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ILIOS 
 
 THE CITY .AJSTD COTJNTEY 
 
 OF 
 
 THE TKOJANS 
 
 THE RESULTS OF RESEARCHES AND DISCOVERIES ON THE SITE OF TROY AND 
 THROUGHOUT THE TROAD IN THE YEARS 1871-72-73-78-79 
 
 INCLUDING AN 
 
 AUTOBIOGRAPHY OF THE AUTHOR 
 
 By DR. HENRY SCHLIEMANN 
 
 F.S.A., F.R.I. BRITISH ARCHITECTS 
 AUTHOR OF "TROY AND ITS REMAINS " " MYCENAE " ETC. 
 
 WITH A PREFACE, APPENDICES, AND NOTES 
 
 BY PROFESSORS RUDOLF VIRCHOW, MAX MULLER, A. H. SAYCE, J. P. MAHAFFY, H. BRUGSCH-BEY 
 P. ASCHERSON, M. A. POSTOLACCAS, M. E. BURNOUF, Mr. F. CALVERT, and Mk. A. J. DUFFIELD 
 
 iclicXvre fisv, TpuieQ teal ivKvrj/uidsQ 'A^aioi 
 ijToi iy<hv d[ii Trpori "iXiov rjvefiuecraav 
 
 11. iii. 304, 305 
 
 vuj'l d', tyio HOevsXoQ rs, fiaxn^o^eff, £<C o ice r&icfiojp 
 'iXlov Evpu>[iip ' avv yap 9ttjj tlX)]Xov6/xev 
 
 11 ix. 48, 49 
 
 WITH MAPS, PLANS, AND ABOUT 1800 ILLUSTRATIONS 
 
 NEW YORK 
 
 HARPER & BROTHERS, FRANKLIN SQUARE 
 
Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1880, by 
 Dr. HENRY SCHLIEHANN, 
 in the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at "Washington. 
 
 All rights reserved. 
 
TO 
 
 THE EIGHT HONOURABLE 
 
 WILLIAM EWART GLADSTONE, M.P., D.C.L., 
 
 AS A TRIBUTE TO HIS 
 ENTHUSIASTIC LABOURS AND SINGULAR INGENUITY IN ILLUSTRATING 
 
 THE POEMS OF HOMER, 
 
 THIS 
 
 ACCOUNT OF RESEARCHES AND DISCOVERIES ON THE SITE OF 
 
 SACRED ILIOS 
 £0 2U0jmthtUj) gbiiiratei! 
 
 BY HIS ADMIRING AND GRATEFUL FRIEND 
 
 THE AUTHOR. 
 
 \ 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 PREFACE. — By Professor Rudolf Virchow ix 
 
 INTRODUCTION. — Autobiography of the Author, and Narrative of 
 
 his Work at Troy ...... 1 
 
 CHAPTER I.— The Country of the Trojans (ot T/xk?) ... 67 
 
 „ II. — Ethnography of the Trojans : their several Dominions 
 
 in the Troad: Topography of Troy . . .119 
 
 „ III. — The History of Troy . . . . . .152 
 
 „ IY. — The True Site of Homer's Ilium . . . .181 
 
 „ Y. — The First Pre-Historic City on the Hill of Hissarlik 211 
 
 „ YI. — The Second Pre-Historic City on the Site of Troy . 204 
 
 „ VII. — The Third, the Burnt City ..... 305 
 
 „ VIII. — The Fourth Pre-Historic City on the Site of Troy 518 
 
 „ IX. — The Fifth Pre-Historic City of Troy . . .573 
 
 „ X. — The Sixth City, most probably a Lydian Settlement 5S7 
 
 „ XL — The Seventh City: the Greek Ilium; or Novum Ilium 608 
 
 „ XII. — The Conical Mounds in the Troad called the Heroic 
 
 Tumuli 648 
 
 APPENDIX I.— Troy and Hissarlik. By Professor Virchow . 673 
 
 II. — On the Relation of Novum Ilium to the Ilios of 
 
 Homer. By Professor J. P. Mahaffy . . 686 
 
 III. — The Inscriptions found at Hissarlik. By Professor 
 A. H. Sayce 691 
 
 IV. — Thymbra, Hanai Tepeh. By Mr. Consul Frank Calvert 706 
 
 V. — Medical Practice in the Troad in 1869. By Pro- 
 fessor Rudolf Virchow ..... 721 
 
 VI. — Catalogue of the Plants hitherto known of the 
 Troad, compiled according to the Collections of 
 Professor Rudolf Virchow and Dr. Julius Schmidt, 
 and from the llterary sources by professor paul 
 Ascherson of Berlin, Professor Theodor von Held- 
 reich of Athens, and Doctor F. Kurtz of Berlin 727 
 
 „ VII. — On the Lost Art of Hardening Copper. By A. J. 
 
 DUFFIELD ........ 737 
 
 VIII.— On Hera Boopis. By Professor Henry Brugsch-Bey 740 
 „ IX.— Troy and Egypt. By Professor Henry Brugsch-Bey 745 
 
 INDEX 752 
 
 Note. — Special attention is also called to Professor Max Mailer's Dissertation on 
 the ft and l£ at pages 31G-349. 
 
MAPS AND PLAN'S 
 
 AT THE END OF THE BOOK. 
 
 Map of the Troad. By 6 mile Burnouf 
 Plan I.— Of Troy. Idem. 
 ,, II. — Of the Hellenic Ilium. Idem. 
 
 ,, III.— The Great Central Trench. (Section from North to South : 
 West Side.) Idem. 
 
 ,, IV. — Great Trench, from South-East to North- West. (North Front.) 
 Idem. 
 
 „ V. — Plan of the Subterranean Buildings of the Tumulus called 
 Ujek Tepeh. By M. Gorkiewicz. 
 
 „ VI. — Transverse Section of the Same. Idem. 
 
 ILLUSTRATIONS 
 
 Numbers 1-1570. — Wood Engravings in the Body op the Work. 
 
 Note. — These are so fully described in their places, that the repetition of the 
 descriptions here would he superfluous. 
 
 Numbers 1801-2000. — Terra-cotta Whorls, Balls, etc., on the Plates 
 
 at the End. 
 
 Note. — The intermediate Numbers have been left vacant to avoid double 
 Numbers, as the Numbers on the Plates had to be engraved before the 
 Numbers in the text were fixed. 
 
DIAGRAM 
 
 SHOWING THE SUCCESSIVE STRATA OF REMAINS ON THE 
 HILL OF HISSARLIK. 
 
 Metres. Feet (all). 
 
 Surface. 
 
 7 
 
 CO 
 
 10 
 
 13i 
 
 to 
 16 
 
 Stratum of the 7th. City, the Aeolic Ilium. 
 
 Remains of the 6th, the Lydian City. 
 
 Stratum of the 5th City. 
 
 13 
 
 23 
 
 33 
 
 Stratum of the 4th City. 
 
 Stratum of the 3rd, the Burnt City (the 
 Homeric Ilios). 
 
 Stratum of the 2nd City. 
 
 45 
 
 to Stratum of the 1st City 
 52i 
 
 Native rock.-— Its present height above the 
 sea is 109 J- feet. Its present height above the 
 plain at the foot of the hill is consequently 
 59 J feet, but it may probably have been 16 or 
 20 feet more at the time of the Trojan war, the 
 plain having increased in height by the alluvia 
 of the rivers and tho detritus of vegetable and 
 animal matter. 
 
COMPABATIYE TABLE OF FRENCH AND ENGLISH MEASURES, 
 EXACT AND APPROXIMATE. 
 
 
 \r\ on oq 
 
 Ft. 
 
 
 Inch 
 
 Approximate. 
 
 IVTillimaf vt> 
 
 X'Xillllllt! LI C • 
 
 u uojo < uo 
 
 
 
 u 
 
 VOuO ( 
 
 
 
 • 04 or 03- of ir - cb - 
 
 i^yRGiiiitixrtJ • 
 
 U oyO/Uo 
 
 ?> 
 
 u 
 
 Duo ( 1 
 
 • 4 "2 
 
 -UcOHIlti LI (3 . 
 
 
 
 
 
 • QQ71 
 
 4 inches. 
 
 IHctl (J . , 
 
 QQ . Q708 
 
 q 
 
 
 Q 
 O 
 
 . Q708 
 O 1 Uo 
 
 0^- ieet. 
 
 o 
 
 Zi 
 
 
 D 
 
 O 
 
 • 741 A 
 
 6£ „ 
 
 Q 
 
 o 
 
 1 1 Q . 1 1 04. 
 
 
 
 y 
 
 1 u 
 
 • 1 1 94. 
 
 10 „ 
 
 4. 
 
 t: 
 
 1^7. 4.QQ9 
 
 1 Q 
 
 10 
 
 1 
 
 
 1 Q 
 
 ID ,, 
 
 K 
 O 
 
 
 i A 
 
 ID 
 
 A 
 rk 
 
 OOiU 
 
 1 A 1 
 
 D 
 
 93A • 9948 
 zoo z^-±o 
 
 1 
 
 Q 
 
 O 
 
 
 1 G 2 
 
 7 
 
 275-5956 
 
 22 
 
 11 
 
 5956 
 
 23 „ 
 
 8 
 
 314-9664 
 
 26 
 
 2 
 
 9664 
 
 261 „ 
 
 9 
 
 354-3372 
 
 29 
 
 6 
 
 3372 
 
 29^ „ 
 
 10 
 
 393-7089 
 
 32 
 
 9 
 
 7080 
 
 33 „ 
 
 11 
 
 433-0788 
 
 36 
 
 1 
 
 0788 
 
 36 (12 yds.) 
 
 12 
 
 472-4496 
 
 39 
 
 4 
 
 4496 
 
 39-£ feet. 
 
 42j „ 
 
 13 
 
 511-8204 
 
 42 
 
 7 
 
 9204 
 
 14 
 
 551-1912 
 
 45 
 
 11 
 
 1912 
 
 46 „ 
 
 15 
 
 590-5620 
 
 49 
 
 2 
 
 5620 
 
 49J „ 
 52^ „ 
 
 16 
 
 620-9328 
 
 52 
 
 5- 
 
 9328 
 
 17 
 
 669-3036 
 
 55 
 
 9 
 
 3036 
 
 55£ „ 
 
 18 
 
 708-6744 
 
 59 
 
 
 
 6744 
 
 59 „ 
 
 19 
 
 748-0452 
 
 62 
 
 4- 
 
 0452 
 
 62J- „ 
 65.! „ 
 98i „ 
 
 20 
 
 787-416 
 
 65 
 
 7- 
 
 4160 
 
 30 
 
 1181-124 
 
 98 
 
 5- 
 
 124 
 
 40 
 
 1574-832 
 
 131 
 
 2- 
 
 832 
 
 13H » 
 
 50 
 
 1968-54 
 
 164 
 
 0- 
 
 54 
 
 164 „ 
 
 100 
 
 3937-08 
 
 328 
 
 1- 
 
 08 
 
 3 2 8 (109 yds.) 
 
 N.B. — The following is a convenient approximate rule : — " To turn 3Ietres 
 into Yards, add 1-1 1th to the number of Metres." 
 
PREFACE 
 
 A book like the present, certain to be so long talked of after (Nachrede), 
 has no real need of a Preface (Vorrede). Nevertheless, as my friend 
 Schliemann insists on my introducing it to the public, I put aside all 
 the scruples which, at least according to my own feeling, assign to me 
 only an accessory position. A special chance allowed me to be one of 
 the few eye-witnesses of the last excavations at Hissarlik, and to see 
 the " Burnt " City emerge, in its whole extent, from the rubbish-heaps of 
 former ages. At the same time I saw the Trojan land itself, from week to 
 week, waking up out of its winter's sleep, and unfolding its natural glories 
 in pictures ever new, ever more grand and impressive. I can therefore 
 bear my testimony, not only to the labours of the indefatigable explorer, 
 who found no rest until his work lay before him fully done, but also to the 
 truth of the foundations, on which was framed the poetical conception that 
 has for thousands of years called forth the enchanted delight of the edu- 
 cated world. And I recognize the duty of bearing my testimony against 
 the host of doubters, who, with good or ill intentions, have never tired of 
 carping alike at the trustworthiness and significance of his discoveries. 
 
 It is now an idle question, whether Schliemann, at the beginning of 
 his researches, proceeded from right or wrong presuppositions. Not only 
 has the result decided in his favour, but also the method of his investiga- 
 tion has proved to be excellent. It may be, that his hypotheses were too 
 bold, nay arbitrary ; that the enchanting picture of Homer's immortal 
 poetry proved somewhat of a snare to his fancy ; but this fault of 
 imagination, if I may so call it, nevertheless involved the secret of 
 his success. Who would have undertaken such great works, continued 
 through so many years, — have spent such large means out of his own 
 fortune,— have dug through layers of debris heaped one on the other in a 
 series that seemed almost endless, down to the deep-lying virgin soil, — 
 except a man who was penetrated with an assured, nay an enthusiastic 
 conviction ? The Burnt City would still have lain to this day hidden in 
 the earth, had not imagination guided the spade. 
 
 But severe enquiry has of itself taken the place of imagination. Year 
 by year the facts have been more duly estimated. The search for truth — 
 for the whole truth and nothing but the truth — has at last so far rele- 
 gated the intuitions of poetry to the background, that I — a naturalist 
 habituated to the most dispassionate objective contemplation {rait der 
 Gewohnheit der hultesten Objectivitdt) — felt myself forced to remind my 
 
X 
 
 PREFACE BY PROFESSOR YIRCHOW. 
 
 friend, that the poet was not a poet only, that his pictures must also have 
 had an objective foundation, and that nothing ought to deter us from 
 bringing the reality, as it presented itself to us, into relation with the old 
 legends formed upon definite recollections of the locality and of the events 
 of the olden time. I rejoice that the book, as it now lies before us, fully 
 satisfies both requirements : while it gives a true and faithful description 
 of the discoveries and of the conditions of the land and the place, it 
 everywhere links together the threads, which allow our imagination to 
 bring the personal agents into definite relations with actual things. 
 
 The excavations at Hissarlik would have had an imperishable value, 
 even if the Iliad had never been sung. Nowhere else in the world has the 
 earth covered up so many remains of ancient settlements lying upon one 
 another, with such rich contents within them. When we stand at the 
 bottom of the great funnel, which has opened up the heart of the hill- 
 fortress, and the eye wanders over the lofty walls of the excavations, 
 beholding here the ruins of dwellings, there the utensils of the ancient 
 inhabitants, at another spot the remnants of their food, every doubt as to 
 the antiquity of this site soon vanishes. A mere dreamy contemplation 
 is here excluded. The objects present such striking peculiarities as 
 to position and stratification, that the comparison of their properties, 
 whether among themselves, or with other remote discoveries, is of neces- 
 sity forced upon us. One cannot be otherwise than realistic (objectiv), 
 and I have pleasure in testifying that Schliemann's statements satisfy 
 every demand of truthfulness and accuracy. Whoever has himself made 
 an excavation knows that minor errors can hardly be avoided, and that 
 the progress of an investigation almost always corrects some of the results 
 of earlier stages of the enquiry. But at Hissarlik the correction was 
 simple enough to guarantee the accuracy of the general result, and what 
 is now offered to the world may be placed, in respect of the authenticity 
 of the facts, beside the best researches of archaeology. Besides, an error 
 in verifying the position of any object could in each case relate to details 
 only ; the great mass of results cannot be affected thereby. 
 
 The simple investigation of the fortress-hill of Hissarlik suffices to 
 prove with complete exactness the succession of the settlements, of which 
 Schliemann now supposes seven. But order of succession is not yet 
 chronology. From the former we learn what is older and what later, but 
 not how old each separate stratum is. This question involves a comparison 
 with other like places, or at least objects, the date of which is well 
 established ; in other words, interpretation. But, with interpretation, 
 uncertainty also begins. The archaeologist is seldom in the position 
 of Being able to support his interpretation by the identity of all the 
 objects found. And especially, the farther the comparisons have to be 
 fetched, the less is it possible to calculate that discoveries will corre- 
 spond in their totality. Attention is therefore directed to single objects, 
 just as the palaeontologist seeks for characteristic shells (Leitmuscheln), 
 to determine the age of a geological stratum. But experience has shown 
 how uncertain are the Leitmuscheln of archaeology. The human intellect 
 invents identical things at different places, and different things at the 
 
PREFACE BY PROFESSOR VIRCIIOW. 
 
 xi 
 
 same place. Certain artistical or technical forms are developed simul- 
 taneously, without any connection or relation between the artists or 
 craftsmen. I recal the case of the maeander ornament, which appears 
 in Germany quite late, probably not till the time of the Roman empe- 
 rors, but presents itself much later still in Peru and on the Amazon, 
 where it appears as yet inadmissible to regard it as imported. Local 
 fashions and artistic forms are so far from being uncommon, that 
 the expert sometimes recognizes the source of the discovery from a 
 single piece. 
 
 In the case of Hissarlik, the strata which can be denned according to 
 their whole character occur very near the surface. Under the Greek 
 City (Novum Ilium), and the wall which is probably Macedonian, the 
 excavator comes upon objects, especially upon pottery which, accord- 
 ing to its form, material, and painting, belongs to what is called the 
 Archaic period of Greek art. Then begins the Pre-historic age, in the 
 narrower sense of the term. Dr. Schliemann has endeavoured, on good 
 grounds, to show that the Sixth City, reckoning upwards, should be 
 ascribed, in accordance with tradition, to the Lydians, and that we may 
 recognize in its artistic forms an approximation to Etrurian or Umbrian 
 pottery. But the deeper we go, the fewer correspondences do we find. 
 In the Burnt City we occasionally meet with one or another object, which 
 reminds us of Mycenae, of Cyprus, of Egypt, of Assyria ; or probably 
 rather, which points to a like origin, or at least to similar models. 
 Perhaps we shall succeed in multiplying these connecting links, but as 
 yet so little is known of all these relations, that the adaptation of a 
 foreign chronology to the new discoveries seems in the highest degree 
 dangerous. 
 
 An example full of warning as to this sort of casuistical archaeology 
 is furnished by the latest attack upon Dr. Schliemann by a scholar at 
 St. Petersburg. Because Hissarlik offers certain points of correspondence 
 with Mycenae, and the latter again with South Kussia, this scholar there- 
 fore concludes that the South Kussian chronology must also be the measure 
 for Hissarlik, and that both Mycenae and Hissarlik are to be referred 
 to roving hordes of Heruli in the third century after Christ. Going 
 right to the opposite extreme, other scholars have been inclined to ascribe 
 the oldest " cities " of Hissarlik to the Neolithic Age, because remarkable 
 weapons and utensils of polished stone are found in them. Both these 
 conceptions are equally unjustified and inadmissible. To the third century 
 after Christ belongs the surface of the fortress-hill of Hissarlik, which 
 still lies above the Macedonian wall; and the oldest " cities "—although 
 not only polished stones but also chipped flakes of chalcedony and obsidian 
 occur in them— nevertheless fall within the A^e of Metals. For even in 
 the First City, utensils of copper, gold, nay even silver, were dug up. 
 
 It is beyond doubt that no Stone People, properly so-called, dwelt 
 upon the fortress-hill of Hissarlik, so far as it has been as yet uncovered. 
 A progressive development of such a people to a higher metallic civili- 
 zation can no more be spoken of here, than at any other point of Asia 
 Minor hitherto known. Implements of polished stone are also found else- 
 
xii 
 
 PKEFACE BY PROFESSOR VIRCHOW. 
 
 where in Asia Minor — as, for example, in the neighbourhood of the 
 ancient Sardes— but it is not yet proved that they belong to the " Stone 
 Age." Probably this people immigrated at a period of their development, 
 at which they had already entered on the " Metal Age." Were we to 
 take for the foundation of the discussion what first suggests itself, the 
 frequent occurrence of nephrite and jadeite, we might suppose that the 
 immigration took place from the borders of China, and that, when 
 the people reached the Hellespont, they had already acquired a high 
 degree of technical dexterity and of finished manufacture. 
 
 It may be an accident that even in the oldest city two stone hammers 
 have been found with holes bored through them, whereas in no other spot 
 of all Asia Minor, so far as I know, has any similar object occurred. In 
 any case the art of stone-working was already far advanced, and the story 
 of the foundation of Ilium, as sketched out in the Iliad, exactly coincides 
 with the discoveries. The few skulls also, which were saved out of the 
 lower " cities," have this in common, that without exception they present 
 the character (habitus) of a more civilized people ; all savage peculiarities, 
 in the stricter sense, are entirely wanting in them. 
 
 It is strange enough that this race, according to all appearance, had 
 no iron. Although there occasionally occur native red iron-stones, which 
 have evidently been used, yet every object which was originally regarded 
 as an iron instrument has proved, on closer investigation, not to be iron. 
 
 No less strange is it that even in the Burnt City no proper sword lias 
 anywhere been found. Weapons of copper and bronze occur frequently — 
 lance-heads, daggers, arrow-heads, knives, if we may designate these as 
 weapons— but no swords. Corresponding to this deficiency is another in 
 the case of ornaments, which to us Occidentals is still more striking, — 
 I mean the absence of the fibula (the buckle of the brooch). Among the 
 copper and bronze pins are many which, judging from their size and 
 curvature, may be regarded as pins for dress ; but no single fibula in our 
 sense has occurred. I was always of opinion, that the abundance of 
 fibulas in the northern discoveries is explained by the greater necessity 
 for fastening the garments tighter in colder climates. The Eoman 
 provincial fibula, which in the northern countries is all but the most 
 frequent object in the discoveries of the Imperial age, falls even in Italy 
 quite into the background. But the fact that, among a race so rich 
 in metals as the ancient Trojans, absolutely no fibula has occurred, is 
 certainly a sign of very high antiquity, and a sure mark of distinction 
 from the majority of Western discoveries which have been adduced in 
 comparison. The same may be said, in passing, of the absence of lamps 
 in the ancient " cities." 
 
 The pottery presents many more points of correspondence with that 
 of the West. To be sure I could not cite any place where the whole of 
 the pottery found agreed with that of any one of the older cities upon 
 Hissarlik. It is not till the Sixth City that we find, as Dr. Schliemann 
 has very convincingly proved, manifold relations with the Etruscan 
 vases; and I might still further remark, that not a few of the forms 
 which occur at Hissarlik in clay are executed in Etruria in bronze. 
 
PREFACE BY PROFESSOR V1RCHOW. 
 
 xiii 
 
 In this connection I may also refer, as Leitmuschehi, to the Etruscan 
 beaked pitchers, which have been dug up in the heart of Germany and 
 Belgium. In most of the pre-historic cities of Hissarlik there are terra- 
 cottas just like those which are frequently met with in Hungary and 
 Transylvania, in eastern and middle Germany, nay even in the pile- 
 dwellings of Switzerland. I myself possess, through the kindness of 
 Dr. Victor Gross, fragments of black polished clay bowls from the Lake of 
 Bienne, the inner surfaces of which are covered with incised geometrical 
 patterns, filled with white earth, such as I brought away from the oldest 
 city of Hissarlik. Quite lately I was present at the excavation of a great 
 conical barrow, conducted by Prof. Klopfleisch in the territory of Anhalt : 
 the greater number of the clay vessels discovered there had broad wing- 
 shaped excrescences with perpendicular perforations, and very large and 
 particularly broad handles, which were put on quite low down close 
 to the bottom, like those met with in the Burnt City. I have before 
 alluded to the similarity of the little animal figures, the ornamented 
 stamps, and other terra-cottas in Hungary. The strange perforated 
 incense-vessels (lanterns) of Hissarlik find numerous analogies in the 
 burial-grounds of Lusatia and Posen. 
 
 I am not prepared to affirm that these are proofs of a direct connection. 
 That question can only be reviewed when the countries of the Balkan 
 peninsula shall have been more thoroughly investigated archseologically, 
 a thing which is urgently to be desired. But even if a real connection 
 should appear, the question will still remain open, whether the current 
 of civilization set from Asia Minor to Eastern Europe, or the inverse 
 way; and, since the former is presumptively the more probable, little 
 would be gained hence for the chronology of Hissarlik. 
 
 Much might be brought in here, as, for instance, the hooked cross 
 (Suastika), the Triquetrum, the circular and spiral decoration, the wave- 
 ornament ; but I pass by these, as being widely-diffused marks, which, 
 as we learn from experience, furnish little support for the determination 
 of time. On the other hand, I cannot entirely refrain from touching on a 
 point, on which I do not completely agree with Schliemann. I refer to 
 our Face- Vases, such as occur plentifully in Pomerellen and East Pomerania, 
 as far as Posen and Silesia, in a region distinctly defined. I cannot deny 
 that there is a great resemblance between them and the Trojan " Owl- 
 Vases," though I also admit that the "Owl's Face" does not, occur upon 
 them. But as to this matter I am disposed somewhat to modify my 
 friend's expression. So far as I see, there is not a single Trojan Face- 
 Vase, which can be said to have a true Owl's Head, or in which the part 
 of the vase referred to can be regarded as completely in the form of a bird. 
 As a matter of Natural History, the type of the form modelled on this 
 upper part is human, and it is only within the human outlines and pro- 
 portions that the nose and the region of the eyes are owl-formed. The 
 ear, on the other hand, is always put on like that of a man, never like that 
 of an owl. I do not deny that the form of the face often represents the 
 owl-type, and I have no objection to make against the connection with 
 the yXavKfoir^, but I should not like to extend the likeness to a larger 
 
XI V 
 
 PREFACE BY PROFESSOR YIRCHOW. 
 
 surface than around the eyes and the upper part about the nose : the ears, 
 and the mouth (where it occurs), as well as the breasts, are exclusively 
 human. And so — only still more in the human form — are also the Face- 
 Urns of Pomerellen. I do not therefore give up the hope that a certain 
 connection may yet be discovered ; but, if so, I am prepared to find that 
 our Face-Urns will have to be assigned to a much later period than those 
 of Troy. 
 
 My conclusion is this : that the discoveries at Hissarlik will not be 
 explained by those made in the North or the West, but, inversely, that 
 we must test our collections by Oriental models. For Hissarlik also, the 
 probable sources of connection lie East and South ; but their determina- 
 tion requires new and far more thorough studies in the fields of the 
 Oriental world, hitherto so scantily reaped. It was not the Iliad itself 
 that first brought the Phoenicians and the Ethiopians into the Trojan 
 legendary cycle ; the discoveries at Hissarlik themselves, in placing before 
 our eyes ivory, enamel, figures of the hippopotamus, and fine works in 
 gold, point distinctly to Egypt and Assyria. It is there that the chrono- 
 logical relations of Hissarlik must find their solution. 
 
 Meanwhile, however, there stands the great hill of ruins, forming for 
 realistic contemplation a phenomenon quite as unique as the " Sacred Ilios " 
 for poetical feeling. It has not its like. Never once in any other heap of 
 ruins is a standard given by which to judge it. Therefore it will not fit 
 into the Procrustean bed of systematizers (Schematiker). HinciUoe irae. 
 This excavation has opened for the studies of the archaeologist a completely 
 new theatre— like a world by itself. Here begins an cut i rely new science. 
 
 And in this unique hill there is a Stratum, and that one of the 
 deepest — according to Schliemann's present reckoning, the Third from 
 the bottom, — which especially arrests our attention. Here was a great 
 devouring fire, in which the clay walls of the buildings were molten and 
 made fluid like wax, so that congealed drops of glass bear witness at the 
 present day to the mighty conflagration. Only at a few places are cinders 
 left, whose structure enables us still to discover what was burnt, — whether 
 wood or straw, wheat or pease. A very small part of this city has 
 upon the whole escaped the fire j and only here and there in the burnt 
 parts have portions of the houses remained uninjured beneath the rubbish 
 of the foundering walls. Almost the whole is burnt to ashes. How enor- 
 mous must have been the fire that devoured all this splendour ! We seem 
 to hear the crackling of the wood, the crash of the tumbling buildings ! 
 And, in spite of this, what riches have been brought to light out of the 
 ashes ! Treasures of gold, one after another, presented themselves to the 
 astonished eye. In that remote time, when man was so little advanced in 
 the knowledge of the earth and of his own power, in that time when, 
 as the poet tells us, the king's sons were shepherds, the possession of 
 such treasures of the precious metals, and that in the finest and most 
 costly workmanship, must have become famous far and wide. The 
 splendour of this chieftain must have awakened envy and covetousness ; 
 and the ruin of his high fortress can signify nothing else than his own 
 downfall and the destruction of his race. 
 
PREFACE BY PROFESSOR VIRCHOW. 
 
 XV 
 
 Was this chieftain Priam? Was this city Sacred Ilios? No one 
 will ever fathom the question, whether these were the names which men 
 used when the celebrated king still looked out from his elevated fortress 
 over the Trojan Plain to the Hellespont. Perhaps these names are 
 only the poet's inventions. Who can know ? Perhaps the legend had 
 hanled down no more than the story of the victorious enterprise of war 
 undertaken from the West, to overthrow the kingdom and the city. But 
 who will doubt that on this spot a terrible conquest was really won in 
 fight against a garrison, who not only defended themselves, their families, 
 and their houses, with weapons of stone and bronze, but who also had great 
 wealth in gold and silver, ornaments and furniture, to protect ? It is in 
 itself of little consequence to quarrel about the names of these men or of 
 their city. And yet the first question that rises to every one's lips, to-day 
 as in the time of Homer, is this : — Who and whence among mankind 
 were they ? Though the severe enquirer may refuse them names, though 
 the whole race may glide past before the judgment-seat of science 
 like the ghosts of Hades, — yet for us, who love the colours of daylight, 
 the dress of life, the glitter of personality, for us Priam and Ilium 
 will remain the designations upon which our thoughts fasten, as often 
 as they concern themselves with the events of that period. It was here, 
 where Asia and Europe for the first time encountered in a war of 
 extermination (in volherfressendem Kampfe) ; it was here that the only 
 decisive victory was won in fight, which the West gained over the East 
 on the soil of Asia, during the whole time down to Alexander the Great. 
 
 And now, under our eyes, this site has been again disclosed. When those 
 men whom we call the Classics wrote, the burnt abodes lay hidden beneath 
 the ruins of succeeding settlements. To the question — " Where was 
 Ilium ? " — no one had an answer. Even the legend had no longer a locality. 
 It must assuredly have been otherwise when the poem had its origin. 
 Whether we call the poet Homer, or substitute in his place a host of 
 nameless bards, — when the poetic tale originated, the tradition must still 
 have been preserved upon the spot, that the royal fortress had stood 
 exactly on this mountain spur. It is in vain to dispute with the poet 
 his knowledge of the place by his own eyesight. Whoever the " divine 
 bard " was, he must have stood upon this hill of Hissarlik — that is, the 
 Castle- or Fortress-Hill — and have looked out thence over land and sea. 
 In no other case could he possibly have combined so much truth to 
 nature in his poem. I have described, in a brief essay, 1 the Trojan country 
 as it is, and compared it with what the Iliad says of it, and I believe 
 I may call any one to bear witness, whether it is possible that a poet 
 living at a distance could have evolved out of his own imagination so 
 faithful a picture of the land and people as is embodied in the Iliad. 
 
 To this is to be added another consideration. The Iliad is not merely 
 an Epic which sings of human affairs : in the conflict of men the great 
 circle of the Olympic gods takes part, acting and suffering. Hence it 
 happened that the Iliad became the special religious book, the Bible of 
 
 See Appendix I., Troy and Hissarlik. 
 
xvi 
 
 PREFACE BY PROFESSOR VIRCHOW. 
 
 the Greeks and partly of the Eomans. This must not be overlooked. 
 Therefore I have especially called attention to the fact, that the theatre 
 for the action of the gods has been drawn much larger than for the 
 men. The range of these poems extends far beyond the Plain of Troy. 
 Its limit is there, where the eye finds its boundary, on the lofty summits 
 of Ida and the peak of Samothrace, where the clouds have birth and the 
 storms make their home. Who could have lighted upon such a story 
 of the gods with this fineness of localizing, except one who had himself 
 beheld the mighty phenomena of nature which are here displayed? 
 Who, that had not gazed on them in their alternate course for days 
 and weeks together ? 
 
 The question of the Iliad is not simply the old question — TJbi Ilium 
 fuit f No, it embraces the whole. We must not sever the story of the gods 
 from the story of the men. The poet who sang of Ilium painted also the 
 picture of the whole Trojan country. Ida and Samothrace, Tenedos and 
 the Hellespont, Callicolone and the Eampart of Herakles, the Scamander 
 and the memorial tumuli of the heroes — all this appeared before the view 
 of the enraptured hearer. All this is inseparable. And therefore it is not 
 left to our choice, where we should place Ilium. Therefore we must have 
 a place, which answers to all the requirements of the poetry. There- 
 fore we are compelled to say: — Here, upon the fortress-hill of Hissarlik, 
 — here, upon the site of the ruins of the Burnt City of Gold, — here 
 ivas Ilium. 
 
 And therefore thrice happy the man to whose lot it has fallen to realize 
 in the maturity of manhood the dreams of his childhood, and to unveil the 
 Burnt City. Whatever may be the acknowledgement of contemporaries, 
 no one will be able to rob him of the consciousness, that he has solved 
 the great problem of thousands of years. A barbarous government, which 
 weighed as a heavy burthen on the land, has upon the whole kept down 
 the condition of the surface of the country and the habits of human life 
 in the Troad at the same level as when it imposed its yoke. Thus, 
 much has been preserved which elsewhere would probably have been 
 destroyed by daily cultivation. Schliemann was able to make his exca- 
 vations, as it were, in a virgin soil. He had the courage to dig deeper 
 and still deeper, to remove whole mountains of rubbish and debris ; and 
 at last he saw before him the treasure sought and dreamt of, in its full 
 reality. And now the treasure-digger has become a scholar, who, with 
 long and earnest study, has compared the facts of his experience, as well 
 as the statements of historians and geographers, with the legendary tradi- 
 tions of poets and mythologers. May the work which he has terminated 
 become to many thousands a source of enjoyment and instruction, as it 
 will be to himself an everlasting glory ! 
 
 RUDOLF VIRCHOW. 
 
 Beklix, Sej)tember 10th, 1880. 
 
ILIOS. 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 AUTOBIOGEAPHY OF THE AUTHOE, AND NAEEATIVE OF HIS WOEK 
 
 AT TEOY. 
 
 § I. Early and Commercial Life : 1822 to 1866. 
 
 If I begin this book with my autobiography, it is not from any feeling of 
 vanity, but from a desire to show how the work of my later life has been 
 the natural consequence of the impressions I received in my earliest 
 childhood ; and that, so to say, the pickaxe and spade for the excavation 
 of Troy and the royal tombs of Mycenae were both forged and sharpened 
 in the little German village in which I passed eight years of my earliest 
 childhood. I also find it necessary to relate how I obtained the means 
 which enabled me, in the autumn of my life, to realize the great projects 
 I formed when I was a poor little boy. But I flatter myself that the 
 manner in which I have employed my time, as well as the use I have 
 made of my wealth, will meet with general approbation, and that my 
 autobiography may aid in diffusing among the intelligent public of all 
 countries a taste for those high and noble studies, which have sustained 
 my courage during the hard trials of my life, and which will sweeten the 
 days yet left me to live. 
 
 I was born on the 6th of January, 1822, in the little town of Neu 
 Buckow, in Mecklenburg-Schwerin, where my father, 1 Ernest Schliemann, 
 was Protestant clergyman, and whence, in 1823, he was elected in that 
 capacity to the parish of the village of Ankershagen between Waren and 
 Penzlin, in the same duchy. In that village I spent the eight following 
 years of my life ; and my natural disposition for the mysterious and the 
 marvellous was stimulated to a passion by the wonders of the locality in 
 which I lived. Our garden-house was said to be haunted by the ghost of 
 my father's predecessor, Pastor von Kussdorf ; and just behind our garden 
 was a pond called "das Silberschalchen," out of which a maiden was 
 believed to rise each midnight, holding a silver bowl. There was also in 
 the village a small hill surrounded by a ditch, probably a pre-historic 
 
 1 Deceased in November 1S70, at the age of 90 years. 
 
2 
 
 AUTOBIOGRAPHY OF THE AUTHOR. 
 
 [Introd. 
 
 burial-place (or so-called Hiinengrab) ; 2 in which, as the legend ran, a 
 robber knight in times of old had buried his beloved child in a golden 
 cradle. Yast treasures were also said to be buried close to the ruins of a 
 round tower in the garden of the proprietor of the village. My faith in 
 the existence of these treasures was so great that, whenever I heard my 
 father complain of his poverty, I alwrys expressed my astonishment that 
 he did not dig up the silver bowl or the golden cradle, and so become 
 rich. There was likewise in Ankershagen a medieval castle, with secret 
 passages in its walls, which were six feet thick, and an underground road, 
 which was supposed to be five miles long, and to pass beneath the deep 
 lake of Speck ; it was said to be haunted by fearful spectres, and no 
 villager spoke of it without terror. 3 There was a legend, that the castle 
 had once been inhabited by a robber knight of the name of Henning von 
 Holstein, popularly called " Henning Bradenkirl," who was dreaded over 
 the whole country, for he plundered and sacked wherever he could. But, 
 to his vexation, the Duke of Mecklenburg gave safe-conducts to many 
 of the merchants who had to pass by his castle. Wishing to wreak 
 vengeance upon the duke, Henning begged him to do him the honour of a 
 visit. The duke accepted the invitation, and came on the appointed day 
 with a large retinue. But a cowherd, who was cognizant of Ilenning's 
 design to murder his guest, hid himself in the underwood on the road- 
 side, behind a hill a mile distant from our house, and lay in wait for the 
 duke, to whom he disclosed his master's murderous intention, and the 
 duke accordingly returned instantly. The hill was said to have derived 
 its present name, " Wartensberg " or " Watch-mount," from the event. 
 Henning, having found out that his design had been frustrated by the 
 cowherd, in revenge fried the man alive in a large iron pan, and gave 
 him, when he was dying, a last kick with his left foot. Soon after this 
 the duke came with a regiment of soldiers, laid siege to the castle, and 
 captured it. When Henning saw that there was no escape for him, he 
 packed all his treasures in a box and buried it close to the round tower in 
 his garden, the ruins of which are still standing, and he then committed 
 suicide. A long line of flat stones in our churchyard was said to mark 
 the malefactor's grave, from which for centuries his left leg used to grow 
 out, covered with a black silk stocking. 4 Nay, both the sexton Prange 
 and the sacristan Wollert swore that, when boys, they had themselves cut 
 off the leg and used its bone to knock down pears from the trees, but 
 that, in the beginning of the present, century, the leg had suddenly 
 stopped growing out. In my childish simplicity I of course believed all 
 
 2 This sepulchre still exists, and when I 
 lately revisited Ankershagen I strongly recom- 
 mended its present proprietor, the excellent 
 Mr. E. Winckelmann, and his accomplished 
 lady, whose bountiful hospitality I here grate- 
 fully acknowledge, to excavate it, on the grouud 
 that they would in all probability find there, not 
 indeed a golden cradle, yet very interesting pre- 
 historic antiquities. 
 
 3 In this verv same castle, the famous German 
 translator of Homer, J. H. Voss, passed very 
 
 unhappy days as tutor. See Dr. Fr. Schlie, 
 Scliliemann und seine Bestrebunyen, who cites 
 W. Herbst, Johiun Hcinrich Voss, i. p. 46. 
 
 4 According to the tradition, one of these 
 legs had been buried just before the altar. 
 Strange to say, when some years ago the church 
 of Ankershagen was being repaired, a single 
 leg-bone was found at a small depth before 
 the altar, as my cousin the Rev. Hans Becker, 
 the present clergyman of Ankershagen. assures 
 me. 
 
1829.] 
 
 THE BOY'S DESIRE TO DIG UP TROY. 
 
 3 
 
 this ; nay, I often begged my father to excavate the tomb or to allow me 
 to excavate it, in order to see why the foot no longer grew out. 
 
 A very deep impression was also made upon my mind by the terra- 
 cotta relief of a man on the back wall of the castle, which was said to be 
 the portrait of Henning Bradenkirl himself. As no paint would stick to 
 it, popular belief averred that it was covered with the blood of the cow- 
 herd, which could not be effaced. A walled-up fireplace in the saloon was 
 indicated as the place where the cowherd had been fried on the iron pan. 
 Though all pains were said to have been taken to obliterate the joints of 
 that terrible chimney, nevertheless they always remained visible ; and this 
 too was regarded as a sign from heaven, that the diabolic deed should 
 never be forgotten. 
 
 I also believed in a story that Mr. von Gundlach, the proprietor of the 
 neighbouring village, Eumshagen, had excavated a mound near the church, 
 and had discovered in it large wooden barrels containing Eoman beer. 
 
 Though my father was neither a scholar nor an archaeologist, he had 
 a passion for ancient history. He often told me with warm enthusiasm 
 of the tragic fate of Herculaneum and Pompeii, and seemed to consider 
 him the luckiest of men who had the means and the time to visit the 
 excavations which were going on there. He also related to me with 
 admiration the great deeds of the Homeric heroes and the events of the 
 Trojan war, always finding in me a warm defender of the Trojan cause. 
 With great grief I heard from him that Troy had been so completely 
 destroyed, that it had disappeared without leaving any traces of its 
 existence. My joy may be imagined, therefore, when, being nearly eight 
 years old, I received from him, in 1829, as a Christmas gift, Dr. Georg 
 Ludwig Jerrer's Universal History? with an engraving representing Troy 
 in flames, with its huge walls and the Scaean gate, from which Aeneas is 
 escaping, carrying his father Anchises on his back and holding his son 
 Ascanius by the hand ; and I cried out, " Father, you were mistaken : 
 Jerrer must have seen Troy, otherwise he could not have represented it 
 here." "My son," he replied, "that is merely a fanciful picture." But 
 to my question, whether ancient Troy had such huge walls as those 
 depicted in the book, he answered in the affirmative. " Father," retorted 
 I, " if such walls once existed, they cannot possibly have been completely 
 destroyed : vast ruins of them must still remain, but they are hidden 
 away beneath the dust of ages." He maintained the contrary, whilst I 
 remained firm in my opinion, and at last we both agreed that I should 
 one day excavate Troy. 
 
 What weighs on our heart, be it joy or sorrow, always finds utterance 
 from our lips, especially in childhood ; and so it happened that I talked 
 of nothing else to my playfellows, but of Troy and of the mysterious 
 and wonderful things in which our village abounded. I was continually 
 laughed at by every one except two young girls, Louise 6 and Minna 7 
 
 5 Niirnberg, 1828. 7 Minna Meincke married, in 1846, the excel- 
 
 6 Louise Meincke has been, since 1838, the lent farmer Richers, and is now living happily at 
 happy wife of the Rev. E. Frolich, and is now Friedland, in Mecklenburg. 
 
 living at Neu Brandenburg, in Mecklenburg, 
 
4 
 
 AUTOBIOGRAPHY OF THE AUTHOR. 
 
 [Inteod. 
 
 Meincke, the daughters of a farmer in Zahren, a village only a mile 
 distant from Ankershagen ; the former of whom was my senior by six 
 years, the latter of my own age. Not only did they not laugh at me, 
 but, on the contrary, they always listened to me with profound attention, 
 especially Minna, who showed me the greatest sympathy and entered into 
 all my vast plans for the future. Thus a warm attachment sprang up 
 between us, and in our childish simplicity we exchanged vows of eternal 
 love. In the winter of 1829-30 we took lessons in dancing together, 
 alternately at my little bride's house, at ours, and in the old haunted 
 castle, then occupied by the farmer Mr. Heldt, where, with the same 
 profound interest, we contemplated Henning's bloody bust, the ominous 
 joints of the awful fireplace, the secret passages in the walls, and the 
 entrance to the underground road. Whenever the dancing-lesson was at 
 our house, we would either go to the cemetery before our door, to see 
 whetHr Henning's foot did not grow out again, or sit down in admiration 
 before the church-registers, written by the hand of Johann dir. von 
 Schroder and Gottfrieclerich Heinrich von Schroder, father and son, who 
 had occupied my father's place from 1709 to 1799 ; the oldest records 
 of births, marriages, and deaths inscribed in those registers having a 
 particular charm for us. Or we would visit together the younger Pastor 
 von Schroder's daughter, 8 then eighty-four years of age, who was living 
 close to us, to question her about the past history of the village, or to look 
 at the portraits of her ancestors, 9 of which that of her mother, Olgartha 
 Christine von Schroder, deceased in 1795, was our special delight, partly 
 because we thought it a masterpiece of workmanship, partly because it 
 resembled Minna. 
 
 We also often visited the village tailor Wollert, 10 who was one-eyed, had 
 only one foot, and was for this reason called " Peter Hiippert," or Hopping 
 Peter. He was illiterate, but had such a prodigious memory that he could 
 repeat my father's sermon word by word after having heard it in church. 
 This man, who might possibly have become one of the greatest scholars 
 of the world, had he had a university education, was full of wit, and 
 excited our curiosity to the utmost by his inexhaustible stock of anec- 
 dotes, which he told with a wonderful oratorical skill. Thus, to give but 
 one of them : he told us how, being desirous to know whither the storks 
 migrated for the winter, he had, in the time of my father's predecessor, 
 Pastor von Eussdorf, caught one of the storks which used to build their 
 nests on our barn, and had fastened round its foot a piece of parchment, 
 on which, at his request, the sexton Prange had written that he himself, 
 the sexton, and Wollert the tailor, at the village of Ankershagen in Meck- 
 lenburg-Schwerin, humbly begged the proprietor of the barn, on which 
 
 8 Deceased in 1844, at the age of 98. 
 
 9 By the kind efforts of Miss Ida Frolich, the 
 accomplished daughter of Mrs. Louise Frolich, 
 all these portraits — five in number — have lately 
 become my property, and I have assigned to them 
 the place of honour in my library, facing the 
 Acropolis of Athens. At the death of Miss von 
 Schroder, these portraits had passed over into the 
 
 possession of my father's successor, Pastor Con- 
 radi, who had bequeathed them to the church 
 of Ankershagen, but he ceded them to me in 
 order to use the proceeds for presenting to 
 that church, while he still lived, a more durable 
 object, namely, a silver calyx. 
 10 Deceased in 1856. 
 
1831.] 
 
 MINNA MEINCKE. 
 
 5 
 
 the stork had its nest in the winter, to inform them of the name of his 
 country. When the stork was again caught hy him in the spring, 
 another parchment was found attached to its foot, with the following 
 answer in bad German verse : — 
 
 " Schwerin Mecklenburg ist uns niclit bekaunt, 
 Das Land wo sich der Storch befand 
 Nennt sich Sankt Johannes-Land." 
 
 "We do not know Schwerin Mecklenburg: the country where the stork was is called Saint 
 John's Land." 
 
 Of course we believed all this, and would have given years of our 
 life to know where that mysterious Saint John's Land was to be found. 
 If this and similar anecdotes did not improve our knowledge of geo- 
 graphy, at least they stimulated our desire to learn it, and increased 
 our passion for the mysterious. 
 
 From our dancing-lessons neither Minna nor I derived any profit at 
 all, whether it was that we had no natural talent for the art, or that our 
 minds were too much absorbed by our important archaeological investi- 
 gations and our plans for the future. 
 
 It was agreed between us that as soon as we were grown up we 
 would marry, and then at once set to work to explore all the mysteries 
 of Ankershagen ; excavating the golden cradle, the silver basin, the vast 
 treasures hidden by Henning, then Henning's sepulchre, and lastly Troy ; 
 nay, we could imagine nothing pleasanter than to spend all our lives in 
 digging for the relics of the past. 
 
 Thanks to God, my firm belief in the existence of that Troy has 
 never forsaken me amid all the vicissitudes of my eventful career ; but it 
 was not destined for me to realize till in the autumn of my life, and then 
 without Minna — nay, far from her — our sweet dreams of fifty years ago. 
 
 My father did not know Greek, but he knew Latin, and availed him- 
 self of every spare moment to teach it me. When I was hardly nine 
 years old, my dear mother died : this was an irreparable misfortune, 
 perhaps the greatest which could have befallen me and my six brothers 
 and sisters. 11 But my mother's death coincided with another misfortune, 
 which resulted in all our acquaintances suddenly turning their backs 
 upon us and refusing to have any further intercourse with us. I did not 
 care much about the others ; but to see the family of Meincke no more, 
 to separate altogether from Minna — never to behold her again — this was 
 a thousand times more painful to me than my mother's death, which 
 I soon forgot under my overwhelming grief for Minna's loss. In later 
 life I have undergone many great troubles in different parts of the world, 
 but none of them ever caused me a thousandth part of the grief I felt at 
 the tender age of nine years for my separation from my little bride. 
 Bathed in tears and alone, I used to stand for hours each day before 
 Olgartha von Schroder's portrait, remembering in my misery the happy 
 
 11 My two brothers are dead. Of my four 
 sisters only the eldest, Elise, is unmarried." The 
 second, Doris, was the happy wife of the late 
 secretary Hans Petrowsky in Roebel (Mecklen- 
 burg) ; the third, Wilhelmine, is the happy wife 
 
 of Professor Wilhelm Kuhse in Dillenburg 
 (Hesse-Cassel) ; and the fourth, Louise, is the 
 happy wife of the teacher Martin Pechel iD 
 Dargun (Mecklenburg). 
 
AU TOBIOGB APH Y OF THE AUTHOR. 
 
 [Introd. 
 
 days I had passed in Minna's company. The future appeared dark to 
 me; all the mysterious wonders of Ankershagen, and even Troy itself, 
 lost their interest for a time. Seeing my despondency, my father sent 
 me for two years to his brother, the Reverend Friederich Schliemann, 1 
 who was the pastor of the village of Kalkhorst in Mecklenburg, where for 
 one year I had the good fortune of having the candidate Carl Andres 2 from 
 Neu Strelitz as a teacher ; and the progress I made under this excellent 
 philologist was so great that, at Christmas 1832, I was able to present my 
 father with a badly-written Latin essay upon the principal events of the 
 Trojan war and the adventures of Ulysses and Agamemnon. At the age 
 of eleven I went to the Gymnasium at Neu Strelitz, where I was placed 
 in the third class. But just at that time a great disaster befel our family, 
 and, being afraid that my father would no longer have the means of 
 supporting me for a number of years, I left the gymnasium after being 
 in it only three months, and entered the Bealschule of the same city, 
 where I was placed in the second class. In the spring of 1835 I advanced 
 to the first class, which I left in April 1836, at the age of fourteen, to 
 become apprentice in the little grocer's shop of Ernest Ludwig Holtz, 3 in 
 the small town of Fiirstenberg in Mecklenburg-Strelitz. 
 
 A few days before my departure from Neu Strelitz, on Good Friday 
 183(3, I accidentally met Minna Meincke, whom I had not seen for more 
 than five years, at the house of Mr. C. E. Laue. 4 I shall never forget that 
 interview, the last I ever had with her. She had grown much, and was 
 now fourteen years old. Being dressed in plain black, the simplicity of 
 her attire seemed to enhance her fascinating beauty. When we looked at 
 each other, we both burst into a flood of tears and fell speechless into 
 each other's arms. Several times we attempted to speak, but our emotion 
 was too great ; neither of us could articulate a word. But soon Minna's 
 parents entered the room, and we had to separate. It took me a long 
 time to recover from my emotion. I was now sure that Minna still loved 
 me, and this thought stimulated my ambition. Nay, from that moment 
 I felt within me a boundless energy, and was sure that with unremit- 
 ting zeal I could raise myself in the world and show that I was worthy 
 of her. I only implored God to grant that she might not marry before 
 I had attained an independent position. 
 
 I was employed in the little grocer's shop at Fiirstenberg for five 
 years and a half; for the first year by Mr. Holtz, and afterwards by 
 his successor, the excellent Mr. Theodor Hiickstaedt. 5 My occupation 
 consisted in retailing herrings, butter, potato-whiskey, milk, salt, coffee, 
 sugar, oil, and candles ; in grinding potatoes for the still, sweeping the 
 shop, and the like employments. Our transactions were on such a small 
 scale, that our aggregate sales hardly amounted to 3000 thalers, or £450 
 annually ; nay, we thought we had extraordinary luck when we sold two 
 
 1 Deceased in 1861. now eighty-four years old, is still living at Neu 
 
 2 Candidate Carl Andres is now librarian of Strelitz, where the author lately saw her. 
 
 the Grand-ducal library and keeper of the Mu- 5 Th. Hiickstaedt died in 1872, but the little 
 
 seum of Antiquities in Neu Strelitz. grocer's business is continued by his excellent 
 
 3 Deceased in 1836. widow and her son-in-law, Mr. Meyer. 
 
 4 Mr. Laue died in 1860, but Mrs. Laue, 
 
1837.] 
 
 THE MILLER RECITING HOMER. 
 
 7 
 
 pounds' worth of groceries in a day. There I of course came in contact 
 only with the lowest classes of society. I was engaged from five in the 
 morning till eleven at night, and had not a moment's leisure for 
 study. Moreover I rapidly forgot the little that I had learnt in child- 
 hood ; but I did not lose the love of learning ; indeed I never lost it, 
 and, as long as I live, I shall never forget the evening when a drunken 
 miller came into the shop. His name was Hermann Niederhoffer. He 
 was the son of a Protestant clergyman in Koehel (Mecklenburg), and had 
 almost completed his studies at the Gymnasium of Neu Kuppin, when he 
 was expelled on account of his bad conduct. Not knowing what to do 
 with him, his father apprenticed him to the farmer Langermann in the 
 village of Dambeck ; and, as even there his conduct was not exemplary, he 
 again apprenticed him for two years to the miller Dettmann at Giistrow. 
 Dissatisfied with his lot, the young man gave himself up to drink, which, 
 however, had not made him forget his Homer ; for on the evening that 
 he entered the shop he recited to us about a hundred lines of the poet, 
 observing the rhythmic cadence of the verses. 6 Although I did not 
 understand a syllable, the melodious sound of the words made a deep 
 impression upon me, and I wept bitter tears over my unhappy fate. 
 Three times over did I get him to repeat to me those divine verses, 
 rewarding his trouble with three glasses of whiskey, which I bought with 
 the few pence that made up my whole fortune. From that moment 
 I never ceased to pray God that by His grace I might yet have the 
 happiness of learning Greek. 
 
 There seemed, however, no hope of my escaping from the hapless and 
 humble position in which I found myself. And yet I was relieved from 
 it, as if by a miracle. In lifting a cask too heavy for me, I hurt my 
 chest ; I spat blood and was no longer able to work. In despair I went 
 to Hamburg, where I succeeded in obtaining a situation with an annual 
 salary of 180 marks, or £9 sterling : first in the grocer's shop of 
 Lindemann junior, on the Fishmarket in Altona ; and afterwards in that 
 of E. L. Deycke junior, at the corner of the Miihren and Matten- 
 Twiete in Hamburg. But as I could not do the heavy work, owing to 
 my weakness in the chest, I was found useless by my employers, and 
 was turned away from each place, after having occupied it for only eight 
 days. Seeing the impossibility of filling a situation as grocer's shop- 
 man, and prompted by want to engage in any work, however humble, 
 
 6 This Hermann Niederhoffer is now 66 years 
 old, and is living in easy circumstances at Roebel, 
 where the author lately saw him, and instantly 
 recognized him by the pathos with which he de- 
 claimed Homer, as well as by other circumstances. 
 Having been born in 1813, he was twenty-four 
 years of age when, in 1837, he entered the little 
 shop of Ernest Ludwig Holtz, at Fiirstenberg, 
 where the author was apprenticed. He remained 
 for seven years afterwards, making in all ten 
 years, a journeyman miller, working successively 
 at a great many different places in Germany. 
 Having in 1844 returned to his family at Roebel, 
 through the influence of his relations he obtained 
 
 employment as communal clerk at Wredenhagen, 
 and remained for four years in that capacity, until 
 in 1848 the magistrate of Roebel gave him the 
 office of collector on a turnpike road. In this 
 employment he at once married an excellent 
 wife, who induced him to give up intoxi- 
 cating liquors, so that he retained the same 
 place for thirty-one years, only leaving it in 
 the spring of* 1879, when he retired to Roebel. 
 Wonderful to say, in spite of all the vicissitudes 
 of his eventful life, he has forgotten neither his 
 Homer nor his Virgil, and still declaims them 
 with the same warm enthusiasm as he did forty- 
 three years ago in the shop at Fiirstenberg. 
 
8 
 
 AUTOBIOGRAPHY OF THE AUTHOR. 
 
 [IXTBOD. 
 
 merely to earn my food, I endeavoured to obtain employment on board 
 a ship, and at the recommendation of a very kind-hearted shipbroker, 
 Mr. J. F. Wendt, a native of Sternberg in Mecklenburg, who when a child 
 had been brought up with my late mother, I succeeded in obtaining a 
 situation as cabin-boy on board the little brig Dorothea, commanded by 
 Captain Simonsen, owned by the merchants Wachsmuth and Kroogmann 
 of Hamburg, and bound for La Guayra in Venezuela. 
 
 I had always been poor, but never yet so utterly destitute as at that 
 time ; I had even to sell my only coat in order to buy a blanket. On 
 the 28th of November, 1841, we left Hamburg with a fair wind ; but in 
 a few hours it turned contrary, and we were accordingly detained for 
 three days in the river Elbe, near Blankenese, until on the 1st of 
 December the wind again became fair. On that day we passed Cux- 
 haven and entered the open sea, but we had no sooner reached Heligo- 
 land than 'the wind returned to the west, and remained there up to the 
 12th of December. We were continually tacking, but made little or 
 no progress, until in the night of the 11th— 12th December we were 
 shipwrecked in a fearful storm off the island of Texel, on the bank called 
 " de Eilandsche Grond." After escaping innumerable dangers, and having 
 been tossed about by the fury of the elements for nine hours in a very 
 small open boat, the crew, consisting of nine men, were all saved. I 
 shall always remember with gratitude to Heaven the joyful moment 
 when our boat was thrown by the surf on a bank close to the shore of 
 the Texel, and all danger was over. I did not know the name of the 
 land we had been cast upon, but I perceived that it was a foreign 
 country. I felt as if on that bank a voice whispered to me that the 
 tide in my earthly affairs had come, and that I had to take it at its 
 flood. My belief was confirmed when, on the very day of our arrival, my 
 little box, containing a few shirts and stockings, as well as my pocket- 
 book with the letters of recommendation for La Guayra procured for me 
 by Mr. Wendt, was found floating on the sea and was picked up, while all 
 my comrades and the captain himself lost everything. In consequence of 
 this strange event, they gave me the nickname of " Jonah," by which I 
 was called as long as we remained at the Texel. We were kindly received 
 there by the consuls Sonderdorp and Earn, who proposed to send me, 
 together with the rest of the crew, by way of Harlingen, back to Hamburg. 
 But I declined to return to Germany, where I had been so overwhelmingly 
 unfortunate, telling them that I regarded it as my destiny to remain in 
 Holland, that I intended tc proceed to Amsterdam to enlist as a soldier, 
 for I was utterly destitute, and saw, for the moment, no other means of 
 obtaining a living. At my urgent request, therefore, Messrs. Sonderdorp 
 and Earn paid 2 guilders (3s. 4<i.) for my passage to Amsterdam. 
 
 The wind having now changed to the south, the little vessel by 
 which I was forwarded had to stay a day at the town of Enkhuyzen, and 
 it took us no le3s than three days to reach the capital of Holland. For 
 want of clothes I suffered fearfully on this passage. Fortune did not 
 smile on me at first at Amsterdam : winter had set in ; I had no coat, 
 and was suffering cruelly from the cold. My intention to enlist as a 
 
1842.] 
 
 MODE OF LEARNING LANGUAGES. 
 
 
 
 soldier could not be realized so soon as I had imagined; and the few 
 florins which I had collected as alms on the island of Texel and in 
 Enkhuyzen, as well as the two florins which I obtained from Mr. Quack, 
 the consul for Mecklenburg at Amsterdam, were soon spent in the tavern 
 of Mrs. Graalman in the Kamskoy at Amsterdam, where I had taken my 
 lodgings. As my means of living were entirely exhausted, I feigned 
 illness and was taken into the hospital. From this terrible situation 
 I was released by the kind shipbroker already mentioned, Mr. "Wendt 7 
 of Hamburg, to whom I had written from the Texel, informing him of 
 my shipwreck and my intention to try my fortune at Amsterdam. By 
 a lucky chance my letter reached him when he was sitting at a dinner 
 party with numerous friends. The account of the disaster which had 
 befallen me excited universal compassion, and a subscription which he 
 at once raised for me produced the sum of 240 florins (£20), which he 
 sent me through Consul Quack. At the same time, he recommended me 
 to the excellent Consul-General of Prussia at Amsterdam, Mr. W. Hepner, 8 
 who procured me a situation in the office of Mr. F. C. Quien. 9 
 
 In my new situation my work consisted in stamping bills of exchange 
 and getting them cashed in the town, and in carrying letters to and from 
 the post-office. This mechanical occupation suited me, for it left me time 
 to think of my neglected education. 
 
 First of all I took pains to learn to write legibly, and this I 
 succeeded in doing after twenty lessons from the famous calligraphist 
 Magnee, of Brussels. Afterwards, in order to improve my position, I 
 applied myself to the study of modern languages. My annual salary 
 amounted only to 800 francs (£32), half of which I spent upon my 
 studies ; on the other half I lived — miserably enough, to be sure. My 
 lodging, which cost 8 francs a month, was a wretched garret without 
 a fire, where I shivered with cold in winter and was scorched with the 
 heat in summer. My breakfast consisted of rye-meal porridge, and my 
 dinner never cost more than two-pence. But nothing spurs one on to 
 study more than misery and the certain prospect of being able to 
 release oneself from it by unremitting work. Besides, the desire of 
 showing myself worthy of Minna created and developed in me a boundless 
 courage. I applied myself with extraordinary diligence to the study 
 of English. Necessity taught me a method which greatly facilitates 
 the study of a language. This method consists in reading a great deal 
 aloud, without making a translation, taking a lesson every day, con- 
 stantly writing essays upon subjects of interest, correcting these under 
 the supervision of a teacher, learning them by heart, and repeating in 
 the next lesson what was corrected on the previous day. My memory 
 was bad, since from my childhood it had not been exercised upon any 
 object ; but I made use of every moment, and even stole time for study. 
 
 7 My benefactor J. F. Wendt died in January 
 1856. 
 
 8 Consul Hepner died in 1870. 
 
 9 The commercial house of F. C. Quien still 
 exists at Amsterdam, under the same name. The 
 
 founder of the house is dead, but his two sons, 
 Charles and George Quien, who were already 
 partners in the house when the author first 
 entered it at the beginning of 1842, are both 
 still alive. 
 
10 
 
 AUTOBIOGRAPHY OF THE AUTHOR. 
 
 [IXTROD. 
 
 In order to acquire a good pronunciation quickly, I went twice every 
 Sunday to the English church, and repeated to myself in a low voice 
 every word of the clergyman's sermon. J never went on my errands, 
 even in the rain, without having my book in my hand and learning 
 something by heart ; and I never waited at the post-office without reading. 
 By such methods I gradually strengthened my memory, and in three 
 months' time found no difficulty in reciting from memory to my teacher, 
 Mr. Taylor, in each day's lesson, word by word, twenty printed pages, 
 after having read them over three times attentively. In this way I 
 committed to memory the whole of Goldsmith's Vicar of Wakefield and 
 Sir Walter Scott's Ivanhoe. From over-excitement I slept but little, 
 and employed my sleepless hours at night in going over in my mind 
 what I had read on the preceding evening. The memory being always 
 much more concentrated at night than in the day-time, I found these 
 repetitions at night of paramount use. Thus I succeeded in acquiring 
 in half a year a thorough knowledge of the English language. 
 
 I then applied the same method to the study of French, the difficulties 
 of which I overcame likewise in another six months. Of French authors 
 I learned by heart the whole of Fenelon's Aventures de Telemaque and 
 Bernardin de Saint Pierre's Paid et Virginie. This unremitting study 
 had in the course of a single year strengthened my memory to such 
 a degree, that the study of Dutch, Spanish, Italian, and Portuguese 
 appeared very easy, and it did not take me more than six weeks to write 
 and speak each of these languages fluently. 
 
 Whether from my continual readings in a loud voice, or from the 
 effect of the moist air of Holland, my complaint in the chest gradually 
 disappeared during my first year's residence in Amsterdam, and it has 
 never returned. But my passion for study caused me to neglect my 
 mechanical occupation in the office of Mr. F. C. Quien, especially as I 
 began to consider it beneath me. My principals would give me no 
 promotion ; they probably thought that a person who shows his in- 
 capacity for the business of a servant in an office proves thereby his 
 unfitness for any higher duties. At last, however, through the inter- 
 cession of my worthy friends, Louis Stoll 10 of Mannheim and J. H. 
 Ballauf 11 of Bremen, I had on the 1st of March, 1844, the good fortune 
 to obtain a situation as correspondent and book-keeper in the office of 
 Messrs. B. H. Schroder & Co. of Amsterdam, 1 who engaged me at 
 a salary of 1200 francs (£48); but when they saw my zeal, they added 
 800 francs a year more by way of encouragement. This generosity, for 
 which I shall ever be grateful to them, was in fact the foundation of 
 my prosperity ; for, as I thought that I could make myself still more 
 useful by a knowledge of Prussian, I set to work to learn that language 
 also. But the only Bussian books I could procure were an old grammar, 
 
 10 Mr. L. Stoll is still flourishing at Mann- Mr. B. H. Schroder died in 1849, but Mr. Henry 
 heim. Schroder, the same who personally engaged me 
 
 11 Deceased in 1873. on the 1st of March, 1844, and who was then 
 1 The house of B. H. Schroder and Co. of already a partner in the house, is still one of its 
 
 Am-terdam still exists and continues to flourish. principals. 
 
1846.] 
 
 BEGINS BUSINESS IN RUSSIA. 
 
 11 
 
 a lexicon, and a bad translation of Les Aventures de Telemaque. In spite 
 of all my enquiries, I could not find a teacher of Russian, since, with 
 the exception of the Russian Vice-Consul, Mr. Tannenberg, who would 
 not consent to give me lessons, there was no one in Amsterdam who 
 understood a word of the language. So I betook myself to the study 
 of it without a master, and, with the help of the grammar, I learned 
 the Russian letters and their pronunciation in a few days. Then, 
 following my old method, I began to write short stories of my own 
 composition, and to learn them by heart. As I had no one to correct 
 my work, it was, no doubt, extremely bad ; but I tried at the same 
 time to correct my mistakes by the practical exercise of learning the 
 Russian Aventures de Telemaque by heart. It occurred to me that I 
 should make more progress if I had some one to whom I could relate 
 the adventures of Telemachus ; so I hired a poor Jew for four francs a 
 week, who had to come every evening for two hours to listen to my 
 Russian recitations, of which he did not understand a syllable. 
 
 As the ceilings of the rooms of the common houses in Holland consist 
 of single boards, people on the ground-floor can hear what is said in the 
 third storey. My recitations therefore, delivered in a loud voice, annoyed 
 the other tenants, who complained to the landlord, and twice while stu- 
 dying the Russian language I was forced to change my lodgings. But 
 these inconveniences did not diminish my zeal, and in the course of six 
 weeks I wrote my first Russian, letter to Mr. Vasili PlotnikofY, the London 
 agent for the great indigo-dealers, Messrs. M. P. N. Malutin Brothers, 2 at 
 Moscow, and I found myself able to converse fluently with him and the 
 Russian merchants Matweieff and Froloff, when they came to Amsterdam 
 for the indigo auctions. After I had completed my study of the Russian 
 language, I began to occupy myself seriously with the literatures of 
 the languages I had learned. 
 
 In January, 1846, my worthy principals sent me as their agent to 
 St. Petersburg. Here, as well as in Moscow, my exertions were in the 
 very first two months crowned with the fullest success, which far ex- 
 ceeded the most sanguine expectations of my employers and myself. No 
 sooner had I rendered myself indispensable to Messrs. B. H. Schroder 
 & Co. in my new career, and thus obtained a practically independent 
 position, than I hastened to write to the friend of the Meincke family, 
 Mr. C. E. Laue of Neu Strelitz, describing to him all my adventures, 
 and begging him to ask Minna at once for me in marriage. But, to my 
 horror, I received a month later the heartrending answer, that she was 
 just married. I considered this disappointment at the time as the 
 greatest disaster which could have befallen me, and I was for some time 
 utterly unfit for any occupation and sick in bed. I constantly recalled to 
 mind all that had passed between Minna and myself in early childhood, 
 all our sweet dreams and vast plans, for the ultimate realization of which 
 I now saw such a brilliant chance before me ; but how could I think of 
 
 2 The three brothers Malutin have been long dead, but the commercial house continues to flourish 
 under the same name. 
 
12 
 
 AUTOBIOGRAPHY OF THE AUTHOR. 
 
 [Introd. 
 
 realizing them without her participation ? Then again I bitterly accused 
 myself for not having demanded her in marriage before proceeding to St. 
 Petersburg ; but again I recollected that I could not have done so without 
 exposing myself to ridicule, because while in Amsterdam I was only a 
 clerk, and my position was a dependent one, subject to the caprice of my 
 employers; besides, I was not sure of succeeding at St. Petersburg, 
 where instead of success I might have made a complete failure. I fancied 
 that neither could she be happy with anyone else besides me, nor that 
 I could possibly ever live with another wife but her. Why then should 
 fate be so cruel as to tear her from me when, after having for sixteen 
 long years striven to reach her, I seemed at last to have succeeded in 
 attaining her? It had indeed happened to Minna and me as it often 
 happens to us in our sleep, when we dream that we are pursuing some- 
 body and can never catch him, because as often as we reach him he 
 escapes us again. I thought I could never get over the misfortune of 
 losing Minna as the partner of my life ; but time, which heals all wounds, 
 at last healed mine, so that, although I remained for years mourning 
 for her, I could at least continue my mercantile pursuits without further _ 
 interruption. 
 
 In my very first year at St. Petersburg my operations had already 
 been so successful, that in the beginning of 1847 I was inscribed in the 
 Guild as a wholesale merchant. But, in spite of my new functions, 
 I remained in connection with Messrs. B. H. Schroder and Co. of 
 Amsterdam, whose agency I kept for nearly eleven years. As I had 
 acquired in Amsterdam a thorough knowledge of indigo, my transactions 
 were almost exclusively limited to that article ; and, as long as my 
 fortune was below 200,000 frs. (£8000), I never gave credit except to 
 merchants of the very first standing. Thus I had to content myself at 
 first with very small profits, but my business was a perfectly safe one. 
 
 Not having heard of my brother, Louis Schliemann, who in the 
 beginning of 1849 had emigrated to California, I went thither in the 
 spring of 1850, and found that he was dead. Happening, therefore, to 
 be in California when, on the 4th of July, 1850, it was made a State, and 
 all those then resident in the country became by that very fact naturalized 
 Americans, I joyfully embraced the opportunity of becoming a citizen of 
 the United States. 
 
 At the end of 1852 I established a branch-house at Moscow for 
 wholesale dealing in indigo, first under the direction of my excellent 
 agent, Mr. Alexei Matweieff, and after his death under the direction of 
 his servant Jutchenko, whom I raised to the dignity of a merchant of 
 the Second Guild, considering that an able servant may easily become 
 a good director, whilst a director can never become a good servant. 
 
 As I was always overwhelmed with work at St. Petersburg, I could 
 not continue my linguistic studies the.re, and it was not until the year 
 1854 that I found it possible to acquire the Swedish and Polish languages. 
 
 Divine Providence protected me marvellously, and on more than one 
 occasion I was saved from apparently certain destruction by a mere 
 accident. All my life long I shall remember the morning of the 4th of 
 
1854.] 
 
 A WONDERFUL ESCAPE. 
 
 13 
 
 October, 1854. It was at the time of the Crimean war. The Russian 
 ports being blockaded, all the merchandise intended for St. Petersburg 
 had to be shipped to the Prussian ports of Memel or Konigsberg, thence 
 to be forwarded overland. Some hundreds of chests of indigo, as well as 
 large quantities of other goods, had been thus shipped by Messrs. J. 
 Henry Schroder & Co. of London 3 and Messrs. B. H. Schroder & Co. of 
 Amsterdam, on my account, by two steamers to my agents, Messrs. Meyer 
 & Co. of Memel, to be sent on by the latter overland to St. Petersburg. 
 I had just returned from the indigo auctions at Amsterdam in order to 
 see after my goods at Memel, and had arrived late in the evening of the 
 3rd of October at the Hotel de Prusse in Konigsberg, when, happening 
 to look out of the window of my bedroom on the following morning, I 
 saw the following ominous inscription, written in large gilt letters on the 
 tower of the gate close by, called " das Grime Thor :" 4 — 
 
 " Vultus fortimae variatur imagine lunae, 
 Crescit decrescit, constans persistere nescit." 
 
 Though I am not superstitious, the inscription made a profound im- 
 pression upon me, and I was seized with a kind of panic, as though an 
 unknown disaster were hanging over me. In continuing my journey by 
 the mail-coach, I was horror-stricken to learn, at the first station beyond 
 Tilsit, that the whole city of Memel had been consumed on the previous 
 day by a fearful conflagration ; and I saw this but too well confirmed 
 on my arrival before the city, which resembled an immense graveyard 
 on which blackened walls and chimneys stood out like tombstones, 
 mournful monuments of the fragility of human things. Almost in despair, 
 I ran among the smouldering ruins in search of Mr. Meyer. At last 
 I found him, and asked him whether my goods were safe : by way of 
 answer, he pointed to his smouldering warehouses and said, "There they 
 are buried." The blow was tremendous : by eight and a half years' hard 
 labour in St. Petersburg I had only saved 150,000 thalers, or £22,500, and 
 this was now all lost. But no sooner had I acquired the certainty that 
 I was ruined, than I recovered my presence of mind. It gave me great 
 comfort to think that I had no debts to pay, for it was only at the 
 beginning of the Crimean war, and business being then very unsafe, 
 I had bought only for cash. So I thought Messrs. Schroder of London 
 and Amsterdam would give me credit, and I felt confident that I should 
 make up the loss in course of time. In the evening, when on the point of 
 leaving by the mail for St. Petersburg, I was telling my misfortune to 
 the other passengers, when a bystander suddenly asked me my name, and, 
 having heard it, exclaimed : " Schliemann is the only man who has not 
 lost, anything ! I am Meyer & Co.'s first clerk. Our warehouse being 
 
 3 The house of Messrs. J. Henry Schroder 
 and Co. of London and Hamburg, with whom I 
 have had the good fortune to be in connection now 
 for thirty-four years, is one of the richest and 
 most eminent commercial houses in the world. 
 The senior partner, the venerable Baron John 
 Henry von Schroder, now ninety-six years old, 
 the foun ler of the celebrated house of benevo- 
 
 lence das Schrddersche Stift, still manages the 
 Hamburg house ; his partner is the very able 
 Mr. Vogler. The London house is managed by 
 the venerable Baron J. H. W. Schroder, jun., 
 and his very able partners Mr. Henry Tiarks 
 and Mr. von der Meden. 
 
 4 This gate was pulled down in August 1864, 
 in consequence of municipal improvements. 
 
14 
 
 AUTOBIOGRAPHY OF THE AUTHOR. 
 
 [IXTROD. 
 
 crammed full of goods when the steamers arrived with his merchandise, 
 we were obliged to build close to it a wooden barrack, in which all his 
 property lies perfectly safe." 
 
 The sudden transition from profound grief to great joy is difficult to 
 bear without tears : I was for some minutes speechless ; it seemed to 
 me like a dream and incredible that I alone should have escaped unhurt 
 from the universal ruin. But so it was. The strangest thing was that 
 the fire had originated in Meyer & Co.'s stone warehouse, at the northern 
 extremity of the town, whence, owing to a furious gale which was blowing 
 from the north at the time, the flames rapidly spread over the whole 
 city; whereas, under the protection of the same storm, the wooden 
 barrack remained unhurt, though it was not more than a couple of 
 yards north of the warehouse. My goods having thus been preserved, 
 I speedily sold them to great advantage; turned the money over and 
 over again ; did a large business in indigo, dyewoods, and war material 
 (saltpetre, brimstone, and lead) ; and, as capitalists were afraid to do 
 much business during the Crimean war, I was able to realize large 
 profits, and more than doubled my capital in a single year. I was 
 greatly assisted in my transactions during the Crimean war by the great 
 tact and ability of my agent, my dear friend Mr. Isidor Lichtenstein, 
 senior, partner in the house of Messrs. Marcus Cohn & Son at Konigs- 
 berg, and his junior partner, Mr. Ludwig Leo, who forwarded all my 
 transit goods to me with a promptitude really wonderful. 
 
 My wish to learn Greek had always been great, but before the 
 Crimean war I did not venture upon its study, for I was afraid that this 
 language would exercise too great a fascination over me and estrange 
 me from my commercial business ; and during the war I was so over- 
 whelmed with work, that I could not even read the newspapers, far 
 less a book. When, however, in January 1856, the first tidings of peace 
 reached St. Petersburg, I was no longer able to restrain my desire to 
 learn Greek, and at once set vigorously to work, taking first as my teacher 
 Mr. Nicolaos Pappadakes and then Mr. Theokletos Yimpos, both from 
 Athens, where the latter is now archbishop. I again faithfully followed 
 my old method ; but in order to acquire quickly the Greek vocabulary, 
 which seemed to me far more difficult even than the Kussian, I procured 
 a modern Greek translation of Paul et Virginie, and read it through, com- 
 paring every word with its equivalent in the French original. When 
 I had finished this task, I knew at least one-half the Greek words the 
 book contained, and after repeating the operation I knew them all, or 
 nearly so, without having lost a single minute by being obliged to use a 
 dictionary. In this manner it did not take me more than six weeks 
 to master the difficulties of modern Greek, and I next applied myself 
 to the ancient language, of which in three months I learned sufficient 
 to understand some of the ancient authors, and especially Homer, whom 
 I read and re-read with the most lively enthusiasm. 
 
 I then occupied myself for two years exclusively with the literature 
 of ancient Greece ; and during this time I read almost all the classical 
 authors cursorily, and the Iliad and Odyssey several times. Of the 
 
1856-57.] 
 
 STUDY OF GREEK AND LATIN. 
 
 15 
 
 Greek grammar, I learned only the declensions and the verbs, and 
 never lost my precious time in studying its rules ; for as I saw that 
 boys, after being troubled and tormented for eight years and more in 
 schools with the tedious rules of grammar, can nevertheless none of them 
 write a letter in ancient Greek without making hundreds of atrocious 
 blunders, I thought the method pursued by the schoolmasters must be 
 altogether wrong, and that a thorough knowledge of the Greek grammar 
 could only be obtained by practice, — that is to say, by the attentive 
 reading of the prose classics, and by committing choice pieces of them to 
 memory. Following this very simple method, I learnt ancient Greek as 
 I would have learnt a living language. I can write in it with the greatest 
 fluency on any subject I am acquainted with, and can never forget it. 
 I am perfectly acquainted with all the grammatical rules without even 
 knowing whether or not they are . contained in the grammars ; and when- 
 ever a man finds errors in my Greek, I can immediately prove that I am 
 right, by merely reciting passages from the classics where the sentences 
 employed by me occur. 5 
 
 Meanwhile my mercantile affairs in St. Petersburg and Moscow went 
 on steadily and favourably. I was very cautious in my business ; and 
 although I received severe blows during the fearful commercial crisis 
 of 1857, they did not hurt me much, and even in that disastrous year 
 I made, after all, some profits. 
 
 In the summer of 1858 I renewed with my friend, Professor Ludwig 
 von Muralt, 6 in St. Petersburg, my study of the Latin language, which 
 had been interrupted for nearly twenty-five years. Now that I knew 
 both modern and ancient Greek, I found the Latin language easy enough, 
 and soon mastered its difficulties. 
 
 I therefore strongly recommend all directors of colleges and schools 
 to introduce the method I have followed ; to do away with the 
 abominable English pronunciation of Greek, which has never been in 
 use outside of England ; to let children first be taught modern Greek 
 by native Greek professors, and only afterwards begin ancient Greek 
 
 5 I hear with pleasure from my honoured 
 friend Professor Rudolf Virchow of Berlin, that 
 he learned the classical languages in a similar 
 way; he writes to me on the subject as follows: 
 " Up to my thirteenth year I took private lessons 
 in a small Pomeranian town. My last teacher 
 there was the second clergyman, whose custom 
 was to make me translate and write a great deal 
 extemporaneously ; on the other hand, he did not 
 let me learn by heart a single grammatical rule in 
 the stricter sense of the word. In this way the 
 learning of the ancient languages afforded me so 
 much pleasure, that I also very frequently made 
 translations for myself which had no,t been set 
 me as a task. When I was sent to the Gymnasium 
 at Coslin, the director was so highly pleased with 
 my Latin that, until my departure from the 
 school, I remained his particular favourite. On 
 the other hand, the teacher of Greek, Professor 
 Grieben, who had studied theology, could so 
 
 little conceive how any one could make a good 
 Greek translation without a literal knowledge of 
 Buttmann's Grammar, that he openly accused me 
 of deceit; even when in spite of all his vigilance 
 he could not detect me in any illicit expedient, 
 he nevertheless pursued me with his suspicions 
 until my examen abiturientis. At this he ex- 
 amined me out of the Greek text of the New 
 Testament ; and, when I passed successfully, he 
 declared to the assembled teachers, who unani- 
 mously bestowed upon me a favourable tes- 
 timony, that he had to decide against me, since 
 I did not possess the maturity of morals re- 
 quired for the University. Fortunately this 
 protest remained without effect. Having passed 
 the examination, I sat down in my room and 
 learned Italian without any assistance." 
 
 6 Professor von Muralt is now living at Lau- 
 sanne, in Switzerland. 
 
16 
 
 AUTOBIOGRAPHY OF THE AUTHOE. 
 
 [Ik TROD. 
 
 when they can speak and write the modern language with fluency, which 
 it can hardly take them more than six months to do. The same professors 
 can teach the ancient language, and by following my method they will 
 enable intelligent boys to master all its difficulties in a year, so that 
 they will not only learn it as a living language, but will also understand 
 the ancient classics, and be able to write fluently on any subject they are 
 acquainted with. 
 
 This is no idle theory, but a stubborn fact, which therefore ought to 
 be listened to. It is a cruel injustice to inflict for years upon an 
 unhappy pupil a language of which, when he leaves college, as a general 
 rule he knows hardly more than when he first began to learn it. The 
 causes of this miserable result are, in the first place, the arbitrary and 
 atrocious pronunciation of Greek usual in England ; 7 and in the second 
 place the erroneous method employed, according to which the pupils learn 
 to disregard the accents entirely, and to consider them as mere impedi- 
 ments, whereas the accents constitute a most important auxiliary in 
 learning the language. What a happy effect would be produced on 
 general education, and what an enormous stimulus would be given to 
 scientific pursuits, if intelligent youths could obtain in eighteen months 
 a thorough knowledge of modern Greek, and of that most beautiful, 
 most divine, and most sonorous language, which was spoken by Homer 
 and Plato, and could learn the latter as a living tongue, so as never 
 to forget it ! And how easily, at how small an expense, could the 
 change be made ! Greece abounds with highly-educated men, who have 
 a thorough knowledge of the language of their ancestors, who are per- 
 fectly acquainted with all the classics, and who would gladly and at 
 moderate salaries accept places in England or America. How greatly 
 the knowledge of modern Greek assists the student in mastering ancient 
 Greek I could not illustrate better than by the fact, that I have seen here 
 in Athens office-clerks who, feeling no inclination for commerce, have 
 left the counting-house, settled down to study, and been able in four 
 months' time to understand Homer, and even Thucydides. 
 
 Latin should, in my opinion, be taught not before, but after, Greek. 
 
 In the year 1858 I thought I had money enough, and wished to retire 
 from commercial pursuits. I travelled in Sweden, Denmark, Germany, 
 Italy, and Egypt, where I sailed up the Nile as far as the Second 
 Cataracts. I availed myself of this opportunity to learn Arabic, and 
 I afterwards travelled across the desert from Cairo to Jerusalem. I 
 visited Petra, and traversed the whole of Syria; and in this manner had 
 abundant opportunity of acquiring a practical knowledge of Arabic, the 
 deeper study of which I continued afterwards in St. Petersburg. After 
 leaving Syria I visited Smyrna, the Cyclades, and Athens, in the summer 
 of 1859, and I was on the point of starting for the island of Ithaca when 
 
 7 To say the least, Greek was pronounced 
 892 years ago precisely as it is now in Greece, 
 since all the Greek words borrowed by the 
 Russian language, when in 988 A. D. Russia 
 adopted the Greek religion, are pronounced 
 
 in Russian just as they are now pronounced 
 in Greece. The same may be said of the Greek 
 names which occur in the cuneiform inscriptions 
 of the time of the Seleucids. 
 
J 863.] 
 
 RETIRES FROM BUSINESS. 
 
 17 
 
 I was seized with fever. At the same time I received information from 
 St. Petersburg that a merchant, Mr. Stepan Solovieff, who had haled, 
 owing me a large sum of money, and with whom I had agreed that he 
 should repay it in the course of four years by annual instalments, not 
 only had not made his first payment, but had brought a suit against me 
 in the Commercial Court. I therefore hurried back to St. Petersburg, 
 was cured of fever by the change of air, and promptly gained my cause. 
 But my antagonist appealed to the Senate, where no lawsuit can be 
 terminated in less than three and a half or four years ; and my presence 
 on the spot being necessary, I went into business once more, much against 
 my will, and on a much larger scale than before. My imports from May 
 to October 1860 reached as high a sum as £500,000. Besides indigo and 
 olive oil, I also in 1860 and 1861 embarked largely in cotton, which gave 
 great profits, owing to the Civil War in the United States of America, and 
 the blockade of the Southern ports. But when cotton became too dear, 
 I abandoned it, and in its stead went into tea, the importation of which 
 by sea was permitted from May 1862 and onwards. My first tea order to 
 Messrs. J. Henry Schroder and Co. of London was for 30 chests ; and 
 when these were advantageously disposed of, I imported 1000, and after- 
 wards 4000 and 6000 chests. I also bought of Mr. J. E. Gunzburg of St. 
 Petersburg, who was withdrawing from the trade in goods, his whole 
 stock of tea, at a cheap rate, and gained in the first six months £7000 
 on my transactions in that commodity. But when in the winter of 
 1862-1863 the insurrection broke out in Poland, and the Jews, profiting 
 by the disorder then prevailing there, smuggled immense quantities of 
 tea into Russia, I could not stand this competition, being obliged to pay 
 the high import duty. I therefore retired again from the tea trade, 
 but it took me a long time to sell at a small profit the 6000 chests which 
 had remained on my hands. But my staple commodity always remained 
 indigo ; for, as I knew the article well, and was always favoured bj 
 Messrs. John Henry Schroder and Co. of London with choice and cheap 
 purchases, and as I also imported large quantities direct from Calcutta, 
 and never confided the sale of indigo to clerks or servants, as others 
 did, but always stood myself in my warehouse, and showed and sold it 
 personally and wholesale to . the indigo dealers, I had no competition to 
 fear, and my net profit on this article was on an average £10,000 annually, 
 with 6 per cent, interest on the capital employed. 
 
 Heaven continued to bless all my mercantile undertakings in a won- 
 derful manner, so that at the end of 1863 I found myself in possession 
 of a fortune such as my ambition had never ventured to aspire to. But 
 in the midst of the bustle of business I never forgot Troy, or the agree- 
 ment I had made with my father and Minna in 1830 to excavate it. I 
 loved money indeed, but solely as the means of realizing this great idea 
 of my life. Besides, I had recommenced business much against my will, 
 and merely in order to have some occupation and distraction while the 
 tedious lawsuit with the merchant who had attacked me was going on. 
 When therefore his appeal had been rejected by the Senate, and I had 
 received from him the last payment, in December 1863, I began to liqui- 
 
 c 
 
18 
 
 PRELIMINARY INVESTIGATIONS. 
 
 [Introd. 
 
 date my business. But before devoting myself entirely to archaeology, 
 and to the realization of the dream of my life, I wished to see a little 
 more of the world. So I started in April, 1864, for Tunis, to investigate 
 the ruins of Carthage, and went thence, by way of Egypt, to India. I 
 visited in succession the island of Ceylon, Madras, Calcutta, Benares, 
 Agra, Lucknow, Delhi, the Himalaya Mountains, Singapore, and the 
 island of Java, and stayed for two months in China, where I visited Hong 
 Kong, Canton, Amoy, Foochoo, Shanghai, Tin-Sin, Peking, and the Great 
 "Wall. I then went to Yokohama and Jeddo in Japan, and thence crossed 
 the Pacific Ocean in a small English vessel to San Francisco in California. 
 Our passage lasted fifty days, which I employed in writing my first work, 
 La Chine et le Japon. 8 From San Francisco I went, by way of Nicaragua, 
 to the Eastern United States, travelled through most of them, visited 
 Havannah and the city of Mexico, and in the spring of 1866 settled down 
 in Paris to study archaeology, henceforth with no other interruption than 
 short trips to America. 
 
 § II. First Visits to Ithaca, the Peloponnesus, and Teoy: 
 
 1863, 1870. 
 
 At last I was able to realize the dream of my life, and to visit at my 
 leisure the scene of those events which had always had such an intense 
 interest for me, and the country of the heroes whose adventures had 
 delighted and comforted my childhood. I started therefore, in April 
 1868, by way of Koine and Naples, for Corfu, Cephalonia, and Ithaca. 
 This famous island I investigated carefully ; but the only excavations I 
 made there were in the so-called Castle of Ulysses, on the top of Mount 
 Aetos. I found the local character of Ithaca to agree perfectly with the 
 indications of the Odyssey, and shall have occasion to describe this island 
 more fully in the subsequent pages. 
 
 I afterwards visited the Peloponnesus, and particularly examined the 
 ruins of Mycenae, where it appeared to me that the passage in Pausanias 9 
 in which the Pioyal Sepulchres are mentioned, and which has now become 
 so famous, had been wrongly interpreted ; and that, contrary to the general 
 belief, those tombs were not at all understood by that writer to be in the 
 lower town, but in the Acropolis itself. I visited Athens, and started 
 from the Piraeus for the Dardanelles, whence I went to the village of 
 Bounarbashi, at the southern extremity of the Plain of Troy. Bounarbashi, 
 together with the rocky heights behind it, called the Bali Dagh, had until 
 then, in recent times, been almost universally considered to be the site of 
 the Homeric Ilium ; the springs at the foot of that village having been 
 regarded as the two springs mentioned by Homer, 10 one of which sent 
 forth warm, the other cold water. But, instead of only two springs, I 
 found thirty-four, and probably there are forty, the site of them being 
 called by the Turks Kirk-Gios, — that is to say, " forty eyes ;" moreover, 
 I found in all the springs a uniform temperature of 17° centigrade, 
 equal to 62° ■ 6 Fahrenheit. In addition to this, the distance of Bounar- 
 
 8 Paris, 1866, Librairie Centrale. 
 
 9 Pauc. ii. 16, § 4. 
 
 10 II. xxii. 147-156. 
 
1868.] 
 
 BOUNARBASHI. 
 
 19 
 
 bashi from the Hellespont is, in a straight line, eight miles, whilst all the 
 indications of the Iliad seem to prove that the distance between Ilium 
 and the Hellespont was but very short, hardly exceeding three miles. 
 Nor would it have been possible for Achilles to have pursued Hector in 
 the plain round the walls of Troy, had Troy stood on the summit of 
 Bounarbashi. I was therefore at once convinced that the Homeric city 
 could not possibly have been here. Nevertheless, I wished to investigate 
 so important a matter by actual excavations, and took a number of work- 
 men to sink pits in hundreds of different places, between the forty springs 
 and the extremity of the heights. But at the springs, as well as in 
 Bounarbashi and everywhere else, I found only pure virgin soil, and struck 
 the rock at a very small depth. At the southern end of the heights alone 
 there are some ruins belonging to a very small fortified place, which I 
 hold with the learned archaeologist, my friend Mr. Frank Calvert, United 
 States Yice-Consul at the Dardanelles, to be identical with the ancient 
 city of Gergis. Here the late Austrian Consul, G. von Hahn, made some 
 excavations, in May 1864, in company with the astronomer Schmidt, of 
 Athens. The average depth of the debris was found not to exceed a foot 
 and a half; and Yon Hahn, as well as myself, discovered there only frag- 
 ments of inferior Hellenic pottery of the Macedonian time, and not a 
 single relic of archaic pottery. The walls too of this little citadel, in 
 which so many great luminaries of archaeology have recognized the walls 
 of Priam's Pergamus, have been erroneously called Cyclopean. 
 
 Bounarbashi having thus given negative results, I next carefully 
 examined all the heights to the right and left of the Trojan Plain, 
 but my researches bore no fruits until I came to the site of the city 
 called by Strabo New Ilium, 1 which is at a distance of only three miles 
 from the Hellespont, and perfectly answers in this, as well as in all 
 other respects, to the topographical requirements of the Iliad. My 
 particular attention was attracted to the spot by the imposing position 
 and natural fortifications of the hill called Hissarlik, which formed the 
 north-western corner of Novum Ilium, and seemed to me to mark the 
 site of its Acropolis as well as of the Pergamus of Priam. According 
 to the measurement of my friend M. fimile Burnouf, honorary director of 
 the French School at Athens, the elevation of this hill is 49°*43 metres 
 or 162 ft. above the level of the sea. 
 
 In a hole dug here at random by two villagers, some twenty-five years 
 ago, on the brink of the northern slope, in a part of the hill which 
 belonged to two Turks of Koum-Kaleh, there was found a small treasure 
 of about 1200 silver staters of Antiochus III. 
 
 The first recent writer who asserted the identity of Hissarlik with the 
 Homeric Troy was Maclaren. 2 He showed by the most convincing argu- 
 ments that Troy could never have been on the heights of Bounarbashi, 
 and that, if it ever existed, Hissarlik must mark its site. But already 
 
 1 Or, to use his exact phrase, " the present 2 Dissertation on the Topography of the Plain 
 Ilium," the Ilium of his day, rb vvv "\Xiov, r) of Troy, Edinburgh, 1822 ; and The Plain of 
 vvv ir6\is, to <rr}/jiepivbv''lAiov. Troy described, Edinburgh, 1863. 
 
20 
 
 PRELIMINARY INVESTIGATIONS. 
 
 [IXTROD. 
 
 before him, Dr. Edw. Dan. Clarke 3 had declared himself against Bounar- 
 bashi, and thought that the Homeric city had been at the village of 
 Chiblak, a theory afterwards adoj^ted by P. Barker Webb. 4 Such weighty 
 authorities as George Grote, 5 Julius Braun, 6 and Gustav von Ecken- 
 brecher, 7 have also declared in favour of Hissarlik. Mr. Frank Calvert 
 further, who began by upholding the theory which placed Troy at 
 Bounarbashi, became, through the arguments of the above writers, and 
 particularly, it appears, through those of Maclaren and Barker Webb, a 
 convert to the Troy-Iiissarlik theory and a valiant champion of it. He 
 owns nearly one-half of Hissarlik, and in two small ditches he had dug on 
 his property he had brought to light before my visit some remains of the 
 Macedonian and Boman periods ; as well as part of the wall of Hellenic 
 masonry, which, according to Plutarch (in his Life of Alexander), was 
 built by Lysimachus. I at once decided to commence excavations here, 
 and announced this intention in the work Ithaque, le Peloponnese et Troie, 
 which I published at the end of 1808. 8 Having sent a copy of this work, 
 together with a dissertation in ancient Greek, to the University of Bostock, 
 that learned body honoured me with the diploma of Doctor of Philosophy. 
 With unremitting zeal I have ever since endeavoured to show myself 
 worthy of the dignity conferred on me. 
 
 In the book referred to I mentioned (p. 97) that, according to my 
 interpretation of the passage of Pausanias (ii. 16, § 4) in which he 
 speaks of the Sepulchres at Mycenae, the Boyal Tombs must be looked 
 for in the Acropolis itself, and not in the lower town. As this inter- 
 pretation of mine was in opposition to that of all other scholars, it was 
 at the time refused a hearing ; now, however, that in 1876 I have actu- 
 ally found these sepulchres, with their immense treasures, on the very 
 site indicated by me, it would seem that my critics were in the wrong 
 and not myself. 
 
 Circumstances obliged me to remain nearly the whole of the year 
 1869 in the United States, and it was therefore only in April 1870 
 that I- was able to return to Hissarlik and make a preliminary excavation, 
 in order to test the depth to which the artificial soil extended. I made it 
 at the north-western corner, in a place where the hill had increased 
 considerably in size, and where, consequently, the accumulation of debris 
 of the Hellenic period was very great. Hence it was only after digging 
 16 ft. below the surface, that I laid bare a wall of huge stones, 6 h ft. 
 thick, which, as my later excavations have shown, belonged to a tower 
 of the Macedonian epoch. 
 
 3 Travels in various Countries of Europe, Asia, 
 and Af rica ; London, 1812. 
 
 4 Topographic de la Troade ; Paris, 1844. 
 
 5 Hid. of Greece; 4th edit. London, 1872, i. 
 pp. 305, 306. 
 
 6 Gcschichte der Kunst in ihrem Entwicklungs- 
 gange, Wiesbaden, 1856 ; and Homer und sein 
 
 Zeitaltcr, Heidelberg, 1856-1858, ii. pp. 206- 
 274. 
 
 7 Die Lag-} des Ilomcrischen Troja ; Diissel- 
 dorf, 1875. 
 
 8 In French, published by C. Reimvald, 15 rue 
 des Saints Peres, Paris ; in German, by F. A. 
 Brockhaus, Leipzig. 
 
1871.] 
 
 FIRST YEAR'S EXCAVATIONS AT TROY. 
 
 21 
 
 § III. First Year's Work at Hissarlik : 1871. 
 
 In order to carry on more extensive excavations I needed a firman 
 from the Sublime Porte, which I only obtained in September 1871, 
 through the kind offices of my friends the United States Minister 
 Kesident at Constantinople, Mr. Wyne McVeagh, and the late dragoman 
 of the United States Legation, Mr. John P. Brown. 
 
 At length, on the 27th of September, I made my way to the Darda- 
 nelles, together with my wife, Sophia Schliemann, who is a native of 
 Athens and a warm admirer of Homer, and who, with glad enthusiasm, 
 joined me in executing the great work which, nearly half a century ago, 
 my childish simplicity had agreed upon with my father and planned with 
 Minna. But we met with ever-recurring difficulties on the part of the 
 Turkish authorities, and it was not until the 11th of October that we 
 could fairly commence our work. There being no other shelter, we were 
 obliged to live in the neighbouring Turkish village of Chiblak, a mile and 
 a quarter from Hissarlik. After working with an average number of 
 eighty labourers daily up to the 24th of November, we were compelled 
 to cease the excavations for the winter. But during that interval we had 
 been able to make a large trench on the face of the steep northern slope, 
 and to dig down to a depth of 33 ft. below the surface of the hill. 
 
 We first found there the remains ol the later Aeolic Ilium, which, 
 on an average, reached to a depth of 6^ ft. Unfortunately we were 
 obliged to destroy the foundations of a building, 59 ft. long and 43 ft. 
 broad, of large wrought stones, which, by the inscriptions found in or 
 close to it, which will be given in the chapter on the Greek Ilium, seems 
 to have been the Bouleuterion or Senate House. Below these Hellenic 
 ruins, and to a depth of about 13 ft., the debris contained a few stones, 
 and some very coarse hand-made pottery. Below this stratum I came to 
 a large number of house-walls, of unwrought stones cemented with earth, 
 and, for the first time, met with immense quantities of stone implements 
 and saddle-querns, together with more coarse hand-made pottery. From 
 about 20 ft. to 30 ft. below the surface, nothing was found but calcined 
 debris, immense masses of sun-dried or slightly-baked bricks and house- 
 walls of the same, numbers of saddle-querns, but fewer stone implements 
 of other kinds, and much better hand-made pottery. At a depth of 30 ft. 
 and 33 ft. we discovered fragments of house-walls of large stones, many 
 of them rudely hewn ; we also came upon a great many very large blocks. 
 The stones of these house-walls appeared as if they had been separated 
 from one another by a violent earthquake. My instruments for excavating 
 were very imperfect : I had to work with only pickaxes, wooden shovels, 
 baskets, and eight wheelbarrows. 
 
 § IV. Second Year's Work at Hissarlik : 1872. 
 I returned to Hissarlik with my wife at the end of March 1872, 
 and resumed the excavations with 100 workmen. But I was soon able 
 to increase the number of my labourers to 130, and had often even 
 150 men at work. I was now well prepared for the work, having been 
 
22 NAREATIVE OF WORK AT TROY. [Introd. 
 
 provided by my honoured friends, Messrs. John Henry Schroder & Co. 
 of London, with the very best English wheelbarrows, pickaxes, and 
 spades, and having also procured three overseers and an engineer, Mr. 
 A. Laurent, to make the maps and plans. The last received monthly 
 £20, the overseers £6 each, and my servant £7 4s. ; whilst the daily 
 wages of my common labourers were 1 fr. 80 c, or about 18 pence 
 sterling. I now built on the top of Hissarlik a wooden house, with three 
 rooms and a magazine, kitchen, &c, and covered the buildings with 
 waterproof felt to protect them from the rain. 9 
 
 No. 1. Troy as seen from Kuum Kioi, ia June 1879. 
 
 On the steep northern slope of Hissarlik, which rises at an angle 
 of 45°, and at a perpendicular depth of 46^ ft. below the surface, I 
 dug out a platform 233 ft. wide, and found there an immense number of 
 poisonous snakes; among them remarkably numerous specimens of the 
 small brown adder called antelion (avrrjkiov), which is hardly thicker 
 than an earthworm, and gets its name from the vulgar belief, that the 
 person bitten by it only survives till sunset. 
 
 I first struck the rock at a depth of about S3 ft. below the surface of 
 the hill, and found the lowest stratum of artificial soil to consist of very 
 compact debris of houses, as hard as stone, and house-walls of small 
 pieces of unwrought or very rudely cut limestone, put together so that 
 the joint between two of the stones in a lower layer is always covered by 
 a single stone in the course above it. This lowest stratum was succeeded 
 by house-walls built of large limestone blocks, generally unwrought, but 
 often rudely cut into something resembling a quadrangular shape. Some- 
 times I came upon large masses of such massive blocks lying close upon 
 one another, and having all the appearance of being the broken walls 
 of some large building. There is no trace of a general conflagration, 
 either in this stratum of buildings built with large stones or in the 
 lowest layer of debris; indeed, the multitudinous shells found in these 
 two lowest strata are uninjured, which sufficiently proves that they have 
 not been exposed to a great heat. I found in these two lowest strata the 
 
 9 These houses are seen in the views on the subsequent pages, No. 5 on p. 29, &c. 
 
1872.] 
 
 SECOND YEAR'S EXCAVATIONS. 
 
 23 
 
 same stone implements as before, but the pottery is different. The 
 pottery differs also from that in the upper strata. 
 
 As the cutting of the great platform on the north side of Hissarlik 
 advanced but slowly, I began on the 1st of May a second large trench 
 from the south side ; but the slope being there but slight, I was forced 
 to give it a dip of 14°. I here brought to light, near the surface, a 
 pretty bastion, composed of large blocks of limestone, which may date 
 from the time of Lysimachus. The southern part of Hissarlik has been 
 formed principally by the debris of the later or Novum Ilium, and for 
 this reason Greek antiquities are found here at a much greater depth than 
 on the top of the hill. 
 
 As it was my object to excavate Troy, which I expected to find 
 in one of the lower cities, I was forced to demolish many interesting 
 ruins in the upper strata ; as, for example, at a depth of 20 ft. below 
 the surface, the ruins of a pre-historic building 10 ft. high, the walls 
 of which consisted of hewn blocks of limestone perfectly smooth and 
 cemented with clay. The building evidently belonged to the fourth of 
 the enormous strata of debris in succession from the virgin soil ; and 
 if, as cannot be doubted, each stratum represents the ruins of a distinct 
 city, it belonged to the fourth city. It rested on the calcined bricks and 
 other debris of the third city, 10 the latter being apparently marked by 
 the ruins of four different houses, which had succeeded each other on 
 the site, and of which the lowest had been founded on remnants of 
 walls or loose stones of the second city. I was also forced to destroy 
 a small channel made of green sandstone, 8 in. broad and 7 in. deep, 
 which I found at a depth of about 36 ft. below the surface, and which 
 probably served as the gutter of a house. 
 
 With the consent of Mr. Frank Calvert, I also began on the 20th 
 of June, with the help of seventy labourers, to excavate in his field on 
 the north side of Hissarlik, 1 where, close to my large platform and at a 
 perpendicular depth of 40 ft. below the plateau of the hill, I dug out 
 of its slope another platform, about 109 ft. broad, with an upper ter- 
 race and side galleries, in order to facilitate the removal of the debris. 
 No sooner had I commenced the work than I struck against a marble 
 triglyph with a splendid metope, representing Phoebus Apollo and the 
 four horses of the Sun. 2 This triglyph, as well as a number of drums 
 of Doric columns which I found there, can leave no doubt that a temple 
 of Apollo of the Doric order once existed on the spot, which had, how- 
 ever, been so completely destroyed that I did not discover even a stone 
 of its foundations in situ. 
 
 When I had dug this platform for a distance of 82 feet into the hill, 
 I found that I had commenced it at least 16 J ft. too high, and I therefore 
 abandoned it, contenting myself with cutting into its centre a trench 
 
 10 In my former work, Troy and its Remains, 1 See the large trench marked V on the north 
 
 this burnt city, which I hold to be the Ilhim of side to the right of point C, on Plan I. (of Troy). 
 Homer, was reckoned as the second from the 2 See the engraving and description in the 
 
 virgin soil. The reasons for now reckoning it chapter on the Greek Ilium, 
 the third will be given at the proper place. 
 
24 
 
 NARRATIVE OF WORK AT TROY. 
 
 [IXTROD. 
 
 No. 2. Front View of Walls belonging to the First and 
 Second Cities. 
 
 The walls is built of large blocks joined with small ones; 
 its courses are sloping, and appear to have followed the 
 dip of the ancient soil. The wall a is still more ancient; 
 it is an abamurus or retaining wall, and has served to 
 sustain the slope oi' the hill. 
 
 26 ft. wide at the top and 13 ft. wide at the bottom. 3 At a distance of 
 131 ft. from the slope of the hill, I came upon a great wall, 10 ft. high 
 
 and 6 h ft. thick (see No. 2, b), 
 the top of which is just 34 ft. 
 below the surface. It is built in 
 the so-called Cyclopean manner, 
 of large blocks joined together 
 with small ones : it had at one 
 time been much higher, as the 
 quantity of stones lying beside 
 it seemed to prove. It evidently 
 belonged to the city built with 
 large stones, the second in suc- 
 cession from the virgin soil. At 
 a depth of 6 ft. below this wall I 
 found a retaining wall of smaller 
 stones (see No. 2, a), rising at an 
 angle of 45°. This latter wall 
 must of course be much older 
 than the former: it evidently 
 served to support the slope of the hill, and it proves beyond any doubt 
 that, since its erection, the hill had increased 131 ft. in breadth and 34 ft. 
 in height. As my friend Professor A. H. Sayce was the first to point out, 
 this wall, a, is built in exactly the same style as the house-walls of the 
 first and lowest city, the joint between two of the stones in the lower 
 layer being always covered by a third in the upper layer. Accordingly, 
 in agreement with him, I do not hesitate to attribute this wall to the 
 first city. The debris of the lower stratum being as hard as stone, I 
 had very great difficulty in excavating it in the ordinary way, and 
 I found it easier to undermine it by cutting it vertically, and with the 
 help of windlasses and enormous iron levers, nearly 10 ft. in length and 
 6 in. in circumference, to loosen and so break it down in fragments 
 16 ft. high, 16 ft. broad, and 10 ft. thick. But I found this manner of 
 excavating very dangerous, two workmen having been buried alive under a 
 mass of debris of 2560 cubic feet, and having been saved as by a miracle. 
 In consequence of this accident I gave up the idea of running the great 
 platform 233 ft. broad through the whole length of the hill, and decided 
 on first digging a trench, 98 ft. wide at the top and 65 ft. at the bottom. 4 
 
 As the great extent of my excavations rendered it necessary for me to 
 work with no less than from 120 to 150 labourers, I was obliged, on the 
 1st of June, on account' of the harvest season, to increase the daily wages 
 to 2 francs. But even this would not have enabled me to collect the 
 requisite number of men, had not the late Mr. Max Miiller, German 
 Consul at Grallipoli, sent me 40 workmen from that place. After the 1st 
 
 3 See this trench marked w in the middle of 
 the large trench v, to the right of point C on 
 Plan I. (of Troy). 
 
 4 See No. 4, p. 28, to the right ; also Sectional 
 
 Plan III. at the end of the volume, the letters 
 X-Y on this plan marking the east side of this 
 great trench, which is indicated by the same 
 letters on Plan 1. (of Troy). 
 
1872.] 
 
 DISCOVERY OF GREAT WALLS. 
 
 25 
 
 of July, however, I easily procured a constant supply of 150 workmen. 
 Through the kindness of Mr. Charles Cookson, English Consul at Constan- 
 tinople, I secured 10 hand-carts, which are drawn by two men and pushed 
 by a third. I thus had 10 hand-carts and 88 wheelbarrows to work with, 
 in addition to which I kept 6 horse-carts, each of which cost 5 francs 
 or 4s. a day, so that the total cost of my excavations amounted to more 
 than 400 francs (£16) a day. Besides screw-jacks, chains and wind- 
 lasses, my implements consisted of 24 large iron levers, 108 spades, and 
 103 pickaxes, all of the best English manufacture. I had throe capital 
 
 No. 3. The Great Tower of Ilium, seen from the S.E. The top is 8 m. (26 It.) below the surface of the hill: 
 the foundation is on the rock, 14 m. (46£ ft.) deep : the height of the Tower is 20 ft. 
 
 foremen, and my wife and myself were present at the work from sunrise 
 to sunset; but our difficulties increased continually with the daily 
 augmenting distance to which we had to remove the debris. Besides 
 this, the constant strong gale from the north, which drove a blinding 
 dust into our eyes, was exceedingly troublesome. 
 
 On the south side of the hill, where on account of the slight natural 
 slope I had to make my great trench with an inclination of 76°, I dis- 
 covered, at a distance of 197 ft. from its entrance, a great mass of masonry, 
 consisting of two distinct walls, each about 15 ft. broad, built close 
 
 o 
 
26 
 
 NARRATIVE OF WORK AT TROY. 
 
 [IXTUOD. 
 
 together, and founded on the rock at a depth of 46J ft. below the surface. 
 Both are 20 ft. high j the outer wall slopes on the south side at an angle 
 of 15°, and is vertical on the north side. The inner wall falls off at an 
 angle of 45° on its south side, which is opposite to the north side of the 
 outer wall. There is thus a deep hollow between the two walls. The 
 outer wall is built of smaller stones cemented with clay, but it does 
 not consist of solid masonry. The inner wall is built of large unwrought 
 blocks of limestone ; it has on the north side solid masonry to a depth 
 of only 4 ft., and leans here against a sort of rampart 65i ft. broad and 
 16J ft. high, partly composed of the limestone which had to be removed 
 in order to level the rock for building the walls upon it. These two walls 
 are perfectly flat on the top, and have never been higher ; they are 140 ft. 
 long, their aggregate breadth being 40 ft. on the east and 30 ft. at the 
 west end. The remnants of brick walls and masses of broken bricks, 
 pottery, whorls, stone implements, saddlequern-stones, &c, with which 
 they were covered, appear to indicate that they were used by the inha- 
 bitants of the third or burnt city, as the substructions of a great tower ; 
 and I shall therefore, to avoid misunderstanding, call these walls, through- 
 out the present work, " the Great Tower," though they may originally 
 have been intended by their builders for a different purpose. The accom- 
 panying engraving (No. 3) gives a sketch of the two walls as they looked 
 when they were first brought to light and when they still appeared to 
 be one solid mass of masonry. A much better view of these two great 
 walls is given by the engraving No. 144. 
 
 § Y. Third Year's Work at Hissarlik : 1873. 
 I ceased excavating on the 14th of August, 1872, and resumed my 
 operations, in company with my wife, on the 1st of February of the 
 following year. In the preceding autumn, by the side of my two wooden 
 buildings, we had built a house for ourselves composed of stones brought 
 to light in my excavations, and had made the walls 2 ft. thick ; 5 but we 
 were compelled to let our foremen occupy it, as they were not sufficiently 
 provided with clothes and wrappers, and would otherwise have perished 
 during the great cold of the winter. My poor wife and myself, therefore, 
 suffered very much, since the icy north wind, which recals Homer's fre- 
 quent mention of the blasts of Boreas, blew with such violence through 
 the chinks of our house-walls, which were made of planks, that we were 
 not even able to light our lamps in the evening ; and although we had 
 fire on the hearth, yet the thermometer showed —4° Beaumur or 23° 
 Fahrenheit, while the water which stood near the hearth froze into solid 
 masses. During the day we could to some degree bear the cold by work- 
 ing in the excavations, but in the evenings we had nothing to keep us 
 warm except our enthusiasm for the great work of discovering Troy. 6 
 
 See engraving No. 9, p. 34, the house to 
 the right, represented also on No. 10, p. 35, on 
 which the house to the left is one of the wooden 
 buildings removed hither. 
 
 6 For the sake of convenience, I shall through- 
 
 out this work use the name "Troy," specially 
 employing it to denote the burnt city, the third 
 in succession from the virgin soil, whatever may 
 be the name which will be ultimately given to 
 it by the scientific world. 
 
1873.] 
 
 THIRD YEAR'S EXCAVATIONS. 
 
 27 
 
 Once we had the narrowest possihle escape from heing burnt alive. 
 The stones of our fireplace rested merely upon the boards of the floor, 
 and, whether through a crevice in the cement between the stones or from 
 some other cause, one night the floor took fire ; and when I accidentally 
 awoke at 3 o'clock, I found flames extending over a large part of it. The 
 room was filled with dense smoke, and the north wall was just beginning 
 to catch fire ; a few seconds would have sufficed to burn a hole into it, 
 and the whole house would then have been in flames in less than a 
 minute, for a high north gale was blowing on that side. I did not, 
 however, lose my presence of mind. Pouring the contents of a bath upon 
 the burning wall, I at once stopped the fire in that direction. Our cries 
 awoke a labourer who was asleep in the adjoining room, and he called the 
 foremen from the stone house to our assistance. Without losing a moment 
 they fetched hammers, iron levers, and pickaxes : the floor was broken 
 up, torn to pieces, and quantities of damp earth thrown upon it, as we 
 had no water. But, as the lower beams were burning in many places, a 
 quarter of an hour elapsed before w T e got the fire under and all danger 
 was at an end. 
 
 For the first three weeks I had an average number of 100 workmen 
 only, but on the 24th of February we were able to increase the number 
 to 158, and later on to 160, which remained our average number of 
 labourers up to the last. 
 
 Besides continuing the excavations on the north side in the field of 
 Mr. Frank Calvert, I opened another trench, 42 J ft. broad, on the same 
 side, at the eastern end of the large platform, 7 upon which I had to 
 throw the greater part of the debris which was dug up, as it would 
 have been difficult to carry it to a greater distance. I also dug in a 
 north-westerly direction, from the south-eastern corner of the ancient 
 city. 8 
 
 As the hill at this point has only a very gradual slope, I was com- 
 pelled to give the new trench a considerable dip, but nevertheless was 
 able to make eight side passages for removing the debris. Experience 
 had shown me that much precious time was lost in breaking down an 
 earthen wall with long iron levers driven in by a ram, and that it was 
 much more profitable and less dangerous for the workmen to keep the 
 earthen wall always at an ascending angle of 55°, since they can then 
 dig as occasion requires, and cut away the debris from below with 
 pickaxes. 
 
 In this new trench I had first to break through a wall 10 ft. thick, 
 consisting of large blocks of marble, most of which were drums of 
 Corinthian columns cemented with lime ; then I had to pierce the wall of 
 Lysimachus, which was also 10 ft. thick, and built of large hewn stones. 
 Besides this, we had to cut our way through two Trojan walls, the first 
 5£ ft. thick, and the second 10 ft. ; both consisting of stones joined 
 together with earth. 9 While making this excavation I found a great 
 
 7 See No. 4 to the left, and on Plan I. (of and on Sectional Plan IV. the points z-z. 
 Troy) the letters pp to the south of point C. 9 See ibid. 
 
 8 See on Plan I. (of Troy) the trench z-z 
 
28 
 
 NARRATIVE OF WORK AT TROY. 
 
 [IXTEOD. 
 
 number of large earthen wine-jars (ttlOol), from 3 } to 6| ft. high and 
 from 2 to 4 ft. wide, as well as numerous drums of Corinthian columns 
 
 and other sculptured blocks of marble. All these marbles must have 
 belonged to the Hellenic buildings, the southern wall of which I laid 
 
1873.] GREEK TEMPLE OF ATHENft 29 
 
 bare to a distance of 285 \ ft. 10 At first this wall is composed of small 
 stones joined with cement, and it rests upon well-hewn blocks of lime- 
 stone ; further on it consists solely of this latter masonry. The direction 
 of the wall, and hence of the whole building, is east south-east. 
 
 Three inscriptions, which I found among its ruins, 11 and one of which 
 states that it was set up in the Upov— that is to say, in the temple— 
 leave no doubt that this was the temple of the Ilian Athene, the ttoXl- 
 oO^o? 6ed, for it is only this sanctuary that could have been called 
 simply to lepov on account of its size and importance, which surpassed 
 that of all the other temples of Novum Ilium. 
 
 Altar. 
 
 No. 5. The Excavations below the Temple of Athene. From the East. 
 As the excavations appeared in April 1873. 
 
 Its foundations nowhere extended to a greater depth than 6J ft. The 
 floor, which consisted of large slabs of limestone resting upon double 
 layers of hewn blocks of the same material, was frequently covered with 
 only a foot of vegetable soil, and never with more than 3^ ft. of it. 
 This explains the total absence of entire sculptures ; for whatever sculp- 
 tures there were in or upon the temple could not sink into the ground 
 on the summit of the hill when the building was destroyed, and they 
 therefore remained on the surface for many centuries, till they were 
 broken up by religious zeal or out of sheer mischief. Hence we can 
 easily explain the enormous mass of fragments of statues which cover 
 the entire hill. In order to bring Troy itself to light, I was forced to 
 sacrifice the ruins of this temple, of which I left standing only some 
 parts of the north and south walls. 1 
 
 10 See Sectional Plan IV., line z-z, and Plan I. 
 (of Troy) under the same letters. 
 
 11 They will be given in the chapter on the 
 
 Greek Ilium. 
 
 1 See the woodcuts No. 5, No. 7, and Sectional 
 Plan IV., points z-z in the upper row, marked U. 
 
30 
 
 NARRATIVE OF WORK AT TROY. 
 
 [Introd. 
 
 Just below the south wall of the temple I brought to light the 
 remains of a small round cellar, ft. in diameter and about 2\ ft. high, 
 which stood beneath the foundations, and must therefore be older than the 
 temple. It was built of chalk and stones, but the inner side had been 
 daubed over with a kind of varnish or glaze, and had a glossy appearance. 
 This small cellar was filled with fragments of Greek terra-cottas, among 
 which, however, I found six small vases almost uninjured. 
 
 Below the temple, at a depth of from 23 to 26 ft. beneath the surface, 
 I discovered a house with eight or nine chambers : 2 its walls consist 
 of small stones cemented with earth, from 19| to 25J in. thick. Several 
 of these walls were 10 ft. high, and on some of them could be seen large 
 patches of a plaster made of yellow or white clay. In most of the rooms 
 the floors had been of wood; in one only I found a floor of unhewn 
 slabs of limestone. 
 
 By the side of the house, as well as in its larger apartments, I found 
 a great quantity of human bones, but only two skeletons, which must 
 be those of warriors, for they were found at a depth of 23 ft., with 
 fragments of helmets on or near their heads. Unfortunately the frag- 
 ments are so small and corroded, that the helmets cannot be put together 
 again ; but their upper portions (<fid\oi,) were well preserved, and a draw- 
 ing of one of them will be given in its place. My honoured friend, 
 Professor Eudolf Virchow of Berlin, has kindly made exact drawings of 
 these skulls, which will be given in the chapter on the Third, the burnt 
 City, together with his dissertation on them. By the side of one of 
 the skeletons, I found a large lance-head, of which I shall also give 
 a drawing. 
 
 The quantity of pottery found in and around this house was really 
 enormous. It deserves particular mention that, when the Temple of 
 Athene was built, the site on which it stood was artificially levelled, and 
 a considerable portion of it was cut away. This is proved by the calcined 
 ruins of the burnt city which are here found immediately below the 
 foundations of the temple, whereas elsewhere two distinct strata of debris, 
 16 ft. deep, intervene between the Hellenic city and the burnt city. 
 
 On the east side of the house was a sacrificial altar of a very 
 primitive description, which is turned to the N.W. by W., and consists 
 of a slab of slate-granite about 5^ ft. long and 5J ft. broad. 3 The 
 upper part of the stone is cut into the form of a crescent, probably 
 to facilitate the slaughter of the animal which was intended for sacrifice. 
 About 4 ft. below the sacrificial altar I found a channel made of slabs 
 of green slate, which probably served to carry off the blood. The altar 
 stood on a pedestal of bricks but very slightly burnt, and was surrounded 
 by an enormous quantity of similar bricks and wood-ashes to a height of 
 10 feet. Both the sacrificial stone and its pedestal were daubed over with 
 a white crust of clay, which upon the pedestal was nearly an inch thick. 
 
 Below the level of the altar and the pre-historic house already 
 mentioned, I came upon walls of fortification 4 and very ancient houses, 5 
 
 2 See the engraving No. 7. 
 
 3 See the engraving No. 6. 
 
 4 See Plan of Troy on the south side, in the 
 
 two places marked /, h. 
 
 5 See No. 7 to the left, just below the over- 
 hanging marble block. 
 
1873.] LABYRINTH OF HOUSE-WALLS. 31 
 
 the walls of which are still partially covered with a coating of clay and 
 white colour, all bearing traces of a terrible conflagration, which had 
 
 No. 6. Great Altar for Sacrifices, found in the depths of the Temple of Athene. (1 : 23 actual size.) 
 As the altar appeared in 1873. 
 
 so completely destroyed everything in the chambers, that we only occa- 
 sionally found charred fragments of pottery among the red and yellow 
 wood-ashes with which the spaces were filled. Curiously enough, other 
 house-walls were again found below : these must be still older than those 
 above; like them, they show indications of having been exposed to a 
 great heat. 
 
 In fact, this labyrinth of ancient house-walls, built one above another 
 and discovered under the Temple of Athene erected by Lysimachus, is 
 unique, and presents the archaeologist with the richest materials for 
 investigation. The greatest difficulty connected with the discovery, 
 however, is afforded by one of the above-mentioned walls of fortification, 
 11 J ft. high, which runs through the labyrinth from W.N.W. to E.S.E. 
 This is likewise built of stones joined together with earth, and is 6 ft. 
 broad at the top and 12 ft. broad at the foot. It does not stand directly 
 upon the native rock, nor was it built till the rock had gradually become 
 covered with a layer of earth 1J ft. in thickness. Sunning parallel 
 with this wall of fortification, only 2J ft. from it and at the same depth, 
 there is a wall 2 ft. high, which is likewise built of stones cemented 
 with earth. 6 
 
 The chamber at the greatest depth to which I have excavated is 
 10 ft. high and 11 J ft. wide; but it may have been higher: its length 
 I have not been able to ascertain. One of the compartments of the 
 
 6 See Plan I. (of Troy), on the south side, in the places marked /, h. 
 
32 
 
 NARRATIVE OF WORK AT TROY. 
 
 [Iktrod. 
 
 uppermost houses, below the Temple of Athene and belonging to the 
 third, the burnt city, appears to have been used as a magazine for storing 
 
 corn or wine, for there are in it nine enormous earthen jars (yrlOoi) of 
 various forms, about 5| ft. high and 4 J ft. across, their mouths being from 
 
.1873.] THE COLOSSAL JARS. 33 
 
 29h to 35^ in. broad. 7 Each of them has four handles, 3J in. broad, and 
 the clay of which they are made is as much as 2\ in. thick. Upon the 
 
 No. 8. The Magazine, with its Colos<al Jars, in the depths of the Temple of Athene ; as it 
 appeared in June 1873. * 
 
 south side of the jars I found a wall of fortification, 26 ft. long and 10 ft. 
 high, built of sun-dried bricks, which, though thoroughly baked in the 
 conflagration, were exceedingly fragile. 
 
 In the middle of March I also commenced a large excavation close 
 to my wooden house and to the west of the Great Tower. 8 I found 
 near the surface the ruins of a large house of the Greek period, which 
 extended to a depth of 6 \ ft. It must have belonged to a great man, 
 perhaps a high priest, for the floors of the rooms were made of large slabs 
 of red stone excellently polished. Below this Greek house I found, as 
 usual, a layer of debris with but few stones ; then a number of house- 
 walls composed of small stones joined together with earth ; and beneath 
 these again immense masses of burnt and partly-vitrified bricks. At last, 
 at the depth of 30 ft. below the surface, I brought to light a street 17^ ft. 
 wide, paved with stone flags, from 4^ to 5 ft. long and from 35 in. to ft. 
 broad, which runs down very abruptly in a south-westerly direction 
 towards the Plain. 9 The slope of the street is so great that, while on the 
 north side, so far as it is there uncovered, it is only 30 ft. below the 
 surface of the hill, at a distance of 33 ft. further to the south it already 
 lies as low as 37 ft. under the ground. 
 
 This well-paved street led me to conjecture that a large building must 
 at one time have stood at the end of it, at a short distance on the north- 
 
 7 In the view, No. 8, six of the jars are shown, 8 See No. 9 to the left, 
 and a seventh (broken) is outside the trench to 9 See No. 10 and No. 13, and Plan I. (of 
 the right. The two largest of all are out of view, Troy), a. 
 on the other side of the wall of the magazine. 
 
 D 
 
34 
 
 NARRATIVE OF WORK AT TROY. 
 
 [Introd. 
 
 east side, and I therefore immediately set 100 men to dig through the 
 ground lying in front of it in that direction. I found the street covered 
 to a height of from 7 to 10 ft. with yellow, red, or black wood-ashes, 
 
 mixed with thoroughly-burnt and often partly- vitrified fragments of bricks 
 and stones. Above this thick layer of debris I came upon the ruins of 
 a large building composed of stones cemented with earth, of which I only 
 
36 
 
 NARRATIVE OF WORK AT TROY. 
 
 [InTKOD. 
 
 No. 11. 
 
 No. 12. 
 
 <os. 11, 12. Ct.pper 
 Bolts; lound exactly 
 in the middle (No. 11) 
 of the first (No. 12) 
 of the second Gates. 
 
 parapets. 10 Proceeding thus in a north-easterly direction, I brought to 
 light two large gateways, standing 20 ft. apart, and in each of them a 
 long copper bolt, which had no doubt served to fasten 
 the wooden wings of the gates, and of which I give 
 drawings. The first gateway is 12 J ft. wide, and is 
 formed by two projections of the side-wall, one of which 
 stands out to a distance of 2 k ft., the other to a distance 
 of 2} ft. ; both are ft. high and 3| ft. broad. The 
 pavement of large flags ends at the first gate, whence to 
 the second gate — for a distance of 20 ft. — the street is 
 very roughly paved with large unhewn stones. 1 The 
 pavement has probably become uneven through the fall 
 of the walls of the great tower, which must once have 
 crowned the Gates, and of whose existence the masses 
 of calcined rubbish, from 7 to 10 ft. deep, which covered 
 the passage, furnish the most evident proofs. It is clear 
 that wood entered largely into the construction of these 
 walls, not only from the large masses of wood-ashes, but 
 also from the fact that the large red flags of the street, 
 though they looked fresh and solid when first brought 
 to light, speedily crumbled away when exposed to the 
 air ; a circumstance which can only be explained by the 
 intense heat to which they had been subjected. 
 
 Like the first gate, the second gate is also formed by 
 two projections in the wall, which are 2 ft. high, more than 3 ft. broad, 
 and project about 2£ ft. 
 
 I cleared the street as far as 5 ft. to the north-east of the second 
 gate, but did not venture to proceed further, as this could not have 
 been done without breaking down more of the walls of the large house 
 erected upon the debris with which it is covered to the depth of from 
 7 to 10 ft. This house is, of course, of later date than the double gate ; 
 but still I considered it of great interest to archaeology, the more so as 
 it covered the ruins of extensive and more ancient buildings to the right 
 and left of the gate. These latter are on a level with the double gate, 
 and, as that to the north-west seems to be the largest building of the 
 burnt city, the third in succession from the virgin soil, I believed it to be 
 the mansion of the last chief or king of the town. The correctness of 
 this opinion appears to be corroborated by the large number of treasures 
 I subsequently discovered in or close to it. The more recent house had 
 been erected when the ruins of the more ancient houses were completely 
 covered with ashes and burnt debris, as is obvious from the fact that the 
 more recent walls run in all directions above the more ancient ones, never 
 standing directly upon them, and frequently separated from them by a 
 layer of calcined rubbish, from 7 to 10 ft. deep. The ruined walls of the 
 lower as well as of the upper houses are built of stones joined together 
 with earth ; but the walls of the lower houses are much thicker and more 
 solidly built than those of the upper one. It is plain that the more 
 
 10 See No. 10. 1 See No. 10 anil No. 13, and the place marked a on Plan I. (of Troy). 
 
1873.] 
 
 THE DOUBLE GATE. 
 
 37 
 
 recent house was not built till the street was covered up, to a depth of 
 from 7 to 10 ft., by the ruins and debris of the fallen buildings. 
 
 From these and other considerations, I wished to preserve as much 
 as possible of both the ancient and the more recent buildings, the more 
 
38 
 
 NARRATIVE OF WORK AT TROY. 
 
 [IXTROD. 
 
 so as I feared my statements in regard to them might be disbelieved. 
 Consequently, after clearing the double gate, I left the ruins of both 
 buildings in situ, and removed the debris from those chambers only 
 of the ancient houses which could be excavated without injury to the 
 building above them. I found in them a vast quantity of pottery of the 
 most interesting character, which will be made known to the reader in 
 the proper place. 
 
 The great cold did not last long, and we had afterwards splendid 
 weather. The nights however were cold up to the middle of March, and 
 the thermometer frequently fell to the freezing-point towards morning, 
 whereas during the day the heat of the sun was already beginning to be 
 troublesome, the thermometer often showing 18° Keaumur (72J° Fahren- 
 heit) in the shade at mid-day. From about the 1st of March we heard 
 the perpetual croaking of millions of frogs in the surrounding marshes, 
 and in the second week of March the storks returned. One of the many 
 discomforts of our life in the wilderness we inhabited was the hideous 
 shrieking of innumerable owls, which built their nests in the holes of 
 my trenches ; their shrieks had a weird and horrible sound, and were 
 especially intolerable at night. 
 
 Up to the beginning of May 1873, I had believed that the hill of 
 Hissarlik, where I was excavating, marked the site of the Trojan 
 citadel only ; and it certainly is the fact that Hissarlik was the Acropolis 
 of Novum Ilium. 2 I therefore imagined that Troy was larger than the 
 latter town, or at least as large ; but I thought it important to dis- 
 cover- the precise limits of the Homeric city, and accordingly I sank 
 twenty shafts as far down as the rock, on the west, south-west, south- 
 south-east, and east of Hissarlik, directly at its foot or at some distance 
 from it, on the plateau of the Ilium of the Greek colony. As I found 
 in these shafts no trace of fragments either of pre-historic pottery or of 
 pre-historic house-walls, and nothing but fragments of Hellenic pottery 
 and Hellenic house-walls ; and as, moreover, the hill of Hissarlik has a 
 very steep slope towards the north, the north-east, and the north-west, 
 facing the Hellespont, and is also very steep on the west side towards 
 the Plain, the city could not possibly have extended in any one of these 
 directions beyond the hill itself. It therefore appears certain that the 
 ancient city cannot have extended on any side beyond the primeval 
 plateau of Hissarlik, the circumference of which is indicated on the 
 south and south-west by the Great Tower and the double gate ; and on 
 the north-west, north east, and east, by the great boundary wall. 
 
 The shafts which I sank beyond the hill are all indicated by letters, 
 a to u, on the Plan of the Hellenic Ilium, on which it is also stated at 
 what precise depth in each of them the rock was struck ; and of the seven 
 deepest shafts sections are given. I therefore call particular attention 
 to this Plan. 3 I also call particular attention to the tombs which I 
 came upon in the shafts which are marked d, o, and r on the Plan of 
 
 2 I reluctantly give the later Ilium the for perhaps 1400 years. All classical writers 
 epithet Novum, because the city existed for at (except Strabo) call it simply Ilium, 
 least 1000 years, and its site has been a desert 3 See Plan II. at the end of the volume. 
 
1873.] 
 
 LIMITS OF THE HOMERIC TROY. 
 
 39 
 
 Novum Ilium. Each of these three tombs was cut out of the rock and 
 covered with flat slabs : each contained a corpse ; but the corpses were 
 all so much damaged, that the skulls crumbled to dust when exposed 
 to the air. The tombs evidently belonged to persons of small means 
 and of a late date, since what little pottery was found in them was of 
 a very inferior description and evidently of the Eoman period. But the 
 fact that in three out of the twenty shafts, which I sank at random 
 on the site of Novum Ilium, tombs were discovered, seems to denote 
 with great probability that the inhabitants of that city buried their dead, 
 or at least a large portion of them, within the precincts of the town. 
 Cremation however was also in use with them, since in the first trench 
 I opened, in April 1870, I struck upon an urn of the Eoman period, filled 
 with ashes of animal matter intermixed with remnants of calcined bones, 
 which are evidently those of a human body. I did not find any other 
 burnt bodies in the strata of Novum Ilium, but it must be .remembered 
 that I only excavated in Hissarlik, which does not cover a twenty-fifth 
 part of the later city. 4 Hissarlik moreover was the Acropolis of Novum 
 Ilium and contained the principal temples, in consequence of which it is 
 likely that it was considered sacred ground, in which no burials were 
 allowed. Hence it is very probable that, if systematic excavations were 
 made in the lower city, many sepulchres and funeral urns would be found. 
 
 The inhabitants of the five pre-historic cities of Hissarlik seem gene- 
 rally to have burnt the dead, as I found in 1872 two tripod-urns with 
 calcined human remains on the virgin soil in the first city; and in 
 1871, 1872, and 1873, a vast number of large funeral urns, contain- 
 ing human ashes, in the third and fourth cities. I found no bones 
 however except a single tooth, and on one occasion among the ashes a 
 human skull, which is well preserved, with the exception of the lower 
 jaw, which is missing : as I found a brooch of bronze along with it, 
 I suppose it may have belonged to a woman. I am also indebted to 
 Prof. Yirchow for drawings of this skull, which will be given, together 
 with his dissertation on it and the other skulls, in the chapter on the 
 Third, the burnt City. 
 
 It is true that nearly all the pottery found in the pre-historic ruins 
 of Hissarlik is broken, and that there is hardly one large vessel out 
 of twenty which is not in fragments ; nay, in the first two cities the 
 pottery has all been shattered by the weight and pressure of the stones 
 with which the second city was built. But still, even if all the funeral 
 urns with human ashes ever deposited in Hissarlik had been well 
 preserved, yet, judging from the fragments of them —in spite of the 
 abundance of these fragments — I can hardly think that I could have 
 found even a thousand entire urns. It is, therefore, evident that the 
 inhabitants of the five pre-historic cities of Hissarlik buried only a 
 small part of their funeral urns in the city itself, and that we must 
 look for their principal necropolis elsewhere. 
 
 Whilst these important excavations were going on, I neglected the 
 trenches on the north side, and only worked there when I had workmen to 
 
 4 See Plan II. (of the Hellenic Ilium). 
 
40 
 
 NARRATIVE OF WORK AT TROY. 
 
 [Introd. 
 
 spare. But I brought to light here the prolongation of the great wall 
 which I agree with Prof. Sayce in attributing to the second stone city. 5 
 
 Wishing to investigate the fortifications on the west and north-west 
 sides of the ancient city, in the beginning of May 1873 I also com- 
 menced making a trench, 33 ft. broad and 141 ft. long, on the north- 
 west side of the hill, at the very point where I had made the first 
 trench in April 1870. 6 I broke first through an Hellenic circuit-wall, 
 probably that which, according to Plutarch in his Life of Alexander, 
 was built by Lysimachus, and found it to be 13 ft. high and 10 ft. 
 thick, and to consist of large hewn blocks of limestone. Afterwards I 
 broke through an older wall, 8J ft. high and 6 ft. thick, composed of 
 large blocks cemented with earth. This second wall is attached to the 
 large wall which I brought to light in April 1870, and the two form 
 two sides of a quadrangular Hellenic tower, 7 a third wall of which I 
 had to break through later on. 
 
 This part of the hill was evidently much lower in ancient times, as 
 seems to be proved not only by the wall of Lysimachus, which must at one 
 time have risen to a considerable height above the surface of the hill, 
 whereas it is now covered by 16 J ft. of rubbish, but also by the remains 
 of the Hellenic period, which are here found to a great depth. It appears, 
 in fact, as if the rubbish and debris of habitations had been thrown down 
 on this side for centuries, in order to increase the height of the place. 
 
 In order to hasten the excavations on the north-west side of the hill, 
 I cut a deep trench from the west side also, 8 in which, unfortunately, 
 I struck obliquely the circuit-wall of Lysimachus, here 13 ft. high and 
 10 ft. thick, and was consequently compelled to remove a double quantity 
 of stones to force a way through it. But I again came upon the ruins of 
 large buildings of the Hellenic and pre-Hellenic periods, so that this 
 excavation could only proceed slowly. Here at a distance of 69 ft. from 
 the declivity of the hill, at a depth of 20 ft., I struck an ancient enclo- 
 sure-wall, 5 ft. high, with a projecting battlement, which, on account of 
 its comparatively modern structure and small height, must belong to a 
 post-Trojan period. Behind it I found a level place, paved partly with 
 large flags of stone, partly with stones more or less hewn; and after 
 this a wall of fortification, 20 ft. high and 5 ft. thick, built of large stones 
 and earth, which ran below my wooden house, but 6^ ft. above the Trojan 
 circuit-wall, which starts from the Gate. 9 
 
 While following up this circuit-wall, and bringing more and more of 
 it to light, close to the ancient building and north-west of the Gate, I 
 struck upon a large copper article of the most remarkable form, which 
 attracted my attention all the more, as I thought I saw gold behind it. 10 
 On the top of it was a layer of red and calcined ruins, from 4 J to 5 J ft. 
 thick, as hard as stone, and above this again the above-mentioned wall of 
 
 5 See the Sectional Plan Hi. x, v. 
 
 6 This trench is just in front of the reader in 
 the view No. 10, p. 35 ; it is also represente-l 
 on the Sectional Plan No. IV., z', West, and on 
 the Plan I. (of Troy) under the letter z'. 
 
 7 See No. 10 (p. 35) in the trench below the 
 standing man. 
 
 8 See on the Plan I. (of Troy) the trench 
 marked it to the west of the gate. 
 
 9 See this Trojan wall, marked 6, to the north- 
 west of the gate on Plan I. (of Troy). 
 
 10 The precise spot of this important discovery 
 is marked A on Plan I. ( of Troy). 
 
1873.] 
 
 DISCOVERY OF THE GREAT TREASURE. 
 
 41 
 
 fortification (5 ft. broad and 20 ft. high), built of large stones and earth, 
 which must have been erected shortly after the destruction of Troy. In 
 order to secure the treasure from my workmen and save it for archae- 
 ology, it was necessary to lose no time ; so, although it was not yet the 
 hour for breakfast, I immediately had paidos called. This is a word of 
 uncertain derivation, which has passed over into Turkish, and is here 
 employed in place of uvdiravo-ts, or time for rest. While the men were 
 eating and resting, I cut out the Treasure with a large knife. This 
 required great exertion and involved great risk, since the wall of fortifica- 
 tion, beneath which I had to dig, threatened every moment to fall down 
 upon me. But the sight of so many objects, every one of which is of 
 inestimable value to archaeology, made me reckless, and I never thought 
 of any danger. It would, however, have been impossible for me to have 
 removed the treasure without the help of my dear wife, who stood at 
 my side, ready to pack the things I cut out in her shawl, and to carry 
 them away. All the different articles of which this Treasure was com- 
 posed will be described at the proper place in the precise order in which 
 they were taken out of the ruins. I here only give a general view of the 
 whole (No. 14). 
 
 As I found all these articles together, in the form of a rectangular 
 mass, or packed into one another, it seems certain that they were placed 
 on the city wall in a wooden chest. This supposition seems to be corro- 
 borated by the fact that close by the side of these articles I found a 
 copper key. It is therefore possible that some one packed the treasure in 
 the chest, and carried it off, without having had time to pull out the key ; 
 when he reached the wall, however, the hand of an enemy, or the fire, 
 overtook him, and he was obliged to abandon the chest, which was imme- 
 diately covered, to a height of 5 ft., with the ashes and stones of the 
 adjoining house. 11 
 
 Perhaps the articles found a few days previously in a room of the 
 chief's house, close to the place where the Treasure was discovered, 
 belonged to this unfortunate person. These articles consisted of a helmet 
 and a silver vase, with a cup of electrum, which will be described in the 
 chapter on this Third City. 
 
 On the thick layer of debris which covered the Treasure, the builders 
 of the new city erected a fortification-wall already mentioned, composed 
 of large hewn and unhewn stones and earth. This wall extended to 
 within 3^ ft. of the surface of the hill. 
 
 That the Treasure was packed together at a moment of supreme 
 peril appears to be proved, among other things, by the contents of the 
 largest silver vase, consisting of nearly 9000 objects of gold, which will 
 be described in the subsequent pages. The person who endeavoured to 
 save the Treasure had, fortunately, the presence of mind to place the 
 silver vase, with the valuable articles inside it, upright in the chest, so 
 that nothing could fail out, and everything has been preserved uninjured. 
 
 11 But as in 1878 and 1879 I found, at a dis- 
 tance of but a few yards from the spot where 
 this treasure was discovered, four more treasures, 
 which must evidently have fallen from an upper 
 
 storey of the town-chief's house, I now rather 
 think that the same may have been the case 
 with the large treasure. 
 
42 
 
 NARRATIVE OF WORK AT TROY. 
 
 HOTROD. 
 
 Hoping to find more treasures here, I pulled down the upper wall, 
 and I also broke away the enormous block of debris which separated my 
 western and north-western trenches 1 from the great massive walls which 
 I used to call the " Tower." But to do this I had to pull down the 
 
 a 
 
 No. 14. General View of the Treasure (Depth, 23 ft.) a. Key of the Treasure Chest, b. The Golden Diadems, Fillet, 
 Ear-rings, and small Jewels, c. Silver "Talents" and Vessels of Silver and Gold. d. Silver Vases and 
 curious Plate of Copper, e. Weapons and Helmet-crests of Copper or Bronze. /. Copper Vessel, g. Copper 
 Cauldron, h. Copper Shield. 
 
 larger of my wooden houses, and to bridge over the Gates, so as to 
 facilitate the removal of the debris. I found there many interesting 
 
 1 See Plan I. (of Troy) ; also on Nos. 9 and 10 the block in front and on No. 13 on the left side. 
 
1874.] 
 
 "TROY AND ITS REMAINS.' 
 
 43 
 
 antiquities ; more especially three silver dishes (</naAat), 1 ft. 9 in. below 
 the place where the Treasure was discovered : two of them were broken in 
 pieces by the labourer's pickaxe , the third is entire. That the Treasure 
 itself escaped injury from the pickaxes, was due to the large copper vessel, 
 which projected in such a way that I could cut everything out of the 
 hard debris with a knife. 
 
 I now perceived that the trench which I had made m April 1870 
 had exactly struck the right point for excavating, 2 and that, if I had 
 only continued it, I should, in a few weeks, have uncovered the most 
 remarkable buildings in Troy ; whereas, by abandoning it, I had to make 
 colossal excavations from east to west, and from north to south, through 
 the entire hill, in order to find them. 
 
 We discontinued the excavations on the 17th of June, 1873. 
 
 In December of the same year the Turkish authorities of Koum 
 Kaleh seized many gold ornaments which two of my workmen had 
 found in three different places in the preceding March, whilst working 
 for me in the trenches of Hissarlik, at a depth of nearly 30 ft. below the 
 surface of the hill. Most of these jewels were contained in a vase with 
 an owl's head. Unfortunately one of the workmen had got his part of the 
 booty melted down by a goldsmith at Een Kioi, and made into orna- 
 ments after the present Turkish fashion. All these gold ornaments, both 
 genuine and re-made, are now in the Imperial Museum at Constantinople. 
 The genuine ones will be represented and explained in the subsequent 
 pages ; and it will be seen that they are nearly all of the same type as 
 those contained in the great treasure discovered by me, though similar 
 types had never before been found elsewhere. 
 
 In the beginning of 1874, Mr. F. A. Brockhaus of Leipzig published, 
 in German, an account of my excavations and discoveries at Troy, under 
 the title of Troianische Alterthilmer, of which a translation in French by 
 Mr. Alexander E. Kangabe, Ambassador of Greece at Berlin, appeared 
 simultaneously. Both editions were accompanied by an Atlas containing 
 218 photographs, representing nearly 4000 of the objects discovered in 
 the excavations, together with a minute description of each of them. The 
 English translation of the same work, made by Miss Dora Schmitz and 
 edited by Mr. Philip Smith, was published by Mr. John Murray of London, 
 in November 1874, under the title of Troy and its Remains. 
 
 § YI. Interval in the Work at Troy : Excavations at Mycenae : 
 
 1874-1877. 
 
 Having obtained from the Greek Government permission to excavate 
 at Mycenae, I began operations there in February 1874, by sinking thirty- 
 four shafts in its Acropolis ; and I had just discovered the site of the 
 ancient Royal Sepulchres mentioned by Pausanias, when I was interrupted 
 
 2 See No. 10, p. 35, the trench just in front, below the standing man. The same trench is 
 
 marked z' on Plan I. 
 
44 
 
 INTERVAL OF WORK AT TROY. 
 
 [Introd. 
 
 in my explorations by the legal proceedings instituted against me at 
 Athens by the Turkish Government, which claimed one-half of my collec- 
 tion of Trojan antiquities. The lawsuit lasted for a year, when the Court 
 decided that I should pay the Turkish Government an indemnity of £400 
 in settlement of their claims. But instead of £400 I sent, in April 1875, 
 £2000 to the Turkish Minister of Public Instruction, for the benefit of 
 the Imperial Museum, expressing my great desire -always to remain on 
 friendly terms with them, and explaining to them that they stood as much 
 in need of a man like myself as I stood in need of them. My donation 
 was so kindly received by H. H. Safvet Pasha, then Minister of Public 
 Instruction, that I was emboldened to go to Constantinople at the end of 
 December 1875, to solicit a new firman for the exploration of Troy. By 
 the powerful assistance of my honoured friends, H. E. the United States 
 Minister Kesident Mr. Maynard, H. E. the Italian Ambassador Count 
 Corti, H. H. Safvet Pasha, and particularly by the unremitting zeal and 
 undaunted energy of H. E. the Great Logothete Aristarches Bey, I was 
 on the point of obtaining my firman, when my request was suddenly 
 rejected by the Council of State. 
 
 But H. E. the Great Logothete Aristarches Bey having introduced 
 me to H. E. the late Rashid Pasha, 3 then Minister of Foreign Affairs, 
 a man of high culture, who had been for five years Governor of Syria, 
 I had no difficulty in inspiring him with a w T arm enthusiasm for Troy 
 and its remains, so that he went himself to H. H. the Grand Yizier, 
 Mahmoud-Nedim Pasha, spoke warmly in my favour, and obtained from 
 him an order that the firman should be given me without delay. I 
 received my firman accordingly at the end of April 1876, and at once 
 proceeded to the Dardanelles to continue my excavations. But I there 
 found the Governor-General, Ibrahim Pasha, totally averse to the 
 continuation of the works, probably because ever since I had stopped 
 them, in June 1873, he had been in the habit of himself giving a sort 
 of firman to the numerous travellers who came to see my excavations, 
 and this of course would have ceased had I resumed my operations. 
 Having kept me therefore for nearly two months at the Dardanelles, under 
 the pretence that he had not yet received the confirmation of my firman, 
 he at last allowed me to recommence the excavations, but gave me as 
 guardian a certain Izzet Effendi, 4 whose sole office it was to throw 
 obstacles in my way. Seeing the utter impossibility of going on, I 
 returned to Athens, and wrote a letter to the Times (published 24th of 
 July, 1876), in which I denounced Ibrahim Pasha's conduct before the 
 tribunal of the civilized world. The article having been reproduced by 
 the Constantinople papers, he was transferred in October 1876 to another 
 Yilayet. 
 
 I could then have recommenced the excavations at Troy ; but at the 
 end of July I had begun to excavate again at Mycenae, and could not 
 give up my work there until I had thoroughly explored all the royal 
 
 3 Rashid Pasha was murdered in June, 1876. account of gross embezzlement of government' 
 
 4 Tli is Izzet Effendi has lately been exiled on monies. 
 
1876.] 
 
 EXCAVATIONS AT MYCENAE. 
 
 45 
 
 tombs. The really wonderful success which attended my excavations, 
 the immense and marvellous treasures with which I enriched the Greek 
 nation, are well known ; for all ages to come travellers from all parts of 
 the world will flock to the Greek capital to see here in the Mycenae 
 Museum the result of my disinterested labours. The publication of my 
 work on Mycenae in English and German occupied the whole of 1877 ; 
 the French edition kept me busy until the summer of 1878, and it 
 was only in July of that year that I was able to think of continuing 
 the excavations at Troy. But my firman of April 1876 having been 
 given for two years only, it had now expired, and a new firman had to 
 be procured ; many fresh difficulties, too, had arisen which I could 
 never have overcome without the aid of my honoured friend Sir Austen 
 Henry Layard, Ambassador of her Britannic Majesty at Constantinople, 
 who smoothed away all my difficulties with the Turkish Government, 
 obtained for me a more liberal firman than that which I had had before, 
 and always cheerfully lent me his powerful assistance whenever I applied 
 for it, which sometimes happened as often as twice a day during the 
 progress of the excavations. I therefore fulfil a most agreeable duty 
 in now thanking his Excellency publicly and most cordially for all the 
 services he has rendered me, without which I could never have brought 
 my work to a close. But my new firman not being ready till September 
 1878, I had time to make a more thorough exploration of the island of 
 Ithaca. 
 
 § VII. Exploration of Ithaca : 1878. 
 
 I regret to say that systematic excavations for archaeological purposes 
 are altogether out of the question here. I began my researches in the 
 valley called Polis, which is in the northern part of the island, and has 
 generally been considered as the site of the Homeric capital of Ithaca : 
 first, on account of its name, which is the Greek word for city ; second, on 
 account of its splendid harbour, at a distance of only two miles from a 
 small island now called Mathitario, which, being the only one in the strait 
 between Ithaca and Cephalonia, has naturally always been identified with 
 the Homeric island of Asteris, behind which the suitors of Penelope lay 
 in wait for Telemachus on his return from Pylos and Sparta. 5 As a fourth 
 reason for the identity of Polis with the site of the capital of Ithaca, I 
 may mention an acropolis which a traveller fancies he can perceive on 
 the very steep rock, at a height of about 400 ft., on the north side of 
 the port. My first care was to climb up to it, and I found it to consist 
 of a very irregular calcareous rock, which had evidently never been 
 touched by the hands of man, and can most certainly never have served as 
 a work of defence. But as seen from below, this rock has the shape of a 
 fortress. It is still at the present day called " castron " here, and in like 
 manner it must in remote antiquity have been called " Polis," the original 
 meaning of this word having been "acropolis." Thus there can be no 
 
 5 Od. iv. 844-847 : 
 H*(ro-r)yvs 'IflctKTjs re 'Zd/j,oi6 re iranraho4<T(ri)s, 
 
 'AoTept's, ov /xeyaArf At/ieVes & tVi vavKoxoi 
 avrfj 
 
 afi<pl8vfioi' rrj rovye [livov XoxSwvres 'Ax^io'i. 
 
46 
 
 EXPLORATION OF ITHACA. 
 
 [Introd. 
 
 doubt that the name of this valley is derived — not, as has hitherto been 
 thought, from a real city, but merely from an imaginary fortress. 
 
 Besides, this valley is the most fertile spot in Ithaca, and it can 
 therefore never have been used for the site of a city; in fact, no case 
 has ever occurred in Greece where a city was built on fertile land, and 
 least of all can such have been the case on the rocky island of Ithaca, 
 where arable land is so exceedingly rare and precious. If, therefore, 
 there had been a city at Polis, it could only have been built on the 
 surrounding rocky heights, the pointed or abrupt and always irregular 
 shape of which precludes the idea that they can have ever been inhabited 
 by men. Colonel Leake 6 mentions an old ruin on the south side of the 
 port ; it still exists, but is nothing else than a Christian church of 
 the Middle Ages. 
 
 I visited and carefully measured the island of Mathitario. Its length 
 is 586 ft. ; its breadth varies between 108 ft. and 176 ft. On account of 
 these small dimensions, it cannot possibly be identified with the Homeric 
 Asteris, which, as the poet says, had two ports, each of them with two 
 entrances. But still I have no reason to question that the sight of 
 Mathitario may have given to Homer the idea of his imaginary Asteris. 
 On the island are the ruins of a tower and three buildings, one of which 
 is said to have been a school-house, which would explain the name Mathi- 
 tario. The ruins can hardly be more than a couple of centuries old. 
 
 Though for all these reasons I was perfectly convinced that no city 
 can ever have occupied the fertile valley of Polis, yet I thought it in the 
 interest of science to investigate the matter by actual excavations. With 
 the permission of the owner of the land, Mr. N. Metaxas Zannis, I sunk 
 many shafts there ; but in nearly all of them I struck the natural rock at 
 a depth of 10 to 13 ft., except in the middle of the valley, which seems to 
 have been hollowed out to a great depth by a mountain torrent. Frag- 
 ments of rudely-made black or white Greek pottery and pieces of tiles 
 were all I found. There were only a few fragments of archaic pottery, 
 for which I could claim the date of the sixth century B.C. Tombs are 
 sometimes found on the neighbouring heights, but, as is proved by the 
 pottery and coins contained in them, they are of the third, fourth, or fifth 
 century B.C. Of the same period are also the antiquities found in a 
 cavern to the right of the port of Polis : for an inscription found there, I 
 can with certainty claim the date of the sixth or even the seventh century 
 B.C. 7 Therefore, the supposition that Polis is the site of the Homeric 
 capital of Ithaca must now be definitely abandoned. 
 
 I afterwards carefully surveyed the remaining northern part of the 
 island, but I nowhere found the site of an ancient town, except in the 
 environs of the small building of cyclopean masonry, usually called 
 the " School of Homer," which the owner of the property, the priest Sp. 
 Vreto, has, in his pious zeal, lately converted into a small church. But 
 unfortunately he left in it the thick layer of debris it contained, which 
 has now become the pavement of the church. Had he cleared it out and 
 
 Travels in Northern Greece. 
 
 7 See my Mycenae, p. 78. 
 
1878.] 
 
 THE CAPITAL ON MOUNT AETOS. 
 
 47 
 
 carefully collected the potsherds, we might probably at once have found 
 in these the key to the date of the building. He refused me permission 
 to excavate in the church, but allowed me to do so in the adjoining 
 fields, where a number of rock-hewn house-foundations and remnants of 
 cyclopean walls testified to the existence of an ancient settlement. I dug 
 there a great many holes, but always struck the native rock at less than 
 3 ft., and sometimes even at a depth of less than 12 in. : thus there can be 
 no doubt that a town existed here in classical times, and most probably it 
 is the very town mentioned by Scylax, Per. 34, and Ptolemy, iii. 14. 13. 
 
 I proceeded thence to Mount Aetos, situated on the narrow isthmus, 
 hardly one mile wide, which joins Northern and Southern Ithaca. I 
 believed the ancient city to have been at the northern foot of that 
 mountain, and to have extended all over the small ridge which crosses the 
 hollow between it and Mount Merovuni to the south of it. But I dis- 
 covered I had been mistaken, for I found everywhere the purest virgin 
 soil, except on the very crest of the ridge, where, near the chapel of Hagios 
 Georgios, I found a very small plain with an accumulation of artificial 
 soil 10 ft. deep. I dug there two long trenches, in one of which I brought 
 to light a terrace-wall 7 ft. high, consisting of huge polygonal blocks 
 well fitted together ; to compare this wall to the modern terrace-walls 
 which surround it, is to compare a giant's work to a work of dwarfs. Of 
 pottery I found there nothing but a few fragments of black Greek vases. 
 Having here also failed in my researches, I most carefully explored 
 Mount Aetos, which rises to a height of 600 ft. from the sea, and has on 
 its artificially but rudely levelled summit a platform of triangular form, 
 with two large cisterns and a small one, and remnants of six or seven 
 small cyclopean buildings, which were either separate houses or, more 
 probably, chambers of the large cyclopean mansion which is said to have 
 stood there, and is commonly called " the Castle of Ulysses." There 
 can hardly be any doubt that in the same manner as the Acropolis of 
 Athens was widened by Cimon, 8 who took in a large portion of its north- 
 eastern slope and filled up the lower space with stones and debris, the 
 level summit of Mount Aetos was extended to the north and south- 
 west by a huge cyclopean wall still existing, the space between the top 
 and the wall being filled up with stones and debris. Thus the summit 
 formed a level quadrangular platform, 166 ft. 8 in. long by 127 ft. 4 in. 
 broad, so that there was on the summit ample room for a large mansion 
 and courtyard. To the north and south of the circuit-wall are towers 
 of cyclopean masonry, from each of which a huge wall of immense 
 boulders runs down. But at a certain distance these two walls begin 
 to form a curve, and ultimately join each other. Two more cyclopean 
 walls run down from the top — the one in an easterly, the other in a 
 south-easterly direction — and join the curve formed by the two first- 
 named walls. Lastly, I have to mention a huge circuit-wall about 50 ft. 
 below the upper circuit-wall. This wall has fallen on the west side, 
 but is in a marvellous state of preservation on the other sides. To 
 
 8 Pausanias, i. 28, § 3. 
 
48 
 
 EXPLORATION OF ITHACA. 
 
 [Introd. 
 
 increase the strength of the place, the foot of the rock has been cut 
 away so as to form a perpendicular wall of rock 20 ft. high. Three gates 
 can be recognized in the walls. 
 
 Between all these cyclopean walls there once stood a city, which may 
 have contained 2000 houses, either cut out in the rock or built of cyclo- 
 pean masonry. Of 190 of these houses I have been able to find the ruins 
 more or less well preserved. I measured twelve of them, and found them 
 between 21 ft. and 63 ft. long, and from 15 ft. to 20 ft. broad. The usual 
 size of the rudely-cut stones is 5 ft. in length, 4 ft. 8 in. in breadth, and 
 2 ft. in thickness. The size of these stones by far exceeds that of the 
 stones in the cyclopean houses I discovered at Mycenae and Tiryns. 
 Some of the houses consisted of only one room ; others had four or even 
 six chambers. From below not one of the houses is visible ; and as the 
 peasants of Ithaca thought them to be mere heaps of stones, they did not 
 point them out to foreigners, who might ascend Mount Aetos a hundred 
 times without noticing any one of them, for the slopes of Aetos ascend 
 at an angle of 35°, and they are thus 7° steeper than the upper cone of 
 Mount Vesuvius. It is therefore exceedingly difficult and fatiguing to 
 ascend Mount Aetos. the more so as it is full of pointed rocks, and over- 
 grown with thorny underwood and thistles. Besides, the path by which 
 the peasants lead strangers to the top does not pass near any of the 
 better-preserved cyclopean houses ; it passes only a few foundations, in 
 which even the best archeeologist might fail to recognize remnants of 
 houses unless he had seen the better-preserved buildings. For all these 
 reasons even Colonel Leake only saw " some terrace walls and some 
 foundations of buildings on the side of Aetos ;" and from this remark of 
 his no one could have expected to find here the ruins, more or less well 
 preserved, of 190 houses of Ithaca's most ancient capital, which had, 
 however, long before Colonel Leake, been identified by William Gell. 9 
 This cyclopean capital is unique in the world, and every admirer of 
 Homer ought to come out to see it. Visitors ought to take as their guide 
 the peasant Nicolaos Psarros, whom I have repeatedly shown over the 
 ancient city. He lives at the foot of Mount Aetos, close to the chapel 
 of Hagios Georgios. 
 
 For two weeks I excavated with thirty workmen in those cyclopean 
 buildings : but fragments of pottery, which has no resemblance to any of 
 the Mycenean pottery, but is much like that from the two most ancient 
 cities at Troy ; fragments of most curious tiles with impressed ornaments ; 
 also two with a sort of written characters for which I cannot claim a high 
 antiquity ; further, the fragments of a very ancient and most curious 
 handmill — these were the only results of all my labour. But I must 
 wonder that I have succeeded in finding even thus much, because on 
 account of the steep slope no accumulation of debris was possible here, 
 and the heavy winter rains have for ages swept all remnants of ancient 
 industry into the sea. The heat on Mount Aetos is overwhelming, on 
 account of the rocks and stones, which get hot in the sun. 
 
 9 The Geography and Antiquities of Ithaca ; London, 1807. 
 
1878.] 
 
 GROTTO OF THE NYMPHS. 
 
 49 
 
 I need hardly say that the drawing which Sir W. Gell give.3 in his 
 Ithaca of the Palace of Ulysses is altogether imaginary. 
 
 I also commenced excavating the stalactite grotto near the little port 
 of Dexia, which is generally identified with the port of Phorkys, where 
 Ulysses was landed by the Phaeacians, the grotto being rightly con- 
 sidered to be identical with the Homeric Grotto of the Nymphs, in 
 which Ulysses, assisted by Athene, hid his treasures. But having opened 
 a trench just before the little altar, down to the rock, without even 
 finding a potsherd, I abandoned this ungrateful excavation. The grotto 
 is very spacious, and it exactly answers the description of Homer, who 
 says " that it has two entrances, one on its north side for men, and 
 one on its south side for the immortal gods, for no man can enter by the 
 divine door." 10 All this is true ; but by the entrance for the gods he 
 means the artificially cut hole in the vault of the grotto, which must 
 have served as a chimney to carry off the smoke of the sacrificial fires. 
 From this chimney to the bottom of the grotto the depth is 56 ft., and, 
 of course, no man can enter by this way. But for ages the proprietors 
 of the field seem to have utilized this chimney to get rid of some of the 
 stones which abound here, for the grotto is filled with small stones to 
 the depth of 5 or 6 ft. From the vault of the grotto hang innumerable 
 stalactites, which gave to Homer the idea of the stone urns and amphorae, 
 and the stone frames and looms on which the Nymphs wove "purple- 
 coloured mantles and veils. 1 I most carefully explored the whole southern 
 portion of Ithaca. The town of Yathy, the present capital of Ithaca, is 
 not yet a hundred years old, and the complete absence of ancient potsherds 
 on the flat soil seems to prove that there was no city or village on the site 
 in ancient times. Before Yathy was founded, the city was on a rocky 
 height about one mile further south. On the site of the old town I found 
 but a very small accumulation of debris, and no trace of ancient pottery. 
 
 Near the south-eastern extremity of the island, about 4^ miles from 
 Yathy, are a number of rooms like stables, averaging 25 ft. in length 
 and 10 ft. in breadth, partly rock-cut, partly formed by cyclopean walls 
 of very huge rudely-wrought stones, which must have given to Homer 
 the idea for the twelve pig-sties built by the divine swineherd Eumaeus. 2 
 To the east of these stables, and just in front of them, thousands of very 
 common but most ancient potsherds indicate the existence of an ancient 
 rustic habitation, which Homer appears to have described to us as the 
 house and station of Eumaeus. 3 This is the more probable, as at a very 
 
 10 See Od. xiii. 109-112. The whole passage 
 (102-112) is: 
 
 avrap iirl Kparbs Xi/xeuos Tavv(f)jXXos iXair], 
 ayxoOi 8 5 avrrjs avrpov eir^parov r/epoetSes, 
 >phv Nu/iicpdcvv at N^'iaSes KaXtovrai. 
 ev 8e KpT)rrip4s T6 kcl\ aiupupo pfjes %aaiv 
 Xaivoi' tvQa 8' eireiTa TiQaifioocraovm fxeXicrffai' 
 iv 8' 'mttoI XiOeoi irepi/j.7)Kets, ivQa T6 vv/A<pai 
 <paps vtyaivovcnv a.Xnr6p<pvpa, davfxa ISeaOai, 
 
 8' v5ar' odtvaovra. 8uco 8e re oi Bvpai ela'tv, 
 at /xev irpbs Bopiao, Ka.Taifia.Tai avOpcviroiariv, 
 
 at 8' au irpbs Notov elfft 6eJ>Tepxi.- ouSe ti kz'ivyi 
 'avlpts iaepxovTai, a A A.' aOavaTOiv 65oj icrtu. 
 
 1 See vv. 105-108 in the passage just citeJ. 
 
 2 Od. xiv. 13, 14: 
 
 evTOcrdev 8' avXrjs <rv<p€ovs SvonalSeKa iroieiu 
 irX-qaiov aX\iiXo>v, evvas (Tvfflv. 
 
 3 Od. xiv. 5-10 : 
 
 rbu 8' ap ivl TrpoSo/jLco tup' ^fxtvov, tv6a ol avXr) 
 v\pT]Xi] Se'S^rjro, TrepiaKeTTTw eul X&?'?i 
 KaX-t] T6 fieyaXri re, TreplSpo/xos' r\v pa crvfidoTiis 
 aWbs Setjuod' vea(Tiv anoixo^voio avaKTOS, 
 
 E 
 
50 
 
 EXPLORATION OF ITHACA. 
 
 [IXTROD. 
 
 short distance to the south of this site, and near the sea, is a white cliff 
 with a perpendicular descent of 100 ft., which to the present day is called 
 Korax, " the Eaven Bock," to which Homer refers when he represents 
 Ulysses as challenging Eumaeus "to precipitate him from the great rock" 
 if he finds that he is telling lies. 4 Below the Korax, in a recess, is a 
 natural and always plentiful spring of pure water, which tradition identi- 
 fies with Homer's fountain of Arethusa, where the swine of Eumaeus were 
 watered. 5 I excavated in the stables, as well as in front of them on the 
 site of the rustic habitation; I found the stables filled with stones, but 
 on the site of the house I struck the rock at a depth of 1 ft., and found 
 there fragments of very interesting, most ancient, unpainted pottery, 
 also of archaic pottery with red bands, and masses of broken tiles of a 
 later period. 
 
 I found in my excavations at the foot of Mount Aetos two coins of 
 Ithaca, having on one side a cock with the legend IBAKI2N, and on the 
 other side a head of Ulysses with a conical cap or pilidion ; also two coins 
 of Agathocles of Syracuse. These latter coins are here frequently found 
 and abundantly offered for sale. Corinthian and Boman coins are also 
 very frequent here. According to Aristotle and Antigonus Carystius, 7 no 
 hare can live on Ithaca. But, on the contrary, hares are more abundant 
 here than on any other Greek island, it being next to impossible to hunt 
 them on the steep slopes of the huge mountains overgrown with thorny 
 underwood. 
 
 I may add that Ithaca is, like Utica, a Phoenician word, and means 
 " colony." According to Homer, Poseidon was the grandfather of Laertes, 
 and Mr. Gladstone appears, therefore, to be right in holding that the 
 descent from Poseidon always means " descent from the Phoenicians." 
 
 I strongly recommend a visit to Ithaca, not only to all admirers of 
 Homer, but also to all those who wish to see the ancient Greek type of 
 men and great female beauty. Visitors should not omit when at Vathy, 
 the capital of Ithaca, to call upon my friend Mr. Aristides Dendrinos, to 
 whom and to whose amiable lady, Mrs. Praxidea Dendrinos, I here make 
 my warmest acknowledgment for their bountiful hospitality. Mr. Den- 
 drinos is the most wealthy man in Ithaca, and will at all times be happy 
 to assist travellers with his advice. He has a son Telemachus and a 
 daughter Penelope. 
 
 § VIII. Fourth Year's Work at Troy: 1878. 
 
 I recommenced my excavations at Troy towards the end of September 
 1878, with a large number of workmen and several horse- carts, having 
 previously built felt-sovered wooden barracks, with nine chambers for 
 my own accommodation and that of my overseers, servants, and visitors. 
 
 v6(T<piv <5eawolvr)s k<x\ Aadprao yepovros, 
 pvroiaiv Kaeaai, Ka\ tdpiyicoocrev dxe'pSw. 
 
 4 Od. xiv. 398-400 : 
 el 5e zee a)) eABrjaiu ava\ reo's, us ayopevw, 
 Sfiwas i-mcraevas fiaAteiu /j.eyd\r)s /caret TrerpTjs, 
 6<ppo /ecu aWos TTTa>xbs aAeverai rcnepoireveiv. 
 
 5 Od. xiii. 407-410: 
 
 Zrjeis r6u ye (rveaai irap^fxevoV a l i Se vefxovrai 
 irap KopaKos Trerpr], eni re Kpijur] 'Apedoiar}, 
 eadovcrai $a\avov ixevoeinea /ecu fieXav v§wp 
 TTLUovaai, ra 6' veacri rpetyei TtQaXvlav aXoKpyv. 
 
 6 'ma. An. viii. 27. 2. 7 EtsL, Mir. 11. 
 
1878.] 
 
 EXCAVATIONS RESUMED AT TROY. 
 
 5] 
 
 I also built a wooden barrack, which served both as a storehouse for anti- 
 quities and as a small dining-hall, together with a wooden magazine, in 
 which the antiquities were preserved, which were to be divided between 
 the Imperial Museum and myself, and of which the Turkish delegate 
 had the key ; also a wooden magazine for my implements, wheelbarrows, 
 hand-carts, and other machinery for excavating; besides a small stone 
 house for the kitchen, a wooden house for my ten gensdarmes, and a stable 
 for the horses. 8 All these buildings were erected on the north-west 
 slope of Hissarlik, which here descends at an angle of 75° to the plain. 
 The site of my barracks is, according to M. Burnouf's measurement, 
 25*55 metres = 84 ft. above the level of the sea ; consequently 23*88 m. 
 = 78 ft. below the summit of Hissarlik. 
 
 The ten gensdarmes, to whom I paid £20 10s. monthly, were all 
 refugees from Koumelia, and were of great use to me, for they not 
 only served as a guard against the brigands by whom the Troad was 
 infested, but they also carefully watched my labourers whilst they were 
 excavating, and thus forced them to be honest. 
 
 How necessary the ten gensdarmes were to me could not have been 
 better proved than by the fight which took place a short time after my 
 departure in the village of Kalifatli, only twenty minutes' walk from 
 Hissarlik, between the peasants and a large number of armed Circassians, 
 who in the night attacked the house of a villager reputed to possess 
 10,000 frs. The villager ascended the terrace of his house and cried 
 for assistance, whereupon his neighbours hurried out with their rifles 
 and killed two of the assailants, but unfortunately lost two of their own 
 number — the brother-in-law and son-in-law of the demarch of Kalifatli. 
 
 The wages of my three overseers were from £5 to £10 monthly ; those 
 of the common workmen, 2 frs. or 20 pence daily ; the three carpenters 
 received 3^ frs. or 2s. Id. ; the wheelwright 5 frs. or 4s. a day. But the 
 highest wages of all were paid to my servant, who thought he was 
 indispensable, and therefore refused to serve for less than 300 frs. or £12 
 monthly ; but he made at least twice as much out of his wine and bread- 
 store, of which his brother was the manager, for he cold to my labourers 
 on credit, and, as he was my paymaster, he always got back his money 
 easily and could never lose. 
 
 My endeavours were now principally directed to the excavation of 
 the large building to the west and north-west of the gate, and of the 
 north-eastern prolongation of the gateway. 9 I had always identified the 
 large building with the residence of the last chief or king of Troy, because 
 in it, or close to it, had been found not only the large treasure I myself 
 discovered, but also the treasure which had been concealed from me 
 by my labourers and seized by the Turkish authorities, besides a vast 
 quantity of Trojan pottery ; but I now maintain that identity with more 
 assurance than ever, having again discovered in it, or close to it, three 
 small treasures and a large one of gold jewels. Of these the first was 
 found and excavated on the 21st of October, in the presence of seven 
 
 See the frontispiece, to the right. 
 9 See on No. 10, p. 35, the whole block in front; also the block on which tne two houses stand. 
 
52 
 
 NA11RATIVE OF WORK AT TROY. 
 
 [Introd. 
 
 officers of H.M.S. Monarch, in a chamber in the north-east part of the 
 building, at a depth of 26 ft. 5 in. below the surface of the mound. 
 It was contained in a broken hand-made terra-cotta vessel, which lay in 
 an oblique position about 3 ft. above the floor, and must have fallen from 
 an upper storey. 
 
 I give a drawing of the town-chief's house in the chapter on the 
 Third City. Its longest wall runs parallel with the great external wall 
 of the city, and is 53 ft. 4 in. long and 4 ft. 4 in. high ; it consists of 
 smaller and larger stones joined together with clay. Near the north- 
 western extremity of this wall, and just 3 ft. above the ground, I found, 
 in a layer of grey wood-ashes, two more small treasures, both contained 
 in broken hand-made terra-cotta vases, of which the one lay in an 
 oblique, the other in a horizontal position, from which circumstance I 
 conclude that both had fallen from an upper part of the house ; the 
 orifices of the vases nearly touched each other. Only 3 ft. from this 
 discovery, but on the house-wall itself, and at a depth of 26 ft. below 
 the surface of the ground, a larger treasure of bronze weapons aud gold 
 jewels was found. All the objects contained in these four treasures, 
 as well as all the other antiquities discovered in these excavations, will 
 be described in the subsequent pages, as well as the gold ornaments 
 found elsewhere. 
 
 I also continued excavating on the site of my former platform, on the 
 north side of the hill, 10 but, on account of the winter rains, was obliged 
 to stop the works on the 26th of November. According to the stipu- 
 lations of my firman, I had to give up two-thirds of all the objects I 
 found to the Imperial Museum, and carried off only one-third myself. 
 
 § IX. Fifth Year's Work at Troy and the Heroic Tumuli, and 
 Exploration of the Troad : 1879. 
 
 I went to Europe, and returned to the Dardanelles towards the end of 
 February 1879. Having again procured the services of ten gensdarmes 
 or zaptiehs and 150 workmen, I recommenced the excavations on the 1st 
 of March. Up to the middle of March I suffered cruelly from the north 
 wind, which was so icy cold that it was impossible to read or write in my 
 wooden barracks, and it was only possible to keep oneself warm by active 
 exercise in the trenches. To avoid taking cold, I went, as I had always 
 done, very early every morning on horseback to the Hellespont to take 
 my sea-bath, but I always returned to Hissarlik before sunrise and before 
 the work commenced. 1 Two of my gensdarmes always served me as a 
 guard, in the bathing excursions, or whenever I absented myself from 
 
 10 See No. 4 to the left ; also Plan I. (of Troy) 
 between the points X and C. 
 
 1 These rides in the dark were not without 
 accidents. Travellers to the Troad will see a 
 large block missing from the northern edge of 
 the bridge of Koum Kioi. This stone was broken 
 out when once in the dark I rode too near the 
 edge, and I was precipitated with my horse 
 into the bushes below. The horse having fallen 
 
 upon me, I could not extricate myself from 
 beneath it ; and my gensdarmes having gone 
 ahead, could not hear my cries. A whole hour 
 I was in this desperate position, till at last 
 my gensdarmes, not seeing me coming to my 
 usual bathing-place at Karanlik, returned and 
 extricated me. Since that accident I always 
 alight before passing a Turkish bridge, and lead 
 my horse over by the bridle. 
 
1879.] 
 
 FIFTH YEAR'S EXCAVATIONS. 
 
 53 
 
 Hissarlik. But the cold weather did not last longer than a fortnight, 
 and after that we had a succession of fine weather. The storks appeared 
 in the beginning of March. 
 
 At the end of March I was joined at Hissarlik by my honoured friends 
 Professor Kudolf Yirchow of Berlin, and M. imiile Burnouf of Paris, 
 Honorary Director of the French School at Athens ; the latter having 
 been sent to Troy on a scientific mission by the French Government, 
 at the initiative of M. Jules Ferry, the Minister of Public Instruction. 
 Both assisted me in my researches to the utmost of their ability. Pro- 
 fessor Virchow studied the flora, fauna, and geological characteristics of 
 the Plain of Troy, as well as the condition of the ruins and debris brought 
 to light in the course of my excavations ; and M. Burnouf, who is an 
 excellent engineer and painter, made all the plans and maps, as well as 
 many of the sketches contained in this book. He also studied the geology 
 of the Plain of Troy, as well as the several layers of debris at Hissarlik. 
 
 My endeavours were this time principally directed towards bringing 
 to light the entire circuit of the walls, and I therefore excavated to the 
 east and south-west of the gate 2 (which, according to M. Burnouf 's mea- 
 surement, is 41'10 metres = 135 ft. 2 in. above the level of the sea, and 
 8*33 m. = 27 ft. 5 in. below the surface of the hill), and to the north-west 
 and north of the house of the chief, as well as to the east of my great 
 northern trench. 3 It being especially important to preserve the houses 
 of the burnt city, I gradually excavated the ruins of the three upper 
 cities horizontally, layer by layer, until I reached the easily-recognizablo 
 calcined debris of the third or burnt city. Having brought down to 
 one level the whole space I intended to explore, I began at the extremity 
 of the area, excavating house by house, and gradually proceeding with 
 this work in the direction of the northern slope, where the debris had to 
 be shot. In this manner I was able to excavate all the houses of the 
 third city without injuring their walls. But of course all that I could 
 bring to light of them were the substructions, or first storeys, 3 to 10 ft. 
 high, built of bricks or of stones cemented with earth. The great number 
 of jars they contain can hardly leave any doubt that these served as 
 cellars ; though at first sight it is difficult to explain the scarcity of 
 doorways, of which visitors will see but few. But it appears that these 
 lower parts of the houses were entered by wooden stairs or ladders from 
 above ; regular openings for the doors, however, exist in all the rooms and 
 chambers of the large building to the west and north-west of the gate. 
 
 Professor Yirchow calls attention to the fact that, in an architectural 
 point of view, the condition of this third city is the exact prototype of 
 the kind of building which still characterizes the villages of the Troad. 
 It was only when his medical practice 4 had introduced him into the 
 interior of the present houses that he was able to understand the archi- 
 tectural details of those of the ancient state. The characteristic of the 
 architecture is, that in most cases the lower part of the houses has no 
 
 2 See Plan I. (of Troy). interesting account of his medical practice in 
 
 3 See Sectional Plan III., x, Y. the Troad. 
 
 4 I give in Appendix V. Professor Virchow's 
 
54 
 
 NARRATIVE OF "WORK AT TROY. 
 
 [Introd. 
 
 entrance, and is surrounded by a stone wall. The upper storey, which 
 is built of quadrangular sun-dried bricks, serves as the habitation for 
 the family ; the lower one, which is entered by stairs or ladders from 
 above, serves as a storehouse. Whenever the ground-floor has a door, it 
 is also very frequently used as a stable for the cattle. When, as often 
 happens also at the present day, modern houses of this kind fall into 
 ruin, the ruins present precisely the same aspect as those of the third 
 or burnt city of Hissarlik. The stones of the walls of the first storey of 
 the Trojan houses present no trace of having been wrought ; they have 
 come from the easily- obtainable natural strata of the tertiary fresh- water 
 limestone of the neighbouring ridge. The rooms enclosed by these 
 Trojan house-walls contain those gigantic terra-cotta jars which often 
 stand in whole rows, representing a considerable fortune by their huge 
 size, which is so great that a man can stand upright in each of them. 
 
 Streets also were scarce; for besides the broad street of the gate, ' 
 
 1 brought to light only one street 4 ft. broad, paved with large flags, 
 which bear the marks of the intense heat to which they have been 
 exposed. This street may be seen just above the ruins of the second 
 city, on the east side of my great trench ; 5 there is, besides, a passage 
 
 2 ft. broad, between the Trojan houses running off at right angles from 
 the street d to the N.E. I further excavated to the east and south-east 
 of the " Great Tower," where I was forced to destroy a number of house- 
 walls close to the magazine containing the nine great jars discovered in 
 1873, 6 in order to unearth the city wall and its connection with the two 
 gigantic stone walls called by me " the Great Tower." All this has 
 been accomplished. My excavations to the south, south-west, west, 
 north-west, and north of the gates, have also enabled me to uncover the 
 city wall in these directions ; so that it is now disclosed in its entire 
 circuit, except where it has been cut through by my great trench. In 
 the course of these researches I found, in the presence of Professor 
 Yirchow and M. Burnouf, on the slope of the north-western part of the 
 wall another treasure, consisting of gold ornaments, which will be de- 
 scribed hereafter. 
 
 Outside the city wall on the east side, I discovered a great many 
 house-walls, but scarcely any antiquities, which circumstance appears 
 to prove that the suburb was inhabited by the poorer class. The south- 
 east corner of the city presents no signs of the great conflagration. 
 
 I dug about one-half of my great trench down to the limestone 
 rock, and thus laid bare three parallel house-walls 7 of the first settlers on 
 Hissarlik. I also dug a deep drain for the discharge of the rain-water. 
 
 Although H.E. Munif Effendi, the Minister of Public Instruction, had 
 already in January 1879 consented to H.E. Sir Henry Layard's request 
 that a firman should be granted me for the exploration of the Tumuli, 
 the so-called heroic tombs of the Troad, I had the very greatest difficulty 
 in obtaining it. I was however powerfully aided by Sir Henry Layard 
 and my honoured friend Mr. Ed. Malet, Minister Plenipotentiary during 
 
 6 This street is marked d on Plan I. (of 6 See No. 8, p. 33. 
 Troy). 7 See Plan III. /, between m and N. 
 
1879.] 
 
 ANOTHER VISIT TO BOUNARBASHI. 
 
 55 
 
 his absence, as well as by H.E. Count Hatzfeldt, the German Ambassador 
 at Constantinople, who assisted me at the request of Professor Yirchow, 
 and the firman at last arrived on the 17th of April. I immediately- 
 started to explore the two largest tumuli of the Troad, the Besika Tepeh 
 and the Ujek Tepeh, as well as four smaller ones. These excavations will 
 be described at length in the chapter on the Tumuli. 
 
 In company with Professor Yirchow, I again visited the village of 
 Bounarbashi, and the heights behind it, the Bali Dagh, which have had 
 for nearly a hundred years the undeserved honour of being identified 
 with the site of the Homeric Ilium. 
 
 Professor Yirchow fully agrees with me that the circuit-walls of the 
 little xAcropolis — which, according to M. Burnouf's measurement, is 
 144*36 metres = 472 ft. above the level of the sea, and in which so 
 many great modern luminaries in archaeology have seen the walls of 
 Priam's Pergamus— have never deserved to be called " Cyclopean." He 
 was the first to observe, from the peculiar manner in which the stones of 
 the walls have been wrought, that they have been slowly shaped (abge- 
 splittert) with an iron pick-hammer, and must consequently belong to a 
 comparatively late period. As above mentioned, these ruins probably 
 mark the site of (xergis, where, according to Xenophon, 8 Queen Mania 
 kept her treasures. I showed him that the average depth of the accumu- 
 lation of debris in the little Acropolis is only 1 ft. 6 in., and that only 
 Hellenic pottery is found there. He recognized the agora of the little 
 town in a recess of amphitheatrical form, in which the ruins of four rows 
 of stone seats may still be seen. It is strange that this agora never fell 
 under the notice of any one before, and that it was reserved for the keen 
 eye of Professor Yirchow to discover it. 
 
 We also visited the springs 9 of Bounarbashi, 10 which, according to 
 M. Burnouf's measurement, are 27*77 metres = 91 ft. above the level of 
 the sea, and in which the defenders of the Bounarbashi theory recognize 
 two springs only — one lukewarm, the other icy cold— in order to force 
 them into agreement with those described by Homer, near which Hector 
 was killed by Achilles : " But they dashed forward by the watch-tower 
 and the wind-beaten fig-tree always along the wall, on the chariot road, 
 until they reached the two fair-flowing springs, where the twin sources 
 of the eddying Scamander bubble up : for the one flows with lukewarm 
 water, from which clouds of steam arise as from a burning fire ; the other 
 runs forth in summer like hail or cold snow, or as from frozen water." 11 
 
 8 Hist. Gr., iii. 1, § 15 : Tavra 8e iroi-qaas 
 2/c?/^/ij/ /ecu YipyiQa e^upos ir6\eis /ca-reVx^'j 
 ZvQa Kai rd xpVfJ-aTa fxd\LffTa j\v rfj Maviq. 
 " When he (Meidias) had done this, he took 
 possession of the fortified cities of Scepsis and 
 Gergis, where Mania chiefly kept her treasures." 
 
 9 As befure mentioned, I counted here thirty- 
 four springs ; but as the spot where they rise 
 is called Kirk-Gios, or " forty eyes," there are 
 probably forty springs here. 
 
 10 Bounarbashi means " head of the springs." 
 Clarke (i. p. 109) reminds us that in Wales 
 
 thei-e is a Pen tre fynnyn, which means "head 
 of the three springs." 
 11 11. xxii. 145-152 : 
 
 ot 8e irapd gkotti^v kcu ipivebv Tjue/xSevra 
 Te/xeos alei/ vireK kclt afxa^irbv iacrevouro' 
 Kpovvw 8' %Kavov KaWippow, tvQa 8e irriyai 
 Soial avai<T(Tovcri ^KafxavSpov divfjevTos. 
 ^ jxkv yap 0' vSan \iapcS peei, ajx<p\ 8e Kanvos 
 yiyverai e| aurrjs, wcrel irvpbs alOo/xevoio. 
 
 8' eTe/?77 ddpeX irpopeei eiKvia x a ^CVi 
 3) X^vi tyvxpf), rj t| vdaros KpvjraWcf). 
 
5(3 
 
 NARRATIVE OF WORK AT TROY. 
 
 [Introd. 
 
 Professor Virchow found in two of the springs a temperature of 
 16°-8 centigrade (62°-24 Fahrenheit), in a third 17° (62°'6 Fahrenheit), in 
 a fourth 17°*4 (63 0, 32 Fahrenheit). The last spring rises in a swamp, 
 and, as Professor Virchow explains, is for this reason slightly warmer, 
 the water being stagnant. On the other hand, the spring which shows 
 17° runs at once into a little rivulet formed by other sources higher 
 up, and it appears, therefore, to be a little colder ; the two springs of 
 16° *8 were tested as they bubbled forth from beneath the rock: and 
 thus, Virchow says, it is quite intelligible that, the difference of tem- 
 perature of the water in the swamp and of the running water in the 
 rivulet being still more marked in winter than in spring or summer, 
 vapour might be seen to rise from the former and not from the latter. 
 
 I further visited, in company with the same friend, the vast ruins of 
 Alexandria-Troas on the coast nearly opposite Tenedos. 1 We went from 
 thence to the hot springs called Ligia Hammam, in a valley to the south- 
 east ; the height above the sea is 85 ft., according to Virchow. The water 
 is saline and ferruginous, and its temperature is 150° Fahrenheit, accord- 
 ing to Barker Webb ; 2 according to Clarke, 3 only 142° Fahrenheit. The 
 numerous ancient ruins in the valley leave no doubt that the springs were 
 very celebrated in antiquity. The baths are much frequented in summer 
 for rheumatic and cutaneous affections. We passed the night in the 
 prosperous Turkish village of Kestamboul, which commands a magnificent 
 view of Mount Chigri (called in Turkish " Chigri Dagh ") and the Aegean 
 Sea. Next we ascended Mount Chigri (its height above the sea is 1639 ft. 
 according to Virchow), passing on our way the ancient quarries near the 
 village of Koch-Ali-Ovassi. We saw there seven columns which had been 
 cut whole out of the granite rock, each 38 ft. 6 in. long, the diameter at 
 the top being 4 ft. 6 in., and 5 ft. 6 in. at the base. They appear to have 
 been destined for Alexandria-Troas, as they are exactly similar to the three 
 which lie there on the beach. 
 
 On the top of Mount Chigri we greatly admired the vast Hellenic 
 ruins supposed by Mr. Calvert to mark the site of Neandria, whilst others 
 identify them with Cenchreae. The fortress, which has the unusual length 
 of 1900 paces, and is 520 paces broad, is considered to be very ancient, 
 
 1 In opposition to the common belief, I think 
 that this city was not founded by Antigonus, 
 but that it was only enlarged by him, for Strabo 
 (xiii. pp. 593, 604) expressly states that "its 
 site was formerly called ' Sigia,' and that Anti- 
 gonus, having colonized it with the inhabitants 
 of Chrysa, Cebrene, Neandria, Scepsis, Larissa, 
 Colonae, Hamaxitus, and other cities, named it 
 Antigonia." He further states that it was 
 afterwards embellished by Lysimachus, who 
 named it, in honour of Alexander the Great, 
 "Alexandria-Troas." Julius Caesar was so much 
 pleased with its site, that, according to Sueto- 
 nius {.Jul. Cues. 79), he intended to make it the 
 capital of the Roman Empire. According to 
 Zosimus (ii. 30) and Zonaras (xiii. 3), Con- 
 stantine the Great had the same idea before he 
 chose Byzantium : he intended to build his new 
 
 capital fieTatu Tpcp&Sos (Alexandria) Kai tt]s 
 apxaias 'l\lov, according to Zosimus; iv Hi-yaicp 
 (sic), according to Zonaras. Under Hadrian, the 
 celebrated orator Herodes Atticus was governor of 
 the city. Several portions of the gigantic aque- 
 duct which he built, and to the cost of which 
 his father Atticus contributed three millions of 
 drachmas of his own money, still exist. Alex- 
 andria-Troas is also mentioned in Holy Scripture 
 (by the name of Troas) as one of the cities 
 which were visited by St. Paul (Acts xx. 5). 
 Its extensive Byzantine ruins leave no doubt 
 that it was inhabited till the end of the Middle 
 Ages. It is now called " Eski-stambul " (i.e. 
 the Old City). 
 
 2 Topograph^ de la Troade, p. 131. 
 
 3 Travels in various Countries of Europe, Asia, 
 and Africa, i. 148. 
 
1879.] 
 
 THE ANCIENT CITY ON MOUNT CHIGRI. 
 
 57 
 
 and parts of it are assigned to the same epoch as Tiryns and Mycenae. 
 But we could not discover in it anything which might claim a high 
 antiquity ; besides, pre-historic cities are always very small. The walls 
 average 10 ft. in breadth, and consist of two parallel walls of regular 
 horizontal courses of granite blocks cut into a wedge-like shape, with 
 their broad end turned outside, the space between the two walls, as well 
 as the interstices between the blocks, being filled up with small stones. 
 To this sort of masonry, which can also be seen in the famous Acropolis 
 of Assos, we did not think ourselves justified in attributing a greater 
 antiquity than the Macedonian period, the more so as the stones have 
 been worked with an iron pick-hammer. Some parts of the walls we 
 saw were composed of polygonal stones well fitted together, but they 
 equally failed to convey to us an idea of high antiquity. In fact, I could 
 point out in Greece a number of walls formed of polygonal stones, which 
 we know to have been erected in Macedonian times ; as, for instance, 
 the substructions of some of the tombs in the ancient cemetery of the 
 Hagia Trias at Athens and the fortifications on Salamis. The walls of 
 the fortress on Mount Chigri are for the most part well preserved, but 
 in many places they are more or less destroyed. I attribute this to the 
 roots of the trees which grow between the small stones and must have 
 dislocated the large blocks. Professor Yirchow does not think this 
 explanation insufficient, but prefers to ascribe the destruction of the walls 
 to earthquakes. It deserves to be noticed that the bare rock crops out in 
 all parts of the fortress, and that there is no accumulation of debris ; only 
 here and there I saw a late Eoman potsherd and some fragments of bricks 
 of a late date. 
 
 We next visited the small Turkish town of Ine, on the Scamander, 
 304 ft. above the sea, the name of which is probably a corruption of 
 Aenea} However this may be, it appears evident that Ine occupies 
 the site of an ancient town, perhaps of Scamandria, as Mr. Calvert 
 thinks, for many fragments of ancient sculptures are to be seen there, 
 and masses of fragmentary pottery peep out of the clay walls of the 
 houses, a good many of the fragments being Hellenic. From Ine we 
 went to the prettily-situated town of Beiramich, which stands on a 
 plateau on the banks of the Scamander, 516 ft. above the sea according 
 to Yirchow, whence we proceeded to the neat village of Evjilar, situated 
 864 ft. above the sea : the name Evjilar means " village of the hunters." 
 This also stands on the bank of the Scamander, whose width varies here 
 from 40 to 66 ft., while the water is hardly a foot deep. We had with us 
 three gensdarmes on horseback and two on foot, the country being unsafe. 
 
 Thence we ascended the mountains of Ida, which are covered with 
 a beautiful forest of oak and pine, 5 intermingled with chestnut-trees, 
 
 4 There being silver-mines near Ine (see 
 Chandler, i. 142; Pococke, iii. p. 160; and 
 Lechevalier, Voyage dans la Troade, p. 128), it is 
 highly probable that, instead of rj Nea Kujjxr, (/mi 
 apyvpia), between Polichna and Palaescepsis, we 
 ought to read in Strabo, xiii. p. 603, according 
 to the parallel passage, xii. p. 552, AtVea or "Evea 
 
 K(t)fA7) (see Groskurd, ii. pp. 480 and 580). Pliny, 
 H. N. ii. 96, 97, v. 30. 30, and Steph. Byz. 
 p. 487, who mention Nea, seem to have taken 
 it from Strabo, p. 603. A. Pauly, Real Ency- 
 clopedic, s. v. "Nea." 
 5 //. xi. 494: 
 
 TroWas 8e dpis a£aAeas, iroAAas 8e re irevKas 
 
5$ NARRATIVE OF WORK AT TROY. [Intbod. 
 
 plane-trees, limes, and the like. The rain, which came down in torrents, 
 prevented us from reaching the summit of Gargarus, which is 5750 ft. 
 above the level of the sea. We could only get as far as the sources 
 of the Scamander, which are 4056 ft. below the top of the mountain. 
 The principal source, which according to Virchow's measurement is 
 1694 ft. above the level of the sea, dashes forth in a stream about 7 ft. 
 broad from a natural cavern, in a nearly vertical rock wall, from 250 
 to 300 ft. high, which is composed of a coarse crystalline marble. It falls 
 at once almost vertically 60 to 70 ft. over projecting blocks of rock, and 
 after a course of 200 ft. it is joined by a small stream, formed by the 
 waters of three smaller but still abundant sources, and a number of very 
 small ones rising out of crevices in the rock close to the large one, as well 
 as by a large rivulet which is supplied from the melted snow, and has but 
 very little water in summer. At about 200 ft. from the great cavern, five 
 or six paces from the river-bed, is a small cavity, evidently the same as 
 that of which P. Barker Webb 6 speaks, and from which there once ran a 
 copious source of warm water ; but now, and probably for many years past, 
 this cave is dry, the spring having bored another channel through the 
 rock considerably below it, and close to the Scamander, into which it flows. 
 This source had, according to Yirchow's observations, a temperature of 
 60°44 Fahrenheit, the air being at 58 0, 64; and the water of the Sca- 
 mander, as it flows from the cavern, 47 0, 12. Professor Yirchow 7 observes : 
 " Although in the Iliad 8 the Scamander is mentioned as one of the rivers 
 which rise from the Ida range, yet a certain doubt has prevailed as to the 
 exact place of its origin. It appears to me that this doubt is due to the 
 statements of Demetrius of Scepsis, who, among the various peaks of the 
 Ida, indicated the Cotylus as the place of the sources of the Scamander, 
 while the presumptions of the Iliad essentially refer to Mount Gargarus. 
 Here a grove and an altar were consecrated to Zeus ; 9 and here he was 
 wont to stay. 10 And when the Scamander is indicated as the son of Zeus, 
 where else could his source be, but on Mount Gargarus ? Though, accord- 
 ing to Kercher, 1 the repeated addition, bv aOdvaros re/cero Zevs, 2 may be 
 rejected as a later interpolation, there remains the epithet hiiTrereos 
 'TTorafiolo, which occurs three times ; 3 and even if the beginning of the 
 twelfth book of the Iliad, where the Scamander is called S£o?, 4 should not 
 be genuine, yet the divine character of the river-god is expressly testified 
 in the TrapaTrord/jLLos, Here calling him dOdvarov 6e6v, 5 and Achilles 
 
 8toTpe(/)e9. 6 In the imagination of the poet the river and the river-god 
 blend together into a single personality, and the origin of both is referred, 
 as it were, to the great weather-god on Mount Gargarus." 
 
 We returned to Evjilar, and proceeded thence, by way of Erenlu 
 (780 ft. above the sea), Bujuk Bounarbashi, and Aiwadjik, to Behrahm, 
 the ancient Assos, whence we returned in an open boat to the Plain of 
 
 8 Topographic de la Troade, p. 46. 
 
 7 Beitrdge zur Landeskunde der Troas, p. 36. 
 
 8 xii. 19-21. 
 • 11. viii. 48. 
 
 w 11. xiy. 157, 158. 
 
 1 Phil, und histor. Abh. der k. Akad. d. Wis- 
 sensch. ; Berlin, 1875, p. 105. 
 
 2 //. xiv. 434 ; xxi. 2 ; xxiv. 693. 
 
 3 //. xvii. 263 ; xxi. 268, 326. 
 
 4 xii. 21. 5 xxi. 380. 6 xxi. 223. 
 
1879.] 
 
 MTS. KARA YOUR AND OULOU DAGH. 
 
 59 
 
 Troy. According to Virchow's measurement, Bujuk Bounarbashi is 907, 
 Aiwadjik is 871, and the Acropolis of Assos 615 ft. above the level of the 
 sea. I fully agree with Colonel Leake, that the ruins of Assos give the 
 most perfect idea of a Greek city that we can now find anywhere. Its 
 circuit-walls are better built, and are in a far better state of preservation, 
 than those of any other Greek city now existing. They are, on an average, 
 8 ft. 4 in. thick, and consist of wrought stones, either square or wedge- 
 shaped, which are put together precisely like those of the walls of the 
 great fortress on Mount Chigri ; the interior of the walls, as well as the 
 interstices between the stones, being filled with small stones. Wherever 
 the wall consists of square blocks, these are intersected at regular distances 
 by long wedgelike blocks, which serve to consolidate them in their posi- 
 tion. All the stones show the most evident marks of having been worked 
 with an iron pick-hammer, and consequently cannot claim a very remote 
 antiquity. Professor Virchow agrees with me in thinking that, although 
 some parts of the walls may belong to the sixth century B.C., yet by far 
 the larger part of them has been built in Macedonian times. 
 
 In company with Professor Virchow and M. Burnouf, I also made an 
 excursion through the Doumbrek valley to Mount Kara Your and Mount 
 Oulou Dagh, the former of which is, according to M. Burnouf's measure- 
 ment, 209 m. = 686 ft. above the level of the sea, and has hitherto had 
 the honour of being identified with Mount Callicolone, mentioned twice 
 
 No. 15. The Plain of the Simois, seen from the border of the Southern Swamp. To the left, the Heights between 
 the Simois and the Hellespont; to the right, the Plateau between the Simois and the Tbynibrius; in the back- 
 ground, the Oulou Dagb. 
 
 by Homer. 7 But, as the poet makes the war-god leap alternately from 
 Ilium to Callicolone, and from Callicolone to Ilium, Professor Virchow 
 considers it to be implied that Callicolone must be visible from Ilium; 
 and Mount Kara Your not fulfilling this condition, he identifies Mount 
 Oulou Dagh with the Homeric Callicolone, this being the only other great 
 height in the neighbourhood of the Simois ; besides, Hissarlik and nearly 
 every point of the Plain of Troy can be seen from this mount, which is 
 not the case with Mount Kara Your. Mount Oulou Dagh is, according to 
 M. Burnouf's measurement, 429'80 m. = 1409 ft. above the level of the sea. 
 We also visited the ruins of the ancient town of Ophrynium, now 
 
 7 II. xx. 52, 53 : 
 
 o£t> k<xt' anpoTarris iro\ios Tpaeaai KeXevccv 
 &\\ore irap 2z/uoei'Ti 0eW e7rl KaWiKoXwvr)' 
 
 and xx. 151 : 
 
 oi 8' erepuxre Kadi^ov eV ucppvcri KaWiKoXuvys* 
 
60 
 
 NARRATIVE OF WORK AT TROY. 
 
 [Introd. 
 
 Palaeo-Kastron, which stood between Cape Ehoeteum and the village 
 of Een Kioi, on a lofty height overhanging the Hellespont; hence its 
 name (from ofovs). Its Acropolis is about the same size as Hissarlik. 
 Remnants of the wall are visible on three sides, with traces of two 
 towers ; there was probably no wall on the fourth side, this being pro- 
 tected by the precipice. Within the Acropolis are remains of several 
 buildings. The lower town appears to have extended to the valley on 
 the south side of the Acropolis, where several heaps of stones appear to 
 mark the sites of houses ; but all the fragments of pottery I could gather 
 there and in the Acropolis are of the Hellenic period. As to the identity 
 of the place with Ophrynium, the coins found on the spot leave no doubt. 
 The site of Ophrynium is erroneously marked on Admiral Spratt's map 
 to the east of Ren Kioi, two miles distant from its real position. 
 
 We also visited the rocky height opposite the Bali Dagh, on the east 
 side of the Scamander. We found there on the north-west, north, north- 
 east, east, and south-east sides of the summit large fragmentary walls, 
 which, to judge from the huge heaps of stones on either side of them, 
 appear to have had a height of 20 ft. or more ; they consist of unwrought 
 stones joined together with small ones. The largest blocks contained in 
 the walls are 3ft. long, and about lift, in breadth and height; but in 
 general the stones are much smaller. Within the walls may be traced 
 some foundations of houses. Many more foundations can be detected on 
 the plateau below the summit as well as down the whole slope, where the 
 lower city appears to have extended. The hill runs in an almost vertical 
 line on the south and west sides towards the Scamander. On account of 
 the many inequalities of ground in the little Acropolis, as well as in the 
 lower city, the rains have so completely swept away every vestige of 
 artificial debris, that the bare rock everywhere protrudes, and no excava- 
 tions are possible. In spite of the most careful examination, I could not 
 find a single fragment of pottery either on the Acropolis or in the lower 
 town. On the slope on the north side is a tumulus of loose stones, which 
 has lost its conical shape The ruins of this ancient Acropolis and city 
 are marked on Admiral Spratt's map of 1840, but they had been indicated 
 to him by Mr. Frank Calvert, who discovered them. 
 
 I give here an extract from the speech which Professor Yirchow made 
 on his return to Berlin from his expedition to the Troacl, before the 
 Berlin Society for Anthropology, Ethnology, and Pre-historic Archaeology, 
 on the 20th of June, 1879 : — 
 
 " That part of the citadel-hill of Hissarlik in which the calcined ruins 
 of the ' burnt city ' were found had at the time of my departure from the 
 Troad been cleared away, in a considerable number of places, down to the 
 virgin soil. At one place we reached the rock itself, on which the most 
 ancient city had been built. In the midst of the great trench Schliemann 
 had left standing a mighty block, which, as long as it holds together, will 
 indicate to visitors the original level of the surface. It forms a large 
 quadrangular column, which rises between 8 and 9 metres (26 ft. 4 in. to 
 29 ft. 7 in.) above the level of the ground on which the town-chief's house 
 stands. But below this latter level one may dig 6, 8, nay 10 metres 
 
(19 ft. 9 in., 26 ft. 4 in., or 32 ft. 10 in.), before penetrating through all 
 the layers of ruin. Thus the aggregate depth of all the strata of debris, 
 
62 
 
 NARRATIVE OF WORK AT TROY. 
 
 [IXTEOD. 
 
 from the surface to the rock itself, amounts to nearly 20 metres (66 ft.). 
 The whole of this depth consists of the remains of ancient habitations. 
 There is nothing in or about it which could give the impression of having 
 belonged to anything else. 
 
 " Its situation is as follows : on the last spur of a tertiary mountain- 
 ridge, which projects from the volcanic mountains on the east towards the 
 Scamander, and rises perhaps 100 ft. above the plain, there has been 
 heaped up a series of layers of debris, in which it is easy to recognize the 
 stratification of the settlements which have succeeded each other. These 
 masses of debris have indeed grown to an incredible height. But the very 
 circumstance, that perhaps nowhere else in the world has an accumulation 
 of this kind been hitherto discovered— an accumulation consisting of such 
 a mass of debris of successive settlements — proves that an extraordinarily 
 long time must have elapsed from the foundation of the first settlement to 
 the destruction of the last. Whatever opinion may be formed of the 
 manner in which the successive buildings were constructed, for the masses 
 of debris to have attained such a depth more time is undoubtedly needed 
 than we are justified in accepting for the formation of the mounds of ruins 
 at any other place whatever in the world. If one wishes to make a com- 
 parison, at the best a certain parallel might be found in the Assyrian 
 mounds, in which, owing to the great quantity of bricks that entered 
 into their construction, the dissolving masses of clay have attained a 
 very extraordinary bulk. A certain comparison is also presented by the 
 excavations on the Palatine Mount at Borne. But .the accumulations at 
 Hissarlik are distinguished from all others by the fact, that there 
 exists here a larger series of successive heterogeneous stratifications than in 
 any other known spot ; and these, by their whole nature and condition, 
 testify to repeated changes in the population. Their duration cannot, 
 indeed, be calculated by definite numbers of years ; but we nevertheless 
 gain a chronological basis from the enclosed material, which exists in 
 rich abundance. 
 
 " How long the aforesaid block can resist the influences of the weather, 
 I dare not say. At all events, it will for a long time to come give testi- 
 mony, not only to the gigantic height of these masses of ruins, but also, 
 a3 I believe, to the incredible energy of the man, who has with his own 
 private means succeeded in removing such enormous masses of earth. If 
 you could see what mounds of earth (in the full sense of the word) had 
 to be dug away and removed, in order to have a view of the lower 
 layers, you would indeed scarcely believe that a single man in the 
 course of a few years could have accomplished so great an under- 
 taking. On this occasion I would stand up for Schliemann against 
 a reproach which, though plausible in itself, falls . to the ground on 
 closer consideration — the reproach that he has not excavated from 
 the surface, layer by layer, so as to obtain a complete plan for each suc- 
 cessive period. 
 
 " There is no doubt that the manner in which he has excavated, by 
 making at once a large trench through the whole hill, has had, in the 
 highest degree, a destructive effect on the upper layers. In those near the 
 
1879.] 
 
 VIRCHOW ON THE EXCAVATIONS. 
 
 63 
 
 surface were portions of temples of the Hellenic period, columns, triglyphs, 
 and all kinds of marble fragments, thrown together pele-mele. Neverthe- 
 less, with great care and attention, such as that with which the excava- 
 tions at Olympia are carried on, it might perhaps have been possible to 
 have reconstructed a temple, at least in part. But Schliemann felt no 
 interest in a temple belonging to a period far too late for him. I may also 
 say that, after having seen a considerable proportion of the fragments, I 
 doubt whether, if all had been brought together, an essential gain would 
 have been contributed to the history of art or to science. I allow that it 
 has been a kind of sacrilege. Schliemann has cut the temple (of Athene) 
 right in two; the building material has been thrown aside and partly 
 again buried ; it will not be easy for any one, even with the largest expen- 
 diture, to collect it again. But, undoubtedly, if Schliemann had proceeded 
 in such a way as to remove the ruins stratum by stratum from the surface, 
 he would, owing to the vastness of the task, not even to-day have reached 
 
 No. 17. Troy seen from the South-east side. This point of view lias been taken from the Plateau between 
 the Simois and the Thynibrius, above the Th'atre in Novum Ilium. View taken in 1879. 
 
 the layers in which the principal objects were found. He only reached 
 them by at once extracting the nucleus of the great hill. 
 
 " The hill of Hissarlik has indeed increased, in the course of time, 
 not only in height, but also in breadth and thichness, through the masses 
 of debris removed and thrown aside by successive generations, in order 
 to obtain a site on which they could build. Since the excavations in this 
 direction have now been carried on systematically, chronological con- 
 clusions may be drawn with the greatest precision from the accumulation 
 of the debris, which show in the vertical trenches a series of stratifica- 
 tions lying the one upon the other, and falling off obliquely. Such con- 
 clusions could hardly have been arrived at, if the strata, which lie one 
 upon the other, but do not always continue on the same level, had been 
 simply taken off in succession. 
 
 " Near the surface, we see in one place the foundations of the temple, 
 in another the wall composed of regular layers of wrought stones of the 
 Alexandrian time, the so-called wall of Lysimachus. Its situation is 
 highly characteristic. In the vertical trenches made through the outer 
 
64 
 
 NARRATIVE OF WORK AT TROY. 
 
 [LSTROD. 
 
 circumference of the hill may be seen successive slanting layers of debris, 
 from which it may easily be perceived that the debris had been thrown 
 over the slope of the hill. On these accumulations the wall has been 
 
 erected : 8 it does not stand upon the primitive rock, but on the material 
 which has been thrown down sideways, and indeed in places where there 
 
 8 See the Section given in the chapter on the Greek Ilium. 
 
1879.] 
 
 YIRCIIOW OX THE EXCAVATIONS. 
 
 65 
 
 is no rock at all below. It may thus be understood that the surface of 
 the hill has manifestly increased in width from settlement to settlement. 
 The circumference of the hill went on continually enlarging in the course 
 of time. In this way it has increased to dimensions which, in height as well 
 as in width, very far exceed those of the ' burnt city.' This latter forms, 
 in the midst of the whole, a proportionately small central part. The 
 successive cities became continually larger and larger, and extended their 
 radius. Our attention was first called to this by our own work in order 
 to bring to light the ' burnt city.' The debris was taken out from the 
 midst, and carried to the side ; but as the slope was here, it was carried 
 through a trench, which had been cut radially through the hill, to the 
 brink of the slope, and was there thrown over. Thus the mass of earth 
 partly slid down the slope, and partly remained lying on it, while only 
 the larger stones rolled down into the plain. By these means the hill 
 visibly and continually increased, and, as seen from below, it appeared to 
 be always growing larger and larger. It now looks, I believe, more stately 
 than ever it did before. The various trenches and accumulations have 
 given the hill the appearance of something which very much resembles a 
 large fortress. The hill thus artificially excavated is now in the following 
 condition. Apart from the single trenches, the exterior covering of the 
 ancient hill still remains at its original height, whereas the interior is 
 excavated. Standing on the circuit-walls, one looks down into a sort 
 of large cauldron, at the bottom of which lies the 'burnt city,' with 
 its walls and foundations visible as on a plan. In this way the visitor 
 is in a position to become acquainted with the peculiar nature of the 
 constructions. 
 
 " This is in so far of great interest for those philologists who wish to 
 investigate how far the indications of Homer agree with the existing con- 
 ditions : for example, with reference to the course run three times round 
 the city by Hector and Achilles. The question is no longer, as hitherto, 
 about the whole hill of Hissarlik, but only about the central part of it, 
 which really represents the ancient settlement. This latter is much 
 smaller than the whole content and circumference of Hissarlik itself. I 
 must, however, lay stress on the fact, that in comparison with the 
 Acropolis on the Bali Dagh, even this smaller part would still represent a 
 considerable town, which far exceeds the settlement on Bounarbashi." 
 
 As on my last journey to England and Germany I have heard it 
 repeatedly stated that, carried away by ambition, I am ruining myself in 
 my archaaological explorations, to the prejudice of my children, 9 who will 
 be penniless after my death, I find it necessary to assure the reader that, 
 although on account of my present scientific pursuits I am bound to keep 
 aloof from all sorts of speculation and am compelled to content myself 
 with a small interest on my capital, I still have a yearly income of £4000 
 as the net proceeds of the rents of my four houses in Paris, and £6000 
 
 9 I have four children: a son, Sergius, born 1878, and daughter, Andromache, born in 1871, 
 in 1855, and daughter, Nadeshda, born in 1861, by my second wife, 
 by my first wife ; and a son, Agamemnon, born in 
 
 F 
 
66 
 
 DESTINY OF THE COLLECTIONS. 
 
 [Introd. 
 
 interest on my funded property, making in all £10,000 ; whilst, inclusive 
 of the large cost of my excavations, I do not spend more than £5000 a 
 year, and am thus able to add £5000 annually to my capital. I trust, 
 therefore, that on my death I shall leave to each of my children a fortune 
 large enough to enable them to continue their father's scientific explora- 
 tions without ever touching their capital. I avail myself of this oppor- 
 tunity to assure the reader that, as I love and worship science for its own 
 sake, I shall never make a traffic of it. My large collections of Trojan 
 antiquities have a value which cannot be calculated, but they shall never 
 be sold. If I do not present them in my lifetime, they shall at all events 
 pass, in virtue of my last will, to the Museum of the nation I love and 
 esteem most. 
 
 I cannot conclude this introduction without expressing my warmest 
 thanks to my honoured friends Mr. Frank Calvert, Consul of the United 
 States of America ; Mr. Paul Yenizelos, Consul of Greece ; Mr. Emilio 
 Yitali, Consul of Italy ; and Mr. Nicolaos Didymos, first dragoman and 
 political agent of the Turkish Government at the Dardanelles, for all 
 the kindness they have shown and all the valuable services they have 
 rendered me during the long period of my excavations at Hissarlik. 
 I also warmly thank my friends, Doctor F. Imhoof Blumer of Winterthur 
 and Mr. Achilles Postolaccas, keeper of the National Collection of Coins 
 at Athens : the former for the great kindness he has shown me in getting 
 photographed for me all the different Ilian coins he had at his disposal ; 
 the latter for the great friendship he has shown me in superintending the 
 drawing of these coins, as well as of all the Ilian coins contained in the 
 collection under his charge; also for the learned dissertation he has 
 written for me on the Ilian coins and medals, which will appear in 
 the chapter on Novum Ilium. 
 
CHAPTER I. 
 
 THE COUNTEY OF THE TEOJANS (ol Tpwe?). 
 
 § I. The Extent of the Trojan Land. The Troad (r) Tpcoa?, sc. yrf). 
 
 In interpreting the Homeric geography of the Troad, Strabo 1 rightly 
 says : " The coast of the Propontis extends from the district of Cyzicus, 
 and the neighbourhood of the Aesepus and the Granicus, to Abydus and 
 Sestus ; the land around Ilium, and Tenedos, and Alexandria-Troas from 
 Abydus to Lectum : 2 but above all these lies the mountain-range of Ida, 
 which extends to Lectum. But from Lectum to the river Caicus 3 and 
 (the promontory of) Canae there follows the country around Assos, 4 
 and Adramyttium, and Atarneus, 5 and Pitane, 6 and the Elaitic Gulf; 7 
 opposite all of which stretches the island of the Lesbians : then follows 
 immediately the district of Cyme, as far as the Hermus 8 and Phocaea, 
 which forms the beginning of Ionia and the end of Aeolis. Such being 
 the localities, the poet gives us to understand that, from the district of 
 the Aesepus and the present province of Cyzicene to the river Caicus, 
 the Trojan rule extended, divided into eight or even nine parts, according 
 to the dominions ; but the mass of auxiliary troops is counted among 
 the confederates." 
 
 Thus the Homeric Troad comprised the north-western part of the later 
 Mysia, between the rivers Aesepus and Caicus : this is fully confirmed by 
 the poet, who makes Achilles mention in conversation with Priam that 
 Priam's dominion comprises all that is bounded to the north-west (dvco) 
 by Lesbos and to the north-east {KaOvirepOev) by Phrygia and the 
 Hellespont. All the nations which inhabit this dominion are called 
 Trojans (Tpojes;) by Homer, although he sometimes appears to designate 
 under this name more especially the inhabitants of Ilium and its 
 immediate environs. 
 
 1 xiii. p. 581 : 'Airb 5e rrjs Ku&Krjyrjs Kai twv 
 Trepi Pacnqirov t6tw>u Kai TpdviKOv, jue'xpt 'AjSuSou 
 Kai 27J(TtoG, tt]v tt)s npoirourlSos irapaKiav clvai 
 (Tv/n/Haivei ' cWb 5e 'AfivSov jue%pt A(ktov to, irtpl 
 'l\iov, Kai TeVeSoy, Kat 'AXe^avSpeiai/ tV TpwaScr 
 irdvTcav 5r/ tovtcov virepKeirai 77 I877 rb opos, 
 P-CXP 1 Acktov Ka6r]Kovaa • curb Acktov 5e /Ue'xpi 
 KaiKov TroTa/AOv Kai rwv Kavuiv \eyojx4vo>v 4<ttI to. 
 wept Aaaov, Kai 'A^pa/jLvrriou, Kai 'Arapvca, Kai 
 UiTdvrjv, Kai rbv 'EAa'iriKbv koKttov • of? iracriv 
 avTiirapriKet i) rwv Ae<r/3iW vrjaos ' e?0' e^r)s to 
 fffpt Kvfirfv, /j.*xpts "Epfiov Kai <f>«/ccuaj, rjirep 
 upxb H-tv T ys 'loovias iari, irtpas 8e ttjs AloXiSos. 
 Toiovtow 8e twu t6ttc0V uvtodv, 6 /xev Troir^Trjs 
 airb Tac Trepl Aiay\TU)V roirwv, Kai twu irepl rr)v 
 vvv Kv£iKT\vi)v xvpcLV, v-rrayopevci jxaKiffra rovs 
 
 Tpwas apl-ai A*e'xpt T °v Kat/cou irora^ov Hirfpi\fi(- 
 vovs Kara. Swao-rc'ias els okt& /xep'iSas, r) Kai 
 ivu4a • rb 8e ru>v &Wwv itriKOvpuu irAridos iu 
 ro?s crvpLjxixxois StaptfyieiYar. 
 
 2 Tb Ae/crdV, now called Cape Baba or Santa 
 Maria. Here Here, in company with Hypnos, 
 first touches the Trojan land on her way to Ida 
 (II. xiv. 283, 284 : "IStji/ 8' Ueffdyv . . . Acktov, 
 oQl irp&Tuv Xiireryv a\a). 
 
 3 Now Ak-Su, or Bochair, Bakir, Bacher. 
 
 4 Now Behram or Bearahm. 
 
 5 Now Dikeli Kioi. 
 
 6 Now Sanderli. 
 
 7 Now the Gulf of Sanderli or of Fokia. 
 
 8 This river is now called Gedis or Ghiediz 
 Tschai. 
 
THE COUNTRY OF THE TROJANS. [Chap. I. 
 
 We shall follow Bucliholz 9 in describing in the following order the 
 eight or nine smaller dominions of which the Troad was composed : — 
 
 I. Dominion of Pandarus. 10 
 II. Dominion of Adrestus and Amphius. 1 
 
 III. Dominion of Asius. 2 
 
 IV. Dominion of Aeneas (Dardania). 3 
 
 V. Dominion of Hector (Troy in the more narrow sense). 4 
 
 The following districts are further mentioned in Homer : — 
 
 VI. Dominion of Altes (the Leleges). 5 
 VII. Dominion of the Cilicians, viz. ■ 
 
 a. Dominion of Eetion. 6 
 
 b. Dominion of Mynes. 7 
 
 c. Dominion of Eurypylus (the Ceteians). 8 
 
 § II, Mountains of the Troad. 
 
 Mount Ida (jJ "Ic^, 9 ra 'ISala oprj 10 ) still retains its ancient name. 
 Its Homeric epithets are v^rrfKrj (high iroXvirlha^ (rich in fountains 2 ) ; 
 and from its abundance of game it is also called the mother or 
 nourisher of wild animals (fiijrrjp 6rjp(x>v 3 ). It extends through Western 
 Mysia in many branches from south-west to north-east. On account of 
 its manifold ramifications, it was compared by the ancients to a centipede 
 (scolopendrd)} One of its principal branches extends along the northern 
 coast of the Gulf of Adramyttium, and runs out into the promontory of 
 Lectum ; 5 the other extends in a westerly direction along the river 
 Aesepus, and terminates at the city of Zeleia : — " those who inhabited 
 Zeleia at the lowest foot of Ida." 6 In Ida rise the rivers Rhesus, 
 Heptaporus, Caresus, Rhodius, Grenicus (Granicus), Aesepus, Scamander, 
 and Simois : — " Then Poseidon and Apollo took counsel to destroy the 
 wall, turning against it all the rivers that flow from the mountains of 
 Ida into the sea — Rhesus, Heptaporus, Caresus, Rhodius, Grenicus, and 
 Aesepus, divine Scamander also and Simois." 7 As already stated, the 
 highest summit of Ida is Mount Gargarus, now called Kaz Dagh, 5750 ft. 
 above the level of the sea. On Gargarus was " a temenos sacred to Zeus, 
 
 9 Homerische Kosmographie und Geographic, 
 von Dr. E. Buchholz ; Leipzig, 1871. 
 
 10 11. ii. 824-827. 1 11. ii. 828 834. 
 2 II ii. 835-839. 3 //. ii. 819-823. 
 4 //. ii. 816-818. 5 //. xxi. 86, 87. 
 
 6 i7. vi. 396, 397 ; ii. 692. 
 
 7 II xix. 296. 8 Od. xi. 519-521. 
 6 11. viii. 207 ; xiii. 13. 
 
 10 II. viii. 170. 
 
 1 II. xiv. 293 : y l5r?s fi^TjXfjs. 
 
 2 11. viii. 47; xiv. 157, 283, 307; xv. 151; 
 xx. 59, 218; xxiii. 117. 
 
 3 //. viii. 47 : 
 
 "l$T)v 8' 'Uavev TroXvnlSaKa pn]repa 6i]pa>i>, . . . 
 
 4 Strabo, xiii. p. 583 : iroWovs 5' ex ov<Ta 
 
 irp6iro$as ?? 'iSr) Kal aKoXoirevb'pwb'rjs ovo~a rb 
 (rxv/J-a . . . 
 
 5 Strabo, xiii. p. 605 : r) yap airb rov Ae/croD 
 pa-xis avarelvovaa irphs rrju^lSiiu virepKeirai rwv 
 irptorcou rov koXttov fiepwv, . . . 
 
 6 11. ii. 824, 825: 
 
 ot 8e ZiXtiav evaiov viral ir6Za veiarov 'lSys, 
 acpveio'i, irivovres vSup pe\av A.lo"f)iroio, . . . 
 
 7 //. xii. 17-22: 
 
 5?; rore /ir)Ti6wvro Uoaeiddoou Kal 'AiroWwv 
 Te?xos a/xaXSvvai, irorajxoov fxevos elaayayoures 
 Haaoi air 'iSaiW bpeuiv aAaSe irpopeovaiv, 
 "Pr\<ros 0' 'Eirrdiropos re Kapyaos re 'PoSios re 
 Tpi]viK6s re Kal A'icrr)iros b"ios re iKa/xavdpos 
 Kal 2i/J.6eis, odt iroWa fiodypia Kal rpv<pd\eiai. 
 
§ II.] MOUNTAINS — MOUNT IDA. 69 
 
 and a fragrant altar." 8 Mount Gargarus is further mentioned three 
 times by Homer. 9 
 
 According to P. Barker Webb, 10 the summit of Gargarus consists of 
 actinolithic schist, nearly all the rest of the mountain being of mica- 
 schist. This schist is accompanied by immense deposits of primitive 
 white compact calcareous rock. Here are the sources of the Scamander, 
 which, as I have related above, I visited in company with Professor 
 Yirchow. According to Webb, travellers have penetrated for a distance 
 of 200 metres (658 ft.) into the cavern, from which the principal source 
 dashes forth, without reaching its fountain. TchihatchefFs measurements 1 
 make the sources 650 metres (2138 ft.) above the level of the sea. The 
 mica-schist of Gargarus has a somewhat greenish colour ; it sometimes 
 contains a little asbestus. In the lower part of the mountain this schist 
 assumes a different aspect ; and under its new form, which is that of the 
 true mica-schist, it extends exclusively from the top of Gargarus as far 
 as the village of Saliklar Kioi. This primitive rock extends to the plain 
 on the north side of the river, where the hills have some elevation. 
 
 Turning now to the South, we see a country very different from that 
 we have just left. Alexandria-Troas is built on an ashy syenite, com- 
 posed of the three usual elements, among which the felspar predomi- 
 nates ; it gives its colour to the whole mass, in spite of a quantity of 
 crystals of blackish mica. The syenite extends through the whole 
 country to the east of Alexandria-Troas, as far as Ine or Ene. The valley 
 of Ligia Hammam is formed of schist surrounded on all sides by syenite. 
 Between Kemalli and Ine are the silver mines already referred to. 
 P. Barker Webb goes on to say : " Descending the hill about 200 metres, 
 we found ourselves on a volcanic tufa, which was succeeded at first by 
 columns of phonolith, and then by trachyte, as far as Ine. At a distance 
 of two hours from Ine the syenite meets a series of trap and basaltic 
 rocks. Not far from Ine is the curious conical hill called Ine Tepeh, 
 or Suran Tepeh, which has been thought by some to be an artificial 
 tumulus ; but in reality it is nothing else than an isolated mass of 
 basalt, which rises abruptly in the midst of the plain. The valley of 
 Beiramich, as well as the other valleys which converge there, are com- 
 posed of the secondary limestone of the Troad. Several chains of hills 
 penetrate into it towards the south ; they consist entirely of basaltic or 
 trap rock, and rise from the great centre of ancient volcanoes around 
 Assos. The largest of the lateral valleys is that of. Aiwadjik, already 
 mentioned, three hours to the south-west of Beiramich. About halfway 
 
 8 II. viii. 48 : 
 
 Fipyapov, ivQa re oi (Zrjvi) Ttfievos ficcpos re 
 
 9 II. xv. 152, 153: 
 
 e'jpou 5' cupvoira Kpoulor^v aua Yapyapcp &Kpcp 
 
 T)IACVOV. 
 
 (They found the wide-thundering son of Kronos 
 enthroned on the peak of Gargarus.) 
 
 xiv. 292, 293 : 
 Hp?) 8e Kpanrv&s TrpoaefMjaeTO Yapyapov &npov 
 
 (Here quickly ascended Gargarus, the summit of 
 lofty Ida.) 
 xiv. 352 : 
 
 cos t [x\v arpe/xas e55e ttutvp aua Yapyapu ci/cpcp, 
 . . . (So he the father slept quietly on the height 
 of Gargarus.) 
 
 10 Topographie de la Troade ancienne et mo- 
 de rne ; Paris, 1844, p. 129. 
 
 1 Asie Mineure : Description physique, stati- 
 stique, et arche'ologique de cette contree ; Paris, 
 1853-69, pt. i. 
 
70 THE COUNTRY OF THE TROJANS. [Chap. £ 
 
 between the two towns rises a beautiful conical hill called Kara-Euli, 
 which stands isolated in the plain. Its sides, which resemble walls, are 
 formed of basaltic columns, presenting to the eye a thousand elegant 
 shapes. Having passed the mountain, we had before and around us 
 a thousand varieties of trachyte and other rocks of igneous origin, with 
 volcanic agglomerations and tufa. Sometimes pretty large masses of 
 hardened schistose clay alternate, striated with variegated colours, in 
 company with jasper and jaspoide thermantide. Aiwadjik is built on a 
 height of volcanic rock, and its walls are composed of the same material. 
 Among the stones of the walls we noticed a very strange white tufa, 
 which was probably cut from a neighbouring quarry. Wherever we 
 looked, the country appeared to have been overturned by the action 
 of ancient volcanoes until we arrived at Assos. At Mantasha, distant 
 an hour from Assos, on the road to Aiwadjik, the ruins of a castle may be 
 seen on the top of a small hill, which has the appearance of an extinct 
 volcano. We also noticed towards the sea a current of trachyte lava of 
 considerable length. As tufas and conglomerates are found there, it is 
 highly probable that it was a submarine volcano, whose scoriae, ashes, and 
 pumice-stone have been carried away by the water. W T e nevertheless 
 felt a great pleasure in still observing volcanic remains and erratic 
 masses of obsidian strewn here and there on the surface of the current. 
 The summit on which Assos is situated is a spur of that of Mantasha, 
 though the former is much higher and occupies a much greater space. 
 From the top, where we now see the ruins of the citadel of Assos, 
 currents of trachyte extend in various directions, similar to those at 
 Nemi, near Eome, principally in the direction of Adramyttium. This 
 country also recals to mind, though on a larger scale, the volcanic 
 hill of Eadicofani in Tuscany ; and the resemblance was increased by 
 our finding in the rock the mineral which Thomson calls florite, and 
 which by the German mineralogists is termed hyalite. Though the 
 volcano is no longer active, we saw evident signs of internal subver- 
 sions of the soil and of the frequent earthquakes which ravage this 
 country." 2 
 
 " In the Troad there is no primordial volcanic formation ; the principal 
 part of the volcanic districts is situated in the south. We find there 
 at every step thermal fountains and an abundance of salt-water springs, 
 the intimate relation of which to the phenomena of volcanic eruptions 
 has been so often observed by geologists; nay, these hot springs are 
 so numerous, that the vapours produced by the hot water have made 
 some authors say that they spread a thick cloud as far as the extremity 
 of the Gulf of Adramyttium." 3 "The lowlands, and that part which is 
 properly called the Plain of Troy, are interrupted by frequent elevations, 
 we might almost say by slight undulations of the ground, formed by 
 the spurs of Mount Ida, which terminate imperceptibly on the sea-coast. 
 Towards Dardania and Cebrenia, the mountainous ridges of Ida rise one 
 
 2 P. Barker Webb, Topogr. de la Troade ; Paris, 1844, pp. 135-137. 
 3 Ibid., p. 129. 
 
OULOU DAGH — CALLICOLONE. 
 
 71 
 
 above the other, covered with pine-trees. The basaltic rocks of the 
 Bali Dagh attach these ridges to the syenite mountains behind Alex- 
 andria-Troas, in the midst of which rise those conical masses which are 
 visible to so great a distance at sea." 4 
 
 Between the two affluents of the Simois, which meet at the village of 
 Doumbrek, there is, according to the investigations of Professor Yirchow 
 and M. Burnouf, an extensive mass of diluvium, composed of quartz, 
 diorite, serpentine, trachyte, &c, more or less rounded. The vegetation 
 consists principally of arbutus, andraehnes, and pines, which increase in 
 size with the height of the mountain ridges. There is a group of tangled 
 heights formed of quartzose mica-schist, where the pines are of noble 
 dimensions. There is a rivulet in every dale. The dales become more 
 and more hollow, and it is difficult to advance owing to the shrubs which 
 cover the slopes. The Oulou Dagh is now reached ; it is a long ridge, 
 belonging to a range of Ida, whose height is 429 * 80 m. = 1409 ft. 
 The Oulou Dagh consists essentially of a somewhat laminated serpentine : 
 on its roundish conical surface we see many steeply-raised enormous 
 masses of snow-white quartz and brown ferruginous quartzite, which lie 
 pretty accurately in the direction of north and south. The mountain- 
 ridge maintains this character as far as the Kara Your ; only from hence 
 the ridge extending towards Chiblak and Hissarlik consists of tertiary 
 limestone. 
 
 From the Oulou Dagh may be seen to the west a large part of the 
 Troad, Ida, Lesbos, the Kara Dagh, the islands of Tenedos, Imbros, and 
 Samothrace, the Plain of Troy, Hissarlik, and the confluence of the 
 Simois and Scamander. The descent is easy by the mountain ridge ; there 
 is a good road through the pines, which form here and there beautiful 
 tufts. These woods are now cultivated for sale by Turcomans, w T hose 
 graves may be seen here and there. 
 
 Following the ridge, the Kara Your is reached. This mountain, 
 which is 209 metres = 686 ft. high, forms the eastern extremity of the 
 plateau which separates the basin of the Simois from that of the Thym- 
 brius. From the Kara Your we enjoy a fine view over the basin of the 
 Thymbrius as far as the heights of Bounarbashi, with all its undulations ; 
 but Hissarlik is not visible from hence. 
 
 I may here remind the reader that Mount Kara Your has hitherto 
 been held to be identical with the Homeric Callicolone ; but that, as 
 Troy is not visible from it, I have now, at the suggestion of Professor 
 Yirchow, and in accordance with Burnouf's view, transferred that honour 
 to the Oulou Dagh, which fulfils this apparently indispensable condition. 
 I must however remark that Strabo, on the authority of Demetrius of 
 Scepsis, evidently believed in the identity of the Kara Your with the 
 Homeric Callicolone, for he states it to be only 5 stadia from the Simois 
 and 10 stadia from 'lXiecov Kcofir], which distances perfectly agree with 
 the situation of the Kara Your, but not with that of the Oulou Dagh. 5 
 
 4 P. Barker Webb, op. ext. p. 129. Xo<pos tls, Trap' tv 5 ^.i/xoeis pe?, Tt^vTaffTaZ^ov 
 
 5 Strabo, xiii. p. 597 : U7rep 5e rr\s 'iAieW Ste'x^^. 
 
 kwjutjs Se/ca crraBiois iarlu t) KaWiicoAwvr), I remind the reader, once for all, that the 
 
72 
 
 THE COUNTRY OF THE TROJANS. 
 
 [Chap. I. 
 
 Professor Vircliow, moreover, pointed out to me on the Kara Your the 
 foundations of an ancient building, perhaps a temple, whereas there are 
 no traces of buildings on the Oulou Dagh. 
 
 The plateau between Kara Your and the village of Chiblak is desert, 
 uncultivated, destitute of wood, and full of ravines. Here and there are 
 some bushes on a sort of very meagre prairie. In proportion as you 
 advance to the west the soil becomes limestone ; but the vegetation is the 
 same, except the pines, which cease with the schist. 
 
 Of Promontories, I have in the first place to mention Cape Ledum, 
 opposite . Lesbos, which is the westernmost peak of Ida, and the extreme 
 southern point of the Trojan dominion. In Strabo's time the altar was 
 still shown here, which, according to tradition, had been erected by 
 Agamemnon to the twelve gods ; 6 but this very mention of a definite 
 number of the gods shows that its origin must belong to a later period. 
 Here, as before stated, Here, in company with Hypnos, on their way to 
 Mount Gargarus, first reached the Trojan shore. 7 It is also mentioned 
 by Herodotus. 8 
 
 Next comes the famous Cape Sigeum, which forms the north-western 
 point of all Asia, at the entrance of the Hellespont, opposite to the city of 
 Eleusa on the southern extremity of the Thracian Chersonesus. It is now 
 called Cape Yeni Shehr. According to M. Burnouf's measurement, the 
 height of Cape Sigeum is 77 * 20 metres = 252 ft. above the level of the 
 sea. On this cape (and not, as is erroneously shown on Admiral Spratt's 
 map, on the high plateau to the S.S.W. of it) was situated the ancient 
 city of Sigeum : in the first place because there is here an accumulation 
 of ancient debris 6 ft. deep, whereas there is none at all on the neigh- 
 bouring plateau ; and secondly because Sigeum had a port, which did in 
 faet exist immediately to the east of the promontory, whilst there is none 
 at the foot of the plateau. The city was destroyed by the Ilians soon after 
 the overthrow of the Persian empire, and it no longer existed in Strabo's 
 time. 9 Like the whole ridge of which it forms the north-eastern extremity, 
 this promontory consists of limestone, and falls off very abruptly towards 
 the sea. It is now crowned by the village of Yeni Shehr, which is 
 inhabited exclusively by Christians, and stands on the debris and ruins 
 of the ancient city of Sigeum. 
 
 In a direct line to the east of Cape Sigeum is Cape Bhoeteum, now 
 called In Tepeh, on the Hellespont. The distance between these two 
 promontories is, according to Strabo, 10 CO stadia; but this is one of the 
 
 stadium of 600 Greek feet was the tenth pa,tof n Mela, i. 18. 3; Plin. //. A 7 , v. 33; Serv. 
 
 the English geographical mile. In other words, ad Aen. ii. 312; to ^.tyeiov, Herod, v. 65, 94; 
 
 10 stadia — 1 geog. mile = 1 minute of a degree Thuoyd. viii. 101 ; Strabo, xiii. p. 595 ; Ptol 
 
 at the Equator. v. 23; Steph. Byz. p. 597. Strabo, xiii. p. 603, 
 
 6 Strabo, xiii. p. 605 : iirl 8e tc? Ae/fTtS #couos calls it also r) 2tye«as &xpa. The town to "Ziyeiov 
 tu>v ScideKa 9eu>i/ SsiKwrai, KaAovat 5' 'Aya/ifft- is also called 21717 by Hecataeus, p. 208; Scylax, 
 vovos 'tdpu/xa- p. 36. 
 
 7 J I. xiv. 283, 284: 10 xiii. p. 595: eo-Ti 5e to ^kos tt)s irapa- 
 
 5' UicrQ-nv Aias Tavrys curb rod 'Poirelov n^XP 1 Styeiov /cal 
 
 Ae/croV, o6t izpunov \LireT7jv aha- toD J AxtAA.e'ws fxvi]j.<aTos ev9vir\oovi>Twv k^KOVTa 
 
 8 ix. 114. araSiuy. 
 
§ III.] 
 
 RIVERS OF THE TROAD. 
 
 73 
 
 many proofs that the geographer never visited the Troad, the real distance 
 being only 30 stadia, which is given by Pliny. 1 On this cape formerly 
 stood the town of Ehoeteum (to 'Poireiov). 2 It is not a promontory in the 
 proper sense of the word, but an elevated rocky shore with several peaks, 
 of which the highest, according to M. Burnouf's measurement, is only 
 168 ft. high. For this reason it is also called by Antipater Sidonius 
 r ~PoLTr)L$e<; atcraL 3 It is spoken of as the " Rhoetea litora " by Virgil. 4 
 Khoeteum is also mentioned by Livy. 5 On a lower peak of this pro- 
 montory is the tumulus attributed by tradition to Ajax, of which I shall 
 treat hereafter. It deserves particular notice that the names of the two 
 capes, Xtyetov and 'Polretov, do not occur in Homer, and that he only 
 once mentions them where we read that, although the sea-shore was 
 broad, yet it could not contain all the ships, and the people were 
 crowded ; they had therefore drawn them up in rows, and had filled 
 the long mouth of the whole shore as far as it was enclosed by the 
 promontories. 6 
 
 § III. KlVERS OF THE TrOAD. 
 
 (a) The Simois (6 %l/jlo6ls;), now called Doumbrek Su, rises, according 
 to Homer, on Mount Ida, but more precisely on the Cotylus. Virchow, 7 
 who investigated this river together with me, writes of this river as 
 follows : " In its beginning it is a fresh mountain-brook. Its sources lie 
 eastward of the wooded mountains of the Oulou Dagh. From numerous 
 little watercourses, which partly bubble forth from the rock, and some of 
 which form little torrents, two rivulets are at first formed. The larger 
 and longer of them flows in a valley gap, between a prominent spur of the 
 Oulou Dagh, separated from the principal mount by a deep, green meadow 
 valley, and a spur of the tertiary mountain riclge, which descends from 
 Ren Kioi towards Halil Eli, nearly parallel with the ridge of Ehoeteum. 
 The shorter and more southerly rivulet gathers the water from the Kara 
 Your and the mountain ridge which joins it to the Oulou Dagh. Both 
 rivulets join not far above Doumbrek Kioi and form the Doumbrek Su 
 (Simois), which is midway between a small river and a large rivulet. Its 
 bed, which is deeply cut throughout, and proceeds now in shorter, now in 
 longer windings, is at Doumbrek perhaps from 12 to 30 yards wide; but 
 on the 11th of April the water covered only part of the bottom of this 
 bed, and nowhere did its depth exceed 6 inches. We could wade through 
 it without any difficulty. The current is rapid ; the bottom is covered 
 with small pebbles, now and then also with somewhat larger rounded 
 stones from the Oulou Dagh. 8 The valley itself is small, but very fertile. 
 
 1 H. N. v. 33: " fuit et Aeantium, a Rhodiis 
 conditum, in altero cornu, Ajace ibi sepulto, xxx. 
 stad. intervallo a Sigeo." 
 
 2 Herodot. vii. 43 ; Scylax, p. 35 ; Steph. 
 Byz. p. 577 ; Mela, i. 18. 5; Plin. H. N. v. 33 ; 
 Thucyd. iv. 52, viii. 101. 
 
 3 Anthol. Gr. ii. p. 24, ed. Jacobs ; i. p. 254, 
 No. 146, ed. Tauchnitz. 
 
 4 Aen. vi. 595, and Plin. H. N. v. 33. 
 
 5 xxxvii. 37. 
 
 6 //, xiv. 33-36 : 
 
 ou8e yap ou8' eupuy 7rep' ikv i^vvr^aro irdaas 
 
 aiyiaAos urjas xaSeeii/, (TTeluouro 5s Aaof 
 
 t£ pa irpoKpoaaas epvcrav, Kal irX^aav aitaa-i]S 
 
 yiovos cnojxa jxaKpov, oaou crwdpyaQov ai<pai. 
 
 7 Beitrdje zur Landeskw de der Troas, pp. 
 92-96. 
 
 8 In the celebrated passage where the Sca- 
 mander summons the Simois to battle against 
 Achilles, it is said (II. xxi. 311-314): 
 
 aA\' iird/j.vve Tax^Ta, Ka\ ijjLirliT\7}Bi pizQpa 
 vfiaTOS e/c miyecov, irauras 8' vpoQvvov ivavAovs, 
 '/(TT77 8e /xeya Kvjxa, noXvv 8' opvfxaydbv ijpive 
 <piTp£)V Kal Aawf, 'Iva irai><rofj.ev aypiov 'duSpa . . 
 
74 
 
 THE COUNTRY OF THE TROJANS. 
 
 [Chap. I. 
 
 If we then pass the mountain ridge which crosses the valley below Doum- 
 brek Kioi, and descend on its gradually sloping west side to the region of 
 Halil Eli, which abounds with trees and fruit, we find the little river 
 scarcely larger at this village. Here also we ride through it without the 
 horses' feet getting wet above the ankles. The clearness of the water 
 permits us to see the bottom covered with small pebbles and gravel. At 
 a short distance below the village, which is situated on its right bank, 
 the little river divides into two arms. The right or northern arm, after 
 having received the ' Kain-brook of lien Kioi,' — a very small and incon- 
 siderable rivulet, which has only an intermittent flow of water,— forms 
 a large swamp in which it disappears. On the other hand, the left or 
 southern arm approaches more and more to the mountain ridge which ex- 
 pends from Kara Your past Chiblak towards Hissarlik, and it flows pretty 
 near the lower edge of its slope. At first, as long as it flows through the 
 ' Plain,' it has a somewhat deeper bed, whose banks are frequently under- 
 mined and fall off every here and there 5 or 6 ft. ; its breadth varies, but 
 it hardly anywhere exceeds 20 ft. Here and there groups of willows and 
 other bushes grow on the bank and on small islands in the river-bed ; a 
 rich vegetation of shrubs, especially of tamarisks and Vitex agnus-castas, 9 
 extends along its banks. But further on, in proportion as the little river 
 approaches the' foot of the mountain ridge, it divides into more and more 
 arms, whose course, as one easily sees, must be very irregular. One after 
 the other disappears in the large and deep swamp, which, connected at 
 many points with the northern swamp, extends as far as the foot of His- 
 sarlik, and occupies the larger part of the so-called Plain of the Simois. 
 Whilst the ramification of by-rivulets and their disappearance in the great 
 swamp causes a continual diminution of the volume of running water, 
 there nevertheless still remains a ' main arm,' which continues its course 
 along the ridge. "We could still follow it up along the three springs of 
 Troy, though it was there reduced to a little rivulet of 4 to 5 paces in 
 breadth, and with an insignificant, though still rapid, current. Of these 
 three springs, all of which are marked on our Map of the Troad, the first, 
 which runs from a stone-enclosure and has a temperature of 14 0, 6 Celsius 
 = 58°*28 Fahr., is immediately below the ruins of the ancient city wall. 
 The second, whose stone-enclosure is destroyed, and a third, with a 
 well-preserved stone-enclosure and a double outlet, having a temperature 
 of 14°-3 to 15° Celsius = 57°'74 to 59° Fahr., are within a quarter of a 
 mile from the first spring. 
 
 " At the west end of the great swamp formed by the waters of the 
 Simois, a short stream gathers again, and pours into the Kalifatli Asmak. 
 The spot where the gathering of the water takes place is pretty nearly in 
 a straight line drawn from Hissarlik to the In Tepeh Asmak ; that is to 
 say, at the point on the western edge of the swamp which is farthest from 
 Hissarlik. Apparently without any preparation, there is almost immedi- 
 ately a large broad river-bed, with many windings, between steep banks 
 from 6 to 8 ft. high ; this river-bed is interrupted by numerous islands, 
 
 9 &yvos = &youos means sine semine (Theo- 
 phrast. i. p. 264). In the Iliad (xi. 105) the 
 shrub Is called \vyos. Sto rbv 7reci res frdBSovs 
 
 auTrjs svtovov (Dioscorides). See Od. ix. 427 ; 
 x. 166. Hymn, ad Dionys. 13, ed. Miquel, 
 p. 37. 
 
§ III.] 
 
 RIVERS — THE SIMOIS. 
 
 75 
 
 but every here and there it is pretty deep. After a course of scarcely 
 10 minutes the stream empties into the eastern bend of the Kalifatli 
 Asniak, a little above the place where an artificial ditch leads from the 
 Kalifatli Asmak to the In Tepeh Asmak, above a stone bridge which here 
 spans the Kalifatli Asmak in the direction of Koum Kioi. No water can 
 flow through the ditch except during the inundations." 
 
 The Simois is mentioned seven times in the Bind. Thus the poet says : 
 " But when they (Here and Athene) approached Troy and the two flowing 
 streams, where the Simois and Scamander mingle their currents, there 
 Here, the white-armed goddess, stopped the horses, releasing them from 
 the chariot, and she poured a thick cloud around them, and the Simois 
 sprouted ambrosia for their pasture." 10 Again : " Simois also, where many 
 ox-hide shields and crested helms fell down in the dust." 1 Again : " Black 
 as a storm, Ares cried on the other side, now shouting shrilly to the 
 Trojans from the citadel, now running along the Simois unto Calli- 
 colone." 2 Again: "He (Scamander) grew yet more furious against 
 the son of Peleus, and, lifting high the crested wave of (his) stream, 
 shouted to the Simois." 3 Again: "Descending from Ida along the 
 banks of the Simois." 4 Lastly : " The dread battle-shout of Trojans 
 and Achaeans was left alone ; and many times did the fight sway hither 
 and thither over the plain, as they pointed against each other their 
 brazen spears between Simois and the floods of Xanthus." 5 The river 
 is also mentioned by Aeschylus, 6 Ptolemy, 7 Stephanus Byzantinus, 8 
 Mela, 9 Pliny, 10 Horace, 1 Propertius, 2 and Virgil. 3 
 
 The identity of this river with the Simois of Homer is confirmed by 
 Strabo, 4 who states, on the authority of Demetrius of Scepsis : 
 
 " From the mountains of Ida two ridges advance to the sea, the one 
 
 10 II. v. 773-776: 
 ciAA' ore 5); Tpoitjv l£ov iroraixdo re pioure, 
 flXi pods ZZi/xoets avfxfldXXeTOV 7j8e ^Ka/xavSpos 
 evd* Xinrovs ecrT7]are Bed XevKdoXevos "Hprj 
 Xvcraa' e| bx*uv, irept 8' i)4pa ttovXvv exeuei/* 
 
 1 II. xii. 22, 23 : 
 
 Kal ^t/xoeis, bdi iroXXa fiodypia Ka!i TpvcpaXtiai 
 Kainreaov eV kovitjo-i . . . 
 
 2 II. xx. 52, 53 : 
 
 u£u /cot' a.KpordrT]S ttoXios Tpueaai KeXevcav, 
 &XXot€ irap ~2,ip.6zvTi decov iirl KaXXiKoXuvy. 
 
 3 II. xxi. 305-307 : 
 
 aAA' ert jxaXXov 
 X^ero HrjXe'icavi, Kopvcrae Se Kv/xa pooio 
 v\p6a' deipo/xevos, ~2,t/x6evTi 8e /ce'/cAer' avaas . . . 
 
 4 II. iv. 475 : 
 
 'iS^ei/ KaTiovcra nap oxfyfi ~2,i(xoevTOS . . . 
 
 5 II. vi. 1-4 : 
 
 Tpwccv 8' olwQri Kal 'Ax^ioiv (pvXoiris alvi) • 
 iroXXa 8' op' %vQa Kal ej/0' '(Quae /xdxv ireSioto, 
 aXXi)Xcvv lOvvo/xevcov x a ^- K, hp ea 8oGpa, 
 p-ecrariyvs ~2,ijx6evTos t'Se "ZdvQoio podwv. 
 
 6 Agamemnon, v. 696, ed. Tauchnitz. 
 
 7 v. 2, 3. 8 P. 601. 9 i. 18. 3. 
 10 II. N. v. 33. 1 Epod. 13. 21. 2 iii. 1. 27. 
 
 3 Aen. i. 618 ; v. 262, 473. 
 
 4 Strabo, xiii. p. 597 : anb 8e tt)s koto 
 
 tovs tottovs 'iSai'as bpeiv7]s duo (pr\o~lv ayK&vas 
 eKTe'lueodai Trpbs daXaTTav, rbu fxlv ev0v 'Poi- 
 relov rbv 8e ^.lyelov, iroiovvTas e| dfxcpolv ypafx- 
 fxrjv TJiJ.iKUKAiwb'ri ' TeXevTav 8' iv T65 7re8ta>, 
 roaouTou airexovTas tt)s 6aXaTT7]s ocrov rb vvv 
 "\Xiov. tovto /xlv Si] fx.€Ta£v Trjs TeXevrrjs rwv 
 Xex^^vTOiv ayK&vwv elvat, rb 8e 7raAat^f KTicr/xa 
 fxeTa^v tt)s apxvs ' dTroXa/xfidvecrdai 8' ivrbs 
 t6 re 'Si/xoelaiov ireS'iov 8t' ov 6 "Zi/xoeis (peperai, 
 Kal rb 2,Ka[xdvb'piov 8t' ou 2,Ka/xav8pos pet. tovto 
 Se Kal iH'ivs Tpoo'iKOv XeyeTai, ical tovs irXeiaTovs 
 dywvas 6 ttolt]T7]s iuravda airodlScoffi ' 7rAoTure- 
 pov yap io~Ti, Kal tovs ovo/xa^ofxevovs tottovs 
 ivravQa SeiKvv/xevovs opwfxeu, Tbv epiveSu, Tbv 
 too Aio~vr}Tov Tacpov, ttjv BaTieiav, Tb tov v IAou 
 orrj/xa. ol 8e TTOTajxol Te 'S.Kajxavdpos Kal 6 
 ~2,ip.06is, 6 fxev tw ~2,tyetrv TrXriaidaas 6 8e 
 'PojT6ta?, fxiKpbv efXTTpoaQev tov vvv 'IAtov crvjx- 
 fidXXovcriv, eTr' eVi Tb 'S.'iyeiov tKStdoaai Kal 
 TTOiovo-i Ti)v o'To/xaXi/xv'rjv KaXov/xevr]V. Sieipyei 
 8' eKaTepov twv Xex^^ VT03V veSiccv airb OaTepov 
 [xeyas tis al>xh v ^ipi)^vwv ayKcivwv eV 
 
 eu^etas, airb tov vvv 'IX'iov Ti)V apxh v %X UV 
 avjxcpvris avTcp, tcivo/xcvos 8' %a>s ri)s Kefipr}- 
 vias Kal aTTOTeXwv Tb £ ypd/x/xa Trpbs tovs 
 €KaTepoc6ev ayKwvas. 
 
76 
 
 THE COUNTRY OF THE TROJANS. 
 
 [Chap. I. 
 
 terminating in the promontory of Ehoeteum, the other in that of Sigeum ; 
 they form with it a semicircle, hut terminate in the Plain at the same 
 distance from the sea as Novum Ilium. This city, therefore, lies between 
 the two extremities of the ridges already named, but the ancient town 
 between their starting-points ; but the inner space comprises as well the 
 Plain of the Simois, through which the Simois flows, as the Plain of the 
 Scamander, through which the Scamander flows. The latter is properly 
 called the Trojan Plain, and the poet makes it the theatre of most of the 
 battles ; for it is broader, and here we see the places mentioned by the 
 poet, — the fig hill, the tomb of Aesyetes, the Batieia, and the tumulus of 
 Ilus. But the rivers Scamander and Simois, of which the one approaches 
 Sigeum, the other Ehoeteum, join at a short distance below Ilium, and 
 discharge near Sigeum, where they form the so-called Stomalimne. The 
 two above-mentioned plains are separated by a long neck of land, which 
 issues directly from the two ridges already named ; beginning from the 
 projection on which Novum Ilium is situated, and attaching itself to it 
 (avfi(f)vr]s avra)), this neck of land advances (southward) to join Cebrenia, 
 thus forming with the two other chains the letter €." 
 
 The description of Pliny 5 agrees with that of Strabo : " dein portus 
 Achaeorum, in quern influit Xanthus Simoenti junctus : stagnumque prius 
 faciens Palaescamander." 
 
 The identity of this river with the Homeric Simois is further con- 
 firmed by Virgil, who tells us that Andromache, after Hector's death, 
 had again married Helenus, another son of Priam, who became king 
 of Chaonia : 
 
 "Ante urbem in luco falsi Simoentis ad undam 
 Libabat cineri Andromache, Manesque vocabat 
 Hectoreum ad tumulura, viiitli quern cespite inanem 
 Et geminas causaui lacrymis sacraverat aras." 6 
 
 Thus Hector's tomb was in a grove near the Simois ; but, according to 
 Strabo, 7 Hector's tomb was in a grove at Ophrynium, and this is also 
 confirmed by Lycophron in his Cassandra. But Ophrynium is in close 
 proximity to the river of which we are now speaking, and which, from 
 this and all other testimonies, can be none other than the Simois. 
 
 As the present name of the Simois, Doumbrek, is believed not to be a 
 Turkish word, some take it for a corruption of the name Thymbrius, and 
 use it to prove that the river— which runs through the north-eastern 
 valley of the Plain of Troy, and falls into the Kalifatli Asmak (the ancient 
 bed of the Scamander) in front of Ilium — is the Thymbrius, and cannot 
 possibly be the Simois. 
 
 To this I reply, that there is no example of a Greek word ending in os 
 being rendered in Turkish by a word ending in h ; further that Doumbrek 
 
 must certainly be a corruption of the two Turkish words (J^j\d 
 
 Don bareh. Don signifies " ice," and bareh " possession " or " habitation : " 
 the two words therefore mean much the same thing as " containing ice," 
 
 5 //. iV. v. 33. 6 Acneid. iii. 302-305. 
 
 7 xiii. p. 595: ir\r}<rlov 5' Igt\ rb 'Oippifiov, c<f>' $ rb rov"Eicropos &Aaos iv TCfpHpixvti t6 ttoj" 
 
§ III.] 
 
 RIVERS— THE THYMBRIUS. 
 
 77 
 
 and the name might be explained by the fact, that the inundations caused 
 by the Simois are frequently frozen over in winter, when the whole 
 north-eastern plain forms a sheet of ice. 
 
 But if in classical times this river was called Simois, there can be no 
 doubt whatever of its identity with the Homeric Simois, because — as 
 MacLaren 8 justly observes — in all parts of the world rivers have preserved 
 their names with wonderful persistency in the midst of linguistic change 
 and political revolution. An ancient name may indeed be lost, but, if it 
 still exists, it would be difficult to conceive how it could possibly be 
 transferred from one river to another. 
 
