I i II lill ^ 'l iiuipi ■aiiii Wm ITALY THE ITALIANS. FREDERIC VON RAUMEE, AUTHOR OF "ENGLAND IN 1835." "ILLUSTRATIONS OF HISTORY," &c. IN TWO VOLUMES. VOL. I. LONDON : HENRY COLBURN, PUBLISHER, GRKAT MARLBOROUGH STREET. 1840. LONDON: F. EHOBERT., JUK., PRINTER, 51, RUPERT STREET. HAYMARKET. PEEFACE. The following pages contain nothing like a com- plete account of the country visited ; they merely touch upon certain subjects, to which attention has been hitherto but little directed. My communica- tions, therefore, are merely an appendix to more detailed accounts, and even within their own sphere do not pretend to approach completeness. On the other hand, through the favour of individuals in authority, and through the friendly co-operation of many well-informed men (ambassadors, public func- tionaries, scholars, &c.) I have collected, within a short period, more remarkable and authentic facts than it would have been possible to do under less favourable circumstances. Some of my friends thought it advisable that I should relieve the serious character of my comrau- IV PREFACE. nications, and give more variety and lightness to the whole, by introducing parts of my private letters. In complying with these suggestions, how- ever, I have omitted every thing personal, and that related to marks of attention shown to myself. In doing this, I have not been actuated by ingratitude, but by a wish to avoid repetition ; for countless were the occasions on which it would have been my duty to praise the kindness and obliging conduct which I every where experienced. For the occasional want of connection to which these omissions have unavoidably led, and for the errors of which, in spite of all my diligence, I may sometimes have been guilty, I must entreat the pardon of my readers. Those who wish to read only the one or the other half of my little work, will easily be able to ascertain from the contents, and from the headings of the letters, what they deem most likely to interest them, and they can skip what they think will prove less attractive. Berlin, 1st of Januar}', 1840. CONTENTS OP THE FIRST VOLUME. LETTER I, Journey from Dresden to Vienna — Don Carlos —Prince Met- ternich — jNIendelssohn's Paul — Norma — Vienna and Ber- lin — Journey by way of Gratz to Trieste . . 1 LETTER IL Reception at Trieste . . .15 LETTER III. View of Venice — Venice — St. Mark's — Pieta — Archives — Celebration of Easter — Music . .16 LETTER IV. Tombola — Procession — Democracy of 1797 — Churches — Pictures — Ateneo — Dante . .24 LETTER V. Italy in general — Extent of Trieste — Population — Woods — History of the City — French Domination — Return of the Austrians — Finances — Taxation — Clergy — Schools — Commerce — Exchange — Lloyd — Navigation — Commercial Treatie.s — Imports and Exports — Commercial Laws — Civic Institutions . . . . .36 LETTER VI. Decline of the Republic of Venice — Its Causes — Free Port — Navigation — Imports and Exports — Taxation — Revenue and Expenditure of the City . .66 VI CONTENTS. LETTER VII. Comparison between Venice and Trieste . . 74 LETTER VIII. Improvement in Venice — Merit of the Government — Poor Laws — F'oundlinjT Hospitals . ^ .83^ LETTER IX. Venice — Railroads — Schools . .90 LETTER X. Army and Navy of Austrian Italy ... 94 LETTER XI. Journey from Venice to Milan — Verona — Brescia — Position of Milan — The Stradella Theatre — Cathedral — Mar- chesi . . . . . -96 LETTER XII. Milan — Archives — The Scala — Donizetti — Manzoni . 104 LETTER XIII. Milan — Viceroy's Palace — Triumphal Arch — The Emperor's Fete— Picture Gallery . . .Ill LETTER XIV. Milan — Manzoni — The Ambrosian Library , .115 LETTER XV. Milan — Miss Kemble .... 120 LETTER XVI. Milan — Cathedral — Journey from Milan to Turin . 121 LETTER XVII. Former condition of Lombaniy — Merit of the Austrian Go- vernment — Maria Theresa — Count Firmian — Extent and Division of the Country — The Viceroy — The Governor — The Departments rf Govern'^ent, Finance, and Jurispru- dence .... li.4 CONTENTS. vii LETTER XVIII. Lombardy — Taxation — Commercial Institutions — Chambers of Commerce — Rural Assemblies — Central Assembly 134 LETTER XIX. Lombardy — Population .... 147 LETTER XX. Lombardy — Land-Tax — Registration — Tax on Trades — Poll Tax — Revenue and Expenditure of the City of Milan 151 LETTER XXI. Lombardy — Customs — Government Monopolies — Lottery — Domains and Forests— ~ Revenue of the State — Public Debt - . . . . .163 LETTER XXII. Lombardy — Asricultur*". — Rearing of Cattle — Cultivation of the Silk Worm . . . . .170 LETTER XXIII. Lombardy — Crimes — Foundling Hospitals — Illegitimate Children . . . . .178 LETTER XXIV. Lombardy —Schools — Gymnasiums . . . 182 LETTER XXV. Remarks on the course of instruction in the schools of Lom- bardy . . . . . .190 LETTER XXVL Lombardy — Lyceums — L' niversities — Academy — Exhibition of Works of Art . . . . 193 LETTER XXVII. Lombardy — Laws relative to the Press — The Clergy — Im- provements in Lombardy .... 203 LETTER XXVIII. Turin — Conversions to Caibolicisra . . . 208 vm CONTENTS. LETTER XXIX. Turin — Massacre of St. Bartholomew — Picture Gallery-— Academy ..... 209 LETTER XXX. Turin — Society — Holidays — Court Etiquette — Climate — Ecclesiastical Relations .... 214 LETTER XXXI. Turiu— The Court— The Travelled Sergeant . . 218 LETTER XXXII. Turin — Royal Message . . . . 219 LETTER XXXIII. Turin — The Armoury — The King — Country Excursion — The Waldenses . . . . .220 LETTER XXXIV. Turin — The Academy — An Old Beau — Anecdotes of Royalty . . . . . . 223 LETTER XXXV. Journey from Turin to Genoa .... 225 LETTER XXXVI. Situation of Genoa — Marchese di Negro — Disturbance on account of the Opera Dancers' Drawers LETTER XXXVII. Turin— Carlo Felice Theatre . . .231 LETTER XXXVIII. Genoa — The Sudario — Politics — Queen Victoria . 232 LETTER XXXIX. Piedmont — Administration — Council of State — Jurisprudence — Municipal Regulations — Turin ; Revenues and Expendi- diture of the City . . . . .236 LETTER XL. Piedmont — Code of Laws — Ecclesiastical Law — Waldenses, Jews — Law of Marriage — Domains — Majorats . 244 CONTENTS. IX LETTER XLI. The Army— Military Schools . . 252 LETTER XLIL Piedmont — Schools — Gymnasiums — Universities . 254 LETTER XLIIL Piedmont — Improvements of all kinds — Population —Found- ling Hospitals ..... 261 LETTER XLIV. Piedmont — Finances — Taxes — Customs — ^Government Monopolies — Taxes on Consumption — Debt of the State . . . . , . 267 LETTER XLV. Genoa — Agricultural Produce — Olives — Oranges — Lemons — Woods — Population — Exports . . . 275 LETTER XLVI. Genoa — Commerce — Shipping — Imports . 281 LETTER XLVn. Genoa — Municipal Government — Income and Expenditure of the City . • . .285 LETTER XLVin. University of Genoa . . . 291 LETTER XLIX. Sardinia — Former condition of the Island — Recent Changes and Improvements .... 294 LETTER L. North Italy — Condition of the Farming Population — Half- lings — Mezzadria — Cattle-sharing Contracts — Laws of Parma relative to these subjects . . 302 LETTER LI. Various Opinions respecting the System of the Mezza- dria . . . ' . . .309 X CONTENTS. LETTER LII. Laws of the Duchy of Parma .... 314 LETTER LIIL Passage to Leghorn — Pisa .... 316 LETTER LIV. Pisa — Celebrated Buildings — Campo Santo — Journey to Florence . . . .319 LETTER LV. To L. Tieck — Florence — Situation — Theatre — Nicolini — Pro- cessions — The Dowager Grand-Duchess — The Grand- Duke . . . . .323 LETTER LVl. Reflections on Art and Works of Art, by One of the Unin- formed — Trieste — Venice — Beauty — The Medicean Venus ...... 330 LETTER LVII. Right of Inheritance . . . . .339 LETTER LVIII. Catholicism — English and French — Politics and Conversa- sation ...... 341 LETTER LIX. Reflections on Art, by One of the Uninformed. First Con- tinuation — Venus de Medici, once more, and for ever! — — The Sense of Smell — Miscellaneous Remarks on Flo- rence ...... 344 LETTERS EROM ITALY. LETTER I. Journey from Dresden to Vienna — Don Carlos — Prince Met- ternich — Mendelssohn's Paul — Norma — Vienna and Ber- lin — Journey by way of Gratz to Trieste. Vienna, March 13, 1839. On Saturday, the 9th of March, at eleven in the forenoon, I left Dresden for Prague, the sun shin- ing beautifully, and apparently announcing the ap- proach of spring. The pine-trees lightly powdered with snow, and the more heavily laden firs, contri- buted to form a beautiful winter landscape. Thick rows of icicles a yard long, which fringed the thatched roofs, and the snow, drifted in many places to the height of the house-tops, I willingly accepted as accessories to the said winter land- scape ; and on my arrival at Teplitz, at eight in the VOL. I. B 2 PRAGUE. evening, I ate a moderate supper, and found my- self in tolerable spirits for the night that was coming on. I was to enjoy the interior of the diligence without a rival. This, as far as elbow-room was concerned, had its advantages ; but the cold was momentarily increasing, and I had to endure more from it that night than on any former occasion during my Avhole life. Shirts, jackets, great-coat, furs, and mackintosh, one over the other, afforded no sufficient protection ; neither did stockings, boots, galoshes, nor foot-bag. On my arrival at Prague, I crept into bed for a few hours ; but I had been so thoroughly chilled, that I scarcely found it possible to get any warmth into myself again. The next day there was only one place vacant in the open cabriolet, which I declined from motives that ap- peared to me quite sufficient. To remain longer in Prague, however, coincided the less with my other plans, as the weather continued to be exceedingly disagreeable. Accordingly, after a stay of six hours at Prague, I was again wedged into a supplemen- tary conveyance, along with two Mesdamesvon . I soon found out, however, that the nobility was merely Vienna imitation, or rather ancient Hebrew. They were two merchants' wives, neither of them handsome, and one as broad as she was long, and mother of ten children. I consoled myself with the reflexion that they were warm-blooded animals, ROUTE TO VIENNA. 3 and well furred ; nevertheless, I had to endure much before I reached Vienna. From the afternoon of Sunday, till the forenoon of Tuesday, I saw nothing but boundless fields of dazzling snow, overhung by a grey sky. Our fare was every where bad ; and, as neither the windows nor the doors of our vehicle could be prevailed upon to close, the wind was piping in upon us all the while, as from the mouth of a bellows ; so that with all our mutual accommodation of furs, Stc, we were frozen to our heart's content. As far as Vienna, therefore, my journey is not calculated to awaken envy, unless it be on account of the flaming red of my face, my usual companion when travelling, and which I am now endeavouring to coax away with creme de Perse. Amid all these hardships, how- ever, my good spirits never deserted me, and my two companions were talkative enough about dress, fashion, their genteel customers, their domestic cha- grin, and the talents of their children, particularly one son, Levi by name, whom they described as a mu- sical prodigy. Frozen as I was, it was not without a painful feeling of interest, that I heard this mo- ther relate to me hovv another of her children had been poisoned by coloured sweetmeats. Should I endure the fiery ordeal in Italy, as well as I have here gone through that of frost, I shall congratulate myself on my good fortune. The b2 4 VIENNA. greatest danger I have yet been exposed to, was during the last night of our journey, and was owing to my round httle travelling companion. Her legs not reaching to the floor of the carriage, she gene- rally sought a point iTappui against the opposite seat. On this occasion she lifted her lesrs a little higher than she had intended, and planted them firmly against my breast; so firmly indeed, that I was obliged to get the better of my politeness, and call her attention to the real state of affairs. At Peterswalde the searching of our baggage oc- cupied little time; but at Vienna, the official inves- tigator had no mercy upon my portmanteau, un- folding the most triHing article of its contents, not even sparing a false tooth that I carried with me as a precautionary reserve. This exposure of my de- fect took place only in the presence of our gaping postillion, still I deemed myself justified in aveng- ing the insult by withholding the intended fee of a zxcanziger. At Vienna, I put up at the City of Frankfort hotel, which appears to merit the praise 1 have so often heard bestowed on it. Room, bed, and din- ner, excellent. Besides, it is to this hotel that I am indebted for all the new learning I have collected on this journey ; I now know what jleckerlsuppe is ; I now know that roast beef and maccaroni go very well together; and that the liticher is a fish PRINCELY ACTIVITY. 5 caught in the Danube, and is eaten with oil and vinegar. Thursday, March 14. I have at times thought myself tolerably indus- trious, and so you professed to think me; but the Wiener Zeitung of yesterday convinces me that I must be a mere snail or tortoise, compared with the Cesarewicz, the hereditary Grand Duke of Russia. In one forenoon he contrived to inspect the collec- tion of antiquities, the cabinet of medals, the mu- seum of natural history, the library, St. Stephen's Church, St. Augustine's Church, besides various charitable institutions ; nay, so completely did he master all these things, that nothing remained for him to do, so that he was able to set off again that evening. In the evening I went to the^wr^ Theater^ and saw three acts of Don Carlos. Independently of the notorious fact that all \s fiction in this historical drama, the poetical incidents appear to me unna- tural, incredible, impossible. For instance, the fabulous etiquette, along with gross violations of decorum ; the extreme reserve of the king, along with the inconsiderate talkativeness of his anxiety about the prince, and that in presence of his whole court ; the private lecture of the impracticable Posa ; the rendezvous with Eboli, &c. How such 6 THE BURG THEATER. characters ought to be represented on the stage, it is difficult to say. Fichtner, in Carlos, did what he could to preserve a consistency in the persona- tion, by uniting the disjecta membra pnetoe. Korn, in Posa, an experienced actor, with a harsh unmu- sical voice. Reichel played the Queen, in a manner superior to the customary way of spouting the part. Fournier, in the Princess Eboli, fluent, and with- out the little artifices that have frequently been cen- sured ; but no actress can entirely remove the natural doubts to which the character gives rise. Does Eboli really love the Prince ? Is she merely a coquette, or is she trying whether she can make the best bargain with the father or the son ? Friday, March 15. I yesterday went first to M. Burger, author of the highly instructive Journey through Upper Italy. We conversed much together of agriculture, farm- leases, state of the peasantry, &c. At twelve o'clock I was with Prince Metternich. This interview was the main object of my journey to Vienna. After all the warnings and advice I had received, in direct opposition to which I was fully determined to act, I might naturally have felt some uneasiness. Convinced, however, that I had to do with a really great statesman, I knew that the open straightforward course was the best. In re- PRINCE iMETTERNICH. 7 ply, therefore, to the prince's first question, I in- formed him without reserve of the real objects of my proposed journey. My audience lasted for an hour and a half. I spoke as little as possible myself, while the prince discoursed away with the openness, clearness, prac- tical good sense, and total absence of empty abstrac- tions, which characterize the superior statesman — a style as opposite as possible to the finesse, ambi- guity, and mendacity of T and his sophisti- cated school. The prince asked me more than once, whether I was not of his way of thinking .? It could to him have been of very little importance whether I were or not ; but to me, I own, it afforded much gratifi- cation to find, that all the positions which I had vainly endeavoured to enforce at Berlin, on the subject of our ecclesiastical difficulties, were now confirmed, on every material point, by the first statesman of Europe. Sunday, Marcli 17. On Friday, I received visits from Mr. B. and Mr. W. With the former I resumed my conver- sation on the topics already mentioned, which gra- dually led us to the theologico-matrimonial question. He observed that the Austrian, in imitation of the Prussian clergy, were beginning to put forward 8 GREEN-ROOM ANECDOTES. claims, and to lay down principles, that overstepped the letter of the law, though in many places sanc- tioned by custom. Upon the whole, he said, the protestant clergy here had much more influence in private families, were more active, and more strict in their general conduct, than the catholic eccle- siastics. (The customary position of dissenters, with respect to the dominant church.) Conversions from protestantism, it appears, are of rare occur- rence, except from worldly motives ; on the other hand, conversions to protestantism are chiefly con- fined to the peasantry, who sometimes take oflence at the disorderly life led by their priests. In the evening, at Kronser Fournier"'s, I made the acquaintance of Mesdames Schroder and Weis- senthurn, both intelligent and interesting women. There was, of course, no lack of green-room anec- dotes. Accept the following as a sample. Boiti- ger, sitting at table opposite to Madame H., took a rose from a basket of flowers, and said : " This delicate plant is an emblem of our fair and gifted friend." At that moment, nearly all the leaves of the rose dropped from the stalk. — Madame Handel Schiitz had just been playing Maria Stuart, and complained to Schroder of exhaustion. " The poetry of the piece," observed the latter, "is cer- tainly calculated to excite one's feelings very strong- ly." "Oh," replied Schiitz, "it is not the words COLD PROSPECT. 9 that have fatigued me; but I was obliged to remain, throughout that long scene, fixed in the attitude in which Vandyke has painted the Queen." Yesterday morning tiie thermometer stood at 9° below zero of Reaumur, (12° Fahrenheit), and the wind blew a hurricane. To-day the cold is less intense, but everything is white with snow. Some people maintain, that to travel to Trieste, at present, is to expose one's life to im- minent peril ; on the other hand, all are agreed that the most convenient, safe, and expeditious plan, is to go with the post-office courier ; that it is pre- ferable even to travelling in one's own carriage with post-horses. I recollect, on the day of the dreaded equinox, I made the passage from Rotterdam to London, and found the sea as smooth as a mirror; on the present occasion, perhaps, I may be similarly favoured, and frost and storm may pass away, out of compliment to me. Be this as it may, I shall not allow myself to be frightened ; and you, I know, are. Heaven be praised, no timid creatures, or I should hardly venture to repeat to you lamenta- tions and predictions of this kind. Monday, March 18. Yesterday was a musical day. From half-past twelve till about three, Mendelssohn's Paul was performed in the Redoutensaal^ which was lighted b5 10 CONCERT AND THEATRE. up for the occasion. For the sake of brevity all the chorals were omitted. For my part, had I been obliged to shorten the piece, I would rather have left out a part here and there, than have lopped away a main limb, an entire branch of the composition. In every other respect, the perform- ance was deserving of praise; the large building was completely full, and the audience appeared to be delighted Avith their entertainment. M. Krause sang the bass with a fine dignified voice, and Mademoiselle Tuczek gave her whole part, but more particularly the Jerusalem, with a voice that went at once to the heart. The choruses also were deserving of praise. The counter-tenor was as full as it always ought to be, but seldom is ; and in the treble, the higher notes (G and A) came out with softness and purity, whereas with us they are often forced or screamed out. Is this owing to a defect in our school, or to a defect in the throats of our singers ? In the evening, at the Karnthnerthor Theatre, the play was Norma, Wild is now a mere ruin, and keeps up only by dint of great efforts. Stan- digel's is an excellent bass voice. Madame Lutzer has more power than Madame Lowe, but less elegance and action. The composition itself I look upon as even worse than many other of Bellini's pieces. This mamma of a vestal is a STATE OF MUSIC. 11 paltry made-up thing in comparison with Sponti- ni's enduring work of art. This gurgling, jump- ing up and down, and chromatic running about ; this outrageous screaming, and suppressed whisper- ing; and that without distinction, whether love, complaint, hate, fury, or prayer have to be expressed ; all this to me is the non plus ultra of anti-music and of the undramatical ; a beggarly, tawdry, patch- work finery ! In V^ienna, where genius of the first order, where men like Mozart, Haydn, Beethoven, may be said to have discovered a new world of music ; where talent like that of Salieri, Winter, and even the cheerful Wenzel Miiller, cultivated more familiar fields; even there nothing but mere sing-song now holds sway, or at best the spurious coin passes cur- rent and uncensured by the side of that of intrinsic value. I have not had leisure this time to see the curio- sities and the collections of art, but Vienna itself has made upon me the same impression as formerly. Berlin, in comparison, appears as a mere upstart, that has built himself a smart house, and has fitted it up showily. Here every thing seems to rest on a sounder foundation ; the state is larger, the land more productive, the wealth far surpasses that of Prussia, and stands second only to that of England. We brag a great deal about one thing, our wit, be- 1 2 DEPARTURE FROM VIENNA. cause we feel that without it we should be nothing. There are those, however, who presume to question whether this article really abounds more in Berlin than in Vienna. Besides, have not many of those who announce themselves as guardians of the Prus- sian Zion done much of late years to check, crip- ple, clip, intimidate, and neutralize it ? Tiiesdajs March 19. Even among the learned we meet with strange approximations of learning and ignorance. At Count St. Aulaire"'s I met a Frenchman, who had Egypt, Syria, and Constantinople at his finger's ends, and yet fancied that the nearest way from Berhn to England w^as by the way of Stettin, and through the Baltic ! Trieste, March 23. " A man should always be prepared for the Avorst," is an excellent proverb, and such I have found it. To begin. The post-carriage (Briefeil- wagen) did not indeed close hermetically ; still it was incomparably better and more convenient than those in which I had been put to the torture be- tween Dresden and Vienna. Moreover, in the front seat, calculated for two, there was Mr. D., a mer- chant, besides myself, so that we had room enough to stretch our legs 5 and then no time was lost, for ROUTE TO TRIESTE. 13 the horses went as fast as circumstances allowed. It was these very circumstances, however, that dark- ened the whole picture. On starting from Vienna we found the roads bad, and as we approached the Sommering the frost had changed every thing into snow and ice, and these bore us faithful company till we were close to Trieste. Indeed, since leav- ing Berlin, from the first to the 22nd of March, I have not been a day without the full enjoyment of winter ; we are now going through a course of rain, and then comes the broiling. As for the whole road from Vienna to this town, it is the least beautiful and interesting of any that I am acquainted with. Even that by KJagenfurt is to be preferred, and that over the Brenner still more so, but all those further to the west are in- finitely superior. And yet I could not help choos- ing it, for it was the only one that I did not know, and that was passable at this season of the year; because it was necessary that I should see Prince Metternich, and some other persons in Vienna, and I was desirous also of becoming acquainted with Trieste. Any one not actuated by similar motives would be wrong to choose Vienna and Gratz for his route to Italy. On Wednesday the 20th, we had beautiful wea- ther ; the sun shone with such splendour upon the ice and snow, that my blue spectacles proved ex- 14 TRIESTE. tremely serviceable. We arrived in the evening at Griitz, which lies in a spacious plain, and looks quite imposing with its castle. The handsomest object, however, that / saw there, was the maid who waited on us at the inn ; to enter into conver- sation with her was a matter of some difficulty ; not so much on account of the difference between our ages, as of the much greater difference between her German and mine. From Laybach to Sessana we had snow, and then followed heavy rain. Passing over the stony desert so often described, I reached Optschina, and, though heaven and earth wore but a lugu- brious aspect, I was delighted to look down again upon Italy and the Adriatic. The firmly con- structed road that wound down along the moun- tains presented the most varied points of view. Of spring there was no trace, if I except the ap- pearance of grass, and the blossoms of the apricot trees. My room in the Locanda Grande has a view over the harbour and the sea, and well pleased I am to have got into port again. If those who envy me had been as handsomely jolted and kept awake as I have been, during three days and three nights, to say nothing of the inclemency of the weather, I believe most of them would feel inclined to turn back and join Nikolai's party. RECEPTION AT TRIEfSTE. 15 LETTER II. Reception at Trieste. Tiieste, March 25. From Berlin to Trieste my journey has been none of the most pleasant, but here my real task may be said to begin ; and if I may judge of all Italy by Trieste, it is impossible to hope for abetter reception. Consuls and merchants, men of busi- ness and men of learning, nay, even ladies, are emulous to do every thing in their power to make my stay agreeable. I hear, see, and learn more in an hour, than a stranger relying on hotel-keepers and ciceroni would be able to do during a pro- longed residence. My inquiries relative to Trieste have already brought me in such a rich harvest, that I feel I must digest the matter, and compare my notes with those I shall make on Venice, before I shall be able to reduce the whole into any form. In the new town, and the greater part of it is new, the streets are straight, sufficiently spacious, and extremely well paved. Yesterday was Palm- Sunday, and crowds of country people were parad- ing about, with olive branches and portogalli. The men were mostly in warm caps and brown coats. In the costume of the women I saw nothing to 16 VIEW OF VENICE. remark, unless it be their extremely high-quartered shoes, covering nearly the whole instep, (probably a protection on the stony roads) and a white ker- chief thrown over the head, and falling down be- hind. LETTER III. View of Venice — Venice — St. Mark's — Pieta — Archives — Celebration of Easter — Music. Venice, March 28. On Tuesday the 26th, at eleven in the evening, the steamer started with favourable weather from Trieste. After a sound sleep, undisturbed by sick- ness, I was on deck at daybreak, and saw the sun rising from the sea, and making Venice glorious with his beams. Three times already, and now for the fourth time, Venice has made a mighty, an irresistible im- pression upon me; one that baffles comparison. The objects that present themselves, and the thoughts and feelings that they excite, are different here to what they are in any other place in the world. Heaven and earth, life and death, the tasteful and the tasteless, the past, the present, and the future, meet here in a way peculiar to the place. Much is Old of all rule, much contrary to all rule. VENICE. 17 but then there is so much that is beyond all rule. When the stranger coming from the Lido sees the Palace of the Doge, the columns, the Piazzetta, the Campanile, the Orologio, and St. INIark's, with the many other marvels rising from the sea ; who is there, that, in such a moment of joy, surprise, and enthusiasm, can descend to criticise columns and the position of windows ? For my own part, at least, thank Heaven ! I am no such stockfish ; as little now, as twenty-two years ago. On landing, I was forced to provide for the usual exigencies of a traveller ; and, carefully avoiding the more expensive hotels, I repaired to the Luna, recommended to me by those whose means coincided with my own. I demanded, what in Venice bears a double signification, a light room, even though it might be high up on its way towards heaven. I was shown such a one; but so low that a person of the height of our nephew, even without the am- plification of the military head-dress, could not have moved about otherwise than on his knees. I therefore lowered myself in order to heighten the room. The next that was shown me proved in every way unobjectionable. It was clean and suitably furnished, with a view over the Governor''s garden, the only one within the city ; and from the window the sun might be seen every morning rising from the sea. I was in no way surprised to hear the 18 ST. mark's. landlord declare that this room would be a dear one; and, in spite of my enthusiasm, I was resolv- ing to act with resolution, and stand out for an abatement. But when the man demanded only about two-thirds of a florin per day, all my hostile intentions evaporated, and I briefly and sincerely replied that I was satisfied. Guided by a valet-de-place through the labyrinth of the city, I have been sowing a multitude of letters of recommendation, and hope to see them yield me an abundant harvest. Friday, March 29. I detain my letter, as you have had news of me from Trieste, and my matter for report may prove meagre, unless I write about things that are known to every body. Yet why pedantically forbear from all mention of these, when impressions and ideas come crowding upon the mind ? St. Mark's church, for instance, reminds one certainly of St. Sophia's, at Constantinople, but, on the other hand, has so much that is original, contains so many peculiar works of art, and is erected amid so many extra- ordinary surrounding objects, that, after all the books already written about it, abundant materials may be found for as many more. Less imposing than St. Peter's, less solemn than the cathedral of Milan, St. Mark's may, nevertheless, say aiicK io THE PIETA. 19 son chiesa! and will go unconquered, nay, in some respects unequalled, from the conflict. Yesterday evening I saw the church lighted up, and beheld in reality what is seldom seen, except as a theatrical decoration. On the one side, the pomp, solemnity, and festivity of Catholicism, together with its out- ward evidences of faith, impress the mind strongly, but on the other side, I was disturbed, as I have often been before, by the chattering, the running to and fro, I may almost say the bawling, of the clergy. More purely sounded the choir as it struck in at intervals. A handsome well-dressed girl knelt before a small picture of a saint, that was preserved under a glass case. I was about, in spite of all my protestantism, to commend, nay, to envy her zeal and faith ; but when I saw her spit upon her handkerchief, and wipe the glass, preparatory to kissing it, the whole Fata Morgana, I must own, vanished in a moment. Thence I went to the Pieta, where, according to custom, I heard some very mediocre compositions sung in a very mediocre manner. The old custom of beating timeloud enough to be heard throughout the whole church is still persevered in; and yet the first singer and her followers were seldom together. I hastened into the open air, where heaven and earth were executing more harmonious melodies. The sun had sunk in purple magnificence behind Santa 20 PARADISE OF VENICE. Maria della Salute, and the Canale Grande reflect- ed more darkly and soberly the picture presented by the sky. In the east, the moon with her pale coronet of beams was just rising above Lido, while, by her side, Jupiter was glowing in all his brightness, and immediately over the Campanile, Venus was moving along at a measured pace. When I turned from this glorious spectacle above mc, to look upon the ragged, screaming, wrangling, crowd that moved around, a feeling of humiliation came over me. Saturday, March 30. St. Mark's and the Piazzetta are the paradise of Venice; and then follows, on almost every side, the purgatory, and that in a medicinal, much more than in a theological, sense. From the paradise, at least, the Austrians have succeeded in expelling Italian filth. I will not fatigue you with the names of those whom I have visited, or who have visited me. I have learned something from both, and expect to learn more. The Easter holidays, in the mean- time, have somewhat interfered with my investiga- tions. The evening before last, I was agreeably enter- tained in the family circle of Mr. T , where I had again an opportunity of convincing myself that there are German as well as Italian dialects, which VENETIAN COOKERY. 21 are unintelligible to me. Yet I am a homo doc- tissimus in comparison with some travellers whom I meet with. I saw a German here the other day, who knew very little French and no Italian ! The body fares worse here than the mind. I was directed to a trattoria, as of superior excellence, where I found the cooking so wretched that I could taste but little, and that little made me sick. In the Europa I was rather better off, but even that was nothing to boast of. To-day our bill of fare consisted of soiipe maigre, flavoured with cheese ; dried fish, something like smelts; sinewy beef, with turnips ; boiled mutton of a stony hardness, gar- nished with sour potatoes, &c. : a plate of roast beef would have been ten times more welcome to me than the whole succession of ill-conceived, ill- arranged, and ill-dressed dishes ; and for a mess of good broth, I would have cheerfully parted with my whole birthright of fame. The said fame, b}'^ the by, flickered vip, I fear, for the last time at Trieste, like the light of an expiring candle. More than once I have had my attention called to the fact, that I am the oldest and grayest of all the travellers around me ; and everybody seems to wonder why I did not remain quietly and con- tentedly ati home. When I tell them I wish to in- form myself respecting civic institutions, excise on meat, street police, mendicity, infant schools, &c., 22 THE ARCHIVES. the rejoinder is on every lip, whether I might not have learned these things at home. My wish to ex- amine the archives of Venice appears to be regarded as a more plausible excuse. Yesterday I saw this collection for the first time. It is a collection ar- ranged in a countless succession of rooms and halls, and so voluminous that millions of worms may feed on it for centuries to come, and a thousand literary gluttons would be unable to read it through in a thousand years. There was a time when such a spec- tacle would have made me grieve over the limited na- ture of human powers ; but I have grown bolder, and now, in pi'esence of all this paper wisdom, I rather grieve over human folly. The arrangement, upon the whole, appears to be excellent ; but the contents, and the value of each individual part, remain a terra In- cognita, never likely to be explored by the few lite- rary navigators appointed to the service. The masses will probably remain for a long time in a state of pro- fitless neglect, till accident, or some disciple of Ca- liph Omar, destroys the whole. The nibbling here and there of a few Berlin professors is hardly worth mentioning. If the contents were really all matter of history, and it wei*e decreed that a Professor Historiarum must be acquainted with them all, I should have a right to claim as long a lease of life as that of the wandering Jew. Only four volumes^ however, fall within the period of my Hohenstau- PUBLIC GARDENS. 23 fen, and a great part of their contents has already been printed. I hope that I shall be able to find time for a closer inspection. Sunday, March 31. The music at St. Mark''s, to-day, this being Easter Sunday, was executed partly by profes- sional musicians, and went off better than on my previous visits, when theology had to supply its place. For the first time, owing to the immense numbers assembled, I was seriously annoyed by the fumes of garlic, which could not by any means be brought to harmonize with the incense. In the afternoon, I went to the public garden. No gentry, but an immense crowd. I saw nothing remarkable, unless it be the singular costume of the female water-carriers. Some of the young girls were pretty and piquant, but I saw no dis- tinguished beauty among them. Neither music, nor eating, nor drinking, nor dancing, but abun- dance of screaming. The Venetian dialect in all its glory ; soft, so far, at least, that ce and ci are pro- nounced se and si, but unmelodious, on account of the swallowing and clipping of so many syllables and vowels. It bears to the Roman-Florentine the same relation that Portuguese does to Spanish. There may be a little pedantry in Florence, but it is fortunate, nevertheless, that Italian is not broken up into a multitude of different dialects, all enjoying 24 CANALE GRANDE. equal rights ; it is well that there should be one altioris indaginis, to retain the literary supremacy. In the evening, having wrapped myself well up in furs, I went in a gondola to the Giudeca, and re- turned by the Canale Grande. Some of the build- ings along the latter have been cleaned up, and wear a habitable look ; but what are these com- pared with the many, for the maintenance of which the means are wanting ! There was a time when palaces rose from the sea as if by magic ; when they were adorned by countless works of art, and made brilliant by costly entertainments ; and now, it is matter to be noticed, if a few broken windows are mended, or if an invalid door be replaced upon its hinges. A thousand causes are assigned for this ; the chief, according to many, is the laziness of the population ; and is not idleness the origin of every vice, and thus the first cause of poverty ? LETTER IV. Tombola — Procession — Democracy of 1797 — Cliurches — Pictures — Ateueo — Dante. Venice, April J. This day month I left Berlin. How much of agreeable and disagreeable have I not experienced since then, and vet I am but on the threshold of GAME OF LOTTO. 25 Italy ! Of this fact I was reminded this morning by my thermometer, which stood at only nine de- grees above zero, (52° Fahrenheit,) in my room, and at 4^ (42° F.) in the open air. My open fire oc- casions more draught than it dispenses warmth ; my furs, therefore, have generally to supply the absence of a stove, and, thus fortified, I patiently await the later hours of the day. The Italians, it appears to me, are able to endure more heat and cold than we of the North. Yesterday evening, for instance, at the Casino, where I was introduced by Mr. T , not a single room had a fire in it, though it was so cold that in Germany thei-e would have been a ge- neral outcry. About nine hundred ladies and gentlemen were assembled at the game of Lotto, around the tombola. Of this game, I hear, they are passionately fond. Each person buys a tablet, marked with fifteen numbers, between one and ninety. The player, whose fifteen numbers are first drawn, receives a sum of money as a prize, (yester- day, about 40 florins ;) and the two following prizes consist of articles likely to be serviceable to ladies. At half past ten the drawing began, and by far the greater part of the ninety numbers had been drawn before any one of the players had covered the fifteen squares. In about an iiour the last prize had been won and lost ; for, of course, all lost, with the exception of three, and the emotions VOL. I. C 26 SCARCITY OF BEAUTY. excited by the game developed themselves, when many covered twelve, thirteen, or even fourteen of their numbers, and yet in the end went empty- handed away. Of beauties, such as the old Venetian school pre- sents to us, nothing was to be seen. The race, I was told by one, is completely extinct. Yet, at Bruges, at Florence, and at Rome, faces and forms, like those immortalized in their respective schools, may yet be seen walking about in the streets. Wednesday, April 3- The holidays, which brought nothing very re- markable with them, except that they interrupted the general course of business, are now over, and shops, collections, libraries, and private parties are again open. A votive procession of marines on Sunday displayed a singular mixture of military and religious exercises. When the host came by, I took off my hat, like the rest, without hesitation ; but I did feel some hesitation as to whether I ought to look upon the doctrine of transubstantiation as a pro- found mystery of faith, or as the extremeof absurdity to which bigotry can go. Lord help my unbelief! I am now studying most diligently the Lombardy code ; and, among other important matters, I have therefound that the Homoeopathy of Dr.iVflArewann (sic) is prohibited, and that children are not to read the Conveisations-Lexikon, nor to be guilty of cer- THE ARCHIVES. 27 tain dirty tricks. These ordinances, however, are mere dead letter ; the former, that respecting Hah- nemann, has been revoked, and the latter is daily set at defiance by young and old. Friday, April 5. Wherever I come, Count S , upon the strength of Prince M — "'s recommendation, has prepared the way for me, so that I every where meet with the most obliging reception. Such was yesterday the case at the Archives. Respecting the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, there exist only two or thr?e volumes, which I was able to look through in a few hours. Considering the shortness of the time, how- ever, I collected a very tolerable harvest. I found a treaty concluded between the Venetians and Man- fred, in which I recognized all the principles of the English navigation laws ; a treaty between Gregory IX. and Venice, having for its object a war against, and a partition of, the Sicilian dominions ; and lastly, a deed of Conradin's, by which he recognizes Man- fred as guardian and sovereign of Apulia. Thus was I transported from the present back to the time of my Hohenstaufens. On all sides I hear complaints of the ruthless man- ner in which the treasures of art and literary anti- quity were dealt with here in the days of French freedom. The soldiers quartered at San Giorgio, for instance, were in the constant habit of paying a c 2 28 PARODY ON THE CREED. book for their passage across the Great Canal, which book was immediately carried by the gondolier to be sold as waste paper at the nearest chandler's shop. I turned over the laws and ordinances of the democratic republic of Venice of the year 1797. What intoxication of hope, what unbounded delight, Avhat extravagance of declamation ! And how soon was this fool's paradise abandoned as a prey to rob- bery, plunder, free-quarters, forced contributions, the scorn of the French, and the grasping hand of Bonaparte ! Yet the illusion was not dispelled ; the man was still an object of admiration, and the destinies of Venice were not yet accomplies. A parody on the Creed, referring to the Directory, was printed on the 16th of April, 1797, and is sufficiently remarkable and characteristic of the times to serve as an excuse for my inserting it here. Liberia Eguaglianza. Credo Eepublicano. Credo nella Republica francese una e indivisibile, Crea- tiice deli' Ugiialianza e della liberta. Credo uel General Bunaparte, sue figlio iinico, diffensore iiostro, il quale fu concepiito da gran spirito, nacque da madre virtuosissima. Pali sopre monli e colli, fu da tiranni vilipeso e sepolto. Discese iiel Piemonte, il terzo di risuscito in Italia. Sali in Mautova, ed ora siede alia destra di Vienna, capitale dell' Austria. Di la hada venire a giudi- care i violent! aristocrati. Credo nello spirito della Generalita francese e del Diret- lorio di Parigi, la distruzzione de' uemici della virtu niuna reinissione alia tirannia la risurrezione del diritto naturale deir Uoino, la futura pace, liberta, eguaglianza, fratellanza etcrna ; cosr sia ! POLITICAL REFLEXIONS. 29 The day of this political fanaticism is not yet gone by. Do we not still meet with many, in whose eyes the intrigues and outrages of Paris pass for the high- est point of developpernent hiwiahi, as the noblest pledge of genuine liberty? Admirably did Nothomb, at Brussels, speak the truth with respect to the rela- tions of France to Belgium and Germany, showing what it is that causes the ennui of the French, with- out excepting even the maudlin, pious, impracticable Lamartine. That Villiers would fail in his attempt to procure the abohtion of the corn-laws, I foretold to him repeatedly in my own room. That is not the way to set about it. I repeatedly maintained, in 1835, that the vote for members of Parliament, given to the farmers, had strengthened the landed aristocracy more than the destruction of the rotten boroughs had weakened them. This the veriest sceptics must now admit. Sunday, April 7. When I look back on the very different nature of my occupations on each of the four occasions on which I have visited Venice, I am forced to admit that I must myself have changed much more than the objects now around me. All that I now seek for with such eagerness occupied not one of my thoughts in 1816. At that time I ran after all those things that are usually deemed most attractive to 30 PURSUITS OF THE AUTHOR. travellers. In the same way, however, in which I then quitted the prescribed limits, to investigate the Past among books, manuscripts, and the monuments of art, even so have I now extended them yet fur- ther, to make myself acquainted with the Present^ on a more comprehensive scale. Without Prince Metternich, however, and his trusty spirits, my zeal and good-will would have carried me no great way ; whereas, now, treasures come pouring in upon me from all sides, and from the purest sources. I am not now labouring with limited forces, but may look upon myself as a chief, who has numbers at his command ; perhaps a more true and less arrogant simile would be, to liken myself to a student, to whom men better informed than himself are, on all sides, ready to afford assistance. Many, I fear, will censure my present occupations as of an inferior order, and will maintain that I have myself deteriorated in becoming indifferent to the highest point of human development — the fine arts. Such, however, I have not become. I have again contemplated churches, statues, and pictures, with the liveliest interest, and could talk about them as long and as learnedly as those who feel them less, understand them as little, and have not seen as many ; but when I daily find people talking non- sense about things on which I have expended much time and labour, and of which I believe I do under- CHURCHES OF VENICE. 31 stand something, I feel apprehensive of allowing my- self to be betrayed into similar mistakes. Waagen ought to be here, and then, as once in England, we would endeavour, by our united endeavours, to pro- duce something. Simm cuique. Nevertheless, I am not inclined to pass these things over altogether in silence. St. Mark's, with its poetic, rule-defying originality, must occupy the first place. St. Sophia rose from another soil, and diw cum Juciunt idem, non est idem. San Paolo and San Giovanni are large and striking, but in their exterior do not preserve a happy medium be- tween the different systems of architecture. We have pillars, for instance, with arches over them, and over those a wall, and the pillars connected by wooden beams with the inner and outer nave, and with the side columns. This wooden tackle is as- suredly a defect. I do not like the broken fa9ade of San Giorgio Maggiore, The sides are squeezed together without beauty or ornament. In the in- terior I recognize the cheerful style of St. Peter's, though of an inferior order. The dome of Maria della Salute is handsome, but much inferior to those of Florence and Rome. I find it difficult to recon- cile myself to the hugevolutes, intended to strengthen and support the dome. How much more beautiful are the means by which the same object is attained in Cologne and Milan. 32 VENETIAN SCHOOL OF ART. The Academy of the Fine Arts. — I have been told of a superlative connoisseur, who is said to have ascertained that the distinctive characteristics of the Venetian school are harshness and ruggedness. I adhere to the old and more intelligible creed, that they are to be found in the colouring and the flesh. The drawings of Michael Angelo, Raphael, and Leonardo, show the unwearied industry of those masters. They did not imagine that beauty could be embodied on the canvass by a miracle ; no, they made a succession of designs, placed a limb, or the fold of a drapery, sometimes in this position, some- times in that, until gradually they came near to per- fection, if they did not attain it. Genius is a gift of Heaven ; but industry is one which every man may owe to himself. The rich and beautifully ar- ranged collection of statues and casts has been en- riched by the great London marbles. In comparison with these noble forms of Phidias, the Apollo and the small Venus from Naples appear like — but I pause, that I may not place myself upon the same line with Kotzebue. The progress of the Arts, as of science and state- policy, is evident, and yet it is a mystery. How is it that the human mind, or how is it that a com- munity of many human minds, after having attained with much labour to beauty, perfection, and taste, in the best sense of those words, can gradually wean AGREEABLE DISCOVERY. 33 themselves from it, and find delight in ugliness, dis- tortion, the nauseous, and the insipid ? Thus, for instance, I am at a loss to account for the series of Venetian churches, descending, during a succession of centuries, from the rich and fanciful St. Mark's to the craziest tawdriness of embellishment, or to a naked bareness, that makes them fit for little else than stables and barns. Do we not, in our own age, behold the same, if not in painting and architecture, at least in poetry and music ? You will certainly not blame me for avoiding the infliction of hearing Donizetti's Emma di Vergy executed by a very mediocre company. It is a cup which I have already too often been obliged to swallow to the dregs. I made a discovery a few days ago, which, if it could be taken as an omen applicable to my whole journey, ought to make me hurry home again, ashamed of having forgotten Gothe's proverb — Das Guie liegt so nah, &c. I had been wearying my- self in searching all over the city for a place where I could get something tolerable to eat and drink. At last, in utter despair, I ordered a dinner at my own hotel, the Luna^ and found it incomparably better than any I had been able to obtain elsewhere. Some German had told me the cuisine of the house Avas bad ; and I, in my simplicity, forgot the old saying, " Try all things." The wine, to be sure, c5 34 * EXTRAORDINARY WEATHER. continues nostrano, but the bill-of-fare will hold me fast, particularly as I can now dine at my own time. I have not, indeed, made any agreement, but I shall pay my bill without much grumbling ; and, even should they overcharge me, I shall console myself with the reflection that I should have paid at least double in Berlin ; and besides, may I not place my escape from a daily indigestion to the credit side of the account ? Our friend H shall ex- plain to us, one of these days, why, after good wine and a good dinner, even though composed of a variety of dishes, I feel well and in good spirits, whereas a single plate of bad food puts me out of tune. He will probably assign a multitude of phy- siological causes ; but I look at the matter from a refined and jnoral point of view. Good taste is in itself meritorious, and meets with its reward ; but bad food reduces a man nearer to the level of a beast, and is punished accordingly. During the twelve days that I have now spent in Venice, there has been no change in the appearance of the garden under my window. The grass and plants, in consequence of storms and cold weather, look even worse than they did on my arrival. Every body pronounces the weather to be most extra- ordinary ; but one meets so often and in so many places with extraordinary kinds of weather, that I have begun to think extraordinary weather only another term for disagreeable weather. THE ATENEO. 35 Tuesda}', April 9. I was yesterday introduced by Mr. Q at the Ateneo, a kind of Venetian academy. Professor Paravia, from Turin, read an interesting and well- written essay on Dante, and proved : — that Beatrice was not merely a creature of imagination, but a maiden with whose memory, particularly after her death, Dante associated much that was beautiful and allegorical. And why should she not appear to him as the picture and conception of all that was wise and good .'' The lecturer likewise proved that Dante, notwithstanding the severity of his character, and his imaginative fidelity, was in love at least three times in his life, and in support of this trio of all good things there appeared to be no lack of arguments. M. Paravia dwelt also on the difficulty of distinguishing Dante's genuine lyrics from the spurious ones that went under his name ; but even the genuine ones, he maintained, would not place the poet more than on a level with many of the lyric writers of his own time. The Commedia Divina it was that first enabled Dante to step into a higher sphere, and to make it his own. We were next treated with the judgment of the Ateneo on the book of a Bologna physician, who had attri- buted the origin of the cholera to certain exceed- ingly minute animals. A few only of the judges declared themselves in favour of this beastly theory; 36 COLDNESS OF THE WEATHER. but the majority adhered to the behef in stench, filth, and other chemical agreeables of the same kind. At eight this evening I shall start for Milan. I am not in the least at a loss what to do with my cloak, furs, and foot-bag. Even in my room I have them on, and shall retain them till my fire raises the thermometer above 8" (50T.) Outside the window it is scarcely so high as 4*^ (41'^ F.). In Milan, they tell me, the cold is yet more severe; but I place great faith in the progressive advance of the almanac. At the infant school, the said alma- nac was very circumstantially explained the other day. All went well till the mistress asked one of the boys in what season of the year we were now. He answered stoutly: — " In winter." I entirely agreed with him. LETTER V. Jtaly in general — Extent of Trieste — Population — Woods — History of the City — French Domination — Return of the Austrians — Finances — Taxation — Clergy — Schools — Commerce — Exchanjje — Lloyd — Navigation — Commercial Treaties — Imports and Exports — Commercial Laws — Civic Institutions. Venice. March 28. You justly complain that, notwithstanding the endless number of books that have been written ITALY IN GENERAL. 37 about it, we have still a very insufficient knowledge of Italy ; but is it not quite natural that this should be the case, when most travellers only describe the first impression made upon them by the loudly abused or extravagantly admired country, of which they write rather as lyrists and satirists, than as historians ? Hence, endless repetitions of well- known facts, obtained from the most worthless au- thorities. The majority of travellers, moreover, have to depend upon local guides and ciceroni : should it be in my power to communicate anything more instructive, the merit will not be mine, but will belong to those to whom I am indebted for such powerful recommendations, and to those who received me with such distinguished kindness, and manifested in their solicitude to afford me every possible information, so obliging a zeal that no words of mine can sufficiently express my gratitude. For the information I have obtained, I willingly acknowledge myself a debtor. The elegiac exclamation, Italy is a ruin! with which so many close their accounts of the country, had long ago excited my doubts quite as much as my sympathy. You are aware that the wish to confirm or remove my foregone conclusion on this subject formed the chief inducement to my present journey, in the same way that a similar motive drove me formerly to England. Now, the different 38 TRIESTE. portions of Italy vary so much from one another, with respect to soil, population, and public institu- tions, that it is impossible to expect the same results from all. I shall, therefore, have to speak, on dif- ferent occasions, of improvement, of deterioration, and of a stationary condition. That the commence- ment may be at once easy and gratifying, and the improvement unquestionable, allow me to consider Trieste as belonging to Italy, and to place before you a few important facts relative to that remark- able town. My information has been obtained from the most authentic sources, and if you wish to enter more into details, I may refer you to Costa's work on the Free port of Trieste. It is a book to which I thankfully own myself much indebted ; but since its publication there is much that deserves to be added ; and, besides, different men have different ideas, and contemplate the same object from dif- ferent points of view. Whenever I enter the Austrian empire, I am reminded of the spirit of the middle ages. " Of something superannuated, accordingly, of some- thing in itself wrong and absurd !" will be the ex- clamation of many. Have these censors, however, really taken the trouble to substitute judgment for prejudice, on the subject of ancient and modern times.'' Is an intricate organization a proof of in- feriority in the domain either of nature or of the POLICY OF MODERN FRANCE. 