w n r. ,■> . 'V' ‘ ' - ■ : v - THE ARTIST’S ASSISTANT ; OR SCHOOL, OF SCIENCE. BEING AN INTRODUCTION TO PAINTING IN OIL, WATER, AND CRAYONS, WITH Biographical Accounts of some of the principal Artists ; THE ARTS OF DRAWING, DESIGNING, COLOURING, AND ENGRAVING IN ALL ITS DIFFERENT MODES, ON COPPER AND WOOD; OF ENAMELLING, GILDING ON METAL, WOOD, GLASS, AND LEATHER; JAPANNING, DYING, CASTING, &c. WITH A GREAT VARIETY OF MISCELLANEOUS INFORMATION, RELATIVE TO ARTS AND MANUFACTORIES. ILLUSTRATED WITH PLATES. LONDON: PRINTED FOR THOMAS OSTELL, AVE-MARIA LANE, • By Swinney and Ferrall, Birmingham, AND MAY BE HAD OF ALL OTHER BOOKSELLERS. • — - ■ 1807. C in,- PMEIulCJE* The utility of such a work as the one we now offer to the Public, is so obvious, that we consider any apo- logy for its publication unnecessary, yet custom seems to require a few general introductory obser- vations. In a country whose prosperity depends in a great degree on the excellency of its Manufactures, and the skill of its Artists, a production tending to the increase of the former, and the improvement of the latter, cannot be without value or interest. We trust that few persons will peruse this little Tract, without acquiring some useful information from it ; and that the younger part of our Readers, for whose use it is more particularly calculated, will be induced to purchase a work from which they may gain more information at a small expence, than from any com- position of a similar nature. The distinguished professors of the fine Arts, have been looked ' upon with veneration by the greatest nations. The names of Phideas , Praxiteles, Apelles, and Zeuxis, are joined in history with those of Pericles and Alexander: what praises have not these latter ages bestowed upon Michael Angelo , a 2 IV Raphael , Corregio, Titian , and Rubens? and, should all the works of the Founder of the English School of Painting be destroyed, a list of the distinguished characters with whom he lived in habits of the most friendly intercourse, would be sufficient to shew to posterity in what estimation he was held, both as an artist and a man. In this country, and during the present reign, we have seen the human mind exerting itself in a remarkable manner* in the cultivation of the Arts. Formerly, from the paucity of historical painters, and the great prejudice of the nation in favour of portraits, to the neglect of the nobler branches of the art, it was doubted, by foreigners, whether the genius of the English was at all calculated to shine in the higher walks of Painting. It is now discovered, that public patronage only was wanting ; and, to the. honour of the Artists of our nation, we now stand as unrivalled in Historic Subjects, as in Por- trait. We mention, with respect, the names of Barry, West , Fuseli , Copley and Northcote , as super- eminent. The pictures of Barry , in the Rooms of the Society for the Encouragement of "Arts, <^c. being accounted by a distinguished Connoisseur and Historian of the Arts, to be perfect models of Poetic Painting ; as the Death of General Wolfe, by West , is in the Historic Line. In no country has there been produced so many historical pictures, in the same period of time, as of late years in England ; for, not to reckon the many single pictures in the hands of private individuals, V the Shakespeare and Historic Galleries, and that of the Pictures from the English Poets, all of them com- pleted in little more than ten years, are indisputable proofs of the Genius of British Painters, and the Liberality of a British Public. An equal improvement has been made in the Art of Engraving: it is but a few years since we imported nearly all our prints from France ; but, through the superior excellence of the English Engravers, we now supply all Europe. Amongst a great number of excellent Artists, we mention the names of Bartolozzi , Woollet , Hall , Sharp , Tomkins , and Heath , whose works are too well known to make an enumeration of them necessary. If the English Artists cannot claim the credit of the invention of engraving in Aquatinta, at least they possess the honour of carrying it to perfection. Formerly the imitation of a very slight and faint drawing, was thought all that the method was capa- ble of effecting, but at present its professors give to their plates all the necessary strength of effect, with an exactness of copy in the pencilling of Landscape subjects, which no other mode of engraving can surpass. An equal and more rapid improvement has been made in the long neglected Art of engraving on Wood. After having for a long time only served the commonest purposes of decoration, by multiply- ing vile designs, executed on blocks, in a slovenly and tasteless manner, Mr. Bewick, a man of great taste and singular genius, has so far brought the art 0 VI into notice, by the beautiful executions of his wood prints, that, in many subjects, it rivals copper plate engraving, and is in the hands of several eminent Artists arrived to as great a degree of perfection as it probably ever can attain. Under the article Drawing, we hav^: endea- voured to lead the pupil to the study of such subjects, that, while they exercise his eye and hand, will form and correct his taste; and have referred him to such works as may be necessary for him to con- sult during his progress ; and to render the work more interesting, we have given sapiens biographi- cal notes of those celebrated professors, who are mentioned in treating on the different branches of the Arts. In the tracts which relate to manufactories, as Enamelling, Japanning, Casting, Bronzing, Gilding, Silvering, Lacquering, &c. we have given such directions for each as are clear and use- ful, without swelling the work, by the insertion of such as are tedious and trifling. In the miscellaneous part will be found many things not only to interest the younger part of our Readers, but those who practice- in the different branches they refer to, may be benefited by their perusal. - iJnhJEx, iC , *f**w 01 Drawing . Observations _ _ __ Materials necessary — * — - ■ — - — The liumait figure — - — - ■ — = Instructions to sketch ari outline — — — Expression of the Passions . Necessary instructions to Painters — - — « — > Schools of Painting. Historical Review — — *— *' — School of Florence — — • — » — Roman School • — School of Venice — - • — - — - — Lombard School Academy of the Carracci — . - — — — French School — — — • — - — • Flemish School — — — — — Dutch School — — — — ; English School; its rise, progress, audi present state; with tlie works, See. of its most eminent Artists, and a sketch of the life of the late James Earry, Esq. — * 3F PAGE 1 2 3 1 15 ib. 17 19 20 21 23 28 SI • 16 Vlll PAGE Design. Its progress, See. — 43 The Apollo Belvidere — •— — 46 The Groupe of Laocoon — — — 48 Colouring . Remarks upon the various qualities of Colours - — 49 Composition . Arrangement and disposition of figures — 53 Colours. - The method of preparing the various kinds used in painting 57 Class I.—RED COLOURS — — • — • 58 Native Cinnabar — - — / “ 60 Red Lead or Minum — — . ib. Scarlet oker — . — 61 Common Indian red — — — 62 V enetian red — — • — — ib. Spanish brown — * — — — 63 Calcined or burnt Terra di Sienna — • — ib. Carmine — — — — — ib. Lake — — — — 64 ' y/ Rose pink ■ — ■ — — — 65 Red oker — — — — 66 Class IT— BLUE COLOURS — — — - ib. Ultramarine ashes - — — — 69 Prussian blue - — — — . 71 Verditer • — ■ — — — 73 Bleu de Cendfes ,* or Sanders Blue — . — ib. Indigo — — « — 74 Smalt - — — — — ib. Bice — — 75 Litmus or Latmus - — — - — , ib. ix ‘“■oWWio-- > ■C-jLASs III.— YELLOW COLOURS __ PAGE — 76 Naples yellow — — — ib. Yellow oker — — — — 77 Dutch pink — — - — — ib. ; English pink - — - — — — 73 Light pink — — — — ib. Gamboge — — ib. Masticot — - — — • — 79 Common orpiment — • — — ib. Gall stones — — - — — ib. Terra di Sienna, unburnt — • — 80 Turpeth mineral — — — ib. The yellow wash, from the French berries — ib. Turmeric wasli — — . • — 81 Tincture of Saffron • — • — ■ — ib. Zedoary wasli — • — — ib. Class IF. — GREEN COLOURS — — . — ■ 82 Verdi se — — — __ ib. X Crystal of verdigrise — — — ib. Sap green — - — - — — 83 Prussian green — — ■ — 8 L Terra verte ■ — — — . — . ib. Class V.— PURPLE COLOURS — — - — ib. Archal or orchal — - — — 85 Class VI.— BROWN COLOURS — — * «— ib. Brown pink — , — . — r ib. Bistre ■ — — - - — - 86 Brown oker — — — . — ib. Cologn earth — ■ — — ib. Terra japanica, or japan earth — ib. Umbre — ■ — 87 -Asphaltum — — — . — ib. Spanish juice, or extract of liquorice ib. Class VIL— WHITE COLOURS . — 88 i _ White lead — - — . — — ib. Calcined or burnt hartshorn Pearl white — — Troy white or Spanish white Egg shell white — Class VIII.— BLACK COLOURS ■ Lamp black - — Ivory black — Indian ink Method of preparing Blackman’s oil colour cakes PAGE 89 — ib. — ib. — 90 — ib, — ib , — ib. — 91 — 92 Crayon Painting. Rules and methods to be observed in painting with crayons 93 — 105 The materials — — P — — — 106 Reds. — Carmine and lakes — -r- • — 107 Lake — — - — — 108 Vermillion or native, cinnabar — ib. Blues. — Prussian blue - — — - — ib. Blue ^crditer — — — 109 Greens. — — — • ' — — ib. Yellows. — King’s yellow , ~ — — — ib. Orange * — — - — 110 JIrowns. — Cullen’s earth — ■ — • — ib. Umber — — - — ib. Purples — — • — — ib. Black. — Lamp black - — — - — ib. Of rolling the crayons and disposing them for painting — 111 Encaustic Painting. Directions for producing a picture with ease — 112 — 114- ANCIENT GRECIAN METHOD of PAINTING — 114 VENETIAN METHOD of COLOURING — — 116 Transferring Paintings. Method and process — ~ < — — 126 XI MINTING ON GLASS — — . — ENAMEL GROUNDS — — — — ENAMEL PAINTING — — — The substances used for forming flaxes — — The substances used for forming the body of enamel or fluxes - — • — — " — The substances used for producing a white colour in enamel, for forming the grounds — ‘ TAGS, 1 33 135 138 142 - 143 T><> erspective . 144 149 Different descriptions — — References to plates in the several sorts of Perspective 152 — 162 Etching. Principal materials — — — — 1 62 General observations — — - — - — * 1 6-5 Method of making the etching ground or varnish — - lb. Engraving. Principal instruments used *— — — — — - 166 Chalk drawings — - — - * — — 172 MEZZOTINTO SCRAPING — — — 174 AQUA TINT A — — — — 176 CUTTING ON WOOD — — — 179 Japanning. Introduction ■ — - • — — — • —180 Japanning on metal, wood, and paper — — ib, Birmingham and ether paper boxes compared — ■ — 181 Laying on colours with varnish, instead of gum-water recom- mended — — — - — 182 Japan grounds — — — - • — — ib. Common grounds of varnish — — — 184 White japan grounds — — • — ■ — 185 Xll PAGE Blue japan grounds lied ditto — 186 187 Yellow ditto — — - — — — ib. Green ditto — — — • — — 188 Orange-coloured ditto • — • — — — ib. Purple ditto — — — ib. Black ditto - — • — - — — 189 Common black japan grounds on iron or copper, produced by means of heat — • — — — ib. Fine tortoise-shell japan grounds, produced by means 5 Of heat — — — — — ib. Painting japan work — — — — 190 Varnishing ditto — — • — — 191 Gilding ditto ■ — — — — 194 Lacquering. The occasions on which lacquering is now in general use — 195 Compositions for brass work which is to resemble gilding — 196 The manner of laying on the lacquer — — 198 Staining Wood ' Yellow — — — - — — 199 Bed — — — — — 200 Blue - — — — * — — — 201 Light red brown — — — — 202 Dark mahogany — — — — ib. Green — — — — — 203 Purple — — • — — — ib. Black • — * — — — — ib. Staining ivory, bone, or horn, yellow ■ — — 205 — « — — blue — • — ib. — — — purple — — ib. Staining -horn to imitate tortoise-shell — — ib. Staining ivory, bone, or horn, black — — 206 Xill PAGE Staining paper or parchment, yellow - — — red — — 206 — — 207 — — — green - — blue ] ! 1 1 Staining alabaster, colours DYING CLOTH — orange — purple marble, and other ■ — — ib. — — ib. stones of various — — 208 — - * — ib. Casting. To prepare clay in such a manner as to be fit to make all kinds of moulds, to cast gold, silver, and other metals in 209 To cast brass — — — — — 210 The preparation of Mantua earth for moulds — — ■ ib. To impress bass relievo or medals in imitation of ivory — ib. To impress medals, &c. in bass relievo or paper — • ib. Various other methods of casting — — — 226 Bronzing. Method of making true gold powder — — - — 227 Papier Macke. Preparing and moulding — — • — — 230 The manner of moulding, &c. the whole paper for the form- ing snuff-boxes, cups, &c. — — — 233 Preparing the matter and moulding the light japan ware — 234 Gilding. The principal sorts of gilding — — — 237 Instruments commonly used — - — — th. Manner of oil gilding — — — — 239 Burnish gilding, with the preparation of the proper size, &c. 243 Japamiers’ gilding — — ■ — — 247 PAGE Gilding proper for letters of gold on paper, and the embellish- ment of manuscripts — — — 253 SILVERING, and method of making the silver powders 254- — 25S Glass. Nature and composition — — — — -256 Materials — — — — — ib. The several kinds of white glass, and their compositions in - general «— — — — 266 Coloured glass — — — — — 267 A crysolite glass — — — ib. A sapphire green glass — — — — ib. Jewellers' To imitate fine oriental pearls Secrets. 26S Mercury water prepared — — — 269 To form large pearls of small ones — — — ib. Choice secrets, imitating precious stones, or for many artifi- cial gems — — — — 270 To make a fair emerald — ■ — — — ib. To make paste for imitating an oriental topaze — — 271 To make an artificial crysolite — — — ib. Another process for counterfeiting precious stones — ■ ib. To make a diamond of natural crystal — — 272 How to make a diamond out of a sapphire • — A plain direction concerning the polishing of these counter- 273 feits, and also of natural gems - — Method of counter-drawing on artificial stones, the original ib. cameos, intaglios, and other gems, &c. — 273 Miscellaneous Subjects, Aquafortis, its nature and uses > — • — — . 275 Various kinds of arsenic — - — — — 276 Embossing — ■ — — • — — 277 PA GE XV T© write or engrave upon an egg, pebble, flint, See. Silvering looking-glass plates + — * — To silver the plate of clock dials ; * — • — Hardening, and the various ways of effecting! it — How to make spherical concaves and convex glasses — - Refining, and the manner in which it is performed — Solders, and the metals from which they are made } * — To make the silver tree of the philosophers \ — — * To make the golden tree of the philosophers — Varnish, the use and several kinds — — - — White varnish, from a manuscript of Mr. Boyle — A varnish for brass, to make it look like gold — — W'ire, how made, and for what used — — — Silver, brass and iron wire — — — Spots very effectually taken out of silk, linen, or woollen — An excellent water for taking out spots, in cloths, stuffs, See. For preserving iron and steel from rust — — Against moths, worms, &c. — * — — Kow to make ball soap, and its great use in families Chinese method of mending china — — — - A very strong cement for broken china ware — - — A good common cement — — - — — Cement for mending china cups, glasses, Jkc. — — To join broken amber — - — — — A certain method to whiten ivory — — — To make fine hard red sealing-wax — — — Ditto black sealing-wax — — — Ditto oil cloth for hat cases and other uses ^ — — Ditto red ink — — — — Secret writing — — — — — To make spirit varnish for wood, See. — — Ditto paper transparent N — — — Ditto transparent paper — — — Ditto permanent white — « — — — 279 280 ib. 281 ib 282 284 285 ib. ib. 286 287 288 289 ib: 290 ib. ib. ib. 291 ib. ib. ib. ib. ib. 292 ib. ib. ib. 293 ib. ib. ib. ib. XVI PAGE To make good black ink • — — < — — 293 Ditto hard varnish for etching . — — — 294« Aquafortis, for the hard varnish — ' — — ib. To preserve the brightness of arms - — — — 294 Against rust, spots, &c. in iron — — — *■ ib. To compose a metal of a gold colour — — ib. To restore gold to its weight, after it has lost it, in aqua regia — — — — — 296 Permutation of lead into silver - — — — ib. .t; 4-Jfef . ; TtfE. ARTIST'S ASSISTANT, O F all the Arts that embellish civilized life, none has a wider range, or more universal utility, than the Art of Drawing. It is equally adapted to both sexes, to all ages* and every class of society : — whether it be employed in embodying the forms of fancy, sketching the out-line or beautiful parts pf Creation, or the curious inventions and improvements of art* To all it affords a never-failing source of amusement* Drawing is the basis of Pah ting, Sculpture, Architecture, Engrating, Modelling, Cha ing, Carving, &c. It offers so elegant and agreeable an a nusement for the leisure hours of the gentleman or the man < f business, that every one who has neglected it must feel an| confess its loss. To enable those who may not have the assistance of a skilful instructor, to become masters of this desirable accom- plishment, we shall give plain and concise directions, and point out such a mode of study as we trust will render the task of acquiring it pleasant, and remove many impe- diments, which, without such assistance, would retard their improvement. In the formation of a painte^, genius is the first and most indispensable requisite, for the deficiency of which no human acquirements can compensate. A picture, like poem, B 2 THE ARTIST’S ASSISTANT. would afford little pleasure! Rough formed according to the strictest rules of art, and inished with the most inde- fatigable attention, were gen us wanting to complete the* design — a design which may b< said to be like the celebrated statue fashioned by Promethe is, lovely, but lifeless, unless genius, like the fire which h^ is fabled to have stolen from heaven, darts its invigoratingj ray, and gives a soul to the finished piece. But though genius is absolutely necessary, since nothing excellent can be done without fice. Like a rich, but uncult ful only in weeds, were not it, yet it will not alone suf- vated soil, it would be fruit- ts exuberances corrected by the rules of art, by reflectiqn, and a strict attention to nature, which, as the grand tibn, ought never to be out Source of beauty, since nothii natural. An intimate knowledge o will be of the greatest advant ige; they made nature their peculiar stud}/, and transmitti d to us examples which have ever been considered as formii would wish to recommend; a object of' a painter’s medita- of his sight; it is the only g can be pleasing that is not the works of the ancients g a perfect Rule of Beauty. A close and servile imitatio i, however, is not what we man may find his account in attending, to the manner, andlstoring up the observations of a well-bred and intelligent jacquaintance, without ridi- culousiy affecting his gait, or flbpying his phraseology. The'^materials necessary for drawing are — black lead pencils, camel hair pencils; crow quill pens; red, white r and black chalk ; crayons aM Indian ink. The black lead pencil should not be held so near the point as the pen in writing; the use of it being for the sketch or first outline of the piece, which should be drawn with freedom, as -any erroneous stroke or line may be erased b y r ubbui wnrV^r^ly with Indian rubber, rhkixpgad. 3 \v THE ARTIST'S ASSISTANT. As the subjects first proposed to the student’s attention will be foiind to influence his future practice, ra - o re tha -a- mra y bo easily im a gine d, great care should be taken that none but the works of the most eminent masters be put into his hands, lest the ill habits he may acquire by a contrary mode of study should be found difficult to be removed, by- the strongest * e xert iemii of 1 ua t u I ' H ' " ' ] ml g mi iH . Every figure given him as a pattern, should be excellent in its kind, that he may be early familiarized to beauty, taste and symmetry. Fortunately for the student, such exam- ples are, at present, by no means difficult to be procured. The works of Bartolozzi afford Vis the most complete spe- cimens of correctness of drawing, and elegance of form. After having for a short time accustomed himself to the use of the pencil, he would db will to study, with the most scrupulous attention, the Rudiments of Drawing engraved by that accomplished artist from the designs of Cipriani. In order to acquire a knowledge of the face, begin with drawing the features separate,! placing the copy at such a distance as the eye triay measure both it and the drawing without moving the head* Sketch in the first outline very light; and, in rubbing out, leave faint traces of the first sketch. By proceeding in this manner, without the assist- ance of rule or compasses, the outline should be brought to the greatest exactness; and in placing the features, a per- fect oval should be formed, through which a perpendicular line is drawn in the middle ; and across the centre of this, a diameter line from one side of the oval to the other. On these all the featurss of the face are to be drawn, according to the following rules for drawing a head. The perpendicular must be divided into four equal parts ; one from the crown of the head' to the top of the forehead ; two from the top of the forehead to the eye-brows; three from the eye brows to the bottom of the nose ; four from thence to the bottom of the chin. o 4 THE ARTIST'S ASSISTANT. The diameter line divide into five parts ; the breadth of the face being supposed the length of five eyes ; this is to be understood in a full front face only, and these propor- tions vary in different men, as to length and shape; but in a well proportioned face are nearly right, and should be strictly observed. When the face turns to either side, then the distances are to be lessened on that side from you, more or less, in proportion to its turning. Most artists begin the drawing with the nose, that being the centre; and then proceed to the other features, observing that the top of the ear is to rise parallel to the eye-brows ; the eye to be placed so as to leave exactly the length of one eye betwixt them ; the nostrils should not project farther than the corner of the eye; and the middle of the mouth should be on the per- pendicular line. In order to understand better the different turnings of the face; it may be very advantageous to pro- cure a piece of wood, made in the shape and size of an egg ; draw a line down the middle as before directed; divide this in two equal parts, and draw another across the centre ; let the features be made as accurate as possible from the fore- going directions. By turning this oval, a great variety of faces will appear, according as it is inclined or turned; but care must be taken to observe in what manner the nose projects beyond the surface of the oval. A perfectknow- ledge of this may enable the student to form an idea of the face better than merely copying prints or pictures without it: but after this acquisition, let the best drawings or pictures be studied that can be prpcured; previous to which, those passions, in manner of jLe Brun, may merit imitation. The positions and actions of the hands and feet are so various, that a knowledge of them can only be acquired by great application and practice; carefully imitating such postures, hoth in hands and - feet, as are found in THE ARTIST’S ASSISTANT. 5 . good prints or drawings. Lines, measures, and such mechanical rules, are not only perplexing, but rejected in. The practice of the best masters. The best method is to lightly sketch the whole shape of the hand or foot, with its position or action; and examine carefully that it be correct, rubbing out and altering it till it is sp ; when the bending of the knuckles, the veins, joints, and tendons, may be drawn with much ease, after the shape of the larger parts is made perfect. After a proper study of the legs, arms, hands, feet, &c. •-and- the student has reason to deem himself sufficiently practised in. drawing features, the human figure entire should be his next attempt. The treasures of which accord- ing to Fresnoy are as follow ; F rom the crown of the head to the forehead ia the third part of a face. The face begins at the root of the. lowest hairs which are upon ' the forehead, and ends at the bottom of the chin. The face is divided into three proportional parts: — the first contains the forehead, the second the nose, and the third the mouth and chin. From the chin to the pit, between the collar bones, are two lengths of a nose. From the pit, between the collarbones, to the bottom of the breast, one face. From the bottom of the breast to the navel, one face. From the navel to the genitors, one face. From the genitors to the upper part of the knees, two faces. The knee contains half a face. From the lower part of the knee to the ancle, two faces. From the ancle to the sole of the foot, half a face. A man, when his arms are stretched out, is, from the longest; fin- ger of his right hand to the longest of his left, as broad as he is long. From one side of the breast to the other, two faces. The bone of the arm, called humerus, is the length of two faces, from the shoulder to the elbow. 6 THE ARTIST’S ASSISTANT. From the end of the elbow to the root of the little finger, the bone called cubitus, with part of the hand, contains two faces. From the box of the shoulder blade to the pit, betwixt the collar- bones, one face If you would be satisfied in the measures of breadth, from the extremity of one finger to the other, so that this breadth should be equal to the lengtfi of the body, you must observe that the boxes of the elbows with the humerus, and of the humerus with the shoulder-blade, bear the proportion of half a face when the arms are stretched out. The sole of the foot is the sixth part of a figure. The hand is the length of the face. The thumb is as long as the hose. The inside of the arm, from the place where the muscle disap- pears, which forms the breast, called the pectoral muscle, to the middle of the arm, four noses. F rom the middle of the arm to the beginning of the hand, five noses. The longest toe is the length of the nose. To the utmost parts of the teats and the pit'hetwixt the collar- bones of a woman, are an equilateral triangle. For the breadth of the limbs no precise measure can be given ; because the measures themselves are changeable, according to the . quality of the persons, and according to the movement of the muscles.” Tn drawing a figure there should be a slight sketch made of the whole, not beginning with the head, and finishing it, and then proceeding to the other parts, a method customary to many, in consequence of which the head is often dispro- portioned, or some part void of drawing. Sketch in the whole outline of the figitre lightly, and measure with the eye, or draw the pencil or finger over any way to deter- mine with exactness, without either rule or compasses. In beginning the sketch the head is the first object, then the shoulders in exact breadth, the trunk of the body next, observing with accuracy the breadth of the waist ; next the legs, and lastly, the arms and hands. THE ARTIST’s ASSISTANT. 7 The principal difficulty is overcome when a perfect out- line is procured; after which the shadows claim the atten- tion of the student. Every appearance of bodies represent- ed, animate or inanimate, in distance, shape, substance, and distinction, are perfected by this. Let them be first made broad and massy, without attending to the many little details which fall under a second consideration. In drawing after a plaister figure, the eye will easily discover the general light and shade' — dhe mass of light should be kept broad, and be well attended to, before the smaller parts are divided. The outline should be exceedingly faint in such parts as receive the light. The rising of a muscle may, by its appearance, prove deceiving, and seem darker thanit really is ; but by casting the eye to the other darker shadows, a true degree of its tint may be ascertained, and sometimes the light may catch on the projection of a bone near the mass of a shadow, which must be touched very tenderly, or it will have a harsh unpleasing effect. This may also be regulated by comparing it with the stronger lights. Observing this rule with care and exactness, is the only true means of preserving the effect of the whole together. The instructions above, respecting the mass of light upon the figure, will regulate the student in managing the folds of the drapery, which should ndver have the light parts cut by dark folds, as the effect of the whole is thereby injured ; but this subject will be treated on under the article of painting. Above all, the young student must apply to his task with pleasure, as well as with perseverance; for improvement cannot reasonably be expected, if the mind (instead of being fired with emulation), gloomily contemplates the employ- ment as a penance ; nor must the artist be too easily satis- fied with his own performance; he must review it, and THE ARTIST'S ASSISTANT. 8 re-touch It, again and again : he must search for its blemishes with the most rigid scrutiny, till, by repeated efforts, he brings it as near to perfection as possible. In a word, diligence, in the beginning of any study, will render the progress of it easy, and the end delightful. EXPRESSION of the PASSIONS. THAT language which, above all others, a painter should carefully endeavour to learn, and from nature herself, is the language of the passions. Without it, the finest work must appear lifeless and inanimate. It is not enough for a painter to be able to delineate the most exquisite forms, and give them the most graceful attitudes ; it is not enough to dress them out with propriety, and in the most beautiful colours; it is not enough, in fine, by the powerful magic of light and shade to make the canvass vanish; he must likewise know how to cloath his figures with grief, with joy, with fear, with anger ; he must, in some sort, write on their faces, what they think, and what they feel ; he must give them life and speech. It is, indeed, in this branch, that painting truly soars, and, in a manner rises superior to herself; it is in this she makes the spectator apprehend much more than what she expresses. Many have written, and, amongst the rest, the famous Lavater, on the changes, that, according to various pas- sions, happen in the muscles of the face, which is, as it were, a mirror of the soul. They observe, for example, that in fits of anger, the face reddens, the muscles of the lips puff up, the eyes sparkle; and that, on the contrary, THE ARTIST’S ASSISTANT. 9 in fits of melancholy, the eyes grow motionless and dead, the face pale, and the lips sink in. It is necessary the pain- ter who would be thoroughly acquainted with this principal part of his profession, should s&Hcty, with care, the learned and ingenious treatise of the Author above mentioned ; but, for the young student, the short work of Le Brun,* written for the pupils of the French academy of paint- ing, will be more intelligible; but it will be of infinitely piore_.gnrTice ^study them in nature itself, from which, they have been borrowed, and which exhibits them in that lively manner which neither tongue nor pen can express.' But, if a painter is to have immediate recourse to nature in any thing, it is particularly in treating those very minute and almost imperceptible differences, by which, however, things very different from each other are often expressed. This is particularly the case with regard to the passions of * Charles Le Brun, a celebrated French painter, born at Paris about the year 1618; he was the son of a sculptor of small celebrity. At a very early age he had the good fortune to gain the patronage of the Chancellor Seguir, who, after placing him for some time under the care of Vouet, who at that period was accounted the Raphael of France, sent him to Italy for three years, where he allowed him a large pension. After his return, having by several considerable works established his reputation, Louis XIV. ennobled him, honoured him with ‘the order of St. Michael, and made him his principal painter. Through the efforts of Le Brun, the revenues of the academy of painting were enlarged, and the institution placed upon a permanent foundation. He also drew up a pro- ject for an academy at Rome, to be founded by the King for the use ef the French students who travel there. When the King appointed Le Brun his principal painter, he gave him also the direction of the manufacture of the Gobelins, which he attended with such assiduity, that he made the designs for every thing that was done there. He died in the year 1690. The most considerable of his works are his pictures containing the his- tory of Alexander the Great, in the ceiling of the Gallery of Versailles, and the great stair-case there. 10 THE ARTIST’s ASSISTANT. laughing and crying, as in these, however contrary, the muscles of the face operate nearly in the same manner.* According to Lionardo da Vinci, f the J)est masters that painters can have recourse to in this branch, are those dumb men who have found out the method of expressing their sentiments by the motion of their hands| eyes, eye-brows, and, in short, every other pars of the body. This advice, no doubt, is very good, but then such gestures must be * As the famous Pietro de Cortona was one day finishing the face of a crying child, in a representation of the Iron age, with which he was adorn- ing the floor, called the Hot Bath, in the royal palace of Pitti, Ferdinand II. who happened to be looking over him for his amusement, could not forbear expressing his approbation, by crying out, Oh, how well that child cries ! To whom the able artist said, Has your Majesty a mind to see how easy it is to make children laugh ? Look, and I will prove it in an instant; and taking up his pencil, by giving the contour of the mouth a concave tunvupwards, instead of the convex downwards, which it before had, and with little or no alteration in any other part of the face, he made the child, who, a little before, seemed ready to burst his heart with crying, appear in equal danger of bursting its sides with immoderate laughter; and then, by restoring the altered features to their former position, he soon set the child a crying again. Lectures of P Julip.B aldinucci, in the Academy of la Crauca. f Lionardo da Vinci had perhaps one of the greatest minds the art of painting ever possessed : — he was a mathematician, an engineer, a poet, and a philosopher. He wrote on his art with the same spirit and talent with which he exercised it. During his residence at Milan, he painted an exquisite picture of the Last Supper, for the refectory of the Dominicans. Not being able to find a suitable model, he left the head of Christ unfinished for some time, as was the head of Judas for the same reason, till the prior of the convent, impa- tient to see the work completed, pressed him in so troublesome a manner, that he drew the head of the importunate friar, and placed it upon the shoulders of Judas. He resided the latter part of his life in France, where he ably supported the high reputation he had acquired by his former works. The King, Francis I. visiting him during his last illness, in the year 1520, he rose in his bed to shew his sense of the honour conferred upon him, and his respect for bis royal patron ; the exertion caused him to faint ; and, whilst the King was supporting him in his arms, he expired, in the seventy-fifth year of his age. 11 THE ARTIST’S ASSISTANT. imitated with great sobriety and moderation, least they should appear too strong and exaggerated, and instead of character, the copy should degenerate into affectation and caricatura. Almost incredible things are told of the ancient painters of Greece in regard to expression, especially of Aristides, who, in a picture of his representing a woman wounded to death at a siege, with a child crawling to her breast, makes her appear afraid, least the child, when she was dead, should, for want of milk, suck her blood. A Medean, murdering her children, by Timomachus, was likewise much praised, as the ingenious artist contrived to express, at once, in her countenance, both the fury that hurried her on to the commission of so great a crime, and the tenderness of a mother that seemed to withhold h&r from it. Rubens attempted to express such a double effect in the face of Mary of Medicis, still in pain from her past labour, and, at the same time, full of joy at the birth of a Dauphin. And in the countenance of Sancta Polonia, painted by Tiepolo, for St. Anthony’s church at Padua, is clearly read a mixture of pain from the wound given her by the execu- tioner, and of pleasure from the prospect of Paradise open- ing to her by it. Few, to say the truth, are the examples of strong expression afforded by the Venetian, Flemish, or Lombard schools. Deprived the advantage of contemplating at lei- sure the works of the ancients, the purest sources of per- fection in point of design, expression and character; and having nothing but nature constantly before their eyes, they made strength of colouring, blooming complexions, and the grand effects of the chiaroscuro their principal study; they aimed more at charming the senses, than captivating the understanding. The Venetians, in particular, seem to have placed their whole glory in setting off their pieces with all that rich THE ARTIST’S ASSISTANT. variety of personages and dress, which their capital was continually receiving by means of its extensive commerce, and which attracted so much the eyes of all those who visited it. It is doubtful, if, in all the pictures ofPaolo Veronese,* there is to be found a bqld tpid judicious expression, or one of those attitudes, which, as Petrarch expresses it, speak without words; unless, perhaps, it be that remarkable one in his Marriage-feast at Cana of Galilee. At one end of the table, and directly opposite to the bridegroom, whose eyes are fixed upon her, there appears a woman in red, holding up to him the skirt of her garment, as much as to say, that the wine miraculously produced was exactly the colour of her drapery ; and, in fact, it is red wine we see in the cup and vessels. But all this while the faces and attitudes of most of the company betray not the least sign of wonder, at so extraordinary a miracle. They all, in a manner, appear intent upon nothing but eating, drinking, and making merry. Such, in general, is the stile of the Venetian school. The Florentine, over which Michael Angelo f presided, above all things curious of design, was * Paolo Cagliari Veronese, was born at Verona in 1537 — he resided chiefly at Venice. He was not famous for composition, nor were his de- signs correct, but his draperies have a peculiar richness, and are admirable imitations of the different stuffs of which they are composed. Ke delighted to copy the rich habits of his countrymen, and of the inhabitants of the East, which he often introduced into his pictures, sacrificing propriety and truth to brilliancy. He had many faults ; but his colouring, and whatever de- pends on it is so charming, that it makes us forget those qualities in which he failed. He died of a fever in 15SS: his tomb, and statue in brass, are in the church of St. Sebastian. f Michael Angelo, from his infancy, shewed a strong inclination for painting ; and made so rapid a progress in it, that he is said, at the age of 14, to have been able to correct the drawings of his master Dominico Grillandai. His quickness of eye was wonderful. He used to say, that a sculptor should carry his compasses in his eye. u The hands, indeed” said he. “ do the \vork, but the eye judges.” THE ARTIST'S ASSISTANT. 13 thost minutely and scrupulously exact in point of anatomy. On this she set her heart, and took singular pleasure in displaying it. Not only elegance of form, and nobleness of invention, hut likewise strength of expression, triumphed in the Roman school, nursed, as it were, amongst the works of the Greeks, and in the bosom of a city which had once been the seminary of learning and politeness. Here it was that Domenichino* and Poussin, f both great mas- ters of expression, refined their ideas, as appears more par- ticulary by the St. Jerome of the one, of the death of Ger- manicus, or the Slaughter of the Innocents by the other. Here it was that Raphael % arose the sovereign master of them all. There is not, indeed, a single picture of Ra- phael’s, from the study of which, those who are curious in point of expression, may not reap great benefit, particular- ly his Martyrdom of St. Felicitas; his Magdalen in the house of the Pharisee; his Transfiguration; his Joseph explaining to Pharaoh his dream, a piece so highly rated by He was extremely disinterested; for his immortal design of St. Peter’s church, at Rome, he received only 25 Roman crowns. It was finished ia a fortnight. * This painter,' when young, made but a very slow progress in hig profession; he took so much pains, and studied so closely, while in the school of the Carracchis, that his fellow-students called him the Ox, saying he toiled as if at plow: but Annihal Carracchi, who knew him better, told them, that “ This ox, by dint of labour, would make the ground so fruitful, that painting itself would be fed by what it produced;” a prophecy which has been accomplished, since much may be learned from his works. f Nicholas Poussin, commonly called the French Raphael, stands at the head of the French school of painters. He studied in Italy, and spent the greatest part of his life there. His pictures possess more grandeur and clas- sic simplicity, than those of any other French painter. £ Raphael Sanzio d’Urbino, born on Good Friday, 1483. Heisthemost celebrated of the modern painters, and the founder of the Roman school. He died on Good Friday, in the year 1 520. A further account of this greats man will be given in the article Painting. 14 The Artiste Assistant. Poussin, His School of Athens, in the Vatican, is, to all intents and purposes, a school of expression * Among the many miracles of art with which this piece abounds, I shall single out that of the four boys attending on a Mathemati- cian, who, stooping to the ground, his compasses in his hand, is giving them the demonstration of a theorem. One of the boys recollected within himself, keeps back, with all the appearance of profound attention to the reasoning of the master ; another, by the briskness of his attitude, discovers a greater quickness of apprehension; while the third, who has already seized the conclusion, is endeavouring to explain it to the fourth, who, standing motionless, with open arms, a staring countenance, and an unspeakable air of stupidity, in his looks, will never, perhaps, be able to make any thing of the matter. And it is probably, from this very groupe, that Albano*, who studied Raphael so closely* drew the following precept of his : “ That it behoves a painter to express more circumstances than one by every attitude ; and so to employ his figures, that, by barely seeing what they are actually about, one may be able to guess, both what they have been already doing, and are next going to do.” This is a difficult precept; but it is only by a due observance of it, the eye and the mind can be made to hang in suspense on a painted piece of canvas. It is expression, that a painter, ambitious to soar in his profession, must, above all things, labour to perfect himself in. It is in expression that dumb poetry consists, and what the prince of our poets calls a visible language. * Albano’s success in painting infantine and female beauty, stands unrivalled. His mind acquired a placid hue from the pleasing objects of his delineations, and he lived to a very great age. THE ARTIST'S ASSISTANT. 15 SCHOOLS of PAINTING. -A. SCHOOL in the fine arts denominates a class of artists who have learned their art from a certain master, either by- receiving his instructions, or studying his works. All the painters which Europe has produced since the renovation of the arts, are classed under the following schools : — The School of Florence, of Rome, of Venice, the Lombard, French, German, Flemish, Dutch, and English Schools. The school of Florence is remarkable for greatness, for attitudes seemingly in motion ; for a certain dark severity ; for an expression of strength, by which grace is perhaps excluded ; and for a character of design approaching to the gigantic. It cannot be denied that the productions of this school, although overcharged, possess an ideal majesty which elevates human nature above mortality. The Tuscan artists, satisfied with commanding admiration, seem to have consi- dered the art of pleasing as beneath their notice. Cimabue, a noble Florentine, bom in the year 1240, was the first, who, after the destruction of the Roman empire, practised the art of painting, which he learned from some Greek workmen who were employed by the Tuscan government. His pictures were, as may be ima- gined, in an ordinary stile; but they received the applause of his countrymen. So little practised was he in his art, that in his pictures, to prevent the possibility of a mistake in the judgment of the spectator respecting the subject, inscriptions were added, with sentences coming out of the mouths of the persons represented in them. To Cimabue succeeded Giotto,* his disciple, who, when a shepherd’s boy, * Pope Benedict nth, desirous to have specimens of the works of the Florentine Artists, requested a sketch from each of them, Giotto sent him a Circle made at one stroke with the point of his pencil, hence the Italian proverb, “ Tu iei fix rondo %uel 1*0 dt Giotto’* 16 th£ Artiste Assist ant. was found by him drawing the figure of a sheep upon stone; he soon became more celebrated than his master, and is accounted one of the founders of the Florentine school. From this time the number of artists increased so rapidly, that, in 1350, they established a society under the protection of St. Luke. Towards the commencement of the fourteenth century, the works of the Florentines possessed something of gran- deur, life, and expression ; and Massacio is mentioned as the first who gave force and relief to his pictures; but Michael Angelo* and Leonardo da Vinci were the glory of the school of Florence; the former superior in grandeur, in boldness of conception, and knowledge of design ; the latter in all the amiable parts of the art. Leonardo, who possessed great sensibility and a fine imagination, devoted himself in painting to express the affections of the soul ; and, if in this sublime branch of the art he was afterwards surpassed by Raphael, he had at least the glory, not only of surpassing all the painters who went before him, but of pursuing a path which none of them had attempted. Mi- chael Angelo, less formed to experience sweet affections, than violent passions, sought in nature what the strength of man might accomplish, not that which constitutes beauty, * These extraordinary artists were employed to paint the great Hall of the Senate of Florence, and they made those Cartoons for their designs, which are still the admiration of mankind. From being engaged in the same work they became rivals ; Leonardo soon left this employment, and went to France, where he died in the arms of Francis the First. Michael Angelo, full of great and sublime ideas of his art, lived much alone. When reproached with living so melancholy and solitary a life, he said, “ Art is a jealous mistress-, and requires the whole and intire man.” Being pressed to marry, he said, “ My Art is my Wife, my works are my children ; who would ever have Reared of Ghiberti, if he had not made the Gates of the' Baptistry of St. John ? His children have dissipated his fortune, but his Gates remain, and will render his memory immortal;” speaking of them, he remarked, “ They are so beautiful, that they might serve as the gates of Paradise.” THE ARTIST»s ASSISTANT. 