,o,UIMH.V»HS«>VW , f I inn A n^j- ^_ ^ LIBRARY OF I r.^To;.;;;, { 1 c light inc. I ELMIRA. N. Y. | ^^^^^^^^— - IN & CO., Limited, Electric Light & Power Engineers, MANSION HOUSE BUILDINGS, LONDON, E.G. MANUFACTURERS OF Dynamos, Lamps, Measuring Instruments, Switches, Patent Underground Mains, and all accessories for Electric Lighting. ELECTRO MOTORS FOR ELECTRIC TRACTION. DYNAMOS FOR SMELTING AND PLATING. ELECTRIC CEANES FOR ALL PURPOSES. CONTRACTS FOR TOWN LIGHTING ON ANY SCALE. Estimates, Catalogues, and all information free. CROMPTON & CO., Limited, MANSION HOUSE BUILDINGS, LONDON, E.G. Works: CHELMSFORD. To make tan leather black, it is reeomuiended that it be rubbed tirst with a 10 per cent solution of tannic acid which should be permitted to dry thoroughly. Afterwards a 10 per cent solution of iron sulphate should be applied and in turn y be permitted to dry. Both chemicals are pro- <^ curable at any drug store. O "A" A Catalogue, -^^ 150 Pages, X'/* 250 Woodcuts. Contains prices /^\ and particulars of ^ all classes of Elec- trical Apparatus for Domestic, Experi- mental, and Labo- ratory use, such as / Pushes, Bells, \^ AND M ANUrACTURERS OF ELECTRICAL APPARATUS. ^ B" Catalogue (4th Edition), 250 Pages, 350 Woodcuts. Contains prices and particularsof all classes of Electrical Apparatus for House Lighting, Telephone < and Telegraph Coa- \ tractors, &c., in- \ eluding Engines, inaicators,iiat- / .^y -^ \ ^^ \ Dynamos, Ac- teries, Hand /^^ / ^^^^ \ ^,p^\ cumulators, Dynamos, ^^W offices, V Switches, &c. / /^y 88' ^^& \ Fittings, Price />V ^^^^^ VICTORIA ST., \^ \ &c. J^^ / LONDON, E.G. \ "AN OT / Show Rooms. &c., \ ^^^^ / 30, CANNON ST., LONDON, E.C., \ / ^^J / 41, PICCADILLY, BRADFORD. ' A ^^ Works, / *^^/ "WEST KENSINGTON HALL, LONDON, W., ^^V^ Cornbrook Telegraph Works, Manchester. 2 Branch Offices and Agencies throughout the ivorld. PHOSPHOR FOR BEARINGS, SLIDE VALVES, PUMPS AND MACHINERY PARTS. Supplied in Ingots and Castings to Pattern or Drawings. Beware 0/ all Imil«tione, and specif n the COG-WHEEL BE AND of THE PHOSPHOR BRONZE CO., LIMITED, 87, SUMNER ST., SOUTHWARK, LONDON, S.E. 13 & 22, Litherland Alley, LIYEEPOOL ; Salem Street, ETRUEIA, NORTH STAFFORDSHIRE, ALL INGOTS BEAR THE COMPANY'S NAME, COG WHEEL TRADE MARK, AND THE NUMBER OF ALLOY. MANUFACTURERS OF ROLLED BRASS of all kinds; BRASS WIRE and RODS COPPER WIRE (BEST HIGH CONDUCTIVITY and ORDINARY). BRITISH & FOREIGN PATENTS, DESIGNS, TRADE MARKS. PROVISIONAL PROTECTION FROM £2 2s. MESSES. WEATHERDON & 00. (Patent Agents, established in Ohancery Lane, 1849) will, upon application of Inventors, give the lowest possible charge for completing British Patents. FOREIGN & COLONIAL PATENTS. MESSRS. WEATHERDON & CO. offer special reasonable terms for procuring Foreign Patents, and being represented in all Countries by old-established Agents, Inventors can rely upon the work being done in a competent manner. DESIGNS, TRADE MARKS, AND COPYRIGHTS REGISTERED. OPPOSITIONS AND APPEALS CONDUCTED. DRAWINGS OF ALL KINDS PREPARED. CIKCTJLAR AND ADVICE GEATIS ON APPLICATION- B. F. WEATHERDON & CO., REGISTERED PATENT AGENTS, 11 & 12, SOUTHAMPTON BUILDINGS, CHANCERY LANE, LONDON, W.C. ESTABLISHED 1849. llnterleaf before Title, ROWNSON, DREW. & CO.. ENGINEERS & MANUFACTURERS OF CONSTRUCTIONAL IRONWORK. BRIDGES, ROOFS, GIRDERS, ROLLED JOISTS, FLITCH PLATES, COLUMNS & STANCHEONS, TANKS, SASHES, IRON BUILDINGS. OFFICES AND WAREHOUSES: 225, Upper Thames Street, and 113, Queen Victoria Street, E.O. WORKS AND IRON STORES: Prince's Wharf, Oommercial Koad, Lambeth, S.E. Telegrams, "ROWNSON, LONDON." Telephone, No. 1901. WOEKSHOP RECEIPTS. FOR THE USE OF MANUFACTURERS, MECHANICS, AND SCIENTIFIC AMATEURS. BT ERNEST SPON. E. & F. N. SPON, 125, STRAND, LONDON NEW YORK: 12, CORTLANDT bi'REET 1890 f -r >^ n V. \ "DURO METAL. REGISTERED TRADE MARK. 55 ALLOY. A. — A yery dense Bronze, well adapted for heavy Fly-Wheel Bearings, but specially for Railway Carriage and Truck Bearings. B. — This mixture is most suitable, and is now largely used, for the Bearings of Hot Neck Rolls in Ironworks, and other Mills. These alloys have now been in use for some years, and have given great satisfaction in all parts of the World. They were originally introduced by us with a view to providing a good Bearing Metal cheaper than our No. XI. " Phosphor Bronze," and at the same time much superior to Gun Metals and Brass. Foreign Buyers and others, when indenting, are requested, in order to prevent imposition and error, to specify that the Ingots required by them shall bear the registered trade title, " Duro Metal," and also the Company's General Trade Mark, a " Cog Wheel" bearing the Company's name. Supplied in Ingots and Castings by the SOLE PKOPEIETOES— THE PHOSPHOR BRONZE CO., LIMITED, Chief Office and Foundry — 87, SUMNER ST., SOUTHWARK, LONDON, S.E. Branch Foundries — 13 and 22, LITHEELAND ALLEY, LIVERPOOL. SALEM STEEET, ETEUEIA, NOETH STAPPOEDSHIEE. [Interleaf before Preface y^r%^ W. F. STANLEY, MANUFACTUiaNG OPTICIAN. Mathematical, Drawing, and Surveying Instrument Maker, Contractor to H.M. Government, also for India and Colonies. Theodolites, Sextants, Levels, Compasses, and every Description of Instrument and Material for Field and Office, OF THE FIRST QUALITY, HIGHEST FINISH, AND MOST MODKRATE PBICB. Manufactured for the most part by Self-Acting Machinery. MEDALS — International Exhibitions, 1802 and 1873. GOLD MEDAL, Inventions Exhibition, 1885. ENGINE DIVIDEK TO THE TRADE. GOODS SHIPPED WITH GREATEST CARE. Muthcmiitical, Microecopic, Pliotograpliic, and Electrical Catalogues, Post Free. STANLEY, GREAT TUltNSTlLE, llUIJiOUN, W.C, LONDON. BTEAM Ol'TICAL W0UK8 AT SOITU NORWOOD. litguUrtd Telegraphic Cipher Addren — " TURNSTILE, LONDON." PREFACE WoiiKsHOP Receipts was compiled to efiect llirec piu'poscs; tc serve as a note-book for the small manufactm-er ; to supply the intelligent workman with information required to conduct a process, foreign perhaj^s to his habitual labour, but which it is necessary to practise at the time ; and imjiart to the scientiiio amateiu* a knowledge of many processes in the arts, trades, and manufactures, which will, it is hoped, render his pui'suits the more instructive and remunerating. The novice would do well to remember that it is the individual skill of the workman in performing many apparently simple operations which renders those operations successful, and that this skill is only obtained from long practice or natural ability. A pre-eminently superior manipulator resembles a poet in that he is 'born; not made;' when therefore a receipt is tried for the first time and is not thoroughly successful, the experi- mentalist should consider how far his own inexperience has contributed to the failure ere he condenms the receipt, Eeceij^ts peculiarly useful to Mechanical Draughtsmen are given at pages 1 to 9. Eeceipts for Alloys, Casting, and Founding, pp. 9 to 13 ; Bronzes and Bronzing, pj). 16 to 21 ; Cements, jjp. 22 to 25 ; Dyeing, pp. 30 to 40 ; Glass-cutting, twisting, drilling, darkening, bending, staining, and painting, pp, 55 to 60 ; Pottery and Porcelain, pp, 42 to 52 ; Glass, pp. 53 to 60 ; Varnishes, Japans, and Polishes, pp, 60 to 88 ; Pigments, and Painting in Oils, in Water Colours, as well as Fresco, House, Transparency, Sign, and Carriage Painting, pp, 89 to 116 ; Lathing and Plastering, pp. 120 to 123 ; Paper- hanging, pp. lis, 119; Firework Making, pp. 125 to 146, Engraving and Etching, pp. 146 to 170; Electro-Metallurgy, including Cleaning, Dipping, Scratchbj-usliing, Batteries, Eaths, 'V PREFACE. and Deposits of every tlesciiptiou, pp. 170 to 246 ; Photography, pp. 246 to 295 ; Inks, pp. 343 to 349 ; Silvering, pp. 206 and 385 ; Gilding, pp. 188 to 199 ; Solders, p. 3G4 ; Soap, pp. 372 to 386; Candles, p. 350; Veneering, pp. 411 to 414 ; Marble Working, pp. 386 to 393 ; Dyeing, Graining, and Staining Wood, pp. 414 to 426 ; interspersed with other matters far too numerous to mention. As far as possible subjects at all allied in character, either in constitution or mode of working, have been groujied together ; and in general, the main subject is indicated by a heading in bold clarendon type, branch-subjects by small capitals, and details by italics. The difficulty, however, of obtaining certain information just when it was wanted, has prevented the adoption of anything like an alphabetical or other concatenated arrange- ment of the subject matter ; it is believed that no inconvenience will arise from this cause, as the index is very comprehensive. Care has been exercised in cases where the practical opera- tion connected with a receipt has been apart from the writer's experience, to have it verified by authority, and the aim through- out has been to render ' Workshop Reccii)ts ' a reliable hand- book for all interested in Technological pursuits. ERNEST SPON AoorOT 1 1873. TIETE PHOSPHOR BRONZE CO., LIMITED, LONDON, BIRMINGHAM, LIVERPOOL, and ETRURIA. SOLE MAKERS OF THE FOLLOWING SPECIALITIES. PHOSPHOR BRONZE, -CogWheel- and -Yulcan" Brands. ' DURO MET AL'\Eegistered Title). For Eoll Bearings, Wagon Brasses, &c. PHOSPHOR TIN, "Cog Wheel" Brand. Thebestmade. PLASTIC METAL, " Cog Wlieel" Brand. Tlie best in the market. "PHOSPHOR" WHITE BRASS. Qualities l&il BABBITT'S METAL. "Vulcan" Brand. Qualities!., II., III., IV. WEILLER'S PATENT SILICIUM BRONZE ELECTRICAL WIRE. For overhead Llne^. Please apply for Circulars containing full particulars to the COMPANY'S HEAD OFFICE, 87, SUMNER ST., SOUTHWARK, LONDON, S.E. [J'o/oce tnd of i're/ace. t:h:e PHOSPHOR BRONZE CO., LIMITED. 87, SUMNER ST., SOUTHWARK, LONDON, S.E. ROLLING AND WIRE MILLS- BAGOT STREET, BIRMINGHAM. Brancli loundries at LIYEEPOOL and ETEUEIA, Stoke-on-Trent. SOLE MAKERS OF THE "COG WHEEL" BRAND PHOSPHOR BRONZE INGOTS AND CASTINGS, Spring and Electric Wire, Rods, Seamless Tubes, Sheets, Doctor Blades^ Cycle Spokes, &c. This Trade Mark, a " Cog Wheel," bearing the Company's name, has been registered in every civilized country. SOLE PROPRIETORS OF THE BRITISH, INDIAN, AND COLONIAL PATENTS, FOB SILICIUM BRONZE ELECTRICAL WIRE, Qualities A, B, and C (see Circulars and Price Lists). ¥(/T OceThtad Tthgruph and Teliphoiie Lines, dc, as uttd hij the chief Jiailicay and Ttltjjhune Coiiqjunits throuijhuut Iht World. HIGH CONDUCTIVITY. GREAT TENSILE STRENGTH. RESISTANCE TO CORROSION. PRACTICAL INDESTRUCTIBILITY. PAMPHLETS AND CIRCULARS ON APPLICATION NALDER BROS. & CO., ENGINEERS, ELECTRICIANS, & SCIENTIFIC INSTRUMENT MAKERS, MANUFACTURERS OF Every description of Electrical and other Scientific Measuring Instruments, such as Thomson Reflecting and other Galvanometers^ Resistance Coils, Wheatstone Bridges, Standard Cells, Condensers, Standards of Self Induction, Ammeters, and Voltmeters. Also, Measuring Machines, Micrometers, Spherometers, Optical Benches, and Special Instruments for all purposes. NALDER BROS. & CO., 132, HORSEFERRY ROAD, WESTMINSTER, LONDON, S.^V. Registered Telegraph Address— TELEPHONE-.No.'.3120 "SECOHM, LONDON." PATENTS, DESIGNS & TRADE MARKS. BERNHARD DUKES, 226, High Holhorn, London, W. C, Tel. Address : APPLICANT, London. Attends to all business relating to Patents, Designs, & Trade Marks. attendance in the provinces. Pk-ase tueiiliuii tliis Book wlien ajiiilying. WOEKSHOP EEGEIPTS. Drawing Paper, — The following table coutains the diinensions of every description of English drawing-paper. inches. inches. Demy 20 by 15 Medium .. ,. 22 „ 17 Royal 24 „ 19 Imperial .. .. 31 „ 21 Elephant .. .. 27 „ 23 Columbier .. .. 3-1: „ 23 Atlas 33 „ 20 Double Elephant .. 40 „ 26 Antiquarian .. 52 „ 29 Emperor .. .. 68 ,, 48 For making detail drawings an in- ferior paper is used, termed Cartridge ; this answers for line drawings, but it will not take colours or tints perfectly. Continuous cartridge paper is also much used for full-sized mechanical details, and some other purposes. It is made uniformly 53 inches wide, and may be had of any length by the yard, up to 300 yards. For plans of considerable size, mounted paper is used, or the drawings are after- wards occasionally mounted on canvas or linen. Mounting- Drawings or Paper on Linen. — Tlie linen or calico is first stretched by tacking it tightly on a frame or board. It is then thoroughly coated with strong size, and left until nearly dry. The sheet of paper to be mounted requires to be well covered with paste; this will be best if done twice, leaving the first coat about ten minutes to soak into the paper. After applying the second coat, place the j)aper on the linen and dab it all over with a clean cloth. Cut off when thoroughly dry. To Fasten Paper on a Draw, ing Board. — The stretched ii-regular edges of the sheet of paper are cut olf against a flat ruler, squaring it at the same time. The sheet of paper is laid upon the board the reverse side upwards 1 to that upon which the drawing is to be made. It is then damped over, first by passing a moist clean sponge, or wide brush, round the edges of the paper about an inch and a half on, and afterwards thoroughly damping the whole surface, except the edges. Other plans of damping answer equally well ; it is only necessary to observe that the edges of the paper should not be quite so damp as the other part of the sur- face. After the paper is thoronghly damped, it is left until the wet gloss entirely disappears ; it is then turned over and put in its position on the board. About half an inch of the edge of the paper is then turned up against a flat ruler, and a glue-brush with hot glue passed between the turned-up edge and the board ; the ruler is then drawn over the glued edge and pressed along. If upon removing the ruler the paper is found not to be thoroughly close, a paper-knife or similar article passed over it will secure perfect contact. The nest adjoining edge must be treated in like manner, and so on each consecutive edge, until all be secured. The con- traction of the paper in drying should leave the surface quite flat and solid. Cutting Pencils. — If the point is intended for sketching, it is cut equally from all sides, to produce a perfectly acute cone. If this be used for line drawing, the tip will be easily broken, or otherwise it soon wears thick ; thus, it is much better for line drawing to have a thin flat point. The genera, manner of proceeding is, first, to cut the pencil, from two sides only, with a Icng slope, so as to produce a kind of chisel-end, and afterwards to ,^ut the other sides away only suflicien', to be able to round the first edge a little. A point cut in the manner described may be kept in good order for some time bv pointing the lead upon a small piece of fine sandstone or fine glar.s-paper ; this will be less ti'ouble than the continual B WOEKSHOP RECEIPTS. applicaticn of the knife, which is always liable to break the extreme edge. Erasing Errors. — To erase Cum- berland-lead pencil marks, native oi bottle india-rubber answers perfectly. This, however, will not entirely erase any sind of German or other manufac- tured pencil marks. What is found best for this purpose is fine vulcanized india-rubber ; this, besides being a more powerful eraser, has also the quality of keeping clean, as it frets away with the friction of rubbing, and presents a con- tinually renewed surface to the drawing ; the worn-ofl'*particles produce a kind of dust, easily swept away. Vulcanized rubber is also extremely useful for cleaning otf drawings, as it will remove any ordinary stain. For erasing ink lines, the point of a penknife or erasing knife is commonly used. A much better means is to em- ploy a piece of fine glass-paper, folded several times, until it presents a round edge ; this leaves the surface of the paper in much better ortler to draw upon than it is left from knife erasures. Fine size applied with a brush will be found convenient to prevent colour rnnning. To produce finished drawings, it is necessary that no j)orticn should be erased, otherwise the colour aj)plied will be unequal in tone; thus, when highly-finished mechanic;il drawmgs are required, it is usual to draw an original and to copy it, as mistakes are almost certain to occur in delineating any new machine. Where sullicient time cannot be given to draw and copy, a very good way is to take the surface off the paper with fine glass-jiajter be- fore commencing the drawing; if this be done, the colour will flow equally over any enisure it may be necessary to make afterwards. Where ink liui-s are a little over the mtcuiled mark, and it is s the best. If the edge be very thin, it is almost impossible to prevent the ink escaping upon it, with the great risk of its getting on to the drawing. Before putting the pen away, it should be care- fully wiped between the nibs by drawing a piece of folded paper through them until they are dry and clean. To Test the Accuracy of a Straight-edge.— Lay the straight- edge upon a stretched sheet of paper, placing weights upon it to hold it firmly ; then draw a line against the edge with a needle in a holder, or a very tine hard pencil, held constantly vertical, or at one angle to the paper, being careful to use as slight pressure as possible. If the straight-edge be then turned over to the reverse side of the line, and a second line be produced m a similar manner to the first at about the twentieth of an inch distance from it, any inequalities in the edge will appear by the differences of the distances in various parts of the lines, which may be measured by spring dividers. Another method will be found to answer well if three straight-edges are at hand ; this method is used in making the straight-edge. Two straight-edges are laid together upon a flat surface, and the meeting edges examined to see if they touch in all parts, reversing them io every possible way. If these two appear perfect, a third straight- edge is applied to each of the edges already tested, and if that touch it in all parts the edges are all perfect. It may be observed that the first twc examined, although they touch per- fectly, may be regular curves ; but if so, the third edge apphed will detect the curvature. In Using the Plain Parallel Rule, one of the rules is pressed down firmly with the fingers, while the other is moved by the centre stud to the distances at which parallel lines are required. Should the bars not ex- tend a sulHcient distance for a required parallel line, one rule is held firmlj', aud the other shifted, alternately, until the distance is reached. Using Dividers or Com- passes. — It is considered best to place the forefinger upon the head, and to move the legs with the second finger and thumb. In dividing distances into equal parts, it is best to hold the di- viders as much as possible by the head joint, after they are set to the required dimensions ; as by touching the legs they are liable to change, if the joint moves softly as it should. In dividing a line, it is better to move the dividers alternately above and below the line from each point of division, than to roll them over continually in one direction, as it saves the shifting of the ringers on the head of the dividers. In taking off distances with dividers, it is always better, first to open them a little too wide, and afterwards close them to the point required, than set them by opening. Pencilling. — If a drawing could be at once placed to the best advantage on the paper, and surely made without mistake and with all its lines correctly limited when first drawn, it might be made in ink directly on the blank paper. To avoid the errors inevitable in the first copy of any production, even when made by those most practisetl, drawings are first pencilled and then inked. The whole theory of pencilling, then, is, to lay out correct tracks on which the pen is to move, leaving the y 2 WORKSHOP RECEIPTS; inind, during the inking, free from all ♦thought of accuracy of the consti-uction, that it may be given to excellence in execution. Therefore, the whole of the j'cncil-construction should humost accu- tately made in the finest faint lines with a hard f)encil. Finishing a Drawing. — While "Finish a drawing without any error or defect," should be the draughts- man's best motto, he should never be in haste to reject a damaged diMwing, but should exercise his ingenuity to see how far injuries done to it may be remedied. '• Never lose a drawing once begun," should be his second motto; and since prevention is easier and better than cure, let liim always work calmly, in- spect all instruments, hands, and sleeves, that may touch a drawing, before com- mencing an operation ; lot the paper, instruments, and person he /.ept clean, and when considerable time is to be spent u])on a portion of the paper, let the remainder be covered with waste paper, pasted to one edge of the board. For the final cleaning of the drawing, stale bread, or the old-fasliioned black india-rubber, if not sticky, is good ; but, aside from the carelessness of ever allowing a drawing to get very dirty, any fine drawing will be injured, more or less, by ait>/ means of removing a considerable quantity of dirt from it. Another excellent means of prevent- ing injuries, which should be adopted when the drawing is worked upon only at intervals, is to enclose the board, when not in use, in a bag of enamelled cliith or other line material. liCttering. — Tlie title to a draw- ing should answer distinctly the four questions — What, Who, Where, and When — What, including the use and scale ; Who, Ijoth as to designer or in- ventor, and druightsman ; Where, both as In the jdace, institution, or ollice where the ((rawing was made, ;iud the locality of the object drawn; and When. If the drawing is perfectly symme- trical, its title shouM have the same axis of Hymmetry as the drt-wing. If liie drawing is unsymmetrica., the title may tx; at either of !he lower coraars. These principles do not apply to hori- zortal views, as maps of surveys, where the title may be wherever the shape of the plot affords the best place. One quite essential element of beauty in a title is its arrangement, or the form of its outline as a whole. It should embrace such variations in the length of its lines of letters that the curve formed by joining the extremities of those lines would be a simple and graceful one, having also a marked variety of form. Also the greatest length of the title should generally be horizontal ; or its proportions, as a whole, like those of the border of the drawing. When the occupation of the paper alTords only narrow blank spaces lying lengthwise of the jiajier, the title looks uell mubtly on a single line at the bottom, the princijjal words being in the middle, and the subordinate ones at the two sides. Moreover, horizontal lines should prevail in the direction of the lines of words in the title. Indeed, the title may be arranged wholly on horizontal lines with good effect, though an arched or bow-shaped curve for the principal words may be adopted when the draw- ing includes some consj)icuous arching lines. The size of the title should be ajipro- ]iriate to that of the drawing. In ]>ar- ticular, the rule has been proposed that the height of the lai'gest letters in the title should not exceed three-hundredths of the shorter side of the border. Also, the relative size of the dill'erent por- tions of the title should correspond to their relative importance, the name ot the object and its inventor being largest, and that of the draughtsman, his loca- tion, and the date of his work being considerably smaller. Geometrical drawings are most ap- propriately lettered with geonietric;il letters, whicli, when neatly made, always look well. Any letters, however, hav- ing any kind of sharply-defined acd precise form, as Genuau text, are not iiiaii|iro|U'iate to a gi'imu'trical drawing-, but vajjiely formed " rustic'' cr other WORKSHOP RECEIPTS. free-liand letters are in bad taste on such drawings. Letters should correspond in con- spicuousness or body of colour with the rest of the drawing, not being obtrusive from great heaviness of solid black outline, or unobservable from excessive fain^ness. Also, violent contrasts of heaviness among neighbouring portions of the title should be avoided ; though there may be a gradual change, both of intensity and size, from the most to the least important words of the title. This should, first of all, not exceed in elaborateness the draughtsman's ability to execute it with perfect neatness and clearness. Then it should agree with the character of the drawing. Plain and simple letters look best on a similar drawing, while a complicated and highly-finished drawing may receive letters of more ornamental character. Borders. — For line drawings the border should be a geometrical design, in lines, with curved or angular corners, or with combinations of straight or curved lines, forming geometrical cor- ner-pieces. These borders may vary in complexity from a rectangular border in single lines to borders which, though geometrical, may be elaborate and ele- gant. Thus: a plate of varieties of straight horizontal lines may have a plain rectangular border ; one including oblique lines may include oblique lines m the border, either is a little tuft in each corner, a truncated corner, or a square set diagonally, &c. Plates em- bracing curve lines may have quarter- circle borders, either convex or concave inwards — of which the former have most decision. Such plates may also have little circles for corner-pieces. Borders may sometimes conform in a pleasing manner to the general outline of a drawing. Thus, an arched bridge may have a semi-oval upper border and a square-cornered border at the base of the drawing ; and an ornamental device may crown the summit of the border. When the drawing is a shaded one, containing, therefore, somt; free-hand work, the border may be partly free- hand also ; but should still be largely geometrical in its design, and should represent a real border of substantial materials, corresponding to the subject of the drawing. Thus, the mouldings and ornaments should represent orna- mental metallic castings, carvings in wood, mouldings ^n plaster, or scrolls and leaves of rolled metal; but gar- lands, tassels, and tendrils, &c., should not be introduced. The border to a geometrical drawing should be like the drawing itself in be- ing executed with the drawing pen and brush, as well as with the mapping pen. Free-hand pen borders, representing the products of the soil, with cornucopias, little pen sketches of scenery, or similar agricultural or landscape devices, worked in as corner-pieces, are more appropriate on topographical drawings. As to colour, 2}>'i>nari/ colours should not be largely introduced into the border; first, since they, when obtru- sive, are adapted to rider or less im- pressible tastes than the secondary hues, shades, and tints, which are more grati- fying to delicate tastes ; and secondlj, from the impertinent conspicuousness which they may give to the border. Drawings which are shaded only in sepia or ink, or any dark neutral tint, may hr.ve the border done in the same, or in a dark complementary colour. Tinted ink drawings are best finished with a plain ink border. Indian Ink is used for producing the finished lines of all kinds of geome- trical drawing. Being free from acid, it does not injure or corrode the steel points of the instruments. The genuine ink, as it is imported from China, varies considerably in quality ; that which answers best for line drawing will wash up the least when other colours are passed over it. This quality is ascer- tained in the trade, but not with perfect certainty, by breaking oil" a small por- tion. If it be of the right quality it will show, when broken, a very bright and almost prismatic-coloured fracture. Indian ink should be used immediately after it is mixed ; if re-dissolved it be- comes cloudy and irregular in tone, WORKSHOP RECEIPTS. but with everv care, it will still wash up more or less. Colours." — For colouring drawings, the mott soluble, brilliant, and trans- parent water-colours are used ; this particukrly applies to plans and sec- tions. The colour is not so much intended to represent that of the mate- ria', to bo used in the construction, as to cloarly distinguish one material from anoVhei employed on the same work. The following table shows the colours most employed by the profession: — Carmine or CrimsoD 'i For brickwork in plan or Lake 5 section to be e.\ecuU'd. ( Flintwork, lead, or parta Prussian I! lue ,.< of brickwork to be re- [ moved by alterations. Venetian Red . . Brickwork in elevation. Violet Camiine .. Granite. Raw Sienna .. .. Engli^h limber (not oak). Burnt Sienna.. .. Oak, teak Indian Yellow . , Fir limber. Indian Red .. ,. Mahogany. oepia Concrete works, stone. Burnt Uuiber . . Clay, earth. „ , „ f Cast iron, longh wrought Payne's Grey.. ..^ -^^^^ " " Dark Cadmium . . Gun ii«etal. Gamboge , . . , Brass Indigo Wrought iron (bright). ^°Ukr!!'' !."'"!} steel (bright). Hooker's Green .. Jlf.idow land Cobalt Blue . . . . Sky effects. And some few others occasionally for special purposes. In colouring plans of estates, the colours that appear natural are mostly adopted, which may be [>roduced by combining the above. Elevations and perspective drawings are also repre- st>nted in natural colours, the |>rimitive colours bemg mi.\ed and varied by the juilgmcnt of the draughtsman, who, to produce the best efl'ects, must be in Bome degree an artist. Care should be taken in making an elaborate drawing, which is to receive colour, that the hand at no time rest u|)on the surface of the j)aper, as it is found to leave a grea.sine.ss dliricult to remove. A piece of paper placed under the hand, and if the si|u.ir« is not very clt'.in. under that also, will prevent iliis. Shoui'l the colours, from any cause, WOfif ^rc-isily, a little i«r''j)nred o.x-gall may be dissolved in the water with which the colours are mixed, and will cause them to work freely. Shading. — For shading, camel or sable hair brushes, called Softener;;, are generally used : these have a brush at each end of the handle, one being much larger than the other. The manner of using the softener for shading is, to (ill the smaller brush with colour, and to thoroughly moisten the larger one with water; the colour is then laid upon the drawing with the smaller brush, to re- present the dark portion of the shade, and immediately after, while the colour is quite moist, the brush that is moist- ened with water is drawni down the edge intended to be shaded off; this brush is then wi]>ed upon a cloth and drawn down the outer moist edge t3 remove the surplus water, which will leave the shade jierfectly soft. If very dark shades are required, this has to be repeated when the first is quite dry. To tint large surfaces, a large camel- hair brush is used, termed a Wash • brush. The manner of proceeding is, first, to tilt the drawing, if practicable, and commence by putting the colour on from the upper left-hand corner of the surface, taking short strokes the width of the brush along the top edge of the space to be coloured, immediately fol- lowing with another line of similar strokes into the moist edge of the first line, and so on as far as required, re- moving the last sui-])lus colour with a ne.irly dry brush. The theory of the above is, that you may perfectly unite wet colour to a moist edge, although you cannot to a dry edge without show- ing the juncture. For tinting surfaces, it is well always to m\\ more than suf- ficient colour at first. Colouring Tracings.— It is al- ways best to i>f)ioiir tracings on the back, as the ink liiifs are liable to be obliterated when the colour is ajjplied. Mix the colours very dark, so that thi'V may ajipear of jirojier depth on the other side. If ink or c(dour does not run fi'cely on tracing cloth, mix both with a little ox-guli. WORKSHOP RECEIPTS. Cutting Stencil Plates.— The perforations are made through the metal, either by engraving, by etching with Bitric acid diluted with about one-third water, or, what is better, by both me- thods combined. If engraving only is employed, the force necessarily applied to the graver will sometimes stretch the plate unequally, whereas by etching alone, the edges of the perforations are left rough, and the corners imperfect ; but if the line be lightly etched, and afterwards cleared with the graver, it may be rendered perfect without any risk of cockling the plate. If the back of the plate is smeared with a little oil, the cuttings will come out clean. A good ground for the etching of these plates is made by rubbing on them, slightly heated over a spirit lamp, a cake of heel-ball. Copper is much better than brass for stencil plates: the metal being softer, it lies closer to the paper upon receiving the pressure of the stencilling brush. This close contact is a very important consideration, as it prevents the hairs of the brush from getting under the plate, and producing rough edges. Plain stencil alphabets will not be necessary to a draughtsman, if he is a good writer, as they will only save him a little time. A greater saving may be effected by the use of words which are constantly recurring ; as Ground plan, Front elevation, Section ; or of interiors, as Drawing-room, Kitchen. For railway or public works, head- ings of plans may be cut in suitable cha- racter and style ; also words v/hich are frequently repeated on any particular works, as the name and address of the architect or engineer. Besides letters and words, there are many devices by the use of which a superior efiFect may be produced, and much time saved ; of these may be men- tioned, north points, plates for the re- presentation of surface of country, as plantation, wood, or marsh, corners and borders for finished plans, and many other devices. Using' Stencil Plates. — The brush requires to be squarely and equally cut, and to be kept moderately clean. If Indian ink is used, the largest surface of the cake should be taken to rub the moist brush upon, to get it equally diflused and softened with co- lour. A cheap kind of ink is sold with stencil plates, which answers better than indian ink, as it runs less upon the drawing and presents a larger sur- face to the brush. After the plate has been in use some time, the fine lines and corners become clogged with ink, which may easily be removed by soaking the plate a short time in warm water, and afterward-: lightly brushing it upon a flat surface until quite clean. It must be parti- cularly observed that a cloth should at no time be applied to the plate either to clean or to wipe it, as this would be almost certain to catch in some of the perforations, and probably spoil the plate. If the plate by improper use becomes cockled, it may be flattened, if laid upon a hard flat surface, by drawing a cylin- drical piece of metal, as, for instance, the plain part of the stem of a poker, firmly across it several times on each side of the plate. In using the stencil plate, hold it fii-mly to the drawing by one edge only, in no instance allowing the fingers to cross to the opposite edge. The general method is, to place the fingers of the left hand along the bottom edge. When the brush is ditfused with ink, so that it is just moist, lightly brush it upon a book-cover or pad, so as to free the points from any excess of colour. In applying the brush to the plate, it should be held quite upright, and moved, not too quickly, in small circles, using a constant, equal pressure, as light .la ap- pears necessary. The stencilling sfiould be commenced at one end of the plate and proceeded with gradually to the other, moving onwards as the perfora- tions appear filled with colour, being particularly careful not to shift th« fingers placed upon the plate during the operation. If the plate is very long, after each word the fingers may be shifted if the plate be held down dnring 8 WORKSHOP RECEIPTS. the time firmly hj the ether hand. Should there not be quite sufficient ink in the brush to complete the device, the plate may be breathed upon, which will moisten the ink attached to the plate. If^ after the plate is removed, the device appears Ijght la parts, the plate may be replaced and the defects remedied, if %ery gi-eat care be taken to observe that the previous stencilling perfectly covers the perforations. In stencilling words or numberi .vith the separate letters of the alphabet, draw a line where the bottoms of the letters are intended to come, take the separate letters as required and place them upon the line, so that the line just appears in the perfoi-ations. Tiiat the letters may be upright, it is best that the next letter on the slip used should also allow the line to apjiear in it. The required distance of the letters apart must be judged of by the eye, a pencil mark being made, after each letter is completed, to appear in the peribration on the near side of the next letter to be stencilled. With care, a stencil plate will last in constant use for many years ; without care, it is practically spoilt by taking the first impression. Kemoving Drawings from the Board. — Make a pencil line round the paper with tlie tee-square at a suf- ficient distance to clear the glued edge, and to cut the paper with a ])onknife, guided by a stout ruler. In no instance should the edge of the tee-square be used to cut by. A piece of hard wood, half an inch thick by two inches wide, and about the length of the jiapor, forms a useful rule for the purjiose, and may be had at small cost. The instrument used for cutting olF, in any in;]iortant draughtsman's office, is what is termed a stationer's rule, which is a piece of hard wood of similar dimensions to that just described, but with the edges covered with brass. It is neccs,sary to have the edge thick to prevent the point of the knife sli[ij)ing over. Kither of the above rules will also answer to turn the edge of the paper up against when glueing it to the board. The Frame for a Drawing is to afford a suitable protection to the finished drawing, and hence should be so subordinate in design and colour as not to distract attention from the drawmg. For geometrical drawmgs, a gilt frame is, in general, preferable to a dark- coloured wooden one. Occasionally the latter style of frame may be appropriate, as in case of a very darkly-shaded drawing on tinted paper, or of a drawing which very completely fills the paper. It hardly need be said that a frame of plain mouldings is more ajipropiiate for a geometriciil drawing than is a carved or stucco-moulded frame. For ordinary geometrical drawings, nothing is pret- tier than an Oxford frame of light oak, or a plain goM frame. Vegetable Parchment is made by dipping ordinary paper, for a few seconds, into a solution, containing one part water to six sulphuric acid ; then washing it carefully, to remove every trace of acid. Indelible Pencil Writing.— Lay the writing in a shallow dish, and pour skimmed milk upon it. Any spots not wet at first may have the milk ])laced upon them lightly with a feather. When the pajier is wet all over, with the milk, take it up and let the milk drain olf, and remove with the feather the droj)s wliich collect on the lower edge. Dry carefully. Pencil Drawings, To fix. — Pre- pare watcr-starcli, in the manner of the laundress, of such a strength as to fi)rm a jelly when cold, and then apply with a broad c:imcl-hair brush, as in varnish- ing. The same may be done with thin, cold isinglass water or size, <>r rice water. Mounting Engravings. — Strain thin calico on a frame, then care- fully ])aste on the engraving so as to be free from creases ; afterwards, when dry, give two coats of thin size (a piece tlie size of a small nut iu a small cupful of hot water will l>e strung onougli); finally, when dry, varnish with white hard varnish. WORKSHOP RECEIPTS. d To Renew Manuscripts. — Take a hair peucil and wash the part that has been effaced with a solution of prussiate of potash in water, and the ■writing will again appear if the paper has not been destroyed. Uniting Parchment to Paper, or Wood. — The surface of the parch- ment must first be moistened with alcohol or brandy and pressed while still moist upon glue or paste. When two pieces of parchment are to be joined, both must be moistened in this way. It is said that the paper will sooner tear than separate where it has been thus fastened together. Another way is to put a thin piece of paper between the surfaces of parchment and apply the paste. This forms a firm joint, and can with diffi- culty be separated. Glue and flour paste are best adapted for uniting sur- faces of parchment. Tracing^ Paper. — 1. Wash very thin paper with a mixture of: Spirits of turpentine, 6 ; Resin, 1 ; Boiled nut oil, 1, parts by weight, applied with a soft sponge. 2. Brushing over one side of a good, thin, unsized paper with a varnish made of equal parts of Canada balsam and turpentine. If required to take water colour, it must be washed over with ox-gall and dried before being used. 3. Open a quire of double-crown tissue paper, and brush the first sheet with a mixture of mastic varnish and oil of turpentine, equal jiarts ; proceed with each sheet similarly, and dry them on lines by hanging them up singly. As the process goes on, the under sheets absorb a portion of the varnish, and re- quire less than if single sheets were brushed separately. Transfer Paper is made by rub- bmg white paper with a composition consisting of 2 oz. of tallow, J oz. pow- dered black-lead, | p'nt of linseed oil, and sufficient lamjiblack to make it of the consistency of cream. These should be melted together and rubbed on the paper whilst hot. When dry it will be fit for use. Babbitt's Attrition Metal.— Preparing and fitting, melt separately 4 lbs. of copper, 12 lbs. best quality Banca tin, 8 lbs. regulus of antimony, and 12 lbs. more of tin while the com- position is in a melted state. Pour the antimony into the tin, then mix with the copper away from the fire in a separate pot. In melting the composition, it is better to keep a small quantity of powdered charcoal on the surface of the metal. The above composition is called " hardening." For lining the boxes, take 1 lb. of hardening and melt it with 2 lbs. of Banca tin, which produces the lining metal for use. Thus the pro- portions for lining metal are, 4 lbs. of co])per, 8 lbs. of regulus of antimony, and 96 lbs. of Banca tin. The article to be lined, having been cast with a recess for the lining, is to be nicely fitted to a former, which is made of the same shape as the bearing. Drill a hole in the article for the re- ception of the metal, say a half or three-quarters of an inch, according to the size of it. Coat over the part not to be tinned with a clay wash, wet the part to be tinned with alcohol, and sprinkle on it powdered sal-ammoniac ; heat it till a fume arises from the sal- ammoniac, and then immerse in melted Banca tin, taking care not to heat it so that it will oxidize. After the article is tinned, should it have a dark colour, sprinkle a little sal-ammoniac on it, which will make it a bright silver colour. Cool it gradually in water, then take the former, to which the article has been fitted, and coat it over with a thin clay wash, and warm it so that it will be perfectly dry ; heat the article until the tin begins to melt, lay it on the former and pour in the metal, which should not be so hot as to oxidize, through the drilled hole, giving it a head, so that as it shrinks it will fill up. After it has sufficiently cooled remove the former. A shorter method may be adopted when the work is light enough tc handle quickly ; namely when the ar- ticle IS prepaied for tiunmg, it may be immersed in the linmg metal instead of the tin, brushed lightly in order to 10 WORKSHOP RECEIPTS. remove the sal-ammoniac from the sur- face, placed immediately on the former aud lined at the same heating. Blanched Copper. — Fuse 8 oz. of copper and ^ oz. of neutral arseni- cal salt, with a flux made of calcined borax, charcoal dust, and powdered glass. Yellow Brass. — 30 parts of zinc snd 70 of copper in small pieces. Yellow Brass, for 2'unmu]. — (^Common article.) — Copper, 20 lbs.; zinc, 10 lbs. ; lead from 1 to 5 oz. Put in the lead last before pouring off. Red Brass, /or Tumini/. — Co|)per, 24 lbs. ; zinc, 5 lbs. ; lead, 8 oz. Put in the lead last before pouring off. Red Brass, free, for Turning. — Copper, IGO lbs.; zinc, 50 lbs.; lead, 10 lbs. ; antimony, 44 oz. Another Brass, for Turning. — Copper, 32 lbs. ; zinc, 10 lbs. ; lead, 1 lb. Best Red Brass, for fine Cast- %ngs. — Copper, 24 lbs.; zinc, 5 lbs.; bismuth, 1 oz. Put in the bismuth last befnie pouring off. Rolled Brass. — 32 copper, 10 zinc, 1'5 tin. Common Brass, for Castings. — 20 copper, 1-25 zinc, 2-5 tin. Hard Brass, for Casting. — 25 parts coj)per, 2 zinc, 4'5 tin. Brass Melting. — The best plan of smelting brass is to melt the copper in a black-lead crucible first, clri/ and cool the zinc as much as jiossible and immerse the whole of the zinc into the copper when the latter is not hotter tlian barely to continue fluid. Drop a piece of borax the size of a walnut into the pot. When the surface of tlie hot metal is covered by fine charcoal, or borax, winch is prevented by renewal from burning, the smallest loss of zinc is sustained. The melting together of tin and cop- per IS less difficult than that cf zinc aud copper, because tin is not so liaiile to eva[)()rate as zinc, and little metal is lost. The ap|)earance of fhe alloy may l>e im[)roved by covering the melted metal with about one jier cent, of drieper, 2 lbs. ; tin, 1 lb. Good Britannia Metal. — Tin, 150 lbs.; copper, 3 lbs.; antimony, 10 His. Britannia Metal, 2nd quality. — Tin, 140 lbs. ; copper. 3 lbs. ; antimony, 9 lbs. Britannia Metal, for Casting.— Tin, 210 lbs. ; copper, 4 lbs. ; anti- mony, 12 lbs. Britannia Mktal, for Sjyinning.— Tin, 100 lbs. ; Britannia hardening, 4 lbs. ; antimony, 4 lbs. Britannia Metal, /or Begisters. — Tin, 100 lbs.; hardening, 8 lbs.; anti- mony, 8 lbs. WORKSHOP RECEIPTS. 11 Best Britannia, fur Spouts. — Tin, 140 lbs. ; copper, 3 lbs. ; antimony, 6 lbs. Best Britannia, for Spoons. — Tin, 100 lbs. ; hardening, 5 lbs. ; antimony, 10 lbs. Best Britannia, for Handles. — Tin, 140 lbs. ; copper, 2 lbs. ; anti- mony, 5 lbs. BisT Britannia, for Lamps, Pil- lars, and Spouts. — Tin, 300 lbs. ; cop- per, 4 lbs. ; antimony, 15 lbs. Britannia, for Casting. — Tin, 100 lbs. ; hardening, 5 lbs. ; antimony, 5 lbs. Lining Metal, for Boxes of Rail- tvad Cars. — Mix tin, 24 lbs. ; copper, 4 lbs. ; antimony, 8 lbs. (tor a harden- ing); then add tin, 72 lbs. Bronze Metal. — (1.) Copper, 7 lbs. ; zinc, 3 lbs. ; tin, 2 lbs. (2.) Copper, ] lb. ; zinc, 12 lbs. ; tin, 8 lbs. Artificial Gold. — Pure cojiper, 100 parts ; zinc, or preferably tin, 17 parts ; magnesia, 6 parts ; sal-ammoniac, 3'6 parts; quicklime, 1'8 part; tartar of commerce, 9 parts. The copper is first melted, then the magnesia, sal- ammoniac, lime, and tartar, are then added, separately and by degrees, in the form of powder ; the whole is now briskly stirred for about half an hour, so as to mix thoroughly ; and then the zinc is added in small grains by throw- ing it on the surface and stirring till it IS entirely fused ; the crucible is then covered, and the fusion maintained for about 35 minutes. The surface is then skimmed and the alloy is ready for casting. It has a fine grain, is malle- able, and takes a splendid polish. Does not corrode readily, and for many pur- poses is an excellent substitute for gold. When tarnished, its brilliancy can be restored by a little acidulated water. German Silver, First QuaUty for Casting. — Copper, 50 lbs. ; zinc, 25 lbs. ; nickel, 25 lbs. German Silver, Second Qualitg for Casting. — Copper, 50 lbs. ; zinc, 20 lbs. ; nickel (best pulverized), 10 lbs. German Silver, for Boiling. — Cop- per, 60 lbs. ; zinc, 20 lbs. ; nickel, 25 lbs. Used for spoons, forks, and table ware. German Silver, for Bells and other Castings. — Copper, 60 lbs. ; zinc, 20 lbs. ; nickel, 20 lbs ; lead, 3 lbs. ; iron (that of tin plate being best), 2 lbs. In melting the alloy for German sil- ver it is difficult to combine a definite proportion of zinc with the compound of nickel and copper previously pre- pared. In fusing the three metals together there is always a loss of zinc by volatilization, which may be lessened by placing it beneath the copper in the crucible. The best method is to mix the copper and nickel, both in grains first, place them, thus mixed, in the crucible, when melted add the zicr and a piece of borax the size of a walnut. The zinc will gradually dissolve in the fluid coppf.r, and the heat may be raised as their fluidity increases. In this in- stance, as in all others of forming alloys, it is profitable to mix the oxides of the various metals together, and reduce them under the protection of a suitable flux. The metal nickel can be produced only from pui-e oxide of nickel ; and, as purity of the alloy is; essential to good quality, the common commercial zinc is not sufficiently pure for forming argentan. Copper cannot well be used in the form of oside, but grain copper or wire-scraps will serve equally as well. Imitation of Silver. — Tin, 3 oz. ; copper, 4 lbs. Pinchbeck. — Copper, 5 lbs. ; zinc, 1 lb. Tombac. — Copper, 16 lbs. ; tin, 1 lb. ; zinc, 1 lb. Red Tombac. — Copper, 10 lbs. ; zinc, 1 lb. Stereotype Metal. — 1 tin ; 1 antimony ; 4 lead. In using stereotype metal, brush the ty])e with plumbago or a small quantity of oil , then place in a frame, and take a cast with plaster of Paris. I'he cast is dried in a very hot oven, placed face downwards upon a flat plate of iron ; this plate is laid in a tray or pan of iron, having a lid securely fastened, and furnished with a hole at each corner. Dip the tray in the fluid metal, which will flow in at the four corners. When the tray is »e- 12 WORKSHOP RECEIPTS. moved, dip the bottom only in water; and as the metal contracts in cooling, jiour in melted metal at the corners so as to keep up the fluid pressure, and ob- taia a good solid cast. When cool open the tray ; remove the cake of plaster ami inet^il, and beat the edges with a mallet to remove superfluous metal. Plane the edges square, turn the back Hat, in a lathe, to the required thick- ness, and remove any defects. If any letters are damaged cut them out, and solder in separate tyjies instead. Finally, fix vpon hard wood to the required height. Casting Stereo-Plates by the Paper Process. — Lay a sheet of tissue paper upon a perfectly flat sur- face, and paste a soft piece of printing paper, which must be pressed evenly on, to the tissue. Lay the paper on tlie form, previously oiled, and cover with a damp rag; beat with a stiff brush the paper in evenly, then paste a piece of blotting paper, and repeat the beating in ; after which about three more ])ieces of soft tenacious paper must be pasted and used in a similar way ; back up with a piece of cartridge jmper. The whole must then be dried with moderate heat, under a slight pressure. When thoroughly dry, brush well over with plumbago or French chalk. Wlien tin's is done it is ready for the matrix. Tliis is a box of a certain size for the work required, the interior of which is type high. In it is what is termed a gauge, which lifts out to insert your paper cast, and is regulated by hand to the size of the plate rc(|uired. This being placed inside, the lid is shut down and screwed tight, with the eml or mouth- ])iece left open. By this orifice the nii'tal is poured in, and, as it is mounted to .swing, the box is moved about so as to well throw down the metal and make a solid ciist. Then water is dasjied on ihe box, the screw-bar unshackled, the liii lifted, the plate taken oil, and the paper cast is again ready for work. Fusible Metal.— 1. liismuth, 8 jiarts ; lead, !> jiarts ; tin, 3 parts : melt totfet^.er. Melts below 'JT-'" Fahr. 2. I'l^niuth, 2 parts; lead, 5 parts; tin, 3 parts. Melts in boiling water, 3. Lead, 3 parts ; tin, 2 parts ; bismuth, 5 parts: mix. Melts at 197° Fahr. Used for stereotyping ; used to make toy-spoons, to surprise children by their melting in hot liquors; and to form pencils for writing on asses' skin, or paper prepared by rubbing burnt harts- horn into it. Fusible Alloy, for Silvering Glass. — Tin, 6 oz. ; lead, 10 oz. ; bismuth, 21 oz. ; mercury, a small quantity. Muntz Metal. — 6 parts copper; 4 zinc. Can be rolled and worked at a red heat. Alloy for Cymbals and Gongs. — 100 jiarts of copper with about 25 of tin. To give this compound the sonorous ])roperty in the highest degree, the jiiece should be ignited after it is cast, and then plunged immediately into cold water. Alloy for Tam-Tams, or Gongs. — 80 i)arts of copper and 20 of tin, hammered out with frequent an- nealing. An alloy of 78 of copper and 22 of tin answers better, and can be rolled out. Alloy for Bells of Clocks. — The bells of the pcndulcs, or ornamental clocks, made in Paris, are composed of copper 72-00, tin 26-5G, iron 1-44 in 100 jiarts. Bell Metal, fine.— 11 copper, 26 tin, 2 zinc, 1 iron. Bki.l ^\v.TK\., for large Bells. — Cop- per, 100 lbs.; tin, from 20 to 25 lbs. Bici.L M iCTAL, for small Bells. — 'Cop- per, 3 lbs. ; tin, 1 lb. Cock Metal.— Copj.er, 20 lbs. ; lead, 8 Ihs. ; litharge, 1 oz. ; antimonr, 3oz. Alloy for Journal Boxes. — Coi)]icr, 24 lbs, ; ti.i, 24 lbs. ; and anti- mony, 8 lbs. Melt* the copper first, then add the tin, and lastly the anti- mony. It should be first run into in- gots, then melted and cast in tiie form required for flie l)oxcs. ducen's Metal. — A very fine sil- ver-looking metal is composed of 100 lbs. of tin, 8 of rcgulus of antimony, 1 of bismuth, and 4 of copper. WORKSHOP RECEIPTS. 13 Chinese Silver. — 55-2 parts cop- per, 19-5 zhic, 13 nickel, 2-5 silver, and 12 cobalt of iron. Hard "White Metal. — Sheet brass, 32 oz. ; lead, 2 oz. ; tin, 2 oz. ; zinc, 1 oz. Metal for Taking Imijres- sions. — Lead, 3 lbs. ; tin, 2 lbs. ; bis- muth, 5 lbs. White Metal.— Tin, 82 ; lead, 18 ; antimony, 5 ; zinc, 1 ; and copper 4 parts. Metal for Tinning. — Malleable iron 1 lb., heat to whitjhess; add 5 oz. regulus of antimony, and Molucca tin, 24- lbs. Frick's German Silver. — 53-39 parts copper, 17-4 nickel, 13 zinc. Best Pewter. — 5 lbs. tin to 1 lb. of lead. Coxnn3.on Pewter. — 82 parts pure tin, 18 parts lead. Speculum Metal.— Equal parts of tin an J copper form a white metal as hard as steel. Less tin and a small quantity of arsenic added to the alloy forms a white hard metal of high lustre. 2 lbs. copper, 1 lb. tin, 1 oz. arsenic, form a good speculum metal. An alloy of 32 copper, 16'5tin, 4 brass, 1"25 arsenic IS hard, white, and of brilliant lustre. Type Metal. — 9 parts lead to 1 antimony forms common type metal ; 7 lead to 1 antimony is used for large and soft type; 6 lead and 1 antimony for large type ; 5 lead and 1 antimony for middle type ; 4 lead and 1 anti- mony for small type ; and 3 lead to 1 antimony for the smallest kinds of type. Statuary Metal. — 91-4 parts copper, 5-u3 zinc, 1'7 tin, 1-37 lead; or copper 80, tin 20. Metal for Medals.— 50 parts copper, 4 zinc. Or-Molu. — Th« or-molu of the brass-founder, popularly known as an imitation of red gold, is extensively used by the French workmen m metals. it IS generally found in combination with grate and stove work. It is com- puted of a greater portion of copper and less zinc than ordinary brass, is cleaned r-idily by means of acid, and is buu-nished with facility To give this material the rich appearance, it is not unfrequently brightened up after "dip- pmg " by means of a scratch brush, the action of which helps to produce a very brilliant gold-like surface. It is pro- tected from tarnish by the application of lacquer. Spanish Tutania. — Iron or steel, 8 oz. ; antimony, 16 oz. ; nitre, 3 oz. Melt and harden 8 oz. tin with 1 oz. of this compound. Another Tutania. — Antimony, 4 oz. ; arsenic, 1 oz. ; tin, 2 lbs. Gun Metal. — Bristol brass, 112 lbs. ; zinc, 14 lbs. ; tin, 7 lbs. Rivet Metal. — Copper, 32 oz. ; tin, 2 oz. ; zinc, 1 oz. Rivet Metal, for Hose. — Copper, 64 lbs. ; tin, 1 lb. Bullet Metal.— 98 lead to 2 ar- senic. For round shot the fused metal is dropped from a high elevation in a shot tower into a basin of water ; or thrown down a stack of limited height, in which a strong draught of air is pro- duced by a blast machine. Pipe Metal for Organs. — Melt equal })arts of tin and lead. This alloy is cast instead of rolled in the desired form of sheets, in order to obtain a crystallized metal, which produce a finer tone. The sheets are formed by casting the metal on a horizontal table, the thickness beiug regulated by the hoight of a rib or bridge at one end, over which the superfluous metal flows off. The sheets thus obtained are planed with a carpenter's plane, bent up, and soldered. Aluminium Bronze. — 100 parts copper and 10 aluminium, measured by weighing, when combined is a durable alloy, which may be forged and worked in the same manner as copper, and is the same colour as pale gold. 80 parts ctp- per, 19 zinc, and 1 aluminium, form a good durable alloy. Aquafortis. — Simple or Single. — Distil 2 lbs. of saltpetre and 1 lb. of copperas. Ihub-le. — Saltpetre, 6 lbs., copperas, 6 lbs. in its usual crystallized state, to- gether with 3 lbs. calcined to redness. Strong. — Copperas calcined to white- ness, and white saltpetre, of each 30 Ibe, 14 WORKSHOP RECEIPTS. mix, and distil in an iron pot with an earthenware head. Spirit of Nitre. — White saltpetre^ 6 lbs.; oil of vitriol, 1^ lb.: distil into 1^ pint of water. Dilute. — Strong aquafortis, 1 oz. by oicasure, and water 9 oz. by measure. Proof. — The same as Assayer's A^ii. Compound. — Double aquafortis, 1(3 oz. ; common salt, 1 dram : distil to dryness. Aqua Regia. — Distil together 16 oz. of spirit of nitre, with 4 oz. of common salt ; equal parts of nitric acid and muriatic acid mixed, or nitric acid 2 jiarts, and muriatic 1 part. Amber, To Work. — Amber in the rough is first split and cut rudely into the shape required by a leaden wheel worked with emery powder, or by a bow saw having a wire for the blade, Tripoli or emery powder being used with it. The roughly -formed pieces are then smoothed with a piece of whetstone and water. The polish- ing is effected by friction with whiting and water, and finally with a little olive oil laid on and well rubbed with a piece of flannel, until the polish is com- plete. In this process the amber becomes hot and highly electrical ; as soon as this ha[)peas it must be laid aside to re- cover itself before the polishing is con- tinued, otherwise the article will be apt to fly into pieces. Amber, To Mend. — Smear the parts which are to be united with lin- seed oil, hold the oiled part carefully over a small charcoal fire, a hot cinder, or a gas-light, being careful to cover up all the rest of the object loosi-^ly with paper; when the oiled parts have begun to feel the heat, so as to be sticky, jiinch or press them together, and hold them to till nearly colil. Only that part where the edges ai-e to be uniteii must be warmed, and even that with care, lest the form or polish of the other p;irts should be disturbed ; the part joined generally requires a little re-polishing. Bleaching Silk. — A ley of white soap 18 made by bulling in water IJUlbs. ««■ Hoai) for every lOM lbs. of silk in- teoded to be bleached, and in thiM the lilk is Kteeped till the gum in the silk is dissolved anl .se[):uateJ. The silk is then put into bags of coarse cloth and boiled in a similar ley for an hour. By these processes it loses 25 per cent, of its original weight. The silk is then thoroughly washed and steeped in a hot ley composed of IJ lb. of soap, 90 gal- lons of water, with a small qu;\ntity of litirus and iudigo dill'used. After this, it is carried to the sulphuring room : 2 lbs. of sulphur are sullicient for 100 lbs. of silk. When these processes are not sulliciently successful, it is washed with clear hard water and sul- phured again. Bleacliing Wool. — The wool is first prepared according to the purposes for which it is intended, by treating it with solutions of soap. 15y this process it is cleared of a great quantity of loose impurity and grease which is always found in wool, often losing no less than 70 jier cout. of its weight. The heat of the ley must be carefully attended to, as a high temperature is found to fix the unctuous matter or yolk of the wool. After w;ishing, it is taken to a sulphur chamber, where it is e.xposed to the fumes arising from the slow com- bustion of sulphur, for from five to twenty hours, according to circum- stances. It is again washed, and then immersed in a bath composed of jiure whiting and blue. It is then exposed a second time to the fumes of the sulphur, and washed with a solution of soap, which renders it of the proper white- ness. Paper Bleaching.— P'or bleach- ing rags, and other materials from which paper is at first fabric;ited, rags, wheu grey or coloured, are to be separitci and ground in the pa])er-inill iu the usual way, till brouglit to a sort of uni- form consistence, having beep previously macerated according to thi'ir quantity and tenacity. The mass is then treated with an alkaline Icy. It is nezttreaica with a solution of chloride of lime. If this immersion do not produce the de- sired elfect, which tines not often hap] :a if the colours are tenacious, such as red and blue, let the treatment with the ulkulia: ley be repeated, and follow it WORKSHOP RECEIPTS. 16 with another bath of the chlorine pre- paration. Then sour the whole in a bath of sulphuric acid, much diluted and cold, for when hot its action will be less eft'ectual. Water is then to be run upon it till it comes off without colour or in- dication of acidity. Black is the most easily discharged colour, and will seldom require being treated with ley or steep of sulphuric acid, one bath of alkali and another of chloride of lime being suffi- cient to produce a good white. Old printed or written paper is first to be sorted according to its quality, and all the yellow edges cut off with a book- binder's plane. One hundredweight of this paper is to be put sheet by sheet into vats sufficiently capacious, with 500 quarts of hot water. The whole is to be stirred for about an hour, and as much water gradually added as will rise about three inches above the paper, and to be left to macerate for four or five hours. It is then ground coarsely in the mill, and boiled in water for about an hour, taking care to add before it begins to boil, thirteen quarts of caustic alkaline ley. After boilmg, it is mace- rated in the ley for twelve hours, when it is pressed, and, if sufficiently white, made into paper. To Bleach Prints and Printed Books. — Simple immersion in oxy- genated muriatic acid, letting the article remain in it, a longer or shorter space of time, according to the strength of the liquor, will be sufficient to whiten an engraving ; if it be required to whiten the paper of a bound book, as it is necessary that all the leaves should be moistened by the acid, care must be taken to open the book well, and to make the boards rest on the edge of the vessel, in such a manner that the paper alone shall be dipped in the liquid ; the leaves must be separated from each other, in order that they may be equally moist- ened on both sides. The liquor assumes a yellow tint, and the paper becomes white in the same proportion ; at the end of two or three hours the book may be taken from the acid liquor, and plunged into pure water with the same care and precaution as recommended in regard to the acid liquor, that the water may touch both sides of each leaf. The water must be renewed every hour, to extract the acid remaining in the paper, and to dissipate the disagreeable smell. Printed paper may also be bleached by sulphuric acid, or by alkaline or soap leys. Bleaching Ivory. — Antiqus works in ivory that have become dis- coloured may be brought to a pure whiteness by exposing them to the sun under glasses. It is the particular pro- perty of ivory to resist the action of the sun's rays, when it is under glass ; but when deprived of this protection, to be- come covered with a multitude of minute cracks. Many antique pieces of sculp- ture in ivory may be seen, which, al- though tolerably white, are, at the same time, defaced by numerous cracks ; this defect cannot be remedied ; but, in order to conceal it, the dust may be removed by brusliing the work with warm water and soap, and afterwards placing it under glass. Antique works in ivory that have become discoloured, may be brushed with pumice-stoue, calcined and diluted, and while yet wet placed under glasses. They should be daily exposed to the action of the sun, and be turned from time to time, that they may be- come equally bleached ; if the brown colour be deeper on one side than the other, that side will, of course, be for the longest time exposed to the sun. Bleaching- Powder, or Chlo- ride of Lime, is prepared by passing chlorine gas into boxes of lead in which a quantity of slaked lime is laid on shelves. The stuff to be bleached is first boiled in lime water, wash, and without drying boil again, in a solution of soda or potash ; wash, and without drying steep in a weak mixture of chlo- ride of lime and water for six hours ; wash, and without drying steep for four hours in a weak solution or mixture of. sulphuric acid and water ; wash well and dry ; upon an emergency chlorate of potash mixed with three times its weight of common salt, and diluted in water, may be used as a bieaching liquid 16 WORKSHOP RECEIPTS To Bleach Sponge. — Soak it well iu dilute muiiatic acid for twelve hours. Wash well with water, to re- move the lime, then immerse it in a lolution of hyposulphate of soda, to which dilute muriatic acid has been added a ninment before. After it is bleached suliiciently, remove it, wash again, and dry it. It may thus be bleached almost snow white. To "Whiten Lace. — Lace may be restored to its original whiteness by first ironing it slightly, then folding it and sewmg it into a clean linen bag, which is placed for twenty-four hours in pure olive oil. Afterwards the bag is to be boiled in a solution of soap and water for fifteen minutes, then well nnsed in lukewarm water, and finally dipped into water containing a slicjht proportion of starch. The lace is then 10 be taken from the bag and stretched on pins to dry. Alcohol Barrels — Barrels or casks designed to be filled with alcohol, may be made tight by the appliaition of the following solution: — Dissolve in a water bath 1 lb. of leather scrajis and 1 oz. of o.