39 human mind ? Shall a worm rank higher than a man, because of simpler anatomy and physiology, and because less marked by conflicting character- istics ? To the political wisdom of modern France, no doubt, the Netherlands, Switzerland, Germany, and Italy, appeared so many abortions of disorder and absurdity. According to that school, the only principle of regeneration and improvement is to bring every time-honoured institution to the bed of Procrustes. All that was living, national, local, or provincial, disappeared before the iron hands that were covered with the gloves of liberty. There was to be but one head, nor were any distinctive func- tions assigned to the several limbs ; one centralizing capitale du monde, regardless whether the world around sunk more and more into death or not. Many of the heroes of liberty, in our own day, know of no better principle ; and if even Talleyrand were nothing but a cunning, though broken-down, pupil of the Roman Macchiavelli, the wisdom of many little beings that pretend to his inheritance is nothing but a flimsy scheme of the driest bureaucracy. These remarks, which might easily be greatly ex- tended, are not out of place here. The statesman, of whom I have already made mention more than once, acts upon principles diametrically opposite to those of the French school. He sees in the main- tenance of local peculiarities the strength and 40 TERRITORY OF TRIESTE. spirit of the Austrian empire, at the same time that he carefully removes all that is really morbid and obsolete. Only things that are distinct from one another can be united. AVhat Trieste was under French domination, compared with what it has become under the Aus- trian government, affords an instructive example by which to judge the two systems. Trieste and its dependent territory belong to the government of the maritime provinces, which, previously to a few recent changes that I cannot here stop to enter upon, contained 33 cities, 21 market towns, and 1806 villages. The area, according to the new ca- dastre (reckoning the Joch or yoke as equal to 1600 square Mcifters — fathoms) contains, of land under cultivation : — In Trieste, (I only give round num- Joch. bers), .... 15,000 In the circle of Gorz . . . 465,000 In Istria .... 811,000 1,291,000 Add land not under cultivation . 91,000 Total . 1,382,000 The gross produce, according to the Florins. latest estimate, is calculated at . 8,344,000 The net produce at , . 3,857,000 TERRITORY OF TRIESTE. 41 The average produce per Joch (fractions omitted) has been calculated Trieste, gross produce 19 fl. net produce 7 fl. Istria „ „ 5 „ „ ^ 43 kr. Gorz „ „ 7 „ V 3 18 Hence the relative difficulties with which agricul- ture has to struggle may be estimated. Yet the population, per Austrian square mile of 10,000 square Joch, amounted, in 1827 — In the circle of Gdrz . . . 2414 And in Istria to . . . . 3545 or including Trieste, to about 420,000 ; a sufficient proof of the facility with which the means of living are obtained in the south, and of the importance of Trieste as a commercial city. The rent of land in Gorz and Istria is estimated at about 8| per cent, of the produce. The territory of Trieste, properly speaking, in- cludes an area of only one (German) square mile and six-tenths (about thirty-five English square miles); and, in spite of the magnificent views from the mountains and from the sea, ihe whole of the land would be of little value were it not for the town and its trade. If, therefore, land, in certain parts of the town, sells for 200 to 250 florins the square Majler (fathom), and on one occasion is known to have fetched the enormous price of seven hun- dred florins; and if the owners of houses are even then able to realize from six to seven per 4a TERRITORY OF TRIESTE. cent, interest on their capital ; this is owing to local circumstances, which, in their turn, are caused by the active industry of the population. Yet I should be disposed to deny the general position, that nature has been so very niggardly of her favours to the country round Trieste. Any thing more barren, more dismal, more desolate, than the stony plains on the heights, can scarcely, I admit, be found in any part of Europe ; and no storm-wind, certainly, can be more formidable than the notorious Bora. But, was it always so? Did the stones always project so far and in such wild disorder from the soil, that soil can hardly be said to exist ? Could the Bora always range along, without let or hindrance, with its seven-league wings ? I am almost tempted to answer these ques- tions at once in the negative. The selfishness and improvidence of man, by destroying the ancient forests, deprived the land of its natural shelter. The rain then washed away the soil when wet, and the wind blew it away when dry. Thus it was that the stones rose farther and farther above the surface, and, the land stripped of its trees, not even grass and moss could long keep their ground. There are many other countries of Europe, not excepting several parts of Italy, that have made the same painful experience. M. Rossini has adduced histo- rical proofs, to show that the heights of Trieste HISTORY OF TRIESTE. 43 were once covered with forest ; in some places the trees still remain; and, wherever a handful of mould is to be found, there is no want either of trees or bushes. These, with care, might be made the nu- cleus of a new vegetation, provided the country were not abandoned to the cattle. Let the people of Trieste turn their attention to their hills, up which their country-seats are already ascending higher and higher. Restore the trees, and not only would the landscape be improved, and the land increased in value, but a check, would be given to the furious impetuosity of the Bora. The number of agriculturists cannot be large in the territory of Trieste; but what there are of them are mostly, like those of Istria, the owners of the land they cultivate. They would be wretch- edly poor, owing to the barrenness of the soil, were it not that the town affords them such various means of adding to their income by working as masons, carrierst, porters, &c. From 94-9 till 1382 we find Trieste independent, though in feud with many of its neighbours. In 1382, the city placed itself voluntarily under the protection of Austria. Both parties believed that they should promote their own interests by the ob- ligations which they mutually took upon them, and the conditions then agreed to have only been altered from time to time by common consent. 44 TRIESTE UNDER THE FRENCH. The constitution has much that reminds one of that of Venice. In 1717, Trieste was declared a free port by Charles VI., and the ordinance of that year was farther extended by several laws promulgated under Maria Theresa. The power of the captain of the city was changed ; and, the civic institutions yield- ing to those of the state, the whole assumed more and more of an Austrian character. Many privi- leges, however, remained in full force. Among these were — exemption from excise, from military service, and from having soldiers billeted in the town ; a free importation, and a low tax on transit and exportation ; some other judicial and commer- cial advantages ; taxation by the city authorities only, and a limitation of the payment to the state to 16,000 florins annually. On the 16th of May, 1809, the French entered Trieste, and left it again on the 8th of November, 1813. It is the more necessary to speak of the character and consequences of their domination, as so many people now-a-days, to show their sagacity and penetration, are, or pretend to be, dissatisfied with the present ; and, in this mood, forgetting that all human institutions must naturally be imperfect, overlook altogether the dark sides of a former state of things. Acting upon the conviction, everywhere put forward, that there was only one right course. DECLINE OF THE CITY. 45 and that this could be no other than that most re- cently sanctioned by France; the entrance of the French into Trieste was immediately followed by the abolition of all ancient laws, treaties, and insti- tutions, and every thing was thenceforward to be regulated in the true Napoleon spirit of despotism. A poll-tax was introduced, without being divided into classes ; this was accompanied by land-tax, customs, excise, stamps, office-fees, conscription, and the billeting of soldiers. The freedom of the port was exchanged for the continental system ; merchandize was seized and burnt ; prices fell ; and forced loans, war-taxes, and the arrest of merchants, became the order of the day. The consequence of all this was, that sixty-one mercantile houses stopped payment between 1809 and ]811; the number of ships belonging to the port fell from 900 to 200 ; the yearly commercial transactions decreased from between thirteen and fourteen to between two and three milhons of florins ; and the population, which in 1808 amounted to 40,000, had in 1812 already declined to 20,000. When the Austrians returned to Trieste, in 1813, many of the French institutions were abolished, some retained, and a few new ones introduced. The poll-tax, the tax on trades, the greater part of the taxes on consumption, and the greater part of the stamp-duties, were done away with ; the exempr 46 FINANCES. tion from military service, and from the billeting of soldiers, and, above all, the freedom of the port, were restored. Many, no doubt, wished for a simple return to the institutions of the middle ages, or, at all events, for a limitation to 16,000 florins, of all their pe- cuniary obligations to the state; but was such a return really possible? Would it have been just to the other portions of the Austrian monarchy? It was only to a connection with Austria, that Trieste could look for the revival of her prosperity ; whereas Austria, in possession of Venice and Fiume, could very easily have dispensed with Trieste. The duty of the government was to make the interest of the city go hand in hand with that of the empire; and this task was fulfilled upon principles wholly antigaUican, by recognizing the force of local cir- cumstances, without allowing them to stand in the way of the unity of the state. Thus the authorities of the city were entrusted with the whole financial government of their townspeople. As before, a limited sum is paid annually ; not indeed limited to 16,000 florins, for it now amounts to 500,000 florins, including 60,000 for the abolished poll and trade tax; 80,000 for the fornier land-tax ; and 350,000 in lieu of customs and excise. The town has, nevertheless, gained greatly by being relieved from the French system of government, and is much TAXATION. 47 better able now to pay the larger than it formerly was to pay the smaller sum. A sufficient proof of this is afforded by the astonishing development of wealth and commerce, of which I shall soon have occasion to speak. Singular as is the financial position of Trieste, in relation to the empire at large, its own system of taxation is not less singular. The whole taxation of the city amounts to about a million of florins, and, of these, more than half is obtained by a duty on wine. I hope that I may not be deemed tedious, if I endeavour to explain this more fully to you. Since the fourteenth century, a tax on the con- sumption of wine, (dazio educilio) has formed the chief source of the revenue of the city. In 1769, a second tax on the importation of wine, {dazio del poveri) was imposed, to obtain a fund for the sup- port of poor-houses and hospitals. This second tax was, in 1829, raised from one florin to two florins per e'lvier. In that year, indeed, many new ar- rangements were submitted to, in order to avoid the introduction of the Austrian system of finance, which would be altogether unsuitable for Trieste. These two florins, together with a market-toll of three kreuzers per eimer, are paid by all those who lay in or import wine in large quantities. The dazio educilio is paid on the retail of wine in quan- tities of less than half an eimer, and amounts to 22^ per cent, on the value. On fresh and pressed .48 TAXATION. grapes, a proportionate tax is also imposed, to pre- vent an evasion of the duty. The intention was to have extended this duty of 22^ per cent, to all spirituous liquors ; but this, it was found, would be attended with many difficulties in a free port : an arrangement was, therefore, made between the privileged dealers and the farmers of the tax, for a certain payment calculated on the average consumption. Beer, whether foreign or of home manufacture, pays one florin and twenty kreuzers per eimer; vinegar, merely a tax on measurement of three kreuzers per eimer. Oil and all other liquids are free. The tax on wine is calculated to amount to 25 per cent, on the wholesale, and to 39 per cent, on the retail trade. This tax, together with that on spirituous liquors, is farmed out for a yearly sum of 565,600 florins. The whole consumption of wine may amount to one hundred and eighty thousand eimer,-'^ a large quantity for the population. The working classes, it is supposed, drink about one half of the wine consumed within the city, and are consequently much more heavily taxed by the dazio educilio than their more wealthy fellow-citi- zens; still, the whole community have so long been accustomed to the arrangement, that no complaints ♦ The orna or eimer of Trieste is equal to about 122 imperial sallons. — Tr. TAXES OF TRIESTE. 49 are heard. Besides, there is no want of employ- ment, and the educilio and high rents afford a ready ground for a demand of high wages. Negociations are at present going on for a reform in the tax on wine and spirits, with a view to re- Heve the wine grown within the territory of Trieste from the additional florin imposed in 1829, and to cover the deficiency by an augmentation of the duty on spirits and beer. Such a privilege to the wine of Trieste, however, would be certain to excite bitter complaints in Istria, and the freedom of the port might be found inconsistent with such regula- tions as would be necessary to cover the deficit. The latter inconvenience may be remedied, perhaps, by an augmentation of the annual rent at which the taxes are farmed, the present contract expiring in three years. Next to the tax on wine and spirits, that on meat is the most important. It is farmed out for 101,400 florins, and is levied at five avenues. It amounts: — On oxen, bulls, cows, and on calves more than a year old, to 7fl — kr. each. On calves of less than a year old... 1 40 On sheep and goats 24 On lambs and small pigs 15 On pigs between 9 and 35lbs. weight 45 On pigs weighing more than 35lbs. 1 SO VOL. I. D 50 POPULATION. The house and ground-tax bring in about 85,000 florins. A tax imposed on carriages and horses brings in about 38,000 florins, by means of which the excellent pavement is kept in order. A few more trifling taxes need not be enume- rated. That these taxes are not oppressive is shown by the gradual increase in the population. It amounted — In 1717, when the port was declared free, to 5,600 1758 6,400 1777 20,000 1804 40,000 1808 33,000 1812 20,000 1826 40,000 1837 51,000 1838 53,000 And, in 1839, it probably exceeds 54,000 And, including the territory, is certainly not less than 74,000 The chapter of the cathedral of Trieste is com- posed of ten canons and twelve councillors. The city is divided into only two parishes, with two principal incumbents and fourteen assistants. The increasing population would certainly justify an augmentation in this clerical staff*. Readily as the SCHOOLS. 51 individual merit of some of the clergy is admitted, a general complaint is made, that, as a body, they, are in education and intelligence far below the level which might fairly be required, A very reasonable wish prevails for the institu- tion of an Italian normal school, in addition to the two German ones that already exist ; and for the establishment of a public school within the city, in order that parents may not be under the necessity of sending their children away from them. What the French did, in this respect, has fallen to the ground again ; and the Nautical Academy, which, since 1820, has grown out of the old school of com- merce, turns education into one direction alone — a highly important one, no doubt, in a town like Trieste ; but still insufficient for general purposes. This academy contains rather more than one hundred pupils, and would pi-obably number many more, were it not for a rule that requires all candidates to have spent five years in a normal school. The pro- fessors receive from 800 to 1,000 florins a year ; the other teachers, including language-masters, from 400 to 600 ; and the director, 1 200. Commerce, ■navigation, naval architecture, and languages, form the chief objects of instruction. The pupils have from thirty to thirty-one school hours in a week. Religious instruction forms a part of the educational course, in which protestant and Jewish D 2 52 RELIEF OF THE POOR. children are not obliged to participate, if they -produce a certificate to show that they receive religious instruction elsewhere, according to the tenets of their several creeds. Owing to the general prosperity of the city, and the facihty with which employment may be ob- tained, the maintenance of the poor occasions much less trouble than in many other places ; still, in this respect also, a very laudable activity is manifested. In 1817, a Society of Beneficence was formed, under the administration of sixteen deputies from the eight several sections of the city. The object chiefly in view was the suppression of street-beg- ging ; and this is effected either by supplying the poor with work, or by affording them relief, either in the shape of food or money. Whoever can obtain work, and is equal to it, has no claim to any relief. Relief, in the shape of food, is never given for more than a fortnight at a time ; and consists usually of two pints of Rumford soup, and eight ounces of bread, a day. Beggars not belonging to the city, if too weak to work, are fed till they have gained strength, when employment is found for them, or they are sent to their homes. The sick are received into the hospitals. A list of the volun- tary contributions to the fund is yearly printed and distributed. Owing to the cholera and its consequences, the RELIEF OF THE POOR. 53 expenditure in 1836 and 1837 was greater than usual. In the latter of those two years, there were distributed — 591,834 portions of soup. 56,951 meat. 830,563 bread. 57,816 wine. Voluntary contributions were received to the amount of 6,250 florins. Donations 2,273 Interest on money invested 6,343 Theatre 716 From the wine tax 9,515 Permissions for balls 189 Dotation of the hospital 12,000 The whole receipts and expenditure for the poor amounted to about 38,000 florins. I come now to the great source of life to Trieste — her commerce. To the increase of this, the free- dom of the port has mainly contributed, by enabling activity and enterprise to reap their reward, undis- turbed by a multitude of fiscal burdens, impositions, annoyances, Sec. The custom-house line, towards the interior, has never been felt as a great incon- venience, little or nothing being either made or pro- duced within Trieste. There are two institutions that have proved of the greatest importance in a commercial point of 54 THE EXCHANGE. view — the Exchange and the Austrian Lloyd. The Exchange, according to the law of the 18th of Sep- tember, 1804, forms a central point of union for the whole commercial public. It is under the direc- tion of six deputies, who are elected for three years, and each of whom undertakes the administration for six months. Only wholesale dealers can become members of the Exchange, and candidates rejected by the deputies have a right of appeal to the general assembly of all the members, where the question is decided by ballot. The deputation has charge of the revenues of the Exchange — acts as mediator be- tween the government and the mercantile community — suggests questions for consideration — sees to the execution of decisions — examines brokers previously to their admission — communicates various kinds of commercial information, &c. In cases of an equality of votes, the senior deputy's opinion decides. The whole body of members choose a consuha, or committee, of forty, to whom the deputation may submit important matters for deliberation. During the last week in December, the deputation delivers in to a general assembly an account of the year's administration. A lawyer is always ready to afford the deputation legal assistance. Many disputes may be brought for decision before the Exchange, such as relate to valuations, auctions, &c. ; and these naturally become an additional source of income to THE AUSTRIAN LLOYD. 55 the institution. Every member, on being admitted, pays 40 florins entrance, and a yearly subscription to the same amount. Another law of the ISth of September, 1804, determines the duties, privileges, and requisite in- formation of brokers. The manner is distinctly prescribed in which they are to keep their books, these being liable to be called for as judicial evidence ; above all, brokers are strictly prohibited from en- gaging in trade, either directly or indirectly. The Austrian Lloyd, as it is called, originated in 1833, and is divided into two chief sections. The one employs itself in collecting every kind of useful information respecting trade and navigation ; the other forms a steam-navigation company. Each section elects two members, in whom the general direction is vested, under the superintendence of a president, who remains in office only six months. The first section of the Lloyd keeps a list of all ships arriving and departing, and of all goods imported or exported ; communicates commercial news from all parts of the world, and possesses a fine collection of maps, charts, commercial treaties, laws respecting trade, &c. Each member of the Lloyd pays a sub- scription of 30 florins annually. Strangers are ad- mitted upon easy terms. A commercial newspaper, connected with this institution, has been found extremely useful. 56 LLOYD STEAM COMPANY. The Lloyd Steam Navigation Company owed its origin chiefly to the conviction that the revival of Egypt, the emancipation of Greece, the well-known events in Turkey, and a variety of other recent occurrences, had caused a great revolution in trade, and were preparing its return to the ancient channel. To this were attributed the exertions of England to establish steam-navigation on the Red Sea and the Euphrates, similar eiforts on the part of France, the establishment of Austrian steam-boats on the Danube, &c. These circumstances, it was thought, would be certain to give a greater extension to the trade of the Mediterranean, and even to divert a portion of the trade of India to the Levant. The capital (in the first instance a million of flo- rins) was raised by shares, and a council of adminis- tration was chosen, consisting of a president and six directors. The president remains in office fifteen years ; of the directors, one retires every year. All disputes between the company and one of its mem- bers must be decided, without appeal, by arbitrators chosen by the parties to the dispute. The coasting trade with steam-boats between Trieste and Venice, and between other Austrian ports, Is secured to the company as a monopoly till the year 1842. Six steam-boats now run alternately to Ancona, Corfu, Patrasso, Candia, Athens, Sira, Smyrna, the Dar- COMMERCIAL TREATY. 57 danelles, Constantinople, and Alexandria. The advantage of this institution, so far as the saving of time is concerned, may be estimated by the fact, that travellers may now reach V^enice in nine hours, and Ancona in sixteen hours ; so that Rome is brought within a distance of four days from Trieste, and Naples within a distance of six days. There cannot be a doubt that the number of travellers will go on increasing, and that the company will even- tually reap the reward of their preseverance and enterprize. In the year 1838, the trips between Trieste and Venice amounted in number to 312, and the travellers to 14,288. Independently of the great political importance of the commercial treaty concluded between England and Austria on the 3rd of July, 1838, it is certain to lead to useful results for the traders of both coun- tries. Which may derive the greatest advantage, will depend less on the letter of the treaty than'on the greater activity of one nation or the other. A perfect system of equality has not yet been adopted, nor, under existing circumstances, was it practicable ; thus the productions of Asia, Africa, and America, cannot be imported directly, in Austrian ships, from all parts of the world ; but they can be so imported from the Danube and from ihe Mediterranean ports. In the same Vvay, the produce of those dis- d5 58 SHIPPING. tant regions may be shipped for England, as soon as they have been previously brought into an Aus- trian port. The Austrian ships trading to Constan- tinople already exceed in number those of all other nations, and are continually increasing. To show the growing prosperity of Trieste, I must trouble you with figures; these, however, are not dry and insignificant to an attentive observer, but, on the contrary, exceedingly eloquent and instruc- tive. The average annual importation into Trieste was, From 1816 From 1831 Increase to 1820. to 1835. per cent. CofFee (Vienna cwt.) 42,542 163,198 383 Cotton 44,759 142,535 318 Corn (staii*); 817,879 907,604 111 Wool (cwt.) 11,241 24,767 220 Oil (casks, 107 Vienna lbs. each) 92,288 204,153 221 Sugar (cwt.) 130,731 378,588 289 , Tonnajje. Arrived in 1834 939 large vessels 183,767 1835 1691 225,538 1836 1756 251,531 1837 1731 234,212 1838 1778 229,478 If we add the coasting trade, the aggregate ton- • The siaio is eqiuil to 2— of Winchester biisliels. T 101) SHIPPING. 59 nage of the arrivals would stand, in round numbers, thus: — 1834 324,000 1835 305,000 1836 330,030 1837 313,000 (cholera year.) 1838 363,000 Among the large vessels that arrived were : — In 1834. In 1838. Hamburg — American 47 Hanoverian ... 2 Austrian 475 Belgian — Brasilian — Bremen 3 Danish 3 French 12 Jerusalem 1 Greek 136 Ionian 13 English 127 Norwegian ... — Oldenburg ... — Dutch 8 Turkish 5 Roman 22 5 39 3 583 5 3 6 19 12 1 212 32 136 17 1 13 13 297 (includingcoasters in 1838.) 60 SHIPPING. In 1834. Portuguese ... — Prussian 2 Russian 8 Swedish 8 Spanish 4 Sardinian SO Samiot — Sicilian 31 Tuscan 2 In 1838. 5 4> 18 ]8 7 47 1 274 (including coasters in 1838.) The table just given shows the rate at which each nation has increased its traffic to Trieste. To complete the review of the maritime traffic of Trieste, the Lloyd publishes the following table for 1838 :— There entered inwards, large vessels carrying sails 1,778 Ditto, steamers 28 Large coasters carrying sails 2,529 Ditto, steamers 166 Small coasters 5,675 10,176 The shipsthat skiTe3 in the - sameyear amounted to 10,121 Aggregate Tonnase. 229,478 9,040 90,805 33,880 131,875 495,078 489,912 IMPORTS. 61 The imports, in 1838, were — ■ Coffee 313,500 cwt. Cotton 180,057balesof 2cwt. each, Oats 32,681 staii. Wheat 555,394 Indian corn 335,033 Barley 21,370 Rye 58,808 Flour 185,800 cwt. Potatoes 131,050 Oil 205,950 eimer. Sugar, refined ... 145,160 cwt. Ditto, raw 403,490 Wool 20,141 bales. Tea 300 chests. Beer 10,430 casks. Salt 169,481 cwt. Tobacco 48,070 Sulphur 25,510 Wine 14,819 packages. The prices of many goods vary so much that it is difficult to estimate the pecuniary value of the whole, but sugar is the most important article, and then follow, in succession, cotton, corn, coffee, oil, &c. The imports in 1838, it has been calculated, amounted in value in round numbers : — From Brasil to 9,000,000 florins. ^ ~ France 3,000,000 '^*f CS IMPORTS. Egypt 5,500,000 florins, Turkey 7,200,000 Russia 3,500,000 England 8,400,000 Holland 2,800,000 North America... 3,500,000 Austrian coasting trade 9,900,000 Neapolitan and Si- cilian ditto 3,900,000 Roman coasting trade 850,000 Prussian 291,000 Trieste produce... 4,000,000 From the interior 15,000,000 The whole trade, by land and sea, for that year, is calculated to have amounted to 88,000,000 florins ; whereas in 1800, it is supposed to have not exceeded 15,000,000. The natural advantages of Trieste and the remarkable activity of its popu- lation will lead, it is to be hoped, to a farther de- velopment of its commerce ; but it is not to be de- nied that there are many artificial advantages, to which a change of circumstances might easily put an end. Thus, for instance, it seems strange that Trieste should supply the Levant with coffee, Apulia with sugar, England with cotton and corn, and Venice and Lombardy with colonial goods. MUNICIPAL INSTITUTIONS. 63 The export to Apulia is connected with a system of smuggling. The export of cotton to England pro- ceeds from the circumstance that the Viceroy of Egypt has removed the depot of his monopoly to Trieste, where the quarantine and disinfection are attended with least trouble. That Trieste takes no part in speculations in public funds and shares must undoubtedly be con- sidered an advantage for the place. Many wish to see a Bank established, for which, however, there does not as yet appear to be a sufficient surplus capital, and the want of a commercial code is uni- versally complained of. A new law, of the highest importance for Trieste, is that of the 22nd September, 1838, for regulating the government of the town. After the suppres- sion of all the old communal institutions, it was necessary that something decided should be done in this respect ; and, compared with the previous state of things, the new law may certainly be regarded as a most gratifying step in advance. I will state the main points. In addition to the magistracy of the city, a cor- poration has been established, to participate in the management of the city funds, and to give its opi- nion on many important questions connected with Trieste and its territory. This representative body is divided into the Great and Little Council. The G4 MUNICIPAL INSTITUTIONS. former consists of forty members. In the first in- stance, the magistracy and the individuals who till then had been considered to represent the town proposed eighty names, from among which the go- vernment was to make its selection. Of these can- didates, sixty were to be owners of real property, and employing a capital of not less than 20,000 florins. The other twenty might be persons dis- tinguished by personal acquirements, or who had taken an academic degree. Clergymen, public officers, minors, persons under criminal accusation, and bankrupts whose creditors had lost more than twelve per cent., are declared ineligible. The forty members were to remain in office six years, and then one-sixth to retire every year, but to be re- eligible; and it is understood that, without some very strong grounds, government will never refuse to confirm the election of the townspeople. The Great Council chooses ten of its own body to form the Little Council. These ten continue one year in office. The Great Council meets once a year, under the presidence of the magistrates, to elect the Little Council — to audit the accounts of the preceding year — to deliberate on the ways and means of that next ensuing — to suggest measures likely to promote the welfare of the town — and to give an opinion on such questions as may be pro- posed for consideration. ,....,' MUNICIPAL INSTITUTIONS. G5 The Little Council meets whenever the magis- trates deem it expedient to call it together, and deliberates on the means of executing plans already adopted — on the administration of the several branches of the public revenue — on law proceedings to be instituted — on measures to be suggested to the government, &c. In case of a difference of opinion between the magistrates and the Council, an appeal lies to the Great Council, to whom questions of great importance may be referred, even when there is no want of agreement. At least thirty members of the Great Council must be present to form a quorum, and any member absenting himself three times, with- out some sufficient cause, ceases to belong to the board. The townspeople, accordingly, have no direct voice in the election of their magistrates, who pre- side over the deliberations of a representative coun- cil, which is invested only with the right of giving its advice and opinion. Compared with the immuni- ties of Prussian cities, those of Trieste are certainly very limited. All decisions come from the higher authorities, and the magistrates preserve a prepon- derating, and, it is to be hoped, a salutary influence ; but these new civic institutions are probably intended only as a commencement in the way of reform, and much is already gained by the creation of a legiti- mate channel for the expression of public opinion. 66 CHARACTER OF THE TRIESTINES. The cosmopolite spiritof the population, promoted by the congregation of so many wealthy and active individuals from all parts of the world, has put an end to every kind of aristocratic pride, idleness, and coxcombry. Every man in Trieste must work. This principle of equality promotes social intercourse, though this, on the other hand, is somewhat impeded by the want of a general language. The frequent habit of travelling, and of sending children to be educated in foreign countries, has the effect of de- stroying that one-sidedness of information which prevails in so many commercial towns ; thus it may be hoped that science and the arts will strike deeper and deeper root, till Trieste really possesses that which Venice only boasts of as having formerly be- longed to her forefathers. LETTER VI. Decline of the Republic of Venice — Its Causes— Free Port — Navifjation — Imports and Exports — Taxatiou — Revenue and Expenditure of the City. Venice, Apvil 7th. In my last letter I communicated to you many particulars respecting Trieste ; to-day my theme shall be Venice, viewed in its relation to Austria, and more particularly to Trieste. DECLINE OF VENICE. 67 To understand the present position of Venice, it is necessary first to look back upon the past. The faults of Venice are not justified, nor can their consequences be arrested by the faults of others. At a time of general movement, he who does not advance is soon left in the rear, and the storm passes over him. In the year 1815, many enter- tained a natural and laudable wish for the regenera- tion of their country ; but the form of a close here- ditary aristocracy was obsolete, odious, and unre- storable ; and who can say, whether an infusion of the democratic principle (and to what extent) would have given new life to the institutions, or would have destroyed them altogether? Was there a fairer prospect of prosperity and progress in a re- newed isolation of Venice, or in a union with the powerful Austrian monarchy.? Was it matter of surprise that Austria should seek to retain what she had acquired by the exertion of her own force ; that she should wish to secure her frontier against the most powerful and most restless nation of Europe .'' Here the force of circumstances was manifested; but not without an instructive lesson on the relation of cause to effect. By commerce, Venice had become great ; and by new commercial regulations, the inhabitants believed that their native city could be raised again ; the wish for the establishment of a free port was ex- 68 COMMERCIAL PRINCIPLES. pressed so generally and so loudly, that the govern- ment consented, though without participating in all the hopes founded on the proposed change. The principles brought into action since the 1st of February, 1830, are these : — Firstly. — All goods entering or leaving the har- bour are free, with the exception of those articles that form government monopolies, such as salt, to- bacco, saltpetre, and gunpowder. Secondly. — All goods to pass into or through the interior of Austria are to be deposited in ware- houses. Thirdly. — Certain manufactures of Venice (and their number has been gradually increasing) pay no more, on being imported into the Austrian states, than would have been paid by the raw produce. This favour is enjoyed by glass, mirrors, jewellery, wax candles, w^oven goods, gloves, cream of tartar, and theriac. Since December, 1830, the list has been extended, and now includes beaver hats, strings for musical instruments, clocks, organs, optical in- struments, masks, pencils, starch, &c. Fourthly. — The old tax on consumption con- tinues in force, and has even been increased on a few articles, while, on the other hand, some have become free. Most of the articles of daily use are brought to Venice, duty free, from the continent. Such are butter, fish, vegetables, fruit, onions, COMMERCE OF VENICE. 69 wood, corn, straw, flour, eggs, native wine, char- coal, &c. These are the main principles of the change ; let us now examine to what consequences it has led. In 1829, the last year before the opening of the free port, there entered into the harbour of Venice — Ships. Aggregate Tonnage. Austrian 2059 151,361 Neapolitan 18 1,542 Roman 54 2,495 English 7 932 Swedish 1 108 Ionian 1 44 French 1 99 Russian 1 230 Greek 4 99 Total 2,146 156,910 In the foregoing account, coasting vessels are in- cluded. In the official table for 1838, the small coasters are distinguished fi'om large sea-going vessels ; but the tonnage of the former is not stated. The arrivals, in 1838, were as follows : — Ship=;. Aggregate Tonnage. Hanoverian 2 252 Austrian 218 33,588 Bremen 1 160 Danish 2 230 Greek 14 1,582 70 COMMERCE. Ships. Aggreofate Tonnajjp. English 30 4,300 Ionian 2 470 Neapolitan 65 4,64(5 Norwegian 3 500 Roman 4 286 Russian 1 220 Swedish 9 1,464 351 47,698 Add coastersfrom Trieste, with oil, corn, colo- nial and manufactured goods, wool, cotton, &c. 723 Other small coasters 2424 Total 3498 vessels. There sailed, duringthe same year 345 large vessels. 492 Trieste vessels. 1742 small coasters. Total 2579 vessels. In the same year (1838) the steam-boats per- formed 307 trips, and brought 14,643 travellers to Venice, partly in consequence of the emperor's coronation. Among the importations are enumerated : — Coffee. . .5,000 cwt. value in Austrian lire 830,000 Sugar... 28,000 „ 2,500,000 TAXES. 71 Oil... 200 cwt. value in Austrian lire 8,500,000 Fish... 41 ,000 „ 2,390,000 and the whole commercial movement of Venice is estimated at 25,000,000 of florins. A greater number of articles are subject to the tax on consumption in Venice than in Trieste, and the proceeds go partly to the state and partly to the city. The charge is levied by the metric zentner or cwt. The metric pound is equal to 1 lb. 12^ oz. Vienna weight. To the State. To the City. Lire. Cent. Lire. Cent. Wine, vinegar, and beer 3 69 2 75 Foreign wine 13 69 2 75 Grapes. 2 50 2 Foreign grapes 12 50 2 Spirits 28 5 Flour and bread, accord- ing to the quality ,from 3 75 1 83 to 4 33 2 15 Oxen, each , 30 78 10 Cows 21 98 8 Calves 8 21 2 Pigs 8 80 5 Sheep, goats, lambs .12 35 The population amounted in 1824 to 100,000 and in 1838 110,000 Making an increase of 10,000 72 REVENUE. Such, at least, is the statement relative to the population supposed to be nearest the truth, al- though others make it out considerably less. In the year 1834, the tax on consumption was paid in V^enice : — For bread and flour of every kind, on 102,829 metrical cwt. Wine 248,572 Oxen 5,333 head Cows 4,892 Calves 4,378 Pigs 3,627 Sheep, goats, &c 29,393 The most recent calculation {preventivd) of the Revenue and Expenditure of Venice is as follows : REVENUE. 1. Rents {fitti) 486 florins 2. Quitrents {livello) 4,763 3. Licenses 4,700 4. Tax on Trades and Professions 9,479 5. Police Tax 14,206 6. Tax on Consumption 340,458 7. Additional Land Tax {estimo) 86,922 460,014 florins* * There is an inaccuracy in one of the items of this table, but the sum total is probably correct, since it corresponds witlj the table that follows. — 7V. EXPENDITURE. 73 EXPENDITUKE. 1. Salaries (including 3000 H. for the florins. Podesta) 35.534 2. Officeexpenses 3,161 3. Pensions 5,018 4. Rent, &c 4,329 5. Repairsof roads, bridges, and lighthouses 25,257 6. Street Police 6,511 7. Lighting 54,787 8. Religious festivals 3,262 9. To the poor and to charitable institu- tions 113,385 Of this the hospital receives 64,001 Two foundling hospitals 36,671 House of Industry 9,612 Infant schools 3,101 10. Military contingencies 17,084 11 . New roads and bridges 72,173 12. Public education 4,225 13. Fire-offices 15,788 14. The Fenice theatre 26,858 15. Sundry ordinary expenses •*• 12,705 16. Purchases {acguisti stabili) 12,000 17. Extraordinary expenses (including new cadastre, numbering the houses, &c.) 41,667 18. Balance 6,270 460,014 VOL. I. E 74 COMPARISON If the tax on consumption (340,458 florins) be divided among a population of 110,000, it will be found to amount to a trifle more than 3 florins per head. LETTER VII. Comparison between Venice and Trieste. Venice, April 8. Though you may have had the patience to look over the tables and figures which I sent you yester- day, I am aware that many readers, particularly among the fairer ones, will complain of my sending home such dry details, instead of amusing letters. Yet it is from those figures that we may learn to know the symptoms of life or death, and that we may judge of the treatment received by Venice, a city, in its way, the most remarkable in the whole world. For my own part, I can be excited even to tears, much more easily by dry but significant figures, than by all the moral torture of the most heart-rending romance. On comparing the arrivals and departures of ves- sels, in 1829, with those of 1837 and 1838, we find in the first place a decided increase in the maritime traffic of Venice, since the establishment of a free port. The general amount of taxation appears neither BETWEEN VENICE AND TRIESTE. 75 to have increased nor diminished to any great extent since 1829. The magnificent expectations to which the esta- bhshment of a free port gave rise have not been realized ; this has led some to inveigh against the principle of free ports generally, and others more particularly against the application of them to Ve- nice. The opponents to all free ports argue that, if the institution confer no benefit on the favoured city, the act is one of mere folly ; that if it do con- fer benefit, the act is one of injustice to all those cities that are not similarly distinguished. What is gained by one must be lost by some other, while a part of the state revenue is sacrificed, the consump- tion of foreign merchandize encouraged, and great facility afforded to smuggling. The free port, they add, is severed from the rest of the country, and becomes nothing but a selfish factory of foreign merchants. These arguments are not without force, and show the necessity of treating all citizens according to equal principles. They would have yet more weight if the system of customs' duties were simple and na- tural, and not of such a character that they destroy the trade of many towns altogether, if enforced without any regard to local circumstances. The peculiar relations of Venice, and the wish to give a E 2 76 COMPARISON new impulse to the revival of her prosperity, de- cided in favour of the free port. Soon, however, the important fact began to mani- fest itself, that Venice was not merely a covnmrcial but likewise a mannjacturing town ; some are in- deed of opinion that the population ought entirely to renounce their artificial trade, and apply them- selves altogether to manufactures, for which the abundance of cheap houses and cheap labour seems to afford many advantages. The free importation and exportation by sea, it is argued, does not com- pensate for the exclusion from the main land. The government, justly averse to sudden changes and extreme measures, adopted a middle way; faci- litated the exportation of domestic manufactures by land, and lowered the importation duties. This was all that was practicable. A free port to foreign and inland trade would be something impossible, or at least, according to the present system of taxation, a measure of crying injustice. Nor must the fact be lost sight of, that Venice as yet is no manufacturing town in an extended sense of the word. Mirrors, straw hats, wax candles, cat- gut, and the like, are articles of trifling importance, compared with objects of universal consumption. Trieste, in almost every point of view, appears to be placed in more favourable circumstances than Venice. As I have already shown you, the popu- BETWEEN VENICE AND TRIESTE. 77 lation is rapidly increasing. The arrivals and de- partures of ships more than double, the commercial transacti(ms more than treble, those of Venice; in a word, the new Illyrian city is every day getting more and more ahead of the old Italian one. I have heard many different opinions, both in Trieste and Venice, as to the causes of this, and was often reminded of similar discussions on the subject of Bristol and Liverpool. I will endeavour to make the nature of the arguments on both sides more in- telligible, by presenting them in the shape of an imaginary conversation between a Venetian and a Triestine. Venetian. — The geographical position of Trieste is much more favourable to trade than that of Venice, particularly with respect to the Austrian and Hun- garian territories. To this, the greater activity of its commerce must be attributed. Triestine. — Venice possesses similar advantages with respect to Lombardy, Tyrol, Switzerland, and Southern Germany. All circumstances considered, the geographical position of the one, as far as the mainland is concerned, is as favourable as that of the other. Venetian. — Trieste's connection with the main- land facilitates trade, whereas Venice, in time of war, might be completely blockaded. Triestine. — The conveyance of goods up the 78 COMPARISON hills to Opuna is quite as inconvenient as that by water to Fusina, and a war-blockade would be an exceptional state of things, and can have no in- fluence upon the present progress or decay of the place. Venetian. — Large vessels can enter the harbour of Trieste with more winds than one, but only small ones can enter that of Venice, and then not without danger and loss of time. Triestine. — On the other hand, Trieste has no harbour, properly speaking, but merely a roadstead, which is not sufficiently protected against storms; but the harbour of Venice, when once entered, affords complete protection. Besides, all these dif- ficulties will vanish as soon as the works at Ma- lamocco are completed. Even now vessels of 250 to 300 tons can enter Venice. N. B. The entrance at Lido is less deep than at Malamocco, on which account the latter entrance is preferred for larger vessels, though its depth, (16^ feet) is still insufficient, as the tides and currents of the Adriatic frequently alter the channel, and lessen the depth of water. It is, therefore, now in con- templation to construct a pier from Malamocco, near Fort Alberoni, which will have the effect of breaking the force of the Adriatic current, and prevent the latter from encountering the tides of the lagoons. The tide, no longer arrested in its course, will have BETWEEN VENICE AND TRIESTE. 79 the effect of deepening the channel. Many as- sert that these works are executed less with a view to commercial advantages, than for the convenience of the Austrian ships of war. The two objects' however will go hand in hand. Venetian. — There is more religious liberty a Trieste than at Venice ; and the former is exempt from the conscription to which the latter is sub- jected. Teiestine. — Joseph the Second's praiseworthy edict of toleration (and without toleration com- merce cannot be prosecuted on a comprehensive scale) is law in Venice as well as in Trieste. If the Venetians are less liberal in its application, the fault is their own. To be exempt from the conscription is certainly an advantage to Trieste, where labour is both dear and scarce ; but to Venice, on the other hand, its military duties are not burdensome. On the contrary, it may be doubted, when its numerous and unemployed population is considered, whether a larger levy would not be beneficial to Venice. If we except volunteers, Venice furnishes only at the rate of 50 men a year. Venetian. — The administration of the city, more particularly with respect to its finances, is, in Trieste, quite independent of the government ; in Venice it is under complete subjection to the government authorities, a state of things which operates to the detriment of trade. 80 COMPARISON Triestine. — This independent position is un- questionably a great advantage to Trieste ; but it is one that has been purchased by great pecuniary sa- crifices, and the form in no way decides respecting the substance, namely, the amount and burden of the taxation, Venetiax. — These burdens and taxes are much heavier with us. The tax on cattle may be instanced, and from the bread and mill tax the Triestines are wholly exempt. Triestine. — The remark respecting cattle and the mill-tax is perfectly correct, but it does not fol- low, that upon the v.hole the Triestine pays less. In Venice, for instance, all articles of consumption taken together pay only .'340,000 florins ; whereas, in Trieste, the tax on wine, beer, and spirits, alone, amounts to 565,000 florins. Venetian. — That proves little or nothing, since in Trieste the state and town taxes go together. The 340,000 florins are only a town tax. Triestine. — The public revenue of Trieste amounts to about a million of florins annually, of which one half goes to the state and the other half to the town. The 50,000 Triestines, therefore, pay more to the town tax than the 110,000 Venetians contribute for their city. The same proportion would, no doubt, hold good, if the contributions to the state were compared. BETWEEN VENICE AND TRIESTE. 81 Venetian. — Such comparisons are difficult to make, and figures and tables prove less than many suppose. A stranger need only look about him in Trieste and Venice, and he will immediately be con- vinced of the wealth of the former and the poverty of the latter, and, consequently, of the much greater ability of the former to support a heavy load of taxation. Triestixe. — That such an appearance of things does exist cannot be denied, but it would be impos- sible to accommodate the taxation of every separate town to its individual prosperity. The real point is to ascertain the causes of such difference ; and, if we inquire into these, we shall probably find, that the main cause of the decay of Venice is to be traced to the indolence, the main cause of the prosperity of Trieste to the activity and enterprize, of the population. This, in fact, is the main point to be considered ; all others are merely of secondary im- portance. Venetian. — Were it so, it would be necessary to inquire into the causes of this " main point." For many centuries, no population was more active than that of Venice. To say now, because there is a great appearance of poverty in the place, and because idle people may be seen hanging about St. Mark's Place, or along the Riva degli Schiavoni, that the people generally are indolent, is to jump £ 5 82 COMPARISON somewhat too suddenly to a conclusion. Are the people of London idle because the hackney-coach and cab drivers loiter about the streets waiting for customers, just as our gondoliers do with us? Or is indolence a characteristic of the population of Berlin, where the Eckensteher differ very little from our Fachini f Triestine. — In reply to the reproach of a too hasty conclusion, it will be quite sufficient to point attention to the circumstances that have wrought the change in Venice. The honourable activity for which its inhabitants were once distinguished led to the accumulation of wealth, and wealth led to a greater excess of luxury, as, in the altered direction of commerce, the employment of capital offered less brilliant rewards to a perseverance in the ancient habits of mercantile industry. Instead of entering, in the true spirit of emulation, upon the new course which the change in circumstances pointed out, the Venetians continued their former course, until the fountain of life became more and more dried up. The patricians no longer knew either how to govern or how to enrich themselves, and the way in which they gave employment to the people, or rather fed without really employing them, accustomed the masses to a life of indolence, concealed under a thin disguise of emasculating frugality. Transpose the population of Venice to Trieste, and that of Trieste BETWEEN VENICE AND TRIESTE. 83 to Venice, and it will soon be seen whether local cir- cumstances or individual character exercise the greater influence over the progress and decay of cities and states. LETTER VIII. Improvement in Venice — Merit of the Government — Poor Laws — Foinidling Hospitals. Milan, April 12tli. To-day, in Milan, for the first time, I find leisure to continue my account of Venetian affairs ; not, however, in the form of a dialogue, since on the points that remain for consideration there is less perplexity, besides which my own opinions and ob- servations involuntarily assume too prominent a part in the discussion. I am told that even now there are merchants in Venice much more wealthy than any in Trieste ; but this wealth would exercise a much more bene- ficial influence if divided among a greater number of hands, or if the owners confined themselves less to the business of bankers, which, though it may be profitable to those engaged in it, produces nothing new, and affords employment only to a small num- ber of individuals. The Venetian merchants trade, in general, only in one article ; those of Trieste, on the contrary, turn themselves in every direction, 84 IMPROVEMENT IN VENICE. the moment they perceive a favourable opportunity for making money ; and their extensive connexions, together with the prompt information collected through the medium of their Lloyd, secure to them many advantages. It has frequently happened that goods, which no one would buy at Venice on speculation, have been sold at a good price at Trieste, and afterwards reshipped for Venice, and disposed of at a considerable advance. Many Venetian capitalists have lent money to Triestine houses, and a large part of Lombardy is supplied with a variety of goods from Trieste by way of Venice. The mystery maintained in Venice with respect to certain commercial relations has been productive of less advantage than the publicity which prevails at Trieste. At the same time, it must ot be forgotten how difficult it is to alter old established customs and connexions, to open new channels for trade, or to disturb rivals in the quiet enjoyment of an existing advantage. Nor must we lose siffht of the calamitous revolutions by which Venice has been visited during the last forty years. It would be idle to hope that Venice will ever be able to run again her former brilliant career; but it is just as idle to suppose that the city will be inhabited only by owls fifty years hence, according to the prophecy of a Frenchman, to whom Locatelli has eloquently replied. It is IMPROVEMENT IN VENICE. 