17 but as he was better acquainted with anatomy than any other artist, he seems too eager to display his knowledge of it, and to have forgotten that the muscles are less visi- ble in children, females, and young men, than in confirmed and vigorous manhood. “ You never perceive, (says Mengs) a muscle at rest ; and although he knew admirably well how to place them, thfeir action is very frequently inconsistent with their situation.” He never (says Sir Joshua Reynolds), attempted the lesser elegances and graces of the art ; and if any man had a right to look down upon the lower accomplishments as beneath his attention, it was certainly Michael Angelo. The Roman school has exceeded every other in beauty of form, grandeur, stile, and just expression: this is to be attributed to the superior advantages they enjoyed, in having access to those precious remains of ancient art, which Rome, in its prosperity, drew from declining Greece; or which were executed in its own bosom by Grecian artists. This school was altogether devoted to the principal parts of the art, to those which require genius and vast conceptions, and was no farther occupied with colours, than was necessary to establish a difference between painting and sculpture; or rather between painting varied with colours, and claro obscuro. At the head of this school is placed Raphael Sanzio, born at Urbino, in 1483. In the early part of his life he had accustomed himself to copy nature with great exactness, but without being solicit- ous about the choice, or perhaps ignorant that any choice was necessary. When he saw the works of Leonardo da Vinci and Michael Angelo,* they gave to his genius a new direction ; he perceived that there was something more in * It was the examination of the sublime pictures, in the Sistine Chapel, at Rome, which caused this change in the stile of Raphael. C |8 THE ARTIST'S ASSISTANT. the art of painting than a simple imitation of truth. I was at Rome in the works of the ancients that he found models of ideal beauty, which he afterwards imitated. His design is admirable — he excelled in representing the character of philosophers, apostles, and other figures of that kind. The Greeks were superior to him in ideal figures, but if he did not succeed in embellishing nature in the same high degree, he saw, at least, and im tated her in whatever was expressive and beautiful. The Greeks (says Mengs,) sailed with majesty between earth and heaven ; Raphael walked with propriety on the earth. Composition is in general (says the same author), of two kinds; Raphael’s is the expressive kind; the other thea- trical or picturesque, which consists of an agreeable dispo- sition of the figures. Lanfranco* was the inventor of the last, and after him Pietro de Cortona. The preference is given to the genius of Raphael, because reason presided over all his works, or at least the greatest part of them. He never indulged himself in common ideas, nor ever suf- fered his accessary figures to turn the attention from the principal object of the piece. * Giovanni Lanfranco was born of poor parents at Parma, in 1581. While in the service of Count Horatio Scotti, he was always drawing with coal upon the walls, which induced his master to place him with Augustino Carracci, after whose death, he went to Rome, and studied under Annibal, who employed him to paint the church of St. Jago, after his designs, in the 'execution of which he nearly equalled his master. His genius was most apparent in his large performances, in which he suc- ceeded much better than in smaller pieces. He was knighted by Urban -the 8rh, in consequence of the skill he had shewn in painting the History of St. Peter for that Pontif. It is singular, that Lanfranco and Dominichino were born on the same day, and studied under the same master, yet their works arose from minds altogether different. The former was born with a happy genius, the latter made himself a painter by study; he invented with pain, and afterwards digested ids compositions with solid judgment; while Lanfranco depended on his genius alone, the source from whence flowed all his productions. Dominichino endeavoured to express particular passions, Lanfranco contented himself with a general expression. The former, whose studies were always directed by reason, gradually improved, as long as he lived; the capacity of the latter diminished every day after his master’s death. Dominichino worked with a slow and heavy hand ; Lanfranco’s was ready and light. To conclude', it is difficult to find two men bred up in the same school, whose works and dispositions are more opposite, yet this opposition does not prevent the productions of each being valued and admired. T&E ARTIST'S ASSISTANT. 19 The excellency of Raphael, lay in the propriety, beauty, and majesty of his characters ; his judicious contrivance of composition, correctness of drawing, purity of taste, and the skilful display of other men’s conceptions to his Own purpose. The School of Venice is the child of nature. The Vene- tian painters, not having under their eyes, like the Romans* the remains of antiquity, werO destitute of the means of forming a jiistideaof the beauty of forms and of expression ; they copied, without choice, the forms of nature, but were chiefly delighted with the beauties which presented them- selves in the mixture and variety of colours. Colouring was their chief object ; and they endeavoured by the agree- ment and opposition of dolours, and by the contrast of light and shade, to produce a vigo, ous effect, to demand and fix the attention. In this they succeeded. Dominico, who was the second Italian artist who painted in oil, had educated, before he quitted Venice, Giacomo Bellino, who had two sons, Gentile and Giovanni, both of whom were painters ; the latter contributed much to the progress of his art in painting constantly in oil and after nature. Giorgione and Titian, his scholars, are considered as the founders of the Venetian school. Giorgione distinguished himself by a better taste in designing than his master ; but he chiefly surpassed him in colouring. He died in his 32d year. Tiziano Vecelli, better known by the name Titian, was instructed in the school of Bellino, to copy nature in the most servile manner; but when he had seen the works of Giorgione, he began to study the ideal in colouring. The truth of history is not to be expected in his paintings or in those of the artists of the same school. He paid little attention to the consistence of scene, to the costume, to expression adapted to the subject ; or, finally, to the accom- modation of parts which characterise the works of those who have studied the ancients. c 2 THE ARTIST’s ASSISTANT. 20 The artists of the Florentine and Roman schools painted most commonly in water-colours, or in fresco ; and, instead of nature, they finished their work from their first sketches. Titian painted in oil, and finished from the objects in nature; and this practice, joined to his exquisite talents, gave the greatest truth to his colour . His being a portrait painter was also of advantage to him as a colourist. In this department he was accustomed to the colours of nature in carnations and. draperies. He was a landscape painter; and here he also took the colours from nature Titian has, in general, little expression in his pictures ; and he sometimes introduces figures w r hich augment the coldness of the piece; for if it be true that heads, even in historical painting, ought to be studied from nature, it is true also that individual nature should not be presented, but one general and ideal. The painter fails in the effect, which he ought to produce, if, when he represents Achilles, Hector and Caesar, his personages are familiar to our obser- vation. The distinguishing characteristics of the Lombard school are grace; an agreeable taste for design, without great cor- rection; a mellowness ©f pencil; and a beautiful mixture of colours. Antonio Allegri, called Corregio, was the father and greatest ornament of this school ; he began by imitating nature alone, but as he was chiefly delighted with the graceful, he was careful to purify his design : — he made his figures elegant and large; and varied his outlines by frequent undulations ; but, was not always pure and correct, though bold in his conceptions. Corregio painted in oil, and gave the greatest delicacy and sweetness to his figures ; as his character led him to cultivate the agreeable, his pictures were not only pleasing but were also captivating. He carefully sought trans- THE ARTIST's ASSISTANT. 9A parent colours to represent shades conformable to nature, and adopted a manner of glazing which actually rendered his shadows more obscure. It is chiefly in this that he deserves to be imitated ; for his lights are too clear, and somewhat heavy ; and his fleshy parts are not sufficiently transparent. Harmony and grace are connected together ; and on this account Corregio is excellent also in harmony* As the delicacy of his taste suffered him not to employ- strong oppositions, he naturally became a great master in this part, which chiefly consists of easy gradations from one extreme to another. A delicate taste in colours, a per- fect knowledge of the claro obscuro, the art of uniting light to light, and shade to shade, together with that of detach- ing objects from the ground ; inimitable, grave, and per- fect harmony, were the qualities which distinguished Corregio from all painters, and placed him near the head of his profession. The Carracci, Lewis, Augustin, and Annibal, formed what is called the second Lombard school, which is fre- quently distinguished by the name of the school of Bologna. Lewis was the master of the other two ; he had studied the works of Titian and Paolo Veronese, of Andrea del Sarto, of Corregio, and of Julio Romano; but he chiefly endeavoured to imitate the manner of Corregio. Annibal fluctuated between Corregio and Titian. Augustin, their rival in painting, had his mind cultivated by learning, and devoted part of his time to poetry, music, and manly exercises. N These three painters often employed their talents upon the same work ; and their united labours seemed to be animated with the same spirit. They established an academy at Bologna, called l’Acade- mia degli Desiderosi ; but it was afterwards known by the name of the Academy of the Carracci. In this school was taught the art of constructing models, perspective, and 22 THE ARTIST’S ASSISTANT. anatomy; lessons were given on the beautiful proportions of nature, on the best manner of using colours, and on the principles of light and shade. The academy separated on Annibal's going to Rome to adorn the gallery of the cardinal Farnese. The works of the Carracci are often, from the resemblance of their manner, confounded together; nevertheless, each of them has a decided character, distinct from the other two. Lewis had less fire, but more grace and grandeur: Augustin had more spirit in his conception, and more pleasantness in his execution. Annibal is characterized by boldness, by a design more profound, a more happy expression, and an execution more solid. Lodovico Carracci (says Sir Joshua Reynolds) appears to me to approach nearest to perfection ; his unaffected breadth of light' and shadow, the simplicity of colouring, which holding its proper rank, does not draw aside the least part of the attention from the subject ; and the solemn effect of that twilight which seems diffused over his pictures, appears to me to correspond with grave and dignified subjects, better than the more artificial brilliancy of sunshine which en- lightens the pictures of Titian. Annibal is esteemed by the best judges as a model for beauty and design. Those who blame him for becoming less a colourist at Rome' than he was at Bologna, ought to recollect that it is his performances at Rome which have chiefly secured his reputation. Severe critics have maintained, that his design is too little va; ied in the figures ; that he excels only in male beauty, and that in imitating ancient statues, he excites some resemblance, but without arriving at that sublimity of ideas and of stile, which cha- racterise the ancients. The success of Annibal, and the reputation which he acquired, have been pernicious to the art. His successors, deluded by these considerations, have made him the object THE ARTISTs ASSISTANT. 23 of their imitation, without ascending to the sources from which he derived his knowledge, and which they never could equal. The result has been, that instead of becom- ing equal to Annibal, they have often copied his imper- fections. The French school has varied so much under ’different masters, that it is difficult to characterise it. Some of its artists have been formed on the Florentine and Lombard r manner ; others, on the Roman ; others, on the Venetian ,* and a few have distinguished themselves by a manner which may be called their own. In speaking in general terms of this school, it appears to have no peculiar character; and it can only be distinguished by its aptitude to imitate easily any impression; and it may be added, speaking still in general terms, that it unites in a moderate degree the different parts of the art, without excelling in any one of them. It is equally difficult to determine the progress of painting in France. Miniature painting, and painting on glass, were early cultivated in that country; and in these two kinds, the Italians had often recourse to French artists. Cousin, a painter on glass, and portrait painter, was the first who established any kind of reputation in France. He was correct, but possessed very little elegance of design. Painting, for some time encouraged by Francis the First, fell into a state of languor, from which it was not recovered till the reign of Louis XIII. Jaques Blanchard, formed in the Venetian school, and called the French Titian, flourish- ed about this period ; but as he left no pupils to perpetuate his manner he must be regarded as a single good artist, and not as a founder of the French school. In the same manner Poussin, whom they call the Raphael of France, educated no pupils, and formed no school. His stile and manner of painting, are described by Sir Joshua Reynolds as simple, careful, pure, and correct. No works THE ARTIST'S ASSISTANT. 24 of any modern have so much the air of antique painting* as those of Poussin. His best performances have a certain dryness of manner, which seems perfectly correspondent to the ancient simplicity that distinguishes his stile. In the latter part of his life he changed from this manner into one much softer and richer, where there is a greater union between the figures and the ground. His favorite subjects were ancient fables ; and no painter was ever better quali- fied to paint such subjects, as he was eminently skilled in the knowledge of the ceremonies, customs, and habits of the ancients ; and well acquainted with the different cha- racters which those who invented them gave their allego- rical figures. Poussin, more admired than imitated, had no manner of influence in forming the French school. Simon Vouet had this honour, because his pupils, in the happy age of the arts in F ranee, conferred on it the greatest splendour. Vouet was a man of distinguished abilities ; but the school which he erected would have had no continuance, if his scholars had pursued his manner of painting. He had a kind of grandeur and facility; but his design was false with regard to colours, and without any idea of expression. He had the merit of destroying the insipid taste which reigned in France, and pointing the way to a better. If Vouet laid the foundation of the French school, Le Brun finished the edifice. He had a noble coneeption, and a fruitful imagination ; on no occasion was he inferior to the vast compositions he undertook. Few painters have united a greater number of essential qualities and accesso- ries of the art: — he drew xvell, but his design was far from being so elegant as that of Raphael, or so pure as that of Domenichino ; and it was less lively than that of Annibal Carracci, whom he had taken as a model. In drapery he followed the Roman school ; but in this part he was not equal to the painter of Urbino. He had studied THE ARTIST'S ASSISTANT. 25 the expression of the affections of the soul; but after observing the general characters, and esablishing the prin- cipal traits of expression, he thought he had reached the whole extent of this subject which is so. infinitely extended. He was delighted with great compositions ; and he gave them life, animation, and variety; but he wanted the vigour and inspiration of Raphael. His compositions are founded on philosophical principles ; but those of Raphael are created. Le Brun thought well; Raphael, Poussin, and Le Sueur thought most profoundly. Le Brun had eleva- tion, but he was not elevated, like Raphael, to the sublime. In colouring, Le Brun did not follow the painters of the Venetian school. The sweet attractions, and strong and solid colours of the schools of Rome and Lombardy, seem rather to have been the object of his imitation; and from them also he learned an easy, agreeable, and bold manage- ment of the pencil. Eustach le Sueur was the eotemporary and rival of Le Brun ; and no painter approached nearer to Raphael in the art of drapery, or in disposing the folds in the most artful and the noblest manner. His design was in general more slender than that of Raphael, but, like his, it was formed on the model of the ancients. Like Raphael he represented with art and precision the affections of the soul ; like him he varied the hair of the head, according to the condition, the age, and the character of his personages; and, like him, he made the different parts of every figure contribute to the general effect. His intention in composing was to express his subject, not to make shining contrasts or beau- tiful groupes of figures, not to astonish and bewitch the »pectator by the deceitful pomp of a theatrical scene, or the splendour of the great machine. His tones are delicate, his tints harmonious, and his colours, though not so attractive as those of the schools of Venice and Flanders, are yet engaging. They steal peaceably on the soul, and THE ARTIST'S ASSISTANT* 36 fix it, without distraction on the parts of the art, superior to- that of colouring. If le Sueur had lived longer, or if, like le Brun, he had been employed under a court, fond of the arts and of learning-, to- execute the great works of the age, the French school would have adopted a different and a better manner. The noble beauty of his heads, the 'simple majesty of his draperies, the lightness of his design, the propriety of his expression and attitudes, and the simplicity of his general disposition would have formed the character of this school. The deceitful pomp of theatrical decoration would have been more lately introduced, or perhaps would never have appeared, and Paris might have been the counter part of Home. But as le Brun, by an accidental concurrence of favour- able circumstances, was the fashionable painter, to be em- ployed or rewarded, it was necessary to imitate his manner; and as his imitators possessed not his genius, his faults be- eame not only current but more deformed. The French school not long ago changed its principles; and, if they follow the road which they have marked out, for themselves, they have the chance of becoming the most rigid observers of the laws imposed on the Greek artists. The Count de Caylus, pupil ofBuchardon, who by his rank and fortune had the means of encouraging the imitators of the ancients, and of the masters of the loth century; first formed the design of restoring a pure taste to the art of painting. He was seconded by the talents of M. Vien, an artist who had only occasion to have his lessons and his example laid before him. In this manner commenced a revolution, so much the more wonderful, as it was scarcely* ever known that any nation substituted a system of simple and rigid excellence in place of a false and glittering taste. The history of ail nations, on the contrary, discovers a gradual progress from THE ARTIST’S ASSISTANT. 27 a nide beginning to perfection, and afterwards to an irre- mediable decay. The French have the prospect of stopping short in this ordinary course. They have begun in a manner which promises success, and the best consequences may be expected from the study of those master pieces of ancient art with which the capital of the French Republic is ornamented, and which, to the honour of the government, are open to the inspection of every one. It is almost need- less to mention that these invaluable works are the most capital productions of art, which were formerly at Florence, Rome, Turin, Naples, and the cities in the Austrian Netherlands. In Germany there can hardly he said to be a school, as it is a continuation of single artists, who derived their manner from different sources of originality and imitation. There were some German painters of eminence, when the art, emerging from its barbarous state, first began to be cultivated in Europe. As they were totally unacquainted with the ancients, and had scarcely access to the works of their contemporaries in Italy, they copied nature alone, with the exception of somewhat of that stiffness which forms the gothic manner. Rut this is by no means the case with their successors, part of whom were educated in Flanders, and part in Italy. Rut if Mengs* or Deitrich, were com- prehended in this school, there would be nothing peculiar to its manner discovered in their works. It is therefore * Antonio Raphael Mengs was born at Ausig in Bohemia. His first patron was Augustus, 3d King of Poland, and his last and most generous was Charles 3d King of Spain. His grand work was the Apotheosis of St. Euse- bius at Rome, and his most beautiful picture, that of the nativity at Madrid. There was a great rivalship existing between Reynolds and Mengs, who possessed little original genius, and was a scrupulous if not a servile copyist. He was coldly correct and the greater plagiary. I11 the chamber of paint- ers at Florence, are the portraits of Mengs and Reynolds by themselves, trongly characterised by the dignified but sullen air of the one, and the universal intelligence and liberality of the other. THE ARTIST'S ASSISTANT. 28 necessary to confine our observations to the more ancient German painters, in whom the gothic stile is conspicuous. Albert Durer was the first German who corrected the bad taste of his countrymen. He excelled in engraving as well as painting. His genius was fertile, his compositions varied, his thoughts ingenious, and his colours brilliant. His works, though numeral, were finished with great exact- ness; but as he owed every thing to his genius, and as works of inferior merit were by the false taste of the times preferred to his, it was impossible for him altogether to avoid the faults of his predecessors. He is blamed for stiffness, and aridity in his outlines, for little taste or grandeur in his - expression, for ignorance of the costume, of aerial per- spective, and of gradation of colours ; hut he had studied lineal perspective, architecture, and fortification. John Holbein, nearly cotemporary with Albert Durer, painted in oil and water-colours. He excelled chiefly in history, and in portrait painting. His colours are fresh and brilliant, and his works highly finished; but in his historical subjects, his draperies are not in so good a taste as those of Albert Durer. The Flemish school is recommended to the lovers of the art by the discovery, or at least the first practice of oil painting. It has been generally attributed to John Van Eyck, who was accustomed to varnish his distemper pictures with a composition of oils, which was pleasing, on account of the lustre it gave them. In the course of his practice, he came to mix his colours with oil, instead of water, which he found rendered them brilliant without the trouble of varnishing. From this and subsequent experiments, arose the art of painting in oils, of which wonderful dis- covery Van Mandes gives a very particular account; but the truth of it is now very much questioned ; and it is even proved that this method of painting was discovered long before tho time of John Van Eyck. It is admitted that I THE ARTIST'S ASSISTANT. 29 John and his brother Eubert, were the first who brought it into general practice, by shewing the excellence of which it was susceptible ; their own paintings having acquired, al| over Europe, great reputation for the softness and delicacy of their colours. The attention of the Italian painters was soon excited ; and Antonio de Massiny performed a journey into Flanders for the express purpose of acquiring the con- fidence of John Van Eyck, and of discovering the secret. John of Bruges was the founder of painting as a profession in Flanders. Peter Paul Rubens was the founder of the art. This extraordinory person produced an immense number of works. He excelled equally in historical portrait, and landscape painting ; in fruits, flowers, and in animals. He invented, and executed with the greatest facility. The works of Rubens were destitute of that soft inspiration, productive of sweet and pleasant effects so con- spicuous in the works of Raphael; but he possessed that sprightliness of genius and strength of mind, which are ever ready to burst forth in wonderful and astonishing effects. His figures appear to be the exact counterpart of his conceptions, and their creation nothing more than a simple act of the will. His chief merit consists in colour- ing; though in this branch of the art he has not equalled Titian. He is the first among painters eminent for pomp and majesty; the first among those who speak to the eye; and the power of the art is often by him carried almost to enchantment. Rubens (says Sir Joshua Reynolds) is a remarkable in- stance of the same mind, being seen in all the various parts of the art. The whole is so much of a piece, that one can scarce be brought to believe but that if any one of them had been more correct and perfect, his works would not be so complete as they appear. If we should allow a greater purity and correctness of drawing, his want of simplicity in composition, colouring, and drapery, wo uld appear more gross. i 30 THE ARTIST’S ASSISTANT. The Flemish school, of which Rubens is the greatest master, is remarkable for great brilliancy of colours, and the magic of the claro obscuro. To these may be joined a profound design, which is yet not founded on the most beautiful forms; a composition possessed of grandeur, a certain air of nobleness in the figures, strong and natural expressions ; in short, a kind of national beauty, which is neither'copied from the ancients, nor from the Roman or Lombard schools ; but which deserves to please, and is capable of pleasing. To speak in general terms, and without regarding a great number of exceptions, the Dutch school carries none of the above qualities to great perfection, except that of colouring. Far from excelling in the beauty of heads and forms, they seem to delight in the exact imitation of the lowest and most ignoble. Their subjects are derived from the tavern, the smith’s shop, and from the vulgar amusement of the rudest peasants. The expressions are sufficiently marked ; but it is the expression of passions which debase instead of enno- bling human nature. It must be acknowledged, at the same time, that the Dutch painters have succeeded in several branches of the art. If they have chosen low subjects of imitation, they have represented them with great exactness; and truth must always please. If they have not succeeded in the most diffiult parts of the claro obscuro, they, at least, excel in the most striking, such as in light confined in a narrow space, night illuminated by the moon, or by torches, and the light of a smith’s forge. The Dutch understand the gradations of colours. They have no rivals in landscape painting, considered as the faithful representation of a particular scene ; but they are far from equalling Titian, Poussin, Claude Lorrain,* ^c. who have carried to the * In so great estimation are some of the landscapes by this master, that two pictures, known by the name of the Altiere Claudes, (from their having been long in their Altiere palace at Rome) were lately purchased by Mr. Beckford. for the almost incredible sum or 7000 guineas. THE ARTIST’S ASSISTANT. 31 greatest perfection the ideal landscape ; and whose pictures., instead of being the topographical representation of certain places, are the combined result of every thing beautiful in their imagination or in nature. The Dutch distinguish themselves by their perspective, by their clouds, sea scenes., animals, fruits, flowers, and insects ; and they excel in miniature painting: in short, every thing which requires a faithful imitation, colour, and a nice pencil, is well exe- cuted by the Dutch painters. Holland has also produced history painters, as Octavius Van Been, and V under Hilst, the rival of Vandycke; but it is not in the works of these artists that we find the character of the Dutch school. Neither is the origin of their style to be derived from the works of Lucas of Leyden ; though from the time he flourished, viz. about the end of the fifteenth century, he may be considered as the patriarch of the Dutch school. Lucas painted in oil, in water-colours, and on glass; and the kinds of his painting were history, landscape, and portrait. If miniature painting be. considered as a character of the Dutch school, Cornelius Polembourg may be regarded as the father of it. He possessed the colour, delicacy of touch, and disposition of the claro obscuro, which chiefly distin- guish this school ; and if any thing is to be added, it is want of correctness in his design. But, if the choice of low figures is its chief characteristic, this is to be found in the greatest perfection in the works of the celebrated Rembrandt Vanryn ; and it is the more offensive in this artist, as his compositions frequently re- quired an opposite choice of figures. As his father w r as a miller, near Leyden, his education must altogether have depended on the exertion of great talents, and the study of nature. He copied the grotesque figure of a Dutch peasant, or the servant of an inn, with as much application as the greatest masters of Italy would have studied the Apollo of 32 THE ARTIST’S ASSISTANT. Belvidere, or the Venus de Medicis. This was not the mamv&r of elevating himself to the noble conceptions of Raphael ; but it was acquiring the imitation of truth in vulgar painting. Rembrandt (says Mr. Descamps) maybe compared to the great artists for colour, delicacy of touch, and claro obscuro. He delighted in great Oppositions of light and shade ; and he seems to be chiefly attentive to this branch of the art. His workshop was occasionally made dark, and he received the light by a hole, which fell as he chose to direct it to the place which he desired to be enlightened. His painting is a kind of magic: no artist knew better the effects of different colours mingled together, nor could better distin- guish those which did not agree, from those which did. He placed every tone in its situation with so much exactness and harmony, that he needed not to mix them, and so destroy what may be called the flower and freshness of the colours. Such is the power of genius, that Rembrandt, with all his faults, (and they are numerous), is placed among the greatest artists by Mr. Descamps, who had attentively exa- mined his works, and was himself an artist. John de Laer, a miniature painter, and who made choice of his subjects from common life, deserves a distin- guished place in the Dutch school. He painted hunting- scenes, the attacks of robbers, public festivals, landscapes » and sea views. He had a correct design, and employed vigorous and lively colouring. Van-Ostade, although born at Lubeck, Gerrard Dow, Metzu, Miris, Wouvermans, Berghem, and the celebrated painter of flowers Van Huysum, belong to the Dutch school. The greater part of the schools of which we have treated have no longer any existence. Italy alone had four schools, and there only remain at present a very few Italian THE ARTIST’S ASSISTANT. 33 artists known to foreigners. The school of Rubens i9 in vain sought for in Flanders. If the Dutch school still exists, it is not known beyond the precincts of Holland. Mengs, a German artist, has rendered himself famous in our days ; but it was in Italy that he chiefly improved his talents, and exercised his art. M. Dietrich, another German, has made himself known to strangers ; but two solitary artists do not form a school. The ENGLISH SCHOOL ^ Mas- 4»een-4brmed- 4n - o - ar o w « ft time, connected with the Royal Academy, in— London instituted in 1766: but although as a school it did not exist before that time, yet ever since the revival of the arts, and the consequent en- couragement given to them by the, sovereigns of Europe, England has possessed p©4^^i4-pamter i s of ability ; ha’p^it has been owing only\o the remarkable partiality of the nation for this branch of art, that the more noble one of h^oi^| jointing has been neglected. ' Hans Holbein is ranked by\pu Piles among the German painters ; yet he painted hia most celebrated works in England. He was the first painter of eminence encouraged by Henry the Eighth, who, excited by the fame which his cotemporaries Francis I. and Charles V. had gained as patrons of the arts, employed lim, and invited Titian to England ; but merely as a portrait painter— -whether the reward offered was not thought! adequate to his merit, or for some other cause, perhaps thelknowledge that his talents for historical design would bi depreciated, he firmly rejected the overture. The pulxic works of Holbein, in England, are four only, as enumerated by Mr. Walpole, v r hich are rather groups of portraits than history. 34 THE ARTIST'S ASSISTANT. Nothing could he more unfavourable to female beauty, than the dress of those times: Holbein’s men are there- fore much more characteristic than his ladies; even his Anna Rulleyne is deficient in loveliness, as he pourtrayed her. In his likeness of Anne, of Cleves, he is said to have sacrificed truth to flattery ; yet the original, which is in the possession of Mr. Barret, of Lee, in Kent, is below mediocrity. There are, in his Majesty’s collection, a series of portraits of persons of quality in the reign of Henry the Eighth, sketched upon paper, with crayons, probably taken at a single sitting. They have lately been engraved by Bartolozzi, with all the strength and spirit of the originals. Holbein was as celebrated in miniature, as in oil colours. He made a great number of designs for engravers, sculp- tors, and jewellers. He died at his residence at White- hall, in those lodgings which were afterwards the paper- offices. The fame of Isaac Oliver, who flourished about the latter end of the reign of Elizabeth, as a miniature painter, is well known: — die received some instructions from Frede- rico Zucchero, who was in England at that time, where among other portraits, he painted that of the unfortunate Mary, Queen of Scots. Oliver drew well, and made some admirable copies from the Italian masters. Greatly as Isaac was celebrated, he was afterwards exceeded by his son Peter, who drew portraits of King James the First, Prince Henry, Prince Charles, and most of the court. About this period, Cornelius Jansens, a skilful portrait painter, came to England from Amsterdam, and painted the King, and many of the nobility; but his merits being eclipsed by Vandycke, of whom he was jealous, and the civil war breaking out, he fled from England. Cornelius Jansens vras remarkable for high finishing in his draperies ; many of which are black, which seems to add roundness. THE ARTIST’S ASSISTANT. 35 relief, and spirit, to his figures and carnations. He is said to have used ultra marine in the black colours, as well as in the carnations, to which may be attributed their lustre even at this day* The Duke of Beaufort has a capital por- trait of Jansens by himself,* but one of his best perform- ances is the Rushout family, at Northwick, in Worcester- shi re. Daniel Mytens was a popular painter in the reign of James, and Charles I. He had studied under Rubens, and was for some time principal painter to Charles, but was deprived of his place when Vandycke arrived in England. Charles, however, continued his pension during life* Vandycke had his first instructions from Vanbalen, of Antwerp; but he soon found in Rubens a master every way more suited to direct his genius, and to mature that consummate taste, which he very early showed marks of possessing. Under the instructions of Rubens, he acquired such skill in his art, that the portrait of his master's wife, which he painted whilst he was yet his disciple, is esteemed one of the best pictures in the Low Countries. He painted for his master two admirable pieces, one repre- senting Christ seized in the garden, and the other the crowning him with thorns. When he left Rubens, he travelled into Italy ; and on his return, having established his reputation as one of the first painters of the age, he was invited to England, where he was knighted by Charles I. and married one of the handsomest ladies of the court, the daughter of Lord Ruthven, Earl of Gowry. Towards the latter end of his. life he went to France, in hopes of being employed in the great gallery of the Louvre ; but not succeeding, he returned to England, and proposed to; the king to make cartoons for the banqueting-house at White- hall; but his demand of £80,000* being judged unreason- able, whilst the king was treating with him for a less sum, the gout, and other distempers, put an end to his life. n 2 36 THE ARTIST’S ASSISTANT. Dobson had merited from Charles I. the title of the English Tintoret, before his premature death, in 1646, at the age of only thirty-six years. He was the father of the English school of portrait painting ; and though sometimes unequal, had much the manner of his master Vandycke. He resided much at Oxford, and left there the portraits of himself and wife, and of Sir Tradescant, and his friend Zythepsa, the Quaker, in the staircase of the Ashmolean Museum. Dobson sometimes painted history. His decol- lation of St. John, at Wilton, and the astronomer and his family, at Blenheim, are amongst those which are most known and admired. Lely was in the former part of his life, a landscape painter, but was induced to practice portrait painting, pejhaps from the reputation and emolument which its pro- fessors obtained in England. Lely was chiefly celebrated for painting females ; and it is sometimes objected to him that his faces have too great a similarity of expression. The languishing air, the drowsy sweetness peculiar to him- self, and ** The sleepy eye that spoke the melting soul,” is found in nearly all the pictures of females by this painter. His crayon drawings are admirable. He drew the por- trait of Charles I. when a prisoner at Hampton-Court. Charles II. knighted him, and made him his principal painter. Kneller was the fashionable artist inthereignsof James II. and William: — among an infinity of portraits, there are some which bear the marks of excellence. Dr. Wallis, the mathematician, and Lord Crew, both for colouring and expression, are in a great style. The latter was admired by Sir Joshua Reynolds for the air of nobility it possesses. Kneller is said to have drawn ten crowned heads, viz. four kings of England, and three queens ; the Czar of Muscovy, the Emperor Charles, and Louis XIV. Notwithstanding THE ARTIST'S ASSISTANT. 37 the negligence which is manifest in most of his works, which arose from the desire of gain, his genius is very- apparent. Thornhill’s pencil has produced several great works ; those in fresco in the Dome of St. Paul’s and the Painted Hall at Greenwich, are too well known to need describing ! The works of his son-in-law, Hogarth*, are also known to every one conversant with the art. As a painter of natural humour he stands unrivalled, nor can it be expected that his more serious moral works will ever be equalled, still less surpassed, by any future artist Richardson was a portrait painter of eminence: to his Treatise on Painting, we are indebted for the greatest orna- ment to the art, Sir Joshua Reynolds, who fixed the destina- tion of his mind on the profession, by the accidental reading of that work. — Hudson was the best pupil of Richardson, The merit of Sir Joshua Reynolds, as a portrait painter, cannot be attributed to Hudson’s instructions, since his manner seems entirely his .own. Sir Joshua was born at Plimpton, in Devonshire, in the year 1723 : his relations still preserve some frontispieces to the lives of Plutarch, as specimens of his early predilection for his art, and the promise he gave of becoming eminent in it. He became pupil to Hudson about 1743; who, 'amongst other advice, recommended him to copy Guerchino’s drawings, which he did, with such skill, that many of them are ^Cwilliam Hogarth was born in London, on the ioth of November, i 697 » Having shewn early marks of genius for the arts, his father placed him as apprentice to a silver plate engraver. But his ambition being raised, by a sight of the great works which were then carrying on, by Sir James Thornhill, in St. Paul’s and at Greenwich Hospital, he determined to follow silver-plate engraving no longer than necessity obliged him tout; resolving to study something more like nature than the monsters of heraldry, to which he had been accustomed. How well he kept this resolution, his numerous productions more natural than the works of any other master, either ancient or modern, sufficiently evince. He died in 1765. THE ARTIST’S ASSISTANT. 38 preserved in the cabinets of collectors, as the originals of that master. About the year 1750, he went to Rome to prosecute his studies, where he remained nearly two years, and employed himself in rather making studies from, than copying the works of the great painters : he amused himself with painting caricatures, particularly one of all the English then at Rome, in the different attitudes of Raphael’s cele- brated school at Athens, An ingenious critic thus delineates Sir Joshua’s profesr sional character : “ Sir Joshua Reynolds was, most assured- ly, the best portrait painter that this age has produced : he possessed something original in his manner, which distin- guished him from those painters who preceded him. His colouring was excellent ; and his distribution of light and shadow so generally judicious and varied, that it most clearly shewed that it was not a mere trick of practice, but the result of principle. In history painting, his abilities were very respectable ; and his invention and judgment were* sufficient to have ennabled him to have made a very distinguished figure in that very arduous branch of his profession, if the exclusive taste of his country for portraits had not discouraged him from cultivating a talent so very unproductive and neglected. His drawing, though incor- rect, had always something of grandeur in it.” To his own pictures might well be applied what he used to say respecting those of Rubens “ They resemble,” said he, “ a well-chosen nosegay, in which, though the colours are splendid and vivid, they are never glaring or oppressive to the eye.” Sir Joshua was a great experiment- alist, with respect to the composition of his colours : at first he used preparations from vegetables, which he relin- quished for minerals: he is known to have purchased pictures by Titian, or his scholars, and to have scraped off the several layers of colouring, in order to ascertain it, and discover his secret. THE ARTIST’S ASSISTANT. 39 The English school of painting irfust acknowledge Sir Joshua Reynolds as its great founder, under Royal auspices, in the establishment of the Academy. The pure precepts which he laid down in his annual orations, were exempli-* fied in his own works : his most favourite paintings are:— 1. Garrick between Tragedy and Comedy. 2. The Ugolino in prison, in which he has imitated Michael Angelo in his “ terribil via,” as it is called by Augustino Carracci, in his sonnet on painting. It is Sir Joshua’s triumph in the art. 3. The Nativity. 4. The Infant Hercules. 5 The Death of Cardinal Beaufort, in which are united the local colouring of Titian, with the chiaro scuro of Rembrandt. 6. Mrs. Siddons. 7. Mrs. Billington. 8. Robin Goodfellow. 9. Cimon and Iphigene. 10. Holy Family, which displays a novel and beautiful manner of treating that very frequent subject. To speak generally of the English school, their colouring is less glaring than that of the Flemish or Venetian masters. Their talents are more admirable in portrait, than history, particularly in those of females. -Exam ine- (say s a F r enedi - writer) a picture of a French woman, painted by an artist of that nation, and you will generally find, in place of Ex- pression, a forced grin, in which the eyes and forehead do not partake, and which indicates no affection of Jj4e soul. Examine the picture of an English woman dqpd'by one of their painters, and you observe an elegam: and simple expression, which makes you aFence acquainted with the person represented. Perhaps it might be difficult to assign to the English school, as exhjfmted in the Royal ^.cademy, any perfect diritTv fnllrtiirol ^ discrim in ation :Nas each painter, ^either implicitly folIowTX his own genius, or attaches himself to that particular v '*-~ — manner of the foreign schools which approaches nearest to his own ideas of excellence: but there are other exhibitions in which the best painters of the age have exerted a success- 40 THE ARTIST’S ASSISTANT. fuj competition. A^^mSTSoy deli’s Shakespeare Gallery ; Macklin’s Gallery of Subject, taken from the English poets; Boyer’s Gallery of hose illustrative of English History; and Fuseli’s, from Milton, all by his own pencil, are very honourable testimonies of the spirit of private individuals in the cause of the? arts. Mr. Fuseli’s boundless imagination has attempted, with surprising effect, to embody several metaphisical ideas wich occur in the Paradise .Lost. He has gained a free and uncontrouled admissioi fancy ; but appears not to be spectators can partially folio totally excluded. into the richest regions of solicitous about how few of his v him there, or how many are ^ le e ^ e ^ ence Mr., West in historical and scriptural subjects, is universally allowed. The institution of the Order of the Garter is his grand work, both for composition, correctness, and finishing. His Death of the Stag; the Battles of La Hogue and the Boyne ; and his Death of General Wolfe, are all in an excellent style of composition: the latter is esteemed by an eminent crific, a perfect model of historical composition j - as - 4h o fete ■professor -ef painting m the Royal Academy, (in the Rrooffis of the Society- for theHncouragement of the A^t^-are-of* * ihe poetic style. * James Barry, who was not less remarkable for his literary attainments, than for his skill in the Art of Paint ng, was born in the City of Cork. When very young, he painted a picture, the subject of which was Saint Patrick baptizing the King of Cashell^ which he exhibited in Dublin by the side of two pictures, painted by m< n who had long professed the Art, and one of whom had studied in the schools of Italy of genius over labour, was exemplified admired, and £20 was voted to him by ment of the Arts, although no premium had that year been offered by- advertisement. It was afterwards pu/chased, and placed in the Irish House of Commons, where it was some time afterwards consumed by fire. This picture introduced him to the notice of Mr. Burke, who had been his Here the superiority Barry's work was universally the Irish Society for the improve- THE ARTIST'* -NT. 41 In the course of the last years, some of the most able artists this country ever produced, have flourished and schoolfellow, through whose persuasion he came to London, and was intro- duced to Sir Joshua Reynolds, Dr. Johnson, and Stewart the architect. Not satisfied with having brought him:to England, Mr. Burke generously ena- bled him to pursue his studies in' Italy, where, within a comparatively small circle, he could view the remaining monuments of Grecian and Roman Art. On his return, he 'wrote “ An enquiry into the real and imaginary obstructions to the acquisition of the Arts in England." This was occasioned by the opinions published by Montesquieu, Du Bos, and Winkelman, respecting the influence of climate and food on the imagina- tion and taste of the people. Two years after, Barry was elected Royal Academician, & in 1786, was made Professor of Painting to the Royal Academy. He had vindicated England for her capacity of eminence in the[ Arts, and it was now his office to correct her actual Taste; for this he purpose he wished to employ a sum of £14,000, accumulated from the receipts of exhibitions, in the purchase of pictures, to form a gallery of the works of thej old masters, for the use of the students, they having nothing to direct them in the departments of design, composi- tion and colouring. This proposition was rejected by the Members of the Academy, who, feeling less concern for the advancement of the Arts, than for their individual interest, voted, that this sacred fund should be applied to furnish pensions to academician^, associates, and their widows. He was soon after employed in dfecorating the Rooms of the Society for the encouragement of Arts, &c. with paintings, which do equal honour to the artist and the nation. Mr. Birry, whose temper was perhaps never very accommodating, had been fo|* some time on bad terms with many of the academicians, who, envying perhaps his superior attainments, and ill brooking the sarcastic remarks he frequently introduced into his Lectures, produced against him in 1799, a body of charges, on which, without giving him a copy, the Academy, by a vote, removed him from his office of Profes- sor of painting, and by a second votje, expelled him from the Academy; all which proceedings were sanctioned by the King. Driven by the intrigues of his enemies from the Academy, the true inte- rests ofwhich he had so much at heart, he again found patrons in the Society for the Encouragement of Arts, Manufactures and Commerce, and as he could not submit to those arts by which men of far meaner talents had enriched themselves, he would ha-vje been doomed to an old age of penury, had not these friends of genius raised a subscription for the purpose of pur- chasing him an annuity, which he lived to enjoy only a few months. He died March 13, 1806. 