POMPEII, ILLUSTRATED WITH PICTURESQUE VIEWS, ENGRAVED BY W. B. COOKE, FROM THE ORIGINAL DRAWINGS OF LIEUT. COL. COCKBURN, OF THE ROYAL ARTILLERY, AND WITH PLANS AND DETAILS OF THE PUBLIC AND DOMESTIC EDIFICES, INCLUDING THE RECENT EXCAVATIONS, AND A DESCRIPTIVE LETTERPRESS TO EACH PLATE, T. L. DONALDSON, architect, MEMBER OF THE ACADEMY OF ST. LUKE AT ROME, CORRESPONDING MEMBER OF THE ACADEMIES OF FINE ARTS IN VENICE AND MILAN, AND ACADEMIC PROFESSOR OF THE FIRST CLASS IN THE ACADEMY OF FLORENCE. HIC EST PAMPINEIS V1RIDIS MODO VESVIUS UMBRISi HIC LOCUS HERCULEO NOMINE CLARUS ERAT. CUNCTA JACENT FLAMMIS, ET TRISTI MERSA PAVILLA, NEC SUPER1 VF.LLENT HOC LICUISSE SIBI. Mart. Epig, 1. iv. Ep. 44. IN TWO VOLUMES. VOL. I. LONDON : PUBLISHED BY W. B. COOKE, 9, SOIIO-SQUARE. 1827. I ' DEDICATION. TO MAJOR FAWSSETT, y Sire, the Monarch of the Mine.' 1 — W. Scott. — Thus represented as a malignant daemon. POMPEII. 11 Stranger, wouldst thou yet unfold A tale of deeper wreck and woe ? Dark are the mysteries that sleep below ; Sad are the legends of the times of old. Thy foot is on a city’s grave* : Mute is the hall of pomp, the social hearth, Deep whelm’d beneath that burning wave Far from the cheerful light of upper earth ; And o’er the ominous surface of their tomb Fond Man renews his toils — to meet a second doom. Or, meditating on with pensive tread, Pause ; mark yon roofless walls Where Echo’s self appals, As in some silent chamber of the dead. Five hundred years thrice told Slow o’er their bed have roll’d, Swept from the busy paths of short-liv’d men, Ere Fate the spell unseal’d, Their prison-house reveal’d. And rais’d reluctant up their buried heads again. Lo ! Time hath check’d his withering arm O’er all thine eyes around survey ; And, as of those who perish’d yesterday, Preserves Man’s every trace distinct and warm. These Time hath spar’d, yet rent each tie That blood or storied worth inspires ; Unhallow’d by that home-felt sympathy Which binds us to the roof-tree of our sires, They stand, the relics of a former world, Mute mourners o’er a race to cold oblivion hurld. Herculaneum. 12 POMPEII. It is as if, rais’d by some demon spell, The dead should wander for a space Mongst aliens to their name and race, The secrets of the grave’s abyss to tell. Shrinks at their gaze each passer-by With awe to no fond social reverence link’d, As, with pale brow and glassy eye, In living features fearfully distinct, Forlorn they glide ’mid those who knew them not, Eager in dust once more to sink, and be forgot. Behold the place of tombs ; where sleep inurn d The rich, the men of noble birth, Thrice happy ! who return’d to kindred earth, With pious honours duly mourn’d. But where are those who mourn’d for them ? Their home Knows them no more ; no hallowed sepulture Appeas’d their joyless Manes, doom’d to roam Reft of a boon shar’d by the most obscure. — Is it on earth, in sea, or upper air? — Ask the devouring main, the grim volcano, where. Queen of the past, sad Memory ! Forgive the hand that lightly rears The shadowy veil of long-departed years. Sacred to pity, silence, and to thee. Say, came that desolating day Unpresag’d by portentous sight or sound ? Spake not the voice of Nature in dismay Th rough all that wide-devoted ground, Sorrowing in deepest murmurs o’er the blow Which laid her first-born, Man, his hopes, his labours, low ? POMPEII. 13 She spake, convuls’d with earthquake throes : From untrod glades by Cuma’s sibyl cave Along Aornos’ livid wave, Prophetic sounds on the still air arose. Awful they roll’d along through sky and sea, O’er ./Etna, and the towering Appennine ; From the steep crest of far Inarime* To wild Calabria’s woods, each giant pine, As neath his ocean-cliff the deep voice past, Bow’d his dark-sweeping head, and wav’d without a blast. It ceas’d ; deep silence sunk o’er land and main ; As when the thunder, in low dying tone Retiring to his viewless throne, Prepares to burst with deadlier peal again. Silence, — save where the wolf with unslak’d throat Howl’d distant at the '['shrunken forest-springs, Or the scar’d dog with melancholy note Fled from his master’s hearth : all living things With feverish instinct felt impending death In that still sultry eve, and gasp’d with deep-drawn breath. And man’s heart died within him ; in despair That shunn’d avowal, on his fellow-man He bent his gaze, and from that visage wan Turn’d shuddering back ; — no hope was written there. Reckless of flight they stood, unknowing where The earthquake first might cleave its thundering wav. Till now Day clos’d, and through the lurid air Shone the sad sun with red and level ray On tower and hamlet, hill and shadowy dell, As if to that lov d scene he look d a long farewell. * The ancient name of Ischia. f An approaching eruption is announced by the shrinking of the neighbouring wells. 14 POMPEIT. At length from forth that mount of flame A sound as if of countless waves Pent up and boiling in their ocean-caves With rush and roar and eddying discord, came. One trembling moment more, and now Hurl’d from the inmost chasm on high, Like the tall pine on Erymanthus’ brow, *A dark thick cloud rose towering to the sky, And from its floating skirts and shadowy womb Broad flash’d the livid fire through night’s fast-thickening gloom. Still swell’d that sound, as if from the vast deep, Awful and loud, the voice of Chaos spoke; And sudden an infernal day-light broke Forth from the caverns of the fiery steep. Watch-tower and cliff, the ocean and the shore Shone fearfully amid the sulphurous glare ; While, bursting from its gulphs with angry roar. Huge volley’d rocks shot through the murky air. And, hurtling down in one red ceaseless rain, Crash’d through the tottering domes, or plung’d amid the main. Woe to the fetter’d captive then ; Listening, as through his dungeon’s shade Glanc’d that fell light, he vainly shriek’d for aid, •j* Unheard, unheeded by his fellow-men. Woe to the man, who on that torturing night Bore heavier burden than his own despair, Who, while his trembling babes, intent on flight. Clung round his knees, and claim’d his guardian care, Still lingering gaz’d in doubtful agony Upon his aged sire, too weak to rise and fly ! * See Pliny's account, to which I have generally adhered. t An instrument of confinement was found among the ruins of Pompeii, with several skeletons attached to it. POMPEII. 15 Friend, foe, slave, lord, mingling in blind amaze, Seaward or landward, on they fled, As terror s restless impulse led, Lighted by that broad beacon’s ghastly blaze : When, ghastlier yet, wide darkness sunk around As in some sultry cavern s inmost cell ; Ceas’d the loud crash, and with hoarse-whispering sound, Viewless and thick, a shower of ashes fell, And groaning with an earthquake’s giant birth, Beneath their reeling tread deep heav’d the solid earth. Now rose the mingling war of sea and land : And where were they, who with contesting force Had seiz’d each bark, and held their envied course Shunning the horrors of that perilous strand ? The friend, who for a moment bent his ear, Heard but the ocean, now with deafening roar And headlong inroad hurling far and near His mountain-waves — now from the wasted shore Back rolling to his depths with hollow boom ; ■Heard — groan’d — yet blest their fate who met no lingering doom. For doubt and dread subsided to despair, As now, with out-stretch’d arms, oft plunging deep ’Mid sulphurous slime, scorch’d rock, and ashy heap, They struggled, gasping in the dark hot air. To their bewilder’d sense, lieav’n, ocean, earth, Seem’d one convulsed mass, — the glorious sun Quench’d, and grnn Chaos wakd to second birth : Each breath’d but one poor wish, and only one, To view once more a human face, and die ; Vain hope ! their sufferings clos’d, unseen by mortal eye. 16 POMPEII. The mariner who came in aid, Paus’d in mid sea, then urg’d his timely way With labouring oar to Cuma’s sheltering bay, By more than human fears dismay’d. For many a long revolving hour, On many a drear unhallow’d grave Pour’d ceaseless down the dread volcanic shower, Ere the strong breeze blew freshening from the wave, And the sun pierc’d that black portentous veil, Mourning with lessen’d beams, and disk all sickly pale. Where now the populous town, the varied soil Cool’d by fresh shade, or waving thick with corn ? The olive-groves, the vine-clad heights, where Morn Smil’d once on a wide scene of happy toil ? Lo, as those heavy clouds slow roll’d away, And left distinct Vesuvius’ towering head. Broad from his summit to the circling bay A barren plain of whiten’d ashes spread ; A silent waste, uncheer’d by living breath ; — A pale and glittering tomb — a wilderness of death. IR©MA. HISTORY OF POMPEII. Of th e various objects of antiquarian research which the Classical Traveller has been accustomed to approach with unmingled sensations of reverence and delight, he has never enjoyed, nor it is presumed, will he ever again enjoy the repetition of such a gratification as he has received from a visit to this city ; which, after an impenetrated obscurity of near eighteen centuries, at length offers itself to his enthusiastic contemplation, and renders him, as it were, the denizen of a classic age. To enlarge on the feelings which will be awakened in a prepared mind on entering Pompeii, would be superfluous ; it must be left to its own emotions. I have only to call forth recollections of what may have been already seen ; while I more particularly address my descriptions to those, who are obliged to con- tent themselves with the representations that graphic art can afford them. The labours of Montfaucon, Lipsius and their ponderous antiquarian brethren, lose much even of their consolidated importance, when compared with the actual examination of a Roman city resuscitated from the long oblivion of so many ages ; and which had not so large a portion of its moveable remains been carried away to fill the Museum prepared for their reception, would appear in all the minutias of domestic life*. But this highly interesting object, as it now appears, and which I trust this work will be found to describe with scrupulous accuracy, cannot fail of affording to a mind tinctured with classic lore and The number of Paintings found at Pompeii, Herculaneum, and Stabia, amount to fifteen hundred and eighty. HISTORY OF POMPEII. 20 impressed with classic affections, a large measure of curious information and antiqua- rian delight. This city, which is about fourteen miles distant from Naples, must have originally stood on an elevated situation, though, probably, much encreased by the accession of Volcanic matter, which it may have received from the overwhelming discharges of Vesuvius. An opinion has prevailed that the sea once washed the walls of Pompeii, and rings are said to have been found which must have been employed in mooring the vessels to them ; though it appears to be much more probable that the river afforded the short transit for commercial articles from the sea to the city. According to Strabo its trade must have been considerable. The inland commodities received from Nola, Nocera, and other places in that more fertile part of the country, were exchanged for transmarine imports brought up the river Sarnus, which is still capable of navigation, and approaches within a quarter of a mile of the city. Of the port, however, which it is said to have possessed, there are no remains. The present distance of the town from the sea is about a mile, which may be rather attributed to volcanic additions of territory than to any recession of the sea, as its waters have rather advanced than receded in these regions. Indeed what Strabo calls a port, was probably a basin formed by the river. But whatever may have been the trade of Pompeii, it has generally been considered both in size and importance to have surpassed Herculaneum. When this city was, as it were, blotted out from the map of Italy, by those over- whelming convulsions which will hereafter be historically described, the soil that in pro- cess of time accumulated over it became capable of cultivation, and to the labours of the husbandman who toiled over this invisible and almost forgotten place, the present age is indebted for its discovery. It is indeed a curious circumstance, that the fragment of an old wall which was supposed to have been erected on the surface of the earth where it appeared to stand, should afterwards prove the top of the great theatre of Pompeii, and had accidentally surmounted the Volcanic Stratum. In this void of all expectation respecting the overwhelmed city, but subsequent to the discovery of Herculaneum, about the year one thousand seven hundred and forty-eight, some agricultural instru- ment of a labouring peasant was arrested in its progress by an hard substance, which resisted his utmost efforts to detach it from its position. This circumstance being made known, an excavation of the spot was immediately undertaken, when this obdurate piece of metal led to the unveiling a small temple, which proved to be that of Isis, and was followed by all the subsequent Pompeian discoveries. The operations have since conti- nued at greater or less intervals, so that the excavations promise an entire completion. The exposure, however, to the air is evident, and the less durable materials are apparently yielding to the change of seasons. Those parts which are formed of solid blocks of stone HISTORY OF POMPEII 21 may long continue to defy the power of time ; but the principal part of the city, which consists of brick and rubble work, does not promise any great length of duration. Pompeii may be said to derive much of its importance from the catastrophe that over- whelmed it, and its present existence to the character of its destruction. As it does not appear from the records of history to have been the theatre of any distinguished transaction, it would have shared the oblivious fate of other cities which had sunk beneath the sword that laid waste the realms of Italy, or had been lost in the dire convulsions of Nature which have visited and afflicted them. Another fortune has, however, awaited it ; and accident, opening the means of discovery to antiquarian research, has restored this city, after the dark repose of so many ages, to the admiring view of the time that is passing over us; and not only snatched it from uncertain conjecture, but produced an incontro- vertible picture of the private life of the Roman people ; an anxious desideratum during the long interval of the middle ages, and whose attainment had, at length, been considered with despair. The leading features of its history will be naturally expected, and they shall be selected from those writers, though they are but few and some of them even of doubtful reliance, who have made mention of Pomp< li. It has ever been a subject for regret that the historians of remote ages are so often involved in obscurity, uncertainty and contradiction. This city partakes in no small degree of the common lot. Campania, the part of Italy in which Pompeii is situated, is described as bounded on the north by the mountains of Samnium, to the east by the river Silarus, and on the west by the river Lirys. It extends to the shores of the Tyrr- henian sea, occupying the strait between Italy and Sicily, from the mouth of the Lirys to the promontory of Minerva. Between these two points projects the Cape Misenus, which divides the coast into two gulphs named Cratera, called also Sinus Neapolitanus, from Neapolis, now Golfo di Napoli. Early history, which is generally blended with fable, describes the people of this country as a barbarous race ; and Homer represents it as the habitation of a cannibal people called the Lestrigones. Here also the Syrens were said to tempt the adventurous navigator to their harmonious but fatal abodes. Diodorus Siculus, who occasionally blends fiction with truth, describes the first inhabitants of these countries as possessing such a degree of corporeal strength as to account for the title of giants which has been applied to them. Dionysius of Halicarnassus represents the Oenotri, the Siculi, and the Pelasgi as the first foreign inhabitants of Southern Italy. Strabo mentions that the cities of Pompeii and Herculaneum were founded by Hercules, a tradition that throws back their origin to the remotest ages, involving the history of Italy. On the same authority they were possessed by the Pelasgi and the Osci. To the 22 HISTORY OF POMPEII. latter succeeded the Ausonians, who first established themselves, in the Gulf of Cratera and afterwards took possession of that between the Lirys and Cape Miseuus, from whence they drove the Opici, a part of the Osci : but this acquired dominion was of short duration. The Greeks, whose numerous colonies had already crowded the coast of Asia Minor, began to transplant themselves to the shores of Sicily, and were followed by a colony of Cumeans from Chalcis, in Euboea, who landed in Campania, under Hypocles and Megas- thes. Having lost one country, they were tempted to seek another that offered as cloudless skies and more fertile domains. Thus they made themselves masters of the country of the Opici, and there founded the city of Cumea, above Cape Misenus. The Cumeans possessed a mercantile character, and, by their trade and navigation, acquired the wealth which is derivable from such sources. Thus, having established themselves on the most commodious parts of the coast, they formed the haven of Dicasarchum, and built the cities of Palepolis and Neapolis, whose earlier denomination was Parthenope, derived from the tomb of the Syren of that name. Herculaneum and Pompeii became also subject to them, and the situation of the latter seems to have been on the utmost limits of their territory in Cratera. At length the Cumeans, rendered effeminate by the luxurious enjoyments of this delightful country, were expelled from thence by the Etrurians, who became masters of twelve cities either conquered or founded by them, which were formed into a kind of federal government, of which Capua was named the chief. This region was called the country of the Campanians, of which Pompeii formed a part : but they shared the fate of their predecessors, from the same enervating causes, a long peace, con- tinued prosperity and luxurious indulgence. The neighbouring Samnites, a people of warlike character, who long had beheld, with a rapacious envy, the superior happiness of the Campanians, seized the first favourable opportunity to descend from their mountains with hostile fury upon Campania, and ravaged the whole of it. Capua being besieged and closely pressed by the enemy, im- plored the protection of the Romans, a circumstance which first induced the Roman Republic to carry its arms into Campania. This sanguinary war lasted for half a century ; but the historians of it make no mention of Pompeii, which did not sufficiently participate in its horrors, to be involved in the bloody narratives of it. It was after an interval of eighty years, that Hannibal penetrated into this country, which furnished him with the means of keeping Rome in a long and harrassing state of danger. During this period of alarming warfare, he made all the cities which adhered to the Roman Republic the objects of his dire hostility, but as Pompeii does not appear to be in the number of them, it may be presumed to have voluntarily submitted to his power. During the war, known by the name of the Social or Marsic War, which began ninety HISTORY OF POMPEII one years before the commencement of the Christian JErn, Pompeii united with the cities combined in that league, which, after a powerful struggle, was forced to yield to the power of Rome. Sylla, having taken Stabia, gave it up to the pillage of his soldiers ; when the inhabitants of Pompeii beheld, from their walls, a sad scene of destruction, that seemed to be a forerunner of their own. They resolved, however, from the known cruelty of Sylla’s character, to defend themselves to the last, as affording the only chance of preservation. Submission, they well knew, would not blunt the edge of his cruelty ; and they were equally persuaded that no treaty, however solemnised, would be secure from his violation. Twice was he checked in his design upon Pompeii by Cluven- tius, the Samnite general ; but in a third engagement the Samnite army was routed and their leader slain. But Sylla could not then spare time from the instant views and pressing objects of his ambition to attack Pompeii, and he consequently left that city free from the invasion of his arms. Cicero, in his discourses on the Agrarian Law, describes the desolate situation of Campania at the close of the Social War : though, among its cities, Capua appears to have been the solitary sufferer. It was deprived of its senate and magistrates, while all its inhabitants were dispersed, except such as were necessary to cultivate its lands ; but still a military power remained to guard the deserted walls. At the same time, the other cities were left unmolested, and in possession of all their privileges, and Pompeii retained its resolution to preserve