^□□BBBDBBBn 
 
 □ KKKDnBD " □KHEKlDDBanDBn 
 
 □ □□^BGBB □□□^'BDBBBDBB 
 
 stripe of black, and the latter part, lettered d, the 2-thread 
 stripe of white. The relation of the weft picks to the 
 warp threads in section o is as follows : First, all the white 
 threads are down on the black picks and half of the black 
 threads ; second, all the black threads are up on the white 
 picks and half of the white threads ; hence, in this part of 
 the design, a stripe of 4 threads of black covers a stripe of 
 4 threads of white. In d, the position of the weaves being 
 changed, and that of the threads remaining the same, as 
 the black picks are introduced, all the white threads are 
 up, and half of the black ; while, on the white picks, all the 
 black threads are down and half of the white, forming a 
 stripe of 2 threads of white over a stripe of 2 threads of 
 black. 
 
346 
 
 WOOL MANUFACTURE. 
 
 211, Three and Four Single- Thread Stripes. — Two other 
 examples need only be referred to. The first is for a stripe 
 of three, and second for a stripe of four, distinct colours, 
 each colour, in both examples, being formed by a single 
 thread. The weave for the former is given in fig. 202. 
 The warp might be arranged on such a system as the back 
 would be formed of one colour of yarns ; thus, 3 ends of 
 black, 1 end of grey, 1 end of black, and 1 end of white. 
 In this case the backing yarn is black. The order of pick- 
 ing would be as follows : 1 pick black (covering the black 
 face thread), 1 pick grey (covering the grey face thread), 
 1 pick black (covering the black face thread), and 1 pick 
 white (floating under all the face threads). The double- 
 plain weave is more broken up in the production of this 
 pattern than any other simple stripe. 
 
 BHD 
 
 □ ■□ 
 
 □ □■ 
 
 □□HHnfflnc 
 
 □BDBDBDB □□BBBDBD 
 
 □BDnBBDB BDDDBBBD 
 
 BBnBDGBfl BDBDDDBB 
 
 □□aHnann BBBnacDn 
 
 □BDBDBDB □□BBBOBD 
 
 □BDDBBDB BDDDBBBD 
 
 BBDBDDBB BDBDDDBB 
 
 Fig. 202. Fig. 203. 
 
 By employing weave 203, four stripes may be obtained. 
 It should be remarked that as there are only four changes 
 in the double plain weave, this is the largest number of 
 solid lines of colour producible in this make. The follow- 
 ing arrangement of threads gives stripes of black, olive, 
 brown, slate, blue, and lavender on the face, while the 
 backing yarn in the warp is all slate, and about half as 
 thick again as the face threads : — 
 
 Warjp. 
 
 1 end of black (small yarn). 
 
 1 „ slate (thick yarn). 
 
 1 „ olive brown (small yarn). 
 
 1 „ slate (thick yarn). 
 
 1 „ slate (small yarn). 
 
BACKED AND DOUBLE CLOTHS. 
 
 347 
 
 1 end of slate (thick yarn). 
 
 1 bine lavender (small yarn). 
 
 1 „ slate (thick yarn). 
 
 Weft. 
 
 1 pick black (small yarn). 
 
 1 „ olive brown (small yarn). 
 
 1 slate (small yarn). 
 
 1 bine lavender (small yarn). 
 
 212. Figured Double Plains or Beversibles, — This is an- 
 other branch of donble-plain designing. To produce a 
 pattern of this description two weaves are always nsed — 
 
 Fig. 204. Fig. 204 a. 
 
 say, A and b, of fig. 198. It will be noticed that in A the 
 odd threads and picks flush on the face, while in b the even 
 threads and picks form the upper surface. Hence, if the 
 two weaves were combined, as in fig. 204 a, and warped 
 1 thread black, and 1 thread brown, the face side of A 
 would be black while the face side of b would be brown. 
 This may partly explain the principle on which figured 
 double-plain effects are produced. In designing the figure 
 is first marked out in solid colour on the paper, and then 
 the weave run on afterwards. For example, the parts re- 
 presented in vertical lines in fig. 204 form the design 
 proper ; on these parts, weave A would be transferred (see 
 fig. 204c&), while weave b would form the ground. If this 
 design were warped and woven 1 thread black and 1 thread 
 
348 
 
 WOOL MANUFACTURE. 
 
 twist, the parts on which the weave has been placed would 
 be twist yarn, while the ground weave would be self 
 colour. Some very elaborate patterns for shawls and 
 various kinds of mantle cloths are designed on this prin- 
 ciple, the fabrics in some cases can be made in such a way 
 as they are wearable on both sides. 
 
 213. Characteristics of Cut Double Cloths. — Another class 
 of double make effects that requires a word of explanation 
 is that known as cut patterns. These are designs in which 
 the figured sections are separated from each other by fine, 
 smart, decided furrows. In those portions of the cloth 
 where such lines are introduced, the fabric possesses a cut 
 appearance ; in other words, the outline or skeleton of the 
 
 Fig. 205, 
 
 patterns figuring these goods seems to have been indented 
 on the surface of the texture by the application of some 
 sharp instrument, so decisive and clear is the cut pro- 
 duced. Sketch 205 will furnish an idea of the woven 
 effect of this type of design. The thick black lines in 
 this drawing represent the "cut" effect, or the outline of 
 the pattern, the spaces between which are, in practice, 
 filled in with different weaves, such as hopsacks, twills, 
 and other small crossings. This variety of pattern is suc- 
 cessfully applied to worsted coatings, trouserings, and 
 mantle cloths, and also, when suitably modified, to a certain 
 extent, to fancy vestings. 
 
 214. Principle of Constructing Cut Douhle-Mahe Patterns. 
 
BACKED AND DOUBLE CLOTHS. 
 
 349 
 
 — The method of constructing cut patterns will be described 
 by referring to fig. 206. Here is given a simple striped 
 pattern, the cut or sharp indented lines of which are 
 formed in the woven cloth by the 2nd and 3rd and the 14th 
 and 15th threads respectively. The cross marks represent 
 the plain backing, and the round dots the face weaves. A 
 cut may always be formed with two threads, the move- 
 ments of which are arranged in such a manner that one 
 thread is always up when the other is down, and vice versa. 
 For example, in design 206, the second thread, which 
 forms a cut with the third, floats under the three picks 
 
 Fig. 206. 
 
 numbered 1, 2, and 3, and then covers picks 4, 5, and 6, 
 this order of elevation and depression of threads being re- 
 peated throughout the pattern. By this arrangement, the 
 backing picks always float over one of the cutting threads, 
 fastening, by so doing, the two fabrics together. In 
 cloths where the cuts are, say, not more than eight or 
 twelve threads apart, the stitching thus effected is regarded 
 as sufficient to secure a permanent adhesion of one cloth 
 to the other. 
 
 In fig. 207 a cut check pattern is shown, the arrange- 
 ment of the threads in which for forming the indentions 
 
350 
 
 WOOL MANUFACTURE. 
 
 lengthways of the design are the same as in the previous 
 illustration, so attention need only be directed to the cut- 
 ting picks. These, it will be noticed, are similarly ar- 
 ranged to the threads forming the warp cuts ; in fact, if the 
 design were turned round, and warp taken for weft and weft 
 for warp, it would be found that the cutting picks — 12 and 
 13, and 1 and 24 — are exactly the same in arrangement 
 as the threads figured 2 and 3 and 14 and 15. Examina- 
 
 □□□■■■SBQIIIQE 
 
 mfsm 
 
 iiiii^iiis 
 
 It Mil 
 
 III 
 
 Fig. 207. 
 
 tion will show that they each flush under and over three 
 threads in succession, one pick being over the threads, while 
 the other is beneath them. Take, for instance, the 12th 
 and 13th picks ; while the former is flushing under the 
 first and second threads, the latter is flushing over them. 
 In the case of the third, fourth, and fifth threads, the pro- 
 cess is reversed — namely, the 12th pick is on the surface, 
 and the 13th pick underneath. In short, the rule in 
 
BACKED AND DOUBLE CLOTHS. 
 
 361 
 
 making double cloth " cuts," whether backing two threads 
 face and one thread back, or one thread face and one 
 thread back, is always the same, for it is imperative that 
 the flushes in the cutting threads and picks oppose each 
 other. 
 
 Sometimes the threads used in making the furrows are 
 arranged on both sides of the backing ends, but although 
 this method gives a broader or wider cut, it is not so 
 definite and distinct in character. The system of cutting 
 illustrated in the examples alluded to is the best in prac- 
 tice. A good plan of colouring styles of this class consists 
 in introducing the fancy yarns into the cutting threads 
 and picks ; thus, the following arrangement of threads for 
 the check pattern furnished illustrates this principle of 
 colouring : — 
 
 1 end of black wool (backing), 
 1 „ black and orange worsted twist, 
 1 black and blue worsted twist, 
 
 For 9)1 „ black wool (backing), 
 threads / 2 „ black worsted. 
 
 Pattern of weft to be same as warp. Another method of 
 applying fancy shades to such patterns consists in introduc- 
 ing the colours into the body, so to speak, of the design, or in 
 the threads and picks between the cuts. Both systems 
 may be practised with satisfactory results. 
 
 215. Drafting cmd Setting of Double Cloths, — Double 
 fabrics should, wherever possible, be woven on two beams. 
 This is almost an absolute necessity if an even fabric is to 
 be produced where the yarns used for the respective sur- 
 faces are of different thicknesses. Cut double-make 
 fabrics occasionally require three beams — one for the face 
 weaves, a second for the cutting threads, and a third for 
 the backing yarns. In addition to two or three beams 
 being used in some classes of double cloths, in many cases 
 the face design is drafted on to one series of shafts, and 
 the backing weave on to a second series. In fig. 208, for 
 
352 
 
 WOOL MANUFACTURE. 
 
 example, which is the draft for design 207, shafts a are 
 for the backing yarns, shafts B for the cutting threads, and 
 shafts c for the face designs. As the principle of drafting 
 and healding has been fully explained in previous articles, 
 it is only necessary to add that the threads would be 
 drawn through the healds in the order indicated in the 
 draft. The pegging or weaving plan is given in fig. 209. 
 
 As to the setting of double cloths, this is a factor that is 
 dependent both upon the character of the face texture re- 
 
 Fig. 208. 
 
 quired and the principle of backing adopted. If, for in- 
 stance, a fabric contains forty threads on the inch, and is 
 formed of a single weave, and it were required to back 
 such a cloth on the thread-and-thread principle, and at the 
 same time retain its exact condition of fineness of texture 
 it would, when double, contain 80 threads per inch. If, 
 however, it were backed two threads face and one thread 
 back, then 60 threads on the inch would be sufficient, for 
 the requisite fineness could in this case be obtained by 
 
BACKED AND DOUBLE CLOTHS. 
 