42 THE ARTIS P’s ASSISTANT. £^£3^, The great landscape painters of Italy have scarcely exceeded the Smiths of Chichester, Gainsborough, and Wilson, in truth and nature, and the accuracy of their native scenery. It would be injustice not to mention Wilson’s pictures of Niobe, Phaeton, and Cicero, at his Villa ; which last rivals even Claude himself. Mortimer, who died prematurely, in the freedom of his pencil, and the savage air of his banditti, his favourite subject, approached nearly to the boldest efforts of Salvator Rosa. Of living artists we decline speaMng, with the exteption of those whose Eminence, as men N^f genius, has placed them beyond competition. In the works of Northcote, Opie, and Lawrence 1 ^ we hail the continuance of an English school, and the happy application of those classical precepts which its founder, Sir Joshua Reynolds, delivered with so much dignity and effect ; and while the artists of this country are influenced by such rules, their improvemennt must be unrivalled, as by such a local advantage, they will reach a degree of perfection, to which the other modern schools of painting in Europe will in vain attempt to aspire. “’HEjawt’en-ee-’s- colossal figure of Satan and Beelzebub, from Milton, nav^- k o r fe — Mr, Kemble in Coriolanus, Sir Richard Worsted’s ; and as Rolla in Pizarro, have gained him universal admiration. THE ARTIST’S ASSISTANT. 43 D E S I G N. ^HE progress of design, towards that perfection to which it was carried by the Grecian artists, was, like every other branch of the arts, slow and gradual ; we are told by Pliny, that all the statues before the time of Daedalus, were repre- sented stiff and motionless, with the feet closed, and arms hanging in right lines to their sides ; or they had only the head finished ; the body, arms, and legs not being expressed. These were the rude essays of design. In the progress of the art, and in abler hands, motion was fashioned into grace, and life was heightened into character : beauty of form was no longer confined to mere imitation, which always falls short of the object imitated ; to make the copy equal in its effect, it was necessary to give it an advantage over its model : the artists, therefore, observing that nature was sparing of her perfections, and that her efforts were limited to parts, availed themselves of her inequalities, and drawing those scattered beauties into a more happy and complete union, rose from an im- perfect imitation, to a perfect ideal beauty. We are in- formed, that the painters of Greece, pressed in crowds to design the bosom and breast of Thais; nor were the elegant proportions of Phryne less the object of their study : by this constant contemplation of the beautiful, they enriched their imagination, and confirmed their taste ; from this fund they drew their systems of beauty ; and though we should consider them but as imitators of the parts, we must allow them to have been the inventors in the compositions. 44 THE ARTIST'S ASSISTANT. Should we doubt the justice of the preference given to invented beauty, over the real, we need only contemplate the fine proportions, and the style of drawing in the Laocoon and Gladiator, and mark the expressive energy of Apollo, and the elegant beauties of the Venus de Medicis. These are the utmost efforts of design ; it can reach no farther than a full exertion of grace, beauty, and character. The design of the ancients is distinguished by an union of proportions, a simplicity of contour, and an excellence of character. There is no one excellence of design from which we derive such immediate pleasure, as from gracefulness of action : if we observe the attitudes and movements of the Greek statues, we shall mark that careless decency, and unaffected grace, which ever attend the. motions of men unconscious of observation. Raphael has been wonderfully happy in imitating this simple elegance of the antique ; the most courtly imagina- tion cannot represent to itselfan image of more winning grace than is to be seen in his Sancta Cascilia. Indeed, an elegant simplicity is the characteristic of his design ; we no where meet in him the affected contrasts of Michael Angelo, or the studied attitudes of Guido. The design of Raphael was, in its beginning, dry, but correct; he enlarged it much on seeing the drawings of Michael Angelo: of too just an eye to give entirely into the excesses of his model, he struck out a middle style ^ which, however, was not so happily blended, as quite to throw off theinfluence of the extremes: hence, in the great he is apt to swell into the charged; in the delicate to drop into the little: his design, notwithstanding, is beautiful; but never arrived to that peffection which we discover in the Greek statues. He is excellent in the characters of philosophers, apostles, and the like ; but the figures of his women have not that THE ARTIST’S ASSISTANT. 45 elegance which is distsnguished in the Venus de Medicis* of the daughter of Niobe; in these, his convex contours have a certain heaviness, which, in seeking to avoid he falls into a dryness still less pardonable. His proportions are esteemed excellent, yet not having formed his manner on the most beautiful antique, we do not see in him that elegant symmetry, that freedom in the joints which lend all their motion to the Laocoon and Gladiator! instead of these, the figures of Michael Angelo were his models in the great style ; whence, having quitted the lines of nature* and not having substituted ideal beauty, he became too like his original, as may be seen in his Incendio di Borgo* Would we therefore place Raphael in his true point of view, we must observe him in the middle age ; in old men, or in the nervous nature : in his Madonna’s, he knew how to choose, as likewise how to vary the most beautiful parts of nature ; but he knew not how to express a beauty superior to the natural. Thus in his Galatea, where he has attempted a cha- racter of perfect beauty, he has fallen short of the beauty of his Madonna’s: the cause of this seems to be, that he drew the former after his own ideas, which were imperfect : in the latter he copied beautiful nature, which was almost perfect : a second observation will confirm this opinion : of all the objects of painting, Angels call most for ideal beauty ? and those of Raphael are by no means distinguished in this particular. One of the greatest excellencies of design, is grace. Cor- regio in this is inimitable. His constant aim was grace, and a happy effect of light and shade. A waving and varied contour was necessary to this end, hence he studi- ously avoided right lines, and acute angles as too simple in their effects. Thus the habit and necessity of continually varying his outline, threw him into little errors in draw- ing, which spring not from an ignorance of this branch 46 THE ARTIST'S ASSISTANT. of his art ; but from a predilection for Another ; and there are few who would wish those inadvertencies away, accom- panied with the charms which gave occasion to them. We may affirm of his design, where it is not sacrificed to his more favorite aims, that it is often masterly, and always pleasing ; a quality rarely to be met with in those servile painters, who think they have attained every perfection, if they keep within the rules of drawing (such painters says Quintilian) while they think it sufficient to be free from faults, fall into that capital one, the want of beauties. We shall close this article with an account of the Apollo BelVidere, and the celebrated Groupe of Laocoon, so long the pride of Rome, but removed to Paris during its ravages by the French republicans, as described by the late Abbe Winckleinan : THE APOLLO BELVIDERE. “ Of all the productions of art, which have escaped the ravages of time, the Statue of Apollo Belvidere is unques- tionably the most sublime. The artist founded this work upon imagination, and has only employed substance for the purpose of realizing his ideas. As much as the descriptions which Homer has given of Apollo are superior to those given of him by other Poets, in the same degree is this statue superior to any other statues of that deity. Its stature Is above that of man, and its attitude breathes majesty. An eternal spring, such as reigns in the delightful fields of Elysium, clothes with youth the manly charms of his body, and gives a brilliancy to the animated structure of his limbs, “ Endeavour to penetrate into the regions of incorporeal beauty ; try to become the creator of a celestial nature, in order to elevate your soul to the contemplation of super- natural beauties ,* for here there is nothing mortal: neither THE ARTIST’s ASSISTANT. 47 the veins nor sinews are too conspicuous : a kind of celestial spirit animates the whole figure. The God has pursued Python, against whom he has, for the first time, bent his dreadful bow : in his rapid course he has overtaken him, and given him a mortal blow. In the height of his joy, his august features denote more than victory. Disdain is seated on his lips, and the indignation which he breathes distends his nostrils, and affects his eye-brows : but still his forehead expresses serenity, and he is all full of sweet- ness, as if he were surrounded by the Muses, eager to caress him. Among ali the figures of Jupiter which we possess, you will not see one in which the Father of the Gods displays so much of that majesty described by the poets, as does this statue of his son. The peculiar beauties of all the other Gods are united in this figure, in the same manner as in the divine Pandora. The forehead is the forehead of Jupiter, impregnated with the Goddess of Wisdom ; his eye-brows, by their movement, declare their wishes ; his eyes in their celestial orbits, are the eyes of the v^ueen of the Goddesses ; and the mouth is that which inspired the beautiful Bacchus with voluptuousness. Like the tender branches of the vine, his fine hairs play about as if they were slightly ruffled by the breath of zephyrs ; they seemed perfumed with celestial essence, and negligently tied by the hands of the Graces. “ On seeing this prodigy of art, I forgot the whole uni- verse ; I placed myself in a more noble attitude to contem- plate it with dignity. From admiration I passed to extacy ; filled with respect, I felt my breast agitated like those who are inspired with the spirit of prophecy. “ I felt myself transported to Delas and the sacred woods of Lycia, places which Apollo honoured with his presence ; for the beauty which was before my eyes appeared to be animated, as was formerly the beautiful statue produced by 48 THE ARTIST’S ASSISTANT. the chizel of Pygmalion. How can I describe you, oh, inimitable chef d' oeuvre ! Art itself must inspire me and guide my pen. “ The outlines which I have traced I lay at your feet ; so those who cannot reach to the head of the deity they adore, place at his feet the garlands with which they wish to crown him.” THE GROUPE OF LAOCOON. “ Laocoon presents to us a picture of the deepest distress, under the representation of a man, contending with all his powers in his own defence, while his muscles and sinews are dilated and contracted by agony ; you may still perceive the vigour of his mind expressed on his wrinkled forehead. His breast oppressed with restrained respiration, seems to con- tend against the pain with which it is agitated. “ The groans which he restrains, and his breath which he holds in, seem to exhaust the lower part of his body, and the loins, by being drawn in, seem to discover his very entrails. Nevertheless, his own sufferings seem to affect him less than those of his children, who look up to him as if imploring his succour. Compassion, like a dark vapour, overshadows his eyes. His physiognomy denotes complaint, his eyes are directed towards heaven, imploring assistance. His mouth bespeaks languor, and his lower lip is fallen. Agony, mixed with indignation at his unjust punishment, is displayed in all his features. “ The contest between pain and resistance is displayed with the greatest skill ; for while the former draws up the eye-brows, the latter compresses the flesh over the eyes, and makes it descend over the upper eye-lids. The subject not allowing the artist to embellish nature, he has exerted himself to display contension and vigour. In those places where there is the greatest agony, there is also great beauty. The left side, on which the furious serpent makes its attack. THE ARTIST’S ASSISTANT. 49 seems to be in the greatest pain from its proximity to the heart. This part of the body may be called a prodigy of art. — Laocoon wishes to raise his legs in order to escape. No part of the figure is in repose. The very flesh, by the skill of the artist, has the appearance of being benumbed. — "OHWa — Of COLOURING. Colouring, though a subject greatly inferior to many others which the painter must study, is yet of sufficient importance to employ a considerable share of his attention ; and, to excel, in it, he must be well acquainted with that part of optics which has the nature of light and colours for its object. Light, however simple and uncompounded it may appear, is nevertheless made up, as it were, of several distinct substances ; and the number, and quantity of component parts, has been happily discovered by the mo- derns. Every undivided ray, let it be ever so fine, is a little bundle of red, orange, yellow, green, azure, indigo, and violet rays, which, while combined, are not to be distinguished one from another, and form that kind of light, called white; so that white is not a colour per se, as the learned De Vinci (so far, it seems, the precursor of Newton) expressly affirms, but an assemblage of colours. Now, these colours, which compose light, although immu- table in themselves, and endued with various qualities, are continually, however, separating from each other in their reflection from, and passage through other substances, and thus become manifest to the eye. Grass, for example, reflects only green rays, or rather reflects green rays in greater number than it does those of any other colour; one kind of wine transmits red rays, and another yellowish rays ; and from this kind of separation arises that variety of colours with which nature has diversified her various pro- F. THE ARTIST’S ASSISTANT. 50 auctions. Man, too, has contrived to separate the rays of light, by making a portion of the sun’s beams pass through a glass prism ; for after passing through it, they appear divided into seven pure and primitive colours, placed in succession one by the other, like so many colours on a painter’s pallet. Although a knowledge of the science of optics may be of great service to a painter, yet the pictures of the best colourists are, it is universally al!owed/,the books in which a young painter must chiefly look for the rules of colouring ; that is, of that branch of painting which contributes so much to express the beauty of objects, and is so requisite to represent them as what they really are. Giorgione and Titian seem to have discovered circumstances in nature which others have entirely overlooked; and the last in particular has been happy enough to express them with a pencil as delicate as his eye was quick and piercing. In his works we behold that sweetness of colouring which is produced by union ; that beauty which is consistent with truth ; and all the in- sensible transmutations, all the soft transitions, in a word all the pleasing modulations of tints and colours. When a young painter has, by close application, acquired from Titian, whom he can never sufficiently dwell upon, that art which, of all painters, he has best contrived to hide, he would do well to turn to Bassano and Paolo, on account of the beauty, boldness, and elegance of their touches. That richness, softness, and freshness of colouring, for which the Lombard school is so justly celebrated, may likewise be of great service to him ; nor will he reap less benefit by studying the principles and practice of the Fle- mish school, which, chiefly by means of her varnishes, has contrived to give a most enchanting lustre and transparency to her colours. But from whatever pictures a young painter may choose to study the art of colouring, he must take great care THE ARTISTE ASSISTANT. 51 that they are well preserved. There are very few pieces which have not suffered more or less by the length, not to say the injuries, of time; and perhaps that precious patina 9 which years alone can impart to paintings, is in some mea- sure akin to that other kind which ages alone impart to medals ; inasmuch as, by giving testimony to their anti- quity, it renders them proportionably beautiful inthesuper- stitious eyes of the learned. It must, indeed, be allowed, that if on the one hand, this patina bestows, as it really does, an extraordinary degree of harmony upon the colours of a picture, and destroys, or at least greatly lessens, their original rawness, it, on the other hand, equally impairs the freshness and life of them. A piece seen many years after it has been painted, appears much as it would do, imme- diately after painting, behind a dull glass. It is no idle opinion, that Paolo Veronese, attentive above all things to the beauty of his colours, and what is called strepito, left entirely to time the care of harmonizing them perfectly, and, (as we may say) mellowing them. But most of the old masters took that task upon themselves; and never exposed their works to the eyes of the public, until they had ripened and finished them with their own hands. And who can say whetherthe Christ of Moneta, orthe Nativity o£ Bassano, have been more improved or injured (if we may so speak) by the touchings and re-touchings of time, in the course of more than two centuries? It is indeed impossible to be determined ; but the studious pupil may make himself ample amends for any injuries which his originals may have received from the hands of time, by turning to truth, and to nature which never grows old, but constantly retains its primitive flower of youth, and was itself the model of the models before him. As soon, therefore, as a young painter has laid a proper foundation for good colouring, by study- ing the best masters, he should turn all his thoughts to truth and nature. And it would perhaps be well worth while to JR 2 THE ARTIST’S ASSISTANT. 52 have, in the academies of painting, models for colouring as well as designing ; that as from the one the pupils learn to give their due proportion to the several members and mus- cles, they may learn from the other to make their carnations rich and warm, and faithfully copy the different local hues which appear quite distinct in the different parts of a fine body. To illustrate still farther the use of such a model, let us suppose it placed in different lights; now in that of the sun, now in that of the sky, and now again in that of a lamp or candle: one time placed in the shade, and another in . a reflected light: hence the pupil may learn all the different effects of the complection in different circumstances, whe- ther the livid, the lucid, or transparent; and, above all that variety of tints and half tints, occasioned in the colour of the skin by- the epidermis having the bones immediately under it in some places, and in others a greater or less number of blood-vessels or quantity of fat. An artist who had long studied such a model, ^duld run no risk of de- grading the beauties of nature by any particularity of stile, or of giving into that preposterous fulness and floridness of colouring, which is at present so much the taste ; he would not feed his figures with roses, as an ancient painter of Greece shrewdly expressed it. What statues are in design, nature isln colouring ; the fountainhead of that perfection to which every artist, ambitious to excel, should constantly aspire : and, accordingly, theFIemish painters, in consequence of their aiming solely to copy nature, are in colouring as excellent as they are commonly aukward in designing. A good model for the tone of colours, and the gradation of shades, is furnished by means of the earner a-ob scum. We may form a general idea of the various effects of reflections from the following examples': If a blue be reflected on a yellow, the latter becomes greenish ; if on a red, the red becomes purple ; an so on through a variety of combi- nations. . And as the white is of a nature to receive all the THE ARTISTE ASSISTANT. 53 colours, and to be tinged with that of each reflection, the painter must be careful how his carnations may be affected by the several reflections. Of COMPOSITION. COMPOSITION, which may be considered as a branch of invention, consists in the proper stationing of what the inventive faculty has imagined, so as to express the subject in the 'most lively manner. The chief merit of compo- sition may be said to consist in that arrangement, which wear- ing the appearance of mere chance, is, in fact, the most studied effect of art. A painter, therefore, is equally to avoid the dryness of those ancients who always planted their figures like so many couples in a procession, and the affectation of those moderns who jumble them together as if they were met merely to fight and squabble. In this branch Raphael was happy enough to choose the just medium, and attain perfection. The disposition of his figures is always exactly such as the subject requires. In the Battle of Con- stantine, they are confusedly clustered with as much art, as they are regularly marshalled in Christ’s commitment of the keys to St. Peter, and constituting him prince of the apostles. Let the inferior figures of a piece be placed as they will the principal figure should strike the eye most, and stand out, as it were, from among the rest: this may be effected various ways, as by placing it in the centre of the piece; by exhibiting it, in a manner, by itself; by making the prin- cipal light fall upon it ; by giving it the most resplendent drapery, or, indeed, by several of these methods; nay, by all of them together : for, being the hero of the picturesque fable, it is but just that it should draw the eye to itself, and stand forward the most conspicuous part of the subject. THE ARTIST’S ASSISTANT. 54 It has been said, that painters should follow the example of comic writers, who compose their fables ,of as few per- sons as possible. Yet some pictures require a number of figures ; on these occasions it depends entirely on the skill of the painter to dispose of them in such a manner, that the principal ones may always be obvious and distinct : he must take care that his piece be full, but not charged. In this respect, the Battles of Alexander, by Le Brun, are master-pieces which can never be sufficiently studied ; whereas nothing, on the other hand, can be more unhappy than the famous Paradise of Tintoret, which covers, one entire side of the great council-chamber at Venice; for being badly composed, it appears a chaos, and fatigues the eye. In a sketch of this subject in the palace of Bevilaqua at Verona, he has succeeded much better : there the several choirs of martyrs, virgins, bishopg, and other saints, are judiciously thrown into so many clusters, parted here and there by a fine fleece of clouds, so as to exhibit the innu- merable host of heaven ,* the whole composed in such a way as to form a very agreeable picture. The reason for breaking a composition into several groupes is, that the eye, passing freely from one object to another, may the better comprehend the whole. But the painter is not to stop here ; for these groupes are, besides, to be so artfully put together, as to form rich clusters, give the whole composition an air of grandeur, and afford the spec- tator an opportunity of discerning the whole, at a single glance. These effects are greatly promoted by a due regard to the nature of colours, so as not to place together those which are incongruous, or to distract by too great a variety. They should be so judiciously disposed as to temper and qualify each other. A proper use of the chiaro-scuro is likewise of great service on this occasion. The groupes are easily parted, and the whole picture acquires a grand effect, by introducii\ THE ARTIST’S ASSISTANT. 55 strong and broad shadows, and a concentrated light. This method has been followed with great success by Rembrandt, in a famous picture of his, representing the Virgin at the Foot of the Cross on Mount Calvary ; the principal light darting upon her through a break of the clouds, while the rest of the figures about her stand more or less in the shade. Tintoiet, too, acquired great reputation, as well by that brilliancy with which he enlivened his figures, as by his masterly manner of shading them ; and Polidoro de Caravaggio, though he scarce painted any thing but basso-relievos, was particularly famous for introducing with great skill the effects of the chiaro-scuro, a thing first attempted by Mantegna in his triumph of Julius Csesar. It is by this means that his compositions appear so strik- ingly divided into different groupes ; and, among then- other perfections, afford so much delight through the beau- tiful disposition that reigns in them. In like manner, a painter, by the help of perspective, especially that called serial, the opposition of local colours, and other contrivances which he may expect to learn by studying nature, and those who have best studied her before him, will be able not only to part his groupes, but make them appear at different distances, so as to leave sufficient passages between them. But the greatest caution is to be used in the pursuit of the methods here laid down ; especially in the management of the chiaro-scuro, that the effects attributed to light and shade, and to their various concomitants, may not run counter to truth and experience. In the next place, to turn a groupe elegantly, the best pattern is that of a bunch of grapes, adopted by Titian ; as, of the many grains that compose a bunch of grapes, some are struck directly by the light, and those opposite to them are in the f hade, whilst the intermediate ones partake of both \l ght and shade in a greater or less degree ; so, according to THE ARTIST’S ASSISTANT. 56 Titian, the figures of a.groupe should be so disposed, that by the union of the chiaro-scuro, several things may appear as it were but one mass: and, in fact, it is only from his having pursued this method, that we can account for the very grand effect of his pieces. In this view it is impos- sible to study him too much. Guido Reni, who has imparted to his paintings that gaiety and splendour in which he lived, seems enamoured with a bright and open light; whereas Michael Angelo de Caravagio, who was of a sullen and savage disposition, appears fondest of a gloomy and clouded sky ; so that neither of them were qualified to handle indifferently all objects, , The chiaro-scuro may likewise prove of great service to a painter in giving his composition a grand effect ; but, never- theless, the light he chooses must he adapted to the situation of the scene where the action is laid: nor would he he less faulty, who, in a grotto or cavern, where the light entered by a chink, should make his shades soft and tender, than he who should represent them strong and hold in an open sky-light. In regard to drapery, equal care should he taken to avoid that poverty which makes some masters look as if, through mere penury, they grudged clothes to their figures ; and that profusion which Albani imputed to Guido, saying, that he was rather a tailor than a painter. The ornaments of dress should be used with great sobriety ; and it will not be amiss to remember what was once said to an ancient painter : u I pity you greatly ; unable to make Helen handsome, you have taken care to make her fine.” Let the whole, in a wprd, and all the different parts of the composition, possess probability, grace, costume, and the particular character of what is to be represented. Let nothing look like uniformity of manner which does not appear less in the composition than it does in colouring, .drapery* and design ; and is, as it were, that kind of accent, .by which painters may he as readily distinguished as THE ARTIST’S ASSISTANT. 57 foreigners are, by pronouncing in the same manner all the different languages they happen to be acquainted with. Of COLOURS. The method of preparing the various hinds used in painting , IT will now be proper to explain in an easy manner, the method of preparing the. various bodies employed by painters; for producing the difference of light and shade; which may be termed either pigments or fluids, as they are solid or aqueous; and are distinguished in their several kinds, according to the manner of working them; as oil- colours, water-colours, enamel-colours, fyc, but their variety are too numerous to be in general use ; most paint- ers therefore select a set out of them, and become very unjustly prejudiced against those they reject. It is no little impediment to their improvement in the profession^ that they are not more extensively acquainted with all the ingredients fit for their purposes. Those colours which become transparent in oil, such as lake, Prussian blue, and brown pink, are frequently used without.the admixture of white, or any other opake pig- ment ; by which means the tint of the ground on which they are laid retains, in some degree, its force; and the real colour, produced in painting, is the combined effect of both. This is called glazing ; and the pigments endued with the property of becoming transparent in oil, are called glazing colours. As colours are obtained from various substances, the means of preparing them are consequently various ; some being of a simple nature, and requiring only to be purified and reduced to a proper consistence or texture ; and others being compounds of different bodies, to be formed only by THE ARTIST’S ASSISTANT. 58 complex processes. It is therefore very difficult to give such general directions, for the making every sort of colour as may be intelligible to all ; the utensils to be employed, as well as the methods to be pursued, being such as belong to different arts and trades. Where, nevertheless, simple means, and the use of such utensils as are generally known, may be sufficient to per- form what is wanting, it is best to avoid all technical terms, and more complex methods of operation, adopting such a mode of instruction as may be universally intelligible : — We now proceed to the nature and preparation of the dif- ferent colours, as they follow in their classes. Ver million, is one of the most useful colours in every kind of painting ; except enamel or on glass ; as it is of a moderate price, spends to great advantage in any kind of work, and stands or holds its colour extremely well. Jf- may be prepared in great perfection by the following pro- cess : “ Take of quicksilver eighteen pounds, of flowers of ** sulphur six pounds : melt the sulphur in an earthen pot ; “ and pour in the quicksilver gradually, being also gently &i warmed ,* and stir them well together, with the small u end of a tobacco-pipe. But if, from the effervescence, iS on adding the latter quantities of the quicksilver, they 66 take fire, extinguish it by throwing a wet cloth (which Class I.* Of RED COLOURS, * Class I. RED, Scarlet^ or tending to the orange Vermillion. Native cinnaber. Red Jead. Scarlet oker. Common Indian red. Spanish brown. Terra di sienna burnt. Crimson , or tending to the purple . Carmine. Lake. Rose pink. Red oker. Venetian red. THE ARTIST’S ASSISTANT. 59 44 should be had ready) over the vessel. When the mass 44 is cold, powder it, so that the several parts may be well 44 mixed together. But it is not necessary to reduce it, by 44 nicer levigation, to an impalpable state. Having then 44 prepared an oblong glass body, or sublimer, by coating 44 it well with fire-lute over the whole surface of the glass, 44 and working a proper rim of the same round it, by 44 which it may be hung in the furnace in such a manner 44 that one half of it may be exposed to the fire, fix it in 44 a proper furnace, and let the powdered mass be put 44 into it, so as to nearly fill the part that is within the 44 furnace ,* a piece of broken tile being laid over the 44 mouth of the glass. Sublime then the contents, with as 44 strong a heat as may be used without blowing the fumes 44 of the vermillion out of the mouth of the sublimer. 44 When the sublimation is over, which may be perceived 44 by the abatement of the heat towards the top of the body, 44 discontinue the fire ; and, after the body is cold, take it 44 out of the furnace, and break it : collect then together 44 all the parts of the sublimed cake, separating carefully 44 from them any dross that may have been left at the 44 bottom of the body, as also any lighter substance that 44 may have formed in the neck, and appears to be dis- 44 similar to the rest. Levigate the more perfect part ,* and, 44 when reduced to fine powder, it will be vermillion proper 44 for use: but on the perfectness of levigation, depends, 44 in a great degree, the brightness and goodness of the 44 vermillion. In order therefore to perform this, it is ** necessary that two or three mills of different closeness 44 should be employed, and the last should be of steel, and 44 set as finely as possible.” It is common, perhaps general, for dealers to sophisticate vermillion with red lead. But to detect with certainty the fraud, both with respect to the general fact, and the pro- portion, use the following means: m THE ARTIST'S ASSISTANT. “ Take a small, but known quantity of vermillion, ili suspected to be adulterated, and put it into a crucible ; “ having first mixed with it about the same quantity, in “ bulk, of charcoal dust: put the crucible into a common “ fire, having first covered it with a lesser crucible inverted “ into it : and give a heat sufficient to fuse lead ; when the “ crucible, being taken out of the fire, should be well “ shaken, by striking it against the ground. If the suspect- “ ed adulteration has been practised, the lead will be found “ reduced to its metalline state, in the bottom of the crucible; u ‘ and, being weighed, and compared with the quantity of “ cinnabar that was put into the crucible, the proportion “ of the adulteration may be thence certainly known. “ But, if no lead be found in the crucible, it may be safely “ inferred, that no red lead had been commixt with the “ Vermillion.” NATIVE CINNABAR Is found naturally formed in the earth, though seldom so pure as to be fit for the uses of painting, at least without being purified by sublimation. The mistaken notion that it would stand better than Vermillion, because it was a na- tural production, has made it to be coveted by painters who are curious in colours. It is, however, not worth their while to be solicitous about it, as it never excelled the best vermillion in brightness ; and what is generally sold for it is a pigment compounded of quicksilver and sulphur. RED LEAD, MINUM. The goodness of red lead may be seen by its brightness, and a mixture of any kind will make it of a dull appear- ance. It is on this account not so liable to be sophisticated, as white lead or vermillion. It is lead calcined, till it acquires a proper degree of colour, by exposing it with a large surface to the fire. * THE ARTIST'S ASSISTANT. ■ 6.1 SCARLET OKER Is an ochrous, earthy, or rather irony substance, an i is the basis of green vitriol, separated from the acid of the vitriol by calcination. It is a kind of orange scarlet colour, and rivals any of the native okers, from its certainty of standing, and extreme strength and warmth, either as a ground, or in the shade of carnations. It is useful as a colour in any kind of painting: the manner of its prepara- tion is as follows : “ Take of green vitriol or copperas, any quantity ; and “ being put into a crucible, of which it will fill two thirds, “ set it on a common fire to boil, (taking care that it do “ not boil over), till the matter be nearly dry ; when it “ will be greatly diminished in quantity. Fill then the “ crucible to the same height again, and repeat the boiling “ and replenishing, till the crucible be filled with dry “ matter. Take it then from this fire, and put it into a “ wind-furnace ; or, if the quantity be small, it may be “ continued in the same fire, the coals being heaped up “ round it. Let the contents be calcined there till they “ become of a red colour when cold ; which must be exa- “ mined by taking a little of the matter out of the middle, “ and suffering it to cool for so long as it -remains hot, “ the red colour will not appear, though it be sufficiently “ calcined. When duly calcined, take the oker out of “ the crucible while hot, and put it into water, in which “ the parts of the broken crucible may be soaked likewise, “ to obtain more easily what shall adhere to them ; and stir “ the oker well about in the water, that ail the remaining “ vitriol may be melted out of it. Let it then settle, and “ when the water appears clear, pour it off, and add a fresh “ quantity ; taking out all the broken pieces of the crucible ; “ and proceed as before ; repeating several times this treat- “meat with fresh quantities of water. Then purify the THE ARTIST’* ASSISTANT. 62 “ oker from any remaining foulness by washing over ; and 44 having brought it to a proper state of dryness, by drain- 14 ing off the fluid by a filter, in which the paper must be 44 covered with a linen cloth, lay it to dry on boards.” COMMON INDIAN RED Is substituted in place of the real kind brought from the East Indies ; serving equally well for common purposes, giving a tint verging to scarlet, (varying from the true Indian red, which is greatly inclined to the purple), and on account of its warm, though not bright colour, it is much used, as well in finer as coarser paintings in oil. It is af- forded cheap and may be thus managed : " Take of the caput mortuum, or oker, left in the iron 44 pots after the distillation of aquafortis, from nitre and 44 vitriol, two parts, and of the caput mortuum or colco- 44 thar, left in the long necks after the distillation of oil of 44 vitriol, one part; break the lumps found among them, 44 and put them into tubs with a good quantity of water; 44 and having let them stand for a day or two, frequently 44 stirring them well about, lade off as much water as can 44 be got clear from them : and add a fresh quantity, repeat- 44 ing the same treatment till all the salts be washed out 44 and the water come off nearly insipid. The red powder 44 which remains must then be washed over, and, being 44 freed from the water, laid out to dry.” 44 When this is designed for nicer purposes, it should be 44 washed over again in basons, the gross manner of lading 44 it out of one tub into another, not fitting it always com- 44 pletely to such ends.” VENETIAN RED Is useful to house-painters, in imitating mahogany ; is a native red oker inclining to scarlet, and easily prepared by mixing it with the colcothar or caput mortuum, taken out THE ARTIST’S ASSISTANT. 65 of the aquafortis pots and washed over. It requires no other preparation for use than to be well ground with oil, unless when it is used in miniature painting— when it should be washed over with the utmost care. SPANISH BROWN Resembles the Venetian red very much in colour, but is fouler : it is a native pigment, and is used much in the same state nature produces it ; being dug up in several parts of England. No other preparation is needful than freeing it well from stones and filth, and grinding it with oil to ren- der it fit for colourmen, in the preparation of cloths for pictures, and other coarse work. Calcined or burnt TERRA di SIENNA Is originally yellow ; but when moderately calcined, becomes an orange red, though not very bright. It is a native oker, brought hither from Italy in the state in which it is naturally found. It is calcined by putting lumps of it either in a crucible, or naked in a common fire, and conti- nuing it there till the colour be changed from yellow to red. It is exceedingly useful in oil-painting, and admits of no adulteration: it may be distinguished from other ochrous earths by its semi-transparency. CARMINE Is a bright crimson colour, of great advantage in paint- ing, as well in water as varnish : the preparation of it is kept a secret by those who prepare it in perfection ; and the superiority of the French carmine shews that the pro- per method is wanting in England- — though some wrongly attribute the excellence to qualities in the air and water of France. There are several recipes for this colour, but rather than insert imperfect instructions for an article of great consequence, we choose to be silent. 64 THE ARTIST’S ASSISTANT. LAKE. The best of what is commonly sold, is made from the colour extracted from scarlet rags, and deposited on the cut- tie-bone, which may be done in the following manner: “ Take a pound of the best pearl-ashes, and, having “ dissolved them in two quarts of water, purify them by 44 filtering through paper. Add then to this solution two 44 more quarts of water, and having put in a pound of 44 scarlet shreds, procured of the tailors, (which must be 44 entirely clean), boil them in a pewter boiler, till the 44 shreds appear to have wholly lost their scarlet colour. ** Take them out of the solution and press them well ; dip- 44 ping them after in water and pressing them again, that 44 all the fluid they had imbibed may be got from them, in 44 order to be put back to the rest. Take then another 44 pound of the scarlet shreds, and repeat the like treat- 44 ment of them in the same solution ; as also a third and 44 fourth pound. While this is doing dissolve a pound and 44 half of cuttle-fish-bone in a pound of strong aquafortis in 44 a glass receiver: adding more of the bone, if it appear 44 to produce any ebullition in the aquafortis: and, having 44 strained off this solution through flannel, pour it into the 44 other by degrees ; observing whether it produce any “ effervescence on putting in the last quantity : which if it 44 do in any great degree, more of the cuttle-fish bone must 44 be dissolved in aquafortis ; and the solution very gradu- ally added till no ebullition appear to be raised by it in 44 the mixture. If this be properly managed, the fluid will 44 soon become clear and colourless, and the tinging parti- Si cles extracted from the shreds, together with the cuttle- 44 fish-bone, will subside to the bottom and form a crimson 44 sediment ; which is the lake. The water must then be 44 poured off, and two gallons of hard .spring water must 44 be put to the lake, and well stirred about to mix them. THE ARTIST’S ASSISTANT. 65 es This being;; likewise poured oft, after the lake has again “ settled to the bottom, must be replaced by another two “ gallons ; and the same method must be repeated four or “ 'five times. But if hard water cannot be procured, or the “ lake appear too purple, half an ounce of alum should be “ added to each quantity of water before it be used. When “ the lake is thus sufficiently freed from the salts, it must “ have the water drained from it in a filter covered with a “ linen cloth, which has been so worn as to have no nap “ or down remaining on its surface. After the lake has “ been drained to a proper dryness, it must be dropped on clean boards, by means of a proper funnel : through “ which, the drops being suffered to pass, and rest on the “ board at proper distances, they will become small cones “ or pyramids : in which form the lake must be suffered to “ dry, and the preparation is then completed.” ROSE PINK. The basis of this pigment is principally chalk ,* and the tinging substance. Extracted from Brazil, or Campeachy wood. It will not stand with oil or water, and is seldom employed but for the coat*} work of house painters, or for paper hanging, unless secured from flying with varnish, when, if good, it may be substituted for lake. It is pre- pared as follows : “ Take brazil wood six pounds, or three pounds of brazil “ and three of ’peachy wood. Boil them an hour with “ three gallons of water, in which a quarter of a pound of “ alum is dissolved. Purify then the fluid by straining “ through flannel ; and put back the wood into the boiler u with the same quantity of alum, and proceed as before ; “ repeating this a third time. Mix then the three quan- “ tities of tincture together ,* and evaporate them till only “ two quarts of fluid remain; which evaporation must be performed first in the pewter boiler, and afterwards in a F. it 65 THE ARTIST'S ASSISTANT. “ balneo mariae. Prepare in the mean time eight pounds “ of chalk by washing over ; a pound of alum being put “ into the water used for that purpose, which, after the “ chalk is washed, must be poured off and supplied by a “ fresh quantity, till the chalk be freed from the salt form- “ ed by the alum ; after which it must be dried to the con- “ sistence of stiff clay. The chalk and tincture, as above “ prepared, must be then well mixed together by grinding ; “ and afterwards laid out to dry where neither the sun or “ cold air can reach it; though, if it can be conveniently “ done, a gentle heat may be used.” RED OKER Is a native earth, brought chiefly from Oxfordshire, and burnt afterwards (by those who prepare it) in large ovens till by calcination it becomes red. It is very useful as well in the more delicate as coarser paintings in oil, for it stands infallibly. For nicer purposes it should be washed over; but for others it may be used in the state in which it is found in the shops. Class II.* Of BLUE COLOURS. Ultramarine is a bright blue colour, of the highest value in every kind of painting ; being equally serviceable in all, even in enamel. It has a transparent effect in oil, and in some degree in water, and will stand without the least hazard of flying. By reason of its high price, Prussian blue has been much introduced, to the prejudice of paint- ing in general ; as the skies of landskapes and many other * Class II. BLUE. Ultramarine. Indigo. Ultramarine ashes. Smalt. Prussian blue. Bice Verditer. Litmus, orlatmus. Cendre blue, or Sanders blue. THE ARTISTE ASSISTANT. 67 parts of modern pictures, shew the loss of ultramarine, by their changing from a warm or clear blue, to a faint green or olive tint. The methods have been continually varied by those who have attempted to prepare this pigment. The following is the best of the more modern : “ Take the lapis lazuli, and break it into very small “ pieces, or rather a gross powder ; put it into a crucible, “ and cover it securely, to prevent the coals from falling “ amongst it. Calcine it then with a strong fire, for an. “ hour, if there be any large quantity, or less time in pro- tl portion ; quench it, when taken out of the fire, in “ vinegar, stirring them well together, and suffer it to “ remain in that state for a day or two. Pour off then the “ vinegar, except what may be necessary for moistening the “ calcined lapis lazuli in grinding ; which operation it must “ then undergo, in a mortar of flint or glass, till reduced “ to the greatest degree of fineness those means may effect. “ But, if it appear yet too hard to be easily ground, give “ it another short calcination, and quehch it a second time “ in vinegar. The vinegar must then be washed off from “ the powder, by the putting to it several successive quan- “ tities of clean water ; each of which must be poured off “ when the lapis lazuli has been well stirred about in them, “ and is again settled to the bottom. It must then be “ground on a porphyry stone, with a mullar, till it be “ perfectly impalpable, and then dried ; in which state it is “ duly prepared to mix with the following cement. Take “ of Burgundy pitch nine ounces — of white resin, and “ Venetian turpentine, six ounces — of virgin wax oneounce “ and half — and of linseed oil one ounce and a quarter; “ mix them together by melting in a pipkin over the fire; “ and suffer them to boil till they acquire so stiff a con- “ sistence, that being dropt into water, while of this boiling “ heat, they will not spread on the surface of it, but form in “ roundish mass or lump. The cement being thus formed f 2 THE ARTIST’S ASSISTANT. 68 44 may be poured out of the pipkin in the water, and made 44 into cakes or rolls for use. Of this cement, take an 44 equal weight with that of the calcined lapis lazuli and 44 melt it in a glazed earthen pipkin ; but not so as to ren- 44 der if too fluid. Then add to it the calcined matter by u very slow degrees; stirring them together with an ivory 44 spatula, till the whole appear perfectly mixed. Being 44 thus mixed, heat the composition to a something greater 44 degree, ami cast it into a large bason full of cold water # 44 When it has cooled to a consistence ho bear such treat- 44 ment, knead it well like the dough of bread, with the 44 hands rubbed over with linseed oil, till all the parts be 44 thoroughly incorporated with each other. Then make 44 the mass into a cake, which may be either kept till, some 44 other convenient time in cold water, or immediately pro- 44 ceeded with in the following manner: put the cake into u an. earthen dish or bason, the bottom of which should be 4 * rubbed with linseed oil* and pour on it water of the. 44 warmth of blood. Let it stand a quarter of an hour; 44 and, as the water softens the cake, it will let loose the 44 finest part of the calcined matter, which, on gently stir- 44 ring the water, but without breaking the cake, or sepa- 44 rating it into lesser parts, will be suspended in the water, 44 and must be poured off with it into another vessel. The. 44 quantity of water must be then renewed, and the same 44 operation repeated a second or third time: and, as the 44 mass appears slack, in affording the colour, it must be 44 moved and stirred, in the manner of kneading, with the 44 ivory spatula,' but not broken into fragments, or small 44 parts; and/when so much of the colour is extracted, as 44 to render it necessary for the obtaining more, the heat of 44 the whaler must be increased to the greatest degree. The 44 quantities of the calcined matter (which is now the ultra- 44 marine) that were first gashed off, and appear ot the 44 game degree of deepness and brightness, may be put toge- THE ARTIST’S ASSISTANT. 