them. Sylla, during his Dictatorship, had ordered into the territory of Pompeii a Roman Colony, under the conduct of his nephew Publius Sylla, but the citizens, considering them as strangers, refused to grant them to a participation of their municipal rights and civic privileges ; while Publius was accused of instigating the discontents and broils which this refusal occasioned. Cicero’s defence of him against this charge appears in his 25th Oration ; and hence we learn, that the Pompeians and Colonists agreed to submit the determination of their differences to Sylla himself. In describing the cities which were in the vicinity of Vesuvius, Vitruvius denominates them Municipes : hence it may be conjectured, that, in the time of Augustus, Pompeii was governed by its own laws; but towards the conclusion of that Emperors reign, it appears from an inscription placed on the theatre, and which still exists, that it had become altogether subject to the Roman Government, with all the forms and modes of administration which it transmitted to its Colonies. The next event with which the History of Pompeii is connected is the unexpected and sudden conflict that took place between its inhabitants and those of Nocera. It happened in the 59th year of the Christian iEra, at a combat of Gladiators given by Levengus, a degraded senator, in the Amphitheatre. The people of the neighbouring cities, but H 24 HISTORY OF POMPEII. particularly t hose of Nocera, were assembled on the occasion, when the latter and those of Pompeii being provoked by mutual irritation, after less offensive acts of displeasure, at length took to arms ; but the Pompeians, being within their own walls, in a more con- nected state of strength, and possessing superior numbers, were victorious. The vanquished, however, appealed to the laws, and demanded justice of the Emperor. Nero referred the complaint to the Senate, who prohibited all public spectacles in that city during the space of ten years; while Regulus and the principal leaders of this fatal tumult were sent into exile. This commotion is the last political event which has been recorded respecting Pompeii. The history and circumstances of its fatal catastrophe, with that of the volcano which pro- duced them, still remain to be considered ; and will precede the pictures of this ancient city, in its present curious, most interesting, and extraordinary state of resuscitation from the grave of ages. A GWFFira. HISTORY OF VESUVIUS. Vesuvius is so intimately connected with Pompeii, that some history of it is essential to the object of this work, and I proceed to give it in as brief a narrative as such a curious and important feature will allow me. Diodorus Siculus, who lived about forty-four years before Christ, gives the first account of this mountain. He considers its exterior appearance at that time as justifying the traditionary belief, that its eruptions had been known to occur in very remote ages ; and Vitruvius seems to confirm this opinion, though probably on no other authority than that of the preceding historian. Strabo, who lived in the reigns of Augustus and Tiberius, describes Vesuvius as exhibiting an attractive scene of fertility, except in its upper region, whose sterility had been produced by volcanic fires. An epigram of Martial, written soon after the dire effects of the first eruption, laments the destruction of the mountain’s luxuriant beauties, which in the fervor of poetry he represents as offering abodes that might prove delightful even to the Gods. Hie est pampineis viridis Vesuvius umbris : Presserat hie madidos nobilis uva lacus. Hasc juga, quam Nysee colles, plus Bacchus amavit, Hoc nuper Satyri monte dedere choros. Hsec Veneris sedes, Lacedeemone gratior illi : Ilic locus Herculeo nomine clarus erat : Cuncta jacent flammis et, tristi mersa favillci : Nec vellent superi hoc licuisse sibi. H *26 HISTORY OF VESUVIUS. Tacitus also mentions Vesuvius in his brilliant description of Capraea, while it was the residence of Tiberius, previous to the eruption of the year seventy-nine. He describes the island as commanding a view of the Bay of Naples, with Baia, Pozzuoli, Naples, Hercula- neum, Pompeii, and Sorrento, forming, with the intermediate villas, the appearance of one continued city — while Vesuvius presented the figure of a lofty, overtowering fortress, whose sides were clad with fruitful vineyards. It may have disappointed expectation, that the terrors of this volcano, so suited to inspire the grandeur of poetic description, does not appear to have awakened the energy of song, and that the muse was contented with its tranquil, calm, and vine-clad appearance. Lucretius indeed mentions the fires in its vicinity — Qualis apud Cumas locus est montemque Vesuvum, Oppleti calidis ubi fumant fontibus auctis : — while Horace who describes Baia with such enthusiastic admiration, does not name the mountain that rises in the view of it, and adds such grandeur to the prospect. Nor does Viroil extend his lofty verse to the towering object whose overshadowing height and historic importance must have been familiar to him, and only weaves into his verse the vines and olives that flourish near it. Quasque suo viridi semper se gramme vestit, Ilia tibi laetis intexet vitibus ulmos Ilia ferax oleas est. Talem dives arat Capua et vicina Vesevo Ora jugo. Geo. 2. But these poets might not have seen the mountain clad in those eruptive splendors which would have inflamed their immortal muse ; for Pindar mentions .Etna in a very beautiful passage of one of his Odes ; and the second eruption on record happened in his time : and that Vesuvius was silent during the whole of the period in which Virgil lived, may seem to justify his inattention to it. Vesuvius, which is about three miles distant from Resina, and eight from Naples, is situate between the sea and the Apennines, but is detached from the chain of mountains which forms the longitudinal division of Italy. It is connected with two other mountains, all rising from one common base, and presenting a semi-circular appearance : the one is called Monte Sonima, and the other Ottaiano. The opinion prevails that they were originally combined in one mountain, more elevated than the present height of Vesuvius, when some violent eruption carried off its summit or apex, and formed the grand crater. Its figure is pyramidical, and its height reaches to three thousand six hundred and ninety-four feet of perpendicular elevation above the level of the sea. The circumference of the three moun- HISTORY OF VESUVIUS. 27 tains, taken at the lowest part of the base, is about thirty miles. Three paths lead to the summit, but the road of Resina is that which strangers commonly pursue. There, horses and conductors are found, which will ease the labour of two-thirds of the ascent. These guides, who are a robust people and inured to toil, grapple the traveller with a kind of girdle, which they pass behind his back and drag him to the summit. Thus the valley is attained, which lies between Monte Somma and Vesuvius, and is called Atrio di Cavallo. A more fearful place cannot well be imagined : it is covered with lava, masses of ejected stone, and other volcanic matter. Hence the ascent is undertaken to the summit, and here the track of moving sand commences. At every advance the road becomes more difficult from the loose, rugged, or burning soil, and the progress to the top generally occupies an hour. The ground is very hot, and on turning it up to the depth of a few inches, smoke is seen to issue forth, and if a stick is inserted in any of the fissures, it imme- diately takes fire. The crater, which is surrounded by a border of three or four feet in breadth, is five thousand six hundred and twenty-four feet in circumference. It consists of brimstone, mixed with burned sand on the surface, and calcined stones beneath. From this eminence it is almost needless to observe that there is an extensive and varied prospect of unrivalled grandeur and beauty. At times there is no difficulty in walking round the volcano, or even descending into the crater, though the smoke is often too thick to encourage the gratification of curiosity in such an attempt : but when the fume is less obstructive, the descent into the abyss is practicable to the depth of an hundred feet — and though it is in a great measure vertical, the irregularity of the soil and the projection of the stones may justify the under- taking to the hardy spirit of philosophic research. The form and depth of the crater, judging from the different relations of those who have descended into it, vary at different periods. It is generally represented as pos- sessing a conical shape, and is elevated or lowered according to the different degrees of force derived from the interior fermentation ; and as it is a crust combined of lava, sulphur seorim, and cinders, with other materials capable of being melted and remelted, it is conti- nually changing its appearance. The heat of the crater occasions the same sensation as the mouth of an oven, while the numerous crevices emit sulphureous exhalations. It has been conjectured that the sea iL.roduces itself into the mountain by subterranean channels, which communicate with its profound abyss, as the water which it has at times disgorged is mingled with sand and shells. The lava is a torrent of burning matter, which flows down the sides of the mountain to the sea, where it forms small promontories. It afterwards becomes fixed, in proportion as it loses its heat, when it cools into a brown stone as hard as marble, is susceptible of a similar polish, and is often seen to blend with the 28 HISTORY OF VESUVIUS. ornamental furniture of the splendid saloon. The ashes which are thrown forth from the crater are impelled into the air to a great height with surprising velocity, where, from their lightness, they are long sustained : they are sometimes borne by the winds to an incredible distance. Contemporary writers relate, that in the eruption of seventy-nine, some were so widely scattered as to reach Egypt and Syria ; that in the year four hundred and seventy-two they were borne to Constantinople : in eleven hundred and thirty-nine, they are said to have spread over Apulia and Calabria, and, on similar authorities, that in sixteen hundred and thirty-one they were driven into Sardinia, Ragusa, and other places of equal distance. The violent impelling force of this volcano may be estimated by the almost incredible height of the flaming column of smoke, of ashes, anti of sand which issues from it. It is asserted by the Abate Giulio Cesare Braccini, who measured the altitude by a quadrant from Naples, though some doubt perhaps may be entertained of its accuracy, that the column occasioned by the eruption in the year sixteen hundred and thirty-one was thirty miles high : it was indeed calculated that the column produced by the explosion in the year one thousand seven hundred, and seventy-nine, was a thousand fathoms in height, and twenty in diameter. The mountain also emits stones of enormous weight, which are thrown up to a surprising elevation, and scattered to considerable distances. Nor is this all : an immense quantity ol matter lias issued from the abyss, sufficient to cover all the surrounding country to the shores of the sea, and which in process of time contributes to its fertility. Some philosophic enquirers into the history and effects of this volcano have stated their opinions, that if all the various matter which has been dispersed from it could be collected into one mass, there would be sufficient to form four such mountains as that of Vesuvius. An opinion has prevailed, which has been ingeniously supported, that there is a subter- ranean communication between the various volcanos, which, at times, illumine, terrify, and scatter destruction over this part ot Ttaly, and that Vesuvius, Etna, the Solfatara, and the Island of Ischia, &c. are supplied from one common enkindling source, deep in the abyss of the earth ; but the error of such an opinion has long since been demonstrated ; and one of the leading notions upon which it has been founded, that Etna and V esuvius have never been in an eruptive state at the same moment, has been controverted by correct observations. The first eruption of Vesuvius which is found on the authentic records of history, took place on the twenty-fourth day of August, in the seventy-ninth year of the Christian sera, and overwhelmed in one common calamity, Herculaneum, Stabia, and Pompeii ; but still there is every reason to suppose, that the mountain possessed its volcanic character at a far more distant period of antiquity, when there were either no historians to describe its eruptions, or that their annals have been lost in the wreck of ages or the revolutions of the world. Such an opinion may indeed be justified by the apparent circumstance, that lava HISTORY OF VESUVIUS. 29 and other volcanic substances are found mixed to a very considerable depth with the strata of vegetable earth, while the pavement of the streets of Herculaneum and Pompeii are formed of lava and volcanic materials, which Vesuvius must have previously supplied. It may also be presumed, from the towns which had been built in the vicinity of the mountain on the persuasion of a position of security, that it had long been in a state of repose previous to that eruption, whose destructive operations we are about to contemplate in the description of an eye-witness. In a letter to Tacitus, Pliny the younger thus records the dreadful catastrophe — “ My uncle (Pliny the elder) was, with the fleet under his command, at Misenum (in the Gulf of Naples). On the twenty-fourth of August, about one in the afternoon, my mother desired him to observe a cloud, which appeared of a very unusual size and shape. This extraordinary phenomenon excited his philosophical curiosity to take a nearer view of it. He accordingly ordered a light vessel to be prepared, but as he was going out of the house, with his tablets in his hand, he was met by the mariners belonging to the gallies stationed at Retina, from which they had fled in the utmost terror, for, that port being situated at the foot of Vesuvius, they had no other way to escape than by sea. They conjured him, therefore, not to proceed and expose his life to imminent and inevitable danger. In compliance with their advice, he changed his original intention, and, instead of gratifying his philosophical spirit, he resigned it to the more magnanimous principle of aiding the distressed. With this view, he ordered the fleet immediately to put to sea, and went himself on board, with an intention of assisting not only Retina, but the several other towns which stood thick upon that beautiful coast. Hastening to the place, therefore, from whence others fled with the utmost terror, he steered his direct course to the point of danger, and with so much calmness and presence of mind, as to be able to make and dictate his observations upon the appearance and progress of that dreadful scene. He was now so near the mountain, that the cinders, which grew thicker and hotter the more he advanced, fell into the ships, together with pumice and black pieces of burning rock : they were likewise in danger not only of being aground by the sudden retreat of the sea, but also from the vast fragments which rolled down from the mountains and obstructed all the shore. He then joined his friend Pomponianus at Stabia; (now called Castel a Mar di Stabia, in the Gulf of Naples), while the fire from Vesuvius flamed forth from several parts of the mountain with great violence, which the darkness of the night contributed to render still more visible and dreadful. The court of the house being almost filled with ashes, and as the buildings shook from side to side with frequent and violent concussions, they retreated to the fields, but even there the stones and cinders, though of a light substance, fell in large showers, and threatened them with destruction. They, however, took the precaution of tying pillows upon their heads with napkins, which was their sole defence against the stones that fell around them. It was now day, but converted into the deepest darkness of night, which was, however, in some degree dissipated by torches and other lights of various kinds. They went down farther on the sea-shore, in order to observe if they might safely put out to sea, but they found that the waves still ran extremely high and boisterous. There he laid himself down upon a sail-cloth, which had been spread for that purpose ; when the flames, preceded by a strono- smell of sulphur, dispersed the rest of the company, and obliged him to rise. This he did with the assistance of two of his servants, and instantly fell down dead — suffocated, as it is conjectured, by some gross and noxious vapour. On the third day after this melancholy accident, his body was found entire, and without any marks of violence, exactly in the same posture in which he fell, and looking more like a man asleep than dead.” Pliny thus continues to relate the course and consequences of the eruption, subsequent to the affecting scene which has just been described: — “ The night after my uncle had left us, the shocks of an earthquake became so violent, that they not only shook every thing about us, but seemed to threaten total destruction. In the morning the light was exceedingly faint 30 HISTORY OF VESUVIUS. and languid ; the buildings all around tottered ; and as the place where we stood was narrow and confined, there was no remaining without imminent danger : it was therefore resolved to leave the town, amid crowds of people in the utmost consternation. The chariots, which were ordered to be drawn out, were so agitated, though upon level ground, that they could not be kept steady, even when supported by large stones. 'The sea seemed to roll back upon itself, and to be driven from its shore by the convulsive motion of the earth, while several animals were left upon the sand which had been deserted by the waters. On the other side, a black and dreadful cloud, bursting with an igneous serpentine vapour, darted forth a long train of fire, resembling flashes of lightning, but much larger. The ashes now began to fall, though in no great quantity, and behind us a thick smoke came rolling after us like a torrent, which caused an overspreading darkness, not like that of a cloudy night, or when there is no moon, but of a room when it is shut up and all the lights extinct. Nothing then was to be heard but the shrieks of women, the screams of children, and the cries of men. At length a glimmering light appeared, which was the forerunner of a burst of flames; the fire, however, fell at a distance. We were again immersed in thick darkness, and a heavy shower of ashes rained upon us, which we were obliged to shake off, otherwise we should have been overwhelmed and buried in the heap. At length this terrible darkness was dissipated by degrees, like a cloud or smoke ; the real day returned, and even the sun appeared, though very faintly, as when an eclipse is coming on. Every object that presented itself to our eyes, which were extremely weakened, seemed changed, being covered with white ashes as with a deep snow.”— Melmoth’s Translation of Pliny’s Letters, b. vi. 1. 16 and 20. Such was the calamitous and most alarming state of Misenum, as described by one who beheld and shared in all its horrors ; but far more aggravated, as a scene of terror and danger, must have been the situation of Pompeii and Herculaneum, which were so much nearer to the grand engine of destruction— the latter being at that moment overwhelmed by volcanic matter sixty feet in depth, and the former lost in showers of ashes, by which those cities were for many ages concealed from the view of man. Nor can the conduct of the Imperial Titus, who lost no opportunity of exercising those virtues which have rendered him the delight of every succeeding age, as he was the boast of his own, be passed without exciting our admiration. It was one ot the first acts of his beneficent reign to visit this scene of devastation, when, according to Suetonius, he appointed Curatores, persons of consular dignity, to repair the dilapidated buildings, and to apply the property of those who had perished without discoverable inheritors, for the benefit of the impoverished survivors, to whom he remitted the payment of all taxes : thus he continued to relieve and console them in every way wherein his humanity could apply his powder, till fire attended by the plague, which had suddenly visited and threatened the destruction of his capital, called him to alleviate another scene, if possible of still more alarming desolation. It appears that, subsequent to the catastrophe which has just been described, several eruptions occurred at no very distant intervals ; but the first that seems to demand particular notice was in the year two hundred and three, when Dion Cassius, an historian ot the third century, represents the mountain as having assumed the figure of a vast amphitheatre, and that the ridge which is now called Monte Somma formed its north-eastern wall. The crater is considered as the effect of a succeeding convulsion. Among other eruptions, at no distant periods, that of four hundred and seventy-two, according to Sigomus, m his work de Regno Italiae, is described as having covered Europe with ashes. The same writer, in his HISTORY OF VESUVIUS. 