\alic acid, in 2 lbs. of water, and dilute gradually with 3 lbs. of warm water. Apply this solution to the in- side of the barrel, where, by oxidation, it will assume a brown colour, and become insoluble in alcohol. This coat closes all the pores of the wood, and does not crack or scale off. Paste Blacking. — Mix 1 part of ivory black, J treacle, \ sweet oil, then add J oil of vitriol and ^ hydro- chloric acid. Dilute each ingredient with three times its weight of water bcfoiL' mixiuc;. Liquid Blacking. — 2 lbs. of ivory black in fine powder, treacle 1 J lb., J pint of sperm oil. Hub the black and oil well together, add the treacle and mix. Another Method. — 4 oz. of ivory black, 3 oz. coarse sugar, a table-spoonful of sweet oil, and 1 jiint of weak beer; mix them gradually together until cold. Black B,eviver. — Take 2 pints o( vinegar, and infuse 1 oz. of iron tilings, I arts of nitric acid, and eight parts of oil of vitriol. Heat is then applied, and when the liquid is boiling the work is plunged into it for half a minute, or until the violent de- velojiment of nitrous vapour ceases, and the surface is getting uniform. Then it is plunged into clean water, and well rinsed, to remove the acid. The ordi- nary, dark greyish, yellow tint, which / is thus very often produced, is removed on immersing the work again in aqua- fortis for a very short time. Then it is plunged into clean or slightly alkaline water, well rinsed to remove the acid, tnd plunged into warm dr}' beech or li-jxwood saw-dust, and rubbed until quite dry. To prevent the action of the atmosphere it is lacquered ; if a green tint is to be produceii, the lacquer is coloured with turmeric. A dark, greyish, but agreeable tint, is obtained by immersing the work previously in a solution of white arsenic in hydrochloric acid, or in a solution of bichloride of platinum, under addition of some vine- gar, or rubbing with plumbago. Eronze for Statuary.— 1. Cop- per, 88 parts ; tin, 9 parts ; zinc, 2 parts ; lead, 1 part. 2. Co]>per, 8Si parts ; tin, 5 parts ; zinc, 10| parts ; lead, 2 parts. 3. Copper, 90 parts ; tin, 9 parts ; lead, 1 part. 4. Copper, 91 parts ; tin, 9 parts. Fur Medals. — 1. Copper, 89 parts ; tin, 8 parts ; zinc, 3 parts. 2. Copper, 95 parts ; tin, 5 parts. For Cutting Indruments. — Copper, 100 parts ; tin, 14 parts. For Ornaments. — 1. Copper, 82 parts; tin, 3 parts; zinc, 18 parts; and lead, 2 parts. 2. Copper, 83 parts ; zinc, 17 parts ; tin, 1 part ; lead, J part. Bronze Liquid. — Take 1 pint of strong vinegar, 1 oz. of sal ammoniac, ^ oz. of alum, J oz. of arsenic ; dissolve them in the vinegar, and the compound is fit for use. We know brass-founders who have been in the habit of using this for several years, and, where the metal is good, it is seldom found to fail. Bronze Poisrders, Aurum Musv- viim. — llelt together, in a crucible over a clear fire, equal parts of sulphur and the white oxide of tin. Keep them continually stirred with the stem of an earthenware pipe or glass rod, till they assume the appearance of a yellow flaky powder. An iron rod must not be used in stir- ring up any mixture of sulphur when melted, or the sulphur and iron will unite. Aurum Mitsivum, or 2Iosaic Gold, is used as a cheap bronze powder. It is rubbed on with the finger. Another way to prepare it is to take quicksilver, tin, sulphur, and sal ammoniac, equal parts. First melt the tin, then pour the quicksilver into it, afterwards grind up with the amalgam thus made the sulphur and sal ammoniac. Place the mi.xture in a crucible, and heat until the powder in the crucible becomes gold- coloured, and also until no fumes of quicksilver arise. Coijper-coloured Eronze may bs obtained by dissolving copper in aquafortis until it is saturated, and tliru putting into the solution some sm; 11 pieces of irjn, when the copper will be precipitated in the metallic state; the fluid must then be poured olf, and the powder carefully washed, dried, and levigated, when it may be put by for use. Bronze powder is sometimes made from Dutch gold, which is sold in books at a very low price. All these mferior bronzes require to be covered with a coat of clear varnish, or they will very soon lose their metallic appearance, nor will the varnish entirely prevent, al- though it will greatly retard, this change. Cheap Bronze. — Verdigris, 8 oz. ; flowers of zinc or tutti powder, 4 oz. ; borax and nitre, of each 2 oz. ; corrosive sublimate, 2 drachms , made into a past* /" ^ 18 WORKSHOP RECEIPTS. jFith oil, and rueltal together. Used in >he commoner kinds of tea-boards, &c. Silver Bronze. — Bismuth :ind tin, of each 2 lbs.; melt together and add 1 lb. of quicks Jver. Pound all together into a powder. This soft fusible amalgam is used as nn imitation of silver bronze for plaster llg~u-es and other common purposes, in the same way as the a -rum musivum is for gold-coloured articles. It may be used as spangles in sealing-wax ; it must then be mixed when the resinous jiart of the wax is getting cold. Gold Powder for Bronzing-. — Leaf gold is ground with Virgin honey )n a stone, until the leaves are broken jp and minutely divided. The mix- vUre is removed from the stone by a ripatula, and stirred up in a basin of water, whereby the honey is melted and the gold set free ; the basin is then left undisturbed until the gold subsides; the water is poured off, and fresh quan- tities added until the honey is entirely washed away ; after which the gold is collected on filtering paper, and dried for use. Gold Size is prepared from | lb. of linseed oil with 2 oz. of gum animi ; the latter is reduced to powder and gradually added to the oil while being heated in a fl.isk, stirring it after every addition until the whole is dissolved ; the mixture is boiled until a small quantity, when taken out, is somewhat thicker than tar, and the whole is strained through a coarse cloth. When Used, it must be ground with as much vermilion as will render it ojiaque, and at the same time be diluted with oil of tui-pentine, so as to make it work freely with the jienril. Bronzing Plaster. — Lay the figure over with isinglass size, until it holds out, or without any part of its surface becoming dry ; then, with a brush, such as is termed by painters a «a.sh tool, go over tlic whole, taking care to remove, while it is yet soil, any of the »ize that may loiige on the delicate p:irt(i of the figure. When it is dry take a little very thin oil hurato of ammonia (dilute), and dry at a gentle WORKSHOP RECEIPTS. 21 heat, polish with a hard brush aftsr- varJs. Browning Gun Barrels. — Chlo- ride of antimony has been much used for bronzing gun barrels, is excellent in its operation, and has been called, in conse- quence, bronzing salt. It is used for bronzing, mixed to a thin creamy con- sistence with olive oil ; the iron is slightly heated, dressed evenly upon its surface with this mixture, and left until the re- quisite degree of browning is produced. The sharpening of the chloride of anti- mony can be etfected by adding a little nitric acid tc the paste of olive oil and chloride of antimony, so as to hasten the operation. Another formula is — Aqua- fortis, I oz. ; sweet spirit of nitre, J oz. ; spirit of wine, 1 oz. ; blue vitriol, 2 oz. ; tincture of chloride of iron, 1 oz. ; water, 40 oz. Dissolve the blue vitriol in the water, then add the other ma- terials, and the water is warmed to dis- solve the blue vitriol ; let it get cold before adding the other materials. The burnishing and marking can be effected with the burnisher and scratch brush. The polishing is best effected by rub- bing with a piece of smooth, hard wood, called polishing wood. It is lastly var- nished with shellac varnish, and again polished with the hard wood polisher. Some prefer the tone of brown produced by blue vitriol, 1 oz. ; sweet spirit of nitre, 1 oz. ; water, 20 oz. In any case, the surface of the iron must be well cleaned, and rendered quite bright ; it is then freed from grease by rubbing with whiting and water, or better, with powdered quicklime and water. The browning composition is then placed on, and allowed to remain twenty-four hours. It is then rubbed off with a stiff brush. If not sufficiently browned, re- peat the last process after browning. Clean the surface well with hot water containing a little soda or potash, and, lastly, with boiling water, and dry it. The surface can be burnished and po- lished. Varnish with tinsmith's lacquer, or with gum shellac, 2 oz. ; dragon's blood, 3 drs. ; methylated spirits of wine, 4- pints. The metal should be made hot before applying this varnish, and will present an excellent appearance. If the varnish is not required to colour, but only to preserve the actual tint pro» duced on the metal surface by the brown- ing fluid, leave out the dragon's blood. Catgut, To Make. — Take the entrails of sheep, or any other animal, procured from the newly-killed carcass. Thoroughly clean them from all im- purities and from attached fat, and wash them well in clean water ; soak in soft water for two days, or in winter three days, then lay them on a table and scrape them with a small plate of copper, hav- ing a semicircular hole cut in it, the edges of which must be quite smooth and not capable of cutting. Now, after washing, put them into fresh water, and there let them remain till the next day, when they are again to be scraped. Let them soak again in water for a night, and two or three hours before they are taken out add to each gallon of water 2 oz. of pearlash. They ought now to scrape quite clean from their inner mucous coat, and will consequently be much smaller in dimensions than at first. They may now be wiped dry, slightly twisted, and passed through a hole in a piece of brass, to equalize their size ; as they dry, they are passed every two or three hours through other holes, each smaller than the last. When dry they will be round and well polished, and being oiled are fit for use. Cameosy To Carve. — Take the common helmet, or the red helmet shell (those shells whose inner surface is pink or dark coloured are most suitable), cut them into squares with a lapidary's mill, round off the corners, and shape them into an oval on a wet grindstone. Fix the enamel side on a short stick with jewel- ler's cement, grind off the brittle surface, sketch the subject with a black-lead pencil, cut the subject with engraver's tools, namely, a chisel tool to clear the bare places ; a lozenge-shape for forming the subject, and a scraper, made of a three-angled file, ground off taper to the point, for cleaning the enamel surface round the subject, and also for forming the lineaments and other delicate parts The colour on the cheeks and hair is 22 WORKSHOP RECEIPTS. produced by leaying the layer of coloured shell on those places. The stick must be grispeJ in the left hand, and held firmly against a steady bench, and with the tool resting in the hollow of the right hand, dig away the shell. A con- venient length for the tools is three inches and a half; they must be kept in good condition to work with accuracy. The cameos are polished with a cedar stick, or a piece of cork dipped in oil of vitriol and putty powder, and cleaned with soap and water. Mother-of-pearl is carved in the same way. Cements, How to Use. — Take as small a quantity of the cement as possible, and bring the cement itself into intimate contact with the surfaces to be united. If glue is employed, the surface should be made so warm that the melted glue is not chilled before it has time to effect a thorough adhesion. Cements that are used in a fused state, as resin or shellac, will not adhere unless the parts to be jomed are heated to the fusing point of the cement. Sealing-wax, or ordinary electrical cement, is a good agent for uniting metal to glass or stone, provided the masses to be united are made so hot as to fuse the cement, but if the cement is applied to them while they are cold it will not stick at all. This fact is well known to the itinerant vendors of cement for uniting earthen- ware. By he;iting two pieces of china or earthenware so that they will fuse shellac, they are able to smear them with a little of this gum, and join the pieces ^o that they will rather break at any other part than along the line of union. But although people constantly see the operation performed, and buy liberally of the cement, it will be found in nine cases out of ten that the cement proves worthless in the hands of the purchasers, simjily because they do not know how to use it. They are afraid to heat a delicate glass or porcelain vessel to a suflicient degree, or they are apt to use too much of the material, and the result is a failure. Cement for Aquariums. - 1. Take 1 gill of plaster of Paris, 1 gill of litharge, 1 gill of fine white sand, -J of a gill of finely-powdered resin. Mix well, and bottle and cork it until wanted for use, then mix it with boiled oil and dryers until as thick as putty. Mix the cement only in small quantities, as it dries quickly. 2. Mix boiled linseed oil, litharge, red and white lead together, using white-lead in the largest propor- tion, spread on flannel, and place on the joints. 3. A solution of glue, 8 oz. to 1 oz. of Venice turpentine ; boil together, agitating all the time, until the mixture becomes as complete as possible, the joints to be cemented to be kept together for forty-eight hours if required. 4. Take h a gill of gold size, 2 gills of red-lead, 1^ gill of litharge, and suliicient silver- sand to make it into a thick paste for use. This mixture sets in about two days. Armenian, or Jeweller's Ce- ment. — Dissolve 5 or 6 bits of gum mastic the size of a large pea, in as much spirits ofwineaswill suffice to render it liquid ; in a separate vessel dissolve as much isinglass (previously softened in water, though none of the water must be used) in rum, or other spirit, as will make a 2-oz. phial of very strong glue, adding two small pieces of gum ammo- niacum, which mast be rubbed or ground till they are dissolved ; then mix the whole with a sufficient heat. Keep it in a phial closely stojiped, and when it is to be used, set the phial in boiling water. The preceding is also eflectual in uniting almost all substances, even glass, to polished steel. Acid Proof Cement. — Make a concentrated solutiun of silicate of soda, and form a paste with powdered glass. This simple mixture will sometimes be found invaluable in the operations of the laboratory where a luting is required to resist the action of acid fumes. Cutler's Cement. — 1. Resin, 4 ]>arts, to 1 part beeswax and 1 part of brick-dust, or jdaster of Paris. 2. Six- teen parts resin, 1(5 hot whiting, and 1 wax. .3. Pitch, 4 parts ; resin, 4 ; tal- low, 2 ; anressed together. Stonemason's Cement. — Clean river sand, 20 lbs.; litharge, 2 lbs.; quicklime, 1 lb. ; linsceil oil, sufficient to form a thin paste. This cement is applied to mend broken pieces of stone, and after a time it becomes exceedingly hard and strong. A similar composition has been used to coat brick walls, under the name of mastic. Fireproof and Waterproof Cement. — To 4 or 5 \xnts of clay, thoroughly dried and pulverized, add 2 [>arts of fine iron filings t'ice from oxitle, 1 part of peroxide cf manganese, i part of sea salt, and J part of borax. iMingie these thoroughly and render them as fine as jjossible, then reduce them to a thick paste with the necessary quantity of water, mixing thoroughly well. It must be used immediately Al'ter application it should be exposed to heat gradually iucrea>iiig almost to a white heat. This cemeut is very hard, and |>resents com|>lete resistance alike to a red heat and boiling water. Another method : — To eijual j)arts of sifted per- 0X1 le of manganese and well-pulveiizeii zinc white, add a sullicient quantity of commercial soluble glass to foi'in a tliiu paste. This mixture, when used imme- diately, forms a cement quite equal io hardness and resistance to that obt4iia(ring wanted ; when foi'ged :incar.3 faint yellow, and throws up a scum. In serving or heating the vat, it should WORKSHOP RECEIPTS. 89 be raked occasionally, taking care not to ilisturb the sediment, but merely to bring the liquor to an equal degree of heat ; then put in 3 lbs. indigo, and IJ lb. madder ; allow it to settle for 12 hours; then, if it looks of a greenish colour, and does not smell of lime, use 1 quart of lime. In all cases, if the vat smells slightly of lime, it is a proof that it has enough ; if it smells very strongly of lime, give 1|- lb. of potash, and 2 lbs. madder ; then, if it smells of lime in- stead of woad, cool by taking off the covering, and a considerable quantity of the lime will evapoiate; heat up again, and put in 30 or 35 lbs. of woad ; when hot, rake well up ; look at the vat in 6 or 8 hours, if the upper part of the liquor looks yellow, rake up, and if it does not darken, use 2 quarts of lime : when you rake up, stir the bottom at all times, except when heating up ; 3 hours is long enough for a woad vat to settle. In dyeing silk or cotton on this vat, it is safest to work it cold, or at most lukewarm. Ash Vat, Woollen. — 400 gallons \sater, heat to 170° Fahrenheit, 5 lbs. ground indigo, 10 lbs. American potash, 3 lbs. madder, 4 lbs. bran. Apply a slow fire, and it will come to fermenta- tion in 14 or 16 hours ; then add 1 or 2 lbs. madder. In renovating this vat, use more potash in proportion to your indigo, than in setting a new vat. Blue Vat, Cotton. — 140 gallons water, 16 lbs. copperas, 8 lbs. gi-ound indigo, 16 lbs. quicklime. Rake up occasionally for 5 or 6 hours, till all the copperas be dissolved ; if the vat be of a greenish yellow colour, consider it in good order ; if it assumes a dark green colour, it shows a deficiency of lime ; if yellowish, it is short of copperas ; after raking, allow 12 hours to settle be- fore working ; renovate with copperas !ind lime, according to the state of the rat. Purple Vat. — Boil 1 cwt. of 'he best logwood in 30 gallons of water for 3 or 4 hours, when it will be reduced to 26 gallons ; decant the clear liquor into a wood or stone vessel ; let it stand till quit€ cold, and add 56 lbs. purple vat spirits, 7° Twaddle. In renovating this vat, it is made up with raw muriatic acid till the glass stands as hifh as when set. Crimson Vat. — Boil 1 cwt. lima- wood ; decant it in the same manner as the last, and add 56 lbs. crimson vat spirits ; renovate with killed spirits, 7° Twaddle. Lavender Vat. — 50 lbs. Boil 14 lbs. logwood in 10 or 12 gallons water ; decant the clear into a 60-gallon tub containing 40 gallons of water ; when it is quite cold, add 45 lbs. lavender spirits; rake up occasionally for 3 or 4 hours ; next day it will be fit for working, and the glass will stand at 6° Twaddle. This wiW dye lilac ; add neutralized paste for lavender. Renovate with raw muriatic acid till the glass stands at 6°. Rose Pink Vat.— Boil IJ lb. of limawood in 3 gallons water; decant the clear into a tub containing 20 gallons water, and add 5 quarts double muriate of tin ; the hydrometer will stand at 7°; renovate with double muriate of tin. Silk Spirits. Nitro-sulphate of Iron. — 2 galls, of 30 lbs. double aqua- fortis, 24 lbs. copperas. Put the aqua- fortis into a leaden or stoneware pot ; place it near a fire, and add the cop- peras at 3 or 4 times ; if without the convenience of a fire, put in a quart of hot water with the first of the copperas. Nitrate of Iron. — 2 galls, aqua- fortis, 5J lbs. old iron. Put this into a 6-gallon pot ; add the iron by degrees ; and keep it warm, like the last. Scarlet. — 3 lbs. muriatic acid, 3 lbs. pure double nitric acid ; add 2 oz. sal ammoniac, and feed with 1§ lb. granu- lated tin. Purple Vat Spirits. — 4 galls (54 lbs.) marine acid, \\ gall. (20 lbs.) nitric acid. Kill with 3J lbs. granu- lated tin ; I oz. to the pound. Crimson Vat Spirits. — 3 galls, muriatic acid, 2 galls, nitric acid, 2 oz. sal ammoniac, fed with 3J lbs. tin. Lavender. — 30 lbs. muriatic acid, 15 lbs. double nitric acid. Kill with 3 lbs. granulated tin ; nearly 1 oa. to the pound. ftO WORKSHOP RECEIPTS. MuKiATK OP Tin. — Give any quantity of muriatic acid as much tin as it can consume ; you will know when it has enough, by seeing tin lying undissolved at the bottom of the pot. Double Muriate of Tin. — It requires twice as much tin as the last ; it may be made by heating common muriate of tm m a stoneware pot, placed in a hot sand-bath, and giving as much tin as it can consume. IxDiGO, Extract of. — 1 lb. best Ejround indigo, 6 lbs. double vitriol. Mix together ; let stand 48 hours in a stone pot ; then put the vessel into a warm bath till properly dissolved ; take 6 gallons water, 170° Fah- renheit ; add the indigo slowly, filter through woollen cloth, covered with brown paper, into a wooden vessel ; what remains on the paper put away, as it is only earth ; then add your liquor, 4 lbs. common salts, 1 lb. pearl- ash. Let it stand till it ceases fer- menting, then filter again through brown paper, and wliat remains on the paper is pure extract of indigo ; there should be 12 lbs. of it. Ajuionia Paste. — 1 quart strong ammonia, 1 ditto water, 2 lbs. ground cochineal. Stir them all well together in a stone pot ; tie up the mouth of it tightly, and set it in some warm place, such as the flue of a stove, for two days, and it will be fit for use. Woollen Spirits. Roval Blue. — 2 quarts of muriatic acid, 1 ditto nitric acid, no tin. Before using, let it stand until the gas goes olT. Scakli:t .Si'iiUT. — I'ut any quantity of nitre, and the same of clear water, into a stoneware pot; the water first; then add 1 lb. muriatic acid to every 5 lbs. of the above, and give 2 oz. of tin to the pound of spirits, adding it very slowly for one or two days, because in giving the tin too fast the K|)irit8 get fired, which precipitates the nitre, and they are lost. (;iusist).\ SriiUTS are the same as •cartel Kj)irifs, but Lave more tin dls- wilved in them ; give as much as tliey will take, till they turn of a bluish rblack or ivory- black in the abor* receipt. Gold Sealinii-vjix. — To common colourleM sealing-wax, made of shellac 5 parts, add turpentine 1 part, and when melted and beginning to cool, gold-coloured spangles of mica, Dutch leaf, or gold. Potting-, Bodies. — English porce- lain and earthenware are made from the following bodies, which are prepared by soaking the clays in a large vessel of water, and when of the consistence of slip passing them through the finest silk lawn into another vessel in which proper gauges are fixed, so that the other materials may be afterwards added in a slop state. Clay slip should weigh 13J lbs. ; Cornish clay, 13^ lbs. ; Cornish stone, 16| lbs. ; and flint, 16| lbs. a gallon. The passing through the lawn is repeated as often as is needful, so that the mixture may be deprived of im- jiurities. Care must be taken that the bones used for china bodies are not decayed, and for the other materials used in making porcelain, great care is necessary to see that they are of the purest kinds. These bodies fire at a higher temperature than that usually observed, and are placed and fixed in the furnace with ground flint. For the coloured bodies the marls used should be selected of the finest quality, argil- laceous marl being the best ; and very (ine lawn will be recjuired if it is intended that the boily should be clean and free from metallic sjiots. Clay in which the silicious ingredients are in ])roii(ntion of three to one are the best for the use of porcelain ; those in which argil is in excess arc the best for coarser earthenware, because less acted u])on by alkalies. The colours in clays produced by vegetables or bituminous juuticles are destroyed by heat in an o])en fire, and are by no means prejudicial ; but those wliicdi arise from metallic jiarticles are obstinate, and should be avoided as mu<'h as possii)le. Clays which contain argil and silex only are very rofractoi-y, but cal- careous earths in the pro])ortion of 10 to 12 per cent, will render any clay fusible. The clays for porcelain should be those which contain the most sand, :iud are of the greatest fineness; also such as do not retain watei with too much tenacity, which is the case when argil is not com- WORKSHOP RECEIPTS. 43 b'.ned with fixed air, therefore all clays ought to be exposed to the action of the atmo.sjihere for a long time previous to using. Calcareous earth in its common form is limestone or spar, magnesia, &c., which in their pure state are not so easily dissolved as when combined with fixed air. Argillaceous clay or alumina clay forms the basis of common alum ; is called argil, and is never found pure ; the finest part is extracted from alum, and is not fusible in the strongest heat required for china or earthenware. Argil in its usual state of dryness is capable of absorbing two and a half times its weight of water. Silicious earths found in a stony state abound in Hint ; the purest are found in crystals and quartz of a pure white ; fixed alka- lies, vegetables, or minerals are their true solvents. It should be understood that flint and bones, in all instances, are to undergo the process of calcination previous to using. Firing. — Articles formed of one of the bodies are first moderately burnt in earthen pots, to receive a certain degree of compactness, and to be ready for glazing. The glaze consists of an easily melted mixture of some species of earths, which, when fused together, produce a crystalline or vitreous mass, and which after cooling is very finely ground and suspended in a sufficient quantity of water. Into this fluid the rough ware is dipped, by which the glazing matter is deposited uniformly on every part of its surface. After drying, each article is thoroughly baked or fired in the vio- lent heat of the porcelain furnace. It is usual to decorate porcelain by paintings, for which purpose enamels or pastes, coloured by metallic oxides, are used, so easy of fusion as to run in a heat less intense than that in which the glazing of the ware melts. Porcelain Body. — 1. 360 parts of bones ; 230, Cornish clay ; 50, Cornish stone ; 20, flint ; 20, blue or brown clay; 10, body frit (p. 45); ^, blue calx. 2. 400 parts, bones ; 360, Cornish clay; 250, Cornish stone; 20, flint; |, blue calx. Ibokbtoke Boot. — 1. 300 parts Corn- ish stone; 250, Cornish clay; 200, blue or brown clay ; 100, flint; 1, blue calx 2. 175parts, Cornish stone ; 150, Cornish clay ; 90, blue or brown clay ; 35, flint 5, body ft-it ; ^, blue calx. These bodies are very ductile, and fire at the tem- perature of the common biscuit oven ; each piece of ware should be perfectly dry when placed in the seggars, because they are made a great deal thicker than any other kind. Setters also should be used at the bottom of each piece, and ground flint applied, but not sand, for the placing or seating ; the body, when burnt, is quite vitrified, and the pieces of ware strong and heavy, ringing re- markably shrill. Printed Earthenware Body, Superior. — 3 parts, blue clay ; 1, black or brown clay; 2, Corpish clay; IJ, flint ; J, Cornish stone. Common. — 2 parts, blue clay ; 2, brown or black clay ; 1, Cornish clay ; li, flint. Cream-coloured Body, Superior. — 1| part, blue clay; IJ, brown clay; 1, black clay ; 1, Cornish clay ; 1, flint ; I, Cornish stone. Common. — 1^ part, blue clay; IJ, brown clay ; 1|, black clay ; 1, flint. Lilac Porcelain Body. — 200 parts, bones ; 115, Cornish clay ; 25, blue clay; 20, flint ; 15, chalk; 10, Cornish stone; 1 J, blue calx. Drab Body. — 24 parts, argillaceous marl ; 48, Cornish stone ; 24, blue clay ; 10, bones ; 1, calcined nickel. Common Brown, or Cottage Body. — 20 parts, red or brown clay ; 8, Cornish clay ; 4, blue clay ; 2, flint. Fawn, or Drab Body. — 40 parts, marl ; 4, Cornish clay ; 1, flint. Calcedony Body. — 32 parts, yellow clay; 10, Cornish clay; 4, flint. Brown Body. — 50 parts, red clay; 7J, common clay ; 1, manganese ; 1, flint, Jasper Body. — 10 parts, chalk ; 10, blue clay; 5, bones; 2, flint; l\ blue calx. All the materials should be ground together, as much depends on the different articles being well united, which adds greatly to its fineness ia H WORKSHOP RECEIPTS. colour and lustre. It fires at the tein- peratwe of earthenware oveas. Superior White Body. — 50 parts, chalk ; 50, blue clay ; 25, bones ; 10 flint. This body is of the same con- sistency, and requires the same tem- perature as the jasper body. It is perfectly adapted also for the purpose of figures in bas-relief, and other orna- mental work. S TONE Body. — 480 parts, Cornish stone ; 250, blue and brown clay ; 240 Coruish clay; 10, glass; 1, blue calx. This body will be sufRciently vitrified at the temperature of the earthenware biscuit oven, and is adapted for the pur- pose of manufacturing jugs, mugs, and soon; it is requisite to place rings on each piece of ware, in order to keep them from being crooked when buint in the oven ; in all other respects to be treated as earthenware bodies. SroxE Mortar Body. — 480 parts, Cornish stone ; 250, blue and brown clay ; 240, Cornish clay ; 10, glass ; principally used for making stone mor- tars, and when burnt is of a yellowish white, absolutely vitrified, exceedingly strong, very durable, and produces a clear bell sound. Black Egyptian Body. — 235 parts, blue clay ; 225, calcined ochre ; 45, manganese ; 15, Cornish clay ; the materials must be accurately exammed on account of the manganese, which ought to be free from lime or other calcareous earth ; the pieces of ware whan manufactured are very apt to crack, because of the sudden transition from heat to cold, j)rovided above a certain proportion of lime is contained in the manganese. This kind of eartheuware requires only once burning, after which it is scoured with fine sand, and then a tmall quantity of oil rublW over it. Ring Body. — 150 i)art.s, blue clay ; 100, Cornish stone ; 100, bones ; 52, plaster. Used for making rings and setters, for placing |)orfelaiu and iron- stone ; the porcelain clay which gets dirty or injured by working may be used for the same purfwso, in the pro- portion of two of the former to one of the latter. Saucer Mould Body. — 10 i^irta, fiiut ; 4, blue clay ; 2, Cornish clay ; 1, black clay. Prepared for the sole purpose of making moulds, principally those of saucers ; moulds made in this way are preferable, and considerably more durable than those which are made of plaster: the contraction of this clay in burning is inconsiderable. Fawn Porous Body. — 10 parts, argil- laceous clays ; 4, blue clay ; 2, fiint. This bod,v makes porous wine and butter coolers, and water bottles, on the prin- ciple of absorption and evaporation. The articles are generally ornamented with various coloured clays, according to the five following recipes ; they should be kejit in the wet clay state, at the time of being painted, otherwise the ditlerent colours laid ui)on them will not sulficiently adhere, but are liable to chip and peel olf when burnt. A moderate degree of heat must be applied, as too great a temperature will cause the body to be too dense, and preveut absorption ; it will therelbre be neces- sary to fire such articles in the easy parts of an earthenware biscuit oven. Silicious and Argillaceous Clays. — These clays are for the purpose of painting porous coolers and bottles in the Jlosaic style, and are equally appli- cable to the ornamenting of china and earthenware; the mixtures must be well ground, for their fineness has a great tendency to equalize tlie contraction and ex))ansion of bodies in firing. WiiiTi; Clay. — i parts, blue clay ; 2, Cornish clay ; 2, Hint ; 1, Cornish stone. Blue Clay. — oO parts, white clay ; 1, blue calx. Black Clay. — 1 parts, black Egyptian clay ; 1, u/iite clay; 1, blue cixy. Orange Clay.— -4 parts, yellow clay ; 2, Cornish clay; 1, (lint; \, Cornish stone. Green Clay. — 12 parts, white clay; 1, nickel ; J, blue clay. Glazes. — Porcelain Glaze. — JO ()artg, Cornish stone ; 45, red-lead ; 38, borax; 32J, Hint; 22J, Hint glass; 13, crystal of soda; 5, oxide of tin; 1, en- amel blue. The particles are made small and well mixed together, then calcioeJ WORKSHOP RECEIPTS. 4g 5h the coolest part of the glazing oven, in seggars thickly lined with flint ; care must be observed that the frit is not too highly calcined, or brought iato a nigh state of vitrification ; if so, it will render it difficult to grind, and injure its good qualities in dipping. The frit likewise if too finely ground will cause the glaze to be uneven on the surface of the ware ; if any inconvenience of this nature arises, by adding a solution of potash in hot water, that defect will be instantly obviated. Ironstone Glaze. — 36 parts, Cor- nish stone ; 30, bora.x ; 20, flint ; 15, red- lead ; 6, crystallized soda; 5, oxide of tin ; 1, blue cal.x. With the above frit is to be added 15 parts, white-lead; 10, Cornish stone ; 10, flint ; when ground together, the composition is ready for ase ; should the glaze prove too thin for dipping, add a small quantity of muriatic acid. Body Frit. — 60 parts, Cornish stone ; 40, flint ; 30, crystallized soda ; 8, oxide of tin ; 10, borax. This frit is used in ?mall quantities, in china and iron- stone bodies. Frit for Glazes. — 1. 40 parts, Cor- nish stone ; 36, flint glass; 20, red-lead ; 20, flint ; 15, potash ; 10, white-lead ; 3, oxide of tin. This frit is intended to be used in glazes, in lieu of those which contain a large proportion of borax ; therefore, by substituting it when the price of that article is high, will, of course,'be advantageous, and the texture of the glaze will still be good and ad- missible. 2. 36 parts, Cornish stone ; 80, red- lead ; 20, flint ; 20, borax ; 15, crystal of soda ; 5, oxide of tin. These two frits may be calcined jn the easy part of the glazing oven, in seggars lined with flint ; particular care should be observed that they are clean chipped, and free from pieces of seggars, or any dirty substance. Earthenware Printed Glaze, Su- perior. — 90 parts, white-lead ; 35, Cor- nish stone ; 20, flint glass ; 20, flint ; 60, frit (for glazes, 2); I, blue calx. Cfjrnmon. — 85 parts, white-lead ; 35, Cornish stone ; 22, flint ; 15, flint glass; 24 frit (for g'.azes, 2); i, blue calx. These glazes, when ground, to be sifted through a fine lawn ; the former glaze is of the finest texture, and will require rather a thinner coating when dipped than those of common glazes. Fire in seggars, either washed with common glaze, or a mixture of lime and slip without flint. Common Printed Glaze. — 90 parts, white-lead ; 45, Cornish stone ; 22, flint ; 20, flint glass; \, blue calx. To this, after being properly ground and sifted, add 1 lb. of common salt and ^ lb. of borax, which forms a smear or flow, as it is generally termed, but must not be put into the glaze until the blue stain is perfectly incorporated with it ; the ware dipped therein must be placed in seggars washed with glaze. White E^vrthentvare Glase. — 35 parts, Cornish stone ; 20, borax ; 10, crystal of soda ; 20, red-lead ; \, blue calx. Calcine and then pulverize coarsely, and grind with 20 lbs. white- lead, 10 lbs. Cornish stone, and 5 lbs. flint. Blue and Green Edge Glaze. — 72 parts, litharge ; 36, Cornish stone ; 20, flint glass ; 17, flint ; 12, frit (for glazes, 2) ; i, blue calx. The blue and g]-een edged ware when dipped in this glaze should be perfectly dry previous to being placed in the seggars, and the green edge should be seated in the coolest part of the glazing oven. Cream-colour Glaze, Superior. — 85 parts, white-lead ; 40, Cornish stone ; 22, flint ; 16, flint glass; 8, frit (for glazes, 2). Common. — 75 parts, litharge; 40, Cornish stone; 23, flint; 10, flint glass. Crystal Glaze. — 105 parts, Cornish stone; 90, borax ; 60, flint ; 50, red-lead 12, crystal of soda ; 10, oxide of tin ; \, blue calx. This glaze produces very su- perior white earthenware, and, for the purpose of enamelling, the colours, lus- tres, and burnished gold appear to con- siderable advantage ; it is also adapted for ironstone, and makes superior blue printed carthonwars ; it has a singula.dy striking etTect on printed brown and mul- berry. When used for dipping it must be considerably diluted, and requires cul 46 WORKSHOP RECEIPTS little shaking from the hand of the operator. It requires the heat of a china glazing oven, but to answer the earthen- ware oven a small addition of white-lead must be made, according to the tempera- ture of firing. The materials must be mixed and calcined, and the ware fired in lime and slip seggars, well washed. Brown Cottage Glaze. — 60 parts, litharge ; 32, flint ; 8, brown slip. This and the two following glazes re- quire using about the same consistency as the cream-colour glaze, and will stand the highest temperature of heat in a common glazing oven. Calcedoxy Glaze. — 05 parts, li- tharge; 40, Cornish stone ; 20, flint ; 6, frit (for glazes, 2). Drah Glaze. — 70 parts, litharge; 30, fliut ; 25, Cornish stone ; 10, drab slip. Blue Glaze. — 50 parts, flint; 30, borax ; 22, red-lead ; 10, Cornish stone ; 6, crystallized soda ; 6, oxide of tin ; 3, blue calx. In ])reiiariug this glaze follow the same directions as for porcelain glaze. Green Glaze. — 3 parts, blue vitriol, calcined; 1, flint glass; 1, flint. When ground, take 4 quarts of this mixture to 30 quarts of the following mixture, ground: — 35 parts, litharge, 20, Hint; 10, Cornish stone; 10, frit, for glazes. This glaze is sulficiently fired in the coolest part of the glazing oven. Parti- cular attention should be observed as to the proper wash used for the seggars, for much de])euds on that simple process. Tte brightness and lustre of the glaze will be secured by ado]iting the fullmving wash: — 5 ])artsof the solution of quick- lime ; 1, of clay sli]), free from the least liarticle of flint, and apjdied about the thicknesji of common glaze. Yellow Glaze. — 95 parts, white- lead ; 35, fliut glass; 20, flint ; 14, oxieDtine ; the enamel colour is then ground fine, and dusted on the oiled part with cotton wool, or laid on with a largo cimcl-hair pencil. The comjionent parts of the dilfercnt colours are as accurately stated as possible, but the jireparation princi- pally depends on observation, therefore experiments will be necessary that a proper judgment may be formed. Wiini-: KsAMKUS. — These require the materials to be made very fine and cal- tmed in air lurc.ire, the heat at (irst (o be generated very gradually; and when the whole mass is in a state ol fusion increase the fire quickly, and there will soon be produced a fine white enamel ; in the time of fusion it will be requisite to keep stirring the whole together with an iron spatula or rod. V^EXETiAN White Enamel. — 3§ parts, flint ; 3, borax calcined ; 1, Cornish stone ; J, oxide of tin. Common White Enamel. — 8 parts, flint glass ; 2, red-lead ; ^, nitre ; h, arsenic. Blue Enamels. — For these the ma- terials must be calcined in an air furnace or glazing oven, and caution should be observed that they are not too finely ground at the mill, in order to prevent them from crazing or chipping after being burnt on the pieces of ware. 1. 16 parts, flint glass ; 5, red-lead ; 2, white enamel ; 2, blue calx; 1, common salt ; 1, potash. 2. 16 parts, flint glass ; 5, red-lead ; 2, nitre ; 2, potash ; 2J, blue calx. Black Enami:i-s. — Copper black is a very fine colour, the obtaining of which altogether depends upon a |)roper tem- perature of heat being applied, for nothing is more fickle and uncertain ; if in the least degree overfired the colour is destroyed, and becomes of a dirty green. The other blacks are called umber blacks, and will stand any degree of heat which is required in an enamel- ling kiln or muffle. The umber to be highly calcined in a biscuit oven, but jiarticular caution should be observed that it is the real Turkey umber, and not the English, which is of an inferior quality. The two first enamel blacks to be calcined in the usual way ; the materials of the two latter only want grinding. Enamel Paintino Black. — 4 parts, borax; 2, umber calcined ; 2^, red-lead ; 2, enamel blue; I, flint; 1, blue calz. A superior lilack enamel is composed by uniting with H jiarts of this compo- sition, 1 enamel ; 1 enamel jiurjile. Enamel I'iiinted Black. — 1 part umber calcined ; 1^, borax calcmed ; J, blue calx. (Nn'i'EK Black Enamel. — 1 i>art, cop- per calcined ; M, avincl Jlux (I). VrORKSHOP RECEIPTS. 49 Ked EsAiiEL. — 1 part, preen copperas calcined 3, enamel Jlux0). The greatest (l.tficulty in preparing red is the calci- j cation of the copperas ; ciUcine the cop- peras in a vessel exposed to the heat of an open fire, by which means it will ijissipate all its volatile contents, and leave a residue of oxide of iron in powder ; when it attains an orange or light red, the calcination is suliicientlj accom- plished ; the residue is then washed repeatedly with boiling water, until the water becomes insipid and free from vitriolic acid. Browx Examel, Dark. — 1 part, cop- peras calcined brown ; 2, enamel flux (4) ; I, enamel flux (1). Brown enamel only re- quires grinding before it is fit for use ; the copperas for the purpose of making dark brown will require calcining in the most intense heat of a biscuit oven ; the colour of it varies according to the temperature it undergoes, first white, then orange, red, and lastly brown. Light. — 1 part, umber calcined ; 1, yellow under glaze ; 5, copperas calcined red ; \, white enamel ; 5^, enamel flux •(2) ; 3, enamel flux (3). Blue Green Exaaiel. — 42 parts, red- lead ; 15, flint; 12, boras; 2J, blue vitriol calcined. To these materials, after being calcined in an air furnace or glazing oven, mu^t be added 12 parts of white enamel, then grind them all together. Grass Green Enamel. — 3| parts, blue green frit ; 1, ename'i yellow. Yellow Gree:? Enamel. — 2| parts, blue green ; 1, enamel yellow. Yellow Enamel. — 1 part, Naples yellow ; 2, enamel flux (1) ; 1, enamel flux (3). Orange Enamel. — 1 part, orange under glaze ; 2, enamel flux (1) ; 1, enamel flux (4). Purple Distance Enamel. — 2 parts, enamel purple ; 3, oxide of manganese j 13, enamel flux (3). Cornelian IIed Enamel. — 1 part, chromate of iron ; 3J, enamel flux (4). Thiii fine colour is produced from the chromate of iron, or the yellow oxide of chroma, whicn has a greater affinity for le.id than an alkali, consequently the flux presci'ibed is the only one v/hich is susceptible of yielding its propei colour, as those fluxes which contain a large proportion of borax are very prejudicial, destroying the colour, and with the greatest difficulty forming any affinity at all, therefore should be avoided. The flux used should be highly calcined until it assumes a dark orange-coloured glass. Mix up with spirits of turpentine whep dry. Pomona Green Enamel. — 1 part, oxide of green chrome ; 2^, enamel flux (1); 1^, enamel fltix (^4). This green is prepared by simply grinding the in- gredients, and produces tliat dark colour equal to the French green, provided the oxide is genuine ; and by adding a pro- portion more of flux and white enamel, there still will be a rich tint, though weaker and lighter in colour. Burnish Gold from Brown Gold. — 12 parts, brown oxide of gold ; 8, quicksilver; 2, oxide of silver; 1, wliite-Iead. Put the whole of these in- gredients into an earthenware mortar, and triturate them until the whole is amalgamated ; the mercury being the sol- vent fluid, very readily combines with the rest, to which it communicates more or less of its fusibility, after which grind them very fine with spirits of tur- pentine. Burnish Gold from Green Gold. — • 12 parts, green gold; 7J, quicksilver; 1|, oxide of silver ; 1^, gold flux. Place the gold in an earthenware vessel on an open fire, and when heated led hot, take four times its weight of mercury, and pour it in; the mixture to be stirred with a little iron rod ; the gold will be dissolved ; it is then thrown into a vessel full of water until it coagulates and be- comes manageable ; much of the mercury is then pressed through a piece ol leather, and the rest dissolved by .1 quantity of nitrous acid ; the acid is afterwards pouj-ed ofl', the gold remain ing is repeatedly washed with boiling water as often as needful ; it is then dried and mixed up with the othrr ingredients, and ground with spirits of turpentine for use. Purple ENiiSKU — 4 parts, gold in 50 WORKSHOP RECEIPTS solution ; 1, tin in solution. Procure a vessel t(i contain 50 parts of water about tlie temperature of" blood-heat, to be well mixeil with the solution of gold, and then add the solution of tin by dropping it into the menstruum, at the same time constantly stirring it with a strong feather, which will produce a tine purple-colour liquor ; but it will be neces- sary to erature of lOO"^ F. ; add pulverized sal uinmoniac rather copiously, at the same time briskly stirring the mixture with a strong feather, until the appearance of a decom|iosition takes place, which will soon be observable by the gold being precipitated from the m(!nstruum in the iorm of a (ine yellow powder ; when that is accomplished, let the vciwel stand un-iiitturbed a bhort time to allow the precipitate to -.u'lKi'le. ♦hen dec*''* th« liquor off, and still cdd b-iling water repeatedly to the piecipitate until the water is perfectly insijiid ; in the next place put it on a plaster bat to dry, after which it must be mixed up with book silver and tiux, according to the proportions given above, and well tritu- rated in a mortar ; then send it to the mill to be ground, when it will be in a proper state for use. This colour is supjiosed to be best when of a purple tinge, which may be produced by merely calcining the preparation to the heat of ignition previous to being ground ; if the colour be too dark, the mixture does not possess a sutlicient quantity of silver ; if it is too light, the silver must have been very plentifully added, therefore the operator must add or diminish accordingly. Great caution must be observed with this receipt, as the gold precipitated oy the sal ammoniac will unite with it, and then has the property of t'ulmiuatiug ; and when gently heated or smartly struck with any hard instru- ment will immediately detonate ; this can only be obviated by a plentiful use of boiling water; a caution which ought to be strictly attended to, as it removes the dangerous quality by depriving the gold of its salt. Gold Lustre. — Take grain gold and dissolve it in aqua regia, as in the recei|)t (ov solution of gold ; add 5 grains of tin ; an effervescence takes place when the solution is comjjleted and in a proper condition to be mixed ; take balsam of sulphur 3 parts, sjiirits of turpentine 2 jiarts, mix them well together over a slow lire, then gradually drop the solution of gold iutcv the menstruum and keep stirring until the whole solu- tion be added ; provided the mixture should a]ipear too thick, add more turpentine till of a proper consistency. 1 oz. of gold dissolved in the maun-r described will make upwards of '2, lbs. weight of prej)ared lusti'e, and must be used with turpentine, for all other spirits are injurious. Persian Gold Lustre.-TiI-" any (luautity of the precipitate of gold, first mixed with a small portion of tat oil on a Hat piece ot eiirthenwHru, thai WORKSHOP RECEIPTS. 51 place it on a stone previously heated, »nd when the mixture begins to be in an ellquateJ state, stir it well with a palette knife, and keep adding more oil by a little at a time, until with the continuance of a gentle heat it assumes the colour of balsam of sulphur, then add, with a less degree of heat, tur- pentine m small quantities. 1 oz. of the precipitate of gold will make about 1 lb., more or less, of lustre, having more solidity and opacity than the gold lustre. The proportions of the fat oil of tui-pentine to the spirits of turpentine, are 1 part of the former to 3 of the latter. Silver or Steel Lustre. — This is prepared by taking platina and dissolving it in aqua regia composed of equal parts of spirits of nitre and marine acid. The solution must be placed in a sand bath, at a moderate temperature ; then take 3 parts of the spirits of tar, and 1 part of the solution of platina, mixing the solu- tion with the tar very gradually, for as soon as the combination takes place, an effervescence will arise, the nitrous acid will evaporate and leave the platina in combination with the tar. After the above process has been performed, should the menstruum be found too thin and incapable of using, set it on a sand bath as before for a few hours ; the spirit of the tar will evaporate, and by that means a proper consistence will be obtained. It must be used with spirits of tar. Oxide of Platina. — Dissolve platina as for silver lustre. Let the solution fall into a large vessel of water at the temperature of blood-heat ; the sal ammoniac must then be added, and the precipitate will immediately descend to the bottom of the vessel in an orange- colour powder ; decant off the water, and repeatedly apply to the precipitate boiling water urtil the water becomes quite insipid ; after being gradually dried it is then used for the purpose of producing a silver lustre in the follow- ing manner : — First, procure brown earthenware of a full soft glaze, and with a broad camel-hair pencil lay on H over the piece of ware the platina in solution, and fire it at a strong enamel- ling teat, by which it will acquire a shming steel-colour lustre ; then take the oxide of platina mixed up with water to a thickish consistence, and lay it on the steel lustre, and fire it again in a kiln or muffle, but not to exceed a blood- red heat ; it is then called silver lustre, being less resplendent, having more solidity and Whiteness, and a very similar appearance to silver. On all white earthenware the platina in solution is perfectly sufficient to produce a silver lustre. Bronze Gold. — 2§ parts, burnish gold ; 2, oxide of copper ; 1, quicksilver ; J, gold flux. Having dissolved the cop- per in aqua fortis, it is again separated from its solvent and falls to the bottom of the vessel by the addition of iron ; the precipitate of copper may be in- creased or diminished at discretion, which makes the bronze richer or poorer in solour according to the proportion ot burnish gold contained in the mixture. It is chiefly used for ornamenting the handles and heads of jars, vases, and so on, and occasionally intermixed with burnish gold. Solution of Gold.— Put 40 dwts. of aqua regia in a small bottle, to which add 5 dwts. of grain gold, the solution will immediately commence, and may be observed by the effervescence which arises at the time ; when the solution is complete, the whole of the gold will be dissolved, which will be accomplished in about two hours if the acids be genuine, but when they are not, it will be re- quisite to apply heat to assist in facili- tating the solution. Solution and Oxide of Silver. — 1 part of nitric acid, and 3 parts of boiling water ; add one-third of its weight of silver, dilute with five times its quantity of water, then add a portion of common salt, stirring it all the time and immediately a white precipitate will fall to the bottom of the vessel ; the I liquor must then be decanted off and boiling water repeatedly added, until the water is quite insipid. This pre- cipitate is the pure oxide of silver, and I i» the same as that used in the prepara- B 2 52 WORKSHOP KECEIPrS. tion of burnished gold and in staining of glass. Solution of Tin. — 2 parts of nitrous acid, and 1 part of muriatic acid, with an equal part of water ; add granulated tin by small pieces at a time, so that one piece be dissolved before the next is added. This aqua regia will dis- solve half Its weight of tin ; the solution when properly obtained is of a reddish brown or amber colour, but when gela- tinous the solution is defective. Oxide of Tin. — Take any given quantity of grain tin, and granulate it by melting the tin in an iron ladle ; when in fusion pour it into a vessel full of cold water, by which means the tin will be reduced into small grains or particles ad- hering to each other ; then take a biscuit dish jireviously lined with flint, spread it slightly over with pounded nitre, take the granulated tin, and lay it on the dish 2 inches in thickness, adding a little more nitre on the top ; 1 lb. of nitre will be sufficient to oxidate 5 lbs. of granulated tin ; the dish containing the tin and nitre is to be calcined in a rcverberatory fur- nace or glazing oven ; particular atteu- tion is required in seating it, so that plenty of room remains to admit a free access of air to pass over the metal, other- wise it is impossible to obtain the whole of it in an oxidated state. Balsam of Sulphur. — Take 2 parts of flour of suli>hur, and 4 parts of turpentine ; put them in a vessel over a slow fire until the suljjhur is com- pletely dissolved ; after which add 8 parts of linseed oil, and continue the same degree of heat for about one hour ; pre- vious to becoming cold strain it through a pit!ce of clutli. Regulus of Zaffre. — 112 parts, zafl're ; 57, potash ; 18 J, charcoal. The charcoal being pulverized, and all the materials mixed up together, they are put into large-sized crucibles ca])able of \iol ling from 3 to 4 quarts, and filled ^uite full, then placed in a strong brick- Iniilt rcverberatory furnace, cnniinencing with a slow fire, and continued for some time, but as soon as it is heated to a red- heat, it will require a conniderably stronger fire before the cohesion between the different particles is sniricicntly de- stroyed. This operation will be complete in about ten hours, the weight of tlie re- gulus being from 31 to 33 lbs. ; on examin- ing the scoria, if there remains mixed with it small pieces of metal like small shot, or when pounded, if the scoria has a bluish cast, the fire lias not been strong enough ; there is but little danger to be apprehended from the most intense heat, provided the particles in fusion do not perforate the crucibles. At the bottom of each cake of regulus there will be bismuth slightly adhering, wliich is easily separated without the apjjlic-ation of any great degree of heat, by placing the cakes upon an iron plate or pan, which will soon bring the bismuth into a state of liquefaction, and it can then be separated from the regulus. To Refine Reguh-s of Zaffre.— 50 parts, regulus of zaffre ; 6, potash ; 3, sand ; pulverize and well mix, then put in crucibles holding about IJ lb. each, and fire in a rcverberatory fur- nace, commencing with a slow fire and gradually increase the heat for about eight hours ; by that time the regulus will have fallen to the bottom of the crucible, and the scoria found at the top will be of a blackish green; it will then be necessary that another course oi refining should take jdaco, in order that the regulus may be obtained in a more perfect state ol' purify. Blue Calx. — 1, 30 parts, refined regulus of zallie; 1, plaster; j, borax. 2. 30 parts, refined regulus of cobalt ; 1, plaster ; j, borax. Tliese materials to be made very line, and well mixed ; put the mixture in eartlienware biscuit cups IJ in. liigh, 3 in. in diameter, and IJ in, thick, filled nearly to llie top ; set them in a furnace, the fire to be increased until the mixture is in a state of fusion, the same degree of heat must be con- tinued for about six hours ai'lerwards, and then the fire hastily slackened ; this operation will occu])y from twelve to thirteen hours; at the toj) of the cups will be found a blue ailx se[>arated from the nickel ; but as a large i)roporlii)n of blue will still remain in the nickel when sunk to the bottom of the cups, WORKSHOP RECEIPTS. 53 it will be necessary, in order to pro- cure the whole of the blue contained, to pursue precisely the same method ov^er again. Cobalt Blue, or Regulus of Cobalt. — 60 parts, cobalt ore; 50, potash ; 25, sand ; 10, charcoal. Work the same way as for regu'us of zaffre. To Refink Regulus of Cobalt. — 50 parts, regulus of cobalt ; 6, potash. Refine as for regulus of zaffre ; the o]ieration of refining must be repeated until the scoria is of a bright colour and of a slight bluish hue ; then spread the purified metal, finely pulverized, half an inch thick, on flat pieces of earthenware covered with flint; place in a rever- beratory furnace, and apply a moderate degree of heat for a few hours. Glass Making. — The furnace in which glass is made Is a large circular building capable of holding about six pots or vessels, in which the glass is melted. Fig. 1 is an ordinary arrange- FlG. 1. Eoeut of this furnace. It is built upon an arch, and the space underneath, in- cluded within the arch, is called the cave, as at A. This apartment can be dosed by the doors C C, to regulate the draught, as all the air necessary for the support of the fire must enter at these doors. On the upper part of the cave is placed a gi-ate D, to support the fire. The ashes pass through this grate and fall into a tank of water B. Around this grate pillars are constructed, which, being hollow, serve as flues F F. Resting upon these pillars is an iron dome G, and on this is built the principal chimney H. Between these pillars are placed the pots E E, which, from the peci^liar con- struction of the furnace, receive the heat equally on all sides; for, as the flame ascends it strikes the dome, and is rever- berated, taking the direction pointed out by the arrows. The pots are constructed in the form of a cylinder, with a hemi- spherical top, having a small aperture on one side for the admission of the materials, and their removal when formed into glass. When the pots are placed in the furnace, they are so arranged that their openings are on the outside of the fire ; they are then built in by a temporary wall, except the orifices, so that no dust or smoke caa enter so as to injure the glass. The materials for these various kinds of glass are placed in the pots, and exposed to the heat of the furnace for upwards of forty-eight hours, during one-half of which time the heat is gradually in- creased, and during the other half gradually decreased, until the metal, as the workmen term the glass, is in a fit state for working. During the time tne materials are in the pot, the workman takes cut a portion, from time to time, on an iron rod, and examines it when cold, to see whether it is free from air bubbles and of good colour. If the ma- terials employed be very impure, there rises to the surface a scum, which is called sandiver or glass gall, and which resembles large flakes of snow. Flint Glass is employed for making lenses, decanters, drinkiug glasses, and owes its capability of being thus easily fashioned to the lead contained in it. The following quantities form a very excellent glass: — Fine white sand, 300 parts ; rod-lead, or litharge, 200 ; re- fined pearlashes, 80 ; nitre, 20 ; arsenic and manganese, a smaller quantity. 54 WORKSHOP RECKIPT8. Crown Glass is a compound of silica, potash or soda, and lime. It is employed as a window glass, and contains no lead. The proportions for its formation are — Fme white sand, 100 parts ; carbonate of lime, 12 ; carbonate of soda, 50 ; clippings of crown glass, 100. Bottle or Green Glass is made of the commonest materials, in about the following proportions : — Sand, 100 parts ; kelp, or impure soda, 30 , wood ashes, 40 ; potter's clay, 100 ; cullet, or broken glass, 100. Plate Glass. — Great care is required in the choice of materials, and the management of the process for this glass. The Ibllowing proportions are used : — Finest white sand, 720 parts ; best soda, 450 ; lime, 80 ; nitre, 25 ; cullet, or broken plate glass, 425. Common Window Glass. — 100 parts, sand ; 35, chalk ; 35, soda-ash, and a considerable quantity of broken glass cr cullet. Colours for Glass. — Oxide of gold is employed to impart to glass a beautiful ruby colour. Sub-oxide of copper gives a red colour. Silver, in all states of oxidation, gives a variety of beautiful yellow and orange colours to glass. Antimony, lead, and silver, in combi- nation, are employed to produce the inferior yellow colour. The oxides of iron give to glass various shades of green, yellow, red, and black. Oxide of chro- mium gives a fine green, and oxide of ■cob«lt a splendid blue. The colour most valued, next to that produced by gold, is the yellow communicated by oxide of uranium, and which has an ajjpearauce resembling shot silk. White glass or enamel is made by adding either arsenic or the oxide of tin to the melted metal. The various metals emj)loyed in colour- mg glass are also used in the manu- *'actni'e of artificial gems, and by their means the colour and general ai)pearance are well imitated. Strass. — I'ure aiustic potash, 16 parts ; white-lead, 85 ; boracic acid, 4J ; arsenious acid, ^', finest while sand, 50. Tlii'.'^f mriforialH are CJiref'uUy selected, placecl ill ;i llcssiau crn<'.iblt! and f'u.scil in a por<:»:i;un furnace for a day and a night, then cooled very gradually. Used to imitate the diamond. Other precious stones are imitated by adding to the strass the metallic oxidet, as in colours for (jlass. Soluble or Water Glass. — Mix well 200 grains of fine sand, and 600 of fine carbonate of potassa; fuse in a crucible capable of holding four times as much. Carbonic acid escapes ; the silica and potassa combine and form glass. Pour out the glass, which i.- commonly termed silicated potassa, on an iron plate. The compound formed in this manner is pure silica soap. Hard Glass for Receiving Colour — Best sand, cleansed by washing, 12 lbs. pearlashes, or fixed alkaline salt purified with nitre, 7 lbs. ; saltpetre, 1 lb. ; and borax, J lb The sand being first reducetl to powder in a mortar, the other in gredients should be put to it, and the whole well mixed by pounding them together. Glazing- Windows. — Crown c/lass is made in circular disks blown by hand ; these disks are about 4 ft. diameter, and the glass averages about JL- in. thick. Owing to the mode of manufacture there is a thick boss in the centre, and the glass is throughout more or less striated or channeled in concentric rings, fre- quently curved in surface, and thicker at the circumference of the disk. Con- sequently in cutting rectangular panes out of a disk there is a considerable loss, or at least variety in quality : one disk will yield about 10 sq. ft. of good window glass, and the largest pane that can be cut from an ordinary disk is itbout 34 X 22 in. The qualities are classified into seconds, thirds, and fourths. Sheet iildss is also blown by hand, but into hollow cylindt'i's about 4 ft. long and 10 in. diameter, which are cut off and cut ojjcn longitudinally while hot, and therefore fall into flat sheets A more perfect window glass can be made by this j)rocess, and tliicker, and capable of yielding larger |)anes with less waste. Ordinary sheet glass will cut to a pane of 40 X 30 in., and some to 'i| x 'iG in. It can be madeiu thicknesbcii from ^ iu. to } iu. WORKSHOP RECEIPTS. 56 Plate glass is cast on a flat table and rolled into a sheet of given size and thickness by a massive metal roller. In this form, when cool, it is rough plate. Ribbed plate is made by using a roller with grooves on its surface. Rough and ribbed plate are frequently made of commoner and coarser materials than polished plate, being intended for use in factories and warehouses. Polished plate is rough plate composed of good material and afterwards polished on both sides, which is done by rubbing two plates together with emery and other powders between them. Plate glass can he obtained of almost any thickness from \ in. up to 1 in. thick, and of any size up to about 12 x 6 ft. In the glazing of a window the sizes of the panes, that is to say, the intervals uf the sash-bars, should he arranged, if practicable, to suit the sizes of panes of glass which can conveniently be obtained, so as to avoid waste in cutting ; this consideration is of more consequence in using crown and sheet glass than with plate glass. The woodwork of the sash should receive its priming coat before glazing, the other coats should be put on afterwards. With crown glass, which IS sometimes curved, it is usual to place the panes with the convexity outwards. When the glazier has fitted the pane to the opening with his diamond, the i-e- bate of the sash-bar facing the outside of the window, he spreads a thin layer of putty on the face of the rebate and then presses the glass against it into its place, and holding it there, spreads a layer of putty all round the side of the rebate, covering the edge of the glass nearly as far as the face of the rebate extends on the inner side of the glass, and bevelling olf the putty to the outer edge of the rebate. The putty is then sulEcient to hold the pane in its place, and hardens in a few days. The glass should not touch the sash-bar in any part, on account of the danger of its being cracked from any unusual pressure ; there should be a layer of putty all round the edges. This priH.iiition is especially necessary in glazing windows with iion or stc^e mull ions or bar.