69 ** ther; and the same of those of the second degree: the “ last washings making a third. The water being then “ poured off from each of these parcels, put on a lixivium “ formed of two ounces of salt of tartar, or pearl-ashes, “ dissolved in a pint of water, and filtered through paper, “ after the solution is cold. This lixivium must he p-it on “ boiling hot, and the ultramarine stirred well about in it ; and then the mixture set to cool. The powder being “ subsided, the clear lixivium must be poured off, and clean “ water put in a is place ; which must be repeated till the “ whole of the salts of the lixivium are washed away. The “ ultramarine must afterwards be dried; and will be then “ duly prepared for use.” Ultramarine is subject to be adulterated, on account of its great price. This is frequently done by a precipitation of copper, made by alkaline salt, and is very injurious ; because the magistery of copper (if the ultramarine sophis- ticated with it be used in painting, eitherwith oil or water) will change its hue and turn black. And, in enamel paint- ing, as soon as fluxed, it will become a green, and conse- quently make the effect of the ultramarine vary from what is intended. This fraud may be easily detected by pouring some diluted spirit of nitre on a 'small quantity ; which, if there be any copper, will soon dissolve, and form a greenish blue solution. ULTRAMARINE ASHES. After the ultramarine has been extracted from the lapis lazuli, the residuum or remains form this pigment/ And when the operation ofextracting the colour has not succeed- ed well, a considerable share of the ultramarine is left behind with the recrement, and greatly enhances the worth of the ashes ; for of course the value of the latter is inferior to the former, but it is still subject to adulteration, which may be discovered by piifting some of it into a small quantity of 70 THE ARTISTE ASSISTANT. spirit of nitre, and if there be any copper in it, it will he tinged green. It is prepared as follows : “ Take the cement of the ultramarine, which remains 66 after the colour is extracted, and mix it with four times “ its weight of linseed oil. Let the mixture be set in a “ glazed pipkin over the fire, and when it is thus boiled a “ short time, put it into a glass vessel sufficiently large to “ contain it, of a cylindrical figure ; of which vessel the “ diameter must be small in proportion to the length. But “ Care must be taken, that the matter, when put in this “ glass, be cool enough not to endanger the breaking it. “ This glass must then be put into a balneum marias, “ which must be made as hot as possible without boiling, 11 and kept there till the colour appears to be all subsided “to the bottom. The oil must then be poured off, till “ the colour appears to rise with it ; and the remainder, “ with the colour in it, must be put into another glass of u the same kind with as much fresh oil as will rise five or “ six inches above the colour. This class must be treated “in the same manner as the first: observing when the “ colour has subsided, the oil must be poured off, and a “ fresh quantity put in its place. This having been like- “ wise poured off, the colour must then be well washed, “ to free it from the remaining oil, first in boiling water, “ and afterwards in some of the lixivium abovementioned, “ mas rather difficult to procure either good carmine or good lake. Good carmine«is inclined to the Vermillion tint, and should be an impalpable powder, and good lake to the carmine tint. The carmine crayons are prepared in the following manner: As their texture is inclinable to hardness, instead of grinding and rolling them, take a sufficient quantity of carmine, lay it upon the grinding-scone, mix it with a levigating knife with spirits of wine, till it becomes smooth and even; yet the less friction produced by the knife the etter The chalk-stone being ready, lay the colour upon It to absorb the spirit, but be careful that it is laid on in a pioper shape for painting. ^ The Simple colour being prepared, the next step is to compose the different tints by a mixture with whiting • the proportion to be observed consisting of twenty gradations, to one, which may be clearly un le, stood by the following irectmns : Take some of the simple coLar, and levigate t wilhspn-its of wine, adding about one part of washed mg o three parts of carmine, of which, when properly 108 THE ARTIST’S ASSISTANT. incorporated, make two parcels. The next i gradation should be composed of equal quantities of carmine and whiting, of which four crayons may be made. The third composition should have one fourth carmine, and three fourths whiting ; of this make six crayons, which will be a good proportion with the rest. The last tint should be made of whiting, very faintly tinged with carmine, of which make about eight crayons, which will complete the abovementioned proportion. N. B. Though these tints made with whiting may be rolled, yet the pure carmine will not bear it, but must be left on the chalk-stone till perfectly dry. LAKE Is a colour very apt to be hard ; to prevent which the student must observe the following particulars: Take about half the quantity of lake intended for the crayons, and grind it very fine with spirits of wine; let it dry, and then pulverize it, which is easily done if the lake is good ; then take the other half and grind it with spirits ; after which mix it with the pulverized lake, and lay it out directly in crayons on the chalk. The colour will not bear rolling. The simple colour being thus prepared, proceed with the compound crayons as directed before, and in the game degrees of gradation as the carmine tints. VERMILLION, or NATIVE CINNABAR. The best is inclined to the carmine tint. To prepare this colour, mix it on the stone with soft water, or spirits after which it may be rolled into crayons. BLUES. PRUSSIAN BLUE Is a colour very apt to bind, and is rendered soft with more difficulty than carmine and lake. The same method THE ARTIST’S ASSISTANT. 109 of preparation is to be followed with this as directed with respect to lake, only it is necessary to grind a larger quan- tity of the* pure colour, as it is chiefly used for painting draperies. BLUE VERDITER Is a colour naturally gritty, and therefore it is necessary to wash it well. Its particles are so coarse as to require some binding matter to unite them, otherwise the crayons will never adhere together. To accomplish this, take a quantity sufficient to form two or three crayons, to which add a piece of slacked plaister of Paris about the size of a pea ,- mix these well together, and form the crayons upon the chalk. This blue is extremely brilliant, and will be of great use in heightening draperies, <5fC. GREENS. t Brilliant greens are produced with great difficulty, which may be procured of those who make it their business to prepare them ; yet the following compositions will be found useful : Take yellow oker, and after grinding it with spirits, mix it with the powder of Prussian blue ; then temper it with a knife, and lay the crayons on the chalk without rolling them ; besides this use king’s yellow, mixed with Prussian blue, brown oker, and Prussian blue.* The crayons made of these last may be rolled. YELLOWS. KING’S YELLOW Is the most useful and the most brilliant, levigated with spirits of wine, and compose the different tints as before directed. Yellow oker, and Naples yellow, ground with spirits, will make useful crayons. * Roman oker and Prussian blue mixed in different proportions will be useful. 110 THE ARTIST’S ASSISTANT. ORANGE Is produced with king’s yellow and Vermillion, ground together with spirits, and the tints formed as in other cases ; hut no great quantity of them is required. BROWNS. CULLEN’s EARTH Is a fine dark brown. After six or eight of the simple crayons are prepared, several rich compound tints may be produced from it, by a mixture with carmine in various degrees : black, carmine, and this colour, mixed together? make useful tints for painting hair; several gradations may be produced from each of these by a mixture with whiting. UMBER May be treated in just the same manner, only it is necessary to levigate it with spirits of wine. PURPLES. Prussian blue ground with spirits, and mixed with pulve- rized lake, will produce a good purple. Carmine thus mixed with Prussian blue will produce a purple something different from the former. Various tints may be made from either of these compounds by a mixture with whiting. BLACK. LAMP-BLACK Is the only full black that can be used with safety, as all others are subject to mildew. Cinnabar mixed with carmine.— -This is a composition of great use, and tints made from this with whiting will be found very serviceable# . i THE ARTIST'S ASSISTANT. Ill Carmine and black is another good compound, of which five or six gradations should be made, some partaking more of the black, and others having the carmine most predomi- nant, besides several tints by a mixture with whiting. Cinnabar and black is also a very useful compound, from which several different tints should be made. Prussian blue and black is another good compound, and will be found of singular service in painting draperies. It is impossible to lay down rules for forming every tint necessary in composing a set of crayons, there being many accidental compositions entirely dependent on fancy and opinion. The student should make it a rule to save the leavings of his colours, for of these he may form various tints which will occasionally be useful. Of ROLLING the CRAYONS and DISPOSING them for PAINTING. The different compositions of colours must be cut into a proper magnitude after they are prepared, in order to be rolled into pastils, for the convenience of using them. Each crayon should be formed in the left hand with the ball of the right, first formed cylindrically, and then tapered at each end. If the composition is too dry, dip the finger in water ; if too wet the composition must be laid upon the chalk again to absorb more of the moisture. The crayons should be rolled as quick as possible , and when finished, must be laid upon the chalk again, to absorb all remaining moisture. After the gradation of tints from one colour is formed, the chalk and the grinding-stone should be well scraped and cleansed with water before it is used for another colour. When the set of crayons is completed according fo the rules prescribed, they should be arranged in classes for the |]2 THE ARTISTE ASSISTANT, convenience of painting with them. Some thin drawers divided into a number of partitions, is the most convenient method of disposing them properly. The crayons should be deposited according to the several gradations of lights. The bottom of the partitions must be covered with bran, as a bed for the colours, because it not only preserves them clean, but prevents their breaking. The box made use of when the student paints, should be about a foot square, with nine partitions. In the upper corner, on the left hand, (supposing the box to be in the lap when he paints) let him place the black and grey crayons, (those being the most seldom used) ; in the second partition, the blues ; in the third, the greens and browns ; in the first partition on the left hand of the second row, the carmines, lakes, vermillions, and all deep reds; the yellows and orange in the middle ; and the pearly tints next ; and as these last are of a very delicate nature, they must be kept very clean, that the gradations of colour may be easily distinguished: in the lowest row, let the first partition con- tain a piece of fine linen rag to wipe the crayons with while they are using ; the second, all the pure lake and vermilliun tints ; and the other partitions may contain those tints, which, from their complex nature, cannot be classed with any of the former. ENCAUSTIC PAINTING. This method of painting has been little practised in England. For the information of the curious we give the following directions, which will enable them to produce with ease a picture in this very curious manner. The first method is described in a letter from Mr. Febroni, the inventor, published in Maty’s Review for 1785. THE ARTIST’s ASSISTANT. 1 13 u Mr, Lewis, of Gottenbrun, has lately executed a picture according to my manner: it is done upon wood prepared with wax, and is remarkable for the vivacity and splendour of its colours. I believe I have already mentioned to you* in what this new manner consists: you melt, or rather dissolve, some good white wax in naptha petrolei,* without colour, till such time as the mixture has acquired, by cool- ing, the appearance of an oil beginning to freeze. Mix your colours in this, and then keep them in small tin boxes ; you dilute them more or less, with the same naptha, ac- cording as they dry, or as you wish to use them. This painting allows time enough to give all the finishing you desire ; and if you wish to work in haste, you may dry as fast as you please by exposing it to the heat. When the picture is finished, it is of that fine tone which is preferable to any varnish ; but if you choose a varnish only, warm the picture, and the naptha will evaporate. When this is done, you must wait till the picture cools, when you must polish it by rubbing it over neatly with a cloth. If you wish to have it still brighter, you must melt white wax on the fire, without suffering it to boil ; mix a little naptha with this, and draw a layer of it over the picture already heated, by means of a brazier, which you hold under, if the picture is small, or before it if it is large ; the colours at first appear spoiled, but you restore them to their first beauty, if, when the layer of wax is cooled, you polish it by rubbing with a cloth ; it is then that the colours take the high tone of oil. If you fear the effect of fire for your picture, you are to make a soap of wax, which is to be done by boiling white ^vax in water, in which you have dissolved a twentieth part of the weight of the wax of marine alkali, or sel de sourde y very pure. Rub your picture with this soap ; and when it * Naptha petrolei is a bituminous kind of oil, issuing out of certain rocks in the territory of Modena. There are three sorts, more or less pure and colourless. THE ARTIST’S ASSISTANT. U4r is dry, polish it as before-mentioned: if you do not choose either of thesb methods, give your painting its usual vaf- nish of sandarac and spirit of turpentine. This method has been found preferable to all those that have been tried, and superior to oil for the beauty of their colours. There are many fine colours which cannot be used in oil, that may be made use of with great success in this method. As the naptha entirely evaporates, one may be assured, that this is the true method of painting in wax. There is likewise much to hope for the duration of the pictures painted in this manner, as wax is much less liable to altera- tion than oil, and does not so easily part with its phlogiston.’ 1 »wsw The ANCIENT GRECIAN METHOD of PAINTING. ' By EMMA JANE GREENLAND.* Take an ounce of white wax, and the same weight of gum mastick in taehrymas, that is, as it comes from the tree, which must be reduced to a coarse powder. Put the wax in a glazed earthen vessel, over a very slow fire, and when it is quite dissolved, strew in the mastick, a little at a time, stirring the wax continually, until the whole quantity of gum is perfectly melted and incorporated ; then throw the paste into cold water, and when it is hard, take it out of the water, wipe it dry, and beat it in one of Mr. Wedgwood’s mortars, observing to pound it at first in a linen cloth, to absorb some drops of water that will remain in the paste, and would prevent the possibility of reducing * A Gold Palette was, on this occasion, voted to Emma Jane Greenland, November 14, 17S6, by the Society at London for the Encouragement of Arts, Manufactures, and Commerce. THE ARTIST’s ASSISTANT. 1 15 it to a powder, which must be so fine as to pass through a thick gauze. It should be pounded in a cold place, and a little while at a time, as, after long beating, the friction will in a degree soften the wax and gum; and instead of their becoming a powder, they will return to a paste. Make some strong gum arabick water, and when you paint, take a little of the powder, some colour, and mix them together with the gum-water. Light colours require but a small quantity of the powder, but more of it must be put in proportion to the body and darkness of the colour, and to black, there should be almost as much of the powder as colour. Having mixed the colours, and no more than can be used before they grow dry, paint with fair water, as is practised in painting with water colours, a ground on the wood being first painted of some proper colour, prepared in the same manner as is described for the picture ; walnut-tree and oak are the sorts of wood commonly made use of in Italy for this purpose. The painting should be very highly finished, otherwise, when varnished, the tints will not appear united. When the painting is quite dry, with rather a hard brush, passing it one way, varnish it with white wax, which is put into an earthen vessel, and kept melted over a very slow fire till the picture is varnished, taking great care the wax does not boil. Afterwards hold the picture before a fire, near enough to melt the wax, but not to make it run ; and when the varnish is entirely cold and hard, rub it gently with a linen cloth. Should the varnish blister, warm the picture again very slowly, and the bubbles will subside. When the picture is dirty, it need only be washed with cold water. i 2 116 THE ARTIST’S ASSISTANT. The VENETIAN METHOD of COLOURING. By TIMOTHY SHELDRAKE, Esq.* The method of Painting practised in the Venetian School: The cloth was primed with colours in distemper, of a brownish hue, such as would properly enter into the darkest parts of the picture. The most transparent colours are the properest. I believe umber was most generally used, broken with red, yellow, or blue, according to the tint intended to be produced, and diluted with chalk or whiting to the proper degree of strength. Upon the ground so prepared, the subject was correctly drawn with umber, pure, or mixed I, with lake, blue, or black ; and, with the same colours, those shadows that were darker than the ground were then painted in. The artist then painted the lights with pure white^ in a solid body, where the light was brightest, or where the full effect of colour was to be produced ; and, -where the demi-tints were afterwards to be, scumbling it thinner by degrees, till it united with the shadows. In this manner the chiaro-oscuro was finished as much as possible, and the local colour of every object in the picture glazed over it. All the colours used in this part of the work were ground in oil, which was absorbed into the ground, the picture remaining fiat, something like a picture in water-colours or crayons ; it was then varnished, till saturated with varnish, and the full of every colour brought out : the picture was then complete. * The Greater Silver Palette was voted to Mr. Sheldrake, for this Disser- tation on Painting in Oil, in 1798, by the Society instituted at London, for : the Encouragement of Arts, Manufactures and Commerce. THE ARTIST’S ASSISTANT. 137 Upon the most superficial view of this process, it will be evident that a picture painted by it is, as to all visible pro- perties, a varnish picture: for the small quantity of oil that had been used, sunk into the ground, and never could rise again to be hurtful; while the varnish, being laid on after the colours, gave them all the brilliancy and durability they could derive from that vehicle, without being liable to the objections that are made to painting in varnish, supposing it to be used in the same manner as oil is in painting with oil. It is true that this mode of painting is itself liable to some objections ; these 1 have endeavoured to obviate, and shall therefore mention hereafter. Here it may be observed, that, as any varnish may be used, it is to this circu instance we must attribute the different degrees of durability in pictures of the Venetian school. I have seen some that would resist the most powerful solvents, while others were destroyed by the weakest ; though all possessed the apparent properties that distinguish the Venetian pic- tures from all others. As I do not pretend to degrade painting to the rank of a mechanical art, that may be infallibly practised by a receipt, I shall be permitted to observe, that this was the general system of the Venetian school, which I have seen variously modified in the works of different artists of that, as well as of the Flemish, which is derived from it. It is susceptible of an almost infinite number of modifications, in proportion to the talents, the judgment of, and the objects to be painted by the artists who may adopt it. This being the case, if it is proved by experiment that effects similar to those of the Venetian pictures may be produced by this method; and that the system has a strong tendency to produce that bril- liancy and harmony of colouring as is so much admired, with more certainty and facility than those qualities cap he obtained by any other mode of painting. THE ARTIST'S ASSISTANT. 118 I once asked Sir Joshua Reynolds, by what circumstance^ in the management of a picture he thought the harmony of colouring was to be produced ? He replied, an unity of light and an unity of shadow should pervade the whole. He explained to me the difficulty of reducing the various colours of all the objects that may be included in a picture, and the various modifications of those colours to the simple, harmo- nious state he described, and illustrated what he had said by this simile : “ A picture, to possess harmony of colouring, should look as if it was painted with one colour (suppose umber and white), and, when the chiaro-oscuro was com- plete, the colour of each object should be glazed over it.” This observation, from such authority, was impressed with peculiar force on my mind ; and if I can retrace its operations on a subject which has so long engaged my atten- tion, I should say Sir Joshua’s observation was the clue that guided me through all my experiments ; and, I hope, will enable me to prove, that the beautiful and simple practice which he suggested as a simile, was literally the practice of that school upon whose works his ideas of colouring were founded. At the same time I may observe, that the fact seems to have eluded his observation, or he would not have used it as a comparison to simplify his description of a practice which he thought both difficult and complex. In the Newtonian doctrine of Light and Colours, it is believed that all colours are inherent in light, and are ren- dered visible by the action of various bodies, which reflect particular rays, and absorb the rest. Without disputing the truth of this doctrine, it is to be observed, that a painter must consider the objects he represents as being analogous to the materials he uses to represent them ; and, m this view of the subject, colour is to be considered as a property inherent in bodies, which is rendered visible by the contact of light, a colourless, or at least a mono- THE ARTISTs ASSISTANT. 1 ] 9 coloured substance, and shadow the mere privation of light. A picture may represent either a groupe o-f figures, or -atlier objects, in a room, or any objects in the open air ; whatever the situation may be, it represents certain objects in a given space, possessing individually their peculiar colours, and generally exposed to the operations of light. The quantity of light each can receive, must depend upon its form, and its position respecting that part whence the light comes; for, in proportion as other parts recede from the light, the shadow becomes visible: but shadow is no- thing but privation of light, and privation of colour, in pro- portion as the light is diminished. Some attention to these circumstances will, perhaps, enable us to demonstrate the truth of Sir Joshua’s position. If a globe of one colour be exposed in a painter’s room, properly darkened, that part which is nearest the light will partake of its colour; the next part will shew the true colour of the object ; that which first recedes from the light will be a little obscured, the next a little more, and so on progressively, till that part which is farthest from the light will lose its colour, and appear equally dark with the shadiest part of the room. Now we know this globe is of one uniform colour ; the variations we see in different parts of it are only deceptions, occasioned by the accession of light in some parts, and the privation of it in others. What is true of this one object and its parts, would be equally true of any number of objects, whatever their colours or relative situations might be; if they were placed together in the same room, each would possess its own individual colour, each would partake of the general light, in proportion to its situation, and of the general darkness in proportion as it recedes from the light. All this may be easily conceived ; but the difficulty, and, in the ordinary modes of painting, a serious one it is, is to represent such THE ARTIST’S ASSISTANT. 120 objects with the appearance of truth, and preserve the har- mony necessary to constitute a whole. The Venetian painters, however, by whatever means they obtained their knowledge, discovered a method so simple, that perhaps no other can produce such brilliant effects, and undoubtedly not with facility and certainty at all comparable with their’s. The artist will remark that, in describing the whole of the Venetian method of painting, I have said nothing of the manner of producing those demi-tints that conduce so much to the brilliancy of a picture, which are so difficult to execute, and in which he most frequeiiily fails. Those tints are, in the ordinary modes of painting, produced by the mixture of black, grey, blue, or brown (according to the judgment of the artist), with the local colours of the objects. It is these tints which, from their being made with such colours, it is difficult to get clear, and which never are so clear in any other as in the Venetian, and in some of the Flemish pictures, which are painted upon ana- logous principles. The fact is, that those painters pro- duced all such tints without the admixture of any colour to represent them, and by a method so like that by which they are produced in nature, that this circumstance alone ensures a degree of brightness to their colours, and of harmony to their shadows, that it is perhaps impossible to produce, in an equal degree, by any other mode of painting. It is a singular fact, which I have not skill in physics to be able to account for, though by numerous experiments I have ascertained, beyond contradiction, that if upon any degree of brown, between the deepest and the lightest brown yellow, we paint pure white, in gradations, from the solid body to the lightest tint that can be laid on, all the tints between the solid white and the ground will appear to be grey, intense in proportion to the depth of the ground, THS ARTIST’S ASSISTANT. 121 and the thinness of the white laid upon it. But in every case all the tints laid upon one ground will harmonize with each other, and form one connected chain (if I may use the expression), which will perfectly unite the highest light with the darkest shade. If then we examine the component substances of a Venetian picture, we shall find the lighter parts consist only of white, to represent the light ,* and of the local colours of the objects it represents, the demi-tints are imitated by an appearance almost as deceptive as the similar appearances in nature: but in every other method of painting, these demi-tints are produced by mixing some dusky colour with the local colours and the light. The comparison of these methods will afford a demonstrative reason why the Vene- tian must be brighter than any other mode of painting. Having shewn, as near to a demonstration as the nature of the subject will perhaps admit, why those parts of a Venetian picture that are connected with light and colours are brighter than the corresponding parts of any other pictures, it remains to explain the cause of similar superi- ority in the darker parts of the same pictures. It has been said, with much confidence, that as white represents light, so black is the representative of darkness. But though this may be true in physics, it certainly is not so in painting ; for the painter’s art is to represent objects as they appear, in point of colour, to be, not as they really are. Thus, if I know an object is perfectly black, and am to represent it as it appears to be at the distance of fifty- feet black from the palette will not produce a good imitation of it, because the interposition of fifty feet of the atmosphere will cause it to appear of a colour different from what it really is ; and vice versa , if we go into a cavern, a cellar, or a room, so darkened that the colour of no object can be distinctly seen, and if we there hold any solid black sub- stance near to the eye, the difference will be visible at once; 132 THE ARTIST’S ASSISTANT. the black object will be immediately distinguished by its solidity and colour, from the surrounding space, and such remote objects as may be obscurely visible through it. These objects actually possess their individual colours, and only appear indistinctly from the absence of light. The black object may appear solid, and of that colour, from its proximity to the eye ; but the circumjacent ones will appear of a colour perfectly distinct from it, more or less transparent, in 'proportion to their distance from the eye, and shewing a portion of their individual colours; according to the quantity of ill-defined light that may be admitted. Thus we see (if I may venture to mention so notorious a truism), that shadows are nothing real ; they only seem to exist in the absence of light, and give to objects an ill-defined appearance, distinct from, though iii some instances mixed with light and colours in different degrees ; but as the painter must represent this appearance by something real, he chooses the colours most analogous, viz. browns, and the most transparent of their class, to represent this transparent, but imperfectly defined appear- ance in nature. It has been supposed that the Venetian painters hadsome peculiarly rich and transparent brown colour, which is seen to pervade all the works of that school ; the effect of which no modern artist has been able to imitate, and which therefore is supposed to have been lost. Is it not very probable that a colour so common as to pervade the works of the worst as well as of the best artists of that school, should be so unaccountably lost? and, as the effect attributed to it may be easily produced by the mode of painting I have described, it is not unreasonable to conclude that this much- lamented colour has never existed. It is well known that chalk, and other earths of the same kind, lose, when wet, much of their whiteness, and become semi-transparent; it is equally certain, that if THE ARTIST’S assistant. 123 umber or other earths are mixed with chalk, and saturated with varnish after they are laid on the cloth, they, in like . manner, become diaphanous, and are infinitely more bril- liant than the same colours can he when mixed with white lead and oil. This seems, on good grounds, to have been the basis of the Venetian method of painting, and all its peculiar effects ; at least, if I may draw any conclusion from the numerous experiments I have made. But if artists whose talents will enable them to repeat those experiments to the best advantage, should be induced to do so, the fact will be determined in the most satisfactory manner. I may now be permitted to say, it is difficult, if not impossible, to conceive a theory more simple, more beauti- ful, or more true, than that of Sir Joshua Reynolds. It is certainly impossible to form a practice more simple, or more conformable to that theory, than the one I have described, as will be evident on recapitulating the particulars. The artist, having determined what hue should pervade his picture, formed his ground with that colour prepared in distemper; upon this the subject was drawn, and the darker shades painted in with transparent colours, which sunk into the ground ; with pure white he then painted in ail the lights and demi-tints ; and, lastly, glazed in the colours, each in its place. Upon applying the varnish, the darker shades were, as to body, incorporated with the ground ; and thus, though different in colour, appeared thinner and more transparent than any cojours could be when laid upon any ground ; the full effect of every colour was brought out, and the picture was complete. Whoever has been accustomed to paint, or to 'mark the progress of painting in the common way, and will reflect on the practice of the method I have described, by artists who had been brought up to it, must see that such artists would paint with a degree of facility, expedition, and certainty, as to effect, that could never be equalled in the 124 THE ARTIST'S ASSISTANT. ordinary way of painting in oil ; besides, it will be evident that an artist would not only paint a picture himself with more facility ; but if he had occasion, could employ a number of subordinate artists upon large works, and put those works out of hand with more uniformity, as to merit and effect, than if he were to employ such assistants in similar works, if they were to be painted in the common way. I am sensible how little attention will, and perhaps ought to be paid to observations on painting, if made by those who are not professionally artists; for practical men acquire a kind of knowledge that can never be obtained in any other way ; but at the same time they contract preju- dices that often prevent them from fully investigating any novelty in practice that may be offered to their notice. The speculative man, on the contrary, who investigates the properties of matter, unshackled by practical preju- dices, and with ideas purely chemical or philosophical, will be more likely to ascertain all the facts relative to any theory that may become the object of enquiry. In this way I hope I have proceeded in this investigation. I have endeavoured to consider pictures as masses of matter, possessing the properties, but differing from each other in degree of brilliancy, transparency, and duration. I ought, perhaps, here to take leave of the subject ; but it may be expected that I should give an account of the manner in which the pictures were painted. I have already mentioned that there are some difficulties in the method of painting I have described, as being that of the old artists, and which would form objections of considerable force to the practice of it by artists who are well acquainted with the usual modes of painting; these difficulties are first, the ground absorbs the oil from the colours so fast, that they are not so manageable as in oil- painting ; secondly, the effect of the picture is not seen THE ARTIST’S ASSISTANT. 125 till the finishing varnish is laid on ; and thirdly, as the effect is not seen till the picture is finished, it will some- times disappoint the artist, and in that case it will be diffi- cult, if at all practicable, to alter it. As I believe the process I have described in the beginning of this paper is similar to that of Miss Provis, the artists who are acquainted with her recipe, can ascertain whether my conjectures on this subject are right or not. I am certain at least that these difficulties occurred in my attempts to paint, and, to obviate them, I adopted the fol- lowing process : I prepared the ground in distemper, and painted the dark parts in the way I have described ; I then varnished the ground with the copal oil-varnish, till it was fully saturated ; and by this means the full effect of that part of the picture was seen ,* upon this I painted the lighter parts with white, using much of the vehicle where the colour was thin, and little in the solid parts, leaving the white in them dead ; by this means I understood the effect of my chiaro oscuro, as I saw the effect of the demi-tints nearly as well as when the picture was finished. Upon this I glazed the colours in the way I have described in the beginning of this paper, and finished the picture. I often found (probably from want of practice.) that the effect was different from what I intended, as the effect of the colours, added to that of the chiaro oscuro, produced an essential alteration in the whole ; as I took care in general that the defect did not arise from too much white, I added more where it was deficient, and glazed fresh colours over it, which united perfectly with what had been done before, and did not give the appear- ance of a mended picture. If the defect was from too much white, I glazed on it a, colour similar to that of the ground, painted with fresh white upon that, and glazed the proper colours over it. In this way I ]26 THE ARTIST'S ASSISTANT. found I could alter the picture, but not so well as in the former case. I found I could, when necessary, increase the effect of the picture, by painting on the principal mass or masses of light with the local colours, only mixed with white; as this practice brought those parts more forward by making them appear solid, and thus contrasting them with the . transparency of the rest of the picture. In this way I could use the colours tempered with copal varnish without difficulty ; and, I believe, that if I had been accustomed to paint large pictures, I could have painted one as large as life with the same ease. METHOD and PROCESS for TRANSFERRING PAINTINGS. By Mr. ROBERT SALMON.* The first thing to be attended to, either for paintings on plaster walls or ceilings, or from boards, is, that the place in which they are, be secure from wet or damp. If the paintings are on old walls, in large buildings, and places where this cannot be attained by art, then the summer season should be taken for the purpose, as the picture would rarely escape damage if the wet or damp gets at it while under the process ; at the same time caution should be taken that the room or place be not over-heated, which would also produce equally bad effects: these precautions taken, the next thing is to examine the face of the paint- ing. If there are any holes in the same, they must be * The Great Silver Palette was voted to Mr. Robert Salmon for this Discovery, by the Society for the Encouragement of Arts, Manufactures and Commerce, Dec. 5, 1796. THE ARTIST’S ASSISTANT. 127 carefully filled up with paste, or putty of glue and whiting ; this, if tlie holes are large, should be twice or thrice done, so as to entirely fill up and leave the face even and smooth ; but if there are any bruised places, with paint still remaining on the face of the bruised parts, then this stopping must not be applied, but the securing canvas, hereafter described, be pressed down into these places. In the places that are stopped, there will, of course, appear blemishes, when the picture is transferred ; but the process is rendered much more certain and sure by being so done. Attention must Titext ht paid, to lay down any blisters, or places where the paint is leaving the ground; this is done by introducing, between the paint and the ground, some very strong paste of flour and Water; and the face of the blistered paint being damped wsth a wet sponge or pencil, it may then be pressed with the hand home to the ground, to which it will then adhere ; all the unsound places being thus secured, care must be taken to clear tlie face of any grease or dirt;' as also of any particles of the paste that may happen to be left on the surface. The next thing is, to determine the size of the painting meant to be taken off; and if on a plain surface, a board of the size of the picture must be procured, of not less than an inch in thickness, and framed together with well-seasoned wood, in small pannels, smooth, and flush on one side ; this done, a piece of fine open canvass* must be provided, such as the finest sort used for hanging paper on; this canvass to be made somewhat larger than the picture, and so sewed together, and the seam pressed, that it be perfectly smooth and even. This is what I call the securing-canvass, which, being so prepared, is then stuck on the face of the picture with a paste made of strong beer, boiled till it is half reduced, and then mixed with a sufficient quantity of flour to give it a very strong consist- ence. To large pictures on walls or ceilings, the canvass must for some time be pressed, and rubbed with the hand as THE ARTIST’S ASSISTANT. 158 smooth as possible, working it from the middle to the out- side, so as to make it tolerably tight; and observing, as it dries, to press it with the hand or cloth into any hollow or bruised piaces, so that it may adhere to every part of the painting: this done, it is left to dry, which it will mostly do in a day or two, when dry, a second canvass, of a strong and closer sort, and of the same size as the other, is in like manner to be attached on the top of the first* This last will want very little attention, as it will readily adhere to the first ; and, being dry, attention must be paid to the face thereof, to take off any small knots, or uneven- ness thereon ; which done, the whole should be again covered with a thin paste of size and whiting; when dry, to be pumiced over, so as to make the whole perfectly smooth and even. The painting being thus secured, the board, already prepared to the size of the picture, is to be put with the smooth side against the face thereof, so as exactly to cover as much as is intended to be transferred. The edges of the canvass, which, as before directed, are left larger that the painting, are then to be pulled tight over, and closely nailed to the edge of the board. If the painting be large, either on ceiling or wall, the board must, by proper supports, be firmly fixed against the picture, so that it can readily be lowered down when the plaster and painting is detached. The canvass and board being fixed, the paintings from walls or ceilings are to be freed, together with a certain portion of the plastering; this, with proper care and atten- tion, may be readily done. If on a ceiling, the first thing is to make some holes through the plastering round the outside of the board and painting ; and, with a small saw, to saw the plastering from one hole to another, till the whole is disunited from the other parts of the ceiling ; this done, the workmen must get at the upper side of the ceiling, where he must free the plastering from the laths, by THE ARTIST’s ASSISTANT. 129 breaking off the keys thereof; and, with a chissel, cut out the laths, whereby the plastering, together with thepicture, will be left resting on the board and supports ; if there be apartments over the ceiling, the readiest way will be to take up a few of the floor boards above ; if next the roof, means may always be found to get into the same ; and, although at first this operation may appear difficult, yet it is presumed no difficulty will be found by any ingenious workman. If the painting is on a brick or stone wall, the same must be cut away at top, and down the sides of the painting ; and then, by means of chissels or saws in wood handles, of different lengths, the wall must be cut away quite behind the painting, leaving the same, together with the plas- tering, resting on the board ; this operation may sometimes be done with a saw ; or, if the wall be not thick, nor the other side of much consequence, the bricks or stones may be taken out from that side, leaving the plastering and painting as before ; this last method I have not practised ; the other, of cutting away some part of the wall, I have, and seen no difficulty, or very great labour in the operation ; but that of course must be various, according to the texture of the wall and mortar. . If paintings are on curved surfaces, such as the coves of ceilings, then the only difference of operation is, that some ribs of wood must be cut out and boarded smooth to the curve of the surface of the painting, and then fixed up thereto in place of the before described bearing board; the painting is then to be freed, and left with the plastering, resting on the bearers. For paintings painted on wainscot or boards, the same securing and process is exactly followed, only that, as the wainscot or board can always be cut to the size wanted, or laid horizontal, the securing canvass is stretched thereon, and turned over the edges of the same, till it is dry ; after K 130 THE ARTIST’S ASSISTANT*- which the edges are again turned up, and nailed to the board, in the same manner as those from walls. Having, as before described in airy of the aforementioned cases, freed the paintings from their original places, you have then got them secured to two thicknesses of canvass, with their faces next, and on to the board prepared for that purpose ; which being the case, they can readily be removed to any room or shop, to be finished as follows : having got the painting into the shop or room, which should be moderately warm and dry, but by no means over- heated, laying the board on a bench or tressel, the back of the picture will be uppermost, and the plastering or wood, as may happen, is then to be cleared away, leaving nothing but the body of paint, which will be firmly attached to the securing canvass ; to perform this, a large rasp, a narrow plane and chissels will be requisite; this operation is dif- ficult to describe, but would soon be learnt by any one who- makes the attempt ; nor is it very tedious, and, being per- formed, the picture is ready to be attached to its new can- vass, as follows : The painting being cleared, and laying on the board, the back thereof is to be painted successively, three or four times over, with any good strong-bodied paint, leaving each coat to dry before the other comes on ; a day or two between each will generally be found sufficient; each of these coats, and particularly the first, should be laid on with great care, taking but a small quantity in the brush at a time, and laying it very thin : this precaution is necessary to prevent any of the oil or paint from searching through any small cracks or holes that may happen to be in the face of the picture, which would run into the paste, and so attach the securing canvass to the picture as to prevent its being afterwards got off. If any of these holes or cracks are observed, they should be stopped up with the glue and whiting paste, and the painting then repeated till a com- THE ARTIST’S ASSISTANT. 