 No ford of the Simois is mentioned in the Iliad, though the armies 
 must have passed the river constantly in marching to or from the plain 
 between this river and the Scamander, where all the battles were fought. 
 But though the Simois may perhaps have had a slightly larger quantity 
 of water in ancient times, before the invention of water-mills, it can 
 never have been of much consequence. Therefore, there was no need to 
 speak of a ford. 
 
 (b) The Thymbrius, called 6 Sv/x(3pto^ by Strabo 9 and Eustathius, 10 is 
 a small river, which originates in the immediate vicinity of Mount Kara 
 Your, and receives the drainage of ten or twelve valleys, pouring at a 
 right angle into the Scamander opposite Bounarbashi. Its present name 
 is Kemar Su, from the Greek word Kafxdpa (vault), and the Turkish word 
 " su " (water), the river being crossed, at about 3 miles above its con- 
 fluence, by a Koman aqueduct. Homer does not mention this river at all, 
 though he mentions the town of Thymbre. 1 
 
 The site of this ancient town corresponds with the farm at Akshi Kioi 
 on the banks of the Thymbrius, the proprietor of which, Mr. Frank 
 Calvert, has made excavations there, and has found inscriptions which can 
 leave no doubt of its identity. The whole place is strewn with archaic 
 Hellenic potsherds. The height of the site above the level of the sea, 
 at the place where Mr. Calvert's farmhouse stands, is, according to 
 M. Burnouf's measurements, 63-35 metres or 207 ft. Strabo states that 
 close to the confluence of the Thymbrius and Scamander, and at a distance 
 of 50 stadia from Novum Ilium, stood the famous temple of the Thymbrian 
 Apollo, 2 which, as my friend Professor A. H. Sayce, who lately visited the 
 Troad, remarks, 3 must be identical with the almost entirely artificial mound 
 of Hanai Tepeh, which I have excavated in company with Mr. Calvert, and 
 of which I shall treat hereafter. According to M. Burnouf's measurement, 
 the height of the Hanai Tepeh is 87*75 metres = 285 ft. above the level of 
 the sea ; the confluence of the Thymbrius and the Scamander being 24 * 5 
 metres = 80 ft. 5 in. The distance given by Strabo is perfectly correct. 
 
 M. Burnouf makes the following remarks upon the river : — " The 
 
 8 Observations on the Topography of the Plain 
 of Troy. See Barker Webb, Topographic de ia 
 Troade, p. 47. 
 
 9 xiii. p. 598. 
 
 10 Ad Horn. II. x. 430. 
 1 II. x. 430 : 
 
 trpbs ®vfx$pt)s 8' Zhaxov Avkiol Mvaol t' ay4- 
 pa>X 01 - 
 
 (" Towards Thymbre the Lycians and the lordly 
 Mysians had their place allotted."; 
 
 2 xiii. p. 598 : ir\r\(Tiov yap iari to TreStov 7} 
 @v/j.f}pa Kai 6 di avTov pecau iroTa/j-hs Qv/xfipios, 
 e/j-fldWcw ets rhv ~2,KOLfxauSpov Kara, rb &u/x8naiov 
 'AiroWowos Up6v. 
 
 3 In the Academy, Oct. 18, 1879. 
 
78 
 
 THE COUNTRY OF THE TROJANS. 
 
 [Chap. I. 
 
 Thymbrius flows in the hollow of a valley between the hills of Akshi 
 Kioi and the heights to the south. It is about 30 ft. broad. Its banks 
 are steep ; it is perfectly limpid, and is overshadowed by large trees. Its 
 banks, which are from 10 to 12 ft. high, show two very distinct layers : 
 first, a modern alluvium, consisting of earth washed down by the rains 
 from the hills ; secondly, below this, a thick layer of plastic clay, 
 analogous to that which forms the soil of the plain of the Scamander. 
 The confluence of the Thymbrius and the Scamander is not difficult to 
 determine, 4 since the banks are high. During the inundations, the 
 great polygon formed by the Thymbrius, the Scamander, and the hills to 
 the east, becomes covered with water, which runs with great impetuosity 
 in an easterly direction ; inundates the swamp (now rendered salubrious) 
 to the north of Akshi Kioi ; pours into the large bed of the Kalifatli 
 Asmak, which is identical with the ancient bed of the Scamander ; and 
 forms other streams, which flow in the same direction. On the 18th of 
 May, 1 879, we saw this whole plain covered with dead trees and branches, 
 which had been carried away in the same direction, and caught by the 
 bushes of the agnus-castus and tamarisk." 
 
 (c) The Scamander (o l/cd/xavSpos, as it was called in the language of 
 men, according to Homer, but Xanthus, " the yellow stream," as it was 
 termed by the gods 5 ) is the modern Mendere, a plain corruption of the 
 name Scamander. 
 
 The punning etymology of Eustathius 6 makes %Kd/xavBpo^, atcdfifia 
 dvSpbs (Hpatc\eov<;) rbv advOov etc 7779 irporjyayev, since "the excavation 
 of the man (Heracles) brought the Xanthus forth out of the earth." This, 
 of course, is mere trifling ; but the termination of the name is one which 
 we find in many of the river-names of Asia Minor, such as Maeander, 
 Alander, and the like. It is possible that the title by which the river 
 was known in the language of the gods — that is, of the Greek settlers — 
 was a translation of its native name. 
 
 As before mentioned, 7 Homer makes the Scamander rise from two 
 springs— one lukewarm, the other cold — close to the city wall; while 
 in another passage, already quoted, he correctly makes it rise in Mount 
 Ida. I have already described its sources from my own inspection of 
 them. 8 Strabo asserts, on the authority of Demetrius of Scepsis — who, 
 as he says, was a native of the country — that the Scamander flows from a 
 single source in Mount Cotylus, one of the peaks of Ida, about 120 stadia 
 above Scepsis, and that the Granicus and Aesepus originate from the 
 same mountain from several springs, in such close proximity to the 
 source of the Scamander, that all are within a space of 20 stadia, the 
 Scamander flowing in a westerly, the two others in a northerly direction, 
 and the length of the Aesepus being about 500 stadia. 9 He confirms the 
 . 
 
 4 This means that the banks of the river are tSttoou, wj av i-mxwptos av-fip, 6 Arj^Tptos rore 
 not obliterated, and do not confound themselves fj.ev ovtws \4yei irepl avruv "ecm yap \6(pos 
 with the plain. tzs T7js "1877s KotvAos' virepKeirai 8' ovros e/ca- 
 
 5 II. xx. 73, 74: t6v ttov nal eUoai crrati'iois 2/dj^ews, e£ ov o 
 
 . . . iroTaubs PaduMv-ns, re ^Kafiavdpos pet /cat 6 Tpavixos, kol Aio-qnos, 
 
 %v "EavQov icaAeovon Qeoi, aVSpes 8e ^ndixavSpov. 01 fiev irpbs &pKT0U Kcd t))V Uponoi'TiSa, 4k 
 
 6 Ad II. xx. 74. 7 See p. 55. 8 See p. 58. irAeiovcDv irr\yS}v o-vAAei&6iJ.ei>oi, 6 5e ^.Kd^xavhpos 
 • Strabo, xiii. p. 602 : e/xireipoi 8' tiv twu iirl Zvcriv e/c jxias Tnr\yr\s ' ncurai 8' a.A\r)Aais 
 
§ III.] 
 
 RIVERS— THE SCAMANDER. 
 
 79 
 
 fact that the Scamander and Simois meet, and says that the Scamander 
 falls into the Hellespont near Sigeum : " But the rivers Scamander and 
 Simois, of which the former approaches Sigeum, the latter Khoeteum, 
 join a little below Novum Ilium and fall into the sea at Sigeum, where 
 they form the so-called Stomalimne " 10 (i.e. " lake at the mouth "). 
 
 He further says that : " A little beyond lies the village of the Ilians 
 (Wiewv Kcofjit)), where the ancient Ilium is believed to have formerly 
 stood, 30 stadia distant from the present city." 1 And again : " There 
 are neither hot springs in this place, nor is the source of the Scamander 
 here, but in the mountains ; and there are not two sources, but only one. 
 It seems therefore that the hot springs have disappeared, but that the 
 cold spring escapes from the Scamander by a subterranean channel, and 
 rises again in this place (before 'lXcecov Kw^) ; or else that this water 
 is merely called a source of the Scamander, because it is near to it : for 
 several sources of one and the same river are so called." 2 
 
 The length of the Scamander from its sources to its mouth in the 
 Hellespont close to Koum Kaleh is, according to Gr. von Eckenbrecher, 3 in 
 a straight line 10 German miles 4 (= 47 English miles nearly); accord- 
 ing to TchihatchefF, 5 20 French leagues. The sources of the Scamander 
 are 650 metres (2138 ft.) above the sea ; the fall of the current is on an 
 average 21 metres ( = 69 ft.) to the league, which is equal to 30 ft. per 
 mile. 6 But the fall varies with the locality : thus from the sources to 
 the district of Ine (Ene), and even to Bounarbashi, the fall, of the river is 
 very rapid, but further on it is comparatively insignificant. 
 
 M. Burnouf, who has studied the ancient and modern beds of the 
 Scamander with great care, sends me the following note on the subject : — 
 " At the time of inundation the Scamander bursts with great impetuosity 
 through its narrow pass between the rocks of Bounarbashi, carrying 
 with it sand and gravel, which it heaps up over pretty large spaces of 
 ground, and which are sufficient to modify its course. Its course is 
 therefore changeable : it takes a fixed direction only after its confluence 
 with the Thymbrius, which, when I measured it at the end of May, was 
 24J metres (80 ft. 5 in.) above the sea. This elevation is highly impor- 
 tant from all points of view, because it gives the slope of the Plain of 
 
 irAr](Tid(ovcriv f iv tfnoai ctciSiW irepiex^H-evai 
 Siaar-fffxaTi' irKsiarov 8' h(pio~Tr)K£v airb rrjs 
 apxvs to toG Aiaryirov tcAos, c^eSoV ti Kal 
 TreuraKOfflovs ara'Btovs" 
 
 10 xiii. p. 597 : ol 8e irorafxol o re ^icd/xav^pos 
 Kal 6 'Zi/j.deis, 6 /xev rep 2tye/y -nAiqaidcras, 6 8e 
 Ttji 'PoiT€i<y, /xiKpbv e/jiirpoadev rod vvv 'lAlov 
 av/x/SdAAovmv, cTt' iirl to 1,'iyeiov e/cStSoWt /cat 
 iroiovcri tt)v ^To/xaXi/uivriv KaAovjx4vr\v. 
 
 1 xiii. p. 597: 'T7rep 8e toutou /xiKpbv rj twv 
 'lAteW K&jXT] icrriv, iv f) vojxi^rai to iraAaibv 
 "lAiov iSpvadai irp6T€pov, rpiaKOvra araSiovs 8te- 
 Xov airb Tfjs vvv ttSAccos. 
 
 2 Strabo, xiii. p. 602 : ovre yap dep/xa. vvv iv 
 T63 toVco cbpiaKiTaiy ovQ' 77 tov 'SKafxdvopov 7777777 
 ivTavda, aAA' iv T<j5 upei, Kal fila, aAA' ov 8uo. 
 to uei/ olv Oepixa e/cAeAet(|>0at cikos, to 8e \pvxpbv 
 
 Kara Sidfivaiv vireicpiov e/c tou 'S.itafxdvb'pov Kara. 
 tovt' avariKkziv to x 03 9 l0V i % K0 ^ to irA-qcriov 
 elvai tov ^Ka/xdvdpov Kal tovto rb vdcop Aeye- 
 aQai tov ^ZKaixavSpov mjyrjv ovtu yap A4yovTGi 
 TrAetous 7777701} tou ainov iroTajxov. 
 
 3 Die Lage des Homerischen Troja, p. 4. 
 
 4 The German mile, of 15 to the degree, is 
 equal to 4 English geographical miles, or nearly 
 4§ statute miles. 
 
 5 Asie Mineure: Description physique, stati- 
 stique, archeologique, &c, p. 78. 
 
 6 In his calculation TchihatchefF has no doubt 
 taken into account all the windings of the 
 Scamander, because, if the fall of the current 
 were to be reckoned in a straight line from the 
 sources, it would exceed 46 feet per mile. 
 
80 
 
 TEE COUNTRY OF THE TROJANS. 
 
 [Chap. T. 
 
 Troy. In order to obtain the average slope in each metre, it is sufficient 
 to take on our Map the distance in a straight line from the confluence 
 of the Thymbrius to the shore of the sea near the Stomalimne, and to 
 divide this distance by 24 m. 50 cent. In this way we shall obtain the 
 number of millimetres to each metre, representing the average slope of 
 the plain. In order to obtain the fall of the river, it is necessary to 
 follow all its sinuosities on the map. The number of metres thus obtained 
 will be greater ; nevertheless, when divided by 24 m. 50 cent., the result 
 gives a considerable average rapidity to the stream. During the inunda- 
 tion this rapidity is much greater, because the elevation of 24 m. 50 cent, 
 would be brought to at least 26 m. 50 cent., or 27 metres, by the rise of 
 the waters. During the inundation the Thymbrius carries a considerable 
 quantity of water, because in spite of its high banks its bed is then full 
 of water, which overflows into the plain. At its confluence, the Sca- 
 mander has a breadth of about 150 metres = 492 ft. Its banks are not 
 so high as those of the Thymbrius, because there is no upper alluvial 
 layer, as in the banks of the latter. Thus the lower part of the valley 
 of the Thymbrius is elevated by about 2 metres above the plain of the 
 Scamander at the same place. The altitude of the plain of the Scamander 
 at its confluence is 27 m. 22 cent. = 90 ft. 9 in. After its confluence, the 
 present bed of the Scamander becomes more contracted ; the river flows 
 from thence between two steep banks of plastic clay. At the ferry near 
 Kalifatli these banks are about 1 metre = 3 ft. 4 in. high ; the breadth of 
 the river there is only about 30 m. = 98 ft. 5 in. ; it is deep in its whole 
 breadth. At the bridge of Koum Kaleh the bed of the Scamander has 
 a breadth of 117 metres = 384 ft., of which— in the middle season between 
 the rising of the waters and the drought — about one-half is occupied 
 by the water. 
 
 " The ancient led of the Scamander, which is identical with the 
 Kalifatli Asmak, is characterized by fallen banks, want of level ground, 
 and little hills of alluvial sand, while the new bed has steep banks, 
 and no alluvial sandhills except at Koum Kaleh, near its mouth. The 
 accumulations of sand and gravel have nearly obliterated the ancient 
 bed for some distance below the confluence of the Thymbrius. The 
 westerly winds have extended these sands on the east side of the plain ; 
 their rotatory currents have heaped them up in the form of small hills 
 along almost the whole length of the ancient bed. I have myself witnessed 
 such a phenomenon. The last inundation had left a layer, a fraction of 
 an inch deep, on the submerged lands; the sun had dried it, and the 
 wind, which carried the sand away towards the east, formed of it small 
 heaps round the bushes of the ancient bed of the Scamander, and brought 
 the clay of the plain again to light. The translocation of the river-bed 
 has been favoured by the configuration of the soil. The spurs of the 
 heights on the east side of the Plain have in their lower part a projection, 
 which slopes down to the river and forms there a steep bank, while the 
 small plains between them terminate in a swamp. In front of Novum 
 Ilium the ancient bed of the Scamander passes between a bank of this 
 kind and a somewhat elevated hill of alluvial river-sand, after which the 
 
§ III.] 
 
 RIVERS— THE ANCIENT SCAMANDER. 
 
 81 
 
 bed again extends and has a breadth of not less than 200 m. = G56 ft. 
 A little further down it encounters the slope which descends from 
 Hissarlik towards the west, and which forces it to make a bend almost 
 at a right angle ; afterwards comes another bend, which brings it back 
 to its first direction. In fact, 
 in front of Troy, the plain rises 
 suddenly, forming from b to b a 
 sort of bank, 5 ft. high at least ; 
 from this point the ancient bed 
 proceeds straight towards the 
 bridge below Hissarlik. 
 
 "At the bridge the plain is 
 15 m. = 49 ft. 2 in. above the 
 level of the sea ; the breadth of 
 the ancient bed is there 93 metres 
 = 305 ft. A shaft sunk at this 
 spot on the right bank has proved 
 that the bed of the river was 
 once larger, and that it has been 
 narrowed by the accumulation of 
 the sand of the river. This sand 
 contains no marine deposits; it 
 is composed of the detritus of the rocks which form the massive block of 
 Mount Ida. The space comprised between the bridge in front of Hissarlik 
 and the small hill, which we hold to be identical with the Tumulus 
 of Bus, presents most interesting features. About 500 m. = 1640 ft. 
 below the bridge, there rises on the left bank of the ancient bed of the 
 Scamander a large hill of river-sand, the western part of which is 
 covered with ruins and debris, which mark the site of an ancient town ; 
 remnants of the wall are still extant. Very probably this is Polium, 
 which, according to Strabo, the Astypalaeans, who inhabited the city of 
 Ehoeteum, built on the Simois ; it was afterwards called Polisma. Not 
 being built on a place fortified by nature, it was soon destroyed. 7 
 
 " It is true that this site is not exactly on the Simois, but imme- 
 diately in front of its mouth in the ancient bed of the Scamander. 
 The site is now partly occupied by the miserable village of Koum Kioi 
 (Village of Sand), which is not inhabited in summer on account of the 
 pestilential air; on the eastern part of the site is a Turkish cemetery. 
 Between this cemetery and the ancient Scamander is flat ground, a sort 
 of lagoon, which extends to the river. On the east side of the ancient 
 Scamander is the plain of the Simois, which runs out to the former river 
 in a bank, 2 metres = 6 ft. 7 in. higher than the left bank. Immediately 
 below this is the confluence of the Simois with the ancient Scamander. 
 As the latter bends suddenly at this spot to the west, its bed appears to 
 be the continuation of the Simois, which flows from the east : this fact has 
 
 7 Strabo, xiii. p. 601: irpuroi fihp oZv 'Actu- irpbs rco 'Sipoei'Ti Ti6\iov, t vvv Ka\^7rai T\6\i<rixa y 
 iraAate?s, oi to 'Poheiov Karacrxovres, avvyKiGav qvk eV evepnu roVy 5tb KaTcairdcrdr] raxeoos. 
 
 a 
 
 No. 19. Plan showing the ancient Bed of the Scamander 
 in front of Troy. 
 
° Z THE COUNTRY OF THE TROJANS. [Chap. L 
 
 caused the error of the topographers, who make the Simois run directly 
 to the sea through the bed of the river In Tepeh Asmak. In this bend 
 the bank of the ancient bed of the Scamander, on the side of Koum Kioi, 
 
 No. 20. The Dunes of the Ancient Scamander. 
 
 The confluence of the Simois and the Ancient Scamander is between Troy and the hill to the north-east of Koum 
 Kioi. The plain of the Simois is there 2 metres higher than the plain of the Scamander. In front of 
 this confluence is a large dune of sand, which has been cut through by the river between Koum Kioi and the 
 Tomb of Ilu8; the depression between the plain (8-33 metres) and the hill of the Kalyvia gave a passage 
 to the river, which then discharged itself into the bed of the In Tepeh. Between the Tumulus of IIus and thfcJ 
 bed of the In Tepeh can be seen the sand which has filled up this depression. (The numbers indicate the 
 altitudes in metres.) 
 
 is effaced and confounded with the plain; on the opposite side it has a 
 high bank. The land which terminates in this steep bank rises gradually 
 
§ III.] 
 
 RIVERS— THE ANCIENT SCAMANDER. 
 
 83 
 
 towards the hills of In Tepeh, and opposes an insuperable barrier to the 
 waters of the Siniois. Afterwards comes the bridge of Koum Kioi, to the 
 north of the alluvial hill of river-sand. A shaft sunk near the cemetery 
 reached the plastic clay on a level with the plain, and proved that the hill 
 of sand at Koum Kioi is really formed by fluvial deposits. 
 
 " To the north of the bridge of Koum Kioi the bank is 10 metres 56 c. 
 = 34 feet 8 inches above the level of the sea, and the soil maintains 
 this elevation for a distance of about 1000 metres = 3281 feet to the 
 west. This plateau terminates in the remnant of a conical tumulus 
 which, from its situation, must be identical with the Tomb of Ilus, 
 repeatedly referred to in the Iliad. But the shaft sunk in it has given 
 no proof of its claim to be a sepulchre; it rather appears to have been 
 a mere hill of river-sand, which has been transformed by tradition into a 
 tumulus. In its present ruined state this tumulus is only 1 m. = 3 ft. 4 in. 
 high ; but the soil on which it stands consists of river-sand, and is more 
 than 2 m. = 6 ft. 7 in. above the mean height of the water. For a 
 distance of more than 200 m. = 656 ft. to the west of the Tomb of Ilus, 
 the bank of the ancient Scamander consists of river-sand ; afterwards it 
 assumes again its ordinary character of plastic clay. There is therefore 
 on this spot a barrier of sand, through which the river has dug its 
 bed. From the Tomb of Ilus this barrier extends to the north for a 
 space of more than 500 m. = 1640 ft. in length, and of a great breadth. 
 This space of ground is under cultivation, but the poverty and scantiness 
 of its grain offer a striking contrast to the rich crops which are grown 
 on the clay of the plain to the east and west. At a distance of 500 m. = 
 1640 ft. is a well on the border of this field of sand ; the altitude of this 
 well is no more than 7 m. 23 cent. = 23 ft. 9 in. above the sea — that is 
 to say, it is lower than the level of the river, which at the Tomb of Ilus 
 is 8 m. 30 cent. = 27 ft. 3 in. above the sea. It is therefore evident that, 
 if this sand were removed, the surface of the clay below it would form 
 a large channel, through which the river would flow off. This depression 
 in the ground terminates in the bed of the In Tepeh Asmak. It may 
 therefore be admitted, with very great probability, that at the time when 
 the hillocks of river-sand at Koum Kioi and the Tomb of Ilus had not 
 yet obstructed the ancient Scamander, its waters flowed to the north and 
 poured through the present bed of the In Tepeh into the sea. This 
 invasion of the sand has forced the river to bore its new bed to the west. 
 This conclusion has the more probability, as the general level of the 
 great plain, to the west of the In Tepeh Asmak, is higher than the surface 
 of the sandy depression. 
 
 " If, at the time of the Trojan war, the principal stream of the 
 Scamander occupied the large river-bed, which still serves to carry its 
 waters during the period of inundation, the change just described must 
 have taken place a short time afterwards. This appears to be conclu- 
 sively shown from the word Stomalimne (pool at the mouth) employed 
 by Strabo, because this word shows that there was the mouth of a river 
 in the Stomalimne at the time of this geographer, or at least at that 
 of Demetrius of Scepsis (about 180 B.C.). 
 
84 
 
 THE COUNTRY OF THE TROJANS. 
 
 [Chap. I 
 
 " Below the Tomb of Ilus, the ancient Scamander flows between very- 
 high vertical banks, which indicate that the bed is relatively of recent 
 formation. At the wooden bridge above the Stomalimne, the altitude of 
 the plain is not more than 2 m. 77 c. = 8 ft. 10 in.; the breadth of the 
 ancient Scamander is there 45 m. = 147 ft. 8 in. 
 
 "The Stomalimne is a pool about 800 m. =2625 ft. long and 200 
 to 300 m. = 656 to 984 ft. broad on the average. Into this pool flow 
 the waters of the Kalifatli Asmak, which is identical with the ancient 
 Scamander. This pool communicates by a narrow channel with the 
 Hellespont, and its water is brackish. The clay of the plain extends 
 on the right of the pool to the sea, and borders it with vertical banks. 
 On the left of the pool — that is to say, on the west side — the clay ceases 
 about 300 m. = 984 ft. short of the sea-shore ; the space which follows 
 forms a triangular neck of land, which terminates at the channel of 
 the Stomalimne. This neck of land is an undulating sandbank, the 
 hollows or cavities of which are 50 centimetres = 1 ft. 8 in. above the 
 level of the sea, whilst its projections are from 1 to 2 metres = 3 ft. 4 in. 
 to 6 ft. 7 in. above the sea-level. I sank a shaft 1 metre = 3 ft. 4 in. deep 
 into one of these hollows, and thus penetrated helow the level of the sea. 
 The upper layer, which consisted of grey sand, is only 2 centimetres deep ; 
 after that comes a dark blue sand mixed with many roots of plants ; 
 below this I found pure dark blue sand, of older date and a marshy cha- 
 racter. These layers are obviously produced by river silt ; they contain 
 no marine deposits, and no stones. The space occupied by this undu- 
 lating sandbank is very small ; the soil of it appears to be formed in the 
 same manner as the alluvium of Koum Kaleh, but apparently it cannot 
 extend further into the sea, because the current of the Hellespont tends 
 to maintain it in its actual limits. The shaft, having been dug below the 
 level of the sea, gradually filled with water up to that level : this water 
 was at first turbid, but it soon became clear, and had a hardly percep- 
 tible brackish taste; it therefore did not come from the sea, but from 
 the Stomalimne." 
 
 Professor Yirchow also affirms that he has found in the Plain of Troy 
 nothing which tells in favour either of a marine formation of the soil, 
 or of the growth and increase of the plain towards the Hellespont. 
 In a long and learned dissertation he 8 proves beyond any doubt that 
 the hydrography of the Plain of Troy must have been at the time of 
 Pliny and Strabo much the same as it is now, and that when, in following 
 up the Trojan coast from south to north, Pliny 9 says, — " Scamander 
 amnis navigabilis, et in promontorio quondam Sigeum oppidum. Dein 
 portus Achaeorum, in quern influit Xanthus Simoenti junctus : stag- 
 numque prius faciens Palaescamander," — he cannot mean by the ancient 
 Scamander any other river but the In Tepeh Asmak ; by the " Xanthus 
 Simoenti junctus " the Kalifatli Asmak, into which in his time, as now, 
 the Simois flowed ; and by " Scamander " the great river near Sigeum. 
 
 Professor Yirchow says : "There can be no doubt whatever that the 
 
 8 landeskunde, &c, pp. 124-140. 
 
 9 II. N. v. 33. 
 
§ III.] 
 
 RIVERS — THE ANCIENT SCAMANDER. 
 
 85 
 
 volume of water which once flowed in the bed of the Kalifatli Asmak was 
 much larger than that which now flows in it, even at the period of the 
 inundations. Its bed answers so well to a great and powerfully working 
 stream, that the present river appears only as a residue of its former 
 wealth. Where was formerly water, there are now broad edges of bank 
 overgrown with bushes, and now and then showing deeply-indented 
 borders. In places here and there are still deep bays, of whose origin 
 the present current offers no explanation. In many places, especially on 
 the left bank, are rows of sand-hills, which must once have been formed 
 by alluvium; they are at present so high that even their foot is never 
 reached by the water. The common sources of the Asmak in the Duden 
 swamp, close to Akshi Kioi, are not copious enough to feed a large river. 
 Now, in the region of the confluence of the Thymbrius and further 
 down, broad and for the most part dry water-beds branch off from the 
 Scamander, extending to the Kalifatli Asmak close to those sources, 
 and even now, at the time of high water, receiving the overflowing water 
 of the Scamander. But even these merely temporary affluents are not 
 sufficient to make the Kalifatli Asmak so impetuous as it must once have 
 been, judging by the testimony of its banks. This could only happen 
 again, if the main volume of the Scamander were let into it. Has 
 this ever taken place ? A glance at Spratt's map shows in fact that 
 the main * winter-bed,' which leads from the confluence of the Thymbrius 
 to the Kalifatli Asmak, is the direct continuation of the Scamander, as 
 this river is seen after having flowed around the Bali Dagh and entered 
 the Plain. If the line of the river-course, the direction of which is 
 here almost directly to the north, be prolonged, it comes in a straight 
 line to the sources in the Duden. Nothing, therefore, is more probable 
 than that the Scamander once took this course, and that the Kalifatli 
 Asmak represents the further course of the Scamander at that time. 
 Later on it may have displaced this bed by its own alluvial deposits, 
 and may have pierced a new bed more to the west through the Plain." 
 
 Further on, 10 Professor Yirchow thinks it perfectly certain that, 
 immediately below Koum Kioi, the ancient Scamander (in the bed of the 
 Kalifatli Asmak) turned eastward, and that it poured into the Hellespont, 
 by the bed of the In Tepeh Asmak, on the east side of the Plain, 
 close to the promontory of Bhoeteum. He thinks that the deep sandy 
 depression found by M. Burnouf below Koum Kioi, between the Kalifatli 
 and the In Tepeh Asmak, marks the ancient bed of the Scamander. 
 He holds such a communication to be the more probable, as the In 
 Tepeh Asmak is far too broad and deeply cut for him to suppose that 
 it could possibly have been formed by the northern arm of the Simois, 
 which is a most insignificant rivulet. This rivulet may have flowed 
 later into the In Tepeh Asmak, perhaps at a time when the communi- 
 cation between the ancient- Scamander (Kalifatli Asmak) and the In 
 Tepeh Asmak had already been closed, but most certainly it was never 
 strong enough to produce the bed of the latter. Professor Yirchow 
 
 10 Landeskunde, &c, pp. 136, 137, 170. 
 
86 
 
 THE COUNTRY OF THE TROJANS. 
 
 [Chap. I. 
 
 adds : 11 " The Kalifatli, in that part of its course which extends from 
 between Hissarlik and Kalifatli to the junction of the Simois, has a 
 bed just so broad, that it is not inferior to the present bed of the 
 Scamander itself, and no other river in the Troad approaches it even 
 remotely, and this fact has been overlooked by nearly all critics." Professor 
 Yirchow 1 further says: " Kegarding the alluvial deposits in the Plain, 
 Maclaren 2 has advanced an important argument. He proceeds from 
 the soundings made by the English Admiralty in the Hellespont, which 
 are indicated on their map. Following these, he has drawn along the 
 coast of the Hellespont three curves, which connect together the depths 
 of one, two, and three fathoms respectively. These lines are not parallel 
 with the coast, but they nearly join at the mouth of the Scamander ; 
 they recede from the coast before the Stomalimne, and still more 
 before the In Tepeh Asmak, and again approach each other, as well 
 as the coast, at the neck of land before Pthoeteum. There is, besides, 
 the difference produced in the form of the coast-line by the curves 
 of one and two fathoms; that is to say, they are bent inward to 
 the south, whereas the three fathoms' line forms a curve which is 
 on the north bent forward to the Hellespont, and projects far beyond 
 the coast and the neck of land. Immediately behind it the depth of 
 the water amounts to 10, 12, 16, and 19 fathoms. Maclaren concludes 
 from this that the mass of alluvium, which has raised the bottom of 
 the Hellespont, cannot have been produced by the present Scamander, 
 but must be attributed to a time when this river flowed first through 
 the In Tepeh Asmak, and later through the Stomalimne ; that the 
 Hellespont, whose current has a velocity of two miles an hour, carries 
 its own alluvial material and a large part of that of the Scamander into 
 the Aegean Sea, but the counter-current along the Trojan coast, which 
 sometimes, especially with west and south-west winds, is very strong, 
 distributes a certain quantity of the material along the coast as far as 
 Khoeteum ; and that, if the mouth of the Scamander had always been 
 at the present place, the lines of depths would be parallel with the coast- 
 line. To this it may be replied, that we cannot at once admit Maclaren's 
 supposition, that the depth of the Hellespont once was nearly as great 
 on the coast as in the midst of this channel, and that the present 
 difference in depth has been produced solely by alluvial deposits. On 
 the other hand, we have some safe indications, which show the fact of the 
 alluvial deposits, as well as their direction. As such I consider three 
 phenomena: — 1. The bar of sand before the mouth of the In Tepeh 
 Asmak, 3 which has exactly the direction of the Hellespont current, 
 for it is joined on the east side to Ehoeteum, and proceeds thence 
 for a long distance westward. 2. The sandbanks at the mouth of the 
 Scamander. 3. The sandy plain which projects into the Hellespont, on 
 which Koum Kaleh is situated, and which extends in a south-westerly 
 direction to the foot of the tumulus of Achilles. It appears to me that 
 
 11 Landes 7 cunde, &c, p. 138. 
 1 Ibid. p. 143 ff. 
 
 2 Charles Maclaren, The Plain of Troy de- 
 scribed; Edinburgh, 1863, p. 46. 
 
 3 Virchow, Landcskunde, &c, p. 144. 
 
§ III.] 
 
 RIVERS — THE ANCIENT SCAMANDER. 
 
 87 
 
 these facts prove, not only that there exists a perceptible alluvium, but 
 also that the easterly stream is the one which decides its formation. If 
 it depended principally on the westerly or south-westerly counter- 
 current, neither would exist the neck of land of Koum Kaleh, nor the 
 sand-bar of the In Tepeh Asmak. Here comes in another circumstance 
 which must not be underrated, namely, the direction and force of the 
 wind. I may cite two observations which I consider to be sufficiently 
 certain. One is the motion of the sand at the citadel of Koum Kaleh, 
 which proves the predominance of an easterly or north-easterly direc- 
 tion of the wind, in accordance with the direction and current of the 
 Hellespont. The other is the position of the trees on Khoeteum and 
 on the lower section of the Plain. The trunks of all these trees (Yalonea 
 oaks) are uniformly inclined towards the west -south-west. This is in 
 accordance with Maclaren's 4 statement that the wind formerly called 
 Ventus Hellespontinus blows for at least ten months in the year down 
 the Hellespont. This direction of the wind explains sufficiently why the 
 sand is carried along the coast in a westerly direction, and why in the 
 course of time it has accumulated more and more below and before 
 Sigeum, so as to form there the neck of land of Koum Kaleh. The coast- 
 marsh proper, therefore, remains protected against an accumulation of 
 sand, unless — as in the Stomalimne — the sea itself washes away part 
 of the marshy soil. Indeed my investigations in the Stomalimne have 
 proved that not only is there no alluvium, but rather a washing away 
 of the marshy soil, which is partially replaced by sea-sand, but that 
 there is no formation of dunes. This washing away takes place on the 
 west side of the Stomalimne; it testifies to the 'powerful agency of 
 the water in the direction of the Hellespont current. I must, therefore, 
 acknowledge that Maclaren's arguments must not be rated so low as 
 might appear. If it is found that, notwithstanding the force of the 
 easterly current of water and wind, the three fathoms' line before the 
 In Tepeh Asmak extends in a convex curve far into the Hellespont, 
 and indeed also far beyond the neck of land of Khoeteum, this would 
 tell decidedly for the view, that much alluvium has once been brought 
 down by the In Tepeh Asmak, and perhaps also by the stream of the 
 Stomalimne, provided of course the raising of the Hellespont bottom be 
 due to sand and other alluvium. This has not been proved, but it is 
 probable. In no case can I admit that this raising could have been 
 produced by deposits of the water of the Hellespont which comes down 
 from the Propontis. While, therefore, I do not hesitate to admit the 
 existence of sand accumulations at the coast as certain, and for some 
 distance from the coast in the Hellespont itself as probable, still I can 
 infer but little from this as to the formation of the coast-land. Strabo 
 says, indeed, with much assurance : 5 ' The Scamander and Simois, uniting 
 in the plain, and bringing down a great quantity of mud, bank up the 
 sea-coast, and form a blind mouth, salt-water lagoons, and marshes. 5 
 
 4 Loc. cit. p. 215. KarcKpepovres iKvv, Tvpoaxovffi r)]v irapaKiav, 
 
 6 Strabo, xiii. p. 595 : (TvjXTr€a6vT^s yap ore Kal rv<pKbv ar6ixa re Kal Ki^voQaKai ras Kal 
 StjitJets Kal 6 ~2,Ka}xavZpos iv r$ iredicp tto\\))v e\rj iroiovffi. 
 
88 
 
 THE COUNTRY OF THE TROJANS. 
 
 [CuAr. I. 
 
 But nowhere on the coast can there be shown an increase of the soil by 
 real mud (t'Xu?), except in the In Tepeh Asmak itself, namely in its 
 upper part. The mud which reaches the Hellespont is soon cleared of 
 its clayey ingredients ; what remains is clean quicksand. This sand can 
 change or fill up the mouths of the rivers, and can thereby cause the 
 damming up of the water ; but except at the neck of land of Koum Kaleh, 
 it has exercised no immediate influence on the growth of the coast-land, 
 at least not so long as the coast-marsh has existed. In order, therefore, 
 to obtain a somewhat sure basis for the question of the alluvial forma- 
 tions, it appeared to us necessary to investigate the soil of the Plain 
 itself at various places." 
 
 Professor Yirchow 6 commenced his investigations by digging a number 
 of holes ; the first to the right of the bridge which spans the Kalifatli 
 Asmak near Hissarlik. To a depth of 1 * 25 metres, he found a very com- 
 pact blackish soil, and below it coarse sand, among which small pieces 
 of quartz, flakes of mica, blackish grains and coarser fragments of rock, 
 were conspicuous. There were no remains of shells. He dug the second 
 hole in the flat dune-like hill on the left bank of the Kalifatli Asmak 
 near Koum Kioi, on which is a Turkish cemetery. He found there to a 
 depth of 2 metres nothing but coarse sand of a dark colour, consisting 
 principally of angular grains of quartz mixed with mica, and some coarser 
 but smoothed pebbles of rock ; no trace of shells. He dug the third hole 
 in a place near the road to Koum Kaleh, where the zone of the Valonea 
 oak-trees ceases, and where the coast-marsh proper begins. He found 
 there to a depth of 1 metre very rich dark clay, of which the banks of the 
 Kalifatli Asmak are also composed. He dug a fourth hole in the dry 
 overgrown bed of the In Tepeh Asmak, close to the little neck of land 
 at the south-west corner of Rhoeteum. Here he found the same compact 
 clammy rich black earth, to a depth of 1 metre 10 centimetres ; there 
 were no stones in it, but a great number of rounded pieces of baked 
 bricks. He dug a fifth hole 1 metre deep to the west of Kalifatli, in a 
 filled-up channel of the Scamander. The soil consisted there of fine sand 
 near the surface and of coarse sand below ; the latter was mixed with a 
 fine clayish sand, and small grains of quartz, partly rounded and partly 
 angular, as well as with large mica-flakes and coarse small stones, for 
 the most part angular, but rounded at the corners. In none of these 
 holes was found any trace of a marine formation. Professor Yirchow 
 having taken samples of the sand from all these holes, and having had 
 them analysed in Berlin, they were all found to consist of quartz-bearing 
 syenite. This, in his opinion, solves the question as to the origin of 
 the alluvial layers in the plain, for the Scamander flows above Evjilar 
 through a broad zone of syenite which is in process of disintegration. 7 
 A similar region, also drained by the Scamander, is situated on the 
 north-east part of the Chigri Dagh. Consequently the alluvium of 
 the Plain of Thoy is essentially the product of the higher moun- 
 tains, especially of Ida. At the period of inundation the Scamander 
 
 Lamkshunde der Troas, pp. 146-154. 7 See Tchihatcheff, loc. cit. t. i. p. 359. 
 
§ III.] 
 
 RIVERS — THE ANCIENT SCAMANDER. 
 
 89 
 
 carries away not only the primary products of the disintegrated syenite, 
 but perhaps the larger part of the mud which the river brings to the 
 lower plain originates in the older deposits of the upper plain between 
 Ine and Beiramich. Here the Scamander and its numerous affluents 
 are continually tearing and carrying away fresh parts of the banks. Its 
 water, which is perfectly clear at its source, and which at Evjilar still 
 shows no turbidity, appears in the lower plain turbid and yellowish, so 
 that the name of Xanthus is here perfectly suitable. This change in 
 its appearance, therefore, occurs during the course of the river through 
 the upper plain, and the suspended matter which causes the muddy 
 appearance belongs for the most part to the freshly-dissolved masses of 
 a very ancient alluvium, which was formed in the upper plain at a time 
 when it was still a lake. By thus proving that the alluvial soil of the 
 lower plain is essentially of a syenitic origin, every possibility at once 
 disappears of attributing to the other rivers and rivulets any deter- 
 mining part whatever in the conveyance of the alluvial deposits. Neither 
 the Bounarbashi Su, nor the Kemar Su, nor the Kalifatli Asmak, can 
 be taken into consideration, unless indeed they might occasionally again 
 put in motion the alluvium already deposited by the Scamander. The 
 fact is of very special importance, that the silt of all the Asmaks — 
 of the Kalifatli Asmak, of the old Scamander-bed to the west of Kalifatli, 
 and especially of the In Tepeh Asmak — is derived from the upper moun- 
 tains. It is not the material of the Oulou Dagh, such as the Simois 
 carries away, which can possibly have filled up the In Tepeh Asmak ; 
 the syenitic admixtures of the clay, which I took from the ancient bed 
 of this Asmak, now filled up, point distinctly to its having been covered 
 by the mud of the Scamander. The Plain of the Kalifatli Asmak also 
 consists, below a later layer of a fine clayish deposit, of the same coarse 
 sand, which now, as before, the Scamander alone brings down from the 
 high mountains. Nay, the quicksand of the Stomalimne, though of much 
 finer grain, has nothing of maritime origin except an admixture of 
 shells ; and for the rest, this quicksand is just such a syenitic sand as 
 that of the Plain, — river-sand, carried into the Hellespont, but thrown 
 by it on the land. 8 
 
 Professor Yirchow 9 goes on to say : " However satisfactory this result 
 is in itself, it is but of little use for the chronological question. Only in 
 the In Tepeh Asmak I found fragments of bricks in the silt of the river- 
 bed, which bore witness to the comparative lateness of this silting up, 
 which must, therefore, have taken place when brick-baking men already 
 had their habitations in the Plain. I observe here that these brick frag- 
 ments occurred not only on the surface, but also below. On this side, 
 therefore, there can exist no evidence against the opinion that the In 
 Tepeh Asmak has ceased to be a real outlet only in a relatively modem time." 
 
 The result of the investigations of Yirchow and Burnouf, that except 
 in its hydrography the Plain of Troy has undergone hardly any material 
 change since the Trojan war, is identical with that which Prof. P. W. 
 
 8 Mauduit, Dccouvertes dans la Troade, p 136. 
 
 9 Op. cit. p. 153. 
 
90 
 
 THE COUNTRY OF THE TROJANS. 
 
 [Chap. I. 
 
 Forchhammer 10 obtained by the explorations he made in 1839 in 
 company with Lieutenant (now Admiral) T. A. B. Spratt : " We reject," 
 he says, "as utterly erroneous the theories, that the lower plain may 
 have been formed by a post-Homeric alluvium, and that the latter 
 may have covered up a pretended port, which once extended for a long 
 distance into the land. Both these theories are decidedly contradicted 
 by the facts, and they are not in any way corroborated by the Homeric 
 poems. It would be perfectly inexplicable how vertical banks, from 
 6 to 10 ft. high, could have been built up by the alluvial soil on the 
 sides of the rivers after their prolongation and at the eastern end of 
 the strand, while the lagoons were not tilled up by them, but were 
 nevertheless separated from the Hellespont by a sandbank. Homer, who 
 mentions the large lagoon, neither knows of a port in the neighbourhood 
 of the Greek camp, nor alludes to its existence by a single word. On 
 the contrary, many passages in the Iliad 1 prove that the Greek camp 
 was on the actual shore of the sea or of the Hellespont. Scylax rightly 
 states the distance from Novum Ilium to the sea to be 25 stadia. The 
 plain in its present condition is, in all essential features, old Priam's 
 ancient kingdom and the battle-field of Hector and Achilles." 
 
 I may also cite here what I wrote on the same subject twelve years 
 ago : 2 "I followed the seashore to the west towards the promontory of 
 Sigeum, investigating most attentively the nature of the soil, in order to 
 see whether it might be, as Strabo asserts, of an alluvial formation later 
 than the Trojan war. The gradual elevation of the heights of In Tepeh 
 appeared to me at once to refute the supposition that a gulf could ever 
 have existed there, and I became fully convinced of this on seeing the 
 high vertical banks of the little rivers In Tepeh Asmak and Kalifatli 
 Asmak near their mouths in a swampy soil. If the soil of the plain had 
 been produced by the alluvium of the present rivers and rivulets, their 
 banks could not have had a perpendicular height of from 6 to 10 ft., in 
 places where the ground is marshy and loose. Besides, the large deep 
 lagoons on the shore of the plain make it impossible that the Plain of 
 Troy could have been formed, either entirely or partially, by alluvial 
 soil ; because, if the rivers had deposited alluvial soil to the profit of 
 the plain, these deep lagoons would have been filled up first. The great 
 Stomalimne, or lagoon and swamp, of which Strabo 3 speaks, still exists, 
 and doubtless it is now neither larger nor smaller than in the time of 
 that geographer, because the water which evaporates from the lagoon 
 is immediately replaced by infiltration from the sea. The current of the 
 Hellespont, moreover, which runs at the rate of two miles an hour, 
 carries away the alluvial matter of the rivers, and deposits it on the 
 shallow grounds to the left outside the Hellespont, at a distance of 
 several kilometres from the Plain of Troy ; and this same current must 
 at all times have prevented the growth of the shore." 
 
 10 Topographische und physiographische Be- 2 Ithaquc,le Peloponnesc et Troie ; Paris, 1869, 
 
 schreibung der Ebene von Troia, p. 28. p. 208. 
 
 1 H. ii. 92, 152 ; viii. 501 ; xiii. 682 ; xiv. 31 j 3 xiii. p. 595. 
 xviii. 66 ; xix. 40 ; xxiii. 59 ; xxiv. 12. 
 
§ III.] 
 
 RIVERS — THE ANCIENT SCAMANDER. 
 
 01 
 
 In his learned dissertation 4 on The Asiatic Coast of the Hellespont, 
 Mr. Frank Calvert, who has been for twenty years a resident on the 
 Dardanelles, proves beyond any doubt the cessation of the growth of 
 the land on the coast, and the gradual invasion of the sea upon the 
 land. After having cited a number of instances where the waters of 
 the Hellespont have washed away portions of land on the Asiatic coast 
 above the Plain of Troy, he writes : " The present effect of the Hellespont 
 on the alluvium of the rivers which discharge into it, may in its con- 
 sequence be compared with the impetuous current of a large river at 
 the mouth of an affluent. Since on the sea-front of Sultanieh Kaleh 5 
 and Koum Kaleh, 6 at the mouths of the rivers Khodius and Scamander, 
 no increase has taken place, it is thereby clearly proved that no growth 
 of the coast has occurred since 1453 and 1659. If the hypothesis of 
 the disappearance of a large part of the alluvial neck of land of Nagara 
 (Abydus) since the time of Xerxes is admitted, then the proportion can, 
 on the ground of historical testimonies, be dated back to a much earlier 
 period ; namely, to 480 b.c. The natural geological testimony presented 
 by the crumbling sea-washed slopes of the coast, and the narrow strand 
 close to the river-mouths and their deltas, especially near the pro- 
 montories of Sigeum and Khoeteum, proves that the destructive agency 
 of the sea has been in activity long before the historical time, whilst the 
 recession of the deltas would show that this is to be attributed to a 
 change in the relative level of land and sea. The change is not limited 
 to the Hellespont. An investigation of the whole northern coast of the 
 Gulf of Volo in 1875 has proved that, in those comparatively quiet 
 waters which have no current, the sea has advanced on the land. If 
 it is admitted that the alluvial coast between the promontories of Sigeum 
 and Khoeteum marks the site of the Greek camp and the Naustathmos, 
 then in my opinion the testimony of geology proves that the coast-line 
 was, at the time of the Trojan war, not different from what it is now." 
 
 I may here still further mention that those, who assume from the 
 Iliad the existence of a deep gulf in the plain at the time of Homer, 
 do not, in my opinion, rightly interpret the passages they quote, where 
 the poet states that " they marched in front of the deep shore," 7 and 
 again, that " they filled the long mouth of the whole shore, as much 
 as the promontories enclosed." 8 He evidently intends merely to describe 
 the low shore of the Hellespont, shut in as it is by Capes Sigeum and 
 Khoeteum ; that is to say, by the heights of In Tepeh. Again, the words 
 — " But the eddying Scamander will carry you to the broad bosom of the 
 sea" 9 — cannot make us think of a real gulf; besides, the word evpvs 
 means in the Iliad " broad " and not " deep : " evpixs koXttos can there- 
 fore mean nothing else but the broad or the vast expanse of the sea. 
 
 4 Frank Calvert, Ueber die asiatische Kiiste 7 II. ii. 92 : 
 
 dcs Hellespont, vorgelegt in der Sitzung der her- ri'iovos TrpowdpoiBe (3adeir,s iffTix^caVTO. 
 
 liner Anthropol. Gesellschaft am 20 Decbr. 1879, 8 11. xiv. 35, 36 r 
 
 p. 39. Kal trX.r)ffav a.irda , r l s 
 
 5 The fort in the town of the Dardanelles, ri'iovos arS^a /naKpov, oaov avveepyadov &Kpai. 
 built in 1453. 9 II. xxi. 124, 125 : 
 
 6 Built, according to Mr. Calvert, in 1659. a\\a "SfcdfiavSpos 
 
 otcret Streets euro) ahbs eupe'ec koKttov. 
 
92 
 
 THE COUNTRY OF THE TROJANS. 
 
 [Chap. I. 
 
 I have myself always maintained, not only the identity of the Kalifatli 
 Asmak with the ancient Scamander, but also that the latter once turned 
 at Koum Kioi into the bed of the In Tepeh Asmak, through which it 
 fell into the Hellespont close to the promontory of Khoeteum. 10 That 
 the ancient Scamander had this course and no other, appears evident from 
 Homer; for, had it occupied its present bed at the time of the Trojan 
 war, it would have flowed through the Greek camp, and Homer would have 
 had abundant opportunity of speaking of so important a fact. As he 
 never mentions a river in the camp, we must infer that he did not know 
 that there was any there. But there are several passages in the Iliad 
 which prove that in the poet's mind the Greek camp was to the left and 
 not to the right of the Scamander, as would have been the case if the 
 river had then had its present course. When, for instance, Priam on 
 his visit to Achilles passes the Tomb of Ilus and immediately afterwards 
 reaches the ford of the Scamander, where he waters his horses and mules, 1 
 the Greek camp is necessarily to the left of the river, and this is clearly 
 also the case when, on his return from the Greek camp, he again reaches 
 the ford of the Scamander and drives his chariot to the city, while the 
 cart drawn by mules follows with the corpse of Hector. 2 I may further 
 cite the passage where, Hector being wounded, his companions lift him in 
 their arms and carry him from the battle-field, where his charioteer stands 
 with the splendid chariot and the swift horses, which bring him back 
 deeply groaning to the town. But when they reached the ford of the 
 broad-flowing Xanthus born of Zeus, they lifted him from the chariot, laid 
 him on the ground, and poured water over him. 3 As W. Christ 4 justly 
 remarks, this passage can leave no doubt that, on his way to Ilium, 
 Hector had necessarily to pass the Scamander (or Xanthus), for it cannot 
 possibly be admitted that the charioteer could have deviated from the 
 shorter and more direct road to reach the river, in order to pour water 
 over the dangerously wounded hero. 
 
 That the Greek camp was to the left of the Scamander, and that this 
 river flowed between the town and the camp, is further proved by the 
 passage where, after Patroclus had cut off the foremost Trojan troops, 
 he drove them back again to the ships, baffled their attempts to gain the 
 town, and attacked and killed them between the ships, the river, and the 
 high walls of Troy. 5 
 
 My theory that the Scamander, after its confluence with the Simois, 
 flowed into the Hellespont to the east of the Greek camp, has been 
 
 10 See my Troy and its Remains, pp. 72, 73. 
 
 1 II. xxiv. 349-351 : 
 
 ot 8' eVei ovv fxeya ar^ia irape^Woio ekaffarau, 
 OTr\aav dp r]fxiovovs re /ecu 'ittttovs, ucppa irloiev, 
 eV iroTctfAw. 
 
 2 II. xxiv. 692 : 
 
 aAA' ore 8)7 wSpov ivppelos iroTa/xolo, 
 and 696, 697 : 
 
 o'i 8' ds dcrrv iXoiv olficoyjj re arovaxV Te 
 'ittttovs, rjfx'iovot 8e vinvv (pepov. 
 
 3 21. xiv. 428-436 : 
 
 top 8' dp 1 eTcupoi 
 Xepcrlv ae'ipavres (pepov e'<c irSvov, v(pp' 'iKe9"linrovs 
 uKeas, o'i oi oirioQe v.dxr}S rjSe TTToAe/xoiO 
 
 'iaraaav yvioxov re iced apfxara iroiK'iX' %x oU7es 
 ot tov ye irpoTi aarv (pepov fiapea aTevaxovra. 
 
 aA.V ore S77 ir6pov T^ou ivppeios ■norajxo'io, 
 "ZavQov SivrjevTOS, t>v addvaros Te/cero Zeus, 
 k'vQa {xiv e£ urir&jj' ireAacrai/ x^ ov h K ^ 01 
 
 4 W. Christ, Topographic dor Troianischen 
 Ebcne, p. 203. 
 
 5 II xvi. 394-398 : 
 
 HdrpoicAos 8' eVet ovv irpdoras iirJuepae (pd\ayyas, 
 a\p iiri vrjas eepye ■KaXifiireTes., ouSe tz6Kt}qs 
 ei'a ie/xeuovs emfiaiveixev, dAAa fiecrfyvs 
 
 V7)WV KOA ITOTapLOV Kol Tei%€OS V\\/T]\010 
 
 KTZwe fxeTatao-(jOV, - . - 
 
§ III.] 
 
 RIVERS — THE ANCIENT SCAMANDER. 
 
 93 
 
 warmly defended as far back as 1852 by the late gifted scholar Julius 
 Braun, in his learned dissertation Homer und sein Zeitalter* W. Christ 7 
 nevertheless thinks that the Scamander must have flowed on the west 
 side of the Greek camp, because all the principal battles are in the plain 
 between the Scamander and Simois, where the armies alternately pursue 
 each other to the town or to the ships, without any mention being made 
 of their having to cross the rivers. But Homer is an epic poet, and no 
 historian ; he writes with poetical licence, not with the minute accuracy 
 of a geographer, and we must be thankful to him for giving us the 
 general outlines of the topography of the plain. From the passages 
 quoted above, where the ford of the Scamander is mentioned, it is clear 
 that this river had to be passed in order to reach the Greek camp, which 
 lay to the left of it. The poet further alludes 8 to the confluence of 
 the Simois and Scamander immediately in front of Troy ; he repeatedly 
 and most distinctly describes the principal battles as taking place on the 
 plain between the two rivers and the city ; but to demand from him also 
 a description of the manner in which the armies passed the Scamander, 
 is asking, I think, too much from an epic poet. The passage to which W. 
 Christ refers 9 can only mean the plain between the Scamander, the Simois, 
 and Troy. In a passage already referred to 10 the Greek ships are said 
 to fill the whole shore between the two promontories of Sigeum and 
 Bhoeteum. But this may well be said of a camp which extended from 
 Cape Sigeum eastward, and was only separated from the opposite cape by 
 the breadth of the river. 
 
 The Homeric epithets of the Scamander are rjioeis, 11 which signifies 
 high-landed, from -qiwv, used in Homer only of the sea-shore ; iiippoos, 1 
 fair-flowing ; Sivtfeis, 2 eddying ; jneyas irorafxb^ /3a6vSivr)<;, 3 the great deep- 
 eddying river; fiaOvppoos apyvpoSivT)?* deep-flowing with silvery eddies; 
 iuppoos apyvpo$LV7]<;, 5 fair-flowing with silvery eddies; Slos, divine. 6 Its 
 banks were steep and high ; 7 and live bulls and hard-hoofed horses were 
 sacrificed to it. 8 The Scamander was said to have been born of Zeus, 9 
 and had its priest in Troy, who was venerated by the people as a god, 10 
 which leads us to suppose that the river-deity had a temple or at least 
 an altar in the town. He was called Xanthus by the gods, and assisted 
 at the assembly of the gods on Olympus ; 11 he took part in the battle 
 of the gods before Troy; 1 he made great inundations; 2 and, as at 
 the present day, his banks were abundantly covered with elms, willows, 
 tamarisks, lotus, bulrushes, and cyprus-grass. 3 
 
 6 Heidelberg, 185G-1858. 
 
 7 Topogr. d. Troian. Ebene, p. 202. 
 
 8 11. v. 774-778. 9 II. vi. 4. 
 10 11. xiv. 35, 36. 11 II. v. 36. 
 
 1 II. xiv. 433 ; xxi. 130 ; xxiv. 693. 
 
 2 //. xiv. 434 ; xxi. 2, 8; xxiv. 694. 
 
 3 B. xx. 73 ; xxi. 329, 603. 
 
 4 H. xxi. 8. 5 11. xxi. 130. 
 
 6 //. xii. 21. 7 II. xxi. 171, 175, 200. 
 
 8 II, xxi. 131, 132 : 
 
 $87; 8r)6a rroAeas Upevere ravpovs, 
 
 faovs 8' eV Sturjcri Kadtere fiwvvxas 'licvovs. 
 
 9 //. xiv. 434 ; xxi. 2 ; xxiv. 693. 
 
 10 II. v. 77 • 
 
 AoXoiriovos, os pa ^Kafidudpov 
 aprjTrip erervKro, debs 8' &s riero Srj/x^, . . . 
 
 11 II. xx. 5-40 and 73, 74. 
 
 1 H. xx. 73, 74. 
 
 2 11 xxi. 234-242. 
 
 3 11. xxi. 350-352 • 
 
 Ka'iovro irreheai te Kal tVe'ai ^Se /j.vp?Kai, 
 Kaiero 8e Acotos t' t'Se Opvou r/8e Kinreipo,v 
 ra TtepX KaAa. peeQpa a\is irorajxalo Tre<pvKeiv. 
 
94 
 
 THE COUNTRY OF THE TROJANS. 
 
 [Chap. I. 
 
 I may add, that nothing seems to me better to show the great 
 importance which the Trojans attached to this river, and the veneration 
 which they had for it, than the fact that Hector, the most powerful 
 champion of Ilium, compares himself to the Scamander, and gives to his 
 son Astyanax the name of " Scamandrius," or the Scamandrian. 4 
 
 Herodotus says that when the army of Xerxes reached the Sca- 
 mander, it was the first stream they had crossed since leaving Sardis, 
 the water of which failed them, and did not suffice to satisfy the thirst 
 of the men and cattle, and that the Persian monarch afterwards ascended 
 into the Pergamus of Priam, 5 in order to see it. This account of Hero- 
 dotus appears to be no exaggeration; for, although the Scamander has 
 a large volume of water in winter and spring, it is in the dry season 
 generally reduced to a very slender and shallow brook. I have seen it 
 several times, and the last time in September and October 1878, so dried 
 up that there was no stream at all in the Plain of Troy, nothing in fact 
 but a series of pools of stagnant water. This is by no means a rare 
 occurrence; nay, the villagers of Kalifatli, Yeni Shehr, and Yeni Kioi 
 assured me that in dry summers, and on an average once in three years, 
 there is in August and September no flowing water whatever in the river 
 in the Plain of Troy. They also asserted that this always occurs in the 
 late summer or autumn, if in April and May there have been in the 
 mountains of Ida abundant rains, which melt away the snow, and these 
 have been followed by a long-protracted drought. If the army of Xerxes 
 reached the Scamander when in such a condition, it is no wonder that 
 its water did not suffice for the men and animals. This condition of 
 the Scamander is described with some exaggeration by Lucan, who says 
 that Caesar had unconsciously passed the winding Xanthus on a surface 
 of dry sand, and had safely put his foot among the deep grass. 6 
 
 In the time also of Pomponius Mela, the Koman geographer, who 
 flourished during the reign of the Emperor Claudius (41-54 a.d.), the 
 Scamander and Simois were considered to possess no other importance 
 than that of the reminiscences attached to them ; for he observes, in 
 speaking of them, " Fama quam natura majora flumina." 7 This very 
 just observation stands in striking contrast with the statement of Pliny, 8 
 who, twenty-five or thirty years later, mentioning the objects he saw from 
 his ship when passing the coast of the Troacl, speaks of the Scamander as 
 " amnis navigabilis." Now, to call the Scamander a " navigable river " is 
 simply a bad joke, because even in winter it is not navigable for small 
 
 4 //. vi. 402, 403 : 
 
 ToV p' "Ekto>p KoAeetr/ce ^Kafiavtipiov, avrap ol 
 aWot 
 
 * AarvavaKT • o'los yap ipvero "l\iov"EKTwp. 
 
 5 vii. 43 : 'Attlkoij.4vov Se rod o-rparov eVt 
 rbv ~2,nifxav$pov, bs irpa>TOS Trora/j.u>i>, iirei re e/c 
 2ap8iW 6pfj.7}0evr€S eVex* ip-qaau rrj 68a>, e7re'Ai7re 
 rb p4e6pou oi>8' a7re'xp7j(re ry arparifj re k<x\ 
 roTcri KT'fiuecri irivoixevos, eVl rovrov 877 rbv tto- 
 rajj.hu ws air'iKtro Hep^s, is rb Upia^ov Uepyafxou 
 avi$r\ 'Ifxzpov ex&>f 8e-f]craa6aL. 
 
 6 Pharsal. ix. 974 : 
 
 " Inscius in sicco serpentem pulvere rivum 
 
 Transierat, qui Xanthus erat ; securus in 
 alto 
 
 Gramine ponebat gressus." 
 ' Dc Situ Orbis, i. 18. 
 
 8 //. JS r . v. 33 : " Troadis primus locus Ha- 
 maxitus : dein Cebrenia : ipsaque Troas, Autigonia 
 dicta; nunc Alexandria, colonia Romana. Oppi- 
 dum Nee, Scamander amnis navigabilis, et in 
 promontorio quondam Sigeum oppidum. Dein 
 Portus Achaeorum, in quern influit Xanthus 
 Simoenti junctus: stagnumque prius faciens 
 Palaescamander." 
 
§ III.] 
 
 RIVERS — THE IN TEPEH ASMAK. 
 
 95 
 
 boats, on account of its strong current and many sandbanks. The Roman 
 naturalist commits also an obvious error in making the Xantlius and the 
 Scamander two distinct rivers, and mentioning besides a Palaescamander. 
 It has been repeatedly asserted by scholars who never visited the Troad, 
 that, as Pliny mentions the navigable Scamander before the promontory 
 of Sigeum, he cannot possibly mean anything else than the artificial 
 channel by which part of the waters of the rivulet called the Bounar- 
 bashi Su run into the Bay of Besika. This channel, however, is only 
 from 13 to 20 ft. broad, and its depth is from 1 to 4 ft. ; but it is 
 much less still at its mouth. It would therefore be a ridiculous parody 
 to call it an " amnis navigabilis." Hence I perfectly agree with Professor 
 Virchow that Pliny cannot mean by his Scamander any other river than 
 the present Scamander ; by the " Xanthus Simoenti junctus," the Kali- 
 fatli Asmak, into which the Simois still flows, and the bed of which, as we 
 have before explained, is identical with that of the ancient Scamander; 
 lastly, by Palaescamander, the In Tepeh Asmak, by which the ancient 
 Scamander once fell into the Hellespont close to Cape Sigeum. 9 
 
 (d) The In Tepeh Asmak 10 " runs along the eastern border of the plain 
 in a parallel line with the Rhoeteum ridge, and falls into the Hellespont 
 at a distance of about 600 ft. to the north of In Tepeh, the tumulus attri- 
 buted to Ajax. According to Akerblad 1 and Forchhammer, 2 the mouth of 
 the In Tepeh Asmak is called by the inhabitants Karanlik-Limani (Port 
 of Karanlik, which word means ' darkness '). But this is an error, for 
 by this name is designated, not the mouth of the In Tepeh Asmak, 
 but a small bay or creek immediately to the east of the projecting neck of 
 land of Pdioeteum; it is encompassed by a rampart-like border of the 
 tertiary ridge, and is thus pretty well concealed : hence its name. Here, 
 as I have said, I always took my morning bath in the dark. Maclaren 3 
 holds the mouth of the In Tepeh Asmak to be identical with the Portus 
 Achaeorum mentioned by several ancient writers. 4 This mouth is 
 separated from the Hellespont by a vast, flat sandbank, which Pro- 
 fessor Virchow estimates to be 230 paces long, and which is connected 
 on the east side with the projecting neck of land of Rhoeteum. From 
 its mouth to the bridge, 5 which is 72 paces long, the In Tepeh Asmak 
 becomes a river of importance. It preserves its breadth for some 
 distance, but its banks and borders are covered with a richer vegetation ; 
 the rushes, which are very hard and pointed, become higher and 
 thicker; here and there the wild vine (Vitis vinifera) slings its long 
 branches among them ; tall shrubs of Asphodel and an odoriferous Arte- 
 misia occupy the higher and dry places. At some fifty paces above the 
 
 9 Biichner, Homcrische Studien, i. ii. Progr. 
 Sehwerin, 1871, 1872, endeavours to prove (i. p. 
 15) that Pliny held the channel of the Bounar- 
 bashi Su, which empties itself into the Bay of 
 Besika, to be the Scamander, the Mendere or 
 present Scamander the Xanthus Scamander, and 
 the Kalifatli Asmak the Palaescamander. E. 
 Brentano, Alt-Ilion im Dumhrekthal, p. 8, pro- 
 poses to read the passage in Pliny: "Xanthus 
 Simoenti junctus stagnumque prius faciens^ Pa- 
 
 laescamander." 
 
 10 I extract this interesting description of the 
 In Tepeh Asmak from R. Virchow, Beitrage 
 zur Landeskunde der Troas, pp. 82-92. 
 
 1 Lechevalier, op. cit., t. ii. p. 244, note. 
 
 2 Forchhammer, Topogr. und physiogr. Be- 
 schreibung der Ebene von Troia, p. 12. 
 
 3 Maclaren, op. cit., p. 41. 
 
 4 As e.g. by Pliny, H. N., v. 33. 
 
 5 See the Map of the Troad. 
 
96 
 
 THE COUNTRY OF THE TROJANS. 
 
 Chap. I. 
 
 bridge the open water-current in the river-bed becomes narrow, and it 
 soon disappears under a rich vegetation of reeds, rushes, and Typha. 
 It appears again here and there, but covers itself with a thick veil of 
 water-ranunculus. Still further on may be seen in the river-current 
 solid islands, of greater or less length, partly covered with vegetation, as 
 well as masses of ground projecting into the river from the banks which 
 are here higher, so that the width of the river-bed becomes quite out 
 of proportion to the breadth of the water-current. About ten minutes' 
 walk above the first bridge is a second stone bridge, but it is short and 
 low. Soon afterwards the watercourse appears only as a small ditch; 
 finally it becomes altogether dammed up by rushes and harder soil. 
 This is the case somewhat below the high ground which projects from 
 the south-west corner of Khoeteum, and which can easily be recognized 
 by a couple of sheep-folds which stand on it, and which belong to 
 Koum Kioi. Here the ancient river-bed, which is easily recognized 
 by its sloping banks, is still 42 paces broad, but is entirely dry, except 
 on its right border a ditch-like watercourse 4 to 5 ft. broad, which has 
 no current. It is still cut like a trough, but the surface is unequal, 
 being here and there slightly hilly, and in general somewhat higher 
 in the middle than on the sides. It is covered with grass interspersed 
 with clover (Xcoto?) and numerous blue flowers of the Gynandriris; there 
 are still here and there thick beds of rushes. A short distance farther 
 upwards the trough is still more filled up, and on the further side of the 
 above-mentioned high ground the old river-bed can no longer be dis- 
 tinctly recognized." Professor Yirchow goes on to say : " I have described 
 the nature of the In Tej>eh Asmak thus fully, in order to put an end to 
 the uncertainty regarding the extent, the character, and the connection 
 of that river. It will be seen from this description that at present this 
 Asmah is a dead, stagnant ivatercourse, whose upper bed is more and more 
 overgrown, and whose lower part is only kept open by the flowing in of 
 the Hellespont. It is no longer an outflowing, but rather an inflowing 
 stream (inlet Inwike). What water it receives, except at the time of the 
 inundations, can only be rain-water." 
 
 (e) The Bounarbashi Sit. — The principal part of the water which com- 
 poses this rivulet comes from the 34 or, more probably, 40 springs at 
 the foot of the heights of Bounarbashi, which I visited and explored in 
 company with Professor Yirchow. 6 The first three of them are in close 
 proximity ; a little further north are two more, and the others rise 
 within a distance of about 1700 ft. Their waters form a rivulet from 
 3 to 6 ft. deep and 13 to 20 ft. broad. It is joined at once by a very 
 small affluent, which comes from the valleys to the east of the Bali Dagh. 
 "In its further course," says Professor Yirchow, 7 "it forms a series of 
 large swamps, which have been most accurately described by M. Forch- 
 hammer. 8 The rivulet of Bounarbashi," he adds, " notwithstanding its 
 turning off by the artificial channel, provides, during its short course, 
 
 6 See p. 55. 
 
 7 Beitmge zur Landcskunde der Troas, pp. 
 114-119. 
 
 8 P. W. Forchhammer, Topogr. und physiogr. 
 Beschr. der Ebene von Troia, p. 15 ; compare 
 Maclaren, p. 123. 
 
§ III.] 
 
 RIVERS — THE BOUNARBASHI SU. 
 
 07 
 
 four large basins with a lasting supply of water even during the summer. 
 Apart from the infiltration through the compact soil at the sources 
 themselves, we find to the east of Ujek Tepeh a large tank, which is 
 deep in the middle and overgrown with reeds and rushes; even in the 
 height of summer it is navigated by fishing boats. Further down, at 
 Yerkassi Kioi, is a smaller swamp with abundance of water. There is 
 a similar swamp in the valley through which the canal is cut. In the 
 rainy season, the same rivulet (the Bounarbashi Su), by means of the 
 winter-stream of the original bed, the so-called Lisgar, fills also a vast 
 swamp in a sinuosity of the promontory of Yeni Shehr below Hagios 
 Demetrios Tepeh. This swamp dries up in summer, and it was in August 
 overgrown with high dry reeds. 
 
 " The winter-stream (just mentioned) of the ' rivulet,' as Forchhammer 
 calls the Bounarbashi Su in a very significant manner, is in his opinion 9 
 identical with the original bed, which existed before the artificial channel 
 to the Aegean Sea was cut. That ancient bed is partly cut deep in the 
 clayey soil, and partly it spreads over the flat surface with undefined 
 borders. But even in these flat places its limits do not change from year 
 to year. While the stream prefers in winter the already existing bed to 
 any other course over higher ground, in summer it all the more pre- 
 serves the course impressed on the clayey soil, the clay becoming by the 
 heat almost as hard as stone. In the hard clayey soil of the level 
 parts of this winter-bed small artificial channels were visible, whose 
 age may perhaps be considerable. This winter- stream of the Bounar- 
 bashi Su discharges in two places into the Scamander above Yeni Shehr, 
 and pours with it into the Hellespont. 
 
 "From this description it is apparent that the whole west side of 
 the Plain along the Ujek and Sigeum ridges is full of the swamps of 
 the Bounarbashi Su, and this is still more evident from Spratt's map. 
 These swamps occupy all the sinuosities of the coast-line and encroach 
 to a great extent on the Plain, so that they leave only in its southern 
 part a small portion of land for tillage ; and even this is also exposed 
 to the inundations of the Scamander. One can best view all this by 
 following up the road which leads from Kalifatli to Yerkassi Kioi and 
 Ujek Kioi. On the 22nd of April it was in the following condition : — 
 Having passed a field still very wet from the last inundation, and 
 covered in places where it had dried up with a rich crumbling crust, 
 I first came to two small arms of the Bounarbashi Su, which are close 
 together, and in which there was open, but scarcely flowing, dirty 
 water ; a half-ruined bridge leads over them. To the right (north) these 
 arms were lost in a vast swamp thickly overgrown with luxuriant 
 water-plants. To the left, where the swamp was not less extensive, old 
 reeds still stood, double a man's height. Through this swamp a long 
 winding road leads over a ruined stone dyke. On the west side we 
 reach another small stone bridge, spanning with a single short arch 
 the excavated canal below. Somewhat turbid but still transparent water 
 
 9 Topogr. und physiogr. Bcschr. der Ebene von Troia, p. 14. 
 
 H 
 
98 
 
 THE COUNTRY OF THE TROJANS. 
 
 [Chap. I. 
 
 flows through it in a rapid current. Immediately beyond it, on the 
 western bank, firm soil is reached." 
 
 Considering the series of swamps and particularly the ancient water- 
 beds of the Bounarbashi Su further down, Professor Yirchow 10 thinks 
 the construction of the artificial canal to the Aegean Sea cannot claim a 
 high antiquity. In fact, various conjectures have been made as to its age. 
 It was first spoken of by Wood, 1 who supposed it to have been excavated 
 by a Turkish governor. Hunt, 2 who travelled in the Troad in 1801, 
 says he heard from the peasants, that eighty years before (that is, in 
 1720) the canal had been made by a Sultana of the Serail, who was at 
 that time proprietor of the estate, and that it had been afterwards 
 restored by Hassan Pasha. The Turks of Yerkassi Kioi assured Le- 
 chevalier 3 that the Kapudan Pasha Hassan had built a mill and baths 
 in the neighbouring valley, and they had themselves been employed 
 in the excavation of the new canal. Lechevalier thinks that the water 
 of the Bounarbashi Su had formerly been led off to Alexandria-Troas 
 by the aqueduct of Herodes Atticus. Barker Webb 4 also says that 
 Hassan Pasha el Ghazi led the water of the Bounarbashi Su through 
 an old canal which he restored and which moves a mill. Mauduit 5 
 is of opinion that the canal has been restored at different periods, 
 but that it already existed at the time of Xerxes, and that at the time 
 of Demetrius of Scepsis it led off all the water of the Bounarbashi Su 
 (called by him Scamander) into the Aegean Sea. Forchhammer 6 shares 
 the opinion that the canal is very ancient. Colonel Leake 7 did not 
 venture to decide whether it was a work of the ancients or of the 
 Turks. But I think we find the best answer to the question in the 
 alluvium deposited by this channel, which covers a space about one 
 mile and a half long and broad, and has thus already filled up by far the 
 larger portion of the Bay of Besika. That a small rivulet like this 
 channel should form such immense alluvial deposits in a hundred years 
 is out of the question ; in my opinion, a long number of centuries is 
 required. This canal is, as before mentioned, from 13 to 20 ft. broad, and 
 from 1 to 4 ft. deep. It is cut for a long distance in the rock. 
 
 Yirchow 8 says : " As M. Forchhammer rightly observes in the passage 
 quoted above, the ancient water-beds of the Bounarbashi Su are partly 
 very deeply impressed ; and, I might add, they are impressed so deeply 
 that we cannot well suppose them to have been preserved so for 
 thousands of years. This can best be seen by following the road from 
 Yeni Kioi down to the ferry of the Scamander. A long turning is first 
 made to the north round the Lisgar ; then the road leads round a spur 
 of the ridge towards a couple of bridges on which we cross two such 
 watercourses. When I first came there, I thought, especially at the 
 
 10 Beitr'dye zur Landeskundc der Troas, p. 118. 
 
 1 I'ssay on the Original Genius and Writings of 
 Homer; London, 1775, p. 326. 
 
 3 Walpole, Memoirs relating to European and 
 Asiatic Turkey; London, 1817, p. 1155. 
 
 3 Lechevalier, Voyage de la Troade en 1785, 
 1786. ii. p. 193. 
 
 4 Barker Webb, at other places, p. 34, notes. 
 
 5 A. F. Mauduit, Decouvertes dans la Troade) 
 Paris et Londres, 1840, pp. 132, 215. 
 
 6 Forchhammer, op. cii. p. 26. 
 
 7 Journal of a Tour in Asia Minor, p. 293. 
 
 8 Landeskundc, &c, p. 118. 
 
§ III.] 
 
 RIVERS — THE BOUNARBASIII SU. 
 
 99 
 
 eastern bridge, that I saw a stately river before me. As far as I could see 
 on both sides there was before us a broad bed, with but slight windings, 
 filled with open water and sharply-cut banks, presenting on a small 
 scale the image of the Scamander which is close by. But a further 
 investigation showed that this bed had no continuity ; even at the time 
 of high water it was connected with the Bounarbashi Su only by the 
 swamps and the inundating water. This water, however, had not been 
 brought down by the Bounarbashi Su, but by the Scamander, which 
 inundates its left bank in certain fixed places. The three principal places 
 where this occurs are accurately marked on Spratt's map, just as I found 
 them to be. The first is not far below Bounarbashi, where, after its 
 entry into the Plain, the Scamander makes its first great bend to the 
 west and forms the islands. The second is opposite the Ujek Tepeh, and 
 indeed in a distinctly-marked connection with the great reedy swamp of 
 the Bounarbashi Su. The third is much farther down, opposite Yeni Kioi ; 
 it fills the swamps of the Lisgar district and the adjoining low ground. 
 
 " Properly speaking, the proportion of the Bounarbashi Su to the 
 Scamander is very similar to that of the Kalifatli Asmak. Both of them 
 are indebted for their existence, in a large degree, to the powerful 
 1 brother.' If it were not for the artificial canal to Besika Bay, the 
 water of the Bounarbashi Su would also pour entirely into the Plain, 
 and it would fill the watercourses further down which are now dry, just 
 as the water of the Duden sources fills the bed of the Kalifatli Asmak. 
 There should, therefore, be also a name ' Bounarbashi Asmak.' The 
 name Su is only suitable if the artificial canal with its flowing water 
 is referred to." 
 
 Another canal, which has evidently required even greater labour, has, 
 at an unknown period, been cut across the promontory of Sigeum between 
 Yeni Kioi and Hagios Demetrios Tepeh. According to Forchhammer, 9 
 the length of this canal is 3000 ft., its depth more than 100 ft., and its 
 upper width about 100 ft. At present it is filled up 10 to 15 ft. deep 
 with earth, so that it is of no use whatever. It had evidently been 
 made to drain the waters of the Lisgar and the winter inundation of 
 the Bounarbashi Su." 
 
 Before the artificial canal was cut, and before the Scamander had its 
 present course, the Bounarbashi Su ran along the heights of Sigeum and 
 fell into the Hellespont. As in this position, and also on account of its 
 insignificance, it in no way interfered with the movement of the armies, 
 it is not mentioned by Homer. 
 
 (/) Of the Kalifatli Asmak— which, with Yirchow, Burnouf, and Calvert, 
 I hold to be identical with the ancient bed of the Scamander— I have 
 already spoken at some length. It is enough to add here, that one arm 
 of it rises in the Duden swamp 10 on Mr. Calvert's farm of Akshi Kioi, 
 while another arm starts from the point where the Scamander and 
 
 9 Forchhammer, op. cit. p. 20. 
 
 10 This swamp, which formerly covered an 
 area of about 250 acres, has by the exertions of 
 Mr. Calvert and his engineer, Mr. Stoney, been 
 
 dried up and converted into most valuable 
 land ; the three springs which produced it still 
 exist 
 
100 
 
 THE COUNTHY OF THE TliOJANS. 
 
 [Chap. I. 
 
 Thynibrius meet. The latter arm, which is broad and deep, brings at 
 the time of the floods an immense volume of water from the Scamander, 
 and joins the former arm at a short distance to the north of the Duden 
 swamp. There can hardly be any doubt that this is the ancient bed of 
 the Scamander. At a short distance to the north of the confluence of the 
 Scamander and Thymbrius there is a second channel, and a little further 
 on a third, through which the Scamander now sends its surplus waters 
 into the Kalifatli Asmak. In all three channels, but particularly in 
 the last one, may be seen countless trunks of uprooted trees, which have 
 been carried down the stream by the force of the current. The Kalifatli 
 Asmak has scarcely any current except in the winter months ; in the 
 dry season it consists of a long series of pools of stagnant water. 
 
 (g) The river Rhesus (6 T^cro? 11 ) was called Khoites (Toen-77?) in 
 the time of Strabo, who says, however, on the authority of Demetrius 
 of Scepsis, that possibly the river which flows into the Granicus might 
 be identical with the Khesus of Homer. 1 
 
 (h.) The river Heptaporus (0 f E7TTa7ropo? 2 ), according to Strabo, 3 flowed 
 180 stadia to the north of Adramyttium. 
 
 (i.) The river Caresus (6 Kdprjcro^) originated at Maloiis, between 
 Palaescepsis and Achaeum, on the coast opposite Tenedos, and fell 
 into the Aesepus. 5 
 
 (J.) The river Ehodius (0 'PoSt'o? 6 ) is, in all probability, the small river 
 which falls into the Hellespont at the Dardanelles. 7 According to Strabo, 
 it fell into the Hellespont between Abydus and Dardanus ; opposite its 
 mouth, on the Thracian Chersonesus, was the Dog's-tumulus (Cynossema, 
 Kwo? arffjua or KwoW^a), the pretended tomb of Hecuba. Strabo 
 further states that, according to others, the Ehodius fell into the Aesepus. 8 
 Elsewhere Strabo says that the Ehodius fell into the Aenius ; he remarks 
 at the same time that it came from Cleandria and Gordus. 9 
 
 (7c.) The Granicus (6 Tpr/vifcos 10 ) rises in Mount Cotylus, one of the 
 peaks of Ida. 1 It flows to the north-east through the district of Adrasteia, 
 and falls into the Propontis opposite the island of Ophiusa (now Afzia). 2 
 On the banks of this river Alexander the Great defeated the army of 
 Darius (334 b.c.) 
 
 (I) The Aesepus (6 A^tto? 3 ) rises also in Mount Cotylus, 4 receives 
 the Caresus, as before stated, passes to the north-east of Zeleia, and 
 
 11 II. xii. 20. 
 
 1 xiii. G02 : 6 \xev 'Pt)o~os Trora/xbs vvv KaKelrai 
 'PoeiT-qs, el /jltj dpa o els rbv TpdviKov efx^dWoov 
 'Prjaos eariv. 
 
 2 //. xii. 20. 
 
 3 xiii. p. 603 : 'A8pa,uuTTi'ou 8e Sie^ei irpbs 
 &pKTov exarbv Kal oydorjKovra crraSlovs. 
 
 4 II. xii. 20. 
 
 5 Strabo, xiii. p. 603 : Kap-naos 5' airb Ma- 
 Xovvtos {>et, tottov tivos Keifxfvov fxera^v ria- 
 Kaio-K^ews koi 'Axa'iov tt)s Tevedicov Uepaias- 
 typdWei oe els rbv Aiar)Trov. 
 
 6 II. xii. 20. 
 
 7 E. Buchholz, Homer. Kosmogr. und Geogr. 
 p. 310. 
 
 8 xiii. p. 595 : fiera^v re ('AfivSov kol Aap- 
 Sdvov) 6 'Podios eKir'nTTei rrora/JLOS, natf hv ev rrj 
 Xeppovr)o~(f> to Kvvbs ar\^.d eariv, o (paaiv'EKafirjs 
 eivai rdcpov ol de rbv 'Podlov els rbv AlarjTrov 
 e/j.fid\Aeiv (paaiv. 
 
 9 xiii. p. 603 : 'PoStoy Se aTrb KKeavtiplas Kal 
 T6p$ov a Sie'xet rrjs KaArjs irevKrjs e^KOvra 
 o~toS'iovs' efxfidWei 8' els rbv Atviov. 
 
 10 B. xii. 21. 
 
 1 Strabo, xiii. p. 602 : effri yap \6(pos tis tt)s 
 "lSr]s KotvAos • e£ ov o re 2f d/u.avdpos pel Kal 
 6 TpdviKos Kal Ato-niros. 
 
 2 E. Buchholz, Homer. Kosmogr. und Geogr. 
 p. 311. 3 //. xii. 21. 
 
 * Strabo, xiii. p. 602, just cited. 
 
§ IV.] 
 
 THE CLIMATOLOGY OF THE TROAD 
 
 101 
 
 falls into the Propontis opposite the island of Halone, the present 
 Aloni. 5 
 
 (m.) The Selleis (6 ^ekXrjeis?) flowed in the neighbourhood of Arisbe. 
 Strabo says : " Of the rivers the poet makes the Selleis flow near Arisbe, 
 if indeed Asms came from Arisbe and the river Selleis." 7 
 
 The Practius (o TlpdicTLo^) flowed between Abydus and Lamp- 
 sacus. Strabo says : " The Practius is also a river, but a city (of this 
 name), as some have thought, is not to be found. This river flows also 
 between Abydus and Lampsacus." 9 
 
 (p.) The Satniois (o Xarvioe^), to which the poet gives the epithet 
 €vp pELTij's (with a fair current 10 ), is now called Tuzlatchai, that is to say, 
 " Salt river : " it rises in Ida, flows in a westerly direction through the 
 southernmost part of the Troad, and falls into the Aegean Sea between 
 Larissa and Hamaxitus. 1 
 
 § IV. The Climatology of the Troad. 
 
 If we consider the Homeric Troad to extend from the coast of the 
 Propontis and the district of Cyzicus to the Ca'icus, it would lie between 
 40° 30' and 39° N. latitude ; Novum Ilium being in latitude 39° 53' : 
 its climate therefore must be almost identical with that of Constanti- 
 nople, which lies only 1° 7' further to the north. According to Tchiha- 
 tcheff, 2 the mean temperature of Constantinople is 14 0, 27 Celsius = 57 o, 70 
 Fahrenheit ; while that of Eome, which lies in the same latitude, is 15 o, 04 
 = 59° 30 Fahrenheit, that of Barcelona 17° = 62°'60 Fahrenheit. 
 
 Table of the mean Number op Days op the Four Cardinal Winds; op fine Days; of 
 rainy Days; and op more or less cloudy Days in the Years 1817, 1818, and 1854. 3 
 
 Months. 
 
 North. 
 
 East. 
 
 South. 
 
 West. 
 
 Fine 
 days. 
 
 Rainy- 
 days. 
 
 Cloudy 
 days. 
 
 January . 
 
 20 
 
 2 
 
 6 
 
 
 6 
 
 12 
 
 14 
 
 February . 
 
 11 
 
 1 
 
 12 
 
 1 
 
 4 
 
 2£ 
 
 21 
 
 March .... 
 
 19 
 
 1 
 
 6 
 
 2 
 
 8 
 
 8* 
 
 15 
 
 April .... 
 
 9 
 
 1 
 
 14 
 
 4 
 
 17 
 
 10 
 
 9 
 
 May .... 
 
 19 
 
 1 
 
 9 
 
 2 
 
 13 
 
 
 12 
 
 June .... 
 
 15 
 
 1 
 
 9 
 
 
 16 
 
 3£ 
 
 10 
 
 July . . . . 
 
 23 
 
 1 
 
 4 
 
 1 
 
 14 
 
 3 
 
 13 
 
 August . . . 
 
 21 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 
 21 
 
 3 
 
 8 
 
 September 
 
 22 
 
 
 6 
 
 1 
 
 9 
 
 8 
 
 15 
 
 October 
 
 21 
 
 4 
 
 7 
 
 1 
 
 11 
 
 4± 
 
 13 
 
 November. 
 
 19 
 
 
 7 
 
 2 
 
 6 
 
 
 14 
 
 December . 
 
 18 
 
 1 
 
 7 
 
 1 
 
 5 
 
 
 14 
 
 Total numbers. 
 
 217 
 
 17 
 
 91 
 
 15 
 
 130 
 
 8G£ 
 
 158 
 
 5 E. Buchholz, Homer. Kosmogr. und Geogr. 
 p. 311. 
 
 6 11. ii. 838, 839 : 
 
 "Agios 'TpraKidrii, ov 'Apia^Oeu <p4pov tWot, 
 atdajves, /ueyaXoi, iroTafxov airb HeWrjevros. 
 
 7 Strabo, xiii. p. 590 : ru>v Se iroTa/j.u>v rbu 
 uei> SeAArjet-Ta (pr^aii/ 6 iroii]Tr)s irpbs tt) ^AplafBri 
 peif ilirep 6 "Actios 'Apla$7]d4v re ?j/ce /cat 
 itorafxov utto SeAArjej/ros. 
 
 8 //. ii. 835 : 
 
 ot 8' &pa TlepKUTTju /cat Tlp&KTiov afji.<pevefj.ovTO. 
 
 9 xiii. p. 590 : 6 8e UpaKTios irorajxbs /x4v 
 eVrt, ir6\is 5' oi>x evplaKerat. ws rives tvofMicrau' 
 pet 8e /cat ouros fieratb 'AfivSov /cat Aafxipdnov. 
 
 10 II. vi. 34 : ~2,aTvi6epTOs iOppeirao. See also 
 xiv. 445 and xxi. 87. 
 
 1 E. Buchholz, ILmer. Kosmogr. und Geogr. 
 p. 354. 
 
 2 P. de Tchihatcheff, Asie Mineure : II. Clima- 
 tologie et Zoologie, pp. 35-37. 
 
 3 P. de Tchihatcheff, Ibid. p. 44. 
 
102 
 
 THE COUNTRY OF THE TROJANS. 
 
 [Chap. I. 
 
 It will be seen from this table that the north wind predominates very 
 decidedly, except in February and April. Thus in January it is on an 
 average nearly three times more frequent than all the other winds taken 
 together ; in March it is a quarter more frequent than the rest ; in May, 
 November, and December, almost twice as frequent ; in July, more than 
 three times as frequent ; and in August, twice as frequent. 
 
 These north winds blow nearly always with great violence, and they 
 caused us much suffering during the whole period of our excavations 
 at Troy. 
 
 The rainy season here is in December, January, and February. From 
 the beginning of April to the end of October it hardly ever rains, and in 
 the many summers I passed in the Troad I experienced hardly any rain 
 except in the shape of an occasional thunderstorm. 
 
 The winters are seldom very severe in the Troad ; the cold generally 
 does not set in before January. It is seldom so cold that the rivers freeze. 
 I have seen the Kalifatli Asmak frozen over in the winter of 1873, but 
 never the Scamander or Simois. But it appears that even the Hellespont 
 has sometimes been frozen over, since the straits were frozen in 739 4 and 
 753 5 a.d., while in 755 a.d. both the Bosphorus and the Hellespont are 
 reported to have been covered with ice. 6 Tchihatcheff, 7 from whom I 
 take this information, mentions further two occasions when the Bosphorus 
 was frozen during the reign of the Emperor Komanus (919-944 ad.), 
 one in 1011 and one in 1068 ; also one in 1620 a.d. 
 
 No traveller has ( studied the climate of the Troad with more attention 
 and accuracy than P. Barker Webb, who expresses himself in the following 
 terms: 8 — "The Troad being placed in the delicious temperature of Northern 
 Asia, its winters are tempered by the south winds which blow from the 
 Mediterranean ; the summer heat is also modified by the regular return 
 of the Etesian winds, which are poetically described by Homer under the 
 image of Boreas traversing the Thracian Sea. The fertility of the fields 
 and valleys, continually irrigated by the waters which descend from 
 Mount Ida, so rich in springs ; the variety of the soil, now flat, now 
 mountainous ; the abundance of the rivers ; the neighbourhood of the 
 sea ; the charming and picturesque landscape, which Nature alone has 
 had the care of forming, without Art having any share in it, — all pleases 
 the eye and strikes the imagination : in one word, the situation of 
 this country, considered as a whole, is such that Nature leaves nothing 
 to desire. In fact, if this country had a more enlightened government, 
 if it were under a less barbarous rule, few countries in the world could be 
 compared with it, whether for the richness and variety of its products, or 
 for the abundance of all that is necessary for human life. We may say 
 the same of the whole of Asia Minor, which was celebrated for the luxury 
 and the riches of its ancient inhabitants ; but Phrygia in particular 
 appears to have been in a high degree favoured by Heaven. Its forests 
 
 4 Von Hammer-Purgstall, ' Gesch. des Osm. 7 Asie Mm. : Descr. phys. p. 70. 
 
 Reichs, 2nd ed. vol. ii. p. 784. 8 Topographic dc la Troade andenne ct moderne, 
 
 5 Glycas, ed. Bon., p. 493. pp. 110, 111. 
 
 6 Theophanes, ed. Bon., vol. i. pp. 54-0 and G70. 
 
Island of Imbbos. 
 
 Mount Saoce of Samothrace. 
 
 Mounds of Achilles and Patroclus. 
 
 No. 2U. VIEW OF THE NORTHERN PART OF 
 
 The Ohai! 
 Village of 
 
 No. 21b. VIEW OF THE SOUTH-EASTERN PART C; 
 
Peninsula of Gaxupoli. 
 Aegean Sea. * Konm Kaleh. Lighthonse. 
 
 right of the Camels is the old bed of the Scamauder. To face page 103. 
 
 • OF TROY, FROM THE HILL OF HISSARLIK. 
 
 T Ida 
 
 Mount Garararm (Kaz Dagh). 
 
 pie. To face ^itge 103 
 
 U OF TROY. FROM THE HILL OF HISSARLIK. 
 
§ V.] PANOEAMIC VIEW OF THE PLAIN OF TROY. LOu 
 
 and pasture-lands are greener than those of the neighbouring countries 
 of Europe, and the fertility of its soil is by no means inferior to that of 
 the rest of Asia : add to this that it has neither the rigorous winters of 
 the former nor the scorching heat of the latter. What is missing here 
 is man. Desunt manus poscentibus arvis! The want of population has 
 changed these very blessings into as many misfortunes ; nay, this want 
 of men is the cause of those pestilential miasmata which have rendered 
 endemic in this country the sickness represented by Homer under the 
 image of the arrows cast by the wrath of Apollo. The aspect of the 
 country is in the highest degree picturesque : sometimes it reminds an 
 Englishman of the landscapes of his own country. This resemblance is 
 due as much to the form of the fields enclosed by verdant hedges, as to 
 the trees which are scattered here and there without symmetry, now 
 isolated, now in detached groups ; and this gives to the whole the appear- 
 ance of a park, or of a large space of ground destined to please the eye of 
 the traveller by its variety. There are but few vineyards here ; what is 
 chiefly cultivated is grain." 
 
 § Y. Panoramic View of the Plain of Troy. 
 
 I might add, that the Plain of Troy itself is even more favoured than 
 the surrounding country in the exuberant fertility of its soil and the 
 glorious beauty of its landscape. I beg the reader to accompany me at 
 sunset in spring to the summit of Hissarlik, in order that he may 
 convince himself how greatly the Trojans were favoured above other men 
 in the beautiful situation of their city. 9 Immediately before us extends 
 the plain bordered by the Simois and the Kalifatli Asmak, the ancient 
 Scamander, which was the theatre of the principal battles of the Iliad 
 and the scene of so many heroic actions. It is covered with grain and 
 innumerable yellow or red flowers. It ends at the confluence of the two 
 rivers, a mile distant, close to the village of Koum Kioi, whose small 
 terraced houses much resemble the mud hovels of the Egyptian fellahs. 
 The ridge to the right of this village, clothed with Yalonea oaks, runs 
 out on the north-east into the promontory of Khoeteum, on a lower 
 height of which, to the left, our eyes discern the tumulus which tradition 
 attributes to Ajax ; its summit is, according to Burnouf's measurement, 
 40*22 metres = 131 ft. above the sea. To the north of this tumulus lies 
 the site of an ancient city, 8 m. = 26 ft. 8 in. above the level of the sea, 
 according to Burnouf's measurement. It is strewn with fragments of 
 ancient pottery and sculptured splinters of white marble. Near the sea- 
 shore rises a small mound, which, according to Pausanias, 10 must be the 
 tumulus to which tradition pointed as the original tomb of Ajax. I shall 
 revert to it in the description of the Heroic tumuli. 11 Close to this 
 tumulus lies a mutilated marble statue of a warrior, draped and of 
 colossal size. In all probability the spot marks the site of the ancient 
 city of Aeanteum, which is not mentioned by Strabo, but is alluded to 
 by Pliny, 1 who says that it no longer existed in his time. 
 
 9 See the View, No. 21a. 10 i. 35. 5. 11 See Chapter XII. (on the Tumuli). » H. N. v. 6?, 
 
104 
 
 THE COUNTRY OF THE TROJANS. 
 
 [Chap. I. 
 
 On the promontory of Bhoeteum, 250 m. = 820 ft. to the east of the 
 great tumulus of Ajax, are numerous traces of an ancient city, probably 
 Bhoeteum, which is repeatedly mentioned by Strabo, 2 and still existed in 
 the time of Pliny. 3 A little further to the east and north-east are four 
 more small artificial tumuli, on the height which descends to a miniature 
 port now called " Karanlik" (darkness). Fragments of marble columns and 
 pottery abound here. I agree with Mr. Calvert that the above-mentioned 
 city of Aeanteum must have extended as far as this, and that Karanlik 
 marks its port, and perhaps at the same time the port of Khoeteum. 
 
 Close to the height of Khoeteum, and parallel with it, is the deep bed 
 of the In Tepeh Asmak, into which the Scamander once flowed a little to 
 the north-east of Koum Kioi. We cannot discern from hence the tumulus 
 of Ilus, where the Scamander formerly bent to the north-east or east, as 
 it is too low. The eye follows for some distance to the north-west the 
 present bed of the Kalifatli Asmak, until we lose sight of it among the 
 oaks with which the plain is covered ; but we can distinctly trace its 
 course to the north as far as its mouth by the two rows of trees with 
 which the banks of the Scamander are lined. To the left of its mouth 
 we see the little town of Koum Kaleh, with its two white minarets and its 
 citadel surrounded with high walls, which can now be easily scaled, the 
 wind having accumulated immense masses of sand on its eastern side. 
 Koum Kaleh was a thriving and flourishing city before the town of the 
 Dardanelles was built, which cannot be much more than a hundred years 
 ago ; indeed, the masses of marble which have been lavished on its 
 mosques and its fountains, now dried up, testify to its former opulence. 
 Fragments of ancient marbles, as well as stone tombs, which are some- 
 times dug up in Koum Kaleh or its neighbourhood, lead me to think that 
 it marks the site of the ancient city of Achilleum (to 'A^lWetov), which, 
 according to Herodotus, 4 was built by the Mytilenaeans. It is mentioned 
 by Strabo as having been destroyed by the Ilians, 5 and by Pliny, 6 who 
 says that it no longer existed in his time. M. Burnouf observes to me : 
 " The current of the Hellespont does not prevent the accumulation of 
 alluvial soil at Koum Kaleh, because (1) the fort is almost buried under the 
 sand which the north and north-east winds heap up there : (2) the current 
 of the Scamander forms before Koum Kaleh horizontal mounds of sand, 
 where the swamp changes little by little, by the effect of the vegetation, 
 into vegetable earth : (3) there are deposits of sand at the mouth of the 
 Scamander, which are on a level with the surface of the sea ; though it 
 appears that they cannot grow higher, since the wind carries away their 
 crest when it emerges and becomes dry : (4) behind Koum Kaleh, on the 
 side of the Aegean, is a lagoon of salt water, which tends to fill up and 
 appears to have once been connected with the sea. In short, the whole 
 neck of land of Koum Kaleh seems to be of recent formation ; the sea 
 must once have washed the foot of Cape Sigeum. But probably this neck 
 of land, in its present condition, already existed in the Trojan time, for 
 such a formation requires ages." 
 
 2 xiii. pp. 595, 597, 601, 602. 3 II. N. v. 33. 4 v. 94. 6 xiii. pp. 600, 604. 6 if. N. v. 33. 
 
PANORAMIC VIEW OF THE PLAIN OF TPxOY. 
 
 105 
 
 To the south-west of Koum Kaleh we see Cape Sigeum, crowned with 
 the Christian village of Yeni Shehr, 252 ft. above the sea, and its many 
 windmills ; and immediately to the east of it two tumuli, one of which is 
 attributed to Achilles, the other to Patroclus. Looking further on, we 
 see the beautiful blue Hellespont, bordered on the north by the Thracian 
 Chersonesus, which runs out to a point, crowned by a lighthouse, the 
 site probably of the ancient Elaeus (E^aiovs) mentioned by Thucydides. 7 
 Further to the north-west, we see in the Aegean Sea, and at a distance 
 of about 23 miles from Cape Sigeum, the island of Imbros. It is about 
 23 miles in circumference, and in ancient times had on its east side a 
 city of the same name. Above Imbros rises the high mountain of the 
 island of Samothrace, on the top of which Poseidon sat, and gazed with 
 wonder at the battles before Troy : from thence he overlooked the Greek 
 fleet, the city of Troy, and Mount Ida. 8 According to the Scholiast (on 
 this passage) and Pliny, 9 this mountain was called ^aw^ : it is 5000 ft. 
 high. Pliny adds, with absurd exaggeration, which seems a copyist's 
 error : " Samothrace attollitur monte Saoce x. mill, passuum altitudinis." 
 A little more to the west we discern, at a distance of 119 miles, the 
 beautiful cone of Mount Athos, called 'A#6&)9 by Homer, 10 "A#co? and "KOcov 
 by other classic writers 11 (now Monte Santo), the highest and most 
 eastern ridge by which the Macedonian peninsula of Chalcidice penetrates 
 into the Aegean Sea. Pliny 1 states that it extends for 75 Pioman miles 
 into the sea, and that its circumference is 150 miles. Strabo 2 compares 
 its form to a woman's breast. 
 
 A severe critic of mine has declared that Mount Athos is only visible 
 from Hissarlik at sunset in early autumn; 3 but I can assure the reader 
 that this is an utter mistake, as the mountain is visible from Hissarlik 
 all the year round at sunset, whenever the weather is clear. 
 
 According to Herodotus, 4 Xerxes, during his expedition to Greece, 
 dug a canal through the neck of land which joins Athos to the Chalcidic 
 peninsula. The promontory was also called Acte. 5 Mount Athos is now 
 celebrated for its monasteries, of which there are said to be 34 (32 Greek 
 and 2 Eussian), and for the ancient MSS. preserved in their libraries. 
 
 Returning to the Plain of Troy and turning our eyes to the north- 
 west, west, and south-west, we see immediately before us the broad bed of 
 the ancient Scamander (now the Kalifatli Asmak) ; then the Christian 
 village of Kalifatli, with its wooden church steeple ; further on, the lines 
 of trees which flank the course of the present bed of the Scamander ; 
 then fields of grain, followed by vast swamps, which are impassable 
 except in the very driest season of the year, and even then only in a few 
 places. There are, however, three bridges in these swamps, by which 
 
 i 
 
 7 viii. 102, 107. 1 H. N. iv. 10, 17. Pliny exaggerates the 
 
 8 II. xiii. 11-14: length of Athos, which is actually about 40 
 KOi yap % Bavfidfav 7](Xto tttoKsiiov tc fidxw T6 English miles. , 
 
 vipov eV aKpordi-qs Kopv(p9)s ^djxov uA^eWrjs 2 vii. p. 331. 
 
 ©pTji'/ctrjs- evdfv yap i<palueTO Truffa ixhv"l5-n, 3 B. Stark, Jenaer Literatur Zeitung, 1874, 
 
 (paivero Se Upid/jLOio ttoAis Kal vrjes 'Axaivv. No. 23. 
 
 9 H. N. iv. 12. 23. 10 11. xiv. 229. 4 vii. 23. See also Diodor. xi. 1, and Plin. 
 11 See Tzschucke, and Mela, ii. 2, 10. H. X. iv. 10, 17. 5 Thucydides, iv. 109. 
 
106 
 
 THE COUNTRY OF THE TROJANS. 
 
 [Chap. I. 
 
 they may always be crossed, except during the period of inundation and 
 for some time afterwards. These large sheets of stagnant water, helped 
 by the decomposition of the animal and vegetable matter contained in 
 them, produce pestilential miasmata, which engender much sickness and 
 especially intermittent fevers. 
 
 We learn from ancient authors that swamps existed in the Plain 
 of Troy throughout antiquity, even at a time when the population was 
 numerous and powerful. There was even a swamp immediately below 
 the walls of Troy itself, for Ulysses says to Eumaeus: 6 "But when we 
 reached the city and the high wall, we lay down in full armour around 
 the citadel, in the midst of the thick shrubs, among the rushes and 
 the swamp." But the swamps must have largely increased since the 
 disappearance of the industrious population which formerly inhabited 
 the Troad. Benewed prosperity and cultivation can alone remove the 
 majority of the endemic diseases which are due to them. 
 
 The Trojan plain, which is about two hours' ride in breadth, is 
 bounded on the west by the shores of the Aegean Sea, which are, on an 
 average, 131 ft. high, and upon which we see first a conical hill, not 
 unlike a tumulus in appearance. This is called Hagios Demetrios Tepeh, 
 " the hill of Saint Demetrius," on account of an open chapel dedicated 
 to that saint, which has been built at the foot of the hill, fragments of 
 sculptured white marble having been used for the purpose. Many other 
 sculptured marble blocks lie close by, and evidently mark the site of an 
 ancient Greek temple, which, as Mr. Sayce justly observes, 7 must in all 
 probability have been dedicated to Demeter, who — like nearly all other 
 Greek deities — has been metamorphosed into a saint of no real existence, 
 or absurdly confounded with a real one. 8 But here people have not 
 even gone to the trouble of changing the name more than was necessary 
 in order to alter the feminine gender into the masculine (A^^r?;/? into 
 ArjprjrpLos). I explored the tumulus and shall revert to it later on. 
 
 A little further to the south-west lies the large Christian village of 
 Yeni Kioi, in a splendid situation on the cliff, 203 ft. high, and over- 
 hanging the sea. But in spite of its high situation, it is, owing to its 
 close neighbourhood to the swamps, more infested by fever than any 
 other place in the Troad ; it even sometimes happens that all the inha- 
 bitants of Yeni Kioi are fever-stricken at the same time. 9 
 
 6 Odys. xiv. 472-475 : 
 dAA' ot( dr) p 'utofieada irorl tttoAiu alirv re 
 
 ■fyueTs /uej/ irepl affrv kclto, pcoirrjia irvKvd, 
 av hovaKas /ecu tAos, virb revxtGL 7re7TT7j WTes 
 Kei/xeda, vvl- 5' dp iirTjXOe kclkti Bopeao 
 irecrovros. 
 
 7 Athcnccum, Oct. 4th, 1879. 
 
 8 Thus, for example, Saint Nicholas has taken 
 the place and functions of Poseidon. Many of 
 the chapels or churches dedicated to him occupy 
 the site where a sanctuary or temple of the 
 Greek god once stood ; and just as in old times 
 the sailors invoked the assistance of Poseidon to 
 grant them a fair wind or to save them from 
 
 danger, so the Greek sailors of our own time 
 invoke Saint Nicholas to the same effect. 
 
 9 Without possessing the slightest knowledge 
 of medicine, I became celebrated in the Troad as 
 a physician, owing to the quantity of quinine 
 and tincture of arnica I had brought with me 
 and dispensed liberally. In all the villages of 
 the Troad, the priest is the parish doctor ; and 
 as he himself possesses no medicines, and is 
 ignorant of their properties, besides having 
 an innate dislike to cold water and all species 
 of washing, he never uses any other means than 
 bleeding, which of course never cures, and often 
 kills the poor creatures he takes in charge. 
 
§ V.] PANORAMIC VIEW OF THE PLAIN OF TROY. 107 
 
 To the south-east of this village is the military farm of Yerkassi, 
 with its ruined mosque and minaret ; and further south, on the heights, 
 the lofty tumulus called Ujek Tepeh, which is 83 ft. high, and thus by 
 far the highest of all the tumuli in the Troad. Those who would place 
 Troy at Bounarbashi erroneously identify it with the tomb of Aesyetes. 
 I have thoroughly explored it, and shall describe it in detail in the 
 following pages. 
 
 To the north-west of Ujek Tepeh, we see high up on the shore the 
 tumulus called Besika Tepeh, which I also explored, and of which I shall 
 speak hereafter. Of this tumulus, however, we can merely catch the top, 
 as it is screened from our view by the intervening hills and tall oaks. 
 Immediately to the west of Besika Tepeh is a small promontory, which 
 has the shape of a castle, and is for this reason called " Palaeocastron." 
 I visited it in company with Professor Yirchow. We found there the 
 foundations of one or two modern buildings, but no accumulation of debris 
 and no fragments of pottery, — those everlasting and indestructible wit- 
 nesses of ancient settlements. Here begins the far-stretching Bay of 
 Besika, in front of which lies the island of Tenedos, still called by its 
 ancient name, but by the Turks Bogdsha-Adassi. It is distant about 
 40 stadia from the mainland. 10 Pliny 1 gives its distance from Lesbos 
 as 58 Koman miles, and from Sigeum as 12J miles. 
 
 This island appears to have been celebrated in ancient times, together 
 with Chryse 2 and Cilia, 3 for its worship of the Sminthian Apollo : " Hear 
 me, God of the silver bow, thou that guardest Chryse and most holy 
 Cilia, and rulest Tenedos with might, Sminthean Apollo ; if ever I roofed 
 for thee an acceptable shrine, or if ever I burnt for thee fat thighs of 
 bulls or goats, fulfil for me this wish." 4 
 
 Tenedos is now celebrated for its excellent wine, which is not 
 mentioned in Homer. 
 
 Beturning again to the Plain of Troy, our eyes wander in a southerly 
 direction, 5 for the distance of a two hours' ride, as far as the Turkish 
 village of Bounarbashi and the heights to the right and left of it ; this 
 village rises up with its white minaret, and behind it, at a great distance, 
 Mount Chigri, which I have mentioned before. To the north-east of 
 Bounarbashi we again recognize the Scamander by the masses of trees 
 with which its banks are lined ; here to the south of its confluence with 
 the Thymbrius is its best ford. As I have said before, from the temple 
 
 10 Strabo, xiii. p. 604. 
 
 1 H. N. v. 31, 140. 
 
 2 Chryse was a city on the coast of the Troad, 
 situated on a hill near Thebe, in the neighbourhood 
 of Adramyttium, with a temple of the Sminthian 
 Apollo in a sacred grove. It was the home of 
 Chrysei's : Iliad, i. 390, 452 ; Ovid, Metam. xiii. 
 174 ; Strabo, xiii. pp. 605, 611. Pliny, H. N. v. 
 32, says, " fuit et Polymedia ci vitas, et Chrysa 
 et Larissa alia Smintheum templum durat ;" 
 but he can of course only mean the later Chryse, 
 which was near Hamaxitus (Strabo, xiii. p. 612), 
 the ancient city having utterly disappeared in 
 
 Strabo's time. 
 
 3 Cilia was in the valley of Thebe in the 
 Troad, on the river Cillaeus, at the foot of 
 Mount Cillaeus (part of the range of Ida): 
 Strabo, xiii. pp. 612, 618; Pliny, H. N. v. 30; 
 Herodotus, i. 149 ; Ovid, Metam. xiii. 174. 
 
 4 II. i. 37-41 : 
 
 K\v6't [xev, apyvporog, ts Xpvarjv a.fx(pi&e$7)iias 
 KiXKav Te (aderju, TeveSoio tc l<pi avaaveis, 
 'Xfj.ivOev. ei 7TOT6 rot xapuvT' £ir\ vv\bv epe^a y 
 
 et Srj Tcori roi Kara iriova ixt)pi e/crja 
 ravpuv rj8' alywu, ro5e fxoi Kpr\t]vov i4\$u>p' 
 
 5 See the View, No. 21b, opposite p. 103. 
 
108 
 
 THE COUNTRY OF THE TROJANS. 
 
 [Chap. L 
 
 of the Thymbrian Apollo, at the confluence, to Novum Ilium is, according 
 to Strabo, 6 50 stadia. At a mile's distance in a north-westerly direction 
 lies the beautiful estate belonging to my friend Mr. Calvert, the old name 
 of which— Akshi Kioi or Batak (which latter means " swamp ")— has 
 now been changed into Thymbra. It deserves the change of name, for 
 not only is it bounded by the river Thymbrius, but it stands, as before 
 stated, on the site of the ancient Thymbra. It also comprises the site 
 of an early settlement, on a small hill to the north of Mr. Calvert's farm- 
 house. This site is covered with fragments of ordinary Greek pottery, 
 and in regard to position, distance, &c, corresponds so closely with the 
 statements of Strabo, that it must certainly be his 9 l\iea>v Kco^, where, 
 on the authority of Demetrius of Scepsis, he places the Homeric Troy. 
 At the foot of the hill are, curiously enough, the three springs of water 
 already described, which produced the Duden swamp, now dried up, of 
 which I have spoken before. The temperature of these springs is, 
 according to Professor Yirchow's measurement, 68°-71 o, G0 Fahr. 
 
 I have explored the site of 'I\/,eW Kcojjlt], but found it to consist 
 simply of coarse gravel sand ; there is no accumulation of debris ; and the 
 scanty potsherds lie on the surface of the ground. Demetrius of Scepsis 
 may have been deceived by the appearance of the soil ; he may have 
 supposed the Trojan walls to be hidden under a small natural rampart, 
 which projects to some distance and encloses the site in some places ; 
 but it really consists of nothing but gravel and sand. Mr. Calvert has 
 excavated a number of tombs close to this site. If we may judge from 
 the contents of the tombs, they would belong to poor villagers. Another 
 curiosity of the estate is the tumulus of Hanai Tepeh, of which I shall 
 treat hereafter. 
 
 Between the estate and Hissarlik are small heights covered with 
 oaks, low shrubs, and bushes. At a short distance to the south rises a 
 tumulus called Pasha Tepeh, which has been excavated by Mrs. Schlie- 
 mann, and which I shall describe hereafter. 7 To the north-east of it 
 is the Turkish village of Chiblak or Tchiplak (a word which means 
 " naked "), with its minaret lately built with the stones I excavated 
 at Hissarlik. This tumulus is situated on a neck of land which projects 
 thence in a westerly direction for half a mile further into the Plain of 
 Troy, and whose last spur dominates the swamp of the Kalifatli Asmak. 
 On this sort of promontory Webb 8 places ancient Troy. But his map 
 is in confusion, for he says that this promontory is to the east of Ilium 
 and to the south-east of Chiblak, whereas it is to the south of the former 
 and to the west of the latter. Webb 9 supposes that there were two 
 springs at the foot of the site, which formed a swamp. But there are 
 no springs ; there are only low lands which are inundated at the period 
 of the high waters. He commits a further error in making the Kalifatli 
 Asmak come from Chiblak, and in identifying the tumulus of Aesyetes 
 with Besika Tepeh. The facts are, as M. Burnouf writes to me, that 
 
 « xiii. p. 598. 
 
 7 See Chapter XII. 
 
 8 P. Barker Webb, Topographic de la Troade, p. 55. 
 
 9 Ibid. p. 55. 
 
§ V.] PANORAMIC VIEW OF THE PLAIN OF TROY. 109 
 
 the little promontory consists of a horizontal limestone rock 290 metres 
 = 951 ft. long by 16 to 90 metres = 52 to 295 ft. broad ; the two lower 
 spurs, b and c, advance from it to the north-west and south-west. (See 
 the Plan, No. 22.) On the hill a' are to be found only a few fragments 
 of red modern pottery. Advancing towards a, the quantity of vase- 
 fragments increases, but the pottery is the same, wheel-made, and dull 
 red. There is no fragment of 
 hand-polished pottery, no frag- 
 ment of a saddle-quern, or of 
 other ancient objects. The 
 accumulation of debris here 
 and there hardly amounts to 
 1 inch ; below it is the naked 
 rock. But there are frag- 
 ments of white or coloured 
 marble, some of which are 
 sculptured. 
 
 The hill is crossed by the footpath which leads from Kalifatli by Pasha 
 Tepeh to Chiblak. In the dale at the southern foot of the hill is the little 
 rivulet of Chiblak, which is hardly 3 ft. wide, and generally dry ; it passes 
 in front of the little promontory a', feeds the reeds in the plain, and dis- 
 charges into the Kalifatli Asmak at about 300 metres = 984 ft. below the 
 village of this name. To the south-east of Chiblak Mount Gargarus, now 
 called Kaz Dagh, lifts up its head in the far distance. Immediately to 
 the south-west, south, and east, is the site of Novum Ilium, the walls of 
 which may still be traced in a number of places. Its extent would imply 
 that it may have had from 40,000 to 50,000 inhabitants. The accumula- 
 tion of debris on its site is generally from 6 to 16 ft. deep. The surface 
 is covered with Hellenic and Roman potsherds, as well as with fragments 
 of marble sculptures and columns, which testify to the ancient magnifi- 
 cence of the town. 
 
 As before explained, the hill of Hissarlik is the spur of a continuous 
 ridge, which Strabo well describes by the words avvexh? pa>X^™ hecause 
 it runs for 12 miles in an easterly direction. It is partly covered with 
 oaks, and apparently terminates in Mount Oulou Dagh, which I have tried 
 to identify with the Homeric Callicolone. Between this ridge and the 
 heights of Bhoeteum is the beautiful plain called Halil Ovasi, from 1 to 
 1J mile in breadth and 4 miles in length, which is traversed by the 
 Simois, and extends to the foot of the hill upon which are the ruins 
 of Ophrynium : in this valley, which forms part of the great Plain of 
 Troy, at a distance of 2J miles, lies the Turkish village of Halil Eli. 
 Another branch of the same valley extends from this village along the 
 Simois to beyond the pretty Turkish village of Doumbrek, which is at 
 a distance of 8 miles from Hissarlik. This second valley is of wonderful 
 fertility; its orchards are full of peach-trees, almond- trees, pear-trees, 
 and the like 
 
 In the steep rocky slope close to Hissarlik a large theatre has been 
 
 10 Strabo. xiii. D. 598. 
 
110 
 
 THE COUNTRY OF THE TROJANS. 
 
 [Chap. I. 
 
 excavated, with a stage 197 ft. broad, and apparently capable of contain- 
 ing 5000 persons. To judge from the fragments of sculptured marble I 
 have dug up there, it appears to belong to the Macedonian time. It was 
 probably built by Lysimachus, and was one of the favours he conferred 
 upon Novum Ilium. 11 
 
 Immediately to the east of this theatre, directly below the ruins of 
 the town- wall of Novum Ilium, and exactly 365 metres or 399 yds. from 
 Hissarlik, is the spring, whose water has, as before mentioned, a tempera- 
 ture of 14 0, 6 Celsius (58°*28 Fahrenheit). It is enclosed to a height of 
 OrV ft. by a wall of large stones joined with cement, 9 j- ft. in breadth, and 
 in front of it there are two stone troughs for watering cattle. A second 
 spring, which is likewise still below the ruins of the ancient town- 
 wall, is exactly 725 metres (793 yds.) distant from Hissarlik. It had a 
 similar enclosure of large stones, 7 ft. high and 5 ft. broad, and has the 
 same temperature. But it is out of repair : all" the stones of the enclosure 
 have been taken away by the villagers for building purposes, and the 
 water no longer runs through the stone pipe, but along the ground 
 before it reaches the pipe. After these two springs, exactly 945 metres 
 or 1033 yds. from Hissarlik, is a third spring. It is copious and runs 
 out through two stone pipes placed side by side in an enclosure com- 
 posed of large stones joined with earth, which rises to a height of 7 ft. 
 and is 23 ft. broad. The temperature of the spring is from 14°*3 to 15° 
 Celsius (57 0, 74 to 59° Fahr.). In front of the spring are six stone 
 troughs, placed so that the superfluous water runs from the first through 
 all the others. All these enclosures and troughs are of Turkish masonry 
 and manufacture. These three springs were of course insufficient for the 
 vast population of Novum Ilium ; a large quantity of water was conse- 
 quently brought also from the Upper Thymbrius by the great aqueduct 
 already mentioned, which still spans the lower course of that river. 
 
 § VI. Zoology or the Troad. 
 
 Barker Webb writes : l " The zone of forests with which the Gargarus 
 is surrounded is probably in the same state of wild nature in which it 
 was at the time of the Trojan war ; even at a much more advanced 
 stage of civilization it preserved the same aspect, for Libanius informs 
 us that the mountains of Ida were inhabited by a peculiarly wild species 
 of bear ; 2 nay, Cresconius Corippus, at a later period, describes the same 
 wild scene as existed at the time of Homer and as still exists to-day. 3 
 These forests are peopled by bears, wolves, and a race of animals, probably 
 jackals, which, we hear, pursue their prey in bands. Mount Ida is still 
 the /jir)T7]p Orjpwv (mother of wild beasts), and, if we believe the in- 
 habitants of the country, even tigers are sometimes seen there." 
 
 I will here make some extracts from TchihatchefF 4 on the Zoology 
 of the Troad : " Jackal (Chacal) is a Persian word. The wolf, described 
 by Aristotle and Pliny under the name of #o>?, is identical with the jackal. 
 
 11 Strabo, xiii. p. 593. 
 
 1 Topojraphie dc la Troade, p. 113. 
 
 2 Libanius, Epist. 14G. 
 
 3 Flavii Crescon. Coripp. Johannidos. 
 * Asie Mineure: Desc>\ phys. p. 592 ff! 
 
§ VL] 
 
 ZOOLOGY OF THE TROAD. 
 
 Ill 
 
 The lion, so well known to Homer, in the time of Herodotus 5 still inha- 
 bited the country between the rivers Nestus 6 and Achelous 7 (between the 
 present Missolonghi and Salonica), so that he calls it infested by lions. 
 Aristotle 8 reproduces the delimitation of the country inhabited by lions 
 as drawn by Herodotus. Parthenius, 9 who lived about 50 B.C., says that 
 the hunter Euanippus hunted lions and boars in Thessaly. Aelian, 10 who 
 flourished in the beginning of the third century of our era, mentions lions 
 and bears on Mount Pangaeus in Thrace. An Homeric hymn 11 mentions 
 lions, panthers, bears, and wolves on Mount Ida. According to Aelian, 1 
 there were lions in Armenia. According to Constantine Porphyro- 
 genitus, 2 lions existed in Cappadocia. The medals of Tarsus represent a 
 lion devouring a bull. It appears that the lion had already in the time 
 of Hadrian (117-138 a.d.) left the districts which it had inhabited in 
 Europe. Lions were still seen in Asia Minor in the sixteenth century 
 of our era ; but they have- now completely deserted the peninsula. We 
 learn from the Bible, 3 that lions were very common in Palestine and 
 Syria. That they were bold enough to attack, not only flocks guarded by 
 shepherds, but wayfarers on the roads, is shown by the lions killed by 
 Samson (Judg. xiv. 5, 6) and by David (I Sam. xvii. 34), and by the 
 lion that slew the disobedient prophet (1 Kings xiii. 24). The lion is 
 a constant image of strength and courage, violence and oppression, in 
 innumerable passages, especially of Job, the Psalms, the Proverbs, and 
 the Prophets ; and he is the symbol of the tribe of Judah, and of the 
 Messiah himself (Gen. xlix. 9 ; Rev. v. 5). The retrograde movement of 
 the lion seems at first sight the more difficult to explain, as the countries 
 which it inhabited underwent an immense decrease of population. But 
 the cause is to be found in this very decrease of population and domestic 
 animals. Panthers are no longer found in the Troad, but they are 
 still seen in the environs of Smyrna. Boars are very frequent in all 
 the mountains of Phrygia and in those of the Troad, which appear to 
 have been one of the most ancient residences of this pachyderm. But 
 it must be distinctly understood that our domestic pig does not descend 
 from the Sus scropha, or boar, but from the wild pig of India. 
 
 " Horses are very numerous in the Troad. We know from the testi- 
 mony of Homer that Asia Minor and Thrace were celebrated for their 
 horses. According to the Bible, 4 Solomon (1000 B.C.) had 12,000 horse- 
 men ; Isaiah (700 B.C.) speaks of the cavalry of the Israelites, and 
 mentions the horse as serving for agricultural purposes. Asses, mules, 
 oxen, goats, camels, and sheep, are equally plentiful. The wool of 
 Phrygia and of Miletus was very celebrated in antiquity, for Aristophanes 
 thrice 5 mentions that the Athenians imported their wool for the manu- 
 facture of cloth from Phrygia and Miletus. Herodotus 6 represents 
 
 5 Herodotus, vii. 126. 
 
 6 The present Karasu or Ma'isto, to the east 
 of Salonica. 
 
 7 Probably the Aspropotamus, in Livaha. 
 
 8 Hist. Animal, viii. 28. 
 
 9 Ed. Passau ; Leipzig, 1824. 
 
 10 Hist. Animal, in. 13. 
 
 11 Hi/mn. in Venerem, vv. 69, 199. 
 
 1 Hist. Animal, xrii. 31. 
 
 - I)- Themat., i. Tlum. Armeniacum. 
 
 3 Jeremiah v. 6 ; xlix. 19 ; Solomon's Song, 
 iv. 8. 4 2 Chronicles, i. 14. 
 
 5 In Av., verse 493 ; in Lysist., verse 730 ; 
 and in Han., verse 549. 6 y. 49, 
 
112 
 
 THE COUNTRY OF THE TROJANS. 
 
 [Chap. I. 
 
 Phrygia as the richest country in the world for flocks. Appian informs 
 us that on the shores of the Pontus the abundance of cattle was so 
 great that, when Lucullus besieged Amisus (Samsoun), the price of an ox 
 was 1 drachma (about 1 franc), and that of other animals in proportion. 
 
 " Of the eight different species of oxen only the ox (Bos taurus) and 
 the buffalo (Bos bubalus) are found in Asia Minor. Independently of the 
 little advanced state of industry and agriculture, the development of the 
 bovine race finds in this country rather unfavourable conditions, owing 
 to its mountainous formation and the nature of its pasture-grounds. 
 These are generally composed of an herbage more or less short, which 
 is excellent for sheep, goats, and even horses, but not good for oxen. 
 Milk, cheese, and meat, being furnished here almost exclusively by sheep 
 and goats, the use of the ox is limited to the needs of agriculture ; and 
 as this is here but very little developed, the number of oxen and buffaloes 
 is naturally inconsiderable. Varro 7 mentions very wild bulls (perferi 
 boves) in Dardania (the Troad), as well as in Thrace and Media ; but 
 these certainly do not remind us of the present bulls of Asia Minor, 
 which are so quiet and inoffensive. 
 
 " Aelian 8 informs us that the laws of Phrygia condemned to death 
 any one who killed an ox destined for the plough. This proves either 
 the great scarcity of this animal, or the great development of agri- 
 culture. Varro, 9 Pliny, 10 Valerius Maximus, 1 and Columella, 2 also inform 
 us that the ancients had such a respect for the ox, as indispensable for 
 agriculture, that they decreed death to any one who killed one. 
 
 " The buffalo is very common, and frequently serves instead of oxen 
 for the labours of agriculture. Of camels, the only species found here is 
 the Camelus Bact nanus. That this species was known in Assyria, which 
 has close relations with Asia Minor, is proved by the appearance of the 
 two-humped camel among the tributes brought to king Shalmaneser III. 
 (b.c. 840), on the famous black obelisk in the British Museum. This 
 animal seems to have been unknown in Asia Minor and Greece in high 
 antiquity, for Herodotus 3 attributes the victory of Cyrus over Croesus at 
 Sardis to the presence of camels in the Persian army, which were 
 unknown until then, and the sight of which frightened the Lydian 
 cavalry. 
 
 "The stag (Cervus elaplius) is rare, whereas the deer (Cervus dama) 
 and the roebuck (Cervus capriolus) are very abundant. Of gazelles, the 
 Antilope Dorcas is the most frequent. 
 
 " The ornithological Fauna is very rich, but little known. Crows, 
 ravens, partridges (both red and grey), quails, as well as storks, are 
 very abundant. The part which the stork plays in the physiognomy 
 of the landscape is particularly due to the respect shown to him : this 
 respect is such that he is everywhere inviolable, and his presence is 
 regarded as a good omen. According to Bosenmuller, the word Chasidah, 
 by which the stork is named in the Bible, signifies 'pious.'" 
 
 7 De lie Rust, ii. 11 8 Hist. Animal, xii. 54. 9 De Re Lust. ii. 5. 
 
 10 II. N. viii. 70. 4. 1 viii. 8. 2 De Re Rust. vi. 3 i. 79, 80. 
 
§ VI.] 
 
 ZOOLOGY OF THE TROAD. 
 
 113 
 
 I must mention, however, that the storks build their nests only on 
 the houses of Turks, or on walls and trees, never on the houses of the 
 Christians ; for while the former have a sort of veneration for the stork, 
 the latter call if the sacred bird of the Turks, and do not suffer it to 
 build nests on their houses. The Turks, on the contrary, can never have 
 too many storks' nests on their houses. There are houses in Bounarbashi 
 with four, six, eight, ten, and even twelve storks' nests on one and the 
 same flat roof. 
 
 Cranes do not remain in the Troad during the summer, but migrate 
 northward in immense swarms in March, and return in August to 
 more congenial climes. As Homer never mentions storks, though they 
 must have been at all times plentiful in the Troad, I am inclined to think 
 that he includes under the word yepavoi both storks and cranes. Nothing 
 can be more beautiful than his description of the passage of these birds : 
 " The Trojans went with clanging and noise like birds ; as when the 
 clanging of the cranes rises in the face of heaven, who, after having 
 escaped the winter and the tremendous rain, fly with loud cries over the 
 streams of Ocean, bearing murder and destruction to the Pygmaean 
 race." 4 
 
 There are various species of vultures in the Plain of Troy, but only 
 one species of eagle. This has a very dark plumage, nearly black, in 
 consequence of which M. Burnouf holds it to be identical with the 
 Homeric irepicvos, of which the poet says : " Zeus, the counsellor, heard 
 him (Priam), and forthwith sent an eagle, the king of birds, a dark bird 
 of chase, which men also call percnos." 5 
 
 There is also a small bird in the plain with a beautiful plumage, 
 which M. Burnouf holds to be identical with the Homeric Cymindis, 
 called Chalcis by the gods. The reader will remember that Sleep, in 
 the shape of this bird, sat hidden in the foliage among the boughs of 
 a pine-tree. 6 Owls are here even still more plentiful than in Athens. 
 Some species of them have a beautiful plumage; they used to make 
 
 4 II iii. 2-6 : 
 
 Tpwes jxiv K\ayyf] t' evcirf) t' foav, upviBes &S, 
 TjvTe Trep Khayyrj yepdvav 7reAei ovpavodi 7rpo, 
 cu r'- iirel ovv x* l l JL <* 3Va (pvyov nal aOeacparov 
 
 6/u.fipov, 
 
 KXayyy ra'i ye irtTOVTai eV 'fl/cea^oTo podow, 
 avBpd<ri YlvyjxaioKTi (povov koX KTjpa (ptpovacu. 
 
 5 II. xxiv. 314-316: 
 
 Sis ecpar' cuxofievos, tou 8' e/cAue fi^rUra Zevs. 
 avTiKa 8' aUrbv ^Ke, reXeiorarov ircTerjvwv, 
 fxop(pvov QrtpriTrip\ hv /ecu vepnvov Ka\4ovaiv. 
 
 There can be no doubt that ftop<pvos means 
 dark-coloured (/ueAov) ; according to Hesychius, 
 it is related to up<pvri, which appears to be con- 
 firmed by the word irepttvos (also ireptcos in 
 Aristotle), because the verb ireptcd^eiv, which 
 has the same root, is used for grapes which are 
 beginning to turn black. 
 
 6 II. xiv. 289-291 : 
 
 ei/0' fjcT 5 u^oiaiv TreTUKacr/J-evos ctAarlvoio'iv, 
 opviQi Kiyvpfi ivaXiyKios, H\v r iv vpeao-iv 
 XaAfa'Sa KiK\r,<rKovai dcol, avSpes 8e Kv/xivdiv. 
 
 The Scholiast of Venice, interpreting the name 
 XoA«ts, says (ad Iliad, xiv. 291) : " Some people 
 say that XaA/cts is the mother of the Cory- 
 bantes " (ot 8e r)]v /nrjTepa ruv KopvfSdvrwv 
 XaA/f 15a (paalv). He adds that, according to the 
 traditions, this bird was nothing else but a 
 metamorphosed heroine, and that its name was 
 derived either from its copper-coloured plumage, 
 or from the circumstance that, during her life- 
 time, the heroine dwelt at Chalcis in Euboea. 
 As we shall see in the subsequent pages, tha 
 Corybantes were celebrated metallurgists in the 
 service of Rhea and practised divination on the 
 island of Sam oth race. Professor Sayce observes 
 to me, that, " if KvfxivSis in the language of 
 men — that is, in the language of the natives — 
 had the same meaning as the Greek Xa\Kts or 
 4 bronze-coloured,' we might compare it with 
 ffKa/uLavSpos, the Greek equivalent of which was 
 £av66<:, and derive them both from a root or 
 stem shamand, signifying ' yellow.' " 
 
 I 
 
114 
 
 THE COUNTRY OF THE TROJANS. 
 
 [Chap. I 
 
 their nests in the holes of my trenches, and annoyed us a great deal, 
 particularly at night, by their doleful and hideous cries. 
 
 Snakes are very frequent in the Troad ; in fact, so much so that, were 
 it not for the storks which eat them, the Plain would abound with them. 
 There are a great many different species of snakes, and among them many 
 are very poisonous ; but, as before mentioned, the most poisonous of all is 
 said to be a small adder, not larger than a worm, which is called avrr)\tov 
 by the present Trojans, probably because they fancy that a person bitten 
 by it can only live till sunset. The pools of the Plain of Troy abound 
 with water-snakes, some of which are said to be venomous. As tortoises 
 are not eaten, both land and water tortoises are very abundant ; in fact, it 
 would not be difficult to catch some hundreds of them in a day. 
 
 All the water-pools in the Plain of Troy are also very rich in 
 annelids of the sucker class, particularly in medicinal leeches and horse- 
 leeches; the former, indeed, are so plentiful that an oke = 2J lbs. troy is 
 sold for 10 francs = 8s. sterling, so that a pound of leeches would cost 
 only 3s. 2d. 
 
 The devouring locusts (Grillus migratorius) are very common. They 
 sometimes make their devastating visits for several years in succession. 
 Very common also is the Kermes {Coccus ilicis), which inhabits the 
 evergreen oak (Quercus ilex) and the Quercus coccifera. 
 
 I am indebted to Professor Virchow for the following report on the 
 Conchylia which he has brought from the Troad. He collected them 
 partly in his excursions in the Troad, partly in my excavations. The 
 report was read on the 17th of June, 1879, by Herr von Martens, at the 
 session of the Gestllschaft naturforschender Freunde at Berlin. 
 
 " 1. Land Snails. — Hyalina hydatina (Eossm.), found at Koum Kaleh, 
 at the mouth of the Scamander. Helix vermiculata (MiilL), Helix Taurica 
 (Kryncki ; radiosa, Ziegler ; Bossnuissler, fig. 456), from the Ida moun- 
 tains. Helix figulina (Parr). Helix variabilis (Drap). Another Helix 
 of the group of the Xerophils. Helix Cantiana (Montague), near Koum 
 Kaleh. Buliminus tubercidatus (Turton), also from Koum Kaleh. Buli- 
 minus Niso (Eisso ; seductilis, Ziegler) : this species was hitherto sup- 
 posed not to be found in Asia Minor. Steno<jyra decollata (L.). 
 
 " 2. Freshwater Conchylia. — Limnaea auricularia (L.), from the 
 Scamander. Melanopsis praerosa (L.), var. bWussaci (Eoth.) ; numerous 
 in the Bounarbashi Su. Melanopsis costata (Oliv.), found on the strand 
 of the Hellespont near Ehoeteum. Neriti»a S>/riaca, var. Trojana (Char- 
 pentier) ; found in the Bounarbashi Su, together with ill. praerosa. 
 
 "3. Marine Conchylia. (H., on the shore of the Hellespont near 
 Rhoeteum. A., collected alive in the Gulf of Adramyttium, at Assos.)— H. 
 Conns Mediterraneus (Hwass). H. Columbe/la rustica (L.). H. A. Nassa 
 neritea (L.). H. Cerithium vulgatum, var. pulchellum (Phil.). H. Cerithium 
 Mediterraneum (Desh.). H. Cerithium scabrum (Olivi). H. A. Trochus 
 articulatus (Lamarck as Monodonta). A. Trochus divaricatus (L.). 
 H. Trochus albidus (Gmelin ; Biasolettii, Phil ). H. Trochus Adriaiicus 
 (Phil.). H. Patella Tarentina (Salis ; Lam.). H. Dentalium Tarentinum 
 (Lam.). H. Anomia cepa (L.). Pecten gldber (L., from the "Dardanelles). 
 
§ VI.] 
 
 ZOOLOGY OF THE TKOAD. 
 
 115 
 
 H. A. Mytilus edulis (L.). H. Mytilus minimus (Poli). A. Cardita sul- 
 cata (Brug.). H. Cardium edule (L.), var. ru^ticum (Lam.). H. Lucina 
 leucoma (Turt. ; lactea, auct.). H. Cytherea Chione (L.). H. Venus ver- 
 rucosa (L.). Venus gallina (L.), in the sand of the serail at Con- 
 stantinople. H. Tapes decussatus (L.). Tapes aureus (Maton). H. Mactra 
 shdtorum (L.). H. JJonax trunculus (L.). H. Tellina tenuis Dacosta, 
 mouth of the Scamander. H. Tellina fragilis (L.). 
 " In the excavations at Troy were found : — - 
 
 " Murex trunculus (L.). Purpura haemastoma (L.). Columbella rus- 
 tica. Cerithium vulgatum, var. spinosum (Philippi). Cypraea lurida (L.). 
 Ttochus articidatus (Lam.). Patella caeridea (L.). Ostrea lamellosa 
 (Brocchi). Spondyhis gaederopus (L.). Pecten glaber (L.)„ Pecten glaber, 
 var. sidcatus (Born). Pectunculus pilosus (L.). Pectunculus violaseens 
 (Lam.). Mytilus edulis (L.), var. Gallopwvincialis (Lam.) ; very numerous. 
 Cardium edule (L.), var. rusticum (Lam.) ; very numerous. Venus ver- 
 rucosa (L.). Tapes decussatus (L.). Solen marginatus (Pulteney ; vagina, 
 auct.). 
 
 " Murex truncidus and Purpura haemastoma have probably served 
 for the manufacture of purple. This is the more likely, as precisely 
 these two occur in peculiarly sharp angular fragments, such as are not 
 found at present either on the seashore or in kitchen-middens. But, 
 as Aristotle and Pliny expressly state, the purple-fish were violently 
 broken for the manufacture of purple. Murex trunculus is the very 
 kind which was already found in 1811 by Lord Yalentia, and later by 
 Dr. Wilde (1839-1840), in the ruins of Tyre, and was recognized as 
 the purple-fish ; it was found also in the Morea by Bory St. Vincent. 
 Purpura haemastoma serves the fishermen of Minorca at the present day 
 for marking their shirts. It was used by Lacaze-Duthiers for his well- 
 known researches on purple ; but as far as we know, no specimen of 
 it, preserved from antiquity, had hitherto been known This Trojan 
 specimen is therefore of capital interest. We may conclude from the 
 statement of Aristotle 7 that the industry of purple-dyeing flourished on 
 the coast of the Troad, as well as that a large species of purple-fish was 
 found near Sigeum. The knowledge of purple among the Greeks goes 
 back to a very remote period, as is proved by numerous passages in the 
 Homeric poems, which mention purple, sometimes in its proper sense 
 for dyeing garments, sometimes in certain well-known passages, as the 
 colour of very heterogeneous objects. 
 
 " Most of the other cochleae and conchylia found in the excavations 
 have doubtless served the Trojans or Ilians as food. Cerithium, Trochus, 
 Patella, Ostrea, Spondylus, Pecten, Cardium, Venus, Tapes, and Solen, 
 are precisely the kinds which the inhabitants of the Mediterranean 
 coasts are still fond of using for food ; as well as the inhabitants of the 
 islands in the Aegean Sea, 8 of Dalmatia, of the eastern coast of Italy, 
 and of Southern France. In some parts of the Upper Adriatic, even the 
 ancient Greek names of these cochleae and conchylia are preserved. 
 
 7 Hist. Animal, v. 15. 
 
 8 See Tournefort's Travels into the Levant, Lond. 1718 
 
116 
 
 THE COUNTRY OF THE TROJANS. 
 
 [Chap, t 
 
 Thus Gerithium vulgatum is called strombolo in the fish-market of Spalatro. 
 By the strombos of the ancient Greeks we are to understand this peculiar 
 species, and not the general conception of a cochlea with spiral con- 
 volutions. It is therefore of interest to find the Cerithium among the 
 antiquities of Troy. The ancient authors took their statements on sea- 
 animals essentially from the mouths of fishermen and lovers of delicacies ; 
 but such only know and name what is of practical interest to them. 
 How important the cochleae and conchylia were as food to the ancient 
 Greeks we see from the comedies, as well as from the Deipnosophistae of 
 Athenaeus. On the other hand, it appears strange that we find no 
 mention made of them in the Iliad and Odyssey. A passage in the 
 Iliad, 9 which compares the mortally-wounded Hebriones, precipitated 
 from his chariot, to a diver who searches for TiqOea, has indeed been 
 referred to oysters; but as this word does not occur again in Homer, 
 whereas the very similar r/)0uov means in Aristotle and others merely 
 ascidia (aovaSm, acephalous molluscs), which still serve on the Mediter- 
 ranean coast as food for men, that interpretation is at least doubtful. 
 The Homeric poems describe chiefly the royal festive meals of sacrificial 
 meats, not the daily food of the common people. We hesitate to regard 
 as remains of food only the Columbella, on account of its smallness ; 
 the Trochus articidatus, on account of its good preservation ; and the 
 Peduncidus, on account of its perforation, which may perhaps be artificial. 
 These species may have been used as ornaments or toys." 
 
 § VII. The Flora of the Troad. 10 
 
 " Most of the plains and hills of the Troad abound with trees, par- 
 ticularly with that kind of oak which yields the valonea (from fiaXavos, 
 ' acorn '), called Quercus aegilops. The road from Bounarbashi to Alex- 
 andria-Troas leads through an almost uninterrupted forest of these oaks, 
 mixed here and there with some nettle-trees (Celtis Tournefortii). If left 
 to its natural development, this oak grows majestically ; but as the oaks 
 are annually beaten with poles in order to knock off the acorns, they 
 are often much deformed. The acorns are gathered a little before 
 maturity ; they are thrown into heaps, and after a slight fermentation 
 the acorn detaches itself from the cup. Only this latter is used. It 
 is exposed to the air, and as soon as it is completely dry it can be used 
 for tanning. This is the most important produce of the Troad, and is 
 largely exported to England. There is another variety of oak, the leaves 
 of which have both surfaces of an identical green colour, and scarcely at 
 all villous (Quercus trojana, Nob.). On all the low and barren hills 
 flourish two other kinds of oak, the infectoria and the coccifera, or rather 
 Quercus pseudo-coccifera, which rarely exceed the size of a shrub. The 
 former of these shrubs produces the gall-nut or oak-apple of commerce, 
 
 8 xvi. 746, 747 : 
 et 8^ irov /ecu ttSutoj Iv ixOvtevri yei/oiro, 
 ttoWovs ttv tcopearzitv avrip o8e T7)0ea ht<pa>v. 
 
 10 Not being a botanist myself, I think I cannot 
 do better than quote here a translation of the 
 
 learned dissertation which the accomplished 
 botanist P. Barker Webb gives on the flora of 
 the Troad : Topographic do la Troade amienne ct 
 modernc, pp. 115-123. 
 
§ VIL] 
 
 THE FLORA OF THE TROAD. 
 
 117 
 
 which is nothing else than an excrescence in the form of a walnut, 
 produced by the sting of an insect ; the latter yields the small red grains 
 of the dyers, produced by a similar cause : but in the Troad none of 
 these objects are used, or even gathered. 
 
 " Homer is an admirable painter of the beauties of physical nature. 
 One of his characteristic qualities is to sketch by a few masterly strokes 
 the most simple objects and the distinct qualities of each object. He 
 describes to us the Plain of the Scamander, where the Greek army was 
 drawn up in battle array — ' they stood on Scamander's flowery meadow.' 1 
 He tells us that it was covered with flowers, just as we see it now. When 
 the soldiers return to their tents, they give their horses the Lotus and 
 Apium, with which the swamps are covered. 2 When Hephaestus, yield- 
 ing to the prayers of Here, kindles a great fire on the banks of the 
 Scamander, ' the elms, the willows, and the tamarisk-shrubs burned ; 
 and the lotus burned too, and the reeds, and the gallingale, which grew 
 abundantly about the fair streams of the river.' 3 In another passage 4 
 we find also mentioned the yuvplicai and the Sovatces (Tamarix Gallica and 
 Arundo donax), which grew near the river. See besides in the Iliad 
 (vi. 39 ; 5 xxi. 18, 5 242 6 ) ; Odyssey (xiv. 474 '), and the description of the 
 nuptials of Zeus and Here in the Iliad? All the plants named there by 
 the poet still exist. 
 
 " The epooStai of Homer are now called pohoSucpvr), but more frequently 
 Tritcpo$d(f)vr) in modern Greek (Nerium Oleander, Lin.). They are found 
 everywhere on the banks of rivers or in dry river-beds, side by side with 
 the Platanus orientalis, the Vitex Agnus-castus, and the aforesaid Tamarix 
 Gallica, called /buvpUr] by the poet." 
 
 Webb says : " Though the year was on its decline, we still saw in 
 flower, on the top of Gargarus, a dianthus, sp. n., and a centaurea with 
 yellow flowers. These two plants flourished on the top of Gargarus, where 
 the long duration of the snow stops even the vegetation of the pines. 
 Near them was an exceedingly beautiful purple-coloured garlic, and several 
 other interesting vegetables, which were no longer in flower. A little 
 farther down we found the ground covered with the autumn crocus, Col- 
 chicum autumnale et variegatum, and Ophrys spiralis, but less abundantly. 
 
 " In some places the ground was entirely covered with these plants, 
 and presented to our eyes the flowery couch on which the nuptials of 
 
 1 II. ii. 467 : 
 
 effrav 8' iv Xeijxwvi ^Ka/xavSpiu) avBejAoevTi . . . 
 
 2 11. ii. lib-Ill : 
 
 iWo/ 8e irap' apfxacriv oTcriu kKacrros, 
 Xurbu epeirTo/jLevoi iXeoOpenrov re creXivov 
 kcrracrau. 
 
 3 //. xxi. 350-352; 
 
 Kaiovro irreXeai T6 Kal tVeat 7)Se fxvp?K<z\., 
 KaUro 8e Xuros Te t'8e Qpvov 7/8e Kvireipov, 
 to irepl KaXa p4(9pa aXis iroTa/xo?o ire<pvnsiv. 
 
 4 //. x. 466, 467 : 
 
 BTjKev avd fivp'iKr]v Se'eAoi/ 8' eVi arj/uid t' zdrjKet/, 
 (Tv/j./xdp\pas douaKas /j.vp'iKTf]S t' eptdrjAtas o£bus, . . . 
 
 5 fivp'iKr), tamarisk. 
 
 6 7rT€Ae7j, elm. 7 d6val-, reed. 
 
 8 B. xiv. 346-351 : 
 pa, Kal dyK«.s ifxapnTe Kpovov nous irapa- 
 
 KOLTIU. 
 
 rolai 8' virb ^flon- 8?a tpvev veodrjAea iroi-qv, 
 Xoitov 6' eparievra i'Se np6icov tjS' vaxivQav 
 irvKvhv Kal iiaXaxov, ts airb x® ov ^ s fyoa' tepytv. 
 tw tVt Xe^daOrju, iir\ 8e ve4>4\-qv 'icraavro 
 KaXr)v XP V<T *' 1 W (TTiXifvai 8' aTreTriTTOv zepcrat. 
 
 " The son of Cronus clasped his consort in 
 his arms ; and under them divine earth put 
 forth the new-blown grass, and dewy lotus, and 
 crocus and hyacinth thick-spread and soft, 
 which shut them off aloft from the ground. 
 Thereon they lay veiled in a beautiful golden 
 cloud, and glistering dewdrops fell from it." 
 
118 
 
 THE COUNTRY OF THE TROJANS. 
 
 [Chap. I. 
 
 Jove were accomplished 9 The Homeric descriptions are always founded 
 on reality, and show that Homer was a most accurate observer as well as 
 an inimitable poet. His verses describe admirably the cloud of dew 
 which enveloped" the mountain; they are likewise the result of observa- 
 tion and truth. 10 We are indeed at a loss which to admire most, the 
 beauty of the allegory or the fidelity of the description. 
 
 " In the second zone of forests, the only plant which we saw in flower 
 as far as Evjilar, in the shade of the pine-trees, was the Adenocarpus 
 divaricatus, which is not found at a lesser elevation. We found there the 
 Quercus crinitu, which did not reappear after Kuchunlu Tepeh, and 
 around the Bali Dagh an almond-tree, which Jaubert and Spach have 
 called Amygdalus Webbii. 
 
 " We have already mentioned one of the most important productions 
 of the rural economy in this plain ; that is to say, the valonea, or fruit 
 of the Quercus aegilops. In the fields we see the women working the 
 soil with their families, and at every step on the roads we encounter their 
 little carts, which have the shape of the ancient chariots, a»d quietly 
 return laden with the produce of the soil. Around the Greek villages is 
 gathered a certain quantity of excellent wine, and especially at Giaur 
 Kioi and Yeni Kioi. If the red wine of Tenedos were carefully made, it 
 would not be inferior to that grown in France. It must also be said that 
 they have not in this country the bad habit, which prevails nearly every- 
 where in the Morea, of mixing rosin or pitch with the wine to preserve it. 
 From these ingredients the wine gets a taste which is highly disagreeable 
 to any one not accustomed to it. Nevertheless this habit must date from 
 a very remote antiquity, for we know from the most ancient monuments 
 that the fruit of the pine has at all times been sacred to Dionysus. 
 
 " On the banks of the Simois, and particularly in the village of 
 Doumbrek, the Turks themselves cultivate the vine; they make of the 
 grapes either a sort of syrup, called petmez, or a kind of preserve. They 
 also dry the grapes in the sun, and thus preserve them as provision for 
 the winter. Grapes, water-melons, and several other fruits, form a large 
 part of their food in summer. They cultivate the Solatium Melongena 
 and the Sesamum orientate, from which they know how to prepare an 
 excellent oil. They spread on their bread the grains of this plant, 
 mixed with those of the Nigella damascena. Homer mentions this habit 
 in the Batrachomyomaehia. They also cultivate the Hibiscus esculentus, 
 which they vulgarly call Bamia, as well as chick-pease, kidney-beans, 
 lentils, and various other leguminous plants. The cultivation of cotton, 
 wheat, and Indian corn is the most profitable. According to Sibthorpe, 
 the yellow variety of Indian corn is the commonest. They also gather 
 here cocoons of silk, which they work rudely enough. We observed 
 that, as regards the cultivation of the fig-tree, they always employ the 
 ancient method of caprification. The pomegranate attains a great de- 
 velopment, and almost all trees appear to thrive in this climate." 
 
 I may here add that Homer mentions a field of wheat under the very 
 walls of Troy. 1 
 
 9 See the preceding note 8 . 10 II. xiv. 347-351. 1 II. xxi. G02 : treti'iov Trvptxpopov. 
 
CHAPTER II. 
 
 ETHNOGEAPHY OF THE TROJANS : THEIR SEVERAL DOMINIONS 
 IN THE TROAD: TOPOGRAPHY OF TROY. 
 
 § I. Ethnography of the Trojans. 
 
 We have the testimony of Herodotus 1 that the Trojans were 
 Teucrians. This is confirmed by the tradition preserved by Apollo- 
 dorus, that from Electra, the daughter of Atlas, were born by Zeus 
 Iasion and Dardanus. Now Iasion, having fallen in love with Demeter 
 and intending to violate the goddess, was killed by a thunderbolt. Dar- 
 danus, grieving for his brother's death, left the island of Samothrace, 
 and crossed to the opposite continent. Here reigned Teucer (Ted/epos), 
 son of the river Scamander and a Nymph of Ida, from whom the 
 inhabitants of the country were called Teucrians. Having been adopted 
 by the king, he married his daughter Bateia, received part of the land, 
 built the city of Dardanus, and, after Teucer's death, named the whole 
 country Dardania. 2 
 
 In the time of Herodotus, the inhabitants of the city of Gergis 3 
 were still considered a remnant of the ancient Teucrians, 4 who, in 
 company with the Mysians, had crossed the Bosphorus into Europe 
 before the time of the Trojan war, and, after conquering all Thrace, 
 had pressed forward till they came to the Ionian Sea (the modern 
 Adriatic), while southward they reached as far as the river Peneus. 5 
 According to some writers, these Mysians appear to have been Thracians, 
 who had come into Asia from Europe. 6 Others, and among them 
 Herodotus, 7 seem to have looked upon the Mysians as a genuine Asiatic 
 race, closely akin to the Lydians, whose language the Mysian tongue 
 greatly resembled. According to Xanthus, 8 the Mysian dialect was akin 
 both to the Lydian and the Phrygian (/jit^oXvSio^ Kal /mi^o(f>pvyLo^). 9 By 
 the Koman poets the names Teucrians and Trojans are employed as 
 
 1 ii. 118 ; v. 13. 
 
 2 Apoll. iii. 12, § 1 : 'HAe'/crpas 8e rrjs v At- 
 XavTos Kal Aibs-'laaicav Kal Adpdavos eyevovTO. 
 'laaluv /j.€v ovv, epauSels Aii/xr^Tpos /cat Qe\u>v 
 KaTaio~xvvai rijv 8e6v, KepavvovTai, AapSavos 
 5e iirl t$ Oavdra) tov afieXcpov Xvirov/xevos, 2a- 
 fiodpaKyju airoXnrwv ets tt]v avr'nrepa fjireipov 
 ?)A0e. TavT7]S Se e/3am'Aeue TtvKpos iroraixov 
 ^.Kaixdudpou Kal pv/x(pr}$'lb'alas • a<p' ou Kal ol t)]V 
 X&pav i/ffio/Lievot TevKpoi TrpoarjyopevovTo. 'Tiro- 
 SexG^ls 5e t'mb tov (iaaiXews Kal Xafiiov fxepos 
 Trjs y?/S Kal t^u cks'ivov QvyaTfpa Baretat', Aap- 
 Zavov eKTicre ttoXiv, TeKevrriaavTos 5e TevKpov 
 T V X^P av awao-au Aaptiavlav e/caAea-e. 
 
 3 In all probability the small city on the 
 Bali Dagh behind Bounarbashi. 
 
 4 Herod, v. 122 and vii. 43. 
 
 5 Herod, vii. 20: /^re tou Mvawv Te /cat 
 TevKpwv, tov irpb tu>v TpcotKuv yevo/j.€vov, oi 
 SiafidvTes es ttjv Evpuirrjv Kara BSairopov, tovs 
 Te (yprji'/cas KaTeo-Tpe\pavTO iravras /cat iirl tov 
 'loviov ttSvtov KaTe(3r)(rav jue'xP 1 Te ri^etou 
 iroTafiov to irpbs jj.eo'afJLfipiris fjAacrav. 
 
 6 Strabo, iii. pp 295, 303 , viii p. 572 ■ cf. 
 Xanth. Lyd. Frag. 8. 
 
 » Herod, i. 171. 8 Frag. 8. 
 
 9 Eawlinson's History of Herodotus, iv. p 23, 
 note 5. 
 
120 
 
 ETHNOGRAPHY OF THE TROJANS. 
 
 [Chap. II. 
 
 equivalents : 10 on the other hand, the Eoman prose-writers generally use 
 the word Trojani? 
 
 It is curious that, whilst Herodotus always calls the old Trojans 
 of epic poetry Teucrians, the Attic tragedians and the Eoman poets 
 call them Phrygians, although the Trojans and Phrygians are repre- 
 sented as completely distinct in the Homeric Hymn to Aphrodite, where 
 this goddess says to Anchises : " Otreus is my sire, famous of name, if 
 anywhere thou hearest it, who reigns over all well-fortified Phrygia ; and 
 both your language and mine I know well, for a Trojan nurse nourished 
 me in the palace ; she nurtured me, taking me as a little baby from my 
 mother: thus I know indeed your language well." 2 The name Hector is 
 Phrygian ; 3 so also are Paris and Scamandrius, for the Greek Alexandros 
 and Astyanax seem to be Phrygian appellations. 4 Moreover, the Phrygians 
 are merely mentioned in the Iliad as allies of the Trojans from distant 
 Ascania, 5 and there is little indication of any more intimate relationship. 
 Hecuba, however, was a Phrygian princess, 6 and her brother lived in 
 Phrygia on the banks of the Sangarius. 7 According to Strabo 8 and 
 Stephanus Byzantinus, the Phrygians were Thracians. Herodotus reports 
 that the Macedonians preserved a tradition, according to which the 
 Phrygians had once been their neighbours, but that they had afterwards 
 emigrated to Asia Minor. 9 The Lydian Xanthus 10 asserts that this 
 emigration did not occur till after the Trojan war ; but Conon 1 makes it 
 take place as early as ninety years before this war, under King Midas. 
 On the other hand, several testimonies have been preserved to us as to 
 the affinity existing between the Phrygians and the Armenians. In the 
 expedition of Xerxes, both these nations appear under one commander- 
 in-chief and with the same armament ; nay, Herodotus 2 adds that the 
 Armenians were descendants of the Phrygians. Eudoxus 3 confirms this, 
 and mentions, in addition, the similarity of the two languages. So too 
 we find subterranean dwellings in use among both the Phrygians and the 
 Armenians. 4 Finally, both nations were actually considered as identical, 5 
 the Armenians being said to have come from Western Phrygia. 
 
 But the Assyrian inscriptions make it clear that no Aryans were 
 settled eastward of the Halys before the eighth century B.C. Armenia 
 was inhabited by a non-Aryan race, which has left behind it many still 
 undeciphered inscriptions at Van and its neighbourhood, until the close 
 of the Assyrian monarchy, and there are no traces of Aryan inha- 
 
 10 Virgil, Acn. i. 172; v. 265; xii. 137. 
 Horace, Od. iv. 6, 15. Ovid. Met. xii. 66. 
 
 1 Cic. Div. ii. 39; Livy, i. 1. 
 
 2 "T/ivos els 'A</)po8iT77J/, 111-116 : 
 
 'Orpets 5' £cttI irarrjp uvofxa k\vt6s, einov 
 
 OLKOVeiS, 
 
 os irdarjs $pvyir]s ebreixh^oio avdacrei. 
 yXwaaav 5' vfxerep-qu /ecu rj/j-ereprfv adeptx olSa, 
 Tpuias yap /xeydpco /xe rpocphs Tpetyev ' 7) 5e Sianpo 
 a/xiKprjv muS' ctTtTaAAe, <pl\r)s irapa fxrjrpbs 
 eAovaa. 
 
 &s 5' ^-rot yXooaadv ye Ka) v/xerepr]v ev oloa. 
 s Hesychius, s. v. Aapeios. 
 
 4 //. vi. 402 ; Strabo, xiv. pp. 680, 681 
 
 5 77. ii. 863. 6 11. xvi. 718, 719. 
 
 7 //. xvi. 717. 
 
 8 Strabo, vii. p. 295, and x. p. 471. 
 
 9 Herodotus, vii. 73. 
 
 10 Strabo, xiv. p. 680. 
 
 1 Ap. Photium, p. 130, Bekk. 
 
 2 Herod, vii. 73. 
 
 3 Ap. Steph. Byz. s. v. 'Ap/xevla ; and Eustath. 
 ad Dion. Per. 694. 
 
 * Vitruv. ii. 1, 5; Xenoph. Anab. iv. 5, 25; 
 Diod. xiv. 28. 
 
 5 Cramer, Anecd. Grace; Oxon. iv. p. 257. 
 
TEUCRIANS AND PHRYGIANS. 
 
 121 
 
 bitants in Armenia until a much later period. Even the Aryan Medes 
 did not occupy the country to the south of the Caspian until the eighth 
 century b.c. The Assyrians first became acquainted with them in the 
 reign of Shalmaneser III. (b.c. 840), when they lived far to the east, the 
 non-Aryan Parsuas or Parthians intervening between them and Assyria. 
 It is not till the age of Kimmon-nirari, about 790 b.c, that they had 
 advanced into the country known to the classical geographers as Media 
 Bhagiana. All the proper names mentioned on the Assyrian monu- 
 ments as belonging to the natives of the districts east of the Halys 
 continue to be non-Aryan up to the last, and the language of the modern 
 Iron or Ossetes in the Caucasus is, like the Kurdish, a member of the 
 Iranic or Persian stock. 6 An examination of the Phrygian words pre- 
 served in classical writers and inscriptions, which has been made by 
 Fick, 7 has shown that, while the language was related to Thracian and 
 Lydian, it was so closely allied to Greek as to be fitly termed its sister, 
 both Greek and Phrygian presupposing a common parent-language. 
 Professor E. Curtius in his History of Greece had already pointed out a 
 close connection between the Greeks and the Phrygians upon other 
 grounds, while Plato 8 long ago recognized the affinity between the 
 languages of the two nations. The Phrygian legends of Midas and 
 Gordius formed part of Greek mythology, and the royal house of the 
 Pelopids was made to come with all its wealth from the golden sands of 
 the Pactolus. 9 The Armenian language, on the other hand, stands apart 
 by itself, and belongs rather to the Asiatic branch of the Aryan family of 
 speech than to the European. 
 
 It deserves particular attention that the Teucrian name is nowhere 
 connected in Homer with Troy or its people. But as they had a city 
 Gergis, Gergithus, or Gergetha, in the Troad, we may perhaps connect 
 the name with that of the Homeric Gargarus 10 as well as with Gor- 
 gythion, who, with Cebriones, is mentioned by Homer as a natural son of 
 Priam. 1 The poet thus gives, as Grote 2 remarks, a sort of epical re- 
 cognition to both Gergis and Cebren. It must, however, be remarked 
 that Teucer (Teueros), the celebrated archer, was according to legend the 
 son of the Trojan princess Hesione, whom she bore to Telamon. 3 
 
 According to a tradition which we find in Strabo, the Teucrians 
 immigrated from Crete into the Troad. An oracle had bidden them 
 settle down in the place where they should be assailed by the earth- 
 born. This is said to have happened near Hamaxitus, where an immense 
 host of field-mice came forth from the ground, and gnawed away all the 
 leather of their arms and utensils. There consequently they established 
 themselves, and called the range of Ida after the mountain of that name 
 in Crete. Strabo adds that this tradition had been first related by the 
 
 6 Sayce, Principles of Comparative Philology, 
 2nd edit. p. 391. 
 
 7 Die ehemalige Spracheinhcit Europa's, 1873. 
 
 8 Cratylus, 410 A. 
 
 9 A. H. Sayce, Contemporary Review, December 
 1878. 
 
 10 II. viii. 48 ; xiv. 292. r 352 \ xv. 152. 
 
 1 II. viii. 302. 
 
 2 History of Greece, i. p. 307. I observe 
 here that for all quotations from Grote's History 
 of Greece I use the 4th edition, London, 1872. 
 
 3 Diod. iv. 32-49 ; compare the Venet. Schol. 
 ad Iliad, viii. 284. 
 
122 
 
 ETHNOGRAPHY OF THE TROJANS. 
 
 [Chap II. 
 
 elegiac poet Callinus (about 660 B.C.), and after him by many others. 4 So, 
 e.g., by Ovid. 5 
 
 It appears from this legend that the Teucrians were credited with 
 having introduced into the Troad the worship of the Sminthian Apollo, 
 who had a celebrated temple at Chrysa near Ilamaxitus. Strabo distinctly 
 says that Chrysa was said to be the spot where the newly-arrived Teu- 
 crians were attacked by the field-mice. (X/j,ivdo$, it may be added, is said 
 by the Venetian Scholiast on the Iliad to have meant a field-mouse, both 
 in the Cretan and in the Aeolian dialects. 6 ) Others, however, denied the 
 legend, maintaining that Teucer, the primitive ancestor of the Teucrians, 
 had immigrated from Attica. 7 
 
 I may mention here that the name of the Tekkri, believed to be 
 identical with that of the Teucrians, figures in the mural paintings of 
 Medinet-Abou among the confederate nations, which in the thirteenth 
 century B.C. invaded Egypt during the reign of Eamses III. 8 
 
 The connection of the Teucrians with Crete seems to be confirmed by 
 the similarity of certain geographical names, such as those of Mount Ida 
 and the city named Pergamus. 9 
 
 Grote says : " From the Teucrian region of Gergis and from the 
 Gergithes near Kyme sprang the original Sibylline prophecies, and the 
 legendary Sibyl, who plays so important a part in the tale of Aeneas. 
 The myth of the Sibyl, whose prophecies are supposed to be heard in 
 the hollow blast bursting from obscure caverns and apertures in the 
 rocks, 10 was indigenous among the Gergithian Teucrians, and passed from 
 the Kymaeans in Aeolis, along with the other circumstances of the tale 
 of Aeneas, to their brethren the inhabitants of Kumae in Italy. The date 
 of the Gergithian Sibyl, or rather the circulation of her supposed pro- 
 phecies, is placed under the reign of Croesus, a period when Gergis was 
 thoroughly Teucrian. Her prophecies, though embodied in Greek verses, 
 had their root in a Teucrian soil and feelings ; and the promises of future 
 empire, which they so liberally make to the fugitive hero escaping from 
 the flames of Troy into Italy, become interesting from the remark- 
 able way in which they were realized by Home. The date of this Ger- 
 githian Sibyl, or of the prophecies passing under her name, is stated 
 by Heracleides of Pontus, and there seems no reason for calling it 
 in question." 11 
 
 According to Herodotus, the Paeonians prided themselves upon being 
 Teucrian colonists from Troy. 1 The descent of the Paeonians from the 
 Teucrians is confirmed by Strabo, 2 whilst others held them to have been 
 descended from the Phrygians. 3 It is important to notice that in Homer 
 we find Paeonians from the Axius fighting on the same side as their 
 
 4 Strabo, xiii. p. 604. 
 6 Metamorph. xiii. 705. 
 
 6 Grohmann, Apollo Smintkeus und die Bedeu- 
 tung der Mause in der Mythologie , Frag. 1862'. 
 
 7 Strabo, xiii. p. G04-. 
 
 8 Francois Lenor mailt, Lcs Antiquites do la 
 Troade , Paris, 1876, p. 75. 
 
 8 Plin. //. N, iv. 12, 20. 
 
 10 Virgil, JEneid. vi. 43-45 : 
 
 " Excisum Euboicae latus ingens rupis in antrum, 
 Quo lati ducunt aditus centum, ostia centum : 
 Unde ruuut totidem voces, responsa Sibyllae." 
 
 11 Grote's History of Greece, i. 310, 311. 
 
 1 Herodot. v. 13. 
 
 2 Fragm. Palat. Vatic. 37, ed. Tafel. 
 
 3 Eustath. ad Horn. II. ii. 848. 
 
AFFINITY WITH THRACIANS. 
 
 123 
 
 Trojan kinsmen. 4 Their expedition to Perinthus on the Propontis, 
 according to the statement of Herodotus, must have taken place at a 
 very early epoch. 5 To the east of the Axius, Crestonia and Bisaltia were 
 once Paeonian possessions ; 6 to the west Emathia was formerly called 
 Paeonia ; 7 while Pieria and Pelagonia had originally a Paeonian popula- 
 tion. 8 In Pieria was a city named Pergamus. 9 Pliny 10 calls the Eordians 
 a Paeonian nation ; and it is evident from Lycophron 1 that they were of 
 Phrygian race. They are doubtless the Mysians, whom Hellanicus 2 calls 
 neighbours of the Macedonians. To these Eordians the name of the river 
 Eordaicus, 3 the present Deval or Devol, doubtless belongs ; it is near 
 the lake of Lychnidus, where we also find traces of the Phrygians. 4 
 
 Homer has no knowledge of Dardanus having immigrated from Samo- 
 thrace, Arcadia, or Italy ; he only knows him as a son of Zeus, and as 
 having his origin in Dardania. He conceived the Troad to be inhabited 
 by a non-Hellenic population, — Trojans, Dardanians, Cilicians, Lelegians, 
 and Pelasgians. Of these, the Dardani or Dandani (Dardanians) of Iluna 
 (Ilion) are mentioned, together with the Leka (possibly the Lycians) and 
 the peoples of Pedasa (Pedasus), the Masu (Mysians), and the Akerit 
 (perhaps the Carians), in the poem of Pentaur in the " Sallier " hieratic 
 papyrus, preserved in the British Museum, among the confederates who 
 came to the help of the Hittites (or Khita) under the walls of Kadesh, on 
 the Orontes, in the fifth year of Kamses II. (cir. 1333-1300 B.C.). There 
 was therefore at that period a kingdom of the Dardanians, one of whose 
 principal towns was Ilion, a kingdom which ranked among the most 
 powerful of Asia Minor, and sent its warriors into Syria to do battle with 
 the Egyptian troops for the defence of Asia. This agrees admirably with 
 what Greek tradition says of the power of Troy. This poem of Pentaur 
 is also to be seen engraved on the walls of the temples of Luxor and 
 Karnak at Thebes. It deserves particular attention that in the mural 
 paintings and inscriptions in the temple of Medinet-Abou at Thebes, 
 among the confederates against Bamses III., about 1200 B.C., instead of 
 the Dardanians, who do not appear at all, only the Teucrians (Tekkri) 
 are mentioned. 5 
 
 According to Forbiger, the Trojans were a Thracian race, who had 
 immigrated at a remote period into the Troad and had there intermarried 
 with the Phrygians, who until then inhabited the region. This appears 
 to be confirmed by Strabo, who mentions at a distance of only 40 stadia 
 from Lampsacus a temple of great sanctity dedicated to the Mother of 
 
 4 II. ii. 848-850; xvi. 287-291, xvii. 348- 
 353 ; xxi. 139. 
 
 5 Hcrodot. v. 1, 2. 
 
 6 Strabo, Fragm. 40. 
 
 7 Pol yb. xxiv. 8 ; Liv. xl. 3 ; Justin, vii. 1 
 Strabo, Fragm. 37 ; Eustath. ad II. l. 1. 
 
 9 Herodot. vii. 112. 
 
 10 H. N. iv. 17. 1 Alexandra. 
 
 2 Ap. Constant. Porphyrogen. de Them. ii. 
 2, p. 4S ; Schol. ad Horn. II. xiii. 3. 
 
 3 Arrian. Alexand. Anabas. i. 5, 9. 
 
 4 Pauly's Real-Encyclopadie, s. v. " Phryges." 
 
 5 Francois Lenormant, m the .Academy of 
 21st and 28th March, 1874. Professor Sayce 
 writes to me : " Brugsch-Bey, however, has 
 proposed different identifications for these names. 
 He makes the Tekkri the Zygritae of the 
 Caucasus, the Leka the Ligyes, the Dardani the 
 Dardanians of Kurdistan (Her^t i. 189), the 
 Masu the inhabitants of Mount Masius, and 
 Pedasa the town of Pidasis, while he reads 
 ' Iluna' as Maluna. — Egypt under the Pharaohs 
 (Eng. transl., vol. ii. p. 129, 2nd ed.)" 
 
 6 Pauly's Real-Encyclopiidie, s. v. " Troas." 
 
124 
 
 ETHNOGRAPHY OF THE TROJANS. 
 
 [Chap. II. 
 
 the Gods, surnamed the sanctuary of Rhea. 7 In another passage he says : 
 " The Berecynthians, a Phrygian race, and the Phrygians generally, as 
 well as those of the Trojans who live in the district of Ida, worship 
 Rhea, and celebrate orgies in her honour, calling her the Mother of the 
 Gods, and Agdistis, and the great Phrygian goddess, adding, according to 
 the localities, the epithets Idaean, Dindymene, Sipylene, Pessinuntis, 
 and Cybele (Cybebe)." 8 He further states that the country near the 
 junction of the Hellespont and the Propontis was originally inhabited by 
 the Bebrycians, 9 who had immigrated from Thrace ; 1 also that a great 
 many Thracian names existed in the Troacl. " On Lesbos (he says) was 
 a city Arisba, whose lands are now possessed by the Methymnaeans, and 
 there is in Thrace a river Arisbus, on which live the Thracian Cebrenians. 2 
 There are indeed many similar names common to the Thracians and the 
 Trojans : for instance, the Scaeans, a certain Thracian race, the river 
 Scaeus, the Scaean wall, and the Scaean gate ; the Xanthians in Thrace, 
 and the river Xanthus at Troy ; Rhesus, a river at Troy, and Rhesus, 
 king of the Thracians. The poet also mentions another person of 
 identical name with the Asius, 3 who was an uncle of Hector the tamer of 
 horses, Hecuba's full brother, and son of Dymas, who resided in Phrygia 
 on the river Sangarius." 4 
 
 I may here add that, according to Stephanus Byzantinus, 5 there was a 
 city Ilium in Thrace ; further, that Strymo was the daughter of the river 
 Scamander, wife of Laomedon and mother of Priam, 6 whilst Strymon 
 was a great river in Thrace; 7 further, that the name of the powerful 
 Trojan province Dardania also existed in Thrace, the island of Samo- 
 thrace having originally borne this name. 8 
 
 In the Iliad the Thracians are allies of the Trojans. 9 According to 
 Dionysius of Halicarnassus, 10 the Trojans were Greeks. The Dardanians 
 play an important part in the lliacl ; to the descendants of their prince 
 
 7 xiii. p. 589 : ol 8' airb TerrapaKovra tt)s 
 Aa/JL^aKov araDlwv SeiKvvovai \6(pov, i<p' S> /iirjTpbs 
 6euiv Upov kariv, dyiov t?is 'Pei7js iiriKaXovjxevov. 
 
 8 x. p. 469 : ol Se BepeicvvTes $pvywv ri 
 <pv\ov Kal ankws ol $>pvyes Ktxl rwv Tpcowv ol 
 irepl rrjv "iBrjv KaroiKOvvres 'Peav /xev Kal avrol 
 ritual Kal dpyid^ovai tout?;, fXT]ripa KaKovvrts 
 dewv kcu "AySiffrtv Kal $pvy'iav 6tbv fnyaX-qv, 
 awb Se tccv tottwv 'iSaiav Kal A (1/817177 1/771/ 
 Kal ~2,nrv\7}V7)v Kal neaaivovvTida ical Kv(3eXr,v 
 [Kv$'t)$T)v]- 9 Strabo, xiii. p. 586. 
 
 1 Strabo. vii. p. 295 ; xii. p. 542. 
 
 2 I here call attention to the name of the 
 ancient city of Cebrene in the Troad. 
 
 3 Here Strabo evidently means by the former 
 Asius the son of Hyrtacus, the leader of the 
 troops from Abydos, of whom he speaks at p. 
 585, whilst at p. 586 he tells us that the 
 district of Abydus was held by the Bebrycians, 
 a Thracian race (pp. 295, 542), and was sub- 
 sequently occupied by Thracians, who had pro- 
 bably newly immigrated. All, therefore, that 
 he shows us by the name Asius is, that it ex- 
 isted in Thrace and in Phry ;ia. 
 
 4 Strabo, xiii. p. 590 : 7ju Se Kal iv AeV/3<? 
 iroXis 'Apt(r/3a, t/s tt]v X^P av *X 0U(Tl MrjQv- 
 /xua?OL ■ (an 8e Kal irora/xbs "Apiafios iv ®p&KT}, 
 w<T7rep t'lprjrai, Kal tovtov irXrjcriov ol Kefiprjvioi 
 SpaKcs. TroWal 8' bixoovvjxiai Qpatl Kal Tpcoalv, 
 olov 2/catoi QpaKes rives Kal XKaibs irora/xbs Kal 
 2/catbj/ Te?xos Kal ivTpoia ^KaialirvXai- "EdvQioi 
 ®po.K€s, "EdvOos Trora/j-bs iv Tpoia- "Apiafios 
 i/j-fidAKuv els rbv "Efipov, 'Apla/Uri iv Tpula- 
 'Prjcros Trorafxbs iv Tpola, "Prjcros Se Kal 6 /3a- 
 cnAeus roov QpaKwv. ecrri Se Kal ru> 'Acrlw 
 6/xu>vvij.os hrepos irapa tcD TroirjTT] "Actios il bs 
 
 fJL7]TpWS "f)v "EKTOpOS ITTToBd/JLOlO, avTOKaalyvrjTos 
 
 'EKd[3r}s, vlbs 8e Av/navros, bs ^pvyirjv vaUaKe 
 pofjs iirl Hayyaploio." 
 
 5 S. v. "lAiov. 
 
 6 Apollodor. iii. 2, 3. 
 
 7 Stat. Theb. v. 188; Steph. Byz. s. v. Mtefa. 
 
 8 Pausanias, vii. 4; Steph. Byzant. s. v. 
 Aapdavta. 
 
 9 //. x. 434, 435 ; xx. 484, 485. 
 
 10 Antiq. Rom. i. 62 : ws fttv S77 Kal rb Tpcc- 
 tKbv ytvos 'EWriviKbv apx^^v SeSTjAcoTCt/ 
 fiot. 
 
§ I.] 
 
 CONNECTION WITH THE PHOENICIANS. 
 
 125 
 
 Aeneas is predicted the future dominion over Troy : " But now the 
 mighty Aeneas shall reign over the Trojans, and his sons' sons, who 
 shall be born hereafter." 1 The genealogy of the royal house of Dardania 
 presents, as Aldenhoven 2 observes, some strange names, which make 
 him think that they are of Phrygian origin. 
 
 I think it not out of place to cite here the following words of Grote : 3 
 " According to the Trojan legend, it was under proud Laomedon, son 
 of Ilus, that Poseidon and Apollo underwent, by command of Zeus, a 
 temporary servitude; the former building the walls of the town, the 
 latter tending the flocks and herds. When their task was completed, 
 they claimed the stipulated reward ; but Laomedon angrily repudiated 
 their demand, and even threatened to cut off their ears, to tie them hand 
 and foot, and to sell them in some distant island as slaves. 4 He was 
 punished for this treachery by a sea-monster, whom Poseidon sent to 
 ravage his fields and to destroy his subjects. Laomedon publicly offered 
 the immortal horses given by Zeus to his father Tros, as a reward to 
 any one who would destroy the monster. But an oracle declared that a 
 virgin of noble blood must be surrendered to the monster, and the lot fell 
 upon Hesione, daughter of Laomedon himself. Herakles, arriving at this 
 critical moment, killed the monster by the aid of a fort built for him by 
 Athene and the Trojans, 5 so as to rescue both the exposed maiden and 
 the people ; but Laomedon, by a second act of perfidy, gave him mortal 
 horses in place of the matchless animals which had been promised. Thus 
 defrauded of his due, Herakles equipped six ships, attacked and captured 
 Troy, and killed Laomedon, 6 giving Hesione to his friend and auxiliary 
 Telamon, to whom she bore the celebrated archer Teucros. 7 A painful 
 sense of this expedition was preserved among the inhabitants of the 
 historical town of Ilium, who offered no worship to Herakles." 8 
 
 I have cited all this in order to show that a link of connection seems 
 to have existed between Troy and Phoenicia, for, as Mr. Gladstone has 
 ingeniously endeavoured to show, 9 a connection with Poseidon frequently 
 denotes Phoenician associations ; and further, as Miillenhof has proved, 
 in his Deutsche Alterthumskunde, 10 Herakles is the representative of the 
 Phoenicians. This has also been pointed out by Professor Sayce, who 
 says : " The whole cycle of myths grouped about the name of Herakles 
 points as clearly to a Semitic source as does the myth of Aphrodite and 
 Adonis." 1 
 
 The Homeric Cilicians (K/Xt/ce?) of the Troad inhabited the plain of 
 the Hypoplakian Thebes, and appear, according to Strabo, 2 to have been 
 of the same race as the inhabitants of the later Cilicia. 
 
 1 77. xx. 307, 308 : 
 
 vvv oe 5r) Alueiao 0nj Tpdoeacriv avd£ei 
 
 Ka) iraLdcou iraldes, rot ksv /xcroiriaOe yevooi/Tcu. 
 
 2 Ueber das ncucntdeckte Troia. 
 
 3 History of Greece, i. p. 264. 
 
 4 II. vii. 452, 453 ; xxi. 451-456 ; Hesiocl. ap. 
 SchoL Lycophr. 393. 
 
 5 II. xx. 145 ; Dionvs. i. 52. 
 
 6 //. v. 640-642. 
 
 7 Diodorus, iv. 32-49. Compare Schol. Venet. 
 ad Iliad, viii. 284. 
 s Strabo, xiii. p. 596. 
 
 9 See his Preface to my Mycenae, pp. viii. and 
 xxiv. 
 
 10 W. Christ, Die Topographie der Troian. 
 Ebene, p. 225. 
 
 1 Contemporary Rericw, December 1878. 
 
 2 Strabo, viii. p. 376 ; xiv. p. 676. 
 
126 
 
 ETHNOGRArilY OF THE TROJANS. 
 
 [Chap. II. 
 
 The Leleges (AeXeye?) are often brought into connection with the 
 Carians. In fact, according to Herodotus, 3 the former was merely the 
 ancient name of the latter ; Homer, however, mentions the Leleges and 
 Carians as two distinct peoples. But we also find the Leleges in Greece, 
 as a very ancient and wide-spread race, dating from a pre-Hellenic time. 
 They are mentioned by Homer side by side with the Pelasgians. 4 The 
 little troop of Leleges, of whom the Iliad speaks, occupied the district 
 to the east of Cape Lectum. 5 
 
 Begarding the Pelasgians, I think I cannot do better than give 
 here an extract from a letter of Professor Sayce published in the 
 Academy of the 25th of January, 1879 : "I do not intend to dispute 
 the existence of tribes called by the Greeks Pelasgians. But to turn 
 these into a particular race or people is quite a different matter. It is 
 true that Greek writers, from Homer and Hesiod downward, mention 
 Pelasgians, but if we examine their statements we find that the term is 
 used in two (or perhaps three) senses : firstly, as denoting a certain Greek 
 tribe which inhabited Thessaly during the heroic age ; and secondly, as 
 equivalent to our own term 1 pre-historic' In the first sense it is used 
 twice in the Iliad (ii. 681 and xvi. 233). In two other Homeric 
 passages of later date (11. x. 429 ; Od. xix. 177), the name has passed 
 into the region of mythology, and a way has accordingly been prepared 
 for the use of it by later writers^ to denote those populations of Greece 
 and its neighbourhood which we should now call pre-historic, or whose 
 origin and relationship were unknown. (For this employment of the 
 word, see Herodotus, i. 146 ; i. 56 ; ii. 56; viii. 44; vii. 94; ii. 51 ; v. 26 ; 
 vi. 138.) The name is more especially applied to the natives of Thrace, 
 who seem to have belonged to the Illyrian stock (see Herodotus, i. 56 ; 
 ThucydiJes, iv. 109). It is probable, therefore, that there were tribes on 
 the coastland of Thrace who were known as Pelasgians ; and, since the 
 same name is also found in Mysia (II. ii. 840-3), it is probable that it was 
 a word of general meaning, like so many of the names of early Greek 
 ethnology, and accordingly applied to tribes of different origin and race. 
 Hence Pischel's etymology, which makes TIeXao-yos a compound of the 
 roots we have in irepav and elfii (ya), and so meaning ' the further- 
 goers ' or 1 emigrants,' becomes very probable. 
 
 " We now know enough of the languages of Italy, Greece, Albania, 
 and Asia Minor, to be able to lay down that, although all probably 
 belonging to the Indo-European stock, they are as distinct from one 
 another as Latin and Greek. Indeed, it is still doubted by some philo- 
 logists whether Albanian should be classed as an Aryan language at all. 
 However this may be, I am quite willing to allow that it is very probably 
 a descendant of the ancient Illyrian or Thracian, and I will not quarrel 
 with any one who wishes to call the latter Pelasgian. But it must be 
 remembered that we know nothing about the Pelasgian language or 
 
 3 Herodot. i. p. 171. 
 
 4 11. x. 429; Hecat. ap. Strab. vii. p. 321, 
 xii. p. 572. 
 
 3 Strabo, xiii. p. 605 ; rj yap airb rov AeKToO 
 
 pax 1 *-, avarelvovaa irpbs r)]V "I877J/, virtpntirai 
 roov TTpJoruv rod koAttov /xepwv' iv ois irpuirov 
 robs AcAeyas idpufievovs 5 woirfr^s Treiroir)K€V. 
 
THE AEOLIAN COLONIZATION. 
 
 127 
 
 languages ; and that, if the ancient Thraco-Illyrian is to be called 
 Pelasgian, the latter term must be closely defined. In the oldest passages 
 of Homer where it occurs, it is applied to Achaean Greeks, not to 
 barbarous Thracians ; in later Greek literature, it is merely synonymous 
 with ' pre-historic ; ' while in modern times it has served as the watch- 
 word of all kinds of obsolete theories and pre-scientific fancies." 
 
 Strabo informs us that after the Trojan war the whole Troad r from 
 Cyzicus to the Caicus, was Aeolized ; that is to say, it was occupied 
 by colonies formed by Peloponnesian Achaeans and Aeolian Boeotians, 
 who had been driven from their homes by the Dorian invasion. As 
 Mr. Gladstone judiciously observes, Homer was not aware of the existence 
 of Aeolians, only of Aeolids. But in the later Greek tradition we have 
 numerous notices of Aeolians as settled in various parts of Greece. In 
 Homer a variety of persons and families, holding the highest stations 
 and playing important parts in the early history, are descended from 
 or connected with Aeolus, a mythical eponymist, but of an Aeolian tribe 
 he is ignorant. 6 
 
 According to Thucydides, 7 the Dorian invasion of the Peloponnesus 
 took place 80 years, according to Strabo 8 00 years — that is, two gene- 
 rations — after the Trojan war ; according to Pausanias, 9 in the time of 
 Orestes. Pausanias seems probably to be in the right, for the dynasty 
 of the Pelopids appears to have ceased at Mycenae with the death of 
 Aegisthus, which occurred in the eighth year after the murder of Agamem- 
 non, 10 and thus about eight years after the Trojan war ; in fact, tradition 
 says that Agamemnon's son Orestes reigned, in Arcadia and Sparta, but 
 not that he succeeded his father. Only a fearful political revolution and 
 catastrophe, such as the Dorian Invasion, could have prevented Orestes 
 from becoming king in Mycenae, which was the richest and most powerful 
 State of Greece, and belonged to him as the only son of the glorious 
 and universally lamented Agamemnon. Strabo 11 says that Orestes began 
 the emigration, that he died in Arcadia, and that his son Penthilus came 
 as far as Thrace ; whilst his other son, Archelaus, brought the Aeolian 
 colony into the district of Cyzicus, in the neighbourhood of Dascylium. 
 But Gras, the youngest son of Archelaus, penetrated as far as the river 
 
 6 Homeric Synchronism, p. 74. 
 
 7 i. 12. 8 xiii. p. 582. 
 viii. 5, § 1. 
 
 10 Od. iii. 305-307 : 
 
 e7TTaeTes 8' ijvao-ae (Afyicflos) iroXvxpvo-oio 
 
 MvKt)v7]S' 
 
 r$ Se of oydoaTCf! Kaitbv tfXvde Sios 'OpeVrr/s 
 a\|/' an 'Adrjvdcov, Kara S 5 eKTave iraTpocpov^a. 
 
 11 xiii. p. 582 : % Opeo~Tt\v fxev yap ap£at too 
 ctoAoo, tovtov 5' ip 'Ap/caSi'a TeXevT-qaavTOS rbu 
 fiiov 8iade£aff6ai rbv vibv avrov Tlevd'iXov, Kal 
 irpoeXBelv jue'^pt ®pa.Kf]S e^KovTa erect tu>v 
 TpwiKwv v&Tepov, vtt' avTr t v tt)v twv 'UpaKXeidccv 
 eis WiKoir6wr\(Tov Kadodov ' sir 'ApxeAaov vibv 
 eKeivov irepaiwcrai rbv AioXiKbv vtoXov eis tt)v 
 vvv Kv(iK7}vr]v tt]v irepl to AaaKvXiov Tpav Se 
 rbv vibv tovtov Tbv vediiTaTov irpoeXdovTa jue'^pt 
 
 too Ypavinov TroTajxov ical irapecrKevaafxevov 
 &/j.eivov Trepaiwaai to TrXeov tt\s OTparias eis 
 AeafSov Kal KaTaax^v avTr\V KXevrjv Se "rbv 
 Adopov Kal MaXaov, Kal avrovs airoyovovs oVTas 
 'Ay ufie fxvOvos, avvayayelv \xev ttju arpaTiav /cccto 
 toj' avTbv XP 0V0V Ka ®' ov Ka ^ HevO'iXos, aXXa 
 tov fikv too UevdiXov aroXov <p6'?]vai TrepaiudevTa 
 4k tt)s ®paK7)s eis ttjv 'Aatav, tovtovs Se irepl 
 T7]v AoKpiBa Kal to $piKiov vpos diarp7\pai ttoXvv 
 Xpovov, vGTepov Se SiafidvTas KTiaai ti\v Kvfxriv 
 tt)v QptKcovlSa KXride7o-av anb too AoKpiKov 
 opovs. Tcov AioXeoov toIvvv Kad' cXrjv o~Keoa- 
 aOevTxv tt\v x^? av t ^ v ecpajxev xmb tov ttolt}tov 
 XeyeaQat TpaiKi)v, oi vaTepov ol fxev iraaav 
 AioXiSa irpocrayopevovaiv oi Se jxepos, Kal Tpoiav 
 oi ixev oXrjv oi Se /xepos avTTjS, ooSey oAws 
 a.XXi,Xois 6/xoXoyovvTes. 
 
/ 
 
 128 ETHNOGRAPHY OF THE TROJANS. [Chap. II. 
 
 Granicus, led the larger part of his troops over to Lesbos, and occupied 
 this island. Penthilus then brought his expedition over from Thrace 
 to the Troad, and was followed by other descendants of Agamemnon. 
 The Eoman geographer further says that, the Aeolians having spread over 
 the whole country called Trojan by the poet, the whole was by some later 
 writers called Aeolis, whilst others call only part of it by this name. 
 
 Strabo informs us that Abydos was first occupied by Milesian colonists 
 in the reign and by the permission of the Lydian king Gyges (cir. 698-660 
 B.C.), to whom the whole Troad and the neighbouring territory belonged. 
 A promontory near Dardanus was called after him, Gygas. 1 Neither 
 Strabo nor any other classical author tells us when this Lydian dominion 
 in the Troad commenced. But, as I shall describe at length in the 
 subsequent pages, I found in my excavations at Hissarlik, at an average 
 depth of from 6 to 7 ft. below the surface of the ground, and just between 
 the ruins of Novum Ilium and the debris of the latest pre-historic 
 city, a mass of pottery which, both in shape and fabric, has the very 
 greatest resemblance to the most ancient Etruscan pottery, whilst it 
 has no similarity whatever either to any of the pre-historic pottery or 
 to that of Novum Ilium. Professor Sayce calls my attention to the 
 fact, that two terra-cotta cones, inscribed with the Cypriote character 
 mo and found at a depth of 3 metres, exactly correspond in size, shape, 
 and material with a cone found by the late Mr. George Smith under the 
 floor of Assur-bani-pal's palace at Kouyunjik. This cone must have been 
 brought by an embassy sent to Nineveh by Gyges about B.C. 665, when, 
 according to the inscriptions, the Assyrians heard the name of Lydia 
 for the first time, and became acquainted with the districts westward of 
 the Halys. 
 
 Now we read in Herodotus: 2 "In the reign of Atys, son of Manes, 
 there was a great famine throughout all Lydia. The Lydians bore the 
 calamity patiently for some time, but, seeing that it did not stop, they set 
 to work to devise remedies for the evil. Various expedients were dis- 
 covered by various persons ; dice and huckle-bones and ball, and all such 
 games, were invented, with the exception of tables, the invention of which 
 
 1 xiii. p. 590: "Afivdos Se MiX-qaiwv eVrt 
 KTtafxa iiriTpi\\iavTos Tvyov tov AvSwv fiaaiXiws' 
 i\v yap eV iKelvcp ra x^p' ia Kal V Tpwas awaaa, 
 bvofxd^iai Se Kal aKpwTrjptov ri irpbs Aapfidvw 
 Tvyas. 
 
 2 Herodot. i. 94, ed. George Rawlinson: iirl 
 "Atuos tov Mavew fiacriXios aiToZri'i-qv i(rx v ph v 
 ava T7)v Av5i7)u iracrav yevicrdat ' Kal robs AvSovs 
 reus fiev hidyziv XiirapiovTas, fxera Se, ws ov 
 iraveoOai, &Kea ZlfacrOai, aXXov Se uXXo iiri- 
 ^if]X av "- (T ^ al avrciv. itevpeOrjvai 5tj &>v t6t€ Kal 
 t5)v Kvfioov Kal tcov acrTpayaXwv Kal tt\s o~<$>alpr\s 
 Kal twv aXXicov iracrewv iraiyviiwv ra eiSea irXr)V 
 irzcrcTwv' tovtwv yap &v tt)v i£evpecriv ovk 01- 
 KrfiovvTai Avtiol. iroiieiv Se wSe irpbs Tbv Xi/xbv 
 l^vp6vras, tt)v fjikv iTiprjv twv rjfiepiwv irai^iv 
 iracrav, "va 87? /X7j (i)Teoi€V aiTia, t)]V Se tTepyv 
 ciTeecrQai iravojxivovs twv iraiyviiwv. toiovtu 
 T/>jir<ji> didyeiv eV erect Svu>v SiovTa &kocti. iirsi 
 
 re Se ovk aviivai Tb KaK6v, aAA' iirl /jlciXXov ert 
 fiid^ecrdai, ovtw St; Tbv fSaaiXia ovtwv Suo /jLoipas 
 SieXdvTa Avfiwv irdvTwv K\i]poocrai, ttjv /xhv iirl 
 fj.ovfj, tt]V Sc iirl i^65w 4k ttjs x^pjs, Kal iirl 
 fxev T77 yueVe.^ avTOv Xayxo-vovarj twv fxoipiwv 
 kwvTbv Tbv fiaaiXia irpoaTacraeiv, iirl Se tt? airaX- 
 Xaaao/xivr] Tbv iwvTOv iratSa, t<£ ovvofxa elvai 
 Tvpar]v6v. Xax^vTas Se avTOiv tovs ere'pous e'|i- 
 eVai e'/c ttjs x^P^i KaTafirjvai is ^/xvpv^v Kal 
 in)Xa-vr\craoQai irXola, is tcl iadifiivovs to. iravra, 
 ocra o~<pi i\v xP 7 )°~ Ta eiriirAoa, airoirXieiv KaTa 
 fiiov Te Kal yr\s ^\Ti\aiv, is % edvea iroXXa. 
 irapa^i^/aixivovs airiKiaOai is 'O/j-PpiKovs, ev8a 
 a<pias iviSpvcracrdai iroXias Kal otKeeiv Tb /ue'xpj 
 ToDSe. avrl Se AuSij/ ix€TOvo/j.aa0rivai ai/Tovs 
 iirl tov fiacriXios tov irai$6s, os a<p€as avyyayt- 
 iirl toCtov Ti]v iirwvvfXLTfv iroiev/j.ivovs dvofxa- 
 oOqvai Tvparjvovs. 
 
LYDIANS AND ETRUSCANS. 
 
 129 
 
 they do not claim as theirs. The device adopted against the famine was 
 to give up one day so entirely to playing as not to feel any want of food, 
 and the next day to eat and to stop the games. In this manner they 
 continued for eighteen years. As the affliction lasted and even Tiecame 
 more grievous, the king divided the nation in half, and made the two 
 portions draw lots, the one to stay, the other to emigrate from the 
 country ; he would remain king of those whose lot it should be to remain 
 behind, whilst his son Tyrsenus should be the leader of the emigrants. 
 When they had drawn lots, those who had to emigrate went down to 
 Smyrna and built themselves vessels, in which they put all needful 
 stores ; after that they sailed away in search of land and sustenance. 
 After having sailed past many countries, they reached Umbria, where 
 they built cities for themselves and fixed their residence. Instead of 
 Lydians they called themselves after the name of the king's son, who led 
 the colony, Tyrsenians." 
 
 In these Tyrsenians the general voice of antiquity saw the Etruscans, 
 though Dionysius of Halicarnassus, the contemporary of Strabo, main- 
 tained that neither in language, religion, laws, nor customs was there 
 any similarity between the Lydians and Etruscans. But so firmly 
 convinced of the relationship were most of the ancients that, according 
 to Tacitus, 3 in the time of Tiberius deputies from Sardis recited before 
 the Koman Senate a decree of the Etruscans, declaring their consan- 
 guinity, on the ground of the early colonization of Etruria by the 
 Lydians. Mommsen, 4 Corssen, and other authorities, however, now agree 
 with Dionysius. The fact that the great cities of Etruria were inland 
 and not maritime shows that they could not have been founded by 
 a people who came by sea ; and the native name of the Etruscans, 
 the Easena, is evidently identical with the Khaeti of the Khaetian 
 Alps, whose language, according to Livy (v. 33), was similar to that of 
 the Etruscans. Now, Etruscan inscriptions have been found as far 
 north as Botzen, the phonology of which belongs to an earlier period 
 in the history of the Etruscan language than the phonology of the 
 inscriptions found in Etruria proper. Moreover, no relationship can be 
 discovered between the Etruscan language, which is agglutinative, and 
 the remains of the Lydian language, which are Aryan. If, nevertheless, 
 the connection between Etruria and Lydia is still maintained, 5 con- 
 sidering the striking resemblance of the curious pottery found at 
 Hissarlik immediately below the ruins of Novum Ilium, with the most 
 ancient pottery found in the cemeteries of Felsina, 6 Yillanova, 7 and 
 Yolterra, 8 I think it possible that there may have been a Lydian settle- 
 
 3 Annal. iv. 55. 
 
 4 Edmische Geschichte, i. 9. Mommsen sug- 
 gests that the notion of a connection between 
 Etruria and Lydia arose out of a confusion 
 between the Tursenni (more properly Rasena), 
 corrupted by Greek pronunciation into Tyr- 
 rheni, and the Lydian Tyrrheni, whose name, 
 according to Xanthus, was really Torrhebi. 
 
 5 See George Dennis, Cities and Cemeteries of 
 
 Etruria, i. pp. xxxv. sq. 
 
 6 Giovanni Gozzadini, di alcuni Sepolcri della 
 Kecropole Felsinea, p. 6. 
 
 7 Giovanni Gozzadini, la Necropole di Yillanoza 
 (1870), p. 33. 
 
 8 L. Pigorini, Bullettino di Paletnologia, anno i. 
 Nos. 4 and 5, April and May 1.875. Plate iii. 
 Nos. 3 a and 3 6. 
 
130 
 
 ETHNOGRAPHY OF THE TROJANS. 
 
 [Chap. II. 
 
 ment on Mount Hissarlik contemporary with the colonization of Etruria 
 by the Lydians (1044 B.C.), and that the Lydian dominion may have 
 been established over the whole Troad at the same epoch. 
 
 Of other nations which may have sojourned for a short time in the 
 Troad, I may name the Trerians, whom Strabo mentions once as neigh- 
 bours of the Thracians. 9 They invaded the north coast of Asia Minor 
 in the seventh century B.C. in company with the Cimmerians, 10 and even 
 took Sardis, which had been already taken by the Cimmerians. 1 But 
 in another passage Strabo states that the Trerians were a Cimmerian 
 people; 2 and again in another he says that the Trerians were also called 
 Cimmerians, or a tribe of them. 3 According to Aristotle, the Cimmerians 
 settled in Antandros on the Gulf of Adramyttium, at the foot of Ida, 
 and remained there a hundred years. This appears to be confirmed by 
 Pliny 4 and Stephanus Byzantinus, 5 according to whom the town was 
 formerly called Cimmeris and Edonis. Alcaeus 6 calls it a city of the 
 Leleges ; Herodotus 7 and Conon 8 call it a Pelasgian city. 
 
 How fearfully the Troad must have been devastated by these inva- 
 sions, we may conclude from the statement of a Greek historian, that 
 the district of Lampsacus had formerly been called Bebrycia, but that 
 the Bebrycians had disappeared through the frequent wars. 9 
 
 I have further to mention the Gauls or Gaiatians, who, in 279 B.C., 
 passed over into Asia Minor, partly by the Hellespont, partly by the 
 Thracian Bosporus, 10 and spread such terror by their devastations that, 
 according to Livy, 1 " the coast of the Hellespont was given up to the 
 Trocmi, the Tolistoboji obtained Aeolis and Ionia, the Tectosagi the inland 
 parts of Asia, and they exacted tribute from all Asia within Taurus, while 
 they chose their own abode about the river Halys, — so that at last even 
 the kings of Syria did not refuse to give them tribute." But these 
 Gaiatians seem not to have stopped for any length of time in the Troad, 
 for otherwise Strabo would have known the fact through Demetrius of 
 Scepsis, who flourished but a hundred years after the invasion of the 
 Gauls. But as Strabo is silent on the subject, and only mentions the 
 Gauls as living quietly in the country on the Halys, south of Paphlagonia, 
 we may consider it as certain that they did not stay in the Troad. 
 
 9 i. p. 59 ; but it must be distinctly under- 
 stood that Strabo nowhere mentions that the 
 Trerians settled for any length of time in the 
 Troad : he only speaks of their constant in- 
 vasions. 10 xii. p. 573. 
 
 1 xiii. p. 627. Professor Sayce calls my 
 attention to the fact that, "according to the 
 Assyrian inscriptions, the Gimirrai or Cim- 
 merians invaded Lydia in the time of Gyges, 
 who sent two of their chiefs in chains to Assur- 
 bani-pal, the Sardanapalus of the Greeks (about 
 B.C. 665). Subsequently Gyges assisted Psam- 
 metichus of Egypt in shaking off the Assyrian 
 yoke, in consequence of which, says Assur-bani- 
 pal, the gods punished him by causing him to 
 be defeated and beheaded in battle by the Cim- 
 merians. His son and successor, Ardys, again 
 
 sent tribute to Nineveh. See also Od. xi. 14- 
 19." 2 xiv. p. 647. 
 
 3 i. p. 61. 4 H. N. v. 32. 
 
 5 S. v. Kl/xfiepos. 6 Ap. Strabo, xiii. p. 606. 
 
 7 vii. 42. 8 Narr. 41. 
 
 9 Charon in Schol. ap. Rhod. 2, 2. 
 
 10 Memnon Heracl. ap. Phot. i. 1. 
 
 1 See Wernsdorf, de Repuhl. Galatt. i. p. 15. 
 Liv. xxxviii. 16: "Trocmis Hellesponti ora 
 data, Tolistoboji Aeolida atque Ionian), Tectosagi 
 mediterranea Asiae sortiti sunt, et stipendium 
 tota cis Taurum Asia exigebant, sedem autem 
 ipsi sibi circa Halyn flumen ceperunt, — ut Syriae 
 quoque ad postremum reges stipendium dare 
 non abnuerent." The Trocmi, Tolistoboji, and 
 Tectosages were the three races or clans of the 
 Gauls. 
 
PECULIAR SITUATION OF TROY. 
 
 131 
 
 I shall not speak in this place of the passage of the Persians, 
 Macedonians, Romans, &c, through the Troad ; I have enumerated only 
 those nations of whose sojourn or devastation in this country tradition or 
 history has preserved some record. It will be seen in the following pages 
 that the ruins at Hissarlik bear testimony to the settlements of at least 
 five different nations, which have succeeded each other on the site in 
 remote pre-historic ages. In fact the passage of nations to and fro on 
 this spot could not have been better described than by Mr. Gladstone : 2 — 
 "It appears as if the Hellespont and the immediate neighbourhood of 
 the Bosphorus had formed a sort of hinge, upon which turned the fortunes 
 and movements of mankind from a very remote period. Consequently 
 I am not surprised when I see how some powerful cause has determined 
 the course of events actually exhibited in historical times. I am not at 
 all surprised to find at Hissarlik the marks of an extraordinary interest 
 attaching to that neighbourhood, and of a great number of successive 
 races, beginning with the earliest recorded periods of civilized settlement, 
 endeavouring to lodge themselves upon this particular spot'. To me it 
 involves no paradox, because I think it greatly supported and confirmed 
 by what we have seen since in respect to the desirableness of' that spot, 
 and its importance in connection with the movements of races. The very 
 circumstances of climate and soil may, I apprehend, be considered as 
 rendering it a very eligible site, and therefore there is nothing strange 
 to me in finding that a number of different peoples should have planted 
 themselves upon the hill of Hissarlik within the course of a certain 
 number of centuries." 
 
 I also cite here what Mr. Philip Smith 3 has written on the subject :. 
 
 " Apart even from its traditional claim to be the Ilium of Homer, 
 Hissarlik lay in the track of the primitive migrations of the Indo- 
 European race from their cradle in the East to their settlement in the 
 West ; and not of one migration only, but of their passage to and fro 
 between the shores of Asia and of Europe; as well as upon the path 
 of their commerce and military expeditions, after they were settled in 
 their homes. For, lest we be misled by the arbitrary distinction between 
 the continents, which is stereotyped in the names of Asia and Europe 
 — that is, East and West — it must be borne in mind that the Hellespont 
 and Bosporus (as the latter name expresses) were ferries rather than 
 sundering seas, and the islands of the Aegean were stepping-stones. 
 The close affinities of the early settlers on both shores had long since 
 been proved ; and, in particular, the presence of the great Pelasgo- 
 Hellenic or Graeco-Italic family had been traced on both. The very 
 ancient habitation of the north-western parts of Asia Minor by the 
 Ionians — the Oriental name of the whole Hellenic race — long before 
 their traditional colonization from the peninsula of Hellas — had been 
 maintained by Ernst Curtius twenty years ago, 4 and more fully esta- 
 
 2 At the Royal Institute of British Architects, 3 See my Troy and its remains, p. 364. 
 30th April, 1877 ; see Sessional Papers, 1876- 4 Curtius, Die lonicr vor der Wanderung / 
 1877, No. 12. Berlin, 1855. 
 
132 
 
 DOMINIONS OF THE TEOAD. 
 
 [Chap. II. 
 
 blished by recent Egyptologers 5 — thus confirming the most ancient 
 ethnic record, that the Isles of the Gentiles were divided among the 
 families of the Sons of Javan." 6 
 
 § II. The several Dominions of the Troad. 7 
 
 1. The Dominion of Pandarus. — This possession of the Lycians 
 extended along the Aesepus to Zeleia ; its inhabitants are called wealthy 
 (dfoeiol). Their leader is Pandarus, son of Lycaon, the excellent archer. 8 
 
 Cities. — The only city mentioned by the poet is Zeleia, situated on the 
 Aesepus at the last spur of Ida. According to Strabo, 9 it was at a 
 distance of 80 stadia from the nearest sea (the Propontis) into which the 
 Aesepus falls, and 190 stadia from (the post-Homeric) Cyzicus. 
 
 2. The Dominion of Adrestus and Amphius, sons of Merops. — This 
 dominion bordered on the preceding, as is shown by Homer, 10 as well 
 as by Strabo : " Below Zeleia, on the" sea, on this side of the Aesepus, 
 was situated the plain of Adresteia." 1 The leaders of the Adresteans 
 are Adrestus and Amphius, sons of Merops, though elsewhere Amphius 
 is called the son of Selagus. 
 
 Cities. — Three are mentioned by the poet : — 
 
 a. Adresteia (rj ' ASprjoreia) was situated between Priapus and Parium. 2 
 
 b. Apaesus (rj 'Airaicro^), 3 also called Paesos (f) Haiaos)? was situated 
 between Lampsacus and Parium on the river Paesus. Strabo says that 
 the city was destroyed and that its inhabitants had settled in Lamp- 
 sacus, 5 because they were Milesians, like the Lampsacenes, which is 
 confirmed by Anaximenes. 6 
 
 c. Pityeia ( f) YliTveta) 7 was situated in Pityus, a district of the 
 territory of Parium, at the foot of a mountain overgrown with pines, 
 between Priapus and Parium, close to the town of Linum on the sea, 
 
 5 Chabas, Etudes snr VAntiquite historique ; 
 Paris, 1872, p. 190. 
 
 e " Genesis x. 4, 5. The essential letters of the 
 Hebrew name JV are identical with the Greek 
 IHN (Ion), and both are equivalent to the 
 Yavanas, the 'younger race' of the old Aryan 
 traditions, who migrated to the West, while the 
 elder branch remained in the East. See the 
 Student's Ancient History of the East, Chapter xx., 
 on the Nations of Asia Minor, which contains a 
 discussion of the Hellenic affinities of the Phry- 
 gians and Trojans in particular." 
 
 7 In the geography of the several dominions 
 of the Troad I have adopted the order followed 
 by E. Buchholz in his excellent work, Homcrische 
 Kosmographie und Geographic, and I have to a 
 large extent profited by his details ; but as re- 
 gards Ilium, I have not used his work at all. 
 
 8 II. ii. 824-827 : 
 
 o* 8e ZeAeiav euaiov viral 7ro'8a velaTov "I877S, 
 acpvetoi, ttivovtzs vSoop /xeAau Aiaryrroio, 
 Tpwes' t5)v avr ^p% € Avk&ovos ayXabs vl6s, 
 Ildvdapos, & Kai ro^ou 'A7roAAa>j/ avrbs eSo/cej'. 
 
 9 Strabo, xiii. p. 587 : 'H fifU 5^ ZeAeta iu 
 tv Tiapwpt'ia T7? vara.Tr] rr/s "1877s eo~Tiv, aire- 
 
 Xovcra Kv^inov /xeu ffrafiibvs iuev^KOPra Kai l/ca- 
 toV, rr\s 8' iyyvrdrw daAdrrrjs /ca0' %v iKbiZwaiv 
 Aicrrjiros cxrov oydorjKOura. 
 
 10 II. ii. 828-830 : 
 0? 8' ' AdpricrTGidv t tixov Kai drj/iou 'Airaicrov, 
 Kai TliTveiav tx ov Kc " Tijpefojs opos atVu' 
 tu)v tfpx' 'ASprjaTos re Kai *Afi(pios Aii>o6u>pr)£. 
 
 1 xii. p. 565 : rrj 8e ZeAei'a viroTreirTcaKe irpbs 
 6a\aTTr] iir'iTab'e rod Aia^irov rbrris 'Adpr)(TTeias 
 ■Ked'iou. 
 
 2 Strabo, xiii. p. 588 : 7) fieu ovv iroAts (77 
 'A8prj<TTeja) ^erath Upidirov Kai Uaplov. 
 
 3 11. ii. 828. 
 
 4 II. v. 612: 
 
 Kai jSaAej/ "Ajx<piov, SeAayov vUv, os p eVl Hatcrf 
 
 5 Strabo, xiii. p. 589 : h 8e t&3 fitra^v Aafx.- 
 \paKov Kai Uaptov Tlaiabs i\v irSAis Kai irora^ios- 
 KaTtairaarai 8' 77 tt6Ais, oi 8e Uaicrr]vol nerc?- 
 Kt)eav els Adju^aKou, MjAtjo-iW ovres &ttoikoi 
 Kai abTol KaQdtrep Kai oi Aajx^aK-nvo'i. 
 
 6 Strabo, xiv. p. 635 : ' Avat,ifiivt]s yovv 6 
 AafA\\;aKr)vbs ovrco (prjalv, on — MiA^aioi avuaKTj- 
 aav— AfivZov, "Apto-Pav, Ylaiadv. 
 
 7 11. ii. 829. 
 
DARDANIA, THAT OF AENEAS. 
 
 133 
 
 where the Linusian cochleae were fished up, which were considered the 
 best of all sorts of cochleae. 8 But others maintained that Pityeia was 
 only the ancient name of Lampsacus. 9 
 
 3. The Dominion of Asius. — This dominion extended along the coast 
 of the Troad, from Percote to Abydos. Asius, son of Hyrtacus, 10 was the 
 ruler of this district ; under his command was the contingent of the 
 Thracian city of Sestos on the Hellespont. 1 
 
 Of Cities Homer mentions three in this dominion : — 
 
 a. Percote (fj Hep/ccoTT]), 2 of which its present name, Borgas or Bergas, 
 may be a corruption. Its ancient name was also Percope. 3 
 
 b. Abydos (rj "AySfSo?), 4 at the narrowest part of the Hellespont, 
 which, according to Herodotus, 5 was there only 7 stadia broad ; but in 
 reality the breadth of the strait is here 10 stadia. Abydos was situated 
 opposite to Sestos, though slightly to the south-east. A little to the 
 north of the city Xerxes passed the Hellespont on a bridge of boats, in 
 480 b.c. Of Abydos no ruins are extant ; only fragments of pottery 
 or marble mark its site. It is at a distance of 3 miles from the present 
 town of Dardanelles. On the site of Abydos are two nearly conical 
 natural hills, both of which may have once been fortified, but the opinion 
 of some travellers, 6 that they are composed of debris, is altogether erro- 
 neous ; they consist of purely natural soil. 
 
 e. Arisbe (rj 'Kpiafirj), not far from the Selleis, 7 was the residence of 
 Asius, and has in the poems the epithets " divine " (hla) s and " well- 
 built " (iv/CTi/ievrj). 9 
 
 4. The Dominion of Aeneas {Dardania). — Strabo defines Dardania as 
 follows : — " On the further side of Abydos come the districts around Ilium, 
 the sea-shore as far as Lectum, the land of the Trojan Plain, and the 
 district at the side of Mount Ida subject to Aeneas." 10 Again: "The 
 mountain-border (of the Trojan Plain) is narrow ; on one side it extends 
 in a southerly direction to the district around Scepsis, on the other side to 
 the north as far as the Lycians of the district of Zeleia : this plain the 
 poet puts under the dominion of Aeneas and the Antenorids, and calls 
 it Dardania." 1 This dominion was therefore long and narrow; it ex- 
 
 8 Strabo, xiii. p. 588 : Uirva 8' i<rr\v eu Uirv- 
 ovvri rrjs Hapiavrjs uTrtpKtlixsvov %\ov(Ta irirvwSes 
 bpos /j.era^b 8e Kt7rai Haplov kcu Ylpidirov Ka\Alvov 
 Xvp'iov eVi Qakdrrr), oirou oi Aivovaioi /co^Aiou 
 
 frpHTTOt TOJV TTO.VTWV aXlCTKOVTCLl. 
 
 9 Steph. Byz. and Etym. Mag. s. v. AdjxtyaKos ; 
 Schol. Apoll. Shod. i. 933 ; Orph. Arg. 488 ; 
 Plin. H. N. v. 32 : " Lampsacum antea Pityusa 
 dictum." This is also implied in the story told 
 in Herodotus, vi. 37, the point of which is 
 missed by the historian, who does not seem to 
 have heard that Pityeia or Pityusa was reputed 
 to have been the ancient name of Lampsacus. 
 
 10 //. ii.' 837, 838 : 
 rwu au0' 'TpTaKi8r]s ?ipx' 'Agios, upx^fJ-os avdpwv, 
 "Actios "fpranldris. 
 
 1 //. ii. 836. 
 
 2 //. ii. 835 ; xi. 229 ; xv. 548. 
 
 3 Steph. P>yz. s. v. UepKojrr) : UepKoirr] kcu 
 irahai UfpKwirr] iroAis TpcodSos. 
 
 4 11. ii. 836. 
 
 5 vii. 34 : %<xri 8e eirra ardHia e| 'Afivfiov 
 hs rfjv diravriov. 
 
 6 Richter, Wallfahrtcn im Morgenlande, p. 435. 
 
 7 ii. 838, 839 : 
 
 'Apiafiridev . . . 
 irorafiov airb 'ZeAArjevros. 
 Comp. xii. 96, 97. 
 
 8 //. ii. 836 ; xxi. 43 : Siar 'Aplo-faf. 
 
 9 11. vi. 13 : i'vKTijx4uri iu'Api<rfir}. 
 
 10 xiii. p. 592 : "E£a> 8e 'AfivSov ra. nepl rb 
 "iAtoi/ cart, rd T€ irapdhia ea>s Aenrov kcu -ra 
 ip ro) Tpw'iKU) ireS'ic? Kal ra irapccpeia rrjs "idrjs 
 ra. virb rop Alveia. 
 
 1 xiii. p. 596 : rovrov 8' r) fieu irapupeios 
 tan o-revr), rfj /xeu eVi rrju (xto~T)}xfipiav rzrafxtvr) 
 jue'xpt roov Kara, 'Surjipiv roircov, rfj 8' iirl ras 
 dpKrovs /tte'xpt roov Kara ZeAciav Avkiwv. ravrrjv 
 8' 6 iroirjrrjs vir Alueia rdrrei teal rols 'Avrt}- 
 vopiSais, KaAet 8e AapSaviav. 
 
134 
 
 DOMINIONS OF THE TROAD. 
 
 [Chap. II. 
 
 tended between Priam's dominion and that of the Meropids, being bor- 
 dered on one side by the Hellespont, on the other by the Leleges and 
 Cilicians. Its inhabitants, called Dardanians (AapSavcot 2 or AdpSavoi), 3 
 were a race kindred with the Trojans, and are sometimes confounded 
 with them : thus, for instance, Euphorbus, son of Panthoiis, a Trojan, is 
 called a Dardanian. 4 
 
 Of Cities we can only mention Dardania, built by Dardanus at the 
 foot of Ida before sacred Ilium was founded in the plain. 5 In the time 
 of Strabo it had utterly disappeared. 6 It has of course nothing in 
 common with the later Dardanus, which — as excavations lately made 
 there at my request by the military governor of the Dardanelles have 
 shown — has left a layer of debris hardly 2J ft. deep, in which nothing 
 but fragments of Greek potsherds are found. It therefore appears certain 
 that it was built by the Aeolian Greeks. It lies on the shore of the 
 Hellespont, as Strabo 7 rightly remarks, at a distance of 70 stadia from 
 Abydos, and, according to Pliny, 8 70 stadia from Khoeteum. 
 
 5. The Dominion of Attest — We find also in Homer that a troop of 
 Leleges had settled in the Troad, on the river Satniois near Cape Lectum : 
 thus they seem to have dwelt between the dominion of the Cilicians and 
 that of the Dardanians. 10 Their king was Altes, father of Laothoe, who 
 bore Lycaon, and father-in-law to Priam. 1 
 
 Of Cities I can only mention Pedasus (ff UrjSaaos) on the Satniois, 
 with the epithets "lofty" (alWjeaaa), 2 "high-towered" or "high- 
 walled " (anreivr)). 3 , It was destroyed by Achilles, 4 and is supposed, as 
 I have before observed, to be mentioned on the Egyptian monuments 
 under the name of Pidasa. 
 
 6. The Dominion of the Cilicians. — 
 
 a. The Dominion of E'etion (the Theban Cilicia) 5 extends between the 
 district of Lyrnessus occupied by the Cilicians and the Leleges. The 
 description given by Homer of Thebe 6 has led to the general belief 
 
 2 11. ii. 819: 
 
 AapSavlwv avT 1 i\px*v efts irous 'Ayxt&ao 
 Alveias .... 
 
 3 II. iii. 456, vii. 348 : 
 
 /ce/cAure /nev, Tpwes, teat Adpdavoi 77S' in'ucovpoi. 
 
 4 11. xvi. 807 : 
 
 .... AdpSuvos avyp, 
 Ylav6o'iht)s Evcpopfios, .... 
 
 5 77. xx. 215-218: 
 
 Aapdavov av irpwrov re/cero vecpeAriyepeTa 
 Zevs, 
 
 icrlaae 8e AapSavlrjv, iirel ovirw "iAiOS ipr) 
 
 iv iredlcf 7reir6\t<rTO, tt6\is /xepSirccv dvOpu/irwv, 
 
 dAA' e0' virwpe'ias ooneov iroAvirldaKOS "ib'-qs. 
 
 6 xiii. p. 592 : vvv /xtv yap oi»5' txvos iroAtcos 
 crci^Tai avr6Qi. 
 
 7 xiii. p. 595 : f] irdAis v AdpSavos, Ste'xouco 
 tt)s 'AfivSov o' araSiovs. 
 
 8 //. N. v. 33 : " a Khoeteo Dardanium oppi- 
 dum parvum abest stadia lxx." 
 
 9 Deviating here from the order followed by 
 E. Buchholz, Homer. Kosm. und Geogr., I shall 
 first speak of the dominions, of the Leleges and 
 the Cilicians, and afterwards of the dominion of 
 
 Troy proper, as this latter will occvpy a large 
 space. 
 
 10 Strabo, xiii. p. 605: ^ yap airh rov 
 Acktov pdxis dvaretvouaa npbs ttjv "iSrjv virep- 
 Keirai rwv itpuiroov rov koAttov fitpwv, iv oh 
 irpwTov robs AeAeyas i5pvfj.4vovs 6 7roir]TT]S 
 Tr(Trolr)Kev. 
 
 1 11. xxi. 84-86 : 
 
 . . . . fiivvvOddiov Se fxe jurjT^p 
 yeivaro Aao86r], 6vydrrip"AArao ytpovros, 
 v AArew bs AeAeyeercn <pi\oirro\(ixoio'iv avdaaei. 
 
 2 11. xxi. 87 : 
 
 C'AAttjs) UrjBaaov alir^eo'o'av %x wv Scmo- 
 evri. 
 
 3 27. vi. 34, 35 : 
 
 vaU 5e ^arvtoevros ivppelrao nap' o'x^as 
 TlriSaaov alireivr]v. 
 
 4 //. xx. 92 : 
 
 irepae Se ('AxiAAeus) Avpvr)(Tabv Ka\ UriSaaov. 
 
 5 Strabo, xiii. p. 586 : t) rwv KiXikwv Sitttj, tj 
 fikv 0rj/3ai'/c7j t) 8£ Avpvrtaais. 
 
 6 II. vi. 396, 397 : 
 
 'HenW, bs evaiev virb IlAoKy v\r}4<rcrr) 
 
 @t)Pt) viroTrXaidr}, rltAi/ceac' avtipeaffiv avdffffuv. 
 
§ II.] THEBE. — VIEWS OF MR. GLADSTONE. 135 
 
 that there was a mountain called Plakos, at the foot of which the city 
 was situated. But Straho knows no such mountain ; he says : " But in 
 the interior, 50 stadia further on, is the now deserted Thebe, which the 
 poet puts helow the ' wooded Plakos,' but there is here neither a Plakos 
 nor a Plax, nor is there a forest above it though it adjoins Ida." 7 
 
 Cities, (a) Thebe (77 StflSrj) was situated CO stadia to the north-west 
 of Adramyttium, 8 between the latter and Carine. 9 It was the capital 
 of Eetion ; hence its epithet " sacred city of Eetion." 10 It is called 
 "flourishing" (evvaieracoaa) and "high-gated" (tn/rrrriAo?), and was 
 destroyed by Achilles. 11 It was a fortified place, for Homer speaks of 
 its walls. 1 
 
 Mr. Gladstone 2 has sought to show that under Thothmes III., whose 
 reign is computed to have extended over the first half of the sixteenth 
 century b.c. (or 1600-1550), when the power of the great Egyptian 
 Empire reached its climax, it embraced most of the populations of Greece, 
 where Thothmes put his own sons as governors in the places he had 
 conquered. He calls attention to the fact, that the Thebe of Eetion is 
 connected in the Iliad with special excellence of horses; that it is the 
 sacred city of Eetion ; and that lastly it has lofty gates (u^t7ruXo?). 3 It 
 is surely remarkable, he adds, that we find all these three characteristics 
 reproduced in the Cadmean Thebes of Boeotia. It is sacred (lepa irpos 
 reL^ea O77/3779). 4 It is most closely associated with the horse ; for to the 
 Cadmeans alone, besides the Trojans, does Homer give the designation 
 fcevrope? ittttgov. 5 It is also remarkable for its gates, being the seven- 
 gated Thebes. 6 Both cities, too, were rich. The Thebe of Eetion is 
 evvateraovaa, or " a flourishing city ; " while the Cadmean Thebes is 
 iuKTLfievov irrokieOpov, " a well-built fortress," 7 and eupv^opos, " an exten- 
 sive (?) city." 8 These three pointed characteristics, as well as the fourth, 
 all belonged to the mighty city of Thebes in Egypt. This had a hundred 
 gates ; this horsed 20,000 chariots ; and was eminently a sacred city, for 
 she was the centre of the worship of Amun. 9 
 
 Recent researches, however, seem to show that the identifications with 
 Greek tribes proposed for geographical names occurring in the Egyptian 
 inscriptions are untenable. The chief support for Mr. Gladstone's views 
 
 7 Strabo, xiii. p. 614: iv Se tt} jxeo-oyaia ai:b 
 ■nevTT]K.ovTa aTadiuv itXTlu 7j ©77/377 ep^fios, 7)v 
 4>7]aiv o non]rr\s, " vwb nkaKcp i\i)£<Tffr) " oure Sc" 
 HXdhos f) nAa£ e'/fel ti Ae'-yerai, ovf? vArj vnepKei- 
 rai Ka'iToi irpbs rrj 'iSrj. 
 
 8 Strabo, xiii. p. 612 : Si^xovai Se 'Adpa/Avrriov 
 aradiovs 77 fxku (07/J877) e^KOvra, r] Se (Avpvyaabs*) 
 oydorjKopra ku\ oktoo eirl Odrepa. 
 
 9 Herod, vii. 42 : curb Se ravrvs (Kapivi)s) Sta 
 ©77/377? irediov eVopevero, 'Adpa/xvTreiov re iroXiv 
 Kai J Avravb*pov tt]v TleAacry'iSa napaixeifiofxtvos. 
 
 10 11. i. 366 : 
 
 e's ®iil3riv ieprjv ttoXiv 'HeTtw^os. 
 
 11 II. vi. 415, 416 : 
 
 (K Se tt6\iv irepaev ('A%tAAeus) KiXikuv evvaic- 
 
 rducrav 
 Q-f){$r)v v\p'nrv\ov. 
 
 1 11. ii. 691 : Tei X ea ©t^s. 
 
 2 Homeric Synchronism, p. 137. 
 
 3 Ibid. p. 158. 4 II. iv. 378. 
 
 5 11. iv. 391. 
 
 6 II. iv. 406 ; Od. xi. 263. 
 
 7 II. ii. 505; vi. 415. 8 Od. xi. 265. 
 
 9 Homer. Synchr., pp. 158, 159. Regarding, 
 the form of the name, we may add, that whilst 
 the city of Eetien is always called Thebe in the 
 singular, this was also the proper form for the 
 Egyptian city, whose original name (namely, 
 the name of its sacred quarter, to the east of the 
 Nile) was T-APE. The Greeks assimilated the 
 name to that of Thebes (0^ot) in Boeotia ; but 
 this city, as we see in Homer, is also called Thebe 
 (©tjjSt?). 
 
136 
 
 DOMINIONS OF THE TROAD. 
 
 [Chap. II. 
 
 consequently falls to the ground. Since the Cadmeans of Boeotian Thebes 
 were a Phoenician colony, it is probable that the origin of the name of 
 the city must be sought in the Semitic languages. On the other hand, 
 Egyptian Thebes derived its name from the Egyptian ta-ajnu, the plural 
 of ta-ap, "the little house," a title originally given to one only of the 
 quarters of the city. According to Varro (de Re Rust. in. 1, 16), " the 
 Aeolian Boeotians " and the Sabines called hills tebae or thebae. 
 
 (0) Chryse (fj Xpvar)), already desolate in Strabo's time, was situated 
 close to Thebe, and belonged to the possessions of Eetion, as is evident 
 from the fact that Chryseis was captured by Achilles when he destroyed 
 Thebi 10 It had a temple of Apollo Smintheus, of which the father of 
 Chryseis was the priest. 1 It was situated on the sea, and had a port in 
 which Ulysses landed when he brought Chryseis back to her father with 
 a hecatomb for the god. As Strabo remarks, it is to be distinguished 
 from the later Chrysa, near Hamaxitus, which had also a temple of the 
 Sminthian Apollo, but no port. 2 The temple of this god, which Pliny 3 
 mentions here, can consequently refer only to the later place. 
 
 (7) Cille (K/AA77), situated also in the Theban plain on the small river 
 Cillaeus, at the foot of Mount Cillaeus and in the neighbourhood of 
 Antandros, was founded by Pelops, son of Tantalus, and had a celebrated 
 temple of the Cillaean Apollo, which still existed in Strabo's time. 4 
 
 b. The Dominion of Mynes appears to have been limited to the city 
 of Lyrnessus (Avpvrjaaos), called also the city of Mynes by Homer, 5 
 destroyed by Achilles, who here captured Briseis. 6 Hither Aeneas fled, 
 pursued by Achilles. 7 It was situated in the Plain of Thebe, 88 stadia 
 from Adramyttium, and is described by Strabo as fortified by nature, 
 but deserted. 8 Fellowes 9 believed he had found its ruins four miles 
 from Karavaren. 
 
 c. The Dominion of Eurypylus is difficult to define. He was leader of 
 a troop of Keteioi (ol Krjreioi), whose identity with the Hittites of the 
 Old Testament, the Kheta of the Egyptian monuments and the Khattai 
 of the Assyrian inscriptions, has been most ingeniously maintained by 
 
 10 77. i. 366,367: xiii. p. 612: Tc\r\oiov ovv t9\s ©TijSrjs ert vvv 
 
 (pXo^P 07?/3?ji/, x'epV ttoXiv 'Hertwvos Ki'AAct tis tokos hiyerai, 4v § KtWaiov 'AttoA- 
 
 tt]V 8e 5L€irpddo/J.€U re Kal ijyofxev eVflaSe -navra. Aoovos ivTiv Upov • irapappzl 8' aura; c| 'iS^s 
 
 1 II. i. 37-39 : (pepofievos 6 KikAalos irorafxos. Ovid, Met. xiii. 
 kAvOl yueu, apyvporog, os Xpvcrriv a/x<pifief37)Kas 174. Plin. H. iV., v. 32, says that it no longer 
 existed in his time. 
 
 •X/xiuesd. 5 11. xix. 296 : 
 
 2 Strabo, xiii. p. 612 : 'H 8e Xpvaa 4-rrl irepcrev 8e ttoKiv deloio Mvvttjtos. 
 QaKaTTri rcoKixviov i\v %x ov Ai/x4va, irA-qalov 8e 6 II. ii. 690, 691: 
 
 virepiteiTai 77 0t]/3t/ ' tvravQa 8' i\v Kal to Upov rr\v (BpiarjiSa) 4k Avpvqcrcov e|ei'AeTO iroWa 
 
 rov SuiT/fle'ws 'AnoWocvos Kal r\ Xpvari'is' r]pT)iJ.wrai fioyr)o-as, 
 
 b~4 vvv to x w P l0v TcAews • els Se tt)v vvv Xpvaav Avpvqacrbv diaTropOrjaas. 
 
 tt]v Kara ' Ajxa^nbv fieBiSpvTai to Upbv, ra>v " II. xx. 191, 192: 
 
 KiKIkcov twv i*ev els rr)v Uafx(pv\lav 4ktt€o-6vtwv evdev 8' is Avpvr\o-abv vireK<pvyes • avrap iyw rrjv 
 
 toov 8^ els ' Afxa^iTov' oi 8' direipoTepoi rwv iraAaiwv irepaa fA.e6opfj.rj9eis. 
 
 lo~Topiwv ivravOa rbv Xpvaiqv Kal ttV Xpvarfib'a 8 xiii. p. 612 : 4vravQa yap Kal rj 07)/37j Kal 77 
 
 yeyovevai (pari Kal rbv "Ofj.rjpov tovtov tov Avpvrjao-os, 4pvfxvbv x u> P i0V ' epTj/uoi 8' afxcporepai • 
 
 r6irov jxejxvrio-Qaf aAA' ovre \ip."i)v 4gtiv ivravda, oiexovai 8e 'ASpafiuTTtou CTaSiovs 77 (®r}fir)) /xev 
 
 iKelvos Se (prjaiv " oi 8' ore 8^ Kijxevos iroAvflev- e^rjKovra tj (Avpvqacrbs) 8e dySorjKovTa Kal oktw 
 
 Bios 4vrbs 'Ikopto." 3 II. N. v. 32. 3. iiri Qarepa. See also Diod. v. 49 ; Plin. H. N. 
 
 4 Hcmer, //. i. 38. Herodot. i. 149. Strabo, v. 26 and 32. Excursus, in Asia Minor, p. 39. 
 
THE KETEIOI AND ARIMI. 
 
 137 
 
 Mr. Gladstone. 10 His arguments lead to the conclusion that the Keteioi 
 "come from outside the circle of the earlier Trojan alliances, and 
 therefore from Lycia, and the countries of the Mysoi and Kiiikes." 1 
 Strabo says : 2 " Just as the land of the Cilicians is twofold, the Thehan 
 and the Lyrnessian, to which may also be reckoned the domain of 
 Eurypylus, coming next to the territory of Lyrnessus." And again : 3 
 " According to Homer, Eurypylus reigned in the country on the 
 Caicus, so that perhaps a part of the Cilicians also was subject to him." 
 And further : 4 " But it can only be a question of probabilities if any 
 one endeavours to determine from the poet the exact frontier to which 
 the Cilicians and Pelasgians extended, as well as the Keteioi between 
 them who were under Eurypylus. As to the Cilicians and the subjects 
 of Eurypylus, we have already stated the probability ; and how they 
 were bounded, especially by the districts on the Caicus." 
 
 It is on account of Strabo's first statement, which makes the 
 Keteioi under Eurypylus border upon Lyrnessus, that their territory 
 has been noticed here. 
 
 7. The Dominion of the Homeric Arimi (ol "Kpi/ioi). — The Arimi 
 seem to be a mythic people, who have been searched for in various 
 regions. They are only once mentioned by Homer : " The earth 
 groaned under their feet, as when the god of thunder, Zeus, in wrath 
 strikes the land of the Arimi around Typhoeus, where the bed of 
 Typhoeus is said to be." 5 According to Strabo, this land of the Arimi 
 was identical with the Catakekaumene (or " burnt land ") possessed by 
 the Mysians and Lydians. 6 In another passage he states that by some 
 the burnt land is believed to be in Lydia in the environs of Sardis; 
 by others in Cilicia or in Syria, by some on the Pithecussae (monkey- 
 islands), who said, at the same time, that monkeys were called Arimi by 
 the Tyrrhenians. 7 I may here mention that the present Island of Ischia, 
 in the Gulf of Naples, was once called Pithecusa, Aenaria or Inarime. 
 Strabo also cites the opinion of Posidonius, according to which " the Arimi 
 are not the inhabitants of a certain district of Syria, of Cilicia, or of any 
 other country, but the inhabitants of all Syria, who are called Aramaei. 
 But perhaps they were called Arimaei or Arimi by the Greeks." 8 
 
 10 Homeric S/nclronism,, pp. 121, 127, 171, 
 174, 177, 180, 184. 
 
 1 Ibid. p. 183. 
 
 2 xiii. p. 586 : Kaddirep Kal r) rwv KiXlkcvv 
 oirrr), r) /xev QrifiaiK'fi r) Se Avpvrjo-cris' iv avrrj 8' 
 av Xex9elr] r) vtto EvpvjrvXa) i(pe£rjs odaa rfj 
 Avpvrjffffl^i. 
 
 3 xiii. p. 616 : on iv ro?s irepl rbv Kd'inov 
 roirois (paiverai /3e/3acnAeu wj /ca0' "Ojuripov 6 
 EvpvirvXos, wct' Xffoos Kal rccv KiXiklvv n jxepos 
 
 T)V VTT ai/TOV. 
 
 4 xiii. p. 620: eiKoroXoye7v 8' ean Kav ei ris 
 rbv aicpifir) (VjTet /caret rbv irotrjTrjv opov fiexpi 
 rivos oi KiXiKes diereivov /cat ol UeXatryol /cat 
 en ol fiera^v rovrwv Kr)reioi Xeyojxevoi ol virb 
 rep EvpvirvXw. irepl jxev ovv rccv KiX'ikccv /cat 
 rccv vtt EvpvirvXcy Ta ivovra e'ipTrjrai, /cat SlOTl 
 [671-1] ra irepl rbv KaiKOv fxaXicrra ireparovvrai. 
 
 5 11. ii. 781-783 : 
 
 7ata 8' virearevdxiC € Alt ccs repiriKepavvcp 
 Xcco/xevcc, ore r a/i<p\ Tvtpccei yaiav IfxdcrtTr) 
 €iv 'Apifxois, bOi (petal Tvcpcceos e/x/xevai evvds. 
 
 6 xii. p. 579 : /cat or) /cat ra irepl rbv Tvtpocva 
 irdQy] ivravQa /xvdevovai Kal rovs y Api[xovs Kal 
 TTjv Karaite Kav pevrjv ravrr\v eivai cpaaiv. 
 
 7 xiii. p. 626 : aXXoi 8' iv KtAt/cta, rives 8' iv 
 ~2,vpiq irXarrovcri rbv fivQov rovrov, ol 8' iv 
 IIiOriKovaro-ais, ol Kal rovs iri6r]Kovs tpatrl irapa 
 roils Tvppr}vo7s aplfxovs KaXelaQai. 
 
 8 xvi. p. 784 : Xeyei 8e /cat rovs 'Apifxovs 6 
 iroir)rr)s. ovs <pr)cri Uocreidccvios oexecrBai 5e7v fir) 
 rorrov riva rr)s Zvp'ias r) rrjs KtXiKias t) aXXr]s 
 rivos yr)s, aAAa rrjv Hvpiav avrr]v 'Apa/ualoi yap 
 ol iv avrrj ' rdxa 8 J ol "EXXrjves 'Apifiaiovs 
 iKaXovv r) 'Apifiovs. 
 
138 
 
 DOMINIONS OF THE TROAD. 
 
 [Chap. II. 
 
 8. TJie Dominion of the Pelasgians (ol UeXaa-yoi). — I finally men- 
 tion here the dominion of the Asiatic Pelasgians, who were under the 
 command of Hippothous and Pylaeus, sons of Lethus, 9 and occupied 
 the district of the Aeolian coast from the river Caicus up to the 
 Ionian frontier. Their chief city was Larissa (?) Adpiaaa, Adpiaa), 
 which Strabo places in the neighbourhood of Cyme, for he says: 10 
 "But the Pelasgians we have reason to place next to them (the 
 Cilicians) and the subjects of Eurypylus, as well from the indications 
 of Homer as from other information. For the poet says : ' Hippothous 
 led the tribes of the spear-practised Pelasgians, who dwelt on the 
 fertile soil of Larissa — these were led by Hippothous and Pylaeus, 
 the offspring of Ares, both sons of the Pelasgian Lethus, the son of 
 Teutamus.' Hereby he indicates a considerable multitude of Pelasgians, 
 because he speaks, not of ' a tribe,' but ' of tribes,' and puts their seat 
 in Larissa. Now there are many Larissas, but we must assume one 
 in the neighbourhood ; and we should be most right in supposing the 
 one near Cyme. For there are three, but the one near Hamaxitus 
 lies directly in sight of Ilium, and very near it, about 200 stadia dis- 
 tant, so that it could not have been rightly said that Hippothoiis fell 
 in the fight over Patroclus 'far from Larissa;' but this would rather 
 have been rightly said of the Larissa near Cyme, because there are about 
 1000 stadia between that Larissa and Ilium." 
 
 9. The Dominion of Priam, Ilium, and the Country belonging to it. — 
 For the extent of this dominion we have Strabo's statement : " Below 
 it (Aeneas's dominion of Dardania), and nearly parallel with it, is Ce- 
 brenia, consisting for the most part of table-land. But there was once 
 a city Cebrene. Demetrius supposes that here was the limit of the 
 country about Ilium subject to Hector, which thus extended from the 
 naustathmus to Cebrenia." 1 
 
 Of Cities belonging to this dominion, we know from the poems 
 only Ilios (17 "I\to?) and Thymbre (r) ^Vfipprj). The latter is only once 
 mentioned by the poet : " But towards Thymbre encamped the Lycians 
 and the haughty Mysians, and the Phrygians, tamers of horses, and 
 the Maeonians with their horsehair crests." 2 Strabo erroneously sup- 
 posed that Homer spoke here, not of the city of Thymbra, but of the 
 plain of Thymbra, for he says : " But near to it (Ilium) is the plain 
 
 9 II. ii. 840-843. 
 
 10 Strabo, xiii. p. 620: robs 8t TleAaffyobs 
 evAoyov rovrois icpe^ris riQivai e/c re rwv vcp' 
 'O/mripov Aeyojxevwv Kal e/c T7?s a\\r]s iffropias. 6 
 fxev yap out co <pT)ff'iv " 'IttttSBoos 8' aye <pvAa 
 UeAaffywv iyx^^ipLwpwv, rwv ol Aapiaav ipifiw- 
 Xana vaierdaffKOV rwv fipx' 'linr69o6s re UvAaios 
 t' o(os "Apr)os, vTe 5vw Ar}9oio UeAaffyov Tevra- 
 filSao." e|' wv Tr\r)66s re ip.<paivei a£i6Aoyov 
 to rwv WeAaffywv (ov yap (pvAov, a\\a <pvAa 
 €(pT]) Kal TTju oucricriv iv Aap'iffr} <ppd£ei • iroAAal 
 fiev olv al Aapiaai, 5e? 5e twv iyyvs rtva 
 ZQao-Oai, /xaAio-Ta 8' av tV Kvp.7)v unoAdPoi 
 ris bpQws ' rp.wv yap ouawv 7) fitv Kad y 'A^a£- 
 irbv iv oi/>ei reAeo)s iffrl T<£ 'IAicp, Kal iyybs 
 
 ff(po8pa iv SiaKOffiois ttov ffrad'iois, oiffr* ovk av 
 Aeyoiro iridavws 6 'lirirSdoos ireaelv iv rep virep 
 YlarpoKAov aywvi " rr)A' curb Aapio"r)s" ravrrjs 
 ye, aAAa /xaAAov rrjs irepl Kvp.7)v X l '^ l0t 7"-P 7rou 
 ffrddioi /xera^v. 
 
 1 Strabo, xiii. p. 596 : virb 8e ravrrj Kefip-qvia, 
 iredias r\ irAelffrr), irapaAAriAos irws rjj AapZavia • 
 
 ■flV Se K«( TrSAlS 7TOT6 Kefip7]V7). VTTOVOei 8' 6 
 
 A7]/j.r]Tptos jue'xpt SeCpo Siarelveiv rrjv irepl rb 
 "lAiov xupav T7]v vnb rw "EKropi, avi]KOVffav curb 
 rov vavardO/nov p.exP l KcjBpiJWOS. 
 
 2 //. x. 430, 431 : 
 
 irpbs ©v/x^p^s 8' eAaxov Avkioi Mvffoi t' ayepw- 
 Xot 
 
 Kal *?pvyes r nnr6lia}xoi Kal Mrjoves liriroKopvffraL 
 
§ in.j 
 
 DOMINION AND CITY OF PRIAM. 
 
 139 
 
 of Thymbra and the river Thymbrius, which flows through it and falls 
 into the Scamander close to the temple of the Thymhrian Apollo, at 
 a distance of 50 stadia from Novum Ilium." 3 Stephanus Byzantinus 4 
 and Pliny 5 understood the poet rightly, for they mention Thymbra as 
 a town. 
 
 The other city of Priam's dominion, whose fame and fate gave birth 
 to Homer's immortal poems, demands a separate notice. 
 
 § III. The City of Ilios, Ilium, or Troy. 
 
 Ilium, or Troy, the residence of Priam, the city besieged by the 
 Greek army under Agamemnon, is called "I?uo? and Tpolrj by the poet, 
 who frequently uses the latter name both for the city and the land 
 belonging to it, calling it iptftcoXaj; (" fat and fertile "). "I\to?, on the 
 other hand, is only used for the city ; but the oldest form was evidently 
 FiXios, with the Yau or Digamma. 6 The neuter, "lXiov, occurs only once 
 in Homer, 7 in consequence of which Aristarchus considers the passage 
 as a later interpolation. 8 But the tragic poets 9 having adopted it, it 
 was also used commonly by the prose-writers. 10 The Latin writers use 
 the corresponding forms, Ilium and Troja, the latter being preferred by 
 the jpoets, for the reason that Ilium could not fit into an hexameter verse. 
 Morritt 11 thinks that 'IXrjiov is derived from "IXy, turma, and that the 
 nrehlov 'IXtf'iov was the Campus Martius of Troy, which he believes to 
 have been in the open plain about Arablar. 1 
 
 The city has in Homer the following epithets : evpudyvca, 2 " with 
 broad streets ; " ivtcrCfievov (-irToXleOpov), 3 and eufyw/To?, 4 " well built ; " 
 cvvaiojuevov (irroXleOpov)? " well inhabited " or " flourishing ; " epareivrj^ 
 "pleasant" or " elegant;" evirwXo^, 1 "rich in foals;" fxeya (aarv), 8 
 " great;" euTet^eo?, 9 " enclosed by good walls ; " ocppvoeaaa, 10 " beetling ; " 
 
 3 xiii. p. 598 : irAriaiov yap iari rb ireSiW rf 
 Qvjxfipa Kal 6 SY avrov pewv iroraabs ©v/xfipios, 
 i/xfidWooj/ els rbv ^Ka/xavSpou Kara rb Qvufipaiov 
 'AiroWcovos Upov, rod Se vvu 'IAiou ical trevT-r]- 
 Kovra crrati'iovs Ste^ei. 
 
 4 S. V. Qv/JLfipT}. 
 
 5 H. A T . v. 33. 
 
 6 See, for instance, 77. xx. 216 : 
 
 KTiVfre 5e Aapdaplijv, iirel oviroo v IAtos Iprj . . . 
 
 7 II. xv. 70,71: 
 
 .... etVo/c' 'A%aio£ 
 v lAiou alirv eXoiev 'AOnvairjs 5ta (iovAas. 
 
 8 See also Steph. Byz. s. v. "\Xiov. 
 
 9 Soph. Phil. 454, 1200; Eurip. Andr. 400; 
 Troad. 25, 145, 511 ; Or. 1381. 
 
 10 Herod, ii. 117, 118; Scylax, 35 ; Plato, Legg. 
 hi. 682, and others. 
 
 11 Apud Robert Walpole, Memoirs relating to 
 European and Asiatic Turkey, edited from manu- 
 script journals ; London, 1817, p. 578. 
 
 1 R. Virchow, Beitr'dge zur Landeshunde der 
 Troas, p. 46. 
 
 2 //. ii. 141 r 
 
 ov yap tVt Tpotr]v alprjao/xeu evpvdyviav , 
 ii. 12: 
 
 vvv yap icev eXoi iroXiv evpvdyviav. 
 
 3 II. xxi. 433 : 
 
 'IAtou inirepaavTes i'vKTijxevov irroXieOpov. 
 II. iv. 33 ■ 
 
 'IXiov i£aXaird£ai ivicrlfievop irroXiedpov. 
 * 11. xxi. 516- 
 
 fie'jUjSAeTO yap oi reT^os £vd/i<.r)Toio iroXrjos, 
 
 5 11. xiii. 380: 
 
 'IAi'ou etareparjs evvaio^ievov irroXledpoy. 
 
 6 11. v. 210: 
 
 ot6 *\Xiov els epareivfju. 
 
 7 11. v. 551 ; Od. u. 18, xiv. 71: 
 
 "IXiov els eviraXov. 
 
 8 11. ii. 332, 803 : 
 
 'd(TTv {xeya Hpidfioio. 
 
 9 11. ii. 113. 
 
 "lAiou eKirepcraur evreix^ov airoveeadai. 
 " II xxii. 410, 411: 
 
 . ... cos e? airacra 
 *lAtos ocppvoetrcra irvpl afxvxoiTO nar &Kp7]s. 
 
140 
 
 TOPOGRAPHY OF TROY. 
 
 [Chap. II. 
 
 alirv 1 and alireivr)? "steep" or "lofty;" rjvefjLoeaaa, 3 "exposed to the 
 wind ; " ipr)* " sacred." It had an Acropolis called the Pergamos (/; Tlep- 
 ya/nos), which was in a more elevated position than the town, and had the 
 epithets ieprf, 6 "sacred," and a/cpr), G "highest point." Here was Priam's 
 beautiful habitation, built of polished stone, with fifty chambers in which 
 his sons slept with their wedded wives ; while opposite, within the court, 
 on an upper floor, were twelve chambers, likewise of polished stone, 
 and close to each other, in which Priam's sons-in-law slept with their 
 chaste wives. 7 Before the doors of this palace was the Agora. 8 Here was 
 also the well-built dwelling of Hector, 9 as well as the beautiful dwelling of 
 Paris, which he had himself built, aided by the best builders of the fertile 
 realm of Troy : — " They made him a chamber, a hall, and a court, close to 
 the residences of Priam and Hector in the Acropolis." 10 Here, moreover, 
 was the Temple of Pallas Athene, the tutelar deity of Troy, 1 with a statue 
 of the goddess, probably of wood, in a sitting posture ; for unless it had 
 been sitting, the priestess Theano could not have deposited Hecuba's 
 peplos on its knees. 2 Here was also a temple of Apollo, 3 from which the 
 god is represented as looking down. 4 It further appears that Zeus had a 
 temple or at least an altar here, on which Hector sacrificed the thighs of 
 oxen. 5 In the poet's imagination the hill of the Pergamos appears to 
 
 1 //. xv. 71 : ''IXiov aliru (this verse has been 
 already quoted). 
 
 2 II. x»i. 772, 773 : 
 
 vvv &Xero iraaa Kar y aKp-qs 
 
 'iXios alireivr). 
 
 II. xv. 215: 
 
 'iAi'ow alireivris irecpidrjaerai, ouS' i6eXi]aei 
 iicirepaai 
 It. xvii. 327, 328: 
 
 AiVeta, ir6i)s av Kal virep 6ebv eipvcraaicrOe 
 "IXiov alireivi)v. 
 
 3 11. viii. 499, xii. 115 : 
 
 a\p dirovoo-ryo'eiv irporl ''IXiov rjveiJ.Seo'crav. 
 It. xiii. 724 : 
 
 Tpues ix&pf)0~av irporl '\Xiov i)vejx6eo-crav. 
 11. xviii. 174 : 
 
 ol 8' ipvaaaadai irorl 'IXiov i)ve^6eao-av. 
 It. xxiii. 64: 
 
 "Y.KTop iira'iaauv irporl 'IXiov T)ve/x6ecrcTav. 
 11. xxiii. 297 : 
 
 'tva fir) ol eiroiO' virb 'IXiov i)veuoeacTav. 
 
 4 //. vi. 448 : 
 
 eaaerai r)/xap, or* av iror' 6XwXr)''lXios ipi). 
 11. xxiv. 27 : 
 
 aAA' ix ov i &<piv irpwrov airrjxd^ro ^IAios Ipi]. 
 OJ. xvii. 293 : 
 
 irdpos 8' els 'IXiov lpr)V 
 
 o>Xcto 
 
 11. xxi. 128 : 
 
 cpdelpeaO' elaoKev darv Kix^'io^v''lXlov lpr)s . . . 
 
 5 11. v. 446 : 
 
 Uepydfiu) elv lepji, oBi ol vi)os y irervKro. 
 
 6 //. v. 460 : 
 
 &s elira>v, avrbs fxev i<pe(ero Tlepydfxw aKprj. 
 
 7 It. vi. 242-250 : 
 
 &AA' ore or) npidfj.oio 86/j.ov irepiKaXXe 'li<avev, 
 j-earrjs aldovarjcri rervyfxevov — avrap iv avrtp 
 
 irevrr)Kovr evecrav OdXafxoi £ecrro7o XiOoio, 
 irXrjaloi aXXr)Xoov oeZfxrijxevoi ■ evda Se ira'ib'es 
 Koifxuivro Ylpidfxoio irapa fxvr)o~rfis aXoxoiaiv. 
 Kovpdcov 8' erepwQev ivavrloi evZoQev aitXrjs 
 8a>8e/{' eaav reyeoi QaXajxoi ^earolo XiOoio, 
 irXrjaloi dXXi)Xwv SeS/^ueVor evda Se yafi- 
 Ppoi 
 
 Koifiwvro Upidfioio irap'' alSolrjs aX6xoio~iv. 
 
 8 II. vii. 345, 346 : 
 
 Tpccccv avr ayopr) yever' 'l\iev iv iroXei aKpr) 
 deivr), rerpr\xv~ia, irapa Ylpidfxoio dvprjaiv. 
 
 9 11. vi. 370 : 
 
 "E /creep 
 
 'aiipa 8' eireiO' 'Uave ooixovs evvaierdovras. 
 
 10 11. vi. 313-317 : 
 
 "EKrwp Se irphs Suifxar 'AXe^dvb'poio fiefirjicei 
 KaXa, rd p' avrbs erev£e o~vv dvdpdcriv, o'i r6r* 
 frpicrroi 
 
 r)aav ivl Tpo'nj ipifiwXaKi reKroves dvdpes • 
 o'i ol iiroirjaav QdXafiov Kal 5a>fj.a Kal avXrjv 
 iyyvQi re Ylpidfxoio Kal "EKropos iv iroXei 'aKprj. 
 
 1 //. vi. 88 : 
 
 vi)bv 'A67]valr]s yXavKooiriZos iv iroXei aKprj. 
 
 2 //. vi. 302, 303 : 
 
 T) 8' dpa ireirXov eXovcra Qeavw KaXXiirdprjos, 
 OrjKev 'Adiqva'nqs iirl yovvaaiv t)vk6/xoio. 
 
 3 //. v. 445, 446 : 
 
 Alvelav 8' airdrepOev 6/ul'iXov 6r)K€v 'AiroXXwv 
 Uepyd/uLw etv leprj, odt ol vrjos y irirvicro. 
 
 4 It. vii. 20, 21 : 
 
 rrj 8' avrios tipwr'' ' AiroXXwv, 
 Tlepydjxov e« KartSwv, Tpuetroi 8e fiovXero vikt]v. 
 
 5 11. xxii. 169-172: 
 
 ijubv 8' dXocpvperai r)rop 
 
 "EKropos, os jioi iroXXa (iowv iirl jxripi eKijev 
 "IStjs eV Kopv<pr}o~L iroXvirrvxov, aXXore 8' avre 
 iv ir6Xei aKpordry .... 
 
§ III.] 
 
 ITS WALLS AND TOWERS. 
 
 141 
 
 have formed a slope ; for Cassandra — probably on leaving Priam's house, 
 which was itself in the Acropolis — still ascends the Pergamos. 6 
 
 Ilium was surrounded by a strong wall (as is shown by its epithet 
 eirre^eo?), which was built by Poseidon and Apollo ; for the former says, 
 " They will forget the wall which I and Phoebus Apollo built with much 
 pain for the hero Laomedon." 7 But according to another passage it was 
 built by Poseidon alone, for he says to Apollo : " Do you not remember all 
 the wrong we two suffered for Ilium, alone of all the gods, when for a 
 year we served proud Laomedon by Jove's command, for a fixed hire, and 
 he assigned our labours ? I indeed built for the Trojans round about the 
 city a wall broad and very fair, that the town might be impregnable, 
 whilst thou, Phoebus, didst tend the oxen with twisted horns and crooked 
 gait in the glens of woody Ida, with its many dales." 8 
 
 These walls were provided with parapets 9 and towers, for a watch- 
 tower (afcoirir)) 10 is mentioned ; also another tower different from that of 
 the Scaean Gate. 1 On one side of the city, close to the wall, was the 
 Erineos. or wild fig-tree ; but the word was understood by Strabo to 
 mean a rugged stony place (probably a small hill) covered with wild fig- 
 trees ; 2 so that he thinks Andromache was right in saying to Hector, 
 " Array the troops by the erineos, for there the city can most easily 
 be scaled, and the assault on the wall is the most practicable." 3 
 Andromache adds : " For three times have the most valiant chiefs come 
 and assailed this point, those with the two Ajaxes and famous Idomeneus, 
 as well as those with the Atreidae and the mighty son of Tydeus." 4 But 
 this being the only passage where Homer mentions the wall as of easiest 
 access on this side, or that a fight had occurred here, some commentators 
 have assigned the event to a time before the Trojan war. The Cypria 
 of Stasinus describes it as having taken place when the embassy of the 
 Greeks had been unsuccessful. But it appears very likely that the poet 
 had this very same weak place in view, when he makes Patroclus thrice 
 endeavour to scale a corner or buttress of the wall, whence he is as 
 many times repulsed by Apollo, who stood on a tower. 5 The Erineos 
 is further mentioned when Achilles and Hector- pass it in their course 
 round the city; 6 and here also it appears to be close to the walls. 
 
 6 11. xxiv. 699 : 
 
 Tlipyafxov elcravafidcra. 
 
 7 II. vii. 452, 453 : 
 
 tov 8' iiriXriaovTai, to iyco Kal $o7@os 'AttoXXccv 
 Tjpa> Aao/nedovTi iroXiaaafxev aQXriaavTes. 
 