 353 
 
 adding 20 threads for the backing to the number of face 
 ends given. To compensate for the reduction of ends in 
 this latter example as compared with the thread-and- 
 thread arrangement, the backing yarns would require to 
 be proportionately increased in thickness. There are no 
 more important points in constructing double fabrics than 
 those of setting, and the use of proper sizes of yarns. 
 Now, in general, when a single cloth has been correctly 
 built, the particulars for the backing texture to be added 
 
 I H-l I hJ \i+ 
 
 SB 
 
 
 
 
 ■ 
 
 u 
 
 m 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 • 
 
 • 
 
 
 
 • 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 • 
 
 • 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 m 
 
 m 
 
 
 
 m 
 
 
 
 H 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 ■ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Fig. 209. 
 
 should be worked from the sizes of yarns and set employed 
 in its construction. Take an illustration : Supposing a 
 cloth is made of 2-fold 40's worsted and the weave is six- 
 end twill, and it contains 64 threads on the inch, then 
 what size of woollen yarn would require to be used for 
 backing purposes, and how many threads and picks should 
 be introduced to the inch, if the 2-and-l system of double 
 cloth structure is adopted? The latter particular can 
 readily be got, for the backing texture would contain half 
 
 •A A 
 
354 
 
 WOOL MANUFACTURE. 
 
 the number of threads as the face, giving a total of 96 
 threads in the inch when added to the 64 employed in for- 
 mation of the upper surface ; while if the 1-and-l principle 
 of construction were adopted 128 threads would be neces- 
 sary to preserve the character of the single texture now 
 requiring backing. Before the thickness of the yarn can 
 be calculated it will he necessary to find the equivalent to 
 a 2-fold 40's worsted in woollen counts. This can be done 
 as follows : 2-fold 40's worsted equals 20 hanks of 560 
 yards each, or 11,200 yards to the pound. Divide this 
 sum by 256, the number of drms. in a lb., the basis on 
 which woollen yarn is estimated, and the size required will 
 
 be the result ; thus, "^"^'^^^ = nearly 44 skeins. This 
 
 would be about the thickness of yarn necessary for back- 
 ing if the cloth were woven one thread face and one thread 
 back, and providing the same weight and structure were 
 essential on both sides ; but, as in practical work, the 
 backing thread is generally somewhat thicker than the 
 face to give increased substance, a 28 or 30 skeins yarn 
 would probably be employed. The fabric under considera- 
 tion is, however, for a 2-and-l dpuble make, which would 
 necessitate the backing thread being somewhat thicker than 
 half the size of the face thread — say 20 skeins. In ordi- 
 nary goods this method of arriving at the size of the back- 
 ing thread and set from the particulars of a given single 
 cloth may be invariably practised with satisfactory results, 
 but there are cases — when a new cloth has to be con- 
 structed, for instance — where experience and knowledge 
 of weaving can alone be relied upon. 
 
ANALYSIS OF CLOTHS AND CALCULATIONS. 
 
 355 
 
 CHAPTER XIII. 
 
 ANALYSIS OP CLOTHS AND CALCULATIONS. 
 
 216. Textile Analysis — 217. How to find the Weave of a Given 
 Texture — 218. Ascertaining the sizes of the Yarns — 219. Calculation on 
 Setting —220. Method of Calculating the Weight of the Warp Yarns— 
 221. Estimating the Size of Twist Yarns — 222. Finding the Weight 
 of each sort of Yarn in the Warp — 223. Estimating the Weight of 
 Weft Yarns of one Size and Colour only — 224. Calculating the Weight 
 of Weft composed of various kinds of Yarns — 225. Ascertaining the 
 Weight of a Worsted Fabric— 226. Method of Finding the Size of the 
 Weft Yarn for Weaving a Piece of Cloth of a Given Weight — 227. 
 Calculating the Picks per inch for Weaving a specified Weight of 
 Cloth. 
 
 216. Textile Analysis, — The decomposition of fabrics is 
 a very important part of textile manufacturing. l^ew 
 cloths are frequently submitted to designers and manu- 
 facturers, which, before they can be correctly imitated, 
 have to be dissected ; in other words, the particulars of pro- 
 duction have to be deduced by a process of unravelling 
 the texture. 
 
 The key to successful analysis of woven stuffs is a com- 
 plete knowledge of cloth structure. If the principles of 
 making the various classes of single, backed and double- 
 weave fabrics have been mastered, the method of analysing 
 any description of woven texture will be readily under- 
 stood. 
 
 Cloth analysis may be divided into three sections : — 
 
 I. Unravelling the fabric to obtain the weave or design 
 used in its production. 
 
 II. Ascertaining the set in which the cloth has been 
 woven, and the sizes of the yarns of which it is composed. 
 
 III. Calculation of the weight of the different sorts of 
 yarns employed in the manufacture of the fabric. 
 
366 
 
 WOOL MANUFACTURE. 
 
 The first section, in addition to relating to the weave or 
 design used in weaving the given texture, also comprises 
 the method of arranging the fancy yarns in both warp and 
 weft of the fabric, and, if the design is a drafted one, the 
 healding arrangement and the reduced weave or pegging 
 plan. 
 
 The set of the cloth refers to the counts of the reed, 
 threads in a dent, width of the warp in the sley, and picks 
 on the inch. The sizes, or grists of the yarns employed 
 
 D' C' B' a' H G F E D C B A, 
 
 Fig. 210. 
 
 in weaving the fabric, also comes under the second head 
 of analysis. 
 
 As to the weight of the cloth this is estimated from data 
 obtained in dissecting the texture according to principles 
 that will afterwards be explained. 
 
 Taking these particulars as embracing all the requisite 
 items of manufacture, cloth dissection will be described in 
 detail. 
 
 217. Hoiv to find the Weave of a given Texture. — In dis- 
 secting a woven fabric the weave should be first' ascer- 
 
ANALYSIS OF CLOTHS AND CALCULATIONS. 357 
 
 tained, as its stmctnre will test the accuracy of other 
 particulars. Before commencing to map out the weave 
 on paper it is necessary to prepare the fabric for the un- 
 ravelling process by extracting a few threads of warp and 
 weft, as in the sample of cloth sketched in fig. 210. When 
 such threads have been removed, an analysing glass and a 
 pointed instrument, such as a needle mounted in a pen- 
 holder, should be employed to trace minutely the construc- 
 tion of the cloth. By the aid of the former the analyst 
 can decipher the crossing of the threads, while the latter 
 is used to draw the last pick or shoot a slight distance 
 from its adjacent pick. In fig. 210, pick 1, has thus been 
 removed from pick 2, so that its interweaving with the warp 
 threads can be more readily determined. The passage this 
 shoot makes with the threads A to h would, after it had been 
 partly withdrawn, as indicated in the diagram, be sketched 
 on point paper, the threads floating over the picks in all cases 
 being represented by blank spaces, and the threads floating 
 under the picks by marks. Thus the first pick in fig. 210, 
 floating under threads A and B, and over c and d, is indi- 
 cated on pick 1 of weave 211 by marks on the two former, 
 and blanks on the two latter threads. The unravelling of 
 the texture in this manner, proceeding pick by pick, must 
 be continued till the weave repeats itself both in the 
 direction of the warp and in the direction of the weft. In 
 the illustration the weave repeats on thread A ^ and 
 pick 1 a. 
 
 Of course, when the cloths are very fine and contain a 
 large number of threads to the inch, analysing proves a 
 very difficult process. It then requires extraordinary care 
 and patience. Should the cloths have been well fulled or 
 milled and raised, that is, should the threads be fastly 
 felted together, and the surface of the texture covered 
 with fibre or nap, as in doeskin, moscow beavers, and 
 similar fabrics, it is necessary, previous to the unravelling 
 process, to remove such fibre by singeing and scraping ; 
 and even then it may be impossible to distinguish the 
 
358 
 
 WOOL MANUFACTURE. 
 
 crossing of the threads, or to remove a single shoot of weft 
 without breaking it into fragments. In such cases ex- 
 perience in cloth structure is the only resource, the build 
 of the fabric having to be more assumed than dissected in 
 detail. Fabrics have been submitted to analysis which 
 were so excessively milled that to extract either a warp or 
 a weft thread without destroying it was simply impracti- 
 cable. However, in the ordinary run of woollen, worsted, 
 cotton, silk, and union fabrics, the weave or plan of inter- 
 texture is obtainable by care and concentrated attention. 
 The design having been ascertained, the next work con- 
 sists in reducing it to its lowest number of healds. On 
 examining design 211, which corresponds in every parti- 
 
 Fig. 211. 
 
 cular to the interlacing of threads given in the enlarged 
 woven sample of cloth sketched in fig. 210, it will be 
 evident that it is feasible to weave it on four shafts. As, 
 however, drafting has been previously explained, it is only 
 necessary to say that the healding arrangement and the 
 reduced or weaving plan for the design are given in figs. 
 212 and 213. 
 
 218. Ascertainiiig the Sizes of the Yarns. — After having 
 ascertained the precise order in which the cloth is woven, 
 the sizes of yarns and the patterns of warp and weft require 
 consideration. The latter may be readily obtained as 
 follows : Take the threads out of the cloth separately and 
 in regular succession, noting the colours of the yarns in 
 
ANALYSIS OF CLOTHS AND CALCULATIONS, 
 
 359 
 
 the exact order as they are withdrawn from the texture. 
 The warp is usually treated first. If the cloth is backed 
 and coloured on both sides, dissect the colourings for each 
 side separately. 
 
 The sizes or thicknesses of the threads are not so easy 
 to arrive at as the warp and weft patterns. The general 
 method practised is to compare them with yarns of a 
 known size or counts. For this purpose a series of yarns, 
 of as many different sizes as obtainable, in wool, worsted, 
 cotton, and silk, should be at hand. A yarn balance has 
 recently been invented for indicating the counts of all 
 classes of yarns, from small lengths such as those resulting 
 from dissecting cloths, while another method consists in 
 
 Fig. 212. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Fig. 213. 
 
 weighing a small sample of the fabric and calculating from 
 its weight the counts of the yarn. The latter system is 
 only applicable to fabrics made of a very limited variety of 
 yarns, say one class of threads for the warp and a second 
 class for the weft. In dissecting small samples of fancy 
 cloths not more than two or three inches square, and often 
 not so large, and composed of several sorts of yarns, the 
 textile analyzer will find the first method, that of com- 
 parison, the readiest, and withal the most reliable. 
 
 219. Galculations on Setting, — The set, as already stated, 
 relates to the number of ends per inch in both warp and 
 weft of the fabric. This, in worsted and cotton fabrics, 
 which have not been shrunk to any material extent in 
 finishing, is not difficult to ascertain. In woollen textures 
 
360 
 
 WOOL MANUFACTURE. 
 
 it is somewhat different. Thus the number of ends in 
 such cloths, in the finished state, is considerably in excess 
 of what it is in the loom, arising from the reduced length 
 and width of the piece after fulling, or the smaller space 
 into which the threads are in this process compressed. 
 For example, some cloths, such as army goods, contain in 
 the loom about 32 ends on the inch, but when finished 
 over 50, the increase of ends being due to fulling, in which 
 operation the cloth is reduced some 36^0 in width. 
 