131 plete coat is formed on the back of the picture ; and it is then ready for attaching to its canvass, which is done by spreading all over the picture a paste made of copal varnish, mixed with stiff white lead, and a small quantity of any other old fat paint ; all which being spread equally over with a palette knife, such a canvass as the first securing- canvass is laid thereon, and strained and nailed round the edges of the board, in which state it is left till it becomes tolerably dry ; and then a second canvass, of a stronger sort, must be in like manner attached on the first, and left till it is perfectly dry and hard. This mostly takes about two months; and the longer it is left, the more secure the painting will be attached to its canvass, and less liable to .crack or fly therefrom. When sufficiently dry, all the four canvasses are to be unnailed from the board, and the edges turned up the reverse way, and nailed to a proper stretching frame ; this is done by unnailing from the board a part on each side at a time, and immediately nailing it to the stretching frame, so as never to leave the canvass to rack or partially stretch, which would damage the picture ; in this manner, by degrees, the cloths are entirely detached from the board, and firmly fixed on the stretching frame ; the superfluous part left larger than the frame, may then be cut off, and the wedges put in the frame, and moderately tightened up. There remains then only to clear the face of the painting from the securing canvass, which is done by repeatedly washing the face with a sponge, and moderately warm water ; in doing this, no force or violence must be used ; with frequent and gentle washings the paste will all be worked out with the sponge ; the edges of the outer canvass is then to be cut round, and stripped off, and the other next the face of the picture is to be done in like manner; which done, there only remains to clear the paste clean off, and repair any defects ; and the picture will be as strong as if painted on the canvass. . A -.mj 132 the Artiste assist akt. For taking pictures off walls, without taking the watte down, or cutting away more thereof than the plastering, the following process is proposed. The face of the picture to be first secured, in every respect, in the manner before described ; instead of the plain board, a bearer should be prepared, with a convex surface, composed of ribs, boarded over, so as to form part of a cylinder, of riot less than five feet radius, and as long as the height of the picture. This bearer being prepared, in order to apply it, a floor or platform should be erected, arid placed horizantally, with its surface level, and its edge immediately in contact with the bottom of the picture meant to be transferred* The use of this platform is for the above-described bearer to rest and move upon ; which bearer should be set on its end, with one edge in contact with the wall, at one side of the picture; consequently the other edge will be at some distance from the wall, according to the size of thepicture, and convexity of the bearer. Being thus placed, the super- fluons edge of the s^puring-canvass should be turned over, and nailed to that edge of the bearer that is next the wall ; this done, the operation of cutting away the plastering should be begun, which may be done with the corner and end of a short saw, by sawing between the brick-work and plastering, leaving the thickness, or part of the thickness of the plastering, on the painting, fastened to the bearer ; and •when this edge of the picture is freed, the whole height, for nine or ten inches under, the edge of the bearer that is furthest from the wall must then be gently forced nearer ; consequently the other edge, together with the painting and plaster that is freed, will leave the wall, and give an opportunity of introducing the saw behind, and cutting away the same to a certain distance further under ; and, by repeating this, the whole of the picture will at last be freed, and left on the bearer; each time the bearer is removed, and, as it were, rolled on the vertical surface of the THE ARTIST'S ASSISTANT. 133 wall, care mast be taken to turn and nail the securing- canvass on the top and bottom edges of the bearer, so as to secure the freed plastering and picture from moving about : and, lastly, before the bearer and painting be moved, to nail the other edge of the picture in the same way, which will secure the whole to the bearer ; this done, the picture and bearer are at liberty to be moved to a proper place, in order to be freed from the remaining plaster; the edges may then be unnailed, and the painting and canvass slipped from this bearer on to a plain board, and the new canvass then put on, and remain till dry, as in other cases. It may appear that the bending of the canvass and plaster- ing to the convex bearer will crack the plaster, and damage the painting ; but from experience I have observed, that, to a curve of such, or even less radius, plastering will bend without any visible crack, even on the exterior part thereof, and that part next the bearer, not having occasion in bend- ing to extend its parts, will consequently be much less liable to be disturbed by such bending. Of PAINTING GLASS, or BACK-PAINTING. THIS manner of painting is executed with great facility » it gives all the softness that can be desired, and is easy to work ; there are no outlines to draw, nor shadows to insert, but your colours are put on without the trouble of either^ The prints for this purpose are done in mezzotinto, but many of those well finished, engraved in the manner of chalks, are very proper; for their shadows being blended together, when rubbed on the glass, appear soft and united as drawings in Indian ink; such prints to have theirmargin cut off; then on a piece of fine crown glass, very clean, 134 THE ARTIST’S ASSISTANT the size of the print, and free from knots and scratches^ lay some Venice turpentine on one side, quite thin and smooth with a painter’s brush — lay the print hat in water ; when thoroughly wetted, which requires twenty-four hours for some sorts of paper, but other sorts are ready in two hours, take it carefully out, and lay it between dry papers, that the superfluous water may be absorbed next, lay the damp print flat on a table, with its face uppermost, then holding the glass over it, without suffering the turpentine to touch it till it is exactly even with the print, gently press the glass in several parts, and turning it, press the print with your fingers, drawing it from the center to the edges, till it is quite smooth and free from blisters ; when this is done, wet the back of your print with a sponge till the paper will come off with your fingers ; then rub it gently and the white paper will roll off, only the ink which formed the imprsssion, remaining. When dry, with a camel-hair pencil, dipped in oil of turpentine, wet it all over, and it will be perfectly transparent, and*fit for paint- ing on ; a sheet of white paper, placed behind, will contri- bute to its transparency, Lay the lighter colours first on the light parts of your print, and the darker over the shaded ,* and having once laid on the brighter colours, it is not material if the darker sorts are laid a little over them, for the first colour will hide those laid on afterwards. The glass, when painted, must stand three or four days to dry, and be carefully covered from dust. The proper colours are those used in oik THE ARTIST’S ASSISTANT, 135 — «=~— For JLNAMEL GROUNDS. The matter of the enamel most be first finely levigated and searced ; and the body to be enamelled should be made perfectly clean. The enamel must then be laid on as even as possible by a brush or pencil, being first tempered with •oil of spike ; and the distance of time betwixt the laying on the ground, and burning the piece, should not be too great ; because the oil will exhale, and leave the matter of the enamel a dry incohering powder, which will be liable to be rubbed or shaken off by the least violence. This is the common method ; but there is a much better way of managing this part of the work by means of a scarce, in which the enamel is spread with very little trouble, and the greatest 'part of the oil of spike saved. The method of performing this is, to rub the surface to be enamelled over with oil of spike ; and then, being laid on a sheet of paper, or piece of leather, to save that part of the enamel which does not fall on a proper object, to searee the matter upon the oiled surface till it lie of a proper thickness ; but great care must be taken in this method of proceeding, not to shake or move too forcibly the pieces of work thus covered with the powdered enamel. It is usual to add oil of turpentine to the oils of spike tir lavender, in order to make them go further, and save the expence attending the free use of them ; and others add also a little olive or linseed oil ; or some, in the place of them, crude turpentine. The use of the spirit of turpentine is very allowable ; for it is the same for this purpose as the oils of spike or lavender, except that it wants the glutinous quality which makes them serviceable in spreading the enamel ; but, with respect to the use of the oils of olive 136 THE, ARTIST’S ASSISTANT. and linseed, or any other substantial oil, it is very detri- mental ; tending to reduce the metalline calxes ; and leaving a small proportion of black coal or ashes, which must necessarily injure the white colour of the ground. When plates, as in the case of pictures, dial-plates, fyc. are to be enamelled, they should always be made convex on the outside, and concave within ; and all pieces of enamel formed of metal, where the figure does not admit of their being thick and solid, should be of the same kind or form ; otherwise they will be very apt to warp in the heat, and cannot be brought straight after they are take out of the fire, without cracking the enamel. For this reason, like- wise, it is proper to enamel the work all over, as well on the wrong as right sides, to prevent the heat from calcining the metal ; which would both contribute to its warping, and weaken the texture of it. The enamel being laid on the body to be enamelled, when the fixed muffle is used, the piece must be gently lifted on to the false bottom, and put in that state into the muffle fixed in a furnace, by thrusting the false bottom into it as far as it will go ; but it is better to defer this till the fire be perfectly in order, which may be known by putting a bit of tile or china, with some enamel on it, of the same tone with that used as a proof; and another proof of the same kind may be also put along with the work into the muffle ; which being taken out, may show how the opera- tion proceeds. Pit-coal may be used in the furnace, where enamel is burnt with the fixed muffle, or in coffins, which is indeed one principal conveniency attending the use of them, as it saves a considerable expence of charcoal ; but where the open muffle is used, charcoal alone should be employed, as the fumes of mineral coal are very detrimental to some colours, and destructive of the grounds, if whitened by arsenic, as the common white glass. THE ARTIST’S ASSISTANT. 137 The colours being prepared, they must be reduced to powder by due levigation and washing over, where they are required to be extremely fine, and there is no unvitrified salt in the mixture. They must then be tempered on a China or Dutch tile, with oil of spike or lavender, to which most artists add likewise oil of turpentine, and some (but I think erroneously, as I have before mentioned) a little linseed or olive oil, and in this state they are to be used as paint of any other kind ; but it should be avoided to mix more of the colours with the essential oils than will be im- mediately used ; because they dry away extremely fast, and would not only be wasted, but give a cohesion to the parti- cles of the colours, that would make them work less freely when again diluted with oil. The colours being thus laid on the pieces to be painted, the proceeding must be in all respects the same as with the grounds, in whatever manner they are to be burnt, either in the muffles or coffins ; but greater nicety must be observed with respect to the fire, as the effects of any error in that point are of much greater consequence in the burning the colours than the grounds; especially if the white of the grounds be formed from the calx of tin or antimony, and not arsenic. Pit-coal, as was above observed, may be employed for burning as well the colours as the grounds, where the muffle or coffins are used ; or any other method pursued that wholly hinders the smoke and fumes from having any access to the enamel. 138 THE ARTIST’S ASSISTANT. — -=ivyy>--* — Of ENAMEL PAINTING. Enamel painting differs from ail other kinds, in the vehicle employed for the colours (to hold the parts toge- ther, and hind them to the ground they are laid upon ) ; this is glass, or some vitreous body, which being mixed with the colours, and fused, or melted, by means of heat, becomes fluid ; and, having incorporated with the colours in that state, forms together with them, a hard mass when grown cold; it answers, therefore, the same end in this, as oil, gum-water, size, or varnish, in the other kinds of painting. The glass, or vitreous body, applied to v this purpose of mixing with the colours, in order to bind them to the grounds, is called a flux ; and makes one of the principal substances used in enamel painting ; when this flux is easily fusible, that is to say, melts wi th a less degree ^f heat, it is in the stile of those who work in enamel said to be soft, and when it is reluctant to melt, and requires a greater degree ofheat, it is called hard ; these terms are as well applied to the matter of the enamel grounds, and all other vitreous substances concerned as to the fluxes. It is, in general, a perfection of the flux to be soft, or run easily into fusion ; but the great point with respect to this particular, is, that when several mixtures of colours and fluxes are used at the same time, they should all correspond to each other in the degree of this quality; otherwise some would be rendered too fluid, and perhaps nun the matter of the enamel grouud into fusion, and mix with it, wdiile others remained solid and insufficiently fused themselves. It is always necessary, likewise, that the enamel of the ground should be con- siderably harder than the mixtures for the colours ; for, if they both melt with the same degree of heat, they will necessarily run together. THE ARTIST’s ASSISTANT. 139 It being requisite that the body painted in enamel should undergo a heat sufficient to melt soft glas, the matter of such body can only be gold, silver, copper, porcelain, or china-ware, hard glass, and earthen-ware ; and where the metals are used, if the painting be of the nature of a pic- ture, or demand a variety of colours, it is necessary that a ground of white, or some other colour, should be laid on the metal ; the body of which ground must necessarily be of the same vitreous nature as the flux, but harder, as no- thing else can endure so great a heat that is capable of incorporating with, and binding the matter of the white or other colour, to the surface of the metal. The ground, therefore, makes another principal substance used in enamel painting. The third substance is'the colour, which must likewise be a body capable of suffering the heat of melted glass ; and such as will either itself be converted into glass, or kindly incorporate with it, in a melted state ; this, of course, confines the matter of such colour to metals, earths, or other mineral bodies ; all vegetable and animal substances being calcined and analized, with a less degree of heat, than the lowest sufficient to work enamel. The fourth kind' of substance is what I shall call the secondary vehicle, which is, some fluid body for laying on the ground, and working with the pencil, the flux and colours when mixed together, since, as they form only a dry powder, they could not be used as paint, without some such medium ; but as this is to serve only for spreading and laying on the matter of the enamel, and not, like other vehicles, to assist in holding the colours together, and bind- ing them to the ground, (that being in this kind of painting the office of the flux) it is necessary that it should be some such substance as will evaporate and dry away without leaving any part behind ,* as it would otherwise be hetero- geneous matter, with regard to the enamel, and const- 140 THE ARTIST’S ASSISTANT. quently injurious to it. Essential oils have been therefore generally used for this purpose, as they have the quality of wholly drying away on the first approach of heat, together with a slight unctuosity, which renders them capable of making the matter of the enamel work properly with the pencil. The preparation of these several substances have been in a great measure monopolized by the Venetians, except what were formerly prepared at Dresden ; of late, however, they have been introduced in the China Manufactories of Worcester and Birmingham, with the most brilliant suc- cess. The few others who have had any knowledge of this matter, have practised the preparing only some, kinds ; and even at present there are, perhaps, few in this country who make more than a small part of the variety necessary ; for though many possess the knowledge of some particular articles, yet they are ignorant with regard to others, which are again, perhaps, known to those who are ignorant of these. As there has been hitherto no means afforded to the practisers of it, of learning the particulars of this art in a system, and a deeper knowledge of the principles and prac- tice of chemistry is requisite to the attaining it without being taught, than could well fall to the share of painters or other artists, I shall, therefore, be more minute in my instructions for the making the several kinds of the grounds, fluxes, and colours, in order that they wdio are concerned in, or may be desirous to apply themselves to the art of painting in enamel, which is now become the basis of a considerable manufacture in this country, may furnish themselves with whatever is necessary in its greatest perfection. Besides the knowledge of the preparation of the above substances, and of that part of the art of using them which belongs to painters in general, there is another requisite; this is the burning, as it is called, the grounds, in order to THE ARTIST'S ASSISTANT. 141 forming them on the body to be painted, or enamelled ; as also the colours with the fluxes after they are laid on the grounds. What is meant by burning, is the giving such a heat to the matter, when laid on the body to be painted, as will fuse or melt it ; and consequently give to the flux, Or vitreous part of the composition, the proper qualities of a vehicle for binding the colours to the ground, and holding the parts together. As this requires a particular apparatus, I shall endeavour to shew the method of constructing it in the most expeditious and easy manner, and give such cau- tions for the conduct of the operation, both for burning the grounds and painting, as may best teach those who are less experienced in it, to attain to perfection in this art. It cannot be expected, nevertheless, considering the nicety of the subject, such directions can be given as will ensure success in the first trials, with regard to several of the pro- cesses, or even the general operations ; but whoever will make themselves masters of the principles on which they depend, which are all along intimated, will easily be able to correct their own errors. A judgment formed by some little experience, is likewise requisite for the preparing well the colours with certainty ; for as different parcels of the same substance vary frequently in their qualities with regard to the degree orproportion, it is necessary to make allowance accordingly in the propor- tion of the quantities in the mixtures ; this cannot be done till some little previous trial be made, and the power of judging of them be gained by an experimental acquaint- ance with them ; but as the materials in general are very cheap, and the experiments may be made in the same fife where actual business is done, whoever would excel in the art of preparing and using enamels, should take a con- siderable scope of experimental enquiry into the effect of all the various proportions and commixtures of the sub- stances used. 242 THE ARTIST’S ASSISTANT. Of the Substances used for forming Fluxed Minum, or red lead, is used as a fluxing body, for forming the enamel for grounds ; as also in compounding fluxes for the colours ; it requires no preparation for these purposes ; only it is proper it should be pure, which may be known by the method before given, page 6 0 ; this flux renders the enamel soft ; but producing some proportion of yellow colour, is not fit for all uses. Fixed alkaline salt of vegetables is sometimes used also in forming the mixture for enamel grounds ; as likewise in some compositions of fluxes for the colours ; it makes a less soft enamel than the lead, but is free from yellow, or any other colour, and therefore proper for some purposes. Borax is a salt of very peculiar qualities ,* amongst which, is that of promoting vitrification, and the fusion of any glass when vitrified in a greater degree than any other substance • known ; on which account it is of the greatest consequence in forming fluxes for enamel. It requires, nevertheless, either to be previously calcined, or brought to a vitreous- state, which it suffers from the application of moderate heat alone ; and it must also be finely powdered before it be mixed with other ingredients in fluxes. Its use is not much known in common practice, though of the greatest consequence to the art of enamelling; as not only a set of softer colours may be produced by the aid of it, than can be otherwise had, but the degree of each may be brought to correspond, by the employing it in different proportions, according to the respective hardness of the other ingredi- ents, which differ so much as not to be regulated justly by any other means. Common salt may be also used as a flux in enamelling, particularly where there is occasion for glazings ; as it is not only extremely fluid, and free of tenacity when used, THE ARTIST'S ASSISTANT. 143 but also less subject to crack than any other vitreous body whatever ; but for fluxes for grounds and colours in enamel, it is not frequently necessary to multiply ingredients, as the above three substances may, when properly applied, suf- ficiently answer most purposes. The same reasoning extends to nitre and arsenic ; which, though they have the qualities of fluxes, possess yet along with them such others, with respect to their effect on several of the substances that com- pose the colours, as renders the methods of using them difficult and complex. Of the sab stances used for forming the body of enamel , or fluxes . W hite sand is used as a body for the fluxes and grounds of enamel ; it should be reduced previously to an impalpable powder, in order that it may be mixed more intimately with the other ingredients, which not only accelerates the vitri- fication, but renders the glass much more perfect. The kind of sand proper for this purpose, is that brought from Lynn, in Norfolk, and is called by the name of that place. Flints are used for the same purpose as the white sand; and it is proper to use them when that cannot be procured of the right kind. They require to be calcined before they are applied to any purpose of vitrification. This is to be done by putting them into any fire, and continuing them there till the whole substance become white, when they must be taken out ; and, while in their full heat, immersed in cold water, and kept there for some time. By such treatment they will be rendered of a very brittle and calca- reou s texture, and very easy to be powdered, which must be done to a perfect degree, for the reason above given. Where small quantities of the matter of any kind of enamel is to be prepared, calcined flints are preferable to sand. THE ARTISTE ASSISTANT. 344 as they are much more easily reduced to an impalpable powder, and the trouble of the previous calcination is very little. There is a sort of stone, which the French call mi Ion, that forms the upper crust, and lies round the freestone in most quarries. This stone will lose its tenacity in a mode- rate fire; and, when calcined, runs much sooner into vitri- fication than either flints or sand ; it is therefore, when it can be obtained, a better matter for the body of fluxes, or soft enamel, than either of the other. It will, with the same proportion of the fluxing ingredients, make a much softer flux ; or, it otherwise admits of the diminution of the proportion of some of them, which, for many experimental reasons, is, in certain cases, an advantage. Of the substances used for producing a ■white colour in enamel , for forming the grounds . Putty, or calcined tin, is used as a body of colour for the enamel grounds. As tin is very troublesome in calcina- tion, requiring a long continuance of fire, and to be spread into a very thin surface, it is much the best way to procure it for the purposes of enamelling readily calcined, of those who make it their proper business to calcine it for the use of lapidaries, and other artists who use it; for they have large furnaces, fitly constructed for performing that opera- tion in large quantities, and can consequently afford it much cheaper than it can be prepared in small quantities ; besides the saving the trouble. It must be demanded of them by the name of putty; and care must be taken that it be not sophisticated, which it seldom fails to be before it comes out of their hands for common purposes. The sophistication, which is generally by chalk, lime, or some, such white earth, maybe thus distinguished put the putty I THE ARTIST’S ASSISTANT. 14$ i . 1 l ' ' ■/' into a crucible with some tallow or other grease ; and give it the heat of fusion, or what is sufficient to melt it, supply- ing the grease in fresh quantities as it burns away, till the calcined tin appears to have regained its metallic state* Suffer then the remainder of the grease to burn aw r ay ; and the chalk or earth, if any Were mixed with it, will be found swimming on the surface of the metal; to which, however, the ashes of the grease must be supposed to have added some little quantity. There is, nevertheless, another body with which the putty -or calx of tin may be adulterated, that will riot discover itself by this method df reduction of the tin ; it is white lead, which, in this manner of treat- ment, would run into fusion, and mix with the tin ; and could therefore riot be distinguished from it ; but it mUy be easily rendered perceptible by another manner of pro- ceeding; which is, to take the putty suspected to be adul- terated with it, and having put it into a crucible without any admixture, arid inverted another crucible over it as a cover to give it a moderate heat, carefully avoiding that the smoke or coal df the lire may have any access to it to change its colour. If there be' any white lead mixed with the putty, it virill shew itself, when removed from the lire, and become cold in a yellow or brown colour. If no such colour supervene, but the putty appear equally white as before it Was heated, a conclusion may be safely made that it was not adulterated by white lead ; or that, if sophisti- cated at all, it must be by some white earth, which may be made perceptible by the reduction of tin in the manner before-mentioned. Ultramarine (the preparation of which we have before given) is used in enamel, where very bright blues of a lighter tint are wanted ; and, sometimes indeed, in other cases, by those who do not understand the right use of zaffer and smalt; but there are few instances where zaffer, when perfectly good, fluxed with borax and a little calcined flint, L J46 THE ARTIST’S ASSISTANT. or Venetian glass, to take off the fusible quality of the borax, will not equally well answer with the best ultra- marine ; the ultramarine requires no preparation when used in enamel painting, previously to its being mixed with the proper flux ; and what relates to its general qualities, and the means of distinguishing its goodness or genuineness, we have, along with its preparation, before taught, folio 67 , and following pages* Ultramarine ashes are used, where light semi-transparent blues are wanted ; but they are so frequently adulterated with precipitations of copper, which, of course, turn green „ on fluxing, that it is very necessary to be cautious in the use of any parcel not previously tried. Zaffer is used for producing blue, green, purple, and black colours in enamel ; it is an earth obtained by calcining a kind of stone, called cobalt ; and when it is mixed with any kind of vitreous bodies, it vitrifies, at the same time assuming a strong blue colour, but for the most part verging to the purple ; it is to be had in a state proper for use, of those eolourmen who. make it their particular business to supply the glass-makers with colours. The goodness of zaffer can scarcely be known but by an actual trial of it ; and, com- paring the effect of it with that of some other known to .be good, and used in the same proportion. Magnesia is an earth, which, when fluxed with any vitreous body, produces a broken crimson, or foul rose-* colour. It is not to be had, prepared fit for use, except by more perfect levigation from those who sell colours to the glass-makers. It is useful not only for some purposes as a red, but for the several compositions of black, purple, and some browns. The goodness of the magnesia must be deter- mined by the same means as that of zaffer. Smalt is, as before-mentioned, -zaffer vitrified with proper additions, which are generally fixed alkaline salts and sands, or calcined flints, which are sometimes used as a blue in THE -ARTIST'S ASSISTANT* 147 enamel; but being hard, it requires, for such purposes, to he used with a flux, which, increasing the body of glass in too great a proportion for the tinge, is apt to dilute the colour too much where great^ force is wanted ; therefore the use of the zaffer itself is in most cases preferable. There have nevertheless been, as was above observed, some parcels of smalt, or vitrified calx of cobalt, brought from Saxony, which are of an extreme strong body of colour and will bear any proportion of flux necessary to render them as soft as may be required, without weakening the colour too much for any purpose. Common smalt, however, ground very fine, and mixed with a fourth part of its weight ot borax, (which is much the most powerful and kindly flux for zaffer), will run pretty well, and maybe used where either a full colour is not demanded, or where the work will admit of the colours being laid on thick. The good- ness of smalt may be judged of by its bright and deep colour ; and the less it inclines to the purple the better. In order to judge of the strength of the colour, the smalt should be reduced to a fine powder ; for, in a grosser state, every degree of fineness renders it so different, that a judg- ment cannot be easily formed of it. Smalt is to be had of all colourmen, and is not subject to any adulterations which would not be obvious on inspection. Gold is used in enamel to produce a crimson, or ruby colour; which, by the mistaken sense of the Latin word furvureGUs , has been called purple by all the English and French writers. It must be previously reduced to the state of a precipitated powder, by dissolving in aqua regia , and making a precipitation by means of tin, fixed alkaline salt, or some other metallic, or alkaline body. Silver is used for producing a yellow colour in enamel. It must be previously reduced to the state of a powder, which maybe done either by precipitation from spirit of nitre, or by calcination with sulphur. The precipitation i. 2 THE ARTIST'S ASSISTANT. 148 of silver from spirit of nitre, may be performed by dissolving an ounce of silver in two or three ounces of spirit of nitre, and precipitating and edulcorating it. Copper is used in enamel painting, for the forming green, blue, and red colours ; but it must be previously either calcined, or reduced to the state of a powder by precipitation. Iron is used to produce an orange red, or foul scarlet colour in enamel ; as also a transparent yellow ; and to assist, likewise, in the formation of greens, and other compound colours. It is prepared many ways, both by corrosion and precipitation; some of which, indeed, make a real differ- ence, but most of them lead to the same end. Antimony is used for producing a yellow colour in enamel, as well as the white before-mentioned ; and, indeed, it is the most useful, and most used of any substance whatever for that purpose. It is prepared only by levigation ; to which its texture, notwithstanding its being a semi-metal, very well suits. Glass of antirtiony is also used sometimes in enamel painting ; being itself a fine transparent orange colour. But as it wants body, it has no great effect but in compo- sitions. Orpiment has been also used in enamel for producing a yellow colour; but it is very tender with regard to the fire, and requires so soft a flux, while, at the same time, anti- mony, properly managed, will so well supply the place of it, that it is rarely used. Powdered bricks have been also used for compounding yellow colours in enamel; but as they act only in conse- quence of the oker they contain, they are certainly inferior to the prepared okers we have given. The most active flux amongst salts is borax ; which indeed, possseses this power in the greatest degree hitherto known of any simple whatever. The next is lead, which a I is THE ARTIST’S ASSISTANT. ] 4,9 vitrifies with a very moderate degree of heat, and assimilates to glass with itself, not only many kinds of earth, but all metals and semi-metals, except gold and silver in their entire state. Arsenic is the next powerful flux, only it requires to be fixed, by conjoining it with some other body already vitrified, otherwise it sublimes and flies away beforeit arrives at the vitrefactive heat. The several kinds of salts have the next degree of fluxing powder; and among them sea salt possesses the greatest ;but they are not sufficiently strong themselves to form an enamel flux soft enough to be used in painting ; though, as they are colourless, which is not the case of vitrified lead, they are very necessary to be com- pounded with lead; or used in its place, assisted by borax, where absence of every degree of colour is necessary in the flux. PERSPECTIVE. Perspective is the art of delineating visible objects on a plain surface, such as they appear at a given distance or height, mpon a transparent plane, placed perpendicularly to The horizon, between the eye and the object. C-Thefe _are three sorts -o£-per spectiv e y viz. linear, aerial, and specular perspective. Linear perspective -( 4o which most prop er l y- belongs o uf - defi ft itio n , a nd -which. -is— a branch -of t he-raaThemattes-^T' regards the position, magnitude, form, fyc. of the several lines or contours of objects, and expresses their diminution. iErial perspective makca~paTt — o f the art o f- 4iainT«rg)7T:egards the colour, lustre, strength, boldness, ^c. of distant objects, considered as seen through a column of air, and expresses the diminutions thereof. 150 THE ARTIST'S ASSISTANT. Specular perspective represents the objects in conical' spherical, or other mirro/rs, erect and clear ; whereas, on a lawn, and other planes, they appear confused and irregu lar. j - — — These three sorts of perspective have each its particular ydaetrirres knJ-hrf'nre w g-p rupee d in the mu s- fr * - te a ch ■ our pupils - wh at g planes in perspective ; of which there are five sorts, viz. perspective, ge ometr ical, horizontal, vertical, and objective plane. Perspective pTane7 Is a piafn pellucid surface, ordinarily perpendicular to the horizon, and. placed between the spectator’s eye and the object he views ; through which the optic rays, emitted from the several points of the objects, are supposed' to pass to the ey'y and in their passage to leave marks that represent them on the said plane. A geometrical plane, is parallel to the horizon whereon the object to be delineated is supposed to be placed ; this plane is usually at right angles with the perspective plane. — A horizontal plane is a plane passing through the spectator’s eye, parallel to the horizon, cutting the perspec- tive plane, when that is perpend. cular to the geometrical one, at right angles. — A vertical plane, is a plane passing through the spectator’s eye, perpendicular to the geometri- cal one ; and usually parallel to the perspective plane. — An objective plane, is any plane situate in the horizontal plane, whose representation is required in perspective. There are likewise several different lines in perspective, viz. terrestrial line, ’ geometrical line, line of the front, vertical line, visual line, line of station, objective line, and line of distance. — 'Geometrical line, in perspective, is a right line drawn in any manner on tile geometrical plane.— A terrestrial line, or fundamental line, is a right line, wherein the geometrical plane, and that of the picture, or draught, intersect one another. Such is the line formed by the intersection of the geometrical plane, and the THE ARTISTE ASSISTANT* 151 perspective plane. — A line of the front, is any right line, parallel to the terrestrial line. — A vertical line, is the common section of the vertical, and of the draught. — A visual line, is the line, or^ray, imagined to pass from the object to the eye. — -An objective line, is any line drawn on the geometrical plane, whose representation is sought for in draughts or pictures. — -A line of station, according to some writers, is the Common section of the geometrical and vertical planes. Others mean by it the perpendicular height of the eye above the geometrical plane, whose representation is sought for in draughts or pictures.— A line of distance, is a right line drawn from the eye to the principal point; this, as it is vertical to the perpendiculars of the plane, or table, can only be the distance of the eye from the table.— The point of the dis- tance, in perspective, is a point in the horizontal line, at such distance from the principal point, as is that of the eye •from the same. There are other points besides this point of distance .in perspective, viz. the point of sight, the third point, the objective point, the accidental point, and the visual point ; which term, point,* is used for various parts, or places, with regard to the perspective plane.— The point of sight, or of the eye, is a point on the plane, marked out by a right line drawn from the eye, perpendicular to the plane. This is also called the principal point. This point is in the intersection of the .horizontal and vertical planes. Some authors call it the principal point ; and give the name point of sight, or vision, to the point wherein the eye is actually placed, and where all the rays terminate. The third point, is a point taken at discretion in the line of distance, wherein all the diagonals are drawn from the divisions of the geometrical plane, whose representation is required on the perspective plane. — An accidental point is a point in the horizontal lines, where lines parallel to THE ARTIST'S ASSISTANT. 152 one another, though not perpendicular to the picture or representation, meet. — A visual point, is a point in the horizontal line, wherein all the ocular rays unite. Thus a person standing in a straight long gallery, and looking forwards, the side, the floor, and ceiling seem to meet, and touch one another in a point, or common centre. These things being previously considered, we shall next pass to the explanation of the different sorts of perspective. 1. From a point in driven line A B, to raise a perpendicular , See fig. II. Draw with a ruler the given line A B ; then set one foot of your compasses in B, and extending them to rather more than half the length of the line A B, sweep the arch cd ; and with the same extent of compasses set one point in c, and sweep the arch ef; then, without altering the compasses, set one foot in g, and describe the arch h i ; next rule through the points c g, to intersect the arch h i in k, and draw the line from k to B, which is the perpendicular required. 2. Another way. See fig . III. From the point A, take the equal distances A B and A C on each side of it, then stretch the compasses to any distance greater than A B or A C, and with one foot of them in B sweep the arch d e ; then, with the same extent of compasses, set one point in C, sweep the archfg; and these two arches will intersect each other in the point h from which a line drawn to the point A is the perpendicular required. To draw one line parallel (or equidistant) to another given line A B. See fig . IV. Extend your compasses to the distance of the parallel you require ; then with one foot in any point of the given line, THE ARTIST'S ASSISTANT. £ 53 as in c, describe the arch d e. Again, without altering the compasses, fiix one foot in any other point, as in f ? and sweep the arch g h ; then rule the line I K, touching the outward parts of the two arches, and that will be the parallel to the given line. 4. To bisect or divide a given line A B, into two equal 'parts. See Jig . V, Take with your compasses any distance greater than half the given line ; then, with one foot of them in B* sweep the arch c c ; and with the same distance, setting one foot in A, sweep the arch d d ; and these arches will intersect each other in the points g h, which, joined by a perpendi- cular, will intersect A B in the middle point i. b. Upon the end A of a given line , A B, to raise a perpendicular. See fig . VI. Place one foot of the compasses in A, and extend them to any point c without the given line; then set one foot of them in c and turn the circle d e and A, and through d c draw the diameter dee, meeting the circle in e; join A e, and that right line is the perpendicular required. 6. To turn the circle through any tlioee given points not in a right line. See fig . VII. Pix three points at any distance you think proper, as at A B and C, and join them by the right angles A B and B C ; then by fig. V. bisect the line AB with the line d e * which done, bisect the line B C with the line f e; and from the center e, where these lines meet, extend your compasses to A, and describe the circle A B C G. 7. To draw an oval. See fig. VIII. Draw a given line A B, which divided into four equal parts ; set one foot of the compasses at C, and from that 154- THE ARTIST’S ASSISTANT. . * • Vi center describe a circle e e ; with the same extent of com- passes place one foot in the center D, and turn the circle ff; then with one foot still in D, extend your compasses, and turn the arch g g ; and with the same extent, placing one foot in C, describe the arch h h ; join the intersections with a perpendicular from i to k ; next, place one foot of the compasses in i, sweep the arch L L, and without altering them, set one foot in k, and describe the arch M M. 8. Another method for an oval. See fig. IX. Draw a given line A D, and with the compasses extended, placing one foot in B, with the other turn the circle e e ; then, without altering your compasses, on the line A D in the supposed point C sweep the circle f f, and through the points g, where the two circles intersect, draw the perpendicular h i ; tken fix your compasses with one foot in h, and extend them so as to describe the arch k k to the lower extremities of the circles; then, with the same extent, with one foot in i, sweep the arch 1 1, to join the upper extremities, By these examples it will appear, that an oval ‘of any form or size may be constructed at pleasure, only taking care always to fix the compasses equi-distant from the given line A D in the perpendicular h i. PRACTICAL EXAMPLES IN PERSPECTIVE. 1. To draw a square pavement in perspective • See fig . X. and XL Suppose your piece of pavement to consist of sixty-four pieces of marble, each a foot square. Your first business is to draw an ichnographical plan or ground plot of it, which is thus performed. Having made an exact square of the size you intend your plan, divide the base and horizon into eight equal parts, and from every division in the base to its THE ARTIST’S ASSISTANT. 1 5 3 opposite point in the horizon, rule perpendicular lines; then divide the sides into the same number, ruling parallel lines across from point to point; so will your pavement be divided into sixty-four square feet ; because the eight feet in length, multiplied by the same in breadth, give the number of square feet, or pieces of marble contained in the whole: then rule diagonals from corner to corner; and thus will your ground plot appear as in fig. X. Now, to lay this in perspective, draw another square to your intended size, and divide the base line A B into eight equal parts, as before ; then fix your point of sight C in the middle of the horizon D E, and from the same point rule lines to every division in the base A B ; after which, rule diagonal lines from D to B, and from E to A, answerable to those in the 'ground plot, and your square will be reduced to the triangle ABC; then from the point F, where the diagonal D B intersects the line A C, to the opposite intersection G, where the diagonal E A crosses the line C B, rule a parallel line, which is the abridgment of the square. Then through the points whme the diagonals cross the rest of the lines, which go from the base to the point of sight, rule parallel lines, and your square pavement will be laid in perspective, as in fig. XIT 2. To find the height and proportion of any objects , as they appear above the horizon , on a supposed plane . See fg\ XII. First, rule your horizontal line N O, and fix your point of sight, as at M ; then mark the place of your nearest pillar, by making a dot for the base or bottom, as at A; and another for the summit or top, as at B ; rule a line from A to the point of sight M. and another from B to M, and these two lines will give the height of any nuniber of pillars. As for example ; suppose you would have a pillar at C, fix your dot for the base, and rule froin thence a THE ARTIST'S ASSISTANT. { 56 parallel line to meet the diagonal A M at D ; then rule the perpendicular D E to the diagonal B M ; which perpendi- cular is the height of your figure required at C. Or, if you would place pillars at F and I, observe the same method, ruling the parallels F G and I K, and the perpen- diculars G FI and K L will give their heights at the distance required. To find the diameter or thickness of pillars at any parti- cular distances, you are also to be guided by that nearest the base. For instance ; suppose your nearest pillar A B to be ten feet high and one foot in diameter ; divide it from top to bottom in ten equal parts, and set off one of them upon the base of the pillar ; then rule a line from the point of sight M. to the diameter P, and you will have the thickness of all your pillars on their respective parallels or bases. 3. The same rule exemplified in objects below the horizon . See M- xiii. If you would know the heights of a number of figures below the horizon, rule your horizontal line Q R, and fix your point of sight, as at P ; then place your nearest figure or mark the dots for the head and feet, by the points A and B, which answers the same purpose; and rule from these dots to the point of sight the lines A P and BP; and if you would find the height of a figure to be drawn at c, rule from thence the parallel c d to the diagonal B P, and the perpendicular d e will give the height required. The same directions will shew the height of a figure at any other distance you have a mind to place it, as at f, i, and m, by ruling the parallels f g, i k, and m n ; and from each of these their respective perpendiculars g h, k 1, and n o; which perpendiculars will shew the heights of the figures at f, i, and m. THE ARTIST’S ASSISTANT. 157 4. To draw a direct view. See jig . XIV. To illustrate this example, suppose you were to draw the inside of a church, as represented in this figure ; first take your station at the point A, in the centre of the base line B C, from which you have a front view of the whole body of the church, with all the pillars, 8? c. on each side; then fix your horizon at any height you think proper as at D E ; bisect it by the perpendicular E A; and where these two lines intersect, is the point of sight F. (This perpendicular will pass through the center of all the arches in the dome or cupola ; which centres may be found by any three given points, as in fig. VII.) Next divide your base line into any given number of feet, and the visual lines, ruled from these divisions to the point of sight, will reduce all your objects to their just proportion, by setting off their height upon a perpendicular raised at their respective distances. The base, in the example here given, is divided into twelve equal parts of five feet each ; from which (supposing your front column to be thirty-five feet high) take seven divisions from the base line of your drawing, and set them off upon the perpendicular G H ; then (supposing this column to be five feet thick at the base) setoff one of those divisions upon the parallel I K, which is the breadth required. So that, by proportioning this scale to any distance by the foregoing directions, you may not only find the dimensions of all your columns, but also of every distinct part of them, as well as of all the doors, windows, and other objects that occur. For instance ; having found the height and breadth of your nearest column G, draw from the top and bottom of the said column to the point of sight the lines H F and K F ; after which, rule the line I F from the base of the column to the point of sight, and you have the height and breadth of all the rest of the columns, as has been already shewn in fig. XII. THE ARTIST’S ASSISTANT. 158 By ruling lines from the points a, b, c, d, fyc, to the point of sight, you will see that all the summits and bases of your columns, doors, windows, §*c. must tend immediately to that point ; and by lines drawn from the points 1, 2, 3, 4, ^c. on each side, to the correspondent points on the opposite side, may be seen all the parts of your building lying upon the same parallel. 