 8 //. xxi. 441-449 : 
 
 ouSe vv Tooirirep 
 
 fiefivriai, oaa 877 ivdQojxev KaKct "lXiov d/xcpls 
 /xovvoi vm deu>v, ot' ayrjvopi Aao/j.t8ovTi 
 Trap Aib? iXOovTes drjTevo-afiev els iviavrbv 
 fxiaOcf eiri prjTqi • o Se arnxalvoov irrtTeXXtv. 
 i\ toi iyoo Tpdoeaai iroXiv ir4pi Ttlxos eSeifia, 
 evpv Te Kal fxaXa KaXov, %v dpprjKTOs ttoXis etr; 
 4>o?/3e, <ru 8' cix'nroSas eAt/cas fiovs /3ou/coAeea7ces 
 "1817s eV KVT)fjLoicn ttoXvtttvxov vXr]4aar)s. 
 
 9 27. xxih 3 : 
 
 KzuMnivoi icaXfjcrtv iirdX^aiv .... 
 
 10 II. xxii. 145 : 
 
 ol 8e irapa aKoiriT]v /cat ipivzbv Tjue/xocuTa. 
 
 1 11. xvi. 700 : 
 
 el fii] 'AttoXXwv $o7/3os ivBp.i)rdv 4ir\ irvpyov. 
 
 2 xiii. p. 598; Tpaxvs tls tottos Kal ipiyewdrjs, 
 T(f fxtv apxa'up KTurixaTi vTroireirTocKcu. 
 
 3 11. vi. 433, 434 : 
 
 Xabv 8e o~t?io~ov Trap* epiveou, tvQa fxaXiara 
 d/j-PaTos iari ttoXis, Kal iirLdpo/nov iVAeTO Te?%os 
 
 4 B. vi. 435-437 : 
 
 Tpls yap Trj y iXOovres £7reipr)(rav6' ol dpicTToi 
 afx<p' AXavre 8vco Kal dyaKXvTbv 'iSo/xevrja 
 7)5' at^p" 'ATpeiSas Kal Tvdeos dXKiixov vlov. 
 
 s II. xvi. 702, 703 : 
 Tpls fieu eV ay kwvos fir) Tei'x eos v'pr]Xo7o 
 TlaTpoKXos, Tpls 8 5 avrbv cnreiTTvcpeXitev 'AttoX- 
 Xoov. 
 
 6 II. xxii. 145, just cited. 
 
142 
 
 TOPOGRAPHY OF TROY. 
 
 [Chap. II. 
 
 But in a third passage we see the Trojans rushing near the tomb of 
 Ilus, through the middle plain, past the Erineos, longing to reach the 
 town. Here therefore this hill is described as lvinjx on the usual line 
 of march of both armies. 7 
 
 There was no impediment to running all round the city wall, for 
 Achilles pursued Hector three times with flying speed about the city. 8 
 It has often been contended that the preposition irepl (around) has in 
 this passage the signification of irapd (near); and that, consequently, the 
 course of the two heroes was along the wall of Troy, between the two 
 springs and the Scamander. But this interpretation is inadmissible, for 
 Homer represents the course of the two heroes as beyond the two springs. 9 
 That this meaning and no other must be attributed to the poet, is clearly 
 proved by the passage in which he describes Achilles as dragging the 
 body of Hector three times irepl (around) the sepulchre of Patroclus. 10 
 Besides, throughout antiquity the passage was understood to mean that 
 the race had been all round the city, as Yirgil proves by saying : 
 
 " Ter circum Iliacos raptavcrat Hectora muros.*' 1 
 
 Strabo, again, in speaking of Novum Ilium, says that the flight of Hector 
 round the city is improbable, for no one could run round that town on 
 account of the adjoining ridge, but one could have run freely round 
 the ancient city. 2 I may further mention that my friend Dr. G. von 
 Eckenbrecher calls attention to Aristotle, 3 " who cites the pursuit of 
 Hector as an example of how the poet had judiciously taken advan- 
 tage of the impossible, to excite greater astonishment. He must 
 therefore have understood the poet as intending to describe that the 
 heroes ran three times round the city, for otherwise there would not 
 have been a trace of impossibility in the pursuit of Hector. It has 
 been maintained very improperly that Virgil, in the 12th Aeneid, very 
 accurately imitates Hector's flight ; that he consequently must have 
 understood Homer to describe a course he/ore and not round Troy, 
 because he makes Aeneas and Turnus run, not round Laurentum, but in 
 five circles before the city. It is evident that Virgil here imitates Homer, 
 but it is just as evident that he endeavours to distinguish himself from 
 him, in order not to serve up to the readers of Homer what they were 
 acquainted with ; nay, he intended to furnish something new, and he has 
 done this with extraordinary art. Thus, although he might understand 
 Homer just as all other ancients did, he could very well change the race 
 round the town into a race before it. 4 But it ought to be well understood 
 
 7 II. xi. 166-168 : 2 xiii. p. 599 : ohV rj rov"EKTopos 8e irepitipofib 
 ol 8e Trap 3 y lAou arifxa iraAaiov AapdauiSao, 7/ irepl ttju itoXiv %X €l Tl *v\oyov • ov yap iari 
 l*4<r<rov ko.it ireZiov irap iptvebu iaaevovTO irep'tdpo/xos 7) vvv Sia rrjv ffvvexv P^X IV ' % ^ 
 U/xevoi ttS^ios. TraXaiu. %x*i vepiBpOfiifV. 
 
 8 xxii. 165 : 3 Poetica, xxv. : TrapdSeiyfia y rod "EKropos 
 &s tb rpls Tlpid/xoLO nSXtu Trepib'ivr)9TiT7}v. S/wfts. The passage, Poetica, xxiv. — ra. irepl tV 
 
 9 //. xxii. 157 : "EKTopos 8iw£iv — does not concern this question, 
 Tij pa irapah'paixsT7)v, (ptvyuv, 6 8' umcrQi hiwuwv. for it treats of the difference between what can 
 
 10 //. xxiv. 16, 17 : be represented on the stage and in the Epos. 
 rph 8' ipvaas 7repl (Trifia MevoiTidSao Vavovros 4 The plain fact that Virgil understood Homer 
 avns eVi Kkiair) naveaiceTo. just as we do, and as all the ancients did, is 
 
 1 Aeneid. i. 483. shown by the above-cited passage. 
 
§ III.] 
 
 THE SCAEAN GATE. 
 
 143 
 
 that, with him, Aeneas teas embarrassed in his running by a wound lie had 
 received shortly before; whilst, in Homer, Achilles is the pursuer in his 
 full strength, which makes him superior in swiftness to all other heroes. 
 Thus, with Virgil, a repeated circular run on a level ground without 
 impediment is possible, but this would have been impossible in the case of 
 Achilles and Hector." 5 
 
 I may add here that the run round Hissarlik is very easy, and may be 
 accomplished without any diminution of speed. The only steep place is 
 near the theatre, but here — as is seen in the Frontispiece and the view 
 No. 16 — the footpath ascends obliquely with a gentle slope. In this respect 
 therefore, as in all others, the Homeric text is well adapted to Hissarlik. 
 
 Of Gates the poet only mentions that one which faces the plain, and 
 which he alternately calls the Dardanian and Scaean Gate (%/caial YlvKat). 
 It has always been believed that the latter name is due to the position of 
 the gate to the left hand of the augur, who turned his face towards 
 midnight, that is the north, and consequently had the evening or west 
 side to his left. But the celebrated Orientalist, the late Professor Martin 
 Haug of Munich, who read in the Trojan inscriptions the name of a god 
 or hero Sigo or Siko, maintained 6 that the name of the Trojan Gate 
 is by no means the adjective cr/cduo?, but contains the name of the same 
 god or hero, which he also finds in the name Scamander, as well as 
 in the Trojan promontory, Sigeum; in Sigia, the original name of the 
 site of Alexandria-Troas ; in Sichaeus, the husband of Dido, who was 
 visited by the Trojan Aeneas; and in Sigon, a city of Phoenicia men- 
 tioned by Arrian. 7 
 
 Dr. Franz Eyssenhardt sends me an interesting dissertation on the 
 subject of the Trojan Gate, 8 of which I here give the translation : 
 
 "The ancient critics (Schol. A V on Iliad, viii. 58) have rightly 
 observed that, in mentioning the Gates (UvXat) of the city, Homer 
 employs the word differently from the later classical writers ; for he 
 means by the plural the two wings of the gate, and, consequently, but 
 one gate. When Priam looks on the battle from the wall, he orders 
 the watchmen to keep ' the gates ' open, in order that the fugitives 
 might escape into the city. 9 Anterior alone, leaning against the beech- 
 tree, awaits Achilles ; 10 and Hector also waits close to it at the Scaean 
 Gate. 11 Hence it is evident that ' the gates ' can be no other than the 
 Scaean Gate. But this gate again, as has already been observed by 
 the ancients (Schol. ad Iliad, v. 789 ; ix. 354), is identical with the 
 Dardanian Gate ; for where this latter is mentioned, it is also close to 
 the frequently-mentioned beech-tree, which is close to the city wall. 
 If, therefore, having regard to these passages, it cannot be doubted 
 
 5 Die Lage des Homerisclxen Troia, pp. 24, 25. 
 
 6 See his letter on " Trojan Inscriptions" in 
 the Beilage zur Augsburg. Allgemeinen Zeitung, 
 Feb. 1, 1874. 
 
 7 Anab. ii. 13. 8. 
 
 8 Sammlung Wissenschaftlicher Vortrage, von 
 Rud. Virchow nnd Fr. von Holtzendorff ; 1875, 
 Ser. x., Heft 229. 
 
 9 II. xxi. 531, 532 : 
 TeirTafiivas eV X 6 / 90 "' irvAas ^X eT> €l0 " 0K6 Aaoi 
 ikQwai Trporl 'aarv trzcpv^oTes. 
 
 10 II. xxi. 549 : <pr}yv KeKXifxevos. 
 
 11 //. xxii. 5, 6 : 
 
 "EKTopa 8' avrov fxtivai 6\ot] Mo?p' eVe'S^crey, 
 'Wiov Trpoirdpoidt irvXauv re ^Kcudcw. 
 
144 
 
 TOPOGRAPHY OF TROY. 
 
 [Chap. II. 
 
 that Homer gives only one gate to the sacred Ilios, there is a still 
 more evident proof of this in the account of the last combat of Hector 
 with Achilles. Hector is pursued by Achilles round the city; but 
 whenever he approaches the Dardanian Gate, he is prevented by Achilles 
 from escaping beneath the wall or into the city. 1 It is self-evident 
 that this could only be said if Troy had but one gate." 
 
 This Scaean Gate had over it a tower, often mentioned in the Iliad, 
 where it is called the great tower of Ilium 2 and the divine tower ; 3 but this 
 latter epithet may perhaps refer to its divine origin, as having been built 
 by Poseidon, or by Apollo and Poseidon. It deserves to be mentioned 
 that, when Homer does not use the plural of irvpyos figuratively, he 
 generally means by it the walls of defence. 
 
 There is also mentioned, close to the city wall, a chariot-road 
 (a/^aftro?, 4 sc. 6S6?), which appears to have led from the Scaean Gate to 
 the two sources of the Scamander. These sources were at a short distance 
 from the Scaean Gate and the Erineos, probably on the other side of the 
 road : one of them had lukewarm water, from which smoke rose as if from 
 burning fire ; the water of the other was in summer as " cold as hail 
 or as winter-snow, or as water frozen to ice." Close to the two sources 
 were beautiful stone washing- troughs, in which the Trojan women for- 
 merly, in the time of peace, before the arrival of the Greek army, had 
 used to wash their clothes. 5 Close to the city wall, and probably close to 
 the two springs, was a swamp overgrown with thick shrubs, bushes, and 
 reeds. 6 I may remark here that swamps appear to be further indicated 
 in the lower plain, near the Greek camp, by the reeds which Ulysses 
 broke, and with which he made a mark on a tamarisk, 7 as well as by 
 the heron (a bird which lives in swamps), whose cries Ulysses and 
 Diomedes hear on leaving the camp. 8 
 
 I have further to mention the tree ((frnyos), which stood before the 
 Scaean Gate, and which is mentioned seven times in the Iliad. It was a 
 high tree and sacred to Zeus ; 9 it is also called the very beautiful $7770? of 
 the aegis-bearing Zeus. 10 On this fayo? sat Athene and Apollo, in the 
 
 1 II. xxii. 194-196 : 
 
 dcradKi 8' op/x-fjaeie irvXaoov AapSavidccv 
 avriov ai'^aadai, iv5/j.rirovs virb irvpyovs, 
 si 7T£ov ot KaOvirepOev aXaXKoiev PeXeeaaiv. 
 
 2 //. vi. 386 : 
 
 aAA 5 iirl irvpyov %$r\ jxtyav , \Xlov. 
 
 3 II. xxi. 526 : 
 
 'EcTTTj/cet 8' 6 yepwv Upiajxos delov iv\ irvpyov. 
 
 4 //. xxii. 146: 
 
 ol 8e 
 
 Tei'xeos ulkv virtu /car' afxa^iTov iaaevovTO. 
 
 5 II. xxii. 147-156: 
 
 Kpovvci) 8' 'Lkovov KaXXippdu), evOa re irr\yai 
 boial avdicro-ovo-i 'S.Ka/j.dvdpov Zivr\evTos. 
 r) fxkv yap 5 u'Sari XiapS> pc'et, tifupl 8e Kairvos 
 ylyverai e| avTrjs, w$ el irvpbs alOoixtvoio • 
 % 8' erepi) Qepe'i irpopeei elKvla xa\d£r], 
 r) x i0>VL ^ v XPVi ^ € '£ wSotos KpvffTaWw- 
 evda 8' eV avrdwv irXvvol eiipees iyyvs eaffiv 
 KaXo\ Xa'iveoi, bOi e'lfxara ariyaXoevra 
 
 irXvveoKov Tpwcav &\oxoi, KaXal re dvyarpes 
 to irp\v eV elprjvris, irpiv iX0e7v vias 'Axatwi/. 
 
 6 Od. xiv. 472-475 : 
 
 aAA' ore Si) p 'iKOfj-eada irorl tttSXiv alirv re 
 ru X os, 
 
 rifxels /mev irepl &o~tv Kara pcoiry]'ia irvKvd 
 
 av SovaKas /cat eXos, virb Tevx*o~i ireirTrjares 
 
 KelfxeQa. 
 
 7 11. x. 466, 467 : 
 
 SeeXov 8' iirl (r^aT edi)Kev, 
 
 crviijxdpi^as fiovaicas /J.vpiK7]s r* ipiOyXtas u(ovs. 
 
 8 It. x. 274-277 : 
 
 Tolai Se Se^ibv rjKev ipwdibv iyyvs dSo?o 
 TlaXXas 'kQi]vai-q ' ro\ 8' ovk "ibov bfyBaX^atv 
 vvKra 8i 6p<pvalr]v, aXXa. KXay^avros UKOvaav 
 X<«pe 8e T<p bpviO' 'OSvaevs, rfpa.ro 8' 'A6r)vr]. 
 
 9 II, vii. 60 : 
 
 <pr\yS> ifi v\pi]Xfj irarpbs Albs alyi6xoio. 
 10 11. v. 693: 
 etaav vir alyi6xoLO Aibs irepucaXXti <priy<$. 
 
§ III.] 
 
 THE $Hr02 (BEECH?) OF HOMER. 
 
 145 
 
 shape of vultures (Vultur barhatus), to enjoy the sight of the battle. 1 
 Under this $77709 the wounded Sarpedon is deposited by his companions. 2 
 Here also Hector and Agamemnon awaited each other. 3 Leaning on this 
 $77769, Apollo, enveloped in fog, encourages Agenor to fight against 
 Achilles. 4 Buchholz 5 mentions that, according to Miquel, 6 $77769 is not 
 a beech, as has been generally understood, but an oak (Quercus esculus), 
 whilst Euchholz recognizes in it a chestnut-tree {Fagus castanea) 7 and 
 Braun 8 a valonea-oak. 
 
 Professor Virchow, 9 in a learned dissertation on the Trojan (£77709, 
 seems rather to incline to the opinion that the tree meant is the 
 Carpinus Betulus, L., which in Germany is vulgarly called Buche (beech). 
 " I found it," he says, " everywhere in the Troad ; in the plain as well 
 as in the mountains. In opposition to the real or red beech, it is called 
 white beech or small beech (Weiss-Hage-, or Bain-buche), which even in 
 Germany reaches a height of 70 ft. In ancient times the opinion seems 
 to have been prevalent that the $77709 of the Iliad was an oak-tree. In 
 favour of this are the accounts of the existence of very ancient (£7770/ 
 before Ilium. Theophrastus 10 mentions 'the $7770/ at Ilium on the 
 tomb of Ilus,' among the trees which were known for their great age, 
 being already spoken of by the ' mythologists.' In manifest connection 
 with this remark of Theophrastus, Pliny 1 expresses himself in the 
 following manner in a passage in which he treats of very ancient 
 trees : ' Juxta urbem (Ilium) quercus, in Hi tumulo tunc satae dicuntur, 
 cum coepit Ilium vocari.' Here apparently $77701^9 has been rendered by 
 quercus. But, whatever value may be attributed to the statement or to 
 the translation, at all events the question is here of a number of trees, 
 and we cannot derive from it a decision as to the one $77709 before 
 Ilium." 
 
 Behind Ilium extended a plateau called the Ilian or Ileian Plain (Tle&iov 
 'IXrjiov), 2 whence the heights of Ida, overgrown with shrubs, could easily 
 be reached. 3 From these heights flowed a river, probably the Scamander, 
 in which Agenor thought to bathe if he could escape from Achilles. 4 
 
 Below the wall in the plain was a wheat-field, of which I have spoken 
 before. At a distance from Troy, near the Simois, was the hill called 
 Callicolone. Ares, like a black storm, commands the Trojans, shouting 
 
 1 II. vii. 58-60 : 
 
 Ka5 8' 'dp 'AOrjvatT] re Kat apyvporo^os y Air6\\(i)V 
 e£ea6r)v, opviaiv 4olk6t€s alyvirio7aiv 
 (prjycp 4(p' v\p7}\f] jrctT pbs Aibs alytoxoio. 
 
 2 II. v. 692, 693 : 
 
 ol fxku dp' avrlQeov 'Sapirrjtiova $7oi eraipoi 
 eicrav vir' alytoxoio Aibs TC€ptKak\4i (priycf: 
 
 3 II. xi. 170, 171: 
 
 &AA.' ore 5r; ^Kaids re irvAas Kal (pyybv "ikovto, 
 evd' dpa brj 'LaTavTO, Kal aWrjkovs dv4[xifivov. 
 
 4 II. xxi. 547-549 : 
 
 4v /x4v ol KoaKir) 8dpo~os fidAe, nap 54 ol avros 
 ecrTTj, oircas Qavdroto fiapslas Kripas dXakKoi, 
 (pVyv K€kKi/jl4vos' KeKaAviTTO 5' dp* i)4pi TroWfj. 
 
 5 E. Buchholz, Homer. Kosm. und Geogr. pp. 
 322, 323. 
 
 6 Homer. Flora. 
 
 7 Flora Homer., Progr. p. 14. 
 
 8 Jul. Braun, Homer und sein Zeitalter, S. 9'. 
 
 9 Beitrage zur Landeskunde der Troas, pp. 
 72-78. 
 
 10 Theophrasti Eresii de Hist. Plant., iv. 14; 
 <p7]yovs 5e rds \v 'IAiy rds eVt tov "IAou fivi)- 
 fxaros. 
 
 1 "Cajus Plinius Secundus, Histor. Natur.(ed. 
 Bipont. 1783), xvi. 88." 
 
 2 II. xxi. 558 : 
 
 <p€vyu3 irpbs ireStov 'l\r}i'ov, 6<pp* av 'iKU/xai. 
 
 3 II. xxi. 559 : 
 
 v l57js re Kurjfxovs, Kara re pwirri'ia 8vw. 
 * II. xxi. 560 : 
 
 ecrirepios 5' av cireira \oeaffdfievos Trorafiolo. 
 
 L 
 
146 
 
 TOPOGRAPHY OF TROY. 
 
 [Chap. II. 
 
 now from the Acropolis of Troy, now from Callicolone. 5 The Trojans, 
 thus excited to battle by Ares, stood on the 6p(o<rpio<; TreSioio, which is 
 generally translated .by "hill in the plain." But this translation is, in 
 my opinion, altogether wrong : first, because there is no separate ele- 
 vation in the Plain of Troy ; secondly, because philologically the words 
 can only mean " rising of the plain ; " and, thirdly, because the sense of 
 the three Homeric passages in which these words occur does not admit 
 of such a translation. We read in the Iliad: 6 " Awake, son of Tydeus ; 
 why dost thou indulge in sleep all night ? Hearest thou not how the 
 Trojans are encamped hri Bpwapbu) irehioio, near the ships, and that now 
 but a small space keeps them off ? " In another passage 7 we read : 
 " The Trojans drew up iirl Opwopicp irehioio, around great Hector and 
 blameless Polydamas." In both these passages the OpcoafMos irehloio is 
 the site of the Trojan camp, on the right bank of the Scamander, already 
 referred to in the Eighth Book (vv. 489-492), where we read as follows : 
 " Illustrious Hector then called an assembly of the Trojans, having con- 
 ducted them apart from the ships on (the bank of) the eddying river, in 
 a clear space where the ground was free from corpses; and, alighting 
 from their horses, they listened to his speech." 8 In these verses no 
 suggestion is made that the site of the Trojan camp, on the bank of the 
 Scamander, was higher than the plain. We find the words ^paxr/xo? 
 irehioLo a third time in the Iliad : " Thus, son of Peleus, around thee, 
 insatiable of battle, stood the Achaeans armed, beside their curved ships, 
 and the Trojans, on the other hand, iirl Opwa/jicp Trehloio." 9 Here also 
 the words indicate the site of the Trojan camp, which has been previously 
 described in II. xviii. 25C : " In the plain near the ships, for we are far 
 away from the wall " — showing that the site of the camp was in the level 
 plain near the ships. I call particular attention to the fact that, in these 
 three cases, the poet mentions the site of the Trojan camp in opposition 
 to the site of the Greek camp, which latter was situated on the shore 
 of the Hellespont. Consequently the only possible translation of the 
 SpwapLos ire&Loio would be " the Upper Plain," which rises a little, but 
 has no elevations in the shape of hills. 
 
 Before the city, but a little sideways from the Plain of Troy, there 
 stood in a free space a high tumulus, called by men Batieia, whilst the 
 gods called it the sepulchre of the swift Myrine ; here the Trojans and 
 their auxiliaries arrayed their troops. 10 Myrine, according to Strabo. was 
 
 6 II. xx. 51-53: 
 adf 8' "ApT)s erepoodev, epe/xvfj \ai\airt Itros, 
 o£u /cot' aKpoTaTrjs ttSAios Tpuieaat KeAevav, 
 &\Kot€ Trap 'Xifxoevri decov iirl KaAAtKoAwvr). 
 
 6 x. 159-161 : 
 
 'Eypeo, Tvdeos vie' rl irdvwxov vtvvov dcoTeTs ; 
 ovk d/ets, cos Tpwes €7rl dpcoa/xw iredloto 
 eiarai ayx 1 vecov, oXiyos 8' tVi x^P 0S e'pu'/fei ; 
 
 7 II. xi. 56, 57 : 
 
 Tpuies 8' aid' erepcoOev eVl dpwo~ix(a ireh"ioio, 
 'EKTopd t' atxcpl /xeyav Kal a/xv/xova TlovAvdd- 
 Uavra. 
 8 //. viii. 439-492 : 
 Tpcooav o3t' ayoptjv Troi7]<Taro cpaiSi/xos "E/crwp, 
 
 v6(T(pi vewv ayaywv, TroTauo? eVt divr)evTi y 
 
 iv Ka6apu, 801 877 veKvcov Stecpaivero x<*>P 0S ' 
 
 e£ "ttttcov 8' airofidvTes eirl x®<> va l x ^ ov &kovov. 
 
 9 //. xx. 1-3 : 
 
 wj ot /xev Trapa vrjval Kopcovlai 6copr)(raovTO 
 a/x<pl o-e, n^Ae'os vU, /xdxvs aK6pr)rov 'Axaioi, 
 Tpu>es 8' avd y trtpcodev eVt dpcoaixoo iredioio. 
 
 10 H. ii. 811-815: 
 
 e <ttl 8e' ris TrpoirdpoiOe iroAeos a'nre?a KoAoovr], 
 iv 7re8i6u airdvevde, irepiSpofxos ev8a /cat evda, 
 Trjv i) toi dvftpes Barieiav KiKA^crKovaiv, 
 addvaroi 8e' re <rr)ixa iroAvo-KapO/xoto MvplvTjs 
 evda t6t€ Tpues re SieKpidev tj8' iiriKovpoL 
 
§ in.] 
 
 TUMULI OF AESYETES AND ILUS. 
 
 147 
 
 held, from her epithet iroXva-KapOfio^ (" racer "), to be one of the Amazons ; 
 this epithet being given to horses from their swiftness, and Myrine was 
 so called from her swiftness in driving the chariot. 1 But Professor 
 Sayce tells me that he fancies Myrine to be identical with the Amazon 
 Smyrna, that is, a name of Artemis-Cybele, the Amazons having been in 
 the first instance the priestesses of this Asiatic goddess. Myrine was the 
 name of a town in Lenmos, as well as of another on the coast of Mysia, 
 40 stadia to the south of Grynion, and Smyrna or Samorna was an old 
 appellation of Ephesus, whose foundation was ascribed to the Amazons. 
 Myrrha, a name of the Oriental Aphrodite, is but a form of Smyrna, n 
 being assimilated to the preceding r. 
 
 Homer further mentions the tumulus of Aesyetes, from the top of 
 which Polites, son of Priam, trusting to the rapidity of his feet, sat 
 waiting until the Achaeans should rush forward from the ships. 2 This 
 tumulus must therefore necessarily be sought between Ilium and the 
 Greek camp. The son of Aesyetes, Alcathous, was married to the daughter 
 of Anchises, Hippodameia. 3 
 
 At a certain distance before Ilium was, as already stated, the con- 
 fluence of the Scamander and the Simois, as well as the ford of the 
 Scamander ; and near them was the tumulus of Ilus, crowned with a 
 pillar, against which Paris leant when he shot an arrow at Diomedes 
 and wounded him. 4 This position of the monument is also proved by 
 the agora which Hector held far from the ships, on the bank of the 
 Scamander, 5 and close by the tumulus of Ilus. 6 It was between the 
 Greek camp and the Scamander, for the thousand watch-fires of the 
 Trojan camp were seen between the ships and the river. 7 But it must 
 be distinctly understood that, as the tumulus of Ilus was situated 
 between the Greek camp and the Scamander, it was of necessity on or 
 near its left bank, which is an important circumstance in determining 
 the topography of the Plain of Troy. There is, however, another passage 
 which appears to contradict this again ; for Priam, on his way to visit 
 Achilles, first passes the tumulus of Ilus, and then reaches the ford of 
 the Scamander, where he waters his mules and horses. 8 It appears 
 further to be contradicted by the passage where it is stated that Hector, 
 
 1 Strabo, xii. p. 573 : iv 8e t$ 'IAtcwcy ireSi'y 
 koAuvt] tis iariv %v terropovcri jxlav elvai ruv 
 ' Afxa(6vuv iKTOviiriQirovrcKjxaipoixivoi' cvaKapd- 
 fious yap 'Itrvovs Aeyecrdai Sid rb rdxos /cd/cet- 
 vt)v ovv iroKvaKapOjxov Sid rb airb rrjs ijviox^as 
 rdxos. 
 
 2 //. ii. 791-794 : 
 
 eicraro 8e <pdoyyr]v vfc Upidfioto Uohirr}, 
 hs Tpcccov CKoirbs T£e, iro8ci)K€'ir)o~i ireiroidws, 
 rvjxfica eV d.Kpordru> Aiavffrao yipovnos, 
 b*4yix*vos 6tttt6t€ vavcpiv dcpop/Arjd&v 'A%atot. 
 
 3 //. xiii. 427-429 : 
 
 AlauT]Tao fiiorpe<peos <p'i\ov vl6v, 
 ¥ip<t>' 'AAnddoov — yaufSpbs 8' %v 'Ayx'tcao, 
 itpto-fivrdrnw 8' &wvie Qvyarpwv 'iTrirodd/xeiav. 
 
 4 //. xi. 369-372 : 
 
 avrdp 'AA(£avdpos, 'EAevris ir6o~is t}'vk6ixoio, 
 TuSe'iSr? e7rt r6£a riraivero, troifiivi Aawv, 
 
 o~T-f]\r) kzkAi}x4vos dvdpoK/J.'ffrq} iirl rv/xficfi 
 "lAov Aapb'avio'ao, iraAaiov S-q/xoyepovros. 
 
 5 //. viii. 489, 490 : 
 Tpucov avr' ayoprju icoir\c>a.ro <pa($ifxos"EKr<t)p, 
 voo~(pi veuv dyaywv, iroraixCp em Sivrjevri. 
 
 II. x. 414, 415 : 
 "Efcrup fiev fxerd ro?o~iv, ocroi fiovAr)<p6poi elaiv, 
 fiovAas fiovAevei deiov irapd o-f)fJ.ari "lAov. 
 
 7 11 viii. 560-563 : 
 Too-aa inea-qyv vewv 7/8e BdvOoio poauv 
 Tpuxav Kai6vT<av wvpd (pa'tvero 'IAi69i irpd. 
 %i'At' dp' iv ireSicp irvpa Kaiero, irup he e/cdary 
 e'iaro irevrrjKovra aeAai trvpbs aldofxevoio. 
 
 s II. xxiv. 349-351 : 
 ot 8' eVet ovv /xeya (Ty/Act trape^ 'lAioto eAacraav, 
 o-rriaav dp' rjfiidvovs re /cat '(ttttovs, 6<ppa ir'totev, 
 
148 
 
 TOPOGRAPHY OF TROY. 
 
 [Chap. II. 
 
 who was fighting on the left of the battle on the bank of the Sca- 
 mander, knew nothing of the slaughter 9 which was going on near the 
 tumulus of Ilus, where, according to II. xi. 369-379, Diomedes had been 
 wounded by Paris. 
 
 From all the indications of the Iliad we see that the station of the 
 ships (Naustathmos) and the camp of the Greek army extended along the 
 low shore of the Hellespont, between Cape Sigeum and Cape Ehoeteum. 
 The distance between these two heights is erroneously stated by Strabo 10 
 to be 60 stadia, whilst Pliny 1 gives it rightly as 30 stadia. As before 
 explained, the Scamander must have fallen into the Hellespont through 
 the bed of the present In Tepeh Asmak, close to Cape Ehoeteum. 
 The 1186 Greek ships were drawn up on the beach, but the available 
 space being too narrow, they were placed in several lines, one behind the 
 other, and used partly as the camp and fortifications, the sterns being 
 turned towards the land. To prevent the ships' keels becoming rotten, 
 they were put on stone supports (ex^ctra) ; 2 but nevertheless, after nine 
 years, the wood and the ropes of the ships began to rot. 3 The troops 
 of each tribe lay with their commander behind their ships, which served 
 them as a protection. The ships which had first come to land were 
 drawn furthest up the shore and formed the first line ; the later comers 
 were arranged in the second or third line. 4 At the two extremities of 
 the first rank were the ships and camps of Achilles and Ajax ; the former 
 to the right, at the foot of Cape Sigeum, the latter on the opposite side. 5 
 To the right of Ajax would have been the Athenians, if the verse in 
 II. ii. 558 had been genuine, where it is stated that Ajax placed his 
 ships where the Athenian phalanxes stood. 6 But this verse was already 
 in ancient times considered to have been interpolated by Solon or 
 Pisistratus on political grounds. The Athenian fleet under Menestheus 
 appears to have been further on in this line towards the centre, for 
 they defended that part of the rampart which was attacked by Hector 
 and Sarpedon ; that is to say, at the middle gate. 7 Further on in the 
 same line appear to have also been the ships of the Boeotians, 8 to the 
 
 9 II. xi. 497-499 : 
 
 .... Ovde TTb) "Enrcop 
 TT€v6er\ iirel pa fxaxys eV apiarepa (xapvaro 
 Traces, 
 
 oxQas Trap Trorajxolo ~2,Kap.dvSpov. 
 
 10 xiii. p. 595 : etrrt Se rb firjKOS rrjs irapaXlas 
 ravTiqs curb rov 'Vonz'iov jue'xpt Styetou Kal rov 
 'AxtAAe'wj p.vr\p.aros svQvttXoovvtwv k^r\Kovra 
 ffTatilwv. 
 
 1 H. N. v. 33 : " fuit et Aeantium, a Rhodiis 
 conditum, in altero cornu, Ajace ibi sepulto, 
 xxx. stad. intervallo a Sigeo, et ipso statione 
 classis suae.'* 
 
 2 II xiv. 410 : 
 
 . . . . rdpa iroXXa, dodwv exfiaTa vqwv. 
 
 3 II. ii. 134, 135 : 
 
 ivvia Sr) fiefidacri Aibs fieyaXov iviavrol, 
 
 Kal 8?j Sovpa atarjire vewv Kal airdpra XeXvvrat. 
 
 1 77 xiv. 30-34 : 
 iroXXbv yap p" airdvtvQz p-d-X 7 ! 5 *ip6aT° v *i €S 
 
 Qlv e<p' aXbs ttoXitis • ras yap irpuras ireSiWSe 
 ci'pvaau, avrap tcIxos irr\ Trpvp.vt)0'iv eSetpiav. 
 ouSe yap ovd' evpvs Trep icbv edvvrjaaro irdaas 
 alyiaXbs vijas xa8e'e<r, creivovro Se Xaoi. 
 
 5 II. xi. 6-9 : 
 
 ?j p eV /j.€(radra> ec/ce yeyoouefiev ap-cporepwae, 
 i)p.ev eV AXavros KXiaias TeAa/iawaSao, 
 i)b" iir' 'AxiXXrjos, roi p ca^ara v qas e'iaas 
 elpvaav, i)vop4r) iriavvoi Kal KapTt'i x €l pw- 
 
 6 II. ii. 558 : 
 
 <TT77<re S' dyoiv iV ' 'AOrjvalwv 'iaravro (paXayyes. 
 
 7 II. xii. 331, 332 : 
 
 robs Se tSw piyt]^ v'tbs Tlerewo Meveadevs • 
 tov yap S}j irpbs Trvpyov iaav KaKdrrjra (pepovres. 
 
 8 //. xiii. 685-689 : 
 
 ej/0a Se BoiwtoI Kal 'laoves eA/cexiTw^es, 
 AoKpol Kal $>6?oi Kal <paibip.6evT€s 'Eircioi 
 o-irovSy iTraio~o~ovTa peoou %X 0V i ov ^' ^vvavro 
 2>aai airb acpeiwi/ <f>Xoyl efaeAov "E/CTopa 8iof 
 ol fxtv ' AQ-qvaiwv irpoXeXeypevoi. 
 
§ 111.] 
 
 CAMP OF THE GREEKS. 
 
 149 
 
 left of whom stood the Phoceans. 9 Thus the Athenians were succeeded 
 by the Phoceans, and further on to the right followed the Boeotians ; 
 the last in this line to the right being the Myrmidons under Achilles. 
 
 It is difficult to determine the order of the ships in the second 
 rank, the indications contained in the Iliad, being too slight Lenz 10 
 supposed that in this line were the Locrians under Ajax, the son of 
 Oileus, the Dulichians, Epeians, and so forth; for, according to the 
 passage already quoted, 1 they were near the foremost row, whilst, accord- 
 ing to another passage, 2 they were near the rear line. Agamemnon, 
 Ulysses, and Diomedes are stated to have drawn their ships on shore far 
 from the battle : 3 they must therefore have been in the last line, which, 
 as Lenz supposes, they filled up by themselves. In the middle of this line 
 was the little fleet of Ulysses. 4 Before this last was the Agora, which 
 served as the place for the public assemblies, the council, the military 
 tribunal, and the sacrifices : 5 here were the altars of the gods, 6 especially 
 that of Zeus Panomphaeos, on which, when in great distress, Aga- 
 memnon sacrifices a fawn. 7 This Agora must have extended into the 
 second line of ships, for the whole Greek army is frequently called 
 hither to an assembly. As the people sat in the Agora, there must have 
 been seats of stones or turf. 8 Nestor's ships and tents must have been 
 in the hindmost line, as it is expressly stated that his tent was on the 
 shore. 9 It appears very probable that Menelaus was encamped close to his 
 brother, Agamemnon. According to thcBoeotia (or Catalogue of Ships), 
 Menelaus came with the sixty ships of the Lacedaemonians, who arrayed 
 themselves separately {airdjep6e) ; that is to say, they were not mixed up 
 with Agamemnon's troops, but formed a band by themselves. Between 
 the ships were many lanes and roads, 10 of which, as Lenz suggests, the 
 chief ones may probably have extended between the three lines of ships, 
 while a great number of lanes run crosswise between the ships. 
 
 There were, writes Lenz, 1 no tents such as are now in use ; but all 
 the troops had huts, 2 which were probably of wood and earth with a thatch 
 
 9 II. ii. 525, 526 : 
 
 o'l fikv <f»a>K7jcdi> arixas 'tararou dfupitirovTes, 
 BotardV 5' efj.ir\r)v eV apiarcpd Qwp-qcrcrovTO. 
 
 10 C. G. Lenz, Die Ebene von Troia; Neu Strelitz, 
 1798, p. 193. » //. xiii. 685-689. 
 
 2 II. x. 110-113: 
 
 778' (iyeipo/uev) Atavra raxvv Kal «i>uAe'os dkKiixov 
 vi6v. 
 
 aAA 5 ei tis Kal rovsde fieroixoficvos KaXccreiev, 
 
 avrldeou t Puavra Kal 'iSo/nevria dvaKra • 
 
 twu yap vqes tacriv kKaffTarw, oi»8e yuaA' iyyvs. 
 
 3 U. xiv. 29-31 : 
 
 Ti»8e't'57js 'OSvcrevs re Kal 'Arp^lS-qs 5 Aya[x4jxv(tiv. 
 iroKXbv ydp p dirdvsvde fidxys eipvaro vrjes 
 6?u e<p' a\bs iro\ir}s. 
 
 * 11. viii. 222-226 : 
 <TT7j 5' eV 'OSvffarrjos fxeyaK-qrei vqi fieXalvrj, 
 ■q p eV fxecradrcf) ecr/ce, yeycwe/uiev a>i(poTepa><r€ ' 
 rinev eV Alavros KXia'ias TcKa/mwuiddao, 
 tjS' eV 'AxiAAf/os ■ rot p' ecrx aTa v ^ a ^ e'icras 
 ttpvffav, rivopcy iricrvvoi Kal Kaprz'i xetpcij'. 
 
 5 II. xix. 172-174: 
 . . . ret 8e Swpa u>a£ avZpcov 'Ayafx4p.vwv 
 
 oicriru) es jx4cro-qv ayoprjv, 'Iva irdvres 'Axcuoi 
 d4>9aAfAo7o~iv iSaxrt, crv 8e <ppto~l crjjaiv iauOfjs. 
 
 6 II. xi. 808 : 
 
 . . rfi 877 Kai o~(pi 0eaV eTerevxciTO fiwjxoL 
 
 7 II. 'viii. 249, 250 : 
 
 ■nap 8e Albs fiwjxy irepiKaAAei /ca/3j8a\e yejSpoV, 
 euda Travo/uMpaicv 2,-qvl p4£eo~KOV 'A%atoi. 
 
 8 II. ii. 86-99. 
 
 9 11. xi. 618-622 : 
 
 0* 8' ore 877 KAia'nqv N77A.7ji.a86a> acpiKovTO, 
 .... rol 8' (NtcrTwp Kal Maxdwv) ISpu airefyv- 
 
 XOVTO X iT &V<i)V, 
 
 crravre irorl irvoity irapd diu a\6s. 
 10 //. x. 66 : 
 
 7roAAal yap avd arparSv elcri k4\€v6oi. 
 1 C. G. Lenz, Die Ebene von Troia, pp. 200- 
 203. 
 
 - 2 II. xvi. 155, 156: 
 
 Mvp/miSovas 8' ap' eVotx^eros Bwp-q^v 'AxtAAeus, 
 
 irdvras dud K\icrlas crvv r^vx^iv • 
 
 and II. xxiii. Ill, 112: 
 
 ovprjds t' icrpvve Kal dvipas d^e/xev v\t]v 
 
 irdvTodev e/c kKictmv. 
 
150 
 
 TOPOGRAPHY OF TROY. 
 
 [Chap. II. 
 
 of rushes. The chief had probably his tent in the foremost line of his 
 troops : this is certain as regards the tent of Ulysses, in front of which a 
 lane passed, and the Agora commenced. All the tents or huts of the 
 chiefs must have been more or less like that of Achilles, which is described 
 in the 24th book of the Iliad. It was surrounded by an enclosure of 
 posts, and had a gate which shut with a bar. 3 Inside, around the hut, 
 was a court, in the midst of which stood an altar, for here Achilles 
 prayed to Zeus and poured out libations of wine. 4 The hut proper, called 
 oZko?, 5 and iAtd\a6pov, & but usually tc\i&t7), was surrounded by an open 
 vestibule, which rested on posts, and was called irpoSo/jLos 7 and atOovaa* 
 from which the hall 9 was entered by an opening called irp66vpov lQ or Ovpa. 1 
 The hall was probably decorated with trinkets won as booty. 2 In this 
 sense we may probably explain the glittering walls in the tent of Idomeneus. 3 
 Behind the hall w 7 ere chambers, which served partly for storing the 
 treasures, partly as a habitation for the female slaves and concubines ; 
 here also Achilles and Patroclus had their separate chambers. 4 The 
 huts had a thatch of woolly rushes. 5 There must, besides, have been 
 in the court sheds for chariots and stables for the horses, of which 
 Achilles possessed a whole stud ; 6 also stables for oxen, sheep, goats, 
 and swine, as for meat-eaters like the Greeks a considerable stock of 
 cattle was indispensable. 
 
 Near the ships of Ulysses, and along the shore as far as those of 
 Agamemnon, there must have been a considerable space; for the races 
 with horses and chariots, as well as the other funeral games to the 
 memory of Patroclus, were held there. Here also was an elevated seat 
 
 3 11. xxiv. 452-456 : 
 
 a/x<pl 8e ol jxeydXf)v avXr^v irol7](Tav avauri 
 crravpo?aiv ttvkivuIot Qiprjvti' e^e fxovvos £tti$\4\s 
 elxdrivos, rbv rpels fxev iiripprjao'eaKov 'A^ctto/, 
 rpe7s 8' avaolyeuKov /ueydXrjv /cAi??Sa dvpdav, 
 ra>v aXXwv 'Ax'Aei/s 8' ap' iizipp'qo'o'eo'Ke Kal olos. 
 
 4 77. xvi. 231, 232 : 
 
 c^X^t' eiveira aras /xeacv epKe'i, Ae7/3e 8e olvov 
 ovpavbv elo~avi8u>v • Ala 8' ov XaOe repwiKepavvov. 
 
 5 II. xxiv. 471, 472: 
 
 yepwv 8' Idhs Kiev oIkov, 
 ttj p' 'AxtAei/s 'i(e<TKe SilcpiXos. 
 
 6 77. ix. 639, 640 : 
 
 . . . . av 8' 'iXaov ev9eo 6v/x6v, 
 a"iSeaaai Se /meXaOpov. 
 
 7 77. xxiv. 673, 674 : 
 
 ot fjikv d.p' iv TTpoZ6lX(jp So/xov avrodi KOl/JLyO-aVTO, 
 
 icrjpvi; Kal Ylplauos, irvKiva (ppeal jU.7j8e' exovres. 
 
 8 77. xxiv. 643, 644 : 
 
 i] p\ 'Ax'Aei/y 8' erdpoiaiv t'Se Sfxccrjai KeXevaev 
 b~e(xvi vtt' aldovo-p Qejxevai Kal pr^yia KaXa. 
 
 9 II. xxiv. 647: 
 
 at 8' Xaav e/c /xeydpoio Saos fiera. x € P aiU 
 exovo-ai, . . . 
 
 10 II xix. 211, 212: 
 
 os juoi ivl KXialr) Seda'iyfj.evos o£4"i X aXl< $ 
 Ke?rai, ava irp6dvpov t erpa/x/Jievos. 
 1 11. xxiv. 571, 572 : 
 Sos ecpar', eSeiaev 8' b yepwv Kal ivelQero /xvdcf)- 
 n.rjyel57)s 8* o'tKoio Xeosv Sbs &\to 6vpa£e. 
 
 2 xxiii. 558-561 : 
 
 'Avt'iXox'i fj.ev S77 yue KeXevets o"iKodev dXXo 
 Evfi^Xcf} iiridovvai, iyio Se «e Kal to reXeacru). 
 Sw<ra> ol dwprjKa rbv 'AarepoiraTov dirrivpcov, 
 XaXKeov, & ixepi X^A"* (paeivov Kaaairepoio. 
 
 3 11. xiii. 261 : 
 
 . . . . iv kXktItj irpbs ivwiria ira/xcpavouvra. 
 
 4 77. ix. 663-669 : 
 
 avrap 'AxiXXevs euBe juux<£ KXiairjs evirriKTOV 
 T(f 8' dpa irapKareXeKro yvvr}, rr)v AeafiSdev 
 fyev, 
 
 4>6p(iavros 6vydrt]p Aio/x^hr] KaXXnrdprjos. 
 UdrpoKXos 8' erepwOev iXe^aro • nap 8' dpa Kal ra> 
 'I(pis ivfavos, rr}v ol ir6pe 87os 'Ax'AAeus 
 ~2,Kvpov eXwv alire?av, 'Evvr^os nrroXleOpov. 
 ot 8' ore 8/7 KXio-lrj(Ttv iv 'Arpe'idao yevovro, . . . 
 
 II. xxiv. 675, 676 : 
 avrap 'Ax^XXebs elSe fJ.vx<j> kXict'ltis evirfiKTOu • 
 t<£ 8e Bpiarjts TrapeXe^aro KaXXnrdpyos. 
 
 5 //. xxiv. 450, 451 : 
 
 . . . . arap KadvirepOev epe\j/av 
 Xaxvyevr' upo<pov XeifxwvoBev a/urjcavres. 
 
 6 II. xix. 281 : 
 
 'Ittitovs 8' els dyeXriv eXaffav Qepdirovres ayavol. 
 
 II. ii. 775-778 : 
 .... iViroi 8e ■nap' dp/xaa-iv oTo-iv eKaaros, 
 Xwrbv ipeirrS/xevot eXe6dpeirr6v re aeXivov, 
 eo-racrav, apfxara 8' eO ireirvKaaueva Kelro avaKrwv 
 ev KXialys. 
 
§ III.] 
 
 FORTIFICATIONS OF THE GREEKS. 
 
 151 
 
 {irepLwrrr}), 1 as in Nestor's tent, from the top of which Idomeneus looked 
 on at the games. Here on the projecting shore were raised the tumulus 
 of Patroclus and at a later period that of Achilles. 8 There was also an 
 ancient sepulchral monument, or goal of a hippodrome, consisting of the 
 trunk of a tree with two white stones on either side, 9 and near it a road 
 hollowed out by the winter rain. 10 
 
 For nine years the ships of the Greeks appear to have been their 
 sole fortification, but then, after the first battle of the Iliad, by the 
 advice of Nestor, a common tumulus was erected in front of the ships 
 over the ashes of all the dead, to which was joined a high wall with 
 towers, and before it was dug a deep moat. 1 The wall was built of 
 earth, into which were rammed trunks of trees and stones to give it 
 greater solidity. 2 It had wooden towers, 3 and in or close to them were 
 gates. 4 On the wall and the towers were breastworks (eVaXfas), which 
 projected from the wall like steps (fcpoo-aai) ; also buttresses (arrfkai, 
 7rpo/3\fiT€s), serving to protect and consolidate the wall. 5 There seem 
 to have been only three gates. Between the wall and the moat was 
 a path, 6 in front of which a stockade or thick row of palisades was stuck 
 into the edge of the moat, in order to render the approach still more 
 difficult to the enemy. 7 
 
 I have further to mention the wall of Herakles (ret^o? a^-pl^yrov 
 'HpatcX-ijos), 8 called also a/coircr/, 9 a sort of rampart which the Trojans 
 and Pallas Athene had erected for the protection of Herakles, lest the 
 sea-monster which threatened Hesione with destruction should pursue 
 him from the beach to the plain. It therefore appears to have been near 
 the shore. 
 
 7 II. xxiii. 451 : 
 
 riaro yap e'/cros dywvos virepraros iv irepiwirrj. 
 
 8 II. xxiii. 125, 126: 
 
 /ca8 8' 'dp* eV durris (SdXXov iiri(TX € P^i ev9' dp' 
 'AxiXXevs 
 
 (ppdcrcraTo UarpoKXw p.eya rjpiov 7fSe oJ atrr<£. 
 
 Od. xxiv. 80-82 : 
 afxcp' ai>To?ai 8' eireira /xeyav Kal djxvfxova rvjxfiov 
 X*vay.ev 'Apyeitcv lepbs.o~Tpa.Tbs alxwrdtoV) 
 a.KTf- eirt irpovxovo-ri) iirl irXareZ '~EXXr]0"rr6vT<u>. 
 
 9 11. xxiii. 327-333 : 
 
 eo*T7j/ce \vXov avov, ocov r* opyvi, virep aXrjs, 
 
 t) fipvbs 7) irevKi]s.- to fiev ov Karairvderai u/j.f}p(? f 
 
 Xae 8e tov eKarepQev ipi]pe8arai Svo XevKw 
 
 iv '^vvoxfio-Lv 68ov, Xe?os 8' 'iTiroSpofMos afx-pls' 
 
 ij rev (rrj/na $poro7o iraXai Karare6vi]wros, 
 
 r) to ye vvo~o~a rervKTo iirl irporepicv dvdpwirwv, 
 
 Kal vvv repfiar' tdr)Ke iro5dpKr]s S?os 'AxtAAeus. 
 
 10 II. xxiii. 418-421 : 
 
 alxpa 8' eireira 
 o~Te?vos 65ov Ko'iXris ?8ev 'AvTtAoxos p.evexdpp.r]s. 
 posxiJ-bs et]v yalr)s, fj x €l P-*P l °v dXev vSwp 
 i£eppr)£ev 68010, fidOvve 8e x&pov airavra. 
 
 1 //. vii. 327-347, 435-441. 
 
 2 II. xii. 28, 29 : 
 
 . ... e/c 8' dpa irdvTa QejxelXia Kvp.aa'i irefxirev 
 (pirpwv Kal Xawv, to. Qeaav fioyeovres 'Ax^ioi. 
 
 3 II. xii. 35, 36 : 
 
 ToVe 8' dpupl fxaxv ivovfi T6 SeS^et 
 Te?xoy ev5fMT)Tov, Kavaxfe Sovpara irvpyiov. 
 
 4 11. vii. 338, 339: 
 
 irvpyovs vip-qXovs, elXap vrjwv re Kal avrwv. 
 iv 8' avrolai irvXas Troika o\xev ev apapvias ■ 
 and 436-438 : 
 
 dKpirov e/c 7re8i'ou, 7tot1 8' avrbv re7xds eSeifxav 
 irvpyovs 0' v\pi]Xovs, elXap vi~u>v re Kal avrwv. 
 iv 8' avrolai irvXas iveiroleov ev apapv'ias. 
 
 5 II. xii. 258-260 : 
 
 Kpoacras piev irvpywv epvov, Kal epeiirov eiraX^eis, 
 arr)Xas re irpo^Xriras ip.6xXeov, as dp' 'Axaioi 
 irpwras iv yalr] Qecrav e/xfxevai ex^ctTa irvpywv. 
 
 6 //. ix. 67*, 87 ; xii. 64-66, 145 ; xviii. 215, 
 228 ; xx. 49. 
 
 7 27. xii. 63-66 : see also 54-57 ; vii. 911 ; is. 
 350. 
 
 8 II. xx..145-148 : 
 
 reixos is d/Kp'ixvrov 'Hpo/cAf/os deioio, 
 61//77A0V, to pd ol Tpwes Kal TlaXXas 'AOrjvr] 
 iroleov, 6(ppa rb Krjros vireKirpocpvyuiv aXeairo ? 
 6irir6re fxiv trevairo cW ^i'oVos TreSto^Se. 
 
 9 xx. 136, 137 : 
 
 oAA' f»j.e?s fiev etreira KadetyneoQa KiSyres 
 
 e/C 7TCtTOU is (TK01Tff}y. 
 
CHAPTER III. 
 
 THE HISTOEY OF TEOY. 
 
 As Mr. Gladstone 1 rightly remarks, the Dardanian name in the Iliad 
 is the oldest of all those names, found in the Poems, which are linked by 
 a distinct genealogy with the epoch of the Trojan war. As already stated, 
 Dardanus was called the son of Zeus by Electra, daughter of Atlas, and 
 was further said to have come from Samothrace, or from Arcadia, or 
 from Italy; 2 but Homer mentions nothing of this. Dardanus founded 
 Dardania in a lofty position on the slope of Mount Ida ; for he was 
 not yet powerful enough to form a settlement in the plain. He 
 married Bateia; an Idaean nymph, 3 daughter of Teucer, son of the river 
 Scamander, and begat Ilus and Erichthonius, who became the richest 
 of all mortal men. He had in his pastures three thousand mares, the 
 offspring of some of whom, by Boreas, produced twelve colts of super- 
 natural swiftness. 4 Having married Astyoche, daughter of the river 
 Simois, he had by her a son called Tros. 5 This latter, who became 
 the .eponym of the Trojans, had by his wife Calirrhoe, daughter of 
 the Scamander, three sons, called Ilus, Assaracus, and Ganymedes, and 
 a daughter, called Cleopatra. 6 Ganymedes having become the most 
 beautiful of mankind was carried away by the gods, and made the cup- 
 
 1 Homeric Synchronism, p. 122. 
 
 2 Hellanicus, Fragm. 129, ed. Didot ; Dionys. 
 Hal. i. 50-61; Apollodor. iii. 12. 1; Schol. 
 Iliad., xviii. 486 ; Varro, ap. Servium ad Virgil. 
 Aeneid. iii. 167 ; Cephalon. Gergithius ap. Steph. 
 Byz. s. v. 'Aplo-fir}. 
 
 3 //. xx. 215-218: 
 
 AapZavov av irpwrou reKero vecpeXrjyepera Zeus 
 kt to" o~€ Se Aaphavit]v eVei oviru) "iXtos tpri 
 iv ire8/<w irewSXiaro, ir6Xis (xepoTrccv avdpwirwv, 
 aXX' e0' virwptias wkcov iroXvnib'aKos y l57js. 
 
 Apollodorus, iii. 12. 1 : AapZavos Se eVi rep 
 Qavdrcp rov adeXcpov Xvirovjxevos, ~2,aiJ.o6paKr)u 
 airoXiirwy, ets rrjv avrltrepa tfircipov i)A0e. Tav- 
 TT)s Se e'/3acri'Aeue TevKpos irorap.ov 'S.KajxdvZpov 
 koX Nvfx<pris 'iScuas, atf ov na\ ot rrju x^P av 
 V€fj.6fX€VOi Tevupoi irpocrrjyopevovro. 'Y7ro5ex0eis 
 8e vTrb rov fiaaiXeus Kal Xaficcv jxepos rijs yrjs 
 Kal T7)v 4k€ipov Ovyarcpa Bdrciav, AapZavov 
 eKTiae ir6Xiv. reX€VT7}o-avTos 8e TevKpov, ri)V 
 X^pav d-naaav AapSavlav c'/caAeffe. 
 
 4 II. xx. 219-229: 
 
 AapZavos av Te'/ce0' vlbv 'Epix^oviov fSaffiXija, 
 bs 8>/ acpveiSraros yivtro dvrjruv avdpu>Truv 
 
 rov rpiffx'iXiai "tttoi eAos Kara fiovKoXeovro 
 BrjXciat, TrwXoicriv dyaXXojxevai araXfjariv. 
 raw Kal Bopeys ^pdo-caro fiocrKOfia/doov • 
 'linrcp 5' elaafxevos irapeXe^aro Kvavoxnirrj, 
 a'i 8' viroKvaaafxevai ereKou SvoKalSeKa tt&Xovs. 
 o? 8' ore /xev GKiprtpev iirl {eiSccpov apovpav ' 
 aKpou eV avOep'iKwv Kapirbv 6eov, oi»5e KareKXwv, 
 aAA' ore 8r) ffKiprqev eV evpea vwra OaXaaarjs,' 
 aKpov iwl pt)ytuva aXbs ttoXloio OeeaKOV. 
 
 5 Apollodorus, iii. 12. 2 : Tevofxevwv 8e avrcp 
 (Aapo'dve*}) iralSccv ''lXov Kal 'EpLxOoulov "iXos 
 fiev oiv dirais aireQavev • ^Epix^^ios Se 8ta8e|a- 
 fievos r\]V f$ao~iXeiav, yrjfJLas 'Ao-rvoxW T V 
 ^i/mSevros, reKvoi Tpooa. 
 
 II. xx. 230 : 
 
 Tpwa 8' 'EptxGouios reKero Tpweaaiv dvaara. 
 
 6 Apollodorus, iii. 12. 2 : ovros (Tpws) irapa- 
 XaQcw rr]v ^aaiXelav, rrju fxkv x&P av ^o- VT0 ^ 
 Tpoiav e'/caAeo-e. Kat yt]fJ.as KaXippSrju rrjv 
 'ZKajj.dv'Bpov, ytvva dvyarepa fcej/ KXeoirarpav, 
 iralSas Se "iAo^ Kal 'AaodpaKov Kal Tavvfx^riv. 
 
 II xx. 231, 232 : 
 Tpwbs 8' av rpeis 7ro75es dfxvfxoues Qeytvovro, 
 v ix6s t' 'A<radpaK6s re Kal avriBeos ravv/j.r}5r]s. 
 
Chap III.] 
 
 ILUS FOUNDS ILIUM. 
 
 153 
 
 bearer of Zeus, 7 who gave to Tros, as the price of the youth, a team of 
 immortal horses. 8 From Ilus and Assaracus the Trojan and Dardanian 
 lines diverge : the former proceeding from Ilus to Laomedon, Priam and 
 Hector ; the latter from Assaracus to Capys, Anchises and Aeneas. 9 
 
 Ilus went to Phrygia, where he arrived during the games instituted 
 by the king, in which he took part, and, having conquered in wrestling, 
 received from the king, as his prize of victory, fifty youths and fifty 
 maidens. The king also gave him, in accordance with an oracle, a cow 
 of many colours, directing him to build a city in the place where the 
 animal should lie down. Ilus therefore followed the cow, which lay 
 down on the hill of the Phrygian Ate, where he built Ilium. Having 
 prayed to Zeus to give him a favourable sign, on the following day 
 he saw lying before his tent the Palladium, which had fallen from 
 heaven (SiiireTes;). It was three cubits (4^ ft.) long, its feet were 
 joined; in its right hand it held an uplifted lance, in its left a distaff 
 and spindle. 10 
 
 In Homer Ate is represented as the personified power of infatuation 
 and delusion, and is the pernicious eldest daughter of Zeus. 11 She is 
 strong and swift; 1 Hesiod mentions her among the children of Eris; 2 
 she walks with her light soft feet over the heads of men. 3 At the 
 birth of Herakles she caused even her own father, Zeus, to swear an 
 over-hasty oath, in consequence of which he seized her by the hair in 
 his wrath and cast her out of Olympus, swearing a mighty oath that 
 
 7 II xx. 233-235 : 
 
 ts (Tauvix7}Srjs) 877 KaKAiffTos yevero Ovtjtwv 
 
 avdpWTTCOV • 
 
 rbv Kal avypetyavTo Beol Ait olvoxoeveiv, 
 KaWeos e'LveKa oto, tV adavdroicri fxere'iT]. 
 
 Apollodorus, iii. 12. 2 : rovrov fiev ovv Sia. 
 KaWos dvapirdffas Zeus 8t' aeruv, dewv otvox^ov 
 iv ovpavco Karearriffev. 
 
 At first Ganymedes is mentioned as cup-bearer 
 of the gods, and particularly of Zeus, in the place 
 of Hebe (see Virgil, Aeneid. i. 28) ; afterwards, 
 especially since Pindar, he is said to have been 
 beloved by Zeus, KaWeos etVe/ca. In the same 
 way, in Odys. v. 121, Orion, in Odys. xv. 251, 
 Kleitos, and in Apollod. iii. 2, 4 (see //. xi. 1) 
 Tithonus, is carried off by Eos on account of 
 his beauty. 
 
 8 Hellanicus, Fragm. 146. Apollodorus, 
 ii. 5, 9 : Tavrr}v ('Hffi6vriv) louv eKKei/xevr]v 
 'UpaKXrjs, vTr€(rx €T0 cwcrejz/ avrr)v, el tcls '(ttttovs 
 irapa AaofieSovros XtyeTai, as Zeus iroivrjv Trjs 
 TavvfirjSovs apirayrjs eSw/ce. 
 
 II. v. 265-267 : 
 ttjs yap toi yeverjs, r)s Tpu'i irep evpvoira Zeus 
 ScDx' vios iroivrjv Tavvfj.r)5eos ' ouveK* dpiffToi 
 'Ittttqw, offffoi eaffiv vir' r)S) t' r)eAiov re. 
 
 9 II xx. 236-240 : 
 
 'IAos 8' av reiceO' vlhv afJ.vfj.ova AaofieSovra, 
 Aao/xedcav 8' apa TiOcovbv reKero Upiafi6v re, 
 Adfi-Kov re KAutjW 0' 1 lKerdovd r* 6(bv''Api]os • 
 1 Aaadpanos 8e Kdirvv • b 8' &p' 'Ayx>-<(W Te'/ce 
 iratSa • \ 
 
 aviap efx ' Ay x<-o"t]s, Tlpia/xos 8' erex' "EKTopa 
 B7ov. 
 
 10 Apollodorus, iii. 2, 3 : "IAos 8e els $pvyiav 
 acpiKOfievos, Kal KaraXafHwv virb tov fiaatKeus 
 avrodi redeifxevov ayuva, vikS. irdkiv • Kal \af3wv 
 adAov trevT-fiKovTa Kovpovs Kal Kopas ras ftras, 
 Sovtos aincf tov f3acrt\ea)s Kara xpV^f^ov Kal 
 f3ovv iroiKihrjv, Kal (ppdffavros, ev aiirep av avrr] 
 KAidjj tottcc, ttoXiv KTi(eiv, e'inero ry fiot 'H 8e 
 a(pLKO[xevt) eirl rbv Xeyofievov rrjs Qpvylas "Attjs 
 Ao(pov, KXiverai • evda iroKiv KTiffas "ihos, ravTqv 
 fiev 'iKiov eKa\eo~e. To5 8e Alt' ffrjfie7ov eu|a- 
 fievos avT<5 ri <pavr)vai, fied' rjfiepav rb Sitireres 
 ITaAAaStoj/ irpb rrjs ffKrjvris Kelfxevov eOedffaro. 
 'Hv 8e tg5 fieyedei rpiir^xv, rots 8e iroffl ffvfx- 
 fiefiriKOs, Kal rfj fiev Se|t£ Sopv Sirjpfievov exov, 
 rfj 8e eTe'pa r/Ao/caTijj/ Kal drpaKrov. 
 
 11 II. xix. 91-93 : 
 
 irpeo-fia Albs dvydrrip "Art), % irdvras aarai, 
 ovXofxevr), rrjs fiev 6' airaKol iroSes • ov yap eV 
 ovSei 
 
 wlKvareu, aAA' apa r\ye Kar' avSpcov Kpdara 
 fiaivet. 
 
 1 //. ix. 505-507 : 
 
 7] 8' "Attj adevapr) re Kal aprliros ' ovveKa irdcras 
 iroAKbv vneKirpoOeei, cpddvei Se re iraffav eV aXav 
 fi\d^rTovff , avOpwirovs. 
 
 2 Theogonia, 230 : 
 
 Avffvouirjv, * 'Ari)v re, ffvvr)Qeas a\\r)\r]ffiv. 
 
 3 xix. 91-93, just cited. See also Rhianus 
 ap. Stob. Mor. iv. p. 54. 
 
154 
 
 THE HISTORY OF TROY. 
 
 [Chap. III. 
 
 she should not return thither; and she quickly fell on the works 
 of men. 4 
 
 The tradition cited above from Apollodorus is confirmed by Lyco- 
 phron 5 as well as by Eustathius, 6 Hesychius, 7 and Stephanus Byzan- 
 tinus. 8 From all these authorities my friend Professor Otto Keller 9 
 has concluded with certainty " the existence of a Phrygian goddess 
 Ate, her worship on the hill of Hissarlik as well as on a second hill 
 on the river Bhyndacus, and her idol which fell from heaven. 10 The 
 Ilian Athene, who originated from this Ate, appears on a medal as 
 an especially Phrygian goddess, wearing the Phrygian cap. She is 
 distinguished from the common Greek Ate or infatuation, who is a 
 mere abstraction, by the epithet 7) <&pvyia. Probably she was related 
 to the Phrygian god Atis (Attis or Atys). Owing to the similarity in the 
 sound of their names, after the conquest of the land by the Greeks, Ate 
 and Athene were combined, and thus originated the peculiar Athene Ilias 
 with the Phrygian cap, spear, torch, and owl. The non-Hellenic torch 
 was replaced by the distaff and spindle. In the Ephesian Artemis we see- 
 before us a very non-Hellenic, but genuine Asiatic goddess, confounded 
 with an Hellenic goddess ; nay, a goddess overloaded with symbols of 
 maternity confounded with a virgin goddess. We have examples of the 
 remoulding of the names of Asiatic deities in a Greek form, amongst 
 others, in Eileithyia-Yoledeth, Moledeth, Mylitta ; or in Apollo Ismenius, 
 who is the Phoenician Eshmun ; for the common etymology from the 
 Indo-European ish, ' desire,' is not satisfactory. Even the Zeus Meili- 
 
 4 II xix. 126-131 : 
 
 avr'iKa 5' elA' "Attjv KtcpaXrjs Xnrap.oirXoKoiiJ.oio, 
 Xcoo/xevos (ppecrlv fieri, Kal to/xoae KapTtpbv "opKov 
 /xt) ttot' is OvXvjXTr6u re Kal ovpavbv aoTepo'ej/Ta 
 atiTts iXevcreaOai ''At7]v, 7] irdvTas aarai. 
 &s elirwv eppvtyev air' ovpavov affrepoevTos 
 Xetpl jrepio-Tplxpas • Tir^a 5' 'Ikcto epy avdpwiruv. 
 
 5 Alexandra, 28-30 : 
 
 Tj 8' evdsov crxdcraaa jSa/cxeTov o'To/xa, 
 "Att]s aw aupcov fiovirXavoKTicTTtoV Xocptov, 
 Toitov 8' an-' apx'hs 7?px' 'AAe|ai/5pa Xoyav. 
 See Schol. Vindobon. I. ap. Bachmann, p. 15 ? 
 Xocpos irpb rov e/caAetTo Kal ''AXios (probably 
 instead of "Atios) ; and Tzetzes : 0x775 tfyovi/ 
 f}Xdf3r]s, 7) ui'o/xa opovs, Xo<pou &tt]s Kal fiovirXa- 
 vokticttov 7T]v Tpoiav Xeyei .... AapZavos 8e 
 KaraKXva/xov yeyovSros e/c ~Za/xo0paK7]s els rrjv 
 avriirepa y7)v irepaiovTai Kal tt]v vvv Tpoiav 
 e/xeXXe KTi(e . Xprjcr/xbs 8e tovtov KtoXvei ktl- 
 £eiv rbv x6(pov tovtov elrrwv fiXaf$7\v yeveaQai 
 tovtov toIs avrbv KaToiK7]cra(Tiv. iv Tlpii]iru> he 
 e/xavTevcraTO. expT)&e $e avry 6 Upiriira^os 
 'AttoXXcov (xt] KTi(eiv rbv Xocpov tovtov, &tt]s yap 
 avTbv ecprj. 81b Kal Aaphavos KtoXvdels avTbv ovk 
 eKTiaev, aXXa. tt)V virb tt]V *\§7]v AapSavlav, irpo- 
 Tepov ^ica/xavSpov Xocpov KaXov/xtvrjv, fiaaiXevovros 
 t6t€ twu Tpto'iKwv jxep^v TevKpov tov UKa/xavSpov 
 Kal 'ISai'as uv/x(pr]s. OJ "^Ka/xdvSpov t)]v QvyaTepa 
 BaTeiav Xafixv 6 AapBavos, %V Kal 6 AvK6cpptov 
 'Api<rfS7]v Xeyei, yevva "\Xov Kal 'EpixOdvwv ' wv 
 
 y IAos aVais TeXevTa, 'Epixddvios 8e e| 'Ao~tv6xvs 
 tt)s ~2,ijxoevTos yevva Tpua. Tpwbs /cat KaXXip- 
 porjs tt)s ^.Kajxdvhpov "los (sic) Kal erepot. *Os 
 "IAos els bpvy'iav iXdow Kal aywva vnb tov 
 fiao-iXecos Tedei/xevov evpwv viKa TraXiqv, /col 
 Xafioov iic tov fiaffiXtws aQXov v Kopas Kal v 
 Kopovs, t/c xPVO'f^ov etVeTO fiot TrXavrjOdo-j/ 4k 
 Mva'ias, 7]Tis acpiKo/xevT] iirl Tbv Xeyouevov tt)s 
 $pvyias "Attjs Xo<pov KaraKXlueTai, %vQa ttSXiv 
 KTiaas 6 *\Xos "\Xiov e/caAece. 
 
 6 Eustath. ad II. xix. 136 : </>acrt 8e els ''iXiov 
 KaTev7]v4x^ ai pi<peto~av t)]v "Att]v, dib /cat 'Attis 
 Xocpos e/ce?, ov 6 AvKocppwv fiifimytu. tovto 8e 
 dcrreicos 7T€?rAotrTat 8ta ras fxeyaXas aras, as e/c 
 Aibs ol Tpwes eiradov. Schol. in II. i. 591 : 
 Xocpos ''Attjs eV Tpoia irapa. AvKocppovi, %vda virb 
 Aibs eKe'ivT] ippltyr], 00s Kal iu to7s 'ATTiuyos 
 Kal 'H pod &p ov Sr]XovTai. 
 
 7 S. v. *ATi6Xo(pos' ovTcvi Tb ^IXiov ClAeoj/ 
 cod.) e'fcaAetTo rrptoTov. 
 
 8 "iAtof 7r<^Ats TptodSos curb *lXov, 7]C ol Tptoes 
 ' i At7]v (d.KT7]u in the MS.) iKaXovv koI v Att?s 
 x6cpou • SevTepa {avTr)s Xocpoi Svo in the MS.) 
 iv t9] Tlponoi/Ti5i Trapa "PuvSaKto iroTa/xw. 
 
 9 Die Entdeckunj Ilion's zu Hissarlik ; Frei- 
 burg, 1875. 
 
 10 Schol. ad II. i. 591 : evQa virb Aibs IkciVt/ 
 ippicpr) ; also Apollodorus, iii. 12, and Diodorus, 
 Fragm, 14, p. 640 ; Wessel. a diiireTes. 
 
Chap. III.] 
 
 THE COW OF MANY COLOURS. 
 
 155 
 
 chios, with his soft name, is only the Hellenic mask of the terrible 
 Moloch, greedy of human sacrifices. 
 
 " Now with regard to the cow of many colours, this animal is quite 
 in its place in the tradition of the foundation of the temple of the 
 Ilian Athene. Nay, it may serve as an authentic proof of the genuine- 
 ness and antiquity of the legend, which is told us by Apollodorus, and 
 was certainly not invented by him. The legend of which we speak is 
 common Indo-European property. 1 Horses, stags, bears, and bulls 
 designate the place where' churches and monasteries are to be built ; 
 these animals direct also the building of castles, cities, and colonies. 
 A god-sent animal is wont to show the wandering army their place of 
 settlement. Sacred cows indicate by standing still the place for 
 church building. 2 We find similar legends in Friedreich. 3 To this 
 class belong, the legend of the Opicians who were guided by a bull, 
 and the peculiar rite of drawing the furrows with a plough whereby 
 Eoman cities were consecrated. A cow also showed Cadmus, when he 
 came from Asia, the site where Thebes was to be erected : this cow 
 had on each side a white mark in the form of the full moon} A cow, 
 probably likewise a symbol of the mnon goddess, was the symbol on the 
 coins of the Cilician cities of Tarsus, Mallus, and Soloi, likewise of 
 Side. 5 We also see the cow on the medals of the neighbouring 
 Cyzicus. 6 Marquardt 7 refers this to Persephone. We think we are 
 not mistaken in understanding the cow of many colours, which indi- 
 cated the site of Troy, as the sacred symbol of Athene or Ate, the 
 goddess of Night or the Moon. The fifty boys and fifty girls who 
 follow the moon-cow are nothing else than the fifty weeks of the year. 8 
 From the Ilian coins, on which is represented the sacrifice of a cow 
 before the statue of Athene Ilias, we infer that the cow was chosen as 
 the sacrificial animal of that goddess, 9 which seems also to be proved 
 from Homer. 10 Thus for every one who does not wilfully shut his eyes 
 we have furnished the proof that the legend of the foundation of Ilium 
 is by no means a frivolous or childish invention of Apollodorus, but an 
 ancient legend of primitive growth, which is devised with beautiful sym- 
 bolism, and relates to the peculiarities of the worship of the Ilian Athene. 
 Nay, this legend also contains a very interesting topographical notice 
 concerning the hill of Ate, a notice which has not been understood 
 either by the narrators themselves, or till now by the commentators. 
 
 1 See H. B. Schindler, Abcrglaube des Mittcl- 
 alters, p. 265. 
 
 2 Vernaleken, Apensagen, 316. 
 
 3 Symbolik und Mythologie der Natur, p. 498. 
 
 4 Pausanias, ix. 12, § 1 : Aeyerai Se Kal 6'8e 
 vtt > avr&v hoyos, ws amouri 4 k AeA^wj/ KdS/xca 
 rnv eVl $a)K€W}/ fiovs yhoiro riyefxibv rris Trope/as, 
 r\\v Se fiovv ravr-qv irapa ftovKoXwv chat r&v 
 UeXayovros 6t>vr)rr)V • iirl 5e e/carepa rrjs fiobs 
 irXsvpa ar)fjL€?ov eVetVat Aeu/coV, ei/caoyieVoi/ kvkAo) 
 rrjs cr^X-{]v7]s, 6tt6t€ e«7 irKi]pT]s ' eSet 8e apa 
 Ka8uov Kal rbv (xvv avrcp arparhu ivravOa 
 oiKT}o~ai Kara rod 0eoC rr t v (xavreiav, tvOa r) fiovs 
 
 e^ueAAe Ka/xova'a OKXacreiv ■ a.irocpaivovo'iv ovv Kal 
 rovro rb x w P l0v ' 
 
 5 Brand is, Munzwesen inVorderasicn, p. 354. 
 
 6 Mionnet, Nos. 168, 308, 410 ; see also Sestini, 
 Descr. d. Stateri Ant. p. 54. 
 
 7 Cyzicus und sein Gebiet, p. 134. 
 
 8 See E. Gerhard, Prodromus, p. 167. 
 
 9 Miiller, Wieseler, and Oesterley, D. A. K. ii. 
 21, 222; Sestini, Descr. Num. vii. 3, p. 396; 
 Pellerin, E. ct V. ii. 31. 3. 
 
 10 II. vi. 93, 94 : 
 
 Kai ot viroax^o-Qai ovoKaiSeKa fiovs eVi vrjcp 
 ijvis ijKdaras, iepevae/Jitv, ei" k' iXerjar). 
 
156 
 
 THE HISTORY OF TROY. 
 
 [Chap. III. 
 
 To this the medieval legends of the saints offer hundreds of parallels, 
 which German science has only lately understood in the sense in 
 which, as I have shown, it must be understood in the legend of the 
 hill of Ate." 
 
 Thus, according to the tradition, sacred Ilios was built by Ilus, who 
 married Eurydice, daughter of Adrastus. His son Laomedon married, as 
 some said, Strymo, daughter of the Scamander, according to others 
 Plakia, daughter of Atreus or of Leucippos ; his sons were Tithonus, 
 Lampon, Clytius, Hicetaon, Podarces ; his daughters, Hesione, Cilia, and 
 Astyoche. 1 As already stated, it was under Laomedon that the walls of 
 Troy were built by Poseidon alone, 2 or by him and Apollo, 3 and also that 
 the city was attacked and captured by Herakles, who killed the king and 
 all his sons except Podarces. Herakles having allowed Hesione to choose 
 from among them whomsoever she wished, she chose Podarces ; but 
 Herakles demanded that he should first be sold as a slave, allowing 
 her to buy him afterwards with whatever she pleased. He was there- 
 fore sold, and Hesione bought him back with her veil, in consequence 
 of which he was called Priam (Ylplafios, from irpiaaQai^ " to purchase." 
 particip. Trpia\xevoi)? 
 
 Grote 5 says : " As Dardanus, Tros, and Ilos are respectively epo- 
 nyms of Dardania, Troy, and Ilium, so Priam is eponym of the Acropolis 
 Pergamum. Ilp/a/io? is in the Aeolic dialect Heppafjuos (Hesychius) : 
 upon which Ahrens remarks, ' caeterum ex hac Aeolica nominis forma 
 apparet, Priamum non minus arcis Uepyd/jiwv eponymum esse, quam 
 Hum urbis, Troem populi ; Hepja/xa enim a Heplafia natum est, i in 7 
 mutato.' " 6 
 
 I may here remind the reader that there were several cities of a 
 similar name; first the celebrated Pergamon in the Mysian province 
 of Teuthrania, and then Pergamus in Crete, considered by Cramer 7 to 
 be identical with the present Perama on the north side of the island. 
 According to Virgil, 8 this latter city was founded by Aeneas. 
 
 Priam married the Phrygian princess Hecabe (Lat. Hecuba), daughter 
 of Cisseus, who is a very distinguished character in the Iliad. By 
 
 1 Apollodorus, iii. 2, 3 : ^IAos 5e yi\fias Evpv- 
 5lkt}u tt]v 'ASpdaTov, Aao/xeSovra eyevvrjaev • bs 
 yauel "Zrpvjxw rrju ~2.Kau.dvo*pov ■ Kara. 5e rivas, 
 TlXaKiav tyju 'Arpecas, /car' iv'iovs 8e, AevKimrov • 
 Kal re/c^o? iraiSas p.(vTida}v6y, Ad/xTrwva, KXvrtov, 
 'iKerdoua, Tlo^dpKrjv • duyarepas Se, 'Ho~i6ur]j/ 7 
 Kal KiWav Kal , A(Ttv6xV' / ' 
 
 ' l II. xxi. 442-449 : 
 (Ue'^rjat, oca Stj TrdOofxev KaKa. ^Wiov a/xcpis 
 Ijlovvoi vS>i 9ea>v, oV ayftvopi Aao/j-fSovTi 
 irdp Albs eAOovres 07)Teu<rauei/ els iviavrov 
 IJuaOal e7rt priT<5 • b 8e o"r)jxaiv(DV iircTeWev. 
 ^ toi iyu Tpwecr&t iroXiv irepi Te?xos eSetjua, 
 evpv re Kal fxd\a Ka\6v, tV dpprjKTOs tt6\is etVj ' 
 *o?j8e, cv 5' eiAiVoSas eAi/cas ]8oGs fiovKohUoKcs 
 '1817s iu KvriiJLoio-i itoKvtttvxov vA7}e'crcr7]s. 
 
 3 II. vii. 449-453 : 
 Teixos tTfix'tc-aauro vewv vrrtp, a/.i(p\ 8e Ta<ppofr 
 
 tfhaaav, ouSe 6eo?o~i Socrav K\eiras e/caTffyijSas ; 
 rov 8' ^ Tot /cAe'os ecrTai '6<tov r' eVi KiSuarai r)ws ' 
 rov 8' iiri\r]aovTai, to iyu> Kal $o?fios 'AiroKXwv 
 Tflpy AaojxeSouTi iro\l(ro'a l u€V aOXyjaavres. 
 
 4 Apollodorus, ii. 6. 4: Kal toDtt? ('Ho-ioVr?) 
 (Tvyxcapt? tu>v alxp-o-Xwrcav, bv ^fleAev ayecrOaL. 
 Trjs Se alpovfxivqs rov aZe\(pbu TloSdpKr)u, ecpr) 
 8e«/ Trpwrov avrbv hovKov yeueaOai, Kal tot?, ti 
 Tore Sovaav avr' avrov, Xafielv avrov. 'H Se, 
 TwrpavKOfiei/ov, rr\v KaXvirrpav acpeAo/xevri rrjs 
 K*<paAris avreSwKev • cdev TLob'dpKris Tlpiafxos 
 iK\r,07). 
 
 5 History of Greece, i. p. 265. 
 
 6 Ahrens, De Dialecto Aeolica, 8. 7, p. 56 ; 
 compare ibid. 28. 8, p. 150, irepp airaKu). 
 
 7 Cramer, I)esc. of Anc. Greece, iii. p. 383. 
 
 8 Acn. iii. 133. 
 
Chap. III.] 
 
 THE EAPE OF HELEN. 
 
 157 
 
 her and other women he had fifty sons and twelve daughters. 9 
 Among the sons were Hector, 10 Paris, Pei'phobus, Helenus, Troilus, 
 Polites, Polydorus ; among the daughters, Laodice, Creusa, Polyxena, 
 and Cassandra, were the most distinguished. The birth of Paris was 
 preceded by formidable presages; for Hecuba dreamed that she was 
 delivered of a firebrand, and Priam, on consulting the soothsayers, was 
 informed that the son about to be born would cause the destruction 
 of Troy. Accordingly he was exposed on Mount Ida, was brought up 
 by shepherds, and was finally recognized and adopted by his parents. 1 
 He was distinguished for beauty and strength, and was a courageous 
 defender of the flocks and shepherds, for which reason he was called 
 Alexandros (defender of men). 2 By his wife Oenone, daughter of the 
 river Cebren, he had a son Corythus. 3 To Paris came the three god- 
 desses, Here, Aphrodite, and Athene, that he might decide the dispute 
 which had arisen among them at the nuptials of Thetis and Peleus, 
 as to which of them was the most beautiful. Paris awarded the prize 
 to Aphrodite, who had promised him the most beautiful of women for 
 his wife ; in consequence of which Here and Athene became the bitter 
 enemies of Troy. 4 Paris then built ships and went on a visit to 
 Sparta, where he was hospitably received by Menelaus, whose wife Helen 
 he carried off, together with large treasures, under the protection of 
 Aphrodite, 5 and returned by way of Egypt and Phoenicia to Troy. 6 
 Menelaus found universal sympathy among the Greek chiefs. Ten 
 years were spent in equipping the expedition destined to avenge the 
 outrage. By the united efforts of all the Greek chiefs a force was at 
 length assembled at Aulis in Boeotia, consisting of 1186 ships and more 
 than 100,000 men, under the command of the ava% dvSpwv, Agamemnon, 
 king of Mycenae. This force outnumbered by more than ten to one 
 any that the Trojans could oppose to it, and was superior to the defenders 
 of Troy even with all her allies included. 7 
 
 9 II. vi. 242-250 : 
 
 aAA' ore dq Ylpidp.oio Su/noy TrepiKaKK^ 'iKavev, 
 |e<TTj;s alQovcrricri Tervyp.evov — avrap eV avrc? 
 irzvTi]K.ovT tveaav QdXafxoi ^ecrrcuo \l0oio, 
 ir\7]<rloi a\\r)\cou SeSfx-q^voL • IV0a 8e naifics 
 KOifxcoyro npid/xoio irapa, fxvrjarps clKoxoktiv. 
 Kovpaew 8' kripwdev ivavrloi tvSodeu avArjs 
 SwSe/c' iaav reyeoi QaXaixoi ^aroio Xidoio, 
 TrXrjaioi aWrjAwv Sedfirj/xevoi • ivQa. 5e yaixfipol 
 KoifjLwvTo Tlpidfioio Trap' alSo'iys a\6xoi<riv. 
 
 10 Grote, History of Greece, vol. i. p. 265, re- 
 marks: "Hector was affirmed, both by Stesichorus 
 and Ibykus, to be the son of Apollo (Stesichorus, 
 ap. Schol. Ven. ad Iliad, xxiv. 259 ; lbyci Fragm. 
 xiv. ed. Schneidewin) : both Euphorion (Fr. 125, 
 Meincke) and Alexander Aetolus follow the same 
 idea. Stesichorus further stated, that after the 
 siege Apollo had carried Hekabe away into 
 Lykia to rescue her from captivity (Pausanias, 
 x. 27. 1). According to Euripides, Apollo had 
 promised that she should die in Troy (Troad. 
 427). By Sappho, Hector was given as a sur- 
 name of Zeus, Zeus "EKTwp (Hesychius, s. v. 
 
 "EnTopes). A prince belonging to the regal 
 family of Chios, anterior to the Ionian settle- 
 ment, as mentioned by the Chian poet Ion 
 (Pausanias, vii. 3. 3), was so called." 
 
 1 Apollodorus, iii. 11. 5; Hyg. Fab. 91 ; Ovid, 
 Her. xvi. 45, and 359 ; Homer, II. iii. 325, xii. 
 93 ; Serw ad Virg. Aen. v. 370. 
 
 2 Apollodorus, iii. 12. 5 ; Schol. Horn. II. iii, 
 325. 
 
 3 Tzetz. ad Lycophr. 57 ; Conon, Narr. 22 ; 
 Parthen. Erot. 34. 
 
 4 Serv. ad Virg. Aen. i. 27 ; II. xxiv. 25 ; 
 Tzetz. ad Lycophr. 93. 
 
 5 Horn. II. iii. 46-49, 144; vii. 350-363 ; 
 Apollodorus, iii. 12. 6. See also Paus. iii. 22. 
 2 ; also in the argument of the Cyprian Poem 
 (comp. Aeschyl., Agamemnon, 534). 
 
 6 Horn. Od. iv. 228 ; i7. vi. 291 ; Herod, ii. 
 113. 
 
 7 77. ii. 128. As Grote remarks, Uschold makes 
 the total as great as 135,000 men (Geschichte 
 des Troianischen Krieges, p. 9 ; Stuttgart, 1836). 
 
THE HISTORY OF TROY. 
 
 [Chap. III. 
 
 After many hindrances, the fleet at last reached the shore of the Plain 
 of Troy. The Trojans had gathered troops from all the districts of their 
 own country between the Aesepus and the Caicus, as well as allies from 
 various parts of Asia Minor and Thrace : Carians, Mysians, Lycians under 
 Sarpedon, Maeonians, Phrygians, Thracians, Paeonians, and Alizonians. 8 
 But the Trojans in vain opposed the landing; they were routed and 
 driven within their walls. After this, the war was carried on with little 
 vigour for nine years, during which the Greeks seem to have occupied 
 their time principally in attacks on neighbouring cities. Thus Achilles 
 stormed Thebe, Lyrnessus, Pedasus, Lesbos, and other places, twelve 
 towns on the coast and eleven in the interior. " Ten years was," as 
 Grote 9 remarks, " the fixed epical duration of the siege of Troy, just as 
 five years was the duration of the siege of Kamikus by the Kretan arma- 
 ment, which came to avenge the death of Minos. 10 Ten years of prepa- 
 ration, ten years of siege, and ten years of wandering for Odysseus, were 
 periods suited to the rough chronological dashes of the ancient epic, and 
 suggesting no doubts nor difficulties with the original hearers. But it 
 was otherwise when the same events came to be contemplated by the 
 historicising Greeks, who could not be satisfied without either finding 
 or inventing satisfactory bonds of coherence between the separate events. 
 Thucydides tells us that the Greeks were less numerous than the poets 
 have represented, and that, being moreover very poor, they were unable 
 to procure adequate and constant provisions : hence they were compelled 
 to disperse their army, and to employ a part of it in cultivating the 
 Chersonese, a part in marauding expeditions over the neighbourhood. 
 Could the whole army have been employed at once against Troy (he says), 
 the siege would have been much more speedily and easily concluded. 1 
 If the great historian could permit himself thus to amend the legend in 
 so many points, we might have imagined that a simpler course would 
 have been to include the duration of the siege among the list of poetical 
 exaggerations, and to affirm that the real siege had lasted only one year 
 instead of ten. But it seems that the ten years' duration was so capital 
 a feature in the ancient tale, that no critic ventured to meddle with it." 
 
 The Iliad describes the events of the war in the tenth year during a 
 period of fifty-one days. It begins with the wrath of Achilles, of which 
 
 8 See the Catalogue of the Trojans, II. ii. 815— 
 877. 
 
 9 History of Greece, i. p. 274. 
 
 10 Herodotus, vii. 170. Ten years is a proper 
 mythical period for a great war to last. The 
 war between the Olympic gods and the Titan 
 gods lasts ten years (Hesiod, Theogon. 636) : 
 compare SeKary iviavrQ (Horn. Od. xvi. 17). 
 
 1 Thucyd. i. 11: KXtiov 8' i\v oi>x V oKiyav- 
 Opcoiria togovtov, oaov 77 axpiMaTia ■ t9]s yap 
 Tpo<p9\s airopia. t6v t€ o~t paTbv e\daffo> fjyayov, 
 Kai oaov ^Xiri^ov avrSdev iroXefiovvTa fHioTevaeiv, 
 eVetSr) Te a<piK6[X€i>oi /xdxv iKpdrrjaav (byKov 8e • 
 to yap epvfia tg3 aTpaTOiredcp ovk av eretxi- 
 cravTo), (paivovrai 8' oi»8' evTavQa irdar} tj/ 5uco- 
 fiei xpyvo-uti/ot, aXXa irpbs yewpylav ttjs Xep- 
 
 o-ovrjo-ov rpairS/nevoi Kai KrjCTTeiav ttjs rpotprjs 
 airopia. ■ fj Ka\ fiaWov ol Tpwes avTccv oieairap- 
 fxevuiv to 8e'/ca eT7) avreix ov T0 ' s viro " 
 \enrop.evois avT iiraKoi ovres ' irepiovaiav de ei 
 ?l\6ov exovTes Tpocprjs, Kai vvres adpooi dvev 
 Kricne'ias Ka\ yeupy'ias |ufex<£s rbu ir6hep.ov 
 die<pepov, pqSlws hv fidxv KpaTOVVres eikov, o'iye 
 Ka\ oi)K a6p6oi, aWa jue'pei tw ael irap6vTi 
 avrelxov ' iroKiopKiq 8' av irpoaKaOe^ojxevoi ev 
 e\da<rov'i Te XP° U V Ka ' airovdoTepov tt\v Tpoiav 
 elkov • aWa 8t' axpvi JLaT ' iat ' T °- Te ^P TOvr <»v 
 aadevri -t]v, Kai avrd ye 87; touto 6vo l uacrT6raTa 
 twv irplv yev6p.eva ot)\ovTai Totf epyois viroSe- 
 eo~Tepa ovra tt\s </>77/i7js Kai rov vvv irepl avroov 
 8ta tovs ironjTas \6yov KaTeo~xV K ^ TOS - 
 
Chap. III.] 
 
 THE TROJAN WAR. 
 
 159 
 
 Apollo was the originating cause, from eagerness to avenge the injury 
 which his priest Chryses had suffered from Agamemnon. Under the 
 influence of his anger, Achilles refuses to put on his armour, and keeps 
 his Myrmidons in the camp. The other Greek chiefs vainly strove to 
 make amends for this 'hero's absence. The humiliation which they 
 underwent was severe ; they were many times defeated by Hector and the 
 Trojans, and driven to their ships. At last the fearful distress of the 
 Greeks aroused the anxious and sympathising Patroclus, who extorted a 
 reluctant consent from Achilles to allow him and the Myrmidons to avert 
 the last extremity of ruin. Patroclus was killed by Hector, when 
 Achilles, forgetting his anger, drove the Trojans with great slaughter 
 within their walls, and killed Hector, with whose funeral the Iliad ends. 
 
 Then — to follow the story from the allusions in Homer, and from 
 later epic poets and mythologists — there came from Thrace to the relief 
 of the Trojans the beautiful warlike queen of the Amazons, Penthesileia, 
 with a band of her countrywomen ; but she too was slain by the invincible 
 arm of Achilles. 
 
 The dismayed Trojans were again animated with hope by the arrival 
 of Memnon, 2 son of Tithonus and Eos, the most stately of living men, 
 with a troop of Aethiopians, who at first made great havoc among the 
 Greeks, and killed even the hero Antilochus, son of Nestor ; but at last 
 Memnon himself was slain by Achilles in single combat. After proving, 
 by a series of most ingenious arguments, that in all probability Memnon 
 was the leader of the Keteioi or Hittites, Mr. Gladstone 3 adds: "Now, if 
 Memnon were leader of the Keteioi, it may be observed, in the first place, 
 that this country lay far eastward in the same parallel of latitude as 
 Southern Greece ; and he might therefore, with ample consistency, be 
 called by the poet, son of the Morning. And most certainly the Homeric 
 statement, that Memnon was the famous son of the Morning, would be in 
 thorough accordance both with the poet's geographical idea of the East 
 and sunrise, which the Odyssey by no means carries far towards the 
 south, and with the fame to which the Khita (Keteioi), as the resolute and 
 somewhat successful opponents of the vast Egyptian power, may well 
 have attained." Memnon's tomb was shown on a hill near the mouth of 
 the Aesepus in the Propontis. 4 
 
 Soon after Memnon's death, Achilles himself was slain near the Scaean 
 Gate by an arrow from the quiver of Paris. 5 According to Dictys 
 Cretensis (iii. 29), the murder took place in the temple of Apollo at 
 Thymbra, whither Achilles had gone to marry Polyxena. 6 
 
 2 Odyss. xi. 522 : 
 
 Kelvov 5/7 KaWiaTov XSov fiera Me/uLvoua 57ou. 
 See also Od. iv. 187; Pindar, Pyth, vi. 81. 
 Aeschylus (ap. Strab. xv. p. 728) conceives 
 Memnon as a Persian, who had come from Susa. 
 
 According to Ctesias, the expedition under 
 Memnon was sent by the king of Assyria to the 
 relief of his vassal, Priam of Troy. Ctesias pre- 
 tended to have got this information from the 
 royal archives. According to Diodorus (ii. 22 
 and iv. 77), the Egyptians asserted that Memnon 
 
 had come from Egypt. 
 
 3 Homeric Synchronism, p. 178. 
 
 4 Strabo, xiii. p. 587 : vnep 8e tt)s €K/3oAf/s 
 rov Alaiiirov ax^ov ri . ■ . (rraZiovs KoKwvbs 
 earrtv, icff § rd<pos deiKwrai MefAVoros rov 
 Tidwvov. 
 
 5 11. xxii. 360 ; Soph. Philoct. 334; Virgil, 
 Aen. vi. 56. 
 
 6 See Philostratus, Her. 19. 11 ; Hyginus, 
 Fab. 107, 110; Q. Smyrnaeus, iii. 50; Tzetzes, 
 ad Lycophr. 307. 
 
160 
 
 THE HISTORY OF TROY. 
 
 [Chap. III. 
 
 The Greeks learned from Helenus, son of Priam, whom Ulysses had 
 captured in amhuscade, 7 that Troy could not be taken unless both 
 Philoctetes and Neoptolemus, the son of Achilles, joined the besiegers. 
 The former had been left on Lemnos at the beginning of the campaign, 
 having been stung in the foot by a serpent, and having become intolerable 
 to the Greeks from the stench of the wound. But he had still the 
 peerless, bow and arrows of Herakles, which were said to be essential to 
 the capture of Troy. He was brought by Diomedes to the Greek camp, 
 and healed by Machaon; 8 he fought bravely against the Trojans, 
 and killed Paris in single combat with one of the arrows of Herakles. 
 Ulysses fetched Neoptolemus from Scyros, whilst the Trojans were 
 reinforced by Eurypylus, king of the Keteioi (or Khita), on the 
 Caicus, who was son of Telephus and Astyoche, sister of Priam. He 
 came with a large band and killed Machaon, but was himself slain by 
 Neoptolemus. 9 This son of Achilles drove the Trojans back with 
 great slaughter within their walls, from whence they never again came 
 forth to give battle. 10 
 
 But nevertheless Troy was to remain impregnable so long as it 
 retained the Palladium, which — as we have before said— had been given 
 by Zeus to the founder of the city, Ilus. Ulysses, however, having 
 disguised his person with miserable clothes and self-inflicted wounds, 
 introduced himself into the city, and found means to carry away the 
 Palladium by stealth. He was recognized only by Helen, who concerted 
 with him means for the capture of the town. 1 A final stratagem was 
 resorted to. At the suggestion of Athene, Epeius and Panopeus con- 
 structed a hollow wooden horse, capacious enough to contain a hundred 
 men. In this horse the most eminent of the Greek heroes concealed 
 themselves, whilst the whole Greek army, having burnt their tents and 
 pretended to give up the siege, sailed away with their ships, which they 
 anchored behind Tenedos. Overjoyed to see themselves finally relieved, 
 the Trojans issued from the city and wondered at the stupendous horse, 
 on which was written, that it was dedicated to Athene by the departing 
 Greeks. They were long at a loss what to do with it ; and the anxious 
 heroes from within heard their consultations, as well as the voice of 
 Helen, when she pronounced the name of each hero, counterfeiting the 
 accent of his wife's voice. 2 Some desired to bring it into the city and 
 to -dedicate it to the gods ; others advised distrust of the enemy's 
 legacy. Laocoon, the priest of Poseidon, came with his two sons, and, 
 in his indignation, thrust his spear against the horse. The sound 
 revealed that the horse was hollow ; but at the same moment Laocoon 
 
 7 Soph. Philoct. 604. 
 
 8 Sophocles {Philoct. 1437, 1438) makes Hera- 
 kles send Asklepius to the Greek camp to heal 
 the wound. 
 
 9 Pausanias, iii. 26, § 7. 
 
 10 Odyss.xi. 510-520 ; Quint. Smyrn. vii. 533- 
 544, viii. 201. 
 
 1 Arctinus, ap. Dionys. Halic. i. 69 ; Horn. 
 Od. iv. 244-264 ; Virg. Aen. ii. 161-167 ; Quint. 
 
 Smyrn. x. 351-360. With this legend about 
 the Palladium may be compared, as Grote sug- 
 gests, the Roman legend respecting the Ancilia 
 (Ovid, Fasti, iii. 381). 
 
 2 Oduss. iv. 275-289 ; Aen. ii. 13-20. Stesi- 
 chorus gave, as Grote states, in his 'IAiou 
 Uepcris, the number of heroes in the wooden 
 horse as 100. (Stesichor. Fragm. 26, ed. Kleine; 
 compare Athenaeus, xiii. p. 610.) 
 
Chap. III.] 
 
 FALL OF TROY. 
 
 161 
 
 and one of his sons perished miserably, two monstrous, serpents having 
 been sent by Here out of the sea to destroy them. The Trojans, 
 terrified by this spectacle, and persuaded by the perfidious counsels 
 of the traitor Sinon — who had been expressly left behind by the Greets 
 to give them false information— were induced to drag the fatal fabric 
 into their city ; and, as the gate was not broad enough to admit it, 
 they even made a breach in their own wall. Thus the horse was 
 introduced into the Acropolis, and placed in the Agora before Priam's 
 palace. But even now opinions were divided ; many demanding that 
 the horse should be cut in pieces, others advising that it should be 
 dragged to the highest point of the Acropolis, and thrown thence 
 on the rocks below. The strongest party, however, insisted on its being 
 dedicated to the gods, as a token of gratitude for their deliverance. 3 
 
 After sunset the Greek fleet returned to the shore of the Plain of 
 Troy, and awaited the preconcerted signal. Whilst the Trojans indulged 
 in riotous festivities, Sinon kindled the fire-signal and assisted the con- 
 cealed heroes to open the secret door in the horse's belly, out of which 
 they descended. The city was now assailed from within and without, and 
 was completely sacked and destroyed, nearly the whole population being 
 slain. Priam, who had vainly sought refuge at the altar of Zeus Herkeios, 
 was killed by Neoptolemus. His son Dei'phobus, who, after the death of 
 his brother Paris, had become the husband of Helen, was attacked by 
 Ulysses and Menelaus : he defended his house desperately, but was finally 
 overcome and slain. Thus Menelaus at length won back his wife. 4 
 
 3 Odys. viii. 492, xi. 523 ; the Argument of 
 the 'IA/ou Tlepaisof Arctinus, p. 21 ; Bacchylides 
 and Euphorion, ap. Servium, ad Aen. ii. 201. 
 
 Grote, History of Greece, i. 280, says : " Both 
 Sinon and Laocoon originally came from the old 
 epic poem of Arctinus, though Virgil may per- 
 haps have immediately borrowed both them, and 
 other matters in his second book, from a poem 
 passing under the name of Pisander. (Macrob. 
 Saturn, v. 2 ; Heyne, Excurs. 1 ad Aen. ii. ; 
 Welcker, Der episcke Cyclus, p. 97.) In Quintus 
 Smyrnaeus (xii. 366), the Trojans torture and 
 mutilate Sinon to extort from him the truth ; his 
 endurance, sustained by the inspiration of Here, 
 is proof against the extremity of suffering, and 
 he adheres to his false tale. This is probably 
 an incident of the old epic, though the delicate 
 taste of Virgil, and his sympathy with the 
 Trojans, induced him to omit it. Euphorion 
 ascribed the proceedings of Sinon to Ulysses ; 
 he also gave a different cause for the death 
 of Laocoon. (Fragrn. 35, 36, p. 55, ed. Diintz, 
 in the Fragments of Epic Poets after Alex- 
 ander the Great.) Sinon is iraipos 'OSuaaeoos 
 in Pau-anias, x. 27. 1." 
 
 4 Odys. viii. 492-520 : 
 
 ctAA' dye 8/? /j.eTdfir]9i, Kal 'lttttov koct/jlov deiaov, 
 
 Soupareou, tou 'E7reios iirolr]aev avu ^AO^vr}, 
 
 ov ttot is aKponoXiv Z6Xov r\yayz dios 'OSuaaevs, 
 
 avZpoov ifxirXr\(Tas, o'V'Wiov i^aXaira^au. 
 
 a% Key or] noi ravra koto: poipav icaraXe^rjs, 
 
 avriKa Kal ttuGiu [xv6rj<TO/j.ai dyOpcZiwoiaiy, 
 ws dpa roi irpocppoov Oebs ioiraae Qeainv aoiZrjV. 
 £>s <pdd\ o 8' 6p/j.7)9e\s 6eov -ijpx^To, (palve 8' 
 
 eydev kXojv ccs ot jx\v ivaaeX/xwy inl vn&v 
 fidvres aTreirXetov, nvp iv KXiaiyat {HaXoyres, 
 'Apytloi, rot 8' tfdr) ayaKXvTbv a/uup' 'Odvarja 
 etOT 1 iul Tpoowv dyoprj KeicaXv/j-ixevoi iWcD * 
 avrol yap fxiv Tpues is aKpoiroXiv ipvaauro. 
 u>s o jxkv iffTTjKei, to\ 8 5 axpna iroXX' ayopevoy, 
 H][x.evoi a/uLCp' avrov Tpi^a Se acpiaiv v/vSaj/e fiovXr], 
 ffe fiiairXrj^ai koiXov 56pv vnXei ^aA/ccS, 
 -/} Kara TttTpawv fiaXzeiv ipvaavras eV dupr^s, 
 i]h iav /xey 3 dyaXfxa dewy 6eXKT7]pioy eivai, 
 T7] irep 8// Kal eireira reXevTrjaeaOai efxeXXey • 
 aiaa yap r\v divoXeaQai, iirr\v ttoXis a/AcpiKaXvipy 
 Sovpareou fxeyav 'iirnov, 6'0' e'iaro irdvres dpiaroi 
 'Apyelooy Tpcbearri (povov Kal K?]pa (pepoyres. 
 ijeidey 8' ais aarv SieirpaOoy vies 'Axcttw^ 
 iwRodev iKX^'^voi, ko?Xov Xox°v iKirpoXiTrovres. 
 dXXov 8' aAAr? deide iroXiv Kepai^ifxev a'nrf,v, 
 avTap 'Odvaarja irporl Sd/nara Ari'icpofioio 
 fi-f]fj.€vai, 7]vt' 'Apr]a, <rvv avTidew MeveXaw. 
 KelQi 8/7 alvorarov ir6Xep.ov (pdro roXfXT]aavTa 
 viKri(Tai Kal eireira Sta fxeyddv/xou 'Adyvov. 
 
 But the story of Helen and of the Trojan 
 war was differently told by the priests of Mem- 
 phis to Herodotus, who gives us the following 
 account of it (Herodotus, translated by Rawlin- 
 son, ii. 113-1 21) : " The priests, in answer to my 
 enquiries on the subject of Helen, informed mo 
 
 M 
 
162 
 
 THE HISTOKY OF TROT. 
 
 [Chap. III. 
 
 Thus Troy was destroyed, as Aeschylus says : the altars, the temples, 
 
 of the following particulars." [Here Rawlinson 
 (p. 184) justly observes that the fact of Homer 
 having believed that Helen went to Egypt only 
 proves that the story was not invented in the 
 time of Herodotus, but was current long before.] 
 " When Alexander had carried off Helen from 
 Sparta, he took ship and sailed homewards. On 
 his way across the Aegean, a gale arose, which 
 drove him from his course and took him down 
 to the sea of Egypt. Hence, as the wind did 
 not abate, he was carried on to the coast, when 
 he went ashore, landing at the Salt-pans, in that 
 mouth of the Nile which is now called the 
 Canobic. At this place there stood upon the 
 shore a temple, which still exists, dedicated to 
 Hercules. If a slave runs away from his 
 master, and taking sanctuary at this shrine 
 gives himself up to the god, and receives cer- 
 tain sacred marks upon his person, whosoever 
 his master may be, he cannot lay hand on him. 
 This law still remained unchanged to my time. 
 Hearing, therefore, of the custom of the place, 
 the attendants of Alexander deserted him and 
 fled to the temple, where they sat as suppliants. 
 While there, wishing to damage their master, 
 they accused him to the Egyptians, narrating all 
 the circumstances of the rape of Helen and the 
 wrong done to Menelaus. These charges they 
 brought, not only before the priests, but also 
 before the warden of that mouth of the river, 
 whose name was Thonis. As soon as he re- 
 ceived the intelligence, Thonis sent a message to 
 Proteus, who was at Memphis, to this effect : 
 'A stranger is arrived from Greece; he is by 
 race a Taucrian, and has done a wicked deed in 
 the country from which he is come. Having 
 beguiled the wife of the man whose guest he 
 was, he carried her away with him, and much 
 treasure also. Compelled by stress of weather, 
 he has now put in here. Are we to let him 
 depart as he came, or shall we seize what he 
 has brought ? ' Proteus replied, ' Seize the man, 
 be he who he may, that has dealt thus wickedly 
 with his friend, and bring him before me, that I 
 may hear what he will say for himself.' Thonis, 
 on receiving these orders, arrested Alexander, 
 and stopped the departure of his ships ; then, 
 taking with him Alexander, Helen, the treasures, 
 and also the fugitive slaves, he went up to Mem- 
 phis. When all were arrived, Proteus asked 
 Alexander, 'who he was, and whence he had 
 come.' Alexander replied by giving his de- 
 scent, the name of his country, and a true 
 account of his late voyage. Then Proteus ques- 
 tioned him as to how he got possession of Helen. 
 In his reply Alexander became confused, and 
 diverged from the truth, whereon the slaves 
 interposed, confuted his statements, and told 
 the whole history of the crime. Finally, 
 Proteus delivered judgment as follows: 'Did I 
 not regard it as a matter of the utmost con- 
 sequence, that no stranger driven to my country 
 
 by adverse winds should ever be put to death, 
 I would certainly have avenged the Greek by 
 slaying thee. Thou basest of men, — after accept- 
 ing hospitality, to do so wicked a deed ! First, 
 thou didst seduce the wife of thy own host ; 
 then, not content therewith, thou must violently 
 excite her mind and steal her away from her 
 husband. Kay, even then thou wert not satis- 
 fied, but, on leaving, thou must plunder the 
 house in which thou hadst been a guest. Now 
 then, as I think it of the greatest importance to 
 put no stranger to death, I suffer thee to depart ; 
 but the woman ami the treasures 1 shall not 
 permit to be carried away. Here they must 
 stay till the Greek stranger comes in person and 
 takes them back with him. For thyself and 
 thy companions, I command thee to be gone 
 from my land within the space of three days ; 
 and I warn you that, otherwise, at the end of 
 that time you will be treated as enemies.' Such 
 was the tale told me by the priests concerning 
 the arrival of Helen at the court of Proteus. It 
 seems to me that Homer was acquainted with 
 this story ; and, while discarding it, because he 
 thought it less adapted for epic poetry than the 
 version which he followed, showed that it was 
 not unknown to him. This is evident from the 
 travels which he assigns to Alexander in the 
 Iliad — and let it be borne in mind that he has 
 nowhere else contradicted himself — making him 
 to be carried out of his course on his return with 
 Helen, and after diverse wanderings come at last 
 to Sidon in Phoenicia. The passage is in the 
 Bravery of Diomed {Iliad, vi. 289-292), and the 
 words are as follows : — 
 
 ' There w T ere the robes, many coloured, the work 
 of Sidonian women : 
 
 They from Sidon had come, what time god- 
 shaped Alexander 
 
 Over the broad sea brought, that way, the high- 
 born Helen.' 
 
 evd' %(Xav ol ireirhoi nauiro'iKiXoi, epya yvvaiK&v 
 'Sidou'icoi', ras avrbs 'AAe'^afSpos ^eoeiS^s 
 tfyaye ~2,iBovlr)6ev, iiriirXcos eupea tt6vtov, 
 t)]v SSbv 'EAeVrjj/ irep auiiyaytv evwarepeiav. 
 
 " In the Odyssey also the same fact is alluded 
 to, in these words (Odyss. iv. 227-230) :— 
 'Such, so wisely prepared, were the drugs that 
 
 her stores afforded, 
 Excellent gift which once Polydamna, partner of 
 Thonis, 
 
 Gave her in Egypt, where many the simples that 
 grow in the meadows, 
 
 Potent to cure in part, in part as potent to in- 
 jure.' 
 
 Tola Aibs 6vyaT7)p ex e (pdpfxaKa fiyTioevTa 
 ia6\d, rd ol YloKv^ajxva.\6p^v, ®a>vos irapdnoiTis, 
 AlyoiTTLTj, rfi 7rAer<rra (pepei (eidwpos dpoupa 
 (pdpfxaKa, ttoKKo. [xev iadAa /xe/xiy^ua ttoAAcc 8e 
 Kvypd. 
 
Chap. III.] 
 
 THE EGYPTIAN ACCOUNT. 
 
 163 
 
 and the population perished. 5 Antenor — having rejected with indigna- 
 
 Menelaus, too, in the same poem, thus addresses 
 Telemachus (Oc/yss. iv. 351, 352): — 
 
 ' Much did I long to return, but the gods still 
 
 kept me in Egypt — 
 Angry because I had failed to pay them their 
 
 hecatombs duly.' 
 
 AiyvTTTcp eVi devpo 6eol /xe/j.aa>Ta veecrQat 
 ecrxov, iirel ou acpiv epe|a rtK'f]icraas kicaT6;x^as. 
 
 "In these places Homer shows himself ac- 
 quainted with the voyage of Alexander to Egypt, 
 for Syria borders on Egypt, and the Phoenicians, to 
 whom Sidon belongs, dwell in Syria. From these 
 various passages, and from that about Sidon 
 especially, it is clear that Homer did not write 
 the Cypria: for there it is said that Alexander 
 arrived at Ilium with Helen on the third day 
 after he left Sparta, the wind having been 
 favourable, and the sea smooth ; whereas in the 
 Iliad, the poet makes him wander before he 
 brings her home. Enough, however, for the 
 present of Homer and the Cypria. I made 
 enquiry of the priests, whether the story 
 which the Greeks tell about Ilium is a fable, 
 or no. In reply they related the following par- 
 ticulars, of which they declared that Menelaus 
 had himself informed them. After the rape of 
 Helen, a vast army of Greeks, wishing to render 
 help to Menelaus, set sail for the Teucrian ter- 
 ritory ; on their arrival they disembarked, and 
 formed their camp, after which they sent am- 
 bassadors to Ilium, of whom Menelaus was one. 
 The embassy was received within the walls, and 
 demanded the restoration of Helen, with the 
 treasures which Alexander had carried off, and 
 likewise required satisfaction for the wrong 
 done. The Teucrians gave at once the answer, 
 in which they persisted ever afterwards, backing 
 their assertions sometimes even with oaths, to 
 wit, that neither Helen nor the treasures claimed 
 were in their possession ; both the one and the 
 other had remained, they said, in Egypt ; and it 
 was not just to come upon them for what 
 Proteus, king of Egypt, was detaining. The 
 Greeks, imagining that the Teucrians were 
 merely laughing at them, laid siege to the 
 town, and never rested until they finally took 
 it. As, however, no Helen was found, and they 
 were still told the same story, they at length 
 believed in its truth, and despatched Menelaus 
 to the court of Proteus. So Menelaus travelled 
 to Egypt, and on his arrival sailed up the river 
 as far as Memphis, and related all that had 
 happened. He met with the utmost hospitality, 
 received Helen back unharmed, and recovered 
 all his treasures. After this friendly treatment, 
 Menelaus, they said, behaved most unjustly 
 towards the Egyptians ; for as it happened that 
 at the time when he wanted to take his depar- 
 ture he was detained by the wind being contrary, 
 and as he found this obstruction continue, he had 
 recourse to a most wicked expedient. He seized, 
 
 they said, two children of the people of the 
 country, and offered them up in sacrifice. When 
 this became known, the indignation of the people 
 was stirred, and they went in pursuit of I\lene- 
 laus, who, however, escaped with his ships to 
 Libya, alter which the Egyptians could not say 
 whither he went. The rest they knew full well, 
 partly by the enquiries which they had made, 
 and partly from the circumstances having taken 
 place in their own land, and therefore not ad- 
 mitting of doubt. Such is the account given by 
 the Egyptian priests, and I am myself inclined 
 to regard as true all they say of Helen from the 
 following considerations : — If Helen had been at 
 Troy, the inhabitants would, I think, have given 
 her up to the Greeks, whether Alexander con- 
 sented to it or no. For surely neither Priam 
 nor his family could have been so infatuated as 
 to endanger their own persons, their children, 
 and their city, merely that Alexander might 
 possess Helen. At any rate, if they determined 
 to refuse at first, yet afterwards, when so many 
 of the Trojans fell in every encounter with the 
 Greeks, and Priam, too, in each battle lost a son, 
 or sometimes two or three, or even more, if we 
 may credit the epic poets, I do not believe that 
 even if Priam himself had been married to her 
 he would have declined to deliver her up, with 
 the view of bringing the series of calamities to 
 a close. Nor was it as if Alexander had been 
 heir to the crown, in which case he might have 
 had the chief management of affairs, since Priam 
 was already old. Hector, who was his elder 
 brother, and a far braver man, stood before him, 
 and was the heir to the kingdom on the death of 
 their father Priam. And it could not be Hector's 
 interest to uphold his brother in his wrong, when 
 it brought snch dire calamities upon himself and 
 the other Trojans. But the fact was that they 
 had no Helen to deliver, and so they told the 
 Greeks, but the Greeks would not believe what 
 they said ; Divine Providence, as I think, so will- 
 ing, that, by their utter destruction, it might be 
 made evident to all men that when great wrongs 
 are done the gods will surely visit them with 
 great punishments. Such, at least, is my view 
 of the matter. When Proteus died, Rhamp- 
 sinitus, the priests informed me, succeeded to 
 the throne." Rawlinson (p. 190) thinks this 
 is evidently the name of a king Ramses of 
 the 19th dynasty, and probably of Ramses III. 
 This supposition is confirmed by Brugsch (Hist, 
 of Egypt), who shows that Ramses III. was 
 called Ramessu pa Nuter, i.e. "Ramses the god " 
 — a name at once convertible into Rhamp- 
 sinitus, and also that the robbing of the trea- 
 sury is quite consistent with events in this 
 king's reign related in an Egyptian papyrus. 
 5 Aeschyl. Agamemnon, 527, 528 : 
 Boj/j-ol 5' aia-Toi Kal Beau i^pv^ara, 
 Kal airepiJLa Trdarjs i^anoWvraL x^°vos. 
 
104 
 
 THE HISTORY OF TROY. 
 
 [Chap. III. 
 
 tion the suggestion of some Trojans to slay Ulysses and Menelaus, when, 
 previous to the war, they had come as ambassadors to Troy and were 
 his guests, and having moreover publicly defended them— was always 
 regarded favourably by the Greeks ; and he as well as Aeneas were 
 allowed to escape with their families. But there is a version, according 
 to which they had betrayed the city to the Greeks, and a panther's skin 
 hung out of Antenor's door was the signal to the besiegers to spare 
 the house. Hector's son, Astyanax, was cast from the top of the wall 
 and killed. Priam's daughter, Polyxena, was immolated by Neoptolemus 
 on the tomb of Achilles. According to the tradition, Achilles had fallen 
 in love with her ; the Trojans had promised to give her to him on the 
 condition that he should make peace, but, when he came to negociate 
 it, he was treacherously wounded by Paris. When dying, therefore, he 
 had demanded that, after the capture of Troy, Polyxena should be 
 sacrificed on his sepulchre, which was done by his son. 7 According to 
 another version, Polyxena had fled to the Greek camp after the death 
 of Achilles, and had immolated herself with a sword on the tomb of her 
 lover. 8 Her sister, Cassandra, had sought refuge in the temple and at 
 the altar of the Ilian Athene, whose statue she embraced. Here Ajax, 
 son of Oileus, made an attempt to violate her, and he seized her so that 
 the idol fell. This sacrilegious deed caused universal indignation among 
 the Greeks, who could hardly be restrained from stoning Ajax to death ; 
 he only saved himself by escaping to the altar of the goddess. 9 But 
 he had drawn both on himself and his country the grievous wrath of 
 Athene. Whilst he himself miserably perished on his homeward voyage, 
 a terrible pestilence broke out in Locris. The oracle of Apollo having been 
 consulted, the god said that the wrath of Athene could only be appeased 
 if the Locrians sent annually two noble virgins to Ilium, to do menial 
 service in the temple of the goddess. This the Locrians scrupulously 
 performed until shortly before the time of Plutarch. 10 
 
 Neoptolemus received as his prize both Andromache and Helenus. 
 After his death, Helenus became king of Chaonia, and married Andromache, 
 whom the Molossian kings considered as their heroic mother. 1 Antenor 
 went 'by sea with a body of Eneti or Veneti from Paphlagonia, who 
 were allies of Troy, into the inner part of the Adriatic Gulf, where he 
 vanquished the neighbouring barbarians, and founded Patavium, the 
 present Padua. The Veneti (founders of Venice) were said to owe 
 their origin to this immigration. 2 
 
 As to the fate of Aeneas, the traditions were manifold. We hear of 
 
 G Grote (History of Greece, i. p. 281) remarks 
 that this symbol of treachery also figured in the 
 picture of Polygnotus, but that a different story 
 appears in Schol. ad Iliad, iii. 206. 
 
 7 Serv. ad Virg. Aen. iii. 322. 
 
 8 Philostr. Her. xix. 11 : see also Yit. Apollon. 
 iv. 16 ; Tzetz. ad Lycophr. 323. 
 
 !) Arctinus, 'IAtov Ufptrts in the Excerpta of 
 Proclos ; see Welcker, Ep. Cycl. ii. pp. 185 and 
 522. See also the representation on the chest 
 of Cypselus, in Pausmias, v. 19. 1 ; Euripides, 
 
 Troad, 69. 
 
 10 Timaeus Siculus, ap. Tzetz. Lycophr. 1145; 
 Callimachus, ap. Schol. ad It. xiii. 66 ; Welcker, 
 Griech. Fray. i. p. 164; Plutarch, Ser. Numin. 
 Vindict. p. 557, with the citation from Euphorion 
 or Callimachus; Diintzer, Epicc. Yett. p. 118. 
 
 1 Virg. Aen. iii. 294-490; Pausanias, i. 11. 
 1, ii. 23.6 ; Lesches, Fraym. 7 (ed. Diintzer). ap 
 Schol. Lycophr. 1263 ; see also Schol. ad 1232. 
 
 2 Strabo, v. 212; Ovid, Fasti, iv. 75 ; Liv. i. 1, 
 xxxix. 22 ; Servius, ad Aeneid. i. 24-2. 
 
Chap. III.] 
 
 DYNASTY OF AENEAS. 
 
 165 
 
 him, as Grote 3 observes, " at Aenus in Thrace, in Pallene, at Aeneia in 
 the Thermaic Gulf, in Delos, at Orchomenus and Mantineia in Arcadia ; 
 in the islands of Cythera and Zacynthus ; in Leucas and Ambracia, at 
 Buthrotum in Epirus, on the Sulentine peninsula and various other 
 places in the southern region of Italy ; at Drepana and Segesta in Sicily, 
 at Carthage, at Cape Palinurus, Cumae, Misenum, Caieta, and finally 
 in Latium, where he lays the first humble foundation of the mighty 
 Kome and her empire. 4 But Aeneas was, like Hector, worshipped as a 
 god 5 in Novum Ilium ; and we have the remarkable statement of the 
 Lesbian Menecrates, that Aeneas, ' having been wronged by Paris, and 
 stripped of the sacred privileges which belonged to him, avenged himself 
 by betraying the city, and then became one of the Greeks.' 6 One 
 tale among many respecting Aeneas, and that too the most ancient of all, 
 thus preserved among the natives of the Troad, who worshipped Aeneas 
 as their heroic ancestor, was that, after the capture of Troy, he continued 
 in the country as king of the remaining Trojans, on friendly terms with 
 the Greeks." 
 
 This tale appears to be fully confirmed by Homer, who informs us, in 
 the first place, that Aeneas always bore a grudge against Priam, because 
 he did not appreciate him, though he was one of the most valiant of his 
 men ; 7 in the second place, that Aeneas and his descendants should reign 
 over the Trojans. He gives us this latter information in the prophetic 
 words which he puts into the mouth of Poseidon, a god who is always 
 favourable to the Greeks, and even fights for them, but who here saves 
 the Trojan or rather Dardanian Aeneas from certain death ; nay, even the 
 implacable Trojan-hating goddess Here assents to the proceeding : " Well, 
 let us snatch him (Aeneas) from death, lest Jove be wroth if Achilles 
 slays him. It is destined to him to escape, that the race of Dardanus 
 should not perish without descendants and be forgotten, — of Dardanus 
 whom the son of Kronos loved most of all the children whom he begat by 
 mortal women. For the race of Priam has now become odious to the 
 son of Kronos ; now, therefore, shall the power of Aeneas rule over the 
 Trojans, and his sons' sons, who shall hereafter be born." 8 
 
 3 History of Greece, i. p. 292. 
 
 4 Dionys. Halic. Ant. Horn. i. 48-54 ; Heyne, 
 Excurs. 1 ad Aeneid. iii. Be Aeneae Erroribus, and 
 Excurs. 1 ad Aeneid. v.; Conon, Narr. 46; Livy, ' 
 xi. 4 ; Steph. Byz. s. v. Atveia. The inhabitants 
 of Aeneia on the Thermaic Gulf worshipped him 
 with great solemnity as their heroic founder 
 (Pausan. iii. 22. 4 ; viii. 12. 4). The tomb of 
 Anchises whs shown on the confines of the Arca- 
 dian Orchomenus and Mantineia (compare Steph. 
 Byz. s. v\ Kdtpvcu), under the mountain called 
 Anchisia, near the temple of Aphrodite. On the 
 discrepancies respecting the death of Anchises, 
 see Heyne, Excurs. 17 ad Aen. iii. Segesta in 
 Sicily claimed to be founded by Aeneas (Cicero, 
 Verr. iv. 33). 
 
 5 Lycophron, 1208, and Schol. ; Athenagoras, 
 Legat. 1 ; Inscription in Clarke's Travels, vol. ii. 
 p. 8(3 : Oi 'I.\ie?s rbv irdrpiov 6ebi> Aiveiav. 
 
 Lucian. Deorum Concil. c. 12, i. Ill, p. 534, 
 ed. Hemst. 
 
 6 Menecrat. ap. Dionys. Hal. i. 48 : 'Axaiovs 
 S' avi-n eTxe (after the burial of Paris) koL 
 ihoneov ttjs aTpariris rrjv Ke<paAr)u dirripdxQai. 
 "Ojxws Se Tacpov avrea Sa'iaavTts, eVoAe'jueoz/ yfj 
 irdcrr) a%pis v IAios eaAa>, AtVeteco ivSovros. Al- 
 p^i-ns yap driTos iwv vnb 'AAe£dV5pou Kal dirb 
 yipiaov Upwv ££eipyo/j.<zvos, dverpexpe Tlpiafxov, 
 £pya(rd/j.evos Se raura, eh 'Axaiwv iyey6vei. 
 
 7 It. xiii. 460, 461 : 
 
 [AtWas] at'et yap Ylpidfxu) iirefj.r]vte Sty 
 
 OuveK ap' ia9\bu iovra juer' dvhpdaiv ov ri ri- 
 
 8 II. xx. 300-308 : 
 
 dAA' dyed', ^fteTs irep fxiu vireK Oavdrov dydyoifxev, 
 fxr} Trees Kal KpoviZt]s Ke^oAwceTat, et Kev 'Ax*A- 
 Aeus 
 
 t6v 5e KaraKTzivri • /j.6'pl/jlov Se ot ear' ctAe'acrflai, 
 
 [y<pp3. 
 
166 
 
 THE HISTORY OF TROY. 
 
 [Chap. III. 
 
 Again, Poseidon tells Aeneas that lie has nothing to dread from any- 
 other Greek than Achilles. 9 I here call particular attention to another 
 passage in the Iliad™ in which Achilles taunts Aeneas with being a 
 candidate for the throne of Troy after the death of Priam. 
 
 Strabo, who rejects all other traditions regarding Aeneas, infers from 
 this clear Homeric statement that Aeneas remained at Troy, that he 
 reigned there after the extinction of Priam's dynasty, and that his sons 
 and their descendants reigned after him. 1 If, therefore, Ave accept it as 
 an historical truth, that Troy was rebuilt after its destruction, and that 
 Aeneas and his descendants reigned over it, we find nothing extraordinary 
 in the fact that the Locrian maidens were periodically sent to Ilium, and 
 that this custom should have been continued for such a long number of 
 centuries. Mr. Gladstone 2 holds that " Poseidon's prophecy has every 
 sign of being founded on what actually occurred immediately after the 
 Troica ; and for this reason, that it was a tradition most unlikely to be 
 invented. The part taken by Aeneas in the war was not one of high 
 distinction ; and his character, cold and timid, was one very far removed 
 from the sympathies of the poet and his countrymen ; he appears as the 
 representative of the Dardanian branch, with a sidelong jealous eye 
 towards the predominating Ilian house of Priam. It is a statement by no 
 means congenial to the general purpose of the poem, which next after 
 Achilles glorifies the Achaians, and, after the Achaians, the house of Priam. 
 But, on the other hand, nothing could be more probable or more natural 
 than that, after the Greeks had withdrawn, some social or political order 
 should be established in Troas, and that its establishment should be effected, 
 after the ruin of the house of Priam, under the surviving representative 
 of the family which jorobably was a senior branch, and which manifestly 
 stood next in influence and power. We are nowhere told that Dardanie 
 was, like so many other cities, destroyed in the war. The friendship of 
 Poseidon possibly indicates its possession of some foreign alliance or 
 sympathy, not enjoyed by the Trojans proper, whom Poseidon hated ; and 
 if it be replied that such a sovereignty was more likely to be in Dardanie 
 than in a rebuilt Ilion, I answer that this is just what the text seems to 
 contemplate, for it says that the might of Aeneas shall reign, not in 
 Troy, but over the Trojans (Troessiu anaxei), and the Troes are the 
 people of the Troad (see e.g. II. ii. 824-826)." 
 
 Grote 3 says that these " passages regarding Aeneas have been con- 
 strued by various able critics to refer to a family of philo-Hellenic 
 
 6<ppa ixi) acrirepiios yzvz)) ical dcpavros uhyrai 
 AapSdvov, hv Kpouidrjs irepl irdvTvv (plharo irai- 
 Scov, 
 
 o'i edev e^ysvovro yvvainG>v re Qwqrdtov. 
 i]8T] yap Upid/jLov ysvsr\v -rjxQvp* Kpou'iuu • 
 vvv Se 877 Alvelao fi'w] Tpweaaiv avd^si 
 icul ira'ibwv 7rou5es, to'i ksv [xstottigQs yevtavTc.i. 
 
 9 //. xx. 339 : 
 
 011 ^vydp ris o' dWos 'Axazajy Qtvapi&i. 
 
 10 II. xx. 178-181 : 
 
 Alvela, rl av roaaou dfx'iXov TruWhu tTreXBwv 
 eo"T7js ; as ys flu/tos i[xo\ /.Laxsaaadai avdoyei 
 
 iXitofxsuov Tpweaaiv avd^siv i^iroodjxotaiv 
 Tifxris ttjs Upidfiov ; 
 
 1 Strabo, xiii. p. 608 : "Ojxypos fxsvroi avvr)- 
 yopelV ovSsTfpois eoiKev, ovde ro?s irepi t&v 
 Q-pxyyttuv ttjs 2/f7j^ea)S \ex0s7aLU • eficpaivei 
 yap pLSjxzvqudTa rhv hlveiav iu rrj Tpota /cat 
 Oiabthsyixsvov t))V apxhv ' f0 » TrapadsScoKOTa iraial 
 ■naidwv T7)i> SiaSoxyv avT?is, ^(paviafxsvov rov 
 tu>v U.pia/j.idu>u ysvovs. 
 
 2 Homeric Synchronism, p. 34. 
 
 3 History of Greece, i. p. 291. 
 
Chap. III.] 
 
 ILIUM REBUILT. 
 
 107 
 
 or semi-Hellenic Aeneadae, known even in the time of the early singers 
 of the Iliad as masters of some territory in or near the Troad, and 
 professing to be descended from, as well as worshipping, Aeneas." The 
 Scepsian critic Demetrius, a contemporary of Crates and Aristarclms 
 (about 180 B.C.), 4 who wrote a Commentary in thirty books on the Homeric 
 catalogue of the Trojans, 5 and whose arguments are in nearly every point 
 adopted by Strabo, who did not visit the Troad himself — this Demetrius 
 informs us that Scamandrius, the son of Hector, and Ascanius, the son 
 of Aeneas, were founders of his native town, which had been originally 
 situated above the city of Cebren, on one of the highest ranges of Ida, 
 near Polichne, and was subsequently transferred by them 60 stadia lower 
 down, to the site where it stood in his time : these two families are said 
 by Demetrius to have reigned there for a long time. Demetrius believed 
 that the ancient town (Palaescepsis) had been the royal residence of 
 Aeneas, as it was situated midway between his dominion and Lyrnessus, 
 whither he had fled when pursued by Achilles. 6 But, as has been said 
 before, this conjecture of Demetrius is not admitted by Strabo, who 
 believed that Aeneas and his descendants reigned in Troy. According to 
 one passage in Strabo, 7 Novum Ilium and the Temple of Athene were 
 built during the dominion of the Lydian kings, and therefore at some 
 period later than 720 B.C. ; but, according to another passage in the same 
 author, 8 it was only built under Croesus (560-546 B.C.). But we shall 
 be able to show in the subsequent pages that this chronology is 
 altogether erroneous, because the pottery found in my trenches at 
 Hissarlik proves that the site has continued to be inhabited. 
 
 Novum Ilium was situated on a low height in the plain ; that is to 
 say, nearly in its centre, because the ridge whose western spur it occupies 
 extends almost to the middle of the plain. This western spur is sur- 
 rounded on three sides by the plain, into which it slopes gradually on 
 the west and south sides, whereas to the north and north-east it falls 
 off at an angle of 45°; it is, according to M. Burnouf's measurement, 
 49*43 metres = 162 ft. above the level of the sea. 
 
 The distance from Novum Ilium in a straight line to the Hellespont 
 is, according to Scylax, 9 25 stadia, but in reality it is rather more 
 than 3 miles, and to Cape Sigeum 4 miles. 
 
 It was inhabited by Aeolic Greeks, and remained a town of incon- 
 siderable power, until after the time of Alexander the Great, and even 
 until the period of the Eoman dominion, as we see from the fact that 
 Khoeteum, Sigeum, and Achilleum, though situated at distances of 
 between 3 and 4 miles from it, were all independent of Ilium. 10 But, 
 nevertheless, it was raised into importance by the legendary reverence 
 
 4 Strabo, xiii. p. 609. 
 
 5 Strabo, xiii. p. 603. 
 
 6 Strabo, xiii. p. 607 ; Homer, Iliad, xx. 188- 
 191 ; Nicolaus ap. Steph. Byz. s. v. 'AovcaWa. 
 
 7 xiii. p. 601. 
 
 8 xiii. p. 593 ; according to the reading of 
 ffaTa Kpolcrov, restored by Kramer (from two 
 MSS.) for the koto; xpv^l^oy of the MSS. 
 
 9 § 95 : 'EvrevOev Se Tpa>as apx^rai, tcai iroAets 
 'EAA-qvides elalv iv avrfj cuSe- Aapdavos, "Pol- 
 reiov, "\Kiov (ctare'xet Se curb ttjs daAarrrjs oTaSta 
 Ke) Kal iv avrfj Trorafibs 'S.Ka.fxav^pos. 
 
 10 Herodotus, v. 94, 95. See his account of the 
 war between the Athenians and Mitylenaeans- 
 about Sigeum and Achilleum. 
 
168 
 
 THE HISTORY OF TROY. 
 
 [Chap. III. 
 
 attached to it, as being the only place which ever bore the sacred name 
 immortalized by Homer. Athene had her temple in the Pergamus of 
 Novum Ilium, and was worshipped as the tutelary deity of the city, just 
 as she had been worshipped in the Pergamus of the Homeric Ilium. 
 The Ilians maintained that at its capture by the Achaean troops their 
 city had not been entirely destroyed, but that it had always remained 
 inhabited, and had never ceased to exist. 1 The proofs produced by the 
 Ilians for the identity of their city with the ancient one, were, as Grote 2 
 remarks, testimonies which few persons in those ages were inclined to 
 question, when combined with the identity of name and general locality, 
 nor does it seem that any one did question them, except Demetrius of 
 Scepsis and Hestiaea of Alexandria-Troas, who from mere jealousy and 
 envy contested the universally acknowledged identity, and of whom I 
 shall presently have occasion to speak. 
 
 Polemon was a native of Novum Ilium, and wrote a description 
 (irepirjyrio-Ls) of the city. He flourished at the end of the third and 
 beginning of the second centuries B.C., and was therefore earlier than 
 Demetrius of Scepsis. He noticed in Novum Ilium the identical altar 
 of Zeus Herkeios on which Priam had been slain, as well as the 
 identical stone upon which Palamedes had taught the Greeks to play 
 at dice. 3 Hellanicus, who was born on the day of the naval battle 
 of Salamis (480 B.C.), and was therefore a contemporary of Herodotus, 
 wrote a special work on Troy (called TpcoiKo), in which he testified to 
 the identity of Novum Ilium with the Homeric Ilium, for which asser- 
 tion Strabo (or rather Demetrius followed by Strabo) gratuitously attri- 
 butes to him an undue partiality for the Ilians. 4 
 
 Herodotus says that Xerxes, in his expedition to Greece, ascended 
 into the "Pergamon of Priam, because he had a longing to behold 
 the place. Having seen everything and enquired into all particulars 
 of the Homeric siege, he sacrificed to Athene, the tutelary goddess of 
 Ilium, (his magnificent offering of) a thousand oxen (ten hecatombs), 
 while the Magians poured libations to the heroes slain at Troy. The 
 night after, a panic fell upon the camp : but in the morning they 
 started at daylight, and skirting on the left hand the towns of Ehoe- 
 teum, Ophrynium, and Dardanus (which borders on Abydos), and on the 
 right the Teucrians of Gergis, they reached Abydos." 5 It has been 
 
 1 Strabo,. xiii. p. 600 : Xeyovai 5' ol vvv 'lAie?s 
 led tovto, ojs ov8e TeAe'ws 7)(pav'iadai awefiaivev 
 T7]v irokiv Kara t))v aXwaiv vtrb tcov ' ' Ay^aiMV, 
 ou8' e£eAei'(/>0T7 ouSeVoTe. 
 
 2 History of Greece, i. p. 298. 
 
 3 Polemon, Fragmenta, 32, ed. Didot. 
 
 4 Strabo, xiii. p. 602: 'EAkdaKos Se x a P l C^' 
 fievos rois 'IAteOcnz/, olos eicelvov Ov/jlos, avvrjyopel 
 rb rr)v avri}v elvxi noAtv ryv vvv t?? t6tg. 
 
 5 Herodotus, vii. 43 : iirl tovtov 8y\ rbv ttoto.- 
 fibv ws O.TTIKSTO Ee^^rjs, is rb Upid/xov Ylepyauov 
 aviftrj, '{/xepov ex *" Ge-qaaadai. Oerjcrd^ivos Se 
 itai Trvti6/j.evos icelvuv e/cacrra rfj 'AOrjvair] Trj 
 'iAtctSi eflixre fiovs x iAl '«*, X oas ^ 01 M^T ' T0 ^' 
 "ipoaji ix* avT0 ' ra v T <z Se 7ro£7j<ra i uei'Oi<ri vvkt'os 
 
 <f>6f3os is rb arparSTredov iveirtae. a/xa iiiuepr) 
 Se iiropeveTO ivOevrev, iv apiartpfi fxkv direpywv 
 'Po'iretov iroXiv kcu '0<ppvveiov Kal AapSavov, 
 r\irep S77 'A/6u5« b/xovpos e'en, iv Se^ifj Se 
 Tipyidas Tevupuvs. 
 
 It is out of place to speak here of the topo- 
 graphy ; but in making this quotation from 
 Herodotus, I cannot forego the opportunity of ex- 
 plaining the foregoing chapter (42), which is diffi- 
 cult to understand : 'Eiroiiero Se t)}v 68bv e'/c tt)s 
 Audits 6 arparbs iirl re irorafjibv KaiKov Kal yrjv 
 r-)jv Mua'iriv, airb Se KaiKov up/xfeo/xevos, Kdvys 
 opos %x<dv iv dpiareprj, Sta rod 'Arapvios is 
 Kap'ivrjv iroXiv dirb Se tciuttjs Sza ®v,fS7)s 7re8i'ou 
 iiropeveTo, , Arpa/j.vTT€i6v re -n6\ivKal "Avravfipov 
 
B.C. 480.] 
 
 XERXES AT ILIUM. 
 
 1G9 
 
 generally maintained in modern times, by those who dispute the identity 
 of Novum Ilium with the Homeric Troy, that the place called by 
 Herodotus the Pergamon of Priam must be different from Novum Ilium ; 
 but, as Grote 6 rightly observes, the mention of the Ilian Athene iden- 
 tifies them as the same. 
 
 Eckenbrecher 7 ingeniously observes that " Herodotus cannot but 
 have identified the Aeolic Ilium with the Homeric city, because in 
 Book i. c. 5, he calls the latter merely ' Ilion,' without an epithet, just 
 as we should designate the present Borne and the Kome of the ancient 
 Eomans by the same name. This," he argues, " appears evident when 
 we compare this passage, where the historian says that the Persians 
 traced their enmity against Greece from the conquest of Ilium, with 
 the passage in Book ii. c. 10. We see also," he continues, " that Xerxes 
 
 tt\v YleXaaylda TrapaiJ.eiP6iu.euos ' ttju ''iS^y 5e 
 Xafiwv is apLareprjv X*P a es r ^ v 'IA.ta5o y!\v • 
 Kal izpCora jxev ol vrrb rfj^lSr] vvKra ava^e'ivavri 
 fipovTal Te ical Trprjcrrripes iireiaTr'nTTOvo'i, Kai riva 
 avrov ravrj] crvxvbv ojxiXov SiecpOeipav. " The 
 march of the army, after leaving Lydia, was 
 directed upon the river Cai'cus and the land of 
 Mysia. Beyond the Ca'icus the road, leaving 
 Mount Cana upon the left, passed through the 
 Atarnean plain, to the city of Carina. Quit- 
 ting this, the troops advanced across the plain of 
 Thebe, passing by Adramyttium and Antandrus, 
 the Pelasgic settlement ; then, keeping Mount 
 Ida upon the left hand, they entered the Trojan 
 territory. As they bivouacked during the 
 night at the foot of Ida, a storm of thunder and 
 lightning burst upon them, and killed a great 
 many of them." 
 
 But if the Persian army had come by the 
 ordinary road, crossing the ridge which extends 
 from Ida westward and terminates in Cape 
 Lectum, the true Ida must have been left con- 
 siderably to the right. It is therefore generally 
 thought that either Herodotus has made a mis- 
 take, or — as, among others, G. Kawlinson (Hist, 
 of Herodotus, iv. p. 42, footnote) suggests — he 
 has given the name of Ida to the highlands 
 which close in the valley of the Scamander on 
 the left, lying west and south of Bounarbashi. 
 But this theory appears to us as unacceptable 
 as that of P. Barker Webb ( Topographie de la 
 Troade, p. 134), who endeavours to make us 
 believe that the Persian army, in coming by 
 the ordinary way, might have had the true 
 Mount Ida to its left, for he says: "To the 
 south of the promontory of Lectum, the coast 
 slopes rapidly to the east and north-east, and 
 forms with the opposite shore the Gulf of 
 Adramyttium. From this conformation of the 
 gulf, which is not exactly marked on any modern 
 map, it results that the Gargarus, instead of 
 being situated, as is generally supposed, in the 
 centre of Phrygia, approaches much more to the 
 Gulf of Adramyttium, and appears almost to 
 tower above it. Thus Herodotus's account of 
 Xerxes, who on his march from Sardis to the 
 
 Hellespont left the Gargarus to his left, a state- 
 ment which appears strange to many people, is 
 true to the real position of Mount Ida." . This 
 statement is altogether inconsistent with the 
 existing facts. 
 
 I can accept as the only right explanation that 
 of Professor Virchow, who writes to me: "As 
 Herodotus expressly states that Xerxes entered 
 the territory of Ilium having Mount Ida to 
 his left, I can but conclude from this that 
 Xerxes went from Adramyttium northward, and 
 penetrated from the east into the Plain of 
 Beiramich ; that is, nearly by the road taken by 
 Tchihatcheff. The only doubt which could arise 
 would be the mention of Antandros, which 
 appears to have been situated more to the west. 
 But the expression irapajxei^ofxevos admits of 
 the interpretation that he passed by Antandrus; 
 namely, that he passed by it to his left. Other- 
 wise he must have taken his way across the high 
 mountains. On the eastern road he passed round 
 Ida, which remained to his left, and descended 
 from the heights into the valley of the Sca- 
 mander. As he must have gone from Ine 
 through the defile into the Plain of Troy, he 
 had Bounarbashi to his left." Professor Virchow 
 adds that for this reason the small city on the 
 Bali Dagh can, in his opinion, not be Gergis, 
 because Herodotus (vii. 43) distinctly states that 
 on the day after his visit to Ilium Xerxes went 
 forward, parsing to his left Rhoeteum, Ophry- 
 nium, and Dardanus, which borders on Abydos, 
 but to his right the Teucrians of Gergis (a/j.a 
 i)/u.epri Se eVopeuero iudevreu, iv apiaTepfj fiev 
 airepycov "Poitziov ttoXiv Kal 'Ocppvueiov Kal 
 Aapdavov, r)7rep §77 'Aj8/'5w ofxovpos io~Ti, iv 
 8e|;i7 Se TipyiQas TevKpovs). As Xerxes passed 
 at the foot of the Bali Dagh, it would appear 
 strange indeed that Herodotus should have 
 mentioned Gergis, not before but after Ilium, if 
 the little city on that mountain were identical 
 with Gergis. 
 
 6 History of Greece, i. p. 298. 
 
 7 G. von Eckenbrecher, Die Lage des Homer- 
 ischen Troia ; Diisseldorf, 1875, p. 34. 
 
170 
 
 THE HISTORY OF TROY. 
 
 [Chap. III. 
 
 considered the Ilion of his time (that of Herodotus, Hellanicus, and 
 Strabo) as the Homeric Ilion, because we are told (vii. 43) that he 
 ascended to Priam's Pergamon, which he could not possibly think to be 
 situated anywhere else but in Ilion." 
 
 A further proof of the certainty which people felt regarding the 
 identity of ancient Troy with' Novum Ilium is furnished by Xenophon, 
 who relates that the Lacedaemonian admiral Mindarus, while his fleet 
 lay at Abydos, went up himself to Ilium to sacrifice to Athene, and 
 saw from thence the naval battle between the squadron of Dorieus and 
 the Athenians, near the shore off Ehoeteum. 8 
 
 Though the dominion of Novum Ilium .was still very unimportant 
 during the interval between the Peloponnesian war and the Macedonian 
 invasion of Persia, and did not even extend to the neighbouring Helle- 
 spont, yet the city was garrisoned as a strong position. We see this from 
 the account given by Plutarch: 9 "Ilion was taken byHerakles on account 
 of the horses of Laomedon ; it was also taken by Agamemnon by means 
 of the wooden horse ; for the third time it was taken by Charidemus, 
 because, a horse having fallen in the gate, the Ilians could not promptly 
 shut it." This is confirmed by Polyaenus, 10 who says : " When the Ilians 
 sacked the city of Charidemus, he got hold of a slave, who had come to 
 plunder, and by great presents he induced him to betray the city (Novum 
 Ilium). But in order that he might appear faithful to the watchmen 
 of the gates, he gave him many sheep and slaves to bring in, twice 
 or three times. The watchmen, having distributed these, allowed him 
 often to go out in the night, and with him more men to bring in the 
 booty. Charidemus seized and bound those who had come with the 
 man, dressed his own armed men in their clothes, and gave them, with 
 the rest of the booty, a horse, as if it had been captured. But the 
 watchmen, in order to receive the horse, opened the whole gate. The 
 soldiers rushed in together with the horse, killed the watchmen, and, 
 having encountered the rest of the force, stormed the city. If we may 
 make the jest, Ilion was taken for the second time by the stratagem 
 of a horse." 
 
 This Charidemus can certainly be no other than the notorious merce- 
 nary chief, who flourished in the time of Philip II. (b.c. 359-336). We 
 know him principally from the speech of Demosthenes against Aristo- 
 
 8 Hellenica, i. 1, 4 : MiVSapo? Se Karidwv rrjv 
 fxdxyv iv 'iAtw Ovwv rfj 'Adrjua, ifioriQei errl ri]v 
 BaXarrav • Kai KadeXKvcras ras eavTOv rpirjpeis 
 aneTrXei, onus avaXafioi ras fxerd Awpieccs. 
 
 9 Life of Sertorius, i. : eaAw Se rb 'lAiov 
 'HpaKXeovs bid ras AaojxeDovros 'ittttovs, Kai virb 
 ' Ay a/xe/xvovos Sid rov Aovpe'iou Trpoaayopevdevros 
 'ittttov, rp'irov 5' virb XapiD-qfxov, rds irvXas, 'ittttov 
 rivbs epnrea , 6vros 1 diroKXeiaai rax» ra>u IXiewv 
 
 /AT) ZvV7]0(:Vru>V. 
 
 10 Strategic, iii. 14 : XaplSyixos, 'IAieW Aerj- 
 Xarovvrwv avrov rr)v tt6Xiv, oiKerrjv 'IXiea irpo- 
 eXQovra eirl Xelav avXXafiiov, pieyaXois dwpois 
 eweiae irpooovvai rT]V tt6Xiv. "iva Se TTiarbs 
 <paveir\ rols cpvXdrrjvai rds in'.Xas, edwicev avrtZ 
 
 iroXXd irp6fiara ical avSpaTro^a Sts irov Ka\ rph 
 dyayelv. Ol Se (pvXaKes, ravra vei/xd/xevoi, 
 avuex^povu avrcp iroXXaKis e^ievai vvKrccp, Kai 
 avv avrw uvdpas irXeiovas rrjv Xelav irepieXav- 
 vovras. Xapldy/xos rovs /xev avv avrw ffvAXafiwV 
 eSijcre ■ to Se rovrav l/xdria TrepifiaXwv lolois 
 dvopdaiv wTrXicr/xevois, edwKev avroTs rd re aAAa 
 rrjs Xelas Kai 'ittttov cos alxP-aXwrov. Ol (pvXaKes, 
 'iva oe^aivro rov 'ittttov, iraaav rrjv ttvXt)v dvecp^av. 
 Ol crrpariwrai, rep 'Ixircp o~vvet(nreo'6vres, rovs re 
 <pvXaKas direKreivav Kai ri]V Xoitttjv ovvafiiv 
 Se^d/xevoi tt)s irtXews eKpdrr)(Tav, ware, el xph 
 ri Kai Traiqai, oevrepov eaXw rb IXiov iraXiv 
 'iirircp KaraarparT)yovjj.evov. 
 
B.C. 334.] 
 
 ALEXANDER THE GREAT AT ILIUM. 
 
 171 
 
 crates, in which the capture of Ilium is confirmed, but without particulars 
 as to how it happened. Dismissed by Timotheus, he took service in 
 Asia Minor with Mernnon and Mentor, who desired to liberate their 
 brother-in-law Artabazus, who had been taken prisoner by Autophra- 
 dates. The capture of Ilium by him must therefore have taken place 
 about 356 b.c. From this event, therefore, it appears certain that at 
 that time Novum Ilium was a fortified city. 
 
 When Alexander the Great crossed the Hellespont, he sent his 
 army from Sestos to Abydos under Parmenio ; and, after having offered 
 solemn, sacrifices at the tomb of Protesilaus at Elaeus in the Chersonese, 
 he crossed over to the shore of the Plain of Troy. Having ascended 
 to Ilium, he sacrificed to Athene, made libations to the heroes, hung up 
 his armour in the temple of the goddess, and took in exchange some 
 of the sacred arms which had been preserved from the Trojan war. 
 Such was his veneration for these Trojan arms, that he had them carried 
 before him in battle by his lifeguardsmen. He also offered at Ilium, 
 in the temple of Zeus Herkeios, sacrifices to Priam, begging him to 
 relax his wrath against the race of Neoptolemus, to which he, Alexander, 
 belonged. 1 
 
 Dicaearchus composed a separate work respecting this sacrifice of 
 Alexander (jrepl rf;? eV TX/to Overlap). 2 
 
 Plutarch tells us that Alexander, after having passed the Hellespont, 
 ascended to Ilium, sacrificed to Athene, and made offerings to the shades 
 of the heroes, and, after having anointed with oil the funeral column of 
 Achilles, he ran, as was customary, stark naked round the tomb with his 
 companions, put a wreath of flowers on it, and felicitated Achilles on 
 having had during his life a true friend, and, after his death, a great 
 herald of his glory. As he was walking through the city (Ilium) and 
 examining its curiosities, some one asked him if he wished to see the 
 lyre of Alexander (Paris) ; he answered that he cared but very little 
 about that, but that he desired to see the lyre of Achilles, to which lie 
 had chanted the glory and the deeds of great men. 3 
 
 1 Arrian. Alexand. Anah. i. 11. 5-8: iXOuv 8e 
 is 'EXaiovvra Qvei TlpwreaiXay iirl t<£ rd<pw rov 
 Tlpooreo-iXdov, on Kal Tlpwrea'iXaos irpooros e8o/cet 
 eKfirivai is T7]v 'Aaiav ra>v 'EXX^vwv roov ajxa 
 'Ayauijut.vovi is *\Xiov arparevaavrcav ■ Kal 6 
 vovs t?is Ovalas i\v iirirvx^orepav ol yeviadai 
 v) npojTf aiXaw ri]v air 6 /Baa iv. 
 
 Tlapfxevioiv /luv Sfy ra>v ire^wv robs iroXXovs 
 Kal rr\v 'ittttov 8ia/3i/3a<xcu irdxQv e/c ^rjcrrov is 
 "AfivSov ■ Kal hiifirjaav rpir\p<zo~i /xev eKarbv Kal 
 i^Kovra, irXolois Se aXXois ttoXXo?s arpoyyvXois. 
 ' AXi^avbpov 8e e£ 'EXaiovvros is rbv 'Axaioov 
 Xifxiva Karapai 6 irXeioov Xuyos icarex*i, Kal 
 avrov re Kv{3epvu>vra tt)V arparrjyida vavv 8ia- 
 fiaXXeiv Kal irrei^r] /caret fxiaov rbv iropov rov 
 'EXXt](ttt6ptov iyivero, a(pd.^aura ravpov rqj 
 Yloa^ihoovi Kal NrjpTi'io'i awevSeiv e/c XP 1 " 7 '^ (pid- 
 Xris is rbv itovrov. Xeyovai Se Kal ivp&rov iK 
 t?js z/ecos avv ro?s -oirXois iitf5r\vai avrbv is tt^v 
 ynv rrjv y Aalav Kal ($o>;xovs idpvaacrdai bdev re 
 
 icrrdX'/] iK t?]S Evpu>Trr)s teal oirov i^efirj rrjs 
 'Aaias Albs a-KO$a-n]piov Kal 'AOrjvas Kal 'Hpa- 
 KXeovs • dveXOovra be es "iXiov rf) re 'AOrjva 
 Qvaai rfj 'lXidbi, Kal rrjv iravoirXiav rh\v avrov 
 avaQelvai is rbv vecav, Kal KaQeXelv avrl ravrn] s 
 tu>v lepcov TLva ottX&v en iK rov Tpw'iicov epyov> 
 aco^o/meva. ical ravra Xeyovo~iv on ol virao~m- 
 aral ecpepov irpb avrov is ras [idxas. dvaai be 
 avrbv Kal YlpidpLip iirl rov (3oop.ov rov Aibs rov 
 'EpKeiov Xoyos Karex^i, ^viv UpLa/nov Trapairov- 
 /xevov rw NeoirroXefxov ye vet, b dr] is avrbv 
 KaduKev. 
 
 2 Dicaearch. Fragm. p. 114, ed. Fuhr; Athe- 
 naeus, xiii. p. 693. 
 
 3 Plutarch. Alexand. xv. : 'Avafihs 5' els "\Xiov, 
 eOvcre rfi 'Ad^ua, Kal ro7s T\pu>aiv ecr7reirre. Tyv 
 8' 'Ax'AAews arrjXrjV dXei-tydpLGvos Xiira, Kal 
 fxera r&v kraipwv avvauadpa/xwi/ yvfxuos, ooairep 
 %6os iariu, iareepdveoars, fxaKapio'a.s avrov, on Kal 
 £a>v (piXov inarov, Kal rcXevrrj<Tas fj.eydXov tdi- 
 
172 
 
 THE HISTORY OF TROY. 
 
 [Chap. III. 
 
 I may also call attention to the valuable inscription 4 which proves 
 the liberality of Antiochus Soter towards the Ilian Athene in 278 b.c. 
 The inscriptions Nos. 3601 and 3C02 also attest that Panathenaic games 
 were solemnized at Ilium in honour of the Ilian Athene by the Ilians, 
 conjointly with various other cities in the neighbourhood. 5 
 
 We read in Strabo : 6 " It is said that the city of the present Ilians 
 was until then a small market-town, and that it had a small and insig- 
 nificant temple of Athene. But Alexander, having ascended to it after 
 the victory on the Granicus, adorned the temple with offerings, raised 
 the town to the rank of a city, commanded the wardens to enlarge it 
 by new buildings, and declared the city free and exempt from all taxes. 
 At a later time, after the conquest of the Persian empire, he sent to 
 Ilium a very kind letter, promising to make it a large city, to make its 
 temple very celebrated, and to institute sacred games in the city. After 
 his death, Lysimachus did much for the city, surrounded it with a wall 
 40 stadia in circuit, built a temple, and increased the population by 
 adding to it the inhabitants of the old neighbouring cities, which were in 
 decay. Alexander felt a great interest in the Ilians, both on account of his 
 relationship, and because of his admiration for Homer. There has been 
 handed down a corrected edition of the Homeric poems, called ' the edition 
 of the casket ' (e/e rod vapOr/icos), because Alexander revised and annotated 
 these poems with the aid of the pupils of Callisthenes and Anaxarchus, 
 and preserved them in a richly ornamented casket, which he had found 
 in the Persian treasury. Alexander's great kindness towards the Ilians 
 proceeded, therefore, in the first place from his veneration for the poet, 
 
 pui(os %TV)(ev. 'E^ Se r<2 irepuevai Kal OeaaOai 
 to. icara ti]u ttoXiv, eoo/xeVou rivhs avrov, et fiov- 
 Aerat t))v 'AXe^dudpou Xvpav ide?v, eXaxuTTU 
 (ppoj/Ti^eiv eKelvrjs ecprj. rr]i' 8' 'Ax'AAews (-qreTu, 
 rj ra KXea icai ras irpd^eis v/xuei toov ayaOwu 
 avSpoju eKelfos. 
 
 4 No. 3595 in Boeckh's Corpus Inscriptionum 
 Graec. : 
 
 .... fixcrtXebs 'Autloxos .... 
 rrjfx /xev Upeiav Kal robs iepovo/j.ovs Kal robs 
 irpvrdveis ev^aaOai rf) 3 A6r)ua rfj 'iAmSt . . . (eVi 
 8e) rais evxa^ tt7 H&v 'Adrjva avi/TeXeo-aTcoaau 
 T7]V vop.i^ojx4v7]u icai Trdr^piou Qv)o~iav o'l re 
 Upovojxoi .... (o~Tijffai 8' avrov ei)KOva XP V(T W 
 £<p' "mrov eV tw iepy T VS ' AQf]vas eV to? eVi^a- 
 (Ve<rTaT<w toitw) .... Kal iiriypdypaf 'O Srijiios 6 
 ('IAteW fiaartXea ' Avti)oxov .... evaefielas 
 %V€K6V rrjs els to iep6(v, evepyerTfu Kal (Tw)T?ipa 
 yeyovora rod 8-rip.ov, k. t. A. 
 
 5 The inscription No. 3601 is much damaged. 
 Boeckh says of it: " Decretum Ilii atque urbium 
 vicinarum, quae cum Ilio sacrorum communionem 
 habebant de ratione sollemnium et ludorum in- 
 stituendorum scitum. Haec sollemnia arbitror 
 fuisse Panathenaea, quae et ipsa, minora quidem 
 vs. 11 nominata sunt." The inscription No. 3602 
 is : 'IAtets Kal ai) iroXeis a(t K)o(tv)a}(vov)aai (rrjs 
 6v)(rias Kal rov ayoovos Kal r?is iravriyvpews .... 
 Ar}fxT]Tpiou 'iAiaSa, KaXws Kal €'(f)So\£)cos Kavrj- 
 (popriaaaai/, (evcr)efieias eveKev rrjs irpbs rrjv 
 
 Qeh. 
 
 6 xiii. p. 593, 10-20, and p. 594, 30 : Thv 8e 
 
 TU)V 'iAieW TTOXlV TUV VVV TCCOS peV KWflT]V 
 
 elva'i (pacri to iepbv exovffav rr\s 'AQi)vas puKpbv 
 Kal evreXes, ' ' AXe^avfipov 8e ava&dvra p.erd t))V 
 eirl Tpav'iKy vikh]u avaQi]p.aai re Ko<Tp.7)crai to 
 lepbv Kal irpoaayopeixjai ttoXiv Kal ohcofiopiais 
 dvaXa$e7v -Kpoard^ai ro7s ercifxeXrirals iXevQepav 
 Te Kplvai Kal acpopou • vorepov 8e pera ttjv 
 KardXvcriv twv Tlepcrwv iiriaroX-qu Karairep\pai 
 (piXdvOpcoirov, vintTxvovjxevov ttoXlv Te iroiriaai 
 /j.eydXr)v Kal Upbv iirHTtifxoTaTov Kal dy&va 
 dirodei^eiu Up6v pLGTa 8e rrjV cks'lvov reXevrrii/ 
 AvaipLaxos p-aXiara rr\s 7r6Xecos iire/j-eXyOri Kal 
 veow Karea-Kevaae Kal t^xos TrcpiefidXeTO ocrov 
 TeTTapaKOfTa CTTaS'iav, avixpKicre T6 e<s aur^Tay 
 kvkX'p noXeis dpxa'ias 17817 K€KaKoop.evus. 
 
 'EKe7i/os yap Kara avyyevelas dvaveccaiv u>pp.7](T€ 
 irpovoilu avrccu, dp.a Kal <piXop.rjpi)S &V (peperai 
 yovv Tis Si6p6wcTis rrjs 'Ojxrtpov iroiriatws, 7] 4k 
 rod vdpQr]KOS Xeyop.ev7), rod ' AXe£dv5pov p.erd roov 
 -rrepl KaXXio-Qevr) Kal ' ' Avd^apxov intXQovTOS Kal 
 (T7]lxn(ao-aix4vov rivd, eireiTa KaraOevTos els vdp- 
 Gi)Ka %v T]upev eV t^ UepaiKy yd£y ■xoXvTeXws 
 KaTeaKeva(Tp.evov' /caret re S77 rbv rod ttoi^tov 
 (rjXou Kal Kara tV avyyeueiau riju dirb twv 
 AlaKidav tS)u eV MoAotto?s f}ao-iXeuadvT(ai>, Trap' 
 ots Kal T7]v 'AvdpoiA&x 7 )" l(TTopovai PaaiXeiaai 
 T7jv "Eicropos yevop.4vr\v yvvawa, i<ptXo(ppoveiTO 
 irpbs robs 'iAteoj 6 'AXe^avdpos. 
 
Chap. III.] 
 
 ILIUM UNDER THE SELEUCIDS. 
 
 173 
 
 and secondly from his relationship with the Aeacids, the kings of the 
 Molossians, among whom, as is said, Andromache also reigned, who was 
 once the wife of Hector." 
 
 But Strabo informs us that, when the Komans first went over to 
 Asia and expelled Antiochus the Great from this side of the Taurus 
 (190-189 B.C.), Demetrius of Scepsis, being then a youth, visited Ilium, 
 and saw the city so much in decay, that there were not even tiles on 
 the roofs of the houses. 7 He further states that, according to Hegesianax, 
 the Galatians, having come over from Europe, went up to Ilium in 
 search of a fortified place ; but that they left it immediately, because 
 the town had no walls of defence. 8 But this statement is thoroughly 
 inconsistent with, and in contradiction to, the statement made by Strabo, 
 a dozen lines before ; 9 for he had there informed us that Lysimachus, 
 after the death of Alexander, paid great attention to Ilium, surrounded 
 it with a wall 10 stadia in circumference, and settled in Ilium the inha- 
 bitants of the ancient cities around, which were in a state of decay. 
 Besides, the passages in Livy (xxxv. 43 ; xxxvii. 9) and Polybius 
 (v. 78, 111) prove beyond all doubt that Novum Ilium was fortified and 
 defensible about 218 b.c. 
 
 Livy informs us 10 that Antiochus the Great went up from the 
 sea to Novum Ilium, to sacrifice to the Ilian Athene (190 b.c.) ; and 
 further, that the Eoman Consul Livius went up thither to sacrifice to 
 the same goddess. 
 
 We read in Justin 11 that, in the first Koman expedition to Asia, 
 there was a reciprocal exchange of joy between the Ilians and the 
 Komans, as if between parents and children after a long separation. 
 
 Eckenbrecher 1 mentions the statement of Ennius, 2 that when the 
 Eomans, under the command of Cornelius Scipio Asiaticus, approached 
 the Trojan shore, they exclaimed, at the first glimpse of Troy : — 
 
 " O patria, o divora doraus Ilium, et incluta LlIIo 
 Pergama." 
 
 The Bomans, who were proud of their origin from Ilium and 
 Aeneas, treated the city of their heroic ancestors with signal munifi- 
 cence, adding to its domain the adjacent territories of. Sigeum, Khoe- 
 teum, and Gergis, as well as the whole coast from the Peraea (or 
 
 7 But, as M. Burnouf ingeniously observes 
 to me, this does not necessarily mean that the 
 houses had had tiles, and that for want of re- 
 paration they were without them. It may imply 
 as well that the houses were poor buildings, 
 which were not even covered with tiles, but 
 had only terraces of clay mixed with straw. 
 
 8 Strabo, xiii. p. 594 : Kal rb "iXiou 8' t) vvv 
 
 €<XTt KOCUOTToXlS TLS ^V, 0T6 ITpWTOV "PoOjACUOl T/}s 
 
 'Acrtas iire^rjaav Kal i^fiahou 5 Plvtioxov fbv 
 fieyau e'/c tvjs curbs tov Tavpov. (prjal yovv 
 
 Af]jX7]TplOS 6 'ZKritylOS. /jLeipaKlOU €7T l$7] U7] (X US €IS 
 
 77}v iroAiv kclt eKelvovs robs Kaipovs, ovrws 
 w\fywpriix4v7]v tSeu/ rr\v Karoiidav ware fxrjdh 
 KepafjLCjras %X* lv T " s areyas • 'Hyrjaidua^ Se 
 
 robs TaAaras irepaiooBtvras e/c rrjs Evpdcirrjs 
 avafiiivai u\v els rr\v ttoXlv Seo/xeVows ipvuaros, 
 irapa xP^A ia 8' eKAnre?v 5m to a.Teix^' 1 ' 01 '- 
 9 Ibid. xiii. p. 593. 10 xxxv. 43. 
 
 11 Justin, xxxi. 8: "Tanta laetitia omnium 
 fuit, quanta esse post longum tempus inter 
 parentes et liberos solet. Juvabat Ilienses, ne- 
 potes suos, occidente et Africa domita, Asiam et 
 avitum regnum vindicare. Optabilem ruinam 
 Trojae dicentes, ut tarn feliciter renasceretur. 
 Contra Romanos, avitos Lares et incunabula 
 majorum ac deorum simulacra inexplicabile dc- 
 siderium videndi tenebat." 
 
 1 Die Lagc des Homer ischen Troia, p. 37 
 
 2 Annal. 14. 9, ed. P. Merulae. 
 
174 
 
 THE HISTORY OF TROY. 
 
 [Chap. III. 
 
 continental territory) of Tenedos, southward of Sigeum, to the confines 
 of Dardanus. 3 The Sigeans would not submit to this loss of autonomy, 
 and their city was therefore destroyed by the Ilians. 4 A like fate 
 appears to have befallen the neighbouring city of Achilleum. 
 
 "The dignity and power of Ilium being thus," as Grote 5 remarks, 
 "prodigiously enhanced, we must find it but natural that the Ilieans 
 assumed to themselves exaggerated importance, as the recognized 
 parents of all-conquering Eome. Partly, we may naturally suppose, 
 from the jealousies thus aroused on the part of their neighbours at 
 Scepsis and Alexandria-Troas, — partly from the pronounced tendency of 
 the age (in which Krates at Pergamus, and Aristarchus at Alexandria, 
 divided between them the palm of literary celebrity) towards criticism 
 and illustration of the old poets, — a blow was now aimed at the 
 mythical legitimacy of Ilium." 
 
 The two leaders in this new " Trojan war "—the attempt to destroy 
 the traditional glory of Ilium — were, first, Demetrius of Scepsis, a 
 most laborious Homeric critic, who, as already stated, had written 
 thirty books of Commentaries on the Trojan Catalogue in the Iliad, and 
 who was ambitious of proving that his native city, Scepsis, had also 
 been the royal residence of Aeneas : and, secondly, Hestiaea, 6 an 
 authoress of Alexandria-Troas, who had also written comments on the 
 Iliad, and had made researches as to whether the Trojan war could have 
 taken place before Novum Ilium. Both declared that there was no 
 space for the great exploits related in the Iliad, the plain which now 
 separates this city from the Hellespont having been formed since the 
 Trojan war by the alluvium of the rivers. Further, that Polites, who, 
 relying on the swiftness of his feet, sat as a scout on the top of the 
 tumulus of Aesyetes, to watch when the Greek army should rush 
 forward from the ships, must have been a fool, as he could have observed 
 the movements of the Greek army much better from the much higher 
 Acropolis of Ilium, without needing his swift feet ; and that the still 
 extant tumulus of Aesyetes is situated five stadia from Novum Ilium, on 
 the road to Alexandria-Troas. Further, that the race of Hector and 
 Achilles could not have taken place, it being impossible to run round 
 Novum Ilium on account of the adjoining ridge, but that they could 
 have run round the ancient town. 7 They admitted that no trace was 
 
 3 Strabo, xiii. p. 600 : KareaKairTai 5e Kai t6 
 2ryeioi> virb rau 'lAieoov Sia rrjv aire'iQeiav, vif 
 iKeivois yap i\v vo-Ttpov y\ irapaXia iraaa 7] p*X? L 
 Aapddvov, kcu vvv vit inelvois eo~ri. 
 
 Livy, xxxviii. 39. 
 
 4 I may remind the reader that Dardanus, on 
 the promontory of Gygas, between Rhoeteum 
 and the present city of the Dardanelles, was an 
 Aeolic settlement, and had therefore no title to 
 legendary reverence as the special sovereignty of 
 Aeneas, which Grote (Hist, of Greece, i. p. 301) 
 erroneously attributes to it. He evidently con- 
 founds it with Dardanie, which was situated far 
 from Dardanus, on the slope of Ida, and of which 
 no trace was extant in the time of Demetrius 
 
 (see Strabo, xiii. p. 592). 
 
 5 History of Greece, i. 301. 
 
 6 Hestiaea is cited repeatedly in the Homeric 
 Scholia (Schol. Venet. ad Iliad, iii. 64 ; Eustath. 
 ad Iliad, ii. 538). 
 
 7 Strabo, xiii. p. 599 : Traparldycri 5° 6 At^tj- 
 rpios kcu rrjv 'AXe^avdpLvrjv 'EaTiaiav [xdpTvpa, 
 tt]v a vyy petty aa av vepl tt]s 'Ofxrjpov 'IAmSos, 
 Trvv6avo/j.evr]v et irepl Ti)v vvv iro\iv 6 ir6Ae/uLOS 
 avvi(TT-f], Kai . . . rb Tpwinhv ireSiov, b jxera^b 
 ttjs 7roAews Kai tt)s 6aXaTT7)s 6 iroir)Tr]s <ppd(ei- 
 rb /xev yap irpb rr)S vvv iroXeoos opx/xevov irpo- 
 Xw/ta elvai rcov iroraixwv varepov yeyovos. o re 
 
 IToAlTTJS " OS TpWWV GKOirbs i£e TTob'aKe'lTlO-l 7T€- 
 
 iroiOws, Tv/xfica 4tt aKpordro: Aiavrjrao yepovTos," 
 
Chap. III.] 
 
 FIRST DISPUTE ABOUT THE SITE. 
 
 175 
 
 left of ancient Troy, but they found this quite natural; for the towns 
 all around having been desolated, but not entirely destroyed, whilst the 
 ancient city had been completely destroyed, its stones had been used for 
 their restoration. Thus, for example, they asserted that Archaeanax 
 of Mitylene had built the walls of Sigeum with the stones of Troy. 8 
 Demetrius maintained that ancient Ilium was identical with the " Village 
 of the Ilians " (TXteW Kcofii]), the site of which he indicates exactly, 
 for he says that it was 30 stadia from Novum Ilium, and 10 stadia 
 from the hill of Callicolone, which latter was at a distance of 5 stadia 
 from the Simois. 9 Strabo does not tell us whether Hestiaea concurred 
 in the opinion of Demetrius, that Troy was identical with 'Wiewv Kco/mt]. 
 
 But all these objections are futile. In treating of the Topography, 
 I think I have proved that, except the course of the rivers, the Plain 
 of Troy cannot have undergone any essential change since the time of 
 the Trojan war, and that the distance from Novum Ilium to the Helle- 
 spont must then have been the same as it is now. With regard to the 
 tumulus of Aesyetes, Hestiaea and Demetrius are perfectly right in 
 saying, that the Greek camp must have been more readily seen from 
 the summit of the Pergamus than from a sepulchral mound on the road 
 to Alexandria-Troas, 5 stadia from Novum Ilium. For Alexandria-Troas 
 lies to the south-west of Ilium, and the road to it, which is distinctly 
 marked by the ford of the Scamander at its entrance into the Plain of 
 Troy, goes direct south as far as Bounarbashi, whereas the Hellespont and 
 the Greek camp were north of Ilium. But to the south of Ilium, exactly 
 in the direction in which the road to Alexandria-Troas must have been, 
 I see before me, as I stand on Hissarlik, a tumulus 33 ft. high and 
 131 yds. in circumference, and, according to an exact measurement 
 which I have made, 1017 yds. from the southern city wall. This, 
 therefore, must necessarily be the sepulchral mound which Hestiaea 
 and Demetrius indicate, but they evidently assume its identity with 
 the sepulchre of Aesyetes, merely in order to prove the situation of 
 this tumulus to be in a straight line between the Greek camp and 
 the Tillage of the Ilians (Wiecov Kw/x?/), and the latter to be the 
 site of Troy. The tumulus of Aesyetes was probably situated at the 
 present village of Koum Kioi, not far from the confluence of the 
 Scamander and the Simois, for the remains of a tumulus several feet 
 in height are still to be seen there. The tumulus said by Hestiaea 
 
 fxaraios f\v. /ecu yap el iir aKpordrca o/lioos 
 \_airb] irokv av fiel^ovos vtyovs rr)s aKpoirokecas 
 eaKorrevev e£ 'laov ax^ov ri diaaT-fj/uaTOS, /nrj 
 Seo/xevos fxrjSev rrjs 7ro8co/cei'as rov aacpahovs 
 X&pw irevre yap Ste^ei ara^lovs 6 vvv SeiKvv- 
 fxevos rov Alavi)rov rd(pos Kara. rr\v els 'AA.e£dV- 
 Speiav SSov oi/ff r) rov "EKTopos 8e TrepiSpj/xv) r) 
 rrepl rr\v ttoKiv e^et ri evXoyov • ov yap £o~ri. 
 Trepidpofxos r) vvv Sia. rrjv avvexv pd-X lu ' V 
 TraAaia. e^et rrepidpo/xriv. 
 
 8 Strabo, xiii. p. 599 : Ovdev 8' tx vos o"^C 6Tat 
 rrjs apxaias 7roAea)$. elicorws ' are yap eKire- 
 TropQ7)jx4vwv rcov kvkAc>> tt6A<zU>v, ob reXecos 8e 
 
 Kareo-TraapLevcov, ravrrjs 8' e/c fiddpccv avaTerpa/x- 
 /xevrjs, ol AiOoi irdvres els rr\v eKe'ivuv dvaArjipiv 
 Hert]vexQri(TO-v. 'Apxaidvaitra yovv (pacri rbv 
 Mirv\7]i'a?Gv e/c rwv enelQev XiBoov rb Zlyeiov 
 Teix'icrai. 
 
 9 Strabo, xiii. p. 597 : 'Trrep 8e rovrov fxutpbv 
 7) ru>v 'lAteW Kwfxrj ecrr'tv, iv fi vop.l(erai rb 
 naXaibv "\\iov IfipvaQai vporepov, rpidnovra 
 aradiovs Siexov airb rrjs vvv iroAecos, virep 8« 
 t?iS 'lAieccv Kdo/xrjs Se'/ca aradlois iarlv i) KaXXi- 
 koXwvt), \6cpos tis, irap'' ov 6 ~2,i[x6sis pel irevra- 
 ardSiov 8ie'x«j/. 
 
176 
 
 THE HISTORY OF TROY. 
 
 [Chap. III. 
 
 and Demetrius to be that of Aesyetes is now called Pasha Tepeh. It has 
 been excavated by Mrs. Schliemann, and I shall take occasion to speak 
 of it more fully. 10 
 
 From the above indications of the distances, we easily see that 
 Demetrius held Mount Kara Your, which I have already described, to 
 be the Homeric Callicolone, and that, as before stated, his 'Wieoov Kw/x?? 
 must have occupied the site of a low hill on Mr. Calvert's farm, to the 
 north-east of Thymbra, and just in front of the swamp, now dried up, 
 which used to be called the Duden swamp. A few coarse Hellenic pots- 
 herds mark the site of an ancient village there, but there is no 
 accumulation of debris. The statement of Demetrius is gratuitous, 
 that Troy had disappeared without leaving a trace, its stones having been 
 employed for the reconstruction of other cities, and especially for the 
 walls of Sigeum. If, as I hope to prove, Hissarlik marks the site of 
 Troy, the Trojan walls lay already buried upwards of 20 ft. below the 
 surface of the ground when Sigeum was built, in the seventh century b.c. ; 
 and, as no vestiges of the ancient city were visible above ground, people 
 thought, of course, that even the ruins had entirely vanished: — " etiam 
 periere ruinae." Thus it also happens that Strabo, who never visited 
 the Troad, adopts, as Grote 11 remarks, the unsupported hypothesis of 
 Demetrius, as if it were an authenticated fact; distinguishing pointedly 
 between Old and New Ilium, and even censuring Hellanicus for 
 having maintained the received local faith. But it appears certain that 
 the theory of Hestiaea and Demetrius was not adopted by any other 
 ancient author, excepting Strabo. Polemon, who, as before mentioned, 
 was a native of Ilium, could not possibly have accepted their theory that 
 Ilium was not the genuine Troy, for his work describing the localities 
 and relics of Ilium implies their identity as a matter of course. 
 
 Novum Ilium continued to be universally considered and treated 
 as the genuine Homeric Troy. According to Strabo, 1 " Novum Ilium 
 was much damaged by the Koman rebel Fimbria, who besieged and 
 conquered it in the Mithridatic war (85 B.C.). Fimbria had been sent as 
 quaestor with the consul Valerius Flaccus, who was elected commander- 
 in-chief against Mithridates. But having excited a revolt, and having 
 murdered Valerius in Bithynia, Fimbria made himself commander-in- 
 
 10 See the chapter on the Heroic Tumuli. 
 
 11 History of Greece, i. p. 302. 
 
 1 xiii. 5!»4 : eir' in6.K(x>(ro.v avr^v irdAiv oi /aeTa 
 $ip.fipiov "Poo/jlcuoi Aafiovres e/c iroAiopidas eu 
 TiS MiOpidariich) iroAep.w. awe-ire /iupQr] Se 6 $</x- 
 fip'ias virdrcf OvaAepiw <i>Aa/c/c(y ra/xlas irpoxei- 
 piadevTi eirl rbu MiOp&aTrjv KaTaaraaidaas Se 
 Kal aveAuv top viraTOv Kara Ridus'iav avrbs Kare- 
 ardd-q Kvpios rrjs GTpaTias, Kal irpoeAOwv els 
 ^IAlou, ou dexo/jt-evcou avrbv toov 'IAie'wj/ cbs Kr,(T- 
 tt]u, /Stav re irpoacpepei Kal SeKaralovs alpei- icav- 
 Xoo/J-evov S' otl V ' Aya/xe fxucov ttoAlv Se/cdVw trei 
 fxdAis elAe rbu x'AioVauj/ o~toAov excof Kal t\v 
 o-ujxiraaav 'EAAaSa a-varpaTevuvaau, TavTt)v avrbs 
 SeKarr) iifxeoa x (l P'^ (TaiTO i e ' 7re ' TIS T ® v 'lAiewu 
 "oi> yap i\v "EKTwp 6 virepfxax^v T V^ iruAeojs.' 
 to'vtov uev ovu eneAdwv 2uAAas icare\vae, Kal 
 
 rbu ~Mi9piodTT]v Kara ffvjifidcreis els tjjc ohcelav 
 aireire/j.\pe, robs S' 'IAieas irape/jLvO^aaro ttoAAols 
 eiravopQu/j.aai. Ka0' 7]/uas jxevroi Kataap 6 debs 
 iroAv irAeov avTuv irpohv6r\ae \j]Awo~as a/xa Kal 
 'AAt^avSpou . . . 6 be Kaiaap Kal <piAaAe£avopos 
 &v Kal rrjs irpbs tovs 'IAieas o-vyyeve'ias yvapi- 
 /xccrepa 'e'xoov retcfxripLa, eTreppuxrOr) irpbs t^v 
 evepyeaiav yeaviKus • yuu>pL/na)Tepa Se, irpwrov 
 fxev otl 'Pco/j.aios, ol Se 'Pcofxaioi rbv Alve lav 
 apxf]yeTf]v riyovuTai, e-nena otl 'IovAlos airb 
 'lovAou rivbs twv irpoyovcov eKeivos §' airb 
 'lovAov Tijv Trpoawi'v/xlau tax* TO-vrriv, tu>v ano- 
 yovwv els thv rwu airb Alve'iov. x^P av re ^ 
 irpoaeveifxev avro7s Kal tt]V eAevOepiav ical t^v 
 aAeirovpyrjalav avrois crvvetyvAa^e teal M 6 XP' v ^ v 
 (rv/A/j.ei>ovo~iv ev tovtols. 
 
b.c. 84.] 
 
 SACK OF ILIUM BY FIMBRIA. 
 
 177 
 
 chief of the army and marched against Ilium. When the Ilians refused 
 to receive him, as being a brigand, he attacked the city by force and took 
 it in ten days. When he glorified himself upon having overpowered in 
 ten days the city which Agamemnon, with his fleet of a thousand ships 
 and the whole power of Hellas, had hardly been able to conquer in the 
 tenth year, one of the Ilians said: 'It happened because we had no 
 Hector to fight for the city.' Fimbria was soon attacked and destroyed 
 by Sulla, who by the treaty of peace with Mithridates allowed the latter 
 to return to his country, and who consoled the Ilians by making many 
 improvements in their city. In our time the divine (Julius) Caesar 
 did yet more for Ilium, partly because he imitated Alexander (the 
 Great) . . . ; but Caesar also felt a juvenile impulse for his beneficence, 
 both as an admirer of Alexander and because he had still more evident 
 proofs of his relationship with the Ilians. Those proofs were the more 
 notorious, first because he was a Eoman, and the Komans hold Aeneas to 
 be their ancestor ; next because it was from lulus, one of his ancestors, 
 that he was called Julius, but he had received his name, as being one 
 of the descendants of Aeneas, from lulus [the son of Aeneas, Ascanius, 
 who, according to an old legend, was called lulus]. For those reasons he 
 allotted lands to them, and confirmed their freedom and exemption from 
 state taxes, and these privileges have remained to them until now." 
 
 But Appian 2 relates the conquest of Ilium by Fimbria differently. 
 He says : " The Ilians, being besieged by Fimbria, applied to Sulla, who 
 told them that he would come, and ordered them meanwhile to tell 
 Fimbria that they had given themselves up to Sulla. When Fimbria 
 heard this, he praised them as being already friends of the Komans, 
 requested them to receive him as he was also a Koman, and ironically 
 referred to the affinity existing between the Komans and the Ilians. But 
 when he entered the city, he murdered all who came in his way, burned 
 the whole city, and in various ways shamefully treated those who had 
 gone as ambassadors to Sulla. He neither spared the sanctuaries nor 
 those who had fled to the temple of Athene, for he burned them together 
 with the temple. He also pulled down the walls, and went round on 
 the following day, to see whether anything of the town still remained 
 standing. The town suffered more than under Agamemnon, and perished 
 root and branch by the hand of a kinsman ; not a house of it was saved, 
 nor a temple nor an idol. But the statue of Athene, called the Palladium, 
 which is held to have fallen from heaven, some believe was found unhurt, 
 
 2 i. pp. 364, 365 : 'lAiels Se TroAtopKov/jievoi 
 Trpbs avrov Kardcpvyov fxcv irrl 2uAAaf, 2uAAa 
 Se (p-qcravTos avrols 7]^lv, Kal KeAevaavTos iv 
 Toaopde ^ifx^pia (ppd£eiv on acpas iiriTZTpocpao-L 
 t<2 2uAAa, irvOd/Atvos 6 ^ijxfiplas irrrjveae /xev oos 
 v5r) 'PojjUcuW (ptAovs, e'/ceAeuce Se Kal atnbv ovra 
 "Poifxalov ecroo Se^eaflcu, KaTeipoovevadfievos tl 
 Kal tt)s avyyevelas ttjs ovffrjs is 'Poo/j.alovs 'lAi- 
 evaiv. icreAdoov Se tovs iv iroal nrdvras e/CTetj/e 
 Kal Trdvra iveiriixirpr), Kal tovs TTpeapevo-avTas is 
 rhv ~2,vAAav iAv/xalvero ttoikiAoos, ovre twv Upoov 
 <peid6(ji€Pos ovts tosv is tov veiov Trjs 'Adrjvas 
 
 Karacpvyovrwv, ovs ai)T$ ve& KaTiirprjcrev. Kare- 
 aKaTTTe Se Kal to. Telxv> Kal Trjs iiriovo~r)s rjpevva 
 rrepawv fir) tl avvtaTrjK€ Trjs rroAeoos eVt. 77 [lev 
 dr) x € ' L P 0Ua r ^v iirl 'Ayafiifivovi iraQovaa vrrb 
 avyyevovs SioAcvAei, Kal oikott&ov oiidev avrr)s 
 ouS' Upbv ovb" dyaAfxa eri f)v • tS Se Trjs 'AOrjvas 
 eSos, t> UaAAadiov icaAovcn Kal diorreres rjyovv- 
 Tat, vo[xi£oval Tives evps8rjvai t6tz aOpavcrrovy 
 tcov iiwreaovToov Teix^cov avrb 7T€piKaAv\pdvTwv f 
 tt jxr) Aio/xr)Br)s avrb Kal 'OBvaaevs iv t£ TpootK^ 
 epycp f/.€Tr)veyKav e'| 'IAtou. 
 
 IT 
 
178 
 
 THE HISTORY OF TROY. 
 
 [Chap. III. 
 
 having been covered by the walls which fell upon it, unless Diomedes and 
 Ulysses carried it away from Ilium in their exploit at Troy." Appian 
 adds that this happened at the very end of the 173rd Olympiad (that is, 
 in 84 B.C.). This account of the complete destruction of Ilium, as given 
 by Appian, who flourished at the time of Antoninus Pius, seems hardly 
 credible, more especially as Strabo, who lived at the time of Julius Caesar 
 and Augustus (nearly 200 years earlier than Appian), and was almost a 
 contemporary of the event, only knew that Ilium had been damaged, but 
 not that it had been destroyed root and branch. 
 
 According to Suetonius, Julius Caesar even intended to make Ilium the 
 capital of the Koman empire; 3 and in the well-known ode of Horace, 4 to 
 which we shall have occasion to recur, a like plan is attributed to Augustus. 
 
 Meyer 5 mentions a passage in Nicolaus of Damascus, 6 according to 
 which "Julia, daughter of Augustus, unexpectedly came by night to 
 Ilium, and in passing the Scamander, which had overflowed and was very 
 rapid, she had a narrow escape of being drowned. Julia's husband, 
 Agrippa, punished the Ilians by imposing upon them a fine of a hundred 
 thousand denarii, for not having made provision for the safety of the 
 princess; but they had not been able to do so, as they were totally 
 ignorant of Julia's intention to visit their city. It was only by long 
 exertions that Nicolaus succeeded in procuring the remission of the fine, 
 by the intercession of Herodes." 
 
 Julia's son, Caius Caesar, who was the adoptive son of his grandfather 
 Augustus, and became governor of Asia at nineteen years of age, must 
 also have visited Ilium, taken a deep interest in it, and lavished favours 
 upon it ; for in an inscription found on the spot he is called the kinsman, 
 the benefactor, and the patron of Ilium. 7 
 
 Ovid 8 also mentions his own visit to Ilium. 
 
 According to Tacitus, 9 Nero, when still a boy (53 a.d.), made a speech 
 in the Forum of Kome, in Greek, in favour of the Ilians. He spoke 
 with so much eloquence of the descent of the Komans from Troy, that 
 Claudius exempted the inhabitants from all public taxes. Suetonius 
 informs us that Claudius freed the Ilians for ever from all tribute, 
 after having read aloud an old Greek letter of the Roman Senate and 
 People, who offered to King Seleucus friendship and alliance only on 
 condition that he would grant to their kinsmen, the Ilians, freedom 
 from all taxes and imposts of every kind. 10 
 
 Eckenbrecher 1 quotes the statement of Tacitus, 2 that " the Ilians were 
 
 3 Suetonius, Caes. 79. 9 Annal. xii. 58. 
 
 4 Horat. Garm. iii. 3. See Ch. IV. pp. 204, 205. 10 Suet. Claud. : " Iliensibus, quasi Romanae 
 
 5 Eduard Meyer, Geschichte von Troas ; Leip- gentis auctoribus, tributa in perpetuum remisit, 
 zig, 1877, p. 96. recitata vetere epistola Graeca senatus populique 
 
 6 De Vita sua : Fragm. 3, ed. Muller and Romani, Seleuco regi amicitiam et societatem 
 Dindorf. ita demum pollicentis, si consangumeos suos, 
 
 7 The inscription is given in the chapter on Ilienses ab omni genere immunes praestitisset." 
 Novum Ilium. 1 G. von Eckenbrecher, Die Lage ties Homer* 
 
 8 Fast. vi. 421 : ischcn Troia, p. 39. 
 
 " Creditur armiferae signum coeleste Minervae 2 Annal. iv. 55 : " Ne Ilienses quidem, cum 
 
 Urbis in Iliacae desiluisse juga: parentem urbis Romae Trojam rei'errent, nisi 
 
 Cura videri fuit, vidi templumque locumque, antiquitatis gloria pollebant.' 
 Hoc superest illi : Pallada Roma tenet." 
 
A.D. 214.] 
 
 CARACALLA AT ILIUM. 
 
 179 
 
 only important through the glory of their antiquity, because they claimed 
 Troy as the parent of Borne ; and, he adds, this proves that Tacitus recog- 
 nized the ancient glory of the Ilians, and thus the identity of their city 
 with the Homeric Troy." He further mentions, that " Pliny 3 speaks of 
 the historical Ilium, calling it the fountain of all celebrity." He also 
 cites the testimony of Pomponius Mela, 4 who calls the Ilium of his time 
 " Urbs bello excidioque clarissima." Eckenbrecher further mentions that 
 " in like manner the identity of the historical Ilium with the Homeric 
 Ilium is acknowledged by Dionysius Periegetes (cir. 270 a.d.), the orator 
 Aristides 5 (150 a.d.), Stephanus (de Urbe), and Suidas (in voce)." 
 
 The Ilian coins, with the names and effigies of Eoman emperors and 
 empresses, and the legend " Hector of the Ilians," or " Priam of the 
 Ilians," are additional proofs that the identity of Novum Ilium with 
 Homeric Troy continued to be recognized. 6 
 
 The Emperor Caracalla showed his veneration for sacred Ilium, the 
 cradle of the ancestors of Kome, in a unique manner. He offered, with 
 his army, funeral sacrifices at the tomb of Achilles and honoured it by 
 races, which he and his army ran in arms around it. After that he 
 rewarded his soldiers with money, as if they had accomplished a great 
 feat, and had really conquered the ancient Ilium themselves ; and he also 
 erected a bronze statue of Achilles. 7 
 
 According to Herodian, 8 " Caracalla first visited all the remains of 
 Ilium (by which we are of course to understand all the relics which were 
 shown by the Ilians as those of ancient Troy), and then went to the tomb 
 of Achilles, and having adorned it sumptuously with wreaths and flowers, 
 he again imitated Achilles. Being in want of a Patroclus, he did as 
 follows : one of his freedmen, Festus by name, was his most intimate friend 
 and keeper of the imperial archives. This Festus died when Caracalla 
 was at Ilium : as some people said, he was poisoned in order that he might 
 be buried like Patroclus; as others said, he died from illness. Caracalla 
 ordered the funeral, and that a great pile of wood should be heaped up 
 for the pyre. Having put the body in the midst, and having slaughtered 
 all kinds of animals, he kindled the fire, and taking a cup he made 
 
 3 H. N. v. 33 : " Ac mille quingentis passibus 
 remotum a portu Ilium immune — unde omnis 
 rerum claritas." I remark here once for all that 
 for all quotations from Pliny I have used the 
 edition of M. E. Littre ; Paris, 1860. 
 
 « i. 18. 
 
 5 ii. 369 ; ed. Dindorf : cvOufxtlaOai XPV Kal 
 Aeyeiv — on eaAco /j.hv ^IAtos, t] SvyaTcordrr] tu>v 
 tv rfj Acna ttoAls kcit' itcelvovs rovs xP^ vovs i 
 aAA' bfxcos oiKe?Tcu vvv v lAioy. 
 
 6 See^the description of the Ilian coins in the 
 chapter on Novum Ilium. 
 
 7 Dio Cassius, Ixxvii. 16 : Kal tov 'EAArjo-Kov- 
 tov ovk aKtvBvvoos Sia/3aAu>v, tov re 'Ax'AAect 
 Kal kvayia/LiaaL, Kal ireptdpo/mais ivoirAtois Kal 
 kavTov Kal twv ffTpaTiwTcov 4ti/at]o-z, Kal iirl 
 tovto} tKelvois re, cos Kal fieya tl KaTccpOcoKotrt, 
 Kai to "lAiov wj aXr{9u>s avrb to apxcuov rjpriKocri, 
 XpyfJ-aTa e8w/ce, Kal avrbv tov 'AxtAAea x«A/coOr 
 
 icrTr\o-zv. 
 
 8 Herodian, iv. 8, §§4, o : 'E7reA0cW Se irdvTa 
 to. Trjs 7roAecos ['IAtov] Aelxpava, t\kzv iirl tov 
 'Ax'AAecos Tacpov, aTecpdvois re Koa/j.rjo'as Kal 
 avdeai ttoAvtzAcos iraAiv 'AxtAAea ifiifieiTO. (r]- 
 tcov T€ Kal TldrpoKAov Tiva iirol-qo'4 tl toiovtov. 
 i\v avTW tis tcov dirzAevdepcav (piATaTOS, &rjo-TOS 
 (x\v ovofia, T7js 5e fiaaiAeiov fivrj/j-vs trpoeaTccs. 
 ovtos ovtos avTOv iv 'IAi'co eT€\evTr)o~ev, a>s /x4v 
 Tives cAtyov, (pap/xaKw dvaipedels "iv ccs UaTpo- 
 kAos Ta(pfj, ws 8e eVepoi %<pacrKov, v6o~q> Sta- 
 (pOapcis. tovtov KOfAiadrjvai KeAevei tov vzkvv, 
 £vAwv T6 iroAA&v aOpoiaQrjvai irvpdv • iiriOeis Te 
 avTov ev fxiaw Kal ivavToZaird £ya KaTao~(pd£as 
 iKprj^e T€, Kal <piaAr)v AafSwv airevScav re to?s 
 ave/xois e#x er0 ' irdvv T€ &v \piAoKopo"r]s, irAo- 
 Ka/xov iiriQe'tvai tcS irvpl fyrwv iyeAaTO' irArjv 
 wv e?x e Tpix&v aTrcKeipaTO. 
 
180 
 
 THE HISTORY OF TROY. 
 
 [Chap. Ill, 
 
 libations to the winds and prayed. As he was very bald-headed and tried 
 to put a lock of hair on the fire, he was laughed at ; only he cut off all 
 the hair he had." I shall show in the subsequent pages that Caracalla 
 erected in honour of Festus the tumulus now called Ujek Tepeh, which 
 is the largest in the Troad. 9 
 
 AVhen Constantine the Great decided upon building a new capital for 
 his vast empire, which was definitively to replace ancient Borne, he in- 
 tended at first to found Nova Roma in the land of the ancient ancestors 
 of the Romans. According to Zosimus, he chose a site between Alexandria- 
 Troas and the ancient Ilium (/zerafi> TpaydSos Kal rrj<; ap^ala? 'IXiov) ; 
 according to Zonaras, on Sigeum (ev %iyai'q>, sic). There he laid the 
 foundations of the city ; and part of the wall had already been built 
 when he gave the preference to the much more suitable Byzantium. 10 
 Meyer 1 mentions that " the statue of Constantine, which was erected on 
 the porphyry column (the ' burnt column ' of Stamboul), is said to have 
 originally been a statue of Apollo which stood in Ilium." 2 
 
 I am indebted to my friend Dr. Carl Henning, the learned assistant 
 of his Majesty the Emperor of Brazil, for a copy of a letter of the 
 Emperor Julian, the manuscript of which he has discovered in the Har- 
 leian Library, 5610. 3 I give it here word for word, as it is a most 
 important contribution to the history of Novum Ilium : 
 
 9 See the description of this tumulus in the 
 chapter on the Heroic Tumuli. 
 
 10 Zosimus, ii. 30 ; Zonaras, Ann. p. 5, ed. 
 Venet. ; compare E. Meyer, Geschichtc von Troas, 
 pp. 96, 97. 
 
 1 E. Meyer, Gesch. von Troas, p. 97. 
 
 2 Zonaras, p. 6, C. : Xeyerai Se Kal ' Air6\Xcovos 
 eivai GT-r\Xt]v rb dyaXfxa, Kal p.erevex07]vai 
 rrjs ev <Ppvyia iroXeus rod 'lAiov. 
 
 3 Dr. Henning has published this inedited letter 
 in the Hermes, vol. ix. pp. 257-266 : nrjydcriov 
 7]/j.e?s oviror dv irpoa-qKajxev paVioos, el /xr] (racpuis 
 eireireio'jj.eOa, on Kal irporepov elvai Sokcov rcoy 
 TaXiXaiwv eiricrKoiros r\iri(Tr ar o aefieo-Oai Kal 
 rifxdv robs Oeovs. ovk aKorjv eyw ffoi ravra 
 dirayyeXXw t&v irpbs tydpav Kal (piXiav Xeyeiv 
 ciw9otojv, eirel Kal e/xol irdvv 5ieTe9pvX7j.ro rd 
 roiavra irepl abrov, Kal vr) robs Oeovs o>V 7 ? J/ ovtoj 
 Xpr\vai /xio~e7v avrov, ws ovSeva rcoy irovrjporaTccv. 
 eirel Se KXi)9els els rb arparoirehov virb rov 
 fxaKap'iTov Kcoycrravriov ravrrjv eiropev6jxr]v r)]v 
 oZov, curb rr)s TpwdSos opOpov ffuOeos Siavaards, 
 r)X9oy els rb ''IXiov irepl irXi)0ov(rav ayopdv. o 
 Se virr\vrf]o'e Kal $ovXo\xevcp rrjv iroXiv iarope7v 
 (J]V ydp fxoi rovro irp6(TX r ll xa T0 ^ <poirdv els to, 
 iepd) irepii}yr]Tr)s re eyevero Kal e^eydyrjae jxe 
 irauraxov. dicove rolvvv epya Kal xSyovs d(p' 
 coy dv ris eiKaaeiev ovk ayvojfiova rd irpbs robs 
 Oeovs avr6v. ijpiov eo~nv"EKropos oirov x^A/coDs 
 earrfKev avSptds ev va'itTKtp frpayei. rovrw rby 
 jieyav dvrearrjcrav 'Ax'AAe'a Kara rb viraiOpov. 
 el rby roirov iOedaco, yvcopi(eis drjirovOev o Xeycc. 
 rrjv /xev ovv icrropiav St' t)v 6 fieyas 'Ax^^bs 
 dvr irer ay fxevos avrco Tray rb viraiOpov KareiXrjcpev, 
 e£ecrri croi rwv irepiriyi]Tt7>v duoveiv. eyw Se 
 
 KaraXafioov e/airvpovs eVt, jxiKpov Sew (pdvai 
 Xajxirpobs en robs fico/JLobs Kal Xiirapccs aX-rfXi/j.- 
 /xeyrjy rrjv rov "EKropos eiKova, irpbs Urjydaiov 
 diriSuv ' Tt ravra ' eiirov ' 'IAte?s Ovovaiv ; ' a7ro- 
 ireipcojxevos i)pejj.a ttcqs e^et yvcoixr\s. 'o Se ' Kal 
 ri rovro droiroy, a.vZpa dyaObv kavrcov Tro\lrr}y, 
 SiGirep 7]fxe7s ' e(p7) ' robs fxdprvpas, el depairev- 
 ovaiv ; ' i) fxev ovv elKwy ovx vyi-frs. r\ Se 
 irpoaipeo'is ev eKeivois e^eTa^o/xevri rols Kaipo7s 
 dareia. ri b~r) rb jxerd rovro ; ' ^ahlo-uijxev ' 
 ecprjv 1 eirl rb rrjs 'IAtaSos 'A^vas re/xevos.' t 
 Se Kal fjidXa TrpoOvjxcos airriyaye jxe Kal dveu^e 
 rby veu>v, Kal wenrep jxaprvpovjxevos eVe'5et|e' fxoi 
 irdvra aKpificos crcba rd dyd\jxara, Kal eirpa^ev 
 ovdev coy elcodaaiv oi 5vo~o~efie7s eicelvoi irpdrreiv, 
 eirl rov jxerwtrov rb virofxyTj/xa rov Svaaefiovs 
 o~Kiaypacpovvres, ouSe eavpirrev, wairep eKelvoi, 
 avrbs Ka6' eavrov • i) yap aKpa QeoXoyia irap' 
 avrois eari 8vo ravra, avplrreiv re irpbs rovs 
 Saifiovas Kal (TKiaypacpelv eirl rov jxeruirov rbv 
 aravpov. Svo ravra eirriyyei\dixf]y elirelv croi • 
 rplrov Se eXQbv eirl vovv ovk oljxai XPV^ - 1 
 o-iunrdv. TjKoXovOrjcre /xoi Kal irpbs rb 'Ax'AAeiov 
 6 avros, Kal direoei^e rbv rdepoy o~u>ov ' iireirva- 
 fx-qv Se Kal rovrov U7r' avrov SieaKacpOai. h Se 
 Kal fxdha (refiojxevos avrui irpoo-pei. ravra eldov 
 avrds. aKrjKoa Se irapa rwy vvv ex^pcos exovrcov 
 irpbs avr6v, on Kal irpocrevxoiro KaQpa Kal 
 irpocrKvvo'u] rbv "HAiov. apa ovk tiv eSe^oj fxe 
 Kal Ihiwrriv paprvpovvra ; rrjs irepl robs Oeobs 
 SiaOeaeus eKaarov rives Uv elev d^LOiriar6repoi 
 {xdprvpes avrwv rwy de&v ; i)/J.e7s dv lepea T\t)- 
 ydcriov eiroiov^iev, el cvveyvcoKei\xev avry ri 
 irepl robs Oeobs dvaaefies ; el Se ev eKeivois ro7s 
 Xpdvois e'tre Svvaareias bpey6}xevos eW, oirep 
 
a.d. 354 or 355.] 
 
 JULIAN'S VISIT TO ILIUM. 
 
 181 
 
 " We should never easily have had anything to do with Pegasius, 
 had we not been convinced that formerly, whilst he appeared to be a 
 bishop of the Galileans, he knew how to respect and honour the gods. 
 I tell you this, not because I heard it from those who are wont to speak 
 from sentiments of enmity or friendship— and indeed a very great many 
 such rumours were current about him and came to my ears, and, by the 
 gods, I thought that he deserved to be hated more than the most depraved 
 wretches. But when, being called by the late Constantius to the camp, 
 I went by that road, I started from (Alexandria) Troas very early in the 
 morning and reached Ilium at the time of full market (between nine 
 and ten in the morning). He came to meet me, and he became my 
 guide, as for one who wished to know the city (this being my pretext 
 for visiting the temples), and led me about everywhere to show me 
 the curiosities. 
 
 " Listen, then, to facts and words from which one may suppose him 
 to be not regardless of the gods. There is a sanctuary of Hector, where 
 a bronze statue stands in a small chapel. Opposite to him they have put 
 up Achilles in the open air. If you have seen the place, you will well 
 understand what I say. You may hear from the guides the legend on 
 account of which great Achilles has been placed opposite to him, and 
 occupies the whole space in the open air. Happening to find the altars 
 still burning, and I might almost say still in a blaze, and Hector's statue 
 anointed with fat, I looked at Pegasius and said : ' What is the meaning 
 of these sacrifices of the Ilians ? '—sounding him in a delicate way in order 
 to learn how his feelings were. He answered : ' What is there unbecoming 
 if they do homage to a good man, their citizen, just as we do to the 
 martyrs ? ' It is true the statue is not uninjured ; but the good will of 
 (the Ilians) in respect of those times, if it is looked into, is comely. What, 
 then, happened afterwards ? £ Let us go,' I said, ' into the sacred pre- 
 cincts (the temenos) of the Ilian Athene.' He also most willingly led the 
 way, opened to me the temple, and, as if calling me to witness, he showed 
 me all the statues perfectly well preserved, and he did none of the 
 things those impious men are wont to do, who make on the forehead 4 the 
 memorial of the impious (one), nor did he hiss to himself (Le. i aside '), 
 like those (men), for their high theology consists in these two things, 
 hissing against the daemons 5 and making the sign of the cross on the 
 
 irpos T]ixas e<pT] iroWaKis, vnep rod awcrai roov 
 6ecau ra eSr? ra pdxia ravra ir€piajj.Tr4o~x eTO 
 Kal tV aaefiGiav fJ-^xpi uvSfxaros vireKplva.ro 
 (necpTive yap ovSei/ ovSa/uLov ruv iepwv r/Siwrj/cws 
 ttXt)v oXiyuv TTOLVTaTTaai KiQcav iic xaraXv/xa- 
 ros, "iva avrcp ado^eiu 4^fj ra Aoiivd), rovro 
 eV \6yca Troiovfieda Kal ovk cuVxuz/o^ueOa ravra 
 irepl abrhv irpdrrovres ctrairep 'Acpofiios eVofet 
 Kai oi TaXiKaloi Trdvres irpocrevxovrai Ttdffx^vra 
 iSetf avrov ; ei ri /xoi rcpoarex^Ls, ou rovrov 
 M-ovov aWa Kal rohs ak\ovs o'l /xeraTeQeiyrai 
 ri^freis, 'it/' ol fiiv paov viraKovaooaiu i)^uv iirl 
 ra KctXi irpoica.\ovix4vois, oi 8' y\rrov xcupojcnj/. 
 
 5e robs avrofxdrovs lovras aTreAavvotfiGP, oitSels 
 t'TaKovacTat paS'uos irapaKaAovaiv. 
 
 4 o-Kiaypacpovvres, i.e. making the sign of the 
 cross in mere show with the ringer ; like crKia- 
 /uaxoiVre?, making tha mere movements of 
 fighting. 
 
 5 My friend the Honourable Alexander Ran- 
 gabe, Ambassador of Greece at Berlin, reminds 
 me that the term Saiuoves was at that time 
 applied to the ancient gods who were identified 
 with the devils. The Christians, consequently, 
 hissed to themselves in order to avert their 
 energy, like now in the Greek church, when the 
 priest baptizes a child, he blows thrice into the 
 baptismal water and spits thrice on the child, in 
 order to avert the power of the devils from it. 
 
182 
 
 THE HISTORY OF TROY. 
 
 [Chap. III. 
 
 forehead. These two things I desired to tell you ; a third, which comes 
 to my mind, I think I must not conceal. The same Pegasius followed me 
 also to the Achilleum, and showed me the sepulchre unhurt, for I had 
 heard also that he had excavated this tomb. But he approached it even 
 with great reverence. 
 
 " All this I saw myself. But I have heard from those w 7 ho are now 
 inimically disposed against him, that in secret he prays to and worships 
 the sun. Would you not accept my testimony, even as a private man ? 
 Of the sentiments which each one has regarding the gods, who could be 
 more credible witnesses than the gods themselves ? Should we have made 
 Pegasius a priest if we had known him to have been impious towards the 
 gods ? But if in those times, whether aspiring to power, or, as he often 
 told us, desiring to preserve the temples of the gods, he wrapped those 
 rags around (his body) and feigned impiety in name (for he has shown 
 that he never did mischief to anything at all in the sanctuaries, except 
 some few stones w T hich he took out from an inn [or perhaps ruin, the word 
 Karakvfjia being derived from the verb /caraXvco] in order to be able to 
 save the rest) ; is it worth while to speak about it, and should we not 
 be ashamed to treat him just as Aphobius did and as all the Galileans 
 pray to see him treated ? If you listen at all to me, you will honour not 
 him alone, but also the others who go over (from Christianity to heathen- 
 ism), in order that these may follow us easily when we summon them to 
 the good way, and that the others (the Christians) may rejoice the less. 
 But if we drive away those who come of themselves, nobody will readily 
 follow when we invite them." 6 
 
 6 Dr. Henning says, in his comments on this 
 letter: "The MS. of this letter is of the four- 
 teenth century : it is preserved in the British 
 Museum. The person to whom the letter is ad- 
 dressed is not mentioned ; he appears to have been 
 a friend of the Emperor, and, perhaps, as governor 
 of some province, to have made remonstrances 
 with Julian for having given probably an influ- 
 ential sacerdotal position to Pegasius, who was 
 suspected of Christianity and had been formerly 
 a (false) Christian. Julian defends himself, and 
 shows how, when as prince he visited Ilium, he 
 had had occasion to recognize the heathen senti- 
 ments of that false Christian, though a Christian 
 bishop. Julian wrote the letter as emperor ; that 
 is, between 361 and 363 a.d. First of all, this 
 letter offers us an important supplement to the 
 history of Novum Ilium, the existence of which, 
 so far as I know, could only be followed up to 
 about 350 a.d. by the coins. In the middle of the 
 fourth -century Julian came, on his way to the 
 camp of Constantius, from Troas ('AA.e|aj/5peja 
 7] Tpwds) to Ilium. Here he is led round through 
 the city and the temples by Pegasius. He shows 
 him .t^ TipcSov "EKTopos, with its bronze statue 
 4v vai(TK(*> Ppaxel, and rbu fieyav 'Ax'AAca avri- 
 T(Tayjx4vov xxvt§ Kara rb vTraiOpov. On the 
 altars still glow fire-brands of the sacrifices 
 made by the Uians. Pegasius then leads 
 Julian to the re^vos of the Ilian Athene 
 
 (Herodotus, vii. 43; Xenoph. Hell. i. 1. 4; 
 Arrian. Anab. i. 11. 7; Plutarch, Alexander), 
 he opens the temple and shows him all the 
 statues of the gods intact. He also shows him 
 the Achilleum, and proves to him that the tomb 
 is uninjured. At the time of this visit, and, as 
 Julian states nothing to the contrary, at. the 
 time when this letter was written, i.e. between 
 361 and 363 A.D., the Lysimachian Ilium, which 
 had so frequently suffered, but which had become 
 prosperous again under the Roman emperors, 
 must have existed still, with all its temples and 
 curiosities. In spite of all edicts against the 
 worship of the ancient gods, it must still have 
 been under the first Christian emperors a place 
 of pilgrimage for the heathen world, for Julian 
 speaks of the Periegetae as of professional guides 
 for strangers. The city, with all its temples, 
 was indeed more than neglected by the empe- 
 rors ; but nevertheless we find it treated better 
 than other cities, if we remember that by an 
 edict of the year 324, repeated in 341, the ser- 
 vice of the Hellenic worship of the gods was 
 prohibited in the East (Miicke, Julianus, ii. 73), 
 the temples themselves were confiscated (326), 
 and many of them were then destroyed, partly 
 by order of the authorities, partly with their 
 express or tacit consent. Julian finds very 
 credible what Pegasius assures him, that he was 
 nothing but a false Christian (and that as such 
 
Chap. III.] 
 
 LATEST COINS OF ILIUM. 
 
 183 
 
 Nothing is known to us of the further history of Novum Ilium, but, 
 as the latest coins I found there are of Constantius II., there can be no 
 doubt that it decayed with the prevalence of Christianity, the destruction 
 of its temples, and the consequent cessation of the pilgrimages to their 
 shrines. Meyer 7 mentions, however, that by Constantinus Porphyro- 
 gennetus 8 (a.d. 911-959) most cities of the Troad are cited as bishoprics: 
 Adramyttium, Assos, Gargara, Antandros, Alexandria-Troas, Ilium, 
 Dardanus, Abydos, Lampsacus ; Parium even as the seat of an archbishop. 
 But there being no Byzantine potsherds or Byzantine ruins on the site 
 of Ilios, the bishopric of Ilium may probably have been on another site. 
 
 he had become iiriffnoiros ruv TaAtAcuW, pro- 
 bably in Ilium, and with the superintendence 
 over the confiscated temples), in order to be able 
 the better to preserve these monuments from 
 destruction. It is true that Pegasius, in order 
 to save the principal objects, was obliged to do 
 some trifling damage in the temples ; and if he, 
 in his devotion to the ancient gods and their 
 worship, was forced to make this sacrifice to the 
 destructive rage of the Christians, how then may 
 
 not a Christian fanatic, as bishop or governor, 
 have raged ? " 
 
 Henning then proves by a learned discussion 
 that Julian's visit to Novum Ilium must have 
 taken place either in December 354, or in Sep- 
 tember-October 355. 
 
 7 Eduard Meyer, Die Geschichte der Tracts, 
 p. 97. 
 
 8 De Ceren., ii. 54, pp. 792, 794. 
 
CHAPTER IV. 
 
 THE TEUE SITE OF HOMEE'S ILIUM. 
 
 The problem of the real site of the Homeric Ilium slept during the 
 Middle Ages, and attracted no attention after the Eenaissance. The few 
 travellers, who visited the Troad since the sixteenth century, either recog- 
 nized the Homeric Ilium in the ruins of Alexandria-Troas, 1 or limited 
 their researches to a very superficial inspection of the Plain of Troy or 
 only of its coast. 2 
 
 In 1785 and 1786 the Troad was visited by Lechevalier, 3 who was 
 aided in his researches by the architect Cazas, and patronized by Count 
 Choiseul-Grouffier, then French ambassador at Constantinople. At that 
 time the science of archeology was only in its first dawn. Egyptology did 
 not yet exist ; the cities of Assyria were not yet discovered ; pre-historic 
 antiquities were still unknown ; excavations for scientific purposes were a 
 thing unheard of; the study of Sanscrit had not yet begun; the science 
 of comparative philology had not yet been created ; nay, philology was 
 limited to a stammering play on Latin words, from which all languages 
 
 1 So Pietro Beloni, Observations de plusieurs 
 Singularites et Glioses remarquables trouve'es en 
 Grece, Asie, Jude'e, Egypte, etc., par Pierre Belon, 
 du Mans, 1588 ; and Pietro della Valle, Les 
 fameax Voyages de P. J. V., surnomme Villustre 
 Voyageur, Paris, 1670. See Lechevalier, Voyage 
 de la Troade, ii. pp. 157, 158; I. Spon and 
 G. Wheeler, Voyage d'ltalie, etc. A la Have, 
 1724 ; see also Buchholz, Homer. Kosmogr. und 
 Geogr. p. 330. 
 
 2 Sandys, Dcscr. of the Turk. Umpire ; Lon- 
 don, 1627. He could only remain one day on 
 the shore of the Plain of Troy, the country being 
 infested by robbers. Grelot {Relation d'un Voyage 
 de Constantinople, 1680) professes to have seen 
 the Plain of Troy as well as the Xanthus and 
 Simois from Cape Sigeum : see Lechevalier, 
 Voyage de la Troade, ii. pp. 158, 159 ; Le Bruyn, 
 Voyage au Levant. Buchholz mentions for cu- 
 riosity's sake Lady Mary Wortley Montague, 
 an enterprising English traveller, who, on her 
 journey to the Hellespont and Constantinople, 
 stopped with her vessel at Cape Sigeum, and went 
 — the Iliad in her hand — up to its top, whence she 
 perceived the tumulus of Achilles, Cape Rhoeteum 
 with the tumulus of Ajax, and the Simois with 
 the Scamander (Lady Mary Wortley Montague, 
 Briefe wdhrend Hirer Rciscn in Europa, Asien, 
 und Afrika. 3 Theile und Nachtrage ; Leipzig, 
 
 1763-1767 : a translation of her well-known 
 English work). Buchholz also mentions Pococke 
 (Beschreibung des Morgenlandes und einigcr an- 
 derer Lander, German ed. by Breyer and Scheber, 
 Erlangen, 1790, 1791, a translation of the well- 
 known English work) as the first who in the 
 year 1739 made thorough researches in the Plain 
 of Troy, determined the situation of its various 
 heroic tombs, saw the valley of the Thymbrius 
 and the confluence of the Scamander and Simois. 
 Buchholz, p. 331, also mentions Wood (Essay on 
 the Original Genius and Writings of Homer, 
 London, 1769, 4; 1770, 4; 1775, 4), who dis- 
 covered the sources of the Scamander, believing 
 them to be those of the Simois ; also Chand- 
 ler (Travels in Asia Minor, Oxford, 1775), who 
 fixed the position of the heroic tombs with 
 categorical certainty. I may further mention 
 F. A. G. Spohn, Comment. Geogr. Grit, de agro 
 Trojano in carminibus Homericis descripto, Lipsiae 
 1814; but he had no personal knowledge of the 
 Troad, and endeavours to fix all the sites by the 
 indications of Homer. Neither did Alexander 
 Pope know the Troad personally, but neverthe- 
 less he made a Map of Troy and its environs 
 (before he translated the Iliad). 
 
 3 1 oyage de la Troade, 3 tomes, 3° edit. ; Paris, 
 Dentu, An. x. 1802. 
 
Chap. IV.] 
 
 THEORIES OF LECIIEVAL1EK. 
 
 185 
 
 were thought to be derived, except by those who held the fond fancy that 
 Hebrew was the primitive speech of the whole human race ; and no one 
 had an idea of the descent of our race from the highlands above India, 
 which indeed was still almost a terra incognita. Since there were no 
 archaeologists, there was no archaeological criticism. When, therefore, 
 Lechevalier 4 made his romantic pilgrimage in search of Ilium, and 
 learnt intuitively, without even touching the ground with the spade, 
 and as if by divine inspiration, — just as Virgil says : 
 
 " Hie Dolopum manus, hie saevus tendebat Achilles ; 
 Classibus hie locus, hie acie certare solebant," 5 — 
 
 that Priam's Pergamus had been on the hill at the extremity of the 
 heights of Bali Dagh ; that the city had extended over the heights as far 
 down as the village of Bounarbashi, which marked the site of the Scaean 
 Gate ; and that the forty cold springs at the foot of the village were the 
 two sources of the Scamander, of which he described the one as warm, 
 with volumes of steam arising from it, in order to make it agree with 
 the Homeric indication ; 6 — when further he affirmed that the rivulet 
 Bounarbashi Su, formed by the forty springs, was the Scamander (arentem 
 Xanthi cognomine rivum), and made this river appear on his map of the 
 Plain of Troy almost as broad as the real Scamander, which he called 
 Simois, declaring the Doumbrek Su (Simois) to be the Thymbrius ; — when 
 finally, in order to put his system in perfect accord with the indica- 
 tions of the Iliad, he represented his Scamander as joining his Simois 
 at Koum Kioi, and falling into the Hellespont close to Cape Ehoeteum ; 7 — 
 his theories were almost unanimously adopted, and his imaginary identi- 
 fications produced in the scientific world a far greater sensation than 
 any real discovery in later times. 
 
 Lechevalier's theories found an especially warm defender in Count 
 Choiseul-Gouffier, 8 French ambassador at Constantinople, in whose service 
 he was, and who himself visited the Plain of Troy and confirmed all his 
 discoveries. Choiseul-Gouffier says that the sources of the Scamander at 
 Bounarbashi are still in the same condition as they were in Homer's 
 time ; 9 that one is warm and the other cold ; 10 that the village of Bounar- 
 bashi is situated on the hill Batieia; 1 that the Scaean Gate was a little 
 above Bounarbashi, on the upper part of that hill ; that the Erineos can 
 be easily recognized ; 2 that the site of Troy is covered with ancient debris, 
 and that foundations of an ancient settlement can be traced ; 3 finally, 
 that the tumulus of Ujek Tepeh is the sepulchre of Aesyetes. 4 Choiseul- 
 Gouffier admits, with Lechevalier, that the ancient Scamander fell into 
 the Hellespont at the foot of Cape Ehoeteum, for so he also represents 
 
 4 Voyage de la Troade, 3 tomes, 3 e edit, ; Paris, 
 Dentu, An. x. 1802. Lechevalier's Beschreibung 
 der Ebene von Troia, mit Anmerkungen von Bah el, 
 am dem Englischen, von Bornedden ; Leipzig, 
 1792. 
 
 5 Aeneid. ii. 29. 
 
 6 II. xxii. 147-152. 
 
 7 See the map in his work above mentioned. 
 
 8 Voyage pittoresque de la Grece, tome ii. 
 livraison ii. ; Paris, 1820. See Buchholz, Homer. 
 Kosmogr. und Geogr. p. 333. 
 
 9 See C. G. Lenz, Bie Ebene von Troia, nach 
 dem Grafen Choiseul-Gouffier ; Neu iStrelitz, 1798, 
 p. 26. 10 Ibid. p. 59. 
 
 1 Ibid. p. 31. 2 Ibid. p. 34. 
 
 s Ibid. p. 44. 4 Ibid. pp. 54, 55. 
 
186 
 
 THE TRUE SITE OF HOMER'S ILIUM. 
 
 [Chap. IV. 
 
 it on his map : 5 this last appears to he the single right view that these 
 two travellers hit upon. 
 
 The theory of Lechevalier and Choiseul-Gouffier, that ancient Troy- 
 was situated on the heights of Bounarhashi, was at the end of the last 
 century violently opposed hy Jacob Bryant, 6 who declares the war of 
 Troy to he a myth, but maintains that Homer had in view a real space of 
 ground for his tragedy: this theatre of the Trojan war he places near 
 Cape Lectum. and the city of Hamaxitus. 
 
 Messrs. Hawkins, Sibthorpe, Lyston, and Dallaway, travellers to the 
 Plain of Troy, mentioned by Lechevalier, 7 adopted his theory. This Troy- 
 Bounarbashi theory was further adopted by the following writers : — 
 
 Heyne, Excurs. ad Iliad., lib. vi. 
 
 Carl (xotthold Lenz, Die Ebene von Troia ; Neu Strelitz, 1798. 
 
 J. B. S. Morritt, iD his answer to Jacob Bryant, A Vindication of 
 Homer, York, 1798; and Borne Observations upon the Vindication of Homer, 
 Eton, 1799. 
 
 Wm. Franklin, BemarJcs and Observations on the Plain of Troy, 
 made during an Excursion in June, 1799 ; London, 1800. 
 
 William Gell, The Topography of Troy and its Vicinity ; London, 1801. 
 
 Hawkins, in the Edinburgh Transactions, vol. iv. 
 
 Eobert Walpole, Memoirs relating to European and Asiatic Turkey, 
 London, 1817, adopts the observations made on the Troad by P. Hunt, 
 who puts Troy at Bounarhashi. 
 
 Otto Friedrich von Eichter, Wallfahrten im Morgenlande ; Berlin, 
 1822. 
 
 Colonel W. M. Leake, Journal of a Tour in Asia Minor; London, 
 1824, p. 277 ff. 
 
 Yon Prokesch-Osten, Erinnerungen aus Aegypten und Kleinasien, iii. 
 1-117, Wien, 1829-1831 ; and Denhuilrdigkeiten und Erinnerungen aus 
 dsm Orient, i. pp. 137 ff., Stuttgart, 1836-1837. 
 
 Field-Marshal Count von Moltke has also declared in favour of the 
 Troy-Bounarbashi theory ; Brief e iiber Zustdnde und Begebenheiten in der 
 Tilrhei aus den Jahren 1835 bis 1839 ; Berlin, Posen, und Bromberg, 
 bei E. S. Mittler, 1841, pp. 167-172. Moltke says: "We who are no 
 scholars suffer ourselves to be simply guided by a military instinct to 
 the spot, which, in old times as well as now, would be colonized, if an 
 inaccessible citadel were to be founded." For these details of Field- 
 Marshal Count von Moltke's judgment, I am indebted to my friend 
 Dr. G. von Eckenbrecher. 
 
 Sir Charles Fellowes, Excursion in Asia Minor, 1838. 
 
 Charles Texier, Description de VAsie Mineure, i. ; Paris, 1839. 
 
 5 Ibid. See map at the end of the work Die Ebene von Troia, &c. p. xii.) 
 Voyage pittoresque de la Grece, &c. ; and C. G. 6 Observations upon a Treatise entitled a " De~ 
 Lenz, Die Ebene von Troia, &c. : also Lecheva- scription of the Plain of Troy," by M. Lecheva- 
 lier, Voyage de la Troade, &c. The maps of lior, Eton, 1795 ; and Dissertation concerning the 
 Lechevalier and Choiseul-Gouffier are perfectly War of Troy and the Expedition of the Grecians 
 identical, for both are nothing but copies of the as described by Homer, London, 1796. 
 map made by the architect Cazas. (See Lenz, 7 Voyage de la Troade, ii. 212. 
 
Chap. IV.] 
 
 OPINIONS FOR BOUNARBASHI. 
 
 187 
 
 Henry W. Acland, The Plains of Troy ; Oxford, 1839. 
 
 Forbiger, Handbuch der alien Geographic, ii. p. 149. 
 
 Mauduit, Decouvertes dans la Troade ; Paris et Londres, 1840. 
 
 Lieutenant, now Admiral, T. A. B. Spratt, as well as Commander 
 Thomas Graves, follow the same theory in their map of the Troad, 
 1840. I cannot refrain from making on this occasion a warm acknow- 
 ledgment to both Admiral Spratt and Commander Graves for the immense 
 service they have rendered to science by their most excellent map of the 
 Troad. Nothing has escaped the close scrutiny they gave to every spot, 
 in order to produce as complete a map of the plain and the hills falling 
 into it as was possible, as a basis for the future study of Homeric Topo- 
 graphy. For all previous maps were mere compilations of many tra- 
 vellers' journeys, and so in many points very erroneous and confusing, 
 as well as deficient in giving the necessary geographical details. Every 
 ruin, however small, is marked on this map, which can hardly ever 
 be excelled. 
 
 P. W, Forchhammer, Topographische und physiographisehe Beschrei- 
 bung der Ebene von Troja, published in English, in the Journal of the 
 Boyal Geographical Society, vol. xii., 1842, and republished in German, 
 Kiel, 1850 ; also in the AUgemeine Zeitung, 1874, Beilage zu No. 93 ; 
 also in his Daduchos, Einleitung in das Verhdltniss der hellenischen 
 Mythen, Kiel, 1875 ; also in the Augsburger AUgemeine Zeitung, Beilage 
 zu No. 92, 1875 ; and his Scamandros in the Jahrbiicher fur class. 
 Philologie, Jahrgang xxii. 1876. 
 
 Friedr. Gottlieb Welcker, Kleine Schriften, vol. ii. pp. 41, 44 fF. ; 
 Bonn and Elberfeld, 1844-1867. 
 
 Heinrich Kiepert, Memoir ilber die Construction der Karle von 
 Kleinasien ; Berlin, 1854. 
 
 G. W. F. Howard (Lord Carlisle), Diary in Turkish and Greek 
 Waters; London, 1854. 
 
 Sir J. C. Hobhouse (Lord Broughton), Travels in 1810, London, 
 1813 (new edition, London, 1855), who puts Troy near Alexandria-Troas. 
 
 J. G. von Hahn, Ausgrabungen auf der Homer. Pergamos ; Leipzig, 
 1864. He excavated on the heights above Bounarbashi in May 1864, 
 and says, in conclusion, that he does not believe in a real Troy, but 
 thinks Homer has adapted his poems to the site of Bounarbashi. 
 
 M. G. Nikolaides, Topographie et Plan stvategiaue de I' I Hade; Paris, 
 1867. 
 
 L. W. Hasper, Beitrdge zur Topographie der Homerischen Ilias, Bran- 
 denburg, 1867 ; also, Das cdte Troia und das Schlachtfeld der Homerischen 
 Helden, Glogau, 1868 ; also, Ueber die Lage des alien Ilium, Leipzig, 
 1873 ; also, Das negative Ttesaltat der Ausgrabungen Schliemanns auf 
 Hissarlik, und Beweis dass der Sanger der Ilias Troia auf Bali Dagh 
 erbaut angenommen habe, Berlin, 1874. 
 
 Henry Fanshawe Tozer, Besearches in the Highlands of Turkey; 
 London, 1869, p. 337. 
 
 Ernst Curtius, Griechische Geschichte, 4th edition, Berlin, 1874; 
 also in his Lecture at Berlin in November 1871. 
 
188 
 
 THE TRUE SITE OF HOMER'S ILIUM. 
 
 [Chap. IV. 
 
 E. Buchholz, Homerische Kosmographie und Geographic ; Leipzig, 1871. 
 E. Isambert, Itineraire descriptif ; Paris, 1873. 
 
 A. Conze, Troianische Ausgrabungen, in the Preuss. Jahrbiicher, 
 xxxiv., Berlin, 1874 ; and xxxv. p. 398, 1875. 
 
 George Perrot, Excursion a Troie et aux Sources du Mendere ; Extrait 
 de TAnnuaire de V Association pour V Encouragement des Etudes grecques 
 en France, 1874. 
 
 G. d'Eichthal, Le Site de Troie scion Leclievalier on selon Schliemann ; 
 Paris, 1875. 
 
 B. Stark, in the Jenaer Liter aturbldtt, No. 23, 1874 ; also Nach dem 
 Griechischen Orient, Reisestudien, 1875, Jenaer Lit. S. 156 ; Augsburger 
 AUgemeine Zeitung, Beilage No. 8, Arad. 5, S. 601 ; Literar. Central- 
 Matt, S. 1131. 
 
 L. Yivien de Saint-Martin, LLlion d'Homere, THium des Romains ; 
 Revue Archeologique, Nouvelle Serie, xxix. ; Paris, 1875. 
 
 George Bawlinson, History of Herodotus ; London, 1875. See the map 
 in vol. iv. p. 43. 
 
 S. Ch. Schirlitz, in Ersch and Gruber's AUgemeine Encyldopadie, 
 mentions further, among the explorers of the Troad, Dodwell and 
 Forster, whose dissertations and theories are unknown to me. 
 
 Of those who adopt other theories, different from the sites of Bounar- 
 bashi and Novum Ilium (Hissarlik) — 
 
 Dr. E. D. Clarke, Travels in various Countries of Europe, Asia, and 
 Africa, Pt. i. London, 1812, endeavours to identify the village of Chiblak 
 with Ilium and with the village of the Ilians ('IXteW Kco/xn). 
 
 Major J. Kennell, Observations on the Topography of the Plain of Troy, 
 London, 1814 ; and later, H. N. Ulrichs, Rheinisches Museum, 3 Jahrg., 
 pp. 573 ff., translated into English by Dr. Patrick Colquhoun, An Excursus 
 on the Topography of the Homeric Ilium, in the Transactions of the Royal 
 Society of Literature, vol. v. ; — identify the site of Troy with 'IXiecov Kcbfiv, 
 which they put on the height of Ahshi Kioi, the farm of Mr. Calvert. 
 
 P. Barker Webb, Tomographic de la Troade, Paris, 1844, identifies 
 a site to the west of the village of Chiblak with the Homeric Troy. 
 
 H. Gelzer, Eine Wanderung nach Troia, Basel, 1873, does not 
 decide in favour of any particular site ; cf. Literar. Centrcdblatt, S. 
 1556 (1874). 
 
 E. Brentano, Alt-Ilion im Bumbreldhal., Frankfurt am Main, 1877, 
 endeavours to show that the Homeric Troy was on a hill in the Doumbrek 
 valley, between the villages of Halil Eli and Ken Kioi, but he will never 
 make a single convert to his impossible theory. 
 
 B. Hercher, Ueber die Homerische Ebene von Troia, Berlin, 1875, 
 seems to believe that a real Troy never existed. 
 
 0. Frick, Zur Troischen Frage, in the Jahrb. fur class. Phil., 1876, 
 pp. 289 ff., does not venture to pronounce in favour of a particular site, 
 and thinks the discussion on the subject not yet far enough advanced. 
 
 L. von Sybel, Ueber Schliemann s Troia, Marburg, 1875, holds the 
 game opinion. 
 
Chap. IV.] 
 
 OPINIONS FOR HISSAELIK. 
 
 189 
 
 To these I must add seven scholars, whose opinions on the subject 
 are unknown to me : — 
 
 Virlet d'Aoust, Description topographique et archeologique de la Troade, 
 1873. 
 
 A. de Longperier, Compte Rendu, 2, p. 94 ; Revue Archeol., 27, p. 328. 
 
 Karl Henning, Neu-llion, in the Hermes, 9, p. 25 ; and in the 
 Archaolog. Zeitung, p. 186, 1875. 
 
 C. Aldenhoven, Ueber das neuentdeckte Troja ; Im Neuen Reich, i. 
 p. 569, 1874. 
 
 August Steitz, Die Lage des Homerischen Troia, in the Jahrbiicher fur 
 classische Philologie, ed. Alfr. Fleckeisen, Jahrgang xxi., Band iii. ; 
 Leipzig, 1875. 
 
 E. Mehlis, Schliemanns Troja mid die Wissenschaft, in the German 
 periodical Das Ausland ; Stuttgart, 1875. 
 
 Julius Kieckler, Ueber Schliemanns Ausgrdbungen, Verhandlungen 
 deutscher Philologen unci Schulmdnner ; Tubingen, 1876. 
 
 The following scholars have recognized the identity of Novum Ilium 
 with the site of the Homeric Troy : — 
 
 C. Maclaren, Dissertation on the Topography of the Plain of Troy, 
 Edinburgh, 1822 ; and The Plain of Troy described, Edinburgh, 1863. 
 
 G. von Eckenbrecher, Ueber die Lage des Homerischen Ilion, in the 
 Rheinische Museum, Neue Folge, vol. ii. pp. 1 ff. 1842 ; and Die Lage des 
 Homerischen Troia, Diisseldorf, 1875. 
 
 George Grote, History of Greece; London, 1846, 1st edition, vol. i. 
 
 Julius Braun, Geschichte der Kunst in ihrem Enhvichlungsgange, 
 Wiesbaden, 1856 ; and Homer und sein Zeitalter, Heidelberg, 1856-8. 
 
 Dr. L. Schmitz, in Dr. W. Smith's Dictionary of Greek and Roman 
 Geography, art. Ilium; London, 1857. 
 
 Wm. Biichner, Jahresbericht uber das Gymnasium Fridericianum ; 
 Schwerin, 1871 and 1872. 
 
 Emile Burnouf, Revue des Deux Mondes, du l er Janvier, 1874 3 
 and Memoires de VAntiquite, Paris, 1878. 
 
 Philip Smith, Discoveries at Troy, in the Quarterly Review, April 1874, 
 
 C. T. Newton, Dr. Schliemanns Discoveries at Ilium Novum ; Lecture 
 before the Society of Antiquaries, April 30th, 1874; Academy, 1874, 
 No. 173. 
 
 Frank Calvert, who was formerly an adherent of the Troy-Bounar- 
 bashi theory, became a convert to the Troy-Hissarlik theory, which he 
 now energetically defends (see his Contributions towards the Ancient 
 Geography of the Troad ; also Trojan Antiquities, arts. i. ii. ; The 
 Athenseum, 1874, Nov. 7 and 14, London). 
 
 Ph. Dethier, Une Partie du Tresor troy en au Musee de Constan- 
 tinople (Revue Arch. 31, p. 416), 1874 ; also Nouvelle Trouvaille faite a 
 Ilium- Hissarlih, 1874. 
 
 Otto Keller, Die Entdechung Rions zu Hissarlih, Freiburg, 1875 ; 
 also Ueber die Entdechung Trojas durch H Schliemann, Beilage zur 
 AUgemeinen Zeitung, Nos. 344, 345, 1874. 
 
190 
 
 THE TRUE SITE OF HOMER'S ILIUM. 
 
 [Chap. IV. 
 
 Felix Kavaisson de Molien, Revue Archeologique, 26, p. 404; cf. 
 Arcacl. 26, p. 326. 
 
 Stephen Salisbury, Troy and Homer, Remarks on the Discoveries of 
 Dr. H. Schliemann in the Troad ; Worcester, 1875. 
 
 G-. A. Lauria, Troia, uno Studio; Napoli, 1875. 
 
 W. Christ, Topographie der Troianischen Ebene, Miinchen, 1874; 
 also Troja und die Troade, i.-iii., in the AUgemeine Zeitung, 1875, 
 Drittes Quartal, Beilage zu Nos. 196, 197, 198. 
 
 Maxime du Camp, L' Emplacement de VHion oVHomere, cVapres les 
 plus recentes Decouvertes ; Paris, 1875. 
 
 Francois Lenormant, Les Antiquites de la Troade tt VHistoire primi- 
 tive des Contrees grecques; Paris, 1876. 
 
 F. Schlie, Wissenschaftliche Beurtheilung der Funde Schliemanns in 
 Hissarlik, Schwerin, 1876 ; also Schliemann und seine Bestrebungen, 
 Schwerin, 1876. 
 
 W. E. Gladstone, Homers Place in History, in the Contemporary 
 Review, 1874; Homeric Sijnchronism, London, 1876; and Homer, London, 
 1878, enthusiastically defends the Troy-Hissarlik theory. 
 
 Eduard Meyer, Geschichie von Troas ; Leipzig, 1877. 
 
 A. H. Sayce, in his letters to the Athenaeum and the Academy, 
 October 1879, and in the Contemporary Review, December 1878. 
 
 I have finally to mention the great authority of Professor Ptudolf 
 Virchow, who assisted me in my excavations at Hissarlik, from the 
 4th of April till the 4th of May, 1879, and who energetically opposes 
 the Troy-Bounarbashi theory, and enthusiastically declares in favour of 
 the identity of Hissarlik with the Homeric Troy. See his Lectures in 
 the session of the Berlin Anthropological Society of the 26th of June 
 and the 12th of July, 1879 ; in the Anthropological Congress at Strass- 
 burg on the 13th of August, and at Amsterdam on the 16th of September, 
 of the same year : also his excellent work, Beitrage zur Lancleskunde der 
 Troas, Berlin, 1879. 
 
 The principal argument of the defenders of the Troy-Bounarbashi 
 theory is that immediately below the village are the two springs of 
 Homer — one lukewarm, the other cold ; but this argument falls to the 
 ground before the fact already mentioned, that there are not two but forty 
 springs, all of which are cold and have a temperature of from 62° '24 to 
 62 0, 6 Fahr. Besides, as already stated, the Scamander originates, not 
 in the Plain of Troy, but at a distance of twenty hours' journey from 
 Hissarlik, in the range of Ida, from a cold spring, which has a temperature 
 of 47 0, 12 Fahr. About 200 ft. from this source, the river is joined by 
 the water of a spring which has a temperature of 60 o, 44 Fahr., and 
 might perhaps, in comparison with the other spring, be called lukewarm. 
 Perhaps Homer had heard of this lukewarm spring and the cold spring 
 of the Scamander, and the poet may have brought them from Ida down 
 to the Plain in order to introduce his beautiful verses (11. xxii. 147- 
 152). He clearly states (11. xii. 19-21) that the Scamander flows from 
 Mount Ida. That he had not in his mind the springs of Bounarbashi, is 
 
Chap. IV.] 
 
 THE SPADE AGAINST BOUNARBASHI. 
 
 191 
 
 also clearly shown by the statement, that close to the two sources were 
 large washing troughs of stone, in which the Trojan women used to wash 
 their clothes in the time of peace, before the arrival of the Greek army, 5 
 because the Bounarbashi springs being, in a straight line, at a distance of 
 eight miles from the Hellespont and there being no regular siege, but 
 only battles in the plain, there would have been no cause for them to stop 
 washing at the springs on account of the war, as the advancing enemy 
 could be seen at a great distance off in the plain. Consequently, this 
 passage proves that, in the mind of the poet, the distance between tho 
 Greek camp and Troy was but very short. 
 
 I must further absolutely deny the truth of the statement made by 
 Choiseul-Gouffier 6 and Ernst Curtius, 7 that the site of Troy on the 
 heights of Bounarbashi is covered with ancient ruins. I take Yirchow 
 and Burnouf, who accompanied me all over those heights, as witnesses, 
 that not only are there no ruins whatever of ancient buildings, but even 
 that there are no ancient potsherds or fragments of bricks, and that 
 the ground is everywhere uneven, full of pointed or abrupt rocks and 
 nowhere artificially levelled, so that the site can never have been inha- 
 bited by men. I also cite the weighty testimony of the late Austrian 
 Consul-General, J. G. von Hahn, who, with the celebrated astronomer 
 Julius Schmidt, excavated during the whole of May, 1864, in the little 
 city at the southern extremity of those heights (the Bali Dagh), and who, 
 on stopping the work, writes as follows : 8 — " I can only confirm the tes- 
 timony of Von Brondsted, that the whole locality does not show the 
 slightest trace of a great city ever having existed here, which ought to 
 have extended over the wide northern slope of the Bali Dagh, from the 
 foot of the Acropolis to the springs of Bounarbashi. In spite of our 
 zealous researches, we could not discover there — besides the tumuli — any 
 sign which might point to a former human settlement, not even fragments 
 of ancient pottery or bricks, those never-failing and consequently in- 
 evitable witnesses of an ancient establishment. No fragments of columns 
 or other building stones, no ancient freestone, nowhere in the native 
 rock a quarried bed of any such stone, nowhere any artificial levelling 
 of the rock ; everywhere the natural soil, which has never been touched 
 by the hand of man." I may here repeat, that my thorough exploration 
 of the heights of Bounarbashi in August 1868 gave the same results. 
 I excavated in hundreds of places at the springs, in Bounarbashi itself, and 
 on the land between that village and the Scamander, as well as on the 
 declivities wherever I found earth. I struck the rock almost everywhere 
 at a depth of from 2 to 3 feet, without ever finding the slightest vestige 
 of bricks or pottery. 9 
 
 With regard to the walls brought to light by J. G. von Hahn and 
 
 5 II. xxii. 153-156 : 
 
 %v%a 8* iir' abrdwv irAvvot evpees iyyvs £a<riv 
 KaAol Aa'iueoi, bOi eL/xara (TiyaAoevra 
 ttAvvzctkov Tpwcov &Aoxoi Kahai Te dvyarpes 
 rb TrpXv eV elp-fjuTjs, irp\v e'AfletV vTas 'Axa«£i\ 
 
 6 Voyage p Moresque de la Grece, ii. ; Paris, 
 
 1820, p. 44. 
 
 7 Lecture at Berlin, in November 1871. 
 
 8 J. G. von Hahn, Die Ausgrabungen auf dcr 
 Homerischen Pergamos ; Leipzig, 1864, p. 33. 
 
 9 See my Ithaque, le Peloponnese et Troie ; 
 Paris, 1869, pp. 151, 161, 162 ; and above, p. 19. 
 
192 
 
 THE TRUE SITE OF HOMER'S ILIUM. 
 
 [Chap. IV. 
 
 Julius Schmidt in the little city at the extremity of the Bali Dagh, in 
 which so many great luminaries of archaeology have seen the cyclopean 
 walls of Priam's Pergamus, and which Ernst Curtius 10 holds to be con- 
 temporaneous with the cyclopean walls of Tiryns and Mycenae, which 
 latter are universally considered to be the most ancient specimens extant 
 of cyclopean masonry; — nearly all these walls are low retaining walls, 
 formed of comparatively small quadrangular, or nearly quadrangular, 
 slabs ; there are also a few small straight walls of square blocks or 
 polygons on the north side, a portion of one of which my friend Admiral 
 Spratt represents in the vignette of his map ; there is also a fragment 
 of wall of square hewn blocks in the south-west corner : but we have 
 no right whatever to call these walls, or any part of them, " cyclopean ;" 
 for this epithet can only refer to the gigantic, never to the lilliputian. 
 In a hundred different places in Greece I can point out walls of well- 
 fitted polygons, of which we know with certainty that they are of the 
 Macedonian period, or at least of the latter part of the fifth century b.c. 
 But I will here only name two places which can be easily seen by those 
 who visit Athens : namely, the tombs in the Hagia Trias at Athens, some 
 of the substructions of which consist of well-fitted polygons ; and the 
 fortifications on the island of Salamis, which show the same masonry. 1 
 Unhewn boulders, rough quarried stones, and those which had a polygonal 
 cleavage due to their structure, were often used for convenience by 
 builders, who were quite able to work quadrangular blocks, as is proved 
 by walls in which the former kinds are placed above the latter. 2 Walls 
 of polygons have for the last twenty years come into extensive use in 
 Sweden and Norway, as substructions of railway bridges ; and if any one 
 in Sweden were to call this masonry " cyclopean walls," the people there 
 would laugh just as the Athenians would laugh if the fortifications in 
 Salamis or the substructions in Hagia Trias were called by that name. 
 
 As to the chronology of the little city on the Bali Dagh, we have 
 fortunately two data for its determination : first, by the manner in which 
 the stones have been worked; and, secondly, from the pottery. On all 
 the stones of the walls, without exception, the blows of the stonecutters' 
 iron pick-axes are conspicuous, and therefore, in my opinion, no part of 
 them can claim a higher antiquity than the fourth or fifth century B.C. 
 As a witness to my statement I cite the authority of Professor Kudolf 
 Virchow, who was the first to discover that all the stones had been 
 worked with iron pick-axes, and who expresses himself as follows : 3 — 
 
 10 Lecture at Berlin, in November 1871. 
 
 1 Emile Burnouf, La Ville et FAcropole 
 (TAthenes, pp. 192, 193. 
 
 2 E. H. Bunbury, Cyclopean Remains in Cen- 
 tral Italy, in the Classical Museum, 1845, vol. ii. 
 pp. 147 et seq. ; and the article MURUS in Dr. 
 Wm. Smith's Dictionary of Greek and Roman 
 Antiquities. My friend, the writer of that article, 
 informs me that he noticed, at the sea-side, a 
 wall built up of boulders of concrete from a 
 sea-wall washed down during the preceding 
 winter, which had a most curious resemblance 
 
 to " cyclopean " walls, both of the rough- 
 square and polygonal type ; and there are hun- 
 dreds of such cases of rough materials still used 
 from motives of convenience. 
 
 3 In his Lecture at the session of the Berlin 
 Anthropological Society, 20th June, 1879 : " Die 
 ganze Art der Fundation (der kleinen Acropolis 
 am Siidende des Bali Dagh) entspricht nicht 
 dem was man von einer so alten Stadt erwarten 
 miisste, und es ist wohl unzweifelhaft, dass die 
 wohlbehauenen Quadern, auf denen noch die 
 Hiebe der Steinhauer zu sehen sind, mit guten 
 
Chap. IV.] SCANT AND LATE POTTERY AT BALI DAGH. 193 
 
 " The whole character of the foundations (of the little Acropolis at the 
 southern extremity of the Bali Dagh) does not correspond with what one 
 would have expected from so ancient a place, and there can be no doubt 
 that the well-cut blocks, on which the blows of the stonecutters can be 
 still seen, have been worked with good iron instruments. Whoever 
 compares this place with what presents itself at Hissarlik, cannot doubt 
 that it belongs to a much later period, and that, at the highest date, it 
 approaches the time of Alexander." 
 
 I further cite the testimony of Mr. Frank Calvert, as well as that of 
 Professor A. H. Sayce and Mr. F. W. Percival, all of whom acknowledge, 
 from their own inspection, that the stones of all the walls of the little 
 city have been worked with iron pick-hammers, and that, consequently, 
 these walls must belong to a comparatively late period. 4 
 
 As a fifth most trustworthy authority for the comparatively late date 
 of the walls on the Bali Dagh, I cite the pottery contained in the vemj 
 scanty accumulation of debris inside the walls. No wall of any city or 
 acropolis in the world can be more ancient than the most ancient pots- 
 herds contained in the place enclosed by them : nay, the strongest walls 
 may be broken away, or may, in the course of time, crumble away and 
 disappear ; but not so the fragments ■ of pottery, because they are inde- 
 structible. The pottery I found in the royal sepulchres at Mycenae is 
 acknowledged by all competent authorities to date from between 1200 and 
 1500 b.c, and it is still as well preserved, and looks as fresh, as if it had 
 been made yesterday ; and, if it remained buried for millions of years 
 more, it would hardly have a different appearance. The whole site of 
 Mycenae is strewn with fragments of most ancient pre-historic pottery, 
 which have probably been exposed for 3000 years to the open air ; never- 
 theless they are as solid as if they had been but recently made, and their 
 painted colours have lost but little of their original brightness. In the 
 potsherds, therefore, contained in the debris inside of walls, we must 
 necessarily find two termini for the age of the walls themselves. Now,, 
 Yon Hahn and Schmidt found in their excavations on the Bali Dagh, in 
 May 1864, only one small headless figure of terra-cotta, four tubes of 
 clay, a common clay pitcher, two clay lamps, some clay vessels, fragments 
 for the most part of black-glazed pottery, some copper coins of the second 
 and third centuries B.C., and some fragments of house-walls of a late and 
 poor Hellenic masonry. 5 I obtained the same results in the excavations 
 I made there in August 1868. 6 I did not find one archaic potsherd, nor 
 one of those whorls with incised ornamentation, of which I found so many 
 thousands at Hissarlik ; in fact, no pottery to which archaeology could 
 attribute a higher antiquity than the fourth or fifth century b.c. We 
 therefore obtained, by the exploration of the site, and particularly by 
 
 Eiseninstrumenten gearbeitet wurden. Wenn 
 man diese Stelle vergleicht mit dem, was in 
 Hissarlik hervortritt, so zweifelt man nicht, dass 
 sie einer viel spiiteren Periode augehort und 
 hochstens sich der Zeit Alexanders nahert." 
 
 4 A. H. Sayce, in his Letters from the Troad, 
 in the Athenaeum of October 4th, 1879 ; from 
 
 Smyrna, in the Academy of 1 8th October ; and 
 from Oxford, in the- same journal of 8th. 
 November. 
 
 5 J. G. von Hahn, Ausgrabungen auf dcr 
 Homcrischcn Pergamos, pp. 22, 23. 
 
 6 See my Ithaque, le Peloponnese et Troie, pp. 
 169, 170 ; and above, p. 19. 
 
 O 
 
194 
 
 THE TKUE SITE OF HOMER'S ILIUM. 
 
 [Chap. IY. 
 
 its pottery, the same chronology for the walls which we ohtain by the 
 characteristic working of the stones themselves, — namely, the fourth or 
 fifth century B.C. Besides, the accumulation of debris is but very insig- 
 nificant : in many places in the little Acropolis the bare rock crops out ; 
 nowhere did I strike the rock at a greater depth than 5 feet, and 
 generally at a few inches below the surface. I beg the reader to compare 
 these results with those obtained at Hissarlik, where the accumulation of 
 debris is from 52 to 53 ft. deep ! 
 
 I may here mention that, as Homer makes Hector and Achilles run 
 three times round the city of Troy, 7 it is a necessary condition that such 
 a course should be physically possible. But if the heights of Bounarbashi 
 mark the site of Troy, such a course is perfectly impossible, because 
 the hill of the little Acropolis on the Bali Dagh — (which, according to the 
 measurement of the astronomer Schmidt, 8 is 472 ft. above the sea, and 
 according to M. Burnouf's measurement 144*36 metres, which equally 
 makes 472 ft.) — falls off very abruptly to the north-east, the east, and 
 particularly to the south. Now, as the heroes must have run down on the 
 south side to make the circuit of the city, I went myself down by this 
 side, which falls off at first at an angle of 45°, and afterwards at an angle 
 of about 25° ; thus I was forced to crawl backward on all fours : it took 
 me a quarter of an hour to come down, and I carried away the conviction 
 that no mortal being, not even a goat, has ever been able to run swiftly 
 down a slope which descends at an angle of 25° ; and that Homer never 
 intended to make us believe that Hector and Achilles, in making the 
 circuit of the city, could have run down this impossible descent. 
 
 I may add that neither from the Bali Dagh, nor from any other point 
 of the heights of Bounarbashi attributed by Lechevalier and his followers 
 to Troy, can Mount Ida be seen ; but this is at variance with Homer, who 
 represents Zeus as looking down from the top of Mount Gargarus on the 
 city of Troy. 9 
 
 Further, the heights of Bounarbashi belong to the lower range of 
 Mount Ida. If Troy had been situated on those heights, Homer could not 
 have expressly stated that it was built in the plain, in opposition to the 
 first Trojan settlement, Dardanie, which, as he says, was built on the 
 declivity of Ida rich in springs. 10 Plato confirms the account that the 
 first Trojan settlement was on the heights of Ida, whence they built 
 Ilium in a wide and beautiful plain, on a hill which was not high, and 
 close to which were rivers pouring down their waters from the heights of 
 Ida. 1 The position of Hissarlik, on a low hill almost in the midst of the 
 splendid Plain of Troy, agrees perfectly with this important statement of 
 
 7 II. xxii. 165, 166 : 
 
 us to) rph Upidfxoio nohiv ir€ptdiur)9r)Tyu 
 KapiraXi/jLOKTi iroZzacri • 0eoi 5e re irdi/res bp&VTo. 
 
 8 J. G. von Hahn, Ausgrabungen, &c, p. 7. 
 
 9 II. viii. 51, 52: 
 
 avTbs (Zeus) 5' eV K3pv<pf)(TL (Tapydpov) KaQ^zro 
 
 elcropSwv Tpww re ir6\iv Kctl v?ias 'Axaiuy. 
 
 10 II. xx. 216-218 : 
 kt'mt(T€ 5e Aapdaulrju, eirel ov ttu "'IAios \pr\ 
 iu 7Tf5lW 7T67roAjO"TO, ttoKis ^.epo-rrwv avOpwircov, 
 aAA' e0' virwpelas wKeov TroAvir'idaKos 'IStjs. 
 
 1 Plato, Be legibus, iii. 682, ed. G. Stallbaum; 
 Kara-nio-Or) 877, (pa/xeu, iK r&v vrprjA&v els fxeya 
 T6 Kai KaAbv ttc-S'iov "l\iov, £ir\ Aocpov riva ovx 
 vipyXbu Kai ex oUTa ^ora/jLoiis ttoAAovs dvwQev t/c 
 
 TTjS "I5?]S U>piXK\IXZVOVS. 
 
Chap. IV.] 
 
 HOMER AGAINST BOUNARBASHI. 
 
 195 
 
 Plato ; whereas the heights of Bounarbashi, which touch this Plain only 
 on their small northern side, and are on all other sides connected with the 
 higher range of Ida, are utterly opposed to and in contradiction with it. 
 As to the objection made by the adherents of the Troy -Bounarbashi theory, 
 that " the high mount of Bali Dagh behind Bounarbashi offers the most 
 appropriate situation for a fortified city, and that for this reason — without 
 the slightest ancient authority and in opposition to the distinct indica- 
 tions of Homer, and to the firm belief of all antiquity that Priam's city 
 was in the plain — we must transfer it to that mount," — this objection is 
 (as Eckenbrecher 2 rightly observes) " untenable." He adds: "Mycenae, 
 Tiryns, Athens, Borne, were built on low hills, Thebes 3 altogether in the 
 plain. Why, then, was not the citadel of Athens built close by on Mount 
 Lycabettus, which towers high above the hill of the Acropolis ? " 
 
 " Nor must it," as Mr. Philip Smith observes to me, " be forgotten, 
 throughout the whole argument, that the theory of Lechevalier is a mere 
 hypothesis, born from the fancy of a modern traveller, without the slighted 
 historical or traditional foundation. The whole onus probandi, therefore, 
 lies upon its advocates, and nothing but an overwhelming body of evidence 
 for this new invention can prevail against that historical and traditional 
 right of possession by Novum Ilium, which is even sounder in archaeology 
 than it is proverbially in law. Every new discovery in modern scholar- 
 ship is daily tending to restore the authority of historical tradition, in 
 opposition to the theories of sceptical enquirers." 
 