«. Glass Painting and Staining. — The ditierent compounds for paintincf glass are glasses of easy fusion, chiefly coloured with metallic oxides giound, and laid on the glass with spirits of turpentine. In the production and modi- fication of glass colours much depends on the difl'erent preparations of the metals, on the small proportion of the metallic oxides employed in proportion to the vitreous mass, on the degree of fire and time of its continuance, and on the purity of each ingredient intended for vitreous mixtures ; from hence diffi- culties arise which even a skilful operator cannot always remove, and which often frustrate his intention. Having made choice of the subject to be painted, cor- rectly draw the same on a paper exactly the size intended to be on the glass, then place the ditierent pieces in regular order on the drawing and trace the out- lines therefrom on the glass ; when the tracing is quite dry the ground colours may be washed in together with the dark and prominent shades, and also the stains required. Th stains are laid on in various thicknesses, according to the depth of colour required, and when they are dry tlie glass is ready to be burned in a muffle or kiln constructed for the purpose. The panes of glass are laid on sheets of iron, or earthenware bats, the size of the glass, previously spread over with dried ground flin% to prevent the surface of the glass from being defaced. After the first burning the stain is washed olf with warm water, which will bring to view every part of the subject, in fact, every shade according to the thickness of colour applied ; to heighten the colour paint on each side of the glass, and burn it a second time. The glass will require from four to six fii-ings, the exact number of firings depending on the subject, the degree of perfection required, and the manner of execution ; but after each burning, the pieces of glass will want less labour, some of tlie colours and stains being perfect at the first and second burning, and few require the utmost quantity. The proper d('<;it'e of heat to which tlie glass must be exposed in the m utile is ascertained bj 56 WORKSHOP RECEIPTS. t.'iking out at different intervals small pieces of glass, arranged for the pur- pose, on whicli are laid similar colours to those being fired. After the glass is burned it requires great precaution in cooling, for if suddenly cooled it IS apt to flj', consequently all sudden changes of temperature should be avoided. Red Orange and Yellow Stains. — 12 parts, green vitriol calcined ; 1, o.Tide of silver. The vitriol must be cal- cined to a reddisli colour, and repeatedly washed with boiling water until it is completely freed fi-om its acid, which will be known by the water being insipid to the taste, then triturate the silver and vitriol together in a mortar, after which grind them u]) willi spirits of tar for use. Various temj)eratures in burning pro- duce various coloured stains, the highest a red, a less an orange, and so on to a yellow; but to procure a very deep red, the colour must be laid upon both sides of the glass. Wjiite Enamel for Painting Glass. — 3 parts, borax calcined; 2, flint; 1, oxide of tin; 1, Cornish stone. The basis of this enamel, which is in general opaque, may also be employed in assimilating tlie oi)aque natural stones. Tiiese ingredients must be well mi.xed ui> together, and fused in an air fur- nace in a crucible, the fire at first ajiplied very gradually, and the whole repeatedly stirred with an iron rod. The mixture by tliis calcination, and by being kept for some time in fusion in an intense heat, acquires its fusibility and opacity. PrKi'Li;. — 1. 20 p;>rts, prepared puri)]e ; 2J, enamel flux (2) ; 1, v:hUe enamel. 2. 20 parts, prepared pui-ple ; 10, blue process; 5J, enamel flux (2); 1, v;hite enamel. Rose Colour. — 20 parts, prepared rose colour ; 1, ti'/iite enamel. The jiurpies and rose coh>ur.s for glass paint- ing are nearly the same mixtures as those used for porcelain jainting, with the addition of a small irojiortion of flux and white enamel, the latter gives (irimiids to the colour; in the course of working the rose colour, if a very small quantity of purple be added, the colour will be perceivably benefited. Red. — 1 part, teira de sienna; 3, enamel flux (2). The terra de sienna must be calcined over a slow fire until its colour becomes of a dark red, aitei whicli v;ashed several times in boiling water and ground with the flux for use. Transparent Orange. — 1 part, ox- ide of silver; 10, enamel flux (2); 10, enamel flux Qi) ; 1, ivhiic enamel. Yi:llow. — 1 part, yellow, under glaze, p. 46 ; 3, enamel flux (2) ; J, white enamel. Dark Brown. — 1 part, highly cal- cined copperas ; 3J, enamel flux (3). Red IJkown. — 1 part, black; 1, red; 1, enamel flux (4). Light Brown. — 1 part, easy calcined umber ; 3^, enamel flux (2). Green. — 1. 5 parts, cornelian red; 1, prepared purple. 2. 2 parts, blue; 1, yellow. Blue. — 1. 8 parts, flint glass; 3, red- lead ; 1, potash ; 1, blue calx ; ^, com- mon salt. 2. 4 parts, borax ; 4h, flint glass ; 1, flint ; j, jiotash ; ^, prepared purple ; 1, blue calx. In preparing these blues, let the materials be calcined in an air furnace, and the whole mass kejit in a state of fusion for some time, a Hue blue glass enamel will be produced ; the cobalt blue calx sliould be of tlie finest quality that ]>ossibly can be pro- cured, and free from all imi)urities. Black. — 1. I part, highly calcined umber; 2, calcined borax; 1, red-lead; 1, blue calx. 2. 1 i>art, manganese; 1, bla WORKSHOP KKCEIPTS. 68 the gum begins to fuse and steam, stir it with the cui'i«er stirrer, and keep cutting and stirring the gum to assist its fusion ; if it feels lumpy and not fluid, and rises to the middle of the pot, lift it from the fire and set it on the ash- bed, and keep stirring until it goes down (meantime let the fire be kei)t briskly up); then set on the gum pot again, and keep stirring until the gum appears Haid likp oil, which is to be known by lifting up the stirrer so far as to see the blade. Observe, that if the gum does not appear quite fluid as oil, carry it out whenever it rises to the middle of the pot, and stir it down again, keeping up a brisk fire ; put on tlie pot, and keep stirring until the gum rises above the blade of the stirrer. Then the copper pouring jack is charged with boiled oil, and held over the edge of the gum pot ; when the gum rises within 5 inches of the pot-mouth, the assistant is to pour in the oil very slowly until towards the last, the maker stirring during the pour- ing. If the fire at this time is strong and regular, in about eight or ten minutes the gum and oil will concentrate and become quite clear ; this is to be tested by taking a piece of glass and dropping a portion of the varnish on it; if it appears clear and tn.nsparent, the oil aiid gum are become concentrated or joined together. It is now to be further boiled until it will string between the finger and thumb; this is known by once every minute dropping a portion on the glass, and taking a little between the forefinger and thumb; pinch it first, then extend wide the finger and thumb ; if it is boiled enough, it will stick strong and string out into fine filaments, like birdlime ; but when not boiled enough, it IS soft, thick, and greasy, without being stringy. It is a safe plan to have ready a thick piece of carpet large enough to cover the mouth of the boiling pot should it catch fire durmg the pour- ing. The moment it is boiled enough, cjirry it from the fire to the ash-bed, where let it remain from fifteen to twenty minutes, or until it is cold enough to be mixed ; have at hand a gutRcient quantity of oil of turpentine to fill the pouring pot, begin and pour out with a small stream, gradually in- creasing, and if the varnish rises rapidlv in the pot, keep stirring it constantly at the surface with the stirrer to break the bubbles, taking care not to let the stirrer touch the bottom of the pot, for if it should, the oil of turpentine would be in part converted into vapour, and the varnish would run over the pot in a moment ; therefore, during the mixing, keep constantly stirring as well as pour- ing in at the same time. Have also a copper ladle at hand, and if it should so far rise as to be unmanageable, let the assistant take the ladle and cool it down with it, lifting up one ladleful after another, and letting it fall into the pot. As soon as the varnish is mixed put the varnish sieve in the copper funnel placed in the carrying tin, and strain the varnish immediately ; empty it into open-mouthed jars, tins, or cisterns ; there let it remain to settle, and the longer it remains the better it will become. Recollect, when it is taken out, not to disturb or raise up the bottoms. Linseed Oil. — The choice of linseed oil is of peculiar consequence to the varnish maker, as upon its quality, to a great extent, depends the beauty and durability of the varnish. Oil expressed from green unripe seed always abounds with watery, acidulous particles. The quality of oil may be determined in the following manner: — Fill a phial with oil, and hold it up to the light ; if bad, it will appear opaque, turbid, and thick ; its taste is acid and bitter upon the tongue, and it smells rancid and strong : this ought to be rejected. Oil from fine full-grown ripe seed, when viewed in a phial, will appear limpid, pale, and brilliant ; it is mellow and sweet to the taste, has very little smell, is spaclfically lighter than impure oil, and when boiled or clarified dries quickly and firmly, and does not materially change the colour of the varnish when made, but appears limpid and brilliant. Spirits of Turpentine. — That which is used for mixing varnish ought to bo procured and chosen as pure, strong and 64 WORKSHOP RECEIl'TS. free irem acid as possible. Some tur- ^Mjatine being drawn from green trees abounds with a pyroligneous acid, which rises and comes over with the spirit in distillation ; it is strong and bitter to the taste, and appears milky, particularly towards the bottom, after standmg to settle. Therefore, the longer turpentine IS kept before it is used, the purer it will be. Copal Varnishes for Fixe Paint- ings. — Fuse 8 lbs. of very clean palt African gum copal, and when com- pletely fluid, pour in 2 gallons of hot oil; let it boil until it will string very strong; and in about fifteen minutes, or while it is yet very hot, pour in 3 gallons of turpentine. Perhaps, during the mixing, a considerable quantity of the turpentine will escape, but the varnish will be so much the brighter, trans- parent, and fluid ; and will work freer, Jry quickl}', and be very solid and .'.urable when dry. After the varnish has been strained, if it is found too thick, before it is quite cold heat as much turpentine and mix with it as will bring it to a proper consistence. Artists' Virgin Copal. — From a select parcel of scraped African gum c-opal, pick out the fine transparent pieces wliich appear round and pale like drops of crystal ; break these small ; dry them in the sun, or by a very gentle fire. Afterwards, when cool, bruise or pound them into a coirse powder ; then procure some broken bottles or flint glass, and boil the same in soft water and soda, then bruise it into coarse po\'der like the gum ; boil it a second time, and strain the water from it, wa.shit| it with three or four waters, that it may bo perfectly clean and free from grease or any impurity; dry it Lffore the fire, or ujion a jjlate ; set it in an oven. When it is thoroughly dry, mix 2 lbs. of it with '.i lbs. of the pow- i'.Mcd copal ; after mixing them well, |)Ut them ,nto the gum pot and fuse the gum; keep stirring all the time; the glass will prevent the gum from adhering toi^ether, so that a very moderate fire will cause the gum to fuse. WIh-d il »l p«entin«; boiled a; WORKSHOP KECElfrS. 65 usual ; dixed and strained hot, and put into the former pot of African gum varnish. Put two pots of this anime varnish to one of copal ; it will dry quicker and harder than the best body copal, and will polish very soon, but not wear either so well or so long. Quick Drying Body Copal Varnish. — 8 lbs. of the best African copal, 2 gallons of clarified oil, J lb. of dried iUgar of lead, 3J gallons of turpentine ; boiled till stringy, and mixed and strained ; 8 lbs. of tine gum anime, 2 gallons of clarified oil, ^ lb. of white copperas, 3^ gallons of turpentine ; boiled as before ; to be mixed, and strained while hot, into the other pot. These two pots mixed together will dry in six hours in winter, and m four in summer ; it is very useful for varnishing ol I work on dark colours. Bust 1'ale Carriage Varnish. — 8 lbs. of 2nd sorted African copal, 2^ gallons of clarified oil ; boil till very stringy. J lb. of dried copperas, ^ lb. of litharge, 5 J gallons of turpentine ; strained. 8 lbs. of 2nd sorted gum anime, 2J gallons of clarified oil, | lb. 01 dried sugar of lead, J lb. of litharge, 5J gallons of tur]ientiue ; mix with tlie first while hot. This varnish will dry hard, if well boiled, in four hours in summer, and six in winter. As its name denotes, this is intended for the var- nishing of the wheels, springs, and carriage parts of coaches, chaises, and so on ; also it is that description of varnish which is generally sold to and ased by house painters and decorators, as fi'om its drying quality and strong gl')ss it suits their general purposes well. Second Carriage Varnish. — 8 lbs. of 2nd sorted gum anime, 2| gallons of fine clarified oil, 5J gallons of turpentine. J lb. of litharge, J lb. of dried sugar of lead, J lb. of dried copperas ; boiled and mixed as before. When three runs are poured into the boiling pot, the re- gular proportion of driers put in, and Well boiled, this varnish will dry hard and firm in four hours in winter, and in two ia summer ; it is principally in- tended for varnishing dark carriage- tvork or black japan, and is also iiseJ by houie painters for dark woik. Wainscot Varnish. — 8 lbs. of 2nd sorted gum anime, 3 gallons of clarified oil, I lb. of litharge, | lb. of dned cop- peras, I lb. of dried sugar of lead, 5J gallons of turpentine; to be all well boiled until it strings very strong, and then mixed and strained. Where large quantities are required, it will always be found best to boil off the three runs in the boiling pot. This varnish is jirin- cipally intended for house painters, grainers, builders, and japanners: it will dry in two hours in summer, and in four in winter. Maliojany Varnish is either made in the same proportions, with a little darker gum ; otherwise it is wainscot varnish, with a small portion of gold size. Japanners' Gold Size. — To make 40 gallons of gold size, put 10 gallons of oil into the iron set pot. Fig. 2, make a good fire und^-: it, and boil for two hours ; then introduce 7 lbs. ot dry red-lead, 7 lbs. of litharge, and 3 lis. of copperas, by sprinkling in a little at a time ; let the oil keep boiling all the time, not in too great a heat. During the time of putting in the driers, keep stirring them from the bottom of the pot, and have the large iron ladle ready to cool it down, if it should appear to rise too high ; have also at hand an empty pot — the copper boiling pot will do — into which immediately ladle part of the boiling oil, if it cannot otherwise be kept in the pot, while the assistant is damping the fire with wet sifted ashes, of which there always ought to be a wheelbarrow ful at hand, in case of an accident. When the oil has boiled about three hours, and the driers are all in, fuse in the gum pot 10 lbs. of srum anime; and during the time of fusing, heat 2 gallons of raw linr.eed oil in the copper pouring jack, by placing it on the plate of the gum furnace. After the oil has been poured to the guin, and as soon as it appears boiled clear, lake the gum pot from the fire ; let it cool for a few minutes, then pour it into the oil in the set pot. Wash out the gum pot, and proceed with anoth-jr ni:i in 66 WORKSHOP RECEIPTS. the same way. When both runs of gum are in the set pot, there are altogether 14 gallons of oil, 20 lbs. of gum, and 17 lb& of driers ; increase and keep up a regular fire in tlie front of the furnace, that it may be drawn out in a moment, if it should be necessary. The gold size will soon throw up a frothy head on the surface, which must be kept down by constantly plying with the ladle when it is likely to rise within four inches of the pot-edge. In about rive hours from tlie begmning of the oil boiling, it will bocfime stringy; but the boiling must cmitiuue until it hangs to the ladle, appears quite strmgy, yet drops in lumps. When tried upon the glass, if it feels sticky and strings strongly, then it is boiled enough. Draw out the fire, s])rinkle it with jilenty of water; leave not a spark of fire in the varnish house — not even a lighted pipe of tobacco. While the maker is cooling down the pot, let the assistant have ready at the door 30 gallons of turpen- tine, fill the pouring pot ready, and have all the doors open. Endeavour to cool it as fast as possible, as it will require at the least one hour and a quarter after the fire has been put out before it will be ready to mix. When the mixing commences, continue the pouring with- out intermission, until all the froth at the surface disappears, never stirring it until the turfientine is all in. If pouring in the turpentine has commenced while It was too hot, there will be a great loss of turpentine by evaporation; but that will not injure the quality of the gold size. IMace the carrying tin close to the side of the fiot, lay on the tin saddle, and strain off as quickly as possible. When all I he goM size is out, pour into the .set pot about 3 gallons of turpentine washings, and with the swish, wash down the j'ot as quickly a.s possilde ; rnd if the pot is still so hot as to evapo- rate the tur|)onfice, ladle it out into the w.ishinijs again, and pour in aliout 3 gallons of raw linsred oil ; and with a palette knife scrape it all roun it com]iletfly clean and dry. The gold size ought to dry in from fifteen to twenty-five minutes, and in fourteen days it is ready for u.se. Experienced makers caL make gold size that will dry in five minutes, but that requires great practice. Varxish, Coach Makers' Black. — Gum amber 16 oz. ; melt in ^ pint of boiling hot linseed oil ; add 3 oz. of asphaltum, and 3 resin ; mix thoroughly over a fire, and add when cooling 1 pint of oil of turpentine slightly warm. AspiiALTK Varnish. — Boil coal tar until it shows a disposition to harden on cooling ; this can be ascertained by rubbing a little on a piece of metal. Then add about 20 per cent, of lump .asphalte, stirring it with the boiling coal tar until all the lumi)s are melted, when it can be allowed to cool and kept for use. This makes a very bright varnish for sheet metals, and is cheap and durable. Varnish for Ironwork. — Dissolve, in about 2 lbs. of tar oil, J lb. oi asphaltum, and a like quantity ot l)ounded resin, mix hot in an iron kettle, care being taken to prevent any contact with the fiame. When cold the varnish is ready for use. This varnish is for out-door wood and iron work. Varnish for Co.mmon Work. — Thig varnish is intended t\A- protecting sur- faces against atmospheric exposure. It has been used for coating wood and iron work with great advantage. Take 3 lbs. of resin and powder it, jdace it in a tin can, and add 2J pints of spirits of tur- pentine, well shake, and let it stand, occasionally shaking it i'or a day or two. Then add of boiled oil .5 quarts, well shake altogether, and allow it to st;ind in a warm room till clear. The clear portion is decanted and used, or reduced with spirits of turjientine until of the j)ro[>cr consistency. Varnish for Iron Pattkrns. — A good varnish for iron is made as fol- lows: — Take oil of turpentine and drop into it, drop by drop, strong coinincrcial oil of vitriol ; the acir gum arable, 8 parts ; rock candy, 4 ; and add 1 of alcohol. Let it stand fur some days, an(l filter. 4. Pure linseed oil, to which a small quantity of sugar of lead, ground fine, has been added. 5. Take eiju.il (luantitics of linseed oil and oil of ttirpcntinc, thickeu by exposure to WORKSHOP RECEIPTS. 69 ti>e sun and air until it becomes resinous acd half evaporated, then add a portion f)( melted beeswax. Varnishing pictures snould always be performed in fair weather, and out of any current of cold or damp air. Pkotog rapiiers' Negative Varnish. ^-Guni juniper, 2 drachms 8 grains ; gum trankincense, 1 drachm 10 grains; alcohol, 4 oz. Filter through paper and use the clear solution. Transfer Varnish, for Diaphanie, Engravings, ^x. — 1. Pale Canada balsam and rectified oil of turpentine equal parts. 2. Mastic in tears and saudarach, each 4o:!. : rectified spirit, IJ pint; dissolve, and add pale Canada balsam h pint. Jlelt the balsam with a gentle heat, mix with the other ingredients and agitate violently. No. 1 is also termed Crystal Varnish. Gold Varnish. — Digest shellac, 16 parts ; gum sandarach and mastic, of each 3 ; crocus, 1 ; gum gamboge, 2 ; all bruised, with alcohol, 144. Or, digest seed-lac, sandarach, mastic, of each 8 parts ; gamboge, 2 ; dragon's blood, 1 ; white turpentine, 6 ; turmeric, 4 ; bruised, with alcohol, 120. Varnish for Gilt Articles. — Gum- la-c, 125 parts; gamboge, 125; dragon's blood, 125; annatto, 125; saffron, 32. Dissolve each resin in 1000 parts by me;isure, of absolute alcohol; two sepa- rate mixtures must be made wit!, the dragon's blood and annatto, in 1000 parts of such alcohol ; and a proper pi'oportion of each should be added with the gamboge to the varnish, according to the shade of colour required. Black Leathf.r Varnish. — 1. Dur- able leather varnish is composed of boiled linseed oil, in which a drier, such as litharge, has been boiled. It is coloured with lampblack. This varnish is used for making enamelled leather. 2. Digest shellac, 12 parts; white turpentine, 5; gum sandarach, 2 ; lampblack, 1 ; with spirits of turpentine, 4; alcohol, 96. White Varnish. — 1. Tender copal, 7 J oz. ; camphor, 1 oz. ; alcohol of 95 per cent.; 1 quart. Dissolve, then add mastic, 2 oz. ; Venice turpentine, 1 oz. Dissolve and strain. Very white, dryin?. oz. ; gum anime, J oz. clean can, with gentle and capable of being polished when hard. Used for toys. 2. Sandarach, 8 oz. ; mastic, 2 oz. ; Canada balsam, 4 oz. ; alcohol, 1 quart. Kectified spirits oi wine, 1 quart ; gum sandarach, 10 oz. , gum mastic, 2 Dissolve in a heat. Agitate well wdien the gums are dissolved ; strain through a lawn sieve. Table Varnish. — 1. Oil of turpentine, 1 lb. ; beeswax, 2 oz. ; colophony, i drachm. 2. Dammar resin, 1 lb.; spirits of turpentine, 2 lbs. ; camphor, 200 grains. Digest the mixture for twenty- four hours. The decanted portion is lit for immediate use. To Varnish Furniture. — First make the work quite clean ; then fill up all knots or blemishes with cement of the same colour ; see that the brush is clean, and free from loose hairs ; then dip the brush in the varnish, stroke it along the wire raised across the top of the varnish pot, and give the work a thin and regular coat ; soon after that another, and an- other, always taking care not to pass the brush twice in the same place ; let it stand to dry in a moderately warm place, that the varnish may not chill. When the work has had about six or seven coats, let it get quite hard (which prove by pressing the knuckles on it; if it leaves a mark, it is not hard enough); then with the first three fingers of the hand rub the varnish till it chafes, and proceed over that part of the work in- tended to be polished, in order to take out all the streaks or partial lumps made by the brush ; then give it another coat, and let it stand a day or two to harden. Varnishes for Furniture. — 1. Shellac, 1^ lb.; naphtha, 1 gallon; dis- solve, and it is ready v/ithout filtering. 2. Shellac, 12 oz. ; copal, 3 oz. (or an equivalent of varnish) ; dissolve in 1 gallon of naphtha. 3. Shellac, IJ lb. ; ssed-lac and sandarach, each 4 oz. ; mas- tic, 2 oz. ; rectified spirit, 1 gallon ; di.s- solve. 4. Shellac, 2 lbs. ; benzoin, 4 oz. ; spirit, 1 gallon. 5. Shellac, 10 oz. ; seed-lac, sandarach, and copal varnish, of each > oz. ; benzoin, 3 oz. ; naphtha, 70 WORKSHOP RECEIPTS. 1 gallon. To darken, benzoin and dra- gon's blood are used, turmeric and other colouring matters are also added ; and to make it lighter it is necessary to use ble;iched lac^ though some endeavour to give this effect by adding oxalic acid to the ingredients ; it, like gum arabic, is insoluble in good spirit or najihtha. For all ordinary purposes the first form is best and least troublescme, while its ap- pearance is equal to any other. Chkap Oak Varnish. — Clear pale resin, 3J lbs. ; oil of turpentine, 1 gallon ; dissolve. It may be coloured darker by adding a little line lami)bla(::k. Maiiop.a.ny Varnish. — I'ut in a bottle 2 oz. gum sandarach, 1 oz. shellac, J nz. gum bengamin, 1 oz. Venice turjicntine, and a pint of spirits of wine. Colour red, with di-agon's blood, or yellow with saffron. Stand in a warm spot till gum dissolves, when strain for use. WiiiTH FuR.N'iruRi-: Var.msii. — White wax, tj oz. ; oil of turpentine, 1 jiiut ; dissolve by a gentle heat. Or white wax, 6 parts ; petroleum, 48 ; apjilied to the work while warm, allowed to cool, then polished by rubbing with a coarse cloth. Dark Varnish for Light Wood- work. — Pound up and digest shellac, 10 parts; gum sandarach, 32; gum mastic, 8 ; gum elemi, 8 ; dragon's blood, 4 ; annatto, 1, with white tur])en- line, 16 ; and alcohol, 2."j6. Dilute with ■ alcohol if required. Varnish for Violins. — Coar.sely- powdered copal and glass, each 4 oz. ; alcohol, G4 o. p. 1 pint ; camphor, J oz. ; heat tlie mixture with frequent stirring in a w.'iter bath, so that the bubbles may be counted as they rise, until solution is complete, and when cold decant the clear portion. VV'hen oil varnish is used it is made as for Artists' Vin/in Copul. Varnish i-or Wood which Rksists hmiASO Watkr. — l.inseed oil, IJ lb.; nmber, 1 lb. ; litharge j)ulverizcd, 5 oz. ; white-lead j)ulverizeil, !i oz. ; minium, !') oz. lioil the linseed oil in an uiitiniird copper vessel, and suspend in it the litharge anil the miniuin in a smnil bag, whiih must not touch llic l.ottnm (jf the TCBeel. Continue the elniliilioii until th*' oil has acquired a deep brown colour ; then take out the bag and put m a clove of garlick ; this is to be repeated 7 or 8 times, the ebullition being always con- tinued. Before the amber is added to the oil, it is to be mixed with 2 oz. of linseed oil, and melted over a fire that is well kejit up. When the mass is Huid, it is to be jioured into the linseed oil ; this mixture is to be boiled and stirred continually for 2 or 3 minutes ; after- wards filter the mixture, and preserve it in bottles tightly corked. When this varnish is used, the wood must be pre- viously well [lolished, and covered with a thin coat of soot and sjjirits of turpen- tine. When this coat is dry, some of the varnish may be applied, which sliould be distributed equally on every part with a small fine sponge. This operation is to be rejieated 4 times, being always careful tliat each coat be well dried first. After the last coat of varnish, the wood must be dried in an oven, and afterwards polished. Wainscot Varnish. — Gum anirae, 8 lbs. ; clarified linseed oil, 3 gallons ; litharge, J lb. ; acetate of lead, J lb. ; suipiiate of copper, \ lb. These materials must be carefully but th(U'oughly boiled together until the mixture becomes quite stringy, and then 5J gallons of heated turjientine stirred in. It can be easily deejiened in colour by the addition of a little gold size. 15i:owN Hard Si'irit Varnish. — 1. Sandarach, 4 oz. ; pale seed-lac, 2 oz. ; elemi, 1 oz. ; alcohol, 1 quart ; digest with agitation till dissolved, then add \'enice turpentine, 2 oz. 2. Gum san- darach, 3 lbs. ; shellac, 2 lbs. ; rectified sjjirit ((55 over proof), 2 gallons; dis- solve, add turpentine varnish, 1 quart; agitato well and strain. Vcri/ Jiiie. 3. Seed-lac and yellow resin, of each 1 J lb. ; rectified sjiirit, 2 gallons. 4. Gum juni- per, (i oz. ; shellac, U oz. ; salt of tar- tar, )j oz. ; Venice turjieutine, IJ oz., nnd 4 pints of spirits of wine mixed together. TuRPKNTiNic Varnish. — To 1 pint of .spirits of fur|ieutine add 10 oz. clear refill ]>oundec| ; put it in a tin (mii ou a stove- and Jot it boil for half an hour. WORKSHOP RECEIPTS. 71 When the resin is all dissolved, let it cool, aud it is ready for use. White Haro Spirit Varnish. — 1. Gum sandai-ach, 1 lb. ; clear turpentine, 6 oz. ; rectified spirit (65 over proof), 3 pints ; dissolve. 2. Mastic, in tears, 2 oz. ; sandarach, 8 oz. ; gum elemi, 1 oz. ; Chic turpentine, 4 oz. ; rectified spirit (65 over proof), 1 quart. Used on metals ; polishes well. 3. Gum mastic, 4 oz. ; gum juniper, ^ lb. ; turpentine, 1 oz. ; spirits of wine, 4 pints ; mix to- gether. Mastic Varnish. — 1 pmt spirits of turpentine, and 10 oz. of the clearest gum mastic. Set it in a sand bath till it is all dissolved, then strain it through a fine sieve, and it is ready for use ; if too thick, thin with spirit of turpen- tine. Soft Brilliant Varnish. — Sanda- rach, 6 oz. ; elemi (genuine), 4 oz. ; anime, 1 oz. ; camphor, ^ oz. ; rectified spirit, 1 quart ; as before. Sealing - wax Varnish. — Dissolve sealing wax in spirits of wine, and apply the solution (well shaken up) with a soft brush ; the spirits of wine will evaporate, leaving an even coating of sealing wax. Etching Varnishes. — White wax, 2 oz. ; black and Burgundy pitch, of each § oz. ; melt together ; add by degrees powdered asphaltum 2 oz., and boil till a drop taken out on a plate will break when cold by being bent double two or three times between the fingers ; it must then be poured into warm water and made into small bails for use. Hard. — Linseed oil and mastic, of each 4 oz. ; melt together. Soft. — Soft linseed oil, 4 oz. ; gum benzoin and white wax, of each § oz. ; boil to two-thirds. Linseed-oil Varnish. — Boil linseed oil, 60 parts, with litharge, 2 parts, and white vitriol, 1 part, each finely pow- dered, until all water is evaporated. Then set by. Or, rub up borate of man- ganese, 4 parts, with some of the oil, then add linseed oil, 3000 parts, and heat to boiling. Bookbinders' Varnish. — 1. 6 oz. mastic, in dropa ; 3 oz. coarsely-pounded glass, separated from the iust by a sieve ; 32 oz. spirits of wine of 40°. Place the ingredients in a sand bath over a fire, and let them boil, stirring them well. When thoroughly mixed introduce 3 oz. spirits of turpentine, boil for half an hour, remove from the fire, cool, and strain through cotton cloth. 2. 3 pints of spirits of wine of 40° ; 8 oz. sandarach ; 2 oz. mastic, in drops ; 8 oz. shellac ; and 2 oz. Venice turpentine. Prepare as for No. 1. Apply lightly on the book with a piece of cotton wool, a small sponge, or a brush. Varnish for Waterproof Goods. — Let a J lb. of india-rubber, in small pieces, soften in J lb. of oil of turpentine, then add 2 lbs. of boiled oil, and boil for 2 hours over a slow fire. When dis- solved, add 6 lbs. of boiled linseed oil, and 1 lb. of litharge, and boil until an even liquid is obtained. Applied warm. Common Varnish. — Digest shellac, 1 part ; with alcohol 7 or 8 parts. Colourless Varnish, with Shellac. — Dissolve 2J oz. of shellac in a pint of rectified spirits of wine ; boil for a few minutes with 5 oz. of well-bui-nt and recently - heated animal charcoal. A small portion of the solution should then be filtered, and if not colourless, more charcoal added ; when fill the colour is removed press the liquor through a piece of silk, and afterwards filter through fine blotting paper. This kind of varnish should be used in a room at 60° Fahr., perfectly free from the least dust. It dries in a few minutes, and is not liable afterwards to chill or bloom. It is par- ticularly applicable to drawings and prints that have been sized, and may be advantageously used upon oil paintings which are thoroughly hard and dry, as it brings out the colours with the pui est effect. Copal Varnish (^Spirit). — 1. Melt in an iron pan at a slow heat, copal gum, powdered, 8 parts, and add balsam capivi, previously warmed, 2 parts. Then remove from the fire, and add spirits of turpentine, also warmed before- hand, 10 parts, to give the necessary consistence. Gum copal is made moro 72 WOURSHOP RECEIPTS soluble ii spirits of turpentine by mcU- ing the powdered crude gum, and allow- ing it to stand for some time loosely covered. 2. Pounded copal, 24- parts ; spirits of turpentine, 40; camphor, 1. 3. Copal in powder, 16 parts; camphor, 2 ; oil of lavender, 90. Dissolve the camphor in the oil, heat the latter, and stir in the copal m successive portions until complete solution takes place. Thin with sullicient turjtentine to make it of proj)er consistence. 4. Coarsely- powdered copal and glass, of each 4 oz. ; alcohol of 90 per cent., I pint ; cam- phor, ^ oz. ; heat it in a water bath so that the bubbles may be counted as they rise, observing frequently to stir the mixture; when cold decant the clear. Used for pictures. 5. Copal melted and dropjied into water, 3 oz. ; gum sandarach, 6 oz. ; mastic and Chio turpentine, of each 2J oz. ; powdered gliiss, 4 oz. ; alcohol of 85 per cent., 1 quart ; dissolve by a gentle heat. Used for metal, chairs, &c. WiiiTic Copal VARNisir. — 4 oz. copal, J cz. camjihor, 3 oz. white drying oil, 2 oz. essential oil of turpentine. Reduce the copal to powder, mix the camphor ind drying oil, then heat it on a slow fire, and add the oil of turpentine, and strain. Black Varnish for Straw Hats. — Best black sealing wax J oz. ; rectified spirits of win«, 2 oz. ; powder the sealing wax, and [)ut it with the spirits of wine into a phial ; diiiest them in a sand bath, or near a fire till tlie wax is dissolved; lay oa warm with a fine soft hair-brush before a lire or in the sun. D.\MMAii Vaknisii. — Gum dammar, 10 parts ; gum sandarach, 5 ; gum mas- tic, 1. Digest at a low heat, occasionally shaking, with sjiirits of turpentine, 20 parts. Add sjdrits of tui'jientiue until of the consistence of syrup. Varnish for Glass. — Pulverize a quantity of gum adragant, and lot it dissolve for 24 hours in the white of eggs, well beat up; then rub it gently on the glass with a soft brush. VAUMSit FOR Polisiii;d Mf.tal. — 1. Take bleached slndlac, jioundoii in a CGortar ; place the brui.-cd I'ragments into a bottle of alcohol until some shel- lac remains undissolved ; agitate tne bottle and contents frequently, and let the whole stanil till clear; pour oil' the clear lluid. This forms the varnish. Warm the metal surface, and coat with a camel-hair brush. If not perfectly transparent, warm the varnished surface before a fire or in an oven until it be- comes clear. Common orange shellac answers equally well, and for large sur- faces even better, as it is more soluble than the bleached variety, and coats more perfectly, but care must be taken cot to use the varnish insufFicicntly diluted. 2. Digest 1 part of bruised conal in 2 parts of absolute alcol-.ol ; but as this varnish dries too quickly it is preferable to take 1 i)art of copal, 1 part of oil of rosemary, and 2 or 3 parts of absolute alcohol. This gives a clear varnish as limpid as water. It should be applied hot, and when dry it will be found hard and durable. 3. Jlix equal quantities of Canada balsam with very clear spirits of turpentine, until the whole is of the consistency of ordinary varnish, which can be determined by constantly shaking and allowing to settle. This may be applied without warming the varnish or the metal. Varnish for Silver. — Gum elerni, 30 parts ; white amber, 4.') ; charcoal, 30; spirits of turpentine, 375. Used in a heated state; the metal to which it is to be a]iplied being also heated. Varnish for Iron and Stkkl. — Dissolve 10 parts of clear grains of mastic, 5 camphor, 15 sandarach, and 5 of elenii, in a sufTicient quantity of alcohol, ami a]>ply without heat. Varnish fou Backi.vq Positivf.s. — Spirits of turpentine, 6 oz. ; asphaltuni, 2 oz. ; white wax, 2 scruples; lamp- black, IJ scruple. Dissolve in a warm place, and filter through flannel. Kkmovino Varnish from Puin-ts. — 1. I'egin at the corner of the print by rubbing up the varnish with the liugiTt : a fine white dust will be produced, whicn is the dry old varnish ; jirocced all ovor the print and wi|)e oiT this whitrdiitt with a rag. Kcficat until the pr:ui uai lost meat or r.ll of the old r;irniHh. Noti WORKSHOP PvKCEIPTS. 73 strsin the print on a drawing board, size with weak parchment size ; when dry size again with the same size; use the size half chilled ; when perfectly dry app!y mastic or other varnish. 2. Lay blotting paper on the print, and saturate with pure sjiirit, which will dissolve and the blotting p:iper absorb the varnish. Change the blotting paper, and repeat as often as may be needful. IXDIA-RUBIiF.R VaRXISII. 1. 2 OZ. india-i'ubber finely divided, placed in a phial and digested in a sand bath, with 1 lb. of camphene, and J oz. of naphtha. When dissolved add 1 oz. of copal var- nish, which renders it more durable. 2. Digest in a wide-mouthed glass bottle 2 oz. of india-rubber in shavings, with 1 lb. of oil of turpentine, during two days, without shaking, then stir up with a wooden spatula. Add another lb. of oil of turpentine, and digest, with fre- quent agitation, until all is dissolved. Mix 1| ib. of this solution with 2 lbs. of white copal-oil varnish, and 1| lb. of boiled linseed oil ; shake and digest in a sand bath until they have united into a good vai'nish. 3. 4 oz. india-rubber in fine shavings dissolved in a covered jar by means of a sand bath, in 2 lbs. of crude benzole, and then mixed with 4 lbs. of hot linseed-oil varnish and § lb. of oil jf turpentine. Dries well. Varnish for Gas Balloons. — Take india-rubber and dissolve it in 5 times its weight of spirits of turpentine, keep- ing them some time together, then boil gently 1 part of this solution with 8 parts of boiled linseed oil for a few mi- nutes, strain and set aside to cool. It must be applied waiTn. Varnish Brushes. — All varnish brushes ought to be made of long white hairs of the best quality, and, for the general purposes of varnishing, have a good regular spring, with about one- fouiih or fifth part worn off, flat, sharp, and thin at the point, so as to lay on the varnish smoothly and regularly. As the beauty of varnishing depends in a great measure on the brush as well as the manner of laying it on, great care is also necessary that no oil brush be put into varnish ; therefore, all brushes worn down in oil colour, and intended to be put into varnish, ought previously to be well washed in turpentine, squeezed and dried with a clean linen rag, or well washed with soap and hot water, rinsed in clean warm water, and made perfectly dry. The best method of keeping oil- varnish brushes, when not in use, is to bore a hole through the handle and put a wire skewer through it, and so sus* pend the brush, in a narrow tin pot con- taining varnish of the same sort as it was last in, taking care that the varnish in the pot covers the hairs of the brush up to the binding, and no higher. Brushes so kept are always straight, clean, pliable, and in good order ; whereas varnisn brushes kept in turpentine become hard and harsh, and however well stroked or rubbed out, there will still remain tur- pentine enough to work out by degrees, and spoil the varnishing, by causing it to run streaky or cloudy. Green Transparent Varnish. — Grind a small quantity of Chinese blue and chromate of potash together, and mix them thoroughly in common copal varnish thinned with turpentine. The blue and the chromate must be ground to an impalpable powder, and the tone of colour varied with the amount of each ingredient used. A yellow-green requires about twice the quantity of the chromate of potash to that of the Chinese blue. Golden Varnish. — Pulverize 1 drachm of satlron and J drachm of dragon's blood, and put them into 1 pint spirits of wine. Add 2 oz. of gum .shellac and 2 drachms of socotrine aloes. Dissolve the whole by gentle heat. Yellow painted work varnished with this mixture will appear almost equal to gold. Gutta-percha Varnish. — Clean a quarter of a pound ot gutta-percha in warm water from adhering impurities, dry well, dissolve in 1 lb. of rectified resin oil, and add 2 lbs. of linseed-oil var- nish, boiling hot. Choosing G-ums and Spirits. — In purchasing gum, examine it, and see that it consists, for the mo.st part, of clear trvisparent lumps, without, a mu- 74 WORKSHOP RECEIPTS. turc of dirt ; select the clearest and lightest jjieces tor the most particular kinds of varnish, reserving the others, when separated from extraneous matter, for the coar'^er varnishes. In choosing s])irit.s of wine, the most simple test is to pour a small quantity into a cup, set it on tire, auil di]) a tiuger :uto the blazing liquid ; if it burns quickly out, without burning the finger, it is good ; but if it is long in burning, and leaves any damp- ness remaining on the finger, it is mixed with inferior spirit; it may be also com- pared with other spirit, by comparing the weight of eciual quantities, the light- est is the best. The goodness of spirits of turpentme may be likewise ascertained by weighing it, and by noticing the de- gree of inflammability it possesses; the most intlammable is the best ; and a ]iersou much in the habit of using it will tell by the smell its good or bad quali- ties ; for good tui'pcntine has a pungent smell, the bad a very disagreeable one, and not so powerful. Lac-water Varnish. — Pale shel- lac, 5 oz. ; borax, 1 oz. ; water, 1 pint. I)igest at nearly the boiling point till dissolved, then strain. Au excullent ve- hicle for water colours, inks, &c., and a varnish for prints is made thus of bleached lac. When dry, it is transparent and waterproof. To Bleach Lac. — Dissolve shel- lac in a lye of pearlash by boiling; filter, pass chlorine through it in excess, wash and jjrecijiitate ; afterwards melt it into sticKS. This makes an excellent varnish with spirits of wine ; its colour also ren- ders it good for white and delicate- coloured sealing wax. Lacquering-. — This is done in two ways, called cold laci|uering and hot lac- quering. By the former, a little lacquer being taken on a common cjiniel-liair varnish brush, is laid caret'ully and evenly over the work, which is then j)laced in an oven or on a hot stove; the heat from this continued only a minute or two is sulFicient to set the lacqu >r, and the work is finished. Care must be taken not to have the work too hot so aa to burn the lacquer, nor yet too cold, for in this case ibi l»cquer will not be thoroughly wjt. By the second method, the work is heated first to about the heat of a flat iron as -ised by the laundress, and the lacquer quickly brushed over it in this state, the work being subjected to the oven for a minute afterwards or not, according to the pleasure and judgment of the lac- querer. The article, if very small, will require this, because it will have parted with most of its heat in laying on of the lacquer ; if heavy, it will retain sulHcient to perfect the process. The greatest dif- ficulty is to know the exact degree of heat, and this knowledge cannot be at« tained except by experience, so ditl'erent is the nature of the materials, the quality of different lacquers, and the eS'ect to be produced. To Prepare Brass for Lacquer- ing. — As the object of lacquering is not to give a brilliancy, but to preserve one already obtained, it will be evident that in the preparation of anything the brighter surface obtained the better. Some goods are turned in the lathe, and then polished ; sometimes, as in philo- sophical instruments, burnished also ; this makes them suillciently bright. Other goods, as, for example, such as have chased surfaces, and cannot there- fore be turned with a cutting tool, are held against a scratch brush or brush of wire, which is fixed to the lathe like a chuck, and is made to revolve rapiiliy. This removes all asperities and renders the surface fit to receive the lacquer. A third and more common process is, af'ter the surface is got by other means as clear as possible, to put the goods into pickle, that is, into aquafortis and water, and leave them there for some hours, accord- ing to circumstances. The acid eats away the outer coat, leaving a bright .surface beneath. The goods are now put into hot saw-dust, and shaken about to dry and clean them, when they will be ready for lacquering. A very convenient jilan for keeping the saw-dust warm and dry is to jdace it in au iron box, under which a number of gas-jets are kept lighted. See Brightening and Colouring Brass, y. 16. Hi:-i.AixjUEiuNO I'.RASSWORK. — After taking llio work to pieces, and carefuUj WORKSHOP RECEIPTS. 75 removing all iron screws and pins, boil oS' the old lacquer in a lye made by mix- ing i lb. of potash with 1 gallon of water. Allow the work to rem:\in in this lye about twenty minutes ; then plunge into clean cold water, when the whole of the old lacquer will be found to have been removed. The next process is to dip the work in aquafortis, or dipping acid ; and the greater the specific gravity of this the better, particularly for old work. The larger pieces are dipped by means of a pair of brass tongs, and the smaller ones by twisting them on copper wire. When they have remained in the acid long enough to become quite bright and clean, plunge them quickly into clean cold water ; it is best to have two or three vessels of water, rinsing the work in all of them. Waen the work comes out of the last suppiy of water, it is transferred to the saw-dust box, and when dry is ready for lacquering. Lacquer for Brass. — 1. Seed-lac, dragon's blood, annatto, and gamboge, of each 4 oz. ; saffron, 1 oz. ; spirits of wine, 10 pints. 2. Turmeric, 1 lb. ; annatto, 2 oz. ; shellac and gum juniper, of each 12 oz. ; spirits of wine, 12 oz. 3. Seed-lac, 6 oz. ; dragon's blood, 40 grs. ; amber or copal (ground on porphyry), 2 oz. ; extract of red sandalwood, 30 grs. ; oriental saffron, oU grs. ; pulverized glass, 4 oz. ; purest alcohol, 40 oz. 4. Seed- lac, 3 oz. ; amber and gamboge, of each 2 oz. ; extract of red sanders, J dr. ; di-agon's blood, 1 dr. ; saffron, ^ dr. ; spirits of wine, 2 pints 4 oz. 5. Tur- meric, 6 drs. ; saffron, 15 grs. ; spirits of wine, 1 pint 4 oz. ; draw the tincture, add gamboge 6 drs. ; gum sandarach and gum elemi, each 2 oz. ; dragon's blood and seed-lac, of each 1 oz. 6. Put into a pint of alcohol, 1 oz. of turmeric pow- der, 2 drs. of annatto, and 2 drs. of saf- fron ; agitate d jring 7 days, and filter into a clean bottle. Now add 3 oz. of clean seed-lac, and agitate the bottle every day for 14 days. 7. | oz. gamboge, li oz. aloes, 8 oz. fine shellac, 1 gallon bpirits of wine. Pale Lacquer. — 1 gallon of methy- lated spirits of wine, 5 oz. of shellac, 4 oz. of gum sandarach, and 1 oz. of gum elemi ; mix in a tin flask and expose to a gentle heat for a day or two, then strain off, and add 2 gallon of spirit to the sedi- ment, and treat as before. Green Lacquer. — Add to the pale lacquer when mixing, 6 (z of turmeric, and 1 oz. of gum gamboge. Pale Gold Lacquer. — 1 gallon of methylated spirits of wine, 10 oz. of seed- lac bruised, and I oz. of red sanders; dit/- solve and strain. Lacquer for Tin. — Put 3 oz. of seed- lac, 2 drs. of dragon's blood, and 1 oz. of turmeric powder, into a pint of well rec- tified spirits. Let the whole remain for 14 days, but during that time ag'tate the bottle once a day at least. When properly combined, strain the liquid through muslin. It is brushed over tin- ware which is intended to imitate brass. Lacquer for Philosophical I>stru- MKN'TS. — Take | oz. of gum gutia (or gamboge), 2 oz. of gum sandarach, 2 oz. of gum elemi, 1 oz. of dragon's blood, 1 oz. of seed-lac, 2 grs. of oriental saffron, and 20 oz. of pure alcohol. The tincture of saffron is obtained by infusing in alcohol for twenty-four hours, or exposing to the heat of the sun in summer. The tincture must be strained through a piece of clean linen cloth, and ought to be strongly squeezed. This tincture is poured over the dragon's blood, the gum elemi, the seed-lac, and the gum gutta;, all pounded. HiGll-COLOURED Lacquer. — 2 quarts spirits of wine, 2J oz. shellac, 2 oz. gum sandarach, § oz. gum elemi ; mix and keep gentlj' warmed for two or three days ; strain, colour with dragon's blood to taste, and thin with 1 quart spirits of wine. Chinese Lacquer-work. — Chinese lacquer-work is done over tin-foil, and consists of a mixture of 2 parts of copal, and 1 of shellac, melted together. When tluid, there are added 2 parts of boiled linseed oil ; and, after the vessel containing this mixture has been taken from the fire, there are gradually added 10 parts of oil of turpentine. If coloui is required, gum gutta; (or gambog"^), dissolved in oil of turpentine, yield.' yellow; and dragon's bloo.f, dissolved is the same liquid, yields red. 76 WORKSHOP RECEIPTS. Japanning-. — To prepare goods for japanning, they are occasionally coated with a priming, for the purpose of filling np inequalities, and making smooth the Burface to be japanned , but commonly the priming is omitted, the coloured var- nish or jajian ground being applied im- roedir/.ely to the substance to bo japanned. The ibrmer is the method practised when the surface is very uneven and rough ; but when the surface is smooth, ns in the case of metals or smooth-grained wood, it is now always rejected. The priming or undercoat makes a saving in the quantity of varnish used, but tlie japan coats of varnish and colour are liable to be cracked and peeled oil" by any violence, and will not endure so long as bodies japanned in the same manner with- out priming. To Phki'.vre Work for Japan icith Priminj. — Take size of a consistency be- tween common double size and glue, and mix with as much whiting as will give it a good body, so as to hide the surface of whatever it is laid upon ; for ]iarticularly fine work use glovers' or parchnient size, to which add one quarter <'f isinglass. The work is prepared for this priming by being well cleaned, and brushed over with hot size, diluted with two-thirds water; the priming is then laid on with a brush as evenly as jios- sible, and left to dry. If the surface on which the priming is used is tolerably even, two coats will be sullicient ; but if on trial with a wet rag it will not re- ceive a proper water polish, one or more coats must be given it. Previous to the last coat being laid on, smooth with fine glass fiaper. When the last coat is dry, give the water ]iolish by passing over every part of it with a fine rag or s])onge moistened, till the whole ajipears plain nod even ; the priming will then be com- jdefcii, and the work reaily to receive t lie ja|>an ground. Wilhont priming, lay on two or three coats fif varnish com- jiosed of rectifioil sjiirits of wine 1 pint, coarse beed-lac and resin, each '2 oz. This varnish, like all other formed of spirit.s of wine, must be laid on in a warm place, and all dampness avoided ; for cither cold or moist uru chills it, and prevents its taking proper hold of the substance on which it is laid. When the work is thus prepared, the proper japan ground must be laid on. Jai'an Grounds. — The jji-ojier japan grounds are either such as are formed by the varnish and colour, where the whole is to remain of one simple colour, or by the varnish with or without colour, on which some painting or other decoration is afterwards to be laid. This ground is best formed of shellac varnish, and the colour desired. Any pigments whatever may be used witli the shellac varnish, which will give the tint of the ground, and they may be mixed together to form iny compound colours; but, with respect to such as require peculiar methods for producing them of the first degree of brightness, we shall particularize them below. They should all be ground very smooth in spirits of turjientine, and then mixed with the varnish. It should be spread over the work very carefully and even with a camel-hair brush. As metals never require the jiriming of size ami whiting, the jajian ground may be aiiplietl immeiliately to them, without any other ]u-cparation than cleaning. Metals receive from three to five coats, and between each must be dried in an oven heated from 2.'>0° to 300°. Black Japan Grounds. — 1. Mix shel- lac vainish with cither ivory-black or lampblack ; but tlic former is preferable. These may be always laid on with the shellac varnish, and have their u|)por or polishing coats of common seed-lac var- nish. 2. A common black japan may be made by jiainting a piece of work with drying oil, and jHitting the work into a stove, not too hot, liut of such a degree as will change the oil black without I'uiiKiig it, gradually raising the heat and keepin:; it up for n long time. This requires no polishing. 3. Asphaltum, } lb. ; melt, then add hot balsam of capivi, 1 11)., and when mixdl, thin with hot oil of turpentine. 4. Grind lamp- bl.-ick very smooth on a marbh; slab witl a muller with turiientiiic, and then ad i co])al varnish to the pro])cr consistency. ."). As])haltuni, 3 oz. ; boiled oil, 4 quarts ; burnt umber, 8 oz. Mix by heat, and WORKSHOP UECEIPTS. 77 wh'jn cooling thin with turpentine. 6. Amber, 12 oz. ; asphaltum, 2 oz. ; fuse by heat, add boiled oil | pint, resin 2 oz. ; when cooling add 16 oz. oil of turpentine. White Japan Grounds. — Flake- white, or white-lead, washed and ground up with the sixth of its weight of starch, and dried ; temper properly for spread- ing with mastic varnish. Lay on tho body to be japanned, then varnish over it with 5 or 6 coats of the following varnish : — Seed-lac, 2 oz. ; gum anime, 3 oz. ; reduce the gums to a coarse pow- der, dissolve in about a quart of spirits of wine, and strain off the clear varnish. The seed-lac will give a slight tinge to this composition; but it cannot be omitted where the varnish is wanted to be hard, though where a softer will answer the end the proportion may be diminished, and a little crude turpentine added to the gum anime to take oif the brittlcness. Blcte Japan Grounds may be formed of bright Prussian blue, or of smalt. The colour may be mixed with shellac var- nish ; but as shellac will somewhat in- jure the colour by giving it a yellow tinge, where a bright blue is required the method directed in the case of white grounds must be pursued. Red Japan Ground. — The base of this japan ground must be made up with madder lake, ground with oil of tur- pentine ; this forms the first ground ; when perfectly dry, a second coat must be applied, composed of lake and white copal varnish ; and the last with a coat composed of a mi.xture of copal and turpentine varnish mixed up with lake. Vermilion or carmine can also be used for red japan instead of lake. Yellow Japan Grounds. — 1. King's yellow may be used, and the effect will be heightened by dissolving powdered tur- m'^nc root in the spii .ts of wine, of which the upper or polishing coat is made, which si)irits of wine must be strained from ofl" the dregs before the seed-lac is added to it to form the varnish. 2. oaf- fron, ciome yellow, or turmeric, dissolved in spirits of wine, strained, and mixed with pure seed-lac varnish. Green Japan Grounds may be pro- dured by mixing Prussian blue, or dis- tilled verdigris, vrith king's yellow and a varnish, and the etiiect will be rendered extremely brilliant by laying on a ground of gold leaf. Orange Japan Grounds may be formed by mixing vermilion or red-lead with king's yellow or orange lake ; or red orpiment will make a brighter orange ground than can be produced by any mixture. Purple Japan Grounds may be produced by the mixture of lake or vermilion with Prussian blue. They may be treated as the rest with respect to the varnish. ToRTOiSESHELL Japan. — Linseed oil, 2 i)ints ; umber, J lb. ; boil together imtil the oil becomes very brown and thick ; strain through a cloth and boil again until the composition is about the consistence of pitch, when it is fit for use. Having prepared this varnish, clean well the article that is to be japanned, and then lay vermilion, mixed with shellac varnish, or with drying oil, di- luted with turpentine, very thinly on the places intended to imitate the clear parts of the tortoiseshell. When the vermilion is dry, brush over the whole with the above umber varnish diluted to a due consistence with turpentine, and when it is set and firm it must be put into a stove and undergo a strong heat for a long time, even two weeks will not hurt it. Painting Japan-work. — The pre- paration of colours for japan-work con- sists in bringing them to a due state of fineness, by grinding on a stone in oil of turpentine. The best varnish for bind- ing and preserving the colours is shellac ; this, when judiciously managed, gives such a firmness and hardness to the work, that, if it be aftei'wari.s further secured with a moderately thick coat of seed-lac varnish, it will be almost as hard and durable as glass. Painting in varnish is, however, more tedious than in oil or water ; it is therefore now usual in japan-work, for the sake of disjiatch, and in some cases fuJ" the freer use o( the jicncil, to lay on the colours with japanncrs' gold siz6. The coloui-s are also sometimes laid on in gum water, but 78 WORKSHOP RECEIPTS. the work done in this manner is not so durable as that done in varnish or oil. Water colours are sometimes laid on grounds of gold, in the manner of" other paintings, and look best without any varnish over them ; and they are some- times so managed as to have the ellect of embossed work. The colours in this way of painting are prepared by means of isinglass size corrected with honey or nugar-candy. The body with which the embossed work is raised is best formed of strong gum water, thickened to a proper consistence with bole armeniau and whiting, in equal parts ; which, being laid on in the proper figures and repaired when dry, may be then painted with the intended colours t'smpered in the isinglass size, or in the general man- ner with shellac varnish. Vaunisiiing Japan - work. — The finishing process in japanning consists in laying on and polishing the outer coats of varnish, which are equally necessary, whether the japan ground is ])aintcd or not. The pieces of worK to be varnished should be ])laced ne;ir the fire, or in a waKm room made jierlectly dry, and the varnish laid on with a flat camel-hair brush made for the purpose : the var- nishing must be done rapidly, but with great care ; the same place should not be jiassed twice over in laying on one coat if it can possibly be avoided: the best way of ]u-occeding is to begin in the middle, ))ass it to the other end, taking care that, before each stroke, the brush is well sui>i)lied with varnish. When one coat is dry, another must be laid over it in like manner, and this must be continuearts, yellow ochre ; 1, white-lead ; 4, good drying var- nish ; 1, jajjan, and about -j^jth as much raw oil as of copal varnish and jajian together; mix, and grind with a miilicr, or run through a colour mill. After grinding reduce with turpentine, so that it works easily under the brusii ; a[)ply several coats, each of which will take five or six days to dry. A carriage body will reijuire at least three coats, but smaller vehicles neeil have but one. liubbing Ihvcn, — The oljject of rubbing down is to have a smooth surface free from dents, grains of the wood, tool marks, or anything in the way of making a lu.e even siufice to put the finishing coat of paint on. Saw pumice-stone into blocks of a suitable size, shaping pieces of htpiie with a small round tile to fit the bc.iis. Wet the work with a sponge, und with a wet blc<;k of pumice-stone r-j(i urtil the parts ars smooth and level, using the wet sponge frequently to clean the paint and ascertain whether it is rubbed enough. When the brush marks are all rubbed out of the rough stulllng, the rubbing may be considered finished. Colouring. — After rubbing down apply a coat of lead-colour ground very fine in a paint mill. When this is dry, rub down again very closely with fine sand paper; examine, putty up places neg- lected in former puttyings, act, tirm, and durable, and will dry sooner, firmer, and harder, as well as bear out and support varnishJng and polishing better, than most other colours. Lake Colours. — If a coach is to be finished of a lake colour, proceed with the first four or five applications exactly as for yellow; then take di-y white-lead, ground with half oil and half turpentine, stain it with Indian red, and add a little gold size. When dry and hard, rub it very smooth ; then apply another coat of good Indian red, ground in prepared oil and turpentine, with vei-y little gold size ; next rub that very smooth, let it haiden well, taking great care not to cut through the former coat ; wash it clean off, wii)e it jjerfectly dry, lot it be as free from any moisture as possii^le, and then apply the finishing coat of pure lake, ground and worked in 4 |iarts )ire))ared oil, 2 parts turpentine, with a little pale gold size, or else very pale boiled oil, to cause it to dry. GRi:r;x Colours. — In laving the finish- ing coat of any comjiounil green on coach bodies, it is indispensably necessary that the colour be worked full, and laid off very smoothly and lightly, by working the brush perpendicularly from top to bottom ; otherwise comjiound green co- lours will always apjiear shaded, and if highly v.'irnished, the shades will be ren- dered more conspicuous. Several greens, from the nature of their compcacnt jiarts, will cause the varnish, however gooil anarts of the chrome yellows; and all sorts of verdigris are maik' either by pyroligiuious or vitriolic acids. Ail coloiir.s therefore which coii- lain strong acids, whether mineral or Tcgefab'.e, destroy the oils in which they are ground and applied, in cold dam|) coach-houses, which have often doors or passages com- municating with stables, l.-itrincs, and so on. If therefore it be rejiainted or revarnished, without having been well washed and rublied down, it seldom or never dries pro]>erly, owing to the exha- lations witii which the surface is in general incrusted : and should the .sur- face be even clear from grea.se, no paint or varnish will adhere, or can be well applied, on the old glossy surface, with« nut its having been first riiblicd down with the ]iumice jiowder ami water, a« that entirely removes all Btaius, grea»e« AVOnKSHOP RECEIPTS. 83 and gloss from the surface. Paint or varnish will then adhere to the old ground, and can be easily worked and extended with the brush, without the colour cissing, as it is termed. Varnish is vary apt to ciss on old work, if the second coat is not applied as soon as ever the first coat is hard enough to bear varnishing. Carriage Japanning. — In order to lay a durable ground for finishing carriage-work with japan, examine all the work, particularly leather; see that it is free from oil, grease, or wrinkles ; then prepare a priming colour, of equal parts of white-lead, red-lead, and spruce ochre, all well dried, and ground sepa- rately rather stitf in linseed oil ; then mix the whole together, and add half a jjint of gold size to each pound of colour, with as much turpentine as will cause the colour to work freely and easily. Brush the colour well out, rubbing it into every crack, joint, and crevice. As soon as this coat is dry, putty up all the cracks, and apply a second coat of the same colour. For the succeeding coats, grind equal parts of white-lead and spruce ochre rather stiff in half raw oil and turpentine ; add as much vegetable lampblack as will change it to a dark lead colour ; add to each pound | pint of good boiled oil, \ pint of gold size, and afterwards thin up the colour with turpentine for use, observing that tlie greater the quantity of turpentine which enters into the composition of the grounds, the less durable they become, and that if the quantity of raw oil was increased, the grounds would become more firm, solid, and durable, but would neither drv nor rub down so soon. All colours intended for old grounds ought to be prepared and used with as much oil as will give a firm, tough solidity. After the dark grounds are properly filled up, rubbed down smooth, and well cleaned, apply a coat of calcined lamp- black, sifted very fine and mixed up with black japan, adding as much turpentine as will caur.e it to work freel}'. When this coat is dry and rubbed down, a))ply a finishing coat entirely of japan, with- Oi\t mixing it with varnish, which always causes japan to assume a green tint. Varnish with two or three coats ot genuine amber varnish, which will no!: appear green, and is much more solid and durable tiian carriage copal var- nishes generally are. Some painters put Prussian blue, verdigris, &c., into their last or finishing coat of japan, in order to keep down the rustincss of the japan ; all such grounds are never black, but of a slatey grey hue, and, when viewed in wet or moist weather, a])pear all over of a bloom or greenish grey tint. Nothing more efl'ectual can be done by the painter to improve the jetty blackness of japan than proper application, judicious rub- bing down, varnishing, and afterwards polishing. Carriage Graining. Pollard Oak. — The ground should be formed with patches of Vandyke brown. A softener should be drawn between the patches and the curls or knots formed by turning a short-cut hair pencil, or sponge, tied on the end of a stick between the thumb and finger. To render the work more showy, patches of lake and burnt terra de sienna may be put in. The graining colours are made of equal portions of bu-nt Turkey umber or Van- dyke, raw terra de sienna and burnt copperas, ground separately in boiled oil or turps very stiff", and then mixed to- gether, the whole thinned with spirits of turpentine. A very light coat should be rubbed on the panel with a large sash brush, and while wet a flat grain- ing brush containing a very thin I'ow of hairs should be dipped in the colour and dappled in a spirited manner in various directions. The brush should then be dipped in burnt umber msde thin with turpentine, and some fine spirits thrown on. When the colours are set, take the same flat brush, dip it into a tliin glaze of burnt umber, and put the grain on in a curly direction. A small part ciily of the surface should be finished at CLce, as the work will blend better if kept moist. It is necessary that a sutficient quantity of oil should be put into the colours to bind them. Bird's-eye Maple. — The ground should be light bulf, prepared with white- o 2 84 WORKSHOP REC^II'TS. 'ead, chrome yello's^ ami a little ver- milion or Veneti;iD red to tone the brightness of the yelbw. 'Ihc graining is made of equal parts of- raw umber and terra de sienna ground to a proper con- sistence m ale. Spread the surface of the work with this colour, have some a little thicker prepared, and immediately take a sash tool or sponge and put on the dark shades, which may be softened with a badgeu-hair pencil. Before the colour 's dry put on the eyes by dabbing with the dotter. When dry, put the grain on the prominent parts with a camel-hair pencil to imitate the small hearts of the wood. When the whole is quite dry aiiji!)