5. To draw an oblique view. See fig . XV. First, draw your horizontal line A B ; then, if your favourite object be on the right hand, as at C, place your- self on the left hand upon the base line, as at D ; then from that station erect a perpendicular D E, which will pass through the horizon at the point of sight F ; to which rule the diagonals G F and H F, which will shew the roof and base of your principal building C ; and will also, as before directed, serve as a standard for all the rest. Observe also, either in direct or oblique views, whether the prospect before you makes a curve ; for if it does, you must be careful to make the same curve in your drawing. 6. To draw a 'perspective view , wherein are accidental points. See fig, XVI. Rule your horizontal line a h, and on one part of it fix your point of sight, as at c ; from which rule the diagonals c d and c e on the one side, and c f and c q on the other; which will shew the roofs and bases of all the houses in the street directly facing you, (supposing yourself placed at A in the center of the base line). Then fix your acciden- tal points g and h upon the horizontal line, and rule from them to the angles i k and 1 m (where the streets on each side take a different direction, towards the accidental points g and h), and the lines g i and g k give the roofs and bases of all the buildings on one side, as 1 h and m h do on the other. THE ARTIST'S ASSISTANT. 159 Accidental points seldom intervene where the distance is small, as in noblemen’s seats, groves, canals, <^c. which may be drawn by the strict rules of perspective ,* but where the prospect is extensive and varied, including mountains, bridges, castles, rivers, precipices, woods, cities, reak up the varnish, and make the lines rough and wide ; it will be best to try the strength upori a spare bit of copper. The brushing off the air-bubbles as they arise upon the surface of the plate, contributes to make the work clear and regular; without this, the dark parts bite too fast and violent for the faint ones. On taking off the varnish, the plate often appears stained and tarnished ; this is restored to its colour by an oil rubber made of broad cloth, rolled into a convenient form, with which the plate is polished. Any part of the work which has not properly bitten, is repaired by the graver. Method of MAKING the ETCHING GROUND vr VARNISH. TAKE of virgin wax and asphaltum, each two ounces; of black pitch and Burgundy pitch, each half an ounce; melt the wax and pitch in a new earthen-ware glazed pot, and add to them, by degrees, the asphaltum, finely pow- dered. Let the whole boil till such time as that, taking a drop upon a plate, it will break when it is cold, or bending it two or three times between the fingers. The varnish, being then enough boiled, must be taken off the fire, and, letting it cool a little, must be poured into warm water, that it may work the more easily with the hands, so as to be formed into balls, which must be rolled up, and put into a piece of taffety for use. It must be observed, first, that the fire be not too violent, for fear of bu ning the ingredients , a slight simmering will be 166 THE ARTIST’S ASSISTANT. sufficient; secondly, that while the asphaltum is putting in, and even after it is mixed with them, the ingredients should he stirred with them continually, with the spatula ; and thirdly, that the water into which this composition is.. thrown, should he nearly of the same degree of warmth with it, to prevent a kind of cracking that happens when the water is too cold. The varnish ought always to be harder in summer than in winter ; and it will become so if it be suffered to boil longer, or if a greater proportion of the asphaltum or brown resin be used. The experiment above-mentioned of the drop suffered to cool, will determine the degree of hardness or softness that may be suitable to the season when it is used. — «*c. then, laying your plate with apiece of swanskin flannel under it, upon your table, hold the grounding-tool in your hand perpendicularly, lean upon it moderately hard, continually rocking your hand in a right line from end to end, till you have wholly covered the plate in one direction ; next, cross the strokes from side to side ; afterwards from corner to corner, working the tool each time all over the plate in every direction, almost like the points of a compass, taking all possible care not to let the tool cut (in one direction) twice in a place. This done, the plate will be full ; or, in other words, all over rough alike, and would, if it were printed, appear completely black. THE ARTISTs ASSISTANT. 17 Having kid the ground, take the scrapings of black chalk, and, with a piece of rag, rub it over the plate ; or you may, with two or three candles, smoke it as before directed for etching. Now, take your print or drawing, and having rubbed the back with red chalk dust, iqixed with white lake, pro- ceed to trace it. Directions for whetting the grounding-tool : — If a tooth ff the tool should break, it may be perceived in the working by a particular streak or gap, which will appear in the ground in a straight line, in which case the tool must be whetted on the back, holding it sloping, and in a circular manner, like the bottom of the tool. Directions for scraping the picture : — Take a blunt needle and mark the outlines only ; then, with a scraper, scrape off the lights in every part of the plate, as clean and smooth as possible, in proportion to the strength of the lights in your picture, taking care not to hurt your out- lines ; and that you may the better see what you do -with the thumb and fore-finger of the left hand, hold a piece of transparent paper, sloping, just over your right hand, and you will soon be a judge of the different tints of the work you are doing, scraping off more or less of the ground, as the different strengths of light and tints require. The use of the burnisher is to soften, or rub down the extremely light parts, after the scraper is done with, such is the tip of the nose, forehead, linen, 8f c. which might otherwise, when proved, appear rather misty than clear. Another method used by mezzotinto-scrapers is, to etch the outlines of the original, as also of the folds in drapery, marking the breadths of the shadows by dots, which, having bit of a proper colour with aqua fords , according to the directions given, p. 164, takeoff the ground used in etching, and having laid the mezzotinto-ground as in page 1 74, proceed to scrape the picture as above. Four 175 THE ARTIST’* ASSISTANT. or five days before you think the plate will be ready for proving, notice must be given to the rolling-press printer to wet some French paper, as no other will do for this work ; and as that time is necessary for it to lie in wet. When the proof is dry, touch it with white chalk where it should be lighter, and with black chalk where it should be darker ; and, when the print is re-touched, proceed as before for the lights ; and for the shades, use a small grounding-tool as much as you judge necessary to bring it to the proper colour ; and when you have done as much as you think expedient, prove it again, and so proceed to prove and touch till it is entirely to your mind. When the plate tar- nishes in the part where you are at work, a little vinegar and salt, kept by you in a vial, will take it off, wiping it dry with a clean rag. Avoid as much as possible, over-scraping any part before the first proving, as by this caution the work will appear the more elegant. »■« - AQUATINTA. .A. METHOD of etching on copper, lately invented, and by which a soft and beautiful effect is produced, resem- bling a fine drawing in water-colours or Indian ink, pre- vious to the operation upon the plate, the following powder must be prepared : Take equal parts of asphaltum and fine transparent rosin, atid powder them separately in a mortar. Through a muslin sieve, sift upon a sheet of paper a thin stratum of the asphaltum, above which sift a similar layer of the rosin, and upon this another layer of asphaltum, continuing these alternate layers till both of the powders are exhausted. Then pass the mixture both together through the same THE ARTIST’S ASSISTANT. 177 sieve, so as to mix them sufficiently for use. Some, in- stead of the above mixture, use powdered gum sandarach only. The process is as follows: A copper-plate being polished in the usual way, lay the etching ground upon it, and etch the outlines of your design in the same manner as directed under the article Etching. The ground is then to be soft- ened with a little grease, and wiped off with a piece of rag; leaving, however, as much grease upon the plate as just to dim the copper. * Next sift the powder upon the surface of the plate ; after which, strike the other side of it pretty smartly against the edge of a table to discharge it of loose powder. This done, with a hand-vice hold the back of the plate over a chaffing-dish of burning charcoal, till it become so hot as to give pain upon being touched with the back of the hand; and the powder which adhered to the grease will now be fixed to the plate. The plate being then suffered to cool, take turpentine varnish, mixed with ivory black, and with a hair pencil dipped in it, coverall the lights or places where there is no work or shade. A rim or border of bees-wax is now to be raised round the plate; and, having reduced a quantity of aquafortis to a proper strength with water, pour it on, and let it stand five minutes for the first or lightest shade ; after which, pour it off; and, having washed the plate with water, set it edgewise to dry: Then with varnish stop out all the light shades ; pour on the aquafortis for the second tint, and let it stand five minutes more; proceeding in the same manner for every tint till you produce the darkest shades. If a bold open ground is wanted in any part, this requires an after operation. The ground must be laid as in the other case, by sifting on the powder ; only this powder must be much coarser, and the plate more heated, in order that the particles of the powder may spread, and form small circles, even good clean rosin will do by itself. In etching land- N THE ARTIST’S ASSISTANT. 178 .j- . scapes, the sky and distant objects are also performed by a second, operation, and the powder is sifted upon the plate with a finer sieve. If the trees, or any part of the fore- ground, require to be finished higher, the plate must be entirely cleansed from grease with bread, and a ground laid in the common way of etching ; when you may finish as highly and neatly as you please with the needle or point, by stippling with dots, and biting in those parts, or by a rolling-wheel, which is more expeditious. If different colours are to be expressed in aqua tinta T there will be required so many different plates, each having only that part etched upon it which is designed to be charged with its proper colour. It may happen, however, in particular subjects, that some of the colours are so distant from each other as to allow the printer room to rub them in without blending ; in which case, two or three different colours may be printed from the same plate at once. Where different plates are necessary, a separate one, having a pin in each corner, must be provided as a sole or bottom to the aqua tinta plates ; and these again must be exactly fitted, having each a small hole in their corners for passing over the pins of the sole ; the said pins serving the double purpose of retaining the plates successively in their due position, and of directing the printer in plac- ing their paper exactly on each plate so as not to shift; by which means each tint or colour will be exactly received on its proper place. This is the me- thod practised in France. A landscape, or any similar subject, may be printed off at once in its different proper colours, by laying these upon the plate. In this case, the colours must be pretty thick in their consistence ; and the plate must be carefully wiped in the usual way after the laying on of each tint, as well as receive a genera] wipe when charged with all the tints. THE ARTIST’S ASSISTANT. 3 79 The art of engraving- in aqua tint a is kept a secret by those artists who practise it. In order to succeed in It, great care and judgment are requisite; and much depends upon a certain nicety of management, which is only attain- able by practice. Of CUTTING on WOOD. This business is neither properly sculpture nor engraving; but being applied to many of the purposes of thelatter, claims affinity to it. The smoothest grained woods are the best y such as box or pear-tree; but copperplates, fastened and raised on wood the height of the types, work well in the same mode. The furnace being prepared, a thin coat of white lead, tempered with water, is passed over it ; the outlines of the design are traced with a black lead pencil or ink, and the design is laid on the block, then wetted, and rubbed on the back till the lines traced are transferred to the white lead, which shews them plainly ; then the blank parts are cut away with sharp knives, small chissels, or gravers, as required. This kind of work differs from engraving on copper, as the parts of the copper which are cut out, hold the ink, and form the impression by the rolling press ; in this the parts which remain being prominent perform the same busi- ness. They are printed as letter-press. This art, of late years, has been brought to such a degree of perfection and elegance as in some degree to rival copper plate, and the Artists who excel in this branch, are highly remunerated — of whom the names of Bewick, Beil by, Lee, and Anderson, both for design and execution, stand very high in reputation. 180 THE ARTIST’S ASSISTANT#' Of japanning. By Japanning is to be here understood the art of cover-" ing bodies by grounds of opake colours in varnish, which may be either afterwards decorated by paintings or gilding, or left in a plain state. This is not at present practised so frequently on chairs, tables, and other furniture of houses, except tea-waiters, as formerly ; but the introduction of it for ornamenting coaches, snuff-boxes, and screens, in which there is a rivalship between ourselves and the French, renders the culti vation and propagation of this art of great importance to commerce. I shall, therefore, be more explicit in shewing the methods, both now, and formerly in use, with the application of each to the several pur- poses to which they are best adapted ; and point out, at the same time, several very material improvements, that are at present enjoyed only by particular persons ; or not at all hitherto brought into practice. The substances which admit of being japanned are almost every kind that are dry and rigid, and not too flexible ; as wood, metals, leather, and paper prepared. Wood and metals do not require any other preparation, but to have ‘their surfaces perfectly even and clean ; but leather should be securely strained either enframes, or on boards ; as its bending, or forming folds, would otherwise crack and force off the coats of varnish. Paper also should be treated in the same manner, and have a previous strong coat of some.kind of size; but it is rarely made the subject of japanning till it is converted into papier mache , or wrought by other means, into such form, that its original state, particularly with respect to flexibility, is lost. One principal variation in the manner of japanning is, the using or omitting any priming or under coat on the . * . THE ARTIST’S ASSISTANT. I S I ivork to be japanned. In the older' practice, such priming - was. always used; and is at present retained in the French manner of japanning coaches and snuff-boxes of the papier maeJie; but in the Birmingham manufacture, it has been always rejected. The advantage of using such priming, or undercoat, is, that it makes a saving in the quantity of varnish used ; because the matter of which the priming is composed, hlis up the inequalities of the body to be var- nished, and makes it easy, by means of rubbing and water- polishing, to gain an even surface for the varnish. This was therefore such a convenience in the case of wood, as the giving a hardness and firmness to the ground was also in the case of leather, that it became an established method, and is therefore retained, even in the instance of th e papier macfye, by the French, who applied the received method of japanning to that kind of work on its introduction. There is, nevertheless, this inconvenience always attending the use of an under coat of size, that the japan coats of varnish and colour will be constantly liable to be cracked and peeled off by any violence, and will not endure near so long as the bodies. japanned in the same manner, but without any such priming. This may be easily observed in comparing the wear of the Paris and Birmingham snuff-boxes ; which latter, when good of their kind, never peel or crack, or suffer any damage, unless by great violence, and such a continued rubbing as wastes away the substance of the varnish; while the japan coats of the Parisian boxes crack and fly off in flakes whenever any knock or fall, particu- larly near the edges, exposes them to be injured. But the Birmingham manufacturers, who originally practised The. japanning only on metals, to which the reason above given for the use of priming did not extend, and who took up this art of themselves as an invention, of course, omitted, at first the use of any such under coat ; and not finding it more necessary in the instance of papier riyglic, than on 182 THE ARTIST’S ASSISTANT. metals, continue still to reject it ; on which account the boxes of their manufacture are, with regard to the wear, much better than the French. The laying on the colours wuth varnish instead of gum- water, is also another variation from the method of japan- ning formerly practised ; but the much greater strength of the v/ork, where they are laid on in varnish or oil, has occasioned this way to be exploded with the greatest reason by all regular manufacturers ; however, they who may practise japanning on cabinets, or such other pieces as are not exposed to much wear or violence, for their amusement only, and consequently may not find it worth their while to encumber themselves with the preparations necessary for the other methods, may paint with water-colours on an under coat laid on the wood, or other substance, of which the piece to be japanned, is formed; and then finish with the proper coats of varnish, according to the methods below taught. If the colours are tempered with the strongest isinglass, size and honey, instead of gum-water, and laid on very flat and even, the work will not be much inferior in appearance to that done by the other method, and will last as long as the common old japan work, except the best kinds of the true japan. It is practised likewise in imitation of what is some- times done in the Indian work, to paint with water-colours on grounds of gold ; in which case, the isinglass size with sugar-candy, or honey, as above directed, is the best vehicle. Imitations are also made of japan work, by colouring prints, gluing them to wood work, and then giving them a shining appearance, by the use ofsome white varnish. Of japan grounds.' — The proper japan grounds are either such as are formed by the varnish and colour where the whole is to remain of one simple colour; or by the varnish elfher coloured, or without colour, on which some paint- THE ARTIST'S ASSISTANT. 183 ing, or other decoration, is afterwards to be laid. It is necessary, however, before I proceed, to speak of the particular grounds, to shew the manner of laying on the priming or under coat, where any such is used. The priming is of the same nature with that called clear coating (or vulgarly clear coaling), practised erroneously by the house-painters; and consists only in laying on, and drying in the most even manner, a composition of size and whiting. The common size has been generally used for this purpose, but where the work is of a nicer kind, it is better to employ the glovers or the parchment size ; and if a third of isinglass be added, it will be still better; and if not laid on too thick, much less liable to peel and crack. The work should be prepared for this priming by being well smoothed with the fish-skin, or glass shaver, and being made thoroughly clean, should be brushed over once or twice with hot size, diluted with two thirds of water, if it be of the common strength. The priming should then be laid on with the brush as even as possible; and should be formed of size, whose consistence is betwixt the common kind and glue, mixed with as much whiting as will give it a sufficient body of colour to hide the surface of whatever it is laid upon, but not more. If the surface be very even on which the priming is- used, two coats of it, laid on in this manner, will be suf- ficient; but if on trial, with a fine wet rag, it will not receive a proper water polish, on account of any inequali- ties not being sufficiently filled upand covered, two or more coats must be given it; and whether a greater or less number be used, the work should be smoothed after the last coat but one is dry, by rubbing it -with Dutch ruslies. When the last coat is dry, the water polish should be given, by passing over every part of it with a fine rag, gently moistened, till the whole appear perfectly plain and even. The priming will then be completed, and the work ready THE ARTIST's ASSISTANT. 184 to receive the painting,, or coloured varnish ; the rest of the proceedings are the same in this case as where no prim- ing is used. Of common grounds of varnish, which are to be painted upon. — Where wood or leather is to be japanned, and no priming is used, the best preparation is to lay two or three coats of coarse varnish composed in the following manner: “ Take of rectified spirit of wine, one pint; and of “ coarse seed-lac and resin, each two ounces. Dissolve the “ seed-lac and resin in the spirit ; and then strain off the “ varnish.” This varnish, as well as all others formed of spirit of wine, must be laid on in a warm place; and, if it can be conveniently managed, the piece of work to be varnished, should be made warm likewise, and for the same reason. all dampness should be avoided.; for either cold or moisture chill this kind of varnish, and prevents its taking proper hold of the substance on which it is laid. When the work is so prepared, or by the priming with the composition of size and whiting above described, the proper japan ground must be laid on, which is much the best, formed of shell-lac varnish, and the colour desired, if white be not in question, -which demands a peculiar treatment, as I shall belo-w explain, or great brightness be not -required, then the means already directed must be pursued. The colours used with the shell-lac varnish may be any pigments whatever, which give the tint of the ground desired, and they may be mixed together to form browns or any compound colours; but, with respect to such as require peculiar methods for the producing them of the first degree of brightness, I shall particularize them below. The colours for grounds may otherwise be mixed with the white varnishes formed in oil of turpentine ; but these varnishes haye no advantages over the shell-lac but in their THE ARTIST’S ASSISTANT. 1 85 whiteness, which preserves the brightness of the colours, and they are at the same time greatly inferior in hardness to it. As metals never require to be under coated with whiting, they may be treated in the same manner as wood or leather, when the under coat is omitted, except in the instances particularly spoken of below. Of white japan grounds. — The forming a ground per- fectly white, and of the first degree of hardness* remains hitherto a desideratum, or matter sought for in the art of japanning. As there are no substances which can be dissolved so as to form a very hard varnish, but what have too much colour not to deprive the whiteness when laid on of a due thickness over the work, except some very late discoveries not hitherto brought into practice. The nearest approach, however, to a perfect white var- nish, by means already known to the public, is made by the following composition : “ Take flake white, or white lead, washed over and “ ground up with a sixth of its weight of starch, and then 4< dried, and temper it properly for spreading with mastic il varnish, or compound them with gum animi.” Lay these on the body to be japanned, prepared either with or without the under coat of whiting in the manner as above ordered, and then varnish over it with five or six coats of the following varnish : “ Provide any quantity of the best seed lac, and pick “ out of it ail the clearest and whitest grains, reserving the “ more coloured and fouler parts for the coarser varnishes, “ such as that above-mentioned for priming or preparing “ wood or leather. Take of this picked seed-lac, two “ ounces ; and of gum animi, three ounces ; and dissolve “ them, being previously reduced to a gross powder, in “ about a quart of spirit of wine, and strain off the clear “ varnish.” THE ARTIST’S ASSISTANT. 186 The seed-lac will yet give a slight tinge to this com- position, but cannot be omitted where the varnish is wanted to be hard; though, where a softer will answer the end, the proportion may be diminished ; and a little crude turpentine added to the gum animi, to take off the brittleness. A very good varnish, free entirely from all brittleness, may be formed, by dissolving as much gum animi as the oil will take, in old nut or poppy oil, which must be made to boil gently when the gum is put into it. The ground of white colour itself may be laid on in this varnish, and then a coat or two of it may be put over the ground; but it must be well diluted with oil of turpentine when it is used. This, though free from brittleness, is, nevertheless, liable to suffer by being indented or bruised by any slight strokes ; and it will not bear any polish, but may be brought to a very smooth surface without, if it be judiciously managed in the laying it on. It is likewise somewhat tedious in drying, and will require some time where several coats are laid on, as the last ought not to contain much oil of tur- pentine. It must be observed, likewise, that the gum resin, such as the animi, copal, ^c. can never be dissolved in substantial oils by the medium of heat, without a consider- able change in the colour of the oils by the degree of heat necessary to produce the solution. A method of dissolving gum copal in oil of turpentine is, however, now discovered by a gentleman of great abilities in chemistry ; and he has also obtained a method of dissolving amber in the same menstruum, so that we may hope soon to see the art of japanning carried to a consummate degree of perfection, when the public are put in possession of these most impor- tant inventions, or the fruits of them. Of blue japan grounds.-— Blue japan grounds may be formed of bright Prussian blue, or of verditer glazed over by Prussian blue, or of smalt. The colour maybe best mixed THE ARTIST’S ASSISTANT. 187 with shell-lac varnish, and brought to a polishing state by five or six Coats of varnish of seed-lac ; but the varnish nevertheless, will somewhat injure the colour, by giving to a true blue a cast of green, and fouling, in some degree, a warm blue, by the yellow it contains ; where, therefore, a bright blue is required, and a less degree of hardness can be dispensed with, the method before directed, in the case of white grounds, must be pursued. Of red japan grounds. — For a scarlet japan ground, Ver- million may be used ; but the Vermillion alone has a glaring effect that renders it much less beautiful than the crimson produced by glazing it Over with carmine or fine lake; or even with rose pink, which has a very good effect when used for this purpose. For a very bright crimson, nevertheless, instead of glazing with carmine, the Indian lake, known in shops by the name of safflower, should be used, dissolved in the spirit of which the varnish is compounded (which it readily admits of when good) ; but in this case, instead of glazing with the shell-lac Varnish, the upper or polishing Coats need only be used, as they will equally receive and convey the tinge of the Indian lake, which may be actually dissolved by spirit of wine; and this will be found a much cheaper method than using carmine. If, notwithstanding, the highest degree of brightness be required, the white varnishes must be used. It is at present, however, very difficult to obtain this kind of lake ; for it does not appear that more than one considerable quantity was ever brought over, and put into the hands of colourmen ; and this being now expended, they have not the means of a fresh supply; it, however, may be easily had from the same place whence the former quantity was procured, by any persons who go thither in the East India Company’s ships. Of yellow japan grounds. — -For bright yellow grounds, king’s yellow, or turpeth mineral, should be employed. 188 THE ARTISTE ASSISTANT either alone, or mixed with fine Dutch pink. The effect may be still more heightened by dissolving powdered tar- meric root in the spirit of wine, of which the upper, or polishing coat is made ; which spirit of wine must be strained from off the dregs before the seed-lac be added to it to form the varnish. The seed-lac varnish is not equally injurious here, and with greens, as in the case of other colours, because, being only tinged with a reddish yellow, it is little more than an addition to the force of the colours. Yellow grounds may be likewise formed of the Dutch pink only; which, when good, will not be wanting in brightness, though extremely cheap. Of green japan grounds.— -Green grounds may be pro- duced by mixing king’s yellow and bright Prussian blue ; or rather, turpeth mineral and Prussian blue. A cheap but fouler kind, may be had from verdigrise, with a little of the above-mentioned yellows, or Dutch pink; but where a very bright green is wanted, the chrystais of verdigrise (called distilled verdigrise), should be employed ; and, to heighten the effect, they should be laid on a ground of leaf gold, which renders the colour extremely brilliant and pleading. They may, any of them, be used successfully with good seed-lac varnish, for the reason before given ; but will be still brighter with the white varnish. Of orange-coloured japan grounds.— ^Orange-colour japan grounds may be formed, by mixing Vermillion, or red lead, with king’s yellow, or Dutch pink ; or red orpiment will make a brighter orange ground than can be produced by any mixture. Of purple japan grounds. — Purple japan grounds may be produced by the mixture of lake and Prussian blue ; or a fouler kind, by vennillion and Prussian blue. They may be treated as the rest, with respect to the varnish. THE ARTIST’S ASSISTANT. 189 Of black japan grounds, to be produced without heat. — Black grounds may be formed by either ivory black, or lamp black ; but the former is preferable, where it is per- fectly good. These may be always laid on with the shell-lac varnish ; and have their upper or polishing coats of common seed-lac varnish ,* as the tinge or foulness of the varnish can be here no injury. Of common black japan grounds on iron or copper, pro- duced by means of heat.— For forming the common black japan grounds by means of heat, the piece of work to be japanned must be painted over with drying oil ; and, when it is of a moderate dryness, must be put into a stove of such degree of heat, as will change the oil black, without burning it, so as to destroy or weaken its tenacity. The stove should not be too hot when the work is put into it, nor the heat increased too fast ; either of which errors would make it blister ; but the slower the heat is augmented, and the longer it is continued, provided it be restrained within the due degree, the harder will be the coat of 'japan. This kind of varnish requires no polish, having received, when properly managed, a sufficient one from the heat. Of the fine tortoise-shell japan ground, produced by means of heat. — The best kind of tortoise-shell ground produced by heat is not less valuable for its great hardness, and enduring to be made hotter than boiling water without damage, than for its beautiful appearance. It is to be made by means of a varnish prepared in the following manner: “ Take of good linseed oil one gallon, and of umbra “ half a pound. Boil them together till the oil becomes “ very brown and thick ; strain it then through a coarse “ cloth, and set it again to boil ; in which state it must be “ continued till it acquires, a pitchy consistence, when it “ will be fit for use.” THE ARTIST’S ASSISTANT. 190 Having prepared thus the varnish, clean well the iron c?r copper-plate, or rather piece which is to be japanned ; and then lay vermillion, tempered with shell-lac varnish, or with drying oil, diluted with oil of turpentine, very thinly, on the places intended to imitate the more transpa- rent parts of the tortoise-shell. When the vermillion is dry, brush over the whole with the black varnish, tempered to a due consistence with oil of turpentine ; and when it is set and firm, put the work into a stove, where it may undergo a very strong heat, and it must be continued a considerable time ; if even three weeks, or a month, it will be better. This was given, among other recipes, by Kunckel, but appears to have been neglected till it was revived with great success in the Birmingham manufactures, where it was not only the ground of snuff-boxes, dressing-boxes, and other such like lesser pieces, but of those beautiful tea- waiters which have been so justly esteemed and admired in several parts of Europe where they have been sent. This ground may be decorated with painting and gilding in the same manner as any other varnished surface, which had best be done after the ground has been duly hardened by the hot stove ; but it is well to give a second annealing with a more gentle heat after it is finished. Of painting japan work. — Japan work ought properly to be painted with colours in varnish ; but in order for the greater dispatch, and in some very nice works in small, for the more free use of the pencil, the colours are now most frequently tempered in oil, which should previously have a fourth part of its weight of gumanimi dissolved in it ; or, in default of that, of the gum sandaracor mastic, as I have like- wise before intimated. When the oil is thus used, it should be well diluted with spirit of turpentine, that the colours may be laid more evenly and thin ; by which means, few r er of the polishing, or upper coats of varnish, become necessary. THE ARTIST's ASSISTANT. 191 In some instances, water-colours, as I before mentioned, are laid on grounds of gold, in the manner of other paint- ings, and are the best, when so used, in their proper appear- ance, without any varnish over them ; they are also some- times so managed, as to have the effect of embossed work. The colours employed in this way, for painting, are (as I before intimated) best prepared by means of isinglass size, corrected with honey or sugar-candy. The body on which the embossed work is raised, need not, however, be tinged with the exterior colour, but may be best formed of very strong gum-water, thickened to a proper co nsistence by bole armoniac and whiting in equal parts, which being laid on in the proper figure, and repaired when dry, may be then painted with the proper colours, tempered in the isinglass size, or in the general manner with shell-lac varnish. Of varnishing japan work.— The last, and finishing part of japanning lies in the laying on, and polishing the outer coats of varnish, which are necessary, as well in the pieces that have only one simple ground of colour, as with those that are painted. This is, in general, best done with common seed-lac varnish, except in the instances, and on those occasions where I have already shewn other methods to be more expedient. The same reasons, which decide as to the fitness or impropriety of the varnishes, with respect to the colours of the ground, hold equally well with regard to those of the painting ; for, where brightness is the most material point, and a tinge of yellow will injure it, seed- lac must give way to the whiter gums; but where hardness and a greater tenacity are most essential, it must be adhered to; and where both are necessary, that it is proper one should give way to the other, in a certain degree, recipro- cally, a mixed varnish must be adopted. This mixed varnish, as I before observed, should be made of the picked seed-lac. The common seed-lac varnish, which THE ARTIST’S ASSISTANT. *92 is the most useful preparation of the kind hitherto invented, may be thus made : “ Take of seed-lac three ounces, and put it into water 11 to free it from the sticks and filth that frequently are “ intermixed with it, and which must be done by stirring “ it about, and then pouring off the water, and adding u fresh quantities in order to repeat the operations till it be “ free from all impurities, as it very effectually may be by “ this means. Dry it then, and powder it grossly put it ts with a pint of rectified spirit of wine, into a bottle, of ,l which it will not fill above two thirds. Shake the mix- “ ture well together, and place the bottle in a gentle heat till the seed appears to be dissolved; the shaking being €l in the mean time repeated as often as may beconvenient ; 11 and then pour off all which can be obtained clear by that “ method, and strain the remainder through a coarse cloth. lt The varnish thus prepared, must be kept for use in a u bottle well stopped.” When the spirit of wine is very strong, it will dissolve a greater proportion of the seed-lac; but this will saturate the common, which is seldom of a strength sufficient for making varnishes in perfection. As the chilling, which is the most inconvenient accident attending those of this kind, is prevented, or produced more frequently, accord- ing to the strength of the spirit, I will take this oppor- tunity of shewing a method by which weaker rectified spirits may, with great ease, at any time, be freed from the phlegm, and rendered of the first degree of strength : “ Take a pint of the common rectified spirit of wine, “ and put it into a bottle, of which it will not fill above “ three parts. Add to it half an ounce of pearl-ashes, salt “ of tartar, or any other alkaline salt, heated red hot, and powdered, as well as it can be, without much loss of its heat. Shake the mixture frequently for the space of ha f V an hour ; before which time, a great part of the phlegm THE ARTIST's ASSISTANT. 193 ** Will be separated from the spirit; and will appear, toge- 44 ther with the undissolved part of the salts, in the bottom “ of the bottle. Let the spirit then be poured off, or freed 44 from the phlegm and salts by means of a tritorium, or 44 separating funnel, and let half an ounce of the pearl- 44 ashes, heated and powdered as before, be added to it, 44 and the same treatment repeated. This may be done a “ third time, if the quantity of phlegm, separated by the 44 addition of the pearl-ashes, appears considerable. An “ ounce of alum reduced to powder, and made hot, but “ not burnt, must then be put into the spirit, and suffered “ to remain some hours ; the bottle being frequently 41 shaken, after which, the spirit being poured off, it will 44 be fit for use.” The addition of the alum is necessary to neutralize the remains of the alkaline salts, or pearl-ashes, which would otherwise greatly deprave the spirit with respect to var- nishes and lacquers, where vegetable colours are con- cerned, and must consequently render another distillation necessary. The manner of using the seed-lac, or white varnishes, is the same, except with regard to the substance used in polishing, which, where a pure white, or great clearness of other colours is in question, should be itself white ; whereas, the browner sorts of polishing dust, as being cheaper, and doing their business with greater dispatch, may be used in other cases. The pieces, or work to be varnished, should be placed near a fire, or in a room where there is a stove, and made perfectly dry, and then the varnish may be rubbed over them by the proper brushes, made for that purpose, beginning in the middle, and passing the brush to one end, and then, with another stroke from the middle, passing it to the other ; but no part should be crossed, or twice passed over, in forming one coat, where it can possibly be avoided. When one coat is dry, another o ] 94* THE ARTIST’S ASSISTANT. must be laid over it ; and this must be continued at least five or six times, or more, if, on trial, there be not a sufficient thickness of varnish to bear the polish, without laying bare, the painting or the ground colour underneath. When a sufficient number of coats is thus laid on, the work is fit to be polished, which must be done, in common cases, by rubbing it with a rag dipped in tripoti (commonly called rotten-stone) finely powdered ; but towards the end of the rubbing, a little oil of qny kind should be used along with the powder ; and when the work appears sufficiently bright and glossy, it should be well rubbed with the oil alone, to clean it from the powder, and give it a still brighter lustre. In the case of white grounds, instead of the tripoli, fine putty or whiting must be used ;both which should be washed over to prevent the danger of damaging the work from any sand or other gritty matter, that may happen to be com- mixed with them. It is a great improvement of all kinds of japan work, to harden the varnish by means of heat ; which, in every degree that can be applied short of what would burn or calcine the matter/ tends to give it a more firm and strong texture. Where metals form the body, therefore, a very hot stove may be used, and the pieces of work may be con- tinued in it a considerable time, especially if the heat be gradually increased ; but where wood is in question, heat must be sparingly used, as it would otherwise warp or shrink the body, so as to injure the general figure. Of gilding japan work.— The various methods of gilding, which are applicable to the ornamenting japan work, being exceedingly prolix and uninteresting, it is needless to repeat them here ; I shall, therefore, only observe, that in gilding with gold size (which is almost the only method now practised in japan work) where it is desired to have the gold not shine, or approach in the least towards the bur- THE ARTIST’S ASSISTANT. 195 ntshiiig state, the size should be used either with oil of turpentine only, or with a very little fat oil; but where a greater lustre and appearance of polish are wanting, without the trouble of burnishing, and the preparation necessary for it, fat oil alone, or mixed with a little gold size, should be used ; and the same proportionable effect will be produced from a mean proportion of them. Of LACQUERING. Lacquering is the laying either coloured or transpa- rent varnishes on metals; in order to produce the appear- ance of a different colour in the metal, or to preserve it from rust and the injuries of the weather. Lacquering is therefore much of the same nature with japanning, both with regard to the principles and practice, except that no opake colours, but transparent tinges alone, are to be employed. The occasions on which lacquering is now in general used are three : Where brass is to be made to have the appearance of being gilt ; where tint is wanted to have the resemblance of yellow metals, and where brass or copper locks, nails, or other such matters, are to be defended from the corrosion of the air or moisture. There was, indeed, formerly another very frequent application of lacquering, which was colouring frames of pictures, §c. previously silvered, in order to give them the effect of gilding, but this is now mostly disused.- These various intentions of lacquering require different compositions for the effectuating each kind ; and, as there is a multiplicity of ingredients, which may be conducive to each purpose, a proportionable number of recipes have been devised and introduced into practice, especially for the lacquering brass o 2 THE ARTIST’S ASSISTANT. 196 work to imitate gilding, which is a considerable object in this kind of art, and has been improved to the greatest degree of perfection. I shall, however, only give one or two recipes for each, as they are all which are necessary; the others being made too complex by ingredients not essen- tial to the intention, or too costly by the use of such as are expensive, or inferior in goodness from the improper choice or proportion of the component substances. The principal body or matter of all good lacquers used at present is seed-dac ; but, for coarser uses, resin, or turpen- tine is added, in order to make the lacquer cheaper than if the seed-lac, which is a much dearer article, be used alone. Spirit of wine is also consequently the fluid or menstruum of which lacquers are formed ; as the ethereal oils will not dissolve the seed-lac, and it is proper that the spirit should be highly rectified for this purpose. As it is seldom prac- ticable, nevertheless, to procure such spirits from the shops, it will be found very advantageous to use the method above given for dephlegmating it by alkaline salts ; but the use of the alum, directed in that process, must not be forgotten on this occasion, as the effect of the alkaline salt would other- wise be the turning the metal of a purplish, instead of a golden colour, by laying on the lacquer. The following are excellent compositions for brass work which is to resemble gilding: “ Take of turmeric ground, as it may be had at the dry- “ sailer’s, one ounce, and of saffron and Spanish annatto, “ each two drams. Put them into a proper bottle, with a “ pint of highly rectified spirit of wine, and place them in a “ moderate heat, if convenient, often shaking them for “ several days. A very strong yellow tincture will then be “ obtained, which must be strained off from the dregs 1 * through a coarse linen cloth ; and then, being put back 4< into the bottle, three ounces of good seed-lac, powdered " grossly, must be added, and the mixture placed again in THE ARTIST’S ASSISTANT. 197 44 a moderate heat, and shaken, till the seed-lac he dissolved ; e< or at least Such part of it as may. The lacquer must ci then be strained as before, and will he fit for use; but “ must be kept in a bottle carefully stopped.” Where it is desired to have the lacquer warmer or redder than this composition may prove, the proportion of the annatto must be increased ; and where it is wanted cooler or nearer a true yellow, it must be diminsshed. The above, properly managed, is an extremely good lacquer, and of moderate price ; but the following, which is cheaper, and may he made where the Spanish annatto cannot be procured good, is not greatly inferior to it: “ Take of turmeric root ground, one ounce ; of the 41 best dragon’s blood half a dram. Put them to a pint of 4( spirit of wine, and proceed as with the above.” By diminishing the proportion of the dragon’s blood, the varnish may be rendered of a redder, or truer yellow cast. Saffron is sometimes used to form the body of colour in this kind of lacquer, instead of the turmeric ; but though it makes a warmer yellow, yet the dearness of it, and the advantage which turmeric has in forming a much stronger tinge of spirit of wine, not only than the saffron, but than any other vegetable matter hitherto known, gives it the preference; though being a true yellow, and consequently not sufficiently warm to overcome the greenish cast of brass, it requires the addition of some orange-coloured tinge to make a perfect lacquer for this purpose. Aloes and gamboge are also sometimes used in lacquers, for brass ; but the aloes is not necessary where turmericor saffron are used ; and the gamboge, though a very strong milky yellc w in water, affords only a very weak tinge in spirit of wine. The varnish for tin may be made as follows : “ Take “ of turmeric root, one ounce ; of dragon’s blood, two 19S THE ARtlST’s ASSISTANT* “ drams; and of spirit of wine, one pint. Proceed as in tf the former.” This may, like the former, have the red or yellow ren- dered more prevalent, by the increasing or diminishing the proportion of the dragon’s blood. Where a coarser, or cheaper kind is wanted, the quantity of seed-lac may be abated ; and the deficiency thfence arising supplied by the same proportion of resin. The lacquer for locks, nails, <^c* where little or no colour is desired, may either be seed-lac varnish alone, as prepared above, or with a little dragon’s blood ; or a com*' pound varnish of equal parts of seed-lac and resin, with or without the dragon’s blood. The manner of laying on the lacquer is as follows : First, let the pieces of work to be lacquered be made thoroughly clean ; which, if they be new founded, must be done by means of aqua forth. Being ready, they must be heated by a small charcoal fire, in a proper vessel, or any way that may be most convenient ; the degree must not be greater than will admit of their being taken hold of without burning the hand. The lacquer must then be laid on by a proper brush in the manner of other varnishes ; and the pieces immediately set again in the same warm situation. After the lacquer is thoroughly dry and firm, the same operation must be renewed again for four or five times, or till the work appear of the colour and brightness intended. For very fine work, some use a less proportion of seed-lac, which occasions the lacquer to lie more even on the metal ; but, in this case, a greater number of coats are required, which multiplies the proportion of labour; though where the price of the work will allow for such additional trouble, it will be the more perfect for it. The lacquering tin may be performed in the same manner is here directed for brass, but being for coarser purposes, THE ARTIST’S ASSISTANT. 