 I must further repeat here, that the distance between the forty springs 
 of Bounarbashi and the Hellespont is in a straight line eight miles, and 
 from the little Acropolis, held to be identical with Priam's Pergamus, to 
 the Hellespont is upwards of nine miles ; whilst all the battles and all the 
 marches to and fro in the Iliad justify the supposition that the distance 
 between the city and the Greek camp cannot have exceeded three miles. 
 Let us consider for instance the first battle, which, according to 'Pope's 
 calculation, is on the twenty-third day of the Iliad. In the night, 
 Zeus orders the God of Dreams to go to Agamemnon, and induce him to 
 arm the Greeks, promising him that he shall now take Troy. 4 At the 
 first dawn, Agamemnon orders the Greeks to assemble in the Agora ; he 
 tells his dream to the other chiefs, and, wishing to sound their intentions, 
 he proposes to them to return to their country : 5 the troops, with loud 
 cries, disperse among the ships and make preparations to set them afloat. 6 
 Ulysses restrains the troops, persuades them to remain, and they assemble 
 for the second time in the Agora, 7 where long speeches are made by 
 Ulysses, Nestor, and Agamemnon. 8 At last they decide to remain ; the 
 warriors disperse again through the camp to prepare the morning meal, 
 
 2 G. von Eckenbrecher, Die Lage des Homer- 
 ischen Troja ; Diisseldorf, 1875, p. 23. 
 
 3 M. Burnouf observes to me that, properly 
 speaking, Thebes is not built in the plain, but 
 on the Cadmea, which by a series of heights is 
 connected with Mount Helicon. 
 
 4 II. ii. 8-15 : 
 
 QaaK idly ouAe oVezpe, doas eVl yrias 'Axcuwv 
 iAdkv is Khi<j'n\v 'Aya/At/jLvovos 'Arpe'/Sao 
 
 irdvra /aclA.' arptKeoos ayopevffxeu ws iirireWw. 
 Ocopr^ai e /ceAeue Kapt) Ko/nScouras 'Axaiovs 
 iravav^lr) • vvv yap K€f eAoi iroXiv evpvdyviav 
 Tpcocau ' ov yap er' ajj.(pls , OKvu.Tria Swuar 1 
 
 aOdvaToi (ppd^ourat ■ (Triyvajx^^v yap airavras 
 "Hpv Aicraofjievrj, Tpwecrcrt. Se /crjSe' i(pr,irTai. 
 
 5 II. ii. 48-140. 6 II. ii. 142-154. 
 
 7 II ii. 182-210. 8 II. ii. 284-393. 
 
196 
 
 THE TBUE SITE OF HOMER'S ILIUM. 
 
 [Chap. IY. 
 
 which they then eat. 9 Agamemnon sacrifices a fat ox to Zeus, and 
 assembles all the chiefs for this ceremony. 10 Nestor makes another 
 speech, after which Agamemnon orders the heralds to summon the troops 
 to draw up in order of battle ; 1 and the army is arrayed before their camp 
 in the Plain of the Scamander. 2 
 
 Iris gives notice of this to the Trojans, who arm themselves, open all 
 the gates of the city, rush out with a great noise, 3 and array their army at 
 the tumulus of Batieia. 4 The two armies meet in the plain ; 5 but the 
 plain could not have been large, because from the tower of the Scaean 
 Gate Helen recognizes the chiefs of the Greeks and recounts their names 
 to Priam. 6 The Greek army could not have been farther off than half 
 a mile, since one must be very keen-sighted in order to recognize men 
 at that distance. 
 
 Paris challenges Menelaus to single combat. Hector makes a speech, 
 and Menelaus makes another. 7 Hector despatches heralds to Troy to fetch 
 live lambs, whilst Agamemnon sends his herald Talthybius to the Greek 
 camp for the same purpose. 8 As the Greek army could not be further 
 distant than half a mile, at most, from the Scaean Gate, it would have 
 been at least seven miles and a half from the camp, if Troy had been on 
 the heights of Bounarbashi, with its gate— as Curtius supposes— on the 
 site of this village. In this case Talthybius could not have come back 
 in less than six hours with the live lamb. But his absence is so short, 
 that the poet doe3 not even mention it ; hence it is evident that the 
 distance which this herald had to go was very short. 
 
 Solemn sacrifices are offered, and solemn oaths are taken ; 9 the single 
 combat takes place ; Paris is vanquished by Menelaus, and carried away 
 by Aphrodite. 10 Pandarus shoots an arrow at Menelaus and wounds him ; 1 
 a long colloquy takes place between Agamemnon and Menelaus ; 2 Machaon, 
 skilful in the art of healing, dresses the wound. 3 
 
 Agamemnon makes numerous speeches to encourage the Greek chiefs ; 
 and at last the battle begins. Athene leads the impetuous Ares out of the 
 battle, and makes him sit down on the bank of the Scamander. 4 The 
 Trojans are driven back to the walls of Troy. 5 They are excited to battle 
 by Apollo and Ares. 6 During the battle, the wounded as well as the booty 
 taken from the enemy are continually carried to Troy and to the Greek 
 camp : arms, chariots, and horses. 7 The Greeks retire backwards before the 
 victorious Trojans; 8 they are repulsed as far. as the Naustathmus, because 
 they are represented as fighting near the ships. 9 
 
 9 II. ii. 394-401. 10 II. ii. 402-433. 
 
 1 11. ii. 441-454. 2 ii. 464, 465. 
 
 3 77. ii. 786-810; iii. 1-9. 
 
 4 11. ii. 811-815. 
 
 5 11. iii. 15. 6 II iii. 166-235. 
 • 11. iii. 67-75, 86-94, 97-110. 
 
 8 //. iii. 116-120: 
 
 EiCTcop 8e irpor\ &.<ttv Suco Kr\pvKas €7re/*7rei/ 
 KapiraAi/xcos &pvas re (pepeiv Upia/xou T€ KaAeaaai. 
 avrap o TaXQvfiiov -npoUi Kpeiwv 'Aya/j.4^.vwv 
 vr\as e7ri yhacpvpas Uvai, tj8' dpv ineAevev 
 olaefxzvai • h 8' dp' ovk airiO-ria 'Aya/AffivovL 8iV 
 
 9 //. iii. 268-301. 10 II. iii. 355-382. 
 1 11. iv. 104-140. 2 //. iv. 155-191. 
 
 3 //. iv. 208-219. 4 II. v. 35, 36. 
 
 5 II. v. 37 : 
 
 TpcDas 8' eKAivav Aavao'f eAe 8' avSpa '(EKaaros 
 riye/uLOVow. 
 
 6 //. v. 460-470. 
 
 7 II. v. 325-663, 668, 669. 
 
 8 i7. v. 699-702 : 
 
 'Apyetoi 8' i77r' "Apr)'i Kal "Etcropi x a ^ K0K0 P x '^ T V 
 
 OVTe 7TOT6 TTpOTpCTTOl/TO fX€Xaivd(li}V €7T£ V7}0JV 
 
 ovt€ iroT avTecpepovTO fJ-d-xVi aAA' aihv 6-n-laao) 
 
 9 II. v. 791 : 
 
 vvv 8e eaas ir6\ios Ho'iAys iirl vr]va\ /xaxoyrai. 
 
Chap. IV.] 
 
 EVIDENCE FROM THE ILIAD. 
 
 197 
 
 The Greeks must in their turn have had the advantage, for we again 
 see a terrible battle between them and the Trojans in the plain between 
 the Scamander and the Simois. The Greeks recede again ; 10 and Hector 
 goes up to Troy to order sacrifices to the gods. 1 He appears to arrive 
 there during the space of time occupied by the touching scene and the 
 beautiful colloquy between Glaucus and Diomedes. 2 Hector has long 
 conversations with his mother, with Paris, and with Helen ; he looks for 
 his wife Andromache ; he meets her and has a very long and affecting 
 conversation with her, after which comes the pathetic scene with his son. 3 
 Hector returns to the battle in company with Paris, and' it appears that 
 they reach the army immediately after having gone out of the Scaean 
 Gate. 4 Indeed the troops must have been before the Scaean Gate, because 
 Athene and Apollo, who had taken the form of two vultures, sit down on 
 the high beech-tree (^709) to enjoy the spectacle of the warriors, whose 
 thick lines are seated, bristling with helmets, shields, and spears. 5 As we 
 have seen before, this tree was near the Scaean Gate. 6 Hector and Paris 
 kill several enemies ; 7 then Hector provokes the bravest of the Greeks to 
 single combat. 8 There is a pause, because nobody dares to oppose himself 
 to Hector ; then a speech of Menelaus, who offers to fight with him ; then 
 speeches of Agamemnon and Nestor. 9 Nine heroes offer themselves to 
 fight with Hector ; they draw lots ; the lot falls on Ajax, son of Telamon, 
 who rejoices and puts on his glancing armour. 10 Then follow the speeches 
 of the two adversaries ; 11 they fight till night falls, and then exchange 
 presents. 1 The Greeks return to their camp ; the chiefs assemble in the 
 tent of Agamemnon, where the king slaughters an ox ; the animal is 
 skinned, cut up, and roasted ; and after this has been done, the evening 
 meal is taken. 2 
 
 Let us now once more review the multitude of incidents on this single 
 day : first, at daybreak, the general assembly in the Greek camp ; the 
 long speech of Agamemnon ; then the dispersion of the troops to set the 
 ships afloat ; the long speeches of three heroes ; the meal is prepared ; 
 Agamemnon sacrifices an ox to Zeus ; the new speech of Nestor ; finally, 
 Agamemnon orders the army to be put in battle array. But this 
 variety of acts and speeches must have occupied at least four hours ; 
 therefore it is ten in the morning when the troops advance in the Plain 
 
 10 77. vi. 107 : 
 
 'Apye'tot 8' virexvpyo-civ, \?i£av 8e tp6voio. 
 1 77. vi. 111-115. 2 77. vi. 119-235. 
 
 3 77. vi. 254-493. 
 
 4 77. vii. 1-7 : 
 
 S>s elrrwu irvXiccv i^eaavro cpaldi/xos "EKrccp, 
 Tip 8' ajx 'A\e£av8pos ki aSeXcpeos • iv 8' apa 
 dvfxco 
 
 afxQorepoi fie/nacrai/ tto\€/ull(€lv 7)8e fxdx^(rdai. 
 &s 8e 6ebs vavrriaiv iehSojAevoiaiv ZdcoKev 
 ovpov, eVet Ke Kajxwaiv iv^etTTys tXarriaiv 
 ttovtov iXawovres, KajxaTcp 8' virb yv7a AeAuj/Tcu, 
 ws apa red Tpweccii/ iekSo/xepoKri (pawrjrrjv. 
 
 5 II vii. 58-62 : 
 
 /caS 8' ap' "A6r)vaiy] Te ica\ apyvporo^os 'AiriWoov 
 e(4(rdir}v, upvitriv iomorts alyvwio7(Tiv, 
 <priy<p iq? v\p7)Kfj irarpbs Aibs aiy^xoio. 
 
 avSpacri repnofj-euoi • ra>y 8e cti'x« e'laro irvuvai, 
 acririai kou KopvOeacri Kal eyx*cri ire<ppiKv7ai. 
 
 6 11. vi. 237 : 
 
 "EKToop 8' oas 2/catas re irvAas /cat cpyybv "iKavzv. 
 
 7 II vii. 8-16 : 
 
 e*'0' eAerrjz/ l o jxkv vibv 'Apy'idooio avaKTOS, 
 v Apvr) vamrdovra MeviaQiov, uv Kopwr\Tf\s 
 yeluar' 'AprfWoos nai <&v\o/j.€8ovcra fioanris • 
 "EKTCop 8' 'Hi'oi/f/a /3aA' eyx^ b^voevTi 
 au%eV virb aT*<pdvn]s evxdkKov, Avcre 8e yv7a. 
 TAavKos 8' 'liriro\6xoio ird'is, Avk'iccv aybs avSpuv, 
 'Icpiuoou /3aAe Sovpl Kara Kpareprju va/xii/riu 
 Ae£id8r)v, 'iiririov eiridkp.evov wKmdiov, 
 Sijxov o 8' e| 'lttttccu x^d^ts Treae, Xvvto 8e yv7a. 
 
 s 77. vii.. 67-91. 9 77. vii. 96-160. 
 
 10 77. vii. 161-225. » II. vii. 226-243. 
 
 i. II. vii. 244-312. 2 11. vii. 313-336. 
 
198 
 
 THE TRUE SITE OF HOMER'S ILIUM. 
 
 [Chap. IV. 
 
 of the Scamandcr. They approach so near to the Scaean Gate, that 
 Helen recognizes the Greek chiefs. Paris challenges Menelaus to single 
 combat ; there are speeches of Hector and Menelaus ; heralds are sent to 
 Troy and to the Greek carnp to fetch live lambs; then come the solemn 
 sacrifice and single combat. Numerous speeches are made by Aga- 
 memnon. The Greeks drive the Trojans back to the walls of Troy, and 
 they are repulsed in their turn ; but tliey retire backward to the ships. 
 The Greeks must have again advanced, for a fearful battle takes place in 
 the plain between the Scamander and the Simois. The Greeks retreat 
 again. Hector goes to Troy ; there are long speeches by him, by Hecuba, 
 by Paris, by Helen, and by Andromache. The Greeks must have 
 advanced again, for Hector and Paris are in their presence when they go 
 out of the Scaean Gate ; then come the speeches of Hector, of Menelaus, 
 of Nestor ; the single combat terminated by the night ; and finally the 
 return of the Greeks to their camp. 
 
 Thus the distance between the city and the Greek camp has 
 been traversed at least six times in the space of time from ten in the 
 morning to seven in the evening— namely, twice by the herald who 
 fetched the lamb, and at least four times by the army — and even once 
 backwards ; and all these marches and countermarches could be made in 
 spite of the enormous consumption of time occasioned by the numerous 
 speeches, the sacrifices, the different battles, and the two single combats. 
 It is, therefore, evident that the distance between the Greek camp and 
 Troy was assumed to be very short, and less than 3 miles. Bounarbashi 
 is 8 miles from the shore of the Hellespont : if, therefore, Troy had 
 been on the heights of Bounarbashi, at least 50 miles would have 
 been traversed from ten in the morning to seven in the evening, in spite 
 of all the loss of time produced by the different causes which I have 
 enumerated. 
 
 Lechevalier and his adherents find all this possible, relying on the 
 principle that Homer, as a poet, exaggerates, and that the warriors of the 
 heroic times would have been able, or were believed to be able, to accomplish 
 superhuman feats. But if we put aside the intervention of the gods, 
 Homer is, as Webb 3 remarks, very exact about facts : " When he tells us 
 that Achilles, if Poseidon gave him a good passage, would be in Phthia 
 (a distance of 200 miles) in three days, 4 and that the ships of Nestor and 
 Diomedes, with winds constantly favourable, sailed from Troy to Argos 
 (a distance of 300 miles) in four days, 5 he speaks to us not of an heroic 
 but of a very common passage, for Herodotus counts for a day of naviga- 
 tion 700 stadia (70 geog. miles), and, for a day and a night together, 
 1300 stadia. 6 Telemachus and Pisistratus, in a chariot with two swift 
 
 3 P. Barker Webb, Topographic de la Troade, 
 p. 170. 
 
 1 II. ix. 363 : 
 ^/xarl K€ TpiTaTcc $Qir}V ipifiwAov IkoI/x7]v. 
 
 5 Od. iii. 180-182 : 
 
 t4tp<xtov rfiiap er]v, oV eV 'Apye'i vr^as e'/'cras 
 TvSeiSew 'irapoi AtofojSeos 'nnrood/j.010 
 
 6 Herodotus, iv. 88 : Me^eVpTjTCU Se ravra 
 
 a>8e • vrjvs iirlirav ixdXiffrd ktj Karavvei iv LiaKpr)- 
 fiep'ir) bpyvias 6TTTaKio~[j,vp'ias, vvktos 5e k^aaia- 
 /xvpias. ijSrj 3>v is fxev 4>aaiv curb tov <rr6p.aTOS 
 (tovto yap icrri rod Uovrov ixa.Kp6Ta.TOv) ^uepeW 
 4vv4a irAoos iffTi Kai vvktcov oktw ■ avrai eV5e«a 
 fj.vpia.des Kai eKarbv bpyvUwv yivovrai, e'/c 5e tu>v 
 opyvieuv rourewv arddioi eKarbv Kai x^ 101 
 nal /xvpioi 6iVt. 
 
Chap. IV.] 
 
 MOVEMENTS OF GREEKS AND TROJANS. 
 
 199 
 
 horses, took two days to go from Pylos to Sparta, a distance of 50 miles. 7 
 No doubt it would have been easier for Telemachus to have gone to 
 Sparta in half a day, than for the Greeks and Trojans to have accom- 
 plished the task imposed upon them by the system of Lechevalier." 8 
 
 On the day after the first battle of the Iliad, the herald Idaeus 
 is sent by the Trojans at daybreak into the Greek camp to propose an 
 armistice, for the burial of the dead. 9 He concludes the armistice, and 
 brings the news back to Troy ; the Trojans begin to collect the 
 dead bodies and wood to burn them, and then only does the sun 
 rise. 10 • But how long can it have been between the first dawn of the 
 morning and sunrise ? Certainly not more than an hour and a half. 
 This is only consistent if we suppose Troy to have been at Hissarlik, for, 
 if it had been at Bounarbashi, the herald would have had at least 1G miles 
 to walk, and he could not have done this in less than five hours, for — as 
 Eckenbrecher 1 observes — any one who has read Homer, even superficially, 
 will certainly not suppose that the herald could have gone on horseback 
 or in a chariot, for, if this had been the case, the poet would have men- 
 tioned it explicitly ; but on the contrary he expressly says, " Early in the 
 morning let Idaeus go to the hollow ships," 2 and " Early in the morning 
 Idaeus went to the hollow ships ;" 3 and again " Idaeus went back to 
 sacred Ilium." 4 Eckenbrecher 5 adds that Welcker, 6 the warmest. defender 
 of the Troy-Bounarbashi theory, suggests that the herald might have 
 run ; there being so much running in the Iliad, and the poet endowing 
 his heroes with superhuman power : " But wherever . he does this it 
 is to make them appear more heroic and more sublime, and not to 
 make them ridiculous. Can the herald, who has to conclude the armistice 
 for burying the dead, be conceived of as running at a trot for four hours ! 
 Then we must suppose that, if Troy had been at Bounarbashi, still three 
 hours at least would have been occupied in concluding the armistice, in 
 its proclamation, in the preparation for the setting out of the armies 
 and in their long march, before both armies could have met. Therefore, 
 at leant seven hours would have been required to execute that which Homer 
 
 7 Od. iii. 484-497 and iv. 1 : 
 
 /xdarTL^ev 8' i\dav, to> 8' ovk UKoure TreT€o~Qr)u 
 is ireSlov, AiireTrjy 8e Tlv\ov alirb ivToXiedpov. 
 ot 8e iravrj/xiptoL oslov (vybv a/j-tyls exovres. 
 Svaero t 5 i)€kios (XKiooivto re iraaai dyvia'i, 
 is 4>7j/)as 8' "kovto, AlokXt}os itotl tioofia, 
 vlios 'Op(n\6xoLo, tov 'AA</>eios rewre 7rcu8a. 
 ivda Se vvkt atcrav, b 8e rots nap £eiVia 6>/)/cey. 
 
 ■f)/j.os 8' ripvyi'jaia. (pdvr] poBoddnrvAos 'Hcos, 
 "ttitovs re ^evyvvvr aud 6* ap/xara ttoikiX' 
 zfiaivov, 
 
 itc 8' zkaaav irpoQvpoio nal aldovcri)s ipidovirov. 
 jxdcrrilev 8' i\dav, too 8' ovk Moure Trericrdrfy. 
 i^ov 8' is ireZiov irvprjcpopov, evda 8' tireira 
 i\vov odov • toIov yap vneKcpepov w/cees tWoi. 
 8vaer6 t T]i\ios o~ki6o}vt6 re iraaai ayviai, 
 ot 8' t£oi/ koi\t]v AaKeSai/xova K^Tweo-aav, . . . 
 
 8 There is no carriage-road over Mt. Taygetus, 
 which Telemachus and Pisistratus must neces- 
 sarily have crossed ; and there are no signs that 
 
 there has ever been such a road. Thus to go in 
 a chariot from Pherae (now Calamata) across 
 those mountains has at all times been impossible. 
 But Homer, who probably did not know the 
 locality, supposed it to be possible. 
 
 9 II vii. 381 : 
 
 T)oo9ev 8' 'iScuos tfit} Koi\as iirl v?ias. 
 
 10 II. vii. 421-423 : 
 7)4\ios /j.cv en-eiTa viov TrpoazfiaXhev apovpas, 
 e£ aKaXap pelrao fiaOvppoov 'flKeavoTo 
 ovpavhv elcavitiov • o\ 8' y\vreov aXAr\\oio~iv. 
 
 1 Die lage des Homerischen Troja, p. 29. 
 
 2 II. vii. 372 : 
 
 ijwdev 8' 'Ida7os 2tco Koi\as eVi vyas. 
 s II. vii. 381, sup. Cit. 
 
 4 II. vii. 413: 
 
 axpoppov 8' 'l5a?os e/fy TrpoTi ^Wlov lpr t v. 
 
 5 Die Laje des Homer. Troja, p. 29. 
 
 6 Kleine Schriftcn, Band ii. p. xviii. 
 
200 THE TRUE SITE OF HOMER'S ILIUM. [Chap. IV. 
 
 mentions as having been done, at the most, in one hour and a half. This 
 proves that the distance, at which Homer considers his Troy to be from 
 the Hellespont, is more than four times less than the distance of Bounar- 
 bashi from the sea-coast at the Trojan epoch." 
 
 On the third clay, after sunset, 7 Hector causes the Trojans to encamp 
 on the bank of the Scamander, 8 and orders oxen, sheep, and wine to be 
 brought quickly from the city : 9 the animals and the wine, as well as 
 bread, are immediately brought from Troy. 10 Oxen and sheep move 
 slowly, especially in the night, but nevertheless they arrive /capTraXt/xm, 
 promptly. The Trojans slaughter the animals, and sacrifice to the. gods. 1 
 But the Trojan camp was close to the Tumulus of Ilus, 2 on the left bank 
 of the Scamander, since the thousand watch-fires of the Trojans were 
 seen between the Greek camp and the river ; 3 the Tumulus of Ilus was 
 also close to the ford of the Scamander. 4 The Trojan camp, then, 
 being at the Tumulus of Ilus, on the left bank of the Scamander, near its 
 ford, was, as we have seen, near Troy ; and this is further proved by the 
 poet's statement, that their watch-fires were burning before Ilium i^WioQi 
 irpo). Now the proximity of this same Trojan camp to the Greek ships, 
 on the shore of the Hellespont, could not be better indicated than by 
 the passage in which Agamemnon is represented as looking from his tent 
 on to the plain; when he is alarmed at seeing the watch-fires of the 
 Trojan camp which burn before Ilium, and at hearing the sound of the 
 Trojan flutes and pipes and the hum of the warriors. 5 
 
 Now, if Troy had been at Bounarbashi, the Trojan camp, which is 
 described by the poet as being very near Ilium, must be supposed to 
 have been at a distance of 7 miles from the Greek camp. But what 
 mortal ear can hear musical sounds or the hum of men at such a dis- 
 tance ? The same may be said of the TXteW Kco/xt;, which is nearly as 
 far from the Hellespont as Bounarbashi, and which has besides the 
 disadvantage that it cannot be seen from the shore, being screened from 
 view by the intervening heights. 
 
 On the day on which the third great battle took place, which is 
 the twenty-eighth day of the Iliad according to Pope's calculation, 
 
 ' 77. viii. 485-488: 
 iv 8' eVeo - ' 'D-KeaveS Kafxirpbv (pdos 7]e\loio, 
 'i\Kov vvktcl fxe\aivav irrl {eidoopov dpovpav. 
 Tpcoalv /xiv p' deKovcriv e8u (pdos, avrap 'AxaiO?s 
 aerirao-'ir) rpiKKiaros iir-qhvOe vv£ ipe/Bevvrj. 
 
 8 II. viii. 489-491 : 
 
 Tpcacov ccSt' dyopyv iroi7]ffaro (paldi/mos"EKTwp, 
 voo~<pi veuv dyayuv, iroraixw eiri divrjevrt, 
 iv KaOapw, odi 8)7 veKvoav dietya'ivero x&P 0S - 
 
 9 II. viii. 505, 506 : 
 
 e/c ir6\ios 8' a^ecrOe fi6as Kai i<pia jj.9)\a 
 KapiraXiiicas, olvov 8e /j.e\'i(ppova oiv'i£ea6e. 
 
 10 II. viii. 545, 546 : 
 
 iic iroAios 8' a^avro /3oas Kai i(pia /xr/Xa 
 Kapira\'i/j.cos, olvov 8e jjLe\l(ppova oivl^ovro. 
 
 1 II. viii. 548-550 : 
 epdov 8' adavdroio-i TeArjeVcas eKarSfxfias, 
 Kv'iat]v 8' Ik ttqViov dve/xoi cpepov ovpavhv dcrco 
 T)8e7&v. 
 
 2 II. x. 414, 415 : 
 
 "EKTwp julcv /xerd rolffiv, oo~oi $ov\r\<popoi elaiv, 
 /3oyAas jSouAevet 0€lov irapd arj/xari v IAou. 
 
 3 II. viii. 560-563 : 
 
 rSaaa jxeoriyv vecov r;8e "BdvOoio podav 
 Tpuoav Kaiovrcov irvpd cpaivero 'WioOi irp6. 
 ^lAt' 'dp' iv 7reSta> irvpd Ka'iero, Trap 8e eKao~TCp 
 eVaro TT€VT7}K0VTa aiXai irvpbs aidofxevoio. 
 
 * II. xxiv. 349-351 : 
 ot 8' eVei ovv fxeya oT;/xa 7rape£ 'Woio zXaacrav, 
 crTT)o~av ap' Tjfxiovovs T6 Kai 'litttovs, ocppa irioiev, 
 
 iv TTOTa/JLU). 
 
 But this passage, in contradiction to the fore- 
 going, makes it appear that the tomb of Ilus was 
 on the right bank of the Scamander. 
 
 5 II. x. 11-13: 
 $ roi or is iredlov rb Tpw'iKov dOp-fjcreiev, 
 Bavjxa^v irvpd iroXXa tcc KaUro 'lAioOi irp6, 
 avX&v avplyyuiv t' ivoiri]v ofxabov r' dvdpwirav. 
 
Chap. TV.] 
 
 DISTANCE BETWEEN TROY AND THE SHIPS 
 
 201 
 
 sunrise 6 and noon 7 are mentioned. In the afternoon the Greeks drive 
 the Trojans to the Scaean Gate ; 8 but the former are again driven back 
 to the ships, where a terrible carnage takes place. 9 The Trojans are 
 again repulsed, 10 but they drive back the Greeks a second time to the 
 ships, 1 where there is' a fearful slaughter. Patroclus drives the Trojans 
 to the walls of Troy, and tries three times to scale it ; 2 the Greeks fight 
 until evening before the Scaean Gate. 3 Thus, in this third battle, as 
 in the first, the Greeks go at least four times in one afternoon over the 
 space between the camp and Troy, in spite of the long battles at the 
 ships, in the plain, and under the walls of Troy. 
 
 There is another passage which proves the short distance between 
 Troy and the Greek camp. Priam begs Achilles to grant an armistice of 
 eleven days for the funeral of Hector, for, he says, the city is shut up too 
 closely by the siege, and they must fetch the wood afar from the moun- 
 tains. 4 The old king would certainly not have had to complain of this, 
 had Troy been at Bounarbashi, or at 'IXteW Kco/jltj ; for as both these 
 places — the heights of the former as well as the hill of the latter — are 
 connected with the higher wooded range of Mount Ida, the Trojans could 
 have quietly fetched their wood, without fear of being troubled by the 
 Greeks. 
 
 The defenders of the Troy-Bounarbashi theory lay much stress on 
 the passage where, in the battle at the ships, Poseidon reproaches the 
 Greeks, and says that formerly, before the retirement of Achilles, the 
 Trojans never for a moment dared to meet the Greeks in open battle, 
 whereas now they fight far from the city at the hollow ships ; 5 — again, on 
 the passage where Polydamas advises the Trojans, when they had with- 
 drawn from the Greek camp, to retire to the city, and not to remain all 
 the night in the plain near the ships, because " we are far from the walls 
 of Troy ; " 6 — also on the passage in which Ulysses, when lying with his 
 companions in ambush in the reeds and bushes before the walls of Troy, 
 says to them : " We have 'gone very far from the ships." 7 But we do not 
 
 6 77. xi. 1, 2 : 
 
 'Hcbs 5' 4k Ae%eW Trap' ayavov Ti9oovo?o 
 wpvvO', %v aQavaroiai (pows (pepoi i)5e {3poTO?o~LV. 
 
 7 II. xi. 84-86 : 
 
 ud)pa jxev rjuis -f)v Kal de^eTO lepbv ifytap, 
 r6(ppa ,uaA.' d/j.<pOTepoov fieXe' riirTero, irlirTe 5e 
 Kaos ' 
 
 riixos Se SpvTopos irep dvrjp uirXiffaaTO SeTirvov. 
 
 8 II. xi. 166-170 : 
 
 o? Se 7rap' ''lAou arj/j,a iraXaiov AapdaviBao, 
 fieo~o~ov Ka~K irediov, Trap' epivebv io~o~evovTO 
 lefxevoi iroXios • o Se KeKX-qyws Hirer alel 
 Arpe'iBris, Xv9pcp Se iraXaao'eTO xe?pas ddirrovs. 
 aAA' ore dr] 2/catas re irvXas Kal (prjybv 'ikovto. 
 
 9 77. xii. 35 to xiv. 439. 
 
 10 II. xv. 6-8 : 
 
 ctt] 5' dp' dva'i^as, Be Se Tpwas Kal 'Axmovs, 
 robs fxev bpivojxevovs tovs Se KXoveovTas virio-9ev, 
 'Apyeiovs, /xeTa Se' (T<pi Yloaeibdoova dvaKTa. 
 
 1 II. xv. 343-345 : 
 ocpp' o'i tovs evdpi^ov cbr' eVrea, Tocppa S' 'A%azot 
 
 rdcppq) Kal o~KoX6ireo~o-iv eviirXy\\avTes dpvKTT) 
 ev9a Kal evQa (pefiovTO, Svovto Se Te?xos dvdyKT) 
 
 2 II. xvi. 702, 703 : 
 
 Tpls fxlv eV dyKoovos firj relx^os v\pr}Xoio 
 UaTpoKXos 
 
 3 77. xviii. 453 : 
 
 irdv S' ri/xap papvavTO irepl ^Kaif,cn irvXriaiv. 
 
 4 II. xxiv. 662, 663 : 
 
 oJo~9a yap us Kara dcrTV eeX/j.e9a, tt)X69i 5' vXf] 
 dtejxev e'| opeos, jxaXa Se Tpwes deoiao'iv. 
 
 5 II. xiii. 105-107 : 
 
 £>s Tpu>es to irpiv ye fxevos Kal x^P as 'Ax&i&v 
 /nlfiveiv ovk eOeXecrKOv ivavTiov, ovd' i}fiai6v. 
 vvv Se eKas iroXios KolXys eirl vr\val [xdxovTau 
 
 6 II. xviii. 254-256:' 
 
 dfupl /uidXa (ppd(eo-9e, <p'iXoi • KeXo/xai yap iycoys 
 &o~Tv8e vvv ievaiy jxr) /j.i/j.veiv 'Ha> b~?av 
 4v ireBico irapa vrjvaiv eKas 5' dirb Tessas 
 eljxev. 
 
 7 Od. xiv. 496 : 
 
 Xir]v yap vTjuvjKas jjXdojmev. 
 
202 
 
 THE TRUE SITE OF HOMER'S ILIUM. 
 
 [Chap. IV. 
 
 see how it can be inferred from these passages that there must have been 
 a great distance between the Greek camp and Troy ; for in the first the 
 question is of the Trojans fighting at the ships, and therefore at the 
 farthest possible point from Troy between the city and the Greek camp ; 
 in the second passage they are close by this farthest point ; and in the 
 third passage Ulysses, in ambush under the very walls of Troy, is as far 
 as he can be from the camp, speaking of the space between it and Troy. 
 Thus, the adverb e/ca? is in all three cases used only relatively, and it 
 need by no means indicate a really long distance, especially as the whole 
 Iliad shows the space between Troy and the Greek camp to have been but 
 very short. I may add that in a war, such as was carried on between 
 the Greeks and Trojans, the distance between the Hellespont and His- 
 sarlik can be and ought to be considered as relatively great. 
 
 The short distance between Ilium and the Greek camp appears also to 
 be indicated by the short run which Dolon had to make, to reach the 
 ships. 8 We further recognize the short distance, when, in the last battle, 
 the Trojans being arrayed between the Greek camp and the Scamander, 
 Athene excites the Greeks by her cries from the wall of the camp and 
 from the shore, whilst Ares excites the Trojans by his cries from the 
 height of the Acropolis. 9 It must be remembered that the Trojan camp 
 was at that time in close proximity to the ships. 
 
 Against Bounarbashi we have also the passage in the UarpofcXeia, 10 
 where Patroclus, after having driven back the Trojans to the ships, does 
 not allow them to return to the town, but Mils them between the ships, the 
 ivall {of the city), and the Scamander. This passage shows three important 
 facts : in the first place, that the distance between the city, the Scamander, 
 and the Greek camp, was but very short ; in the second place, that the 
 Scamander was between the city and the Greek camp ; and, thirdly, 
 that Troy could consequently not be situated at Bounarbashi, as the Sca- 
 mander would not have intervened between it and the Greek camp. 
 
 The Troy-Bounarbashi theorists further maintain that, at the time of 
 the Trojan war, Hissarlik was close to the Hellespont, the whole lower 
 plain being a much later formation ; and that, consequently, there was 
 no room for the battles described in the Iliad. They refer to the before- 
 mentioned Hestiaea, who, according to Strabo, 1 made the same objection ; 
 and also to Herodotus, 2 who says that the land about Ilium (that is, the 
 
 8 II. x. 337-369. 
 
 9 II. xx. 51, 52 : 
 
 aue 8' "Ap7js erepuOev, epefxvfj \ai\airi. Icros, 
 d£v kclt' aicpoTa.T7)s iro\ios Tpwecrai KeKevuv. 
 
 10 II. xvi. 394-398: 
 
 YloLTpoK^os 8' iirel ovv irpdoras iireKepcre (paXayyas, 
 
 a\p eVi vr\as eepye TraXi/JLTreres, ovde tz6Kt}os 
 
 eia le^evovs iiril3aive/j.ev, aWa jxeayyvs 
 
 vr)cov Kal irora/xov /cat Tei'x^os vtyrjko'io 
 
 KTelve fxeraicrcTwu, xoAeW 8' airerlvvro iroivrjv. 
 
 1 xiii. p. 599 : TraparlOr^ai 8' 6 Ar]jxr}rpios /cat 
 tV 'AXe^avSpivqv 'Eariaiav fidprvpa, tt]V cvy- 
 ypdtyaaav irepl ttjs 'Ofj.r}pov 'lAtaSos, irvvOavo- 
 fievrjv el irepl ttjv vvv ttoAiv 5 ndAe/AOS crvveaTT), 
 
 Kal . . . to Tpoo'ifchy Tredlov, o jiera^v rf/s ir6\eu>s 
 Kal rrjs 6a\a.TTris 6 iroir]Tr]s (ppd(ei • rb jj.lv yap 
 Trpb Ttjs vvv iroAews opwjxevov izpox^fJ-a elvai tu>v 
 Tvorafxuiv varepov yeyov6s. 
 
 2 ii. 10 : tcov yap ovpeuiv rcov elprj^evuv tu>v 
 virep MeucpLV it6\lv Keifxevw rb fxera^v icpalverS 
 jxoi elvai Kore k6\ttos 6a\dcrarfs, Ziairep ye rd 
 irepl "Wiov Kal TevQpavi-qv Kal "Ecpeaov re Kai 
 MaidvSpov irediov, ware elvai crjuiKpd ra'vra fxeyd- 
 Xoiai crvjx^aXeeiv. The parallel is unlucky for 
 the theory, since the geology of Egypt proves 
 Herodotus to be utterly wrong in his assumption 
 (fur it is nothing more — and the same is true of 
 the Plain of Troy) that the Nile-valley was formed 
 
Chap. IV.] 
 
 WAS ILIUM FINALLY DESERTED ? 
 
 203 
 
 historical Ilium) appears to him to have once been a gulf filled up by the 
 alluvium of the rivers, like part of the Nile valley. But I have given 
 numerous reasons which lead to the conclusion that the Plain of Troy 
 must probably be older even than the Hellespont, and that it must have 
 extended at the Trojan epoch just as far towards the latter as it does now. 
 Moreover, Herodotus does not say that in his opinion the plain was formed 
 after the Trojan war; and, as Eckenbrecher 3 ingeniously remarks, " How 
 could he have expressed such an opinion, as the historical Ilium is in his 
 view identical with the Homeric Ilium, which fact necessarily involves the 
 supposition that the plain existed at the Trojan epoch ? " 
 
 The defenders of the Troy-Bounarbashi theory further cite the testi- 
 mony of the orator Lycurgus, 4 who says in his speech against Leocrates, 
 accused of treachery after the battle of Chaeronea : " Who has not heard 
 that Troy, the greatest city of its time, and sovereign of all Asia, after 
 having been destroyed by the Greeks, has remained uninhabited ever 
 since?" "But how" — asks Eckenbrecher 5 — "could Lycurgus suppose 
 this to be universally known, as there must have been not a few persons 
 who knew nothing about it ; for instance, the Ilians of his time, who 
 (with Hellanicus and others) had the firm conviction that the site of 
 their city was identical with the Homeric Troy ? This question can 
 only be solved by the right interpretation of the word ' uninhabited ' 
 (aoLKTjros;) ; and, fortunately, Lycurgus himself assists us in explaining 
 it ; for he says also in his speech, that through the treachery of Leocrates 
 Athens had been in danger of becoming ' uninhabited ' {aoUrjrov av 
 ryeveaOcu). Does he mean by this, the danger of literally no one living 
 in Athens ? No, he can only have meant, in danger of becoming deserted, 
 desolate, dead, which expressions we use in speaking of a ruined city, 
 just as the modern Venetians have been heard to say ' non v' e piu 
 Venezia.' We see, then, that the word ' uninhabited ' was used in Greek 
 in this sense ; and we may therefore understand it so in the passage in 
 which Lycurgus applies it to Troy. In this way we remove the incon- 
 sistency involved in this passage by translating the word ' uninhabited,' 
 and do away with the proof that the site of the Homeric Troy had never 
 been inhabited after its destruction. For the rest, Strabo 6 cites the words 
 of Lycurgus, after having given Homer's authority for the complete 
 destruction of the city, in order to show, as he says, that this was also 
 acknowledged in later times. The confirmation of Troy's complete de- 
 struction (/career /cd<p7]) contained in the words of Lycurgus served Strabo 
 for his purpose, for the sake of which he cannot have laid any absolute 
 stress on the words that the city of the Ilians (which he here calls Troy) 
 remained ' uninhabited ' (doiKrjrov ovaav) ; for even a city which has 
 literally not a single inhabitant need not on this account be destroyed: 
 
 by the gradual filling up of a chasm, like that 
 of the Red Sea, by the alluvial deposits of the 
 river in the course of centuries. 
 
 3 Die Laje des Homerischen Troja, p. 57. 
 
 4 Lycurg. in Leocratem, p. 62, ed. Carol. 
 Scheibe : tt)v Tpolav t\s ovk aicfjKoev, 8ti 
 
 fieyLCTTT) yeyevrj/u-evr] twv rore tt6\€0)v Kal 
 7rd(rr]s iiraplaaa rrjs 'Aaias, ws a7ra| inrb tcDv 
 'EWrivosv Ka.T€(TKa<p7), rbv alwva aoLKrjrSs eoTi; 
 
 5 Die Lage des Homer. Troja, p. 41. 
 
 6 xiii. p. 601. 
 
204 
 
 THE TRUE SITE OF HOMER'S ILIUM. 
 
 [Chap. IV. 
 
 it can easily be seen that Strabo only adds the final words in order to 
 conclude the phrase of Lycurgus." 
 
 Eckenbrecher 7 further says, in defence of Hissarlik against Bounar- 
 bashi : " The prophecy of Juno in the Ode of Horace Jiistum ac tenacem, 
 &c., 8 has been cited as a decisive proof against Novum Ilium. Welcker 9 
 maintains : ' We cannot wish for a more conclusive testimony, that Ilium 
 was not rebuilt on the ancient site, than this threat of Juno, that the 
 Capitol would only exist and that Rome would only dominate, dum Priami 
 Paridisque busto Insultet armentum et catidos ferae Celent inultae:' — 
 
 ' Dum longus inter saeviat Ilion 
 Rornamque pontus, qualibet exsules 
 In parte regnanto beati : 
 
 Dum Priami Paridisque busto 
 
 * Insultet armentum et catulos ferae 
 Celent inultae, stet Capitolium 
 Fulgens tiiumphatisque possit 
 Roma ferox dare jura Medis.' 
 
 " We reply : Juno promises (1) that the Romans shall reign happily, 
 so long as the wide sea shall roar between Ilium and Rome ; and (2) that 
 the Capitol shall gloriously stand, and Rome shall be victorious, so long 
 as on the tumulus of Priam and Paris herds shall trample and wild beasts 
 shall with impunity conceal their brood. In the first part of this prophecy 
 is contained a guarantee for the eternal duration of the Capitol ; for it is 
 said that Rome's happy dominion, which is unimaginable without the 
 existence of the Capitol, will last as long as the sea shall roar between Ilium 
 and Borne, that is, eternally. Now, Juno would have made a contradictio 
 in adjecto, if she had said in the second part of her promise, that the 
 eternal standing of the Capitol was uncertain ; but she would have said 
 this if she had designated the length of the duration of the Capitol's 
 existence, not by a thing which must last eternally, like the roaring of 
 the sea, but by something which might perhaps not last eternally. She 
 must therefore have thought, that the herds and wild animals must 
 continue for ever to trample on the sepulchre of Priam and Paris : thus 
 these graves are supposed to be at a spot, perhaps in the secluded dales 
 of Mount Ida, where pasturing herds and wild animals are presumed to 
 remain for ever. What has been said of the latter would therefore give 
 the same sense as we might perhaps express by saying : ' As long as cows 
 are pasturing on the Alps, and chamois climb about on their rocks ;' thus 
 this promise purports nothing else than : — the victorious power shall be 
 eternal. There is nothing else, therefore, in this passage ; not a trace of 
 a proof against the identity of Novum Ilium with the Homeric Ilium. 
 But we should impute to Horace an absurd mode of writing, if, in the 
 second part of the promise — which, like the first, he introduces by dum, 
 £ as long as' — he intended to express a condition which was not necessarily 
 to be fulfilled, like the condition contained in the first part ; that is, 
 which was not to be fulfilled in case the Romans built a city on the site of 
 
 7 Die Lage des Homer. Troja, pp. 42-46. 8 Horat. Carm. iii. 3. 
 
 9 Welcker, Kleine Schriften, Band iv. p. 19. 
 
Chap. IV.] 
 
 JUNO'S PROPHECY IN HORACE 
 
 205 
 
 those tombs, whereas it would be fulfilled if they did not do this. He 
 must have supposed, however, that in the latter case herds and wild 
 animals would be eternally on those tumuli. He would, therefore, use 
 the image of the pasturing flocks and wild animals as an image of 
 eternity. Those who pretend to find in the second part of the promise 10 
 the condition that no city must ever be built on the site of ancient Troy, 
 ought not to be surprised, that with our mode of explanation, we attribute 
 this meaning to Horace. 
 
 " But our Ode contains yet more than the promise of Juno which we 
 have discussed. It is said later on : 
 
 ' Scd bellicosis fata Quiritibus 
 Hac lege dico : ne nimium pii 
 Rebusque fidentes avitae 
 
 Tecta velint reparare Trojae.' 
 
 With reference to this we must say : If indeed these words were to be 
 understood to prescribe that Troy should never be rebuilt, as the con- 
 dition of the victorious grandeur of Eome, Horace's opinion would cer- 
 tainly be expressed by saying, that it had never been rebuilt — that is, the 
 site of Homeric Troy had never again borne human habitations; that 
 that site, therefore, was different from that on which, in Horace's time, 
 stood the great and flourishing city of Ilium. But Juno's words are not 
 necessarily to be understood as containing this condition. They may also 
 be interpreted, not altogether to prohibit building again on the site of 
 Priam's Troy, but merely to enjoin that this should not be done with 
 exaggerated piety (ne nimium pit), and with exaggerated confidence in the 
 secure power of Borne. I believe indeed that, considering the circum- 
 stances, we must say that Horace meant his words to be understood in 
 this manner : because, had he been understood to make it the condition 
 of Rome's greatness, that the site of Priam's Troy should never be again 
 built upon, then every one would have concluded from this Ode, either 
 that Juno had prophesied falsely, or that — by the rebuilding of Troy — 
 Eome had already for centuries' worked at its own perdition ; for, according 
 to the popular belief as well as in the opinion of the most distinguished 
 men, on the site of Priam's Troy stood a city of Troy, which the Eomans 
 had with bountiful liberality for centuries been endeavouring to raise to 
 a highly flourishing condition. We must therefore explain Horace only, 
 to have intended to rebuke the exaggerated piety, &c. displayed in the 
 restoration of Troy, and not its restoration generally. Suetonius perhaps 
 gives us the explanation of the poet's motive for saying this in such 
 emphatic words. He tells us, in fact, that shortly before Caesar's assas- 
 sination there had been a strong and universally diffused rumour, that 
 he intended to transfer the centre of gravity of the Eoman power to 
 Ilium. 11 How much this was to the Eoman taste [or rather a favourite 
 idea of certain emperors] we see from the fact, that at a later time 
 Constantine the Great, before establishing Constantinople at Byzantium, 
 
 10 See above. translatis siraul opibus imperii, exhaustaque 
 
 11 Suetonius, Julius Caesar, 79 : " varia fama Italia delectibus, et procuratione urbis amicis 
 percrebuit migraturum Alexandriam vel Ilium, permissa." 
 
206 THE TRUE SITE OF HOMER'S ILIUM. [Chap. IV. 
 
 had in all seriousness selected the environs of Ilium for his new -capital. 1 
 Such plans may also have hovered in the air at the time of Augustus, 
 and may have induced Horace, who held them to he pernicious, to 
 express himself in the sharpest manner. 2 For the rest, the adherents of 
 Bounarhashi have overlooked the fact, that no one at Eome ever at any 
 time thought of "building a Troy outside Novum Ilium, on any site 
 believed to he identical with Priam's Troy, in opposition to Novum Ilium. 
 It therefore could not occur to Horace's mind to warn them against that 
 scheme. 
 
 " Like Horace, Aeschylus 3 is also most unjustly cited against Novum 
 Ilium.- He says no more than that Troy had been destroyed and its site 
 deserted, 4 and that Athene had taken possession of the Trojan land as a 
 portion of booty (Xa^o?) for the children of Theseus. 5 If we suppose that 
 by this is meant only a portion of the Trojan land, it does not follow that 
 that land, as Welcker maintains, should be thought to be excluded from 
 all kinds of profane use (and therefore from the building of houses). And 
 which portion of the Trojan land was it ? Welcker indeed knows very 
 precisely that it was the region of Bounarhashi, but he does not make it 
 clear to us how he knows this. 
 
 " Just as little as the adherents of Bounarhashi can appeal to Aeschylus, 
 so little can they appeal to Lucan's Pharsalia. 6 It is evident that Lucan 
 makes Caesar visit the Ilium of his time and hold it to be the Homeric 
 city. Of this 1 the verse 
 
 'Circuit cxustae nomen memorabile Tiojae' 
 
 can hardly leave any doubt, because on the coast of Troy there existed 
 only the city called Ilium or Troy, and no other of this name. But it is 
 self-evident that Caesar could not have found there ruins of the ancient 
 Pergamus and the wall of Phoebus Apollo, and this bears as little on the 
 subject as the trees and brakes which grew on the Pergamus, as now on 
 the Acrocorinthus and many another Acropolis, whilst the city which 
 belongs to it lives and bears its ancient name. Let us also remember 
 Caesar's solemn vow made on the sacred precincts : 7 
 
 Restituam populos, grata vice moenia reddent 
 Ausonidae Pkrygibus, Romanaque Pergama surgent,' 
 
 of which promise Lucan says 8 that it has been fulfilled — 
 
 ' Votaque tlmricremos non irrlta f adit in ignes ; ' 
 
 which cannot refer to anything else than the numerous good acts and 
 
 1 Gibbon, c. 17. Constantine had even begun 
 to erect on the chosen site important and sump- 
 tuous buildings, which afterwards fell to pieces. 
 
 2 See also Loebell, Uebcr das Principat des 
 Augustus, in Raumer's Ilistor. Taschenbuch, 1834. 
 
 3 Welcker, Klcine Schriften, Band iv. p. 17. 
 
 4 Aeschylus, Agamemnon, vv. 524-528 : 
 a\\' ev viv ao"irdo-ao~9e, Kal yap ovv npeirei, 
 Tpo'iav Karao-KcLtyavTa rod 5iKrj<p6pov 
 
 Albs fxaKeAkr], rfj Karelpyacrrai ireZoy. 
 
 (Boo/aoI 5' aicrrot Kal Qewv ISpv/xara, 
 Kal airepixa ird<Tr)s e^airoKXvrai x^oj^s. 
 
 5 Eumenides, 397-402 : 
 Tvp6crwdev i^rjicouo-a KAyh'ovos fio-fjv, 
 curb 'ZKa/j.dvSpov yrjv KaracpQarovfxevq, 
 V Stjt' 'Axa'wj/ &Kropes re Kal irpojxoi, 
 rwv aix^a\u>rwv xp-qixdrwv Xaxos fieya, 
 evei/J-av avroirpefjivov els rb irav efxoi, 
 i^aiperov Scoprj/xa ®t](Tews rJ/cots. 
 
 6 3x. 9G1. 7 Lucan. Pharsal. ix. 998, 999. 
 8 Pharsal. ix. 989. 
 
Chap IV.] 
 
 LEGEND OF THE WOODEN HORSE. 
 
 207 
 
 favours, by which— as we notoriously know from history — Julius Caesar 
 endeavoured to raise the Ilium of his time to a flourishing condition." 
 
 I may here add that the site of Bounarbashi is in contradiction with 
 the hydrographical foundations of our map, in consequence of which all 
 the adherents of the Troy-Bounarbashi theory must submit to a radical 
 renaming of the rivers of the plain. 
 
 It has been argued against the identity of Novum Ilium with the 
 Homeric Troy that, if the latter had been so near the ships, the Trojans 
 would not have needed to encamp in the plain. But it was Hector's 
 intention to attack the Greeks the moment they should try to put their 
 ships afloat and to go on board, for he supposed they had such a design. 9 
 By encamping at the tumulus of Ilus he saved a march of a mile and a 
 half, and kept his warriors under arms instead of dispersed in the city. 
 
 When the battle is raging near Troy, Ajax is afraid that those of the 
 Greeks who had remained in the camp at the ships might be discouraged 
 at seeing their comrades repulsed by Hector. 10 The distance appears, 
 therefore, to have been so short that they could see each other. Virgil, 11 
 the most veracious narrator of traditions, and Quintus Smyrnaeus, 1 
 represent the Trojan women as looking at the Greek fleet from the walls, 
 and hearing the cries of the Greeks when they rushed from the camp. 
 These are merely instances of the views of these two later authors 
 with regard to the distance and the relative situation of the city and 
 the camp. But it must be supposed that people at the camp and in Ilium 
 perceived each other only very imperfectly, for otherwise there could 
 be no reason why Polites— who, confiding in his speed, sat as scout on 
 the tumulus of Aesyetes (which we may suppose to have been near Koum 
 Kioi) — should have watched when the Greeks would rush forth from 
 their ships. 2 
 
 The legend of the Trojan wooden horse is undoubtedly nothing but 
 a sacred symbol. Euphorion, in the rationalizing spirit of the later 
 Greeks, supposed this horse to have been nothing else than a Grecian 
 ship called Xtttto^, " the horse." 3 So too Pausanias pronounced that the 
 Trojan horse must have been in point of fact a battering-engine, because 
 to admit the literal narrative would be to impute utter childishness to the 
 defenders of the city. 4 Keller 5 suggests that " it probably refers to an 
 oracle ; let us call to mind the numerous Sibyls in Asia Minor, at Sardis ; 
 Erythrae, and Samos, 6 as well as the oracle of the wooden walls of Athens, 
 which signified its ships." But the Trojan horse, as Grote 7 says, with its 
 
 9 II TiiL 508-511 : 
 
 S>s K€is iravvvxioi /xeV^)' i)ous TipiyeueiTjs 
 Kalco/xev irvpd iroX\d, o~e\as 5' ei's obpavov '/«:?;, 
 
 fl7] TTWS KOL Sia VVKTa KOLpf] KOJJ.6c0l>T€S ' Ax^io'l 
 
 (pevyeiv 6pfxr\<rctivrai iir' eypea cwra 6a\d(To~7)s. 
 
 10 II. xvii. 637-639 : 
 
 o" ttov 5eCp' opocovres a/CTJxeSaT', ovB' en cpaalu 
 "EKTopos av8po<povoio /j.evos /cat x € ^P as adirrovs 
 o~xycr€o-6\ aAA' eV vqval /xeXaluriaiu TreaetaOai. 
 
 11 Aeneid. ii. 460-462 : 
 "Turrim in praecipiti stantern summisque sub 
 astra 
 
 Eductara tectis, unde omnis Troia videri 
 Et Danaum solitae naves et Achaica castra." 
 
 1 ix. 75 : 
 
 Tpwes 5' eS-r' iirvQovro fioqv Kal Xabv Wovto, 
 ddfifirio-ai'. 
 
 2 II. ii. 791-794, already cited. 
 
 3 Fragment^ 34, ap. Diintzer, Fragmenta 
 Epic. Graec. p. 55. 
 
 4 Grote, History of Greece, i. p. 285. 
 
 5 Die Ehtdeckung Eton's zu Ilissai'lik, p. 16. 
 
 6 Aelian. Var. Hist. xii. 35. 
 
 7 Hist, of Greece, i. p. 305. 
 
208 THE TRUE SITE OF HOMER'S ILIUM. [Chap. IV. 
 
 accompaniments, Sinon and Laocoon, is one of the capital and indis- 
 pensable events in the epic : Homer, Arctinus, Lesches, Yirgil, and 
 Quintus Smyrnaeus, all dwell upon it emphatically as the proximate 
 cause of the capture of Troy. 
 
 I mention the Trojan horse here, in order to show that those who 
 invented or supported the legend can only have had the idea that it 
 was dragged to a Pergamus situated at a very short distance from the 
 Greek camp, but they cannot possibly have supposed that such an 
 immense machine, full of warriors, could have been dragged for eight 
 miles through the plain, and then for more than one mile up the steep 
 rocks of the Bali Dagh to the Pergamus. The adherents of the Bounar- 
 bashi theory maintain that the passage in the Odyssey 8 — which refers to 
 the consultation as to whether the great horse, which had been dragged 
 into the Acropolis, should be thrown down on the stones at its foot — can 
 only be referred to the little Acropolis on the Bali Dagh, with its deep 
 and steep slope, and not to Hissarlik. But we see no reason for this, 
 because the slope of Hissarlik is on the north, north-west, and north-east 
 side at an angle of 45° ; and the city had, besides, high walls. We must 
 therefore understand that it was proposed to drag the horse to the 
 edge of the wall and to throw it thence on the stones below ; there is 
 not the slightest reason to suppose that Homer must necessarily have 
 meant here very high, almost perpendicular, pointed cliffs. 
 
 At the time of Demetrius of Scepsis the little Acropolis on the 
 Bali Dagh, behind Bounarbashi, was probably still standing. It was 
 strategically well situated ; but nevertheless, though envious and jealous 
 of Novum Ilium, he did not, like the modern explorers, dare to proclaim 
 its identity with the Homeric Ilium. He preferred to instal a poor 
 unfitly situated little village in the legendary rights of the ancient 
 Ilium, because that name at least appeared to cling to it. Nobody 
 dared in antiquity to shake the tradition of a name,— an example of 
 caution which should be a warning to us. 9 
 
 W. Christ 10 cites B. Stark of Heidelberg, 1 whose enthusiasm for his 
 Troy-Bounarbashi theory goes so far that, without paying any attention 
 whatever to the ancient testimonies, he puts the 'I/UeW Kco^t; of 
 Demetrius close to Bounarbashi. 
 
 Grote 2 observes : " Theophrastus, in noticing old and venerable 
 trees, mentions the (prjyol (Quercus aesculus) on the tomb of Ilus at 
 Ilium, without any doubt of the authenticity of the place {Be Plant, 
 iv. 14) ; and his contemporary, the harper Stratonikos, intimates the 
 same feeling, in his jest on the visit of a bad Sophist to Ilium during 
 the festival of the Ilieia (Athenaeus, viii. p. 351) The same may be said 
 respecting the author of the tenth epistle ascribed to the orator Aeschines 
 
 8 Od. viii. 506-509 : 9 Otto Keller, Die Enideckunj Ilion's zu Ilis- 
 
 . . . . rpi'x a Vtyutw ^vdave /3ovA^, sarlik, p. 27. 
 
 •j)e Siair\ri^ai kolKov 86pv vq\4i x aKK $i 10 Topographic der Trojan. Ebene; Munchen, 
 
 if) Kara irerpdwv ySaAf'eij/ envoauras cV aKprjs, 1874. 
 
 % idav /xe'7' dya\fxa 6ewv 6e\KT'l\piov dvai. 1 Reise nach dem griechisehcn Orient, p. 166. 
 
 2 History of Greece, i. p. 299. 
 
Chap. IV.] 
 
 BELIEF OF THE GREEKS AT ILIUM. 
 
 209 
 
 (p. 737), in which his visit of curiosity to Ilium is described — as well 
 as about Apollonius of Tyana, or the writer who describes his life and 
 his visit to the Troad; it is evident that he did not distrust the 
 apx^'oXoyia of the Ilians, who affirmed their town to be the real Troy 
 (Philostr. Vit. Apol. Tyan. iv. 11). The goddess Athene of Ilium was 
 reported to have rendered valuable assistance to the inhabitants of 
 Kyzikus, when they were besieged by Mithridates, commemorated by 
 inscriptions set up in Ilium" (Plutarch, Lucullus, 10). 
 
 Grote 3 also finds an important argument for the identity of Novum 
 Ilium with the Homeric Troy in the above-mentioned periodical sending 
 of the Locrian maidens to Ilium, to do menial service in the temple of 
 Athene, as an expiation of the sin of their hero Ajax, son of Oileus. He 
 thinks that the sending of these virgins could not possibly have been 
 commenced under the dominion of the Persians, as Strabo 4 says: but, 
 on the contrary, he finds in it a proof that Ilium always existed, and, 
 consequently, that it had never ceased to be inhabited. I may add that, 
 according to another passage in Strabo, 5 the Ilians maintained that the 
 annual sending of Locrian virgins to Ilium had commenced soon after 
 the capture of Troy, and that the city had neither been totally destroyed 
 by the besieging Greek army nor had it ever been (entirely) deserted. 
 The history of the city could not have been anywhere better preserved 
 than by its inhabitants. 
 
 As the hill of Hissarlik, under whatever essential aspect we may 
 examine it, answers to the indications of the Iliad in regard to the 
 situation of ancient Ilium, the fact that a city of the same name existed 
 here in later times tends rather to confirm than to enfeeble its right to be 
 considered identical with the city celebrated by the poet. The identity 
 of name is a strong presumption in favour of the coincidence of position. 
 It must also be considered, that the interest which the ancients felt 
 for the Troy of Homer was far greater even than ours ; that they had 
 plentiful sources of information which are lost to us ; and that they 
 were consequently far better prepared for a thorough examination of 
 the site uhi Troja fait than we are. The Ilians were Aeolic Greeks, 6 
 who had immigrated into the Troad 7 and had no doubt got mixed up 
 with the remaining Trojans, and who adhered with fervent zeal to the 
 worship of the Ilian Athene and to that of the heroes who had fallen 
 in the war, to whom, as we have seen, 8 funeral services were celebrated as 
 
 3 History of Greece, i. p. 282. 
 
 4 xiii. p. 601 : Tas Se Aonpidas irejji.(p6rivai 
 Tlepauv 77877 npa.TOvvTa>v avvefSf). 
 
 5 xiii. p. 600 : Aeyovai 8' oi vvv 'l\ie?s Ka) 
 tovto «s ouSe reAecos rjcpaviadai awzfiaivev tt)v 
 it6Kiv kclto. T7)v aAcocriv virb toov 'Axatwi', oi>8' 
 i£eAel(p671 ovBeirore • at yovv AoKpioes irapQtvoi 
 jxiKpbv vo~T€pou ap^dp.evai iTr4/x7rovTO /car' e-ros. 
 
 6 Herodotus, v. 122 : Ct/j.4r]s) KaTaAiiriov t)]v 
 UpoirovTlha €7rt tov 'EAArjcnrovTOV ^ye rbv 
 o-TpaTov, Kal el\e fxev AtoAeas irdvTas, oaoi t^v 
 IAiaSa ve/xoj/Tai, eTAe 8e FepyiOas tovs viroAsi- 
 <p6evTas toov apxaitov TevKpcov. 
 
 Pausanias, i. 35. 4 : \6yov 8e rwv fikv AtoAeW 
 
 tS>v ftffrepop oiK'qo'dvTwv v l\iov is tt]v Kplaiu ttjv 
 eVi to?s cirkois riKovca. 
 
 Pausanias, viii. 12. 9 : tovtov 8e crvvTeXovcriv 
 is irio~Tiv AloKioov ol *lhiov i<p' 7j/ji.cZv e^oj/Tes, 
 K. t. A. 
 
 Grote, History of Greece, i. p. 290, also cites 
 Alokevs in 7roAews Tpwddos, the title proclaimed 
 at the Olympic games (Paus. v. 8. 3): like AioAtbs 
 dirb Movpiuas, from Myrinain the more southerly 
 region of Aeolis, which we find in the list of 
 victors at the Charitesia, at Orchomenus in 
 Boeotia (Boeckh, Corp. Inscrip. Grace. No. 1583). 
 
 7 See p. 128. 
 
 8 See pp. 180, 181. 
 
 P 
 
210 
 
 THE TRUE SITE OF HOMER'S ILIUM. 
 
 [Chap. IV. 
 
 late as the time of the Emperor Julian. Everything therefore here con- 
 tributed to keep alive the reminiscences of the Trojan war and its locality. 
 
 Not only did an ancient and venerable city stand on Hissarlik : this 
 city was also so rich and powerful that there could not easily be in 
 the Plain of Troy a second equally important city ; it must therefore 
 have been regarded as the capital of the Trojan dominion. 9 
 
 "The legendary faith (in the identity of Novum Ilium with the 
 Homeric Ilium) subsisted before, and continued " (as Grote 10 says) 
 " afterwards, notwithstanding the topographical difficulties. Hellanicus, 
 Herodotus, Mindarus, the guides of Xerxes, and Alexander, had not 
 been shocked by them : the case of the latter is the strongest of all, 
 because he had received the best education of his time under Aristotle 
 — he was a passionate admirer and constant reader of the Iliad — he 
 was, moreover, personally familiar with the movements of armies, and 
 lived at a time when maps, which began with Anaximander, the disciple 
 of Thales, were at least known to all who sought instruction. Now if, 
 notwithstanding such advantages, Alexander fully believed in the identity 
 of Ilium, unconscious of the topographical difficulties, much less would 
 Homer himself, or the Homeric auditors, be likely to pay attention to 
 them, at a period, five centuries earlier, of comparative rudeness and 
 ignorance, when prose records as well as geographical maps were totally 
 unknown." Grote further cites the argument of Major Kennell: 1 
 " Alexander is said to have been a passionate admirer of the Iliad, 
 and he had an opportunity of deciding on the spot how far the topo- 
 graphy was consistent with the narrative. Had he been shown the 
 site of Bounarbashi for that of Troy, he would probably have questioned 
 the fidelity either of the historical part of the poems or of his guides. 
 It is not within credibility, that a person of so correct a judgment as 
 Alexander could have admired a poem which contained a long history 
 of military details and other transactions that could not physically have 
 an existence. What pleasure could he receive, in contemplating as 
 subjects of history, events which could not have happened ? Yet he did 
 admire the poem, and therefore must have found the topography consistent; 
 that is, Bounarbashi, surely, was not shown to him for Troy." 
 
 Grote further mentions the testimony of Arrian, " who, though a 
 native of Nicomedia, holding a high appointment in Asia Minor, and 
 remarkable for the exactness of his topographical notices, describes the 
 visit of Alexander to Ilium, without any suspicion that the place with 
 all its relics was a mere counterfeit. Aristides, Dio Chrysostom, Pau- 
 sanias, Appian, and Plutarch, hold the same language." 2 
 
 9 W. Christ, Die Topofjraphie der Trojanischen war, is addressed to the inhabitants of Ilium. 
 Ebene ; Miinchen, 1874. "if not Troy, what is Grote adds: "But modern writers seem for the 
 this city but its double ? " — Quarterly Review, most part to have taken up the supposition from 
 April 1874, p. 559. Straboas implicitly as betook it from Demetrius. 
 
 10 History of Greece, i. p. 305. They call Ilium by the disrespectful appellation 
 
 1 Observations on the Plain of Troy, p. 128. of Nc>o Ilium, while the traveller in the Troad 
 
 2 Arrian. Anab. i. 11 ; Appian, Mithridat. c. 53 ; looks for Old Ilium as if it were the unquestion- 
 Aristides, Oratio, 43 ; Rhodiaca, p. 820 (Dindorf, able spot where Priam had lived and moved ; 
 p. 369). The curious Oratio xi. of Dio Chrysostom, the name is even formally enrolled on the best 
 in which he writes his new version of the Trojan maps of the ancient Troad." 
 
CHAPTER V. 
 
 THE FIRST PRE-HISTOEIC CITY ON THE HILL OF HISSAELIK. 
 
 As I have explained in the preceding pages, 1 I ascertained by the 
 twenty shafts sunk on the site of Novum Ilium, which are accurately 
 indicated on the Plan of the Hellenic Ilium, 2 that the ruins of none of 
 the pre-historic cities, which succeeded each other here in the course of 
 ages, exceeded the precincts of the hill of Hissarlik, which forms its 
 north-west corner, and served as its Acropolis. This Acropolis, like the 
 Acropolis of old Troy, was called Pergamum. 3 Here were the temples 
 of the gods, 4 among which the sanctuary of Athene, the tutelary deity 
 of the city, was of great celebrity. The Ilians, who firmly believed 
 in the ancient tradition that their town occupied the very site of ancient 
 Troy, were proud to show in their Pergamum the house of Priam as 
 well as the altar of Zeus Herkeios, where that unhappy old man had 
 been slain, 5 and the identical stone on which Palamedes had taught the 
 Greeks to play at dice. 6 They were so totally ignorant of archaeology, 
 that they took it as an undoubted fact, that the Trojans had walked 
 on the very same surface of the soil as themselves, and that the buildings 
 they showed were all that remained of the ancient city. It never occurred 
 to their minds that ruins could exist except on the surface. As they had 
 no cellars, so they had no excavations to make ; but still they once cer- 
 tainly made an excavation, because there is a well 7 in the Acropolis, which 
 is walled up with stones and chalk, and was evidently dug by the later 
 Ilians. This well has been dug with great trouble through numbers 
 of pre-historic house-walls. By a strange chance it has been pierced, 
 at a depth of about 30 ft. below the surface, through the thick walls of a 
 house, which is the largest house in the burnt city, and which I firmly 
 hold to be the mansion of its chief or king, because, as mentioned in 
 the preceding pages, in or close to it I found nine smaller or larger 
 treasures. But they dug with great pains through these house-walls 
 without even noticing them, for, had they noticed them, they might 
 have raised pretensions to archaeology ; they might perhaps have 
 excavated the whole mansion, and might have felt inclined to proclaim 
 it as the real house of Priam, instead of the building which they showed 
 28 or 30 ft. above it, on the surface of the hill. With the same in- 
 difference they dug on, and, having pierced through several still more 
 
 1 P. 38. 
 
 2 The shafts are marked by the letters A to 
 V on Plan II. 
 
 3 Herodotus, vii. 43 : rb Uepya/uLov. The 
 form in Homer is always r) Uepya/xos. The 
 Tragic poets use also the plural, to Uepyafxa. 
 
 4 Thelnscriptions authenticate, besides Athene, 
 a temple of Zeus Polieus at Novum Ilium 
 (Boeckh, Corp. Inscr., No. 3599). 
 
 5 Grote, History of Greece, i. p. 298. 
 
 6 Polemon Perieget. Frag. xxxi. ; ed. L. Preller. 
 
 7 This well is marked az on Plan I. (of Troy). 
 
212 
 
 THE FIE ST PRE-HIST0R1C CITY. 
 
 [Chap. Y. 
 
 ancient house-walls, they at last, at a depth of 53 ft., reached the rock, 
 into which they sunk their shaft deep enough to get water. The 
 Ilians dug this well from above, whereas in describing the results of 
 my excavations I shall commence from below. 
 The rock consists of soft limestone. 
 
 The first inhabitants of these sacred precincts did not take the trouble 
 to remove the black earth which covered this rock to the depth of 8 in. ; 
 but they laid on it the foundations of their houses, of which three walls-, 
 composed of small uncut stones joined with earth, may be seen in my 
 great trench, which passes from north to south through the whole hill. 8 
 On some of these walls the well-smoothed clay coating, with which they 
 were once covered, is still preserved. 
 
 I have hitherto attributed the enormous layer of debris, 23 ft. deep, 
 which covers the rock and precedes the burnt city, to only one nation, 
 and have called those vast ruins the First City on the hill of 
 Hissarlik. 9 But the pottery contained in the lowest stratum, from 6 
 to 7 ft. thick, is so vastly, so entirely different from that of the subse- 
 quent layer, 16 ft. thick ; and further — as Professor A. H. Sayce, who 
 recently visited the Troad, has ingeniously observed — the architecture 
 of the house- walls in these two strata is so widely different, — that I 
 cannot but acknowledge, in agreement with him, that the first city 
 must have been destroyed or abandoned, and again built over by 
 another people. 
 
 To my great regret, I have been able to excavate comparatively 
 little of these two lowest cities, as I could not bring them to light 
 without completely destroying the burnt city, the third in succession 
 from the virgin soil, the ruins of which rest upon the second city. 
 For this reason also I can only give the depth of the ruins of the first 
 city 10 approximately, as from 6 to 7 ft. : in some places it may be a little 
 less, in others a little more. Thus, for instance, the depth of the debris 
 of the first city is 9 ft. in two places in which M. Burnouf has most 
 carefully examined them. He found them to consist of: 
 
 1. The limestone rock : Thickness. 
 
 2. The layer of black earth 20 centimetres deep. 
 
 3. Dark blue plastic clay 3 „ 
 
 4. Light grey plastic clay . 3| „ ., 
 
 5. Dark blue plastic clay ........ 8£ „ „ 
 
 6. Black earth 6 „ „ 
 
 7. Dark blue clay mixed with grey clay ..... 8 „ „ 
 
 8. Mixture of the preceding earth with traces of charcoal .. . 26 „ „ 
 
 9. Yellow clay 9 „ „ 
 
 10. Dark blue clay mixed with much charcoal 13 „ „ 
 
 11. Yellowish clay, much mixed with grey clay and black earth, 
 
 traces of charcoal ........ 20 „ „ 
 
 12. Layer of mixed earth between two brown clayish laminae . 10 „ „ 
 
 13. Earth mixed with all these elements and with stones . . . 1 50 „ „ 
 
 2 metres 77 ctm. 
 
 Then follow the buildings of the Second City. as^^^sss^^^^^^ 
 
 8 See Plan III. (marked/// in Section of the 9 See my Troy and its Remains, pp. 148-156. 
 
 Great Central Trench, X-Y), also Plan I, (of 10 These ruins of the first city are marked 
 
 Troy), on which they are likewise marked // N on Plan 111. (Section of the Great Central 
 
 in the Great Trench, x-r. Trench) 
 
Chap. V.] POTTERY THE MOST ANCIENT OF IMITATIVE ARTS. 213 
 
 M. Burnouf remarks that these layers are frequently interrupted by 
 large cakes of clay (in French, (/alettes) or groups of them, which 
 were in general use with the inhabitants of the first three, and even 
 of the first four, pre-historic cities. He explains that these clay cakes 
 were used to consolidate and to level the layers of debris, because as 
 they dried they became so hard that the heaviest walls could be erected 
 upon them. He adds that the layer of debris of the first city often 
 contains single stones, small deposits of brown or black ashes, as well 
 as mussels and oyster shells, but few cockles and bones. The layers of 
 debris slope with the hill towards the north. 
 
 This first city was evidently not destroyed by fire, for I never found 
 there blackened shells or other marks of a great fire. 
 
 Now, with regard to walls of defence, there are none in the excavated 
 part of it which I could with any probability attribute to this first city ; 
 only on the north-east side of the hill, at a distance of 133 ft. from 
 its slope, I brought to light a retaining wall of white stones, 1 which, 
 in agreement with Burnouf and Sayce, I can attribute only to this first 
 city, because at a depth of 50 ft. it ascends, at an angle of 45°, 6 ft. 
 below the ruined city wall built of large blocks joined with small stones, 2 
 and it must, therefore, have been built a very long time before the latter, 
 which we ascribe, with every probability, to the second city. 
 
 It appears that this first city had either no regular walls of defence, 
 or, as is more likely, its walls appeared not strong enough for the 
 second nation, which built, not only its walls, but even its houses, of 
 much larger stones. # Professor Sayce suggests that the entrance to this 
 first city was not on the south-west side, where the second settlers 
 built their gate, but that it must have been on the west side, where 
 the hill slopes gently at an angle of 70° to the plain. I think this 
 highly probable. 
 
 In treating of the objects of human industry found in the debris, I 
 begin with the most important — Pottery, — because it is the cornucopia 
 of archaeological wisdom for those dark ages, which we, vaguely groping 
 in the twilight of an unrecorded past, are wont to call pre-historic. 
 Indeed, "the art of making pottery seems," as Mr. A. W. Franks 3 
 judiciously observes, " to have been practised by mankind from very 
 early times. It is even a question whether it was not known to the 
 primitive inhabitants of Europe, in those early ages when the mammoth 
 and reindeer still lived in the plains of France. The invention of pot- 
 tery in China is referred by native writers to the legendary Emperor 
 Hwang- ti, who is stated to have commenced his reign of 100 years in 
 2697 b.c. A subsequent emperor, Yu-ti-shun (2255 B.C.), is stated to 
 have himself made pottery before he ascended the throne. The potter's 
 wheel was known in Egypt at an early period, having probably been 
 invented as early as the 6th Egyptian dynasty." 
 
 Of all the imitative arts the working in clay was naturally the most 
 
 See on the engraving, No. 2, the retaining 3 Introduction to his Catalogue of a Collection 
 wall marked A. of Oriental Porcelain and Pottery ; London, 
 
 2 See the wall b on the same engraving. 1878. 
 
214 
 
 THE FIRST FEE-HISTORIC CITY. 
 
 [Chap. V. 
 
 ancient, as modelling of course precedes casting, carving, or painting. 
 The pre-historic peoples, who inhabited the hill of Hissarlik, made of 
 baked clay all utensils for everyday life and for depositing the remains 
 of the dead. Instead of wooden or stone coffins they used funeral urns 
 of terra-cotta. Instead of cellars, chests, or boxes, they had large jars 
 (irffloi), from 4 to 7 ft. high, which were dug into the ground, so that only 
 the mouth was visible, and were used either for the preservation of food, 
 or as reservoirs for oil, wine, or water. Instead of wash-tubs, they used 
 large terra-cotta bowls ; of terra-cotta were all their vessels used for cook- 
 ing, eating, and drinking ; of terra-cotta even were their hooks for hanging 
 up clothes, the handles of their brushes, their ex-votos, and the weights 
 of their fishing-nets. Thus we cannot be astonished at finding in the 
 debris of their cities such large masses of broken pottery, among which, 
 however, there is no trace of tiles. It therefore appears certain that, 
 just like the houses of the present inhabitants of the Troad, the houses 
 of all the five pre-historic cities, which succeeded each other here, were 
 covered with flat roofs of beams on which was heaped a thick layer of 
 clay as protection against the rain. 
 
 If, as we judge of the degree of civilization of a country by its 
 literature, and particularly by its newspapers, it were possible to judge 
 of the degree of civilization of a pre-historic people by the greater or 
 less perfection of their pottery, then we might conclude, that of all 
 the peoples which have succeeded each other here, that of the first 
 city was by far the most civilized, because its pottery shows, both in 
 fabric and shape, by far the most advanced art. But I am far from 
 maintaining this theory ; I shall only cite facts. To this early people 
 the potter's wheel was already known, but it w T as not in common use, 
 
 because all the bowls and 
 plates, as well as all the 
 larger vessels, are invariably 
 hand-made. "We may say 
 the same of nearly all the 
 smaller vases, among which, 
 however, we now and then 
 find one which has most un- 
 doubtedly been turned on 
 the potter's wheel, as, for 
 instance, the vase No. 23, 
 which is of a dim black 
 colour and globular form, so 
 that it cannot stand without 
 being supported. 4 Like most 
 vases of a similar shape in 
 this first city, it has on each 
 side two long vertical tubular holes for suspension by a string. We 
 
 2s"o. 23. Globular Vase, with double tubular holes on either sids 
 lor suspension. (About 1 : 4 actual size. Depth, 48 ft.) 
 
 4 This vase is in my collection in the South Kensington Museum, where every one can con- 
 vince himself that it is wheel-made: this, however, can be also clearly seen in the engraving. 
 
Chap. V.] VASE-COVERS WITH DOUBLE PERFORATIONS. 
 
 215 
 
 No. 24. Fragment of a Vase, with two tubular boles on 
 each side for suspension. 
 (About half actual size. Deptb, about 48 ft.) 
 
 see this same system on the accompanying fragments of a lustrous-black 
 hand-made vase (Nos. 24 and 25). 
 
 This system of double vertical tubular holes for suspension, which was 
 in common use in the first city, has been but very rarely found elsewhere. 
 
 The Museum of Saint Germain- 
 en-Laye contains a fragment of 
 a dark-brown vase, with two 
 vertical tubular holes, found in 
 a cavern in Andalusia, which in 
 fabric resembles some of the 
 pottery of the first city at His- 
 sarlik. There are also three 
 fragments of vases, with two 
 vertical tubular holes, found in 
 Dolmens, the locality of which is not indicated ; further, the casts of two 
 more such fragments, of which the originals, preserved in the Museum 
 of Vannes, were found in the 
 Dolmen of Kerroh, at Loc- 
 mariaker. There has also 
 been found in Denmark, in 
 a sepulchre of the Stone 
 age, a similar vase, with two 
 vertical tubular holes on 
 each side for suspension ; it 
 is preserved in the Eoyal 
 Museum of Nordiske Oldsager 
 in Copenhagen, and is repre- 
 sented among the vases of 
 the Stone age, in J. J. A. 
 Worsaae's Nordiske Oldsager, 
 p. 20, No. 100. This Danish 
 vase is covered with a lid, 
 having on each side two 
 corresponding perforations, 
 through which the strings 
 were passed : in this way 
 the vase could be shut quite close. Similar vase-covers, with two tubular 
 holes far suspension on each side, are frequent in this first city. The 
 accompanying engraving represents two such vase-covers, of which the 
 
 No. 26. No. 27. 
 
 No. 25. 
 
 Fragment of a Vase, with two tubular holes for suspension 
 on each side. (Nearly actual size. Depth, 48 ft.) 
 
 Kbs. 26, 27. Vase Covers, with vertical tubular holes for suspension. 
 (About half actual size. Depth, 48 ft.) 
 
216 
 
 THE FIRST PRE-HISTORIC CITY. 
 
 [Chap. V. 
 
 one standing upright lias on its top four perforated projections, in the 
 form of feet, and a fifth not perforated in the middle. The other, which 
 stands on its head, has an equal number of such foot-like protuberances, 
 of which only one on each side is perforated : this latter, therefore, belongs 
 to a vase with only one vertical tubular hole for suspension on each side. 
 
 I may add that the five fragments of vases found in French Dolmens, 
 as well as the Danish vase, have only the system for suspension in 
 common with those of the first city at Hissarlik; the fabric and clay are 
 altogether different. 
 
 A very great number of the bowls and some of the vases of the first 
 city had, on the inner side of the rim, an incised linear ornamentation, 
 which was filled up with white chalk, so as to strike the eye. To this 
 class "of bowls belong the fragments Nos. 28 and 29, the ornamentation 
 of which appears to have been borrowed from weaving patterns. The 
 fragment No. 31 is the rim of a shallow basin with a perforated handle. 
 Many others have an incised linear ornamentation on the outside of the 
 rim, like Nos. 30, 32, 33, and 34, of which that on No. 32 appears also to 
 be a textile pattern. No. 35 is the bottom of a vase decorated with incisions. 
 
 No. 23. 
 
 No. 29. 
 
 No. 30. 
 
 No. 35. 
 
 No. 34. 
 
 Nos. 23-3: 
 
 Fragments of Pottery, ornamented with linear and other patterns filled with white chalk. 
 (About half actual size. Depth, 4 6 to 53 ft.) 
 
 The ornamentation of No. 33, which is very common, appears to be bor- 
 rowed from the fish-spine. Very curious is the incised ornamentation on 
 
Chap. V.] 
 
 KEMNANTS OF THE ANCIENT CORD. 
 
 217 
 
 the fragment No. 36, which resembles an owl's face in monogram, but 
 I am far from suggesting that the potter who made it intended to 
 represent an owl. It is however, as M. Burnouf remarks, easy to follow 
 upon the vases the series of forms gradually passing over from the owl- 
 head to this monogram. He calls attention to the bundle of vertical lines 
 to the right, which in his opinion are meant to represent female hair. 
 
 Most of the bowls have on the two sides, as in Nos. 37 and 38, slight 
 projections in the rim with horizontal tubular holes, which — in proportion 
 
 No. 36. Fragment of a Bowl, with an ornamentation No. 37. Lustrous-black Bowl, with two horizontal 
 
 filled with white chalk. tubular holes lor suspension. 
 
 (About half actual size. Depth, 48 ft.") (About 1 : 4 actual size. Depth, 45 ft.) 
 
 No. 38. Lustrous-black Bowl, with long horizontal tubular rings for suspension on the rirn. 
 (About 1 : 4 actual size. Depth, about 48 ft.) 
 
 to the size of the vessel— are from 2 to 4 in. long, and which likewise 
 served for suspending the bowls. 
 
 The fragments with tubular holes (on p. 218) belong to large bowls, 
 on account of which the holes are much wider, as the heavy weight of 
 the vessels, when filled, necessitated a strong cord. 
 
 On some bowls these protuberances, containing the tubular holes for 
 suspension, are ornamented, as in Nos. 40 and 42, with deep impressed 
 furrows, so that they have the shape of a hand with the fingers clenched. 
 
 In the tubular hole of a fragment of a bowl in my possession, my 
 friend the professor of chemistry, Xavier Landerer, late of the University 
 of Athens, found the remnants of the cord which had served for sus- 
 pending the vase. He ascertained these remnants to be of an organic 
 nature ; they burned, he says, like tinder or like the fibres of a thread 
 or cord. On examination through a microscope, they proved to be the 
 remains of a twisted linen cord. 
 
218 
 
 THE FIRST PKE-HISTORIC CITY. 
 
 [Chap. V. 
 
 With the exception of the vase No. 23— which, as already stated, is of 
 a dull black— and of Nos. 40 and 42, which are of a yellow colour— all the 
 
 No. 39. 
 
 Nos. 39-42. Fragments of Pottery, with tubular holes for suspension. 
 (About half actual size. Depth, 46 to 52 ft.) 
 
 above fragments and bowls are of a lustrous black; and the larger they 
 are, so much the thicker are they in many places, so that, for instance, at 
 the lower end of the rim and in the base the clay is often rather more than 
 half an inch thick. Although the rich shining deep black colour of these 
 bowls, enhanced as it is by its contrast to the fantastic rim-ornamentation 
 filled with white chalk, is really fascinating to the eye and looks like a 
 mirror, yet on close examination we find the surface of the bowls, both 
 outside and inside, very uneven. But this could hardly be otherwise, as 
 they are all hand-made, and were polished with stones of porphyry, 
 diorite, or jasper, expressly cut for the purpose, of which I found a great 
 quantity in this first city as well as in all the four successive pre-historic 
 cities of Hissarlik. Fair specimens of these polishing stones are seen in 
 the chapter on the Third, the burnt City, under Nos. 648-651, to which 
 I refer. (See p. 444.) 
 
 The unevenness of the surfaces of the pottery may also be accounted 
 for by the ingredients of which these vessels are composed ; for, when 
 fractured, we see that the clay has been mixed with coarsely-pounded 
 granite, the mica of which shows its presence by the numerous small flakes 
 glittering like gold or silver. Professor Landerer, who examined some of 
 the fragments chemically, found in them, besides granite, gneiss and 
 quartz. It appears therefore evident, that this most ancient and highly 
 curious pottery of the first city was fabricated in the same way as the 
 
Chap. V.] 
 
 INTENSE HEAT FOR BAKING POTTERY. 
 
 219 
 
 pre-historic pottery found in Mecklenburg, of which my friend the 
 celebrated archgeologist, Dr. Lisch of Schwerin, writes to me as follows : — 
 "As to the manufacture of clay vessels in the heathen time, numerous 
 thorough investigations have been made in Mecklenburg for the last fifty 
 years. First, the core of the vessel was made by hand of common clay, 
 which was thoroughly kneaded with pounded granite and mica. For this 
 reason, there are many urns which have a rough surface, owing to the 
 protruding little stones. But the interior surface of these urns was 
 covered smoothly with clean clay. The pounded granite was required in 
 order that the form of the vessel might be preserved in the fire, because 
 otherwise it would have collapsed. This mode of manufacture is also 
 proved by the sparkles of mica which may be seen on the surface. Then 
 the core of the vessel was dried or slightly baked. "When this had been 
 done, the whole external surface of the vessels was coated with clay, from 
 which all the coarser particles had been separated by water, so as to 
 establish a smooth surface and to fill up all the gaps. Hence we may 
 explain the astonishing and otherwise inexplicable phenomenon, that 
 fragments of such vessels show in the interior a granular, on the exterior 
 a clean smooth surface. After this, the ornamentation was cut in or 
 impressed, and the finished vessel was dried or baked at an open fire, 
 in which operation many vessels were coloured coal-black by the soot or 
 smoke. The black colour is vegetable, which can be easily proved if a 
 fragment of such coal-black pottery is put into a potter's oven, because it 
 is evaporated by the heat and leaves no metallic residuum, whilst, by 
 strong baking, the clay of the fragment becomes perfectly brick-red. For 
 the rest, no trace has ever been found of a pre-historic potter's oven. 
 The surface of many vessels may finally have been polished with bones or 
 smooth stones. Brick-kilns and potters' ovens were only introduced into 
 Mecklenburg in the twelfth century a.d., whilst in the Koman provinces 
 on the Bhine they existed as early as the third century a.d., or earlier, as 
 is testified by the numerous Roman bricks and vessels. I may add, that 
 pottery which has been baked in a potter's oven always gives a ringing 
 sound when touched by a hard object, whilst pottery which has been 
 baked at an open fire always gives a dull sound." 
 
 Professor Yirchow writes to me : " The preparation of the black terra- 
 cotta vessels has in our Berlin Anthropological Society been the subject 
 of many and long discussions. It has been proved that the most common 
 mode of preparing them is, by slow burning in shut-up places, to produce 
 much smoke, which enters into the clay and impregnates it. The black 
 colour can be made of any intensity that is desired. The Hissarlik vessels 
 have certainly been made in this way." 
 
 M. Burnouf remarks to me that for baking pottery thoroughly a great 
 heat is required, generally as much as 800-1600° Celsius = 1472-2944° 
 Fahrenheit, a heat which can never be attained in the open air. 
 
 Be this as it may, the rich lustrous deep black colour of the bowls 
 of the first city must have been produced by a peculiar process. M. 
 Landerer is of opinion that it must have been produced by an abundance 
 of pine-soot, with which the vessels were coloured at the second baking 
 
220 
 
 THE FIRST PRE-HISTORIC CITY. 
 
 [Chap. V. 
 
 in the open fire. On examining with a microscope the white chalk 
 with which the incised ornamentation is filled, he found in it the remains 
 of linen cords. 
 
 Professor Landerer calls my attention to the fact, that the colour of 
 the Hellenic terra- cotta vases is coal black, which was produced in the 
 following manner : — " Before the baking, the vases were oiled over with tar 
 (iriacra), or perhaps with the pissa asphalt of Herodotus, 5 which occurs 
 on the island of Zacynthus. In the baking the rosin was changed into 
 the finest coal, which got attached to the exterior layer of clay of the 
 vases and produced their black varnish." 
 
 There are also terra-cotta vessels in the first city with four perfora- 
 tions for suspension on each side in the rim, as is illustrated by the 
 accompanying engraving No. 43. 
 
 Another fine specimen of this sort is represented by the little hand- 
 made globular tripod No. 44, which has not been covered over with fine 
 clean clay, and has its surface therefore very rude and unequal. Gold- 
 like or silver-like sparkles of the mica contained in the clay may be seen 
 glittering on the outside as well as on the inside. The fracture at its base 
 is surrounded by an incised circle, which can leave no doubt that, after 
 the vase was made, a piece of clay on which three feet were modelled 
 
 5 iv. 195: eiTj 8 5 av irav, okov Kal Iv 
 Zatcvvdw 4k \lju,vr]s Kal vSaros irlcrcrav avacpcpo- 
 /j.4v7]u avrbs iycb copeov • elal jxkv Kal irAevves at 
 Xijxvat avrSOt, 7) 8' Z>v fieylaTT) avriwv, ifidojxy}- 
 Kovra ttoBuu irdvTr), fidQos 8e 8t6pyvt6s iarrt • is 
 TavTTjv novrbv KaTtelcri, iir aKpcp jxvpcrivT)v 
 Trpo(rdr](TauTes, Kzl eVerra avacpepovat rjj /xvpaivp 
 Trlaaav, od/xy]v /xev exovaav acrcpdhTOv, to. 8' 
 aXXa, rf/s YlicpiKr\s Triaarjs a/utclva} ■ icrx^ovat 8e 
 is Kolkkov bpcapvyfxivov ayxov rf/s Atfxvrjs' iirtav 
 8e aOpolcrctxTi avxvriv, ovrco is robs a/xcpoptas eV 
 rov KaKKov Karax^ovcri. o, rt 8' av icnrear] is tt}v 
 Ai/nvrjv, virb yrjv Ibv, avacpalverai iv ry QaXaaari. 
 
 Dr. Chandler {Travels, ii. pp. 367, 368) thus 
 describes the " tar-springs " (as he calls them) 
 of Zante : " The tar is produced in a small 
 valley, about two hours from the town, by 
 
 the sea, and encompassed with mountains, ex- 
 cept towards the bay. The spring, which is 
 most distinct and apt for inspection, rises on 
 the further side, near the foot of the hill. 
 The well is circular, and 4 or 5 ft. in diameter. 
 A shining film like oil, mixed with scum, 
 swims on the top. You remove this with 
 a bough, and see the tar at the bottom, 3 or 4 ft. 
 below the surface. . . . The water is limpid, 
 and runs off with a smart current. . . . We 
 filled some vessels with tar by letting it trickle 
 into them from the boughs which we immersed ; 
 and this is the method used to gather it from 
 time to time into pits, where it is hardened by 
 the sun, to be barrelled when the quantity is 
 sufficient." (George Rawlinson, History of 
 Herodotus, iii. pp. 169, 170.) 
 
Chap. V.] 
 
 VASES WITH TUBULAR HOLES. 
 
 221 
 
 was attached here. This supposition is also confirmed by the circular 
 depression in the middle of the fracture. The vase before us, therefore, 
 has been a tripod. Eound the body we see, at equal distances from each 
 other, four vertical tubular holes for suspension, and four perforations in 
 the rim in the same direction. I have not found the cover to this vase, 
 but it must naturally have been similar to that represented under No. 26. 
 As these lids have four perforations, they could well be fastened on by 
 means of four strings, one of which was passed through each of the 
 tubular holes and the corresponding holes in the rim and in the cover ; at 
 the other end of each string a knot had previously been made, which 
 remained at the lower end of the tubular holes and prevented the strings 
 from slipping. A similar contrivance is seen in the gold boxes found by 
 me in the royal sepulchres at Mycenae. 6 A similar contrivance is also 
 presupposed in the box which Arete, wife of king Alcinous, fills with 
 presents for Ulysses, for she recommends him : " Look now thyself to the 
 lid and tie quickly a knot on it, lest any one should rob thee on the way, 
 when thou reposest again in sweet slumber, sailing in the black ship." 7 
 Homer says in the verses immediately following : — " Moreover when the 
 much-enduring divine Ulysses heard this, he forthwith fitted on the lid, 
 and quickly put upon it a manifold knot, which venerable Circe had once 
 prudently taught him." 8 
 
 Telemachus, preparing for his voyage to Sparta, bids his nurse 
 Euryclea fill twelve amphorae with wine and fit them all with lids ; but 
 these would need to be very close-fitting for liquors. 9 Such lids for 
 amphorae were also found by me in the royal tombs at Mycenae. 10 
 
 Fragments of similar vases with four holes at each side for suspension 
 were found in the caves at Inzighofen, on the Upper Danube. 1 There are 
 other vases with only one perforation on each side in the rim, like No. 45, 
 which has all round it an ornamentation forming five ovals filled up with 
 dots. Again, other vases have on each side of the body only one ver- 
 tical tubular hole for suspension, like No. 46, which has also two female 
 breasts. This vase is also hand-made, but of green colour; its clay is 
 only 2-10ths in. thick, and therefore finer than that of the larger vases 
 or bowls. The pretty little vase No. 47 is also hand-made, and has only 
 one perforated projection on each side. 
 
 In the collection of pre-historic antiquities found in Thera, below 
 three layers of pumice-stone and volcanic ashes, and preserved in the 
 French School at Athens, there are two very rude hand-made vases of 
 cylindrical form, with one vertical tubular hole on each side for suspen- 
 
 6 See my Mycenae, p. 205, No. 318 ; p. 206, 
 No. 319 ; p. 207, Nos. 321, 322. 
 
 7 Odyss. viii. 443-445 : 
 
 avrbs vvv i'Se ir&fxa, Oows 8' eVt §€o~/j.bv 'in]\ov, 
 /xf) rls roi KaQ' ofibv drj\r)o~erai, ottttot' ctv avre 
 evSyada yXvKvv virvov, iwv iv vrji fizhaivr] 
 
 8 " Odyss. viii. 446-448 : 
 avrdp eVel to 7' anovce TroXvrXas o?os 'Odvcraevs, 
 auTiV iirr)prve iru/Aa, 9ows 8' eVt dea/nbv irj\ev 
 Ttoin'iKov, ov ttot4 [juv Se'Scse (ppzcrl norvta KlpKT]. 
 
 9 Odyss. ii. 349-353 : 
 
 pa?, dye 877 /xoi olvov qv afxcpicpopevaiv depvaaov 
 r)Svv, oris fxerd rbv Xapwraros, tv o~v (pvAaaaeis 
 Ktivov OLO/mevr], rbv Kajj-ixopov, ei nodev e\6oi 
 Sioyevrjs 'OSuo-eus Odvarov teal Krjpas d\v^as. 
 SxSeKa S' tfxTrArio-ov, Ka\ Trdo/xaa-LV dpaov airavras. 
 
 10 See my Mycenae, p. 256, Nos. 373 and 374. 
 
 1 Ludwig Lindenschmit, Die Vaterlandischen 
 Alterthiimer der Hohenzollerschen Sammlungen ; 
 Mainz, 1860. Plate xxvi., Nos. 7, 8. 
 
222 THE FIRST PRE-HISTORIC CITY. [Chap. V. 
 
 sion; and a pear-shaped vase in the same collection has an identical 
 system for suspension. These Thera antiquities are thought hy archae- 
 ologists to date from the sixteenth or seventeenth century B.C., but it 
 
 pension. (About 1 : 4 actual No. 46. Globular Vase, with two breasts and two perforated 
 
 size. Depth, 48 ft.) projections for suspension. (1 : 4 actual size. Depth, 45 ft.) 
 
 deserves attention that most of the Thera pottery has rudely-painted 
 ornaments, whilst there is no trace of painting at Hissarlik. 
 
 In the Assyrian Collection of the British Museum there are three 
 vases, found at Nimroud, which have the same system of one vertical 
 tubular hole on each side. There is also, in the collection of Babylonian 
 antiquities, the fragment of a hand-made slightly-baked vase, which 
 has the same vertical tubular holes for suspension. The same system 
 also exists on a vase from Cyprus in the Louvre, as well as on a vase 
 in the Museum of St. Germain-en-Laye, found in a Dolmen ; again, on 
 a fragment of a vase in the collection of Count Szechenyi Bela in 
 Hungary, 2 and on a small vase marked No. 1094, in the Grand Ducal 
 Antiquarium of Schwerin. This latter vase was found in a conical tomb 
 (Hiinengrab) near Goldenitz, in Mecklenburg. Professor Yirchow calls 
 my attention to an urn with three vertically perforated excrescences on 
 the sides and at the foot, — having thus, properly speaking, three double 
 tubular holes for suspension with a string. This urn was found at 
 Dehlitz, near Weissenfels, on the river Saale, in Germany. 3 But I have 
 not found this system anywhere else. 
 
 It must be distinctly understood that I speak here solely of vases 
 with vertical tubular rings or holes for suspension, and not of vases 
 
 2 Dr. Joseph Hampel, Catalogue de VExposi- 3 See the Sessional Report of the Berlin Society 
 
 Hon pre-historique des Muse'es de Province et des of Anthropology, Ethnology, and Pre-historio 
 
 Collections particulieres de la Honjrie ; Buda- Archeology, of Nov. 28, 1874, p. 7. 
 Pesth, 1876, p. 71, fig. 55. 
 
Chap. V.] 
 
 FEET OF CENSERS. 
 
 223 
 
 having projections with horizontally placed rings, because these occur 
 on a vase found in the Lake-dwellings of the Stone age at the station 
 of Estavayer ; 4 on four vases found in Dolmens in France, and preserved 
 in the Museum of St. Germain-en-Laye ; on some fragments of vases in 
 the same Museum ; on vases in the Egyptian Collection in the British 
 Museum ; on two vases of the Stone age in the Museum at Copenhagen ; 5 
 on several vases in the Collection of German Antiquities in the British 
 Museum ; on one from Cyprus in the South Kensington Museum ; on 
 several vases found in the excavations at Pilin in Hungary ; 6 and on 
 many vases in the Grand Ducal Antiquarium of Schwerin. Similar 
 vases with horizontal tubular holes for suspension are frequently found in 
 Germany, and the Markisches Museum in Berlin contains many of them. 
 Professor Virchow also has in his own collection some fine specimens of 
 such vases found in the extensive excavations he has made, in company 
 with his accomplished daughter Adele and his son Dr. Hans Virchow, in 
 the vast pre-historic graveyard of Zaborowo, in the province of Posen. 
 
 I lay stress on the fact, that vases with vertical tubular holes for 
 suspension are a very great rarity except at Hissarlik, where they occur 
 by thousands in all the five pre-historic cities, whilst vases with hori- 
 zontal tubular holes only occur here on bowls in the first city and in 
 none of the subsequent ones. 
 
 On the other hand, Mr. Calvert and I found in our excavations in 
 the tumulus of Hanai Tepeh, only three miles to the south of Hissarlik, 7 
 vases with horizontal tubular holes exclusively ; also bowls with the 
 same system as those in the first city on Hissarlik: but the horizontal 
 tubular holes are not in the rim itself, as here, but much below it ; and 
 thus the people to whom the Hanai Tepeh antiquities belonged must 
 have been altogether different from the inhabitants of any one of the 
 five cities at Hissarlik, for it is impossible that one and the same people 
 could make such perfectly different pottery. 
 
 Nos. 48 and 49 represent the feet of hand-made lustrous-black vessels ; 
 they are hollow, and have three and sometimes four round holes. I 
 
 Nos. 48, 49. Two feet of Terra-cotta Vessels. (About half actual size. Depth, 47 to 52 ft.) 
 
 gathered many similar vase-feet, but never an entire vessel of this kind. 
 
 I call particular attention to the great resemblance of these feet, 
 
 4 Dr. Ferd. Keller, Etablissements Lacustres ; fig. 130, and p. 41, fig. 28 : and Antiquites 
 Zurich, 1876, PI. xviii. No. 5, decrits par Dr. V. pre'historiques de la Hongrie ; Esztergom, 1877, 
 Gross. Plate xviii. figs. 2, 5, 8, 9, 11, 12 ; Plate xix., 
 
 5 J. J. A. Worsaae, Kordiske Oldsager (1859), fig. 11 ; PI. xx., figs. 4, 8, 19; PI. xxi., fig. 9 ; 
 PI. 19, Nos. 95 and 98, and PI. 20, No. 99. PI. xxii., figs. 2, 3. 
 
 6 Dr. Joseph Hampel, Catalogue, &c. p. 130, 7 See Mr. Calvert's Paper in his Appendix. 
 
224 
 
 THE FI11ST PRE-HISTORIC CITY. 
 
 [Chap. V. 
 
 Nos. 48 and 49, to those of the censers found in German tombs, of which 
 there are many in the Markisches Museum in Berlin, and some, found 
 in the graveyard of Zaborowo, in the collection of Professor Virchow. 
 The lower part of No. 50 is a similar foot, on which I have glued the 
 fragment of another object of cylindrical form which does not belong 
 to it. This latter object is of terra-cotta and of unknown use ; the top of 
 it is also restored : and it has a striking resemblance to two objects of 
 terra-cotta found at Pilin in Hungary. 8 Feet of vessels like Nos. 48 
 and 49, but without holes, are very frequent. 
 
 No. 51 represents a very pretty 
 lustrous hand-made red goblet with one 
 handle ; it was in fragments, but I have 
 been able to put it together. Fragments 
 of another such goblet, which I have 
 
 No. 50. Curious Vessel, use unknown (perhaps No. 51. Pretty lustrous red Cup with one bandle. 
 
 a Censer), placed on the foot of another vessel. (About 1 : 4 actual size. Depth, 48 ft.) 
 
 (About 1 : 4 actual size. Depth, 45 ft.) 
 
 under my eyes whilst writing this, show precisely the same mode of 
 manufacture as that which I have described above for the large bowls, 
 with the sole difference, that here red clay was used, and that, as 
 M. Landerer explains to me, the cup, immediately before its second 
 baking in an open fire, was repeatedly dipped in a wash of fine red clay 
 containing much peroxide of iron, which has produced the varnish-like 
 glazing. 
 
 I would here call particular attention to the fact, that the goblet 
 No. 51 represents more or less exactly the form of all the goblets of 
 terra-cotta found by me at Mycenae and Tiryns. 9 Those found there in 
 the royal tombs, and which are the most ancient, are of a light-green 
 colour, with curious black painted ornaments ; those found in the lowest 
 strata outside the tombs are of a single colour, light green ; a little 
 higher up follow the same kind of goblets of a uniform bright-red colour ; 
 and others which, on a light-red dead ground, have an ornamentation 
 of numerous painted parallel dark-red circular bands ; these, again, are 
 succeeded by unpainted goblets of white clay. These latter must have 
 been in use for ages, for they occur in such large masses, that I could 
 
 8 Dr. Joseph Hampe], AntquiMs prtfiistoriqucs 9 See my Mycenae, p. 70, No. 83 ; p. 71, Nos. 
 de 1 1 Hongrie; Esztergom, 1877, Plate xx., Nos. 84 and 88. 
 18 and 20. 
 
Chap. V.] 
 
 PAINT NOT KNOWN AT HISSARLIK. 
 
 225 
 
 have gathered thousands of such goblet-feet. Except the light-green 
 goblets with the black ornamentation, I found all these kinds of goblets 
 of the same shape also in my excavations at Tiryns. 1 But in the sepul- 
 chres of Mycenae I found five golden cups of exactly the same form as 
 that before us (No. 51) from the first city of Hissarlik. 2 Now, it 
 deserves very particular attention, that fourteen goblets of exactly the 
 same form were found in a sepulchre at Ialysus in Ehocles, and are now 
 in the British Museum. The only difference is, that these latter have a 
 painted ornamentation representing mostly the cuttle-fish (sepia), though 
 spirals are also depicted, as well as that curious sea-animal which so 
 frequently occurs on the other pottery of Mycenae, 3 but never on the 
 Mycenean goblets. While speaking of painting, I may make the im- 
 portant remark : that neither the inhabitants of the first city, nor those of 
 the four succeeding pre-historic cities at Hissarlik, had any idea of pigments, 
 and that, — except a single terra-cotta box found in the third city, on which 
 the keen eye of my honoured friend, Mr. Chas. T. Neivton, has recognized 
 a cuttle-fish, painted with dark-red clay on a light-red dead ground, and 
 two small boivls of terra-cotta from the fourth city, in which a large cross is 
 painted with darh-red clay ; — except also the small rude idols of white marble 
 on which the face of an owl is roughly drawn with black clay ; — there is 
 no trace of painting on any object ever found in any one of the five pre- 
 historic cities at Hissarlik. 
 
 Of similar goblets found elsewhere I can only mention a cup found 
 in Zaborowo in Professor Virchow's collection and another found at Pilin, 4 
 which have some resemblance to this in shape ; but the difference is that 
 the cups from Zaborowo and Pilin have not the wide foot which is 
 peculiar to the goblet before us, as well as to all those found at Mycenae. 
 Besides, their handles are much longer. 
 
 No. 52 represents a very small pitcher with one handle ; it has 
 neither been covered inside nor outside with prepared clay, and ie, 
 therefore, very rude. 
 
 No. 53. 
 
 Nos. 53, 54. Fragment of a lustrous dark-grey Vessel. No. 53, outside; No. 54, inside. 
 (About l : 4 actual s'ze. Depth, 50 ft.) 
 
 1 See my Mycenae, p. 70. 3 See my Mycenae, No. 213, a, b, p. 138. 
 
 2 See my Mycenae, p. 233, No. 343, and p. 350, 4 Joseph Hampel, Antiquites prehistoriques de 
 528. i a Rongrie ; Esztergom, 1877, Plate xix. fig. 3. 
 
 Q 
 
226 
 
 THE FIEST PRE-HISTORIC CITY. 
 
 [Chap. V. 
 
 I further show under No. 53 the outside, and under No. 54 the inside, 
 of a fragment of a large hand-made vase, which has impressed wave- 
 patterns on both sides. 
 
 No. 55 is a fragment of black terra-cotta, probably part of a box, 
 to which it served as an ornament ; it is decorated with lines and three 
 or four rows of dots, which are filled with white chalk. As appears from 
 
 No. 55. Fragment of Terra-cotta, perhaps part of a box, found on the primitive rock. 
 (About half actual size. Depth, 53 ft.) 
 
 the upper and the lower side, and from the two perforations, it may- 
 have been the setting and decoration of a wooden jewel-casket. It is 
 made with so much symmetry, and looks so elegant, that I at first thought 
 it was of ebony inlaid with ivory. 
 
 Of terra-cottas from the first city I further give here, under Nos. 56 
 
 No. 56. Jug. (About 1 : 4 actual size. No. 57. Jug. (About 1 : 3 actual size. 
 
 Depth, 45 ft.) Depth, 45 ft.) 
 
 and 57, engravings of two lustrous-black pitchers ; both have a globular 
 base, and have been put together from fragments. No. 58 represents a 
 lustrous-black pitcher of terra-cotta, with three female breasts and incised 
 linear patterns, which was found at a depth of 52 ft. 
 
Chap. V.] 
 
 "SKELETON OF AN EMBRYO. 
 
 227 
 
 No. 58. Pretty lustrous-black Pitcher of TYrra-cotta, with 
 three female breasts and incised linear patterns. 
 (Nearly half actual size. Depth, 52 ft.) 
 
 All the terra-cottas hitherto represented are uninjured by moisture ; 
 some others, however, have become soft from damp. Thus, for instance, 
 I found upon the rock, at a depth 
 of 5l£ ft., in a small tomb-like 
 recess, formed and protected by 
 three stones 26 in. long and 18 in. 
 broad, two funeral urns of a very 
 remarkable form, with three long 
 feet, and filled with human 
 ashes. The urns are hand-made, 
 and consist, as usual, of coarse 
 clay, mixed with silicious earth 
 and pounded granite, containing 
 much mica ; they have, appa- 
 rently, been baked only once 
 very imperfectly at an open fire, 
 and were not covered over with 
 fine clay ; nevertheless, owing to 
 the oxide of iron contained in 
 their clay, they have a dull red 
 colour. They have suffered so 
 much from moisture, that, in spite 
 of every care and precaution, I could not get them out without breaking 
 them up completely ; but as I had collected all the fragments, I could 
 easily restore both of them. 
 
 The accompanying engraving, 
 No. 59, represents the larger of 
 the two, in which I found among 
 the human ashes the bones of an 
 embryo of six months, from which 
 the entire skeleton has been re- 
 stored by my friend, the cele- 
 brated surgeon Aretaeos of Athens, 
 who maintains that the preserva- 
 tion of these small bones was only 
 possible on the supposition that 
 the mother had made a premature 
 birth and died from its effect; 
 that her body was burnt, and the 
 unburnt embryo put with her 
 ashes into the funeral urn, where 
 I found it. 
 
 No. 60 is the engraving of a 
 large common hand-made vase 
 with two handles, the original 
 brick colour of its clay having acquired a brownish hue by age. No. 61 
 is a small hand-made red vase cf a very curious shape. No. 62 is a 
 
 No. 59 
 
 Tripod Urn, containing human ashes and the 
 bones of an embryo. (About 1 : 8 actual size. 
 Depth, 51 i ft. N 
 
228 
 
 THE FIEST PKE-HXSTOKXC CITY. 
 
 [Chap. V, 
 
 hand-made lustrous-black bowl, without tubular holes for suspension; 
 bowls of this description are very common in the first city. 
 
 No. 60. Haud-made Vase. (About 1 : 6 actual size. Depth, 40£ ft.) 
 
 I may further mention a hand-made vase of globular shape, orna- 
 mented with an incised pattern of zigzag lines, similar to that on two 
 
 No. 62. Hand-made lustrous-black Bowl. (About 
 1 : 4 actual size. Depth, 46 ft.) 
 
 vases of the Stone age in the Museum at Copenhagen, 5 with the difference 
 that on this Trojan vase the zigzag lines are accompanied on each side 
 by a row of deep dots. 
 
 Of the terra-cotta whorls, of which I found many thousands in the 
 
 5 See J. J. A. Worsaae, Nordishe OUsager, PI. xx. Nos. 99 and 100. 
 
Chap. Y J 
 
 ORNAMENTED WHORLS. 
 
 229 
 
 debris of the third, fourth, and fifth cities, I could collect comparatively 
 few in the strata of the first and second cities, and particularly in that 
 of the first, of which I am now treating. Those which I gathered in the 
 first city are either unornamented, and in this case they have a uniform 
 lustrous-black colour and have more or less the shape of a cone or of two 
 cones- joined at the bases (see Nos. 1806 and 1807), or they are ornamented 
 
 No. 63. No. 61. Xo. 65. Xo. 66. 
 
 Xos. C3-66. Whorls. (About 1 : 4 actual size. Depth, 45 to 50 ft.) 
 Xo. 67. Xo. 6<?. 
 
 Xos. 67-70. Whorls. (About half actual size. Depth, 48 to 52 ft.) 
 
 with incisions (see Nos. 63-70) ; and in this case they are very flat, and 
 resemble the wheels of the Turkish country-carts. Thus a whorl of 
 this first city may easily be recognized from among thousands of others 
 found in the subsequent cities. 
 
 As we see on only a few of these whorls traces that they have been 
 used, I suppose that they served as offerings to the tutelary deity of the 
 city, who may have had the character of Athene Ergane, and may have 
 been regarded as the protecting divinity of female handiwork, and par- 
 ticularly of women engaged in spinning and weaving. That such a 
 goddess was adored in Ilium, we may gather with all probability from 
 the legend before recorded, 6 that the builder of the city, Ilus, was 
 rewarded by Zeus with a favourable sign, consisting of the Palladium 
 which fell from heaven, with a distaff and a spindle in one hand and a 
 lance in the other ; for the distaff and spindle can probably mean nothing 
 else than the goddess's allegorical character as Ergane. I am far from 
 maintaining that Ilus ever existed, or that he might have founded this 
 first city. If he really built a city here, it would probably be the third 
 in succession ; but the strange coincidence of the legend of Athene with 
 the distaff, and the numerous whorls found here, makes me think that the 
 worship of Athene Ergane was not instituted by the builder of the third 
 city, but that a goddess of an identical character, though probably of a 
 different name, had a cultus here ages before the third city was built. 
 
 The ornamentation on the whorls is incised, and, as on the vases, it 
 is filled up with white chalk to strike the eye. I abstain from discuss- 
 ing whether this ornamentation may be symbolical or not ; I will only 
 say that the patterns of the whorls, of the shape of those represented 
 
 6 See p. 153. 
 
230 
 
 THE FIEST PRE-HISTORIC CITY. 
 
 [Chap. Y. 
 
 under Nos 1817-1820, are found in the terramare of Italy, in Lake- 
 dwellings of the Stone age. Through the kindness of my friend, Professor 
 Giuseppe G. Bianconi of Bologna, I have received the drawings of ten 
 such whorls, which are preserved in the Museum of Modena, having 
 been found in the terramare of that district : among them are six which 
 have the same ornamental carvings that I found upon whorls in my 
 excavations at Hissarlik. The same friend has also sent me the drawings 
 of 18 similar whorls found in the graves of the cemetery of Yillanova, 
 and now in the museum of Count Gozzadini at Bologna. As the Count 
 found an " aes rude " in one of the graves, he thinks that the cemetery 
 must belong, like it, to the time of King Numa, that is, to about 700 B.C. ; 
 De Mortillet, 7 however, ascribes a much greater age to the cemetery. 
 But at all events, 15 of the 18 drawings lying before me have a 
 modern appearance, compared with the 10 whorls in the Museum of 
 Modena, or with the whorls found at Hissarlik, even in the latest pre- 
 historic city ; for not only the ornamentation, but the forms also of 
 the whorls, are much more elaborate. 
 
 The comparison of these 18 whorls with those from Hissarlik con- 
 vinces me, therefore, that Count Gozzadini is right in ascribing no greater 
 age to the cemetery than 700 b.c. Two terra-cotta whorls, likewise with 
 incised ornamentation, now in the Museum of Parma, were found in 
 the terramare of Castione and Campeggine. 8 From 300 to 400 terra- 
 cotta whorls were found in the Lake habitations of the Stone age at 
 the station of Moeringen on the Lake of Bienne in Switzerland, 9 some 
 of which have incised ornamentation. Among these ornamented terra- 
 cotta whorls are several with patterns similar to some of those found 
 at Hissarlik, but in general all the whorls from the Lake of Bienne 
 appear to be much more elaborate and much more modern than those of 
 Hissarlik. 
 
 A terra-cotta whorl without ornamentation was also found in the 
 cemetery of Zywietz near Oliva. 1 There are also a great many unorna- 
 mented terra-cotta whorls in the Museum of Neu Strelitz, of which 
 Mr. Carl Andres is the learned keeper, and which was kindly shown to 
 me by Dr. Goetz ; as well as in the Museum of Neu Brandenburg, which 
 was kindly shown to me by its keeper, the high forester Julius Miiller, 
 Senator Gustav Bruckner, and Mr. Conrad Siemerling ; and in the Grand 
 Ducal Antiquarium of Schwerin, of which my honoured friend, the learned 
 Miss Amalie Buchheim, is the keeper. But there are in all these three 
 Museums some terra-cotta whorls in the form of discs with an incised 
 ornamentation, such as we find at Troy. From the photographs which 
 Dr. Joseph Hampel, the learned keeper of the archaeological department 
 in the Hungarian National Museum at Buda-Pesth, had the kindness to 
 send me, I see that there are exhibited in that museum 11 terra-cotta 
 whorls, found in the excavations at Szihalom, in the county of Borsod 
 
 7 Le Signe de la Croix, pp. 88, 89. 8 Ibid. 
 9 Ferd. Keller, Etablissements Lacustres, by 
 Dr. V. Gross, p. 18, PI. xxii. 
 
 1 Dr. Lissauer, Beitrdge zur vcestpreussischcn 
 
 Urgeschichte, Plate iii., fig. 8. Professor Vir- 
 chow informs me that terra-cotta whorls with- 
 out ornamentation are frequently found in 
 Germany. 
 
Chap. V.] 
 
 RUDE FIGURE OF CLAY. 
 
 231 
 
 in Hungary, and attributed to the Stone age. Of these 11 whorls, 
 represented on Plate x. Nos. 22-32, one, No. 30, has an impressed or 
 incised ornamentation. 2 
 
 The Collection of Mexican Antiquities in the British Museum contains 
 a large number of similar whorls, for the most part of conical shape, 
 many of them with ornaments, which may be inscriptions; but this 
 ornamentation runs all round the cone, and is not on its base, as in the 
 whorls of Hissarlik. Some of these whorls are more or less flat ; a few 
 are painted blue. So far as I know, ornamented terra-cotta whorls have 
 never yet been found in Greece. Unornamented ones, on the other hand, 
 are frequent there. At Mycenae I found about 300 whorls of stone, and 
 but very few of terra-cotta. A terra-cotta whorl, ornamented with an 
 incised decoration, found in the pre-historic villages below three layers 
 of pumice-stone and volcanic ashes on the Island of Thera, is in the 
 small collection of antiquities in the French School at Athens. 
 
 In this first, as well as in all the four succeeding pre-historic cities of 
 Hissarlik, there are also very numerous small discs of terra-cotta, from 
 1J to 3 in. in diameter, with a hole drilled through the centre. As they 
 are slightly convex on one side, and on the other slightly concave, and as 
 the edges are very rudely cut, there can be no doubt that they were cut 
 out of broken pottery. Those of the first city have the pretty lustrous 
 dark-black colour peculiar to the pottery of the primitive settlers. There 
 can hardly be any doubt that these discs were used with the distaff, in 
 spinning as well as in weaving, as weights for the thread. 3 
 
 Similar discs, with the same characteristics, proving that they were 
 cut out of broken pottery, have been also found at Szihalom ; two of them, 
 exhibited in the National Hungarian Museum, are represented on Plate ix., 
 Nos. 2 and 4 of the photographs of the collections. Another such disc, 
 found at Magyarad, in the county of Hont, is represented under No. 37 on 
 Plate xiii. in Joseph Hampel's Antiquites prehistoriques de la Hongrie. 
 
 No. 71 is the fragment of a very rude figure of terra-cotta. No. 72 
 
 No. 72. Terra-cotta Fragment, lustrous red, with 
 impressed ornamentation. 
 (Actual size. Depth, 52 ft.) 
 
 2 As Dr. Hampel informs me that the photo- 
 graphic plates are on sale, I shall always refer 
 to them. 
 
 3 I may here call attention to the fact, that 
 the spinning-wheel is a modern invention, com- 
 monly ascribed to the year 1530. 
 
232 
 
 THE FIRST PRE-HISTORIC CITY. 
 
 [Chap. Y. 
 
 represents a perfectly flat bright-red fragment of terra-cotta, G millimetres 
 (about a quarter of an inch) thick, which I found myself, in the presence 
 of M. Burnouf, in the very lowest debris of the first city, and which, I 
 think, is the only specimen of perfectly baked terra-cotta I ever found at 
 Hissarlik, except of course the large jars, which are always thoroughly 
 baked, and the pottery of the third or burnt city, most of which has 
 been thoroughly baked by the intense heat of the conflagration. In fact, 
 the clay of the fine red goblet No. 51 is only 4 millimetres (about one- 
 sixth of an inch) thick, and yet only 1 millimetre of it is really baked on 
 either side, while in the middle there remain 2 millimetres of clay quite 
 unbaked. As the fragment No. 72 is quite flat, it cannot belong to 
 a vase. Professor Khousopoulos suggests that it may have belonged to a 
 wooden casket, on which it served as an ornament. The ornamentation 
 of branches and concentric circles is very characteristic : it looks, as 
 Prof. Sayce observes to me, Hittite and Babylonian. This piece exhibits 
 perhaps the finest clay I ever found at Hissarlik; but nevertheless, 
 when observed through a powerful lens, it is not free from small stones. 
 
 No. 73 is a very rude flat figure of marble. I found about half-a-dozen 
 figures in this first city, of the very same shape and fabric, but all of 
 them without a trace of any incision. I, therefore, should 
 never have thought them to be figures at all, were it not 
 that more than 500, of nearly the same flat form — on 
 many of which a bird-like face, female breasts, a girdle, 
 or female hair, are rudely incised — were found by me in 
 the third, fourth, and fifth pre-historic cities. On a 
 great many others the bird's face is rudely drawn with 
 black clay on the white figures. It is therefore highly 
 probable that a similar face had once been drawn on all 
 the figures on which it is not incised, but that in the 
 course of ages it has been effaced by the dampness of 
 L the debris. As all these rude figures represent the same 
 of Marble. form, there can be no doubt that they are idols of a 
 
 (About half actual size. ,, , « , , , 
 
 Depth, 50 ft.) female goddess, the patron deity ot the place, whether 
 she may have been called Ate or Athene, or have had 
 any other name ; nay, there appears to be the highest probability that 
 all of them are copies of the celebrated primeval Palladium, to which 
 was attached the fate of Troy, and which was fabled to have fallen from 
 heaven (see p. 153). 
 
 According to the legend, the feet of this Palladium were joined 
 together, and they could not possibly be more joined than on these idols, 
 on which the whole inferior part of the body is represented as a hemi- 
 spherical lump. I may here call attention to the fact, that the form which 
 the ancients commonly gave to some deities in the inferior part of the 
 body, as for instance to the statues of Hermes, served to indicate their 
 stability in the place where they were preserved. In like manner Victory 
 was represented without wings, when the idea of its permanence was to 
 be expressed. 
 
 Mr. Gladstone calls attention to the fact, that we find in Homer 
 
Chap. V.] 
 
 THE TROJAN IDOLS. 
 
 233 
 
 but one clear instance of an image for religious worship. The solemn 
 procession in the 6th Iliad carries the dedicated veil or robe to the 
 temple of Athene on the summit of the hill, where the priestess Theano 
 receives it, and deposits it on the knees of the goddess : 
 
 077/cev 'AOrjua'irjs eVl yovvacrtv tivkS/aoio.' 1 
 
 Thus it is evident that the poet imagined the Palladium to have been in a 
 sitting posture, and of human form, just as all idols were represented in 
 his time, and widely different from the hideous and barbaric idols I find 
 at Hissarlik, even in the latest of the five pre-historic cities. It may be 
 observed that the famous figure of Niobe on Mount Sipylus, which is 
 alluded to in the 24th book of the Iliad (614-617), and which probably 
 was originally intended to represent the goddess Cybele, was likewise in 
 a sitting posture. I readily believe with Mr. Gladstone, 5 that statues 
 would have been more mentioned by the poet had they been common, and 
 that they were rare or to the poet unattractive ; probably of wood. 
 Pausanias 6 mentions in certain temples wooden statues of gods (Xoana), 
 as well as statues formed of other materials (including clay), less durable 
 than stone and marble, or than bronze : the use of these materials pre- 
 vailed especially in primitive times. Such objects were called daidala, 
 and it was from them, Pausanias thinks, that the personal name Daidalos 
 afterwards arose. 7 It was only by degrees that they came to represent 
 the human form at all. 8 Only by degrees, too, they assumed the character 
 of works of art. Indeed, if we survey the world all over at the present 
 day, it is singular to notice how little and how rarely marked religious 
 worship and true beauty have been associated together in images. 
 
 The idols of Hissarlik are certainly ruder than the rudest ever found 
 in Greece or elsewhere. However barbarous the idols of Mycenae and 
 Tiryns may be, they are nevertheless masterpieces of art in comparison 
 with these Trojan idols. The conception of the human form as an 
 organic whole, a conception we meet with at the very dawn of creative 
 Greek art, nowhere appears. " The Trojan artist began," as Mr. Newton 
 ingeniously remarks, " as these primitive sculptures denote, with some- 
 thing even more elementary than Shakspeare's manikin made after supper 
 out of a cheeseparing ; and that which gradually converted this manikin 
 into an organic form was the instinct of Greek genius trained and 
 developed by the contact with more civilized races around, and imbibing 
 ideas of Egyptian and Assyrian art through traffic with the Phoenicians." 9 
 
 4 B. vi. 297-303. 
 
 5 Homeric Synchronism, pp. 65, foil. 
 
 6 Paus. viii. 17, § 2 : to7s Se avOpdoiroLS rb 
 apxcuov, birocra kcu r}/j.e?s Ka,Tap.a6e?v e8vj/r)6r]fiev, 
 TOCaSe i\v a<£>' wv ^oava iiroiovvro, efievos, 
 Kvirdpiaaos, at KeSpoi, ra Spviva, r) /uAa|, 6 
 \ojt6s' T<jS Se 'Epju.77 t<£ KvWrjvicp tovtqov p.\v 
 airb ov8ev6s, dvov Se ireiroiripitvov rb dyaXjxd 
 
 i(TTLV. 
 
 7 Pans. ix. 3, § 2 : eVt to.Ito.is tc7s SiaWaycus 
 Acu'SaAa eopTrjv ayovav, '6ti ol nraXai to. £6am 
 
 eKahovu SalSaAa. inaXovv Se, e'/uoi So/retV, irpo- 
 Tepov IVi if) Aal5a\os 6 Ua\ap.aovos iyeveTO 
 , A6rjur](Ti' tovtu) Se varepou dirb toov SatdaXccv 
 eiriK\7)<Tiv yeveaQai Sokco Kal ouk e'/c yeveTTjS 
 Te9r)vai rb ovo/ma. 
 
 8 Preface of Siebelis to Pausanias ; Leipzig, 
 1822, pp. xii. seqq. 
 
 9 Mr. C. T. Newton's Lecture on the 30th 
 April, 1874, before the Society of Antiquaries in 
 London. 
 
234: 
 
 THE FIEST PRE-HISTOMC CITY. 
 
 [Chap. V. 
 
 Nos. 74 and 75 represent saddle-querns of trachyte, of which the 
 strata of debris of all the pre-historic cities of Hissarlik contain many 
 
 No. 75. S^ddle-quern of Trachyte. (About 1 : 5 actual 
 size. Depth, 48 to 53 ft.) 
 
 hundreds. I found a large numher of similar saddle-querns in my exca- 
 vations at Mycenae. They occur sometimes, but rarely, in Silesia and 
 Saxony, made of trachyte; and they are, as my friend M. Alexandre 
 Bertrand, Director of the Museum of St. Germain-en-Laye, assures me, 
 but very seldom found in the Dolmens of France. Another friend, Dr. 
 Giustiniano Nicolucci, of Isola del Liri in Italy, states 1 that similar 
 saddle-querns have also been found in the terramare of the Stone and 
 Bronze ages in Italy. A saddle-quern similar to No. 75, but of mica- 
 slate, was found in the excavations at Magyarad, in the county of Hont 
 in Hungary, and is in the collection of B. Nyary Jeno. 2 The hand-mills 
 found in Mecklenburg, and preserved in the Grand Ducal Antiquarium at 
 Schwerin, are of granite, from 2 to 3 ft. long and 1 to 2 ft. broad, with 
 smaller ones of the same form for bruising the grain. Dr. Lisch believes 
 that the rudely-cut stones of globular form (like Nos. 80 and 81, on 
 p. 236) were used as pestles for the same purpose. 
 
 The Trojan saddle-querns are either of trachyte, like the two above, 
 or of basaltic lava, but by far the larger number are of the former 
 material. They are of oval form, flat on one side and convex on the 
 other, and resemble an egg cut longitudinally through the middle. Their 
 length is from 7 to 14 and even as much as 25 in. ; the very long ones are 
 usually crooked longitudinally ; their breadth is from 5 to 14 in. The 
 grain was bruised between the flat sides of two of these querns ; but only 
 a kind of groats can have been produced in this way, not flour ; the 
 
 1 Armi cd Utensili in Pictra delta Troade ; 2 Joseph Hampel, Antiquites pre'ldstoriques de 
 Napoli, 1879, p. 16. la Hvngrie ; Plate xiii., No. 38. 
 
Chap. V.] 
 
 MORTAR AND PESTLE. 
 
 235 
 
 bruised grain could not have been used for making bread. In Homer we 
 find it used for porridge, 3 and also for strewing on the roasted meat. 4 
 
 No. 76. Implement of Basalt ; probably a Mortar. No. 11. Pestle of compact Limestone. 
 
 (About 1 : 5 actual size. Depth, 48 to 53 ft.) (Half actual size. Depth, 45 to 43 ft.) 
 
 Pliny 5 confirms the fact, that the grain was merely bruised and boiled to 
 pap, or eaten in form of dumplings (offae). 
 
 No. 76, which is of basaltic lava, has a globular 
 cavity, and may probably have been used as a mortar. 
 The implement No. 77 no doubt served as a pestle. 
 Mr. Thomas Davies, F.G.S., of the British Museum, who 
 kindly assisted me at the recommendation of my friend 
 Professor Nevil Story-Maskelyne, late keeper of the 
 Mineral Department in the British Museum, holds the 
 pear-shaped pestle No. 77 to be compact limestone; its 
 colour is greyish mixed with yellow. The instrument 
 No. 78, which seems likewise to be a pestle, is of 
 granite. 
 
 A mortar of granite similar to No. 76 is m the of Granite. (Half 
 Museum of St. Germain-en-Laye ; it was found in Den- Depth, 45 to 48 ft.) 
 mark. M. Bertrand holds it to have been used to break 
 copper ore in order to detach pieces of it for making arrow-heads. 
 
 3 II xviii. 558-560 : 
 
 K'hpvices 8' andvevdev virb Spvt Source ttcuovto, 
 fiovv 8' tepevcravTes /xiyau ti/xcpeTrov • at 8e 
 ywa?K€s 
 
 huiruov epieoKTiu Aeu/c' &\<piTa iroAAo irdXvvov. 
 
 4 Od. xiv. 76, 77 : 
 
 0TTT7)(ras 8' apa irdura <p4p(ai> ■nap48T)K > 'OSuarji' 
 Oepfi' avro?s bfieKo7(Tiv b 8' &\<ptTa Aei/fco 
 
 5 //. N. xviii. 19 : " Pulte autem, non pane, 
 vixisse longo tempore Romanos manifestum, 
 quoniam inde et pulmentaria hodieque dicuntur. 
 Et Ennius antiquissimus vates obsidionis famem 
 exprimens, offam eripuisse plorantibus liberis 
 patres commemorat. Et hodie sacra prisca, atque 
 natalium, pulta fritilla conficiuntur ; videturque 
 tam puis ignota Graeciae fuisse, quam Italiae 
 polenta." 
 
236 
 
 THE FIEST PKE-HISTORIC CITY. 
 
 [Chap. V. 
 
 No. 79 represents a beautifully polished implement, which, according 
 to Mr. Davies, consists of haematite ; it was probably used for polishing 
 large terra-cotta vessels. 
 
 No. 79. Implement of Stone for polishing. (Half actual 
 size. Depth, 45 to 50 ft.) 
 
 No. 80. "Round Stone for bruising Corn. 
 (Half actual size. Depth, 45 to 52 ft.) 
 
 Eudely-cut, nearly globular stone instruments, like Nos. 80 and 81, 
 are very numerous in all the four lower pre-historic cities; nay, I do 
 
 not exaggerate when I affirm 
 that I could have collected 
 thousands of them. They are, 
 according to Mr. Davies, of 
 basaltic lava, granite, quartz, 
 diorite, porphyry, or other 
 sorts of stone, and only in 
 one instance of silex. 
 
 Similar instruments are 
 found in the cave-dwellings 
 of the Dordogne, as well as 
 in the Dolmens in France ; 
 and many specimens of these 
 are preserved in the Museum 
 of St. Germain-en-Laye. They 
 are very numerous in the most 
 ancient Swiss Lake habita- 
 tions, and particularly in those 
 of the Lake of Constance, where all of them are of hard sandstone. A 
 number of rudely-cut globular stone instruments, similar to Nos. 80 
 and 81 were found in the excavations at Szihalom, and are exhibited in 
 the National Hungarian Museum at Buda-Pesth. 6 In the opinion of my 
 friend Professor Ludwig Lindenschmit, founder and director of the 
 celebrated Museum of Mainz, these implements were the most ancient 
 
 No. 81. 
 
 Round Stone for bruising Corn. 
 
 Depth, 45 to 52 ft.) 
 
 (Half actual size. 
 
 « See Plate x., Nos. 52-54, 57-60 of the photographs of the National Hungarian Museum at 
 Buda-Pesth. 
 
Chap. V.] 
 
 STONE IMPLEMENTS 
 
 237 
 
 millstones of the simplest kind, and were employed for bruising the grain 
 on the plates of sandstone which abound in the Lake habitations. 7 
 
 The same rudely-cut round stones occur also in the pre-historic 
 villages in Thera. 8 Professor Virchow, M. Burnouf, and Dr. Nicolucci 9 
 concur in Professor Lindenschmit's opinion, that they served for bruising 
 grain or other substances. 
 
 Not less abundant than the round corn-bruisers are implements more 
 or less in the form of Nos. 82 and 83, which are of diorite, and represent 
 
 No. 82. Stone Instrument lor bruising or polishing. 
 (Half actual size. Depth, 45 to 50 ft.) 
 
 Nt 84 
 
 Stone Implement, with a furrow running 
 lengthwise round. (Half actual size. 
 Depth, 45 to CO ft.) 
 
 No. 83. Rude Stone Hammer. (Half actual size. 
 Depth, 45 to 50 ft.) 
 
 No. 85. 
 
 Axe (-I Dioiite. (Half actual size. 
 Depth, 45 to 48 ft.) 
 
 7 L. Liudenschmit, Die Vatcrlandischen Alter - 
 thumer, pp. 172, 173, 178, and Plate xsvii. 
 No. 8. 
 
 8 See the small collection of Thera antiquities 
 in the French School at Athens. 
 
 9 Dr. G. Nicolucci, Armi ed Utensili in Tictra 
 della Troade, pp. 16, 17. 
 
238 
 
 THE FIRST PRE-HISTOKIC CITY. 
 
 [Chap. V. 
 
 two of the best specimens. Instruments like No. 82 may probably have 
 served, as Nicolucci suggests, for smoothing the clay of the large vases, 
 perhaps also for crushing the coarse particles contained in the clay, or for 
 bruising the granite, with which the latter was mixed. No. 83 is a rude 
 primitive hammer, both ends of which are much worn down, and testify to 
 the long use which has been made of it. From its large size and heavy 
 weight we are induced to think that it was merely grasped by the hand, 
 and could not have been fastened in a cloven wood handle. I repeat 
 that these are two of the best specimens, for there are in the first four 
 pre-historic cities thousands of similar but far ruder implements, of 
 diorite, granite, silicious rock, hornblende, gneiss, and other sorts of 
 stone. 
 
 No. 84 is an implement of granite, of oval form, with a deep furrow 
 running lengthwise round it. It resembles a stone implement found in 
 Denmark which is in the Museum of Copenhagen, and is represented in 
 J. J. A. Worsaae's Nordishe Oldsager, PL xviii. No. 87, among the objects 
 of the Stone age. These objects appear to have served as weights for 
 looms or fishing-nets. 
 
 I now come to the axes or cells, 10 of which I have been able to collect 
 more than 500 in the first four pre-historic cities of Hissarlik. 
 
 Mr. Thomas Davies, who examined them carefully, declares them to 
 consist of blue serpentinous rock, green gabbro-rock, black slaty rock, 
 dark-green hornstone, black or grey diorite, jadeite and jade (nephrite). 
 Of the five celts of the first city of which I here give the engravings, 
 No. 85 consists of black diorite ; No. 88, of jadeite ; Nos. 86, 87, and 89, 
 of jade (nephrite). 
 
 No. 86. 
 
 U os. 86-89. Axes of Jadeite and Jade (Nephrite). (Abuut balf actual size. Depth, about 45 to 52 ft.) 
 
 " The axe was," as my honoured friend the celebrated anthropo- 
 logist, Sir J. Lubbock, rightly remarks, 1 " pre-eminently the implement of 
 antiquity. It was used in war and in the chase, as well as for domestic 
 purposes, and great numbers of celts have been found in the Lake- 
 dwellings at Wangen (Lake of Constance) and Concise (Lake of Neuf- 
 
 10 Readers not conversant with archaeology 
 may be informed that this word is not derived 
 from the Celtic people, but from celtis, " a chisel." 
 " This word, however," as Mr. John Evans 
 (Ancient Stone Implements of Great Britam,Y>. 50) 
 observes, " is an aira^ Kcyojx^vov in this sense, 
 being only found in the Vulgate translation of 
 Job, chap. xix. v. 24. It also occurs in a quota- 
 tion of the passage by St. Jerome, in his Epist. ad 
 Pammachium. (See Athenaeum, June 11. 1870.) 
 
 The usual derivation given is a coclando, and it is 
 regarded as the equivalent of coelum. The first 
 use of the term that I have met with, as applied 
 to antiquities, is in Beger's Thesaurus Branden- 
 burjicus (vol. iii. p. 418), 1696, where a bronze 
 celt, adapted for insertion in its haft, is described 
 under the name of Celtes." 
 
 1 Pre-historic Times; London, 1878, 4th edit, 
 pp. 95-97 and 194. 
 
Chap. V.] 
 
 STONE AXES. 
 
 239 
 
 chatel). With a few exceptions they were small, especially when compared 
 with the magnificent specimens from Denmark ; in length they varied 
 from one to six inches, while the cutting edge had generally a width of 
 from fifteen to twenty lines." 
 
 This is also the usual proportion of the axes at Hissarlik, but there 
 are a few whose cutting edge, like that of No. 87, is only about four 
 and a half lines. The manner in which these axes were made is de- 
 scribed in a masterly way by Sir John Lubbock: 2 — "After having 
 chosen a stone, the first step was to reduce it by blows with a hammer 
 to a suitable size. Then grooves were made artificially, which must 
 have been a very tedious and difficult operation, when flint knives, 
 sand, and water were the only available instruments. Having carried 
 the grooves to the required depth, the projecting portions were re- 
 moved by a skilful blow with a hammer, and the implement was then 
 sharpened and polished on blocks of sandstone. The axes were then 
 fastened into the handles. To us, accustomed as we are to the use of 
 metals, it seems difficult to believe that such things were ever made use 
 of; we know, however, that many savages of the present day have no 
 better tools. Yet with axes such as these, and generally with the assist- 
 ance of fire, they will cut down large trees and hollow them out into 
 canoes. The piles used in the Swiss Stone age Lake-habitations were 
 evidently, from the marks of the cuts on them, prepared with the help of 
 stone axes ; and in the Danish peat-bogs, several trees have been found 
 with the marks of stone axes and of fire upon them ; and in one or two 
 cases, stone celts have even been found lying at the side. In the exca- 
 vations known as Grimes' Graves, again, a basalt hatchet was found, 
 which had evidently been used for excavating the gallery, as shown 
 by the marks still distinctly visible on the walls. One use of the 
 American tomahawk was to crush bones for the sake of the marrow ; 
 and it is most probable that the ancient stone axes also served the 
 same purpose. In many cases the axes themselves bear ample marks 
 of long-continued use. That they were also weapons of war is probable, 
 not only on a priori grounds, but also because they have frequently been 
 found in the graves of chiefs, associated with bronze daggers. About the 
 year 1809, a large cairn in Kircudbrightshire, popularly supposed to be 
 the tomb of a King Aldus M'Galdus, was removed by a farmer. W T hen 
 the cairn had been removed, the workmen came to a stone coffin of very 
 rude workmanship, and, on removing the lid, they found the skeleton of a 
 man of uncommon size. The bones were in such a state of decomposition, 
 that the ribs and vertebras crumbled into dust on attempting to lift them. 
 The remaining bones, being less decayed, were taken out, when it was 
 discovered that one of the arms had been almost separated from the 
 shoulder by a stroke of a stone axe, and that a fragment of the axe still 
 remained in the bone. The axe was of greenstone, a material which does 
 not occur in this part of Scotland. There were also found with the 
 skeleton a ball of flint, about 3 in. in diameter, which was perfectly round 
 
 2 Pre-historic Times; London, 1878, 4th edit. pp. 95-S7 and 194. 
 
240 
 
 THE FIRST PRE-HISTORIC CITY. 
 
 [Chap. V. 
 
 and highly polished, and the head of an arrow, also flint, but not a particle 
 of any metallic substance. We know also the North American stone axe 
 or tomahawk served not merely as an implement, but also as a weapon, 
 being used both in the hand and also as a missile." 
 
 I am indebted to my friend Professor H. Fischer of Freiburg, for 
 the discovery that I have thirteen axes of jade in my Trojan collection. 
 Having read in my former publication 3 that I had found axes of very 
 hard transparent greenstone, he insisted upon my getting them carefully 
 examined. Professor Maskelyne, to whom I applied, was good enough to 
 have the specific gravities of the different specimens determined for me 
 in the usual way ; namely, by weighing them successively in air and in 
 water, so as to determine the ratio of the weight of the stone to that of an 
 equal bulk of water. This was done by his assistant, Mr. Thomas Davies. 
 The result was that the specific gravity of twelve of my green transparent 
 axes and of one white transparent axe lies between 2*91 and 2*99, and that, 
 consequently, all thirteen are of jade (nephrite). Mr. Davies remarked to 
 me at the same time that, " in association with the implements or arms 
 of jade found in Brittany, some turquoise beads have been discovered. 4 
 This mineral is not at present found in situ in Europe, and thus we have 
 here additional evidence of the probability of these substances having 
 been procured from Eastern countries." 
 
 Professor Maskelyne writes to me : " Now I tell you that your thirteen 
 Hissarlik jade implements are to me of the highest interest. They are 
 so for the reason that now for the first time have I seen true white jade 
 as the material of a stone implement, and that too in association with the 
 regular green jade, which is not so rare a material. 5 This is interesting ; 
 and so is the Hissarlik locality, altogether apart from the Homeric 
 bearings of it, and 
 
 ' Immortal dreams that could beguile 
 The blind old man of Scio rocky isle.' 
 
 The presence of the white jade is interesting as pointing to the locality 
 whence it came ; its association with its green brother is interesting as 
 helping to confirm this indication. In fact, it is a very great probability 
 that the Kuen-lun mountains produced the mineral of which these 
 implements are made, and that they came from Khotan by a process of 
 primeval barter, that must have nursed a trade capable of moving onward 
 over the ' roof of the world ' perhaps, or less probably by Cashmere, 
 Afghanistan, and Persia, into the heart of Europe. If the Pamir and the 
 region north of the Hindoo Kush was the route, this primitive stream of 
 commerce may have flowed along the course of the Oxus before that great 
 artery of carrying power had become diverted by the geological upheaval 
 of Northern Persia from its old course to the Caspian. I have always 
 wondered why jade ceased to be a prized material and an article of com- 
 merce so soon as civilization laid hold of our race. The Assyrians and 
 
 3 Troy and its Remains, p. 21. 
 
 4 For example, the pendant of a necklace 
 made of calla'is (turquoise) found in a Dolmen 
 called " Maneer-H'roek," in the locality Loc- 
 
 mariaker in Morbihan, Brittany. 
 
 5 Professor Maskelyne informs me that he has 
 since met with another celt of white jade (in 
 Mr. Franks's hands), found in Crete. 
 
Chap. V.] 
 
 JADE AXES. 
 
 241 
 
 Egyptians hardly, if the latter at all, knew jade. Yet jade implements 
 have been dug up in Mesopotamia of primeval type, and the commerce 
 that transported these implements in far distant times bore them as far 
 as Brittany. The Assyrians and the Egyptians, like all other peoples, 
 have valued green stones. Green jasper and Amazon stone, and even 
 plasma, were known and appreciated ; why not then jade also ? My answer 
 would be, that they could not get it. Unlike the Chinese, who have 
 always kept it in honour because they had it at their gate, the Mesopo- 
 tamian and Egyptian artists did not know jade, or only knew it as coming 
 accidentally to hand, perhaps as the material of a pre-historic weapon. 6 
 We need to know more than we do of the pre-historic movements of the 
 human race, to be able to say whether the region of the Pamir and of 
 Eastern Turkestan was once more densely peopled, was in fact more 
 habitable, than to-day is the case ; but I am strongly inclined to believe 
 that a geological change is at the bottom of the disappearance of jade 
 from among the valued materials of the archaic, the ancient, and the 
 medieval ages, down to within three hundred or four hundred years 
 from this time. If the upheaval of the regions, along which this com- 
 merce flowed, has rendered them less habitable, has planted deserts 
 where once men dwelt with flocks, has made regions of ice where once 
 winter was endurable, — has, finally, diverted from its course a great river, 
 that bore a commerce, or at least fertilized the route of a commerce, — 
 there may be an explanation of the drying up of the stream of that 
 commerce itself. 
 
 " The Hissarlik locality for such an interesting find of so many and 
 such beautiful jade implements has an interest also in this, that the 
 geographical importance of the Hellespont, as the Bridge from Asia to 
 Europe, seems to have brought to that spot the opportunity of selection 
 and an abundance of material. I am writing to you perhaps some dreams 
 more dreamy, you will think perhaps, than any of the dreams I wrote of 
 in my first page. At any rate, while you are giving realistic life to the 
 ancient tale of Troy, strive to do something, too, for this more venerable 
 witness to the brotherhood and the intercommunication of the human race 
 in the age rather of Kronos than of Zeus. Was it the jade-stone that 
 Kronos swallowed?" 
 
 Professor Fischer writes to me, that " as far as my knowledge goes 
 jade (nephrite) axes only occur in South Italy (Calabria), in the Lake- 
 dwellings of Switzerland and the Lake of Constance, the Lake of Starn- 
 berg near Munich, and the ancient settlement of Blasingen (between 
 Freiburg and Basel, and therefore far from Lake-dwellings) ; further a 
 small chisel of jade (nephrite) is said to have been found in the district 
 of Nordlingen." He adds that " Professor Damour, who made most active 
 researches in France, could discover there only one jade (nephrite) axe, 
 of which the locality where it was found is unknown ; it was sold in 
 
 6 With reference to this remark ot Prof. 
 Maskelyne, I may mention that, according to 
 Brugsch-Bey, battle-axes with stone heads were 
 among the spoils brought home by Thutmes III., 
 
 together with weapons and armour of bronze, and 
 works of art in gold and silver, from the highly 
 civilized states of Western Asia. {Hist, of Egypt, 
 vol. i. p. 405, Engl, trans., 2nd ed.) 
 
 E 
 
242 
 
 THE FIRST PEE-HISTORIC CITY. 
 
 [Chap. V. 
 
 Rheims, and the quality of the jade resembles that of the Swiss Lake- 
 dwellings." 
 
 Professor Fischer is amazed at hearing that among my thirteen His- 
 sarlik jade axes there is a white one, 7 for he had as yet only seen axes of 
 green jade ; he knows raw white jade abundantly from Turkestan (at 
 least, yellowish, greyish, and greenish white), besides perfectly white 
 from China ; but no trace of axes was discovered by the travellers of his 
 acquaintance who explored the jade quarries of Turkestan. The Siberian 
 jade has a bright grass-green colour ; the New Zealand jade for the most 
 part a more dark green colour. There is besides a very dark green jade 
 in Asia, which must be native somewhere in Asia (perhaps in Turkestan), 
 and of which Timur's tombstone in Samarkand is made. Professor 
 Fischer received fragments of the latter from the late Professor Barbot 
 de Marny of St. Petersburg, who knocked them off with his own hand in 
 the mosque, of course at the danger of his life. 
 
 Professor Fischer says in conclusion that my thirteen Hissarlik jade 
 axes come from the farthest eastern point at which polished jade axes 
 have been found, and expresses the wish that before the end of his life 
 the fortune might be allotted to him of finding out what people brought 
 them to Europe. 8 
 
 7 This white jade axe, of which I shall have 
 to speak later on, was found at a depth of 6£ ft. 
 below the surface, and must therefore belong to 
 the latest pre-historic city of Hissarlik ; for in 
 the subsequent settlement, which from the pot- 
 tery I hold to be an ancient Lydian one, I never 
 found stone implements. 
 
 8 Mr. Thomas Davies kindly gave me the 
 following note, which he had communicated to 
 the translator of Keller's Lake Dwellings, and 
 which appeared in the Appendix to the second 
 edition of that work issued by Messrs. Longmans. 
 It has been reproduced in the Geological Maga- 
 zine, Decade II. vol. v. No. 4, April 1878. I 
 deem it too interesting not to give it here. 
 
 "Note ox 'Jadeite' and 'Jade.' By 
 Thomas Davies, F.G.S. 
 " Jadeite (Damour). 
 
 "Specific gravity, 3 28 to 3-4; hardness, 65 
 to 7. Colours milky-white, with bright green 
 veins and splotches, greenish-grey, bluish-grey, 
 clear grey and translucent as chalcedony, orange- 
 yellow, smoky-green passing to black, apple- 
 green, sometimes emerald-green, all the green 
 tints as a rule much brighter than in the Ori- 
 ental jade, also, but rarely, of violet shades. 
 Texture from compact to crypto-crystalline, and 
 distinctly crystalline, sometimes coarsely so; 
 fibro-lamellar, opaque to translucent and some- 
 times transparent. 
 
 "Thin splinters will fuse in the flame of a 
 spirit-lamp. Damour, from analyses made by 
 him, suggests its affinities to the epidotes. 
 
 " Localities— Central Asia, and particularly 
 China; also as articles worked by the Aztecs, 
 Mexico. 
 
 " Oriental Jade (Damour). 
 
 "Specific gravity, 2*96 to 3-06; hardness, 5-5 
 to 6-5. Colours white and white variously tinted, 
 greenish-grey, many shades of green. Texture 
 mostly compact, rarely crypto-crystalline. 
 
 "Found chiefly in Central Asia, particularly 
 in China and on its borders. Also in New Zea- 
 land and the Pacific Islands generally. 
 
 " Specific gravity of upwards of 100 specimens 
 from New Zealand determined by myself have 
 been within the limits of 3-00 to 3-02, by far 
 the larger number giving 3*01. 
 
 "Oceanic Jade (Damour). 
 
 "Specific gravity, 3-18; hardness, 5'5 to 6*5. 
 Of this variety I possess no personal experience, 
 the large number of objects of jade which have 
 come under my observation not having yielded 
 me one example. Damour, however, who exa- 
 mined four specimens, states that in its aspect 
 and general characters — with the exception of 
 its density — it much resembles the Oriental jade. 
 It, however, possesses a somewhat silky lustre, 
 due to exceedingly delicate fibres which traverse 
 the mass. I have met with this structure fre- 
 quently however in the jade from New Zealand, 
 which possessed the density of 3-01. From an 
 analysis Damour refers it to the pyroxene group, 
 whereas the Oriental is referable to hornblende. 
 Vars. Tremolite or Actinolite. 
 
 " Found in New Caledonia and Marquise Island, 
 Pacific. 
 
 " None of these minerals to my knowledge 
 have been met with in situ in Europe, though 
 the British Museum possesses a fragment of 
 umvorked Oriental jade purporting to have been 
 found in Turkey " — probably, as Mr. Maskelyne 
 suggests, an error for Turkestan. 
 
Chap. V.] 
 
 JADE AXES. 
 
 243 
 
 The mineralogist, Professor Ferd. Koemer of Breslau, writes to 
 me that " in the choice of the material for stone weapons, particularly 
 stone axes, the tenacity of the stone was more decisive than its hard- 
 ness, and that consequently jade (nephrite), diorite, and serpentine 
 were chosen by preference. In Silesia and in other parts of Germany, 
 diorite and serpentine were by preference the material for stone axes. 
 Serpentine has no great hardness, but it is solid, and it does not 
 break into splinters when struck upon. Jade (nephrite) is the most 
 tenacious of all stones. Even with very heavy hammers it is exceedingly 
 difficult to crush pieces of it. For. this reason jade (nephrite) and the 
 nearly related jadeite were the most appreciated material in pre-historic 
 times." 
 
 Professor Maskelyne adds : " Jade being so exceedingly tough, the 
 axes must have been cut with the assistance of emery. Jade may be 
 approximately described as amorphous or uncrystallized hornblende, which 
 is a magnesium and calcium silicate." 
 
 According to Sir John Lubbock, 9 Professor von Fellenberg states 
 that jade (nephrite) and jadeite are found only in Central Asia, New 
 Zealand, and South America. 10 In another passage 11 Sir John Lubbock 
 informs us that in the great tumulus called Mont St. Michel, at Carnac 
 in Brittany, there were found, besides a large number of other stone 
 axes, eleven jade celts, and 110 beads, mostly of callais, but no trace 
 of metal. 
 
 Of my thirteen jade axes only the three represented under Nos. 86, 87, 
 and 89, were found in the first city ; No. 88, which has been engraved 
 with them, is of jadeite, and belongs also to this first city. To those who 
 wish to know more of jade (nephrite) I recommend Prof. Fischer's cele- 
 brated work. 1 
 
 There also frequently occurs in the four lower pre-historic cities of 
 Hissarlik a curious implement of the same kind of stone as the axes, and 
 of the same shape, with the sole difference that at the 
 lower end, where the edge ought to be, it is blunt, 
 perfectly smooth, and from a quarter to half an inch 
 thick. Such an implement, found at a depth of 46 ft., 
 is represented by No. 90. Mr. Davies, who examined 
 it, finds it to be of diorite. These implements, which 
 are rarely found elsewhere, are, as Professor Yirchow 
 of Berlin and Mr. A. W. Franks of the British Museum 
 
 , , . , No. 90. Curious Stone 
 
 believe, thought to have been used as polishers. implement. (Nearly 
 
 Axes are found in nearly all countries, and are almost ^epthlTe ft*)'" 
 everywhere of nearly the same shape. 2 
 
 9 Pre-historic Times, p. 82. 
 
 10 Professor Virchow observes to me that jade 
 (nephrite) has never been found in South 
 America in a natural state, but only worked out 
 into implements. 
 
 11 Pre-historic Times, p. 167. 
 
 1 Heinrich Fischer, Nephrit und Jadeit nach 
 ihren mineralogischen JSigenschaften, sowie nach 
 
 ihrer urgeschichtlichen und ethnographischen Be- 
 deutung ; Stuttgart, 1875. 
 
 2 Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge, No. 
 287, Washington, 1876; the Arch. Coll. of the 
 U. S. Nat. Museum, p. 17. 
 
 Idem, No. 259, Explor. of Aboriginal Pemains of 
 Tennessee, pp. 51 and 142. See further Archives 
 do Museu Nacional do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de 
 
244 
 
 THE FIKST PRE-HISTORIC CITY. 
 
 [Chap. V. 
 
 Under Nos. 91 and 92 I represent two well-polished perforated axes 
 found in the first city, of which the former, according to Mr. Davies, is of 
 
 No. 92. 
 
 Nos. 91, 92. Two polished perforated Axes. (Ab ut half actual size. Depth, 45 to 52 ft.) 
 
 haematite, the latter of porphyry. Similar perforated axes, either with 
 two sharp edges, or with only one, like No. 92, occur in all the four 
 lowest pre-historic cities of Hissarlik. Mr. Davies, who examined a 
 number of them, found them to consist of diorite, porphyry, silicious 
 rock, haematite, hornblende, gneiss, crystalline limestone, blue serpentine, 
 gabbro-rock, &c. Whence the pre-historic peoples of Hissarlik obtained 
 all these varieties of stones, I have not been able to find out. Diorite they 
 may have got from the valley of the Ehodius, where, as Mr. Calvert 
 informs me, it is plentiful. 
 
 Like the axes described above, these perforated axes were evidently 
 used for domestic purposes as well as for battle-axes. They are exceed- 
 ingly rare in the Swiss Lake-habitations ; in fact, no entire specimens 
 have ever been found there. The two halves of such an axe, which 
 Lindenschmit 3 represents, were found in the Lake-dwellings at the 
 station of Wangen, in the Lake of Constance. The same author also 
 represents entire perforated axes of basalt and serpentine, 4 one of which 
 was found at Linz, the other at Hohenzollern. Similar perforated axes 
 are also found in Denmark, in the settlements of the Stone age, as well 
 as in England, Germany, Livonia, Courland, &c. 5 Two axes like No. 92 
 were found by Professor Yirchow in the pre-historic graveyard at 
 Zaborowo and are preserved in his collection. They are very plentiful 
 
 Janeiro, 1876, PI. i. ; Joseph Hampel, Antiquite's more of them here. 
 
 prehistoriques de la Hongrie, Plate iii. For the 3 Die Vatcrldndischcn Alterthumer, PI. xxvii., 
 
 stone axes found at Szihalom, see PI. x. of the Nos. 12 and 13. 
 
 photographs taken of the objects exhibited in 4 Ibid., PI. xliii., Nos. 3 and 11. 
 
 the National Hungarian Museum. Similar stone 5 J. J. A. Worsaae, Nordiske Oldsager, PI. xiii. 
 
 axes are contained in all the collections of pre- John Evans, The Ancient Stone Implements ; 
 
 historic antiquities ; I shall therefore not quote London, 1872, pp. 75, 129, 163, 164. 
 
Chap. V.] 
 
 SAWS OF FLINT. 
 
 245 
 
 in Hungary. 6 Professor Koemer asks me if the pre-historic peoples of 
 Hissarlik knew of the emery of Naxos, as quartz (silicious rock), onyx, 
 corneol, &c, cannot he polished without emery. Professor Sayce remarks 
 to me that emery is also found in the Gumush Dagh, the range of moun- 
 tains which runs along the northern hank of the Maeander in the extreme 
 south of Lydia. 
 
 As to the perforations, my friend Mr. John Evans is of opinion that 
 they were drilled with a stick hy means of sand ; whilst Professor 
 Maskelyne holds that the hard stones were prohahly perforated with a 
 drill of bronze or stone, or even perhaps of wood, worked hy a bow. This, 
 fed with emery and water, would gradually bore a hole. Professor Virchow 
 observes to me that experiments made in drilling with a stick by means 
 of sand have repeatedly been made with perfect success. 
 
 That the perforating of the hard stones was an exceedingly difficult 
 operation for the pre-historic inhabitants of Hissarlik, could not be 
 better proved than by the great number of hammers, and in a few 
 instances also axes, in which the operation of boring had been commenced 
 on both sides (sometimes on one side only), but was abandoned when a 
 hole had been bored the depth of a quarter or half an inch. In several 
 instances the operation of boring had been merely begun, and was aban- 
 doned when the holes were only a line or two deep. But nearly all the 
 hammers of this kind were found in the debris of the third and fourth 
 pre-historic cities. In the first city, which now occupies us, only one 
 hammer of a whitish limestone was found, in which the boring had been 
 commenced but abandoned. Similar hammers, in which the drilling of 
 holes had been commenced and abandoned, are found in Denmark in the 
 settlements of the Stone age ; 7 they are also, as Professor Virchow 
 informs me, frequently found in Germany, and he has one from Zaborowo 
 in his own collection. They are further found in Hungary 8 and 
 England. 9 
 
 Lindenschmit 1 says : " The rarity, nay the absence, of entire specimens 
 of completely perforated axes (in the Swiss Lake-dwellings) may perhaps 
 be rather explained by the supposition, that they were used chiefly 
 as arms, which, on the destruction of the settlement at the hands of 
 warriors, must have disappeared, either with them in the battle itself, or 
 on their return to the forests." 
 
 Under Nos. 93-98 I give engravings of double-edged saws of white 
 and brown flint or chalcedony. They consist of flat, sharp, indented pieces 
 of these kinds of stone. Those of which one side only is indented, as in 
 No. 96, were inserted into pieces of wood or of staghorn and cemented 
 with pitch, of which traces still remain on one or two specimens ; but 
 that the double-edged saws were inserted in a like manner appears 
 improbable. They seem to have been used for sawing bones. Similar 
 
 6 Jos. Hampel, Antiquites pre'historiques de la No. 33. 
 
 Hongrie, PI. iv. ; also see PI. x. of the photo- 8 Joseph Hampel, Antiquites pre'historiques de 
 
 graphs of the National Hungarian Museum, Nos. la Hongrie, PI. iv. Nos. 3, 4, 6. 
 
 66, 67, representing the finds at Szihalom. 9 John Evans, Stone Implements, pp. 217, 218. 
 
 7 J. J. A. Worsaae, Nordiske Oldsager f PI. xii. 1 Die Vaterldndischen Alterthumer, p. 179. 
 
246 
 
 THE FIRST PEE-HISTORIC CITY. 
 
 [Chap. V. 
 
 flint saws are found in the cave-dwellings in the Dordogne ; some are 
 preserved in the Museum of St. Germain-en-Laye ; they are also found 
 
 No. 96. No. 93. 
 
 Nos. 93-98. Single and double-edged Saws of Flint or Chalcedony. (Nearly 2 : 3 actual size. Depth, 45 to 52 ft.) 
 
 in the Swiss Lake-habitations of the Stone age. 2 Two such saw-knives 
 were found at Bethsaur near Bethlehem, and are preserved in the British 
 Museum, where I also noticed other saws of the same kind found in 
 India, in the Collection of Indian Antiquities. Similar saws of silex, 
 found in pre-historic tombs in Mecklenburg, are preserved in the Museum 
 of Neu Brandenburg and in the Grand Ducal Antiquarium at Schwerin. 
 The keeper of the former, Mr. Julius Muller, suggests that they may 
 have been used for cutting sinews, hides, and bones. Similar flint saws 
 are also found in Denmark. 3 
 
 At Hissarlik these double or single edged saws of silex or chalcedony 
 are so plentiful in all the four lower pre-historic cities, that I have been 
 able to collect nearly a thousand of them. In the latest pre-historic city 
 I only found two such, of very large size. Double-edged flint saws, of 
 the shape of No. 98, occurred only twice or three times. They may 
 probably have been used as arrow-heads ; for regularly-shaped arrow- 
 heads, such as I found in the Koyal Sepulchres at Mycenae, 4 do not exist 
 here. Abundant at Hissarlik, but less frequent than the saw-knives, are 
 the knives of silex or chalcedony, of the same size as the saws, having 
 either only one or two sharp edges. Such knives are also found 
 abundantly in the habitations of the Stone age in Scandinavia, 5 in the 
 Swiss Lake-habitations, 6 in the cave-habitations in the Dordogne, 7 in 
 Mecklenburg as well as elsewhere in Germany, and in many other places 
 and countries ; as, for instance, in Hungary. 8 Flakes of silex or chalce- 
 dony are still used to the present day in immense quantities all over 
 Asia Minor for the corn-shellers or threshing-boards (in modern Greek, 
 
 Lindenschmit, Die Vaterlandisch.cn Alterthu- 
 ',ner, p. 179, Plate xxvii. No. 18 ; Sir J. Lubbock, 
 Pre-historic Times, p. 107 ; V. Gross, Etablisse- 
 ments Lacustres, PL i. No. 4. 
 
 3 A. P. Madsen, Antiquite's prehistoriques du 
 Danemarc; Copenhagen, 1872, Plate xxiv. Nos. 
 5-8, 12-15. 
 
 4 See my Mycenae, p. 272, No. 435. 
 
 5 J. J. A. Worsaae, Kordiske Oldster, PI. xv. 
 
 No. 61 ; A. P. Madsen, Antiquity's prehistoriques 
 du Danemarc, PI. xviii. Nos. 25-28 ; Lubbock, 
 Pre-historic Times, p. 89. 
 
 6 Lindenschmit, Die Vaterldndischen Alterthii- 
 mer, p. 179, PL xxviii. Nos. 19-23. 
 
 7 Large masses of these are preserved in the 
 Museum of St. Germain-en-Laye. 
 
 8 Josepn Hampel, Antiqxiites prehistoriques de 
 la Hongrie, PL i. 
 
Chap. V.] 
 
 POTSHERD WITH OWL'S FACE. 
 
 247 
 
 SoKavi). These are in the form of sledges, and consist of two heavy- 
 wooden planks 6 J ft. long, and at one end 2 ft., at the other 1 ft. 4 in., 
 broad. In the lower side of these corn-shellers an immense number of 
 holes are made, about 2 in. long, in which the flint flakes are fastened 
 lengthwise, so that all are in the direction of the boards. These flints 
 have the length of those I find at Hissarlik, but they are much thicker, 
 and none of them has a sharp or an indented edge. These machines 
 are drawn by a horse over the ears of corn spread on the threshing-floor ; 
 they are also used for chopping up straw. 
 
 Much less abundant are the flakes or knives of obsidian, though 
 they occur in all the four low T est pre-historic cities at Hissarlik. All 
 of them are two-edged, and some are so sharp that one might shave 
 with them. Such obsidian flakes or knives are sometimes found together 
 with the common flint flakes, but only in those countries where obsidian 
 occurs in a natural state. That such knives of flint or obsidian were 
 once in general use, seems to be proved by the fact, that here and there 
 the Jews to the present day circumcise their children with such knives. 
 
 Now, as to the place whence the pre-historic peoples of Hissarlik 
 obtained their silex and chalcedony. These stones, as Mr. Calvert assures 
 me, are found near Koush-Shehr at Sapgee, about 20 miles to the east of 
 Hissarlik, where they are still worked for the manufacture of the Turkish 
 threshing-boards. The same friend informs me that he found obsidian 
 of a coarse nature near Saragik ; he further calls my attention to the 
 statement of Barker Webb (De Agro Troiano, p. 42), that he observed the 
 mineral near Mantescia, on the road from Assos to Aivajik — one hour 
 from the former place. Professor Virchow found chalcedony contained 
 in the volcanic layers near the Foulah Dagh 9 in the Troad. 
 
 It deserves particular notice that, except the little knives and saw-hiives, 
 no implements or arms of silex were ever found at HissarliJc. 
 
 No. 99 represents a pretty little disc of greenish sandstone, with a 
 projecting border and a round hole in the centre j its use is unknown. 
 
 No. S9. Flat perforated Stone. (Half actual size. No. 100. Fragment of a Bowl, with 
 
 Depth, about 48 ft.) a pair of eyes. (About balf actual size. 
 
 Deptb, about 48 ft.) 
 
 No. 100 represents in outline a fragment of a lustrous-black bowl, which, 
 like No. 36, seems to represent an owl's face in monogram. Prof. Sayce 
 asks, " Is it not for warding off the evil eye ? Compare the Etruscan 
 vases." 
 
 9 See Zeitschrift fur Ethnologie ( Berliner Anthropolog. Gesellschaft, Band xi. S. 272). 
 
248 
 
 THE FIRST PRE-HISTOKIC CITY. 
 
 [Chap. V. 
 
 Of whetstones, such as Nos. 101 and 102, only a few were found in 
 the first city ; they are much more frequent in the three following cities. 
 
 No. ini. 
 
 No. 1C2. 
 
 Nos. 101, 102. Whetstones of Green and Black Slate. (Half actual size. Depth, 40 to 52 ft.) 
 
 Nearly all are perforated at one end for suspension. Mr. Davies pro- 
 nounces them all to consist of indurated slate. Two similar whetstones 
 have heen found in Egyptian sepulchres ; one of them is in the Egyptian 
 Collection in the Louvre ; the other appears in the Egyptian Collection in 
 the British Museum, with the notice that it was found in a tomb of the 
 Twentieth Dynasty. Many such whetstones, found in England, are also 
 in the British Museum, where the ancient Peruvian Collection likewise 
 contains some specimens of them. Two such whetstones, found at 
 Szihalom, are in the Hungarian National Museum at Buda-Pesth. 10 Prof. 
 Virchow informs me that similar whetstones also occur in Germany. 
 
 The accompanying mould No. 103 
 consists, according to Prof. Landerer, 
 of mica-slate. It forms a trapezium 
 3 in. long, 1 J in. broad at one end and 
 1'8 in. at the other, and half an inch 
 thick. It has three moulds for cast- 
 ing pointed instruments of a kind 
 such as have never yet occurred any- 
 where, and which, in my opinion, can 
 be nothing else than arrow-heads, 
 though the only species of arrow- 
 heads I discovered in this first city 
 as well as in the two succeeding ones 
 are vastly different. 
 
 My friend Mr. Carlo Giuliano, the 
 celebrated London goldsmith and 
 jeweller of antiques — who showed 
 me the great kindness of repeatedly 
 visiting my Trojan collection and explaining to me, for three hours at a 
 time, how all the metallic work, and particularly how the jewels, were made 
 by the pre-historic peoples— holds it to be impossible that the objects to 
 be cast in these moulds could have been intended for breast- or hair-pins. 
 He agrees with me that they were intended for arrow-heads : this view 
 appears also to be confirmed by the barbs on one of them. It seems 
 still more difficult to explain the use of the triangular object represented 
 by the fourth mould. Professor Sayce asks me, " Was it not intended 
 for a bead?" For casting all the objects represented here, two such 
 
 No. 103. A Mould ot .Mica-slate for casting arrow 
 heads of a very curious form. 
 (About half actual size. Deplh, 46 ft.) 
 
 See PI. x., Nos. 82 and 83, of the photographs of the collection. 
 
Chap. V.] 
 
 PUNCHES AND BEOOCHES. 
 
 249 
 
 mould-stones, each of them having exactly the same beds, were fastened 
 together by means of a small round stick, which was put into the round 
 hole ; then the metal was poured through the openings on the small sides 
 of the stones into the beds, and was left there till it had become cold. 
 
 Under Nos. 104-111 I represent curious objects of pure copper. The 
 head of No. 104 is in the form of a spiral ; that of No. 105 is quite flat. 
 
 110 109 106 112 104 108 101 
 
 Nos. 104-112. Punches, Brooches, and Arrow-head of Copper, also a Silver Brooch. 
 (Half actual size. Depth, 45 to 53 ft.) 
 
 Nos. 106 and 107 have heads of globular form, and are in the form of 
 nails ; but they can of course never have been used as such, being far 
 too long and thin and fragile to be driven into wood. One of those 
 found in this first city is 7 in. long. They can consequently only 
 have served as brooches and hair-pins, and were the ancient predecessors 
 of the fibulae invented ages later. Similar primitive brooches are very 
 numerous in the first four pre-historic cities of Hissarlik, but only in the 
 first two cities are they of copper ; in the two later cities they are of 
 bronze. They are also of bronze in the ancient Lake-habitations in 
 the Lake of Bourget. A certain number found in that lake are pre- 
 served in the Museum of St. Germain-en-Laye, the director of which, M. 
 Alexandre Bertrand, attributes to them the date of from 600 to 500 B.C. 
 Brooches of bronze of the same shape, but much more elaborate, were 
 found in the Lake-dwellings at Moeringen and Auvernier. 1 Needles with 
 two pointed ends, like No. 108, were found at Szihalom in Hungary ; 2 
 they are also very plentiful in Germany, Denmark, and elsewhere. There 
 are a great many such primitive brooches of bronze, both of the form of 
 No. 104 with a head in the form of a spiral, and of that of Nos. 106 and 
 107, in the Grand Ducal Antiquarium of Schwerin ; they were all found in 
 the Mecklenburg sepulchral mounds called " Hiinengraber," and in many 
 other ancient sites in Germany. Miss Adele Virchow has collected a 
 
 1 Victor Gross, Deux Stations Lacustres ; 
 Neuveville, 1878, PI. viii., Nos. 12 and 13. 
 
 2 See PI. x., Nos. 7 and 16, of the photographs 
 
 of the Pre-historic Collection of the National 
 Hungarian Museum. 
 
250 
 
 THE FIRST PRE-HISTOKIC CITY. 
 
 [Chap. V. 
 
 number of brooches, like Nos. 104 and 107, in her excavations in the 
 graveyard of Zaborowo. 
 
 Nos. 109 and 110 are declared by Mr. Giuliano to be punches, the 
 lower ends of which were inserted in wooden handles. No. Ill, 1*6 in. 
 long, is in the usual form of the arrow-head, such as I have found in the 
 debris of the three lower cities ; indeed, I never found a differently shaped 
 arrow-head there. A similar arrow-head appears to have been found in 
 the excavations at Szihalom in Hungary. 3 
 
 All these brooches, punches, and arrows have evidently been cast, 
 though only in the third city have I found a mould for such arrows, never 
 one for brooches or punches. No. 112 is a fragmentary brooch of silver. 
 
 In the accompanying group the copper punch, No. 113, as well as the 
 copper brooches, Nos. 114 and 115, are from the second city. 4 The rest 
 
 No. 118. 
 
 No. 119. 
 
 No. 115. 
 
 Nos. 113-115. Copper Punch and Nos. 116-122. Objects of Metal from the Lowest Stratum : four Copper 
 Brooches from the Second City. (3:4 Knives (one gilt), and various ornaments. (3 : 4 actua size, 
 
 actual size. Depth, 35 to 42 ft.) hut No. 119, 2 : 5. D3pth, 43 to 50 ft.) 
 
 * See Plate x., No. 20, of the photographs of 4 They are given here, as they happen to 
 the Collection in the National Museum at Buda- have been engraved on the same block with 
 pes+h. ^ e °ther objects. 
 
Chap. V.] 
 
 ANALYSIS OF METALS. 
 
 251 
 
 of the metal objects are from the first city. No. 116 represents a copper 
 bracelet, but it is so small that it can only have fitted the arm of a 
 little child. Nos. 117, 118, and 119 are copper knives; the first is much 
 broken ; in the larger end of the two latter may be seen the two or 
 three holes of the pins with which they were fixed in the handles of 
 wood or bone. 
 
 My friend Mr. W. Chandler Eoberts, F.E.S., assayer at the Eoyal 
 Mint, and Professor of Metallurgy in the Eoyal School of Mines, kindly 
 analysed the metals of this first city, and wrote for me the following 
 valuable report on the subject : — ■ 
 
 " I also analysed with much care small portions of implements found 
 at depths of over 40 ft. 
 
 " No. 120 is a knife-blade (depth 45 ft.) on the surface of which there 
 are thin flakes of metal that cupellation showed to be gold. The knife 
 had evidently been gilded, a fact which proves that the artificer who made 
 it possessed much metallurgical knowledge and technical skill. 
 
 "Analysis showed that copper was present to the extent of 97 '4 per 
 cent, in the metallic state, the rest of the metal being in the form of 
 green carbonate and red oxide of copper ; for the blade was so corroded 
 at the end that it was impossible to entirely eliminate these substances. 
 Tin, however, was certainly not present in appreciable quantity ; so that 
 the implement must be regarded as having been originally formed of 
 unalloyed copper. 
 
 " The nail or pin, No. 105 " A portion from the end of 
 
 (depth 46 ft.), was also much cor- No. 115 (depth 42 ft.), also a nail 
 
 roded, but a cleaned portion gave or pin, contained : — 
 
 on analysis : — 
 
 J 98-20 per cent, copper. 
 
 97-83 per cent, copper. °' 75 » " ivm \ 
 
 0-21 „ „ tin. °' 13 » » 8ul P hur » 
 
 0-90 „ „ iron. 
 
 Traces of nickel and cobalt. . Qg 
 
 98-94 , " 
 
 Trace of tin. 
 
 " The metal in the three last cases is mucb harder than modern com- 
 mercial copper, a fact which may be accounted for by its impurities not 
 having been removed by refining. 5 There is every probability that the 
 presence of a small quantity of tin in No. 105 is accidental, more espe- 
 cially since specimens of commercial copper have been found to contain 
 such an amount. 
 
 " If then we may assume that the several implements were used as 
 nails and knives, it would appear that they belong to a pre-Bronze age, 
 and that the makers of them were not familiar with the fact that copper 
 is hardened by the addition of tin." 
 
 5 While this book is passing through the alloy of rhodium, for an account of which I 
 
 press, I have received information of a most am deeply indebted to the discoverer, Mr. A. J. 
 
 interesting . discovery in America of weapons Duffield. (See his Appendix.) 
 and implements of copper hardened by a natural 
 
252 THE FIRST PRE-HISTORIC CITY. [Chap. V. 
 
 It deserves particularly to be remarked that No. 120 is the only gilded 
 object I ever found in any one of the pre-historic cities of Hissarlik, 
 whereas the art of gilding bronze was in general use at Mycenae. 6 But 
 the Mycenean goldsmith was not able to gild silver ; whenever, therefore, 
 objects of silver were to be plated with gold, he first plated them with 
 bronze and then gilded the latter. 7 
 
 No. 121 represents a silver brooch, the head of which is ornamented 
 with flutings ; but it is much deteriorated by the chloride, and must have 
 been originally much longer. Of silver also is the curious pendant of an 
 ear-ring, No. 122, which in form resembles a primitive ship, and which 
 was suspended in the ear by means of a thin wire. I should not have 
 thought it to be an ear-ring at all, had it not been for the number 
 of similar pendants of gold found by me in the third city, Certainly 
 this object (No. 122) looks much like a fibula, of which only the pin 
 is missing. But for that purpose the silver leaf is far too thin, and this 
 is still much more the case with the gold ear-rings of a similar shape 
 found in the third or burnt city, all of which are made of very thin 
 gold leaf. There was found, besides, in the stratum of the first city, a 
 silver wire. 
 
 Of copper lances or battle-axes no trace was discovered ; I only found 
 a quadrangular copper bar 10 in. long, which runs out into an edge at one 
 end, and may have been used as a weapon. Of other objects of copper 
 worth enumerating, I may mention a plain ring. Of other metals, lead 
 was now and then found in small quantities. 
 
 We, therefore, find in use among these primitive inhabitants of the 
 most ancient city on Hissarlik, together with very numerous stone imple- 
 ments and stone weapons, the following metals : gold, silver, lead, copper, 
 but no iron ; in fact, no trace of this latter metal was ever found by me 
 either in any of the pre-historic cities of Troy, or at Mycenae. 
 
 Nothing, I think, could better testify to the great antiquity of the 
 pre-historic ruins at Hissarlik and at Mycenae, than the total absence of 
 iron. It is true that Hesiod distinctly states that iron was discovered 
 later than copper and tin, for, in speaking of the peoples who were 
 ancient even in his day, he says that they used bronze, and not iron. 8 But 
 still, in order to show how old the knowledge of iron and steel was, he 
 represents Gaea as making a sickle for Kronos of greyish glittering steel, 9 
 and he gives to Herakles, besides armour of gold and greaves of bronze, a 
 sword of iron and a helmet of steel. 10 Lucretius distinctly confirms the 
 three ages : — 
 
 "Arma antiqua, manus, ungues, dentesque fuerunt 
 Et lapides, et item Bylvarum fragmina rami, 
 Posterius ferri vis est aerisque reperta, 
 Sed prior aeris erat, quam ferri cognitus usus." 1 
 
 6 See my Mycenae, p. 283. 
 
 » Ibid. pp. 216, 217, Nos. 327, 328; p. 240, 
 No. 348, and many others. 
 
 8 Hesiod., Opp. et Dies, vv. 149, 150 : 
 Tots 5' fiv xaA.K«t fjikv revxea, X^ KC0L ^ f T6 otlCOl, 
 XaAwy 5' dpyd(oi/TO • fxeKas 5' ovk tcrKe alSrjpos. 
 
 9 Hesiod., Theogonia, vv. 161, 162 : 
 
 alipa Se (rata) irotrjffacra yzvos iroXiov add/xauros, 
 reu£e fj.4ya 8p4iraj/ov Kal €7re'(|)pa5e vaiari (piKoicriv. 
 
 10 Hesiod., Scut. Heracl. vv. 122-138. 
 1 Vv. 1282-1285. 
 
Chap. V.] GOLD, SILVER, AND COPPER MINES. 253 
 
 Hostmann 2 also cites Terentius Yarro 3 and Agatharchides 4 as adopt- 
 ing the same theory. But it deserves attention that before the Deluge, 
 in the seventh generation from Adam, according to the Book of Genesis, 5 
 Tubal Cain was simultaneously master in various kinds of work of bronze 
 and iron. 6 According to Hostmann, iron is only mentioned thirteen 
 times in the whole Pentateuch, whereas brass, by which is here at all 
 events to be understood bronze (that is to say, the mixture of tin and 
 copper), is mentioned forty-four times. 
 
 The question now arises : Whence did the early inhabitants of His- 
 sarlik obtain their metals? The answer is, first, that they must have 
 had an abundance of gold, since the Troad borders on Phrygia, where 
 mythology localized the legend of Midas and his treasures, and it nearly 
 touches the valley of the Pactolus, which was so famous for its auriferous 
 sands. 
 
 Besides, there were, according to Strabo, gold mines in the Troad 
 itself, nay in the immediate neighbourhood of Ilium, for he says : " Above 
 the territory of the Abydians in the Troad lies Astyra, a ruined city, now 
 belonging to Abydos; but formerly the city was independent and had 
 gold mines, which are now poor and exhausted, like those in Mount 
 Tmolus around the Pactolus." 7 
 
 Homer mentions among the auxiliary troops of the Trojans the 
 Halizonians (oi 'AXlfovoi), who came from Alybe (fj 'AXu/S??), " where is 
 the birth-place of silver ;" 8 that is to say, where there are silver mines. 
 Strabo holds these Halizonians to be the later Chalybes on the Pontus 
 called in his time Chaldaeans ; he thinks that either the reading has been 
 changed from Ik Xakv/3r}<? into e£ 'AXvftrjs, or that the Chalybes had been 
 formerly called Alybans. 9 Other silver mines appear to be indicated by 
 Strabo in the Troad to the right of the Aesepus, between Polichna and 
 Palaescepsis. 10 
 
 Copper mines are mentioned by Strabo in the Troad near Cisthene on 
 the Gulf of Adramyttium, 1 where now stands Cidonia or Cythonies. 
 Strabo also mentions a stone found near Andeira in the mountains of Ida, 
 
 2 Chr. Hostmann, Zur Geschichte und Kritik 
 des Nordischen System's der drei Culturperioden ; 
 Braunschweig, 1875, p. 18. 
 
 3 Fragm. ap. Augustin. de Civ. Dei, vii. c. 24. 
 
 4 Be Mari Erythr. ap. Phot. c. 29. 
 
 5 Gen. iv. 22. 
 
 6 This must not be pressed too far. The 
 natural meaning is that Tubal Cain was the first 
 who worked in metals in general, and the metals 
 specified indicate only the knowledge of the 
 writer's age. 
 
 7 xiii. p. 591 : "TirepKeirai 5t tt)s tuv 'AfijSyvwv 
 X^pas iv tt) Tpcedtii to "Affrvpa, a vvv fiev 
 AfSvU-qvutv €(Tti, KareffKafificvr} tt6\is, irpSrepov 
 Se l]v Kad' avrd, X9 V(T ^ a ^X ovra a ™v cirdvid 
 icriv, i^avaAw/xeva, Kaddirep to iv t£ T/x(*>\ca 
 to irepl rbv TlaKT(a\6v. 
 
 8 II ii. 856, 857 : 
 
 avTap 'A\i£wv(t)v 'OSi'os Kal , Eirto'Tpo<pos ^ipxov 
 T7}\6dey e£ 'AKv^tjs, '6Q(v apyvpov iffrl yeveOkr]. 
 
 9 Strabo, xii. p. 549 : oi 5e vvv XaXZaioi 
 
 XaAvfies to rraXaibv wvofid^ovTO ; and tovtovs 
 ol/xai Ksyeiv rbv iron}rr]V 'AXi^wvovs iv rep yueTo 
 rovs Tla<phay6vas KaraK6yu>. Further : ijTOi tt)s 
 ypa<pr\s (j.eTaTeOeio"i(]s curb tov " tt)\60€v e/c Xa\v- 
 firis" ?) twv avOpdoTrwv trp6T(pov 'AAvfiwv heyo- 
 /Aev<i>v clvti Xahvfiwv. ' 
 
 10 Strabo, xiii. p. 603 : iv 5e£tS Se tov Alo-fiirov 
 fi€Ta£v TloXixvas re Kal TlaXaiaK^ecos v Nea 
 Ku>/j.r} Kal 'Apyvpia. Now, I believe with For- 
 biger {Real Encycl. s. v. Nea) that instead of 
 7] vea Ktiofir} we have, according to the parallel 
 passage (in Strabo), p. 552, to read Aivea or'Evea 
 Kufirj Kal apyvpia, and not 'Apyvpia. Forbiger 
 identifies this AXvta K<i>}±t) with the present town 
 of Ine, where silver mines are mentioned by 
 Chandler, i. p. 142 ; Pococke, iii. p. 160. 
 
 1 xiii. p. 606 : e|o> 5e rod koKttov (tov 'A5pa- 
 fivTriov) Kal rrjs Uvppas &Kpas 7} T6 KicrOrjvri 
 io~ri tt6\is eprjfios exovaa Xi/xeva. inrep outtjs 
 5' iv rp fxtcroyaia, t6 tc tov x a ^ K °v ^TaWov, 
 
 K. T. A. 
 
254 
 
 THE FIRST PRE-HISTORIC CITY. 
 
 [Chap. V. 
 
 which when burned became iron ; when melted with a certain earth, zinc 
 (yjrev&apyvpos) flows forth from it; whilst, copper being added to it, it 
 becomes brass (tcpa/ia), called by some people ope/^aX/co?. Zinc is also 
 found in the neighbourhood of Tmolus. 2 
 
 Phrygia was also the country of the Idaean Dactyli, the fabled sons 
 of Khea, who in her flight to Mount Ida in Crete rested her hands on the 
 mountain and so gave birth to her child (Zeus) ; and from the impression 
 of her hands sprang the Curetes or the Corybantes, who were called Idaean 
 Dactyli. 3 This tradition is also mentioned by Nonnus. 4 These Phrygian 
 Dactyli were celebrated as metallurgists, and were said to have discovered 
 iron in Crete. 5 According to the Scholiast on Apollonius Ehodius, 
 Sophocles also called the Dactyli Phrygians. 6 Diodorus Siculus also, who 
 seems to have copied largely from Ephorus, says that there are many, and 
 among them Ephorus, who affirm that the Idaean Dactyli dwelt around 
 Mount Ida in Phrygia and passed over to Europe with Mygdon. They 
 were enchanters, and practised spells, religious ceremonies, and mysteries ; 
 and, residing in Samothrace, they greatly excited the astonishment of the 
 inhabitants by these arts. 7 The Phrygian origin of the Dactyli is also 
 confirmed by Clemens Alexandrinus, who calls them Phrygians and 
 barbarians. 8 Strabo says : " As some say, the first inhabitants of the 
 slopes of Ida were called Dactyli, because the slopes of the mountains are 
 called their feet, and the summits are called the crowns of their heads, 
 and thus all the spurs of Ida which are sacred to the mother of the 
 gods are called Idaean Dactyli or ' toes.' But Sophocles believes the 
 first Dactyli to have been five men, who discovered iron and first 
 worked it, and invented many other things useful for life : they had 
 five sisters, and from their number they were called Dactyli {i.e. 
 1 toes '). But others relate other fabulous stories, heaping absurdity on 
 absurdity; but they also state the names and number (of the Dactyli) 
 differently : calling one of them Celmis and the others Damnameneus, 
 Heracles and Acmon (the anvil). Some say that they were natives of Ida, 
 others report that they were immigrants, but all maintain that by them 
 iron was first worked in Ida : all suppose them to have been enchanters 
 employed in the service of the Mother of the Gods, and residing in 
 
 2 xiii. p. 610 : ecrri Se XiQos 7repi ra "AvSeipa, 
 os Kai6jj.evos aidrjpos ylytrat' eTra fxerayris tipos 
 KajAivtvQels aTroiTTd(€L ipevSdpyvpov, irpovAa- 
 /3o0tra x a ^ KOV T0 KaKovfx^vov yiverai Kpapa, o 
 Tives 6peixa\K0V KaXovai- yivtTai Se xpevSdpyvpos 
 Kal Trepi rby TjxwKov. 
 
 3 Diomed. p. 474, ed. Putch : " Aiunt Opem in 
 Idam montem insulae Cretae fugiendo delatam 
 manus suas imposuisse memorato monti, et sic 
 infantem ipsum edidisse, et ex manuum impres- 
 sione emersisse Curetas sive Corybantas, quos a 
 montis nomine et a qualitate facti Idaeos Dac- 
 tylos appellant." 
 
 4 Dionys. xiv. 25 seq. : 
 
 . . . . T Clv 7tot€ 'Peir; 
 efc x® ovos avTortXeo-TOv a.vefi\do-TT)(T€ yevedXriv. 
 
 5 Plin. II. N. vii. 57 : " Aes conflare et tem- 
 
 perare Aristoteles Lydum Scythen monstrasse ; 
 Theophrastus Delam Phrygem putat ; aerariam 
 fabricam alii Chalybas, alii Cyclopas ; ferrum 
 Hesiodus in Creta eos qui vocati sunt Idaei 
 Dactyli." 
 
 6 Ad Argonaut, i. 1129 : ~2,o(poK\ris Se avrovs 
 Qpvyas KaXel iu KcccpoTs ~2,aTvpois. 
 
 7 Diod. Sic. v. 64 : zvioi S' Icrropovo'LV, &v 
 eoTi Kal *E<popos, robs 'iSaiovs AaKzvXovs yev4- 
 aOai fxeu Kara t^v^I^v tt]v iv &pvyia, dia.BTjvai 
 Se fxeTO. Mvyfiovos ets tt]V Evpwirrjv virdp^avras 
 Se yorjTas eVtTrjSeCcrat rds re- eVwSas Kal reAeTas 
 Kal /j.v(rT7}pta, Kal irepl 'XaixoQpa.K^v diarpi^avras 
 ov yuerpi'ws eV tovtois iKTr\7]TT€ii/ tgvs iyx^p'i-ovs. 
 
 8 Stromat. i. p. 360, ed. Pott : $pvyes Se i\vav 
 Kal BdpBapoi ot 'ldaiOL AaKTvAoi. 
 
Chap. V.] 
 
 METALLIC WEALTH OF PHRYGIA. 
 
 255 
 
 Phrygia in the district of Ida ; for they call the Troad Phrygia, because 
 the neighbouring Phrygians took possession (of it) after the destruction 
 of Troy." 9 
 
 The Cabiri, who were likewise celebrated metallurgists, came also from 
 Phrygia, and were said to owe their name to the mountains of Phrygia, 
 whence they passed over to Samothrace. 10 According to Pausanias, 1 the 
 country inhabited by the Pergamenes was anciently sacred to the Cabiri. 
 Strabo informs us that, according to Pherecydes, from Apollo and Khytia 
 sprang nine Corybantes, who lived in Samothrace, but from Cabiro, 
 daughter of Proteus, and Hephaestus, three Cabiri and three Cabirian 
 nymphs ; both brothers and sisters enjoyed divine worship. They were 
 especially venerated in Imbros and Lemnos, but also in some places in 
 the Troad. 2 Though there is no tradition that the Cabiri were also sons 
 of Khea, the tutelary deity of Phrygia, we see them in the service of 
 that goddess 3 in Samothrace. f 
 
 We have seen that they were sons of Hephaestus, who, according to 
 Diodorus Siculus, was the inventor of all works in iron, copper, gold and 
 silver, and in all other substances which are wrought by means of fire. 4 
 We have also seen (p. 253) that there were mines of gold, copper, and 
 silver, in the Troad, and no doubt there were still richer ones in 
 Phrygia, because it is to Phrygia that tradition attributes the discovery 
 of the art of fusing metals by the accidental melting of them in a 
 forest fire. 5 
 
 Strabo quotes the opinion of Posidonius, who believed in the story that, 
 the forests having once caught fire, the earth beneath, containing silver and 
 gold, became liquefied, so that these metals boiled forth to the surface. 6 
 
 9 Strabo, x. p. 473 : AaKrvAovs 8' 'iSaiovs 
 <pao~i rives K€K\i](T6ai robs irpwrovs olKr\ropas 
 rr\s Kara r)]v 'lSrjv viroepeias • iroSas fxev yap 
 AeyeaOai rds viroope'ias, Kopv(pds Se to &Kpa roov 
 opwv ai ovv Kara jxepos eVxaTicu Kal iraffai rrjs 
 p.y]rpbs r&v Qewv Upai irepl r)]v ''iSrjv .... 
 'ZotyoKArjs Se o'Lerai irevre robs Trpcorovs dpffevas 
 yeveaOai, oi criBypov re e^evpov Kal elpydcravro 
 irp&roi Kal aAAa woAAa ru>v irpbs rbv fi'iov XPV- 
 ai/xoov, irevre Se Kal ddeAcpds rovroov, dirb Se rod 
 dpidpov SaKrvAovs KArjdrjvai, dAAoi 5' aAAcos 
 pvOevovatv diropois diropa avvdirrovres, Siacpopois 
 Se Kal ro?s ovofxaai Kal rots dpi9/j.o?s xp&vrai, wv 
 KeAp.iv dvopd(ovcri riva Kal Aapvapevea Kal 
 'HpaKAea -Kal 'AKpova- Kal oi pev iirixooplovs 
 rrjs ''iSrjs oi Se eiro'iKovs, irdvres Se alSripov elp- 
 yaa8ai virb rovrwv eV y l5?7 Trpcorov (pao'i, irdvres 
 Se Kal yorfras vTreiAT)<pao-i Kal irepl rr}v prjrepa 
 r&v Oeuv Kal ev $pvy'ia cvK7]Koras irepl tt)v 'iSriv, 
 $pvylav TTjv Tpa;a5a KaAovvres 5id rb robs 
 $pvyas eiriKparrtaai irAycriox^povs auras rl,s 
 Tpoias eKireiropdrjpevqs. 
 
 10 Apoll. Rhod. ad Argonaut, i. 917 : Kdfieipoi 
 Se SoKovai irpoo~r)yopevo-dai dirb Kafielpcov r&v 
 Kara Qpvylav 6pu>v, eirel evrevQev peryvexQ^cav 
 els 2,a/jLo9pdK7)v. 
 
 1 Pausanias, i. 416 : *H> Se vepovrai oi Uepya- 
 P-yvoi, Kafielpoov iepdv (pacriv e?//ai rb apxaiov. 
 
 2 Strabo, x. p. 473: QepeKvSris 5' e| 'AttJa- 
 
 Awvos Kal 'PrjTias Kvpfiavras evvea, olKr\o~ai 5' 
 avrobs ev ~2.ap.odpci.Kri' e/c Se Kafieipovs ttjs 
 Tlpwrews Kal 'Hcpaicrrov Kafietpovs rpeis Kal 
 vvpcpas rpe'is KafieipiSas, eicarepois S' iepd yive- 
 adai. paAiffra pev ovv ev ^Ipfipco Kal Aypvcp 
 robs Kafieipovs ripdcrdai crvp/3ifir]Kev , aAAa Kal 
 ev Tpola Kara iroAeis. 
 
 3 A grammarian in the Lexicon of Glide, s. v. 
 Kafiipoi, cited by J. P. Rossignol, Lcs Metaux 
 dans V Antiquite, p. 47 : Kdfiipoi Se' e<Vi haijxoves 
 ircpl tt)V 'PeW oiK7]o'avT€s tt]u LajiodpaK^v. 
 
 4 v. 74 : " R(pat.o~Tov Se Aeyovaiv evperyju yeye- 
 o~9ai tt)s irepl rbv aiZripov ipyaaias dirdarjs Kal 
 tt)s Trepl rbv x a ^ K bf Kal XP V0 ~^ V dpyvpov, Kal 
 ru)v dAAoov oaa t)]V 4k tov irvpbs ipyaaiav eVi- 
 Se'^eTOi. 
 
 5 Lucretius, 1240-1243 : 
 
 " Quod superest, aes atque aurum ferrumque 
 
 repertum est, 
 Et simul argenti pondus, plumbique potestas, 
 Ignis ubi ingentes silvas ardore cremarat 
 Montibus in magnis." 
 
 6 Strabo, iii. p. 147 : Uoo-eidwi/ios Se rb irAriOos 
 rciov /xeraAAwy iiraivcov Kal rrjv dpeTT)v ovk dire- 
 X^Tai t?)s awrjdovs pr\Topelas, aAAa avvevBovo-ia 
 rats vTrep(3oAa?s. ov yap aiTKrrelu t$ fxvQcp 
 (prjalv otl T&v 8pvjj.u>v irore £fxivpv i (TQ4uT(av r\ yrj 
 raKe7cra, are dpyvpTris Kal XP U0 ~'' TIS > e *s tt]v 
 inicpdveiav e'te'^ecre. 
 
256 
 
 THE FIEST PKE-HISTORIC CITY. 
 
 [Chap. V. 
 
 Eossignol 7 also cites Clement of Alexandria, who, in establishing a 
 synchronism among the events of sacred history and Greek history, says, 
 " From the deluge of Deucalion to the burning of Mount Ida and the 
 discovery of iron, and to the Idaean Dactyli, 73 years elapsed according 
 to Thrasyllus ; and from the burning of Ida to the rape of Ganymedes, 65 
 years." 8 He further cites Strabo, who mentions that the Titans gave to 
 Ehea, as armed servants, the Corybantes, who, as some said, had come 
 from Bactria ; according to others, from Colchis. 9 The reason why they 
 were said to have come from the one or the other of these two countries 
 is, that both were celebrated for the number and the richness of their 
 mines. Eossignol 10 further mentions that " Servius in his Commentary 
 on Virgil, in stating the etymologies which were given of the word 
 Corybantes, says that according to some it was derived from Kopy, the 
 surname of Proserpine, according to others it is derived from copper, 
 inhere being in Cyprus a mountain rich in copper, which the Cypriotes 
 call Corium." 1 M. Burnouf mentions to me that Eugene Burnouf has 
 proved the word Corybantes to be identical with the Zend word gerevanto, 
 which means "mountaineers," and that Orthocorybantes is identical with 
 Eredhwagerevanto, which means " inhabitants of the high mountains." 2 
 
 Like the Cabiri and the Corybantes, the Curetes passed over from 
 Phrygia to Samothrace. This is evident, as Eossignol 3 says, from the 
 Orphic hymn addressed to the Curetes, in which it is assigned to them, as 
 a claim to veneration, that they should make the bronze resound, wear 
 martial arms, and inhabit Samothrace, the sacred land. 4 Some verses 
 further on, the poet, confounding the Curetes with the Corybantes, calls 
 them even Icings of Samothrace. 5 
 
 In a long and learned discussion, Eossignol proves beyond all doubt 
 that the Telchines were also famous artists and metallurgists, who passed 
 over to Samothrace ; and further that the Dactyli, Cabiri, Corybantes, 
 Curetes, and Telchines, differed, as some believed, merely in name, and 
 formed one identical class of Genii ; while, according to others, they were 
 related to one another, presenting only slight differences; that, finally, 
 they are nothing else than the representatives of an identical metallic 
 industry, symbolized in its progressive developments ; that the religion 
 of Samothrace was in the beginning nothing but a simple institution of 
 mysteries founded on metallurgy, and presided over by Ehea, whose 
 priests were in fact metallurgists. These ministers, having transmitted 
 the blessing of the goddess to other men, were deified from gratitude. 
 In this manner Samothrace became the isle of pious priests, and the 
 sacred asylum against revenge for bloodshed. But it was not every 
 
 7 Les Me'taux dans V Antiquite, p. 50. 
 
 8 Strom, i. 21, p. 401, ed. Pott. 
 
 9 Strabo, x. p. 472 : oi 8' virb Tirdvcov 'Pea 
 SoOrjyai irpoTr6\ovs £v6ir\ovs tovs Kopvfiavras 
 eK T7/s Ba.KTpiavr\s atyiyptvovs, oi 5° efc KdAx<w 
 (pacriv. 
 
 10 Les Me'taux dans V Antiquite*, p. 77. 
 
 1 Ad Aen. iii. Ill : "Alii Corybantes ab aere 
 appellatos, quod apud Cyprum mons sit aeris 
 
 ferax, quem Cyprii Corium vocant." 
 
 2 See Eugene Burnouf, Commentaires sur le 
 Yacna. 
 
 3 Les Me'taux dans V Antiquit€, p. 88. 
 
 4 Hymn. Orphic, xxxviii. 4 : 
 
 o'l Te ^a/jLoOp^Krjv, iep^v xQ& va , vaieraovTCS. 
 
 5 21, 22 : KovprjTes KopvfiavTes, . . . eV 2a(to- 
 QpyKTi aVa/fres. 
 
Chap. V.] 
 
 IMPLEMENTS OF PURE COPPER. 
 
 257 
 
 homicide that could obtain absolution there ; for the cases were heard, 
 justice was administered, and he who had maliciously done a wicked 
 deed was condemned and cast out. Ancient metallurgy gives us an 
 insight into the life of the men of bygone times ; the metals are the 
 material and instrument of the arts, the spring of all political activity, 
 the soul of civilization. 6 
 
 According to Sir John Lubbock : 7 "It is probable that gold was the 
 metal which first attracted the attention of man ; it is found in many 
 rivers, and by its bright colour would certainly attract even the rudest 
 savages, who are known to be very fond of personal decoration. Silver 
 does not appear to have been discovered until long after gold, and was 
 apparently preceded by both copper and tin ; for it rarely, if ever, 8 occurs 
 in tumuli of the Bronze age. But, however this may be, copper seems to 
 have been the metal which first became of real importance to man; no 
 doubt owing to the fact that its ores are abundant in many countries, and 
 can be smelted without any difficulty; and that, while iron is hardly 
 ever found except in the form of ore, copper often occurs in a native 
 condition, and can be beaten at once into shape. Thus, for instance, the 
 North American Indians obtained pure copper from the mines near Lake 
 Superior and elsewhere, and hammered it at once into axes, bracelets, and 
 other objects. 
 
 " Tin also early attracted notice, probably on account of the great 
 heaviness of its ores. When metals were very scarce, it would naturally 
 sometimes happen that, in order to make up the necessary quantity, some 
 tin would be added to copper, or vice versa. It would then be found that 
 the properties of the alloy were quite different from those of either metal ; 
 a very few experiments would determine the most advantageous propor- 
 tion, which for axes and other cutting instruments is about nine parts of 
 copper to one of tin. No implements or weapons of tin have yet been 
 found, and those of copper are extremely rare, whence it has been inferred 
 that the art of making bronze was known elsewhere before the use of either 
 copper or tin was introduced into Europe. Many of the so-called ' copper ' 
 axes, &c, contain a small proportion of tin ; and the few exceptions 
 indicate probably a mere temporary want, rather than a total ignorance, 
 of this metal." 
 
 But this I must most decidedly deny, for implements and weapons of 
 pure copper are found all over Hungary, and M. Pulszky Ferencz, 9 pre- 
 sident of the committee of organization of the Pre-historic Exhibition 
 of 1876 at Buda-Pesth, had all their different types represented in two 
 large glass cases, in order that they might serve as proofs of the 
 existence of a Copper age, which he authenticated in his lecture before 
 the Congress. 10 
 
 6 Rossignol, Les Metaux dans I'Antiquite, pp. 
 99-148. 
 
 7 Pre-historic Times, pp* 3, 4. 
 
 8 A. W. Franks, Horae feralcs, p. 60. 
 
 9 This is the Hungarian name, which would be 
 in English, Francis or Frank Pulszky. 
 
 10 Joseph Hampel, Catalogue de VExposition 
 prehistorique des Muse'es de Province et des 
 Collections particulieres de la Hongrie ; Buda- 
 Pesth, 1876, pp. 138-140 : and Joseph Hampel, 
 Antiquite's pre'histor. de la Hongrie; Esztergom, 
 1876, PI. vii., viii. 
 
258 
 
 THE FIRST PRE-HISTORIC CITY. 
 
 [Chap. V. 
 
 If among numerous bronze implements there had been found one of 
 copper, this latter might indeed indicate a mere temporary want of tin ; 
 but all the objects from the first and second cities of Hissarlik being 
 proved, upon Professor W. Chandler Koberts's highly important analysis, 
 to consist of pure copper, we must naturally infer a total ignorance of 
 tin on the part of their inhabitants. 
 
 Sir John Lubbock repeatedly states that silver and lead do not 
 occur in the Bronze age, 11 which appears to imply that still less can 
 they be found in the Stone age. But I found these metals, in smaller or 
 larger quantities, in all the five pre-historic cities of Hissarlik. It is true 
 that in the first and second cities lead only occurred in small shapeless 
 lumps, but these are sufficient to attest that the primitive inhabitants 
 were acquainted with it. In the third pre-historic city we shall pass in 
 review an idol and several other objects of lead. In the gilded knife, 
 No. 120, we have the proof, that even the inhabitants of the first city of 
 Hissarlik were acquainted with gold, and knew how to work it. Homer 
 mentions the plating of silver with gold: "But as when gold is fused 
 around the silver by an experienced man, whom Hephaestus and Pallas 
 Athene have instructed in all kinds of arts, that he may execute graceful 
 works, so did the goddess pour gracefulness around his head and 
 shoulders." 1 
 
 According to Pliny, 2 one ounce of gold could be beaten out to more 
 than 600 leaves, each being four fingers square. In our own days the 
 same quantity could be beaten into three times that number of leaves. 
 
 My friend, Professor A. Sprenger of Berne, endeavours to prove, in 
 his famous work Die alte Geographic Ardbiens, that in remote antiquity 
 the bulk of the gold was brought by the Phoenicians from Arabia, 
 which had twenty-two gold mines, 3 and was the ancient Eldorado and 
 proverbial for its wealth of gold in all antiquity down to the Middle Ages. 
 " Thus William, the biographer of Thomas a Becket, uses the expression 
 ' Arabia sends us gold.' Is this only a fiction, or was Arabia indeed 
 the California of antiquity, and was especially Dzahaban (Dzahab 
 
 — b> 1 S ^ which is on ly a ^ a distance of 500' from Berenice, 
 
 the port where gold was bartered?" He goes on to prove that the 
 famous Ophir, which scholars have for a long time past identified with 
 Abhira in India, is nothing else than the Arabic word for " red." " By 
 the Hebrews the ' gold of Ophir ' was especially valued. Agatharchides 
 states that the gold nuggets found in the district of Debai consisted of 
 pure metallic gold, and did not need to be purified by fire, in consequence 
 of which this gold was called airvpov, ' untouched by fire.' This word, 
 therefore, would answer to the Arabic tibr ; for while dzahab means gold 
 generally, unmelted gold is called tibr and tibra, a ' gold nugget.' The 
 greater part of the gold existing in antiquity was derived from nuggets, 
 
 11 Pre-historic Times, pp. 21, 38. rexvvf iravToi-nv, x a p' l *VTa 5e ipya reAdei, 
 
 1 Od. vi. 232-235 : &s apa tg3 /care'xeve x<*P LV K€(paA^ re Kal tipois. 
 ws 5' ore ris XP V(T ^ V i^piX^ Tai apyvpw avi]p 2 //. N. xxxiii. 19. 
 
 %t$, %v "H<paiaTos Se'Saej/ /cat llaWas 'A6r)vrj 3 Paragraphs 53, 54-58. 
 
Chap. V.] 
 
 ARABIA THE LAND OF GOLD. 
 
 259 
 
 which were sometimes of enormous size. Idrysy (i. 2) reports that the 
 king of Ghana preserved as a rarity a nugget weighing 30 rati (75 lbs.). 
 It is very probable that the Greeks had also a special word for tibr, 
 ' nugget.' Nevertheless, I do not believe in the assertion of Agathar- 
 chides ; I hold aTrvpov to be a bastard word of Semitic origin, which has 
 been grsecized. The finest gold is designated by Hamdany and Abulfida, 
 
 p. 157, as red gold, *>, and the Persians call the gold pieces 
 
 which are coined therefrom Dijndrisurch, ' red Aurei.' In Iklyl (viii. p. 77), 
 it is related that on the corpse of a woman, exhumed at Dhahr, there 
 were found gold ankle-rings weighing 100 mithqdl, and that the metal 
 was red gold. Such ' treasure trove ' was so frequent, that this fine sort 
 
 of gold was also called ' tomb gold ' ( f^JS 3 or b)* 
 
 It is reported in Iklyl (viii. p. 52), that especially in the ruins in and 
 between Gauf and Marib much tomb gold was discovered. In Pliny 4 
 apyron has the signification of ' red gold.' If Magi is the subject 
 of vocant, then the expression apyron was also in use among the Per- 
 sians. At all events, the Apyron is hardly different from the gold 
 of Ophir, qualified in the Bible as ' good.' According to a well-known 
 phonetic change, dfir must be pronounced dfir in the Central Arabian 
 dialect ; but according to Ibn Maruf (apud Golius) afira signifies tran- 
 sitively, ' splendidum clarumque effecit,' and intransitively, ' manifestus 
 evasit.' The participle of this verb is dfir. In the South-Arabic dialect 
 this word, differently pronounced, is the common word for red. Accord- 
 ing to a vocabulary, 5 red is called ophir (sic !) in Socotra. In other 
 dialects the word for ' red ' is pronounced, according to Maltzan, 6 qfer, 
 ohfar, afur, and so forth. Now I imagine that, according to their 
 custom, the Greeks have given a Greek origin to the word dfir, dfir. 
 In Job (xxii. 24) Ophir is used for ' gold ' without the additional word 
 zahab ; and the passage from Pliny warrants the conclusion that apyron 
 was used in the same manner. Besides, Ophir occurs in the Bible as 
 the name of a people and a country. Where this half-mythic land was 
 first thought to exist is a point on which I have no doubt. In Genesis 
 (x. 21)) Ophir is mentioned between Sheba and Havilah. In the story 
 of Solomon, the narrator passes twice or thrice backwards and forwards 
 to and from the Queen of Sheba and the Ophir expedition, and in 
 1 Kings x. 15 'all the kings of Arabia' come between. Ophir was con- 
 sequently thought to be on the coast of Arabia, or rather the Hebrews 
 called the Litus Hammaeum Ophir. In the famous question about Ophir, 
 far too little weight is laid on the fact that, in many passages in the 
 Bible, Ophir appears as the California of antiquity, and far too much 
 importance is given to Solomon's expedition to Ophir. I neither doubt 
 that the Phoenicians navigated the Ked Sea, nor that Solomon associated 
 
 * II. N. xxi. 11, p. 66: " Heliochrysos florem pertinere arbitral) tur." 
 habet auro similem .... Hoc coronare se Magi, 5 Journ. As. Soc. Benrj. B. iv, p. 165. 
 si et unguenta sumantur ex auro, quod apyron 6 Z. D. M. G. 27, p. 230. 
 vocant, ad gratiam quoque vitae gloriamque 
 
260 
 
 THE FIRST PRE-HISTORIC CITY. 
 
 [Chap. V. 
 
 with King Hiram and bartered gold in Dzahaban ; but the story, as it is 
 told, is not free from fictions invented to glorify the great king. In 
 1 Kings ix. 28 it' is stated that the servants of Hiram and Solomon fetched 
 420 talents of gold ; here Ophir is still simply the land of gold. In x. 11, 
 again, the result is spoken of, and then it is said that the gold-ships also 
 brought sandal- wood and precious stones. We cannot object to this, for 
 the narrator confines himself here at least to Arabian articles. Precious 
 stones are also mentioned elsewhere in the Bible, as articles of trade with 
 the Arabian merchants. The genuine sandal-wood, it is true, does not 
 occur in Arabia, but Hamdany (333) speaks of Mount Hanum as situated 
 near Chaulan, on which also the Chaulanites live, and says : ' There grows 
 a plant which resembles the white sandal-wood, and comes near to it 
 in smell. The wood serves instead of the Indian sandal- wood.' In 
 1 Kings x. 22, the produce fetched from Ophir is mentioned for a third 
 time, with the addition of silver and ivory, and of rarities such as monkeys 
 and peacocks. 7 Here it is also stated that the ships came once in three 
 years ; and in this way Ophir is removed to an endless distance and made 
 a fairy-land. This version, as well as the story of the Queen of Sheba, 
 I hold to be a fiction of later origin. The idea that Ophir also 
 exported silver is by no means happy, this metal having always been 
 dear in Arabia. Even in Mohammed's time, when the gold mines were 
 for the most part exhausted, only seven and a half pounds of silver were 
 given for one pound of gold. If, with Lassen, we relegate Ophir to India 
 (of whose natural wealth in gold I never heard), we do not gain much ; 
 because here also the value of silver in proportion to that of gold was 
 always greater than in the West." 
 
 Sprenger further points to a passage in Strabo, which corroborates his 
 opinion that the Phoenicians, in times of remote antiquity, lived on the 
 Arabian coast of the Persian Gulf, whence they emigrated to the coast of 
 the Mediterranean ; and this view is now very generally accepted. After 
 having spoken of the city of Gerrha, which, he says, lies in a deep bay of 
 the Arabian coast on the Persian Gulf, Strabo goes on : " Those who 
 proceed with their ship see two other islands — Tyrus 8 and Aradus, 9 whose 
 temples resemble those of the Phoenicians ; the inhabitants at least main- 
 tain also that the islands and cities of the Phoenicians, called by the same 
 names, are their colonies." 10 
 
 My friend the Assyriologist, Professor Julius Oppert, informs me that 
 in the Assyrian cuneiform inscriptions, the island of Tyrus (in cuneiform 
 writing, Tilvun) is mentioned as the seat of a very ancient worship. The 
 island of Tylus (for Tyrus) is mentioned by Arrian 11 and Pliny 1 as pro- 
 ducing pearls and cotton. 
 
 7 I might here call attention to the fact that 
 in the Bible the names of the monkeys and pea- 
 cocks are Sanscrit and Tamil. The monkey is 
 called in Sanscrit Kapi, the peacock in Tamil 
 
 Toijei. 
 
 8 According to Sprenger's map, this is now 
 called Owal (Bahrayn). 
 
 9 According to Sprenger's map, Moharrag. 
 
 10 Strabo, xvi. p. 7G6 : TlXevaavTL 5' £ir\ irAeov 
 a\Aai vr\(Toi Tvpos kcu "Apados tla'iv, Upa exovaai 
 ro7s $olviklko?s ojxoia • kclI (petal ye ol iu avrctis 
 
 OlKOVVTeS TCLS O/HOOVV/ilOVS TCCV ^OIVIKUV V7]<T0VS 
 
 kcu iroAeis airo'iKovs kavTcav. 
 
 11 Anab. vii. 20, § 6. 
 
 1 H, N. vi. 32. 6 ; xii. 22. 1. 
 
Chap. V.] PINS, AWLS, AND NEEDLES OF BONE. 261 
 
 Mr. Philip Smith observes to me that : " In the ancient Egyptian 
 records we have accounts of immense quantities of gold levied by the 
 great king Thutmes III. of the Eighteenth Dynasty (in the sixteenth 
 century B.C.), as tribute from the land of Zahi (that is, Phoenicia). Gold 
 is also named among the tributes of Punt, the Egyptian Ophir, which 
 Brugsch-Bey holds to be on the African coast of Somauli, opposite to 
 Arabia. But the chief supply was derived from the southern lands of 
 Kush (Nubia), which Brugsch-Bey calls the Egyptian California. Gold 
 was obtained from this region as early as the Twelfth Dynasty, and 
 the gold-washings in the desert valley of Ahita (Wady Alaki) were the 
 objects of special care to the great kings of the Nineteenth Dynasty, 
 Kamses II. and his father Seti." 2 
 
 Under No. 123 I represent a needle of bone with a perforated head. 
 
 No. 123. No. 124. No. 125. No. 126. No. 12?. No. 130. No. 131. 
 
 Nos. 123-140. Pins, Awls, and Needles of bone and ivory, from the lowest stratum. 
 (Half and 3 : 4 actual size. Depth, 40 to 52 ft.) 
 
 2 Brugsch's Hist, of Egypt under the Tha- ductions brought from Punt furnish a remark- 
 raohs, vol. i. pp. 379, 383 ; vol.ii. pp. 81 f., Eng. able parallel to the account of the Ophir-voyages 
 trans., 2nd ed. — The Egyptian records of the pro- of Solomon's fleet (op. ext. vol. i. pp. 352 f.). 
 
262 
 
 THE FIKST PRE-HISTORIC CITY. 
 
 [Chap. V. 
 
 Nos. 124, 125, 126, 127, and 128 are rudely-ornamented bone needles 
 without holes; Nos. 129, 130, 131, 132, 133, 134, 135, and 136 are pointed 
 instruments of bone, which may have been used as awls, with the excep- 
 tion perhaps of Nos. 129 and 136, which are quite flat. The objects 
 Nos. 137 and 138 are of ivory ; as the latter is in the shape of a nail, it 
 may probably have been used as a brooch. Nos. 139 and 140 are carved 
 implements of bone, probably for female needle-work. Similar awls and 
 needles of bone occur in large numbers in the debris of the four lowest 
 pre-historic cities at Hissarlik. Awls and needles of bone, even needles 
 with perforated heads, are found plentifully in the cavern-habitations in the 
 Dordogne, and may be seen in the Museum of St. Germain-en-Laye, where 
 are also exhibited a number of them found in French Dolmens. They 
 were, as Prof. Yirchow informs me, in use in Germany in every period 
 down to the twelfth century A.r>., and are found there in abundance. 
 They are also frequent in the Swiss Lake-dwellings, 3 in the Lake- 
 dwellings in the Lake of Constance, 4 in the caverns of Inzighofen, 5 in 
 the pre-historic settlements in Hungary, 6 on ancient sites in the Aleutian 
 Islands, in Kentucky, in San Miguel Island, California, &c. ; 7 in Denmark 
 on sites of the Stone age, 8 and elsewhere. The object No. 141 represents 
 
 No. 142. Curious Object 
 of Ivory, probably an Idol. 
 (Half actual size. Depth, 46 ft.) 
 
 a flat trapezium of ivory, almost in the shape of a playing card, with 
 eight little stars or small suns. We see a similar ornamentation on each 
 side of the very curious object of ivory No. 142, which, in my opinion, 
 is a primitive female idol, of which the two barb-like projections may 
 indicate the arms, and the stroke across the body the girdle. I call 
 attention to the similarity of the little stars or small suns to the breasts 
 with which the whole body of the Ephesian Diana was covered ; and have 
 not the horn-like projections on the head the shape of the crescent? 
 
 3 Ferdinand Keller, Mittheilungen dcr anti- Plate ii. 
 
 quarischen Gesellschaft, Pfahlbauten, 7ter Bericht ; 7 Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge, No. 
 
 Zurich, 1876, Plate ii. " 287, The Archaeological Collection of the U.S. 
 
 4 L. Lindenschmit, Die Vatcrldndischen Alter- National Museum; Washington, 1876, pp. 63 
 thiimcr, p. ISO, and Plate xxviii. and 64. 
 
 5 Ibid. p. 180, and Plate xxv. 8 J. J. A. Worsaae, Nordiske Oldsager, PI. xvii. 
 
 6 Joseph Hampel, Anti'iuit€s prehistoriques, 
 
Chap. V.] 
 
 THE GAME OF ASTRAGALS. 
 
 As huckle-bones (aarpayaXoi), like that represented under No. 143, 
 occur in this first city, as well as in all the other pre-historic cities of 
 Hissarlik, I think there can be no doubt that they were used by children 
 for playing, the more so as most of them are much worn, and appear 
 as if they had been in use for a long time. The game of astragals is 
 mentioned by Homer, who makes Patroclus appear to Achilles in a 
 dream, and say that he had to fly from his native land, having involun- 
 tarily killed a boy in anger when playing with astragals. 9 This game was 
 practised by children throughout antiquity. 10 I call attention to the beau- 
 tiful sculpture of an ao-rpayaXi&vcra in the Museum of Berlin ; also, to the 
 famous group of sculpture in the palace of Titus, representing two boys 
 playing with astragals, 1 probably a copy of the celebrated bronze group 
 by Polycletus, the subject of which was no doubt taken from the fatal 
 quarrel of the young Patroclus with his playfellow. 
 
 A fractured marble group of the same kind, in the Townley Collection 
 of the British Museum, represented (when perfect) two boys quarrelling 
 over the game. The figure of one is gone, except the fore-arm, which the 
 other is biting ; the huckle-bones are seen lying on the ground. 
 
 9 II xxiii. 87, 88 : 
 "Hfxart t<2 ore ircuSa KareKravov 'A/Mpidd/xavTos, 
 vr)irios, ovk iQeXusu, djx^> darpaydKoicri x°^ w ^ € ' LS ' 
 
 u In the day when I slew the son of Amphi- 
 damas, fool that I was, not wilfully, flying into 
 a passion about huckle-bones." 
 
 10 See, for example, Pseudo-Plat. Alcib. i. p. 110, 
 B. : 6it6t€ (nous Siu) dar pay a\i£ois ¥j 'd\Kr]y riva 
 iraiSlav Trai£ois. 
 
 1 Pliny, H. N. xxxiv. 8. 19; Pauly's Real 
 Encyclop'ddie, s. v. Polycletus. 
 
CHAPTER VI. 
 
 THE SECOND CITY ON THE SITE OF TEOY. 
 
 Whether the inhabitants of the first city quietly abandoned their 
 homes and emigrated, or whether their city was captured and destroyed by 
 an enemy, we are unable to discover from the ruins ; at all events, the 
 first town was not destroyed by fire, for I found no marks of a general, or 
 even of a partial, conflagration. It is further quite certain that the first 
 settlers were succeeded by a different people : this is proved by the 
 architecture as well as by the pottery, both of which are totally different 
 from what we see in the first city. 
 
 I have already said that these second settlers built both their houses 
 and their walls of large stones. The remains we now see of these dwell- 
 ings are, of course, only the substructions, but the really enormous masses 
 of loose stones contained in the strata of this second city testify to the 
 fact, that the walls of the houses were built of stone. Not all the houses, 
 however, were built of this material, for we see here and there the debris 
 of houses which must have had walls of clay. 
 
 It is only to these second settlers that we can attribute the wall b 
 represented in the engraving No. 2 (see p. 24), which I brought to light 
 on the north side of the hill. It is 10 ft. high and 6J ft. thick, and 
 is built in the so-called Cyclopean manner, in regular layers of large 
 but slightly wrought quadrangular blocks of limestone, which are joined 
 together by small ones. As already stated, its top is just 34 ft. below 
 the surface. As is attested by the layers of debris which extend in an 
 oblique direction below it, it was originally erected on the steep slope 
 of the hill. It is therefore evident that, since its erection, the hill 
 has here increased 44 ft. in height ; but it has also increased at this 
 point 131 ft. in width, such being the distance in a horizontal line from 
 the wall to the present slope. The quantity of similar blocks lying beside 
 this wall seem to prove that it was at one time much higher. It was 
 much longer when I first brought it to light at the end of July, 1872. 
 I removed part of it in February, 1873, in order to bring to light the 
 curious retaining wall 1 already described, which rises at an angle of 45°, 
 6 ft. below it, and served to sustain an isolated sandhill which reaches to 
 within 20 ft. of the surface and appears to be 20 ft. high. This retain- 
 ing wall we may, as I have before explained, attribute with all proba- 
 bility to the first city. 
 
 To these inhabitants of the second city we may further, with every 
 
 1 See the wall A in the engraving No. 2, p. 24. 
 
a. Road leading up to Troy. b. External Wall. c. Interior Wall. d. Projecting external Wall. e. Jars. f. Kuinn 
 
Chap. VI.] 
 
 WALLS AND STREET. 
 
 265 
 
 probability, attribute the great internal wall marked e on the accompany- 
 ing view, No. 144 and a on the little sketch No. 145. This wall also 
 
 No. 145. The great External and Internal Walls, called together the Tower. 
 
 consists of large blocks of stone, and slopes to the south at an angle of 
 45°. But it is only on the south side that it consists of solid masonry ; 
 on the north side it is built of stone for only four or five courses deep, 
 and is supported here by a large rampart of loose stones and debris 
 marked r, of which also its interior, to a great extent, consists. Imme- 
 diately south of this large wall is a wall of equal size marked b on the 
 accompanying view (No. 144) and c d on the sketch (No. 145), which was 
 evidently built by the third settlers,, and of which I shall speak here- 
 after. After having proceeded for some distance in an easterly direction, 
 the great internal wall shrinks to a wall of solid masonry 11 J ft. high, 
 6 ft. thick at the top, and 12 ft. thick at the base, which turns at a 
 certain point abruptly to the north north-west. 2 Its builders did not 
 take the trouble to clear the rock of soil, for the wall is erected on a 
 layer of earth from 1 ft. 9 in. to 2 ft. deep, with which the rock is 
 covered. To the inhabitants of this second city evidently belongs also 
 the erection of the Gate (marked a on Plan I.), with its paved street, which 
 runs down to the plain in a south-westerly direction ; for the lower part of 
 this gateway, as well as the walls which I brought to light in removing 
 some of the flags of the street, show precisely the same kind of architecture 
 of large blocks of white limestone. As the keen eye of my sagacious 
 friend, Professor Sayce, discovered at once, this street was made by the 
 second settlers, by heaping a mound of debris against what had until then 
 been a steep slope ; and the walls which cross the street beneath its 
 pavement can have had no other object than to consolidate this mound of 
 debris. All the fragments of pottery contained in the mound belong to 
 the second city ; I have not found a single potsherd there of the thick 
 lustrous-black terra-cottas of the first city, nor any fragment of the pottery 
 of the subsequent " burnt city." 
 
 The street was paved by the innabitants of the second city with large 
 flags of white limestone, in which, however, I failed to discover any ruts 
 of chariot-wheels. For this reason I think that the street only served 
 for pedestrians, the more so as it slopes to the plain at an angle of a little 
 less than 70°, and is, therefore, too steep for chariots. But still the flags 
 are much worn and denote long use. For this reason they were covered 
 by the builders of the following, the third or burnt city, with new flags of 
 a reddish sandstone, which may still be seen in situ on the lower part of 
 
 2 See Plar I. (of Troy) at the place marked / h, close to the wall marked b. 
 
268 
 
 THE SECOND CITY ON THE SITE OF TROY. [Chap. VI. 
 
 the street as far as it is uncovered. Those of the upper part, near the 
 gateway, looked quite as fresh as the rest when I brought them to light at 
 the beginning of May 1873 ; but, when exposed to the sun, they speedily 
 became decomposed and crumbled away, which circumstance can leave no 
 doubt that they had been exposed to an intense heat. The parapets of 
 the gate must have been almost completely destroyed on the arrival of the 
 third settlers, the builders of the burnt city, for — as a glimpse at the 
 accompanying view (No. 144) will show — only the lower part of them 
 denotes by its large slabs of white limestone the architecture of the 
 second settlers ; whereas all the upper part of them, and the whole of 
 the masonry of small stones of reddish colour to the right of the Turk 
 with his spade, are the work of the third settlers, by whom were also 
 built the quadrangular projections of the parapets, between which were 
 the wooden gates. These projections stand in pairs opposite each other. 3 
 Those of the first gate, in ascending from the plain, project, the one 2J ft., 
 the other 2J ft. : both are 3J ft. high and 3f ft. broad ; the wooden gate 
 between them was 12J ft. broad. The street paved with the large flags of 
 limestone ends at this first gate, and the road from this to the second gate, 
 which is situated a little more than 20 ft. further to the north-east, is 
 very roughly paved with large unhewn stones. The pavement has pro- 
 bably become uneven through the masses of burning debris which fell upon 
 it during the great conflagration of the third city. 
 
 The two following projections, between which was the second gate, 
 are 2 ft. high, above 3 ft. broad, and project about 2Jft. A few yards 
 further to the north-east a wall of large stones, with a recess on its 
 south-east side, crosses the street, protruding only slightly above the 
 pavement. This wall undoubtedly marks the site of the third gate with 
 a wicket. This third gate is 17 J ft. broad ; beyond it the parapets of the 
 road continue 10 ft. further in a north-easterly direction. That these 
 three gates really existed, every visitor acknowledges ; but how they were 
 put up — that, I think, nobody can explain, there being no holes for the 
 hinges either in the projections of the parapets or in the stones between 
 them. But, as the masonry of the parapet has a smooth surface and has 
 evidently never been higher than it now is, we may take it as certain that it 
 only served as a substruction to a large and high tower of but slightly-baked 
 bricks, and that wood entered largely into its construction. Only in this 
 way are we at all able to explain the intense heat which destroyed the 
 flags of the street before the gates, and to which every stone in the 
 parapets bears witness, as well as the enormous masses of reddish or 
 yellow or black wood-ashes and broken bricks, which obstructed the street, 
 to a depth of from 7 to 10 ft., when I brought it to light. It was in the 
 masonry of this tower, through which the street passed, that the gates 
 must have been fastened. 
 
 But the inhabitants of the second stone city, which now occupies us, 
 used no bricks at all ; besides, the three gates, of which I have spoken, 
 evidently belong to the third settlers. It would, therefore, be out of 
 
 3 See the engravings No. 10, p. 35, and No. 13, p. 37, as well as Plan I. under the letter a. 
 
Chap. VI] 
 
 THE GATE AND LARGE WALL. 
 
 267 
 
 place to speak of them here were it not that, by giving my opinion as to 
 the architecture of the gates, when in use by the third settlers, I hope to 
 convey to the reader an idea of their condition in the time of the second 
 settlers. In fact, the courses of large white stones in the lower parts of 
 the parapets, as well as of the same sort of stones in the lower part of 
 their four quadrangular projections, can leave no doubt that the architec- 
 ture of the substructions to the gate-tower was identical with that used 
 in the second city ; besides that the wall, which denotes the existence of 
 the third gate with its wicket, belongs evidently to the second settlers, 
 who in all probability built their gate-tower of wood. As the masonry 
 of large blocks built by the second settlers is far more solid than that of 
 small stones or slightly-baked bricks used by the third people, the latter 
 would undoubtedly have taken care to preserve the parapets of the street 
 and their projections, had they found them entire. Moreover, had these 
 structures been destroyed in a siege and capture of the second city, the 
 large stones at least would have remained on the spot or near at hand, 
 and they would have been used by the third settlers for restoring the 
 destroyed masonry. But as this has not been done, we may conclude, 
 with all probability, that the second city must have been abandoned for a 
 long time ere it was colonized by the third settlers. M. Burnouf has 
 come to the very same conclusion, from the large funnel-shaped holes and 
 deep ravines filled with stones, which so frequently occur in the layers 
 of debris, from 12 to 16 ft. deep, of the second city, and of which visitors 
 will see many in my trenches, particularly in my great northern trench. 4 
 He thinks that these large funnel-shaped hollows or ravines in the debris 
 could only have been produced in the course of ages by rain-water, and 
 that they were filled with stones by the third settlers, who completely 
 levelled the area of the city before they began to build their own town. 
 Professor Yirchow does not admit that these hollows could have been pro- 
 duced by the action of the rain-water in the midst of the debris ; but I 
 think it most likely, considering the really enormous masses of loose 
 stones contained in the layers of debris of the second city. Only I am not 
 of M. Burnouf 's opinion, that ages would necessarily be required to pro- 
 duce such ravines. I even think that the rains of a single winter might 
 possibly be sufficient to produce large and deep funnel-shaped holes in 
 such huge masses of debris, consisting of loose stones and clay. 
 
 To this second city evidently belongs also the large wall which 
 continues from the gate in a north-westerly direction, and which is 
 but a prolongation of the great internal wall marked c on the view, 
 No. 144, and a on the little sketch, No. 145. Like the internal wall c, 
 this is more like a rampart than a mere wall : in general its western and 
 north-western slope consists of solid masonry to a depth of 3 or 4 ft. • 
 but it is intersected by a number of regular walls, which can have had 
 no other object than to consolidate it. This rampart wall, which is in 
 some places 30 ft. thick, is paved with small flags or irregularly shaped 
 
 4 These funnel-shaped hollows, filled with stones, are marked by the letter q on Plan III., 
 Section X-Y. 
 
268 
 
 THE SECOND CITY ON THE SITE OF TKOY. [Chap. VL 
 
 stones ; but this pavement was covered 3 ft. deep with debris when the 
 third city was built, for all the fragments of pottery contained in it are of 
 the second city, to which also belong all the potsherds contained in the 
 debris below the pavement. Now, this rampart resembles an esplanade ; 
 but cities so small as the pre-historic towns of Hissarlik can have no 
 esplanades. Neither did it look as it does now when I first brought it 
 to light; for it was encumbered with crumbling brick walls, mournful 
 remnants of the towers and other works of fortification of the third city. 
 But the masses of saddle-querns, pottery, shells, &c, contained in the 
 debris, can leave no doubt that these Trojan works were many storeys 
 high, and served both as fortifications and dwelling-houses for the inha- 
 bitants. We must probably presume, that the works erected on these 
 ramparts by the inhabitants of the second stone city served a like pur- 
 pose ; but, as they certainly were not of brick, they must have been of 
 stone. This seems also to be proved, with all probability, by the stu- 
 pendous masses of loose stones which occur at the foot of the walls, as 
 well as in and on the ruins of the houses, and which are sometimes 12 
 or 14 ft. deep. The following settlers found these masses of stones ready 
 at hand, but they did not care to use them : only here and there they 
 built the substructions of their houses with them ; all the rest, and in 
 fact generally even the substructions of their houses, they built of 
 slightly-baked brick. 
 
 As to habitations on city walls, my dear," my honoured, my learned, 
 my deeply-mourned friend, Dr. Edward Moss, of Arctic celebrity — who, 
 when Staff-surgeon on board H.M.S. Research, lying in the autumn of 
 1878 in Besika Bay, came daily to visit my works at Troy, and who later, 
 as Staff-surgeon on board H.M.S. Atalanta, perished with that unfortunate 
 vessel— called to my remembrance that in this respect Troy resembled 
 several cities in Scripture: thus, for example, the Book of Joshua (ii. 15) 
 describes the house of Eahab as situated on the wall of Jericho. 
 
 As I have said, the great internal wall 5 — which, on the south side, 
 was the external wall of the inhabitants of the second stone city — (the 
 wall marked b on No. 144, and c d on the sketch No. 145, having been 
 subsequently built by the people of the third city) — slopes at an angle 
 of 45°, and its western prolongation from the gate at an angle of about 
 15° ; consequently these walls could easily be scaled, and they can only 
 have served as substructions to the works of defence erected upon them. 
 
 To this second city also belongs the irregular wall on the north side 
 to the left of the entrance to my great northern trench (marked Y on 
 Plan III., Section X-Y). M. Burnouf, who carefully examined this wall, 
 made the following observations on it : — " At the north angle, close 
 to the large ruined brick wall, we see again for a distance of 12 metres 
 or 40 ft. the more or less damaged courses of blocks of the great wall of 
 the second city, which, like the wall c on No. 144 and a on the sketch 
 No. 145, consists only on the outside of real masonry, and for the rest 
 of loose stones. In the ditch dug at the foot of the rampart, visitors may 
 
 5 See No. 144 c, and sketch No. 145, a, p. 265. 
 
Chap. VI.] 
 
 THE MODE OF BUILDING. 
 
 269 
 
 see the lower courses of this wall, which consist of Very large blocks of 
 limestone." 
 
 On this rampart, as on the two which we have already passed in 
 review, were no doubt built the works of fortification, which served at the 
 same time as habitations. Visitors will see there a number of substruc- 
 tions of large stones belonging to this second city, to which belongs 
 also the large building (marked K on Plan III., Section X-Y), whose 
 slightly dislocated thick walls will be seen further on to the left in my 
 great northern trench, at a depth of from 33 to 40 or 43 ft. below the 
 surface of the hill. I call particular attention to the layers of debris 
 (marked P on the same plan), which slant at an angle of 45° from the 
 top of this building towards the great internal wall (c on No. 144), and 
 which go far to prove that this building is much more ancient than the 
 latter, and that the rampart-like walls were not built till ages after the 
 foundation of the second city. What has this large building been ? This 
 edifice seemed to me important to preserve; but as all the stones of its 
 walls are slightly dislocated, just as if shaken by an earthquake, I could 
 not possibly excavate it ; for, unless supported, its walls would have fallen 
 at once. I was therefore forced to leave it embedded as it was, with only 
 the edges of its walls peeping out from the east side of my trench. I call 
 the attention of visitors to the ponderous blocks composing what appears 
 to be its flat roof. 
 
 The inhabitants of this second city, like their predecessors and 
 successors, used to a large extent cakes of clay ((/alettes), in order to 
 level the ground and consolidate it for their ponderous stone buildings. 
 In this second city I found the debris of three houses, which had 
 evidently been destroyed by fire. One of them, which is immediately to 
 the north-west of the well, 6 may be easily examined by visitors, in accord- 
 ance with the following description of M. Burnouf : 7 — 
 
 " I. The Area. — The substratum is formed of superposed compact 
 strata containing earth, ashes, bones, shells, stones, and other debris 
 belonging to the first city. This substratum is from 8 to 1 ft. deep in 
 the great trench. The area established on this substratum is made solely 
 of bruised and compressed brick matter ; its thickness is 0'05 m. (2 in.). 
 The burning material which in the conflagration has fallen on this soil 
 has, first, vitrified the surface of the area from 1 to 2 millimetres (l-25th 
 to 2-25ths in.) deep (this thin layer is of a greenish colour) ; 8 secondly, 
 it has completely baked the brick-stratum to a depth of 0*02 m. = 
 0*8 in. (this layer is light yellow) ; lastly, it has burnt the layer below 
 black to a depth of from 10 to 15 centimetres = 4 to 6 in. 
 
 " II. The Debris. — Over the area we see : (1) a uniform stratum 
 of very light charcoal, 0*01 to 0*02 m. deep: (2) a stratum of brick- 
 earth, which has in the centre a depth of half a metre = 20 in. : this proves 
 that in the middle of the house there has been much more of this matter 
 
 6 Marked a Z on Plan I. (of Troy). 
 
 7 See the Section, No. 146, p. 270. 
 
 8 The centimetre (0*01 m.) = 0*4 in. nearly ; 
 
 the millimetre (0-001 m.) = ■ 04 in., or l-25th 
 in. See the Table of French and English 
 
 Measures. 
 
270 
 
 THE SECOND CITY ON THE SITE OF TROY. [Chap. VI. 
 
 than elsewhere ; it is the base of this stratum of brick-earth which, by its 
 heat, has vitrified the soil of the area. Above it are strata of a brownish 
 or light colour, forming the arc of a circle ; of which the upper layer (a) 
 is of a brown colour ; it contains small yellow clay-cakes ((/alettes) which 
 have fallen almost without breaking : (3) a sporadic stratum of pretty 
 large flat pieces of charcoal, 0*10 to 0"12 m. = 4 to 4*8 in. long and 
 broad: (4) a thick party-coloured stratum, from 0'70 to 0'80 m.= 
 28 to 32 in. deep of clay-cakes (gaieties), and blackish, brown, grey or 
 
 Ground Floor 
 
 No. 146. Section of a burnt House on the north-west side 01 i,ae Well (a Z on Dan I ). 
 
 reddish substances more or less mixed with straw. This stratum contains 
 fragments of pottery, shells, bones, &c. This last stratum appears to 
 be derived from the terraced roof; the large pieces of charcoal are from 
 the beams and joists. The inferior strata of light earth have fallen first 
 through the burning timber-work ; they appear to be derived from the 
 floor, the light wood of which has produced the first stratum of debris. 
 Thus the house appears to have had probably a ground-floor and one 
 upper storey. Contrary to the general architecture of the second city, 
 there is no trace of walls in this house. Were they perhaps of clay ? " 
 
 I would further call the particular attention of visitors to the several 
 house-walls of this second city, which peep out from below the large 
 house of the third city to the north-west of the gate (see the engraving 
 No. 188, p. 325). As nine out of the ten treasures which I discovered 
 were found in or close to that house, I hold it to be the house of the 
 town-chief or king ; and so the walls, which we see below it, may perhaps 
 belong to the mansion of the chief or king of the second city. As they 
 are below the level of the rampart wall, they may perhaps claim a greater 
 antiquity than the latter. 
 
 To the north of the great wall c, in excavating the great trench, 
 I struck, on the 2nd of August, 1872, a stone house of the second city, 
 which had evidently also been destroyed by fire, because it was filled, to 
 the depth of 6 or 7 ft., with yellow or brownish wood-ashes, in which I 
 found the tolerably well-preserved skeleton of a human being. The colour 
 of the bones, as well as the strange position in which the body 9 was found, 
 can leave no doubt that the person had been overtaken by the fire and 
 burnt to death. This seems to be the more certain, as all the pre-historic 
 peoples, who succeeded each other in the course of ages on the hill of 
 Hissarlik, used cremation of the dead. The smallness of the skull led me 
 at once to think that it was that of a woman ; and this opinion seems to 
 
 9 The body was found nearly standing, and but slightly inclined backward. 
 
Chap. VI.] SKELETON FOUND IN A HOUSE. 271 
 
 be corroborated by the gold ornaments which I picked up by the side of 
 the skeleton, and which I shall presently describe. 
 
 No. 147. Different Views of the Skull of a Girl, whose skeleton was found in a burnt house at a depth of 42 ft. 
 a. Front, b. Back. c. Side. d. Top. 
 
 The skull was unfortunately broken in the excavation, but it has been 
 recomposed. Professor Yirchow, who made the accompanying geometrical 
 drawing (No. 147) of it, writes to me as follows on the subject : — 
 
 "Length of the skull . .180-5 
 
 Greatest breadth of the skull 149 
 
 Auricular height . . . . . . . . . .116 
 
 Lower frontal breadth 93 
 
 Height of the face 104 
 
 Breadth do 90 
 
 Do. of the lower jaw 82*5 
 
 Eye-hole, height 29 
 
 Do. breadth 38 
 
 Nose, height 48? 
 
 Do. breadth 23*3 
 
 Height of the alveolar apophysis of the upper jaw . . . .17 
 Horizontal circumference of the skull 522 
 
 " From this the following indices may be calculated : — 
 
 "Longitudinal index . . 82*5 
 
 Auricular index 64-2 
 
 Nasal index . , . . 48*5 
 
 Orbital index 76 '3 
 
272 
 
 THE SECOND CITY ON THE SITE OF TROY. [Chap. VI. 
 
 " This skull is brachy cephalic, and decidedly a female one ; it is par- 
 ticularly distinguished by strongly-developed prognathism. Though it 
 is badly recomposed, yet it is so far reconstructed, that the above 
 measures may be considered as approximately accurate. The teeth, 
 particularly the upper incisors, are large; the enamel is everywhere 
 very white and furrowed lengthwise ; the crowns are but little wasted, 
 and the wisdom teeth not yet cut. It belonged, therefore, to a girl. 
 As the basis cranii is missing, nothing more can be said of the age. 
 On the whole, the skull is broader and higher than it is long; the 
 frontal and parietal protuberances are well developed ; the forehead is 
 full; the occiput is broadly expanded. The face is somewhat broad, 
 with low eye-holes and moderately broad nose. The chin is retracted ; 
 the middle of the lower jawbone is low, the processes steep and broad. 
 When looked at from behind, the skull appears low and flattened." 
 
 No. 143. No. 149. No. 150. 
 
 Nos. 148-161. Gold Rings and Brooch of Electrum, of very primitive workmanship. 
 (Actual size. Depth, about 42 ft.) 
 
 With regard to the jewels found by the side of the skeleton, the two 
 ear-rings, Nos. 148 and 149, are of a very primitive kind, consisting of 
 simple gold wire 0°0015 m. thick; in fact, it is impossible to imagine any- 
 thing ruder or more primitive. The finger-ring, No. 150, is of the same 
 rude workmanship; it consists of a treble gold wire O0025 m. thick. 
 Compared with these, the third gold ear-ring, like No. 694, is a 
 real work of art ; it is composed of six gold wires of equal thickness, 
 which form a leaf. The electrum brooch, No. 151, has that primitive 
 form of which we have passed several specimens of bronze in review (see 
 Nos. 106, 107), in discussing the objects found in the first city, and which 
 existed before the invention of the fibulge. The body must have worn 
 some more female ornaments, for I collected by its side several plain gold 
 beads, only 1 millimetre in diameter (like Nos. 913-915), as also a very 
 thin oval gold ring, only l-4th of an inch long. 
 
 Electrum occurs several times in the third Trojan city. It is men- 
 tioned by Homer together with bronze, gold, silver, and ivory as an 
 ornament of walls : " Consider, son of Nestor dear to my heart, the 
 gleam of the bronze, the gold, the electrum, and the ivory in the 
 resounding hall." 1 In this instance electrum certainly means an alloy 
 
 1 Od. iv. 71-73 : x a ^ K °v Tf (TTepoirrju Kara dcofiara rjxv^ra, 
 
 (ppd&o, NetTTOplSr], rcj> ifxS) KexapioTieVe dv/ucp, XP vff °v r' i}\eKTpov re Kcii apyvpov 7?5' i\4(paurcs. 
 
Chap. VI.] 
 
 NATURE OF ELECT RUM. 
 
 273 
 
 of gold find silver. But the word occurs twice more in Homer, where 
 nothing else than amber can be meant by it. 2 
 
 In speaking of the ingots which Croesus sent to the Oracle of Delphi, 
 Herodotus says: "The number of ingots was 117, four being of refined 
 gold, in weight LV talents each; the others were half-tiles of pale gold, 
 and in weight 2 talents each." 3 There seems to be every probability that 
 by the pale gold electrum is meant ; for we cannot suppose that the 
 pale gold was inferior to that of the Lydian coins, which are* certainly 
 of electrum, though the quantity of silver contained in them seems to 
 exceed the proportion indicated by Pliny in the following most interesting 
 passage : 4 — " Omni auro inest argentum vario pondere, alibi decuma, 
 alibi nona, alibi octava parte. In uno tantum Galliae metallo, quod vocant 
 Albicralense, tricesima sexta portio invenitur : ideo caeteris praeest. 
 Ubicumque quinta argenti portio est,, electrum vocatur. Scobes eae 
 reperiuntur in Canaliensi. Fit et cura electrum argento addito. Quod 
 si quintam portionem excessit, incudibus non resistit. Et electro auc- 
 toritas, Homero teste, qui Menelai regiam auro, electro, argento, ebore, 
 fulgere tradit. Miner vae templum habet Lindos, insulae Ehodiorum, in 
 quo Helena sacravit calycem ex electro. Adjicit historia, mammae suae 
 mensura. Electri natura est, ad lucernarum lumina clarius argento 
 splendere. Quod est nativum, et venena deprehendit. Namque discur- 
 runt in calycibus arcus, caelestibus similes, cum igneo stridore ; et gemina 
 ratione praedicunt." 
 
 We gather from this passage of Pliny that the ancients gave the name 
 of " electrum " particularly to a natural alloy, containing the requisite 
 proportions, which, according to another passage, they found out by the 
 touchstone : 5 " Auri argentique mentionem comitatur lapis, quern coti- 
 culam appellant, quondam non solitus inveniri, nisi in flumine Tmolo, ut 
 auctor est Theophrastus : nunc vero passim : quern alii Heraclium, alii 
 Lydium vocant. Sunt autem modici, quaternas uncias longitudinis, binas- 
 que latitudinis non excedentes. Quod a sole fuit in his, melius quain 
 quod a terra. His coticulis periti, quum e vena ut lima rapuerunt 
 experimentum, protinus dicunt quantum auri sit in ea, quantum argenti 
 vel aeris, scripulari differentia, mirabili ratione, non fallente." 
 
 Strabo had apparently only a confused idea of electrum, for, speaking 
 of the gold of Spain, he says : " When gold is melted and purified with 
 a certain aluminous earth, there remains a residue which is electrum. 
 If this residue, which contains gold and silver, is remelted, the silver 
 is consumed and the gold remains as a residue." 6 Pausanias mentions 
 the two kinds of electrum in speaking of a statue of Augustus of amber : 
 " That electrum of which the statue of Augustus has been made, inasmuch 
 
 2 Od. xv. 460 : 
 
 Xpvcreov opfxov ex wi/ j fiera 5' T}heKTpoio~iv eepro' 
 and xviii. 296 : 
 
 Xpvcreov, 7}\€KTpoicriu i€p/j.4vov, t)z\iov ws. 
 
 3 i. 50 : apiBjxbv 5e eirraKaiSeKa /cat kKarro'v 
 Kal Toin-eW airtcpOov xpwov recraapa, rpia tj/jll- 
 raXavra snaarov eXKovra, ret 5e aAAa rj/MTrAlvdia 
 Aeu/coO xpwov o-TaQyLov dndAaura. 
 
 4 H. X. xxxiii. 23. 
 
 5 Ibid, xxxiii. 43. 
 
 6 iii. p. 146 : 4k Se rov ^oucou ktyojxevov Kal 
 KaOaipofxeuov orvTrT^piwSei tlv\ yfj t2> Kadap/xa 
 fjAtKTpov eTvai' iraXiv Se tovtov KaOt&o/xevov, 
 /j.7y/j.a exovros apyvpov Kal xP V0 ~°Vi T0V fi*v 
 fapyvpov aTTOKaieodai rov 5e XP V0 ~ 0V virojxivziv. 
 
274 
 
 THE SECOND CITY ON THE SITE OF TROY. [Chap. VI. 
 
 as it is only found native in the sands of the Eridanus, is exceedingly- 
 scarce, and is, highly prized by man ; but the other kind of electrum is 
 gold alloyed with silver." 7 Eustathius, who mentions three sorts of elec- 
 trum, declares the alloy of gold and silver to be the principal one. 8 
 
 From a depth of 26 to 40 ft. below the surface I excavated a third house, 
 destroyed by fire and belonging to this second city, just in front of the 
 long marble slab marked / on No. 144 (p. 265). It is built entirely of small 
 stones joined with clay ; an architecture exactly such as we see in the 
 pre-historic buildings found beneath three layers of pumice-stone and 
 volcanic ashes on the Island of Thera (Santorin). The horizontal row of 
 large holes, at a certain height all round its four walls, marks the places 
 of the beams, and proves that the house was at least two storeys high. 
 The walls are still partially covered with a coating of yellow clay, which 
 had been whitened with a wash of white clay. Every stone of its walls, 
 nay, every particle of debris contained between them, bears traces of the 
 intense heat to which it has been exposed, and which has so completely 
 destroyed everything that was in the rooms, that we only occasionally 
 found charred fragments of pottery among the yellow and brownish wood- 
 ashes and debris, with which the spaces were filled. 
 
 In digging down in the centre of this house, below the level of the 
 base of its walls, we found, curiously enough, other house-walls, which 
 must certainly be still more ancient ; and these, too, showed indications 
 of having been exposed to a terrible heat. But, owing to the fragile 
 condition of the upper walls, I could bring to light hardly more than the 
 surface of these lower walls. I must, therefore, leave it undecided whether 
 the house, to which these more ancient walls belong, was destroyed by 
 fire, or whether the marks of intense heat, which were conspicuous upon 
 its walls, were produced by the conflagration of the upper house, which 
 might certainly have been the case if the surface of the more ancient 
 walls had protruded just below the wooden floor of the upper house. 
 That this lower floor really was of wood is apparent from the charred 
 remains of it, in a horizontal line all along the four walls of the upper 
 house. But these calcined remains clearly show that the whole floor 
 consisted of beams, and not of planks. The people must have had very 
 great difficulty in cutting down the trees with their stone axes and 
 getting rid of their branches. They must have had still greater difficulty 
 in cleaving them, as no tree has a straight cleavage so that planks can be 
 cloven out of it. With their silex saws, only 2 or 3 in. long, they could 
 only saw bones or small pieces of wood, not beams. They had no bronze 
 axes ; for if such had existed I should have found them, especially in the 
 third, the burnt city, which, as the ten treasures found in it go far to 
 prove, was suddenly and unexpectedly destroyed by fire. They had no 
 bronze saws for sawing wood ; for in all the five pre-historic cities only 
 the fragment of one thin bronze saw was found (8f in. long and nearly 
 
 7 Paus. v. 12, § 6 : rb Se ?j\acTpov touto ou T<p 
 kbyov(TT(p ir^iro'nr)vrai ttjp el/cSva, oaov fiev avr6- 
 jiarou iv tov 'Hpifiavov reus ^ol/ul/jlols evpiaKerai, 
 CTxavlizrai to jxaKKXTa Kai avOpwircp Tifxiov 
 
 tvoWGjv icrrlu eVe/ccr rb 8e &\\o fjXtKTpov 
 avaixepuynevos iarlv apyvpw xp var ^ s - 
 
 8 Ad Odyss. iv. 73, p. 1483 : ixaXuna hi 
 pay/jLCt, xpucoO Kai apyvpov. 
 
Chap. VI.] BROOCHES, BRUISERS, AXES, AND HAMMERS. 
 
 275 
 
 2 in. broad), which I at first thought to be a sword. It was contained in 
 the large treasure found by me in May 1873, which circumstance seems 
 to prove that it was a rare object. It is to be seen in my Trojan 
 collection in South Kensington Museum. 
 
 The floors were covered with clay, which filled all the interstices and 
 hollows between the beams, so as to make a smooth surface. As the walls 
 of this third burnt house have been so much deteriorated by the confla- 
 gration, they would soon crumble away if they remained exposed to the 
 air. I have therefore thought it in the interest of science to fill this 
 excavation up again, in order to preserve the house for future times. But 
 whoever wishes to see it may easily excavate it with ten workmen in one 
 day. I repeat, it is in the large trench, just below the marble block 
 marked /on No. 144. 
 
 As, in speaking of the objects found in this Second City, I began with 
 metals, I may say that I found there the same kind of rude brooches 
 with a globular head or with a head in the form of a spiral of copper, 
 as well as the same kind of needles of that metal, as in the First City 
 (see Nos. 104, 105, 107, and 108). 9 I have not noticed in the second 
 city either lead or silver; but, as gold and electrum were found, those 
 metals were undoubtedly known and in use there. 
 
 I also collected there an abundance of saddle-querns of trachyte, as 
 well as globular corn-bruisers and rude hammers of gneiss, granite, diorite, 
 &c. ; the same kind of axes of blue serpentine rock, gabbro-rock, diorite, 
 &c. ; also two small axes, which Mr. Thomas Davies found to consist 
 of green jade (nephrite). I may here add that, according to Dr. William 
 Humble's Did. of Geology and Mineralogy (Lond. 1860), s. v. ' Nephrite,' 
 " This name of the mineral is derived from vefypLTns (from vecfrpos, a 
 'kidney'), because it was formerly worn from an absurd notion that 
 diseases of the kidney were relieved by its presence. It is a sub-species 
 of jade, possessing the hardness of quartz, combined with a peculiar 
 tenacity, which renders it difficult to break, cut, or polish. It is unctuous 
 to the touch; fracture splintery and dull; translucent. Colours green, 
 grey, and white. Specific gravity from 2*9 to 3*1. Constituents, silex 
 53'80, lime 12*75, soda 10'80, potash 8*50, alumina 1*55, oxide of iron 
 5"0, oxide of manganese 2'0, water 2-30." 
 
 Under the word 'Jade,' Dr. Humble says: "It is the Nephrit of 
 Werner ; Nephrite of Jameson ; called also nephrite stone, nephrite, and 
 axe-stone. Brochant states its fresh fracture to present a paler green 
 than that of its surface. Before the blow-pipe it fuses easily, and with 
 a slight ebullition, into a bead of white semi-transparent glass. In con- 
 sequence of its tenacity, it has been wrought into chains and other 
 delicate work." 
 
 The perforated stone hammers of this second city are also identical 
 with those of the first city. I represent here one of them under No. 152. I 
 did not find here entire long stone axes, only two halves, which I represent 
 
 9 Nos. 113, 114, and 115, which belong to this second city, have been engraved with those 
 belonging to the first city, at p. 250. 
 
276 THE SECOND CITY ON THE SITE OF TEOY [Chap. VI. 
 
 under Nos. 153 and 154. The upper one shows the perforation, of which 
 there is no trace on the lower one; besides, the upper one consists of 
 
 grey diorite ; the lower one of gabbro-rock : therefore these two frag- 
 ments belong to different axes. 
 