- the varnish. CuiiLiCD JIaI'Li:. — For the ground mix chrome yellow, white-lead, and burnt terra de sienna. Vov the graining, equal parts of raw terra de sienna and umber, with a little bui-nt copperas, may be ground in turjientine and be mixed with a small quantity of grainers' cream. Thin the colour with boiled oil; then fill the tool, and sjiread the surface evenly. Rub out tlie lights with a piece of buff leather, which must be reasonably wijjed to keep it clean. Soften the edges of the work very lightly, and when dry, put on the top grain with burnt umber and raw terra de sienna ground in ale, with the white of an egg beaten into it. When quite di'V, varnish. Varnishing' and Polishing Fret-work. — The wood is first well smoothed with fine glass paper, then tovercerfectly dry, glnss-paper 'lii- whole sur- iace, aoi make it smooth as before. This aoDc, with great care spread ueit co;;t of varnish on, always using the glass pap*"! when the snil'ace does not turn out very smooth. The whole, when dry, may bf rubbed well with a piece of worn woollen till it if bright and smooth. To French polish the work, make the wood smooth as before. Then pour some prepared polish into a saucer, and some linseed 01) into another. Then take some pieces of woollen rag, and roll them up into a ball, covering them with a piece of linen divuvn tightly over. The rags inside should first be saturated with the polish, and the whole should be taken in the fingers ol the right hand in such a way that the linen may be tightly drawn over, and may present to the wood a smooth roundea surface. Begin by polishing with free, circular sti-okes, and gradually travers- ing the whole surface. Aj^ply now anl then a drop of polish and a drop of oi. to the surface of the rubber. When the grain of the wood disappears, allow it to stand for an hour or two till quite hard, and then glass-paper the whole as in var- nishing. Repeat the process of polish- ing until the surface is quite smooth. If dull patches ajjpear in the polish, tLey may be removeil bv a few drops of spirits of wine on a new rubber. French Polishing. — As in var- nishing, a warm, dry atmosphere is es- sential, and all draughts of cold air from door or window must be avoided. I'our a little linseed oil into a cu)i and some polish into another ; take a ]>ieccof woollen rag a few inches square, and hav- ing rolled it up into a ball saturatf it with jiolish, and cover with a piece of linen or muslin drawn tightly over it. In this way the rubliei's or pads are pre- pared, and they should, when taken by the fingers of the right hand, be held in such a manner as to draw the linen covering tight, and present a smooth, slightly convex surface to work with ; ajipjy one ilrop of oil ana one drop of jMilish to the surface of the ]iail, and it ii ri'ady tor use. Care must be taken tha:, the material of which th> rubbers are ii:ade is wfdl washed anil fVee from slarih or soap. The work having been thorocgtuy smoothed with fine glass pa]>er and tM dust wiped away with a clean cloth, t^« WORKSHOP RECEIPTS. 85 P'liishing is commenceJ with free, con- liauous and uniform circular strokes, a[>plied with very slight pressure, and gradually traversing the whole surface, observing not to do more than a square foot at a time ; the same iirocess is re- peatedly continued, varying the position ot the strokes as much as possible, but keejiing them about the same size, and taking care that every portion of the sur- face receives an equal but not excessive quantity of polish, which is regulated partly b}' the degree of pressure on the rubber, and partly by squeezing it be- tween the lingers. The process of polishing is continued until the grain of the wood appears to be thoroughly filled up, and the surface ex- hibits a uniform appearance, well covered with a thin coat of polish. It is then allowed to stand for an hour or two to become thoroughly hard, when it is rubbed with very fine glass paper, to smooth down all the irregularities of the grain of the wood, and also of the polish. The polishing is then repeated, and, if it should be found necessary, it is again smoothed, and the polishing is persevered in until the surface appears quite smooth, and uniformly covered with a thin and tolerably bright coat of polish, but which will, nevertheless, show cloudy marks I'rom the rubber, owing to the presence of the oil, which is finally removed with a few drops of spirits of wine applied on a clean rubber and covered with a clean soft linen rag, with which the work is rubbed with very light strokes, applied first with a circular motion, and when the surface appears nearly dry, straight strokes are taken lengthways of the grain of the wood, and traversed entirely off the ends of the work ; this is continued until therubberand work are both quite dry, when the polishing will be completed. The polish, however, will be partly ab- sorbed by the wood in the course of a day or two ; and therefore it is desirable lo repeat the process after a lapse of a lew days, first slightly rubbing down the former coat with very fine or nearly worn-out glass paper. Stopping for Fuexch Polishing. — Plaster of Par'*, "'hen m 'do into a creamy paste, with water, proves a most valuable pore-filling material. It is to be rubbed by means of a coarse rag across the woody fibre into the holes and pores, till they be completely saturated, and then the su- perfluous stucco on the outside is to be instantly wiped off. The succeeding pro- cesses are technically termed papering, oiling, and embodying. When finely-pounded whiting is slaked with painter's drying oil, it constitutes another good pore-filler. It is applied in the same manner as the preceding one, and it is recommended on account of its quickly hardening and tenacious virtue* as a cement ; sometimes white-lead is used in lieu of the whiting. Before using either of these, or other compositions for the same purpose, it is best to tint them to correspond exactly with the colour of the article it is in- tended to size. Holes and crevices may be well filled up with a cement that is made by melt- ing beeswax in combination with resin and shellac. Polishing Wood Carving. — Take a piece of wadding, soft and pliable, and drop a few drops of white or trans- parent polisli or French polish, according to the colour of the wood. Wrap the wetted wadding up in a piece of old linen, forming it into a pad ; hold the pad by the surplus linen ; touch the pad with one or two drops of linseed oil. Pass the pad gently over the parts to be polished, working it round in small circles, occa- sionally re-wetting the wadding in polish, and the pad with a drop or so of oil. The object of the oil is merely to cause the pad to run over the wood easily without sticking, therefore as little as possible should be used, as it tends to deaden the polish to a certain extent. Where a carv- ing is to be polished after having been varnished, the same process is necessary, but it can only be applied to the plainer portions of the work. Plane surflices must be made perfectly smooth with glass paper before polishing, as every scratch or mark will show twice as badly after the operation. When the polish is first rubbed on the wood, it is called the bodyinj in; it will sink into the woof 86 WORKSHOP RECEIPTS. and not give much glaze. It must, when dry, have another boly rubbed on, and a third generally finishes it; but if not, the operation must be repeated. Just before the task is completed, greasy smears will show themselves ; these will disappear by continuing the gentle rub- bing without oiling the pad. Polishing or Oiling Planes. — Planes made from naturally dried beech- wood are much lighter in colour than those made from artificially dried or steamed beech. For planes made of the first-named beech, use raw linseed oil, 1 gill; dragon's blood, 1 pennyworth ; yel- low ochre, as much m bulk as dragon's blood; mix these together, and rub the planes all over except the sole or bottom ; let them remain about a week. Take them and rub well all over with a clean soft rag; give one more coat of oil alone. Let it dry for three or four days, then rub well with a clean rag; lay them by for a week or two ; rub again with rag, and use them if wanted. Let care be taken to keep them free from dust wJiile the oil is wet, or they will be a dirty colour. For steamed beech proceed the same, except not to use more than about half the quantity of dragon's blood. French. Polish. — 1. 1 pint of spirits of wine, J oz. of gum copal, J oz. of gum arable, and 1 oz. of shellac. Bruise the gums and sift them through a piece of muslin. Place the sjiirits anIy one drop of linseed oil ; rnb your work in a circular dii-uctiou lightly at first. To f':nish off, use a little naphtha ap[)lied the Kame as the polish. 4. Pale shellac, 2J lbs.; mastic ami *«nint ; mis well by agitation. 5. SJicllac, 12 oz ; wood naphtha, 1 quart ; dissolve, and add ^ pint of linseed oil. (5. Crush 3 oz. of shellac with ^ oz. of gum mastic, add 1 pint of methylated spirits of wine, and dissolve. 7. Shellac, 12 oz. ; gum elemi, 2 oz. ; gum copal, 3 oz. ; sjjirits of wine, 1 gallon; dissolve. 8. Shellac, 1^ oz. ; gum juniper, ^ oz. ; benzoin, ^ oz. ; methylated alcohol, ^ ]iint. 9. 1 oz. each of gums mastic, saudarach, seed-lac, shellac, and gum arabic, reduce to powder ; then add J oz. virgin wax ; dissolve in a bottle with 1 quart rectified spirits of wine. Let it stand for 12 hours, and it is then fit for use. 10. 1 oz. gum-lac; 2 drs. mastic in drops; 4drs. saudarach; 3 oz. shellac; h oz. gum dragon. Reduce the whole to powder. French Polish Reviver. — 1. Lin- seed oil, ^ pint ; spirits of camphor, 1 oz. ; vinegar, 2 oz. ; butter of atttimony, i oz. ; spirit of hartshorn, J oz. 2. i gill vinegar; 1 gill spii'its of wine; 1 dr. linseed oil. 3. Naphtha, 1 lb. ; shellac, 4 oz. ; oxalic acid, J oz. Let it stand till dissolved, then add 3 oz. linseed oil. Furniture Paste. — 1. To keep wood light, scrape J lb. beeswax into J pint oi' turpentine. By adding linseed oil the wood is darkened. 2. Dissolve G oz. pearhush in a quart of hot water, adii I lb. of white wax, and simmer for half an hour in a pipkin; take from olT the fire, and when cool the wax will float, which should be taken off, and, with a little hot water, worked into a jiaste. 3. P>oeswax, sjjirits of turjientine, anil linseed oil, equal j)arts ; melt and cool. 4. Beeswax, 4 oz. ; turjieutinc, 10 oz. ; alkanet root to colour ; melt and strain. 5. Digest 2 drs. of alkanet root in 20 oz. of turjieiitine till the colour is im]iarted ; add yeljjw wax in shavings, 4 oz. ; jilace on a water bath aniece of flannel and soft cloth. Furniture Polish. — Jlelt three or four ]iieees of saudarach, each of the size of a walnut, add 1 pint of boiled oil, and boil together tor 1 hour. While cooling add 1 dr. of Venice turpentine, and if too thick a little oil of turpentine also. Ajiply this all over the furniture, and after some hours rub it olf ; rub the fur- niture daily, without applying frssh varnish, except about once in two mouths. Water does not injure this polish, and any stain or scratch may be again covered, which cannot be done with French polish. To Polish Wainscot.— Take as much beeswax as required, and placing it in a glazed earthen pan, add as much spirits of wine as will cover it, and let it dissolve without heat. Add either one ingredient as is required, to reduce it to the consistence of butter. When this mixture is well rubbed into the grain of the wood, and cleaned oft' with clean linen, it gives a good gloss to the work. Polish for Carved Cabinet- work. — Dissolve 2 oz. of seed-lac, and 2 oz. of white resin, in 1 pint of spirits of wine. This varnish or polish must be laid on warm, and if the work can be warmed also, it will be jO much the better; at any rate, moisture and damp- ness must be avoided. Used with a brush for standards or pillars of cabinet- work. The carved parts of cabinet-work are also polished thus: varnish the parts with the common wood varnish, and having dressed them oft' where necessary with emery paper, apply the polish used for the other parts of the work. Copal Polish. — Melt with gentle heat linely-powdercd gum copal, 4 parts, and gum camphor, 1 part, with ether Ic form a semi-lluid mass, and then digest with a siiflicient quantity of alcohol. Polishing in the Lathe. — Good work does not require much polishing, for the beauty of it depends more on being S8 WORKSHOF IlECKIPTS. executed with tools properly ground, set, and in good order : the worii performed by such tools will have its surface much sniootiier, its mouldings and edges much better fiuished, and the whole nearly polished, requiring, of course, much less sui)se(iuent polishing than work turned with blunt tools. One of tlie most neces- sary things in polishing is cleanliness; thevet'bre, previous to beginning, it is as Well to clear the turning-lathe or work- bench of all shavings, dust, and so on, as also to examine all the powders, lacquers, linen, flannel, or brushes which may be reolished best in a )"i|e- Infhe, which turns backwards and for- wiirds alternately, and therefore it is well to imitate that motion as nearly as possible. Mahognny, walnut, and some other woods, of about the same degree of hard- ness, may be ]iolished by either of tlie followiLg methods : — Dissolve, by heat, so much beeswax, in spirits of turpen- tine, that the mixture when cold shall be of about the thickness of honey. This may be applied either to furniture or to work running in the lathe, by means of a piece of clean cloth, aud as much as possible should then be rubbed off by means of a clean flannel or other cloth. Beeswax alone is often used ; upon fur- niture it must be melted'by means of a warm flat iron ; but it may be apjilied to work in the lathe by hoMing tlie wax against it until a portion of it adheres; a piece of woollen cloth should then be held upon it, and the lathe turned very quickly, so as to melt the wax ; the su- perfluous portion of which may be re- moved by mer.us of a small piece of wood or blunt metal, when a liglit touch witli a clean part of the cloth will give it a gloss. A very good polish may be given to mahogany by rubbing it over with linseed oil, and then holding against it a cloth dipped in fine brick-dust. For- merly nearly all the maliogany furniture made in Kngland was polished in tliis way. Hard Woods. — These, from their na- ture, are readily turned very smooth ; fine glass paper will sullice to give them a very jierfect surface ; a little linseed oil may then be rubbed on, and a portion of the turnings of the wood to be jio- lislied may then be held against the ar- ticle, whilst it turns rapidly round, which will, in general, give it a fine gloss. Sometimes a jiortion of shellac. or rather of seed-lac, varnish is ajijdied upon a piece of cloth, in the way I'or- merly described. The polish of all orna- mental work wholly depends on the exe- cution of the same, which should be done with tools jiroperly sliari)enod ; and tiicn the work requires no other polishing but with a dry hand-brush, to clean it froir shavings or dust, this trifling frictior being sullicieiit to give the rsquircd lustre. WORKSHOP RECEIPTS. 89 ivory or bone admits of being turned re- (ipitatc, the red-lend cont-iins red ochre. Vermilion. — Vermilion is a sul- phide of mercury ; i'. may be used in oil, wafer, fresco, and silicious painting. In &U ca»€8, however, it gets slightly darker in time ; this is not a chemic;il but a physical change. With the exception mentioned, this pigment is very perma- nent. Vermilion is composed of mer- cury and sulphur, very intimately com- bined. It is found naturally formed in the quicksilver mines; but that which is used in painting is an artificial pro- duction. 1. Vermilion is prepared by melting one ])art of sulphur, and addiug to it gradually live or six parts of nicr- cuiy ; the heat is continued until the mixture swells up, theu cover the vessel and remove it from the heat ; when the mixture is cold reduce it to powder and sublime in a closed vessel s placed iti a furnace that the flames may pl.iy freely around it to about half its height. The heat is gradually increased until the lower portion of the subliming vessel becomes red hot ; the cold sublimate is broken into pieces, ground in water to a fine powder, passed through a sieve and dried. At first the mixture be- comes black, takes the name of yEthiops mineral, or black sulphuret of mercury ; this substance is then reduced to ])owdor, and sublimed in appropriate vessels, when a crystallized mass is obtained, com- posed of bright filaments of a violet tint ; by trituration it becomes of a scarlet colour. But the mere grinding will not be suHicient to give a bright tone to the vermilion; various methods are em- ployed for that purpose, which are not generally known. Some manufacturers grind these ingredients up with plain water or with urine, and afterwards boil it for some time; others treat it with nitric acid; but it does not hap|>en that any of the methoils hitherto employed for heightening the colour of vermilion obtained by sublimation, give the same brightness as the Chinese vermilion, the prejiaration of which is not known. -. (Quicksilver .'iOO parts, llowers of sulphur 114 parts, grind them together or some hours auil then add gradually 75 parts c;iu.stic potash dissolved in 450 jiarts water; continue the grinding for some time longer, then gently heat the mix- ture in an iron vessel, first stirring con- stantly, but afterwards only at interval*, keepiug the heat as near 115° Fan r as WORKSUOr IIECEIPTS. 91 possible, and observing to add fresli water as the evaporation takes place. When the colour begins to redden great care IS necessary to preserve the mixture at the proper temperature and to Ijeep the sulphuret of mercury quite pulverulent. As soon as the colour is nearly fine the process must be conducted with m- treased caution and at a lower heat for some hours, until a rich colour is pro- duced. This is well washed in water and dried. It is very injurious for those em- ployed to inhale mercurial vapours, for which reason this operation should be performed only in a place where the chimney has a good current of air ; there also should be fixed to the tube of glass with which the mi.xture is stirred a staiF sufficiently long to hold at good distance from the vessel ; in the same way the spoon should be lengthened with which the potash is added. CARillNE. — Boil 1 lb. of cochineal and 4 drs. carbonate of potassa in 7J galls. of water for quarter of au hour. The pot is taken from the fii-e and 8 drs. alum in powder mixed into the liquor, which is afterwards well stirred and then allowed to settle for 20 minutes or so. The liquid is poured into a fresh vessel and a solution of 4 drs. fish glue or isinglass, dissolved in a pint of water and strained, mixed with it. When a skin is formed upon the surface the heat is taken away and the liquor rapidly stirred, and al- lowed afterwards to settle for half an hour or so, when the deposited carmine is care- fully collected, drained, and dried. Painters' Cream. — Pale nut-oil, 6 oz., mastic 1 oz. ; dissolve ; add J oz. of sugar of lead ground in a little oil; then add water, gradually, until it acquires the consistence of cream, working it well all the time. Used by painters to cover their work when they are obliged to leave it for some time. It may be washed off with a sponge and water. Lakes. — Lakes are made by adding a solution of alum, either alone or partly saturated with carbonate of potassa, to a filtered infusion or decoction of the colouring substance, and after agitation precipitating the mixture with a solution of cai-bonate of potash ; by precipitating a decoction or infusion of the colouring substance made with a weak alkalin*; lye, by adding a solution of alum ; or by agitating recently-precipitated alumina with a solution of the colouring matter, prepared as before, until the liquid is nearly decoloured, or the alumina ac- quires a sulficiently dark tint. The first method is usually employed for acidulous solutions of colouring matter, or for those whose tint is mjured by alkalies; the second, for those that are bj'ightened, or at least uninjured by alkalies ; the third, for those colouring matters that have a great afiinity for gelatinous alumina, and readily combine with it by mere agita- tion. By attention to these general rules, lakes may be prepared from almost all animal and vegetable colouring sub- stances that yield thei' colour to water, many of which will be found to possess great beauty and permanence. The pre- cise process adapted to each particular substance may be easily ascertained by taking a few drops of its infusion or de- coction, and observing the effects of alka- lies and acids on the colour. The quantity of alum or of alumina employed shoult) be nearly sufljcient to decolour the dye liquor, and the quantity of carbonate of potassa should be so proportioned to the alum as to exactly precipitate the alu- mina without leaving free or carbonated alkali in the liquid. The first portion of the j>recipitate has the deepest colour, and the shade gradually becomes paler as the operation proceeds. A beautiful tone of violet, red, and even purple may be com- municated to the colouring matter of co- chineal by the addition of perchloride of tin ; the addition of arseniate of potassa in like manner gives shades which may be sought for in vam with alum or alumina. After the laKe is precipitated, it must be carefully collected, washed with cold dis- tilled water, or the purest rain water, un- til it ceases to give out colour, and then carefully dried in the shade. In this state it forms a soft velvety powder. Drop Lake is made by dropping the moist lake through a small funnel on a clean board or slab, and drying it by a gentle heat. A very little clear gum- water is commonly aided to the pasta 92 WORKSHOP RECEIPTS. to give the drops consistence when dry. Synonymous with Brazil-wood Lake. Blue Lake. — A fugitive colour pre- pared from some of the blue-coloured Hewers. The came is also applied to Ir.mp archil, to moist alumina coloured with indigo, and to mixed solution of jijarlash and prussiate of potash, preci- pitated with another solution of sul})hate of iron and alum. These are permanent and beautiful, but are seldom used, in consequence of indigo and Prussian blue supplying all that is wanted in this class of colours. Buazil-woodLake. — 1. Ground Bra- zil-wood, 1 lb.; water, 4 galls. ; digest for 24- hours, then boil for half an hour, add alum, IJ lb., dissolved in a little water; mix, decant, strain, and add a solution of tin, J lb. ; again mix well and filter; to the clear liquid add, cautiously, a so- Ir.tion of salt of tartar or carbonate of soda, as long as a deeii-coloured precipi- tate forms, carefully avoiding excess ; col- lect, wash, and dry. The product is deep red. By collecting the precipitate m separate portions, lake.« varying in rich- ness and depth of colour may be obtained. The first portion of tlie precipitated lake has the brightest colour. An excess of alkali turns it violet, and the addition of cream of tartar, brownish red. The tint turns more on the violet red when the solution of tin is omitted. Some persons use less, others more, alum. 2. Add washed and recently-precipitated alu- mina to a strong and filtered decoction of Brazil-wood. Inferior to the last. CAiiMiNATicn Lake. — 1. The resi.luum of the cochineal left in making carmine IS boiled with repeated portions of water, until it is exhausted of colour; the resulting liquor is mixeil with that de- canted olf the carmine, and at once fii- tereil ; some recently-precipitated alu- mina is then addeii, and the whole gently heated, and well agitated for a short time; as soon .xs the alumina has ab- sorbcil sulFicient colour, the mixture is alloweil to settle, after which the clear portion is decanted, the lake coll(!i,tearated from the unoxidized cojiper, by w.ashing the mixture on a sieve ; it is then washed with water, and slowly dried in the shade. Colour very deep and rich. The lighter shades are produced by the ad- dition of sulphate of baryta. In another method a solution of crude carbonate of ammonia or bone spirit is added to a mixed solution of alum and blue vitriol, as long as it alfects the liijuor ; in a short time the |>rccipitate is collected, w.ashed, ami dried. The various shailes of grecD are|)roduced by using dilVerent quantities of alum, which " pales " and " cheajieD*" it. WOHRSHOP HECEIPTS. 95 CiiKoiti: GitKEN. — Prepared by melt- L;.§ in a crucible equivaleut quantities of auhydrous boracic acid and bichromate of potassium, and treating the fused mass with water. The hydrated oxide thus produced is washed and finely triturated. Common chrome green is a mixture of chrome yellow and Prussian blue. Emerald Gueex. — A pulp is farmed with verdigris, 1 part, and sullicient boil- ing water, and after being i)assed through a sieve, to remove lumps, is added gradu- ally to a boiling solution of arsenious acid, 1 part, iu water, 10 parts, the mix- ture being constantly stirred until the precipitate becomes a heavy granular powder, when it is collected on a calico lilter, and dried on chalk stones. Gellart's Gkeen. — A mixture of co- balt blue and Mowers of zinc with some yellow pigment. Iris Greex. — A pigment prepai-ed by grinding the juice of the petals of the blue flag with quicklime. It is very fugitive. Mountain Green. — Native green carbonate or bicarbonate of copper ground to powder, either with or without the addition of a little orpimcnt or chrome yellow. That of the shops is commonly prepared by adding a solution of carbo- nate of soda, or of potassa, to a hot mixed solution of sulphate of copper and alum. Green verditer is commonly sold for this article. Prussian Green. — The sediment of the process of making Prussian blue from bullock's blood or horns, before it has had the hydrochloric acid added to it. It is also iire]>ared by pouring liquid chlorine upon freshly-proci])itated Prussian blue. As sold, this jiigment is generally a mix- ture of Prussian blue and gamboge. Sap Green. — A very fugitive pig- ment, prepared from the juice of buck- thorn berries. The berries are allowed to ferment for a week or eight days in a wooden tub. The juice is then pressed out, strained, a little alum added, and the whole evaporated to a proper consistence ; it is next run into Jiigs' bladders, and hung up in a dry situation to harden. An inferior article is made from the juice of black alder, and of evergreen privet. It is a common practice to add j pii:t of lime water and ^ oz. of gum arable to every pint of either of the auove juices. Powdered arsenious acid, 11 oz. ; carbo- nate of potassa, IJlb. ; boiling water, 1 rail. ; dissolve, filter, and add the so- lution, as before, to another solution of ciystnllized sulphate of co]iper, 2 lbs., in water, 3 gall. Product, H lb. A very fine grass-green colour. Scheele's Green. — White arsenic in powder, 1 part ; commercial potash, 2 parts; boiling water, 35 jiarts ; dissolve, filter, and add the solution gradually, whilst still warm, to a filtered solutijn of sulphate of copper, 2 parts, as long as a precipitate fills ; wash the newly-formed jiigmeut with warm water, and dry it. Vienna or Sciiweinfuut Green. — Arsenious acid, 8 lbs., is dissolved in the least possible quantity of boiling water, and added to verdigris, 9 or 10 lbs., dif- fused through water, at 120° Fahr., the pap of the latter being first passed through a sieve ; the mixed ingredients are then set aside till the mutual reac- tion produces the proper shade. 2. Sul- phate of copper, 50 lbs., and lime, 10 lbs., are dissolved in good vinegar, 20 gall., and a boiling-hot solution of white arsenic, 50 lbs., is conveyed as quickly as possible into the liquor; the mixture is stirred several times, and then allowed to sub- side, after which it is collected on a filter, dried, and powdered. The supernatant liquor is employed the next time for dis- solving the arsenic, JIanganese Green. — Prepared by mixing intimately 3 or 4 parts caustic liarytes, moistened with water, 2 parts nitrate of barytes, and 2 of oxide of man- ganese ; then introducing the mixture into a crucible heated to dull redness, and when it has fused, pouring it out, pul- verizing it, digesting it in boiling water washing it with cold water, and drying it in an atmosjihere which contains no c.irbonic acid. It answers well for paper hangings, being applied by means of thin glue , and for some other purposes, white of egg being used instead of the glue. Yellow Pigments. — Chrome Yellow. — 1. Add a filtered solution of nitrate or acetate of lead to a lile ^lu- 96 "WORKSHOr KECEirl'S. tion of neutral chrom.ite of potash, as long as a precipitate falls ; then collect this, wash it well with clean soft watsr, and dry it out of the reach of sulphu- retted vapours. 2. Dissolve acetate of lead in warm water, and add a sufficient quantity of sulphuric acid to convert it into sulphate of lead ; decant the clear liquid, wash the residuum with soft water, and digest it with agitation in a hot solution of yellow neutral chromate or jiotash, containing 1 part of that salt to every 3 parts of sulphate of lead ; "ivcant the liquid, which is a solution of sulphste of potash, and carefully drain, wash, and dry the newly-formed pig- ment. The product contains much sul- jihate of lead, but covers as well, and has as good a colour as pure chromate of lead, whilst .t is much cheaper. The shade may be varied by increasing or lessening the quantity of the chromate. Kixg's Yicllow, or Oui'Ijiknt. — A native sulphurct of arsenic. It is pre- pared artiiicially by sublimation from a mixture of arseuious acid and sulphur; or by collecting the precipitate when a stream of sulphuretted hydrogen gas is ])assed through a solution of arsenious acid. Naplks Yeixow. — 1. Powdered me- tallic antimony, 3 parts by weight, oxide of zinc 1, red-load 2, mixed, calcined, ground to a fine powder and fused in a closed ci'ucible; the fused mass is ground to a fine powder and well washed. 2. Washed diaphoretic antimony 1 part, red-lead 2, grind with water to a siilf j)astc, and exj)Ose in a crucible to a red heat for 4 or ^i hours. Blue Pig-ments. — Ur.TiiAMAniNi:. — I'uro lajiis lazuli reduced to fragmi-uts about the size of a jiea, and the colourless pieces rejected ; 1 lb. is heated to redness, quenched in water, and ground to an im- palpable powder ; to this is added, yellow resin, itating, by the ^IkalioB, solutions of this metal. For in- 'tauce, in jirecipitatiug it by the sub-ciir- oonate of Roda, or of muriate of potiiss, of nitrate, «f acetate of iron, or pcrsulpiiate of iron, the most brilliant brnwn ochres are obtaiiieil. If the suljihate of iron is of a low oxidization, the precijiitate i.s olive-coloured, but it »oon becomes yel- low at tiiC Mirface by abscirbmg a greater quantity of oxygen. 'I'o extend this o|pc- ratiiiu to all the precipitates, it only re- quire* ex|io»ure to the air, by stirring it up lor a KUlIicieut liuie. The name thing may dc cbtiictd io winter quite enMly, by exjiosing it to the action of frcst in wide shallow pans: the water passing ; into the state of ice leaves a small quau tity of air disengaged, which unites wit4 the precipitate, and is suillcient to give it an even yellow tone. When bright ochres are required, it will be necessary to mix alum, in certain proportion, witn sulphate of iron ; the solution is tlien tc be precipitated by lime water. There ezist in tlie natural state ochres of so very fine a quality, that they require no other preparation than that of being washed ; therefore it is scarcely worth while to manufacture them artificially. Cake Colours. — Procure a small slab and muller of glass, and grind tiie powders into a smooth stitl paste with equal parts of isinglass size and thin gum water; comj)ress into scjuares as closely as possible, and dry with a very gentle heat. Old crumbling cake-colouri may be powdered very finely in a biscuit- ware mortar, sifted through line muslin, and ground u|i as above, omittiutr the dum water in the mediuii'. If the pow- ders are rubbed up with honey to the consistence of thick cream, they answer admirably as moist colours. Jay's Metallic Paint.— Break common resiu into dust or small ])ieces, and then dissolve in Lonzoline or turjien- tine until the solution acquires the con- sistency of syrup or treacle, or equal I)arts of each of the above spirits or hy- drocarbons, and any other hydrocarbon that will dry and combine with drying oils, can be used instead of turi)entiue or beuzoline. When the solution is com- plete it is gradually added to oxide of zinc, which has jireviously been made into a paste with boiled linseed oil, until ttio whole mixture acquires the consist- ency of p.'tiiit suitable lor use. A white paint is thus jiroduced of a durable and glossy character. Otiier pigments, such as suljihate of barytes, oxide of iron, I>ruiiswick green, or red-lead, can be added to make any desireply to the sable tools; but these latter sliould have the aroper shape, by passing it between the linger and thumb, before it is let't to dry. Care should be takeu not to i)reak the iiair by too violent rub- bing, as that W()uld render the brushes useless. Many ]iainters use turpentiuc instead of linscx'd oil, in the cleaning ol brushes, it effects the object more quick I v, but the only use of turpentmu that should bo jiermitted, is to rinse the brushes in it slightly, whi-n it is required to cle.in them rejudice of th« colour with which they are combined for ajiplication. What is desired in oil painting is a vehicle which, while it has an agreeable working ([uality, shall neither change nor be degradeil by time, nor interfere with the purity of the tints as they ajipear at tlie moment they are tu-st laid on; — a vehicle, that shall neither perish nor crack as it b:comes old. Oils. — The linseed, poppy, and nut oils are the fixed oils used as vehicles: turpentine and occasionally spike- lavender are the essential oils so used. Of the fixed oils, linseed is in most common use. It should be of a pale amber colour, transparent, and limju'd ; and, when used in moderately warm weather, it should dry in a day. The most valuable qualities of liu^eed oil, as a vehicle, consist in its great strength and flexibility. It is by far the strongest oil, and the one which dries best and firmest 102 WORKGHOP RECEIPTS. under projier man.igeirfnt. The next in iinportiince is pojipy oil. It is in- ferior in strength, tenacity, and drying, to linseed oil ; but it has the reputation of kee[)!ng its colour better than lin- seed oil ; and it is on this account gene- rally einjiloyed in grinding white, and most of the light jiignients. Nut oil is more imcertain in its qualities than either linseed or poppy oil; and is fre- quently extremely long in drying. Poppy oil, however, su])plies its jilace so well, that it is not commonly required. Oils are all more or less influenced in their drying by the colours with wliicli they are combined ; some of which greatly accelerate, while others retard it. With certain colours some oils will scarcely dry at all, unless means are employed to cause them to do so. Jdpaimers' Gold Siie is sometimes cinjiloyed as a powerful means of drying dark and trans]iarent colours, which are in general comiiaratively bad dryers. Me^^ for Orange. E T cS C 8 ^Bl0e is con- f Rc'l and \ I trasl"d by IRkd is con- I HI ue and) „, f>,„„„ ' . . J u -^ \- 11 ,■ or breen. (trasted by .. (\ellow, ) Yellow Is con- (Blue anili „ r>.,„i„ trasted by ..{ Red. )■ ^^ Purple. (n^ ,r,™„ r.r. i Rt^ *nd ) is contrasted by Orange, or J Y^ll^,^^. j. jj^^^^ )/-•.„ _ , (Blue and) is contrasted by Green, o.- -, y,.i,^„._ j- 1,,.^. p , ^,. j Blue and) is contrasted by I Purple, or | j.^j^ ^ Yellow. Painting in Water Colovirs. — The practice of the art consists of" .sketch- ing the outhne, oftinting or shading with sepia, bistre, or iudia-iuk ; and of the application of the pigments, in three or more successive stages, to the attainment of a finished drawing. Our instructions must, of necessity, be of a general cha- racter, because almost every artist of ge- nius finds out for himself and practises some peculiar methods of api)lying the pigments, which c;in only be learned by those who become his pupils. These pe- culiar methods constitute the various styles of the masters of the art, by which their works are so readily recognized and distinguished. Materials. — The principal materials required by the painter in water colours are drawing paper, ivory, for miniatures, a drawing board, pigments or colours, lead pencils, hair pencils, or brushes, palettes, slabs, and saucers, cups or gla.sses for holding water, sponge, gum water, ox-gall, india-rubber, drawing ]iius, a sharji convex-pointed knife, aflat ruler. 'J'he J'uintin;/ lioom. — The choice of a situ;i.*ion for the jjractice of ]):iiuting is not a matter of indillerenoe : the room should be well lighted, of a northern aspect, if possible, and free from reflected colours from ojiposite objects. As dust and grease are mimical to the delicacy and integrity of water-colour painting, it wi.l bo the first care of the student to guard against them. Tlie light should fall on the left hand of the painter, and not be admitted below the head. A room lighted from above, or by a skylight, is much to be preferred. Pencils, or Brushes for Water Colours, — The hair pencils, or brushes used in water-colour jiaintingare made of camel- hair, and fitch, or sable. The best are those known as soft brown or black sables ; those made of red sable are not so useful, .as they possess the bad quality of stiffness, and disturb the colours by their harshness. These brushes will hold a considerable quantity of fluid, and should be used full, but not to overflow- ing, so as to become unmanageable, Af'ter using, they should be careful! v washed in clean water, anil then slightly pressed in a i>iece of clean linen rag. A brush ])ut away unwashed, especially if it has been used for india-ink, or any dark pigment, can scarcely ever be cleaner! again so as to be fit to use with light or delicate pigments. For large drawings brushes are prepared, both round and flat, mounted in tin; these are also use- ful in washing. The most essentia; ju.-.- lity of a good pencil is, that it should yield a good point, for it is that jjart only which is used ; the hairs when moisteneii should form a cone terminating in a line and delicate point. It should also be firm, yet elastic, returning to a straight direc- tion immediately uj)ou being lifted from the paper. Jlanai/ancnt of a Watcr-Colour Draw- ing. — The manipulation in water-colovir painting is of the greatest simplicity, con- sisting merely in selecting the pigments required, mixing from them the various tints the >iiliiivt demands, ami leaving them in their proper jilaces upon the paper. These pigments are rubbed with boiled or distilled water, on earthenware slabs, with theaiMition of a small quan- tity of gum water, for the strong mark- ing of the shadows, and ."io on. It is the usu.il practice to lay on he first tints or wa.shes with the hari1-c;ike pigments ground on the slabs, wnile the middle or foreground ia painted with the soft, »r bopy oil may be used with ad- vantage. Spirit of turiicntine is largely employed in oainting ; it is obtained by distillation from crude turpentine, which is procured from the larch and fir trees : being of a volatile nature, it is used by the jiaiuter to j>roduce what is called a flat ; it evai)orates, and leaves the paint without the least shine. It is also em- ployed in those situations where oil would not dry, as in the first coat on old work, which is likely to be a little greasy from smoke. Driicrs. — To hasten the drying of paints, driers are generally used. Those most in use are sugar of lead, litharge, and white copjieras. These, when well ground and mixed in small portions with l)aint, very much assist them in drying; indeed, some colours will not dry with- out them. Ked-lead is also an excellent drier ; and in cases where its colour is not objectionable, is much used. Sugar of lead IS, however, the best drier, though somewhat more exjiensive than the others. It should be observed that, in the finishing coats of delicate colours, driers are generally avoided, 5s they have a slight tendency to injure the colour. Linseed oil has sometimes a drying qua- lity given *o it by boiling with drying substances, which recders it extrcmelv 106 WORKSHOP RF^EIPTS. useful on some occasions. A very good drying oil is made by boiling 1 gallon ot" linseed oil with a i lb. of litliarge, or red-lead, reduced to a fine powder, it must be kept sliglitly boiling for about 2 hours, or until it ceases to throw up any scum; when cold, the clear oil must be poured off, and kept for use. House Painters' Tooi>s. — Tlie brushes used are of all sizes, both round and fl it, and are made chiefly of iiog-hair. The large round brush called the pound brush, and a smaller one called the tool, are those mostly used in plain work. The bmallest hog-hair brushes are called fitches, and ai'e used I'm- puttmg in small work where the tool would be too lai'ge. The pound brush is used as a duster for some time previous to putting it in co- lour, and thus it is rendered much softer. The smallest brushes are the camel-hair pencils with long or short hair, acconling to the work to be done. The stopping knife has a shorter blade than the palette knife, and is pointed. It is used for making good the holes and cracks with putty. Putty is made of common whit- ing, pounded fine, and well kneaded with linseed oil, till it becomes about the con- sistence of stiif dough. GiiiNoixG CoLOuus FOi: HocsF, Paint- ing. — When a colour-mill is not used, the grindstone and muller is an apjiaratus necessary to every painter, as the purity of the colours sold ready ground at the shojis is not to be de[)ended uimn ; and some colours, as lakes and Prussian blue, will not keep long after grimiing. Tlie grindstone is a slab of j)orphyry marble, or granite, about two feet sfjuare ; the chief requisite is, that it be hard, and close-grained. The muller is a hanlaud conical-formed stom-, the diameter of the base or rul^bing surface of wiiicli should be about one-sixth of that of the griml- Btone, and the coiio high enough to get a Hulficient hold of it with the han*n the stone as soon as it is sulliciently ground. All substances employed for painting in oil require to be ground up with a small portion ot the oil, previous to mixing them with the whole quantity required for use ; for tnis pur])ose, they must first be pounded, and passed through a tolerably fine sieve, then mixed with a portion of linseed oil, just sullicient to saturate them ; a quan- tity, about the size of a small egg, is to be taken on the point of the palette knife, and placed on the stone ; the muller is then placed upon it, ami moved round about, or to and fro in all directions, bearing a little weight on it at the same time. This should be continued until it is ground perfectly fine, having the con- sistence and smoothness of butter. The colour must be occasionally trimmed from the edges of the stone and muller with the j>alette knife, and put under the muller in the middle of the stone. When sulliciently ground, it is removed from the stone with the palette knife, and a fresh quantity taken. It is not well to have much colour on the stone at one time ; it makes it more laborio'.is, and will take a longer time to grind the same quantity equally well. Mixing Colours for House Paint- ing. — Before the colours which have been ground can be ajijdied to the work, tlicy must be rendered fluid by theaddifion of linseed oil, or s])ints of tur])entiiie, or certain proportions of both. Wliun a tinted colour is required to be mixed ufij a small quantity of the jiroper tint should be first prepared on the palette, which will serve as a guide to mix the whole ([uantity by. With the ground white- lead there should first be well mixed a portion of oil, and tlien the tinting co- lour should be added, ax ascertained by the pattern on the ]>Mlette. When these are thoroughly mixed and matched to the proper tint, the remaining portion of the oil or turpentine is to be added; this ia better than juitting in all the oil at once . it should then be strained through a piece of fine canvas, or fine sieve, and should be about the consistence of cream, or just so as to work easily. If it is too thick, the worK will have an uneven, cloudy appearand!, and it will be hard to sjiread ; while, if it be too thin, it will be likely to run, or wil' require a greater ■WORKSHOP RKCEIPTS, 10"; number of coats to cover the ground, and render the work solid. The straining ought not to be neglected where the ap- pearance of the work is studied. Painting New Work. — Clean the work, carefully removing all projec- tions, such as glue, or whiting spots ; this is easily done with the stopping knife and duster ■ then cover over the knots with a composition of red-lead, called knotting. If the knots are very bad, they must be cut out. After knot- ting comes the priming, or first coat of paint. When the priming is quite dry, all nail-holes, cracks, and defects, are to De made good witn putty ; then proceed to the next coat, called the second co- lour ; when this is dry, those places are to be stopped which were omitted in the last coat : and proceed according to the number of coats intended to be given. It should be observed that se- cond colour for new work is made up chiefly with oil, as it best stops the suction of the wood ; but second colour for old work is made up chiefly with turpentine, because oil colour would not dry or adhere to it so well. The colour should be spread on as evenly as pos- sible; and to cflect this, as soon as the whole, or a convenient quantity, is co- rered, the brush should be passed over It in a direction contrary to that in which it is finally to be laid off; this is called crossing. After crossing, it should be laid off softly and carefully, in a di- rection contrary to the crossing, but with the grain of the wood, taking care that none of the crossed brush marks be left visible. The criterion of good workmanship is, that the paint be laid evenly, and the brush marks be not ob- served. In laying off, the brush should be laid into that portion of the work already done, that the joining may not be perceived. Every coat should be per- fectly dry, and all dust carefully re- moved, before the succeeding one is laid over it. Painting Old Work. — Carefully re- move all dirt and extraneous matter with the stopping knife and duster; those places near the eye should be rubbed with pumice-stone, and greasy places should be well rubbed with turpentine. Bring forward new patches and decayed ])arts with a coat of priming ; stop and make good with putty, then proceed with the first coat, or second colour, in turpentine. The quality of the next coat will depend upon the manner in which it is to be finished. If it is to be jKiinted twice in oil, and flatted, the next coat, or third colour, should be mixed up chiefly in oil, and tinted like the finishing colour, to form a ground for the flatting. The greater the shine of the ground, the more dead will be the finishing coat or flatting : like- wise, the more dead the ground, the better will the finishing oil shine ; there- fore, it is a general rule that for finish- ing in oil the under coat should be tur- pentine, and for finishing flat, the under coat, or ground colour, should be oil ; but observe, that all turpentine under- coats have a little oil with them, and ail oil under-coats, except the priming or first coat on now work, have a little turpentine with them. Knotting is made with red - lead, carefully ground, and thinned with boiled oil and a little tur- pentine. For inside work, red - lead carefully ground in watei", and mixed up with double size, is a good substi- tute, and is generally used : it must be used hot. Priming for New Wor/i. — This is made of white-lead, with driers and a little red-lead to harden it, and further to assist its drying; it is thinned entirely with oil, and should be made very thin, as the new wood, or plaster, sucks it in very fast. It is a frequent practice with painters to save the oil coats by giving the new work a coat of size, or size and water, with a little whiting, called clearcole ; but where durability is consulted, this should not be done. The size stops the suction of the wood or plaster, but at the same time it prevents the oil paint from adhering to the work the consequence is, that it is apt to pe«l or chip oir, especially in damp places. Clearcole is sometimes advantageously used on old greasy work on which oil paint would not dry. Second Colour for New Work, or oil 1U8 WORKSHOP r;ECEll>r3. second colour. — This is white -load thinned with oil and a little turpentine, with suitable driers. Tlie iiroportion of driers for ordinar)' cases is about 1 J oz. to 10 lbs. of white-iead ; but in winter, or under other unfavourable circumstances, the quantity of driers must be increased. Second Colour for Old 11 or/;, or tur- pentine second colour. — This is white- lead th!nneh with oil finishing colour, as directed. Two Coats in Oil. — Turpentine second colour, and finishing oil colour. I'lco Coats in Oil and Flat. — Turpen- tine second colour; third colour; and ri.it. Three Coats in Oil. — Turpentine se- cond colour; turpentine colour; and finishing cil colour. Three Coats in Oil and Flat (old work). — Turpentine second colour; turpentine coiour; third, or ground colour; and tl.ittiug. Fuur Coats in Oil (new work). — Oil priming; oil second colour; turpentine idour; and oil finisliing colour. Four Coats in Oil and Flat (new work). — Oil priming; oil second colour; tur- pentine colour; thi~d or ground colour; ami flatting. CoLocns lOR Ilocsi: Painting. — Stone Colour. — White-lead, with a little burnt or raw umber, and yellow ochre. Grey Sto7ie Colour. — White-lead, and a little black. Drab. — White-lead, with burnt unibei and a little yellow ochre for a warm tint, and with raw umber, and a little black for a green tint. Pearl Colour, or pearl grey. — White- lead with black, and a little Prussian blue. Shij Blue. — White-lead, with I'lu-sian blue. French Grcij. — White - lead, with Prussian blue, and a little lake. These last, used in various jiroportions, will make purples and lilacs of all shades. Fu'vn Colour. — Wiiite-iead, with stdue ochre, and a little vermilion or burnt stone ochre. Buff. — White-lead and yellow ochre. Cream Colour. — Same as the last, with more white. Lemon Colour. — White -lead, with chrome yellow. Oramje Colour. — Orange - le.id, or chrome yellow and vermilion. I'each Colour. — White-lead, with either vermilion, Indian red, purple brown, or burnt stone ochre. Gold Colour. — Chrome yellow, with a little vermilion and white. \'iolct Colour. — Wliite-lead, with vermilion, blue and black. Satje Green. — Prussian blue, raw umner, and yellow stone ochre, wi'h a little white, and thinned with boiled oil and a little turpentine. Olive Green. — Kaw umber, with Piussian Idiip, thiuni'd as beloie. J'ea Green. — Wiiite-lca.i, with Bnin?- wick green, or with 1'iu.isian blue and chrome y< Mow, Chocolate Colour. — Spanish brown, or Venetian red and black, thinned with boih^l oil and n little turpentine. J.cr.d ColiMr. — Whiti-lead and black. Flain Opai/ue Oak Colour. — Wlnte- le.'iil, with yellow uglire and l^iuut umber. WORKSHOP itEcEirrs. lOU riahi Opaiyif ^fahojan'j Colour. — Purple irowu, or Veuetiau reJ, with a little uiack. Iliac/; should be ground in boiled oil, and thinued with boiled oil and a little turiK'utino. It will be obvious that the propnrtious of the coloui-s above men- tioned must be determined by the par- ticular tone ot' colour required. Cleaning House Paint. — Old paint work should be first well dusted, then cleaned by washing with a ley of pearlash and water; it is sometimes no- cessai'v, after the washing, to give a coat of weak size, and as soon as it is dry, apply varnish, using copal for light work, and c;\rriage for dark. Some hand- rails, doors, and so on, are so saturated with grease, that no washing will re- move it. When this is the case, brush the foul parts over with sti-ong fj-esh- made lime-wash, let that dry, then rub it olf; if the grease is not removed, repeat *,he lime-washing, until the gi'ease is thoroughly drawn out ; wash the lime clean otl^ and afterwards apjdy the sizing, and lastly the vai'nish. To Paint Plaster. — Five coats are generally requisite to paint ])laster well ; but where it is not of a very absorbent nature, four are found to answer. Ihe first is composed of white-lead, diluted with linseed oil, to rather a thin consist- enrv, in order that the plaster niav be • ^ . . . • well saturated ; aud into this is put a small quantit}' of litharge to ensure its drving. In painting quick piaster, the o'd in this coat is entirely absorbed, thus hardening it to the extent of about the eighth of an inch inwards from the sur- face. When this is found to be the case, the second coat sliouhl also \>e thin, that the plaster may be thoroughly saturated ; and it will be found necessary al'ter this to give other three coats, making in all five. The second coat will be found to be b\it partially absorbed, and it is there- fore requisite to make the third coat a good deal thicker, and to introduce into it a little sjiirits of turpentine, and such oi the colouring pigments already enume- rated, as may bring it somewhat near to the tint of which the apartment is to be finished. The fourth coal should be as thick as it can be well used, and shoul to j-dt on the intonaco or painting- surface. This should be prepared with the very best old lime, perfectly free from crit. Tlie lime is mixed in troughs to tlie consistence of milk, and is then passed through hair sieves into jars, wliere it is allowed to settle, and the water poured off. It is then ready to be mixed with the sand (fine quartz sand, well sifted, is the best) in the jiroportiou of one ]iart lime to two parts sand. Tlie implements used to float on the last coat are made of wood or glass, but trowels of iron may be used if free from rust, and care is taken not to press the iron too forcibly on the intonaco. When the lime and sand coating is ready to be laid, the •ough cast must be wetted thoroughly, iud tiie intonaco floated on in two coats, the List with rather more sand than the first. The thickness of tiie two should i< about -^glhs of an inch. After these tre siu'cad, go over the whole with a roll of w«;t linen, which will remove the marks of the trowel, and jirevent the surface being too smooth. While the ground is being i)rei)ared a cartoon or drawing on paper is made of the subject, executeil with a correct outline and with the wished-for effect ]iro]ierly shown. When the finished cartnon is made the K.amc sizi! as the painting it is usnally executed in black and white with ink or crayons, but it i.s also necessary to have a study of the subject in colours, and tins is geniM'ally dons on a small scale. The jiigmeiitrt used are mostly niiin'rals, and are ground and a|i|ilied with pure watir. Wilh the surface of tiic wall still wet but firm and smooth, the tracing is laid over the portion prepared, and the lines of the cartoon slightly indented on the plaster with a blunt point ; or the lines have small holes in them pierced at certain intervals and the design thus jjricked out, laid upon the ground and dusted with a pounce-bag containing tine dry powder, and thus the outline is re- peated on the ground by the dots of powder which have passed through the minute holes. When the intonaco has become firm enough to just bear the pressure of the finger the first washes of colour may be ])ut on. Jf the painting is intended to be large, only sulHcient plaster is put on to serve for the part which can be accomplished in the time at the disposal of the painter, usually enough only for a day's work, and this jiortion should end at the edges of Mune bold outline, as flowing drapery, a pillar, and so on. A dilliculty in fresco paint- ing is that the colours become much lighter after the plaster dries, and for this allowance must be made; however by jiractice the painter may overcome this dilliculty, and can test the diflereuce bt- tweeu the colour as wet and as dry by putting a touch upon a piece of umber, which instantly dries the colour and shows it as it will be when the intonaco ha: ■d. Transparent Painting on Liinen. — The colours used in traiis- jiarent painting are mixed with megilp as a vehicle, except in the case of very light colours, when turpentine and cojial varnish must be used. The material u])on which trans])arencies are executed is fine muslin; and this, before being worked upon, should be strained in a straining frame, and sized with either gilder's size, isinglass size, or fine co- lourless gelatine dissolved and projierly diluted. After the first coat of size iii dry the muslin will slacken au'I liang loosely on the frauie. It should be stretched ; another coat of size ajiplied; and when dry the muslin again pi- tended. A small jtiecc of musriu sliould at the same time be prepared as a trial- piece, strained in tlie same way as the larger jiiece, iiii when dry it can bit WORKSHOP UECEIPTS. Ill used to determine whether the muslin IS sufficiently sized, or whether the co- Jours aie in working condition. The design having been prepared, it may be traced, copied, pounced or stencilled upon tlie prepared muslin, care being taken that the outline from which the tracing is made consists of strong and decided lines, that stencil plates are made of oiled paper, and that powdered charcoal is used in preference to any other powder for pouncing. The in- structions for oil painting will apply equally to painting transparencies, ex- cept that for very line lints sponge can be used with great advantage to rub in bread flat tints, however delicate. Fine effects may be produced by the use of two transparencies, arranged one behind the other. On the front surface is painted all that is required to be seen in the clearest relief, the painting on the surface behind being modified in its effect by being seen through the front surface. Transparent Painting on Paper. — The same colours as those of landscape painting are used for trans- parencies, and the processes are also the same : only it is requisite to be very attentive in washing in the tints with the utmost possible correctness, both with respect to form and to the power of colour, as the surface of the paper must be pieserved clear in every part, and this clearness is always more or less injured by washing out or sponging. The ]).-iper should be the thinnest hard- wove drawing paper that can be pro- cured, carefully selected, and free from luieveuness or inequality of texture. When the paper has been selected ac- cording to the size of the proposed sub- ject, it should be 'aid on a drawing board and fastened there, with a })ie<,e of thick paper beneath, in order that the tints may be distinctly seen during the painting. After having completed the subject so far as relates to the front, it may be cut off, leaving a margin of \ inch in breadth, for the purpose of gluing it down in the following man- ner. Take a sheet of Bristol-board, or, if the subject is larger, a thicker material, for the purpose of preserving the surface of the whole even anJ flat. From the centre of this board let a uiece be cut out corresponding with tfje size of the painting, which must be placed on a drawing board, with its face downwards. Let it then be covered for a few minutes with a damp cloth, to cause it to expand a little ; and in the meanwhile cover, with thick gum or glue, the edges of the aperture in the board, to correspond with the width of the margin cut off with the painting. The damp cloth may now be removed, and the painting turned with its face upwards, placing the board upon it ac- curately, in such a manner that the margin may adhere securely to the gum or glue in every part. The whole may then be laid on a flat surface to dry. In this way the Bristol-board will form a frame of such width as may be adapted to the painting, and this frame may be afterwards ornamented according to the taste or fancy of the student. It may be observed that the brilliancy of a transparent painting will be increased by the opacity of the border by which it is surrounded, and its width should be regulated by the size of the painting. As soon as the whole is thoroughly dry, the painting must receive such additions at the back as may be requisite to bring it up to the full luminous effect intended. For this purpose, the most convenieut position will be one inclined in a sloping direction, similar to an ai-tist's easel, and immediately in front of a steady light. When the painting has been placed in this position, it will immediately be perceived, that however strongly it may have been previously tinted or touched in the front, a strong light will cause it to ai)pear comparatively feeble. But as the original intention of the workman will still be impressed on his mind, this weakness in the effect, whici' only be- comes apparent by transmitted light, will suggest tlie addition of tints to pro- duce the intended power. Where more is required, it must be cautioubly aj>- plied at the back of the painting, taking all possible care to jueserve the colours clear, and not to injure or rutlle tn« 112 WORKSHOP Ii£CEirTS. texture of the paper, repeating the tints till the due power is obtained. When considerable power is required, such colours of Indian red, Cologne earth, or viM-niilion, must be selected as have a semi-oi)a((ue body; but care must be taken not to lay them on so thicldy as to produce blackness. When richness is required, lake, Prussian blue, and gam- boge, which are perfectly transparent, are well adapted to communicate not oalv richness but delicacy and power to h:iish. When, by carelully employing llie means just pointed out, all jiossible harmony and elfect have been imparted to the painting, it may be rendered ])ar- tially or wholly luminous, by judiciously a]iplying mastic spirit varnish. With a caiiu'l-hair ji'Micii nioderattdy charged with tliis varn.sh, let such jiarts as are in the highest lights be carefully touched as well as the major part of the sky, and the princi|)al objects of the piece toge- ther with whatever i)art may require it | in accordance with the character of the scene. If the whole of tlie subject is covered, it will be reiiuisito to spread the varnish with a tlat camel-hair brush, ]iassing it quickly from snle to side, and from top to bottom, so tliat the varnish may bo equally sj^read with all possible expedition. The picture mu»t then be left to dry. After the varnish has be- come di-y, by mixing a little ox-gall in the water used for the colnirs, addi- tional beauty af tint, as well as har- mony, may be imparted to such parts as ajipear crude or har.sli. Painting and Preserving: Ironwork. — A good black i>aiiit for coarse ironwork may be made by mix- ing plumljago with hot coal-tar. Iviual |).irts of asphaltiim and resin dissolved in common turpentine make also a good, ciieap covering for heavy ironwork. For machlu'Ty, dissolve '2 11)S. india- ruld.er, A Ib.s. l■e^in, and 2 liis. shellac, D .'.> gallH. of benzine. This may be liscil with Hliy other jiaint as a veliide. Wroiigbt-irou bridge* are painted with wliilc-lead a.s follows: The ironwork is Hr«t maaintings white of egg as a varnish, others do not varnish their paintings for one or two years after being finished, when the colours are completely hardened and mel- low. Mastic varnish is the only one which can be removed at pleasure, and for that reason is generally preferred to all others, although it is very liable to chill ; that IS, it becomes all over of a bluish steamy hue, which obscures the beauty of the painting, and appeaj-s disagreeable to the eye. Many circumstances contribute towards causing it to chill ; for instance, varnish made from weak, unripe gum mastic and common spirits of turpen- tine will chill, particularly if applied on new pamtings, where the grounds, oils, and colours are fresh, soft, and absorbent. In order to prevent this, if possible, em- ploy no varnish but that made from fine, ripe gum mastic and rectified turpentine. Varnish for oil paintings, after being pro- perly made, ought to stand for at least twelve months in hu-ge wide-mouthetl glass bottles, without a cork, covering the mouth with a piece of glass, so as to admit the air, but prevent dust falling in ; place the bottle so as to receive a full light, but no sun. The light and air so change and modify the essential quality of the turpentine, that the varnish be- comes elastic, clear, and brilliant, having so much improved during that time as seldom or never to chill or become steamy, and by age it loses that attrac- tion which all new-made varnishes pos- sess for moisture and impure exhala- tions. Therefore, as a preventive against varnish chilling, employ none but good old varnish ; never apply it on new or old paintings until properly cleaned, and well dried from moisture; apply the varnish in a warm room, where the pamtmg and varnish also receive a proper warmth ; after the varnish is applied, let it remain until properly di-y ; recollect- ing that with all new-painted -pictures, where the grounds and colours are soft and absorbent, and where the pictures are afterwards exposed to strong moist ex- halations, the varnishing in time will chill ; but when paintings are properly cleaned and varnished, and afterwards hung up in dry rooms or galleries, there is no reason to fear their chilling. To Preserve a Scaling or Cracked Painting. — The prepara- tion is a mixture of equal parts of linseed oil and methylated chloroform, which is to be poured over the painting if the colours are too brittle to bear the fric- tion of a soft brush. After remaining ou the surface of the painting for a day or two, the excess of oil may be removed by means of a jiiece of cotton-wool, or a soft brush, a fresh portion of the preservative applied, and the excess removed as before. The process must be repeated from time to time until the colours are firmly fixed, when the painting will bear £i-iction, and 114 WORKSHOP RECEIPTS. may be submitted to the cleaning jn-o- cess or varnished. It is advisable, how- ever, to remove as much of the dirt as possib'e iVom the picture, by careful washing with soft water, previously to the application of the fixing agent. The mixture will not restore the cracks in a painting, but simply fixes the colours, and renders the painting very elastic. A mixture of one part of methylated chlo- roform and two of linseed oil is used lor reviving the colours of paintings. A small portion is rubbed over the pictures, after washing, with cotton-wool, and on the following day the j)aiutiug is wiped over with a soft silk handkerchief. Oil and chloroform, when used in the pro- portion given, possess the property of rt-sfoi-ing the faded colours of paintings, and develop colours which have perished, i,^« the eye, by age. Drying Oils. — Poppy Oil. — Take 3 lbs. or pints of pure water, 1 oz. of sulphate of zinc (white vitriol), and 2 lbs. of poppy oil. Expose this mixture in an earthen vessel capable of standing the fire, to a degree of heat sulllcient to main- tain it in a slight state of ebullition. When one-half or two-thirds of the water has evaporated, pour the whole into a large glass bottle or jar, and leave it at rest till the oil becomes clear. Decant the clearest part by means of a glass funnel, the beak of which is stopped with a piece of cork : when the separation of the oil from the water is comjiletoly ef- fected, remove the cork stojiper, and su])- piy its place by tiie forefinger, which must be applied in such a manner as to suffer the water to escape, and to retain only the oil. I'opjiy oil when prepared in this manner becomes, after some weeks, exceedin'^'ly lim|iid and coloui'less. Kat DfiviN') Oils. — 1. H lbs. nut oil or linseed oil, 1 oz. white-lead, slightly talcined, 1 oz. yellow acetate of lead, also ralcined, 1 oz. sulphate of zinc (white vitriol), 12 oz. litharge, and a head of ({ariic or a Kmall onion. When the clry suostancfR are pulverized, mix them with the garlic and oil, over a lire capable of maintaining the oil in n slight state of ebullition ; continue it until the oil ceases \n throw up Rciim, nsHiimes a reddish colour, and the head of garlic becomes brown. A pellicle will then be soon formed on the oil, which indicates that the operation is completed. Take the vessel from the fire, and the pellicle being precipitated by rest, will carry with it all the unctuous parts which rendered the oil fat. When the oil becomes clear, separate it from the deposit, and put it into wide-mouthed bottles, where it will completely clarify itself in time, and im- prove in quality. 