199 less nicety is observed ; and fewer coats (or perhaps one only) are made to suffice, as the lacquer is compounded so very red, that the tinge may have the stronger effect. Locks, nails, fyc. where lacquer is only used in a defen- sive view to keep them from corroding, and not for the improvement of the colour, may be treated in the same manner ; but one or two coats are generally thought suffi- cient ; though, where any regard is had to the wear, the coats of lacquer or x r arnish should always be of a due thick- ness, when they are to be exposed to the air; otherwise, the first moist weather makes them chill, and look grey and misty, in such a manner, that they are rather injurious than beneficial to the work they are laid upon... The lacquering picture frames, <§rc. where the ground is leaf-silver, may be performed in the same manner as here- after directed in the case of gilding leather ; the circum- stances being nearly the same, except with relation to the texture of the subject; to suit which, the different manner of treatment may be easily adapted ; but the lacquer, as was before observed, may be the same. Of STAINING WOOD. To stain yeltow. Take any white wood, and brush it over several times with the tincture of turmeric root, made by putting an ounce of the turmeric ground to powder, to a pint of spirit ; and, after they have stood some days, straining off the tincture. If the yellow colour be desired to have a redder cast, a little dragon’s blood must be added, in the proportion that will produce the tint required. THE ARTIST’S ASSISTANT. 200 A cheaper, but least strong and bright yellow may be given to wood, by rubbing it over several times with the tincture of the French berries, prepared as in p. 80, and made boiling hot. After the wood is again dry, it should be brushed over with a weak alum water, used cold. Lesser pieces of wood, instead of being brushed over with them, may be soaked in the decoctions or tinctures. Wood may be also stained yellow by means of aquafortis , which will sometimes produce a very beautiful yellow colour; but at other times a browner. The wood should be warm when the aqua fortis is not too strong, or that it be sparingly used; otherwise a brown, sometimes even a blackish colour may be the result. In order to render any of these stains more beautiful and durable, the wood should be brushed after it is coloured, and then varnished by the seed-lac varnish ; or, when de- sired to be very strong, and to take a high polish, with three or four coats of shell-lac varnish. Of staining wood red. - — For a bright red stain for wood, make a strong infusion of brazil in stale urine, or water impregnated with pearl-ashes, in the propor- tion of an ounce to a gallon ; to a gallon of either of which, the proportion of Brazil wood must be a pound, which being put to them, they must stand together two or three days, often stirring the mixture. With this infusion strained, and made boiling hot, brush over the wood to be stained, till it appears strongly coloured ; then, while yet wet, brush it over with alum- water made in the proportion of two ounces of alum to a quart of water. For a less bright red, dissolve an ounce of dragon’s blood in a pint of spirit of wine, and brush over the wood with the tincture till the stain appears to be as strong as is desired; but this is, in fact, rather lacquering than staining. THE ARTISTE ASSISTANT. 201 For a pink, or rose red, add to a gallon of the above infusion of Brazil -wood, two additional ounces of the pearl-ashes, and use it as it was before directed ; but it is ^ necessary, in this case, to brush the wood over often with alum water. By increasing the proportion of pearl-ashes, the red may be rendered yet paler ; but it is proper, when more than this quantity is added, to make the glum-water stronger. These reds, when it is necessary, may be varnished as the yellows. Of staining wood blue. — Wood may be stained blue, by means either of copper or indigo ; but the first will afford a brighter colour, and is more generally practicable than the latter ; because the indigo can be used only in that state to which it is brought by the manner of preparation used by the dyers, of whom indeed it must be had, as it cannot be properly so prepared but in large quantities, and with a particular apparatus. The method of staining blue with the copper is as follows : “ Take a solution of copper, made according to the i( directions in p. 74, and brush it, while hot, several times “ over the wood. Then make a solution of pearl-ashes in V the proportion of two ounces to a pint of water, and ‘ 6 brush it hot over the wood stained with the solution of copper, till it be of a perfectly blue colour.” Wood stained green as above by verdi grise, may likewise be made blue, by using the solution of the pearl-ashes in W the same manner. When indigo is used for staining wood blue, it must be managed thus : “ Take indigo prepared with soap-lees, as when used u by the dyers, and brush the wood with it boiling hot. tf Prepare then a solution of white tartar, or cream of “ tartar, which is to be made by boiling three ounces of “ the tartar, or cream, in a quart of water ; and with this THE ARTIST’S ASSISTANT. 1liUnr?'c* t&Mwk 202 f4 solution, used copiously, brush over the wood before u the moisture of the tincture of indigo, be quite dried out «• of it.” These blues may be brushed and varnished as the rest, where there is occasion. Of staining wood of mahogany colour.— Mahogany colour is the most useful of any stain for wood (especially since veneering with different colours is out of fashion), and it is much practised at present for chairs and other furniture, made in imitation of mahogany; which, when well managed, may be brought to have a very near re- semblance. This stain may be of different hues, as the natural wood varies greatly, being of all the intermediate tints between the red, brown, and purple brown, according to the age, or sometimes the original nature of different pieces. For the light red brown, use a decoction of madder and 7^ - w ^ ust * c woo< ^ ground in water; the proportion may be half a pound of madder, and a quarter of a pound of fustic, to a gallon; or, in default of fustic, an ounce of the yellow berries may be used. This must be brushed over the wood to be stained, while boiling hot, till the due colour be obtained ; and, if the wood be kindly grained, it will have greatly the appearance of new mahogany. The same effect nearly may be produced by the tincture of dragon’s blood and turmeric root, in spirit of wine, by increasing or diminishing the proportion of each, of which ingredients the brown stain may be varied to a more red or yellow cast at pleasure. This succeeds better upon wood, which has already some tinge of brown, than upon whiter. For the dark mahogany, take the infusion of madder 1 J made as above, except the exchanging the fustic for two ounces of logwood ; and when the wood to be stained has a A, tAbxWtfMw THE ARTIST’* ASSISTANT. 203 "been several times brushed over, and is again dry, it must be slightly brushed over with water, in which pearl-ashes have been dissolved, in the proportion of about a quarter of an ounce to a quart. Any stain3 of the intermediate colours may be made by mixing these ingredients, or varying the proportion of them. Where these stains are used for better kinds of work, the wood should be afterwards varnished with three or four coats of seed-lac varnish ; but for coarse work, the varnish of resin and seed-lac may be employed, or they may be only well rubbed with drying oil. Of staining wood green. — Dissolve verdigrise in vinegar, or chrystals of verdigrise in water ; and with the hot solution, brush over the wood till it be duly stained. This may be brushed and varnished as above. Of staining wood purple.' — Brush the wood to be stained several times with a strong decoction of logwood and Brazil, L made in the proportion of one pound of the logwood, and a quarter of a pound of the Brazil to a gallon of water, and boiled for an hour or more. When the wood has been brushed over till there be a sufficient body of colour, let it dry, and then be slightly passed over by a solution of one dram of pearl-ashes in a quart of water. This solution must be carefully used, as it will gradually change the colour from a brown red, which it will be originally found to be, to a dark blue purple ,* and therefore its- effect must be restrained to the due point for producing the colour desired. This may be varnished as the rest. Of staining wood black. — Brush the wood several times with the hot decoction of logwood made as above, but k- without the Brazil ; then, having prepared an infusion of galls, by putting a quarter of a pound of powdered galls to two quarts of water, and setting them in the sun-shine, or any other gentle heat, for three or four days, brush the $ 04 * THE ARTIST’S ASSISTANT. wood three or four times over with it, and then pass over it again, while yet wet, with a solution of green vitriol in water, in the proportion of two ounces to a quart. The above is the cheapest method ; but a very fine black may be produced by brushing the wood several times over with a solution of copper i w aqua forth , and afterwards with the decoction of logwood, which must be repeated till the colour be of sufficient force ; and the greenness produced by the solution of the copper, wholly overcome. These blacks may be varnished as the other colours. Where the stains are desired to be very strong, as in the case of wood intended to be used for veneering, it is in general necessary they should be soaked, and not brushed ; to render which the more practicable, the wood may be previously slit, or sawed into pieces of a proper thickness for inlaying. It is to be undesrtood also, that when the wood is above ordered to be brushed several times over with the tinging substances, it should be suffered to dry after each brushing. Of staining ivory, bone, or horn, yellow. — Boil them first in a solution of alum, in the proportion of one pound to two quarts of water, and then prepare a tincture of the French berries, by boiling half a pound of the berries, pounded, in a gallon of water, with a quarter of a pound of pearl-ashes. After this tincture has boiled about an hour, put the ivory, ^c. previously boiled in the alum water, into it, and let them remain there half a hour. If turmeric root be used, instead of the French berries, a brighter yellow may be obtained ; but the ivory, <§pc. must, in that case, be again dipped in alum-water, after it is taken out of the tincture, otherwise an orange-colour, not a yellow, will be produced from the effect of the pearl- ashes on the turmeric. THE ARTIST's ASSISTANT. 205 Of staining ivory, bone, and horn, green. — They must be boiled in a solution of verdigrise in vinegar, or of copper ^in aquafortis , prepared as above directed (a vessel of glass or earthen-ware being employed for this purpose) till they are of the colour desired. Of staining ivory, bone, and horn, red. — Take strong lime-water prepared as for other purposes, and the raspings of Brazil wood, in the proportion of half a pound to a gallon. Let them boil for an hour, and then put in the ivory, prepared by boiling in alum-water in the manner above directed for the yellow, and continue it there till it be sufficiently coloured. If it be too crimson, or verge toward the purple, it may be rendered more scarlet by dipping again in the alum water. Of staining ivory, bone, and horn, blue. — Stain the ivory, ^c. first green, according to the manner above di- rected ; and then dip it in a solution of pearl-ashes made ■' strong, and boiling hot ; but it must not be continued longer, nor dipped oftener, than is necessary to convert the green to blue. The ivory, <^c. may otherwise be boiled in the tincture of indigo, prepared as by the dyers, and afterwards in the solution of tartar, made as is directed for the staining wood. Of staining ivory, bone, and horn, purple. — Treat them in the same manner as was directed for red, except that L logwood must be substituted in the place of Brazil wood, and the use of the alum-water must be omitted wholly. If a redder purple be wanted, a mixture of the logwood, and Brazil must be employed, instead of the logwood alone. The proportion may be equal parts, or any less proportion of the Brazil, according to the colour desired. Of staining horn to imitate tortoise-shell. — The horn to t- be stained must be first pressed into proper plates, or C scales, or other flat form. The following mixture must then be prepared : 206 THE ARTIST'S ASSISTANT. 4 J “ Take of quick-lime, two parts, and of litharge, one, u and temper them to the consistence of a soft paste with soap-lye.” Put this paste over all the parts of the horn, except such as are proper to be left transparent, in order to the greater ^ resemblance of the tortoise-shell. The horn must then ^ t ' //Jtj^ remain ^ 1US coverec * the paste till it be thoroughly dry, when the paste being brushed off, the horn will be found partly opake and partly transparent, in the manner of tortoise-shell; and when put over a foil, of the kind of latten, called assldue , will be scarce distinguishable from it. It requires some degree of fancy and judgment to * dispose of the paste in such a manner as to form a variety of transparent parts of different magnitudes and figure, to look like the effect of nature ; and it will be an improve- ment to add semi-transparent parts. This may be done by mixing whiting with some of the paste to weaken its operation in particular places, by which spots of a reddish brown will be produced ; that, if properly interspersed, especially on the edges of the dark parts, will greatly in- . crease as well the beauty of the work, as its similitude with the real tortoise-shell. To stain ivory* bone, and horn, black. — Proceed in the same manner as is before directed for wood. Of staining paper, or parchment, yellow. — Paper may be stained yellow by the tincture of French berries, prepared as in p. 77, but a much more beautiful colour may be obtained by using the tincture of turmeric formed by infus- ing ah ounce or more of the root, powdered, in a pint of spirit of wine. This may be made to give ar.y tint of yellow, from the lightest straw to the full colour, called french yellow ; and will be equal in brightness even to the best dyed silks. If yellow be wanted of a warmer or redder cast, annatto, or dragons blood, must be added to the tincture. t'i cV & THE ARTIST's ASSISTANT. 207 The best manner of using these and the following tinctures, is to spread them even on the paper or parch- ment, by means of a broad brush, in the manner of var- nishing. Of staining paper, or parchment, red. — Paper or parch- ment may be stained red, by treating it in the same manner as is directed for wood, p. 200, or by red ink. It may also be stained of a scarlet hue by the tincture of dragon’s blood in spirit of wine ,* but this will not be bright. A very fine crimson stain may be given to paper, by a tincture of Indian lake, which may be by infusing the lake ^ome days in spirit of wine, and then pouring off the tincture from the dregs. Of staining paper, or parchment, green. — Paper, or parchment, may be stained green by the solution of verdi- ^grise in vinegar ; or by the chrystals of verdigrise dissolved in water; as also by the solution of copper in aquafortis made by adding filings of copper gradually to the aquafortis till no ebullition ensues ; or spirit of salt may be used in the place of the aqua fords. Of staining paper, or parchment, blue.— »A blue colour may be given to paper, or parchment, by staining it green by any of the above-mentioned methods ; and treating it afterwards as is directed for staining wood blue, by the same means ; or by indigo, in the manner there explained likewise. Of staining paper, or parchment, orange. — Stain the paper, or parchment, first of a full yellow, by means of the tincture of turmeric, as before directed. Then brush it over with a solution of fixed alkaline salt, made by dissolv- ing half an ounce of pearl-ashes, or salt of tartar, in a quart of water, and filtering the solution. Of staining paper, or parchment, purple. — Paper, or ic- parchment may be stained purple by archal; or by the 'tincture of logwood, according to the method above di- 208 THE ARTIST’S ASSISTANT. reeted fof staining wood. The juice of ripe privet berries expressed, will likewise give a purple dye to paper or parchment. Of staining alabaster, marble and other stones, of various colours. — Alabaster, marble and other stones, may be stained of a yellow, red, green, blue, purple, black, or any of the compound colours, by the means given for staining wood ; but it is better, if a strong tinge is wanted, to pour the tincture, if made in water, boiling hot on the alabaster, Sfc. spreading it equally on every part, than to brush it over only ; though that may be sufficient where a slight dye will suffice. When tinctures in spirit of wine are used, they must not be heated, as the spirit would evaporate, and leave the tinging gums in an undissolved state. Where stones are not perfectly white, but partake of brownness, or greyness, the colour produced by the tinges will be proportionably wanting in brightness ; because the natural colour of stone is not hid or covered by these tinges, but combines with them ; and, for the same reason, if the stones be of any of the pure colours, the result will be a compound of such colour, and that of the tinge. For Dying Cloth . Green colours are to be produced only by a mixture of blue and yellow ; for there is no ingredient yet discovered, that will by itself produce a good green dye. Sap-green will indeed communicate its own colour to cloth of any kind, and for that purpose is used in some places ; but the colours dyed with this ingredient are by no means eligible. It is common first to dye the cloth blue with indigo, and then yellow with any yellow-colouring ingredient; by which means a green colour is produced. 209 THE ARTIST'S ASSISTANT. Of CASTING. To p rep are clay In such a manner as to be fit to make all kinds of moulds to cast gold , silver , and other metals in, TAKE as much clay as you will, put it into an earthen pot that is glazed, and cover and lute it very close,* then put it into a potter’s furnace, and let it stand as long as other earthen-ware. After it is burned and cold, grind the clay upon a colour-stone, very fine, sift it through a fine hair sieve into clear water, and, after it is settled, pour off the water, and grind the clay once more upon the stone, as fine as possible ; then wash it again in fair water as before, and set it in the sun, or in a warm place, to dry. After this burned and washed clay is thoroughly dry, take thereof three pounds, sal-arm on iac two pounds, tartar two pounds, and vitriol one pound ; mix them together, and put this mixture into one or two pots ; pour upon it about seven quarts of clean water, and boil this composition for some time; then take this water, whilst it is warm, and mix your burned clay therewith, to such a consistence, that you^ may form it into balls ; lay these in a warm place to dry; and, when dry, put them into an earthen pot as before, and give them another baking among the earthen- ware ; and, when cold, grind them fine, and that powder will be fit for use. The clay being thus prepared, take sal-armoniac, put it into a glass, with water, that holds about two quarts ; put so much of the sal-armoniac to the water as will dissolve it over a gentle warmth, and let it stand one or two hours closed up ; then take your powder of clay, temper it with this water to such a consistence as to form it into balls, am p THE ARTlST’s ASSISTANT. 210 make what moulds you please thereof. When you cast Tyaur metal, you mu| make your mould red’ hot, and be also very nimble in pouring out your melted metal. To make moulds of clay to cast brass or other metals therein Take good clear clay, such as the pewterers use ; take also cloth shaving* or fine short piucked -cottony and fine clear sand ; and if the sand is not fine enough, grind- it on a colour stond, mix this withthe clay to such a consist- ence as is fit to make or form your moulds thereof. Your day must not be made soft with water, hut with strong' beer ; and, when you east, let your mould be red hot. If you would have a fine and sharp cast, sift over your clay some fine washed ashes before you make the impression. To prepare mohlds which need not be heated for casting metal in them:— -Take fine sand, such as the goldsmiths ose ; mix it with lamp black, as much as you think proper ; then temper it with- rape or linseed oil. fit to make your moulds thereof ; whatever you cast in them comes not-only out neat and sharp, hut you have no occasion to heat your mould, as is required in other cases ; this you must observe that your sand be very dry, before you temper it with the oil. hQiie preparation of Mantua earth for moulds: — Take Mantua earth one part, and one part of charcoal dust of burnt birch, and one part of salt ; then mix with it an equal quantity of tartar ; boil up the mixture together inacopper pan, and let it seeth three times ; with this water, which keeps always good, moisten and temper your earth so as to form it into balls between your hands, and when you would make your mould, roll your earth with a joller till it is smooth and pliable, then you may; form it into what fashion you please. In this mould you may cast before it is dried ; and when you have cast, takeoff the earth which is dried through the heat of the metal; grind the same again, and temper it as you did at first to use it again. ^^g^RTIST's. ASSISTANT. 211 A particular sort of mould in which one may cast ex- ceedingly fine : — Take horse muscles, or for want of them oyster shells ; let them be calcined in a potter’s furnace ; then pulverize and temper them with urine; of this make your moulds, and you will cast very fine and sharp. To in^pi^ss bass relievo or medals, in imitation of ivory: — Take of prepared clay one pound, fine plaister of Paris eight ounces, white starch eight ounces ; mix these together,- and beat up the mixture with the white of six or eight eggs; put to it three ounces of clear gum arabic ; stir it well together to a, paste, and put so much of the dry mixture to it till you knead it like dough ; then press it into a mould with the palm of your hand, and let it dry in the sun, observing to lay the paste side on a smooth board, and it will be clear and hard like ivory. You may impress all manner of medals and curiosities, and make them of what colour you please. To im pr ess medals and other things in bass relievo, on paper: — Take the shavings of superfine whitepaper, and steep them in fair water for six or eight days ; then put them into a clean earthen pot with water, and boil them for two or three hours ; this done, take them out of the pot, with as little moisture as possible, and stamp them in a stone mortar very small and fine ; then put them into a clean linen bag, and hang that in a vessel with clean water, changing the water once or twice a week ; when you have occasion to use it, take as much as you want out of the bag, squeezing the water from it, and put it on the mould, pressing it down gently with a sponge, which will soak up the water, and make the impression more perfect; this being done, set the mould to dry in the sun, or in a warm room, and, when dry, the impression will come off fair, and as sharp as if cast in fine plaister of Paris. To cast vegetables in moulds peculiarly prepared for silver : — Take fine and clear clay, or spelter, that is dry, p 2 212 THE ARTIST’S ASSISTANT and pound it fine in a mortar; then take a copper pr iron pan, put in your clay, and gi ve it a brisk fire ; and after you have heated it thoroughly, take it off, and let it cool; then take one part of this clay, one part alumeri ylumosum, grind them together, and cast the mixture in little tints, which put into a fire to anneal ; beat it very fine, and when you would form your plant, take one part of this powder, and ohe part of alumen flumosum, grind them toge- ther, and add as much of the clay powder as the mixed matter doth contain, and mix and grind them all toge- ther. Then take some potter’s clay to make a coffin round your plant ; spread it in what manner you think proper, and after the coffin is dry, anoint the inside thereof, as also the plant, with good brandy ; dust the before-prepared clay, and the plant, gently, through a fine cainbrick, and when you have covered it all over as thick as it will bear, strike the raised coffin a little with your hand or hammer, and the dust will settle closer to the plant, and make the silver, cast in, come out the sharper. After the powder is well settled, and your coffin closed, cover it fine with dead charcoal, and then lay some live ones over them ; let the fire gradually descend to the coffin, and heat it by degrees to a strong glue ; then let it cool of itself with the fire; take afterwards fine clay, fine sand, and some 1 wool shearings ; mix this together, beat and knead it well into one another, then temper it with glue, and fill your coffin with it all overthe plant, leaving an opening at the stalk for the inlet; then put it again into the fire, and make it red hot, and, with a pair of bellows, first closed, draw out the ashes from the inlet, and it will be ready for casting. Then take oil of tartar, which is made of pounded salt ot tartar, and scrape a little sa!-armoniac into it, to give it the substance of a thin paste, which is a good flux for silver; THE ARTIST’S ASSISTANT. 21 3 throw some of this upon your silver when in fusion, and it will cast line and sharp. After it is east, anoint the silver plant with oil of tartar, lav it on live coals, anneal it, and then boil it in tartar, to which you add a little salt, and this will give it a fine b r i gh t pear 1 co 1 o u r. ,, A curious methoddo cast ali sorts of things in gold, silver, or othermetals : — dnrst, pound plaisterof Paris, or alabaster, to a fine powder; sift it thrpugh a eambriok, or very fine hair sieve, and put it into an iron pan over a plear coal fire; stir it about until it begins to boil and bubble up dike water ; keep i t sti rri n k,| -recruit you t fire, and con tin ue this until you find it so thick as not to be able to draw it along with your stick ; then pour it into a bqwl, and let it cool. Take also brick dust finely powdered and sifted. The miners find sometimes a matter in the iron mines, which they call liver ore ; take this, wash it from the coarser sand, and, when dry, put it into an earthen pot, cover it, set it to neal thoroughly, and, when cold, pound and sift it; when it is rightly burnt it will be of a copper colour; put all these powders into several different boxes, and pre- serve them from dust and soil for proper use. To cast vegetables and insects Four parts of the above plaisterof Paris, two parts brick-dust, and two parts liver ore; mix them well tegether, and sift them through a fine hair sieve, and when you are ready to form your moulds, pour clean water to them, stir them well together to the thickness of a thin paste ; but you must be pretty nimble with this work, else it will harden under your hands, and be of no use. The mould you prepare thus Take the plant you design to cast; and spread the leaves and stalks so as not to touch one another; then make a coffin, either of lead or clay, put your plant in it so as not to touch the coffin ; at the bottom you may lay a piece of paper to keep the stuff 214? THE ARTIST’S ASSISTANT. from sticking to the board, but let your stuff be neither too thick nor too thin ; for if it is of a right consistence, it will force itself close to the plants, and come out sharp ; let the stalks be carefully kept up for the inlet, and, when you pour this stuff upon your plants, do it gently, and separate those leaves which might lie close to one another with a needle, pouring all the while to make the mould the stronger. After this is hardened, put it in a dry place, and keep it until you have some more ready to cast, but you must secure it from frost. If you would cast insects, or any small animal, or reptile, put them in what position you will, upon a little board, brown paper, or pasteboard, which first must be anointed with oil, in order to make the plaister stuff come off the easier; about your insect make a little coffin, and if you can raise the insect so as to be freed from the board or paper, it will be the better, which you may do by tying it with two or three hairs, fastening them at the top of the coffin, and by this means it will hang in the middle thereof; when this is ready, pour, as before directed, your plaister gently upon it, and after the mould is a little dry, it will be fit for use. If you lay your insect, or other creature, upon the paper, you must make a wall about, and cast your plaister upon it ; let it stand a little, and when dry, take off your wall, and cut the plaister round about the insect ; and, taking the mould off the paper, there will be an opening at the bottom of the mould where the insect lies ; turn this mould, and anoint it about the opening, and the part of the insect, with oil; then, casting some fresh plaister upon that plate, your mould will take asunder, and be very convenient to draw out the ashes of the insect, after it has been burned as is here directed. Put your mould upon some warm wood ashes ; then cover it with small coal, over the small coal lay* charcoal, and THE ARTIST* ASSISTANT. 215 then throw some lighted small coal over them to kindle the •others, so that the heat may he gently conveyed to the mould ; after it has glowed some time, and you think the insect, or plant, is consumed to ashes, let it cool of itself with the fire about it to prevent the air coming to it. When your mould is cold, open the hole for the inlet, and either with vour breath, or with a little hand-spout that is moist, draw out the ashes, and your mould is ready. You may also burn those moulds in a muffle, if you close the muffle to prevent the air coming in, and lay the coals on and glow it as has been directed* After you have taken out the mould, put the same in warm sand, and, having your silver or other metal ready melted, pour it in quick; hut if you cast silver, throw into the flux a little sal- armoniac and borax, mixed together ; after it is cast, let the mould cool a little ; then quench it in water, and the plaister will fall off of itself, brush the silver clean, and anneal and boil it as has been already directed* To cast vegetables or insects in another manner: — Tie your plant, sprig, or insect, with a fine thread to a little stick : dip either of them into brandy, and let it dry a little, then temper your plaister of Paris, prepared as before directed, with water of sal-armoniac, pretty thin, and dip yqur plant or insect in it all over ; then put the little stick in the hole against a wall, or any thing else ; let it hang free, and in the drying you may display the leaves of the plant, or legs of the insect, as you would have them ; and when you have done this, hang it in the coffin, the little stick may rest on each end of the coffin, then, pouring your plaister over, you will have an exact mould, then proceed as directed before. If you would have a small insect to stand upon a leaf, then dip the ends of its legs in turpentine, and put it on the plant before you dip it, if it is a spider or grass- hopper, or any other insect which you think will be THE ARTIST’S ASSISTANT. 216 too strong for the turpentine, kill it first in vinegar, and after that put its legs in the turpentine, and fix it to the leaf of the plant. To cast figures or medals in brimstone Melt in a glazed pipkin half a pound of brimstone over a gentle fire ; with this mix half a pound of fine Vermillion, and when you have cleared the top take it off the fire, stir it well together and it will dissolve like oil ; then cast it into the mould, after being first anointed with oil, let it cool, and take it out, but in case your figure should change to a yellowish colour, you must only wipe it over with 'aquafortis, and it will look like the finest coral. How to form and cast all manner of small birds, frogs, fish, ^c.— Take an earthen, iron, or tin ring, which is high and wide enough to hold the animal you design to cast, and set the ring upon a clean board, or pasteboard ; then lay the animal upon it, and cast the fine mixture of plaister pretty thick over it, the rest of the vacancy you may fill up with a coarser plaister, even to the brim. When this is done, and pretty well dried, turn your ring, and putting a little short stick close to the body of the animal cast a crust on that side, to cover that part which lay close to the board ; and, when dry, burn it, and go about the casting as directed; after you have burned or glowed it thoroughly, you must dry the ashes out of the hole which is made by the little stick, and this you may use for your inlet. How to cast small shot : — Melt your lead in a ladle, then pour it gently in a continual stream into a pan or pail of water, on the surface whereof swims oil of a finger thick, and you will have a good round small shot. Of casting in plaister : — If you will make a mould to cast an image or animal in, take clean potter’s clay, make thereof a coffin round about the image, which you lay long ■u ays on a board, and anoint it over with oil, then take fine THE ARTISTE ASSISTANT. 217 plaister of Paris, mix it with water, and pour it all over the image, so that it may cover it every way ; then give it a stronger coat with a coarser sort, and when the plaister is dry, take off the coffin, and cut that side which is cast something flat, making some notches or marks upon it, then turn it, and make a coffin about it again, and cast that side of the image, after you have anointed it with some oil all over, so that the whole may he entirely inclosed. After the plaister has been a day or two upon the image, it will be quite dry, then, with a wooden mallet, beat cautiously against the plaister till a piece thereof loosens, which king taken off, the rest will come off easy; and after you have dismantled the whole, anoint the inside thereof with linseed oil with a fine hair pencil brush, and let it dry in, this do twice, and after they have lain two or three days, cut in an inlet where you think it most con- venient, and when you will cast with plaister of Paris, before you do it, anoint the inside of the mould, and after you have put all the pieces in their places, and tied them together, cast your plaister, and let it stand half a day; take the pieces, one after another, carefully off, in order to keep the image intire ; but if you will cast wax in that mould, put only the mould, for half an hour before, in water, and the wax will not stick to it. If you will have the image hollow, then mind that the wax be not too hot ; pour it into the mould, and you will easily see how thick it sticks to it. When you think it is thick enough, then turn your mould about, and pour out tho wax that is re- maining, and after you have, for a little while, laid it in water, take off the pieces of moulding, and you will have the image done to perfection. You must observe that before you break the mould from the image on which you formed it, you must mark it all over with crosses, circles, or strokes, by which you may afterwards fix them right THE ARTIST’S ASSISTANT. 218 and exactly together, to cast again. If you will have the wax figures solid, then let the mould, with the images, lie for half an hour, or more, to cool, in fair water. To prepare the wax 1-Take one pound of white rosin that is not greasy, and two pounds of wax ; melt the wax, strain it through a cloth into a glazed pan, and stir it about till it is cool. To cast medals and other things in bass relievo: — Lay your medal on a clean piece of paper, or a clean board ; inclose it with a wall of clay or wax, then pour the plaister of Paris half an inch thick upon it; when it is dry, take off the mould, and anoint it with clear sallad oil two or three times, both within and without. If you will cast plaister of Paris, lay the mould first for a quarter of an hour, in clear water ; then cast your plaister as thick as you please. You must observe, that whenever you make a mould of plaister, let it be for bass relievo or figures, you must always anoint it with oil two or three times, which will not only preserve them from the damage they otherwise would sustain from the water, but make the cast pieces come out clear. Medals and figures in bass relievo, how to cast them like jaspis: — To do this you must have a hand spout, ora glyster pipe ; at the end whereof fix a tin, or iron plate, full of round holes, some larger than others ; in this spout put a paste made of fine chalk of several colours, then force them out in small shreds of mixed colours, in one piece ; cut them with a fine edged knife in thin round slices, and put one into your mould, pressing it down gently ; then pour the plaister of Paris upon it, and, when dry, lay it first over with fish glue, and after that varnish it, and it will be of singular beauty. The colours you may first dilute with guin-watef, before you mix the chalk with them. THE ARTIST’S ASSISTANT. 219 Another!' — Take the above-mentioned chalk paste, and after you have mixed therewith a variety of colours, as smalt, white lead, vermillion, red lead, masticot, verdigrise, brown red, #• c. and formed each colour separate into little cakes; then, with a rolling pin, spread them like pye- crust, and when you have as many colours as you think proper, lay one leaf upon another, roll them together from one end to the other, and, with a knife, cut slices as thin as a wafer; take these and cover your mould with them, press it close down with your thumb, and pour the plaister of Paris over it ; when dry, do it over with fish glue, and then varnish it, or give it a polish with a dog’s tooth. To cast fish, reptiles, fruits or any kind of things, in a pewter plate, or dish : — Take a pewter plate or dish, gar- nish the same with either fish, reptiles, fruits, plants, $*c. dispose them in proper order, as your fancy directs you ; small animals, or leaves of plants, fasten to the dish with a little turpentine, and when every thing is in order, wall it round ; then pour your plaister of Paris over it, strike upon the table the dish stands On, in order to make thecasting fix the closer about the things, after the plaister is dry, make the mould for the back part of the dish, glow it in order to burn the things to ashes, and having cleared your mould fix them together for casting, then tie them round with wires, and make them red hot, cast your pewter, and in order not to make the dish too heavy, convey some little openings from the back part of the mould to the body, or hollow of the animals, stopping the outside close up again till your casting is over; and when you think the pewter sufficiently fixed, then open these convey- ances, and pour out the pewter which may remain in the ingot, melted. If you would cast it in silver, then model your leaves, animals, <%e. each separate and hollow, that they may be afterwards soldered on. THE ARTIST’S ASSISTANT. no To cast figures in imitation of ivory : — Take isinglass and strong brandy, make it into a paste with the powder of very fine grounded egg-sheJJs. You may givejt what colour you please, but cast it warm into your mould? having oiled it all over; leave the figure in the mould till cold, then set them in the air to dry, and you will have them resemble ivory. Another : — Take a sufficient quantity of egg-shells, put them into an earthen vessel, lute it well, and let them be put into a potter’s furnace, and they will burn to a white calx ; if after the first burning they are not ■white enough, burn them a second time, then, with parchment glue, mix it into a mass fit to be cast in moulds, wherein let them d-ry^ if you will have your figures of different colours, you must colour your glue, for red, with Brazil ; for green, with verdigrise, §>c. Another mixture to cast figures in bass relievo : — Take flower of chalk, finely ground, mix it with clear glue well together, pour it into your mould, press it with the palm of your hand, and it will come out very fine; you may do this in what colour you please. To cast with marble colours in plaister: — Take'sever&l- ooleurs,. as vermiliion, Dutch pink, yellow oker, smalt, eye. temper them with water, and mix every one apart with plaister ; then take what colour you please, and-ftrst sprinkle your mould, which is best of brimstone, with one or more of them, with a little pencil or feather, then pour a colour different from what you sprinkled into the mould, and after it is hardened, give it a gloss with wax or varnish, as pleases you best. A sand, in which one may cast things to the greatest nicety, whether fiat, or in bass relievo : — Take Fuller’s earth, put it in a reverberatory furnace, so long till it is red hot ; then take sal-armoniac about one pound, dissolve it in two quarts of water, with this water moisten the THE ARTIST'S ASSISTANT. 221 burnt earth ; and, when cool, put it into the furnace, in a red hot pan, after it has glown there, take it out again, when th° heat is a little over, sprinkle it with the above water again till it is quenched, then give it another fire, and repeat this five or six times, the more the better it will receive the metal, then grind it to a very fine powder, put it into the frame, which may be either of brass, iron, or wood ; but first moisten it a little with the aforesaid water, then make your impression near the ingot, and having dried it before the fire while it is hot, cast your metal. The mould or impression will be better the second than the first time of using it ; but every time you use it make it first red hot. To make horn soft: — Take one pound of wood ashes, two pounds of quick lime, and one quart of water, let it boil together one third, then dip a feather into it, and if, in drawing it out the plume comes off, it is boiled enough ; if not, let it boil longer, when it is settled, filter it through a. cloth, then put in shavings, or filings of horn, let them soak therein three days, and anointing your hands first with oil, work the horn shavings into a mast, and print, mould, or form it into what shape you please. To cast horn into moulds:— Take horn shavings as many as you will, and lay them in a new earthen pot; take two parts of wood ashes, and the third part of lime, pour clear lye upon it so as to cover it all over, boil it well, stir it with an iron ladle till it has the consistence of paste; if you will have it of a red colour, then take red lead, or Ver- million, as much as you think proper, and temper it with the paste, then cast it into a mould and let it dry, and you may smooth it with a knife, and it will be of one solid piece ; you may, in this manner, bring horn to what colour you will have it. To cast wood-w-'fmwdds as fine as ivory, of a fragrant smell, and in several colours:* — Take fine saw-dust of THE ARTIST’S ASSISTANT. 222 lime-tree wood, put it into a clean pan, tie it close up with paper, and let it dry by a gentle heat, then beat it in a stone mortar to a very fine powder, sift it through cam- brick, and lay it, if you do not use it presently, in a dry place, to keep it from dust, then take one pound of fine archment glue the finest gum-tragacanth and gum-arabick. eac k four °^ nces » ^ hoil in dean clear pump-water, and filter it through a clean rag; then put into it of the said powder of Wood, as much as will make it of the substance of a thick paste, and set it in a glazed pan in a hot sand, stir it well together, and let the rest of the mix your colours with the paste, and put in oil of cloves, of roses, or the like, to give it a scent ; you may mix it,*4£~ you will, with a little beaten amber; for a red colour, use Brazil ink. Your mould will be better of pewter, or brass, than of plaister of Paris, anoint it over with oil of almonds, and put your paste into it, let it stand three or four days to dry and harden, then take off your mould, and it will be as hard as ivory; you may cut, turn, carve, and plane it like other wood, it will be of a sweet scent, you may, if your mould will allow it, use several colours in one piece, leaving-only in some part the natural colour of the wood in order to convince the beholder what it is. It is a fine and curious experiment. Of the mixture for casting mirrors and other things for optics:-— We find the method for preparing these mixtures prescribed by several authors, but after different ways; wherefore I shall set down only a few, which, for the generality, are best approved of ; and first, Take three pounds of the best refined pewter, and one pound of refined copper; first melt the copper, and then add the pewter to it, when both are in fusion, pour it out, and, when cold, beat it to powder ; then take twelve ounces of red tartar, a little calcined tartar, three ounces of moisture evaporate till it be fit for casting, then pour or THE ARTlST’s ASSISTANT. 223 salt-petre, one ounce and a half of alum, and four ounces of arsenic; mix and stir this together, and, after it has- done evaporating, pouf out the metal into the mould, let it cool, and, when polished, you will have a fine mirror. This is the composition which is commonly called, the steel mixture. Some artists will have the arsenic omitted, because it is apt to turn the mirror into a deadish blue colour, anrt requires new polishing every time it is wanted for use ; and they think that copper and pewter are sufficient to answer thatpurpose. Another : — Take an earthen pan that is not glazed, and has stood the fire, put into it two pounds of tartar, also the same weight of chrystalline arsenic, and melt it on a coal fire. When this mixture begins to smoak, add to it fifty pounds of old copper, and put it into fusion for six or seven hours, so that it may be well cleansed; then add to it fifty pounds of pewter, and let them melt together; after this, take up some of the mixture with an iron to se'e whe- ther it is too hard and brittle, if so, then add a little more tin, and when you have the right temper, throw four ounces of borax over it, and let it stand in the furnace until it is dissolved, then pour it into your mould, and let it cool ; when it is cold, rub it first with brimstone, and then with emery, and after the surface is made smooth and even, polish it with tripoli or tin ashes, and give it the finishing stroke with lamp black ; or, take copper one part, pewter three parts, and a very little arsenic or tartar ; when these are put into fusion, let them incorporate. Some take of copper three parts, of pewter one part, and a little silver, antimony, and white flint. Others do it with one part of lead, and two parts of silver. After the metal is formed and cast, it is requisite to have it smooth and well polished ; the first is done with emery. THE ARTlST's ASSISTANT. 224 then with powder ofibrimstone, tin ashes, or else with tripoll, the polishing is done with pulverized chimney soot of wood fires,, and the ashes of willow or cedar, which will give it a fine lustre. The emery is ground to a fine dust, and moistened with water ; or steel mixtures are also made out of one pound of pewter, and one third of copper ; when these are melted, add two ounces of tartar, and one ounce of orpiment, and, when evaporated, pour the mixture out into the mould. The casting of a flat mirror or looking- glass, is done upon a flat board, which must be made dry and warm, and covered with rosin or pitch ; by this means the mirror is fixed to the board : when cold, rub it with sand aityy-C' use it. A mixture which may be used for making impressions of any kind, and which will grow as hard as stone :* — Take clean and fine sifted ashes, and fine plaister of Paris, of each an equal quantity, and temper the mixture with gum water, or with size of parchment, knead it well together, and press it down into your mould, but do not prepare more than what you use presently, else it will harden under your hands. You may give it what colour you please ; in mix- ing it for black, take lamp-black; for red, Vermillion; for white, flake white; for green, verdigrise ; for yellow, Dutch pink, c. You may, instead of gum or size, use the whites of eggs, which is more binding. To impress figures in imitation of porcelain : — Calcined and fine pu!yerized egg-shells, worked with gum-arabic and the white of eggs into a dough ; then pressed into a mould, and dried in the sun, will come out sharp, and look fine. THE ARTIST'S ASSISTANT. 