85 already a great point gained, that a stop has been put to the diminution in trade and population, which were rapidily melting away under selfish re- publicanism and the despotic tyranny of the con- tinental system, those twin gifts of France. During the last fifteen years, the progress of decay has been arrested, and, under the present intelligent and paternal government, things are improving again, though but slowly. Venice is recovering its ancient habits of discretion and activity, but I feel bound to say, and here I but echo the opinion of very many Venetians, that much remains to be done be- fore the population can relieve itself of the reproach of indolence. In Naples, where Heaven dispenses its gifts with such profusion, the dolce far niente seems a thing more natural than in the desolate marshes from which the marvels of Venice could be raised only by the most arduous and persevering exertions. A people that can boast of such ances- tors may count upon the sympathy and interest of the world, but must neither claim nor hope for that indulgence which can fall only to the share of weakness and insignificance. How is it that so many strangers find employment in Venice as water- carriers, servants, &c. ? How is it that scarcely any kind of hard labour in Venice is performed by natives ? How is it that even patricians deem it less disgracefu to enter their names in the lists of 86 CHARITABLE INSTITUTIONS. paupers than to apply themselves to labour ? How was it that I saw more idle people in St. Mark's Place in one day, than in England during a whole year? With all my partiality for Venice, I cannot suggest a satisfactory answer to any one of these questions, but am forced to look for their solution in the ad- ministration of the poor laws. All Italy is distinguished for the number of its charitable institutions ; and, in this respect, Venice and Lombardy certainly hold as prominent a place as any other part of the country. There is one house within the city in which 700 poor people are lodged, and many more have free lodgings, and receive pecuniary assistance out of the establishment. There is an orphan-house for about 335 children, an infirmary for 36 women, a wealthy institu- tion for the reception of penitent women, a hos- pital capable of receiving 1000 patients, a house of education for 90 young girls, a foundling hos- pital, &c., and the revenues, chiefly arising from endowments, amount to about 580,000 florins. The French government, according to its customary system of concerning itself only about general and neglecting individual considerations, threw all these institutions and endowments into one, without any respect for their origin, their object, or the di- rections of their founders. In 1826, this state of things was remedied, and each foundation placed PROVISION FOR THE POOR. 87 under a distinct administration, but the whole subjected to the inspection of the government au- thorities. A law was passed, on the 1st of September, 1836, for the institution of fraternal unions {fraterne paro- chial'i) in each parish. The enactments direct that every member of such a union shall pay at least two lire and thirty centimes, and that the fund, under the management of persons appointed for that purpose, shall be appUed to the relief of the poor. No relief is to be given : 1. To any healthy able-bodied man ; 2. To any one who is in the receipt of fifty cen- times a day ; 3. To any one who refuses admittance into a house of industry ; 3. To any one who neglects the ordinances of the church, neglects to have his children vaccinated, or leads a notoriously dissolute life. The relief afforded to an adult is not to be less than fifteen nor more than sixty centimes a day, and for a child not less than ten nor more than fif- teen centimes. In 1836, daily relief was afforded to 3200 permanent paupers, and occasional relief was afforded to 4000 more. The number of all whose names were entered on the hsts of the poor, and who in the course of the year received assist- ance in the shape of money, medicine, &c., amounted 88 PAUPER NOBLES. to 41,300 persons ; in another year, to 40,782. If to these are added the several institutions for the receipt of lunatics, the sick, orphans, foundlings, Sec, it will appear that no fewer than 52,443 per- sons receive charitable relief in one shape or other. Eight hundred patricians receive a kind of daily wages from the government ; and a Jew, it is said, has bought the palace of the Foscari for an annuity of four or five lire a day, which he pays to two aged members of that family. Whatever may be said of the poverty of Venice, and of the causes to which it is to be attributed, it is impossible not to suspect, with such figures be- fore us, that so profuse a distribution of charity does not always attain the end in view, but that, on the contrary, as, at a recent period, was the case in England, it tends to create poverty rather than to remove it. There was a time when it would have been impossible to find 40,000 Venetians willing to allow their names to be entered upon the lists of the poor ; and, could the will once be excited to shun such a disgrace, employment and subsistence would again be found, even under less favourable circum- stances. Of all these institutions, none, in my opinion, are more pernicious in their effects than the very ex- pensive foundUng hospitals. For Venice, the number of foundlings now main- FOUNDLING HOSPITALS. 89 tained is stated to be 3338 ; for the rural districts of Venice, 10,625. Now, is it not a mistaken principle of philan- thropy — is it not a most immoral act of charity — to offer in this way a public encouragement, not only to unmarried, but also to married parents, to enter upon a career of sin ? — to throw upon others a duty imposed by nature, and to blunt the heart against all the impulses of parental affection ? The osten- sible motive is to prevent the murder of children ; but can any one imagine that there would be, under any other system, as many children murdered, as now die of neglect in the foundling hospitals ?* Is it to be supposed that, in the Venetian rural districts, 10,625 women could be found to part with their children, if the wheel of the foundling hospital did not present itself to them as a wheel of fortune ? Let the whole execrable institution be abolished at once, and rely on the experience of other nations, that man has not yet sunk below the level of the beast, which feeds and cherishes its young ! When we say, " This child is an orphan," we intend to express a condition of the deepest misfortune ; yet * Between the years 1823 and 1832 there were received into the foundhug hospital of Pavia 3332 children, of whom 1415 died hefore entering the ninth year, {Annali di Stalls- /ica, LVI. 215) and 1139 within the first eighteen months. Other foundling hospitals present much more unfavourable results. 90 PROJECTS. how happy must the orphan feel, in reflecting on its deceased parents, compared with the deserted foundhng, whose parents, if it have any, must be criminal ones ! How can a child grow up in a feel- ing of gratitude to laws that enticed his parents to abandon him ? How can he confide in social insti- tutions, that have torn from his heart all confidence in the simplest and most natural ties of nature ? LETTER IX. Venice — Railroads — Schools. Milan, April 13. A CITY in the position of Venice naturally seeks consolation in hope ; an this way there are at pre- sent four subjects that more particularly excite the pubhc mind. Firstf there are the harbour works at Ma- lamocco, of the nature and object of which I have already spoken. Secondly, the formation of a trading company in shares is contemplated, with a view to a direct trade to Asia and America. Thirdly, the railroad to Milan. The fertile dis- trict through which it passes will make it necessary to pay a high price for the land ; on the other SCHOOLS. 91 hand, however, the level ground offers few natural impediments, and the wealth of the population will make it easy to obtain the requisite capital. Fourthly, the infant schools {Scuole ififantili di cariid.) There is no want in Venice of elementary schools for instruction in reading, writing, and arith- metic ; but it has been found that they do little or nothing for moral instruction, and that young chil- dren are excluded altogether. The new infant schools repose on different principles. Children are admitted between the ages of two and ten, and receive moral, I'eiigious, and intellec- tual instruction. They are taught in three classes. The course includes : Reading, writing, arithmetic, morals, religion, sacred history, and the Life of Jesus. The last, we are told, is illustrated " by engravings of well-drawn designs, that the eye may at an early age be accustomed to the beauty and harmony of art." Singing is taught, to form the ear and to strengthen the lungs, and gymnastic ex- ercises, in order to promote the full development of the body. To obtain admittance, it is necessary to bring forward proofs of poverty, or to pay weekly twenty kreutzer. The children remain in the school in winter from eight to four, and in the summer from seven till eight. They receive two meals, consist- ing generally of soup made with rice, beans, barley, and potatoes. Meat is not given, because it would 92 SCHOOLS. be too expensive, and because experience has shown that children do not require it. The children have always preferred soup to bread, and the latter, therefore, is no longer offered them. The expenses are covered by voluntary contri- butions, or by shares of a florin and a half each. The shareholders assemble under the presidency of a parish priest, and of a government deputy, to elect the directors, and give expression to their wishes and remarks. As soon as the children arrive at the age of ten, means are sought to obtain for them some useful and suitable occupation. Female teachers have been found preferable to male; and the younger more efficient than the elder ones. What the children speak, learn, and write, must be in pure Italian, but the explanations are mostly in the Venetian dialect. Four schools already contain 1000 children, and it is now in contemplation to establish a fifth, and to hire an entire palace for the purpose, at the yearly rent of 230 dollars. Vice-delegate Baron Paskotini, and M. Grandis, a clergyman, the two persons who have done most towards the foundation and furtherance of these schools, showed me over one of them. The first appearance was in itself a gratification. One who has been accustomed to see Italian children, dirty, ragged, and crawling with vermin, may fancy him- self transported into another country, when he sees SCHOOLS. 93 them clean in their persons, and tidily attired. Nor was it merely the uniform upper garment that was clean ; the parents had been taught to consider it a point of honour to improve the rest of the costume likewise. It was equally gratifying to see that all the children looked ruddy, cheerful, and well fed ; and to learn that punishments wei'e seldom found requisite, and consisted merelj^ in confinement to a particular place. In spelling, the children acquitted themselves admirably ; in arithmetic and calculation they also got on well ; so also in their replies on the division of time, on the almanac, and on the parts of the human body, and their several uses. They were all able to repeat the principal doc- trines of Christianity, according to the catholic form. It may admit of a doubt, whether certain tenets, which even the most powerful minds are unable to comprehend, should be taught to little children, who do not and cannot understand them ; but to this it might be replied, that the child is quite as well able as the adult to comprehend many of these mysteries, and on this account it may be deemed expedient to convert these doctrines into almost in- nate ideas, and thus to take early precautions against the danger of scepticism. Be this as it may, there cannot be a doubt that these schools work most favourably on the rising 94 MILITARY ESTABLISHMENT. generation ; nay, in many cases, the parents them- selves receive instruction through their children. The plea that it is ill-judged to separate the chil- dren from their parents for so many hours of the day is untenable. Did the schools not exist, they would not the less be separated from their parents, but they would be left to themselves, and would sink back again into their former habits of filth and sloth. Least of all have those a right to censure these infant schools, who do not hesitate to stand up in the defence of the foundling hospitals. LETTER X. Army and Navy of Austrian Italy. Milan, April 14. It is no part of my vocation, nor is this the place, to speak generally of the military institutions of Austria ; still there are a few chief points which bear on the Lombardo-Venetian kingdom that deserve a brief notice. Eight regiments of the line are levied out of the population. The time of service lasts eight years, and the conscripts are taken between the ages of twenty and twenty-five. Public officers, professors, clergy- meti, theological students, only sons of a deceased MILITARY ESTABLISHMENT. 95 father, seamen, &c. are exempted. Those of a sickly constitution, those below the standard size, and those who have forfeited their civic rights, are disqualified. As soon as the lists of classification have been drawn up, the rest is decided by lot. A substitute may be proposed, but in that case security must be given to the amount of 350 lire, or about 120 florins. No soldier can marry without permis- sion. In Padua there exists an hospital for invalids. There is no military force similar to that of the German landwehr. The levy varies in different years, according to the exigencies of the public ser- vice. In 1822 it amounted to 3026 men, in 1827 to 3500, in 1828 to 3778, in 1829 to 2266, in 1830 to 2647, in 1831 to 12,400, in 1834 to 5900, in 1836 to 4610, in 1837 to 1924. Considering the population of the kingdom, which now exceeds four millions, the conscription is by no means oppressive ; but men well qualified to give an opinion on such a subject seem to think that it would be better to shorten the time of service, to do away with the system of substitutes, and to organize a landwehr. A few words yet about the navy of Austria. The Venetian arsenal, an astonishing monument of the greatness and activity of the republic, offers great facilities for the formation of a naval power. The opportunity has not been neglected. Building, 96 NAVY OF AUSTRIA. carpentering, forging, &c., are every where busily carried on, though without exceeding the bounds prescribed by considerations of prudence. The sailors (corpo marinari) amount in number to 2326 men, who are paid and clothed, according to the several classes into which they are divided. The marine artillery consists of 945 men. To these must be added a battalion of marines of 1276 men. The pay and rations are not so high when the men are on shore, as when they are afloat. The fleet at present consists of three frigates, two sloops, five brigs, and a large number of small vessels and gun-boats. LETTER XI. Journe}' from Venice to Milan — Verona — Brescia — Position of Milan— The Stradella Theatre— Cathedral— Marchesi. Milan, April 12. On Tuesday, the 9th of April, at eight in the evening, I embarked at Venice, and at six o'clock on Thursday morning I was once more in the Bella Venez'm, that is to say, in the hotel so called at Milan. The passage from Venice to Fusina was, as it usually is, a period of torture. The post- boat is so close, the seat so narrow, the air so op- pressive, that one can neither breathe nor stir hand or foot. The courier's carriage appeared a spacious JOURNEY TO MILAN. 97 and convenient palace in comparison, and, as soon as I was fairly embarked in it, I began to make my- self quite at home. I pulled oiF my boots, and put on my furred shoes, drawing my foot-bag over these, and taking upon the whole such precautions against the cold, that on this occasion I suffered no incon- venience from it. It is true there was a difference of ten degrees (22'' F.) between the temperature of Bohemia in March, and that of Lombardy in April. On the morning of the 10th of April (my father's birthday) I felt, on awaking, like one who has just landed after a long sea-voyage, though there was not yet much to be said of the beauty of the land- scape. The trees, particularly the closely-cropped mulberries, were still completely bare, and the vines hung about like grey cordage ; but the young green wheat, the winding brooks, the dark hills in the foreground, and the snow-capped mountains in the distance, combined to form a cheering prospect, the whole of which was embellished on the evening of the 10th with a beautifully glowing Italian sky. The view of the Garda Lake, from Peschiera to Desenzano, reminded me of my first trip to Italy with Ludolf and Hermensdorf, and now, on my fourth visit to the country, I again find myself con- templating every well-known object with rising in- terest. From these romantic meditations my Italian travelling companion startled me by gravely asking VOL. I. F 98 VERONA — BRESCIA. nie whether Berlin did not belong to the Russians. 1 felt like one aroused from sleep by the report of a pistol, and the uncomfortable apprehensions of the future, thus forced upon my attention, made it for some time impossible to return to my agreeable dreams about the past. I was less startled by a robber story (a standing dish in Italy), in which my companion had himself played a part in the south of France. A robber stopped a diligence, and stripped all the travellers of their ready money, while eight of his comrades were seen behind some bushes with their muskets levelled. When the thief had secured his booty, it was found that the dreaded eight were merely scarecrows dressed up for the occasion. In Verona, where extensive fortifications are in the course of erection, I ran hastily over the cus- tomary lions. I was just standing before the tombs of the Scalioferi, when an Italian offered to show me the way to them. To ray natural reply he rejoined : " But the historical explanation !" At Brescia, in re{)ly to my inquiry after the travellers'" room, I was told by the waiter that there was none. To a se- cond question after the locality of another apart- ment he answered, pointing to the courtyard, " Da per tutto ! S''accumodi dove vuule.'" I was the more astonished, on my arrival here, to find a com- plete arrangement a TAnglaise. MILAN. 99 After a journey of two nights and a day, I was well entitled to take some repose, but, instead of so doing, I walked about Milano la grande for five hours with my guide, and thus disposed of the greater part of my letters. At length, at half past three, I was just thinking about dinner, when I re- ceived an invitation from the governnient secretary, Czc3rnig, who knows Lombardy perhaps better than any other man, and is more communicative than the generality. In his society I soon forgot my fatigue, and commenced my stay in Milan under auspices as favourable as those of Trieste and Venice. Tuesday, April 16. Things proceed as they began. Everywhere I experience active kindness and a desire to oblige. So far a strong resemblance to Venice and Trieste, but in most other respects a marked difference. Milan stands in a sea of green trees and meadows, as Venice in a sea of green waters. In the latter every thing reminds you of the past, as the great and important period ; here, on the contrary, the present is full of life, and all that belongs to an- tiquity, not excepting even the glorious cathedral, is thrown into the back-ground. The last-named building stands more detached than the Venetian St. Mark's, and appears to belong to the present quite as much as to a bygone period. Besides, F 2 100 ASPECT OF MILAN. every thing reminds one here that Milan is a great central point of wealth and activity. No signs of decay, no unoccupied people, unless in the upper classes, where the possession of fortune invites to thenar Jiiente^ which in Venice goes hand in hand with wretchedness and want. In Venice, and also in Verona, each house, each palace, is built accord- ing to individual fancy or convenience ; the greatest variety of architecture, and the most wanton devia- tions from all law, order, or harmony. Large win- dows by the side of small ones, and seldom one window immediately over another. In Milan, on the contrary, every building is perfectly symme- trical, scrupulously kept in repair, no where is the least symptom to be seen of a poor or declining po- pulation. The question, so difficult of solution in Venice, how the decay is to be arrested, and whether it has reached its term, is here quite superfluous, so evident is every where the progress of improvement. Milan is surrounded by broad ramparts, planted with large trees, and affording ever-varying pro- spects of the town, and over the country. VV^ithin, the cathedral, with its innumerable pinnacles, always forms the centre; without, the most beautiful view is towards the north ; the mountains of Brianza, and those about the lake of Como, are still covered with snow, and contrast beautifully with the vast plains of Lombardy. THEATRES. 101 The pavement in the streets deserves to be men- tioned. Not only are there side pavements of gra- nite for the pedestrians, but in the middle also there are granite rails for the carriage-wheels to run along as easily as upon an iron railway, and with far less noise. The finest weather, the purest azure sky, and, in the evening, a glorious blaze of stars, with leaves and blossoms breaking every where into life, invite one to walk abroad ; yet here 1 sit, wrapped up in furs, though I cannot deny that the thermometer stood at ten degrees (54" F.) in the shade, and, on several days, when exposed to the sun, rose to 21" (79° F.),24"(86"F.), nay, even to 33° (106°F.). It is necessary just now to be extremely cautious how one dresses not to catch cold. I learn every day so much about the present con- dition of Lombardy, and fall into society with so many interesting people, that I shall pay my first visit to the theatre this evening. Donizetti's opera of Lammermoor was, however, no great attraction to me. Perhaps it will form the bill of fare for the evening ; but 1 go chiefly to see the newly-decorated interior of the Scala. Yesterday J went, for four groschen, to the day- theatre of the Stradella, where " the most re- nowned " August von Kotzebue's Johanna de Mont- faucon was the piece performed. Much was not to 102 CATHEDRAL. be expected for the price. A few boys, ten or twelve years old, represented the guards, and the prima donna was a ship of the line in ordinary. Her declamation was the less calculated to excite my feelings, as I had not forgotten Unzelmann and Stich, and the thing was not bad enough to amuse as a bui'lesque. The whole performance, however, confirmed me in my old notion, that a drama, acted by daylight and by genuine artists, would exceed in effect all our conjurations of painted canvas, lamp-oil, and gas-light. Jn Venice and Verona I felt the same impression ; and I still retain the con- viction that the Greeks understood the accessories of the arts much better than we do. The cathedral also has a greater allowance of sunshine now than it used to have. The windows have been washed and repaired ; the floor, the co- lumns, and the roof, have been cleaned. The building has gained in lightness, without losing any thing of its serious and imposing character. I only wish the front were not such a mixture of thegothic and the antique. M. C took me on Sunday to see Marchesi, the sculptor, a man who certainly deserves great respect for the courage with which he has borne up against adverse circumstances. The building which contained all his models, and many of the works which had occupied his life, caught fire, and MARCHESI, THE SCULPTOR. 103 very little was rescued from destruction. He had another built to suit his own ideas of fitness and convenience, and was beginning to fill it with his productions, when the roof fell in. Unsubdued by the recurrence of one of the greatest calamities that could have befallen an artist, he resumed his labours, and his present atelier, arranged expressly for the purposes of sculpture, is perhaps the largest and most suitable in the whole world. Yet he has al- ready furnished it very tolerably with the most varied works of art, whereas, in Chantrey's large room in London, nothing is to be seen but the semper idem of prosaic English statues and monu- ments. What a contrast does not the indomitable courage of Marchesi offer to the puny vanity of Nourrit, who jumped out of window because some- body had hissed him ! A French singer, to be sure, is not expected to complete a momimentum cere perennius. Marchesi, it must be owned, has been most liberally supported by government, and he is now engaged upon a work for the emperor, the model of which is already finished, and is one of the most magnificent that can be imagined. Religion is represented in an erect form, with a serious but mild expression, supporting the majestic body of Christ as it is sinking down, and presenting it for adora- tion. On one side, but a little in the background, is seen a mother, with three children of different 104 THE ARCHIVES. ages ; the expression of countenance varies in each figure, but all are directed to Christ. The eldest child is kissing the foot, while the second is explain- ing to the youngest the meaning of what it sees. On the other side, a blind beggar, guided by two sisters, looks as though he would fain see, but can- not. The whole reposes on a high pediment adorned with wreaths, among which roses and pas- sion-flowers predominate. LETTER XII. Milan — Archives — The Scdla — Donizetti — Manzoni. Milan, April 17. As a matter of duty I repaired yesterday, pro- vided with letters from Count H , to the public Archives, which are under the management of Direc- tor Vigilezzi. The earliest manuscripts were of 1360, so I proceeded to the diplomatic archives, under the superintendence of M. Costa. A mass of autho- rities, many of them dating as far back as the twelfth and thirteenth centuries. The catalogue, however, goes only to the beginning of the twelfth century, and shows that monastic diplomas alone are collected here, the eternal monotony of which horrifies me, even when I see them neatly printed before me ; how much more when T find that I have harassed AMBROSIAN LIBRARY. 105 my eyes and wasted my time in deciphering ill- written and half-decayed manuscripts, and have obtained only the most insignificant reward for my pains. Nothing but donations, confirmations of lands, permissions to wear a mitre or a glove, and matters of similar moment. 1 know these things by heart. After a few inspections, made chiefly with a view to the satisfaction of my conscience, I checked the zeal of the obliging keeper, and repaired to the Ambrosian library. Much may still lie concealed here ; but for my purpose, I fear, little remains to be gleaned after Muratori and so many industrious Lombards, who have been here before me. The librarian, M. Catena, has, how- ever, had a hint or two from me, and has promised to make a dilisent search. As 1 had devoted my morning to study, for con- science sake, 1 gave up my evening to the enjoyment of art, and from a similar motive. Fearful of not obtaining a good place, I went early to La Scala, and was, I believe, for the first time in my life, the first comer in a theatre. 1 had abundant time, therefore, to make my remarks. The Milanese boast a great deal of the size of the building, as the Neapolitans do of San Carlo ; but has not this vast space its disadvantages ? Six tier of boxes, one over another, with nothing but a bird's eye view from the upper ones ! A countless succession of f5 106 THE SCALA THEATRE, boxes of perfect uniformity are in themselves an architectural defect. Few spectators are at a suit- able distance ; some are too near, and some too far off. The royal box is much smaller in proportion than that at Berlin, and the same remark applies to the space betvveen the columns on the stage. A greater breadth would, in my opinion, give to the whole an appearance less narrow and compressed. The orchestra and chorus, owing to the eternal re- petition of the same pieces, are well drilled. A strong bass voice, a soft tenor, and a soprano (Miss Kemble) admirable ; but all sung with great effort, sforzato, which I always think disagreeable. The consequence is that even of the arias much is lost in the clamour of the orchestra, and the enormous space of the house. The music of Donizetti to this Luisa di {Lammermoor is a mere series of pompous and inflated triviaUties. To have a good view of the ballet I had seated myself near the front ; but there I got among the pipes and trumpets, which worked away at such an unmerciful rate that I was at last glad to sacrifice the third act and the whole of the ballet, in order to obtain a little rest for my ears. I have here, in a few words, given you con- vincing proofs that I understand nothing about theatricals or music. My head was dizzy, and I was growing homesick. By way of curing myself, I began to think of nothing but university matters. VISITS AND VISITERS. 107 Thursday, April 18. I might almost accuse myself of too great activity. At all events, I have no share in the dolce far niente. Things and men are continually crowding in upon me, and I disturbing their quiet in return. To-day, for instance, M. Czornig called upon me at nine o''clock (I had been at work since half past five) and I had many matters of business to speak to him about; I then went to Count Pompeo Litta, the editor of the FamigUe Italiane, where we discussed historical topics ; and where every thing was re- viewed that has appeared of late years on Italian history. A visit to M. Vigliezzi, keeper of the archives, led to similar discussions, followed by others of a very different character at the house of M. Fortis, a silk manufacturer. I then went to M. Morbio, who had missed me at my hotel. In this, gentleman, the author of a work on the cities of Italy, I found a young, well-informed man, full of enthusiasm for the history of his native country. He possesses great diplomatic collections, and com- municated to me three letters from King Enzio, that have never yet been printed. Thence to Count M — , president of finance, from whom I ob- tained much valuable information on tand-tax, cus- toms, excise, rents of farms, regalia, and the like. One thing comes to clear up the head for another; there are times, however, when the huge mass of 108 MANZONI. information that pours in upon one, when the break- ing of so many different waves, bid fair to bother a man's brain and make him lose sight of his land- marks. April 19. Manzoni leads so retired a life, and offers such determined resistance to those who would break in upon this privacy, that, during my former visits to Milan, I never attempted to seek his acquaintance. M. B — , who is married to an English lady, and to whom I had a letter from the English consul at Trieste, told me that I should be received if I called, and as M. B — could not go with me, I was accom- panied by a Baron T — . I found Manzoni sur- rounded by his family, who did not, however, for a long time, join in our conversation. He is remark- ably natural and simple in his manners; but speaks with great vivacity and fluency. As I had heard that he had written an unpublished essay against historical novels, (consequently against himself) I turned the conversation upon this subject, and un- dertook to defend this class of works. I maintained that a bad novel was a bad book, whether founded on history or not ; but that a novel or drama re- posed better and more firmly on such a foundation than on mere fiction. Manzoni replied, that history and fiction went but ill together, soon disagreed, and never carried truth MANZONI. 109 along with them. The course which novel-writing had taken, he said, showed an increasing demand for truth, manifested by the wish of those who called either for pure history or pure fiction. To mix them only fostered prejudice and delusion. He himself had often been asked what was true and what was not true in the Promessi Sposi 9 and such a question he had always looked on as a re- proach. I thought myself at liberty to deny the accuracy of such an inference, and expressed a wish to know whether the anonimo did not represent an historical personage .'' Manzoni replied in the affirmative, and reminded me of Gothe's reproach that there was too marked a distinction between the historical and the personal in the Promessi Sposi ; whereas it had been his wish. throughout to keep them asunder, so that there might be no possibility of confounding them. To this I repUed that, viewed with an artist's eye, and treated by an artist's hand, history and fiction both became truth, and that to me Don Ab- bondio was a much more living character than thousands of priests who might be seen running about. Shakspeare's Caesar, T said, was more his- torical to me than the Caesar of many manuals of history ; and Homer I should be sorry to exchange for the historical osteology of all his works. 110 MANZONI. These, Manzonl said, were minds of so superior an order, that, with respect to them, he was ready to concede the point. He expatiated particularly on the unexampled impartiahty of Shakspeare, and on his power to throw himself into each of his cha- racters. Besides, the drama (the very form of which must resolve itself into historical narrative) was less calculated than a novel to injure the cause of truth. A glance or two at Schiller's Don Carlos and Maria Stuart led to some qualification of this judgment. This induced Manzoni to remark that the time and conditions of the Epic were gone by, and that a novel like Tom Jones, which confined itself to a portraiture of society and manners, was more true, intelligible, and attractive, than when it pretended to lead into a chaos of historical and mostly unknown facts. Hereupon, I reminded him in how different a light the greatest and best known men had been placed by different authors, in works that passed for genuine history ; that fiction and history there- fore extended their joint influence every where. The conversation next turned to the modern literature of France, a reign of terror which, in Manzoni's opinion, like that of 1793, must pass away. This opinion I supported by many ex- amples that I was able to bring forward from my last visit to Paris. An Italian, who entered about MANZONI. Ill this time, was quite in despair about the bans mots which he had just heard most detestably sung in a new vaudeville. Here the ladies, as with us at home, joined in the conversation, and took the French players under their protection. The re- mark, that the French language was ill adapted for singing, led to a discussion on the dialects of Ger- many and Italy, which, as it was getting late, we were obliged to break off. Manzoni has neither written nor published any- thing for a long time, which is attributed by many to his religious feelings. There may be some truth in this, for once, in the course of our conversation, he said : — " We must all come to theology at last." " Yes, in faith and love, but not in hate and dis- pute," was my reply. I am delighted to have made the acquaintance of this remarkable and amiable man, and the recollection of our interview will never be effaced from my memory. LETTER XIII. Milan — Viceroy's Palace — Triumphal Arch — The Emperor's Fete — Picture Gallery- Milan, Saturday, April 21. Three days have again passed away without my finding leisure to gossip with you. I will lay the mosaic of the interval before you, in all pos- 112 PALACE OF THE VICEROY. sible brevity. On Thursday, in the forenoon, I went to the palace of the Viceroy, under the protec- tion of M. C — . The building is large, and con- tains a vast multitude of rooms and halls, one of which is remarkably spacious, occupies two floors, and, when illuminated, on occasion of the em- peror's last visit, excited universal admiration. The latter ought rather to be directed to the fresco paintings of Appiani, which can scarcely be distin- guished from those in oil. If this be the highest possible praise, they fully deserve it ; much more so than a painting by Hayez, for which he was paid 40,000 zwanziger^ and which gives but a misty re- presentation of the imperial coronation. I saw also a multitude of busts of Napoleon, his wife, Massena, Napoleon's throne, and similar objects ; which {S'lC transit gloria) had been consigned to a lumber- room, with old inkstands, candlesticks, &c. Hereupon followed a long conversation with iVl, A — about schools and gymnasiums. While I was preparing to commit the results to paper, M. von M — called for me in his carriage, and took me to San Ambrogio, where I saw again many old things modernised. We then ascended the Arch of Triumph or Peace, which may very well challenge a con)parison with that which bears the same name; and the six horses to the chariot, and the four with the heralds of victory at the four corners, form a PICTURE GALLERY. 113 team, that can be matched nowhere. Add to this, the clear, dark azure sky, the green meadows, the yellow blossoming rape, the snow-capped moun- tains afar off, and the truly balmy atmosphere. On the 19th, the emperor's /e#e was celebrated with all due military and ecclesiastical pomp ; with carpets and tapestries, organs, the firing of guns, equipages, and uniforms; something, in short, to gratify every variety of taste. A second visit to M — , when that able and learned man showed me his large historical library, and selected some books and manuscripts, which I have already begun to look into. M — is a great partisan of Austria, and has written an instructive work on the administra- tion in the time of the Empress Maria Theresa, under Count Firmian. The publication is still de- layed by motives which, it is to be hoped, will soon cease to operate. I went to-day to the picture gallery in the Brera, and feasted my eyes on Luini, Crivelli, Francia, Montegna, Guido, and Raphael. Here I was again made sensible of the limited extent of my judgment. Pictures of a high order of excellence arrest my admiration ; but a connoisseur ought to have a literary or artistical universality, of which I find no trace in myself. Ne sutor ultra crepidam. Why is not Waagen here to instruct my igno- rance .'' 114 HISTORY OF THE HOHENSTAUFEN. has heard that I have written a history of the Hohenstaufen, and wishes to see me again. You may judge from this, that my fame as an author is tapering away to a fine point. To-day I read in a literary notice that the history of the Swabian Emperors is " a magnificent subject, which no writer has yet treated in a manner worthy of it ; but that there is now some hope of seeing justice done to it, one of the first geniuses of the day being engaged upon it." Of this "first genius," you know as much in Germany, as people know of me here. This is not, however, more mortifying than what was said to me by St — once in my own room, some time after the publication of my work. He would write the history of the Hohenstaufen, he said, " because nothing of any merit had yet been writ- ten on the subject."" Things of this sort have their serious as well as their comic point of view. Is it not disheartening, after having devoted so many years of my life to the history of Italy, not to find one creature here who has ever read my book, or can assist me either in the way of censure or praise .'' The Ultramontane is the Barbary of Italy, an un- known, unexplored land. After all, I have the advantage of them ; I, as an historian, know the Italian, ihe Italian knows nothing of the German. These little occurrences are salutary lessons of humility. At the same time, I have far less feeling SECOND VISIT TO MANZONI. 115 of proud self-satisfaction in my own works, than a consciousness that, whatever gratification I may derive from my labours, their results are without importance to others, or at best a mere makeshift for the day. The conviction that I have produced no work wre perenn'uis, orily increases my enjoy- ment of the studies I am now making for my own instruction on modern Italy. For myself, while living, I know no more attractive occupation ; and hereafter it will be of little importance to me in what way my then obsolete books will be entered in those catalogues of lumber, ycleped histories of literature. Tieck wanted to take me in tow, or by an elaborate review to set me on my legs ; but I shall not be buried standing, like a Jew; I shall be laid horizontally in my grave, like all honest Chris- tians. Enough of this, I must return to my labour. LETTER XIV. Milan — Manzoni — The Ainbrosian Library. Milan, April 22. Yesterday evening I paid another visit to Manzoni. In excuse, I pleaded his permission, and he in return made an apology for not having been aware that I was the author of the history of the Hohenstaufen. Our conversation turned to the 116 MANZONI. affairs of Cologne, on which point, as you know I am able, on mature conviction, to make many admissions in favour of the catholics ; but yet it was only just that I should place the arguments on the other side in a fair light. Manzoni, however, is an unbending, uncompromising catholic, as must be the case where the ^rm only is regarded, and the spirit held to be quite subordinate. There was only one real remedy, he said, against disorder, se- dition, and the like, namely authority ; and that could centre nowhere but in the pope, and in the principle of his infallibility. To rebel against, or deviate from, this principle was to sacrifice the great point of support, and general dissolution must be the consequence. The first duty of every one was to submit to authority. This system may be followed out just as consis- tently as that opposed to it, which adopts as a leading principle, that a man is not to submit to authority, since in so doing he sacrifices his own freedom and independence. The one system leads to inquisition and autos da fe, the other to com- mittees of public welfare. The customary argument that the protestants are not agreed among themselves was dwelt on by Manzoni, who insisted on the necessity of at once condemning every heresy as a thing not to be to- lerated or bargained with. It was right, therefore, MANZONI. 117 he said, at once to condemn the doctrines of Hermes, which the King of Prussia had wrong- fully taken under his protection. My reply was, that the King of Prussia had never dreamt, as Manzoni seemed to think, of fix- ing the dogmas of the cathohc faith ; but even in the Church of Rome, I added, there were deviations and anomalies, which, if followed out, could not be reconciled, as for instance, the systems of Tho- mas of Aquino and Duns Scotus, the development of which had been tolerated by the church. " The greatest deviations," rejoined Manzoni, " are none, if the main point be recognised, the smallest are damnable heresies if it be denied ; that main point is the infalhbility of the church, or rather of the Pope." It was not difficult to show that many had re- cognised this infallibility by word of mouth and by their writings, and yet had completely es- tranged themselves from Christianity ; but Man- zoni looks on the form as that which is most essential, and seems to regard the spirit as se- condary. The recollection of some of the greatest and some of the worst of the popes could not but carry with it some weight, for, in state affairs, Manzoni does trace revolutions to the spirit of the government ; but to the temporal power he al- lowed only a very inferior importance, and the de- 118 MANZONI. cay of civil authority he was always ready to attri- bute chiefly to a non-recognition of its just relation to the pope. Mixed marriages, he said, might in- crease the number of Catholics; but truth and jus- tice must be asserted, independently of any ulterior consideration. I did not fail to remind him that each party believed that it had truth and justice on its own side, and that neither the civil nor ecclesi- astical power had strength enough to extirpate opi- nions entertained by millions. From the above, you will perceive how Manzoni expressed himself, and that I made it my business, not so much to controvert him, as to lead him more and more to develop his own views. We afterwards conversed at some length on the condition of the Italian peasantry, and about agra- rian laws, and gradually came to poetry and thea- tricals. Manzoni has not been within a theatre for twenty years. He praised Goldoni's talent, but complained of the carelessness of his style. Speak- ing of Alfieri, he did not launch out into the cold rhetoric of praise, which appears to be but an echo of the poet's tragedies. Alfieri, he said, had been wrong in showing so marked a predilection for Latin subjects, and for translating everything into pagan- ism, disregarding entirely the christian point of view and the modern development of human society. Thus, in the history of Virginia, the in- AMBROSIAN LIBRARY. 119 terest of the Romans was excited by the idea of seeing a free-born woman enslaved. For the slave by birth they had no sympathy, whereas, Chris- tianity beheld the great evil in slavery itself, and cared less ft)r the manner of it. My assertion, that the essence of Christianity was vvanting in no con- fession, Manzoni could not bring himself to admit, since authority would then be placed in a new po- sition. We parted, however, in perfect kindness, with the closing words of Augustine, in which we both joined : lit omfiibus caritas. Utinam ! ! This forenoon I strolled to the Ambrosian library. The librarian had been unable to find the statutes of Milan for 1216, but, in a volume of manuscripts that he had laid out for me, I found those very statutes myself, and made several valuable extracts. Among other matters I found that the colunnado and the system of farming land for half the produce was in existence even in that early period. A poor man, who could neither do battle himself nor pay for a champion in support of his cause before a court of law, enjoyed the beneficium of being thrown into the water, there to await the judgment of God. Every man, like Achilles or Siegfried, has his vulnerable point. I had hitherto armed myself tolerably well against every attack of home-sickness ; but to-day, passing a window, I saw a couple of gold fishes playing in the water, whereupon I was 120 MISS KEMBLE. seized with such a fit, that I forgot all the questions I intended to have asked my companion about the revenue and expenditure of the city of Milan. LETTER XV. Milan — Miss KemWe. Milan, April 25. In a few hours I shall set out for Turin, and now sit down to give you a few hasty details about the last few busy days of my stay here. I visited Miss Kemble, who is here with her father, whose kind reception of nie in London I have not yet forgotten. She invited me to take tea with her in the evening, when, owing to pressing business, I was able to make only a short stay. Her singing is exceedingly improved, and her voice is very powerful. People nevertheless complain that it is not strong enough for the Scala ; but where is the human voice that can, for any length of time, fill so vast a space, and rise above such an orchestra and such a clamour of tongues ! All that with us would be deemed most extravagant in this respect is a mere trifle in comparison with what is here the order of the day. CATHEDRAL OF MILAN. 121 LETTER XVI. Milan — Cathedral — Journey IVom Milan to Turin. Turin, April 27. I send you, though from a different part of Italy, the continuation of my diary at Milan. On Thursday I went to the Cathedral, and was again filled with admiration of its construction. The front, notwithstanding the defects and anomalies of style, is nevertheless imposing, and the interior magnificent, but on these points there are many other churches that may be compared with or even preferred to the Duomo of Milan, The roof, how- ever, is unique. What elsewhere is considered only as a necessary and inevitable evil, has here been made the centre of a new world of art and beauty. What a multitude of arches, passages, arabesques, flowers, pinnacles, statues, bas-reliefs, &c. ! Yet everything suited to the place, in perfect unity and harmony of style, with almost endless variety ! It is to be regretted that the tower, evidently intended to have been carried to a much greater height, should so hastily have been terminated and short- ened ; and unqualified censure ought to be passed on the taste that could plant such a dog-kennel of a belfry in that world of wonders. The Milanese, who do so much to beautify their city, ought to wipe away such a disgrace, by pulling down die lumbering box. If a belfry be necessary, it ought VOL. I. G 122 ITALIAN DIALECTS. to be made to harmonise in art and beauty with the rest of the building. At noon I started for Turin, provided with fresh letters of introduction from Count H — . The beautiful and highly cultivated plain made an agreeable impression, though vines and mulberry trees continued to wear a wintry look. Among our companions were two ladies, one old and the other young; both were Hvely and talkative, but I found it sometimes impossible to follow them in their Piedmontcse dialect, which they chiefly used, and in which they made themselves extremely merry at the expense of the jwatow of Milan. Thus I have already made acquaintance with three sorts of Ita- lian : Venetian, Milanese, and Piedmontese; but what is taught us foreigners is a fourth and a very different language. Even educated persons, who endeavour to speak pure Italian, when conversing wi h a stranger, say piu for piu, tan for tanto^ comun for coniune, ea for easa, nessiln for nessuno, &c. I have heard only one man. President M — . speak such Italian as sounded like music. Two gentlemen in the carriage agreed with one another, as to the utiHty and delight of tobacco- smoking, and made their overtures to the ladies in such a form that the latter had not the courage to resist. The question was then put to me, as a matter of form, my consent being reckoned on as a JOURNEY TO TURIN. 123 matter of course. Their arms were already pre- sented, but I mustered courage, and declared, though I had no objection to tobacco-smoke my- self, I would not allow, when ladies were in the carriage, their consent to be extorted by a few civil words, " Then you set yourself up,"" said one of the gentlemen, " as a Knight of the Round Table, and a champion of the ladies ?" " Yes," was my blunt reply ; " let those who wish to smoke take their places in the cabriolet or the rotunda." The two gentlemen took the hint, and exchanged places with less zealous smokers. The bridge across the Ticeno, on the frontier between Piedmont and the Milanese, is a splendid work. This is succeeded by a long tract of barren stony country, that looks even more dismal than our sand. In Novara I ate a good supper, but spent an uncomfortable night after it. The new Piedmontese coach was much too small for six per- sons. We could not stir either hand or foot, with- out pushing against one another, and sleep under such circumstances was out of the question. At daybreak all looked gloomy ; the rain was pouring down in torrents, and there was no comfort either within or without. Accordingly, on my arrival at the Feder Hotel, I resolved to indulge my ex- hausted body with a little repose ; but scarcely had I unpacked the needful articles, and set my room a g2 124 SITUATION OF TURIN. little in order, when the sky cleared up, and the reso- lution to abandon myself to the dolce or amarojur n'lenie vanished at once. From half-past ten till half- past four, I walked about, paying visits, delivering letters, and making myself acquainted with different parts of the town ; and when, at the end of one of the streets, I recognised the Alps, I hastened out, and feasted my eyes once more in the contemplation of the noble circle of mountains, amidst which Turin is situated. It may well be doubted whether any other city is so nearly surrounded by such a girdle as Turin. LETTER XVII. Former condition of Lombardy — Merit of the Austrian Go- vernment — Maria Theresa— Count Finnian — Extent and Division of the Country — The Viceroy — The Governor — The Departments of Government, Finance, and Jurispru- dence. Milan, April 16. Many people who live to the north of the Alps picture Italy to themselves as one great connected whole, in a natural point of view. Some, who know the country better, divide it into three parts, the north, the middle, and south ; the first extend- ing to the Appennines, the second to Terracina, and the mountains that lie between Naples and the Papal territory. Although there are good reasons for this CONDITION OF LOMBARD Y. 125 division, it by no means indicates or exhausts the great variety of existing relations. The Lombardo- Venetian kingdom, for instance, includes diversi- ties and contrasts of every kind, from the Venetian lagoons to the most elevated mountains of Europe. The duch}' of Milan alone contains within itself every possible gradation, swampy rice fields, marshy meadows, fertile plains, gentle hills, and icy moun- tains. To this natural characteristic is to be attri- buted the variety in the cultivation of the land, the vines and the silkworm, as well as the rearing of cat- tle. To this must be added a great difference in the social condition of the inhabitants ; in the extent of estates ; in the poverty of some places and the wealth of others; in the usages relating to property, quit-rents, the size of farms, and the terms on which land is let. On these points more hereafter ; for the present they may serve as a warning not to indulge in general expressions of praise or blame, and not to judge of an existing state of things by abstract and inflexible rules. Prejudices corresponding with those here alluded to are also met with when we come upon the ground of history. To take, for instance, merely the duchy of Milan, or, properly speaking, Lom- bardy. In the time of the Hohenstaufen, this country displayed admirable energy and a noble resistance. The preponderance, however, which 126 CONDITION OF LOMBARDY. Frederick I. and Frederick II. strove to assert, grounding their pretensions upon ancient imperial rights, was not more marked than that wliich Milan daily exercised with respect to Lodi and other cities. Even within its own walls there prevailed but too often the violence of faction and the spirit of perse- cution, till at length anarchy paved the way for the despotism of the Visconti and Sforza. Those times, no doubt, had their advantages. The spirit and activity of the Lombards continued in full play ; but this reflection only excites our indignation the more, when we read how such a people was im- posed upon. Then followed the worst period, that of Spanish governors, when the country was treated in a spirit of selfishness and absurdity. Lombardy, though favoured by nature more, perhaps, than any other country, became poorer and poorer, and the population decreased in consequence of the numbers who emigrated from their country in search of a subsistence to less favoured climes. Had the Milanese, in imitation of the Dutch, expelled such rulers as those, where is the man that would have blamed them for it ? The Austrian domination was an evident and undeniable improvement, and much of the good that many now attribute to the French revolution had been carried out long previously, in her Italian dominions, by the mild but energetic hand of Maria CONDITION OF LOMBARDY. 127 Theresa. In her reign, for instance, most of the feudal tenures and private jurisdictions were abo- lished ; equal taxation and an equal administra- tion of the laws were introduced ; the communal institutions were rendered more liberal ; the exces- sive privileges of the clergy were curtailed, corpo- rations done away with, &:c. With respect to all these points the French arrived post Jestum ; but their system differed from that of the empress in this : they nowhere showed the least regard for lo- cal circumstances or national predilections, and squandered the accumulations of centuries, to dazzle the vulgar by heightening the splendour of a day. Their plan succeeded, but only for a while, and the after-pains were certain to follow. I can sympa- thize with the dreams, hopes, and wishes, which many, in their well-meant enthusiasm, encourage, in favour of a total independence of Italy from every foreign influences ; I can respect them also, pro- vided no recourse be had to criminal means, for the attainment of ends supposed to be laudable ; but, in sober truth, the unprejudiced observer can scarcely resist the conviction that, all things considered, Lombardy has never been so well governed as now under the paternal sceptre of Austria; that she has never been so wealthy, populous, well-educated, civilized, and truly christian. Which among the by-gone periods can the Lombards wish back 128 AUSTRIAN GOVERNMENT. again ? That of the Hohenstaufen, that of the Visconti, that of the Spaniards, that of the Re- pubhc, or that of the incorporation of many of its provinces with the grand empire ? But for the servile dependence on France, the kingdom of Italy would appear in a favourable light; Paris, however, at that time, exercised an ascendency much more strongly marked than Vienna does now, and Lom- bardy had to make serious sacrifices for the further- ance of foreign views. The good that was done was mainly due to the able Italian functionaries, on whom Austria continues to place such reliance, that few Germans obtain appointments in Italy ; not more, certainly, than there may be of Italians holding ofiice in Vienna. Whether too many points be referred for decision to the capital is a question that cannot easily be answered without an exact knowledge of facts; but the Austrian system of government is of all others the most opposed to centralization : this is more than sufficiently shown by the administration and constitution of the Lom- bardo- Venetian kingdom. It is placed under the government of the viceroy, the Archduke Rainer, and is divided into two go- vernments : that of Venice, and that of Lombardy. The former contains 8 provinces, 93 districts, and 814 communes ; the latter, 9 provinces, 127 districts, and 2226 communes. THE VICEROY AND GOVERNORS. 