31 history of the Eastern Empire, mentions the terror caused by the showers of cinders which fell at Constantinople, filling the inhabitants with consternation, and causing its affrighted Emperor to fly from a city, which appeared to him devoted to destruction. It was on this occasion that, according to Baron ius, in his ecclesiastical annals, St. Januarius, w hose protecting power has been so long worshipped by the superstition of the Neapolitans, on account of his supposed protection against the dangers of the volcano, is first believed to have interposed for the suppression of its fury. Cassiodorus, who flourished in the fifth century, under Theodoric, King of the Goths, describes an eruption in the year five hundred and twelve as having been attended with such ruinous effects, that the taxes were remitted to the people of Campania, then suffering from the surrounding desolation. In five hundred and fifty-six, during the reign of the Emperor Justinian, the mountain, according to Procopius, a contemporary historian, alarmed the adjacent region, by the tremendous bellowing sounds which issued from it; but the violent menaces were not followed by any serious consequences. The explosions in six hundred and eighty-five were accompanied by a vast overflow of lava, attended by an earthquake, which shook the country for thirty miles round the spot whose internal commotions produced it. Superstition attributed the preservation of Naples on this alarming occasion to the immediate and all-powerful interposition of its protecting saint. Vesuvius again displayed its terrors in the years nine hundred and ninety-three, one thousand and thirty-six, and one thousand and forty-nine, when priestcraft availed itself of this scourge of Campania to give new force to those terrors, by which it subjected the reason of so large a portion of mankind to its power. It is related by Cardinal Damiano, that Vesuvius began now to be considered as an outwork of the infernal regions, and under the command of diabolic spirits ; while legendary tales were propagated to confirm the terrific character of the place. In the year eleven hundred and thirty-eight, an eruption continued for forty days ; w hen the inflammable powers of the mountain seem to have been so exhausted that near five centuries intervened, during which comprehensive period, it remained in such a quiescent state as to encourage the building of several cities around its base. The volcanos in its neighbourhood did not enjoy the same tranquillity. The last eruption of Solfatara was in the year eleven hundred and ninety-eight; Ischia ceased in thirteen hundred and two • and Monte Nuovo, which is upwards of three miles in circumference, and four hundred 32 HISTORY OF VESUVIUS. and sixty feet in height, was forced into existence in forty-eight hours, in the year fifteen hundred and thirty-eight ; during this long interval in Vesuvius, Sicily was shaken by sixteen explosions of Mount Etna. Pighi, a writer during the pontificate of Sextus the Fifth, describes the crater of Vesuvius as a vast amphitheatre, whose arena seemed to sink into the bowels of the earth, while the top was guarded by a bank of calcined stones, the sides being covered by a great variety of trees, whose shade formed a retreat for wild animals ; and the part called the Atrio di Cavallo, now so barren and desolate, was then verdant with pasture, and refreshed with pools of water. The Abbate Braccini, who visited the mountain in sixteen hundred and twelve, mentions the spot just named as possessing pasturage. He also describes his descent into the crater to the depth of a mile ; but was informed that he could have descended twice as far. Other accounts might be given to prove that the state of the crater at the commencement of the seventeenth century confirms the supposition of the long suspension of the eruptions ; but they are not of sufficient interest to delay our progress to the renewed horrors of Vesuvius in sixteen hundred and thirty-one, when it burst forth with tremendous fury, after the repose of ages. From this period, a more authentic and intelligible history of the volcano may be said to commence, and its eruptions to be regularly traced, which, however, seldom allowed of a more enlarged interval than of ten or twelve years. The natural history of the mountain attracted the philosophic attention of Sir William Hamilton, the British minister at the Court of Naples, from the time that he entered on his diplomatic services in 1764. Flis preparatory knowledge, enterprising spirit, penetrating sagacity, ceaseless activity, and constant residence on the spot, and the opportunities afforded by his particular situation, qualified him in a pre-eminent degree for the task which he undertook, and has so scientifically performed. His communications on the subject of volcanos, transmitted to the Royal Society, hold a very distinguished rank in its Philosophical Transactions. His first notices respecting Vesuvius related to an eruption in 1766. A second and more enlarged narrative of its convulsions in 1767 formed a subsequent communication to the Royal Society. The purport of the latter will be sufficient to convey a correct comprehension of the existing state, character, and phe- nomena of the volcano. The eruption of 1766 continued, with more or less irritation, till the tenth of December, occupying about nine months ; yet during that comparatively long period, the mountain did not cast up a third of the quantity of lava which it emitted during the last eruption, which lasted only seven days. On the fifteenth of December, last year, within the ancient crater, and about twenty feet deep, there appeared a crust, which formed a plain not unlike the HISTORY OF VESUVIUS. 33 Solfatara in miniature. In the midst of this plain was a little mountain, whose top did not rise so high as the rim of the ancient crater. Sir William Hamilton went into this plain, and up the little mountain, which was perforated, and seemed to serve as the principal chimney to the volcano. When he threw down large stones, he clearly heard that they met with many obstructions in their way, and could count an hundred moderately before they reached the bottom. The mountain was quiet in the beginning of the year 1767, but in March it began, from time to time, to throw up stones. In April the discharge of them became more frequent ; and at night fire was visible on the lop of the mountain ; or, to describe it with greater accuracy, the smoke which hung over the crater was tinged by the fire within the volcano. These repeated discharges of cinders, ashes, and pumice stones, added so much to the little mountain, that in May its top was visible above the rim of the ancient crater. On the seventh of August there issued a small stream of lava from a breach in the side of the little mountain, which gradually filled the valley between it and the ancient crater, which on the twelfth of September was overflowed by the burning fluid that took its course down the mountain. At this time, red-hot stones, which were transparent, and some of great weight, were thrown so high as to occupy ten seconds in their fall. According to Padre Torre, who was a most attentive observer of the phenomena of Vesuvius, these stones ascended upwards of a thousand feet. Sir William Hamilton describes a solid stone, which was at this time thrown from the crater to the height of a quarter of a mile, which measured twelve feet in height, and forty-five feet in circumference. On the fifteenth of October the little mountain, which was formed in about eight months, had attained the height of one hundred and eighty-five French feet, by the measurement of Don Andrea Sigonati, a very ingenious person in the service of his Sicilian Majesty. Sir William Hamilton had most minutely watched the growth of this volcanic excrescence, through all its progressive increase ; and he entertained not the least doubt that the whole of Mount Vesuvius was formed in the same manner. The lava continued to run over the ancient crater in small streams, sometimes on one side and sometimes on another, till the eighteenth of October, when it altogether disappeared, apparently owing to its being employed in forcing its way towards the place where it burst out on the following day. Heavy rains fell on the thirteenth and fourteenth of that month, a great fermentation in the mountain succeeded, and on the nineteenth there was every symptom of an approaching eruption. The little mountain discharged from its top such a thick black smoke, that it seemed scarce able to force a passage. Cloud after cloud mounted with a spiral motion, and volleys of stones were shot up to a great height in the midst of these clouds ; when, by degrees, the smoke took the exact shape of a huge pine tree, such as Pliny described. This black column of smoke, after having mounted to an extraordinary elevation, 34 HISTORY OF VESUVIUS. was borne by the wind towards Caprea, and actually spread over that island, which is about twenty-eiobt miles from Vesuvius. Before eight o’clock in the morning, the mountain had opened a mouth, without a noise, about an hundred yards lower than the ancient crater, on the side towards Monte di Somma, and when the lava had got vent, the smoke no longer came out with violence from the top. In the course of the morning, after a violent internal noise, the mountain split, and, with much uproar, a fountain of liquid fire shot up many feet high, and then rolled onward in a torrent. At the same time the earth shook, a shower of stones of an alarming size fell around, and clouds of thick black smoke and ashes produced almost a total darkness ; while the concomitant explosions from the top of the mountain were more violent than the loudest thunder, and the smell of sulphur became very offensive. About two o’clock the lava broke from another part of the mountain, and increased the horrors of the conflagration. It formed, from the rapidity of its flow, a kind of running lake, in some places near two miles broad, and at least sixty feet in depth. The concussion of the air from the explosions was so violent, that at Naples many doors and windows were forced from their fastenings, and flew open. A continued, subterraneous, and violent rumbling noise lasted a great part of this night, which Padre Torre considered as owing to lava, in the interior of the mountain, having met with a deposition of rain water, which occasioned a conflict between the two hostile elements. This is far from being improbable, as, in the great eruption of Vesuvius in 1631, it is well attested, that several towns, among which were Portici and Torre de Greco, were destroyed by a torrent of boiling water having burst out of the mountain. On Tuesday, the 20th, it was not possible to form a correct judgment of the situation of Vesuvius, from the smoke and ashes which entirely covered it, and spread over Naples, the sun appearing as through a thick London fog. The lava flowed with great violence on both sides of the mountain, and about nine at night the same noises and explosions recommenced, with a degree of fury that seemed to threaten the bursting of the volcano. The Parisian barometer was now 279, and Farenheit’s thermometer at 70 degrees ; whereas some days preceding the eruption it had been at 65 and 66. Wednesday, the 21st, became more tranquil than the preceding days, though the lava ran with rapidity, and even threatened the town of Portici. About ten in the morning of Thursday, the 22d, the thundering noise was renewed w ith more violence than had been knowm in the experience of the oldest inhabitants. General expectation awaited some dire calamity, while religious processions crowded the streets of Naples ; and the populace flew to the altars, in the hope that their diversions would avert it. The ashes or small cinders fell in such showers, that the people found it necessary to flap their hats, or employ umbrellas, to guard their eyes from the pain which they would occasion to those organs. The tops of the houses and the balconies were covered more than an inch HISTORY OF VESUVIUS. 35 thick with these cinders ; and ships at sea, twenty leagues from Naples, were also covered with them, to the great astonishment of the sailors. Although the various accounts of distance to which the ashes of Vesuvius have been carried may have been subject to exaggeration, Sir William Hamilton confidently mentions that ashes have fallen at the distance of two hundred miles from the mountain. It is probable that in the more active eruptions, ashes are forced to such an height as to meet with extraordinary currents of air, which is the most satis- factory mode of accounting for their having been borne to these surprising distances, and in a few hours. On the four following days the eruption continued with similar effects and appearances. On the 25th the ashes, issuing from the crater, formed a vast column, black as the mountain itself, and of so vast a form that the shadow was marked out on the surface of the sea, while continual flashes of zig-zag lightning shot from it. On the 27th the eruption ceased, and Vesuvius reassumed a state of repose. It was a curious coincidence, in favour of the protecting powers of St. Januarius, that the alarmed and tumultuous people having compelled the Cardinal Archbishop to bring out the head of the Saint, in procession to the Ponte Maddalena, at the extremity of Naples towards Vesuvius, the eruption ceased the moment the procession attendant on the sacred relic came in sight of the mountain. This adventitious fact, which will not soon be forgotten, appears to be well attested. There were several successive eruptions in the years 1776, 1778, and 1779 ; but one in 1794 was of a very disastrous character, when a torrent of lava covered the houses and lands of Torre del Greco. To this period are enumerated thirty-six distinct eruptive convulsions, though every year the mountain discovers, more or less, symptoms of its destructive power, by throwing forth ashes, lava, and other matter, from its summit or lateral apertures, every variety of which has been so satisfactorily described by Sir William Hamilton, in his Obser- vations upon Mount Vesuvius. We have been induced thus to extend this article on the interesting subject of Vesuvius, on account of its connexion with the history of Pompeii, and in consideration of its subserviency to the illustration of the excavated city, which demand a narrative to bring down the account of the mountain to the period when the scene of its devastation has been traced by the pencil. PLAN of THE CITY of POMPEII DESCRIPTION OF THE QUARTER OF THE THEATRES, FORUM NUNDINARIUM, ADJOINING EDIFICES, AND AMPHITHEATRE. At the distance of about a mile and a half from Torre dell’Annunziata, on the road from Naples to Salerno,, a narrow way branches off to the left, leading the traveller to the Street of the Tombs, which forms one of the approaches to the City of Pompeii. Continuing, however, along the high road, an elevated bank of earth is soon apparent, surmounted by the habitation of the proprietor of the vineyards, which surround it. This casino is seen in the First View of this chapter, entitled THE APPROACH TO POMPEII. The lofty hills to the right form part of the range more immediately over-hanging Castellamare and the ancient Stabia ; and beyond those, in the centre of the plate, is the city of Salerno. At the foot of the mound above-mentioned, is a small Inn or Osteria, from which the first view is caught of the substructions of Pompeii. The modern entrance on this side of the town is through an opening formed near the comer of the Forum Nundinarium, otherwise called the Soldiers’ Quarters. The latter name was given to the quadrangle, at the time of its excavation, on account of there having been found in a chamber near the south-west angle, irons and stocks, still attached to the leg bones of some skeletons ; and in another, a brass trumpet, with ivory flutes ; and various weapons and portions of armour : but, from its contiguity to the theatre, by which means its porticoes afforded shelter to the spectators during the suspension of the representations caused by a sudden shower, or s tonus, and for which purpose Vitruvius requires that the theatre should be near the Forum — modem antiquarians have been induced to suppose this quadrangle to have been the Forum Nundinarium, or Vegetable Market, in conlradistinction to the principal Forum, in the middle of the city, which we shall have to consider m a subsequent chapter. Mazois, however, considers the original name to be the more correct. PLAN OF THE CITY OF POMPEII, EXCAVATED TO THE YEAR 1819. This Plan shews the state of the excavations at that period. The portion first discovered was the quarter of the theatres, and in the year 1755, some houses near the Amphitheatre ; which latter were again covered with earth, as soon as the various moveable objects had been taken away. This injudicious proceeding is to be the more regretted, as this edifice, which belonged to a certain Julia Felix, was one of the most important yet cleared of the volcanic matter. It consisted of a large square building, to which a Corinthian portico served as 40 FORUM NUNDINARIUM, OR SOLDIERS' QUARTERS. a vestibule ; the walls were decorated with grotesque paintings, and in the lateral niches were marble and terra cotta statues — most of them hollow, to contain water, and perforated with tubes. Various baths, recesses, and a temple to Isis, were also discovered — in the centre of the latter, a bronze tripod, with the earthen chafing dish, and supported by three satyrs. The excavations then commenced at the Street of the Tombs, which was principally laid open during the reign of Murat. The whole circuit of the walls was ascertained, and the dwellings immediately within the Roman Gate attached to the Street of the Tombs. In the year 1819, the Forum was but imperfectly cleared. GENERAL PLAN OF THE EXCAVATIONS, TO THE YEAR 1825, AFTER BIBENT. This Plate is but a portion of a most accurate and minute plan, laid down by a French architect, who for a long period resided on the spot, and by a laborious and constant examination of the several parts, and by faithful measurement of every building, produced a plan, which should be possessed by all interested in the study of antiquity. The reader will perceive the progress made since the year 1819- The Civil Forum has been completely excavated, and the adjoining edifices, in connexion with it, form an assemblage of buildings unequalled in any other authentic example. The communication through the city is now uninterrupted ; and thus the Theatres, Market, and Amphitheatre; the Forum, Temples, and Public Baths; the Private Dwellings, Shops, and Manufactories ; and the City Walls, Tombs, and Suburban Villa, offer a series of illustrations of the public and private life of the ancients, which the descriptions of the ancient writers, and the researches of intelligent modem authors, had failed to develop with equal truth and perspicuity. PLAN OP THE FORUM NUNDINARIUM, OR SOLDIERS’ QUARTERS, THEATRES, AND ADJOINING EDIFICES. This Forum is 183 feet long by 148 feet wide, and surrounded by a Doric colonnade, having twenty-two columns on the longer sides, and seventeen on the shorter. Under this colonnade are a number of small chambers, which were supposed to have been occupied by butchers, and vendors of vegetables, meats, and liquors : in one were discovered the utensils requisite for the manufactory of soap in another, an oil mill ; the one in which the stocks were found is supposed to have been the prison ; and the guards probably occupied that in which the arms were. The columns are constructed of volcanic tufo, fluted two-thirds of their height, covered with stucco, and painted — the lower part red, the upper alternately red and yellow, except the two centre ones of the east and west sides, the upper parts of which are blue. Various inscriptions are traced with a hard point on the surface of the ninth column of the east side, and the representation of a fighting gladiator, with these letters— X X VALERIVS. The surrounding walls were covered also with stucco, painted red below, with yellow above ; the lower chambers had red lines and ornaments rudely executed upon a yellow ground. VIEW OF THE FORUM NUNDINARIUM, OTHERWISE, THE SOLDIERS’ QUARTERS. The door in the left angle of the colonnade forms the present entrance to the Forum: attached to it, are the rooms now occupied by the keepers, or custodi, of the city ; above which is a range of chambers, probably similar to those that were there in former times, and communicating with each other by means of a balcony or gallery, restored upon the authority of various indications in the construction. In the left comer is a portion of the covered theatre, in the centre of the picture the mountains which back Salerno, and to the right Monte St. Angelo. a a i ii 3 L F0RTJ5,f JhlftuiFmix JJWRnco ml !