227 Of BRONZING. Bronzing is colouring by metalline powders, plaister, or other busts and figures, in order to make them appear as if cast of copper or other metals. This is sometimes done by means of cement, and some- times without, in the instance of plaister figures ; but the bronzing is more durable and secure when a cement is used. Gold powders, and aurum mosatcum , are frequently em- ployed for this purpose; but the proper bronzing ought to be of a deeper and redder colour, more resembling copper, which effect may be produced by grinding a very small quantity of red lead with these powders, or the proper powder of copper may be used, and may be prepared as follows : “ Take filings of copper, or slips of copper-plates, “ which dissolve in any kind of aquafortis , and put into a. “ glass receiver, or other proper formed vessel. When the ** aqua fortis is saturated with the copper, take out the “ slips of the plates, or, if filings were used, pour off the solution from what remains undissolved, and put into it small bars of iron, which will precipitate the copper “ from the aqua forth in a powder of the proper appear- “ ance and colour of copper. Pour off the water then from “ the powder, and wash it clean from the salts by several “ successive quantities of fresh water.” The true gold powder may be well and easily made by the following method: “ Take any quantity of leaf gold, and grind it with [ " virgin honey, on a stone, till the texture of the leaves be perfectly broken, and their parts divided into the q 2 228 THE ARTIST'S ASSISTANT. minutest degree. Then take the mixture of gold and honey from off the stone, and put it into a china, or “ other such bason, with water, then stir it well about, “ that the honey may be melted, and the gold by that 6t means freed from it. Let the bason afterwards stand at “ rest till the gold be subsided, and when it is so, pour off “ the water from it, adding fresh quantities till the honey “ be entirely washed away, after which, the gold may be “ put on paper, and dried for use.” The aurummosaicum, which is tin coloured, and rendered of a flaky or pulverine texture by a chemical process, so as greatly to resemble gold powder, is prepared in the follow- ing manner : “ Take of tin one pound, of flour of sulphur seven “ ounces, and of sal-arrimoniacus and purified quicksilver, “ each half a pound. Melt the tin, and add the quick- “ silver to it in that state, and when the mixture is become “ cold, powder it, and grind it with the sal-ammoniacus “and sulphur till the whole be thoroughly commixed; “ calcine them then in a mattrass, and the other ingredients “ subliming, the tin will be converted into the aurum “ mosaicum , and will be found in the bottom of the glass li like a mass of bright flaky gold powder, but if any “ black or discoloured parts appear in it, they must be “ carefully picked or cut out.” Where the appearance of brass is designed, the gold powders, or the aurum mosaicum , may be mixed with a little of the powder, called, argentum mu sivum; the prepa- ration of which is treated of under the article Silvering. Where the appearance of silver is wanted, the argentum musivum is the best and cheapest method, particularly as it will hold its colour much longer than the true silver used in either leaf or powder. Where no cement is used in bronzing, the powder must be rubbed on the subject intended to be bronzed, by means THE ARTISTE ASSISTANT. 229 of a piece of soft leather, or fine linen rag, till the whole surface he coloured. The former method of using cement in bronzing, was to mix the powders with strong gum-water, or isinglass size, and then, with a brush, or pencil, to lay them on thesub- ^ ject ; but at present, some use the japanners’ gold size, and proceed in all respects in the same manner as in gilding with the powders in other cases, for which ample directions will be given. This is the best method hitherto practised, for the japanners’ gold size binds the powders to the ground, with- out the least hazard of peeling or failing off, which is liable to happen when the gum-water, glovers, or isinglass sizes are used ; though, notwithstanding the authority of the old practice for the contrary, even these cements wilt much better secure them when they are laid on the ground, and the effect, particularly of the aurum mosaicum , will be much better in this way than the other. The gold size should be suffered, in this case, to approach much nearer to dryness than is proper in the case of gilding with leaf gold, as the powders would otherwise be rubbed against it jin the laying them on. The fictitious silver powder, called, the argentum musivum , may, as abovementioned, be applied in the manner of bronze, by those whose caprice disposes them to silver figures or busts ;but it is the only sort of silver powder that should be used in this way, for the reason above given , and all i such kind of sil vering is much better omitted, for the white- ness itself of plaister in figures or busts, and much more a shining whiteness is injurious to their right effect, by its eluding the judgment of the eye, with respect to the proper form and proportion of the parts from the false and I pointed reflections of the lights, and the too faint force of the shades ; to remove which inconvenience, it is proba- ble, was the first inducement to bronzing. 230 THE ARTIST’S ASSISTANT. •«a>36 THE ARTIST’S ASSISTANT. japanned work; for which directions have been given under the Treatise of Japanning. When the painting, var- nishing, gilding, 8?Ci is performed, it is proper, in all cases, where great firmness and hardness of the varnish is required, to bake the pieces in a proper stove, beginning with a gentle heat, and increasing the degree to the greatest that can be given, without changing the colour of the varnish or the painting, by burning them, but this is more particularly requisite in the case of cups and saucers made of the whole paper, or saw-dust, which are to bear hot water ; for the baking them a considerable time, in a strong heat, renders the varnish proof against any injury that could be done to it, even by boiling ivater. The true japan black lacquer, (which is now frequently brought from China) has been sometimes used for the varnishing snuff-boxes, cups, and all such pieces made of the paper ; or saw-dust, but this lacquer being theconcreted juice of the toxicodendron tree, its poisonous qualities are almost constantly fatal to those who work with it for a length of time, and sometimes, even on very slight intermeddling with it; such a momentous inconvenience, together with the tediousness of dispatching the work, on account of its great tardiness in drying, being extremely good reasons against its use, it is more adviseable to employ the common kinds of varnish, which, when managed judiciously, may be rendered nearly both as beautiful and durable, without either the danger or the difficulty attending the other. When the true japan varnish, is, however, used, all heat must be avoided ; for, contrary to the nature of most other substances of the same kind, this dries best when most exposed to moisture, and can, indeed, only be brought to a proper state of hardness, by keeping it in some place which is either naturally damp, or made so artificially. THE ARTIST’S ASSISTANT. 237 — aWMV»— Of GILDING. THE principal kinds of gilding are those called oil gilding, burnish gilding, and japanners’ gilding, or gilding with gold size ; these may be promiscuously used on grounds either of wood, metal, or any other firm and rigid body, but paper and leather require a treatment, in some cases, peculiar to themselves. The first attention in most kinds of gilding, is the choice of leaf gold, which should be pure, and of the colour accommodated to the purpose or taste of the work. Purity is requisite in all cases, for if the gold be- allayed with silver, it will be of too pale and green a hue for any appli- cation, and, if it contain much copper, it will, in time, turn to a stronger green ; the best method, however, of judging of the colour of leaf gold, with nicety, is by keep- ing a specimen of such as is perfect, with which any fresh parcel may be compared. There is, besides the true leaf gold, another kind in use, called Dutch gold, which is copper gilt, and beaten into leaves like the genuine ; it is much cheaper, and has, when good, greatly the effect of the true, at the time of its being laid on the ground, but, with any access of moisture, it loses its colour, and turns green in spots, and, indeed, in all cases, its beauty is soon impaired, unless well secured with lacquer or varnish. Of the instruments that are commonly used in gilding:— The first necessary instrument is a cushion for receiving the leaves of gold from the paper, in order to its being cut into proper size and figures for covering the places to be gilt. This cushion should be made of leather, and fastened to a square board, which should have a handle ; it may be of 23 $ THE ARTIST’S ASSISTANT.- (any size from fourteen to ten inches square, and should be stuffed between the leather and board with fine tow or wool, but in such a manner that the surface may be perfectly flat and even. A proper knife is the next, and an equally requisite in- strument, as it is necessary, in all cases, to cut or divide the gold into parts, correspondent to those which are to be covered ; this knife may he the same, in all respects, as | those used in painting, called pallet-knives, the blade Lof which may be five or six inches long,, and somewhat f more than half an inch in breadth, with an handle pro- portionable. A squirrel’s tail is likewise generally provided for taking up whole leaves, and for compressing the gold to the surface where it is laid, and giving it the position required ; it is used also, by some, for taking up the parts of leaves, but this is better done by means of a ball of cotton- wool, which will both answer this end, and that of compressing the gold, in a more easy and effectual manner. This squir- rel’s tail is cut short, and sometimes spread in the fan fashion by means of a piece of wood, formed like a pencil- stick, but broad at one end, and split to receive the tail, but it will equally serve the purpose in its own form, when the hair is to a proper length. This instrument is, by some, called a pallet, but improperly, as the board for holding the colours in painting, and which is frequently in use with this, being called by the same name, would necessarily produce a confusion in speaking of either. A brush, of very soft hog’s hair, or of the fitch kind, made large, is likewise commonly used for passing over the work, when it is become dry, in order to take off the loose gold. Some fine cotton wool is also necessary for taking up the smaller parts of the leaves, and laying them on the work, as alsp for compressing and adjusting them when laid on. THE ARTIST’S ASSISTANT. 239 The cotton should be formed into a ball, by tying it up in a piece of very fine linen rag, for if it be used without the rag, the fibres adhere to the gold size, and embarrass the work. A small stone or mullar, with a proportionable pallet- knife, are required to grind the mixtures made of the fat oil, or gold size, with each other, and the colours that may be added to them ; proper brushes are also wanted for laying on and spreading the fat oil, or size, on the work, and some of these should be fitches of different sizes, in order to convey and settle the gold where the relief of carved week forms deep holes. These are all the instruments that are common to all the three principal kinds of gilding. Of the manner of oil gilding, and the preparation of fat oil : — The gilding with oil is the most easy and cheap, as well as the most durable, and, therefore, is mostly applied to common purposes ; it is performed by cementing the gold to the ground by means of fat oil ; the preparation of which is therefore previously necessary to be known, and may be much better managed in the following manner, than by any method hitherto taught, or commonly prac- tised : “ Take any quantity of linseed oil, and put it into an u earthen, or any other vessel of a broad form, so that the “ oil may lie in it with a very large surface, but the pro- “ portion should be so limited that the oil may be about an M inch thick in the vessel ; the earthen pans used for milk “in the forming cream for butter, are very well adapted “ f° r this purpose. Along with the oil, as much water “ should also be put in the vessel as will rise six inches, “ or more, above the bottom; place the vessel then, with “ oil swimming in the water, in an open place, where sun u and rain mdy have access to it, but where it may be as “ free trom receiving dust and filth as possible ; let it stand 1 ^ 240 THE ARTIST's ASSIST AN?/ “ in this condition, stirring the contents on every oppor~ “ tunity for five or six weeks, or till it appear of the corf- “ sistence of treacle ; take the oil then from off the water “ into a phial, or bottle of a long form, or, what is better “ into a separating funnel, such as is used by the chemists, “ and there draw off the remainder of the water ; place it 4 ‘ afterwards, being in the long bottle, or phiWl, in such “ heat as will render it perfectly fluid,: atid the foulness it may contain, will soon subside to the bottom, when the “ clear part must be poured off, and the remainder strained 44 through a flannel, while yet warm, and the whole will “ then be fit for use.” It is to be observed, that this method is only practicable in summer, the sun not having sufficient power in winter to produce a due change in the oil. This method differs from that commonly practised in the addition of water, which suffers the foulness to separate from the oil, and sink to the bottom, where it remains without being again mixed with the oil every time it is stirred, as is unavoidable where no water is used ; the water likewise greatly contributes to bleach the oil, and improve it in other respects. The best previous preparation of the piece to be gilded, if it have not already any coat of oil paint, is, to prime it with drying oil, mixed with a little yellow oker, to which also may be added a small proportion of Vermillion; but where greater nicety and perfection is required in the work, the wood should be first rubbed with fish-skin, and then with Dutch rushes. This priming being dry, the next part of the operation is the sizing the work, which may be done either with the fat oil alone, (but diluted with drying oil, if too thick to be worked without), or with fat oil, and the japanners’ gold size, either in equal quanti ties, or in any less propor« tion with respect to the gold size. The difference between Gj' < U# THE ARTIST'S ASSISTANT. 241 the use and omission of the gold size, in this way of gilding, lies in two particulars ; the one is, that the sizing’ dries faster according to the proportion of the quantity of the gold size to the fat oil, andis consequently so much the sooner fit to be gilded ; the other is, that the gilding is also rendered in the same proportion, less shining or glossy, which is esteemed a perfection in this kind of gilding, though, taking away the prejudice of fashion, I should think the most shining, the most beautiful, and of the strongest effect. The fat oil, or the compound of that and the gold size, must be ground with some yellow oker, and then, by means of a brush, laid thinly over the Work to be gilt ; but in doing this, care must be taken to pass the brush into all the cavities, if the subject be carved, or have any way pro- jecting parts ; for where the size fails to be laid, the gold will never take till the work be again repaired by going over the defective places with fresh size, which should be avoided as much as possible. Where great perfection is required, the gold should not be laid on the first sizing, but that being suffered to dry, the work should be again sized second time, and some, who are very nice, even proceed to a third. The work being thus sized, must be kept till it appear in a condition to receive the gold, which must be distinguished by touching with the finger ; if it appear then a little adhesive, or clammy, but not so as to be brought off by the finger, it is in a fit condition to be gilt; but if it be so clammy as to spread, or come off on being touched, it is not sufficiently dry, and must be kept longer ; or, if there be no clamminess, or sticky quality remaining, it is too dry, and must be sized over again before it can be gilt. When the work is thus ready to receive the gold, the leaves of gold, where the surface is sufficiently large and R TIIS ARTIST'* ASSISTANT. £42 plain to contain them, may be laid on entire, either by means of the squirrel’s tail, or immediately from the paper in which they were originally put ; being laid on the proper parts of the work, the leaves must then be settled to the ground, by compressing those which appear to want it gently,' with the squirrel’s tail, or cotton ball, and if any part of the gold has flown off, or been displaced, so as to leave a naked or uncovered spot, a piece of another leaf, of size and figure correspondent to such spot, must be laid upon it, where the parts are too small to admit of the laying on whole leaves, or where vacancies are left after laying on whole leaves which are less, then require others to cover them ; the leaves which are to be used must be first turned from the paper upon the cushion, they must then be cut into such divisions, or slips, as may be commodiously laid out on the parts of the work to be covered, after which, l>eing separated, and taken upas they are wanted, by means of the cotton wool, to which, being breathed upon, they will adhere, they must be laid in the places they are design- ed to cover, and gently pressed with the cotton, till they touch every where, and lie even on the ground. Where the work is very hollow, and small pieces are wanted to cover parts that lie deep and out of the reach of the squirrel’s tail, or the cotton, they may be taken up by the point of a fitch pencil, (being first breathed upon) and by that means conveyed to, and settled in their proper place. Those who are accustomed to it, use the pencil commodiously for a great part of the work, where large parts of the leaves cannot he used. The whole of the work being thus covered, should be suffered to remain till it be dry, and it may then be brushed over by a camel’s hair pencil, or soft hog’s hair brush, to take off from it all loose parts of the gold. If, after the brushing, any defective parts or vacancies appear in the gilding, such parts must be again sized, and THE ARTIST’S ASSISTANT. 243 treated in the same manner as the whole was before, but the japanners’ gold size alone is much better for this pur- pose than either the fat oil alone, or any mixture. Of burnish gilding, with the preparation of the proper sizes, <£pc. The gilding with burnished gold is seldom practised but upon \Vood, and, at present, mostly in the case of carved work, or where carved work is mixed with plain ; the chief difference in the manner between this and oil gilding lies in the preparing the work to receive the gold, and in the sub- stituting a size made of parchment, or the cuttings of glo- vers’ leather in the place of fat oil, as a cement ; the pre- paration of this oil should therefore be previously known* and may be as follows: “ Take a pound of cuttings of parchment, or of the “ leather used by glovers, and, having added to them six “ quarts of water, boil them till the quantity of fluid, be “ reduced to two quarts, or till, on the taking out a little, it “ will appear like a jelly on growing cold, strain it through il flannel while hot, and it will be then fit for use.” This size is employed in burnish gilding, not only in forming the gold size, or cement for binding the gold to the ground, but also in priming, or previously pre- paring the work. But before we proceed to shew the manner of using it so, it is necessary to give the composi- tions for the proper cement, or gilding size employed in this kind of gilding. There are a multiplicity of recipes for this composition, which are approved of by different per- sons ; but, as in general they vary not essentially from each other, I will only give two, which I believe to be each the best in their kinds. “ Take any quantity of bole armoniac, and add some 6t water to it, that it may soak till it grow soft ; levigate “ it then on the stone, but not with more water than will prevent its being of a stiff consistence, and add to it a r 2 244 THE ARTIST^ASSISTANT 44 little purified suet, or tallow scraped, and grind them “ together. When this is wanted for use, dilute it to the “ consistence of cream, by parchment, or glovers’ size, “ mixed with double its quantity of water, and made warm. “ Some melt the suet or tallow, and mix it previously with 44 five or six times its weight of chalk before it is put to “ the bole, to facilitate their commixture, to which, 41 in this wet state, they are otherwise somewhat repug- “ nant ; it is also sometimes practised to put soap-suds j 44 to the bole, which will contribute to its uniting with 44 the tallow.” To prepare the wood for burnish gilding, it should first be well rubbed with fish skin, and then with Dutch rushes, but this can only be practised in the larger and plainer parts j of the work, otherwise it may damage the carving, or render 1 it less sharp by wearing off the points ; it must then be \ primed with the glovers’ size, mixed with as much whiting as will give it a tolerable body of colour; which mixture must be made by melting the size, and strewing the whiting, in a powdered state, gradually into it, stirring them well together, that they may be thoroughly incorporated. Of this priming seven or eight coats should be given, time ! being allowed for the drying of each before the other be put | on, and care should be taken, in doing this, to work the j priming well, with the brush, into all the cavities, or hol- ■ lows there may be in the carved work. After the last coat | is laid on, and before it be quite dry, a brush pencil, dipt in water, should be passed over the whole, to smooth it and take away any lumps or inequalities that may have been formed, and when it is dry, the parts which admit of it should be again brushed over, till they be perfectly even : the work should then be repaired, by freeing all the cavities and hollow parts from the priming, which may choak them or hinder the relief of the carving, after which a water \ polish should be given to the parts designed to be burnished. THE ARTIST’S ASSISTANT- 245 'by rubbing them gently with a fine linen rag, moistened with water. The work being thus prepared, when it is to lie gilt, dilute the composition of bole, §*c. with warm size, mixed with two-thirds of water, and, with a brush, spread it over the whole of the work, and then suffer it to dry, and go over it again with the mixture, in the same manner, at least once more. After the last coat, rub it in the parts tobe burnished with a soft cloth, till it be perfectly even. Some add a little Vermillion to the gilding size, and others colour the work, if carved before it be laid on, with yellow and the glovers’ size, to which a little Vermillion or red lead ; should be added. This last method is to give the - appearance of gilding to the deeper and obscurer | parts of the carving where the gold cannot, or is not r thought necessary to be laid on; but this practice is at present much disused, and, instead of it, such parts of the work are coloured after the gilding, which treatment is called Matting. The work being thus properly prepared, set it in a position almost perpendicular, but reclining a little rrom you, and, having the gilding size, place all the necessary instruments above described, ready, as also a bason of clean water near at hand ; wet then the uppermost part of the work by means of a large camel’s hair pencil, dipped in water, and then lay on the gold upon the part so wet, in the manner above directed for gilding in oil, till it be completely covered, or become too dry to take the gold. Proceed afterwards to wet the next part of the work, or the same over again, if necessary, and gild it as the first, repeating the same method till the whole be finished. Some wet the work with brandy, or spirit of wine, instead of water, but I do not conceive any advantage can arise from it that may not be equally obtained by a judicious use of v water. The manner is, moreover, much more troublesome 246 * THE ARTIST’S ASSISTANT. and difficult, as well as expensive, for only a small part must be wet at one time, and the gold laid instantly upon it, or the brandy or spirits will fly otf, and leave the ground too dry to take the gold. The work being thus gone over with the gilding, may be then examined, and such parts as require it repaired by wetting them with the camel’s hair pencil, and covering them with the gold, but as little as possible of the perfect part of the gilding should be wet, as the gold is very apt to turn black in this state. When the repaired part also is dry, the work must be matted, if it require it, that is, the hollow parts must be covered with a colour the nearest in appear- ance to gold; for this purpose some recommend red lead, with a little Vermillion ground up with the white of an egg; but I think yellow oker, or Dutch pink, with red lead, would better answer the end, or the terra di sienna, very slightly burnt, or mixed with a little red lead, would have a much better effect, and be more durable than any other mixture so near the colour of gold in shade. Isinglass size will likewise equally well supply the place of the whites of eggs in the composition of matting. The work being thus gilt, it must remain about twenty- four hours, and then the parts of it that are designed to be burnished, must be polished with a dog’s tooth, or with the burnishers of agate or flint, made for this purpose ; but it should be previously tried whether it be of the proper temper as to dryness ; for though twenty-four hours be the most general space of time in which it becomes fit, yet the difference of season, or the degree of wet given to the work, makes the drying irregular with regard to any fixed period. The way of distinguishing the fitness of the work to take the burnish, is, to try two or three particular pa its it a distance from each other, which, if they take the polish in a kind manner, the whole may be concluded fit, but, if the gold peel off, or become rough by the THE ARTISTs ASSISTANT. 247 rubbing, the work must be deemed not yet sufficiently dry ; and, if the gold abide well the rubbing, and yet receives the polish slowly, it is a proof of its being too dry, which should be always prevented by watching the proper time ; for the work, when too dry, both requires much more labour to burnish it, and fails at last of taking so fine a polish. Of japanners’ gilding: — The japanners' gilding is per- formed by means of gold powder, or imitations of it, cemented to the ground by a kind of gold size much of the nature of drying oil, for the making of which there are various recipes followed by different persons; we shall, however, only give one, which is much approved: “ Take of linseed oil one pound, and of gum animi four V ounces; set the oil to boil in a proper vessel, and then j u add the gum animi gradually in powder, stirring each ) “ quantity about in the oil, till it appears to be dissolved, “ and then, putting in another till the whole be commixed < “ with the oil, let the mixture continue to boil, till, on “ taking a large quantity out, it appears of a thicker con- “ sistence than tar, and then strain the whole through a 4 ‘ coarse cloth, and keep it for use ; but when it is wanted, “ it must be ground with as much Vermillion as will give it “ an opake body, and, at the same time, diluted with oil 4i of turpentine, so as to render it of a consitence proper “ for working freely with the pencil.” This gold size may be used on metals, wood, or any other ground whatever ; but before I enter on the particular manner of gilding with it, the preparation of the true and counterfeit gold powders are necessary to be shewn. For the method of making the true gold powder, see p. 227. A gold powder of a more intense yellow colour, brighter than this, may be made by a precipitation from gold dis„ THE ARTIST'S ASSISTANT. m solved in aqua regia , by means of either green or Roman vitriol. The German gold powder, which is the kind most gene- rally used, and, where it is well secured with varnish, will equally answer the end in this kind of gliding with the genuine, may be prepared from the sort of leaf gold, called, the Dutch gold, exactly in the same manner as the true. The aurum mosaicum , the preparation of which is given in p. 223, may likewise be used in this kind of gilding. The sal ammoniacus employed in the preparation of the aurum mosaicum , ought to be perfectly white, and very clean ; and care should be taken that the quicksilver be not such as is adulterated with lead, which may be known by putting a small quantity in a crucible into the fire, and observing, when it is taken out, whether it be wholly sublimed away, or have left any lead behind it. The cal- cination may be best performed in a coated glass body, hung in the naked fire, and the body should be of a long figure, that the other ingredients may rise so as to leave the coloured tin clear of them, the quicksilver, though it be formed into cinnabar along with the sulphur, need not be wasted, butmay be revived by distilling it with the addition of quick-lime. There are some other coarser powders in imitation of gold which are formed of precipitations of copper, but they are seldom used now for gilding, Besides these powders, the genuine leaf, or Dutch gold, may be used with the japanners’ gold size, where a more shining and glossy effect is desired in the gilding; but in that kind of gilding which is intended to be varnished over, or to be mixed with other japan work, or paintings in var- nish, the powders are most frequently employed. The gilding with japanners’ gold size may be practised on almost any substance whatever, whether wood, metal, leather, or paper, and there is no further preparation of THE ARTIST'S ASSISTANT. 249 tiie work necessary to its being gilt, than the having the surface even and perfectly clean. The manner of using the japanners’ size is this : Put a proper quantity of it, prepared as above directed, and mixed with a due proportion of oil of turpentine and Vermillion, into a small gallipot ; then either spread it with a brush over the work where the whole surface is to be gilt, or draw with it, by means of a pencil, the proper figure desired ; avoid carefully, not to let it touch any other parts, suffer it afterwards to rest till it be fit to receive the gold, which must be distinguished by the finger in the same c y manner as with the fat oil, the having a proper clamminess, or sticking quality, without being so fluid as to stick to the finger, which is alike the criterion in both cases ; being found of a proper dryness when the gold powders are to be used, apiece of the soft leather, called wash-leather, wrapped found the fore-finger, must be dipped in the powder, and then rubbed very lightly over the sized work ; or, what is much better, the powder may be spread by a soft camel’s hair brush; the whole being covered, it must be left to dry, and the loose powder may then be cleared away from the gilded part, and collected, by means of a soft camel’s hair brush. When leaf gold is used, the method of sizing must be the same as for the powders, but the point of due dryness is very nice and delicate in these cases, for the leaves must be laid on while the matter is in a due state, otherwise the whole of what is done must be sized and gilt over again. When more gold size is mixed up with the oil of tur- pentine and vermillion than can be used at any one time, it may be kept by immersing it under water till it be again wanted, which is, indeed, a general method of preserving all kind of paint, or other such compositions as contain oily substances. THE ARTIST’g ASSISTANT. 250 Of gilding paper and vellum, or parchmen* — There are a variety of methods used for gilding paper, according to the several ends it is designed to answer, but for the most part, size, properly so called, and gum-water, are used as the cements, and the powders are more generally em- ployed than the leaf gold. As 1 have given the prepara- tion of these several substances before, it is needless to repeat them here; and, I shall, therefore, only point out those circumstances in the manner of their use, which are peculiar to the application of them to this purpose. Of the gilding on paper proper to be used along with painting in water-colours, or fresco - The gilding which is proper to be used with water- colours, may be either with the leaf gold, or powder, which last, when mixed with the proper vehicle, is called shell gold. The leaf gold is necessary in all cases where a metalline and shining appearance is w T anted, and it may be laid on 7 ^y4vAtf-/-the designed ground, by means either of gum-water or 6^4*^ isinglass size: the gum-water, or size, should be of the weaker kind, and not laid too freely on the ground, and proper time should likewise be given for it to dry, the judg- ment on which must be formed in this case, as in the other kinds of gilding, by touching with the finger. The management of the gold also is much the same in this as in the former ; and where a polished appearance is wanting, the dog’s tooth, or other kind of burnisher may be used. In the gilding larger surfaces, it will be found advantageous to colour the ground with the gall stone, and where colours are to be laid on the gilding, the brushing the gold over with the gall of any beast, will make it take them in a much more kindly manner. When the gold powders are used along with paintings in water-colours, it is previously formed into shell gold, (as it ^ is called, from its being usually put into muscle-shells in the THE ARTIST'S ASSISTANT. 251 same manner as the colours). This shell gold is prepared by tempering the gold powde* with very weak gum-water, to which a little soap suds may be put, to make the gold work more easily and freely. Of the gilding proper for coloured paper for binding books, and other such purposes This kind of gilding is performed in much the same manner as that for mixing with paintings in water-colours, except with regard to the following particulars : — First, in this case the gilding being intended generally to form some figure or design, the gum- water or size,- instead of being laid on with a brush or pencil, is most generally conveyed to the ground by means of a wooden plate or print, and most conveniently by an engraved roller, which makes an impression of the figure, or design intended. Secondly, as the rising of the gold from the surface of the ground is no disadvantage in this kind of gilding, as it is in that mixed with paintings, the guni-water, or size may be much stronger, which will con- tribute both to hind the gold firmer, and to give a sort of embossed appearance that improves the effect. In this kind of gilding the japanners’ gold size may be aiso commodi- ously employed, for, as the paper must be moistened before it be printed, there is no inconvenience liable to happen from the running of the gold size thus used ; where the embossed appearnnce is wanted in the greatest degree, the gold size should indeed always be used, and, in this case, should be thickened with yellow oker, mixed with as much red lead as the proper working of the print will admit. The wooden plates, or prints used for gilding in this manner, are worked by the hand, and are to be charged with the gum-water or size, of whatever kind it be, by letting it gently and evenly down on a cushion, on which the gum-water or size has been copiously spread by means of a proper brush, and then pressing it on the paper pre- pared by moistening with water, and laid horizontally with THE ARTIST’S ASSISTANT. 252 some sheets of other paper under it. Where the rolling print is employed, the gum-water or size must be laid on it with a proper brush, immediately out of the pot or vessel which contains it, but too copious a use must be avoided, for fear of spreading it beyond the lines of the design of pattern. The subsequent management of the gold, whether leaf or poTvvder, must be the same as in the foregoing kinds of gilding. It rarely answers to use the leaf gold in this kind of painting, nor even the true gold powder, but the German powder, or that formed of the leaves called Dutch gold, is mostly employed, and answers well enough the purpose. The manufactures of the gilt and marble papers have not been so much cultivated in our own country as it were to be wished ; since very great sums have been always annually paid, both to Germany and Genoa, on this account. Of gilding proper for letters of gold on paper, and the embellishments of manuscripts : — The most easy and neat method of forming letters of gold on paper, and for orna- ments of writings, is, by the gold armoniac, as it was formerly called, the method of managing which, is as follows : “ Take gum ammoniacum, and powder it, and then ti dissolve it in water previously impregnated with a little (t gum arabic and some juice of garlic. The gum ammoni- ac “ acum will not dissolve in water so as to form a transparent xjsAorfyt a fluid, but produces a milky appearance, from whence «* the mixture is called in medicine, the lac ammoniacum . “ With the lac ammoniacum thus prepared, draw, with a “ pencil, or write with a pen on paper, or vellum, the u intended figure, or letters for the gilding ; suffer the ei paper to dry, and then, or any time afterwards, breathe “ on it till it be moistened, and immediately lay leaves of n gold, or parts of leaves, cut in the most advantageous THE ARTIST’S ASSISTANT. 253 “ manner to save the gold, over the parts* drawn or written ‘‘ upon with the lac ammoniacum, and press them gently “ to the paper with a ball of cotton or soft leather. When “ the paper becomes dry, which a short time, or gentle “ heat will soon effect, brush off with a soft pencil, or rub “ off with a fine linen rag, the redundant gold which “ covered the parts between the lines of the drawing or uble, since, by experimenting so fine a secVt, you will have the satisfactions^’ seeing the performance i^nswer the direction above expect Al. ,X» PmfaiA-C — > Mercury water i» thus p repared : 41 Take plate tin of Cornwall, calcine it, and let the calx f‘ be pure and fine ; then, with one ounce of the calx, and two ounces of prepared mercury, make an amalgama ; ■ wash it with fair water till the water remains insipid and clear ; then dry the amalgama thoroughly; put it into a * mattrass over a furnace, giving it such a heat as is requi- f 4 site for sublimation. When the matter is well subli- | { mated, takeoff the mattrass, and let it cool. Takeout that sublimate, add an ounce of V enice sublimate to it and grind it together on a marble ; put this into another mat- trass, close it, and set it upside down in a pail of water ; and the whole mass will dissolve itself in a little time into mercury-water ; this done, filter it into a glass receiver, set it on a gentle ash fire to coagulate, and it will turn into a crystaline substance ; this beat in a glass mortar with a glass pestle to a fine powder, s a afr e ^ dfi th r o u g tTa fine sieve, and put it into a mattrass, stop it close up, and place it in balneum maria ; there let it remain till it dis- solves again into water, which is the mercury water, fit for the above-mentioned use.’' — To form large pearls of small ones, a s-d i rected by Kora - dorfer-: — Take of mercurial water fourteen ounces ; put two ounces sulp/i. soils into a low mattrass, pour the mercurial water upon it, and let it dissolve and extract ; then take of the whitest small pearls twenty ounces, put them in a proper mattrass, and pour the said water upon it. The THE ARTIST’S ASSISTANT. 270 pearls will, by degrees, dissolve, and at last- turn to a clear calx, much like dissolved silver calx ; pour off the mercurial water ; boil the calx well out, and dry it ; then put it into a clean crucible by itself, and melt and cast it into what form you please. When cold, polish it in the same manner as you do gems or crystals, and you will have your work of the consistency and beauty of the finest and clearest oriental pearls. stones, or fewaony ar- tificial gems : — This curious art is arrived to that perfection that it is capable of imitating precious stones in their lustre, colour and b eauty, even to surpass the natural ones, except in h ar d i n es s(^whic^^tcr ob t alh^ h a &J a ac n , an d , h ~ d(JT T bf, - -st i rt 1 are, the endeavours of several ingenious men. The art of 1 making" 1 ai tifieiul — gems- consists chiefly in rightly imitating the tints of those that are real ; these must be extracted from such things as resist the fire, and do not change their colour, though of a volatile nature: thus verdigrise being put into the fire is changed to another colour, but when put in fusion with crystal, it retains its natural colour. You must therefore, take some colours as change not, when mixed together; consequently, since blue and yel- low make a green, you must take such blue as will not hurt the yellow when you mix them, and also such a yellow as shall not be detrimental to the blue, and so of the other colours. We^jfe fdl 'give plain and certain instructions to carry the ingenious arsist with ease and pleasure through this labour, and first shew him — — - To make a fair emerald Take of natural crystal four ounces ; verdigrise, forty-eight grains ; crocus martis, pre- pared with vinegar, eight grains ; let the whole be finely pulverized and sifted ; put this together in a crucible, leaving one inch empty ; lute it well, and put it into a pot- ter’s furnace, whfi je t bey - make the i r earth cn»warey and let THE ARTIST'S ASSISTANT. 27 J. it stand there as longas theydo their pots; when cold, break the crucible, and you will find \ matter of a fine emerald colour, which, after it is cut, and set in gold, will surpass, in beauty, an oriental emerald. If you find that your mat- ter is not refined, or purified enough, put it again,- thf -m -sen d - time r into the same furnace, and in lifting off the cover you will see the matter shining ; you may then break the crucible but not before ; for if you should put the mat- ter into another crucible, the paste would be clo ujsiy^utf' ^ full of blisters.J If you cannot potter’s furnace, C you 'may Thu one yourself small expence, in which you may put twenty crucibles at once, each with a different colour, and one baking will produce a great variety of gems* Heat your furnace with hard and dry wood, and keep your matter in fusion twenty-four hours, which time it will re- quire to be thoroughly purified ; nndy if you let it stand four or six hours longer, it will not be the worse for it. To make p as t e, for - hnitnt - in g. an oriental topaze : — The colour of this stone is like water tinged with saffron or rhu- barb. To imitate it, take of prepared natural crystal, one ounce ; of red lead, seven ounces, finely powdered and sear- ced ; mix the whole together, and put it into a crucible# not quite full, Ky-,-an inch-, least the matter should run over or stick to the cover of the crucible in rising ; then proceed as directed above. “ To make an artificial crysolyte : — This stone is of a green colour, and some have the cast of gold ; to imitate it, take natural crystal, prepared, two ounces; red lead, eight ounces ; crocus mart is , twelve grains ; mix the whole finely together, and proceed as before, only leaving it a little longer in the furnace. " Another process for cq un£ eideUH»j£ precious stones : Take of black flint stones what quantity you please, and put them into a pail of hot water ; and being wet, put them into a hot furnace ; this will prevent their flying into small eajjx j TBt ARTIST’S ASSISTANT. pieces/,* or else warm them thoroughly bv/clegrees, before you pUt them into the furnace ; when yoysee that they ar£ thorough red hot, quench them in fifo* water, and they ' willmek-of a fine white colour. Dry and pulverize them very fine, wh te- h yau may . 4« in andiron mortar ; but as it may contract some of the iron, it will be proper, after you have taken it out, to pour on it some aquafortis , which will clear it of the iron, and so disengage it from all filth and impuri- ties. Wash it in several clean hot waters. This powder thus prepared, is fit to be used for making; the finest glass, and for imitating the clearest and most transparent gems, especially those that require the lustre of a diamond or ruby ; as a sapphire, emerald, topaz, chrysolite, spiral, amethist, f turpentine v ill take ; but if it shall happen so to do| imme- board or wet bla the air from it, )lou will put it out, or for the v fire di mnd, by suffocate Therefore it ^ cylindric figure been well anneale which you must l 11 be best to melt tee rosin, in a g ass of a n a bed of hot saild, after the g as3 has or warmed by degrees in the sandL under ep a gentle fire. ■ ■ vqrnifib h as. been thus -m-ft A* n eaafgp lirffU brgj nnrl pr*»S g ii-fifitwow a thrnlint boards nfja ak . i . w flat platcp of raw 7- nf tcr - w h i 0 h -i t may be used with any colours in painting, and also for varnishing t hem » vos ^ When painted. ■*-Tr THE ARTIST'S ASSISTANT. 287 *7a / O' But, .for covering gold, you must use the following var- nish: This is to be observed, that, when you have varnish- ed with white varnish, you may. put the things varnished into* a. declining oven, which will harden the varnish. A varnish for brass, to make it look like gold. — This is used upon leaf gold, or upon that which is called Dutch or German leaf gold, or upon brass or bath-metal, which are designed to imitate gold. Take two quarts of spirit of wine, and put it into a re- tort glass ; then add to it an ounce of gamboge, two- ounces of lake, and two ounces of gum mastic; set this in a sand heat for six days, or else near a fire ; or you may put the body of the retort frequently into warm water, and shake it two or three times a day, then set it over a pan of warm small coal-deist. Before you lay this varnish over the me- tal, be sure you see that it has been well cleaned; var- nish it over thinly with this varnish, and it will appear of the colour of gold. Set it in a declining oven to harden, ' and It will not rub off. I ¥ useful va rnish . — Take drying linseed oil, ~jsgt. i-t-em -t he'll re^ a nd dissol v^i t in some good rosin, or which i s bet - ter, ba t"c h , arc TliE ARTIST'S ASSISf ANT. in strong lime-water, suppose a pound of lime to a quart of water, and, if that has not the desired effect, add more lime. This method never fails to bring it to a proper whiteness. To make fine hard red sealing wax: — Take of gum-lac, j or shell-lac, half a pound ; melt it in an earthen vessel, and then add ari ounce and a half, or tWo ounces, of vermillion, in very fine powder; when they are well mixed over the fire, and are become of a proper coolness, make them into sticks or ball?. If you would have a coarser sort, take half lac, and half rosin. If a coarser sort still, take red lead instead of vermillion. To make black sealing-wax:- — Use the same lac in the y manner directed above, only, instead of vermillion, mix it with ivory-black* To make oil-cloth for hatcases and other uses: — Take drying-oil, and set it over the fire, and then dissolve rosin in it; or, which is better, but dearer, gum-lac. There must be so much of either as will bring the oil to the con- , sistence of balsam ; then add some colour to it, as verdigrise a green, umber for a hair colour, white lead and lamp- c black for a grey, or indigo and white for a light blue ; ^ spread this over canvass or linen cloth, so that it may be fully drenched or glazed over with a brush ; and when it is quite dry, no wet can touch it. That made of lac, and applied to fine linen, would make good great coats for those that travel much in all weathers. Some have lately laid this composition on silk. These fine sorts may be rolled up, and put in the pocket, being exceedingly proper for gentlemen, or any that ride out with good cloaths, and would not have them spoiled. Some of this varnish should be laid on the seams after the garment is made, and then & no wet can soak through. To make red ink: — Take three pints of stale beer, and four ounces of Brazil wood ; simmer them together tor an hour, then strain it through a flannel, and bottle it up for use. :u |Wvl rr , > §+~u**S THE ARTISTES ASSISTANT.' 293 c 4. •** .&$?**. . Secret writing: — it you clip your pen in the juice or a lemon, or of an onion, in urine, or in spirits of vitriol, and write on clean paper whatever you intend, it cannot be discerned till you hold it by the fire, when it will appear legible; and if with any of the aforementioned, you write upon your skin, as on your arm, or back of your hand, it • cannot be seen till rubbed with the ashes of burnt paper, when it will be very legible. To make spirit varnish for wood, ‘C W:i