 The question is, how is the original set of a woollen 
 fabric that has thus been fulled to be calculated from a 
 small pattern. Of course the first point is to reckon the 
 number of threads on the inch in the finished fabric, say 
 54. Then, as the standard width of a narrow piece is 
 28 inches and of a broad piece 56 inches, not including 
 lists, the total number of threads in the entire width of 
 the piece (that is, in the warp,) can be obtained by multi- 
 plying the ends per inch by the width, thus : 54 x 28 = 
 1512. The allowance made for felting in the ordinary 
 classes of woollen textures varies from 10 to 20^© accord- 
 ing to the style of fabric analyzed. Assuming, for illus- 
 tration simply, the piece has shrunk in fulling 15^^, and 
 that it is 28 inches wide in the finished state, it would be 
 about 32 inches wide in the loom. If the width of the 
 cloth in the sley is divided into the total number of threads 
 in the warp it will give the ends per inch in the reed, as 
 1512 -T" 32 = nearly 48 threads on the inch. 
 
 Having found, in this manner, the threads per inch in 
 the warp in the loom, the next question is that of sleying, 
 which is regulated according to the weave of the cloth. 
 For a set of 48 threads on the inch a 12's, 16's, or 24's 
 reed, sleyed 4's, 3's, or 2's respectively, might be employed. 
 In weaves of a mat character the threads have a tendency 
 to "roll" or twirl round each other if those ends which 
 are coupled together in the weave are not split in the sley, 
 necessitating the use of as fine a reed as practicable. As, 
 however, the coarser the reed the less friction on the threads, 
 it is generally advisable to employ a medium counts of sley. 
 
ANALYSIS OF CLOTHS AND CALCULATIONS. 
 
 361 
 
 Single-make cloths are invariably woven on the square, 
 so that the number of the picks per inch is the same as the 
 the threads in the warp. In backed and double-weave fabrics 
 picks to the inch on the face is first obtained, from which 
 basis the number on the back can be readily ascertained 
 by discovering the order *of wefting, that is, whether woven 
 one, two, or three picks of face to each pick of backing 
 weft. 
 
 220. Method of Calculating the Weight of the Warp 
 Yarns, — When the warp yarns are all of the same shade 
 and size the weight can be found as follows : Multiply 
 the total number of threads in the warp by the length of 
 the chain in the loom, and divide by the number of yards 
 in a pound of the yarn of which it is composed. Example : 
 A warp 60 yards long contains 1,512 ends, and is made of 
 20 skeins yarn (that is, 20 yards of such thread weighs 
 one drachm) find its weight. 
 
 1,512 X 60 = number of yds. of yarn in the whole warp 
 20 X 16 X 16 = number of yds of 20sks. yarn in a lb. 
 = 17 14 lbs. 
 
 Should the warp be composed of fancy colours and of 
 various sizes of yarns, the weight of each sort of threads 
 has to be ascertained separately. Suppose, for instance, 
 the pattern of warp for the fabric sketched in fig. 210 is as 
 follows, and that it is required to find the weight of each 
 kind of yarn in the warp, which, it may be again assumed, 
 contains 1,512 ends, and is 60 yards long. 
 
 3 threads of 20 skeins black. 
 
 1 „ „ 60 skeins black, 60 skeins light brown, and 
 
 60 skeins white twist. 
 
 2 „ „ 20 skeins lavender. 
 
 1 „ „ 40 skeins black and tan. 
 1 „ „ 40 skeins black and scarlet. 
 
362 
 
 WOOL MANUFACTURE. 
 
 221. Estimating the Size of Tavist Yarns, — Before proceed- 
 ing with the calculation, the size of the 40 skeins and 60 
 skeins twist yarns must be ascertained. To find the size 
 of a 2-fold twist yarn, multiply the counts of the respec- 
 tive threads into each other, and divide by their numbers 
 added together. Thus, the formula for ascertaining the 
 size of the 40 skeins black and 40 skeins tan twist is as 
 
 follows : f ^ = 20 skeins. 
 
 40 + 40 
 
 When three separate threads are twisted together, first 
 calculate the size of two of them, and then the counts of 
 this compound thread when twisted with the third yarn. 
 For example, what is the actual size of the 60 skeins black, 
 60 skeins light brown, and 60 skeins white twist ? 
 
 , . 60 X 60 on ^1, 30 X 60 
 
 That IS, = 30, then = 20. 
 
 60 + 60 30 + 60 
 
 So that both the 40 skeins and 60 skeins twist would be 
 reckoned as 20 skeins. If two yarns of different material 
 are combined — as, for instance, a 2-fold 80's worsted with 
 a 2-fold 60's silk — then they have both, in the first place, 
 to be reduced to the same counts. A 2-fold 50's worsted 
 is equal to 25 hanks of 560 yards each in a pound, whereas 
 a 2-fold 60's silk is equal to 60 hanks of 840 yards each to 
 the pound ; so that it is essential to find the equivalent 
 either of a 2-fold 60's silk in the worsted counts, or of a 
 2-fold 50's worsted in the silk counts. The silk will be 
 brought to its equivalent in worsted hanks. 
 
 In order to reduce any two counts to the same basis, 
 bring one of them to yards, and divide by the standard 
 length of the other. 
 
 Example. — 2-fold 60's silk equals 60 hanks, or, in other 
 words, a pound of such silk contains 840 x 60 = 50,400 
 yards. Now, if this number is divided by the yards in the 
 worsted hank, 560, it will give the equivalent required, 
 thus : 50,400 -4- 560 = 90's worsted. 
 
 So that the question is reduced to the following : A 
 2-fold 60's silk, equal to 90's worsted yarn, twisted with 
 
ANALYSIS OF CLOTHS AND CALCULATIONS. 363 
 
 a 2-fold 50\s worsted 26's worsted) required the size 
 of the componnd yarn, 
 
 thatis,-^-=19U. 
 
 Should the 2-fold 60's silk be twisted with a woollen 
 yarn — as, for example, a 30 skeins thread — its equivalent 
 in woollen counts would be obtained by dividing the 
 number of yards in a pound of this yarn by the basis of 
 the woollen counts. According to the skein system of 
 reckoning woollen yarns, a 1 skein yarn is equal to 1 yard 
 to the drachm, 16 yards to the ounce, and 256 yards to the 
 pound ; hence the size of a 2-fold 60's silk in this system 
 
 of counts would be procured as follows : ^^^^-^ 
 = 196|- skeins. 
 
 222. Finding the Weight of each Sort of Yarn in the 
 Wa/rp, — Attention may now be turned to the fancy pattern 
 of warp given in paragraph 220. The first work in calcu- 
 lating the weight of each sort of yarn in such a pattern 
 consists in finding the number of each sort of ends in the 
 chain. To do this, divide the total number of threads in 
 the warp, which has been taken as 1,512, by the number 
 of threads in a pattern ; thus, 1,512 -h 8 = 189 patterns, 
 or repeats, in the entire warp. 'Now multiply the number 
 of patterns by each class of yarns separately, as indicated 
 below : — 
 
 189 patterns, multiplied by 3 ends of black, equals 
 
 567 ends of black yarn in the warp. 
 189 patterns, multiplied by 2 ends of lavender, equals 
 378 ends of lavender yarn in the warp. 
 As there is only 1 end of 60 skeins black, light brown, and 
 white twist, 1 end of 40 skeins black and tan twist, and 
 1 end of 40 skeins black and scarlet twist in the pattern of 
 warp, there would only be 189 ends of these respective 
 compound threads in the whole chain. 
 
 The total number of each kind of threads having thus 
 been obtained, the calculation is completed in the follow- 
 ing manner : 
 
364 WOOL MANUFACTURE. 
 
 567 (ends of black) x 60 (length of the warp in yards) 
 20 (skeins or size of thread calculated) x 16 x 16 
 567 X 60 _t]2at is, the number of yards of black 
 
 20 X 16 X 16 
 yarn — 34,020 — divided by the yards in a pound of 20 
 skeins yarn, namely 5,120, gives the weight of this thread 
 in the warp, namely, 6^|-|- lbs. 
 
 Each colour of yarn in the warp is dealt with on this 
 principle, the rule in all cases being to divide the number 
 of yards of the particular yarn calculated by the number 
 of yards one pound of it contains. To proceed, then, with 
 the 60 skeins black, light brown, and white twist : 
 
 189 (ends of 60 skeins twist) x 60 
 60 skeins twist 3-fold yarn reckoned as 20 skeins x 16 x 16 
 - X 60 ^ 
 
 ~ 20 X 16 X 16 
 378 (ends of lavender) x 60 _ , ^ ^ 
 
 20 X 16 X 16 ^' 
 189 (ends of black and tan twist) x 60 
 40 skeins twist 2-fold yarn reckoned as 20 skeins x 16 x 16 
 = -1 89 X 60 ^ 
 20 X 16 x 16 
 189 (ends of black and scarlet twist) x 60 
 
 40 skeins twist 2-fold yarn reckoned as 20 skeins x 16 x 16 
 ^ 189 X 60 ^ 
 20 x 16 X 16 
 
 Summary. 
 
 ibs. 
 
 20 skeins black yarn = 6^|-i- 
 
 60 skeins twist yarn = ^ttV 
 
 20 skeins lavender yarn = ^tVt 
 
 40 skeins black and tan twist yarn = ^ 
 
 40 skeins black and scarlet twist yarn = 2-5_5g. 
 
 Total weight of warp 17 
 
ANALYSIS OF CLOTHS AND CALCULATIONS. 
 
 365 
 
 220. Estimating the Weight of Weft Yar7is of one Size 
 and Colour only. — The rule for finding the weight of weft 
 yarn in a piece of cloth woven of one colour and size of yarn 
 is as follows : Multiply the picks per inch in the fabric by 
 the width of the cloth in the loom, and then multiply the 
 product thus obtained by the length of the warp in yards, 
 and afterwards divide the result by the yards per pound of 
 the yarn used in weaving the texture. 
 
 Example, — A piece of cloth, made from 60 yards of 
 warp, contains 4?8 picks on the inch, is 32 inches wide 
 in the loom, and is woven of 20 skeins woollen yarn, re- 
 quired the weight of the weft. 
 
 48 picks X 32 inches wide in the loom x 60 length of warp 
 20 skeins or size of yarn x 16 x 16 
 
 48 X 32 X 60 -.Q-,, . . 
 
 = = 18 lbs. or weft yarn. 
 
 20 X 16 X 16 ^ 
 
 224. Calculating the Weight of Weft composed of Various 
 Kinds of Yarns, — Let it be supposed that it is required to 
 find the weight of each sort of weft yarn in a piece of 
 cloth 36 inches wide in the loom, made of 60 yards of 
 warp, containing 40 picks on the inch, and woven as 
 below : — 
 
 4 picks of 20 skeins black. 
 
 4 ,, 20 skeins brown. 
 