■ a JEVMArHU P «'TH£< -'.uiir-ff'r; -^CC. ❖ .>1 VINEYARD S F®IFI II I FLAK OF THE PRINCIPAL FORT I OK OF THE EXCAVATIOKS OF THE CITY TO THE PRESENT PERIOD TAKEK FROM THE ACCURATE & DETAILED PEAK OF MOKSIEUR AKTOIKE BIBEKT EREHCH ARCHITECT. JLAJB DOW ACCORDING TO HIS SURVEYS MABE DHJRIFG A RESEDEHCE OF SEVERAL TEARS OK THE SPOT. MDCCCHVI. ENGRAVED BY JOHN CIsEGHORN IonJ.cn, fhblurbed SeptSl. 13Z6- by V. B. Cooke, 9 Sobo Square SCHOOLS I "annuo it "•aroho temple I I PZTUSTTLIVM ' PEKIsrVLIVH !$A AT XlXDXfX* AX iFv£DMlFl£iiIi£ Ai^iD IlXiE IP X) a3 II H'lEID II M XMIS MUJsSifcJUJM AX X (j)i&X'II XJX BRONZE TRIPODS, UTENSILS, AND MOSAIC PAVEMENTS. 13 walls of the peribolus of the Temple of Venus, and the walls in the public baths. The face of the wall is covered by a course of tiles, fixed to it by iron nails, and between which and the wall is a hollow space, produced by four projecting feet on the back of the tiles. Thus a constant circulation of air is kept up behind the tiles, and the painted stucco on the face of them is preserved uninjured by damp. The capitals, with the festoons and enriched frieze beneath, belong to two tombs immediately without the Herculanean Gate. The apiarium or bee-hive is in bronze, and is in the Museum at Naples. A description of the mode of paving the streets has already been given in the first Volume, page 44. BRONZE TRIPOD, FROM THE MUSEUM AT NAPLES. Numerous as are the examples of the utensils of the ancients dug from the ruins of Herculaneum and Pompeii, each of them has some peculiar beauty and value, whether on account of its elegance of form, the material of which it is composed, or the exquisiteness of the execution. In the whole collection of the Studii of Naples, rich as it is in bronzes of every description, none attracts a greater share of admiration than the graceful tripod here delineated by Mr. Parke. These tripods, it is supposed, were used as a species of brazier or portable fire-place, to contain fire for warming the apartments. The same mode is still in use at Naples, but the modern article of furniture adapted to the same purpose is neither so elegant in form nor costly in material. BRONZE SITULA, TRIPOD, AND MARBLE VASE, FROM THE MUSEUM AT PORTICI. The situla has two handles, which lift up and down; the situlae were used for conveying water, the more ornamental most probably being used in the apartments of the houses. The bronze tripod was dug from the house of Julia Felix, near the Amphitheatre. The immorality of the ancients was disgustingly exhibited in the figures, but the offensive parts have been omitted in the present drawing. The body of the marble vase is sculp- tured with a representation of a group of Bacchanalian figures dancing in a circle in honor of a bearded Bacchus, who, with his thyrsus in his hand, is looking on. All the ornaments are rich, elegant, and chaste, in composition, style, and execution. INSTRUMENTS AND UTENSILS FOUND AT POMPEII, AND DEPOSITED IN THE MUSEUM AT PORTICI. This Plate contains a variety of objects, in glass, earthenware, iron, brass, and bronze, found in several parts of the buried city ; and will explain to the reader in a satisfactory manner several of the customs and manners, both sacred and profane, of the ancients. It will be remarked, that, several of the agricultural implements greatly resemble those now in use ; and although the ancients do not appear to have been acquainted with glass mirrors, yet they supplied the deficiency with mirrors of highly polished metal. The various objects, where their application allowed, are, almost without exception, of the most graceful form, pleasingly ornamented and extremely well executed. MOSAIC PAVEMENTS FOUND AT POMPEII, AND DEPOSITED IN THE MUSEUM AT PORTICI. These three Plates, which conclude this chapter, offer the plans of three of the most interesting mosaics, or tessellated pavements, in Pompeii ; and, to afford the reader a more complete idea of the magnificence of the VOL. II. 14 MOSAIC PAVEMENTS. ancients in regard to this species of decoration, the last one is colored with the tints of the original. The use of this sort of pavement is very general in Pompeii, whether in the public edifices or in the private dwellings, in which latter it was confined probably to the atria and rooms on a level with the street, where timber floors would have been subject to damp from being so near the soil. It is supposed that this art was invented by the Phoenicians, but the process of its formation, and the beauty it afterwards attained in point of design, we owe to the Greeks, by whom it was called “ lithostrotos.” The floor was originally formed of stucco, tinted with general broad masses of color ; to this succeeded the adoption of colored marbles, and the small fragments left from larger works were collected and encrusted with the stucco, until at length they were disposed into regular pictures, which vied in outline and excelled in splendor of color the productions of the painter. In general the tessellated pavements are composed of black and white dies, regularly disposed in geometrical figures : in the temples, however, the compositions were of a severer and higher order, and represented subjects taken from the heathen mythology, surrounded by a border of the meander or Grecian fret. One pattern, extremely ingenious and very generally esteemed, although not the most intellectual, was that of the “ oicos asarotos,” or unswept cecus, which represented the floor as though it were unswept, and strewed with the fragments of a recent repast. The gorgon's head, which forms the central object in the first of these four plates, appears to have been a favourite subject, as it is often repeated in mosaic pavements in distant parts of Italy. The celebrated one taken from Otricoli, and now preserved in the Vatican Museum, has a Medusa’s head displayed on a shield in the centre. T. L. D. MOSAIC PAVEMENT FOUND AT POMPEII IN THE MUSEUM AT POKTICI. DESCRIPTION OF THE STREET OF THE TOMBS, SUBURB OF AUGUSTUS FELIX. As the principal objects in the Street of the Tombs, which we shall examine in this chapter, have reference to the last solemn rites paid to the memory of the dead, it will be necessary, for the clearer elucidation of the subject, to give a slight sketch of the ceremonies observed at the funerals of the ancient Romans. The earliest records of Grecian history mention the practice both of burning and interring the dead as having been observed by that people from the remotest times. Servius, in his Commentaries on the Sixth Book of Virgil, informs us, that it was originally the custom of the Romans to bury their dead, quietly, without pomp, within their own residence, or else in a public burying ground without the city walls ; and never to consume the corpse with fire. After the time of Sylla, however, the practice of the Greeks was very generally adopted, for then a greater intercourse with that enlightened people had rendered their customs familiar to the less polished inhabitants of Italy. A distinction was made in peculiar cases, for it appears that the bodies of infants and of persons struck by lightning were denied the honor of the funeral pyre : the latter were buried at the spot where they had received the stroke of lightning, unless it were within the city ; and the former, who had not lived forty days, were interred in a place called “ suggrundarium.” In cases of mortal illness, when the patient seemed on the point of dissolution, the friends and nearest relations present embraced and kissed him till he breathed his last. The rings were then withdrawn from his fingers, the eyes were closed, the body was washed with warm water by women, and anointed by the “pollinctores,” who were men. A censer, fed with the most delicious and fragrant odours, was placed near the body, and kept continually burning ; but all other fires in the house were extinguished. The funeral robes were next put on the corpse : the toga of the lower orders being white, of coarse linen or cloth ; magistrates were clothed with the pratexta ; the censors, in purple ; those who had triumphed, in gold ; and if the deceased had gained a crown for any distinguished act of civil or military virtue, it was put on the head. The body was carried by the brothers, heirs, or nearest relatives, to the vestibule or very threshold, and there continued with the feet so turned that it should face the door, and thus indicate its departure thence : while thus exposed, the body was attended by young lads, who constantly fanned it to chase away the flies. The corpse remained thus exposed at the threshold, visited by the relations, friends, and neighbours, until the eighth day : during this period the house was hung with all the apparatus of mourning, and branches of cypress or pine were suspended from the door posts, lest any charged with sacred functions should contaminate himself by entering a house visited by death. Such were the rites observed previous to the departure of the corpse from the house to the sepulchre, and which may be considered under the heads of removal and sepulture. The ceremony was more or less splendid according to the means or rank of the individual, and if, as in the case of Valerius Publicola, the well-deserving patriot died VOL. II. 18 FUNERAL CEREMONIES OF THE ROMANS. so poor as to preclude the possibility of a public funeral from his personal estate, the Senate undertook the expence. Funerals were of two sorts, “indictiva” and “tacita,” public and private; at the former the people attended, as was the case at the funerals of magistrates, generals, and emperors, which were conducted with oreat pomp, and solemnized with a public eulogy, games, and gladiatorial combats ; but the latter were quite private, and followed merely by the friends of the deceased. On the eighth day the tributary coin to Charon was put into the mouth of the corpse, which was then conveyed to the place of sepulture ; by day if the person had been of eminent rank, or if of inferior order by night : — by this arrangement the magistrates or priests, to whom it was considered profane and of ill omen to meet a funeral, were protected from the chance of pollution. In the indictiva or tacita, whether by day or night, torches and wax candles were borne by the greater number of the mourners. The designator arranged and conducted the procession, which was preceded by singers, who to the accompaniment of music recited elegies in honour of the dead, and plaintive odes expressive of their grief ; the number of flute players by a sumptuary law was restricted to ten. To these succeeded a band of women, who accompanied the shrill notes of the pipe with their voices, in strains of anguish ; on very important occasions a company of players and dancers next followed, the former of whom recited eulogies, and the latter by appropriate action expressed the general sorrow. After these were borne several couches, on which were the effigies of the deceased in wax or wood, and busts affixed to the ends of spears : at the funerals of generals and emperors the images and spoils of conquered nations, as also the insignia of their rank, were carried in procession, accompanied by the lictors with their fasces inverted. The bier itself was either borne by some distinguished friends, by near relations, or by hired bearers, called “ vespillones biers were of two sorts, “ lectica” and “ sandapila” — the former for the rich, the latter for the poor; sometimes closed, but more generally open, that all might be assured that the deceased had not fallen a victim to treachery. The bier of an emperor or highly distinguished member of the state was followed by the magistrates, senators, knights, and all ranks of the people, arranged according to their tribes. The next group consisted of women, who with shrieks and tears loudly proclaimed their grief : their hair dishevelled, in loose and negligent attire, they tore their cheeks with their nails, beat their exposed breasts, threw ashes on their heads ; with loud reproaches on their gods, they reviled their decrees as unjust and cruel, and excited all ranks to lay waste their temples, overturn their altars, and break down their statues, not respecting even their tutelary deities. The men, less clamorous in the expression of their sorrow, evinced it in ways no less decided : some let their hair and their beards grow to an unsightly length ; while others, to mark still more deeply their grief, shaved them- selves entirely, not leaving even their eyebrows. The sons and daughters of the deceased observed on this occasion a practice quite different from that of ordinary life, the former being veiled, and the latter having the head exposed. The people in general laid aside their rings or any trinkets they were accustomed to wear, and the magistrates were unaccompanied by the insignia of /their office : the men wore black, but, under the Emperors, the women were clothed in white. The procession, swelled by the number of freedmen and slaves, advanced in this order to the Forum, where the body was detained some time before the rostra, and the wax, marble, or metal busts of the deceased were held up to public admiration. A funeral oration, brief, and free from the blandishments of art, was pronounced by his son or nearest relative, enumerating the virtues of the deceased and the most conspicuous acts of his public and domestic life. The oration concluded, the procession quitted the Forum, and went to the spot where the body was to be burnt or buried, without the city, as the ancients esteemed it polluted if the dead were interred within it. Exception, however, was made in favour of those who, having deserved well of the state, received the honorable tribute of their country’s estimation, by being allotted a plot of ground within the walls. The funeral, when arrived without the gates, proceeded to the pile, which, if near and adjoining the sepulchre, was called “ bustum,” if distant from it “ ustrina ;” here the corpse was placed upon the pyre, which, according to some ancient medals published by Erizzo, seems to have resembled a lofty tower or altar, square, circular, or polygonal in plan, and consisting of several heights, each of which was decorated with appropriate architecture. The lowermost represents a continued podium or pedestal hung with festoons ; above this were two or three stories, regularly adorned with columns, niches, and statues, enriched with ivory and gold, and the whole was surmounted with a gilt triumphal chariot, containing a statue of the deceased : on each story were planted cypress trees, the burning of which perfumed the air, and thus prevented any unpleasant effluvia from the corpse. FUNERAL CEREMONIES OF THE ROMANS. 19 With such magnificence were these temporary piles erected, that even the mausoleums of Adrian and Augustus appear to have been designed with the same arrangement of plan and disposition of decoration. The friends having embraced the body for the last time, and unclosed the eyes, it was placed with the litter on the pyre, and the nearest relations, with averted eyes — Aversi tenuere faces, Virgil. to mark this as an act of necessity and not of choice — set fire to the pile. With tears and prayers invoking favorable gales, they repeated “vale! vale! vale!” to greet the departing soul. With the deceased were consumed a considerable number of his clothes ; arms and several various costly gifts were cast into the burning mass, together with myrrh, frankincense, saffron, and other precious odours. Sisters for their brothers, mothers for their sons, wives for their husbands, having cut oft’ their hair, laid it on the bosom of the dead, or threw it into the flames. To these rites were added offerings of blood to propitiate the infernal deities and the manes of the dead ; hecatombs of animals were immolated on the pyre, and the sacrifice of human life added a terrible solemnity to the scene. The custom of gladiatorial exhibitions seems to have been derived from the ancient practice of slaying captives at the funerals of generals ; but this being considered at length a cruel usage, gladiators were afterwards hired, who were called “bustuarii,” from the word “bustum,” the place for the pyre. These shows were on the occasion of the funerals of emperors, consuls, and other celebrated characters of the state, but private individuals also, in imitation of those more distinguished by their talents and rank, often left by will certain sums for the celebration of gladiatorial fights. When the whole pyre was consumed, the embers were extinguished by libations of wine. These ceremonies being completed, the pontiff or presiding priest sprinkled the congregated throng with a branch of olive or laurel dipped in pure water, in order to purify them from the contamination they were supposed to have contracted from having officiated in the offices to the dead ; they were then dismissed with the term “ ilicet,” and departed, repeating this sentence — “ Adieu for ever ; we shall follow you in the order prescribed by nature.” The “ ossilegium,” or collection of the ashes, was next performed by the principal mourner, his feet uncovered and his vest left ungirded. The ashes of the body were preserved distinct from those of the pyre and animals consumed by some peculiar arrangement, or by a covering of asbestos in which it was enveloped. The precious relics were with many tears cast into wine, milk, and odoriferous liquors ; after which they were pressed in linen to free them from the moisture, and placed in the cinerary urn. On the ninth day they were deposited in the tomb. The urns were either of simple earth, plain, or having mythological subjects drawn on their surface ; or were of marble, alabaster, or other rare stone, chased with sculptured subjects in high relief. If the body were not burned, it was, together with the vest, arms, and other objects, deposited in the grave or sepulchre, and there left, with a “ salve !” or “ vale !” twice repeated. — Salve Eeternum raihi, maxime Palla, iEternumque vale. Virgil, Lib. XI. The days of sorrow, called “ feralia,” for any private calamity, were appointed to be observed in the month of February, which with the Romans was the close of the year ; but the anniversary of any private loss in a family was commemorated on any day, and on it relations were peculiarly privileged, so as not to be denied the opportunity of paying this sacred duty to the dead. Sacrifices, feasts, and games were solemnised on that occasion : the sacrifices consisted of water, wine, milk, blood, and ointments — the blood not only of animals but men ; and the tomb was hung with wreaths, chaplets, and festoons of flowers ; to which customVirgil alludes in his celebrated passage to the memory of Marcellus : — Tu Marcellus erls : manibus date lilia plenis ; Purpureos spargere flores, animamque nepotis His saltern accuraulem donis. The feasts were either public or private : the latter, properly called “ silieemia,” were of two kinds : the one consisting of offerings of food placed on the tombs, and there left, and of which it was considered sacrilegious and ill-omened to partake ; the others were those private feasts at the tomb, at which the relations and chief friends of the deceased were present, for they hoped, by this participation of the sacred rite, not only to relieve the 20 CITY WALLS. family from any misfortune, but also to offer an agreeable homage to the dead. On the day appointed, the friends met at the sepulchre, which they strewed with flowers, and offered the appropriate oblations ; they then retired to the triclinium to partake of the feast, which consisted of particular dishes, such as beans, parsley, lettuces, bread, eggs, lentils, salt, cakes of honey, meal, and oil, meats, and pottage : the wine was drunk out of earthen vessels. It was not customary to join these feasts clad in black or in sad-colored apparel, but the guests were usually dressed in white. On such occasions the tomb was too often the scene of the wildest excesses. The public feasts were called “ lacerationes,” consisting of distributions among the body of the people of the largesses left by any distinguished citizen ; and which were also accompanied on many occasions by fights of gladiators in the amphitheatre, hunts of wild beasts in the circus, dramatic representations in the theatre, and banquets in the forum. These, however, were not the only honours paid to the memory of the dead, for others, still more futile, are mentioned by the historians. Dio records, that after the death of M. Marcellus, his curule chair still continued to be carried to the theatre, in the same manner as when he lived ; and Severus caused the three seats of Pertinax to be placed in the theatre even after his decease. PLAN OF A PORTION OF THE WESTERN SUBURB OF THE CITY OF POMPEII. We have hitherto contemplated the arrangement