 There was also found in this second city the object No. 155, of grey 
 granite, which, by its shape, I hold to represent a phallus, the more so 
 as objects of an identical shape are frequent in the subsequent cities; 
 while, further, the god Priapus was fabled to have been born of 
 Aphrodite and Dionysus in the neighbouring city of Lampsacus, 10 where, 
 as well as in his homonymous city, Priapus, he had in historical times 
 a celebrated cultus, and was venerated more than any other god. It 
 deserves, however, particular notice that this god is not mentioned either 
 by Homer or by Hesiod, or by any of the other poets. According to 
 Strabo, Priapus was the son of Dionysus and a nymph. 1 Athenaeus 
 
 10 Paus. ix. 31, § 2 : 'EvravOa Kai TrjXecpcp ry 
 'hlpaKXeovs ydXa earlv eXa(pos ircudl fxiKpcp Si- 
 Sovaa, Kai fiovs re Trap' avrbv Kai ayaXjxa Upid- 
 irov 6eas d^iov. rovrcp rijxal t<2 6e$ SeSovrai 
 jxev Kai dXXcos, evda elalv alywv vofxal Kai irpo- 
 Pdrwv I) Kai eafxol fxeXicracov Aafjupaicrivol 8e es 
 irXeov r) Oeovs robs &XXovs vo/u'ifavai, Aiovvcrov 
 re avrbv Trdida elvac Kai ' A(ppo5(rr)s Xeyovres. 
 
 Diodor. Sic. iv. G : fivQoXoyovcriv ovv ol iraXaiol 
 rbv Tlplairov vibv elvat Aiovvcov Kai 'AtypoSlrrjs, 
 mOavcas rrjv yeveffiv ravrrjv etyyov/jLevoi- robs 
 yap olvuQevras (pvo~iKa>s evrerdo-Qai irpbs ras 
 
 a.(ppodio~iaKds r/dovds' rives 54 cpao~i rb alBoTov 
 rG)v dvOpwircav tovs iraXaiovs /j.vB&b'oos 6vo/j.d£eiv 
 fiovXojxevovs Ylpiairov Trpoo-ayopevaai. evioi Se 
 Xeyovcri rb yevvr)TiK.bv fxopiov, ainov virdpxov 
 rrjs yeveaecas rwv avdpdnrwv Kai Sia/novris els 
 airavra rbv alcova, rvx^v r? t s adavdrov rifirjs. 
 
 Tibull. 1, 4, 7; Schol. ad Apollon. Rhod. 
 Argonaut. 1, 932. 
 
 1 Strabo. xiii. p. 587 : tiruivvixos 8' earl rod 
 Tlpidirov ri/xoofievov Trap' avro?s, elV e| 'Opvewv 
 rwv irepl KSpivdov fierevrfvey/xevov rov tepov, 
 etre rip Xeyeadai Aiovvaov ical vvfj.(pr\s rbv Oebv 
 
Chap. VI.] 
 
 THE PHALLIC WORSHIP. 
 
 277 
 
 says that " Priapus was with the Lampsacenes originally an epithet of 
 Dionysus, like Qpiap&os and hOvpapfios, and that he is identical with 
 him." 2 
 
 According to Eduard Meyer, 3 " Priapus, the principal god of Lampsacus, 
 was a Bebrycian deity. This is evident from the fact that as a native 
 god he is {i.e. in historic times of antiquity) still found in Bithynia. 
 The primitive inhabitants of Bithynia were Bebrycians ; the Bithynians 
 were later Thracian immigrants : we must, therefore, presume that they 
 took Priapus from the religion of the primitive Bithynians. Lucian 
 relates that, according to the Bithynian legend, Priapus was a warlike 
 god, to whom Here gave Ares to educate; and he taught him dancing 
 before teaching him fighting. Arrian related, in his Bithynian history, 
 that Priapus (whom he calls Ylpleiros) signifies the Sun, on account of 
 his generating power. 4 This is undoubtedly right. Priapus is by his 
 origin undoubtedly an ithyphallic sun-god, like Amon (Chem) and the 
 Horus bull of the Egyptians. On the other hand, the Sun-god easily 
 becomes a warlike deity. The poets relate a legend, according to 
 which, at the feast of the Mother of the Gods, Priapus lay in wait for 
 Vesta (who is she ?) ; but that the ass of Silenus betrayed him by 
 his bray. For this reason the Lampsacenes used to sacrifice an ass to 
 Priapus. 5 The Greeks explained the worship of Priapus on the coast of 
 the Hellespont by the abundance of wine in the country. 6 From his 
 worship at Lampsacus he had the epithet ' Hellespontiacus.' " 7 
 
 He was the protector of the fields, 8 the dispenser of fertility, the 
 tutelary deity of shepherds and goatherds, of the rearing of bees, of hor- 
 ticulture, the cultivation of the vine, and of fishery. 9 
 
 I may here add, that the phallus (cpaWos) was the symbol of the 
 procreating power of nature, whose worship extended, according to Witz- 
 schel, 10 " through all natural religions from their rudest beginning until 
 the decay of heathenism. In the Egyptian sculptures we frequently see 
 ithyphallic gods. At the feasts of Dionysus-Osiris the women carried 
 round to the villages puppet-like figures a cubit high, with a not much 
 shorter phallus, which they pulled by strings. 1 Herodotus adds, that the 
 
 opfxrjcrauTcov eVl rb rijxav avrbv rwv avOpunrccv, 
 eireidr] vcpoSpa eud^nreAos eo-nv 7? %wpa Kal avrt] 
 Kal [77] icpe^rjs o/xopos, rj re rwv Hapiavoov Kal tj 
 ruv Kaii^aKrjv&v. 
 
 2 Athenaeus, i. 54 : rifxarai Se irapa, Aa/xtya- 
 kt)vo7s 6 Tlpiairos 6 abrbs &v t<$ Aiovvaw, e| 
 eiriQerov KaKovjxevos outws, ws dpia/xfios Kal 
 SiQvpanfios. 
 
 3 Geschichte von Troas ; Leipzig, 1877, p. 43. 
 
 4 Lucian. de Saltat. 21 : rbv Upiairov Sal/xova 
 iro\efiiarr]v, ruv Tirdvwv ol-xai eva y) rwv 'iSatW 
 AaKrvXcav (?) ; Arrian, Frag. 32, edit. Miiller ex 
 Eustath. ad 11. vii. 459 : Ylpleiros icapa 'Appiavui 
 %v BLdvviakoTs, Trap' y Kal els "Hhiov aWrjyope?- 
 rai Sia. rb yovi/xov. 
 
 5 Ovid. Fast. vi. 319-346 ; Lactant. de falsa 
 Bel. i. 21 ; differently Ovid. Fast. i. 391-440. 
 
 6 Strabo, xiii. p. 587; Thucydides, i. 138: 
 ravriqsyap ?ipxe r?is X^P as J S6vros fiaai\eu>s avrw 
 
 Mayvqaiav fxev &prov, y) irpocrecpepe irevrrjKovra 
 raKavra rov eviavrov, Aa/xxpaKov Se oivov 
 (eZoKei yap icoXvoivorarov rwv rore eivai) y 
 Mvovvra Se uipov. 
 
 7 Ovid. Fast. i. 440; vi. 341. 
 
 8 Voss, Myth. Brief e, ii. p. 344 ff. 
 
 9 Faus. ix. 31, § 2 ; Ovid. Fast. i. 415 ; Anthol. 
 Pal. x. 7, 8 ; Voss, ad Virg. Eel. vii. 33 ; Georg. 
 i. 110 ; Voss, Myth. Brr. ii. p. 37 ; Pauly, Real 
 Fncyclopddie, s. v. Priapus. 
 
 10 Pauly, op. cit. s. v. Phallus. 
 
 1 Herodot. ii. 48 : rr]v Se aXXrjv avdyovcn 
 bpr))vrco Aiovvaw ol Alyvirnoi, irXrjv xopwz/, Kara 
 ravra o~x^bv irdvra "EXXrjaL' avrl Se (paXXa>v r 
 &XXa G(pi ecrri i^evpT]/xeva ocrov re Trrjxvaia 
 ayaX/xara vvpoaitacrra ra irepicpopeovai Kara 
 Ku>fxas yvvdiKes, vevov rb aldoiov ov ivoXXcf recp 
 eXaacrov ibv rov aXXov aoofj.a.ros. 
 
278 
 
 THE SECOND CITY ON THE SITE OF TROY. 
 
 [Chap. VI. 
 
 seer Melampus was said to have transplanted to Greece 2 the worship 
 of Dionysus with the phallic processions. But, according to another 
 passage of the same author, 3 the worship of . the phallus was practised hy 
 the Pelasgians in the remotest antiquity, and from them the Athenians 
 learned to make ithyphallic Hermae. 4 For this reason the phallus is not 
 only found on the islands inhahited by Pelasgians, 5 Lemnos and Imbros, 6 
 but also on the cyclopean walls of Alatri and Terni, 7 on the substruction 
 of a house in the Pelasgian (afterwards Samnite) Saepinum, and else- 
 where. On the tomb of Alyattes in Lydia there stood a colossal phallus, 
 the head of which, 40 ft. in circumference and 12 ft. in diameter, is 
 still extant. 8 In Greece the phallic processions (cfraWaycoyia, <f>a\\rj- 
 (jyopia) were general. 9 Before the temple of Dionysus in Syria there 
 stood, according to Lucian, 10 two phalli, with the inscription, ' Dionysus 
 has dedicated them to his step-mother Here.' Their height is given 
 (c. 28) as 300 fathoms, which number Palmerius has corrected to 30. In 
 the Dionysiac procession of Ptolemaeus Philadelphus at Alexandria a 
 phallus figured, 120 (sic) cubits high, ornamented with a crown em- 
 broidered with gold and with a gold star on the top. We see in sculp- 
 tures and paintings a series of the most varied formations of the phallus, 
 extending from these monstrous works to the amulets for suspension, 
 2-3 in. long. At Lavinium, during the whole month which was sacred 
 to Liber Pater, the phallus was carried in procession through the villages, 
 for warding off enchantment from the fields. 11 At weddings the newly- 
 married woman was obliged to sit on the phallus, in order to present, as 
 it were, her chastity to him. 1 Considering, therefore, that this worship 
 extends through the whole history of natural religion from beginning 
 to end, we must see in it an originally harmless veneration of the 
 generating principle." 2 
 
 Professor Sayce kindly sends me the following interesting note : — 
 "Last year I discovered on the northern cliff of Mount Sipylus in 
 Lydia, about half a mile to the east of the pre-historic figure of Niobe, the 
 representation of a large phallus, with two artificial niches on either side 
 and two pit tombs in front. It had evidently been a place of pilgrimage, 
 like a similar figure in a hollow on the summit of one of the lower 
 Pyrenees, near Bidarray, which I once visited, and which is still venerated 
 by the Basque women." 
 
 In treating now of the pottery of this Second Stone City, I repeat that 
 both in fabric and shape it is altogether different from that of the first 
 city. It therefore gives us the most certain proof that the inhabitants 
 
 2 Herodot. ii. 49. 
 
 3 Ibid. ii. 51 : ravra /j.€U vvv kcu a\\a 
 
 TTpbs TOVTOlffL TO, ijU} (ppOLCTCO, \ EWr)V€S COT 
 
 hlyvTTTLMV vevo/AiKacri • rov 5e 'Ep/xew to 
 aydAfxaTo, opQa exeij/ to. aldola iroievvres ovk 
 air' AiyvTTTluv pufxaO^naai, aAA' airb UeKaayaiv, 
 irpwTOt fxkv 'EAAtjjw airduTCcv , A6r]ua7oi irapaAa- 
 fidvTes, irapa. 8e tovtwv ooWoi. 
 
 4 Gerhard, de Relujione Hermarum, 1845, p. 3. 
 
 5 Herodot. vi. 137 ; v. 26. 
 
 6 K. O. Miiller, Etruskcr, i. p. 77. 
 
 7 Micali, Monum. per la Stor. de' Ant. pop. 
 xiii. a ; Gottling, Geschichte d. Rum. Staatsvcrf. 
 p. 28. 
 
 8 K. O. Miiller, Arch. d. Kunst. p. 304. 
 
 9 Herodot. ii. 49; Aristoph. Acharn. 
 
 10 Be dea Syr. c. 16. 
 
 11 Augustin. de Civit. Dei, vi. 9. 3. 
 
 1 Augustin. Ibid. i. 6, vii. 24. 2 ; Lactant. i. 
 20. 39 ; Arnob. iv. 7. 
 
 2 J. Grimm, Deutsche Mythol. ii. p. 1209. 
 
Chap. VI.] 
 
 POTTEKY. — THE GREAT PITHOI. 
 
 279 
 
 of the second city were altogether a different people from those of the 
 first city, for, as my friend Mr. George Dennis 3 observes : " The several 
 styles of art of the same race at different periods are bound to one another 
 like the links of a chain ; and it is impossible for a people, after having 
 wrought out a style of pottery which had acquired among them a sacred 
 and ritual character, to abandon it on a sudden, and adopt another style 
 of a totally different character. A people may modify, develop, perfect, 
 but can never utterly cast aside its own arts and industry, because in such 
 a case it would deny its own individuality. When we find, therefore, 
 between two styles of art so many and such strongly pronounced dis- 
 crepancies, that it becomes impossible to perceive the most remote 
 analogy between them, it is not enough to attribute such diversities to 
 a difference of age, or stage of culture; we can only ascribe them to 
 different races." 
 
 The large lustrous-black bowls, with long horizontal tubular holes for 
 suspension on both sides in the rim, which are so very abundant in the 
 first city that I was able to collect thousands of fragments of them, never 
 occur in the second city ; neither do the vases with double vertical tubular 
 holes on each side, which are plentiful in the first city. On the other 
 hand, we find in the second city those gigantic terra-cotta jars — 5 or 6^ ft. 
 high, from 3 to 5 ft. in diameter, and from 2 to 3 in. thick in the clay — 
 which are altogether wanting in the first city. It is true that I found 
 there now and then fragments of coarse pottery ; but as they are usually 
 less than half an inch thick, and as none of them has a thickness of 1 in., 
 the jars (pithoi) to which they belong cannot have been large. 
 
 Certainly the large jars (pithoi) of the second city are rudely made : 
 where they are broken, we see an enormous mass of pieces of silicious 
 stone, or mica, many of them a quarter of an inch thick ; but nevertheless, 
 as his Highness Prince Otto Bismarck, the Chancellor of the German 
 Empire, ingeniously remarked to me, in July 1879, at Kissingen, the 
 manufacture of these large jars proves already a high degree of civiliza- 
 tion, for to make them is just as difficult as to bake them, and they can, 
 consequently, only have been manufactured by a people who had an 
 experience of centuries in the potter's art. The Prince thinks that they 
 must have been made in the following manner : — " The shape of a pithos 
 was first made of willow rods or reeds, around which the clay was built 
 up gradually, beginning with the base. When finished, the pithos was 
 filled with wood ; a large pyre of wood was also heaped up around it. 
 The wood was simultaneously kindled inside and outside the jar, and thus, 
 by the double fire from within and from without, a very great heat was 
 produced. This operation being several times repeated, the jar became 
 at last thoroughly baked." I feel sure that Prince Bismarck's opinion is 
 perfectly correct ; for, whilst even the smallest and thinnest clay vessels 
 are at the most only half baked, the large jars, though from 2 to 3 in. 
 thick, are always perfectly baked ; and as the pre-historic peoples had — as 
 I have explained (p. 219)— no kilns, and had to bake all their pottery at 
 
 3 The Cities and Cemeteries of Etruria ; 2nd edit., London, 1878. 
 
280 
 
 THE SECOND CITY ON THE SITE OF TROY. 
 
 [Chap. 71 
 
 an open fire, a heat great enough to do this could, I think, only be 
 produced by a double fire several times repeated. I may add that the 
 thorough baking of these large jars was a necessity ; for, owing to their 
 great size and ponderous weight 4 (sometimes nearly a ton), they could 
 not have been moved without breaking to pieces had they been as im- 
 perfectly baked as all the other pottery. It is from this thorough baking 
 also that these large pithoi have always a pretty dark-red colour. 5 
 
 In the accompanying engraving (No. 156) I represent a fragment of a 
 pithos of this second city, the terra-cotta of which is 2J in. thick. It is 
 
 decorated with two pro- 
 jecting bands, of which 
 the upper one is com- 
 posed alternately of the 
 fish-spine or herring- 
 bone ornament and a 
 row of circles, the lower 
 one also of fish-spines, 
 to which, however, the 
 primitive artist has added 
 a stroke in another di- 
 rection, in order to make 
 his decoration more va- 
 ried and attractive. All 
 this ornamentation looks 
 as if it had been im- 
 
 Ko. 156. Fragment of a larsre Jar. (1 : i actual size. -i i , i 
 
 Depth, about 42 ft.) pressed ; but on closer 
 
 examination one finds 
 that it has been incised before the first baking of the jar. Prof. Sayce 
 remarks to me regarding this fragment that " the band with circles may 
 be compared with the necklace of the pre-historic head from Boujah,--near 
 Smyrna, now in the British Museum. This head displays a very strange 
 and barbarous style of art, and a very peculiar type of countenance." 
 
 The large jars, ttlOol, are only once mentioned in Homer. 6 Just as we 
 find them standing in rows in the store-rooms on the ground-floor of the 
 
 4 A pithos of this kind, found in the third (the 
 burnt) city, which I presented to my worthy 
 collaborate™-, Professor Rudolf Virchow, for the 
 Royal' Museum of Berlin, was so heavy that 
 fourteen of my very strongest workmen, who 
 had put it on two poles, laboured a whole day 
 in carrying it a distance of 150 yards. 
 
 5 Professor Virchow remarks to me that the 
 baking of the pithoi could also be effected with 
 cow-dung in a closed pit. But I cannot accept 
 his theory, thoroughly baked pottery being 
 always much more solid, pretty, and valuable 
 than slightly baked pottery. If, therefore, a 
 thorough baking of the immense pithoi, whose 
 clay is from 2 to 3 in. thick, could be obtained 
 in this way, the same could certainly have been 
 obtained at once for the small vessels whose clay 
 
 has a thickness of from 3 to 4 mm. (l-8th to 
 l-6th in.). But it is a fact that, however thin 
 the clay of the small vessels may be, it is only 
 baked to one-third, seldom to one half, of its 
 thickness. The baking can consequently only 
 have taken place in an open tire ; in fact, only 
 by this theory we can explain the total baking 
 of the pithoi and the partial baking of the thin 
 pottery. 
 
 6 II. xxiv. 527-533 : 
 hoio\ yap re ttWol naTaKe'iarai eV Aibs ovSei 
 du>paov oTa S'ldwtri, kclkoov, eVepos 5e ('awe. 
 <S (lev ic afifxi^as Scorj'Zevs Tep-wucepavvos, 
 aWore fxev re KatttS o ye Kvperai aWore 8' £ffQ\§* 
 & 5e ne tS>v Xvypwv Suy, Xw^rhv i'Qrjicev 
 ttai e Kaicr) fiov^puarts eVi xfloVa Slav i\avvei, 
 (poira 8* ovre Beolcri Terifxevos ovre fiporoiaiv. 
 
Chap. VI.] 
 
 TERRA-COTTA PLATES. 
 
 281 
 
 houses in the four upper pre-historic cities in Hissarlik, so the poet repre- 
 sents to us two such TTL0OI standing on the ground-floor in the hall of the 
 palace of Zeus. In these two ttLQol lay stored the gifts of good luck and the 
 gifts of misfortune, the bitter and the sweet, like apples or pears, or rather 
 like two sorts of wine, so that the poet considers the fioipa as a substance 
 which Zeus can employ and distribute according to his pleasure, — an 
 allegorizing naivete such as we find in the legend of Pandora. 7 In relating 
 this legend, Hesiod represents a jar standing in the house of Epimetheus, 
 full of diseases and evils for mankind, which fly out when Pandora, 
 through curiosity, opens the jar ; but Hope alone remained under the edge 
 of the jar, for, before she could fly out, Pandora clapt the lid on again. 8 
 
 I may here also mention the terra-cotta plates, from half to two-thirds 
 of an inch thick, which are peculiar to this second city, and which are 
 not found anywhere else. They consist of the same sort of clay mixed 
 with crushed granite, as the vases ; but being thoroughly baked and having 
 evidently been repeatedly dipped in a wash of fine pure clay before the 
 baking, they are perfectly smooth on both sides and have a lustrous 
 dark-red colour. As they are completely flat, and only increase almost 
 imperceptibly in thickness towards the middle, they cannot possibly be 
 fragments of vessels. As I never found such a plate entire, I cannot 
 judge of their original size. I am puzzled as to what may have been 
 their use. Were they perhaps employed as decorations of the internal 
 house-walls ? I cannot think that they can have been used for paving 
 the floors of the houses, as in that case they would have marks of having 
 been so used. I call the particular attention of visitors to these flat terra- 
 cottas, which peep out everywhere in my trenches from the strata of the 
 second city. They strike the eye by their lively red colour on both sides, 
 which has of course been produced by the oxide of iron contained in the 
 clay ; they glitter all over with sparkles of mica, which appears to have 
 entered very largely into their composition. 
 
 The most interesting vases in this second city, as well as in the three 
 following pre-historic cities at Hissarlik, are undoubtedly those with an 
 owl's head and the characteristics of a woman. Considering the great 
 similarity of the owl's faces on the vases to these on the idols (such as 
 Nos. 205, 212), we may suppose with much probability that these vases had 
 a sacred character, and were used for religious rites, the more so as the 
 vases themselves have the shape of the idols. I call particular attention 
 to the fact, that the only Trojan statue mentioned by Homer, that of 
 Athene, as well as all the idols of marble, bone or terra-cotta, and all the 
 owl-vases, are female, and that they are placed in apparent relation with 
 Athene through her favourite bird the owl. 
 
 In January 1874 9 I made bold to declare that the hundreds of 
 female idols and vases with owl-heads, found in the pre-historic cities of 
 Hissarlik, could represent but one goddess, and that this goddess could be 
 
 7 V. H. Koch, Homer's Wade ; Hannover, 1873, 
 ii. p. 137, foot note. 
 
 \ Hesiod, Op. et. Di. vv. 50 ff. 
 
 9 In my book Trojanische Alterthumer, Leip- 
 zig, 1874 ; Troy and its Remains, London, 1875. 
 
282 
 
 THE SECOND CITY ON THE SITE OF TKOY. [Chap. VI. 
 
 none other than Athene, the tutelary goddess of Troy ; all the more so as 
 Homer continually calls her y\avfca)7rc<; (that is, literally translated, " with 
 the face of an owl "), and never gives this epithet to any other goddess 
 or mortal woman. Thereupon I was challenged by my honoured friend, 
 Professor Max Miiller 10 of Oxford, who evinced his readiness to accept my 
 interpretation, provided I proved that Here fiowiri? was represented as a 
 cow-headed monster. I eagerly accepted the challenge, and began the 
 excavations at Tiryns and Mycenae, with the most perfect confidence that 
 I could there solve the problem for ever, as both these ancient cities lie 
 close to the celebrated Heraeum, and as even the name of Mycenae 
 appeared to me to be derived from the lowing of the cow (jxvicao-Qai, but 
 always /xv/cdv in Homer). 11 The result of my researches certainly far 
 exceeded my expectations, for I found there thousands of cows of terra- 
 cotta, also 56 cow-heads of gold, one of silver with gold horns, some cow- 
 heads engraved on gems, many hundreds of female idols with two pro- 
 jections like cow-horns, in the shape of the crescent, proceeding from 
 the breasts, also females with cow-heads. 1 In consequence of these dis- 
 coveries, I think it has been universally admitted that the original mean- 
 ing of the epithet /3ow7u? is cow-faced. Upon this subject Mr. Gladstone 
 says in his Preface to my Mycenae : 2 
 
 " He (Schliemann) presents to us the rude figures of cows ; and upon 
 a signet ring (No. 531) and elsewhere, cow-heads not to be mistaken. He 
 then points to the traditional worship, from the first, of Hera in Argolis ; 
 and he asks us to connect these facts with the use of Bodpis (cow-eyed) 
 as a staple epithet of this goddess in the poems ; and he might add, with 
 her special guardianship of Agamemnon in his interests and his personal 
 safety (II. i. 194-222). 
 
 " This appears to me a reasonable demand. We know that upon some 
 of the Egyptian monuments the goddess Isis, mated with Osiris, is 
 represented in human figure with the cow's head. This was a mode of 
 exhibiting deity congenial to the spirit of an Egyptian 3 immigration, 4 
 
 10 In the Academy of 10th January, 1874. 
 
 11 Professor Sayce is not of my opinion. He 
 thinks that, if Greek, the name MvKrjuai would 
 be derived from /jlvxos. But I think there can 
 be no doubt regarding the derivation from /ulvkciv, 
 perf. fxijxvKa, /mefivKevai, this active form being 
 exclusively used in Homer, and having undoubt- 
 edly been used also in a pre-Homeric time. 
 Professor Max Miiller writes me on this subject 
 as follows : — " 1 do not venture to speak posi- 
 tively about the name of Mvicfjuai. Words end- 
 ing in rjurj are derived both from nouns, like 
 V7)u6?, I'c&rivds, and from verbs, like t iQ'favT). 
 fhilologically, therefore, a derivation of Mv- 
 Krjuai from /jLvudca is not impossible. But names 
 of towns are ticklish subjects for etymologists. 
 Professor Curtius, of Leipzig, admits a possible 
 etymol',~y of MvKrjvai and Mv/caA7} from fxvaau. 
 All I can say is, that your etymology from 
 /ui/Kctw is equally possible, but no more." 
 
 1 See my Mycenae, Plate A, figs, a, b, d; 
 Plate B, figs, e and/; PL C, fig. h; PI. D, fig. 
 
 n, o, p ; and pp. 216 and 217, Nos. 327 and 328 ; 
 p. 218, Nos. 329, 330 ; p. 309, No. 471 ; p. 360, 
 No. 531 ; p. 362, No. 541. 2 Pp. vi.-viii. * 
 
 3 M. Burnouf observes to me : " It is not 
 only in Egypt that the gods were represented 
 with animal heads : the Vedas perpetually repre- 
 sent divine beings by animals; the sun by a 
 horse, mother earth by a cow, &c. And do not 
 the ten incarnations of Vishnu also present 
 striking examples of this fact? It was there- 
 fore a custom of the greatest human races in 
 antiquity." 
 
 4 "Since this preface was put in type, the 
 fragments of an ostrich egg, originally mistaken 
 for an alabaster vase, have been tested and 
 verified. This object seems to afford a new 
 indication of pre-historic relations between My- 
 cenae and Egypt." But Professor Sayce observes 
 on this that " it rather points to Phoenician trade. 
 Elsewhere ostrich eggs, covered with stucco, 
 have been found among Phoenician remains." 
 
Chap. VI.] 
 
 THE OWL-HEADED ATHENE. 
 
 283 
 
 such as might, compatibly with the text of Homer, have taken place some 
 generations before the Troica. But it was also a mode against which the 
 whole spirit of Hellenism, according to the authentic type of that spirit 
 supplied in the poems, utterly revolted. We find there a Hera, who 
 wore, so to speak, the mantle of Isis, besides carrying the spoils of one 
 or more personages enrolled in the Golden Book of the old Pelasgian 
 dynasties. Nothing could be more natural than a decapitation of the 
 Egyptian Isis, not penally but for her honour. She might consequently 
 appear with the human head ; but, not to break sharply with the tradi- 
 tions of the people, the cow-head, and even the cow-figure, might never- 
 theless be retained as symbols of religion. And the great Poet, who 
 invariably keeps these symbols so to speak at arms' length, in order that 
 he may prevent their disparaging the creed of which he was the great, 
 doctor, might nevertheless select from the bovine features that one 
 which was suited to his purpose, and give to his Hera, who was never 
 a very intellectual deity, the large tranquil eye of the cow. The use 
 of the epithet for Hera in Homer is not, indeed, exclusive, and I admit 
 that he may have inherited that use. But, though not exclusive, it is 
 very special ; and this speciality is enough to give a sensible support to 
 the doctrine of our famous explorer." 
 
 Another honoured friend, and one of the highest authorities in ancient 
 Oriental literature, M. Francois Lenormant, writes : 5 " Schliemann is 
 right to insist upon the fact, that the greater part of the rude figurines 
 found by him at Mycenae represent positively a cow. In Argolis we 
 are in the very land in which, in the remotest antiquity, there prevailed 
 the worship of a female deity in the form of a cow, who afterwards, 
 reduced to the proportions of a heroine, became Id in poetical fable." 
 Further on, M. Lenormant admits that Here's epithet Boopis can only 
 refer to the primitive cow-head of this goddess. 
 
 I may here refer to a principle conspicuous in Homer's language, 
 which at once disposes of the most formidable objection to my view. 
 When asked, whether Homer himself conceived of Athene as a owl-headed 
 monster, and of her image in her temple on the Pergamus as nodding its 
 owl-head in response to the prayers of the Trojan women, — I reply, in 
 the words already used in the Preface to Troy and its Remains, that 
 "one of the most striking characters of his language is the use of 
 fixed epithets," which are constantly repeated without any regard to 
 their fitness on each particular occasion of their use. Thus, like his 
 heroes in general, Aegisthus is still " blameless " {ajjuvfjucovf even in the 
 mouth of Zeus, denouncing his crimes as the climax of human impiety. 
 And as of persons, so of things : for example, the colonnade (aWouaa) 
 round the front court of the palace, as the resort of the people who came 
 to wait upon the king by day, obtained the fixed epithet of epiSovTros, 
 " very noisy ; " and so by night guests were lodged " under the very noisy 
 colonnade " (u7r' aWovay epthovirw), a somewhat inhospitable entertain- 
 
 5 Gazette des Beaux Arts, Feb. 1, 1879, p. 
 108. 
 
 6 Od. i. 29. Whether or no " blameless " be 
 
 the exact meaning, the epithet is at all events 
 one of dignity and respect. 
 
284 THE SECOND CITY ON THE SITE OF TROY. [Chap. VI. 
 
 ment, if the sense of the epithet held good! 7 This point, which many 
 modern scholars have overlooked, was recognized hy the poetic instinct of 
 Alexander Pope. Speaking, in the Preface to his Biad, of the importance 
 of placing ourselves at the poet's point of view, so remote in every re- 
 spect from our own, he says : " This consideration may further serve to 
 answer for the constant use of the same epithets to his gods and heroes ; 
 such as the ' far-darting Phoebus,' the ' Hue-eyed Pallas,' the ' swift-footed 
 Achilles,' &c, which some have censured as impertinent, and tediously 
 repeated. Those of the gods .... had contracted a weight and veneration 
 from the rites and solemn devotions in which they were used : they were 
 a sort of attributes ivith which it teas a matter of religion to salute them on 
 all occasions, and which it was an irreverence to omit." 
 
 I think it not out of place to repeat here what I have written on this 
 important subject : 8 " It is not difficult to prove that Hera had originally 
 a cow's face, from which her Homeric epithet ftowiris was derived. When, 
 in the battle between the gods and the giants, the former took the shape 
 of animals, Hera took the form of a white cow, ' nivea Saturnia vacca.' 9 
 We find a cow's head on the coins of the island of Samos, which had the 
 most ancient temple of Hera, and was celebrated for its worship of this 
 goddess. 10 We further find the cow's head on the coins of Messene, a 
 Samian colony in Sicily. 11 The relation of Hera to the cow is further 
 proved by the name 'Eu/3oLa, 1 which was the name of one of her nurses, 2 
 the name of the island in which she was brought up, 3 and the name of 
 the mountain at the foot of which her most celebrated temple (the 
 Heraeum) was situated. 4 But in the name Evftoia is contained the word 
 /3o0s\ Hera had in Corinth the epithet fiovvaia, 5 in which the word pods 
 may also be contained. 6 Cows were sacrificed to Hera. 7 The priestess 
 rode in a car drawn by bulls to the temple of the Argive Hera. 8 16, 
 the daughter of Inachus, the first king of Argos, was changed by Hera 
 into a cow. 9 16 was priestess of Hera, 10 and she is represented as the 
 cow-goddess Hera. 1 Id's cow-form is further confirmed by Aeschylus. 2 
 
 7 Od. in. 399 ; vii. 345. 
 
 8 See my Mycenae, pp. 19-22. 
 
 9 Ovid. Mctam. v. 330 : 
 
 " Fele soror Phoebi, nivea Saturnia vacca." 
 
 10 Mionnet, Descr. des Med. Ant. PL lxi. 6. 
 
 11 Millingen, Anc. Coins of Greek Cities, tab. ii. 
 12. 
 
 1 Paus. ii. 17, § 2 : rb yap Srj opos tovto 
 avoixa^ovaiv Evfioiav, \4yovrss 'Aarzpiwvi ytvi- 
 (rdai t£ iroTa-ixS) Qvyaripas Evfioiav Kal Upoav- 
 [xvav Kal 'Aicpaiav, elvai 5e a<pas rpocpovs Trjs 
 "Hpas. 
 
 2 Plut. Quaest. Conviv. iii. 9, § 2 : SoKovaiv 
 amy ical ol iraXaiol rod fxtv Aibs Suo iroieTu 
 riQrjvas, ttjv *It7)u koX t\\v 'Adpdo-Ttiav, rys Se 
 "Hpas ix'iav tt\v Ev&oiav. 
 
 Etym. Mag. 388. 56. 
 
 3 Plut. Frag. Daedal. 3 : laropovoiv rr]v "Hpav 
 eV tt) Evfjola rpe(pofx.4i>r]v en irapQevov, virb rod 
 Aibs KKair?\uai. 
 
 4 Pans. ibid. 
 
 6 Paus. ii. 4, § 7 : ravrr) ical rb t?\s Bovvaias 
 <Ct\v "Hpas tepav. 
 
 6 Professor Sayce thinks the etymology of 
 (lovvaia is from Qowos, the temple being on 
 a hill on the way to Acrocorinthus. 
 
 7 Paus. ix. 3, § 4 : at jxkv 877 itoXcls kol to 
 TeA77 Or]\eiau dvcrafTts tt? "Hpa fijvv tKacrToi 
 Kal ravpov rcf Au, k.t.A. 
 
 Hesych. s. v. 'dyav xaA/ce?os. 
 
 8 Herod, i. 31 : iovcrr]s dprrjs rfj "Hpy to?o~i 
 'Apyeioict, eSee irai/Tois rr)V p.r\Tcpa avrSsv ^evye'i 
 KOjiKxQrjvai is rb ipov ol 54 acpi Qoes e'/c tov 
 aypov ov irapeylvouro iu (hpy. 
 
 Lucian. Geoi>v AiaA. 3 : 
 
 Zeus. OvK€TiTra?s iKeiurj iarlu, aXkadd/xaXis 
 . . . . Zr) KoTviri] a aa a 7] "Hpa fxeTefiaAev avr^v 
 (rr]u 'Ic<j). 
 10 Aesch. Suppl. 291, 292 : 
 
 KXrib'ovXov "Hpas <paal Zwjxarwv irore 
 'I a; yeveadai t^5' eV 'Apyeia x® ov ' 1 - 
 Apollodor. ii. 1. 3 : (pcapaOels 5e vcf> "Hpas, tt}s 
 lxevK6pr)s a^ajxtvos els fiovv /nersj-Lopcpwae AeuK^f. 
 
 1 Creuzer, Symbolik, ii. 576. 
 
 2 Prom. 589, Tauchn. edit. : 
 
 KAuets (pdeyfia ras (iovKepw -xapQivov. 
 
Chap. VI.] 
 
 THE COW-SHAPED HERA. 
 
 285 
 
 The Egyptian goddess Isis was born in Argos, and was identified with 
 the cow-shaped I6. 3 Isis was represented in Egypt as a female with cow- 
 horns, like 16 in Greece. 4 
 
 " The cow-shaped 16 was guarded in Hera's sacred grove at Mycenae 
 by the hundred-eyed Argus, who was killed by Hermes, by order of Zeus ; 
 and Hera next persecuted 16 by a gad-fly, which forced her to wander 
 from place to place. 5 Thus Prometheus says : ' How should I not hear 
 the daughter of Inachus, who is chased around by the gad-fly ? ' G But 
 the wandering of 16 is nothing else than the symbol of the moon, which 
 moves restlessly in its orbit. This is also shown by the very name of 16 
 flw), which is derived from the root Ya (in el/M, 'I go'). Even in classical 
 antiquity 16 was still frequently represented as a cow; as at Amyclae. 7 
 16 continued to be the old name of the moon in the religious mysteries at 
 Argos. 8 Apis, king of the Argive realm, was the son of Phoroneus, and 
 thus the grandson of Inachus, and the nephew of 16. From Apis the 
 Peloponnesus and also Argos were called Apia ; after his death he was 
 worshipped under the name of Serapis. 9 According to another tradition, 
 Apis ceded his dominion in Greece to his brother, and became king of 
 Egypt, 10 where, as Serapis, he was worshipped in the shape of a bull. 
 Aeschylus makes the wanderings of 16 end in Egypt, where Jove restores 
 her to her shape, and she bears Epaphus, another name for the bull-god 
 Apis. The cow-horns of the Pelasgian moon-goddess 16, who became 
 later the Argive Hera and is perfectly identical with her, as well as the 
 cow-horns of Isis, were derived from the symbolic horns of the crescent 
 representing the moon. 11 No doubt the Pelasgian 16, the later Hera, had 
 at an earlier age, besides her cow-horns, a cow's face. Hera, under her old 
 
 3 Diod. Sic. i. 24, 25 : <pacrl 8e Kai rbv Uepaea 
 yeyovevai fear' Atyvirrov, Kai Tyjs "laiSos t^]V 
 yevecriv virb rwv 'EAAtfvcov els "'Apyos fieracpe- 
 peaOai, fivOoXoyovvrcav t)]v 'lib rr]v els fiobs rvirov 
 fxerap.opcpoiQe'io'av. 
 
 Apollod. ii. 1, 3 : 'iSpvcraTO 8e dya\jxa Ati/jlt)- 
 rpos, V eKaKeo-av ^laiv AlyvitTioi, Kai rrjv 'Ia> 
 'Icriv Qfxolcos ivpocrriyopevcrav. 
 
 Hygin. 145 : " Deamque Aegyptorum esse fecit 
 quae Isis nuncupatur." 
 
 4 Herodot. ii. 41 : rb yap rr\s ''icrios dyaX/xa 
 ebv yvvaiKi\'iov fiovKepwv eari, Kardirep ' r EXAf]ves 
 tt]u 'lovv ypd<povai. 
 
 5 Apollod. ii. 1, 3 : ^wpofiels Se (Zeus) u<p' 
 "Hpas, rtjs jxev Kopr)s ('IoGs) d\pd/j.evos els fiovv 
 fierefx.op(pwae AevKyv, .... (pvXaKa avrris Kare- 
 crrvaev "Apyov rbv irav6irTii)v . . . . Aibs Se 
 eiriTa^avTos 'Ep/mfj K\e\pai tt]v fiovv, ^vvaavTOS 
 UpaKOs, eVeiSr? XaQelv ovk i]Svvaro, XlOca jSaAajj/ 
 direKreive rbv "Apyov, . . . "Hpa Se tt} (iot 
 olarpov e/mfidAAei. 
 
 6 Aeschyl. Prom. 585 : 
 
 Trcas 8' ov K\va> T7js olarpodiuriTov Koprjs ttjs 
 'Ivaxelas. 
 
 7 Pans. iii. 18, § 13 : to. 8e iv 'A/AVKAais deas 
 &£ta .... "Hpa 8e dcpopa irpbs 'leu tV 'ivd- 
 Xov fiovv ovaav f?87j. 
 
 8 Eustath. ap. Dionys. Perieg. 92, 94: 'Iw 
 yap 7] aeArjvrj Kara tt)v tuv 'Apydwv StaAe/CTO*', 
 
 on which Heyne, ad Apollod. p. 100, says : 
 " Fuisse suspicor nomen hoc caputque feminae 
 cornutum symbolum Lunae apud Argivos anti- 
 quissimum." See also Jablonsky, Panth. ii. 
 p. 4 ff. 
 
 9 Apollod. ii. 1. 1 : "Attis jxev ovv els rvpav- 
 vlda rrjv eavrov neraarricras Svvapuv, Ka\ fi'iaios 
 &v rvpavvos, ovoixdaas ot(p' eavrov rrjv Ue\oTr6v- 
 v7)<Tov 'Airlav, virb Oe\£iovos Ka\ Te\x^ uos eVi- 
 /3ov\ev8els, airais direQave, Kai vojxio'Qels 8ebs 
 e'/cA7?07j papains. 
 
 Schol. Lycophr. 177 : ''Ams ovv rvpavviKws 
 (u>v avaipeiTai virb ®e\£iovos Kai TeAxIVos, ct(p' ov 
 Kai 7/ x^pa'Airia f) ttjs TIe\oTrovvr]o~ov. 
 
 Schol. Apoll. Rhod. iv. 263 : 'AwiSav^ccv 8e', 
 tS>v Hekoirovvrjalcov, dirb "AttiSos rod <Popcvvecos. 
 
 Steph. Byz. s. v. 'Ama. 
 
 10 Euseb. Chron. pars i. pp. 96, 127, 130, ed. 
 Aucher ; Augustin. de Civit. Dei, xviii. 5. 
 
 11 Diod. Sic. i. 11 : Kepara 8e avrfj (tt] y I(ri8i) 
 i-rriTideao-iv euro re rris 6\pecos t\v ex ov °~ a <pcuVe- 
 rai Kad' ov av XP ' V0V vt&PXV Woei8r)s. Plut. 
 de Is. et Os. 52, compare c. 39 : tt?i> 8e "icriv oi>x 
 erepav rrjs ae\riv7)s dirocpalvovres Kai rwv ayaA- 
 ixdrwv avrrjs ra. fxev Kepao~(p6pa tov /j.7]voei8ovs 
 yey ovevai /j.ifxr]fxaTa. Macrob. Sat. i. 19 ; Aelian. 
 Hist. Anim. x. 27 : Kai avrr/v r^v^lffiv Alyxmrioi 
 fiovKepctiv Kai irKarrovo'i Kai ypdcpovo'iv. 
 
233 
 
 THE SECOND CITY ON THE SITE OF TROY. [Chap. VI. 
 
 moon-name 16, had a celebrated temple on the site of Byzantium, which 
 city was said to have been founded by her daughter Keroessa — i.e., ' the 
 horned.' According to Stephanus Byzantinus, it was founded by Byzas, 
 son of Keroessa and Poseidon. 1 The crescent, which was in all antiquity 
 and throughout the Middle Ages the symbol of Byzantium, and which is 
 now the symbol of the Turkish empire, appears to be a direct inheritance 
 from Byzantium's mythical foundress, Keroessa, the daughter of the moon- 
 goddess 16 (Hera) ; for it is certain that the Turks did not bring it with 
 them from Asia, but found it already an emblem of Byzantium. But 
 M. Burnouf remarks that, long before Byzantium was founded, it existed 
 in Babylonia and Assyria, where it is most frequently found ; he therefore 
 suggests that it may have thence been imported to Byzantium. Hera, 16, 
 and Isis must at all events be identical, also, with Demeter Mycalessia, who 
 derived her epithet, ' the lowing,' from her cow-shape, and had her temple 
 at Mycalessus in Boeotia. She had as doorkeeper Hercules, whose office 
 it was to shut her sanctuary in the evening and to open it again in the 
 morning. 2 Thus his service is identical with that of Argus, who in the 
 morning unfastens the cow-shaped 16, and fastens her again in the evening 
 to the olive-tree, 3 which was in the sacred grove of Mycenae, close to the 
 'Yipalov} The Argive Hera had, as the symbol of fertility, a pome- 
 granate, which, as well as the flowers with which her crown was 
 ornamented, gave her a telluric character. 5 
 
 " In the same way that in Boeotia the epithet Mycalessia, ' the lowing, 
 a derivative from ixvKaaOai^ was given to Demeter on account of her 
 cow-form, so in the plain of Argos the name of Mv/cyvac, a derivative 
 from the same verb, was given to the city most celebrated for the cultus 
 of Hera, and this can only be explained by her cow-form. I may here 
 mention that Mv/cdXrj 7 was the name of the mount and promontory directly 
 opposite to, and in the immediate neighbourhood of, the island of Samos, 
 which was celebrated for the worship of Hera. 
 
 "In consideration of this long series of proofs, certainly no one will 
 for a moment doubt that Hera's Homeric epithet /3oo)7tls shows her to 
 have been at one time represented with a cow's face, in the same way as 
 Athena's Homeric epithet yXavKojins shows this goddess to have once 
 been represented with an owl's face. But in the history of these two 
 epithets there are evidently three stages, in which they had different 
 
 1 O. Miiller, Dorier. i. 121 ; Steph. Byz. s. v. 
 Bv^dvriou : Kal ovrws iKTiadr) airb Bv(avros tov 
 Kepoecrorrjs, tt/s 'lovs 6vyaTp6s, Kal UcoaeiSwuos. 
 
 2 Paus. ix. 19, §4: MvKaXrjaabv 8e oixoXoyovaiv 
 ovo\xaaQ^vai Sioti 7} (Sods ivravda i^vKr](raro 7/ 
 KaS/nou Kal rbv avv avrcp crparbv fryovaa is 
 ®rj&as. Professor Sayce remarks to me that 
 here we have a reference to " Astarte with the 
 crescent horns" of the Cadmeian Phoenicians. 
 Europa on the bull is another form of Astarte or 
 Ashtoreth, the Assyrian Istar. 
 
 3 Ovid. Metam. i. 630. 
 
 4 Apollod. ii. 1, 3 : ovtos 4k rrjs e'Aoi'as e5e- 
 fffitvev ai)T-f}u, fym iu t<£ MvKTjmlwu virripx^ 
 
 5 Panofka, Argos Panoptes (1837), tab. ii. 4; 
 E. de Cadalvene, Recueil de Med. Gr. PI. iii. 
 1 ; Miiller, Denkmdler, xxx. 132 ; Due de Luynes, 
 Etudes Numismat. pp. 22-25. 
 
 6 I again call particular attention to the fact 
 that this verb only occurs in Homer in the active 
 form, /uLVKay. 
 
 7 Professor Sayce holds Mu/t-ctA.7j to be a Lydo- 
 Karian and not a Greek word. But I point to 
 the remarkable fact that we find names begin- 
 ning with the syllable Mvk- always close to a 
 Heraeum. 
 
Chap. YL] 
 
 STAGES OF THE SYMBOLISM. 
 
 287 
 
 significations. In the first stage the ideal conception and the naming of 
 the goddesses took place, and in that naming, as my honoured friend 
 Professor Max Miiller rightly observed to me, the epithets were figurative 
 or ideal ; that is, natural. Hera (16), as deity of the moon, would receive 
 the epithet /3ow7n? from the symbolic horns of the crescent moon and its 
 dark spots, which resemble a face with large eyes ; whilst Athena, as 
 goddess of the dawn, doubtless received the epithet yXavicomLs to indicate 
 the light of the opening day, yXavxos being one of the forms of Xev/cos, 
 which is an adjective of Xv/crj, in Latin lux. 
 
 " In the second stage of these epithets the deities were represented by 
 idols, in which the former figurative intention was forgotten, and the 
 epithets were materialized into a cow-face for Hera and into an owl-face 
 for Athena ; and I make bold to assert that it is not possible to describe 
 such cow-faced or owl-faced female figures by any other epithets than by 
 /3ow7u? and yXavKwiros. The word irpoawirov for ' face,' which is so often 
 used in Homer, and is probably thousands of years older than the poet, 
 is never found in compounds, whilst words with the suffix -ec&r)$ refer to 
 expression or likeness in general. Thus, if Hera had had the epithet of 
 fiooec&ris, and Athena that of yXavfcoeiBr/s, we should have understood 
 nothing else but that the former had the shape and form of a cow, and the 
 latter that of an owl. To this second stage belong all the pre-historic 
 ruins of Hissarlik, Tiryns, and Mycenae. 
 
 " The third stage in the history of the two epithets is when, after 
 Hera and Athena had lost their cow and owl faces, and received the faces 
 of women, and after the cow and the owl had become the attributes of 
 these deities, and had, as such, been placed at their side, f3o6)iri^ and 
 y\av/ca)7rts continued to be used as epithets consecrated by the use of 
 ages, and probably with the meaning 4 large-eyed ' and ' owl-eyed.' To 
 this third stage belong the Homeric rhapsodies." 
 
 I may add here what M. Francois Lenormant has written 8 regarding 
 my interpretation of yXavKour^ as the epithet of Athene : " The images 
 with owl-heads, which Schliemann sees on the idols and vases of Hissarlik, 
 are represented by him as the type of the representation of Athene Ilias, 
 the tutelary deity of Priam's city. In his opinion, contrary to the gene- 
 rally admitted ideas, Athene y\av/cco7ris was originally not a goddess ' with 
 blue eyes ' of the colour of the luminous sky which she personifies, but 
 a goddess ' with an owl-face,' just as Hera /3ow7rt? became a goddess ' with 
 the face of a cow,' and no longer ' with large eyes,' wide open, like those 
 of a heifer. This idea has roused a real tempest. It has appeared to 
 some persons a sort of crime of high treason against Hellenism. That 
 the Greeks could, at any epoch, have conceived in their imagination gods 
 with animal heads, like those of Egypt and like certain gods of Asia, 
 is a thing which was too great a shock to preconceived aesthetic theories 
 of the genius of the Hellenic race, which, as was affirmed a priori, could 
 have admitted in some figures the mixture of animal and human forms, 
 only by always reserving to humanity the head, the noblest part, the 
 
 8 Lcs Antiquites de la Troade ; Paris, 1876, pp. 21-23. 
 
288 
 
 THE SECOND CITY ON THE SITE OF TROY. [Chap. VI. 
 
 seat of thought. I must confess that this kind of argument, belonging 
 to a philosophy more or less shallow, touches me very little ; for, in my 
 opinion, it should give place to the reality of archaeological observation. 
 The idea of a primitive Athene with an owl-head or a Here with a cow- 
 head, like the Egyptian Hathor, or like certain forms of the Syro- 
 Phoenician Astarte, has nothing which scandalizes me or appears impossible 
 to me. It is true that there is some philological difficulty in the view that 
 epithets like yXavfcwiris or /9ow7rt? apply rather to an aspect of the face 
 than to the eye. It appears, however, to me that this difficulty has been 
 exaggerated; and that, for instance, when Empedocles, in a celebrated 
 verse, qualified the moon as yXavfcwTns, he alluded to the appearance of 
 the lunar face, and not to an eye. 
 
 " Besides, monumental examples altogether positive prove to us that 
 the Greeks of the remotest times, who copied their first works of art from 
 Asiatic models, borrowed from those models, and themselves represented, 
 figures with animal heads on human bodies. Mr. Newton has pointed out 
 a little figure found in Cyprus, which represents a woman with a ram's 
 head, probably an Aphrodite. On an archaic painted vase from Camirus, 
 preserved in the Louvre, is represented a man with a hare's head. When 
 Onatas, the great sculptor of Aegina, who lived in the beginning of the 
 fifth century B.C., executed for the people of Phigalia the statue of their 
 Demeter Melaena, he copied faithfully from a painting the consecrated 
 type of the ancient image of this goddess, which had a monstrous 
 appearance. Thus he put on the shoulders of her female body a horse's 
 head, accompanied by serpents and other monsters. The book of the 
 Philosoiohiimena 2 has preserved to us the description of one of the 
 symbolical paintings which decorated the family sanctuary of the sacred 
 race of the Lycomids at Phlya in Attica. The great Themistocles had 
 caused these paintings to be restored, and Plutarch devoted a special 
 treatise to their explanation. Among them was represented a winged 
 ithyphallic old man pursuing a woman with a dog's head. Herodotus 
 says that Pan had sometimes the face as well as the feet of a he-goat, 
 and this assertion is confirmed by a bronze figure discovered in the 
 Peloponnesus and preserved at St. Petersburg. 
 
 "The Minotaur, who is originally the Baal-bull of the ancient 
 Phoenician worship of Crete, always keeps his animal head in the works 
 of the best period of Greek sculpture. A painted cylix with red figures, 
 of the best epoch, which may be seen in the Cabinet des Medailles, in the 
 collection of the Due de Luynes, represents Dionysus-Zagreus as a child 
 sitting on the knees of his mother Persephone ; he has a bull's head like 
 a little Minotaur. It is, therefore, not the notion of an Athene with an 
 owl's head which staggers me, and which could prevent my accepting 
 Schliemann's theory, the more so as there would, properly speaking, 
 be no question here of Greek productions, but of those of Asia Minor. 
 
 9 Mr. Philip Smith remarks to me that this Portus (at the mouth of the Tiber), in the first 
 work, formerly ascribed to Origen, is now known half of the third century after Christ, 
 to have been written by Hippolytus, bishop of 
 
Chap. VI.] 
 
 THE ILIAN ATHENE OR ATE. 
 
 289 
 
 For me the whole question is to know whether there are really owls' 
 heads on the vases and idols of Hissarlik." 
 
 Another honoured friend, Professor Otto Keller, 10 writes as follows 
 on the Athene jXavKcoir^ : " The attribution of the owl to Athene is 
 explained 11 by a jeu de mots between y\av^ and yXavKooTns, and it is 
 asserted that it has arisen only in a post-Homeric time, as it ivere 
 by a misunderstanding of the epithet ^XavKwiris. This view is certainly 
 in a high degree far-fetched, unnatural, and improbable. The non- 
 Hellenic origin of Athene's owl appears also to be proved by her double 
 head at Sigeum and Miletopolis, both of which are in close proximity to 
 Ilium. 1 To recal a parallel case, I cite the equally non-Hellenic attribu- 
 tion of the mouse to Apollo Smintheus, which is also found in the Troad. 
 The mouse loves the heat of the sun, and thus it prospers under the rays 
 of Phoebus Apollo. The owl is first of all nothing else than the bird 
 and symbol of night : this is its most natural signification, and of most 
 primitive growth ; from this we have to proceed. Herewith coincides in 
 a remarkable manner a point in which the Ilian Athene differs alto- 
 gether from the common Hellenic Athene ; indeed, a certain coin of Ilium 
 represents the Trojan Palladium as Athene Ilias (A©HNA2 IAIAAOS), 
 having the Phrygian cap on her head ; in her right hand she brandishes 
 the spear, in her left she holds a burning torch, whilst close to her is 
 sitting the owl. 2 In the same manner another type of coin from Ilium re- 
 presents the Palladium with the spear in the right hand, the torch in the 
 left ; in front of it a cow is being sacrificed. Here is more than that far- 
 fetched jeu de mots theory : as the torch illumines the darkness, so the owl's 
 terrible eyes lighten through the night ; her eyes (6/jl/aclto) are yXav/corepa 
 Xeovros kol ra? vvKras aaTpdirrovTa (as Diodorus says of a horrible animal, 
 iii. c. 55). Thus probably the Ilian Athene, or Ate, was originally far 
 from being that peaceful Hellenic goddess of art and industry who issued 
 from the head of Zeus, an emanation from the supreme wisdom of the 
 highest god. She was rather the goddess of the night and terror, also of 
 the din of battle and the evils of war : she therefore brandishes the spear 
 and torch, and has the owl. She has become the Amazon of Olympus on 
 Asiatic soil, whence also the Amazons descended. I need cite no proofs 
 for the owl as the bird of night. As a death-announcing bird, it sat on 
 the spear of Pyrrhus when he advanced against Argos. 3 By the Ionian 
 Hipponax 4 it is considered as the messenger and herald of death. As 
 birds of death, two owls (yXavices) sit to the right and left of a Siren, the 
 songstress of the death-wail, on a sepulchre. 5 On a vase painting of a 
 very ancient style (brown figures on a dead yellow ground) with figures of 
 
 10 Die Entdeckung Eion'szu Hissarlik ; Freiburg, 
 1875, pp. 56, 57. 
 
 11 Welcker, Griech. Gotterlehre, i. 303 f. 
 
 1 Mionnet, Me'dailles nouv. Gal. myth. 16. 7, 8 ; 
 Eckhel, Doctr. Numm. i. 2, 488, 458. 
 
 2 Mionnet, PI. 75, 6 ; see Eckhel, Doctr. Numm. 
 ii. 484 ; and E. Gerhard, Uebcr die Minervenidole 
 Athens, Tfl. iv. 11, 12. 
 
 3 Aelian. Hist. Anim. x. 37 : 'H y\av£ eVt Tiva 
 cr7rou5V wpfirj/x&cf audpl avvovaa. na\ imaTao-a 
 
 ovk ayaQbv av/j.^o\6v (pact, fiaprvpiov 5e, d 
 'HiretpwTTis Uvppos vvKrcop evOv rod 'hpyovs 
 rjei, kou avrw iuTvyx^vei : /]de r] vpvis KaOrj/xevca 
 fxev eVt tou r tWou, <p4povri ye fX7]v rb dopv bpQov. 
 elra iirl tovtov eavTrjv inddio-ev, ovde aireaTr}, 
 8opv<popovcra ov XP J 7°' T V T V $opv<poplav 7] opvis 
 7] TrpoeipTi/nevr) ttjvSc. 
 * Frag. 54. 
 
 5 Painting on a Lekythos ; Miiller and 
 Oesterley, Dcnkmiiler alter Kunst, ii. 59, 751. 
 
 U 
 
290 
 
 THE SECOND CITY ON THE SITE OF TROY. [Chap. VI. 
 
 animals, we find, with other animals of a religions signification, bulls, 
 panthers, winged sphinxes and griffins, and also the owl. 6 The owl also 
 appears as a divine being on a vase painting of the most ancient style, 
 surrounded by a nimbus. 7 Nor must we leave unnoticed the passage in 
 the Odyssey, 8 where Athene goes off Qrjvy eiBofievrj, though the significa- 
 tion of ' owl ' for <j>/jvrj is not ascertained with certainty. The gods of the 
 north put on the plumage of eagles, crows, and hawks, when they are 
 in haste ; so, in Homer, Athene puts on winged shoes when speed is 
 necessary. The winged shoes of Perseus also may originally have signified 
 his complete metamorphosis into the bird. 9 In the Homeric language 
 y\avfcw7n,<; is 'owl-eyed' or 'with glancing eyes:' the notion 'bluish,' found 
 in yXavtcos, appears to belong to the post-Homeric development of the 
 language. For the rest, I hold the whole question treated here an open 
 one, so long as no excavations have been made in the Samian Heraeum 
 down to the pre-Hellenic stratum, which must probably exist there 
 also. As Schliemann has instinctively felt, it is only the parallel of the 
 /3oco7T£? ttotvlcl v Hpr) that can offer the solution of the problem." 
 
 I may remind the reader that Professor 0. Keller wrote all this in 
 January 1875, whereas my excavations at Tiryns and Mycenae, close to 
 
 the great Heraeum 
 of Argolis, went on 
 from the 31st July to 
 the 6th December, 
 1876. As by the 
 many hundreds of 
 idols, of gold, silver, 
 or terra-cotta, in the 
 form of cows, cow- 
 heads, or women with 
 cow-horns or cow- 
 heads, which I found 
 there, I have solved 
 for ever the problem 
 of the ftoooiTis iroTvia 
 "H-pr}, on which, as 
 Professor Max Miiller 
 and Prof. Otto Keller 
 wisely remarked, the 
 parallel of the 0ea 
 ^/XavKwiris 1 'A6/]vrj de- 
 pends, my interpre- 
 tation of the latter 
 should now be univer- 
 sally accepted. 
 
 No. 157 represents 
 
 No. 157. Vase with Owl's Head, (i : 3 actual size. Depth, 3C to 40 ft.) a Vase with an Owl's . 
 
 c King Ludwig's Collection of Vases, No. 053. p. 20) to be an allusion to the brilliancy of her 
 7 Stephani, Nimbus und Strahlenkranz. The eyes. 8 Od. iii. 372. 
 
 nimbus is considered by F. WieseJer (Phacthon, 9 Wackernagel, eirea TrrepoWa, 34. 
 
Chap. VI.] 
 
 OWL-FACED FEMALE VASES. 
 
 291 
 
 head from the second city; but it must be distinctly understood that the 
 neck with the owl's head was found separate and does not belong to the 
 lower vase, on which I have merely put it, as it can thus be the better 
 preserved. No doubt the neck has belonged, as is always the case, to a 
 vase with the characteristics of a woman. It is hand-made, and has a 
 dark-red colour, produced by the oxide of iron contained in the clay. It 
 was discovered in the calcined debris of the burnt house, in which I found 
 the skeleton of the woman. Owing no doubt to the intense heat to which 
 it had been exposed in the conflagration, it is thoroughly baked. The 
 cover may or may not belong to it. As I found it in the same house, 
 I have put it on the head, the rather as this sort of cover with a curved 
 handle seems to belong to the vases with owl-heads. I am confirmed in 
 this belief by the incisions on the forepart of these covers, which, like 
 those on the idols Nos. 205, 206, 207, 216 (pp. 334, 336), appear to indicate 
 the hair of the goddess. On many vase-covers on which the owl's face is 
 modelled, and which evidently belong to vases with the characteristics of 
 a woman, the hair is indicated either by long vertical scratches or tresses 
 in relief, on the nape of the neck ; it is indicated by such vertical 
 scratches on the idols Nos. 194, 196, 239, and on the remarkable ball 
 Nos. 1997, 1998. The shape of the little curved handle on the vase- 
 cover before us may probably have been copied from that of the ridge 
 ((£a\o?) on the helmets, into which the crest was sunk. 
 
 I represent under No. 158 another vase of this description, which 
 was found at the foot of the fragmentary wall of large blocks b on 
 No. 2 (p. 24). It is much injured by fire, so that its primitive colour 
 
 No. 158. Vase with Owl's Face, two fema!e breasts, and 
 two upright wing-like excrescences. (About 1 :4 
 actual size. Depth, 48 ft.) 
 
 cannot be recognized ; its handles, in the form of wings, are partly re- 
 stored. The face of the bird is here represented very rudely, the eyes 
 being put in the same line as the lower part of the beak. The curved 
 handle of the cover is broken. 
 
292 
 
 THE SECOND CITY ON THE SITE OF TEOY. [Chap. VI. 
 
 Of No. 159 only the vase-cover belongs to this second city, the vase 
 itself to the fourth city ; but this being the only vase with the female 
 characteristics on which this small cover fits, I thought it necessary to 
 represent it here, in order to show the reader the cover in its proper place. 
 Of the face we see here only the eyes. The vase-cover is of a dull black 
 colour and but very imperfectly baked. These Trojan vases with owls' 
 faces are, as far as I know, unique ; no similar ones have ever been found 
 elsewhere. But funeral urns, with rudely-modelled human faces, have 
 been found in the Prussian province of Pommerellen, near Dantzig. They 
 are always found in stone boxes composed of five flat stones, hardly 
 deserving the denomination of coffins, containing the ashes and bones of 
 the deceased. This funeral urn stands either alone in a stone box, or in 
 the midst of six, eight, ten, twelve, or even fourteen, empty common 
 vases. The clay of the funeral urns is either yellow or brown or black, 
 sometimes of good quality and well burnt, sometimes very rough and but 
 little baked. Up to August 1875, when I visited Dantzig, there had been 
 discovered in all fifty-seven such urns, all of them hand-made, but only , 
 thirty of them are preserved there ; two are at Neu Stettin, and the 
 remaining twenty-five are in the Berlin and other Museums. It is impor- 
 tant to notice that, with the exception of one funeral urn with a human 
 face found at Sprottow in Silesia, another found at Gogolin (in the district 
 of Culm, West Prussia 10 ), a third found in the province of Posen, and a 
 fourth found in the province of Saxony, no such urn has ever been found 
 anywhere but in Pommerellen. 1 Of course I do not speak here of the 
 Eoman urns with human faces, of which some have been found on the 
 Ehine, and large numbers in Italy. The characteristics of the Pomme- 
 rellen urns, which distinguish them from the Trojan owl-faced vases, are 
 these : that their manufacturers have evidently always intended to represent 
 the human face, however roughly and incompletely ; that they never have 
 either the wing-like excrescences or the female organ or breasts, which are 
 nearly always conspicuous on the Trojan vases ; that they have always 
 been used as funeral urns, whereas the Trojan vases can, on account of 
 their small size, never have been employed for such purposes, and have 
 probably only served as idols or sacred vases ; and, finally, that they 
 have covers in the form of common caps, whereas the Trojan vases 
 have covers in the shape of helmets, on which the female hair is 
 often indicated. And with regard to the age of these Pommerellen face- 
 vases, the glass beads with which they are ornamented, and the iron 
 with which they are constantly found, cannot possibly authorize us to 
 ascribe to them a higher antiquity than the beginning of our era, or, at 
 the very utmost, the first or the second century B.C. ; whereas I now 
 agree, I think, with all archaeologists, in claiming for the Trojan vases 
 the very remote antiquity of 1200 to 1500 B.C. I will here describe 
 some of the human-faced vases of the Dantzig collection : — ■ 
 
 10 See the Report of the Berlin Society of An- he has proved that a scries of transitions into 
 
 thropology, Ethnology, and Pre-historic Archcco- " ear- and cap-urns " can be followed up from 
 
 logy, Session of Jan. 18, 1879, p. 2. the province of Pommerellen to the river Oder. 
 1 Professor Virchow kindly informs me that 
 
Chap. VI.] 
 
 HUMAN-FACED VASES ELSEWHERE. 
 
 293 
 
 1. A vase with two eyes, a nose, but no mouth, and two ears, which 
 have three perforations ornamented with bronze rings, on which are 
 fastened beads of glass and amber. The ornamentation of the neck is 
 formed by six stripes of incised ornaments representing fish-spines. 
 Below is the monogram of an animal with six legs. The cap has also 
 incised ornaments. 
 
 2. A vase with no eyes, but a nose and a mouth ; the ears have four 
 perforations ornamented with bronze rings ; a bronze chain fastened to 
 the ears hangs down on the breast. 
 
 3. A vase with a nose and mouth, but no eyes ; ears with two perfora- 
 tions ; ear-rings of bronze with beads of amber. In this vase was found an 
 iron breast-pin. 
 
 4. A vase with ears not perforated; eyes, long nose, a mouth, and a 
 beard ; a girdle indicated by points. 
 
 5. An urn with nose, eyes, and a mouth with teeth ; ears with six 
 perforations, each ornamented with a bronze ring, on which are a large 
 number of small rings of the same metal. 
 
 6. An urn without eyes or mouth, but with a pointed nose ; two ears, 
 each with four perforations, which are ornamented with iron rings. 
 
 7. A very rough urn with eyes and nose, but no mouth; ears not 
 perforated. 
 
 8. Urn with eyes, nose, and mouth ; but ears not perforated. 
 
 9. Urn with eyes, mouth, and nose ; ears with three perforations. 
 
 10. Urn with nose and eyes; no mouth; an iron ring is fastened 
 round the vase. 
 
 11. A very remarkable urn with a falcon's beak, and large eyes; ears 
 with three ear-rings in each, which are ornamented with brown and blue 
 glass beads. This urn, as well as its cover, is decorated ail over with 
 incised ornaments. A certain number of the Pommerellen urns, with 
 human faces, preserved in the Koyal Museum at Berlin, of which Dr. 
 Albert Yoss is the learned keeper, are very remarkable for the brooches 
 with spiral heads, like No. 104, or linear animals similar to those on the 
 Trojan whorls (see Nos. 1881-1884), which we see rudely incised on them. 
 
 I cannot leave unnoticed the flagon-shaped vessels (oenochoae) found 
 in the pre-historic habitations, below the deep strata of pumice-stone and 
 volcanic ashes, in the islands of Thera (Santorin) and Therasia. 
 
 On several of these two large eyes are painted near the orifice, as well 
 as a necklace of large dots at the base of the neck, whilst two female 
 breasts are modelled on the upper part of the body; each breast is 
 painted brown, and is surrounded by a circle of dots. On none of them is 
 a human face painted or modelled ; but still it is certain that it was the 
 primitive potter's intention to imitate in these oenochoae the figure of a 
 woman. From these barbarous oenochoae of Thera may be derived, as 
 M. Fr. Lenormant 2 suggests, the beautifully painted oenochoae of Cyprus 
 with the head of a woman. 3 But as these Cyprian vases belong to the 
 
 2 Antiquites Troyennes, p. 43. 
 
 3 See General Louis Palma di Cesnola, Cyprus; London, 1877, p. 394-, PI. xln. xliii. pp.401, 402. 
 
294 
 
 THE SECOND CITY ON THE SITE OF TROY. [Chap. VI. 
 
 historical period, and are perhaps a thousand years later than the owl- 
 vases of Hissarlik, I cannot discuss them here. I would only add that 
 on nearly all the Cyprian oenochoae, with a trefoil mouth, though 
 without any characteristics of the human figure, two eyes are* painted. 
 This is not the place to discuss the Roman urns with human faces, 
 which occur at Oehringen in Wiirtemberg, 4 near Mainz j at Castel, oppo- 
 site Mainz ; 5 and elsewhere. 
 
 In the burnt house described above, together with the remains of the 
 woman, there was also found the tripod terra-cotta vessel in the shape of a 
 sow, No. 160. It is of a lustrous dark-brown colour, 8?- in. long, 7 in. high, 
 and nearly 6 in. thick in the body. It has a projecting but closed head, 
 and three feet. The orifice of the vessel is in the tail, which is connected 
 with the back by a handle. Similar vessels in the form of animals, with 
 
 No. 160. Terra-cotta Vessel in the shape of a Sow. No. 161. Two conjoined Oenochoae. (1:4 
 
 (1 : 4 actual size. Depth, 42 ft.) actual size. D. pth, about 40 ft.) 
 
 three or with four feet, are frequent in the third and fourth pre-historic 
 cities of Hissarlik. They are very abundant in Cyprus, 6 and may be seen 
 in the collections of Cypriote antiquities in the British Museum, the 
 South Kensington Museum, the Louvre, and the Musee de St. Germain- 
 en-Laye. There are also a number of similar vessels in the collections of 
 Peruvian and Mexican antiquities in the British Museum. 
 
 Of the pottery of this second city I mention further the curious 
 lustrous-red vessel, No. 161, in the form of two separate oenochoae with 
 long and perfectly upright beak-shaped mouths ; the two jugs being con- 
 nected with each other at the bulge as well as by a handle. Terra-cotta 
 vessels, with the same system of separate jugs connected at the bulge, 
 occur in all the subsequent pre-historic cities of Hissarlik, and we shall 
 have to pass several more of them in review. Vessels of terra-cotta made 
 on the same principle are found in Ehodes, in Egypt, and in Cyprus. The 
 collection of antiquities from a tomb at Ialysus, in the British Museum, 
 contains four conjoined cups; the Egyptian collection, two conjoined 
 flasks ; the collections of Cypriote antiquities, both in the British Museum 
 
 4 O. Keller, Vicus Aurelii, 1871, PL vii. 2. 6 General di Cesnola's Cyprus; London, 1877, 
 
 5 L. Lindenschmit, Die Alterthiimer unserer Plate viii. 
 heidnischen Vorzeit ; Mainz, 1860. 
 
Chap. VLJ 
 
 SUSPENSION-VASES AND TRIPODS. 
 
 295 
 
 and in the South Kensington Museum, contain vessels forming two con- 
 joined flasks with one handle. Another vessel with three or four 
 conjoined cups is represented by General di Cesnola. 7 The small collec- 
 tion of pre- historic antiquities, found under the deep layers of pumice- 
 stone and volcanic ashes in Thera, preserved in the French School at 
 Athens, contains also two conjoined jugs with a trefoil mouth. I may 
 also mention a vessel formed of two pitchers, joined both at the bulge and 
 by a handle, in the Egyptian Collection in the Louvre. A vessel with 
 three conjoined cups is certainly also indicated by the object No. 3 on 
 PL xii. in Dr. Victor Gross's Atlas of antiquities found in the Lake- 
 habitations of Moeringen and Auvernier in Switzerland. I may also 
 mention a vessel with two conjoined flasks in the Peruvian Collection in 
 the British Museum. Professor Yirchow kindly informs me that similar 
 conjoined vessels are very common in the ancient tombs in the provinces 
 of Lusatia (Lausitz) and Posen. 
 
 No. 162 is a lustrous-black vase, 9 J in. high, with a long tubular hole 
 for suspension on each side. The body, of globular form, is ornamented 
 with incised zigzag lines ; the neck is very wide, in the form of a chimney, 
 and ornamented with incised dots ; the bottom is flat. 
 
 No. 163. Tripod Vase, with incised ornamentation, and 
 a similar system for su-pension. 
 (1 : 4 actual size. Depth, about 42 ft.) 
 
 No. 163 represents a lustrous dark-brown tripod, with tubular holes 
 for suspension ; the long chimney-like neck has an incised ornamentation, 
 
 7 Cyprus, p. 406, No. 25. 
 
296 THE SECOND CITY ON THE SITE OF TROY. [Chap. VI. 
 
 resembling fish-spines. A similar tripod-vase, of a dull blackish colour, 
 with incised circular bands, is represented under No. 164. 
 
 No. 164. Globular Tripod Vase, with tubular holes 
 for suspension. Ornamentation of circular bands. 
 (1 : 4 actual size. Depth, 35 ft.) 
 
 No. 165. Globular Vasa, with tubular holes or 
 suspension. Ornamentation : triangles. 
 (1 : 4 actual size. Depth, 35 ft.) 
 
 No. 165 is a very pretty little dark-yellow vase of an almost globular 
 shape, which has also tubular holes for suspension and an incised orna- 
 mentation of triangles. 
 
 All the vases of the second city which we have hitherto passed in 
 review are hand-made ; but wheel-made pottery occurs here also, though 
 rarely. A wheel-made vase, for example, is shown under No. 166; it is a 
 
 tripod of a blackish colour, with incised 
 circular bands, and has tubular rings for 
 suspension. The cover may probably not 
 belong to this vase. All these vases I can 
 only represent, not compare with others, 
 as no vases of anything like a similar type 
 occur elsewhere. But to my list of the 
 collections in which vases with vertical 
 loopholes for suspension occur (see p. 222) 
 I have to add the Museum of Stockholm, 
 in which there are three vases, found in 
 Dolmens of the Stone age, which are orna- 
 mented with incised patterns ; two of them 
 having on each side two, the third on each 
 side four, vertical perforations, for suspension 
 with a string. I saw in the Museum of 
 Copenhagen, besides the vase already men- 
 tioned, 8 two vases with incised patterns, 
 having on each side two vertical tubular 
 loopholes, which are not in projections, as on the Trojan vases, but in 
 the clay of the body of the vase itself ; both of them have also tubula 
 loopholes in the covers, which correspond with those in the body. There 
 must have been a time when similar vases with holes for suspension were 
 in more general use in Denmark, for I saw in the same museum sixteen 
 vase-covers of the same system. 
 
 No. 166. Wheel-made Tripod Vase, with 
 incised bands and tubular holes for suspen- 
 sion. (About 1 : 4 actual size. Depth, 35 ft.) 
 
 See No. 100, p. 20, in J. J. A. Worsaae's Nordishc Oldsagcr, 
 
297 
 
 VASES OF VARIOUS FORMS. 
 
 Chap. VI.] 
 
 Under No. 167 I represent a handsome black hand-made vase with two 
 handles: under No. 168, a dull brownish wheel-made pitcher or goblet, 
 
 No. 167. Black Jug, with two handles. 
 (About 1 : 4 actual size. Depth, 39 ft.) 
 
 No. 169. Oval Vase, with three handles. No. 170. Large lustrous-black Vase, with two handles 
 
 (Nearly 1 : 4 actual size. Depth, 42 ft.) and pointed foot. (1 : 6 actual size. Depth, 33 It.)' 
 
 likewise with two handles. No. 169 is a lustrous dark-red wheel-made 
 vase of oval form, with three handles. As it has a convex bottom, it 
 cannot stand without support. 
 
 The shapes of these last three vessels are very frequent here, but 
 I have not noticed them in other collections. As on most vases with 
 handles the ends of these latter project slightly on the inside of the 
 vessels, it is evident that the handles were only made after the vases had 
 been modelled, and that holes were then cut in them in which the handles 
 were fastened. 
 
 No. 170 is a hand-made lustrous-black vase, with a pointed foot and two 
 handles, between which on each side is a projecting decoration in the form 
 
298 
 
 THE SECOND CITY ON THE SITE OF TROY. [Chap. VI. 
 
 of the Greek letter Lambda, or the Cypriote character go. Similar vases 
 are rare in the second city, but very frequent in the following, the burnt 
 city. I would suggest that the early inhabitants of Hissarlik, who used 
 these vases with a pointed foot, must have had in their rooms heaps 
 of sand into which they put them. Or might they perhaps have used 
 as stands for this kind of vase the large stone discs, from 6 to 8 in. in 
 diameter, with a round perforation in the centre, 2 to 3 in. in diameter, 
 of which so many are found in the pre-historic cities of Hissarlik ? 
 This idea was suggested to me by Dr. Victor Gross, who, in his beautiful 
 Atlas of the objects found in the Lake-habitations at Moeringen and 
 Auvernier, has on PI. xii., No. 22, put a vase with a pointed foot into 
 a large ring, which appears to be of slightly-baked clay. But as clay 
 rings of such large size are very rare at Hissarlik, the large perforated 
 stone discs may have been used in their stead. Mr. Philip Smith men- 
 tions to me that in chemical laboratories in England earthenware rings 
 are used in the same way, as supports for basins, flasks, &c. 
 
 No. 171 represents a hand-made lustrous dark-brown vessel with a 
 convex base, two handles, and a spout in the rim. 
 
 No. 171. Vase with spout and two handles. No. 172. Fragment of lustrous-grey Pottery, with an 
 
 (1 : 4 actual size. Depth, 48 It.) incised ornamentation. 
 
 (2 : 3 actual size. Depth, 33 ft.) 
 
 No. 174. No. 175. 
 
 No. 176. No. 178. 
 
 Nos. 174-178. Fragments of Pottery, with an incised ornamentation. 
 (Nearly hal actual size. Depth, 42 ft.) 
 
Chap. VI.] 
 
 MEANING OF SeVa? ayi(j)iKVTTe\\ov. 
 
 299 
 
 Nos. 172-178 represent seven fragments of lustrous yellow or black 
 pottery, with an incised ornamentation. Nos. 172, 175, and 17G are 
 fragments of flat bowls. No. 178 is the fragment of a small vase. The 
 ornamentation of these four pieces is filled in with white chalk. Nos. 174 
 and 177 are fragments of vases. No. 173 seems to be the fragment of a 
 vase-handle ; the incised signs thereon appear to be written characters, to 
 which I call very particular attention. 9 
 
 In the strata of ruins of the second city there also occur the terra- 
 cotta goblets in the form of a champagne glass, with a pointed foot and 
 two enormous handles, like No. 179, but 
 they are rare here. Almost all of them 
 have a lustrous-black colour. In the three 
 following pre-historic cities they are of a 
 lustrous-red colour, and so frequent that 
 I was able to collect about 150 of themt 
 Again they occur of a dull blackish colour 
 (see No. 1393) in the debris of a settle- 
 ment, which succeeded the latest pre- 
 historic city, but preceded the Aeolic 
 Ilium, and which for this reason I call the 
 sixth city. There consequently appears No - m - oobiet with two handles, 
 
 ^ . . . the Homeric SeVa? a.[x<}>uajireK\oi>. 
 
 to be every probability that this iorm ot (i : 3 actual size. Depth, 35 it.) 
 
 goblet was still in common use on the 
 
 coast of Asia Minor at the time of Homer, who by his SeVa? a^iKvireWov 
 cannot possibly mean anything else than a goblet with two handles. The 
 universal explanation of the StVa? ajJL<f>LKVTreXkov as having an upper and a 
 lower cup, like an hour-glass with the ends opened out, seems to me to be 
 altogether erroneous. As a goblet of such a description could, at all 
 events, be filled only on one side at a time, there would be no raison d'etre 
 for the two cups in opposite directions. Moreover, whenever a goblet with 
 wine is presented by one person to another, Homer clearly always meant 
 it to be understood that it is a StVa? a/i^LKvireWov, namely, that it is 
 double-handled, and that, being presented by the one handle, it is received 
 by the other. I may mention, besides, that no goblet with an upper and a 
 lower cup has ever yet been found, while I found at Troy twenty differ- 
 ently-shaped terra-cotta goblets with two handles, among them one of 
 gold, and at Mycenae a large number of double-handled goblets, of terra- 
 cotta or gold, all of which can be nothing else than heira a^LicvTreXka. 
 I think, therefore, that Aristotle was wrong in his theory, that the afi^i- 
 KvireXkov had the shape of a bee's cell : 10 " The cells for the honey and 
 for the drones have openings on both sides; for on one bottom are two 
 cells, like those of the amphikypella— the one inward, the other outward." 
 
 The best judge, nay the highest authority, for the form of the Homeric 
 SeVa? ajjb^LKvireXKov must necessarily be Homer himself ; and, according to 
 him, the SeVa? ajjufyucvireWov is always synonymous with aXeicrov aji§u>Tov, 
 
 9 The inscription is discussed by Professor rov fj.4\iros teal al tuiv (rx^ovcav, afKpliTTOfxof 
 Sayce in his Appendix. -rrepl fxiav yap fiaaiv 5vo OvpiSes elalv, So"7rep Twy 
 
 10 Hist. Animal, ix. 27 : At Se dvplSes Kal at aij.(pLKV7re\Kuii/, t] i*zv iuros, r] 8' inrSs. 
 
300 
 
 THE SECOND CITY ON THE SITE OF TROY. 
 
 [Chap. YI. 
 
 a " two-eared goblet " (literally, " with, an ear on both sides," for this is 
 the exact meaning of d/jbcpl). Thus, for instance, in a passage of the 
 Odyssey, one and the same goblet is called twice SeVa?, once aketaov, and 
 once SeVa? dfufnrcvTreXXov : 11 "Then he gave them part of the entrails, 
 and poured wine in a golden goblet (Se7r<x?), and, pledging her with 
 outstretched hand, he called upon Pallas Athene, daughter of Aegis- 
 bearing Zeus : ' Pray now, stranger, to king Poseidon, because to him 
 is sacred the meal at which you find us, as you come here. And after 
 having made libations and prayed, as is the custom, then give the cup 
 (8 e 7r a <?) of sweet wine also to this man to make a libation ; for I think 
 that he also prays to the immortals ; because all men stand in need of 
 the gods. But he is younger (than thou art) and of my age. I therefore 
 give the golden goblet (aXeia ov) first to thee.' Having spoken thus, 
 he put the cup (SeVa?) of sweet wine into her hands, and Athene was 
 pleased with the prudent just jnan, because he had given her first the 
 golden goblet (aXe uaov), and she at once offered many prayers to king 
 Poseidon : ' Hear, earth-containing Poseidon, do not refuse us, who 
 beseech thee to accomplish these deeds. Above all, to Nestor and his 
 sons give glory ; and afterwards to others grant a gracious recompense, 
 to all the Pylians, for the magnificent hecatomb. Grant also to Tele- 
 machus and to me to return after having accomplished that for which we 
 came hither in the swift black ship.' Thus she prayed and fulfilled all 
 herself. She then gave to Telemachus the beautiful double-handled cup 
 (heir as d fi(f> i fcvTr eWov)." 
 
 See further Od. xxii. 8-11 : 1 "He spake, and directed the bitter arrow 
 against Antinous. He was indeed about to lift a beautiful golden double- 
 eared goblet (aXeicrov a fi(f> co r o v) ; and had already seized it with his 
 hand that he might drink of the wine." 
 
 See again Od. xxii. 17, where the very same goblet, which in verses 
 9 and 10 was called aXeucrov aficj)coTov, is simply called Se7ra?: "He 
 sank sidewards, and the cup (SeVa?) fell from his hand." 2 
 
 See further Od. xxii. 84-86, where a Se7r<z? d fief) i kvtt eXXov is 
 mentioned, which is not indeed the identical aXeiaov a fierce tov 
 spoken of before and called also simply Seiras, but which is most 
 assuredly of an identical form, namely, a goblet with two handles : — ■ 
 
 11 Od. iii. 40-63: 
 Swue 8' apa airXdyxvoiv poipas, ev 8' olvov iysvtv 
 Xpvcre'ico SeVat • SeiSio-K6/j.evos 8e 7rpoo"r]vSa 
 riaAAaS' 'Adn]va'i7]v, Kovp-qv Aibs alyioxoio- 
 " Ew'xeo vvv, 3> |etVe, HoaeiSawvi dvaKTi' 
 tov yap Kal SatTrjs i]VTr]aaTe, Sevpo jioXovTts. 
 avrap iirrjv cnre'io-ps re Kai ev^eai, $ Oe/xis eaTiv, 
 Sbs Kal Tovrcp %-nzna Seiras /xeAnjSe'os o'Lvov 
 fffreiffai' iirel Kal tovtov b'iop.ai aQavdrroiaiv 
 evx^o-Qai ■ irdvTes 8e decov x«Te'oucr' dvdpwiroi. 
 aAAa ved!>Tep6s iaTiv, 6i*7)AiKir] 8 5 ip.ol avT$ • 
 Tovvena crol irpoTepco Sdxrcc XP V<T€10V aXeiaov. 
 
 *fls cIttwv, iv X 6 P°^ T ^ €L SeVas rjSeos oivov • 
 Xcupe 8' 'AOrivalri Treirvvjievu) avdpl SiKaLcv, 
 ovveKa oT irpoTepr) 8<£/ce xP vcr€L0V dkeicrov. 
 avTiKa 8' ev'xeTO iroXXa. noaeiSdwvi avaKTi ■ 
 
 " KXvOi, Uoo-eldaov yaiTjoxe, A"7<5e /xeyripris 
 rijxtv evxofxevoio-L TtXevTyjaai T<x8e epya. 
 Neo-Topi /xev TvpwTiffTa Kal vidat kvSos cVa^e, 
 ai>Tap eneiT aWoicri SlSov x a p' ie0 ~°~ av dfAOifirjv 
 o-v/jLiraaiv UvXloicriv ayaKAeiTTjs eKaTO/xfiris. 
 Sbs 5' eTi Tr]\€fxaxov Kal i/xh irpij^avTa veeaOai, 
 ovveKa Sevp' 'iKo/necrOa 9orj ffvv vr]t fieXaivrj." 
 
 ^ris dp' eVeiT 5 ifpaTO, Kal aiiTT) irdvTa TeAevTa' 
 SooKe Se TrjXe/xdxv KaAbv Seiras a[x<piKvireX- 
 Xov. 
 
 1 ? H, Kal eV 'AvTivScf IdvveTO iriKpbv 6"io~T6v. 
 tfTOL 6 KaXbv dXeiaov dvaiprjcrearOai epeXXev, 
 Xpvaeov a/n<pu)TOV, Kal Si] /aztcc x^P^ v eVc6/ta, 
 
 6(ppa TTLOL UXVOIO. 
 
 2 iK\iv67j 8' €Tepw(re, SeVas Se ot eK7re<re 
 Xtipo's. 
 
Ohap. VI.] 
 
 MEANING OF SeVas ajJL^LKVTrcWov. 
 
 301 
 
 "And, rolling over with the table, he fell staggering; and he poured 
 the viands on the ground and the double-handled goblet (Se7ra? dficpi- 
 KV7re\\ov)." 3 
 
 By the above citations we have therefore proved, that in Homer a 
 Be7ra^ is identical with aXecaov and with Se7ra? a fief) i kvtt eXXov ; 
 further that SeVa? is identical with aXetcrov a /jLcjxor ov. Con- 
 sequently aXeucrov a fMcfxor ov is also identical with Se7ra? d/jL(j)i Kv- 
 ireXXov. Now, as aXeiaov cifx^corov most undoubtedly means a 
 double-handled goblet, Seiras a ficj) i kvtt eXXov must just as undoubtedly 
 mean a double-handled goblet. I could multiply these examples, but I 
 think them perfectly sufficient to do away with an absurd interpretation 
 of an important Homeric text, and to make the false theory fall to the 
 ground, that there could ever have existed in antiquity goblets with a cup 
 at both ends, and thus identical in form with the vessels which are to the 
 present day used in the streets of London for measuring a penny or half- 
 penny worth of nuts. 
 
 But who tells us that, by comparing the bees' cells to the d^ncvireXXa, 
 Aristotle had in view a vessel with a drinking cup at each end ? He could 
 only designate by d^iKvireXXov a thing so named, which had a real 
 existence at his time. Now such a goblet with a cup at each end never 
 occurs in any classical author ; it has never yet been seen in sculptures 
 or wall- or vase-paintings ; no specimen of it has ever been found ; and 
 consequently it can never have existed. Besides, Aristotle does not call 
 the object of his comparison a Seiras afifyucinreXXov : he merely calls it an 
 a[jL(f)LKVTT€XXov. But what does a KvireXXov mean ? In Homer and other 
 poets it is certainly a goblet, but it also means a milk-vessel in Quintus 
 Smyrnaeus; 4 nay, Athenaeus 5 says that, according to Philetes, the Syra- 
 cusans called the crumbs of bread, which remained on the table after 
 meals, tcvireXXa. I would therefore suggest that, just as now in the streets 
 of London, so in the time of Aristotle hazel-nuts and other commodities 
 were sold in the streets of Athens in wooden vessels in the shape of a bee- 
 cell, which measured an obol's or two obols' worth of them, and that such a 
 vessel was called afJufyucvireXXov. Besides, in speaking of the shape of the 
 Homeric heira^ anfyucvireXXov, Athenaeus does not even state that Aristotle 
 compares it to the bee's cell, but he cites the opinion of Asclepiades of 
 Myrlea, who says that dfifyLtcvireXXov does not mean anything else than 
 that the goblet is dfi(f>LKupTov. 6 But the phrase which follows can leave 
 no doubt that the latter word signifies " with two handles," and this is 
 confirmed by Passow's Greek Lexicon (ed. Kost and Palm). In another 
 passage (xi. 65) Athenaeus asks : " What does KvireXXov mean ? Is it 
 identical with aXeiaov and heiras, or is only its name different ? Or was 
 its type different, and not like that of the oeVa? and the aXeuaov d/n^t- 
 KvireXXov, but only curved ? For from the curved shape (fcv<fioTr]$) the 
 /cwrreXXov as well as the d^acvireXXov (have their names), either because? 
 
 3 Trepipprjdrjs 8e rpairi^ri yXciyos r/5e /ecu olG>v. 
 
 Ka7T7T€(re 8iz/7j0ei's, airb 8' ddara xeuey epa£e 5 xi. 65. 
 
 /ecu Seras a/LKpiKvireWou. 6 Athen. xi. 24 : afxcpiKinrsWou Se Xiyoov 
 
 4 vi. 345 : TrA^flei' 8' avre KvireWa fiooov avro, ovdep aAAo ar}fxaivei ^ on i\v apty'iKvpTOV. 
 
302 
 
 THE SECOND CITY ON THE SITE OF TROY. [Chap. YI. 
 
 being similar in shape to milk-pails, they were more narrow in the curve ; 
 or the afKpL/cvTreWa have their name, like the dfi^Uvpra, from their 
 handles, because they are made of the same form. For the poet also 
 mentions a golden a/^<pcoTov. ,> " Silenus says that the KvireWa are 
 €K7ra)/Mara, similar to the a/cvcfroi, as Nicander the Colophonian says, ' The 
 swineherd distributed icvireSXa' Eumolpus says that the fcvireXka are 
 a kind of ironipiov, because they are curved. Simaristus says that the 
 Cypriotes call the double-handled itot^lov a nvrreWov ; the Cretans call 
 the double-handled cup as well as that with four handles by the same 
 name." 7 I may here add that SeVa?, from the root hair, is related to 
 helirvov, and is always the goblet of the wealthier class. 
 
 The only cup discovered elsewhere, which shows any resemblance to 
 the Trojan SeVa? a^LKvireWov, was found at Yulci, and is represented 
 in Mr. George Dennis's famous work, The Cities and Cemeteries of Etruria, 
 p. cxviii. No. 43. It has a pointed foot and two enormous handles, but 
 the whole cup is not higher than the diameter of its mouth. From its 
 resemblance to a woman's breast, Mr. Dennis identifies it with the 
 ancient goblet called mastos, a name given to it by the Paphians. 8 This 
 name (/mo-7-09) being Greek, there can be no doubt that goblets of this 
 form existed in Greece also ; but they were probably but little in use, 
 for the above cup represented by Dennis appears to be unique. 9 
 
 The fanciful vase, No. 180, was found in the town-chiefs house in the 
 third, the burnt city ; but as fragments of similar vases — usually of a 
 lustrous-black colour — are abundant also in the second city, I prefer 
 representing it here. It is 25 in. high, and has a convex bottom and two 
 handles, besides two projections in the form of wings, at each side of which 
 is a spiral ornament in relief. The wing-like projections are hollowed, 
 and taper away to a point ; they are, consequently, not adapted to be used 
 as handles ; nay, they would break away if a full vase were lifted by them. 
 Are they then mere ornaments, or are they meant to show the sacred 
 
 7 Athenaeus, xi. G5 : 
 
 Kinre XXop. rovro irorepov icrn raurhu t£ 
 aXelau Kai to> Senai, v) duo/man fxovov SiaX- 
 Xdo-ffei ; 
 
 tovs fxeu dpa xP v o-4oiai KvireXXois vies 'Axaiwi' 
 8ei8ex aT ' dXXoQev aXXos dvao'Tab'Sv. 
 5id<popos i\v 6 tvttos, Kai oi>x wcnrep to Senas 
 Kai to aXeiaov d/xcpiKvireXXov ovtoi 8e Kai tovto, 
 Kv<pbv Se jx6vov ; airb yap tt)s KvcpOT-qros to 
 KvireXXov faairep Kai to d/xcpiKvireXXov • $) on 
 TrapairXri(riov i]V Tats -neXXais, avv^yixevov fxaX- 
 Xov els Tif]V KV(poT7)Ta • ?) afxcpLKvireXXa olou 
 a/j.(pLicupTa airb toou cctwv. 8ta Tb TOiavTa eiuai 
 t9) KaTaanevrj. <pr](rl yap Kai o Troir)T7]s i XP V ~ 
 aeov &/j.(pwToi>.' 'AuTl/xaxos 8' ev irep.TTT(i> 0tj- 
 fia'ib'os ' 
 
 iraaiv 5' riyejx6vea , o'LV i-noixofxevoi inipuKes 
 Xpvvea KaXa icvireXXa TeTvyjxeva va)fxi}(ravTO. 
 ~2,eiX7]ubs 8e (pr)o~i 1 KvireXXa eKizdjfxaTa crKvcpois 
 ofxoia, ws Kai N'utavfipos 6 KoXotydovios ' KvireXXa 
 8' eveifxe avfic!)Tr)s.' Ev[aoXttos 8e iroT7]plov yevos 
 airb tov Kv<pbv elvai. LiixdpicrTOS 8e Tb SIwtov 
 
 iroTripiov Kvirpiovs, Tb 8e hlwTOV Kai TCTpdaiTOV 
 Kp?jTas. $>iXr)Tus 8e ~XvpaKovaiovs KvireXXa 
 KaXelv to. TTjs jJ-dfrs Kai t£>v dpTWV iirl Trjs 
 TpaireQqs KaTaXe'i^fxaTa. 
 
 8 Apollod. Cyren. ap. Athen. xi. 74. 
 
 9 Considering the relations, now well esta- 
 blished, of the people of Palestine and Phoenicia 
 with Asia Minor, it is very interesting to find, 
 among the spoil taken by the Egyptian king 
 Thutmes III. from Megiddo, "a great flagon with 
 two handles, a work of the KJial, i.e. / hoenieians," 
 which reminds us of the silver vases named in 
 11. xxiii. 741-43; Od. iv. 615-19. This is named 
 among objects of gold and silver ; and, later on, 
 among the spoils of Kadesh, the capital of those 
 very Kheta, or Hittites, whom we have already 
 seen in connection with Troy, we find golden 
 dishes and double-handled jugs, besides vessels ot 
 gold and silver wrought in the land of Zahi, i.e. 
 Phoenicia. (Brugsch, Hist, of Egypt under the 
 Pharaohs, vol. i. pp. 374, 379, 385, Engl, trans., 
 2nd ed.) 
 
Chap. VI.] 
 
 VASE-COVERS; WHORLS; PLATES. 
 
 303 
 
 character of the vase ? On the top of it I have put the bell-shaped cover 
 with a double handle in the form of a crown, which was found close by, 
 
 No. 180. Large, lustrous-black Vase, found in th • Royal House. (About 1 : 8 actual size. Dcptb, 30 ft.) 
 
 and may possibly have belonged to it. Similar vase-covers, always of a 
 lustrous-black colour, occur in the second city, but they are rare here, as 
 compared with the abundance of them found in the upper pre-historic 
 cities, and particularly in the third or burnt city. 
 
 There was, no doubt, in the second city a vast variety of other pottery, 
 but I have not been able to collect more types than those I have repre- 
 sented, because, owing to the immense superincumbent masses of stones, 
 nearly all the pottery has been smashed to small fragments. 
 
 Of terra-cotta whorls, I have been able to collect a good number in the 
 debris of the second city, though they are far less abundant here than 
 in the subsequent pre-historic cities. They are also much smaller than 
 those of the first city, and their incised ornamentation is identical with 
 that of the whorls in the upper cities ; the only difference is, that all the 
 whorls of the second city, like those of the first, are of a black colour. 
 
 The shallow as well as the deep plates are here all wheel-made, and 
 precisely of the same rude fabric as those of the third city (see Nos. 461- 
 468, p. 408); the only difference being in the colour, which is here 
 brownish, whereas it is light yellow in the following city. In fact, except 
 a certain class of yellow pitchers, which are plentiful in the following 
 cities, and of the same rude fabric as the plates, these plates, though 
 wheel-made, are almost the rudest pottery found at Hissarlik. My friend 
 Mr. Joseph Hampel, keeper of the collection of coins and antiquities of 
 the Hungarian National Museum in Buda-Pesth, informs me that plates 
 
304 
 
 THE SECOND CITY ON THE SITE OF TKOY. 
 
 [Chap. VI. 
 
 of an identical shape and fabric have been found frequently at Magyarad 
 in Hungary. 
 
 But there also occur in all the strata of the second city large quan- 
 tities of fragments of hand-made lustrous-black deep plates ; but, as has 
 been said, none of them has here a trace of those horizontal tubular 
 holes for suspension in the rim which characterize the bowls and plates 
 of the first city. 
 
 I never found a trace of columns in any one of the five pre-historic 
 cities of Hissarlik ; hence it is certain that no columns of stone existed 
 there. Moreover, the word klcov never occurs in the Iliad, but only in the 
 Odyssey, where columns of wood seem to be meant. In a house, at a depth 
 of about 40 ft., I found a prettily-carved and very hard piece of limestone 
 
 No. 181. Block of Limestone, with a socket, in which the pivot of a door 
 may have turned. (Ahout 1 : 7 actual size. Depth, 40 ft.) 
 
 in the form of a crescent, with a round hole 1 \ in. deep in the centre of it, 
 and I suppose that it may have been used as the support for the fold of a 
 door \ I represent it here under No, 181, 
 
CHAPTER YIL 
 
 THE THIRD, THE BURNT CITY. 
 
 I have already shown that the site of the second city must have 
 been deserted for a long time before it was again built upon. The new 
 settlers began, as M. Burnouf remarks, " with levelling the debris upon 
 the ruins of the Second City : they filled the cavities and ravines with 
 stones and other material, in many places only with ashes or clay, inter- 
 laid with clay cakes {galettes)." 
 
 The great wall c on the view No. 144, which their predecessors had 
 built on the south side, did not appear strong enough to them, because it 
 sloped at an angle of 45°, and could, consequently, be very easily scaled. 
 They therefore built just before it, on the south side, the large wall 
 marked b on No. 144, which slopes to the south at an angle of 15° 
 from the vertical line, whilst on the north side, where it faces the old 
 wall c, it was built up vertically. In this manner there was formed 
 between the two walls a great triangular hollow, which was filled up 
 with earth. My excavations in this hollow have proved that it is pure 
 earth, without any intermixture of debris. But, like the wall c, this 
 second wall b does not consist altogether of solid masonry. Two walls, 
 each from 4 to 6 ft. thick, were erected, the one vertically at the foot of 
 the sloping wall e, the other at a distance of from 4 to 6 ft. to the south 
 of the former, ascending on the south side at an angle of 75°, the space 
 between the two walls being filled up with loose stones. In this way the 
 outer wall, the southern face of which ascends at an angle of 75° with the 
 horizon, or slopes at an angle of 15° from the vertical line, served as a sort 
 of retaining wall for the loose stones, whose ponderous pressure it could 
 probably not have sustained had it been built perpendicularly. •• Both these 
 walls consist of small stones joined with clay ; they do not appear to con- 
 tain a single wrought stone : but the flattest side of the stones having been 
 put outside, the face of the wall presents a tolerably smooth appearance. 
 The top of this wall was, like that of the wall c, paved with larger stones ; 
 and, the two walls e and b being of equal height, and the hollow between 
 them being filled up with earth to a level with the surface of the coping 
 of the walls, a flat terrace was obtained, 100 ft. long by 40 ft. wide on 
 the east, and 23 ft. on the west side. I found this flat space covered 
 to the height of from 7 to 10 ft. with ruins of buildings, of slightly-baked 
 bricks, which, having been exposed to an intense heat in the great confla- 
 gration by which this third city was destroyed, had been partly vitrified 
 by means of the silica they contained. These bricks had suffered so much 
 from the fire that they had decayed into formless masses, among which I 
 rarely found entire bricks well preserved. The really enormous masses 
 
 x 
 
306 
 
 THE THIRD, THE BURNT CITY. 
 
 [Chap. VII. 
 
 of pottery, saddle-querns of trachyte, whorls, &c., contained in these 
 shapeless masses of bricks and red wood-ashes, can leave no doubt that 
 they belonged to tower-like inhabited buildings, which served both as an 
 ornament and as works of defence for the walls. 
 
 As I have before stated, to these third settlers- is also due all the 
 masonry of small stones of a reddish colour, which we see on both sides of 
 the entrance to the gate. The work of their predecessors, the people of 
 the second city, can easily be recognized by the large blocks of white lime- 
 stone with which they built, and which may be seen in the lower courses 
 of the parapets on the view No. 144. As has been before explained, 
 to the second settlers must also be attributed the pavement of the road, 
 consisting of large flags of white limestone, whereas to the third settlers 
 evidently belongs the superposed new pavement of large flags of a reddish 
 colour, which visitors will easily discern on the whole of the lower part 
 of the road ; while on the upper part of it the reddish flags have crumbled 
 away from contact with the air, as they had been exposed to an intense 
 heat in the conflagration. The reddish flags of this second pavement 
 rest upon the white flags of the whole road ; there is no earth or debris 
 between them. 
 
 I have not been able to trace the handiwork of the third settlers in 
 the building of the large wall, which continues from the gate in a north- 
 westerly direction, and which is but a prolongation of the great internal 
 wall, marked c on No. 144, and a on the little sketch No. 145. But the 
 shapeless crumbling masses of slightly-baked bricks, mixed with large 
 quantities of wood-ashes and stones, with which both this wall and the 
 gate were covered to a depth of 7 and 10 ft., testify to the vastness of the 
 works of defence which had been erected here by the third settlers ; 
 because they, and they alone of all the different pre-historic peoples who 
 lived here, used bricks. The masses of objects found in these heaps of 
 hrick-debris in the gate, as well as on the wall which proceeds in a north- 
 westerly direction from it, can leave no doubt that here, as well as on 
 the great flat space formed by the walls b and e on No. 144, were tower- 
 like, densely-inhabited, works of defence. 
 
 If, as there can be no doubt, the wall of large boulders on the north 
 side (b, in the engraving No. 2, p. 24) belongs to the second city, then 
 certainly the third city, which now occupies us, was on the east side much 
 smaller than its predecessor, because its walls, which I have brought to 
 light throughout their whole circuit, stop 230 ft. short of the wall of large 
 boulders. 1 To the south, on the contrary, it is somewhat larger, because, 
 while the prolongation of the wall c on No. 144 continues to the east, the 
 prolongation of the wall b on the same plate continues at first in a south- 
 easterly direction, where it forms the projection marked d, which was a 
 buttress ; it runs thence some distance to the east, and then bends at a 
 sharp angle to the north-west. 2 The prolongation of this wall consists of 
 only a few courses of slabs, which have been laid on the debris of the 
 second city. For this reason, and from the consequent weakness of the 
 
 1 See Plan I. (of Troy). 
 
 2 See Plan I. (of Troy). 
 
Chap. VII.] 
 
 CLAY CAKES FOR FOUNDATIONS. 
 
 307 
 
 stone wall, the brick walls by which it was surmounted were not built 
 directly upon it. An agglomeration of clay cakes (gaieties) was first laid 
 on this wall to give it greater solidity, and on these clay cakes the brick 
 walls were built. M. Burnouf, who studied this singular sort of construc- 
 tion for a long time, has given me the following interesting details, on the 
 subject : — 
 
 " Clay Cakes (gaieties). — Yellow clay is still employed to the present 
 day in the villages of the Troad to form the coatings of the house-walls, 
 and even the house-walls themselves. 
 
 " The agglomeration of clay cakes (gaieties) represented under No. 182 
 may be seen on the large southern wall, at the angle of the trench in 
 
 No. 182. Different Layers of Clay Cakes on the great Southern Wall, at the angle of the Trench opposite the 
 
 nine Jars. 
 
 front of the nine jars. 3 It is surmounted by solid brickwork in situ, which 
 constituted part of the brick wall. 4 Above this remnant of brick wall are 
 house-walls of the following city; they are inclined, and in a ruined 
 condition ; above them is the Hellenic wall. The clay cakes (gaieties) 
 may be also seen to the west and east of this point. They appear to have 
 been used in the whole of the ancient stone wall, and to have belonged to 
 the brick city. Has the legend of Apollo and Poseidon been applied to this 
 construction with dried clay ? There are also, indeed, clay cakes (gaieties) 
 in the first two cities, but they are there embedded in a dark-grey mass, 
 and not employed, as they are here, as part of a general architectural 
 system. The jars (the nine on the south side and the three at the south- 
 western angle of the city) rest on a soil of yellow or dark-grey or ash- 
 coloured clay cakes (gaieties). The same may be said of the houses of the 
 unburnt part of the city, where we find yellow clay cakes (gaieties) still at 
 a depth of 3 metres (10 ft.) below the surface of the hill. Above these clay 
 cakes there is a stratum of grey earth, which has been formed from the 
 debris, and on this stratum the last houses were built. At the north-west 
 angle of the great rampart wall, where the last treasure was found, 5 there 
 is also a mass of clay cakes (gaieties) belonging to the wall, and this mass 
 was much larger before the last excavation. 
 
 " In the gate, at the northern projection (jambage), the clay*cakes are 
 mixed with the stones ; they are here made of yellow earth or of brown 
 ashes, and they are covered by a burnt yellow stratum, which is derived 
 from bricks. The mass of debris is composed of stones and ashes, which 
 buried the gate in the conflagration, and have enlarged the city in that 
 direction. 
 
 3 See Plan I. (of Troy), s. 5 About twenty yards to the north of the 
 
 4 See the engraving No. 183, which represents place marked A on Plan I. (of Troy), 
 this cornei*. 
 
308 
 
 THE THIRD, THE BURNT CITY. 
 
 [Chap. VII. 
 
 " The system of the clay cakes (g alettes) has been applied on a large 
 scale in the mound to the north-west, behind the quarter of the well below 
 the Hellenic wall. 6 The clay cakes (galettes) are very large there, and 
 sometimes 1 metre (3 ft. 4 in.) long. At the eastern angle of this mound 
 we again see these clay cakes of the common size. 
 
 " We also see clay cakes on the top of the great brick wall 7 of the city, 
 at the north angle, where they served to obtain a solid basis for the 
 houses which we see built upon them ; we perceive the same system 
 below the adjoining houses. But these houses, as well as the clay cakes 
 on which they rest, belong to "the following or fourth city. 
 
 " We also see clay cakes below the little walls 8 to the east of and 
 adjoining the gate. They are mixed with black ashes and fragments of 
 burnt bricks. 
 
 " In short, the clay cakes (galettes) appear to have been a system of 
 building which was generally employed in the first three, and even 
 in the first four, Trojan cities, but particularly in the Third City, 
 in which they served for the large constructions." 
 
 M. Burnouf goes on to describe the remains of the brick walls of this 
 third city ; his description is so clear and precise that visitors can have 
 no difficulty in finding them out. 
 
 " The Brick Walls. — No. 183 represents that portion of the brick wall 
 which is in front of the nine jars (s on Plan L). At a are sixteen courses 
 
 of bricks, joined with a paste 
 made of crushed bricks. These 
 courses of bricks reach nearly 
 up to the Hellenic wall c. They 
 are inclined on the outside; the 
 mass of clay cakes (galettes), b, 
 on which they rest, is 1*70 m. 
 (5 ft. 8 in.) thick ; they are 
 separated from it by a course 
 of limestone. The mass of 
 clay cakes, b, rests on the 
 large wall d, which is the 
 circuit wall of the citadel. 
 Later on the city was enlarged 
 by the mounds of debris thrown 
 outside the walls. R marks 
 one of these mounds of debris, 
 which contains a layer of black ashes, n. m is the wall of a house which 
 leans against the Hellenic wall c. 
 
 " This brick wall continued in an easterly direction. We find it again, 
 with its exterior coatings, in the ramp which M. Schliemann has left 
 standing to the west of the quadrangular Hellenic structure. 9 Here also 
 
 6 This Hellenic wall is marked z O on Plan I. (of 9 This ramp is 'distinctly indicated by the 
 
 Troy) ; see also the engraving No. 186 (p. 311). letter T on Plan I., and by the letter R on Sec- 
 
 » Marked ll on Sectional Plan III. tional Plan IV. 
 8 In the place marked o on Plan I. 
 
 No. 183. The portion of the brick Wall in front of the nine Jars. 
 
Chap. VII.] 
 
 THE BLOCKS OF BRICK WALLS. 
 
 309 
 
 the faces of this brick wall are inclined ; the latter forming, at the 
 angle of the citadel, a large solid mass of masonry, probably a tower or 
 a buttress. 
 
 " In the massive block of bricks at the north angle of the fortress, 10 it 
 may be discerned, first, that the courses of bricks are inclined to that side 
 on which the conflagration was severest, namely, to the east ; secondly, 
 that the exterior coatings on the wall indicate its thickness and direction. 
 
 " The first massive block of bricks on the north side. 11 - — Instead of the 
 stone wall we have here only one course of large flags, on which the brick 
 wall rests. This course of flags passes below the first block of bricks, and 
 penetrates below the second. It rests on a thin horizontal layer, formed 
 of a more or less ashy earth and yellow clay. The surface of this wall is 
 burnt. 
 
 " On the stone wall or pavement is (1) a grey or black layer 6 to 
 10 ctm. (2*4 to 4 in.) deep, of burnt shells; (2) a layer 2 to 3 ctm. 
 ('8 to 1*2 in.) thick, of yellow-red brick matter ; (3) the massive block of 
 bricks (e, a, d, on the engraving No. 184). At the foot of the east front 
 of the block of bricks, for a length of 1*50 m. (5 ft.) is a coating of a 
 paste of crushed bricks, and of several very thin layers of fine earth, which 
 are polished on the outer side. This coating is in situ, and inclined to the 
 outside. It has sustained the action of an intense heat, whose black vapour 
 (buee noire) has penetrated far into the wall. As the coating is at the foot 
 of the massive block of bricks, and in an exact line with the course of large 
 flags which constitutes its base, this latter was evidently the foundation of 
 the brick construction. Above this brick construction is a layer of ashes 
 mixed with the stones of subsequent houses, and 
 remnants of house-walls 1 rise again on these ruins. 
 Visitors will see this observation confirmed by 
 examining the neighbouring houses, whose stone 
 walls rest on ashes, which are frequently consoli- 
 dated by the system of clay cakes (galettes). 
 
 " The north side presents a vertical white coat 
 ing (c, in the engraving No. 184), similar to that 
 
 on the east side. Like the latter, it is inclined No i 84 The great brick waii, 
 
 ' .North side. Ibis engraving serves 
 
 and parallel to a third intermediate front, b. We to explain the first, the second, 
 
 ,-■ „ ._ ni n/>i'i an( * tne third massive blocks of 
 
 tnereiore recognize here two parallel walls ot bricks, bricks, which are remnants of the 
 the space between which is filled in with broken cit ^ walL 
 bricks. The whole rests on the course of large flags already mentioned. 
 The front d is uncertain, as it has been demolished. 
 
 " The proportions of the walls represented in the engraving No. 184 
 are : — 
 
 " The first block of bricks: 2 from a to b, I'll m. (3 ft. 11 in.) ; from b 
 to c, 53 ctm. (1 ft. 9 in.) ; from c to d, 1*37 m. (4 ft. 6-8 in.). 
 
 " The second massive block of bricks. — The course of large flags continues 
 to serve as the base of the wall. The aforesaid coating of a paste of 
 
 10 Marked H on Plan III. (Section X-Y). 1 Marked T on Plan III. (Section X-Y). 
 
 11 Marked H on Plan III. ; also represented by 2 The three blocks of bricks are marked H on 
 the engraving No. 184. Plan III. (Section X-Y). 
 
310 
 
 THE THIRD, THE BURNT CITY. 
 
 [Chap. YII. 
 
 crushed bricks continues here on the east front of the wall ; as does also 
 the filling up of the interval between the two walls with crushed bricks. 
 Also the above-mentioned white coating c, as well as the wall c cl, whose 
 front cl is demolished, continues here. We likewise see here on the top of 
 the brick construction the same layer of ashes mixed with the stones of 
 subsequent houses, and on these again remnants of later house-walls. 3 
 
 " The third massive block of bricks. — We see here the continuation of the 
 coated front a, against which lean ashes which have fallen from above. 
 Behind the coating we perceive the continued action of the black vapour 
 (buee noire) of the intense heat which has penetrated far into the wall. We 
 see the continuation of the fronts b and e, between which the space is filled 
 with debris. The mark of the black vapour (buee noire) below this filling 
 seems to prove that the interval between the two walls was empty before 
 the" conflagration, and that it served as a passage. The wall c d continues. 
 The front d does not exist in the massive block ; it appears to have been 
 defaced by time, for on this side the bricks are shapeless. Outside we see 
 ashes, fragments of pottery, shells, fragments of bricks, &c. 3 accumulated 
 against the front a. 
 
 " Having excavated between the second and third massive blocks 
 of bricks, I have found, on the regular level, the course of flags on which 
 the brick wall rests ; further, the filled-up interior passage and the 
 coatings of the fronts. 
 
 " Important remark. — The east coating, which is marked a, is alone 
 burnt; it is, in fact, vitrified, and has behind it the marks of the very 
 dark black vapour " (buee noire), which has penetrated to a great depth 
 between the courses of bricks. On the other hand, the coatings b and e 
 have not been touched by the fire. Besides, the matter which fills the 
 passage contains fragments of bricks, pottery, stones, bones, shells, &c, — 
 all debris of the Trojan stratum. 
 
 " If from the first massive block of bricks we look across the great 
 northern trench on the other part of the town, we clearly discern the 
 level of the buildings. It is marked by a black layer, which descends 
 like black vapour (buee noire). Above it we perceive a yellow stratum of 
 matter burnt by a white heat ; then a grey stratum, upon which are built 
 the houses of the following city. Close to the gate we see the ruins of 
 houses founded on a single layer of stones ; in this way the large house 4 
 close to the entry of the citadel has partly been built. 
 
 " The site of the city was raised on an average 2 to 3 m. (6 ft. 8 in. to 
 10 ft.) by the conflagration ; it was also considerably enlarged in all direc- 
 tions by the enormous masses of ruins and debris thrown down from the 
 walls. What remained of the brick walls and the houses was buried in the 
 new soil, which was composed for the most part of ashes and bricks, and of 
 objects broken or defaced by the fire. This new soil is often consolidated 
 by clay cakes (gaieties), or by a judicious employment of the materials 
 which lay on the surface. On it was built the Fourth City. I call the par- 
 ticular attention of visitors to the enormous mass of debris of the third, the 
 
 3 Marked t on Plan III. (Section X-Y). 
 
 See engraving No. 188, p. 325. 
 
Chap. VII.] 
 
 EEMA1NS OF GREAT WALLS. 
 
 311 
 
 burnt city, thrown from within into and before the gate. This debris con- 
 sists for the most part of ashes and calcined stones from the neighbouring 
 houses. This mass of burnt debris covered the gate, and increased the 
 city considerably to the south. 
 On this accumulation the new 
 settlers built, to the right 
 and left from the points A and 
 b (No. 185), houses the walls 
 of which may still be seen 
 in the massive block of debris 
 in front of the gate. 5 The 
 form of the strata of debris 
 
 before the gate shows a depression, which goes far to prove that the 
 inhabitants of the fourth city continued to go in and out by the very 
 same road. But this is not at all surprising, because the roads to the 
 country commenced and ended at this point." 
 
 The engraving No. 186 represents the north-west angle of the great 
 wall built by the second settlers, and which continued to be used by the 
 
 Debris at N. W. angle-' 
 
 Pavement of l7ie dale 
 No. 185. Debris of the Burnt City at the Gate. 
 
 fcetom of the exi 
 No. 186. Walls and accumulation of debris, N.W. angle. 
 
 inhabitants of the third, the burnt city, as the substruction for their brick 
 work of defence. The reader will be astonished to see in this wall a 
 passage filled with clay cakes, which could have no other object than to 
 consolidate it. To the left of the wall are slanting layers of debris, which 
 descend at an angle of exactly 45°, and of which a small portion close to 
 the wall contains fragments of pottery peculiar to the second city, and 
 must, consequently, belong to it. Then follow the slanting strata of 
 debris of the third, the burnt city, which visitors recognize at a glance by 
 their calcined condition. All these layers of debris are very compact, and 
 almost as hard as limestone. The great Hellenic wall, which we see 
 to the left, could therefore be erected upon them without any foundations. 
 To the left of the Hellenic wall are masses of light debris intermixed with 
 fragments of pottery of the Eoman period. 
 
 Th 
 
 is massive block of debris is marked F on Plan I. ; see also Plan IV., Section Z'-Z' 
 
312 
 
 THE THIRD, THE BURNT CITY. 
 
 [Chap. VII. 
 
 OS'O 
 
 t£ > c5 
 
 S o % 
 
 V *> "3 
 
 Si 2 
 
 — 53 
 
 p o ,£> 
 
 o g 
 
 .6D -a 
 
 13 o 
 
 n> 33 
 
 From this north-west angle the great wall of the second city proceeds 
 in an easterly direction ; its prolongation may he followed up as far 
 
 as my great northern trench, 
 beyond which it appears again. 
 The third settlers, the inhabit- 
 ants of the burnt city, used it 
 only as a substruction for their 
 brick fortifications as far as the 
 first massive blocks of bricks, to 
 the left in entering the great 
 trench from the north side. 6 
 Whilst the great wall of the 
 second city continues in the same 
 direction eastward, the brick wall 
 of the third, the burnt city, ran 
 from this point in a south-east- 
 erly direction, as represented by 
 the accompanying Section No. 187 
 and the Plan I. (of Troy). It 
 must, however, be distinctly 
 understood that for some distance 
 from the block a on No. 187 the 
 brick wall rested only on a single 
 course of large unwrought flags 
 of limestone. A little further on 
 (probably already before the block 
 marked g on the same Section), 
 the great substruction wall of 
 stones, which I have brought to 
 light from the point b to the 
 point d, where it was accidentally 
 demolished, begins again. It may 
 be seen peeping out of the ruins 
 a few yards beyond the point g 
 in the direction of b, but I 
 suppose it must begin again a 
 few yards from g, in the direc- 
 tion towards a. 
 
 It appears strange indeed 
 that this great substruction wall 
 should be missing for a short 
 distance. Can the inhabitants 
 have been forced by the approach 
 of an enemy to hurry the build- 
 ing of the wall, so as to con- 
 struct their brick wall for a short distance merely on a single course 
 of flags ? 
 
 6 See the engraving No. 184. The block is marked H on Plan III. (Section X-Y). 
 
 3 ^ 
 
 « c ~ 5? 
 
 « 
 
Chap. VII.] 
 
 EFFECTS OF THE CONFLAGRATION. 
 
 313 
 
 As will be seen by the Plan I. (of Troy), this Third City was of tri- 
 angular form. Its south-east corner alone has not been reached by the 
 flames, but all the rest has been burnt. M. Burnouf remarks, that " during 
 the conflagration the wind must have driven the flames from the south- 
 west (that is, from the direction of the gate) to the north-east, because 
 nearly all the treasures were found on the south-west side. In that part 
 of the city which lies towards the middle of the eastern wall, was one of 
 the great centres of the conflagration. In the debris of this centre we see, 
 one above the other, (1) the black vapour (buee noire), which has deeply 
 impregnated the soil ; a heap of debris, which has been exposed to an 
 intense heat, and which, in falling, has broken some large jars into frag- 
 ments ; a layer of ashes mixed with stones, bones, burnt shells, &c. : 
 (2) a second time the marks of the black vapour (buee noire), with a series 
 of beams ; then a second layer of debris, reduced by -an intense heat ; 
 ashes ; a black line ; finally, brick earth which has been exposed to an 
 intense heat, and on the top earth which also shows the action of fire. All 
 these debris together are 4 metres (13 ft.) deep ; the house from which 
 they are derived must have been two, perhaps three, storeys high : it was 
 sustained on the south side by a wall 1 metre (3 ft. 4 in.) thick." 
 
 The ground-floors of the houses consist generally of clay laid on a bed 
 of debris, and in this case they are nearly always vitrified and form a 
 porous mass with a lustrous green glassy surface, but sometimes the clay 
 is laid on large horizontal flags, and in this case they have exactly the 
 appearance of asphalt floors. In the former case they are generally 
 0*40 in. to ' 60 in., in the latter * 35 in., thick. In many cases the 
 heat has not been intense enough to vitrify more than the surface of the 
 ground-floors, and in this case the rest resembles pumice-stone in appear- 
 ance and hardness. 
 
 For a very long distance on the north side there was, at a depth of 
 from 26 to 30 ft., a sort of vitrified sheet, which was only interrupted by 
 the house-walls, or by places where the clay had been laid on flags. All the 
 floors of the upper storeys, and even the terraces on the top of the houses, 
 consisted of beams, laid close together and covered with a similar thick 
 layer of clay, which filled all the interstices between the beams, and was 
 made to present a smooth surface. This clay seems to have been more or 
 less fused in the great catastrophe by the burning of the beams, and 
 to have run down ; in fact, only in this manner can we explain the 
 presence of the enormous mass of vitrified lumps in the ruins, which 
 are either shapeless or of a conical form, and often from 5 to 6 in. thick. 
 My lamented friend, the late Staff-surgeon Dr. Edward Moss, who, as 
 before mentioned, when on board H.M.S. Research in Besika Bay, fre- 
 quently visited my excavations in October and November 1878, maintained 
 that these vitrified floors had been produced by the action of intense heat 
 on the surface of the underlying clay, the straw in the latter supply- 
 ing the silica for the formation -of an alumina glass. He informed me 
 further that he exposed to a white heat a fragment of this clay, and even 
 some of the fragments of the very coarsest pottery, and that they vitrified 
 at the corners. But it still remains unexplained, why the clay floors 
 
314 
 
 THE THIRD, THE BURNT CITY. 
 
 [Chap. VII. 
 
 laid on the large flags should in no instance have been vitrified. I 
 presume that their asphalt-like appearance is merely due to the black 
 vapour (buee noire) by which they are impregnated. The action of the fire 
 upon them has been so great that even the flags below them bear the 
 marks of the intense heat to which they have been exposed; but still 
 the clay is black throughout, and neither baked nor vitrified. Like the 
 present village houses of the Troad, the Trojan houses must have had a 
 very thick terrace of clay to protect them against the rain, and all this clay 
 has contributed largely to produce the enormous accumulation of debris. 
 
 According to M. Burnouf's measurement, the ordinary dimensions of 
 the bricks of this third city are 52 ctm. x 43 x 13 J (20* 8 in. x 17*2 x 
 5' 4). The cement with which the bricks are joined is made of brick 
 matter, probably of crushed bricks and water, and is generally from 
 • 4 in. to 2 in. thick. The bricks are invariably mixed with straw, 
 but they show different degrees of baking : some appear to have been 
 merely dried in the sun and not to have been baked at all; others are 
 slightly baked; others, of a reddish colour, are more thoroughly baked. 
 M. Burnouf even found some bricks in the interior of the great wall 
 which had been over-baked, for they are vitrified on the surface without 
 having been exposed to the intense heat of the conflagration. But it 
 must be distinctly understood that, as there were no kilns, the bricks 
 were baked in an open fire, and hence none of them have either the 
 appearance or the solidity of the worst of our present bricks. All the 
 bricks which have been exposed to the intense heat of the conflagration 
 are, of course, thoroughly baked, or rather thoroughly burnt, for they 
 have lost their solidity by their exposure to the intense heat. 
 
 " The architecture of the houses of this third city is," as Yirchow 7 
 observes, " exactly the prototype of that architecture which is still in use 
 in the villages of the Troad. If we ride through such a village and enter 
 one or more of the houses, we get a series of views which correspond with 
 what we see in the ancient city. But this is not surprising, for it must 
 be considered, in the first place, that, owing to its insalubrity, the Plain 
 of Troy could never be the field of a great colonization. There are neither 
 important remains of ancient settlements, nor are the few places now 
 inhabited of any significance. On the contrary, they are poor little 
 villages with wide lands attached. The few inhabitants have evidently 
 also contributed but little to introduce a new culture. They have almost 
 no connection with abroad ; roads, in the modern sense of the word, do not 
 exist, and probably never have existed, in the Plain of Troy. This fact 
 agrees with the peculiarities of the soil, which nearly everywhere engenders 
 malaria. But just in proportion as a richer colonization, a more perfect 
 agriculture, and in general a greater development of the higher arts of 
 peace, are rendered difficult by the soil, in the same proportion have the 
 inhabitants, though they are no nomads, always preferred the occupation 
 of the herdsman. This is the second circumstance which explains the 
 
 7 See his Lecture to the Anthropological Congress at Strassburg, Aug. 13, 1879, and his 
 
 Bcitrwjc zur Landeskunde dsr Troas; Berlin, 1879. 
 
Chap. VII.] VIRCHOW ON THE HOUSES OF THE TROAD. 
 
 315 
 
 continuance of primeval habits. Herdsmen have slighter pretensions to 
 domestic settlement than agriculturists and artisans. They live much 
 in the open air ; the house is of secondary interest to them. » The herds 
 of the Trojans consist, to the present day, just as Homer described them, 
 of a multitude of horses, sheep, and goats. Horned cattle, and especially^ 
 hogs, are out of all proportion rarer. But horses are still bred in such 
 multitudes, that the Homeric description of the wealth of king Erich- 
 thonius, who had 3000 mares, is still applicable to certain regions. There 
 are probably in the Troad more horses than men ; it is, consequently, 
 never difficult to get a horse. 
 
 " Under such circumstances, and as if it were an expression of the 
 conservative disposition of the population, the ancient architecture has been 
 preserved. On the levelled soil the house-walls of unwrought quarry- 
 stones are generally built up to a little more than a man's height. These 
 walls enclose store-rooms which are used as cellars, as well as stables for 
 domestic animals. Sheep and goats are not housed in such stables ; for 
 the winter and very bad weather there are half-open shanties or sheds, 
 under which they are driven. Even camels remain in the open air ; they 
 may be seen lying in large troops in the night in the courtyards or in 
 the streets, and on the public places, always with those wooden fastenings 
 on the back, on which saddle and luggage are put. Stables are, therefore, 
 only kept for horses and cows, as well as sometimes for hogs. 
 
 " Above this stone ground-floor is raised the storey containing the 
 habitation, the bel Stage proper. Its walls consist, as they consisted of 
 old, of clay bricks, which far exceed in size those we are accustomed 
 to see. They are large quadrangular plates, sometimes a foot in length 
 and breadth, and from 3 to 4 in. thick ; commonly but slightly baked, or 
 dried in the sun. The clay of which they are made has been previously, 
 and often very abundantly, kneaded with the cuttings of straw, which are 
 obtained by the mode of threshing in use here. The clay is taken just 
 as the heavy land offers it ; the dirt of the street, so abundant in wet 
 weather, is used as cement. The substance of both bricks and cement 
 is, therefore, not very different ; but the one may easily be distinguished 
 from the other by the mixture of the straw cuttings with the clay bricks. 
 These latter receive from it a lighter colour, whilst the cementing dirt 
 exhibits a darker grey or bluish colour and a more equal quality. 
 
 " The enclosing walls of the courts and gardens are made in a like 
 manner. Sometimes they consist of stones, and in that case they often 
 contain fragments of ancient house or temple buildings, blocks of marble, 
 sometimes still bearing inscriptions. But most frequently they also 
 are made of clay bricks ; the top of the walls is protected by a cover, 
 generally of a vegetable nature. On the shore sea-weed is employed ; in 
 the neighbourhood of the forest, the bark of trees ; elsewhere, reeds and 
 shrubs. These court and garden walls are commonly joined to the house- 
 walls. As they are nearly always of much more than a man's height, 
 the whole presents the character of a small fortress. 
 
 " Clay walls are, of course, much exposed to destruction. Fortunately, 
 on the whole, it does not rain much -in the Troad. For comparatively 
 
316 
 
 THE THIRD, THE BURNT CITY. 
 
 [Chap. VII. 
 
 a long time there is dry weather, the effect of which, however, is in some 
 degree compensated by the very constant sea-winds. Strictly speaking, 
 there is scarcely a single wind in the Troad which is not a sea-wind; 
 almost all winds are wet, which circumstance makes the climate, even in 
 the hot days, very agreeable. The prevalent dry weather preserves the 
 clay walls of the houses. They are, besides, protected by the wide 
 projecting roof, as well as by the galleries which are built all round 
 the bel Stage, and particularly on the west side. 
 
 ''This mode of building explains two things: there is no need for 
 direct access to the ground-floor ; people descend into it from above, as 
 into an underground cellar. For this reason very commonly the stone 
 walls run on without interruption, having no other entrance than the 
 yard-gate. The access to the habitation is by a staircase, which leads at 
 once into the house, and onto the universal verandah or terrace, which is 
 raised upon the stone wall at the level of the bel Stage : it is the place 
 where part of the household work is done, and where the inmates remain 
 in the cooler time of the day. 
 
 " Owing to the neglected condition of the country, one has not seldom 
 the opportunity of seeing such houses in decay; in fact, modern ruins. 
 Of this I saw the most striking example in Yerkassi Kioi, situated just 
 opposite to Hissarlik on the western side of the plain, which always 
 lay before our eyes as the dominating point of the landscape. There 
 is a large old castle there. I was told that it had been built by an 
 Armenian ; but, though it had been arranged like a fortress, he had 
 nevertheless thought it advisable to withdraw from the unsafe country. 
 So the property had passed over for a trifle into the hands of the 
 Turkish Government. At present it is managed as a farm on behalf 
 of the Minister of War, or rather the chief of artillery, and partly by 
 soldiers. The consequence is that, for the most part, the houses have 
 been abandoned and fallen into ruins. Here, therefore, was an excellent 
 object of comparison with Hissarlik. 
 
 " When it rains in the Troad, it pours in torrents. When the roof 
 of a house is destroyed, the rain gradually washes down the clay 
 bricks, and finally there remains nothing standing but the stone wall, 
 which ultimately also begins to collapse. The ruins of Yerkassi 
 Kioi, therefore, presented exactly the appearance of the excavations at 
 Hissarlik. 
 
 " In the house of the king the stone walls are proportionally high 
 and more carefully joined, but they also consist of un wrought irregular 
 quarry-stones. This material is evidently not fetched from a distance. 
 The whole ridge, on the last spur of which Hissarlik lies, consists of 
 tertiary and principally fresh-water limestone, which forms horizontal 
 strata. These can easily be broken into large fragments ; and such frag- 
 ments, as rude as when they come from the quarry, are used in the walls 
 of the ancient cities of Hissarlik. Only the stones which were required 
 for particularly important points, such as corner-stones, have been in 
 some places a little wrought. For the rest, there is no trace of a regular 
 manipulation, or of the working of smooth surfaces, on any of these 
 
Chap. VII.] 
 
 TROJAN HOUSES AXD CELLARS. 
 
 317 
 
 stones. Everywhere the same rude form appears, just as it is used 
 at the present day by the inhabitants of the Troad. 
 
 " Many of the house-walls form enclosed squares without any entrance ; 
 others have a door. The former were, therefore, evidently stores, into 
 which access was only possible from above ; that is, from the house. 
 In these more or less cellar-like recesses are the jars, which are often 
 so large that a man can stand upright in them without being seen, 
 and which are often ranged in rows of 4 or 6 in one cellar. Many of 
 them have been destroyed by the falling of the houses or by the fire, 
 and only a few have been preserved intact. In a few instances only 
 these jars were found partly filled with burnt grain ; but there can be 
 no doubt that all of them served for the preservation of food, wine, or 
 water. Those lower recesses must, therefore, be considered as store- 
 rooms, in which the inmates of the houses put all they needed for 
 their sustenance. The habitation proper was evidently on the bel etage, 
 and, therefore, in rooms whose walls consisted essentially of bricks. But 
 one thing remained for some time unintelligible to me. In several places 
 we found in the walls large quadrangular or cubical hollow places, which 
 contained large masses of burnt matter, particularly calcined vegetables. 
 The enigma was solved when I saw the internal arrangement of the 
 present houses, in which the fireside is still established in a niche of the 
 house-walls. There can, consequently, be no doubt that the firesides were 
 arranged in the same manner in the third or burnt city of Ilium. 
 
 " But, in many places, parts of the clay brick walls form shapeless 
 masses. This has been produced in a twofold manner. One part has 
 been exposed to the conflagration, and has been changed by it in very 
 different degrees. We see there all the transitions from the common 
 effects of fire to complete combustion. Most frequently the clay masses 
 have been fused to a glassy flux. In proportion to the vehemence of 
 the heat, the fusion has penetrated to various depths. For the most part, 
 the clay bricks have only externally a sort of surface glaze, but sometimes 
 the interior is also vitrified, or has even become a sort of pumice-stone, 
 like sponge, full of blisters. Finally, in many places there has occurred 
 only that little change which is produced by the baking of our bricks. 
 These burnt masses have a great extent. It is in the highest degree 
 surprising to see what piles of them lie one upon the other. It must 
 have been a fearful conflagration which has destroyed nearly the whole 
 city. 
 
 " The other kind of change which the bricks have undergone has been 
 their disintegration, such as I saw in its first stage at Yerkassi Kioi. 
 When the roofs had fallen in or had been burnt, and when the masonry 
 had been freely exposed to the influences of the atmosphere, the clay 
 bricks of the walls were gradually softened, disintegrated, and dissolved, 
 and from them has been essentially formed the greater part of the 
 unstratified masses of earth, which, to the wonder of all who see them, 
 have in some places accumulated to enormous masses, and have pushed 
 themselves in between the remnants of the buildings. 
 
 " In all the strata of ruins and debris of Hissarlik there is found a 
 
318 
 
 THE THIRD, THE BURNT CITY. 
 
 [Chap. VII. 
 
 large mass of remnants of food. Some of these are better, others worse 
 preserved. The best preserved of all are the Conchylia. I have made, as 
 far as possible, a complete collection of all the species which occur, and 
 M. von Martens has had the kindness to identify them. 8 A glance at this 
 collection suffices to show that the Trojans were very dainty. There are 
 oysters and sea-mussels, especially oysters in such masses that whole 
 strata consist almost exclusively of them. This cannot astonish us. We 
 must consider what a quantity of oysters is required to satisfy one's 
 hunger at a meal. Such Conchylia are found already in the debris of the 
 first city. I even collected some specimens near the virgin soil. The 
 Conchylia which were eaten here in antiquity are, however, generally the 
 same as those which are still eaten on the shores of the Hellespont, and 
 which we. had frequently on our table. Thus Cardium especially is much 
 eaten raw ; on the banks of the Kalifatli Asmak I have seen at different 
 places whole heaps of empty shells. They are also very plentiful in the 
 third or burnt city, and, like the oyster-shells, they are for the most part 
 blackened by the fire. I seldom found closed shells. At all events, the 
 Cardium-shells form by far the greatest part of these kitchen remains. 
 But in general the oysters preponderate in the strata of all the pre- 
 historic cities here. It is different with the fancy shells. Apart from 
 certain ornamental shells, like Columbella, Trochus, and Pectunculus, 
 whose shells are perforated at the lock, like the shells in certain South 
 European caverns, the purple fish deserves particular mention. This 
 occurs more particularly in the highest stratum below the wall of Lysi- 
 machus, at a time when the painted pottery was in fashion. At one place 
 I found a whole layer formed exclusively of cut or crushed murex-shells. 
 Otherwise they occurred but seldom, and always mixed up with other debris. 
 Eemains of fish are likewise extraordinarily abundant. Accumulations 
 of fish-scales and small fish-bones, vertebras, &c, particularly of Percoidae, 
 formed sometimes whole layers a hand high. I found less frequently 
 vertebras of very large tunny-fish and sharks. I was much surprised at 
 seeing that remains of tortoises were altogether missing. This animal 
 (according to Mr. Peters, Testudo marginata, Schopf) is so plentiful in 
 the Troad, that one can hardly take a step in the country without seeing 
 it. On the banks of the rivers, in the rivers themselves, on the fields 
 and heaths, it can be seen in large numbers, particularly when the sun 
 shines ; and when it is pairing time, there are most ridiculous scenes, 
 particularly among rivals. But just as the present Trojan never thinks 
 of eating tortoises or of using their shell, so was it with his predecessors 
 in ancient times. 
 
 " The bones of higher vertebrate animals are more abundant in the 
 ruins of Hissarlik. Of birds there are but few. Though I carefully 
 collected every bird's bone that I met with, yet I could not obtain many. 
 Mr. Giebel, of Halle, who has kindly identified them, recognized bones of 
 Cygnus olor, Anser cinereus, and A. segetum, as well as of a small kind of 
 Falco or Circus. These are all wild birds. I endeavoured in vain to find 
 
 See in pp. 114-116 the names of all the species which have been collected by Prof. Virchow. 
 
Chap. VII.] 
 
 RELICS OF FOOD IN THE HOUSES. 
 
 319 
 
 a bone of a domestic bird, especially of a domestic fowl. I believed 
 I could the more certainly hope to find such, as I saw in Mr. Calvert's 
 possession at Thymbra (Batak), among the objects collected at the 
 Hanal Tepeh, an egg, which I held to be a hen's egg. At all events, 
 I found nothing of the kind at Hissarlik. It, therefore, appears that 
 the domestic fowl was not used there. 
 
 "In moderate, quantities, but in all the strata, occurred bones of 
 domesticated mammalia ; but not by any means in such large quantities 
 that the inhabitants of the ancient cities could be credited with being 
 essentially meat-eaters. Nevertheless, there could be gathered a supply 
 of bones large enough to give specimens of them to all the museums of 
 Europe. But as the greater part of these bones were crushed, and as it 
 was not my principal object to make osteological investigations, I have 
 brought away with me only a small number of bones that can be dis- 
 tinctly identified, especially jaw-bones. From these it can be recognized 
 that the domestic animals chiefly represented here are the sheep and 
 the goat, and next to them horned cattle. Of pigs, horses, and dogs I 
 only found traces now and then. From this it is evident that, the cat 
 excepted, all the essentially domestic animals existed, but that — as is still 
 the case in the East, and even in Greece— oxen were only slaughtered 
 exceptionally, and therefore that the meat which served for food was by 
 preference taken from sheep or goats. I do not, of course, maintain that 
 horses or dogs were eaten : their presence within the old ruins only 
 shows that the inhabitants did not take the trouble to throw the carcases 
 out of the city. 
 
 " Of wild mammalia, I found bones of stags and hares. Horns of 
 fallow-deer and boar-tusks have been collected in large numbers. 
 Generally speaking, the study of the animal matter which I collected in 
 the strata of Hissarlik proves the stability of the Trojan manner of 
 life with reference to the culture of husbandry. To the present day, 
 as has been already stated, herds of sheep and goats, next to those of 
 horses and horned cattle, form the chief wealth of the Trojans. Camels 
 and buffaloes were probably introduced at a later period ; but they are 
 still possessed only by the more wealthy, whilst the common peasant does 
 without them. 
 
 " From the bones were made quantities of small instruments, especially 
 scrapers, awls, and needles. But their forms are so trivial, that they 
 might belong with equal right to any pre-historic settlement. Nothing 
 could be more easy than to pick out from the ruins of these ancient 
 cities a collection of bone and stone instruments, which, if they were 
 found alone, would suffice to allot to these strata a place among the 
 beginnings of civilization. 
 
 " But the vegetable food found along with them, and that in a sur- 
 prising quantity, proves to us that even the most ancient layers belong to 
 a settled, that is, an agricultural population. Especially in the third, the 
 burnt city, there are found in some places very large quantities of burnt 
 grain, whole coherent layers, partly in their original position, but fre- 
 quently in such a manner as to make it evident that, in the breaking 
 
320 
 
 THE THIRD, THE BURNT CITY. 
 
 [Chap. VII. 
 
 down of the buildings, the grain fell from higher places into lower. Thus, 
 the bottom of some of the holes, resembling fireplaces, was especially- 
 covered with large layers of carbonized grain. Among this grain the 
 most abundant is wheat, of which very large quantities could have been 
 gathered. The grains of it are so small that it comes very near to 
 rye. 9 Much more rarely, but in several places at some distance from each 
 other, I found in the burnt city, in small quantities, but also in heaps, a 
 leguminous plant, whose calcined, roundish, angular grains reminded me 
 somewhat of pease. But Dr. Wittmack has determined them to belong 
 to the bitter vetch (Ervum Ervilia, L.). Hence may be decided the old 
 question of the signification of the word epeftivOos. Manifestly the first 
 two syllables correspond to Ervum. Certainly the words Erbse (' pease ') 
 and opoftos (' chick pease ') 10 belong to the same family of languages, but 
 at an early epoch a certain distinction had been established in their 
 employment, and the pease proper ought to be excluded from the ancient 
 Trojan agriculture. 11 
 
 9 Dr. Wittmack (Monatsschrift des Vereins 
 zur Befdrderung des Gartenbaucs in den Konigl. 
 preussischen Staaten, October 1879) has exa- 
 mined this wheat and recognized in it a parti- 
 cular variety, which he calls " Triticum durum, 
 var. trojanum." 
 
 10 Victor Hehn, Kulturpflanzen und HaustMere 
 in ihrem Uebergang aus Asien nach Griechenland 
 und Italien, sowie in das iibrige Europa ; Berlin, 
 1874, p. 187. 
 
 11 In the Appendix to his Beitr'dge zur Landes- 
 kunde der Troas Prof. Virchow proves, however, 
 that pease (Erbsen) really existed at Troy. I 
 give here a literal translation of the whole Ap- 
 pendix, as it contains a great deal of interesting 
 information : — 
 
 " Somewhat late there has arrived here a parcel 
 of seeds from the Troad, which I had ordered in 
 order to compare them with the carbonized 
 seeds of the burnt city at Hissarlik. Dr. Witt- 
 mack has had the kindness to determine them. 
 I add here a specification of them. 
 
 " 1. Ertum Ervilia L., Ervilic, lentil-vetch. 
 
 " 2. Dolichos melanophtlialmus D. C, black- 
 eyed long bean. 
 
 " 3. Phaseolus vulgaris albus Haberle, common 
 white bean, of various sizes, mixed with some 
 Ph. vulg. glaucoides Alef. (Ph. ellipticus ame- 
 thyst inus, v. Mart.), some Ph. vulg. ochraceus 
 Savi, and one Ph. vulg. Pardus carneus, v. Mart. 
 (light-coloured panther-bean). (Transitions fre- 
 quently occur with beans.) 
 
 " 4. Vicia Faba L., hog's bean, for the most 
 part very large. 
 
 " 5. Cicer arietinum L., album Alef., chick- 
 pea, white. 
 
 " 6. Lathgrus sativus L., chickling-vetch ; 
 white, with more or less rust-colonred dapples 
 (in German, Schechcn), which proceed from the 
 navel, and cover, in some cases, the whole seed- 
 corn. It thus shows the transition from L. sat. 
 albus Alef. to L. sat. coloratus Alef. ; but the 
 
 rust-brown dapples (in German, Schattirung') 
 are also frequent on pure E. sat. albus. 
 
 " 7. Avena orientalis ?, flava, Kornicke, brown- 
 yellow oats. Mixed with this : 1, barley ; 2, 
 rye ; 3, Lolium temulentum L. ; 4, one single 
 very small wheat-grain, of Triticum sativum 
 L. ; 5, one single larger (eviscerated) grain of 
 Tr. durum Desf. ; 6, a grain of Bromus 
 secalinus L. ? ; 7, a fruit of Alopecurus ; 8, a 
 fruit of Anchusa sp., belonging to the section 
 Buglossum — perhaps A. Italica Retz, perhaps 
 A. Barrclicri D. C, the granulation of the 
 little nut being missing; 9, a fruit of Alsi- 
 nearum sp. 
 
 " 8. Sorghum vulgarc, Pers. Durrlia, millet 
 of Mauritania, white (Andropogon Sorghum 
 album, Alefeld). 
 
 " 9. Yellow maize (Indian corn), with 14 
 lines or rows, Zea Mays autumnalis Alef. ; 
 clubs 24J centimetres (nearly 10 in.) long ; 
 below the rows are irregular, and the diameter 
 is there 6 centimetres (2 T 4 g in.), above 3-7 centi- 
 metres (nearly 1| in.) ; grains for the most 
 part very regular, somewhat flatly pressed. 
 
 " 10. Red maize, with 14 lines or rows, Zea 
 Mays rubra Bonaf. : clubs shorter than the, 
 former, 15J centimetres (61 in.) long : the upper 
 end for 1J centimetres (? in.) naked ; diameter, 
 below 5 - 35 centimetres (2-^-, in.), above 3 - l 
 centimetres (l-$ 5 in.). 
 
 " 11. Gossypium herbaceum L., cotton. 
 
 " 12. -> Hordeum vulgare L., gcnuinum Alef., 
 barley, with 4 lines. With it : 1, the above- 
 mentioned oats (No. 7) in some grains ; 2, 
 Sinapis arvensis L., Ackersenf ; 3. Triticum 
 durum, a grain ; 4, Coronilla sp. ; 5, several 
 other weed-seeds (three grains). 
 
 " Among these seeds the pease as well as the 
 vetch are missing. On the other hand, the Ervilia 
 is represented, which was also found in the burnt 
 city. The probability that cpefiivOos is to be 
 interpreted as ' pease ' would be somewhat 
 
Chap. VII.j 
 
 THE PEOPLE WERE AGRICULTURAL. 
 
 321 
 
 " The very poetical passage in the Iliad, 1 in which ipeftivOot, are men- 
 tioned, in a metaphor taken from the process of fanning, names both this 
 vegetable and the bean : ' As from a broad fan on a large threshing-floor 
 black-skinned beans or pease leap forth, driven by a shrill wind and 
 by the winnower's power.' The ' black-skinned ' bean is the hog's bean 
 (Vicia Faba, L.), 2 which is still cultivated in the Troad as one of the 
 most common products of the soil. I collected an abundance of carbonized 
 beans in different parts of the burnt city, and, in particular, very well 
 preserved ones in a place immediately before the city wall, to the left of 
 the gate ; whether it were that a building had fallen over the wall, or 
 that the beans belonged to a still more ancient epoch. 
 
 " It is certainly absolutely necessary that the two kinds of testimonies, 
 of which I am treating here, should be rigorously distinguished. It is self- 
 evident that the testimony of the Iliad proves nothing directly for the 
 culture of a vegetable by the inhabitants of ancient Ilium, and least of all 
 in a metaphor, the prototype of which may very well have been taken 
 from Greece. On the other hand, the testimony of the carbonized seed is 
 a positive one. Whether the old fortress were called Ilium or not, we 
 now know undoubtedly that wheat, beans, and erva were cultivated in the 
 plain, before the great conflagration destroyed the whole city. We know 
 this with the same certainty as we now know that sheep and goats, 
 horned cattle, hogs and horses, were already at that time pastured in the 
 Troad ; that hares, 3 stags and fallow-deer, geese and swans, were at that 
 time hunted. Whether the agreement of the poem with the real con- 
 dition of the Troad, as it was preserved for a long time afterwards, and 
 partly up to the present day, is to be rated higher or lower, I leave to 
 the judgment of philologists. For the historian of human progress these 
 testimonies may at all events have some importance. 
 
 "With regard to the social condition of the ancient population, we 
 have now the certainty : first, that they were agriculturists, which agrees 
 with the Homeric representations ; secondly, that to a large extent 
 they busied themselves with the breeding of cattle and fishing : this 
 latter industry they carried on, not only in the rivers, but more particu- 
 larly in the sea, and from both sources they derived rich results. For 
 
 strengthened by this, if the last parcel from 
 Hissarlik had not contained also carbonized 
 seeds. When these grains came before me, I 
 held them at once to be pease. (Zcitschr. fiir 
 Ethnologic, 1879, vol. xi. ; Verhandlungen der 
 anthrop. Gesellschaft, p. 50.) But the small 
 samples of burnt seeds which I had brought 
 with me seemed to contradict this interpreta- 
 tion, because Dr. Wittmack recognized only 
 Ervum Ervilia L., and perhaps Lathyrus Cicera 
 L. By the last parcel only has Dr. Wittmack 
 become convinced that Pisum sativum L. abun- 
 dantly exists. It can, therefore, be considered 
 now as firmly established, that the pease was 
 already in use in the burnt city, if not earlier 
 w the Troad. Consequently the interpretation 
 of zpifrivQos ought to be made in the contra- 
 
 dictory sense, and the word ought to be referred 
 to the pease. 
 
 " At all events the old botanical dispute as to 
 the knowledge of the pease by the ancients has 
 now been definitely decided. Among the car 
 bonized seeds - from Hissarlik there occurred, 
 besides, especially hog's beans and Triticum 
 durum, whereas, strange to say, barley has not 
 been found." 
 
 1 II. xiii. 588-590: 
 
 &s 8' or airb irhartos irrv6(piv fxeydkyi' /cot' 
 
 BpuxTKuariv Kva/uLOi ^XavSxpo^s '*) zpefiwOoi 
 irvoirj vtto Kiyvprj /cat \iK/ji.r]TTjpos ipwfj . . . 
 
 2 Helm, p. 485. 
 a //. x. 361 : 
 
 ^ /ce^uaS' 77 e Xayoobv . . . 
 
 Y 
 
322 
 
 THE THIRD, THE BURNT CITY. 
 
 [Chap. VII. 
 
 reasons easily to be conceived, fishing is not mentioned in the Iliad : if 
 the coast was occupied by the Achaeans, it became impossible. Much 
 more copious is the information of the Iliad as to the pastoral life of 
 the ancient Trojans : the king himself had his principal wealth in the 
 
 herds which his sons tended. In the main this condition has not changed 
 
 o 
 
 much, down to the present day. The population still consists half of 
 agriculturists, the other half of herdsmen; and fishing is carried on 
 with success in the Hellespont, as well as in the Aegean Sea." 
 
 The late Staff-surgeon Edward L. Moss — who, as I have said, fre- 
 quently gave me the pleasure of his company at Hissarlik in October and 
 November 1878, and who for a great many days studied the osteology of 
 this most remarkable third or burnt city — sent me the following highly 
 interesting information from on board the ill-fated Atalanta, under date 
 of 5th November, 1879 : — " I cannot leave England without sending you 
 a note about the bones I collected from the ' burnt layers ' with my own 
 hands, and which, by-the-bye, so nearly brought me to grief in the 
 Scamander. 4 Since the animals are well known, I give the popular 
 names : moreover, the bones are too much burnt and broken to make very 
 certain of variety or species. Many of the bones are marked by sharp- 
 cutting instruments, especially near their articular extremities, as if the 
 carver had missed the joint. Others have been gnawed by dogs. The 
 shin-bone of a deer has been used as a handle for some tool, is bored 
 and notched at the lower end to receive a flint or bronze head, and is 
 much worn by the hand. The marrow-bones are all broken open. The 
 bones represent : — 
 
 " Ox ; a small deer-like species, probably ' longifrons : ' — deer ; there 
 are several cast antlers of red deer with the tip of the brow-tine sawn off ; 
 bones are numerous: — goat : — sheep: — fig; more abundant than any 
 other . bones ; the large proportion of very young animals points to 
 domestication ; bones and tusks of large boars were common : — dog ; part 
 of the skull and paw : — weasel ; a skull : — birds are represented by the 
 tibia of a Teal and wing-bones of a Wader. 
 
 " Fish ; vertebrae of Tunny, and of a small bony fish ; also vertebrae of 
 a large cartilaginous fish, and palate teeth of a Bay. 
 
 " The mollusca include almost all the kinds now used for food in the 
 Levant : — cockles : — oysters : — mussel : — scallop : — limpet : — razor shell : — 
 whelk. There is, in addition, a fragment of a Trochus; one or two 
 specimens of a Cerithium vulgatuni ; and a Columhella rustica ; the latter 
 bored as if to string it. 
 
 4 The Scamander being suddenly swollen by 
 the heavy rain during Dr. Moss's visit at Hissarlik, 
 he had, on his return, a very narrow escape. His 
 horse having lost its footing, he abandoned the 
 animal in order that it might return to Hissarlik, 
 and, being an excellent swimmer, he swam 
 through the torrent-like river and went on 
 foot to Besika Bay. Whoever has seen the 
 swollen Scamander with its powerful current 
 will wonder how it was ever possible that even 
 
 the best swimmer in the world could swim 
 through it. I am a good swimmer myself, but 
 failed to cross even the Jordan at Easter 1859, 
 though this latter river is hardly half as broad 
 as the Scamander, while its current is less rapid. 
 After having escaped thousands of dangers in 
 the Arctic seas, and after having miraculously 
 saved himself from the Scamander, it was des- 
 tined for Dr. Moss to perish in the Atalanta. 
 
Chap. VII.] 
 
 BONES OF UNBOBN CHILDREN". 
 
 323 
 
 " I saw no human bones except those of an unborn child of about six 
 months lying in an earthen pot, on a quantity of much-charred fragments 
 of other bones." 
 
 Having submitted to Professor W. H. Flower, of the Eoyal College of 
 Surgeons of England, eight vertebras of fish found by me in the third 
 or burnt city, for identification, he declares one of them to be the caudal 
 vertebra of Delphinus Delphis, the common Dolphin of the Mediterranean ; 
 two others he finds to be the dorsal vertebrm of the Tunny (Thynnus 
 vulgaris) ; and five he recognized to be the vertebras of a small species 
 of Shark. 
 
 A very curious petrified bone, found in the " burnt city," was sub- 
 mitted by me to Mr. Wm. Davies, of the Fossil Department of the British 
 Museum, who writes to me on the subject as follows : — 
 
 " The fossil bone submitted to me for examination is a middle caudal 
 vertebra of an extinct Cetacean, allied to the Delphinidae or Dolphin 
 family. It is completely mineralized, and was probably obtained by its 
 ancient owner from a Miocene tertiary deposit, either in the Troad or in 
 Greece, Fossil remains were objects of attraction to pre-historic man, as 
 they are occasionally found — the smaller forms frequently perforated for 
 ornamental wear — associated with bone and flint implements, in caves and 
 Lake-dwellings, though not always derived from deposits in the imme- 
 diate locality of such dwellings." 
 
 As Dr. Moss mentions in his letter the embryo child whose bones 
 he saw in my possession, I may here say that I found besides it, and also 
 besides the one discovered in an urn on the virgin soil (see p. 227), the 
 bones of two more embryo children, both together with ashes on the 
 bottom of fractured jars. It appears wonderful that the bodies of these 
 unborn children should have been preserved, whilst all other bodies were 
 burnt. In the opinion of Prof. Aretaeos, who kindly recomposed the 
 first skeleton of the embryo (as I have said before), its presence in an urn 
 filled with human ashes can only be explained by supposing that, the 
 mother having died from the effect of her miscarriage, her body was 
 burnt and her ashes put into a funeral urn, into which the unburnt body 
 of the embryo was also thrown. But if this occurred in the case of the 
 embryo found in the first city, may we not suppose that it was a custom 
 so general in high antiquity as to survive the first two cities, and to be 
 still practised by the inhabitants of the third city ? 
 
 As I have before mentioned, 5 besides the large street, which leads from 
 the plain to the gate, I brought to light only one more street, or rather 
 lane ; it is 1*20 m. = 4 ft. broad, and paved with large flags of limestone. 6 
 Visitors will easily find it on the east side of my great northern trench. 
 There is, besides, a passage only 2 ft. broad between the Trojan houses, 
 running off at right angles from the street d to the N.E. 
 
 Among the many problems which the ruins of the burnt city present, 
 there is one which has puzzled us very much indeed. It is the shape of 
 a large quadrangular chest, which is most distinctly seen in the mors 
 
 5 See p. 54. 
 
324 
 
 THE THIRD, THE BURNT CITY. 
 
 [Chap. YII. 
 
 northerly of the two large blocks of debris which mark the original 
 height of the hill before my excavations, on the east side of my great 
 central trench, and whose height is indicated as 8 metres. 7 It contains 
 at its bottom a large quantity of carbonized grain ; the rest of the chest- 
 like quadrangular space being filled with ashes and bricks, which have 
 evidently fallen from above. The shape of the chest is distinctly marked 
 by lines of charcoal. Now the most embarrassing thing is, that the layers 
 of grain and debris in the chest continue, for some distance outside of it, 
 with no other interruption than the carbonized lines. On carefully 
 examining the lines of charcoal, M. Burnouf found the matter to consist 
 of a burnt texture, probably of reed, and he recognized on either side of it 
 a layer of earth vitrified by the conflagration. 
 
 M. Burnouf now writes to me that he finds the following in the work 
 of Xavier Kaymond on Afghanistan : — " The grain is shut up in large 
 baskets placed on wooden feet, and coated over with earth, to preserve 
 it from the contact of the air, and to protect it against humidity ; it is 
 also preserved in large jars of raw earth, and in bags of camel's hair." 
 M. Burnouf thinks that this account of X. Kaymond might explain 
 the above enigma. I admit that it must indeed have been a large 
 basket in the form of a chest, coated outside and inside with earth, but 
 I do not understand how this can explain the existence of the same strata 
 of grain and debris outside and inside of the chest ! 
 
 By far the most remarkable of all the houses which I have brought to 
 light in the third, the burnt city, is undoubtedly the mansion immediately 
 to the north-west of the gate, which I attribute to the town-chief or king : 
 first, because this is by far the largest house of all ; and secondly, because, 
 as before stated, I found in or close to it nine out of the ten treasures 
 which were discovered, as well as a very large quantity of pottery, which, 
 though without painting and of the same forms as that found elsewhere, 
 was distinguished, generally speaking, by its fabric. A good view of 
 this royal mansion is given in the engraving No. 188, from a drawing 
 made by my late lamented friend Dr. Edward Moss in November 1878, 
 when the buildings in the foreground, which appear to be its depen- 
 dencies, had not yet been excavated. Just in front of the entrance to 
 the chief or king's mansion is an open place : this is the only open place 
 in the town, and may therefore have been the Agora. This would agree 
 with Homer, who tells us that the Trojans, young and old, were assembled 
 in the Agora before the king's doors. 8 In another passage the poet tells 
 us that the Trojans held a tumultuous and stormy Agora before the king's 
 door in the Acropolis of Ilium. 9 
 
 What the reader sees of the town-chief's mansion in the engraving are 
 merely the walls of the ground-floor, 4 ft. 4 in. high on the average, which 
 consist of small uncut stones joined with earth, and also (as M. Burnouf 
 finds), " with ashes containing charcoal, shells, fragments of pottery, and 
 
 ' See Plan III., Section X-Y. 9 II. vii. 345, 346: 
 
 8 //. ii. 788, 789 : Tpaiwv air ayopy yever 'IAuw eV 7roAei &Kprj, 
 
 o* 8' ayopas ay6pevov iir\ Ylpiafxoio dvpycriv Zzivrj TeTpj^uta, irapa IlpidfAOio Qvpr,<riv. 
 7rcu/Tes 6ix-qyep4e.s, i]/j.eu veoi .^Se yepovres. 
 
Chap. VII.] 
 
 THE ROYAL HOUSE. 
 
 325 
 
 broken bones ; with brick-matter mixed with grey earth, and with a magma 
 of yellow earth and ashes. There are also in these house-walls fragments of 
 bricks, more or less baked, as well as fragments of large jars supplying 
 
 sometimes the place of stones (in the second and third walls). The base 
 of the walls is composed of small clay cakes, yellow earth, grey or brown 
 
S26 
 
 THE THIRD, THE BURNT CITY. 
 
 [Chap. VII. 
 
 or black ashes, and fragments of bricks laid in all directions. There are 
 also large pieces of charcoal, marking the place of the beams of which the 
 floor seems to have consisted. 
 
 " The coatings of the walls are composed of the same magma as the 
 matter with which the stones are joined. The finest coatings are 
 smoothed, not with a trowel, but with a sort of whitish-yellow clay-milk, 
 which has left a layer as thick as paper ; there are coatings of two or 
 three such layers. This painting, if we may call it so, follows all the 
 sinuosities of the coating, which itself follows those of the wall. This 
 clay-milk has not a uniform colour ; it borrows its colour from the ground 
 which it covers ; it consequently seems to have been made simply with 
 water, with which the surface of the coating has repeatedly been washed. 
 
 " The coatings which are less fine (second chamber) are composed of 
 the same materials, mixed with straw, of which the projections and the 
 hollows may be seen on the surface of the coating. This process is still 
 in use in the country. 
 
 " The walls of this house have not been built on a burnt soil, but 
 have themselves been exposed to an intense heat in the great conflagra- 
 tion. The black vapour of the intense heat has here and there penetrated 
 far into them, particularly in the lower part." 
 
 In the absence of cellars, this ground-floor served as a store-room. A 
 similar practice of using the ground-floor as a store-room appears to have 
 existed at the time of Homer, for we see in the Iliad 10 that Hecuba 
 descends to the store-room, where the skilfully embroidered vestures were 
 stored. Had the store-room been on the floor inhabited by the family, 
 the poet would not have said that the queen descended. If asked : — Is 
 this Priam's palace as described by Homer — " But when he came to 
 Priam's splendid house, adorned with polished corridors, in which were 
 fifty chambers built of polished stone, all side by side. There the sons 
 of Priam slept with their wedded wives. Facing these on the other side 
 of the court within were built twelve covered chambers, side by side, of 
 polished stone. There the sons-in-law of Priam slept beside their chaste 
 wives: — I would answer with the verse of Virgil, 
 
 "Si parva licet componere magnis." 2 
 
 But Homer can never have seen the Troy whose tragic fate he describes, 
 because at his time, and probably ages before his time, the city he 
 glorifies was buried beneath mountains of debris. In his time public 
 edifices, and probably also royal mansions, were built of polished stones ; 
 he therefore attributes the same architecture to Priam's mansion, magni- 
 fying it with poetic licence. 
 
 " vi. 288, 289: 
 aiirij 5' ('EKa/37}) is QaXajxov Kare^-fivero KTjcvevra, 
 tV0' ivav oi ireirXoi irafjuro'ucihoi, ipya yvvaM- 
 0)l> . . . 
 
 1 II. vi. 242-250 : 
 aAA.' bVe Sfy Ylpidjxoio Zojxou irepiKaXXe "tcavev, 
 |«ctt^s aidovo-pai Tervyfxivov — avrap iv avTai 
 irzvTriKovr tvzaav QaXauoi £e<TTO?o XiOoio, 
 
 ■K\-r\(Tioi aXXrjXuv 5ed/u.rj/j.4uoi' evOa Se 7ra?5ey 
 KoijJLtovro Upidjxoio ivapa fj.vrj(TT7js aX6xoi(Tiv. 
 Kovpdcov 5' krepcaQsv ivavrloi euSodev avXris 
 SwSe/c' %aav reyeoi QaXajxoi ^earoTo xlOoio, 
 irXrjo-loi aXXriXwv dedfirj/uLevoi • eu6a 5e yafx^pol 
 Koipi&vTo Upid/noio irap' alSo'iys aX6xoi<riv. 
 2 Georgic. iv. 176. 
 
Chap. VII.] 
 
 THE ROOMS OF THE MANSION. 
 
 327 
 
 This building has towards the gate a corridor 40 ft. 8 in. long by 6 ft. 
 wide, leading to a chamber only 7 ft. 6 in. long by 4 ft. 6 in. broad, 
 in which the ingenious Dr. Moss discovered a gutter of hemispherical 
 form ; this room is nearly filled up by a huge jar 5 ft. 6 in. high and 
 4 ft. 6 in. broad in the body. By a doorway only 1ft. 10 in. wide, 
 this chamber communicates with another and larger one, which is 
 12 ft. 3J in. long and 7 ft. 4 in. broad, and contains three immense jars of 
 precisely the same size as that just referred to, and a somewhat smaller 
 one : the pottery of the jars is upwards of 2 in. thick. From this room 
 we enter by a doorway, 3 ft. 2 in. wide, into a larger one, which runs 
 parallel with the aforesaid corridor, and is 24 ft. 4 in. long and 12 ft. 
 broad, and leads to another chamber 10 ft. long and 8 ft. broad. This is 
 the best preserved part of the mansion, to which — as above said — must 
 also belong the buildings which separate it from the northern part of the 
 great wall. 
 
 This large house, as well as its dependencies to the north, was buried 
 9 and 10 ft. deep in mounds of bricks and yellow wood-ashes, which 
 cannot but belong to the walls of the upper storeys, and go far to prove 
 that these buildings had many upper floors and were perhaps five or 
 six storeys high. I therefore do not see any reason why the mansion, 
 with its dependencies, may not have had even more than 100 rooms, 
 smaller or larger. 
 
 The bricks are nearly all broken ; I secured, however, some entire 
 ones, which are 2 ft. long, 1 ft. 3 in. broad, and 3 J in. thick, and which have 
 been converted by the conflagration into a sort of baked brick. But far 
 from rendering them more solid, the intense heat has made them for 
 the most part very fragile, and it has more or less vitrified a vast number 
 of them. 
 
 As I have said before, in several directions beneath the royal mansion 
 we see the walls of a much more ancient house, which we cannot but 
 ascribe to the second city erected on this sacred site, because all the 
 fragments of pottery which we find in the chambers of this . ancient 
 mansion, immediately below the stratum of the third or burnt city, have 
 on both sides that peculiar lustrous red, black, or brown colour, which is 
 no longer found in the layers of the third or of the following cities. 
 
 One of the most curious objects ever found in my excavations is 
 undoubtedly a distaff, 11 'in. long, around which is wound lengthwise a 
 large quantity of woollen thread, as black as coal, evidently from being 
 charred. I discovered it in the royal mansion at a depth of 28 ft. below 
 the surface. According to Dr. Moss, the wood of the distaff was the stem 
 of a very young tree. 
 
 As a general rule, I may say that the stratum of this third, the burnt 
 city, begins at a depth of from 22 to 23 ft., and reaches down to a depth 
 of from 30 to 33 ft. But there are exceptions ; as, for example, imme- 
 diately outside the city, on the north-east side of the city wall, 3 we 
 brought to light, at a depth of only 12 to 13 ft., a great many buildings 
 
 3 See Plan I. (of Troy), ee,N N t na. 
 
328 
 
 THE THIRD, THE BURNT CITY. 
 
 [Chap. VII. 
 
 which evidently belonged to a suburb. The enormous masses of calcined 
 matter and partly vitrified bricks, with which the stone ground-floors of 
 the houses were filled ; as well as the pottery, all of which bore marks of 
 the conflagration; and finally a treasure of gold ornaments, which was 
 found there at the depth of 13 ft. on a house-wall, and which in quality 
 and fabric perfectly agrees with the gold ornaments found in nine different 
 places in or near the royal mansion ; — all these facts leave no doubt that a 
 suburb extended on that side. This suburb seems to have been inhabited 
 by poor people, for the scarcity of objects found there is remarkable. On 
 the ruins of these burnt buildings of the suburb are superimposed the 
 buildings of the succeeding town, on which follow abruptly the vast 
 substructions of the Hellenic city. Under the temple of Athene, of which 
 several walls may be seen in Plan IY. (Section Z-Z, under the letter 
 u), the ruins and debris of the burnt city follow almost abruptly below 
 these walls ; a fact of which visitors will have no difficulty in convincing 
 themselves. As before stated, we find it difficult to explain this otherwise 
 than by supposing that the site where this temple stood was once much 
 higher, and that it had been artificially levelled to build the edifice. 
 
 I also repeat here that all the peoples who succeeded each other on 
 Hissarlik were in the habit of shooting a great part of their rubbish and 
 debris from the slopes of the hill, partly perhaps merely to get rid of them, 
 partly to extend the site for building upon. Besides, in the great confla- 
 gration large masses of crumbling bricks and other ruins must have fallen 
 from the tumbling towers or houses with which the walls were sur- 
 mounted, and perhaps still larger masses of debris of the burnt city were 
 shot on the slope by the new settlers. For all these reasons the ruins and 
 debris of the third, the burnt city, extend for some distance, and sometimes 
 for more than 60 ft. beyond its walls. But the quantity of debris and 
 rubbish shot on the slope by the people of the four subsequent towns, and 
 consequently the increase in width of the hill of Hissarlik, has been so 
 enormous, that even if we sank a shaft 100 ft. deep on the brink of the 
 present north-eastern, northern, or north-western slope, we should find no 
 debris at all of the burnt city ; nay, we should probably find there nothing 
 else than debris and ruins of the upper or Hellenic city. I cannot, I 
 think, illustrate this better than by the accompanying engraving No. 189, 
 
 No. 189. Mound of debris c of Plan I. (of Troy), forming the east side of the great northern trench. This engraving 
 represents its west side, a marks the present s-lope of the hill. The layers of debris to the left appear to date 
 from the construction of the marble temple. The upper house-walls, as well as those near the slope, likewise 
 belong to Novum Ilium. These walls have given way under the lateral pressure of the debris. The stones in 
 the middle appear to have formed the floor of a large room. 
 
 which represents the mound of debris (c on Plan I., of Troy), which 
 visitors see to the east in entering my great trench from the north. 
 
Chap. VII.] 
 
 POTTERY, CHIEFLY HAND-MADE. 
 
 329 
 
 a marks the slope to the north. The whole upper portion of this mound 
 as well as the upper walls and the layers indicated by slanting lines, 
 •contain ruins and debris of the Hellenic time. Then follow in the lowest 
 layers of debris to the right, fragments of house-walls of the latest pre- 
 historic city. There are in this mound no remains of the fourth or the 
 third, the burnt city : to find these latter we should have to dig down at 
 the right-hand corner, probably for 10 ft. or 20 ft. more. Thus it is not 
 always by the depth that we can determine what belongs to the one or to 
 the other city ; for Hellenic figurines, which occur on the mound close to 
 the surface, may be found on the slopes at a depth of 100 ft. But with 
 the exception of the site of the temple of Athene, the layers of debris 
 within the city walls succeed each other regularly ; and if we take as a 
 standard the appearance, shape, and fabric of the pottery found there in 
 the stratum of the third, the burnt city, at a depth of from 22 to 33 ft., 
 we may easily discover what of the pottery, found elsewhere in a greater 
 or a lesser depth, belongs to this same city. I say we may judge from 
 its appearance, because the pottery which has sustained the intense heat 
 of the conflagration bears the most distinct marks of it and can at once 
 be recognized. 
 
 The pottery of this third city is nearly all hand-made, and, having been 
 baked at an open fire, it was certainly not more baked than that of all the 
 other pre-historic cities at Hissarlik. The intense heat of the conflagra- 
 tion has sufficed to bake it thoroughly in a great many instances, but by 
 no means always ; nay, as we distinctly see in the fracture, by far the 
 greater part of the pottery is not thoroughly baked. Among that tho- 
 roughly baked is certainly all the broken pottery, which was so exposed to 
 the fire that the intense heat reached it on both sides ; but wherever this 
 has not been the case, the original baking of the pottery was only increased 
 by the fire, still remaining incomplete in a great many instances. The 
 conflagration, however, has sufficed to give to most of the pottery a red 
 tinge or a lustrous light or dark red colour, from the oxide of iron con- 
 tained in the clay. 
 
 In treating now of the various kinds of pottery of this third city, 
 I begin with the owl-faced idols and vases, and I would repeatedly call 
 very particular attention to the fact, that the idols, of which I collected 
 about 700, are all of the same shape ; that they represent in the rudest 
 possible outlines a female form ; and that, therefore, they cannot but be 
 copies of the ancient Palladium, which was fabled to have fallen from 
 heaven with joined feet. Now the feet cannot be imagined to be more 
 joined than they are here, where the whole inferior part of the body is 
 represented by a large lump. I further lay stress on the fact, that the 
 shape of the idol is as truly as possible copied on and imitated by the 
 vases, with the sole difference that here the characteristics of a woman 
 are more distinctly shown. Either, therefore, the owl-headed vases were 
 also idols ; or — and this is more likely — they were sacred vases, and only 
 used for the service of the goddess. 
 
 The assertion is gratuitous, though it has been repeatedly made, that 
 we have here merely rude representations of a woman made by a primitive 
 
330 THE THIRD, THE BURNT CITY. [Chap. TIL 
 
 people, who did not know how to model anything better. But that they 
 were perfectly able to model symmetrical human faces, is a fact which 
 I could not show better than by representing here, under No. 190, a vase- 
 
 No. 190. Head of a Vase, with Man's Head. 
 (Half actual size. Depth, 26 ft.) 
 
 No. 191. Figure oi Terru-cutta. (2 : 3 actual size. 
 Depth, 26 ft.) 
 
 head found in the burnt city at a depth of 26 ft., on which is modelled a 
 man's head with perfectly symmetrical features. I call attention to its 
 Egyptian type. The mouth and the nose are very small in proportion to 
 the eyes. It is of a lustrous-brown colour, and bears the marks of the 
 conflagration by which it has been thoroughly baked. The terra-cotta 
 figure No. 191 also represents a regular man's face ; it is of a dull yellow 
 colour, and also thoroughly baked in the conflagration. The remarkable 
 female figure of lead, No. 226, which I shall more amply discuss in the 
 subsequent pages, represents again a complete female figure. I now beg 
 the reader to compare these two figures of men and the one of a woman 
 with the rude owl-faced woman on the idols Nos. 193-223, represented in 
 the ensuing pages ; and those modelled on the vases Nos. 227, 228, 229, 
 231, 232, 233, 238 : — and then to consider whether there is any possibility 
 of admitting that a people, which could model those regular human figures, 
 should have been unable to make anything better than the hideous owl- 
 faced vases and idols, which far exceed in rudeness anything hitherto found 
 elsewhere. But there were powerful reasons why they continued to make 
 the stone idols and the owl-faced vases always of the same rude form, and 
 why their successors and the successors of their successors carefully 
 imitated them ; nay, in the last, the uppermost pre-historic city, the 
 fifth in succession from the virgin soil, owl-vases as rude as No. 229 and 
 idols like Nos. 202-222 are even more plentiful than in any of the pre- 
 ceding cities. 
 
 Why then did they continue, from the beginning to the end, to make 
 such monstrous representations of their tutelary deity, if they were per- 
 fectly able to represent her, both in stone and clay, in tolerable imitation 
 of nature ? It was because they clung with fervent zeal to the shape of 
 their Palladium, which had become consecrated by the precedent of ages. 
 This is by no means an isolated case, peculiar to the five Trojan cities. 
 Very numerous Hera-idols of gold in the shape of cows or cow-heads, as 
 well as Hera-idols in the form of a woman with a very compressed head 
 and two cow-horns, were found by me in the ancient royal sepulchres of 
 
Chap. VII.] 
 
 IDOLS: PROBABLY PALLADIA. 
 
 331 
 
 Mycenae; 4 for which, agreeing, I think, with all archaeologists, I claim 
 the date of 1500 to 1200 b.c. Cow-shaped Hera-idols, as well as Hera- 
 idols in the form of a horned woman or other monstrous forms, of terra- 
 cotta, were also found at Mycenae, in the very lowest strata outside the 
 sepulchres and in all the successive layers, without the slightest alteration 
 in form or even in colour. 5 Thus it is evident that the cow-shaped Hera, 
 or Hera in the form of a horned woman, was worshipped there until 
 the final destruction and abandonment of Mycenae. My explorations at 
 Tiryns have brought to light similar rude idols in all the layers of rubbish 
 which cover the site. 6 But we need not go so far back. Both in Bussia 
 and in Greece, the most archaic images of Christ and the Holy Virgin 
 are always the most prized by all true believers, and they are objects of 
 peculiar veneration. We cannot, therefore, wonder at seeing the Trojans 
 of the five pre-historic cities, which succeeded each other in the course of 
 ages on the hill of Hissarlik, copying and re-copying on their idols and 
 sacred vases the figure of their owl-headed BuTreres Palladium. 
 
 Of idols of other forms, only two were found in 
 the five cities ; for I hold the terra-cotta figure 
 No. 192 to be a toy for children and no idol. Our 
 present children would hardly model a better figure. 
 One of the peculiar forms of idols referred to, No. 
 226, has to be described presently ; the second is 
 represented under Nos. 193, 194; and even this 
 latter — from the breasts and the long hair on the 
 back— appears to represent a female goddess. 
 
 I further call attention to the idols Nos. 195 
 and 196, 199, 200, and 201, on which the projec- 
 tions on the sides are likewise indicated. If these No. 192. Rude figure of Terra- 
 
 . . 1 t -li cotta ; probably a child's toy. 
 
 projections on the idols are not made upright, as on (About half actual size, 
 the vases like No. 227, it is probably owing to their Depth, so ft.) 
 
 fragility, Nos. 195, 196 being a flat idol of clay, Nos. 199, 200 flat 
 idols of bone, and No. 201 a flat idol of trachyte. I also call attention 
 
 Nos. 193, 194. Idol of Terra-cotta. 
 (About half actual size. Deptb, 26 ft.) 
 
 Nos. 195, 196. Idol of Terra-cotta. 
 (About half actual size. Deptb, 23 ft.) 
 
 to the cover of the vase No. 227, the handle of which seems to imitate 
 the crest of a helmet, or the little tube (\o'0o?) into which the horse- 
 
 4 See my Mycenae, pp. 216-218, Nos. 327,328, Nos. 99-101; PI. xix. Nos. 103-110; and 
 329, 330 ; Plate xvii. Nos. 94-96. Coloured Plates A-D. 
 
 5 See my Mycenae, PI. xvii. No. 98 ; PI. xviii. 6 See my Mycenae, pp. 10-12, Nos. 2-11. 
 
332 
 
 THE THIRD, THE BURNT CITY. 
 
 LChap. VII. 
 
 No. 198. Idol of Terra- 
 cotta, with owl's face. 
 (Actual size. Depth, 20ft.) 
 
 No. 197. Idol of Marble. 
 (2 : 5 actual size. Depth, 26 ft.) 
 
 Nos. 199, 200. Idols of Bone. (1 : 8 actual 
 size. Depth, 22 to 26 ft.) 
 
 hair crest (LTrirovpis) was fastened ; finally, to the incisions in the edge 
 of the vase-cover, which cannot hut he meant to indicate the hair. The 
 hair is indicated in like manner on the forehead of the idols Nos. 205, 206, 
 
 207, 216, whereas on Nos. 194, 
 196, 200, and 239 it is indi- 
 cated on the hack. 
 
 Nos. 193 and 194 show the 
 front and hack of a broken figure 
 of terra-cotta ; the breasts ap- 
 pear to indicate that a woman 
 was intended to he represented ; 
 four strokes on the neck seem 
 to denote her armour ; only one 
 of the arms has been preserved, 
 which is in an upright position; 
 two lines proceeding from the 
 arms, and crossing each other 
 over the body, give her a war- 
 like appearance ; her long hair 
 is distinctly marked on the back 
 of the head. Nos. 195, 196 re- 
 present the very rude terra- 
 cotta idol referred to before ; it 
 is so rudely made that the eyes, 
 for instance, are above the eye- 
 brows, and the vulva just below 
 the beak, but still the form is 
 that of all the other idols : the 
 
 No.201. Idol of Trachyte. (About 1 :3 actual size. ■, i„-Ui„ ^ 4-1,^ "Ko^lr 
 
 Depth, 2G ft.) l°ng scratchmgs on the back, 
 
Chap. VIL] IDOLS OF TE11RA-COTTA, BONE, MARBLE, ETC. 333 
 
 indicating the hair, are very characteristic. No. 197 represents, in about 
 2 : 5 size, a marble idol in. long and 3 in. broad. No. 198 is the above- 
 mentioned idol of terra-cotta, which is bulged on both sides, and has two 
 large eyes and an owl-beak slightly protruding. Nos. 199 and 200 are the 
 
 No. 202. Marble Idol. (Actual size. Depth, about 28 ft.) 
 
 above-mentioned two flat idols of bone. Of a similar shape to No. 195, but 
 very thick and somewhat bulged, is the idol No. 201 (referred to above), 
 which is of trachyte, 9J in. long and 6 in. broad. This is the second 
 largest idol of trachyte found by me at Hissarlik, the usual material of 
 the idols being white marble ; those of mica- schist, bone, or terra-cotta, 
 
334 
 
 THE THIED, THE BURNT CITY 
 
 [Chap. YII, 
 
 are comparatively rare. No. 202 is an idol of marble, on which the owl- 
 figure is merely marked with black clay. 
 
 No. 203 represents the fragment of a terra-cotta idol with the owl- 
 head : the three strokes on the neck may probably be intended to indicate 
 the necklace : the hair is indicated on the back. 
 
 No. 203. Figure of Terra-cotta. (Actual size. Depth, 26 ft.) 
 
 The accompanying figures (Nos. 204-211) represent eight marble 
 idols which certainly belong to the third or burnt city. Of these there 
 
 No. 204. 
 
 No. 205. 
 
Chai\ VII.] 
 
 OWL-FACES HAIR, AND GIRDLES. 
 
 335 
 
 No. 210. 
 
 Nos. 209-211. Marble Idols from the stratum of the third, the burnt city. (Actual size.) 
 
 are only two— Nos. 204 and 205 — on which the owl-face is engraved ; on 
 the latter the hair and the girdle are also distinctly marked. On five 
 others the owl-face is indicated with black colour, which I take to be 
 black clay, viz. Nos. 206-210 ; on the two first of these, besides the owl- 
 face, the hair is delineated. Professor Virchow suggests that the black 
 colour with which the owl-face is indicated may be soot. On another 
 one, No. 211, instsad of the face, there is an incised circle. 
 
 Nos. 212-220 are nine flat idols of marble, on eight of which the owl's 
 head is incised. On Nos. 212 and 213 the girdle is indicated by a single 
 stroke ; on No. 214, by seven strokes ; on No. 215, by two lines and five 
 points ; on No. 216, again, by three strokes ; and on No. 218, by one 
 stroke. Very remarkable are the ten points below the hair on the fore- 
 
336 
 
 THE THIRD, THE BURNT CITY. 
 
 [Chap. VII. 
 
 head of the idol No. 214 ; are they meant to indicate a frontlet ? On 
 No. 215 we see a point on the forehead. On No. 220, the eyes seem 
 to be indicated by two concentric circles, and the beak by a third. Kuder 
 
 No. 212. lNo.213. No. 214. No. 215. 
 
 7 II. 10 m. 
 
 Nos. 212-220. Rude Idols of Marble. (About balf actual size.) 
 
 than all the rest is the idol No. 218, on which eyes and nose are indicated 
 by points close to one another, that indicating the nose being above the 
 eyes ; breasts are also indicated on this idol with points. 
 
 Under Nos. 221, 222, 223 I represent three flat idols of bone. 
 
 No. 221. 
 
Chap. VII.] 
 
 CURIOUS IDOL OF LEAD. 
 
 337 
 
 Nos. 224, 225. Remarkable object of Diorite, perhaps an Idol. (Nearly 2 : 3 actual size 
 
 Nos. 224, 225 are the front and back views 
 of a very curious, heavy object of diorite, 
 having in the centre a groove; it has five 
 globular projections, around one of which are 
 four incised lines. Can this be an idol, and 
 can the incised lines be intended to indicate 
 necklaces ? 
 
 I now pass to the description of the very 
 remarkable figure No. 226, which is of lead, 
 and was found in the burnt city at a depth 
 of 23 ft. Professor Chandler Eoberts, who, 
 at my request, cut a minute fragment from 
 the base of this figure to analyse it, kindly 
 gave me the following note on the subject : — 
 "The minute fragment of metal (weighing 
 0'0352 gramme) proved, on analysis, to be 
 lead. It was submitted to cupellation, but no 
 trace of silver could be detected by the micro- 
 scope. The amount of metal examined was, 
 however, too small to render the detection of 
 silver probable." 
 
 To what lucky accident the preservation 
 of this lead figure is due, I am at a loss to 
 tell. The eyes and nose are very well pro- 
 portioned ; the mouth is rather too far below 
 the nose; the chin also is too broad. The 
 hair is well indicated on the head, on either 
 side of which long goat-horns are represented ; 
 the right one is broken off in the middle. 
 Around the neck we see five necklaces. The 
 shoulders have a rectangular shape, like those 
 of the Mycenean hunters or warriors. 7 The 
 two hands touch the breasts, probably as a 
 symbol of the generative power. The navel 
 
 Depth, 23 ft.) 
 
 No. 226. Idol of Lead. (Double 
 Depth, 23 ft.) 
 
 7 See my Mycenae, No. 140, p. 81 ; Nos. 334, 335, p. 223. 
 
338 
 
 THE THIRD, THE BURNT CITY. 
 
 [Chap. VI. 
 
 also is well indicated. The vulva is represented by a large triangle, in 
 the upper side of which we see three globular dots ; we also see two lines 
 of dots to the right and left of the vulva. The most curious ornament 
 of the figure is a f^, which we see in the middle of the vulva. I shall 
 revert to this important sign in the subsequent pages. The feet are 
 closely joined, but they are indicated by two dots for the knees and two 
 small grooves at the lower extremity. 
 
 This figure is probably meant to represent an Aphrodite, which would 
 explain the goat's horns. The ram and the he-goat were sacred to this 
 goddess, as is well known from the Aphrodite of Scopas at Elis, and from 
 the 'Acf)po8iT7) liriTpa-^la at Athens. 8 Mr. Newton has pointed out a figure 
 from Cyprus, representing a woman with a ram's head, probably an 
 Aphrodite; 9 also in Di Cesnolas Cyprus 10 a woman is represented with 
 two ram's horns, touching her breasts with the hands : but this is the 
 first time the goddess has been found with two he-goat's horns. So far 
 as we know, the only figures to which the idol before us has any resem- 
 blance are the female figures of white marble found in tombs in Attica 
 and in the Cyclades. Six of them, which are here (at Athens) in the 
 Museum of the ^Bapfidiceiov, were kindly shown to me by its keeper, my 
 friend M. Athanasios Koumanoudes. They represent a naked woman, with 
 her arms crossed on the stomach below the breasts ; the eyes, nose, and 
 mouth are indicated as on our lead idol ; the vulva is represented on the 
 six figures by a large triangle; the feet are separated. Four similar 
 figures of white marble, found in ancient tombs at Trymalia on Naxos, 
 to which my friend Professor Ulrich Kohler (Director of the Imperial 
 German Archaeological Institute at Athens) kindly called my attention, 
 are represented on Plate v. in Dr. Karl Gr. Fiedler's Beise durch alle 
 Theile des Konigreichs Grieclienland ; Leipzig, 1841. On two of these 
 figures the face is perfectly smooth, and not even the nose is indicated ; 
 on the other two the nose only is represented. All these four figures 
 have separated feet. The triangular vulva is not indicated, but pro- 
 bably only because it had not been noticed by Fiedler, for it exists on 
 all similar white marble figures found in the Cyclades, and preserved in 
 the British Museum. M. Fr. Lenormant writes 11 of these figures as 
 follows : — " In the most ancient sepulchres in the Cyclades, in company 
 with stone arms (principally arrow-heads of obsidian from Milo), and 
 with polished pottery without paintings, there are found statuettes of 
 Parian marble, all of which represent a naked woman, with her arms 
 crossed on the breast. They are the shapeless work of a more than bar- 
 barous art ; but, in spite of their rude workmanship, it is impossible not 
 to recognize in them an imitation of the figures of the Asiatic Venus, in 
 the same attitude as that in which they are found in such large numbers 
 
 8 Plutarch. Theseus, 18: Aeyerai Se avrcp rbu 
 fxev eV Ae\cpo?s aueKtiv 6e6u, 'AcppoSirriv KaG-q- 
 yt\x6va TroieTaQai xal irapaKaXtiv 0-vvip.iropov. 
 Qvoj/ti Se Trpbs daXaacrri rrju aiya ovffav, avro- 
 p-drcas rpdyov yeveaOai • Sib /cat naK^laQai rty 
 6ebv 'E7r it pay lav. 
 
 9 F. Lenormant, Les Antiquite's de la Troade, 
 p. 23. 
 
 10 Plate vi., in the second row of figures to 
 the right. 
 
 11 Les Ant'quites de la Troade ; Paris, 1876, p. 
 46. 
 
Chap. VII.] 
 
 OWL-HEADED VASES. 
 
 339 
 
 from the banks of the Tigris to the Island of Cyprus, through the 
 whole extent of the Chaldeo-Assyrian, Aramaean, and Phoenician world. 
 Their prototype is the Babylonian Zarpanit or Zirbanit, so frequently 
 represented on the cylinders and by terra-cotta idols, the fabrication of 
 which begins in the most primitive time of Chaldea and continues among 
 the Assyrians. The statuettes of the Cyclades in the form of a naked 
 woman appear, therefore, to be the rude copies made by the natives, at 
 the dawn of their civilization, from the images of the Asiatic goddess, 
 which had been brought by Phoenician merchants." 
 
 This appears to be perfectly correct, because the three or four Baby- 
 lonian Aphrodite-idols of terra-cotta preserved in the Museum of the 
 Bapfidxeiov at Athens show a far more advanced art : on these, as on 
 the Trojan lead-idol, the goddess touches both breasts with her hands ; 
 the vulva is indicated by the usual triangle, but this latter is ornamented 
 with five horizontal strokes and with a large number of very small 
 circles, which are no doubt meant to indicate gold ornaments. 
 
 Proceeding now to the terra-cotta vases of this Third, the burnt, City : 
 the lustrous-red vase, No. 227, gives the most usual type of the hand-made 
 owl-headed vases. They have an owl-head modelled on the upper part 
 of the neck, which is the head of the vase itself ; on the sides of the head 
 are two projecting ears ; the face is composed of a double arch representing 
 eyebrows ; below each arch is a hemispherical eye, and in the middle of 
 the face a prominent owl's beak. The breasts are protruding and con- 
 spicuous, and the vulva 1 is represented by a large circle in relief. On 
 some owl-vases this protruding circle is ornamented with an incised cross 
 (see e.g. No. 986 and No. 991, pp. 521 and 523), which can leave no doubt 
 as to its character. Yery curious are the upright projections on the sides, 
 which in the large vases are concave on the inside and very long, and 
 have such sharp edges that they can never have served as handles ; 
 besides, they are found very frequently even on those owl-vases which 
 have large handles of the regular form. I -ask if these long concave 
 projections may not perhaps be meant to represent wings, and if, in that 
 case, the small upright projections which we see on the sides of No. 227 
 can represent anything else ? I call particular attention to the fact, that 
 these upright projections are never in any case perforated ; further that, 
 at variance with all other Trojan vases, these owl-headed vases have never 
 in any case the system of tubes for suspension. 
 
 No. 228 is the upper part of a hand-made, lustrous-red owl-headed 
 vase, which appears to have been almost of an identical shape with 
 No. 987 (p. 521). The mouth of these vases is in the form of a cup with 
 two projections on the sides. 
 
 No. 229 represents another hand-made lustrous dark-brown owl-headed 
 vase with a cover ; it has two handles ; the vulva is here represented 
 between the breasts in the middle of the body. 
 
 1 M. Burnouf writes to me : " I have always ter of the umbilical cord is very important in 
 been of opinion, and I still believe, that this the ancient theory as a life-transmitting channel, 
 circle in relief indicates the navel* the charac- See Veda, i. 164, 34- and 35." 
 
THE THIRD, THE BURNT CITY. 
 
 [Chap. VII. 
 
 "No. 228. Upper part of a Vase with 
 vl'shead. (l : 3 actual size. Depth, 20 ft.) 
 
 No 227. Terra-cot ta Vase with owl's head. 
 (1 ; 4 actual size. Depth, about 28 ft.) 
 
 No 229 Terra-cotta Vase, with the characteristics of a woman and owl's head. 
 (1 : 3 actual size. Depth, 32 ft.) 
 
 No 230 is the fragment of a vase with an iueised ornamentation 
 
 iev Z n S:X^^ x ^ s w - made , Trojan vases ' "i£ 
 
 femS' Sarins and a plain neck, to which belongs a cow w:th 
 
341 
 
 Chap. VII.] 
 
 OWL-HEADED VASES. 
 
 an owl's face, similar to that which we see here. The vase before us is 
 of a dark-brown colour, and has on each side an upright projection, 
 
 No. 230. Fragment of a Vase. 
 (Half actual size. Depth, 26 ft.) 
 
 JSo. 231. Vase wuh the characteristics of a 
 woman, and Cover with owl's head. 
 (The Vase was found in 13, the Cover in 
 26 ft. depth. 1 : 3 actual size.) 
 
 from which issues on either side a spiral ornamentation in relief. 
 The cover is also hand-made, of a lustrous-yellow colour, and has 
 a handle of the usual crest-shaped form. 2 Professor Sayce observes 
 to me that the ornaments below the breasts 'of this vase resemble 
 the litui carried by Hittite figures at Boghaz Kioi (near the Halys) 
 and elsewhere. 
 
 No. 232 represents the interesting hand-made black owl-faced vase, in 
 which quite a treasure of gold ornaments was found. I shall pass these 
 in review in discussing the metals of the burnt city. The wing-like 
 upright projections of this vase were broken off; the female breasts are 
 peculiarly large, and unusually wide apart ; the vulva is represented by 
 a projection with a cavity. In fabric and colour this vase resembles a so- 
 called " Gesichtsurne " found in a tomb at Golencin, near Posen. 3 The 
 difference is that on the Golencin urn the eyes are not protruding, as on 
 our Trojan vase, and that each of its two ear-like projections has three 
 perforations for suspending ornaments in them. There is this further 
 difference, that the Golencin urn has neither female breasts, nor vulva, 
 nor wing-like projections on the sides. Besides, its bottom is flat, whilst 
 that of our Trojan owl-vase is convex. 
 
 2 This owl-headed cover belongs to the third 
 or burnt city ; but not so the vase, which was 
 found in the ruins of the fourth city. But I 
 represent it here, as it is the only one on which 
 the cover fits. 
 
 3 See F. L. W. Schwartz, II. Nachtrag zu den 
 " Materialien zur praehistorischen Kartographie 
 
 der Provinz Posen ; " Posen, 1880, PI. i. No. 4. 
 This most able dissertation having been sent 
 to me by its author (Professor Dr. F. L. W. 
 Schwartz, director of the Royal Friedr.-Wil- 
 he'.ms-Gymnasium in Posen), I herewith most 
 gratefully acknowledge his kind attention. 
 
II. 
 
 No. 232. Terra-cotta Vase, with owl's head, in which were found a 
 great many gold ornaments. (1 : 3 actual size. Depth, 30 ft.) 
 
 The vase No. 233 is decorated on either side with a curved ornament 
 in the form of the Cypriote character for ho, or of a character which is 
 found in the alphabets of Caria and Pamphylia, as well as m Hittite 
 inscriptions: it has two handles. The head was found separate, and does 
 not belong to this particular vase. I only put it here in order to save it. 
 
Chap. VII.] 
 
 OWL YASES AND COVERS. 
 
 343 
 
 No. 234 represents another hand-made vase, like No. 227, but it has 
 been so much exposed to the intense heat of the conflagration, that it is 
 difficult to recognize its original colour. 
 
 (1 : 8 actual size. Depth, 2S ft.) 
 
 No. 235 represents probably the most remarkable hand-made owl- 
 headed vase I ever found at Hissarlik. I discovered it at a depth of 
 8 \ metres, or 28 ft., on the ground-floor in the royal house of the third 
 or burnt city ; it is of a lustrous-brown colour, and 25 in. high. In 
 spite of the intense heat to which it had been exposed in the conflagration, 
 it is not thoroughly baked. It has two breasts and two handles : a very 
 pretty necklace is represented around the neck by a series of grooves and 
 projecting circles. The beauty of this vase is enhanced by the scarf 
 which we see in relief across its body. 
 
 No. 236 represents another of those pretty lustrous dark-yellow vase- 
 covers with owl-faces, of which we showed one under No. 231. The cover 
 before us was found in a large red urn at a depth of 27 ft., on the 
 great wall close to the gate : hence its good preservation. 
 
 No. 237 represents one more vase-cover, with an owl's head modelled 
 
 No. 237. Vase Cover with owl's face. (1 : 5 actual size. Depth, 22 ft.) 
 
344 
 
 THE THIRD, THE BURNT CITY. 
 
 [Chap. VII. 
 
 on it, belonging to the same class of vases, with a smooth neck like 
 Nos. 231 and 240, having the characteristics of a woman, and usually two 
 wings. 
 
 I further call the reader's very particular attention to the terra-cotta 
 ball, No. 1997, 4 on which we see in the middle an owl's face in mono- 
 gram ; to its right a wheel, which may mean the sun ; to its left, three 
 concentric circles, which may represent the moon, and below a small 
 circle-, perhaps intended to represent the morning star. All these repre- 
 sentations can be best distinguished in the developed pattern (No. 1998). 
 On the back the female hair is indicated by deep scratchings. As the 
 hair cannot be distinguished in the engraving, I strongly advise the 
 reader to see the ball itself in my collection in the South Kensington 
 Museum. 5 This owl's face, between the sun and moon and morning star, 
 proves better, I think, than all the vases and idols, that the owl's head 
 is the symbol of the Ilian Athene. 
 
 I have still to represent here, under Nos. 238, 239, a curious hand- 
 made vessel of terra-cotta, which was found at a depth of 30 ft. It has 
 been thoroughly baked in the conflagration. It has a distinctly indicated 
 owl's face, below which are three horizontal strokes, probably meant 
 
 Nos. 233, 23a. Front and back View of a curious Vessel, with owl's face. (Half actual size. Depth, 30 ft.) 
 
 to represent necklaces. Below the latter, the front part of the body is 
 covered by a long shield, and on the back the long female hair hangs 
 down, like that of the Caryatides in the Acropolis of Athens. On each 
 side is a separate vessel, which does not communicate with that of the 
 main body. Very characteristic are the nine rows of points on the shield, 
 which, like those which we see on the coats of mail and the casques of the 
 six warriors painted on a Mycenean vase, 6 are no doubt meant to indicate 
 the splendour of brass. This vessel is unique ; no second one has been 
 found like it. 
 
 4 On the last of the lithographed plates at the 
 end of the volume. 
 
 5 M. Burnouf writes to me : " This ball (No. 
 1997) gives probably the explanation of a great 
 part of the Trojan symbolism, because it is most 
 
 evident that the female in the centre represents 
 here the dawn. The signs on the whorls are 
 nearly all astronomical." 
 
 6 See my Mycenae, p. 133, No. 213. 
 
Chap. VII.] 
 
 WINGS AND SPIRALS ON VASES. 
 
 345 
 
 No. 240 is a lustrous dark-red hand-made vase, with two large breasts 
 and a large projecting vulva. Besides two handles, it has two upright 
 
 No. 210. Large Vuse, with the characteristics of a woman. (About 1 : 5 actual size. Depth, 26 ft.) 
 
 wing-like projections, from each of which issues on either side a spiral 
 ornament in relief, resembling, as Professor Sayce observes, the lituus 
 or crooked staff carried by certain figures in the Hittite sculptures of 
 Boghaz Kioi or Pteria and elsewhere. I remind the reader that the owl- 
 faced, cap-like covers, such as No. 236, belong to this sort of vase. 
 
 No. 241 is a hand-made light-brown vase, with two breasts on each 
 side and two projections ; it is ornamented with grooves and incised lines. 
 
 No. 241. Terra-cotta Vase, with incised ornamentation No. 212. Terra-cotta Vase, with two projections in the 
 and female breasts on either side. form of birds' heads at the rim. 
 
 (1 : 3 actual size. Depth, 32 ft.) (1 : 3 actual size. Depth, 26 ft.) 
 
 No. 242 is also a hand-made vase, with two perforated projections in 
 the form of birds' beaks at the rim. 
 
 It is now time to explain the curious signs and j-pj, which we have 
 
346 
 
 THE THIRD, THE BURNT CITY. 
 
 [Chap. VII. 
 
 seen on the vulva of the lead idol No. 226, and which occurs many 
 hundreds of times on the whorls and other objects of this third or 
 burnt city, and of the two following pre-historic cities (see, for instance, 
 Nos. 1855, 1858, 1859, 1870, 1873, 1874, 1894, 1919, 1947, 1949, 1982, 
 1988, 1989, 1991, 1999). This sign was evidently brought to Hissarlik 
 by the people of the Third City, for it never occurs on objects from the 
 first or second city. I find it in fimile Burnouf's Sanskrit Lexicon under 
 the denomination " svastika," and with the signification ev iari, or as the 
 sign of good wishes. 
 
 My honoured friend the celebrated Orientalist, Professor Max Miiller, 
 of Oxford, wrote to me some time ago: " Sv-asti-ka is derived from su, 
 ' well,' and as, 1 to be,' and would be in Greek eveaTi/crj. It is always 
 
 directed towards the right, J-pj ; the other, directed towards the left, p}^, 
 is called SauvastiJca" He afterwards kindly sent me the following most 
 valuable and highly interesting dissertation on the subject : — 
 
 " I do not like the use of the word Svastika outside of India. It is a 
 word of Indian origin, and has its history and definite meaning in India. 
 I know the temptation is great to transfer names, with which we are 
 familiar, to similar objects that come before us in the course of our 
 researches. But it is a temptation which the true student ought to resist, 
 except, it may be, for the sake of illustration. The mischief arising from 
 the promiscuous use of technical terms is very great. Travellers, when- 
 ever they meet with two or three upright stones and a capstone above, 
 talk of Cromlechs ; and if they meet with a holed stone, it is a Dolmen. 
 But Cromlech and Dolmen are Celtic words (prom, ' bent,' leh, ' slab ;' toll, 
 ' hole,' men, 'stone'), 7 and they have a definite meaning among Celtic 
 antiquarians, and, strictly speaking, cromlech and dolmen imply the 
 workmanship of Celts. After travellers have written for some time of 
 Cromlechs and Dolmens in India, Africa, and Australia, an impression 
 spreads that all these monuments are real Celtic monuments ; and the 
 next step is that we hear of Celts as the first inhabitants and builders in 
 countries where Celts have never set foot. 
 
 " Another objection to the promiscuous use of the word Svastika is, 
 that svastika in Sanskrit does not mean the cross with crampons, crux 
 ansata, in general, but only the cross with the crampons pointing to the 
 right, Lpj; while the cross with the crampons pointing to the left, py, 
 is called SauvastiJca. 
 
 " The occurrence of such crosses in different parts of the world may 
 or may not point to a common origin. But if they are once called 
 Svastika, the vulgus jprofanum will at once jump to the conclusion that 
 they all come from India, and it will take some time to weed out such a 
 prejudice. 
 
 « Yery little is known of Indian art before the third century B.C., the 
 period when the Buddhist sovereigns began their public buildings. The 
 name Svastika, however, can be traced a little further back. It occurs, as 
 
 7 Max Miiller, Chips from a German Workshop, vol. iii. p. 283. 
 
Chap. VIL] 
 
 THE SVASTIKA AND SAUVAST1KA. 
 
 347 
 
 the name of a particular sign, in the old grammar of Pacini, about a 
 century earlier. Certain compounds are mentioned there, in which the last 
 word is kama, ' ear.' Cattle, it would seem, were marked on their ears 
 with signs indicating their owners. The custom prevailed even during 
 the Vedic times, for in the Eig-veda (x. 62, 7) we meet with ashtakarm, 
 as applied to cows marked with the figure 8, whatever that figure may 
 then have been, probably not more than eight lines, or two crosses. In 
 later Sanskrit athtakama is a name of Brahman, who had eight ears, 
 because he had four faces (Katurmukha). The same custom of marking 
 cattle is alluded to in the Atharva-veda (xii. 4, 6), and it is more fully 
 described in the Sankhayana-gWhya-sutras (iii. 10, ed. Oldenberg, p. 77), 
 and the Grobhila-gn'hya-sutras (iii. 6. 5). Here an instrument made of 
 copper (audumbaro 'asih) is recommended for marking cattle. 
 
 " One of the signs for marking cattle was the Svastika, and what 
 Pacini teaches in his grammar is that, when the compound is formed, 
 svastika-kama, i.e. ' having the ear marked with a Svastika,' the final a 
 of Svastika is not to be lengthened, while it is lengthened in other com- 
 pounds, such as Ddtrd-karna, i.e. ' having the ear marked with the sign 
 of a sickle.' 
 
 " Originally svastika may have been intended for no more than two 
 lines crossing each other, or a cross. Thus we find it used in later times 
 also with reference to a woman covering her breasts with crossed arms, 
 Balaram. 75,16, svahastasvastika-stani, and likewise with reference to 
 persons sitting cross-legged. 
 
 " Etymologically, svastika is derived from svasti, and svasti from su, 
 ' well,' and as, ' to be.' Svasti occurs frequently in the Yeda, both as a noun 
 in the sense of happiness, and as an adverb in the sense of • well,' or ' hail !' 
 It corresponds to the Greek evearw. The derivative svasti-ka is of latei 
 date, and it always means an auspicious sign, such as are found most 
 frequently among Buddhists and Jainas. It occurs often at the begin- 
 ning of Buddhist inscriptions, on Buddhist coins, 
 and in Buddhist manuscripts. Historically the ^ 
 svastika is first attested on a coin of Krawanda, v\ " — , / 
 supposing Krawanda to be the same king as Xan- 
 drames, the predecessor of Sandrokyptos, whose 
 reign came to an end in 315 B.C. (See Thomas, 
 On the Identity of Xandrames and Krananda.) The 
 
 \ 
 
 palseographic evidence, however, seems rather against Yy— — - 
 so early a date. In the foot-prints of Buddha the No 243 _ 
 
 Buddhists recognize no less than sixty-five auspi- The Nandyavarta. 
 cious signs, the first of them being the Svastika. 8 The fourth is the 
 SauvastiJca, py ; the third, the Nandyavarta (No. 243), a mere develop- 
 ment of the Svastika. 
 
 'Among the Jainas the Svastika was the sign of their 7th Jina, 
 Supdrsva. 9 
 
 8 See Eugene Burnouf, Lotus de la bonne Lot, p. 625. 
 
 9 Colebrooke, Miscellaneous Essays, ii. p. 188. 
 
348 
 
 THE THIRD, THE BURNT CITY. 
 
 [Chap. VII. 
 
 " In the later Sanskrit literature Svastika retains the meaning of an 
 auspicious mark, and thus we see in the Ramayana (ed. Gorresio, ii. p. 348) 
 that Bharata selects a ship marked with the sign of Svastika. 
 
 " Varahamihira in the BWhat-samhita (med. saec. vi. p. Ch.) mentions 
 certain buildings, called Svastika and Nandyavarta (53. 34, seq.), but their 
 outline does not correspond very exactly with the forms of these signs. 
 Some Sthupas, however, are said to have been built on the plan of a 
 svastika. 
 
 " That signs identically the same as the Svastika and the Sauvastika 
 occur elsewhere, in China, in Asia Minor, in Etruria, and among the 
 Teutonic nations, is perfectly true. Comparative archaeology may point 
 out this fact, but there it must rest for the present. Identity of form 
 does as little prove identity of origin in archaeology as identity of sound 
 proves identity of origin in etymology. Comparative studies are very 
 useful, so long as they do not neglect the old rule, Divide et impera, 
 Distinguish, and you will be master of your subject ! 
 
 " Quite another question is, Why the sign should have had an 
 auspicious meaning, and why in Sanskrit it should have been called 
 Svastika. The similarity between the group of letters sv in the ancient 
 Indian alphabet and the sign of Svastika is not very striking, and seems 
 purely accidental. A remark of yours in your book on Troy (p. 38), where 
 you speak of the Svastika as a wheel in motion, the direction of the motion 
 being indicated by the crampons, contains a very useful hint, which has 
 been confirmed by some important observations of Mr. Thomas, our distin- 
 guished Oriental numismatist. He has clearly proved that on some of the 
 Andhra coins, and likewise on some punched gold coins, depicted in Sir 
 W. Elliot's Plate ix. Madras Journ. Lit. and Science, vol. iii., the place of 
 the more definite figure of the sun is often taken by the Svastika, and that 
 the Svastika has been inserted within the rings or normal circles repre- 
 senting the four suns of the Ujjain pattern on coins. He has also called 
 attention to the fact that in the long list of the recognized devices of the 
 twenty-four Jaina Tirthankaras the sun is absent ; but that while "the 
 8th Tirthankara has the sign of the half-moon, the 7th Tirthankara is 
 marked with the Svastika, i.e. the sun. 
 
 " Here then, I think, we have very clear indications that the Svastika, 
 with the hands pointing in the right direction, was originally a symbol of 
 the sun, perhaps of the vernal sun as opposed to the autumnal sun, the 
 Sauvastika, and therefore a natural symbol of light, life, health, and 
 wealth. That in ancient mythology the sun was frequently represented 
 as a wheel is well known. Grimm identifies the Old Norse hjol or hvel, 
 the A.-S. hveohl, English ' wheel,' with kvk\os, Sk. Kakra, ' wheel ; ' and 
 derives jol, ' yule-tide,' the time of the winter solstice, from hjol, ' the 
 (solar) wheel.' 
 
 "But while from these indications we are justified in supposing that 
 among the Aryan nations the Svastika may have been an old emblem of 
 the sun, there are other indications to show that in other parts of the 
 world the same or a very similar emblem was used to indicate the earth. 
 
Chap. VII.] 
 
 SYMBOLISM OF THE ^ AND LB 
 
 349 
 
 Mr. Beal, in the same number of the Indian Antiquary which contains 
 Mr. Thomas's remarks on the Svastika (March, 1880), has shown that 
 in Chinese [J 1S the symbol for an enclosed space of earth, and that the 
 simple cross (-J- ) occurs as a sign for earth in certain ideographic groups. 
 Here the cross was probably intended to indicate the four quarters, N. S. 
 E. W. ; or, it may be, more gene- 
 rally, extension in length and 
 breadth. That the cross is used 
 as a sign for 'four' in the Bastro- 
 Pali inscriptions, 10 is well known; 
 but the fact that the same sign has 
 the same power elsewhere, as for 
 instance in the Hieratic numerals, 
 does not prove by any means that 
 the one figure was derived from 
 the other. We forget too easily 
 that what was possible in one place 
 was possible also in other places; 
 and the more we extend our re- 
 searches, the more we shall learn 
 that the chapter of accidents is 
 larger than we imagine." 
 
 The cut No. 244, for which I am indebted to my honoured friend 
 Mr. James Fergusson, represents the foot-print of Buddha, as carved on 
 the Amaravati Tope, near the river Kistna. 
 
 Nos. 245, 246 represent the opposite hemispheres of a terra-cotta ball, 
 which is divided by fourteen incised circular lines into fifteen zones, of 
 
 No. 244. The Foot-print of Buddha. 
 
 o o o o o o o 
 
 y 
 
 Nos. 245, 246. Terra-cotta Ball, representing apparently the climates of the globe. 
 (Actual size. Depth, 2C ft.) 
 
 No. 247. Fragment of 
 Pottery, with the Svas- 
 tika, (Half actual size.) 
 
 which two are ornamented with points, and the middle zone, which is the 
 largest of all, with pP and Professor Sayce remarks that " the 
 
 central ornament |^] is the Cypriote character hi" 
 
 No. 247 is the fragment of a lustrous-black vase with a Lj^ in the 
 
 10 Max Miiller, Chips from a German Workshop, vol. ii. p. 298. 
 
350 
 
 THE THIRD, THE BURNT CITY. 
 
 [Chap. VII. 
 
 middle of three concentric rectangles : the L£j, as well as all the other 
 lines, are incised and filled with white chalk in order to strike the eye. 1 
 
 The Lj-j and p}J are extraordinarily frequent on the Trojan terra- 
 cotta balls, as well as on the whorls, immense numbers of which are 
 ornamented with them (see Nos. 1826, 1838, 1849, 1850, 1855, 1861, 
 1864, 1865, 1866, 1868, 1871, 1872, 1873, 1874, 1876, 1878, 1879, 
 1894, 1905, 1911, 1919, 1947, 1949, 1954, 1982, 1983, 1987, 1988, 
 1989, 1990, 1991, 1999). 
 
 On the whorls Nos. 1872 and 1911 we see the Lj^j and py, together 
 with linear representations of burning altars ; on Nos. 1879, 1919, 1947, 
 1949, 1991, along with the zigzags, which we see also in the hands of 
 the two Phoenician gods represented on a lentoid gem found near 
 Mycenae, 2 and which are generally believed to form the symbolic sign 
 for lightning. The representation of the burning altar has also been 
 found incised on the bottom of a vase in the excavations made by Miss 
 Sofie von Torma in the valleys of Maros and Cserna in Transylvania 
 (Siebenburgen). 3 The L_Pj or p[J also occurs very frequently on the 
 Trojan whorls in conjunction with rude linear representations of stags, 
 above whose backs are rows of points ; 4 it also occurs in conjunction with 
 the sign [JJ. 5 This latter sign is very frequent on the Trojan whorls. 6 
 
 Now this very same sign occurs over the opening of three hut-urns found 
 under the ancient lava near Marino. 7 It occurs also among the devices 
 in punched work on the flags in the interior of the tomb of Ollam Fodhla, 
 traditional monarch and lawgiver of Ireland, which is computed to be 
 upwards of 3000 years old ; 8 further, on a girdle-buckle of iron plated 
 with silver, found in a tomb at Hedingen, near Sigmaringen. 9 In these 
 two latter cases we see the symbol or character in conjunction with the 
 zigzag, which is interpreted as the symbolic sign of lightning. Finally, 
 we see this sign on six vase-bottoms discovered by Miss Sofie von Torma 
 in the valleys of Maros and Cserna in Transylvania. 10 
 
 "We find the pj-j in Ezekiel ix. 4, 6, where — in the form of the old 
 Hebrew letter Tau — it is written as the sign of life on the forehead, like 
 
 1 This potsherd as well as another one with a 
 
 having been picked up in 1872 at a much 
 
 greater depth in my excavations, I held them to 
 belong to the first city. But after carefully ex- 
 amining the clay and fabric of these fragments, 
 I feel convinced that they belong to the third 
 or burnt city, and that they must have fallen 
 from a higher level into my excavations. I feel 
 the more certain on this point, as the t-j-i or 
 rjj 1 never again occurred in the debris either 
 of the first or of the second city, whereas they 
 occur many hundreds of times in the third as 
 well as in the two subsequent pre-historic cities 
 of Hissarlik. 
 
 2 See my Mycenae, No. 540, p. 362. 
 
 3 Carl Gooss, Bericht iiber Frdulein Sofie von 
 Torma's Sammlun j praehistorischcr Alterthiimer 
 
 aus dem Maros- und Cserna-Thal Siebenbiirgens, 
 p. 16, No. 12. 4 See No. 1879. 
 
 5 See No. 1905. 
 
 6 See Nos. 1912, 1936, 1939. 
 
 7 Notes on Hut-urns and other Objects from 
 Marino near Albano. By Sir John Lubbock and 
 Dr. L. Pigorini. London, 1869. Two of the 
 hut-urns represented in the work of Sir John 
 Lubbock and Dr. Pigorini have the sign LLI 
 above the door. The third hut-urn with the 
 sign LU above the door is preserved in the Royal 
 Museum at Berlin. 
 
 8 Discovery of the Tomb of Ollam Fodhla. By 
 Eugene Alfred Conwell. Dublin, 1873. 
 
 9 Ludw. Lindenschmit, Die Yaterldndischcn 
 Alterthiimer, PI. v. No. 4. 
 
 10 Carl Gooss, op. cit. p. 16, PI. iii. Nos. 8, 9, 
 10, 13, 14, and 17. 
 
Chap. VII.] 
 
 M. BUKNOUF ON THE ^ AND f{A 
 
 351 
 
 its corresponding Indian symbol. We find it twice on a large piece of 
 ornamented leather contained in the celebrated Corneto treasure pre- 
 served in the Koyal Museum at Berlin ; also on ancient pottery found at 
 Konigsberg in the Neumark, and preserved in the Markisches Museum 
 in Berlin, and on a bowl from Yucatan in the Berlin Ethnological 
 Museum. We also see it on coins of Gaza, as well as on an Iberian 
 coin of Asido ; 1 also on the drums of tjie Lapland priests. 2 It is just 
 such a troublesome puzzle as the Nile-key or crux ansata, that symbol 
 which, as a hieroglyph, is read ankh (" the living one "), which very 
 frequently occurs in the inscriptions in the Nile valley, and which we 
 see of exactly the same form on a sepulchre of Northern Asia Minor. 3 
 
 The py is a sort of cross, whose four arms are bent at a right angle ; 
 it resembles four conjoined Greek Gammas. 
 
 Burnouf thinks that " the Lpj and pj-J represent the two pieces of 
 wood which were laid crosswise upon one another before the sacrificial 
 altars, in order to produce the sacred fire (Agni), and the ends of which 
 were bent round at right angles, and fastened by means of four nails pj^> 
 so that this wooden scaffolding might not be moved. At the point where 
 the two pieces of wood were joined, there was a small hole, in which a 
 third piece of wood, in the form of a lance (called Pramantha), was 
 rotated by means of a cord made of cow-hair and hemp, till the fire 
 was generated by friction. Then the fire (Agni) was put on the altar 
 close by, where the priest poured the holy Soma, the juice of the tree 
 of life, over it, and made, by means of purified butter, wood and straw, 
 a large fire." 4 
 
 Burnouf further maintains that the mother of the holy fire was Maya, 
 who represents the productive force. 5 If his views are correct, they 
 would go far to explain the presence of the pj£ on the vulva of the 
 idol No. 226. They would also show that the four points which we so 
 frequently see under the arms of the ^ or indicate the wooden nails 
 with which this primitive fire-machine was fixed firmly on the ground; 
 and, finally, they would explain why we so frequently see the pj-J or the 
 in company with the symbol of lightning or burning altars. The 
 other cross too, which has also four points, (E^, and which occurs 
 
 innumerable times on the whorls of the three upper pre-historic cities of 
 Hissarlik, might also claim the honour of representing the two pieces of 
 wood for producing the holy fire by friction. Burnouf asserts that " in 
 remote antiquity the Greeks for a long time generated fire by friction, 
 and that the two lower pieces of wood, that lay at right angles across one 
 another, were called aravpos, which word is either derived from the root 
 stri, which signifies lying upon the earth, and is then identical with the 
 Latin sternere, or it is derived from the Sanskrit word stdvara, which means 
 
 1 Zobel, de Zangronis, 1863, PI. 1 and 3, and 
 p. 397. 
 
 2 Rochholz, Altdeutsches Burgerleben, p. 184. 
 
 3 Guillaume and Perrot, Exploration archeo- 
 
 logique de la Galatie et de la Bithynie, Atlas, 
 
 pi. ix. 
 
 4 See Emile Burnouf, La Science des Religions, 
 p. 256. 6 Emile Burnouf, op. tit. 
 
352 
 
 THE THIED, THE BURNT CITY. 
 
 [Chap. VII. 
 
 ' firm, solid, immovable.' After the Greeks had other means of producing 
 fire, the word aravpos passed simply into the sense of cross." 
 
 The p]-J or j-fj may be found in nearly all countries of Europe, and 
 in many countries of Asia. We see them on one of three pot-bottoms 6 
 found on Bishop's Island, near Konigswalde, on the right bank of the 
 Oder, 7 as well as on a vase found at Eeichersdorf near Gruben. 8 A whole 
 row of them may be seen round the famous pulpit of Saint Ambrose in 
 Milan. The sign occurs a thousand times in the catacombs of Kome ; 9 we 
 find it very frequently in the wall-paintings at Pompeii, even more than 
 160 times in a house in the recently excavated street of Vesuvius ; we see 
 it in three rows, and thus repeated sixty times, upon an ancient Celtic 
 funeral urn found at Shropham, in the county of Norfolk, and now in the 
 British Museum. 10 I find it also very often on ancient Athenian 1 and 
 Corinthian vases, and exceedingly frequent on the jewels in the royal tombs 
 at Mycenae ; 2 also on the coins of Leucas and Syracuse, and in the large 
 mosaic in the royal palace garden at Athens. The Kev. W. Brown Keer, 
 who visited me in 1872 at Hissarlik, assured me that he has seen it 
 innumerable times in the most ancient Hindu temples, and especially in 
 those of the Jainas. I see also a fjJ on a vase 3 which was found 
 in the county of Lipto, in Hungary, and is preserved in the collection 
 Majlath Bela; further, on terra-cottas found in the cavern of Bara- 
 thegy, in Hungary. 4 
 
 Since the appearance of my work Troy and its Remains, I have been 
 favoured with letters from correspondents who have observed the Lj^ and 
 in various parts of the old world, from China at the one extremity 
 to Western Africa at the other. Dr. Lockhart, of Blackheath, formerly 
 medical missionary in China —to whom I am indebted for other interesting 
 communications 5 — says that "the sign pj-J is thoroughly Chinese." 6 
 Major-General H. W. Gordon, C.B., Controller of the Koyal Arsenal 
 at Woolwich, wrote, with reference to the nations amongst whom I have 
 traced the " You may to these nations add the Chinese, since upon 
 the breech-chasing of a large gun lying outside my office, and which was 
 captured in the Taku Forts, you will find the same identical sign." For 
 the very interesting discovery of the symbol among the Ashantees, I am 
 
 6 Zeitschrift fiir Ethnologic, Organ der Berliner 
 Gesellschaft fur Anthropologic und Urgeschichte, 
 
 1871, iii. 
 
 7 Third Sessional Report of the Berlin Society 
 for Anthropology, Ethnology, and Pre-historic lie- 
 searches, of 1871. 
 
 8 Sessional Report of the Berlin Society for 
 Anthropology, Ethnology, and Pre-historic Re- 
 searches, of July 15, 1876, p. 9. 
 
 9 Emile Burnouf, op.cit. 
 
 10 A. W. Franks, Horae ferales, PI. 30, fig. 19. 
 
 1 G. Hirschfeld, Vasi arcaici Ateniesi ; Roma, 
 
 1872, Tav. xxxix. and xl. G. Dennis, The Cities 
 and Cemeteries of Etruria, p. xci. 
 
 2 See my Mycenae, p. 259, figs. 383, 385, and 
 in many others. 
 
 3 No. 3, PI. xx. in Dr. Joseph Hampel's Anti- 
 quite's pr€'aistoriques de la Hongrie ; Esztergom, 
 1877. 
 
 4 Joseph Hampel, Catalogue de V Exposition 
 preliistorique des Muse'es de Province ; Budapest, 
 1876, p. 17. 
 
 5 For example, the Chinese sacrificial cup, 
 engraved under No. 774 (p. 466), resembling the 
 double-hnndled gold cup of the large treasure. 
 Dr. Lockhart finds various indications of Chinese 
 influence among the Hissarlik antiquities, and 
 traces Chinese letters on some of the whorls : 
 but I do not now enter into that question. 
 
 6 M. Burnouf asks me whether it has not been 
 imported into China by the Buddhists. 
 
Chap. VIL] THE pjJ AND CYPEIOTE CHARACTERS. 
 
 353 
 
 indebted to Mr. E. B. iEneas Macleod, of Invergordon Castle, Koss-shire, 
 who wrote : " You may judge my surprise when, a few weeks ago, on 
 looking over some curious bronzes captured at Coomassie during the late 
 Ashantee war by Captain Eden, son of Bishop Eden, of Inverness, and 
 now in his possession, I observed the same symbol, with some others, as 
 was usual in Asia Minor so many thousand years ago. I enclose photo- 
 graphs of the three bronzes with the symbol in high relief, and of nearly 
 the natural size." 
 
 No. 248. No. 249. No. 250. 
 
 Professor Sayce observes to me : " It is evident that the sign found 
 at Hissarlik is identical with that found at Mycenae and Athens, as 
 well as on the pre-historic pottery of Cyprus, 7 since the general artistic 
 character of the objects with which this sign is associated in Cyprus and 
 Greece agrees with that of the objects discovered in Troy. The Cyprian 
 vase figured in Di Cesnola's Cyprus, PL xlv. 36, which associates the 
 sivastika with the figure of an animal, is a striking analogue of the Trojan 
 whorls on which it is associated with the figures of stags. The fact that 
 it is drawn within the vulva of the leaden image of the Asiatic goddess 
 (No. 226) seems to show that it was a symbol of generation. I believe that 
 
 it is identical with the Cypriote character fjs or B J» (ne), which has 
 
 the form in the inscriptions of Golgi, and also with the Hittite 
 
 or i|et 3 which Dr. Hyde Clarke once suggested to me was intended to 
 
 represent the organs of generation." 
 
 Mr. Edward Thomas kindly sends me a copy of his most able dis- 
 sertation on the p]-J and j-pj, 8 in which he says : "As far as I have been 
 able, to trace or connect the various manifestations of this emblem, they 
 one and all resolve themselves into the primitive conception of solar 
 motion, which was intuitively associated with the rolling or wheel-like 
 projection of the sun through the upper or visible arc of the heavens, as 
 understood and accepted in the crude astronomy of the ancients. The 
 earliest phase of astronomical science we are at present in a position to 
 refer to, with the still extant aid of indigenous diagrams, is the Chaldean. 
 The representation of the sun in this system commences with a simple 
 ring or outline circle, which is speedily advanced towards the impression 
 of onward revolving motion by the insertion of a cross or four wheel-like 
 
 7 Di Cesnola, Cyprus, PL xliv., xlv., xlvii. 
 
 8 The Indian Swastika and its Western Counterparts ; London, 1880. 
 
 2 A 
 
354 
 
 THE THIRD, THE BURNT CITY. 
 
 [Chap. VII. 
 
 spokes within the circumference of the normal ring. As the original 
 Chaldean emblem of the sun was typified by a single ring, so the Indian 
 mind adopted a similar definition, which remains to this day as the 
 ostensible device or caste-mark of the modern Sauras, or sun-worshippers. 
 The tendency of devotional exercises in India, indeed, seems from the first 
 to have lain in the direction of mystic diagrams and crypto symbols 
 rather than in the production of personified statues of the gods, in which 
 it must be confessed that, unlike the Greeks, the Hindus did not attain 
 a high style of art." 
 
 I now come to the tripod-vases, of which a really enormous number 
 was found. In fact, most of the Trojan vases are tripods. I found, in my 
 excavations in the Acropolis of Mycenae, a few fragments of terra-cotta 
 tripods, 9 but never an entire one. Besides, the Mycenean tripods are 
 very different from the Trojan ; for they have two large handles, which, as 
 well as the three feet, have each two, three, four, or even five perforations, 
 for suspension with a string. On the contrary, the feet of the Trojan 
 tripods are never perforated, but there is on either side of the body a 
 projection with a vertical tubular hole, and, in the same direction, a hole 
 in the rim and the cover. The string was drawn on each side through 
 the tubular holes of the projections, and a knot being made below, as I 
 have shown in No. 252, the string was drawn through the tubular holes 
 of the neck or the cover. It deserves attention that whenever a vase 
 has a cover with long tubular holes, such as No. 252, there is no per- 
 foration in the vase-neck ; 
 and there being none in 
 the tripod-vase No. 251, 
 it must have had a cover 
 similar to that of No. 252. 
 In fact, vases with pro- 
 jections on the rim and 
 long tubular holes in these 
 projections, a system such 
 as we see it on No. 253, 
 always pre - suppose flat 
 vase-covers perforated on 
 either side. In either way, 
 — by means of the cap- 
 like covers with tubular 
 holes, such as we see on 
 No. 252, or by means of 
 perforated flat covers, such 
 as there must have ex- 
 isted on. No. 253,— the vase could be shut close, and it could be carried 
 by the string. 
 
 But if, as is evident from the fragments I discovered at Mycenae, the 
 tripod form of vase was in use in Greece from a very remote antiquity, it 
 
 No. 251. Ornamented Tripod Vase, with tubular holes for suspension. 
 (2 : 5 actual size. Depth, 27 ft.) 
 
 9 See my Mycenae, p. 69. 
 
Chap. VII.] 
 
 USE OF TRIPODS IN HOMER. 
 
 355 
 
 most certainly was no longer in use there or elsewhere in the so-called 
 Graeco-Phoenician period, and far less in later times. The hest proof of 
 this is, that neither the Museums of Athens, nor the British Museum, 
 nor the Louvre, nor any other museum in the world, can boast of possess- 
 ing a tripod-vase of terra-cotta, except one found at Ialysus, preserved 
 in the British Museum, two from Etruria (one of them in form of an 
 animal from Corneto) as well as one from Peru in the Koyal Museum 
 of Berlin, 10 one apparently of a late period in the Museum of Leyden, 11 
 and three bronze tripod-vases of a late time in the Middle Ages in the 
 Museums of Neu Strelitz, Stralsund, and Brandenburg. We must also, 
 of course, except the censers, consisting of a very flat bowl with three very 
 long, broad feet, which occur among the Graeco-Phoenician as well as the 
 Corinthian pottery, and of which the Museum of the Bapftd/cetov in Athens, 
 as well as all the large European museums, contain a few specimens. 
 
 No fragment of a tripod-vase of either terra-cotta or bronze has ever 
 been found in the Lake-dwellings ; 1 nor, indeed, so far as I know, has any 
 bronze or copper tripod-vase ever been found anywhere, except the above, 
 and one which I discovered in the fourth royal sepulchre at Mycenae, and 
 of which I gave an engraving, No. 440, p. 278 of my Mycenae. But 
 as tripods are continually mentioned by Homer, the fact now mentioned 
 goes far to prove that he either flourished in Greece at that remote age 
 to which the Mycenean sepulchres belong, or that he lived in Asia Minor, 
 where tripods may have been still in use at the time usually attributed to 
 the poet (the ninth century B.C.). But my excavations at Hissarlik have 
 not proved that tripods were still in use so late : for no trace of them 
 was found either in the layer of debris of the sixth city, which I hold 
 to be a Lydian settlement, or in the most ancient strata of the Aeolic Ilium. 
 
 Tripods of copper (or bronze) were used in the Homeric times for 
 various purposes. In the Odyssey, 2 as well as in the Iliad? we find them 
 given as presents of honour. In the Iliad 4 one is offered as a prize in 
 
 10 The Royal Museum of Berlin contains also a 
 terra-cotta vase with four feet, but I have not 
 been able to learn where it was found. 
 
 11 L. J. F. Janssen, Be Germaanscho en Noord- 
 sche Monumenten van het Museum te Leyden ; 
 Leyden, 18-tO. 
 
 1 Professor Virchow informs me that in the 
 peat-moors of Northern Germany are often found 
 copper kettles with three feet, which belong, 
 however, to a late period, and probably to the 
 Middle Ages. Two such tripod-vases— the one 
 of iron, the other of brass or bronze — are repre- 
 sented in the Sessional Report of ihe Berlin 
 Society of Anthropology, Ethnology, &c, of 
 July 11, 1874, PI. xi. Nos. 4 and 5. 
 
 2 Od. xiii. 13 : 
 
 aAA' aye oi dwjuev rp'iiroda \xiyav r/Se Ae^ra . . . 
 Od. xv. 82-84 : 
 
 ov84 tis 7}/ii4as 
 
 avrais a-rnrc/uL-ipei, 8u>crei 5e Tt eV 76 (p4pe<xdai, 
 vje Tiva Tpnr68(tiv zvxaKKuiv 7?e ke^rcov. 
 
 3 II. viii. 289-291 : 
 
 Trparw roi /ner i/xe Trpeo-firj'iov iv x^pl Bijffca, 
 
 7) rp'nroS' r?e 8vco tWous abrolcnv uxeacpiv 
 
 ye yvvcux, 77 k4v toi 6[xhv Ae%os d<ravafSoivoi. 
 
 II. ix. 121-123 : 
 vfuv 5 1 iv irdvTecrcri irepiKkvra 8ccp' bvo^vb), 
 eW airvpovs rpliroBas, Se/ca Se XP V(T0 ^° ToXavra, 
 aWoouas 5e Xefiriras ieLKOffi, . . . 
 
 4 xi. 700, 701 : 
 
 TT€p\ rp'nro8os yap e/xeWov 
 
 GtvcrecrOai' 
 
 II. xxiii. 262-264 : 
 'lirTTevcnv fxev irpcara irodd/Keaiv ay\a &ef?Aa 
 6t]Ke yvvalna ayeadai afxvfxova %pya I8v?au 
 Kal t piTro8' wTwtvra . . . 
 
 //. xxiii. 485 : 
 8evp6 vvv, 7) rpiirotios irepL8a>jJ.e0oj/ rje \c(ir]TOS . . . 
 
 II. xxiii. 512, 513: 
 S&Ke 5' ayziv krapoHTiv {nrepOv/jLOKri yvva?Ka 
 Kal rpiVoS' wTwecTa <p4peiv 
 
 II. xxiii. 717, 718 : 
 
 ot 5 e fxaA* aUi 
 viicrjs UcrBriv rpiirodos irepi ttoit]to7o. 
 
356 
 
 THE THIRD, THE BURNT CITY. 
 
 [Chap. VII. 
 
 the games, and the tripod also occurs as an ornament of the rooms, 5 
 and, further, for the heating of water and for cooking. 6 To indicate its 
 use for these latter purposes, Homer 7 gives also to the tripod the epithet 
 i/jL7rvpL/3tjT7)<;, " set on the fire." 
 
 It is very remarkable that, with all the many hundreds of terra- 
 cotta tripod-vases, no trace of a copper or bronze tripod was found in 
 any one of the five pre-historic cities at Hissarlik. This is all the more 
 astonishing, since the ten treasures found in the third or burnt city 
 appear to prove that the city was suddenly and unexpectedly destroyed 
 by a fearful catastrophe, so that the inhabitants had no time to save 
 anything. Besides, the largest treasure, that one which was found by me 
 at the end of May 1873, contained three copper vessels and some more in 
 fragments, but not one of these was a tripod. The existence, therefore, of 
 terra-cotta and copper tripod-vessels in Mycenae at that remote antiquity 
 to which the royal tombs belong ;— their non-existence in Greece at any 
 later period ; — the abundance of copper (or bronze) tripod-vessels in the 
 time of Homer ; — the general use of terra-cotta tripod-vessels in all the 
 five pre-historic cities at Hissarlik; — the total absence there of copper 
 tripods of any kind : — this series of facts presents just as many problems 
 which bid fair to occupy the scientific world for a long time to come. 
 
 In order to avoid continual repetition, I here state that, unless I 
 mention the contrary, all the Trojan vases may be regarded as hand-made. 
 
 I have still to describe more fully the tripod-vases already mentioned, 
 Nos. 251, 252, and 253. As may be seen, the vertical tubular holes of 
 No. 251 are very long ; the three feet, of which only one is visible in the 
 engraving, are very short and thick. On either side of the globular body 
 we see two narrow strips with dots, and two broad ones with an incised 
 ornamentation in the shape of fish-spines. This latter decoration is seen 
 on several gold goblets 8 found by me at Mycenae in the royal sepulchres, 
 as well as on a marble slab found outside of them ; 9 it also occurs on 
 terra-cotta vases found in Dolmens of the Stone age in Denmark ; 10 on 
 a vase found in Hungary, 11 and elsewhere. 
 
 No. 252 is a very remarkable lustrous light-red tripod-vase. Around 
 the body we see a deep furrow, the two edges of which are perforated 
 vertically for suspension ; but the usual projections on either side of the 
 body are missing here. Not less curious is the cover, in the form of a 
 Phrygian cap, having on each side a tubular hole more than 2 in. long, 
 by means of which it was fastened on the vase with a string, as I have 
 shown in the engraving. There are similar very long vertical tubular 
 
 5 II. xviii. 373, 374 : 
 
 rplirodas yap ie'iKocri iravras ereuxei/ 
 carcifxevai irtp\ toIxov iiiaraOeos fieydpoio, . . . 
 
 6 Od. viii. 434 : 
 
 a.fx(pl irvpl arrival rpliroda fxiyav otti Ta%iCTTO. 
 
 II. xviii. 344, 345 : 
 a/j.(p] Trvpl (XTT\(Tai Tpiiroda /x4yav, v(ppa Ta^KXTa 
 Holt poKXov Xovatiav. 
 
 7 II. xxiii. 702 : 
 
 Ty fxkv vinr\o~avTi jxiyav t/jiVoS' £ixirvpifir)TT)v, . . . 
 
 In II. xsii. 163, 164, it is called Tp'nros instead 
 of the usual form Tpiirovs : 
 
 to 5e fieya /ce?Tai aedXou, 
 
 7) Tp'nros 7?e yvvi), . . . 
 
 8 See my Mycenae, No. 319, p. 206, and No. 
 453, p. 292. 
 
 9 Ibid. No. 215, p. 140. 
 
 10 J. J. A. Worsaae, JSSordishe Oldsagcr ; Copen- 
 hagen, 1859, p. 19, fig. 95, and p. 20, fig. 100. 
 
 11 Joseph Hampel, Antiquite's prtfiistoriqucs do 
 la Hongric, PI. xxi. No. 7. 
 
Chap. VII.] 
 
 TRIPODS WITH SUSPENSION RINGS. 
 
 357 
 
 holes in the projections near the rim of the pretty grey tripod-vase 
 No. 253, which has smaller projections with vertical tubular holes, in 
 
 No. 252. Ornamented Tripod Vase, with tubular No. 253. Ornamented Tripod Vase, with tubular rings 
 
 rings for suspension. (2 : 5 actual size. for suspension. (2 : 5 actual size. Depth, 26 ft.) 
 
 Depth, 26 ft.) 
 
 the same direction, in its globular body, which is decorated with wedge- 
 shaped incisions and points. 
 
 Another tripod-vase with the suspension system is No. 254, the neck 
 of which is ornamented with 8 circular bands. The body is divided by 
 three bands into four fields, of which the upper one is decorated with the 
 
 No. 254. Ornamented Tripod Vase, with tubular holes No. 255. Ornamented Tripod Vase, with tubular ho'es 
 for suspension. Incised ornamentation. (About 1 : 4 for suspension. Incised ornamentation. (About 1:4 
 actual size. Depth, 26 ft.) actual size. Depth, 26 ft.) 
 
 very common incised zigzag ornament, the two following with small 
 incised strokes; the lower field has no ornamentation. No. 255 is a 
 similar tripod-vase, with an almost identical ornamentation. 
 
358 
 
 THE THIRD, THE BURNT CITY. 
 
 [Chap. VII. 
 
 No. 256 represents a very characteristic specimen of a Trojan terra- 
 cotta tripod-vase: it is of a light-brown colour, and has two handles, 
 
 which, as well as the three feet, 
 are of a spiral form. Between 
 the two handles there is, on 
 either side of the body, a large 
 projection with a vertical tubular 
 hole, one of which is just in 
 front, and in the same direction 
 a hole in the rim for suspension. 
 The long funnel-shaped neck is 
 decorated with simple circular 
 bands. 
 
 A very elegant red tripod- 
 vase with two perforated handles 
 is represented under No. 257. 
 On each side of its globular 
 body we see an incised decora- 
 tion of three branches, of which 
 the middle one has on each side 
 a zigzag line, the two others 
 plain lines. 
 
 The tripod- vase No. 258 is 
 very curious, on account of its 
 fanciful feet, which, as well as 
 
 No. 256. Pretty Tripod Vase, with (wo handles of spiral form the projections On the sides of 
 and vertical tubular holes for suspension. (2 : 5 actual size. . n n n j_ l • j l 
 
 Depth, 28 ft.) the body, are ornamented with 
 
 incisions; the whole upper part 
 of this vessel is restored. The only peculiarity in the globular tripod- 
 vase, No. 259, is a projection on the body, the upper part of which is 
 
 No. £57. Globular Tripod, with perforated handles for 
 suspension and incised ornamentation of plants or 
 palm-leaves. (1 : 3 actual size. Depth, 26 ft.) 
 
 No. 25?. Tripod Vase. All the upper part restored with 
 gypsum. (Nearly 1 : 3 actual size. Depth, 26 ft.) 
 
 ornamented with a zigzag line between two circular bands. Much prettier 
 is the little globular tripod-vase, No. 260; which has on each side the 
 usual perforated projection for suspension. The body is decorated with 
 
Chap. VII.] 
 
 VARIOUS TRIPOD-VASES. 
 
 359 
 
 an incised band of a horizontal fish-spine-like ornamentation, parallel to 
 which we see a band of strokes round the neck. This latter band is 
 
 No. 260. Globular Tripod, with boles for suspension 
 No. 259. Globular Vase, witb three feet and tubular an d incised fish-spine-like ornaments, 
 
 holes for suspension. (About 1 : 4 actual size. (Nearly 1 : 3 actual size. Depth, 26 ft.) 
 
 Depth, 26 ft.) 
 
 joined to the lower one on each side by a row of fish-spine incisions. The 
 neck straitens towards the top. 
 
 The tripod No. 261 has two handles of a spiral form, which, as a rare 
 exception to the rule, are not perforated. The globular body is divided 
 by seven parallel circular bands into six fields : of these the larger 
 central one is divided on each side by fifteen vertical lines into sixteen 
 small fields, four of which are ornamented with incised circles, and four 
 others with strokes. No. 262 is another tripod-vase, with tubular holes for 
 
 No. 261. Tripod Vase, w'th incised ornamentation. No. 262. Tripod Vase, with incised ornamentation. 
 
 (Half actual size. Depth, 23 ft.) (Half actual size. Depth, 25 It.) 
 
 suspension. The upper part of the globular body, as well as the neck, is 
 ornamented with incised parallel bands, of which two are ornamented 
 with horizontal strokes, the third with an incised zigzag line. 
 
 The tripod-vase No. 263 is very similar to No. 252, with the difference 
 that the neck of the latter straitens, while that of No. 263 widens towards 
 the top. On neither of these two vases are there perforated projections 
 
360 
 
 THE THIRD, THE BURNT CITY. 
 
 [Chap. VII. 
 
 for suspension. On No. 263, the edge of the bottom, the projecting 
 edge on the middle of the body, as well as the upper part of the neck 
 and the cover, are perforated on each side for assing the string 
 through. 
 
 I call the reader's very particular attention to the curious light-red 
 tripod-box Nos. 264 and 265, the former being the cover and the latter 
 
 No. 264. 
 
 No. 263. Tripod Vase, with tubular holes for suspension Nos. 264, 265. Tripod Box, with holes for suspension, 
 in the lower part of the body, the rim, and the cover. A cuttle-fish is painted on the cover. 
 
 (1 : 3 actual size. Depth, 26 ft.) (Nearly 1 : 3 actual size. Depth, 26 ft.) 
 
 being the lower part. The three feet are of a spiral form. On each side 
 of the bottom, as well as on two sides in the rims, there is a perforation 
 for suspending the box and fastening the lid on it. On the top of the 
 
 latter the reader sees a curious 
 ornamentation, painted with dark- 
 red clay, in which the keen eye of 
 my friend Mr. Charles Newton, of 
 the British Museum, has recognized 
 a cuttle-fish, and this is in fact most 
 certainly represented here. The 
 same ornamentation occurs at My- 
 cenae and in the Phoenico-Greek 
 remains at Rhodes. The same orna- 
 mentation is very frequent on the 
 objects of gold found by me in the 
 royal sepulchres of Mycenae, 1 also 
 on the pottery from a tomb at 
 lalysus in Rhodes preserved in the 
 British Museum. No. 266 is the 
 cover, and No. 267 the lower part, 
 of a lustrous-black box of terra- 
 cotta, made of a very compact 
 graphite clay mixed with so much 
 •mica that it glitters all over with 
 thousands of sparkles, like gold or 
 silver. I found it on the wall 
 near the royal house, together with the curious object of Egyptian 
 porcelain No. 548, and a lustrous-black vase with an owl's head and 
 the characteristics of a woman, in a large broken funeral urn, which 
 
 Nos. 266, 207. Lust'ous-black Box, with Cover of 
 Terra-cotta. (Half actual size. Depth, 2S ft ) 
 
 1 See my Mycenae, No. 240, p. 1GG, and Nos. 270, 271, p. 181. 
 
Chap. VII.] 
 
 TEEEA-COTTA BOXES WITH LIDS. 
 
 361 
 
 was filled with different sorts of carbonized material and ashes of animal 
 matter. Though the box has evidently been exposed to a great heat, 
 yet it is hardly half-baked, probably because it was shut. But still 
 the heat has been so great in the box that all its contents have been 
 carbonized. In these Professor X. Landerer recognizes grain, remnants 
 of cotton or linen cloth, beads of glass paste, and animal charcoal of bones 
 and flesh. Thus we may with all probability suppose that the funeral urn 
 contained the ashes of a deceased person, to which were added several 
 articles, to one of which the object of Egyptian porcelain belonged ; also 
 the box before us, which seems to have contained a dress ornamented 
 with beads of a glass paste, and some food, grain, and animal matter. 
 Unlike the box Nos. 264, 265, the black box before us has no holes for 
 suspension, and the lid is so large that it covers the lower part or box 
 proper entirely. 
 
 No. 268 represents a lustrous-black tripod-vase with the system for 
 suspension ; it has on each side of the body three linear projections and two 
 
 No. 268. Globular Tripod, with perforated (1 : 4 actual size. Depth, 26 ft.) 
 
 projections for suspension. Ornamentation, 6 linear 
 projections. (1 : 4 actual size Depth, 32 ft.) 
 
 lines incised round the neck. No. 269 is a little grey vase decorated with 
 three lines round the neck, and a series of circles and a zigzag orna- 
 mentation round the body. Nos. 270 and 271 are two globular tripod- 
 
 No. 270. 
 
 Nos. 270, 271. Two Tripod Vases, with tubular holes for suspension 
 and ornamented with incisions. (1:4 actual size. Depth, 26 ft.) 
 
 vases of a blackish colour, with tubular holes for suspension ; the former 
 is ornamented with three lines round the neck, and various other rude 
 incised patterns on the body ; the upper part of No. 271 is decorated all 
 
362 
 
 THE THIRD, THE BURNT CITY 
 
 [Chap. VII; 
 
 round with 7 bands of dots. No. 272 is a lustrous-black tripod-vase with 
 a ring for suspension on either side, and two small projections on each side 
 of the body. 
 
 I pass over to the unornamented tripod-vases, simply placing beiore 
 the reader nine specimens of lustrous black, brown, or red colour 
 (Nos. 273 to 281), as their several forms may be easily studied from the 
 
 No. 271. Tripod Vase, with perforated projections for 
 suspension. (1 ■ 4 actual size. Depth, 32 ft.) 
 
 No. 274. Tripod Vase, with tubular holes for 
 suspension. (1 : 4 actual size. Depth, 26 ft.) 
 
 No. 275. Tripod Vase, with holes for suspension. 
 (Nearly 1 : 3 actual size. Depth, 26 ft.) 
 
 No. 276. Tripod Vase, with tubular holes for 
 suspension. (1 4 actual size. Depth, 26 ft.) 
 
 excellent engravings. All of them have two vertically perforated projec- 
 tions for suspension with a string. In the engravings Nos. 273 and 274 
 the perforations for the string in the rim are also easily to be discerned 
 The feet of No. 276 form curves; those of No. 277 are m the form ot 
 spirals. 
 
Chap. VII.] UNORNAMENTED TRIPOD -VASES. 363 
 
 No. 2-<0. Tripod Vase, with tubular holos for 
 tu^peiision. (1 : 4 actual size. Depth, 
 32 ft.) 
 
 No. 281. Terra-cotta Tripod "Vase, with 
 perforated projections on the sides for f-uspension. 
 (Half actual size. Depth, 30 ft.) 
 
 I now proceed to the vases without feet. No. 282 is a lustrous dark- 
 brown globular vase, with a short neck and double rings for suspension on 
 
 No. 282. Vase with two tubular holes for No. 283. Spout of a black Vase, with two holes 
 
 suspension on each side. (About 1 : 4 actual size. for suspension. (2 : 3 actual size. Depth, 
 
 Depth, 32 ft.) 26 ft.) 
 
 each side. Similar vases with double rings on each side are general in the 
 first city, but they hardly ever occur in the higher strata ; in fact, in all 
 
364 
 
 THE THIED, THE BURNT CITY. 
 
 [Chap. VII. 
 
 my excavations I found only two of them in the third or burnt city. 2 
 But No. 283 is a vase-spout with two perforations in the rim. It evi- 
 dently belongs to a vase with such a spout on each side of the body: 
 I shall have occasion to represent such a vase on a subsequent page. 
 No. 284 is a lustrous-black globular vase, with the usual vertical tubular 
 holes for suspension. As to Nos. 285 and 288, I have nothing particular 
 to add to the mere view of the objects. 
 
 No. 284. Globular Vase, with tubular holes. 
 (About 1 : 4 actual size. Depth, 32 ft.) 
 
 No. 285. Globular Vase, with tubular holes for 
 suspension. (Nearly 1 : 3 actual size. Depth, 32 ft.) 
 
 No. 286. Bottle with tubular holes for suspension. 
 (About 1 : 4 actual size. Deptb, 26 ft.) 
 
 No. 287. Globular Bottle, with tubular holes for 
 suspension. (Nearly 1 : 3 actual size. Depth, 26 ft.) 
 
 Nos. 286 and 287 are in shape much like our present bottles; but 
 the projections with the vertical tubular holes on the sides betray at once 
 their remote antiquity. No. 289 is a large yellowish vase of oval form, 
 having on the sides the like projections with perforations. No. 290 is a 
 lustrous-black globular vase with perforated projections for suspension. 
 
 2 A hand-made vase similar to this, and also 
 with two rings for suspension on either side, 
 is in the remarkable collection of pre-historic 
 German pottery of Professor Virchow at Berlin. 
 Great praise is due to this friend for the exten- 
 sive excavations he has undertaken in company 
 with his highly talented children, his daughter 
 Adele and his son Dr. Hans Virchow, in the 
 vast graveyard of Zaborowo in the province of 
 Posen, and of which his very curious collection is 
 
 the result. But, unlike the Trojan vases, which 
 invariably have vertical perforations for suspen- 
 sion, the perforations on the above vase in Prof. 
 Virchow's collection are in a horizontal position, 
 like those of all the German vases ; but he 
 possesses one vase found at Belgard in Pom- 
 mern, which has on each side a vertically per- 
 forated excrescence. Another rare exception is a 
 vase in the Miirkisches Museum at Berlin, which 
 has also a vertical perforation on either side. 
 
Chap. VII.] 
 
 VASES WITHOUT FEET. 
 
 365 
 
 suspension. (About 1 :4 actual size. Depth, 26 ft.) 
 
 A vase similar to this, hut with horizontally perforated excrescences on 
 the sides, is in Professor Virchow's collection. 
 
 No. 292. Globular Vase, with holes No. 293. Globular Vase, with holes No. 294. Cup with fish-spine orna- 
 
 for suspens-ion and incised orna- for suspension and incised flowery mentation. (About 1 : 4 actual size, 
 
 mentation. (About 1 : 4 actual size. ornamentation. (About 1 : 4 actual Depth, 26 ft.) 
 
 Depth, 26 ft.) size. Depth, 32 ft.) 
 
 No. 291 is remarkable for the shape of its very long perforated 
 projections for suspension. No. 292 is a globular vase, rudely decorated 
 with a linear ornamentation and dots. No. 293 is a grey globular vase 
 with the suspension system, ornamented on each side with six very 
 neatly-incised palm-branches. No. 294 is a lustrous dark-red goblet 
 
366 
 
 THE THIKD, THE BURNT CITY. 
 
 [Chap. YIL 
 
 without handles ; it is decorated with an incised bana of the fish-spine 
 ornament, encompassed on both sides by double lines, below which we 
 see an engraved branch all round the vase. The perforated projections 
 on the sides of the lustrous dark-brown globular vase, No. 295, are 
 in the shape of ears. No. 296 represents a vase with perforated projec- 
 
 No. 295. Globular Vase, with tubular boles for 
 suspension. (About 1 : 4 actual size. Deptb, 29 It.) 
 
 No. 206. Vase with linear ornamentation and tubular 
 holes for suspension. (About 1 : 4 actual size. 
 Depth, 29 ft.) 
 
 tions for suspension; it has a rude linear ornamentation on the body. 
 Professor Yirchow calls my attention to the great similarity between the 
 cover of this vase and that of the covers on the Pommerellen vases 
 with human faces. No. 297 is of a lustrous-brown colour; its neck 
 
 k„ om ™, c k Vase with a convex bottom and tubular holes 
 29 '- o^r^ ~ - «he B n^ S pen r — will , dot , 
 
 K 1 ' (1 : 3 actual size. Depth, 23 it.; 
 
 widens slightly towards the top. No. 298 is a lustrous-blaek vase, with 
 a globular base and the usual perforated projections tor suspension; it is 
 covered all over with rows of dots. 
 
Chap. YIL] VASE WITH REMARKABLE DECORATIONS. 
 
 387 
 
 The globular lustrous dark-brown vase, No. 299, with its long per 
 forated and deeply-fluted projections for suspension, is very remarkable. 
 
 No. 300 is of the same colour, and has the 
 usual system for suspension. It is decorated with 
 a waving line and dots. 
 
 To the list of vases found elsewhere, with 
 vertical tubular holes for suspension, I may add 
 two small conical vases from Nimroud, in the 
 British Museum, each of which has four such 
 holes. 
 
 No. 301 is a blackish globular vase, with 
 perforated projections on the body as well as in 
 the rim, for suspension. It has a rudely-incised 
 ornamentation filled up with white chalk. 
 
 One of the most interesting objects ever found at Hissarlik is the 
 
 No. 299. Globular Vase, with 
 tubular holes for suspension. 
 (About 1 : 4 actual size. 
 Depth, 26 ft.) 
 
 % 
 
 No. 300. Vase with holes for suspension, and incised 
 ornamentation. (About 1 : 4 actual size. 
 Depth, 32 ft.) 
 
 No. 301. Globular Vase, with tubular holes in the rim 
 and body for suspension ; incised ornamentation. 
 (1 : 4 actual size. Depth, 29 ft.) 
 
 beautiful lustrous dark-yellow vase No. 302 (p. 368), which has on the 
 sides long projections perforated with tubular holes for suspension ; each 
 of these projections is ornamented with four horizontal parallel lines. The 
 surface of the body is divided on each side by two vertical lines into three 
 fields : in the middle field, which is by far the largest, we see on each side a 
 tree with ten branches, a decoration which is very frequent on the Trojan 
 whorls and balls (see Nos. 1899-1904, 1910, 1993, 1999, and 2000). But 
 I remind the reader that this, like all other patterns on the pre-historic 
 pottery of Hissarlik, is incised. If we examine these incisions with a 
 lens, we conclude from their rudeness and irregularity that they must 
 have been made with pointed pieces of silex or hard wood, or with bone- 
 needles, before the pottery was baked, for the second time, or, more 
 probably, before it was brought to the fire for the first time. The vase 
 before us (No. 302) has been exposed to the full heat of the conflagra- 
 tion ; for, although the clay is very thick, it is thoroughly baked. This 
 vase evidently had a cover like that which we see on No. 252. 
 