2. IJ oz. of litharge, •| oz. sulphate of zinc, and 16 oz. linseed or nut oil. The operation must be con- ducted as in the preceding case. The choice of the oil is not a matter of indif- ference. If it be destined for painting article* exposed to the impression of the external air, or for delicate painting, nut. oil or poppy oil will be recjuisite. Lin- seed oil is used for coarse painting, and that sheltered from the elfects of the rain and of the sun. A little negligence in the management of the fire has ol\en an influence on the colour of the oil, to which a drying quality is communicated; in this case it is not proper for delicate painting. This inconvenience may be avoiiled by tying up the drying matters in a small bag; but the dose of the li- tharge must tlien be doubled. The bag must be suspended by a piece of pack- thread fastened to a stick, which is made to rest on the edge of the vessel in such a manner as to keep the bag at the dis- tance of an inch from the bottom of the vessel. A ])ellicle will iie formed, as ia the first operation, but it will be slower in making its appearance. 3. A drying quality m;iy be communicated to oil by treating, in a heat capable of maintaining a slight ebullition, linseed or nut oil, to each lb. of which is added 3 oz. of li- tharge, reduced to line powiler. 4. 2 lbs. of lilt oil, 3 lbs. of common water, and 2 oz. of .suljihate of zinc. Mix these matters, and subject them to a slight ebullition, till little water remains. \h- cant the oil, which will pass over with a small (|iiaiitity of water, and sejiaratc the latter by means of a funnel. The oil re- mains nebulous for some time; after which it becomes clear, and seems to b« very little coloured. 5. 6 lbs. of nut oil WORKSHOP RECEIPTS. 115 or linseed oil, 4 lbs. of common water, 1 oz. of sulphate of zinc, and 1 head of garlic. Mix these matters in a large iron or copper pan ; then place them over the fire, and maintain the mixture in a state of ebullition during the whole day : boil- ing water must from time to time be added to make up for the loss of that by evaporation. The garlic will assume a brown appearance. Take the pan from the fire, and having suilered a deposit to be formed, decant the oil, which will clarify itself in the vessels. Resinous drying Oil. — Take 10 lbs. of drying nut oil, if the paint is destmed for external, or 10 lbs. of drying linseed oil, if for internal articles. 3 lbs. of resin, and 6 oz. of turpentine. Cause the lesin to dissolve in the oil by means of a gentle heat. When dissolved and in- corporated with the oil, add the turpen- tine : leave the varnish at rest, by which means it will often deposit portions of resin and other impurities ; and then preserve it in wide-mouthed bottles. It must be used fresh : when suffered to grow old it abandons some of its resin. If this resinous oil assumes too much con- sistence, dilute it with a little essence, if intended for articles sheltered from the suu. or with oil of popi)ies. Distempei' for Photographic Backgrounds. — Take whiting, IJ to 2 lbs. ; lampblack, 3 oz. ; damp blue, 4 oz. ; glue, 1^ oz. Dissolve the whiting in 2 quarts of water, add nearly all the blue, then add the black, gradually dry- mg after each addition by dipping in it a piece of paper and drying at the fire, till you get the exact colour required. Then having dissolved the glue in warm water, pour' it in, to keep the colour from falling off, mix thoroughly together, and. strain through canvas. To Prepare Zinc for Paint- ing. — Dissolve 1 part of chloride of copjier, 1 of nitrate of copper, and 1 of sal ammoniac, in 64 parts of water, and add 1 part of commercial hydrochloric acid. Brush the zinc over with this, which gives it a deep black ; leave to dry 24 hours, when any oil colour will Tirmly adhei-e to it, and withstand both neat and damp. Vehicle for Colour. — 1 oz. oi borax, 2 oz. of shellac, 1 pint of water. Boil a few minutes, stir with a piece of wood ; or 1 oz. of liquid ammonia, 2 oz. shellac, 1 pint of water. Add more or less shellac, as it may be required. Putty. — Glaziers' putty is made of whiting and oil. The whiting should be in the form of a very dry fine powder ; it should be specially dried for the pur- pose, and passed through a sieve of 45 holes to the inch, and then mixed with as much raw linseed oil as will form it into stiff paste ; this, after being well kneaded, should be left for 12 hours, and worked up in small pieces till quite smooth. It should be kept in a glazed pan and covered with a wet cloth. It putty becomes hard and dry, it can be restored by heating it and working it up again while hot. For special pur- poses white - lead is sometimes mixed with the whiting, or the putty is made of white-lead and litharge entirely. Purifying Linseed Oil. — It is requisite that artists should have the linseed oil they use perfectly colourless, as otherwise it would spoil the more delicate tints. To purify it is extremely easy — even putting a bottle of the oil in the sun for some days will accom- plish the object ; but as this process is somewhat tedious, it is better to put in a 2-oz. phial three-quarters full of good common linseed oil, a piece of whiting as big as a nut, previously powdered. Shake them together, and put the phial on the hob of a stove, or in an oven. In two days, and sometimes in a few hours, the whiting will have carried down to the bottom all colour and impurity, and the refined oil floating at top may be poured off for use. Silicate of Soda Paint. — A solution of silicate of soda has been found by Abel, when applied like paint to wood, to give ijt a very considerable protection against fire, as well as to form a hard coating durable ibr several years; it, can be used with the ordinary colours like distemper. The silicate ot soda must be in the form of a thick syrup of a known degree of concentra- I tion, and is diluted with water when I 2 116 WORKSHOr EECEIl'TS. required for use, according to the pre- scription given below. Trie lime-wash should be made by slaking some good fat lime, rubbing it down with water until perfectly smooth, and diluting it to the consistency of thick cream. It may be coloured by admixture with miueral colours. The protective coating :s produced by painting the wood, firstly with a dilute solution of silicate of soda; secondly, with a lime-wash ; and lastly, with a somewhat stronger solution of the silicate. The surface of the wood should be moderately smooth, and any covering of paper, paint, or other mate- rial, removed entirely, by planing or scraping. A solution of the silicate, in the proportion of 1 part by measure of the syrup to 4 parts of water, is pre- pared in a tub, pail, or earthen vessel by stirring the measured proportion of the silicate with a very small quantity of the necessary water until a complete mixture is i>roduced, and then adding the remainder of the water, in successive quantities, until a pei'fect mixture iu the requisite proportions is obtained. TJie wood is then washed over with this liquid, by means of an ordinary white- wash brush, the latter being passed two or three tin>es over the surface, so that the wood may absorb as much of the solution as possible. Wlien this first coating is nearly dry, the wood is painted with the lime-wash in the usual manner. A. solution of the silicate, in the pro- portion of 1 part by measure of the synip to 2 parts of water, is then made as above described, and a sufficient time having been allowed to ela[)se for the wood to become moderately dry, this liquid 16 ap[ilielan, but it takes none of the coliuir out of ox-gall. It simjily desic- cates tlie bile, which c;;u in this con- dition be )nescrved from [nitrcfaction for auy length of lime io rlostly->toj« WORKSHOP RECEIPTS. 117 pered bottles. If fresh ox-gall is evapo- rated to dryness on a water bath, and then treated with alcohol, the mucus and epithelium are precipitated ; but the colouring matter still exists, and IS not precipitated or discharged by digesting. Again, boil 1 pint of fresh ox-sall with 1 oz. of alum, and m another vessel a second pmt, with 1 oz. of common salt. After standing three months in separate bottles, the clear portion from these solutions is to be mixed for use. But the solutions do not become altogether clear, al- though they keep very well without putrefaction. Ox-gall may be tho- roughly discolorized by slightly aci- dulating it with acetic acid, and passing through it a stream of chlorine gas. To Pvemove Old Paint.— Wet the place with naphtha, repeating as often as is required ; but frequently one applica- tion will dissolve the paint. As soon as it IS softened, rub the surface clean. Chlo- roform, mixed with a small quantity of spirit ammonia, composed of strong am- moniac, has been employed very suc- cessfully to remove the stains of dry paint from wood, silk, and other sub- stances. To Destroy Paint. — Mix 1 part bj' weight of American pearlash with 3 parts quick stone lime, by slaking the lime in water and then adding the pearl- ash, making the mixture about the con- sistence of paint. Lay the above over the whole of the work required to be cleaned, with an old brush ; let it re- main 14 or 16 hours, when the paint can be easily scraped olf. Fireproofing Shing-le Roofs. — A wash composed of lime, salt, and fine sand or wood-ashes, put on in the ordinary way of whitewash, renders a shingle roof fiftyfold more safe against fire from falling cinders, in case of fire in the vicinity. It has also a preserv- ing influence against the eilect of the weather ; the older and more weather- beaten the shingles, the more benefit derived. Such shingles are generally more or less warped, rough, and cracked. The application of wash, by washing the upper surface, restores them to their original or firm form, thereby closing the space between the shingles, and the lime and sand, by filling up the cracks, prevent it warping. By the addition of a small quantity of lampblack, the wash may be made of the same colour as old shingles, and thus the offensive glare of a whitewashed roof is removed. Remedy for Damp Walls. — f lb. of mottled soap to 1 gall, of water. This composition to be laid over the brickwork steadily and carefully with a large flat brush, so as not to form a froth or lather on the surface. The wash to remain 24 hours, to become dry. Jlix ^ lb. of alum with 4 galls, of water • leave it to stand for 24 hours, and then apply it in the same manner over the coating of soap. Let this be done in dry weather. To "WTaitewash, or Coloui'- wash.. — If a room is to be whitewashed or coloured, the walls and ceiling are to be washed with clean water, frequently changed, the rough patches scraped smooth, swept with a broom, and all cracks and loose places carefully stopped. When this is done, before proceeding further, all the rubbish should be cleared from the room and the floor swept. In some instances, as after illness, it will be the best to make the whitewash of lime, for lime is a good purifier. But as lime-wash is apt to turn black, white- wash is generally made by putting whit- ing to soak in water overnight, and afterwards mixing very smooth, as thick as cream, and with about a teacupful of size to 2 galls, of wash, which will pre- vent its rubbing off when dry : or potato starch may be used, which leaves the white uninjured. Another mode is to mix into a stiff paste, with cold water, 6 balls of whiting ; to this add 2 lbs. of very hot, but not boi.ing, size, and a small quantity of blue black ground fine, and let the whole get cold. Whitewash thus prepared may be altered to any re- quired colour: yellow ochre mixed with a small quantity of blue black makes a stone-colour ; without the black, a buff or straw colour; and warmer tints may be produced by using inrt go or the blue black above mentioned, or Venetian or 118 WORKSHOP IIECEIPTS. orange red ; vermilion will give different shades of pink, and a green may be ob- tained with mixture of indigo and yellow ochre. Some care will be required in the mixing, but if too much of the co- louring matter is not added at iirst, it will not be dilficult to get a colour ac- cording to taste. By a little manage- mont the wash may be laid on without splashing, the method being, not to take too much at a time into the brush, or to jerk it at the end of the stroke. As a rule, ceilings or walls should be white- washed at least once a year, and oftener whenever necessary. For common work a mixture of J a bushel of lime, 1 lb. of common salt, ^ lb. of sulphate of zinc, and a gallon of sweet milk can be used. For bricJiwork exposed to damji, take J a peck of well-burnt lime, fresh from the kiln, slake with water, than add a sulli- cient quantity of water to reduce it to a paste, pass through a fine sieve ; add a gallon of clean white salt, which has been dissolved in boiling water, and a thin smooth paste, also liot, made from 1 lb. of fine rice flour ; also | lb. of best glue, made in a water bath. Mix these ingredients all together, stir them well, and then add J lb. of best Spanish whit- ing dissolved in 5 qts. of boiling water. Stir again, and cover over to retain the heat and keep out dirt. Let it stand a week, when boil again and ajqily hot. The above ])roporti()ns will suliice to cover 40 squ.ire yards. Paper Hanging. — If the walk are quite new and smoothly finished, the only ])re]iaration usually necessary is to lay on a thin coat of weak .size, the use of the .size being to make a surface to which the paper will stick better than to the bare wall. In jirepariug an old whitewashed or coloured wall for pai)er, the wash or colour is wetted with water .-lud scrajied olT with an old plane-iron, or any ])iece of steed which hn.s 3 amootli edge, .after which tlie wall '" 'iiid be swept down with a still' Ih'ooiii nove all that the scra[)cr may have left and make an even surface. If there any loose plaster, those jiarts should L.; wi'll sizi.'d and have a jiiece of thin Strong paper pasted over tlieni ; but the best way is to get the pUcc re-plastcrofl. Cracks or holes may easily be filled with a little putty ; in no cast should they be left. If not stopped in any other way^ slips of jiaper should be pasted over them, or else the cracks will soon show througn the outer pa))er. After all tiiis is done the room may be sized, and the size will be dry enough in an hour for the paper- ing to be commenced. If the room has been already pajiered, it will be neces- sary to go over the walls and tear otf all the loose pieces, especially at the top and bottom, corners and edges. It' the bare wall is exposeil by the tearing off, these spots should be sized. The walls of rooms finished in a superior manner are generally plastered three coats, and upon the plaster, when quite dry, a coating of liuiug-paper is laid to obtain a smooth surface. Sometimes common thin canvas is used instead of lining-paper, and occa- sionally instead of plaster. In the latter case battens should be fixed against the walls to fasten the canvas to and pre- vent it touching the walls. Tiie prejia- rations having been made, the hanging of the paper may be proceeded with : the rule is, that the edges of the pajjcr, when hung, shall be towards the window. The appearance of many a handsome paper has been spoiled from careles-sness or ignorance in this particular; but wlien this precaution is observed, the lajqied joints scarcely show. First of all, the edges of the paper are to be cut, and as the hanging is to begin at the window on each side, that edge which is cut close for one side must not be cut close for the other. This ])()iiil being deciiled, unroll a yard or two of one oi the pieces of pajier, cut the edge, unroll a yard or two more, roll up loosely the part that is cut, and continue till the end is reached, when the ])roce8S being rejieated with the other edge, the piece will be at last rolled up again ns it was at starting. Not more than about a \ inch of ])nper ohould be lefl at the edge which is not cut close. If there is a back and a front window io the room, the same rule must be ob- served, and the finish will cnmc in the corner most out ol' sight, by the m.intel- WORKSHOP RECEIPTS. 119 piece, or at the back of the folding doors. When the edges are finished, the paper IS to be cut into lengths, about J an inch longer than the height of the room ; but they must be cut so that the second will match the fir'it, and so on. There are certain dots or marks on the edges which show where the match is, and if the length I'equired comes between these dots, the portion down to the next dot must be cut off after each length, which will bring the match the same as where it started in the first length. Care should be taken to cut straight across, and as many lengths may be cut as will be sufficient for two sides of the room. These are to be turned altogether the plain side uppermost, and the first one may be pasted. If the paper is thin and common, it must be put on the wall immediately ; but if of good quality, it is to be left to soak for two or three minutes, while for a stiff glazed or flock paper, from five to eight minutes would not be too much. The reason is, to give time for both sides to become equally damp, otherwise there is no certainty that the paper will stick. The first length is to be put up with the close-cut edge close to the woodwork round the iviudow. Having brought the top to meet the ceiling, see that the length hangs straight, trying it if necessary by a plumb-line, then taking it by the lower end, lift it away from the wall all but about 3 inches at the top, then let it fall, and it will drop into its place without a wrinkle. Now with a soft clean cloth begin at the top and press the paper to the wall all down the centre to the bottom, then beginning from the top again, press it from the centre to eacJi side alternately, regularly downwards. If this operation be properly done, the length will be perfectly close to the wall and smooth in every part. It is not to be pressed heavily ; but the cloth being taken in the hand as a round loose lump, must be moved quickly over the surface — dab — dab — dab — with a light and clean touch, otherwise some of the colours will be apt to smear. Last of ail, mark -with the end of the scissors VPnere the paper meets the skirting, cut off all that is over, and press the end carefully into its place. Proceed with tlie second le:igth in the same way, bringing the close-cut edge to meet the pattern of the first one, and taking care that no gap is left between. Neglect o£ these precautions will convert a hand- some paj)er into a sight that wiU be a constant eyesore. Try the lengths fre- quently with the plumb-line U' avoid the chance of getting out of upright, and remember that the outside end of the jjiece is always the toj) of the pajxir. Paste is best made with old flour, water, and a little size or glue; alum is also added to paste to make it spread more freely without losing any of its tenacity or sticking quality ; it should never be used while warm. The paste should be rather thicker than ordinary gruel, and laid on smoothly and equally, not put- ting too much, or it will squeeze out at the edges. Where this takes place, it must be removed with a clean damp s]jonge : any accidental smears of paste may be removed in this way, if taken off lightly as soon as they are made. Decorative paper for covering the walls of rooms is manufactured in pieces, which arc 12 yards long and 20 inches wide. Pavements, — Asphalte pavements made with Val de Travers compressed asphalte are laid as follows. A founda- tion is formed of cement or lime concrete, varying from 6 inches to 9 inclios in thick- ness, according to the traffic. The mine- ral rock in its natural state, and without admixture with other ingredients, after being broken into small lumps is brought to a state of dry powder hy subjecting it to considerable heat in revolving ovens ; it is then put into iron carts with close- fitting covers, and brought on to the works, taken out, laid over the surface, and whilst hot compressed with heated irons into one homogeneous mass without joints. The finished thickness varies from 2 to 2^ inches, according to the tialHc of the place in which it is laid, and it further compresses and consolidates under the tralHc. Val de Travers liquid asphalte is laid upon a concrete bed 6 inches thick, the asphalte surface being IJ inch thick The rock is first ground to a fiue 120 ■WORKSHOP RECEIPTS. powder, aud being then placed iu caldrons, from 5 to 7 per cent, of bitumen is added to solve it ; heat being then applied, it forms into a semi-fluid or mastic state, aud when iu that condition about GO jier cent, of grit or dry shingle is added to it, and after being thoroughly mixed to- gether, the compound is spread over the concrete in one thickness. With Linimer asphalte, a concrete foundation 9 inches thick is first formed, and the asphalte is used in certain proportions by the judg- ment of those directing the work; it is broken up and mi.xed with clean grit or sand of diflorent sizes according to the place in which the pavement is to be laid ; a small quantity of bitumen is then •ndded to the materials, which are placed in caldrons on the spot, made liquid by heat, aud the compound is run over the surface and smoothed with irons to the proper slopes and curvatures. It is run in two thicknesses, the lower stratum being made with grit of a larger size tliau that of the upper. The total thickness of the asphalte, when finislied, is from IJ to 2 inches. JJarnett's Liquid Iron Asplialle can be made either of natural or artilkial asphalte, mixed with pulverized iron ore or sesquioxide of iron and a small pro- portion of mineral tar. The materials are put into a caldron which is brought on to the works, and are made into a liquid state by heat, run over the surface, and smoothed in the same way as the other liquid asphaltes mentioned ; the thickness usually laid is about 2 inches. Tar Pavement. — Made by mixing with fine breeze, or small coke, just enough of thick refuse coal-tar to make it somewhat sticky; put a thin layer on the smooth and hariit;ncd surface, on this spread a rouple of inches of metal, or i)ebblrs, or coar.se gravel, then a thin layer of the prepared breeze, covered lightly with fine gravel, and beat or press together. It is cheap, .slightly el.'i.stic, and durable. Concrete I'atcmcnls. — 1. The terr:iza floors used in Italy at the present day are jiade in the following m.-inner: — 1st co.it ; a concrete consisting of common lime \, Mud .lud (ine gravel J, laid G inches thick and well bcalcn with wooden rammers ; after two days in that climate, it is suf- ficiently dry for the next coat. 2nd coat ; a terraza, consisting of pounded brick or tile i, common lime §, sand i, of the con- sistency of mortar, laid \\ inch thick, well beaten with a light tlat rammer After two or three days it is hard enough for the next coat. 3rd coat ; a similar terraza, but with the grit of broken stones instead of sand in it, laid on like a coat of plaster with a trowel. After this has been laid for one day, a layer of small hard broken stones is pressed into it; these stones should be of some stibstanro that will take a polish, and be of uuiforin size (they are passed through a gravel screen) of about a walnut • these being afterwards rubbed to a smooth even sur- face with some smooth hard stone, form a kind of mosaic-work ; the stones are fre queutly selected by colour, and laid in the third coat to a rough pattern. They should be moistened with oil or water till hard set. 2. Dig the earth out about 8 inches, fill in with coarse gravel and stones, well rammed, and levelled about 5 inilies. Mix Portland cement to the consistence of cream and pour over, spreading it with a stilf broom; wnen hard mix finer gravel with cement and water, and fill up to within J inch of the surface; when hard mix clean sharp sand and Portland cement, half-and-half, with water to about the thickness of mortar, and finish, slightly rounding. It should not be walked on for a day O'- two. Cement must be Portland, and fresh. Lathing and Plastering. — The ]daster used for covering the walls of buildings is a mortar comjiosed of lime or cement, and sand, mixeil in various proportions, generally with a little hair or som« such material to give it elasticity. It is laid on by hand with a trowel in several thicknesses of about ^ to J inch each, and cither on the bare masonry wall or on a s|)crial screen of lathing m.'ide for it, to either of which it ailheres by en- tering into and key.ng itself in the joints and openings, .'ind by its ailhesivc quality. With some variations in the materials and mixing, it is used for exterior and interior work and Ctr x-iliogs. For tht AVOUKSHOP r.ECElPTS. 121 purjiose of assisting to keep the interior of the rooms of a house dry, it is advan- tageous to employ lathing, which being detached from the masonry of the walls forms a lining, distinct in itself, and not liable to the cliect of moisture which may be in the walls. It is of the utmost impor- tance, in plasterers' work, that the lime should be most thoroughly slaked, or the consequence will be blisters thrown out upon the work after it is finished. JIany plasterers keep their stuffs a considerable period before they are wanted t» be used in the building, by which the chance of blistering is much lessened. WTien a wall IS to be plastered, it is called rendering ; in other cases the first operation, as in ceilings, partitions, kc, is Lathiii'j, nailing the laths to the joists, quarters, or battens. If the laths are of oak, wrought-iron nails must be used for nailing them, but cast-iron nails may be employed if the laths are of fir. The lath is made in 3 or 4 foot lengths, and, according to its thickness, is called single, something less than a J of an inch thick, lath and half, or double. The first is the thinnest and cheapest, the second is about one-third thicker than the single lath, and the double lath is twice the thickness. When the plasterer laths ceilings, both lengths of laths should be used, by which, in nailing, he will have the opportunity of breaking the joints, whicii will not only help in improving the general key (or plastering insinuated behind the lath, which spreads there beyond the distance that the laths are apart), but will strengthen the ceiling generally. The thmnest laths may be used in partitions, tecause in a vertical position the strain of the plaster u]iou them is not so great ; but for ceilings the strongest laths should be employed. In lathing, the ends of the laths should not be lapped upon each other where they terminate upon a quar- ter or batten, which is often done to save a row of nails and the trouble of cutting them, for such a practice leaves only a J of an inch for the thickness of the plas- ter ; and if the laths are very crooked, which is frequently the case, sufficient space will not be left to straighten the plaster. Laying. — After lathing, the next operation is laying, commonly called plastering. It is the first coat en laths, when the plaster has two coats or set work, and is not scratched with the scratcher, but the surface is roughed by sweeping it with a broom. On brick- work it is also the first coat, and is called rendering. The mere laying or render- ing is the most economical sort of plas- tering, and does for inferior rooms or cottages. What is called pricking up is the first coat of three-coat work upon laths. The material used for it is Cuarse Stuff, being only the prepara. tion for a more perfect kind of work. Coarse stuff is made with chalk-lime pre- pared as for common mortar, but slaked with a quantity of water, afterwards evaporated, mixed with ^n equal quan- tity of clean, sharp sand and ox-hair, at the rate of 1 lb. of hair to 3 cub. feet of stuff. After the coat is laid on, it is scored in diagonal directions with 'j sciatcher (the end of a lath), to give it a key or tie for the coat that is to follow it. Lath laycd or plastered and set is only two-coat work, as mentioned under lay- ing, the setting being the gauge or mix- ture of putty and plaster, or, in common work, of Fi7ie Stuff, with which, when very dry, a little sand is used. Fine stuff is a mor- tar made of fine white lime exceedingly well slaked with water, or rather formed into a paste in water to make the slaking complete: for some purposes a sma.l quantity of hair is mixed up with ii. Fine stuff very carefully prepared, and so completely macerated as to be held in so- lution in water, which is allowed to eva- porate till it is of suilicient consistence for working, is called putty, plasterers' putty. Settinj may 1>3 either a second coat upon laying or rendering, or a third coat upon floating, which will be hereafter de- scribed. The term finishing is apiliej to the third coat when of stucco, but set- ting for paper. The setting is spread with the smoothing trowel, which the workman uses with his right liund, while in his left he uses a large flat-formed brush of hog's bristles. As he lays on the putty or &>i( 122 WORKSHOP RECEIPTS. witli the trowel, he draws the brush, full of water, ))ack wards and forwards over its surface, thus producing a tolerably fair face for the work. Floating. — Work which consists of three coats is called floated : it takes its name from au instrument called a float, which is au implement or rule moved in every di-ectiou cu the plaster while it is soft, for givmg a jierfectly plane surface to the secxmd cait of work. Floats are of thi'ee sorts : the hand float, which is a short rule that a man by himself may use ; the quirk float, which is used on or in angles ; and the Derby, which is of such a length as to require two men to use it. Plaster, float and set is the teim fur three coats of i)laster on laths. Tlie first or pricking-up coat is of coarse stulf put on with a trowel to form a key behind the laths, and about | or | inch thick on the laths : while i', is still moist it is scratched or scored all over with the end of a lath in parallel lines 3 or 4 inches ajiart, the scorings being made as deep as possible without e.\i)Osing the laths ; the rougher the edges are the better, as the object is to produce a good key for the next coat. When the jiricking-up coat is sullicicntly dry not to yield to jiressure in the slightest degree, the second coat or floating is put on. The floating is of flue stulf with a little hair mixed with it; ledges or mar- gins, 6 or 8 inches wide, and extending across the whole width of a ceiling or height of a wall, are made at the angles and at intervals of about 4 feet apart throughout : these must be made per- tcctly in one plane with each other with the help of straight-edges. These ledges are technically called screeds. They form gauges for the rest of the work, and when they are a little set the spaces between them are filb-d up flush, for which a Derby float or a long straight-edge is used. The Bcrceds on ceilings ought to be levelletl, and those on the walls pliimbcil. When the floating is sulliciently set it is swept with a birch broom for the third coat or netting. The third, or setting coat, should be of plasterci-s' jiutty if the ceiling or wall is to lie whitened or coloured. If it is to be papered, the third coat should be of Hoc stuff, with a little hair in it. If it is to be painted, the third coat should be of bastard stucco trowelled. Bastard stucco is of three coats, the first is roughing in or rendering, the second is floating, as in trowelled stucco ^ but the finishing coat contains a small quantity of hair behind the sand. This work is not hand-floated, and the trowel- ling is done with less labour than what is termed trowelled stucco. Troicelled stucco, which is the best sort of jilastering for the recejition of jiaint, is formed on a floated coat of work, and such floating should be as dry as possible before the stucco is applied. In the last process, the plasterer uses the hand float, which is made of a piece of half-inch deal, about 9 inches long and 3 inches wide, planed smooth, with its lower edges a little rounded off, and having a handle on the ui)])er surface. The ground to be stuccoed being made as smooth as possible, the stucco is spread u])ou it to the extent of 4 or 5 feet square, and moistening it continually with a brush as he proceeds, the workman trowels its surface with the float, alternately sprinkling and rubbing the face of the stucco, till the whole i& reduced to a fine even surface. Thus, by small i)ortions at a time, he proceeds till the whole is completed. The water aji- plied to it lias the effect of hardening the face of the stucco, which, when finished, becomes as smooth as glass. Ceilinf/s are set in two different ways ; that is the best wherein the setting coat is comj)Osed of i)lasfer and putty, com- monly called gauge. Common ceilings are foriiu'd with ])laster without hair, as iu the finishing coat for walls set for paper Pw/i/ini/ is plaster laid on boards, fitted in between the joists of the floor to pre- vent the passage of sound between two stories, and is executed with coarse stufl. Ill the country, for the interior coating of dwiUingsand outbuildings, a species of plastering is usedcalleil roughcast. It is cheaper than stucco or Talker's cement, and therefore suitiibic to such ])uri)0ses. In the process of executing it, the wall is first pricked up with a coat of lime and hair, on wliich, when tolerably well set, a second coat is laid on of the same ma- terials OS the first, both as smooth as pos< WORKSHOP RECEIPTS. 123 Bible. As fast as the workman finishes this surface, another follows him with a pailful of the roughcast, with which he bespatters the new plastering, so that the whole dries together. The roughcast is a composition of small gravel, finely washed, to free it from all earthy parti- cles, and mixed with pure lime and water in a state of semi-fluid consistency. It is thrown from the pail upon the wall, with a wooden float, about 5 or 6 inches long, and as many wide, formed of §-iuch deal, and fitted with a round deal handle. With this tool the plasterer throws on the roughcast with his right hand, while in his left he holds a common whitewashers' brush dipped in the roughcast, with which he brushes and colours the mortar and the roughcast already spread, to give them, when finished, a uniform colour and ap- pearance. Builders' Waterproof Mas- tic Cement. — 1. 5 parts river sand ; 5, ground stone lime ; 10, red-lead, m powder. 2. 10, sand ; 5, powdered whit- ing; 1, powdered red-lead. 3. 100, sand; 25, plaster of Paris ; 10, red-lead ; 5, yellow ochre, all in powder. Each of these cements must be mixed with boiled oil. Concrete for Foundations. — 5 parts gravel and sand to 1 part fresh- burned stone lime, ground to powdei-, without slaking, and measured dry. Well turn sad shovel- together, with sufficient water to slack the lime into the state of very thick mortar. Chips and small pieces of stone may be added with advantage. Concrete for Masonry. — 1. Screened sand, 9 parts by measure ; slaked lime, 7 ; forge ashes, 1 ; puzzolana, 1. 2. 1, slaked lime , 1, sea sand ; J, furnace ashes. Concrete for Brickwork. — Slaked lime, 7 parts by measure; sand, 12 parts. Hydraulic Mortars. — 1. 2 J parts burnt clay ; 1 part blue lias lime, pul- verized and ground together between rollers. Use immediately 2. 2 parts fresh stone lime ; 3, wood ashes, mixed a^ for common mortar, but must lie until coll and be beiten several times before being used, 3. 4 parts blue lias lime. 6, river sand ; 1, puzzolana ; 1, calcined ironstone. Builders' Mortar. — 1. 3 parts by measure of good sharp sand to 2 parts grey stone lime, mixed with water, or 2 of sand to 1 chalk lime. Sharp road scrapings may be used instead of sand ; and where taken from roads kept ir order with flint or gravel, form a very good mortar. 2. 1 part grey stone lime to 3 river-sand coarse mortal-. 3. 1, stone lime; 4, coarse gravelly sand. 4. 1, lime; 2, river sand; 1, blacksmiths' ashes. 5. 1, lime ; 2, sand ; 1, rough ground coke. Composition for Picture Frames. — 1. To make compo orna- ments for picture frames : Boil 7 lbs. of the best glue in 7 half-pints of water, melt 3 lbs. of white resin in 3 pints of raw linseed oil ; when the ingre- dients are well boiled put them into a large vessel and simmer them for half an hour, stirring the mixture and taking care that it does not boil over. When this is done, pour the mixture into a large quantity of whiting, previously rolled and sifted very fine, mix it to the con- sistence of dough, and it is ready for use. 2. Dissolve 1 lb. of glue in 1 gall, of water; in another kettle boil together 2 lbs of resin, 1 gill of Venice turpentine, and 1 pint of linseed oil ; mix altogether in one kettle, and continue to boil and stir them together till the water has evaporated from the other ingredients ; then add finely-pulverized whiting till the mass is brought to the consistence of soft putty. This composition will be hard when cold, but being waimed, it may be moulded to any shape by carved stamps or prints, and the moulded figures will soon become dry and hard, and will retain their shape and form permanently. .Firework Making, — The three prime materials of the art of jiyrotechny are nitre, sulpluir, and charcoal, along with filings of iron, steel, cojiper, zinc, and resin, camphor, lycopodium, Sic. Gunpowder is used either in grain, hall crushed or finely ground, fci diiferent purposes. The longer the iron filings. 124 WORKSHOP RECEIPTS. the brighter red and white sparks they give; those buiug preferred which are made with a coarse file and quite free from rust. Steel filings and cast-iron borines contain carbon, and aftord a very brilliant rire, with wavy radiations. Copper filings give a greenish tint to flame; those of zinc, a fine blue colour ; the sulphuret of antimony gives a less greenish blue than zinc, but with much smoke ; amber affords a yellow fire as well as colojihony and common salt, but the last must be very dry. Lampblack jiroduces a very red colour with gunpowder, and a pink with nitre in excess. It serves for making golden showers. The yellow sand, or glistening mica, communicates to fireworks golden radiations. Vei'digris imi)arts a pale green ; sulphate of copjier and sal ammoniac, a palm-tree green. Camjihor yields a very white flame and aromatic fumes, which mask the bad smell of other substances. Benzoin and storax are used also on account of their agreeable odour. Lycopodium burns with a rose colour and a magnificent flame. Iron tools must never be used in making fireworks of any kind, as they are liable to throw out sjtarks when striking against a hard stony substance, besides which the sulphur used would injure the iron. Brass tools may be used, but cop])er tools are lucferable. RoCKirrs. — Of all fireworks, rockets are among the most noble and effective. The ingredients for these, the apparatus employed, and the detail of the manu- ficture of them may be considered the (oundation of all fireworks, and to make thern well involves the same principles, and refjuires the same caution, as in making all others. Sue of Rochets. — The size of rockets 18 indiwited by ounces or pounds ; thus we say, au eight-ounce rocket, a pound rocket, and so on; by this expression it ie not meant that the rockets weigh so much as their name indicates, but that the bore or cavity will just sufl'er a leaden bullet of that weight to jiass down them. . For example, n pound rocket will admit n leaden bullet that weighs a tiouu 1. Rockutj may be made of any size from 1 oz. up to 50 or wore pounds. Socket Cases or Cartridges. — These may be made of any kind of stiff thick paper, either cartridge paper or what is equally good and much cheaper, uamely, common bag-cap paper. To roll up the cases you must have a smooth round ruler, or, as it is called, a former, exactly the size of the cavity of the rocket, and 10 or 12 times as long. Then lay a sheet of the paper upon a slab of slate, marble, or glass, and paste 4 or 5 iu. along the end of it, leaving the rest ot the sheet of paper without paste ; then roll it smoothly over the fonuer, dry end first, until the whole is rolled uj), when of course the paste will stick and a thin case be formed. Keep rolling it along the slab with the hands, in the same way as a rolling-pin is used, for two or three minutes, until the various folds of the paper set close and tigiit to each other ; then put on another sheet in the same way, and so on, till the case is thick enough. This is known by the measurement across it. If the former without the case measures five parts, when the case is upon it they must measure together eight parts. That is, the paper must be rolled on till it forms a case, the thickness of the sides of which are a trille more than oue-third of the thickness of the former. The length of the rocket case, and conse- quently the width that the sheets of brown paper are to be cut before pasting, varies with the size of the rockets ; in small rockets the length of the case may be six times the diameter, in larger rockets four or five times i« sudicicnt. When the case has jirnceoded thus far, it is to be choked while yet thunji, that is, to be contracted iu diameter near one end, and for this purpose a simple con- trivance is reiiuisitc, called a choking cord, and also the former is made with a hole drilleil at one end, and a second joint made to fit on by means of a wire projecting at one end of it, and which fits into the hole of the former, Fig. 10. To choke the case, draw the fonm^r partly o-.it, until you can see about 1 inch o( the inner cavity of the woiiKSHOP i:i!,cKii' rs. 125 case, then put on the second joint (the wire of which fits into the hole of the former), and pass this on until its end is Fig. 10. Via. 11. about I an inch within the case, leaving a space of about § an inch between the two joints occupied by the wire alone. Then going to an apparatus similar to that shown in Fig. 11, turn the cord once round the case where the cavity is, put the foot upon the treadle, which tightens the cord and squeezes the paper case at the point required, and that it may squeeze it equally and neatly on all sides the case should be held in the hands and moved up and down upon the cord until the operator sees that it is sutliciently and properly comjiressed. Let it be observed that althourh the choking apparatus used by the firework maker is represented and above alluded to, yet to the amateur it is by no means necessary. What will do quite as well is a thin cord fa tened at one end to a staple ia the wall, and by the other tied round the waist of the operator; as he may lean back, of course the cord would be tightened, and the desired purpose accomplished. When the case is suffi- ciently compressed it is to be tied with two or three turns of strong string. The case is now complete, e.^icept that the part of it where it is choked is perhaps rather rough and uneven insido; this must be compressed down, for much of the effect of the rocket will depend upon the perfect regularity on this part, as it is through the hole left by the wire in the middle of the choke that the fire js afterwards to issue. To compress this part properly a inoulii is neces.«ary. The Rocket Mould is represented in Fig. 12. It consists of a solid foot of wood ; upon the centre of this stands a Bliort cylinder about i an inch high, and exactly of the size of the mould, to be placed over it, as afterwards described ; Fig. 12 tlG. 13. e this short cylinder has a shoulder above, and terminates in a round top. Out of the middle of the top is a tapering thick brass wire, projecting some inches uj>- wards, as is seen in Fig. 13. The whole is so arranged, that when one of the newly- made cases is jmt upon the wire and forced down, the wire fills up the choke- hole, the round top fits into the small parts of the case below the choke, the shoulder of the cylinder bears the ex- treme end of the case, and the short cy- linder agrees in size with the outsides of the case. There fits over this (case anil all) a strong wooden or metal tube ; so that it IS seen that there is no cavity anywhere, except the inside of the rocket case, and even in this a thick wire runs up to nearly the top of that part of tlie case where the composition is rammed, or nearly ^ of the whole case from the choke upwards. The wire above mentioned is called the piercer. All rockets must be placed in the mould to be filled, as well as to smooth and consoli- date the part choked. With the mould are used rammers, Fig. 14, formed of hard wood, of the shape of a popgun-stick ; these rammers being rather less than the dia- meter of the cavity, and having a hole bored up their centre, in order to admit the piercer. It is evident that 126 WORKSHOP RECEIPTS. there must be a complete moulJ, piercer, and one or more rammers for every size rocket. But to proceed with the string; put it in the mould and the rammer down into it, and give this, the latter, a blow or two with a mallet, which driving it down while yet damp with the paste, will render the whole compact and smooth ; and the case being taken out may be placed in an oven, or near the fire, to dry. If it is desired to ornament it in any way or cover it with white paper, this must be done before chokmg. Charging Rockets. — The next process after drying the case is to charge them with the requisite composition. Put the cases in the mould with the piercer in it and put enough composition in to fill about 1 inch of the case ; then, taking the rammer, ram it down with three or four strong blows with a mallet. Then put in the same quantity of composition again and ram that down in the same manner, anil so on till the case is filled to the top of the jiiercer and one diameter above it. Then separate some of the central folds of the paper which it has been observed is not parted, and turn them down upon the composition, ram- ming them down hard upon it, or, what will do as well, put in a piece of paper as wadding When this is rammed down, and firm, bore with a brass bradawl three or four holes through it. These holes serve to m.ike the requisite communica- tion between two parts of the rocket. Oi-, having charged the case, take some comnKjn potters' clay in dry powder, and ram it down hard ujjon the top of the composition, then bore a hole througli it about (»j of an inch diameter, which will allow of the necessary connection between the rammed comiio.sition and the stars in the head or pot of the rocket. Priming Rockets. — The rocket is now supposed to be closed at one end. It only requires to bn primelacing the bottle which contains it In a jug of boiling water. When it is suirici^^ully hot, to every 8 oz. of gum water add 1 f>» of linseed oil. Shake the bottle tilj these are thoroughly mixed and no oil can be seen. Use the moistening Huiil, while hot, in the same manner as directed above for brilliant stars. The following is the composition for tailed stars: — Nitre, 16 parts; meal-powder, 12; anti- mony (sulphuret), 8 ; tine charcoal, 4J ; suljihur, 4. Coloured Stars. — These require con- siderable care in their preparation, the beauty of their performance depending entirely upon the uniform linouess, the intimate union, and the dryness of their ingredients. The various prejiarations which enter into their composition should always be kept ready for use in fine dry powder, preserved in woll-corked or stoppered bottles. The j)ill-boxes for coloured stars are made in the following manner: — Procure a ])iece of straight iron rod, 12 inches long, and from j to J an inch in size ; the usual size for thi.s former is about -^ of an inch. Now cut some cartridge paper into strijis about 8 inches wide, and i'roin to 10 Indies long; paste these strips all over, and roll them round the iron rod closely and neatly. When this is dune, remove the case thus formed from the rod without tearing or breaking it, and set it aside to dry. When dry it will be very hard and stifl'. It can then be cut, by means of a very sharp knife, into little lengths of J an inch each. These lengths are the open jiill-boxes, into which composition is to be rammed for coloured rocket stars. In order to accom])lish the filling of these cases with the least amount of trouble, procure a piece of stick, of a convenient length, and of such a size round that it will ])ass easily into the ]iill-boxes, and with a short groove cut in the side, siilficicnt to allow it to pass the quick-match without injuring it. Next take a small piece of quick-match, about H inch long, and pa.ss it through the pill-box in such a manner that it may )uoject beyond e.ich end about i nn inch. The composition pressed with the stick into these boxes it always slightly moistened ; and by thin means, when once ury, will not be liable "WORKSHOP RECEIPTS. 129 ♦o be shaken out again. The fluid em- ployed for moistening these coloured compositions is a solution of shellac in methylated spirit of wiue. Care must be taken not to make these compositions wet. A very slight moistening is suffi- cient to make them bind well when pi'essed into their cases. Crimson Stars. — 1. Chlorate of potash, 24- parts ; nitrate of stroutia, 32 ; calomel, 12 ; suljihur, 6 ; shellac m fine powder, 6 ; sulphide of copper, 2 ; fine charcoal, 2. 2. Chlorate of potash, 12 parts; nitrate of strontia, 20; sulphur, 11; charcoal, 2 ; antimony, 2 ; mastic, 1. 3. Nitrate of strontia, 72 ; sulphur, 20; gunpowder, 6 ; coal-dust, 2. Rose-coloured Stars. — Chlorate of pot- ash, 20 parts ; carbonate of strontia, 8 ; calomel, 10; shellac, 2; sulphur, 3; fine charcoal, 1. The advantage of this composition is that it is not at all liable to sutler from damp in winter. The car- bonate of strontia is a salt not absorbent of moisture like the nitrate, and is, more- over, always to be had in a state of fine powder. Green Stars. — 1. Chlorate of potash, 20 parts ; nitrate of baryta, 40 ; calomel, 10; sulphur, 8; shellac, 3; fine char- coal, 1 ; fused sulphide of copper, 1. 2. Nitrate of baryta, 42 parts ; realgar, 2 ; sul]ihur, 8; lampblack, 1. 3. Chlorate of potash, 28 parts ; nitrate of baryta, 12 ; sulphur, 15 ; mastic, 1. ' Pale Rose-coloured Stars. — Nitrate of strontia, 8 parts ; chlorate of potash, 4 ; sulphur, 3 ; sulphuret of antimony, 2. Take especial care that the nitrate of strontia used in this formula is very dry. Pale Green Stars. — Nitrate of baryta, 16 parts ; chlorate of potash, 8 ; sulphur, 6 ; antimony, 3. Yellow Stars. — I. Chlorate of potash, 20 parts ; bicarbonate of soda, 10 ; sul- phur, 5; mastic, 1. 2. Chlorate of pot- ash, 30; dried soda, 12; sulphur, 8. Golden Yellow Stars. — Chlorate of pot- ash, 20 parts ; nitrate of baryta, 30 ; oxalate of soda, 15 ; sulphur, 8 ; shellac, 4. If it is thought advisable to give the stars made from this formula » tailed appearance, add one part of fine cbai'coal. ] The composition is to be moistened with the shellac solution. The stars form a beautiful contrast with those of an in- tense blue. Blue Stars. — 1. Chlorate of potash, 8 jiarts ; sulphide of copper, 6 ; Chertier's copper, 5 ; sulphur, 4. 2. Chlorate of potash, 12 parts; Chertier's copper, 6; sulphur, 4 ; calomel, 1. 3. Chlorate of potash, 16 parts; Chertier's copper, 12; calomel, 8; stearine, 2; sulphur, 2; shellac, 1. This gives a most intense blue. 4. Chlorate of potash, 20 parts ; carbonate of copper, 14; sulphur, 12; mastic, 1. 5. Nitre, 12 parts; sulphuret of antimony, 2 ; sulphur, 4 ; lam))black, 2. All these compositions should be moist- ened with gum water, and in No. S the stearine employed must be in fine powder. Violet Stars. — Chlorate of potash, 9 parts ; nitrate of strontia, 4 ; sulphur, 6 ; carbonate of copper, 1 ; calomel, 1 ; mas- tic, 1. TT7aYe Stars. — Saltpetre, 9 parts sulphur, 3 ; antimony, 2. To PREPARE Chertier's Copper. — Take any quantity of common sulphate of copper, or blue vitriol, and dissolve it in as little water as possible ; then take an equal quantity by weight of chlorate of potash and also dissolve it in as little water as will hold it in solution. Mix these two solutions, and boil them gently over a clear fire until the moisture is nearly evaporated ; then dry the green precipitate that remains by a gentle heat. When dry treat it with strong liquor ammoniffi till it changes to a deep blue colour; then let it dry very gradually in a warm place. If this operation be properly performed you will have a fine. very light blue powder, which is Cher- tier's copper. To prepare Nitrate of Strontia. — Procure a common earthenware pipkin, or a glazed iron frying-pan of a con- venient size. Into this place nitrate of strontia in rough crystals. 1 or 2 lbs. will be sutlicieut to prepare at a time. Place the vessel on a clear nre, but do not make it too hot. Now toil, or rather stew, the cryat;>ls in their own water of crystallization. The heat will soon cause thera to run into a thick pulpy masa 130 WORKSHOP RECEIPTS. Wlieu in this state, they must be con- stantly stirred, or upon the evaporation of the moisture they will reassume a crystalline form. Continue then to stir it with a stick or flat piece of wood until tlvB moisture is driven off by the heat, and the salt remains iu the condition of a white dry sand. No strontia can be used for coloured stars or fires unpre- pared, and this operation is proper also for the preparation of the nitrate of baryta. Golden Rain. — Golden rains are made in the following manner : — Procure a piece of brass rod, the diameter of which of an inch, or rather less. The IS Tff length of the former may be from 6 to 8 inches. Cut thin brown paper into short strips, about 2 inches wi<.le, and long enough, when wrapped round the former, to make a case whose external diameter should be J of an inch, or rather more. The former should have a small cup-shaped hollow cut in one of its ends, into which the paper may be turned, to form a closed end to the cases. Paste the strips of paper all over, and also rub some paste on the former ; then roll the pajjer round the former, and draw it out so as to leave its cupped end J of an inch inside one of the ends of the case. Pinch in the paper that projects beyond the former, and drive it down with a tap ui)on the pasting slab, so that the twisted end is ])resse(i into the cup of the former. By this means a neat and secure end is ob- tained for the cases, which may be dipped afterwards into w..rm size or glue. If a little red-lead is mixed with this size, it will solidify much more rapidly. This dip[)ing the ends of the cases into size tihould not be done until they are dry from the p:uste. For filling the cases a tin funnel is used that will exactly fit into the mouth of golden-rain cases. The composition emj)loyed for filling the crises is the following: — 1. Meal - ])Owder, 6 parts; nitre, 1; fine charcoal, 2. 2. meal-powder, 8 parts; fine charcoal, 3. 3. Saltpetre, 1 lb. ; mcal-i)Owder, 4 oz. ; sulphur, 4 oz. ; brass dust, 1 oz. ; saw- ita>t, 2\ oz. ; glass dust, 6 di-s. When the cjuie is charged, the funnel must be removed, and Uie space that was occu- pied by its nozzle filled with gunpowdei or meal-powder moistened with gum water. This will prevent the composi- tion from being shaken out of the cases and at the same time forms the best method of priming them. Take care that this paste is pressed well into the mouth of the cases, and fills them. Silver Sain. — 1. Saltpetre, 4 oz. ; sulphur, mealed powder, and antimony, each 2 oz. ; sal prunella, J oz. 2. Salt- petre, 8 oz. ; sulphur, 2 oz.; charcoal, 4 oz. 3. Saltpetre, 1 lb. ; antimony, 6 oz. ; sulphur, 4 oz. 4. Saltpetre, 4 oz. ; sulphur, 1 oz. ; powder, 2 oz. ; steel dust, f oz. Used in similar cases and treated in the same way as golden rain. PoRTFiUKS. — The portfires used for firing rockets and fireworks are gene- rally made in the following manner : — The former for this purpose should be of brass, and not less than J of an inch in diameter, and the wire for filling them not less than ^ of an inch. Portfire cases are usually made very thin, but prepared in precisely the same manner as that described for golden rains, and are also primed in the same way. The following are the compositions usually employed for portfires. 1. Nitre, 6 parts ; sulphur, 2 ; meal-powder, 1. 2. Salt- petre, 2 lbs. ; sulphur, 3 lbs. ; antimony, 1 lb. 3, Saltjietre, 3J lbs.; sulphur, 2J lbs. ; meal-powder, 1 lb. ; antimony, i 11). ; glass dust, 4 oz. ; brass dust, 1 oz. KOMAN Candlks. — In the manufac- ture of these fireworks the following im- portant points must be observed, namely to have a composition to burn in the inter- vals between the stars, wliich will throw a jet of fire uniformly good throughou',, to have stars of tolerably rapid combur.- tion, otherwise they will not be ignited before they are blown into the air, and to have the charges of powder for blow- ing the stars regulated to a great nicety. The former for the cases must be -J of an inch in di.araeter, and 18 inches long. The cases require rather a large amount of paper and imperial board for their manufacture, but otherwise they are made similar to rocket cases. Jiornan-candle Stars. — The brilliaot stars may be made of the same composj WORKSHOP RKCEIPTS. 131 Fig. 21. tion as that given for rocket stars of that kiod. If, however, a whiter star is re- quired, use the following : — Nitre, 48 parts ; sulphur, 10 ; regulus of antimony, 8 ; realgar, 6 ; red-lead, 4 ; shellac, 1. Yellow Roman-candle stars may be made from the same formula as fhat given for yellow-rocket stars. Green Roman-candle stars may be made from the formulas given for rocket stars; but there is also another formula, which produces a rather deeper tmt, but is hardly rapid enough in combustion for rocket stars. It is the following :- -Nitrate of baryta, 40 parts ; chlorate of potash, 20; calomel, 12; sulphur 12 ; tine shellac, 4 ; fine char- coal, 1. The formulas for crimson, rose, blue, and purple Roman-candle stars are the same as given for rocket stars. In order to make the stars, moisten the compositions very slightly. The mould in which these stars are shaped is a br&ss tube, Fig. 21, of a size proportioned to the size of the Roman- candle case, and is gene- rally about Jg- of an inch smaller in its inner dia- meter than the case. The drift with which the com- position is pressed into the tube, is made of box- wood or metal, and fits easily into the tubular mould. At one of its ends there is a wire point. Place the end having the point in the mould as far as it will go. It will leave a space at the end of the mould un- occupied by the drift. Press this empty end of the tube into the slightly-moistened composition until it is filled by it, so that the drift, being driven down upon the composition, will compress it into a firm cylindrical mass, into the centre of which the wire point projects. When the star is thus fonned in the mould the drift must be withdrawn, reversed, its long plain end inserted, and the star pushed out. Tlie object of making the star hollow is that it may dry and harden perfectly in its centre, and also for the priming of the «tar, which is effected by placing a little piece of quick-match into the hole in the star, and allow it to project about i of an inch above. By this means even slowly-combustible stars are ignited, and almost every chance of failure is avoided. This priming, however, should not he done until the stars are to be put into the cases — at all events, till they are per- fectly diy. Composition for Boman Candles. — 1. Nitre, 18 parts; sulphur, 6; fine char- coal, 7 ; meal-powder, 4. 2. Nitre, 16 parts ; meal-powder, 8 ; fine charcoal, 6; suljihur, 6. 3. Nitre, 16 parts; meal-powder, 11 ; sulphur, (3 ; anti- mony, 4. The next thing is to fill the case. Before filling it introduce a little clay to the bottom of the case, thus form- ing a better and firmer bottom. This being done pi-operly, put in a little coarse powder, and over this a small piece of paper, to prevent the composition mixing with the powder ; then ram down as much composition as will fill the case one-sixth of its height ; over this put a small piece of paper covering about two- thirds of the diameter, then a little corn powder, and upon that a ball, obseiving that the ball is rather smaller than the diameter of the case. Over this first ball more of the composition must be put and rammed lightly down tc prevent break- ing the ball, till the case is one-third full ; then a piece of paper, a little pow- der, and then another ball as before, till the case is filled with balls and composi- tion, taking care to place composition above the highest ball. When the case is thus filled, cap it with touchpaper by pasting it round the orifice, and a little priming of powder being added the work IS complete. Touchpaper. — Obtain some thin blue paper — not so thin as tissue paper but thinner than the ordinary blue paper used by storekeepers ; brush or sponge this over with or dip it into a weak solution of saltpetre, and when well saturated dry for use. Touchpaper should be cut into slips, placed once round tJie mouth of the firework, and tivisted into a point. Quick-match. — Make a thick paste of gunpowder and hot 'vater, wi!h a k2 132 WORKSHOP RECEIPTS. small quantity of gum m it. Take about four strands of cotton, such as is sold in balls and used for makmg the wicks of lamps, steep this m the solu- tion of nitre used for making touch- paper, and wring it as dry as possible ; then rub it well in the gunpowder paste till it is thoroughly covered with it. One end of the cotton may be passed through a small funnel, whose mouth is not more than i of an inch in width. liy this means, if the whole length of the cotton is drawn through it, the superfluous paste will be removed, and the match will be of a nice round form. Hang it out of doors on a dry day, and when it is nearly dry coil it upon a tray or paper, and dust it over with meal-powder. In winter it will not be sulTiciently dry for use uuder a week. When thoroughly dry it should be stiff and hard, and the less it is bent or doubled the better. To use this match for connecting the mouths of dilferent fireworks, or clothing them as it is termed, make some long paper tubes round a wire former which has a dia- meter of not less than -^ of an inch. These pipes are threaded on the match, and have a piece cut away at their side wherever they are inserted into the mouth of a case, in onler that the match may be laid bare and convey its fire to the priming of the cases. Gekdks and Jets of BitiLi.iAxr, Chinesk, and Comjion Fiiiics. — These are certainly among the most beautiful and effective pieces to be met with in the whole range of pyrotechny. They have one great advantage — that there is no limit to the modes of combinatum or arrangement in which these pieces may be efl'cctivcly ein](l()ycplcs of various sizes are emjiloyed, made preferably of metal. The case must now be pressed over the point of the nii)ple. Fig. 22, an-o rounds of thin demy or double-crown white paper, pasted, will give sulficient thickness and substance for the case. The cases, when dry, are to be filled with either of the following compositions in the same way as golden rain : — Compositions for Lances. Wliite. — 1. Nitre, 16 parts ; sulphur, 8 ; meal- powder, 6. 2. Nitre, 16 parts; sulphur, 4; meal-powder, 6. 3. Nitre, 12 parts; sulphur, 4 ; sulphide of antimcoy, 3, 4. Nitre, 72 parts; sulphur, 18 ; regulus of antimony, 33 ; realgar, 1 ; shellac, 1. 5. Nitre, 96 parts; sulphur, 24; regulus of antimony, 48; realgar, 6; shellac, 1. These for the most part give a bluish white flame, and when employed in cases of the size mentioned above, burn slowly, and will last as long as this species of firework is required to last. Yellow. — 1. Chlor. of potash, 72 parts , oxal. soda, 60 ; stearine, 6 ; sulphur, 6. 134 WORKSHOP RECMPTS. 