 2 „ 40 skeins black and lavender twist, to be 
 
 reckoned as 20 skeins. 
 2 „ 40 skeins black and tan twist, to be reckoned 
 
 as 20 skeins. 
 
 By the aid of two rules the method of obtaining the weight 
 of any combination of weft threads in a woven fabric may 
 be made clear to the reader. They are as follows : 
 
 1. Multiply the picks on the inch by width of the cloth in 
 the loom, and divide by the number of picks in the pattern. 
 
 2. Multiply the result of the foregoing rule by each sort 
 of picks in the pattern separately, and then the product 
 of each by the length of the warp in yards, which divide 
 
366 
 
 WOOL MANUFACTURE. 
 
 by the yards in a pound of the thread calculated. Thus, 
 in the cloth to which the weaving particulars are given 
 above, the piece is 36 inches wide in the loom, and con- 
 tains 40 picks on the inch, while the pattern of weft is 
 composed of 12 picks ; therefore, the formula, according to 
 36 X 40 
 
 Rule I. will be ^ = 120 repeats of the pattern in a 
 
 length of cloth equal to the width of the warp in the loom. 
 
 Now this number, according to Rule II. , should be multi- 
 plied by each sort of shoots in the pattern, then by the 
 length of the warp, and the total divided by the number 
 of yards in a pound of the thread, so that the calculation 
 would be completed thus : — 
 
 120x4 (picks of black) x 60 ^ 5, ibs. of 20 skeins black. 
 
 20 X 16 X 16 ' 
 120 X 4 (picks of brown) X 60 _ ^0 sks. brown. 
 
 20 X 16 X 16 ' 
 
 120 X 2 (picks of black and lavender twist) x 60 „ 3 „ 
 
 20 x 16 X 16 
 
 of 40 skeins black and lavender twist, reckoned as 20 skeins. 
 120 X 2 (picks of black and tan twist) x 60 _ ^ „ 
 20 ^ Ig ^ Ig lbs. ot 
 
 40 skeins black and tan twist, reckoned as 20 skeins. 
 
 225. Ascertaining the Weight of a Worsted Fabric, — The 
 quantitive analysis of a worsted, cotton, union, or any 
 other cloth is obtained on exactly the same principle as 
 the woollen fabric considered. As there is, however, some 
 slight dissimilarity in the method of working the calcula- 
 tions, arising from the diflPerent methods of gristing or 
 reckoning the size of the threads in these respective cloths, 
 an example in a worsted texture will be given. Suppose, 
 then, the weaving particulars for a worsted trousering 
 style made of the 13- shaft corkscrew are as given below, 
 and that the weights of the vaHous sorts of yarns in both 
 warp and weft are required for making the piece. 
 
ANALYSIS OF CLOTHS AND CALCULATIONS. 367 
 
 of 2-fold 60's black, reckoned as 30's. 
 „ 2-fold 120's black and tan twist, reckoned 
 as 30's. 
 
 „ 2-fold 60's black, reckoned as 30's. 
 ,, 2-fold 60's black, reckoned as 30's. 
 „ 2 -fold 120's black and green olive twist, 
 
 reckoned as 30's. 
 „ 2-fold 60's black, reckoned as 30's. 
 
 Weft. 
 
 26 picks of 30's black. 
 26 „ „ 30's brown. 
 
 To be woven in a 20's reed, 6 ends in a split, and to 
 have 120 picks on the inch. The width of the piece in 
 the loom to be 64 inches including lists, and the warp to 
 be 120 yards long. 
 
 First find the total nnmber of ends in the warp 
 thus : 64 X 120 = 7680 threads. Next divide 7680 by 
 65, the number of ends in the pattern of warp, giving 118 
 repeats and 10 ends over. The latter threads will require 
 to be calculated with the black. The rule is, when there 
 is a remainder, after dividing by the ends in the pattern, to 
 proportion such threads to the dijfferent sets of colours in 
 the order in which they succeed each other. For example, 
 if there had been a remainder of 27 threads, 26 ends would 
 have been added to the black, and 1 to the black and tan 
 twist. 
 
 Having obtained the number of patterns in the warp, 
 proceed by ascertaining the number of each sort of threads 
 in the arrangement of colours, which it will be found, on 
 consulting the pattern of warp, are as follows : — 51 ends 
 of black, 7 ends of black and tan twist, and 7 ends of black 
 and green olive twist. 
 
 Now complete the calculation thus : — 
 
 Warp, 
 
 26 ends 
 1 „ 
 
368 WOOL MANUFACTURE. 
 
 (118 patterns x 51 ends of black) + 16 ends over x 120 
 
 length of warp 
 30, No. of hanks in alb, of 38's worsted x 560 yards in the 
 
 worsted hank 
 
 = (iliiiil)±i|^120= 43,3^ lbs. of 2-fold 60's black 
 30 x 560 
 
 118 X 7 ends of black and tan X 120 ton i?r> r» i t i ^/^) 
 30ir660 = 5Albs.of 2-fold 120 s 
 
 black and tan twist. 
 118 X 7 ends of black and green olive x 120 _ k ^ ii 
 
 30 X 560 ^-^^ 
 
 of 2-fold 120's black and green olive twist. 
 The weight of the weft yarns may be procured on the 
 lines indicated in the rules given in the previous paragraph. 
 
 The working out of the calculation would be accom- 
 plished as follows : — 
 
 64 inches wide in loom x 120 picks on the inch ^ 
 
 — — ^ = 149 re- 
 
 52 picks in the pattern of weft 
 
 peats and 12 ends over. 
 
 Then, 
 
 (149 X 26 picks of black) + 12 ends over x 120 
 length of warp, 
 30, No. hanks in a pound of 30's worsted x 560 yards in a 
 
 hank 
 
 (149 X 26) + 12 X 120 . q ii. ^ qa' ui i 
 149 X 26 pK3ks^of W X 120 ^ 27^^ lbs. of 30's brown. 
 
 226. Method of finding the Size of the Weft Yarn for 
 Weaving a Piece of Cloth of a Given Weight. — A problem of 
 the following class sometimes arises in making woven 
 goods. Required the size of the weft yarn for weaving a 
 piece of cloth, say 60 yards long, 36 inches wide in the 
 loom, with 40 picks on the inch, the weight of the weft 
 being 20 lbs. In the first place ascertain the number of 
 yards of weft yarn in the whole piece, and then divide by 
 
ANALYSIS OF CLOTHS AND CALCULATIONS. 
 
 369 
 
 the number of drachms in the weight of the weft. That 
 is to say, supposing A = the length of the piece, 60 yards ; 
 B = the width of the piece, 36 inches ; c = the picks on 
 the inch, 40 ; and D = the weight of the weft, 20 lbs. ; 
 
 then ^^^x' = ^Ox^^x 40 ^ 
 
 D 20 X 16 X 16 ' 
 
 Take a second example, — a piece of worsted cloth 120 
 yards long, 66 inches wide in the loom, and 48 picks on the 
 inch, weighs 106 lbs., find the size of the weft yarn, when 
 the warp is made of 2-fold 30's worsted and set in a 14's 
 reed, 4 threads in a split. First find the weight of the 
 warp thus : — 
 
 56 threads on the inch x 66 inches width of cloth in loom 
 X 120 length of warp 
 560 yards in worsted hank x 15 size of warp yarn 
 = 524: lbs. Then 106 lbs. weight of piece — 52^ lbs« 
 weight of warp = 53^ lbs. of weft yarn. Now proceed as 
 in the previous example, thus : — 
 
 120 X 66 X 48 _ py^q^Iqq^Ij worsted. 
 53i- X 560 ^ 
 227. Calculating the Picks jper Inch for Weaving a Speci- 
 fied Weight of Cloth, — In this case the size of the yarns, 
 length and width of the cloth, and weight of the weft are 
 given, and it is required to find the picks on the inch. For 
 example : Ascertain the picks per inch in a piece of cloth 
 30 inches wide in the loom, 60 yards long, the size of the 
 weft yarn being 8 skeins, and the weight of the weft 
 30 lbs. The first thing to do in solving this problem is to 
 ascertain the number of yards of 8 skeins yarn in 30 lbs,, 
 and then divide by the width of the piece multiplied by its 
 length. In another form, supposing A = the weight of 
 the weft yarn, 30 lbs. ; b = the size of the weft, 8 skeins ; 
 C = the width of the piece, 30 inches ; and d = the 
 
 1 4-1, ^ XI, • af\ J ^i, ^XB 30x16x16x8 
 
 length of the piece 60 yards ; then = — 
 
 ^ ^ J'' 30x60 
 
 = 34_^y picks on the inch. 
 
 B B 
 
370 
 
 WOOL MANUFACTURE. 
 
 Here is a more complex question of this kind : Find the 
 picks per inch in a piece of cloth weighing 120 lbs., and 
 made in the following manner : warp, 2-fold 40's cotton, 
 
 102 beers (38 threads to the beer) ; weft, 2 picks of 24's 
 worsted and 1 pick of 6 skeins low woollen. Width of 
 the cloth in the loom, 66 inches ; length of the warp, 
 72 yards. 
 
 It will be necessary to first obtain the weight of the 
 warp, and by deducting it from the total weight of the 
 piece, find the number of pounds of weft yarn in the whole 
 fabric. 
 
 102 beers x 38 ends in beer x 72 yards length of warp 
 
 2-fold 40's = 20 X 840 yards in cotton hank 
 = nearly 17 lbs. 
 
 Then, 120 lbs. weight of piece — 17 lbs. weight of warp = 
 
 103 lbs. of weft yarn. 
 
 Now divide the number of yards in an ounce of 5 skeins 
 woollen into the number of yards in an ounce of 24's 
 worsted, this will give the number of ounces of woollen 
 yarn, equivalent in length to one ounce of worsted ; thus, 
 840 yards in one ounce of 24' s worsted -f- 80 yards in one 
 ounce of 5 skeins wool = 10^^. But as there are two picks 
 of worsted to one pick of wool, one ounce of worsted in 
 weaving this cloth would be equal to 5-i- ozs. of wool. 
 Having found these particulars, add the proportionate 
 lengths together, and then, as the result is to either the 
 woollen or the worsted yarn, so is that to the weight of 
 the piece — that is to say, 1 oz. worsted + 5^ ozs. woollen 
 = 6^ ; then, as 6i- I 5i- : : 103 = 86^^ lbs. of woollen 
 weft. The weight of worsted is obtained by subtracting 
 86i-| from 103 = 16^-1 lbs. 
 
 Now, having got the width of the cloth in the loom, 
 66 inches, the length of the warp, 72 yards, and found the 
 weight of the worsted weft lbs., and also the weight 
 
 of the 5 skeins woollen S6^l- lbs., the problem may be 
 completed on the same lines as the foregoing example : 
 
ANALYSIS OF CLOTHS AND CALCULATIONS. 371 
 
 Thus, taking the woollen weft first, s X 16 x 16 x 5 
 
 72 X 66 
 
 practically, 24 picks on the inch. As there are two picks 
 of worsted to one pick of woollen, there would be a total 
 of 72 picks on the inch in the woven fabric. 
 