129 All reports from the governors are referred for immediate decision to the viceroy, or through him to Vienna, and all decisions I'eceived thence pass through his hands. His privileges are very exten- sive. He has the appointment of a great number of public officers, the Vienna government interfering only in matters of general importance, but leaving all local affiiirs to the management of the local au- thorities. The viceroy is easy of personal access to all, and shows on such occasions the intelligent affa- bility and sympathizing condescension by Avhich so many members of the house of Habsburg have known how to win the hearts of those who ap- proached them. Till the year 1830, the governor performed at once the functions of a Pi'esident of the Interior and of the Finances ; the former as the head of the government, the latter in consequence of presiding in the Finance Senate. Many affairs he could dis- pose of on his own responsibility, others were subject to a previous discussion, and some had to be refer- red to Vienna. Among the last were new laws, an authentic interpretation of those already existing, the creation of new offices, changes in the system of taxation, alterations in the post-office arrangements, cutting and selling timber beyond a certain extent, &c.* •Law of 1819. respecting the formation of tlie Fiuauce Senate. G 5 130 FINANCIAL DEPARTMENT. Many matters, which might be looked upon as bearing on both departments, came for discussion before the financial and the political senate. When the assembly was divided, the governor had a cast- ing vote; but, even if he were left in a minority, he might often reserve to himself the right of appealing to the higher authorities in Vienna. These arrangements were materially altered by a law of the 1st of August, 1830, when the finance department was entirely withdrawn from the go- vernor's control, and established under the name of the magistrato camerale. The President receives a salary of 6000 florins, the members from 2 to 3000 each. Reports to the higher authorities con- tinue to be made on nearly the same matters as for- merly. The law says : " The duty of the new court is, in all its affairs, to look upon all matters in a strictly financial point of view ; to endeavour to find how, consistently with the efficiency of the ad- ministration, the largest revenue may be obtained, and the smallest expenditure incurred." In another place the law says : " The motive that led to the constitution of this new court was the wish to keep the management of the finances distinct from every other branch of the public administration." In every province there is a delegation under the governor, and an intendancy under the finance court. The two authorities are entirely separate FINANCIAL DEPARTMENT. 131 from each other, and are subject to different chiefs. The delegate forms the provincial authority for all matters of government, and has under him parti- cular officers for scientific and other departments. The magistrato camerale and the intendant have un- der their control the indirect (not the direct) taxes, customs, stamps, crown lands, forests, government monopolies, &c. ; every other department of civil government belongs to the governor and the dele- gation. The intendant may, of his own accord, grant certain leases, consent to delays, appoint minor officers, select retailers for the government mono- polies, grant leave of absence, &c. Opinions are much divided as to the value of these changes. Most of the persons qualified to judge with whom I spoke gave the preference to the old system of administration, and with our expei'ience in Prussia we must be disposed to coin- cide with them. We might say with them : " In modern times it is, indeed, necessary that, in a large state, the several administrations, or depart- ments, should be severed from each other, but they must all have a guiding centre to keep them in harmony with one another. If, even in separate provinces, the functions of government are broken up into fragments, we shall have but a disjointed building. The injunction, " to look from a finan- cial point of view only on all matters under con- 132 FINANCIAL DEPARTMENT. sideration " is a highly dangerous one ; it reminds one of the French rather than the Austrian system; of an abstract, anatomical division of powers, the very reverse of a living authority that acts as with one mind. It may be much more necessary to re- mind public officers that they are co-operating to one common end, than to try to make them forget this. The minister of commerce must not forget that taxes are indispensable to a government, nor the minister of finance that excessive taxation is de- structive to trade ; the minister of police should remember that his office was instituted for the se- curity ot personal libert}', the minister of justice that the privileges of the state are as much law as the rights of private individuals." On the other hand, some argue thus : " Many local circumstances rendered these arrangements necessary. They have certainly had the effect of in- creasing the public revenue, and the partial spirit, respecting which so much apprehension has been expressed, is avoided by a general understanding between the government and finance departments, or by the decision of the viceroy." In the principal town of every province there is a court of first instance for civil and criminal affairs ; in Milan and Venice there are courts of appeal, and at Verona, a high court of revision. In every legal dispute there are two instances. A second appeal LAW COURTS. 1^3 can take place only when there has been a differ- ence of opinion between the courts below, or an evident infringement of right. In such a case, the third tribunal decides likewise on the substance of the question. In all suits of divorce, also, there are two appeals. In some towns, in addition to the court of first instance, there is a pretore urhano^ usually a member of the court, whose office it is to mediate in any cases, and endeavour to bring about an amicable arrangement. Among the cases that come under his cognizance are disputes about rent, or with servants, trifling insults, pecuniary claims of a small amount, &c. In the country the pretore Jhrese has nearly the same functions as the court of first instance has in the towns. From the de- cision of the pretore there is always an appeal. The courts of first instance have authority, likewise, in fiscal and conmiercial questions, courts of com- merce existing only in Milan and Venice. The highest court of justice has the superintendence of the other courts and of the bar. Oral pleadings are permitted only before the pretore, who then takes notes of the proceedings before him. Trial by jury has never yet been introduced. Criminal proceedings pass through nearly the same stages as civil matters. In some cases the trial may be carried by appeal before the second and third court, according to the enormity of the 134 LAW COURTS. crime, the extent of the punishment, or the nature of the evidence and extenuating circumstances. The pretore Jbrese interferes immediately on the com- mission of a crime, and afterwards proceeds to carry the instruction of the court into effect. The higher court, in case of appeal, may confirm, mitigate, or ag- gravate the sentence of the court below. A sentence of death, or imprisonment for life, must always be sent up for confirmation to the court of revision at Verona. Political offences are mostly referred to Vienna. Any one about to be appointed a member of one of these courts has to undergo two very strict examinations before the court of appeal. The promptness and impartiality of the tribunals of jus- tice, as now constituted, are generally commended, and seldom without a not very flattering compari- son with things as they formerly were. The Aus- trian forms and codes have everywhere been sub- stituted for those of France. LETTER XVIII. Lombardy — Taxation — Commercial Institutions — Chambers of Commerce — Rural Assemblies — Central Assembly. Milan, April 18. When the Austrian system of administration is compared with that of France, two important dis- tinctions immediately strike the attentive observer. AUSTRIAN ADMINISTRATION. 135 both greatly to the advantage of the former. In the first place, the public officers of Austria, being much more vigilantly superintended, cannot allow themselves equally arbitrary abuses of power ; and, secondly, they are, nevertheless, much more secure and independent in their positions, because they are not liable, like those of France, to be summarily dismissed without trial or inquiry. This power of dismissing public servants may be a necessary evil in France, but it is not the less an evil ; on the contrary, it is in itself a symptom of yet greater evils, for the government is forced to act the tyrant on this point, or, owing to the limited powers given by the constitution, the executive would inspire no respect, and meet with no obedience. With the administration of Lombardy, the con- stitution of the communes, towns, districts, and provinces, as well as the whole system of taxation, are intimately connected.* Taxation and public law are certain to develop themselves simultaneously, unless some superior power interferes to prevent this. So early as the year 1248, Milan drew up a register of taxation, which was warmly opposed, on account of its aim- * M. Czoiiiig, to whom 1 am indebted for much of the following information, has it in contemplation to publish a work on the Statistics of Lombardy, which will be found well entitled to public attention. 136 TAXATION. ing at the extension of the liability to payment. In the fifteenth century we find a tax on salt and horses, which often assumed the form of a personal tax, and with respect to which the commune at large was considered responsible, the government troubhng itself very little about the personal distri- bution of the burden. The exigences of Charles V. forced him to impose a new tax, which amounted monthly to 25,000 florins of gold. An attempt was made to distribute this in the shape of a land- tax, but, as none but very general directions were ever given, the consequence was that it sometimes assumed the shape of an additional tax on salt and horses, and sometimes was levied in the form of a land and poll-tax. In the several cities the sum was generally raised by a consumption tax on salt, flour, and meat. In 1564 a beginning was made with a general valuation of real property, and with an estimate of trade by means of statements of the amount of goods imported. The principles acted on were, however, so unsettled, and the anomalies, difficulties, exceptions, and arbitrary acts, so nume- rous, that nothing of any real value was effected till towards the end of tlie sixteenth century. At the same time, the whole communal system fell to pieces, and the rural districts had to suffer much more than the towns from undue burdens. All complaints to the Spanish court of folly, despotism, COMMUNAL INSTITUTIONS. 137 confusion, oppression, decay, and insolvency, re- mained unnoticed, and it was thought an act of great favour and an important reform, when per- mission was given to indebted communes and indi- viduals to make a partial bankruptcy, by reducing the interest to which they were liable. At the same time, the state revenues were gradually pledged or sold, and such became the distresses of government that the transfer of Lombardy to Austria was an important relief to the whole country. It was not without great efforts that a general registration, with a view to the land-tax, could be effected. With this registration the communal system of Maria Theresa, of the 30th of December, 1755, was intimately connected. By this law of 1755, all the proprietors registered as liable to the land-tax formed the assembly, or convocuto, of the commune, with the right of deliberating and deciding on all the economical interests of the community. This assembly elected yearly three deputies, one from among the most heavily taxed, and the two others from among the landowners generally. A fourth deputy was elected by the inhabitants who were not landowners ; and a fifth by those in trade. The two last-named attended to the rights of their con- stituents, as far as the personal tax and the tax on trades and possessions were concerned. The first three, however, form alone the rappresentanza of the commune, with the right of managing its funds. 138 COMMUNAL INSTITUTIONS. on being confirmed by government. Soldiers and ecclesiastics are not eligible, because not imme- diately dependent on the civil tribunals. In addi- tion to the deputat'i, there were also, wherever it was thought necessary, a console, or constable, and a syndic. The principle that the commune should choose its own officers and manage its own property re- mained in full force till 1796, and the government did not, meanwhile, make any unreasonable use of its right of superintending and confirming those offi- cers. ^ The French, under the pretence of giving greater extension to public liberty, destroyed all these efficient government institutions, substituted empty forms, made every function of government emanate from a central power, and, at last, pro- hibited every kind of communal association, that the atomism of their system of government might remain undisturbed, and that nothing more firm or comprehensive might be organized in its place. The description given by Trouve, the French ple- nipotentiary*, of the condition of the Cisalpine re- * Among other things, he says : "A government without means or vigour, equally powerless to do good or prevent evil, a corrupt administration, a military establishment enormously expensive, yet wholly inefficient, a total disorganization of the finances, no republican institutions, no public education, no connection in the civil laws, everywhere disobedience, care- lessness, and impunity for those who waste the public money : in a word, the most complete and hideous anarchy — such is the picture of the Cisalpine Republic." COMMUNAL INSTITUTIONS. 139 public, presents a picture of anarchy and tyranny so revolting that the return of the Austrians, and with them the re-establishment of the old com- munal law, could not but be regarded as highly fortunate for the whole country. When the Aus- trians were again driven out, the new government retained the greater part of their system, and shewed itself much more intelligent, orderly, and national, than that which had borne the name of a republic. As it is not, however, my intention to say more of the past than is necessary for under- standing the present, I will now proceed to explain the existing state of things. The communes are divided into rural and urban, and the latter are again subdivided, as I shall pre- sently explain. There are, in the government or Venice, in Milan, 315 1783 rural communes with assem- blies of land-owners, (convo- cato), and a deputation; 483 432 with councillors, (consigli), and a deputation, but with differing systems for the ma- nagement of their affairs j and 17 13 with urban magistrates and councillors. If a rural commune contains more than 300 pro- 140 COMMUNAL INSTITUTIONS. prietors paying taxes, a council {consiglio), must be chosen ; if it contains more than 100, the convo- cato may apply to have a consiglio introduced in its place. Every landowner, liable to the tax, whe- ther his property be large or small, belongs to the convocato, and has the right to ballot at an election. Ecclesiastics and pubhc officers are excluded. Jews can hold no communal offices, but may ballot at an election. The convocato meets regularly twice a year, and more frequently if convoked by the dele- gate and district commissary. These assemblies have the right : 1. To elect three deputati, for the management of the communal concerns during three years. A fourth deputy is only occasionally consulted, in matters relating to the personal tax. The fifth, for the trading part of the community, is now no longer chosen, on account of the altered manner of levying the tax on trades and professions. 2. To make up, or at least examine, the register according to which the personal tax is to be levied. 3. To compare the estimate of the future reve- nue and expenditure of the commune, and to receive from the deputies an account of their administra- tion while in office. 4. To discuss and determine on matters relating to communal property and communal officers, and on all subjects that bear immediately on their com- mon interests. COMMUNAL INSTITUTIONS. 141 The oldest proprietor presides in the co7ivocato. The deputies are present, and so also is the influ- ential district council. If a difference arises be- tween the convocato and the deputies of the com- mune, the question must be referred to the provincial assembly, and thence for decision to the delegate, who likewise presides in that assembly. No convo- cato can deliberate, unless there be at least eight persons present, including the deputies. The consigUo comunale is for the town what the convocato is for the rural commune. In Milan and Venice, it consists of sixty members ; in the royal cities, as they are called, or chief places of provinces, {capi luog-hi), of forty ; and, in the inferior towns, of thirty members. Two-thirds of these must be owners of real property ; the remaining third may be composed of other respectable inhabitants, such as merchants, manufacturers, &c. The said owners of real property must be chosen from among the hundred most heavily taxed, and must, in Milan and Venice, be entered on the register as possessing to the value of at least 2000 scudi. Neither a retail trader, nor one receiving a salary from the town, can be a member of the council. In the first in- stance the council was appointed by government. Since then, one third of the members retire every year, but may be re-elected. This election takes place in the following manner : the council draws 142 COMMUNAL INSTITUTIONS. up a list, containing twice as many names as there are vacancies to be filled ; this list is placed before the provincial assembly, by whom the selection is made, after which it requires to be confirmed by the delegation. The council chooses its own pre- sident, and decides every question by ballot, in presence of at least one third of its members. Its functions, with respect to the town, are the same as those of the convocato in the rural commune. The council prepares a list of three names, from which the government selects the podesta, or burgo- master. The magistrates, in number from four to six, according to the size of a town, are also chosen by the council, but must likewise be confirmed by the government. They are chosen for three years, two thirds from among the owners of real property. In the assembly of magistrates, {con^rcgazione municipale), a majority of votes decides, but an appeal lies from the decision to the provincial as- sembly, or congregazione provinciale, and to the delegation. All accounts must go to the provincial assembly and the delegates. These have no right to direct any expenditure not sanctioned by the convocato and cmisigl'io. An imposition of not more than four centimes per scudo may be con- firmed by the delegate ; if it exceed that rate, it must be referred to the governor, and, in the case of Milan, Venice, or of a royal city, to the viceroy. CHAMBERS OF COMMERCE. 143 Open places supply their own means by an addition to the land and personal tax ; the towns by an ad- dition to the taxes on consumption. In Milan and Venice the podesta receives a salary, but in other cities the services of the podesta, and those of the city councillors or assessori, are given gratuitously. In tlie capital of each province there exists a Chamber of Commerce, composed of from four to twelve members, who are proposed by the delegate, from among the merchants and manufacturers, and confirmed by the governor. They are to collect information respecting the state of trade, point out impediments, submit proposals for improvements, &c. The delegate presides ew offi'icio in the Cham- ber of Commerce. In every province there is a congregazione pro- vinciale, of four, six, or eight members, selected from among the landowners possessing property to the extent of at least 2000 scudi. These are joined by a deputy from each royal city. The communes propose candidates, from among whom the pro- vincial congregation or assembly select a treble list, out of which the central congregation again make a selection, and the persons so selected, if confirmed by government, remain three years in office. The members of the provincial assembly receive no salary. Their functions extend to the collection of 144 CENTRAL ASSEMBLY. the public revenue, the administration of the com- munal property, the repair of roads and canals, the civil branch of the military administration, the superintendence of public charities, and of all other matters immediately connected with the welfare of the province. On all these subjects they are au- thorized to address proposals directly to the govern- ment. The central congregation is, for the two govern- ments of Venice and Milan, what the provincial congregation is for each province. It is likewise formed of two thirds of landowners and one third of deputies from the towns. The qualification of a member consists in the possession of land to the value of at least 4000 scudi. Ecclesiastics, public officers, and those not belonging to a Christian con- fession, are ineligible. The candidates are first proposed by the communes ; a treble list is prepared by the provincial congregation, from which the members are selected by government, and remain in office for six years, during which time they re- ceive salaries of 2000 florins. Candidates for the deputation from the cities are proposed by the cities. These central assemblies are to examine questions of a higher importance connected with the public revenue and communal interests j to make a repar- tition of the war taxes ; to superintend the public works connected with roads, rivers, and charitable COMMUNAL INSTITUTIONS. 14'5 institutions ; to suggest measures to government for the benefit of the country ; and, if their suggestions are not attended to, they have the right of addressing their remonstrances to the emperor in person. This brief sketch of the remarkable institutions of Lombardy might be enlarged by a multitude of remarks and explanations. I shall confine myself to a very small number. Firstly — The Austrian government has, indeed, reserved to itself the control of communal affairs, and the right of confirming elections ; but I have been assured that this confirmation is scarcely ever refused, nor has government ever imposed taxes on the communes for communal purposes, but has always awaited the voluntary imposition of the ne- cessary burdens by the inhabitants themselves. Secondly — The principle that every owner of land sits and votes in the convocato carries with it an appearance of democracy, and reminds one of the often agitated topic of universal suffrage. In point of fact, however, these assemblies are seldom iiumerqusly attended, and when they are, they generally elect a committee (consiglio) for the dis- charge of business. The convocato consists gene- rally of twenty or thirty members present ; 100 or 150 is an unusually large number, and the first deputy selected from among the most highly taxed always exercises a very great influence. VOL. I. H 146 COMMUNAL INSTITUTIONS. Thirdly — On the other hand, the practice of not leaving it to the citizens at large to choose their consigli^ but supplying all vacant places from among candidates proposed by the body itself, and con- firmed by the government, is certainly of an aristo- cratic, if not of an oligarchical character. Fourthly — Whether the many gradations of council, magistracy, provincial congregation, dele- gation, central congregation, governor, and vice- roy, be not calculated to retard public business by making its course more intricate, is a question, to decide which more than merely superficial know- ledge is requisite. A good deal, however, is shortened by making the delegate preside in the provincial and the governor in the central congre- gation. I shall not attempt a solution of the doubt raised by many, particularly in Venice, whether the central congregations ever manifest much activity in the exercise of their functions. The idea was certainly a good one, of placing by the side of every grade of administration, from the commune up to the viceroyalty, a co-operating, or, as we should now say, a constitutional body, and thereby awaken- ing public spirit. That this result has been at- tained is shown. Fifthly — By the circumstance that wealthy indi- viduals are everywhere found, willing to take upon themselves gratuitously the functions of podesta, POPULATION OF LOMBARDY. 147 and that they very quickly acquire the knowledge of business necessary to the proper discharge of their functions. Genuine patriotism, and an interest in the welfare of their several towns, tend materially to cause this gratifying state of things ; much, how- ever, is owing to the shortness of the period of office, the wealth of individuals, and the marks of distinction and reward which the government very judiciously distributes among the ablest of these local authorities. LETTER XIX. Lorabardy — Population. Milan, April 20. In my last letter I communicated many par- ticulars about the way in which the people of Lom- bardy are governed and participate in the govern- ment ; to-day I will enter into a few details relative to the state and progress of the population. The population amounted : — In 1824. In 1838. In the government of Venice to 1,894,000 2,094,000 In the government of Milan to 2,194,000 2,474,000 H 2 148 POPULATION. The increase, therefore, in 14 years, has been about 12 per cent. A greater increase has, in some measure, been prevented by the cholera, and is, indeed, scarcely possible, in a country ah-eady so densely peopled. Thus upon the chilometre (1 000 square metres) we have in Siberia, 2 inha- bitants; in France, 60; in Great Britain and Ireland, 76 1^; in Belgium, 125; in the Milanese, 115; and, if the mountainous and barren tracts are left out of the account, we have even as many as 151 inhabitants to the chilometre. This popu- lation is very unequally distributed ; in some parts of the Milanese there are only 7, and in others 1707 to the chilometre. This difference is owing partly to the natural circumstances of dif- ferent localities, partly to the vicinity of large towns. Thus the district of Milan is the most po- pulous of all, containing 95,000 inhabitants to the German square mile, whereas Bormio and Chiaven- na, the least populous, contain only 400. In these districts, however, there are not fewer than twenty mountains more than 7,000 feet in height, where the cultivation of the land and the growth of articles of human subsistence are impracticable. Excluding the mountainous portions, these districts contain 9,300 inhabitants to the (geographical) square mile. Milan, in 1824, contained 129,000 inhabitants; POPULATION. 149 it now contains 155,000. Bergamo and Brescia contain each 30,000. About one seventh of the whole population live in cities ; the rural popula- tion, for the most part, do not dwell together in vil- lages, but in scattered habitations, politically united by the administrative idea of the commune. There are 41 communes, containing more than 5,000 inhabitants, 175 containing between 2,000 and 5,000. Nearly three-fourths of the whole popula- tion live in the smaller towns and communes of less than 2,000 inhabitants ; one ninth in those con- taining between 2,000 and 5,000 ; one fortieth in those containing between 5,000 and 15,000; and one eighth in the large towns. For every 100 males in the Milanese, there are 99 females. Of every 100 inhabitants 51-7 are under, and 48 3 above twenty-five years of age. Of the males — 80"52 per cent, are underthe age of 14 11-87 between the ages of 15 & 20 932 21 25 3680 26 60 11-49 above 60 Each family, on an average, consists of 5 indi- viduals, for every 85 mhabitants there is one house, for every 63, there are 13 married couples. In the 150 POPULATION. plain the marriages are proportionably more nu- merous than among the hills. Two thirds of all marriages are contracted before the 30th year. For every 1000 inhabitants, there are annually 41 births, and for every 100 female, there are 107'4< male births. Every marriage produces, on an average, 4'47 children, and where the average number of marriages is greatest, there the average num- ber of children is least. One child in 100 is still- born, and 18 males for every 10 females. The births exceed the deaths at the rate of 119 to 100. Before the fourth year, there died in Brescia 40 per cent.; in Cremona, 51 ; and in all Lom- bardy, 47. The general mortality was at the rate of 34 for every 1,000 inhabitants, and greater in the rural districts than in the towns, owing chiefly to greater poverty and privation. In the mountainous districts, however, the mortality has generally been less than in the plains. A continued decrease of population may generally be taken as a symptom of decay; an increase, on the other hand, is not always a proof of growing prosperity ; of this we have bitter experience in the case of Ireland. M. Quadrio's diligent inquiries have ascertained that in the Venetian government there is — One nobleman for every 587 inhabitants. One pubhc officer 126 POPULATION. 151 One scholar or student for every 27 inhabitants One ecclesiastic 216 One merchant 36 One artist 19 One agriculturist 2 One seaman 241 One fisherman 224 One pauper 26 One prisoner 813 One foundling 321 And one found hng; in 46 births. LETTER XX. Loinbardy — Land-Tax — Registration — Tax on Trades — Poll- Tax — Revenue and Expenditure of the City of Milan. Milan, April 21. In my letter of the 18th, I reminded you of the connexion almost every where existing between the form of government and the system of taxation ; to-day I will enter more into details on the subject of direct taxes, more particularly of the land-tax. Soon after the occupation of Milan by the Aus- trians, a new board was instituted in J 718, to pre- pare a new registration, {giunta del censimento) that which previously existed having been found wholly undeserving of the name, and guilty of the 152 LAND-TAX. greatest contradictions and constant injustice. New measurements were undertaken, maps drawn up, estimates made, witnesses heai'd, titles and leases compared, and every matter closely investigated. The differences of soil were taken into considera- tion, as likewise the average produce, expense, and casualties, the usual prices of corn, &c., and accord- ing to the result of these investigations, the value of each estate was fixed, the net rents or proceeds being calculated at the rate of 4 per cent, on the capital. Church property acquired previously to 1575 remained exempt from the tax. Since 1760, the land-tax has always been levied according to the valuation then made. A second investigation was for the purpose of fixing the tax on trades, {tassa del mercimonid) which was to amount to I5 per cent, on the capital employed ; but, in point of fact, the tax did not amount to more than ^ per cent. ; mechanics, who were not supposed to embark their own capital in their trades, such as smiths, tailors, &c., were ex- empt. This fluctuating tax was afterwards con- verted into a fixed one, and divided into six classes. In the Venetian districts there existed old and most imperfect valuations of land, on which the land-tax, (terraticd) was yearly fixed, according to a most intricate system. On the occupation of the French, the tax was augmented, and imposed on LAND-TAX. 153 different principles ; but in so precipitate, arbitrary, and unequal a manner, as to give rise to daily in- creasing complaints, making a new land-registration indispensable. This is now nearly complete, and if the work of Maria Theresa were praiseworthy for her time, and the first of its kind, that now in pro- gress displays such admirable care and precision, that the only question is whether they have not been carried to an unnecessary extreme. Since 1815, though not without occasional inter- ruptions, a great many persons have been engaged upon this work; and May, 1828, has been adopted as the standard for the cadastration. It extends to all parts of the Lombardo-Venetian kingdom, not included in the Milanese registry, consequently to all districts formerly Venetian, and likewise to the Valteline. The maps exceed in accuracy and com- pleteness all that has ever before been produced of the kind. In the measurement, metric roods (per- tiche metriche^ of 280 square fathoms of Vienna) have every where been adopted, and, in the valua- tion, Austrian lire. The valuation is guided by the amount of every kind of produce in ordinary years, and imder the ordinary system of cultivation. The average prices from 1823 to 1825 are taken as a guide, regard being had to local circumstances, distance from markets, greater or less value of the articles produced. The expenses are deducted H 5 lo4 LAND-TAX. from the gross receipts and calculated according to the system of farming, irrigation, &c. To allow for casualties, from -^ to ^ is deducted from the net proceeds for corn, ~ for flax, chestnuts, and olives, 1^ for hay,.i for wood. For buildings there is a separate valuation. Churches, churchyards^ for- tresses, open places, and streets, are free ; but of all other buildings the value is ascertained as nearly as possible. Machinery is free ; not so mills or water power. All buildings are assumed to be in an average state, and a reduction of 20 to 40 per cent. IS made, for the expense of keeping them in repair. Although in the course of the work the officers were in constant communication, not only with the local authorities, but also with individuals, yet the whole is to be submitted to the people for approval — not that individual objections are to be admitted, or that any fixed principles are to be departed from out of consideration for particular communi- ties. Each commune is to elect three depu- ties, to whom individuals are to address their complaints ; there are then to be district meet- ings, to which each commune sends one representa- tive; thence the affairs go to the provincial and central assemblies. Thus individuals will have an opportunity to assert their rights against individuals, commune against commune, district against district, and province against province. LAND-TAX. 155 In the district assembly, each commune has one vote, and in case of equaUty the district commis- sary has a casting vote. The pubhc officers who have been engaged in the work may be present at each of these meetings, lo afford explanations and to justify their own decisions. The lands (fields, meadows, gardens, copses, &c.) are divided into twenty classes, and there are pieces of land entered as producing a net income of only one centesimo. The number of inhabitants, of land- owners, and the value of land, vary, of course, in the different communes. I will mention a few of the highest and lowest figures. In the province Value Number of Population, of Milan. in scudi. Castellazo 12,565 jrietors. 3 143 1 201 1 147 2 176 Bernate 11,281 Trenzanesimo . 37,643 Vidiserto 25,168 On the other hand, Tirano, in the Valteline, con- tains 20,000 pertiche liable to the tax, with 10,500 numbers upon the map, and Baruffini, 13,000 per^ tiche, with 13,200 numbers. For the whole Lom- bardo-Venetian kingdom the result stands for a given period thus : — Population 4,506,000 Superficies in pertiche 42,712,000 Shares of proprietors in different communes 835,000 156 LAXD-TAX. Numbers in the maps 6,665,000 Estimated value in scudi 210,851,000 The total value of the land has here been calcu- lated according to the estimate permanently adopted in the Milanese since 1760 ; and in the Venetian districts provisionally. The number of proprietors amounts to about one half of the number of shares. In 1837, there were entered in the register, 95,885 transfers of landed property, one half having been occasioned by deaths, and the rest by sales or con- tracts. The smallest number of transfers, 1387, occurred in the province of Pavia ; the largest, 15,455, in that of Udine. The valuation by which the land-tax is levied in the Milanese has not, indeed, been altered since 1760 ; but the tax itself has been increased. Thus, subsequently to 1796, it rose as high as 48 cen- tesimi per scudo. Since 1819, it has been re- duced to 17^ centesimi ; in the Venetian lands it has also been much reduced ; but continues, nevertheless, to be higher than in the Milanese, where the increase that has taken place in the course of eighty years bears no proportion to the increased value of the land. The province of Milan pays about 21 or 22,000,000, that of Venice 12,000,000 lire. No announcement has yet been made by the government as to the rate at which the country contained within the new cadastre is to be subjected to the land-tax. Nor will this Dart of the work fail POLL-TAX. 157 to be attended with many difficulties, and grievous complaints of disproportioned burdens will not be wanting. If the Venetian districts are taxed ac- cording to the present value of land, they wall pay much more than the Milanese ; if they are taxed at a proportionably low rate, the revenue will fall short; and if an increased tax is laid on the Mi- lanese, these will certainly be dissatisfied. Generally speaking, however, the inequalities of the existing Venetian land-tax are so great, that the new cadast7-e is looked upon as a great improve- ment, and its early adoption anxiously wished for. The poll-tax is levied in open places not subject to the tax on consumption. All individuals are Hable to it, between the ages of 14 and 60, and it amounts to 3 lire 68 cent, for every inhabitant, whatever his circumstances may be. In addition to this tax levied for the state, an additional sum, not exceeding ^ lire 99 cent, may be imposed for the exigencies of the commune. The poll-tax, therefore, can never exceed the sum of 6 lire 67 centesimi. Indeed this and other additions for the commune are much more frequently raised in the shape of an augmentation of the land-tax, which is thus made to vary greatly in different parts of the country ; and in many places the local taxation by the commune amounts to more than what is le- vied for the wants of the state. This great amount of local taxation in individual communes arises 158 POLL-TAX. partly from local circumstances, and partly from the reckless manner in which the communal property was squandered away at the time of the French occupa- tion. On the other hand, there are some communes possessed of so much property, as to be able to dis- pense altogether with taxation for local purposes. There is perhaps an injustice towards the humbler part of the population in imposing the same amount of poll-tax for all classes ; this, however, is in some measure compensated by the frequent practice of raising extraordinary taxes in the shape of an aug- mentation to the land-tax, and by the circumstance that the control of the communal property may be said to be almost entirely in the hands of the small proprietors, who usually form the majority at the annual meetings of the convocato. The poor are exempt from the poll-tax. The collection of the direct taxes is farmed out on leases of three years, and sometimes the same person may hold the collection of several communes or of whole districts and provinces. The farmer of the taxes has power to proceed against defaulters, and in extreme cases the land may be sold to pay the tax. Such violent measures, however, are never heard of, and I am generally assured that public proceedings for the recovery of the tax are of ex- tremely rare occurrence. The collection is simple, and attended with very little expense. The follow- TAXES ON THE MILANESE. 159 ing particulars respecting the Milanese government may perhaps be welcome. The land liable to the tax includes pertiche 30,581,000 These are officially valued at smdi 1 24,037,000 The population in 1837 ... souls 2,453,000 Of these there dwelt in wall- ed towns liable to the tax on consumption „ 302,000 In open places, liable to the poll-tax „ 2,151000 Liable to the poll-tax ... „ 630,000 Exempt „ 53,000 Those who i-eally paid were in number „ 577,000 Liable to the tax on trades and professions ,, 76,000 Those who really paid „ 65,000 Gross receipt of land-tax lire 21,955,000 „ poll-tax " 2,116,000 ,, „ „ tax on trades and professions „ 637,000 The costs of collection were on land-tax f. per cent „ 870,000* ,, „ „ poll-tax H per cent „ 31,000 * There is an evident inaccuracy here; either a too little in the gross receipt, or a too much in the cost of collec- tion. — 7V. 160 RECEIPTS AND EXPENCES „ „ „ tax on trades and professions 2j- per cent „ 16,000 Having given the receipts and expenditure of the cities of Trieste and Venice, I will add the princi- pal items of those of Milan for the year 1837. RECEIPTS. lire. 1. Arrears from former years 290,618 2. Interest on capital 1,141 3. Rents of houses and grounds 49,455 4. Quitrents, tithes, and similar receipts from land 1,323 5. Interest on government securities, • (vio7ite) 2,398 6. Fines, &c 67,849 7. Tax on trades and professions 42,084 8. Repayment for expenses on account of the state 230,868 9. Sundry customary receipts 25,289 10. Outstanding claims and loans 980,000 11. Addition to the tax on consumption 1,116,783 12. Addition to land-tax 308,313 13. Sale of real property 1,059 14. Fees 4,034 EXPENDITURE. 1. Payment of arrears 901,255 2. Salaries 139,404 3. Official expenses {spese (Tvfficio) ... 23,758 4 Pensions , 24,961 OF THE CITY OF MILAN. 161 5. Rents 17,248 6. Interest on capital , 77,334< 7. Quitrents and tithes 7,955 8. Keeping in repair streets, canals, and pumps 68,805 9. Keeping buildings in repair 51,205 10. Cleansing streets 43,682 11. Lighting streets 143,628 12. Expenses for public rejoicings 6,908 13. Maintenance of the poor, including contributions to public charities ... 248,160 14. Indemnifications 54,754 15. Military expenses 153,766 16. Police 136,481 17. Superintendence of markets 5,503 18. Sanitary Police 10,190 19. Arrangements for preventing and ex- tinguishing fires 54,310 20. Fire-office 1,977 21. Public education 72,745 22. Sundry expenses 11,606 23. New works for streets and canals ... 833,180 24. Expenses on some buildings (?) 475 25. Debts paid off 100,000 26. Purchase of ground , 1,620 27. Extraordinary expenses, (including those occasioned by the cliolera) ... 34,397 28. Extraordinary expenses for lodging soldiers 28,329 162 TAX ON CONSUMPTION. The total expenditure amounted to 3,308,645 The total receiptsto 3,121,812 Excess of expenditure 186,833 When great extraordinary expenses fall upon any one year, (such as those occasioned by the cholera and the Emperor's coronation) the amount is not immediately raised and covered, but loans are ne- gotiated, or unusual means are resorted to. This may explain No. 10 of the receipts. The principal source of regular income is derived from the addition to the tax on consumption. It is of interest by way of comparison with Venice and Trieste, to see upon what articles this tax is laid and what the amount charged. lire. cent. Wine and vinegar per cwt. 1 15 Must Cnew wine) " " 80 Grapes " " 75 Wheat-flour sifted {abbu- ratatto) " 1 49 unsifted " 1 21 Wh eaten bread " 1 49 Wheat for grinding " 1 21 Rice " " 23 Hay, oats, and other grain {biada) " " 86 Straw " " 46 TAX ON CONSUMPTION. 163 per cwt. lire. cent. Cheese " 2 30 Timber " " 29 Wood sawed (Jegiiarni segati) " " 57 Firewood " " 6 Coals " " 57 Lime and gypsum " " 40 Brick and tiles per 100 29 Oxen each 7 47 Cows and heifers " 5 75 Calves " 2 64 Pigs " 3 45 The expenditure and receipts of all the cities of Lombardy together amount annually to from 36 to 46,000,000 lire. LETTER XXL Lombard V — Custom* — Goveniment Monopolies — Lottery — Domains and Forests — Revenueof the State — Public Debt. Milan, April 22. If time and space allowed, I should like to insti- tute a comparison between the present limes and those that immediately succeeded the French revo- lution ; on this subject, however, full information may be obtained from Conti's work on the Financial Administration of the kingdom of Italy, and from Pecchio's work on the same subject. I shall at 164 STATE OF LOMBARDY present confine myself to a few extracts from the latter. " The class of proprietors," he says, " from 1796 till 1802, were despised, oppressed, and dis- turbed in the enjoyment of their rights, habits, in- clinations, and prejudices. The communal ex- penses, at the same time, increased with every year ; and, instead of coming to an understanding with the local authorities, the several branches of the administration were at variance, and acted like hostile powers. Many proprietors could not pay the land-tax, because it amounted to more than the receipts from the land, and property taken in execu- tion and offered for sale could meet with no pur- chaser. The commercial treaties with France were entirely in the interest of the stronger power by whom they had been imposed. Taxes, rates of in- surance, and smuggling, increased simultaneously, and the expense of collecting the revenue rose to 17 per cent. The registration fees {droits d'en- registrement) were levied with such strictness, that the heir was obliged to pay the full amount, even when the debts which he had to pay amounted to more than the value of the property. The anxiety of the minister to increase the revenue by a few thousand lire amounted sometimes to positive in- sanity. In 1806, for instance, he taxed the vege- tables which the peasants brought in hand-baskets into the city. They were, moreover, obliged to UNDER THE FRENCH. 165 wait at the gates, until a sufficient number had been collected to make it worth while to write out a receipt, and then long disputes followed as to the proportion in which each ought to contribute his share/' Among the expenses of 1808, we find a contribution of 30,000,000 hre to France, 42,000,000 for military expenses, and only 200,000 for chui'ches and schools. Fortunately for the country, there were some redeeming circumstances, such as improved roads and canals, a free inter- course in Italy, increased cultivation and consump- tion, the establishment of several new manufac- tories, agricultural associations, &c. Many of the institutions of the time have been retained, others changed. At present there exists in walled towns a tax on consumption, which dif- fers in amount in different places. To this end the several towns have been divided into four classes. The tax does not everywhere extend to the same articles, but generally includes wine, spirits, flour, bi'ead, cattle, fish, oil, butter, cheese, hay, straw, wood, coals, and a few other articles. The mill- tax is levied at the mills, the others mostly at the town gates. In places not surrounded by walls, the inhabitants in general are not liable to the consumption tax ; but certain trades are nevertheless obliged to pay it. Thus, bakers, butchers, wine-merchants, and inn- 166 TAX ON CONSUMPTION AND TRADES. keepers, are liable to a meal, meat, or wine tax, and none are allowed to carry on these trades, unless enrolled in the official list. The baker pays from 75 to 80 centesimi on every cwt. of flour; the wine merchant, 80 cent, on each cwt. of wine, and from 2 to 3 lire on spirits. Oxen, 16 lire ; cows, 12 ; calves, 6 ; pigs, 4 ; and sheep, goats, and lambs, 50 centesimi, if they weigh more than half a cwt., and 25 cent, if less. Whoever kills for his own con- sumption is exempt. This rural tax on consumption is usually farmed out to the best bidder, who collects the tax from the several persons liable to it, or makes an agreement with the bakers, butchers, &c. for a stipulated sum. While some defend the ex- pediency of this tax, on account of the facility of the collection, others maintain that the revenue de- rived from it is insignificant, campared with the endless fraud and chicanery to which it gives rise. The truth, probably, inclines to the latter view of the question. Although taxes (calmieri) on trades have, gener. ally speaking, been abolished, they have been retained in a few places ; in Milan, for instance, the bakers are still subject to the tax. Some of the butchers, likewise, pay a duty on beef, others do not; but as those subject to the tax have their weights inspected and their prices fixed by the police, they enjoy CUSTOMS. 1G7 greater confidence with the pubhc, and it is con- sidered an advantage to be placed on the hst. With respect to customs, the object of the Austrian government is gradually to abolish all prohibitions, and to reduce all exorbitant duties. From this object, it must be confessed the present state of things is, as in most countries, still very re- mote. The importation of certain articles, includ- ing most foreign manufactures, continues to be pro- hibited ; for instance, all fabrics of cotton, flax, silk, wool, iron, ivory, porcelain, straw, chocolate, macaroni, &c. The department of finance may, how- ever, authorise individual exceptions ; but then the quantity must not be larger than, at an ad valorem duty of 60 per cent., would pay fifty florins. Simi- lar permissions are necessary to authorise the expor- tation of certain articles, as raw iron, rags, works of art, &c. An unconditional prohibition rests upon the importation of salt, artificial mineral waters, sub- stitutes for coffee, and prayer-books printed abroad ; as also on the exportation of silkworms, gold and silver ore, &c. On gold and silver coins, machinery. Sic, no importation duty is charged. The duty is charged by weight, value, or tale, and, in addition to the duty itself, there are generally fees for certi- ficates, sealing, weighing, &c. The tariff" has un- dergone many variations since the peace ; on some articles the duty has been reduced, on many more it has been raised. Thus, for instance, in — 168 GOVERNMENT MONOPOLIES. 1823. 1831. Winepaidpercwt. 2 to 26 lire. 10 to 40 lire. Sugar 48 80 37 112 Raw cotton 18 lire 75 cent. 18 lire 75 cent. Paper 40 to 107 lire. 17 to 53 lire. Beer (in casks)... 4 lire 28 cent. 8 lire 30 cent. CofFee 75 lire. 112i lire. On almost every kind of corn and cattle, the duty has been raised since 1831, and, in most instances, doubled. Thus in — 1823. 1831. An ox paid 5 lire. 12 lire. A cow 3 6 A mule 3 12 lire, A sheep 45 cent. 90 cent. That the tariff' admits of great simplification may be judged from the circumstance, that the single article of hides occupies 90 items; in the last ta- riff" but one, it occupied no fewer than 152. Saltpetre, gunpowder, tobacco, and salt, are com- mercial monopolies reserved by the state. With respect to these, the regulations are so severe, that the cultivation of tobacco is prohibited, and salt- springs not worked by government must be filled up. The price of salt is immeasurably higher than it would be were the trade open ; the monopoly, therefore, constitutes a tax, which, like the poll-tax, falls most heavily on the humbler classes. REVENUES OF THE STATE. 169 The lottery still continues, and operates most perniciously. The public lands and forests have, for the most part, been sold, and the latter nearly destroyed. Those belonging to the communes and to public institutions are subject to fixed regula- tions, which are very rarely enforced with respect to private property. The state revenues have risen in amount, less in consequence of the increase of duties than of the increased production and consumption. In the Milanese, the land-tax amounts to 21,900,000 hre. The personal tax to 2,000,000 The tax on trades and profes- sions to 600,000 When to these all the other branches of revenue are added, the total amounts to fifty odd millions of lire. To the reduction of the public debt, the govern- ment has given great attention. The interest is generally 5 per cent., and is regularly paid. The 5 per cents, are at 113, and enjoy great confidence. They are entered to the names of the holders, and when sold, must be formally transferred. VOL. I. 170 AGRICULTURE. LETTER XXII. Lombardy — Agriculture — Rearing of Cattle — Cultivation of the Silk Worm. Milan, April 23. Perhaps I ought here to add something with respect to the personal position of the rural popula- tion ; but it appears to me more expedient to re- serve the subject till I have revisited and compared a greater number of the Italian states. I shall con- fine myself, therefore, to a few particulars borrowed from M. Czornig's experience. In Lombardy there is one ecclesiastic to every 238 inhabitants, a num- ber which is not considered disproportionate, when the wide dispersion of the population is taken into account. Of monks, mostly of charitable orders, there are only 140. Four-fifths of the whole popu- lation are, directly or indirectly, connected with agriculture. Nearly one-fifth subsist by trades and professions. Circumstances into Avhich I cannot here enter more at large, give a great iniportance to advocates, notaries, land surveyors, and accountants. In all Lombardy there are 598 doctors of medi- cine, 323 doctors of surgery, 996 doctors of medi- cine and surgery, in all 1917 graduated medical men, and 1321 midwives. Of the whole superficies of Lombardy, about eight-ninths are under cultivation, and about in these proportions : — AGRICULTURAL PRODUCE. 171 Per Cent. Arable 67 "J Pasture 12 Von an average. Wood 21 3 On this point, however, great diversity exists in different parts of the country. Thus — In Pavia, 92 per cent, arable, 3 pasture, 5 wood. InSondrio, 13 40 47 The following is stated to have been the produce of the soil in 1836:— Rye Vienna Metzen* 440,000 Oats 336,000 Barley 94,000 Beans, peas, &c 132,000 Wheat 2,163,000 Indian corn 3,653,000 Rice 479,000 Millet 244,000 Chestnuts cwt. 158,000 Potatoes 305,000 Orchard fruit 238,000 Oil 74,000 Flax 96,000 Straw 5,300,000 Hay, clover, &c 10,110,000 Cheese, butter, and honey 696,000 The Vienna Metz is equal to 1 7-lOtns of a Winches- ter bushel. I 2 172 CATTLE. Silk 170,000 Wine Eimer 1,916,000 Wood Klafter 809,000 Some articles in Lombardy are dearer, others cheaper than in the German portions of the Aus- trian empire. Among the former are rye, oats, wood, potatoes, beef, &c. ; among the latter, wine, Indian corn, and straw. Although in Lombardy much of the labour is done by hand, draught cattle ai*e nevertheless kept in great numbers, indeed there are few countries where cattle of every kind abound more ; I give tlie average amount for all Lombardy, and at the same time of those di>tricts in which the numbers are largest and smallest. There were in Lombardy, JNlaximum. Minimum. Horses kept for pleasure 7,538 Milan 2853 Sondrio 93 Do. employed in agricul- ture 51,808 Lodi 9,616 Sondrio 1522 Asses 13,47613ergamo2,839 Pavia 237 Cows 257,839 Como 57,000 Cremona9700 Sheep 168,000 Berg. 59,000 Pavia 500 Taking the calculation in a different form, we find throughout Lombardy, on an average, for every geographical square mile : — Hnises. Assps& Mules. Oxen. Cows. Total. 156 66 402 666 1178 CATTLE. 173 Horses. Asses & Mules. Oxen. Cuws. Totul. Maximum in the district of Milan... 363 139 470 1292 2264 Minimum in Sondrio... 18 16 17 332 397 Contrary to a prevailing opinion, supported by individual instances, we find throughout Lombardy, that the most densely peopled districts are those in which the greatest number of cattle are main- tained. Cows are generally bought in Switzerland, Avhere they can be reared at less expense. The calves are killed for meat. The cheese known by the name of Parmesan is made chiefly in the country extend- ing from Milan to Pavia and Lodi, and from Ab- biategrasso on the Ticino to Codogno, near the Adda. The value of the cheese annually made, is calculated, on an average, to amount to 37| millions of lire. The cultivation of silk is that which has increased more than any other branch of Industry, and is at once the simplest, the cheapest, and the most pro- fitable.