2. Chlor. pot., 40 parts; osal. soda, 16 ; fhellac, 8 ; stearine, 3. Green. — 1. Chior. pot., 60 parts; nitr. baryta, 41 ; calomel, 49 ; powdered sugar, 30 ; shellac, 1. 2. Chlor. pot., 63 jx\rts ; nitr. baryta, 50 ; calomel, 50 ; sugar, 32; shellac, 1. Eincrald Green. — 1. Clilorate of bary- ta, 18 parts; calomel, 7; very fine shellac, 3. 2. Chlorate of baryta, 24 parts; stearine, 3; very fine sugar, 1. Eed Lances. — 1. Chlor. pot., 13 parts; nitr. strontia, 10 ; calomel, 8 ; shellac, 3 ; dextrine, 1 ; Chertier's copper, 1. 2. Chlor. pot., 12 parts; nitr. strontia, 12; calomel, G ; shellac, 4; Chertier's copper, 1 ; fine charcoal, 1. Jiose-coloured Lances. — Chlorate of potash, 2+ parts ; sulphur, 2 ; stearine, 3 ; oxalate of strontia, 4. This composition will i^emain good for any length of time. Blue Lances. — 1. Chlorate of potash, 12 parts ; Chertier's co])per, 6 ; sulpluir, 4 ; calomel, 1. 2. Chlorate of potash, 32 parts; Chertier's copper, 12; calo- mel, 40 ; sugar, 25. 3. Chlorate of pot- ash, 6 parts ; Chertier's copper, 1 ; ca- lomel, 5 ; sugar, 4. Violet. — Chlorate of potash, 26 parts; calomel, 24 ; carbonate strontia, 4 ; Chertier's copper, 3 ; sugar, 14. Lilac. — Chlorate of potash, 12 parts ; prepared chalk, 4; sulphur, 5 ; calomel, 3 , sulphide of copper, 10. Sugar fur pyrotechnic comjiositions must be kojit in a closely-corked or sto]ipored bottle. It should be reduced to powder in a very dry mortar, and then silled through very fine muslin. To exhibit lances procure a board of snificient size for the design, or make a woo. Tlic holes should ■ as nearly as I rssible ^'jf of an iiich in size. It is easier to drive the bradawl with a m.illot than to work it in with the hand. It must nut U driven in f.irther than necessary, tlie Fio. 25. J object being merely to make a clear hole through. It' a block is 2 inches square or rather more it will be quite large enough. The block will le found very useful afterwards. The two ex- treme holes, which are nn opposite sides of the case, are made at the ends of the composition ; the fire issumg from these gives the tourbillon a horizontal revo- lution round its centre of balance. The two inner holes, which are on the under side of the case, should be the same distance from one another that they are from the extreme holes; the fire issuing from these gives the tourbillon its as- cending power. We have now to connect all these holes with quick-match, in order that the composition may take fire at all the four points simultaneously; and unless this is attended to with care, it will not only cause the tourbillon to fire irregularly, but entirely destroy its eflect. i3ogin at one of the under holes, those marked F in Fig. 20, and press into it the end of a piece of uncased quick-match, taking care that Die match reaches the composition. 'I'hen carry the match on to the nearest side hole, ami press it into it. Carry on the quick- matcii over the tipper side of the tour- hilliin to the side hole at the other cn«l of the case, and press it in tiiere; ami. •UORKSIIOP RECEIPTS. 137 lastly, carry it on to tlie remainiDg uuJer hole, and press it into it. Having com- pleted this operation, cut some strips of thin paper, about 1 in. wide, paste them well over, and cover the quick-match with them, holes and all. A very little practice will enable one to adapt this pasted paper very neatly. The tour- billon, if now ignited, will be sure to go somewhere, but in order to regulate its flight we must adjust a stick to it, which shall have the eftect of keeping its under side downwards, and so of compelling it to move upwards perpendicularly. This stick is usually made of beech, 8 inches long, about 1 inch thick, and of a curved shape, in the manner represented at 1 1 in Fig. 26. There is a small hole in their centre through which a flat-headed nail is driven into the tourbillon at its balance point. The stick must, of course, lie at riglit angles with the case in the manner represented at R, Fig. 28. It is a very good plan to put a drop or two of glue Fig. 28. Fig. 29. at the point where the stick touches the case, as it will then be prevented from shifting its ])Osition. lu driving the nail through the stick into the tourbillon, make use of the block represented at M, having previously cut at the bottom of its rounded groove another small groove diagonally, so that when the tourbillon is lying upside down in the large groove, for the purpose of having the nail driven into it, the quick -match that extends across it may lie in the smaller groove, and may not be injured by being crushed, as would otherwise be the case. The nails used should be about f of an inch long, and should have a smooth, fiat head. To fire the tourbillon, place it stick downwards on a level board, and see that it spins easily and ft-eeiy on the head of the nail. Then with a portfire burn through the quick-match in the middle on the upj>er side. The tourbillon will make a few revolutions on the board before it begins to rise. Reference to Figs. 24 to 29. — M, block to receive the tourbillon while it is being bored, m, groove in it to receive the quick-match. N, block, with settle (n) over which tourbillons are rammed. Q Q Q Q, wooden cylinder to enclose tourbillon case. 00 0, iron rings to tighten cylinder. P P, pin to jiass through cylinder and settle to connect them. R, tourbillon complete, with stick attached. S, revolving cradle from which tourbillons are fired, ss, iron spike, with tubular top, in which the cradle revolves. Dkawing-room Fireworks. — Light- ening Paper. — Dry 1000 grains of pure nitre at a moderate heat, place it in a dry retort, pour on it 10 drachms by mea- sure of strong sulphuric acid, and distil until 6 drachms of nitric acid have passed over into the receiver. Dry some thin unsized paper, such as filte- paper, and weigh out 60 grains of it. Mix 5 mea- sured drachms of the nitric acid with an equal volume of strong sulphuric acid in a small glass vessel ; allow the mixture to cool ; immerse the paper, pressing it dewn with a glass rod, cover the vessel with a glass plate, and set it aside for 15 or 20 minutes. Lift the paper out with a glass rod, throw it into a bucket of water, and wash it thoroughly in a stream of water till it no longer tastes acid or reddens blue litmus paper. Dry it by exposure to the air, or at a very gentle heat. Japanese Matches. — Lampblack, 5 ; sulphur, 11 ; gunpowder from 2G to 30 parts, this last proportion varying witli the quality of the powder. Grind very fine, and make the material into a paste with alcohol; form it into dice about \ of an inch square, with a knife or spatula let them dry rather gradually on a warm mantelpiece, not too near a fire. When dry, fix one of the little squares 'into a small cleft made at the end of a lavender stalk, or, what \t 138 WORKSHOP RECEIPTS. better, the solid straw-like material of which housemaids' carpet - brooms are made. Light the material at a candle, hold the stem downward. After the first blazing off, a ball of molten lava will form, from which the curious corus- cations will soon appear. Quick-match. — Quick-match is made of cotton lamp-wick thread, soaked for an hour or two in a mixture of gun- powder, 1| lb., and gum water, made by dissolving 2 oz. of gum-arabic in 1 pint of water, into which the gunpowder should be beaten up till dissolved. The cotton may be 3, 4, or more strands in thickness, and should be wound off out of the mixture, passed through a funnel pipe to make it even, and dried on a frame. It must be enclosed in paper tubes for use, as it will not burn with the necessarj' rapidity if not covered. Another method is by coating lamp- cot. on as thickly as possible with meal- powder, rendered adhesive by mixture of thick gum-arabic, and covered by two strips of paper wound round it spirally, one over the other in opposite direc- tions, the outer one being pasted to the inner. FiUE Bai,ixx)ns. — The material for making a snvall balloon should be a fine, thin, close-textured tissue pa]ier. Having determined that the balloon shall con- sist of a specific number of gores, or sections, say 34- or 16, a pattern for cutting them by should be made of jiasteboard, or some tolerably hard sub- stance. Suppose the entire height of the balloon, without its ajijienflages, is to be .3 feet, and the number of gores 32, an elegant shape will be got by making the pattern 1 inch wide at one end, 3 inches at t he other, and 8 inches at its broadest part, which should be at one-third of its length, if the balloon is intended to have a pear- like figure. Varnish the gores with the ordinary boiled oil, and hang thcni up singly on linos till [lorfcftly dry. They are next to be put together, which may be done with gum water or clean thin j>.iste. After p.usling or gumming about J an inch of one of the gores, lay the ea8ted, and then double over about J of an inch of it, dabbing it iightly from end to end with a clean cloth, to ensure its holding securely. Two of the gores being thus united, unite two others in like manner, and so on, until, if there were 32 gores in all, the number i» reduced to 16. In like manner ]iro ceed till the number is eight, then four, and then two ; hanging the section* up at every pasting, so that they may get thoroughly dry whilst proceeding. The two halves are last of all to be con- nected in the same way ; and this part of the undertaking is then completed. A circle of wire, about 6 inches in diameter, should be worked into the bottom of it, to keep the fabric of the balloon at a sufficient distance from the flame of the spirit. Another wire may be fixed icross this circle to hold a piece of sponge, which should be immersed in spirits of wine. A smouldering piece of brown paper held underneath the aperture will in a few minutes put the balloon in an ascending condition. Having thus inflated the balloon, ignite the piece of sponge, and let it rise. When it is intended to inflate the balloon with hydrogen or coal gas, the latter apparatus is not needed ; but a light car, or any other ornament proportioned to the ascending power of the balloon, may be appended to it, which will have the effect of maintaining it in the right position, and also of keep- ing it longer in sight than would other- wise be the case. Saltpktrk from damaged Gunpow- der. — Dissolve the powder in warm water, filter the solution through fine linen bags, and then evaporate the water by boiling it, until the solution is of suf- ficient strength to crystallize. StRPEN'TS, OR Syuiits. — 1. Mealed powder, 1 lb. 8 oz. ; charcoal, 4 oz. ; sul- phur, 1 oz. ; saltpetre, 3 oz. 2. Mealed j)owder, 1 lb.; charcoal, 1 oz. ; salt]ietre Ij oz. ; steel filings, 1 oz. The case is m.ade by rolling cartridge paper in slips of G or 8 inches in breadth round a for- mer, and p.asting down the last fold, for seri)ents. The case, having been choked at one end, is filled by inserting a funnel into the case, filling the funnel with cora- jiositioa, and gently moving a rod or ram- WORKSHOP RECEIPTS, 139 mer up and down the fuDuel-pjpe, the rod being introduced before the composition. A piece of touchpapcr is fastened to the end. For squibs, before filling the case, ram in hare' a thimbleful of coarse gun- powder. Showers of Fiue. — Chinese Fire. — Mealed powder, 1 lb.; sulphur, 2 oz. ; iron filings, 5 oz. Ancient Fire. — Mealed powder, 1 lb. ; charcoal, 2 oz. To form a shower of fire, mould small paper cases on a rod, ^ of an inch in diameter, and 2J inches in length. They must not be choked, as it will be sutFicient to twist the end of the case, and having put the rod into it, beat it to make it assume its form. When the cases are filled, which is done bv immersing them in the coin- position, fold down the other end, and then apply a match. They must be fixed on a frame with leaders, to be flred si- multaneously. Pin, or Catherine, Wheels. — Mealed powder, 12 oz. ; saltpetre, 3 oz. ; sul- phur, li oz. The pipe or case is made on a lono; wire former, about -A- of an mch in diameter, into which the compo- sition is poured through a funnel, and shaken down. The case is then rolled round a small circleof wood about 1 inch in diameter, and not more than ^ an inch thick, with a hole through the centre of it for a nail, or pin. One end of the case is to be pasted round the wood, and each half turn of it secured with sealing wax, or a strip of paper pasted across the wheel. The end is then primed. Crackers. — The case is made of cart- ridge paper, the dimensions required being 15 mches by 3J mches. First fold down one edge, about f of i\i inch broad, then turn down the double edge about \ of an inch, and bend bacK the single edge over the double fold, so as to form within a channel, which is to be filled with mealed powder, not ground very fine ; the powder is then to be covered by the folds on each side, and the whole is to be pressed by a flat ruler ; and the part containing the powder is to be folded inio the remainder of the paper, every fold being pressed down. The cracker is then doubled backwards and forwards in folds about 2\ inches, which are pressed quite close, and a piece of twine is passed twice round the middle across the folds, and the joinings secured by causing the twine to take a turn round the middle at each fold successively one of the ends of the folds may be doubled short under, which will produce an extra report ; the other must project a little beyond the rest for the purpose of being primed. Coloured Fires. — In the preparation of coloured fires the utmost care should be taken to have the com]ionent parts ot the mixtures well triturated apart from each other, passed through fine sieves, and kept separately in stoppered bottles. They do not improve by keeping, and therefore should be used as soon as pos- sible after mixing. The proper amount of each ingredient being parcelled out and placed on a sheet of glass or paper, the whole is carefully mixed with a light hand by means of a bone or wooden knife, a common paper knife for instance. Chlo- rate of potassa must be treated with especial caution, as it is very liable to explosion from friction whilst in contact with combustible matter. Blue Fire. — 1. Sulphur, sulphate of potassa, and ammonio-sulphate of copper, of each, 15 parts; nitre, 27; chlorate ot potassa, 28. For theatrical illuminations. 2. Metallic antimony, 1 part ; sulphur, 2 ; nitre, 5. 3. Sulphate of copper, 7 parts ; sulj)hur, 24 ; chlorate of potassa, 69. Crimson Fire. — Chlorate of potassa, 41 parts ; alder or willow charcoal, .'>} ; sulphur, 22^ ; nitrate of strontia, 67^. For pots. Green Fire. — 1. Charcoal and sul- phuret of arsenic, of each. If part ; sulphur, lOJ ; chlorate of potassa, 23| ; nitrate of baryta, 62^. 2. Nitrate of baryta, 77 parts ; chlorate of potassa, 8 ; fine charcoal, 3 ; sulphur, 13. 3. Metallic arsenic, 2 parts ; charcoal, 3 ; chlorate of potassa, 5; sulphur, 13; nitrate of baryta, 77. Lilac Fire. — Black oxide of copper, 6 parts ; dry chalk, 20 ; sulphur, 25 ; chlorate of potassa, 49. Purple Fire. — 1. Sulphuret of anti- mony, 2f parts ; black oxide of copper, 10; sulphur and nitrate of potassa, of each, 22J ; chlorate of potassa, 42. 2. uo WORKSHOP RECEIPtS. Sulphur, 12 parts ; black oxide of copper, 12 ; chlorate of potassa, 30. lied Fire. — 1. Sulpluir, sulphuret of antimonv, and nitre, of eacli, 1 part ; dried nitrate of strontia, 5. 2. Chlorate of potassa, 20 parts; sulphur, 24-; nitrate of strontia, 56. 3. Coal-dust, 2 parts ; gunpowder, 6 ; sulphur, 20 ; dried ni- trate of strontia, 72. 4. Nitrate of strontia, 37 J parts; flowers of sulphur, 10 ; charcoal, IJ ; powdered chlorate of potash, 5; black sulphur of antimony. -8 Violet Fire. — Charcoal, 8 parts ; sul- phur, 10; metallic co])per, 15". chlorate of potassa, 30. Wliite Fire. — 1. Nitre, 60 parts; sul- phur, 20; black antimony, 10; meal- j'owder, 6 ; powdered camphor, 4. 2. Gunpowder, 12J parts; zinc filings, 18; sulphur, 23 ; nitre, 4GJ. 3. Charcoal, 1 j)art ; sulphur, 24 ; niti-e, 75. yellow Fire. — 1. Sulphur, 16 parts; dried carbonate of soda, 23 ; chlorate of potassa, 61. 2. Charcoal, 6 parts; sul- phur, 19J. For pans. PvROTKCiiN'ic Mixtures: — White Light. — Saltpetre, 8 parts ; sul- phur, 2 ; antimon)', 2. Hcd Liijld. — Nitrate of strontia, 20 parts; chlorate of potash, 5; suli)hur, l)J ; charcoal, 1. Blue Light. — Chloride of potash, 9 parts ; sulphur, 3 ; carbonate of cop- per, 3, Yellow ZiV/aste cajjuble of ignition by fric- tion. This paste contains — 1. Common jihosphorus, 4 parts; nitre, 16; red- lead, 3; strong lead, 6. 2. Ordinary phosjihorus, 9 jiarts ; nitre, 14 ; bin- oxide of manganese, 14 •, gum or glue, 16. Melt the glue at 212° K., gra- dually add the phosphorus, which must be well stirred into the liquid ; then add the nitre and colouriofr matter. Keep the paste at a regular temperature of about 97° F. by means of hot water under the marble or cast-iron slab on which it is spread whilst the matches are being dipped. If gum is used, all the operations may be more easily per- formed, as the materials can be mixed cold ; but the matclies made with gum are easily spoilt by damp. Matchks without Sulphur. — Char the ends of the splints with red-hot iron, dip them into a thin layer of stearic acid, or wax, melted in a llat-bottomt^d tinned copper jian. The dipping paste for these matches is ordinary phos- phorus, 3 parts; strong glue, 3 '5; water, 3; fine sand, 2*0; colouring matter, "1 to *5; chlorate of potash, 3. Tliese matches burn readily, with a bright flame, and have no unpleasant smell. Amorjihous jihosj)horus nut being poisonous, or liable to accidental igni- tion, is preferable to ordinary phosphorus. The paste used is amorphous phospho- rus, 3 parts ; chlorate of potash, 4 ; glue, 2*5; water, 5 ; poun, weighed dry. The ingredients must be thorougiily mixed, and care must be taken not to mix the chlorate of pofasli in the dry state with the other mate- rials ; it should be mixed first with glue dissolved in warm water. The paste lor the rubbing surface may be spread with a brush or spatula on the side of the box. MATCuia WITHOUT Phosphorus.— 1. For the ])roduction of these lucifers n mixture of from 4 to 6 parts of chlnr.ite of potash, and 2 jiarts each of bichro- m.ite of potash, and of oxide of iron or of loacl, with 3 parts strong glue is used. For the igniting surface, a mixttre of 29 parts suljihate of antimony, 2 to 4 parts bichromate of potash, 4 to 6 part.-* WORKSHOP RECEIPTS, 141 oxide of either iron, lead, or manganese, 2 parts of glass powder, and from 2 to 3 parts strong glue or gum. These matches will ignite only on the friction surface thus prepared. 2. For the match-heads a mixture of chlorate of potash and a compound of hyposulphur- ous acid with soda, ammonia, and oxide and sub-oxide of copper. This com- pound is formed by dividing a solution of copper into two equal parts, super- saturating one of Ihem with ammouia, and the other with hyposulphate of soda ; then mixing the two solutions, and stirring the mixture well, a violet pow- der precipitates. One part of it is to be mixed with 2 parts of the chlorate of potash, and a small quantity of pounded glass. Lucifers made in this way are, however, objectionable, from the fact that they will ignite on any rough sur- face, even more easily than the common kind. Gun-Cotton. — There are several- varieties of gun-cotton — the explosive, soluble only in acetic ether ; pyroxiline, soluble in sulphuric ether and alcohol ; and xyloidine. All these are formed by the action of nitric acid on cotton or lignine iu some form. The difference between them consists mainly in the strength and temperature of the acids employed in their preparation. The most explosive is prepared with the strong acids, sulphuric and nitric, mixed, the object of the sulphuric being to take water from the nitric, and so leave the latter m its full strength to combine with the lignine or cotton. The first thing to be done is to thoroughly cleanse the raw material. This is effected by boiling it in an alkaline solution, then drying it in a current of air, and then again boiling it in clean water. After the second boiling it must be very thoroughly dried at about 120° F. The cotton must be very thoroughly dried, as any moisture which might remain in it would, by combining with the acid, generate heat, and set up a destructive action. The cotton, in charges of 1 lb., is. placed separately in a bath containing the mixed acids, the mixture in which the cotton is submerged consisting of 3 parts by weight of Nordhausen sulphuric acid, specific gravity 1'84-, and L part of nitric a:ld, specific gravity 1'5; this mixture allowed to cool down — a pro- cess which occupies two or three days — before the cotton is placed m it. After immersion, the charges of cotton are strained until each contains only about 10 times its weight of acids, and each charge is then placed in an earthenware jar and covered down. In or lor to pre- vent any heating from taking place, the jars should be placed in a current of co'd water. The cotton after beinj ex- posed to the acid for 48 hours, in order to ensure its thorough conversion, is removed from the jars and squeezed nearly dry. It is then to be suddenly plunged into a strong fall of cold water, and left for a short time. The object of placing the gun-cotton in the fall of water is to ensure the sudden and com- plete submersion of the material, and thus avoid the heating and decomposi- tion of the cotton, which would take place at the surface of the water if the cotton were immersed gradually. On its removal from the fall of water, the gun-cotton is wrung dry, and placed in a stream of water for 48 hours. After being washed and partly dried several times more, the cotton should be thoroughly dried at the temperature ot no more than 140° F. It is now so ex- plosive that great care is required in its arrangement, being about three times as explosive as gunpowder. As thus pre- pared gun-cottou scarcely differs from unchanged cotton in appearance ; it is white and fibrous, and rather harsh to the touch. If only a small quantity is required — 1. Mix 4| oz. of pure, dry, nitrate of potash with 30 fluid drachms of sulphuric acid, sp. gr. 1*845, and stir into this mixture carefully 120 grs. of best carded cotton. As soon as satura- tion is complete, in about one minute, if proper care has been used, throw the cotton into a large pan of clean rain water, and change the water repeatedly until litmus ceases to show the presence of acid, then squeeze it in a cloth, and, after being well pulled out, dry it at a temperature of about 180°. 2. Take 142 WORKSHOP IIECEIPIS. of cotton 1 oz., sulphuric acid, 5 fl. oz., nitric acid, 5 H. oz. ; mix the acids iu a porcelain mortar, immerse the cotton in the mixture, and stir it for three minutes with a glass rod, decant the liquid, pour more water oa the mass, and repeat the process until the washing ceases to give a precipitate with chloride of barium. Drain the product on filtering paper and dry in a water bath. Nitro-Glycerine. — Nitro-glyce- rine is made in tiie ibllowing manner : — Fuming nitric acid (sp. gr. about 1 52) is mixed with twice its weight of the stJ'oiigest suljihuric acid, in a vessel kept cool by being surrounded with cold water. When this acid mixture is pro- I)erly cooled, there is slowly poured into it rather more than i of its weight of syrui)y glycerine ; constant stirring is kept up during the addition of the gly- cerine, and the vessel containing the mixture is maintained at as low a tem- perature as possible bj' means of a sur- rounding of cold water, ice, or some fi'eezi ig mixtuie. It is necessary to avoid any sensible heating of the mix- ture, otherwise the glycerine, which is the sweet piincii>le of oil, would be, to a considerable extent, transformed into oxalic acid. When the action ceases, nitro-glyceiine is produced. It foims on the surface as an oily-looking fluid, the uudecomposed sulphuric acid form- ing the subjacent layer, owing to its greater specific gravity. The whole mixtuie is then poured, with constant Stirling, into a large quantity of cold water, when the relative specific gra- vities become so altered that the nitro- glycerine subsiiJes and the diluted acid rises to the surface. After the separa- tion in this manner into two layers is ellec'-cd, the iijijier hiycr may lie removed by the process of decantation or by nieais of a sii>hon, and the remaining nitro-glycerine is w.ashed and re-wiished with fresh water till not a trace of acid reaction is indicated by blue litmus paper. The final purifying jiroce.ss is to crystallize the uiti'o-glyceriue from its solution in wood naphtha. The final process is not necessary when the com- pound ii Co be usc^l at once. As pia- pared in this manner, nitro-gly(erine is an oily-looking liquid, of a faint yellow colour, ])trtectly inodorous, and possessed of a sweet, aromatic, and somewhat pi- quant taste. It is poisonous, small doses of it producing headache, which may also be produced if the substance is ab- sorbed into the blood through the skin, and hence it is not desirable to allow it to remain long in contact with the skin, but rather to wash it otl'as soon as pos- sible with soap and water. Glycerine has a specific gravity of 1' 25-1* 2(3, but the nitro-glycerine has a specific gravity of almost I'G, so that it is a heavy liquid. It is practically insoluble in water, but it readily dissolves iu ether, in ordinary vinic alcohol, and iu methy- lic alcohol or wood spirit. If it is simply exposed to contact with tire it does not explode, although it is so pow- erful as an exi)lo«:ve. A burning match may be introduced into it without pro- ducing any explosion ; the match may be made to ignite the li(iuid, but com- bustion will cease as soon as the m.itcli ceases to burn. Nitro-glyccriue may even be burned by means of a cotton wick or a strip of bibulous paper, as oil from a lam]), anil as harmlessly. It remains fixed and perfectly unchanged at 212^ v.- if heated to about 8tJU°, however, it explodes. It aetouatcs when struck by the blow of a hammer, but only the part struck by the hammer ex- plotles ; the surrounding liquid remains unchanged. As the carriage of nitro- glycerine is dangerous, many trials have Ijeen made to reniler it inexplosive, and to restore its exjdosiveness with equal readiness. Nobel's method of making it ii\explosive is at once simple and effective. It is to mix with it from 5 to 10 per cent, of wood spirit, when all attempts at exjiloding it are rendered utterly futile. Five jicr cent, of inelhyl- aicohol is said to be amjjly suflicient to transform the nitro-glycerine into the ;nexi)losivc or protected state, but 10 per cent, is generally a.lded before send- ing any liquid into the market. The transformation of ]irotected into ordi- n.irv nitro-glyccrine is eJlected by tho- roughly agitating it with water, aiji WORKSHOP RECEIPTS. 143 allowing the mixture to settle for a short time. By this means the water dissolves out the methyl-alcohol, and the mixture of spirit and water readily rises to the surface, in virtue of its low spe- cific gravity, and can be removed by means of a siphon, or by simply pouring it off. As a blasting liquid it is now ready for use. If protected blasting liquid hi kept in a closed vessel, it will remain in that state for an indefinite period of time, and ready at any moment to be reduced or rendered fit for action ; if, however, it be exposed in an open vessel, it will regain its explosiveness, in periods of time proportionate to the amount or degree of exposure. For blasting purposes, the chief advantage which nitro-glycerine possesses is that it requires a much smaller hole or chamber than gunpowder does, the strength of the latter being scarcely -jL that of the former. A chamber, 34 millimetres in diameter, was made perpendicularly in a dolomitic rock, 60 ft. in length, and at a distance of 14 ft. from its extremity, which was nearly vertical. At a depth of 8 ft., a vault filled with clay was found, in consequence of which the bottom of the hole was tamped, leaving a depth of 7 ft. One litre and a half of nitro-glycerine was then poured in ; it occupied 5 ft. A match and stopper were then applied as stated, and the mine sprung. The effect was so enormous as to produce a fissure 50 ft. in length, and another of 20 ft. Nitro-glycerine has, however, one disadvantage. It freezes at a temperature very probably above 92° F., and it is said that even at a tem- perature of 43° to 46° F. the oil solidi- fies to an icy mass, which mere friction will cause to explode. It is probable, however, that the freezmg-point of the oil lies somewhat lower than is here stated, though as yet no exact determi- nation of the freezing-point of the oil has been made. Great care must be ex- ercised whilst it is in a frozen state, as otherwise it will cause most dreadful accidents. Dynamite is made by mixing 75 per cent, of nitro-glyc*rine with 25 per fent. of powdered sand. Dynamite re- tains all the properties of nitro-glycerine for blasting, but is not so dangerous, as it may be handled freely. Explosion is produced by means of a percussion cap in the same manner as with nitro- glycerine. Fulminates. — Fulminate of Mer- cunj. — 1. This highly-explosive com- pound consists of protoxide of mercury united with an acid ; fulminic acid, formed of cyanogen and oxygen. Ful- minate of mercury is prepared by causing alcohol to react on the acid proto- nitrate. A quantity of mercury is dis- solved in 12 parts of nitric acid of 35° or 40°ofBaume, and 11 parts of alcohol at "86 are gradually added to the solu- tion ; while the temperature is slowly elevated, a lively reaction, accompanied by a copious evolution of reddish va- pours, soon ensues, when the liquid, on cooling, deposits small crystals of a yel- lowish white colour. Fulminate of mer- cury is one of the most explosive com- pounds known, and should be handled with great care, especially when it is dry, and it detonates when rubbed against a hard body. It dissolves rea- dily in boiling water, but the greater portion is again deposited in crystals during cooling. The fulminating mate- rial of percussion caps is made of ful- minate of mercury prepared as just, stated, after having been washed in cold water. The substance is allowed to drain until it contains only about 20 per cent, of water, and is then mixed with I of its weight of nitre, which mixture is ground on a marble table with a muller of guiacum-wood. A small quantity of the paste is then placed in each copper cap and allowed to dry, the fulminating powder in the cap being often covered with a thin coat of varnish to preserre it from moisture. 2. Weigh out 25 grains of mercury in a watch- glass, transfer it to a half-pint pipkin, add a measured J oz. of ordinary con- centrated nitric acid, sp. gr. 1*42, and apply a gentle heat. As soon as the mercury is completely dissolved, place the pivkin upon the table away from any flame, and pour quickly into it, at arm's length, 5 measured drachms oi 141 WORKSHOP RECEIPTS. slcoliol, sp. gr. 0'87. A brisk action will eusue, aad heavy white clouds will arise. When this action has subsided, lill the pipkin with water, allow the fulminate to settle, and then pour off the liquid acid. Collect the fulminate on a filter, and wash with water as long as the washing tastes acid, then dry by exposure to the air. This exjilodes at a temjierature of 360^ F., or by being touched by a glass rod which has been dipped in concentrated nitric or sul- phuric acid. An electric spavk also C.\]ilodcs it. Fulminate of Silver. — Dissolve 10 grains of pure silver, at a gentle heat, in 70 minims of ordinary concentrated ni- tric acid, sp. gr. 1*42, and 50 minims of water. As soon as the silver is dis- solved the heat is removed, and 200 mmims of alcohol, sp. gr. 0'87, are added. If the nitric acid and alcohol are not of the exact strength here given it may be difficult to start the action, in which case add two or throe drops of red nitric acid, which contains nitrous acid. Standard silver, containing co])per, may be used for the preparation of the fulminate. If the action does not com- mence after a short time, a very gentle heat may be applied until effervescence begins, when the fulminate of silver will be ilepositcd in minute needles, and may be further treated as in the case of ful- minate of mercury. As the fulminate of silver is exploded much more readily than the fulminate of mercury, it must be handled with the greatest caution when dry. It should be separated into *mall quantities, each j)ortion wrajipod n paper, and kejit in a cardboard box, nothing harder than this should be brought in contact with it. This mix- ture IS of no use for percussion c;ips, being too violent in its action. Tltrow-dmn Detonntinij Cracher. — Screw up a particle of fulminate of silver m a ]>iece of thin paper, witii Kome Irag- mouts of a crushed rjuartz ])irljMe. JJ'/u'/lo FulmiTUit<; of Silver and Am- mmi'i. — Dissolve fulminatj of silver in warm ammonia : the solution, on cooling, will de[)Osit crystals of the doul)lc ful- mina'e This is very violent in its ex- plosion, and is dangerous whilst still moist. Fulminating Plalinxm. — Dissolve bin- oxide of platinum in diluted sulphuric acid, mix the solution with excess of ammonia, a black j)recii>itate is ob- tained, which detonates violently at about 400° F. Fuliniiialiii;/ Gold. — Add ammonia to a solution of terchlorido of gold ; the but! precipitate which it deposits is violently exjjlosive at a gentle heat. Terchloride of Gold. — Dissolve gold in hydrochloric acid, with one-fourth of its voluijie of nitric acid. Evaporate on a water bath to a small bulk ; when cool, 3'ellow prismatic crystals of a compound of the terchloride, with hydrochloric acid are deposited, from which the hy- drochloric acid may be expelled by a gentle heat, not exceeding 250° F. The terchloride forms a red brown deliques- cent mass, which dissolves very readily in water. Gunpowder. — Tlie component parts of gunpowcr are saltpetre, sul- ])luir, and charcoal, uscJ in the follow- ing jiroportions : — 1. English war pow- der. — Saltjietre, 75 parts ; sul]iluir, 10 ; charcoal, 15. 2. French war powder. — Saltpetre, 75 parts; sulphur, 12*5; charcoal, 12 "5. 3. French sporting powder. — Saltpetre, 76*9 parts; sul- ]ihur, i)"G; charcoal, 13'5. 4. French blasting jjowder. — Saltjietre, G2 parts; sulphur, 20 ; charcoal, 18. There are a number of variations of the above re- ceipts; but the difference, wliich is purely a matter of opinion, consists lirincii)ally in varying the quantity of sulphur or charcoal employed. Saltpetre. — Crude saltpetre cannot be used for making guii]H)wder. The crys- talline flour, quite free ironi chloride, is the best for the i)urpose. The wash- ing jirocess is carried so far that nitr.ite of silver produces no precipitate in the purified siiltpetre. The general rule is to use the saltpetre whilst sliL;'itly dam]), allowing for the proportion of moisture when mixing with the other ingredients. This saves the processes of drying and giiiiding the saltpetre before mixing with the sulpimr and charcoal. Workshop REcEip'fg. 145 ^W fc* rr^— T m _ Sl'lpuur. — Refined sulphur in rolls is used. This must be reduced to an impalpable powder, which is usually pffected by placing the sulphur in hollow wooden drums, having projections, or brackets inside. A number of small brass balls are put into the drum with the sulphur, and the drum is made to rerolve for six hours, when the action of the balls and projections reduces the sulphur to very tine powder, which is theu extracted through wire gauze. Any small particles of sand, or unequally pul- verized sulphur, are then separated by 3 bolting machine. Charcoal. — The quality of the char- coal depends greatly upon the material from which it is obtained, and the manner in which it is prepared. The soft, woody parts of plants, which yield a friable, porous charcoal, leaving very little ash, are preferred. Black alder, and spindle tree, poplar, chestnut, vine- stalks and willow, are most esteemed. Ilemp-stalks, fibres of flax, and old linen also yield a very good charcoal. Remove the bark, leaves, and smaller branches, selecting branches from 1 to 2 inches in thickness. These are to be cut into lengths of 5 or 6 feet, and tied in bun- dles, weighing about oO lbs. The wood will not be injured by exposure to the rain, as that tends to remove extrac- tive matter. The carbonization is cfTected either in pits,' or in cast-iron cylinders. The yield of charcoal is 18 to 20 per cent., when prepared in pits ; and from 35 to 40 per cent, when pre- pared in the cast-iron cylinders. The process of manufacture is similar to that adopted for ordinary charcoal, the pits or cylinders, however, replacing the or- dinary kiln. If the charcoal is intended for sporting powder, it may be with- drawn whilst of a brown colour, when it IS called red charcoal. This would make a powder too explosive for war purposes ; this must be prepared from the black or distilled charcoal, which is more completely calcined, and is used by all English makers. The best quality has a bluish black colour, is light, firm, and slightly flexible, and should be used im- Dnediately it is made, as it rapidly dete- riorates by keeping. Charcoal that has been too highly burned for war powder is used in the manufacture of blasting powder, as that need not be so inflam- mable. Pulverizing. — The required quantities of sulphur and charcoal are thoroughly pulverized, and icvimately mixed, by being rolled for about four hours in a cast-iron drum, with numerous small brass balls, at a speed of about 28 revo- lutions a minute. When the mixture is complete, the powdered sulphur and charcoal is removed from the drum, and a proportionate quantity of salt- petre IS added. Great care must bo used in weighing out the various ingre- dients, according to the quality of the powder required, as upon that, and the complete mixing of the materials, the success of the manufacture depends. Mixing. — The powder is put in a mixing machine, which is a leatherdrum, in wliich are placed numerous small bronze balls. The machine revolves at from 23 to 30 revolutions a minute, aiid in about 4 hours' time the mixing is complete. Granulating. — The powder having been damped and pressed into cakes, must then be crushed to the required size of grain. It is first roughly broken into lumps by small mallets ; it IS then fed into the granulating machine, which is caused to revolve for 35 or 40 minutes, at about 10 revolutions a minute. A small stream of water enters the granulator ; the movement of the machine rolling the damp grains con- stantly among the dry meal jiowder, causes the latter to adhere to their sur- face, and each grain is thus increased by concentric layers. When the small meal powder is all absorbed by the action of the granulator, the material is placed in a barrel ready for equalization. Uqualizing. — The grains as they come fi'om the granulator are of various sizes, they are therefore sifted over two lea- ther or parchment sieves, one of which is pierced to separate the grains which are too large, wliilst the other allows all the dust to pass through, retaining only the grains which are of the desired sue UQ WOKKSHOP RECEIPTS. The small refuse powder which has passed through the sieve, is again iilaced in the gvanulator, and acted upon as be- fore described. Glazing.— The powder is placed m a cask, or barrel, which revolves on its axis at about 40 revolutions a minute ; by the friction of the grains against each other they become round, smooth, and polished, in which state the powder will bear the shaking and ft-iction of carriage without injury, and is less likely to absorb moisture than when in rough and angular grains. Drying. — The powder must not be too rapidly dried, a temperature commenc- ing at about 66° F,, and gradually in- creased to 130° or 140° F., is a safe one ; the operation reqt.ires from 3 to 4 hours, and is best performed in a room warmed by steam pipes or hot-air flues. The powder is then fi', for use, and may be packed in sacks, to be after- wards placed in casks, or in double casks ; sporting powder is usually packed in tin canisters. Pharaoh's Serpents.— Fuse in a crucible equal jiarts by weight of yellow prussiate of potash and flower of sul- phur, frequently it is advisable, if the heat cannot be well regulated, to include a little carbonate of potash; lixiviate the mass with water and filter; the fil- trate will be sul]ihocyanide of potas- Bium, which, upon being added to a solu- tion of mercury dissolved in nitric acid, gives a copious precipitate of suljiho- cyanide of mercury ; collect this ; wash well with water, and dry ; roll into a small pyramid, cover with tin-foil, and when dry it is re.ady to b<' lit. Enfjraving on Wood. — I:'n- gnver's Lamp. — A clMr and steady light, directed immediately ujion the block to be cut, is a most important point, and in working by lam)diglit it is necessary to protect the eyes from its heat and glare. The lamp shown in Fig. 30 can be raised or lowered at plea- sure by sli'ling the bracket uj. or down the standard, it being fiiooint ; D is tcciinically termed the belly. The horizontal line, 2, siiows the surface of the block. All the handles when received from the turner's are circular, but as soon a.s the tool has been inserted a segment is cut away from the lower part, so that the tool may clear the block. The blade should bo very fine at the jioint, so that the line it cuts may not be visible when the block 'a printed, its WORKSHOP RECEIPTS. 147 chief duty being to form a termination to a number of lines running in another direction. Although the point should be fine, the blade must not be too thm, for It would then only make a small open- ing, which would probably close up when the block was put in the press. When the tool becomes too thin at the point, the lower part must be rubbed on a hone to enable it to cut out the wood instead of sinking into it. Nine gravers of different sizes, starting fi-om the outline tool, are sufficient for ordi- nary work. The blades as made are very similar to those used in copper- plate engraving ; the necessary shape for wood engraving is obtained by rubbing the points on a Turkey stone. The faces, and part of the backs, of nine gravers of different sizes, are shown on Fig. 32 ; Fio. 32. r FrrA'"¥ the dotted line, A C, shows the extent to which the tool is sometimes ground down to broaden the point. This grind- ing rounds the point of the tool, instead of leaving it straight, as shown at A B. Except for the parallel lines, called tints, these gravers are used for nearly all kinds of work. The width of the line cut out is regulated by the thick- ness of the graver near the pomt, and the pressure of the engraver's hand. Tint-tools. — The parallel lines form- ing an even and uniform tint, as in the representation of a clear sky, are ob- tained by what is called the tint-tool, which is thinner at the back, but deeper at the side, than the graver, and the aagle of the face at the point is much more acute, as shown on Fig. 33 : A is a side view of the blade ; B shows the faces of nine tint-tools of varying fine- ness. The handle is of the same form as that used for the graver. The graver should not be used in place of the tint- tool, as from the greater width of its point a very slight inclination of the hand will cause a perceptible irregu- FiG. 33. rr-'i -J-'Y-'i Bll •m/i larity in the distance of the lines, be- sides tending to undercut the line left, which must be carefully avoided. Fig. 34 shows the points and faces of the Fig. 34. A V two tools, from a comparison of which this statement will be readily under- stood. As the width of the tint-tool at B is little more than at A, it causes only a very slight difference in the distance of the lines cut, if inclined to the right or the left, as compared with the use of the graver. Tint-tools that are strong in the back are to be preferred as less likely to bend, and giving greater free- dom of execution than weak ones. A tint- tool that i;3 thicker at the back than at the lower part, leaves the black raised lines solid at their base, as in Fig. 35, Fig. 36. FiQ. 35. the block being less liable to damage than in the case of Fig. 36, in which the lines are no thicker at their base than at the surface. The face of both gravers and tint-tools should be kept rather long than short ; though if the point be ground too fine it will be very liable to break. When, as in Fig. 37, the face is long, — or, strictly speaking, when the angle formed by the plane of the face L 2 U8 WORKSHOP RECElPTii. and the lower line of the blade is com- pfiratively acute, — a line is cut with Fig. 37. much greater clearness than when the face is comparatively obtuse, and the small shaving cut out turns gently over towards the hand. When, however, the face of the tool approaches to the shape seen in Fig. 38, the reverse happens ; the Fig. 38. :^ small shaving is rather ploughed out than cleanly cut out ; and the force necessary to push the tool forward frequently causes small pieces to fly out at each side of the hollowed line, more especially if the wood is dry. The shaving, also, instead of turning aside over the face of the tool, turns over before the point, as in Fig. 38, and hinders the en- graver from seeing that part of the pen- cilled line which is directly under it. A short-faced tool of itself prevents the engraver from distinctly seeing the point. When the face of a tool has become ob- tuse it ought to be ground to a proper form ; for instance, from the shape of the figure A to that of B, Fig. 39. Fio. 39. X Preparing Gravers awl Tint-tools. — Gravers and tint-tools, when first re- teivcd from the ni.akers, are poBurally too hard — a defect that is soon discovered by tlie point breaking off short as soon as it enters the wood. To n-meiiy this, tiio bl3rinted from stone than from a copper jilate, and very much quicker. Engraving on Steel is the same as coiqicr-plate engraving, except in certain modifications in the use of the acids; therefore, so far as the process is con- cerned, no ]iarticular descrijition is neces- sary ; but the means employed for de- carbonizing and rccarbonizing first the steel i>lato, so as to reduce it to a proper state for being acted upon by the graving WORKSHOP nECEIPTS. 153 tool, must be explained. In order to decarbonate the surfaces of cast-steel plates, by which they are rendered much softer and fitter for receiving either transferred or engraved designs, pure iron filings, divested of all foreign mat- ters, are used. The stratum of decar- bonated steel should not be too thick for transferring fine and delicate en- gravings ; for instance, not more than three times the depth of the engravmg ; but for other purposes the surface of the steel may be decarbonated to any required thickness. To decarbonate it to a proper thickness for a fine engra^Tng, it is to be exposed for four hours in a white heat, enclosed in a cast-iron box with a well- closed lid. The sides of the box must be at least three-quarters of an inch in thick- ness, and at least a thickness of half an inch of pure iron filings should cover or surround the cast-steel surface to be de- carbonated. The box is allowed to cool very slowly, by shuttmg off all access of air to the furnace, and covering it with a layer of sis or seven inches of fine cinders. Each side of the steel plate must be equally decarbonated, to prevent it from springing or warping in hardening. The safest way to heat the plates is to place them in a vertical position. The best steel is preferred to any other sort of steel for the purpose of making plates, and more especially when such plates are intended to be decarbonated. The steel is decarbonated to render it suffi- ciently soft for receiving any impres- sion intended to be made thereon ; it is, therefore, necessary that, after any piece of steel has been so decarbonated, it should, previously to being printed from, be again carbonated, or reconverted into steel capable of being hardened. In order to effect this recarbonization or recon- version into steel, the following process IS employed ; a suitable quantity of leather is to be converted into charcoal, by exposing it to a red heat in an ii-on retort until most of the evaporable matter IS off the leather. The charcoal is reduced to a very fine powder ; then take a box made of cas'; iron of sufficient dimension to receive the plate which is to be recon- Twted into steel, so as that the interme- | diate space between the sides of the bos and the plate may be about an inch. Fill the box with the powdered charcoal, and, having covered it with a well-fitted lid, let it be placed in a furnace similar to those used for melting brass, when the heat must be gradually increased until the box is somewhat above a red heat ; it must be allowed to remain in that state till all the evaporable matter is driven off from the charcoal ; remove the lid from the bos, and immerse the plate in the powdered charcoal, taking care to place it so that it may be sur- rounded on all sides by a stratum of the powder of nearly a uniform thickness. The lid being replaced, the box, v.-ith the plate, must remain in the degree of heat before described for from 3 to 4 hours, according to the thickness of the plate so exposed ; 3 hours are sufficient for a plate of J an inch in thickness, and 5 hours when the steel is IJ inch in thick- ness. After the plate has been exposed to the fire for a sufficient length of time, take it from the box and immediately plunge it into cold water. Here it is found by experience that the plates, when plunged into cold water, are least liable to be warped or bent when they are held in a vertical position, and made to enter the water in the direction of their length. If a piece of steel, heated to a proper degree for hardening, be plunged into water, and suflered to re- main there until it becomes cold, it i.« found by experience to be very liable to crack or break, and in many cases it would be found too hard for the opera- tions it was intended to perform. If the steel cracks it is spoiled. Therefore, to fit it for use, should it not be broken in hardening, it is the common practice to heat the steel again, in order to reduce or lower its temper. The degree of heat to which it is now exposed determines the future degree of hardness, or temper, and this is indicated by a change of colour upon the surface of the steel. During this heating a succession of shades is pro- duced, from a very pale straw colour to a very deep blue. It is found that, on plunging the steel into cold water, and allowing it to remain there no longer 151 WORKSHOP RECEIPTS, than is sufficient ti lower the tempera- ture of the steel to the same degree as that to which a hard piece of steel must be raised to temper it in the com- mon way, it not only produces the same degree of hardness in the steel, but, what is of much more importance, almost entirely does away with the risk of its cracking. The proper degree of tempera- ture arrived at, after being plunged into cold water, can only be learned by actual observation, as the workman must be guided entirely by the kind of hissing noise which the heated steel produces in the water while cooling. From the moment of its first being plunged into the water the varying sound will be observed ; and it is at a 'Certain tone, before the noise ceases, that the eflect to be produced is known. As a guide, take a piece of steel which has already been hardened by remaining in the water till cold, and by the common method of again heating it, let it be brought to the pale yellow or straw colour, which indi- cates the desired temper of the steel plate to be hardened. By the above pro- cess, as soon as the workman discovers this colour to be produced, to dip the steel into water and attend carefully to the hissing which it occasions, he will tlien be able, with fewer experiments, to judge of the precise time at which the steel should be taken out. immediately on withdrawing it from the water, the steel plate must be laid ujion or held over a fire, and heated uniformly until its tem- perature is raised to that degree at which a smoke is perceived to arise from the surface of the steel plate after having been rulibed with tallow ; the steel plate must then be again plunged into water, and kept there until the sound becomes somewhat weaker than before. It is to be taken out, and heated a second time to the same degree as before, ind the third time plunged into water till the sound becomes again weaker than the last ; ex- posed the third time to the fire as before; and for the l.'ust time returned into the water and cooled. After it is cooled clean the surface of the steel plate by heating it over the fire. The ti'mjicr must be finally reduced by bringing on a brown or such colour as may suit tha purpose required. The above is an old process and not generally used. En- graving on steel is effected nowadays by graving and etching like copper ; using for biting-in a mixture of 1 part pyro- ligneous acid, 1 nitric acid, 3 water ; run olf from the plate in less than a minute, rinse in running water, and dry quickly. Use stronger acid when a deeper tint is required. Eiujratbvj Steel Cylinders. — A cylinder of very sot't or decarbonized steel is made to roll, under a great pressure, backward and forward on the hardened engraved plate till the entire impression from tlie engraving is seen on the cylinder in alto- relievo. The cylinder is then hardened and made to roll again backward and for- ward on a copper or soft steel plate, whereby a perfect facsimile of the origi- nal is produced of equal sharpness. Etching'. — The apparatus consists of copper plates, etching needles, hand-rest, etching-ground dabber, oil-rubber, rotten- stone, smoking taper, engraver's shade, bordering wax, stopping -out varnish, tracing paper, and aquafortis. Ground. — The ground is composed of equal parts of asphaltum, Burgundy- pitch, and beeswax ; place them in an earthen pipkin in an oven, and melt. The mass must be kept stirred until well incorporated. Pour the mixture into a basin of cold water, and, when nearly cold, it should be jjressed, and rolled with th« hand until all the water is discharged, then make into a ball. Procure a piece of worn silk, without holes ; double it ; place the ball therein, and tie up the ends with packthread, taking care that the double silk reaches well and tightly over the ball ; cut olf the surplus silk, and let the knot remain ("or a hand-hold. Dabber. — Take a piece of silk, twice the size of that for the grounil ball; double it ; place in it a ball of coarse wool well ]>icked out, about the size of a small apple; tic it up in the same way as the ball for the ground, and it is ready for use. Oil-Rubber. — An oil-rubber is made from a strip of woollen cloth, about 2 inches wide, rolled up tightly, ainl bouiid over with packthread or thin tape. With WORKSHOP RECEIPTS. 155 a sharp knife cut off one end, avoiding the string, so that the surface may be quite flat. This is used for taking out stains, or polishing the plate, as in Fig. 46. Tig. 46. Eotten-stone. — Take a piece of fine flannel, rather less than the silk which covers the etching-ground ball ; double it ; place on it a small quantit}' of rotten- stone, in powder, which tie up in a bag. A small portion of fine whiting in the lump should be also kept at hand. Smoking Taper, or Lamp. — For small plates, procure a was taper ; uncoil it by degrees before the fire until it is all equally pliant ; double it up in about six lengths ; give it one twist while warm, and turn it a few times before the fire, that the pieces of taper may adhere to each other ; melt the was at one end, so that the wick is exposed ; see that all the cotton ends will light freely ; care should be taken to extinguish the cotton, or it will revive with the least draught, and may become dangerous. For large plates it is preferable to use an ordinary oil lamp mounted on gimbals ; this ob- viates the inconvenience occasioned by the dripping of the tapers. Bordering Wax. — 3 oz. of resin, 2 oz. of beeswax, and such a quantity of sweet oil as will soften the mixture to fancy. Procure an earthen pipkin ; place in the bottom ^ oz. or more of sweet oil ; add the resin and beeswax, broken in small pieces ; when melted work the ingredients well together with a stick until thoroughly in- corporated ; then pour into a basin of cold water ; as it gets cold, work it well with the hands by pulling out into lengths and doubling it together again ; the more it is worked the better it will be for use. Should it turn out brittle, return it broken to the pipkin, and add more oil ; work it well together as before, pour it into water, and work it again with the hands. Engraver's Shade. — Bend a piece of wire into a half circle ; bind it together with waxed string ; lay it on tissue paper , cut away all but J an inch round the wire : cover that ^ inch with paste, and turn it over the wire ; when dry the shade is complete. Fasten a light string to the centre of the half-circle, and sus- pend it from the window-latch when in use. This shade must be placed in a forward position, sloping before the plate, and the white light it produces will enable the engraver to see the lines made by the etching needle. An equally effective shade may be made by covering a light square wire frame with tissue papei", and supporting it with two struts. This frame can be made to rest at any angle, upon the table immediately in front of the work. Hand-Best. — Any flat and thin piece of wood will answer the purpose, which is to keep the hand clear of the plate whilst at work. A good hand-rest may be made of a thin board raised above the work upon side pieces of such a height as to allow the plate to be freely moved underneath the board. The front edge of the board may be faced with a strip of steel planed true when it serves as a straight-edge. This arrangement will be found extremely handy. Stopping - out Varnish. — • Turpentine varnish is superior, for several reasons, to Brunswick black. Turpentine Varnish. — Break small pieces of resin into a phial ; pour over spirits ot turpentine to about twice the height of the resin. Place the bottle in a small saucepan of water on the hob, near enough to the fire to make and keep the water hot ; place a cork lightly in the mouth of the bottle, as the mixture will require to be shaken occasionally. Pour a small portion of this mixture into a small pot, with a little lampblack added to give it a colour, and well mixed. This last is necessary to prevent lumps ; it may be done by work- ing the mixture well together with the camel-hair pencil. This is a good stop- ping-out varnish. With this varnish go over the border or margin of your plate ; do this when about to put it away, and the varnish will become hard by being left a night to set. When b'lting-in 156 WORKSHOP RECEIPTS. again, g5 over the margin, using the same brush and mixture. It can always be worked up by adding a little turpen- tine. When it is set so hard that the finger may be placed on it without ?tick- lug, it is time to make up the wall or border of was to hold the aquafortis. Aquafortis. — Procure three half-pint bottles with glass stoppers, and two pint earthen jugs with spouts. Place \ lb. of nitric acid in bottle No. 1. Pour into bottle No. 2 rather less than the fourth of the nitre ; fill the bottle three-parts full of water ; slowly pass it into one of your pint jugs, and back again to the bottle, to mix it well. In bottle No. 3 put one-half of the remaining nitric acid ; water it as before ; see that the nitric acid in bottle No. 1 is well stoppered, and cover it with a piece of old glove. Tracing and Tracing Paper. — Tracing can be conveniently efl'ected by using sheets of transparent gelatine, similar to that made for Ileliotype purposes, and placing it over the drawing, which can be seen clearly through the gelatine. Trace with a sharp etching-needle, taking care to remove the burr from the lines with tJie thumb-nail as the work pro- ceeds. When finished, fill in with fine powdered Brunswick black, entirely free from grease, or powdered red chalk, reverse on to the plate, and rub the lines with a burnisher. Tracing paper of various qualities may be readily purchased. But in case of necessity, very good tracing paper may be made by satur.'iting, .with a camel-hair pencil, the finest tissue paper with the follow- ing mixture ; — J oz. of balsam of Canada, to J oz. of sjiirits of turpentine; shake well together in a 2-oz. bottle. When covered with the mixture, hang the paper on a line to dry ; then wash in like manner the other .si(ie. I'lace your draw- ing on a tracing board, a piece of soil [ilancd deal ; lay the tracing paper over it ; fasten down with bnuss-hoadod |)oiuts, not through the drawing, but close to it, 80 that the pressure of the bniss head Becures both the drawing and tracing j>ap»?r from moving. Go carefully over ail the jincB of your drawing with an H pencil, occasionally placing a piece of white paper between the drawing ani the tracing paper to ascertain that no lines on the drawing have escaped atten- tion. Transferring Paper. — This is made as follows; — Take half a sheet of very fine bank-post paper ; lay it on a clean place, and rub it well with the scrapings of red chalk with a small piece of sponge. Ap- ply the chalk until the paper is all of one colour ; then, with a piece of clean old muslin, rub the greater part of the colour from the surface. The colour may be renewed occasionally as the markings become foint. Testing the Ground. — Heat one corner of your plate, and rub over it the ground in a thin and even surface. Next apply your dabbcr, to make a yet more equal distribution of the ground. When cold, mark over it with ratlier a blunt needle (No. 3), Should the ground be brittle, and crack with the passage of the needle, add to it more beeswax ; should it drag with the needle, add more asphaltum; the ground will easily melt again. When a ball is satisfactorily made it will last a long time. The weather has considerable effect on the mixture, and the quality of the ingredients is very important, so that it is advisable to get the ground as per- fect as possible while the melting pot is in use. Heating the Plate for Ground. — Have a small liand-vice. Fig. 47, with a hailt of wood to resist the passage of heat to the hand. If the plate is stained or dis- coloured, the inark must be removed with the oil- rubber with a little rotten- stone and oil, polished off with a bit of old muslin powdered with whiting, care being taken tliat no dust remains on the f)late. Screw tlie vice on tiio long side of the copper plate with .i slight hold, covering the part grasped by the jaws of the vice with a small piece of paper to prevent injury to the surface. Heating m.iy be performed by burning paper under the back of the plate ; but a ktove or clear Fio. 47. WORKSHOP RECEIPTo. 167 Fig. 48. fire is preferable, and a couple of spirit lamps with rests for the corners of the plate, the best plan of all. Be careful not to ovei'heat the plate. If the surface becomes discoloured the plate is over hot ; as a test, turn it over and spit on the back ; if the moisture jumps off, the plate is sufficiently hot ; should it hiss and remain on the plate, more heat must be obtained. A piece of canvas, rather larger than the plate, should be warmed by laying it before the fire during the heating process ; place it on the table, and lay upon it the plate retained in the vice. Now pass the ball of ground, Fig. 48, over it backwards and forwards until the plate is covered, spreading the ground as evenly and thinly as possible. Use the dabber with a quick action, pressing it down and plucking it up. If the ground does not distribute itself easily, burn paper under the plate as before until it shines all over, being cautious that the ashes of the paper do not settle on the surface ; dab on again, decreasing the pressure, but not the speed of action, until the surfiice is all over alike. Smoking the Pfote.