372 
 
 WOOL MANUFACTURE. 
 
 CHAPTER XIV. 
 
 CLOTH FINISHING. 
 
 228. Effect of Finishing— 229. Finish in Relation to Worsted Cloths 
 —230. Variety of Finish in Woollens— 231. Nature of Fulling— 232. 
 Process of Milling — 233. Milling Reduces the Size of the Pattern — 
 234. Raising and its Effects — 235. Differences between Wet and Dry 
 Raising— 236. Boiling and Crabbing — 237. Pressing — 238. Doeskin 
 Finish— 239. Velvet Finish— 240. Dry Finish— 241. Scotch and Melton 
 Finish— 242. Worsted Finish. 
 
 228. Effect of FinisJiing, — Generally speaking, all classes of 
 fabrics alter in appearance, handle, and firmness of texture 
 in the finishing processes. If, however, there is any par- 
 ticular style of goods liable to lose the character it pos- 
 sesses in the loom more than another, through the appli- 
 cation of finish, it is an all-wool fabric. Thus the fineness, 
 soft and substantial touch, compact texture, and lustrous 
 surface of a fine doeskin are principally due to the me- 
 chanical treatment this class of cloth is subjected to in 
 finishing. In all dressed-faced cloths the warp and weft 
 threads, so easy to distinguish before finishing, are com- 
 pletely covered with pile or nap, or, in other words, with 
 the fibre drawn out of the body of the texture, and spread 
 on the surface of the fabric by the teazles of the raising 
 gig. As a woollen cloth is milled or fulled, previous to 
 raising, the thready surface which characterizes it on 
 leaving the loom totally disappears in the fulling process, 
 causing the fabric to resemble a felted rather than a woven 
 production. A piece of doeskin goods, therefore, in the 
 finished or marketable condition, possesses but few features 
 common with a similar fabric in the raw woven state, 
 finishing effecting marked changes in its appearance and 
 
CLOTH FINISHING. 
 
 373 
 
 general character. In the finishing operations to which 
 such a cloth is submitted, a degree of softness and lustre 
 is imparted. Then, again, the bare surface and thready 
 handle the fabric possesses in the loom are, after finishing, 
 no longer distinguishable, the former being substituted by 
 a soft, velvetty pile, and the latter by a clothy and elastic 
 touch. 
 
 229. Finish in B elation to Worsted Oloths. — The processes of 
 finishing do not, however, produce such distinctive changes 
 in the condition of a worsted cloth, for here the character 
 of the weave or efiect of crossing the threads, is not only 
 carefully preserved, but smartly and boldly developed. A 
 worsted cloth in the loom, if well woven, is the same, to a 
 very considerable degree, in appearance and handle as 
 when in the finished or saleable condition. The only 
 noticeable alterations that the application of finish effects 
 in this case is a desirable improvement in the qualities of 
 softness and lustre. An ordinary buyer would, however, 
 experience little difficulty in tracing the resemblance be- 
 tween an unfinished and a finished piece of worsted goods ; 
 possibly he would notice that the effect of the weave or 
 make is more pronounced in the latter than in the former, 
 which arises, no doubt from the finished cloth having been 
 submitted to the process of cropping or cutting, which 
 removes the loose and straggling fibres that generally 
 appear on the surface of a woven fabric. The point that 
 should be specially noted here is that while a worsted 
 fabric neither increases, to any material degree, in thick- 
 ness nor strength during the finishing operations, a woollen 
 fabric, more especially when milled for a considerable 
 period, increases both in density and fulness of handle, 
 these qualities being obtained more or less in the milling 
 machine. Of course it is not to be inferred from these 
 remarks that a tender cloth can be made firm and elastic 
 by subjecting it to this process ; but, that by reducing 
 the piece in length and breadth, which takes place in pro- 
 portion to the period of time it is operated upon in the 
 
374 
 
 WOOL MANUFACTURE. 
 
 falling mill, the fabric naturally increases in compact- 
 ness, solidity, and strength. 
 
 230. Variety of Finish in Woollens, — There is consider- 
 ably more scope for producing a variety of effects by finish- 
 ing in woollen than in worsted goods ; for there is one 
 feature which invariably obtains in a worsted cloth 
 whether single or backed, namely, a well pronounced 
 weave effect and a clear, bright face, implying the appli- 
 cation, to a very large extent, of one style of finish. It is 
 very different in the case of woollen goods. Here the 
 cloth finisher is not limited to one or two methods of im- 
 proving the surface of the goods, as the classes of fabrics 
 named in the sequel, which are all differently treated in 
 the finishing operations, clearly shows. The most im- 
 portant and skilful class of finish is the dress face. It is 
 applied to plain broads, moscows, beavers, pilots, and all 
 descriptions of doeskins. These are fabrics, as will 
 already have been gathered from the reference made to the 
 doe-skin, where the face of the cloth is entirely covered 
 with short fibres, which are raised or drawn in one 
 direction over the surface of the piece, and afterwards 
 evened or reduced to one uniform length throughout by 
 cropping or cutting. The fibre thus obtained is technically 
 called the pile or nap of the cloth. Lustre is added to 
 the face of these goods by subjecting the piece to a 
 process of boiling. As the primary object in finishing 
 such fabrics is to cover the threadlike character of the 
 cloth, the weave is necessarily hid in the mass of fibrous 
 pile raised on its surface in accomplishing this result. 
 From a consideration of this style of finish, attention may 
 be called to cheviot goods, and the ordinary classes of 
 woollen coatings and suitings, where weave is of more im- 
 portance in the finished cloths than in such fabrics as doe- 
 skins and pilots, and hence, the finish applied, leaves the 
 effect of the crossing of the warp and weft yarns mode- 
 rately clear, but not so decided and smartly defined as in 
 worsteds. In buckskins and Venetians the very opposite 
 
CLOTH FINISHING. 
 
 375 
 
 effect is obtained, by the finishing processes, to what exists 
 in a dressed face cloth, for here the effect of the weave is 
 so definite and clear that it will compare favourably, in 
 this particular, with a piece of worsted goods. Further 
 reference might be made to nap cloths for overcoatings 
 and velvet-finished fabrics. In the former, small naps or 
 curls are formed on the upper side of the cloth in the 
 finishing operations, while a piece of goods finished on the 
 velvet principle is covered with an erect pile of fibres. 
 The various kinds of finish that have now been alluded to 
 show that the weave or make used in the formation of the 
 fabric may be completely hid from view in the finishing 
 processes, or left sufficiently prominent as to give character 
 to the pattern, or in a third instance it may be clearly 
 brought out and form the leading feature of the style as in 
 a common buckskin or Venetian. But as these results are 
 only obtainable in woollen fabrics, the allusions that may 
 now be made to the effect any particular process has on 
 ' the condition of the woven goods, will be specially applic- 
 able to all wool fabrics. 
 
 231. Nature of Fulling, — Milling or fulling will be 
 treated of first, because, after scouring, it is the primary 
 process in finishing which produces a decided change in 
 the nature of the woven fabric. The object of this opera- 
 tion is apparent from the name it bears, the literal meaning 
 of fulling implying an increasing in bulk or substance. 
 This is what actually takes place as the cloth is being 
 passed through the fulling mill where it increases in thick- 
 ness, density, and body. There is possibly no finishing 
 operation of more importance than this in the manufac- 
 ture of some classes of woven goods, while the various 
 kinds of woollen suitings, coatings, trouserings, ulsterings, 
 (fee, handle loftier and fuller, possessing, in a word, more 
 substance, for having been subjected for a short time to 
 the action of the fulling machine or stocks. The question 
 that suggests itself for consideration in connection with 
 this subject is, what are the main causes of an open woven 
 
376 
 
 WOOL MANUFACTURE. 
 
 texture being changed into a close, compact piece of goods 
 in the milling machine ? For this is what actually occurs 
 in the fulling operation, the fabric being thready in the 
 bottom, loose in structure, and lacking in softness and 
 fulness on leaving the loom. The subject certainly merits 
 a careful investigation. It is remarkable that this change 
 is characteristic to woollen and worsted goods alone, but 
 more especially to the former, for reasons which will 
 shortly be alluded to. The wool fibre appears to be the 
 only textile material that possesses this peculiar felting or 
 fulling property. So far as modern investigation teaches 
 it arises from the saw-like serrations which form the 
 structure of the fibre; these in the fulling operations 
 cause the individual fibres of the threads in the warp and 
 weft of the cloth to be closely and permanently bound 
 together. In a primary sense, therefore, the cause of the 
 shrinking which takes place in a woven cloth, while in 
 the fulling mill, arises from the natural structure of the 
 wool fibre, the number and strength of the serrations in a 
 given length of which may be said to define the milling 
 power of the wool. But, in a secondary sense, this 
 shrinking feature is due to the mechanical arrangement of 
 the fibres in the construction of a woollen thread. The 
 mixing and blending of the material, in scribbling and 
 spinning, producing exactly that kind of yarn which not 
 only facilitates but accelerates the fulling of a piece of 
 woven goods ; the worsted thread, on the contrary, is con- 
 structed on . that principle which may be said to be most 
 likely to even diminish the natural felting property in 
 the wool. Hence a woollen cloth mills better than a 
 worsted. 
 
 232. Process of Milling, — The order of the milling pro- 
 cess as performed in the fulling machine is as follows : — 
 The cloth is in the first place well saturated with soap and 
 water, and then passed between two vertical rollers in a 
 twisted condition, the pressure here applied causing it to 
 shrink in the direction of the weft. On emerging from 
 
CLOTH FINISHING. 
 
 877 
 
 between these rollers the progress of the piece is inter- 
 rupted, being cuttled up in the meantime in a kind of a box, 
 where it is retained for a certain length of time, and then 
 liberated to admit of a second quantity, and so on till the 
 whole piece has been submitted to this process. While 
 cuttled in the box or case the fabric shrinks in the direc- 
 tion of the warp. The true character of the change pro- 
 duced in the condition of the cloth in this operation may- 
 be forcibly illustrated. A piece of all-wool goods, made 
 of small yarns, and set 36 inches wide in the loom, was 
 recently milled for nearly two whole days, after which 
 it was removed from the milling machine, and was found 
 to be no more than 18 inches in width, and somewhere 
 about half its original length. The surface of the cloth 
 had no resemblance to that of a woven texture, the effect 
 of the weave having entirely disappeared, and the fabric 
 being like a thin layer of felted wool. So firmly had the 
 warp and weft threads been milled together that it was 
 impossible, with the greatest care, to separate them from 
 each other without a large number of breakages. Ad- 
 mitted that this was an unusually severe change to make 
 in the cloth by milling, yet it serves to illustrate that, ac- 
 cording to the amount of fulling a fabric is subjected to, 
 the more compact and substantial will be the texture, 
 while the more it is reduced in length and breadth the 
 more perceptibly will it be increased in thickness. These, 
 along with the quality of a soft, firm handle, are the main 
 changes in the condition of a woollen cloth due to the 
 fulling process. 
 