* It plays, in the Lombardo-Venetian king- dom, a part almost more important than the rear- ing of sheep does in the north of Germany. From year to year the mulberry trees increase in number, covering the fields from Lago Maggiore to near * Czoriiig, in the Echo, 1837, No. 5. 174 SILK. Treviso, though without interfering with the usual labours of agriculture. The districts of Brescia Cremona, Verona, and Mantua, participate most largely in the cultivation of silk ; in Brianza, the treatment is considered the best, and Milan and Bergamo form the central points of the whole trade. In 1800, the silk collected amounted to 1,800,000 pounds, at present it is said to be about 7,000,000 pounds. During the last twenty years, the quantity, I am assured, has increased threefold, and the value sixfold. This led to ill-judged speculations, with a view to bring the silk trade into a few hands, and to maintain prices at an artificial height. False hopes were raised of an almost unlimited advance. The consequence was, a tremendous depreciation in the years 1834 and 5, something similar to what took place in Germany with respect to the wool trade. The same danger which seems to threaten the latter from New Holland appears to be impend- ing over the silk trade from Asia. The importa- tion of silk from Asia into London increased from 1825 to 1838 at the rate of 36| per cent. In 1800-1802, it amounted to 1,350,000 pounds weight, and in 1830-1832, it had already increased to 6,138,000 pounds. At present, however, the silk trade continues to increase in Italy, and prices ap- pear to have fixed themselves at a tolerably sta- tionary point. The weaving of silk has likewise in- creased in Lombardy ; but is of little importance as I SILK. 175 yet, employing only 2,349 looms, and 3,276 la- bourers. The following is the amount of silk col- lected in the different states of Italy : — In Piedmont, and Genoa 2,000,000 lb. Lombardy & the Southern Tyrol 7,000,000 Parma, Modena, Lucca 550,000 Tuscany 300,000 States of the Church 800,000 Naples and Sicily 1,200,000 In all 11,850,0001b. which, at the high prices of 1836, amounted in value to the enormous sum of 374 millions of lire. It has been calculated that there are annually brought into the European market 74,000 bales of silk, each on an average weighing 73^ kilogrammes, or 128^ Vienna pounds (170lbs. Enghsh) viz: — From Italy, exclusively of what is worked up in the country 34,000 bales France 10,500 India and Bengal 9,500 China and Canton 4,000 Persia 7,500 Asia Minor 3,500 The Archipelago and the Levant 3,500 Spain 1,500 Presumed total 74,000 bales. 176 SILK. Of these there are consumed, By France 22,000 bales England 28,000 Prussia 7,600 Austria and Germany ... 5,000 Russia 6,400 Switzerland 5,000 Such eminent works have been written by men thoroughly masters of the subject on the cultiva- tion of. silk, that it would be quite impertinent for me to attempt to dwell upon it. I will only state a few curious facts borrowed from Burger's book. Twenty-four thousand eggs of the silkworm weigh a quarter of an ounce. The worm lives from forty- five to fifty-three days, increases his weight in thirty days 9,500 fold, and during the last twenty- eight days of his life eats nothing. For 739 pounds of mulberry leaves seventy pounds of cocoons are obtained ; 100 pounds of cocoons give 8-^ pounds of spun silk, and one pound of cocoons will produce a single thread 88,000 fathoms in length. Enough has been said to show that the Lombardo- Venetian kingdom is a rich country. Government and communes have done much for public utility, having expended large sums on roads, canals, bridges, churches, public buildings, S:c. The roads, particularly in the plains, as well as over the mountains, are kept in the best repair, without any CHARITABLE INSTITUTIONS. 177 toll being levied upon them. The wealth of the country, it is true, is very unequally divided, and the poor are very numerous. I must,howeverj repeat here what I said in my letter on Venice, namely, that there is scarcely any country that possesses greater and more richly endowed institutions of charity, than the north of Italy. In the Venetian districts (independently of the city of Venice) the yearly income from endowments amounts to nearly a million of florins ; and in the city of Milan alone the hospitals and other charitable institutions possess property to the amount of 61 1 millions of lire, without including the suras annually paid by government and the commune. The large hospital is the wealthiest of all, being endowed with pro- perty worth ISf millions of lire; besides which there are a multitude of institutions for orphans, foundlings, widows, and aged people ; an institution for lending money on reasonable terras, &c. &c. The savings banks are also raakino; a besinninsr. The capital accumulated amounts to 8352 lire ; of which 5605 lire belong to Milan. This, to be sure, in comparison with what has elsewhere been done, particularly in England, is a mere trifle. I o 178 CRIMES. LETTER XXIII. Lonibardy — Crimes — Foundling Hospitals — Illegitimate Cliildreu. Turin, April 27. In my book about England I called attention to the fact, that very hasty and incorrect deductions are often drawn from the amount of crime com- mitted in any particular country. The mere num- ber of offences committed proves very little, unless the character of those offences be more accurately described ; and such a description even leaves us comparatively in darkness, unless we take into consideration the effects of want, war, bad harvests, the nature of the police, social relations, popular habits, &c. The more facts, however, we collect from different countries, the sooner we shall be able to avoid erroneous conclusions, and the nearer shall we approach to truth. Under these circum- stances, therefore, a review of the crimes committed in the government of Milan during the last ten years may not be without interest. 1829 1830 1831 1832 1833 183i 1835 1836 1837 1838 Hi;^li Treasou . 23 6 3 12 4 Disturbance of public traaquillity . 13 3 3 Oi.eu violence 36 31 48 49 84 53 38 36 69 59 Abuse of official au- thoriry . . 12 11 2 11 Coiniug . . 12 14 17 22 43 51 14 16 59 48 CRIMES. ] i79 1829 : 1830 1831 1832 1833 : 1834 1835 1836 1837 1838 luterruptiou of diviae service 1 1 Rape. &c. 3 9 12 7 6 6 7 6 6 4 Murder and man- slaughter 1 8 13 13 6 4 1 5 6 2 Inflicting wounds 5 15 3 8 9 11 7 6 5 9 Dangerous exposure of children 4 7 8 3 10 11 5 4 5 4 Duelling Arson 14 18 19 IG 18 24 13 19 17 22 Theft and betrayal of trust 970 987 1013 1121 1024 787 600 1097 1123 867 Highway robbery 214 231 214 170 249 194 172 163 201 148 Swindling ((rw/^a) . 4 18 15 6 17 15 4 14 29 21 Bigamy • , Calumny 1 1 1 Affording assistance to criminals 1 1 2 1 1 1 Total 1263 1342 1371 1445 1478 1163 864 1390 1523 : 1190 Not to fall myself into the mistake above alluded to, I shall add but few remarks to this table. In the first place there is no progressive increase or diminution of crime, whence any juridical or moral deductions might be drawn ; on the contrary, the augmentation or diminution in particular years of certain kinds of offences may be easily traced to the circumstances of the times, such as political distur- bances, failure of harvests, &c. Coining, {Julsificazione delle monete) appears to be more frequent than in many other countries ; and we have a full confirmation of the old complaint that highway robbery is more prevalent in Italy than any where else, no code of laws having yet been able to extirpate it. Theft and murder are rare in proportion to robbery, though even under 180 CRIMES. those heads it cannot be said that the Italians have yet discovered the juste milieu. It cannot but appear strange that the offence of duelling should present one continued blank throughout ten years. Is this owing to magisterial lenity, to a deficiency of courage, or to just views of the barbarous and unchristian character of the practice ? Suicides are numerous, particularly in Milan. Child-murder is not enumerated, but in its stead we find the heading " dangerous exposure." This is natural enough ; where exposure without danger is a thing of every-day occurrence, and encouraged by a false notion of humanity, that which is dangerous can alone be punished. Child-murder, moreover, would be a very superHuous crime, in a country where there are means of relieving one's conscience in a much more convenient manner. This must not, however, blind us to the dark side of the picture. In 1831, no fewer than 2625 children were brought to the foundling hospital of Milan, although in the whole district only 1576 illegitimate children were born in that year. Even supposing, therefore, (which would be a very erroneous supposition) that all illegitimate children had been brought to the foundling hospital, there must even then have been 1049 legitimate children among the found- lings of that year. In 1836, the foundlings at Milan were in number 2963, of whom 1764 died. i FOUNDLINGS. 181 The number of children maintained that year in the hospital was 9892. One-tliird of all the chil- dren born in Milan, or one-fifteenth of all those born in the country, were, therefore, unfeelingly abandoned by their parents ! What immorality ! What a senseless expenditure of public money ! On this point much more effect might be relied on from legislative interference than from most well- meant endeavours to diminish crime ; and are not fraud and theft, crimes against the goods and the gold of strangers, acts of innocence when compared with the fraud thus committed by parents against their own children ? There is one subject, connected with the last, which deserves to be pointed out. The proportion- ably small number of illegitimate children was ex- plained to me as arising from the levity with which early marriages are contracted, as also from the strict control under which young girls are kept. I was assured that it is generally deemed a more venial off*ence to intrigue with a married woman, than with an unmarried one, and the same opinion prevails among the women. Hence, it is believed that the number of foundlings is very much augmented by the illegitimate children born in wedlock. Thus the cost of maintaining illegitimate children is avoided, while for those born in wedlock the law points out a father, who, if they were not abandoned, 182 PUBLIC SCHOOLS. would be forced to provide for their subsistence. These sentiments, I own, appear to me a refine- ment of immorality ; a smaller evil is made to give way to a greater, and the devil is driven out by Beelzebub, the prince of devils. LETTER XXIV. Lotnbardy — Schools — Gy m nasi urns. Turin, April 28. i SHALL have this time to speak on a more grati- fying subject, that of public schools, with respect to which, government, communes, and individuals manifest a laudable emulation. The prevailing opinion seems to be, that much has already been done for elementary schools, but that the institu- tions of a superior order (universities and gym- nasiums) still require great reforms. According to the principal law on the subject of schools of an inferior order, there are two gradations of elemen- tary schools, from those with one class to those with three or four. To these are added what are called technical schools. In the lower elementary schools the first principles of religion are taught, together with reading, writing, and arithmetic. The higher elementary schools are intended for those who purpose devoting themselves to the arts or sciences. The technical schools are chiefly in- PUBLIC SCHOOLS. 183 tended to prepare youth for commerce and agricul- ture. The law compels parents to send their chil- dren to school between the ages of six and twelve, and a fine of half a lira per month is incurred by those who neglect to do so ; but is not enforced in Lombardy. Wherever circumstances allow of its being done, the education of boys is separate from that of girls. A building for school, and the ne- cessary supply of desks, forms, &c. must be pro- vided by the commune. In the cold and moun- tainous districts only are the schoolrooms warmed in winter. The books prescribed for these schools vary in price from forty-two centesimi to a florin. In the higher elementary schools, religion, ortho- graphy, Italian grammar, the elements of Latin, mathematics, natural philosophy', geography, and natural history, are taught. In the technical schools instruction is given in modern languages, — English, German, and French. The clergy are recommended, not merely to give religious instruc- tion, but also to take charge of some other of the lessons. The general superintendence of religious instruction is committed to the bishops. For opening a private school, an express permission must be obtained from government. Some very paternal admonitions are contained in the instructions by which it is intended that teachers and pupils should guide their conduct. Among 184 ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS. other things, the rising generation are told : " Be- fore leaving home, take care that your clothes be clean. Wash your hands, cut your nails, and comb your hair. On arriving at school, wipe the dirt or snow from your feet, and shake your hats and cloaks. Take care not to soil or otherwise in- jure benches, forms, tables, windows, doors, walls, &c. The elementary schools in Lombardy* amounted in number, in 1835 1836 1837 to 4i22 4470 4531 including private schools 701 695 726 In 1837, there remained only 66 communes with- out an elementary school for boys, so that, if the education be not general among children, the fault must arise less from the want of public institutions than from the want of good-will. The outlay for elementary schools amounted in 1837 to 507,000 florins. Of this 21,000 florins were derived from endowments, 423,000 were contributed by the communes, and 63,000 were defrayed by the state. Of every 100 schools, 84 were public, and of every 100 pupils, 59 were boys and 41 girls. Aboi.t three-fifths of the children of a suitable affe attend school ; and of those that do so, 91 per cent, attend public and 9 per cent, private schools. The * III 1S34, there were in the Venetian part of the kinn;dom 1438 schools, with 81,372 pupils, and 1676 male and female teachers. GYMNASIUMS. 185 teachers, (including 2226 clergymen, directors, and school authorities,) amount in number to 6284. The cholera created a serious interruption at the time; nevertheless, the children attending schools have increased 3242 in number since 1835-7, and of tliis increase the greater proportion are girls. The infant schools are attended by 2026 children, and directed by 93 teachers ; their yearly revenues amount to about 16,000 florins. Thus we every- where perceive the cause of education advancing, and the several communes manifest their praise- worthy sympathy by constantly increasing votes for the support of schools. In immediate connexion with the higher order of elementary schools are the gymnasiums, of which some are public, some communal, some in imme- diate dependence on the bishops, and others private institutions. In Lombardy, in 1837, there were 10 imperial gymnasiums, with 96 teachers and 2865 pupils; 8 communal, with 1291 pupils. The private gymnasiums were attended by about 1168 pupils. None but teachers who have been strictly examined are allowed to give lessons in a private gymnasium, the pupils must all be entered on the list of a pub- lic school, to which they are bound to pay a yearly contribution of two florins, and at which they must submit to periodical examinations. Private gym- nasiums must adopt the course of study prescribed 186 GYMNASIUMS. for public institutions, and must not allow their pupils to remain less than the regulated period in each class. Those intended for the church, for the medical profession, or for that of architecture, must be educated at a public school, and those intended for the law are subject to a variety of stringent rules. All the elementary schools of Lombardy are placed under an inspector, and another officer has the gymnasiums under his control. All vacancies for teachers are thrown open to public competition, and it is only after examination that they are con- firmed in their appointments by a government order. To every gymnasium are in general attached a rector, a religious teacher, four professors of gram- mar, and two of humanity, (d' umanitd). To limit the number of those who crowd into the learned professions, it has of late years been prescribed that no pupil shall be received at a gymnasium be- fore his tenth or after his fourteenth year. From this regulation, however, constant exceptions are made, as it has been found that a rigid enforcement would have the effect of excluding the cleverest and most industrious children. Corporal punishments have everywhere been abolished. On Sundays all the pupils of a gymna- sium attend church. Not more than 80 pupils must be included in the same class. Thursday GYMNASIUMS. 187 is always a holiday. On each of the other five days there are only four school hours. The hohdays, in addition to those on occasion of the church festi- vals, last from the 9th of September to the 1st of November. The regular course of study in each gymnasium lasts six years, during which the pupil has to pass through four classes of grammar and two of hu- manity. In the first grammatical class are taught : Italian, the rudiments of Latin, arithmetic, geogra- phy, and religion. In the second class, the same course is continued, but Roman antiquity, and the geography and history of the Austrian monarchy, are added. In the third grammatical class, Greek is added ; and in the fourth, Latin prosody. In the first humanity class are taught rhetoric, poetry, algebra, geography, history, and religion; in the second the same subjects continue to employ the pupil. A pupil who does not intend to study medicine, or to go into the church, may obtain a dis- pensation from Greek. In every branch of study, the school-books are prescribed by the higher authorities. Latin and Greek are taught exclusively through the medium of anthologies and selections, in which there are difficult extracts intended for the more advanced pupils. Among the Greek selections for the first humanity class are extracts from Hierocles, iEsop, 188 COMMERCIAL SCHOOLS. -^lian, Diogenes Laertius, Plutarch, Athenaeua, Strabo, Stobaeus, Sextus Enipiricus, Diodorus, Dionysius of Halicarnassus, Apollodorus, Lucian, Herodotus, Anacreon, Homer, Hesiod, Theocritus, Bion, Moschus, Meleager, Tyrtseus, Solon, Or- pheus, the Tragedians, and Aristophanes. The Latin selections arc compiled on the same principle, passages even from IMuretus and Owen being in- cluded. Particular attention is paid to the old- fashioned rhetorical arrangement ; consequently, descriptions, narratives, &c., from the most differ- ent writers, follow one another. A new law was promulgated in 1838 on the sub- ject of technical or commercial schools. These are intended to prepare the future trader and mechanic, and are therefore to give a practical direction to their studies, always keeping in view the interests of the Austrian monarchy and those of the Lombardo- Venetian kingdom. The towns in which these schools are established must furnish a suitable building and all the requisite furniture. Sec; the rest of the charge is defrayed by government. Each teacher gives from 4 to 15 lessons weekly, and their salaries vary from 400 to 800 florins. Each school is divided into three classes, into the junior of which a boy may pass from the gram- matical first class of a gymnasium. In the first class of a technical school, (the first class always COMMERCIAL SCHOOLS. 189 means the lowest,) the pupil is obliged to attend weekly 2 lessons of religion, 3 of Italian grammar, 3 of geography, 4 of mathematics, 3 of zoology, 6 of drawing, 4 of writing, in all 25 lessons, of an hour each ; in addition to these, there are 2 lessons of German, and 2 of French, the attendance on which is optional In the second class, botany is substituted for zoology. In the third class are given 2 lessons of religion, 3 of Italian style, 7 of natural philosophy, 3 of mineralogy, in all 15 obligatory lessons. In addition to these, there are 5 lessons of chemistry, 5 of commercial science, 5 of book-keeping, and 3 of commercial corre- spondence. Of these the pupil may choose whether he will attend the lessons of chemistry and one of the other three subjects, or whether he will attend the last three without chemistry. Of these technical schools many as yet have been only planned. There is also a special school for Veterinary surgery, with 5 teachers, 41 pupils, and an expenditure of 71,643 lire; Chemistry, with 3 teachers, 15 pupils, and an expenditure of 6,750 lire ; Midwives, with 3 teachers, 71 pupils, and an expenditure of 24,432 lire. This last institution is m connection with the lying-in and foundling hospitals. For future theologians, on leaving the elementary schools, distinct institutions are provided in the 190 REMARKS ON THE SCHOOLS episcopal seminaries, of which there is one attached to every see. The largest, at Milan, in 1837, con- tained 403 pupils ; the smallest, at Crema, only 10. In these the teachers are appointed by the bishop, but satisfactory proof of their capacity must be given to the temporal authorities. LETTER XXV. Remarks ou the course of instruction in the schools of Lombardy. Turin, April 29. My last letter affords matter form any reflections and comparisons ; but I will leave them to others, confining myself to a few merely explanatory re- marks. In the first place, the elementary instruction is so simple, and the natural progress so evident, that there appears, in this respect, to be no very import- ant difference between the German system and that of Lombardy. The only thing to be wished for is, that the number of good teachers may in- crease in proportion to the number of pupils. To the credit of the clergy be it said that, in addition to the regular hours of religious instruction, they sometimes take charge of one or two other branches, a course perfectly consistent with the duties of their profession. OF LOMBARD Y. 191 Secondly — the limited number of school-hours at the gymnasium.s is explained by the work which the children are expected to do at home, and the incom- patibility of an Italian temperament with long con- finement. The work to be done at home is, how- ever, much less considerable than at a public school in Germany ; and the vivacity of the Italian tem- perament might just as reasonably be adduced as a motive for subjecting the pupils to a more strict and continuous discipline. Besides, in other parts of Italy, we shall see that the number of school-hours is greater. On other grounds, therefore, must be decided the question, whether an increase in the number of lessons be desirable or not ; and also, whether it would not be better to give two half- holidays in the week, as with us, than to sacrifice one whole day out of six, as is done in Lombardy. Thirdly — I have to observe that under the word grammar is included not only Latin, but every instruction in the native language. Greek is thrown too much into the back-ground ; and, however laud- able it may be to attend to the geography and his- tory of Austria, it may be much doubted whe- ther it be "well judged to assign to them so marked a precedence before every other kind of historical instruction. Fourthly — the reading nothing but fragmentary collections is defended on the ground that it is ex- 192 REMARKS ON THE SCHOOLS pedient to make a pupil acquainted with a variety of authors, and with the different kinds of Latin and Greek. It must be owned that, in our German schools, where a contrary system prevails, many a young scholar becomes acquainted with all the de- licacies of one author, without being able even to construe another, with whose particular style he happens not to be acquainted. It would perhaps be better to combine the two systems, and not to make the acquirement of dead languages the main object, where the student is in point of fact intended for some more active pursuit ; otherwise, the stu- dent, instead of having his character strengthened and his judgment improved by the full impression of ancient greatness, is likely to conceive a disgust of all classical studies, and never to take a Greek or Roman into his hand again, when once he has left school. Who will deny that such is with us the rule, and the contrary the exception .'' Fifthly — It may be doubted, perhaps, whether it be advisable to draw the future theologian, like other students, into the full current of temporal aflFairs; and it is just as doubtful whether it is advisable to detach him completely from the world, and yet require him, when he comes to mingle in it, to understand, to estimate, and to guide it. Sixthly — Whether our public schools in Get- OF LOMBARDY. 193 many are not more efficient, and whether they do not prepare the student better for the university than those of Lombardy are questions that do not admit of a doubt. On that very account, however, the lyceum and the course of philosophy have been cstabhshed. Of these more in my next; for the present I will only call attention, Seventhly — to a most important point, namely that in the Lombardo- Venetian kingdom all public instruction, whether in the elementary schools, or at a gymnasium, a lyceum, or a university, is altogether gratuitous. I am aware of the motives by which the demand of payment is usually justified ; nor do I require to be told that what is given away rarely fails to be undervalued ; nevertheless, there is something gratifying in the idea of education without any cost to the parents : much anxiety is thus prevented, as well as many little selfish ma- noeuvres. LETTER XXVI. Lombardy — Lyceums — Universities — Academy — Exhibition of Works of Art. Turin, April 30. I HAVE to treat to-day of an institution of Lom- bardy (partly of French origin) which differs ma- VOL. I. K 194 LYCEUMS. terially from our system ; I mean of the Lyceums, and what is called the course of philosophical studies. It is generally thought that die gym- nasium affords but an insufficient preparation for the study of divinity, law, or medicine, and even for those who, without purposing to devote them- selves to either of those professions, intend to com- pete for appointments to certain public offices. For such students, therefore, a two years' course is opened at the lyceum, or in the philosophical faculty of a university. Before completing this course, a student cannot be entered for either of the three other faculties. In Prussia we have no corresponding regulation. The subjects here treated of at the lyceums are with us cither attended to at the public school, or may be studied at the univer- sity simultaneously with divinity, jurisprudence, or medicine. Here no student can enter a lyceum without a certificate of maturity from the gymna- sium ; nor can he be entered for either of the three faculties, without a certificate to show that he has passed through the intermediate two years' course, which is never curtailed, though, with respect to some of the lectures, it is left to the option of the students to attend them or not, as they please. The discipline under which they are kept is tolerably strict. They must not go to a theatre, ball, or any place of public amusement, without express per- UNIVERSITIES. 195 mission, nor are circulating libraries allowed to lend them novels or the Conversations-Lexicon. On Sundays they must go to church, and six times a year they must confess and receive the communion. There are in Lombardy seven imperial lyceums, one civic at Lodi, and eight episcopal, connected with the seminaries. They are attended by 1600 students. The imperial lyceums cost the govern- ment about 137,000 lire annually. In the Lombardo- Venetian kingdom there are two universities, those of Padua and Pavia, where the course of study is under the control of the di- rectors of the several faculties, who in their turn are responsible to the governor of the province. The directors propose candidates to fill up vacan- cies, suggest modifications in the course of study, see that the professors arrange their lectures in a suitable manner, that they do not wander away from their subjects, and that they lead a moral life ; the directors are also to examine class-books and academical discourses, to be frequently present at the lectures, to take part in the deliberations of the Senate, to call the faculties together, and to super- intend the election of a dean. These directors, who are not professors, are said to have all the real power in their hands, the rector being a representative without influence, and the functions of the dean being confined to the care of K 2 196 UNIVERSITIES. some matters of a purely scientific character. Every thing belonging to discipline and the maintenance of order is also in the hands of the directors. An ordinance relating to the University of Padua, dated the 8th of April, 1825, declares that institution to be immediately under xhe giihernhim. A general assembly includes not only the directors, deans, and professors, but likewise all doctors who have graduated at Padua, and reside in the city. The rector is elected annually from the different faculties in succession, and not only the professors but also each of the doctors just mentioned has a voice in the election, and is himself eligible to the dignity. The Senate selects three candidates from the faculty next in succession, after which a ma- jority of votes determines the election, subject to the confirmation of the government. The rector calls the Senate together twice a year, when a report is read of all that has been done by him during the interval. His power, however, in this respect, is greatly cramped, especially by means of the direc- tors. The dean must be a doctor of the faculty to which he belongs, but, in that of law or medicine, must not himself be a professor. In the other faculties, professors are eligible to the dignity of dean. The dean is to keep an historical chronicle of everything relating to the faculty. All lectures are gratuitous, with the exception that twelve lire UNIVERSITIES. 197 are paid by the higher order of nobles on entering their names, nine bv the inferior nobles, six by a wealthy citizen, and three by any other student. With respect to the relation between doctors and professors, the law says : the faculties are con- sidered as academical corporations, distinct {sepa- rati) from the professors. Although the doctors, therefore, do not belong to the body of instructors, they have a central point of union, to consult to- gether, and place their suggestions before the autho- rities. They likewise serve the state, as an assembly of well-informed men, whose opinion may be con- sulted and listened to. The university of Padua has the four customary faculties. The Senate consists of the following per- sons : the rector, four directors, four deans, and four ancients among the professors. There are six ordinary professors of divinity, eight of law, twelve of medicine, nine of the philosophical sciences, be- sides a few deputies and assistants, but not, as with us, a set of extraordinary professors and private tutors. The general assembly, including the doctors, consistsof twenty-four theologians, fifty-seven jurists, twenty-four physicians, and thirty philosophers. The university course, for divinity and law, lasts four years ; for medicine and surgery five ; and for those who study surgery only, three or four years. Every half-year the students are examined. At 1P8 UNIVERSITIES. the end of two years they obtain the dignity of bachelor, and at the end of three, that of a licentiate. The dignity of doctor is not conferred before the end of the fourth year, nor till after a general exa- mination. The candidate must publicly defend a I^atin thesis, but no mention is made of any essay required to be printed. The university of Pavia has no theological faculty, but in every other respect the same constitution as that of Padua. There are at present thirty-eight professors, three adjuncts, and eleven assessors. Of these, eleven professors and two adjuncts belong to the philosophical faculty ; four professors and one assessor to the mathematical division of the faculty ; eight professors and one adjunct to the legal; and fifteen professors and ten assessors to the medical faculty. The mathematical division of the philosophical faculty is chiefly intended for the education of land- surveyors and engineers. A student can enter it on completing his course of philosophy. The pay- ment of the several teachers, in 1837, amounted — Lire. For the faculty of jurisprudence, to 24,000 For that of medicine 75,000 For the philosophical and mathema- tical teachers 69,000 For adjuncts 16,000 UNIVERSITIES. 199 The library received 3,000 lire (three lire = one florin) ; the botanical garden, 2,800 ; the agrarian garden, 1,200 ; the museum of natural history, 1,700 ; the physical cabinet, 2,620 ; the whole ex- penditure for the university amounted to 250,000 lire. The expense of a degree comes to 949 lire for a jurist ; to 570, for a physician ; to 343, for a sur- geon, &c. In 18-37 there were made, Doctors of Law , 33 „ Medicine ..., 112 „ Surgery 95 Masters of Surgery 17 Surgeons of the second class 9 Apothecaries 17 Engineers 66 Land Surveyors 15 On an average, the fees received annually for degrees amount to 150,000 lire. The smallest num- ber of students was from 1812 to 1814, when there were only 554 ; the largest number was in 1825-6, when there were 1483. In 1837, the stu- dents amounted in number to 1307, including 87 foreigners ; of these, 287 belonged to the philosophical, 438 to the legal, and 582 to the medical faculty. According to the list of lectures for 1839, I find that the course of philosophy, for the fir:t year, 200 UNIVERSITIES. comprised the following subjects: religion, logic, metaphysics, elementary mathematics, and Latin philology from an anthology. For the second year are prescribed : religion, morals, physics, Latin philology. Among the lectures (on which the attendance is optional, are universal history, natural history, Austrian history, diplomacy, belles lettres, history of philosophy, and the Ger- man languag-e and literature. In the faculty of law are prescribed : in the First year, first half-year: encyclopedia, natural law, criminal law, statistics ; second half-year : continuation of natural and criminal law, and Austrian history, second year, first half-year : Roman law, and eccle- siastical law ; second half-year : continuation and feudal law. Third year, first half-year : Austrian civil and commercial law ; second half-year : continuation and mari- time law. Fourth year, first half-year : law-proceedings, notarial law, business style, and political science ; second half-year : continuation, and Aus- trian political and criminal legislation. The only lectures delivered in Latin are those on UNIVERSITIES. 201 ecclesiastical law. There are generally five lectures to be attended every day, with the exception of Thursday, always a holiday. The principal vaca- tion lasts from the 8th of September till the 3rd of November. To afford some idea of the existing arrangement, the foregoing will suffice, to which I will only add a few brief remarks as when treating of schools, by way of instituting some comparison between the German and Italian universities. In the first place, the lyceum and the course of philosophy owe their institution evidently to a con- sciousness that a blank existed between the degree of information acquired at a gymnasium and that necessary for prosecuting the study of either of the other three faculties ; but here a doubt suggests itself, whether it would not be simpler, more econo- mical, and more beneficial, to assign to the gym- nasium a part of the instruction afforded by the lyceum, and the remainder to the university itself. I scarcely think it well-judged to compress all these subjects into the space of two years, and then to confine the student entirely to matters connected with his intended profession, without allowing him the relief of variety. Would it not be better to permit the young men, as is done at our German universities, to attend philosophical and historical lectures, simultaneously with those on theology, K 5 202 UNIVERSITIES. medicine or law ? It is true that, owing to the greater liberty allowed to our students, they fre- quently absent themselves from all lectures but those connected with the pursuit on which their future livelihood is to depend. In such cases it is not to be denied that the stricter regulations of Italy may be preferable. The director of a faculty is an officer wholly un- known wiih us, and the object of his appointment is evidently the maintenance of a stricter discipline. The enlargement of the faculty by the admission of resident doctors is another arrangement unknown in Germany. It may have the effect of avoiding much partiality and exclusiveness ; but it maybe questioned whether, on the other hand, it does not tend to weaken the corporation. Many objections might be made to the number and succession of the lectures, and certainly our better universities in Germany present greater variety and more completeness. The Italians, on the other hand, might argue, that this variety is carried much too far with us, breaking up the course of study into a multitude of fragments, in a manner quite unsuitable to the student's advance- ment. A new law was promulgated on the 6th of Sep- tember, 1838, for the foundation or restoration of two academies of arts and sciences at Venice and EXHIBITION OF WORKS OF ART. 203 Milan, and measures are now in progress to effect the realisation of this plan. Each academy is to comprise three classes: real members, honorary members, and correspondents. The first are to receive salaries of 1200 lire, and the farther assist- ance to be afforded has, for the present, been fixed at 45,000 lire. At the exhibition of arts in Milan, in 1838, there were 691 numbers in the catalogue, including 105 pieces of sculpture, by twenty-nine artists, namely, 2 groupes, 28 statues, 47 busts, &c. Among the pictures were: 77 historical paintings, 50 tableaux de genre, 126 landscapes, 77 views, 10 flower-pieces, 128 portraits, 34 in water-co- lours, &c. The works of living artists may be freely exported, but not old paintings, statues, manuscripts, &c. LETTER XXVII. Lombardy — Laws relative to the Press — The Clerg}^ — Im- provements in Lombardy. Turin, May 1. Having made you acquainted with the principles according to which the youth of Lombardy are educated, I come now to the principal points of the law relating to the censorship, by which it is in- tended to keep the grown children in order. 204 CENSORSHIP. The censorship extends to all books printed in the country and to all those imported into it. A marked distinction is made between scientific works, not likely to fall into any hands but those of educated men, and books of mere entertainment or fiction, intended for the public at large. The former class of literature is treated with great forbearance ; but, respecting the latter, the law of the 8th of March, 1815, says, " They are by no means deserving of the same indulgence, they are productive of no utility, and all that is valuable in them may be ob- tained from purer sources. All that operates injuriously on head and heart, and only tends to the excitement of the senses, must be suppressed. Firm resistance must be opposed to the dissemina- tion of pernicious novel-reading. This is not meant to apply to the few that enlighten the mind and improve the heart, but to the mass of novels, which treat only of love-adventures, and fill the imagination with chimeras and illusions." With extreme caution must those books be treated which touch on the limits of temporal and spiritual power. Writings that inculcate the doc- trines of socinianism, deism, or materialism, must be repulsed. Nothing is to be printed respecting the emperor and his family, however laudatory it may be, without express permission. Printed books are divided into four classes : BOOKS, NEWSPAPERS, THEATRES. 205 1st, admittitur, may freely pass ; 2nd, iranseat, may be sold, but not advertised or exhibited for sale ; 3rd, erg-a schedam, may be delivered to safe and trustworthy persons; 4th, damnatur^ pro- hibited. The same classification holds good with respect to manuscripts, for which, however, there is a fifth class : " typum non meretur, unworthy of being printed." " In this class," says the law, " are included those wretched worthless books the subject of which is without interest, and which are at variance with all good sense, as well as other miser- able productions which violate good taste, the rules of style, and the purity of language." A catalogue of the newspapers allowed to be imported is yearly drawn up at Vienna, and the Vienna papers are held up as a model by which those of the interior are to fashion themselves. The law says : " They ought to be attractive, true, and circumspect."" The theatres also are subject to a strict censor- ship, since much may be printed that must not be performed. Sanguinary and inhuman pieces must be rejected, and modesty is enjoined in gestures, dances, and costumes. A worthless king must not be presented as the principal character, unless there be a good and just king in the same piece, to counteract the evil impression produced by the former. 206 CLERGY. Five copies must be delivered of each book. No one is allowed to cause any work to be printed in a foreign country. This prohibition extends also to articles and letters in foreign newspapers and periodicals. Books on ecclesiastical law and eccle- siastical history are not referred to the bishops; but other theological and religious writings are sub- mitted to them for approval. In case of a diflPer- ence of opinion between them and the censors, the question must be referred to a superior authority. I may be permitted here to add a few particulars respecting the position of the clergy in Lombardy. During the reign of Maria Theresa, and during the administration of Count Firmian (1762-1768) very important alterations took place in this respect. Personal privileges were curtailed, the power of vesting land in mortmain was diminished, the pri- vate prisons of religious houses, as well as asylums and inquisitions, were abolished, papal orders sub- jected to an exequatur, mixed ecclesiastical affairs referred to the decision of mixed tribunals, &c. The edict of toleration issued by Joseph II. (13th October, 1781) is in full force in the Lombardo- Venetian kingdom. It does not place Catholics and Protestants on a footing of equality, but allows the latter the performance of divine service in pri- vate, admits them into the several trades and cor- porations, and permits them to purchase real pro- CLERGY. g07 perty. If in a mixed marriage the father be a Catholic, the children must all be brought up in that religion ; if he be a protestant, the sons only may be educated as protestants. A divorced pro- testant may contract a second marriage with a pro- testant but not with a catholic woman, unless the divorce has been occasioned by adultery, and the individual marrying again has not been the guilty party. The emperor appoints the canons to the cathe- dral and collegiate churches, and confirms the appointment of certain patrons. The imposition of episcopal fees requires a similar confirmation. Among others, a certificate of the genuineness of a relic costs one florin. Many convents for education and for the care of the sick have been re-opened, and the establishment of others permitted, without however the state taking on itself to assist in their support. No one is allowed to enter a convent until past twenty-four years of age, and one year must be spent in the noviciate. The revenues of a bishop vary from 4765 to 16,666 fl. ; of a parish priest from 191 to 3237 ; of a professor from 600 to 2000 ; of a schoolmaster from 350 to 600. Although I have throughout these letters endea- voured to be as concise as possible, and have con- ^08 CONVERSIONS OF PROTESTANTS. sequently made many omissions, they have already swelled to a considerable bulk. Some deficiencies I shall be better able to supply on my return to Milan. At all events, I have attained a well- grounded conviction that the Lombardo- Venetian kingdom is in a state of progressive improvement, and theAustrian administration just, benevolent, and suitable. A native Italian may indeed desire some- thing further ; but let him beware of embracing a cloud instead of a goddess. I shall return to this text in the sequel, when I shall have better studied my sermon. LETTER XXVIII. Turin — Conversions to Catholicism. Turin, April 28. I AM told that an establishment has been formed here for the conversion of Protestants. A dissipated fellow who had received relief from 5 instead of going about his business, con- trived to get again into distress; and, having applied to this institution, related with great glee that he had turned Catholic for the second time. It is true, added he, that I was so before, but I take care to make a very slow progress in religious PAPAL STATE PAPER. 209 instruction ; so I can remain here and be well taken care of the whole winter. The talents of the new French writers in the department of belles lettres are acknowledged here ; but their vile and immoral tendency is regarded, as well here as in other parts of Italy, with just aver- sion ; the principles of the modern historical school of Paris are also justly disliked. LETTER XXIX. Turin — Massacre of St, Bartholomew — Pictiire-Gallery — Academy. Turin, May 3rd. The new papal state paper, with all its supple- ments, has fallen into my hands. Although I have not time to read it through, I can see that it is written in a good clear logical style. Instead, how- ever, of troubling you with a repetition of a subject so often discussed, I will give you an impartial proof how far the unbridled fanaticism of catholics can carry them towards a forgetfulness of all justice and humanity. On the 19th of September, 157^, Tiepolo, the Venetian, then at Madrid, writes as follows, to Duke Emanuel of Savoy, on the massa- cre of St. Bartholomew. 210 MASSACRE OF ST. BARTHOLOMEW. " Chi tacera a questo tempo le glorie della corona di Francia non solo non sara Christiano ma nepur uomo civile. Giovane, da cosi lontano principio, ha saputo e potuto conduere a fine si gran negozio, e la fraude antiquata e stata dalla prudenza di un giovane superata. In un sol colpo con diversi allettamenti ha saputo raccogliere e rinchiudere le vipere piu possenti. Queste piu venenose si sogliono raccogliere e rinchiudere per fame con la lor morte medicamento salutifero agli ammalati. E questo nuovoEscula- pio, o forse piu vero Apollo, con Fistessa maniera ha partorito salute, non solo alia Francia, ma alia christianita, tutta che stava in punto di morte. Be- nedetto sia Dio, che ci ha fatto vedere a questo tempo cotal maraviglia. Stava il mondo in gran bilancio, ne sapeva alcun savio pronosticarne che male. Hora ognuno e atto a vederne qualunque bene. La Fiandra si vedra presto pacificato. Le armi cristianissime con le cattoliche, non solo non inimiche, ma in servizio di Dio (cosi spero) unitissi- me, che azione di questo sorte riesce maggior legame che quel lo di matrimonio. La religione christi ana fortificata, la guerracol Turco piu solda e piu ferma che ella mai fusse, Niun altra conclusioneadunque puo farsi che buona. Questo non ho io potuto con- tenere di scrivere a Vostra Altezza per rallegrarmene, conoscendo quanto a lei, oltre il pubblico beneficio, possa iraportare tutto questo per la quiete dal pro- ARCHIVES. 211 prio stato. Ascrive adunque questo mio scrivere non a troppa licenza, ma a molto divozione."* After passing some time to-day at the Archives di Camera, in looking through books of copies, and finding only a few original documents of which I could make any use, I went to the royal picture- •"He who could now be silent concerning the glory of the French crown would be, not only no christian, but no honest man. A young man has had the knowledge and capacity to bring to a conclusion so great a business from so distant an origin, and an ancient fraud has been overcome by the pru- dence of a youth. He has contrived, by various enticements, though by a single stroke, to draw together and to enclose the most powerful serpents — as it is customary to bring and shut up together the most poisonous kinds, that by their deaths they may prepare a salutary medicine for the sick. Thus has this new Esculapius, or rather this true Apollo, employed a similar method to ensure the safety not only of France, but of all Christendom, which lay at the point of death. Blessed be God who has given unto us to behold such a miracle: the world stood in great peril, and the wisest could prognosticate nothing but evil. Now every one has some hopes of good. Flanders will soon be pacified, the most christian and the catholic army will now not only cease to tight one another, but unite, (so I hope) for the service of God, and conclude an al- liance wliich shall be stronger than that of matrimony. The christian religion wih be fortified, the war with the Turks more steadily and vigorously pursued than ever. No other than good consequences can follow. I could not resist writing to your Higlniess to express the joy of my heart, knowing what interest you take in this event, not only for the public wel- fare, but also on account of the tranquillity of your own states. I beg you therefore to ascribe the liberty 1 have taken, not to presumption, but to my great devotion." S12 PICTURE GALLERY AT TURIN. gallery, and am half tempted to break my resolution not to trouble you with descriptions of pictures. The collection is certainly richer and more various than it is in general supposed to be, and no lover of art should omit seeing; it. There are some capital paintings by Ferrari, Luini, Bellini, Ti- tian, Francia, Guido, Bronzino, Domenichino, Andrea del Sarto, Cesare, &c. A Raphael I should have taken, from the colouring, for a Giulio Romano, though the invention and design are in the manner of the former master. Cheerful pieces with children by Albani, exquisite flower and fruit pieces, Netherlanders of all classes, from ge- neral field-marshal Luca d'Olanda to Vandyke and later masters. There is an excellent crucifixion at- tributed to Mabuse, with a couple of female heads of extraordinary beauty. Two first-rate Claudes, &c. But to return to my last. I have to-day co)npleted my work on Lombardy. It may serve not only as a specimen of my industry, but also of my good fortune in having had such thoroughly well informed men to assist me. Of all that is contained in it you probably know no- thing, and you might learn much from it — yet am I well convinced that scarcely any one will read it through. However this may be, it has at least af- forded me both pleasure and occupation. I dined yesterday with the Marchese Cavour, ACADEMY. 213 and from him received much information concern- ing the situation of Turin. Count Balbo afterwards took me with him to the Academy, where Count Paluzzo officiated as President, and Counts Petiti and Sclopis read two excellent papers. It would puzzle me to find in four such learned counts. Petiti argued against certain fallacies and fancies which have found their way into crimi- nal statistics in France and the Netherlands, where everlasting truths are inferred from false figures, and a relation of cause and effect supposed, where it does not exist. For instance, it has been disco- vered that more crimes are committed in a country where many people can read ; as if reading, or not reading, could be a cause of theft. It often hap- pens besides that no attention at all is paid to the opportunities and temptations to crime which may exist. For instance, it is considered remarkable that more should be stolen in London than in the Swiss mountains, where there is nothing to steal. The second treatise by Count Sclopis related the deve- lopment of the notions of law in the middle ages, especially as respects Thomas Aquinas and Dante. It displayed profound thought and was well writ- ten. That the treatise De Regimine Principum could not be by Thomas Aquinas he maintained on the same grounds as I have advanced in my essay on the school divines. 214 SOCIETY. LETTER XXX. Turin — Society — Holidays — Court Etiquette — Climate — Ecclesiastical Relations. Turin, May 4tb. The evening party yesterday was exactly like the preceding one at 's. These assemblies have a certain resemblance throughout Europe — at least, in their external forms — freedom of coming and going — conversation various but continually inter- rupted. As far as I know, an Italian soiree is no farther distinguished from an English rout than that tea and cooling beverag-es are offered to the guests. For beauty, I must certainly give the palm to the English ladies, but the entertainment in Italy is more frequently varied by music. Yester- day, a lady played the piano-forte with great bril- liancy and precision, but the composition was the most trivial, confused, and unmeaning possible, and I thought the remark of Count , that piano-forte playing tired him after the first half- hour, very natural. After a little hesitation, I asked the name of the composer, and received the dreaded answer : " It is most likely some German stuff." When, however, the name of our Weber was men- tioned, I boldly denied the possibility of its being his, or of his having ever written such trash. It turned out to be by Hertz ! RELIGIOUS HOLIDAYS. 215 Beauty is no doubt a great gift of God ; but the greater, rarer, and happier gift, that of knowing what is beautiful. This would appear to be as easy as to open one's eyes and ears ; yet does it not some- times seem easier to discover the truth in politics, philosophy, or religion ? Many houses were illuminated here last evening, especially those belonging to official persons of dis- tinction. On inquiring the reason, I was told that it was the eve of the anniversai-y of the discovery of the holy napkin or handkerchief of St. Veronica. The police went round and recommended that all shops should be kept shut to-day, as such a piece of piety would prove acceptable. By-the-by, there is a dispute between Turin and some other city which of them possesses the genuine handkerchief. I understand that it is the opinion of the autho- rities here that the people are not to be governed ■without the aid of superstition. " I cannot ask you to come and see me to-mor- row, or the day after," said a personage high in office to me, " for I must fast. We are closely watched to see whether we do this = or not, and it has the greatest influence on our advancement, and on the favour or the contrary which is shown to us." It is perhaps hardly fair to bring forward de- tached facts of this kind, as one is often tempted to 216 COURT ETIQUETTE. generalize too hastily from single instances. Ex ungiie leonem, however, is often a correct rule enough. When I look with admiration and rever- ence on the noble style of the Catholic churches, and then hear such trivialities spoken of as essential points from which it is terrible heresy to depart, it seems to me as if any one should shew me a cork model of the Colosseum, and declare it to be the real one. It became a question whether I should apply to be presented to the king ; but being informed that it was absolutely indispensable that I should appear in a full and expensive court dress, such as I did not possess, T was obhged to renounce all hope of such an honour. It is very well, pei'haps, on extraordinary occa- sions to be strict in the observance of external forms, but in ordinary cases I cannot see that it is decorous to make the tailor the captain of the guard. These sartorial barriers shut out from kings many a useful prospect. Turin is beautifully situated, in the centre of a rich plain, adorned and fertilized by two rivers; looking on one side towards Lombardy, and on the other to hills adorned with trees, churches, villas, and castles, while on the third and fourth sides rise the wild and rugged Alps, their summits clothed in everlasting snow. CLIMATE. 