 Another highly interesting vase is represented by No. 303 (p. 368) ; it 
 
368 THE THIRD, THE BURNT CITY. [Chap. VII. 
 
 is of a lustrous-black colour, and but slightly baked. Like many other 
 black vases, it would most probably have become quite red had it been 
 exposed to the intense heat of the conflagration, and so been thoroughly 
 
 No. 303. Vase of polished blackish Terra-cotta, with 
 tubular holes for suspension. Incised plant-like orna- 
 No. 302. Vase of well-poli*hed yellow I erra-cotta, with notation. (Half actual size. Depth, 33 ft.) 
 an incised ornamentation and long tubular holes for 
 suspension on either side. (About 1 : 3 actual size. 
 Depth, 26 i ft.) 
 
 baked. It has on both sides pointed projections with perforations for 
 suspension. Like the foregoing vase (No. 302), it has a small hollow 
 foot ; its shape is globular ; it is decorated on each side with two reversed 
 branches, each with 18 leaves and surrounded by dots ; there is also a 
 plant-like ornamentation above the projections. A similar ornamentation 
 is very frequent on the whorls (see Nos. 1901 and 1904). 
 
 The lustrous-red vase No. 304 is of an oval shape. This also has a 
 small hollow foot and a short neck, which widens towards the mouth ; it 
 has the usual tubular holes on the sides, and holes in the rim in the 
 same direction. The body is ornamented all round with rudely-incised 
 vertical lines, just as if the primitive potter had intended to imitate 
 a melon. The neck is ornamented with horizontal parallel lines. This 
 vessel has been exposed to the intense heat of the conflagration, by which 
 it has been thoroughly baked. The crown-shaped cover which we see on 
 the vase is very curious. Unlike the usual covers with^ similar crown- 
 like handle, this cover is not intended to be put over the neck of the vase, 
 but to be put into it, like a stopper, because its lower part is hemi- 
 spherical and hollow, with a wide orifice in the middle. By this con- 
 trivance the cover could be put on the vase even when it was full, because 
 the liquid would enter into the hollow. While all the vases which 
 I have hitherto passed in review, and all those which I shall pass in 
 review without a special notice to the contrary, are hand-made, this vase- 
 cover is wheel-made, a circumstance which appears to prove that it does 
 not belong to this particular vase. 
 
Chap. VIL] 
 
 VARIOUS SUSPENSION VASES. 
 
 369 
 
 Under No. 305 I represent a globular lustrous-yellow vase found in 
 the royal house ; it has the usual perforated projections for suspension on 
 
 No. 305. Inscribed Terra-cotta Vase, from the 
 royal house. (1 : 4 actual size. Depth, 26 ft.) 
 
 No. 304. Lustrous-red Vase of oval shape, with rude linear 
 ornamentation, having long perforated projections on the sides 3 ° 6 ' Vase of oval form - with a lloll °w 
 
 [Half actual size. Depth, 24 ft.) foot ' tubular bol es for suspension, and a 
 
 projecting ornamentation. 
 (1 : 4 actual size. Depth, 26 ft.) 
 
 the sides, and holes in the rim ; its bottom is flat. Around the upper 
 part of the body is what has been taken for an incised 
 inscription, which Professor Sayce has discussed in his 
 dissertation on the Trojan inscriptions. 3 
 
 The red vase No. 306 is of an oval shape, and has 
 the same system for suspension as all the foregoing, a 
 hollow foot, and a small neck ; it has on each side of the 
 body a spiral decoration in relief, like the Cypriote cha- ^UXr IS 
 
 racter JiO. fur suspension and 
 
 Of a far ruder fabric is the little vase No. 307, which SFcSTET 
 has on each side two projections in the form of female a 2 c 9 '° t a ! ize - D ' viK 
 
 See hi, Appendix. 
 
 2 B 
 
370 THE THIRD, THE BURNT CITY. [Chap. VII. 
 
 breasts, and four vertical lines ; the small curved projections on the sides 
 are perforated for suspension. Very curious in its ornamentation is the 
 
 No. 308. Vase of Terra-cotta, with incised 
 decorations. (About half actual size. Depth, 26 ft.) 
 
 globular vase No. 308, which has only two holes for suspension in the rim, 
 and none on the sides. The surface of the body is divided by horizontal 
 
 No. 311. 
 
 Nos. 310-318. Fragments of Pottery with incised ornamentation. (Nearly half actual size. Depth, 22 to 32 ft.) 
 
 parallel lines into six or seven zones, most of which are decorated with 
 rude vertical, slanting, or horizontal incisions ; on each side of the body 
 
Chap. VII.] 
 
 TWO-HANDLED GOBLETS. 
 
 371 
 
 there is a projection which, however, is not perforated. The only pre- 
 historic vases, whose incised decoration offers some resemblance to that 
 on this vase, are those found in Hungary, and represented on PL vi. 
 Nos. 4, 6, 7, 8, and 9, in Dr. Joseph Hampel's Antiquites prehistoriques 
 de la Hongrie} 
 
 Under No. 309 I represent a vase-cover with a small handle; it is 
 rudely decorated with incisions representing lines, small concentric circles, 
 and spirals. 
 
 Nos. 310, 313, 314, 315, and 318 are fragments of vases with various 
 rudely-incised patterns. No. 311 is a vase-foot ending in a spiral. Nos. 
 312 and 316 are fragments of vase-covers. No. 317 is the handle of a 
 vase with curious signs. 
 
 The engravings Nos. 319 to 323 represent five of the long lustrous- 
 red goblets, with two enormous handles and a pointed or convex foot, on 
 account of which they cannot be put down except on the mouth ; there- 
 
 No. 319. Goblet with two handles, SeVa? a<xfyi- No. 320. Goblet with two handles, 6eVa? a^i- 
 
 Kv-ztWov. (About 1 : 4 actual size. Depth, 29 ft.) kvttzWov. (About 1 : 4 actual size. Depth, 32 ft.) 
 
 fore, whoever held such a goblet in his hand, when filled with liquid, 
 was forced to empty it before putting it down. In this way the goblet 
 was always kept clean. I have tried to prove in the preceding chapter 
 (pp. 299-302) that the Homeric Seira? a^LKvireXkov could not possibly 
 have been anything else but a single goblet with two handles. Nos. 319 
 and 320 are represented upright, as when held in the hand ; Nos. 321, 322, 
 and 323, as standing on the mouth. These goblets are sometimes very 
 large ; two of those in my collection, with a pointed foot and handles, like 
 No. 319, are 12 inches long, and have a mouth 6 inches in diameter. 
 But there also occur two-handled goblets of a different shape in this third, 
 
 4 Esztergom, 1376. 
 
372 
 
 THE THIRD, THE BURNT CITY. 
 
 [Chap. VII. 
 
 No. 322. 
 
 Nos. 321, 322. Goblets with two handles (S«ra d/A^ucvVeAAa). (About 1 : 4 actual size. Depth, 29 ft.) 
 
 No. 323. Goblet with two handles (SeVa? ifj-juKvirekkov). No. 325. Goblet with two handles. (1 : 3 actual size. 
 (About 1 : 4 actual size. Depth, 26 ft.) Depth, 26 ft.) 
 
 the burnt city. The shape represented by No. 324 also occurs very fre- 
 quently, and still more abundant is the form No. 325, which in the upper 
 pre-historic cities has sometimes three feet. With rare exceptions, all 
 the goblets, of whatever form, are of a lustrous-red colour ; the only other 
 colour which sometimes, but very seldom, occurs on the goblets, is a 
 lustrous black. 
 
Chap. VII.] CUEIOUS PERFORATED VESSELS. 373 
 
 I further represent here, under No. 326, a cup with three feet and 
 two handles ; it is of a lustrous-black colour, and decorated all round 
 with parallel horizontal lines. Only two. specimens of this type have been 
 found in the third city; but it is very frequent in the following city. 
 But still more frequent in the latter is a double-handled cup of the 
 very same shape, but without the tripod feet; indeed, this shape is so 
 abundant there, that I was able to collect many hundreds of specimens ; 
 but it never occurs in the third, the burnt city. I may add that none 
 of these various forms of goblets have ever been found elsewhere. 
 
 No. 327. Very curious sieve-like perforated Tripod- 
 vessel. (Half actual size. Depth, 24 ft.) 
 
 No. 327 is a very curious tripod-vessel in the form of a one-handled 
 pitcher, which stands on its side, supported by three feet, and is 
 pierced all over with holes like a sieve. Similar vessels are not rare, 
 either in the third or the following city ; but their use is a mystery 
 to us. All of them have been made on the potter's wheel, are unpolished, 
 and of the rudest fabric. All the holes have evidently been made before 
 the vessel was baked. But the baking is not thorough. Similar vessels 
 have never been found elsewhere. Professor Helbig 5 suggests that the 
 large sieve-like perforated terra-cotta vases found in the Italian terramare 
 may have served for separating the liquid honey from the wax. May the 
 vessel before us have served for a like purpose ? 
 
 Nos. 328-330 represent three vase-covers, whose tripod-like handles 
 with a large knob make a very pretty appearance, and resemble crowns. 
 But still more elegant is the vase-cover No. 331, the handle of which 
 consists, as it were, of two arches ; its form can best be explained by 
 comparing it to two single handles put cross-wise, one over the other, 
 
 5 Wolfgang Helbig, Die Ttaliker in der Poebene ; 
 Leipzig, 1879, p. 17. Professor Helbig says, 
 p. 6 : " The word Terramare or Terramara is an 
 expression corrupted from Terramarna by the 
 peasants of the province of Parma, and signifies 
 originally every stratum of earth which is mixed 
 with organic matter, and is therefore appropriate 
 
 for manuring. Now, as the soil of the Emilia 
 contains the remains of many old settlements, 
 remains consisting of manufactures as well as of 
 decomposed organic bodies, the denomination 
 Terramare has in a more narrow sense been 
 transferred to the strata containing such re- 
 mains." 
 
374 
 
 THE THIRD, THE BURNT CITY". 
 
 [Chap. VII. 
 
 and joined together by a very large nail. Both sorts of handle are very 
 abundant in the third city, as well as in the two succeeding pre-historiG 
 
 No. 328. Vase Cover with a crown-shaped handle. 
 (About 1 : 4 actual size. Depth, 26 ft.) 
 
 cities, though they have certainly never been yet found elsewhere. But 
 my friend Mr. Philip Smith calls my attention to the similarity of these 
 
 No. 330. Vase Cover with a crown-shaped handle. 
 (1 :4 actual size. Depth, 23 ft.) 
 
 Trojan handles to the crown-like form of the modern Phrygian water- 
 vessels. He cites the following passage on the subject from page 101 of 
 the Kev. E. J. Davis's Life in Asiatic Turkey. Writing from Hierapolis, 
 he says : " Here I saw for the first time the wooden vessels used for 
 carrying water. They are made of a section of pine : the inside is 
 hollowed out from below, and the bottom is closed by a piece of wood 
 exactly fitted into it. These vessels are very durable and strong." On 
 the opposite page he gives two engravings, according to which these 
 
Chap. VII.] ANIMAL-SHAPED VESSELS. 375 
 
 Phrygian water- vessels have a very great resemblance to the Trojan vase- 
 covers in the form of a crown. 
 
 Vase-covers with a simple handle, like No. 332, occasionally occur, 
 but they are not nearly so frequent as the forms before described. 
 
 No. 332. Vase Cover with a simple handle. (1 : 4 actual size. Depth, 32 ft.) 
 
 The only vase-handles I noticed which have some analogy to these 
 were found at Szihalom in Hungary, and are shown under Nos. 26 and 
 27 in the glass case No. IX. of the National Museum of Buda-Pesth. The 
 only difference is that, instead of covering the vase-neck like a cap, as 
 at Troy, they were intended merely to shut the orifice : for, as Dr. J. 
 Hampel informs me, the lower part of No. 26 is tapering, and its flat- 
 tened foot is divided by a cross-like groove into four pivots ; the lower 
 part of No. 27 is globular. The handle is on the slightly hollow upper 
 side. Therefore, like the Mycenean vase-covers, 6 these Szihalom vase- 
 covers were kept in place on the orifice by their protruding flat rim, 
 their tapering or globular lower part entering into the neck of the vase, 
 like a stopper. 
 
 I now proceed to the description of some vessels in the form of 
 animals. No. 333 represents a lustrous-green globular tripod-vessel 
 with a ram's head ; instead of the tail we see a long and large spout, 
 
 No. 333. Globular Tripod, with a ram's head. No. 334. Vessel with three feet in form of a hedgehog. 
 
 (1 : 3 actual size. Depth, 26 ft.) (1 : 4 actual size. Depth, 23 ft.) 
 
 which is joined by a handle to the back of the vessel : the upper part of 
 the body is ornamented with bands of incised lines. No. 334 is a brown 
 tripod-vase of a dull brown colour, with the head of a hedgehog : the 
 
 6 See my Mycenae, p. 256, Nos. 373, 374. 
 
376 
 
 THE THIRD, THE BURNT CITY. 
 
 [Chap. YII. 
 
 primitive potter may have meant to represent the spines of the animal 
 by the three bands of incised strokes with which the body of the vessel 
 is decorated. Here also the mouthpiece is on the back part, and joined 
 to the back by a handle. No. 335 is a lustrous-brown vase, in the form 
 of a fat sow with three feet. No. 336 is a lustrous-brown vessel, in 
 the shape of a sheep with four feet. No. 337 is a lustrous dark-brown 
 tripod-vase, in the shape of a hog. No. 338 is a lustrous-brown tripod- 
 vase, in the form of a mole ; this latter vessel has been made so that it 
 can be set upright on the muzzle and the two fore feet. 
 
 No. 335. Tripod-vessel in the form of a fat sow. (Half actual size. Depth, 30 ft.) 
 
 No. 336. Vase in the shape of a sheep with four feet. No. 337. Vase in the form of a hog ; the upper part 
 
 (1 : 4 actual size. Depth, 32 ft.) restored. (About 1 : 4 actual size. Depth, 32 ft.) 
 
 No. 339 again represents a hedgehog, but its four feet are too short 
 to set it on, the base being convex. Unlike the other vases, the mouth is 
 
Chap. VIL] 
 
 A TERRA-COTTA HIPPOPOTAMUS. 
 
 377 
 
 No. 333. Tripod-vessel in the form of a mole. 
 (1 : 4 actual size. Doptb, 23 to 26 ft.) 
 
 No. 339. Yase in the form of a hedgehog, with four 
 short feet. (1 : 3 actual size. Depth, 23 ft.) 
 
 No. 340. Vessel in the form of a hippopotamus. 
 (About 2 : 3 actual size. Depth, 23 ft.) 
 
 here over the neck. The only ornamentation of this vessel consists of 
 
 five horizontal incisions on each side. 
 
 No. 340 is of lustrous-red terra-cotta ; it has four feet, and can 
 
 hardly represent anything else than a hippopotamus. It is hollow ; on its 
 
 left side are the most distinct marks 
 
 of its having been joined to another 
 
 vessel, which of course must have 
 
 had an identical form ; the neck of 
 
 the twin vessel may have been in 
 
 the middle between the two hippo- 
 potami. The existence of the figures 
 
 of hippopotami in the third, the 
 
 burnt city, at a depth of 23 ft. 
 
 below the surface, is extremely 
 
 remarkable — nay, astonishing ; for this animal, as is well known, is no 
 
 longer met with even in Upper Egypt, and occurs only in the rivers 
 
 in the interior of Africa. In the time of the Old Empire, however 
 (about b.c. 5000-3500, according to Mariette), the hippopotamus still 
 lived in the Delta, as is shown by a painting in the tomb of Ti at 
 Sakkarah. Ti was an official of the Fifth Dynasty (about B.C. 3950- 
 3700), and is represented as hunting hippopotami among the papyri of 
 the Delta. According to Herodotus, 7 they were worshipped as sacred 
 animals in the Egyptian nome of Papremis only ; and in the time of 
 Pliny (H. JV. xxviii. 8) they still existed in Upper Egypt. At all 
 events, as appears to be evident from the existence of Egyptian porcelain 
 here, this third city of Troy must have been commercially connected 
 with Egypt ; but, even so, it is still an enigma how the animal was so 
 well known here as to have been made of clay in a form so faithful 
 to nature. We may compare the vases similarly made in the form of 
 animals found by General di Cesnola in Cyprus. 8 
 
 Professor Yirchow informs me that a vase in the form of a hog is in 
 the Museum of Jena, and that vessels in the shape of animals, for the 
 
 7 Herod, ii. 71 : Ot 8e 1W01 ol TroTa/xioi vofMO} AlyvirrloLai ovk ipoi. 
 Hcu T(f UaTrp-nnirri ipoi etVi, ro7ai 5e &Woi<rt 8 Di Cesnola Cyprus, PI. viii. 
 
378 
 
 THE THIKD, THE BURNT CITY. 
 
 [Chap. VII. 
 
 most part of birds, are not rare in the tombs of Lusatia (Lausitz) and 
 Posen. He adds that many of them are mere rattle-boxes for children, 
 but that there also occur open ones. The Eoyal Museum at Berlin 
 contains a terra-cotta vessel without feet, with an animal's head, the 
 funnel-shaped orifice being in the back; also a terra-cotta tripod-vessel 
 from Corneto, with an animal's head, the funnel-like orifice being in the 
 place where the tail ought to be ; the handle is on the back. A terra- 
 cotta vessel in the shape of an ox, with four feet, having the orifice in the 
 middle of the back, was found in a tomb of the graveyard of Kazmierz- 
 Komorowo, in the province of Posen. 9 A similar animal-shaped vessel, 
 
 No. 342. 
 
 No. 343. 
 
 No. 341. Object of Terra-cotta representing a fantastical 
 animal with six feet. (1 : 3 actual size. Depth, 23 ft.) 
 
 Nos. 342, 343. Two Hooks of Terra-cotta, with threa 
 perforations. (1 : 3 actual size. Depth, 26 ft.) 
 
 with four feet, having its orifice on the back, is in the Museum of 
 Neu Brandenburg in Mecklenburg. 
 
 No. 341 is a strange animal figure, solid, 
 except for a tube passing through the body 
 and open at both ends, so that it cannot 
 have been a vessel. It has six feet and a 
 tail ; but we see on its body four upright 
 projections, which may also serve as feet if 
 the animal is put upside down. It is of a 
 yellowish colour. 
 
 Under Nos. 342 and 343 we see two 
 hooks of terra-cotta, each with three per- 
 forations, by which they were nailed to the 
 wall. Although but slightly baked, twenty- 
 five pounds' weight might be suspended on 
 either of them without danger of breaking 
 the hook, because the blackish clay they are 
 ^^^^^^^^<4^^|^ composed of is very tough and compact. 
 
 ^ 4 - v These hooks may have served for Ranging 
 
 No. 344. Large Jar of Terra-cotta, with pl n fy, pa 
 polished surface and two projections in U P wuliics. 
 
 the form of handles. (i : 43 actual size. Under No. 344 I represent, in l-43rd 
 
 Depth, 23 ft.) „ .. .m i m ■ 
 
 of its actual size, the large Irojan jar 
 which I presented to Professor Yirchow for the Koyal Museum at 
 Berlin, where it is preserved in the Ethnological section. Like all the 
 
 9 F. L. W. Schwartz, II Nachtrag zu den " Matcrialien zur praehistorischen Kartogvaphie der 
 Provinz Posen;" Posen, 1880, p. 6, and PI. ii. fig. 6. 
 
Chap. VIL] 
 
 A TROJAN WINE-CELLAR. 
 
 379 
 
 large jars, it is of a red colour, thoroughly baked, and has a polished 
 surface. Unlike most Trojan jars, it has no handles and merely two 
 small projections which have the shape of handles, but are not per- 
 forated. This jar is further distinguished from most other Trojan jars 
 by its straight form, to which its good preservation is probably due. 
 But its safety may also have been partly owing to the circumstance, 
 that it was not exposed to the great heat of the conflagration, because 
 it was found in the south-east corner of the third city, which was not 
 reached by the fire. In fact, in the course of my long excavations at 
 Hissarlik, I have taken out, besides this jar, only two smaller ones 
 intact from the third, the burnt, city; they were only 3 J ft. high and 
 26f in. in diameter ; their sole decoration was a rope-like band in 
 relief. Of the large jars, from 5 to 8 ft. high and to 5 ft. in 
 diameter, I have not been able to take out a single one entire. For the 
 most part, they had suffered so much from their long exposure to the 
 intense heat of the conflagration, and from the ponderous weight of the 
 ruins which pressed upon them, that they either already had cracks 
 when I brought them to light, or they cracked as soon as they were 
 exposed to the sun. Others, which were intact, broke as they were 
 being removed. 
 
 As I have before mentioned, a compartment of a house in the burnt 
 Trojan stratum below the Temple of Athene appears to have been a wine 
 merchant's magazine, 10 for in it I brought to light nine large jars of 
 various forms, six of which may be seen in the engraving No. 8 ; the 
 other three are out of view. This magazine was close to the southern 
 brick wall; the nine jars are marked s on Plan I. As may be seen from 
 the engraving, only two of the six jars which are visible were broken ; a 
 third is cracked, and the other three are only slightly injured in the rim. 
 The mouths of all these nine jars had been left open, and hence they 
 were filled with debris. I could perhaps have saved these as well as the 
 other three, which are hidden from view in the engraving, but a religious 
 fear prevented me from trying to do so, for I hoped that they might be 
 preserved in situ. But no sooner had I gone than the Turks of the neigh- 
 bouring villages, who suspected the jars might contain treasure, knocked 
 them partly to pieces. 
 
 The number of large jars which I brought to light in the burnt 
 stratum of the third city certainly exceeds 600. By far the larger 
 number of them were empty, the mouth being covered by a large flag of 
 schist or limestone. This leads me to the conclusion that the jars were 
 filled with wine or water at the time of the catastrophe, for there appears 
 to have been hardly any reason for covering them if they had been empty. 
 Had they been used to contain anything else but liquids, I should have 
 found traces of the fact ; but only in a very few cases did I find some 
 carbonized grain in the jars, and only twice a small quantity of a white 
 mass the nature of which I could not determine. 1 
 
 10 See p. 32. Professor Virchow suggests to 
 me that it might have been a royal wine-cellar. 
 1 With regard to the storage of wine in 
 
 underground jars in Western Asia, I may add a 
 further illustration from the records of the 
 Egyptian conqueror Thutmes III. When he 
 
880 
 
 THE THIED, THE BUENT CITY. 
 
 [Chap. VII. 
 
 For the most part the large jars have no decoration ; and when there 
 is any, it is nearly always limited to rope-like bands in relief, or to bands 
 in relief from 2 to 2 J in. broad, ornamented with incised fish-spine decora- 
 tions, common geometrical patterns, or mere impressed circles. The 
 coarse but very excellent clay, which has been used for the manufacture 
 of these jars, is abundantly mixed with crushed quartz, silicious stone, and 
 mica, of which latter the gold- or silver-like sparkles glitter wherever 
 one looks. Most of the large jars have been carefully polished and 
 abundantly coated with a wash of clay containing peroxide of iron, for 
 they generally have a lustrous-red colour and are perfectly smooth; 
 whereas they show in the fracture an infinity of small fragments of 
 quartz, silicious stone, and mica with sharp edges. The manner in which 
 these jars were made has been minutely explained in a previous passage. 2 
 
 The shape of the vase which comes nearest to that of the large jars 
 is represented by the pear-shaped jug No. 345. It is of a fine lustrous- 
 brown colour. Yery characteristic is the shape of the head, from which a 
 
 No. 315. Large pear-shaped Jug. (About 1 :4 actual 
 size. Depth, 32 ft.) 
 
 hemispherical piece is cut out on the side over the handle. Jugs and 
 pitchers with a similar mouth are frequent in the third and fourth cities 
 at Hissarlik, but they have never yet been found elsewhere. The lustrous- 
 grey, nearly globular, tripod-vase No. 346 is wheel-made, while its one- 
 handled cover is hand-made : the vase has no handle ; its ornamentation 
 consists of three parallel incised lines, which surround it. 
 
 went through the land of Zahi (the maritime 
 plain of Palestine), he says, " Their wine was 
 found stored in cellars, as well as in skins." 
 
 (Brugsch, Hist of Egypt, vol. ii. p. 376, Engl, 
 trans. 2nd ed.) 
 2 See p. 279. 
 
Chap. VIL] 
 
 PITCHER FOR DRAWING WATER. 
 
 381 
 
 The long pitcher, No. 347, is one of the rudest vessels I ever found at 
 Hissarlik, and yet it is most certainly wheel-made. Mr. A. S. Murray, 
 
 Depth, 26 ft.) No. 349. Splendid Terra-cotta Vase, from the Royal House. 
 
 (1 : 4 actual size. Depth, 28 ft.) 
 
 of the British Museum, calls my attention to the perfect similarity of 
 this vessel to the ancient Egyptian buckets, which were let down by a 
 rope into the wells to draw water. This 
 sort of vessel is frequent here; most pro- 
 bably they were used in Troy, as in ancient 
 Egypt, for drawing water from the well. 
 Two things seem to corroborate this sup- 
 position : first, the very heavy weight of 
 their lower part, which must have been in- 
 tended to keep them upright ; and, secondly, 
 the grooves or furrows on the inner side of 
 the handles, which can apparently have 
 been made only by the rope by which they 
 were let down into the well. 
 
 No. 348 represents a grey vase, with 
 two handles and two upright projections. To this vase belongs a cover 
 such as we see on Nos. 346, 349, and 350. No. 349 represents one of 
 the most interesting vases ever found at Troy ; it has a lustrous-red 
 colour and is thoroughly baked. It has a pointed base, and is here 
 represented with the pebbles used to support it. It has two handles 
 and two long upright slightly-incurved projections, which are hollow on 
 
 No. 348. Grey Vase, with two handles and 
 two wing-like projections. 
 (1 : 3 actual size. Depth, 26 ft.) 
 
382 THE THIRD, THE BURNT CITY. [Chap. VII. 
 
 the outside and have the shape of wings. They taper out in a spiral at 
 the top; from their hase also a spiral in relief extends on either side. 
 The neck is ornamented with the fish-spine pattern, which we also see on 
 
 No. 350. Globular Vase, with two handles and two wing-like 
 projections. Cover in the form ot a crown. (About 1 : 4 actual 
 size. Depth, 26 ft.) 
 
 Ko. 351. Globular Vase, -with two curved handles and 
 two straight wing-shaped projections. Cover in the 
 shape cf a crown. (About 1:4 actual size. Depth, 
 2G to 29 ft.) 
 
 the edge of the "body all round. The crown-shaped cover was found close 
 to the vase, and may have belonged to it. Of a similar form but of a 
 ruder fabric is the dark-brown vase No. 350, whose upright projections 
 
 are also curved on the outside ; from the 
 base of each of them a spiral in relief runs 
 out on both sides. Of the same form, only 
 with a more pointed foot, is the black vase 
 ^""i(BBMR' ,, wn ^ cn nas some little ornamenta- 
 
 V'JBBHHa ti° n of incised lines and clots on or about 
 
 the handles. Of the same shape, finally, 
 is the pretty little vase No. 352, which 
 is ornamented all over with dots. The 
 upright wing-like projections of these four 
 vases can never have been intended for 
 handles, because they are too fragile and 
 their edges are too sharp; all of them have two regular handles in 
 addition to the wings. I call particular attention to their great re- 
 
 No. 352. Vase with two handles and two 
 straight wing-like projections. 
 (1 : 3 actual size. Dep:h, 25 ft.) 
 
Chap. VIL] 
 
 VASES WITH UPRIGHT WINGS. 
 
 383 
 
 semblance to the upright wing-like projections on the vases with owl- 
 heads. 
 
 No. 353 represents a lustrous-red globular tripod-vase, decorated on 
 both sides with engraved branches, zigzags, and straight lines. On either 
 
 No. 353. Globular Tripod Vase, with incised ornamentation. (Half actual size. Depth, 26 ft.) 
 
 No. 354. Vase with two handles and a spiral ornamentation in the form of a pair of spectacles, 
 or the Cypriote character ko. (.1 : 4 actual size. Depth, 30 ft.) 
 
 side is a solid upright projection, with a vertical perforation for sus- 
 pension ; between these there is a crescent-shaped projection on each side. 
 Another very pretty lustrous-red vase is represented in the engraving 
 No. 354. It has a convex foot and two handles, between which we see 
 
384 
 
 THE THIRD, THE BURNT CITY. 
 
 [Chap. VII. 
 
 on each side a high projecting spiral ornament, like a pair of spectacles, 
 or the Cypriote character ho. Above this is an inverted branch ; below 
 it the body forms an edge which is ornamented with an incised fish-spine 
 pattern. Similar to this is the lustrons dark-brown vase No. 355 ; only 
 its base is still more pointed and its body more bulged. This also has 
 two handles and two spiral ornaments in relief in the form of spectacles, 
 or the Cypriote character ko. 
 
 Under No. 356 I represent a tripod-vessel of blackish colour, formed of 
 three separate cups, which are joined together at the body, and of which 
 each has one foot. To the list given in the preceding pages of the places 
 
 No. 355. Vase with pointed bottom, two handles, No. 358. Tripod Jug No. 357. Globular Jug. 
 
 and projecting ornament in the form of a pair of with two necks. (l : 3 actual size, 
 
 spectacles, or Cypriote Jco, on either side. (Nearly 1 : 3 actual size. Depth, 22 to 26 ft.) 
 
 (1 : 5 actual size. Depth, 24 ft.) Depth, 22 to 26 ft.) 
 
 where similar conjoined vessels may be seen, I may add the Museum of the 
 Bapftd/ceiov in Athens, which contains a pre-historic hand-made terra-cotta 
 vessel from Thera, consisting of two separate cups which are joined in 
 three places. Professor Virchow's remarkable collection of German pre- 
 historic antiquities contains a double drinking-horn, a vessel with two 
 and another with three cups of terra-cotta, from his excavations in the 
 graveyard of Zaborowo, in the province of Posen. The Markisches 
 Museum at Berlin contains also a vessel consisting of twin cups and 
 another with three cups. Professor Virchow assures me that vessels con- 
 sisting of two, three, or more conjoined cups, are not rare in the ancient 
 Germanic sepulchres in Lusatia and the Mark of Brandenburg. The 
 collections of Peruvian antiquities in the Boyal Museum at Berlin and the 
 British Museum also contain pottery consisting of two conjoined vessels. 
 No. 357 is a single-handled jug of a yellow colour, with a convex bottom. 
 
 No. 358 is a curious tripod-jug of greyish yellow colour, having a 
 globular body, from which project two separate spouts, one of which has a 
 handle. As the one spout stands in front of the other, the liquid could 
 
Chap. YIL] 
 
 DOUBLE-SPOUTED FLAGONS. 
 
 385 
 
 only be poured out by the foremost, so that the other was of no use: 
 these double spouts appear, therefore, to have been a mere fancy of the 
 
 No. 359. Curious double-necked Jug. (About 1 : i actual size. Trojan stratum.) 
 
 primitive potter. The black flagon (oenoclwe), No. 359, has likewise two 
 separate spouts, the handles of which are joined at the body. But here 
 the spouts stand side by side, so that the liquid could be poured simul- 
 taneously through both of them. Similar oenochoae, with two spouts, 
 occur also in the following, the fourth city, but they have never hitherto 
 been found elsewhere, except in Cyprus, Germany, and Hungary. The 
 collection of Cypriote antiquities in the British Museum contains an 
 oenoclwe with double spouts, each of which is joined by a separate handle 
 to the body ; but this vessel may be of a much later period, as it is wheel- 
 made and painted. My friend General di Cesnola represents in his excellent 
 work, Cyprus, two similar oenochoae with double spouts, one of which he 
 found in his excavations at Alambra, and the other at Dali. 3 A some- 
 what similar oenoclwe was found in the village of Tokol, on the island 
 of Csepel in the Danube. 4 I may still, mention a terra-cotta vessel with 
 two vertical spouts in the Markisohes Museum at Berlin. 
 
 No. 360 represents a pretty lustrous-red pear-shaped oenoclwe, with a 
 long upright neck and trefoil mouth, joined by a long handle to the body, 
 on which we see small handles to the right and left : round the lower 
 part of the neck we discern three bands in relief; the bottom is flat. 
 Similar to this is the pear-shaped red oenochoe, No. 361, which has only 
 one handle. No. 362 is of a dark-red colour, and oval-shaped : it has 
 
 3 See General di Cesnola's Cyprus; London, 4 Joseph Hampel, Aniiqurtes prehistoriques de 
 1877, Plates vii. and ix. la Hongrie ; Esztergom, 1S76, Plate v. No. 3. 
 
 2 c 
 
CiiAr. VII.] 
 
 FLAGONS OR OENOCHOAE. 
 
 387 
 
 also a trefoil mouth and one handle ; its base is convex. No. 363 is of a 
 similar form, but of a dark-brown colour; its mouth runs out almost 
 straight, like a bird's beak; its bottom is convex. Professor Virchow 
 observes to me that from the shape of these vases the widely-spread 
 beak-shape of the Etruscan bronze jugs has evidently been developed. 
 
 Of oenoclioae similar to these, I mention first an excellent hand-made 
 specimen in the Museum of Boulogne-sur-mer, the director of which, in 
 his ignorance of pre-historic pottery, thinks it to be Koman, and has 
 therefore put it among the Koman pottery, though it is worth more than 
 the whole collection of Koman terra-cottas in the museum. May this 
 notice reach him, and may it be the cause of the precious oenochoe 
 receiving at last the place it deserves ! 
 
 I further mention three oenoclioae of nearly the same shape, but with a 
 short neck, in the archaic Greek Collection in the British Museum ; also 
 an oenochoe of a similar form in the Cypriote Collection in the same 
 museum. Three oenoclioae of a similar shape found in Thera, below three 
 strata of pumice-stone and volcanic ashes, and believed to date from the 
 16th or 17th century b.c, are preserved here at Athens in the small 
 collection of the French School. Another, likewise found below three 
 strata of pumice-stone and volcanic ashes on the island of Therasia, and 
 believed to be of the same age, is here in my own collection. But these 
 four latter oenoclioae have an ornamentation of black paint, whereas the 
 Trojan vessels are unpainted. I have still to mention an oenochoe, also very 
 ancient, of a similar form, but with a 
 painted plant-like ornamentation, in 
 the Museum of the Bapfidfceiov at 
 Athens. Finally, 1 have to mention 
 the three pretty jugs of a similar form 
 (viz. with a spout bent backward) 
 found by me in my excavations in the 
 Acropolis of Mycenae, and preserved 
 in the Mycenae Museum at Athens. 
 All three are decorated with a painted 
 ornamentation of birds, patterns bor- 
 rowed from woven fabrics, or spiral 
 lines. There are, besides, a few similar 
 jugs in the Etruscan Collection of the 
 Vatican Museum at Koine. 
 
 No. 364 is an oenochoe of lenticular 
 form and of a lustrous dark-yellow 
 colour, with a neck and spout much 
 bent backward. It has the same 
 peculiar cut in its mouth which we 
 have also seen in No. 333 and No. 357. 
 has also the same form of mouth, 
 convex bottom. 
 
 A similar shape, with the neck bent backwards, is seen also in the 
 oviform jug No. 366 ; which is of a lustrous-black colour, and ornamented 
 
 No. 364. Globular Oenochoe, with, neck bent back- 
 ward. (Nearly 1 : 4 actual size. Depth, 29 ft.) 
 
 The lustrous-yellow jug, No. 365, 
 All these last four jugs have a 
 
383 
 
 THE THIKD, THE BURNT CITY. 
 
 [Chap. VII. 
 
 with lines filled with white chalk ; it has a trefoil mouth. But only 
 the upper part is genuine ; the lower has heen restored with gypsum. 
 No. 367 represents a similar red jug of globular form. 
 
 No. 365. Globular Jus. 
 (Nearly 1 : 3 actual size. 
 Depth, 26 ft.) 
 
 No. 366. Jug ; lower part restored. 
 (Nearly 1 : 3 actual size. D?pth, 32 ft.) 
 
 No. 367. Globular Jug. 
 (1 : 3 actual size. Depth, 26 ft.) 
 
 No. 368 is a yellow jug of globular shape, with the neck also bent 
 backwards ; the shape of the mouth is again like that of Nos. 333, 357, 
 364, and 365. 
 
 No. 368. Globular Jug. (1 : 3 actual size. 
 Depth, 23 ft.) 
 
 No. 269. Jug with three projections in the shape of 
 breasts. (About 1 : 4 actual size. Depth, 32 ft.) 
 
 Of oenochoae with an upright spout, I further represent the lustrous 
 dark-brown jug No. 369, which is ornamented with three breast-like 
 protuberances ; the black jug No. 370, which is the first wheel-made 
 vessel we have for a long time passed in review ; Nos. 371 and 372, which 
 latter has again a trefoil mouth. Similar in shape are also Nos. 373, 374, 
 
Chap. VII] 
 
 JUGS OF VARIOUS FORMS. 
 
 389 
 
 No. 375. Globular Jug. 
 (About 1 . 4 aciual size. Utpth, 26 it.) 
 
390 
 
 THE THIED, THE BURNT CITY. 
 
 [Chap. VII. 
 
 375, 376. A vase of the same shape as No. 376 was found by me 
 at Mycenae and is now here at Athens in the Mycenae Museum. 
 
 No. UiubuiarJug. ueck. (Nearly 1 : 4 actual size. projections like ears. (About 
 
 (About 1 : 4 actual size. Depth, 2C ft.) Depth, 26 ft.) 1 : 4 actual size. Deptb, 2G ft.) 
 
 No. 377 represents a lustrous dark-red globular bottle, with a long 
 narrow upright neck. Such bottles are not frequent at Troy. Two hand- 
 made terra-cotta bottles of the same shape, the one yellow, the other 
 black, found in tombs near Bethlehem, are in the British Museum, which 
 also contains, in its Assyrian Collection, a wheel-made bottle of a similar 
 form from Nimroud. Wheel-made terra-cotta bottles of a like shape 
 are likewise found in tombs in Cyprus, as well as in ancient Egyptian 
 sepulchres, and the British Museum contains several specimens of them 
 in its collections of Cypriote and Egyptian antiquities. Several terra- 
 cotta bottles of a similar shape were also found by General di Cesnola in 
 
 No. 379. 
 
 Nos. 379-381. Jugs of globular form, with one handle, (l : 4 actual size. Diptb, 22 to 32ft.' 
 
Chap. VIL] 
 
 BOTTLE SHAPED JUGS. 
 
 391 
 
 Cyprus. 5 I may mention one more such terra-cotta bottle from Cyprus, 
 in the South Kensington Museum at London. 
 
 SomThat similar to No. 377 is the jug No. 378, winch has on either 
 side below the rim a projecting ornament in the form of an ear. 
 
 Three very pretty lustrous yellow 
 or red oval-shaped jugs, with spouts 
 upright or slightly turned back are 
 represented under Nos. 379, 380, 
 and 381 ; all of them have a convex 
 bottom. No. 379 has on each side 
 of the orifice a round excres- 
 cence, in the form of an eye. No. 
 381 has a rope-formed handle, and 
 above the body a projecting band, 
 ornamented with vertical strokes. 
 Two similar jugs, but wheel-made, 
 are in the Egyptian Collection of 
 the British Museum. Jugs of a 
 similar shape are frequent at Troy, 
 but, except the two Egyptian spe- 
 cimens, I am not aware that they 
 have ever been found elsewhere. 
 
 No. 382 is a pretty lustrous 
 dark-grey oenochoe, with a trefoil 
 mouth ; it is ornamented with ten 
 incised parallel bands. An oenochoe 
 of the same shape, found by me 
 at Mycenae, is represented at p. 65, No. 26, in my Mycenae. 
 
 Nos. 383 to 388 are all bottle-shaped jugs of red, yellow, brown, or 
 
 No. 382. Oenochoe of Terra-cotta, with incised ornamsn- 
 tation. (Half actual size. Depth, 26 ft.) 
 
 No. 384. Jug ot a globular form. 
 (About 1 : 4 actual size. Depth. 26 f£.) 
 
 No. 383. Jug. 
 (Nearly 1 : 3 actual size. Depth, 26 ft. 
 
 5 General di Cesnola, Cyprus, PI. vii. 
 
392 
 
 THE THIED, THE BUENT CITY 
 
 [Chap. VII 
 
 black colour. No. 387 has the best fabric and the prettiest shape of 
 all, with its long neck and widely-stretched handle. Its body is divided 
 by two incised horizontal parallel lines into two fields, which are orna- 
 mented with incised vertical strokes. The Markisches Museum at Berlin 
 contains two jugs similar in shape to No. 383. No. 388 is decorated with 
 seven incised horizontal parallel lines. 
 
 No. 38T. Jug of Terra-cotta, with an incised orna- 1 ' ' J 
 
 mentation. (Half actual size. Depih, 26 ft.) 
 
 One of the finest specimens of Trojan pitchers is represented by 
 No. 389, which is of a brown colour, and is decorated with a plant-like 
 ornament round the neck ; its whole body is decorated with very symme- 
 trical vertical concave flutings. Under Nos. 390 to 393 I represent four 
 common pitchers of rude fabric. In looking at them, we involuntarily 
 
Chap. Yll.] WHEEL-MADE TITCHERS. 893 
 
 No. 390. 
 
 No. 393. 
 
 Nos. 390-393. Pitchers of different shapes. (1 : 4 actual size. Depth, 22 to 26 ft.) 
 
 think we have seen such forms often before ; but, though they are very 
 abundant in the third and fourth pre-historic cities of Hissarlik, I am not 
 aware that they have as yet been found elsewhere, except a pitcher 
 similar to No. 393, which was found by me at Mycenae. 6 
 
 Under Nos. 394 to 400 I represent seven more red, yellow, or brown 
 pitchers of a larger size, of which No. 397 is wheel-made. Of wheel- 
 made pitchers similar to this one, some hundreds were found in the 
 third, the burnt city, as well as in the fourth and fifth cities, but 
 
 No. 395. 
 
 Nos. 394, 395. Pitchers of different shapes (1 : 4 actual size. Depth, 22 to 32 ft.) * 
 
 especially in the fourth. In general these wheel-made pitchers are of a 
 very rude fabric, are but slightly baked, have the yellow colour of the 
 clay itself, and are not at all polished. But in a great many instances 
 they have been polished both inside and outside, and by a wash of fine 
 clay and a little more baking they have in this case acquired a fine 
 appearance. Such polished wheel-made pitchers are in many instances 
 very light, and sometimes even as light as Eoman or Greek pottery. But 
 it deserves peculiar attention that these polished wheel-made pitchers 
 
 6 See my Mycenae, p. 163, No. 237. 
 
304 
 
 THE THIKD, THE BURNT CITY. 
 
 [Chap. VII. 
 
 Nos. 398-400. Pitchers. (1 : 4 actual size. Depth, 26 to 32 ft.) 
 
 are peculiar to this third, the burnt city, and that they do not occur 
 in the fourth or the fifth city. No. 399, which is very heavy, is of the 
 rudest fabric. 
 
 Of pitchers of the same shape I have been able to detect else- 
 where only a wheel-made one in the British Museum, which was found 
 in a tomb near Bethlehem. Two more wheel-made ones, found in 
 ancient Egyptian sepulchres, are also in the British Museum ; and one 
 found in Cyprus is preserved in the Louvre. I further mention, as 
 of similar type, the pitcher No. 11 on PI. vi. in Dr. Joseph Hampel's 
 Antiquiles prehistoriques de la Hongrie ; also the pitchers in the National 
 Museum of Buda-Pesth, which were found at Szihalom, and are repre- 
 sented on PI. ix., Nos. 10, 20, and 21 of the photographs, corresponding 
 to the numbers of the glass cases in which they are preserved. 
 
 I further represent under Nos. 401, 402, and 403 three large one- 
 liandled pitchers of very rude fabric, having .convex bottoms. I need only 
 show them here, as their shape has not been found elsewhere. They 
 are very common at Troy. 
 
 No. 404 is a large dark-brown oenoclwe with a bulbous body. No. 405 
 represents a single-handled bowl with a spout. 
 
 Under Nos. 406 to 412, I represent seven black, grey, or red terra- 
 cotta bottles, globular or egg-shaped, without handles, all of which are 
 wheel-made, and have a convex or pointed foot. Bottles of these shapes 
 
Chap. VII.] 
 
 VESSELS OF VARIOUS FORMS. 
 
 395 
 
THE THIRD, THE BURNT CITY. [Chap. VII. 
 
 No. 410 
 
 No. 408/ 
 
 Nos. 403-410. Bottles of Teira-cotta. (1:4 actual size. Depth, 25 to 29 ft.) 
 No. 411. No. 412. 
 
 No. 413. Cup with three No. 414. One-handled Tripod 
 breast-like excrescences. Basin. (1 : 4 actual size. 
 Nos. 411, 412. Bottles of Terra-cotta. (1 : 4 actual size. (1 : 4 actual size. Depth, 22 to 32 ft.) 
 
 Depth, 22 to 32 ft.) Depth, 22 to 32 ft.) 
 
 are not rare in the third, the burnt city; they also occur sometimes in 
 the following, the fourth city; but, except the form of the vase No. 411, 
 of which there is an analogous one in the Museum of Leyden, 7 I am 
 not aware that similar vessels have been ever found elsewhere in the 
 remains of pre-historic ages. 
 
 Nos. 413 and 414 are also both wheel-made. The former is a cup with 
 three round excrescences, which may represent a nose and two eyes. 
 No. 414 is a tripod-pan or bowl with an open handle.. 
 
 Nos. 415 and 416 represent black jugs of a peculiar shape, which I 
 merely show here, as I have not noticed analogous ones elsewhere. 
 
 No. 415. Pitcher. (About 1 : 4 actual size. 
 Depth, 26 ft.) 
 
 No. 416. Globular Pitcher. (1:4 actual size. 
 Depth, 26 ft.) 
 
 7 L. J. F. Janssen, de Gcrmaanschc en Noordsche Monumental van Jict Museum te Leyden, PI. ii. No. 46. 
 
Chap VII.] TWO-HANDLED BOWLS. 397 
 
 Nos 417 and 418 are large red bowls with two handles. A bowl of a 
 shape like No. 417, and likewise hand-made was found in Hungary, and 
 
 No. 417. Large double-handled Bowl. (1 : 3 actual size. Depth, 26 to 30 ft.) 
 
 No. 413. Large double-handled Bowl. ( l : 3 actual size. Depth, 26 to 30 ft.) 
 
 is represented in PL vi., No. 10, of Dr. Joseph Hampel's Antiquites pre- 
 Mstoriques de la Hongrie. 
 
 No. 419 represents, in l-5th of the actual size, a large yellow double- 
 handled amphora with a convex bottom. I have put on it one of the 
 crown-shaped vase-covers. Of a similar shape are the dark yellow or 
 brown amphorae, Nos. 420, 421, 422. This last has on the body a long 
 excrescence in the form of a breast or teat curved downward. As a 
 very great number of the large Trojan jugs have a similar excrescence, 
 always curved downward, I would suggest that these excrescences, 
 which have almost the form of hooks, served as an additional support 
 for the rope with which the Trojan women fastened the jugs on then- 
 backs when they fetched water from the springs. Amphorae like these 
 are very abundant in all the three upper pre-histonc cities at Hissarlik, 
 
[Chap. YII. 
 
 THE THIRD, THE BURNT CITY. 
 
 398 
 
 but, strange to say, the shapes of Nos. 419, 420, 421, 422 have never yet 
 been found elsewhere. 
 
 No. 421. Jar with two handles. (1 : 5 actual size. Depth, 26 ft.) 
 
Chap. YIL] TROJAN AMPHORAE. 399 
 
 1 
 
 No. 422. Jar with two handles. (1 : 6 actual size. No. 423. Large Amphora. (1 : 7 actual size. 
 
 Depth, 28 to 32 ft.) Depth> 2 6 ft.) 
 
 No. 423 represents a Trojan amphora of a different form, like one 
 specimen, preserved in the little collection in the French School here 
 at Athens, found on the island of Thera (Santorin), below three layers 
 of pumice-stone and volcanic ashes, and, like No. 423, it is just 2 ft. high. 
 
 No. 424. Vase of globular shape, with two handles. (1 : actual s : ze. Depth, 26 ft.) 
 
400 
 
 THE THIRD, THE BURNT CITY. 
 
 [Chap. VII. 
 
 Further varieties of large Trojan vessels with two handles are repre- 
 sented hy the dark-red or lustrous blackish specimens Nos. 424, 425, and 
 426. No. 425 is decorated on each side with an excrescence ; No. 426 
 
 No. 425. Vase with two handles. (1 : 4 actual size. 
 Depth, 26 ft.) 
 
 No. 427. Amphora of oval shape; with two 
 handles. (1 : 4 actual size. Depth, 32 ft.) 
 
 No. 426. Large Vase with two handles. C 1 : 10 actUl 
 Depth, 26ft.) 
 
 No. 428. Jar with two handles. 
 (1:4 actual size. Depth, 26 ft.) 
 
 represents the usual shape of the funeral urns in the third, the burnt city; 
 and No. 424, the usual shape of the funeral urns m the following, the 
 
 fourth city. Only two urns of this identical 
 form were found, at a depth of from 26 to 
 28 ft., of which we can be pretty certain that 
 they belong to the third or burnt city. The 
 closest analogy to these vases is afforded by 
 a lustrous-red hand-made vase found on the 
 island of Thera (Santorin), below the strata 
 of pumice-stone and volcanic ashes, and pre- 
 served in the collection of the French School 
 here at Athens. 
 
 No. 429. Vase with two handles. (1:4 
 actual size, pepth, 29 ft.) 
 
Chap. VII] 
 
 FOUR-HANDLED AMPHORAE. 
 
 401 
 
 No. 427 is a large wheel-made lustrous-brown terra-cotta amphora of 
 oval form, with two handles. A terra-cotta amphora of like shape, found 
 in a tomb at Ialysus on 
 the island of Khodes, is 
 in the British Museum. 
 Of a somewhat similar 
 shape is No. 428, which 
 is a hand-made black 
 vase with two handles. 
 The oval vases, Nos. 
 429-432, are wheel- 
 made. No. 429 is a 
 lustrous black vessel 
 with two handles, hav- 
 ing in other respects 
 most analogy to a black 
 wheel-made vessel found 
 in Thera (Santorin), and 
 preserved in the French 
 School here ; the only 
 difference is that this 
 latter vessel has only one 
 handle. Nos. 430 and 
 431 are amphorae of a 
 dark-red colour and have 
 two large handles, which 
 join the spout to the body, and two small handles on the latter. Of the 
 same colour is also No. 432, which has four handles. The amphora No. 433 is 
 
 No. 430. Large Oval Amphora with four handles. (1:5 actual size 
 Depth, 26 ft.) 
 
 No. 431. Amphora with four handles. 
 (1 : 6 actual size. Depth, 26 to 33 ft.) 
 
 No. 432. Oval Amphora, with four handles. 
 (1 : 6 actual size. Depth, 26 ft.) 
 
 2 D 
 
402 
 
 THE THIRD, THE BURNT CITY. 
 
 [Chap. VII. 
 
 not oval, but rather of lenticular form ; it is of a lustrous dark-green 
 colour, and has only one large handle, which joins the spout to the body, 
 
 and two small ones on the 
 narrow sides of the latter. I 
 have found in no museum any- 
 thing to compare with the 
 shape of these amphorae, but 
 that shape is frequent here. 
 
 The hand-made terra-cotta 
 bottles, Nos. 434, 435, and 436, 
 are of a dark-red or brown 
 colour, of lenticular form, and 
 resemble our hunting flasks. 
 No. 434 has no handles, and 
 is decorated with four breast- 
 like excrescences ; the other two 
 are double-handled. No. 435 
 is decorated round the neck 
 with a protruding band, orna- 
 mented with vertical cuts. 
 Terra-cotta bottles of an iden- 
 tical shape, found in ancient 
 Egyptian tombs, are preserved 
 in the Egyptian collections of the British Museum and the Louvre. 
 The collection of Cypriote antiquities in the British Museum also con- 
 
 No. 433. Lustrous dark-green Amphora, of lenticular form, 
 with three handles. (1 : 4 actual size. Depth, 26 ft.) 
 
 No. 435. 
 
 No. 436. 
 
 Nos. 434-436. Fiat Jugs in the form of hunting flasks. (About 1 : 4 actual size. Depth, 26 ft.) 
 
 tains several specimens of a similar shape, but with a somewhat longer 
 spout. There are also in the Assyrian Collection in the British Museum 
 a large number of such terra-cotta bottles, found at Nimroud and else- 
 where. 
 
 No. 437, as well as No. 438, are mixing vessels (Kparr/pe^, called by 
 Homer tcprjrrjpes;). Both are hand-made ; the former has two, the latter 
 four handles ; both are of a rude fabric, but little polished, and more 
 than usually baked. Mixing vessels like No. 437 are not rare ; but large 
 ones of the size of No. 438 occur so seldom that I collected only eight 
 of them. 
 
Chap. VIL] 
 
 CKATERS OR MIXING VESSELS. 
 
 403 
 
 Mixing vessels were in general use throughout antiquity; for the 
 ancients — wiser than we are— never drank wine unless mixed with water. 1 
 We find the word /cprjrtfp 
 mentioned fourteen times 
 in the Iliad, 2 including 
 three instances in the 
 plural. But terra-cotta 
 mixing vessels being too 
 cheap and common for 
 heroes, the poet must 
 have had in view Kprj- 
 rrjpes of metal — namely, 
 gold, silver, or perhaps ' 
 bronze or copper ; for 
 once he expressly says 
 that Achilles, holding 
 in his hand a double- 
 handled goblet (8e7ra? 
 afifyiKvireXXoy), poured 
 all night wine from a 
 golden mixing vessel 
 (fcprjTrjp) on the earth 
 and moistened it with 
 the libation. 3 Another 
 time he makes Achilles 
 set a silver Kpr^rrjp as 
 a prize for the foot-race 
 at the funeral games. 4 
 A third time he makes 
 Hector order the herald 
 Idaeus to bring from 
 
 Trov a ^hinino- Tru'vino- No. 438. Large Mixing Vessel (Crater) with four handles, 1 ft. 9 in. 
 
 * fcuiumg mixing in diameter. (1 : 9 actual size. Depth, 23ft.) 
 
 No. 437. Mixing Vessel (Crater) with two handles. 
 (About 1 : 4 actual size. Depth, 32 ft.) 
 
 1 We see pure wine (ohos anparos) used in the 
 Homeric poems only for libations ; so //. ii. 341, 
 and iv. 159: 
 
 (Tirovdal t' fapriToi Kal 5e£mi, fjs itr^id^v. 
 The Romans certainly occasionally drank merum. 
 I will not dispute that the Greeks may, in later 
 times, have also occasionally used &Kparos. 
 Mr, Philip Smith makes the ingenious obser- 
 vation : "To drink wine without water was 
 of itself a sign of intemperance, marking a. 
 curious connection between two words of quite 
 different ^origin — the & K pa.Tos ohos and the 
 aKparris b.vr\p who drank it." 
 
 2 I deem it my most agreeable duty to make 
 here a warm acknowledgment to my honoured 
 friend Mr. Guy Lushington Prendergast, for the 
 immense service he has rendered to science by 
 composing a Concordance to the Iliad of Homer 
 (London, 1875), which is a wonderful work for 
 completeness and scholarship. For thirteen long 
 
 years has he laboured on this great work, having 
 no other stimulus than his admiration for Homer 
 and his desire to become instrumental in propa- 
 gating the universal love for his divine poems. 
 Mr. Prendergast could not have shown his noble 
 aim and his disinterestedness better than by not 
 publishing the fruit of his long labours for sale. 
 But he generously presents it to Homeric scholars, 
 or to those who make it their life's aim to show- 
 that the divine poems are based on real facts. 
 May Mr. Prendergast's noble example be imi- 
 tated also for the Odyssey! 
 
 3 11. xxiii. 218-220: 
 
 % Se irdvvvxos wkvs 'A^iWeus 
 Xpvo-eou e/c KprjTrjpos, eAwi/ SeVas a/j.(piKvireWov f 
 dlvov acpvaao^evos x«y"a5is %e'e, Seue Se yctiav, . . . 
 
 4 II. xxiii. 740, 741 : 
 
 n-oAeiS-os 8' afy' #AAa tlOci raxvTrjTOs &eOAa, 
 apyvpeou Kprjrripa reruy/xeyov- 
 
404 
 
 THE THIRD, THE BURNT CITY. 
 
 [Chap. VII. 
 
 vessel (fcpr,T?ipa ^aetvov) and golden goblets. 5 Thus there can be no doubt 
 that the Kpr/Trjo was in this case also of metal, but we are left in doubt as 
 to the sort ; for it may have been simply bronze or copper. I find the word 
 fcpr)W]p also twelve times in the Odyssey, where Ulysses receives a silver 
 Kprjrrjp as a present from the priest Ismarus ; 6 one of Circe's maids mixes 
 wine in a silver Kprjryp ; 7 and Menelaus presents to Telemachus a silver 
 /cpr]T7]p with a gilded rim. 8 The mixing vessel stood on a tripod in the 
 extreme corner of the great hall of the men. 9 Semper says : 10 " Herodotus 
 distinguishes the Lesbian Kpr^rrjp from the Argolic tcprjrrip, but he de- 
 scribes only the latter in detail. It was decorated all round with pro- 
 jecting griffins' heads, and it stood on three kneeling colossi of bronze, 
 seven cubits high. 11 Besides these, the Laconian and the Corinthian 
 mixing vessels are mentioned as different kinds. Mixing vessels with 
 tripods representing colossi, like that consecrated to Hera in the Samian 
 temple and described by Herodotus, are represented in Egyptian reliefs. 
 A small Etruscan clay model represents also similar sumptuous vessels, 
 which were in general use throughout antiquity." 
 
 No. 439 is a dark-yellow terra-cotta vessel in the form of a barrel with 
 a short spout. A similar barrel-shaped terra-cotta vessel is seen in 
 
 the dark-brown tripod No. 440, 
 whose spout is joined to the 
 barrel by a handle. Similar 
 barrel-shaped terra-cotta vessels 
 may be seen in the collections 
 of Cypriote antiquities in the 
 Louvre and the British Museum ; 
 but, except in Cyprus, I think, 
 similar vessels have never yet 
 been found. Mr. Philip Smith 
 remarks to me that " such little 
 barrels (called wooden bottles) 
 are commonly taken to the hay 
 and harvest fields by English 
 labourers, filled with beer or 
 
 No. 439. Curious Terra-cotta Vessel in the form of a 
 cask, from the Royal House. (1 : 6 actual size. Depth, 26 ft.) 
 
 5 //. iii. 247, 248: 
 
 (pepe 8e Kprjrripa <\>a.ziv6v 
 
 nripvl 'Idcuos 7j5e xpuceta KvneXXa, . . . 
 
 6 Od. ix. 203 : 
 
 Sake 84 fxoi Kp^TTipa iravapyvpov, . . . 
 
 7 Od. x. 356, 357 : 
 
 r) 8e Tp'ny] Kp7]T7]pi jxtXitypova oivov iKipva 
 TjSvv iv apyvpew, vefxe 8e xpuo~€ta KinreXXa- 
 
 s Od. iv. 615, 616: 
 
 BdoO-CO TOL Kpf)T7ipOL T CTVy flCVOV ' CLpyvptOS 5 6 
 
 co-tiv anas, XP V(r V & ^ X etAea n^Kpaavrai • 
 * Od. xxi. 145, 146 : 
 
 Trapa. Kprfrripa 5e KaX6v 
 
 K e /u.ux oiTaTOS aie '' 
 
 xxii. 332, 333: 
 e(TT7) 5' iv yzipzo'o'iv %%(av <p6pfj.iyya Xtyeiav 
 
 &yX l " Tca P > opaoEuprjv • St'xa 8e <ppeal fxepfxr]- 
 pi(tv, . . . 
 xxii. 340, 341 : 
 7? Tot l b (popfxiyya yXa<pvp)]v Kare^e X a M"C e 
 ixeo-croyvs Kprjrripos iSe dpovov apyvporjXov, . . . 
 
 10 G. Semper, Keramik, Tehtonik, Stereotomie, 
 Metallotechnik ; Munchen, 1879, p. 16. 
 
 11 Herodot. iv. 61 and 152 : eVetTa io-fiaXXova, 
 t)v /jlcv tvx^o-i exovres, is X4fir]ras iTTixwpiovs, 
 HaMffTa Aeo-fiioiai Kprirripai irpoaeiKiXovs, X W P' S 
 -/) 6'rt ttoXXc? fj.4(ovas . ... ol oh ~2dfj.ioL ttjv 
 SenaT-riv twv iiriKepZitoV i£eX6vTes e£ raXavra, 
 iTroir)<TavTO xaXKi)iov, Kprjrrjpos 'ApyoXiKod rp6- 
 ttov • 7repi| Se avrov ypviruv icecpaXal 7rp6Kpoo-<roi 
 etVt • Kal av46rjKav is rb "Hpaiov, viroo-rr)(TavT€s 
 auT<p rpus x aXK * 0VS ^oXoffo-ovs €7rT07ri7xeas, 
 ro7o-i yovvaffi ipypeio-ptvovs. 
 
Chap. VIL] 
 
 CURIOUS TRIPOB-VASES. 
 
 405 
 
 cider, and that they are now also made of polished wood for tourists' 
 bottles." 
 
 No. 441 is a brown globular tripod- vessel, the body of which is divided 
 by incised lines into five large and five small fields, alternating in regular 
 succession. All the large fields are filled with dots. The mouth of the 
 spout is only l-3rd in. in diameter. I presume that this small and pretty 
 Trojan tripod may have been used by ladies for holding scented oil, which, 
 as we know from Homer, was applied after the bath. It cannot have been 
 used as a lamp : first, because it is not adapted for that use ; and secondly, 
 because lamps appear to have been totally unknown in Greece and Asia 
 Minor before the sixth century B.C. Not to speak of lamps in pre-historic 
 cities, I have found no trace of them even in the archaic strata of the 
 Hellenic or Aeolic Ilium. Lamps of terra-cotta are, indeed, numerous in 
 the layer of ruins of Novum Ilium, but they nearly all appear to be of the 
 Eoman time ; there is hardly one among them which might claim to be of 
 the Macedonian period. ■ In fact, even in Greece I never saw a terra-cotta 
 
 No. 440. Curious Tripod Vessel in form of a cask, 
 (1:4 actual size. -Depth, 23 ft.) 
 
 No. 441. Tripod Globular Vase, with incised 
 ornamentation. (1 : 4 actual size. Depth, 29 ft.) 
 
 No. 442. Wheel-made Tripod. (1 : 3 actual size. 
 Depth, 23 ft.) 
 
 lamp to which archaeology could attribute a higher antiquity than the 
 fifth century B.C. Certainly in all antiquity previous to the fifth 
 century b.c. people used torches for lighting. We find them mentioned 
 by Homer 1 on the occasion of the wedding represented by Hephaestus on 
 the shield of Achilles. They most probably consisted here of nothing 
 else than pieces of pine or other resinous wood, called SatBes by the 
 poet (from haiw) : hence the word Sa? for " torch." For lighting the 
 houses fire-pans or basins iXafxirrrjpe^) were used, of which three in the 
 great hall of the palace of Ulysses are mentioned, and in which dry wood 
 was burned. 2 
 
 1 B. xviii. 492, 493 : 
 vvp.<pas 5' (K OaXa/xwv Sa'iSwv viro Xajxirofi^vduv 
 yylveov aua. dcrrv, ttoXvs 5' v/x4uaios 6pwpetv t . . 
 . 2 Od. xviii. 307-310 : 
 
 avrUa XafXTTTwpas rpsis 'icrraaav eu jityapoi(riv, 
 u<ppa (paeiuoieu • irep\ 5e |uAa KayKava OijKav, 
 ada irdXai, Trep'iKr)Xa, v4ov KtKeacr^va xaXK(£ , 
 Kal daidas fj.eTe/j.L<ryov 
 
406 
 
 THE THIRD, THE BURNT CITY, 
 
 [Chap. VII. 
 
 No. 442 is a wheel-made tripod-vessel, with a handle and two pro- 
 jecting ornaments in the form of ears. 
 
 Under No. 443 I represent a large lustrous dark-brown vase, with a 
 spout in the body and two handles. As the spout is in the lower part of 
 the body, I cannot explain the use of this vase otherwise than by 
 supposing that it was placed below a fountain, the water of which ran 
 through the orifice into the vase, and that the " thirsty souls " put their 
 mouths to the small spout vto drink. 
 
 The small yellow tripod pitcher, No. 444, has two handles in the 
 form of horns, and a spout in the upper part of the body. I suppose that 
 
 No. 443. Vase with two handles and spout. 
 (1 : 7 actual size. Depth, 23 ft.) 
 
 this vessel, as it is but very small, may have served as a baby's feeding 
 bottle. Its only ornamentation consists of two incised lines round the 
 neck. 
 
 No. 445 is a lustrous-yellow jug with a trefoil mouth, one handle, and 
 a spout in the body. Very curious is the basket shape of the red cup 
 No. 446, with its handle over the mouth and its spout in the lower part 
 of the body. A terra-cotta vessel, with a similar handle over the mouth 
 and a spout in the body, was found by me in my excavations at Tiryns. 
 It is preserved in the Mycenean Museum at Athens. Equally curious is 
 the light-red little vase No. 447, which has a large spout on one side. 
 All these three last vessels can, in my opinion, have served for nothing 
 else than babies' feeding bottles. Similar small terra-cotta vessels, with 
 a spout in the body, are frequent in the tombs of Cyprus, as well as in 
 ancient Egyptian sepulchres, and may be seen in the collections of 
 Cypriote and Egyptian antiquities in the Louvre and the British Museum, 
 which latter contains also two similar vessels, found in a tomb at Ialysus, 
 in Rhodes. 
 
 No. 448 is a small pitcher without a handle. Hand-made pitchers of 
 a similar shape were found at Szihalom, in Hungary, and are exhibited 
 under Nos. 15-18 in the glass case No. IX. in the National Museum of 
 
Chaf. VII.] 
 
 SMALL VESSELS: AND PLATES. 
 
 407 
 
 Buda-Pesth. Wheel-made ones of this form are also found in Holland, 
 and, as Professor Yirchow informs me, they are very common in Lusatia 
 
 No. 448. 
 
 No. 446. No. 453. No. 447. 
 
 Nos. 445-453. Babies' Feeding Bottles, Cup?, &c. (1 : 4 actual size. Depth, 19 to 26 ft.) 
 
 (Lausitz). No. 449 is a small cup with two handles; No. 450, a very 
 small cup with a large curved handle : two cups of a similar shape, 
 but of a larger size, are in the collection of Professor 
 
 Virchow, having been found by him in his excavations 
 in the graveyard of Zaborowo. No. 451 is a small 
 pitcher : hand-made pitchers similar to this, found at 
 Szihalom, are likewise in the National Museum of 
 Buda-Pesth, under Nos. 10, 14, 20, 21 in the glass 
 case No. IX. No. 452 is a small tripod-vase, with per- 
 
 forated projections for suspension; No. 453, a small No. 454. g lobular Tripod 
 cup, like No. 11 found at Szihalom; No. 454, a small Depib, 29 'ft.)* *"* 1 S1Ze ' 
 globular tripod-vase, with two dots on the body. 
 
 I now come to the plates, which are nearly all wheel-made, and, when 
 so, are always but slightly baked, unpolished, and exceedingly rude ; but 
 there occur also a great many plates which are hand-made, and these 
 are always well polished and a little more baked. The wheel-made 
 plates have always the yellow colour of the clay, and are generally but 
 small ; the hand-made ones are either dark-brown or red, and usually of 
 a larger size. The wheel-made plates never have handles ; but the larger 
 hand-made ones have usually one or two handles. Nos. 455 to 460 
 represent five of the rude wheel-made plates, with a large hand-made 
 one with one handle on the top of them. Nos. 461 to 468, again, represent 
 eight of the rude wheel-made plates. 
 
408 
 
 THE THIRD, THE BURNT CITY. 
 
 [Chap. VII 
 
 Nos. 455-460. Unpolished shallow and deep Plates of coarse 
 Clay, with a polished hand-made one on the top. 
 (1 : 5 actual size. Depth, 23 to 28 ft.) 
 
 Similar very rude unpolished wheel-made plates may be seen in the 
 collections both of Assyrian and Cypriote antiquities in the British 
 Museum. As Dr. Joseph Hampel kindly informs me, they are also fre- 
 quently found in the excavations at Magyarad, in Hungary. Professor 
 Virchow writes to me that plates of the same shape but superficially 
 polished are very common in Germany. None of the wheel-made Trojan 
 plates show the marks of wear and tear. This is the more astonishing, 
 as, on account of their rudeness and fragility, any knife-cut would have 
 made a deep mark on them. As the Greeks in Homer's time, ol £' eV 
 ovelaO' eroljjLa irpoKelixeva %etpa? ia\\ov, so certainly the Trojans also used 
 no knives or forks, but only the hands in eating, and therefore there 
 may have been nothing to cut on these plates ; but still, I think, they 
 should naturally have borne the marks of long use. These wheel-made 
 plates are very abundant : on the little plateau formed by the external 
 and internal walls, which I used to call the Tower, I found, on a 
 space 20 ft. square, 13 entire plates, and 12 broken ones which I could 
 easily recompose. It deserves particular notice that these wheel-made 
 plates are very rare in the debris of the following, the fourth city, in 
 which, on the other hand, the hand-made plates are very numerous. 
 
 No. 469 represents a crucible of terra-cotta with four feet, but slightly 
 baked, which my friend the celebrated metallurgist, Dr. John Percy, 
 declared to be one of the most valuable objects of my whole Trojan 
 collection. He probably prizes it so highly on account of the residues of 
 
Chap. VII.] 
 
 CRUCIBLES FOR METALLURGY. 
 
 409 
 
 fused metal and spangles of gold which are contained in it. Professor 
 W Chandler Eoberts, who examined this object most carefully, and 
 analysed some of the metal it contains, kindly gave me the following 
 note on the subject: — "The vessel appears to be of clay, containing 
 grains of quartz. It has probably been used in some operation connected 
 with the metallurgy of gold, as spangles of that metal may be readily 
 detected on the inner surface. One portion of the vessel is covered 
 with a vesicular, slag, and it contains a fragment of carbonate of copper 
 mixed with crystals of red oxide of copper. It is possible that this saucer- 
 like vessel may have been filled with bone-ash, and used as a ' test ' for 
 cupelling gold or silver ; but I have not yet detected the presence of any 
 lead-compound, which would have made this view almost a certainty." 
 
 The crucibles were made of coarse clay, mixed with cow-dung, in order 
 to make them stronger. 
 
 Crucible of Clay, with four feet. It has particles of 
 
 copper and gold still slicking to it. 
 (Nearly half actual size. Depth, 23 ft.) 
 
 No. 470. Crucible oi Clay. (Neai ly half actual tize. 
 Depth, 26 it.) 
 
 No. 470 is also a slightly-baked saucer-like crucible, but it has no feet. 
 
 Nos. 471, 472, and 473 are small boat-like cups of but slightly-baked 
 clay, which, in the opinion of Dr. Percy and Professor Eoberts, have also 
 been used in metallurgy, and particularly for refining gold or silver. For 
 
 No. 471. 
 
 Nos. 471-473. Small boat-like Basins of sun-dried Clay. 
 (Nearly half actual size. Depth, 22 to 26 ft.) 
 
 this purpose four times the quantity of lead is now added to the precious 
 metal, and it is left in the fire until the lead evaporates. There can 
 
410 
 
 THE THIRD, THE BURNT CITY. 
 
 [Chap. VII. 
 
 hardly be a doubt that the refining process has been much the same at 
 all times in antiquity. I call the reader's particular attention to the 
 shape of the vessel No. 471. As it runs out to a point to the right, does 
 it not appear to be the facsimile of an ancient ship, the oars being 
 indicated on each side by four incised vertical strokes ? A vessel some- 
 what resembling this was found at the station of Locras in the Lake of 
 Bienne. 3 
 
 Very curious are the little terra-cotta spoons Nos. 474 and 475, 
 which, as they are also but very slightly baked, may likewise have been 
 used by the Trojan metallurgists. Similar spoons are very rare at 
 
 cotta. (Half actual size. schist. (Half actual size. No. 477. Large serai-globular Funnel of Terra-cotta, with 
 Depth, 22 to 26 ft.) Depth, 26 ft.) sieve-like holes. (Half actual size. Depth, 26 ft.) 
 
 Hissarlik, but so they are elsewhere. A broken spoon of an identical 
 shape was found in the settlement of the Stone age at Inzighofen. 4 
 Three other similar specimens were found at Dozmat in the county of 
 Vas, and at Tisza Ugh in the county of Heves, in Hungary. 5 A broken 
 terra-cotta spoon, found at Szihalom, is exhibited under No. 38 in the 
 glass-case No. IX. in the National Museum of Buda-Pesth. Two such 
 terra-cotta spoons were found in the Lake-dwellings of the Stone age, at 
 the station of Auvernier in the Lake of Neufchatel, 6 and at the station 
 of Gerofin in the Lake of Bienne. 7 Professor "Virchow informs me that 
 spoons of baked clay now and then occur in ancient tombs in the east 
 of Germany. 
 
 No. 476 represents in half-size a funnel of mica-schist. Funnels of 
 terra-cotta of the same shape are numerous in all the three upper pre- 
 historic cities at Hissarlik ; but the funnel before us is the only one of 
 stone that I ever found. I presume these funnels have been used in 
 
 3 Victor Gross, Les dernieres Trouvailles dans 
 les Habitations lacustrcs du Lac de Bienne ; Por- 
 rentruy, 1879, PI. ii. No. 11. 
 
 4 Ludwig Lindenschmit, Die Vaterldndischen 
 Alterthiimer ; Mainz, 1860, PI. xxvi. No. 1. 
 
 6 Jos. Hampel, Antiquites prehistoriques de la 
 
 Hongrie, PL xiii. Nos. 18, 20, 22. 
 
 6 Victor Gross, Deux Stations lacustres, Moe- 
 ringenet Auvernier; Neuveville, 1878, PI. xii. 4. 
 
 7 Idem, Les dernieres Trouvailles dans les 
 Habitations lacustres du Lac de Bienne; Por- 
 rentruy, 1879, PI. ii. No. 12. 
 
Chap. VIL] 
 
 FUNNELS, CENSERS, ETC. 
 
 411 
 
 metallurgy. Professor Sayce observes to me that a similar funnel of 
 terra-cotta, marked with Cypriote characters, was found by the late 
 Mr. George Smith under the floor of Assurbanipal's palace at Kouyunjik, 
 and he fancies it served as a measure. Two funnels of terra-cotta of the 
 very same form, each marked with the character \JJ, were found by me 
 in the fifth pre-historic city of Hissarlik. They are represented in their 
 place. 8 No. 477 and No. 478 are large well-polished lustrous dark- 
 yellow funnels of terra-cotta, of semi-globular form, with sieve-like holes. 
 
 No. 478. Large semi-globular Funnel, with sieve-like No. 479. A piece of Terra-cotta, with two boles 
 perforations. (Half actual size. Depth, 26 ft.) slightly sunk in front like eyes, and a hole perforated 
 
 from side to tide. (Half actual size. Depth, 26ft.) 
 
 No. 479 is a solid piece of terra-cotta, with a perforation from side 
 to side ; in front are two cavities, but slightly sunk, in the form of eyes. 
 This object may have served as a weight for the loom or for fishing-nets. 
 
 No. 480 is a slightly-baked object of terra-cotta, in the form of a 
 goblet, with sieve-like perforations; it cannot be anything else but a 
 censer. Two similar vessels, held by Professor Virchow to be censers, 
 
 No. 480. Censer of slightly-baked Clay in No. 481. Vessel in the form of a flower-saucer, 
 
 the form of a goblet, with sieve-like perfora- with incised decoration. (1 : 6 actual size, 
 
 tions. (Half actual size. Depth, 23 ft.) Depth, 26 ft.) 
 
 8 See Nos. 1338, 1339, p. 582. 
 
412 
 
 THE THIRD, THE BURNT CITY. 
 
 [Chap. VII. 
 
 are in his collection of antiquities from Zaborowo in Posen. Similar 
 censers are preserved in the Markisches Museum at Berlin. 
 
 No. 481 is a very pretty lustrous-red vessel, in the form of a flower- 
 saucer. Its flat bottom is ornamented with linear decorations and a cross 
 of dots. The engraving represents a side view of this curious vessel, 
 whose decoration is given separately above it. This vase-cover finds its 
 analogue in that which we see on a vase found near Guben in Lusatia, 
 and represented under No. 5 on PL xvii. in the Sessional Report of the 
 Berlin Society for Anthropology, 21st July, 1877. 
 
 Nos. 482 and 483 are fragments of a very large red vase, decorated 
 alternately with broad bands filled with fanciful strokes and with rows of 
 
 No. 482. 
 
 JNos. 4*2, 4.H3. Fragments of a large Vase, with a curious impresstd decoration. 
 (Nearly 1 : 5 actual size. Depth, 26 ft.) 
 
 small or large stamps representing crosses in relief ; even the handles are 
 decorated with stamps containing similar crosses. These fragments have 
 evidently been exposed to an intense heat in the conflagration, for they 
 are thoroughly baked. Professor Sayce remarks to me that " the circles 
 with crosses within them resemble the Babylonian rosette, a favourite 
 Babylonian and Hittite decoration." Professor Virchow mentions to me 
 that he noticed a similar ornamentation on terra-cotta vessels found at 
 Bologna. 
 
 No. 484 represents the fragment of a grey vase-cover, with the incised 
 linear representation of a stag and another animal, probably intended for 
 a cuttle-fish; but Professor Virchow thinks the primitive Trojan artist 
 
Chap. VIL] 
 
 CUKIOUS DISC : EATTLES : TOP. 
 
 413 
 
 intended to represent a tortoise. We see on it also a plant-like orna- 
 ment, perhaps meant for a tree. Similar incised ornaments are very 
 
 No. 484. Vase-cover of Terra-cotta, with an incised ornamentation representing a tree, a stag, and probablj' a 
 cuttle-fish. (Half actual size. Depth, 26 ft.) 
 
 common on the Trojan whorls. 9 No. 485 represents a top of terra- 
 cotta; No. 486, a curious rattle of black terra-cotta, ornamented with 
 incised lines ; the handle is perforated for suspension. There are small 
 pieces of metal in this rattle ; it may have been a child's toy. No. 487 
 is another rattle with pieces of metal inside it ; like the other, it has no 
 
 No. 486. Curious Rattle of No. 487. Eattle-box of Terra-cotta, in the form of 
 
 Terra-cotta. (Half actual a woman ; head missing. (2 : 3 actual size. Depth, 
 
 size. Depth, 23 ft.) 20 ft.) 
 
 opening. It is in the form of a woman, who holds her hands on the 
 breast ; the head is missing ; the necklace is indicated by three horizontal 
 strokes, and the breast-ornament by six vertical strokes. Though it was 
 found at a depth of 20 ft., it certainly belongs to the third or burnt 
 city, both because of its character and because it bears the marks of 
 the conflagration to which it has been exposed. 
 
 9 See Nos. 1867, 1879, 1880, 1881, 1882, 1885, 1886, 1951, and 2000. 
 
414 
 
 THE THIRD, THE BURNT CITY. 
 
 [Chap. VII. 
 
 Nos. 488 and 489 represent brush-handles of a peculiar kind of 
 compact and very clean yellow clay, with a perforation for suspension ; 
 the many small holes seen in the lower part of No. 488, and which 
 also exist in No. 489, served for fixing in the bristles or whatever else 
 the brush may have been composed of. Professor Landerer, who exa- 
 mined these brush-handles very carefully, writes to me the following note 
 on the subject : — " I succeeded in extracting from three of the small 
 holes some residue which, when put into a platinum spoon and burnt, 
 gave the smell, not of animal, but of vegetable, matter. I therefore 
 believe that little stalks of plants, like those which are now used as 
 toothpicks, as e.g. the corolla of Foeniculum, were put into the holes 
 and constituted the brush proper. Besides, the holes are too large for 
 bristles, unless several were fixed in one hole." 10 
 
 It deserves particular attention that these clay brush-handles were 
 merely dried in the sun and that none of them have been baked, except 
 those which have been exposed to an intense heat in the conflagration, in 
 which many of them have been more or less burnt. I have further to 
 notice that these clay brush-handles are frequent in the third or burnt 
 city, but that they never occurred in any of the other pre-historic cities. 
 
 No. 488. 
 
 No. 488. Terra-cotta Handle of a Trojan Brush, with the holes in which the brisths have been tixed. 
 (Half actual size. Depth, 33 ft.) Nos. 489-491. Brush-handle of dried Clay, Object of Terra-cotta, 
 and Ring of Mother-of-pearl. (1 : 3 actual size. Depth, 26 to 32 ft.) 
 
 No. 490 is an object of slightly-baked clay, which may probably have 
 been used for heckling yarn. No. 491 is a ring of mother-of-pearl. 
 
 Nos. 492-499 are eight seals of very slightly-baked clay. The 
 seal No. 492 has in the handle a perforation for suspension with a 
 string. Very curious are the signs which we see incised on it, and which 
 resemble written characters. Professor Sayce remarks to me : " The 
 signs all represent the same symbol, which is identical in form with a 
 character met with in both the Hittite and the Cypriote inscriptions, in 
 the latter of which it has the value of ne, and which may be the origin of 
 the Trojan swastika" On the seal No. 493 we see two crosses, of which 
 the one is incised, the other marked with dots. On No. 494 are incised 
 zigzag lines and some straight strokes ; No. 495, again, has incised 
 crosses. On No. 496 we see a PJ- 1 , with its arms curved into spirals; 
 on No. 497, nothing but dots ; and on No. 498, an incised cross and 
 
 10 This is no objection, as ordinary brushes are always made with a bunch of bristles in each hole. 
 
Chap. V1I.J 
 
 TERRA-COTTA SEALS. 
 
 415 
 
 dots. My friend Mr. Panagiotes Eustratiades, Director-General of 
 Antiquities in Greece, remarks to me that No. 493 may not be a seal. 
 
 No. 493. No. 494. 
 
 (7 : 8 actual size. Depth, 26 to 35 ft.) 
 
 but the button or handle of a vase-cover. That may be so, but all the 
 rest are certainly seals. 
 
 The most curious of all is the terra-cotta seal No. 499, which has a 
 perforation for suspension. Its handle has on two sides an incised 
 herring-bone ornamentation, and on the third side, the one to the right 
 in the cut, an incised inscription, in which, as Professor Sayce says, 
 " characters also found in the Cypriote syllabary can be easily recognized. 
 The Cypriote character representing e, in an older form than any met 
 with in Cyprus itself, is engraved on the die of the seal." Both the 
 inscription on the handle and that on the seal are discussed by Prof. 
 Sayce in his Appendix on the Trojan inscriptions. 11 The most striking 
 analogy to the Trojan seals is offered by the terra-cotta seals found at 
 Pilin in Hungary, 1 on which we see circles, stars, crosses, rhombs, and 
 other figures. 
 
 Nos. 500 and 501 show the two sides of a perforated cylinder of terra- 
 cotta, with an incised decoration, representing a tree and linear orna- 
 
 No. 500. No. 501. 
 
 Nos. 500, 501. Cylinder of Terra-cotta with an incised decoration, from the Stratum of the Burnt City. 
 
 (Half actual size.) 
 
 11 See Prof. Sayce's Appendix, where also a 1 Joseph Hampel, Antiquity's prtfiistoriques de 
 more perfect engraving of the seal is given. la Hongrie, PI. xiii. Nos. 4-9. 
 
416 
 
 THE THIRD, THE BURNT CITY. 
 
 [Chap. VII. 
 
 ments. Nos. 502 and 503 are the two sides of a cylinder of blue felspar, 
 engraved on one side with a double flower, surmounted by a half-diamond 
 or arrow-head, and on the other with signs (perhaps the name of the 
 owner) within a cartouch. 2 It was found in the royal house. Under 
 
 No. 502. No. 503. 
 
 Nos. 502, 503. Engraved Cylinder of blue Felspar. From the Falace. (A. tual size. Depth, 30 ft.) 
 
 Nos. 504 and 505, I represent two double whorls, in the shape of tops, 
 which are made of a very fine dark-yellow clay, and are well polished. 
 No, 504 is decorated on the upper and lower parts, No. 505 on the upper 
 
 No. 505. 
 
 Nos. 501, 505. Double Whorls of lustrous-yellow colour, from the Stratum of the Burnt City. 
 
 (Half actual size.) 
 
 part only, with an incised ornamentation, which may be intended to 
 represent flowers. Similar double whorls are not frequent. I collected 
 in all only twenty-five of them. 
 
 Nos. 506 to 511a, b, represent the ornamentation of seven terra-cotta 
 whorls. No. 511 was found in the royal house : the numerous little figures 
 upon it, resembling faces, are very curious. The different forms of the 
 whorls which occur in this third, the burnt city, may be seen on the 
 lithographed plates at the end of the volume, under Nos. 1806, 1807, 
 1808, 1810, 1812, 1815. All these forms occur in really enormous abun- 
 dance, except that of No. 1806, which is rare, and is only found unorna- 
 mented; nearly one-half of all the whorls found have incised patterns, 
 of which I give the principal examples in the plates. The depth at 
 which each whorl was found is marked in metres ; and thus all those 
 which are marked from 7 to 10 m. (23 to 33 ft.), inclusive, may be con- 
 sidered to have been collected in the third or burnt city. Among the most 
 frequent patterns are those of Nos. 1817 and 1818, representing crosses 
 with a large dot in each arm, and the pattern No. 1820, which also 
 shows a cross. The pattern No. 1822 occurs but seldom, as also 
 No. 1825 ; -that of No. 1824 is frequent. There is only one example of 
 No. 1826, which represents two swastikas and other inexplicable signs. 
 I call attention, however, to the similarity of the upper figure to that 
 which we see below m No. 1883, which is certainly meant to represent 
 a man with uplifted .arms. The patterns on No. 1827 are very frequent 
 
 2 A more exact representation of these signs is given by Professor Sayce in his Appendix. 
 
Chap. VIL] 
 
 PATTERNS OF WHORLS. 
 
 417 
 
 on the whorls ; those of Nos. 1830, 1831, 1832, 1834, and 1836, occur 
 only once. A very abundant pattern is that of No. 1833, the idea 
 
 No. 507. 
 
 Nos. 506-511A, b. Seven Whorls of Terra-cotta with incised decoration. 
 (Actual size. Depth, 26 ft.) 
 
 of which may have been taken from a moving wheel. Patterns like 
 Nos. 1840, 1841, and 1848, are frequent, particularly the last, which 
 occurs many hundreds of times in the third city, as well as in the two 
 following ones. Nos. 1842 and 1843 occurred only once; No. 1844 
 occasionally ; No. 1846 only once. No. 1853 also occurred only once ; 
 whereas the patterns with the j^j, Nos. 1851, 1855, and 1859, are 
 very frequent. The pattern No. 1856 is found many times, but those of 
 Nos. 1857 and 1860 only once ; the latter seems to have written characters. 
 
 In the pattern No. 1862 we again see the sign ^\ five times repeated ; 
 only its branches are here curved, and the centre of this curious cross is 
 occupied by a circle with a point. This pattern is not rare. We again 
 see the p}J with its branches in spirals in No. 1868 ; this pattern also 
 occurs often. The sign3 on No. 1869, which seem to be written cha- 
 racters, as well as those on No. 1870, occur only once. The pattern 
 No. 1872, in which we see the f^- 1 in conjunction with burning altars, 
 occurs several times ; those of Nos. 1873, 1874, 1875, 1876, and 1878, only 
 
 2 E 
 
418 
 
 THE THIRD, THE BURNT &TY. 
 
 [Chap. VII. 
 
 once : in all these we see the or j-pj with other signs. A frequent 
 
 pattern is No. 1877, in which we see four animals, probably intended to 
 be hares. 
 
 On No. 1881 we see a very rude linear representation of three 
 quadrupeds with horns, probably meant for stags. Three stags are, no 
 doubt, also intended to be shown in the curious pattern No. 1883, 
 although two of them have only three legs. Similar very rude linear 
 representations of stags, or other animals, are scratched on some of the 
 vases with human faces found in the province of Pommerellen near 
 Dantzig, which are for the most part preserved in the Museum at 
 Dantzig ; others are in the Koyal Museum at Berlin. 
 
 In perfect analogy with the rude drawing of the stags is the linear 
 representation of the man with uplifted arms, which we see on the same 
 whorl, No. 1883. Similar linear representations of stags, but with four 
 legs, are also seen in No. 1884; whorls decorated with these animals 
 are frequent. The rudest representation imaginable of animals is given 
 on No. 1885; where one has only three feet, another only one horn. 
 Again, we see three quadrupeds a little better made on No. 1886 : one 
 of them has a tolerable bird's head ; only one of them seems to have 
 horns. 
 
 The patterns on the whorls Nos. 1887, 1888, 1890, and 1891 occur fre- 
 quently. The pattern No. 1892 is unique ; those of Nos. 1893 and 
 1896 are very common. On No. 1894 the primitive engraver doubtless 
 intended to make four swastikas, but with one of them he did not succeed. 
 A curious pattern is No. 1897, with its triangles and 15 zigzag lines ; 
 further, those with plant-like ornaments, Nos. 1898, 1899, 1900, 1901, 
 1903, 1904. A similar punched decoration is seen engraved on the 
 flags of native Lower Silurian grit, in the interior of the sepulchre of 
 Ollam Fodhla, the famous monarch and lawgiver of Ireland, 3 in which 
 we also find the ornament represented in the upper and lower field of 
 No. 1907, and in the upper field of No. 1908. The whorls are rarely 
 ornamented on more than one side; but No. 1902 is decorated on both 
 sides — on the one with an incised floral ornamentation, on the other with 
 incisions in the form of crescents. No. 1909 shows in the upper field 
 the form, of an altar with flames : we again see four such altars with 
 flames on No. 1914, six more on No. 1913, five on No. 1915, three on 
 No. 1916. On No. 1912 we again see, five times repeated, that curious 
 written character which the late Orientalist, Martin Haug of Munich, 
 read si. No. 1919 is ornamented all over with zigzag lines ; it has also 
 one p[-J and one Ljrj. There is no other example of the exact pattern 
 of either of the Nos. 1918, 1919, 1920, 1921, 1922. In No. 1921 we 
 again see zigzag lines, and also in No. 1923 : this pattern, as well as 
 that of No. 1925, occurs several times ; also that of No. 1924, in which 
 we again see an altar with flames. No. 1926 is decorated with zigzag 
 lines and crosses. The patterns of No. 1927 and No. 1932 are very fre- 
 
 3 Discovery of the Tomb of Ollam Fodhla. By E. A. Conwell. Dublin, 1873. 
 
Chap. VII.] 
 
 ANIMALS AND MEN ON THE WHORLS. 
 
 419 
 
 quent; that of No. 1930 occurs many times; also that of No. 1933. 
 Nos. 1934, 1935, 1936, and 1938 occur only once. On the latter whorl 
 we again see Dr. Haug's character si. I call the reader's particular 
 attention to the beautiful ornamentation of No. 1940, which occurs many 
 times; also to that of No. 1945, which occurs only once. Nos. 1941, 
 1943, and 1944 are often found : the pattern No. 1942 does not occur 
 again. Very curious is the decoration of No. 1946, in which we see a 
 burning altar, a ^-j, a sun, four dots and strokes. This pattern, as well 
 as those of Nos. 1948 and 1947, in which latter we also see two j-fj and 
 one p|-J, occur only once. The signs on No. 1949, in which we see again 
 a zigzag line, probably the symbol of lightning, and a occur many 
 times; the patterns also on No. 1950 are frequent. There are only single 
 examples of the patterns of Nos. 1956 and 1959, which are in the form 
 of a disc, and of No. 1957. That of No. 1958 occurs often; also that 
 of No. 1964, in which we see three flowers, but not that on the opposite 
 side. Nos. 1961, 1962, and 1963 occur only once. The patterns of 
 Nos. 1966, 1968, 1969, and 1971 occur only once ; that of No. 1968 is 
 very remarkable, for it shows in a sort of monogram five birds with very 
 long necks and beaks. There can be hardly any doubt that the primi- 
 tive artist intended here to represent storks, which must have been at the 
 Trojan epoch just as abundant in the Troad as they are now. 
 
 But still more interesting is the figure which we see on No. 1971; 
 for if we compare it with that at the top of No. 1826, and with that in 
 the lower part of No. 1883, which latter cannot possibly be anything 
 else than a man in monogram, we may be pretty certain that here too 
 a man with uplifted arms was meant to be represented, his feet being 
 indicated by two slanting strokes. Kude and even horrible as these 
 representations of our species are, they are of capital interest to us if we 
 look upon them as the predecessors of the masterpieces of art in the time 
 of Pericles. But we have seen that the Trojans were perfectly able to 
 model in clay tolerably good representations of men and animals (see 
 Nos. 190, 191, 226, and Nos. 333 to 340) : why then did they incise on their 
 whorls such monstrous figures of men and animals, figures which far 
 exceed in rudeness the rudest drawings of the wild men of Africa ? Is 
 there any analogy whatever between this monstrous art and the other 
 handiwork of the Trojans? If we look at the rude but symmetrically 
 shaped pottery, or if we contemplate the masses of gold ornaments which 
 reveal so much artistic skill, and which can only have been the work of a 
 school of artists centuries old, — is it possible to suppose that a people 
 so far advanced in civilization could have made such rudest of rude repre- 
 sentations of man and animal, unless these latter had been conventional 
 figures, intended as votive offerings to the tutelary deity, figures conse- 
 crated by the use of ages? This supposition seems certainly to be 
 confirmed by the figures themselves, all of which are equally monstrous. 
 Nay, the anomaly would otherwise be quite inexplicable, because, if this 
 explanation were not correct, there would at least be a difference in the 
 style of the figures, some of which might be bad, others better, and others 
 
420 
 
 THE THIRD, THE BURNT CITY. 
 
 [Chap. VII. 
 
 tolerably good. But, just as the inhabitants of the four upper pre- 
 historic cities adhered with fervent zeal to the modelling of the traditional 
 and conventional hideous owl-heads on their sacred vases, in the same 
 way did they adhere with fervent zeal to the traditional and conventional 
 scratchings of monstrous manikins and hideous animal forms on their 
 ex-votos to their patron goddess. This at least appears to me to be the 
 only way of explaining the strange facts before us, for which we have no 
 analogy whatever. 
 
 The whorl No. 1970 was found at a depth of 12 metres or 40 ft., and, 
 therefore, most probably belongs to the second city. But its pattern 
 occurs also in the third and fourth cities. The patterns Nos. 1974 and 
 1975 occur only once ; I call attention to the curious sign in the latter, 
 which may be a written character. We again see the written character, 
 Haug's si, on No. 1976. The two patterns of No. 1977, as well as that 
 of No. 1978, which represents a flower, are very frequent ; the same 
 may be said of that which we see on Nos. 1979 and 1981. That of 
 No. 1980 with zigzag lines occurs several times. On No. 1982 we again 
 see three swastikas. One of the most common patterns is that of 
 No. 1985. No. 1986 represents a ball of terra-cotta with a circle on 
 each pole and a zone round the middle, in which we see on both sides 
 a round groove ; the two grooves are joined by a curved line ; the whole 
 ball is, besides, ornamented with dots. Similar balls, but without the 
 grooves and the curved line, are very frequent. In the pattern No. 1987 
 we see, besides the usual curved lines, a ^j-j with curved arms radiating 
 from a circle in the middle. There is a similar ornamentation on the whorl 
 No. 1989, but here the pj-j has straight arms : the pattern of this latter 
 whorl is common. The exact pattern of No. 1988, with two swastikas, 
 three curved lines and three rows of dots, occurs only once. So also does 
 the pattern of the whorl No. 1992, in which we see a number of spirals 
 and 13 bundles, each consisting of three strokes intersected by lines of 
 five dots. Very remarkable are the signs which we see on the whorl 
 No. 1994, some of which may be written characters; but if we turn the 
 page a little to the left, we easily recognize once more, in the large 
 sign to the right, the rude representation of a man in monogram, with 
 uplifted arms and the feet extended to the right and left ; nay, here the 
 representation of our species has been more successful than in the three 
 examples already described, for the figure is incised with much more 
 symmetry. On the whorl No. 1996 are written characters which will be 
 explained in the Appendix on the Trojan Inscriptions. The pattern 
 which we see on the whorl No. 1995 is very common. 
 
 The most remarkable of all the terra-cotta balls found is no doubt 
 No. 1997, which I have discussed before. 4 We see there on the side b 
 two large owl's eyes with their eyebrows distinctly incised, as on many of 
 the idols and on some of the owl-vases ; the beak is indicated by a stroke 
 which descends vertically from between the eyes : to the left of the owl- 
 
 4 See page 344. 
 
Chap. VIL] 
 
 ORNAMENTED TERRA-COTTA BALLS. 
 
 421 
 
 face we see (at a) a wheel with six spokes ; to the right of the owl-face 
 (at e) is a large circle with a small one, and below the circle, between it 
 and the vertical stroke, is a small circle : on the back a number of vertical 
 strokes seem, as on many idols, to indicate the female hair. This hair 
 is not represented in the engraving ; all the rest may be seen at a, b, c, 
 as well as in the detailed drawing below them, No. 1998. May not the 
 owl's face be symbolic of the morning springing up between the sun, 
 represented by the wheel, and the moon, indicated by the concentric 
 circles, having below it the morning star indicated by the small circle ? 
 
 Yery curious is also the terra-cotta ball No. 1999, which is divided by 
 incised lines into eight fields, developed under No. 2000, in one of which 
 we see a pj-J, in another a tree, and in all clusters of dots. Professor 
 Sayce observes to me that, judging from the analogy of the Babylonian 
 cylinders, the latter would represent the planets or stars. 
 
 The whorls are all perforated ; and, though they are made of the same 
 coarse clay, mixed with crushed mica, quartz, and silicious stone, yet as 
 they are well polished and have evidently been repeatedly dipped in a 
 wash of fine clay before baking, they generally have a lustrous surface, 
 and are of red, yellow, black or grey colours. All those of the third 
 city, which were exposed to the intense heat of the conflagration, are 
 thoroughly baked, and can generally be at once recognized by their 
 colour; but even in the other pre-historic cities there may be found a 
 great many thoroughly baked whorls, a fact which is not astonishing, 
 as, owing to their small size, the fire could reach them on all sides. But 
 in general the whorls of the other pre-historic cities are, like the vases, 
 only half baked. The clay of many of those that are well baked, and 
 particularly of the black ones, is so compact, that every one thinks it 
 is stone. 
 
 All this may also be said of the balls. The ornamentation has usually 
 been incised with a sharp or pointed instrument of bone, wood, or silex, 
 before the first baking, and filled in with white chalk so as to strike the 
 eye. On many whorls and balls this white chalk has disappeared from the 
 decorations ; but, as we see on many hundreds of whorls the ornamentation 
 filled with the white chalk, we may with all probability suppose that all 
 the ornamented whorls were treated in the same way. But we often see 
 whorls with ugly scratches which can only have been made with pointed 
 silex after baking. On many whorls the incised decoration is remarkable 
 for its fineness and symmetry, as, for instance, on Nos. 1825, 1895, 1902, 
 1921, 1940, 1945 ; but in general it is as rude asif it were the primitive 
 artist's first essay in intaglio^oxk. 
 
 All the drawings of the whorls and balls have been made by M. 
 Burnouf and his accomplished daughter, Mdlle. Louise Burnouf, to whom 
 I here make the warmest acknowledgment. All the whorls and balls are 
 represented of the actual size. As to the few whorls to which the depth 
 in metres is not affixed, it is unknown. 
 
 For what purpose this really stupendous mass of whorls was used, is a 
 problem not yet definitely settled among scholars. But as nearly all of 
 them are so well preserved, and as comparatively but few of them bear 
 
422 
 
 THE THIRD, THE BUENT CITY. 
 
 [Chap. VII. 
 
 marks of having ever been used, I suppose that all, or at least all the 
 decorated ones, served as offerings to the tutelary deity of the city, to 
 the Ilian Athene Ergane, whose Palladium, as before mentioned, was 
 fabled to have fallen from heaven, with a distaff in one hand and a lance 
 in the other. 
 
 Of perforated whorls of steatite there were found in all only fifty, and 
 of these only one has a decoration of incised circles ; whereas, as has been 
 said, of ornamented and unornamented terra-cotta whorls together, I col- 
 lected more than 18,000. In my excavations at Mycenae some hundreds 
 of stone whorls, for the most part of steatite, were found, and only five 
 unornamented ones of terra-cotta. The little terra-cotta discs, from 1| 
 to 3 in. in diameter, of which many hundreds of specimens were found 
 in all the five pre-historic cities of Hissarlik, appear to have served as 
 spindles. As they are only l-5th or l-6th of an inch thick, and slightly 
 concave, there can be no doubt that all of them were cut out of broken 
 pottery. They have all a perforation in the middle. Similar discs, found 
 at Szihalom in Hungary, may be seen in the glass case No. IX., Nos. 2 
 and 4, in the Buda-Pesth National Museum. Similar discs have also 
 been found at Pilin 5 and in German tombs. 6 We may also compare the 
 so-called Kimmeridge coal-money. 
 
 I have still to describe the singular object No. 1809, which is repre- 
 sented on the first plate at the end of the book in half-size. It is of a 
 lustrous-yellow colour, and quite flat on the lower side ; it has an upright 
 handle, decorated with an incised tree and a flower. Close to the handle, 
 on the right side, is a hollow to put the hand in ; I presume, therefore, 
 that this instrument may have served for polishing the newly-made and 
 still unbaked pottery. 
 
 Of various objects of clay from this third, the burnt city, I finally 
 represent under No. 512 a scoop, but slightly baked, with a trefoil 
 mouth and a small handle; under No. 513, a small cup of a very rude 
 fabric, unpolished and but slightly baked ; a cup of a like shape, con- 
 tained in a tomb of Corneto, is in the Eoyal Museum at Berlin. No. 514 
 represents a vase-lid of a very remarkable and unique form : it is of 
 massive yellow clay, not polished, and bears the marks of the intense 
 heat to which it has been exposed in the conflagration. Its lower 
 part was sunk like a stopper into the vase, so that its projecting upper 
 part completely covered the orifice and shut it almost hermetically by 
 the weight of the lid, which exceeds three pounds. We have seen a 
 similar vase-lid in No. 304, but of this latter the whole lower part was 
 of a semi-globular form and hollow. These two vase-lids or stoppers 
 (Nos. 304 and 514) find their analogy in the vase-covers before described, 
 found at Szihalom in Hungary, and exhibited under Nos. 26 and 27 in 
 the glass case No. IX. in the Buda-Pesth National Museum. 
 
 Under No. 515 I represent a curious object of terra-cotta, with four 
 feet and an incised linear ornamentation ; it is solid, and may have served 
 
 5 Joseph Hampel, Ant. preh. de la Hongrie, Museum at Berlin, in the Grand-ducal Anti- 
 PL xiii. No. 37. quarium in Schwerin, and elsewhere. 
 
 6 Similar discs are preserved in the Miirkisches 
 
Chap. VIT.J 
 
 VARIOUS OBJECTS. 
 
 423 
 
 No. 512. Scoop of baked Clay. (Half actual size. 
 Depth, 23 to 26 ft.) 
 
 No. 514. Curious Vase-lid of baked Clay. 
 (Half actual size. Depth, 23 to 26 ft.) 
 
 No. 513. Small Cup of baked Clay. (2 : 3 actual size. 
 Depth, 23 to 26 ft.) 
 
 as an ex-voto. Under No. 516 is represented a fish of wood found in a 
 burnt house at a depth of 26 ft. ; how it could ever have escaped being 
 
 burnt is inexplicable. The head shows 
 on both sides a lustrous- black colour, 
 the body a lustrous yellow : both these 
 colours may have been produced by 
 the intense heat of the conflagration. 
 
 No. 515 Solid Object of Terra-cotta, with four 
 feet and incised linear ornamentation. 
 (Actual size. Depth, 30 ft.) 
 
 No. 516. Fish of Wood. (7 : 8 actual size. Depth, 26 ft.) 
 
 The scales are rudely indicated by small lozenges, produced by cross lines. 
 The fish resembles a carp, but as there are no carp in the Troad, it is 
 doubtful whether the primitive artist intended to represent that kind 
 of fish. But rude as this wooden fish is, it is a real masterpiece of art 
 when compared with the representations of men, of which we have passed 
 four in review. 
 
 No. 517 is a very curious object of ivory, found in the large house close 
 
 No. 517. Object of Ivory in the form of a crouching animal. (Actual size. Depth, 28 ft.) 
 
 to the gate. It represents a crouching hog rudely carved, with the hind 
 legs under the body and the fore legs under the head. The representa- 
 
124: THE THIRD, THE BURNT CITY. [Chap. VII. 
 
 tion is identical on both sides ; it reminds us vividly of the gold lions at 
 Mycenae, 7 though these latter certainly show more artistic skill. The back 
 part of our ivory figure runs out into something like a fish's tail, which 
 has a vertical opening, 0*7 in. long, and is perforated, leading us to 
 suppose that the object must have been used in some way or other in 
 weaving. Time, and probably also the heat of the conflagration, have 
 given to our ivory hog a dark tint ; the head and back are nearly black. 
 Professor Yirchow writes to me : " It appears to me doubtful whether 
 the figure No. 517 represents a hog. The position of the feet and the 
 shape more resemble those of a dog." 
 
 Under Nos. 518 and 519 I represent two objects of ivory, each 
 belonging to a lyre with only four strings, and under No. 520 another 
 
 object of ivory, belonging 
 to a lyre with seven strings ; 
 all these three pieces are 
 ornamented with incisions. 
 No. 518 has the herring- 
 bone ornamentation within 
 a border formed by two 
 lines ; No. 519 is merely 
 decorated with straight 
 lines. The decoration of 
 No. 520 is very pretty, 
 having at the edge, where 
 the perforations are, a 
 border of only one line ; 
 on the two other edges 
 borders formed by two lines, 
 and decorated with a waving 
 pattern ; the surface is or- 
 namented with spirals, in 
 which we likewise see wave 
 or zigzag patterns. 
 The lyre (<j>6pfiiy^) was the most ancient stringed instrument of the 
 Greek singers; it is frequently mentioned by Homer, with whom it is 
 especially the musical instrument of Apollo ; 8 but the singers play on 
 it also at meals and on other occasions. 9 The $6pfxiy% is mentioned 
 
 No. 518. Fragment of a Lyre 
 with four chords. (7 : 8 actual 
 size. Dopth, 26 ft.) 
 
 HI 
 
 No. 519. Piece of Ivory, belong- 
 ing to a Trojan Lyre with four 
 strings. (1:5 actual size. 
 Depth, 26 ft.) 
 
 Y.o. 520. Ornamented Piece of 
 Ivory, belonging to a Trojan 
 Seven-stringed Lyre. (Actual 
 size. Depth, 23 ft.) 
 
 7 See my Mycenae, Nos. 263, 470, 471. 
 
 8 II. i. 603 : 
 
 ov fx^v <p6p/j.iyyos irepiKaWios, e%' 5 AirdWuv. 
 
 II. xxiv. 63 : 
 8cuW ex^v <p6pjxiyya, kcikuv erop', al\v &iri<TTe. 
 
 Od. xvii. 270, 271 : 
 
 eVel Rviffffy ft\v av-fiuodev, iv $4 re <p6pixiy£ 
 7]Trvei, %v apa Sairi deol iro'u)<Tav eTalprjv. 
 
 Hymn. Horn. Apoll. 184, 185 : 
 
 ro?o 8e <p6pfxiy^ 
 Xpvffeov virb ir\r)KTpov Kuvaxhv e% €l l^p^ffffav. 
 
 verse 515 : 
 
 <p6pixiyy* iv xtipzatnv ex wy i iparhv Kidaplfav. 
 
 9 Od. viii. 67, 69, 70 : 
 /ca8 8' e/c iraaaaKocpi Kpe/xacrev <p6p/u.iyya \iyztav, 
 
 . . trap 8' ertflei kolvsov Ka\4}v re Tpdirefav, 
 irap 8e SeVas oivoio, 7netV ore dvfibs avcvyoi. 
 viii. 99 : 
 
 <p6pfxiyy6s B\ $? Sairl ffvvf)op6s iffri BaKe'iy. 
 
 xxi. 430 : 
 
 fioXirrj Kai (p6p/juyyi • to yap r avaO^/j-ara dairds. 
 
 xxii. 332, 333 : 
 
 cVttj 8' eV xtipeacnv i% wv <P^PH- l 77 a Afyeiaj/ 
 &yXi Ta/>' opcrodvprjv • 
 and others. 
 
Chap. VII.] 
 
 FKAGMENTS OF LYRES AND FLUTES. 
 
 425 
 
 together with flutes (avXol) ; 10 it was often decorated with gold, ivory, 
 precious stones, and intaglio-work — hence its epithets TrepucaXXr)*;, SaiSaXerj, 
 Xpvaea} 1 It had at first four, but afterwards seven strings : 1 to play on 
 the (popfMcyl; was called fyoppbiyyi KiOapl^eiv 2 and fyop/juyya iXeXi&iv. 3 It 
 was a kind of large guitar, with a cross-bar which joined both arms 
 (fyyov)* and had pegs (fcoXXoires), by which the strings were tuned. 5 It 
 was hollow (yXafyvpr})* like our harp, but lighter, for the word <j)6p<ityt; 
 signifies the portable Kt6dpa, from (pipco, (popeo), (popi/xo^, because it was 
 suspended by a girdle on the shoulder, and was held in the hand when 
 it was played. 7 Professor Khousopoulos kindly calls my attention to 
 Plutarch, 8 where lyres {<f>6p puyyes) with four chords are mentioned. 
 
 No. 521 is an object of ivory of unknown use ; its upper part is on 
 both sides divided by a band of three lines into two fields, of which the 
 one is decorated with fourteen, the other with twelve, small circles having 
 
 10 II. xviii. 495 : 
 
 av\ol <p6p/xiyycs re fiofyv exov. 
 
 11 II ix. 186, 187 : 
 
 rbv 5' evpov <ppwa TepirSfievov (pdpfxiyyi Xiytirf 
 KaArj ScudaAer], . . . 
 Pindar. Py'th. i. 1-3 : 
 
 Kai lotrXoKajAWV 
 
 (TvuSikov Moiaav Kreavov. 
 1 Pind. Pyth. ii. 129, 130 : 
 
 64\wv adpriaov x°-P LV eirraKrvTrov 
 (pSpfiiyyos aurS/xet/os. 
 Pind. JSfemea, v. 42-45 : 
 
 fioiaav 6 kolWhttos X°P^ S ' fc " u€ fieaais 
 (pop/Aiyy' 'Kir6\Xo>v kiTT ay Kwacrov 
 Xpweq) irAaKTpcp Siwkwu 
 oryuro Travroiuv v6/j.a)u. 
 
 2 //. xviii. 569, 570 : 
 
 TOtcriv 8' iv jxiacroiffi irais <p6p/xiyyi Xiyeirj 
 l/xepoev KiOdpifc .... 
 
 3 Pind. 01. ix. 21 : 
 
 auSpbs a.[i<pl iraAalo-ficuriv <p6p/niyy' i\t\l£a)v. 
 
 4 11. ix. 186, 187 : 
 (pSpfiiyyi Aiyeir) 
 
 iirl 8 5 apyvpeov £vyby 
 
 5 Od. xxi. 406, 407 : 
 
 ws oV avfyp <p6pfxiyyos zitMTTaixzvos Kal aoiSrjs 
 pri'CSias iravvacre vicp irep\ k6\\oiti xop^v. 
 
 6 Od. xvii. 261, 262 : 
 
 nepl 8e <r<peas tfhvff lu-fj 
 (popjxiyyos y\a<pvprjs. 
 
 7 Hesychius, s. v. <p6p/j.tyl- • tj to7s &jxois <pepo- 
 
 8 Opp. Moralia, pp. 1021 E, 1029 A B, 1137 D, 
 1139 B, 1143 E, 1145 C ; ed. Wyttenbach. 
 
426 
 
 THE THIED, THE BURNT CITY. 
 
 [Chap. VII. 
 
 a dot in the centre ; on the lower part there are three such circles on 
 each side. The reader will observe the similarity of these circles with 
 those on the curious object No. 142 (p. 262), which is probably an idol. 
 
 Nos. 522, 523 and No. 524 are two perforated pieces of ivory decorated 
 with linear incisions ; No. 524 has two holes : both these tubes appear to 
 be parts of flutes. The same is probably the case with the prettily- 
 
 No. 527. 
 
 Nos. 527-531. Fragments of a Flute, two Astragals (Huckle- 
 bones), and object of Ivory with ornaments all over. 
 (Half actual size. Depth, 26 to 30 ft.) 
 
 large number have been found, 
 in a preceding chapter (see p. 263) 
 
 No. 526. Ornamented Ivory Tube, probably a Trojan Flute. (2 : 3 actual size. Depth, 26 ft.) 
 
 engraved bone No. 525. No. 526 is a curiously decorated tube of ivory, 
 in all probability a flute. The bone tubes Nos. 527 and 528 may also 
 
 be parts of flutes. No. 529 is 
 a perforated piece of ivory cut 
 into a polygonal prism, of which 
 each side is decorated with three 
 small circles, having a dot in the 
 centre like those on No. 142 and 
 No. 521. A similar object of 
 ivory, with an almost identical 
 decoration, was found in a tomb 
 at Ialysus in Khodes, and is pre- 
 served in the British Museum. 
 
 Nos. 530 and 531 are huckle- 
 bones (astragali), of which a 
 I have discussed the use of these bones 
 Nos. 532 to 535 are objects of 
 ivory, rudely ornamented 
 with incisions evidently 
 made with a silex-saw. 
 Two similar objects, found 
 at Ialysus, are in the 
 British Museum. Of ivory 
 also is the object No. 536, 
 which resembles the bar 
 of our watch-chains, as 
 well as the object No. 537, 
 which has four perfora- 
 tions ; No. 538, which has 
 the shape of a fish ; and 
 No. 539. This latter has 
 a curious engraved pat- 
 tern, which, however, has 
 probably no symbolical 
 signification. Prof. Sayce 
 observes to me : " These ivory objects indicate trade with the East. 
 On the Black Obelisk of the Assyrian king Shalmaneser (bc. 840) the 
 
 No. 532. 
 
 No. 533. 
 
 Nos. 532-539. Various Objects of Ivory 
 (7 : 8 actual size. Depth, 20 to 26 ft.) 
 
Chap. VIL] ORNAMENTS FOR HORSE-TRAPPINGS. 
 
 427 
 
 people of Muzri on the south-west of Armenia are represented as bringing 
 among other tribute an elephant, which must have been imported from 
 Bactria." On the same obelisk is a two-humped Bactrian camel. 
 
 Of ivory are further the curious objects Nos. 540 and 541, which are 
 decorated on both sides with a number of small circles with a point in 
 
 No. 540. 
 
 TP" 
 
 No. 541. 
 
 Nos. 540, 541. Objects of Ivory, probably for ornamenting a horse-harness. (7 : 8 actual size. Depth, 24 ft.) 
 
 the centre, and have a perforation at each end. I would suggest that all 
 these ten objects (from Nos. 532 to 541), and perhaps also Nos. 521 and 
 529, served as ornaments for horse-trappings. That ornaments of ivory 
 were used in this way is seen from the famous passage in the Iliad : "As 
 when some Maeonian or Carian woman stains with 
 purple the ivory, designed to be the cheek-piece of 
 horses. As it lies in the chamber it is coveted by many 
 horsemen; but it lies, a king's boast, to be both an 
 ornament to the horse, and an honour to the charioteer." 9 
 An object of bone or ivory similar to Nos. 540 and 541, 
 also ornamented with small circles, was found by Dr. 
 V. Gross of Neuveville in the Swiss Lake-dwellings at 
 Moeringen, and is in his collection. 10 No. 542 is the 
 bone handle of a knife or some other instrument, which 
 was fastened in it with three copper pins, of which we 
 still see one in the upper one of the three perforations ; 
 on one side of this handle many cuts are visible. 
 
 Nos. 543, 544, and 545 are of bone, 1 and cannot but have served as 
 handles of sticks or staves (crKrj7rrpov, from ctk^ittw, io prop, hence Midd. 
 aKrjiTToiiai, to lean upon). No. 546 is also the knob of a stick or staff, 
 a fact of which its two perforations can leave no doubt; but it is 
 of terra-cotta. It has, but only on one side, that double spiral in the 
 form of spectacles, which we have repeatedly seen on the vases. Gene- 
 rally Homer means by aKrjirrpov nothing else than a common staff, 
 
 No. 542. Bone Handle 
 of a Knife or some 
 other instrument. 
 (Half actual size. 
 Depth, 26 ft.) 
 
 9 II iv. 141-145 : 
 us 5° ore ris t £\4<pavTa yvvij (poiviKi ni-f]vr) 
 Mpovls i]k Kdapa, iraprjiov e^e^at firaw • 
 Keirai 8' iv 6a\dfiu), iroAe'es te fj.iv T)pT)<ravTO 
 fawries (popeeiv • QaatArji 8e Ke?rai 6.yaXfj.a, 
 ancporepov, koot/jlos 0' tWy ikarvpi re kvSos. 
 
 Dr. V. Gross, Besultats des Becherches dans 
 les Lacs de la Suisse occidentak ; Zurich, 1876, 
 PI. i. No. 26. 
 
 1 I see a similar staff-handle of bone, found 
 
 by Dr. Gross in the Swiss Lake-dwellings at 
 Sutz, represented on PI. ii. No. 28 of his work ; 
 but, strange to say, it is explained on p. ii. as a 
 small hammer (Resultats des Becherches, &c). 
 Professor Virchow observes to me that it is not 
 at all astonishing that Dr. Gross should have 
 mistaken the staff-handle No. 28 for a hammer, 
 since perfectly similar hammers of stag-horn 
 frequently occur. 
 
428 THE THIRD, THE BURNT CITY. [Chap. VII. 
 
 for we see it used alike by kings, heralds, judges, and beggars. 2 
 But in other passages cr/crjirTpov means a royal sceptre, as the sign 
 
 Nos. 543, 544. Bone Handles of Staves (<jKr)inp<x). No. 545. Bone Handle of a Trojan's .Staff (a/djnTpoi'). 
 (Nearly half actual size. Depth, 23 ft.) (Half actual size. Depth, 23 ft.) 
 
 of power and dignity, and in such cases it was adorned with golden 
 studs, 3 or was of artistic metal-work. 4 Nor are there wanting, among 
 the remains of Troy, objects well suited to have formed the heads of such 
 sceptres of state. No. 547 is such a sceptre-handle of fine rock-crystal, 
 representing a rudely-carved lion's head : the large hole in the lower 
 side into which the staff was stuck, as well as the perforation on 
 
 No. 546. Terra-cotta Knob of 
 a Staff. (Half actual size- 
 Depth, about 26 ft.) 
 
 No. 547. A Lion-headed Sceptre-handle 
 of the finest crystal ; found on the Tower. 
 (Half actual size. Depth, 28 ft.) 
 
 No. 548. A curious Object, pro- 
 bably a Staff-handle of Egypian 
 porcelain. (Half aciual size. 
 Depth, 26 to 28 ft.) 
 
 each side, can leave no doubt as to its use. It was found at a depth 
 of 28 ft., on the plateau formed by the two walls which I used to call 
 
 2 11. xviii. 416, 417 : 
 . . . eAe 8e crKrjTTTpov Traxv, fiy &e 6vpa£e 
 ■%oo\tvo)V • vTrb 8' afx<pLTO\oL pwovro 'avatiTi. 
 
 Od. xvii. 199 : 
 Ev/xaios 5' apa ol aK^irTpov Qvjxapks eSooKev. 
 
 Od. xiii. 437 : 
 5<£fce 54 ol (TKr\TTTpov na\ aeiKea irr)pr)v. 
 
 Od. xiv. 31 : 
 
 avrap 'OSutnreus 
 
 c£ero Kep8oo-vvr), o~Kr\iTTpov 5e ol tKireae xejpo's. 
 
 Od. xviii. 103, 104 : 
 
 . . . . Kai niv irorl epKiov av\rjs 
 eTcrev avanXivas, (TKritrrpov 8e ol e/x^aAe x*tpf. 
 
 Mr. Philip Smith remarks to me : " In the 
 etymological sense, it is simply a thing to sup- 
 port oneself with, or to lean upon, from aK^irrw, 
 * support ' or ' prop up/ Midd. o~K7iTTToy.ai, I sup- 
 port myself (with), i.e. lean (upon), with -rpov 
 
 (La.t.-trum), termination of an instrument. Thus 
 the dying Jacob rose in bed to bless his chil- 
 dren, leaning upon the top of his staff. (Gen. xlvii. 
 31 ; Heb. xi. 21.) Among the spoil taken by- 
 King Thutmes III. in Syria, we find ' a beauti- 
 ful cubit-staff of zagu wood,' ' wands or staves, 
 with heads upon them of ivory, ebony, and cedar- 
 wood, inlaid with gold,' also ' one stay of the 
 king, made in the fashion of a sceptre, entirely 
 of solid gold.' (Brugsch, Hist, of Egypt, vol. L 
 pp. 374, 385, Engl, trans. 2nd ed.)" 
 
 3 11. i. 245, 246 : 
 
 ttoti 8e o~KT)iTTpov /3aAe yalri 
 
 XpvaeloLS i)\oiffi •K^ap\xivov. 
 
 * 11. ii. 101 : 
 etrnj <TKr\irTpov ex ft "'> T ^ "^<P ai0 " T0S Kc tyie 
 
Chap. VII.] SCEPTRE-HEADS : GLASS BEADS, ETC. 
 
 429 
 
 the Tower. Not only this lion's head, but the illustrations drawn from 
 the lion, which occur repeatedly in the Iliad, make it seem extremely 
 probable that in remote antiquity lions existed in this neighbourhood. 
 Homer could not possibly have described the characteristics of this animal 
 so excellently had he not had frequent opportunity of watching them, 
 and his geographical knowledge of southern countries is too slight for 
 us to suppose that he had visited them, and had there become intimately 
 acquainted with the characteristics of the lion. 
 
 No. 548 is of green Egyptian porcelain ; it was found, together with 
 an owl-headed vase and the black box Nos. 266, 267, in a very large 
 broken funeral urn on the wall itself, immediately to the west of the royal 
 house. It has evidently served as the handle of a staff, for it has on the 
 opposite side a quadrangular hole 1 in. long, 0*6 in. deep, and 0*4 in. 
 broad, which gradually diminishes in size towards the end. On each side 
 there is an incision lengthwise, in the middle of which is a perforation, 
 which communicates with the quadrangular hole, and can only have 
 served to fasten the staff inserted in the latter by means of a nail. On 
 the outside we see a quadrangular projection with two furrows. As 
 Egyptian porcelain is too fragile to serve for the knobs of staves, the staff 
 it decorated may perhaps have been a ceremonial one used in funeral 
 services. It is quite vitrified on the lower side, and bears all over the 
 marks of the fire it has been exposed to; fine black ashes stick to it 
 everywhere. Another object of Egyptian porcelain is lying before me 
 while writing this ; it is also in the form of a staff-knob, but it has a 
 large perforation lengthwise. It has suffered so much in the conflagra- 
 tion, that its green colour has crumbled away, and it looks as if it were 
 a decayed white glass paste. All the Egyptian porcelain, as well as the 
 ivory, point to relations between Troy and Egypt. 
 
 Nos. 549 and 550, the latter perforated lengthwise, are also appa- 
 rently knobs of staves or stick-handles, and are of a green glass paste. 
 Both have a decoration of white or yellow spirals, which is not painted 
 
 No. 553. No. 554. 
 
 49-551. Glass Buttons. (Half actual Nos. 552-555. Three glass Balls and one glass Bead. 
 
 Depth, the one to the right 6 ft., (3 : 4 actual size. Depth, 26 to 33 ft.) 
 
 the other two 26 ft.) 
 
 on the glass, but contained in it. No. 551 consists of a green glass 
 paste, ornamented with regular white strokes; it is also perforated and 
 almost in the form of a whorl, but it does not properly belong here, as it 
 was found at a depth of only 6 ft. 
 
 Under Nos. 552, 553, and 554 I represent three small balls ; under 
 No. 555 a bead of white glass. I call particular attention to the fact that 
 the three balls, the bead, and the two staff-handle knobs are the only glass 
 objects found by me in all my excavations at Hissarlik ; further, that 
 these six objects occurred in the third or burnt city, and that no trace 
 
430 
 
 THE THIRD, THE BURNT CITY. 
 
 [Chap. VII. 
 
 of glass was found in any of the lower or upper pre-historic cities, unless, 
 indeed, No. 551 belongs to the last pre-historic city, which appears to me 
 doubtful. I rather think it belongs to the still later city, the sixth in 
 succession from the virgin soil, which I may be permitted to believe to 
 be of Lydian origin. It is therefore very probable, that all these objects 
 were imported by the Phoenicians to Troy. 
 
 No. 556 is a prettily-shaped egg of aragonite. No. 557 represents 
 an object of diorite, of unknown use. There were also found several 
 unpolished hexagons of crystal, as well as a small finely-polished crystal 
 plate with four perforations, which may have belonged to a lyre. 
 
 Passing from these ornaments to more useful objects : No. 558 repre- 
 
 No. 557. No. 558. 
 
 Nos. 559-580. Awls and Needles of Bone and Ivory. (About half actual size. Depth, 22 to 33 ft.) 
 
Chap. VII.] 
 
 AWLS OF BONE AND HORN. 
 
 431 
 
 sents a very primitive comb of bone, whose teeth may have been sawn 
 with the common saws of chalcedony. 
 
 In the accompanying group, No. 559 is an object of ivory with three 
 perforations, which may have served as an ornament for horse-trappings. 
 Nos. 5G0-574 are needles, or other implements of bone or ivory for 
 female handiwork. As I have said before, similar needles of bone are 
 found in the caverns of Dordogne in France, as well as in the Swiss 
 Lake-dwellings (see p. 262). They are also frequent in tombs in Germany. 
 Nos. 575 to 580 are awls of bone, such as I have discussed before (see 
 ibid). Nos. 581 to 584 are four more awls of bone. Nos. 585 to 587 
 
 No. 581. No. 582. No. 583. No. 584. No. 585. No. 586. No. 587. 
 
 Nos. 581-584. Awls of Bone. Nos. 585-587. Horns of Fallow Deer, sharpened and probably used as awls. 
 (Nearly half actual size. Depth, 16 to 26 ft.) 
 
 are, according to Professor Yirchow, horns of the fallow deer, sharpened 
 to a point, to be used as awls. Similar horns are frequent in the three 
 upper pre-historic cities of Hissarlik. 
 
 Nos. 588-590 are boars' tusks, of which the last two are sharpened 
 to a point. But it appears doubtful whether they were sharpened 
 artificially j they seem rather to have been sharpened by the boar him- 
 self. Boars' tusks are very frequent in the debris of all the pre- 
 historic cities at Hissarlik. Professor Otto Keller 5 remarks on the sub- 
 ject: " Boar-hunting is an object of great importance in the narrations 
 and plastic representations of the heroic ages. To judge from the boars' 
 tusks found, it was also the favourite occupation of our European Lake- 
 
 5 Die Entdeckung Ilion's zu Hissarlik ; Freiburg, 1875, p. 46. 
 
432 
 
 THE THIRD, THE BURNT CITY. 
 
 [Chap. VII. 
 
 dwellers and Cavern-inmates. 6 To the present day the boar is frequent 
 in the Troad and the adjoining country. 7 Between Adramyttium and 
 
 No. 588. 
 
 Nos. 588-590. Boars' Tusks. (Half actual size. Depth, 16 to 26 ft.) 
 
 Assos, and in other parts of the Troad, the boar leaves every morning 
 traces on the ground where he has wallowed. The boar is frequent in the 
 forests of the Mysian Olympus, that is, close to the Troad ; 8 and in very 
 early times the mythic boar which lacerated Idmon, son of Apollo — an 
 episode in the legend of the Argonauts 9 — and the terrible boar which 
 devastated the land of Croesus, 10 broke forth from those forests. And 
 in the oak forests of Ida — acorns being their favourite food — many a 
 superb boar may have fattened himself for the ancient Trojans. They 
 may also have existed in the swamps in the plain." 1 
 
 Nos. 591 to 598 represent objects which, according to Professor W. H. 
 Flower of the Koyal College of Surgeons of England, are vertebrae of the 
 tunny and small sharks. 
 
 No. 591. 
 
 No. 593. 
 
 No. 596. 
 
 & 
 
 No. 598. 
 
 v . / 
 
 No. 592. No. 594. No. 595. No. 597. 
 
 Nos. 591-598. Vertebra; of Sharks, Dolphins, and Tunnies. (Half actual size. Depth, 16 to 33 ft.) 
 
 I now come to the Trojan moulds, of which about ninety in all were 
 found, almost all more or less in fragments ; nearly all are of mica-schist, 
 
 6 "See Lubbock, Pre-historic Times, 3rd ed. 9 " Hyginus, Fab. c. 14, p. 44; c. 18, p. 47." 
 p. 210." 10 " Herodot. i. 36 : eV t£ Mvaiy OvAv/jlito) vbs 
 
 7 " Fellows, Tagbuch einer Reise in Kleinasien XPW a y'^rai fx4ya." 
 
 (Germ, trans.), pp. 45, 73." 1 " Strabo, xiii. p. 595 ; see also Columella, 
 
 8 " Hamilton, Eeisen in Kleinasien (Germ, trans.), de Be Bust vii. 9." 
 
Chap. VII.] MOULDS FOR METAL-CASTINGS. 433 
 
 a few are of baked clay, and only one is of granite. Nos. 599 and 600 
 represent two such stones, with moulds on six sides for casting battle- 
 axes and knives, as well as other implements or weapons unknown to us. 
 
 No. 599. A Mould of Mic-a-schist, for casting various metal Instruments. Found on the Tower. 
 (1 : 4 actual size. Depth, 26 to 28 ft.) 
 
 No. 600. A Mould of Mica-schist, for casting several metal Instruments. 
 (Half actual size. Depth, 28 ft.) 
 
 Of these large moulds I only succeeded in collecting four intact, or 
 nearly so. Without any fear of being contradicted, I may fairly say that 
 these moulds with beds on six sides are unique, and have never been 
 found elsewhere ; but that such moulds, with beds for weapons or imple- 
 
 2 F 
 
434 
 
 THE THIRD, THE BURNT CITY. 
 
 [Chap. VII. 
 
 rnents on their six sides, were in general use at Troy, is attested by 
 the large quantity of broken ones. The moulds found in the Swiss 
 Lake-dwellings, 2 as well as those found in Hungary 3 and elsewhere, have 
 beds only on one side. 4 In Mycenae I found two moulds, one of them 
 with beds on six sides, but only for casting ornaments. 5 These Trojan 
 moulds are further distinguished by the depth of the beds, which 
 exactly corresponds to the size of the battle-axes, knives, &c, which 
 had to be cast. It is therefore evident that these beds were simply 
 filled with fused metal, and then covered with a flat stone until the 
 newly-cast objects had become cold. In the moulds found elsewhere 
 the casting process was different. There were two stones containing 
 the form of the weapon to be cast, but the beds in each of them 
 represented only one-half of its thickness : these two stones having 
 been joined, so that both beds fitted exactly on each other, the mould 
 for the entire object was formed. As we have seen in the mould No. 103 
 (p. 248), of the first city, each of the two stones generally had two 
 perforations, by means of which they were fastened together : 6 in each 
 stone was a little furrow leading from the border to each bed ; and 
 when both stones were joined, and consequently the two furrows fitted 
 exactly on each other, they constituted together a small funnel-like 
 tubular hole, through which the liquid metal was poured into the 
 mould. But, as the reader sees in the engravings, these large Trojan 
 moulds have no such furrows through which the metal could have been 
 poured ; it is therefore evident that the process of casting was here 
 the most simple imaginable, the metal being merely poured into the 
 moulds, and these then covered with a flat stone. 
 
 The only moulds I ever saw which are somewhat similar to the Trojan 
 moulds were found in Sardinia, and are preserved in the Museum of 
 Cagliari. A good specimen of them is represented under No. 7 on Plate ii. 
 of Yincenzo Crespi's work, II Museo oV Antichita di Cagliari. It is a 
 parallelopiped, said to consist of trachyto-porphyric stone (sic), and has 
 beds for weapons on two sides : on one side, a bed for a double-edged 
 battle-axe, with a perforation in the middle, like No. 958 (p. 506) ; on the 
 other, beds for weapons very similar to the common Trojan battle-axes, 
 like Nos. 806 to 809 (p. 476) and No. 828 (p. 486). There is no channel 
 by which the fused metal might have been poured into the beds. It is 
 therefore evident that here, as in the Trojan moulds, the fused metal 
 was poured directly into the beds, and the mould was then probably 
 covered with a perfectly smooth stone so as to make the weapons even. 
 
 In exactly the same way the battle-axes must also have been cast in 
 
 2 See V. Gross, Lesultats des Rechcrchcs dans 
 les Lacs de la Suisse occidental, Zurich, 1876, 
 PI. xvii. Nos. 1-12 ; and V. Gross, Les dcrnieres 
 Trouvailles dans les Habitations lacustres du Lac 
 de Bienne, Porrentruy, 1879, PI. i. Nos. 6-8, 10. 
 
 3 Joseph Hampel, Antiquite's prehistoriques de 
 la Hongrie ; Esztergom, 1877, PL xiv. Nos. 1-25. 
 
 4 Professor Virchow, however, observes to 
 me that moulds with beds on two sides also 
 
 occur in Europe, but they differ from the Trojan 
 moulds, inasmuch as they have a channel by 
 which the fused metal could be poured in from 
 the border. 
 
 5 See my Mycenae, pp. 107-109, Nos. 162 
 and 163. 
 
 6 There are, however, often found stone 
 moulds without these two perforations. 
 
Ceap. VII.] MOULDS FOR WEAPONS AND IMPLEMENTS. 
 
 435 
 
 the mica-schist mould of No. 601, as well as the curious objects, the 
 moulds of which are seen in the stone No. 602, also of mica-schist. 
 The round mould in this latter is also seen in Nos. 599 and 600, but 
 not the mould of a miniature hammer, which we see here, and which is 
 very curious indeed. On the other hand, in the mica-schist mould, 
 No. 603, which has the mould of an arrow-head, like those represented 
 under Nos. 931, 933, 942, 944, and 946 (p. 505), we see the system 
 exactly as described above, because the stone has two perforations and 
 the point of the bed touches the edge of the stone ; consequently, another 
 mould of an identical form having been fastened upon No. 603, by 
 means of the perforations, the liquid metal was poured in through the 
 small channel or funnel from above. 
 
 No. 604 is a broken mould for casting arrow-heads of a triangular 
 shape, but without barbs : here also the furrow of each arrow-head reaches 
 the border ; so that the liquid metal could be poured in with ease. Close 
 
 No. 604. Fragment of a Mould of Mica-schist, 
 No. 605. Mould of baked Clay. .for casting arrow-heads. (Half actual size. 
 
 (1 : 4 actual size. Depth, 26 ft.) Depth, 26 ft.) 
 
 to the left lower corner is one of the holes by which this mould was 
 fixed to another of the same shape which was put upon it ; the other 
 perforation has probably been in the missing part of the stone. The 
 mould No. 605 is of very rude clay, which has been much exposed to the 
 conflagration and is thoroughly baked. Here, again, there are no per- 
 forations nor funnel-shaped holes through which the metal might have 
 been poured into the beds; it is therefore certain that the beds were in 
 
436 
 
 THE THIRD, THE BURNT CITY. 
 
 [Chap. VII. 
 
 this case simply filled with liquid metal and covered with a flat stone. 
 The moulds of this stone represent merely bars ; similar moulds occurred 
 half-a-dozen times. 
 
 A mould of sandstone similar to No. 601 was found at Pilin, 7 and Dr. 
 J. Hampel informs me that such also occur at Szihalom ; but these 
 Hungarian moulds are all of the category before described, the fused 
 
 Gabbro-rock, probably a weight. 
 (2 : 3 actual size. Depth, 30 ft.) 
 
 metal being poured in between two moulds, each of which had exactly one- 
 half of the form of the object to be cast. I may add that before the fused 
 metal ivas poured into the moulds these had to be exposed to a heat as great 
 as red-hot iron. Nos. 606 and 607 are of mica-schist ; they are doubt- 
 less supports for the spit-rests. 
 
 Similar spit-rests of mica-schist, as well as of clay, occur often. As 
 all of them have a furrow on the top, and in an opposite direction a 
 perforation through the middle, it appears that two such supports were 
 placed at the fireside and joined by a copper bar so as to give stability to 
 both ; besides, as the furrow for the spit is always along the narrow side, 
 the spit could never have been turned on one support standing alone, 
 for it would at once have fallen. 
 
 No. 608 is a perforated object of green gabbro-rock, probably a 
 weight. Under Nos. 609 to 616 I represent eight Trojan sling-bullets of 
 loadstone or haematite ; except No. 616, which is of green diorite. All of 
 them are well polished ; and, with the rude implements which the Trojans 
 had at their disposal, it must have been tremendous work to cut and 
 smooth the hard stone into the cylindroid shape of the bullets before 
 us. In fact, labour must have had very little or- no value at that time, 
 for otherwise it is impossible to imagine that whole months should have 
 been wasted on the manufacture of one bullet, which was lost as soon as 
 it was slung. Similar sling-bullets have never been found except in 
 Assyria and in a sepulchre at Camirus in Khodes. The British Museum 
 
 7 Jcs. Hampel, Ant. prehist. PI. xiv. 8. 
 
Chap. VII.] 
 
 TROJAN SLING BULLETS. 
 
 437 
 
 contains a number of such bullets from Assyria, of haematite and magnetic 
 iron, also two which seem to be of granite ; besides one of loadstone 
 
 No. 609. No. 611. 
 
 Nos. 609-613. Sling Bullets of Haematite or Loadstone. (7 : 8 actual size. Depth, 26 t) 29 ft ) 
 
 No. 616. 
 
 Nos. 614-616. Sling Bullets of Loadstone or Haematite and Green Diorite. (3 : 4 actual size. Depth, 30 to 33 ft.) 
 
 from Camirus. It deserves particular attention that the sling is only once 
 mentioned by Homer, and that we never find it used as a weapon in the 
 poems : " Then he tied the hand with twisted sheep's wool, torn from a 
 sling, which the attendant carried for his lord." 8 
 
 The sling was a common weapon throughout antiquity, and was still 
 used in the Middle Ages, Among the Greeks, the Acarnanians and the 
 Aetolians were celebrated as slingers (a^evhovrjrai), like the inhabitants 
 of the Balearic Islands in the later Koman a^e. In the time of the 
 Koman Emperors, Yegetius distinguishes two kinds of slings : the 
 fustibalus, in which the thongs were joined to a staff, and which was 
 merely discharged bv a jerk; and the sling called funda, consisting of 
 thongs or twisted hair, sometimes human hair, which was swung over 
 the head before' the cast. Acorn-like lead-bullets (glandes), or round 
 pebbles (lapides missiles), were slung from both with such violence that 
 they crashed through shields and morions. Among the Greeks and 
 Komans the slingers (<T(f>ev8ovrjTai) formed, with the javelin-men (clkov- 
 rtt&Tai, jaculatores) and archers (ro^orai, sagittarii), the three kinds of 
 light infantry. 
 
 8 77. xiii. 599, 600 : 
 avT7)v Se [xet/>a] £vi>487](T6V £v(TTpe<p€? olbs awTcp> 
 (Tcpeudour], %v apa 61 depdirwv ex e > irot/x4vi Aaav. 
 
438 
 
 THE THIRD, THE BURNT CITY. 
 
 [Chap. VII. 
 
 Nos. 617, 618, and 619 are, according to Mr. Davies of the British 
 Museum, of brown haematite. Similar well-polished stones are frequently 
 
 No. 619. 
 
 Nos. 617-619. Well-polished Sling Bullets of brown Haematite. (3 : 4 actual size. Depth, 30 ft.) 
 
 found in the stratum of the third or burnt city : as they are very 
 heavy, these also may have served as sling-bullets. Bullets of brown 
 haematite of an identical shape, and equally well polished, are frequently 
 found in Greece. 
 
 No. 620 represents a well-polished battle-axe of green gabbro-rock, 
 with two edges and a perforation in the middle for the handle. Stone 
 
 No. 620. Perforated Axe of green Gabbro-rock. (2 : 3 actual size. Depth, 30 ft.) 
 
 battle-axes of a perfectly identical form are found in Denmark. 9 Pro- 
 fessor Virchow tells me that they also occur in Germany. Axes of 
 this form are very frequent at Troy, but nearly all the specimens are 
 fractured. 
 
 No. 621 is another battle-axe of grey diorite, of a ruder fabric and 
 but little polished. It has only one sharp edge; the opposite end runs 
 
 No. 621. Stone Axe, with a groove in the middle. (Half actual size. Depth, 26 ft.) 
 
 out nearly to a point ; a shallow groove in the middle of each side proves 
 that the operation of drilling a hole through it had been commenced, but 
 was abandoned. 
 
 9 P. Madsen, Antiquity pr&histor. du Dane- J. J. A. Worsaae, Nordiske Oldsager ; Copen- 
 marc; Copenhagen, 1873, PI. xxxi. No. 12. hagen, 1859, p. 13, No. 38. 
 
Chap. VII.] 
 
 PERFORATED STONE HAMMERS. 
 
 439 
 
 No. 622 is a polished perforated stone hammer of black diorite : similar 
 perforated stone hammers are found in England and Ireland, 10 and are 
 also represented in the Markisches Museum at Berlin. 
 
 No. 624. Stone Hammer with groove. 
 (Half actual size. Deptb, 29 ft.) 
 
 No. 623 represents a hammer of porphyry of a very curious form, the 
 perforation being at the thick end and not drilled, but evidently punched 
 out with a chisel. A very remarkable form of hammer is also represented 
 by No. 624, which is of green gabbro-rock : here also the drilling of the 
 hole, as the grooves on both sides denote, had commenced, but was again 
 abandoned. I have not noticed that this peculiar shape with a furrow 
 for fastening the hammer to the handle with a thong ever occurs else- 
 where. No. 625 represents another form of perforated hammer, of polished 
 porphyry : as the reader will see, the hole here tapers towards the middle 
 of the stone. Hammers similar to this have been found in England. 1 
 Professor Virchow assures me that they are frequent in Germany. 
 
 No. 626 is a hammer of silicious rock, of the same shape ; but here 
 again the perforation has been merely commenced on both sides, but is 
 not completed. Of nearly identical form is the polished hammer of 
 diorite No. 627, on which likewise the drilling of the hole has not been 
 completed : the lower end of this hammer shows that it has been much 
 used. A similar hammer, in which the drilling had been commenced on 
 both sides, but remained incomplete, was found by Miss Adele Virchow in 
 the excavations she made with her father in the graveyard of Zaborowo. 
 No. 628 is an unpolished hammer of serpentine, with very deep grooves 
 on both sides, but the perforation is not completed. No. 629 is a small 
 hammer of limestone, likewise with a groove on each side. A hammer 
 of identical shape was found in Denmark; 2 another one, found on the 
 
 10 John Evans, Ancient Stone Implements, 1 John Evans, Ibid. p. 204. 
 Weapons, and Ornaments; London, 1872, pp. 2 J. J. A. Worsaae, Nordiske Oldsager, p. 12, 
 199, 200. fig. 33. 
 
440 
 
 THE THIRD, THE BURNT CITY. 
 
 [Chap. VII. 
 
 Island of Sardinia, is in the Museum of Cagliari. 3 The shape of the 
 hammers Nos. 622, 625-628 is very plentiful at Troy. Specimens of 
 
 No. 625. Perforated Stone No. 626. Stone Hammer with a groove No. 627. Stone Hammer, 
 
 Hammer. (Half actual size. on either side. (Half actual size. with a groove on both sides. 
 
 Depth, 32 ft.) Depth, 26 ft.) (Half actual size. Depth, 30 ft.) 
 
 No. 628. Stone Hammer with a No. 630. King jf Terra-cotta. 
 
 deep groove on either side. (Half actual size. Depth, 26 ft.) 
 
 (Half actual size. Depth, 22 ft.) 
 
 similarly shaped hammers may also be seen in the Markisches Museum at 
 Berlin. 
 
 No. 630 is a ring of baked clay, which must have served as a support 
 for vases with a convex bottom. Twenty-six similar rings, found at 
 Kanya, county of Bars, in Hungary, are in the National Mus ium at Buda- 
 Pesth ; 4 they are also found in the Swiss Lake-dwellings and elsewhere. 
 They are very frequent in the third and fourth pre-historic cities at 
 Hissarlik ; a fact explained by the many hundreds of vases with a convex 
 bottom. 
 
 It is doubtful whether the object of gneiss No. 631 represents a 
 hammer; it has a furrow round the middle, and may have served as a 
 weight for a loom or a door. 
 
 3 Vincenzo Crispi, 11 Museo d' Antichita di * Joseph Hampel, Antiquite's prtfiistoriqucs de 
 Cagliari; Cagliari, 1872, PI. i. No. 3. la Hongrie, PI. aciii. fig. 34. 
 
Chap. VII.] 
 
 MASSIVE HAMMERS OK BRUISERS. 
 
 441 
 
 The very large hammer No. 632, which, according to Mr. Davies, is of 
 porphyry, has round its middle the marks of the rope by which it was 
 attached to the handle ; but as the stone weighs more than fifty pounds 
 troy, the handle must have been very thick : its upper end seems to show 
 long use. Prof. Virchow suggests that this instrument has probably been 
 a club for crushing and bruising granite and silicious stone, for mixing 
 it with the clay for making pottery. No. 633 is of diorite, of a conical 
 shape, and well polished ; both extremities show long use ; it was probably 
 
 No. 632. Large Hammer of Porphyry. Depth, 26 ft.) 
 
 (1 : 4 actual size. Depth, 33 ft.) 
 
 used only as a pestle or bruiser. No. 634 is one of the finer specimens of 
 the common hammers, which occur by many hundreds in all the foui 
 lowest pre-historic cities, and are particularly plentiful in the third and 
 fourth cities, for in these two cities alone I could have collected some 
 thousands of them. Mr. Davies, who examined all the specimens of them 
 contained in my collection at the South Kensington Museum, declares 
 them to consist of diorite, porphyry, serpentine, hornblende, gneiss, brown 
 haematite, silicious rock, or gabbro-rock. Most of these rude stone 
 hammers bear the marks of long use, but a great many others appear to 
 be quite new. Similar rude hammers are found in almost all countries, 
 but certainly nowhere in such an enormous abundance as at Hissarlik. 
 The shape of one such rude hammer, found at Scamridge, Yorkshire, and 
 represented by Mr. John Evans, 5 is the most frequent at Troy. 
 
 Nos. 635 and 636 are two perforated and well-polished balls of ser- 
 pentine ; but on the ball No. 637 the drilling of the perforation has only 
 commenced and then been abandoned. The use of these serpentine balls 
 
 5 Ancient Stone Implements, &c, p. 221, fig. 166. 
 
442 
 
 THE THIRD, THE BURNT CITY. 
 
 [Chap. VII. 
 
 is a riddle to us; may they perhaps have been attached to lassos for 
 catching cattle ? I am not aware that they have been found in Europe, 
 
 No. 635. Perforated Stone Ball. 
 (Half actual size. Depth, 32 ft.) 
 
 No. G36. Perforated Stone Ball. 
 (Half actual size. Depth, 32 ft.) 
 
 No. 637. Stone Ball, with a deep groove 
 on both sides. (Half actual size. 
 Depth, 26 ft.) 
 
 but they occur in Cyprus; there are several specimens of such perforated 
 serpentine balls in the collection of Cypriote antiquities in the Louvre. 
 Similar perforated balls of greenstone were found in Santa Kosa Island, 
 California. 6 
 
 Nos. 638 and 639 are again two of those spherical stones which 
 we have discussed before, 7 and of which such enormous numbers are 
 found in the debris of the four lower pre-historic cities of Hissarlik, and 
 
 No. 638. Round Stone tor bruising. 
 (Half actual size. Depth, 26 it.) 
 
 No. 639. Stone Ball for bruising grain. 
 (Half actual size. Depth, 26 ft.) 
 
 particularly in the third, the burnt, and fourth cities. Mr. John Evans 8 
 shares my opinion that they were used as pounders or bruisers. About 
 fifty similar pounders were found by me at Mycenae. Dr. Joseph Hampel 
 writes to rne that similar corn-bruisers are pretty frequent at Szihalom, 
 Toszeg, Magyarad, &c. Professor Virchow informs me that they are 
 also very frequent in Germany, and he showed me a number of them 
 in the Markisches Museum at Berlin. There is also one in his private 
 collection. 
 
 No. 640 represents an implement of limestone grooved round the 
 middle, for fastening the strings or thongs by means of which it was 
 connected with the net. Similar implements are found in America 9 and 
 
 9 See No. 107, p. 27, of The Archaeological Col- 
 lection of the United States National Museum, in 
 charge of the Smithsonian Institution, by Chas. 
 Rau ; Washington, 1876. 
 
 6 Charles Rau, The Arch. Collection of the U.S. 
 National Museum, in charge of the Smithsonian 
 Institution ; Washington, 1876, p. 31, No. 125. 
 
 7 See page 236. 
 
 8 Ancient Stone Implements, p. 224. 
 
Chap. VIL] 
 
 WHETSTONES AND POLISHERS. 
 
 443 
 
 in Denmark. 10 Nos. 641, 642, and 643 are three objects of steatite, of 
 which the first has three holes, the two others only one, through the 
 
 No. C40. Stone Implement, with a deep furrow round it. Nos. 611-643. Perforated Objects of Steatite. 
 
 (Half actual size. Depth, 23 ft.) (7 : 8 actual size. Depth, 22 to 26 ft.) 
 
 centre. The first two are flat ; the last has the shape of a whorl. In 
 reviewing, in company with my friend Mr. Athanasios Koumanoudes, 
 Assistant-Keeper of the Museums at Athens, the antiquities excavated 
 by me four years ago at Mycenae, I find, as before mentioned, that I 
 collected there more than 300 whorls of blue stone, of this shape or of a 
 conical form. But, as I have said before, stone whorls are rare at Troy. 
 
 Nos. 644 and 645 are whetstones of green stone ; the former has a 
 furrow around its broader end, the latter a perforation for suspension. 
 Similar whetstones occur frequently in all the pre-historic cities of 
 Hissarlik. At Mycenae I found only four of them. I have in the 
 preceding pages 1 enumerated the other sites where they are found, and 
 
 No. 646. 
 
 Nos. 614-647. Whetstones of Green Stone and polishing Stones of Jasper. (Half actual size. Depth, 28 to 32 ft.) 
 
 I may add that a similar whetstone, found in a sepulchre at Camirus in 
 Khodes, is in the British Museum. Similar whetstones are also found at 
 Szihalom in Hungary, and two of them are in the glass case X. Nos. 82 
 and 83, in the National Museum of Buda-Pesth. A whetstone of granite, 
 preserved in the collection of the French School here at Athens, was found 
 in the pre-historic city, below the strata of pumice-stone and volcanic 
 ashes, on the Island of Thera (Santorin). 
 
 Under Nos. 646 and 647 I represent two specimens of polishing stones 
 of jasper, and under Nos. 648, 649, 650, and 651, four more of the same 
 
 J. J. A. Worsaae, Nordiske Oldsagcr, p. 18, fig. 88. 
 
 1 See p. 248. 
 
444 
 
 THE THIRD, THE BUKNT CITY. 
 
 [Chap. VII. 
 
 stone, of diorite, and of porphyry, all used for polishing pottery. 
 Polishing-s tones of a similar shape, of jasper, silicious stone, porphyry, 
 
 No. 649. No. 651. 
 
 Nos. 648-651. Polishing Stones of Porphyry, Diorite, or Jasper. (2 : 3 actual size. Depth, 23 to 33 ft.) 
 
 &c, are very numerous at Troy. Of a very peculiar shape is No. 651, 
 which is well polished and has almost the shape of an animal, whose eyes 
 may he represented by a groove on either side of the head. On the back 
 of this object is incised the sign Q] or mo, which also occurs on two 
 funnels of the fifth city and on other objects. 
 
 No. 652. 
 
 Nos. C52, 653. Little Pyramid of Gabbro-rock and perforated Stone Implement. (Half actual size. Depth, 28 to 32 ft.) 
 
 Under No. 652 I represent a small pyramid, which, according to Mr. 
 Davies, consists of gabbro-rock ; it is of a variegated colour, green and 
 black, and has through the middle a tubular hole filled with lead. We are 
 at a loss to guess what it could have been used for. No. 653 is a per- 
 forated object of very hard limestone, of a yellowish colour. 
 
 No. 655. 
 
 Nos. 654, 655. Perforated Stone Implements, perhaps Weights. (Half actual size. Depth, 26 ft.) 
 
 Nos. 654 and 655 are two objects of silicious stone : the latter has two 
 perforations, the former only one ; both may have served as weights for 
 doors or looms. 
 
Chap. VIL] 
 
 SILEX SAWS: STONE AXES OR CELTS. 
 
 445 
 
 Under Nos. 656 to 659 and 663 to 665 I represent seven more saws 
 of chalcedony or silex, of which several — as, for example, Nos. 656 
 
 65G 657 658 659 660 661 662 663 664 
 
 Nos. 656-66 I. Saws of Chalcedony or Flint, and Knives of Obsidian. (Half actual size. Depth, 24 to 33 ft.) 
 
 No. 667. 
 
 N^s. 666, 667. Stone Axes. (Actual size. Depth, 26 ft.) 
 
 and 665 — bear the marks of having been fixed in a wooden handle. 
 Nos. 660, 661, and 662 are knives of obsidian ; but, as I have fully 
 discussed similar objects in the preceding pages, I shall not speak of 
 them here any further, merely adding that knives of obsidian have also 
 been found in the pre-historic city on the Island of Thera (Santorin). 
 
 Nos. 666 to 677 represent twelve axes or chisels which, according to 
 Professor Maskelyne and Mr. Davies, are of blue serpentinous rock, green 
 
 No. 670. 
 
 Nos. 668-670. Stone Axes. (Half actual size. Depth, 26 to 32 ft.) 
 
 671 
 
 Nos. 671-677. Stone Axes and Chisels. (Hall actual size. Depth, 22 to 32ft.) 
 
446 
 
 THE THIRD, THE BURNT CITY. 
 
 [Chap. VII. 
 
 gabbro-rock, grey diorite, dark-green hornstone, and jade or nephrite. 
 The chisel No. 672, and the axes Nos. 671, 675, 676, and 677, consist 
 of the latter rare and precious stone. Though I have discussed the jade 
 axes at great length in the preceding pages, yet I cannot refrain from 
 copying here in a foot-note, from the Times, three most interesting letters 
 on the subject, written by Professor Max Miiller and Mr. Story-Maskelyne, 
 as well as the very ingenious editorial article of the Times which accom- 
 panies the former friend's last letter. 2 
 
 Jade Tools in Switzerland. 
 
 (To the Editor of the Times: Dec. 18, 1879.) 
 
 Sir, — The account sent by your correspondent 
 at Geneva (December 15), of a scraper made of 
 jade, lately found in the bed of the Rhone, is 
 very important. But your correspondent is 
 hardly quite right in calling this scraper a soli- 
 tary specimen. Scrapers or cutting instruments 
 made of real jade are very rare, in Switzerland 
 and elsewhere, but I have myself seen several 
 beautiful specimens — among the rest, one found 
 by Dr. Uhlmann of Miinchen-buchsee, whose 
 collection of lacustrine antiquities, all taken 
 out by his own hand from one and the same 
 small lake, the Moossee-dorfsee, is perhaps the 
 most authentic and most instructive collection 
 in the whole of Switzerland. 
 
 Your correspondent asks whether, as true 
 jade is never found in Europe, the Aryan wan- 
 derers could have brought that scraper from the 
 cradle of their race in Asia. Why not ? If the 
 Aryan settlers could carry with them into 
 Europe so ponderous a tool as their language, 
 without chipping or clipping a single facet, there 
 is nothing so very surprising in their having 
 carried along, and carefully preserved from 
 generation to generation, so handy and so valu- 
 able an instrument as a scraper or a knife, made 
 of a substance which is acre perennius. 
 
 Oxford, Dec. 17, 1879. F. Max Muller. 
 
 Jade as an old-world Mineral. 
 
 (To the Editor of the Times : Jan. 1, 1880. ) 
 
 Sir, — The space you have given in your 
 columns to the curious question discussed by 
 Professor Rolleston and Mr. Westropp regarding 
 the sources of pre-historic jade, emboldens me to 
 hope that you may not reject another letter on 
 the subject. 
 
 I believe Professor Rolleston is right in assert- 
 ing an Oriental, possibly a single Oriental, source 
 for the pre-historic jade of the Europ-Asiatic 
 continent. I think so for these reasons : — Jade 
 celts are very rare ; they are found, however, 
 few and far between, from Mesopotamia to Brit- 
 tany ; and they evince the passion of every race 
 of mankind for the possession of green stones as 
 objects endowed with an intrinsic preciousness. 
 Now, if jade was a native product of all or of 
 several of the numerous countries in the buried 
 dust of which these jade implements are thus 
 sporadically scattered, how comes it to pass that 
 so remarkable a mineral has never been lit upon 
 
 by the races of men who have lived and died in 
 those countries since the " old men " wandered 
 over them ? One does, indeed, see a small jade 
 celt once worn in a necklace by a Greek girl 
 still pendant, as a talisman probably, from that 
 specimen of antique gold jewellery in the British 
 Museum. But it is a celt, not an object of 
 Roman workmanship. One single cylinder 
 among the hundreds of Assyrian and Babylonian 
 cylinders in the same great repository attests 
 the exceptional character of jade as a material 
 among the peoples who inhabited Mesopotamia, 
 where, however, jade celts have been found of 
 still older date. But among the numerous 
 materials of Egyptian ornamental and sacred 
 art, jade is, I believe, unknown. There is no 
 evidence that Greeks or Romans ever employed 
 jade or (pace Mr. Westropp) had even a name 
 for it. Had it been a product of the rivers or 
 of the quarries of the Roman world, specimens 
 of it would certainly have survived as the mate- 
 rial of gems or in some other form of art. It 
 may seem a startling proposition to maintain 
 that the jade mines of the Kara Kash river, in 
 the Kuen Luen range, north of the mountains of 
 Cashmere, should have been the sources of the 
 jade celts found over the whole of Europe. The 
 difficulty of believing this seemed all the greater, 
 for that, while white as well as green jade may 
 be quarried there, it was only the green jade, 
 and not the white, which thus permeated the 
 pre-historic world. But a few months ago Dr. 
 Schliemann asked me to look at some of the 
 strange stones which he had lit upon in the 
 oldest of the cities of Hissarlik, and there, with 
 several specimens of green jade — one of them 
 being a beautifully translucent specimen of the 
 stone — was a single celt of fine white jade, just 
 such as might have been dug from one of the 
 pits above the Kara Kash, or fashioned from a 
 pebble out of its stream. 
 
 In contemplating these venerable treasures 
 from that old town or fortress, one had to recog- 
 nize that Dr. Schliemann had lit upon a place 
 of importance, perhaps a sort of emporium 
 planted on the stream of a pre-historic com- 
 merce, and situated just at one of the points 
 where Asiatic products might collect previously 
 to their being distributed by a process of barter 
 among the peoples of the West. Or was it a 
 halting-place at which some great wave of emi- 
 gration was arrested for a time by the barrier 
 of the Dardanelles ? At any rate, there in con- 
 siderable numbers were the green jade celts, the 
 
Chap. VII.] JADE AN OLD-WORLD MINERAL. 447 
 
 No. 678 is a saddle-quern of trachyte. I have discussed saddle-querns 
 
 No. 673. Saddle-quern of Trachyte. (1 4 actual size. Depth, 33 ft.) 
 
 kind, no doubt, more valued on account of their 
 colour; and there too was this solitary white 
 celt, their companion probably from a common 
 far-distant home in the Kuen Luen Mountains. 
 
 To what cause is the failure in the supply of 
 jade to the world lying to the south and west 
 of the Pamir, after pre-historic times, to be 
 attributed? I do not attempt to answer this 
 question ; I would only suggest the apparent 
 evidence of such a failure. It is far from im- 
 probable that the green jade implement had in 
 some sense a sacred character in pre-historic 
 times, and was borne westwards by emigrating 
 peoples, as they might bear their household gods, 
 while by a slow process of barter specimens 
 might have penetrated from the Hellespont to 
 the Atlantic sea-board. And it may be that in 
 even that remote age, or towards the close of it, 
 people of Chinese race came to dominate over 
 the district that produced the jade and closed 
 the rugged passes that led south and west from 
 that inhospitable region ; and so, while China 
 has from time immemorial had jade in plenty, 
 the rest of the Asiatic continent may have been 
 cut off from the source of its supply. Or, pos- 
 sibly, the geological changes that have raised 
 the level of the lands to the north and east of 
 Persia may have been still in action, and were 
 gradually increasing the inhospitable features of 
 the district towards the close of the period 
 which we call the pre-historic period in Asia. 
 It is probable that other sources of jade further 
 north may have contributed some of the material 
 borne westward in the form of celts. The Amoor 
 in the far north rolls down jade pebbles from 
 the Yablono Mountains of the Trans-Baikal dis- 
 trict of Siberia, and the Chinese have probably 
 some sources of green jade unknown to us. Their 
 jadeite, a different mineral from jade, is supplied, 
 though probably not exclusively, by mines in 
 the mountains to the north-west of Bhamo in 
 the Lao State of Burmah. 
 
 The introduction of jade, or at least its use as 
 
 a material for artistic workmanship, in India, 
 dates almost from yesterday, since it belongs to 
 the time of the early Mogul Emperors of Delhi. 
 "The magnificent son of Akbar," Jehanghir, and 
 Shah Jehan seem to have taken pleasure in jade 
 cups and ornaments ; and the art of inlaid work 
 that found such exquisite expression in the Taj 
 Mahal was copied under their munificent aus- 
 pices in the most precious materials, rubies and 
 diamonds and other precious stones being inlaid 
 in jade of various colours, which was cut in 
 delicate openwork and adorned with enamels, in 
 the production of which India is still unrivalled. 
 The collection of these beautiful productions of 
 Indian art contained in the India Museum is the 
 finest ever brought together. It was purchased, 
 at a suggestion from myself, when the present 
 Chancellor of the Exchequer [Sir Stafford North- 
 cote] was Secretary of State for India ; a selec- 
 tion having been made by the late Sir Digby 
 Wyatt and me from an unique collection of 
 jade vessels of all sorts, formed at great expense 
 and trouble by the late Colonel Charles Seaton 
 Guthrie. 
 
 But these may be said to be the only forms in 
 which civilized man beyond the confines of China 
 has made jade the material for carving artistic 
 creations. 
 
 The Mexicans worked a kind of jadeite. The 
 Maoris worked jade, which is a native mineral 
 in their hornblendic rocks ; and the inhabitants 
 of New Caledonia, and indeed of Polynesia gene- 
 rally, have fashioned jade or some varieties of 
 jadeite into implements, useful, ornamental, and 
 perhaps too, in some sense, sacred. 
 
 Jade is erroneously supposed to be a very hard 
 substance. It is by no means so. Its most re- 
 markable property — a property eminently fitting 
 it for an implement — is an extraordinary tough- 
 ness. Like well-tempered steel, in which tough- 
 ness is combined with only enough hardness to 
 do the work of cutting and to retain an edge, the 
 implement of jade shared with the imolement of 
 
448 
 
 THE THIRD, THE BURNT CITY. 
 
 [Chap. VII. 
 
 in the preceding pages: I repeat that they are very abundant in the 
 
 fibrolite an unique combination of these quali- 
 ties, essential alike in a weapon and in a working 
 tool. I am, Sir, your obedient servant, 
 
 Nevil Story-Maskelyne. 
 British Museum, Dec. 30, 1879. 
 
 Jade Tools. 
 
 (To the Editor of the Times: Jan. 15, 1880.) 
 
 Sir, — The interesting and instructive letters 
 on jade tools, to which you have lately granted 
 admission in your columns, will, I hope, have 
 convinced most of your readers that the theory 
 which I tried to uphold in my letter, published 
 in the Times of December 16, was not quite so 
 wild as at first sight it may have appeared. 
 What are called wild theories are in many cases 
 very tame theories. Students at first laugh at 
 them, turn their backs on them, and try every 
 possible exit to escape from them. But at last, 
 when they are hemmed in by facts on every 
 side, and see that there is no escape, they tamely 
 submit to the inevitable, and after a time the 
 inevitable is generally found to be the intelli- 
 gible and the reasonable. 
 
 The problem of the jade tools is really very 
 simple. Mineralogists assure us that jade is a 
 mineral the identity of which, if properly tested, 
 admits of no doubt, and they tell us with equal 
 confidence that Europe does not produce true 
 jade. These two statements I accept as true till 
 they are upset by competent authorities. If, 
 therefore, jade tools of exquisite workmanship 
 are found in Europe during what is called the 
 Stone age, I do not see how we can escape from 
 the conclusion that these tools were brought 
 from those well-defined areas in Asia — I suppose 
 I may leave out of consideration America and 
 Oceania — where alone jade has been found, and 
 where it is still worked to the present day. 
 Some of these are not so very distant, for true 
 jade is found in the Caucasus and the Ural 
 Mountains. I do not deny that at first one feels 
 a little giddy when, while handling one of those 
 precious scrapers, one is told that the identical 
 scraper was the property of the first discoverers 
 of Europe. And it was chiefly in order to 
 remove that feeling of giddiness that I wished to 
 call attention to another class of tools, equally 
 ancient, possibly even more ancient, which were 
 likewise brought into Europe from Asia by our 
 earliest ancestors, and which we use every day 
 without feeling the least surprise. Though no 
 one nowadays doubts that our language came 
 from the East, yet we do not always realize the 
 close continuity between ancient and modern 
 speech and the unbroken chain that holds all 
 the Aryan dialects together from India to 
 Ireland. We wonder how jade tools should 
 have been brought from the East and passed 
 from hand to hand during many thousands of 
 years, " before pockets were invented," and yet 
 every word of our language came from the East 
 
 and must have passed from hand to hand 
 during thousands of years before pocket dic- 
 tionaries were invented. If we take such useful 
 tools as our numerals, and consider what is pre- 
 supposed by the fact that, making allowance for 
 a certain amount of phonetic wear and tear, 
 these numerals are the same in Sanskrit and in 
 English, we shall, I think, feel less upset, even 
 when brought face to face with the jade tools in 
 the lacustrine dwellings of Switzerland. Aye, I 
 go a step further. Let us look at the fact 
 that, of all the numerals from one to ten in 
 Sanskrit, saptd (seven) and ashtdu (eight) alone 
 have the accent on the last syllable, and then 
 turn our eyes to ancient and even to modern 
 Greek, and observe exactly the same exceptional 
 accentuation there. Any one who can look with- 
 out a tremor into the depth thus suddenly 
 opened before our eyes will hardly feel a swim- 
 ming of the head when examining the wildest 
 theories that have been founded on the jade tools 
 unearthed in Switzerland and other parts of 
 Western Europe. 
 
 It is not necessary to enter here on the ques- 
 tion, whether these jade instruments were 
 brought into Europe by Aryan or pre-Aryan 
 colonists.. It is certainly strange that there is 
 no ancient Aryan name for jade, but neither is 
 there a pre-Aryan or Turanian name for it in 
 any of the ancient Indo-European languages. I 
 have collected elsewhere (Lectures on the Science 
 of Language, vol. ii. p. 251, 9th ed.) some facts 
 which make it seem not unlikely that Aryan lan- 
 guages were spoken in Europe during the age of 
 stone and the prevalence of the Scotch fir, and I 
 may add that the nature of the arguments 
 brought forward against that hypothesis has 
 strengthened rather than weakened my own con- 
 fidence in it. Yet it is an hypothesis only. But, 
 whether brought by Aryan or pre-Aryan settlers, 
 certain it is that these jade tools were not made 
 in Europe, and that, though jade is softer in situ, 
 they testify to a high degree of humanity and 
 mechanical skill among the people who made 
 them. 
 
 My friends Professors Rolleston and Maskelyne 
 have left me but little to add in support of the 
 foreign origin of the jade tools. Two facts only 
 I may still mention, because they may help 
 others, as they helped me, in forming their own 
 opinion on the subject. 
 
 It is a fact, I believe, that with a few and 
 somewhat apocryphal except'^ns, such as the 
 finds at Potsdam and Schwemsal, no raw or un- 
 worked jade has ever been met with anywhere 
 in Europe. This, to my mind, speaks volumes. 
 
 It is another fact that there is in Europe no 
 ancient name for jade. If on page 311 of H. 
 Fischer's excellent work on Nephrit und Jadeit, 
 1875, we consult the chronological list of writers 
 by whom jade is mentioned, we find in ancient 
 times the name of jaspis, jaspis virens, jaspis 
 
Chap. VII.] DEEP INTEREST OF JADE. 449 
 
 four lower pre-historic cities, particularly in the third and fourth ; nay, 
 
 viridis, but nothing to enable us to identify that 
 name with true jade. Jaspis itself is a name of 
 Semitic origin. In Chinese, on the contrary, we 
 find from the most ancient to the most recent 
 times the recognized name for jade — viz. yu or 
 chiu. It is mentioned as an article of tribute in 
 Professor Legge's translation of the Shu-King 
 (Sacred Books of the East, vol. iii. p. 72), and it 
 is curious to find in that, as we are told, most 
 ancient among ancient books, articles such as 
 " gold, iron, silver, steel, copper, and flint stones 
 to make arrow-heads," all mentioned together as 
 belonging to the same period, and all equally 
 acceptable as tribute at the Imperial Court. 
 Forsan et haec olim meminisse juvabit ! The word 
 jade is not met with before the discovery of 
 America. The jade brought from America was 
 called by the Spaniards piedra de yjada, because 
 for a long time it was believed to cure pain in 
 the side. For similar reasons it was called 
 afterwards lapis nephriticus (nephrite), lapis 
 ischiadicus, lapis divinus, piedra de los reaones, 
 piedra ischada, pietra del fiancho, kidney-stone, 
 Lendenhelfer, &c. The first who introduced 
 this new nomenclature into Europe seems to 
 have been Monardes, in his Ilistorla Medicinal 
 de las Cosas que se traen de las Indias Occi- 
 dentales; Sevilla, 1569. The name which he 
 uses, piedri de yjada, is meant for piedra de 
 ijada, i.e. groin-stone, or a stone supposed to 
 remove pain in the groin. The Spanish ijada 
 is, according to the Dictionary of the Spanish 
 Academy, il lado del animal debaxo del vientre 
 junto al anca, and there can be little doubt that 
 it is derived from the Latin ilia. Iliaco in 
 Spanish is il dolor colico. As the name ijada, 
 jada, or jade, and the belief in its healing 
 powers, came from America, it can only be an 
 accidental coincidence if, as Professor Skeat tells 
 us in his excellent Etymological Dictionary, 
 there existed in Sanskrit Buddhist texts the 
 word yedd as a name of a material out of which 
 ornaments were made. 
 
 This is the state of the question of the jade 
 tools at the present moment. To those who 
 wish to study its history in all its bearings, 
 Fischer's exhaustive work on Kephrit und Jadeit 
 will give the necessary information. His survey 
 of the literature on a subject apparently so 
 abstruse and remote from general interest fills 
 no less than 248 pages.— Your obedient servant, 
 Oxford, Jan. 10, 18S0. F. Max Muller. 
 
 Editorial Article, Times, Jan. 15, 1880. 
 
 " Swiss dredgers did something more last 
 December than bring up from the bed of the 
 river Rhone a piece of polished carved stone. 
 They uncovered the very foundations of history. 
 It is as if the channel of the Calabrian river 
 had been laid bare, and the tomb of the Visi- 
 goth conqueror of Italy revealed, with all its 
 pomp of pillaged gold and gems. Only, the jade 
 
 scraper found among the lacustrine dwellings of 
 Switzerland is the key, not to mere dead remains 
 of a vanished civilization, but to the languages 
 living men speak and to the thoughts they think. 
 Professor Max Miiller, in the letter we publish 
 to-day, opens up so many suggestive and pro- 
 found ideas, that the question on the nature and 
 origin of manufactured jade, which was the basis 
 of them all, is in some danger of being buried 
 under the pile of riches of which it has unlocked 
 the doors. Yet, were there nothing beside and 
 beyond it, the inquiry would be sufficiently in- 
 tricate, how this Rhone jade scraper came among 
 the Alps, whence was brought the mineral, and 
 whence the skill which sculptured it, why it was 
 valued, and in what way it was used. At everv 
 turn the history of jade involves us in a dense 
 thicket of problems. The further the explorer 
 advances, the more entangled he finds himself. 
 
 "The Chinese have possessed jade from before 
 the beginning of human records. In ' the most 
 ancient among most ancient books ' jade is 
 enumerated as an article of tribute to sovereigns 
 ot China. Throughout the thousands of years 
 of human history until the discovery of New 
 Zealand the only known worked mines of pure 
 jade were on the river Kara Kash, in the Kuen 
 Luen Mountains. Over that region China was 
 suzerain ; and thus the source of Chinese jade 
 can be traced. The strange thing is that, 
 though Europe also has possessed jade, no one 
 can say on more than theoretical evidence 
 whence the European jade came. The lake- 
 dwellers of Switzerland are discovered in 
 possession of it. It is found, however rarely, 
 among the ornaments of Roman ladies. Dr. 
 Schliemann has dug it up in the ruins of his 
 Ilium. It is never found among pre-hi toric 
 monuments except with marks of manufacture 
 upon it ; but the manufacture testifies, often 
 unmistakably, if not always, not to European 
 art, but to Eastern. This jade scraper, or strigil, 
 from the Rhone could neither have been wrought 
 nor, it may be supposed, used by its lacustrine 
 owner. It would have had its meaning in a 
 Pompeian mansion or in an Oriental vapour- 
 bath, but not amid the forests and torrents and 
 glacial atmosphere of the Alps. As the in- 
 quirer advances into the domain of history, jade 
 advances with him. But the secret of its 
 presence in Assyrian and Greek and Roman 
 palaces is no more plainly solved than among 
 stone pile hovels. The ancients, though they 
 esteemed it very precious, had not even a distinct 
 name for it. They called it jasper, though 
 jasper it clearly is not. The Middle Ages of 
 Europe valued the stone, but had no more under- 
 standing of the process by which it came into 
 their hands than Greeks and Romans. India 
 itself, while it made much account of it, received 
 it as something strange and mysterious. The 
 Mogul Emperors of Delhi had the jade, which 
 
 2 G 
 
450 
 
 THE TII1KD, THE BURNT CITY. 
 
 [Chap. VII. 
 
 that I could have collected thousands of them. To the list of localities in 
 
 came they hardly knew whence, cut and jewelled 
 and enamelled. They called Italian artists from 
 Venice and Genoa, and bid them work it into 
 the exquisite shapes which drive European jade 
 collectors mad after a special form of insanity. 
 But the spring and fountain-head of the material 
 which their artists wrought upon remained 
 hidden in the clouds of legend and fable. Before, 
 however, the Moguls had transformed a cult 
 into a passion and a fashion, veins of a mineral 
 resembling jade had become known to Europe, 
 though not to Asia. The Spaniards, when they 
 occupied the southern regions of the New World, 
 found there, too, not indeed pure jade, but a 
 stone of similar properties, prized and rever- 
 enced. The Aztecs wore jadeite ornaments 
 carved after their manner, and reposed faith in 
 them as charms against disease. Their con- 
 querors soon learnt where they obtained the 
 substance itself, and then for the first time jade 
 acquired a real European name. As if to confirm 
 faith in the occult powers of the mineral, when 
 Oceania was explored, pure jade deposits were 
 discovered ; and it was discovered, also, that the 
 Maoris credited the stone with the same healing 
 qualities as the natives of Spanish America. 
 
 *' Here, then, is a mineral which four out of 
 the five divisions of the globe have agreed to 
 covet and adore without understanding in the 
 least why or wherefore. Africa alone has re- 
 sisted the worship of jade. It does not appear 
 among the treasures of the Pharaohs. The 
 stone in its natural state has distinctive merits. 
 The colour, shading from dark green to milky 
 white, is seductive to artistic eyes. It possesses 
 also, as Professor Story-Maskelyne has told us, 
 the virtue of an extraordinary toughness. Easy 
 to work when freshly extracted from the stratum, 
 it hardens just sufficiently to do the work of 
 cutting yet retain an edge. On that account 
 New Zealanders used jade as well for tomahawks 
 as for amulets, and the jade relics disinterred in 
 Switzerland are often in the shape of hatchets. 
 Yet, throughout the early stages of the world, 
 there was clearly another use of jade, inde- 
 pendent of the commonplace necessities of life, 
 and which made its value higher in the eyes 
 of primitive man. When Akbar's son and his 
 luxurious successors accumulated their exquisite 
 carvings in jade, the texture would seem to have 
 constituted the stone's essential attraction. 
 What, however, had at first fascinated the 
 world's regard was not toughness and texture 
 or even beauty ; it was some recondite associa- 
 tion with a sentiment and a legend which had 
 engrafted itself for once and for all on human 
 nature. There is one problem of jade ; another, 
 not altogether disconnected from that, is the 
 difficult question whence and how the mineral 
 has wandered from its only known sources. It 
 cannot have been extracted from European rocks, 
 or modern traces of it would have been before 
 
 this time unearthed. Jade hatchets have been 
 found in Brittany, and even in Ireland, as well 
 in Switzerland. If European mines had supplied 
 the material of the ubiquitous relics, it would be 
 one more enigma added to the rest, that in the 
 countless ages since these treasures of museums 
 were hammered and caiwed, modern Europeans 
 should never have lighted upon a single un- 
 worked morsel of the vein whence they were 
 hewed. By a species of exhaustive process of 
 argument, the mind is forced to one particular 
 inference. Bretons of Brittany, Celts of Ire- 
 land, lake-dwellers under the shadow of Mont 
 Blanc, must have conveyed with them their jade 
 ornaments and utensils from the far-away home 
 of themselves and jade in Central Asia, for the 
 simple reason that they could have found the 
 material nowhere in their new country. An 
 Oriental or Greek or Roman scraper found in the 
 Rhone might conceivably have been the fruit of 
 old plundering forays across the Alps into Italy. 
 But jade hatchets could not have been robbed 
 from classical Italy. Greeks and Romans knew 
 nothing of the traces of the Stone age which 
 students have now discovered alike in the 
 learned dust of Italy and the primeval forests 
 of America. 
 
 Professor Max Miiller's argument leads us into 
 a loftier region of speculation. There may be 
 no alternative for the hypothesis that European 
 barbarians brought with them from Asia the 
 jade which archaeologists have traced to their 
 possession. But at first sight the explanation 
 appears to be itself inexplicable. Tossed over 
 such an ocean of deserts, forests, wildernesses, 
 frozen mountains, and parched plains, as those 
 poor wanderers, our European forefathers, had to 
 traverse, they might be imagined cast up on the 
 desolate extremities of the world without a single 
 recognizable trace of the similitude they bore 
 when launched on their woful journey. That 
 these tempest-buffeted Aryans should, when reco- 
 vering from their swoon of bewilderment at the 
 strange land on which their feet at last were 
 resting, have found in their hands a jade hatchet 
 or jewel which they had prized as a charm, 
 whether against earthquakes or disease, in the 
 depths of torrid Asia, doubtless seems as abso- 
 lutely impossible as that a child drowned at the 
 Tay bridge should be washed on shore holding 
 the toy it was playing with at the moment of 
 the plunge into the abyss. Professor Miiller would 
 allow it to be impossible if a more impossible 
 phenomenon had not proved itself possible. A 
 language is the growth of circumstances. No 
 circumstances could be less alike than those 
 which environed Indo-Europeans when they were 
 Asiatics and when they became Europeans. As 
 they passed from their first country to their 
 last all must have been tempting them to forget 
 their early language and to frame their tongues 
 to a new speech. Gradually, it might have been 
 
Chap. VII.] 
 
 IMPLEMENTS OF STONE. 
 
 451 
 
 which similar saddle-querns are found, I may 
 add the Italian terramare 3 and Holyhead 4 in 
 England. No. 679 is a large piece of granite, 
 flat on the lower side, with a large hole 
 through the centre. The hole is too large 
 for us to suppose that the stone could, by 
 means of a wooden handle, have been used 
 as an upper millstone; I rather think that 
 it served as a support for vases with convex 
 bottoms. Similar to this are the stone discs, 
 which are plentiful in the four lowest pre- 
 historic cities ; they are of course quite 
 round, and have a large hole through the 
 centre. 
 
 No. 680 marks a massive hammer of 
 
 No. 679. Peiiorated Object of Granite. 
 (About 1 : 5 actual size. Depth, 33 ft.) 
 
 expected, first one turn of expression, one tone 
 would have dropped away, and then another, 
 till nothing of the old survived. On the con- 
 trary, they brought with them, wherever their 
 lot was cast on this wide world, their vocabulary 
 almost intact. So careful were they to lose 
 nothing that, though everything counselled 
 change, so delicate a thing as an accent on a 
 couple of numerals has withstood what might 
 have seemed the irrepressible genius of Attic 
 and Doric and Ionic Greek. If they could 
 transport their Aryan speech to the banks of the 
 Ehone, they might, yet more easily, urges Pro- 
 fessor Miiller, transport a few fragments of 
 stone. They might as easily, he might have 
 proceeded to argue, transport the undefined 
 instinct and the religion which made those frag- 
 ments of stone precious in their eyes. It is a 
 wide field of thought to which the Professor has 
 led us. Traversing it we feel composite beings, 
 centos and compilations, ourselves and all our 
 belongings, of the dead past, which in us lives 
 and breathes. In one respect Professor Miiller 
 is even too successful in meeting the argument 
 of the supposed impossibility of the transport of 
 jade by the more than equal hypothetical im- 
 possibility of the transport of a language. In 
 the case in point the jade has been conveyed ; 
 the name for jade, the Professor himself tells us, 
 was not conveyed. If any addition were needed 
 to the many physical and historical and philo- 
 sophical mysteries of this strange mineral, there 
 it is." 
 
 Jade. 
 
 (7b the Editor of the Times: Jan. 19, 1880.) 
 
 Sir, — It is curious to find the remark in a 
 leading article in the Times of Thursday to the 
 effect that the ancients had no distinct name for 
 jade confirmed also in the case of the Chinese. 
 They call it Yuh or the gem, and they have 
 classified the different kinds known to them 
 under seventy-seven headings, but for the mineral 
 
 itself they have no distinct generic name. Unlike, 
 however, the admirers of jade in other countries, 
 they have at least tried to explain why, to use 
 the words of the leading article, they " covet 
 and adore it." According to the celebrated 
 philosopher Kwan Chung, who wrote in the 
 seventh century B.C., the contemplation of a 
 piece of jade opens to the eyes of a true China- 
 man a whole vista of poetic visions. In it he 
 sees reflected nine of the highest attainments of 
 humanity. In its glossy smoothness he recog- 
 nizes the emblem of benevolence ; in its bright 
 polish he sees knowledge emblematized ; in its 
 unbending firmness, righteousness ; in its modest 
 harmlessness, virtuous action ; in its rarity and 
 spotlessness, purity ; in its imperishableness, 
 endurance ; in the way in which it exposes its 
 every flaw, ingenuousness; in that, though of 
 surpassing beauty, it passes from hand to hand 
 without being sullied, moral conduct ; and in 
 that when struck it gives forth a note which 
 floats sharply and distinctly to a distance, music. 
 " It is this," adds the philosopher, " which makes 
 men esteem it as most precious, and leads them 
 to regard it as a diviner of judgments, and as a 
 charm of happy omen." 
 
 Other philosophers who have dived into the 
 depths of the very being of this mysterious 
 mineral have pronounced it to be no other than 
 the essence of heaven and earth. Hence its 
 enhanced title to honour, and its supposed 
 potency as a charm. That the veneration shown 
 for jade in China rests on no more substantial 
 basis than the visions of mystics need not sur- 
 prise us. Are not most of the beliefs which lead 
 men captive founded on dreams ? — I am, Sir, 
 your obedient servant, Robert K. Douglas. 
 
 5, College Gardens, Duluich, Jan. 17. 
 
 3 W. Helbig, Die Italiker in der Poebene : Leip- 
 zig, 1879, pp. 17, 101. 
 
 4 See Mr. Owen Stanley's paper in the 
 
 Archaeological Journal. 
 
452 THE THIRD, THE BURNT CITY. [Chap. VII 
 
 diorite. Nos. 681 to 684 are objects of white marble or compact lime- 
 stone, and probably phalli or priajn. 
 
 Jlu 683. Object of Stone, probably a Priapus. 
 (Half actual size. Deptb, 26 ft.) 
 
 As I have had occasion to mention before, 5 Prof. Sayce writes to me : 
 "When travelling in Lydia last year (September 1879), I discovered a 
 curious monument hidden in bushes on the northern slope of Mount 
 Sipylus, about half a mile to the east of the famous statue of Niobe, and not 
 far from the top of the cliff. It was a large phallus, with a niche cut out 
 of the rock on either side of it, and two pit-tombs in front similar to 
 the pit-tomb in front of the statue of Niobe. The phallus was a natural 
 formation, like that near Bidarray in the Pyrenees, which I once visited, 
 
 5 See p. 278. 
 
Chap. VII.] 
 
 THE GREAT TREASURE. 
 
 453 
 
 and which is still an object of veneration and a place of pilgrimage 
 among the Basque women. The natural formation, however, had been 
 assisted by art. The artificial niches at the side were each about half 
 a foot from the image. It must plainly have been a place of pilgrimage 
 in the pre-historic days of Lydia, and the Lydian women may have visited 
 it, just as the Basque women still visit the so-called ' Saint of Bidarray,' 
 in the hope of getting offspring. I noticed my discovery in a letter to 
 the Academy of October 18th, 1879." 
 
 I now come to discuss the metals of this third, the burnt city, and 
 I begin with the objects contained in the large Treasure discovered by me 
 on the great wall close to the ancient royal mansion to the north-west 
 of the gate, at the place marked A on Plan I. I shall here first name 
 the various articles contained in the Treasure in the order in which I took 
 them out : — 
 
 1. The copper shield, No. 799. 
 
 2. The copper cauldron, No. 800 
 
 3. The copper plate, No. 782. 
 
 4. A fractured copper vase. 
 
 5. The globular gold bottle, No. 775. 
 
 6. The large SeTras aficpiKVTreWov, Nos. 772 and 773. 
 
 7. Six silver talents, Nos. 787 to 792. 
 
 8. Three silver vases, Nos. 779, 780, 781. 
 
 9. One silver vase-cover, No. 778. 
 
 10. A silver cup, No. 785. 
 
 11. A silver cup or dish ((f>id\r)), No. 786. 
 
 12. Two silver vases, Nos. 783 and 784. 
 
 13. Thirteen bronze lance-heads, of which I represent six in the 
 engravings Nos. 801 to 805 and 815. 
 
 14. Fourteen battle axes of bronze, of which five are represented under 
 Nos. 806 to 809 and 810. 
 
 15. Seven double-edged bronze daggers ; see the four represented under 
 Nos. 811 to 814, and the two curious bronze weapons Nos. 8i6, 817. 
 
 16. A bronze knife, like No. 956 or No. 967. 
 
 17. The copper (or bronze ?) key, No. 818. 
 
 The silver vase, No. 779, was found to contain on the bottom :— 
 
 18. A gold diadem (irXeKTrj avaheafirj), Nos. 685 and 686. 
 
 19. Another such diadem, No. 687. 
 
 20. A gold fillet, No. 767. 
 
 21. Four gold ear-rings with pendants, Nos. 768-771. 
 Among and upon these lay : — 
 
 22. The fifty-six gold ear-rings, like Nos. 694, 695, 698-704, 752-764. 
 
 23. The 8700 small gold rings, perforated prisms, dice, gold buttons, 
 small perforated gold bars, small ear-rings, &c, represented by the 
 separate cuts Nos. 696, 697, 705 to 738, 765, 766, and by those of the 
 thirteen necklaces, Nos. 739-745 and Nos. 746-751. 
 
 Upon these lay :— 
 
 24. The six gold bracelets, No. 689, four of which are shown separately, 
 Nos. 690 to 693. 
 
454 
 
 THE THIRD, THE BURNT CITY. 
 
 [Chap. VII. 
 
 And on the top lay : — 
 
 25. The gold goblet, No. 776. 
 
 26. The goblet of electrum, No. 777. 
 
 As I found all these articles together, forming a quadrangular mass, 
 or packed into one another, it seems to be certain that they were placed 
 on the city-wall in a wooden chest (^co/kg^o?), such as those mentioned 
 by Homer as being in the palace of King Priam : " And he opened the 
 beautiful lids of the boxes ; he selected from out of them twelve gorgeous 
 garments, then twelve simple vestures and as many carpets, also as many 
 mantles and as many tunics. Weighing then the gold, he took ten full 
 talents ; also two shining tripods and four cauldrons ; also a most beautiful 
 goblet, a rich possession which the men of Thrace had presented to him 
 when he went thither as ambassador : even this the old man did not spare 
 now in the palace, but he excessively desired in his mind to ransom his 
 beloved son." 6 The contents of Priam's chests may, therefore, well be 
 compared with the articles of the treasure before us. 
 
 It is possible that in the conflagration some one hurriedly packed the 
 treasure into the chest, and carried it off without having time to pull out 
 the key ; that when he reached the wall, however, the hand of the enemy 
 or the fire overtook him, and he was obliged to abandon the chest, which 
 was immediately covered to a height of from 5 to 6 ft. with the reddish or 
 yellow ashes and the bricks of the adjoining royal house. This was 
 certainly my opinion at the time of the discovery ; but since then I have 
 found, in the presence of Professor Yirchow and M. Burnouf, on the very 
 same wall, and only a few yards to the north of the spot where the 
 large treasure was discovered, another smaller treasure, and three more 
 treasures on and near the walls of the adjoining royal house. I, there- 
 fore, now rather believe that all these treasures have fallen in the con- 
 flagration from the upper storeys of the royal house. 
 
 This appears to be the more likely, as, a few days previously to the 
 discovery of the large treasure, I found close to it a helmet in fragments 
 and the silver vase No. 793, with the goblet of electrum No. 794, all of 
 which articles I shall discuss in the subsequent pages. 
 
 On the wood-ashes and bricks, which covered the treasure to a depth 
 of 5 or 6 ft., the people of the following, the fourth city, erected a forti- 
 fication wall, 20 ft. high and 6 ft. broad, composed of large hewn and 
 unhewn stones and earth : this wall, which has been demolished in the 
 subsequent excavations, extended to within ft. of the surface of 
 the hill. 
 
 The gold diadem (yfkeicTr) avaSea/jbrj),' 1 No. 685, of which No. 686 
 
 6 77. xxiv. 228-237 : 
 ^H, /cat <pu)pia.fx(av iiriO^fiaTa /ca\' auccpyev, 
 €i/06J/ SwSe/ca /xe v ireptKaAAsas e£eAe ireVAous, 
 5w5e/ca 8' airXoiSas xAatVas, rocraovs Se Tct7r?jTas, 
 r6(T<ra Se <pdpea KaAd, rocrovs S' 4tr\ ro?cri 
 XiTcDi/as. 
 
 Xpvcrov Se cHjcras ecpepev 5e/ca irdvTa raXavTa, 
 4k Se 8u' alQwvas rp'nroDas, iricrvpas Se AejSyjTas, 
 4k Se SeVas irepiKaWes, o oi ®pj}KCS iropov 
 avSpes 
 
 4t > so''n)v 4\66uri, /xeya Krspas • ouSe' vv rod irep 
 (peta'aT' 4vl fxeydpois 6 yepuv, irepi 8' fjfleAe dv/ncp 
 XvcracrQai cpiKou viov. 
 
 7 Mr. Gladstone has ingeniously suggested 
 that these gold diadems, Nos. 685 and 687, 
 must be identical in form with the 7rAe/fT?? dua- 
 SeV/nj which Andromache casts from her head in 
 her profound grief over the death of Hector; the 
 order of the words implies that this ornament 
 was worn over the Kp^^ivov : " Far from her 
 
gives another view, consists of a fillet, 22 in. long and nearly \ in. broad, 
 from which there hang on either side 7 little chains to cover the 
 
 head she threw the glistening adornments, 
 the fillet, the net, and the beautifully entwined 
 diadem, also the veil which golden Aphrodite 
 had presented to her." 
 
 II xxii. 4G8-470 : 
 T/}Ae 5' curb Kparbs )3aA.e SeCjuaro <Tiya\6svTa, 
 6.fjLirvK<x, KeKpv(paXou T6 t8e tt\€KT7)i/ avaS((r/j.r}v 
 Kpr)Be/j.u6v 6', o pa oi 8cD/ce xp vcr€ V 'AtppoHtTT]. 
 
456" 
 
 THE THIRD, THE BURNT CITY. 
 
 [Chap. VII. 
 
 temples, each of which consists of 50 double rings, and between every 4 of 
 these rings is suspended an hexagonal leaf having a groove lengthwise : 
 
 No. 686. Another View of the same Diadem. 
 
 these chains are joined to one another by four little cross chains. At the 
 end of each of the side chains hangs a figure similar in shape to the 
 Trojan idols. Indeed, after having looked over the whole series of Trojan 
 idols, no one can suppose that the primitive goldsmith could have intended 
 to represent here anything else but idols. The only difference between 
 these and the stone idols is that the eyes and the beak, instead of being 
 incised, are here given in relief, and that the latter reaches down to the 
 bottom ; further that the knees (or feet ?) are indicated here, like the eyes, 
 by protruding points, and that both eyes and knees are surrounded by 
 circles of small dots. Each idol is nearly an inch long ; their breadth at 
 the lower end is about 3-4ths in. The entire length of each of these 
 chains, with the idols, amounts to 10*4 in. Between these ornaments for 
 the temples there are 50 little pendant chains, each of which consists of 21 
 double rings, and between every 4 of these rings there is an hexagonal leaf. 
 At the end of each little chain hangs an idol of identical form, 3-5ths in. 
 high ; the length of these short chains with the idols is only 4 in. The 
 number of double rings, of which the 64 chains of this diadem is composed, 
 amounts to 1750, and the number of hexagonal leaves to 354 ; the number 
 of suspended idols is 64. 
 
 The other gold diadem (nXe/crr) uva^eafirj), No. 687, is 20*4 in. long 
 across the top. Instead of a fillet, as in No. 685, it consists of a gold 
 chain, composed of 295 rings of double gold wire, from which are sus- 
 pended on each side 8 chains, 15*8 in. long. Each of these consists of 
 360 rings made of double gold wire, and between every 3 of such rings 
 is fastened a lancet-shaped leaf. At the end of each of these chains is 
 suspended a figure 1*3 in. long, in which we again recognize the usual 
 form of the idol ; but here no face is indicated : we only see one dot where 
 
Chap. VII.] 
 
 ANOTHER GOLD DIADEM. 
 
 457 
 
 the forehead ought to be, another in the middle, and three below ; each 
 idol is also ornamented with lines of points. Between these ornaments 
 
 mm 
 
 No. 687. Gold Diadem (nXe/crt) ava&e<rnr)). Length 20* 4 in., with 74 short and 16. long chains, 
 contained in the large Trojan treasure. (1 : 3 actual size. Depth, 28 ft.) 
 
 for the temples there are likewise 74 small chains, 4 in. long, each of which 
 consists of 84 rings of double gold wire, and is adorned with 28 lancet- 
 shaped leaves. At the end of each chain is suspended a large leaf of a 
 similar form. Let us compute the number of double rings and leaves of 
 this wonderful head dress : — 
 
 In the upper cha'n : double rings . . 
 In each of the 16 temple chains : 
 
 360 double rinjrs: (16 x 3G0) . . 
 
 Small lancet-shaped leaves 
 In each of the 74 short forehead chains : 
 
 84 double rings : (74 X S4) 
 
 Small lancet-shaped leaves 
 Besides these: large lancet-shaped leaves . 
 
 Total of rings and leaves 
 Grand total of pieces (with the 16 idols). . 
 
 All the leaves are suspended by holes to the wires. 
 
 Ring=s. 
 295 
 
 Lravcs. 
 
 1920 
 
 16,353 
 
458 
 
 THE THIRD, THE BURNT CITY. 
 
 [Chap. VII. 
 
 My friend Mr. Carlo Giuliano, the celebrated London goldsmith of 
 antiques, who kindly devoted six hours of his precious time to examining 
 the Trojan jewels with me, explains to me that all the idols and leaves 
 of both diadems (Nos. 685 and 687) were cut out with a bronze punch 
 from thin gold plate. To make the very thin wire the Trojans could have 
 
 used only ingots of very 
 pure gold, which they forced 
 through the holes of the 
 draw-plate, and which they 
 could gradually and easily 
 reduce to an extreme fine- 
 ness. Alloyed gold could 
 not have been used to make 
 such very fine wire. 
 
 Our illustration No. 688 
 represents the diadem No. 
 687 as it might have been 
 worn by a Trojan lady. 
 
 No. 689 represents the 
 entangled mass of six gold 
 bracelets precisely in the 
 state in which I found them. 
 Two of these bracelets, re- 
 presented separately under 
 Nos. 690 and 691, are 
 double, l-4th in. thick, but 
 quite plain, and have at 
 each end a knob similar to 
 that which we see at one 
 end of the bracelet No. 918. 
 Two others, of which I represent one under No. 692, are only l-6th in. 
 thick; they are also simple and closed: a fifth is likewise closed, but 
 consists of an ornamented band l-25th in. thick 
 and l-3rd in. broad. According to Mr. Giuliano, 
 this has been made in the following way : — Two 
 gold wires were twisted in opposite directions, the 
 one to the right, the other to the left ; then a 
 gold wire was soldered to the twist on each side, 
 as is evident from the many places where the 
 soldering is deficient. I do not give here a 
 separate engraving of this bracelet, as the photo- 
 graph has not succeeded. The sixth bracelet, 
 which I represent under No. 693, is double, and 
 consists of a quadrangular wire which has been 
 twisted. I call particular attention to the small 
 
 size of these bracelets, especially to that of the bracelets Nos. 692 
 and 693, which seems to denote that the Trojan ladies had astoundingly 
 small arms. 
 
 No. 688. The Diadem (No. 637) shown as it was worn. 
 
 No. 689. Six Gold Bracelets, all 
 stuck together in one packet, 
 as they were found in the large 
 Trojan treasure. (About 1 : 3 
 actud size. Depth, 28 It.) 
 
Chap. VIL] 
 
 GOLD BKACELETS. 
 
 No. 690. 
 
 459 
 
 Kos. 690-693 represent in actual size four of the six Bracelets contained in the packet N.>. 6S9 
 
460 
 
 THE THIRD, THE BURNT CITY. 
 
 [Chap. VII. 
 
 No. 691. 
 
 No. 695. 
 
 Nos. 694, 695. Two of the Gold Ear-rings 
 from the small Gold Jewels in the Silver 
 Jug (No. 779) of the large Treasure. 
 (Half actual size. Depth, 28 ft.) 
 
 Of the 56 gold ear-rings, I represent the different shapes under 
 Nos. 694, 695, Nos. 698 to 704, and Nos. 752 to 764. With the excep- 
 tion of Nos. 703 and 704, all these ear- 
 rings consist of solid gold wires, which 
 were soldered together, one end being beaten 
 out into a ring and point ; then grooves 
 were sunk to receive the beads which we 
 see on Nos. 698, 700, 701, and 702. The 
 curious ear-ring No. 703 is in the form of 
 two serpents, and No. 704 in form of three 
 such serpents. They consist, as Mr. Giuliano 
 explains, of as many plates as there are serpents : these plates were 
 bossed out, and rows of grooves made in each of them ; then the two 
 bossed plates were joined together and the lines of grooves filled with 
 globular grains ; after that a gold bead was soldered to each end ; into 
 the bead at the one extremity was then soldered a globular piece of 
 gold, such as we see it on the thick end of the ear-ring No. 841, whereas 
 a gold wire was soldered to the other side to form the ear-ring. Here, 
 therefore, we see for the first time granular work. 
 
 Very simple but highly curious are the gold ear-rings Nos. 705 and 
 706, of which about a dozen were found. They are nearly in the form of 
 our modern shirt studs, and are 0*3 in. long. They are, however, not 
 
 696 697 
 
 loooooooQoooooooooooo) C~oooo coo" OOP o oooooooooo) 
 
 Nos. 696-733. S lection from the small Gold Jewels in the Silver Jug (No. 779) contained in the 
 large Trojan treasure. (About 2 : 3 actual size. Depth, 28 ft.) 
 
 soldered, but simply stuck together; for, as we see in No. 707, from 
 the cavity of the one-half there projects a tube (ai\iff/eo?) l-4th in. long, 
 and from the other, No. 708, a pin (e/jL/3o\ov) of the same length, and the 
 pin was merely stuck into the tube to form the ear-ring. Each half of 
 these ear-rings consists of two small gold plates, of which the one has 
 
Chap. VII.] 
 
 SMALL GOLD JEWELS OF THE TREASURE. 
 
 461 
 
 been hammered into a miniature bowl, the other turned into a small 
 tube or into a pin. Then the little tube was soldered into one of the 
 little bowls, the pin was soldered into the other, and the ear-ring was 
 formed by merely putting the pin of the one half into the tube of the 
 other. 
 
 My friend Professor Wolfgang Helbig 8 does not admit that jewels 
 such as Nos. 694, 695, 698, 700, 701, 702, and 752 to 764 can have been 
 used as ear-rings. He is of opinion that they served as ornaments for the 
 hair. Professor Virchow observes to me that they look more like nose- 
 rings than like ear-rings. But I certainly believe they were used as 
 ear-rings, and for nothing else. 
 
 Very curious also are the gold studs, l-5th in. high, of which I 
 represent three under Nos. 709 to 711 ; they have in their cavity a ring 
 l-8th in. broad for sewing them on : of these studs about a dozen were 
 found. 
 
 Under Nos. 712-738 I represent the various shapes of the 8700 small 
 objects of gold, already mentioned as having been found in the silver vase, 
 No. 779. I haye strung these in two sets ; one of which, consisting of 
 4610 objects, is represented by the 13 necklaces, Nos. 739 to 745 and 
 Nos. 746 to 751. The other set of 12 necklaces, containing 4090 objects, 
 is precisely similar. The reader sees here gold rings only l-8th in. in 
 diameter ; perforated dice, either smooth or in the form of little indented 
 stars, about l-6thin. in diameter ; gold perforated prisms, 0*1 in. long and 
 l-8thin. broad, decorated longitudinally with eight or sixteen incisions; 
 and small longitudinally perforated leaves, like No. 712, consisting of very 
 fine double plates, which were made, as Mr. Giuliano explains, by placing 
 the mandril between them, pressing on both sides, and soldering. The 
 gold square prisms, like No. 722, are so perfect that they must have 
 been drawn through a metal drawplate. This was done by bending the 
 fine gold plate into the form of a long pipe, then drawing it through 
 the square holes of the metal plate and soldering it afterwards ; but for 
 the most part these prisms are merely bent over, and are not soldered. 
 
 To make the little indented wheels and stars, like Nos. 714-717, 726, 
 728, 729, 732, 734, the Trojan goldsmith took a piece of gold, put it on 
 charcoal, and melted it with the blow-pipe, thus making a globular grain ; 
 then he perforated it with a round punch, placed it on a mandril, and cut 
 out the grooves with another oblong punch ; but before doing so he beat 
 it square. 
 
 Mr. Giuliano further explains that the Trojan goldsmith, in order to 
 make the very small plain gold rings or beads, like No. 731, took a long 
 gold wire, wound it round a copper or bronze mandril, and cut off the 
 rings ; he then put the latter on charcoal in long rows, and soldered the 
 two ends of each of them separately with a minute portion of solder in 
 order not to increase the bulk of the wire. He could do this because the 
 gold was more malleable than ours, through being very pure. To make 
 
 8 Volfango Helbig, Sopra il Trattamento della Capellatura e delta Barba all' cpoca Omerica ; 
 Roma, 1880. 
 
462 
 
 THE THIRD, THE BURNT CITY. 
 
 [Chap. VII. 
 
 objects like No. 723, he took a small bar of gold, beat it out at one end, 
 and flattened and perforated it with a punch ; to the other end he soldered 
 a thick bead. As Mr. Giuliano has shown me, the singular rings, like 
 
 No. 725, consist of two spirals of gold wire, each wit!i three or four 
 turns. These two spirals were placed one upon the other and soldered 
 together ; but so that a hole remained on either side between them, for 
 stringing the object on the thread of the necklace. 
 
Chap. VII.] 
 
 GOLD FILLET AND EAR-RINGS. 
 
 463 
 
 The large gold beads, like No. 736, were made in the following 
 manner : — Two small cups were beaten out of fine gold plate, a piece 
 having first been cut out from each of them, on either side, one-half of 
 the size the hole was to have ; and then the two cups were soldered 
 together. Objects like Nos. 718 and 719 consist of from eight to sixteen 
 small gold rings, like No. 720, which were soldered together. Objects 
 such as No. 735 were made of a gold bar, of which one end was flattened 
 and perforated ; the other end was made pointed, and ornamented with 
 seven circular cuts. This object looks like a screw, but it is not one. 
 Objects like No. 730 were thus made : — A piece of gold was put on 
 burning charcoal, and by means of the blowpipe it was melted into 
 a bead, which was perforated, and then hammered and punched into 
 the desired form. Files were certainly unknown, for I found no trace 
 of them in any of the pre-historic cities of Troy, nor at Mycenae. 
 
 How the primitive goldsmith could do all this fine work, and parti- 
 cularly how he could accomplish the minute granular work on the ear- 
 rings Nos. 703 and 704, where grains of gold infinitely minute were to 
 be soldered into the microscopic grooves — how he could do all this without 
 the aid of a lens — is an enigma even to Mr. Giuliano. 9 But it was done, 
 and with a powerful lens we can easily distinguish the soldering, even 
 on the smallest rings of a less size than No. 720. 
 
 The objects Nos. 696, 697, 765, and 766 consist of long flat pieces of 
 gold with a large number of perforations, on which ornaments composed 
 of small objects like Nos. 712-738 were no doubt suspended. 
 
 I represent under No. 767 the golden fillet (afxirvl;) of the Treasure, 
 
 No. 767. Gulden Fillet (u/xttu^), above 18-4 in. long, contained among the Jewels in the Silver 
 Vase No. 779. (Depth, 28 ft.) 
 
 which is 18-4 in. long and 0*4 in. broad. It has at each end three perfora- 
 tions for fastening it round the head, and is ornamented all round with a 
 border of dots in punched work. Eight quadruple rows of dots divide it 
 into nine compartments, in each of which there are two large dots. 
 
 Of the four ear-rings with pendants, Nos. 768-771, only two, Nos. 
 768 and 769, are exactly alike. Each of them is composed of 16 round 
 gold wires, soldered together and bent round into the form of a basket, 
 to the upper part of which three gold wires are soldered horizontally 
 in parallel lines, thus forming two fields, in the upper of which are 
 soldered 12, in the lower 11 gold beads. To the lower part of the 
 baskets is soldered a small flat plate of gold, on which 6 rings are 
 soldered ; and from each of these is suspended a gold chain made of links 
 of double gold wire, each adorned with 6 quadrangular gold rings, 
 
 9 Professor Virchow remarks to me that in the Mexican gold jewels there may be seen granular 
 Work of equal fineness. 
 
464 
 
 THE THIRD, THE BURNT CITY. 
 
 [Chap. VII. 
 
 between every two of which there is a cylinder made of thin quad- 
 rangular gold plate, which is merely bent over and not soldered together. 
 
 No. 738. No. 769. No. 770. No. 771. 
 
 Nos. 768-771. Four Gold Ear-rin^s, with Pendants or Tassels (dvcravoi), each 3J in. long, 
 from the small Jewels in the Silver Jug (No. 779), found in the Trojan treasure. (Depth, 23 ft.) 
 
 At the ends of the chains are suspended little figures of gold plate, similar 
 in shape to the usual form of the idols ; but they have only one dot on 
 the head, and three on the lower part. To the middle of the basket 
 described above was soldered the hook of the ear-ring with a sharp end. 
 
 Still more remarkable are the gold ear-rings Nos. 770 and 771 ; for 
 their upper basket consists of 40 round gold wires; 18 very fine wires 
 being on each side, and in the centre a bunch of 4 thicker wires which 
 have been beaten flat. All the 40 wires are soldered together, and 
 the 4 central ones are ornamented with linear patterns. On the upper 
 part of this basket are soldered horizontally three parallel wires, thus 
 forming two fields, into each of which are soldered 7 or 8 rosettes, 
 composed of large gold beads surrounded by a number of minute beads. 
 To the lower part of the baskets is attached a gold plate with incised 
 linear patterns, and 5 perforations, in which are suspended 5 chains, 
 formed of links of double gold wire. Every chain is adorned with 23 gold 
 leaves, each having two holes, by which they were suspended on the wire 
 of the links before its ends were soldered together. At the end of each 
 chain is suspended an idol-like figure, cut out of thin gold plate and 
 adorned by the punch with 4 large dots, around each of which is an 
 infinite number of small ones : but this punched work is only on the idols 
 of No. 770; those of No. 771 are quite plain. 
 
 I now come to the large double-handled gold goblet, the SeVa? 
 afifafcuireXkov, Nos. 772 and 773, which Mr. Giuliano declares to be 
 23 carats fine. It weighs exactly 600 grammes (about 1 lb. 6 oz. troy) ; 
 it is 3*6 in. high, 7*5 in. long, and 7*3 in. broad. It is in the form of a 
 ship ; its handles are very large ; on one side there is a mouth 2*8 in. 
 broad for drinking out of, and another at the other side, which is 
 1*4 in. broad. As my friend, Professor Stephanos Koumanoudes of Athens, 
 remarks, the person who presented the filled cup may have first drunk 
 from the small mouth, as a mark of respect, to let the giest drink from 
 the larger mouth ; or, as suggested in the Quarterly Revieiv for April 1874, 
 a person, holding the cup before him by the two handles, may have 
 
Chap. VII.] 
 
 THE GOLD heiras a/JL(j)iKV7reX\ov. 
 
 465 
 
 poured a libation from the further spout and then have drunk out 
 of the nearer. Thus Achilles used a choice goblet (Se7ra?) for pouring 
 libations to Zeus. 10 The 
 heiras apfa/cvTreWov has 
 a foot, which projects 
 about l-12th in. and is 
 1*4 in. long and 4-5ths 
 in. broad. Mr. Giuliano 
 declares this cup to have 
 been beaten out of a 
 single plate of gold, but 
 that the two handles, 
 which are hollow, have 
 been beaten out of sepa- 
 rate plates of gold, the 
 edges being then soldered 
 together and the handles 
 also joined by soldering 
 to the cup. He explains 
 that this soldering could 
 only be done by mixing 
 silver with gold, by beat- 
 ing the mixture very 
 fine, and by cutting it 
 into very small pieces 
 which would melt, whilst 
 the pure gold would not 
 melt ; thus the soldering 
 could easily be made by 
 means of the mixture 
 and a little borax : in- 
 stead of borax, glass 
 have been used. 
 
 might 
 
 Nos. 772, 773. Outside and Inside Views of the remarkable Two-handled 
 Cup of pure Gold (Se'n-a? aixtyucvneWov), weighing about 1 lb. 6 oz. troy, 
 contained in the large Trojan treasure. (Depth, 28 ft.) 
 
 10 //. xvi. 225-227 : 
 evOa 54 ol SeVas ecr/ce reTvy/xevov, ovde tis txWos 
 out' avSpwu irtVecr/fez/ air' avTOv cuQoira olvov, 
 ov T€ Tew <T7reV5e07ce dwv, ore fx)) Ait irarpi. 
 But we do not see here that Achilles himself 
 drank after the libation. We are indebted to Mr. 
 J. W. Lockhart for the follow ing account of the 
 double-spouted boat-shaped bronze vessel, used 
 in a similar manner in the Chinese temples, and 
 represented in the engraving No. 774 : — " In 
 China there is a vessel of very nearly the same 
 shape, but with ears prolonged till they rise an 
 inch above the cup. The cup stands on three 
 legs, and is, in fact, a tripod. Such cups are 
 used in the temples, especially in the ancestral 
 temples of the real religion of China, when 
 offerings are made to the manes of ancestors. 
 The cups are filled with wine when placed 
 on the altar before the idol-shrine, or before the 
 
 ancestral tablet ; and the wine is afterwards 
 partly drunk and partly poured out as a libation." 
 Such vessels are used in pairs, and our drawing 
 is made from one of a pair in Mr. Lockhart's 
 possession. It is of bronze, 6 in. long and 6| in. 
 high, including the legs. The width is 2 in. 
 between the upright ears, and 2jf in. at the 
 broadest part. There is only one handle. Mr. 
 Lockhart calls attention to the " key " ornament 
 round the cup, which is so well known in the 
 purest Greek art, as a sign of Chinese influence 
 on the art of Western Asia and Europe. Mr. 
 Lockhart also reads Chinese characters on some 
 of the Trojan whorls. I am under a deep 
 obligation to Mr. Lockhart for his spontaneous 
 offer of this very interesting illustration of one 
 of the most striking and unique objects dis- 
 covered by me at Troy. 
 
 2 E 
 
466 
 
 THE THIRD, THE BURNT CITY. 
 
 [Chap. VII. 
 
 In this soldering process the Trojans seem to have been far more advanced 
 than the Myceneans, for on the gold vessels I found in the royal tombs 
 
 over again. This bottle weighs 403 grammes (6220 grains, or nearly 1 lb, 
 1 oz. troy) ; it is exactly 6 in. high, 5*6 in. in diameter, and has a zigzag 
 
 decoration on the neck, which, how- 
 ever, is not continued all round. 
 
 The second gold goblet is repre- 
 sented under No. 776. According 
 to Mr. Giuliano, it is 23 carats fine ; 
 it weighs 226 grammes (J\ oz. troy) ; 
 it is 3*6 in. high and 3*1 in. in 
 diameter; it has 16 flutings, which 
 were obtained by filling the goblet 
 with wood or clay and then beat- 
 ing it with a hammer. I further 
 represent under No. 777 a small 
 goblet of the treasure, which, ac- 
 cording to Mr. Giuliano, is of gold, 
 18 carats fine, mixed with silver. 
 
 It Consists therefore Of electrum. No. 775. Globular Bottle of Gold, weighing about 1 lb 
 
 at Mycenae the handles 
 had not been soldered, 
 but merely joined with 
 pins. 1 In fact, the only 
 objects of gold found 
 at Mycenae on which 
 soldering is perceptible 
 are the greaves. 2 
 
 No. 774. Bronze Cup used in China for Libations and Drinking. 
 
 No. 775 represents 
 the globular gold bottle 
 of the treasure. Mr. 
 Giuliano declares this 
 bottle to be of gold, 
 20 carats fine, and says 
 that it has been beaten 
 out of a single plate of 
 gold with punches and 
 hammers. When the 
 bottle was ready as far 
 as the neck, it was filled 
 with cement or clay, 
 and the neck was then 
 beaten out and its rim 
 turned back and bent 
 
 wood to support it. 
 
 See my Mycenae, pp. 232, 233, N03. 340-343. 
 
 2 See my Mycenae, pp. 328, 329. 
 
Chap. VIL] VESSELS OF GOLD, ELECTRUM, AND SILVER. 467 
 
 broad ; its foot is only 4-5ths of an inch high, 1 in. broad, and not 
 level; 'so that the goblet can hardly stand on it, and appears to be 
 
 No. 776. Gold Goblet, weighing 7± oz. troy; contained 
 in the large Trojan treasure. (Depth, 28 ft.) 
 
 No. 777. A small Cup of Electrum (t'.e. 4 parts of Gold 
 to 1 of Silver) ; contained in the large Trojan treasure. 
 (Depth, 28 ft.) 
 
 intended to be put down on the month : like the goblet No. 776, it has 
 16 flutings. Its foot has been beaten ont of a separate plate, and has 
 not been soldered to the bottom, but merely overlaps it. It bears the 
 marks of the great heat to which it has been exposed in the conflagration. 
 
 As nothing similar to any one of these various articles of gold has 
 been ever found elsewhere, it will for ever remain a riddle to us whether 
 they were home-made or imported ; but if we compare them with the rude 
 works of terra-cotta or the implements and weapons of stone or bronze 
 found in the third city, we certainly feel inclined to think that they 
 were imported. 
 
 The small silver vase-cover No. 778 is ornamented with an incised 
 zigzag line. 
 
 Under Nos. 779, 780, and 
 781, I represent the three silver 
 vases of the treasure. The 
 largest of them, No. 779, which 
 contained all the small gold 
 articles, is 8*4 in. high and 8 in. 
 in diameter, and has a hollow 
 handle, 5*6 in. long by 3*6 in. 
 broad. Its lower part is globular, 
 and the foot convex ; the neck 
 
 No. 779. Large one-handled Silver Jug, contained in the 
 large Trojan treasure, in which the small Ornaments 
 were found. (Depth, 28 ft.) 
 
 No. 778. A small Silver Vase Cover; contained ii 
 the large Trojan treasure. (Depth, 28 ft.) 
 
 varies slightly from the cylindrical form. It has been beaten entirely 
 out of a silver plate into its present form ; there is no soldering except 
 that of the huge handle, the soldering of which to the body of the 
 vase is distinctly visible. This handle itself must certainly have been 
 hammered out of a silver plate and soldered together ; but no soldering 
 is perceptible, even with a powerful lens. The silver vases Nos. 780 
 
468 THE THIRD, THE BURNT CITY. [Chap. VII. 
 
 and 781 are also globular, with a neck varying from the cylindrical 
 forra.; The former is 7*4 in. high and 6*4 in. in diameter. The foot 
 
 No. 780. Silver Vase, with a quantity of copper fixed to No. 781. Silver Vase, to which part of anolher Silver 
 its bottom by the fire ; found in the large Trojan Vase is attached by the cementing power of the chlo- 
 treasure. (Depth, 28 ft.) ride of silver; contained in the large Trojan treasure. 
 
 (Depth, 28 ft.) 
 
 of this vase is convex, and has a great deal of copper fused on to 
 it, which must have dripped from the copper objects contained in the 
 treasure during the conflagration. No. 781 is 7 in. high and 6 in. 
 in diameter ; the foot is flat. Another silver vase, of which, however, 
 only portions have been preserved, is cemented upon it. 3 All these 
 three silver vases have on the outside a thick incrustation, which Pro- 
 fessor Eoberts of the Eoyal Mint has found " to consist of chloride of 
 silver, which can, in most instances, be easily cut with a knife, and resem- 
 bles horny chloride of silver, which may be deposited from solution in 
 translucent layers." To this chloride of silver adhere wood-ashes, clay, 
 and very small stones, probably the detritus of bricks. 
 
 Another fractured silver vase, 4J in. high and broad, with tubular holes 
 for suspension on the sides, may be seen cemented to the copper plate, 
 No. 782. This plate is 2-5ths. in. thick, 6*4 in. broad, and 17*6 in. long ; 
 it has a rim l-10th in. high; at one end of it there are two immovable 
 wheels with an axle-tree. The plate is very much bent in two places ; 
 the curvatures can only have been produced by the heat to which the 
 object was exposed in the conflagration. 
 
 This remarkable object lay on the top of the whole mass; hence I 
 suppose it to have been the support to the lid of the wooden chest in 
 which the treasure was packed, and that the two immovable wheels 
 served as hasps. Professor Eoberts, who examined this object care- 
 fully and analysed a fragment of the silver vase, writes to me as follows 
 on the subject : — " The small portion of metal 1 mm. thick from the 
 fractured silver vase, No. 782, consists of three layers ; a central one of 
 
 The cause of this cementing will be explained presently. 
 
Chap. VIL] 
 
 COPPER PLATE : SILVER VASES. 
 
 469 
 
 silver about 0'2 mm. thick, the external layers being chloride of silver, 
 in which grains of sand and earthy matter are imbedded. The cementing 
 
 No. 782. Curious Plate of Copper, having probably served as a support of the wooden lid of the che^t, wiih two 
 immovable discs, which may probably have served as hasps. A Silver Vase is cemented on it by the action 
 of the chloride of silver and the oxide or carbonate of copper. Found in the large Trojan treasure. (Depth, 28 ft.) 
 
 action of this chloride, so beautifully shown in many of the silver articles, 
 is interesting, and is specially remarkable in this object, in which a vase 
 of silver is cemented to an article of copper. In other examples sand, 
 charcoal, and shells adhere tenaciously to silver articles by the pseudo- 
 morphous layer of chloride of silver in which they are imbedded." 
 
 Nos. 783 and 784 represent the two pretty silver vases of the treasure, 
 which have rather an Egyptian form. They are, however, Trojan, for 
 the former has on each side of the body and of the cap-like cover one 
 
 No. 784. 
 
 Nos. 783, 784. Two Silver Vases, with caps, and tubular rings for suspension with strings. 
 No. 785. A Silver Cup, 3£ in. high and nearly 4 in. wide. 
 No. 786. A Silver Dish (^liAr)), with a boss in the centre. 
 TLese four objects were contained in the large Trojan treasure. (Depth, 28 ft.) 
 
 vertical tubular hole, while the second has on each side of the body and 
 the cap two vertical tubular holes, for suspension with a string, a system 
 which is not found in Egypt. Both vases have been hammered out from 
 
470 
 
 THE THIRD, THE BURNT CITY. 
 
 [Chap. VII. 
 
 plates of silver in the manner already described. There is no soldering 
 about them, except the projections with the tubular holes on the sides. 
 The caps only are covered with chloride of silver ; the vases themselves 
 are free from it. The smaller vase is 6*8 in. high and 3*2 in. thick in 
 the body ; the larger, 8 in. high and 3*6 in. thick in the body. 
 
 The silver goblet, No. 785, is 3^ in. high, and has a mouth 4 in. in 
 diameter. It is thickly covered with chloride of silver. Much better 
 preserved is the flat silver cup or dish (fyiakrj) No. 786, which is 5£ in. 
 in diameter, and has a boss (o/^aXc?) in the middle ; it has little or no 
 chloride of silver. 
 
 The next object I took out was a package of the six blade-like ingots 
 of silver, which I represent here under Nos. 787-792, which were stuck 
 
 789 790 
 
 Nos. 787-792. Six blade-like Ingots of Silver (Homeric Talents ?), contained in the large Trojan treasure. 
 
 (Deptb, 23 ft.) 
 
 together by the cementing action of the chloride of silver ; I have sepa- 
 rated them not without difficulty. Professor Koberts, who kindly analysed 
 a small portion of one of them, sends me the following note : — 
 " Weight of portion submitted to analysis: 0*6408 gramme. 
 
 Analysis :— Silver 95 • Gl 
 
 Copper .. ., 3*41 
 
 Gold 17 
 
 Iron 38 
 
 Lead 22 
 
 Nickel . . . . traces. 
 
 99-79 
 
 The amount of lead present points to the silver having been purified 
 by cupellation. Alloys of silver are known to vary in composition 
 throughout the mass, but it is probable that the results of the analysis 
 fairly indicate the amount of precious metal in the talent." 
 
Chap. VIL] 
 
 THE SIX SILVER "TALENTS." 
 
 471 
 
 The six pieces of silver before us are in the form of large knife-blades, 
 having one end rounded, and the other cut into the form of a crescent ; 
 they have all been wrought with the hammer. The two larger blades are 
 8'6 in. long and 2 in. broad, and weigh respectively 190 and 183 grammes. 
 The next two pieces are 7'4 in. long and 1*6 in. broad; one of them 
 weighs 174, the other 173 grammes. The two remaining pieces are 
 nearly 7 in. long and 1*2 in. broad ; one of them weighs 173, the 
 other 171 grammes. 4 
 
 Are we to see in these six ingots of pure silver Homeric " talents " ? 
 These latter could only have been small, as, for instance, when Achilles 
 offers for the first prize in the chariot-race a woman, for the second a 
 horse, for the third a cauldron, and for the fourth two gold talents. 5 
 
 Professor Sayce sends me the following interesting note on the subject 
 of these six curious silver wedges : — 
 
 " In the Academy of Nov. 22, 1879, Mr. Barclay Y. Head shows that 
 'the silver mina of Carchemish,' the Hittite capital, mentioned on an 
 Assyrian tablet, is identical on the one side with the Babylonian silver 
 mina of about 8656 grains troy (561 grammes), and on the other with 
 the mina in use in Asia Minor. The Lydian silver money of Croesus, 
 says Mr. Head, ' follows this so-called Babylonic silver standard, fifty 
 staters of Croesus, each weighing 173 grains (11 • 2 grammes), making 
 one Babylonic silver mina of 8656 grains. 
 
 " ' Nevertheless, that this Babylonic silver mina was in use throughout 
 Asia Minor long before the age of Croesus for weighing bullion silver, 
 may, I think, be inferred, not only because the earliest silver coins of 
 nearly the whole of Asia Minor are regulated by it, but from the fact 
 that it was also in use among the Phrygio-Thracian mining tribes, 
 who must have brought it over with them from Asia, together with 
 the worship of the Phrygian Bacchus, when they separated from their 
 brethren of the same stock who remained behind. More than this, 
 I believe that there is proof positive that this weight was used in the 
 Troad at the period of the burial of the treasure discovered by Dr. 
 Schliemann. There are in that treasure six wedges or bars of silver, 
 about 7 or 8 in. long by about 2 in. in breadth. These weigh re- 
 spectively 171, 173, 173, 174, 183, and 190 metric grammes. Ihe 
 heaviest and best preserved appears to have gained slightly by oxy- 
 dization and incrustation at one end to the amount of about 40 or 
 50 grains troy. Supposing its original weight to have been about 
 187 grammes, or 2885*4 grains troy, what else can this be but precisely 
 the third part of the Babylonian silver mina of 8656 grains ? That these 
 bars or wedges are thirds and not halves or fourths is, to my mind, a 
 
 4 The two largest weigh, respectively, a little 
 over and a little under 6 ozs., and the other four 
 are a little over 5 J ozs. troy. The gramme is 
 15-43235 grains; that is, a little less than 
 15J grains. 
 
 5 //. xxiii. 262-270 : 
 
 Iirirtvcrtv fxey irpwra irofi&Ktaiv ay\a de6\a 
 07)/ce yvvouKa dyea6ai djxvpovG. epya I5v7av 
 
 Kal rpliroS' uruevra SvccKaieiKual/uLeTpov, 
 rep irpcoTcp • arap av re? Sevrepa) 'ittttov '4Qr)ti?.v 
 e^ere", aS^TTj*/, /3p€<pos rifxiovov Kveovaav • 
 avrap tg3 rpirdrca airvpov KareOriKt AeflrjTa 
 Ka\6v, Ttcrcrapa fierpa /cexa^SoTa, \evnbv er 
 
 t£ 5e reTaprq} 0r//ce 5uo xpu<ro?o rd\avTa, 
 irejXTTT(f 8' a/x(p'i9eToy (pidXiqv airvpwTOv tdrjuev. 
 
472 
 
 THE THIRD, THE BURNT CITY. 
 
 [Chap. VII. 
 
 strong point in favour of their being fractions of the Babylonian mina, 
 the shekels of this standard being very generally divided by three, while 
 those of the Phoenician standard are halved and quartered. 
 
 " ' Dr. Schliemann calls his wedges Homeric talents, but, be this as 
 it may, they are certainly thirds of the Babylonic silver mina of from 
 8645 to 8656 grains. If my proposed identification -of the mina of 
 Carchemish with the mina in use in the Troad about the fourteenth 
 century b.c. be accepted, may it not prove suggestive when considered 
 in connection with the Egyptian text (the poem of Pentaur), in which 
 the people of Ilion, Pedasos, Dardanos, Mysia, and Lycia are mentioned 
 as allies of the Kheta (Hittites) in their wars with Bamses II. about 
 the same period ? . . . When, therefore, we find a particular silver mina 
 specified in Assyrian documents as the mina of Carchemish, I think we 
 shall not be wrong in concluding that this is the weight which the 
 Hittites used in their commercial transactions with the peoples of Cilicia, 
 Pamphylia, Lydia, Phrygia, the Troad, &c, and that this name was given 
 to it in Assyria to distinguish it from the other heavier silver mina of 
 about 11,225 grains used in Phoenicia. . . . The earliest coined money 
 on this standard is the Lydian electrum of the time of Gyges. Croesus 
 appears to have been the first to strike silver coins on the same standard ; 
 and, as town after town begins to coin money, we perceive that from 
 the Gulf of Issus in the east to Phaselis in the west, as well as in Lydia, 
 and here and there in Ionia, in Cyprus, and perhaps even in Crete, the 
 earliest coins are staters of 173 grains or fractions of such staters.' " 
 
 Under No. 793 I represent the silver vase found a few days previous to 
 the discovery of the large treasure, and very close to it ; its lower part is of 
 globular shape, and its neck slopes outward, like part of an inverted cone. 
 It has been damaged by the pickaxe of the labourer who found it. Like 
 the other large silver vases, it is covered with chloride of silver ; it is 
 7'2 in. high and 5*6 in. broad. It deserves particular attention that all 
 these silver vases are only covered with chloride on the outside, and that 
 they are exempt from it on the inside. The vase No. 793 contained the 
 
 No. 193. 
 
Chap. VIL] 
 
 HELMETS AND SHIELD. 
 
 473 
 
 elegant cup of electrum, No. 794, which is 4*4 in. high and 3*6 in. wide 
 at the mouth. This cup hears the marks of the intense heat to which it 
 was exposed in the conflagration, but otherwise it is exceedingly well 
 preserved. Only its upper part is externally covered with a thick in- 
 crustation ; for the rest it is of a dazzling white, both outside and inside. 
 Electrum, which, as before mentioned, occurs three times in the Odyssey, 
 is a word unknown to the Iliad ; but we find in the latter 6 the word 
 r)XeKT(0p for " sun." It, therefore, appears that the poets intended to 
 indicate by rfkeicTpov a substance capable of being compared in brilliancy 
 with the sun. 
 
 Together with this latter vase was found a helmet, but so much 
 destroyed by the chloride of copper, that it fell into minute fragments 
 when it was being taken out, and it cannot be recomposed. Only its 
 upper portions, Nos. 795 and 796, have been preserved. I shall revert to 
 these in the subsequent pages, when I come to discuss similar portions 
 
 No. 795. 
 
 No. 797. 
 
 No. 798. 
 
 Nos. 795-798. Fragments of Bronze 
 Helmets found with the Silver 
 Vase No. 793. (About 1 : 3 
 actual size. Depth, 28 ft.) 
 
 No. 799. A Copper Shield with a boss (a<nrls bn^aXoeo-va), found in the 
 large Treasure. (Depth, 28 ft.) 
 
 of another helmet, represented under No. 979. Nos. 797 and 798 appear 
 to be also fragments of the upper portions of helmets. 
 
 No. 799 represents the large copper shield of the treasure (the aairh 
 6fi<j>a\6e(rcra of Homer) in the form of an oval salver, in the middle of 
 which is a large boss encircled by a small furrow (av\a%). This shield is 
 
 8 II vi. 513 ; xix. 398. 
 
474 
 
 THE THIRD, THE BURNT CITY. 
 
 [Chap. VII. 
 
 a little more than 20 in. in diameter. It is quite flat, and is surrounded 
 by a rim (dvrv^) 1J in. high. The* boss (o/z^aXo?) is 2'4 in. high and 
 4*4 in. in diameter ; the furrow encircling it is 7*2 in. in diameter, and is 
 3-5ths in. deep. It has evidently been composed of four and perhaps five 
 pieces. First the high projecting boss (6/jL<fia\6<;) was beaten out of a plate, 
 with the furrow and a high border round it ; round this was soldered a plate 
 in the form of a flat ring, and round it the high protruding rim (aWi»f), 
 on which a narrow strip of thin copper plate was again soldered all round. 
 
 This shield of copper, with its central boss and the furrow and rim so 
 suitable for holding together a covering of ox-hides, reminds us irresistibly 
 of the seven-fold shield of Ajax : "Ajax came near, bearing before him 
 his tower-like copper shield, covered with seven layers of ox-hide, the work 
 of Tychius, the best of artificers that wrought in leather ; he had his home 
 in Hyle. He made him the easily-wielded shield with seven-fold hides of 
 fat bulls, and laid over them an eighth plate of copper." 7 It is equally 
 striking to compare this shield of the treasure with the description 
 of Sarpedon's shield, with its round plate of hammered copper, and its 
 covering of ox-hides, fastened to the inner edge of the rim by long 
 golden rods. 8 
 
 No. 800 marks the copper cauldron of the treasure, with two horizontal 
 handles, which certainly gives us an idea of the Homeric Xe/3?;?. It is 
 
 No. 800. Great Copper Cauldron (Ae^rj?), contained in the large Trojan treasure; 
 found at a depth of 28 ft. 
 
 16*8 in. in diameter and 5*6 in. high ; the bottom is flat, and is 8 in. in 
 diameter. This cauldron shows the marks of the fearful conflagration, 
 and near the handle, on the left side, are seen two fragments of bronze 
 weapons (a lance and a battle-axe) firmly fused into it. It deserves par- 
 ticular attention that whilst in Mycenae there is hardly any soldering, and 
 
 7 II. vii. 219-223 : 
 Aias 5' iyyvdev tfhde (pepow craKOS, rjire irvpyov, 
 Xa\Keov, eirrafideiov, '6 ol Tvx'ios /ccfyie Teux^v, 
 o-KVTorSfiwu ox &pi(TTOS, "TKt) tvi oiKia vaiwv, 
 Us ol €7ron7<r€j/ cd/cos a\6\ov eirrafiSeiov 
 ravpdiv £a.Tpz<p4(i)v, iiri 5' oydoov i]Aao~e xoA./cJ?'. 
 
 Compare also vv. 245-247. 
 
 8 H. xii. 294-297 : 
 avTiKa S' affmha fiey irp6o-9' e<rx* ro ™ VT0(J> #<n?" 
 /caAV X aA - /C€l V ^Aa-rov, V fy>« %aA/cevs 
 tfAaaev, ivTO<r6ev 8e fiodas pdtye Qafxuas 
 Xpvcreirjs pdfiBoicri 5it]V€Keo'iv irepl kvkKov. 
 
Chap. VII.] COPPER CAULDRON : BRONZE LANCE-HEADS. 
 
 475 
 
 the different pieces of which the copper cauldrons consist are all joined 
 together with pins, here at Troy we see only soldering, and nothing 
 fastened together with pins. As the two handles of the cauldron before 
 us were too thick to be easily soldered on, the two ends of each of them 
 were sawn into or split, and then the rim of the vessel was placed in the 
 opening and soldered on. 
 
 We find Xe/3^T6? mentioned ten times in the Iliad, usually as prizes in 
 games ; 9 also as presents. ]0 The A.e/3?;? had the value of an ox ; 11 only once 
 we find it used as a cauldron. 1 In the Odyssey it is for the most part used 
 as a washing bowl, in which the hands were washed before the meal and 
 at the sacrifice. It was often of silver and ornamented ; 2 it was also of 
 copper and used for a foot-bath. 3 Mr. Philip Smith observes to me, that 
 " among the tribute received by Thutmes III., apparently from Western 
 Asia (the name of the country is imperfect in the record), was ' a brass 
 cauldron, the work of Kefthu.' 4 This special mention of it, as an article 
 of foreign workmanship, may be compared with the value evidently set on 
 the Trojan cauldron, by its preservation in the treasure." 
 
 Upon and beside the gold and silver articles, I found in the treasure 
 thirteen bronze lance-heads, more or less fractured, five of which are 
 shown under Nos. 801-805 and one under 815. They are from 7 to above 
 12 J in. in length, and from 1*6 to 2*4 in. broad at the thickest point. 
 At the lower end of each is a perforation, in which, in most cases, the nail 
 or peg which fastened the lance-head to the wooden handle is still sticking. 
 The pin-hole is clearly visible in the lance-head No. 805, which the con- 
 flagration has fused on to a battle-axe. 
 
 The Trojan lance-heads were therefore quite different from those of 
 the Myceneans, 5 as well as from all those found in the Swiss Lake- 
 dwellings, 6 in the tombs of Fronstetten, 7 in those of Hedingen, 8 Ebingen, 9 
 Kothenlachen, 10 Laitz, 1 and many other sepulchres in Germany, Austria, 
 and Italy, 2 at Hallstatt, 3 in Denmark, 4 and in Hungary, 5 all of which have 
 
 9 II. xxiii. 259 : 
 
 vit)(tiv 8' 4ii(pep aeflAa, Ae/37]Tas re rpliroZas re. 
 xxiii. 485 : 
 
 SeGpo vvv, if) Tpfaodos TrepiSwfxedov r)h Ae^Tjroy. 
 
 10 II. ix. 263, 265 : 
 
 . . . v7reVxeTO Scop' ' Ay a/xefiuuv, 
 
 aidwvas 8e AefirjTas ie'iKoai, SwSe/ca 8' 't-mrovs. 
 
 11 II. xxiii. 885: 
 
 *ca8 8e airvpov, fiobs a£iov, avQe/xdevTa. 
 
 1 II. xxi. 362 : 
 
 ws 8e Ae/37js £et evdov, 4ireiy6fievos irvpl 7roAA$. 
 
 2 Od. i. 136-138 : 
 
 X^pvifia 8' afx<p'nro\os irpoxou) eVe'xeue (pepovcra 
 Kak V XP vtT *' i y virhp apyvp4oio Ae/fyros, 
 vtyacrOai • 
 
 and Od. iii. 440, 441 : 
 
 X*pvi$a 54 a"<p' "Aprjros iv avOefiSevri \4&h\tl 
 jj\v9ev 4k OaXafioio (pepcoj/. 
 
 3 Od. xix. 386, 387 : 
 
 £ls &p' e(pr) • yp^vs 8e \4&t)0' eAe irajxcpavduvTa, 
 tov ir<$5as 4^air4vi^v, vbcop 8' eVexeuoro irovXv. 
 
 Od. xix. 469 : 
 iv 8e \4firjTL ir4ff€V kut}/j.tj, Kai>dxy(Te 8e x^A/cos. 
 
 4 Brugsch, Hist, of Egypt, vol. i. p. 385, Eng. 
 trans., 2nd ed. 
 
 5 See my Mycenae, pp. 278, 279, fig. 
 No. 441. 
 
 6 Victor Gross, Moeringen et Auvernicr, PI. iv., 
 Nos. 1, 8-13. Ferdinand Keller, Pfahlbautcn, 
 vii. Bericht, PI. iii. Nos. 14, 18. 
 
 7 L. Lindenschmit, Die Vaterldndischen Alter- 
 thiimer, PI. iii. Nos. 27 and 28. 
 
 8 Ibid. PI. iv. Nos. 2, 9, 10, 13, 14. 
 
 9 Ibid. PI. vii. Nos. 3, 4, 9, 11, 12. 
 10 Ibid. PI. xii. No. 10. 
 
 1 Ibid. PI. xii. Nos. 5-7. 2 Ibid. PI. xxxix. 
 
 3 Ed. Freih. von Sacken, Das Grabfeld von 
 Hallstatt, PI. vii. Nos. 1, 3-6. 
 
 4 J. J. A. Worsaae, Nordishe Oldsager, PI. 38 
 and 82. 
 
 s Joseph Hampel, Antiquite's prehistoriques 
 de la Hongrie, PL ix. Nos. 1-6, and PI. xv. No. 1 : 
 and Catalogue de V Exposition prehistorique, p. 25, 
 No. 10 ; p. 27, Nos. 13 3 14. 
 
47(3 THE THIRD, THE BURNT CITY. [Chap. VII. 
 
 No. 803. No. 804. 
 
 Nos. 801-804. Trojan Lance-heads of Bronze. 
 No. 805. Bronze Lance and Battle-axe fused together by the conflagration. The pin-hole of the lance is 
 visible. (Nearly 1 : 3 actual size. Depth, 28 ft.) 
 
 No. 808. 
 
 Nos. 806-809. Trojan Battle-axes of Bronze. 
 Nos. 807 and 809 have pieces of other weapons fuse:! on to them by the fire. 
 (Nearly 1 : 3 actual size. Depth, 28 ft.) 
 
 a tube in which the wooden lance-shaft was fixed. The Homeric lance- 
 heads seem to have had a similar tube in which the ihaft was fixed, for 
 
Chap. VII.] 
 
 BRONZE BATTLE-AXES. 
 
 477 
 
 the poet says : " And the brain ran out from the wound along the tube 
 of the knee." 6 But the British Museum and the Louvre contain in their 
 collections several specimens of bronze lance- 
 heads found in tombs in Cyprus, which are 
 identical with the Trojan lance-heads. 7 
 
 I further took out from the treasure four- 
 teen battle-axes of bronze, of which I represent 
 four entire ones under Nos. 806-809 and a 
 fractured one under No. 810. They are from 
 6*4 to 12*4 in. long, from half an inch to 
 4-5ths in. thick, and from 1*2 to 3 in. broad. 
 The largest of them weighs 1365 grammes, 
 or about 3 pounds avoirdupois. M. Ernest 
 Chantre, Assistant Director of the Museum 
 at Lyons, sent me the result of the analysis 
 
 of these battle-axes made by the famous chemist, M. Damour of Lyons 
 I had drilled two of them and sent him the drillings: — 
 
 No. 810. Trojan Battle-axe. 
 (Nearly 1 : 3 actual size. Depth, 2S ft.) 
 
 No. 1.— Drillings from one of the battle-axes of the treasure : — 
 
 For analysis 
 
 Dt ducting the sand contained in it 
 
 Analysed metal . . 
 
 Grammes. 
 0-3020 
 0-0160 
 
 0-2860 
 
 Grammes. In 1 1 0000 part. 
 
 This consists of copper 0-2740 = 0-9580 
 
 Do. do. tin 0*0110 = 0-0384 
 
 No. 2. — Drillings of another battle axe from the treasure :- 
 For analysis 
 
 Deducting the sand contained in it 
 
 Analysed metal . . 
 
 0-2850 = 0-9964 
 
 Grammes. 
 0*2970 
 0-0020 
 
 0-2950 
 
 This consists of copper 
 Do. do. tin 
 
 Grammes. In 1 • 0000 part. 
 0-2675 = 0-9067 
 0-0255 = 0-0864 
 
 0-2930 = 0-9931 
 
 I have still to mention a curious sling-bullet of copper ore which was 
 analysed by M. Damour of Lyons with the following result : — 
 
 6 II. xvii. 297 : 
 
 £yKe<paAos Se Trap' av\bv avtSpafxeu e£ wtciKtis. 
 
 7 Professor Virchow kindly calls my attention 
 to Evans, Petit Album de V 'Age du Bronze de la 
 Grande Bretagne, London, 1876, PI. xi., where a 
 series of similar blades, called there " couteaux de 
 poignards," are represented. But, in my opinion, 
 similar weapons can never have been used for 
 anything else than lances ; for a dagger we ne- 
 cessarily must suppose a handle such as we see 
 
 on the real daggers Nos. 811-814, 901, and 927. 
 As the blades before us (Nos. 801-805) do not 
 fulfil this indispensable condition, they cannot 
 be daggers. Professor Virchow adds that similar 
 blades occasionally occur also in Germany, but 
 that the lower end of them is usually broad and 
 has two perforations for fixing in the lance-shaft. 
 He showed me, however, in his own collection a 
 lance-head found on the island of Riigen, which 
 is perfectly similar to the Trojan lance-heads. 
 
478 
 
 THE THIRD, THE BURNT CITY. 
 
 [Chap. VII. 
 
 " Drillings of one of the Trojan sling-bullets, externally covered with 
 verdigris, and internally of the colour of iron. 
 
 Analysis. „ 
 
 Grammes. 
 
 Quantity of analysed metal .. .. .. 0*2410 
 
 In 1 • 0000 part. 
 
 Consisting of sulphur 0*0470 = 0*1950 
 
 Do. copper 0-1920 = 0-7966 
 
 Do. iron 0-0002 = 0-0008 
 
 Do. quartzose 0'0005 = 0-0020 
 
 0-2397 = 0-9944 
 
 Professor W. Chandler Roberts, of the Eoyal Mint, who also bored two 
 of these battle-axes and analysed the drillings, writes to me that one axe 
 gave — and the other — 
 
 95*41 copper. 93-80 copper. 
 
 4-39 tin. 5-70 tin. 
 
 99-80 99-50 
 
 He adds that he found them free from zinc. 
 
 The lance-heads have not been analysed, but we may with all pro- 
 bability suppose that they are of bronze, since the battle-axes, which are 
 fifty times heavier, are of that metal. 
 
 Professor Virchow kindly calls my attention to the compte rendu of 
 the Berlin Anthropological Society of 29th July, 1876, p. 8, where a 
 perfectly similar battle-axe is represented, which was found, together 
 with five similar ones, at a depth of 3 ft., at Bythin, in the duchy of 
 Posen. All these six axes consist of pure copper. Virchow says of 
 them : " Their form approaches most to that of the ancient stone axes. 
 It is true that they are not so massive as the stone axes generally are, 
 but this was not necessary when metal was used. Such a form might 
 pass as an excellent proof of how the stone form has gradually been 
 transferred into a metal form, and how people manufactured of metal an 
 implement analogous to the stone axe." 
 
 Battle-axes of a like form, of pure copper, were also found in 
 Hungary. 8 My honoured friend, Professor James D. Butler, LL.D., 
 kindly sends me his learned dissertation 9 on the pre-historic antiquities 
 of Wisconsin, illustrated by excellent photographic plates, on which seven 
 similar battle-axes of pure copper found in Wisconsin are represented. 
 
 Similar battle-axes occur, though very rarely, in company with silex 
 saw-knives and axes of diorite, in India. The British Museum contains 
 in its collection of East Indian antiquities 9 perfectly similar bronze 
 battle-axes, found at Gungeria in the Mhow Talook district of Burrha, in 
 Central India ; their length is from 20 to 28 in. The British Museum 
 contains also 2 bronze battle-axes, in all respects like the Trojan, found at 
 Tel-Sifr in Babylonia. The Ethnographical and Pre-historic Collection of 
 
 8 Joseph Hampel, Antiquites prehistor. de la nual Address before the State Historical Society 
 Hongrie, PI. viii. Nos. 13, 15. of Wisconsin, in the Assembly Chamber, Feb- 
 
 9 James D. Butler, Pre-historic Wisconsin, An- ruary 18, 1876. 
 
Char VII.] 
 
 ANCIENT SOURCES OF TIN. 
 
 479 
 
 General Lane Fox in the South Kensington Museum contains 7 hronze 
 battle-axes of an identical shape, found in tombs in Cyprus. Further, 
 2 exactly similar battle-axes, found in ancient Egyptian tombs, are pre- 
 served in the Egyptian Collection in the Louvre. At Mycenae I found 
 only one such battle-axe 10 and the fragment of another. These Trojan 
 bronze battle-axes are nothing but exact copies of the primitive stone 
 battle-axes ; only they have been made longer for greater convenience and 
 usefulness, as they could then be more easily fastened to the wooden 
 shafts and could be used on both sides. 
 
 Having described the battle-axes of the Trojan Treasure, which have 
 been proved to consist of bronze, it may not be out of place to discuss 
 here the important question, whence the pre-historic peoples, and par- 
 ticularly those who now occupy us — the inhabitants of the third, the burnt 
 city of Hissarlik — obtained their tin. M. Burnouf, 1 judging from the 
 resemblance of the Greek word for tin (/caacrLTepos) to the Sanscrit 
 " kastira," thinks it probable that they received it from India. But 
 Professor Sayce observes to me : " Kastira is as little a Sanscrit word as 
 fcaao-LTepos is a Greek one, and both seem borrowed from the same source. 
 In Arabic Icazdir is ' tin,' in Assyrian Jdzasaddir, and in the primitive 
 Accadian of Babylonia Jcasduru or hazduru. The Arabic and Assyrian 
 may be borrowed from the Accadian, but more probably both words, 
 together with the Accadian, the Sanscrit and the Greek, have been 
 imported from a common source, which was perhaps one of the early 
 languages of the Caucasus, where ancient tin mines have been found." 
 Sir J. Lubbock, on the other hand, thinks it more probable that the 
 ancients obtained tin through " the Phoenicians from Cornwall :" he 
 says, "As Cornwall, Saxony, and Spain 2 are the only known European 
 sources from which tin can be obtained in any quantity, the mere pre- 
 sence of bronze is in itself a sufficient evidence, not only of metallurgical 
 skill, but also of commercial intercourse." 3 
 
 Again, in another passage : " Unless the ancients had some source of 
 tin with which we are unacquainted, it seems to be well established, and is 
 indeed admitted even by Sir Cornewall Lewis, that the Phoenician tin was 
 mainly derived from Cornwall, and consequently that, even at this early 
 period, a considerable commerce had been organized, and very distant 
 countries brought into connection with one another. Sir C. Lewis, 
 however, considers that the tin was ' carried across Gaul to Massilia, and 
 imported thence into Greece and Italy.' 4 Doubtless much of it did in late 
 times come by this route, but the Phoenicians were in the plenitude of 
 their power 1200 years B.C., while Massilia was not built until 600 B.C. 
 Moreover Strabo expressly says that in early times the Phoenicians 
 carried on the tin trade from Cadiz, which we must remember was nearer 
 to Cornwall than to Tyre or Sidon. We are, therefore, surely quite 
 
 10 See my Mycenae, p. 306, No. 463. 
 
 1 Memoires sur V Antiquite' ; Paris, 1879. 
 
 2 Tin is said to have been anciently obtained 
 in Pannonia, near the modern Temesvar, but I 
 do not know whether the mines were extensive. 
 See Howorth, Stockholm Pre-historic Congress, 
 p. 533. 
 
 3 Pre-historic Times, p. 47. 
 
 4 Mr. Philip Smith observes to me " that the 
 account of the overland traffic between Britain 
 and the Greek cities of Southern Gaul, given by 
 Diodorus and Strabo, refers clearly to the time 
 of those writers, and we have no evidence of 
 its high antiquity." 
 
480 
 
 THE THIRD, THE BURNT CITY. 
 
 [Chap. VII 
 
 justified in concluding that between b.c. 1500 and B.C. 1200 the Phoeni- 
 cians were already acquainted with the mineral fields of Spain and Britain. 
 Under these circumstances, it is, I think, more than probable that they 
 pushed their explorations still farther, in search of other shores as rich in 
 mineral wealth as ours. Indeed, we must remember that amber, so much 
 valued in ancient times, could not have been obtained from any nearer 
 source than the coast of the German Ocean." 
 
 I may add . that the general use of tin in remote antiquity could not 
 be better proved than by its frequent mention in the Homeric poems, as 
 well as in the Old Testament. That its mixture with copper was also 
 known at a very remote age, could not be better shown than by the 
 weapons of bronze found even in the third, the burnt city of Hissarlik. 
 But in the classics the fact of its being a mixture of tin and copper is 
 seldom mentioned. Polyaenus informs us that Perdiccas being short of 
 silver coins had a coin made of tin mixed with copper. 5 Aristotle 
 mentions that the copper of the Mossynoeci was said to be very brilliant 
 and very white, not because tin was mixed with it, but because a sort 
 of earth was added to it and calcined with it. It was said that the 
 inventor of this alloy did not teach it to any one : for that reason the 
 first works of copper made in that country were superior; those which 
 succeeded were not so good. 
 
 Copper (probably bronze) was highly prized in remote antiquity, and 
 constituted, next to gold, or perhaps even more than gold, the principal 
 form of wealth. Thus we see in the Iliad Ulysses offering to Achilles on 
 the part of Agamemnon, in order to appease his anger, to fill his ship 
 after the capture of Troy with all the gold and bronze it could carry. 6 
 But Achilles refuses, saying that he will take with him gold and red 
 bronze, as well as women and grey iron, which fell to his lot. 7 According 
 to Lucretius, 8 bronze was in remote antiquity valued even more highly 
 than gold or silver. 
 
 Eossignol 9 is of opinion that " to consecrate the remembrance of the 
 services which the primitive copper had rendered, and the high value 
 which men had attached to it, religion affected at a later time to use it, as 
 Macrobius says. 10 A law of Numa ordered the priests to cut their hair 
 with scissors of copper, and not of iron." 1 Eossignol 2 also explains the 
 etymology of the word " bronze " from brunus aes. 3 
 
 5 iv. 10. 2 : riepSi'/c/cas, Xa\Ki5evcri iroXeficuv 
 apyvpov voixia/xaros aivopovfx^vos x a ^ K ^ K P arov 
 Kaaairepov exapa|e, KaX ovtus i\v fucrdocpopa 
 
 TO IS 0~Tp<XTl(I)TaiS. 
 
 6 II. ix. 279, 280 : 
 
 prja a\is xP V{T °v Kt & X a ^ K °v vtifoaaQai 
 elaehOcav, ore Kev Sarecofieda 'Axaioi. 
 
 7 II. ix. 365-367 : 
 
 &h\ov 8' iudevSe XP V(T0V X a ^ K0V epvQpo'v 
 ■ijSe yvvcuKtxs iv^wuovs tto\i6v re (Tt5r]pov 
 &£o/juxi, acra e\ax^ ye. 
 8 Vv. 1268-1273 : 
 <£ Nec minus argento facere haec auroque para- 
 bant, 
 
 Quam validi primum violentis viribus aeris : 
 Nequicquam, quoniam cedebat victa potestas, 
 
 Nec poterant pariter durum sufferre laborem ; 
 Nam fuit in pretio magis aes, aurumque jacebat 
 Propter inutilitatem, hebeti mucrone retusum." 
 
 9 Les Me'taux dans I'Antiquite, p. 219. 
 
 10 Saturn, v. 19. 11 : " Omnino autem ad rem 
 divinam pleraque aenea adhiberi solita, multa 
 indicio sunt." Professor Sayce suggests to me 
 that aenea must mean here " bronze," not 
 " copper." 
 
 1 Lydus, de Mens. i. 31 : Kal tovto Se irpbs 
 tov Nov/jlo, SiaTtOeiTCU, ware tovs Upels x a ^ KC " s 
 ■tyaXiaiv, dAA* ov o~i8r)pcus cnroKelpto-Qai. Here 
 no doubt, also, bronze is meant. 
 
 2 Op. cit. p. 271. 
 
 3 " Brunus, fuscus color, subniger, nigricans. 
 Gall. Brun, Ital. Bruno, Germ. Braun ... Sic 
 
 / 
 
Chap. VII.] 
 
 ANCIENT METALLURGY. 
 
 481 
 
 Francois Lenormant 4 is of opinion that "the Aryan tribes which 
 peopled Greece and Asia Minor seem to have had almost no knowledge of 
 metals at the time of their arrival. We have the proof of this in their 
 language, in which the names of the metals are not those found among 
 the other peoples of the same race and which all have in common ; 
 in fact, their names for metals have for the most part been borrowed 
 from foreign sources. So xpvaos, ' gold,' is the Semitic hharouts, and 
 was manifestly imported by the Phoenicians. The name even of the 
 mine and of metal in general (/jbiraXkov) is the Semitic matal. No 
 satisfactory Aryan etymology can be found for %a\fcos, ' bronze,' while 
 this word has a quite natural relation — and this is a fact accepted by 
 philologists as strict as M. Eenan — with the Semitic root hhcdaq, indi- 
 cating ' metal worked by the hammer.' The origin of the name ^aX/eo? 
 would thus appear to indicate the source whence the Graeco-Pelasgic 
 peoples received a knowledge of the real alloy of bronze, after a first 
 age of pure copper and a certain number of attempts to find the 
 proportion of tin which was to be mixed with it, — attempts which mus-t 
 have resulted from the desire to imitate more perfect models of metal- 
 lurgy, which had probably been brought from another quarter. I may 
 add that the very fact, that there was tin to alloy with copper in more 
 or less suitable proportions, proves that the people whose vestiges we 
 are studying had a foreign commerce. Tin is one of the metals which 
 are the least generally diffused in nature. At Hissarlik, the two nearest 
 points from which its ore could be imported were the Caucasus and 
 Crete, where deposits are found in the mountains of Sphakia. I am 
 inclined to think that it was brought from Crete, this being the nearest 
 point. For the rest, it is certain that from the remotest antiquity there 
 was a certain maritime intercourse, by means of a coasting trade still in 
 its infancy, from isle to isle, and from cape to cape, between the popula- 
 tions whose civilization was on the same level, and which extended at 
 that time from Cyprus to the Troad." 
 