 233. Milling Reduces the Size of the Pattern, — When the 
 cloth has passed through the fulling mill, and been ten- 
 tered and dried, it is generally more or less covered with 
 loose straggling fibres. These, in some classes of woollen 
 goods, help to form what has been called the nap or pile 
 of the finished cloth, but in other classes of fabrics they 
 have to be entirely removed, in order to admit of a full 
 development of the colours and weave of the pattern. The 
 
378 
 
 WOOL MANUFACTURE. 
 
 effect of the weave or make, and of the arrangement of 
 the colours in both warp and weft yarns, suffers somewhat 
 in brightness and clearness during the passage of the piece 
 through the fulling machine ; for, in addition to the cloth 
 decreasing both in length and breadth, which implies a 
 proportionate reduction in the size of the pattern, the 
 fibres that appear on the surfaces of the piece in this 
 operation also help to subdue the effect of the design. 
 That is to say, if a cloth should be set seventy-two inches 
 wide in the loom, and milled down to fifty-six inches, the 
 pattern or design would, at least in the direction of the 
 weft, be |- smaller in the milled than in the unmilled 
 fabric. Such a considerable reduction in the size of a 
 medium or small pattern necessarily softens the effect of 
 the design ; and hence, in fancy fabrics, where weave and 
 colour are essential to the sale of the goods, the fibres on 
 the face of the cloth have to be removed in the subsequent 
 operations, which may be said to more than compensate 
 for the loss of effect by the reduction in the size of the 
 pattern, because such a removal of loose fibres necessarily 
 gives a smart and definite character to the weave and 
 colours employed in the formation of the style. 
 
 234. Raising and its Effects. — Now, whether it may be 
 necessary to clear the surface of the cloth in order to at- 
 tain the required finish or not, the piece is submitted, after 
 milling, to a very important finishing process, technically 
 called raising, which possesses a two-fold character. Thus 
 the change which this work effects in the nature or ap- 
 pearance of the cloth depends on the wet or dry condition 
 of the piece during the process — dry raising rooting up 
 the fibres on the surface of the cloth, and leaving them in 
 upright positions ; while wet raising, by disturbing the 
 face of the texture, obtains enough fibre to form the pile 
 or nap, which is spread evenly on the surface of the 
 fabric. The raising gig, or the machine on which this 
 work is done, consists of a large skeleton cylinder con- 
 taining a number of iron rods closely set with teazles. 
 
CLOTH FINISHING. 
 
 379 
 
 This cylinder, which is the principal part of the machine, 
 revolves at a very quick rate, and in the opposite direction 
 to the way in which the piece is going. The latter travels 
 very slowly, and is brought into contact with the sharp 
 and pliant teazles, which raise the fibres by a series of 
 rollers, capable of adjustment as to distance from the 
 cylinder of the gig. The primary object of this process is 
 to disentangle and open the fibres, completely covering 
 the surface of the piece after milling and tentering. But, 
 as there are two distinct classes of gig raising, which are 
 applied with very difierent results, it will be useful to 
 consider them separately. Wet raising will therefore be 
 treated of first. Dressed face goods, such as doeskins, 
 plain broads, moscows, pilots, beavers, and presidents, are 
 all passed over the raising gig in a wet or damped con- 
 dition. Again, this principle of raising is frequently 
 adopted in finishing goods made of a low quality of 
 backing yarn which it is desirable to hide as much as 
 possible, and hence the underside of the fabric is raised 
 wet. That the fibre is not removed in the subsequent 
 process of cutting, when the cloth has been raised ac- 
 cording to this system, may be ascertained by passing the 
 hand over a piece of fine doeskin, or any other style of 
 fabric that has been similarly treated ; so long as it moves 
 in the direction in which the fibre has been raised on the 
 gig, it will glide smoothly along, but, on reversing the move- 
 ment, the hand at once opposes the entire mass of fibres. 
 
 !N"ow, as this pile or nap is not characteristic of the 
 cloth in the loom, it is an indication that raising has pro- 
 duced a remarkable change in the condition of the fabric. 
 Such, in fact, is the nature of the raising process that the 
 bare and thready appearance the woven fabric originally 
 possessed is, by the stirring action of the teazles, com- 
 pletely covered with a layer of fibres, which so perfectly 
 conceals the woven character of the cloth that neither the 
 threads of warp or weft used in its manufacture are visible 
 on its surface. In short, the fibrous face which cha- 
 
380 
 
 WOOL MANUFACTURE. 
 
 racterizes cloths raised on this principle arises mainly 
 from this process ; wet raising not only disturbing the 
 face of the cloth in such a manner as to cover it with 
 fibre, but, by distributing the same over the surfaces of the 
 fabric, preserving the length of the pile during the cutting 
 or cropping operation. It will shortly be observed that 
 dry raising has almost an opposite effect on the condition 
 of the cloth, for, although this class of raising alters the 
 woven character of the fabric, yet, instead of preserving 
 the fibre, it prepares it for being removed by the knife of 
 the cutting machine. Worsted coatings and trouserings, 
 and the ordinary classes of fancy woollen goods, are usually 
 raised in the dry state. In worsted goods, however, more 
 especially when finishing the finer fabrics, this operation 
 partakes more of a brushing than of a raising character : 
 the action of the teazles, as applied in raising all-wool goods, 
 would be too severe in efiect, and probably damage the even 
 appearance of the face of this kind of cloth. The principal 
 reason why dry raising is more suitable than wet raising 
 in finishing these fabrics, is because in such goods a smart, 
 clean face is generally required. Then, again, the efi'ect 
 of the weave is also of paramount importance, and, in 
 order to give prominence to this feature of the fabric, it 
 is necessary to remove the fibre; which, it has been shown, 
 covers both sides of the piece after milling, and also hides 
 the interlacing of the yarns employed in production of the 
 cloth. Hence, raising is resorted to, in this instance, to 
 facilitate a complete removal of the fibre in the cutting 
 process. However,, in order to obtain a fair idea of the 
 bareness and general character of cloths raised dry, let a 
 fabric of this description be put to a similar examination 
 as the doeskin mentioned above. This experiment will, 
 at least, contrast the difierence in the handle of goods 
 raised wet and dry respectively. In this case the hand 
 may be moved in every possible direction over the surface 
 of the cloth, and yet it will not be discovered that the fibre 
 leans in any particular manner ; on the contrary, it offers 
 
CLOTH FINISHING. 
 
 381 
 
 equal resistance to the motion of the hand whichever way- 
 it may be directed, showing that the fibres have not only 
 been raised into upright positions, but so efiectually re- 
 moved in the subsequent operation of cutting as not to 
 possess suflScient length to be perceptibly laid either in 
 one direction or another ; in a word, what remains of the 
 pile projects perpendicularly from the surface of the piece 
 as raised on the gig. 
 
 235. Differences between Wet and Dry Raising, — This na- 
 turally leads to a consideration of the difierences in the 
 effect of these two distinct methods of raising woven goods. 
 Wo doubt it will have been observed that wet raising pre- 
 vents to some extent the removal of the pile by spreading 
 it evenly over the surface of the cloth ; this preservation 
 of the length of the fibre causes these goods to admit of a 
 more lustrous finish, and kinder handle than if the piece 
 had been raised dry. The dry class of raising, on the 
 other hand, raises the fibre into that condition in which it 
 is most likely to be completely removed by cutting or 
 cropping. These two standard methods of raising give, 
 therefore, opposite effects, one method almost perfectly 
 concealing the crossing of the threads, and the other, by fa- 
 cilitating a clear cut, giving smartness and decision to 
 both weave and colour. The difference is more distinctly 
 apparent, however, when the two cloths have been sub- 
 mitted to the cutting process ; for, while the only per- 
 ceptible change effected in the condition of the wet raised 
 fabric, is the production of a more even pile, all straggling 
 fibres being removed, the dry raised cloth undergoes a 
 complete change. This arises from the knife of the 
 cutting machine taking off every species of fibre and 
 leaving the surfaces of the cloth clean and smart, so that 
 both the effect of the make, and also of the combination 
 of the colours, are now more pronounced than in the loom, 
 while the beauty of the pattern is enhanced on account of 
 the bare thready texture having undergone a material 
 change in the fulling operation. 
 
382 
 
 WOOL MANUFACTURE. 
 
 236. Boiling and Grabbing, — Boiling is another very 
 important finishing process, especially when a high or 
 dressed finish is required. It is effected by winding the 
 piece tightly on a large roller, and then boiling it for two 
 or three hours, after which time it is taken off and re- 
 wound on the cylinder, commencing with the opposite end 
 of the piece, in order that the cloth may be evenly boiled 
 throughout. This process is said to impart a permanent 
 lustre. Piece dyed worsted goods are subjected to a 
 similar operation, and a process equivalent in effect so far 
 as imparting lustre is concerned ; it consists in wrapping 
 the piece on a perforated cylinder through which steam is 
 forced ; this occupies some five or eight minutes, when 
 the cylinder is allowed to cool, and the cloth removed 
 and treated in a like manner for a second time, as in 
 boiling a woollen fabric. 
 
 237. Pressing. — The object of the next process in finish- 
 ing, namely, that of pressing, is to sadden and impart 
 solidity to the cloth, and perhaps, in a secondary sense, to 
 give lustre. But this should be said of the lustre a fabric 
 obtains in the press, it is more or less of a fugative cha- 
 racter, pertaining more to the nature of a glaze than a 
 permanent brightness. That the object of pressing, how- 
 ever, is not so much to afford lustre as solidity to the 
 fabric, is evident from the steaming process to which 
 goods are submitted, after being removed from the press, 
 to remove the excessive glaze due to pressing, which has 
 a tendency to give the cloth a stiff, unkind handle. 
 
 The various changes that a woven fabric undergoes in 
 the finishing processes have now been succinctly considered, 
 and they have shown that the productions of the loom are 
 considerably improved in these after operations of cloth 
 manufacture. The following are the principal features in 
 the marketable cloth specially due to the application of 
 finish: a soft, full handle; a compact texture; a fibrous 
 face; a permanent lustre; an increased resisting power, and 
 firmness combined with solidity. 
 
CLOTH FINISHING. 
 
 383 
 
 It only remains to describe the various classes of 
 ''finish" applied to both woollen and worsted goods. 
 These may be treated of in the following order: — doeskin, 
 or dress-face finish; velvet, or erect pile finish; dry, or 
 bare finish; Melton and Scotch finish; and the worsted 
 finish. 
 