of the interior of the city ; we shall now take occasion to examine the buildings in this suburb, previously, however, noticing the city walls, which are in this part much better preserved than in any other. The general form of the city is an oval, and it is supposed that it stands on a bed of lava, which to the north-east and south is on a level with the surrounding country, but on the west it presents a rugged bank considerably elevated above the plain. The whole of the city was surrounded by walls, which to the west were apparently of inconsiderable height, as the inequality of the level on this side already afforded protection ; on the others the inclosure walls assume a more imposing appearance, and although inadequate to offer an effectual opposition to the tactics of modern times, they formed, at that early period of military science, an almost insurmountable barrier. In those provinces, where city warred against city, and the country, distracted by jealous rivalry of each petty state, was exposed to the predatory excursions of any band of daring wanderers, the first care of the inhabitants of any newly-formed colony was necessarily the city walls, which were o-enerally constructed in the most solid manner, in order to afford security to the rising state. The inclosure walls of Pompeii continue in an almost uninterrupted line, offering no decided angle ; the outline is occasionally broken by the slightly projecting towers, and is pierced by five gates, which antiquarians have distimmished by the names of the gates of Stabia, of the Samus, of Nola, of Vesuvius, and of Herculaneum. The fortifications were formed of two walls about twenty feet apart, the intermediate space forming a terreplein, or “agger” of the ancients, over which was elevated a terrace about five and twenty feet high. The outside wall equalled the height of the terrace, but the inner one towards the city rose about eight feet higher. The ramparts were so arranged, that the warriors were protected by the battlements in front and returned parapets on the flanks of each. At distances varying from one hundred to five hundred paces apart, were square towers, which probably rose at one time to a great height, composed of three or four stories, communicating by staircases; there were also small sally-ports to allow of sudden attacks from the city, and other precautions inci- dental to the nature of fortifications. The constructions are composed of travertine to a small height above the ground, from which upwards they are formed of large trapezoidal blocks of volcanic matter, put together without cement, and carefully worked ; they seem to have been frequently repaired, the breaches of latter times being filled up with “ opus incertum” or with brick-work, the date of which appears subsequent to the siege of Sylla, or after the earthquake of sixty-three, which caused much devastation to the whole city. Various inscriptions found in the Street of the Tombs give the name of Pagus Augusti Felicis to this suburb : the word “ pagus” signifies a district^ hence the word “ paganus” or magistrate of a district, which we shall find so often to occur. The etymology of the name Augustus Felix is by the Herculanean Academicians derived from the new colony established in Pompeii by Octavius Augustus, and which they infer from the analogy of the colonies of Nola, Capua, and Beneventum, which received the same appellation. •AiAMIAE - P *F*SACK5U)0Tl“PVBLirAE'L0CVS *SEPVLTVR.*DATVS*DECVRlONVM* DECRBTO HERCULANEAN GATE AND CIRCULAR SEATS. 21 THE GATE OF POMPEII LEADING TO ROME. This entrance is also called the Herculanean Gate, as the road leads to that city ; its insignificant appearance does not certainly announce that importance, which the city derives from its extent and the magnificence of its monuments. It was laid open in 1763, and consists of three openings or archways, constructed of brick, covered with stucco, which was ornamented with divisions representing courses of stone, by which it acquired a certain elegance of appearance. The central large opening was inclosed by a portcullis, but on the side towards the city, by folding gates : the lateral small entrances had also doors. The face of the stucco, which is now almost entirely destroyed, was covered with inscriptions and notices similar to those described in the preceding chapter ; and, indeed, this situation was one of the most favourable for giving publicity to those announcements which would be of general interest. It is supposed, from the inferior style of construction, and the general arrangement of the whole gate, that it was erected subsequently to the walls, as in buildings of this public consequence the most careful and sound construction was always employed. VIEW DOWN THE STREET OF TOMBS, OUTSIDE THE GATES. Immediately on quitting the city, and passing the gates, this magnificent view offers itself. The pavement descends rapidly from the gate towards the plain, and the highway is lined on each -side with tombs, richly decorated ; thus at every step the admiration and sympathy of the traveller are excited, as he reads each succeeding inscription, commemorative of those, who enjoyed, so many centuries since, distinctions and influence in the state. Veneration for the memory of the dead was one of the chief moral points in the pagan religion, which may be considered as a species of worship of the manes, as their gods for the most part were only men deified after a useful and glorious life : hence the quantity of funereal monuments which remain, and the care they took in decorating and preserving them. The shades of their relations and friends were with them but so many familiar deities ; the tombs they built to them they considered as their temples, near or within which they placed altars, constantly supplied with flowers, fruits, and other offerings. 'Ihese tombs were not only tributary mementoes of grateful affection on the part of the survivors, but often originated in the vanity of the deceased, who left sometimes considerable sums in their wills for the erection of tombs, hoping by this means to transmit their names to posterity. The first tomb that presents itself immediately without the gates is the large one to the right, at the base of which lie fragments of columns and entablatures, by some supposed to have formed part of the decoration of the City Gates, but more probably they are the fragments of some sepulchre or cenotaph. To the left, is seen a portion of the second exedra, with the three last letters, ETO, of the inscrip- tion. The covered seat or hemicycle, surmounted by a tiled roof, stands immediately beyond the tomb with the three pilasters and festoons, which latter are allusive to the practice of decorating the sepulchres with flowers at stated periods of the year. VIEW OF THE CIRCULAR SEATS NEAR THE GATES LEADING TO ROME. In the description of the Civil Forum we have already alluded to that spirit of piety and regard for the public good, which induced wealthy individuals to vie with each other in erecting edifices tending to the embellishment of the city and the convenience and comfort of the citizens, and of which circumstance we have further confirma- tion in the two circular seats seen in this plate. The “ columbarium” or sepulchral chamber, which received the ashes of the dead, occupies but a portion of the site set apart for the commemoration of departed worth ; the rest is appropriated to the circular seat for the ease and recreation of the citizens or strangers ; and from this resulted a consequence, perhaps not altogether unpremeditated, that the citizen would be accustomed to connect the remembrance of the spot with the memory of the individual in honor of whom it was consecrated. These seats VOL. II. G 22 TOMB OF THE PRIESTESS MAMMIA AND HEMICYCLE. were called exedrae, and the horns of the semicircle were elegantly terminated with winged griffons' legs, the drawing of which is on the same plate with the altar from the Temple of iEsculapius, in our first chapter : the exedra in the court of the Oreek 1 emple of Hercules is similar in arrangement and design. In these circular seats the weary traveller could for a while rest, before he entered the streets of the city, or the citizen might recreate himself by an easy walk to this spot, which is immediately without the gates, and observe the passers by as they thronged to the city. Between the gate to the right and the furthermost circular seat is a small niched recess or alcove, which Mazois supposes to have been dedicated to the deities of the ways, “ dii viales,” but possibly it was sacred to Apollo, who was supposed to preside over the ways and roads, from which circumstance he was called by the Greeks ArriErs ; the altar raised to him under this name was generally circular, with a pointed summit, and near it was placed the table for the consecrated cakes and sweetmeats. Mazois mentions, that the recess was at one time adorned with paintings now destroyed ; in the niche at the further end was represented the figure of the divinity, in front of which was a cubical stone, whereon it was customary to deposit flowers and fruits ; it was also adapted for the purpose of consuming perfumes, and of sacrificing small birds : it was destroyed by an ignorant workman, in order to repair some dilapidation in an adjoining part. According to the author of Pompeiana, a very elegantly worked tripod was found in this alcove, as also a skeleton, the hands of which still grasped a lance ; it is conjectured that this was the remains of the centinel appointed to guard the gate, who preferred dying at his post to quitting it for the more ignominious death which, in conformity with the severe discipline of his country, would have awaited him. On each side of the “ asdiculum” was a small bench, to facilitate the devotions of the pious traveller, who, in passing, offered a slight homage to the presiding god. Behind the nearest circular seat to the right are seen two columns, and a part of the wall of the sepulchral chamber of Mammia. VIEW OF THE TOMB OF THE PRIESTESS MAMMIA ; ELEVATIONS AND SECTIONS OF THE COVERED SEAT OR HEMICYCLE ; AND TOMB OF LUCIUS LIBELLA. Tiie uppermost subject of this plate is a view of the sepulchre mentioned in the preceding plate, taken from the back, and looking towards the Street of the Tombs. By reference to the general plan of the suburb at the head of tliis chapter, the reader will perceive that the sepulchre is situated behind the inscribed exedra, and recedes a short distance from the line of the street. It is placed in the middle of an elevated terrace, to which access is gained from the lower level by an adjoining court. It consists of a square building, decorated with four attached columns on each of its elevations ; and the terrace itself is inclosed by a. low parapet wall pierced with a series of small arcades. The interior of the columbarium has eleven small niches sunk in the thickness of the wall, and in the centre of the room is a massive square pedestal, by some supposed to have once supported the vaulting, but by Mazois considered to have been used for placing the cinerary urn of Mammia upon it ; some marble statues roughly worked were found within this chamber, and were removed to the Royal Museum. The walls are constructed of rubble work, the columns are of brick covered with a thick coat of stucco. The two masks seen in this view are supposed to have formed part of the decoration of the roof ; they are a species of tiles called “ antifixse,” and which when thus sculptured received the name of “ personae.” The covered seat or hemicycle is situated about twenty yards from the Tomb of Mammia, down the Street of the Tombs, on the opposite side of the way ; its depth exceeds the width, and a fixed seat runs quite round the interior : its southern aspect must have rendered it a place of most agreeable resort in winter, and in summer its great depth would afford sufficient protection against the rays of the sun. May we not hazard, with an elegant writer so often before quoted, the supposition, that perhaps within this hemicycle the successive philosophers of Pompeii may have here discoursed on the immortality of the soul and the instability of human life, enforcing their arguments still more strongly by reference to the sepulchral monuments around. The style of decoration is capricious and impure : all the ornaments and architectural details are in stucco, executed in a spirited but negligent manner. The painting is superior : the ground of the ceiling is blue ; the shell white ; the ornaments between the panels gold on a black ground ; the ground of the panels red ; and the animals painted rcrscRiPiiosT at large. "COVERED SEAT OR HEMICYCLE 'in THE STREET OF TOME . - ' TOMB WITH A MARBLE DOOR. S3 according to nature. The absence of inscriptions precludes other than mere conjecture on the destination of this singular example of ancient taste, and its position alone authorises the supposition of its being connected with the sepulchral edifices. The tomb to Lucius Libella and his son is a square solid mass of masonry about fifteen feet high, elegant and imposing in its form and arrangement. These solid monuments were called cenotaphs, in contradistinction to those which had “ columbaria,” or chambers, within for the reception of the ashes of the deceased. 1 he profile of the cornice is deficient in character, from the mouldings preponderating too much over the plain faces. 1 he inscription is repeated on the opposite side, the only deviation from it being in the last word, and which is written FILO, instead of FILIO. “To Marcus Alleius Luccius Libella, the father, asdile, duumvir, quinquen- “ nial prefect ; and to M. Alleius Libella, his son, decurion, aged seventeen years. The site of this monu “ ment has been given by the public. Alleia Decimilla, daughter of Marcus, public priestess of Ceres, erected “ this monument to her husband and son.” The Temple to Ceres has not hitherto been discovered in the city . VIEW OF THE COVERED SEAT OR HEMICYCLE IN THE STREET OF THE TOMBS. The reader will perceive the stepping stone in front of the hemicycle, for reaching the elevated pavement ot the seat, which, being thus raised above the level of the footpath, prevented any inconvenience to the passengers, or annoyance to those within the hemicycle. The high tomb to the right, decorated with pilasters, is marked 1 1 on the plan of the suburb, beyond which is the inclosure, No. 12, the destination of which, in the absence of all inscriptions, cannot be ascertained. On the bank above may be distinguished the different beds or strata of ashes, from which it is inferred, that the city was not overwhelmed by one continued shower of ashes, but by intermittent falls of volcanic matter, the variety of which are distinguishable by these layers. Not far from this seat was disinterred the skeleton of an unhappy mother, who held an infant in her arms : near her were two other children ; their bones were found united, indicating that this hapless family breathed their last closely embiaced in each other's arms. Among the bones were found three gold rings, and two pair ot ear-rings, with pearl pendants of great value : one of the rings had the form of a serpent in several folds, with the head following the line of the finger. Almost immediately in face of the covered hemicycle, on the other side of the street, is the entrance to a suburban villa, excavated in 1764, but afterwards filled up. VIEW OF THE STREET OF TOMBS, TAKEN NEAR THE ARCADES IN FRONT OF SHOPS. At the distance of about thirty paces beyond the hemicycle the street begins to widen and diverge oft to the right, and a series of arcades front the street, under which are shops, or, as others suppose, a large inn for the accommodation of travellers. The angle of the bivium is formed by the “ ustrinum,” within which were burned the bodies of the dead, and a tomb with a marble door. The angle of these arcades is the object to the right in the foreground, and the “ ustrinum” and tomb beyond are in the middle distance. The left side of the street is occupied by a series of tombs, erected to the memory of Scaurus, Quietus, the Nistacidii, and Naevoleia Tyche. VIEW OF AN UNKNOWN TOMB WITH A MARBLE DOOR, AND ARCADE IN FRONT OF SHOPS; ELEVATION, SECTIONS, AND DETAILS OF THE TOMB WITH A MARBLE DOOR, AND THE VASES CONTAINED IN IT. These two plates mark the position and form of this interesting monument, which illustrates several peculiarities of usages and of construction. It is built of tufo, the centre part being of the mode called by Vitruvius 24 TOMB OF SCAURUS. “ reticulatum, or net work, and the angles and some regular layers of the same material cut into the shape of tiles. The whole was probably faced with stone or marble, of which latter material is the door, by which it is now distinguished, as there remains no inscription to denote its dedication to the memory of any individual, though it must doubtless have been erected to some distinguished member of the state. In the centre of the solid mass of construction is a square chamber, partly sunk below the level of the street, to which light was admitted by an opening opposite the door : under this opening is a niche, decorated with two Doric pilasters, having an entablature and pediment over : within this niche stands the vase of oriental alabaster containing the bones and ashes of the deceased : a large gold ring was also found in this columbarium, in which was set a sapphirine agate, eight lines long by six wide, on which was engraved a stag scratching himself with his left hoof. A projection of solid masonry runs round this chamber, for the reception of other vases, cinerary urns, and terra cotta lamps ; the vases are of glass, marble, and red earth : several amphora: of large dimensions were also found within this tomb. The door is about three feet high, two feet nine inches wide, and four inches and a half thick, and turns upon two bronze pivots, which work in sockets of the same metal ; there was a metal handle to draw it to, and it was fastened by a lock, the traces of which still remain. VIEW OF THE ROUND TOMB AND TOMB OF SCAURUS. Otr the opposite side of the street, and almost immediately in face of the “ ustrinum," are these two tombs, both of which possess the highest interest • they are separated from each other by a mere division wall. The further one rises immediately above the front inclosure wall, and access is gained to it through the door at the side, decorated with fluted Corinthian pilasters ; within is the court, from which a door opens into the body of the sepulchre. The inclosure towards the street was once covered with representations of the combats of gladiators and the chase of wild animals, executed in low relief, but they are now almost entirely defaced. The circular sepulchre recedes from the street, and is placed at the further end of the inclosure appropriated to it. It is to be remarked that almost every tomb has a raised bench or seat in front, apparently for the convenience of the foot passengers; and we may hence infer that, instead of connecting with the contemplation of their departed friends those overpowering feelings of sorrow and regret which we do, the ancients considered, that the ghosts of the dead still hovered around the tomb and welcomed those, who were induced to visit it with hallowed feelings ; thus they derived pleasure and satisfaction from using as a spot of frequent resort the site appropriated to the memory of so many departed citizens. ELEVATION OF THE CIPPUS OF THE TOMB OF SCAURUS, CALLED THE TOMB OF THE GLADIATORS; AND THE BAS-RELIEFS ON THE FRONT OF THE TOMB, REPRESENTING THE COMBATS OF THE GLADIATORS. The chases and gladiatorial combats, which took place round the pyre to propitiate the manes of the dead, have already been mentioned in the preliminary dissertation, descriptive of the ceremonies observed by the ancient Romans at the funerals. The most interesting illustration of these rites occurs in this tomb ; for however full and descriptive the narrations of ancient authors are, yet many of the minor details, so necessary to the complete comprehension of the usages and customs observed, are not described in a manner sufficiently circumstantial to enable us to form correct conceptions of the events they record. In this tomb, however, the plastic art has preserved to us these valuable details, which serve as a commentary upon several of the most difficult passages of the historians. The cippus or square pedestal, which was probably once surmounted by a statue of Scaurus, is raised upon a square basement, in the centre of which was a columbarium, about seven feet square, having four small niches for urns sunk in the thickness of the walls, and in the middle of the chamber a pillar or pier, which partly sustained the roof and superstructure of the cippus. At the height of about three feet this pillar was pierced by four small arcades, three of which were closed by glass, and the other apparently by some sort of a curtain ; hence it is conjectured that