 But, besides the alloy with tin, the ancients had still another way of 
 hardening their copper, namely, by tempering it in water. We find this 
 method mentioned by Homer : "As the coppersmith dips into cold water 
 the great axe or the hatchet, which violently hisses, tempering it (for this 
 gives new strength to iron itself)." 5 
 
 In the same way Virgil represents the Cyclopes plunging the hissing 
 copper into water : — 
 
 "... Alii stridentia tinguunt 
 Aera lacu." G 
 
 Pausanias, also, in speaking of the fountain of Pirene at Corinth, 
 
 forte dictus a prunorum colore, ut censet Octa- 
 vius Ferrarius, vel quod Bruniae, seu loricae, 
 colorem referat ; unde nostri Bronze pro aere, 
 ex quo Bruneae et statuae conficuntur, a cujus 
 colore subfusco, Bronzer dicimus, Itali Abbron- 
 zare, fusco colore illinire, depingere." (Glossarium 
 mediae et infimae latinitatis conditum a Domino 
 Du Cange : Parisiis, 1840, t. i. p. 788.) 
 
 4 Les Antiquites de la Troade, p. 11. 
 
 5 Od. ix. 391-393 : 
 
 &s 5' or au^p x a ^ K ^ s feAe/cvi> ueyav ye 
 
 crueiraovov 
 elv vdari ipvxpy PaTrrji fxeyaXa laxovra 
 (papfxacracau • to yap avre ctS^pou ye Kpdros 
 
 iffrlv 
 
 6 Aen, viii. 450; Georg. iv. 172. 
 
 2 i 
 
482 
 
 THE THIRD, THE BURNT CITY. 
 
 [Chap. VIT. 
 
 says that bronze was dipped into it while it was still ignited and burning. 7 
 Kossignol 8 quotes Pollux, " who confirms the passage of Pausanias by 
 a remarkable example. Noticing the use of /Sdyfn^ instead of /3acf)rj, 
 Antiphon, he observes, speaks of the tempering (/Scn/r^) of copper and 
 iron." 9 
 
 I have further to mention the 7 large double-edged bronze daggers of 
 the Treasure, of which I represent one under No. 811, 11 in. in length and 
 22 in. broad at the broadest part. A second dagger, No. 812, which is 
 1 J in. broad, has had the point broken off, and is now only 9 in. long, but 
 it appears to have been 11 in. long. A third dagger (not engraved) is 
 8*6 in. long, and measures 1 J in. across at the broadest part. A fourth, 
 No. 813, has become completely curled up in the conflagration, but appears 
 to have been above 11 in. long. Of the fifth, sixth, and seventh daggers 
 
 No. 811. No. 816. 
 
 Nos. 811-814. Trojan two-edged bronze Daggers, v\ith hooked stems that have been fastened into wooden handles; 
 the Dagger No. 813 is curled up by the conflagration. No. 815. Six Battle-axes, Daggers, and Lance-heads 
 molten together. Nos. 816, 817. Quadrangular bronze Bars, probably weapons, with a sharp edge at the end. 
 (1 : 5 actual size. Depth, 28 ft.) 
 
 I only discovered fragments, such as No. 814 : these are from 4 to 5 J in. 
 long. But in the mass of lance-heads and battle-axes, No. 815, which 
 have been fused together by the intense heat of the conflagration, 
 another entire dagger is visible in the front of the engraving. All these 
 daggers have handles from 2 to 2*8 in. long, the end of which is bent 
 round at a right angle. These handles must at one time have been 
 
 7 ii. 3. 3: Kal rhv KopivBiov x a ^ K0V Sidirvpou 8 Les Metaux dans VAntiquite, p. 241. 
 Kal Oepfjibv ovtol virb vdaros tovtov fidirTecrdai 9 vii. 169 : 'KvTKpwv Se et/^Ke fidtyiv x a * K0 *> 
 K4yov(Tiv. Kal aiS-qpov. 
 
Chap. VII.] 
 
 NO SWORDS FOUND AT TROY. 
 
 483 
 
 encased in wood ; for, if the cases had been made of hone, they would 
 have been still wholly or partially preserved. The handle was inserted 
 into a piece of wood, so that the end projected half an inch beyond it, 
 and this end was simply bent round. I can only represent these singular 
 Trojan daggers to the reader, as similar ones have never yet been found 
 elsewhere. 
 
 Of common one-edged bronze knives, like No. 956 or No. 9G7 (pp. 505 3 
 507), I only found one in the Treasure. 
 
 I also thought at first that I had found in the Treasure a fragment of 
 a bronze sword ; but, as visitors to the South Kensington Museum may 
 see in my collection, the object referred to is no sword, but merely a very 
 thin bronze saw : the fragment is nearly 9 in. long and 2 in. broad. If 
 swords had been in use at all, I should probably have found some of them 
 in this Treasure, among so many other weapons ; or at least I should have 
 found them elsewhere in this third city, which was destroyed so suddenly 
 and unexpectedly by a fearful catastrophe, that the inhabitants had not the 
 time even to save their treasures, of which ten were left for me to discover. 
 Even with the skeletons of men, apparently warriors, I found only lances ; 
 never even so much as the trace of a sword. Neither did I find a trace of 
 a sword even in the ruins of the two upper pre-historic cities. Moreover, 
 had swords been in use, I should probably have found the moulds in 
 which they were cast ; but among the 90 moulds or thereabouts, which 
 I collected, and which have forms for all the weapons I discovered, as 
 well as for others which I did not find, there is not one for a sword. This 
 absence of swords is the more astonishing to me, as I found hundreds 
 of bronze swords in the royal tombs of Mycenae. Their non-existence 
 at Hissarlik, even in the latest of its pre-historic cities, is the clearest 
 proof of the very high antiquity of these ruins, and of the great distance 
 of time which separates them from Homer, with whom swords are in 
 common use. But if from the absence of this weapon, seemingly so 
 indispensable, we might be forced to infer a low state of barbarism at 
 Troy, our minds are bewildered when we look at the Trojan gold 
 ornaments, which in artistic execution come fully up to those contained 
 in the Mycenean treasures ; and we are still more bewildered when we 
 consider the Trojan inscriptions, since written characters were altogether 
 unknown at Mycenae. I may here add that no swords have ever been 
 found in the ancient British tumuli of the Bronze period. 
 
 But I return to the description of the Trojan Treasure, from which 
 I also took out the four-cornered bronze bar No. 816, 
 which ends in an edge ; it is 15 in. long, and may 
 have served as a weapon. The bronze bar No. 817, 
 which likewise ends in a sharp edge, was found 
 elsewhere in the burnt city. 
 
 T) -I ,-, . . - |XP -i • ,i No. 818. Copper or Bronze Key 
 
 remaps tne most curious object I iound m the supposed to have belonged to 
 Treasure is the copper (or bronze?) key No. 818, ^IZT^S 
 which is 4-2 in. long, and has a head 2 in. in 
 
 length and breadth ; it greatly resembles a large key of an iron safe. 
 Curiously enough, this key has had a wooden handle ; there can be no 
 
484 
 
 THE THIRD, THE BURNT CITY. 
 
 [Chap. VII. 
 
 doubt of this, from the fact that the end of the stalk of the key is bent 
 round at a right angle, as in the case of the daggers. We read in Homer 
 of a bronze key (/cXt/1?), with a handle encased in ivory, in the hand of 
 Penelope ; but that was not like the key before us, because it was in the 
 form of our pick-locks, having, instead of the head, a crooked hook. 10 With 
 this key— by means of a hole into which it was stuck — the bar (or bolt) of 
 the door was pushed back. 1 On the other hand, in the Iliad the Kkr]U 
 is merely the bolt or bar which fastens two folding doors. 2 Of such a 
 /cXti'is I found four specimens in the third, the burnt city ; two of them, 
 which have been already engraved in the Introduction, 3 I picked up 
 at the gate itself, the larger one between the two first projections of 
 masonry in coming up from the plain, the other between the two next 
 
 No. 820. Large Silver Vase found in the Royal House. 
 (About 1 : 3 actual size. Depth, 28 ft.) 
 
 No. 819. Trojan Key in form of a Bolt. 
 (Actual size. Depth, 28 ft.) 
 
 10 OJ. xxi. 6, 7 : 
 s'/Aero Se K\r)'iS' evaa/unreci x et P^ 7ra X et '?7> 
 X.a\T)v xaA/ceiTji/ • Kunvr] 5 J i\4(pavros ivrjev. 
 
 1 Od. xxi. 47, 48 : 
 i> 5e kXtjiS' 7)K€, Ovpeoov 5' aveKoirrev ox^as 
 
 6.7'TCL TlTVaKO/ULfUT). 
 
 Mr. Philip Smith observes to me that "the form 
 
 of the ancient Egyptian keys was similar to this. 
 (See Wilkinson's Ancient Egyptians, vol. i. p. 354, 
 No. 123, new edit.)" 
 
 2 II. xiv. 167, 168 : 
 
 TrvKivas Se dvpas araQ^oicnv iirripcrev 
 KA^tSt KpvirTrj ' tt]u 8' ov Oebs &AAos avyyev. 
 
 3 See Nos. 11 and 12, p. 36. 
 
Chap. VII.] 
 
 THE THREE SMALLER TREASURES. 
 
 485 
 
 projections. Of this latter fckrjfc a piece is broken off. A third bronze 
 (or copper ?) fckrj'fe, found in a house of the third, the burnt city, at a 
 depth of 28 ft., is represented under No. 819. Both these /cA^tSe? are 
 of quadrangular shape ; at one end thick and gradually tapering towards 
 the other. 
 
 Of objects found in the Treasure, and not represented here, I may 
 mention a copper vase 5J-in. high and 4^- in. in diameter. 
 
 No. 820 is another silver vase found in the royal house. 
 
 I now come to the three smaller treasures, found at the end of March 
 1873, at a depth of 30 ft. on the east side of the royal house and very 
 close to it, by two of my workmen, one of whom lives at Yeni Shehr, 
 the other at Kalifatli. One of them was found in the owl-headed vase 
 No. 232, which was closed by the pointed foot of another vase ; the two 
 other little treasures were found, together with the battle-axe No. 828, 
 close by. But as the statements of the labourers differ as to the particular 
 objects contained in each treasure, I can only describe them here conjointly. 
 The two workmen had stolen and divided the three treasures between them- 
 selves, and probably I should never have had any knowledge of it, had it 
 not been for the lucky circumstance that the wife of the workman of Yeni 
 Shehr, who had got as his share of the plunder all the articles Nos. 822- 
 833, besides two more pendants like Nos. 832 and 833, had the boldness to 
 parade one Sunday with the ear-rings and pendants Nos. 822 and 823. 
 This excited the envy of her companions ; she was denounced to the 
 Turkish authorities of Koum Kaleh, who put her and her husband in 
 prison ; and, having been threatened that her husband would be hanged if 
 they did not give up the jewels, she betrayed the hiding-place, and thus 
 this part of the treasure was at once recovered and is now exhibited in 
 the Imperial Museum of Constantinople. The pair also denounced their 
 accomplice at Kalifatli, but here the authorities came too late, because he 
 had already had his part of the spoil melted down by a goldsmith in 
 Ren Kioi, who, at his desire, had made of it a very large, broad, and 
 heavy necklace, with clumsy flowery ornaments in the Turkish fashion. 
 Thus this part of the treasure is for ever lost to science. I can, therefore, 
 represent here only that part which was taken by the Yeni Shehr thief, 
 because it exists, and everybody can see it in the Constantinople Museum. 
 As both thieves declared separately on oath before the authorities of 
 Koum Kaleh that the owl- vase No. 232, with part of the gold, was found 
 by them immediately to the west of the well (marked a z on Plan I. of 
 Troy), and that the two other treasures were found close by, and indicated 
 the exact spot of the discovery, there can be no doubt as to its accuracy. 
 
 No. 821 is a bar of electrum, 6 J in. long, weighing 87*20 grammes. 
 
 Each of the ear-rings, Nos. 822 and 823, consists of 23 gold, wires, 
 which are soldered together and bent round in the form of a basket ; the 
 middle wire, which is beaten flat and is as broad as three of the other 
 wires, is ornamented with horizontal incisions; the wire baskets are 
 decorated with four horizontal plates ornamented with vertical incisions ; 
 to the middle of the upper part of the baskets are soldered the ear-rings, 
 which are flat at the top and decorated with incised vertical and hori- 
 
486 
 
 THE THIRD, THE BURNT CITY. 
 
 [Chap. VII. 
 
 zontal strokes. To the lower part of the baskets is soldered a gold plate 
 decorated with linear patterns ; and to this latter are soldered 6 rings, 
 from which are suspended as many long chains ornamented with leaves 
 
 No. 822. No. 823. 
 
 size. Nos. 822-828. Two Gold Ear-rings, •with long pendants ; Gold Beads; a large lump of melted Gold, 
 Depth, 30 ft.) with traces of Charcoal in it, and a bronze Battle-axe. (Nearly 3 : 5 actual size. Depth, 30 ft.) 
 
 of lancet form, in precisely the same way as those of the TrXetcrr] avaBeo-fiij, 
 No. 687, with the sole difference that the leaves are here larger. A large 
 double leaf of lancet form is suspended at the end of each chain. The 
 length of each of these ear-rings with the pendants is 10 in. 
 
 I 
 
Chap. VII.] 
 
 OBJECTS IN THE THREE TREASURES. 
 
 487 
 
 The necklace No. 824 consists of 70 quadrangular gold beads. The 
 large gold beads, Nos. 825 and 826, are in the form of whorls. No. 827 is 
 a lump of melted gold weighing 97'30 grammes, or a little less than 3 oz. 
 troy. Several pieces of charcoal are visible in it: a large one is seen in front. 
 No. 828 is a bronze battle-axe, similar to those we have passed in review. 4 
 The thieves asserted that they had found the battle-axe together with one 
 of the treasures. No. 829 is a gold bracelet, 3 in. in diameter ; it is merely 
 bent together. At the place where the two ends join is a soldered plate 
 of oval form, decorated with incised linear patterns. Nos. 830 and 831 
 are two ear-rings in the form of serpents ; they are hollow, and have been 
 punched out of thin plates of gold and soldered. On the thick end was 
 soldered a thick quadrangular bead, and on it a grain of gold in the form 
 of a button. On the upper and lower parts three rows of small holes were 
 punched, into which were soldered small grains of gold ; to the thinner 
 end of the serpents was soldered the ear-ring proper. Nos. 832 and 833 
 
 No. 832. No. 833. 
 
 Nos. 830, 831. Gold Ear-rings, in the form of serpents. Nos. 832, 833. Pendants of Gold. (3 : 4 actual 
 
 (3 : 4 actual size. Depth, 30 ft.) size. Depth, 30 ft. 
 
 are gold pendants, consisting alternately of leaves and chains made in 
 the same manner as those of Nos. 685 and 686, which we have explained 
 above (pp. 455, 456). At the end of each is suspended a figure similar 
 in shape to those of No. 687 (p. 457). As already stated, there are four 
 of these pendants or hangings. 
 
 Both thieves concur in their statement that the other part of the 
 treasures, which was melted down, contained, amongst other jewels, a pair 
 
 4 See Nos. 806-809. 
 
488 
 
 THE THIRD, THE BURNT CITY. 
 
 [Chap. VIL 
 
 No. 834. 
 
 No. 835. 
 
 of golden ear-rings with long pendants, like Nos. 822 and 823, and a very 
 large round plate of gold with most curious signs engraved on it. The 
 loss of this latter object grieves me more than anything else. 
 
 Of gold ear-rings of an identical shape with those figured under Nos. 
 830 and 831, I found one at a depth of 30 ft. in a large bundle of 25 silver 
 bracelets, which were cemented together by the chloride of silver : this 
 bundle contained also 4 or 5 ear-rings of electrum, in form like Nos. 
 752 to 764. 
 
 The pretty golden hair or breast pins, Nos. 834 and 849 (p. 489) 5 were 
 found by me in my north-western trench, at a depth of from 46 to 48 ft., 
 
 exactly 16 ft. below the 
 great Hellenic wall attri- 
 buted to Lysimachus. The 
 stratum of the third, the 
 burnt city reaches at this 
 point much deeper than 
 usual, and the two brooches 
 certainly belong to it. 
 No. 834 is 3 in. long and 
 very massive, consisting, 
 according to Mr. Carlo 
 Giuliano, of gold 23 carats 
 fine. It is ornamented with 
 a quadrangular plate of 
 gold, 1J in. long and 0*7 in. 
 broad, the lower side of 
 which is soldered on a 
 band of gold, which has 
 been turned at both ends 
 into spirals with 7 wind- 
 ings. On the top has been 
 soldered another flat gold band, on which again are soldered 6 vases of 
 solid gold, each with 2 handles, placed in such a way that each vase 
 is turned with one handle towards the front ; the covers of these vases 
 are circular. The surface of the plate is divided by five vertical flat 
 bands, soldered on it, into four vertical fields, each of which is filled up 
 with a spiral ornament made of thin gold wire and soldered on. These 
 ornaments are identical with those found by me in the third royal tomb 
 at Mycenae ; 6 but to enhance the beauty of this ornamentation the 
 Trojan goldsmith, or whosoever may have been the maker of this brooch, 
 has taken care to represent the spirals in two columns with their heads 
 upwards, and in two others head downwards. The 6 little gold vases 
 have exactly the shape of the terra-cotta vase No. 261, if we suppose 
 its three feet removed. 
 
 I found the other gold brooch, No. 849, hardly 1 ft. distant from 
 
 Nos. 834, 835. Brooches of Gold. (3 : 4 actual size. 
 From the Trojan stratum.) 
 
 5 I am obliged occasionally to refer the reader to other pages on account of the grouping of the 
 cuts according to the taste of the engraver. 6 See my Mycenae, p. 196, Nos. 295, 296. 
 
Chap. VIL] 
 
 ORNAMENTS OF GOLD. 
 
 489 
 
 No. 834; it is somewhat longer, but lighter and simpler. Its upper 
 end is ornamented with a solid gold ball, both below and above which is 
 a spiral decoration, precisely like a Mycenean ornament, 7 with the sole 
 difference that here each spiral has only four turns. The top ends in 
 
 No. 836. 
 
 No. 838. 
 
 No. 837. 
 
 Nos. 836-850. Gold Ornaments : Beads for Necklaces, Ear-rings, Ear-rings with pendants, Hair-rings, and Brooches. 
 (About 3 : 4 actual size. Depth, about 26 to 23 ft.) 
 
 an object which has a large flat cover, and looks much like a screw ; but 
 on closer examination we find that it is merely ornamented all round 
 With six horizontal parallel incisions. 
 
 7 See my Mycenae, p. 196, No. 295. 
 
490 
 
 THE THIRD, THE BURNT CITY. 
 
 [Chap. VII. 
 
 Another treasure was found by me on the 21st October, 1878, at a 
 depth of 26 ft. 5 in., in the presence of seven officers of H.M.S. Monarch, 
 to the north-east of the royal house (in the place marked r on Plan I.), in 
 a chamber of the buildings which may have been its dependencies. It was 
 in a broken wheel-made vessel of terra-cotta, containing a good deal of 
 powder, chiefly snow-white, but here and there bluish, which lay in an 
 oblique position, about 3 ft. above the floor, and must have fallen from an 
 upper storey. The jewels consisted of 20 gold ear-rings, of which 16 
 are precisely similar to those found in the large treasure, which are repre- 
 sented under Nos. 694 and 695. The other 4 ear-rings, of which No. 840 
 is one, are similar in form to those given under Nos. 830 and 831. 
 There were also 4 very pretty gold ornaments, of which I represent 
 3 under Nos. 836, 838, 853. Precisely similar gold ornaments were found 
 by me in the third royal sepulchre at Mycenae. 8 They must have been 
 used for necklaces, as they have in the middle a long tubular hole. They 
 were made in the following manner : — To each end of a small gold tube 
 were soldered two thin gold wires, which were on either side turned five 
 times round, and the spirals thus formed were soldered together, the 
 outside twist of each being also soldered to the tube. Of the like pattern 
 is the gold hairpin No. 848, from the top of which runs out on either side 
 a gold wire, forming spirals with 4 turns. Of a similar pattern is 
 another gold hairpin, No. 850, the top of which is ornamented with a 
 solid gold ball, and with spirals on both sides : on the ball is soldered 
 a piece of round gold wire, covered with a round plate, so that the object 
 resembles a bottle. 
 
 There was also found a very large quantity of gold beads of the various 
 shapes represented under Nos. 851 and 854-858, as well as of those 
 
 No. 851. No. 853. No. 852. 
 
 Nos. 851-853. Objects of Gold and Cornelian for necklaces. 
 (About 3 : 4 actual size. Depth, 26 to 28 ft.) 
 
 found in the large Treasure and represented under Nos. 708-738 (p. 460). 
 The shape of the buttons on the necklace No. 858, of which Nos. 859 
 and 860 are two separate specimens, were found here for the first time. 
 They are made of gold plate, hammered out in the shape of a boss, and 
 
 8 See my Mycenae, p. 196, Nos. 297, 299. 
 
 / 
 
Chap. YII.J 
 
 ANOTHER TREASURE DISCOVERED. 
 
 491 
 
 in the centre of the hollow an ear is soldered; the row of dots is of 
 punched work. To this treasure belonged also the bracelets of electrum, 
 
 Nos. 861 and 862. The former is composed of three turns ; it is 016 in. 
 thick, and so small that it could only fit a child's arm. To this bracelet 
 
492 
 
 THE THIKD, THE BURNT CITY. 
 
 [Chap. VII. 
 
 one of the gold ear-rings had been fused in the great conflagration, as 
 well as a large number of the gold beads, and parts of a necklace of 
 
 Nos. 861, 862. Two Bracelets of Electrum, to one of which a large number of silver rings and gold beads, also a gold 
 ear-ring, were fused in the conflagration, and have been firmly attached together by the cementing agency of 
 the chloride of silver. (3 : 4 actual size. Depth, 28 ft.) 
 
 small silver rings, which are also cemented together by the chloride of 
 silver ; all these objects form, as it were, one solid mass with the bracelet. 
 
 The little treasure further contained 11 silver ear-rings of the same 
 form as Nos. 694, 695 (p. 460), and 754-764 (p. 462), except one which 
 resembles a pair of tongs. This latter is attached by the chloride of silver 
 to another silver ear-ring, and to two gold beads. Of the other silver ear- 
 rings also, four are cemented together by the chloride in one packet, and 
 three in another. There are, besides, 20 parts of necklaces, like Nos. 863 
 
 No. 863. 
 
 Nos. 863, 864. Parts of Necklaces, consisting of innumerable silver rings 
 cemented together by the chloride of silver and strung on sticks of ivory. 
 (3 : 4 actual size. Depth, 28 ft.) 
 
 and 864, consisting of innumerable silver rings, each 0*28 in. in diameter, 
 which are stuck together by the cementing action of the chloride. They 
 are strung on pieces of a substance which I believe to be ivory, and 
 
 / 
 
Chap. VII.] 
 
 TWO MOEE SMALL TREASURES. 
 
 493 
 
 my lamented friend Dr. Edward Moss (in 1878 of H.M.S. Research) fully 
 confirmed this. All the parts of necklaces form curves, and seem to have 
 retained the shape they had when in use. In one instance two of these 
 parts of necklaces are cemented together by means of a silver ear-ring. 
 I further counted 158 similar silver rings, either single or joined by the 
 chloride. In a like manner there were also many parts of necklaces 
 composed of silver beads, cemented together by the chloride, to which are 
 attached numerous gold beads. I further mention a cylindrical bar of 
 electrum, l-9th in. long, as well as a hairpin of the same metal, which I 
 represent under No. 865 : it has nearly the common form of the bronze 
 brooches, being in the form of a nail with a globular head. 
 
 To the west of the gate visitors see the longest wall of the house of 
 the king or town-chief. It runs parallel with the great city wall (see 
 Plan I., of Troy), and is 53 ft. 4 in. long and 4 ft. 4 in. high. Near the 
 north-western extremity of this wall, and just 3 ft. above the ground, 7 
 I found in a layer of grey ashes two more small treasures, both contained 
 in broken hand-made terra-cotta vases, with a good deal of the same white 
 powder which I noticed in the other treasure. Of these vases, the one lay 
 in an oblique, the other in a horizontal position, from which circumstance 
 I conclude that both had fallen in the catastrophe from an upper part 
 of the house ; the orifices of the two nearly touched each other. The 
 vase which lay in a horizontal position contained 6 round and 4 oval 
 beads of cornelian, like those under No. 852 (p. 490) ; a flat plain gold 
 frontlet, having at each end three perforations for stringing them together ; 
 43 large globular gold beads, like those under No. 856 (p. 491), and innu- 
 merable small gold beads of various shapes ; the gold bar No. 866, with 
 18 perforations, apparently for suspending ornaments, probably chains 
 with pendants ; a gold plate, ornamented with zigzag lines and crowns of 
 tolerable intaglio-work, but, either by the action of the fire or by the 
 hand of man, this plate has been folded together four or more times, 
 and, as it is very thick, it is impossible to unfold it with the hand. 
 
 No. 866. 
 
 No. 866. Object of Gold for suspending ornaments. 
 Nos. 867-872. Six Lumps of Gold. 
 
 (3 : 4 actual size. Depth, 28 ft.) 
 
 There were also large and small lumps of gold, Nos. 867, 868, 869, 870, and 
 871 ; also a very large one, No. 872, which seems to have been inten- 
 
 7 At the point marked t on Plan I. 
 
494 
 
 THE THIED, THE BURNT CITY. 
 
 [Chap. VII. 
 
 tionally melted into the shape of a bell : to this lump has been fused 
 in the conflagration a good deal of silver, now turned into chloride. I 
 have also to mention a nugget of silver, which latter has turned into 
 chloride, to which are cemented ten gold beads of different forms; a 
 long quadrangular gold wire, almost in the form of an ear-ring ; 14 gold 
 ear-rings of the common Trojan type, like Nos. 694, 695, 754-764 ; a 
 gold ear-ring in the form of a serpent, like Nos. 840, 841 (p. 489) ; and a 
 gold ear-ring in the shape of an inverted vase, to the mouth of which a 
 gold wire with 21 windings is soldered (see No. 844). There was also a 
 gold ear-ring with a plain pendant and two pointed ends, so that it could 
 be put through the ear by either of them; further, a pretty gold ear- 
 ring, in the shape of No. 817, formed of 14 gold wires, which had been 
 bent over in the form of a basket and soldered together ; the inner side 
 had then been smoothed and polished. On one of the external sides it 
 is ornamented with one row, on the other with two rows, of 5 rosettes, 
 with one rosette at the top. To the lower part is soldered a small gold 
 plate, ornamented with five triangles between two lines — all of intaglio- 
 work ; and below each triangle is a perforation : from each of these latter 
 is suspended a gold chain, covered with 16 gold double leaves orna- 
 mented with dots, and at the end of each chain hangs a gold ornament, 
 much like a Trojan idol, but terminating in four leaves decorated with 
 dots. This and all the other articles of gold and silver I can unfortunately 
 only show as they are ; for, except the spirals and rosettes, which occur 
 frequently in Mycenae, and also abundantly in Assyria and Babylonia, 
 nothing like these Trojan gold articles has been ever found elsewhere. 
 Professor Sayce thinks the ornamentation with rosettes to have been 
 invented in Babylonia, to have passed into the handiwork of the Phoeni- 
 cians, and to have been brought by them to the West. 8 
 
 I further mention an ear-ring of electrum, ornamented with a little 
 crown, in which is fixed a pendant, apparently of silver, for it is much 
 destroyed by the chloride ; to this latter object have been cemented a 
 silver ear-ring and innumerable silver beads : also a pendant of electrum, 
 to which are attached numerous gold and silver beads : also about ten 
 silver ear-rings, all cemented together by the chloride, and covered with 
 gold beads, which likewise stick firmly to them ; these ear-rings have the 
 usual Trojan shape (see Nos. 694, 695, 754-764) : also a gold disc with 
 18 incisions. Close to the two vases with the jewels there lay embedded 
 in the ashes a bronze battle-axe, 9^ in. long, of the common Trojan shape 
 (see Nos. 806-809 and 828), and two of those strange weapons repre- 
 sented by Nos. 816 and 817 (p. 482). 
 
 Only 3 ft. from this discovery, but on the house-wall itself, and at a 
 depth of 26 ft. below the surface, there was found another and larger 
 treasure of bronze weapons and gold jewels : 9 these latter again more or less 
 embedded in the same sort of white powder. The weapons consisted of two 
 lance-heads, like Nos. 803 and 804, a knife like No. 964 (p. 506), and two 
 small weapons like Nos. 816 and 817— all fused together in the conflagra- 
 
 3 Contemporary Review, December 1878. 
 
 2 The place where this treasure was found is marked S on Plan I. 
 
Chap. VII.] 
 
 ANOTHER LARGER TREASURE. 
 
 495 
 
 tion ; further, a battle-axe, like those previously described ; also a broken 
 copper vessel, with many gold beads cemented to the oxide on its surface. 
 It contained the two heavy gold bracelets Nos. 873 and 874, each of which 
 weighs nearly as much as 18 sovereigns, and is, according to Mr. Giuliano, 
 of the fineness of 23 carats. They are almost an inch broad, and consist of 
 a thick gold plate, which on No. 873 is piped with gold wire, on No. 874 
 
 No. 873. 
 
 Nos. 873, 874. Gold Bracelets, found on the wall of the Royal House. (7 : 8 actual size. Depth, 26 ft.) 
 
 with silver wire. The outside of the former is divided by four vertical rows 
 of three rosettes in each, into four nearly equal fields, which are filled up 
 by two rows of the spiral ornamentation which we see on the Mycenean 
 jewels ; 10 and, to enhance the beauty of the bracelets, the primitive artist 
 has taken care to represent the ornament in one row with the head up- 
 wards, and in the other with the head downwards. The one row contains 
 8, the other 9, of such spiral ornaments ; there is, besides, a vertical row of 
 four of them, and thus all round the bracelet there are 72 such ornaments, 
 made of gold wire and soldered on the plate. The ornamentation of the 
 other bracelet, No. 874, is almost identical with this, the only difference 
 being that, instead of rosettes, the vertical columns are filled with beads. 
 These vertical columns, of which 5 are to the right of the spectator, 4 to 
 the left, and another 4 on the other side, are bordered by vertical gold 
 wires soldered to the plate of the bracelet. In each central column there 
 is a border of double wires. Each of these vertical columns has 8 rings, 
 except one which has only 7 ; thus they contain 103 rings altogether. 
 The number of spiral ornaments is 54, there being 18 in each field. I may 
 also mention large lumps of melted gold, one of which is similar to the 
 gold nuggets found in mines ; also a lump of gold, evidently cut from a 
 bar, similar to Nos. 869 and 870. 
 
 Together with these objects was found the lower half of one of those 
 large Trojan goblets of terra-cotta with two handles (SeVa a/jL(f)CKV7reWa), 
 
 10 See my Mycenae, p. 196, No. 295. 
 
496 
 
 TEE THIRD, THE BURNT CITY. 
 
 [Chap. VII. 
 
 from which 16 bars of gold protruded, each being 4*33 in. long, and 
 having from 52 to 60 horizontal incisions. 
 
 I represent here under Nos. 875-877 three of these gold bars. I 
 
 mis Saaasiai 
 
 Nos. 875-877. Three Bars of Gold, with 52 to 60 horizontal incisions. (About 7 : 8 actual size. Depth, 26 ft.) 
 
 again ask, if the 6 blades of pure silver (Nos. 787-792) are not Homeric 
 talents, have we to recognize the latter in these 16 gold bars ? Professor 
 Koberts, of the Koyal Mint, who kindly analysed a portion of one of 
 them, writes to me the following note on the subject : — 
 
 " A very small portion cut from the end of one of the gold rods was 
 scraped clean and submitted to analysis, the weight of metal examined 
 being 2*536 grains. It was found to contain 65*10 per cent, of gold and 
 33*42 per cent, of silver, together with minute traces of lead, copper, and 
 iron, but the amount of these metals collectively does not exceed 1*5 per 
 cent. The alloy of which the talent is composed is, therefore, electrum." 
 
 Having pulled these 16 bars out of the goblet, I found below them two 
 pairs of very heavy gold ear-rings, of which I have represented one pair 
 under Nos. 842 and 843 (p. 489). Each of them is made of 40 gold wires, 
 soldered together, beaten round, and cut out in the upper part, so as to 
 have the shape of a crown, in the middle of which was soldered the hook or 
 ear-ring proper, at first flat and ornamented with vertical incisions, and 
 tapering gradually to the point. On the inner side the wires were polished 
 to a smooth surface ; on the outer side of each ear-ring basket were soldered 
 four rows of 7 rosettes, making in all 28 rosettes on each, except on one 
 of them, which has only 27. To render the ear-rings more solid, a gold 
 wire, which may be easily discerned in places where it is detached, was 
 soldered all round the edges. To the lower part of each basket were 
 soldered two gold plates : on that in front we see, between an upper 
 border of two flat gold stripes and a lower one of a very narrow stripe, a 
 row of 18 beads soldered into grooves ; the other gold plate is not orna- 
 mented, as it was on the side of the head. To each of these plates are 
 fastened 8 rings, made of double gold wire, so that, as there are 16 rings, 
 we may with all probability suppose that to each of these ear-rings were 
 suspended 16 chains, which must, however, have been strung on thread, 
 because they have disappeared; but the many hundreds of gold beads 
 which have remained are silent witnesses to their splendour. The beads 
 are either quadrangular and ornamented with incisions, like those shown 
 at No. 855, or of round or oval form, like No. 857 or No. 721 ; or they 
 consist of long and very thin rings, like Nos. 894-897. 
 
 I represent the other pair of ear-rings under Nos. 881 and 882. 
 Both were made of gold plate, to either side of which were soldered 13 
 gold wires ; then the whole was turned round into the form of a basket, 
 the hook or ear-ring proper being soldered on the top in the middle, and 
 
Chap. VII.] GOLD EAR-KINGS AND OTHER JEWELS. 
 
 497 
 
 decorated at its lower end with 20 beads soldered into grooves. Each 
 side of both ear-rings was then decorated with 5 rows of 25 beads, soldered 
 
 878 879 880 
 
 Nos. 878-900. Three Rings for fastening and ornamenting the.tresses or locks of Lair, four richly ornamented 
 Ear-rings, and Beads for pendants and necklaces— all of g^ld. (3 : 4 actual size. Depth, 26 to 33 ft.) 
 
 into grooves, between 6 borders of double horizontal wires : thus there 
 were in all, on both sides of each ear-ring, 270 beads. Very simple 
 linear patterns are incised on both sides of the plate in the middle, 
 as well as on the plate soldered below : in this latter there are 5 holes 
 for suspending ornaments. M. Alessandro Castellani thinks that "the 
 primitive goldsmiths imitated the types of the Diademiae, the pseudo- 
 Diademiae, and the family of Echinae, covered as these aquatic creatures 
 are with a variety of lines and raised points. It is natural that artistic 
 decoration should derive its elements from surrounding nature." 11 
 
 Mr. Giuliano estimates the fineness of these two pairs of ear-rings to 
 be 23 carats. But the gold beads are of different degrees of fineness; 
 Mr. Giuliano considers some to be 20, others 18 or only 16 carats fine. 
 This agrees with the analysis made by Prof. Eoberts, who writes to me : 
 " 0*0910 gramme of gold beads were found by assay to contain 67*91 per 
 cent, of gold. A single bead, weighing 0*0920 gramme, of richer colour 
 than the rest, contained 75*8 per cent, of gold. The standard of these 
 beads varies, therefore, from 16 to 18 carats. In all the beads submitted 
 to me the colour of the surface of the metal appears to have been brought 
 out by artificial means, and it may be well to remember that the Japanese, 
 
 11 Alessandro Castellani, at the German Archaeological Institute in Rome, Jan. 3, 1879. 
 
 2 K 
 
498 
 
 THE THIRD, THE BURNT CITY. 
 
 [Chap. VII. 
 
 who employ an interesting series of gold alloys, use plum-juice vinegar 
 for this purpose." 
 
 There were further found in this treasure 9 simpler gold ear-rings 
 one of which, No. 837 (p. 489), is ornamented with four rows of two 
 spirals in each, resemhling those on the second Mycenean tomhstone. 1 
 Another, No. 879 (p. 497), has a pendant in the shape of a bell-clapper. 
 Three others have the usual Trojan form of Nos. 694, 695, and 754-764. 
 The remaining four, of which I represent two under Nos. 878 and 880, are 
 merely spirals with two twists, and, on closer inspection, I find both 
 extremities of them far too thick to be put into the lobe of the ear. 
 They must, therefore, have been used for holding together the locks of 
 the hair, and they may, in my opinion, perfectly explain the passage in 
 Homer : " Dabbled with blood were his locks, which might vie with the 
 Graces, and the braids twined with gold and silver." 2 I suppose the 
 curious ring No. 879, which has no point, could also not have been any- 
 thing else but an ornament of the hair. 
 
 I further collected from the Treasure two gold bars like No. 866, the 
 one with 18, the other with 20 perforations for suspending ornaments ; 
 also 45 gold buttons of a semi-globular form, like those marked Nos. 858, 
 859, 860, with an ear in the hollow and a border decorated with 25 dots 
 of punched work ; also a small plain hairpin, like No. 865, but with an 
 octagonal head. 
 
 I have still to mention another smaller discovery of gold, made by 
 me in November 1878, in my excavation on the north side of the hill, 
 exactly at the north-east corner of the brick wall. 3 It consisted merely of 
 a pair of heavy massive ear-rings, like No. 841, in the shape of a serpent 
 decorated with three rows of beads soldered into grooves, a small object 
 of silver with six perforations, and a silver plate of oval form measuring 
 2'4 in. in its broadest part : its length cannot be well determined, as it 
 has been folded in the fire and both ends are bent over, but it appears 
 to have been about 5 in. long. Together with these objects were found 
 hundreds of gold beads, among which are many in the form of leaves, 
 like No. 912, with tubular holes in the middle. Finally, I have to record 
 the finding of the pretty gold hairpin, No. 835 (p. 488), which exhibits 
 on each side a rosette with eleven flower-petals ; but this round part with 
 the two rosettes consists of two distinct gold discs with no punched work. 
 They were made in the following way : — A small semi-globular gold 
 plate was soldered in the centre, and around it a border of gold wire ; 
 then the leaves were formed of gold wire and soldered on symmetrically. 
 When the two discs had been thus decorated, they were joined by a 
 broad flat gold band, which projects slightly over both of them. Then 
 this double disc was soldered on the long pin, the upper part of which is 
 decorated with incisions. The pin was then stuck through a flat gold 
 band, which was soldered on both sides of the double disc, and coiled at 
 both ends into a spiral with three turns. The pin was further pierced 
 
 1 See my Mycenae, p. 81, No. 140. 3 See Plan I. (of Troy) and Sectional Plan 
 
 2 II. xvii. 51, 52 : III. H. 
 
 TTKoX^OI 0' Oi XP V<T V Te Kai Q-pyvpCp £o~<p7]KWVTO. 
 
Chap. VII.] 
 
 TWO MORE SMALL TREASURES. 
 
 499 
 
 through a small gold disc, which we see soldered below the gold band. 
 Lastly, a gold band was soldered on the top of the disc, and turned on 
 either side into spirals of five turns. 
 
 I have further to mention among the discoveries of 1878 the remark- 
 able silver dagger, No. 901, which was discovered in the royal house at a 
 depth of 28 ft. The good preservation of this object, its 
 horizontal lines and its black colour, would lead any one 
 to believe that it was of meteoric iron. But Professor 
 Eoberts of the Eoyal Mint, who scraped off a little of 
 the thin black layer with which the dagger is covered 
 and analysed it, proved it to be chloride of silver. I may 
 also state that the metal below the black layer is per- 
 fectly white ; there can, therefore, be no doubt that 
 Professor Koberts's analysis is correct, and that we have 
 here a silver and not an iron dagger. 
 
 Mr. Gladstone thinks the silver dagger must have 
 been a ceremonial weapon. It is 6 in. long, double-edged, 
 and pretty sharp. Near the lower end of the blade are 
 two openings, 0*53 in. long and 0*12 in. broad, which 
 have probably been made only for the sake of ornament. 
 The end of the long handle is bent round at a right 
 angle, which proves that it has been cased in wood ; 
 it can hardly have been cased in ivory, as all the ivory 
 I found in the burnt city is so well preserved. I have 
 to add that this silver dagger has 
 precisely the form of the daggers 
 found in the large Treasure (see 
 Nos. 811-814). We may probably 
 recognize another ceremonial weapon 
 in the gold arrow-head, No. 902, 
 which was found on the plateau of 
 the two large walls (the Tower). 
 
 Of precious metals, I also dis- 
 covered two small treasures during 
 my excavations in 1879. The first 
 of these was found in April, on the 
 north side of the hill, about 66 ft. outside the brick 
 city wall (see Plan I., of Troy, the place marked n a), 
 at a depth of only 13 ft. below the surface ; it lay on 
 a fallen house-wall, and had probably dropped from an 
 upper storey. As explained in the preceding pages, the 
 stratum of the third, the burnt city does not always 
 occur at the same depth below the surface: within the 
 precincts of the burnt city it is generally reached at a 
 depth of 23 ft., but, for reasons before explained, it is 
 also struck immediately below the foundations of the 
 Temple of Athene; and, on the north-east and east sides, outside the 
 brick wall of the burnt city, it generally occurs at so small a depth as 
 
 No. 902. Flat Piece of 
 Gold, in the form of an 
 Arrow-head. From the 
 Tower. (Nearly actual 
 size. Depth, 26 ft.) 
 
 No. 901. Dagger of 
 Silver, probably a cere- 
 monial weapon. 
 (Actual size. 
 Depth, 28 ft.) 
 
500 
 
 THE THIRD, THE BURNT CITY. 
 
 [Chap. YII. 
 
 No. 903. 
 
 12 ft. Visitors will have no difficulty in convincing themselves of this 
 fact in my trenches. At all events, this appears to be confirmed by the 
 shape of the gold ornaments contained in this small treasure, all of 
 which are perfectly similar to those found in the treasures discovered 
 near the royal house in the city proper, except the gold discs Nos. 903 
 and 904, of which three were found, and which now occurred here for 
 the first time. But similar gold discs were abundant in the royal 
 sepulchres of Mycenae ; where, in the third tomb alone, I collected 701 of 
 them. 4 No. 903 represents a pretty star flower within a small border, and 
 we see a similar one in No. 904 within a treble border, all in repousse- 
 
 work. It is difficult to 
 explain how the Trojans 
 produced such patterns. 
 Mr. Giuliano thinks 
 with Mr. Landerer that 
 the gold plate was laid 
 on a block of lead and 
 the ornamentation ham- 
 mered or pressed into 
 it. In the treasure was 
 also the gold breast or- 
 nament No. 905, which 
 is 18 in. long. The 
 upper part, in the form 
 of a basket, is 1*8 in. 
 long and 1J in. broad; 
 it consists of twenty- 
 five gold wires, which 
 were beaten flat, sol- 
 dered together, bent 
 over, and joined by 
 means of a small gold 
 plate, 0'12 in. broad, 
 and of two gold pins; 
 to the upper border 
 were soldered two gold 
 hooks, 2 Jin. long. One 
 side of the gold basket 
 is ornamented with 
 three rows of eleven 
 gold rings, and two 
 
 more such rings are seen on the lower part of the hooks. All these 
 rings were filled up with a substance like white glass, which seems 
 to have once had another colour, and may probably have been blue. 
 At the lowei end is soldered a gold plate, with ten holes, from which 
 ten chains hang down, consisting of double rings of gold wire, and on 
 
 Nos. 903, 904. Discs of Gold-leaf, ridily 
 ornamented. (About half actual size. 
 Depth, 13 ft.) 
 
 No. 905. Gold Ornatn n., probably 
 for suspending on the breast. 
 : 4 actual size. Depth, 13 ft.) 
 
 4 See my Mycenae, pp. 165-172. 
 
Chap. VII.] BIIEAST ORNAMENT, EAB-RINGS, ETC. OF GOLD. 501 
 
 each link is fixed a leaf of gold, 0*2 in. in diameter. Each gold chain 
 has 155 such links and 155 such leaves, and there are, consequently, 
 
 906 913 907 
 
 JS T os. 906-920. Ear-rings, Bracelet, Fillet, Bpads for necklaces, Ear-ring with pendant, all of gold. 
 (3 : 4 actual size. Depth, 26 to 33 ft.) 
 
 1550 double rings or links, and 1550 leaves. At the end of each chain 
 is suspended a gold idol of the usual form, with two eyes well indicated. 
 This ornament had not come under the notice of the labourers, and, with 
 
502 
 
 THE TH1KD, THE BURNT CITY. 
 
 [Chap. VII. 
 
 other debris, it had been put on the wheelbarrow to be shot over the 
 incline; but it was discovered by the keen eye of Professor Yirchow, 
 who lifted it from the wheelbarrow and saved it from certain destruction. 
 There were also found the fragments of seven much larger gold idols. 
 Another treasure was found by me, in the presence of M. Burnouf and 
 Professor Yirchow, at a depth of 33 ft. below the surface 
 (in the place marked v to the north of the place marked A 
 on Plan I., of Troy), on the slope of the great Trojan 
 wall, close to the house of the ancient town-chief or king, 
 and close to the spot where the large Treasure was found 
 in 1873. It consisted of two gold ear-rings, of which 
 I represent one under No. 920. Both have the usual 
 basket form, and are ornamented with three rosettes. 
 To the basket is soldered a gold plate, ornamented with 
 very simple incised linear patterns. To this gold plate 
 are fixed, on the one ear-ring five, on the other only four, 
 gold rings ; from which are suspended gold chains covered 
 with leaves. 
 
 I further mention the very large gold ear-rings of 
 the common form, Nos. 906 and 907, of which the latter 
 is ornamented with three rosettes : 
 — another gold ear-ring, just like 
 No. 920, but without pendants : — 
 two more small gold ear-rings of 
 the usual form, of which I repre- 
 sent one under No. 910 : — a small 
 gold ring, like Nos. 878 and 880, 
 for holding the hair locks or braids : 
 — one plain gold fillet, 21 in. long, 
 which I represent under No. 921 ; 
 it has at one extremity three per- 
 forations, and on the other one per- 
 foration, for fastening it round the 
 head : — nine gold ornaments with 
 four spirals, like Nos. 836 and 838 ; 
 and some smaller ones of the same 
 
 kind, like No. 909. Similar ornaments are very abundant 
 in the royal tombs of Mycenae. 5 
 
 This treasure further contained two very large and 
 heavy gold bracelets, of which I represent one under 
 No. 918. It consists of a very thick round gold rod, 
 having at one extremity only an ornament in the form of a flower- 
 button. In the treasure were also hundreds of gold beads, in the form 
 of rings or leaves, with a tubular hole, like Nos. 911-916, and 885-899 ; 
 the six silver ear-rings, No. 922, which are fastened together by the 
 cementing action of the chloride of silver, and to which also many gold 
 beads are stuck ; and the large silver spoon, No. 923, of good repousse- 
 
 No. 922. Six Silver Ear-rings, 
 fastened together by the ce- 
 menting action of the chloride 
 of s-ilver, many gold beads 
 sticking to them. (Half ac- 
 tual size. Depth, 23 ft.) 
 
 No. 921. Fillet of 
 Gold. (Half actual 
 size. Depth, 33 ft.) 
 
 5 Sec my Mycenae, No. 297. 
 
Chap. VII.] 
 
 SILVEE SPOON AND GOLD EAGLE. 
 
 503 
 
 work. Like the shield, No. 799, this spoon has in the centre a large navel- 
 like boss (d/jL(f)a\6s), surrounded by a furrow (avka^) and by a projecting 
 border. The handle has a floral orna- 
 mentation in intaglio; its end is per- 
 forated, and has a large ring for sus- 
 pension. The large size of this spoon, 
 and particularly its boss, make it pro- 
 bable that it had a sacred use, and was 
 employed for libations. Further, the 
 treasure contained the pretty gold fillet, 
 No. 919, which has two perforations at 
 each end. It is decorated, in punched 
 work, with a border of dots, 9 double 
 concentric circles, and 27 vertical rows 
 of clots. There were also found nine 
 gold ear-rings of the shape represented 
 by No. 917, which had never yet occurred 
 except of silver (see No. 122, p. 250). 
 They have the form of a primitive boat, 
 and consist of simple gold plate. The 
 two ends are turned round in the form 
 of spirals, and by the holes of the latter 
 they were suspended in the ear by means 
 of a thin gold wire. Each of these 
 boat-like ear-rings is ornamented with 
 21 dots made with the punch. There 
 are gold ear-rings similar to these in 
 the gold room of the British Museum, 
 but I could not find out where they came from. 
 
 I have further to mention gold rings with a spiral ornamentation like 
 No. 839 and No. 845, the thick ends of which can leave no doubt that 
 they served to fasten and ornament the hair-tresses. Also plain ear-rings 
 like No. 846, and ear-rings in the form of a serpent, with a granular orna- 
 mentation like Nos. 883 and 884. 
 
 Among the gold objects found I have finally to mention the pretty 
 eagle, which I represent in three different positions, under Nos. 924, 925, 
 926. Its form resembles a pigeon, but the head is decidedly that of an 
 eagle. It is nearly 2 in. long and If in. broad ; the tail has a breadth and 
 length of 0*6 in. It is made of two gold plates joined by two gold pins, 6 
 and presents an example of pretty good repousse-work. In the lower part 
 of the hollow belly (see No. 925) is a round hole, which makes it likely 
 that the eagle was fixed on an object of wood. The upper side is 
 ornamented with linear patterns of intaglio-work ; the wings and tail 
 have also an incised decoration on the reverse side. The ornamentation 
 of the wings reminds us of that of the double-headed eagle in the Hittite 
 sculptures of Boghaz Kioi and Eyuk. 
 
 6 This is the only instance at Troy in whiclr we see metal plates not soldered, but joined 
 with pins. 
 
 No. 923. Spoon of Silver, with a large oja^aXo? 
 in the middle. The handle is ornamented ; a 
 ring for suspension is attached to its end. 
 (Half actual size. Depth, 33 ft.) 
 
504 
 
 THE THIRD, THE BURNT CITY. 
 
 [Chap. VII. 
 
 No. 924. 
 
 Nus. 924-y26. eagle of Gold. (7 : 8 actual &ize. veyui, *u ft.) 
 
 At a depth of from 30 to 33 ft., immediately to the east of the royal 
 house, was found the remarkable bronze dagger, No. 927, which is 
 8*2 in. long, very well preserved, and of a dark grey 
 colour, just like iron. The blade is 4'2 in. long, and 
 nearly li in. wide at its thickest part. The handle is 
 quadrangular, and is decorated with incised triangles, 
 which makes it probable that it was not cased in wood. 
 The end of the handle is ornamented with a couchant 
 cow or ox with long horns. I hold with Mr. Gladstone 
 that this also was a ceremonial dagger, as, on account 
 of the cow, it seems too unhandy to have served for 
 common use. By the cementing power of the chloride 
 of copper there stick to this dagger five glass beads, 
 which are now white, but which have apparently once 
 been blue. Most certainly these glass beads have never 
 served as ornaments of the dagger ; they can only have 
 come in contact with it accidentally : but their presence 
 seems to prove that they were in general use here. But 
 were they imported by the Phoenicians or home-made ? 
 
 Under Nos. 928-930, 934-936, 940, 941, and 945, 
 I represent some of the common bronze pins or brooches, 
 which are found in large quantities in the burnt city, 
 and also frequently in all the other pre-historic cities of 
 Hissarlik ; they have a globular head, and were in use 
 before the invention of the fibula. Nos. 939, 947, and 
 951 are similar ; the only difference is, that the head is 
 here turned in the form of a spiral ; but this is hardly 
 visible, owing to the oxide or carbonate of copper with 
 which the brooches are covered. No. 932 is a brooch 
 No. 927. ^Dagger of with a double spiral. 
 inTefJ^rcow Nos - 931, 933, 942, 944, and 946 are primitive arrow- 
 with i«.ng horns, heads of bronze or copper. No. 937 is a fish-hook; 
 
 {Half actual size. -».-r /-» • -\ • 7 o i -\ • i-\ p 
 
 Depth, 30 to 33 ft.) No. 938, a curious object ot lead m the lorm 01 an ear- 
 
Chap. VII.] BRONZE BROOCHES, ARROW-HEADS, KNIVES, ETC. 505 
 
 ring, but, being far too thick to be stuck into tbe ear, it very probably- 
 served to fasten and ornament the hair. Nos. 943, 948, and 949 are 
 
 928 929 930 931 932 933 934 935 S36 
 
 Nos. 928-953. Primitive Brooches, Arrow-heads, a Punch, Rings, &c. of Bronze. (About half actual size. 
 
 Depth, 24 to 32 ft.) 
 
 rings ; No. 952 is a needle, and No. 953 a punch of bronze. Nos. 954 
 and 956 are bronze knives ; in the handle of the former may be seen one, 
 
 No. 954. No. 955. 
 
 Nos. 954-957. Knives, Arrow-head, and Lance-head of Bronze. (Half actual size. Depth, 52 to 32 ft.) 
 
 in that of the latter two round heads of the pins by means of which the 
 handles were fixed in the wooden casing. 
 
506 
 
 THE THIRD, THE BURNT CITY. 
 
 [Chap. VII. 
 
 No. 955 is the only bronze arrow-head with barbs ever found by me 
 in this third, the burnt city, all the other arrow-heads being of the shape 
 described before. But that similarly shaped arrow-heads were in use, 
 though without barbs, seems also to be proved by the mould No. 604, 
 which has the forms for casting them. 
 
 No. 957 is another lance-head of bronze. In its handle may be seen 
 two pin-heads, by which it was fastened to the shaft. No. 958 is a bronze 
 battle-axe, with a perforation for the handle. Only four were found by 
 me of the like shape, and all of them in the burnt city. Similar 
 battle-axes of bronze have been found on the Island of Sardinia, and are 
 preserved in the Museum of Cagliari. 6 Numerous battle-axes of a similar 
 
 958 
 
 Nos. 95S-964. A Battle-axe perforated in the middle, two common Battle-axes, three Knives, and another 
 instrument— all of bronze. (1 : 6 actual size. Depth, 23 to 33 ft.) 
 
 shape, but of pure copper, were found in Hungary. 7 Nos. 959 and 960 
 represent two more of the bronze battle-axes of the common Trojan shape. 
 Nos. 961, 962, and 964 are bronze knives ; No. 963, a pointed implement 
 of bronze. 
 
 Under Nos. 965 and 966 I represent two bronze knives of a 
 remarkable form; both run out into a spiral. No. 965, which is 
 single-edged, has evidently had its handle encased in wood; No. 966 
 is double-edged : the singular shape of its handle makes it hardly 
 possible that it can have been cased in wood. Mr. Basil Cooper calls 
 my attention to the exact Egyptian type in the form of these two 
 knives. I represent under No. 967 one more one-edged knife of the 
 common form. The Trojan knives had in no instance the shape of our 
 present pocket-knives ; they were much longer, had handles of wood, and 
 were worn attached to the belt, as we see in Homer. 
 
 No. 968 is again a bronze lance; in its lower end may be seen the 
 
 6 See Vincenzo Crespi, 11 Museo d'Antichith di prehistorique dcs Musees de Province Ct dcs Collec- 
 Cagliari; Cagliari, 1872, PI. ii. Nos. 4, 5, 6. On tionsparticulieresde la Hongrie, Buda-Pesth, 1876, 
 the same plate we also see represented, under pp. 139, 140, Nos. 146, 150, 152; and Joseph 
 No. 7, a mould, with a bed for casting a similar Hampel, Antiquite's pre'historiques de la Hongrie, 
 battle-axe. Esztergom, 1876, PI. vii. Nos. 4, 7, 8, 9, 10, 13, 
 
 7 See Joseph Hampel, Catalogue de V Exposition 14, 15. 
 
Chap. VII.] 
 
 BKONZE KNIVES AND LANCE. 
 
 507 
 
 holes for the pins by which it was fastened in the shaft. It was picked 
 up by the side of one of the two entire skeletons of men, which I found in 
 the room of a house to the east of the plateau of the Tower, immediately 
 
 96G 
 
 Nos. 965-967. Three Bronze Knives, of which two are of a very remarkable form. 
 No. 965. Actual size. Depth, 24 ft. No. 966. Actual size. Depth, 24 ft. No. 967. 2 : 3 actual size. Depth, 23ft. 
 
 to the north of the nine jars (see Plan L, of Troy, the place marked e s), 
 and which appear to be those of warriors, as they had helmets on their 
 heads. One of the skulls was fractured, the other was uninjured; but 
 
 No. 968. Bronze Lance of a Trojan Warrior, found beside his Skeleton. (Half actual size. Depth, 23 ft.) 
 
 this latter was also fractured on its way to London. Professor Yirchow, 
 who kindly recomposed both skulls and made the accompanying excellent 
 geometrical drawings of them (Nos. 969-972 and Nos. 973-976), has sent 
 me the following interesting note. 
 
508 THE THIED, THE BURNT CITY. [Chap. VII. 
 
 "Dimensions of the Two Skulls 
 
 (in Millimetres). 
 
 
 
 Nos. 969-972. 
 
 Nos. 973-976. 
 
 Length of the skull ... , 
 
 Greatest breadth of the skull 
 
 Auricular height 
 
 Breadth of the frontal bone at its base 
 
 Height of the face 
 
 Breadth „ 
 
 „ of lower jaw 
 
 Orbit, height 
 
 „ breadth 
 
 Nose, height 
 
 „ breadth 
 
 Height of the alveolar apophysis of the upper jaw 
 Horizontal circumference of the skull 
 
 193 
 
 132-5? 
 110 
 90 
 104-5 
 
 88? 
 
 47? 
 23 
 15 
 521 
 
 191 
 141 
 110 
 
 99 
 106 
 89 
 77 
 30 
 38 
 49 
 26 
 16 
 537 
 
 " From which the following indices may 
 
 further be calculated : 
 
 
 Nos. 969-972. 
 
 Nos. 973-976. 
 
 Longitudinal index 
 
 Auricular index 
 
 Nasal index 
 
 Orbital index 
 
 68-6 
 56-9 
 48-9 
 
 73'8 
 
 57-5 
 53-0 
 78-9 
 
 No. 969. 
 
 
 No. 970. 
 
 
 Nos. 969-972. Professor Virchow's geometrical drawing of the skull of one of the two warriors found, with helmets 
 on their heads and a lance-head, in the room of a house of the burnt city. (Depth, about 26 ft.) The defi- 
 ciencies replaced by gypsum are indicated by oblique lines. 
 
Chap. VII.] 
 
 SKULLS OF TROJAN WARRIORS. 
 
 509 
 
 "The skull Nos. 969-972 is evidently that of a male; judging from 
 the good preservation of the teeth-crowns, it belongs to a young man, 
 who, however, has had time to wear deeply down the edges of the incisors. 
 The forehead is broad ; the glabella moderately deepened. The vertical 
 curve (curve of the vertex) is long and well shaped, with a rapid falling 
 off of the occiput, which for the rest is rounded ; lambdoidal suture ser- 
 rated. The eyebrow projections are strongly developed ; maxillary bones 
 quite orthognathous ; the chin projecting, broad and angular. The middle 
 of the lower jawbone above the chin is inflected ; the upper alveolar pro- 
 cess very low. The upper part of the nose is narrow, the spine much deve- 
 loped. The face is somewhat coarse and narrow, with deep Fossae caninae. 
 
 No. 9J3. No. 974. 
 
 Nos. 973-9T6. Professor Virchow's geometrical drawing of the skull of the other of the two warriors found, with 
 helmets on their heads and a lance-head, in the room of a house of the burnt city. (Depth, about 26 ft.) The 
 deficiencies replaced by gypsum are indicated by oblique lines. 
 
 " The skull Nos. 973-976 is probably that of a young man, though it 
 has a very delicate appearance. The superciliary arches are slight ; the 
 frontal and parietal tubera distinct, but not strongly protruding ; the 
 teeth but little worn down. It is distinguished by a continuous frontal 
 suture and prognathism pretty strongly developed. Though almost the 
 whole occiput and the right side had to be artificially reconstructed, in 
 consequence of which the uncertainty of the measuring is great, yet the 
 
510 
 
 THE THIRD, THE BURNT CITY. 
 
 [Chap. VII. 
 
 chief results may be considered as trustworthy. On the whole, the skull 
 is narrow and high ; its greatest height is two finger-breadths behind the 
 coronal suture. Owing to the restoration, it broadens perhaps more than 
 is necessary towards the back and below. In the Norma temporalis it 
 appears high and long. The face is moderately high ; less coarse than 
 the preceding, but not pretty. The nose appears to be broad ; its back 
 especially is somewhat flattened at its beginning. The eye-holes are low ; 
 the Fossae caninae deep ; the incisors large ; the alveolar apophysis of the 
 upper jaw projects obliquely. The lower jaw is strong ; the chin broad 
 and projecting ; the alveolar part of the lower jaw is on the whole some- 
 what bent forward ; high processes ; low coronoid apophysis. 
 
 "While the two male skulls have many resemblances to each other, 
 they are essentially distinguished from the female skull (No. 147). This 
 is brachycephalic (index 82 1 5), while the two others are distinctly stamped 
 dolichocephalic, with an index of 68 * 6 in the first, of 73 • 8 in the second. 
 Probably their narrowness has been partly caused by the pressure of the 
 masses of earth which lay upon them, and somewhat higher numbers 
 ought to be taken ; but this makes no difference in the contrast between 
 the skulls. It is only in the prognathism that the skull Nos. 973-976 
 approaches the female skull No. 147, whilst the strongly orthognathic 
 skull Nos. 969-972 is in contrast with both. 
 
 " The question whether all three skulls belong to the same people, 
 is difficult to decide on account of such great differences. If the progna- 
 thism is regarded as an ethnological criterion, then the conclusion must 
 be that the male skull, Nos. 969-972, must belong to a people different 
 from the other two. On the other hand, it is evident that the form 
 of the skull indicates rather a relation between the two male skulls 
 than between them and the female skull. It is true that the female sex 
 inclines more to prognathism, and in many races the female calvaria 
 appears shorter and broader than the male ; but still the difference in the 
 cephalic index (82 • 5 — 73 * 8 = 8 ■ 7) is so considerable that it cannot be 
 referred to a mere difference of sex. Thus we are led naturally to the 
 question, whether we have not here before us the remains of a mixed race. 
 In this respect it must not be overlooked that all three skulls present in 
 a striking manner the appearance of the bones of a race in an advanced 
 state of civilization. Nothing of the savage, nothing massive in the 
 formation of the bones, no particularly strong development of the 
 apophyses of the muscles and tendons, can be observed. All the parts 
 have a smooth, fine, almost slender appearance. It is true that all 
 three skulls have belonged to youthful persons, or at least to persons but 
 little advanced in age, and many a protuberance would perhaps have been 
 further developed had they grown older. But with savage races the 
 bones acquire earlier a greater thickness and ruggedness, and it is there- 
 fore most natural to infer that the ancient owners of these heads belonged 
 to a settled people, who were acquainted with the arts of peace, and who, 
 through intercourse with distant races, were more exposed to being 
 mixed in blood. 
 
 " Of course these remarks can only be offered with great reserve, as in 
 
Chap. VII.] 
 
 CHARACTER OF THE SKULLS. 
 
 511 
 
 all three skulls decay had reached such a degree, that the recomposition of 
 the fragments, particularly of the face, by no means excludes the possi- 
 bility of arbitrariness. Each of the two male skulls has, under my 
 direction, been taken to pieces and recomposed six or seven times ; 
 nevertheless I cannot say that I am satisfied with the result. But 
 at last I have terminated the attempts at restoration, because, as large 
 pieces are missing, a certain arbitrariness on the part of the restorer 
 cannot be avoided ; besides, at least in the main points, it cannot be per- 
 ceived that a fresh restoration would give an essentially different result. 
 The dolichocephalism of the male and the brachycephalism of the female 
 skulls would surely as little disappear as the orthognathism of the one 
 and the prognathism of the two other skulls. 
 
 " The temptation is very great to make further suppositions regarding 
 the extraction of the individual persons and their social position. This 
 temptation, I believe, I must resist, because our real knowledge of the 
 craniology of ancient peoples is still on a very small scale. If it were 
 correct that, as some authors suppose, the ancient Thracians, like the 
 modern Albanians, were brachycephalic, we might perhaps connect with 
 them the people represented by the brachycephalic head from Hissarlik. 
 On the other hand, the dolichocephalism of Semites and Egyptians would 
 permit us to go with our dolicephalic skulls from Hissarlik to so distant 
 an origin. But if besides the skull index we take into consideration the 
 entire formation of the head and the face of the dolichocephalic skulls, the 
 idea that those men were members of the Aryan race is highly pleasing. 
 Hence I believe the natural philosopher should stop in the face of these 
 problems, and should abandon further investigation to the archaeologist." 
 
 The skull Nos. 977, 978, which was found in the third, the burnt city, 
 in a jar, together with ashes of animal matter, is, as Prof. Virchow 
 informs me, that of a woman, probably of a " young maiden. Its type 
 is a very characteristic female one : the bones are fine ; the form is 
 very pleasing. Corresponding to the pronounced dolichocephalic index 
 of 71*3 (greatest length 188, greatest breadth 134 mm.), the Norma 
 verticalis is long and oval ; the Norma temporalis extended, with a long 
 and somewhat flat vertex-curve. The auricular height is 111 mm. ; 
 according to this, the auricular index amounts to 57, which is a very low 
 measure. In the same way the Lambda-angle is low and very obtuse ; 
 the forehead low, falling off distinctly and rapidly from the vertex-curve ; 
 the orbital edges quite smooth. The Sutura frontalis is continuous. 
 Compared with the other skulls, we find a great contrast to the female 
 skull, No. 147, which is brachycephalic; but, on the other hand, a near 
 approach to the two male skulls, especially to Nos. 969-972. There can, 
 therefore, be no objection to join these three skulls in one group. In 
 connection with this it is not without importance that the new skull, as 
 well as the skull Nos. 973-976, has an open Sutura frontalis. 
 
 " Kegarding this skull, I can only repeat what I said of the first 
 skulls ; namely, that the bones give one the impression of a delicate, 
 civilized, settled population. If this population were pre-eminently a 
 dolichocephalic one, then we have the choice between Aryan, Semitic, and 
 
512 
 
 TEE THIRD, THE BURNT CITY. 
 
 [Chap VII. 
 
 perhaps Hamitic races. A definite decision on this point cannot yet 
 be made from a purely anthropological point of view, but I may say 
 that the last skull can hardly be distinguished in the midst of ancient 
 Greek skulls." 
 
 No. 978. 
 
 Nos. 977, 978. Skull found iu ajar, together with ashes of animal matter, probably human ashes, at a depth of 23 ft. 
 
 Professor Virchow kindly sent me also the following note on the 
 skeleton of a foetus which was found in a vase in the third or burnt 
 city : — " This skeleton is very defective, because there are only a few frag- 
 ments of the head, breast, pelvis, hands and feet. On the other hand, the 
 upper and lower extremities as far as the hands and feet are pretty 
 complete. Their bones give the following measurements : — 
 
 mm. mm. 
 
 " Os humeri ... 36 Os femoris . . .37 
 
 Ulna . . . .34 Tibia , 34 
 
 Radius . . . .31 Fibula . . . 33 
 
 " It may, therefore, be a foetus of from 6 to 7 months." 
 
 Unfortunately both the helmets, which were on these skulls, had been 
 so much destroyed by the chloride of copper, that they could only be 
 taken out in small fragments, which are too much corroded and too fragile 
 to be recomposed. 
 
 The upper portions of both helmets have, however, been well pre- 
 served ; and these parts form the ridge (</>a\o?), in which the horsehair 
 plume (\6</>o? tWoujot?), so frequently mentioned in the Iliad, was fixed. 8 
 In both cases the <£a\o? consists of two pieces, such as we have seen under 
 Nos. 795-798, and as I have recomposed them in No. 979. The reader 
 
 8 iii. 362 ; iv. 459 ; vi. 9 ; xiii. 132 ; xvi. 216. 
 
 Mr. Philip Smith says in his foot-note at 
 p. 281 of Troy and its Remains: "Few coinci- 
 dences have struck us more than the comparison 
 cf these helmet-crests with the frequent allusions 
 in Homer, especially where ' Hector of the 
 dancing helmet-crest ' (Kopv6alo\os"EKTwp) takes 
 off the helmet that frightened his child {11. vi. 
 469, foil.) : 
 
 rap^j](Tas x a ^ K & v T6 *8e \6(pov ImrioxaiTWi 
 
 Seivbv air aupoTarris K6pv6os vevovTa vo4]<xas. 
 
 ('Scared at the brazen mail and horsehair plume, 
 That waved terrific on the crested helm.') 
 
 "No such plumed helmets are found among the 
 remains of ' pre-historic ' barbarous races. The 
 skeletons, with the helmets and lances beside 
 them, bear striking witness to a city taken by 
 storm. In Homer, the Trojans, under the 
 command of the 'crested Hector,' are 'valiant 
 with lances ' {fie/xadres iyxe'fpaiv, 816- 
 818).'* 
 
Chap. VII.] 
 
 A TROJAN HELMET-CREST. 
 
 513 
 
 will see in the lower portion a round boss ; this is the head of the copper 
 nail by which the piece is transfixed : the point of the nail on the other 
 
 No. 979. (a) The upper and (b) lower pieces of a Trojan Helmet- 
 crest (c/xxAo?) placed together, (c) A small piece of the Helmet 
 remains adhering to the lower part of the Crest. A pin, 
 fastened to the front of the part b, mny be seen protruding on 
 the opposite side. (About ualf actual size. Depth, about 23 ft.) 
 
 No. 9^0. Great Copper Ring, found near 
 the Helmet-crest. (About half actual size. 
 Depjh, about 23 ft.) 
 
 side is merely bent round. As to the place into which the Xo</>o? 'nnrovpis 
 was inserted and fixed there can be no doubt, for the opening at the top 
 of the ridge can have served no other purpose. 9 By the side of one 
 helmet I found the copper ring No. 980, by the side of the other the 
 fragment of a similar ring. I am at a loss to say how these rings could 
 have been connected with the helmets. 
 
 Under No. 981 I represent six primitive bronze brooches, of which 
 only two have globular, the others flat heads. They had been stuck 
 
 No. 981. Six Bronze Brooches, stuck together in the hollow of a bone, and cemented together by the oxide or 
 carbonate of copper. (2:3 actual size. Depth, 26 ft.) 
 
 together into a hollow bone, and are consolidated by the cementing action 
 of the oxide or carbonate. This is the sole instance of brooches with flat 
 heads in the burnt city. 
 
 No. 982 marks an object of bronze in form like a small coin. On the 
 front side it is slightly concave, and represents in very low relief a little 
 figure, in which, by the help of what we have learned from those on the 
 whorls Nos. 1826, 1883, 1971, 1994, we see a man with uplifted arms. 
 On the reverse side this object is quite flat; we only see there a single 
 dot. I think that, with all its resemblance to a coin, this object cannot 
 be one, for nothing else like it has ever been found in any one of the 
 
 9 A similar contrivance is also seen on the gold bead and a gold ring. See my Mycenae, 
 helmet of a warrior in the intajlios of a Mycencan p. 174, No. 254 ; p. 223, No. 335. 
 
514 
 
 THE THIRD, THE BURNT CITY. 
 
 [Chap. VII. 
 
 pre-historic cities of Hissarlik. Besides, coined money was still unknown 
 even in the time of Homer. 
 
 No. 982. Object of 
 Bronze in shape of a 
 coin. (Actual size. 
 Depth, 23 ft.) 
 
 No. 983. Curious Object of a white substance, with three perforations. 
 (3 : 4 actual size. Depth, 26 to 33 ft.) 
 
 No. 983 is a very curious object of a perfectly white substance, with 
 traces of blue colour on the outside. It has nine semi-globular pro- 
 jections, a linear ornamentation, and at one end one perforation, at the 
 other two, by which it was pinned on another object. I, therefore, hold 
 it to have served as an ornament of a wooden box. In the fracture it has 
 quite the appearance of gypsum, and it is much softer and lighter than 
 Egyptian porcelain. As nothing like a similar paste has ever been found 
 by me, and also on account of its blue colour, which never occurs else- 
 where at Hissarlik, I think it to be of foreign importation. 
 
 No. 984 represents a plain perforated lentoid gem of cornelian, found 
 in the royal house ; its sole decoration is an incised line, which goes round 
 it lengthwise. A perfectly similar gem of cornelian, 
 found in a tomb at Camirus in Rhodes, is in the British 
 Museum. 
 
 I cannot conclude this chapter on the third, the 
 burnt city, without examining once more the question, 
 whether this pretty little town, with its brick walls, 
 which can hardly have housed 3000 inhabitants, could 
 have been identical with the great Homeric Ilios of 
 immortal renown, which withstood for ten long years 
 the heroic efforts of the united Greek army of 110,000 
 men, and which could only at last be captured by a 
 
 stratagem. 
 
 First, as regards the size of all the pre-historic cities, I repeat that 
 they were but very small. In fact, we can hardly too much contract our 
 ideas of the dimensions of those primeval cities. 
 
 So, according to the Attic tradition, Athens was built by the Pelas- 
 gians, and was limited to the small rock of the Acropolis, whose plateau is 
 of oval form, 900 ft. long and 400 ft. broad at its broadest part ; but it 
 was much smaller still until Cimon enlarged it by building the wall on 
 its eastern declivity and levelling the slope within by means of debris. 10 
 The Ionians, having captured the city, forced the Pelasgians to settle 
 at the southern foot of the Acropolis. According to Thucydides, Athens 
 was only enlarged by the coalescence of the Attic demi there (auvoiKior^) 
 
 No. 984. Plain Lentoid 
 Gem of Cornelian. 
 (3 : 4 actual size. 
 Depth, 28 ft.) 
 
 10 Paus. i. 28, § 3: Tfj 8e aitpoir6Xei, irX))v 
 '6<xov Klfioov (fKoSSfiriaev avrris 6 MiAriddov, 
 irepifiaXeTv rb Xonrbv Ae'yerot rov reixovs 
 TleAacryovs oiK{\<Ta.VTas ttotc virb tV aKpSirohiv • 
 
 (paal yap 'Ayp6\au Kal 'Yirepfiiov. wvvOauSfXfuos 
 5e onives ijcrav, ovBeu &K\o iSupd/xriu /xafletV, ^ 
 "SiKeXovs rb il-apxys ovtcls 'AKapvaviav /i€TOt- 
 
 Kr\(TCU, 
 
Chap. VII.] 
 
 WAS THIS CITY HOMER'S TROY ? 
 
 515 
 
 effected by Theseus. 1 In like manner Athens ('Adrjvai), Thebes (®>}/3£u), 
 Mycenae (Mu/cfjvai), and all the other cities whose names are of the 
 plural form, were probably at first limited to their stronghold, called 
 ttoXis, and had their names in the singular ; but the cities having been 
 enlarged, they received the plural name, the citadel being then called 
 Acropolis, and the lower town ttoXis. The most striking proof of this is 
 the name of the valley " Polis " in Ithaca, which, as I have shown above, 2 
 is not derived from a real city, or acropolis, — for my excavations there 
 have proved that this single fertile valley in the island can never have 
 been the site of a city, — but from a natural rock, which has never been 
 touched by the hand of man. This rock, however, having — as seen from 
 below — precisely the shape of a citadel, is for this reason now called 
 castron, and was no doubt in ancient times called Polis, which name has 
 been transferred to the valley. 
 
 The ancient Polis or Asty (darv) was the ordinary habitation of the 
 town-chief or king, with his family and dependants, as well as of the 
 richer classes of the people ; it was the site of the Agora and the temples, 
 and the general place of refuge in time of danger. We have traces of 
 this fact in the extended sense of the Italian castello, to embrace a town, 
 and in the Anglo-Saxon burh ; also, as Professor Yirchow suggests to me, 
 in the Slavish gard = hortus (Burgwall). "What, indeed," says Mr. 
 Gladstone, "have we to say when we find that, in the period of the 
 incunabula of Home, the Romans on the Palatine were probably faced by 
 the Sabines on the hill of the Capitol ?" 3 It is, therefore, not the small- 
 ness of the third, the burnt city, which can prevent us from identifying 
 it with the Homeric Troy, because Homer is not a historian, but an epic 
 poet. Besides, he does not sing of contemporaneous events, but of events 
 which happened probably 600 or 700 years before his time, and which 
 he merely knew from hearsay : — 
 
 7)fie?s 5e k\4os olov aKovo/xev, ouSe ti ifS/xer. 4 
 
 " If," as Professor Sayce observes, 5 " Greek warriors had never fought 
 in the Plain of Troy, we may be pretty sure that the poems of Homer 
 would not have brought Achilles and Agamemnon under the walls of 
 Ilion." Great national heroic poems always rest on the foundation of 
 great decisive national combats and definite regions which had become 
 famous for these combats. The whole of Greek antiquity, and at its head 
 the greatest of all historians, Thucydides, never doubted of such combats 
 at the entrance of the Hellespont. " The capture of Troy is," as M. 
 Lenormant says, 6 " one of the five or six primitive reminiscences of the 
 Greeks, which seem to refer to real facts, and which, in spite of the 
 exuberant mythological vegetation in the midst of which they appear, 
 throw into the dark night of the heroic ages a light on the successive 
 phases of growing civilization. Such are, the foundation of the kingdom 
 of Argos by the early Pelasgic dynasty of Inachus; its replacement by 
 
 1 Thucyd. ii. 15 : -rb 5e irpb tovtov 7) a.Kp6irokis 
 7] vvv ovaa tt6\ls 9jv, Kal rb vtt' o.vtt)v irpbs votov 
 f^d\i(TTa TeTpa.nfj.kuov. 2 See Introd. p. 46. 
 
 3 Homeric Synchronism, p. 39. 4 II. ii. 486. 
 
 5 Contemporary Review of December 1878. 
 
 6 Antiquites de la Troade, pp. 35, 36. 
 
516 
 
 THE THIRD, THE BURNT CITY. 
 
 [Chap. VII. 
 
 the new dynasty of Danaus ; the power of the monarchy of the Pelopids ; 
 and, in another part of Greece, the Phoenician colonization of Thebes. 
 The Greeks always considered these events as marking the principal and 
 decisive epochs of their primitive annals and their pre-historic traditions. 
 For the Trojan war there is a remarkable unanimity of tradition, a 
 unanimity too decisively marked not to be founded on a positive fact. I 
 am particularly struck by the constancy with which, in the midst of the 
 infinite divergence of the heroic legends of the Greeks, there is always 
 maintained the same space of time between the capture of Troy and the 
 Dorian invasion, which is placed a little less than a hundred years later, 
 and opens the historical ages." 
 
 In the catalogue of ships 7 the poet mentions " the lower Thebes " 
 ( f T7r o0Pj /3ai), because the upper town, the Cadmea, destroyed by the 
 Epigoni, had not yet been rebuilt. His mention of the lower town 
 only seems, therefore, to confirm another ancient tradition. 
 
 Mr. Gladstone writes : 8 "As to the question what light Schliemann's 
 discoveries throw upon the question, whether Troy had a real or only 
 a mythical existence, it is difficult to suppose that the mythical theory, 
 always wofully devoid of tangible substance, can long survive the results 
 attained. In the Plain where the scene of the Iliad is laid, upon the spot 
 indicated by the oldest traditions, which for very many centuries were 
 never brought into question, and which, as testifying to a fact the most 
 simple and palpable, were of high presumptive authority ; at a depth of 
 from 23 to 33 ft., with the debris of an older city beneath it, and of three 
 more recent successive towns above it ; has been found a stratum of 
 remains of an inhabited city, which was manifestly destroyed by a 
 tremendous conflagration." 
 
 As we have seen in the preceding pages, the third city of Hissarlik 
 perfectly agrees with the Homeric indications as to the site of Troy ; 
 and the fact, that there is no second place in the Troad which could 
 possibly vie with it, goes far to prove its identity, the more so as the 
 third city has, like the Homeric Ilios, been destroyed by the hand of 
 an enemy in a fearful catastrophe, which fell on it so suddenly that the 
 inhabitants had to leave even a large part of their treasures behind. In 
 this respect also the third city agrees with the Homeric description, 
 because the poet says : " Priam's city used to be far-famed for its wealth 
 in gold and bronze, but now the precious wealth has disappeared from its 
 houses." 9 If, therefore, in spite of its exhaustion by a long-protracted 
 siege, the third city of Hissarlik was still so rich that I could find in it ten 
 treasures, this is an additional proof of its identity with the poet's Ilios. 
 
 In proportion to the wealth and power of Ilium it was but natural 
 that the sudden catastrophe, by which this rich and famous capital of 
 the Trojan kingdom perished, should have made a very deep impression 
 on the minds of men, both in Asia Minor and in Greece, and that it 
 should at once have been taken up by the bards. But while, as Mr. 
 
 7 II. ii. 505 : 9 xviii. 288-290 : 
 
 o'L 6 "YiroO-nfSas eTx 0J/ > ivKT'ifievdV irroXUepoy. irpiv fx\v yap Ylpiafxoio ir6\iv fxfpo7res av9punroi 
 
 8 Homeric Synchronism, p. 20. naures fxvOea-KovTo iroKvxpv<jov ttoAvxc^kov • 
 
 vvv Se 5t> Qair6\w\z dofjiwv Ket^Ata KaAa. 
 
Chap. VII.] 
 
 HOMER'S KNOWLEDGE OF THE TROAD. 
 
 517 
 
 Gladstone says, the local features of the site and Plain of Troy were given 
 sufficiently for a broad identification, the bards handled them loosely and 
 at will in point of detail. They treated the Plain without any assumption 
 of a minute acquaintance with it, like one who was sketching a picture 
 for his hearers, boldly but slightly, and not as one who laid his scene in a 
 place with which he was already personally acquainted, and which formed 
 by far the most famous portion of the country he inhabited. The ruins of 
 the burnt Ilium having been completely buried under the ashes and debris, 
 and people having no archgeological desire for the investigation of the 
 matter, it was thought that the destroyed city had completely disappeared. 
 The imagination of the bards had, therefore, full play ; the small Ilium 
 grew in their songs, in the same proportion as the strength of the 
 Greek fleet, the power of the besieging army, and the great actions of the 
 heroes ; the gods were made to participate in the war, and innumerable 
 legends were grouped around the magnified facts. 
 
 I wish I could have proved Homer to have been an eye-witness of 
 the Trojan war ! Alas, I cannot do it ! At his time swords were in 
 universal use and iron was known, whereas they were totally unknown at 
 Troy. Besides, the civilization he describes is later by centuries than that 
 which I have brought to light in the excavations. Homer gives us the 
 legend of Ilium's tragic fate, as it was handed down to him by preceding 
 bards, clothing the traditional facts of the war and destruction of Troy in 
 the garb of his own day. Neither will I maintain that his acquaintance 
 with the Troad and with Troy was that of a resident ; but certainly he 
 was not without personal knowledge of the localities, for his descriptions 
 of the Troad in general, and of the Plain of Troy in particular, are too 
 truthful for us to believe that he could have drawn all his details from 
 the ancient myth. If, as appears likely, he visited the Plain in the ninth 
 century B.C., 10 he would probably have found the Aeolic Ilium already 
 long established, having its Acropolis on Hissarlik and its lower town on 
 the site of Novum Ilium. It would, therefore, be but natural that he 
 should depict Priam's Troy as a large city, with an acropolis called Per- 
 gamos, the more so as in his time every larger city had its Acropolis. 
 My excavations have reduced the Homeric Ilium to its real proportions. 
 
 I have never called in doubt the unity of the Homeric poems, and have 
 always firmly believed both the Odyssey and the Iliad to be by one author, 
 except perhaps— partly or entirely — the 24th Pthapsody of each poem, 
 on account of the contradictions they contain with the preceding text. 
 Besides — to use Mr. Gladstone's words, 1 — " If I consider how much learn- 
 ing and ingenuity have been expended in a hundred efforts (scarcely any 
 two of the assailants, however, agreeing except in their negative or revo- 
 lutionary criticism) to disintegrate the Homeric poems, to break up into 
 nebulous fragments the Sun of all ancient literature," — I think it idle on 
 my part to attempt a task already marked by so many failures ; and I 
 rest content with those immortal epics as they stand — the first-fruits of 
 the noblest literature of the world, and the fount of poetic inspiration for 
 all later ages. 
 
 10 Professor Sayce observes to me that, according to Euphorion and Theopompus, Homev was a 
 contemporary of Gyges of Lydia. 1 Homeric Synchronism, p. 7. 
 
\ 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 THE FOUETH CITY ON THE SITE OF TROY. 
 
 As we have seen in the preceding pages, the inhabitants of Novum Ilium 
 held, according to an ancient legend, that Troy, the city of Priam, had not 
 been entirely destroyed by the united Greek army under Agamemnon, 
 and that it had never ceased to be inhabited. This legend is certainly 
 confirmed by Homer, who, when Aeneas was on the point of being killed 
 by Achilles in single combat, makes Poseidon say : " It is fated that Aeneas 
 should be saved, in order that the race and the name of Dardanus may 
 not utterly disappear — Dardanus, whom Zeus loved most of all the sons 
 he begat of mortal women ; because the race of Priam has now become 
 odious to the son of Kronos : now, therefore, shall the mighty Aeneas reign 
 over the Trojans, and the sons of his sons hereafter to be born" 1 
 
 This legend has apparently been also confirmed by the criticism of my 
 pickaxe and spade, for — as visitors can easily convince themselves with their 
 own eyes — the south-eastern corner of the Third, the brick city, has not 
 been destroyed by the conflagration. I must further say that this legend 
 is also confirmed by the relics I have discovered, for— as the reader will see 
 in the succeeding pages — we find among the successors of the burnt city 
 the very same singular idols ; the very same primitive bronze battle-axes ; 
 the very same terra-cotta vases, with or without tripod feet ; the very same 
 double-handled goblets (Sewa a/uL<f)iKV7r€\\a) ; the very same battle-axes of 
 jade, porphyry, and diorite ; the same rude stone hammers and saddle- 
 querns of trachyte ; the same immense mass of whorls or balls of terra- 
 cotta with symbolical signs. The only difference is that, in general, the 
 pottery of this fourth city is coarser and of a ruder fabric ; and that we 
 find here an infinitely larger quantity of rude wheel-made terra-cottas 
 and many new forms of vases and goblets. Besides, the quantity of rude 
 stone hammers and polished stone axes is here fully thrice as large as in 
 the third city ; also the masses of shells and cockles accumulated in the 
 debris of the houses are so stupendous, that they baffle all description. 
 Visitors can best see them in the great block of debris which I have left 
 standing close to the " great tower." A people which left all their 
 kitchen-refuse on the floors of their rooms must have lived in a very low 
 social condition. 
 
 This low state of civilization seems also to be proved by the absence of 
 large city walls. The large stone walls built by the inhabitants of the 
 
 1 77. xx. 302-308 : ot eflev i^eyej/ovro yvvaiKwv re dvr)Tau)v. 
 
 . . . . fxopifxov 5e o'l icrr' aXtaaQai, fjSr) yap Upid/xov yever)v tfxQvp* Kpoviw 
 
 ocppa fir] aanep/xos yevcr] Kal &<pavTOS oKt]Tai vvv 8e 5r] AtVetoo j3i7j Tpweaffiv aud^et, 
 
 AapSdvov, tv KpovlS-qs irepl irdvTQtv <pi\aro Kal rraldwy 7rcu5es, rot Key /xeTdiriade yevwvrai. 
 iralSwv, 
 
Chap. VITL] 
 
 ITS FOUNDATIONS AND WALLS. 
 
 519 
 
 second city and used by the people of the third, the burnt city, as sub- 
 structions for their huge brick walls, were buried beneath the mounds of 
 ruins and debris produced by the conflagration ; and, as is amply proved by 
 the undisturbed state of these ruins and debris, the people of the fourth 
 city did not attempt to bring them to light and to use them. Visitors 
 can convince themselves of this by a glance at the accumulation of the 
 
 " * JEavement of the Gate A 
 
 No. 985. Accumulation of debris before the Gate. The form of the strata of debris indicates that after the great 
 conflagration the Trojans continued to go in and out on the same spot as before, although the paved road a was 
 deeply buried under the ashes. 
 
 calcined debris of the third city in front of the gate, because, as M. 
 Burnouf has ingeniously found out, and as he shows by the sketch which 
 I give here, the form of the strata of the burnt debris indicates that, 
 after the great conflagration, the inhabitants continued to go in and out at 
 the same place as before, although the paved road a was buried 10 ft. deep 
 under the ashes and debris. If a part of the old inhabitants remained in 
 the city after the conflagration, they certainly went in and out by the 
 same way, because they were accustomed to it. If the city were re- 
 colonized by another people, the new comers may have used the same road 
 because it was less steep and therefore easier, for everywhere else the 
 descent must have been at an angle of 45°, this being always the slope 
 the rubbish will adopt when shot from a height and left to itself, or, as 
 engineers say, its angle of repose. Besides, the road through the old 
 gate must, at a short distance, have joined the country-roads in the plain. 
 Thus the mere fact that the gate-road, though at a high level, continued 
 to be used by the inhabitants of the fourth city, neither proves that these 
 latter were the former people nor that they were new comers. 
 
 There were certainly walls of defence : as, for example, one, 6 \ ft. 
 high and 4 ft. thick, immediately to the north-west of the tower road, and 
 which seems to have run parallel with it down to the plain ; another, 
 20 ft. high and 5 ft. thick, built of large stones and earth, on the burnt 
 material which covered the west side of the great ancient wall to a 
 depth of 6 \ ft. ; further, an ancient enclosure wall, 5 ft. high, with a pro- 
 jecting battlement, on the north-west side of the hill ; and two more on 
 the south-eastern side, the one 5 J, the other 10 ft. thick, and nearly as 
 high. As all these walls are outside the precincts of the third city, and as 
 they are certainly pre-historic and are in the strata of debris of the fourth 
 city, I believe them to belong to it. As, however, they are so entirely 
 different in size, and as there is no continuity between them, I cannot 
 possibly regard them as parts of a city wall ; but I consider them to have 
 
520 
 
 THE FOURTH CITY ON THE SITE OF TEOY. [Chap. VIII. 
 
 been erected merely for the defence of certain special points. Now, if 
 the people of the third, the burnt city had continued to reside there, it 
 would appear wonderful why they should not have continued to surround 
 themselves with new brick walls of defence, for they had passed all their 
 lives within such brick fortifications, which could so easily have been 
 erected. But there is no trace of such city walls of brick. Neither is 
 there a trace of brick in the houses of the fourth city. As we have seen, 
 only the ground-floors of the third, the burnt city are of stones joined 
 with earth ; all the upper part of the houses was built of slightly-baked 
 bricks, rarely of mere clay. Now, if the Trojans had continued to reside in 
 their city, it is difficult to admit that they could have suddenly abandoned 
 their mode of architecture and have adopted a different one. But that 
 the architecture of the fourth city was a different one, is a fact of which 
 visitors can easily convince themselves in the great block of debris which 
 I have left standing. They will see there, in the strata of debris suc- 
 ceeding those of the burnt city, house- walls 10 or 12 ft. high, built of 
 stones joined with clay ; they will also see many such stone walls of this 
 height in my excavations to the east of the brick wall of the third city. 
 This would lead us to suppose that all the house- walls were built of 
 stones. This mode of architecture seems also to be proved by the very 
 large masses of loose stones which occur in the strata of the fourth city. 
 But as the people had neither planks nor tiles, it is more than probable 
 that, like the present inhabitants of the Troad, they covered in their 
 houses with terraces of earth. I readily admit that in many houses the 
 stone walls may have been superseded by walls of clay, for in that case 
 we should have no difficulty in explaining the thickness of the stratum of 
 debris of this fourth city, which is generally from 12 to 13 ft. deep. But 
 at all events no bricks, or traces of bricks, ever turned up there; and this 
 is the principal reason which gives the preponderance of argument 
 against our tendency to believe that this fourth city might have been 
 inhabited by the people of the preceding, the burnt city. 
 
 But on this point I differ from my friend Professor Yirchow, who 
 writes to me : "I do not dare to contradict, but I would maintain that the 
 present sun-dried bricks of the Troad are decomposed by air and rain with- 
 out leaving a trace of their shape. Had the fourth city been destroyed by 
 fire, the bricks would have been preserved longer. But this not having 
 been the case, I do not see how the fact that no trace of them can now be 
 found can militate against their former existence." 
 
 If the pottery of the fourth city does not differ much in shape from 
 that of the third, the burnt city, it certainly differs much from it in 
 colour and general appearance ; because the pottery of the fourth city has 
 been only half or less than half baked at an open fire, 2 whereas the pottery 
 
 2 Professor Vircnow remonstrates against my 
 belief that the pre-historic peoples baked their 
 pottery at an open fire, for he thinks they per- 
 formed this operation with animal dung in 
 closed pits. But I can so much the less accept 
 his theory, as he claims the same manipulation 
 for the baking of the large pithoi. But this is 
 
 contradicted by the fact that these latter are 
 always thoroughly baked ; whilst all the other 
 pottery, and even the very thinnest, whose clay 
 is not more than 0*003 or 0-00-4- thick, is baked 
 on an average only to one-third of the thickness 
 of their clay. 
 
Chap. VIII.] 
 
 POTTERY OF THE FOURTH CITY. 
 
 521 
 
 of the third city, after having passed through the same operation, has 
 been exposed to the intense heat of the conflagration, which in a very 
 great many cases has completed the thorough baking and has given to 
 it a much finer colour, except in cases where, the heat having continued 
 too long or having been too intense, the vessels have been more or less 
 destroyed by it. Thus we have before us, in this fourth city, a pottery 
 very inferior in fabric to that of the first and second cities, but a pottery 
 which would have been but slightly inferior to that of its predecessor, the 
 third city, had it not been through the accidentally superior baking of the 
 latter in the conflagration. 
 
 Under No. 986 I represent a pretty lustrous-yellow owl-headed vase, 
 of a globular shape but flat-bottomed, with the characteristics of a 
 woman and two wing-like vertical projections : the vulva, with its incised 
 cross and the four dots, is of special interest. Very interesting is also 
 the globular red vase No. 987, which has also a flat bottom, and on 
 
 No. 988. Terra-cotta Vase, with an owl's head, the No. 987. Curious Vase, with an owl's head, holding a 
 
 characteristics of a woman, and two wings. double-handled cup. 
 
 (1 : 3 actual size. Depth, 22 ft.) (About half actual size. Depth, 15 ft.) 
 
 which we see the large owl-eyes still more distinctly marked. The figure 
 has on its head a basin, which forms the orifice ; four necklaces are 
 indicated round the neck. In its hands it holds a double -handled cup, 
 which communicates by a hole with the principal vase. Owl-headed vases 
 
522 
 
 THE FOURTH CITY ON THE SITE OF TROY. [Chap. VIII. 
 
 of an identical shape also occur in the third city : the fragment repre- 
 sented under No. 228, p. 340, is the mouth-piece of a similar vase. 
 
 No. 988 is a pear-shaped lustrous-hlack vase, with wing-like vertical 
 projections, an owl's head, and the characteristics of a woman ; there is a 
 slight hollow in the vulva. Owl-vases of this shape are the most frequent. 
 Of the same colour and of nearly an identical shape, but much larger, is 
 the vase No. 989. Of the same colour is also the owl- vase No. 990, which 
 
 No. 989. Vase with an owl's head, the characteristics 
 of a woman, and two wing-like handles. (1 : 4 actual 
 size. Depth, 22 ft.) 
 
 has no vulva. Of still greater interest is the pear-shaped lustrous dark- 
 brown vase No. 991, which has an incised cross on the vulva, no vertical 
 projections, but two handles. Here the neck is plain, and was evidently 
 intended to be crowned with a cover on which the owl-head is modelled, 
 like that which I have put on it, but certainly not this particular one, as 
 it is too narrow. Of an identical shape and colour is the vase No. 992. 
 Of a very rude fabric is the pear-shaped yellow vase No. 993, on which 
 the characteristics of a woman are indicated by shapeless excrescences. 
 The usual wing-like projections, instead of being upright, are here bent 
 towards the neck of the vase ; the bottom is flat. All these vases are 
 hand-made. 
 
 To this fourth city also belong the idols Nos. 994 and 995 ; both 
 are very curious, as they approach nearer to the human shape than any 
 other of the stone idols. No. 994 is of fine white marble, and differs 
 
Chap. VIII.] OWL-FACED AND FEMALE VASES. 523 
 
 also from the other idols by its bulky form, approaching to the round ; it 
 has a rudely-incised owl-face. A necklace is indicated by a horizontal 
 stroke, and the hair by vertical scratches on the hinder part of the neck. 
 
 No. 991. Vase with two handles and the characteristics of a woman; cover 
 with an owl's head. (1 : 4 actual size. Depth, 13 ft.) 
 
 No. 993. 
 
 No. 992. Two-handled Vase, with the characteristics of a 
 woman. (1 : 4 actual size. Depth, 13 ft.) 
 
 Vase of Terra-cotta. (Hair actual siz. 
 Depth, 16 ft.) 
 
524 
 
 THE FOURTH CITY ON THE SITE OF TROY. [Chap. VIII. 
 
 The 
 body 
 
 Front 
 
 vulva is indicated, considerably below its natural place ; the whole 
 has been decorated, with formless scratches, which seem to have 
 no signification. I call attention to the 
 great resemblance of this idol to a Baby- 
 lonian image of the goddess Nana in the 
 
 Back 
 
 No. 997, 
 
 Marble Idol, with 
 l's face. (2 : 5 actual 
 Depth, about 16 ft.) 
 
 No. 996. 
 
 No. 995. Idol 
 of Slate. (2:5 
 actual size. 
 Depth, 13 ft.) 
 
 Nos. 996-998. Owl-faced Idols of Marble. (Actual size. Depth, 13 to 20 ft.) No. 996 has a girdle ; No. 997, 
 four necklaces; on No. 993 the owl's face is painted. 
 
 British Museum. The idol No. 995 is of slate and flat; of the face, 
 only the two eyes are marked. A necklace is indicated by two horizontal 
 strokes. Through the inability of the primitive artist, the breasts are 
 indicated on the shoulders, and. the vulva on the left side. 
 
 I have further to mention, as belonging to this fourth city, the marble 
 idols Nos. 996, 997, 998. On the first two the owl-head is rudely incised. 
 No. 996 has a girdle indicated by two horizontal strokes and three points. 
 No. 997 has on the neck four horizontal strokes, probably indicating the 
 necklaces. On the idol No. 998, the eyes and beak of the owl are rudely 
 painted with a black colour, probably with black clay. 
 
 No. 999 is a fragment of the side of a vase with an incised linear 
 ornamentation, on which we see the projection with a tubular hole for 
 
 No. ICO I. 
 
 Nos. 99^-100 1 . I ragments of Tottery, with inc'.sed ornamentation. (Nearly half actual size. Depth, 13 to 19 ft.) 
 
 suspension. No. 1000 is the fragment of a vase-handle ; No. 1001, the 
 fragment of a vase-neck, with a linear decoration. 
 
Chap. VIII.] 
 
 IDOLS AND SUSPENSION VASES. 
 
 525 
 
 Nos. 1002 and 1003 represent the upper part of a lustrous-black vase, 
 with a rude but very curious deeply-incised decoration. On No. 1002 we 
 
 No. 10C3. 
 
 Nos. 1002, 1003. Front and back views of a Vase-neck, with very curious incised signs and perhaps a man with 
 uplifted arms. (Half actual size. Depth, about 17 ft.) 
 
 see, perhaps, the very rude figure of a man with uplifted arms, whose 
 head is almost as large as the whole remainder of the body. I do not 
 attempt to explain the rest of the decoration. On No. 1003 the sign 
 in the middle resembles a written character. The clay of this vase-head is 
 
 No. 1006. Globular Vase, with tubular holes for 
 suspension. (1 : 4 actual size. Depth, about 19 ft.) 
 
 but very slightly baked. No. 1004 is a small vase with vertical tubular 
 holes for suspension. No. 1005 is a small pear-shaped vase of a blackish 
 
526 THE FOURTH CITY ON THE SITE OF TROY. [Chap. VIII. 
 
 colour, with tubular holes for suspension. No. 1006 is a globular lustrous 
 dark-brown vase, with a convex bottom and tubular rings for suspension ; 
 it has a breast-like excrescence in front. The vase No. 1007 is wheel- 
 made and of a dark-red colour ; its handles are in the form of spirals, 
 
 No. 1007. Vase with tubular holes in the handles for 
 suspension. (About 1 : 4 actual size. 
 Depth, about 19 ft.) 
 
 No. 1008. Vase with tubular holes for suspension. 
 (1 : 4 actual size. Depth, about 16 ft.) 
 
 and are perforated vertically for suspension with a string. No. 1008 is 
 pear-shaped, with a convex bottom and a long neck tapering towards 
 
 the mouth; on each side is a long 
 projection with a perforation for sus- 
 pension. Vases of this shape are very 
 frequent. No. 1009 is a pretty lustrous- 
 red wheel-made vase, with two handles 
 in the form of spirals, and between 
 them, on each side, a perforated pro- 
 jection for suspension; in the same 
 direction there are perforations in the 
 rim : the only ornamentation consists 
 of four impressed horizontal lines 
 round the neck. 
 
 No. 1010 represents a dark-red 
 hand-made vase, with a hollow bottom 
 and perforated projections for suspen- 
 sion on the sides ; there is besides, on 
 either side, a protuberance in the form 
 of a handle, but it is not really such. On the upper part of the body 
 we see all round the vase, between borders of incised lines and dots, a row 
 of strange signs, which may be written characters ; the neck of the vase 
 is fractured. No. 1011 represents this same vase from the other side, 
 and with a restored neck. I also give separately the supposed inscription 
 or mere decoration as copied by M. Burnouf (No. 1012). But Prof. Sayce 
 does not think it to be an inscription. Professor Virchow calls my 
 
 No. 1009. Vase with iwo handles and tubular holes 
 for suspension. (About 1 : 4 actual size. 
 Depth, about 19 ft.) 
 
Chap. VIII.] 
 
 VASE WITH CURIOUS CHARACTERS. 
 
 527 
 
 attention to some resemblance which he finds in the decoration of this 
 vase to that on a vase found in Eeichersdorf in Lusatia (Lausitz). 3 
 
 No. 1010. A Tt rra-cotta Vase, with two little ears 
 and two large perforated handles, marked with 
 eleven strange characters. (About 1 : 4 actual 
 size. Depth, about 18 ft.) 
 
 -4 
 
 No. 1011. The foregoing Vase, with a restored 
 neck. 
 
 No. 1013 is another suspension vase, 
 with a long neck decorated with four 
 incised horizontal lines ; the bottom is 
 flat. I repeat that all vases are hand- 
 made, unless I distinctly state the con- 
 trary. No. 1014 is dark-red, of a 
 globular shape, with a hollow foot and 
 a cylindrical neck. The neck is deco- 
 rated with horizontal, the body with vertical, incised lines: the pro- 
 jections on the sides are perforated for suspension. No. 1015 is a small 
 black globular suspension vase, with deeply incised spirals and wave- 
 lines. No. 1016 is a wheel-made globular lustrous-black vase, in the shape 
 
 3 This Lusatian vase is represented in the Sessional Report of the Berlin Society for Anthronoloau 
 Ethnology, &c., of July 15, 1876, p. 9. ' 
 
528 
 
 THE FOURTH CITY ON THE SITE OF TROY. [Chap. VIII. 
 
 of a bottle, with perforated protuberances for suspension ; it has round 
 the body an incised zigzag ornament, with accompanying dots. No. 1017 
 
 No. 1013. Vase with tubular holes for suspension 
 and incised bands. 
 (About 1 : 4 actual size. Depth, about 22 ft.) 
 
 No. 1014. Vase with linear ornamentation. 
 (About 1 : 4 actual size. Depth, 18 to 22 ft.) 
 
 is also a suspension vase of a dull yellow colour ; it is ornamented with 
 four parallel horizontal lines, forming three fields, which are filled up with 
 zigzag lines. No. 1018 is a little black tripod-vase with two handles, 
 
 No. 1015. Globular Vase, with tubular 
 holes for suspension and incised 
 ornamentation of spirals. (About 
 1 : 4 actual size. Depth, 13 ft.) 
 
 No. 1016. Vase for suspension, 
 with incised zigzag ornamenta- 
 tion. (1 : 4 actual size. Deptb, 
 19 ft.) 
 
 No. 1017. Vase of grey Terra-cotta, with perforated tubular holes on the 
 sides and holes in the rim for suspension. Incised zigzag 
 ornamentation. (Actual size. Depth, 16 to 20ft.) 
 
 and an incised zigzag decoration round the body. No. 1019 is a small 
 yellow tripod-vase of an oval shape, having perforated protuberances 
 
Chap. Mil.] DECORATED TRIPOD AND OTHER VASES. 
 
 529 
 
 for suspension on the sides ; it is decorated with incised vertical strokes 
 between horizontal parallel lines. No. 1020 is a one-handled pitcher, 
 
 No. 1019. 
 
 may be put down in 
 
 Nos. 1018-1021. Vases of various shapes, having an incised orn indentation. (About 1 : 4 turn. (1 : 4 actual 
 
 actual size. Depth, 16 to 19 ft.) size. Depth, 13 It.) 
 
 with an incised linear decoration ; No. 1021, a small suspension vase, 
 decorated with dots. No. 1022 is a very curious little yellow suspension 
 vase, with three different flat bottoms, on each of which it may be put 
 down in turn. 
 
 No. 1023 is a very pretty vase, whose surface is divided by five 
 parallel horizontal bands into four fields, filled with strokes, turned in 
 opposite directions. No. 1024 is a little vase, covered all over with a 
 very pretty incised ornamentation. 
 
 One of the most curious vases is No. 1025 ; it is a yellow tripod, and 
 has on each side a handle of spiral form, with a tubular hole for sus- 
 
 No. 1024. Vase dec.rated with incisions. No. 1025. Tripod Vase, with perforated projections for sus- 
 
 (Half actual size. Depth, about 20 ft.) pension, and a small Vase on its body. Linear ornamenta- 
 
 tion. (About 1 : 4 actual size. Depth, about 10 ft.) 
 
 pension ; just in front of the handle to the right of the spectator is a 
 small projecting jug, which does not communicate with the vase. The 
 vase is decorated on the neck with incised horizontal lines, under the 
 lowest of which may be seen incised vertical lines, below each of which 
 is a dot. 
 
 2 M 
 
530 
 
 THE FOURTH CITY ON THE SITE OF TROY. 
 
 [Chap. VIII. 
 
 No. 1026 is a lustrous-black tripod, of globular form, with perforated 
 projections for suspension ; the upper part of the body, as far as the 
 neck, is decorated with dots. No. 1027 is another globular black tripod, 
 
 No. 10H7. Tripod Vase, with tubular holes for sus- 
 jension and incised ornamentation. (1 :4 actual size. 
 Depth, about 22 ft.) 
 
 with large perforated projections for suspension ; the upper part of the 
 body has also a linear decoration. Another black tripod-vase for suspen- 
 sion is represented by No. 1028 ; the neck is decorated with impressed 
 horizontal furrows. A similar black suspension tripod is No. 1029, the 
 
 No. 1028. Tripod Vase, with tubuar holes for suspcn- No. 1029. Tripod Vase, with tubular hoi s for suspen- 
 sion. (About 1 :4 actual size. Dapth, about 16 ft.) sion. (About 1 : 4 actual size. Depth, about 22 ft.) 
 
 body of which has an incised wedge-shaped ornamentation. The black 
 suspension tripod No. 1030 again is similar to it, but has much longer feet. 
 
 No. 1031 is a wheel-made yellow vase-cover, having on each side a 
 perforation in the rim for suspension ; one of the holes is seen in front. 
 The most curious thing on this vase-cover is the three feet on its top, 
 which make us suppose that it was also used as a cup. At all events, 
 this tripod vase-cover is unique ; no second specimen like it has occurred. 
 No. 1032 is a wheel-made single-handled grey tripod, with long feet ; it 
 has ear-shaped protuberances in front and on both sides. Of an identical 
 
Chap. VIII.J 
 
 PLAIN TIlirOD VASES. 
 
 531 
 
 No. 1031. Vase Cover, with three feet and two tubular 
 holes tor suspension. (1:4 actual size. 
 Depth, about 19 ft.) 
 
 No 1030. Tripod Vasp, with holes for suspension. 
 (Nearly 1 : 3 actual size. Depth, about 19 it.) 
 
 No. 1032. Tripod with handle and three projecting 
 eat-like ornaments. (About 1 : 4 actual size. 
 Depth, 13 ft.) 
 
 No. 1033. Terra-cotta Vessel with three feet, a handle, 
 and two ear-like ornaments. (1 : 6 a:tual size. 
 Depth, 16 ft.) 
 
 No. 1035. Tripod Vase, with tubular holes lor suspen- 
 No.1034. Globular trip d, with tubular holes for suspen- s i n. (1 : 4 actual size. Depth, about 22 ft.) 
 
 sion. (1:4 actual size. Depth, 22 ft.) 
 
 shape is the tripod No. 1033. No. 1034 is a black globular bottle-shaped 
 tripod, with tubular holes for suspension. No. 1035 is a lustrous-black 
 
532 
 
 THE FOURTH CITY ON THE SITE OF TROY. 
 
 [Chap. VIII. 
 
 tripod- vase, with perforated projections for suspension : tripod- vases of 
 this shape are frequent. No. 1036. is a small tripod- vase for suspension, 
 and No. 1037 is a similar tripod-vase. No. 1038 is a red globular tripod 
 for suspension ; No. 1039, a red flat jug in the form of a hunting-bottle ; 
 No. 1040, a grey tripod oenochoe. No. 1041 is a red suspension tripod 
 
 No. 1036. Tripod Vase, with tubular 
 holes for suspension. 
 (Nearly 1 : 3 actual size. 
 Depth, about 22 ft.) 
 
 No. 1037. Globular Tripod, 
 with tubular holes. 
 (About 1 :4 actual" size. 
 Depth, about 22 ft.) 
 
 No. 1039. Flat Jug in form of a 
 hunting-bottle. (1:4 actual size. 
 Depth, about 19 ft.) 
 
 No. 1038. Globular Tripod, with 
 
 tubular holes for suspension. 
 (About 1 :4 actual size. Depth, 
 about 22 ft.) 
 
 No. 1042. Tripod, with tubular 
 holes for suspension. 
 (Nearly 1 : 3 actual size. 
 Depth, about 22 ft.) 
 
 No. 1041. Tripod Vase, 'with tubular 
 holes for suspension. 
 (About 1 : 4 actual size. Depth, 
 about 22 ft.) 
 
 No. 1044. Tripod Vase, with spiral 
 handles. (1:4 actual size. 
 Depth, about 20 ft.) 
 
 No. 1043. Tnpo i Pitcher. 
 (About 1 : 4 at tu il size. 
 Depth, about 22 ft.) 
 
 No. 1045. Rude Pitcher. 
 (1:4 actual size. 
 Depth, about 20 ft.) 
 
 with cover : a similar red tripod is seen in No. 1042. No. 1043 is a red 
 wheel-made tripod-pitcher; No. 1044, a dark-red tripod-vase, with handles 
 in the form of spirals ; No. 1045, a rude unpolished wheel-made pitcher, 
 of a form which is very abundant. No. 104C is a lustrous-black 
 single-handled globular oenochoe. with a long upright neck : this sort of 
 jug is very frequent. No. 1047 is a red one-handled wheel-made cup, 
 with two ear-like protuberances, and a breast-like projection in front. 
 
Chap. VIIL] 
 
 TRIPODS OF VARIOUS FORMS. 
 
 533 
 
 No. 1040. Tripod Oenochoe. 
 (1 : 4 actual size. Depth, 13 ft.) 
 
 No. 1016. Globular Oenochoe, with straight neck. 
 (1 : 4 actual size. Depth, about 22 ft.) 
 
 No. 1048 is a one-handled tripod-jug; No. 1049, a red tripod-vase, 
 with handles in the form of spirals. No. 1050 is a rude unpolished 
 wheel-made pitcher : this sort of pitcher is so abundant in the fourth 
 
 No. 1048. 
 
 No. 1049 
 
 No. 1050. 
 
 No. 1017. 
 
 Nos. 1047-1050. Tripod Vases and Pitchers. (1:4 actual 
 No. 1051. No. 1052. 
 
 Depth, 13 to 19 ft.) 
 No. 1053. 
 
 Nos. 1051-1U53. Rattle-box, Cup, and Tripod Pitcher. (1 : 4 actual size. Depth, 16 to 22 ft.) 
 
 city that I collected more than 400 of them. No. 1051 is a very rude 
 rattle-box, with pieces of metal inside; rattle-boxes of clay, but of 
 different shape, occur also in the Lake-habitations in the Lake of 
 Moeringen. 4 No. 1052 is a very rude cup; No. 1053, a very rude 
 tripod-pitcher. 
 
 4 V. Gross, Ecsultats des Eccherclies dans les Lacs de la Suisse occidental ; Zurich, 1876, PI \\\ 
 Nos. 3, 4. 
 
534 
 
 THE FOUETH CITY ON THE SITE OF TKOY. 
 
 [Chap. VIII. 
 
 No. 1054 is the lower part of a rude tripod-box ; it is here represented 
 head downwards ; it is on the same principle as the tripod-box Nos. 264-5, 
 p. 360. No. 1055 is a little pitcher without a handle. No. 1056 is a 
 small tripod-cup; No. 1057, a small vessel with a pointed foot, having 
 exactly the form of the large jars : a vessel of an identical shape was 
 found in the ancient settlement on the rock near Inzighofen. 5 No. 1058 
 is a small cup. Nos. 1059, 1061, 1062, 1064, 1066, 1067, 1075, 1076 are 
 small rude vases with perforated projections for suspension ; No. 1076 
 only is a tripod. Nos. 1060, 1063, 1065, 1070, 1072 are small, very 
 rude one-handled pitchers : the first of them (No. 1060) is decorated 
 
 No. 1034. No. 1057. 
 
 No. 1055. No. 105G. 
 
 No. 10G0. 
 
 Nos. 1051-1078. Lilliputian Tripod Vas2S, Pitchers, and Jugs. (1 : 3 actual size. Depth, 13 to 22 ft.) 
 
 with two parallel horizontal lines, between which the space is filled with 
 strokes. Nos. 1068 and 1073 are small one-handled cups. No. 1069 is 
 a small, very rude tripod-pitcher. The little pitcher No. 1071 has an 
 upright handle which joins the rim to the body, and a horizontal one 
 on the body. No. 1074 is a rude vessel with two holes for suspension 
 in the rim ; No. 1077, a rude little vessel with two straight projections ; 
 No. 1078, a'rude pitcher, with the handle broken off. Lilliputian vases, 
 jugs, cups, and pitchers like these (Nos. 1054-1078) are very abundant 
 
 5 L. Lindenschmit, Die Yatcrldndischcn Alterthiimcr, PI. xxvi. No. 5. 
 
Chap. VIII.] 
 
 AeVa a ncj)LKv it e\\a. 
 
 535 
 
 in this fourth and in the fifth pre-historic cities at Hissarlik, and appear 
 to have been used as toys for children. They are rare in the third, the 
 burnt city, and, when they occur there, they are of a better fabric, or at 
 least they are of a much neater appearance, which is no doubt due to 
 the intense heat they have been exposed to in the great conflagration. 
 
 No. 1079 is a one-handled lustrous-red pitcher, of a form which occurs 
 very abundantly in this fourth as well as in the burnt city. The same 
 
 No. 10T9. ritcher with one handle. (1 : 4 actual size. 
 Depth, 22 ft.) 
 
 shape rarely occurs in the fifth city, and is there generally of a ruder fabric. 
 No. 1080 is a very pretty wheel-made black double-handled goblet (SeVa? 
 
 No. 1031. Two-handled Goblet (SeVa; No. 1082. Goblet with two handles (Se'n-a? o/^t/cv- 
 
 a/A^HKimeAW). (1 : 4 actual size. Depth, 22 ft.) neWov). (1 :4 actual size. Depth, 22 ft.) 
 
 afifyacvTreXkov), in form like an hour-glass, decorated with four incised 
 lines round the middle. This form of goblet occurs solely in the fourth 
 
536 
 
 THE FOUKTII CITY ON THE SITE OF TROY. 
 
 [Chap. VIII. 
 
 and fifth cities ; it never occurs in the third, second, or first cities. 
 It is perhaps the prettiest of all the different sorts of heira afufiifcv- 
 ■reWa. It deserves attention that in the fourth city this sort of goblet is 
 of a black, in the following city generally of a red, colour ; it is always 
 
 wheel-made. Nos. 1081 and 1082 are 
 two more of the common red heira a/xc/u- 
 KvireWa, which I have discussed before. 
 Goblets of this shape are found here in 
 great abundance. They also frequently 
 occur in the following, the fifth city, but 
 they are there generally of a much 
 smaller size. Many of these long goblets 
 are hand-made, but there are also a vast 
 number of wheel-made ones ; and I think 
 I am near the mark if I express the 
 opinion that one-half of the whole number 
 are wheel-made. The remarkable red 
 double-handled goblet (heira^ afxtyLtcvireK.- 
 Xov), No, 1083, is hand-made ; its shape 
 reminds us of the form of the small white 
 bread (Semmel) used in Mecklenburg-Schwerin : this shape of goblet 
 occurs only once. No. 1084 is a pretty hand-made, double-handled lus- 
 
 Nb. 1083. Curious large two-handled Goblet 
 (SeVas aju.<£iKU7reAAoy). (1:4 actual size. 
 Depth, 13 to 20 ft.) 
 
 No. 1084. D< uble-handled Goblei, 
 points. (Nearly 1 : 3 actual size. 
 
 ornamented with 
 Depth, 16 ft.) 
 
 No. 1085. Cup w 
 (1 : 3 actual size. 
 
 th two handles. 
 Depth, 19 ft.) 
 
 No. 1080. Cup with two handles. No. 1087. Jug with f.vo handles. 
 
 (1 : 3 actual size. Depth, 16 ft.) (1:4 actual size. Depth, 22 ft.) 
 
 trous-red goblet, with 6 indented spots on either side : this same shape, 
 but without spots, is not rare. No. 1085 is a rude red hand-made cup, of 
 
Chap. VIIL] 
 
 RUDE TWO-HANDLED JUGS. 
 
 537 
 
 a similar shape; No. 1086, a frequently-occurring pretty hand-made one, 
 of a lustrous dark-brown colour. No. 1087 is a red wheel-made vase 
 with two handles ; No. 1088, a similar, but unpolished, very rude hand- 
 
 No. 10S8. Jug wiih two handles. 
 (1 : 4 actual size. Depth, 22 ft.) 
 
 No. 1089. Jug with two bandies. 
 (1 : 4 actual size. Depth, 13 ft.) 
 
 made one, of a thick clay. Another rude unpolished hand-made one is 
 No. 1089; and Nos. 1090 and 1091 are two larger lustrous-red hand-made 
 
 No. 1090. Vase with two handles. 
 (1 : 4 actual size k Depth, 16 ft.) 
 
 No. 1091. Jug with two handles. 
 (1 : 4 actual size. Depth, 22 ft.) 
 
 vases of a similar shape. No. 1092 is a dull black hand-made one, having 
 an incised linear ornamentation. To the same kind of jugs belongs also 
 the hand-made one, No. 1093, on which I have put a cover with a handle 
 running out into three spirals. 
 
 All these shapes of vessel, from No. 1088 to No. 1093, are frequent in 
 the fourth and third cities ; but more frequent than any other form is the 
 two-handled cup, No. 1094, which, as has been before said, only came into 
 use in this fourth city, for it only twice occurred as a tripod in the third, 
 the burnt city. These cups are so abundant that I collected more than 
 
538 THE FOURTH CITY ON THE SITE OF TROY. [Chap. VIII. 
 
 400 of them, yet I never found a single wheel-made one among them ; all 
 are hand-made, generally red, but very frequently also of a black colour. 
 
 No. 1092. Pitcher with two handles, and impressed 
 linear ornamentation. 
 (1 : 4 aetu vl size. Depth, about 22 ft.) 
 
 No. 1094. Cup with two handles. 
 (Half actual size. Depth, about 19 ft.) 
 
 No. 1093. Jug with two handles, and Cjver 
 in the form of a crown. 
 (1 :4 actual size. Depth, about 16 ft.) 
 
 On account of the abundance of these cups I believe them to have been 
 used also as wine-cups. I am not aware that double-handled cups ot an 
 
 No. 109 
 
 No. 1C96. 
 
 No. 1097 
 
 Nos. 1095-11C0. Six Cups, e,ch with one handle. (Nearly 1 : 3 actual size. Depth, 13 to 22 ft.) 
 
 identical shape have ever been found elsewhere, except in Mycenae, where 
 it^^oi Ln intiier^a tombs * But jus^as frequent as these 
 
 6 Sec my Mycenae, No. 349, p, 240. 
 
Chap. VIIL] 
 
 LARGE TWO-HANDLED BOWLS, 
 
 539 
 
 are the single-handled lustrous red or black hand-made cups Nos. 1095- 
 1100, and particularly the shapes of Nos. 1096 and 1099. All these 
 forms are also very frequent in the following, the fifth city, so that I have 
 been able to collect more than 500 of them. Frequent also, but far less 
 abundant than the form No. 1094, are the large double-handled cups, 
 
 Kb. 1101. Large Cup or Bowl, with two handles. (1 : 4 actual size. Depth, 16 ft.) 
 
 No. 1103. Globular Urn, with two handles. (1 : 4 actual size. Depth, 26 ft.) 
 
 Nos. 1101 and 1102, which are generally red, and are also always hand- 
 made. The red urn No. 1103, which has two handles, is also hand-made, 
 
540 
 
 THE FOURTH CITY ON THE SITE OF TROY. 
 
 [Chap. VIII. 
 
 No. 1104. Tripod Pitcher, with two handles. No. 1103. Double-handled Tripod Pitcher. (About 
 
 (1 : 4 actual size. Depth, 18 to 22 ft.) 1 : 4 actual size. Depth, about 22 ft.) 
 
 No. 1106. Tripod Cup, with two handles. (Nearly No. 1107. Tripod Cup, with two handles. 
 
 1 : 3 actual size. Depth, 13 to 20 ft.) (1 : 3 actual size. Depth, 18 to 22 ft.) 
 
 No. 1108. Terra-cotta Tripod Cup. (1 : 4 actual size. No. 1109. Small Vass with two handles. 
 
 Depth, 10 to 16 ft.) (1 •• 4 actual size. Depth, about 14 ft.) 
 
 No. 1110. Curious Tripod drinking Vessel, consisting 
 
 of three cups issuing from a circular tube. No. 1111. Tripod Vessel, consisting of a circular tube 
 
 (1 : 4 actual size. Depth, 13 ft.) witb four CU P S - C 1 : 4 actual size - De P tu > 20 fc -) 
 
 as are likewise the double-handled tripod-pitchers Nos. 1104 and 1105, 
 as well as the red double handled tripod-cups, Nos. HOG, 1107, and 1108. 
 No. 1109 is a vase with two handles, of a shape which often occurs. 
 
Chap. VIII.] 
 
 VESSELS OF VARIOUS FORMS. 
 
 541 
 
 No. 1110 marks a very curious lustrous-brown tripod-goblet, consisting 
 of a circular tube with three cups. This goblet could serve for three 
 persons sitting round a 
 table, each of whom could 
 drink from a separate mouth 
 of the goblet. A similar 
 vessel is indicated by No. 
 1111 ; it also consists of a 
 tube resting on three feet, 
 and having four cups, one 
 of which is larger than the 
 rest. No. 1112 is a large 
 rude urn with two handles, 
 of a common shape. No. 
 11 13 is a rare lustrous-brown 
 double-handled bottle, with 
 a rather flat body and a 
 convex bottom; No. 1114, 
 a globular two-handled red 
 vase with a hollow foot ; 
 
 No. 1115, a flat double- No ' 1112 " Large Urn (1 : 6 actual size " 
 
 No. 1115 
 
 Nos. 1115, 1116. Lentil-shaped Bottle and Jug. with two handles. 
 (1 : 4 actual size. Depth, ahout 16 ft.) 
 
 No. 1113. Lentil-shaped Bottle, with two 
 handles. (1 : 4 actual size. Depth, 
 18 to 22 ft.) 
 
 No. 1117. Vase with two handles, and projecting ornament 
 in the form of spectacles on either side. (1 : 4 actual 
 size. Depth, 19 ft.) 
 
 No. 1114. Globular Vase, with two handles. 
 (1 : 4 actual size. Depth, 18 to 22 ft.) 
 
542 
 
 THE FOURTH CITY ON THE SITE OF TROY. [Chap. VIII. 
 
 handled lustrous-red vessel in the form of a hunting-bottle, with a convex 
 bottom : such bottles are not rare here. No. 1116 is a vessel with a convex 
 bottom, and perforated projections on the sides for suspension. No. 1117 
 is a double-handled vase, decorated on either side with a projecting double 
 spiral : vases with the same spiral decoration are frequent in the third 
 and fourth cities. No. 1118 is a red double-handled vase of a common 
 shape, with a convex bottom : the bell-shaped cover is of a dark-red 
 colour; it does not belong to this particular vase. No. 1119 is a large 
 
 No. 1119. Vase wi'tli two handles anci long nock. 
 (1:5 actual size. Depth, about 22 ft.) 
 
 No. 1 1 2i. Vase with a vertical and a horizontal 
 handle. (1 : 6 actual size. Depth, 19 it.) 
 
 No. 1121. 
 
 Vase with a vertical and a hoiizonlal handle. 
 (1 : 4 actual size. Depth, 10 ft.) 
 
 unpolished double-handled vase mth a convex bo torn : va es o this 
 shape are common in this and in the preceding city. No. 1120 marks 
 a lar^e vase of a rude fabric, having one handle joining the neck to 
 
Chap. VIII.] TERRA-COTTA BOTTLES : VASE WITH A SPOUT. 543 
 
 the body, and a smaller handle on the opposite side. The rude vessel, 
 No. 1121, has its two handles in similar positions ; the foot is hollow, 
 and has two perforations. Vessels like these are very rare. No. 1122 is 
 a wheel-made black bottle ; its foot is convex, and almost pointed. The 
 grey bottle, No. 1123, is also wheel-made; its foot is hollow. No. 1124 is 
 a wheel-made black bottle with a pointed foot : similar terra-cotta bottles 
 are not rare here, but they do not occur in the subsequent city. 
 
 No. 1122. Terra-cotta Bottle with point d De P th ' about 19 ft 
 
 foot. (1 : 4 actual feize. Depth 22 ft.) 
 
 No. 1125 is a lustrous-brown wheel-made globular vase, with four 
 breast-like protuberances on the body ; the bottom is flat. A vase very 
 similar to this, found by Professor Yirchow in his excavations in the 
 graveyard of Zaborowo, is in his collection. The curious vessel, No. 1126, 
 
 No. 1126. Vase with spout. (About 1 : 4 actual size 
 Depth, 16 ft.) 
 
 has a globular base, and a spout in the upper part of the body. It is 
 wheel-made, but of a rude fabric. No second specimen of this shape 
 was found. 
 
 The terra-cotta plates of this fourth city are of two sorts. They are 
 
544 THE FOURTH CITY ON THE SITE OF TKOT. 
 
 [Cuap. VIII. 
 
 either wheel-made, and in this case they are always shallow, very rude, 
 often of irregular form, always unpolished, and perfectly similar in shape 
 to those of the third, the burnt city, of which I have represented some under 
 Nos. 455 to 4G8 (p. 408). Or they are hand-made, and in this case they 
 are from 2 to 2 J in. deep and nearly 8 in. in diameter, made with great 
 symmetry, well polished, and of a lustrous dark-brown or red colour ; 
 nay, on account of their depth they might rather be called bowls than 
 plates. They have generally no handle, but sometimes they have one, and 
 even two. There also occur double-handled bowls, 18 in. in diameter, and 
 from 7 to 8 in. deep. The wheel-made plates have always a flat bottom ; 
 the hand-made ones always a convex one. There also occur very rude 
 wheel-made tripod plates, with sieve-like perforations. I represent here 
 under No. 1127 a dark-brown hand-made plate or bowl of the usual form 
 with one handle, and under No. 1128 a hand-made lustrous-red plate of 
 a different shape, having a large cross painted with dark-red clay in its 
 
 Nos. 1127-1132. Bowls, Tripods, Bottle, and Y'ase of Terra-cotta. (1 : 4 actual size. Depth, 13 to 19 ft.) 
 
 hollow : this cross was evidently painted there before the plate was 
 baked. Similar deep dishes or bowls, but wheel-made, found in Cyprus, 
 are in the British Museum. The bottle, No. 1129, is hand-made. The 
 pretty tripod No. 1130 is wheel-made; the feet and the handle were added 
 after the upper vessel had been fashioned ; holes were made into which 
 they were stuck, and in which they were consolidated with clay. In all 
 vessels whose orifice was large enough to introduce the hand, the places 
 where the feet or handles had been stuck in were smoothed, so that 
 nothing appears of them on the inside of the vessels ; but in the vessels 
 with a narrow mouth the feet and handles were often left protruding on 
 the inside. 
 
 No. 1131 is another hand-made lustrous-red double-handled tripod- 
 
Chap. VIII.] 
 
 VASES OF FOREIGN ORIGIN. 
 
 545 
 
 cup; No. 1132, a hand-made vase of the same colour, with two handles; 
 No. 1133, a brown wheel-made jug, of a globular form, with one handle. 
 
 No. 1134. Curious lustrous- black Jug, having a 
 bottom with eleven perforations. 
 (Half actual size. Depth, 1G ft.) 
 
 No. 1134 is a very massive lustrous-black jug, having a flat bottom with 
 eleven perforations. Though but slightly baked, it is very solid; it has 
 
 Nos. 1135, 1136. Large Vessels of lustrous-black Terra-colta, with four handles. 
 (1 : 8 actual size. Depth, 14 to 20 ft.) 
 
 2 N 
 
546 
 
 THE FOURTH CITY ON THE SITE OF TROY. [Chap. VIII. 
 
 a trefoil orifice and a rope-like handle ; it has round the neck an incised 
 zigzag decoration, from which bands of a rude linear ornamentation 
 extend downwards, right and left. All these incised ornaments seem to 
 have been made with pointed flints ; they are filled in with white chalk, in 
 order to strike the eye. The peculiar sort of clay of this jug, its shape, 
 fabric, and deeply-incised decoration, are widely different from all that we 
 are accustomed to find here. I only found the very same clay and fabric 
 in the vase-head Nos. 1002 and 1003, in the terra-cotta ball No. 1993, and 
 in the vases Nos. 1135 and 1136. If the clay of which these five objects 
 were made, and the potter who made them, had belonged to Troy, we 
 should undoubtedly have found more specimens of such ware. I therefore 
 feel bold to attribute to these objects a foreign origin. 
 
 The vases Nos. 1135 and 1136 are 2 ft. 2 in. high, wheel-made, very 
 imperfectly baked, well polished, and of a lustrous-black colour. Very 
 characteristic are the four thin handles and the very wide protruding 
 border all round the orifice in both. The bottom is flat. Of this same form 
 only three vases were found ; it does not occur in any of the other cities. 
 
 No. 1137 is a rude hand-made one-handled yellow pitcher : No. 1138, 
 
 No. 1138. Jug with one handle. 
 (1:6 actual size. Depth, about 22 ft.) 
 
 a dark-brown hand-made jug or bottle, of irregular form, with one handle ; 
 its bottom is convex. All the following jugs (Nos. 1139 to 1147) are 
 wheel-made, except No. 1144, which is hand-made. Nos. 1139 and 1140 
 are one-handled yellow globular jugs. No. 1141 is a lustrous-red jug, 
 with a convex base and three handles, of which two are on the body 
 and one joins the neck to the body. The pretty little vase, No. 1142, 
 has four handles. No. 1143 represents a pear-shaped lustrous-yellow 
 oenochoe, with a convex bottom and a trefoil orifice ; it has a large handle 
 joining the neck to the body, and two small ones on the body. The red 
 hand-made vase, No. 1144, has a pointed foot and two handles; it has a 
 spiral ornament on each side. No. 1145 is a pretty red pear-shaped vase, 
 with three handles and a cover of crescent form, which reminds us of the 
 vase-handles of crescent form found in the Italian terramare; No. 1146, a 
 large dark-brown jug, with a convex bottom and three handles. This last 
 vase, as well as the three foregoing ones, were found in the large house which 
 
Chap. YIIL] 
 
 THREE-HANDLED VASES. 
 
 547 
 
 >• 1144. Lar-e double-handled Vase, with pointed foot. No. 1146. Vase with convex bottom and three handles. 
 
 O :4 actual size. Depth, about 20 ft.) (1 : 4 actual size. Depth, about 20 ft.) 
 
548 
 
 THE FOUKTH CITY ON THE SITE OF TEOY. 
 
 [Chap. VIII. 
 
 No. 1145. Vase with three handles, and Cover No. 1147. Oval Vase, witn lour handles, 
 
 ■with a handle of crescent form. (1:7 actual size. Depth, about 13 ft.) 
 
 (1 : 4 actual size. Depth, about 20 ft.) 
 
 was built on the top of the old royal house. No. 1147 represents, in l-7th 
 of its size, a large egg-shaped vase of a blackish colour, with four handles. 
 
 No. 1148 is a globular wheel-made lustrous-brown oenochoe, with a 
 flat base and a long upright neck ; it has three breast-like protuberances. 
 The red globular oenochoe, No. 1149, is likewise wheel-made; the bottom 
 is flat ; the mouthpiece is restored. The grey oenochoe, No. 1150, with 
 
 No. 1148. Globular Jug, with long No. 1149. Globular Jug ; mouthpiece No. 1150. Jug with long neck, 
 
 neck and breast-like projections. restored. (About l : 4 actual size. (About 1 : 4 actual size. 
 
 (About 1 : 4 actual size. Depth, about 22 ft.) Depth, about 15 ft.) 
 
 Depth, about 20 ft.) 
 
 a long neck, is hand-made. The pretty red tripod oenochoe. No. 1151, is 
 hand-made. The blackish oenochoe, No. 1152, is wheel-made. No. 1153, 
 again, is hand-made. No. 1154 is a pretty hand-made pear-shaped red 
 oenochoe, decorated with incised lines round the neck ; the mouth has a 
 trefoil shape, and so also has the mouth of the pretty red oenochoe 
 No. 1157. No. 1155 is also hand-made; but the red oenochoe, No. 1156, 
 
Chap. VII Ij 
 
 LONG-NECKED OENOCHOAE. 
 
 549 
 
 No. 1154. Oenochoe with straight neck. (Nearly No. 1155. OvalJug or Oenochoe. 
 
 1 : 4 actual size. Depth, 18 to 22 ft.) (Nearly 1 : 4 actual size. Depth, 19 to 22 ft.) 
 
 is wheel-made. The globular oenochoe, No. 1158, is wheel-made ; it has a 
 protuberance on the fore-part of the neck, and a small one on each side 
 of it : these protuberances may have been intended to represent a face. 
 All the following jugs or oenochoae, Nos. 1159-1169, are hand-mada 
 
550 
 
 THE FOURTH CITY ON THE SITE OF TROY. 
 
 [Chap. VIII. 
 
 No. 1163. Jus of globular form, with one handle. 
 V.1 : 4 actual size. P< p.h, about 13 ft.) 
 
 N,». 1164. Jug with long perpendicular neck. 
 (1 : 4 actual size. Depth, 19 ft.) 
 
Chap. VIII.] 
 
 JUGS WITH LONG UPRIGHT NECKS. 
 
 551 
 
 No. 1161. Globular Oenochoe, with straight neck. No. 1162. Globular Oenochoe, with upright neck. 
 
 (Nearly 1 : 4 actual size. Depth, 16 ft.) (About 1 : 4 actual size. Depth, 20 to 22 ft.) 
 
 No. 1159 is a pretty black jug, of a form which very frequently occurs. 
 The forms of the jugs or oenochoae, Nos. 1161, 1162, and 1163, are also 
 frequent, particularly the last. 
 
 No. 1165. Globular Jug, with a straight neck. No. 1166. Jug with long neck. (1 : 4 actual size. 
 
 (Nearly 1 : 3 actual size. Depth, 19 ft.) Depth, 18 to 22 ft.) 
 
 I have discussed in the preceding pages the different places where jugs 
 with a narrow upright neck, like Nos. 1164 to 1168, occur elsewhere, and 
 shall, therefore, not repeat what I have said. The black jug No. 1169, 
 again, is wheel-made ; it is decorated on the neck with three impressed 
 lines. All the following jugs, from No. 1170 to No. 1178, are hand-made. 
 
552 THE FOURTH CITY ON THE SITE OF TROY. 
 
 [Chap. VIII. 
 
 1:4 actual size. Depth, 18 to neck. (About 1 : 4 actual size. Depth, sizs. Depth, 13 ft.) 
 
 22 ft.) about 13 ft.) 
 
 Very curious is the shape of the blackish jug No. 1170, with its neck bent 
 backward and ornamented with a protuberance, its trefoil mouth, long 
 
 No. 1170. Jug of Terra-cotta, with spout in the No. 11 71. Remarkable lustrous-yellow Vessel, with 
 
 body. (2 : 3 actual size. Depth, 16 ft.) a small orifice (No. 1172) and a sieve-like bottom 
 
 (No. 1173). (About half actual size. Depth, 
 16 ft.) 
 
 No. 1172. Half actual size. 
 
 No. 1173. Hall actual size. 
 
Chap. VIII.] 
 
 JUGS WITH TWO SEPARATE NECKS. 
 
 553 
 
 handle, and the spout in its body. But still more remarkable is the 
 lustrous-yellow jug No. 1171, of which I represent under No. 1172 the 
 very curious orifice, and under No. 1173 the flat sieve-like bottom. 
 No. 1174 is a pear-shaped dark-red jug, with a hemispherical bottom and 
 two distinct upright necks. A similar but globular dark-brown jug with 
 a flat bottom is represented under No. 1175; it has also two distinct 
 
 No. 1174. Jug of oval lorm, with two distinct necks. No. 1175. Globular Vase, with two separate necks. 
 (Nearly 1 : 4 actual size. Depth, 18 to 22 ft.) (Nearly 1 : 4 actual size. Depth, 18 to 22 ft.) 
 
 upright necks, joined by a handle to the body. No. 1176 is a globular 
 yellow jug, likewise with two upright spouts ; but here the spouts stand 
 one before the other, so that, when the liquid was being poured out, it 
 could only run from the foremost (to the right in the engraving), and 
 thus the hinder one was of no use. These two conjoined spouts seem, 
 therefore, to have been only a fancy of the primitive potter, as we have 
 seen in the case of No. 358, p. 384. This particular shape of double spout 
 is unique ; other shapes of double-spouted jugs are not rare here, but, as 
 has been already said, they have never occurred elsewhere except in 
 Hungary and in Cyprus. 
 
 Very curious and unique is the red vase No. 1177, which has, both to 
 the right and left of its large mouth, a spout slightly bent forward ; the 
 cover which I have put on the large mouth may or may not have belonged 
 to it : this vessel has on each side a breast-like protuberance, which 
 cannot have been intended for a handle. No. 1178 represents a one- 
 handled jug of very coarse grey clay, covered all over with protuberances, 
 which may have been intended to imitate birds' feathers ; on either side 
 is an ear-like projection. 
 
 Under No. 1179 I represent one more of the common wheel-made 
 pitchers which are so abundant here. No. 1180 is a small hand-made, 
 one-handled basin ; No. 1181, a hand-made red pitcher with a very small 
 
554 THE FOURTH CITY ON THE SITE OF TEOY. [Chap. VIII. 
 
 No. 1176. Globular Vase, with two distinct necks. No. 1177. Vase with ihiee mouths and two handles. 
 (Nearly 1 : 4 actual size. Dspth, about 19 it.) (Abou; 1 : 4 actual size. Depth, 13 ft.) 
 
 No 1178. Jug of coarse grey clay, covered all over with No. 1181. Pitcher. No. 1182. Cup. (About 
 
 protuberances ; having one handle, and an ear-like pro- (About 1 : 4 actual size. 1 : 4 actual size, 
 
 jection on either side. (1:4 actual size. Depth, 20 to 22 ft.) Depth, 13ft.) Depth, 1G ft.) 
 
 handle. No. 1182 is a lustrous-red one-handled wheel-made cup : this 
 shape does not occur in the third, the burnt city, but it is very frequent 
 in the fourth as well as in the fifth pre-historic city of Troy. 
 
 No. 1183 is a one-handled red hand-made pitcher, with two breast-like 
 excrescences. No. 1184 is a one-handled wheel-made vessel of cylindrical 
 shape ; it is of very thick unpolished clay and very rude fabric : like the 
 vessels of this shape found in the third city (see No. 347, p. 381), it is 
 particularly massive and heavy in its lower part. The deep impressions 
 made by a rope may be seen in the handle of a similar specimen which 
 lies before me as I write ; I, therefore, readily accept the suggestion of 
 Mr. A. S. Murray of the British Museum, that, as in Ancient Egypt, 
 vessels of this sort may have served as buckets for drawing water from 
 the wells. 
 
Chap. VIII.] BUCKET AND CENSERS. 555 
 
 No. 1183. Pitcher with one handle, and No. 1184. Vessel of No. 1185. Censer of Terra-cot; a, of very 
 
 two breast-like projections. cylindrical shape. rude fabric. 
 
 (About 1 : 4 actual size. Depth, 19 ft.) (1 '-. 4 actual size. Depth, 22 ft.) (1 :4 actual size. Depth, 13 ft.) 
 
 The vessels Nos. 1185-1187 are also hand-made. No. 1185 is a very 
 rude brown, unpolished, but massive censer, with a hollow foot decorated 
 
 No. 1186. Globular Bowl, with one handle. 
 (1 : 4 actual size. Depth, 19 ft.) 
 
 with four lenticular perforations. This shape of vessel is unique. But 
 who knows whether the lustrous-black vessels of the first city, of which 
 only a vast number of feet have been found, had not a similar shape ? I 
 remind the reader that all those feet are hollow, and that, as in the censer 
 before us, they are decorated with large perforations. Professor Virchow 
 informs me that censers of a similar shape are found in tombs in Lusatia 
 (Lausitz) and in the duchy of Posen, and calls my attention to a censer 
 of this kind found at Keichersdorf, between the little rivers Neisse and 
 Lubs. 7 He has in his own collection some such censers, which he found 
 in the graveyard of Zaborowo, and many others, found elsewhere in 
 
 7 See the Sessional Bcport of the Berlin Society of Anthropology, Ethnology, &c. of July 21, 1877 
 p. 23, and PI. xvii. No. 7. 
 
556 
 
 THE FOURTH CITY ON THE SITE OF TROY. 
 
 [Chap. VIII. 
 
 Germany, are in the museums of Berlin. Under No. 1186 I represent a 
 large single - handled red globular bowl, with a hollow foot ; under 
 No. 1187, a single-handled red globular cup, with a convex bottom. 
 
 (About 1 : 4 actual size. Depth, 19 ft.) No. 1188. Vase of globular shape, 
 
 with two curved handles and two straight 
 ones in the form of wings. 
 (About 1 : 4 actual size. Depth, 13 ft.) 
 
 Gups of this shape are very common in the fourth and also in the fifth 
 cities. No. 1188 is a globular black vase, with a convex bottom and 
 two curved handles of the usual shape ; it is decorated, besides, with 
 two wing-like upright projections and with dots all round. Similar 
 vases, but of a light red colour, are not rare, but they are much more 
 frequent in the preceding city. No. 1189 marks a small hand-made 
 globular lustrous-black vase, with perforated projections on the sides 
 for suspension ; it is decorated on both sides with strokes. 
 
 No. 1191. Vase with two handles, covered with 
 sieve-like perforations. 
 (About 1 : 4 actual size. Depth, about 22 It.) 
 
 No. 1190 is a sieve or colander of terra-cotta, in the shape of a 
 bowl: like all the following sieve-like vessels, Nos. 1191 to 1196, it is of 
 
Chap. VIII.] 
 
 SIEVE-LIKE PERFORATED VASES. 
 
 557 
 
 coarse clay, unpolished and of rude fabric. Even if we could explain the use 
 of this sieve, we can hardly explain that of the sieve-like double-handled 
 
 3*0. 1193. Two-handled Globular Vase, the body of which is perforated all over. 
 (1 : 5 actual size. Depth, about 22 it.) 
 
 vessel No. 1191, which has the shape of a wine-cup, or of the perforated 
 vase No. 1192, or of the large double-handled sieve like perforated vases 
 
 No. 1194. Two-handled Vase, with sieve-like perforations. No. 1196. Cup, perlorated in ihe form oi a sieve. 
 (About 1 : 4 actual size. Depth, about 20 ft.) (1 : 4 actual size. Depth, 13 ft.) 
 
 Nos. 1193 and 1194. We experience a like difficulty in explaining the 
 use of the sieve-like tripod vessel, perforated all over, No. 1195, which 
 
558 
 
 THE FOURTH CITY ON THE SITE OF TROY. |Chap. VIII. 
 
 resembles a pitcher standing on one side, and of the perforated cup No. 
 1196. Of these different shapes of sieve-like vessels, those of Nos. 1193, 
 1194, and 1195 occur oftener than the others, but they are by no means 
 very frequent. 8 
 
 The British Museum contains a jug and a tripod of terra-cotta with 
 similar sieve-like perforations, which were found in sepulchres at Ialysus 
 in Khodes. Another vase with sieve-like perforations may be seen in the 
 Phoenician Collection in the Louvre, at Paris. Similar sieve-like per- 
 forated vases were also found at Szihalom in Hungary, 9 as well as in the 
 Lake dwellings in the Lake of Bienne ; and Dr. V. Gross suggests that 
 they may have served for draining out honey from the comb. 10 A like use 
 is suggested by Professor W. Helbig for the vases of terra-cotta with 
 perforated bottoms found in the Italian terramare. 11 The Koyal Museum 
 at Berlin contains a sieve-like bowl like No. 1190, as well as a one-handled 
 jug, perforated all over like No. 1191. Professor Virchow suggests that 
 they may have been used to preserve fruits ; and probably he is right. 
 
 No. 1197 is a crucible of but slightly- 
 baked clay, which, as Mr. Giuliano says, 
 was mixed with cow-dung to make the vessel 
 stronger and better able to resist the fire. 
 No. 1198 is another crucible. No. 1199 
 marks a smaller boat-like vessel, of a similar 
 clay and fabric, which must also have been 
 used in Trojan metallurgy. 
 
 Nos. 1200 and 1201 represent perforated 
 cylinders of grey clay, which have evidently 
 been only sun-dried, and never baked. Clay 
 cylinders of this shape are frequent in the 
 fourth city, but they are still much more abundant in the third, the burnt 
 city, where, owing to the intense heat to which they have been exposed in 
 
 No. 1197. Crucible of Clay. (Nearly 
 half actual size. Depth, 19 ft.) 
 
 No. 11 
 
 No. 1199. 
 
 Nos. 1198, 1199. Crucibles of Clay. (Nearly half actual size. Depth, 13 to 19 ft.) 
 
 the conflagration, they always have a yellow colour. It deserves attention 
 that these clay cylinders occur neither in the following, the fifth city, nor 
 in the first or the second city, and that they are peculiar to the third and 
 fourth. Those of the third, the burnt city have for the most part become 
 
 c A vessel like No. 1195 was found in the 
 Third City: see No. 327, p. 373. 
 
 9 See Nos. 23 and 36 in the glass case No. IX. 
 in the National Museum of Buda-Pesth. 
 
 10 V. Gross, Resultats des Rccherches dans les 
 Lacs de la Suisse occidentale, p. 23. 
 
 11 Wolfgang Helbig, Die Italikcr in der Toc- 
 bene; Leipzig, 1879, p. 17. 
 
Chap. VIII.] PERFORATED IMPLEMENTS OF CLAY. 
 
 559 
 
 so fragile by the conflagration that they easily dissolve in the rain. Those 
 of the fourth city have not been exposed to the conflagration, and are for 
 that reason much more compact and solid. Clay cylinders of the same shape 
 
 No. 1200. I'erforated Clay Cylinder. (Half actual bize. 
 Depth, laft.) 
 
 and fabric are found in the Lake-dwellings in the Lake of Constance, 1 and, 
 as Professor Yirchow informs me, they are found in tombs in many regions 
 of Germany. I also saw several specimens of them in the Museum of the 
 Lacustrine Antiquities at Zurich, though I do not see them represented in 
 Ferd. Keller's Pfalilbauten (7ter Bericht). The use of these cylinders is 
 unknown to us. We cannot admit Lindenschmit's 2 opinion, that they 
 served as weights for fishing-nets, as they are not baked, and would, 
 
 No. 1202. Implement of Clay, with perforation. No. 1203. Perforated Implement of Clay. 
 
 (Half actual size. Depth, 19 ft.) (Half actual size. Dsptb, 19 ft.) , 
 
 consequently, dissolve in the water. Of precisely the same fabric are the 
 nearly flat objects of sun-dried clay, like No. 1202, which are also very fre- 
 
 L. Lindenschmit, Die Vatcrlandischen Alterthumer, PI. xxx. No. 16. 
 
 2 Ibid. p. 218. 
 
560 
 
 THE FOURTH CITY ON THE SITE OF TROY. 
 
 [Chap. VIII. 
 
 quent, not only in the third, the burnt, and the fourth cities, but also in the 
 fifth : they have a perforation near the smaller end ; in a few cases they 
 have a furrow all round the edge, or only on the edge of the smaller end. 
 Similar objects of clay occur also in the uppermost or seventh city ; but 
 there they are thoroughly baked, and have a more symmetrical shape. 
 An object of baked clay of an identical shape was found below the strata 
 of pumice-stone and volcanic ashes in Thera (Santorin), and is in the col- 
 lection of the French School at Athens. An object of clay, similar to 
 No. 1202, found at Nimroud, is in the British Museum ; several similar 
 pieces are in the Museum of Saint Germain-en-Laye, and in the Royal 
 Museum at Berlin. Lastly, I have to mention the quadrangular objects 
 of the very same clay and fabric, like No. 1203, which are perforated 
 through the smaller side. They are likewise very abundant in the third 
 as well as in the fourth and fifth cities. 
 
 Nos. 12C4, 1205. Cows of Terra-cotta. (3 : 4 actual size. D.-pth, 16 ft.) 
 
 No. 1206. Ox of Terra-cotta. (3 : 4 actual size. Nos. 1207, 1208. Dogs of Terra-cotta. (3 ; 4 actual size. 
 
 Depth, 16 ft.) Depth, 16 ft.) 
 
 Nos. 1204-1206 represent oxen or cows, Nos. 1207 and 1208 dogs, of 
 slightly-baked clay. Such animal figures were found exclusively in this 
 fourth city. A large number of similar figures, found at Szihalom, are 
 in the National Museum at Buda-Pesth, 3 where similar ones found at 
 Pilin may also be seen. 4 The Trojan cows before us correspond very well 
 with those found by me in such abundance at Mycenae, 5 with the difference 
 that the Mycenean cows are thoroughly baked, and have always a painted 
 ornamentation. I may add that there is in the British Museum a cow of 
 terra-cotta found in a tomb at Ialysus in Khodes. 
 
 No. 1209 is a funnel-like object of terra-cotta of unknown use; it is 
 of very thick clay, and has one perforation in the bottom and two on 
 either side. 
 
 No. 1210 is a fragment of a six-stringed lyre of terra-cotta. No. 1211 
 is a ring of clay, but slightly baked ; similar rings are abundant in the 
 
 3 In the glass case No. X. under Nos. 85-100. de V Exposition prehistorique des Musc'es do 
 
 4 See Joseph Hampel, Antiquity's pre'historiques Province, pp. 118, 119. 
 
 de la Ilowjrie, PI. xiii. Nos. 10-15 ; and Catalogue 5 See my Mycenae, Plate A. 
 
Chap. VIII.] 
 
 SEALS AND CURIOUS TERRA-COTTAS. 
 
 561 
 
 third and fourth cities. They were prohahly used to support vases with 
 a convex or pointed bottom. Similar terra-cotta rings, found at Pilin, 
 are in the National Museum at Buda-Pesth. 6 
 
 Under Nos. 1212 and 1213 I represent 
 two seals of terra-cotta ; the former with a 
 linear decoration. The ornamentation of 
 No. 1213 seems to be floral: this latter 
 seal has a perforated handle. Prof. Yirchow 
 
 No. 1209. Curious Object of Terra-cotta, 
 having a perforation in the bottom and 
 two on either side. (Actual size. Depth, 
 13 it.) 
 
 No. 1210. Fragment of a Lyre with six chords, of Ti 
 (7 : 8 actual size. Depth, 16 ft.) 
 
 rra-cotta. 
 
 suggests to me that No. 1212 may not be a seal, but the button of a 
 vase-handle : as the lower part is fractured, this is possible, but it is 
 certainly not the case with No. 1213, which is entire. 
 
 No. 1211. Ring of Terra- 
 cotta. (2 : 5 actual size. 
 Depth, 22 ft.) 
 
 No. T.-12. 
 
 No. 1213. 
 
 Nos. 1212, 1213. Seals of Terra-cotta. 
 (7 : 8 actual size. Depth. 10 to 16 ft.) 
 
 No. 1214. Small massive 
 quadrangular Object, with 
 
 incised ornamentation. 
 (Nearly half actual size. 
 Depth, 20 to 22 ft.) 
 
 No 12 
 
 No. 1216. 
 
 No. 1217. 
 
 Nos. 1215-1217. Curious cubical Object of black clay, having on one side a deep, wide, smooth hole, ar.d 
 an incised ornamentation on four sides. (Almost actual size. Depth, 13 ft.) 
 
 6 Joseph Hampel, Antiquites pr&iidoriques de la Ffonjrie, PI. xiii. No. 34. 
 
 2 o 
 
562 
 
 THE FOURTH CITY ON THE SITE OF TROY. [Chap. VIII. 
 
 A striking analogy to these Trojan seals is offered by the terra-cotta 
 seals found at Pilin in Hungary, 7 on which the sign of the L-f^ r pj^ 
 predominates; in fact, there are no fewer than seven seals with such 
 signs ; one seal has even two and two L^. 
 
 No, 1214 is a solid object of terra-cotta, with four feet, having on the 
 top and on the four sides an incised linear ornamentation. Nos. 1215, 1216, 
 and 1217 represent three sides of a very curious object of black slightly- 
 baked clay, in the form of an inkstand ; it is ornamented on one side (1215), 
 within a border of incised hooks and strokes, and an incised circle, 
 enclosing a sign resembling the pjJ, with curved arms, and the middle 
 arms turned downward into spirals; the other sides are decorated with 
 incised strokes or lines. No. 1218 is a pretty lustrous-red. vase-cover 
 
 No. 1218. Terra-cotta Vase Cover, perforated for 
 tying down to the Vase. 
 (Half actual size. Depth, 10 ft.) 
 
 of terra-cotta, with perforated projections for tying it down to the 
 vase, which could then be hung up by the same string. 8 This cover 
 has an incised ornamentation representing within a border of strokes 
 a circle with a cross, each arm of which ends in a small circle : between 
 the arms of the cross are three and one L-fj. Professor Yirchow 
 calls my attention to the similarity which exists between this vase- 
 cover and a vase-cover found near Guben in Lusatia. 9 This latter has 
 also a richly incised decoration of concentric circles, crosses and dots, but 
 it has not the two perforated projections of our vase-cover No. 1218. 
 
 No. 1219 is a little tripod-dish of terra-cotta, with an incised ornamen- 
 tation representing a caterpillar, a tree, and a cross. No. 1220 represents 
 
 the decoration of a whorl with three Lj^ ; No. 1221, the incised decora- 
 tion of another whorl. Under Nos. 1222 to 1224 I represent three more 
 whorls, calling very particular attention to the signs on Nos. 1222, 1223, 
 
 7 Joseph Hampel, Catalogue de l' Exposition from Homer (p. 221). 
 
 preliistorique des Muse'es de Province, pp. 120, 9 See Sessional Report the Berlin Soc : ety 
 121. of Anthropology, Ethnology, &c, of July 21, 
 
 8 See the explanation of the method, verified 1S77, Plate xvii. No. 5a. 
 
HAP. VIII.] 
 
 TERRA-COTTA WHORLS AND BALLS. 
 
 563 
 
 Nos. 1223, 1221. Whorls of Terra-cotta, with incised ornamentation. (Actual size. Depth, 20 ft.) 
 
 No. 1225. No. 1226. 
 
 Nos. 1225-1227. Terra-cotta Ball. No. 1225. Side View. No. 1226. Upper Hemisphere. No. 1227. Lower 
 Hemisphere, with the signs. (Actual size. Depth, 13 it.) 
 
 No. 1223. No. 1229. 
 
 Nos. 1223, 1229. A remarkable Terra-cotta Ball. (Actual size. Depth, 20 ft.) 
 
564 
 
 THE FOURTH CITY ON THE SITE OF TROY. [Chap. VIII 
 
 which may be written characters. Nos. 1225, 1226, and 1227 represent 
 the three sides of a ball of terra-cotta, with incised signs, which may be 
 written characters. Nos. 1228 and 1229 represent the incised decoration 
 of the two hemispheres of another terra-cotta ball, decorated with a great 
 number of signs resembling the Greek p. 
 
 Of knives, several were found of the same shape as before represented. 
 Of a different shape is the bronze knife No. 1230, which has been worn 
 
 No. 1230. Knife of Bronze. (Nearly half actual size. Depth, 16 ft.) 
 
 down by long use. Nos. 1231 to 1243 are brooches of bronze, of which 
 nine have globular heads and four have the head turned into a spiral. 
 These brooches, as Mr. John Evans points out to me, consist of the 
 needle (acus) without the support (fibula). No. 1244 is a bronze wire. 
 Nos. 1245-1247 are bronze arrow-heads. No. 1248 is of bronze, and pro- 
 bably the handle of a small box. Nos. 1249, 1250, and 1251 are bronze 
 
 1231 1232 1233 1234 1235 1236 1237 1238 1239 
 
 Ncs. 1231-1252. Primitive Brooches, Arrow-heads, &c, of Bronze. (Nearly half actual sizo. Depth, 13 to 20 ft.) 
 
 needles, 3-3 J in. long, with eyes for threading. The needles Nos. 1249 
 and 1250 have two pointed ends. Very remarkable are the forms of the 
 
Chap. VIII.] NUMBERS OF SPOKES IN ANCIENT WHEELS. 
 
 565 
 
 last-named needle No. 1250, the eye of which is not in the head, but 
 nearly an inch distant from it, and of No. 1251, the head of which has 
 been beaten flat, and then perforated. The object under No. 1252 is of 
 bronze, and may be an awl or punch. 
 
 Of bronze battle-axes of precisely the same shape as those found in the 
 burnt city, and represented under Nos. 806-809, only five were found 
 in the fourth city, but all of them of a smaller size. Bronze lances or 
 daggers were not found there. 
 
 No. 1253 is a wheel with four spokes of lead, and may be an ex-voto. 
 But there can hardly be a doubt that this wheel was copied from the 
 wheels existing at the time it was made. 
 Wheels with four spokes were also in use 
 at Mycenae, for they are seen in the three 
 chariots represented on the tombstones of the 
 royal sepulchres, 10 as well as in the chariot 
 represented on one of the gold rings. 11 I 
 also found at Mycenae two wheels of bronze 1 
 and six wheels of gold with four spokes. 2 In 
 the Swiss Lake-dwellings at the station of 
 Corcelettes were found two ornaments of 
 bronze in the shape of a wheel with four 
 
 spokes, and two others of gold with six spokes ; 3 also an ornament of 
 tin, and another of bronze, in the form of wheels with four spokes, at the 
 station of Auvernier. 4 We see also wheels with four spokes on two 
 miniature bronze chariots found at Burg in the bed of the river Sprea, 
 and of which one is in Professor Yirchow's collection, the other in the 
 Boyal Museum at Berlin ; and also on two other chariots of bronze, one 
 of which was found at Ober-Kehle, the other near Drossen, in Prussia. 
 I shall revert to these four chariots in the subsequent pages. The Trojan 
 wheel before us (No. 1253) is unlike the wheels (kv/cXo) of Homer's chariot 
 of the gods, which had eight spokes round the axle. 5 
 
 No. 1254 is the fragment of a flat disc of ivory, decorated with incised 
 circles, each with a dot in the centre. Nos. 1255, 1256 are also flat 
 
 No. 1253. Wheel of Lead. 
 (2 : 3 actual size. Depth, 16 ft.) 
 
 10 See my Mycenae, p. 52, No. 24; p. 81, 
 No. 140; p. 86, No. 141. 
 11 Ibid. p. 223, No. 334. 
 1 Ibid. p. 74, No. 120. 
 - Ibid. p. 203, No. 316. 
 
 3 V. Gross, Eesultats des Recherches exe'cutees 
 dans les Lacs de la Suisse occidental; Zurich, 
 1876, PI. viii. Nos. 9, 16, 18, 19. 
 
 4 V. Gross, Deux Stations lacustres, Moeringen 
 et Auvernier; Neuveville, 1878, PI. vii. Nos. 
 31, 61. 
 
 5 II. v. 722, 723 : 
 
 "H/37J 8' a/x(f)' oxteccri Oows /3aAe KajxirvXa KvKka 
 XctA/cea oKraKvr\}xa, ai^piw a^ovi a/ncpis. 
 
 My friend Mr. W. S. W. Vaux calls my 
 attention to the fact that the four-spoked 
 chariot-wheel is characteristic of the earliest 
 Greek coins. The early Egyptian, Ethiopian, 
 
 and Assyrian wheels have six spokes. The 
 Persian Achaemenid sculptures show chariots 
 with eight-spoked wheels. Professor Sayce 
 observes: "The wheels of the Hittite chariots, 
 however, are represented on the Egyptian monu- 
 ments with only four spokes. The wheels of 
 the Egyptian chariots also sometimes have only 
 four, sometimes eight; and a Persian chariot- 
 wheel given by Ker Porter has eleven." (See 
 Wilkinson's Ancient Egyptians, i. pp. 223-241, 
 new edit., 1879.) In two of the earliest repre- 
 sentations of chariots in Egypt, in the same 
 tomb at Thebes, of the time of Amenhotep II., 
 two chariots have wheels with six spokes, but 
 another chariot has wheels with four. (Villiers 
 Stuart, Kile Gleanings, PI. xxxviii. xxxix. pp. 
 294, 295.) 
 
566 THE FOURTH CITY ON THE SITE OF TROY. [Chap. VIII. 
 
 No. 1254. Disc of Ivory, with incised stars 
 (2 : 3 actual size. Depth, 16ft.) 
 
 No. 1256. 
 
 Nos. 1255, 1256. Objects of Ivory; with incised stars, probably ornaments of a 
 horse's harness. (Actual size. Depth, 20 ft. and 13 ft.) 
 
 objects of ivory, ornamented on both sides with similar circles ; the latter 
 has three perforations. These three objects may have served as orna- 
 ments on horse-trappings. 
 
 No. 1257 is of bone and has three perforations. Mr. John Evans holds 
 it to be a guard or bracer used by archers, to prevent the wrist from 
 being hurt by the bow-string ; he adds that the Esquimaux use to the 
 present day similar guards or bracers of bone. The guards or bracers 
 found in England are of stone, and have three perforations at each end. 
 
 Nos. 1258-1260 are ribs of animals sharpened to a point, and probably 
 
 No. 1258. No. 1259. No. 1260. 
 
 Nos. 1258-1260. Ribs of Animals, sharpened 
 
 to a point, and probably used as awls. 
 (Nearly half actual size. Depth, 13 to 18 ft.) 
 
Chap. VIII.] STAFF-HANDLES : INSCRIBED WHETSTONE. 
 
 587 
 
 used as awls. Nos. 1261 and 1262 are awls of thicker bone. Nos. 1263 
 and 1264 are very rude staff-handles of stag-horn ; both of them having 
 
 Nos. 1263, 1264. Staff-handles of Bone. (Nearly half actual size. Depth, 16 to 20 ft.) 
 
 quadrangular perforations. A similar staff-handle, of better fabric, found 
 at Inzighofen, 6 is considered to be a small hammer. But this I cannot 
 admit, stag-horn being ill-suited for hammers. Under No. 1265 I 
 represent in double size a whetstone, which, according to Mr. Davies, 
 
 No. 1265. Whetstone of porphyry, with an inscription. (Double actual size. Depth, about 22ft.) 
 
 is of red porphyry ; it has an incised inscription, to which I call very 
 particular attention. Professor Sayce discusses this object in his 
 Appendix on the Trojan inscriptions. 7 
 
 No. 1266 is a piece of mica-schist, with the bed for a very curious 
 instrument, which is altogether unknown to me. No. 1267 is another 
 mould of mica-schist, with the bed for casting a rude leaf. I represent 
 under No. 1268 a third mould of mica-schist. The object to be cast in 
 it seems to be a large ring with a handle : this mould has two per- 
 forations, by which it was fixed to another mould which had the same 
 form. A perfectly similar mould of green basalt, found at Nimroad, is 
 in the Assyrian Collection of the British Museum. 
 
 6 L. Lindenschmit, Die Vatcrland. Alterth. copied here. A facsimile will De found in 
 PI. xxv. No. 2. the Appendix. 
 
 7 The characters are not quite correctly 
 
568 THE FOURTH CITY ON THE SITE OF TROY. [Chap. VIII. 
 
 No. 1266. Mould of Mica-schist. (Half actual No. 1268. Moul I of Mica-schist. (Half actual 
 
 size. Depth, 16 ft.) size. Depth, 13 to 16 ft.) 
 
 Nos. 1269 to 1272 are, according to Mr. Davies of the British 
 Museum, hammers and axes of porphyry, diorite, brown haematite, and 
 silicious rock. 
 
 No. 1272. 
 
 Nos. 1269-127 J. Stuiie Hammers. (Half actual size. Depth, 13 to 22 ft.) 
 
 No. 1269 is a perforated hammer of a common type ; the perforation 
 has been worked from both sides, narrowing towards the centre. No. 1270 
 is a hammer with grooves on both sides : similar grooved hammers occur 
 in England 8 and Denmark. 9 No. 1271 is a perforated hammer of a form 
 
 8 John Evans, Ancient Stone Implements; London, 1872, pp. 215, 217. 
 
 9 J. J. A. Wovsaae, Xordiske Oldsagcr, p. 12, No. 33. 
 
Chap. VIIL] 
 
 STONE HAMMERS AND AXES. 
 
 569 
 
 which is also found in England. 1 No. 1272 is a perforated axe, of a form 
 which has also been found in Hungary. 2 Nos. 1273 and 1274 are two 
 
 groove in the middle. 
 (Half actual size. Depth, 19 ft.) 
 
 more grooved hammers, of a shape which I have not noticed elsewhere. 
 No. 1275 is a very rude axe of diorite. Nos. 1276-1281 are six axes, 
 
 No. 1281. 
 
 Depth, 16 to 20 ft.) Depth, 20 ft.) Depth, 13, 19, and 22 ft.) 
 
 of which, according to the investigations of Mr. Davies, Nos. 1277 and 
 1278 are of green jade. I have discussed the jade axes at length in the 
 preceding pages. 3 Of the four other axes, according to Mr. Davies, one 
 is of green gabbro-rock, two are of diorite, and one is of blue serpentinous 
 rock. No. 1282 is, according to Mr. Davies, a pear-shaped object of 
 polished crystalline limestone. No. 1283 is another of those round corn- 
 bruisers which we have discussed before, and which are found here in 
 very large masses. These round corn-bruisers are also found in the debris 
 
 1 John Evans, op. cit. p. 203. 
 
 2 Joseph Hampel, Collection de V Exposition 
 prchistorique des Musces de Province ; Buda- 
 
 Pesth, 1876, p. 67, Nos. 34, 38. 
 3 See pp. 240-243 and 446-451. 
 
570 
 
 THE FOURTH CITY ON THE SITE OF TROY. [Chap. VIII. 
 
 of the Stone age in Egypt, 4 and in the pre-historic city below the strata 
 of pumice-stone and volcanic ashes on the island of Thera. 5 With 
 reference to the stone balls for bruising corn, I am informed that the 
 process may still be seen among the Indians of the Yosemite Valley 
 in California. Their squaws pound acorns with round stone mullers on a 
 granite rock, the flat surface of which is worn into holes by the operation. 
 The same Indians offer another parallel to my discoveries at Troy in the 
 beautiful little arrow-points of obsidian, which they make and use for 
 small game, though they have rifles for large game, — a remarkable 
 
 No. 1284. Implement of Stone. (Half actual 
 size. Depth, 18 to 22 ft.) 
 
 example of mixed states of civilization. No. 1284 is an instrument of 
 haematite : as the upper side is well polished and perfectly smooth, it 
 may have served, as Professor Virchow suggests, for smoothing cloth or 
 other textures, while the other side may have been used as a hammer. 
 This is one of the better specimens of the rude stone hammers, which 
 occur by thousands at Hissarlik. No. 1285 is a hollow object of granite, 
 
 the bottom. (1 : 5 actual size. Depth, about No. 1286. Stone Implement. 
 
 13 ft.) (Half actual size. Depth, about 16 ft.) 
 
 of globular form, with a large perforation in the bottom ; its use is 
 unknown. Of granite also, according to Mr. Davies, is the implement 
 No. 1286, which has a deep groove all round it, and which may have 
 
 4 Friedrich Mook, Aegypten's Vormetallische 5 Some specimens of them are in the small 
 Zeit ; Wiirzburg, 1880, PL xii. Nos. 4-6. collection in the French School at Athens. 
 
Chap. VIII.] 
 
 VARIOUS PATTERNS OF WHORLS. 
 
 571 
 
 served as a weight for fishing-nets. Similar stone implements are found 
 in Denmark, 6 in Georgia, and in Ehode Island. 7 No. 1287 is a quad- 
 rangular piece of limestone, with a semi-globular hollow; its use is a 
 mystery to us. Polishing stones of jasper are frequent. 
 
 There were also found in the fourth city many needles of bone for 
 female handiwork, boar-tusks, spit-rests of mica-schist, whetstones of slate, 
 porphyry, &c, of the usual form, hundreds of small silex saws, and some 
 knives of obsidian. Stone whorls, which are so abundant at Mycenae, are 
 but rarely found here : all those which occur are, according to Mr. Davies, 
 of steatite. On the other hand, terra-cotta whorls, with or without incised 
 ornamentation, are found by thousands ; their forms hardly vary from 
 those found in the third, the burnt city, and the same may generally be said 
 of their incised ornamentation, of which a fair selection may be seen in 
 the Plates at the end of the volume. The depth at which each whorl has 
 been found is always marked in metres ; and, as a general rule, all the 
 whorls which are marked as from 4 to 6 m., may with great probability be 
 supposed to belong to the fourth city. But of course this can never be said 
 with certainty, because a whorl belonging to the fifth city may by some 
 accident be found in the debris of the fourth, or even of the third city. 
 The only thing of which I can assure the reader with certainty is, that 
 I have spared no care and pains to avoid mistakes. Regarding the whorls 
 with patterns which are found of an identical shape in the third, the burnt, 
 and in the fourth cities, I may say that, for example, the cross patterns 
 Nos. 1817, 1818, 1820, &c, which are frequent in the third, abound also in 
 the fourth city. I can only lay before the reader all the incised patterns 
 of the whorls, leaving it to him to see or not to see in them symbolical 
 signs. I shall remark on those only which, in my opinion, deserve very 
 particular attention. Among these are No. 1838, on one side of which we 
 see three burning altars and a large number of dots, on the other a 
 and three such altars. On No. 1852, again, we see three LJ^ ; on No. 1860, 
 probably, written characters ; on No. 1863, again, a and a Lpj , and 
 similar signs on Nos. 1865, 1866, 1871. More curious is the incised orna- 
 mentation of No. 1867, in which we recognize four hares with a dot below 
 each of them ; and still more so that of the whorls Nos. 1879 and 1880. 
 On the former we see a number of Pj-j and J— -j , a burning altar, a zigzag 
 line generally thought to be the sign of lightning, and three male animals 
 with dots over the back. On No. 1880 we see on each side of the circle a 
 singular sign, which is probably intended to represent a man ; each of 
 these figures is touched by the horns of a large quadruped. In marked 
 contrast with these rudest of rude linear representations of man and 
 animal is the very symmetrical ornamentation on many of the whorls; 
 as, for example, that on No. 1895. I again call attention to the curious 
 written character which we see on No. 1905 on the top of four LC 
 
 6 J. J. A. Worsaae, Nordiske Oldsager, p. 18, the U.S. National Museum ; Washington, 1876, 
 No. 88. p. 27, Nos. 107 and 108. 
 
 7 Charles Rau, The Archaeological Collection of 
 
572 
 
 THE FOURTH CITY ON THE SITE OF TROY. [Chap. VIII. 
 
 and one f^. It also occurs on Nos. 1912, 1936, and 1939. On No. 1911 
 we again see three pj- 1 , and as many burning altars. May the curious 
 figure on the side of the whorl No. 1951, to the right, be perhaps meant 
 to represent a cuttle-fish ? From the experience we have gathered of the 
 rude linear representations of men, we venture to propose to the reader to 
 recognize also a human figure in the strange sign on No. 1954. We 
 believe we see written characters on No. 1972, but they still await their 
 
 decipherer. On No. 1990, again, we see three j^p, alternately with three 
 circles. Under No. 1991 we represent a curiously engraved ball with two 
 y-j, and on the side shown in the upper row to the right a strange figure, 
 which tempts us to ask whether it is not also meant to be a cuttle-fish. 
 The most curious of all the terra-cotta balls is no doubt No. 1993, which 
 is divided by incised lines into eight equal fields, in three of which we 
 again see the same very strange figure ; we again ask the reader if we are 
 permitted to recognize also in these three figures the primitive artist's 
 representation of a cuttle-fish ? 
 
CHAPTER IX. 
 
 THE FIFTH PKE-HISTORIC CITY OF TROY. 
 
 Above the stratum of ruins of the Fourth City there is a layer of debris 
 about 6 ft. thick, evidently consisting of the remains of houses built of 
 wood and clay. That the people of the Fourth City, of which we see 
 innumerable house-walls, should suddenly have abandoned the architecture 
 they were accustomed to, and have built their houses of wood or mud, or 
 of both conjoined, seems incredible. Besides, the rude stone hammers, 
 which are found in such enormous quantities in the fourth city, are no 
 longer found in this stratum ; nor do the stone axes, which are so very 
 abundant there, occur again here. Instead of the hundreds of axes I 
 gathered in the fourth city, I collected in all only two here ; but one of 
 these — the axe of white jade represented under No. 1288 - is, in the 
 opinion of Mr. Story-Maskelyne, the most precious 
 of all my thirteen Trojan jade axes, on account of its 
 extreme rarity. I attribute it to this Fifth City, as 
 it was found at a depth of only 6 ft. The saddle- 
 querns of trachyte, which occurred in the fourth city 
 by hundreds, were very rarely met with here. The 
 forms of the terra-cotta whorls, too, are in innumer- 
 able instances different here. These objects are of a 
 much inferior fabric, and become more elongated and 
 pointed. Forms of whorls like Nos. 1801, 1802, and 1803, which were 
 never found before, are here very plentiful. 
 
 Nos. 1289 and 1290 represent two whorls, the former of which is 
 decorated with three linear quadrupeds in rude incised work. Two of them 
 
 No. 1288. A very rare 
 Axe of white Jade. 
 (Ha'f actual size. 
 Depth, 6 ft.) 
 
 SI 
 
 No. 1289. A Whorl with three animals. 
 (Actual size. Depth, 10 ft.) 
 
 No. 1290. A Whorl with curious signs. (Actual size. 
 Depth, 10 ft.) 
 
 are no doubt intended to be stags with long horns ; the third is perhaps 
 a roe. In the decoration of the other whorl there is nothing intelligible. 
 
574 
 
 THE FIFTH PRE-HISTOKIC CITY OF TROY. 
 
 [Chap. IX. 
 
 We continue to find here the same patterns of pottery, hand-made or 
 wheel-made, but they manifest a general decline. We also find here a 
 large quantity of plain wheel-made pottery, which looks quite modern 
 when compared with that of the preceding city. Moreover, the mode of 
 life of the people to which this stratum belongs was entirely different 
 from that of their predecessors : instead of throwing all their kitchen- 
 remains on the floor of their rooms, they carried them away and shot 
 them from the mound, since we but very rarely see in this stratum of 
 debris the shells of oysters or mussels, which visitors may see in such 
 really stupendous masses in the houses of the fourth city. 
 
 Now that a people should on a sudden have completely changed 
 their mode of life, appears perhaps still more impossible than that they 
 should on a sudden have changed their mode of architecture, or that 
 they should on a sudden have thrown away their numberless stone im- 
 plements and weapons, and have used in their stead implements and 
 weapons of bronze. This series of facts seems to present as many proofs 
 that the stratum of debris, which we are now to discuss, belongs to a 
 new people, among whom, however, part at least of the old inhabitants 
 
 continued to live. We shall, 
 therefore, call this settle- 
 ment the Fifth Pre-historic 
 City of Troy. Whether the old 
 settlement was conquered, or 
 peacefully taken possession of 
 by the new settlers, must for 
 ever remain uncertain. At 
 all events, there are no 
 traces of a catastrophe ; be- 
 sides, as we have seen in the 
 preceding pages, the inhabit- 
 ants of the fourth city can 
 only have had partial works 
 of defence; they had no 
 regular city walls, like their 
 predecessors. 
 
 It is difficult to say whether 
 the inhabitants of the fifth 
 city had walls. I certainly 
 brought to light small works 
 of defence in several places, 
 but these may equally well 
 have belonged to the sixth 
 as to the fifth city. It may 
 be that the fifth city had 
 regular walls, but that these were destroyed by the next settlers, or even 
 by the builders of the later Aeolic Ilium. 
 
 In describing those of the objects found which deserve particular atten- 
 tion, I begin again with the owl-headed vases, which in all probability must 
 
 Nu 1291. Vase with two breasts and two wing-like handles ; the 
 Cover has an owl's face. (1 : 4 actual size. Depth, 13 ft.) 
 
Chap. IX.] 
 
 OWL-HEADED FEMALE VASES. 
 
 575 
 
 have had a sacred character. All of them, without exception, are wheel-made, 
 of a rude fabric, and unpolished} One which I represent under No. 1291 
 has only two female breasts 
 and two upright projections. 
 The very conspicuous owl's 
 face is modelled on the cover, 
 which has a crest-like handle. 
 May not these strange vase- 
 covers have been copied from 
 the ancient helmets ? Of much 
 inferior fabric is the vase 
 No. 1292, on which the owls 
 face has been rudely modelled ; 
 in fact, the inability of the 
 primitive potter was such that 
 he made the beak above the 
 eyes. On this vase, besides 
 the breasts, the vulva is indi- 
 cated : to this vase belongs a 
 flat cover with a crest-like 
 handle, like that I have put 
 on it. 
 
 The owl-features and ihe 
 characteristics of a woman have been much more symmetrically modelled 
 on the vase No. 1293, to which also belongs a flat cover such as the reader 
 
 No. 1292. 
 
 Vase with an owl's head, the characteristics of a 
 woman, and two wing-like handles. 
 (1 : 4 actual size. Depth, G ft.) 
 
576 
 
 THE FIFTH PRE-HISTOMC CITY OF TROY. [Chap, IX. 
 
 sees on it. No. 1294 is again a vase with the characteristics of a woman; 
 to it belongs a cover with an owl's face, like the one I have put on it : 
 the wing-like upright projections are here merely indicated. The face 
 we see on the vase-cover No. 1295 resembles a human face. Very cha- 
 racteristic owl-heads are seen again on the vase-covers Nos. 1296, 1297, 
 
 No. 1298. Owl-bea'led Vase-cover. 
 (About 1 : 4 actual size. 
 Depth, about 10 ft.) 
 
 and 1298. No. 1299 marks another vase with the characteristics of a 
 woman, to which has belonged a cover like that which we see on No. 1294. 
 No. 1300 is a very rude terra-cotta idol, on which the owl's beak is 
 indicated by two scratches, and the eyes by two dots ; the hands, which 
 are broken off, appear to have projected. No. 1301 represents one more 
 
 No. 1299. Terra-cotta Vase with No. 1300. Idol of Terra-cotta, No. 1301. Marble Idol, with owl's bead 
 the characteristics of a woman. with owl's head. (Half actual and girdle. (Nearly actual size. 
 (1 : 4 actual size. Depth, 6* ft.) size. Depth, 6£ ft.) Depth, about 8 ft.) 
 
 No. 1301A. Marble Idol, No. 1302. Two-handled Cup (Senas No. 1303. Sieve-like perforated Terra- 
 
 with owl's head and girdle. iix^iKvneWov). (1 : 4 actual size. cotta Funnel. (About l : 3 actual size. 
 
 (2 : 3 actual size. Depth, Depth, about 6* ft.) Depth, 6* ft.) 
 
 G to 10 It.) 
 
Chap, IX.] 
 
 IDOLS : VASES AND JUGS. 
 
 577 
 
 of the common idols of marble on which an owl's head is rudely scratched. 
 On the waist the girdle is indicated by four parallel incised lines. A 
 further very characteristic specimen of an owl-faced marble idol is repre- 
 sented under No. 1301a. Similar owl-faced marble idols are even more 
 plentiful in this fifth city than in any of the preceding cities. No. 1302 
 is a Serra? a^ucvireXkov, belonging to this fifth city. Like all similar 
 goblets found in this stratum, it is but of very small size when compared 
 with the large goblets of the preceding cities. No. 1303 is a large sieve- 
 like perforated funnel, which is represented here head downwards. 
 
 No. 1316. Large Jug with straight neck, a : 6 actual size. No. 1307. Jug with long neck. 
 
 Depth, 9 ft.) (Nearly 1 : 3 actual size. Depth, 9 ft ) 
 
 2 p 
 
578 
 
 THE FIFTH PRE-HISTOKIC CITY OF TEOY. 
 
 [Chap. IX. 
 
 No. 1304 is a very rude hand-made double-handled grey vase, having 
 on either side two breast-like excrescences ; its neck is decorated with 
 four rudely-incised lines and signs without signification. The double- 
 handled lustrous-red goblet, No. 1305, is hand-made and well polished ; 
 its type but rarely occurs in this stratum. 
 
 No. 1306 is a wheel-made globular lustrous-yellow jug, with an 
 upright spout and trefoil orifice, such as we have already passed in 
 review ; the bottom is convex. Wheel-made also is the dark-red jug 
 No. 1307, with an upright spout of a peculiar shape, such as we have 
 never seen before. A spout of an identical shape is seen on the wheel- 
 made tripod-jug No. 1308. No. 1309 is a grey hand-made jug of a very 
 
 No. 1303. Tripod Globular Vase, with straight neck. 
 (Nearly 1 : 4 actual size. Depth, 13 ft.) 
 
 rude fabric, with a convex bottom ; No. 1310, a wheel-made black tripod- 
 jug, with a trefoil mouth. No. 1311 is a very large wheel-made globular 
 well-polished lustrous-yellow jug, with a trefoil mouth j No. 1312, a red 
 wheel-made bottle ; No. 1313, a hand-made jug, with a long spout and 
 one handle; No. 1314, a wheel-made black bottle, with a convex bottom ; 
 No. 1315, a wheel-made red globular vase, with a long cylindrical neck 
 and convex bottom. 
 
 Very frequent in this fifth city is the shape of the one-handled 
 lustrous-red pitcher No. 1316, as well as that of No. 1317, both of which 
 may probably have been used as drinking cups. Cups already shown under 
 Nos. 1094 to 1100 are very abundant in this city also. No. 1318 is a 
 brown hand-made basin, with one handle ; No. 1319, a rude hand-made 
 
Chap. IX.] 
 
 JUGS, BOTTLES, AND PITCHERS. 
 
 579 
 
580 THE FIFTH FRE-fflSTOEIC CITY OF TROY. [Chap. IX. 
 
 No. 1321. Eude Censer. (1 : 4 actual size. 
 Depth, 13 ft.) 
 
 No. 1320. 
 
 Vass with incised ornamentation. (1 : 4 
 actual size. Depth, 6 ft.) 
 
 ladle ; No. 1320, a pretty little lustrous-black wheel-made vase, with an 
 incised zigzag ornamentation round the neck; No. 1321, a very rude un- 
 polished censer. No. 1322 is 
 a large wheel-made globular 
 yellow vase, with double 
 upright curved handles. 
 The fabric and form of this 
 vase, as well as the clean 
 though very common clay 
 of which it is made, appear 
 very modern when com- 
 pared with any of the other 
 vases found in this last pre- 
 historic city, or in any of 
 the preceding ones. The 
 cover is also wheel-made, 
 of a lustrous dark-red colour, 
 and has a pretty handle in 
 the form of a crown ; it is 
 decorated with two parallel 
 incised lines. This par- 
 ticular sort of vase-cover 
 does not occur any more, 
 but vases of the shape of 
 that before us are frequent 
 in this fifth city. 
 
 No. 1323 is a wheel- 
 made one-handled jug, of an 
 oval form, with a flat bottom ; it is of a rude fabric, and badly polished ; 
 the rim of the orifice is bent over. Jugs of this form are not rare. 
 
 No. 1322. GlobuUir Vase, with two handles and Cuver in form 
 of a crown. (About 1 : 4 actual size. Depth, 9 ft.) 
 
Chap. IX.] POTTERY MOSTLY HAND-MADE. 581 
 
 No. 1323. Jug with one handle. No. 1321. Globular Jug, wiih a projection on the 
 
 (1 : 4 actual size. Depth, 9 ft.) neck. (About 1 : 4 actual size. Depth, 6 ft.) 
 
 No. 1324 is a wheel-made one-handled grey jug, of a glohular form, with 
 a flat bottom ; it has a trefoil mouth and a curious boss on the neck. 
 No. 1325 is a red one-handled hand-made cup, with an ear-like pro- 
 tuberance on either side : cups of a similar shape are not rare. No. 1326 
 is a grey hand-made vase, with a flat bottom and tubular holes for sus- 
 pension on the sides, as well as near the mouth. 
 
 No. 1325. Globular Vase, with projecting ornament on No. 1326. Vase with tubular holr s fcr 
 
 either side in the form of a horse-shoe. (1 : 4 actual suspension. (About 1 : 4 actual 
 
 size. Depth, 9 ft.) size. Depth, 13 ft.) 
 
 The pottery shown under Nos. 1327 to 1330 is all hand-made and of a 
 rude fabric: the shapes of the jug No. 1327, and of the pitcher No. 1328, 
 
 No. 132t. No. 1330. 
 
 Nos. 1327-1330. Three Pitchers and a Baby's Feeding Bottle. (1 : 4 actual s'ze. Depth, 6 to 10 ft.) 
 
 are frequent. Very remarkable and unique is the cup No. 1330, with its 
 handle above the mouth and the spout in the body ; it is probably a baby's 
 
582 
 
 THE FIFTH PRE -HISTORIC CITY OF TROY. 
 
 [Chap. IX. 
 
 feeding bottle. The black double cup, No. 1331, with flat bottoms, is also 
 wheel-made, as well as the double cup No. 1332, which has four feet. 
 
 No. 1331. Terra-cotta Vessel, composed of two No. 1332. Terra-cotta Vessel, with four feet, forming 
 separate cups. (1 : 4 actual size. two Vases. (1 : 4 actual size. Depth, 6 ft.) 
 
 Depth, 6 ft.) 
 
 Both of these vessels are partly restored with gypsum. No. 1333 is a 
 hand-made bowl of a dark-brown colour : similar bowls frequently occur 
 here. It deserves peculiar attention that there are no wheel-made dishes 
 in this city. One might suppose that the people had become disgusted 
 with the rude unpolished dishes of the two preceding cities, and preferred 
 to use hand-made ones, which are much more solid and prettier. 
 
 Nos. 1334 to 1336 are three very small, rude, very slightly-baked 
 clay cups, with convex bottoms and flat covers. These lilliputian vessels 
 
 No. 1333. Dark-brown Bowl. (1 : 4 actual size. with flat covers. (Nearly half actual size. Lepih, 6 ft.) 
 Depth, lo ft.) 
 
 only occur in this fifth pre-historic city, but they are found here in 
 large numbers, sometimes by the dozen together : their use is an enigma 
 to us. Professor Koberts thinks they may possibly have been crucibles. 
 No. 1337 is a seal of terra-cotta, with a perforated handle for suspension ; 
 it is badly baked and of a rude fabric, with a rudely-incised linear decora- 
 tion and four dots. Nos. 1338 and 1339 are two funnels of slightly- 
 
 No. 1339. 
 
 No. 1337. Terra-cotta Seal. (About Nos. 1338, 1339. Two little Funnels of Terra-cotta. 
 
 balf actual size. Depth, 3 ft.) (About half actual size. Depth, 10 ft.) 
 
Chap. IX.] 
 
 CURIOUS INSCRIBED FUNNELS. 
 
 583 
 
 baked clay, of a lustrous-brown colour. On botb of tliem we again see the 
 written character mo, which so frequently occurs in the preceding cities. 
 As Prof. Sayce shows in his Appendix, these funnels are almost identical in 
 shape, material, and character with a funnel found by Mr. George Smith 
 under the floor of the palace of Assur-bani-pal or Sardanapalus at Kou- 
 yunjik, and inscribed with Trojan characters, which was probably brought 
 to Nineveh by the Lydian ambassadors of Gyges. They seem to have 
 been used as measuring vessels, and the word mo with which they are 
 inscribed may be derived from the Aryan root ma, " to measure." 
 No. 1340 is another terra-cotta seal, better baked, but decorated merely 
 with small concentric circles. 2 
 
 No. 1341 is a perforated object of stone of unknown 
 use. No. 1342 is a large saw of silex, with marks on 
 its upper part of its having been cased in a wooden 
 handle. To the many localities enumerated in the 
 preceding pages where similar flint saws are found, 
 I can now also add Egypt ; for in Fr. Mook's Aegyptens 
 VormetalliscJie Zeit 3 I find a great many silex saws 
 
 No. 1340. Seal of Terra-cotta. No. 1341. Object of Stone. 
 
 (7 : 8 actual size. Depth, 6 to 10 ft.) 
 
 No. 1342. Silex Saw. 
 (Half actual size. 
 Depth, 6 ft.) 
 
 represented, also one (PI. xiii. 8) made of jasper found at Helwan in 
 Lower Egypt, which is nearly of an identical shape with the saw before 
 us (No. 1342). But I must add that in the fifth pre-historic city of Troy 
 I found only two saws of this shape and not one of any other shape, 
 though the silex saws occur in such vast abundance in the preceding 
 cities, and particularly so in the fourth. 
 
 No. 1343 is a curious well-shaped hammer of diorite ; it has no hole. 
 This is the only specimen of a hammer found in the fifth city. I do not 
 find that hammers of a like shape have ever occurred elsewhere ; but Prof. 
 Virchow observes to me that stone hammers of a somewhat similar shape 
 have been found in Oregon. No. 1344 is one of the very few stone 
 grain-bruisers of this fifth city. I do not think I found more than three 
 
 2 In terminating Avith this seal my review of 
 the pottery of the five pre-historic cities of Troy, 
 I beg leave to say that, in spite of the most 
 scrupulous attention devoted by me to the sub- 
 ject, it may be that there are a few vessels be- 
 longing to the third city which have been classed 
 under the fourth, and again a few belonging to 
 the fourth which have been classed under the 
 fifth city, or vice versa; indeed, this is almost 
 unavoidable, owing to the inequality of the level 
 
 of these last three cities. But if there be any 
 confusion, it can only be in a few instances. 
 There can be no mistake in the pottery of the 
 two lowest cities, the types being so vastly 
 different from each other, and also from the 
 pottery of all the following cities. The depth 
 was carefully noted on each object, either by 
 my overseers or myself, when it was found. 
 3 Wurzbursr. 1880. 
 
584 
 
 THE FIFTH PRE-HISTOEIC CITY OF TROY. 
 
 [Chap. IX. 
 
 of them in all here, whilst, as has been said, they occur by thousands 
 in the preceding cities, and particularly in the fourth. Besides the 
 many places enumerated in the preceding pages in which they have been 
 
 No. 1343. Hammer of No. 1344. Stone Ball for use. Weight, 472 grammes. No. 1346. Object of Stone: 
 Diorite. (Half actual bruising grain. (Half actual (Half actual size. Depth, a Phallus? (Half actual 
 size. Depth, 6 ft.) size. Depth, 6 ft.) 6 to 8 ft.) size. Depth, 9 ft.) 
 
 met with, they are found in Egypt. 4 No. 1345 is an instrument of 
 silicious stone, which may have served as a weight for fishing-nets. 
 Similar stone instruments are found in Denmark. 5 No. 1346 is of white 
 marble, and from its shape we are led to think that it may be a symbol of 
 Priapus. I have discussed this subject in the preceding pages. Similarly- 
 shaped stones occur in all the five cities. 
 
 No. 1347 is a perforated disc or quoit of granite, the only one found in 
 this fifth city, but similar discs occur in all the four other pre-historic 
 
 No. 1317. Stone Disc or Quoit. (Half actual size. No. 1348. Mould of Limestone, in the shape 
 
 Depth, 9 ft.) of a bottle. (Half actual size. Depth, 6 ft.) 
 
 cities of Hissarlik. The game of quoit-throwing was in general use in the 
 Homeric age. The player who threw it farthest gained the prize ; 6 hence 
 
 4 F. Mook, Aegyptens Vormetallische Zcit, No. 88. 
 
 PI. xii. Nos. 4-6. « 77. ii. 774: 
 
 5 J. J. A. Worsaae. Nordis\e Oldsager, PI. xviii. BliTKoiaiy ttpirovTO Kal alyavtricnv tivres. 
 
Chap. 'IX.] QUOITS: MOULDS: BRONZE NEEDLES, ETC. 
 
 585. 
 
 the word hlaicovpa, signifying the distance of a quoit's throw : — " For 
 although at first he remained a quoit's throw behind, yet quickly he came 
 up with him." 7 Also hlcricov ovpa, to express the same thing. 8 The word 
 Blcr/cos may be derived from hweZv, SeU-vvfii, the Sanscrit dig, for hUyos. 
 The quoit was always round and smooth, usually of stone, but also of 
 wood, and once in the Iliad of iron, and was then called <to\o<;, 9 connected 
 with aaXos, craXevco, aaXayrj, Lat. solum, Germ, schwellen, English swell ; it 
 was usually perforated in the centre, in order that, by means of the 
 hole and a strap fixed in it, it might be thrown to the greatest possible 
 distance, but sometimes it had no hole. Discs of silex also occur in the 
 dolmens of the Stone period in Denmark as well as in Holstein. 10 Un- 
 perforated discs of stone, up to 9 in. in diameter, also occur in England. 1 
 There is a perforated disc of shelly limestone, 5. \ in. in diameter and 
 3-4ths in. thick, in Mr. John Evans's collection. 2 
 
 No. 1348 is a piece of limestone, of nearly quadrangular shape, with a 
 mould in the form of a bottle. No. 1349 is a small disc of ivory, with a 
 border on the side shown in the engraving. 
 
 No. 1349. Disc of Ivory. (7 : 8 actual 
 size. Depth, 13 ft.) 
 
 No. 1350 is a brooch of bronze, with a double globular head ; No. 1351, 
 a bronze brooch, with its head of a spiral form; and No. 1352, a bronze 
 needle with a long hole in the upper end. Nos. 1353 and 1355 are bronze 
 brooches with globular heads. No. 1354 may be a primitive pair of 
 pincers or tweezers ; it consists of two short rods of bronze cased in a 
 hard substance. No. 1356 is a needle of bronze, with two pointed ends 
 and a hole near the end to the right. No. 1357 is an object of silver, in 
 the form of a dog's or rather antelope's head with long ears ; No. 1358, an 
 object of bronze, which may have served for an ornament on horse- 
 trappings. No. 1359 is a bronze ring. No. 1360 is a small curved knife 
 of bronze. No. 1361. is an object of lead. 
 
 There were also found in the fifth city knives and battle-axes of 
 bronze, of the usual Trojan form, which I do not represent here, as I have 
 repeatedly brought similar ones before the reader's notice (see Nos. 806- 
 
 7 //. xxiii. 523, 524 : 
 
 . . . arap to irpWTa Kal is Siaicovpa \4\€ittto, 
 aWd ixtv aitya Kiyav^V 
 
 8 II. xxiii. 431 : 
 
 '6aaa 8e S'ktkov odpa KaTcofiaSioio irtKovrai, . . . 
 
 9 II. xxiii. 826, 827 : 
 
 avrap Tlif}\z'io'f)s Orixev aoKov avroyjxtivov, 
 hv irp\v fxev p'nrracrKe /u.eya aQivos 'HenWos • 
 
 10 A. P. Madsen, Antiquites prehistoriques da 
 Dancmarc, PI. xli. Nos. 1, 2. J. J. A. Worsaae, 
 Nordiske Oldsagcr, PI. xviii. No. 86. 
 
 1 John Evans, Ancient Stone Implements of 
 Great Britain; London, 1872, p. 394. 
 
 2 Ibid. 
 
586 THE FIFTH PRE-HISTORIC CITY OF TROY. [Chap. IX. 
 
 No. 1350. No. 1351. No. 1357. No. 1354. No. 1355. 
 
 Nos. 1350-1361. Dog's Head of silver ; primitive Brooches ; Ring, Knife, &c, of bronze, and au object of lead.. 
 (Half actual size. Depth, 3 ft.) 
 
 809). The only difference is, that the battle-axes found here are shorter 
 than those found in the third, the burnt city, and they do not generally 
 exceed 6 in. in length. Needles of bone, like Nos. 566-574, occur here, 
 but they are by no means so plentiful as in the former cities. 
 
CHAPTER X. 
 
 THE SIXTH CITY, MOST PROBABLY A LYDIAN SETTLEMENT. 
 
 Above the stratum of the Fifth pre-historic city, and just below the 
 ruins of Novum Ilium, I found a vast quantity of very curious pottery, 
 partly hand-made, partly wheel-made, which in shape and fabric, in colour 
 and in the clay, is so utterly different from all the pottery of the pre- 
 ceding pre-historic cities, as well as from the pottery of the upper Aeolic 
 Ilium, that I hesitate whether to refer it to pre-historic or to historic 
 times. Such pottery is particularly plentiful on the slopes of the hill ; 
 and as, for reasons before explained, the stratum of the Greek city 
 reaches in those places down to much more than the usual depth, it 
 is found there even at 10 and 20 ft. below the surface. But the usual 
 depth at which it is found on the hill is on an average 6 ft. ; some- 
 times, however, it occurs at a depth of only 3 or 4 ft. below the surface. 
 As neither the Greeks, nor the pre-historic peoples who succeeded each other 
 on the hill of Hissarlik, ever made such pottery, and especially as this 
 pottery occurs in such abundance, it evidently points to a settlement of a 
 different people. But who were they? From the great resemblance 
 this pottery has to the hand-made vases found in the cemeteries of 
 Eovio, Yolterra, Bismantova, Yillanova, and other places in Italy, which 
 is held to be either archaic Etruscan or prse-Etruscan pottery, we think 
 it likely that there may have been a Lydian settlement on Hissarlik 
 contemporary with the colonization of Etruria by the Lydians, asserted 
 by Herodotus, and that the Lydian dominion may have been established 
 over the whole Troad at the same epoch ; and this the more as we 
 have the certainty that the Troad was subject to the Lydian dominion 
 under king Gyges (698-660), 1 and there is every probability that this 
 dominion commenced at a much earlier period. We may remind the 
 reader of the ancient legend, told by Herodotus, of the emigration of 
 one-half of the whole population of Lydia to Umbria in Italy, under 
 the leadership of Tyrsenus, son of their king Atys. 2 This mythical 
 account seems to become an historical fact by my discovery, and I may, 
 therefore, be permitted to call this sixth settlement on the hill of His- 
 sarlik the Lydian City. 
 
 But all I am able to show of this city is its pottery : there is no wall 
 of defence, nor even any house-walls which I could with any degree of 
 
 1 Strabo, xiii. p. 590 : "Afiu$os Se MiArjfriW 
 £(Tt\ Krlcrfxa imrptyavTOS Tvyov rod Avdoov /3a<n- 
 Ae'cos* yap eV iiceivu) to x w P ia Kc ^ V Tpcaas 
 aira<ra, bvojid^rai 8e /cat anpwriipiov ri npbs 
 Aaptidvcp Tvyas. 
 
 2 Herodotus, i. 94, quoted above, pp. 128, 129. 
 As Professor Sayce observes to me : " According 
 to Herodotus, the colonization took place in the 
 mythical age of Lydia, before the rise of the 
 Heraclid dynasty (circ. B.C. 1200)." 
 
588 
 
 THE SIXTH OR LYDIAN CITY OF TROY. 
 
 [Chap. X. 
 
 probability attribute to it. On the contrary, it is very likely that the 
 Aeolian Greeks, who did not continue to use Hissarlik as the site of their 
 city, but as their Acropolis and as the sacred precinct of their sanctuaries, 
 levelled the ground and used the stones for the erection of their sacred 
 edifices. That such a levelling really took place is, as we have before 
 repeatedly mentioned, proved with certainty by the site of the temple of 
 Athene, the builders of which cut away so much of the ground that they 
 were able to lay the foundation of this shrine immediately on the debris 
 of the third, the burnt city. This is a fact of which every visitor may 
 easily convince himself with his own eyes. Had the Aeolians been a pre- 
 historic people, they would have left in situ all the ruins they found, and 
 they would have levelled them by filling them up with debris or clay 
 cakes. But they were a civilized people, and therefore they levelled the 
 ground by destroying the walls that they found standing, and by 
 throwing the debris from the slope of the hill. That they proceeded in 
 this way seems to be proved by the fact, that most of the Lydian pottery 
 is found immediately outside of the debris of the preceding pre-historic 
 city, just below the Greek stratum, and in places where the declivity of 
 the hill must at that time have commenced. 
 
 I begin the description of the pottery with the large pithos 
 No. 1362, which I found embedded in a vertical position, the orifice being 
 6 ft. below the surface. It is made of a coarse red clay, which, like that 
 of all the other pithoi, is mixed with crushed silicious stones and syenite 
 containing much mica, to give it greater solidity. It is thoroughly baked, 
 which, as Prince Bismarck suggested to me, 3 could, in the absence of 
 kilns, only have been effected by filling and surrounding the pitlios with 
 wood, and by kindling a fire simultaneously both inside and outside of 
 it. It is unpolished, has no handles, and is ornamented all round with 
 four broad projecting bands. It was lying in 1872 and 1873, for 
 fourteen months, before my house at Hissarlik, and was always used as 
 a lodging by one of my workmen; it even lodged two of them in rainy 
 weather. 
 
 Nearly all the smaller pottery is hand-made, and abundantly mixed with 
 crushed silicious stones and syenite containing much mica. The vessels 
 are in general very bulky ; and as they have been dipped in a wash of the 
 same clay and polished before being put to the fire, besides being but 
 very slightly baked, they have a dull black colour, which much resembles 
 the colour of the famous Albano hut-urns. 4 (But there also occur a few- 
 vases of a dull yellow or brown colour.) This dull black colour is, how- 
 ever, perhaps as much due to the peculiar mode of baking as to the 
 peculiar sort of clay of which the pottery is made, because there occur 
 in all the five pre-historic cities of Hissarlik many vases but very slightly 
 baked, and yet none of them have the dull colour of these Lydian terra- 
 cottas. Besides, the shape and fabric are totally different from those of 
 any pottery found in the pre-historic cities, or in the upper Aeolic Greek 
 
 3 See p. 279. Albano ; London, 1869, pp. 2, 13. See also the 
 
 4 L. Pigorini and Sir John Lubbock, Notes on Albano hut-urn in the Royal Museum at Berlin, 
 Hut- Urns and other Objects from Marino near 
 
Chap. X.] 
 
 CHARACTER OF ITS POTTERY. 
 
 589 
 
 city. The reader will recognize this great difference in shape and fabric 
 in the case of every object of pottery which I pass in review. 
 
 No. 1362. Pithos. (About 1 : 13 actual size. Depth, 6 ft.) 
 
 I begin with the dull blackish tureen, No. 1363, which is wheel-made 
 and has two handles. The large one-handled cup No. 1364 is also 
 
590 
 
 THE SIXTH OR LYDIAN CITY OF TROY. 
 
 [Chap. X. 
 
 wheel-made and of the same colour ; as is the very large vase No. 1365, 
 with four handles, on two of which are small breast-like protuberances. 
 
 No. 1363. Black Tureen, with two handles. 
 (1 : 6 actual size. Depth, 6 ft.) 
 
 No. 1364. Vase of globular shape, with one handle. 
 (1 : 4 actual size. Depth, 6 ft.) 
 
 No. 1365. Large Vase, with four handles and impressed orna- 
 mentation. (1 : 8 actual size. Depth, 7 ft.) 
 
 No. 1366. Jug with an impressed ornamentation. 
 (1 : 4 actual size. Depth, 6 ft.) 
 
 This vessel is decorated all round with four parallel bands, each of three 
 lines, of a wave-pattern, rudely incised before the baking took place. Of 
 the same colour, and also wheel-made, is the jug No. 1366, with three 
 such bands of incised wave-lines, and an orifice of trefoil form ; as well as 
 the two-handled globular vase, No. 1367. 
 
 No. 1368 marks a hand-made cup of the same colour and clay, with 
 an incised ornamentation of zigzag lines, which seems to have been copied 
 from the decorations of tapestry or embroidered vestures. 
 
 Cups of an identical shape were found in the excavations of Felsina at 
 
Chap. X.] 
 
 RAMS' HORNS ON VASES. 
 
 591 
 
 No. 1367. Globular Vase, with two handles. No. 1368. Cup with incised ornamentation of 
 
 (1 : 4 actual size. Depth, 9 ft.) zigzag lines. (1 : 4 actual size. Depth, 6 ft.) 
 
 Bologna. 5 A cup of a similar shape, but without any decoration, found at 
 Corneto in Italy, is in the Eoyal Museum at Berlin. Another very similar 
 one, at least in shape, is in Prof. Virchow's collection at Berlin. There 
 also occur among the Lydian pottery plain hand-made one-handled cups of 
 the same dull blackish colour. A number of cups of an identical form 
 have been found in the excavations at Villanova. 6 
 
 No. 1369 is a large one-handled hand-made vase of a dull yellow colour, 
 with three long rams' horns, which may perhaps explain the three or four 
 
 No. 1369. Large Vase, with three handles in the shape of rams' horns, and one common handle. 
 (1 : 8 actual size. Depth, 10 ft.) 
 
 excrescences which we nearly always see on the vases found in the ancient 
 tombs of Bismantova, 7 as also on a vase in the Etruscan Museum in the 
 
 5 Giovanni Gozzadini, di alcuni Scpolcri dell a 7 Chierici, in the Bullettino di Paletnologia 
 Necropoli Felsinea, p. 6. Italiana, 1875, PI. ii. Nos. 3-5; 1876, PI. viii. 
 
 6 La Necropoli di Villanova, per Giovanui Nos. 1, 2, 4, 7, 8. 
 Gozzadini; Bologna, 1870, p. 33. 
 
592 
 
 THE SIXTH OR LYDIAN CITY OF TROY. 
 
 [Chap. X. 
 
 Vatican, 8 and on another from the station of Demorta in the district of 
 Mantua. 9 At all events, the three long rams' horns on No. 1369 seem to 
 explain the three horn-like or breast-like excrescences or bosses which we see 
 on the heavy hand-made dull blackish pitchers Nos. 1370, 1371, 1372, 1374, 
 1375, and 1377. For the rest, vases with bosses or excrescences like horns 
 or breasts are also frequent in Germany. Prof. Virchow found one such 
 vase in the pre-historic graveyard of Zaborowo, and he calls my attention 
 to two more represented under Figs. 9 and 10, PL xxv. in the Sessional 
 Rejwrt of the Berlin Society of Anthropology, Ethnology, &c, of Nov. 18, 1876. 
 
 No. 1370. Cup with three horns or breast-like 
 projections. (1 : 4 actual size. Depth, 6 ft.) 
 
 No. 1371. Cup with three breast-like pr jections in the 
 body. (1 : 4 actual size. Depth, 6 ft.) 
 
 No. 1372. One-handled Jug, with three projections in No. 1373. Vase with three breast-like projections 
 the form of female breasts. (1 ; 4 actual size. and zigzag ornamentation, (l : 5 actual size. 
 
 Depth, 6 ft.) Depth, 7 ft.) 
 
 No. 1374. 
 
 No. 1375. 
 
 Nos. 1374, 1375. Cups with impressed linear ornamentation. (1 : 4 actual size. 
 Depth, 6 ft.) 
 
 8 L. Pigorini and Sir John Lubbock, Notes on Hut-Urns, &c, PI. x. No. 10. 
 
 9 Chierici, iu the Bullettino di Palctnologia Italiana, 1877, PI. v. No. 15. 
 
Chap. X.] 
 
 DOUBLE-HANDLED CUPS. 
 
 593 
 
 I have succeeded in collecting about forty similar pitchers, with three 
 horns or breast-like bosses ; most of them have all round the body a decora- 
 tion of vertical concave incisions or impressions, and many have each of the 
 protuberances surrounded by three or four concentric circles of concave 
 lines. The slight baking of these pitchers could not be better shown 
 than by the variety of colours we often see on one and the same pitcher, 
 for it is of a dull blackish colour where it is but very slightly baked, pale 
 yellow in places where it has been a little more exposed to the fire, and 
 reddish or brown where it has been long in a great heat. Apart from 
 the three breast-like or horn-like excrescences, these pitchers have, in 
 respect to shape, fabric, and ornamentation, a great resemblance to vases 
 found in sepulchres at Kovio in Italy. 10 We see the three breast-like 
 excrescences also on the large hand-made, heavy, dull blackish jug 
 No. 1373, which has one handle and an incised decoration of zigzag lines, 
 with a horizontal band of lines round the neck. 
 
 No. 1316. Two-handled Cup, with impressed linear 
 ornamentation. (1 : 4 actual size. Depth, 6 ft.) 
 
 The heavy hand-made, double-handled cups Nos. 1376 and 1377 are 
 likewise of a dull blackish colour, and seem to be in shape, clay, and 
 ornamentation, the exact counterparts of two similar double-handled cups 
 found at Yolterra, and of many others found by Zannoni in his excavations 
 at the necropolis of Felsina at Bologna. 11 A double-handled cup of an 
 identical form, found at Corneto in Italy, is in the Eoyal Museum at 
 Berlin. 
 
 No. 1378 marks a hand-made double-handled bowl of the same clay 
 and colour. Nos. 1379, 1380, and 1381 are hand-made cups of the same 
 
 No. 1377. Double-handled cup, with breast-like No. 137tf. Double-handled Bowl. (1 : 3 actual size, 
 
 excrescences. (About 1 : 4 actual size. Depth, 4 to 6 ft.) Depth, 4 to 6 ft.) 
 
 10 Pompeo Castelfranco, in the Bullettino di Paletnologia Italia?ia, 1875, PI. iii. Nos. 1, 2. 
 
 11 Pompeo Castelfranco, Ibid. p. 61, PI. iii. Nos. 3a, 36. 
 
 2 Q 
 
594 
 
 THE SIXTH OR LYDIAN CITY OF TROY. 
 
 [Chap. X. 
 
 clumsy heavy fabric and clay, with two very long handles. No. 1379 is 
 decorated on the body with incised vertical strokes, which here, as on 
 
 Nos. 1379, 1330. Cups with two large handles. (1 : 4 actual size. Depth, 6 ft.) 
 
 many others of these vessels, are filled in with white chalk in order to 
 strike the eye. My honoured friend M. Alexandre Bertrand, director of 
 the Musee de Saint Germain-en-Laye, calls my attention to the fact that 
 the custom of filling the incised ornamentation on pottery with white 
 chalk was practised by the Gauls before the time of Julius Caesar's 
 campaigns. 
 
 Double-handled cups like these are frequent in this sixth city, and 
 
 they remained in use 
 centuries. Similar cups 
 Etruscan collections, 
 made double-handled 
 1383 may also be 
 lections of Etruscan 
 
 in Etruria for many 
 can be seen in all 
 The shape of the hand- 
 cups Nos. 1382 and 
 seen in nearly all col- 
 pottery. 
 
 No. 1385. 
 
 No. 1336 
 
 Nos. 1331-1390. Terra-cotta vessels of different shapes. (i : 4 actual size. Depth, 6 to 13 ft.) 
 
f 
 
 Chap. X.] HORSES' HEADS ON CUPS. 595 
 
 Double-handled cups of this peculiar form do not occur in Greece, but 
 they seem to have given to the Greeks the idea of their Jcantharos and 
 shjphos, which are much more refined both in shape and fabric, but still 
 have some resemblance to them. These two cups are very frequent in 
 Etruscan tombs of a later time. Mr. George Dennis, 1 who figures 
 two specimens of them, writes : " The most common cups in Etruria were 
 the Jcantharos and the sJcyplios. The Jcantharos was a two-handled cup 
 sacred to Dionysos (Pliny, xxxiii. 53 ; Macrob. Sat. v. 21), in whose hands 
 it is generally represented on painted vases. The cup itself is rarely found 
 decorated with paintings, at least in Etruria, where it is generally of plain 
 black ware. This vase is supposed to take its name from some resem- 
 blance in form to that of the beetle — /cdvOapos — but it more probably 
 took it from the boat or vessel of the same name. 2 
 
 No. 1384 is a large, heavy, one-handled cup or bowl. No. 1385 is a 
 vessel, probably a goblet, rudely shaped like a horse, or, still more 
 probably, like a dog, as Professor Yirchow suggests ; the spout, which 
 is in the place of the tail, is joined by a handle to the neck. This may 
 be compared with No. 1391, the fragment of a vessel, probably a cup, 
 in the form of an animal's head with two horns. I thought it might 
 be a horse's head ; but a horned horse being without example, Professor 
 Yirchow suggests that it may represent a young roe-buck or even a 
 giraffe. Professor Sayce remarks that this animal-head has a striking 
 resemblance to the vases with animals' heads brought by Phoenician 
 tributaries to the Egyptian kings of the Eighteenth Dynasty and de- 
 
 No. 1391. Fragment of a Terra-cotta Vessel, in the shape of a horse's head. 
 (About half actual size. Depth, 6 to 8 ft.) 
 
 picted on the monuments. Goblets terminating in a horse's head were 
 very frequent among the Etruscans, and Mr. G. Dennis 3 identifies them 
 with the Greek goblet called rliyton, which, according to Theophrastus, 4 
 was given to heroes alone. But the head before us has the peculiarity 
 that it is perforated lengthwise, and has a spout in the mouth. It can 
 therefore only have served as the spout of a goblet, the shape of which is 
 unknown; perhaps it had another, wider opening, by which it could be 
 easily filled, for it would have been difficult to fill it by the narrow spout 
 in the head. The Berlin Markisches Museum contains two somewhat 
 similar goblets in the shape of horns, one of which runs out in an 
 
 1 Tlxc Cities and Cemeteries of Etruria, p. cxvii. Nos. 36, 37 2 Athenaeus, xi. 47, 48. 
 
 3 Op. cit. p. cxxii. No. 60. 4 Ap. Athenaeum, xi. 4. 
 
596 
 
 THE SIXTH OR LYDIAN CITY OF TROY. 
 
 [Chap. X. 
 
 animal's head. Several vases with horses' heads are in the collection of 
 antiquities from Chiusi in the British Museum. 
 
 No. 1386 is a small hand-made vase with three protuberances ; 
 No. 1387, a whorl with an incised ornamentation filled with white chalk. 
 No. 1388 is a vase-bottom with an incised ornamentation. No. 1389 is a 
 hand-made oenoclwe with a trefoil mouth. The form of this vessel, but 
 slightly changed, is also found in Etruria, in the trefoil-mouthed Lekythos. 5 
 No. 1390 is a hand-made vase, with a vertically perforated protuberance 
 for suspension on each side. All this pottery is of the same dull blackish 
 clay as the preceding vessels. Of the same clay is also the remarkable 
 vessel No. 1392, which is in the shape of a bugle with three feet. It has 
 
 one handle, and probably served as 
 a goblet. A similarly shaped vessel, 
 found in a tomb at Camirus, in 
 Khodes, is in the British Museum. 
 Of two similar vessels found in 
 Cyprus, one is in the British Museum, 
 the other in the Louvre at Paris. 
 From the form of these bugle-cups, 
 which occur several times among 
 the pottery of the Lydian settle- 
 ment at Hissarlik, we may perhaps 
 derive the Greek and Etruscan 
 Aryballos, 6 which has the same 
 shape, with the sole difference that it has no feet, and that the spout 
 is in the side of the circular tube. 
 
 The goblet No. 1393, which is represented upside down, belongs to 
 this sixth, the Lydian city, as is proved by its clay, its colour, and its 
 fabric. Though only a couple of vessels of this form were found in 
 
 No. 1392. 
 
 Kemarkable Terra-cotta Vessel, in the shape 
 of a bugle with three feet. 
 (About 1 : 3 actual size. Depth, 6 ft.) 
 
 No. 1393. Double-handled Cup (Se'n-as a/x^uicvn-eAAoi/), 
 represented here upside down. 
 (2 : 5 actual size. Depth, about 6 ft.) 
 
 r 
 
 No. 1394. Oenochoe with one handle. 
 (1:4 actual size. Depth, 9 ft.) 
 
 5 George Dennis, op. cit. p. cxxiv. No. G6. 
 
 6 Ibid. No. 70. 
 
Chap. X.I 
 
 VASES WITH TUBES FOR SUSPENSION. 
 
 597 
 
 this city, they prove at least that it was in use there also. It is 
 therefore highly probable that this form of goblet still existed at the 
 time of Homer, and that it is to this very same sort of double-handled 
 cup that he gives the name SeVa? a/Jb^LKvireXkov. But if we compare 
 this rude bulky cup with the fine goblets of the same shape from the 
 third, the burnt city, we see that it has enormously degenerated. 
 
 No. 1394 is a pear-shaped one-handled oenochoe, with a conical excre- 
 scence on each side of the head. If we compare this jug or oenochoe with 
 the Cypriote oenoclioae or the jugs from the pre-historic cities on the 
 island of Thera (Santorin), on most of which a human eye is painted on 
 either side of the orifice, we become convinced that the conical excres- 
 cences on the jug before us (No. 1394) cannot mean anything else than 
 rude representations of human eyes. No. 1395 is a pitcher with a spout 
 in the body ; perhaps a baby's feeding-bottle. 
 
 No. 1396. Pitcher with impressed orna- 
 mentation, filled with white chalk. It 
 belongs to a vessel of which the other 
 half is broken off. (1 : 4 actual size. 
 Depth, 6 ft.) 
 
 No. 1396 is a cup with a decoration of vertical concave incisions round 
 the body, and a band of oblique incisions filled with white chalk round the 
 neck: the base is convex. To the left, this vessel has a large broken 
 projection, proving that, like so many cups and vases in the preceding 
 pre-historic cities, it has been joined to another cup of exactly the same 
 shape. A similar vessel, consisting of two cups joined together and 
 decorated with linear incisions, is among the ancient pottery said to have 
 been found below the stratum of peperino near Marino. 7 
 
 In this Lydian city vases were still in use, with vertically perforated 
 projections for suspension by strings, for, besides the vase No. 1390, I 
 can also point to Nos. 1397 and 1398, which have similar perforations ; 
 both are decorated with rudely-incised zigzag lines. 
 
 No. 1397. Vase with incised ornamentation, and two No. 1398. Vase with incised 
 
 tubular holes for suspension. (1 : 4 actual size. ornamentation. (1 : 4 actual size. 
 
 Depth, 13 ft.) Depth, 29 ft.) 
 
 No. 1395. Pitcher with spout in the body. 
 (1 : 4 actual size. Depth, 9 ft.) 
 
 7 L. Pigorini and Sir John Lubbock, Notes on Flut-Urm, &c, PL x. No. 15. 
 
598 
 
 THE SIXTH OE LYDIAN CITY OF TROY. 
 
 [Chap. X. 
 
 Nos. 1399 to 1404 are rude two-horned serpent-heads of the slightly- 
 baked drill blackish clay which is peculiar to this city. These horned 
 
 No. 1400. 
 
 No. 1399. Fragment of a Two-horned Nos. 1400, 1401. Heads of Horned Serpents. 
 
 Serpent (/cepd<rrrjs) in Terra-cotta. (No. 1400 may perhaps represent an elephant's trnnk.) 
 (About half actual size. (About half actual size. Depth, 12 ft.) 
 
 Depth, 8 to 10 ft.) 
 
 No. 1402. A Serpent's Head, with horns on Nos. 1403, 1404. Head of an Asp in Terra-cotta 
 both sides, and very large eyes. (both sides). 
 
 (About 1 : 3 actual size. Depth, 18 ft.) (About 1 : 3 actual size. Depth, 12 ft.) 
 
 snake-heads appear to be an ancient and significant Lydian symbol of 
 great importance, since even now there is in the Troad a superstition 
 that the horns of serpents, by merely coming into contact with the human 
 body, cure a number of diseases, and especially epilepsy ; also that, 
 when they are dipped in milk, it is instantly turned into cheese; and 
 other notions of the same sort. On account of the many wholesome and 
 useful effects attributed to the horns of serpents, they are regarded as 
 immensely valuable, and one of my workmen was once accused by a 
 jealous comrade of having found two serpents' horns and made off with 
 them. All my assurances that there are no such things as serpents' horns 
 failed to convince the men, and they still believe that their comrade has 
 robbed me of a great treasure. 
 
 The serpent's head Nos. 1403 and 1404 seems to represent the 
 poisonous asp. I call particular attention to the horn-like excrescences to 
 the right and left of the head. This head has a number of dots above 
 
Chap. X.] 
 
 THE COW'S HEAD ON YASE-HANDLES. 
 
 599 
 
 the mouth, and the head and back are divided by cross lines into sections 
 which are filled with dots. On the opposite side are lines running lon- 
 gitudinally, like female hair. It deserves particular attention that no 
 such horned serpent-heads have ever been found of a clay or fabric that I 
 could possibly attribute to any one of the preceding pre-historic cities. 
 The shape of these serpent-heads induces me to think that they have 
 served as handles to vases. This even appears certain from the shape of 
 No. 1400, which, contrary to all the other vases found at Hissarlik, has a 
 horizontal perforation ; but no second specimen with a horizontal hole has 
 been found. A vase with a horizontal perforation occurs, however, among 
 the pottery from Marino. 8 Professor Yirchow calls my attention to the 
 peculiar shape of No. 1400, which, in his opinion, resembles an elephant's 
 trunk more than a serpent's head. 
 
 Yase or cup handles with tolerably well-modelled heads of cows or 
 oxen with long horns occur frequently among the pottery of the 
 Lydian city. I represent one of them here under No. 1405. I shall 
 not attempt to decide the question whether here, 
 as at Mycenae, the cow's head is the symbol or 
 image of Here ; but as the coiv's head occurs here 
 so often, and always on vase-handles, I suggest that 
 it explains to us the two-horned vase-handles which 
 are found in such rich abundance in Italy from 
 the trans-Padane region to the Abruzzi. They 
 are further found in the Lake-dwellings in the 
 districts of Mantua and Yicenza, in the terra- 
 mare of the Emilia, in a tomb and in fields in 
 the district of Bologna, in the tombs of Yolterra, 
 and in fields in the valley of Yibrata. A large 
 cup with three excrescences, having a handle with 
 two such horns, was also found below the founda- 
 tions of a house on the Esquiline, near the church No. mos. vase-handie with a cow's 
 
 i>T7* i • • -r» i i ii • jji head. (Half actual size. 
 
 ot bant Lusebio, m Koine ; but this is as yet the Depth, about is ft.) 
 
 first specimen of such a horned vase found in 
 
 Latium. Chronologically, therefore, it belongs to the Bronze age in the 
 terramare of the Emilia, and perhaps to the Stone age in the Lake- 
 dwellings on the other side of the Po ; but it belongs to the first Iron 
 age in the tombs and fields in the district of Bologna, and in the tombs 
 of Yolterra ; to the Bronze age, in the fields of the Abruzzi ; and to the 
 Bronze age, also, on the Esquiline. 9 
 
 These two-horned vase handles have called forth many learned dis- 
 cussions, but it never yet occurred to any one that they might be the 
 inheritance of the Lydian vase-handles with cow-heads. I feel sure that 
 the explanation I now offer will at once be universally adopted. I may 
 add that cow-heads never occur in any of the first five pre-historic cities of 
 Hissarlik; and also that among the pottery from Chiusi in the British 
 
 8 L. Pigorini and Sir John Lubbock, op. cit. No. 6. 
 
 9 Pigorini, in the Bulkttino di Paletnologia Italiana of January 1878, p. 16. 
 
600 
 
 THE SIXTH OR LYDIA.N CITY OF TROY. 
 
 [Chap. X. 
 
 Museum there are some terra-cotta vases having handles ornamented with 
 heads of horses or cows. 10 
 
 I remind the reader that cow-heads of gold or terra-cotta, and par- 
 ticularly those of gold, are very frequent at Mycenae, where I found 
 fifty-six solely of the shape represented in my Mycenae, p. 218, Nos. 329, 
 330, and numerous fragments of others. They also occur of hronze in 
 Germany. Thus, for instance, Professor Virchow calls my attention to a 
 small two-wheeled chariot of bronze in his collection, which is decorated 
 with three cow-heads and as many birds ; also to a three-wheeled chariot 
 of bronze, decorated with two cow-heads and three birds, which is in the 
 Eoyal Museum at Berlin. Both chariots were found in the bed of the 
 river Spree, near Burg, in Lower Lusatia. 11 He further recommends to 
 my notice a third two-wheeled chariot of bronze, found near Ober-Kehle, 
 in the district of Trebnitz (Lower Silesia), and preserved in the Breslau 
 Museum, which is likewise decorated with two cow-heads and three birds, 
 and to a fourth similar one found at Frankfurt on the Oder, and preserved 
 in the Museum of Neu Buppin. Professor Virchow further mentions a 
 cow-head of bronze with long horns, found near Gr. Pankow in Westprieg- 
 nitz, near Pritzwalk, and a three-horned cow-head of bronze with a bird's 
 beak, preserved in the Museum of Copenhagen ; the horns are long, and 
 strongly bent forward. He also draws my attention to two cows or oxen of 
 pure copper found near Bythin, in the district of Samter, in the province 
 of Posen. Professor Virchow writes on them : " The length of the horns 
 and their wide span decidedly point to southern prototypes. So far as it 
 is known, such long-horned cattle have never existed in our country ; even 
 now we do not see them before coming to Moravia, Hungary or Italy. The 
 pointed heads do not permit the idea that buffaloes might be intended." 1 
 The Markisches Museum at Berlin also contains a vase found in Germany 
 with handles in the form of two cow-horns, similar to the vase-handles 
 found in Italy. Some small cow-heads of gold have also been found in 
 Scythian tombs in the south of Bussia. Perhaps the most remarkable 
 vessel I ever saw is a terra-cotta vessel with a well-formed cow-head 2 in 
 Professor Virchow's collection. It was found by the sagacious Miss Adele 
 Virchow, in the excavations she undertook, as before mentioned, in com- 
 pany with her father and her brother, in the pre-historic graveyard of 
 Zaborowo, in the province of Posen. 
 
 I cannot conclude the discussion on pre-historic heads of cows or 
 oxen without calling particular attention to the marvellous collection of 
 bronzes found in the island of Sardinia, and preserved in the Museum 
 of Cagliari. Among the numerous animals represented there, we see 
 
 10 Among the spoil taken from the Shasu 
 Arabs by King Thutmes III., we find " one silver 
 double-handled cup, with the head of a bull " — pro- 
 bably, like other objects mentioned in the same 
 record, of Phoenician workmanship. (Brugsch, 
 Hist, of Egypt, vol. i., p. 383, Eng. trans. 
 2nd ed.) 
 
 11 See Auszug aus dem Monatsbcricht der Konig- 
 
 lichen Ahademie der Wissenschaften in Berlin, 
 November 16, 1876. 
 
 1 Sessional Report of the Berlin Society of 
 Anthropology, Ethnology, &c, of December 6, 
 1873. 
 
 2 See Sessional Report of the Berlin Society of 
 Anthropology, Ethnology, &c, of May 10, 1873, 
 PL xiii. fig. 1. 
 
ClIAP. X.] 
 
 OBJECTS OF IYORY, ETC. 
 
 601 
 
 bulls and cows ; 3 we also recognize some cow-heads among the horned 
 animal heads which decorate the very curious miniature round boats of 
 bronze, called in the Sardinian dialect Gius (perhaps a corruption of the 
 Greek tcvaOos, cup), and supposed to be votive offerings. 4 We also see 
 there an object of bronze representing a woman riding on a cow, 5 as well 
 as a large number of female idols with cow-horns on their heads, 6 or 
 with cow-horns proceeding from the shoulders, 7 like those on most of the 
 Mycenean idols. 8 As these Sardinian idols have the arms well formed, 
 there is no possibility that the cow-horns (or perhaps symbolic horns of 
 the crescent) might be mistaken for arms, as has been the case with those 
 of the Mycenean idols. 
 
 I may add that the remarkable Museum of Cagliari contains also 
 horned man's heads. 9 
 
 No. 1406 represents a brooch of ivory, ornamented with a bird. 
 
 No. 1407 is a small disc of ivory exhibiting in intaglio-work a 
 scorpion, on each side of which is an animal. One of these is represented 
 
 No. 1406. Brooch of Ivory. No. 1407. Object of Ivory. (Double 
 (2 : 3 actual size. Deptb, 5 It.) size; found on the surface.) 
 
 No. 1403. Watch-shaped Object 
 of Terra- cotta, with two perforations. 
 (About half actual size. Deptb, 
 5 to 8 ft.) 
 
 with three teats, and is turned upwards ; the other is turned the reverse 
 way. They resemble fitchets or polecats, though the primitive artist may 
 have intended to represent lions or dogs : that this latter animal was 
 intended to be represented is the opinion of Professor Virchow. The 
 scorpion was, in Egyptian mythology, the symbol of the goddess Selk. 
 I picked up this curious disc of ivory on the surface of the ground on the 
 high plateau of the hill, where excavations were going on at a depth of 
 from 6 to 12 ft. : it must therefore have fallen from a cart-load. As 
 nothing like it was found in the debris of any of the first five pre- 
 historic cities or in the ruins of the Aeolic Ilium, whilst in the artistic 
 style of the intaglio there is at least some analogy to that of the head 
 No. 1391, and the cow-head No. 1405, I attribute it with much confidence 
 to the Lydian city. 
 
 No. 1408 displays the same dull black colour and the same fabric as all 
 the pottery of this Lydian city ; it is of the size and shape of our watches, 
 
 3 Vincenzo Crespi, B Museo d' Antichita di 
 Cagliari; Cagliari, 1872, PL v. figs. 7, 8. 
 
 4 Ibid. PL vi. 
 
 5 Ibid. PL iv. fig. 10. 
 
 * Ibid. pp. 52, 53, 54, figs, c, e, f, g, k. 
 
 7 Ibid. p. 52, fig. b. 
 
 8 See my Mycenae, p. 12, figs. 8, 10 ; PL xvii. 
 figs. 94, 96; Coloured PL A, fig. d, PL B, 
 figs. e,f. 
 
 9 Vincenzo Crespi, op. cit. PL iii. fig. k. 
 
602 
 
 THE SIXTH OR LYDIAN CITY OF TROY. 
 
 [Chap. X. 
 
 and has two perforations. It is remarkable for the character or symbol 
 incised on it, which so very frequently occurs on the Trojan whorls ; and, 
 curiously enough, also oyer the doors of three of the hut-urns found in 
 the ancient necropolis below a stratum of peperino near Marino, 10 as well 
 as over the door of a similar hut-urn from the same necropolis, preserved 
 in the Eoyal Museum at Berlin. It also occurs seven times on the bottoms 
 of vases found by Miss Sofie von Torma in her excavations in the Maros 
 and Cserna valleys in Siebenbiirgen (Transylvania). 11 
 
 Whorls are frequent in the sixth city ; all of the very same slightly- 
 baked, dull blackish clay of which all the vases consist. They have for 
 the most part the form of Nos. 1802, 1803, and 1805, and have generally 
 only an incised linear decoration filled with white chalk ; but there are 
 also some whorls ornamented with p|J or Lpj and other signs, which may 
 have a symbolical meaning. 
 
 No. 1409. Marble Knob of a Stick. 
 (2 : 3 actual size. Depth, 1 It.) 
 
 No. 1410. Marble Knob of a Stick. 
 (Half actual size. Depth, 5 ft.) 
 
 No. 1411. Die of Stone. 
 (7 : 8 actual size. Depth, 13 ft.) 
 
 No. 1409 and No. 1410 are marble knobs of sticks; No. 1411, a die 
 of silicious stone. Herodotus 1 attributes to the Lydians the invention 
 of dice. 
 
 No. 1412 is of the same clay, and is probably a female idol. All the 
 marks we see on it — eyes, nose, mouth, &c. — have been incised before the 
 
 No. 1412. Figure of Terra-cotta, pro- 
 bably a female idol. 
 (2 : 3 actual size. Depth, 13 ft.) 
 
 No. 1413. 
 
 No. 1414. 
 
 Nos. 1413, 1414. Female figure with large eyes. 
 No. 1413. Front. No. 1414. Back. 
 (Nearly 2 : 3 actual size. Depth, about 9 ft.) 
 
 10 L. Pigorini and Sir John Lubbock, op. cit. 
 PI. ix., Nos. 7-9 ; only on No. 8 the sign has one 
 vertical stroke more than on the two others 
 and on the object before us. 
 
 11 Carl Gooss, Bericht iiber Fraulein Sofie von 
 
 Torino's Sammlung praehistorischcr Alterthumer 
 aus dem Maros- und Cserna- Thai Siebenbiirgcns ; 
 Hermannstadt, 1878, Nos. 8, 9, 10, 13, 14, 17. 
 1 i. 94 : i^vp^drjvai dr) Siv rdre koI tuv 
 
Chap. X.] 
 
 BKONZE BROOCHES AND KNIVES. 
 
 603 
 
 baking : the horizontal line above the eyes may indicate the frontlet ; the 
 necklace is indicated by another horizontal line, with three ornaments, 
 hanging down from it. The figure has a projection to the right and left 
 to indicate the arms. These are joined by a third horizontal line. In its 
 middle is a dot, perhaps intended to mark the vulva. 
 
 No. 1413 is probably another female idol, for two breasts are indi- 
 cated. The eyes are particularly large ; the eyebrows and the nose are 
 marked in the rudest way. The mouth is not indicated as in the owl- 
 headed vases and images, or the rude idols found in the Aegean islands. 
 Three horizontal lines on the neck seem to denote necklaces. The arms 
 are represented by small projections to the right and left. Vertical 
 scratchings on the back of the head (No. 1414) indicate the female hair. 
 
 The bronze brooch, No. 1415, as well as the fragment of another 
 brooch, No. 1416, were found by a shepherd in digging a furrow a few 
 
 No. 1415. Primitive Bronze Brooch, with a file of gold beads attached to it. (Actual size. 
 Found near the surface.) 
 
 No. 1416. Fragment of Bronze Brooch, with two files of gold beads attached to it. (Actual size. 
 Found near the surface.) 
 
 inches deep round a barrack of wood and straw which he had built for 
 me at the western foot of Hissarlik. I attribute these objects to the 
 Lydian city only because the inhabitants of the succeeding Aeolic Ilium 
 were too civilized to use such rude nail-like brooches with flat heads, and 
 I do not see how these objects could lie so close to the surface if they 
 belonged to any one of the pre-historic cities. That they were used as 
 brooches is evident from the gold beads, of which twenty-five adhere to the 
 large brooch and twenty-two to the fragment. Professor W. Chandler 
 Koberts of the Eoyal Mint, who examined these objects, is of opinion that 
 the gold beads must have been suspended by a string to the brooches, 
 and must have become attached to them by the cementing action of the 
 oxide and carbonate of copper. Professor Yirchow suggests to me that 
 No. 1415 might have been a hair-pin. But I hardly think this pos- 
 sible, on account of its heavy weight and its length of • 12 metre, 
 or nearly 5 in. 
 
 No. 1417 is a knife of bronze plated with gold, but in many ptaces 
 
 No. 1417. Knife of Bronze, thickly gilt. (Actual size. Depth, 6* ft.) 
 
604 
 
 THE SIXTH OR LYDIAN CITY OF TROY. 
 
 [Chap. X. 
 
 covered with oxide and carbonate of copper. Nos. 1418 to 1420 are crooked 
 bronze knives : in No. 1418 may be seen the hole by which it was fastened 
 
 No. 1418. 
 
 Nos. 1418-1420. Three Knives of Bronze. (Nearly half actual size. Depth, 3ft.) 
 
 in the wooden handle. No. 1421 is an iron knife, with a ring for suspen- 
 sion. A nail, the head of which is clearly seen in the engraving, can leave 
 
 No. 1421. Iron Knife, with ring for suspension and a rivet of the wooden handle. 
 (About 2 : 3 actual size. Depth, 13 ft.) 
 
 no doubt that the handle was enclosed in wood. This knife was found at a 
 depth of 13 ft. below the surface, and, judging from the depth alone, it 
 ought to belong to the fourth or fifth pre-historic city. But as not the 
 slightest trace of iron has ever been found by me in any of the five pre- 
 historic cities of Troy or in Mycenae ; as, moreover, the shape of this knife 
 is so widely different from the shape of all other knives found in those 
 cities, whilst it has the very greatest similarity to the Etruscan knives, 
 and also to the blade of a bronze knife found in the necropolis of Eovio, 2 
 as well as to a bronze knife found in the tombs of Soldo near Alzate 
 (Brianza), 3 I am forced to attribute it to the Lydian city. The weight 
 of the iron would easily account for its having sunk to the depth at which 
 it was found. 
 
 No. 1422 is evidently also an arrow-head with two barbs, but we are 
 at a loss to say in what manner it could have been fastened to the shaft. 
 No. 1423 is a bronze arrow-head without barbs. Similar arrow-heads 
 are found in Denmark. 4 No. 1424 is a lance-head of bronze. Unlike all 
 the lance-heads found in the third, the burnt city, 5 this lance-head has a 
 
 2 Bullettino di Paletnologia Italiana, 1875, 
 PI. iv. No. 1. 
 
 3 Ibid. January and February, 1879, PI. i. 
 No. 11. The knife before us resembles likewise 
 some of the bronze knives found in the Swiss 
 Lake-dwellings (see V. Gross, Ekultats des 
 
 Recherclies dans les Lacs de la Suisse occidental ; 
 Zurich, 1876, PI. v.). 
 
 4 J. J. A. Worsaae, Nordiske Oldsager, PI. xxxii. 
 No. 145. 
 
 * In the other four pre-historic cities of His- 
 sarlik no lance-heads of bronze were found. 
 
Chap. X.] LANCE AND ARROW-HEADS : HORSES' BITS. 
 
 605 
 
 tube, in which the wooden shaft was fixed. As I have already stated, all 
 the Homeric lances seem to have had a similar tube for the shaft. 
 Moreover, all the lance-heads found by me at Mycenae are similar to 
 that before us. 
 
 Nos. 1422-1425. Lance, Arrow-heads, and Fragment of Bridle of Bronze (Nearly half actual size. Depth, 6 ft.) 
 
 The object No. 1425 is also of bronze, with three rings, of which the 
 lower one is broken ; it seems to be part of a bridle. This is also the 
 opinion of Mr. John Evans, who has in his collection a similar object, with 
 the sole difference that the rings, instead of protruding as on the Hissarlik 
 bridle, are here in the centre of circular projections in the rod of the 
 bridle. Moreover, a bronze bridle was found by Dr. Y. Gross in the Lake- 
 dwellings at the station of Moeringen, in the Lake of Bienne, composed of 
 two pieces almost perfectly similar to that of the object before us; the 
 bit for the mouth of the horse was fixed in the middle ring in both cases, 
 the sole difference being that the rings from Switzerland form long ovals. 6 
 Professor Yirchow calls my attention to two objects of bronze, each with 
 three protruding rings, strikingly similar to the bridle-fragment No. 1425, 
 which were found at Seelow, in the district of Lebus, near the Oder. 7 
 Only here each piece is in the form of a lizard, and has four feet. The 
 curious instrument of copper or bronze (No. 1426), in the shape of a bar 
 with the two ends turned into pointed hooks, has also the appearance of 
 a bit. 
 
 No. 1427 is a small bronze cup, perforated like a colander. No. 1428 
 is a bronze cup on a tall stem, but without handles, and with a very large 
 foot. A cup of a perfectly identical shape is in the Museum of Verona. 8 
 The cup No. 1428 is also very similar in form to the Greek and Etruscan 
 cup called holkion by Mr. Dennis. 9 
 
 Nos. 1429 and 1430 represent a curious sort of large double-edged bronze 
 battle-axe, of which I found four at a depth of 6 ft. As I never found 
 
 6 V. Gross, Resultats des Recherches dans les 8 Pigorini, in the Ridlettino di Paletnologia, 
 Lacs de la Suisse occidental, PI. xv. No. 1. Feb. 1877, PI. ii. No. 3. 
 
 7 See Sessional Report of the Berlin Society of 9 TJie Cities and Cemeteries of Etruria, p. cxxi. 
 Anthropology, Ethnology, &c, of April 17, 1875. No. 55. 
 
606 
 
 [Chap. X. 
 
 No. 1428. 
 
 Kos. 1427, 1428. Goblet and sieve-like Cup of Bronze. (Nearly half actual size. Depth, 6 ft.) 
 
 No. 1429. 
 
 Nos. 1429, 1430. Axe of Bronze. (About 1 : 3 actual size. Depth, 6 ft.) 
 
 this shape in any of the other pre-historic cities, I attribute them with 
 much probability to this Lydian city. I found two double-edged bronze 
 hatchets of a perfectly identical shape at Mycenae. 10 A similar double- 
 edged axe of copper was found in Hungary. 1 These double-edged axes 
 are characteristic of Asia Minor, and Zeus Labrandeus of Caria derived his 
 name from labranda, which meant a double-edged battle-axe in the Carian 
 language. They also frequently occur in Greece and Assyria, as well as 
 in Babylonia. A similar double-edged axe, but of copper, was found in 
 the Lake-dwellings at Liischerz ; 2 another on the Lower Danube. 3 A 
 similar double-edged axe, also of pure copper, was found by Dr. V. 
 Gross in the Lake-dwellings at the Station of Locras, in the Lake of 
 Bienne in Switzerland. 4 I also found them very frequently represented 
 on the gold jewels in the royal tombs of Mycenae ; as, for example, between 
 the horns of fifty-six cow-heads ; 5 also two such double -edged axes are 
 
 10 See my Mycenae, p. Ill, No. 173. 1879, PI. xvii. Nos. 2a, 2b. 
 
 1 See Joseph Hampel, Catalogue de V Exposition 3 Ibid. Nos. 3a, 3b. 
 
 pre'historique des Musees de Province, p. 139, 4 V. Gross, Les dernieres Trouvailles dans les 
 
 No. 147. Habitations lacustres du Lac de Bienne ; Porren- 
 
 2 See Sessional Report of the Berlin Society of truy, 1879, PI. i. No. 1. 
 
 Anthropology, Ethnology, &c, of October 18, 5 See my Mycenae, p. 218, Nos. 329, 330. 
 
Chap. X.] 
 
 DATE OF THE LYDIAN CITY. 
 
 607 
 
 represented on the gold seal-ring in the archaic Babylonian style, 6 and 
 one on the remarkable gem of agate. 7 
 
 M. Ernest Chantre, assistant director of the Museum of Lyons, has 
 sent me the analysis of one of these battle-axes made by the celebrated 
 chemist, M. Damour of Lyons. I had drilled the axe, and sent him the 
 drillings : — 
 
 Grammes. 
 
 Analysis 0-5280 
 
 Deducting the sand contained in it 0*0070 
 
 0-5210 
 
 In 1 • 0000 part. 
 0-4810 = 0-9232 
 0-0385 = 0-0739 
 
 0-5195 = 09971 
 
 Now, regarding the chronology of this Lydian city, I think every 
 archaeologist will admit that all the articles which we have passed in 
 review, and particularly the pottery, denote an early state of civilization. 
 Moreover, here were still in use the vases with long rams' horns and the 
 vase-handles with long-horned cow-heads, from the former of which the 
 bosses on the most ancient Etruscan vases seem to have originated, while 
 from the long-horned cow-heads we may trace the famous two-horned or 
 crescent vase-handles found in the terramare and elsewhere in Central 
 Italy. No vases with rams' horns, or handles with long-horned cows' 
 heads, have ever been found in the terramare ; but this does not by any 
 means prove that the Lydian city on Hissarlik must be anterior to the 
 Lake-dwellings by which the terramare were formed ; because vases with 
 bosses or with crescent handles may have existed for centuries in the 
 Italian terramare, whilst the ram-horned vases and the cow-headed 
 handles, from which they were derived, continued to be used in the 
 Lydian settlement at Hissarlik. But it is pretty certain that the immi- 
 gration of the Etruscans into Italy took place before the Dorian invasion 
 of the Peloponnesus, 8 which, as explained in the preceding pages, became 
 the cause of the Aeolian emigration to the Troad. 
 
 Having to the best of my knowledge and belief selected and described 
 the objects belonging to the Lydian city from among those found in the 
 strata between the fifth pre-historic city and the ruins of the Aeolic 
 settlement, I now proceed to the description of the seventh city, the 
 Greek Ilium. 
 
 This consists of copper . 
 
 tin 
 
 6 See my Mycenae, p. 354, No. 530. 7 Ibid. p. 362, No. 541. 
 
 8 Wolfgang Helbig, Die Italiker in der Poebene ; Leipzig, 1879, p. 100. 
 
CHAPTER XL 
 
 THE SEVENTH CITY : THE GREEK ILIUM ; OR NOVUM ILIUM. 1 
 
 § I. Eemains of the City. 
 
 The founders of Novum Ilium built their city botli to the east and to 
 the south of Hissarlik, 2 and used this hill as their Acropolis and the seat of 
 their sanctuaries. They did so probably for three reasons : first, because 
 they were conscious of the fact, that here had once stood the sanctuary 
 of Athene as well as the houses of Troy's last king and his sons, and 
 that here the fate of sacred Ilios had been decided, and therefore a 
 religious reverence deterred them from giving up the place to profane 
 use ; secondly, because Hissarlik had strong natural defences, and was 
 admirably situated for an Acropolis ; and, in the third place, because the 
 new settlers were too numerous to build their town on so small a space. 
 This explains the thinness of the Greek stratum of debris on Hissarlik, the 
 scarcity of objects of human industry, even of fragments of pottery, and 
 the abundance of terra-cotta figurines and round pieces of terra-cotta, in 
 the form of watches, with two perforations, which here replace the pre- 
 historic whorls, and seem, along with the figurines, to have served as 
 votive offerings. In commemoration of the Acropolis of old, erroneously 
 attributed to Ilium by Homer, and probably believed by the new settlers 
 to have occupied this identical hill, Hissarlik was thenceforth called Per- 
 gamus, or Priam's Pergamon, as Herodotus 3 names it. 
 
 Of the first sacred buildings erected here by the new settlers nothing 
 is known to us. The first mention made of a temple is by Herodotus, 
 who relates that Xerxes, on his expedition to Greece (480 B.C.), went up 
 hither to sacrifice to the Ilian Athene. 4 Strabo says that this temple, up 
 to the time of Alexander the Great, was but small and insignificant ((iiKpov 
 Kal ei/reXe?). 5 To this, and to other old temples built by the Aeolian 
 settlers, probably belong the very numerous wrought blocks of lime- 
 stone, often with rude sculptures, which I found embedded in walls of 
 a later time. 
 
 Of the later costly temple of Athene built by Lysimachus, destroyed 
 partly or entirely by Fimbria, and restored by Sulla, 6 but little had 
 escaped the pious zeal of the early Christians, and no trace of it was 
 visible above ground. The drums of its Corinthian columns, with their 
 
 1 I once more remind the reader that no used by Strabo to distinguish the Greek city 
 
 ancient author calls this city by any other name from Homer's — rb vvv "lhiov, rb <rr]fiepivbv 
 
 than simply "l\iov, Ilium, or, sometimes "lAiov, rj vvv ir6\ts. 
 poetically, Troja. " Novum Ilium " is merely 2 See Plan II. (of the Hellenic Ilium), 
 a modern customary name, which I reluctantly 3 Herod, vii. 43. 4 Ibid. 
 
 adopt as a convenient abridgement of the phrases 5 Strabo, xiii. p. 593. 6 See pp. 176-178. 
 
§ I.] WALLS : TEMPLES OF ATHENE AND APOLLO. 609 
 
 beautiful capitals, all of white marble, had been used to build a wall of 
 defence, the drums being joined with cement. In my trench on the south- 
 east side I have been obliged to break through this wall, which visitors 
 will recognize to the right and left of that excavation. 7 The drums 
 which I took out may be seen standing upright at the entrance of 
 the trench. 
 
 Of the temple itself, I found only the foundations in situ ; they 
 nowhere extended deeper than 6^ ft. The floor, which consisted of slabs 
 of limestone, and which rested upon double layers of the same stone, was 
 covered with vegetable soil, from 1 to 3 ft. deep. This explains the total 
 absence of entire sculptures ; for whatever sculptures there were, remained 
 lying on the surface, till they were destroyed by fanaticism or wantonness. 
 This explains also the enormous mass of fragments of statues which cover 
 the entire hill. Judging from the foundations, the temple was 288 ft. 
 long by 72i ft. wide ; its direction is E.S.E. J E. In order to excavate 
 the pre-historic cities, I have been forced by dire necessity to destroy 
 the greater part of these foundations, of which, however, visitors will 
 see some remains on the north-east and south-west sides of my great 
 trench, which cuts the hill from south-east to north-west. The long 
 Hellenic wall on the south side (see Sectional Plan No. IV., under the 
 letter u) also belongs to this temple, and seems to have been its wall 
 of enclosure ; so too does the quadrangular Hellenic substruction in the 
 form of a tower ; but I am at a loss to say of what use this latter can 
 have been to the temple. Visitors will see that it rests directly upon the 
 calcined ashes and debris of the third, the burnt city. Of other temples 
 I found only the large ruins of the Doric temple of Apollo, on or close 
 to the slope, on the north side ; 8 but, strange to say, not one stone of it 
 in situ. One beautiful triglyph block of this temple, hereafter to be 
 described, was found at a depth of 3 ft. below the surface, on the northern 
 slope ; another unfinished triglyph block on the plateau, near the surface. 
 I struck besides, in my excavations on the plateau of the hill, the founda- 
 tions of many other buildings of large wrought stones, one of which was 
 59 ft. long and 43 ft. broad. This latter, in or near which I found three 
 inscriptions which seem to have been put up in it, appears to have been the 
 Bouleuterion or Senate-house. Other buildings may have been temples or 
 the houses of high priests. But as my object was to excavate Troy, and 
 as I could not possibly do so by tunnels or leave all these ruins hanging 
 in the air, over our heads, I have — much to my regret — been obliged to 
 destroy them, and to save of them only what I thought of great interest 
 to science. 
 
 Of works of defence, which I might attribute to a time anterior to the 
 Macedonian period, I can only mention the lower courses of a large tower, 
 which I struck in my north-west trench. 9 All the upper portion of this 
 tower consisted of large wrought stones, probably of the time of Lysi- 
 machus. A portion of it may still be seen on the south-west side of the 
 
 7 See point z East on Sectional Plan IV. 9 The trench is marked z' on Flan I., and z' 
 
 8 The site of this temple is marked v on West on Sectional Plan IV. 
 Plan I. 
 
 2 R 
 
010 
 
 THE SEVENTH CITY : THE GREEK ILIUM. 
 
 [Chap. XI. 
 
 same trench. 10 As the great wall built by Lysimachus round the hill was 
 entirely covered up, it was well preserved ; it is generally 12 ft. high and 
 10 ft. thick ; it consists of large well-hewn blocks of limestone, laid one 
 upon another without any kind of cement, and generally bearing a mono- 
 gram. 1 As the letter is not always the same, there being, for example, on 
 one stone a 1, and upon another an T or a A, I presume that they are 
 quarry-marks. In order to open trenches, I have unfortunately been obliged 
 to break through the wall in many places, as, for example, at the points 
 z East and z West and r on Plan I. In other places I have been forced 
 to remove it entirely for long distances, as, for example, at n n and v 
 (Plan I.) ; but even so all the injuries I have inflicted on it together 
 affect only one-sixth of its entire circuit round Hissarlik. Whoever, there- 
 fore, may take pleasure in bringing the remainder to light, will find more 
 than five-sixths of it well preserved. A fine specimen of the architecture 
 of the time of Lysimachus may be seen in the tower in the west side of 
 my great northern trench, as represented under letter f on the accompany- 
 ing woodcut (No. 1431). d marks a wall of a later time. Visitors will see 
 that the tower has been erected on the debris, which covered to a depth of 
 35 ft. the top of the ancient wall marked b and the retaining wall marked 
 a on the woodcut No. 2, p. 24. I particularly recommend visitors to 
 examine the slanting layers of debris, which are indicated in the engraving 
 No. 1431, together with their thickness and the material of which they 
 are composed. As all the layers in which marble occurs belong to Novum 
 Ilium, it will be seen that the accumulation of Greek remains is here par- 
 ticularly great. Probably all the marble splinters date from the time 
 when the marble blocks were cut for the Corinthian temple of Athene 
 and the Doric temple of Apollo. Of the walls round Ilium, built by 
 Lysimachus, and probably only repaired by Sulla, portions only are here 
 and there preserved ; but, with the aid of the potsherds and fragments of 
 marble with which the whole site of Novum Ilium is strewn, they will 
 suffice to enable the visitor to follow up the entire circuit of the city. 
 
 Besides the outer walls, there are traces of an inner wall, connecting 
 two quadrangular forts, of which large ruins remain. 2 One of these forts 
 is close to the road to Chiblak, the other on the east border of the city. 
 
 The vast extent of the city ; the masses of marble or granite columns 
 which peep out from the ground ; the millions of fragments of sculptures 
 with which the site is strewn ; the many large heaps of ruins ; the mosaic 
 floors brought to light in various places ; the gigantic aqueduct which still 
 spans the Thymbrius, and by which Ilium was provided with water from 
 the upper part of that river ; and last, not least, the vast theatre, capable 
 of seating 5000 spectators, which visitors will see cut in the slope, 
 immediately to the east of Hissarlik ; 3 — all this testifies to the large size, 
 the wealth, and the magnificence of the town. The marble seats have 
 disappeared from the theatre ; but in a small trench, which I dug in the 
 
 10 Sectional Plan IV., z' West, and Plan I. (of 2 See Plan II. (of the Hellenic Ilium). One of 
 
 Troy), z'. the quadrangular forts is marked 43, the other 
 
 1 Sectional Plan IV., z' West and Z East, and 37, which means their height in metres above 
 
 Plan 1. (of Troy), K, N O, z o, R, Y. the sea. 3 See Plan II. 
 
ITS SIZE, WEALTH, AND MAGNIFICENCE. 
 
 611 
 
 orchestra, I brought to light numerous fragments of marble sculptures 
 which testify to its grandeur. 
 