 238. Doeskin Finish, — This finish requires the most 
 skilful workmanship, occupies the most time, and com- 
 prises the largest diversity of processes. The cloth in- 
 tended to be finished on this principle having been sub- 
 mitted to the preliminary operations of washing, milling, 
 and tentering to remove the creases in the piece, it is 
 taken to the gig for first raising. Here the real work of 
 finishing commences. To assist the teazles in straighten- 
 ing and drawing out the fibres covering the face of the 
 cloth, the piece is evenly damped as it passes on to the 
 gig. Raising should disentangle the fibres but not re- 
 move them, comb out the curliness, and arrange them in 
 parallel order. First raising should be done with old or 
 weak teazles so as not to destroy the texture. Too harsh 
 treatment in this operation should be carefully guarded 
 against, as the fabric is liable to be damaged if severely 
 operated upon. Second tentering is the next process, 
 after which comes dry beating to prepare the cloth for 
 cutting or cropping. In this operation the fibre should be 
 cut low, but not too close, otherwise the cloth, when 
 finished, will appear grey and bare in the bottom. Uni- 
 formity in the length of the pile is the primary object to 
 be attained in cutting. The piece is now damped or 
 moistened and then cross raised, in which process the 
 fibres are drawn from list to list, or in the direction of the 
 weft. Raising on the gig for a second time follows, the 
 cloth being treated head end first, and then tail end first, 
 to procure an even distribution of the fibres. Tentering 
 to prepare the piece for middle cutting next takes place. 
 Both previous to and after this cropping the fabric is well 
 brushed on the brushing machine. After pressing the 
 
384 
 
 WOOL MANUFACTURE. 
 
 piece for the first time, it is wrapped round a huge wooden 
 roller head end first, and boiled from 4 to 6 hours, then 
 raised and re-wound tail end first on the roller to be again 
 boiled. This process may be repeated for ten or twelve 
 times in succession. After last boiling the cloth is again 
 raised and then washed in clean water, when it is tentered 
 and dried and taken to the gig for dry raising to facilitate 
 cutting. Every care is needed in final cutting, as it is 
 extremely important that the pile on the face of the fabric 
 should be perfectly uniform in length and yet sufficiently 
 shortened. The cloth might probably at this stage be 
 examined by the fine drawer and finishing burler, after 
 which it is pressed and steamed. Having been subjected 
 to the latter process the piece is sometimes cold platted, 
 in other words, put into cold press papers and weighted 
 as much as necessary to give the requisite lustre and 
 solidity of texture. 
 
 239. Velvet Finish, — The object of this class of finish is 
 to procure, as its name implies, an erect pile on the fabric. 
 To obtain a good permanent pile, the cloths require to be 
 made of wool possessing excellent milling and elastic 
 properties. Woollen yarns are highly adapted to this 
 class of finish, possessing plenty of fibre. Fabrics intended 
 for velvet finish should be well milled, not made too firm 
 in the loom, but allowing both length and width for ex- 
 cessive fulling; and thus admitting of the production of a 
 cloth with plenty of fibre and substance to work on. 
 
 The piece, having been scoured, milled, dried, and ten- 
 tered, is evenly damped, raised, or, in some cases, first 
 removed to the dubbing board to be raised across before 
 being passed on to the gig. This is called " breaking- 
 in." In raising the piece it is treated from both ends in 
 succession, in order to secure an erect pile. Beating 
 follows. It is efiected on the " batting " or beating frame, 
 which consists of a stout beam, round which the piece is 
 wrapped face downwards, and of a second roller, through 
 the slot of which the cloth is passed ; between these 
 
CLOTH FINISHING. 
 
 385 
 
 rollers the fabric is stretched, while it is beaten with long 
 rods working either automatically or otherwise. This 
 operation causes the fibre to project straight out from the 
 surface of the cloth. Tentering and drying follow, when 
 the piece is re-beaten in a dry condition, and then cut, 
 which prepares it for the market. 
 
 240. D^y Finish, — This is sometimes termed the West 
 of England finish, on account of the fine woollen trou- 
 serings and coatings made in the West being extensively 
 finished on this principle. The object is to remove the 
 fibre and obtain a clean, smart, even face. Cloths finished 
 in this manner require to be well woven, and should not 
 be milled any more than absolutely necessary to impart 
 firmness and compactness to the texture. 
 
 The order of the processes in dry finishing is as follows : 
 Washing or scouring, mending, milling, tentering after 
 washing-ofi*, dry raising, cutting several times in suc- 
 cession, and, if too hard milled, re-raised after cutting, 
 cropping again, inking and drawing, pressing, steaming, 
 and cold platting. 
 
 241. Scotch and Melton Finish. — This is the most simple 
 and easily managed finish in connection with the woollen 
 trade. It consists in removing the goods from the tenter 
 when dry, and taking them to the cutting machine and 
 giving them two or three cuts, and if for Scotch finish, 
 pressing them between warm plates. They remain in the 
 press till perfectly cold, this sometimes requiring two 
 nights and a day, after which they are measured, cuttled, 
 and sent to the merchant. English meltons are finished 
 in a similar manner, except in the better class fabrics, 
 where a little raising takes place, then cutting, pressing, 
 steaming, and often cold platting, to smooth the face of 
 the cloth, and also to impart a little more firmness to the 
 piece. 
 
 242. Worsted Finish, — In order to get a " dress " or 
 " face " on worsted goods, they are passed through a large 
 variety of processes. These need not be described in 
 
 c c 
 
386 
 
 WOOL MANUFACTURE. 
 
 4 
 
 detail. Of course it will be understood that all clas,ses of 
 fabrics after leaving the loom are perched, the object 
 being to examine them on both sides to note the defects 
 in the manufacture, and, if possible, to remedy them in 
 the subsequent operations. Providing, then, the piece has 
 been perched, it is submitted to the hands of the knotters 
 and burlers, who remove the knots, small lumps, and repair 
 any defective places produced in weaving. Mending suc- 
 ceeds burling — it implies the repairing of broken picks, and 
 removing of imperfections in the textare of the cloth, such 
 as those resulting from ends not having been properly 
 picked up, &c. Tentering, mending after scouring or 
 scour thread mending, brushing on the gig, cutting and 
 pressing follow. Then comes a very important process 
 called crabbing, the nature of which has already been 
 described. By this means a lustre or face is got on the 
 cloth before dyeing. After the latter process comes 
 washing-off, hydro- extracting, brushing, cutting, pressing, 
 and steaming. Fancy worsteds are similarly treated up 
 to scouring, but are only brushed, cut, and pressed after 
 this process. 
 
 THE END. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 Action of cards, 54. 
 
 Adelaide wool, 12. 
 
 Advantages of tieing double cloths 
 
 with warp yarns, 340. 
 Alpaca, 17. 
 
 American dobbie, 219 ; Arrange- 
 ment for levelling the shed in, 
 228 ; connectors for, 222 ; cy- 
 linder gears, 220 ; formation of 
 the shed in, 224 ; motion for re- 
 versing the head-gear of, 227 ; 
 open shed contrivance for, 227 5 
 parts of, 220 ; pattern chain of, 
 223 ; vibrator levers for, 221. 
 
 Analysis of cloth, 355. 
 
 of cloth, key for, 355 ; diffi- 
 culties of, when fabrics are 
 milled, 357. 
 
 Animal fibres, 4. 
 
 Australian wool, 5. 
 
 Backing cloths, two methods of, 
 321. 
 
 with warp, 332. 
 
 with weft, 324. 
 
 Backwashing, 71. 
 Batten, or going part, 167. 
 Beaming, 129. 
 Belgian condenser, 60. 
 Blend, preparation of, 46, 
 Blending, 42. 
 
 Boiling and crabbing, 382. 
 Buckskin, 104. 
 Buenos Ayres wool, 13. 
 Burrs, 39. 
 
 Burr-extraction, 39. 
 
 Calculations, miscellaneous, 369. 
 
 on setting, 359. 
 
 on warp yarns, 361, 363. 
 
 on weft yarns, 364, 365. 
 
 on worsted fabrics, 366. 
 
 Cap spinning, 92. 
 
 Cape wool, 13. 
 
 Carding, 48. 
 
 systems of, 50. 
 
 Card stamping, 191. 
 
 Cassimere twill, 153 5 coloured 
 patterns in, 296 j thread and 
 thread warping and weaving'in, 
 297 5 diamond patterns in, 299 ; 
 fancy check in, 301 ; shepherd 
 plaid in, 300 5 stripes in, 300. 
 
 Check designs backed with weft, 
 325. 
 
 China grass, 3. 
 
 Cloths backed with warp, 331. 
 
 backed with weft, 321. 
 
 ornamented with weave and 
 
 colour, 314. 
 Clothing wools, properties of, 7. 
 Cloud twists. 111. 
 Cockled effects, 257. 
 Colonial wools, 12. 
 Colour, purity of in wools, 1 0, 
 
 applied to 5-end makes, 301. 
 
 wool a good absorbent of, 6. 
 
 Colouring the back of cloths, 
 333. 
 
 Combed and scribbled wools, 84. 
 Comber-board, 188. 
 Combinations of weaves, 258. 
 Combing, process of, 76. 
 
388 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Combing, circular and nip prin- 
 ciples of, 83. 
 
 . machines, 83 5 circular, 76 ; 
 
 drawing-off rollers for, 81 ; in- 
 terior of Noble's comb, 77 , nip 
 and square motion combs, 81. 
 
 Condensing process, 59. 
 
 machine, 59. 
 
 Coskscrew twills, 159. 
 
 Cotton, 21 ; more difficult to dye 
 than wool, 6 5 spinning capa- 
 bilities of, 22. 
 
 Counts of twist yarns, 358. 
 
 Crossband yarns, 101. 
 
 Curled twists, 112. 
 
 Cut double cloths, characteristics 
 of, 348 5 checks in, 349 5 colour- 
 ing, 351 5 drafting, 351 5 prin- 
 ciple of construction, 348 5 set- 
 ting, 352 5 stripes in, 349. 
 
 Design paper, description of, 148. 
 
 Designing for a given draft, 272, 
 
 Diamond twists, 111. 
 
 Dobbie machine, 176. 
 
 Doeskin, 104; characteristic of 
 effects obtained in, 303 , method 
 of colouring, 302 , stripes in, 
 302. 
 
 Doffer, 56. 
 
 Doffing comb, 57. 
 
 Double cloths, 319 5 definition of, 
 
 319 ; features of, 334 5 uses of, 
 
 320 ; various types of 5 336. 
 backed cloths, differences be- 
 tween, 334. 
 
 makes, construction of, 336 ; 
 
 tieing or stitching, 339 5 tieing 
 
 with weft, 341 5 two modf^ of 
 
 tacking, 339. 
 plains, 341 ; figures in, 347 5 
 
 stitching, 343 5 stripes in, 344 ; 
 
 three and four-end stripes in, 
 
 346 5 diversity of effects in, 344. 
 Draft, arrangement of, 264. 
 Drafting, 262 ; principle of, 263 5 
 
 large designs, 266 ; figured 
 
 patterns, 270. 
 
 Elasticity of wool, 8. 
 Extract wool, 20. 
 
 Eight-shaft diagonal, method of 
 colouring, 309. 
 
 Fabrics of different materials, 1. 
 
 Fancy or Fly, 56. 
 
 Fearnought, 47. 
 
 Feeds for scribbler, 58. 
 
 Felting property, 5. 
 