here was placed the principal urn, seen through the glass, and easily got at by r.v A TOMB OF SCAUM -Kefir fs see Description t f Plate o-f. J BAS-RELIEFS ON THE TOMB OF SCAURUS. removing the curtain for the purpose of annual libations. All the urns have been taken away ; the only relicts that were found in the niches being a few fragments of burnt bones, and a little terra cotta lamp. The inscription records that the monument was erected “To ricius, Son of A of the Menenian tribe, duumvir of justice. “ The decurions have granted the site of the monument, two (or three) thousand sesterces for the funeral, and “ that an equestrian statue should be placed in the Forum. Scaurus father to his son.” The face of the three steps towards the street was once enriched with bas-reliefs representing the venationes of the ancients ; of these the most entire are delineated in this plate. The uppermost bas-relief shows a man unarmed between a lion and a panther. On the one below a wild boar appears ready to attack another man, naked, and almost prostrate. It is, however, to be remarked, that this figure is in such an attitude that, by a slight effort, he could raise himself, and escape the fury of his antagonist. It is not improbable that these two figures are a species of combatants like those who figure at this day in the arena of the mausoleum of Augustus at Rome, and who, instead of attacking the beasts with offensive weapons, merely excite their rage, urge them to the contest, and then, by their rapid and agile movements, elude the fury of the exasperated animal. In the centre of the bas-relief is a wolf, who furiously grinds between his teeth a lance by which he is wounded ; beyond which is a stag destroyed by two dogs or wolves ; attached to his horns is a cord, by which he was confined to a stake. Beneath are two combatants attacking a bull and a panther, whose efforts to retort upon their opponents are neutralised by means of a cord that unites them. These bestiarii, who are armed with lances, and one of them protected by a helmet and armour, appear to be quite youths, and perhaps may be training to the more dangerous exercise of their skill by being opposed to animals, whose attempts to destroy them are somewhat counteracted by the cord, which however affords them more play than if they were attached to a stake or other fixed point. The lowermost bas- relief represents a combat between a bear and a man, armed with a short sword in one hand and having a short mantle in the other. The introduction of this mantle seems to point out the ter a of the erection of this tomb, for Pliny mentions that it never was in use prior to the reign of Claudius, whence it may be inferred, that the tomb was built in the period preceding the year fifty-nine, or posterior to sixty-nine, asduring that interval all public spectacles had been interdicted, on account of the fatal tumult which occurred in the Amphitheatre between the Pompeians and their neighbours : some later restorations seem to give greater weight to the earlier period. TOMB OF SCAURUS. BAS-RELIEFS ON THE FRONT OF THE TOMB, REPRESENTING THE COMBATS OF GLADIATORS. Tiie face of the basement towards the street is divided into two horizontal compartments, the upper one of which, continuing along the vacant space over the door, shows eight pairs of gladiators, while the lower division exhibits a venatio or chase. Over each pair of gladiators certain words have been painted with a pencil, in the same manner as the inscriptions described in the previous chapter, distinguishing the names of the bustuarii or funeral gladiators, their country, and the number of their previous victories. The first pair to the left are equites or equestrian gladiators, armed with lances and round targets or scuta, the centre of which was composed probably of several thicknesses of hides on a wooden frame, covered with a skin, and edged with metal. They are clothed lightly with a short tunic and small chlamys, and their arms are apparently defended with metal bands, so disposed as to leave them at full liberty for every movement, whether of attack or defence : the thighs of the second are protected with similar bands, and the heads of both are covered with helmets and vizors, which effectually inclose the face. The horses are covered with a cloth called “ saguna.” The two combatants are in the heat of a very vivid attack, and the horses by their energy seem to join in the spirit of their riders ; the second appears to have parried a thrust of his adversary, and to be on the point of charging his antagonist, who is endeavouring to elude the vivacity of his retort. But the most interesting point is the inscription over each, which, according to Monsieur Millin, who at a very early period of their excavation traced the letters, should be thus read — BEBRIX • IVL • XV • V, — in which he slightly differs from Mazois, as well as in the second, which he considers to be NOBIL • FOR • IV - XII, instead of NOBILIORTVT XI, as given on our plate VOL. II. H 26 BAS-RELIEFS ON THE TOMB OF SCAURUS. after Mazois. This variation is easily accounted for when we consider the loose manner in which the cursive writing was traced on the wall, and the very slight and almost imperceptible indications which distinguished the I, T, L, F, and E from each other. Bebrix is the barbaric name of the former, who was a foreigner, inhabitant of some colony or town which had assumed the name of JVLIA, probably from Julius Caesar. The letters XV and the V following mark that he has already conquered (Vicit) fifteen times (XV). His opponent, NOBILIS or NOBILIOR, has been also successful eleven times. The inscriptions over the two following bustuarii are almost entirely effaced ; the letters which remained at the first opening of the volcanic ashes seemed to indicate the first as having been fifteen (XV) times victorious, whereas his dangerous adversary appeared to have been successful in thirty (XXX) contests. Millin suggests that they seem as though they were preparing for combat, and regard with looks of wonder and admiration the two equites ; but Mazois considers that there are indications of a wound on the chest of the first, which is apparently bleeding, and that he has lowered his buckler, and elevated his finger towards the spectators to implore their favour, which was the usual mode with those who solicited their life ; the other awaits the decision of the people, either to leave his enemy or dispatch him, as they may indicate. The first of these two is defended with a casque, having a vizor richly decorated, and a “ scutum” or long buckler ; he has, in common with all the others, a “ subligaculum,” or piece of red or white drapery, fastened to the waist by a girdle. On the right leg he has a « cothurnus” or species of buskin, which was ordinarily of colored leather : the left leg is defended by an “ocrea” or bronze boot, in order to protect this leg, which was the most advanced, and left uncovered by the buckler ; the rest of the body is quite naked. The gladiator opposed to him has a casque ornamented with wings, a smaller buckler, and consequently his thighs are protected with plates of leather or metal, and his legs by bronze greaves. The dress of these two indicates the former to be one of the velites or light-armed, and the other a Samnite, a name given to those gladiators, who, according to Livy in his ninth book, were armed by the Campanians in this manner out of hatred to that people. We have in the third group a Thracian opposed to Hippolytus, the Myrmillon ; the former, who has again triumphed in this deadly strife, has a round target, and awaits the public voice in regard to his opponent, who, being wounded in the breast, has cast away his javelin and shield, and on his knees earnestly entreats to be remanded with his upraised hand ; but the ©, attached to the inscription, indicates that his supplication was in vain ; this record marks him as having fallen a sacrifice, and the first letter of the Greek word or of some other derivative from Aww*, I die, denotes his melancholy end. The band round the right knee serves to distinguish the Myrmillon from the velites ; although conqueror on fifteen former occasions, on this he adds another triumph to the thirty-five preceding ones of his adversary. The next croup consists apparently of two pairs of gladiators opposed to each other, each pair consisting of two secutores and two retiarii, the latter being armed with “ fuscinte” or tridents, and totally unpro- tected by any other defensive armour than plates of metal or thongs of skin bound round the left arm, and the shoulder covered by a shoulder-guard, and the left side of the body by a half cuirass. Their opponents, however, have helmets, quite devoid of ornament, in order not to afford any hold to their adversary’s trident or net; they also have a shoulder-guard on the right arm, and round bucklers. The secutor Hippolytus seems to be upon the point of dispatching his vanquished foe, who, having been wounded on the leg, thigh, right arm, and right flank, and despairing of pardon, presents his breast to the adversary, and casts himself upon his sword: they have both thrown away their shields : Nepimus, five times victorious, the companion retiarius of Hippolytus, is in the act of pushing the unfortunate bustuarius to his fate ; while the other retiarius flies affrighted from the scene of slaughter. The sixth pair of combatants have already fought ; one of them has cast away his shield, and implores his remission (missio), and his adversary turns towards the seats of the pre- siding magistrates to learn the fate of his adversary, ready, if so directed, to pursue his fatal advantage. The inscriptions hitherto noticed relate to each separate group, but there is another in larger characters above, that more particularly defines the destination of the whole, but which unfortunately is above half destroyed : the re- maining letters, however, may be thus completed — MVNERE • QVINTI ' AMPLIATI • P • F • SVMMO whence may be inferred, that the shows had been given in honor of Quintus Ampliatus, son of Publius ; the remainder it would be useless to attempt to conjecture. The bas-relief No. 2 occupies the space between the two Corinthian capitals over the door, and is composed of five fiimres, in which two Samnites are opposed to two MyrmiUons. The last combatant of this group is fallino- beneath the blows of the Samnite, at which the other Myrmillon, enraged, is about to immolate his . TOMBS OF CALVENTIUS QUIETUS AND NAEVOLEIA TYCHE. 27 adversary, the other Samnite, without reference to the spectators, and thus avenge the death of his companion ; but his impetuosity is restrained by the “ lanista,” or regulator of the combat ; from which we may infer, that the Samnite has obtained his pardon, having honourably, though unsuccessfully, sustained the attacks of his more fortunate adversary. No. 3, the last, the venatio or chase, represents a spectacle less repugnant to humanity : its ferocity consists merely in the destruction of animals, and not in that unnecessary waste of human blood, which distinguished the barbarous contests of the gladiators. Two hares and a hind are chased by dogs in the uppermost range ; under which a wild boar is closely attacked by a ferocious and large dog, by whom he is dreadfully mangled. In the centre, a “bestiarius,” clothed in a light tunic without sleeves tied round the waist, and his legs bound with leather thongs, has slain a bear with a stroke of his lance. The other bestiarius has transfixed a bull with his spear, who, notwithstanding, still retains sufficient strength to turn with a threatening air upon his adversary, at which he is evidently alarmed on account of his own defenceless condition. ELEVATION, SECTION, AND DETAILS OF THE ROUND TOMB. The sepulchral monuments which we have hitherto examined have been square in plan, but the present example offers a pleasing variety of design and arrangement, consisting of a circular tower placed within an inclosed terrace. The external faces of all the walls are covered with ornamental stucco, and the interior decorated with paintings. The lateral inclosure walls are divided into large compartments, and surmounted by six acroteria, each of which has a bas-relief allusive to the funeral rites. The perpendicular division of the two central com- partments is inteiTupted to receive a panel, in which was inserted the inscriptive dedication of the site : but the heat of the ashes has totally destroyed the marble slab containing the name of the deceased. A narrow, low door-way, three feet three inches high, affords admission into the inclosure. At the back of the tomb a flight of steps leads to the door which opens into the chamber ; the interior of the columbarium is circular, with a curiously domed ceiling : there are five niches, the largest one in the centre is circular, and doubtless contained the urn of the chief of the family. The urns are worked into the solid constructions of the walls. From the bank of the adjoining sepulchretum or inclosed space, marked 22 on the plan of the suburb, is taken the subject of the following plate. VIEW OF THE BACK OF THE TOMB OF CALVENTIUS QUIETUS, WITH VESUVIUS IN THE DISTANCE. The tomb of Quietus occupies the centre of the plate, and to the left of it is that of Naevoleia Tyche. The tomb to the right is the one of Libella and his Son already described ; against it reclines a fragment of a statue ; the mass beyond is the monument to Ceius and Labeon. Several small funeral mementoes are observable, which were doubtless the tributes of some individuals of the humbler classes of life to the manes of those they once loved. VIEW OF THE TOMBS OF CALVENTIUS QUIETUS AND NAEVOLEIA TYCHE. Both these monuments are placed within an inclosure or “ septum,” the walls of which, as in the preceding instance of the round tomb, are surmounted by acroteria. The one to the memory of Quietus is supposed to be a solid mass of construction, or properly a cenotaph, as no signs of an opening into a chamber are perceptible, and the reader will remark that there is no door in the inclosure wall, as there is in that of N aevoleia Tyche, which has a columbarium. The square cippi are of marble, but the rest of the construction is roughly executed, and covered with stucco divided into regular compartments. 28 TOMBS OF CALVENTIUS QUIETUS AND NAEVOLEIA TYCHE. ELEVATION OF THE TOMB OF CALVENTIUS QUIETUS, AND FRONT OF THE TOMB MORE AT LARGE ; DETAILS OF THE TOMB; AND BAS-RELIEFS OF THE PINNACLES. The inscription in front of the elevated pedestal announces that this tomb was erected “To C. Calventius Quietus, “ Augustal ; to him on account of his munificence, by a decree of the decurions, and by consent of the people, “ the honour of the bisellium was granted.” The bisellium alluded to is figured in the bas-relief below the inscription, and affords another instance of the value of these discoveries at Pompeii. The many writers, who had endeavoured to explain the meaning of the word bisellium, previously found in numerous inscriptions in various parts of Italy, had but obscured the subject, and left it still undecided. We here see that the bisellium was a double seat appropriated to one individual, who enjoyed the privilege of this distinguished seat at the circus, amphitheatre, theatres, forum, and other places of public assembly ; it was granted in the name of the people, by a decree of the decurions, to the most distinguished among the Augustals, for services rendered, or largesses presented, to the state. The vacant space in the centre of the cuneus, opposite the pulpitum, in the large theatre, was probably for a bisellium granted to M. Olconius Rufus. The title of Augustal was given to the members of the college of priests of Augustus, who formed an intermediate class between the decurions and the people, corresponding with the rank of knights at Rome. The enrichments of this pedestal, which is about five feet six inches square, are profuse, but mark the decline of art. The acroteria, which surmount the inclosure walls, were once ornamented with bas-reliefs in stucco, destroyed partly by the ashes and partly by the wanton curiosity of those thoughtless travellers who, for the sake of carrying away with them some memento of these interesting ruins, despoil the most valuable documents that still remain. The figure of fame, standing on a globe, decorates two of these pinnacles : on another (l.dipus is represented on the point of solving the enigma of the Sphinx, who is seated on the edge of the precipice, at the foot of which lie the corpses of her last victims : to this corresponds the representation of Theseus reposing, holding the club of Periphetes, which he never quitted ; he is further characterized by his sword, suspended on a column, which was the cause of his being recognized by iEgeus. By these allegories it is possible that allusion was intended to the sagacity, courage, and perseverance, crowned by victory, which marked the career of Quietus. ELEVATION AND FRONT OF THE TOMB AT LARGE OF NAEVOLEIA TYCHE ; AND SECTION AND DETAILS OF THE TOMB. The present sepulchre differs from all the preceding ones, as being appropriated to the sepulture of a whole family. The inscription commemorates its dedication by “ Naevoleia Tyche, freedwoman, to herself and C. “ Munatius Faustus, Augustal and pagan, to whom the decurions, with the consent of the people, have decreed “ a bisellium on account of his merits. Naevoleia Tyche, during her life, erected this monument for her freedmen “and freedwomen, and those of C. Munatius Faustus.” The portrait of Naevoleia, with pendants in her ears, occupies a small panel above the inscription, below which is a bas-relief, representing the consecration of this monument. On one side are the municipal magistrates, on the other the family and household of Naevoleia, and in the middle an altar, on which a youth is placing an offering of fruit or a victim. The lateral face of the pedestal is ornamented with a bisellium, more simple in its decoration than the one last described ; the other face has a bas-relief of a vessel about to cast anchor: the prow or “corymbus” is distinguished by a head of Ct/okion ■riij ymnm tt/k/ the aciremita-i Decoration of the A' tries DETAIL OF THE TOMB OF CALTESTTIXTS QUIETUS . Dost f }>/'// ttv TOMB OF C ALVEI? THUS QUIETUS. Bas-Reliefs on the Binnacles surrounding the Tomb allegorically denoting Segacity. Courage. Ac. Figure- of Fame on the, faces of the . two front Pinnacles of th e. Tomb. One of the Females called Prrfica Bustuanac carrying a Vase with a torch to light the- funeral Pile,. V NAEVOLEIA*WJB TYCHE‘S!BI*ET/ GMVMATI OmYJTOAV G*ET PAGING: CVE -©ECVR1QNES-(CGN§EN.§V* POPVLI B1SEL1LJVM* OB -MERITA* E1¥S* M3CR1EVERVNT HOC ‘M0NI1MENTVM NAEVOUS IA TYCHE-LIBERTIS-SVIIS , 1 IBERTABVSS^- ET- C-AWNATl-FAVSTI- VIVA- FIEC11T T©M1 OF KAEVOUB1IA TTCIK. (For picturesque '^ems of this Tomb, see Bates 37 and H.J / * - -->■ ' E - TOMB OF .LUCIUS LlfBJEILJLA AND OF HIS THE STREET OF THE TOMBS. 