217 The average height of the thermometer from January to August was 13° of Reaumur (61°F.), and there were 164 days fine for 95 rainy and 126 changeable. Since I have been here three violent tiiunder-storms have passed over the town, and the air has been purified, the dust laid, and the spring brought forward in all its splendour. It is quite natural that should disapprove of the present order of things ; and he declared that, though he had always esteemed Germany, since he had lived in Italy he adored it. He con- sidered it, nevertheless, necessary that a part of the Rhine country should belong to France. " II nous faut la un petit coin''' He reminded me of the reply of the Prince de Ligne, who, when Joseph II. asked him what was said of him in Belgium, an- swered : " On dit que votre Majeste veut notre Men" and of the dog in Faust, who, though small at first, gradually swells to an enormous size. On account of the above-mentioned holy handker- chief of St. V'^eronica, the palace, the public build- ings, and the residence of some official persons, were this day illuminated. The city on ordinary occa- sions is profoundly dark. The court will also attend the benediction in the church from four to six o"'clock, for seventeen days. It is stated that a sick nun heie, who had been given up by the physicians, recovered, after swal- VOL. I. L 218 THE COURT. lowing a few threads from the chemise of a female saint, administered to her in some broth. She died soon afterwards indeed, but of course she could not expect to escape the common fate of mortals. Tell our friend H to take care to get this medicine introduced into the Prussian Pharmacopoeia. Ano- ther specific administered some time ago to a nun wrought a still more surprising miracle — namely, a double life ! Suum cuique — Live and let live ! LETTER XXXL Turin — 1 be Court — The Travelled Sergeant. Turin, May 5th. I HAVE just come from the palace, where I saw the king and queen pass through a saloon on their way to the church. First came the red-liveried attendants, then an immense number of civil and military officials (the uniform resembling that of Prussia) after them, pages with red coats, yellow breeches, and white stockings; then the king, the queen, chamberlains, ladies of" honour, and all suit- able appendages. The court is numerous — espe- cially in the departments of the church and the chase. For the former, twenty-four chaplains, six domestic chaplains, and several almoners, besides physicians, ladies of the palace, &c. &c. A TRAVELLED SERGEANT. 219 An old sergeant, to whose guidance I was en- trusted, had, I found, been in Berhn, and in many parts of Germany. He was present at the battle of Eylau, and had afterwards been sent to Siberia. — So that he had been a traveller, as he said, par force. For several years he had learned no German, and always thought people were talking of or abusing him. It was not till he had got to Ratisbon that he was enabled by the instructions he received from a young and handsome girl to learn so much that he can still express himself tolerably in German. To my question, whether he thought he could get lessons for me from a similar teacher, he replied, with extreme courtesy, that I was much better qualified to give lessons here in pure Italian. LETTER XXXII. Turin — Royal Message. Turin, May 8th, The king appears to have heard something of my presence here, and of the poverty of my ward- robe. In order that the law may, at the same time, be enforced and mitigated, a gracious com- mand has been issued that I do this day, at eleven o'clock, visit the collection of medals and armour, in company with Count , and that 1 then and there await what may happen to me. L 2 220 KING OF SARDINIA. LETTER XXXIII. Turin — The Aiinouiy — The Kinjj — Coimlry Excursion — The Waldeus^es. Turhi,Mayl2 I DROVE to the palace with Count , and inspected the collection of medals and armour, founded by the present King Charles Albert. It is wonderful how much has been done in a short time. The collection of armour more particularly deserves notice, not merely in an historical point of view, for it contains many works of art of high value, among others a shield attributed to Ben- venuto Cellini, the design and execution of which could not easily be exceeded in richness and beauty. The king came as I had been told he would. He is a tall man, with an expression of mildness and good-humour in his countenance. He spoke nei- ther with affected haughtiness nor with affected condescension, but in a perfectly natural, simple, and sensible manner. Our conversation was chiefly about Sardinia, where, as you shall learn hereafter, the king has effected great and truly beneficial changes. I took the liberty to remind him of some Prussian matters, and to observe, that measures blamed in the commencement often in the end lead to great advantages, and ensure universal satisfaction . COUNTRY EXCURSION. 221 On Thursday I went with Count through the verdant plain, richly studded with vines and trees, towards Pignerol. Thence we turned off in the direction of Latour, reached S. Margaritta, and paid a visit to Madame Bert, the widow of the moderateur of that name. In the evening we supped with three English ladies, one of whom is married to the son of Madame Bert. The two others have been travelling about in the world for the last three years. On Friday, walked in the valley of Angrogne as far as Serres. A tremendous storm wetted us to the skin, affording Madame Bert an opportunity of assisting us unexpectedly with dry shirts and stock- ings. Visited the hospital, the gymnasium, and the seminary for young ladies. All these establishments were clean, orderly, and sensibly arranged, erected chiefly by the aid of contributions from abroad. In the afternoon drove towards Villars, as far as Bobbi. The evening like that of yesterday. A sad Babel, with four languages spoken at once. Such is the dry index for two days, to which I must add, that I returned yesterday. I want time and skill to fill up the outline, and can only tell you, that I have seen and luxuriated in all the grada- tions of nature_, from the richly cultivated plain of a sunny land to narrow alpine valleys, bordered by mountains capped with eternal snow ; from the THE WALDENSES. rich vineyard and the chestnut grove, by the side of beetling rocks and foaming waterfalls, to gentians and alpine vegetation. In these regions I beheld a simple well-meaning race, who, unless persecuted, do harm to nobody, and have resisted every tempta- tion to renounce allegiance to their oppressive government. While revelling in the beauties of nature, I did all I could to forget the atrocities committed in these valleys of the Waldenses, in the name of a religion of love. Even now, things are not as they should be, and as to anything like an equality of rights between the two sects, such a thing is not even dreamed of. The Waldenses are shut up in their valleys, as the Jews in the Jews' quarter ; they are not permitted to make any fresh purchases of landed property, and constant endea- vours are made to obtain by chicanery and insult what barbarity was unable to effect. During the time of the French (we must not allow their failings to make us forget their good points) toleration was much more general, and went much further j nor was there then even the semblance of priestly rule. Here we have a Catholic clergyman walling up every window in his house that he may not see the Protestant church. But let us remember Ireland ! Truly, Protestant and Catholic have alike cause to smite their breasts, and cry out : Lord, be merciful to me a sinner ! — How far are we still from the ACADEMY OF TURIN. 223 genuine spirit of Christianity ! how few of us are yet able to rise above mere sectarianism ! how many still place hatred higher than love ! LETTER XXXIV. Turin — The Academy — An Old Beau — Anecdotes of Royalty. Turin, May 13. I attended yesterday, by invitation, a sitting of the physico-mathematical class of the Academy. A paper by M. Moris on some new Sardinian plants, and one by Minabrea, on the vibrations of strings, were of value in a scientific point of view ; that of Professor Gene on the habits and instincts of some insects might have been listened to with interest even by ladies. I was introduced yesterday to the well-known , who still affects to be the elegant d quatre epingles. It came out accidentally that he is much about my age, and I was angry with myself, or with my corporeal man, that I was not in a better state of preservation. On closer observa- tion, however, I thought I could perceive that the colour in his face was produced externally, whereas mine proceeds uncalled for from within; while from beneath the beautiful black hair of the head and whiskers some grey traitors were espied ; lastly, he would not lay aside his stick, his gout, as 224 ANECDOTES OF ROYALTY. he said, not permitting him to dispense with its aid. All these things considered, I thought my body entitled to a j-eparation dlinnneur. If I could recollect and write down all the curious things I occasionally hear, you would be more amused with my letters. For example, Charles Felix used to say that, but for the soldiers and the students, there would be no such things as public disturbances. He never could be prevailed upon to be present at any military exercises, and if he met any soldiers by accident, he used to draw the curtains of his carriage windows. " Give them," he said, " what uniform you like ; fuggirmmo V^ — After the restoration in 1814, King Victor Emanuel asked, in great anxiety, " what was to be done?'' " For sevenpence, sire," replied an old legitimist minister, " your majesty may put everything into the best order immediately. Buy an old state- calendar for the year 90, and replace all as you find it there :" and this wise counsel was literally followed. — W hen theambassadors after the victory of the Aus- trians over the Neapolitans in 1821 pressed King Ferdinand to return to iNaples, he made a thousand excuses, and at last exclaimed, " Che volete. lo sono anche Napolitaiio, ho paura! The man whom he with tears in his eyes and the most urgent entreaties had forced to accept the office of war-minister, he af- terwards allowed to be tried and condemned, and it DEATH OF PROFESSOR GANS. 225 was only by the most pressing solicitations that he was induced to save him from the last extremity of the law ! A text for a long commentary 1 LETTER XXXV, Journey from Turin to Genoa. Genua, May 17. Just as I had closed my letter to you on my birthday, (the 14th,) I saw in the State Gazette an account of the death of Gans. A hint this to a colleague, his senior by many years. His death is a serious loss to the university and to his friends ; for though, misled by his talent, he gave way too much to declamation, and allowed his vanity some- times to disturb his own tranquillity, yet he was kind-hearted, full of genius and information, and advancing years, while they increased his knowledge, would have corrected the restlessness of his charac- ter. But Heaven has willed it otherwise ! Peace be to his ashes, even though he repose by the side of his old antagonist, Klenze, who so lately went be- fore him ! It was the finest weather possible, when, seated in the cabriolet, I left Turin for Genoa, To the left lay the richly cultivated hills, to the right the Po ; then past Montcarlier into the wide plain that L 5 226 JOURNEY TO GENOA. stretches away beyond Alessandria. Not but that there are many hills and undulations, but, above all, my eye feasted on the ocean of green wheat, on the meadows arrayed in the gayest colours, and the banks of the Tanaro ; and I rejoiced at the sound of the crickets (celebrated in Tieck's Travelling Poems) which I now heard again for the first time during the course of my present journey. At Asti, I could not refrain from tasting the celebrated wine, though I must own I thought the bottle of Sauterne given me by Count U — T — decidedly to be preferred. Night is no man's friend, at least not in a diligence ; it passed away quickly, however, for we got on at a good pace. The old Snail Post in Prussia has indeed acquired some title to its name of Schnell Post, but is still behind the Piedmontese. Firstly, the horses go faster here ; secondly, men and horses are in readiness at the end of every stage, and the cattle are changed in two minutes at the most ; and this secures one, thirdly, against the intolerable Schnapps nuisance. Imitate what is good ! At daybreak, we had passed the summit of the new road, and were going down hill towards Genoa. Olives, fig-trees, and cypresses, announced that we had entered the second great division of Italy. I asked myself again, why the houses and palaces scattered along the sides of the mountains appeared SITUATION OF GENOA. 227 so much more romantic and poetical than those of so many other countries? It is certainly not owing to any prevailing excellence in an artistical point of view, nor in a superior state of preservation, nor in the occasional occurrence of picturesque decay ; it is chiefly owing to the absence of any general rule, which elsewhere leads to such fatiguing repetitions. The individuality of the Italian character is as strongly marked in their houses as in their persons. Doors, windows, roofs, arches, chimneys, &c. are designed and disposed by every man according to his own fancy or judgment, without troubling him- self about the laws of architecture, the opinions of his neighbours, or the censure of travelling critics. LETTER XXXVI. Situation of Genoa — Marcliese di Negro — Disturbance on account of the Opera Dancers' Drawers. Genoa, May 18th. I ENJOYED a spectacle of nature yesterday, such as one cannot hope to meet with often in the course of a life. At the commencement of the Strada MuragUette, I mounted the wall which separates the city from the port, outstretched in the form of a vast bow, and passed the Ponte (quay) della Segna, the Ponte Spinola, the Ponte Reale, that della Mercanza, and the Mandraccio, and then 228 SITUATION OF GENOA. Avalked along the Molo Vecchio out into the sea; then on to the end of the city, and returned the same way. The sky was covered with clouds of every shape and colour, and the waves were run- ning remarkably high. In the distance, the sea appeared of a deep azure ; assuming a lighter shade in proportion to its proximity, then a greenish, then a yellowish tinge, till the angry waves that broke upon the rocks below were dissolved into a white foam, or, dashing immediately against the walls, threw up their spray into the street. Sometimes a recoiling wave would encounter another that was following close behind, and in the furious onset that ensued both would break, resolving themselves apparently into innumerable fragments of snowy down. I never beheld the sea more beautiful or more magnificent. Then you must bear in mind the many deviations of the way, the endless variety of the prospect along the shore: the new Molo and the lighthouse closing the prospect on one side ; then the beautiful hills with their gardens and villas, that rise behind the Strada della Lanterna ; the fortifications, on their summits; houses, churches, and palaces crowding together ; the hills rising in terraces one above another ; the whole forming a panorama that few spots in the world can match. This enjoyment was repealed in the afternoon, at the house of the Marchese G. C. di Negro, an MAilCHESE DI NEGRO. 229 agreeable well-informed man, and almost the only one who sees company and receives strangers. He has a splendid collection of engravings, including some spe- cimens of Albrecht Durer, and many rare specimens of the old masters. Also a beautiful antique basso- relievo representing combats, and other works of art in such number as can be brought together only where great wealth and good taste are combined. All this was, however, of secondary importance to me. The garden, with its olive-trees, its oranges, lemons, rose-bushes, vines, terraces, mossy rocks, and palm-tree, reminded me of the gardens of Ar- mida. In every direction the view is unique. The city, the hills, the harbour, the sea ; you have else- where beautiful prospects in two or three directions, but here you have them in each of the thirty-two points of the compass, and in such rapid and varied succession do they follow, that you are at a loss to which to give the preference. At table a new discovery. It was only on the last day of my stay at Venice, that I was introduced at the Ateneo to the Sicilian Marchese G — , who gave me letters for Sicily. Yesterday, three of his daughters were of the party, and I sat next to one of them — a lady, full of life, and, what will surprise you more, full of information. The sisters Avould gladly have seen me at Venice, but had been told that I was a fieru protestaiitc. You may thence 230 BALLET DANCERS. judge what epUheta ornantia would fall to the lot of certain persons in Berlin ! I must tell you of a great revolution that has broken out here in the drawers of the ballet-dan- cers. These ladies were wont, as with us, to make their rotatory and saltatory movements in flesh- coloured drawers made of a knitted fabric deno- minated tricot. One evening they made their ap- pearance on the stage in green pantaloons that de- scended some way below the knee. General surprise and horror ensued, and every body was asking whence and why the innovation. The replies were various. According to some, the new fashion was an importation from Naples; according to others the police at least was innocent of this public out- rage, and, in a true spirit of conservatism, was decidedly opposed to so ill-timed a reform. At the second performance, the said pantaloons had shrunk visibly in their dimensions, either in the wash or through some other external cause, so that there was a prospect that, by a gradually progressive abridgment, they would in time be reduced to the moderate dimension of the antique fig-leaf. Re- newed impatience, however, on the part of the public, and a new budget of explanations. It was said that the manager was about to marry a virgin under the protection of the Jesuits, and that the lady had insisted on a change in the pantaloons of CARLO FELICE THEATRE. 231 the ballet-dancers. Many accused the manager of an intentional violation of decorum, and he was hooted in the public streets, and advised to wear his wife's drawers, because . The police, however, has thought the matter rather too serious ; many young men have been arrested, and others have gone into the country, to avoid a similar visitation. Reports have been drawn up, and these, together with a variety of sample pantaloons, have been duly submitted to the proper authorities. As yet it is quite uncertain how the matter will end, or what form and constitution the ballet-dancers' pan- taloons will finally assume. LETTER XXXVII. Turin — Carlo Felice Theatre. Genoa, May 19th. I WENT last night to the Carlo Felice theatre. I thought the still unsettled pantaloon agitation, toge- ther with a new ballet, would insure a crowded house ; but I found it nearly empty, and had abun- dant time to count the six rows of boxes, and to examine the drop scene with the most scrupulous exactness. // Giuramento di Mercadante, I had been told, displayed a knowledge of harmony, and belonged, in some measure, to the modern German S>S2 CARLO JFELICE THEATRE. school. Of the said knowledge I could discover no trace, and as to the Germanism, it consisted at most in a few reminiscences of Weber, and his occasional fragmentary style, but his genius and invention were altogether wanting. To my judgment, the music was bad, nor was a hand stirred throughout the whole of the first act. The singers were in- significant, though the women had one recommenda- tion, namely, that they did not scream so terribly loud as is done in most places. I longed for the ballet, for I had made a vow to remain to the end of the performance. Yet, so tedious and full of dry repetitions was the whole, that I would fain have broken my vow, had I not been so hemmed in that I could not stir. I am happy to say I have now done my duty to the theatre as far as Genoa is concerned. LETTER XXXVIII. Geuoa — The Sudario — Politics — Queen Victoria. Genoa, May 20lh. Yesterday was Whitsunday. A sentimental declaimer might conjure up a highly coloured pic- ture on the subject, but I have no talent for such things, and must candidly own, that I saw nothing uncommon or remarkable. In the churches the music was biid, and more profane than sacred ; in ANOTHER SUDARIO. 233 costumes I saw nothing to be noticed, unless it be the white veils of the ladies. The streets were crowded, and here, for the first time, I recognized the genuine beauty of Italy ; there was, indeed, no lack of ugliness, but there is, upon the whole, more character and distinction among the women, than I have seen anywhere since I left Trieste. An Italian advised me to go to the church of St. Bartolomeo, and see what was shown only on that day, and remained, during the other 364 days, closely concealed under fourteen locks and keys, namely another Sudario ! Now, though I do not exactly play thej^^ro pi-otestante^ yet I could not help avowing myself on this point a sceptic,' with not the least inclination to trouble myself about such matters. The Sudario, said my informant, was, at all events, a remarkable specimen of Con- stantinopolitan manufacture in the middle ages. This was certainly looking at the subject in a differ- ent point of view ; still I preferred the beauties of nature to the curiosities of the Byzantine loom. Many of the churches are built in a very bad taste, and even Carignan is a cold whitewashed imitation of St. Peter's. Statues, as I have already said, that do not exist for me, or for which I have not been created ; for connoisseurs, there are some better pictures in a good state of pi-eservation, by GuercinOj Procacciui, Piola, and others. 234 POLITICS. A general complaint here is, that the walls around the harbour are raised so much, by way of preventing smuggling, that the terraces and the best floors are completely deprived of view, I can scarcely believe it ; such barbarism would be too bad, and what is more, the object proposed would certainly not even be attained. Tuesday, May 21sl. I have not talked politics to you for a long time, and am sadly in arrear with ray newspaper read- ing, still I cannot suppress an ejaculation over late occurrences in Paris. The French fancy them- selves at the head of the movement and at the head of civilization ; yet is it not true that they are labouring without rest or intermission to advance on the road to liberty, at a regular horse-in-the-mill style ? What object have they in view ? What general principle is recognised among them ? Where is there a sympathy of feeling founded upon truth and justice? Instead of these, we have a constant return to arbitrary power, constant dissatisfaction and murder and slaughter for what happens to be the caprice of the hour, either with the high mob or the low. The better part of the nation, it is true, keep aloof, but they also are affected by these occurrences, as is shown by the bankruptcies in France and Belgium ; besides, a long conti- QUEEN VICTORIA. 235 nuance of such a morbid condition must affect the moral and religious character of a nation. Peel, it seems, has not been able to shake off the Ultra-Tories, or to forget that the bow must not be bent too much. It was surel}*^ enough for the queen to leave him perfectly unrestrained in the formation of the government ; she was right not to allow her female friends to be taken from her, not to endure an act of oppression which the meanest woman in her kingdom would have struggled against. Her firmness of character will gain her many partizans, particularly among the women; and, for my own part, I am delighted to see a queen show that a monarch should not be a mere puppet, an empty symbol, a political machine, to be wound up, set agoing, and allowed to stand still again, according to the will of another. There was no sufficient political ground for a demand that she should part with her female associates ; it was an " ungentlemanlike" demand ; and the minister who has a majority in the two houses, or knows how to acquire one, need not be frightened by a handful of old women; no, nor of young girls either. The queen, impelled by a quick feeling of justice, has rightly scouted these abstract party notions. God speed her farther ! 236 A DMINISTRATION OF PIEDMONT. LETTER XXXIX. Piedmont — Administration — Council of State — Jurisprudence — Municipal Regulations — Turin ; Revenues and Expen- diture of the City. Turin, May 4tli. An inhabitant of Turin said to me : " We are one half a camp, and the other half a cloister." There is no want certainly of the elements to form the two parts, that is to say there is no want of soldiers or priests, who, with their motley uniforms, attract the attention of strangers, and the partiality or dislike of the natives. As there is neither a representative, nor a par- liamentary nor a mixed constitution in the Sardi- nian states, everything reposes on the royal family and the administration. The royal family has for centuries kept certain plans steadily in view, and has gained the attachment of the people, by en- larging their rights, and imposing limits on the ex- travagant privileges of individuals and corporations. We frequently find the Sardinian monarchs, in this respect, in the same road that has been taken by those of Prussia. In such a state of things, an un- due preponderance of the class of public officers, a certain degree of bureaucracy, is unavoidable. This, in Prussia, has in some measure been corrected by ADMINISTRATION OF PIEDMONT. 237 the collegiate form, and in more recent times by the town and provincial states; whereas, in Turin, the complaint is, that the system of centrahzation has of late years been constantly on the increase. Take it all in all, a strong government is better than a weak one, still I think it a very mistaken idea to suppose it moi'e easy to govern a multitude of in- dividuals than a small number of corporations. We have here five ministers or secretaries of state : for the Interior, for War and the Marine, for Finance, for Justice, and for Foreign Affairs. There is a separate administration for Sardinia, and altogether different arrangements, of Avhich I shall speak further in the sequel. In each province, the whole power of government is placed in the hands of an intendant, who, if in some subordinate relations inferior to the French prefect, is greater, inasmuch as he has no council or independent body to control him. Intendantsof an inferior class are appointed for the towns and dis- tricts. The salaries of these officers vary from 800 to 6600 lire. All these persons are removeable, and it is likely that here, as well as in France, this power is carried to an injurious length. On account of this excess of the personal over the collegiate and formal, the establishment of a council of state was a great ad- vantage. Concerning its consitution and the progress 238 COUNCIL OF STATE. of legislation, I communicate the following particu- lars from the new civil code. It is there stated, that the king alone has the right of making laws. These, after being heard in council, are issued either as edicts or as letters patent. They are signed by the king, as well as by the minister whom they may concern, and by the comptroller-general. These latter, as well as other ministers, are required to examine the laws before affixing the Great Seal to them, and if they see anything objectionable in them, to communicate their scruples to the king. The duty of a similar revision of laws not yet pro- mulgated is also imposed on some of the superior tribunals. The state-council is the centre of all important discussions. It consists of a president and fourteen ordinary members. Among the extraordinary ones, whose number is not determined, are two knights of the order of the Annunziata, two bishops, and fourteen members for the provinces. It is considered beneath the dignity of a member of this council to hold any paid office. The ministers, however, are allowed, at the command of the king, to assist at the council, but they have no vote. This council is divided into three departments : 1st, — that of the interior ; Sndly, — that for legal and ecclesiastical affairs; and Srdly, for finance. ADMINISTRATION OF JUSTICE. 239 The first and third can form a board with only three members, the second with not less than five. It is the business of the council to debate on and examine all laws and ordinances ; (and it is to be hoped they may never neglect this part of their duty) — to determine, in case of dispute, the exact boundaries of the power and office of each minister — to hear appeals from the senate and upper financial chamber — to receive proposals for the imposition of fresh taxes, or for changes to be made in those al- ready existing — for loans — for the erection of schools and other benevolent institutions — for im- provements in agriculture or manufactures, &c. — but to take no cognisance of matters connected with war, foreign affairs, or with the household. In every district there is a.g'iudice da mandamento, who hears disputes concerning property, to the amount of 300 lire, but from whose judgment an appeal is permitted, when the amount exceeds 100, or when a fine of more than 10 lire is inflicted. In each of the 37 provinces, there is a tribunale di prefeitura, with a president, and from two to six councillors, one government advocate, and subordi- nate officers. They decide in the first instance in all cases for which there is no other tribunal, and on all such as are usually considered to belong to the droit administratrf. Every one is obliged, during 240 MUNICIPAL REGULATIONS. the sittings, to wear a black robe of office, and ques- tions are decided by a majoritv of voices. With respect to the cities, there are laws of 1738, 1775, and 1783, which are still in force, and are referred to in the more recent regulations of 1815 and 1838. Turin, Genoa, and some other towns having particular privileges, excepted, they are all governed by the above-mentioned laws. There is no representative body of citizens to exercise any control over the magistracy, but the whole conduct of affairs lies in the hands of the intendant and his superiors. In justification of this mode of procedure are alleged the dangers from the neighbourhood of France, from the Italian national character, and from the tendency towards an oligarchical concen- tration of power in the hands of a few, to the in- jury of the bulk of the people, which would be sure to arise from elections. Every town of more than 3000 inhabitants has one syndic and five councillors; and those of from 1000 to 3000, one syndic, and from three to five councillors. These magistrates, according to ancient custom, receive no pay, and since the influence of the in- tendant and the ministers has been so much in- creased, the desire to fill those offices has percep- tibly declined. They perform indeed many useful MUNICIPAL INSTITUTIONS. 241 and praiseworthy offices in the city, but it is never- theless maintained by those who are qualified to give an opinion, that their authority is far too much circumscribed by the extension of the central and ministerial power, and that the municipal spirit has been weakened by this means, and a prejudice created, that the only security for order and freedom rests on the adoption of a uniform system of allow- ing all power to emanate from the government. Very different from this general system is that yet prevailing in Turin. Sixty decurions, 30 from the nobles and 30 from the other classes of citizens are chosen for life, for the direction of general af- fairs. The election is made thus : the four elder decurions, called Chiavari, two of the first and two of the second class, draw up two lists in which each class proposes three persons for every vacant place. It is permitted to canvass for the office of a decurion. When the Chiavari have agreed as nearly as possi- ble with the magistrates, {^congregazione and ra~ gioneri) respecting the proposal, the double regis- ter is submitted to the decurions, who fill up the* vacant offices from the names they find there. The magistracy {la congregatione) is composed of two burgomasters, or syndics, for the two classes, a president of the finance department, four ac- countants, a keeper of the archives, a secretary, the two burgomasters for the preceding year, and ten VOL. I. M 242 ANNUAL RECEIPTS AND councillors. The latter are chosen, an equal num- ber from each class. The decurions choose the burgomasters, the president of finance and the councillors for one year, and the accountants for two years. The burgomasters must have been pre- viously accountants, and the finance president bur- gomaster. The burgomasters chosen directly by the decurions on the 31st of December are merely presented to the king on the first of January; neither a previous inquiry nor subsequent satisfac- tion being necessary. On the other hand, a deputy, chosen from among the decurions by the king, is always present at the sittings, though not directly taking part in the proceedings, to watch that no injury be offered to the rights of the crown. The yearly receipts and expenses of the city of Turin are nearly as follows : — llECEIPTS. 1. From the taxes on consumption, which bring in to the state about 1,600,000 lire, the city receives a lire, fixed sum of 430,000 2. Tax on hay, straw, and oats 140,000 3. Toll at the mills, 1-1 6th of the flour, including the expense of grinding ... 300,000 4. Butchers' tax 100,000 5. Tax on all venders of provisions (4 to lOlire) 30,000 EXPENCES OF TURIN. 243 lire. 6. Various fixed receipts 100,000 7. Uncertain receipts 200,000 Total 1,300,000 EXPENCES. 1. Interest, life annuities 400,0001 Ton onn fixed 300,000) ••• '^^'^'^^^ 2. Lighting of the city , 300,000 3. Police 80,000 4. Country expenditure (for instance for roads) 60,000 5. Foundling hospitals 40,000 6. Salaries 40,000 7. Schools 60,000 8. Sundries 20,000 Total 1,300,000 This statement might furnish occasion for some inquiries, if I had more time to pursue them. For instance, whether the independence of the smaller towns might not be increased, since the great pri- vileges of the capital do not seem to have produced any disadvantageous results to the general govern- ment.? Whether it might not be possible to re- awaken and keep alive the idea of the duties of the citizen, as well as of councillors and decurions.'' Whether the yearly duration of the syndicate, and the simultaneous change of both burgomasters, be M 2 244 LAWS. productive of no inconvenience ? Whether it would not be better to appropriate to the mainte- nance of the poor the funds now devoted to the vicious foundling hospitals, since there is at present no provision for them in Turin ? It is true that , some benevolent attempts have been made to sup- ply this deficiency, but it appears to me a very mis- taken method of effecting this end, to furnish paupers with an official license to beg on the high road. It is to be hoped that this practice will soon be abandoned, and the idle objections now made to a better system be overcome. LETTER XL. Piedmont — Code of Laws — Ecclesiastical Law — Waldenses, Jews — Law of Marriage — Domains — Majorats. Turin, May 5th. Since the year 1838, a new civil code has been adopted in the Sardinian states. The earlier administration of justice reposed on general laws {constituzioni) local statutes, and decisions of the court. Respecting the first, Pec- chio says, in his excellent work on political eco- nomy, (p. 232) " Piedmont was the first country which, by its constituzioni of 1729, abolished nearly the whole system of feudal authority and personal LAWS. 245 service, leaving scarcely any but honorary privi- leges in force. Secondly, it limited the right of primogeniture and of entailment, and thereby en- larged the free cultivation of the soil. Thirdly, it diminished the power of the clergy, more particu- larly that of investing land in mortmain. These constituzioni were revised in 1770, and confirmed with few alterations." I would gladly make a few extracts from the recent code, but a few points may be sufficient to give you an idea of its merits, as well as of its defects. Duelling is punished with death, even though neither combatant should be killed or wounded. The torture may be applied in cases where the punishment would be death, or a sen- tence to the galleys. The Jews are confined to a separate street, must wear a yellow badge, are not allowed to go out at night, or to purchase landed property. All forests are under the superinten- dence of the state, &c. In 1803, the French code was introduced, but in 1814 abolished, when the former system was re- stored. This sudden change occasioned much con- fusion and dissatisfaction, and a few isolated ordi- nances were insufficient to reduce the le^al chaos into anything like harmony. The present king, therefore, very wisely directed a new code to be drawn up. In their instructions, dated the 7th of 246 LAWS. June, 1831, those intrusted with the task are told that " they are to condense the national laws, and introduce such changes as inexperience and the modern relations of society may render necessary ; but they are not to show any partiality for inno- vation, unless the utilit}' be perfectly evident.'" Unquestionably the adoption of the new code was a great improvement, compared with the pre- viously existing state of things. Complaints con- tinued, however, to be made, partly against the general character of the code, partly against indi- vidual paragraphs. The most remarkable attack has been that of Count Portalis, which has been met by the defence of Count Sclopis, The former maintains and the latter denies that the motive of the promulgation was to extinguish all traces of the code of Napoleon. Neither the assertion nor the denial, in my opinion, make either for or against the merit of the composition. To love the old because it is old is just as absurd as to hate the new because it is new. A' more positive and severe censure is directed by Count Portahs against the first three paragraphs, which are these : — 1. The Catholic, Apostolic, and Roman religion is the only religion of the state. 2. The king feels it an honour to be the protector of the Church, and to enforce obedience to ail its laws, the promulgation of which pertains to the ECCLESIASTICAL LAW. 247 Church. The high officers of the government are to see to the maintenance of perfect unanimity hetween Church and State, and exercise their autho- rity in all ecclesiastical matters, according to law and ancient usage. 3. Other confessions are only tolerated in the state according to the customs and ordinances already existing with respect to them. When Count Sclopis, in defence of these articles, asserts that the ancient usages for a long period maintained real tranquillity in Piedmont, while in neighbouring states religious disturbances frequently broke out, the assertion is correct, as far as the relation of the Catholic Church to the Catholic State is concerned ; but to their too intimate con- nexion may be attributed the sanguinary scenes which occurred in the valleys of the Waldenses about the beginning of the 18th century. The third paragraph, it must also be owned, is often suc- cessfully made use of by zealots, to induce the government to maintain severe restrictions, and even to renew such as may have fallen into disuse. Among these is the regulation by which the Wal- denses are prohibited from acquiring landed pro- perty without the limits of their narrow district ; and that which directs the illegitimate child of a Vaudois mother to be taken from her by force, and to be brought up as a catholic, whatever the religion 248 ECCLESIASTICAL LAW. of the father may be, and even though he should be wilHng to marry the mother. By another regulation, the Catholic clergy and the magistrates are authorised to take away even legitimate chil- dren, should these declare their willingness to be- come converts to the Catholic faith ; and, to make such a declaration, a boy need only have completed his twelfth and a girl her eleventh year. Tlie means employed for attaining this end are never censured, and, if successful, the seducer is always considered to have performed a meritorious act. I cannot certainly approve of every measure adopted lately by the Prussian government with respect to the Catholic Church, but there can be no greater injustice than to speak of the king of Prussia as a persecutor of the Catholics, seeing that in a thousand ways he shows himself quite as solici- tous for their welfare as for that of the Protestants; that restrictions like those mentioned above are unheard of; that his General Field Marshal was a Catholic, and that the rector of the university, elected in 1839, and confirmed by the King, is a most zealous Catholic. The Jews in Prussia sometimes complain of tri- fling disabilities, but I would advise them to come hither, if they wish to know what restriction means. Clubs and reading-societies, into which Jews had been admitted, have been ordered by govern- LAW OF MARRIAGE. 249 merit to expel them. Such laws account for the small number of Jews or Protestants to be found in the country. By the Sardinian law on the subject of marriage, a betrothal can be brought before a court of law, only when reposing on some public act, or on a do- cument legally signed and sealed. The betrothed must have had the consent of their parents, or of the father or mother, if only one survive ; or if both be dead, that of the nearest ascending relatives on the father's side. If every prescribed form have been observed, the party withdrawing from the con- tract must indemnify the other for every injury sustained. In case of a separation between a father and mother, the children remain under the care of the latter till their fourth year, unless the court see sufficient reason to direct the contrary. At the end of the fourth year, the court decides which of the two parents shall be charged with their farther education. Illegitimate children may be legitimized by a subsequent marriage, or by a royal ordinance, unless either of the parents was married at the time of the birth, and unless the parents were either within the prohibited degrees of consanguinity, or under the obligation of a religious vow. The affiliation of a child is not permitted, unless the accused be still living, have already assumed M 5 250 DOMAINS. the duties of a father, or have given a promise in writing that he would do so. The civil registration is in the hands of the clergy, in virtue of an agreement with the pope. A man at his death may dispose of two-thirds of his property, if he have two children, or of the half, if he have more than two children. A Catho- lic renouncing his faith forfeits all right of inhe- ritance. What would Catholics say, if it were made a part of the Prussian law, that a father might dis- inherit his daughter, if she became a Catholic or a public prostitute ? Yet substitute the word Pro- testant for Catholic, and you will find the two grounds for disinheritance stated, as of equal force, in the code of Parma ! The crown-lands, according to the Sardinian code, are inalienable, and all agreements for such alienations, under whatever conditions, null and void. From this prohibition, however, are excepted cases of pressing necessity or obvious utility, for the defence or augmentation of the state, for in- stance, or for the acquirement of other possessions, provided the full amount of the value be paid into the royal treasury, the crown retaining, neverthe- less, the right of rescinding the bargain. Concerning the majorat, or law of entail, a new law was promulgated on the 14th of October, 1837, which endeavoured to supply the deficiencies of the i MAJORATS. 251 former one, and set aside entails. With respect to the latter, Pecchio says in his History of Political Economy, '* The younger sons, those victims of the law of entail, had no other right in the family than the degrading one of sitting at the table of the first-born, and no other means of maintenance than the sword or the breviary; for all other occupations, be they ever so profitable, were closed against them by a false notion of honour. " In order to remedy this injustice, the government committed a second, and bestowed the highest dig- nities, civil and military, on the younger sons of noble families. Merit without birth had, there- fore, no chance of promotion ; and the spur of emu- lation was wanting to the nobly born. The cities were filled with abbes leading scandalous lives, the convents with idlers ; families were divided by civil war, and the country was sunk in superstition." The above-mentioned new law provided that the permission to found majorats should be reserved to those who, on account of services rendered by the crown, might be esteemed worthy of such favour. For such a purpose, it is necessary to prove a clear income of at least 10,000 lire in land ; the affair must be discussed in the council of state, and the permission confirmed by the king. One tenth of the amount of the income must be devoted to the purchase of stock in the public funds, and, should 252 CONSCRIPTIONe the founder of the majorat have no other property, one excluded child has a claim for a sixth ; two or more, for a fourth of the income of the majorat. LETTER XLI. The Aitny — Military Schools. Turin, May 6th. In my last letter I touched upon a few points of civil law ; to-day, without pretending to anything like a complete statement, I will notice a few of the points of military law. A very circumstantial ordinance of the IGth December, 1837, enacts, on the subject of the conscription, that it is to be raised in proportion to the population, the selection being made by lot from the classes between the ages of 18 and 24. The army is divided into the regular and pro- vincial, {ordinanze e provinciale.) At the end of eight years' service, the regular soldier receives his discharge. The provincial remains one year under arms, and then receives leave of absence, but is under an obligation to join the army again at any time within seven years, if calledupon to do so. At the end of eight years, he passes over to the reserve, and at the end of sixteen years he is com- THE ARMY. 253 pletely free. The provincial cavalry serve three years with the regular army, and then remain at home, but liable to be called out again for thirteen years. The provincial artillery serve three years, receive a furlough for six years, and are then at- tached to the reserve for four years more. Clergymen, seamen, pupils in the military schools, and Jews are exempt, but the last are obliged to pa}'. Eldest sons of widows, eldest brothers of orphans, &c., are excused. Married men, widowers with children, only sons of farmers and mechanics, &c., are usually turned over to the provincial army. Substitutes are allowed, but must be approved of by the authorities. The provincial soldiers on furlough must be inspected and re- viewed once a year. The provincial infantry is about four times as numerous as that of the regular army, but the provincial cavalry and artillery com- pose but a trifling force. Promotion generally takes place according to seniority. Non-commissioned officers can rarely advance beyond the rank of lieutenant. In the military school at Turin, 85 pupils, chiefly orphans or the sons of officers, are main- tained at the king's expense. A selection takes place, after examination, from among the candidates for admission. In a second college, there are 100 free places for sons of officers, 100 pay half, and 50 ^ii SCHOOLS. two-thirds of the usual charge. In both institutions pupils are received on payment of the full amount. All royal pupils are obliged to serve sixteen years. The country is divided into 7 military districts : — Turin, Alessandria, Cuneo, Savoy, Nizza, No- vara, Genoa ; over each of these a governor is appointed. I will not presume to make any com- ments on these arrangements; still I cannot but consider it matter of congratulation that efforts are thus made to form a national army, and that the enlistment of foreigners for the defence of the country has been abandoned. LETTER XLII. Piedmont — Schools — Gymnasiums — Universities. Turin, May 7th. A very general complaint here is, that elementary schools are still wanting in many places, and that where they exist they are under the superintendence of ignorant and ill-paid teachers. The Italian schools, as they are called, where the instruction is carried a little farther, are mostly in the hands of \heJiateUi ignorantili, who, though they are called ignorant, must, I should think, possess the little knowledge required of them. The clergy, no doubt, are exerting themselves to obtain the exclusive di- rection of the instruction of youth, and to fashion it SCHOOLS. 255 entirely in conformity with their own views. These views they proclaim to be holy, christian, and anti- revolutionary ; but many complain, that every ad- vance of science is looked on with jealousy, every freedom of thought treated as heresy, the ignorance of the multitude considered an advantage to the government, and passive obedience laudeda the highest degree of virtue. A minister is said to have openly declared himself an enemy to all science and to all men of learning ; and it appears that a society, which had raised a large sum by subscrip- tion for the establishment of infant schools, has dissolved itself, in consequence of an order to place them under the superintendence of the monks, and to entrust the tuition exclusively to nuns, I am not one of those who would exclude the clergy altogether from exercising any influence over schools, as if they were the only class liable to pro- fessional prejudices and passions; but history proves that exclusive influence confided to the clergy tends to the worst of tyranny, because no other community or corporation has the same op- portunity of instilling its own prejudices and pas- sions as sacred truths. A collection of laws for the regulation of schools was printed in 1834. According to these, the in- struction given in the elementary schools is gra- tuitous. The lessons begin and end with prayer. The 256 GYMNASIUMS. gymnasiums (collegi) are divided into six classes: three junior, one of grammar, one of humanity, and one of rhetoric. The branches of instruction and class-books are prescribed. Besides the ordi- nary teachers, every gymnasium has a prefect, who is often changed, and whose duty it is to enforce discipline among teachers and scholars, and a spi- ritual director. Under the last named, the follow- ing exercises occur daily. Every morning; 1, a quarter of an hour of religious reading ; 2, the hymn. Vent creator ; 3, according to the season, the Ambrosian hymn, and other extracts from the Uffic'io della heata Vergine ; 4, mass ; 5, hymn of the litanies of the holy virgin ; 6, spiritual in- struction ; 7, the psalm, Laudate Dominum, and a prayer for the king. In the afternoon : 1, a quar- ter of an hour of religious reading; 2, hymn and prayer ; 3, three quarters of an hour explanation of the catechism. The school lasts 3| hours in the forenoon, and 2^ hours in the afternoon. Thurs- day is a whole holiday. Where the funds of the school are insufficient, a boy in the three junior classes pays 15 francs a year, and in the upper classes, 20 francs, besides 8 or 12 francs on being promoted from one class to another. The salaries of the teachers are paid partly by the government and partly by the towns, and amount to from 750 to 1200 lire per annum, with some trifling addition GYMNASIUMS. 257 in case of long service. The retiring pensions also depend on the period of service, but the highest pension never exceeds the lowest salary. Where the ability is the same, clergymen are always to be preferred. No teacher must cause anything to be printed either in or out of the kingdom without submitting his manuscript first to the ordinary censorship, and then to the censorship of the rifor- ma. The magistrato di riforma is a kind of mi- nistry of public instruction, and has a consiglio di rrfurma under it in every province. Among its other duties, occurs that of prescribing what books shall be used in instruction, although, in the epis- copal seminaries, and some others under the guidance of ecclesiastical orders, such as the Jesuits, the Barnabites, &c., it has little influence. The scholars of the gymnasiums are not allowed to read any books which have not been either given or furnished by the prefect. They are forbidden to swim, to frequent theatres, balls, coffee or gaming houses ; to perform in private plays, and the like ; and it is the business of the police to see these pro- hibitions attended to. There is in Turin one head university, with four faculties ; and there are secondary universities {uni- versitd secondarie) in Chamberi, Asti, Mondovi, Nizza, Novara, Saluzzo, and Vercelli, either for the study of medicine alone, or for medicine and jurispru- 258 UNIVERSITIES. dence together. The universities have no legal right to make proposals for the appointment to vacant places, and there is consequently no canvassing. This is by some regarded as an advantage, though it is stated on the other hand that hasty and partial nominations are more frequent on this system. There are three academical degrees, those of bachelor, licentiate, and laureate ; and the holidays are on the whole more frequent than with us. The students are not only under strict scientific superinten<^ence, but also under the close surveil- lance of the police. No student is allowed to choose his dwelling or leave it without permission of the prefect, who often appoints the place where he is to lodge and board. Whoever wishes to receive students into his house must undertake the responsibility for their observance of the laws which regulate their going to mass and confession, fasting, and even their clothing and their beards. Neglect of these rules is punished by exclusion from the examinations, or from the university itself. With respect to the great abundance of devo- tional exercises, I may be permitted to remark that, though the reference to piety and devotion, as to that which should mingle in all sciences and in every action of our lives, be undoubtedly praise- worthy, and for Catholics it is right to prefer Tho- REMARKS ON THE SCHOOL SYSTEM. 259 mas a Kempis to Ovid as a school-book, I cannot help doubting if the constant repetition of these prescribed forms be really advisable. Without con- sidering that many must regard them as mere loss of time, it would be scarcely possible to avoid one of two errors — either that of an over-estimation of mere external observances, and a consequent disre- gard of true inward holiness, or an indifference and disgust easily excited in young minds, when the highest and holiest subjects become matters of daily and mechanical routine. In the second place, that the school instruction should devolve wholly on Catholic clergymen may have one advantage in an economical point of view, since, being without families, they are better able to maintain themselves on a small income ; but it can scarcely escape the objection of bestowing only a one-sided education, or avoid the danger of having many branches of instruction under the superin- tendence of those who are themselves little in- structed ; unless ecclesiastics should be obliged to devote themselves to studies foreign to their voca- tion. The existence of a lurking wish to extend and strengthen by this means the power and domi- nion of the Church is the more evident, as establish- ments for education are daily arising, which are entirely withdrawn from temporal influence. I repeat that such a system as this appears to me 260 REMARKS ON THE SCHOOL SYSTEM. quite as one-sided and disadvantageous as the oppo- site one. In the third place, what is called the philoso- phical course is here, still less than in the Lom- bardo-Venetian kingdom, such as to afford any compensation for the meagreness of the education afforded at the gymnasium. How, for instance, can a single lesson or lecture a week in Greek grammar make amends for many years' academical study of that difficult language, or afford any pre- paration for the studies of the university, in them- selves meagre enough ? Besides, there is merely a choice offered to the quasi-student, whether he will learn Greek or history. Should he prefer history, he must renounce Greek altogether. Fourthly, much might be said against the subor- dinate universities above-mentioned. They were established at a time when the unquiet dispositions of the Turin students had turned towards politics, and occasioned much trouble to the government, which endeavoured to weaken them by scatter- ing them thus over the country. It may be doubted, nevertheless, whether this lasting resource against a merely temporary evil has proved really effec- tual. It is at all events likely that the number of igno- rant students has been thereby increased, and the instruction deteriorated from the diminution of the SARDINIAN STATES. 