— Have the taper ready, and a single taper or candle to take' the light from ; the surface of the plate being perfectly covel-ed, it may be as well to renew the heat in the plate, by a paper burnt under the back until the surface shines, taking the same precau- tions as before. Hold the plate in the left hand, with the face downward; light the smoking taper. Fig. 49, at the Fig. 49. Fig. 50. same time, having all the wicks burn- ing ; pass it rather quickly round the margin, and by degrees towards the Fig. 52. centre, using a fluttering action -A-ith the hand. Fig. 50 ; smoke on until the whole surface is of a dark colour, keeping the taper at such a distance from the plate that the- burning cotton may have no chance of touching it, although the flame spreads over it. Another way is to suspend the plate, if of large size, over- head, and smoke with the oil lamp. When the surface is all black alike, and nd sooty marks are to be seen on the working part of the plate, the ground is fit for use. Take the plate, face down- wards, to some convenient place, and pour cold water over the back. Fig. 51, holding; the plate in a sloping posi- xm. ji. tion, the vice up. This last process produces a stronger and harder surface than could be ob- tained if the plate were left gradually to cool. Now place the plate face down- wards, supported on one side by the ^ screw of the vice, Fig. 52. Clean the smoke from the back, and let it remain until quite cold. Some difficulty may be found in laying the first ground with success, but with a little practice this is surmounted. Transferring . — In the absence of an etching board, place the copper plate on a thick piece of brown paper larger than the plate ; make two ribs of the same paper, doubled four or more times, and about an inch wide ; place them at each end of the plate on the brown paper, and fasten them with sealing wax ; these ribs serve as shoulders for the rest to lay on. which will prevent the hand from touch- ing the work. Now cut the tracing paper to the size of the plate, having ruled the margin line if one is required. Place the tracing reversed ; that is, with the pencil side to the plate. Fix it with pieces of soft wax round the border, leaving open the bottom to admit the transfer paper, which introduce with the clialk side nest to the plate ; the uppei 158 WORKSHOP RECEIPTS. side of the paper must be kept clean, that the pencil-lines on the tracing paper may be seen. With an H H pencil, cut sharp and short, go over all the lines of the tracing with rather an upright hand and a strong pressure ; the upper side of the tracing paper will show whether all the lines have been traced ; look sideways at the work, and the black- lead marks will be perceptible. Before advancing far in the transfer, lift up the bottom of the tracing to ascertain if the lines are of sufficient strength ; if not, apply more red chalk to the transfer paper. When the transfer is nearly com- pleted, do not take off the whole of the paper, but let the top part remain fixed. Then lift up the tracing, and if any part of it has been neglected, it can again be fixed down, and the omission rectified. Etching. — Commence with a fine- pointed needle. No. 1, and go carefully over the outline, not making much im- pression on the copper, but sufficient to remove the ground ; with the same point go over all the lighter parts, increasing the pressure, so as to make a slight in- dentation on the plate. No. 2 point may now be used to go over the lighter shade, with an increa-sed weight of hand. No. 2 point will answer for the darker shades by making the lines nearer together and increasmg the pressure. Interline parts that require extra colour with No. 1 point ; the etching may be worked at for a . considerable time by interlining and dotting. If there are any marks to ex- punge, dip a pointed camel-hair pencil into the turpentine bottle, and with its point work up some of the ground on the margin of the plate, and therewith stop out the objectionable marks. When set it will resist the aquafortis. Bordering t!ie Plate. — In cold weather the wax will be too hard to roll out with the hand ; in that case it must be placdl in moderately warm water until it becomes pli- able ; then pull »nd roll it out. Fig. 53, to about the thick- ness of a small waiking-stick ; slightly Fio. 53. grease the point of the thumb and two forefingers with deer or mutton fat ; press the roll of wax flat, and place it on the border of the plate with the edge to the varnish, taking great care that the bor- dering wax does not go off the varnish. At the parts intended to be the darkest corner of the plate pinch out the wax border, that the height of the wall may be increased at that corner where the s])out IS to be formed with the wax to prevent spilling the aquafortis in pouring it off. Biting-in. — Lay the plate flat on a piece of canvas larger than the plate as a pro- tection from any splashings that may be made. Place the spout of the jdate in front for the convenience of pouring off. Pour a little water over the plate to see if there are any leaks in your border ; if there are any, pour off the water ; let the plate dry, particularly in the defec- tive part ; then press down the outer edge of the wax with a piece of wood. Leaks can also be found without using water by holding the plate up to the light and looking at the edge, when the smallest pin-hole will be immediately detected. Have two or three small wedges, to be used for tilting the plate should the acid not lay even. When the border is sound pour off the water; then cover the sur- face of the plate with the aquafortis from No. 2 bottle. If, in the courbe of half a minute, the etching on the plate should assume a light-grey coating, the mixture is good ; but if it should throw up bub- bles, it is over strong, and more water must be added, but not on the plate. The mixture must be placed in the jug, then in the bottle, and afterwards returned to the j>late. Should the lines on the plate remain as bright copper after the acid has been on half a minute, it is not strong enough, and some aquat'ortis out of bottle No. 3 must be added. Wlien the mixture on the lines does not produce a foam, but the plate continues of a grey, frosty appearance, the jirocess is going on well. The power of biting-in correctly depends on the experience in using the acid. With a soft camel-hair pencil lightly remove the frosty appearance, taking care that the quill does not touch the ground. Should any part of the WORKSHOP RECEIPTS. 159 Fig. 65. ground break up by the lines becoming united, pour otT the acid carefully into tlie jug. Lay the plate again on the flat, and cover it with water from the other jug, moving it gently with the camel-hair pencil, which place at ouce in a water-jug when taken from the acid, or it will soon be de- I stroyed. Throw away the wash-water from the plate. When the first biting is completed set the plate up endways to dry. Fig. 54. Second Biting. — When the plate is perfectly dry, take off with a blunt point covered with silk and dipped in turps a spot of ground in the lighter part to ascertain if the acid has made sufficient indentation. If it has, work up the stopping-out varnish with a camel-hair pencil, and with it cover all the parts intended to remain light ; elevate the rest, Fig. 65, so as not to press the bor- der wax. When the stopping-out varnish is dry, which may be ascertained by placing the finger on it ; if it does not stick, it is dry; put on the Same aquafortis (bottle No. 2), and let it remain until you observe the ground giving way ; then pour off the acid, and wash well as before. Put the plate to drain. Should it be required, more biting may be done ; the process is the same. Cleaning Off. — Great care must be taken that the plate is perfectly dry ; if it is not it may be placed before the fire, but not close enough to melt the wax. Having carefully wiped the canvas, lay the plate a little more than half-way upon it, so that the balance remains upon the table. Apply a lighted taper, or a folded paper match, progressively under Fig. 56, the wax ; pull up the wax. Fig. 56, as the warmth proceeds ; a very slight warmth answers the pur- pose. By re- moving the wax with a knife you are liable to in- jure the margin, which is diffi- cult to remedy. Should any of the wax adhere to the plate, remove it by using a piece of wood cut in the shape of a chisel. Fix the vice on the same place as when laying on the ground. Rub the plate over with turps, taking care to go over every part ; hold the plate up by the vice ; heat the back with burning paper as before, until the ground varnish and tallow are melted. Rub off with a soft rag. Should any smut remain, apply a little turpentine; with- draw the vice, and wash the spot it covered with turpentine. Rub the plate front, back, and sides with the rag. Dab the plate with the bag of rotten-stone ; pour on it a little sweet oil ; and polish the plate with oil-rubber, using con- siderable up-and-down pressure ; wipe the plate quite clean, and polish with fine whiting. Should the biting-in have succeeded, the plate is ready for the printer. Dry Point. — The dry point may next be used. For this purpose the needle No. 3, well pointed, may be employed, as indenture must be made by pressure of the hand. For interlining the parts which are too weak, and uniting lines neglected in the etching, the dry point will be sufficient ; but the pressure will leave a projection or burr on the plate, which must be carefully removed by the sharp scraper; should the plate requiie more than the dry point can accomplish, recourse must be had to re-biting. PiC-hiting. — Heat the plate as before, but make one corner, the one with the least work in it, hotter than the other part. Prior to laying the ground the plate should be polished with whiting, or with methylated spirit and aquafortis, using a piece of old muslin folded in the shape of a dabber, which will fill the etched lines, and prevent the new-laid 160 ^VORKSItOP RECEIPtS. Fig. 57. ground from entering. Rub the ground on the hot corner, and with the dabber take the ground therefrom, and dab quickly over the other part until the whole surface is covered. All the parts but those wanting more colour may be stopped out as before ; the border was must again be used. Next follow the same process with the acid. lic-ctching. — This is the most certain method of finishing the plate.' The ground must be laid as in the first instance, but using a greater body, and with the dabber. Fig. 57 rubbing it well into the lines, taking care that DO whiting re- mains m the etching marks ; for this process the pkte should be merely washed with turpentine ; a slight extra warmth and good dabbing will render the ground acid proof. The smoking is here dispensed with. Set up the ground, and work at the plate as in the first instance. Now use No. 3 shar]) point, and interline the parts that should be darker and where greater strength is wanted, crossing the lines, not at right angles, but lozenge - ways. The plate cleaned off as before directed, receiving a light oil rubbing with a little rotten-stone, and washed oft' with turpentine, may now be sent to the printer's, and a proof obtained. By repeating the rc-ctching the plate may be worked up to tlie colour of a line engraving. In some of the darker parts a graver or lozenge - tool may be used; but it is rather dangerous in the hands of the uninitiated; as it is apt to slij), and make deep lines where none arc wanted. Ile-biting will ])roiluce any extra colour that may be wanted with little more trouble and with greater safety. ErciiiNO. — PR0CI33 AVOiDixa Sxor- I'lNfi-OUT. — For the first biting, ground and smoke the plate in the ordinary man- ner, then etch those parts only which are to be darkest, such as vigorous foreground in landscapes, and other deep work. Use no delicate lines at this stage; jai>an the back of the i)latc and the sjiot where the hand-vice was placed ; use a photi)- grapher's tray as an acid bath, in which immerse the plate in nitric acid until the very black lines are bitten-in. Clean the plate, and take a proof. For the second biting, ground the plate again, and smoke it ; the first lines will still clearly show. Di-aw all the work of a medium dark- ness, with a sliarper point than that used for the first biting-in. Place the plate in the acid bath, and let it remain until the lines are of a moderate depth. Re- move and clean the i)late, and take a second proof. For the third biting, ground with transparent ground, and do not smoke it. Etch all the delicate work, keeping the lines close to each other, and using a sharper needle than before. This operation requires more care than the two previous ones, as the lines will not show very distinctly. This process is of great service for intricate work, in consequence of the e;ise it gives of intro- ducing pale lines amongst the darker work, and a delicate background beyond the vigorous lines of the subject ; whilst, by taking proofs after each biting, the progress of tlie work may be seen, and its correctness ensured. By covering the back and edges of the plate with japau varnish, the old and tedious process of banking up the sides with wax is avoided, and tlie plate may be plunged into the acid bath without any further risk or trouble. Etciiino. — Gknt.ral Instructions.— The following directions will relieve be- ginners from much trouble, and enable them to avoid many accidents to which engravers are liable; — when using the acid, slightly grease that part of the hand likely to come in contact with it, as a preventive to its making stains, which are not easily eradicated. When your border wax has done its duty, have it well washed in cold water, then warmed before the fire, i)ulled out and jjressed together again, as the more frequently that is done the more pliable the wax will be for future use. As your aqua- fortis will become reduced in strength by exposure to the air, it becomes Dece.s- sary to add a portion of No. 3 bottle to that of No. 2, and a smoll quantity oi WORKSHOP RECEIPTS. IGl No. 1 bottle to No. 3, No. 1 bottle con- tainiug the undilute acid. When making a point to an etching needle, work tlie point round, as, should there be any flat side to the point, it will bite the cop- per, and prevent the freedom of hand required to give spirit to the etching. The burnisher will soften down any part of the etching that appears harsh or crude, by gently passing it over the parts to be reduced in colour. The shade must be between the plate and the light, in order to be able to see the marks of the burnisher ; fine charcoal and oil will re- move these marks, and the oil-rubber will clear away the charcoal marks. The charcoal can be obtained at a copper- smith's or plate-printer's. If a burnisher is good at first, it never requires altera- tion. The scraper must be occasionally sharpened. Soft Ground.— Take half a ball of hard ground, mixed as described under the head Etching Ground ; to that add a piece of mutton suet. Jlelt them well together, observing that the ingredients must be thoroughly incorporated ; then pour into cold water, and use it as before directed. Laying the Ground. — The process is exactly the same as in laying the etching ground, with this difference, that the plate does not require so great a heat. Smoke the plate the same as in laying etching ground. The ground must be spread as thinly as possible, to cover the plate and bear smolving. The surface of the plate must be alike all over, and quite bright or shining. If any part but the edges aj'pears sooty, it must be cleared off and the plate polished, as described for etching, and laid again. A good ground may be made at the first melting, but that can scarcely be ex- pected. It may be as well to test the quality of the mixture before laying a whole ground. To this end, heat a small jiortion of the plate ; lay on the ground ; smoke it ; and let it get quite cold. Obtain some of the finest tissue paper, of very even texture. Place a piece of the paper on the patch of ground laid, and, with a fine-pointed H pencil, make a slight sketch ; — a bit of foliage, for in- stance ; the paper should slightly stick to the plate ; when carefully raised by the two bottom corners, the back of it should clearly show every line made on its surface, only darker. Should the sketch on the copper look as if it was dotted all over, the mixture of ground will do. Should the ground adhere to the paper, like marks with pen and ink. the ground must be melted, with an addition of hard ground ; and if even the softest marks of the pencil do not pull tlie ground from the plate, the ground must be remelted and remised until it is fit for work. As the temperature has great effect on this ground, that which will answer for summer will not do for winter, so it may be as well to make two or three mixtures, and number them according to their several degrees of hardness.' Having succeeded in mixing the ground, take a piece of tissue paper twice the size of the plate. Place the plate in the centre, and with a black-lead pencil draw a line all round it. Make the same mark on the other side; then lay the ground as described. When cold, wipe the back and edges before taking oflf the hand-vice. This ground being very tender, care must be taken not to touch the face of the plate. Lraicing. — The drawing is to be made upon the square marked on the paper. If it is intended to copy a subject, the same process as in transferring for the hard-ground etching is used ; only, in- stead of transferring the led lines on to the plate, they must be made within the square marked on the paper. Take care that the tracing is reversed. If it is intended to draw on the plate without copy, lightly make the design on the square marked with fine-pointed red chalk. Should the subject be figures, everything must be drawn to the left hand, or reversed. Fold a silk handker- chief in four ; lay it flat and smooth on the table; place on it the paper, with the chalk sketch downwards. Then, with great care, lay the plate, face down, exactly on the square mark of the paper ; fold over tlie back the surplus paper, and fix the sides with four thin spcts of sealing was near the corners; b€ sure 162 WORKSHOP RECEIPTS. not to m>ve the plate on the silk. Take up the plate carefully, and place it for work. Use a hand-rest, as in etching, and a hai-d-pencil, H H, on the places you wish to be dark. In soft-ground engraving, the drawing must be finished the day it is commenced ; the mechanical part of the work may be delayed. When the drawing is finished, pull up the paper by the two bottom corners. Varnish the border down the same as in etching. The acid used must be much stronger; the border wax higher and broader in the spout, as you may perhaps have to pour off suddenly. Biting-in. — In biting-in, pour off the acid when the ground begins to break up ; that is, coming up in patches. During tiie bitiug-in the soft camel-hair pencil may be used, but very tenderly. Wash well olT with cold water, and place the plate to dry. For cleaning, see Etching. Should the plate require more finishing, have recourse to the hard ground without smoking. Aqua-tinta Engravikq. — This was formerly resorted to where the object was to produce a j)late, the impressions from which were to be coloured. It is recog- nized by its similarity to Indian ink or sejiia drawing ; for, in working the plate at press, black and brown inks are used ;ndilTerently, as the artist or publisher may direct. Resin forms the ground in this method of engraving. . Aqwi-tint Ground. — Break some of the best white resin into jiieces, and (lut into a bottle with spirits of wine, and shake occasionally until the resin is dissolved. The bottles must have corks, not glass stoppers. Have two other bottles ready ; mark the bottles 1, 2, 3. No. 1 is the bottle into which the resin Is placed. Pour a third of No. 1 into No. 2, and nearly fill it with s|)irits of wine. Pour into No. .'i rather less of the mixture from No. 1, and nearly fill it with sjiirits of wine. These bottles must be occasionally shaken, and their contents allowed to settle well before use. The contents of the three bottles must be so mijtoil tliat ihoy are one under the other in strcnt,'lh, aji the size of tiie grain to be laid on the plate depends on the quantity oi resin each mixture contains. The more of resin the larger the grain. The spirits should be entirely free from water. To Test the Spirits. — Place a small quantity of gunpowder in a silver spoon ; pour over it some of the spirit ) light the spirit, and let it burn to the powder. If the powder takes fire and explodes, the spirit is good, and fit for use. Should it remain in the bottom of the spoon, black and wet, the spirit has been adulterated with water, and is not fit for the purpose. Trial of Aqua-tinta Ground. — Have a tin trough about 2 inches wide, and rather longer than the plate, with a con- venient spout at one end ; the trough is to act as a receiver of the spirit when poured over the plate ; the spout to re- turn it to the bottle. Laying the Ground. — Polish the plate well, as before directed. Place it at a slight slojie, the tin trough under the lower edge to receive the spare mixture. As a trial of the ground, jiour the liquid from each bottle, and make a small patch in different places at the bottom of the plate. When the liquid has run ofT into the tin trough, lay the plate flat, and with a piece of rag wipe the lower edge. Take a magnifying glass, and look at the grains deposited on the copper. Having poured the spirit from tlie trtmgh to bottle No. 1, make choice of the grain most likely to suit the work ; if neither of the three shouM, mix the large grain and the small toi:;(.'ther until it does, letting the mixture settle well before it is used. Ilemove the trial spots; ])olish the plate well, and place it as directed for trial with the side intended for the foreground next to the tin trough. I'our the mixture along the top of the plate, from one end to the otiier, until the whole ol' the surface is covered. As soon as the spirit has run into the tin, lay the plate flat ; the sooner it is laid flat the rounder will be the setting of the grain the longer the plate remains on the slope the more elongated the de|)osit of resiu will become, which for some sort of work will answer better than round ; such as broken rock, waterfalls. In most cases it is advisable to make a very fine etching I of the subject intended to be }ntly so as to render the lines ni:i(le by the needle i>erceptible. With this thin varnish, and a good-sized camel- hair bru^h, go over the plate lengthways; when that is set, rejicat the coating cross- ways; let it set, and lay it by for a night ifconvenient. The etching tinisheil, border and bite as before directed, but with Btrongor acid. AguA-TLST Enofiavino. — Gknkrai, I.vsruucnoNS. — Great care must be taken while laying the ground that there is not much dust floating in the nir; for, should the slightest particle of flork lodge on the plate whilst wet, it will ciuse what is called an accident. Wherever the sjicck fills the nvMn will corrode around it, forming n white spot on the ground whcrt the acid has l>ecD applied. These accidents are of littie consequence, unless they should happen on the sky. To do away with these light places, the chalk tool, or dotter, must be used ; this is simply a bent graver. From pouringthe ground mixture backwards and forwards, it is likely to become foul ; it should then be passed through a double piece of clean muslin, and put away in a bottle to settle. The burnisher acts as principal in forming a good sky and background. As the action of the acid will leave all the tints with a sharp edge, they must be softened down with the burnisher. Every fresh aqua- tiuta ground laid should be increased in the size of the grain, or the ground will become murky. To enrich and darken the foreground and foliage, etching over the parts with the etching ground above described is much the easiest method. Ecsin-ed on much in the same way. Hamkiiton's Drcsii Puoci-ss. — Tins ])roce.ss consists in the employment of a pigment which is strongly attacked by acid. Clean the plate thoroughly with WOllKSHOP RECEIPTS. 1G5 whiting and turpentine. Remove the whiting by rubbing the plate with bread ; after removing which do not allow the hands to touch the plate. Crush a soft pastel into fine powder ; mix with a strong solution of white sugar. Add a solution of OS-gall, about equal in quan- tity to half the sugar solution. The pigment must be so mixed as to worlj rather freely, and draw a thin line with ease and precision. With a small, fine- pointed sable-hair brush, make the draw- ing on the plate, depending mainly upon lines, as with a pen; when this is com- pleted, be careful not to let anything touch the plate, as the pigment dries slowly. Dissolve some ordinary etching ground in ether ; hold the plate with a pneumatic holder, and pour the solution npon the plate till it makes a pool reaching the sides of the plate ; move the plate gently from side to side, then pour the superfluous solution back into the bottle. Heat the plate gently over a spirit lamp, holding it about 12 inches above the flame, and taking care to evaporate the ether gradually, and not to allow it to catch fire. The ground will become transpai-ent. Place the plate in a bath consisting of hydrochloric acid, 100 grammes ; chlorate of potash, 20 grammes ; water, 8S0 grammes. The hydrochloric acid used should not be of a deep yellow colour; should not give off fumes, and, when mixed with water, should have but a slight odour. Leave the plate in this bath a quarter of an hour, then brush the surface of the plate ■very gently with a feather. This will remove the pigment and the ether varnish over it, leaving the lines exposed to the acid. The copper between them will be perfectly protected. Leave the plate in the bath uutil bitteu-iu to the required depth, stopping-out when necessary. The finer portions of the work may either be Hnished with the dry point, or in point etching ; in the latter case using a trans- parent ground. If any erasing is neces- sary, it must be done with a scraper. If the pigment does not take on the plate, ibe copper may be slightly roughened by a snort immersion in a weak nitric bath. Let the ether ground remain a night on the copper before heating it, which must be very carefully done. Hamektox's Negative Process. — This process avoids stopping-out alto- gether, and the progress of the work may be judged of with tolerable certainty. The ground is a solution of beeswax in turpentine. Decant the solution till no sediment remains ; it should be perfectly fluid, and of a bright yellow colour. Add about one-sixth of its volume of japan varnish ; this quantity will vary slightly according to the heat of the weather. If there is too much japan, the ground will be hard and brittle; if there is too little, it will not be strong enough to take smoke with safety. Clean the plate with engravers' emery paper, and place it in a bath of hydrochloric acid, 100 grammes; chlorate of potash, 20 grammes; water, 8S0 grammes. When the plate darkens all over, it is a sign that there is no grease on it, and it is then ready to receive the ground. Pour on the ground as photographers pour collodion, and let it dry for 12 hours ; apply a second coat of ground in the same manner, and smoke the plate immediately without waiting for it to dry. The ground should then be even and smooth, and ought to be used a few days after it is laid, as it hardens in time. If in haste to use the plate, the first coat of ground may be dried over a spirit lamp until it becomes transparent; cool the plate, and proceed as before described. The use of the two coats of ground is to prevent the smoke penetrating to the plate, and causing the ground to become detached in the acid bath. Should the ground be too hard, increase the proportion of the wax solution. Draw all the dark p]ply a second coat ID the same manner, and let it dry for 4 diiys in a quiet room, where it will not catch any dust. If the jdate is dried by the heat of a spirit lamp, the ground will be transjiarent, liut not of the dead white colour which is desirable. Paint the back and edges of the jdate with iup-in varnish to protect them in the bath, which must be composed as fol- lows ; — Chlorate of potash, 'JO grammns ; pure hydrochloric acid, 100 grammes; water, 880 gramme* •, or the same pro- portions in English weights. Warm the water, dissolve the chlorate of ])0tash in it, then add the acid. Sketch the subject with some pale but decided water colour, red or yellow for example, using the point of a small camel-hair brush. This will remain visible whilst the plate is being etched, which must be done whilst it is in the bath ; the acid will, ot course, attack the needle, but this action keeps the needles sharp, and they are not costly tools. The bath should be formed in an oblong square piece of light wood, about Ih inch thick, and larger than the well, which must be a square hole, a little larger than the plate, and about an inch deep. Cover the board and well with about si.t coats of japan, which protects the wood from the action of the acid, and the dark colour makes the jilate look whiter from the contrast, A thin ]iiece of wood, stained black, must be used as a hand-rest. Before using a new bath or well dissolve a small piece each of copper and of zinc in it with acid. Lay the plate in the desired posi- tion, and fix it by pressing small pieces of modelling wax at the corners against the ]ilate and the board. Etch with an ordinary strong sewing needle ii>serted in a holder. It must be sharp enough to scratch well through the silver, otherwise the line will not blacken at once. The wax ground permits the lines to enlarge slowly ; thus there is a constant grada- tion in thickness from the first to the last lines ; as the time of exposure diminishes, this projierty must be care- fully attended to. Thus, if the subject requires only about 2 hours' work in etching, this must be spread over 5 hours' exposure in the bath, which is the time necessary to produce the darkest liiips; other work can be carried on simultaneously, but this process cannot be hurried. If, however, the subject is elaborate, and rocjuires more etching than can be finished in 5 hours, select for the first sitting various parts over the whole plate; cltan and re-ground the ])late; at the second sitting add work to that previously done, and so on until the j'late is finished, so arranging the times .IS to work always at the same jteriod of WORKSHOP RECEIPTS, 167 the operation on ^nes intended to be of the same depth. This process is acquired with a little practice. If necessary to efface, it may be done in the usual manner with scraper and charcoal ; always re-silver before retouching, if retouching is required. For cleaning the plates turpentine is usually em- ployed, but schist-oil or petroleum are better cleansers, and remove the japan varnish very rapidly, whereas turpentine dissolves it slowly. Etching from Nature. — Etching is the only kind of engraving which can conveniently be done directly from nature. The choice of subjects is the most im- portant point, as, although etching is admirably adapted for trees and vegeta- tion in all its forms, and for picturesque buildings and animals, it is not so well suited for the representation of figures, or for other subjects, which require deli- cate gradations of tones. For anything that can be expressed by lines, etching is very successful, but it is not easy of application to tones. In working from nature, the shading, in addition to giving the light and dark tints, should also be used to indicate the form and texture of the surfiice, the lines being drawn in a direction to indicate form as well as tint. Several plates, ready grounded, may be carried in a small grooved box to keep them apart ; if only one plate is intended to be used, it can be carried between two light boards, but must not be allowed to touch them. This can be avoided by fixing small pieces of model- ling wax at the corners of the plate. If intended to be etched on Hamerton's positive process, the drawing board, with the well in it, must be taken, and the ne- cessary hydrochloric acid and chlorate of potash in two stoppered bottles. These can be mixed with water when required. Dry point is frequently used in the finishing of etched plates. The dry point is an ordinary steel etching needle, sharp- ened in a peculiar manner with a sharp rounded cutting edge, and used without either etching ground or acid bath. By using this tool on the bare copper, a burr is raised, which catches the ink, and in prin'iag gives the desired effect of a line with a delicate gradation. The more per- pendicular the needle is held the leso burr there will be raised ; by inclining the hand to the right the burr will be in- creased, if the pressure on the tool re- mains the same. Practice enables an etcher to regulate the pressure on the tool ; but if the pressure used has raised too strong a burr, it can be partially or entirely removed by using a sharp scraper worked at right angles to the line, if it is desired to see the progress of the work rub a mixture of tallow and lampblack over the plate ; remove what is super- fluous with a soft rag ; the effect of the etching can then be fairly judged of. Dry point etching can now be made to give a large number of impressions, by having the plate protected with a coating of steel applied by galvanism. To efface faulty work use sand-papers of several degrees of coarseness ; the coarsest first, then the scraper ; finally, rub over with willow charcoal and olive oil. This leaves the plate fit to be etched upon ; if, how- ever, it should be hollowed out by this process, mark the spot on the back of the plate by means of callipers. Lay the face of the plate on a block of polished steel, and give it two or three blows on the back with a rounded hammer. The en- gravers' copper planers will do this work with more precision and skill than can easily be acquired by ordinary etchers. A passage that has been over-bitten may be easily reduced by being rubbed with willow charcoal and olive oil, which merely reduces the copper without in- juring the lines, except the very pale one ; these must be etched over again. It is better to have the plate over-bitten than not enough, as the former is more easily remedied than the latter. Stippling is also executed on the etch- ing ground by dots instead of lines made with the etching needle, which, according to the intensity of the shadow to be re- presented, are made thicker and closer The work is then bit-in. Etching on Steel is executed much in the same way as in the process on copper. The plate is bedded on common glaziers' putty, anii a ground of Brunswick black, or wax, i« 'aid in the usual way, through 1G8 WORKSHOP RECEIPTS. which the needle scratches. It is then bitten-in in the way above described. Etching on Cast Iron. — Use a solution of common salt and sulphate of copper for the biting-in. Etching on Steel or Iron. — Take sul- phate of copper, sulphate of alum, and muriate of soda, of each 2 drachms, and sti'ong acetic acid IJ oz., mixed together. First smear the part intended to be etched with yellow soap, and write with a quill pen without a split. Etching Glass. — Glass is etched by hydroHuoric acid gas, or by liquid hydro- fluoric acid. The acid for this purpose IS obtained by treatmg fluoride of calcium, Derbyshire spar, with sulphuric acid, in a leaden vessel, as we shall presently describe. The gaseous hydrofluoric acid has the property of producing a surface which represents ground glass in its ap- pearance; but the liquid acid produces just the contrary efl'ect, and dissolves away the glass, leaving the surface polished and clear Etching glass, there- fore, consists of two operations ; — etch- ing by the gas, and producing a dull opaque surface, and etching by the liquid, and producing a surface which is bright and clear. 1. Gaseous hydrofluoric acid is the product of the action of sulphuric acid and fluoride of calcium. Take powdered fluoride of calcium, 2 parts ; sulphuric acid, 3 parts. The powdered fluoride is placed in a leaden dish or shallow box, the sulphuric acid poured upon it. By means of a stick, the acid IS made into a paste with the powdered fluoride ; the mixture only requires to be warmed to evolve considerable fumes of gaseous hydrofluoric acid. These fumes are disagreeable ; the exiierimcnt should, therefore, be conducted in the open air or under a chimney. The glass plate to be etched is covered with wax, by gently warming the glass sulficieut to mtdt wax, and rubbing it with a piece of white wax until it is covores beea removed only, and produce the dull ap- pearance desired. The entire surface ol the glass can be rendered ground in its apjiearance by exposing it to the fumes of tlie acid gas in its ordinary con- dition, unprotected by the wax. The production of the gas is accelerated by the warmth of a hob or of a s]>irit lamp applied to the bottom of the leaden vessel for a few moments. 2. To obtain the liquid acid, place the mixture named above in a leaden retort, and conduct the gas from the retort into a leaden bottle containing some water, so long as tiie water absorbs the fumes. The water becomes thus highly charged with hydro- fluoric acid, and this liquid is to be used in the second process. The glass plates are to be prepared as before, with tlie addition of a small wall of wax or putty, which is to be formed round its edges ; the liquid acid is poured upon the etched waxed surface, and allowed to remain until a sufficient depth of etching is produced. 3. To produce a colourless pattern on a coloured glass ground, you proceed as for etching an ordinary pane of glass, but the ojieration is conducted upon the surface of flashed glass ; that is, glass which is simply covered on one of its sides with a colour, and which is not stained throughout. Tliis flashed glass is a cheap imitation of stained glass ; the thin coating of coloured material is soon dissolved by the acid, so as to leave a trausjiarcut or ground-glass pattern on a coloured glass ground, according as the process is conlates, a plate of copper, covered with gold, is operated ujjon. On immersion in the sulphate of copper solu- tion, the parts corresponding to the white parts of the engraving will become cohered with copper. The iodine, or compound of iodine, formed, is then to be removed by the hyposulphite; the layer of de- posited copper is oxidized, and the gold amalgamated, which may be removed by means of nitric acid, the oxide of copper being dissolved at the same time. In this instance the original surface of the plate corresponds to the wliite parts of the print, and the sunk, or engraved, por- tions to the black parts, as in ordinary co])iior-plate engravings. Electro-metallurgy. — The first and most ini]portaut ojiiTation in all branches of the eioctro-dejiosition of one metal ii[>on another, is to efl'ect a thorough and chemical cleansing of the surface of the metal upon which the coating is to be deposited. ClKANSINQ COPl'KR AND ITS AUX)Y.S. — This is done in six oi)erations. 1. Cleansing by firi>, or by alkalies. 2. Dijiping. 3. iJipjiing in old aquafortis. 4. dipping in new aquafortis and soot. 5. l>iiipiug in comjiound acids for a bright or dead lustre. 6. Dipping in citrate of binoxide of mercury. Cleansing by /'ire, or by Alkalies. — This is to remove any foreign substances, Mpecially those of a fatty nature, which are destroyed by heating the jieces in every direction over a gentle fire of char- coal, breeze, or spent tan. A muflle fur- nace, heated up to a dull red heat, is preferred ; but small articles may be cleansed in a hot revolving cylinder. This operation is not adapted to very delicate articles, or for table-forks and spoons, which must keep their toughness, or to those pieces m which the different parts are united by soft solders. Boil such articles in a solution of potash or sod.i, which renders the fiitty substances so- luble in water. This is done in a cast-iron kettle, provided with a cover, where there is a boiling concentrated solution of carbonate of potash, or soda, or of American potash. The caustic potash or soda must be dissolved in ten times its weight of water. This solution lasts a long time ; when it has lost part of its power, it may be revived by a few frag- ments of caustic alkali. At the boiling point it will cleanse copper in a few seconds. If the articles to be scoured are joined with tin solder, they must not be allowed to remain too long in the caustic liquor, which would dissolve the solder and blacken the copper. Dipping. — The pieces are then dijiped in a mixture of from 5 to 20 parts in weight of sulphuric acid at 6G° Baume for 100 ]>arts of water, ftlost of the pieces to be cleansed may be dipped hoi in this mixture; but certain alloys, in which tin, zinc, or antimony i)redominate, such as cast bronze, must not be so treated, asthesurevious dii>pings, and then add twice the volume of sul|ihuric acid at (>(!". The mixture is allowed to cool olf until the next day. The nitrate of copper of the old aquafortis becomes converted into sulphate of copper, which, by cooling, crystallizes against the sides of the vessel. Decant the liquiil jinrtiou into another vessel, and then add 2 or .'$ per cent, of common salt, and as miuh of calcined soot. This mixture is much less energetic than the compound acids for a briglit lustre, and often r»- WORKSHOP RECEIPTS. 178 places them advantageously. The crys- tallized sulphate of copper is collected and sold. This bath is strengthened, when necessary, by the addition of stronger aquafortis and oil of ritriol. To replace the portion used up during the day, equal quantities of old aquafortis and oil of vitriol are added at the end of the day. The next morning the liquors are decanted, and the sulphate of copper is gathered. Soot and common salt in suHicient proportions are then added. In this manner a perpetual and cheap whitening bath is prepared. Compound Acids for a Dead Lustre. — If it is desired to give the objects a dead lustre, they are, after dipping in aqua- fortis and rmsing, plunged into a bath, prepared previousl}-, composed of nitric acid at 36°, 200 parts ; su!]>huric acid at 66°, 100 parts; common salt, 1 part; sulphate of zinc, 1 to 5 parts. Copper articles may remain from 5 to 20 minutes in the cold bath, and the dead lustre will be the more apparent, the longer the immersion has been. From this bath, after a long rmsing, the objects have an earthy appearance. This dulness is re- moved b\- a rapid passage of the pieces through the compound acids for a bright lustre, and by an immediate rinsing. If they remain too long in the latter acids, the dead lustre will disappear, and the operation for dead lustre will have to be repeated. If a bath for the bright lustre )s not at hand, the objects, after rinsing, maybe rapidly passed through the dead- lustre bath, which will remove the dul- ness of the lustre caused by too long immersion. After long use, the com- pound acids for a bright lustre may be employed in a certain measure for a dead- lustre bath. The mode of operation remains the same. For large embossings for furniture, or for some clocks, a hot bath for dead lustre is used, composed as follows ; — Old aquafortis, about 4 to 5 parts; sulpnuric acid, 1 part; sulphate of zinc, 8 to 10 per cent. The sulphate of zinc is gradually added when required, for increasing the deadness of the lustre. The lustre thus obtained appears dull and yellowish ; after a thorough rinsing, a passage through th» same bath for 1 or 2 seconds, and a last rinsing, it becomes clear enough. Dipping in Nitrate of Binoxide of Mer- cury. — This operation consists in plung- ing the cleansed articles for 1 or 2 seconds into a solution of water, 2-^ gal- lons ; nitrate of binoxide of mercury, a third of an ounce; nitric acid or, prefer- ably, sul])huric acid, two-thirds of an ounce. When nitrate of binoxide of mercury is poured into the water, a thick cloud is formed, of a yellowish-white colour, which subsequently disappears. Stir the mixture before using it. Tl<8 proportion of mercury salt above-named must be modified, according to the size of the pieces, and the nature of the alloy. Thus less mercury will be used for light pieces ofjewellery which need a very tliin deposit. On the other hand, more mer- cury is required for heavy objects, such as table ornaments, which should reo«Mve a thick deposit of gold or silver. The latter must come from the mercurial so- lution with a perfectly white and bi-ight appearance, looking like silver, whilst the colour of the light articles is scarcely changed. After a perfect cleansing, the pieces will, after passing through a strong mercurial solution, be perfectly white and bright. But there will be a cloudy appearance, or various shades of colour, if the cleansing has not been properly done. The amalgamating bath becomes spent by use ; it may be revived by the addition of a few drops of nitrate of mercury ; but it is better to prepare a fresh one. No intervals must be allowed between the various operations of cleans- ing. The dipping baths are ordinarily held in vessels of glass, stoneware, por- celain, or of any other material which resists the corrosion of acids. Commf'D earthenware and that with a lead glaze must be carefully avoided. The dipping pots must be rather high, and be fur- nished with a cover, in order to prevent evaporation. Those with ground edges may be covered with a pane of glass. Wide open-mouthed earthen pans are very good for rinsing. A large hood, communicating with a chimney, and closed with a sliding glass s.ash,should con- tain the following ajiparatus for complete 174 WOKKSUOP RECEIPTS, cleansing operations ; — A furnace and separate pans for first dipping, old aqua- fortis, aquafortis and soot, compound acids for dead lustre, compound acids for bright lustre, solution of nitrate of mercury, acids to dissolve gold from old pieces, icids to dissolve silver from old pieces ; with two large pans for rinsing with a constant (low of water. If thedrauglit of the chimney is not sullicient, a small tire may be kindled under the hood. A gas- burner is often sulHcient. The pot of nitrate of meixury, with two rinsing i)ans, may be placed near the electroplating bath. Cleansing Silver. — Mechanical agents will not, like acids, act simulta- neously on every part of the object, and it is imjiossible to entirely prevent the action of the air, steam, gases, and acid fumes. Heat the object to a dull red heat upon a slow fire. If the silver is pure, it becomes covered with a thin bluish film ; but if, as is nearly always the case, the silver is alloyed with a variable propor- tion of copper, the latter becomes oxidi/.ed, and covers the piece with a greyish-black coating. While the piece is still hot, plunge it into a boiling pickle of water and sulphuric acid, which dissolves the o.xide. if tlie heat has been sufficiently protracted for oxidizing all the cojiper on the surface, the object, when removed from the pickle, is of a perfectly dead white. It is greyish if the heating has been too short, and the operation must be re]>eated as many times as are needed for a perfect lustre. Or the silver may be placed in sheet-iron bo.Tcs filled with a mixture of powdered borax, lime, and charcoal dust. The borax dissolves the oxide of copper as soon as formed. If the objects to be cleansed are hollow, it is necessary, before heating, to make a small hole which will allow of the escape icce by this liquor, it is di|i|>ed for a few minutes into k very dilute solutioD uf aininuuia or of soda crystals, which prevents the action of tlie acid upon the silver. Then place the article between layers of dry and warm fir wood saw-dust, which will ab- sorb the saline solution. Nitric, instead of suljihuric, acid may be used for the pickle bath. In this case, the water must be distilled, and the acid free from chlo- rine or hydrochloric acid, otherwise the silverware will be covered with a bluish- white film of chloride of silver This method will not suit articles in which iron or zinc may be present. In such cases, employ alkalies, and polish after- wards with very fine sand or pumice-dust, witli the aid of a still' and short l>rush, or with a scratch-brush alone. Perfectly cleansed silver may directly receive a metallic deposit whicli will have the same dead lustre as the object itself, but it is customary, before introducing the articles into the electroplating bath, to scratch- brush them. ScRATCH-nRUSUiNG. — Scratch-brush- ing is to remove the dead lustre on au object by the frequently-repeated friction of ihe points of many stilf and straight metallic wires, called a scratch-brush or wire-brush. Its shape varies with the articles to be operated upon. A hand scratcii-brush is made of numerous wires, still' and straight, taken from a bundle or coil of large diameter, so that the wires have little tendency to curve. For deli- cate objects, scratch-brushes are made of s]nin glass, the fibres of which are very thin and clastic. For making a good hand scratch-brush, choose a bundle or coil of brass wire of the pro|)er thickness, and wrap a good string tightly round it for alxiut two-thirds of the intended length of the instrument, usually about 8 inches. Then, with a cold chisel, cut the bundle of wire close to the string at one end, and at 2 inches from the other end of the string wra|>|)ing. Dip th»! end closed by the string into a neutral solution of chlo- ride of zinc, and plunge into melted tin, which solders all the wires, and prevents their sparation and injury to the hanlating solution. Zinc may be slightly amalgamated with the sDlution of nitrate of biuoxule of mer- cury ; this increases the adherence of the electro deposits. It is often necessary, fronr. some defect in cleansing, or inelec- troi>lating, which impairs the adherence of the deposits, to do the work over again. In such a case, remove the copper entirely by plunging the object into aquafortis and soot, until it appears black. Another dipping into the comjiound acids will render it perfectly clean and white, and ready to receive a new deposit. Clkaxsixg Lkad and Tin. — Tin, ]ea<\, and the alloys of these mftaN, are much more dillicult to cleanst; than zinc. A rapid scouring with pot.ash lye, and a rubbing with a hard substance are the only means of effecting this. The objects are sometimes phingeci into diluted hy- drochloric aciil ; but the first operation is nearly always necessary. Notwith- standing the greatest care, the direct riepysit of the jirrcious metals is diniciilt, «i I does not adhere well. The results arc much l^cttcr if a coat of pure copper or brass is interposed between the low metal, and the gold or silver. Ci.EAXsiKG Cast Iron. — Cast iron is cleansed by being immersed for 2 or 3 hours in water containing one-hundredth part of suljihuric acid ; the metal is after- wards rinsed in cold water, and scoured with sharp sand and a fibre brush, or a coarse rag; then put again in the acid jiickle, rinsed, and plunged into the elec- tro bath. If more than 1 per cent, of sulphuric acid is added to the water, the length of the immersion must be short- eneil, otlierwise the case iron will be deeply corroded, and the carbon of the metal, which is insoluble in the pickle, will with great dilliculty be removed by tlic friction of the sand. Cast iron does not gild or silver well, by a direct deposit of the preci-ous metals. Copper or brass deposits are better, although tar from perfect ; but if cast iron is tinned, the coat is adherent, and will afterwards receive copper, brass, gold, or silver, if desired. If it is desired to keep cast iron already cleansed for some time before electroplating it, it is necessary to pre- serve it in a liquor rendered alkaline by caustic lime, potash, or soda, or their carbonates; but caustic lime-water is the cheapest and most easy method, and cast iron which has remained in it for a few hours will not rust after a long exposure to a damp atmosjihere. Clioansino Wrought Irox. — The cleansing of wrought iron is effected in the same manner as cast iron, but will bear a stronger pickle anil a longer im- mersion. We refer in this j)I:ice to ordi- nary wrought iron covered with a film ol black magnetic scale or of red rust. Whitened, filed, or polished iron must be treated like steel. Cr.KANSixo Stkkl. — Polished articles of steel, or iron, must be first cleansed in a boiling solution of caustic lye, and rubbed with immicc-stone dust, which scratches the polish slightly, and thus produces a better hold for the metals afterwards to be dejiosited. They aro then rajiidly passed through a bath com posed of water, 1 quart ; hydrochloric acid, 12 oz.; or sulphuric acid, 4 oz. ; rinsed in cold water, and plunged into WORKSHOP RECEIPTS. 177 the electroplating solution. Carefully avoid substituting nitric acid for the hy- drochloric or sulphuric acid, of the above acid bath. Iron and steel may be well gilt, without an intermediary cait, in hot gilding baths. Silvering directly upon steel or iron is always imperfect and without adherence ; it is therefore customary to interpose a coat of copper or brass, which renders the further opera- tion of silver plating easy. Galvanic Batteries. — There are two kinds of batteries used for electro-depo- sition ; those which act under the action iif physical agents; but those, on account of their feeble intensity, are i-arely used. Others act under the influence of chemi- cal reactions, of decompositions and re- compositions, or of greater or less afli- nities. The varieties of these instruments are, at the present time, very numerous. But the best battery is that which, under the smallest volume, is the most ener- getic, constant, regular, and economical. Daniell's Battery. — This battery de- velops a constant and lasting current, but is wanting in intensity. It is especi- ally adapted to slow deposits, which must be thick and of uniform texture. A great advantage of this battery is, that it will work without acids, and therefore without the production of gases or smell, and can be used in a private apartment without inconveni- ence. The vase for the battery is a flat vessel of pure copper, which is half filled with a saturated solution of sulphate of copper, into which is placed a bag of canvas or a cell of porous procelaiu or earthenware, which causes the solution cf sulphate of copper to rise to about 1 in. from the top of the copper vessel. The bag or cell is filled with a saturated solution of common salt, in which a well-cleansed zinc plate is placed. It is necessary that the levels of the two solutions should be nearly the same. If there is any difference, the solution of chloride of sodium should be slightly above the other, because if the solution of sulphate of copper passes into the porous cell, the zinc is immediately cor- roded, and blackened, and the battery may cease to work. When one of Daniell's elements only is used, whi^h seldom happens, on account of the feeble intensity of the current, the conducting wire which supports the article to be galvanized is connected with the zinc piate by a binding screw of brass, ana the other wire supporting the anode is connected with the copper of the ex- terior vase. The solution of suljihate of coppei" must be kept constantly satu- rated with crystals of this rait, enclosed ill a tag of linen or hair cl-jth. A simi- lar process may be emidoyid to keep the solution of common salt in a state ot satur.ition. A battery thus arranged may be kept in operation fjr three weeks, or a month. When this lattery is work- ing, the copper of the decomposed sul- phate is deposited upon the copper of the vessel, which thus inci eases in weight and in value. The ziuc is slowly dis- solved in the solution of common salt, and forms a double chloride of sodium and zinc. When a number of the ele- ments of a Daniell's battery are to be joined together, the zinc of the first ele - ment is connected with the copper of the second by means of a well-cleansed metallic ribbon, then the zinc of the second with the copper of the third, and so on, until the who.e apparatus presents at one end a copper vase, and at the other a zinc jilate, unconnected. A metallic wire connects the anode with the copper end, and a similar wire is bound to the zinc end, and supports the object to be electroplated. Another bat- tery used by the electro-gilders of watch parts and by telegraphers, is composed of a cylindrical vase of stoneware, glass, or porcelain ; a cylinder of zinc to which is soldered a ribbon of pure cop- per ; a porous clay cell, and a glass bal- loon with a short neck, and filled with crystals of sulphate of copper. It is closed with a cork perforated with two holes, or having two notches cut along its sides. The rolled zinc plate is put into the stoneware pot, and the porous cell inside the zinc. The copper ribbon of the zinc of the first element dips on to the bottom of the cell of the nest element, in such a manner that, when several elements are connected together, 178 WOUKoHOP RECEIPTS. iliere is at one eud the ribbon of a zinc plate, and at the other end a copjier rib- bon jiut into tiie ceil. Then the porous cell and the stoneware jiot are filled to the same level with water. The balloon containing the crystallized sulphate of copper receives as much water as it can hold, and the notched cork being jjut in place, the balloon is quickly inverted with its neck in the water of the ])orous cell. The battery is ready to work 24- hours after. The ribbon of the zinc end IS connected with the objects to be electroplated, and that of the other cell end, with the soluble anode. The sul- phate of cop])er contained in the bal- loon is dissolved in the water around it, and as this solution is denser than water it fails into the porous cells through one of the notches of the cork, while an equal quantity of purer and lightci- water ascends through tlie other notch, and so on, producing a circuit of denser liijuor falling by one notch, and ol" lighter liquor rising by the other. The solution of sulphate of copper is decomposed in the porous cell ; the sulphuric acid passes through the cell by outward ])res- sure and acts ui)on the zinc, and at the same time Ihe co]iper becomes deposited upon the co]p])er ribbon connected with the z;n(:of the former element. In order that this battery may work regularly for 6 or 7 month:;, it is sullicient to replace the eva])orated water. The .balloon ought to contain at least 2 lbs. of sulphate of copper, aud the zinc to lie aljout 7 in. in height, and from 4 to 4i in. in ili.imeier. Tiie zinc may be amalg.i- niated, in which case the action is a little slow at the start, but more regular afterwards. The copper riblion receives all the metal of the dccomiiosccl sulphate, Mnd it sometimes happens that part of the cop]>er bi-comes di'posited upon the por )US cell, whicil must then be cleaned in aquafortis. When all the sulphate of copper IS UHcd up, the balloons are tilled with a fresh (piantity of crystals and Dew cojiper ribbinis inserted to take the place of those miden-d too V(duiililions. If It be desired lo start the battery with a ballo(,u immediately, add a small quantity of suijthunc acid, or of common salt, to the water in which th« zinc i» j)laced. Bunsen's Battery. — E;ich elemert is composed of a glass vessel which is hali filled with nitric acid at 36° or 40° Baume, and which receives a hollow cylinder of pulverized coke, moulded and cemented at a high temperature, by sugar, gum, or tar. At the upper part of this cylimler, where it does not dip into the acid, a cojpper collar is lixed, which may be tightened at will by means of a screw. A cojpjier band or ribbon is fixed to the collar, and may be connected with the zinc of another element. A porous porcelain cell is placed inside the coke cylinder, and contains a diluted solution of sulphuric acid, 1 part acid and 9 parts water, into which is i)ut a bar or cylimler of zinc strongly amalga- mated, or covered with mercury. When a battery of several elements is to be formed, the coke of the first element is connected with the zinc of the second, and so on, and the apparatus is completed, at one end, by coke communicating with the anode, and at the other, by a zinc connected with the cathode, or object to be electroplated. In this apparatus the surface of the carbon is much gn^itei than that of the zinc ; this is a wrong (disposition, since, generally, the intensity of the current is in direct ratio with the surface of the zinc corroded, provided that this surface be oi)posite and parallel to that of the carbon. Bxmscns Butter;/ modified hij Arche rey connoctin!:; the zinc of the first with the middle |)late of the second. Or the cell may be made of gutta-percha, with a jdate of carbon to replace the plate of silver, or ot plti- tinized copper. The two other grooves receive two plates of amalgamated zinc with one of the u])per corners cut away. A double bimiiug screw, for the positive WORKSHOP RECEIPTS. 181 wire, is fixed upon the plate of carbon where the two zinc corners have been cut off, and another large binding screw unites the two zinc plates, and carries the negative wire. Fill the cell with water saturated with common salt, or acidulated with one-tenth of sulphuric acid. Wat^s Battery. — In a stoneware jar holding about 4 galls, place a cylimier of thin sheet copjier, dipping into water acidulated with 2 lbs. of sulphuric acid and 1 oz. of nitric acid. A solid zinc cylinder is put into the porous cell, which is filled with a concentrated solu- tion of common salt, to which a few drops of hydrochloric acid have been added. Various Kinds of 3Ietallic Deposits. — An intense current, for brass and hard deposits will be obtained by joining alternately the zinc of one element to the copper or carbon of the next one. For silver plating a smooth and not too hard deposit is desired, the current should be feeble in intensity, but considerable in quantity, and may be obtained by con- necting together all of the zincs on the one side, and all of the coppers or car- bons on the other. Porous Cells. — The porous cells are absolutely necessary in batteries working with two e.xciting solutions, like the Bunsen battery. But the trouble arising from the clogging of the pores of the cell, and from the difficulty of prevent- ing the diffusion between the two liquids of the porous cell and of the jar, the specific gravity of which is constantly varying, makes it desirable that the cell should be dispensed with in batteries worked with but one exciting fluid. Callaud Battery. — The Callaud battery is a modification of that of Daniell, doing away with the porous cell. A jar is filled with water acidulated with sul- phuric acid, only for starting the solu- tion of the zinc, as the sulphuric acid will be furnished afterwards by the sul- phate of copper. The zmc and copper plates are both placed horizontally in the jar ; the zinc in the upper part, and the copper lying on the bottom. To start this battery, throw into the jar a few crystals of sulphate of copper. These go to the bottom, dissolve, and form a saturated solution around the negative plate of copper. The electrode or conducting wire from the copper plate may be made to pass through a glass tube reaching down to the bottom of the jar, and large enough to contain a supply of crystals of sulphate of copper necessary to keep a saturated solution in the lower part of the cell. This avoids disturbing the upper part of the liquid in which the zinc dips, and its mixture with the solution of sulphate of copper. The deposits from the zmc and other im- purities are prevented from falling upon the copper plate, and thus interfering with the current, by covering the cop- per plate with a layer of clean quartz sand, which serves also as an obstacle to the effusion upward of the sulphate of copper, because the interstices between the grains act as a series of narrow tubes, but the force of the current diminishes by reason of the increased resistance. Copper Deposits. — By Dipping. — Copper deposits are obtained either by simple dipping or galvanic methods. Copper deposits by dipping are seldom practised excejjt upon iron, and are gene- rally wanting in lasting qualities, since, from the thinness of the deposit, the iron is not protected against atmospheric in- fluences. If the iron is steeped in a solution of sulphate of copper, 3^ oz. ; sulphuric acid, 3J oz. ; water, 1 to 2 galls., for a short time, it becomes covered with a coating of pure copper, baring a certain adhesion ; but should it remain there for a few minutes, the deposit of copper is thicker and muddy, and does not stand any rubbing. In this case, compress it by means of rollers or a draw plate, in order to impart a certain cohesion to the particles of copper. Small articles, such as hooks, pins, or nails, are coppered by jerking them about for a certain time in sand, bran, or saw-dust impregnated with the above solution, diluted with three or four times its volume of water. By Battery. — Electro-deposits of cop- per are obtained by decomposing a double 182 WORKSHOP KECEIPT3. salt of copper with another base, such as the double cyanide of potassium and copper. This process is equally well tdaptcd to all metals, and the deposits are fine, lasting, and their thickness is entirely regulated by the will of the operator. Dissolve about 16 oz. of sul- phate of copper in 2 galls, cf water, and add a solution of carbonate of soda until no more precipitate is formed ; collect the green precipitate, carbonate of cop- per, thus obtained upon a cloth filter, and wash it several times with water ; then stir the washed carbonate of copper in water, to which cyanide of potassium is added until the carbonate is entirely dissolved, and the solution is colourless. It is well to add a small excess of cyanide, which will increase the con- ducting powev of the liquor. This bath may be emi)loyed hot or cold, and i-e- quires an intense electric current for its 'iecompositiou. A copper plate or foil forms the anode, and as it' slowly dis- solves, nearly makes up for the loss of co]iper in the bath which has deposited on the negative pole. This anode must be removed when the bath does not work, because it will be dissolved even without an electric current, and the bath having been overcharged with copper, which is imlicated by a blue or green colour, will require a fresh addition of cyanide to be in good order. This bath is neither economical nor very rolialjle. The fol- lowing formula is preferable; — Water, 'I galls.; acetate of copper, crystallized ; carbonate of soda, crystals; bisulphite of soda ; cyanide cf potassium, pure, per cent., 7 oz. of each. For this bath the acetate of copper is put first into the vessel, and moistened with sullicicnt water to make a homogeneous paste. Tliis salt, like fioiir, is wetted with dilliculty, and will float on the surface of too great a body of water. The carbonate of soda and some water are added to this paste, and, after stirring, a light green preci- jiitate is formed. Three pints more water are then ady which a bath ot' brass may he pro[)ared with any kind of cyanide; — 1. Dissolve togeflier, in 2 gallons of water, B oz. of sulphate of cop|>cr, and 8 to 10 oz. of suljiliate of zinc. 2. 