29 Minerva, and the stern or “ cheniscus” assumes the graceful form of a swan’s neck ; there is a man at the helm, and several young lads or genii are furling the sails ; two square flags or ensigns, “ aplustra,” float to the wind. Millin supposes this to be an allegorical bas-relief relating to Munatius, who, at the close of a long life, with joy approached the tomb, as the haven of his labours, where he anticipated a rest from the storms of life ; but Mazois, perhaps with greater propriety, considers the subject as simply alluding to the profession of Manutius, who was probably a seafaring man. The back of the tomb has no other decoration than the architectural mouldings. The interior of the chamber is square ; opposite the door is a large square niche, flanked by two smaller ones ; within the columbarium were found some vases, of a red earth, with figures in relief, and three large glass urns, about fifteen inches high, each of which was inclosed in a leaden vase of a similar form, and containing a liquor composed of wine, water, and oil. In two of these unis the liquid is of a reddish color, but in the other yellow, oily, and transparent : near each urn was found a lamp, and a coin to pay the tribute to Charon. In a comer were found several other lamps, which may perhaps have been left there for future occasions. VIEW OF THE TOMB OF LUCIUS L1BELLA AND OF HIS SON. The details of this tomb have already been given in the same Plate with the covered hemicycle ; the fragment lying against it is one of two roughly worked statues of volcanic stone, which were dug up near. There was also discovered a large marble fragment, which, it is supposed, belonged to the statue that surmounted the cenotaph. In the distance, the summit of Vesuvius is sending forth a volume of smoke, divided by two opposite currents of wind. VIEW OF FUNERAL TRICLINIUM IN THE STREET OF THE TOMBS, WITH A PLAN, SECTION, AND DETAIL OF THE PEDIMENT. Near the monument of Naevoleia Tyche is a quadrangular inclosure, which opens into the street by means of a low square door : instead of a tomb, this proves to be a triclinium, built of brick, and covered with stucco, now almost destroyed, and the compartments of which were agreeably painted with light and graceful subjects ; for as the ancients regarded the cessation of life with far different emotions from those we entertain, the decora- tion of their sepulchral edifices, instead of representing a gloomy aspect, appeared rather to mark them as consecrated to more joyful occasions. Within this inclosure were celebrated the annual commemorations of the dead by funeral repasts, or “ silicernia,” of which mention is so often made in antique inscriptions, and to which we have already alluded in the preliminary discourse to this chapter. The triclinium, table, and circular pedestal are of solid construction, covered with stucco : on the latter was probably placed the bust of the individual in whose honor the feast was held, or perhaps it was the altar for the preliminary libations. GENERAL VIEW OF THE STREET OF THE TOMBS, FROM NEAR THE TOMB OF DIOMEDES. The spectator is supposed to be looking up the street, towards the city gate. The first tomb to the right is the one erected by Naevoleia Tyche ; the second, to the left, is that of Lucius Libella and his son ; the large mass in the foreground, on the left, is the monument to Ceius and Labeon, erected to their memory by their freedman, Menomachus. The numerous costly cenotaphs and tombs erected by freedmen in this street prove that they often acquired great wealth. The summit is much damaged by the roots of the trees and vines, which have insinuated themselves into the body of the construction, and by their vegetation completely decomposed the upper part. VIEW UP THE STREET OF TOMBS, LOOKING TO THE GATES. Almost all the objects seen in this view have been already described, except the one to the left, which bears an inscription to Arrius Diomedes, and was appropriated to the sepulture of himself and family. This tomb, being almost immediately opposite the suburban villa, has given rise to the opinion, that the villa belonged to Arrius VOL. II. 30 SUBURBAN VILLA OF ARRIUS DIOMEDES. Diomedes ; and as no suggestion founded upon less questionable authority has yet been offered, it still continues to bear that name. This cenotaph and the one adjoining to L. Ceius stand on a continued pedestal, considerably elevated above the pavement of the street. The low entrance, near which is seen the fragment of a statue, leads into the funeral triclinium. In the furthest distance are the city gates, close to which appears the covered hemicycle, with its modern tiled roof. PLAN OF THE SUBURBAN VILLA, CALLED THAT OF ARRIUS DIOMEDES. Tiie present plan shews the whole extent of the villa; both the distribution of the apartments on a level with the Street of the Tombs above, and of the garden and chambers on the lower level, are laid down and distinguished by the varied tint. In the preceding chapter we have seen that the town houses were so arranged, and divided into two parts, as to keep the business and professional cares of the master or dominus distinct from the inner accommodations for the family. The country houses vary from this distribution of parts, and as the suburban villas, especially, were appropriated to the enjoyment rather than the cares of life, the atrium or first court of the town house was omitted, and the peristylium alone preserved a common feature between the two residences. A greater degree of liberty and absence of restraint distinguish the country house, as also a more decided dependence upon the resources within its walls for those comforts, which in the city are generally attainable at a short distance from the dwelling. Hence the chambers are of more general resort, and not so much divided into particular suites ; and the baths, extensive wine cellars, granaries, and similar appurtenances, could not be dispensed with, as they sometimes were in the more restricted limits of the town house. Porticoes, terraces, gardens, belvederes, and fountains become more frequent and more extended ; and in these designs a greater play is allowed to the imagination of the architect, for the space is generally unrestricted, and each mass of building groups with the graceful or sublime scenes of nature, and architecture is identified with landscape. This villa is situate at a very short distance from the gates, and consequently the dominus could seize every leisure moment to devote to rural pleasures, and avoid the graver cares of his numerous clients. The entrance is by a small porch, immediately opening into the Street of Tombs, and is decorated with two small brick columns covered with stucco. This porch communicates with the peristylium, having its impluvium and puteals as in the town houses, and affording access to several chambers. Immediately to the right is a staircase, marked A on the plan, which leads to a subterraneous door communicating, by means of a corridor, with the servants’ offices below. The cubiculum, under which passes the corridor, was probably the bedchamber for two slaves ; the places for the beds are indicated by a raised “ dais” in each alcove. To the left is the entrance to the baths, which consist of the regular suite of apartments, similar to those already enumerated in the dissertation of the second chapter, where the thermae near the Forum were described. The cubiculum with the bow window was doubtless the principal one in the villa; having the end towards the country circular, it continued to receive the full influence of the sun from the dawn to the close of the day ; when the shutters were closed, light was admitted by bull’s eyes over the windows. The alcove in the middle of the chamber was once inclosed by a curtain, the bronze rings of which were found on the ground ; on one side is a recess hollowed out of the solid construction ; this was probably the toilet, as in it. were found several vases, which apparently had once contained perfumes and unguents. An antichamber, “ procceton,” precedes the cubiculum, with a bedroom for the cubicularis or slave of the bed- chamber attached to it. In the exedra the friends of the family and all visitors were received ; it was probably ornamented with pictures and busts of the ancestors of the family, and would thus answer the purpose of a tablinum : a large opening, which in all probability was originally closed by a folding door, perhaps glazed, opens into the gallery, having a room at each end, and lighted by windows opening on the terrace in front. This gallery communicates with a noble apartment, the arrangement of which coincides with that of the (Ecus Cyzicenus, which is described by Vitruvius as being always placed facing the garden, wide and long enough to contain two triclinia, with ample space around, and having on all sides windows down to the floor, to afford the guests a full view of the garden, even when reclining upon the triclinia. Tire view from the cecus and the adjoining terraces must have been most enchanting ; for, situated as the villa is on the elevated ridge of the bed of lava, from this spot the eye could wander over the whole extent of the Bay of Naples, observe the towns, villages, and country houses lying on the slope of the range of Mounts Lactarius and Vesuvius, and command the whole of the plain beneat h, through which winds the road from Naples to Salerno. COURT OF TIE iMFJLlimUM OF MARCUS AEJRIUS DIOMJBBIE’S lilOUSJE BATH DT DIOMEDE'S VILLA. lPiOM^PIEO. :ssa WPW'mim'" fiSHfi BATH IN THE VILLA OF DIOMEDES. 31 Above the several rooms, which surround the peristyle, there was doubtless another range of apartments, similar in distribution, but of course adapted to the various wants of the family. The letter B indicates the principal staircase, which led to the chambers of the lower story and to the garden surrounded by porticoes. Most of these subterraneous apartments are very richly decorated with elegant paintings, and seem adapted to the summer months, when their retired situation would afford a cool and refreshing retreat from the overpowering effects of that warm climate. In the centre of the garden is a large piscina, and near it a pavilion : at the further end of the garden, behind the pavilion, is a door, leading from the villa into the fields attached. COURT OF THE IMPLUVIUM OF M. A. DIOMEDES’ HOUSE. An opening in the wall to the left leads to the stairs, which communicate with the subterraneous chambers by means of the corridor. Near this opening is the entrance to the villa from the Street of Tombs ; one of the columns of the porch is seen beyond, and the bank of ashes on the further side of the street. The square pier is modern, to sustain the architrave. To the right is the door of the procoston leading into the cubiculum, and the puteal is between the two last columns. The pavement is laid with mosaic. VIEW OF THE BATH IN DIOMEDES’ VILLA; AND SECTION OF THE BATH, WITH PAINTINGS ON THE WALLS, ACCURATELY COLORED. These two plates will give the reader a complete idea of the plan of the court of the baths, and of the paintings which decorate the walls. On the other side of the painted wall is the Street of Tombs ; on this side is a basin, sunk four feet four inches below the pavement of the court, and lined with stucco : over this basin was formerly a pediment supported on two columns, the shafts of which partly remain, as also the holes for the beams. The painting over the basin represents various sorts of fishes swimming in water ; each fish was executed with extra- ordinary art ; for twelve years this painting had been exposed, and on being wetted showed the tints in all their original force and transparency, but its exposition to the south aspect, and the inclemency of the seasons, soon discolored it, and now few traces remain of this interesting picture. In the centre is the hole whence was taken the mask, through which the water flowed into the basin. PAINTINGS IN THE CENTRES OF PANELS AND ON CIELINGSOF ROOMS; PAINTED SIDES OF THREE ROOMS, AND PAINTED CIF.LING, IN THE HOUSE OF M. A. DIOMEDES. The paintings, which decorate both the exterior and interior of the houses of Pompeii, shed a lively and striking character over those edifices, peculiar to them. The capricious arrangement of design, variety of decoration, brilliancy of color, and boldness of execution, concur to render these paintings worthy of the interest they excite. It is supposed that the practice of coloring the walls of houses was general even in the time of Tarquin ; but until the reign of Augustus it does not appear that the pretensions of the earlier Romans went beyond a simple tint. Under that emperor, however, art assumed a bolder aspect, and a depraved taste prevailed for covering the walls with panels of varied colors, interspersed with landscapes, animals, and figures, until the primitive simplicity degenerated to the most luxurious profusion. The Pompeians appeared to have admired gaudy colors to excess ; and even when the walls of the court, the hall, or the temple were divided into apparent courses of stone, each block was painted with the most vivid tints. More generally the walls were divided, above a lofty marble plinth, into simple compartments, the ground of which was some dark tint, inclosed in lines of a lighter color, and the centre occupied by a panel, or a small object, such as a bird, an animal, or instrument. The walls of gardens or open porticoes were sometimes decorated to the height of three or four feet with a trellis, above which arose shrubs, trees, and flowers, interspersed with numerous birds of the rarest plumage. A third species combined more complex subjects, and the introduction of a certain capricious and 32 VILLA OF M. A. DIOMEDES. artificial system of architectural arrangement, composed of slender pillars, diminutive entablatures and pedestals, with the addition of figures, festoons, birds, reptiles, and creeping lichens : such is the character of the paintings delineated in these five Plates, which, with the ones described in the former section, will give the reader a general idea of all the paintings that decorate the Pompeian houses. PLANS OF EIGHT MOSAIC PAVEMENTS, FOUND IN THE VILLA OF M. A. DIOMEDES. No other circumstance can convey to the reader a higher idea of the wealth and taste of the possessor of this suburban villa than these eight mosaics, which further illustrate our casual description of this species of decora- tion in the former chapter. The subject of the one in the lower range is difficult to explain, as it is doubtful whether it represents a labyrinth or plan of a city ; the intricate lines may be meant to indicate the passages of the labyrinth or the streets of the city, and this latter supposition acquires strength from the gates, towers, and city walls which form the border. VIEW OF TFIE VILLA OF M. A. DIOMEDES, TAKEN FROM THE GARDEN. The whole of this range of porticoes is below the level of the entrance floor of the villa, and of the Street of Tombs. The two large buttresses or piers, which support the portico to the left, are modem, and were placed there in order to resist the destruction which appeared to threaten the constructions, from the decay of the timber and the decomposition of the mortar, which had resulted from the long time they had been buried in the volcanic matter. The oecus cyzicenus was situate over the central openings of this portico, and had on each side the terrace marked upon the plan. The pavilion with the six columns is raised upon a plinth a little above the level of the garden, and has in front the sunk piscina. This villa has acquired a melancholy interest from the dreadful fate which attended the whole family, amount- ing to nineteen persons. We are led to suppose, that, struck with fear at the phenomenon which appeared to threaten such fatal consequences, the mistress, her daughter, and fifteen other individuals, retired into the cellar under the passage, marked C on the plan : there, protected by the thick and solid vaulting of this crypt, and well supplied with provisions that they had conveyed thither, they hoped that a temporary confinement would release them from all danger, little apprehending the inevitable destruction which awaited them. The strong heat, which carbonised the wood, and volatilised the more subtle part of the cinders, in a short time must have reached the subterraneous chamber, which too soon, alas ! proved their tomb. The atmosphere, charged with a sulphureous smoke, and a scorching dust, must quickly have made respiration difficult ; to relieve themselves, they seem to have made one desperate effort to force the door choakedup with ruins, ashes, and dust, and in that last struggle suffocation put an end to their suffering. The father, on the contrary, considering flight more safe, or, perhaps, anxious to procure some means of escape for his family, hurried away with a slave, charged with some valuable articles, by which he probably hoped to purchase assistance. But his retreat was stopped at the door, which opens from the garden into the adjoining field, as there the two skeletons were found, as well as the silver vases and other precious objects they were carrying away. The Royal Museum contains a portion of the volcanic matter that formed the bed on which the unhappy -victims of the larger group expired : the form of a most exquisite female bosom is left imprinted on the ashes, with the indication of a thin veil of gauze, which appears to have covered it. Undistinguished as are the inhabitants of Pompeii in the page of history by any superiority in science or literature, or by any renown as a politic or martial body, which might, like the annals of Athens or Rome, shed additional lustre over the sad rums of its admirable edifices, such scenes of anguish and unparalleled suffering, as the one we have just contemplated, speak no less impressively to the feelings of the traveller, and give to instruction the rarer charm of interest and sympathy. T. L. D. THE END. I IN D E X. Academy of Music, Vol. ii. p. 9. Acroteria of the Round Tomb, vol. ii. p. 27. , of the Tomb of Calventius Quietus, vol. u. p. 28. Actaeon, house of, situate near that of Pansa, vol. ii. p. 3. otherwise called that of Sallust, vol. ii. p. 7. Picture of, ib. Agger of the city walls, vol. ii. p. 20. iEsculapius, Temple of, and altar, vol. i. p. 47. Agrigentum, tomb of Heron at; its order similar to the Ionic of the Basilica of Pompeii, vol. i. p. 54. Alba; tablets for cursive inscriptions so called, vol. ii. p. 9. Alleia Decimella, priestess of Ceres, vol. ii. p. 23. Amphitheatre, view of, and description, vol. i. p. 47 ; view of entrance to, ib. p. 48; gladiatorial fights in, in honour of the dead, vol. ii. p. 20. Amulets in the shape of phalli, vol. ii. p. 12. Antifixa of Rome forms tail-piece to Descriptive Ode, vol. i. p. 16 ; or person®, near the tomb of Mammia, vol. ii. p. 22. Anubis represented in Temple of Isis, vol. i. p. 44. Apoditerium in the public baths, vol. i. p. 59. Apollo, statue of, in bronze, vol. ii. p. 11. Apiarium, or bee-hive, in bronze, vol. ii. p. 13. Aqueduct from the Sarno to Torre dell’Annunziata passes through Pompeii, running across the court of the Temple of Isis, vol. i. p. 44; and through the sculptor’s house, ib. p. 47. Arch in the Forum, fronting the granaries, vol. i. p. 56. Archistratus recommended three, four, or five, as the fit number of guests, vol. ii. p. 5. Arena of the Amphitheatre, vol. i. p. 48. Assectatores, a name given to certain clients of the ancient patricians, vol. ii. p. 5. Atrium of Pansa’ s house, vol. ii. p. 4. Augustales, honorary title given to the members of the College of Augustus, vol. ii. p. 28. Bacchus, statue of, found in Temple of Isis, vol. i. p. 44; Temple of Venus, formerly supposed to have been Temple of, vol. i. p. 55; Painting of, and Silenus, found there, ib.; Dramatic representations, originated in the procession in honor of Ceres and Bacchus, ib. 45. Baker’s shop near house of Pansa, vol. ii. p. 4; in house of Acta?on, ib. p. 7. Baker’s house described, vol. ii. p. 12. Basilica, principal edifice in Fora of Ancients, vol. i. p. 52 ; description of view of, ib. pp. 53-54 ; dimensions of, ib. ; description of the details of Ionic and Corinthian orders, ib. Baths, public, their situation, and description, vol. i. p. 58; the usages relating to, ib. pp. 59-60; different apart- ments for the bathers, the hypocaust, and manner of heating the rooms, ib. ; were richly decorated, ib.; private bath in Diomedes’ villa, vol. ii. p. 31. Bath in house, excavated in the presence of the Emperor Joseph, vol. i. p. 42. Bibent, Monsieur, description of general plan of Pompeii by him, vol. i. p. 40. Bisellium, or double seat of honor, explanation of this word by means of a basso-relievo on the tomb of Calventius Quietus, vol. ii. p. 28 ; and of Naevoleia Tyclie, ib. Bivium with fountain, vol. ii. p. 8. Bracciui, Abbate, his account of eruption of Vesuvius, vol. i. p. 28 ; his descent into crater, ib. p. 32. Brazier of bronze, found in public baths, vol. i. p. 59. Bread made by the men cooks in the earlier periods of the Roman history, vol. ii. p. 10; loafs of, found entire, ib. p. 12. Bustuarii, funeral gladiators so called, vol. ii. p. 19 Bustum, space set apart for burning the funeral pyre, vol. ii. p. 18. Caenaculum, or dining-room, vol. ii. p. 5. Calidarium, hall of the public baths, vol. i. p. 59. Calventius Quietus, tomb of, vol. ii. p. 27. Campania, early history of, vol. i. pp. 21-22 ; Cicero’s de- scription of the state of during Social War, vol. i. p. 23. Campanians stretched awnings over their theatres, vol. i. p. 44. Cassius, Dion, his account of the state of Vesuvius, vol. i. p. 30. Cassiodorus, his description of eruption of Vesuvius in the year 512, vol. i. p. 31. Caryatides, basso-relievo with, vignette to Preface, vol. i. p. 1 ; in one of the rooms of the public baths, ib. p. 59. Capsarius, attendant at the baths, vol. i. p. 59. Casa dei tre Caneelli, o delle Vestali, vol. ii. p. 11 . Cavea of large theatre, vol. i. p. 45. CAVE CANEM, inscription in house of tragic poet, vol. i. p. 58; sometimes painted on the wall of the prothyrum of the houses of the ancients, vol . ii. p. 4 ; in the house of the Vestals, ib. p. 11. Celsus, his account of ancient surgical instruments, corre- sponding with those found at Pompeii, vol. ii. p. 11. Cenotaphs, monuments so called, vol. ii. p. 23. Ceres, priestess of, Alleia Decimella, vol. ii. p. 23. Championet, General, two houses excavated by his direction, vol. i. p. 54; skeleton found there, ib. ; had subterraneous chambers, ib. Chases of animals represented on tomb of Scaurus, vol. ii. p. 24. Cippi of the tombs of Calventius Quietus and of Naevoleia Tyche, of marble, vol. ii. p. 27. Cippusof tomb of Scaurus, vol. ii. p. 24. Clarac, Comte de, considers Temple of Isis to have been built about 800 years before Christ, vol. i. p. 41. Columbarium, or sepulchral chamber, ot Mammia, vol. ii. p.2l. Comitium generally placed in the Forum, vol. i. p. 52 ; of Pompeii, ib. p. 57. Compluvium, or opening