 Fibres, method of detecting, 2. 
 
 of wool, fineness of, 7. 
 
 Figured weaves backed, 327. 
 Finding equivalent to worsted 
 
 yarns in woollen counts, 354. 
 Finish, Doeskin, 383 5 dry, 385 5 
 
 Scotch and Melton, 385 ; velvet, 
 
 384 ; worsted, 385. 
 Finishing, 372 ; effect of, 372 5 
 
 worsted fabrics and finish, 373 ; 
 
 variety of finish in woollens, 
 
 374. 
 
 Five-end twill, 304 ; stripes in, 
 
 304 5 checks and other patterns 
 
 in, 305. 
 Fleece, sorting of, 24. 
 Flocks, 21. 
 Flyer spinning, 91. 
 French drawing, 88. 
 Fulling, nature of, 375 5 process 
 
 of, 3765 effect of, in pattern, 
 
 377. 
 
 German wool, 11. 
 Gilling, 72. 
 Gill-box, 74. 
 Going-part, 167. 
 
 Hampshire Downs wool, 14. 
 
 Hairlines, principle of producing, 
 279 , figured, 281; stripes of 
 three colours, 280 5 stripes of 
 four colours, 282. 
 
 Hand looms, 1 65 5 letting-off motion 
 for, 170; shedding motion for, 
 171 : shuttle-box contrivance 
 for, 168 ; uses of, 165. 
 
 Harness for Jacquard, 186. 
 
 and shaft mounting, 192. 
 
Healding, 132.. o ^ . ; - , 
 
 drafts, calculaticois (^'^IpS.' 
 
 Heald shafts, 145. ' ' . 
 Herring-bone patterns, 105. 
 Hopsack, 163. 
 
 Intermediate card, 52. 
 Irregular healding drafts, 134. 
 
 Jack levers for treadle loom, 172. 
 
 Jacquard machine, 182 ; block and 
 cylinder, 183 ; double-lift, 192 5 
 harness and shaft mounting, 
 192. 
 
 Knitted and woollen fabrics, 143. 
 Knopped twists, 112. 
 
 Lag pegging, 179. 
 
 Letting-off motions, 234 5 friction 
 
 brake, 234 ; positive motion, 
 
 235. 
 
 Loom mounting, 114. 
 
 motions of, 164. 
 
 parts of, 166. 
 
 Lustre of worsted yarns, 198. 
 
 Materials, raw, 1. 
 
 used in woollen goods, 3. 
 
 Mat weaves, 163. 
 
 stripes in, 283. 
 
 Mayo, patterns in, 308. 
 Methods of varying woven goods, 
 1. 
 
 Mohair and alpaca noils, 17. 
 Mungo, 17 ; production of, 19. 
 and wool, 18. 
 
 New Zealand wool, 2. 
 
 Nip and square motion combs, 81. 
 
 Noils, 16. 
 
 how formed, 81. 
 
 mohair and alpaca, 17. 
 
 Odessa wool, 14. 
 
 Oiling woo], 41. 
 
 Oiliene, 41. 
 
 Open-band yarn, 101. 
 
 Open and closed shedding, 204. 
 
 Oxfwd X)own{^ wool, 14. 
 
 Paft^ern d^pigu, 275. 
 
 Plain weave, diagonal styles in, 
 293-, figured effects in, 286 , 
 fancy check in, 291 5 hair lines 
 in, 279 ; over check in, 289 , 
 pattern in, 277; mixtures in, 295. 
 
 weaving, 146. 
 
 Picking motions, 229 ; cam and 
 cone, 229 5 over pick, 231 ; under 
 pick, 232. 
 
 Point paper, 148. 
 
 counts of, 151. 
 
 Power loom, 198 5 crank shaft of, 
 203 ; fast and slow running, 
 199 ; methods of driving, 201 ; 
 motions of, 203 5 open shed, 
 204; speed of, 200. 
 
 dobbie, 214 ; American, 219 ; 
 
 Dobcross, 214 ; lagging and pick- 
 ing back gearings of, 218 ; 
 methods of driving, 216. 
 
 Preparation of cards for the Jac- 
 quard, 191. 
 
 Pressing, 382. 
 
 Qualities of wool in the fleece, 24. 
 
 Bag machine, 19. 
 Raddling, 131. 
 
 Raising, 378 ; differences between 
 wet and dry, 381 ; effects of, 379. 
 
 flocks, 21. 
 
 Reeding, 138. 
 
 Ribbed patterns, 316; colouring 
 
 of, 317. 
 Ring spinning, 93. 
 Roving, 89. 
 
 Sateens, derivatives of, 156. 
 Sateen twills, 155. 
 Scouring, methods of, 32. 
 
 machines, 33. 
 
 Scribbled and combed wool, 84. 
 Scribbler, construction of, 49 ; 
 
 parts of, 55 ; speed of various 
 
 cylinders of, 57. 
 Scribbling, principle of, 50. 
 
390 
 
 Setting-up motion functiono of, 
 236 5 change wheol, 237 : lever 
 and catch, 239..' . ^ > 
 
 Shedding motions, hand-looms, 
 171. 
 
 power loom, 214. 
 
 Shoddy, 17. 
 
 Short wools, Enghsh, 14. 
 
 Shuttle-box mechanism, uses of, 
 241, bowl and rod, 247; circular, 
 249 5 lag and peg, 245 ; links 
 of, 244 ; link and chain, 241. 
 
 Shuttle-box swell, 251. 
 
 Silk, 22. 
 
 lustre of, 23. 
 
 strong affinity of for colour- 
 ing matter, 6. 
 
 Six- end twill, basket check in, 
 308 5 checks in, 307 5 figured 
 patterns in, 305 ; method of 
 colouring, 305 ; stripes in, 306. 
 
 Sizing, 126. 
 
 trough, 129. 
 
 Sleying, 138. 
 
 Sorting, or classification of wools, 
 24. 
 
 South Down wool, 14. 
 
 Spindle, duplex arrangement, 65. 
 
 Spinning, process of, 61 ; frame or 
 
 mule, 62 ; worsted, 89. 
 Staple of wool, characteristics of, 9. 
 Steeping wool, 31. 
 
 apparatus, 31. 
 
 Striped patterns, colouring for, 
 
 285. 
 
 Stripes in the plain cloth, 278. 
 Structure of the wool fibre, 5. 
 Sydney wool, 12. 
 Systems of carding, 50. 
 
 Tappet loom, 205 ; classes of goods 
 for which it is used, 207 5 con- 
 struction of tappets for, 211, de- 
 pression of the healds in, 208 ; 
 speed of tappet shaft, 209 , 
 Stocks and bowls for, 208 5 
 stroke of tappets in, 212. 
 
 Teazing, 37. 
 
 machine, 38. 
 
 Textilp mafeyials,'!. 
 
 Thi-e*3fold tw:s4s. 111. 
 
 Ti€?ifig, irregular, 324. 
 
 Treadle loom, 172. 
 
 tie-up plans for, 174. 
 
 Treadle and witch shedding mo- 
 tions, 180. 
 
 Twilled hopsack, arrangement of 
 colours for, 310. 
 
 Twilling, 152. 
 
 Twills, construction of, 161. 
 principle of backing with 
 
 weft, 323. 
 Twine, effect of on twilled weaves, 
 
 101 ; methods of imparting into 
 
 the yarn, 99. 
 Twisting, 106. 
 
 Twists, open band and cross band, 
 101. 
 
 Twist threads, uses of, 106 ; how 
 to find size of, 361 5 threefold 
 362 ; twofold or two ply, 362. 
 
 Union fabrics, characteristics of, 
 329 5 effects due to flushes of 
 warp in, 330 5 effects due to 
 floates of weft, 329 5 principle of 
 backing, 328. 
 
 Upright and cross wires, 184. 
 
 Utilization of refuse scour, 34. 
 
 Uses of the hand-loom, 165. 
 
 of the Jacquard, 193. 
 
 Van wool, 13. 
 Venetian twill, 303. 
 
 Warping, 115. 
 
 creel, 117. 
 
 mill, 119. 
 
 woof, 116. 
 
 machines, sectional, 120; 
 
 fancy warping on, 124. 
 sizing and beaming frames, 
 
 122. 
 
 Warp yarns, function of, 144. 
 
 Weave, function of, in coloured 
 patterns, 275. 
 
 effect of, in coloured arrange- 
 ments, 298. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 391 
 
 Weaves, applicable to woollen and 
 worsted goods, 254 ; table of 
 floates in, 256 ; suitable for com- 
 bination patterns, 254. 
 
 Weave combinations, checks in, 
 260 ; figures in, 261 ; method of 
 construction, 253 ; principle of 
 colouring, 310 ; three classes of, 
 258 5 stripes in, 258. 
 
 and colour, cloths orna- 
 mented with, 314. 
 
 Weaving, an important process, 
 197. 
 
 Weft forks, 250. 
 
 yarns, functions of, 144. 
 
 Witch machine, 176. 
 
 Wool, 4 ; Adelaide, 1 2 ; a good 
 absorbent of colour, 6 ; British, 
 14 ; Buenos Ayres, 13 ; Cape, 
 13 ; clothing properties of, 7 ; 
 Colonial, 12 ; drying of, 34 ; 
 effect of dye substances on, 7 ; 
 felting property of, 5 ; fineness 
 of fibre of, 7 5 German, 1 1 ; 
 length of staple of, 9 ; New Zea- 
 land, 13 ; Odessa, 14 ; purity of 
 colour of, 10; soft touch of, 9; 
 
 sorting of, 24 ; steeping of, 31 ; 
 Sydney, 12 ; Van, 13 ; washing, 
 27. 
 
 Wool and hair, differences between, 
 4. 
 
 and mungo, differences be- 
 tween, 18. 
 
 Woollen cloths, fulling of, 375. 
 
 Workers and strippers, 53, 56. 
 
 Worsted fabrics, ornamented with 
 weave and colour, 315. 
 
 thread, characteristics of 
 
 the, 67 ; lustre of the, 98 5 prin- 
 ciple of construction of the, 68 ; 
 preliminary processes of the 
 manufacture of the, 70. 
 
 spinning, 89. 
 
 spinning frame, 91, 
 
 Woven fabrics, method of diversi- 
 fying, 1- 
 
 Woven and knitted goods, 143. 
 
 Yarns, wool, worsted and cotton, 
 97. 
 
 two modes of imparting twine 
 
 into, 99 5 twist, 111. 
 
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 Vol. III.— Faust. Complete. 
 
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 Complete Edition. 
 
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 Siege of Mainz, and Rhine Tour. 
 
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 with Biography and Notes. 
 
 Vol .XIII . — Correspondence with Zelter. 
 
 Correspondence with Schiller. 
 
 vols. — See Schiller, 
 
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 Ghost. 
 
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 Vol. V. — Prefaces, Natural History, 
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6 
 
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 Personal Memoirs of the Patriots of the 
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8 
 
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Date Due 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
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GETTY CENTER LIBRARY 
 
 3 3125 00140 9446 
 
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