261 number of learned professors. The German uni- versities sometimes exhibit the dangers of too much hberty, those of this country the evils of too much restraint. The time must come in a young man's life when even paternal authority must cease — much more, then, the discipline of a school. LETTER XLIII. Piedmont — Improvements of all kinds — Population — Foundling-Hospitals. Genoa, May 17th. It belongs neither to my nature nor my office to play the flatterer, or to conceal any opinion I may entertain ; but, should my communications produce a general impression that the Sardinian States show no signs of genuine and considerable progress, I should be leading you astray, and the fault would lie on me, qui clarius loqiii debuisset. The details into which I am now about to enter will, I hope, lead to a more accurate estimate of their condition. I have obtained from the most authentic sources some information of what has been done during the reign and under the actual superintendence of the present king ; and I cannot deny that I have been 262 RECENT IMPROVEMENTS filled with joyful surprise. We will take the several departments of government separately. 1. Much as still remains to be done in the depart- ment of public instruction, it cannot be denied that schools, museums, collections, &c., have been in- creased in number. 2. In the department of finance, regulations have been made with respect to customs, coinage, stamps, system of accounts, and the public debt, of which more hereafter. 3. The department of war has the merit of having re-organised the army, and re-established the for- tresses and the artillery. Attention has been paid to the navy, to the construction of new barracks and lighthouses ; the harbours have been improved, and new laws have been passed for the regulation of the conscription. 4. The department of justice has distinguished itself by a great diminution in the number of capital punishments, and by the abolition of confiscation of property as a punishment ; by a new organisation of the courts of law, and of the law of entailment. The new code has been substituted for an uncertain and unsuitable system of legal administration. Far- ther reforms are in progress. 5. The department of the Interior has passed laws for the regulation of communes, roads, weights and measures, sanitary police, vaccination, prisons. IN THE SARDINIAN STATES. 263 forests, the game laws, &c. Roads and bridges in great number have been constructed, as also town- houses, slaughter-houses, public baths, theatres, hospitals, school-houses, poor-houses, and churches. Markets and public promenades have been improved and embellished, statues erected, canals made, and mines and quarries opened. 6. Under the direction of the ministry of the royal household, by order of the king, an armoury and a collection of coins have been formed, the gallery of pictures greatly increased, palaces embellished, order introduced into the public archives, and a society formed for the investigation of national history, that has manifested its activity by the valuable collection of the monumenta patrice. 7. Lastly, for Sardinia a series of truly remark- able laws have been promulgated, by which the foundation is laid for an entirely new state of things, and for the regeneration of that long neg- lected island. I will add a few brief remarks on various isolated points, reserving those of greater import- ance for a future communication. 1. The continental states of the Sardinian mo- narchy, in 1818, contained 3,439,000 inhabi- tants ; at present about 4,000,000 ; and, but for certain calamities (particularly the cholera) the increase would have been much larger. 264 POPULATION. The proportion between males and females is as 1000 to 1001 Unmarried and married 10 ,, 6 Married and widows and widowers 10 „ 3 Proprietors of land and the popu- lation at large 1 „ 5 Members of learned professions and the population 1 „ 500 Tradesmen and mechanics and the population 1 „ 400 Labourers and the population at large 1 ,, 10 The country contains 72 towns, and 2632 vil- lages, hamlets, &c. In Sardinia there are 93 con- vents for men and 13 for women ; in the conti- nental dominions, 242 of the former and 80 of the latter. Among these the mendicant orders are the most prevalent. 2. The prejudice against vaccination has given way, and the small-pox has not been heard of for several years. 3. For the sanitary police superior and inferior authorities have been appointed. Veterinai'y sur- geons are educated at Fossano, at an institution founded for the purpose. 4. The new laws for the regulation of prisons have met with general approbation. The accused are kept strictly apart from the condemned, the young INSTITUTIONS FOR THE POOR. 265 from the old, men from women. Where many work together, silence is rigidly enforced. The king has granted two millions of lire, from the sur- plus of 1836 and 1837, for the construction of new prisons, and prizes of 5000 and 1000 lire have been offered for the best plans. A new law was promulgated on the 29th of May, 1817, on the subject of roads and navigable waters. It assumes that all rivers are the property of the crown. The roads are divided into royal, pro- vincial, and private, and are all, more or less, sub- ject to the control of the public authorities. Chambers of Commerce and of Agriculture have been established at Turin, Genoa, Chamberi, and Nice. They are composed of landowners, bankers, merchants, and manufacturers, From time to time public exhibitions take place of the produce of national industry. The institutions for the poor, for the relief of the sick, &c. are very numerous in the Sardinian States, their yearly income (exclusively of the island of Sardinia) being calculated at ten millions of lire. The administration of these institutions has been much improved by new laws, and it is to be hoped that mendicity, permitted since 1831, will gra- dually be subdued. On the subject of foundling hospitals I must repeat my old complaints. The province of Turin, VOL. I. N 266 FOUNDLING HOSPITALS. with a population of SSOjOOO, sees yearly 500 chil- dren deserted by their parents, and is at present charged with the maintenance of 3500 such chil- dren. In the Genoese districts, the hospitals contained 1202 foundlings in 1813, and in 1835, the number had increased to 2555. In 1835, the number of deserted children found alive was 275, those found dead were in number 163. The mortality of these children within the year was 120. Every eleventh child, on an average, was a foundling. In the whole monarchy, 3480 children were de- serted in 1835, of whom 1957 died. For a popu- lation of 4 millions, there were no fewer than 18,365 children maintained in the foundling hospitals, at an expense of 425,000 lire to the state. As long as the bigoted notion prevails that these revolting institutions promote moraUty and prevent infanti- cide, no remedy is to be hoped for, and the pre- mium offered to vice will continue to foster depra- vity. Are not the deserted children that are found dead, are not the others also Avho die in such prodigious numbers, murdered ? Are they not murdered by mothers, fathers, and legislators? FINANCES OF PIEDMONT. 267 LETTER XLIV. Piedmont —Finances — Taxes — Customs — Government Monopolies — Taxes on Consumption — Debt of the State. Genoa, May 19th. The financial system of the kingdom of Sardinia is one of the best regulated in Europe, and occa- sional defects are more than counterbalanced by accompanying advantages. A yearly budget is drawn up, with estimates of revenue and expendi- ture. There has been every year a surplus of the former, and no recourse has been had to anticipa- tions, bons du tresor^ soumissions, and other arti- ficial resources. The department of finance is divided into three principal divisions : the first, for the direct taxes, office fees or insimiaz'ion'i, and the lotto ; the second, for customs, consumption taxes, and the royal monopolies of salt, tobacco, gunpow- der, and lead ; the third, for the administration of the crown property and the public debt. The following is the estimate for the current year in round numbers : — REVENUE. 1. Customs, taxes on consumption, lire. tobacco, salt, &c 42,500,000 2, Finances (including royal domains, direct taxes, &c.) 27,200,000 N 2 268 REVENUES. 3. Foreign (estcro) chiefly the post- hre. office 2,300,000 4. Interior (including mines) 300,000 5. Coinage, &c 200,000 7. Administration of the treasury (erario) 900,000 Herein are included the gunpowder monopoly 240,000 Chancery fees (diritti di seffretaria) 40,000 Interest on capital ad- vanced 55,000 Sundry receipts, arising from sales of old mate- terials, and other sources 130,000 Interest on public securi- ties 75,000 7. From the naval department (ma- rina) 200,000 Total 73,600,000 EXPENDITUIIE. lire. Royal household and officers of state 4,000,000 Administration of justice 4,300,000 Foreign affairs 3,000,000 Interior 7,400,000 War office 26,100,000 EXPENDITURE. 269 Artillery 2,900,000 Navy 3,100,000 Department of Finance 6,100,000 Customs 8,500,000 The Queen Dowager 262,000 The Prince of Carignan 150,000 Public Debt 8,662,000 Total 74,474,000 The Revenue being estimated at 73,600,000 There would appear to be a deficit of 874,000 but, as I have said, there has always been a sur- plus, the revenue having always produced from 4 to 8 millions more than had been estimated. In 1837, the surplus amounted to 2,300,000 lire. The direct taxes are levied according to the laws of the 14th of December, 1818, and of the 1st of April, 1826. Under the French administration there were four of these taxes : land-tax, door and window-tax, trade licenses, and personal and furni- ture tax. The second and third were abolished by the present government, and the first reduced, in 1819, by l-13th, and in 1838 by 1-lOth. From the land-tax the only exemptions are in favour of the royal palaces, domains, and manufactories, the residences and gardens of the clergy, churches, and churchyards. 270 . TAXES. There is no general cadastre, or equal registra- tion of lands. Many communes are entirely with- out one, and a few old documents and the recollec- tions of living persons must supply the want. This of course leads to arbitrary acts, double imposition, omissions, and disorders of every kind. Some com- munes were surveyed and registered during the French domination, while the districts ceded by Austria continue to make use of the Milanese cadastre. In Savoy a registration was eflPected in 1730, but since then has undergone many altera- tions, particularly during the French time, when the land-tax was extended to the nobles and eccle- siastics. In the Genoese, there was no land-book till 1798, and it is on the lists then drawn up, with all their inaccuracies, that the land-tax is still levied. The want of a general registration is felt, but, as the expense is estimated at 10 millions of lire, and only 2y millions are at present available to this purpose, the work continues to be delayed. Archbishops, bishops, parochial clergy, clerical orders, and soldiers of the regular army, are ex- empt from the personal and furniture tax. People become liable to these taxes on completing the 20th year. The poor, under which head labourers and domestic servants are included, are not called on to pay. The personal tax is not to exceed 3 lire in towns of more than 10,000 inhabitants 21 „ „ „ 5,000 „ CUSTOMS. 271 2 lire in towns of more than 2,000 inhabitants and 1^ „ „ less than 2,000 „ The furniture-tax is determined according to the rent. The personal and furniture tax, in 1839, produced 720,000 lire. The customs are raised according to the tariffs of 1830 and 1835. The revenue derived from them has been progressively increasing, though the high duty on many articles encourages smugghng, so that a reduction would be likely to lead to the double advantage of remedying this evil and in- creasing the revenue. The following are a few of the articles with the duties charged by the two tariffs on importation : — 1830 1835. lire lire. lire. cent. Brandy, per hectolitre 60 to 150 120 Wine ... 24 to 60 Cacao, per cwt. 50 Coffee 60 70 Pepper 38 45 Tea, per kilogramme 2^ Sugar, per cwt 45 to 80 18 to 48 Butter 1 Cheese 16 Oysters 10 cent. Exportation. Horses, each 7 20 .15 Asses • 50 3 CUSTOMS. 1830. lire. lire. cent. 10 1835. lire. 5 Export, lire. cent. 2 1 50 25 1 25 2 3 1 Qe 2 to 5 Oxen Calves Sheep Pigs Linen per kilogramme 2 to Cotton goods 4 to 20 Wool, per cwt.* 1 to 6 Wheat per cwt 9 Other kinds of corn 6 Books (bound, legati bia7ichi,) per cwt.... 50 to 100 Music 50 to 85 Not only this extravagantly high duty on foreign books, but also the severe censorship, and the loss of time which it occasions, throw great impediments in the way of literary intercourse. Many of the productions of Sardinia (oil, wine, corn, wool, hides, fish, &c.) were formerly liable to only one-fourth of the usual duty. This favour has since 18S5 been extended to oranges and fruit, but the duty on these and other articles increased to one- half the customary charge, a measure that has given rise to bitter complaints among the Sardinians. * Since 1835 the exportation has been allowed on payment of 10 to 15 lire per cwt. Silk is allowed to be exported, sub- ject to a duty of 3 lire. •• TAXES ON CONSUMPTION. 273 When the important improvements are completed in Sardinia, an alteration of the customs laws will be unavoidable. Indeed, the whole system is gra- dually approaching to a greater simplification, the effect of which will be to permit a much more economical administration, and a considerable re- duction in the little army of 3800 public officers now maintained. The taxes on consumption are moderate ; they are partly levied by the state, and partly by the communes to cover local expenditure. The former (called gabelle accensate) extend to meat, wine, spirits, vinegar, beer, and leather, when sold retail. This arrangement, however, is confined to 22 dis- tricts, and does not extend to Savoy, Genoa, Nice, Aosta, Ossola, &c. About 1,200,000 of the population are liable lo these taxes, and about 2,800,000 exempt. They bring in yearly 4f milHons of lire, and are farmed out, as in the Milan- ese; in the Sardinian states, however, no distinc- tion is made between walled and open towns. Turin is the only city that does not levy its own consumption tax, but receives a fixed sum in its stead. A law, of the 27th of December, 1838, prescribes the articles on which the cities may im- pose this tax. They are chiefly wine, liquors, meat, flour, wood, hay, straw, and a few building ma- terials. In the larger cities these taxes are mostly N 5 274 PUBLIC DEBT. farmed and levied at the gates; in the smaller ones each retail dealer y)ays a fixed sum. It is only in cases of extreme urgency, and when all other means appear to be insufficient, that bread, flour, or meat, can be taxed. The monopolies of salt and tobacco are exercised and enforced in the usual manner. The produce of both is on the increase ; the former produces yearly 13,500,000, the latter 7,650,000 lire. Most of the salt comes from Sardinia and the south of France, and is sold, except in a few districts, at four sous a pound. The public debt may be divided under three heads. 1. The debt of 100 millions of lire, fixed in 1819 at five per cent. Of these, 60 millions are redeemable, and the original sinking fund amounted to one per cent. The extinction is effected, half by re-purchase, and the other half by lot. The remaining 40 millions are considered an irredeem- able {perpetud) debt. 2. In the year 1831, at a time of imminent dan- ger, a voluntary loan of 25 millions was raised in a short time at five per cent. 3. The same considerations, in 1834, procured a loan of 27 millions, at four per cent., together with some prizes. The whole amount remains in the public treasury, to meet extraordinary demands, more particularly for the defence of the country. PUBLIC DEBT. 275 The public securities of Sardinia enjoy great confidence, but appear so rarely in the money mar- ket, that the attendant evils of stockjobbing specu- lations are scarcely known. The punctual payment of the interest, and the progressive reduction of the debt, are generally praised. It may be doubted, however, whether to buy up the public debt at 114 and 118 per cent, be good economy, and whether it would not be better to adopt a more direct manner of payment. Secondly, whether the interest might not be reduced to 4 per cent., offering the fund- holders the choice of receiving back their capital. Thirdly, whether some more expedient means might not be found for providing against extraordinary dangers, than to keep so large a sum of money lying idle in the treasury that the expense of taking care of it, including the loss of interest, amounts to 1,620,000 hre. LETTER XLV. Genoa — Agricultural Produce — Olives — Oranges — Lemons — Woods — Population — Exports. Genoa, May 21st. The Genoese territory is described by Foderi and Bertolotti, as a land rising everywhere from the seaside into hills and mountains, with little 276 PROVINCE OF GENOA. agriculture, more gardens and orchards, the olive the prevalent object of cultivation, southern fruits in the most favourable places, the chestnut on the higher grounds, with pasturage and hei'ds among the maritime Alps. Everywhere great industry, but nowhere much opulence among the people, the proverb holding good — " He who possesses only olive trees will always remain poor." Even a trifling frost injures the delicate plant, and still greater destruction is occasioned by some insects. Seedlings bear no regular crop of fruit till they are 50 years old, but if propagated by cuttings the trees bear at the end of 25 years. The more strongly the ground is manured, the more abundant in general is the harvest. In good years 150 to 200 olive trees, on a superficies of 10,000 square yards, will produce from 80 to 50 barilcs of oil, and sometimes one large olive tree will yield as much as 3 bariles.* The trees blossom in May, and the harvest begins in December. The price of the barila varies from 30 to 80 francs. Orange and lemon trees yield a full harvest only after 20 years. A hundred trees will give 30,000 fruit, at 16 francs the thousand. A single tree has sometimes been known to bear 4000. They grow best on a light soil, well watered, and well manured. The blossoms falling constitute in themselves a • The barila of oil is equal to 17 English gallons. PROVINCE OF GENOA. 277 manure ; when sold, 25 pounds of them are worth about a franc. The pastoral part of the population are more opulent than the olive-growers, though the pastur- age and cattle are both Inferior to those of Swit- zerland. As early as the year 1753, a very neces- sary law was promulgated, to prohibit the wanton destruction of the mountain forests, but in 1793 the greatest mischief was done by the total disre- gard of that law. The consequence was, the fertile soil disappeared, the storms became more violent, the mountain torrents more destructive, the roads were destroyed, and the climate was in many re- spects deteriorated. The system now enjoined of replanting the mountains will, it is to be hoped, be happily persevered in. From Cevasco's excellent work on the statistics of Genoa, (not yet complete,) I have borrowed a part of the following facts, and have added to them others, which have reached me from a quarter to be relied on. In eight years, from 1828 to 1835, the births in Genoa amounted to 24,741, of whom 12,513 were boys, and 12,228 girls. The deaths were 17,758 ; of these, 8898 were males, and SS60 females. These numbers, how- ever, do not include the deaths in the convents and 278 POPULATION. hospitals. In 1813, the period of Napoleon's com- mercial restrictions, the city contained 74,000 inha- bitants ; in 1827, the number had already increased to 95,000. Since then, partly owing to the cholera, the population has not increased. Including sol- diers, sailors, foreigners, and strangers from the country, however, the city is supposed to contain ] 13,000 souls. The garrison of Genoa consists of about 6000 men, and the naval crews are about 3000 strong. The navy consists of three old ships of the line {rases of 60 guns), 3 frigates, 2 sloops, 2 brigs, 1 cutter, and some smaller vessels. About 8000 fo- reigners visit the city in the course of the year. About 200,000 hectohtres (4,400,000 imperial gal- Ions) of wine and vinegar are consumed in the year ; these, paying an excise of 2 lire 60 centimes per hectolitre, yield a revenue of 520,000 lire. The consumption of brandy and beer is comparatively trifling. There are slaughtered yearly about 2300 oxen, 7500 cows, 7900 calves, 1000 pigs, 15,000 sheep, and 28,000 lambs. The corn consumed is chiefly wheat, of which the yearly average is 350,000 sacks. Next in importance are Indian corn and rice ; of the former about 60,000 sacks, and of the latter about 32,000 are annually consumed. Tlie tax on consumption levied by the state in Genoa POPULATION. 279 has been estimated to produce 2,150,000 lire, and the city tax about 1,374,000. From an excellent table, containing a classifica- tion of" the inhabitants, I have borrowed the fol- lowing. Genoa contains — 298 fathers of families living on their private income. 509 secular clergy. 555 monks. 456 nuns. 56 ecclesiastical seminaries. 41 registered clergymen. 1490 children attending the public elementary schools. 710 children attending the superior schools. 581 persons belonging to the university. 1878 pupils in private schools. 1284 public officers of every kind. 463 lawyers. 276 physicians, surgeons, apothecaries, and mid- wives. 1019 merchants and manufacturers. 21525 mechanics of both sexes. 2145 porters. 6110 female domestics. 2019 male ditto. 242 tavernkeepers and the like. 2698 beggars and vagabonds. &c., &c., &;c. 280 EXPORTS. There are only three individuals in Genoa who pay more than 1000 lire land tax. 18 individuals pay from 500 to 1000 44 250 ,, 500 142 100 " 250 3863 under 100. The following are some of the principal exports, and the amount exported. White lead 454,000 lire. Coral 2,952,000 Iron bedsteads and similar articles 240,000 Confectionary 200,000 Goldsmiths' work 250,000 Paper and hangings 1 ,500,000 Soap 39,000 Silk and silk goods 2,825,000 Macaroni and vermicelli ... 1,213,000 Gil 1,154,000 Rice from Piedmont 804,000 Artificial flowers 39,000 Gloves , 59,000 Cream of tartar 98,000 Chestnuts 24,000, &c. The total value of the exports is estimated at 17,000,000 lire. COMMERCE OF GENOA. 281 LETTER XLVI. Genoa — Commerce — Shipping — Imports. Genoa, May 22nd. From what I have already said, it may be ga- thered that Genoa is not a manufacturing town, in the comprehensive sense of the word. To force a manufacturing interest into existence, many would fain return to the old system of prohibiting the exportation of all raw produce, and throwing in- creased impediments in the way of the introduction of foreign goods. But commercej on which the welfare of Genoa depends, would suffer more by such a change than manufactures would gain. The government, on the contrary, has acted wisely by allowing the export of silk and wool, and is ap- proaching nearer and nearer to a simplification of the high and intricate system of customs. Seeing how Genoa is situated, between Trieste, Venice, Leghorn, Nice, and Marseilles, it fol- lows that the range of its trade cannot be ex- tended beyond a certain limit. On this subject I have heard two different complaints : in the first place, that Nice was too much favoured by ancient privileges, and by its great local facilities for smug- gling ; secondly, that the transit trade was still too heavily taxed. That the government is unwilling a82 COMMERCE. to disturb ancient privileges secured to Nice by- treaty seems to me deserving of praise, and the only question is, whether similar advantages might not be extended to Genoa. That the government is desirous of facilitating the transit trade appears to me to be evident, from the late conclusion of a commercial treaty with North America. The great commercial prospect, however, in my opinion, for Genoa, must be looked for in the improvements about to take place in Sardinia, which cannot but lead to an abolition or at least a new arrange- ment of the customs laws, by which the two countries are still kept asunder. At all events, no trace of decay is to be seen at Genoa, as at Venice, and even if, in a commercial point of view, matters are stationary here, it is impossible to remain insensible to the great im- provements that have taken place in the city itself, as well as in the surrounding country and the har- bour. Although the annihilation of the ancient form of government, like every other death, be a cause for mourning, still it must be borne in mind that under existing circumstances an hereditary aristocracy was as little suited to this city as to Venice. The activity and enterprise of the Genoese is not to be doubted. They trade to the most remote parts of the world. The following is a table of the COMMERCE. 2SS ships arriving at Genoa from different countries in the course of 1835. From Alexandria, Sardinian vessels 2 „ North America 7 „ Havanna, 11 Sardinian, 4 Spanish 15 „ The Levant, 73 Sardinian, 1 Austrian, 74 „ Brazil, 33 Sardin., 2 English, 1 French, 36 „ Buenos Ayres and Monte Video, 29 Sardinian, 1 English 30 ,, Bremen, 2 Bremen, 1 Hanoverian, 1 Dutch 4 „ Columbia, Sardinian 2 „ St. Domingo, French 1 „ France, 5 Neapolitan, 1 Dutch, 3 Spa- nish, 79 Sardinian, 54 French, 1 Tuscan, 2 Austrian 145 „ the Canaries, Sardinian 1 ,, Denmark, Danish 1 „ Gibraltar, 11 Sardinian, 4 English 15 ,, the Adriatic, 22 Sardinian, 5 Austrian, 27 „ Greece, Sardinian 8 „ England, 5 Sardinian, 81 English, 1 Neapolitan, 1 American 88 „ the Ionian Islands and Malta, 8 Sardi- nian, 2 English 10 „ Constantinople and the Black Sea, Sar- dinian , 76 224 COMMERCE. From Mexico, Sardinian 2 Holland, 8 Dutch, 1 Belgian, 4 Sardi- nian, 1 Russian 14 Portugal, 19 Sardinian, 1 English, 1 Dutch, 1 Prussian, 2 Neapolitan, 1 Tuscan 25 Porto Rico and St. Thomas, Sardinian, 10 San Romano, 6 Sardinian, 1 English, 1 French 8 Naples and Sicily, 243 Sardinian, 30 Neapolitan, 1 Austrian 274 Sardinia, Sardinian 109 Sweden and Norway, 5 Swedish, 1 Rus- sian, 1 Dutch 7 Sumatra, American 1 Spain, 48 Sardinian, 17 Spanish, 2 Tus- can, 2 Neapolitan 69 Newfoundland, 1 English, 1 French ... 2 Tuscany, 32 Sardinian, 1 Spanish, 1 Tuscan, 1 Austrian, 1 Brazilian ... 36 the Pacific, Sardinian 4 Para and Maragnon, 1 Sardinian, 1 Austrian, 1 Spanish 3 The imports were in 1834 1835 1836 Coffee pounds 7,344,000 3,938,000 8,220,000 Cacoa bags 265,000 146,000 576,000 Hides pieces 200,000 167,000 171,000 MUNICIPAL GOVERNMENT. 285 1834 1835 1836 Wax pounds 123,000 165,000 329,000 Pepper „ 4,400,000 344,000 2,481,000 Tea „ 17,000 15,000 10,000 SafFron „ 15,000 18,000 15,000 Corn cwt. 438,000 572,000 1,006,000 Fish and colonial goods of every kind are also largely imported ; the most important article is sugar, the annual importation of which is estimated at 200,000 quintals. LETTER XLVII. Genoa — Municipal Government — Income and Expenditure of the City. ♦ Leghorn, May 24tb. The city of Genoa is governed in virtue of the laws of December 1814, and July 1815. The Great Town Council is formed of 40 decurions, 20 of whom are nobles, and 20 citizens and mer- chants. They were in the first instance named by the king, but subsequent vacancies are filled up by the council itself. They must meet at least three times every year, on the 16th of April, August, and December, and on extraordinary occasions, on the suggestion of the Little Council, and with the sanction of the king's representative, an office usually given to the presiding judge in the supreme 286 MUNICIPAL GOVERNMENT. court of Genoa. He has no vote in the council, but is ordered to watch vigilantly over the interests of the government and the inhabitants. The Great Council elects its own members and the magis- trates of the city, subject to the approval of the king, nominates the Little Council, proposes the syndics, confirms the appointments of inferior offi- cers by the Little Council, examines the estimates and expenditure for the year, and deliberates on all important matters relating to the city. At each meeting, at least three-fifths of the members must be present in official costume. The Little Council, on which the attention to business really devolves, is composed of an equal number from each class (nobles and citizens) and one half of the members go out every year. This body administers the revenues of the city, super- intends the police and the charitable institutions. It is composed of the syndics, the councillors of accounts, several other of the city authorities, and 10 ordinary members. No resolution can be adopted unless 21 members and the king's commis- sioner be present. The Little Council meets at least once a month, and more frequently if the affairs of the city require it. There are two syndics, whose term of office lasts for three years. Each member of council proposes three candidates, whose names he writes secretly on INCOME OF GENOA. 287 slips of paper, and the king selects two from the six names that have obtained the greatest number of votes, always appointing one noble and one citizen. Six councillors of accounts, whose term of office is two years, superintend the financial affairs of the city. Six superintendents (provveditori) fix the prices of provisions, wood, and coals; watch the conduct of the retailers ; examine weights and measures, &c. Six asdiles have charge of the har- bour, dikes, warehouses, waterworks, marine affairs, roads, &c. All these officers are appointed by the Great Council from among its own members, and are ex' officio members of the Little Council, Having given you the estimates of Trieste, Venice, Milan, and Turin, I will add that of Genoa for the year 1837, and shall take some future oppor- tunity of comparing them with each other. INCOME. lire. 1. Rentofland 23,653 2. Quit-rents 7,083 3. Interest on public securities 4,623 4. Additional centimes to the land-tax 6,400 5. City taxes (almost all on articles of general consumption) 1,155,063 6. Stall money for the Piazza de' Ponti 21,000 7. Ditto for the fish-market 4,500 8. Measuring wood 6,500 9. Ditto, coals 4,500 £88 EXPENDITURE. lire. 10. Measuring corn 5,000 11. Ditto wine 2,500 12. Rent of snow 30,060 13. Farming of the Pellere 935 14. Sundry receipts 654 15. Warehouse-money at the harbour 8,002 16. Receipts from the theatre 25,525 Total, in round numbers 1,306,000 EXPENDITURE. 1. Administration of the city 48,955 2. Collecting city revenue 96,548 3. Other official expenditure {carichi d'Azienda) 6,912 4. Keeping streets in repair 40,242 5. Ditto waterworks 35,137 6. Cleansing and watching the city... 26,562 7. Lighting 46,680 8. Preservation of public walks 6,056 9. Expenditure for the theatre 78,020 10. Military expenses 17,971 11. Police 26,299 12. Archives 4,412 13. Judicial expenses 7,425 14. Ditto (of a different class) 952 15. Interest on the city debt, and sink- ing fund 303,444 TAXES. 289 lire. 16. Religious expenses, processions, &c. 9600 17. Charitable institutions 477,352 18. Tublic instruction 63,134 19. Casual expenses 102,92 Total in round numbers 1,316,000 Among the taxes on consumption we find fish paying from five to fifty centimes per metric pound, according to the class in which each sort is included. There are four classes. The first comprises 21, the second 36, the third 32, and the fourth 30 dif- ferent kinds of fish. Though it is true that many of these are not caught in the immediate neigh- bourhood of Genoa, the old proverb — mare senza pesce — is evidently a calumny. The taxes on consumption constitute the chief branch of revenue for the town. Here for the first time, in our progress towards the south, we hear of a revenue derived from the sale of snow. The theatre is under the superintendence of the magis- tracy (decurions) who are directed to take care that the female dancers be dressed in a decorous man- ner, and it is this instruction which suggested the propriety of the elongation and amplification of pantaloons, that lately led to so much public excite- ment. The subsidy to the theatre is larger than that to the public schools, but the largest, notwith- VOL. I. o 290 MENDICITY. Standing many rich endowments, is that to the charitable institutions. In this department there is much room for reform. Mendicity, I was told by one, had been suppressed, but had gained the upper hand again since the return of the Jesuits. What truth there may be in this I know not, but it is certain that many of the clergy believe that to sup- press street-begging has the effect of weakening the spirit of christian charity — a most superficial idea, for, on the contrary, the importunities of the beg- gar tend to harden the heart, and indispose it to benevolence. " Foreigners," said an Italian to me, " are mistaken when they look on Italy as a poor country, because there they are so persecuted by beggars. England and Belgium are full of paupers, but not Italy." Were this true, the governments would be even more to blame than they are, for the prevalence of street-begging. The public debt of Genoa appears to be large, but has been contracted chiefly in recent times, for the purpose of completing some extensive embeUish- ments of the city in a short time. Some people are of opinion that Genoa ought always to take care to be a little in debt, the government being apt to appropriate to its own use any surplus that may happen to remain. UNIVERSITY OF GENOA. 291 LETTER XLVIII. University of Genoa. Pisa, May 25tli, I HAVE already spoken of several universities of Italy, so shall confine myself to a few particulars; respecting that of Genoa, borrowed from the Statis- tical Annals (Vol. xxxix. p. 179.) To enter the university of Genoa, a student must produce seven certificates : 1, the certificate of baptism ; 2, a certificate of vaccination ; 3, a certi- ficate that the candidate has been to confession once a month, and has been regular in his attend ance at church ; 4, that he has frequently received the communion, and has conducted himself well during the preceding year ; 5, certificates to show that he has gone regularly through his courses of rhetoric and philosophy ; and 7, the consular cer- tificate, as it is called, signed by the local magis- trates, containing name, rank, place of birth, family, number of brothers and sisters, ability of the parents to defray college expenses, &c. If all these certificates are found to be in proper order, the candidate is admitted to an examination, in the course of which he is questioned on logic, metaphy- sics, natural philosophy, mathematics, and Latin and Itahan eloquence. 292 LECTURES. When admitted as a student he is liable to punish- ment, if he fail to observe the following rules : — ], he must lodge and take his meals with such families as may be approved of by the prefect, always an ecclesiastic, whose duty it is to visit the students and examine their books ; 2, he must go to no theatre, coffee-house, &c., but to mass, con- fession, &c.; 3, he must every two months obtain a certificate of diligence, good conduct, and regular attendance at lectures and church. It is scarcely necessary to add, that there is much in these regu- lations of which I cannot approve. In 1822 — 1823, the students at Genoa were in number 350. In 1837, there were among them 6 students of theology, 159 of law, 101 of medicine, 35 of surgery, 36 of pharmacy, 24 of mathematics, 122 of philosophy and belles lettres. The following is the list of lectures for 1838 and 1839:— I. Theology. Professor Bolasco will discourse on the doctrine of confession, indulgences, and ex- treme unction. Professor Massa on sin and its chief divisions. Professor Oliva will teach Hebrew, and explain the Acts of the Apostles, and the sub- sequent writings of the New Testament. Mag- nasco will explain the principal dogmas. II. Jurisprudence. Bonta, the theory of the law courts, jiidiciorum matei-'iam. Leveroni, the LECTURES. 29(^ law of wills. Parodi, maritime law. Daneri, a part of ecclesiastical law. Mongiardini, some por- tions of Roman law, compared with the civil law of Sardinia. Casanova, the elements of Roman pri- vate law. III. Medicine. Garibaldi, a part of the ma- teria medica^ and judicial medicine. Botto, cli- nic. Mazzini, parts of anatomy and physiology. Tarella, nervous diseases. Molfino, surgery and midwifery. Gherardi, surgical operations, &c. Pedemonte, the first part of pathology. Bo, the doctrine of diseases. Sassi, mineralogy and a part of the materia medica. IV. Faculty of the Sciences and Literature. Badano, statics and dynamics. Botto, dijEFerential and integral calculus. Garassino, algebra and trigo- nometry. Garibaldi, natural philosophy. Lanfranco, ethics. Spotorno, rhetoric and history of Roman literature. Grillo, hydraulics. Valentini, logic and metaphysics. Foppiani, architectural draw- ing. Rebuffo, style, with Italian examples. La- berio, chemistry. Assalini, arithmetic and geo- metry. Such is a complete list of the lectures delivered at an institution which in Italy passes under the name of a university ! Would it not be better to combine the resources of Turin, Genoa, and the wretched auxiliary universities, by which means ^94 FORMER STATE OF SARDINIA. one really good national university might be formed that would serve as a model to the rest of Italy ? LETTER XLIX. Sardinia — Former Condition of the Island — Recent Changes and Improvements. Florence, May 28th. Since the year 1421, the island of Sardinia, after the manner of Catalonia, has had three states, in which many privileges are vested, particularly that of voting taxes. The same sum, however, was ge- nerally paid, without farther consultation or reso- lution, and from 1696 to 1793, the states were not once called together, and in 1*799, a moment of ur- gent need, they were summoned only for the pur- pose of raising the customary tax of 60,000 scudi to 120,000. In point of fact, all real power was in the hands of the Spanish governors, as in all the remote possessions of Spain. Indeed, had the states possessed more influence, they would have done little for the redress of the evils that existed ; for, as they comprised no principle of popular re- presentation, and as, owing to the oligarchical cha- racter of their composition, they were not likely to sympathise with the people at large, the states FORMER STATE OF SARDINIA. 295 collectively would, no doubt, have exercised a power quite as tyrannical as that of the individual barons. The feudal system manifested none of its redeeming qualities, nowhere did it even show itself in its poetical point of view. The baron was on every occasion both judge and suitor, deciding without appeal in his own quarrel, while the dis- tant sovereign either could not or would not afford relief. Thus the burdens on the population rose gradually to 60 or 70 per cent, of the produce, without including the oppressive tithe on the gross receipts. A Marchese di Moras raised the tax on corn one-sixteenth, because it was probable the mice Avould eat so much in his granary ! The fa- ther of one of the present Piedmontese ministers was once walking in Sardinia with a feudal baron. The latter, feeling weary, called a peasant, and, having ordered him to kneel down on all-fours, sat upon him to rest himself. The Piedmontese having observed how revolting such a state of things appeared to him, the Sardinian feudal lord replied : No es nada ! Dexelos azer : es buono que assi se mantengan en el respecto que deven a los se- norcs, estos picaros ! " That is nothing ! Let them be ; it is well to keep the rascals in mind of the respect due to their lords !" Is it to be wondered at that the population con- tracted more and more of a savage character, and 296 RECENT REFORM. had recourse on every occasion to private revenge, where justice was not to be had, where the very idea of it seemed extinct ? The wretchedness of Sardinia arose neither from natural nor from tran- sitory causes, but chiefly from the nature of its government, or rather from the absence of all real government. Many attempts at reform were made after the island passed under the Piedmontese, but their complete failure only proved the uselessness of superficial remedies, while the growing disaffection and danger made it evident that a bold hand must be applied to the radical extirpation of such accu- mulated abuses. This great and arduous political and financial struggle has been organised, prepared, and tri- umphantly carried through, with a skill, prudence, and firmness, that have surprised me, at the same time that they have awakened in me the liveliest interest. The king, his Sardinian counsellors, and their leader, Count Villa Marina, are deserving of the most unqualified praise, and their memory will be revered, when the natural objections of the moment have been long forgotten. The first measure connected with this subject came into force on the 19th of December, 1833. Its object was to establish a new board at Cagli- ari, for the purpose of drawing up a complete list of the feudal tenures, with their lords and vassals, and ABOLITION OF THE FEUDAL SYSTEM. 297 of ascertaining the amount of all fixed and fluctua- ting revenues, adopting generally an average of 10 or 15 years. The statements handed in were to be strictly investigated, and to be referred to the com- munes, who were to report on their accuracy. By this measure, some insight was obtained into the real state of things, and an idea of the magnitude of the existing evils and abuses. It was ascertained that the feudal jurisdiction conferred upon the lord not merely the right of appointing a judge, whose office it was to pronounce according to a fixed code of laws, and whose decisions were in some measure subject to the control of a higher tribunal ; nay, it was found that the lord decided entirely according to his own caprice, without reference to any general law, or rather his own temporary convenience was the supreme law, most of the questions submitted to his decision arising out of matters in which his per- sonal interest was concerned. In point of fact, Sar- dinia was in a half savage state, and the only law re- cognised was the law of the stronger. On the 1st of June, 1836, all feudal jurisdiction was abolished, and the courts of law were all placed under the direct control of the state. Those holding local ofl^ices were not dismissed, but a com- mission was appointed, to inquire in what cases compensation was called for, in consequence of losses sustained by individuals. o5 298 ABOLITION OF THE FEUDAL SYSTEM. The carrying into execution of such ordinances could not but lead to many doubts and disputes; for the settlement of these, a tribunal was appointed on the 10th of June, 1837, from whose decision the only appeal lay to the king in person. On this oc- casion, the communes were again consulted, in order to ascertain what they were really bound to pay to their lords, and every imposition and augmentation of a wholly arbitrary nature was done away with. On the 21st of May, 1838, an ordinance was is- sued, declaring that all feudal rights were to be abolished, all feudal services to be converted into a money payment, and the land to remain a free property, or to be applied to the uses of the crown. On the 1st of July of the same year, com- missioners were appointed to carry these orders into execution, their instructions being, in the first instance, to endeavour to bring about an amicable arrangement between the communes and their feudal lords. The king's deputy was directed to take care that the communes were not imposed on in the course of these negociations. A law dated the 15th of September, 1838, pro- nounces in a clear manner that the object of these new institutions is, " to establish a free and unli- mited system of property, and to relieve the land from all burdens, bonds, and obligations, that may appear to be of an intolerable character. Those NEW LAW RELATIVE TO PROPERTY. 299 whose interests may be affected by the change, will receive compensation in money or land, or by an inscription in the public debt." The peasantry were cruelly oppressed by their entire dependence on their feudal lords, but, on the other hand, were neither prepared nor fitted for an immediate emancipation from their servitude. The king, therefore, substituted himself in the place of the barons ; he took all feudal rents into his own hands ; their value was calculated at the rate of twenty years'' purchase, and public securities to that amount, bear- ing five per cent, interest, were made over to the barons, in exchange for the privileges of which they were deprived. The most recent and important law connected with this question is that of the 26th of February, 1839, the object of which is to define the nature of property, and secure a more extensive cultivation of the land. The professed object is : 1, to leave every individual in possession of what he has hitherto enjoyed and cultivated ; 2, to improve this cultiva- tion, by a greater security of property and by the redemption of existing obligations ; 3, by applying to the use of the crown, (to which in fact it always belonged,) all uncultivated or waste land, to which a title cannot be shown, to bring the whole island into a more general state of cultivation. The fol- lowing are among the principal enactments of this law : — 300 NEW LAW RELATIVE TO PROPERTY. 1. The land must be the property of individuals, of the commune, or of the crown. Lands subject to feudal services, or to the right of pasturage, con- stitute only an imperfect property. 2. Those lands to which neither an individual nor a commune can show either a perfect or an imper- fect right of property, are to be considered the lands of the crown. 3. Land that has been cultivated or applied to use, whether enclosed or not, shall be considered private property, even though no sufficient title can be made out. Undisturbed possession is under- stood to confer a right of property, even in the absence of any other title. The same principle applies to the alternate right of pasturage, and to lands that have been cultivated only at intervals. 4. A suitable extent of land shall be reserved for the endowment of schools. 5. All lands to which neither a complete nor an incomplete right of property can be shown, will be disposed of on reasonable terms, according to the pleasure of the crown. 6. Every kind of vassalage may be redeemed. Communal property is not for the present to be divided. Every man has the right by the redemp- tion of existing obligations to convert his land into a complete property, and then to inclose it. 7 The redemption of the rents recently trans- COMPLAINTS AGAINST IT. SO I ferred to the crown cannot for the present take place. 8. All land which the feudal barons have hitherto been in any way in the habit of cultivating, is in fu- ture to be considered a free allodium, without being liable to any further indemnity to the crown. On this occasion, as is always the case where great changes are effected, many painful feelings have no doubt been excited, many customs and usages disturbed, many real or imaginary claims encroached on ; but the evils to which a remedy has been applied were of frightful magnitude, and their removal loudly called for. The new system of legislation, as has been the case in other coun- tries, will provoke individual complaints against its authors ; impediments will be thrown in the way, and justice and religion will be invoked, to cast a shade over what has been done, and what has been attempted. Prejudice and injustice will be declared sacred, and the new fountain of life will be decried as a poisonous source. It is not the less true, however, that no really existing rights have been violated ; changes have been introduced only where the pre- vious state of things had become intolerable. The way has been prepared for a salutary reconstruction of the whole state of society throughout the island, and many improvements stand in immediate connexion therewith, such as those relating to roads, to the 302 ANTICIPATED BENEFITS. manner of collecting the revenue, to the establish- ment of schools, &c. King Albert and his minister Villa Marina will be decried as revolutionists^ (as Frederick Wilham III., Stein, and Hardenberg were on account of similar measures,) and the olden time will be lauded, when the whole popula- tion of Sardinia was trodden under foot by a few insolent individuals, till, treated like beasts, men abandoned themselves to the fury of beasts, and returned evil for evil. If, however, the measures already adopted be firmly persevered in, the imme- diate successors of the few who now complain live to witness the great advantages to be derived from the regeneration of their country, and will join in that feeling of gratitude already expressed by the people at large, and confirmed by all unprejudiced men, to whom the merits of the case are known. LETTER L. North Ital}' — Condition of the Farmingr Population — Half- lings — Mezzadria — Cattle-sharing Contracts — Laws of Par- ma relative to these subjects. Florence, June 1. I OUGHT long ago to have fulfilled my promise to communicate to you something relative to the posi- SYSTEM OF THE MEZZADRIA. 303 tion of the farmers and peasantry of Italy, but the task is accompanied by so many difficulties, that I would willingly withdraw my pledge, were it not that an important blank would thus be left in my statements. The many contradictions and misunderstandings on this subject arise. In my opinion, chiefly from an assumption that the same word denotes the same state of things in different places ; whereas laws, usages, the quality of the soil, the object of cultiva- tion, the degree of labour required, &c., operate in a multitude of ways to modify and change tenures designated by the same word. For instance, the word mezzeria, niezzadria, or mezzajuoh, seems to mark, with great precision, the position of the oc- cupier of the land, and to show, with mathematical accuracy, that one half of the produce is to be his. We shall see^ however, that this assumption is rarely found to be correct. The laws already occasion a great diversity. The Austrian law, for instance, troubles itself little about the peculiarities of the system of agriculture existing in Lombardy, and decides on most points according to the specified terms of a contract ; but the codes of Parma and Piedmont pay great attention to the several pro- vincial relations, and contain many enactments, the eiFect of which varies in different localities. The Sardinian code decides in the following o 304 SYSTEM OF THE MEZZADRIA. manner with respect to lands let on halves or held d m^tairie, that is, on payment of half the pro- duce : — If the contract or lease be concluded for several years, and if, during that time, a harvest fail (one half at least being destroyed) in consequence of an unforeseen calamity, the farmer may demand a reduction in his rent, unless he has been indem- nified by previous harvests ; or the judge may authorize him to keep back a certain proportion of the rent, to be settled for at the termination of the lease, when the aggregate produce of all the harvests is calculated. If the land be held only for a year, and the whole or half of the harvest be lost, a comparative reduction in the rent must be made. If the loss be less than one half of the crop, no reduction can be demanded. The farmer may, by the terms of his lease, take upon himself the responsibility of un- foreseen calamities, but these include only natural occurrences, such as hail, frost, fire by lightning, &;c., but not extraordinary visitation, as invasion of the enemy, &c., unless there be an express stipula- tion to that effect in the lease. Where land is held without any written contract, the period of occupation is understood to last till the end of harvest-time ; that is to say, for vine- yards and meadows, for one year, and for arable SYSTEM OF THE MEZZADRIA. 305 land till the usual succession of crops have been taken off. The straw, hay, and manure of the current year must be left on the premises by the farmer. If, at the commencement of his lease, he found a corresponding supply, he can demand no compensation for what he leaves behind, otherwise he may demand payment for it, according to a valuation. Whoever takes a piece of land on lease, on con- dition of sharing the produce with the owner, is called a sharer, a halfling {colon partiaire, mezza- Juolo). An accidental damage to the crop is the joint loss of the two parties to the contract, neither being entitled to any compensation. The mezza- juolo is not allowed to sell hay, straw, or manure, without the owner's permission. The death of the raezzajuolo dissolves the lease at the end of the current year ; but his heirs may demand a conti- nuation for another year, if the death occur within the four last months. In the absence of any contract or established usage, the following regulations are enforced. The mezzajuolo provides the cattle necessary for the cultivation and manuring of the land, the winter fodder, and all agricultural implements. The amount of cattle kept must be in proportion to the extent and produce of the farm. The seed must be provided in equal proportions. The expenses 306 SYSTEM OF THE MEZZADRIA. of cultivating the ground and gathering in the har- vest must be borne by the mezzajuolo, as also the repair of inclosures, and the conveyance home of the owner's share of the produce. The mezzajuolo must not get in his harvest, thresh his corn, or gather in the vintage, without giving notice to his landlord. All natural or artificial produce of the land must be equally shared between them. The mezzajuolo is entitled to claim the necessary supply of wood for his vineyard and the use of his farm, as far as the plantations on the estate may be sufficient to meet his wants ,• but he must cut and prepare it himself, and account for the surplus. The tenure of the mezzajuolo, in the absence of more precise stipulations, lasts for one year, be- ginning and ending on the 11th of November ; but if neither party gives notice before the end of March another year is entered upon. A simple cattle-sharing lease {bail a cheptel simple) is one by which a man undertakes to feed and look after a flock or herd, on condition of re- taining one half of the increase. The increase is calculated partly according to the augmentation in number, partly according to the improvement of the animals in value. The milk, manure, and labour belonfj to the farmer. An ao^reement on the part of the latter to share in the loss as well as the SYSTEM OF THE MEZZADRIA. 307 increase is null and void, A contract of this sort is generally assumed to be for three years. Let us now see what the code of Parma enacts on the same subject. It is there stated that the mezzadria is a partnership between the farmer and his landlord, in which the latter contributes the land and the former his labour, on condition of sharing the produce. In the absence of any ex- press stipulation, the landlord must provide the requisite cattle and their winter food, the farmer all the implements of agi*iculture. The seed is fur- nished by both in equal proportions, the farmer bearing the usual burdens and expenses of labour. He is obliged to give his assistance towards the effecting of permanent improvements, but may de- mand a compensation. The plants for new plan- tations must be furnished by the landlord, but the farmer is obliged to find the labour. The regula- tions respecting the repair of roads and inclosures, and those relative to the requisite notices to be given previously to the harvest or vintage, are nearly the same as in the Sardinian states. If the landlord furnishes the whole or half of the cattle, the farmer must not sell any part without per- mission. A landlord may stipulate for a higher rent than one half the produce, but must not im- pose such onerous conditions upon the farmer as would leave to the latter less than one-third. If 308 SYSTEM OF THE MEZZADRIA. the landlord furnishes the cattle, the farmer has a right to not less than one- third of the profit arising from them ; if the latter furnishes them, no lease is binding that leaves him less than two- thirds. The mezzajuolo must leave the straw and manure of the current year behind him. In a cattle-sharing contract (soccio o soccida) it must not be stipulated that the farmer shall have to bear losses arising out of circumstances inde- pendent of his control ; neither must he be required to take on himself a greater share in the loss than in the profit, nor must he be required, at the termi- nation of his lease, to return a greater value than he received. All contracts to the contrary are null and void. These variations between the laws of Sardinia and those of Parma may suffice to show the dif- ferent point of view in which the same species of contract may be viewed in different parts of the country. One of these two codes assumes the farmer to have undertaken a multitude of onerous conditions; the other (justly apprehensive of ex- aggerated severity) declares certain stipulations altogether null and void. In this we may recog- nize the just conviction, that the legislator is bound not to allow the rights of private property to be carried to an unlimited extent; but that, on the contrary, it is sometimes his duty to guide it back SYSTEM OF THE MEZZADRIA. 