4 oz. of acetate of copfier, with 4 to 5 oz. of fused jiroto- chliiride of zinc; and add a solution of .'JO oz. of raibonatc of soda, which jiioduccs a precipitate of the carbonates of copper and zinc : allow this to settle; then decant the supernatant liquor, and replace it bv fresh water two or three times, after as many settlings. Then pour on 2 gallons of water containing, in solution, oO oz. of axrbonate of soda, and 15 oz. of bisul- phite of soda ; while stirring with a glass or wooden rod, add ordinary cyanide of potassium until the liquor is perfectly clear, or until nothing but the greyish- black iron, found in the cyanide, or ilio brown-red oside of iron in the sulphate of zinc, remains in suspension. An addi- tional quantity of about an ounce of ordinary cyanide improves the conduct- ing jiuwer of the liquor. With pure cyanide of potassium, or the ordinary cyanides with a constant and known composition, use the following nii.xtures Cold Brass Bath for all Metals ; Carbon- ate of copjier, recently prepared, and carbonate of zinc, recently prei)ared, each 4 oz. ; carbonate of soda, in crystals, bi- sulphite of soda, and cyanide of jjotas- sium, pure, each 8 oz. ; and Jjj of an ounce of white arsenic; water, about 2 gallons. This bath is prepared as follows : Dissolve, in 3 pints of water, 5 oz. of sul- phate of coDjier, and .') oz. of crystallized sulphate of zinc, and add a solution of 14 oz. of caibonate of soda in a quart of water. A gieenish precijiitate of mixed carbonates of copper and zinc is formed, stir well, and allow to de]iosit for seve- ral hours. The su]K'rnatant jiiiuid, holding the useless sulphate of soda, is thrown away, and replaced by nearly 2 gallons ot' water, in which are dis- solved the bisulphite and carbonate! dissolve together in the remaining warna water the cy.uiide of pota.ssium and the arsenious acid, ;md pour this liquor into the former one, which is rapidly deco- lourized, and forms the brass bath. Filter if necessary. Arsenious acid causes the deposit to be bright, but if in too great a jirojiortion may give a white or steel- grey colour to the metal. This incon- venience is slight, as the yellow colour soon ]iredomiuates. The arsenious acid may be replaced by soluble arsenites of potash, soila, or ammonia, but the pro- portions must be doubled. The batbs WORKSHOP EECEIPtS. 185 for cold electroplating are generally placed in wooden tanks lined inside with gutta-percha, which resists their action for a long time. The sides of the tank are also lined with one or more brass sheets joined together, connected with the last carbon or copper of the same battery, the intensity of which is regulated by the surface of the articles to be electroplated. The articles are suspended by copper or brajs hooks to stout rods of the same metal, all con- nected with the last zinc of the battery. Correcting the Brass Bath. — The losses of the solution are to be repaired by ad- ditions of copper and zinc salts, and arsenious acid, dissolved in cyanide of potassium. The operator will deter- mine the needed substances from the ra- jiidity of the deposit, its colour, and so on. \i the deposit is too slow, try whether the batli will absorb the salts of copper and zinc, without the addition of cy- anide. If the coat of brass has an earthy and ochreous appearance, and especially if the liquor is blue or green, add cya- r.ide of potassium until perfect decolouri- zation takes place. If the deposit is dull and unequal, add a small quantity of arsenious acid dissolved in cyanide. If the deposit is too red, add the salt of zinc, alone, or dissolved in cyanide. If the deposit is too white, or of a greenish- white colour, add the salt of copper alone, or dissolved in cyanide. When the bath after long use has become over- loaded with salts, the specific gravity is too great for the easy passage of the electric current, the liquor must be di- luted with water until it works satis- factorily. The specific gravity of a brass bath may vary from 5° to 12° Baume. The pieces, before brass electroplating, must be perfectly cleansed in the same manner as zinc or iron ; if the brass de- posit is irregular, remove the objects from the bath, rinse, scratch-brush, and put again into the bath until the colour and the thickness of the deposit are satis- factory. Scratch-brush again, and, if necessary, rinse in hot water, dry in warm ."aw-dust of white wood, and put in the stove-room. The last three opera- tions are indispensable for hollow-pieces. Brass Bath for Steel, Wrought and Cast Iron, and Tin ; using ordinary Cy- anide of Potassium. — Dissolve togethei in 14 pints of pure or rain water ;— Bisulphite of soda, 7 oz. ; cyanide of po- tassium. No. 2, 17 oz. ; carbonate of soda, 34 oz. To this solution add the follow- ing, made in 3^ pints of water ; — Ace- tate of copper, 4J oz. ; neutral proto- chloride of zinc, 3J oz. The two liquors become colourless when mixed. Ammo- nia must not be used for brass electro- plating baths for iron, especially for solutions worked in the cold. Brass Bath for Zinc. — Pure or rain water, 4i gallons ; bisulphite of soda, 24i oz. ; cyanide of potassium. No. 2, 35 oz. Add the following solution; — Water, 9 jiints ; acetate of copper and protochloride of zinc, each 12J oz. ; ammonia, 14 oz. The filtered bath is colourless, and gives, under the action of the battery, a brass deposit of a very fine shade, varying from red to green, by increasing the proportion of copper, or that of zinc. The anode is of brass. Colour of Brass Deposit. — The difficulty in brass electroplating, especially with small baths, is in keeping the uniformity of the colour of the deposit, as the gal- vanic current, having simultaneously to decompose two salts each oflering a dif- ferent resistance, must, according to its intensity, vary the composition and the colour of the deposited alloy. It will be found that a feeble current princi- pally decomposes the copper salt, and results in a red deposit ; whilst too great intensity in the current decomposes the solution of zinc too rapidly, and the de- posit is a white or bluish-white alloy. This is the case more especially with newlj'-prepared baths, and is an indication of irregularity in the conducting power of the bath, which, however, becomes more regular after being used for some time. The inconvenience of a red deposit maybe remedied by increasing the num- ber of the elements of the battery, or employing stronger acids, or decreasirg the number and the surfaces of the ob- jects to be plated ; the other inconve- nience of white deposits will disappear by diminishing the number of elements, or 186 WORKSHOP RECEIPTS. by increasing the surfaces to be covered. The deposit m:iy also be modified by substituting for the brass anode, either a sheet of ]nire copper, or one of zinc, or by siin]ily hooking one of these sheets to the br;iss anode. A bath of pure copper will be transformed into one of brass by the use of a zinc anode ; and an electro-bath of brass will become one of copper by the aid of a copper anjde. Arrangement of the Brass Jlath. — In the disposition of the baths for brass plating it is always necessary to have all the articles suspended at about equal dis- tances from the anodes; tl\e bath may be subdivided by several anodes forming partitions, so that each loaded rod is between two anodes, or smaller separate baths employed. The anodes should be removed when the bath is not at work. In order that the brass electroplating of zinc and copper may be lasting, the deposit must not be too thin, and must be scratch-brushed, rinsed in water ren- dered slightly alkaline by quicklime, and thoroughly dried in a stove. But generally the articles are brass electro- plated by remaining in the bath for irom 10 to 25 minutes. Cast and wrought iron, lead and its alloys, re- quire brass solutions richer in the me- tals than when depositing brass upon zinc or its alloys. The battery power should also be greater. Brass Plating by simple Dipping. — A colour resembling brass is given to small articles of iron or steel by a long stir- ring in a suspended tul), containing water, 1 quart; sulph.-ite of co|i[ier and proto- chloride of tin crystallized, about ^ of an ounce each. The shades are modified by varying the proportions of the two salts. Brassing Bead and Pewter. — Lead and pewter should be clean.sed in a solution of about 4 oz. of nitr"c aeid to the gallon of water, in which they remain for half an hour. I'cwter is more easily coated with l)rass than lead, but the same bath may be used for either. They are then rin.sed, scoured with sand, anil rinsed again. A good battery power and a large surface of anode arc neces- sary, especially ai the beginning cf the deposit. The proper temperature of the bath for brassmg lead, pewter, and tin is about 90° F. Stirring articles in a brass bath has a tendency to cause the deposi- tion of cop]ier alone. Tinning. — Tinning Bath, by Ex- change, for Iron. — This process is of little importance as a protection for iron as the layer of tin is a mere film, but it may be useful when thicker coats of tin are to be applied by other jirocesses. For the bath, dissolve with the aid of heat, in an enamelled cast-iron kettle, ammoniacnl alum, 11 oz,, and fused protochloride of tin, -^ oz., in Ah gallons of soft water. The i)ieces of iron, pre- viously cleansed and rinsed in cold water, are steeped in the solution as. soon as it boils. They are immediately covered with a film of tin of a fine white dead lustre, which may be rendered bright by friction. The bath is main- tained at the proper strength by small additions of fused protochloride of tin. This bath is convenient for a prelimi- nary tinning of zinc ; when the ammo- niacal alum may be replaced by any other kind of alum, or by sulphate of alumina; but for wrought and cast iron and steel this substitution cannot be made. Electro-Tinning. — The bath is com- posed of rain or distilled water, 110 gallons; ipyiojihosjihate of soda or ]iot- ash, 11 lbs.; crystallized protochloride of tin, 21 oz. ; or 18 oz. of the same salt fused, in order to have it free from an e.xcess of acid ; put the water into a tank entirely lined with anodes of tin sheets, united together and connected with the positive pole, carbon or cop]ier, of the battery. Then introduce tlie jiyrojihos- pliate of soda or |potash, and stir it in; when dissolved, the protochloride of tin is jiut into a sieve of cojiper half im- mersed in the solution. A milky-white precipitate is jiroduced, which disa])pear« after continued agitation. When the liciuid has become clear and colourless, or only slightly yellow, the bath is reaily ; then ]ilace ujion transverse mo- tjijlic rods, connected with the negative ]iole, the previously cleansed objects which are to be tinncl, Fhf, anodiw ar« WORKSHOP RECEIPTS. 187 not sufficient to keep the bath saturated ; when tlie deposit is too slow add small portions of equal weights of tin, salt, and pyrophosphate ; put in by the aid of the sieve, as if fragments of protochlo- rideof tin foil to the bottom of the bath they become covered with a crust, which prevents their solution. The tinning thus obtained upon any kind of metal is quite i-esisting, and has a white and dead lustre resembling that of silver. A bright lustre may be obtained with the scratch-brush or the burnishing tool. As the reduction of these baths re- quires an intense current, and the work- ing of the batteries is expensive, the next pro'jess is preferable. Tinning by DovJAe Affinity. — The bath is composed of — 1. Distilled water, Q^ gallons ; cream tartar, 6^ lbs. ; proto- chlonde of tin, lOJ oz. The powdered cream of tartar is dissolved in 44 gallons of warm water, and the tin salt in 22 gallons of cold water. The two solutions when mixed become clear, and the i-esult- ing bath has an acid reaction. Or, 2, dis- tilled water, 66 gallons ; pyrophosphate of potash or soda, 13 lbs. ; protochloride of tin, crystallized acid, 21 oz. ; or the same fused, neutral, 14 oz. The whole is dissolved at the same time'on a metal sieve, and, after stirring, the bath is clear. Either of these solutions is kept in a barrel with the top oft'. This barrel has at its lower part two tubes placed one above the other, connected with a small boiler built below the level of the bottom of the tank. The tube, starting from the bottom of the tank, reaches nearly to the bottom of the boiler ; the other tube, which is placed about three inches from the bottom of the tank, is connected to the top of the boiler ; a bent safety tube, connected only to the boiler, prevents any explosion, should there be an obstruction in the other tabes. A small quantity of water or mercury in the bent arm of the safety tube will prevent the escape of steam, when it does not exceed the working pressure required. When the boiler and tank are filled with liquid, as soon as heat is applied the expanded and lighter liquid will rise through the upper pipe into the barrel, while the colder and denser one will flow into the boiler through the lower pipe. A continual circulation is thus obtained, which keeps up a constant agitation of the contents of the bath. Large pieces are cleansed and rinsed, and piled in the bath with a few fragments or spirals of zinc ; the surface of the zinc should be about the thirtieth of that of the tinned articles. For small objects, such as pins or hooks, dispose them in layers about an inch thick upon perforated plates of zinc, which allow of the circulation of the liquid, and have their edges turned up so as to prevent the objects from falling oft". These plates should be removed from the bath in the inverse order in which they have been put in. These zinc plates must be scraped and cleaned, so as to present fresh surfaces of zinc instead of the white crust, which pre- vents its contact with the articles to be tinned. The time for the ojieration varies from 1 to 3 hours. Then remove all the objects, and add to the bath 9 oz. of pyrophosphate, and as much of fused protochloride of tin. Whilst the solution is going on, scratch- brush the large articles, and stir the small ones about with an iron fork, to change the points of contact. The objects are then again steeped in the bath for at least 2 hours. The larga pieces are scratch-brushed again, and the small ones rendered bright by mu- tual friction. Then dry the whole in dry and warm fir-wood saw-dust. Cast- iron cooking vessels thus tinned have a bright appearance, and have the ad- vantage of never communicating any taste, smell, or colour to the food cooked in them, even when the tinning, after long use, has completely disappeared. Colour of Tin Deposit. — If the tin de- posit is grey and dull, although abun- dant, prepare the bath, once or twice, with the acid crystallized protochloride of tin. With a very white deposit, but blistered and without adherence or thickness, replace the acid salt by the fused one. In the latter case, also dimi- nish the proportion of tin salt, and in- crease that of pyrophosphate ; a great 188 WORKSHOP RECEIPTS. deal of the success of the operation de- pends upon the quality of the pj-rophos- jihate. Wiieu a tinning bath has been worked for a long time, decant the liquor to separate the pyrophosphate of zinc formed. And when, after several years, the solution is entirely used up from the alteration of the salts, it should be kept in preserving tubs, where the ob- jects to be tinned are put after cleansing. To Tin Zinc. — The proportions of the bath are as follows; — Distilled witer, 66 gallons ; jiyrophosphate of soda, 11 lbs; fused protochloride of tin, 35 oz. A thin tinning is obtained by simple dipping, and one of any thickness by the aid of tlie battery. Whitening h>j Tin. — This is effected by boiling for two or three hours in long copper troughs, crude cream of tartar with tin plates supporting a layer of about h an inch of the pins, or other small articles, to be whitened. The whole charge is composed of alternate I'iyers of pins and tin plates, so that each layer of pins is between two tin plates. This process will not succeed with iron without an intermediate coat of copper has been deposited. GiLDixo. — Gilding by Dipping. — The baths employed contain gold in the form of a double salt of protoxide, and should possess little stability, that is to say, be decomposed and abandon the gold under feeble influences, and should dissolve the copper placed in them in an equivalent ])roportion to that of the de- jiositcd gol(l, thus forming a new double salt in which the copper is in the same degree of oxidization as the gold. When the articles have been previously amal- gamated, it is mercury and not copj)er which is substituted for gold in the solution. I'repuriition of the Gold D dh. — Dis- tilled water, 17 jiints; jiyrophosphate of pota.sh, or soda, 28 oz. ; hydrocyanio acid of ^ prussic acid, \ of an ounce ; (rystallized j)crchloride of gold, ^j of an ounce. The pyrophosjihate olsoda is most (^I'lieraily employed, and is obtained by iiii'lting, at a white heat, the ordinary crystalli/td phosphate of boda. The pyrophosphate of soda may be obtained in the form of crystals, which is a proof of a definite composition. The quantity of chloride represents a little more than ■i of an ounce of pure gold treated by aqua regia. Put 16 pints of distilled water in a porcelain vessel, or an ena- melled cast-iron kettle, and add, by small portions at a time, and stirring with a glass rod, the pyrojiliosphate ; heat, filter, and let it cool down. The chloride of gold is prepared by introducing into a small glass flask pure gold finely lami- nated, -i of an ounce; hydrochloric acid, pure, nearly 1 oz. ; nitric acid, pure, J an ounce. The flask is slightly heated, ell'ei'- vescence and abundant nitrous vapours result, and in a few minutes the gold has entirely disappeared, leaving a reddish- yellow liquor. The flask is then put upon a sheet of iron, with a hole in its centre, and supported by a tripod. The whole is heated by a gas or sj)irit lamp to evajiorate excess of the acids; too much acidity may cause great irre- gularities in the working of the bath, and even prevent its action altogether. An excess of nitric acid causes a jumping of the heated liquors, and may over- throw the whole ; it is preferable to havetiio hydrochloric acid predominating. The evMporation is finishoil wiien va]iours escape slowly from the flask, and when the liquid has become of an oily con- sistency and of a deep red colour. The flask is then removed from the fire by wooden pincers, and set to cool ujion a ring of plaited straw. If a more rapid eva])oration is desired, heat the flask over ignited charcoal, or the spirit lamp; agitate the liquid to j)revent any of the gold from returning to the me- tallic state. Well-prepared chloride of g(dd, when cold, forms a saffron-yellow crystalline mass. If the colour is red, it has been too much evaporated, and will do very well for electro-baths; but for dipf)ing baths it must be heated again alter a small addition of the two acids. If the perchloride of gold, by too pro- trar a few minutes. In either case, the whole is rapidly washed in warm water holding in suspension a certain quantity of tlie materials for ormolu ; they are then rajiidly dried, when they appear of a darker shade ; remove any portions too much coloured by striking them vertically with a brush having long bristles. If the tint does not ajijiear satisfactory commence the oi>eration afresh, after washing olfthe ormolu in a diluted solution of sulphuric acid. Green and Wliitc Gildinj. — These shades may be graduated at will, and are olitained by adding, drop Ijy ijrop, until the de>ired shade is arrived at, to the bath of double j)yropiiosphate of soda and golii, a solution of nitrate of silver. For the solution of nitrate of silver, eiature reduces the platinum to the metallic state; it then ai)pears with a perfect polish. After cooling, pass the whole object through aquafortis, which is without action ujion the platinum, but destroys the imjjuri- ties which may tarnish its surface. Rinse in plenty of water, wraj) the ob- ject with a few turns of tine brass wire, having numerous i)oints of contact with the platinized places, and di]) into the gold bath. After a few minutes the ])la- tinum is covered with gold which has the same aiiherence and polish. Kub the gold with chamois leather; this method dispenses with burnishing, which is costly, and often impracticable in the deejily indented parts. If the gilding IS too red, add to the bath a few dr<)]is of a solution of double cyanide of jiotassium and silver (liquor for silver electroplating). This iiicthod is pre- ferable to that of baths with separate battery; the gilding has a bright instead of a dead lustre, and its adherence t6 greater. WORKSHOP RECEIPTS. 191 Dutertre's Process for Bright Gold Gilding consists in ajiplying with a brush to th. objects a mixture of sulphide of gold and various essences, which are then submitted to a dull red heat. Gold Dipping Bath icith Bicarbonates. — The bicaibonate bath is pre})ared in a cat.t-iron kettle, turned clean and smooth mside on the lathe, and gilt by the pro- tracted ebullition of nearly spent gold baths. Water 3^ galls. ; bicarbonate of potash or soda, i oz. ; pure metallic gold, transformed into cliloridc, 4^ oz. The whole is boiled for at least 2 hours, and fresh water added to replace that evaporated. A part of the gold, m the form of a violet-black j)owder, precipi- tates, and requires the cooling and de- canting of the liquor. This is boiled again and the gilding proceeded with, in the same manner as before described, except that the mercurial solution should be more diluted than for the baths of pyrophosphates. The operation is finished when about half of the gold in the liquor is deposited. The remainder goes to the saved waste. The bicarbon- ate process is inferior in most respects to the pyrophosphate, and is now rarely used Gilding by Diluted Bath. — This bath should be employed only as a comple- ment to the cleansing process, before a more resisting gilding, as its results have little durability. Water, 2 galls. ; bicarbonate of potash, 7 oz. ; caustic potash, 63 oz. ; cyanide of potassium, 3 oz. ; metallic gold to be transformed into chloride, a oz. The whole is brought up to the boiling point, and a pale gild- ing is obtained even ujion articles imper- fectly cleansed, and without using ni- trate of binoxide of mercury. It is pos- sible to add ^ oz. of chloride of gold seve- ral times to this bath without any other substances. Afterwards maintain it at the proper strength by additions of gold and salts in the above projiortions, and it will last for an indefinite period. This bath will gild about 140 oz. of small jewellery with J^, oz. of gold, whereas a pyrophosphate bath gilds only about 3.T oz. of small articles with the J^ oz. of gold extracted from the liquor. Gilding by Stirring and Gold Amal- gam. — In the centre of a charcoal stove put a crucible holding a given quantity of pure and dry mercury, and when the temperature has reached about 212° Fahr. add J the weight of gold. Stir with an iron rod until the amalgam has ac- quired the consistency of butter, throw it into cold water, and keep it there for use. Cleanse the articles to be gilded in aquafortis, put them in a stoneware pan, and pour over them a diluted solu- tion of nitrate of binoxide of mercury, taking care to move the articles about all the time, in order to cover them with a regular white coating of mercury. Add the desired proportion of amalgam , on stirring tlie articles this is spread all over them. Then rinse the articles in cold water, place them in a large and deep copper ladle, perforated with nu- merous small holes, and having a long handle. Hold the ladle over a charcoal fire, and constantly stir it about in order to have the heat equal everywhere. The mercury of the amalgam is soon volati- lized, and the gold remains adherent to the articles. If instead of a yellow gilding a i-ed one be desired, this is got by waxing, which consists in pouring upon the pieces, kept in the ladle and upon the fire, in a well mixed and fluid state; — oil, 25 parts; yellow wax, 25; acetate of copper, 10 ; red ochre, 40. The articles must be constantly agitated, and the mixture allowed to burn out, when the whole is thrown into a very diluted solution of sulphuric acid. The waxing is only to be done after the complete volatilization of the mercury. When removed from the pickle, the gilding has the dull ochre appearance, and must be scratch-brushed. Small articles are brightened in a long narrow bag, where they are put with copper pearls, or the waste from these pearls, and wet with vinegar water; a to-and- fro motion is imparted to the bag, and the gilt articles and the copper granules polish each other. Rinse and dry m saw-dust, and burnish if required. Cold Gilding with the Rag. — Dissolve finely laminated pure gold in aqua regia made of nitric acid, 5 parts ; sal am- WORKSHOP I!ECEIPTS. tnoniac, 2 ; saltpe'.re, ^. Heat carefully ujion a geutle fire ; when all the gold has disappeared, pour the cooled contents of the flask into a flat-bottomed stoneware pan. Into this liquor, place oae upon the other, and in sulhcient quantity, squares of liner cloth, strike them with a glass rod, in order that they may equally absorb the chloride of gold. Kach square of cloth is taken out with wooden pincers, well drained, and sjiread for drying in a dark chamber. When nearly dry, each piece of cloth, sup- ported upon glass rods, is placed on top of a cliarcoal fire, and soon takes fire. The combustion is aided by the presence of I he saltpetre, and is fiuisned upon a marble slab. Grind the ashes under a muller, collect and keep them between the folds of a parchment leaf, around which a wet cloth has been folded. The powder is then ready to use ; mix it upon a slab with a few drops of water, and with this paste rub the well-cleaned surfaces of the silver to be gilt. The smooth surfaces are rubbed with the thumb, the fillets or grooves with a fine cork cut to the proper shape, and the corners or angles with a stick of soft wood, such as linden or poplar ; the arti- cles are then burnished. This gilding is very thin, but quite resisting, especially after the action of the burnishing tool, which forces the gold into the pores of the silver. If a red shade be desired, add a small j)roportion of pure copper to the gold to be dissolved in aqua regia. Gilding with the Brush or with Shell Gold. — The gold powder is prepared by nibbing the cuttings of gold-beaters' foil under the muller; to prevent them from being blown away, add a small quantity of white honey. When fine enough put the paste into water, by which the honey is dissolved. Alter several washings, settlings, and decant- ings, allow tlie ])owder to dry. In case of hurry, the washing may be performed upon a paper filter. The dry powder is again grounlace it in water, 2 pints of water to 4 oz. of gold, then =idd cyanide of potassium until the liquor is colourless. If there is not suf- Scient water with the gold ammonium, the liquor will be dark red, and will not be decolourized by cyanide. 2. Dis- tilled water, 2i gallons ; cyanide of potassium, pure, 7 oz. ; or ordinary cyanide, according to strength, 10 to 14 oz. ; pure gold, 3i oz. Make a neu- tral chloride of gold, as in the preceding formula, and, when cold and crystal- lized, dissolve it in 3J pints of water. Filter if needed. Dissolve the cyanide in "14 pints of water, filter, and mix the two solutions, which become colourless. When it is possible to boil this bath for half an hour before using it, it becomes a better conductor of electricity, and the gilding is more uniform. Its strength is maintained by additions of neutral chloride of gold and pure cya- nide of potassium, from 1 to IJ of pure cyanide to 1 of gold. Both the above baths may be diluted with once or twice their volume of water ; the gilding will remain fine, but the proportion of gold deposited will be less in a given length of time. 3. Yellow prussiate of potash, 7 oz. ; pure carbonate of potash, 5 oz. sal ammoniac, 1 oz. ; pure gold trans- formed into chloride, § oz. ; water, 2-1. gallons. Boil all the salts together, less the chloride of gold, separate by filtration the precipitate of carbonate of iron, then add the chloride of gold dis- solved in a little water, and allow the bath to cool off. Any kind of gold salt, and the oxide, or even finely-powdered metal, may take the place of the chloride of gold ; but the latter is preferred on account of the facility of its prepara- tion, and of its solubility. Any kind of gold salt will be transformed into cya- nide by the cyanide of potassium. The small ])roportion of the chloride of po- tassium resulting from the transforma- tion of the chloride of gold mto cyanide does not prevent the good working of the baths. The addition of a little ])russic acid produces a brighter, but thinner, gilding. The indicated cya- nides may be replaced by the cyanides of sodium, calcium, and ammonium. Cold gilding baths are generally kept in porcelain or stoneware vessels ; but for large volumes of liquor use wooden troughs lined with gutta-percha plates. The sides of the troughs support anodes of laminated gold, which dip entirely into the liquor, and are held by small platinum wires; they are connected with the positive pole of the battery. Suspend the articles by means of me- tallic slinging wires to a movable frame of clean brass rods connected with the negative pole. The deposit of gold should be pure yellow, but it has some.- times a dull earthy grey colour. In that case scratch-brush it with the greatest care, and then pass it through the ormolu colouring. Tha gold anode conducts the electricity, and also main- tains the metallic strength of the bath up to a certain point ; but it is neces- sary to add now and thtd either the oxide or the chloride of gold, and a cer- tain proportion of cyanide of potassium, to make up for that transformed intu carbonate of potash and cyanide of am- monia. The proportion of cyanide is about double that of the chloride of 194 WORKSHOP LECEIPTS. gold added ; this is ascertained by the colour of the bath and the shade of the deposit ; if the proportion of the chlo- ride of gold is too great, add more cya- nide, if gold predominates, the deposit is quite black or dark red ; when the cyanide is in excess, the gilding is very slow and grey, and it will sometimes happen that pieces already gilt will lose theii gold. When the bath is not in iise, the gold anode must be i-emoved from it, otherwise it will be dissolved If the anode were partly immersed in the bath, it would be rapidly cut at the level of the liquid ; for this reason use the platmum wires, which are not acted upon. It IS remarkable that the solu- tions of cyanides, even without the ac- tion of the electric current, ra)?"dly dissolve all the metals except platinum in the cold or at a moderate tempera- ture, and that at the boiling point they have scarcely any action upon the me- tals. Cold electrogilding should be done slowly ; and it is necessary to often look at the pieces in the bath, and scratch-brush those with an irregular deposit, or with dark sjjots. The in- tensity of the current should be often changed by increasing or diminishing the number of the elements, or the strength or the volume of the liquors in the battery. With too much inten- sity in the current, the deposit is black or red; it is yellow with the proper amount of electricity. With a weak current those portions ojiposite the anode only get covered with gold ; it is well to change the position of the ob- jects often, in order that the dc])osit be regular. With a fi-eshly-prepared Lath, it may happen that surfaces alicady gilt will lose their gold by changing their positions. Tliis is a sign that tiie bath contains too much cya- nide of potassium, and too little gold, or that tlie electric current is too weak. When the deposit obfaiacd in cold baths IS uusatihfactory in ap])t'arauce, although the quantity is sullicient, the pro]ier atiade may be imparted by — 1. The gilt article is steeped in a solution of nitrate of binoxide of mercury, until it has Vtecome white. It 'h heated afterwards to volatilize the mercury, and scratch- brushed. 2. Place the article into con- centrated sulphuric acid, then heat it until abundant white fumes are disen- gaged, throw it, still hot, into a weak pickle of sulphuric acid. In this c;ise, the acid has destroyed the organic im- purities which may exist in the deposit, and reduces the subsalts of gold to the metallic state. 3. Smear the article with a thick paste of water and pow- dered borax, or with biphosjjhate of lime of the consistency of honey, and heat until igneous fusion takes place. Tlien put the article into diluted sul- phuric acid, which dissolves the borax or the biphosphate, and leaves the gold with its natural bright lustre. When, after scratch-brushing small gill arti- cles, their colour is not entirely satis- factory, it may be imi)roved by plung- ing the articles again into the bath but for an instant, and then immediately into boiling water. For gilding Ger- man silver, the solution should be worked at rather a low temperature, and with a less surface of anode. The solution should be just so weak in pre- cious metal, that the German silver will not ])recipitate the gold without tlie aid of tlie battery ; otherwise the deposit will take place so rapidly that the gold will peel olT when being burnished or scratch-brushed. Gold Electroplating in Hot Baths is more regular, more rajiidly obtained, and possesses a deejier shade, than that by cold baths. 1. Crystallized phos- phate of soda, 21 oz. ; bisulphite of soda, 3J oz .; jiure cyanide of potassium, ^ oz. ; ]iure gold, transformed into chlo- ride, ^ oz. ; distilled water, 2i gallons This is satisfactory for electrogilding silver, bronze, and other alloys rich in cojjper. For gilding wrought and cast iron and steel directly, without a pre- vious coat of cojijier, the bath is modi- fied as follows; —Distilled water, 2J- gallons; |)hosi)hate of soda, 17J oz. ; bisul|)hate of soda, 4J oz. ; pure cyanide of jjotassium ^ oz. ; gold ti'ansformeil into chloride, ^ oz. The proportion of gold indicated is that of the metal em- ployed, and it '** not necessary to mind WORKSHOP RFCEIPTS. 195 the weight of the :hloride, if the proper ainouul uf gold is dissolved in aqua i-i'gia. Ten parts of metallic gold cor- nsjionds to about 18 [larts of neutral chloride, or to 23 or 22 parts of acid chloride such as is usually sold. Steel articles, after cleansing by alkalies, must be passed rapidly through a very diluted solution of hydrochloric acid, wiped, and dipped into a very hot bath with an intense galvanic current at the beginning, which is gradually dimi- nibhed bj' partly withdrawing the pla- tinum anode. Small articles of steel, such as pens, or watch hands, are threaded on a thin brass wire, and sepa- rated one from the other by glass beads. After cleansing, they are put into the bulling bath, rinsed, dried, and polished in hot and dry saw-dust. It is pre- ferable to give zinc, tin, lead, anti- mony, or the alloys of these metals, a previous coat of copper, or to begin the gilding in a hot gold electro-bath, nearly worn out, and to scratch-brush the articles carefully. The gilding is com- pleted in a new hot bath, with a strong current. Preparation of the Gold Bath. — 1. Put four-Kfths of the distilled water into a jiorcelain dish, or an enamelled cast-iron kettle, heated over a charcoal stove, and dissolve in it, by the aid of stirring, the crystallized phosj>hate of soda. When this is entirely dissolved, remove the liquor from the fire, filter if necessary, and allow it to cool off. 2. Place the gold in a glass flask, with \ oz. of pure nitric acid and 1 oz. of pure hydro- chloric acid. Heal slowly until the gold has dissolved, and then more rapidly to expel the excess of acid. There should remain a thick liquid of a black- ish-red colour. Keniove the flask from ths lire, and by cooling the contents forma brown-red crystalline mass. The cooling is imiiortant. 3. Dissolve in a porcelain dish, in half the remaining water, the bisulphite of soda and the cyanide of potassium. 4. Then dissolve the neutral chloride of gold in the re- maining water, and pour it slowly, sin ring with a glass rod, into the cold solution of phosphate of soda ; add the solution of bisulphite and of cyanide. The whole liquor soon becomes colcur- less ; the bath is then ready. If the chloride of gold were thrown into the solution of phos]jhate of soda while hot, there would be danger of a partial re- duction of the gold in the form of a metallic powder. The hot electrogild- ing baths for small quantities of liquor are kept in porcelain dishes, but for large baths use ename.led cast-iron kettles. The temperature may vary from 120° to 175'= Fahr. Small articles, such as jewellery, are kept in the right hand with the conducring wire, and plunged and agitated in the bath. The left hand holds the anode of platinum wire, which is steeped more or less in the liquor, according to the surface of the articles to be gilt. Large pieces are suspended to one or more brass rods, and are not moved about. The gilding is very rapid, and a sutlicient thickness is obtained after a few minutes. The shade of the gold deposit is modified by the amount of the platinum anode dip- ping into the liquor. If it dips but a little, relatively to the surface of the articles, the gilding is pale; by immers- ing it more the shade will become deeper and deeper, until it is red. The |ila- tinum anode is connected by a conduct- ing wire to the positive pole of the bat- tery, and the conducting wire starting from the negative pole, touches or sup- ports the articles to be gilt. As a rule, it is preferable to replace the im- poverished baths by fresh ones, instead of keeping up their strength by additions of metal, especially for small articles. When gilding large pieces, maintain the strength of the baths bv successive ad- ditions of chloride of gold, or, what is better, of equal parts of gold ammonium and pure cyanide of potassium. In this manner baths may be made to last a long time, but they are open to the in- convenience of furnishing a red or green gilding, if many articles of copper or of silver have been gilt in them. Articles of copper, or its alloys, should be per- fectly cleansed, nd may be passed through a very diluted solution of m- trate cf binoxide of mercury. Silver o 2 196 AVOUKSUOP RECEIPTS. re. (Hires to be heatci. dipped, and per- fectly scratih-brushed. For this metal the f^iUiing should be sti'ong, in order to ] ire vent the corners and raised parts tVoni becoming white and bare ; and it is a good precaution to give it a coat of copper or brass, or a first gilding in an old bath. 2. Phosphate of soda, 14 oz. ; bisulphite of soda, 3.^ oz. ; bicarbonate of potash and caustic potash. If oz. of each ; cyanide of jiotassium and pure ^old for neutral chloride, J oz. of each ; distilled water, 2^- gallons. All the substances except the chloride of gold may be dissolved together, and filtered if necessary; then the solution of chlo- ride of gold is added. This bath is heated at from 120^ to UO°Fahr., and jiroduces a very pi'ar liy a long ebullition. Mnwi'icmmt of Hot (lold I'laths. — The baths may be more concent latod. the quantity of water may liier, and silver, by increasing or diminishing the length of the iilatiuum anode in tiit liquor, the deposit will have a white, yellow, or red shade, as the various metals require ditl'erent degrees of intensity for their reduction in the galvanic current. In hot electrogilding baths, and es]io- cially with small artit'les, keej) them in the right hand constantly moving in tlie liquid, while the left hand is employi'd in changing the position of the platinum anode, so as to suit the surface and the nature of the articles, and obtain the desireil shade. The hot baths may have their strength maintained by successive adilitions of chloride of gold with a projier pro]iortion of the other salts; but it is preferable to wear out the bath entirely and to pre])are a new one. When a bath is exhausted, the gilding is red if much co])per has been gilt in it, and green in the case of silver articles. It may then be used for a first coat upon olijects whidi are to be finished in a new bath. Thus green or white golds result from the simultaneous deposit of gold or silver in various proportions; red gold from the alloy of copper and gold; and ])iiik gfdd from the combination of gold, silver, and copp{M'. Green ow- der. Jkive the brush in circles, in order not to rub one side more than the other ; thoroughly rinse iu clean water, and no particle of pumice-dust should remain upon the pieces, or the cork. Next place the cork and the pieces into a weak mercurial solution, which very 198 WORKSHOP RECEIPTS. slightlr whitens the copper, composed of — wafer, 2i gallons, niti;ate or binoxiile of mercury, yL of ao ounce; sul]>huric acid, I of an ounce. The pieces are jiassod quicklv through the solution, and tlieu rinsed. This operation gives strengtli to the graining which, without it, possesses no adherence. Graining Powders. — 1. Silver in im- palj-able powder, 1 oz. ; cream of tartar, hnelv pulverized and passed through a silk sieve, 10 oz. ; common salt, pulverized and sifted as above, 2 lbs. 2. Silver powder, I oz. , cream of tartar, 4 to 5 oz. ; common salt, white and clean, 13 oz. 3. Silver powder, 1 oz. , cream of tartar, 3 oz. ; comniou salt, white and clean. 2 lbs. Al! these substances sliould be as pure as possible, and jierfectly dry. Ci-eam of tartar is generally dry: common salt often needs, before or after it has been pulverizeil, a thorough drying in a porce- lain or silver dish, in which it is kept stii-red with a glass rod or a silver spoon. The mi.xture of the three sub- stances must be thorough, and elfected at a moderate and protracteper solution. It is then carefully drieil, avoiding contact with hard bodies. Nu- remberg powder is produced by grind- ing a mixture of honey and silver foil upon a ground-glass plate with a muller until the pio])er fineness is obtained. The silver is separated by dissolving the honey in boiling water, and washing the dei)osited metal in a filter, until there is no remaining trace of honey. The silver is then carefully dried at a gentle heat. Graining. — A thin paste made of one ol the above powdei-s and water is spread by means of a spatula upon the watch parts held upon the cork. The cork itself is placed upon an earthenware dish, to which a rotating movement is imparted by the left hand. An oval brush with close bristles, held in the riglit hand, rubs tlie watch jiarts in every direction, but always with a rotary motion. A new quantity of the paste is added two or three times, and rubbed in the manner indicated. The more the brush anil the cork are turned the rounder becomes the grain, which is a good qua- lity; and the more paste added the larger the grain. When the desired grain IS obtained, the pieces are washed and then scratch-brushed. The wire brushes employed, which usually come from Nuremberg, are made of brass wires as fine as hair, very stilf and sipringy. It is necessarv to anneal them upon an even fire to dillerent degrees; one soft, or \\M annealeliiiig after the gild- ing, which, like the graining, must !••• done by giving a rotary motion lo the tool. Decoctions of li(|iiorice or sa|>onaire are employed in this oj'eia- tion. WORKSHOP RECEIPTS. 199 Resists. — 1. If it happens that the same watch part is composed of copper and Bteel, this latter metal requires to be preserved against the action of the cleansing acids and of the graining mix- ture, by a composition called resist. This consists in covering the pinions and other steel parts with a fatty composi- tion, wliich is suliiciently hard to resist the tearing action of the bristle and wire brushes, and insoluble in the alka- lies of the gilding bath. Yellow wax, 2 oz. ; translucent colophony, 3i oz. ; extra fine red sealing-wax, 1-i oz. ; im- palpable peroxide of iron or polishing rouge, 1 oz. Melt the colophony and sealiug-wax in a porcelain dish upon a water bath, and afterwards add the yellow wax. When the whole is thoroughly fluid, gradually add the rouge, and stir with a wooden or glass rod. Withdraw the heat, but continue the stir- ring until the mixture becomes solid, otherwise all the oxide of iron will fall to '.he bottom of the mixture. The flat parts to receive this resist ai'e slightly neated, and then covered with the mix- '.ure, which melts and is easily spread. For covering steel pinions., employ a tmall gouge of copjier or brass fixed to a wooden handle. The metallic part of the gouge is heated upon an alcohol lamp, and a small quantity of resist is taken with it. The composition soon melts, and, by turning the tool around the steel pinion, this becomes coated. Use a scratch-brush with long wires, as their flexibility prevents the removal of the composition. When the resist is to be removed after gilding, place the parts in warm oil or into tepid turpentine, then into a very hot soap-water or alka- line solution, and, lastly, into fresh water. Scratch-brush and dry in warm saw-dust of white wood. The holes of the pinions are cleaned and polished with small pieces of very soft white wood, the friction of which is sufficient to restore the primitive lustre. The gilding of parts composed of copper and stael requires the greatest care, as the s!ii;htest rust destroys their future use- fulness. Should some gohl deposit upon the steel, it should be removed by rub- bing with a piece of wood and impal pable pumice-dust, tin putty, o- rouge. 2. Again, when it is desired to obtain gildings of several colours upon the same object, resists, genei-ally made of some kind of varnish, are used ; after having gilt an article of a uniform red or green colour, it is covered with a fat varnish, made drying by the addition of chromate of lead, at those places which are to resist the action of the new bath. By means of resists and successive baths, several difierent shades can be obtained upon the same object. The resist var- nishes are applied with a brush or pencil, and should be thoroughly dried in a stove before placing the object into another solution. These varnishes may be coloured with various oxides or coloured salts, in order to facilitate their use upon those places which should be sharply marked ; chromate of lead and artificial ultramarine blue are well suited for the purpose. Resist var- nishes are also used for preserving the reverse parts of articles which have to receive the gilding only on the front. When the operation is finished, the re- sist is easily removed by a washing, first with essence of turpentine, gaso- line, benzine, or benzole, and then with alcohol ; when benzole is used, it is sufficient to wash the article in boiling water, and then to dry it in warm saw- dust of fir-wood. It comes out perfectly clean. This is not always the case with rectified turpentine, and it may be necessary to plunge the object into a hot alkaline lye, then to rinse and dry it in warm saw-dust. Gilding. — After the preparations de- scribed, the gilding may be effected by some of the processes already mentioned. Hot baths must not be employed for those pieces covered with the resist. Heat i of an ounce of finely laminated and pure gold in order to destroy all organic substance, dissolve in a glass flask with ^ of an ounce of pure nitric acid, and | of an ounce of pure hydro- chloric acid. When the gold is dis- solved, evaporate the excess of acids, leaving in the flask a syrupy dark-red liquid ; th? whole is thea removed from yoo WORKSHOP RECEIPTS. the fu-e and allowed to cool. Dissolve the chloride of gold in about 2 oz. of distilled water, aud pour into a large glass vessel. Dilute with about a pint of distilled water, and pour into the liquor a certain excess of pure ammonia, which precipitates the gold in the state of a yellow powder of ammoniuret of gold, or fulminate of gold, which is a detonating powder when dry. The ])ro- portion of ammonia is sullicient, when a new quantity of this reagent, being added to the clear liquid above the settled powder, does not produce any new precipitate. The clear liquor is decanted aud kept among the saved waste. Collect the settled powder upon a small filter, previously wetted with distilled water, there wash with dis- tilled water until all amraoniacal smell has disappeared. The filter aud its con- tents are afterwards put into a glass or porcelain vessel with a quart of distilled water and ^ of an ounce of j)ure cyanide of potassium, whicli rapidly destroys the gold and passes through tlie filter. The whole is filtered a^ain, boiled for 15 to inches. The articles to be gilt are sus- pended to metallic holders, connected with the zmc pole of a battery, and of a shape appropriate to the nature and form of the watch parts. One or more plati- num wires are used for anodes, and are disposed in the centre or round the bath. The battery most generally employed is com])osed of thi-ee, four, five, or si.\ small Daniell's elements. Those with balloons, on account of their constancy, should be preferred. The slower the gold dejiosit, the finer and more adherent it is. When the coating is sutficient, wash the articles in clean water, and fix again upon the cork iu order to proceed to the last scratch-brusiiing with a de- coction of liquorice, or of horse-cliestnut. Gilding Thin Wires. — Gilt silver is fine; gilt copper is half fine; and copper or brass alone, is filse. At the jiresent time, nearly all gilt wire is gilt by elec- tricity ; the batlis and the batteries are the same as those already mentioned, but for the success of tlie operation a certain disposition of the apparatus is required. U])on a brick furnace A, Fig. 58, which Fig. 58, 20 minutes, filtered ngafn, and left to c<>ol. Tlie bath obtained iu excellent for ^ildJDg the most dclicite watch parts, with an electric current regulated to suit the surfaces to be gilt. Several of these baths, in variou.s degrees of exhaustion, are genei-ally kept in glass or ]i(ii'celain vessels fl.it-bottomed, and holding from 7 to 'J pints within a depth pf 4 to 5 may be heated either with solid fuel or g.a.s, is a cast-iron enamelled kettle 1'., about 3 feet long. IS inches wide, and 4 to 7 inches deep, I'or holding the gold Ijalh. If gas is usetl as fuel, the burner should be an ellijitic ring with 25 or .'50 jets attached to it, or the same kettle may be used as a cold bath if de-siied, the fire being oj)tloual. At one end of WOIIKSHOP RECEIPTS. 201 the apparatus, near the battery, are two wooden stands C, supporting an iron rod which passes through a certain number of wooden spools carrying the wire to be gilt. These spools turn freely upon the rod, and the unwound wires, before di]iping into the bath, are pressed against a copper or brass rod D connected with the negative, zinc, pole of the battery ; thus the wires are connected with this pole. The wires dip into the bath to about two-thirds of its depth, and are kept stretched by small grooved pulleys E E of glass, porcelain, or ivory, rolling freely upon glass or ivory axes, which are kept near the bottom by supports screwed on the top edges of the kettle. At the bottom of the bath, and crossing the wires to be gilt, are two or more platinum wires G G, the vertical branches of which communicate with the positive, or carbon, pole. These j)latinum anodes must nowhere touch wires to be gilt, as these two kinds of wire represent the two poles of the battery in the bath. At the other end of the apparatus is another series of wooden reels M, ujjon which the gilt wire is wound up. These reels are fixed to the square iron axis which traverses them, and which is turned by gearing, slowly enough to ensure a good gilding to the wire, dur- ing its passage through the bath. After passing through the gilding bath, the wires are rinsed and dried by winding over two wooden rollers H 11 revolving freely upon their axes, and jilunged by means of grooved rollers into the first trough, filled with a weak solution of cyanide of potassium, which cleans and brightens the gilding ; they then pass into the second trough filled with water, which is constantly replaced, which removes the salts from the wires. The drying rollers K, covered with several layers of calico, are moved by gear in opposite direc- tions; the wires are thoroughly dried in a flat tube L, kept at a dull red- heat in the furnace L'. In a kettle of the size named, 20 wires may be gilt at the same time. Copper wires are generally previously sil- vered and passed once through a draw- plate, to avoid the cleansing process before gilding. The more intense the battery, or the slower the wires pass through the bath, so will the deposit of gold be increased ; and it will be well to weigh the bobbins before and after the operation, for which purpose the spools for winding up and winding out should be of the same weight. This gilding requires constant supervision, either for uniting the broken wires, the severed parts of which may touch the anodes and stop the operation ; or for regulating the intensity of the battery, which, if too powerful, will produce a red gilding, or, if too weak, a green gilding. liaths of double cyanide of gold and i)Otassium are employed, cold or slightly tepid ; baths with phosphate and bisulphite of soda are used for hot electrogilding, but they are concen- trated until the proportion of water is one-half of that indicated. As the platinum anodes do not make up for the metallic loss of the bath, it is frequently necessary to add new portions of metal and salts, in the manner already de- scribed. Pure gold wire is sometimes gilt, in order to impart to it a more uniform and deeper shade. After being gilt, the wire is passed through the draw-plate or the rollers. By the draw- plate it is diminished by about one- fourth or one-half of a number to remove the dulness of the deposit, and bring up the lustre. When the gilt wire is fiattened between the rollers, its surface is bright or dull, according to the state of the surface of the rollers. Silvering, or any other metallic electro- deposit upon thin wires, can be efl'ected in a similar manner. Gildinij with a Dead Lustre. — 1. By the slow deposit of a large proportion of gold. This gilding is very durable, but dull and earthy in appearance, and is costly. 2. By acids ; giving a dead lustre to the metallic surface, before gilding, and by the processes indicated in the cleansing operations. Tliis is em- ployed for small articles, or when gild- ing by dipping, for bronze articles, or large embossed work. 3. With frosted silver, by depositing upon the object to be gilt a coat of frosted silver, and then ■202 WORKSHOP RECEIPTS. gilding in a good bath ; this method is expensive, the buraishod parts are greeuish, and the iutennediary coat of silver is more easily blackened by sul- phur fumes than gold. 4. By copper, by depositing a solution of sulphate of copper decomposed by a battery a coat of this metal, which possesses a pink dead lustre. The whole is rapidly passed through the compound acids for a bright lustre, and the mercurial solution, and then gilt in a good bath. When the dead lustre obtained in the bath is per- fect, the com])ound acids may be dis- pensed with, and merely i)lace the article in the mercurial solution before it is gilt. This mode is generally preferred, as the gilding is very handsome in lustre and colour. The burnished parts will be red, if vinegar or soap-water is used ; and of a fine yellow (olour, if the bur- nishing tool be wetted with a decoction of flax-seed, or of marsh-mallow root. If the gold de])0sit is of iusutlicieut thick- ness, it will blacken in time, by the oxidization of the intermediate coat of copper. 5. Dead lustre by mercury, or the old process of gilding by fire, which furnishes the most durable gilding, al- though costly. GU'liri'j by Fire or Mercuri/. — Mer- cury gilding will furnish gold with a bright or a dead lustre, scratch-brushed, ormolued, and with different shades. The amalgam of gold is prepared in the manner described in the ))rocess of gild- ing by stii'riug, only a little less mer- cury is useil, in order to have an amal- gam about as hard as wax. This amal- gam is crystalline, and a certain crack- ling sound is heard when the crystals are crushed between the fingers. A stock of amalgam is generally prepared in advance, and is divided into small balls of nearly ci|ual size, the value of which i.s ascertained from their iiuinber, and from the total weight of golii em- I)ioyed. These balls are kept in water, but should not remain too long without being useil, as the ilill'ereut parts do not then pres-sLt flic same composition. Tlie amalgam is spread with the linger upon a flat, hard stone, called the gilding stone ; and having dipped a sci.itch- brush of stout brass wire into a solution of nitrate of binoxide of mercury until it becomes completely white, it is passed over the amalgam, a portion of which is carried away. The object, previously well cleansed, is scratch-brushed in every direction, and the brush must be fre- quently dipped into the mercurial solu- tion to facilitate the regular and even spreading of the amalgam. This opera- tion requires great care to obtain a uniform coat ujion the hollow and raised parts. When the back part of a j)iece does not require gilding, the flat outline, and the back edge, should be gilt, so that the naked copper shall cause no injury in the subsequent operations. The article, when uniformly covered with the amalgam, is heated ujion a charcoal fire without draught,which rests upon a cast-iron plate. It is advisable to employ a gilding forge, which allows the workman to watch the ojieration from behind a glass frame, which pro- tects him from the mercurial vapours. The entire attention is now required for watching the process. With the left hancl covered with a thick glove ot buckskin, turn the piece in every direction upon the fire, and, as the mercury disappears, with the right hand strike the article in every direction with a brush, the handle and the bristles of which must be long to equalize the gilding, and to push the remaining amalgam upon those parts which appear less charged with it. When all the mercury has volatilized, the gilding has a dull greenish-yellow colour, resembling that of boxwood; examine whether the coat of gold is continuous. Should a few cmjjty places a]ipear, add more amalgam, and heat tlie whole again. The next o])eration is scratch-hnishing, wliich furnishes a pale green colour, and reciuires another heating for arriving at the desired shade. The reheating should ex[«>l any remaining mercury, and pro- duce a line orange-yellow colour. In case a bright lustre is rc(iiiired, submit the olume of sul|)huri(; ac.d ; in tliii dissolve as ir.-s.-h sulpliMte of copper as it will Lo!d at the ordinarj temperature. This solution will mark from 20° to 24° Baume, then add enough water to reduce its specific gravity to 16° or 18°. This galvanoplastic batii is generally held in large vessels of stone- ware, slate, wood, or gutta-percha ; and porous shells are immersed in it, filled with a weak solution of sulphuric acid and of amalgamating salts. Plates or cylinders of zinc are put into these cells, and are connected by binding screws with one or more brass rods, which rest upon the sides of the trough, and sup- port the articles which are to receive a dead lustre in this bath. The articles of zinc, previously ;oated with copper or brass, suspended to the rods, remain in tlie solution of sulphate of cojjper until they have acquired a satisfactory dead lustre, A few seconds after the articles have been jilaced in the bath, withdraw and examine them carefully ; should the previous coat of cojiper or brass be insulTicient to resist the cor- roding action of the acid solution of sulphate of cojjper, there is jiroduced a muddy dark deposit, which is easily re- moved with the finger. Should this occur, the object must be scratch-brushed and placed again in the former alkaline baths of cojiper or brass, in order to increase the de|)osit which protects the zinc in the galvanoplastic bath. When the galvanoplastic dead lustre is success- ful, the deposit is perfectly regular, and of a pink shade which jxissesses groat freshness. When it is irregular, marbled, crystalline, of a vinous or fire-red colour, and dull or earthy in ap]>earance, tiiese defects are lUie to the following causes; cither the bath is in a bad state of cou- ductibility or of saturation ; or the sur- face of the zincs is too large in pro])or- tion to that of the objects, and therefore too much electricity is given out; or tlic ])revious electro-deposits of copper or brass were insullicieut or infei'lor in (juality. Tlie remedy for either of these inconveniences is easily found out, and only requires a little care and attention. The galvano])lastic dead lustre boi!i>» satisfactory, two ])relimin;iiy opeivitiins are nccdrd to ensure the success of the WORKSHOP RECEIPTS. 0(\} gilding. They consist m rapidly passing the object, alter rinsing, through a solu- tion made of water, 2-1 galls. ; nitrate of binoxide of mercury, a of an oz. ; sulphuric acid, -f of an oz. ; then, after rinsing, place it in another solution composed of water, 2-i- galls. ; cyanide of jiotasRium, 14 oz. ; nitrate of silver, 3§ oz. The object acquires a slightly "■\hite tinge in this liquor, and is again rinsed in fresh water, before being put into the following gilding bath ; — Dis- tilled water, 2i galls.; phosphate of soda, 21 oz. ; bisulphite of soda, 3^ oz. ; cyanide of potassium, pure, -i of an oz. ; chloride of gold, neutral, -| of an oz. The mode of preparation of this bath is given in the receipt for hot gilding bath. This bath should be nearly boiling, and worked with an intense galvanic cur- rent. The anode is a platinum wire, which, more or less immersed in the liquor, allows of the regulation of the .imount of electricity according to the volume, weight, and sui-face of the object to be gilt. This gilding requires an energetic electric action at the be- ginning ; this is obtained by steeping the platinum wire deeply in the liquid, to have the entire surface of the piece covered instantaneously ; as the thick- ness of the deposit increases, the anode is grndunlly removed from the bath until it only dips in a little. The gild- ing by this method has a remarkable freshness of tone. Before using the bath with battery, the zinc articles may be passed through a preparing bath ; this is the same as a gold bath for dipjiing. Or the gilding may be done in two operations. After having deposited about half of the gold in- tended for the object, remove it from the bath, wash, pass again through the mercurial solution, and replace in the gold bath for finishing the gilding. After gilding, the articles are rinsed in clear boiling water for a few seconds to remove any saline matters ; they are then dried in the stove," or in warm saw-dust of firewood. All friction should be carefully avoided, so as not to scratch the dead lustre. VVhen pai'ts of this gilding are burnished, their colour is green if the frosted surface has been oDtamed in the silver bath, and red if the galvanoplastic bath has been em ployed. These inconveniences are re- medied by dipping the burnished article, for a short time, into the gold bath, this last deposit of gold must be so thin as not sensibly to impair the briglitnoss of the burnished parts. Dead lustre electrogilding upon zinc will only suit such objects as have no friition to bear, and which are not often handled ; it is especially useful for clocks and similar articles, which remain under glass. The dead lustre gilding here described can be applied to all metals ami alloys, pro- vided that those corroded by the solu- tion of sulphate of copper be previously coated with copper or brass ; these pre- vious coatings are always desirable, as they prevent crystalline and irregular deposits often formed upon metals which are not corroded by the bath of sulphate of copper. The galvanoplastic dead lustre upon copper is much finer when the pieces have been previously covered with copper or brass in the alkaline baths. Faded gildings may be renovated by dipping them into a weak tepid solu- tion of cyanide of potassium, and after- wards into very dilute nitric or sul- phuric acid. Imperfect gildings mav be removed by inverting the poles in a solution of cyanides, connecting the gilt articles with the positive pole, carbon or copper, and the negative pole, zinc, with the anode which becomes gilt. This process is employed for removing the gold from articles of iron, steel, and silver, which cannot be submitted to the ungilding bath. Silver, copper, and brass may also be removed by similar processes. Dissolving Gold from Gilt Articles. — Iron and steel articles are ungilt, with- out any injui-y to themselves, by dipping them into a bath of 10 parts of cyanide of potassium and 100 parts of water, and connecting them with the positiv,' pole of a battery. A wire or foil of platinum is fixed to the negative pole. This is inverting the position of the poles ; and in this case the gold applied upon the iron or steel is dissolved in the 206 WORKSHOP RECEIPTS. s-olution of cyanide, and partly deposited Qpou the platinum auode, tVom which '.t is removed in a regular gold bath. When there is only a Kim of gold upon iron or steel, it may be removed by the cyanide alone, without the aid of elec- tricity, but this method is slow. Silver, copjier, and their alloys may also be uiigilt by this process; but the cyanide dissolves, at the same time, the gold, and part of tlie other metals; it is therefore j)referable to operate as follows ; — For iingilding silver, it is heated to a cherry- red heat, and immediately thrown iuto a jiickle of more or less diluted suljihuric acid. The gold scales off, and falls to the bottom in the shape of spangles. The operation is repeated until gold no longer appears upon the surface of the silver, which is then white and frosty. This process is not adajited to light and hollow articles, tor which the preceding process is better. For cojijier and its alloys, in small articles, such as false jewellery thinly gilt, either by battery or by dipping, use the following bath; — 1. Sulphuric acid, 10 j)arts ; nitric acid, I part; hydrochloric aci'l, 2 parts. The large quantity of sulphuric acid allows of the solution of gold, whilst it does not sensibly attack copper or its alloys. The suljihuric acid is put alone into a stoneware jar, and the mixture of hydro- chloric and nitric acids, ke|)t in a stop- jK'red bottle, is gradually added to it as the operation ]iroceeds. The same sul- phuric acid may last a long time, if it is kept well covered, and its dissolving action promoted by successive additiou.> of nitric and hydrochloric acids. The articles should be often withdrawn to watch the oi)eration, whicii is termi- nated when no gold is seen, anil when the copper has acquired a uniform blackish-greycoat; or by |)lungiug the objects iuto the coin])Ound acids, they will be perfectly clean.sed when the ^(t\'\ has all dissolved. 2. Saltpetre :ind common salt may be sul