in roof of atrium in house of Pansa, vol. ii. p. 4. Construction, modes of used in Pompeii, vol. ii. p. 12 Corinthian order of the Basilica, vol. i. p. 54. Corymbus, or prow of the ship, sculptured in the tomb of Naevoleia Tyche, vol. ii. p. 28. Crypt near Theatre, vol. i. p. 42 ; in portico of Eumachia, ib. p. 53. Cubiculum, or bedroom, in Pansa’s house, vol. ii. p. 5; in Diomedes’ villa, ib. p. 30. Curia or schools described, vol. i. p. 42 ; considered as the Curia by Roinanelli, on the authority of Vitruvius, ib. ; supposed to have been the schools, from an elevated pedestal discovered, ib.; from the inscription over the door of the large theatre, supposed to be the Tribunal, ib. Cypress, branches of, hung at the door of the house visited by death, vol. ii. p. 17. Dancers introduced during the repasts of the ancients, vol. ii. p. 6; at funerals, ib. p. 18. Deductores, a name given to certain clients of the ancient nobles, vol. ii. p. 4. Dii majores gentium, the edifice newly discovered in the Forum supposed to be dedicated to them, and therefore called Pantheon, vol. i. p. 56. Dii viales, deities of the ways, vol. ii. p. 22. Diodorus Siculus, his account of the first inhabitants of Campania, vol. i. p. 21. VOL. II. 34 INDEX. Diomedes, M. A. his tomb, vol. ii. p. 29; his villa, ib. pp. 30-31-32. Dionysius of Halicarnassus, his account of first inhabitants of Campania, vol. i. p. 21. Dispensator, name of the slaves who sold the produce of the vineyards of the nobles, vol. ii. p. 4. Edifices, thepublic, of the ancients, dissertation ou, vol. i. p.51 Erizzo’s description of the funeral pyre, vol. ii. p. 18. Eumachia, description of portico of, vol. i. p. 53; inscription on architrave of, ib.; statue of, ib. ; crypt in temple of, ib. ; cursive inscriptions on tablets of, vol. ii. p. 9. Encaustic Painting, Vitruvius’s description of process, vol. i, p. 5. Exedra, or circular seat, in peribolus of Temple of Hercules, vol. i. p. 41 ; in Street of Tombs, vol. ii. p. 21 ; or sitting room in House of Pansa, vol. ii. p. 5. Fauces, passages of communication in the ancient houses, vol. ii. p. 5. Feasts in honor of the dead, vol. ii. p. 19. Felix, Julia, her house near the amphitheatre, vol. i. p. 39. Feralia, or anniversaries of public sorrow, vol. ii. p. 19. Festoous hung on the funeral pyres, vol. ii. p. 18. Fish, painted on the walls of the bath in Diomedes’ Villa, vol. ii. p. 31 . Flute players at funerals, vol. ii. p. 18. Fortifications described, vol. ii. p. 20. Fortunata, house of, vol. ii. p. 8. Fortune, Temple of, description of, vol. i. p. 58. Fora, the, of two classes, vol. i. p. 51 ; were surrounded by public edifices, ib. ; numerous at Rome, ib. ; were oblong in shape, for the representation of the gladiatorial shows, ib. ; size of, proportionate to the population, ib. ; were surrounded by porticoes with shops above, ib. p. 52 ; were not traversed by streets, ib. ; entrance to, through triumphal arches, ib. ; the basilica the principal building there, ib. ; what buildings were attached, according to Vitruvius, ib. Forum Nundinarium, called also the Soldiers’ Quarters, vol. i. p. 39; plan of theatres and adjoining edifices, ib. 40; view of, described, ib. Forum, Civil, description of the quarter of, vol. i. p. 51 ; description of plan of, ib. p. 52; portico of Eumachia in, ib. p. 53; statue of Eumachia, ib.; three halls in, ib. ; basilica in, ib. p. 54; details found in basilica, ib. ; Temple of Venus in, ib. p. 55; measures found near that tem- ple, ib. p. 56 ; two halls, apparently public granaries, ib. ; small chamber, supposed the prison, ib. ; streets above the level of Forum, ib. ; Temple of Jupiter in, ib. ; trium- phal arch in, ib. ; pantheon (building so called), ib. ; comitium or hall in, ib. p. 57 ; Temple of Mercury in, ib. ; details found in that temple, ib. Form of the city, oval, vol. ii. p. 20. Fountain, attached to one of the columns of the peribolus of Temple of Hercules, vol. i. p. 41 ; near propylma of ditto, ib. p. 42 ; near portico of Eumachia, ib. p. 53 ; near house of Pansa, vol. ii. p. 7. Freedmen followed the bier of their master, vol. ii. p. 18; sometimes acquired great wealth, vol. ii. p. 29. Funerals of the ancients described, vol ii. pp. 18-19. Gates of the city, five in number, vol. ii. p. 20 ; Herculanean, ib. p 21. Gladiatorial exhibitions at the funerals, vol. ii. p. 19 ; combats represented on tomb of Scaurus, ib. p. 24. Granaries, buildings in forum supposed to be public, vol. i. p. 56. Greeks colonize Sicily and Campania, vol. i. p. 22 ; found Cumea, ib. ; build Paleopolis and Neapolis, ib. ; subject Pompeii and other cities, ib. ; the Cumeans conquered by the Etrurians, ib. Greek Temple adjoining theatre, view of, described, vol. i. p. 41 ; one of the most important buildings at Pompeii, ib. ; supposed by Comte de Clarac to have been built about 800 years before the Christian era, ib. ; has an odd column in centre ol front, ib. ; pedestal found in court of, inscribed to M. C. Marcellus, ib. ; portico to, view of, described, ib. p. 42. Greaves, found in Forum Nundinarium, vol. i. p. 41. Griffin, painting of, in panel in Temple of Isis, vol. i. p. 44; legs of, vol. i. p. 47. Guests, how seated at a repast, vol. ii. p. 6. Guttula, bottle for ointment, why so called, vol. i. p. 60. Gynceceum, or women’s apartments, vol. ii. p. 5 ; called also gynoeconitis, ib. p. 7 ; generally situated in the upper story, ib. Halls in Forum, vol. i. p. 56. Hamilton, Sir William, his communications to the Royal Society on the history of Vesuvius, vol. i. p. 82 ; his description of bronze helmets found in Soldiers’ Quarters, ib. p. 41. Harpocrates, or Orus, son of Isis, painting of in Temple of Isis, vol. i. p. 43. Heliogabalus had the water of his bath tinted, vol. i. p. 59 ; had silver triclinia, vol. ii. p. 5. Helmets, bronze, description of, vol. i. p. 41. Hemicycle, or covered seat, in Street of Tombs, vol. ii. p. 22. Hercules, Greek Temple, supposed to be the Temple of, described, vol. i. p. 41 ; puteal near, ib. ; bronze figure of, sitting on a fawn, found in the house of Actffion, vol. ii. p. 7. Herculanean gate described, vol. ii. p. 21. Hippolytus, name of one of the gladiators on the tomb of Scaurus, vol. ii. p. 26. Homer, his description of the inhabitants of Campania, vol. i. p. 21. House of the Sculptor, vol. i. p. 47; of the Tragic Poet, ib. 58; of Pansa, vol. ii. p. 3; of Actmon, otherwise of Sallust, ib. p. 7. Hughes, J., Esq., descriptive ode by, vol. i. p. 9. Hypocaust, or stoves of the public baths, vol. i. p. 59. Inarime, ancient name of Ischia, vol. i. p. 13. Indictiva, or public funerals, vol. ii. p. 18. Inscriptions in Forum Nundinarium, vol. i. p. 40; of the crypt, tribunal, and theatre, ib. p. 42; of Temple of Isis, ib. p. 43; of small theatre, ib. p. 46 ; of amphi- theatre, ib. p. 48 ; on portico of Eumachia, in Civil Forum, ib. p. 52; to Eumachia, ib. p. 53; in Temple of Venus, ib. p. 55 ; of Temple of Fortune, ib. p. 58 ; written or cursive, used as notices, vol. ii. p. 8; of Julia Felix, ib. p. 9; of gladiatorial fight, ib. ; on Her- culanean gate, ib. p. 21 ; to L. Libella and his son, ib. p. 23; on tomb of Calventius Quietus, ib. p. 28; on tomb of Naevoleia Tyche, ib. Instruments and utensils described, vol. ii. p. 13. Insula, mass of buildings surrounded by streets, vol. ii. p. 3. Insularii, superintendent slaves of the insula, thus called, vol. ii. p. 4. Ionic order of the propylasa to the Temple of Hercules, vol. i. p. 42 ; of the basilica, ib. p. 54. Ischia, anciently called Inarime, vol. i. p. 13 ; last eruption of, in 1302, ib. p. 31. Isis, Temple of, first building in Pompeii discovered, vol. i. p. 20 ; description of view of, ib. pp. 42-43 ; altar table and utensils found in, described, ib. p. 44 ; great variety of statues and other things found in, ib. ; niche in temple, INDEX. 35 description of plate of, ib. ; temple of, generally in forum, according to Vitruvius, ib. p. 52 ; skeleton of priest of, found in, ib. p. 53. Isodomus, species of construction used at Pompeii, vol.ii. p. 12. Julia Felix, her house near the amphitheatre, vol. i. p. 39 ; offered 900 shops to be let, vol. ii. pp. 4-9 ; bronze tripod found in house of, ib. p. 13. Jupiter, Temple at end of forum supposed to be Temple of, vol. i. p. 56 ; description of Temple of, ib. Key of bronze, vol. ii. p. 11. Lacerationes, or public feasts in honor of the dead, vol. ii. p. 20. Laconicum, hall in the public baths, vol. i. p. 59. Lampridius mentions the silver triclinia of Heliogabalus, vol. ii. p. 5. Lanista, name given to the regulator of the games, vol. ii. p. 27. Lectiva, biers of the rich so called, vol. ii. p. 18. Legs, winged, vol. i. p. 47 ; frequently used at Pompeii, ib. Libations at repasts, vol. ii. pp. 6-10. Lithostrotos, mosaic pavement so called by the Greeks, vol. ii. p. 14. Locus fulminatus, vol. i. p. 41. AOTTPON in public baths, vol. i. p. 59. Lucius Libella, his tomb, vol. ii. pp. 23-29. Mammia, tomb of, described, vol. ii. p. 22. Marcellus, M. C., pedestal with inscription to, found in court of Greek Temple, vol. i. p. 41 ; his curule chair carried to the theatre after his death, vol. ii. p. 20. Materials employed in construction, vol. ii. p. 12. Mausoleums of Adrian and Augustus probably built in imita- tion of the funeral pyres, vol. ii. p. 19. Mazois considers the quadrangle to be the soldiers’ quarters, and not the Forum Nundinarium, vol. i. p. 39; his death and character, vol. ii. Preface. Measures, block of tufo cut for measures in Forum Civile, near the Temple of Venus, vol. i. p. 56. Mercury, Temple of, generally in the forum, according to Vitruvius, vol. i. p. 52; temple in forum, supposed to be, ib. p. 57 ; plan of it not rectangular, ib. ; fragments found there, description of, ib. Messalina, statue of, found in pantheon, vol. i. p. 57. Millin, his opinion of the gladiatorial inscriptions on the tomb of Scaurus, vol. ii. p. 26. Mills, not generally used by the Romans until after the triumph of Paulus jKmilius, vol. ii. p. II. Missio, reprieve granted to the gladiators, vol. ii. p. 26. Monopodium, from Temple of Venus, vol. i. p. 47 ; descrip- tion of one, ib. 55. Monte nuovo, forced into existence in 48 hours, in 1538, vol. i. p. 32. Mosaic in Temple of Venus, vol. i. p. 55. Mosaics, process of, described, vol. ii. p. 14; in Diomedes’ villa, ib. p. 32. Munatius, tomb erected to him by Naevoleia Tyche, vol. ii. p. 29. Murat, street of tombs principally laid open during his reign, vol. i. p. 40. Myrmillon, the gladiator, vol. ii. p. 26. Naevoleia Tyche, tomb of, vol. ii. pp. 27-28. Naples anciently callpd Parthenope, vol. i. p. 9. Nepimus, name of one of the gladiators, vol. ii. p. 26. Nero forbids public festivals to the Pompeians for ten years, vol. i. p. 24 ; and Messalina, statues of, found in pantheon, ib. p. 57. Nola, city gate of, vol. ii. p. 20. Ocrea, or bronze boot, worn by gladiators, vol. ii. p. 26. Odeon, small theatre so called, vol. i. p. 46. CEcus in house of Pansa, same as described by Vitruvius, vol. ii. p. 5 ; Cyzicenus in Diomedes’ villa, ib. pp. 30-32. CEdipus represented on one of the acroteria of the tomb of Calventius Quietus, vol. ii. p. 28. Oicos asarotos, a very curious species of mosaic painting, vol. ii. p. 14. Oil shop, vol. ii. p. 10. Opus incertum, vol. ii. p. 12; reticulatum, used in the amphitheatre, vol. i. p. 47, vol. ii. p. 12; used in the tomb with the marble door, vol. ii. p. 24. Orchestra of large theatre, vol. i. p. 45; of covered theatre, paved with marble slabs, ib. p. 46. Ossilegiura, or collection of the ashes of the dead, vol. i i . p. 19. Ostiarius, the name of the porter in the houses of the ancients, vol. ii. p. 4. Oven, with the sign of Phallus, near house of Pansa, vol. ii. p. 4; description of, ib. p. 12. Pagus or suburb of Augustus Felix, vol. ii. p. 20. Paganus or magistrate of the suburb, why so called, vol. ii. p. 20. Pansa, house of, described, vol. ii. p. 3. Paintings, number of, found at Pompeii, &c., vol. i. p. 19; of amphitheatre, ib. p. 48; of Bacchus and Silenus, ib. p. 55; in Diomedes’ villa, vol. ii. pp. 31-32; peculiar construction of walls to receive, ib. p. 12. Pantheon, building in forum supposed to be, vol. i. p. 56; description of, ib. ; two statues found in, ib. p. 57; small inclosure in temple, what supposed to be, ib. Parke, Mr., his drawing of tripod, vol. ii. p. 13. Parthenope, ancient name of Naples, vol. i. p. 9. Pavement, description of, vol. i. p. 44. Pedestal of the Pansa family in the forum, described, vol. i. p. 47 ; on south side of forum, ib. p. 55. Penetralia of Temple of Isis, vol. i. p. 43. Peristylium of Pansa’s house, vol. ii. p. 5. Pertinax, his three seats placed in the theatre even after his death, vol. ii. p. 20. Phoenicians, inventors of mosaic pavements, vol. ii. p. 14. Phallus over front of oven, with inscriptions, vol. ii. p. 4 ; sign of, on pier of house, ib. p. 12. Pighi, his description of Vesuvius, vol. i. p. 32. Piscina, in the public baths, vol. i. p. 60; in house of Pansa, vol. ii. p. 5; in Diomedes’ villa, ib. p. 31. Pistrinum, or baker’s shop, in house of Actseon, vol. ii. p, 7 ; so called from the original custom of pounding the corn, ib. p. II. Pistores, bakers so called, vol. ii. p. 11. Plan of Pompeii, description of, vol. i. p. 39; by Bibent, description of, ib. p. 40 ; of forum, theatres, and adjoining edifices, description of, ib. ; of the quarter of the civil forum, description of, ib. p. 52; of covered theatre and section, description of, ib. p. 46. Poet’s house, vol. i. p. 58. Pompeii, circumference of city of, vol. i. p. 5; position of, ib. p. 20 ; first discovery of ruins, ib. ; history of, ib. p. 21 ; besieged by Sylla, ib. p. 23; approach to and entrance, ib. p. 39; description of plan of, ib. ; general plan of, by Bibent, ib. p. 40. Pompeians refuse admission of colony sent by Sylla, vol. i. p. 23 ; submit their difference to Sylla, ib. ; their conflict with the inhabitants of Nocera, ib. Pompeiana, authors of, quoted, vol. ii. pp. 11-12. Portico, Corinthian, in forum, vol. i. p. 56. Priapus, statue of, found in Temple of Isis, vol. i. p. 44 ; representations of sacri fices to, in Temple of Venus, ib. p. 55. Priest of Isis described, vol. i. p. 43 ; skeleton of found, ib. p. 53. 36 INDEX. Prison in the Forum Nundinarium, vol. i. p. 40 ; under the tribunal of the basilica, ib. p. 55 ; building; in forum supposed to be the, ib. p. 56. Procceton, or anti-room to the bedchamber, in Pansa’s house, vol. ii. p. 5 ; in Diomedes’ villa, ib. p. 31. Procopius, his description of eruption of Vesuvius in 556, vol. i. p. 31. Prothyrum, entrance passage so called, vol. ii. p. 4. Publicola, L. V., allowed by a decree of the Roman senate to have his door to open towards the street, vol. ii. p. 4 ; a public funeral decreed to him, ib. p. 17. Pulpitum in the curia or schools, vol. i. p. 42. Pumex Pompeianus, vol. ii. p. 12. Puteal from Pansa’s house, vol. i. p. 47 ; in basilica, ib. p. 54. Ramparts of the city walls, vol. ii. p. 20. Repasts of the ancients described, vol. ii. p. 6. Retiarii, gladiators so called, vol. ii. p. 26. Romanelli, his opinion of the curia, vol. i. p. 42; his inter- pretation of inscriptions in Temple of Venus, ib. p. 56; of inscription of Julia Felix, vol. ii. p. 9. Rostra in the forum, funeral orations delivered from, vol.ii. p.18. Round tomb, vol. ii. p. 27. Royal Society, communications of Sir W. Hamilton on Vesuvius to, vol. i. p 32. Sallust, house of, otherwise that of Action, description of, vol. ii. p. 7. Salutatores, a name given to certain of the clients of the ancients, vol. ii. p. 4. SALVE often worked in mosaic in the pavement of the threshold, vol. ii. p. 4. Samnites, name given by the Campanians to a certain class of gladiators, out of hatred to that people, vol. ii. p. 26. Sandapila, biers for the poor so called, vol. ii. p. 18. Sarnus, river, could not have supplied the fountains with water, vol. ii. p. 8; city gate of the Sarnus, ib. p.30. Scaurus, theatre of, according to Pliny, contained 80,000 persons, vol. i. p. 45. Scene of large Theatre, vol. i. p. 45. Schools, curia, or tribunal, vol. i. p. 42. Sculptor’s residence, vol. i. p. 47. Scutum, or shield, used by the gladiators, vol. ii. p. 26. Senaculum situated in the Forum, vol. i. p. 32. Septum, or sepulchral inclosure, vol. ii. p. 27. Serapis, Temple of, generally in the Forum, according to Vitruvius, vol. i. p. 52. Servius mentions the practice of burning and burying the dead, vol. ii. p. 17. Signs placed on the piers of the ancient houses, vol. ii. p. 11 . Sigonius, his account of the eruption of the year 472, vol. i. p. 30. Silicernia, or private feasts in honour of the dead, vol.ii. p. 19-29. Situla in bronze, vol. ii. p. 13. Skeleton found in prison in Forum Nundinarium, vol. i. p. 40 ; found at the excavation of the emperor Joseph, ib. p. 42 ; found in Temple of Isis, ib. 43 ; of priest of Isis, ib. p. 53; in house of Pansa, vol. ii. p. 7 ; in the house of the Vestals, ib. p. 1 1 ; near Herculanean gate, ib. p. 22 ; in Diomedes’ villa, ib. p. 32. Soldier’s Quarters so called from the weapons found there, vol. i. p. 39 ; or Forum Nundinarium, description of plan of, ib. p. 40 ; view of described, ib. ; bronze helmets, &c. found there, description of, ib. p. 41. Solfatara, last eruption of, in 1198, vol. i. p. 31. Sphinx represented on one of the acroteria of the tomb of Calventius Quietus, vol. ii. p. 28. Stabia, city gate of, vol. ii. p. 20. Stibadium, or fixed triclinium, in house of Actseon, vol. ii.p.10, Strabo, his description of Pompeii, vol. i. pp. 5-20 ; attributes foundation to Hercules, ib. 21 ; account of former inhabi- tants, ib. ; his description of Vesuvius, ib. p. 25. Streets, stepping-stones in, vol. i. p. 44; description of formation of, ib. Street of Tombs principally laid open during the reign of Murat, vol. i. p. 40; described, vol. ii. chap. 4. Strigil, instrument used at the bath, vol. i. p. 60. ! Sudatio, one of the halls in the public bath, vol. i. p. 59. Symposiarch, or king of the feast, vol. ii. p. 6. Sylla, the Grecian practice of burning the dead generally adopted after his time, vol. ii. p. 17. Table found in the Temple of Isis, vol. i. p. 44. Tablinum in Pansa’s house, vol. ii. p. 4. Tacita, or private funerals, vol. ii. p. 18. jj Temple, Greek, of Hercules, adjoining the theatre, vol i. p. 41 ; of Isis, ib. p. 43; of Mercury, according to Vitruvius generally near Forum, ib. p.52; of Venus or Bacchus, ib.p. 55 ; of Jupiter in Forum, ib. p. 56 ; of Fortune, ib. p. 58. [ Theatre. — Vitruvius requires the theatre to be near the Forum, vol. i. p. 45 ; view in great theatre, ib. p. 44 ; of Scaurus, at Rome, according to Pliny, contained 80,000 spectators, vol. i. p. 45; the. small or covered one, called Odeon, at Pompeii, ib. p. 46. Thermopolium, or liquor shop, in house of Actseon, vol. ii. p. 7 ; at bivium near Pansa’s house, ib. p. 8 ; interior of, ib. p. 9-10. Theseus represented on one of the acroteria of the tomb of Calventius Quietus, vol. ii. p. 28. Titus, the emperor, restored the cities destroyed by the eruption of A.D. 79, vol. i. p. 30. Tomb of Velasius Gratus, vol. i. p. 48 ; of Mammia, vol. ii. p. 22 ; of L. Libella, ib. pp. 23-29 : with marble door, ib. ; round tomb, ib. pp. 24-27; of Scaurus, ib. p. 24; of Cal- ventius Quietus, ib. p. 28; of Naevoleia Tyche, ib. pp. 28-29 ; of Diomedes, ib p. 29. Towers of city walls, vol. ii. p. 20. I Tribunal, curia, or schools, vol. i. p. 42. ' Tricliniarchffi, slaves of the triclinium, ib. p. 42. Triclinium, or dining-room, in house of Pansa, vol. ii. p. 5 ; | in house of Actreon, ib. p. 7 ; when fixed called stibadium, ib. p. 10 ; funeral, ib. p. 29. Tripod in bronze, drawn by Mr. Parke, vol. ii. p. 13 Varro preferred the number of the Graces, or of the Muses, as the most complete for a party, vol. ii. p. 5. Vase of marble, richly sculptured, vol. ii. p. 13; of Oriental alabaster, ib. p. 24; found in Diomedes’ villa, ib. p. 32. I Velites, a class of gladiators, vol. ii. p. 26. Vesuvius, history of, vol. i. p. 25; Tacitus' description of eruption, ib. p. 26; subsequent eruptions, ib. pp. 27-32. jj Velasius Gratus, view of the tomb of, vol. ii. p. 4S. | Venereum offered for letting by Julia Felix, vol. ii. p. 8. Venus, statue of, found in Temple of Isis, vol. i. p. 44 ; Temple of, in Forum, ib. p. 55. Vespillones, bier-bearers, vol. ii. p. 18. 1 Villa of M. A. Diomedes, vol. ii. pp. 30-32. Vitruvius calls the cities near Vesuvius, Municipia, vol. i. p. 23 ; describes the Temple of Hercules as near the theatres, ib. p. 41 ; his account of the buildings usually near the Forum, ib. p. 53 ; his description of the various modes of construction used by the ancients, vol. ii. p. 12. Urns, funeral, of different sorts, vol. ii. p. 19. Ustrina, space allotted for the purpose of consuming within it the funeral pyres, vol. ii. pp. 18-23. Walls of the city described, vol. ii. p. 20. Winckelman, his interpretation of the inscription of Julia Felix, vol. ii. p. 9. Wines named after the consulates in which they were made, vol. ii. p. 6. I'. WILSON, PRINTER, 57, SKINNER-STREET, LONDON. mmmi.