309 into the right path, and make it subservient to the interest and welfare of the community at large. LETTER LI. Various Opinions respecting the System of the Mezzadria. Florence, June 2. Burger, in his instructive narrative of his travels, says, that the peasant or farmer in Italy pays in general no money to his landlord, but only a por- tion of the produce in kind. The draught-cattle and agricultural implements belong mostly to the farmer. Besides the payments in money and kind, a number of oppressive conditions are introduced into the lease, so much so that the majority of the tenants are worse off than the serfs in those parts of Germany where the system of serfage continues in force. The work of a common labourer is often better remunerated than that of the cultivators of the soil, who are forced to content themselves with mean dwellings and the coarsest raiment and food. An excessive population, and a system of legisla- tion entirely favourable to the rich, are the main causes of these evils. Capital, courage, and oppor- tunity are wanting to obtain better conditions else- where. Continual disputes with the landlord lead 310 SYSTEM OF THE MEZZADRIA. to nothing, for an application to the tribunals is of no avail where the letter of the law, instead of affording redress, is directly hostile to the com- plainant. Gioja, in his work on the statistics of the dis- trict of Oloro, (p. 50,) pronounces nearly the same opinion. The system of the mezzadria, he says, tends to make the farmer intent on overreaching his landlord. The mezzqjuolo is apt to remain in- dolent, as he can only reap one half of the produce arising from any improvements he may make, and his tenure is always insecure, being scarcely ever on good terms with his landlord's steward. Without express permission, says the Manuale del Pro- prietarit^ the tenant must not underlet any part of the land he occupies. He has generally to sustain the whole of any damage that happens after the harvest has been got in. An abatement is not allowed unless more than half the produce be de- stroyed, and not then even, if it can be shown that this loss has been compensated by a series of more fortunate years. Capitani, in his work on the agriculture of the Brianza, complains that leases are seldom com- mitted to writing, and gives examples that certainly appear extremely severe upon the tenant. One half of the taxes and other burdens on the land falls to his share. The prices are always fixed at SYSTEM OF THK MEZZADRIA. 311 the season of the year most profitable to the land- lord. " I have a thousand times," says Capitani, in another place, " seen boys and girls, ten or twelve years old, performing the severest labours, and carrying loads far beyond their strength. This, no doubt, is the reason of the many stunted forms met with among the humble classes, and the pro- gressive degeneracy of the race. The land is de- serted by its owners ; there is no interest shown in its improvement, no pattern for imitation, no kindly or Christian relations, &c. The properties of the smaller landholders are in a better condition. Those farmers who pay a money rent for land are seldom better off than the mezzajuolo. Early marriages, contracted merely to avoid the conscription, tend at the same time to increase the population, and ag- gravate the general wretchedness." These opinions are balanced by others, (for in- stance, Chateauvieux and Martens,) who direct attention to the advantages of the system of mez- zadria, such as the joint interest of the landlord and tenant, the self-adjusting proportion between rent and produce, the facility of making improve- ments by combining labour and capital. Sec. In this way we have a progressive increase of praise, till we come to some Florentine writers, to whom the position of the mezzajuolo appears " the hap- piest that can be imagined, the mezzadria the most 312 SYSTEM OF THE MEZZADRIA. admirable conception of human wisdom, and the whole system incomparably preferable to any other manner of turning landed property to account.'" Now, ought I to decide between these conflicting opinions, adopting one view and rejecting the other ? By no means ! I am convinced, on the contrary, that these estimable writers were thinking of quite different things under one and the same name. This difference, which is marked enough even in Lombardy, becomes much more striking when Piedmont is compared with Tuscany. Even in Lombardy the land is not all held on the mezza- dria tenure. There are large farms let for a money rent, smaller ones for a fixed rent in kind, others for one half, one-third, or two-thirds of the produce, to say nothing of landlords who cultivate their own land. The same man is often at the same time proprietor, and farms part of his land for money, and part for a rent paid in kind. The system that prevails among the mountains varies from that Avhich reigns in the level country. Three-fourths of the land belong to the inhabitants of towns, or to religious and charitable institutions. Between the principal landlord and the cultivator there are often middle-men, who underlet the land, the pro- prietor thinking it better to have to do with only one substantial man, who gives him security, than with a number of small tenants. The latter, in the SYSTEM OF THE MEZZADRIA. 313 end, have to bear the chief load j but, I repeat it, much depends on local usages. In one part of the country the landlord furnishes the seed, in another, the tenant, and in a third, each contributes one- half. Extraordinary burdens (repairing roads, &(:.) fall heavily in one province and lightly in another. In some places the farmer has time left to add to his income by other means ; in other parts the time and opportunity are both wanting. Here the soil may require much labour, there less ; one locality may be more exposed to natural visitations than another. What a difference, for instance, between the holder of land that yields three-fold or ten- fold ! The mechanical mathematical /<«/^ as I have already observed, is in general either too much or too little, and is never very accurately paid, there being often a multitude of accessory circumstances and stipulations which influence the relations between landlord and tenant. In Lombardy, the situation of the mezzajuolo is least enviable. In Piedmont it is much better, owing to the advantage derived from the large com- mon pasturages, and to the circumstance that the farmers are, for the most part, at the same time owners of small pieces of land. Of the state of things in Tuscany I will write to you on another occasion, even though at the hazard of repeating much of what I have already said. VOL. I. p 314 LAWS OF PARMA. LETTER LII. Laws of the Duchy of Parma. Florence, June 3. In treating of the condition of the agricultural part of the population in the north of Italy, I have spoken of the laws of the duchy of Parma. The new codes are an imitation of those of France, but contain, at the same time, much that is peculiar to themselves. Separation from bed and board follows upon adultery, malicious desertion, notorious profligacy, repeated ill-treatment, attempt at murder, or the protracted existence of an infectious disease. A woman guilty of adultery is hable to imprison- ment from three months to two years. Her accom- plice is visited with the same penalty, besides having to pay a fine of from 100 to 1000 lire. Hanging is the only capital punishment. Legal infamy attaches only to the person of the criminal. Conspiracies to change or destroy the form of government, or to excite citizens to take up arms, are punished with death. All who have no fixed residence, and can show no regular means of obtaining a livelihood, are con- sidered as vagabonds. A convicted vagabond is LAWS OF PARMA. 315 punished with imprisonment from three to six months. There being public institutions for the relief of the poor, beggars are punished with an imprison- ment not exceeding six months, and afterwards sent to a workhouse. For a beggar in good health the minimum punishment is two months' imprison- ment. Associations for defined ends, if consisting of more than 20 members, require the authorization of government. All societies of which secrecy is one of the conditions are prohibited ; the members are liable to imprisonment from six months to three years, and the funds of the society to con- fiscation. Infanticide is punishable with death. If death ensue from a duel, the challenger is liable to imprisonment from ten to twenty years, the chal- lenged from three to ten. Theft, in case of very aggravated circumstances, may be punished with death. All games of chance are prohibited, under penalty of imprisonment for not more than one year, and of a fine varying from 100 to 1000 lire. Criminal trials take place in public, but with- out the intervention of a jury ; the judges com- posing the court decide by an absolute majority of votes. There are courts of arbitration^ that of the p 2 316 LAWS OF PARMA. praetor^ those of first and second instance, and the supreme court of revision. The praetor may decide on many complaints respecting wages, damage done to corn, market quarrels, disputes between innkeepers and their guests, &c. If the matter in dispute do not exceed lOU lire in value, there is no appeal from his deci- sion. The court of revision is not a mere court of cassation, but open to suitors for appeal, in case of the discovery of new documents, or in case those previously produced can be shown to be spurious, or if any new points can be brought forward, &c. In case of bankruptcy, there is no classification of creditors, but each receives his share of the estate according to the proportion of his claim. A debtor who gives up his property or who is above seventy years of age is, in general, exempt from imprisonment. LETTER LIII. Passage to Leghorn — Pisa. Pisa, May 25, 1839. On the 22nd, about five o'clock, I went on board the steam-vessel Columbus, bound to Leg- horn. The weather was fine when we put to sea, and I enjoyed the grand and rich prospects of the PASSAGE TO LEGHORN. 317 Genoese territory astern of us. But by degrees the sky became overcast ; the sun darted only an occasional ray through broken clouds, and the sirocco, which met us, blew not only stronger but colder as we proceeded. At night, when I awoke, the doors were slam- ming, the lamp was rattling in its glass cover, the rain pouring in torrents upon the deck, and the whole vessel creaking, groaning, cracking, as though she would go to pieces every moment, or sink, like a vast coffin, in the sea. Ground enough for alarm or for thoughts of death : from weariness and indifference, however, these did not trouble me. At length, we reached Leghorn. At dinner the table d'hote was chiefly occupied by Frenchmen. After they had circumstantially de- veloped both the theory and practice of a dissolute life, and adduced instances in evidence, they as- cended higher, and talked of kings, saints, and popes, in precisely the same manner as they had talked of their prostitutes. Brilliant fireworks played off by minds viewing life only on its cheer- ful side, one may say ; while a second is astonished at the superficiality of conception, and a third, filled with moral indignation at the corruptness of prin- ciple and sentiment, turns away in disgust. In me all these feelings rapidly succeeded one another, and I should have been mentally sea- sick had I 318 PISA. tarried any longer. I am already in central Italy, and yet every ragamuffin who cannot scrape to- gether above three words of French addresses me in that language to do honour to me, but more es- pecially to himself. The beginning of a deplorable slavery, which the French very naturally take pains to establish. The ride from Leghorn to Pisa, through a level, well cultivated country, was agreeable. At the time when the range of hills that now raise their naked heads on one side were covered with wood, this country must have been doubly inviting to settlers. In the evening I strolled out by moon- light to the Cathedral, the Tower, the Baptisterium, and the Campo Santo. Profound silence and soli- tude ; I heard not my own footfalls in the grass that has sprung up around. The former greatness of Venice is still perceptible in the centre of modern life and business ; the Pisans, on the contrary, seem to have thrust out their monuments, that they might not have them always before their eyes to renew their mortification. Not Florence only, but Leg- horn too, has raised itself above Pisa; but the lat- ter only as a fortunate upstart. I was reminded of FiJrth and Niirnberg, Altona and Hamburg. I undertook to advocate the chivalrous view of the middle ages in opposition to the abstract con- stitutional, even with Mr. G , in contradiction PISA. 319 to those who would fain transform a young queen into an automaton or a repeating watch. Such dry wood grows, such superannuated sceptre governs, no longer. Heads without hearts, and hearts with- out heads, never have a living constitution ; they are fit subjects for anatomical collections alone. LETTER LIV. Pisa — Celebrated Buildings — Campo Santo — Journey to Florence. Florence, May 27. I DEVOTED several hours to the monuments of Pisa above-mentioned. The leaning tower has cer- tainly sunk and was not purposely built out of the perpendicular ; but, if it were upright, it would be inferior to the great towers of Germany. The cathedral is a very remarkable edifice, and still more so internally than externally. In the Baptis- terium I admired anew the extraordinary genius of Nicola Pisano, who suddenly rose as a great master among so many bunglers. When I was about to enter the Campo Santo, I was followed by an old man, a peasant, with three daughters, who were by no means handsome, but looked very good-natured. My consequential guide admitted me only, and shut the door in the faces of those who were behind me. 820 PISA. On my askini^ the reason of this, he replied : " Such low people (popolaccio) ought to come on the puhlic days." — " When are those days?"" — " Five times a year," — " Are then these poor people to wait, or must they come on purpose ?" (They were sixteen leagues from their home.) — " Yes, sir. — " Then I vrill wait too, and come again on one of the public days." — This had the desired effect, and the door vvas opened for the grateful party. My philanthropy, however, as I had no small change left, cost me of course somewhat more, A great deal has gone to ruin, but the Campo Santo still contains rich treasures, though Orgagna's fancies show little regard for the beautiful, and Benozzo''s breadth and diversity claim the preference. I would fain have made a longer stay in Pisa, liut ,/tigit irreparabile tempus. The diligence travelled at night : from close coaches one sees very little, and I wished to enjoy anew the pro- spects of the beautiful valley of the Arno. I there- fore took an outside place, trusting to my water- proof cloak. But this did not suit the driver, and a gentleman, who was the only inside passenger, urgently requested me to bear him company, and converse with him. As I am not averse to society, and four large windows afforded every facility for viewing the country, I complied at length with his wish. In the course of the journey we were twice JOURNEY TO FLORENCE. S21 transferred, with bag and baggage, to caleches, in which there was still less obstruction to the prospect. My English cloak, and more especially my fur shoes over my boots, were at first subjects for pleasantry to my fellow-traveller; in fact, how- ever, the wind blew so unusually keen, that he was almost frozen ; while I was not disturbed in the same manner in the contemplation of the rich scenery around. The weather, everybody says, is most extraordinary ; it may be so, but — I had soon a different kind of annoyance to en- counter. My companion, a judge of first instance, and who had had a university education, mentioned, from old recollection, Horace, Caesar, Cornelius Nepos, and others, and cheerfully answered the questions that I asked concerning the duties of his office. I behaved in the like manner towards him. By degrees, however, this bore, or seccatnre, mani- fested an incredible propensity for questioning, so that never in my life have 1 been so closely ex- amined as during those hours. At first I answered solidly and circumstantially, as one under examina- tion ought to do, but by and by the answers became shorter and more uniform ; for instance, " How often do the Protestants receive the Lord's Supper .'^"" — " As often as they please." — " How often do they fast?" — " As often as they have no appetite." — " What do they eat .?" — " Any thing they have." p 5 322 A BORE. — " What are they allowed to eat ?" — " Whatever they rehsh." — " What do they relish ?"_ " Any thing that is well cooked. '^ — These brief answers were gradually curtailed to Yes and No, and at length I ceased to reply. It was of no use : my companion kept questioning on, looking at me at the same time as though to read the answers in my looks. Let me give you a few genuine examples : " Is not Prague the capital of Saxony ? — What is the doctrine of the Lutherans ? — Whose vassal is the king of Prussia? — How do you hold your lectures.'^ — give me a few specimens — Does not the direct road from Berlin to Pisa run through Brus- sels ? — How do you bring up your children ? — Does not Sweden border on Prussia ? — What salary have you, and what perquisites ? — What language is spoken in Prussia ? — How many oiiginal lan- guages are there? — Is not leather the principal source of the revenue of Prussia ? — Had Napoleon natural abilities .? — What use could you make of me if I were to accompany you . to Germany ? (The silence interrupted) None whatever — W^hat is il sole in German ? — Die Sonne (the sun) — La luna f — Der Mond (the Moon) — Give me some longer specimens of German — Heiliges Kreuz Don- nerweiter, Scliock Sch ! ! * At this ejaculation, * An imprecation which cannot be translated. The Hiber- nian " Blood and thunder !" comes nearer to it, perhaps, than any expression that we recollect. — Translator. FLORENCE. emphatically uttered in the expressive Teutonic lan- guage, the uian drew back disconcerted, and held his tongue, like a scared canary-bird — but only for a short time. He turned from me to the vetturiniy and from these again to me. At times I was forced to guess a good deal ; or can you perhaps tell me what he meant when he very frequently talked about haza and hoza ? In spite of this annoyance, I was much pleased with the road, the country, St. Miniato, the valley of the Arno, and all the richly cultivated hills around Florence. These scenes made the same pleasing- impression upon me as in 1816 and in 1817, and I arrived at a truly harmonious temper of mind. My satisfaction was increased by your letters, and a walk late in the evening to the Arno, Maria No- vella, the cathedral, the old palace, the works of Michael Angelo, John of Bologna, and Benve- nuto Cellini, awakened thoughts and feelings of various kinds, till bodily fatigue obliged me to re- turn home. LETTER LV. To L. TiECK. Florence — Situation — Theatre — Niccolini — Processions — The Dowager Grand-Duchess — The Grand-Duke- Florence, May 31. This morning my first thought is of you, my dear friend, and I wish you from my heart health. 324 BIRTHDAY CONGRATULATION. long life, and a serenity uninterrupted, save by those clouds which the poet needs and himself cre- ates. In youth the birthday brings an order for the future ; at our age it is a receipt for the past, or a settlement of account. 1 have certainly paid too much in paper, which falls in currency; you still owe a great deal. If you do not intend soon to redeem the Cevennes, why not give us your own memoirs and make yourself young again in them to our extreme gratification ! I am myself growing young, while calling up recollections and scenes of my tour in Italy in 1815- 1817, and T feel upon the whole exactly as I did then; although the objects of activity and atten- tion are somewhat changed. — I have now more need of the present, of living intercourse, and should be incapable of my former extensive paper studies, I am almost afraid of manuscripts, on account ol" my eyes, and know that the German dogma, that force and energy consist in the super- abundance of minutias, is a superstition. But I am far from the presumption of Th — , who would teach and bring every thing to bear by his own wisdom, without thoroughly learning any thing himself. Wherever I am, I adhere to my plan of making acquaintance with as many and as different Italians as possible ; and this method will certainly produce TEMPERATURE. S25 more and better fruit than when a number of English and Germans confine their intercourse to their own countrymen alone, instead of seeking to gain a knowledge of really foreign countries and people. Now a few particulars. Thus far the Italian heat is not to be complained of; for though in Genoa and here the sun at certain times seemed so hot that I have been glad to put up the umbrella in my walks, still upon an average the thermometer is not higher than 14" (about 64P Fahrenheit), and this morning at half-past six it was 10*^ (54" Fah- renheit) in the shade. People predict approaching heat ; but it seems to me that I shall be able to bear more of it without inconvenience than I could twenty-one or twenty-two j'ears ago — perhaps of the aleatico too, which I have often thought of already, and especially to-day. As, however, I have been invited out every day till to-day, it did not depend on myself what sorts of wine to order ; and, after doing my duty at dinner, I durst not undertake any work of supererogation. The beau tiful days and the moonlight nights invited me to walks which gradually led me all round the city. In the Cascines, the same pleasing impressions as formerly. On one side, the still swiftly-flowing Arno ; in the centre, tall beautiful trees with ivy climbing up them ; then, on the right, richly clothed 326 THEATRE. meadows, then gardens, and lastly, the hills and mountains, with their villas, olive-trees, vines, and the manifold lines of their summits defined upon the sky. One must be a stock-fish not to be de- lighted with the cheerful and diversified scenery of Florence. It has not its name for nothing, and nature here has the character of the harmonious much more than the history of the people. I re- serve what I have to say of the arts till another time : as yet I have again visited only the smaller part of their treasures. On Monday, the 27th, was announced : " At the Pergola theatre, Moses and Pharaoh." Not a Word more on the bill, I was not acquainted with the opera, found the pit not more than one-sixth full, and thirty or forty persons in the boxes. At the commencement of the overture, my eyes began to be opened : it was no other than Rossini's well known Moses in Egypt — oratorio sacro, says the libretto, by the principe della musica italiana del nostro secolo. The empt}' house, however, showed that other dii minorum gentiuvi had already suc- ceeded to the sovereignty. Of sacred music scarcely any trace ; most of the melodies adapted to dances for human beings, dogs, and bears. Here and there an affectation of the sacred style, which soon changes to that of the profane opera. The Jews raised a prodigious outcry, at first about the oppres- NICCOLINI. 327 sion of the Hebrews, and next about the miracles of Moses, who looked exactly like a pair of nutcrackers. Singers, male and female, not worth notice, except- ing, perhaps, Tadolini, one of the latter, who has a fine voice, and executed the Rossiniades in such a manner as to satisfy the admirers of those extra- vagances. I had been told that Niccolini intends to write a history of the Hohenstaufen, in a Guelfish spirit, because mine is too Ghibelline. How gladly would I converse on this subject with those who under- stand the matter, and receive instruction ! — but the Italians never think of learning German, and know my book at most from the title and by hearsay. Niccolini alone has taken up the affair more seriously, and had a translation made of those parts which interest him (particularly Manfred and Con- radin) — which has cost him more than one hundred scudi. I begged him not to feast me Avith empty complimer^s, but to tell me frankly what appeared to him to be defective; but he persisted in his com- mendation, in a way that at least demonstrated a real interest in the matter. I further told him what many had suggested in regard to alterations, omis- sions, &c. against which, however, he advanced the same reasons that have always appeared weighty enough to decide me. At length he denied that the tendency of my work was too Ghibelline, and com- 28 PROCESSION. mended its great impartiality. Perhaps he rather shares the notion of those who deem my style too cold and calm, and deficient in the higher inspira- tion, the Betov. But who can add a cuhit to his stature ? Sesquipedalia verba neither help a man forward, nor make him greater than he really is. Yesterday was held^the festival of Corpus Christi, with a procession that lasted an hour and a half — a review at once of ecclesiastical and temporal uni- forms, a wearisome repetition, notwithstanding all its apparent diversity. I could not get, for the life of me, into a religious mood. Most persons felt just the same ; but at last there was no attempt to produce such an impression. The liveliest part consisted of the innumerable boys, with their white night-caps and veils. They contrived to turn the pointed linen trunk to as many different uses as an elephant. Now and then there was kicking, cuffing, and thumping. The horrible singing or screaming, the ringing, the drumming, the trumpets, and small pipes, made such an infernal din that my head was quite distracted. It was still worse at the cross- streets, v/here three different kinds of music in three different modes were heard at once — the false choi'usses of the clergy, the opera music of the in- fantry, and the trumpeting of the cavalry. Women here take no part in the procession, though they do in Turin ; and the uncommonly numerous host of DOWAGER GRAND-DUCHESS. 329 clergy and monks reminded one of the standing armies of other countries. But the latter do, in case of emergency, much more for their earthly than the former for their heavenly country. The prevailing spirit of the Italians is now Ghibelline, because they conceive that the Guelfish divided and rendered Italy weak. Yesterday, at noon, I was presented for the first time to the dowager grand-duchess, who is hke her excellent brothers. The conversation turned — I can scarcely tell how — on sovereigns who have been distinguished by superior understanding and powers of mind; of course Elizabeth and Mary Stuart could not fail to be mentioned. The s;rand- duchess very justly maintained that the useful was not completely valid without the good, and that understanding alone cannot produce a perfect cha- racter. But all this trenches on everlasting ques- tions that have never yet been fully solved ; for instance, how far the really useful is always good, and the really good also useful ? — How the under- standing and disposition of the real sovereign form themselves; whether they must not form themselves otherwise in him than in the mere subject ? — whe- ther the measure of private right is sufficient to govern the actions of the king, or the measure of mere public right is sufficient for the subject i* — How both can and ought to be reconciled, &c. GRAND-DUKE OF TUSCANY. The grand-duchess conducted me to the grand- duke. He received me as graciously as the vice- roy Rainerin Milan. Of the grand-duke's activity, his desire to learn, his attainments, and the extreme benevolence of hisdisposition, there is but one opi- nion ; and among the many sovereign posts that of grand-duke of Tuscany must be one of the best and happiest. Whether all about him possess minds lofty enough duly to second and to execute the noble intentions of the grand-duke, seems to be doubted- But it is fortunate that there is scarcely a sovereign in all Europe whose good and noble in- tentions can be denied ; and if any of them chooses to say, (like ) Stat pro ratione voluntas^ he finds so many burdocks by the way that he is forced to turn back nolens volens. Heaven forbid that the great diseases in the east and west of Europe should seize the centre also, plunge the Roman nations into anarchy, the German into useless wars, and give time and opportunity to the Russians to penetrate further and further ! LETTER LVI. EEFLECTIOXS ON ART AXD WORKS OF ART, BY ONE OF THE UNINFORMED. Trieste — Venice — Beauty — The Medicean Venus. Many people are happy in the belief that they know, if not every thing, at least a great deal. My REMINISCENCES, 331 desire to reach the heights of humanity, whenever I have attempted to place or set myself down upon them by the force of a mere resolution, as Fichte expresses it, has, however, been uniformly disap- pointed. Such transcendental or transcendent reso- lution may have elevated others or added something to their height ; I found myself, after a short con- templation, always on the very same spot, only more weary and more chagrined than before. As then philosophical abstraction failed to carry me further, I aspired to poetic inspiration, but grasped only at clouds, and gained nothing real for the better cultivation of my mind. After these seven- league boots for the happy chosen few were trans- formed for me into mere stilts that threw me down, I took, though reluctantly, the way which is open to all persons of ordinary capacity — that is to say, I set about learning. People found, however, that my progress was very small, and they added as a sort of courtier-like comfort, that there were many things which could not be learned at home in our Germany. In order, therefore, to make myself acquainted with the genuine social relations, liberty, constitution, and so forth, and to view them face to face, I travelled to Paris, was present at all the popular and ministerial tumults j saw kings set up and deposed, journalists turned into ministers, and poor men into rich ; amidst incessant accompani- 332 REMINISCENCES. uients to-day of unbounded vivats, to-morrow of pereats — high life above and below stairs. By all these things no light was diffused in my head ; I found no Pentecost of new illumination, but only a Da Capo of the Babylonish confusion of tongues, and I ventured, on my return, to assert, that in France there is nothing to be learned about the above-mentioned matters. Rude people hereupon said — " A {^oose flew over the Rhine amain, A goo>e came flAing back again." The more polite remarked that 1 had mistaken my vocation — that I must go to Italy — that art was made for me, and I for art. I suffered myself to be the more easily persuaded, because I had by degrees conceived a real passion for learning, and had gained the conviction that none but the genuine scholar enjoys an everlasting youth. By means of this rejuvenescence, I regularly write my school- exercises of an uninformed person, such as I really am, and could prove by numberless witnesses who would swear to it, if any one should doubt that character indelihilis. I only claim that inalienable and now universally acknowledged right of man, to write down without apprehension or responsibility whatever comes into my head or to my pen. TUIESTE. Do not think of going to Trieste, said some one to me ; it is an utter stranger to the arts. But if I TRIESTE. 333 visit places where art is already dead, where it ah'eady occupies its campu santo, why not such where it is yet awaiting its birth ? May it not be interesting and instructive to contemplate this youth- ful soil, this te?ra vergin e,v/h]ch, after long culture, may produce rich crops of art and science ? Strive first, we are told, and with good reason, after the kingdom of God ; after pictures and statues one cannot ^r,$.^ strive ; there is much previous labour to be performed, many foundations must be laid, before these flowers and fruits of mental cultivation can be obtained. I have just as little reason to blame the people of Trieste, because their city has not such treasures of art to boast as Venice, as to assume that in time to come their attention will be exclusively engrossed by the objects which are regis- tered alphabetically in the custom-house tariff". It is to be hoped that to the possession of works of art, (for which individuals, for instance M. Sartori, have already made a promising beginning,) the production of them vi'ill speedily be added, and that on this point Trieste may deserve the reputation of greater activity. Made virtute esto. VENICE. A stop has been put to the rapid decline of Venice in a material point of view ; a spiritual re- surrection must proceed from within. It will not 334 VENICE. take place while people show, with vain self-com- placency, the works of great predecessors, and excuse, nay justify, their own nullity by the force of external relations and impediments. Are, then, those impediments greater at this day than they were at the time of Attila, or of the war of Chioggia ? Is there any absolute necessity that tiie modern Venetian painters should be so far behind those of the 16th century.'' The Venetians must pass through the purgatory of a great sorrow and bitter self- knowledge ; otherwise — to say nothing of political greatness — they will not again arrive at real art, but stop at exhibitions of perishable performances, executed to relieve the momentary necessities of in- digent people. In Venice, said some one to me, you will learn what flesh is. — Of all visible things that God has created upon earth and set before our eyes, the human body is the first, the highest, the most beautiful. I will not say any ill of beasts, plants, hills, clouds, &c. ; I will not depreciate them — but man remains the monarch of the creation. On that point, you will reply, all agree. No such thing — they talk of beauty, and they are frequently afraid of it. They fancy that they can seize it, and paint and admire caricatures and abortions. The sense for beauty is far more rare than that for morality, and yet what is higher than the combination of the LIVING BEAUTY. 335 beautiful and the good ! Why are many bonajide afraid of beauty ? Because it appears to them only as something seductive. Why do many praise beauty .'' Because they view it through the glass of vulgar desire. The disinterested pleasure which Kant speaks of is to them incomprehensible, impossible. The head of man is the fairest signature of his mind. The genuine contemplatist of art cannot confine himself to that, but must be capable of edi- fying himself with all the truly beautiful members, from the feet to the crown of the head. I say edifying — as in a revelation of God and his creative power. Thus it is that the great Venetian painters have considered and represented flesh — not in the ordinary sense of a reJiabUitation de la chair, but as the medium by which the visible is connected with the invisible and spiritual. Whoever is not acquainted with this nature, this import of beauty, against him is closed the great portal to the holiest of holies. The flesh, without the spirit, is dead, and decays in few hours ; but when it is said that " the spirit, the word, the Xoyoq, became flesh,"" therein lies not only the highest revelation, but also the highest theory and practice of all art. Why is living beauty often without any promi- nent mind ? Because it is not the work and pos- session of the individual, but a gift of God for all. 336 THE MEDICEAN VENUS. Why is mind often manifested in that which is destitute of beauty ? To teach the beautiful humi- hty, and to prove that the plain person possesses, through the qualities of mind, a far higher beauty than they who vainly carry it about in their own body. Why is that doctrine unsatisfactory which finds beauty merely in what is characteristic ? Be- cause it would convert the revelation of God into something that is purely personal. THE MEDICEAN VENUS. The Tribune of Florence is indeed a sanctuary of the most diverse productions of art. But for me, uninformed admirer of the unadorned human body, this perfect figure eclipses at the first glance all the rest, and I always return to it as to the most natural standard, the purest harmony, the noblest object, without other aim or accessory. Regard- less of puritanical contradiction, I take the greatest delight in that foot — such as shoed ladies, who never dare take off their stockings, cannot show — in that ancle, in that elegant yet finely-rounded calf, in short in every individual part, as well as in the ap- pearance of the whole. Is then this contemplation, is this delight, a sin ? Is not Kotzebue not only a great fool, but also a real sinner, when he asserts that the ladies' maids of Berlin are more beautiful than the Medicean Venus ? Setting aside th THE MEDICEAN VENUS. 337 Striking absurdity of this assertion, it may, fairly interpreted, lead to the inquiry concerning the rela- tibn of the living to the work of art. The decided advantage of the former consists in this, that it lives ; the decided advantage of the latter in this, that it never grows older or dies. It makes a vivid and profound impression, after the lapse of years, (under the weight of which one has one"'s self grown gray) to find these works of art in unchanged youth, and, as proofs of immortality, more weighty than many other proofs that are called philosophical. Nowhere is the creative power inspired by God, the power of creating in imitation of Him, so clearly and so wonderfully manifested as in the genuine work of art. And again, those works of art which repre- sent the human body continue for all times the most interesting, the most living, the most intelli- gible. The Venus and the Apollo stand nearer to the present (in spite of the tailor-apparatus put on as a defence against cold and to hide deformity) than the tragedies of Sophocles and the legislation of Solon. Is this a superiority, or does it denote a bodily ne plus ultra, while the regeneration of the spiritual always conducts farther? Considerations of this kind, it is true, lead from the immediate enjoyment of beauty, and to Kotze- bueades of the following kind. Venus is a goddess. Why? The little Cupids by her side might be VOL. I. a 338 THE MEDICEAN VENUS. given as attendants to any handsome female, and further symbols and distinctions are wanting. I recognize Jupiter, Juno, Minerva, by other things, nay by their heads alone. The head of Venus displays very beautiful, regular forms, but other- wise says little, and the expression is almost nega- tive. Not a trace of love, enthusiasm, excitement, encouragement, repulsion. But, precisely because the head does not constitute the Venus, she showed herself quite naked to Paris, while the other god- desses thought that the sight of their heads alone ought to be quite sufficient for the competent judge. Venus is the goddess of general corporeal beauty, therefore the importance of the individual part must give way. But if Venus is the goddess of general corporeal beauty, why does this Medicean Venus wish to hide any part of herself? Diana was in earnest when she metamorphosed Actaeon, a lover of art or beauty ; but what means Venus by this attitude ? I discover neither dignity, nor anger, nor shame, in the common acceptation of the word. Is she look- ing between her fingers, and does she wish the spec- tator to do the same ? As for the Neapolitan Venus (or whoever else the beautiful female may be,) I know what she is looking at, and what she wishes to show in preference, and the spectator follows the direction ; but what is the object of the THE MEDICEAN VENUS. 839 Medicean with the turn of the head and this sort of digito monstrarier ? Perhaps one might, without useless reflection, reply : The artist needed an atti- tude in which the arms should form finely-curved lines ; of course he could neither fold them toge- ther, nor let them hang down, nor lay them upon the body (which was to be entirely visible,) nor throw one arm back. It evinces somewhat deeper thought to say : The intention was to display two natures, the divine and the human. The total ab- sence of shame would, at best, but have shown the divine superiority, and, badly treated, would have degenerated into immodesty. A more decided ex- pression of alarm would have shown merely the human element, and have rendered beauty entirely subordinate to a moral reflection. In this manner one may reason or gossip a great deal about this Venus ; but I will return to real innocence and look at that. LETTER LVII. Right of Inheritance. Florence, June 3 re). I had been conversing with a lawyer about the right of inheritance of the married women of this q2 340 RIGHT OF INHERITANCE. country, and asked Madame H — lier opinion. She had more reason to find fault with the laws here, than the Prussian women with those of their country. In Tuscany, daughters are excluded by law from the inheritance ; they receive only a cer- tain share, and a dowry is usually assigned to them. Such as are unmarried must be kept at home by their brothers, and hence frequently arises no small discomfort. In case of a separation, the allowance never exceeds that fixed by custom. At the time of the French, sons and daughters had equal shares ; but after their expulsion the old ar- rangements again received the force of law ; and if the condition of females is at all improved, it is be- cause the trusts and reversions of past times have mostly lost their efficacy. But precisely because this is the case, and feudal services, and the rights of the nobility, or of primogeniture, are now out of the question, because women have every where ad- vanced to another position, that partial right of in- heritance appears as a relic of other times, unsuited to the present, and which has maintained its ground through arbitrary predilection, not for any satisfac- tory reasons. If one would act consistently, one would set it aside entirely, as well as many other usages connected with it. CATHOLICISM. 341 LETTER LVIII. Catholicism — English and French — PoHtics and Conversation. Florence, June 4th. Every day has in Italy its peculiarities of see- ing, hearing, learning : for this reason I cannot comprehend how people can put any one unpleasant circumstance that may occur into the scale by it- self. As a proof, here is an account of the way in which yesterday was spent. Dined at the house of the Marchese , with . Three sensible persons must talk sensibly ; and thus the conversation turned alternately upon Florence and foreign countries, the present and the past, and I heard much that I shall treasure up in my memory or commit to writing. The Protestants, said , are frequently more reasonable in regard to the pope and the church than the Catholics, at least the Italians. We are near both, and acquainted with things as they really are. A few simpletons only imagine that the omnipotence of the ancient Ca- tholic ecclesiastical authority can return — I re- marked how disgust of political experimenting pro- duces in many a disposition or hope to found liberty or obedience on ecclesiastical soil. We were unanimous in this, that the entire doctrines of Protestantism, and the entire doctrines of Catho- 342 POLITICS. licism, are adopted and followed but by very few ; that in fact feeling and conviction modify both, and give them a new form, both with the world in ge- neral, and with every thinking individual. We far- ther agreed that the due medium is the right, the positive ; but that out of mere negations neither is the due medium to be found, nor can in this way anything be founded or built up. On this subject the ministerial proceedings in Paris, (in which not a single grand, interesting, positive idea was brought forward), furnished instructive examples and proofs. Conversing in this manner, we drove to the house of Madame D — , a clever French lady, to whom those gentlemen wished to introduce me. With an agreeable person, she displayed at once the easy vivacity of the French women. Without putting out of her arms the infant that she was nursing, she got at once, I scarcely know how, into the centre de la politique, and pronounced a warm panegyric on Mons. T — . There was, in particular, an article of his in the Constitutionnel against the king, marked by a prafondeur des pen- s^es and a simplicite d* expression not to be sur- passed. My companions said nothing, and a few modest remarks on my part only served to fan the flame of political enthusiasm. I felt as if a bottle of champagne, excited to the utmost, was about to ENGLISH AND FRENCH LADIES. 343 burst ; nevertheless, I restrained myself, and said not another word, so that the torrent of Parisian eloquence rolled along without obstruction. Ma- dame then inquired after Hallam, and could not comprehend how it happened that he was neither a member of parliament nor desired that distinction. 1 observed that the English did not consider science without political consequence as contempti- ble, or that every scholar was called to assist in le- gislating. The conversation then turned upon the English women. Madame said that they were insipid, without expression ; at best heautes jardi- nieres, large hands, large feet, fat, clumsy, a V alle- mande, no breeding or social polish. If I had done violence to myself thus far and held my tongue, I now gave full scope to my eloquence ; and my speech, like my previous silence, was in di- rect opposition to the French lady. So also was the assertion that the talent for conversation and the display of esprit is by no means the one thing needful either for man or women. Madame , however, displayed this very talent in not taking amiss any thing that was said. She promised when we next met to attack the French-women, and I to defend them. A walk along the Arno concluded the day or the evening. Venus shone so brightly as to form a luminous stripe upon the water ; and, after a sound 344 VENUS DE MEDICI. night's rest, I wrote down the history of that day, before commencing the labours of this. At the pohce-office I was asked : " How old are you ?" When 1 had answered, " Fifty-eight years," I became seriously alarmed, and thought ; ," You ought to be at home, and to lay yourself up on the shelf." LETTER LIX. Florence, Ju e 6th. REFLECTIONS ON ART, BY ONE OF THE UNrN- FORMED. FIRST CONTINUATION. VENUS DK MEDICI, ONCE MORE, AND FOR EVER ! When the very beautiful Mademoiselle von Glafei, afterwards Madame von Saldern, chanced once in company to ascend a bank or a hillock and a number of admirers collected around her, one of them proposed that she should make a speech to them from that eminence. A question arose re- specting the choice of the subject, on which another said ; " Take yourself for your theme, and make a speech on beauty." I have several times proposed the same thing to the goddess; but she is silent, and so I cannot help, though not gifted with eloquence, to allow once more full scope to my tongue. VENUS DE MEDICI. ' 345 Whoever knows the Medicean Venus from plas- ter casts alone does not half know her, so undefined, tame, clumsy, does every thing appear in compari- son with the original. It is as though one were to judge of Titian and Correggio from engravings. But why is every naked female called a Venus ? Perhaps to denote the difference, the opposition ? x«S avrtcp^ua-iv. Even the Berlin ladies' maids, if subjected to this Kotzebueish fire-ordeal, or rather air-bath, would not meet with any elevation of their condition, but humiliation and scorn. As un- clothing in most persons only exposes imperfection and deformity, legislators themselves have presented it as a disgrace and punishment ; and morality has less to do with human clothing, than aversion to what is not beautiful, which denotes the com- mencement of a better taste, till certain ultras dis- cover perversity and degeneracy in the aspect, nay, in the very existence, of the beautiful, and strive to destroy it. The ideas of the true, the beautiful, the good, are of such infinite extent and such extreme inte- rest that we need not wonder if admirers of the one or the other place that one exclusively on the throne, and forget that the rightful authority be- longs to the whole trinity. Such extravagant vo- taries of the true place the ugly on an equality with the beautiful, because in one respect, (and in one 346 VENUS DE MEDICI. only), a certain truth cannot be denied to the for- mer. Similar admirers of the good find in the ex- altation of the beautiful an injustice towards the good, and an unrighteous elevation of the visible above the invisible. On this soil of one-sided errors spring up, all at once, naturalists, puritans, icono- clasts, modern French poets — if not something worse — perverted unitarians. I have once more minutely examined the crouch- ing Venus in the gallery here. She is surprised, and wishes in earnest to hide herself; but the more the modesty of the maiden is here displayed, the more the goddess who may and is meant to reveal beauty is kept out of sight. Why is there no god of beauty ? Because in him, (or at least in the man,) beauty is never all- sufficient, never is, and exhausts the whole, but something more, something indicative of qualities and character, an aim, a direction, an activity, ought to be apparent. Apollo is no more the god of beauty, than Diana is the goddess of it : their inmost nature grows on a totally different soil. Adonis and Antinous have never raised themselves from their effeminate existence to the godlike, the former was never of equal condition with Venus. I have endeavoured in former reflections to fur- nish satisfactory proof that Juno does not strip, and why ; and the day before yesterday I found in the SENSE OF SMELL. 347 workshop of Bartolini, a sculptor of this city, a re- cUning Juno, who is lifting a veil in order to show herself perfectly naked. A beautiful woman ; never- theless, the impression left upon me was, that she was doing this almost out of spite, or as much as to say : Anch'io sono hella ! But it is not de son me- tier^ not her province, as it is that of Venus. Then, too, she must dress herself again, or get herself dressed, which Venus has no occasion to do. Per- haps it is for this reason that she is married to Vul- can, who, as the Princess Borghese said, always has la chambre Men chavffee. THE SENSE OF SMELL. For the senses of the eye and the ear, grand theories have been constructed ; taste and feeling have, from their smaller domain, attempted con. quests on all sides, and planted colonies ; the sense of smell alone has been universally neglected, and not deemed worthy of notice or cultivation. People have at most inquired and ascertained whether and in what manner smells are wholesome or injurious to the body. This scarcely leads to physiology, certainly not so far as psychology and sesthetics : nay, considered from that point of view, it would appear that God had to be sure created the nose, (for blowing and snufF-taking) 5 but that smell was a matter of no consequence, and perhaps the person who has no smell is better off than the one who has. 348 SENSE OF SMELL. To these reflections I am led by Florence. In this repository of art, this elegant, clean, beauti- fully paved city, flow from every wall numberless streams, which may compare with Acheron and Phlegeton, with Cocytus and Styx, and all the rivers of hell, which throw a damp upon higher thoughts and feelings, and driv£ to despair every one whose olfactory nerves are not utterly destroyed. Incessant attention is moreover requisite to avoid stepping into these impure waters, and bringing home with one more than is homoeopathically ne- cessary to infect the air. It is boasted of as a great improvement that not a swine is now allowed to be killed by the few butchers in the city ; but this uni- versal swinishness is tolerated , people are accus- tomed, are become indifferent, to it. God mend it ! Adam Miiller once planned an aesthetic of smell, but got no further than his former doctrine of op- position. A smell and an anti-smell, (perhaps the Florentine,) — this abstract scheme is not sufficient to settle the business. So long as many people are fond of the taste and smell of high game, strong sea-fish, rotten cheese, tar, horseradish, garlic, &c., delicate females on the contrary detest the scent of roses — the first elements for constructing an aesthetic of smell are wanting. Caprice and Babylonish anarchy must reign in this world, till some great legislator for the nose shall arise, in whom mankind REMARKS ON FLORENCE. S49 shall believe, or to whom a patent shall be granted for his new classification and valuation. Perhaps Florence is called to this, either from desperation, or according to the adage, pe?- aspera ad astra. Has not the great Neptune in the Duke's Place been taught to behave himself with extraordinary modesty and decorum ; and why not the many little Florentines, who have no prescriptive right to this method of wa- tering the streets ? MISCELLANEOUS REMARKS ON FLORENCE. The Florence of the middle ages, and the Flo- rence since the sixteenth century, are essentially different, notwithstanding all the threads that run through both. More fortunate than many an Ita- lian republic, it has found its way from an ^schy- lean youth, to a Xenophontish harmony of riper years. This harmonious measure, this activity without morbid exaggeration, this grace without superficialness, this content without indifference, I find (right or wrong,) in Florence, in Tuscany ; and it seems to me, (unless irresistible storms should rage there,) to afford the pledge of a long and happy life. In some of the yet remaining tower-like houses is manifested the character of the earlier history of Florence, and not less in the city walls. Florence would gain very much in beauty if these were taken 350 SCULPTURES IN FLORENCE. down, and views opened on all sides. The passion prevailing here for enclosing each property with lofty walls, so annoying to the spectator, is likewise rooted in the earlier ages, which afforded less secu- rity or felt less admiration for nature — or, as others think, did not worship hersoidolatrously. This lat- ter opinion I disclaim, and place myself on the side of those, who, at Ratisbon, Leipzig, Breslau, Dres- den, &c., have manifested a taste and a relish for the beauties of nature. The contrast between the former violent frenzy and the moderation of the present time appears most glaring in the works of art in the Grand- duke's Place. Hercules slaying Cacus, by Bandi- nelli; the Rape of the Sabines, by John of Bologna ; Perseus with the dissevered head and body of Medusa, by Benvenuto Cellini ; Judith cutting off the head of Holofernes, by Donatello ; Michael Angelo's David (who might just as well be called Goliath,) harbouring similar intentions — of course, nothing but blood and murder ; so that Neptune, instead of fiercely leading the way as a heathen god with his qiios ego^ stands timidly by, and with good-natured countenance watches all the scandal. The witticism launched at Blucher's statue, " I have not room up here by myself,*" would apply still better to Perseus and Judith, with the two twisted carcases. Perseus is, in comparison SCULPTURES IN FLORENCE. 351 with the superior statues of antiquity, but a coarse fellow, as Cellini himself was; and all these throat- cuttings, headless trunks, streams of blood in bronze, &c., appear to me unsuccessful attempts, in spite of all the art employed in their execution. Even the beautiful hemmed-in Sabine woman, mak- ing such vehement exertions up in the air, I would rather see upon the solid ground in a more fa- vourable position for the display of that beauty. It is well that my paper is at an end, or this por- tion of the heresies of one of the uninformed would extend to too great a length. Perhaps you will de- cline this treat for the future. END OF VOL. I. London: F. SHOBERL, JUN., PRINTER, 51, RUPERT STREET, HAYMARRKT. ^^(-^^^ liiHl!illi|lll(!li|i|Hlilitlii!illlit!!i!iniiiiiiiin!!|j| liiiihili;) i 1 > : ; ..iMi|i».i JiHifcJil iiiiiiiiiiiiiijijiilijjiii iiiil) tin iiniiiinififnifiiiiiiiiiiiiii iiiiiititiiiiiiiiiHitiiiriifiiiii