 As before mentioned, I have sunk on the site of Novum Ilium, outside 
 of Hissarlik, 20 shafts, the sections and depths of which are accurately 
 
 given on the Plan of the Hellenic Ilium (Plan II.) ; it will be seen from 
 them that the accumulation of the debris, at a short distance to the west 
 and south-west of Hissarlik, is from 5 to 5*30 m. (16 ft. 5 in. to 17 ft. 5 in.), 
 but that more to the south and south-east it falls off to 2 or 2*50 m. 
 (6 ft. 7 in. to 8 ft. 2 in.). The depth of the debris on the plateau above the 
 
612 
 
 THE SEVENTH CITY: THE GREEK ILIUM. 
 
 [Chap. XI. 
 
 theatre also does not exceed 8 ft. 2 in., and further on to the east it 
 diminishes still more. These debris abound with fragments of pottery 
 of all epochs, from the foundation of the city hy the Aeolian colonists 
 down to its decay in the fourth and its abandonment in the fifth century 
 of our era. But I infer this decay and abandonment solely from the 
 absence of coins later than Constans II., and from the entire absence of 
 pottery or ruins of the Byzantine period, of which no trace was found 
 in my 20 shafts. I have no other proofs. 4 As already stated, E. Meyer 5 
 mentions that " Constantinus Porphyrogennetus (911-959 a.d.) still cites 
 most of the cities of the Troad as bishoprics : Adramyttium, Assos, 
 Gargara, Antandrus, Alexandria-Troas, Ilium, Dardanus, Abydus, Lamp- 
 sacus ; Parium even as seat of an archbishop. 6 But may not the bishopric 
 of Ilium have been on another site ? " 
 
 The mass of coins picked up from the surface by the shepherds on the 
 site of Novum Ilium is really astounding ; but they are all of bronze : the 
 oldest of them do not go further back than the Macedonian period. For 
 the most part they are coins of Ilium itself, but those of Alexandria- 
 Troas are also very frequent ; while those of Sigeum, Dardanus, Tenedos, 
 Ophrynium, Gergis, Elaeussa, Abydus, Lampsacus, Heracleum, Smyrna, 
 Ephesus, Adramyttium, Assos, &c, are rarer. I found also coins of all 
 these places in my excavations on Hissarlik, and a very large number of 
 Ilian coins, or coins of Alexandria-Troas. Silver tetradrachms of Ilium are 
 very rare ; I never found one. Incised gems are also frequently found by 
 the shepherds. I myself picked up sixteen of them in my trenches. They 
 are for the most part of the Koman time. I attribute only six of them 
 with much confidence to the Macedonian period ; none of them are of 
 great artistic value. They represent a warrior on a chariot with four 
 horses, an Artemis with a crescent and the morning star, an Isis, a Pan 
 with a bunch of grapes in his hand, or busts — apparently portraits — of 
 men and women. The fact that these gems are always found without 
 rings can, I think, be only explained by the supposition that the rings 
 were of tin, a metal which disappears without leaving a trace. Similar 
 incised gems were highly prized in antiquity. According to Professor 
 Khousopoulos, Athena eus mentions that an intaglio of great artistic skill 
 was sold for five talents. King Mithridates VI. had a collection of 2000 
 gems with intagli ; the Emperor Hadrian also was a great admirer of 
 similar jewels, and spent large sums of money on them. 
 
 I represent here a few fragments of the more characteristic archaic 
 Greek pottery found in the hill of Hissarlik itself. 
 
 The hand-made fragment, No. 1432, represents, in black colour on a 
 light-red dead ground, the upper part of a winged female figure, with a 
 long pointed nose and chin ; the long hair hangs down on the back ; the 
 eye is very large; the head is covered with a short cap, to which is 
 attached a very long tail or crest, the end of which, branching into two 
 
 4 That Ilium was still flourishing in the time 181-2). 
 of the immediate successors of Constantine the 5 Geschichte von Troas ; Leipzig, 1877, p. 97. 
 Great, is proved by the letter of Julian, quoted 6 Const. Porphyr. de Caerem. ii. 54, p. 792, 
 
 in the chapter on tho History of Troy (pp. 794 f. 
 
§ LJ ARCHAIC PAINTED POTTERY. 613 
 
 spirals, is particularly curious. Before the figure, in the right-hand 
 corner, we see again the curious symbol found on the Italian hut-urns 
 
 No. 1432. Painted Archaic Tottery. (About half actual size. Depth, about 5 ft.) 
 
 and the Trojan whorls, and which the late Professor Martin Haug of 
 Munich read si, and thought to be the first syllable of the Trojan god or 
 hero Sigo or Siko, which he found repeatedly in the Trojan inscriptions. 
 Behind the figure we see a curious object with a swastika in the form 
 of a Maltese cross. I also call attention to the two clusters of dots, 
 which, as Prof. Virchow presumes, may be meant to represent flowers. 
 
 No. 1433 is a wheel-made potsherd, having an ornamentation painted 
 with black colour on a dead white ground ; it consists of nine waving 
 lines, and, between two borders, an arrow-like decoration. No. 1434 is 
 
 No. 1433. Painted Archaic Greek Pottery. No. 1434. Painted Archaic Pottery. (Actual size. 
 
 (About half actual size. Depth, about 6 ft.) Depth, 6 ft.) 
 
 a fragment of the upper part of a wheel-made bowl, decorated on the out- 
 side with plain dark-brown bands, on the inside with the winged female 
 figure before us, painted with brown colour on a light-yellow dead ground. 
 The hair is very luxuriant, bound up by a frontlet of dark-red colour, 
 which seems to hang down far below the wings ; the features of the figure 
 are archaic ; behind the head is a curious triangle, with an ornamentation 
 that is frequent on Assyrian sculptures. 
 
 No. 1435 is a broken terra-cotta figure, probably of a priestess, with 
 
614 THE SEVENTH CITY : THE GREEK ILIUM. [Chap. XL 
 
 Assyrian features ; the hands have evidently been projecting. This 
 figure is decorated all over with painted red ornaments, probably meant to 
 indicate the clothing. No. 1436 is a fragment of the border of a plate, 
 with a key-pattern decoration, painted in dark-brown colour on a light- 
 green background ; just below the border are two perforations for sus- 
 pension. No. 1437 is a vase-spout in the form of an animal's head, 
 painted dark-red. 
 
 No. 1435. 
 
 Nos. 1435-1437. Figure of a Priestess in Assyrian style and painted Archaic Pottery. (Half actual size. Depth, 6 ft.) 
 
 No. 1438 is the head of an archaic vase, with vertically perforated pro- 
 jections for suspension, and a painted linear decoration in black on a dead 
 
 No. 1438. Head of an Archaic Vase, with tubular holes 
 for suspension. (Nearly half actual size. Depth, 6 ft.) 
 
 white ground. No. 1439 is the outside of the rim of a hand-made vessel, 
 with a net-like decoration, painted in dark-brown on a white dead ground. 
 No. 1440 is a fragment of the inner side of a hand-made vase or bowl with 
 a primitive key-pattern decoration, painted in dark brown on a light- 
 yellow dead ground ; above and below are bands of dark brown alternated 
 with violet. No. 1411 is a fragment of a small wheel-made vase which, 
 exactly like a vase found by me at Mycenae, 7 represents, in dark brown 
 on a light-yellow dead ground, warriors with lances and enormous oval 
 shields. Nos. 1442, 1443, and 1444 are fragments of wheel-made vessels 
 with a painted spiral or circular ornamentation. Nos. 1445 and 1446 are 
 fragments of hand-made bowls, profusely painted on the inner side ; on 
 both we recognize part of an animal, probably a horse. On the outsid'3 
 
 7 See my Mycenae, p. G8, No. 80. 
 
II.] 
 
 PAINTED rOTTERY : TERRA-COTTA FIGURES. 
 
 615 
 
 No. 1439. 
 
 Nos. 1439-1446. "Fragments of painted Archaic Greek Pottery. (Half actual size. Depth, 4 to 6 ft.) 
 
 these bowls are decorated with plain red, brown, or black bands. Frag- 
 ments of archaic pottery with a painted linear decoration are abundant, 
 but I obtained only one entire vase of this description. 
 
 No. 1447 is a flat object of red terra-cotta, representing in relief a 
 pretty woman with long hair and a rich Oriental head-dress ; she seems 
 to hold her hands clasped on her breast. According to all appearance, 
 
 No. 1447. Object of Red Terra-cotta, representing in No. 144*. Figura with Child, holding a book on 
 
 relief an Asiatic goddess with a rich Oriental head-dress. her lap. Best Hellenic p rind. (Nearly half 
 
 Probably an idol. (2 : 3 actual size. Depth, 5 ft.) actual size. Depth, 3 ft.) 
 
610 THE SEVENTH CITY : THE GREEK ILIUM. [Chap. XI. 
 
 this is an idol, and has heen encased in wood. I call attention to the four 
 excrescences at the sides of the figure. No. 1448 is a seated terra-cotta 
 figure, having to her left a child, and holding a book on her lap ; both 
 figure are of masterly work, and may belong to the end of he fifth or 
 the beginning of the fourth century b.c. No. 1449 is a rudely-modelled 
 lion of terra-cotta. No. 1450 is a fairly well modelled pig, curiously 
 
 No 1449. Lion of Terra-cotta. 
 (2 : 5 actual size. Depth, about 3 ft.) 
 
 Ho. 1450. Pig of Terra-cotta, curiously marked 
 all over with stars. (Actual size. Depth, 12 ft.) 
 
 l i ^ovV vprl *iars on a light-red dead ground. No. 1451 is a 
 
 Sfof ^"SnLg /painted draped figure with a long 
 beard, on horseback; the head » covered with a cap. 
 
 No.,451. TaWetofTerra-cotla^ithaborsemauinrelief. (Actual size. Depth, 2 to 3ft.) 
 
 No 1452 is an object of terra-cotta, representing in relief the bearded 
 « Tor, old man with a Phrygian cap on his head. Professor Sayce 
 figure of an old man w itn a S (< r Assyrian style. 
 
 remarks ^ g£ i d elolt, such as is Jund on the 
 
 0n f EUs and Sicily I has been explained by Mr. Percy Gardner m 
 
§ I.] FINE FIGURES IN TERRA-COTTA. 617 
 
 No. 1452. Curious Object of Terra-cotta, with an archaic figure in relief. (Half actual size. Depth, 3 ft.) 
 
 female heads of terra-cotta, which may be of the Macedonian period ; the 
 face of No. 1455 is partly veiled. As Professor Bhousopoulos mentions 
 to me, Dicaearchus affirms that the Theban women covered their heads 
 with the gown to such a degree that nothing of the face was visible. 
 
 i>. itui. very ueuuuiui renuiie ixca 
 
 (Half actual size. Depth, 2 to 3 ft.) 
 
 No. 1456. Female Head; probably Macedonian time. 
 (Nearly half actual size. Depth, 2 ft.) 
 
 No. 1457. Cup-bottom, representing 
 in relief two boys kissing each other. 
 (Nearly half actual size. Depth, 2 ft.) 
 
618 
 
 THE SEVENTH CITY: THE GREEK ILIUM. 
 
 [Chap. XI. 
 
 No. 1457 is the fragment of a cup-bottom, representing in relief two boys 
 kissing each other. This object finds its analogue in the fragment of a 
 
 vase from Tarsus (Cilicia) in the Louvre, 
 on which two youths kissing each other 
 are likewise represented in relief. 
 
 No. 1458 is a mould of terra-cotta, 
 representing a woman and a man ; the 
 latter seemingly with a halo of glory 
 round the head. A two-handled vessel 
 is represented between their heads, with 
 powers below it. This mould seems to 
 be of the late Koman time. 
 
 Nos. 1459-1464 are six terra-cotta 
 tablets, the first three of which repre- 
 sent, in the opinion of Prof. Yirchow 
 
 No. 1453. Terra-cotta Mould, repres?nting a man and Prof. SayCe, the winged thundei'- 
 and a woman ; probably late Roman time. , , , on • i t»p 
 
 (Nearly half actual size. Depth, i to 2 ft.) bolt ot Zeus m low reliet. Professor 
 
 Yirchow sees in No. 1462 the repre- 
 sentation of a quiver for arrows. Nos. 1463 and 1464 are more difficult 
 to explain. These tablets, of which a large number were found, have 
 probably served to ornament boxes or furniture. 
 
 No. 14 59. 
 
 Nn. 1 
 
 No. 1461. 
 
 No. 1463. 
 
 No. 1464. 
 
 Nos. 1459-1461. Terra-cotta Tablets, with curious r presentati ns in relief, from the Greek Stratum. 
 (Half actual size. Dep' h, 2 ft.) 
 
 No. 1465 is the fragment of a painted Hellenic vase, with curious 
 signs resembling Egyptian hieroglyphs. 
 
 Whorls of clay still occasionally occur in the stratum of Novum Ilium, 
 but all of them are thoroughly baked, and have never any incised or painted 
 ornamentation. But much more abundant here are the objects of terra- 
 cotta, but slightly baked, in the form of our watches, with two perforations 
 
§ I.] 
 
 WAX-VOTOS WITH STAMPS. 
 
 619 
 
 near the border. Many of these objects are round ; in many others the 
 border, just above the two perforations, is flattened. In most instances 
 these objects are decorated with a stamp, in 
 which we see a dog's head, a bee with 
 extended wings, a flying figure, a swan, &c. : 
 this stamp is sometimes in the middle of 
 the object, sometimes on the flat border. 
 But many of them have no stamp, and in this 
 case they are generally much larger, more 
 bulky, of coarser clay and fabric, and more 
 thoroughly baked. Those with stamps are 
 usually of a much better fabric and less 
 baked, probably in order that the stamp 
 might not be injured by long exposure to the fire. Of this latter class 
 I represent seven under Nos. 1466 to 1472. We see in the stamp on 
 
 No. 1465. Fragment of painted Greek 
 Po.tery. (Half actual size. 
 Depth, 2 to 3 ft.) 
 
 No. 1466. 01 jet of Terra-eotta, 
 with two perforations, represent- 
 ing a swan and an ihex. (Half 
 actual size. Depth, 2 to 6 ft.) 
 
 No. 1467. Object of Terra-cotta, 
 with two perforations, representing 
 curious signs. (2 : 3 actual size. 
 Depth, 2 to 5 ft.) 
 
 No. 146S. Object of Terra-cotta, 
 with two perforations, repre- 
 senting the bust of a man. (Half 
 i ctual size. Depth, 2 to 6 ft. ) 
 
 No. 1469. Object of Terra-cotta, 
 with two perforations, represent- 
 ing a pigeon. (Half actual tize. 
 Depth, 2 to 6ft.) 
 
 No. 1466 an ibex and a swan ; in that of No. 1467, curious signs resem- 
 bling Egyptian hieroglyphs ; in that of No. 1468, the bust of a young 
 man with a helmet on his head ; in that on No. 1469, a pigeon ; on 
 No. 1470, a naked woman ; on No. 1471, two ibexes ; on No. 1472, a horse. 
 
 No. 1470. Curious Object of 
 Terra-cotta, with two perfo- 
 rations, representing a naked 
 woman. (Half actual size. 
 Depth, 2 to 5 ft.) 
 
 No. 1471. Object of Terra- 
 cotta, with two holes, repre- 
 senting two quadrupeds, pro- 
 bably meant to be ilexes. 
 (Half actual size. Deptb, 2 
 to 5 ft.) 
 
 No. 1472. Object of Terra-cotta, with two 
 holes, representing a horse. (Actual size. 
 Depth, 2 to 5 ft.) 
 
620 
 
 THE SEVENTH CITY : THE GREEK ILIUM. [Chap. XL 
 
 Similar objects are found all over the Troad; I picked up some of 
 them from the surface on the sites of Aeanteum and Khoeteum. They 
 are also frequent in Greece, but there they do not occur with stamps. 
 I am not aware that they have been found elsewhere. It has been 
 suggested that they were used as weights for fishing-nets ; but this is 
 contradicted by the neat appearance of these objects, for none of them 
 show marks of wear and tear ; besides, the slightly-baked ones would at 
 once deteriorate in the water, while the delicate figures in the stamps 
 are ill adapted for submersion. I would therefore suggest that, like the 
 ornamented whorls in the five pre-historic cities, these neat objects with 
 double perforations served in the Aeolic Ilium as ex-votos to the tutelary 
 divinity, the Ilian Athene. 
 
 Of the Greek terra-cotta lamps found in the ruins of Novum Ilium, 
 I represent one, No. 1473, which has a pillar-shaped foot, 7 in. long. 
 
 No. 1475A. Ho. 1475b. 
 
 Nos. 1475a, b. Curious bronze Key in the form of 
 a Hermes. (Actual size. Depth, about 4 ft.) 
 
 As mentioned in the preceding pages, lamps were entirely unknown in all 
 the pre-historic cities, unless certain little bowls served the purpose, like 
 
KEY WITH SYMBOLS OF HERMES. 
 
 621 
 
 the candylia still used in Greek churches. Homer only knew Xa/jLTrrfjpes, 
 fire-vessels or cressets, of which three stood in the great hall of the palace 
 of Ulysses. They consisted of pans of terra-cotta or copper, prohahly 
 placed on pedestals, in which very dry wood mixed with resinous wood 8 
 (Safc) was hurned. The Homeric torches, Sai'Se?, 9 were therefore nothing 
 else than pieces of resinous wood. From Ba'fc originated the later word 
 Sa?, for " torch," which is used by Thucydides, Polyaenus, Plutarch, and 
 others. 
 
 No. 1474 is a quadrangular object of lead, representing a boar's head 
 in relief ; it was found in my shaft 10 sunk at the eastern extremity of 
 the town, near the road to Chiblak. It weighs 18 ounces avoirdupois, and 
 recals to mind the ^ Attic dimnaeon, on which likewise heads of animals 
 are usually represented. Nos. 1475a and b represent a very curious 
 key of bronze, with a ring for suspension. Professor Athanasios 
 Bhousopoulos, who examined this key carefully, writes to me the following 
 valuable note on the subject : — " I do not remember having ever seen 
 anything like this key, either in private collections or in museums. It 
 has the shape of the so-called quadrangular images of Hermes, with an 
 altar-like base forming one piece with the body, to which a quadrangular 
 projection is fixed on the back, with a hole corresponding to the lock-bolt. 
 Without this it would not be easy to find out the use of the object, and 
 one might think it to be rather an anathema than a key. The body of 
 the Hermes increases in width towards the top, as is often the case with 
 similar objects ; it has in the middle the phallus, which is indispensable in 
 every Hermes, on account of its symbolical signification. It has also the 
 quadrangular shoulder-projections, which are often conspicuous on the 
 stone Hermae, and which were used for suspending wreaths. You may 
 see this custom in a wall-painting from Herculaneum, in K. 0. Miiller's 
 Benhnaler der alien Knnst, i., PI. i. No. 3. The Hermes body is sur- 
 mounted by a female head, having two tufts of hair above the forehead, 
 which seem to indicate that it was intended to represent Ariadne or a 
 Bacchante ; otherwise we should recognize in it a head of Pallas, and 
 call the whole figure a Hermathene. From the head projects a ring for 
 suspending the key. The whole length of the key is 0*115 metre (about 
 4J in.). You may see such forms of stone Hermae at Athens, in the 
 Patesia Street National Museum, near the Polytechnic School, of which 
 I have published the best in the Archaeological Ephemeris, New Series, 
 1862-1863, pp. 183 and 205, PI. xxx., xxxi., and xxxiii." 1 
 
 8 Od. xviii. 307-310 : 
 
 avTiKa \afiirTrjpas rpus 'Icrraaav iv /xeydpoiaiv, 
 ucppa (patlvoiev • 7repi 8e |uAa KayKava BrjKav, 
 ava 7raAai, irepiKTiXa, veov KeKsacrfxiva xaA/cw, 
 Kai Sa'tSas /J.eTe/j.i(Tyov • 
 
 9 II. xviii. 492, 493 : 
 
 vvfxcpas 8' e/c dakd/xuv Sa'iScov vtto Aa/JLirofxevdcav 
 yyiveov dvd &<nv y . . . 
 
 10 Marked a on Plan II. (of the Hellenic 
 Ilium). 
 
 1 I give here the original text of Prof. 
 Rhousopoulos's valuable note, as I am sure it 
 
 will interest the intelligent English student 
 much more than the translation : — 
 
 'Povo-oirovAos Sx^-'^awcp x ai P* lv - 
 Ov /xiKpas, ws eot/ce, Seirai airoKpio-tws to iv t£ 
 iirio-ToX'iCj) ipwTT)ixa irepl t?,s x^A/aV^s /cAeiSos, %v 
 e/c Tpotas KOfiiaas 5ia TleXoiros, tov aov virriptTov, 
 <Tvvairio~Ta\Kas fioi, fiaOelv ti irepl avTris fiovKo- 
 /j.€VOS • iyo3 yap iroXKas fxev iv iduoToov av\Aoya?s 
 l5wv, irAeiVTas 5e iv /j.ovo~elois, ov /j.i/j.vr]/xai 
 6/xoia T7? <rj} /cAeiSl ivTVX&v. 
 
 'EffTi fiiv ovv to oKov avTr,s o~Xh/J-d ip/xov 
 
622 
 
 THE SEVENTH CITY: THE GREEK ILIUM. 
 
 [Chap. XI. 
 
 No. 1476 represents an iron key, with three teeth and a ring for 
 suspension. There are similar keys in all museums of Greek antiquities. 
 
 No. 1477. No. 1478. 
 
 No. 1476. Iron Key, with three teeth and a ring for suspension. 
 (Half actual size. Depth, 1 to 2 ft.) 
 
 Nos. 1477, 1478. Orna- 
 mented Glass Beads. (Half 
 actual size. Depth, 3 ft.) 
 
 No. 1477 is a green glass bead decorated with small yellow concentric 
 circles ; No. 1478, a blue glass bead with vertical flutings. 
 
 No. 1479 is the splendid block of triglyphs, which I have already 
 mentioned, 6J- ft. in length and 2 ft. 10 in. in height, with a metope which 
 represents Phoebus Apollo with the four horses of the Sun. The grandeur 
 and classical beauty of the style, the happy character of the composition, 
 the life and the movement of the horses — all is admirable. This is a 
 master-piece of the first order, worthy of being compared with the best 
 Greek sculptures. A cast of this metope, which I presented to the British 
 Museum, has been put up by Mr. Newton close to the Elgin antiquities, 
 where it holds an honourable place even in the neighbourhood of the 
 Parthenon sculptures, and of those from the Temple of Artemis at 
 Ephesus. " The composition as a work of art shows," as Heinrich Brunn 
 remarks to me, " the greatest skill in solving one of the most 'difficult of 
 problems : for the team of four horses ought not to move on the surface 
 of the relief, but to appear as if it came out of it at a half-turn. This has 
 been achieved principally by pressing back the right hinder thigh of the 
 horse in the foreground, while the left foot steps forward ; at the same 
 time the same horse is slightly foreshortened, and the surface of the thigh 
 lies deeper than the upper surface of the triglyphs ; while, on the other 
 hand, the surfaces of the withers and of the neck are higher, and the 
 head, in conformity with the rules of Greek reliefs, is again almost 
 level with the base. For this reason there is no indication of a chariot, 
 
 tt)s reTpaywuov KaXov/ievris ipyacrlas, /xera 
 fizaeoos fiwiJ.oeib'ois av/iUpvovs t<$ acifxari, r) 
 Trpoo-KeKoXXrjraL Kara Trjv diriadiav irXzvpav 
 TeTpaycovtK}] oirq e^T^Sem els rbv fj.oxX.hv tov 
 KXyQpov, r t s &vcv ovk hv i^vplaKero i) XP^°"' s 
 tov GKtvovi Kal tlKao-fv dv tis avd6ri/j.a fj.aXXov 
 v) KAetSa dvai to irpay/xa. avrb Se to aa>/xa rod 
 ep/xov TrXarvverai jxzv irpoibv 6's ra dvw, wo-n-eo 
 -KoXXams Kal iv 'dXXois dfxoiois, exet Se rbu 
 avayKatov iravrl ipp-fl (paXXbv iv T<p /xeo"a>, 
 eXet Se ev9ev Kal evQev Kal ras fxao-xaXiaias 
 rerpayooviKas e'|oxas, wcrirep Kal iv\ twv XiOivoov 
 epfxuv TroXXdicis trpbs dvdpTi)o-iv aT((pdvu)v, Sxrirep 
 iSetV trot irdpeo-n e<"/<wa Toixoypa<piKr]v tov 
 idi/xov e| 'HpaKXeiov iv Miiller-oi/ Dcnkmalcr der 
 alien Kunst t6/j.w A\ irivaKi a, apiQjxcp 3. iiri- 
 
 Keirai Se- tu> ad>;iaTi tov kpfiov ttetpaXi) yvvaiKos, 
 rjs 7] k6/j.wo-is Svo Kopvfxfiovs virepdvo) tov 
 fxeTdoTTOv exouca 'ApidSvyv Tiva •/) BdKxVv 
 vTroo-rjuaivei, dXXws yap av irpoo-t'iKaoa avrrjv tt} 
 t7)s IlxXXdb'os Kal 'E p fia07)vr]v av to oXov etfa- 
 Xeaa. tVeo-Ti Se tt? KtcpaXrj Kp'iKOS crvfxcpvrjs trpbs 
 avdpT*r\mv t7)s KXeiSos • to ix^kos bXov t?is KXeibbs 
 • 1 15 yaXXueov yueroou • i'Sots 8' av TOiavTa axy- 
 fxara kpfxwv XlOiva iv "KQ^vais iv Tif Kara tt)v dbbv 
 YlaTTio-'iwv iOviKcp ^oixreuw t<£ irpbs ru> noAvTex- 
 veicp, wv to, KaXXio-Ta SeS^ocneuyueVa Kerrou vn 
 ifxov iv tt) 'ApxaioXoyiKtj 'Ecprjy.fp'ib'i, irep^Bcf 
 SeuTepa 1862-1863, creAt'Si 183 Kal 205 Kal 
 iv'ivaKi A' Kal AA', irpfiX. /cat Ar. 
 
 'Ev "A6r)vais tt? B' toO firjvbs tov IB , 
 
 CTOVS 
 
THE GRAND METOPE OF APOLLO. 
 
 623 
 
 which has to be imagined as concealed by the foremost horse. Moreover 
 the position of the god is half turned forwards, slightly following that of 
 the head, and here also the arm is again strongly turned inwards, but not 
 
 so as to bring the position into conflict with the rules of relief. If the 
 encroachment of the head on the upper border of the triglyph is con- 
 sidered inaccurate, we find in this a very happy thought, which may 
 remind us of the differently conceived pediment of the Parthenon, where 
 only the head and shoulders of Helios rise out of the chariot still under 
 
624 
 
 THE SEVENTH CITY: THE GREEK ILIUM. 
 
 [Chap. XI. 
 
 the ocean. Helios here, so to speak, bursts forth from the gates of day, 
 and sheds the light of his glory over the universe. These are beauties 
 peculiar only to Greek art in the fulness of its power." 
 
 " The sculpture has also," as my friend M. Fr. Lenormant remarks to 
 me, " a real importance for the history of art : it marks a particular phase 
 of it, which is also indicated by the numismatic monuments and the vase- 
 paintings of Greece. This results from the intentional disposition, by 
 which the sculptor has presented nearly the full face of the god's figure, 
 as well as of the whole composition, instead of giving it in profile, as 
 may be seen, for example, in the celebrated bas-reliefs of Florence, repre- 
 senting the like subject. A disposition like this is very rare in Greek 
 art. Numismatists agree that there was an epoch at which all the cities 
 of the Greek world adopted almost simultaneously the custom of placing 
 on their coins an effigy with a full or three-quarters' face, instead of the 
 head in profile which had been in use before. This was in the time of 
 Alexander, tyrant of Pherae in Thessaly, who himself participated in the 
 new fashion by coining a superb silver medal bearing the head of Artemis 
 with a full face : this was also the time when the victories of Epami- 
 nondas and Pelopidas gave Thebes for a while the supremacy over the 
 rest of Greece. In the same century, if we may judge from the style of 
 the coins, Larissa in Thessaly, Amphipolis in Macedonia, Clazomenae in 
 Ionia, Lampsacus in Mysia, Sigeum in the Troad, Thebes in Boeotia, 
 Rhodes, Velia, Croton, Heracleum in Italy, Syracuse and Catania in Sicily, 
 Barca in the Cyrenaica, and many more obscure cities, represented their 
 tutelary divinities with the full face on their coins. In point of material 
 perfection this was the furthest point of progress attained by monetary 
 art. It was the application to this branch of art of the discovery made by 
 Cimon of Cleonae in painting, who was the first to represent heads with the 
 full face, or with three-quarters of the face, which even Polygnotus and 
 Micon themselves had not dared to attempt ; and the discovery passed 
 rapidly over into the domain of sculpture. Until then artists had not 
 ventured to draw or model in the flat a figure with the full or three- 
 quarters' face : this was indeed at first a very difficult enterprise, in 
 which the Greeks had no predecessors. In painting and relief the figures 
 were represented in profile. The school of Phidias itself had not dared 
 to represent them otherwise, except in the sculptures of nearly full 
 relief, like the metopes of the Parthenon or the frieze of the Temple at 
 Phigalia. The invention of Cimon of Cleonae consequently appeared 
 marvellous, and the fashion to which it gave birth is borne witness 
 to by the painted vases with full and three-quarter faces. It has also 
 been found in works of sculpture, and the metope before us must hence- 
 forward be reckoned among the number of these monuments. But the 
 new fashion passed rapidly away. The exquisite taste of the Greeks made 
 them soon feel how far, merely from the point of view of the laws of art, 
 the use of the profile was superior to that of the face on coins. At the 
 same time it was found that, in order to place on them heads of this 
 kind, it was necessary to give to the monetary types a relief which, being 
 worn off by constant friction, exposed them to rapid and prejudicial 
 
CAVERN CROWNED WITH W T ILD FIG-TREE. 
 
 625 
 
 deterioration. Hence, from the time of Alexander people had almost 
 everywhere, except in a few places, such as Ehodes, returned to profiles, 
 the moderate reliefs of which secured for the coin a longer duration with 
 a less rapid diminution of weight. In sculpture in low-relief, also, artists 
 returned, though perhaps a little less promptly, to the habit of representing 
 figures generally in profile, without, however, renouncing completely the 
 new resources at their command, and the element of variety furnished to 
 the artist by the step of progress realized by the Peloponnesian painter." 
 
 As to the halo of rays which we see on the head of Phoebus Apollo, 
 it first occurs about the time of Alexander the Great. The special form 
 of long and short rays is found on the coins of Alexander I., of Epirus, 
 and of Ceos (Carthaea), mentioned by Curtius. Archaeologists universally 
 agree in claiming for this metope the date of the fourth century B.C. 
 
 About 60 yards to the west of the spot where this monument was 
 found, I came upon a second Doric triglyph-block, 2 with a metope repre- 
 senting warriors fighting ; but this sculpture is much mutilated and had 
 evidently never been finished, and is therefore of no interest to science. 
 Visitors will see it lying in my large northern trench. 
 
 About 200 yards to the west of Hissarlik, at a place where the site 
 of Novum Ilium slopes gently down to the plain, is a protruding rock 
 crowned with three fig-trees, which have grown up from the same root. 
 Beneath this rock only ten years ago a hole was visible, said to be the 
 
 No. 1480. Cavern with a spring, to the left on leaving Troy. The water of this spring runs in the direction of the 
 ancient Scamauder. The tree above it is a wild fig-tree. 
 
 entrance to a passage called lagoum by the villagers ; but now this hole 
 had been entirely filled up. Mr. Frank Calvert, who crept in about 
 twenty years ago, when the hole was still large, saw before him a long 
 passage ; but several villagers, who pretended to have done the same, 
 
 2 This second triglyph-block was found at the place marked P P. 
 
 2 s 
 
626 
 
 THE SEVENTH CITY : THE GREEK ILIUM. 
 
 [Chap. XI. 
 
 assured me that they had seen in it a great many marble statues, standing 
 upright. 
 
 "Wishing to clear up the mystery, I resolved to excavate the cavern, but 
 in spite of all the kind endeavours of my honoured friend, Sir Henry 
 Layard, it took a long time to obtain the necessary permission from the 
 Sublime Porte. Having at last got this, I set ten labourers to work 
 with pickaxes, shovels, and wheelbarrows, to excavate it. To facilitate 
 the excavation, I made them first dig a trench before the cavern, so as to 
 be able to work it at once on the virgin soil. The proprietor of the land 
 had consented to the excavation, under the condition that he should be 
 one of the workmen and receive treble wages. I found a vaulted passage, 
 8 ft. 4 in. broad and 5J ft. high, cut out in the limestone rock. 
 
 About 30 ft. from the entrance a vertical hole, 2 J ft. in diameter, has 
 been cut through the superincumbent rock. It reminded me vividly of a 
 similar hole cut through the rock above the Grotto of the Nymphs in 
 Ithaca, in order to serve as a chimney for the smoke of the sacrifices 
 (see p. 49). But the hole in this Trojan cavern can hardly have been 
 made for such a purpose, for I found in the cavern nothing but potsherds 
 of a late epoch and some bones of animals. I therefore think that the 
 chimney-like hole must have been cut merely for letting in fresh air and 
 light. At a distance of 55 ft. from the entrance the large passage divides 
 into three very narrow ones, only large enough for one man to enter, and 
 of which one turns to the north-east, the second to the east, and the third 
 to the south-east. In the floor of each of these narrow passages a small 
 trench has been cut in the rock, from which water flows. The water of 
 the three trenches unites in a larger trench cut in the floor of the large 
 passage, from which it flows into an earthen pipe. According to Virchow's 
 observation, the water has a temperature of 15°'6 centigr. = 60°*08 Fahr. 
 
 As the reader will see from the engraving, No. 1480, the rock which 
 covers the entrance to this passage looks as if it had been artificially cut : 
 but this is not the case ; it is a natural formation. At a short distance to 
 the right and left of it are the remains of a large city wall, which has 
 evidently passed over it. Thus the entrance to the passage was imme- 
 diately below the wall, but outside of it ; a fact inexplicable to us. We, 
 therefore, presume that there has been a second larger city wall still 
 further to the west, where the road now runs from Hissarlik to Kalifatli. 
 This certainly appears to be confirmed by the potsherds and marble frag- 
 ments, which reach down as far as that road. 
 
THE GREEK INSCRIPTIONS. 
 
 627 
 
 § II. The Greek Inscriptions found at Novum Ilium. 
 
 Of Greek inscriptions six were found among the ruins of the Temple 
 of Athene. The largest of them, on a marble slab in the form of a tomb- 
 stone, 5j ft. long, 17J in. broad, and 5f in. thick, is as follows : — 
 
 ME AETATPOZ !A I EQ NTH I BO YAH I KA ITfll A HMOJXAl 
 PElNAn EAO KENHMINAPI ZTOA I K I AHZOAZZ IOZ E n I 
 ZTOAAZIIAPATOYBAZ IAEQIANTIOXOYONTANTI TPA 
 4AYM I NYnorErPA<l>A M E NE N ETYXEN AK Ml N KA I AV ' 
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 EPPftXGE BAZIAEYZANTIOXOIM EAEA 
 
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 w PAAEIEONAYTHNKAfTHNnPOZAYTHIX-nPANAPIZ 
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 POYZ KZTH I n POTE PON AEAOM E N H I XilPA f A PI ZTOA I 
 J<l AHIZYNTA-ONKATAMETPHZA IKA IPIAPAAEIZA I, 
 AYTilinAEOPA AlZJCl Al AKA I EAZAI AYT12J flPOZENEf 
 
628 
 
 THE SEVENTH CITY: THE GEEEK ILIUM. 
 
 [Chap. XL 
 
 15 KA20A1 n PQ £H NA M BOYAHT Al riOA I NTJ1N ENTH I XftPA I 
 TEKAIZYMMAXIAIOIAEBAZIAIKOIAAOIOIEKTOYTO 
 nOYENftJEZTIN HnETPAEAMBOYAHNTAlOl KEINENTHI 
 nETPAIAl4 ) AAEIAIENEKE;ZYNTETAXAMENAPlZrO 
 TO AJ K I A H IE A N AYT07Z0IKEIN EPPXLZO 
 
 so BAZIAEYZANTIOXOZMEAEAPEiUX A1PEI.N EN ETYXENFf 
 M IRAPIZTO AJ Kl ARZ<f> AMENOZT1ETPA NTO Xn PI O NJ< A 1 TH T 
 XjaPANTHNnrKYPOYIANOEPiHinPOTEPONErPAYAMEM 
 A I AONTEZ A YTO I OYAETl KA I NYNn APE I AH4>E NAJ A I ATOAOH 
 N ALQITOI E n ITOYN AYZTAO.M OYEFI I KEXnP HIOAIKAI HHI 
 
 55 niENAJSltlMENTHEnETPITLAOI3(nPAI.nAPAAEIX0HNAI' 
 AYTaiTAllAnAEGPAZYrXnPHOHNAIAEKAl AAAAnAE 
 GPAAIIXIAI A nPOZ ENEPKAZO Al nPO Z H N A M B OYAHTA 1 
 T£LM n OAEQN T£1N E NTI-I I H METE PA I XY M M A X I A I K A © A 
 nEPKAinPOTEPONErPAYAMENOPXlNTEZOYNAYTOW 
 
 eo EYNOYNONTAKAin PO0YMONE iZTAHKETEPAHPArMA 
 TA BOYAOME0 A no AYfLP EINTA NO PflHOY K AI I"l EP I 
 T O Y TI1.N Z Y r K E XSIP HKAMEN^HZINAEEINAITHZ 
 n ETPI TfAOZXflP AZT AZY rXflPHOENTA AYTHI 
 (1 A E O PAX ^ A I A H E N TA KO Z I AZ Y N TA^E O N OY N K A T A 
 
 66 M E TPH I A I A PIXTO Al KlAH IKAl I~l APAAE IEAI J~HZ 
 E P TA Z ! M OYTAT E AIZXIAIAKAIflE NTA K O Z I A n A E 
 OPA KAIANTITHN HEPITHN n ETPAN A AAA EPTA 
 Z f MOYXI A(AHENTAKOZ| A A HO TH I B AZIAIKHXXQ 
 PAZTKZXYN O PI Z OYZ H ZTH IE N APX H I AO O E I ZH I 
 
 70 AYTilin APR KflNEAZAI AEKA inPOZENETKAZOAI 
 TH NXflPA N A PI ZTO Al K(A H Nil PO ZHN AN BOYAHTAI 
 nOAlNTHN ENTHIHMETEPAIZYMMAXl A I KA©A 
 riEPKAl ENTH I nPOTEPON EniZTOAHl ETPATA 
 MEN EPPniO 3 
 
 M.e\eaypos 'IXiecw rrj f3ov\y ical too Bt^/im %at- 
 peiv. ' A7re8(jQfcev rj/mlv 'A p lcft oB t k i Bt]<; 6 "Acrcnos eVi- 
 (TToXas TTapci rod (SaaCkecos 'Avrio^ov, &v ravrlypa" 
 <pa v/xlv viroyeypd^apbev evkrvyev S' rjjjuv koX av~ 
 
 5 to? (pd/xevos, 7roWa)V avr£> real erepcov BcaXe- 
 jofievcov /ecu are(f)avov BtBovrcov, toenrep teal rj- 
 yLtet? TTapaKo\ov6ovjJi€v Bid to kcii irpea^evaai d- 
 7ro rcov irokewv nvd<; 7rpo? (3ov\ea6ai t?]v 
 
 ^copav rr]v SeBo/juevTjv avru> viro rod ftaciXecDS 'Az^- 
 
 10 Tioyov fcal Sid to lepbv /cat Bed rrjv irpbs vfids evvoi- 
 av TTpocreveyKaaOaL rrpbs rrjv vfxeTepav ttoXlv. ' A 
 fiev ovv d^iol yeveaOai avru> irapd t?)? TroXecos, av- 
 
 3 " Meleager greets the Council and the people 
 of Ilium. Aristodicides, of Assos, has handed 
 to us letters from king Antioehus, the copies of 
 which we have written out for you. He (Aristo- 
 dicides) came to meet us himself, and told us 
 that though many other cities apply to him and 
 offer him a crown, just as we also understand 
 because some have sent embassies to us from the 
 
 cities, nevertheless, prompted by his veneration 
 for the temple (of the Ilian Athene), as well 
 as by his feeling of friendship for your town, 
 he is willing to offer to you the land which king 
 Antiochus has presented to him. Now, he will 
 communicate to you what he claims to be done 
 for him by the city. Thus you would do well 
 to vote for him every kind of hearty friendship, 
 
§ II.] KING- ANTIOCHUS, MELEAGER, AND AMSTODICIDES. 629 
 
 to? v/mv SrjXcocreL' /caXws S' av irorjaaire tyrftyicrdfjLe- 
 voi re irdvra ra (pcXdvOpcoira avrcp /cal /cad' on av 
 
 15 avy^copr'jarj ryv dvaypacprjv 7ro7jcrd/jL6VOL /cal arr)- 
 Xcoaravres teal Oevres el? rb lepov, Tva fievrj vpXv 
 /3e/3aicos eh irdvra rby yjpbvov ra Gvyyodpi)Q&vra. 
 
 eppcoade. BacrtXei)? 'Azmo^o? MeXea- 
 
 ypco ^alpeiv. AeSco/cafiev 'Apio-roSi/ciSy rco 'Ao-aicp 
 
 20 yi}? ipyao-Lfjbov irXeOpa Bia^tXca irpocrevey/cacrOac 
 
 7rpo? rrjv 'IXtecov iroXiv i) X/cr)y]rL(ov. Xv ovv o~vvra%ov 
 irapaSel^at ' ' Apicrrohi/clhr] dirb rf}<; 6fjLOpovo~r)<$ rfj 
 YepyiOlat rj rfj Zfcrpfricu, ov av SoKifid^rjt; ra Bto-^lXca 
 irXedpa t?}? 7?}? ical irpoaoplaai eh rrjv 'IXiecov rj rrjv 
 
 25 %K7)-tylwv. eppcoao. Bao-tXei>? Avrloyp'i MeXe- 
 dypep %aipeiv. ^verv^ev rjfuv 'Apto-roSi/ccSr)? 6 
 ""Aaato^ d^icjv hovvai avrcp rjfias ev rfj ecj) 'EXX^o-- 
 irbvrov aarpaireiai rrjv Tierpav, rjfi irporepov 
 el^ev MeXeoyypo? ical tt}? ydypas tt}? UerpiSos 
 
 30 epyaai/jLov ireOpa 41 %lXta irevra/coaia /cal aXXa 
 777? irXeOpa hia^lXia epyaaifiov dirb rrjs 6/jlo- 
 povcrrjs rfj irporepov hoOelarj avrcp piepihlcp' 
 /cal rjfieh rrjv re Herpav hehco/capiev avicp, el 
 1X7] SeEorac aXXco irporepov /cal ryy 'ycopav rrjv 
 
 35 77-/50? rfj Tierpat /cal aXXa 7% irXeOpa Sia^iXta 
 epyaalpLov, hid to cpuXov ovra rjfierepov irapea- 
 yfiaQai ijfuv t<z? /car' avrbv %peta? puerd 77-0:0-77? 
 evvoias ical irpotivpiias. Xv ovv eirLa/cetydpbevos 
 el pur) SeBorac aXXcp irporepov avrrj r) pueph, ira- 
 
 40 pdSeL^ov avrrjv ical rrjv 7T/oo? avrfj ydipav 'Apio - - 
 roSi/cL/ciSy 5 ical dirb tt}? /3acrcXL/crjs ^ojjoo:? tt}? 6/jLO- 
 povarjs rfj irporepov SeBofievrj ycopai ' 'ApiaroSi- 
 Kthr] avvratjov Karapuerprjo-ac /cal irapaSeltjar, 
 avrcp irXedpa Sicr^lXta /cat edcrai avrco irpocrevey- 
 
 and, whatever concession he may make, do you 
 put it on record, engrave it on a stone slab, ar<i 
 set it up in the temple, in order that the con- 
 cession may be safely preserved to you for ever. 
 Farewell. 
 
 " King Antiochus greets Meleager. We have 
 granted to Aristodicides, the Assian, two thousand 
 plethra of arable land, for him to confer on 
 the city of Ilium, or on the city of Scepsis. 
 Order therefore that the two thousand plethra 
 of land be assigned to Aristodicides, wherever 
 you may think proper, of the land which borders 
 on the territory of Gergis, or on that of Scepsis, 
 and that they be added to the city of the Ilians, 
 or to that of the Scepsians. Farewell. 
 
 " King Antiochus greets Meleager. Aristo- 
 dicides, the Assian, came to meet us, begging that 
 we would give him, in the satrapy of the Helles- 
 pont, Petra, which Meleager formerly had, and 
 in the territory of Petra one thousand five 
 
 hundred plethra of arable land, and two 
 thousand plethra more of arable land bordering 
 on the portion which had been given to him 
 first as his share ; and we have given Petra to 
 him, provided it has not yet been given to some 
 one else ; and we have also presented to him the 
 land near Petra, and two thousand plethra more 
 of arable land, because he is our friend and has 
 supplied to us all that we required, as far as 
 he could, with kindness and willingness. Do 
 you then, having examined if that portion has 
 not already been given to some one else, assign 
 it to Aristodicides, as well as the land near it, 
 and order that of the royal domain which borders 
 on the land first granted to Aristodicides two 
 thousand plethra be measured off and assigned 
 to him, and leave it to him to confer the land 
 on what town soever in the country or confede- 
 
 4 Sic. 6 Sip. 
 
630 
 
 THE SEVENTH CITY: THE GKEEK ILIUM. 
 
 [Chap. XI. 
 
 45 KacrOai 7rpo9 fjv ajm ftovXrjrai iroXiv rwv iv rfj yd>pai 
 re kcll av/jL/ma^iat' oi he ftaatXiKol Xaol oi etc rod to- 
 ttov, iv o> iarlv rj Tier pa, ia/ju (BovXwvrai oUelv iv rfj 
 Uerpai datyaXelas eve/ce, avvrerd^a/jbev 'Apiaro- 
 rohiKthrj 6 idv avrovs ol/celv. eppcocro. 
 50 Bao-iXev? 'Aim'o^o? WLeXedypw yaipeiv. ^verv^ev r}- 
 Hlv 'Apio-rohLKihrjs, (frdfjLevos Uerpav rb ywplov Kal rrjy 
 %(opav 77}v o-vyKupovaav, irepl 97? rrpbrepov iypd-^rafiev 
 hthovre^ avra>, oi)£>' en Kal vvv irapeLXrjfyevaL, hid to 'A#?;- 
 vaicp tco iirl rov vavcrrdOpuov iiriKeywpricjQaL^ kcli rfei- 
 55 coorev dvrl fiev t?)? Tierpinho^ n'apdSei'xd'rjvai 
 avrw rd iaa rrXedpa, avy^wprjOrfvai he /ecu dXka irXe- 
 Opa hio-^iXia irpoaeveyKaaOav rrpbs fjv dpi ftovXyrai 
 too/a iroXecov rwv iv rfj rjpierepai av/x/jia^lat, KaOd- 
 rrep Kal rrpbrepov iypd^apiev. 'Opwvres ovv aiirbv 
 60 evvovv ovra Kal irpoOvpiov eh rd rj/merepa rrpdypba- 
 ra, /3ovXojj,e6a iroXvwpetv rdvOpwirov, Kal irepl 
 rovrcov GvyKeywpr]K,afxev. Qrfcrlv he elvai rrjs 
 Uerplnho^ ^copcis rd avy^coprjdevra avrco 
 rrXedpa %[Xlci irevraKoaia. Xvvra^ov ovv Kara- 
 ts pberprjaai 'ApiarohiKihrj ical rrapahel^ai yrjs 
 ipyao-tfjLov rd re hia^iXia /cal irevraKocria rrXe- 
 Opa Kal dvrl rcov irepl rrjv Uerpav aXXa ipya~ 
 (TLpbov %lXia rrevraKOGia dirb tt}? ftao-iXiKTjs %co- 
 pa<$ rrjs avvopi^ovar}<; rfj iv dp^rj hoOeiaj] 
 70 avra) irap'' rjpicov idaat he Kal irpoaeveyKaaOaL 
 tt]v yoapav ' ApicrrohiKihrjv 7rpo? fjv dv fiovXrjrai 
 rrbXiv roov iv rfj 7]\xerepai Gvpbixaylai, Ka6d- 
 rrep Kal iv rfj rrpbrepov iiricrroXfj iypd-^ra- 
 fjiev. eppcoao. 
 
 This inscription, the great historical value of which cannot be denied, 
 seems with certainty to belong to the third or second century B.C., judging 
 from the subject as well as from the form of the letters, for the king 
 
 racy he pleases. Regarding the royal subjects 
 in the estate in which Petra is situated, if for 
 safety's sake they wish to live in Petra, we have 
 recommended Aristodicides to let them remain 
 there. Farewell. 
 
 "King Antiochus greets Meleager. Aristo- 
 dicides came to meet us, saying that Petra, the 
 district and the land with it, which Ave gave 
 to him in our former letter, is no longer 
 disposable, it having been granted to Athenaeus, 
 the commandant of the naval station ; and he 
 begged that, instead of the land of Petra, the 
 same number of plethra might be assigned to him 
 (elsewhere), and that he might be permitted to 
 confer another lot of two thousand plethra of land 
 on whichsoever of the cities in our confederacy 
 he might choose, according as we wrote before. 
 Now, seeing him friendly disposed and zealous 
 
 for our interests, we wish to show great regard 
 for the man's interest, and have complied with 
 his request about these matters. He says that 
 his grant of land at Petra amounts to fifteen 
 hundred plethra. Give order therefore that the 
 two thousand five hundred plethra of arable 
 land be measured out and assigned to Aris- 
 todicides ; and further, instead of the land 
 around Petra, another lot of fifteen hundred 
 plethra of arable land, to be taken from the 
 royal domains bordering on the estate which Ave 
 first granted to him. Let now Aristodicides 
 confer the land on Avhichsoever of the cities in 
 our confederacy he may Avish, as Ave have written 
 in our former letter. Farewell." 
 
 6 Sic. 
 
§ II.] THE INSCRIPTION PROBABLY RELATES TO ANTIOCHUS I. 631 
 
 Antiochus, who is repeatedly mentioned, must be either Antiochus I., sur- 
 named Soter (281 to 260 b.c), or Antiochus III., the Great (222 to 186 B.C.). 
 Polybius, who was born in 210 or 200 b.c. and died in 122 B.C., speaks 
 indeed in his History 7 of a Meleager who lived in his time, and was an 
 ambassador of Antiochus Epiphanes, who reigned from 174 to 164 B.C., and 
 it is quite possible that this Meleager afterwards became satrap of the 
 Hellespont. But in the first letter of Antiochus to his satrap Meleager, 
 he gives him the option of assigning to Aristodicides the 2000 plethra of 
 land, either from the district bordering upon the territory of Gergis or 
 upon that of Scepsis. The town of Gergis, however, according to Strabo, 
 was destroyed by king Attains I. of Pergamus, who reigned from 241 to 
 197 B.C., and transplanted the inhabitants to the neighbourhood of the 
 sources of the Caicus in Mysia. These sources, as Strabo himself says, 
 are situated at a great distance from Mount Ida, and therefore also from 
 Ilium. Two thousand plethra of land at such a distance could not have 
 been of any use to the Ilians ; consequently, it is impossible to believe 
 that the inscription can be speaking of the new town of Gergitha, which 
 was rising into importance at the sources of the Caicus. Thus the old 
 town of Gergis must be meant, whose ruins are probably those on the 
 height of the Bali Dagh beyond Bounarbashi. Livy 8 gives an account 
 of the visit of Antiochus III., the Great, to Ilium. I also find in the 
 Corpus Inscrijptionum Oraecarum (No. 3596), that this Antiochus had a 
 general called Meleager, who may subsequently have become satrap of 
 the Hellespont. On the other hand, Mr. Calvert calls my attention to 
 Chishull, who, in his Antiquitates Asiaticae, says that Antiochus I., Soter, 
 on an expedition with his fleet against the king of Bithynia, stopped 
 at the town of Sigeum, which lay near Ilium, and that the king went up 
 to Ilium with the queen, who was his wife and sister, and with the great 
 dignitaries and his suite. There is, indeed, nothing said of the brilliant 
 reception which was there prepared for him, but there is an account of 
 the reception which was arranged for him at Sigeum. The Sigeans 
 lavished servile flattery upon him, and not only did they send ambassadors 
 to congratulate him, but the Senate also passed a decree, in which they 
 eulogized all the king's actions, and proclaimed that public prayers 
 should be offered up to the Ilian Athene, to Apollo (who was regarded 
 as his ancestor), to the goddess of Victory, and to other deities, for 
 his and his consort's welfare ; that the priestesses and priests, the senators 
 and all the magistrates of the town, should carry wreaths, and that 
 all the citizens and all the strangers settled or temporarily residing in 
 Sigeum should publicly extol the virtues and the bravery of the great 
 king ; further, that a golden equestrian statue of the king, raised on a 
 pedestal of white marble, should be erected in the Temple of Athene at 
 Sigeum, and that it should bear this inscription : " The Sigeans have 
 erected this statue to king Antiochus, the son of Seleucus, for the devotion 
 he has shown to the temple, and because he is the benefactor and the 
 saviour of the people : this mark of honour is to be proclaimed in the 
 popular assemblies and at the public games." 
 
 7 xxviii. 1, and xxxi. 21. 
 
 8 xxxv. 43. 
 
632 
 
 THE SEVENTH CITY: THE GEEEK ILIUM. [Chap. XL 
 
 It is very probable that a similar reception awaited Antiochus I. in 
 Ilium, so that he kept the city in good remembrance. That he cherished 
 kindly feelings towards the Ilians is proved also by the inscription 
 No. 3595 in the Corpus Inscriptionum Graecarum. But whether it is he 
 or Antiochus the Great that is referred to in the newly-found inscription, 
 I do not venture to decide. 
 
 Aristodicides, of Assos, who is frequently mentioned in the inscription, 
 is utterly unknown, and his name occurs here for the first time. The 
 name of the place Petra also, which is mentioned several times in the 
 inscription, is quite unknown : it must have been situated in the neigh- 
 bourhood, but all my endeavours to discover it in the modern Turkish 
 names of the localities, or by other means, have been in vain. 
 
 Another inscription is on a marble slab 2 ft. broad and 3 ft. long, and 
 runs as follows : — 
 
 niMlOYTOYEYA 
 
 OZMEN OYKA M E N AXOl TAAYKO 
 
 EnErPATAME N E HXTHAHN KATATON NOMON EP1D4»I AON riATPCJIOY 
 X PH M ATIZZ H E2 H M I &M E N O N Yll OT&N n POTA N EJXN T£LN (1 EPI AIO 
 6 4> A N R N H full AHMOYO$ IA O NTATOYZKATATON NOM ON ITATHPAEAY O 
 K A 1 M H N O TEN H N M N HSLA PXOYKA I APTEM lAftPON 4> AN I AKAI AIOMHAHN 
 AnOAAfLNIOYEZHM lil-M ENOYI YTIO TflN I1PYTAN EGNT12N T1 EPI AIO<t>AN HN 
 HrHIIAHMOYYnOHMEPAITPEIIO^IAONTAIEKAITONAYTIlNLTATHPAIAYO 
 M H NOAOTON M H NO AOTOYK Al H PAKAEI AH NK A I M H N OAOTON TOYIHPAKAEI 
 io AOYE Z H M I il M E N OYrYfTOTG N f] E P I $ A I N £ N A KTA EY AH MO Y n PYTA 
 NEHNOflAONTA EKAlTON AYT&N ZTATH PAX AYQ 
 APTEM I AflPON MHNO^ANTOYEZHMIIlMENONYnOTIlN NO 
 MO <J>YA A KiiNTilN TIEPl Ifl n APXON H THIM A H MOYO <j>! AON 
 TAZTATHPAZAYO 
 
 covlov rov EuS .... 
 
 oa/xev ovKapevayos TXavKO . . 
 
 eireypd^ayiev eU arrjXrjv Kara rov vo/jlov 'JLpyotpikov Uarpoaov (?) 
 Xptf/Aans 1 i&fALco/jLevov vtto tcov irpordvecov 3 tcov Trepl Alo- 
 5 cf)dv7]v 'HyrjacBr^ov, ocplXovra 41 roz)? Kara rov vo/ulov ararrjpa^ Bvo 
 Kal M.7jvoyev7]v Wlvrjadp-^ov Kal ' 'Apre/mlBcopov <f>avLa /ecu &io[ir)Br)v 
 1 AiroXXcovlov, e^rjfiico/Aevovs viro tcov rrpvrdvecov tcov irepl Atocf)dvr}v 
 ^yrjcriSij/jLov viro rj/iepas rpeU bfyiXovras* eKaarov avrcov ararrjpas Bvo. 
 M.t]v6Botov M.t)voB6tov Kal ' HpaKXelBrjv Kal MrjvoBorov tow? f Hpa/e\et- 
 io Sou ety]fiLco[JL€vovs viro tcov Trepl QaivcovaKra ^vBrjfiov irpvrd- 
 vecov, btfilXovra* eKaarov avrcov ararrjpa<; Bvo. 
 'Apre/jLLBcopov M.r)votf>dvrov i^rj/xLcofievov viro rcov vo- 
 fiocpvXaKcov rcov irepl "lirirap^ov 'HyrjaiBrf/jiov, btplXov- 
 ra ararrjpas Bvo. 
 
 In the inscription quoted in the Corpus Inscriptionum Graecarum under 
 No. 3604, which is admitted to belong to the time of Octavianus Augustus, 
 Hipparchus is mentioned as a member of the Ilian Council; and as on 
 line 13 the same name occurs with the same attribute, I do not hesitate 
 to maintain that the above inscription belongs to the time of Augustus. 
 
 1 Sic. 
 
 2 Sic. 
 
 3 Sic 
 
 4 Sic. 
 
INSCRIPTION IN HONOUR OF CAIUS CAESAR. 633 
 
 In the first wall of the temple I found a marble slab nearly 1 ft. 
 thick, 32Jin. broad, and 3 J ft. long, with the following inscription : — 
 
 HBoYAHKA (OAHMOZ 
 
 rA ION KAIZAPAToN Yl 0IMT0Y ZEBAZ 
 TOYToNZYN TENHKAI Fl ATPftN AKAIEY 
 .EPTETKNTH ZITOAEilZ 
 
 'H /3ov\r] fcal 6 8r}/jLO<$ 
 Ydlov Kaiaapa tov vibv tov 2e/3acr- 
 rov tov avvyevr) fcal Trarpwva /cal ev- 
 epyerrjv t?}? 7roXeo)?. 
 
 The person praised in this inscription can by no means have been the 
 Emperor Caligula, for in that case the title avroKparcop would have been 
 added. . But as this word is wanting, the person meant is certainly Caius 
 Caesar, the son of Marcus Yipsanius Agrippa and of Julia, the daughter 
 of Augustus. He had a brother called Lucius. Both were adopted by 
 Augustus, and, owing to this adoption, they received the title of viol tov 
 Xeftao-Tov, and both were selected by Augustus as his successors. Caius 
 Caesar, born in the year 20 B.C., was adopted at the age of three years. 
 He took part in the Trojan games, which Augustus instituted at the 
 dedication of the Temple of Marcellus. At the age of fifteen he was 
 appointed Consul, and when nineteen he was made Governor of Asia. 
 During his administration there he became involved in a war with 
 Phraates, king of Armenia, was wounded, and died in the year 4 after 
 Christ, on the 21st of February, at the age of twenty-four. 5 As in the 
 inscription he is called the kinsman, the benefactor, and the patron of 
 Ilium, it is probable that he often came here during his administration : 
 at all events, he took great interest in the city, and lavished favours upon 
 it. The family of the Julii always attached great importance to their 
 descent from Itilus (or Ascanius), the son of Aeneas ; and the political 
 object of Virgil's Aeneid was to prove and glorify their genealogy. This 
 explains the favours which the Julii lavished upon Ilium, and their .hatred 
 against the Greeks, because they destroyed Troy, and also because they 
 had espoused the cause of Mark Antony. 
 
 I am indebted to the kindness of Mr. Frank Calvert for a squeeze 
 of another inscription engraved on a marble slab, which he found on his 
 field at Hissarlik after my departure thence in the summer of 1873. It 
 has been carefully re-copied from the squeeze by my friend Professor 
 Stephanos Koumanoudes, who, judging from the shape of the characters, 
 thinks that this inscription dates from the time of Antigonus Doson, who 
 died in 221 b.c. 
 
 (TvcofMTj to)V avve§p)(dv' iireiSrj MaXovcnos 'BaK^iov 
 
 (Tapyapevs . dvrjp ay)a6b(s) wv SiaTeXel irepl to iepbv tt)<; 'A6- 
 
 ivv$? T V^ 'I^t^o? fcal) irepl ra? 7roXe^?, real irpoTepov re iroXka %p?70"(a=) 
 
 Vclleius Paterculus, ii. 102. 
 
634 THE SEVENTH CITY: THE GREEK ILIUM. [Chap. XI. 
 
 (jievos rco re) avvehp(t)cp Kal rah irbXeaLv el? re ra KaraaKevdapta- 
 5 (ra irdvra ra rrj)? iravrjyvpeco^ Kal eh ra? irpea^e(l)as t<z? (d)iroareX(Xo-) 
 (fievas rrepl) rcov aXXcov rcov avptcpepovrcov rfj irav7](yvpei) ^p^fiara 
 (dro)fca Kal rrjv aXXrjv irpoOvptiav ept iraaL roh (tc)aipoU irape-)(opLe(vos fie-) 
 (r)a iroXkrjs evvolas, teal vvv eh re rr)v irpeaj3elav rrjv varepov diroar(eXXo-) 
 (pe)vr]v irpb? 'Avrlyovov ehcoKev %pvaovs rpta/coaiovs droKovs Kal eh (rrjv) 
 
 10 (jov) Oedrpov KaraaKevrjv ypyptara Kopulaas eh "IXlov ehcoKev roh iy- 
 (So)tcu? oacov eheovro ypvaov? %lXlov<; rerpaKoalovs irevrrjuovra 
 droicovs' errethr) MaXovatos htareXel irpdrrcov Kal Xeycov dirpocpa- 
 a tar cos ep, iraat roh /caLpot? ra avptfyepovra rfj 6eco teal rah iroXeaLV, 
 ayaOfj rvyrj, hehbyOau roh crweBpois, eiraiveaat MaXovaLov 
 
 15 Ba/e^tbi; Tapyapea /cat arecpavebaat avrbv ev ra yvptVLKCp dycovi 
 yjpvaco areepdvep diro hpa%pcbv %lXicov, dperrjs evenev rrjs irep(l) 
 to lepov Kal rrjv iravrjyvpLv Kal rb kolvov rcov iroXecov, hehbaOaL he 
 avrco [xev rrjv dreXeiav KaQdirep hkhorat, hehoaOat he Kal roh eK- 
 yovoLS avrov rrjv dreXeiav 6tl av ircoXcoaiv rj dyopd^coaiv' ro he '^rrj- 
 
 20 cpLapta rohe dvaypd^avras eh arrjXrjv Oelvat eh rb iepbv rijs 
 
 'AOrjvds, iirLpteXrjOfjvai he rovs Tapyapeh, oircos av elhcoaiv diravres 
 on iirlararaL rb kolvov rcov iroXecov roh ovaiv dyaOoh dvhpdaiv eh 
 avrov? ydpiv drrohihovai. — Tvcbptrj rcov avvehpcoV eireihrj MaXovaios 
 diroareXXovrcov rcov avvehpcov irpeaj3ei<i irpbs rbv f3aaiXea ( virep) 
 
 25 T?}s eXevOepla? Kal avrovoptla? rcov iroXecov rcov Koivcovova(cov rod 
 lepov Kal rfjs iravrjyvpeco? ehcoKev droKa yjprjptara roh diroar(eXXo-) 
 ptevois dyysXois oaa eKeXevov oi avvehpot, irapeaKevaaeiy he) Kal ra (eh) 
 aKrjvrjv droKa yprjpLara Kal raXXa he irpodvptcos virrjper(et eh) on d(v rra-) 
 paKaXfj rb trvvehpiov' ay a6fj rv^r}, hehb^Oai roh crvvehpois, eirai- 
 
 30 vetrai re MaXovatov J$aK%lov Tapyapea, on dvr)p dyaOos eanv irepl rb 
 lepov t^? 'A9r)vd<; Kal rrjv iravrfyvptv Kal rb kolvov rcov iroXecov Kal crre- 
 cpavcoaaL avrbv y^pvaco arecj^dveo dub hpaypicov ytXlcov ev rco yv- 
 /jlvlkco dycovL, dvaypd^raL he rb tyrjfyicrpLa rohe eh trrr)Xr)v rr\v V7re(p) 
 rcov crvvehpLcbv rcov MaXovcn'ov pueXXovacov dvaredi]cre(a-6a)L eh to lepov, 
 
 £5 eTTLpLeXr]OrjvaL he robs Tapyapeh, oircos av eihcocriv diravre^, on 
 
 errlararaL rb kolvov rcov iroXecov roh ovltlv dyaOoh dvhpdtriv eh av- 
 rov<; ydpLV dirohLhovaL. — TvcopLrj rcov ervvehpeov' eVe^r) MaXovcrLos Ke- 
 XeveL eirayyelXaL avrco rjhrj rb avvehpLov, irbtrcov helraL irap avrov %pr)p,d~ 
 rcov eh re rb Bearpov Kal eh raXXa Karao-Kevdcrpuara Kal eh tcl 
 
 40 lepd Kal eh rrjv ir pea fie lav, Kal cprjal OeXeLV nrapbvrcov rcov avv- 
 ehpcov tfhrj hovvaL irdvra' dyaOfj Tvyrj, heho^OaL roh avv- 
 ehpoL$ eirayyelXaL MaXovalco, hovvaL roh dycovoOeraL^ %p(vcrovsi) 
 rpLa^LXlovs Kal irevraKoalovs avv roh irepvaL be\>eiXopbkvoL<; a(vrco,) 
 tou9 he dycovoOeras oh pLev av avrol yjp^acovraL, (rd) h(?)e d(?)(vaXco-) 
 
 45 ptara OelvaL eh to lepov, av he rt irepLyevrjraL (eK ?) ho6evr(cov rcov) 
 epycov, dirohovvaL MaXovalco. — Tvcopui) rcov avvehpcov ' eireLhr) Ma- 
 Xovaios TiaKylov Tapyapeh^ dvrjp dyaObs cbv hLareXe(l ire pi rb) 
 lepov rrjs 'AOrjvas rrjs 'IXtaSo? Kal rb avvehpLov, h(ehb^6aL) 
 roh avvehpoLS, arecpavcoaaL MaXovatov ypvaco ar(ecf>dvco diro) 
 
 so XP V<7 ( C ^ )V fpid ? Kov)ra, KaXelv he av(rbv Kal) eh irpoehpta(v avv roh avvehp- ?) 
 ot? ev toZ? dyco(?)atv bvofJtaa(rL ) elvat h(e dreXeiav) 
 
BASE OF THE STATUE OF METRODORUS. 
 
 635 
 
 Kal avrcp Kal eyybvois' to Be yfrj](<f)io-fia ro)Se dvaypdyjravTas (tou? dycovo-) 
 6era<; ek arrjXyv Oelvai eU (to iepb)v rrjs 'A^ra?. — (Tvco/nrj twv aw-) 
 eBpcov' €7rei8r) Ma\ova(ios) d{vrjp d)ya6bs cbv Siar^eXel irepl to lepov) 
 
 55 ttJ? 'Adrjvas Trjs 'IXta(8o?) Kal to koivov tcov 7r6\{e(ov,) ' 
 
 dyad?) Tv%r), BeB6^6(aL tow) aweBpois, (a)h rifiah {T6rL/jL7]TaL MaXov-) 
 aius virb rod avve(Bpi)ov, dvaypd^ai €Kd(ar)r]v (t)cov iroXewv tcov kolvwvov- 
 
 acov tov lepov k(clI t>})? iravriyvpeco^ /ca( /ca#&)? eKaa-) 
 
 ttj vbfjbos ecrr(t . . . ) — ^LjjLakos Aafjb^aK7)(yb<; eiTrev' eVe^r? MaXovaios) 
 
 60 6 Tapyapev? i(7nfiejbL?)e\r}Tat Trpo6v(fico$ . . .) 
 
 tcl dpa\co(fiaTa ) 
 
 iroXeaiv e 
 
 oti 7rpo6v(/xcD<;) BeB6%6at Tot? aweBpois 
 
 GTefyiavoicrai MaXovaiov Ba/c^iou Yapyapea yjpvato crre-) 
 (pdv(cp) 
 
 I also found in the Temple of Athene, besides an inscribed pedestal of 
 black slate, 3 ft. 8 in. high and 20J in. broad, the statue of a man, of fine 
 white marble, nearly 4 ft. high. As is proved by the inscription, it was 
 sculptured by Pytheas of Argos, and was erected by the Ilians in honour 
 of Metrodorus, the son of Themistagoras, of whom it is a representation. 
 The figure was in the position of an orator, as is shown by the footmarks 
 on the pedestal. The head and the feet are unfortunately wanting. 
 
 The inscriptions run as follows : — 
 
 OA HMOXOIAI E IGN 
 MHTPoAftPONQEMIZ TATOPOY 
 
 And lower down, on the same side of the pedestal — 
 nYGEAZAPrElOZEnolHZE 
 
 f O Srjfios 6 'IXtaW 
 
 Mtjt poBcopov (^epLio-Tayopov, 
 
 Tlv6ea<< 'Apyelo? eirotrjae. 
 
 There were in antiquity many men named Metrodorus, but only two 
 of them were especially celebrated, and both were natives of Asia Minor. 
 The one, born in Lampsacus, was a pupil of Epicurus ; 6 the other, a 
 native of Scepsis, was a philosopher, orator, and statesman, and was held 
 in high esteem by Mithridates VII. Eupator, 7 who afterwards had him 
 put to death in a horrible manner. 8 The name of the father of this 
 Metrodorus of Scepsis is unknown, and whether he was called Themista- 
 goras or otherwise, is uncertain ; but it is extremely probable that the 
 inscription and the statue were raised in honour of the Scepsian orator, 
 philosopher, and statesman. I find no mention whatever of the sculptor 
 Pytheas of Argos. Only one Pytheas, a silver-chaser, is named by Pliny, 9 
 
 6 Strabo, xiii. p. 589. 
 
 7 Strabo, xiii. p. G09. 
 
 8 Plutarch, Life of Lucullus. 
 
 9 //. N. xxxv. 12, s. 55. 
 
636 
 
 THE SEVENTH CITY: THE GREEK ILIUM. 
 
 [Chap. XL 
 
 as being a contemporary of Pompey the Great : Pliny, however, does not 
 state his birth-place. Another Pytheas was a wall-painter and a native 
 of Achaea. Neither of these can therefore be the Argive sculptor who 
 carved the statue and put his name on the pedestal. But, as Professor 
 Koumanoudes, observes to me, it is not astonishing that the name of an 
 insignificant sculptor should be forgotten, seeing that the names of so 
 many great kings are lost. 
 
 In the same part of the Temple of Athene we found the fragment of 
 a marble slab, which has evidently been very long, with the following 
 inscription : — 
 
 E JTEITO Y A NG Y RATO Y rA IOY kA A Y A lOYnOn A I OYY I OY N E PflNOIE II ITA Z A NTOF 
 
 TOUnOI MAN HNQNA PXO YElNEEAnOETEtA A IflPQENM A£E I TWA RA4>YAA KKM 
 
 /THI nOAEfllXTPATlflTAIKA I EnAYTON HrEMON AST IIOIMANH NHN < 
 
 ONITEI H Mfl N <t> 1AO I K Al EYNOftI Al A K E IMENOI n POZTON AH M N HMftN 
 s E^AnEITEIAANTOYrTEITPATIOTAIK AlEOAYTflN H rEMON A N IK 
 
 APON M H NO<j> IAOYYIOHCAITTAPATENOMENOI EIITHN nOAINHMflN 
 
 TE ENAH.M IAN HOIEITA 1 KAAHNK A I EYIXH MON A KAlAZl 
 
 POYA HMOYICA 1 TH I EA Y TO Y f! AT P I A O IXH N TETON 
 
 EAYTOI N E A N 1EK&NEN AHMIAN EYT. ..ONR 
 io TONKAOATTEPEniBAAAEIANAP 
 
 XEJ PI IMEN H N E AT&J fl) 
 
 THNYnEPTHI<t>YAAK 
 
 EII<j> EPETAlZnOYA 
 
 EKKAINilNOYAEI 
 is MON KA I 
 
 eVel tov avQvTrcLTOV Yatov K.Xav$lov VLottXlov vlov Nepwz>o? eirLTa%avTO$, 
 
 rot9 UoLfjiavrjvcov apyovo-iv e^airoarTeXKai 7rpb<; fijia? eh 7rapa<f)vXaKr]v 
 
 ttJ? 7roA,ea)? (TTpaTicoTa? real eir avrcov r/yefiovas UoL/jbavrjoov {pi ?) 
 
 ovres rjficov cblXoi, ical evvocos Sia/cel/xevoi 7rpo? tov Srjfjbov rjfiwv 
 5 i^aireaTecXav tovs re o-Tparicora^ Kai eir avrcov rjye/JLOva Nt/c(ai/-) 
 
 Bpov, M.7]vo(pl\ov (u/)o9 fcal irapayevo/xevo^ eh ttjv ttoXlv rjfxcov {rrjv) 
 
 re iv$7)/ui[av iroieurai KaXrjv Kai eva^piova Kai d%[{av tov re rj fieri-) 
 
 pov hrjpbov Kai rrjs eavrov iraTplhos, rrjv re twv {v(j) , ?) 
 
 eavrcp veavLdKwv evSrjpiLav evr{aKr)ov ^{dpeyerai Kai eav-) 
 io tov KaOdirep eVt/3aXXet avhp(l Kai rrjv e^ovaLav rrjv eyKe-) 
 
 yeipio /jl€V7)v eavTw 7u(cttco? Kai) 
 
 rrjv virep tjJ? (pvXaK^s) 
 
 elo-fyeperai <T7rov$(r)v) 
 
 eK Kaivcov ovSec 
 
 15 p>ov Kai 
 
 The Proconsul Caius Claudius Nero, the son of Publius, who is praised 
 in this inscription, ruled over the province of Asia from 674 to 675 after 
 the foundation of Kome (80-79 B.C.). Hence he lived in the time of 
 Cicero, who mentions him in his orations against Verres. 10 
 
 The Poemanenians {Hoifiavrjvol) are the inhabitants of the fortress of 
 Poemanenon, to the south of Cyzicus. 11 
 
 10 Waddington, Fastes des Provinces Asiatiques 11 Pape-Benseler, Lexikon dcr Griechischcn 
 de V Empire Romain ; Paris, 1872, pp. 43, 44. Eigcnnamen. 
 
§ II.] INSCRIPTION OF THE TIME OF ANTONINUS PIUS. 637 
 
 To judge from the form and thickness of the stone, this inscription 
 must have been very long and have contained more than 70 lines. But 
 even the fragment is of historical value, and all the more as we know for 
 certain that it comes down to us from the year 80 B.C. 
 
 Upon the site of the Doric Temple of Apollo, on the north side of the 
 hill, I found at a depth of ft. a block of marble, ft. high and 2J ft. 
 both in breadth and thickness; it weighs about 50 cwt. and bears the 
 following inscription : — 
 
 HBOYAHtvAlOAHMo 
 
 IAIEJINETIMHEANAY 
 
 KAAYAIONKAIKINAI 
 
 A loN KYZlKHNoNA 
 5 TA AO r I HTHN VfloTo 
 
 OTATOYAYTOKPATOPO 
 
 IAPOZTIToYA I AIOYAA 
 
 NOYANTUN loYEELBA 
 
 EYIEBOYZK. .1 noA A 
 mME r AA ATH I n(o)A E I KATo 
 
 ZANTAKAlT.^AIXoNT 
 
 TETHAoriZT.JAKAIEY 
 
 fopiAllAlsLA. . .nAZH ZT 
 
 A=ION A PETTH. *E N EKENK 
 as EYNolA ITH ZnPOZTK 
 noAIN 
 
 The first name occurring in this inscription, of which the syllable AY 
 is preserved, is probably AYAOZ. The word KAIKINAI should no doubt be 
 KAIKINAN, Caecinam. Whether the other name, of which AlON remains, is 
 intended for TA I ON, I do not venture positively to decide, but I consider 
 it to be probable. For the inscription, which I read as follows, is written 
 in bad Greek, especially towards the end : — C H /3ov\rj /cat 6 8^cic(?) 'Wiecov 
 erL/irjaav Avkov KXavStov Y^aiKivav Tdiov (?) KvQktjvov a(p^ov)ra XoyiaTrjv 
 vtto ro(y 6ei)oTaTOv avTOKpdropo(s Kal)aapos Tltov AlXlov 'AS(pia)vov 'Ai/- 
 tcoviov %ej3a(cFTOv) Euo-e/Sou? k(o)\ tt6XX(cl koi) /neyaXa ry iroKei Karo(p6(o)- 
 cravTa kclI irapdayovTOL re rrj \o<yi(TTe[a /cal <Tv(yrj)<yo plats avS(pa) irdcrrj^ 
 r^/zr??) a^tov dperrjs eveicev k(cu) evvolas rfjs irpbs tt\v iroKtv. 
 
 The emperor mentioned in this inscription is of course Antoninus 
 Pius, whose reign began in the year 138 a.d., and who died in 161 a.d. ; 
 it is merely by an error that he is here called Antonius. He took the 
 name of Hadrian from his adoptive father, the Emperor Hadrian, and 
 assumed the name of Aelius after the death of Hadrian's first adopted son, 
 Aelius Caesar. Upon the upper end of the block of marble there are two 
 foot-marks, the one considerably in advance of the other. Each of them 
 being 15^ in. long, they leave no doubt but that upon this block the 
 
638 
 
 THE SEVENTH CITY: THE GREEK ILIUM. 
 
 [Chap. XI. 
 
 colossal statue of the Cyzicene, who is praised in the inscription, stood in 
 the attitude of an orator. In the hinder foot-mark there is a hole, 14 in. 
 square, in which was placed the iron rod for fixing the statue. To judge 
 from the size of the foot-marks, the statue must have "been more than 8 ft. 
 high ; and, as the marble block is 5| ft. in height, the whole must have 
 been at least 13j ft. high, and hence we may conclude that the Temple of 
 Apollo in which this work of art stood was very spacious. 
 
 In the quadrangular building of large wrought stones, 59 ft. long and 
 43 ft. broad, the foundations of which I had brought to light in October 
 1871, I found, at a depth of about 5 ft., a slab of marble 25*6 in. in 
 length, the upper part of which is 13*6 in. in breadth, and the lower part 
 15*36 in. It contains the following inscription : — 
 
 'JLireiBrj Aia<fievr}s UoXXecos Tt] fivlrrjs, BiarpL^cov nrapd tco fiaaikel, 
 (piXos oyv /cal ewou? BiareXel rep BrjfjLw, irape^bfievo^ irpoOvpiw^ eh 
 
 a av Ti? avrbv irapa/caXf}, BeBo^Oai rfj ftovXy /cal tco 5 eiraiveaai fiev 
 avrbv eirl rovrois, irapa/caXetv Be /cal eh rb Xolitov elvav cfciXorifiov eh rd 
 rod Sjj/jLov avfi(fiepovra, BeBoaOac Be avra> iroXirelav, rrpo^eviav, eyKrrjaiv, 
 dreXeiav &v /cal oi iroXlrai dreXeh elcri /cal e<poBov eirl rrjv /3ovXt)v irpairu) 
 piera rd lepd /cal dfyifyv /cal epu rroXefico /cal ev elpr}vrj davXel ical dcrirovBei' 
 dvaypd^jrac Be rd BeBofieva avru) ravra eh o-rijXrjv /cal (dva)Qelvai e(t? .... 
 
 The king spoken of in this inscription must have been one of the kings of 
 Pergamus, and from the character of the writing I believe that it must be 
 assigned to the third century before Christ. 
 
 At about the same depth, and by the side of the building, I found 
 a second marble slab, 16'5 in. in length and 13*4 in. in breadth. The 
 inscription runs as follows : — 
 
 'IXieZ? eBocrav M.eveXd(p ' ' AppafBalov 'AOrjvaLG) evepyerrj yevopieva) avro)V 
 /cal irepl rrjv eXevdeplav dvBpl dyaOo) yevopuevco irpo^evLav ical evepyealav. 
 
 This second inscription, to judge from the form of the letters, appears 
 to belong to the first century B.C. ' 'Appafiaios here occurs for the first 
 time as an Attic name. 
 
 At the same depth, and likewise by the side of the foundations of the 
 same building, I found a third marble slab, nearly 15 in. long and about 
 14 in. broad, bearing the following inscription : — 
 
 Mr]v6(j)L\o<; TXavplov elirev' erreiBr] rrXeioves rcov itoXltwv eireXdovres eVz 
 TTjy fiovXijv (fiacriv Xatpeav rbv reray/nevov err 'A/SvBov evvovv re elvai rfj 
 TToXet val evcois irpeo-ftevopbevoLS iirrb rod Brj/JLov irpbs avrbv /3ovX6pLevov rfj 
 iroXeo ^apt^eaOai rrjv irdaav a7rovBr)v /cal rrpbvoiav iroelaOat /cal roh crvvav- 
 rcocriv avrco rcov 7toXlt(x)V (fitXavOpcoTrcos Trpocr<f)epe(T0aL, iva ovv /cal 6 Br/ptos 
 (paLvrjrat rrjv /caOrf/covcrav %dpiv dirohiBov^ roh irpoaipovpLevoLS rrjv it6{Xlv) 
 BeB6-)(6ai. 
 
 This third inscription also appears to belong to the first century B.C. 
 
 It is probable that the building in which I discovered these three 
 
§ II.] INSCRIPTION CONTAINING CONTRACT FOR SETTLEMENT. 639 
 
 inscriptions was the Town-hall or Bouleuterion of Ilium ; at all events, it 
 does not appear to have been a temple. 
 
 The following inscriptions were found at a depth of from 19 in. to 
 3 J ft. below my wooden house on Hissarlik : — 
 
 .....IA 
 
 , ..EIAI. ............. NOY. 
 
 5 ABOYKOA... ETPAN* 
 
 . . . .ZK.ATATTA HOOZ E I ZO I N I ZTPA 
 
 . . TUN Z© A I XKAAPE 1 ZO 
 
 . .ZANAPAI TOYZ ZYN0HZOMEN 
 
 . . . . E PO N Y TTH PX E N K A I Z T Id A 12 
 
 10....IEN TilTilN Z A MO PA K 
 
 ....IZAnO KAO I Z TA MEMO 
 
 ENOYZTHN ZY W0EIIN 
 
 MO AO T [ A ZTO A NTITPA .......... 
 
 O 1 K HZONTEZ HP EOH Z. 
 
 15. . OTTE 1 0OYM FA H"Z IO Z .'. 
 
 . 0OYAIOTTE IAH ZB. , . . , 
 
 ...... Tl^ANHZATT 
 
 aa 
 
 .... eaai i/ou(?) 
 
 5 a/3ovfco\ erpav <fi 
 
 . . . . ? Kara Tfkr)6os eh olviaTpa 
 
 . . tcov i^7]cf>ia6aL ^/caSpeis o 
 
 . . ? avSpas tovs avv6r]ao{Mev(ovs) 
 
 .... epov virrjp^ev teal aTrjXco 
 
 10 .... i iv tco 1 tcov Sa/uLO0pdfc 2 (cov) .... 
 
 . . . . ciirofcaOicTTafievo 
 
 .... evovs T7]v avvOeaiv 
 
 (6)fAo\o<y[a<; to dvTtypa(cpov) . . 
 
 o!raj(TGVT€<; rjpedr]a 3 (av) 
 
 15 (Ai)o7r6L0OV Mfc\?J<TtO? 
 
 6ov ALOTrelSrjs B 
 
 ( , Av)TLCpdv7]<; 'A7T 
 
 This inscription contains a contract for a settlement and gives the 
 names of the men selected for founding it. ^/caSpeU is an unknown word, 
 which has never before been met with. 
 
 1 Sic. 
 
 2 Sic. 
 
 3 Sic. 
 
640 
 
 THE SEVENTH CITY : THE GREEK ILIUM. [Chap. XI. 
 
 \XN 
 ■QZXlAfAZ 
 ilZTHX AooEIZHZ 
 EIPENTE KA lOYEAABo 
 
 * BAA AO NTH. I E N I AY Til 
 THNSYNEAPEIANoYKA 
 THZBOOZTHMTIMHNY 
 TQTKPEftNTAZ AO I PA 
 TP^BoAONTHNroAlNTHM 
 
 10 KAZAN TOYZTO Ko Y Z TOYZ 
 KOZI AZTEZ ZAPAKONTAPE 
 O E TO Z A I A KO Z I A Z TEX Z A 
 KA IOTITHNZYNEAPELA1 
 TE IAANPE NTAKOZf AZKAITH 
 
 isPHME NHZTHZTI MHZTnrKPE 
 TA AYO 
 
 x v t 
 
 &)9 yCklas 
 
 &>9 T179 Boiffeurrfi 
 
 et irevre kol ov e\a{3o(v) .... 
 
 5 . . . . (to e7ri)l3d\Xov T&3 evicLVTw(i) . . 
 
 .... TTjv auveSpeiav ov Ka 
 
 .... t?}9 /3oo9 tv)V TiyJr\v v 
 
 .... TC07 KpeoiV Ta9 \oLTra(s) 
 
 .... (re) rpcofloXov rrjv itoXlv rrjfi . . 
 10 ... . (rjvdy T)Kaaav Tovk tokovs T0119. . 
 
 .... (a)KOo-ias reaaapaKOvra ire{vTe) . 
 
 .... #€T09 8ta/cocrt<x9 Tecrcra(pa) .... 
 
 . . . koX otl TTjv avve^peta(y) 
 
 . . . (aireo^reCKav TrevTcucoaias Kal tt? , 
 
 15 . . . p7]fjLevr)S TTj? T£/^9 TMJ Kpe((OV) . . - 
 
 . . . (rd\av ?)ra $vo 
 
§ in.] 
 
 COINS FOUND AT NOVUM ILIUM. 
 
 641 
 
 § III. The Coins found at Novum Ilium. By M. Achilles Postolaccas, 
 Keeper of the National Collection of Coins at Athens. 
 
 According to the testimony of the famous numismatologist Eckhel, 4 
 all the known coins of Ilium belong to Novum Ilium, and are either 
 autonomous or imperial. Of these, the autonomous are either of silver or 
 copper, and belong to the Macedonian period or to the succeeding times ; 
 the imperial coins occur only in bronze, and date from Augustus to 
 Gallienus and his wife Salonina. 
 
 Of the autonomous silver coins we only know of tetradrachms of an 
 artistic style, belonging to the Attic metrological system, bearing on 
 one side the head of Athene with a three-crested helmet crowned with 
 laurel, and on the other side the legend A0HNAZ IAIAAOZ, the name of 
 
 No. 1481. 
 
 the archon, and the image of the standing Athene holding on her right 
 shoulder a spear, and a distaff in her left hand ; 5 on the field are mono- 
 grams and accessory symbols (No. 1481). The tetradrachms in question 
 were struck, according to the illustrious Cavedoni, 6 under the reign of 
 Mithridates Eupator, king of Pontus and the Cimmerian Bosporus 
 (123-64 b.c.). 7 
 
 No. 1482. 
 
 No. 1483. 
 
 The types of the bronze coins have on one side a head or bust of 
 Athene, a turretted head of the personified Borne with the legend 0GA 
 PHMH (No. 1482), and a she-wolf suckling Komulus and Bemus (No. 1483) ; 
 on the other side the following devices : 8 — a standing Athene, like that 
 on the above tetradrachms (see No. 1481); 9 a standing Apollo, dressed 1 
 
 4 Do^trina Num. Vet. ii. p. 483. 
 
 5 Pausanias, vii. 5, § 4, describing the statue 
 of Athene Polias at Erythrae in Ionia, says : 
 ■t]\aKa.T7\v iu tKarepq twv x* l P<*>v *X €l - Accord- 
 ing to Apollodorus (iii. 12. 3), the Palladium, 
 which had fallen from heaven, held in the left 
 hand a distaff and a spindle. 
 
 • 6 Spicilegio numisinatico, p. 152. 
 
 7 121-63 B.C. according to Eduard Meyer, 
 Geschichte des Konigrekhs Pontos ; Leipzig, 1879, 
 8vo. p. 56. 
 
 8 It is to be understood that the following 
 descriptions and cuts are of the reverses of the 
 medals. 
 
 9 Choiseul-Gouffier, Voyage pittoresque de la 
 Grece. 
 
 2 T 
 
642 
 
 THE SEVENTH CITY : THE GREEK ILIUM. [Chap. XI. 
 
 in a long chiton and holding a patera and a lyre ; or Ganymedes carried 
 away by the eagle of Zeus (No. 1482). 
 
 No. 1484. No. 14S5. No. 1486. No. 1437. 
 
 Hector standing, with his head turned aside, holding in his right 
 hand a lance, in his left a sword, with the legend eKTOJP (Nos. 1484 
 and 1485). Hector walking, his right hand uplifted, holding in his left a 
 shield and a lance, and the legend EKTUP or eKKTOP (sic) (No. 1486). 
 Hector naked, walking, having a helmet on the head, a sword in the 
 uplifted right hand, a shield in his left, with the legend EKTOP lAlGHN. 
 
 Aeneas walking, carrying Anchises on his back and holding Ascanius 
 by the hand. Aeneas flying with Anchises and lulus. 10 Aeneas going 
 on board a ship, carrying Anchises on his back and leading Ascanius 
 by the hand (No. 1487). 
 
 The legends and types of the imperial coins are more numerous and 
 more varied ; the most important and curious of them are the following : — 
 
 No. 1488. No. 1489. No. 1490. 
 
 AIA IAAION IAIGIC or IAI6QN. Zeus Nikephoros seated, holding in his 
 right hand a spear ; sometimes, instead of Nike, he holds the Palladium : 
 on coins of the younger Faustina, of Commodus (in the collection of 
 Br. Schliemann), of Crispina and of Julia Domna (No. 1488). 
 
 AAPAANOC IAIEQN. Dardanus seated, holding in his left hand a 
 sceptre, with a woman standing by : on the coins of Crispina (No. 1489). 
 The type in question represents, according to Cavedoni, 11 the colloquy 
 of Dardanus about his marriage with Batieia, daughter of Teucer, king 
 of the Troad; 1 or, according to another tradition, 2 with Teucer's wife 
 Chryse, who brought him the Palladium as a dowry. 
 
 ElAOC lAIEON or IAIGON. Ilus standing, wearing an upper garment 
 (ifidrtov), and sacrificing on an altar before a column on which stands 
 the Palladium : on a coin of Julia Domna (in Dr. Schliemann's collection) 
 and of Caracalla (No. 1490). 
 
 The following coins, all of which have only the legend lAIEON or 
 lAienN, have these types : — 
 
 10 According to Sestini, D^scriptio Num. Vet. p. 30,% No. 1. 
 11 Op. cit. p. 153. 1 Apoliodorus, iii. 12. 1. 2 Dionys. Halicarn. Antiq. Roman, i. 68, 69. 
 
§ III.] 
 
 COINS FOUND AT NOVUM ILIUM. 
 
 643 
 
 Nip. 1491. 
 
 No. 1492. 
 
 No. 1493. 
 
 A man (Ilus) riding on a bull, which is jumping near a tree ; in front 
 the Palladium on a column : on a coin 
 of the younger Faustina (No. 1491). 
 Athene on a column, towards which 
 a cow is approaching : on a coin of 
 the same empress. Ilus leading a 
 cow to the statue of Athene Ilias on 
 a small column ; in the field is a 
 column : on a coin of Gordianus III. 
 (No. 1492). 
 
 These four types find their interpretation in Apollodorus, 3 who relates 
 that Ilus travelled to Phrygia, carried off the victory in the sacred 
 games, and, having consulted an oracle, received 
 the answer that he must follow " a speckled cow," 
 and build a city on the spot where she might lie 
 down. This took place on the so-called hill of 
 Ate, where Ilus built a town called by him "Duo?. 
 Praying to Zeus to grant him a favourable sign, 
 he saw falling from heaven before his tent the 
 Palladium, which for that reason was called Sa7rere? : 
 hence the reason is evident why the Ilian Zeus 
 holds the Palladium on his hand. 4 
 ANXEICHC A<t>POAEITH or ANXEICiC AcfcPOAITH IAIEON. Aphrodite, 
 wearing a long chiton, and Anchises are standing joining hands : on coins 
 of Julia Domna (No. 1493). This type may be interpreted by the verses 
 in the Homeric Hymn : 5 — 
 
 rbu 51] eireiTa Ifiovcra tpiAo /jL/me i$}js 'AcppoSirri, 
 ilpdaaT', iKirdykws 8e Kara, typtvas 'ifiepos efAev. 
 
 Compare also what Apollodorus says. 6 
 
 riPiAMOC IAIEHN or IAIGQN. Priam, wearing a Phrygian cap, seated 
 and holding a spear in his left hand : on coins of Commodus and Crispina 
 (No. 1494). 
 
 NGCTHPHC IAI6QN. Nestor, clad in an upper 
 garment (tfidriov), is sacrificing with his right hand 
 on an altar before the statue of Athene, and holding 
 in his left a spear in an oblique position : on a coin 
 of Caracalla. 
 
 EKTQP IAIEHN or €KTf2P or 6KT00P IAI€HN. 
 Hector's ideal youthful head covered with a helmet : 
 on a coin of the younger Faustina. Hector stand- 
 ing, armed with lance and shield : on a coin of Maximinus I., the 
 Thracian. Hector standing before a burning altar, holding in his right 
 hand a patera, in his left a lance and shield: on a coin of Julia Domna, 
 in the collection of Dr. Schliemann. Hector standing, wearing a helmet ; 
 his head is turned aside ; in his right hand he holds a shield : on a 
 coin of Septimius Severus with Geta. Hector standing, naked, wearing 
 
 No. 1494. 
 
 3 iii. 12. 3. 
 
 4 Cavedoni, op. cit. p. 15C 
 
 In Aphrodit. iv. 56, 57. 6 iii. 12. 2. 
 
644 
 
 THE SEVENTH CITY: THE GREEK ILIUM. 
 
 [Chap. XI. 
 
 a helmet, holding in his right hand a lance, and leaning with his left 
 on a shield : on a coin of Caracalla and Geta (No. 1495). Hector 
 
 standing armed before a column with a statue, holding in its one 
 hand a lance and shield, in the other a small figure : on coins of 
 Caracalla. Hector standing armed, holding in his left hand a shield 
 and spear, and touching with his right the statue of Athene on a column : 
 on a coin of Caracalla (No. 1496). Cavedoni observes 7 that the last two 
 types remind us of the passage in the Iliad, 8 where Hector leaves the 
 camp by the advice of Helenus and goes quickly up to the town, to order 
 the Trojan matrons to go in suppliant procession to the Temple of Athene 
 in the Acropolis. Hector walking, armed : on coins of Faustina the elder 
 and of Caracalla (No. 1497). Hector walking, armed ; he lifts in his right 
 hand a spear in the attitude of fighting, and his left hand holds the shield 
 as if warding off a blow : on coins of Caracalla (No. 1498). Hector armed, 
 marching forth to battle : on a coin of Hadrian. 
 
 Hector on a chariot drawn by two horses : on a coin of Marcus 
 Aurelius. Hector, in full armour, on a chariot drawn by two horses : 
 on a coin of Gordianus III. Hector on a chariot drawn by two horses, 
 holding in his uplifted right hand the whip, and in his left the reins 
 
 No. 1499. No. 1500. 
 
 as well as lance and shield : on coins of Marcus Aurelius and Caracalla 9 
 (No. 1499). The last three types are according to the Iliad, xix. 399-401 : 
 
 cr/j.cpda\€Ov 8' 'tirKOiaiv eKc/fAero irarphs io7o • 
 "ZdvOe re Kal BaAte, TTjAeKAirra tckvo. Tloddpyris, 
 ttAAws 5r? (ppdfccrOe aaware/xeu rjvtoxno. .... 
 
 Hector on a chariot drawn by four horses, holding in his right hand 
 the reins and the shield, in his left the whip : on a coin of Marcus 
 Aurelius. Hector on a chariot with four horses : on coins of Commodus, 
 
 7 Op. cit. p. 153. 8 vi. 86 and ff. 9 Mionnet, Description dc Medailles antiques, Suppl. v. PI. 5. 
 
§ in.] 
 
 COINS FOUND AT NOVUM ILIUM. 
 
 645 
 
 Caracalla, and Gallienus. Hector on a chariot with four horses, holding 
 in his right hand a lance, and in his left a shield and the reins : on 
 coins of Commodus (No. 1500). 
 
 No. 1501. 
 
 No. 1502. 
 
 Hector standing, holding a shield and throwing a hurning torch : on 
 coins of Julia Donina and Yalerianus I. Hector as on the preceding coin, 
 but armed with a javelin, which he throws upon a ship before him : on a 
 coin of the younger Faustina (No. 1501). In the two last types Hector 
 is represented as fighting (with Ajax), and intending to set the Greek ship 
 on fire. So thinks Cavedoni, 10 having in his mind the following verses 
 
 Of the Iliad : *E*t«/> 5e trp^v^v eVel \e££ev, otj ri fiediei 
 
 &(p\a(TTOV /.tera x € P°~^ v ^X^i Tpcoclv Se /ceAeuei/ • 
 Otaere irvp, c.y.a S 5 avTol doAAees upwr' aiirrju. 1 
 
 vr)\' Qjrj 
 
 To\ 0° €[a(5(X\OV OLKO.fJl.aTOV TTVp 
 
 Hector walking, holding in his left hand a shield, and throwing with 
 his right a burning torch upon the two ships before him. On a coin 
 of Elagabalus 3 (No. 1502). 
 
 No. 1503. 
 
 No. 1504. 
 
 Hector armed with a lance and shield, fighting on a chariot with four 
 gallopping horses. Patroclus is lying under the horses, lifting his right 
 arm, and resting the left on the ground ; behind him is his shield : — on 
 a coin of Macrinus (No. 1503). Cavedoni 4 thinks that on this coin 
 Patroclus is represented as uttering to Hector these last words : — 
 
 $57j vvv, "EKTwp, fxeyd/X' €vx €0 ' 0-0 ' edooicev 
 v'iK7]v Ze£>s Kpovidrjs /cat 'AttoAAojc, o't jx 45dfj.acraai' 
 
 p7}t5t<ttS. 5 
 
 Hector on a chariot with four horses, holding in his right hand a shield 
 and lance, in his left a Nike. On a coin of Septimius Severus (No. 1504). 
 
 10 Op. cit. p. 153. 
 a Eeme Num. 1852, PI. iv. fig. 9. 
 
 1 xv. 716-718. 
 
 4 Op. cit. p. 153 in note. 
 
 xvi. 122, 123. 
 
 5 II. xvi. 814-846. 
 
646 
 
 THE SEVENTH CITY: THE GREEK ILIUM. 
 
 [Chap. XI. 
 
 This type, which represents Hector's victory, is interpreted by the 
 foregoing verses. 
 
 Hector standing in full armour, dragging with his right hand the 
 
 lance from the supine 
 corpse of Patroclus, 
 which he spurns with 
 his left foot ; in his 
 left hand he holds a 
 shield : to the usual 
 legend is here also 
 added I1ATPOKAOC : — 
 on a medallion of 
 Septimius Severus 
 (No. 1505). This very 
 curious type is adapted to the verses of the Iliad: — 
 
 cos dpa cpwficras $6pv ^aA/ceoy e£ co-mA^y 
 
 dpvcre, Aa| 7rporrfixs, rbv 5" vtttlov Sia dirb Sovpos. 6 
 
 This is the excellent interpretation of Mr. Barclay Vincent Head, who 
 has published the medallion in question in the Numismatic Chronicle? 
 
 Three warriors contending for the corpse of Patroclus : the warrior in 
 the middle seems to represent Ajax coming to the rescue, when the 
 Trojans were dragging away the corpse from the Greeks, as described in 
 the splendid passage of Homer {11. xvii. 274 fF.) : on a coin of Macrinus 
 (No. 1506). Although this type is altogether different from the fore- 
 going, it nevertheless has the legend GKTHP IAIGQN. 
 
 CKAMANAPOC IAIEON. The river Scamander per- 
 sonified, recumbent, holding in some cases a reed, and 
 leaning on an overturned vase, from which water flows : 
 on coins of Nero, of Nero and Britannicus, of Vitel- 
 lius, Marcus Aurelius, Commodus, Caracalla, and Geta 
 (No. 1507). 
 
 IAION PQMM. Two women standing, of whom one 
 (the personified Ilium) is turretted and dressed in a 
 long chiton, and holds in her right hand the Palladium. The other 
 woman (the personified Borne), in a dress fastened with a girdle, is 
 turretted, and holds in her left hand a flag: — on a medallion of 
 Caracalla. The Tychae (Tv^ai, genii) of the cities of Ilium and Borne, 
 with joined hands : on a coin of Elagabalus. 
 
 IEBAITOZ KTIZTHZ. Head of Augustus: statue of Athene, with the 
 hair bound together on the crown of the head, on a small pedestal, 
 holding in her uplifted right hand the Palladium, in her left a lance : 
 on a coin of Augustus. With regard to this Ilian coin, particular atten- 
 tion is claimed by the epithet of Augustus as founder (ktlcttt]^) ; but the 
 word is to be understood as restorer, it being customary to give this title 
 to benefactors who were deemed worthy of honour. 
 
 Besides the types on the imperial coins here represented, there also 
 
 6 xvi. 862, 863. 7 New Series, viii. ; London, 1868, 8vo. p. 326, PI. xi. 2. 
 
 No. 1505. No. 1506. 
 
§ in.] 
 
 COINS FOUND AT NOVUM ILIUM. 
 
 647 
 
 occur the following, which bear merely the legend IAIE£1N or IAI6QN 
 namely : — 
 
 The winged Ganymedes standing, holding in his right hand a bow, in 
 his left a shepherd's crook : on a coin of Commodus. 
 
 No. 1510. 
 
 Nc. 15C8. 
 
 No. 1509. 
 
 The winged Ganymedes, wearing a Phrygian cap on his head, seated 
 on a rock, and offering drink to the eagle of Zeus, behind which is a tree : 
 on a coin of Commodus (No. 1508). 
 
 The winged Ganymedes, as in the foregoing type, but holding a vase 
 before the eagle which is caressing him ; behind is a column on which 
 stands a statue : on a medallion of Commodus (No. 1509). 8 
 
 The winged Ganymedes carried away by the eagle, and holding in 
 his right hand a shepherd's crook: on coins of Commodus and Geta 
 (No. 1510). The legend of the rape represented on the foregoing coin, 
 which is not mentioned by Homer, is related by Apollodorus, 9 who says : 
 tovtop (top Tavv^jSrjp) fiev ovv hia, KaKkos avapirdaa^ Zeu? Bt aerov Oecov 
 olvoypov iv ovpavw Karecrrrjaev. 
 
 Aeneas walking, carrying on his back Anchises, and leading Ascanius 
 by the hand : on medallions of Commodus and of Caracalla. Homer 
 says nothing concerning the flight of Aeneas represented in this type, 
 which is interpreted by the following verses of Virgil: — 
 
 No. 1511. 
 
 " Ei-go age, care pater, cervici imponere nostrae ; 
 Ipse sulibo humeris, nee me labor iste gravabit." 10 
 
 " Mihi parvus lulus 
 
 Sit comes et longe servet vestigia coniux." 1 
 
 " Cetsi et suLlato montes genitore petivi.'' 2 
 
 The same type ; below is a she-wolf suckling Eomulus and Kemus : 
 on a coin of Hadrian (No. 1511). 
 
 Hector, with a helmet on his head, walking, and throwing with his 
 right hand a stone; his left is armed with a shield and two lances: 
 on a coin of Diadumenianus. 
 
 Hector in full armour, on a chariot drawn by two horses : on a coin 
 of Gordianus III. 
 
 8 According to Vaillant, Numismata Gracca, and Mionnet, Descr. de Med. 
 9 hi. 12. 2. 19 Aen. ii. 707, 708. 1 Ibid. ii. 710, 711. 2 Ibid. ii. 804. 
 
CHAPTER XII. 
 
 THE CONICAL MOUNDS IN THE TROAD CALLED THE HEROIC TUMULI. 
 
 The traveller who goes by sea from Constantinople to the town of the 
 Dardanelles, sees on both sides of the Sea of Marmora and the Hellespont 
 a number of conical hills, on the origin of which tradition is silent, and 
 which are universally called by the name of K Tepeh," a Turkish word 
 signifying merely a low and small hill, but which in the imagination of 
 men has obtained, like the word " tumulus " in the West, the additional 
 signification of a sepulchral mound, covering the remains of a deceased 
 person, or of more than one. 
 
 The first of these Tepehs which tradition has assigned to a particular 
 person, is the tumulus on the Thracian Chersonesus, obliquely opposite 
 the town of the Dardanelles, attributed to Hecuba, of which Strabo says : 
 "Between the two (Dardanus and Abydus) the Ehodius falls into the 
 Hellespont, and directly opposite its mouth the Cynossema (Kwo? a^/xa, 
 or Kwoaa-rj/ma, i.e. Dog's monument), said to be the tomb of Hecuba, 
 stands on the Chersonesus." 1 
 
 Proceeding from the Dardanelles by land to the Plain of Troy, the 
 traveller passes another tumulus to his left, near the site of Dardanus ; 
 immediately afterwards, a third to his right, and a fourth again to his 
 left, above the village of Een Kioi. Descending hence to the sea-shore, 
 he passes three more Tepehs on the height which overhangs the little 
 port of Karanlik, and which belongs to the heights of Pthoeteum. To 
 none of the six tumuli last mentioned does tradition attach a name. 
 
 To the north of the heights of PJioeteum he will see, close to the 
 shore, a very low tumulus, to which tradition points as the original 
 sepulchre of Ajax, whose second resting-place is identified with the large 
 tumulus on a lower spur of the heights of Khoeteum. This latter 
 tumulus is called In Tepeh, which name may be derived from the s-te-m 
 AIANT, seen in the genitive of Atas\ 
 
 Hiding thence along the shore of the Hellespont, the traveller reaches 
 on the lower height, immediately to the north-east of Cape Sigeum, the 
 tumulus which tradition throughout historical antiquity claimed as the 
 tomb of Achilles. 
 
 Proceeding thence in a southerly direction, on the road which borders 
 the heights of Sigeum and leads to Yeni Kioi, the traveller passes at a 
 distance of only about 350 yds. to the south-east of the latter tumulus 
 another, which is identified with the tomb of Patroclus. But this identifi- 
 
 1 Strabo, xiii. p. 595 : fiera^v tc 6 'Po'Stos Hecuba was fabled to have been changed into a 
 liciriitTei Trorafids, Kad' hv iv tt} Xeppovri(rq} rb bitch. 
 Kwbs (rrj/xd i<rnv, o {paaiv 'EKdfirjs eluai rdcpoy. 
 
Chap. XII.] 
 
 FUNERAL RITES IN HOMER. 
 
 649 
 
 cation must be quite modern, it being in perfect opposition to the precise 
 statement of Homer, who* puts in the mouth of Achilles the words : " Let 
 us wrap the bones (of Patroclus) in a double layer of fat, and put them 
 in a golden urn, until I also am hidden with Hades. Now do not make 
 the tumulus large, but only of becoming size. Later, you Achaeans, who 
 shall survive me on the ships with many rowing-benches, may make it 
 wide and high." 2 His companions obeyed : having gathered the bones of 
 Patroclus, they wrapped them in a double layer of fat, and put them in 
 a golden urn, which they brought into the tent, and covered with a soft 
 linen cloth. They then marked out the round place for the tumulus, laid 
 the foundations around the funeral pile, and heaped up the earth. Having 
 completed the tumulus, they departed. 3 
 
 Now, in all this there is not a word to show that the golden urn which 
 contained the bones of Patroclus was either deposited in the tumulus, or 
 was meant to be ever deposited there. All we can possibly understand 
 here is that on the death of Achilles his bones should be added to those 
 of Patroclus in the golden urn, and that on that event the tumulus should 
 be enlarged, but there is no allusion whatever to the depositing of the urn 
 in it. Had it been deposited, or had it been destined to be deposited 
 there, Homer would not have kept back from us the important fact. 
 Consequently the tumulus of Patroclus was a mere cenotaph. I wish I 
 could cite, as further evidence, the beautiful passage in the Odyssey* 
 where it is said that the bones of Achilles and Patroclus lie together in a 
 golden amphora, in a tumulus on the shore of the Hellespont ; and the 
 passage in the Iliad? according to which the bones of Hector, after being 
 put in a golden box, were laid in a grave and covered with a tumulus 
 of stones. Unfortunately both these books of the Odyssey and Iliad are 
 universally acknowledged to be later additions. Consequently all we 
 know from the poet regarding the nature of one of the tumuli in the 
 Plain of Troy is that it was a cenotaph, and this Homeric assertion has 
 been borne out by all the researches hitherto made. But before his 
 funeral Patroclus appeared to Achilles in a dream, and said : 
 
 ddirre fxe orri rdxicrra, irv\as 'A't'Sao irepriawf' 
 
 Now the word Odrrrw has always been translated by " bury " or " inter." 
 But as from the foregoing passage it is evident that no real burial took 
 place, I suggest that the meaning of this word, in this instance as well as 
 in three other passages in which it occurs in the Iliad, 1 can only be " burn 
 the body and perform the funeral ceremony," without implying that the 
 
 1 II. xxiii. 24-3-248 : a^X iruprjv • €l6ap Se x vT ^ v ^ ycuav %x €vav - 
 
 Ktxt rd fiev ev xpvairi (piaXy Kal 5lir\aKi 8r]u.Q xeiWres Se rb ar\ixa iraXiv k'iov. 
 Gdopev, els o Kev avrbs iywv'AiSi Kev6w[xai- 4 xxiv. 76-84. 5 xxiv. 793-798. 
 
 rvp.f3ov 5' ob jxdXa rcoXXbv eyu) TroveeaOai dvwya, 6 II. xxiii. 71. 
 
 aAA' etrieiKea rotov. eneira 8e Kal rbv ' Axaioi 7 77. xxiv. 064, 665: 
 
 evpvv 6' vtyriKou re nQrifievai, o'L Kev e/neTo evvr\\xap /.tcV /c' avrhv eul fxeydpois yo6cv/j.ei/, 
 
 devrepoi ev vrieaai Tro\vKAr}'iai \'nrr\zde. rrj SeKarr] de Ke dd-XTOiiiev daivvro re Aaos. 
 
 3 II xxiii. 252-257 : ' II. xxiii. 630 : 
 
 KKa'iovres S' erdpoio ii/rjeos btxrea XevKx u>s uirore Kpelovr 'Afiapvyftea Qdirrov 'Eireiol. 
 'dXKeyov is x? VG ^ r i v <t>id\t\v koI bt-rrXaKa 8r)f,'.6v, II. xxi. 322, 323 : 
 
 ev KAialrjac de Sei/res eavy Xirl icd\v^av. avrov oi Kal ari/na rerev£erai, ovde rl fj.iv XP ec ^ 
 
 ropvuxravro de crrifxa, QejxeiKia re irpof3d\ovro e<TTcu ru/ij8oxo?lcr' ore yxiv Qdirrooo-iv 'hx ai0 ' 1 ' 
 
650 
 
 THE HEROIC TUMULI IN THE TROAD. 
 
 [Chap. XII. 
 
 bones were buried. In this sense I also understand the word Odirrw in 
 a passage in the Odyssey, in which the funeral of Elpenor is described: — 
 " Then I sent forward my companions to the palace of Circe to bring 
 the dead body of Elpenor. We at once cut trunks of trees, and, sore 
 grieved, performed his funeral on the high projecting shore, shedding 
 abundant tears. And when the body was burnt with his weapons, we 
 heaped up a tomb, erected a pillar (stele) on it, and put up on its highest 
 point a well-fitting oar." 8 
 
 But in another passage of the Odyssey the word dd-rrrco must really 
 mean " to bury in the ground : " — " First came the soul of our companion 
 Elpenor, for he had not yet been buried below the earth with broad 
 paths." 9 
 
 In a passage in the Iliad, where the funeral of Eetion is described, 
 we read : — " He (Achilles) slew Eetion ; but he stripped him not of his 
 arms, through the restraint of a religious awe, but burnt him there in 
 his panoply, and heaped up a mound." 10 
 
 Here, as well as in the description of Elpenor's funeral, Homer leaves 
 us in doubt as to whether the tumulug was heaped over the body of the 
 deceased, or whether, as in the case of Patroclus, the bones were carried 
 away, and the tumulus was a mere cenotaph. But I have no reason to 
 doubt that in a post-Homeric time, and probably as early as the time 
 when the xxivth Iliad and the xxivth Odyssey were written, it was really 
 the custom to heap a tumulus over the remains of great personages. At 
 all events, in the imagination of Aeschylus, Agamemnon's sepulchre was a 
 tumulus, for he makes Electra say : " On the tumulus of this sepulchre 
 I announce this to my father." 11 Further, all the artificial tumuli at 
 Sardis, as well as on the Crimean coast and elsewhere in the south of 
 Bussia, appear to be real tombs. 
 
 Biding for half an hour further south on the road to Yeni Kioi, the 
 traveller passes to the left of another much higher mound, called Hagios 
 Demetrios Tepeh, from an open chapel close by, which is dedicated to that 
 saint. But, as we have seen in the preceding pages, the chapel has 
 received this dedication from a temple of white marble sacred to Demeter, 
 which stood on the site, and of whose marbles it is partly built. This 
 Tepeh, by its high position on the very brink of the lofty shore, over- 
 hangs the sea, and it is therefore visible from a great distance out at sea ; 
 and, as Professor Yirchow says, there is no point on land, to a distance 
 of 9 or 12 miles, from which it cannot be seen. 
 
 Proceeding further on, the traveller, after having passed Yeni Kioi, 
 
 8 Od. xii. 9-15 : 
 83? t6t iyoov tTapovs irpo'Uiv es Z&fxara KtpKTjs 
 olae/uevai venpbv 'EXirrjuopa rc9ur]WTa. 
 <pirpobs ft alxj/a rafiSures, '60' aKpordrt] irpoex' 
 
 d/CT7J , 
 
 OdirTOjuLCU axvv/J-tvoi, 6a\€pbv Kara SctKpv x^ovres. 
 avrap eVel veicpSs t endy Kal reu^ea vtKpov, 
 rvfxfiov x*vavTts /cat iirl <TTr\Xt\v ipvaavres 
 Tr-fj^a/jLiu aKpoTaTcp Tvjufia) evrjpes ipeTfl6v. 
 
 9 Od. xi. 51, 52 : 
 Upcorr) 8e tyvxb 'EKTT7]uopos 9jX6ev eraipov • 
 ov yap Trca ireOaTTTO vnb x® ovos *vpvo8eir]s. 
 10 II. vi. 416-419 : 
 
 . . . . Kara. 5' enravev 'HeTiWa, 
 ouSe pnv i^€vdpi^e (aefidao-aro yap r6 ye dv/xy), 
 aA?C dpa /jliv KareK7]€ avy evTeai SaiSaAeoHriv 
 r?8' eirl arj/j.' e^eej/. 
 
 11 Aeschylus, Choephoroe, v. 4: 
 TVjxfiov 8' in ox^(f T^SSe Kf)pvGO~w irarpl. 
 
Chap. XII.] 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF THE TUMULI 
 
 651 
 
 comes to another tumulus, 60 ft. high, situated on the height close to and 
 north of the Bay of Besika, and called, probably for that reason, Besika 
 or Bashika Tepeh, from the Turkish work Beshik, which means " cradle." 
 It lies immediately to the east of the little promontory called Palaeo- 
 castro, of which we have spoken before. 
 
 Still further south, and separated by a deep valley from the heights 
 of Sigeum, there follows a group of tertiary ridges, in the midst of 
 which, and about four miles distant from the sea-shore, rises another 
 gigantic tumulus, 83 ft. high and 433 ft. in diameter at its base, called 
 Ujek Tepeh. To understand well the height of 83 ft. the reader should 
 bear in mind that the highest houses in Broadway in New York are not 
 more than 70 ft. high. 
 
 Going on thence to Bounarbashi, and ascending the heights behind it 
 — the Bali Dagh — the traveller sees there four more tumuli, the highest 
 of which consists of loose pebbles, and has for this reason been identified, 
 by the defenders of tho Troy-Bounarbashi theory, with the tomb of Hector ; 
 while of the other three, which are much lower, one has been attributed 
 by them to King Priam himself. 
 
 Descending again to Bounarbashi and crossing the Scamander, the 
 traveller finds opposite the Bali Dagh — on the slope of the mount which 
 overhangs the river, and which, as before mentioned, is crowned with the 
 ruins of an ancient town — another tumulus 1 of pebbles, which has lost 
 much of its primitive height. Descending again and riding along the 
 right bank of the Scamander, the traveller sees, at a short distance to 
 the north-west of the confluence of the Scamander and the Thymbrius, 
 on the right bank of the latter, the large tumulus called Hanai Tepeh, 
 situated on the farm of Mr. Frank Calvert, whom I have helped to 
 excavate it, and who has described the results of our researches in 
 Appendix IV. 
 
 Proceeding thence in a north-westerly direction by the road to 
 Hissarlik, the traveller passes to his right another smaller tumulus, 
 called Pasha Tepeh, 2 on a low hill-ridge, which extends from the heights 
 of the tertiary formation pretty far into the plain. Further on, at 
 distances of no more than 200 and 300 yds. to the south of Novum Ilium, 
 he sees to the right and left of the road two still smaller tumuli. 
 
 Finally, I have to mention the low tumulus on the right bank of the 
 Kalifatli Asmak, at a distance of about 300 yds. to the north of Koum 
 Kioi. I have had occasion to mention this tumulus repeatedly in the 
 preceding pages, and have explained the reasons why I hold it to be 
 identical with the tumulus of Ilus, which is mentioned four times in 
 the Iliad. 
 
 Proceeding now to the history of the researches made in these tumuli 
 of the Troad, generally called " Heroic Tombs," I must begin with that of 
 Ajax, as according to tradition it was first opened, not indeed by the hands 
 of men, but by the waves of the sea. 
 
 1 This tumulus, like all the other tumuli, is indicated on the> Map of the Plain of Troy. 
 
 2 Marked on the map Pasha Tepeh or Tumulus of Batieia. 
 
652 
 
 THE HEROIC TUMULI IN THE TKOAD. 
 
 [Chap. XII. 
 
 1. The Tumulus of Ajax. — As before mentioned, the tumulus on the 
 shore of the Hellespont, 600 yds. to the north of the conical hill now 
 universally attributed to Ajax, and called In Tepeh, has had the honour to 
 be indicated by tradition as the original tomb of that hero. According 
 to the legend related by Pausanias, that side of the tumulus which faced 
 the shore having been washed away by the sea, the entrance to the 
 tomb was rendered easy ; the corpse was found to be of so gigantic a 
 size that the bones at the knees, called knee-pans ('patellae) by anatomists, 
 were of about the size of the quoit (discus) of a boy who exercises himself 
 in the pentathlon? This legend is confirmed by Philostratus, who says 
 that, the tumulus of Ajax having been destroyed by the sea, his bones 
 had come to light, denoting a man 11 cubits long, and that Hadrian, 
 on his visit to Troy, embraced and kissed them, and erected over them 
 the present tumulus, now called In Tepeh, in honour of Ajax. 4 Accord- 
 ing to M. Burnouf's measurement, the height of this tumulus of In 
 Tepeh above the sea is 131 ft. Strabo also confirms the fact that in 
 his time the tomb of Ajax was on the shallow sea- shore, for he writes : 
 " Hereupon (after Ophrynium) follows the city of Ehoeteum on a hill, and, 
 adjoining Ehoeteum, the shallow sea-shore, on which is the tomb and the 
 temple of Ajax, as well as his statue, which was taken away by Marcus 
 Antonius and carried to Egypt ; but Caesar Augustus returned it to the 
 Ehoeteans." 5 Strabo's statement is confirmed by Lucan 6 (38-65 a.d.), 
 who praises the beauty of the statue of Ajax. 
 
 It appears incredible indeed that all the archaeologists who cite the 
 passage of Philostratus have thought the word irepiapfxo^eiv meant 
 " restore," and have therefore understood that Hadrian merely restored 
 the tomb and the temple, whereas rd^ov irepiap^ot^iv tivi can never have 
 meant anything else than " erect a tomb to some one." Strange to say, 
 even no less an authority than Carl Grotthold Lenz, 7 one of the greatest 
 philologists and Homeric scholars that ever lived, has fallen into this 
 wonderful error. 
 
 We shall not attempt to investigate whether the corpse found in the 
 low tumulus on the sea-shore was that of Ajax or not ; at all events, it 
 appears certain that a corpse was found there, and that Hadrian brought 
 it to the spur of the heights of Ehoeteum, now called In Tepeh, and built a 
 small sanctuary over it, which he covered up with a high conical tumulus ; 
 and no doubt in such a manner that nothing of it was visible at the top of 
 
 3 Pausanias, i. 35, § 3 : tov yap rdcpov ra irphs 
 tov alyia\hv t(paaKev iiriKhvcrai tt]v 6d\aacrav, 
 Kai T7]u eaofiov 4s to jxvr\jxa ob x^Xeir^u iroirjo-ai, 
 Ka'i fj.c tov veKpov Th /x4ye9os TSK/xaip€a8ai T7?8e 
 ifce\eve • irevTaOAov yap iraib'hs elval ol Kara 
 S'lctkov ixd\io~Ta to. eirl to7s yovaaiv oara, Ka\ov- 
 fxcvas 8e virh tuv laTpcov fxvAas. 
 
 4 Phiiostv. Herdica, p. 137, ed. Kayser : 
 "AKOve Si} • irdmros tfv /j.oi, |eVe, iroKXa twv 
 aiTLa'Tovfxeucou virh cov yiyv&crKcav, bs eAeye 
 Sia(p6apriuat (xev iroTe Th tov AtavTos arj/xa virh 
 tt)s 6a\do~o~r]S, irphs fj /ceiYcu, octS 8e eV outw 
 <pav?ii/ai Kara eydeKxirrixvi' ai/Opwirov, Ka\ e(paaK€U 
 
 'Adpiavhv fiaaiAea irepio-T€?\ai avTa is Tpoiav 
 i\QovTa Kai tov vvvl Ta<po> ircpiapixSaai t$ 
 KXavTi eaTiv a Kai irpoairTv^d/JLevov twv octtuv 
 kol (piXrjaavTa. 
 
 5 Strabo, xiii. p. 595 : Elra 'Po'iTeiov ir6\is eirl 
 \6<po) Ktifxevri Kai t$ 'PotTety avvexhs yuv 
 aXiTevrjs, icf? rj fivr)/J.a Kai Uphv htavios Kai 
 avSpids, bv apavros 'Avraivlov KO/xiaOevTa ei$ 
 AiyviTTOv airedcoKe rots 'Poneievcri iraAiv, Kaddirep 
 Kai dWois, b 2e/3c«rT(\s Kalaap. 
 
 6 Pharsalia, ix. 961-979. 
 
 7 See C. G. Lenz, Vie Ebene von Troja ; Neu 
 Strelitz, 1798, p. 76 
 
Chap. XII.] IN TEPEH : THE TOMB OF AJAX. 653 
 
 the mound. The base of this building was circular, and was, as Choiseul- 
 Gouffier reports, consolidated by a number of curved Trails built within 
 the circle, and adapted to support the weight of the edifice. There 
 
 No. 
 
 1512. Tumulus of In Tepeh, called the Tomb of Ajax, with the Ruins of his Temple built by Hadrian. 
 
 appears to have been no other entrance than by a circular passage 
 vaulted all round, 3J ft. in diameter. This passage is still well preserved, 
 but the foundations of the temple, which probably consisted of large 
 wrought stones, were in 1770 partly taken out by a Turkish officer, 8 
 who used the materials for building a bridge. Visitors will find m and 
 close to the tumulus large massive blocks of masonry, consisting of 
 small stones joined with chalk. There is every probability that the early 
 Christians who, in their pious zeal, destroyed so many temples and works 
 of art, also destroyed the temple and statue of Ajax, but this could not of 
 course be done without partly demolishing the tumulus. The Turkish 
 officer, therefore, who in 1770 removed the foundations of the temple, 
 only completed the destruction begun probably 1400 years before. On 
 the right bank of the In Tepeh Asmak, close to the shore, visitors will 
 see a large mutilated marble statue, which may perhaps be identical 
 with the statue of Ajax. The sea is 10 ft. lower than the base of the 
 primitive tumulus of Ajax ; but in strong southerly storms the mound is 
 nevertheless flooded, and it is therefore very probable that it may have 
 been washed away by the waves. What now remains of it is not more 
 than 3 ft. 4 in. above the surface, and consists of pebbles with a large 
 number of fragments of marble sculptures. I sank a shaft in the mound, 
 but struck the rock at a depth of 8 ft. 4 in., and found nothing but 
 pebbles and some large bones identified by Professor Yirchow as horse- 
 bones. There is no trace of a temple. 
 
 8 SeeC. G. Lenz, Die Ebene von Troja, nach dern Grafen Choiseul-Gouffier ; Keu Strelitz, 1798, 
 p. 77. 
 
654 THE HEROIC TUMULI IN THE TROAD. [Chap. XII. 
 
 2. The Tumulus of Achilles. — The second tumulus in succession, called 
 that of Achilles, was explored in 1786 by a Jew, by order and on account 
 of Choiseul-Gouffier, who was at that time French Ambassador at Con- 
 
 Ho 1513. Tumulus called the Tomb of Achilles. 
 
 stantinople. A shaft was sunk from the top, 9 and the virgin soil was 
 reached at a depth of 29 ft. The upper part of the conical tumulus was 
 found to consist of well-beaten clay to the depth of 6 ft. ; then followed a 
 compact layer of stones and clay, 2 ft. deep ; a third stratum consisted of 
 earth mixed with sand; a fourth of very fine sand. In the centre was 
 found a small cavity, 4 ft. in length and breadth, formed of masonry, and 
 covered with a flat stone, which had broken under the weight pressing 
 upon it. In the cavity were found charcoal, ashes impregnated with fat, 
 fragments of pottery exactly similar to the Etruscan, several bones, easy 
 to distinguish, among which was a tibia, and the fragment of a skull ; 
 also fragments of an iron sword ; and a bronze figure seated on a chariot 
 with horses. Several of the clay vases were much burnt and vitrified, 
 whereas all the painted vessels were unhurt. This is an abstract of the 
 account given of the excavations by Choiseul-Gouffier. 10 But, as no man 
 of experience or worthy of confidence was present at the excavation, 
 scholars seem to have distrusted the account from the first, and to have 
 thought that the Jew, in order to obtain a good reward, had procured 
 and prepared beforehand all the objects he pretended to have found in the 
 tumulus. And all the experience we have now gathered by the explora- 
 tion of so many similar tumuli is fatal to the Jew's account of his dis- 
 coveries. As I felt assured that the fragments of pottery contained in the 
 tumulus would give me the key to its date, I was very anxious to explore 
 
 9 See C. G. Lenz, Die Ebene von Troja, nach dem Graf ox Choiseul-Gouffier ; Neu Strelitz, 1798, 
 p. 64. 10 Ibid. pp. 60-62. 
 
Chap. XII.] 
 
 TOMBS OF ACHILLES AND PBIAM. 
 
 655 
 
 it ; but as the owner of the land, a Turk in Koum Kaleh, would not give 
 me the permission to sink a shaft in it without receiving beforehand a 
 reward of £100, I abstained from doing so. 
 
 That this tumulus was considered in the historical times of antiquity 
 as the sepulchre of Achilles, is evident from Pliny (H. N. v. 33) and 
 Quintus Smyrnaeus (vii. 402), both of whom place it on the left bank of 
 the Scamander. That Homer knew, from his own eyesight, the tumulus 
 which in his time was considered as the common tomb of Achilles and 
 Patroclus, or at least that he had a particular tumulus in view which he 
 attributes in common to both heroes, appears evident from the verses in 
 which he makes Achilles direct the Greeks to heap up for Patroclus 
 a small tumulus, and to make it larger and higher after his own death. 1 
 This is also confirmed by the passage in which Patroclus appears to 
 Achilles in his dream, and begs him not to put his bones apart from his 
 own, 2 but to erect a tumulus over the bones of both. 3 I call attention 
 to the word aopos (an aira^ elprj/jievov), used in the latter verse for the 
 
 USUal GTjjJLCL. 
 
 3. The next tumulus excavated was that which is situated on the 
 height above Ken Kioi. It was explored by the late Mr. Frederick Calvert, 
 who ascertained that it was an artificial mound, but found neither bones, 
 nor ashes, nor objects of human industry in it. 
 
 4. The Tumulus of Priam. — The fourth tumulus was excavated by 
 Mr. Frank Calvert, who gives the following account of it : 4 — " According 
 to the description of Forchhammer, three of the four tumuli before 
 Gergis are situated on the summit of the rocky eminence, the Bali Dagh, 
 a little distance outside the thick wall which separates them from the 
 Acropolis ; and by the side of each is a deep pit, apparently artificial. 
 The fourth is on the same ridge, more to the west. He is not altogether 
 correct, however, in stating that their materials are all derived from 
 the natural rock on which they stand, for on3 of them alone is entirely 
 so ; namely, the one correctly so described by Lechevalier, and which he 
 names the tomb of Hector. The largest of the other mounds, supposed 
 to be the tomb of Priam, 5 was the one I decided on excavating. It is 
 about 13 ft. in height, and, cropping out on the summit, traces of a 
 quadrangular building were visible. I caused an open shaft to be com- 
 menced at the base of the mound, and it was carried along the surface 
 of the natural rock through a mixture of earth and stones, as far as 
 the masonry in the centre, which rested upon the rock. This structure 
 I found to be, as at the top, square in form, and measuring about 14 ft. 
 by 12. It is formed of large irregular stones, roughly hewn on the 
 outward faces alone, and put together without cement. The space in 
 the interior is filled in with small loose stones. A few casual potsherds 
 
 1 XI. xxiii. 245-248 : 
 
 TV/J.&OV 8' ov /j.d\a TroAAbv eyco iroveeaOai &v(aya, 
 aAA.' 4irietKea rolov. erreira 8e /ecu rbu 'Axaioi 
 tvpvu 0' v^y]Kou re ridr]fj.€uai, 01 Kev e^ieto 
 
 2 II. xxiii. 69-90. 
 
 3 77. xxiii. 91 : 
 
 cos 8e nai darea vooiv dfir] aopbs a/j.<piKa.\virToi . . . 
 
 4 Contributions towards the Ancient Gcojraphy 
 of the Troad, p. 2. 
 
 5 Remarks and Observations on the Plain of 
 Troy, by W. Franklin, p. 19 ; Walpole's Travels, i. 
 p. 108. 
 
656 
 
 THE HEROIC TUMULI IN THE TROAD. 
 
 [Chap. XII. 
 
 were thrown out during the excavations, but nothing was found to 
 indicate that this mound had been used as a place of sepulture. It 
 appears rather to have served as a base to some statue or public monu- 
 ment, or, as Dr. Hunt remarks, as a foundation to some altar or shrine." 6 
 
 5. The fifth tumulus explored, likewise by Mr. Frank Calvert, was the 
 conical mound below Yeni Shehr, the so-called Tumulus of Patroclus. 
 He sank an open shaft in it and dug down in the centre to the virgin soil, 
 but found here also neither bones nor ashes nor anything else. Homer 
 says of the cenotaph of Patroclus : 
 
 ropvwaavTO Se arj/na, defxt'iAid re irpofSdhovro . . . 7 
 
 which means, " they traced out the circle for the tumulus, and encom- 
 passed it with foundation-stones." This passage leads us naturally to 
 expect to find at least one circle of stones in or around this and the other 
 tumuli ; but nothing of the kind has been found in any one of the tumuli 
 hitherto excavated. 
 
 6. The Tumulus of Hector. — In October 1872 this tumulus, already 
 mentioned as on the Bali Dagh, was excavated by my honoured friend 
 Sir John Lubbock. It consists entirely of small stones, and was, probably 
 for this reason, attributed by Lechevalier to Hector. But there were 
 found in it neither bones nor charcoal nor any traces of the destination of 
 this tumulus for a funeral mound. 
 
 7. The Pasha Tepeh. — The seventh tumulus, called Pasha Tepeh, was 
 excavated in the beginning of May 1873 by Mrs. Sophia Schliemann. 
 As I have said in the preceding pages, there can hardly be any doubt 
 regarding the identity of this tumulus with the mound held by Strabo 
 to be the tomb of Aesyetes, mentioned by Homer, 8 for Strabo says that 
 it was situated at a distance of 5 stadia from Novum Ilium on the road 
 to Alexandria-Troas. 9 But Alexandria-Troas lay to the south-west of 
 Ilium, and the road to it, which is distinctly marked by the ford of the 
 Scamander at its entrance into the valley, goes direct south as far as 
 Bounarbashi. Now, Pasha Tepeh is exactly at a distance of 1017 yds. to 
 the south of the southern wall of Novum Ilium, and therefore its situation 
 answers perfectly to Strabo's indication, and even the road close to which it 
 lies is most probably identical with the road of which Strabo speaks. But 
 the identity of this tumulus with the tomb of Aesyetes is quite out of the 
 question, for, according to the above Homeric passage, Priam's son Polites 
 was watching on the tumulus of Aesyetes when the Achaeans should rush 
 forth from the ships, and it must therefore have been situated to the 
 north of Ilium, between the city and the Hellespont, probably about Koum 
 Kioi. If, therefore, Demetrius of Scepsis and Strabo, who adopted his 
 theory, pretended that Pasha Tepeh was identical with the tumulus of 
 Aesyetes, it was merely to uphold their impossible theory that Troy had 
 been situated on the site of 'lXtecov Kw/xt). 
 
 But Pasha Tepeh being in front of Ilium and to the side of the Plain, 
 
 6 Wal pole's Travels, i. p. 108. 
 
 8 11. ii. 791-794, already quoted at p. 147. 
 
 7 H. xxiii. 255. 
 
 9 Strabo, xiii. p. 599. 
 
Chap. XII.] 
 
 PASHA TEPEH: TOMB OF BATIEIA. 
 
 G57 
 
 its position corresponds perfectly with the indications which Homer 10 
 gives us of the position of the monument held by the gods to be the 
 tumulus of Myrine, whereas men believed it to be the sepulchre of 
 Batieia, and there can hardly be any doubt that the poet, in describing 
 this tomb to us, had Pasha Tepeh in view. 
 
 We have seen that Batieia, or Bateia, was the daughter of Teucer, son 
 of the Scamander and the nymph Idaea, and the queen of Dardanus. 
 Myrine, to whom the tumulus was ascribed by the gods, was one of the 
 
 77. ii. 811-814: rrjv i] toi duSpes BarUiav KiicXricrKOvaiv, 
 
 ecTt 5e tis irpoirdpoiQe iroAios cuVem KoXccvrj, addvaroi 5e T6 art/na iroAvaKapd/xoio MvpivT]s' 
 
 eV TreStw airdt'evde, irepiSpo/xos evOa tea) tvQa, 
 
658 
 
 THE HEROIC TUMULI IN THE TROAD. 
 
 [Chap. XII. 
 
 Amazons who undertook a campaign against Troy. 1 I remind the reader 
 that, according to Professor Sayce, Myrine is identical with Smyrna, 
 which was a name of Artemis-Cybele, the Amazons having been in the 
 first instance the priestesses of this Asiatic goddess. 
 
 Mrs. Schliemann sank from the top a shaft 10J ft. broad and 17^ ft. 
 long, and found that the layer of vegetable soil is scarcely more than 
 £ of an inch thick ; then follows brown earth as hard as stone, which 
 alternates with strata of calcareous earth. At a depth of 15 ft. the white 
 limestone rock was struck. No ashes or charcoal were found, much less 
 the bones of a burnt corpse. That Mrs. Schliemann could have missed the 
 traces of a funeral pyre, if such had really existed, is inconceivable, when 
 we consider the size of the perpendicular cutting. There were found in 
 the brown earth some fragments of hand-made pottery similar to that of 
 the third, the burnt city of Hissarlik, which led me to ascribe a similar 
 age to the mound. But, after the winter rains had widened the shaft 
 and brought to light more pottery, I found there also very common 
 archaic Greek potsherds, which made me at first doubt of the great 
 antiquity of this tumulus. But having carefully compared them with the 
 common archaic pottery found in the lowest stratum of Novum Ilium, 
 as well as with the. archaic- pottery found in my excavations in Ithaca, 
 I no longer hesitate to attribute to them a high antiquity, although 
 their age does not, of course, come up to that of even the latest pre- 
 historic city of Hissarlik. I therefore find in the pottery no obstacle 
 to my theory that this tumulus existed at the time of Homer, and that it 
 gave him the idea for the sepulchre of Queen Batieia or the Amazon Myrine- 
 As for the fragments of pre-historic pottery contained in the tumulus, 
 they were no doubt lying on or in the ground with which it was heaped up. 
 
 8. Tumulus of Ujek Tepeh. — Although my honoured friend Sir Austen 
 Henry Layard had already in January 1879 obtained for me permission 
 to explore the remaining tumuli of the Troad, there yet remained a 
 thousand difficulties to overcome. But by the kind endeavours of Mr. 
 E. Malet, Minister Plenipotentiary during Sir A. H. Layard's absence, 
 and of Count Hatzfeldt, the German Ambassador at Constantinople, who 
 assisted me at the request of Professor Virchow, I obtained my firman on 
 the 17th of April, and began on the following morning to sink shafts on 
 the summits of the gigantic tumuli of Ujek Tepeh and Besika Tepeh. 
 
 Ujek is the pure Turkish word jJI^^j which means " fireside." The 
 
 tumulus is, according to M. Burnouf's measurement, 213 ft. high above 
 the sea, and it has obtained its name from the strange fact that (probably 
 from a confusion of the name Ilus with Elias) it is regarded as the 
 sepulchre of the prophet Elias by the inhabitants of the Troad, who 
 go thither on pilgrimage on the festival of that saint, on the 1st of 
 August, to pray to him and to light fires on the top of the tumulus in 
 his honour. Such fires must have been kindled there by the Christians for 
 many centuries, for down to a depth of 2 ft. 2 in. I found nothing but 
 yellow wood-ashes mixed with fragments of uninteresting modern pottery. 
 
 1 //. iii. 189, 190 ; Strabo, xii. p. 573. 
 
Chap. XII.] 
 
 EXCAVATION OF UJEK TEPEH. 
 
 659 
 
 I began my excavations by sinking a shaft 10 ft. square. I worked 
 during the first two days with picks and shovels only, with which latter 
 I threw out the earth from the shaft ; but the next two days I had to 
 
 employ baskets, and, when the depth of the shaft had reached 13 ft., to 
 erect a wooden triangle (called by builders shear-legs), by means of which 
 the earth was drawn out in baskets with windlasses. In the accompanying 
 engraving, No. 1515, this tumulus is represented from the north side, 
 
660 
 
 THE HEROIC TUMULI IN THE TROAD. [Chap. XII. 
 
 which has, according to M. Burnoufs measurement, a perpendicular 
 height of 68 ft. 6 in. ; its greatest height of 83 ft. is on the east side, its 
 lowest of 53ft. Sin. on the west side. Another engraving, No. 1516, 
 
 No. 1516. The Scamander below the confluence of the Thymbrius ; in the background the Tumulus of Ujek Tcpeh. 
 
 represents the tumulus of Ujek Tepet as seen from the confluence of the 
 Scamander and Thymbrius. 
 
 The excavations of both Ujek Tepeh and Besika Tepeh were conducted 
 by my able engineer Mr. M. Gorkiewicz. The first day I could only work 
 the shaft in Ujek Tepeh with four labourers, but I had to increase the 
 number daily as we went deeper, until I had twelve workmen, which 
 remained the number of hands in the shaft to the end. 2 
 
 I struck, at a depth of 2 ft. 8 in. below the summit, a wall which 
 consists alternately of roughly-hewn stones, large and small, from 1 ft. 
 to 3 ft. long and from 8 in. to 1 ft. 6 in. thick, cemented with a quantity 
 of clay ; and, as visitors will see, by a most lucky chance this wall was 
 discovered exactly on the west side of my shaft, so that it was no obstacle 
 to me. Its direction is from north to south. Having dug through the 
 layer of ashes, I struck alternately layers of coarse yellow, brown, or 
 whitish clay, which are intersected at intervals of from 4 to 5 ft. by 
 horizontal strata of un wrought stones ; and these could not, in my opinion, 
 have been put there for any other purpose than to consolidate the 
 tumulus. On reaching a depth of 6 ft., I found that my shaft had been 
 commenced on too large a scale, and I therefore narrowed it to 6 J ft. 
 square. To avoid fatal accidents I supported the four sides of the shaft 
 vertically as well as horizontally with large beams and thick planks, 
 which were carefully nailed together. Nevertheless there was always 
 some danger, particularly for the workmen who worked in the shaft, and 
 who always had to be hoisted in and out by the rope of the windlass. 
 I therefore paid somewhat higher wages to those who worked the windlass 
 above, and double wages to those who worked below. No Greek workman 
 in the Troad ever works on a Sunday or on any of the numerous other 
 
 2 The following description is illustrated by Plans V. and VI. at the end of the volume; the 
 former giving a Plan and the latter a Section of the subterranean buildings within the tumulus. 
 
Chap. XII.] 
 
 DIFFICULTIES OF THE EXCAVATION. 
 
 661 
 
 Greek holidays ; but by paying 5 francs to each man who worked on 
 those days, I got them to overcome all their scruples, and always had most 
 assiduous labourers. Thus in four weeks' time I reached, at a depth of 
 46 ft. 4 in., the virgin soil, consisting of very hard yellow clay mixed with 
 stones. As will be seen from the plan of the excavation (Plans Y. and VI.), 
 the large wall on the west side of my shaft is only 11 • 80 metres = 
 39 ft. 4 in. high, and reaches down to a depth of 42 ft. below the sur- 
 face ; consequently, it was not built on the virgin soil, but 4 ft. 4 in. 
 above it. By comparing these figures with the height of the tumulus 
 as given above, the reader will see that the mound was erected on a 
 natural hill. 
 
 Simultaneously with this shaft, I dug into the mound from the north 
 side, at a perpendicular depth of 66 ft. 8 in. below the summit, a tunnel 
 6 ft. 8 in. high, 5 ft. 4 in. broad below and 4 ft. 4 in. above ; and I made 
 it vaulted, in order to lessen the danger for my workmen. Owing to the 
 narrowness of the tunnel, there was only room in it for three men, of 
 whom two worked with picks, whilst the third carried out the earth in a 
 wheelbarrow. 
 
 I did not begin the tunnel lower down, owing to the rising ground on 
 the west side of the tumulus, which made me afraid that I should strike 
 the natural soil. The earth being as hard as stone, and the tunnel being 
 so narrow, I could not work in it with my usual pick-axes, and had to 
 have a dozen steel picks half their size made in haste, one end of which 
 was pointed and the other 2-3rds in. broad and very sharp. When I 
 had penetrated 29 ft. horizontally into the mound, I came upon the virgin 
 soil, consisting of a yellowish sandy clay and stones. It was covered to 
 the depth of 1 ft. 7 in. with a layer of humus, which was no doubt on 
 the surface when the tumulus was built. This humus was covered, from 
 1 ft. 2 in. to 1 ft. 4 in. deep, by a layer of brown clay, succeeded by 
 another thin layer of black earth. This latter was followed by a thin 
 layer of white clay, on which again lay a stratum of humus ; then 
 followed again a layer of brownish clay, 3 ft. thick. I now at once 
 ordered the tunnel to be raised Qh ft. ; and as, in digging further into 
 the mound, I nevertheless again struck the virgin soil, I was obliged to 
 raise the tunnel 3.V ft. higher, and then to follow the ascending slope of 
 the natural soil in the direction of my shaft, which I at last reached 
 after a month's very hard labour. 
 
 The layers of brown, yellow, or white clay succeeded each other 
 continually as I worked on. Visitors will see that their thickness varies, 
 which is natural, for the earth was of course brought gradually from 
 many different places when the mound was heaped up. Fortunately I had 
 no need to support the sides or the roof of the tunnel with wooden 
 beams and planks ; for the soil being, as already mentioned, as hard as 
 stone, there was not the slightest danger to my workmen. But the heat 
 in the narrow tunnel was very great, and it was increased by the petroleum 
 lamps; besides, the work being very heavy, I was obliged to pay the 
 workmen 5 francs a head daily. Great was our joy when at last the 
 bottom of the shaft was reached, and a cool draught of air was established 
 
662 
 
 THE HEROIC TUMULI IN THE TROAD. [Chap. XII. 
 
 through the tunnel. The event was celebrated by my workmen with 13 
 okes (32 J bottles) of wine and two roasted sheep, which I had given them 
 on the occasion. The tunnel is 96 ft. 8 in. long. By digging galleries to 
 the right and left at the bottom of the shaft, I found that the great wall 
 formed the east side of a gigantic quadrangular mass of masonry, a spe- 
 cies of tower, 15 ft. square ; its height being, as already stated, 39 ft. 4 in. 
 I further ascertained that it had been founded directly above a circular 
 enclosure, 4 ft. 4 in. high, consisting of well-cut polygons, from lj to 2 J ft. 
 long, 1 ft. 2 in. broad, and 2 \ ft. thick, which are so admirably fitted 
 together that the whole enclosure appears to consist of one single block ; 
 its diameter being 34 ft. As will be seen on the plan and section of 
 Ujek Tepeh (Plans V. and VI.), on the north-west side of this circle 
 another wall leans against it, which also forms a curve, but of a greater 
 radius. It is of the same height, and consists of rather small quad- 
 rangular wrought stones, joined together without any binding material. 
 Having cut a gallery into the massive square structure, I found in its 
 midst, and 6 ft. above its base, a quadrangular cavity, 3 ft. square and 5 ft. 
 high, 3 filled with fine earth, which must in the course of ages have pene- 
 trated through the fissures between the stones. From this cavity I cut 
 a vertical shaft through the masonry down to the virgin soil, without 
 finding anything else than some fragments of pottery, among which late 
 Roman potsherds are conspicuous, and also an iron knife. I also dug 
 galleries above the two circular walls, and was by these means enabled 
 to sink vertical shafts into the circular enclosures. From one of the 
 shafts I also dug a tunnel, and joined it to the shaft sunk in the midst 
 of the massive quadrangular tower ; but everywhere I obtained the same 
 result — some fragments of iron implements and pottery of various epochs, 
 among which late Eoman pottery is the most abundant. The very 
 same result had been obtained in the large vertical shaft, as well as in 
 the large tunnel. 
 
 How difficult it is to dig tunnels in the midst of a huge mound, from 
 these again to sink shafts, and to dig tunnels again from the bottom of 
 these shafts, he who has been an eye-witness of such an undertaking can 
 alone understand. 
 
 In the opinion of M. Burnouf and my own, the circular enclosure of 
 polygonal stones, over which the quadrangular tower is built, can have 
 been nothing else than a sacred shrine, and must probably have been built 
 a considerable time before the superincumbent structure and the tumulus 
 were erected. He thinks with me that it is of the Macedonian age, or 
 perhaps of the fifth century b.c. ; for as the polygons have been worked 
 with iron pick-hammers, we do not feel ourselves authorized to attribute 
 to it a higher antiquity. Professor Sayce finds the masonry of the 
 circular enclosure to be distinctively Macedonian, and does not think it 
 can possibly be older. 
 
 Considering all this, and bearing in mind that history knows only of 
 one single tumulus having been erected here, I do not hesitate to assert 
 
 3 See on Plan VI. 
 
Chap. XII.] 
 
 UJEK TEPEH THE CENOTAPH OF FESTUS. 
 
 663 
 
 that this must necessarily he that very historical monument ; namely, 
 the tumulus which, according to Herodian, the Emperor Caracalla (211- 
 216 a.d.) erected in honour of his most intimate friend Festus, whom 
 some believed he had poisoned merely to provide his Patroclus, in order 
 to imitate the funeral celebrated by Achilles to his friend, 4 which Homer 
 describes with so much beauty and precision in the twenty-third book 
 of the Iliad. 
 
 The tumulus of Patroclus was, as we have seen above, a mere 
 cenotaph ; it is therefore obvious that the tumulus of Festus could be 
 nothing else than a cenotaph, because the funeral rites detailed by Homer 
 were, of course, scrupulously observed by Caracalla. The identity of this 
 tumulus with that of Festus is confirmed by its gigantic proportions ; for 
 a vain fool like Caracalla, who aped the manners of Alexander the Great, 
 and in cold blood murdered his dearest friend in order to imitate Achilles, 
 could not but erect a funeral mound far exceeding in magnitude all the 
 other tumuli of the Troad. 
 
 Of a funeral fire no trace was found either at the bottom of the tower 
 or elsewhere in the tumulus. We may therefore consider it as certain 
 that the corpse of Festus was not burnt on this very spot. But pro- 
 bably it was burnt close by. If Caracalla built the cenotaph right 
 upon the open sanctuary which the two circular enclosures seem to 
 indicate, it may probably have been in order to impart a greater solemnity 
 to his farce. 
 
 To many of the fragments of terra-cottas found in this tumulus I would 
 not hesitate to assign the date of the fifth, to some of them even of the 
 sixth or the seventh century b.c. ; but it is not to them, but to the 
 abundant late Koman potsherds, that we must look for the key to the date 
 of the monument, for this may be at any time later, but it cannot possibly 
 be older, than the latest pottery found at its bottom. With regard to the 
 great quadrangular tower, it is obvious that it was built for no other 
 purpose than to support the tumulus and to preserve it. All my tunnels, 
 shafts, and galleries in this tumulus remain open to visitors of the present 
 and all future generations, Sir Austen H. Layard having kindly obtained 
 for me permission to that effect from the Turkish Government. 
 
 Eegarding the quadrangular tower discovered by me in Ujek Tepeh, I 
 call the reader's attention to the similarity of this tumulus with the 
 so-called tumulus of Priam on the Bali Dagh, which, as I have just 
 mentioned, was excavated by Mr. Calvert, and in which also a quadran- 
 gular structure was discovered. 
 
 My honoured friend Dr. Arthur Milchhoefer, member of the German 
 Archaeological Institute in Athens, kindly calls my attention to the 
 
 4 Herodian, iv. 8, §§ 3-5 : cupiKOfxevos 8^ ewe?, 
 •:al is ocrov $0eAe ra>v bveipdroov ifx<popf\Qeis, 
 i]K€v is ^IXiov. iireXOcvv 8e irdvra rd tt)s woAews 
 Xeityava, r\K€v iirl tov 'A^tAAews rdcpov, cre- 
 (pdvois re KO(T(X''i](Ta.s KaX avQecri ttoXvt€Xu>s iraXiv 
 'AxtAAea i/xi/xeiTO, (rjrwv re KaX YldrpoKXov riva 
 iirolrjari tl toiovtov. ?jp ai/rcp ris twv aireXev- 
 Bepwv (p'tXraros, $rj<TTOS /xev uvofxa, rris 5e 
 
 fSaaiXzlov jxvi)[j.r\s irpoearas' ovtos ovtos avrov 
 iv 'IXlcf eVeAeuTTjo-ef, us jxiv rives eXeyov, 
 (papfxaKO} dvaipedeh "iv us UdrpoKXos racpfj, ws 
 5e 'irepoi e<pa<rKov, v6aw SicupOapels. tovtov 
 KOjxiadrtvai KtXevei rbv veKW, 1-vXwv re iroXXwv 
 b.9poiaQr\vcu irvpdv • iinOels re avrbv iv )x.4<rw Ka\ 
 iravToScnra ($a kolt clo~ (pd^as v<prityi re, Kai (pidXr]v 
 Xafiwv (nreVSwr re to?s avijxois evx^ro. 
 
664 
 
 THE HEROIC TUMULI IN THE TROAD. 
 
 [Chap. XII. 
 
 analogy which exists between the tumulus of Ujek Tepeh and the 
 Cucumella at Yulci in Etruria, of which he gives me the following 
 details : — 
 
 " The Cucumella is a tumulus now between 40 and 50 ft. high by about 
 200 ft. in diameter at the base. It was first explored in 1829 by the 
 Prince of Canino, the proprietor of the land. The tumulus was surrounded 
 by a wall of large blocks which is now destroyed, and on which, according 
 to all analogy, must have stood the sculptures of sphinxes and lions, of 
 which several have been found outside. Beneath the wall were found 
 some unimportant tombs, which, in the opinion of Mr. Dennis, 5 belong to 
 servants and slaves. Towards the middle of the tumulus two towers were 
 struck, about 40 ft. high ; one quadrangular, the other conical ; which are 
 distinguished from everything else of the kind by their careless and 
 irregular masonry. But Micali 6 observes that the conical tower consists 
 of better and larger materials than the other. These towers have, it 
 is asserted, no visible entrance, though an entrance is indicated in the 
 drawing given by Micali. 7 
 
 " Lenoir 8 has already called attention to the tumulus of Alyattes in 
 Lydia, which, according to Herodotus, 9 had on its summit five conical 
 pillars (like the tomb of Porsena, near Chiusi, and the so-called ' tomb of 
 the Horatii and the Curiatii,' near Albano), and he draws from this the 
 conclusion that the towers had been erected in the tumulus of Cucumella 
 to support five similar pillars. 
 
 " Of the further discoveries of the Prince of Canino, besides Ed. 
 Gerhard, 1 Mr. Dennis says : ' At the foot of these towers is now a shape- 
 less hollow; but here were found two small chambers constructed of 
 massive regular masonry, and with doorways of primitive style, arched 
 over by the gradual convergence of the horizontal courses. They were 
 approached by a long passage, leading directly into the heart of the 
 tumulus ; and here on the ground lay fragments of bronze and gold plates, 
 very thin, and adorned with ivy and myrtle leaves. Two stone sphinxes 
 stood guardians at the entrance of the passage.' 2 
 
 " It is a remarkable fact that the tomb of Porsena, at Clusium, the only 
 Etruscan tomb of which we have any record, bore a close affinity to the 
 only Lydian sepulchre described by the ancients (that of Alyattes), the 
 square merely taking the place of the circle ; for it is said to have had 
 ' five pyramids ' rising from a square base of masonry, one at each angle, 
 and one in the centre. 3 And the curious monument at Albano, vulgarly 
 called the tomb of the Horatii and Curiatii, has a square basement of 
 masonry, surmounted by four cones, and a cylindrical tower in the midst. 
 Five, indeed, seems to have been the established number of cones, pyra- 
 mids, or columnar cijvpi, on tombs of this description ; whence it has been 
 
 5 The Cities arid Cemeteries of Etruria, i. 
 p. 452. 
 
 6 Storia d' Ant. Pop. It. iii. p. 103. 
 
 7 Antichi Monumenti, G2. 1 ; see also the 
 sketch in the Monumenti of the Roman Insti- 
 tute, i. 41. 2. 
 
 8 Annali deW Institute, 1832, p. 272. 
 
 9 i. 93. 
 
 1 Bullet, dell' Inst. 1829, p. 51. 
 
 2 Dennis, op. cit. p. 453. 
 
 3 Varro, ap. Plin. 77. N. xxxvi. 19, § 4. 
 
Chap. XIL] 
 
 EXCAVATION OF BESIKA TEPEH. 
 
 665 
 
 suggested that three other towers are probably buried in the unexcavated 
 part of the Cucumella." 4 
 
 Dr. Milchhoefer adds that, on account of the sphinxes, we cannot 
 ascribe a later date than the fifth century B.C. to the Cucumella. " We 
 have," he says, " in these monuments a new proof of the ancient and 
 direct connection of Asiatic and Tyrrhenian culture. In Asia Minor, and 
 especially perhaps in the necropolis of Sardis, might be found the key to 
 the solution of many of these moot questions." 
 
 But the tumulus of Ujek Tepeh seems to have no affinity to any one 
 of these tombs. It was evidently copied by Caracalla from the other 
 tumuli of the Troad, and from the cenotaph of Patroclus as described by 
 Homer. The large size of the quadrangular tower erected just in the 
 centre, and the fact that no other masonry was found in my tunnel, prove 
 that this is the only tower in the tumulus, and that its sole object was to 
 consolidate the mound. 
 
 9. Tumulus of Besika Tepeh. — Simultaneously with the exploration of 
 Ujek Tepeh, I also investigated the Besika Tepeh, of which I have already 
 spoken. It is not mentioned by ancient writers, but some modern tra- 
 vellers have identified it with the sepulchre of Peneleos. 5 This tumulus is, 
 according to M. Burnouf's measurement, 141 ft. high above the sea, 48 ft. 
 3 in. in height, and 266 ft. in diameter at its base. Here also I sank from 
 the summit of the tumulus a shaft 6 J ft. square, and began at the same 
 time to dig a tunnel into the mound from the north side. But I gave up 
 this tunnel after a few days, and limited myself to the sinking of the 
 shaft. The earth being very loose, I had constantly to support all the 
 four sides of the shaft, both vertically and horizontally, with beams and 
 planks, in order to avoid accidents. Just as in Ujek Tepeh, I worked here 
 at first with picks and shovels, throwing out the earth on the sides of the 
 mound. But when the depth of the shaft exceeded 6 ft., I had the earth 
 lifted out with baskets, and, when this could no longer be done, I made 
 a wooden triangle of beams over the shaft, and had the earth removed in 
 baskets with windlasses, three men being always occupied at the bottom 
 of the shaft in digging and filling the basket. I began with seven 
 workmen, but had to increase their number gradually to ten. The danger 
 from the loose earth being here still greater than in the Ujek Tepeh, 
 I had to pay as high wages as at the latter tumulus. As in that case, the 
 earth which was brought up was thrown all round the summit, in order to 
 avoid disfiguring the mound. I struck from time to time layers of large 
 stones, which can have had no other purpose than to consolidate the 
 tumulus. In a great many places these stones may be seer) peeping out 
 from the slope of the mound. 
 
 After incessant labour for twenty-four days, my shaft, at a depth of 
 44 ft., reached the rock, which consists of limestone. M. Burnouf, who 
 carefully measured and investigated the different strata of earth in the 
 
 4 Ann. Inst. 1832, p. 273 — Lenoir. have been five." (Dennis, op. cit. i. pp. 453, 454.) 
 
 Dennis says : " I much doubt this. There may 5 Barker Webb, Topographic de la Troade, 
 
 be one or two more, but from the position of the p. 66. 
 disclosed towers in the mound there can hardly 
 
666 
 
 THE HEROIC TUMULI IN THE TROAD. 
 
 [Chap. XII. 
 
 shaft, found the rock covered with a layer of dark vegetable earth, which 
 was probably there when the tumulus was made : — 
 
 
 
 
 
 metres. 
 
 ft. 
 
 in. 
 
 1. 
 
 The thickness of this humus is 
 
 
 1-10 
 
 = 3 
 
 8 
 
 2. 
 
 
 
 70 
 
 = 2 
 
 4 
 
 3. 
 
 A stratum of dark earth 
 
 
 80 
 
 = 2 
 
 8 
 
 4. 
 
 Do. 
 
 stones and white earth 
 
 
 1-0 
 
 = 3 
 
 4 
 
 5. 
 
 Do. 
 
 vegetable earth 
 
 
 MO 
 
 = 3 
 
 8 
 
 6. 
 
 Do. 
 
 earth with yellow clay and stones .. 
 
 70 
 
 = 2 
 
 4 
 
 7. 
 
 Do. 
 
 do. do. do. 
 
 to the top 
 
 7-80 
 
 = 26 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 13-20 
 
 .. 44 
 
 
 
 From the depression of the soil at the foot of this tumulus, on the 
 north-east side, it is evident that all the clay and earth for making it has 
 been taken from that place. Further on, in a north-easterly and easterly 
 direction, the rock has evidently been artificially levelled for a distance of 
 about 200 yds. square, and most probably this little plateau has been the 
 site of the prehistoric city to which we are indebted for the strange 
 pottery found in the tumulus. 
 
 From the bottom of the shaft I excavated two galleries, which cross 
 each other, and of which each has a length of 18 ft. 4 in. The excavation 
 of these galleries was a very dangerous work, the earth being so loose and 
 full of huge stones, that I could not proceed a single foot without sup- 
 porting the roof and both sides of my underground passages with beams 
 and planks. Owing to the nature of the soil, I could use large picks here. 
 The debris, carried in baskets from the galleries into the central shaft, 
 were poured there into the large basket and drawn up by the windlass. 
 The most curious object I found was the fragment of a vase-bottom 
 
 Xo. 1517. Fragment of a Vase-bottom, with signs, found in the 
 Tumulus of Besika Tepeh. (Actual size. L'eptb, 43 ft.) 
 
 (No. 1517), with incised signs, filled up with white chalk, of which I sent 
 a copy to Prof. Sayce, who answered me : "I do not think it is a real 
 inscription, but it may possibly be a bad attempt to imitate a cuneiform 
 inscription seen by some one who did not understand the latter, like the 
 bad copies of Egyptian hieroglyphics made by the Phoenicians." 
 
Chap. XII.] 
 
 POTTERY OF THE BESIKA TEPEH. 
 
 667 
 
 In the layers of yellow clay I never found anything, whilst the layers 
 of dark earth, which appear to have been cut away from the surface of 
 the ground when the tumulus was made, contained large masses of frag- 
 ments of very coarse as well as of better pottery, of a red, brown, yellow, 
 or black colour, which has received a lustrous surface by hand-polishing : 
 all this pottery is hand-made. The coarse pottery, which is sometimes an 
 inch thick, is either quite unpolished or polished on one side, but seldom 
 on both. The largest of the vessels which the fragments of the rude 
 pottery denote, cannot have been higher than about 3 ft. They are some- 
 times ornamented with a projecting rope-like band round the neck and 
 a handle in the form of a rope. In general, these coarse vessels are 
 baked only to about one-third of the thickness of their clay, and 
 they far exceed in rudeness any pottery ever found by me in any one 
 of the five pre-historic cities of Hissarlik. But, strange to say, some 
 of them have a rude painted ornamentation of large black bands. 
 
 The fragments of the better pottery denote smaller vases, and the first 
 impression they make is certainly that they are similar to the pottery 
 of the second city of Hissarlik, and of the same make ; nay, some of them 
 appear at first sight to be similar even to the pottery of the first city. 
 But on close examination we find that they are vastly different ; for their 
 clay is coarser, and contains much more of the coarsely-crushed silicious 
 stone and syenite, with a far greater quantity of mica ; besides, the 
 pottery is evidently altogether different in shape and fabric. It is seldom 
 baked to more than half the thickness of the clay, and generally only to 
 one-third. Nevertheless, having been abundantly dipped in a wash of clay, 
 and having been evidently put twice to the fire, and polished both inside 
 and outside before each baking, the vases are generally smooth on both 
 sides ; but a vast number of them have only been polished on the outside, 
 and are rude and coarse on the inside. The vase-bottoms especially are 
 rude and bulky, all of them are flat, and in a very great number of cases 
 they have the impressions of the wicker-work of straw on which the vases 
 had been put after they had been modelled. On most of these vase- 
 bottoms the impression of the wicker-work is so perfect, that one might 
 count in them all the straws of which it was composed. Indeed, it 
 would appear that the impression of the wicker-work was made on 
 purpose to decorate the vase-bottoms. In a few cases the vase-bottoms 
 represent the impression of a wicker-work of rods. 
 
 The Besika pottery further differs from that of Hissarlik in the total 
 absence of perforated projections for suspension. Only two fragments with 
 a hole were found ; one of them belonging to a bowl, the other being the 
 fragment of a hollow wing-like handle, such as we see on the vases like 
 No. 180, p. 303. Two such wing-like handles were found, which prove 
 that vases similar to those represented under these numbers were in use. 
 There were also found two fragments of a red and a black vase, with a 
 rudely-incised linear decoration representing net-work, which had evi- 
 dently been made after the baking ; also two fragments with a concave 
 linear decoration ; whereas hundreds of other fragments were brought to 
 light, having a most curious painted decoration, which is for the most 
 
668 
 
 THE HEROIC TUMULI IN THE TEOAD. 
 
 [Chap. XII. 
 
 part of a floral kind, representing trees of brown colour on a light-yellow 
 dead ground, but so rudely made that one doubts after all if the primitive 
 artist intended to represent trees with their branches, or fish-spines. 
 Sometimes we see this floral decoration of a lustrous black, on a light- 
 yellow dead ground ; and in such cases, all the rest of the vase being 
 of the same uniform lustrous black colour, I cannot but think that the 
 decoration must have been produced without paint, and merely by a 
 polishing stone. Sometimes we see on the vases a number of parallel 
 black bands, between which the painted tree or herring-bone decoration 
 proceeds alternately in opposite directions. At other times we see a 
 decoration of painted brown bands, vertical or horizontal, on a light-red 
 dead ground. But it must be well understood that the decoration is, in 
 the case of the vases or jugs, always on the outside, in that of the bowls 
 on the inside. There are also bowls which are on the outside of a lustrous 
 black, on the inside partly of a lustrous dark-red, partly of a light-red, 
 and decorated with dark-red bands, with the tree or herring-bone orna- 
 mentation described above. We also frequently see on the outside, both 
 of the vases and bowls, which are of a light -brown or dark-red colour, 
 very curious black signs, resembling written characters ; but they are so 
 indistinct that I believe them to have been painted with black clay. The 
 same is no doubt the case with the painted floral or other decorations ; 
 they are too indistinct to be anything else than clay paint. The total 
 absence of the whorls and the tripod-vessels, which occur in such immense 
 numbers at Hissarlik, is astonishing. 
 
 The vase-handles of Besika Tepeh are usually plain, but there are some 
 with pointel projections. Of vessels with breast-like projections only two 
 fragments turned up ; one of them has the projection at the very rim. 
 
 But not all the pottery is hand-made. In carefully examining one by 
 one all the thousands of fragments, I found the fragments of two wheel- 
 made vases, which, as compared with any of the other fragments, are of 
 very fine clay, but the baking of both is but very slight. One of them is 
 grey, and is the lower part of a vase ; it is decorated with a hardly per- 
 ceptible painted black band, probably of clay colour : the other, though 
 of the same colour, is covered on the outside with a whitish clay, which 
 gives it the appearance of Egyptian porcelain. 
 
 If, at the risk of wearying the reader, I have given a detailed 
 account of the Besika Tepeh pottery, it is because it is of capital interest 
 to archaeology, no similar pottery having ever come under my notice 
 elsewhere. All this pottery must have been lying on the north-east side 
 of the tumulus, on or in the soil with which the latter was made. Here, 
 therefore, was a town or village, which no doubt extended much further 
 still to the north-east and east, for, as I have before stated, the projecting 
 rock there has been artificially levelled. But as to the chronology of this 
 settlement it is difficult to express an opinion, the more so as, with the 
 exception of the hollow wing-like vase-handles, the pottery is so totally 
 different from all the pottery found in the five pre-historic cities of 
 Hissarlik, and most decidedly denotes an altogether different race of 
 people. I have vainly endeavoured to find an analogy to it in the British 
 
Chap. XII.] 
 
 THE TOMB OF ILUS. 
 
 669 
 
 Museum. The only similar pottery I found there consisted of two brown 
 vase-fragments from Malta ; but in these the resemblance is very striking. 
 
 Of other objects of human industry found in this tumulus, I can only 
 mention some good polishing-stones for smoothing pottery. Strange to 
 say, not a single flint knife or flint saw turned up, and not even a single 
 stone hammer, bruising-stone, or saddle-quern, which are found in such 
 immense abundance in all the five pre-historic cities of Hissarlik. 
 
 Some bones, apparently of animals, were found here and there in the 
 tumulus ; also many oyster-shells, a broken murex, and some other shells. 
 
 No trace of a funeral fire was found at the bottom or anywhere else in 
 the tumulus. 
 
 10. Hagi os Demetrios Tepeh. — I also explored, in company with Pro- 
 fessor Yirchow and M. Burnouf, the conical hill, called Hagios Demetrios 
 Tepeh, which I have mentioned in the preceding pages. We found it to 
 consist altogether of limestone-rock. Nevertheless, as M. Burnouf found 
 a small pitcher of the Koman time near the surface, I excavated for two 
 days on its summit, in the hope of finding there at least tombs of the 
 Greek period ; but I found the layer of earth to be nowhere deeper than 
 5 ft., with no trace of sepulchres. As in the days of old the inhabitants 
 went in crowds on the festival of Demeter to the adjoining marble temple 
 of that goddess, of which large ruins still exist, in the same manner they 
 now go on the festival of Hagios Demetrios on pilgrimage to the little 
 open shrine of the saint and kindle on the mound bonfires in his honour. 
 
 11. The Tomb of Ilus. — I further excavated the repeatedly mentioned 
 arfna y 'I\ov, or Tomb of Ilus, situated on the right bank of the Kalifatli 
 Asmak, at a very short distance to the north of Koum Kioi. As this 
 tumulus probably consisted of pure earth,' and was brought under the 
 plough, it gradually vanished, and its present dimensions are merely 
 38 ft. 4 in. in diameter and 3 ft. 4 in. in height. There is a circular 
 depression around its centre, which seems to indicate that there has 
 been a round recess, from which the stones have been extracted for build- 
 ing purposes. 1 merely found there a layer of stones and debris 1 ft. 8 in. 
 deep, and not even a fragment of pottery. Below the stones I struck a 
 layer of clay, and then a thick stratum of coarse or fine river sand ; and 
 beneath this (at an average depth of from 5 to 8^ ft. below the surface) 
 the very compact brown clay of the plain. 
 
 12. At Prof.Virchow's suggestion, I also sank a shaft into the tumulus 
 situated near the southern extremity of Novum Ilium, 6 to the left of the 
 road in going to Pasha Tepeh, but I found there nothing else than a few 
 fragments of Koman bricks, and struck the rock at a depth of about 5 ft. 
 
 13. I cannot conclude this discussion of the Heroic tombs in the Troad 
 without discussing the real tomb of Hector. According to the Iliad, 
 Hector's corpse was brought out of Troy and put on the pyre raised 
 before the town. 7 The body having been consumed by the fire, the bones 
 
 6 See the Map of the Troad, 
 ■ 7 //. xxiv. 782-787 : 
 
 ws %(paQ\ o l i 8' vir afxatyo-iv fioas r]fjLLovovs T6 
 (^zvyvvaav, afya 8' eireira irpb acrreos rjyepeOouro. 
 
 aAA' 6Ve 8/7 deKarr] itpdur} <pa.zo~i/j.fipoTos 7/a>s, 
 Kai tot &p i£4(pepoi/ Qpaavv "EKropa Sdnpv 
 X*ovtgs, 
 
 iv 8e Tcvprj viraTT) vttcpbv decrav, eV 8 s ejSaAov irvp. 
 
670 
 
 THE HEROIC TUMULI IN THE TROAD. 
 
 [Chap. XII. 
 
 were collected, put into a golden box, and deposited in a grave, which 
 was covered up with large stones, and over these the tumulus was raised. 
 The poet leaves us in doubt of what material this tumulus was made; 
 but as he says that it was raised in haste, we must suppose that it was 
 heaped up with earth. Around it sat watchmen, on the look-out lest the 
 Achaeans might rush forth ere the tumulus was completed. The work 
 being terminated, the men returned to the town. 8 
 
 From both these passages it is evident, that the author of the 
 twenty-fourth Iliad had in view, not a cenotaph, but a real tomb, and 
 that this tomb was erected before or close to Ilium. But here I have to 
 repeat that the twenty-fourth Iliad, as well as the twenty-fourth .Odyssey, 
 is generally regarded as pseudo-Homeric and as a later addition. This 
 would at once explain why we see here a real tomb instead of a mere 
 cenotaph, like that which was erected for Patroclus ; 9 and further, why 
 we see in the twenty-fourth Iliad the tumulus of Ilus on the right bank 
 of the Scamander, 10 whilst according to other passages it was situated on 
 the left bank of that river. 1 Professor Sayce observes to me that " the 
 author of the twenty-fourth Iliad seems to have been a native of Smyrna, 
 well acquainted with Lydia (see II. xxiv., lines 544 and 614-617) ; 
 he may consequently be describing the practice of the Lydians, whose 
 burial mounds exist in such numbers in the neighbourhood of Sardis." 
 In fact, it appears that, if not throughout antiquity, at least from 
 the Macedonian period, the twenty-fourth Iliad was considered as apocry- 
 phal, for Lycophron already mentions Hector's tomb at Ophrynium: 2 
 and this is also confirmed by Strabo. 3 But it seems that the Ilians also 
 showed in or near their city a tumulus which they alleged to be Hector's 
 tomb, for Dio Chrysostom 4 relates that Hector's tomb was in high honour 
 by the Ilians. Lucian 5 also mentions sacrifices to Hector at Ilium. 
 Philostratus moreover informs us that Hector had a celebrated statue at 
 Ilium, which wrought many miracles, and was the object of general 
 veneration ; games were even held in his honour. 6 I also remind the 
 reader of the Emperor Julian's letter given in the preceding pages, 7 
 
 8 11. xxiv. 792-801 : 
 avrap eireira 
 
 bcrrea Aeu/ca heyovro KaaiyvriroL & krapoi re 
 jxvpojxevoi, QaXepbv Se Kareifiero SaKpv irapeitvv. 
 ical rd ye XP va t' L W & XapvaKa Qr^Kav eXovres, 
 tropcpvpeois ireirXoio'i KaXvxpavres fxaXaKolaiv ' 
 aliia 8* 6.p is koiXk)v Karcerov 6eaav, avrap 
 virepdev 
 
 irvKvo?aiv Xaeo'cri Karear6peo~av fieyaXouriv. 
 pl/j.<pa 8e arifjL ex €av ' * f pl (TKottoI e'laro 
 irdurri, 
 
 fXT] irplv i<popfxride7ev ivKvf)/u.i5es 'Axatot. 
 Xevavres 8e-T& arj/jia irdhiv k'lov * 
 
 9 77. xxiii. 253-256, as quoted above. 
 10 II. xxiv. 349-351 : 
 
 o% 8' iirel oZv fxeya crifMa irape)- "\\oio eXao~o~av, 
 <rri)(rav ap' 7]/j.i6vovs re Kal tWous, ucppa irioiev, 
 iv irora/jLCf) ' 
 
 1 II. viii. 489-491 : 
 Tpdwv afir' ayoprjv iroiT]aaro <paiSijxos"EKr<i}p, 
 
 v6(T(pi vewv ayaywv, iroraf.icp eiri Siv^evri, 
 iv icadapq>, odi 8?/ veKvcav Siecpaivero x^pos. 
 See also 560, 561, and x. 414, 415. 
 
 2 Lycophron, Alexandra, 1208 ff. 
 
 3 xiii. p. 595 : YIXtjo-'iov 8' earl rb 'O<ppvviov, 
 i<f> £ rb rov"EKropos aXcros iv ■nepicpave'i roirq>. 
 
 4 Orat. xi. 179. 5 Deorum Conviv. 12. 
 
 6 Herdica, p. 295 : rb iv 'IXicp dyaXfxa rod 
 "EKropos rifxiOeei) avdptvirc? eoiKe Kal iroXXa i]8rj 
 iTTKpaivei T(j5 dewpovvri avrb £bv opdw Xoycp ' 
 Kal yap <ppovr]iJ.arwSes doKe? Kal yopybv Kal 
 (paiSpbv Kal £w a^pdrrjn crcpptywv Kal rj wpa /xer'' 
 ovSe/Aicis ko/j.t)s. eari 8' ovrco ri e/xirvovv, cos rbv 
 Oearrjv iirio"jrdo , aadai Qiyelv. rovro 'iBpvrai fxev 
 iv ■Kepi^Xeirrai rov 'IXlov, iroXXa 8e ipyd^erai 
 Xpvcra icoivrj re Kal is eva, o8ev evxovrai avrip 
 Kal aya>va Qvovaiv, ore Si] Oepfxbv ovrtv Kal 
 ivaycvviov yiyverai, 60s Kal tdpwra air' avrov 
 Xet&eadai. 
 
 7 See pp. 181, 182. 
 
Chap. XII.] 
 
 THE TOMB OF HECTOK. 
 
 671 
 
 in which he states that first of all he was conducted to Hector's heroum, 
 where his bronze statue stood in a small temple ; it was anointed with 
 oil, and there was still a sacrificial fire burning on the altar. But already, 
 perhaps more than 700 years before Julian's time, Thebes in Boeotia 
 had disputed with Ophrynium and Ilium the honour of possessing 
 Hector's bones; for, as Pausanias 8 relates, in consequence of an oracle 
 Hector's bones were brought from Ilium to Thebes, and a tomb was 
 erected over them at the fountain of Oedipus, where they were wor- 
 shipped. I may still further mention that in the Peplos of Aristotle is an 
 epigram : 9 
 
 'E7rl "EKTopos Kei/j.4vov iv 0?}/3ais. 
 
 "EKTOpi tov 5e (x4yav Boicvtioi dvSpes erev^au 
 Tv/xfiov v-nsp 70177s, ariix tiuyiyvoixevois. 
 
 I give here finally under No. 1518 the engraving of a terra-cotta 
 figure, probably an idol, which was found by a boy near the village of 
 
 No. 1518. Figure of Terra-cotta, with a cap on the head ; 
 found in the Troad, near the surface. (Actual size.) 
 
 Yeni Shehr, and which is remarkable for its resemblance to some of the 
 rudest Mycenean idols. 10 
 
 8 Paus. ix. 18, § 4 : "Ectti 5e kcu "EKTopos at ic e64\T]Te Trdrpav oikuv trvv a/xv/j.ovi ttXovtw, 
 
 ®r\$alois rdcpos tov Ylpidjxov irpbs OlStiroMq "EKropos bcrria TlptafxlBov Ko/xiaavres is oXkovs 
 
 Ka\ovfM€vr) npi\vri • KOfxi(rai Se olvtov to. bara i\ e| 'Aa'tys Atbs £vveo~ir]s tfpwa (refiecrdai. 
 
 'lAiov <paa\v itrl roi$8e /xavTev/xaTi • 9 Appendix Epigrammatum Ant hoi. Palat. 9. 
 
 (drjficuoi KddfiOLo ttoKiv Kaa-avaieTdovres, 10 See my Mycenae, PI. xviii. and xix. 
 
672 
 
 THE AUTHOR'S CONCLUSION. 
 
 [Chap. XII. 
 
 In closing this account of the result of my researches on the site of 
 " sacred Ilios " and in the country of the Trojans, I would express the 
 fervent hope that historical research with the pickaxe and the spade, 
 which in our time engages the attention of scholars with more curiosity 
 and more diversity of opinion than any other form of study, may be 
 more and more developed, and that it may ultimately bring forth into 
 broad daylight the dark pre-historic ages of the great Hellenic race. 
 May this research with the pickaxe and the spade prove more and more 
 that the events described in the divine Homeric poems are not mythic 
 tales, but that they are based on real facts ; and, in proving this, may 
 it augment the universal love for the noble study of the beautiful Greek 
 classics, and particularly of Homer, that brilliant sun of all literature ! 
 
 In humbly laying this account of my disinterested labours before the 
 judgment-seat of the civilized world, I should feel the profoundest satis- 
 faction, and should esteem it as the greatest reward my ambition could 
 aspire to, if it were generally acknowledged that I have been instru- 
 mental towards the attainment of that great aim of my life. 
 
 I cannot conclude without mentioning with the warmest gratitude the 
 names of my honoured and learned friends Professor Eudolf Virchow of 
 Berlin, Professor Max Miiller and Professor A. H. Sayce of Oxford, Pro- 
 fessor J. P. Mahaffy of Dublin, M. Emile Burnouf of Paris, Professor H. 
 Brugsch Bey, and Professor Paul Ascherson of Berlin, Mr. Frank Calvert, 
 U. S. Consul of the Dardanelles, and Mr. A. J. Duffield of London, who 
 have favoured me with most learned and valuable Appendices or Notes to 
 the present work. Lastly, I here express my warmest gratitude to the 
 learned publisher of this work, my honoured friend Mr. John Murray, as 
 well as to my honoured and learned friend Mr. Philip Smith, for all the 
 kind services they have rendered me, and all the valuable assistance they 
 have lent me in carrying out the present work. 
 
APPENDIX I. 
 
 TROY AND HISSARLIK. 
 
 By Professor Virchow. 
 
 At the beginning of last year Dr. 
 Schliemann asked my help in his ex- 
 plorations at Hissarlik and in the 
 Trojan plain. The journey to Troy 
 was a considerable one, but, after a 
 good deal of hesitation, I resolved to 
 make it. In fact, I could not refuse. 
 
 A journey to Troy — how many 
 heads would be turned by the thought 
 of it ! Men of the most various callings 
 offered me their company, when it was 
 known that I meant to visit so rare a 
 spot. And yet this was no Swiss tour, 
 where the attraction is in the scenery, 
 though an occasional visit may be paid 
 to the Riitli and Kusznacht, Sempach 
 and Laupen, Murten and St. Jacob an 
 der Birs.' It is the Iliad which takes 
 us to Troy. The forms conjured up 
 by the poet fill the traveller's fancy 
 from the first. He wants to see the 
 spots where the long struggle for 
 Helen was fought, the graves where 
 the heroes lie who lost their lives in 
 it. Achilles and Hector stand in the 
 foreground of the vivid picture, which 
 is still engraven, as it was thousands 
 of years ago, on the mind of every 
 educated boy. This picture, it is true, 
 cannot have now all the moving power 
 it had in antiquity. Even Xerxes, as 
 he marched against Greece in the 
 fulness of his might, could not with- 
 stand the fascination of these memories. 
 While his army was marching from 
 Adramyttium to Abydos, he sought 
 out the ruins of Ilium, and there 
 offered a thousand bulls to Athene. 
 Alexander again, when his army 
 crossed the Hellespont in its trium- 
 
 phant progress against Asia, forthwith 
 turned his steps to the funeral mound 
 of Achilles, that it might give him 
 strength and a confident hope of vic- 
 tory. The soil of Troy has had no such 
 mighty visitors since, but any one who 
 treads it feels something of what 
 Xerxes and Alexander felt at the same 
 place. There is an atmosphere of 
 poetry lying over the whole country, 
 and of this atmosphere it cannot be 
 divested. 
 
 It is not to be supposed, however, 
 that it is this poetical atmosphere 
 alone which arouses the traveller's 
 interest. Before the Iliad arose with 
 all its wealth of stories, there existed a 
 series of popular travellers' stories, in 
 which Troy figured. One of the oldest 
 of Greek myths is connected with the 
 name of the Hellespont. Helle and 
 her brother started from Boeotia over 
 the sea north-eastwards; but when 
 they came to the Trojan coast, Helle 
 fell into the sea (Pontos), and only 
 her brother Phryxus reached the dis- 
 tant Colchis, where he hung up the 
 ram's golden fleece. Then came the 
 Argonauts, to fetch this fleece, and the 
 great Heracles, whose deeds on the 
 Trojan coast bring him into contact 
 with the royal race of Priam. At the 
 north end of Besika Bay there is a 
 steep and almost bare promontory of 
 shelly tertiary rock, where travellers 
 are told that the princess Hesione was 
 exposed to the attacks of the sea- 
 monster until the monster was slain 
 by the roving hero ; and there is still 
 visible, though half filled up, a deep 
 
 2 x 
 
674 
 
 TROY AND 
 
 HISSAKLIK. 
 
 [App. I. 
 
 trench going crosswise through the 
 headland of Sigeum, on the south side 
 of Hagios Demetrios Tepeh, which is 
 said to have been dug by Heracles in 
 order to drain the Trojan plain. 
 
 It is but a short step from the 
 heroes to the Olympian gods them- 
 selves. The walls of the ancient city 
 had, as the story went, been built by 
 Poseidon when undergoing a tempo- 
 rary bondage. Ganymede was a 
 member of the Trojan royal family. 
 The union of Anchises with the 
 goddess of beauty herself gave birth 
 to Aeneas, through whom the race of 
 the Julii in Eome could lay claim to 
 descent from the gods. Thus was it 
 that the first emperors arose by the 
 grace of God : the Julii were not un- 
 mindful of this descent, and they 
 showered honours and privileges on 
 the late city of New Ilium. Lastty, 
 not to forget the most important of 
 all these legends, it was Priam's son 
 Paris who decided the contest be- 
 tween the three goddesses for the 
 prize of beauty. The apple of Paris 
 won for the judge the beautiful Helen, 
 but brought ruin in the sequel on 
 himself, his family, and his country. 
 In this way does the central fact of 
 the Iliad connect it with the doings of 
 the Immortals. 
 
 It cannot be pure chance or mere 
 caprice that has associated with this 
 country such a rich store of myths, 
 whether of gods, heroes, or men. No 
 other place has ever gathered around 
 itself a fund of legend so great or so 
 glorious. There must be something in 
 the country, in its natural conditions, 
 some special incentive to poetical crea- 
 tion, to account for this wealth of 
 legend. The place itself must have 
 possessed a special charm for the poet. 
 Nature must have worn an aspect here 
 which gave fire to his fancy. Who 
 can believe that all these memories 
 have been arbitrarily connected with 
 the Hellespont, or that the Troad has 
 been chosen without reference to its 
 real nature, by a sort of geographical 
 
 caprice, to be the arena of all these 
 legendary events ? 
 
 The ordinary traveller, especially if 
 he approaches the country from the 
 sea, will find this riddle hard to read. 
 On the other hand, if he comes, as 1 
 did, by way of the Black Sea and the 
 Bosporus to the Dardanelles, and en- 
 ters the Troad on that side by land, 
 an immeasurably deeper impression is 
 made by the beauty and singularity of 
 the region. Constantine the Great has 
 borne conclusive testimony that this 
 is the case. When he formed the 
 purpose, fraught with such world- wids 
 issues, of transplanting the seat of 
 the Koman Empire from Eome to the 
 East, his thoughts turned first to 
 Ilium. We are told that the building 
 of the new Eome had been actually 
 begun here, when the superiority of 
 Byzantium in natural charms and 
 political importance dawned upon his 
 mind. He built Constantinople, and 
 Ilium was left to fall in ruins. There 
 can be no doubt that if the traveller 
 sails through the southern part of the 
 Hellespont, on one of the steamers 
 which are now almost the only means of 
 transport, especially on a day when 
 the mountain background is hidden, 
 the whole Troad looks uninteresting, 
 dreary, and barren. It is not likely 
 that any one who did no more than 
 coast round the Trojan plain would 
 ever think of making it the scene of 
 action for a great poem or a wide circle 
 of legends. 
 
 For all this, scholars dispute as to 
 whether Homer, or, to speak in more 
 general terms, the poet of the Iliad, 
 was ever in the country itself. A 
 marvellous dispute this must seem to 
 any one who has not merely seen the 
 country from the sea, but has traversed 
 its interior ! I must say I think it 
 impossible that the Iliad could ever 
 have been composed by a man who 
 had not been in the country of the 
 Iliad. 
 
 There is, it is true, a third alter- 
 native. It is conceivable that the 
 
App. I.] 
 
 BY PEOFESSOR VIRCHOW. 
 
 675 
 
 legend of Ilium, like those of Gany- 
 mede and Paris, of Hesione and 
 Heracles, of Laomedon and Anchises, 
 arose and assumed form in the country 
 itself, on a foundation laid by the im- 
 pressions made by the scenery on the 
 native inhabitants, and that these le- 
 gends were then, at whatever stage of 
 completeness, put into the hands of the 
 poet of the Iliad, who was a native of 
 some other country. Such an assump- 
 tion, while it recognizes the charms of 
 the country as a cradle of legend, con- 
 siderably disparages the functions of 
 the poet of the Iliad. We have, I 
 believe, no right to make it. The 
 Iliad could hardly have preserved so 
 true a local colouring, if a stranger had 
 adopted the native legends and 
 wrought them into his poem, without 
 ever having seen the land itself. 
 
 There are instances, it is true, which 
 seem to prove the contrary. Schiller 
 had never been in Switzerland, and 
 yet he produced in his Wilhelm Tell a 
 work of art ao perfect, that even the 
 man born on the shore of the Lake of 
 Lucerne cannot but wonder at it. In 
 a certain sense, and in the case of 
 Troy itself, Virgil may be added as 
 another example. But we must not 
 forget how different were the condi- 
 tions under which these poets worked. 
 Both Schiller and Virgil found writ- 
 ten local legends, and accurate geo- 
 graphical information ready to their 
 hands. In spite of this they were not 
 able to give to their poetry such a 
 specific local colouring, or to find such 
 clearly recognizable localities for all 
 their scenes, as the author of the Iliad 
 does. How different is the glowing 
 recollection of ever-fresh passages in 
 the Iliad, which arises as we traverse 
 the Troad, to the reminiscences of 
 Wilhelm Tell suggested by a sail on 
 the Lake of Lucerne or a clamber 
 about its shore ! The power of in- 
 tuition shown by the poet of Wilhelm 
 Tell is marvellous indeed, but it is 
 confined to three or four spots whose 
 situation could be easily grasped with 
 
 the help of good maps ; while in the 
 Iliad we are struck, on the one hand, 
 by the truth of the general impres- 
 sion of what is an extensive district, 
 and on the other by the number of 
 distinct views which present to us 
 ever fresh spots in the landscape. I 
 do not refer merely to Homer's oft- 
 noticed characteristic description of 
 all objects by means of short and apt 
 distinctive epithets, as "Ida rich in 
 springs," " the eddying Scamander," 
 " the windy Ilium," but far more to 
 his almost surprising knowledge of 
 the meteorology of the district, of 
 the flora and fauna, and the social 
 peculiarities of its population. Three 
 thousand years have not sufficed to 
 produce any noteworthy alteration in 
 these things. The clouds are still 
 drawn in the same courses as are de- 
 scribed in the Iliad, and the storms 
 gather on the same mountain-tops as 
 in Homer's time. The number of 
 wild beasts has grown gradually less, 
 and the camel and the turkey have 
 been added to the tame stock, but the 
 native species are unchanged. The 
 flowers, shrubs, and trees, mentioned in 
 the poem, still grow on the river-banks 
 and the mountain uplands. This is the 
 case, above all, with the people. Im- 
 migration has followed immigration : 
 Aeolians and Eomans, Turks and Ar- 
 menians, have come into the country, 
 but the population remains what it 
 has always been. There is but little 
 cultivation, and there are herds in 
 abundance; and this influences not 
 only the social arrangements of the 
 people, but even the nature of the 
 earth's surface. If the Turks were not 
 such an unchangeable race, another 
 mode of life would have been sure 
 to arise in the course of time. It is 
 possible, however, to burn petroleum, 
 and to remain in all else a Homeric 
 Trojan ; to build a church or a mosque, 
 and still to hold a proper carriage or 
 a passable high-road in abhorrence. 
 
 I do not mean, however, to assert 
 that the poet of the Iliad was a native 
 
676 
 
 TEOY AND 
 
 HISSABLIK. 
 
 [Arp. I. 
 
 Trojan, or that he tested every word 
 in his poem by a reference to the 
 realities of nature and human institu- 
 tions. On the contrary, I acknowledge 
 that there are several passages in the 
 Iliad which do not suit the circum- 
 stances at all. The two springs of 
 the Scamander, the cold and the warm, 
 placed by the Iliad in the plain, are 
 sought there in vain; they are high 
 up on Mount Ida, two days' journey 
 from the plain. But the Iliad has 
 not many passages of this kind, and 
 several of these admit of more than 
 one interpretation, while others are 
 very possibly later additions made 
 by some subsequent hand. Trifles 
 such as these are not enough to cloud 
 our conviction of the truth of the 
 general representation. The truth of 
 this warrants us in assuming that the 
 poet did visit the country, though 
 perhaps he may not have stayed there 
 long, and it does not exclude the pos- 
 sibility that a body of legend, though 
 disjointed and incongruous, already 
 existed before his time. 
 
 For a bird's-eye view of this mighty 
 arena an eminence must be sought in 
 the interior. This is furnished by 
 the hill of Hissarlik, the scene of 
 Dr. Schliemann's excavations. There 
 are other points admirably adapted 
 for this purpose on the rising ground 
 on the west, along the coast of the 
 Aegean Sea, on the promontory of Si- 
 geum and the ridge of Ujek. A most 
 commanding view may be obtained 
 from the conical sepulchral mound 
 (also recently excavated by Dr. Schlie- 
 mann) which rises to about 80 feet 
 from a high ridge to the south of 
 Sigeum, about two miles from Besika 
 Bay. This is the Ujek Tepeh, which 
 is seen far out at sea, and is used as 
 a signal by sailors. From its summit 
 we gain a comprehensive view of the 
 whole arena of the Iliad. 
 
 Immediately at our feet lies the 
 Trojan plain proper, stretching away 
 from the shores of the Hellespont on 
 the north to Bali Dagh on the south. 
 
 This plain is an old fiord, which has 
 been filled by river-deposit — especially 
 that of the Scamander — which has 
 produced a rich marshy soil, broken 
 by frequent swamps and occasional 
 deposits of sand. The plain lies so as to 
 correspond in the main to the course 
 of the Scamander, which, rising well 
 to the east, gets nearer and nearer to 
 the western edge of the plain, and 
 flows into the Hellespont close by the 
 Sigean promontory. On both sides of 
 its course, and more particularly on 
 its right, it is joined by a network of 
 branch channels, which in dry seasons 
 are nearly or quite empty, but which, 
 when the river is high, receive the 
 surplus waters of the Scamander and 
 swell to all appearance into indepen- 
 dent streams. The lower we get in the 
 plain, the broader and deeper do these 
 become, and near the coast they never 
 run dry, though the inroads of the 
 water of the Hellespont make them 
 more or less brackish. 
 
 This complicated network of water- 
 courses, we may say at once, is of 
 considerable significance for the in- 
 terpretation of the Iliad. Beyond a 
 doubt this liver is the Scamander 
 of the poem. In spite of all the 
 attempts which have been made to 
 transfer this name to a little rivulet 
 which runs its short course in the 
 western part of the plain by the side 
 of the Scamander — the Bounarbashi 
 Su — an unprejudiced comparison of 
 the Homeric references with the actual 
 phenomena forbids us to look for the 
 " divine " Scamander in a corner of 
 the Trojan plain, and to force the real 
 river of the plain, to which it owes 
 its existence, into a position of fic- 
 titious inferiority. It is true that in 
 many points the great river does 
 not correspond to the Scamander of 
 the poem. The Scamander flowed 
 into the Hellespont to the eastward 
 and not to the westward of the plain. 
 It is described as lying between Ilium 
 and the naval camp of the Achaeans ; 
 and the battle-field, again, is repre- 
 
App. L] 
 
 BY PROFESSOR VIRCHOW. 
 
 677 
 
 sented as between the camp and the 
 river's left bank. The Bounarbashi 
 brook suits these conditions still less, 
 and this is reason enough for leaving 
 it out of the discussion for the future. 
 Assuming the great river to be the 
 Scamander, we must choose between 
 two explanations of the facts. Either 
 Homer is all wrong about the course 
 of the Scamander — and this would be 
 a strong argument to prove that he 
 had never been in the Troad — or the 
 river has in the course of centuries 
 altered its bed, and its lower course 
 is no longer the same as that of the 
 old Scamander. 
 
 I have not space on the present 
 occasion to expound in detail the 
 reasons which to my mind make it in 
 the highest degree probable, if they 
 do not absolutely prove, that the 
 Scamander does flow in a new bed, 
 and that the channels called Asmaks, 
 which are now only used occasionally 
 and are partially filled with salt 
 water, mark different old beds of the 
 Scamander, which it has long since 
 abandoned. In this respect the Trojan 
 plain resembles the deltas of other 
 rivers. Just as the Khine and the Vis- 
 tula have changed tlieir estuaries in 
 historical times, and have left extinct 
 watercourses or networks of streams 
 where they used to run, so has it been 
 with the Scamander. Even Pliny, the 
 distinguished Roman author who col- 
 lected together all the natural science 
 of his time, speaks of a Palaesca- 
 mander. As early then as the begin- 
 ning of the Christian era there was 
 an " old Scamander," just as for five 
 centuries past there has been an " old 
 Rhine." 
 
 It is probable that this opinion 
 would have found a more ready ac- 
 ceptance if the Trojan plain, like other 
 deltas, had had a free expansion sea- 
 wards. It has however a peculiarity 
 shared by many estuaries in Asia 
 Minor, Greece, and Turkey, namely, 
 that the formation of the delta has 
 taken place in a fiord, and that it is 
 
 consequently enclosed by ridges of 
 hills which formed the banks of the 
 old fiord. It would perhaps be more 
 intelligible if we called it a valley 
 rather than a plain, were it not 
 that the level surface is too broad 
 in proportion to the height of the 
 surrounding hills to give the effect of a 
 valley. There is no doubt, however, 
 that if the Trojan " plain " lay on the 
 north coast of Germany, it would be 
 called a valley there. This valley 
 is open towards the Hellespont, and 
 closed in towards the west and south. 
 On its right side, towards the east, 
 there are some side-valleys introduced 
 between the neighbouring upland 
 ridges — two in particular, which are 
 longer than the rest — which in their 
 turn send out a number of small 
 valleys and coves into the mountains. 
 Of these easterly side-valleys the 
 largest runs parallel to the Hellespont, 
 and is separated from it by a moun- 
 tain ridge which rises higher and 
 higher towards the east. In the 
 midst of this valley flows a narrow 
 mountain stream of but moderate pro- 
 portions, sufficient however to satisfy 
 the requirements of the Simois of 
 the Iliad. Unless then the reader 
 prefers to follow Hercher, in regard- 
 ing all passages of the Iliad which 
 mention the Simois as subsequent 
 spurious interpolations, he may be 
 content, with Demetrius of Scepsis 
 and Strabo, to see the Simois in the 
 brook just described, which in Turkish 
 times has borne the name of Doum- 
 brek Tchai. 
 
 This name has misled many in 
 modern times from the resemblance it 
 bears to the Homeric name Thymbra. 
 At the point where the Thymbrius 
 fell into the Scamander the testimony 
 of later writers placed the temple of 
 Apollo, near which Achilles received 
 his mortal wound from Paris, while 
 seeking a lover's meeting with Priam's 
 daughter Polyxena. The position of 
 the Doumbrek Tchai docs not suit 
 this story. Numerous local features 
 
678 
 
 TROY AND 
 
 HISSARLIK. 
 
 [App. L 
 
 unite in pointing rather to the most 
 southerly of the above-mentioned side 
 valleys, through which flows the 
 Kemar Su ; and hence most modern 
 authorities take this to be the Thym- 
 brius. 
 
 This, then, is the extent of the so- 
 called Trojan plain. Except for the 
 two or three miles of coast along the 
 Hellespont, it is surrounded by lines 
 of hills, which are tolerably steep, 
 though their height only ranges from 
 100 to 500 feet. From the Ujek 
 Tepeh we look over to the greater part 
 of this encircling line. The western 
 boundary of the plain, — the long 
 and somewhat straggling ridge of 
 Sigeum, which stretches along the 
 coast of the Aegean Sea to the Helles- 
 pont, — appears to be a continuation 
 of the range from which the Ujek 
 Tepeh itself arises. On the south 
 there advances a stretch of broken 
 upland which rises gradually to above 
 900 feet in the " black mountain," 
 Kara Dagh. On the east several 
 slightly diverging ridges extend into 
 the plain, enclosing the side-valleys 
 mentioned above. 
 
 The most northerly of these eastern 
 ridges keeps close to the coast of the 
 Hellespont, and, ending abruptly 
 towards the plain, forms the pro- 
 montory of Ehoeteum, facing that of 
 Sigeum on the west. Its extremity 
 in the direction of the plain, and 
 close to the sea-shore, is a half-isolated 
 cone, the so-called grave of Ajax, In 
 Tepeh. ; while on the other side two 
 other conical tumuli, those of Achilles 
 and Patroclus, stand out from Cape 
 Sigeum. Behind Cape Ehoeteum runs 
 the Doumbrek valley, and to the 
 south of it a second ridge, almost 
 parallel with the coast of the Helles- 
 pont, at the west end of which, and 
 separated from it by a slight depres- 
 sion, stands the celebrated Hissarlik, 
 a spacious hill of more than 100 feet 
 in height. From the Ujek Tepeh we 
 look between Hissarlik and the In 
 Tepeh into the Doumbrek valley, 
 
 which lies open to our view, even to 
 its very end. At the head of the 
 valley the various ridges — the coast 
 ridge, the Hissarlik ridge, and that 
 to the south — after gradually rising, 
 unite in a kind of knot, called Oulou 
 Dagh. The wooded summit of the 
 Oulou Dagh is the commanding point 
 in this part of the landscape, and 
 hence it agrees much better with 
 what Homer says about the position of 
 the renowned beacon-point Callicolone 
 than does the far lower and much 
 more retired Kara Your, an eminence 
 on the eastern half of the ridge of 
 Hissarlik itself. 
 
 The part of the landscape just 
 described wears, not only from the 
 Ujek Tepeh, but from the whole 
 line of Sigeum, the aspect which, 
 according to Homer, the battle-field 
 wore just before the decisive battle. 
 As the mortals advanced to meet on 
 the plain, the Immortals ranged them- 
 selves into two groups, according to 
 the side they favoured. The gods on 
 the Trojan side surveyed the fight 
 from Callicolone, those on the Achaean 
 sat on the rampart of Heracles on 
 Sigeum. 
 
 All the hills which rise immediately 
 out of the plain consist of limestone of 
 the middle tertiary period, very rich 
 in mussel-shells. This stone must 
 have been formed in a brackish or 
 fresh-water lake, at a time when the 
 Hellespont did not exist. There is 
 only one place, and that is in the 
 Doumbrek valley, where volcanic rock 
 crops out. When, however, we take 
 a wider space within our view, the 
 case is different. 
 
 We here encounter a long range of 
 higher mountains, mostly rounded 
 cones, stretching away in a wide 
 sweep from the Oulou Dagh to the 
 Kara Dagh, that is from the Helles- 
 pont to the Aegean, and forming a 
 frame for the Trojan plain, or, more 
 correctly speaking, for the whole of 
 the anterior Troad. This range con- 
 sists throughout of volcanic rock, or 
 
App. L] 
 
 BY PROFESSOR VIRCHOW. 
 
 679 
 
 at least volcanic rock forms its basis. 
 Trachyte, basalt, serpentine, &c, suc- 
 ceed each other in picturesque variety. 
 Beyond this frame there is no fight- 
 ing in the Iliad between men, with 
 the exception of single expeditions, 
 which are mentioned as having already 
 taken place before the poem opens. 
 All mention of more distant places is 
 either made incidentally, without im- 
 mediate reference to the Trojan war, 
 or concerns the gods. For it must be 
 understood, once for all, that the my- 
 thological arena of the Iliad is incom- 
 parably wider than the strategical. 
 
 At the chain of volcanic rock which 
 stretches from Oulou Dagh to Kara 
 Dagh, we are still far short of Ida 
 proper. Neither in the Iliad nor at 
 the present day is this name applied 
 to hills of such a moderate height. 
 The later ancient writers were the 
 first to see Ida itself in these out- 
 lying ranges. Nowhere is the con- 
 trast between these outlying hills and 
 Ida more clearly visible than in the 
 view from Ujek Tepeh. From this 
 point we see to the south-east a huge 
 cleft in the chain of these hills, to the 
 left of Kara Dagh and to the right of 
 Foulah Dagh. This is the point at 
 which the Scamander breaks in wide 
 curves through the outlying hills and 
 enters the plain. Over this cleft, far 
 away in the distance, Ida (Kaz Dagh) 
 rises over the nearer range in a 
 mighty mass. Between Ida and the 
 northern range of lower hills lies a 
 broad and fruitful valley, the plain of 
 Ine and Beiramich, through the whole 
 length of which, from east to west, 
 flows the Scamander ; and there is the 
 less reason for making Mount Ida 
 extend to these lower hills, in spite of 
 the broad intervening plain, because 
 there rises on the west of the plain 
 of Ine an extensive volcanic ridge, 
 the Chigri Dagh, completely isolated 
 from the mass of the Ida range, and 
 much more closely connected with the 
 hills near the Trojan plain. This 
 ridge can be seen from Ujek Tepeh 
 
 rising above the Kara Dagh, and com- 
 manding, with its spurs, the whole of 
 the coast district to the south. 
 
 The view from Ujek Tepeh, how- 
 ever, has been by no means exhaus- 
 tively described : it extends far beyond 
 the Troad. The whole picture which 
 lies before the eyes of the admiring 
 spectator is embraced by the old poet. 
 To the north of the plain, to begin 
 with, we see a long streak of blue, 
 the Hellespont. The Hellespont is 
 no less an object, of wonder to us 
 than it was to the ancients. They 
 saw in it the road which led to the 
 unknown iands of the dark North. 
 It took the traveller to Cimmerians 
 and Hyperboreans, all wrapped in a 
 mist of legend. To our eyes the 
 Hellespont is the common outlet for 
 the waters of an immense range of 
 rivers. The Danube and Pruth, the 
 Dniester and Dnieper, the Don and 
 the Kouban, all roll their waters 
 through the Hellespont into the 
 Mediterranean. Accurately speaking, 
 it is no mere water-way between 
 two seas, but a huge stream which 
 carries off the rainfall of a mighty 
 tract of land. Germany and Austria, 
 Bulgaria and Roumania, Eussia and 
 Caucasia, pay their tributes to this 
 stream ; and the contemplation of the 
 beholder finds pleasure in following 
 back the course of these tributaries, 
 while he pictures to himself the 
 wanderings of the peoples who have 
 ranged in historic and pre-historic 
 times within the limits of the regions 
 which they drain. 
 
 Who could fail to feel the thrilling 
 interest of such a view? From the 
 oldest times the Hellespont has been 
 not merely the boundary, but, in a 
 much higher degree, the connection 
 between Asia and Europe. Here the 
 armies of the two continents met in 
 conflict. What the Persians failed to 
 do, the Turks have done. The enter- 
 prise in which Alexander succeeded 
 was attempted over again by the 
 Crusaders. The shores of the Dai* 
 
680 
 
 TROY AND 
 
 HISSAELIK. 
 
 [App. I. 
 
 danelles provide the easiest passage 
 from Europe to Asia, or from Asia to 
 Europe. History has taught us that 
 the Asiatic stream has, on the whole, 
 been the stronger one. It is probable 
 even that our own ancestors, the 
 Aryan immigrants, came by this 
 passage on their victorious career into 
 Europe, long before the Iliad was 
 composed, and still longer before the 
 history of mankind began to be 
 written. 
 
 Such thoughts as these were con- 
 stantly present to my mind as I 
 turned my eyes to the little bit of 
 Europe which was visible from our 
 wooden hut on Hissarlik. A very 
 little bit it was, and I cannot say that 
 I wished it larger. All we saw of it 
 was the southern point of the Thracian 
 Chersonese, a low rising ground be- 
 yond the Hellespont, at the south end 
 of which the ancients placed the grave 
 of Protesilaus. In the evening, when 
 I had put out my lamp and looked 
 out once more, the only visible sign 
 which remained to connect me with 
 Europe was the beacon-light at the 
 end of this promontory, which shone 
 straight into my little window. But 
 what a crowd of memories did its 
 beam awaken ! 
 
 As I looked out in the morning from 
 the same window, I saw stretching far 
 away the deep-blue sea with its islands. 
 In the distance, separated from the 
 Chersonese by a wide stretch of sea, 
 lay rocky Imbros, with its long jagged 
 ridge ; and just behind it rose the 
 towering peak of Samothrace. How 
 majestic this island looks from Ujek 
 Tepeh ! What Ida is in the far south- 
 east, Samothrace is in the far north- 
 west : the former the seat of Zeus, 
 the mightiest of all the gods ; the 
 latter that of the next mightiest, 
 Poseidon. 
 
 The Northerner, especially if he 
 lives where the sky is often clouded, 
 finds it hard to understand how the 
 religious ideas of Southern nations 
 attached themselves so prevailingly 
 
 to the phenomena of the atmosphere, 
 or, to speak more mythologically, of 
 " Heaven." It is necessary to see the 
 wide horizon and the pure blue of the 
 Trojan sky, in order to appreciate the 
 effect produced here by the formation 
 of clouds. When, on a sudden, while 
 sea and land are lying apparently at 
 rest, a dark mass of cloud gathers 
 round the peak of Samothrace, and, 
 sinking deeper every moment, en- 
 shrouds one sharp line of rock after 
 another, till the storm at last de- 
 scends, and, after lashing the sea 
 with its gusts, wraps even it in 
 darkness, we find it easier to see 
 how it was that a childlike spirit 
 looked for the presence of the sea-god 
 himself in the secret recesses of the 
 clouds. And if far away in the south- 
 western sky, in the direction of Greece, 
 a single cloud appears over the Aegean, 
 and gradually rises and spreads, draws 
 nearer and nearer, and at last touches 
 the summit of Ida, there to thicken 
 and cling for hours and even days 
 together, and if then lightning breaks 
 from this cloud-mass whole nights 
 through, while all the face of Nature 
 seems to lie beneath it in fright, who 
 can help thinking of the poet's de- 
 scriptions of the journey and sojourn 
 of the Thunderer ? 
 
 From the height of Ujek Tepeh 
 may be seen several other islands of 
 the Aegean, rising high, with clear 
 rock outlines. Close at hand, just op- 
 posite to Besika Bay, lies the vine-clad 
 Tenedos, behind which the Achaean 
 fleet hid by way of preparing for their 
 attack on Ilium. Far to the south, 
 though only when the air is very clear, 
 we may see the angular lines of Les- 
 bos, or, as it is called in modern times, 
 Mitylene. Sometimes a cloud rises 
 far out at sea, which makes for Lesbos 
 and Cape Baba, the Lectum of the 
 ancients, and which passes from 
 mountain to mountain till it reaches 
 Ida. It takes exactly the path which 
 Hera took when she sought out her 
 angry spouse on Gargarus, and accom- 
 
Arp. L] 
 
 BY PROFESSOR VIRCHOW. 
 
 681 
 
 plished the loving reconciliation por- 
 trayed in one of the most charming 
 passages in the Iliad. 
 
 Who would not feel the captivating 
 charm of such scenes as these ? and 
 who can fail to see that the great poet 
 has created out of them the magnifi- 
 cent picture he gives us of the ways 
 and workings of the Olympian gods ? 
 I will not here describe these natural 
 phenomena in detail. I will even for- 
 bear to portray the grand spectacle 
 presented by the lifting and sinking 
 of the clouds at the foot of Mount Ida. 
 But I cannot conceal my amazement 
 that it should have been thought 
 possible to darken the wondrous 
 beauty of the Trojan scenery by the 
 light of the student's lamp, and to call 
 in question the background of reality 
 which gave shape to the visions of the 
 immortal poet. 
 
 This attempt would probably never 
 have been made if the site of ancient 
 Ilium had been known. But even in 
 the days of Demetrius of Scepsis, a 
 native of the Troad, who lived about 
 two hundred years before the begin- 
 ning of the Christian era, not a trace 
 was to be seen of the old city any- 
 where in the plain. This country 
 was left isolated at an early time 
 by the ruin of many kingdoms ; and 
 thousands of years elapsed before the 
 search actually began for the real site 
 of the city. Since the commencement 
 of that search, scarcely a part of the 
 country has been safe from the con- 
 jectures of the learned. Beginning 
 with the Gulf of Adramyttium and 
 Cape Lectum, they have sought the 
 city, now here, now there. The 
 points which occupied for the longest 
 time the attention of scholars were 
 Alexandria-Troas, the site of the ex- 
 tensive ruins of a metropolis founded 
 on the Aegean by Antigonus, and 
 so post-Homeric, and Bounarbashi, 
 a wretched Turkish hamlet at the 
 southern extremity of the Trojan 
 plain. It was only fifty years ago 
 that Maclaren first ventured to fix on 
 
 the hill and fortress of His : arlik as the 
 spot where Troy once stood. Others, 
 among whom was Von Eckenbrecher, 
 adopted his view. The first actual 
 excavations were conducted by Mr. 
 Frank Calvert. These excavations, 
 however, were confined to the sur- 
 face. It has been reserved for Dr. 
 Schliemann, by the application of re- 
 sources such as can hardly ever have 
 been devoted by a private individual 
 to such an object before, to lay bare, 
 by digging down to an amazing depth, 
 the ruins of settlements of immense 
 antiquity, and thereby to make His- 
 sarlik an object of the highest interest 
 to all educated men. 
 
 Does this settle the question about 
 the site of the ancient Ilium? Op- 
 ponents say, No. And why ? While 
 they condemn Schliemann for taking 
 the Iliad literally, they think it a 
 sufficient refutation of his views if 
 they prove that the ruins of Hissarlik 
 do not correspond to Homer's descrip- 
 tions. Correspond they certainly do 
 not. Homer's idea of his sacred Ilios 
 is very different from any conception 
 we can form from the testimony of 
 the ruins. 
 
 No one doubts that Ilium was 
 destroyed centuries before the Iliad 
 was composed. How many centuries, 
 is a question which divides even those 
 who take Homer's side. Even if the 
 interval were not more than two or 
 three hundred years, still Ilium itself 
 could never have been seen by the 
 poet. The Ilium of fiction must, under 
 any circumstances, be a fiction itself. It 
 is possible that legend may have pre- 
 served many topographical particulars 
 about the ancient city, but it is not to 
 be imagined there should have been 
 preserved a detailed and authentic de- 
 scription of the city or the fortress 
 as it existed before its destruction. 
 " Grass " had no doubt " grown " 
 meanwhile over the ruins. New 
 settlers had built on the old spot 
 dwellings which had perhaps lain 
 long in ruins themselves when the 
 
682 
 
 TROY AND HISSARLIK. 
 
 [app. i. 
 
 poet began his work. It is very 
 questionable whether he ever saw 
 with his eyes even the ruins of the 
 fallen city. The place where it stood 
 he saw no doubt, but the city itself he 
 saw only in a vision. Just as Zeus and 
 Hera, Toseidon and Athene, Ares and 
 Aphrodite, were creatures of his fancy, 
 so the city of Ilium was itself " a 
 dream." No one can expect the actual 
 ruins to correspond to every imagina- 
 tion of the poet ; and when it is 
 established that Homer had in his 
 mind much that never existed, at all 
 events on this spot, it simply comes 
 to this, that the Iliad is not an 
 historical work, but a poetical one. 
 
 And yet the correspondence of the 
 poetical representation with the local 
 conditions is far from being so im- 
 perfect as it is represented. The 
 situation of Hissarlik satisfies in the 
 main all the demands of the Homeric 
 topograjmy. From this spot, as from 
 Ujek Tepeh, we get a view over the 
 whole of the anterior Troad. The 
 plain with its rivers and brooks, 
 the side-valleys, the encompassing 
 hills, the circlet of volcanic moun- 
 tains, the Hellespont and the Aegean, 
 lie spread out before our eyes as we 
 stand on the height of Hissarlik. 
 The only difference is that we are 
 ever so much nearer to the plain, and 
 especially to that part of it which is 
 best suited for a battle-field, and 
 which, if we overlook the present 
 altered courses of the rivers, com- 
 pletely answers to the topography of 
 the Homeric field of battle. The sepa- 
 rate objects on this plain are clearly 
 distinguishable, and it is not quite 
 impossible that Helen should have 
 been able to point out the individual 
 chieftains of the Achaeans to her 
 royal father-in-law. The distance, too, 
 is quite visible enough for the pur- 
 poses of the Homeric landscapes. 
 We see the Thracian Chersonese, and 
 we have Imbros and Samothrace before 
 us. Further to the left lies Tenedos, 
 and right behind in the south-east 
 
 the snowy top of Ida rises above 
 the nearer range of hills. At sunset 
 even the pyramid of Athos may some- 
 times be seen for a few minutes in 
 the far west. 
 
 It is true that the old city did not 
 stand as high as the top of the hill of 
 Hissarlik did before the excavations 
 were begun. Dr. Schlieinann had 
 to go deep down — from 25 to 30 feet 
 or more — before he came on the walls 
 and houses of Ilium under the debris 
 of later settlements. But even if we 
 sink the level of Ilium to such a 
 depth, it is still high enough to 
 preserve to the city its commanding 
 position. Its houses and towers, even 
 though they were of a very moderate 
 height, must have risen far enough 
 above the surface to reach the level 
 of the later hill. This would still 
 make it a lofty, " windy " fastness. 
 Our wooden huts, which had been put 
 up at the foot of the hill, well below 
 the level of the old city, looked 
 straight down upon the plain from a 
 height of at least 60 feet, and the 
 winds blew about us with such force 
 that we often felt as if our whole 
 settlement might be hurled down the 
 precipice. 
 
 The fortress-hill of Hissarlik, as it 
 appeared to travellers before Dr. 
 Schliemann started his huge excava- 
 tions, was then, properly speaking, an 
 artificial hill, most nearly comparable 
 perhaps with the earth hills of the 
 Assyrian plain which covered the 
 ruins of the royal castles ; only it had 
 not been set up on the plain itself, 
 but on the west end of the second 
 ridge of tertiary rock above described. 
 Consequently it lay right over the 
 plain, and must have looked high 
 from the first. Its subsequent in- 
 crease in height must have been 
 very gradual indeed. In digging 
 down from the surface fresh ruins 
 are constantly encountered, belonging 
 to various epochs. One people has 
 lived here after another, and each 
 fresh one which settled on the ruins 
 
App. I.] 
 
 BY PROFESSOR VIRCHOW. 
 
 683 
 
 of its predecessor levelled the surface 
 anew by clearing away some of the 
 ruins and throwing them over the 
 precipice. In this way the surface of 
 the hill grew gradually in extent, and 
 it is conceivable that, now that last 
 year's excavations have almost com- 
 pletely laid bare the boundaries of the 
 old city, the vast pit should present 
 the aspect of a funnel, at the bottom 
 of which the ruins of Ilium lie within 
 a pretty small compass. We must 
 admit the justness of the objection 
 that this Ilium was no great city, 
 capable of finding room for a great 
 army of foreign warriors in addition 
 to a large population of its own. 
 Such an Ilium as that existed only in 
 the poet's vision. Our Ilium hardly 
 deserves to be called a city at all. In 
 our part of the world we should call 
 such a place a fortress or a strong- 
 hold. For this reason I prefer to call 
 the place a fortress-hill (Burgberg) ; a 
 term which, strictly speaking, is 
 merely a translation of the Turkish 
 word Hissarlik. 
 
 But why take these very ruins at 
 the bottom of the funnel to be Ilium ? 
 To this I answer that it is a question 
 again whether there ever was a place 
 called Ilium. Is it not questionable 
 whether there ever was any Heracles 
 or any Argonauts ? Perhaps Ilium, 
 Triam, and Andromache, are just as 
 much poetical fictions as Zeus, Posei- 
 don, and Aphrodite. But this does 
 not amount to saying that we ought 
 not to look for the Ilium of the poet 
 at the bottom of our funnel. There 
 lies a close array of houses surrounded 
 by a mighty wall of rough-hewn 
 stone. The walls of houses and rooms 
 have been preserved to such an extent, 
 that it is possible to give a ground- 
 plan of the place. A pretty steep 
 street, paved with large flags, leads 
 through a single gate on the western 
 side into the fortress. Only a narrow 
 passage is left between the houses. 
 The whole place is full of the rubbish 
 left by a conflagration. Great clay 
 
 bricks, half a yard square, have been 
 melted by a fierce heat and turned to a 
 glassy paste. Heaps of corn, especially 
 wheat, pease, and beans, have been 
 turned to charcoal. The remains of 
 animal food, oyster-shells and mussels 
 of all kinds, bones of sheep and goats, 
 of oxen and swine, have likewise been 
 partially burnt away. Of wood- 
 charcoal proper there is but little to 
 be seen, and what there is is mostly 
 oak. The conflagration must have 
 lasted long enough to destroy entirely 
 almost all the woodwork. Even the 
 metal, and especially the bronze, is 
 for the most part molten and reduced 
 by fire to an undistinguishable mass. 
 
 It is evident that this fortress was 
 destroyed by a conflagration of great 
 extent, which lasted long enough to 
 destroy utterly all inflammable ma- 
 terials. Such a fire as corresponds 
 to Homer's description has only taken 
 place once in the settlements on 
 Hissarlik. In the numerous strata of 
 ruins which lie one above the other 
 there are several other traces of 
 fire, but none on the scale on which 
 they occur in the " burnt city." 
 Even below it there are still strata, 
 going down at some points to a 
 depth of 20 or 25 feet or more, — 
 for the " burnt city " was not the 
 oldest settlement on Hissarlik, — but 
 even in these oldest strata there is 
 nowhere the trace of such an extensive 
 conflagration. 
 
 It is the " burnt city," however, 
 where, among numerous objects of 
 art-work — of pottery especially — 
 some of which are of rare excellence, 
 gold has repeatedly been brought to 
 light, sometimes in connection with 
 objects of silver, bronze, and ivory. 
 All these discoveries have been 
 eclipsed in splendour by the " Trea- 
 sure of Priam," upon which Dr. 
 Schliemann lighted in the third year 
 of his successful excavations. And 
 not a year has passed since, without 
 the discovery of at least some articles 
 of gold. I was myself an eye-witness 
 
684 
 
 TROY AND 
 
 HISSARLIK. 
 
 [App. t 
 
 of two such discoveries, and helped 
 to gather the articles together. The 
 slanderers have long since been si- 
 lenced, who were not ashamed to 
 charge the discoverer with an impos- 
 ture. Especially since the Turkish 
 government, on the occasion of the 
 furtive appropriation of a portion of 
 the discoveries by two of the work- 
 men, has laid an embargo on all 
 objects of the kind, — as is the case 
 with such collections elsewhere, — 
 such envious spite has retreated to the 
 privacy of the family hearth. Since 
 that time, objects of gold of the same 
 type as those from Hissarlik have been 
 found not only in Mycenae, but also 
 in other Greek graves. One of the 
 gold treasures which were excavated 
 in my presence contained stamped 
 plates of gold, the ornamentation of 
 which is in the minutest details the 
 counterpart of that found at My- 
 cenae. 
 
 The "burnt city" was then also 
 the " city of gold." It is only in it 
 that we find this wealth of marvel- 
 lous and at the same time distinctly 
 foreign treasures. For it is clear that 
 we have here no product of native 
 industry, but articles brought from 
 abroad either by trade or plunder. 
 Their character is Oriental, and more 
 particularly Assyrian. Consequently 
 the burnt fortress must have been the 
 seat of a great and prosperous hero — 
 or of the son of such a man — who had 
 amassed treasures of the rarest value 
 in his small but secure home. 
 
 The chief treasure was found all 
 together at one spot, in a kind of 
 cupboard. It appeared to have been 
 originally stowed away in a wooden 
 chest. It was near the wall of a very 
 strongly built stone house, in other 
 parts of which were found numerous 
 jther treasures, in vases of terra- 
 cotta, in a good state of preservation, 
 and which was evidently the resi- 
 dence of the prince. For in no other 
 place were any such treasures dis- 
 covered ; and, as the area of the burnt 
 
 city has now been completely brought 
 to light, we may assert definitely that 
 on this spot, was the palace. The old 
 city wall runs close by it, and the street 
 which comes up through the single gate 
 of the fortress leads up to it. 
 
 Was this gate the Scaean gate, and 
 this house the house of Priam ? Dr. 
 Schliemann, overawed by his learned 
 adversaries, now talks only of the 
 house of the " chief of the city " 
 (Stadthaupt). But can the " chief of 
 the city," who was master of so much 
 gold at a time when gold was so 
 scarce, have been anything but a 
 prince ? And why not call him 
 Priam ? Whether Priam ever existed 
 or not, the prince of the golden 
 treasure who lived on this spot comes 
 near enough to the Priam of the Iliad 
 to make us refuse to forego the delight 
 of giving the place his name. And 
 what harm can there be in assigning 
 to the western gateway, the only one 
 which exists in the city ivall at all, to 
 which a steep road led up from the 
 plain, the famous name of the Scaean 
 gate ? 
 
 Do not let us cut ourselves off from 
 all poetry without the slightest need. 
 Children that we are of a hard and 
 too prosaic age, we would maintain 
 our right to conjure up again before 
 our old age the pictures which filled 
 our youthful fancy. It saddens but 
 it also elevates the soul when we 
 stand on a place like Hissarlik, and 
 read the course of history from the 
 series of successive strata as from a 
 geological disclosure. This history is 
 not written for us, but set bodily 
 before our eyes in the relics of* bygone 
 times, in the actual objects u-ed by 
 men who lived in them. Huge masses 
 of ruins are piled in layers above the 
 burnt stronghold, between it and the 
 first layer containing hewn stones and 
 a wall of square blocks. This was 
 perhaps the wall which Lysimachus, 
 one of Alexander's generals, is recorded 
 to have built on Ilium. Anyhow this 
 wall resembles the walls of the Mace- 
 
App. L] 
 
 BY PROFESSOR VIRCHOW. 
 
 685 
 
 donian period, and the corresponding 
 layer conceals Greek walls and pot- 
 tery. Here then we have a definite 
 limit of time. From this point we 
 have got to reckon the time back- 
 wards, and it is easy to see that this 
 reckoning is not unfavourable to our 
 interpretation of the Trojan legend. 
 
 Perhaps then Homer's song is not 
 pure fiction, after all. Perhaps it is 
 true that in a very remote pre-historic 
 time a rich prince really dwelt here 
 in a towering fortress, and that Greek 
 kings waged a fierce war against 
 him, and that the war ended in his 
 own fall and the destruction of his 
 city by a mighty conflagration. Per- 
 haps this was the first time that 
 Europe and Asia tried each other's 
 strength on this coast, the first time 
 that the young but more and more 
 independent civilization of the West 
 put to the rough test of force its 
 superiority over the already effeminate 
 civilization of the East. To me this 
 seems a probability, but it is one 
 which I will not press any one else to 
 accept. 
 
 Of this we may be sure, that even 
 the oldest and earliest settlement on 
 Hissarlik was made by a people 
 which had already felt the influence 
 of civilization. True, it still used 
 stone weapons, but these weapons 
 were finely polished and bore witness 
 by the delicacy of their outline to a 
 knowledge of metals. In fact, traces 
 of metals are not wanting even in the 
 oldest strata. It is impossible there- 
 fore to assign these strata to the Stone 
 age. They are indications of what 
 we may undoubtedly assert to be the 
 oldest known settlement in Asia Minor 
 of a people of pre-historic times, of some 
 advance in civilization. Hence the hill- 
 fortress of Hissarlik is certain to hold 
 an enduring place as a trustworthy 
 witness in the history of civilization. 
 It will be to our descendants an im- 
 portant geographical position, and a 
 fixed starting-point for the flights of 
 their fancy. For it is to be hoped 
 that, however the strife may end about 
 the existence of Ilium or of Priam, 
 the young will never lose the Iliad. 
 
APPENDIX IT. 
 
 ON THE RELATION OF NOVUM ILIUM TO THE ILIOS 
 
 OF HOMER. 
 
 By Professor J. P. Maiiaffy. 
 
 The full and explicit argument of 
 Strabo, in the 13th book of his Geo- 
 graphy, has persuaded the philological 
 world pretty generally, from his day 
 to our own, that the Greek Ilium of 
 his time was not the town about 
 which the heroes of the Iliad were 
 supposed to have fought their immor- 
 tal conflicts. I now propose, accord- 
 ing to the flattering invitation of Dr. 
 Schliemann, to enquire critically into 
 this argument, and see what founda- 
 tion it has in real history. 
 
 Let me first observe that Strabo is 
 not our original authority for this 
 theory, but that he professedly bor- 
 rows his arguments from a certain 
 Demetrius of Skepsis (in the Troad), 
 who had written largely on the sub- 
 ject, and who had, in fact, started 
 what I may call the illegitimacy of 
 the Ilium of his day. This Deme- 
 trius is described as follows by Strabo 
 (xiii. § 55) : 'Ek Se rrjs 5«^ews koX 
 6 A^/x^rpios icrTLV, ov [Aefxyrj/JLeOa ttoX- 
 Xolkls, 6 tov TpwtKov Slolkoct/jlov i^rjyrjcrd- 
 fievos ypa/x/xartKos, Kara tov avrov \povov 
 yeyovobs KpaT^n koX 'AptcrTap^a). He 
 was then a grammarian, probably of 
 the Pergamene school of Crates, but 
 versed in Alexandrian criticism, for 
 he cited in support of his theory 
 (Strabo, loc. cit. § 36) a learned lady of 
 that school — Hestiaea — who had evi- 
 dently raised doubts on the same 
 point before him, and among her 
 a-n-oprjiiaTa had asked whether the 
 plain below the existing Ilium could 
 be the scene of Homer's battles, see- 
 
 ing that most of it Avas a late deposit 
 made by the Skamander and Simois. 
 We may be sure from this authority 
 being so carefully cited, as well as 
 that of the orator Lycurgus, who 
 asserts in a rhetorical passage the 
 total destruction and complete dis- 
 appearance of Ilium, that Demetrius 
 had no older or clearer evidence for 
 his theory in Greek literature. What, 
 then, were his arguments ? 
 
 (1.) The total destruction of Ilios 
 is stated or implied by Homer himself. 
 
 (2.) The sacred image of Athene 
 is apparently in the Iliad a sitting 
 figure, whereas that at the existing 
 Ilion was standing. 
 
 (3.) Various geographical allusions 
 in the Iliad, about the hot and cold 
 springs of the Skamander (§ 43) ; 
 about the considerable distance of the 
 ships from the town (§ 3G) ; about the 
 look-out of Polites, who ought to 
 have used the acropolis of the town 
 with far more effect, if it were so near 
 (§ 37) ; about the dragging of Hector 
 round the walls, which could not be 
 done on the rough ground about the 
 present town (§ 37), because the 
 KolWlkoXwvy}, on which Ares sits, is 
 not near the present town (§ 35) ; 
 lastly (in order of importance), be- 
 cause the ipiveos and <£?ryos mentioned 
 in the Iliad, and which he translated 
 wild fig wood and beech wood (?), 
 were not close to Ilium, but some dis- 
 tance further inland. 
 
 From all these hints Demetrius con- 
 cluded that Homer's Ilios was not on 
 
App. II] 
 
 BY PEOFESSOR 
 
 J. P. MAHAFFY. 
 
 687 
 
 the site of the then existing city, but 
 some 30 stadia higher inland, on 
 the site of what he calls the 'IAieW 
 KU)fxrj. Here, he thinks, all the diffi- 
 culties of allusion can be explained. 
 
 In answer to the obvious questions, 
 what had become of the old city ? and 
 how did the new one come by the old 
 name ? he stated : 
 
 (1.) That all the stones of the old 
 city had been carried away to build 
 or restore the neighbouring towns, 
 when they had been sacked (iKTreirop- 
 $T]fi€viov, ov roVecos Se KaT£cr7racrju,eVcoi/), 
 whereas this town had been eV fiaOpwv 
 dvarerpa/xjjievr] (§ 38). 
 
 (2.) On the second point nothing 
 certain could be ascertained. Deme- 
 trius considered it was founded by 
 the Aeolic Greeks, "in the time of 
 the Lydian monarchy" (iirl Se roiv 
 
 Av$LOV 7) VVV CKTLCrOr) KCLTOLKLCl KCU TO 
 
 Upov ov p.rjv 7rdAts ye rjv, a\Xa 7roA- 
 
 A.OIS XpOVOLS VO-T€pOV, KCLL KOLT oXiyOV, 
 
 ws €LprjraL, rrjv avfycriv ecr^e, § 42). 
 
 According to others, the town had 
 been changed from one site to another, 
 and finally settled there Kara xPW^ 
 /xaAiora, from which Kramer conjec- 
 tures, reasonably enough, Kara Kpolo-ov 
 /xaAtcrra. 
 
 These arguments so fully per- 
 suaded Strabo and others, that the 
 claim of the historical Ilium to pre- 
 historic antiquity was rejected, espe- 
 cially by the pedantic commentators 
 on Homer. Thus from that day to 
 this the Greek Ilium has been set 
 down as a new foundation, perhaps 
 on the old site, but more probably 
 not so ; and it has been called Novum 
 Ilium, a name unknown to the Greeks 
 and Romans. 
 
 I now come to criticize Strabo's 
 arguments. 
 
 (1.) As regards the evidence in the 
 Iliad that the city was entirely de- 
 stroyed, no passage can be shown 
 which affirms it. The arguments of 
 Demetrius are mere foolish quibbles. 
 He quotes : 
 
 %(r<T£Tai fj/Jiap, orav iror b\oo\ri "IAios Ipr}, 
 
 and 
 
 ^ yap /ecu Tlpidfioio ir6\iv Sieirepaa/xeu alir^v, 
 
 and 
 
 TrepOero 8e TIpid/AOio it6\is Se/caro) iviavTa. 
 
 But that these latter need not mean 
 tov a<j>avio-jx6v r>}? 7roA.ecos appears from 
 the frequent use of iropOioi, TrepOw, and 
 its compounds as regards Lyrnessus, 
 Pedasus, Thebe, and other towns of 
 the Troad, as quoted by Strabo (§ 7). 
 The quibbles about Heracles' capture 
 of the town, as compared with that 
 of the Homeric chiefs (§ 32), are too 
 foolish to require comment. The first 
 line above quoted is a mere prophecy 
 of Priam's, pathetic as such, but of 
 no other value. The belief in the 
 total ruin of Homer's Ilios really arose 
 
 (1) from the Cyclic poems, and from 
 
 (2) the many tragedies which were 
 based on them. 
 
 I do not delay over these points 
 because any serious person requires 
 them to be refuted, but simply to 
 show the kind of argument which satis- 
 fied Demetrius. I do not think any- 
 thing more need be said about (2) 
 the sitting image. It would at most 
 prove that the old image had really 
 been carried off from Ilios, as many 
 legends stated. 
 
 (3.) The various minute geogra- 
 phical criticisms are more interest- 
 ing, not from their weight, but because 
 they lead us to discover the whole 
 source of the dispute. But it is quite 
 unnecessary to take them in detail, till 
 we have considered the two broad as- 
 sumptions involved in them : (a) that 
 the poet (or poets) of the Iliad was 
 accurate in all these details, and had 
 a definite picture of the ground before 
 his eye : (j3) That the modern names 
 of the places, which were indicated to 
 Demetrius or to travellers in the time 
 of Strabo, were faithfully handed 
 down from other days. 
 
 I do not believe that either of these 
 assumptions is at all probable. From 
 what we know of the geography of the 
 Odyssey, and still more of the tragic 
 
688 
 
 NOVUM ILIUM AND THE ILIOS OF HOMER. 
 
 [App. IT. 
 
 poets, it seems almost a law of Greek 
 poetic art to be negligent of geo- 
 graphical detail, while it is curiously 
 faithful and accurate in the more 
 essential features of poetry. We 
 have, I think, no evidence whatever 
 that any place in the world was 
 bound to correspond accurately in its 
 features to the descriptions of the 
 Iliad. I will not even touch on the 
 possible difficulties in such a matter 
 caused by a variety of authors on the 
 Iliad. 
 
 But supposing even that the allu- 
 sions in the Iliad were consistent, and 
 applicable to a real scene, what au- 
 thority had the places designated to 
 Demetrius, or to Strabo, to represent 
 them ? On this we have happily very 
 clear evidence. The historical Ilion 
 had long been an obscure and half- 
 forgotten place, when Alexander the 
 Great, having sacrificed there, as an 
 omen, on invading Asia, determined 
 after his success (§ 26) to reward this 
 town, and make it again a great city. 
 This he did, and his policy was se- 
 conded by Lysimachus. As the town 
 lay on one of the thoroughfares into 
 Asia, it throve and became very popu- 
 lous, and of course crowds of visitors 
 passed through, and desired to see the 
 scenes of the Iliad, which they had 
 learned by heart in their youth. Hence 
 the ciceroni of the place were bound to 
 satisfy them, and of course they were 
 equal to the occasion. The tomb of 
 Ilos, the beech-tree, the fig-tree, in fact 
 every minute allusion in the Iliad, was 
 to be verified on the spot. The places 
 therefore which Demetrius criticized 
 were named by the people of 330-300 
 B.C., when their city suddenly rose 
 into importance, and when these tra- 
 ditions acquired a pecuniary value. 
 Of course they were ignorantly chosen. 
 In most cases there was no evidence 
 to go upon, and the least unlikely 
 place must be selected. But I need 
 not dilate to any traveller upon the 
 habits of these ciceroni in all ages. 
 
 But what shall we say of the state- 
 
 ment that the historical town was 
 founded in the time of the Lydians? 
 
 In the first place, the date is suspi- 
 ciously vague. Compare, for example, 
 the parallel account of the founding 
 of Abydos in the same book of Strabo 
 (§ 22) : "A/3i>Sos Se M1A770-1W iarl KTiafxa, 
 i7TLTp€if/avTO<5 Tvyov, tov AvSo)V fiaaiXiws' 
 rjv yap lir eKetVu) tol yoypia koll r\ Tpcoas 
 airaa-a. Or see the still more explicit 
 account of the transfer of Skepsis 
 from its old site IlaAaio-Ke^is to the his- 
 toric town (§ 52). The more specific 
 date of Kroesus is only a conjecture, 
 and is qualified by the suspicious 
 IXoXkttol. 
 
 It is probable then that this state- 
 ment rested on no definite tradition, 
 but only on reasoning by analogy 
 from the foundation of Abydos and 
 other towns in the Troad by the per- 
 mission of the Lydians. But why, it 
 may be asked, did Demetrius assign 
 so old an origin to the historical 
 town, if he desired to destroy its 
 claim to any epic importance? He 
 only did so because there was clear 
 evidence of the recognition of Ilion 
 as the genuine city up to the days of 
 Xerxes. Had he attempted to assert 
 a later foundation, he could have been 
 refuted by distinct texts. 
 
 I will now therefore trace down the 
 history of the historical Ilium from 
 the earliest evidence we have to the 
 days of Demetrius, and show what 
 were the reasons which determined 
 the theory of the Skepsian critic. 
 
 Our earliest allusion is (I think) 
 that in Herodotus, vii. 42, who speaks 
 of rrjv 'IAia&x yrjv, and says that Xerxes 
 es to Upidfxov Hepyapiov avefirj, where he 
 sacrificed 'KO-qvalrf rfj 'IAiaSi. There 
 is no suspicion that this was any 
 other than the historical (or Novum ) 
 Ilium, and this sacrifice distinctly 
 implies that about 500 B.C. it was 
 already an old and venerable shrine. 
 
 Demetrius (or Strabo) admitted 
 that the offering of Locrian virgins 
 to this shrine was as old as the Per- 
 sian wars ; but in fact the origin of 
 
Apr II.] 
 
 BY PROFESSOR J. P. MAHAFFY. 
 
 689 
 
 the custom was lost in the mists of 
 antiquity. 
 
 We find, about the same date as 
 Herodotus, the learned Mitylenaean 
 antiquary, Hellanicus, asserting that 
 the Homeric and historic Ilium were 
 the same. This Demetrius quotes, 
 but sets aside as a piece of favouritism 
 in the historian (§ 42) : 'EWolvikos Be 
 Xa/3i£o/xei/os rot? 'IXuvctlv, otos Ikuvov 
 Ovfxos, (TvvrjyoptL ro ttjv avrrjv eXvat ttoXlv 
 tt]v vvv rrj Tore. But why could he 
 not quote any such ancient and re- 
 spectable authority on his own side? 
 
 I imagine the town to have been of 
 no importance in Xerxes' day except 
 for its shrine ; for in the quarrels of 
 the Athenians and Mitylenaean s about 
 Sigeum, settled by the arbitration of 
 Periander (Herod, v. 94), we hear of 
 Sigeum and Achilleum being occupied, 
 but not a word about Ilium. And so 
 through all the history of the Athenian 
 hegemony, till in the closing years of 
 the Peloponnesian war, when Xeno- 
 phon tells us of Mindarus (Hellen. i. 
 1. 4) koltlScov rrjv po-XW * v 'I^wa Ovojv rfj 
 'A$7)va. The battle was oft' Ehoeteion. 
 The shrine then had remained there, 
 and the habit of sacrificing at it. 
 But the town must also have been for- 
 tified, and no mere km/xtj, as Demetrius 
 says. For we are told of Derkyllidas : 
 (Hellen. iii. 1. 16) : 7re/x7r(oj/ Se koll 7rp6s 
 ras AtoAtSas 7rdA.ets tj^lov re eAeu#e- 
 povcrOaL T6 avrovs ko.1 es ra rec^rj 
 8ej(e<r0at. 01 pXv ovv NeavSpeis /<at 
 'iAieis kol KoKuAtTai IttclOovto ' koX yap 
 ol cfypovpovvres ''EAA^ves Iv avTot?, e7ret 
 7] Maj/ia a7re0avev, ov iravv tl KaAws 
 irepiuTTOvro. 
 
 So also Demosthenes (in Aristocr. 
 p. 671) speaks of Ilium as opening 
 its gates to Charidemus. It seems 
 accordingly difficult to believe Deme- 
 trius of Skepsis, when he says that, 
 visiting it when a child, it was again 
 so decayed that the roofs were not 
 even tiled. Hegesianax, however, is 
 quoted by Strabo as stating that the 
 Galati in their invasion found it 
 aT€i^L(TTov, and hence deserted it after 
 
 a short occupation. But this points 
 to some sudden decay after the time 
 of Alexander : for he, as we have 
 already noticed, made it an important 
 city, and from this date down to the 
 age of Augustus it remained so, 
 though doubtless with some vicissi- 
 tudes. Nicolaus Damascenus (Frag. 
 4, ed. C. Midler) tells us that, with 
 the assistance of King Herod, he 
 saved the Ilians from a fine of 
 100,000 drachmae, imposed on them 
 by M. Agrippa, because his wife Julia 
 (daughter of the Emperor Augustus) 
 was nearly lost along with her retinue 
 in the Skamander, which had sud- 
 denly risen with a flood. The Ilians 
 protested that they had received no 
 notice of her visit (b.c. 17). I fancy 
 that the fine of 100,000 drachmae 
 points to a supposed population of 
 that number, for we know that the 
 town was large and populous, and 
 that Lysimachus had draughted into 
 it the people of neighbouring towns. 
 I need pursue its history no further. 
 
 But so much will appear more than 
 probable. By the favour of Alexander 
 and Lysimachus, Ilium assumed a 
 sudden importance, and even asserted 
 authority over the whole Troad. This 
 must have raised up for the Ilians 
 many enemies among the neighbour- 
 ing towns, especially at Skepsis, which 
 boasted a foundation by Skamandrius, 
 the son of Hektor. Demetrius, whose 
 parents might remember Ilium a de- 
 cayed and neglected place, lived to see 
 it ousting his own city, and all the 
 others of the Troad, from their former 
 importance, and no doubt the Ilians, 
 like all upstarts under royal favour, 
 were overbearing and insolent. Hence 
 this scholar set himself to work to 
 pull down their historic reputation, 
 and to prove that after all they were 
 people of recent origin, and of no 
 real nobility, as a city. He asserts 
 that Hellanicus favoured them (yapi£o- 
 /xei'os), but this very expression sug- 
 gests an opposite feeling in his own 
 mind. So he set to work to prove 
 
 2 Y 
 
690 
 
 NOVUM ILIUM AND THE ILIOS OF HOMER, 
 
 [Ait. II. 
 
 that the places shown by the local 
 
 guides (KCU TOVS 6vOfXat,OfX€VOVS T07TOVS 
 
 ivravOa SetKWfxivovs bpuifxzv) would not 
 fit the descriptions of the Iliad, with- 
 out moving the city. But he quietly 
 assumes the accuracy of all these 
 special spots, as then named, though 
 he rejects the far more trustworthy 
 tradition which attached the name of 
 Ilion to the one historic city. 
 
 I see no adequate reason to question 
 this tradition, and believe that what- 
 ever the Trojan war may have been, 
 and whatever may be the accuracy of 
 the details of the Iliad, the conflict 
 was localized by the poet at the place 
 then and ever after called Ilium, and 
 that no new foundation ever took place. 
 
 The argument of Demetrius is 
 merely that of a malevolent pedant, 
 who hated the Ilians, on account of 
 their recent good fortune, and who 
 sought to detract from their respecta- 
 bility on antiquarian grounds. 
 
 Having made this examination on 
 purely critical grounds, and having 
 drawn my conclusions from internal 
 evidence as to the value of Demetrius' 
 theory, I appeal to Dr. Schliemann 
 to say whether his researches do not 
 verify them. I believe they do, and 
 that there is clear evidence of an 
 unbroken occupation (except for the 
 disasters of war) on the present site 
 from pre-historic days down to Roman 
 times. 
 
 I am thus unfortunate enough to 
 conflict with our Greek evidence as to 
 the destruction both of Mycenae and 
 of Troy. But as I have persuaded 
 Dr. Schliemann and most other com- 
 petent judges that the accounts of the 
 destruction of Mycenae are false, I 
 may perhaps be able to persuade them 
 that the re-foundation of Ilium rests 
 on no better basis. 
 
APPENDIX HI. 
 
 THE INSCRIPTIONS FOUND AT HISSARLIK. 
 
 By Professor A. H. Sayce. 
 
 Not the least interesting and im- 
 portant of the results obtained from 
 Dr. Schliemann's excavations at His- 
 sarlik is the discovery that writing 
 was known in the north-western 
 corner of Asia Minor long before 
 the introduction of the Phoenician or 
 Greek alphabet. Inscribed objects 
 are not indeed plentiful, but sufficient 
 exist to show that the ancient inha- 
 bitants of the place were not wholly 
 illiterate, but possessed a system of 
 writing which they shared with the 
 neighbouring nations of the mainland 
 and the adjacent islands. Throughout 
 Asia Minor a syllabary was once in 
 use, which conservative Cyprus alone 
 retained into historical times. 
 
 Numerous inscriptions in this syl- 
 labaiy have been found in the latter 
 island. The characters, which amount 
 to at least fifty-seven in number, long 
 resisted all attempts at decipherment, 
 but at last the problem was success- 
 fully solved by the genius of the 
 Assyrian scholar, the late Mr. George 
 Smith, with the help of a mutilated 
 bilingual inscription, written in Phoe- 
 nician and Cypriote. The language 
 concealed under so strange a garb 
 turned out to be the Greek dialect 
 spoken in Cyprus, a dialect full of in- 
 teresting peculiarities, and especially 
 noteworthy as preserving up to the 
 fourth century B.C. the two sounds of 
 v and y (or digamma and yod), which 
 had disappeared elsewhere. To the 
 student of Homer the dialect is of 
 considerable importance, since several 
 of the grammatical forms found in the 
 
 Iliad and Odyssey can be shown to 
 have had a Cyprian origin. 
 
 When the key was once discovered 
 to the Cypriote syllabary — a syllabary 
 being a collection of characters, each 
 of which denotes not a mere letter 
 but a syllable — the task cf decipher- 
 ing it advanced rapidly. Dr. Birch, 
 Dr. Biandis, Dr. Siegismund, Dr. 
 Deecke, M. Pierides, and Prof. Breal, 
 took it up successfully; General di 
 Cesnola's excavations in Cyprus added 
 a great abundance of new material ; 
 and tw r o or three bilingual inscrip- 
 tions, in Greek and Cj^priote, were 
 brought to light. At present, it may 
 be said that two characters only of the 
 syllabary still remain undetermined. 
 
 But the origin of the syllabary was 
 an unexplained mystery. Dr. Deecke, 
 indeed, following up a suggestion of 
 Dr. Biandis, made a bold attempt to 
 derive it from the cuneiform charac- 
 ters introduced by the Assyrians 
 during their occupation of Cyprus in 
 the time of Sargon {circa B.C. 710). 
 Subsequent investigation, however, 
 has not confirmed the attempt, plau- 
 sible as it appeared at first, and the 
 evidence we now possess all points 
 to the conclusion, that the syllabary 
 was imported into Cyprus from the 
 mainland of Asia Minor, where it had 
 been previously in use. This con- 
 clusion is rendered almost a certainty 
 by Dr. Schliemann's discoveries. 
 
 It was the keen insight of the 
 lamented Professor Haug that first de- 
 tected Cypriote characters on certain 
 objects disinterred by Dr. Schliemann 
 
692 
 
 THE INSCRIPTIONS FOUND AT HISSARLIK. [App. III. 
 
 at Hissarlik. Among these a terra- 
 cotta whorl 1 was found at the depth of 
 24h ft. (see No. 1524) and inscribed 
 with symbols, winch Dr. Schliemann 
 had pronounced to be written cha- 
 racters immediately after their dis- 
 covery. On this Prof. Haug believed 
 he was able to read the words ta .i . o . 
 si . i . go, that is, #eioj 2tyw, " to the 
 divine Sigo," a deify whose name he 
 thought he saw in Sigeum, Scamander, 
 and Sicyon, as well as upon two terra- 
 cotta funnels dug up by Dr. Schlie- 
 mann from a depth of 3 metres, and 
 of which more will be said presently. 
 Dr. Haug published his researches in 
 1874, in the Augsburger allgemeine 
 Zeitung, p. 32. 
 
 The enquiry was now taken up by 
 Professor Gomperz of Yienna,who gave 
 an account of his results in the Wiener 
 Abendpost of May 6th and June 26 th, 
 1874. He accepted the values as- 
 signed by Haug to the characters 
 on the whorl, but, by reading them 
 from right to left instead of from left 
 to right, he obtained the good Greek 
 words ta . go . i . di . o . i (jay<2> S«t>), " to 
 the divine general." This striking re- 
 sult was communicated to the Academy 
 shortly afterwards by Professor Max 
 Miiller, and seemed to be " almost 
 beyond reasonable doubt." 
 
 At the same time Professor Gom- 
 perz proposed tentative explanations 
 of four other inscriptions: one on a 
 terra-cotta seal found at a depth of 
 7 metres ; another on a whetstone of 
 red slate, also from a depth of 7 me- 
 tres ; a third round the neck of a vase 
 from a depth of 8 metres; and a 
 fourth on a whorl from a depth of 
 10 metres. The depth at which the 
 latter object was found gives some 
 idea of the antiquity to which a 
 knowledge of writing in the Troad 
 must reach back. 2 
 
 1 This word is used merely for the sake of 
 uniformity, not because I believe the objects in 
 question to have been really employed as whorls. 
 
 2 Sec Troy and its Remains, pp. 367-371. 
 
 Satisfactory as the readings of Pro- 
 fessor Gomperz appeared at first to 
 be, it was not long before it was 
 perceived that they must be aban- 
 doned, and their author himself was 
 the first to recognize this necessity. 
 It was, indeed, startling to find good 
 Greek on objects of Trojan manufac- 
 ture ; Greek, too, which was of a 
 later age than that to which the 
 objects themselves probably belonged. 
 But Professor Gomperz had taken 
 his values for the characters from 
 the identifications of George Smith 
 and Brandis, and subsequent inves- 
 tigation showed that many of these 
 were erroneous. Thus, one of two 
 characters read % by Smith and 
 Brandis, and consequently by Gom- 
 perz after them, is really ta, while 
 the other ought to be vo. It was 
 clear that no progress had yet been 
 made beyond Haug's discovery that 
 the Trojan inscriptions were written 
 in the characters of the Cypriote 
 syllabary. 
 
 Discouraged by this abortive en- 
 deavour to decipher them, Professor 
 Gomperz has dropped the whole sub- 
 ject, and it still remains as it was left 
 by him at the end of 1874. The last 
 six years, however, have brought 
 with them important additions to 
 our knowledge both of the Cypriote 
 syllabary and of the modes of writing 
 employed by the populations of Asia 
 Minor ; and I hope to show, therefore, 
 that it is not only possible to read 
 many of the characters in the Trojan 
 inscriptions, but also to draw certain 
 inferences from them of considerable 
 historical and palaeographical import- 
 ance. I have carefully examined all 
 the objects in Dr. Schliemann's collec- 
 tion which bear marks in any way 
 resembling written characters, and 
 have thus been enabled to correct 
 the published copies upon which Pro- 
 fessor Gomperz worked, as well as to 
 ascertain that some of the so-called 
 inscriptions are really mere decora- 
 tive scratchings. 
 
App. III.] 
 
 BY PROFESSOR A. H. SAYCE. 
 
 693 
 
 The first inscription to which I 
 shall draw attention is one on a terra- 
 cotta seal, which was disinterred at a 
 depth of nearly 23 feet (No. 1519: 
 No. 499, p. 415). Two-thirds of 
 the handle of this are ornamented 
 with the tree-pattern not uncommon 
 on pre-historic Greek pottery, but 
 
 KO. 1519. Seal with No. 1520. The inscription 
 inscription. and accompanying 
 
 tree-pattern. 
 
 the rest of the handle, as well as 
 the die, is occupied by an inscription 
 in Cypriote letters, a revised copy 
 of which is here engraved. The die 
 is occupied with a single letter, and 
 three more are incised on the handle. 
 Each is perfectly clear, and corre- 
 sponds with well-known characters in 
 the Cypriote texts. Beading them 
 in the direction in which they look, 
 that is, from the handle towards the 
 die, we have the name or word re.ne. 
 ta .e or rentae. 3 The first character 
 has the value of le in the inscriptions 
 of Paphos and Kurium, and I fancy 
 that was also its value in Trojan, 
 though elsewhere it stood for re; 
 the third character indifferently ex- 
 pressed the sounds of ta, da, and ilia. 
 What the word may mean I have no 
 idea, but an interesting conclusion 
 can be drawn from the form of the 
 character e on the die. When com- 
 pared with the corresponding Cypriote 
 forms, it is clearly seen to be more 
 
 3 It is just possible, however, that the second 
 and third characters are really intended for one 
 only. In this case they would represent an 
 archaic form of si, and the word would read 
 resie or lesie, or conversely esire or esile. If 
 is the single character ta, the word could not 
 be read conversely, the rule being that the in- 
 scriptions are read in the direction in which the 
 characters look. 
 
 primitive, the earliest of the forms 
 met with in the Cypriote inscriptions 
 having a lesser number of lines and 
 being plainly derived from it. It is 
 only necessary to set the two side by 
 side to show that this is the case : 
 
 >1 ; 
 
 Trojan form. 
 
 Earliest Cypriote 
 form. 
 
 No. 1521. Forms of the character for E. 
 
 This prepares us to expect to find 
 older forms among the Trojan charac- 
 ters than among those found on the 
 monuments of Cyprus. 
 
 The seal seems to be a modified 
 imitation of a Babylonian signet- 
 cylinder. That exact imitations of 
 Babylonian cylinders were actually 
 made and used at Hissarlik we know 
 from the results of Dr. Schliemann's 
 diggings. Besides an unadorned cy- 
 linder of stone, Dr. Schliemann dis- 
 covered, at a depth of 29£ ft., a 
 cylinder of blue felspar, on which 
 a native artist has cut rude represen- 
 tations of a flower and a cartouche 
 (No. 1522, No. 503, p. 410). The 
 flower is of the old Babylonian type, 
 but the cartouche reminds us of 
 Egypt, and may possibly contain the 
 name of the owner, symbolized by 
 what looks like a flower tied by a 
 string. The tied string, it may be 
 added, has the shape of the Cypriote 
 character which denotes ro. However 
 this may be, 
 in these two 
 cylinders we 
 have mani- 
 fest indica- 
 tions of Ba- 
 bylonian in- 
 fluence. This 
 influence de- 
 clined after 
 the rise of As- 
 syria in the 
 
 / No. 1523. Design upon the 
 
 fourteenth Cylinder. 
 
 century B.C., and was succeeded by the 
 influence of Assyrian art, as modified 
 and propagated by the Phoenicians. 
 We may, therefore, perhaps assign 
 
 No. 1522. Cylinder of Felspar. 
 
694 
 
 THE INSCRIPTIONS FOUND AT HISSARLIK 
 
 [App. III. 
 
 these cylinders to the period between 
 the fourteenth century B.C. and about 
 B.C. 1800, when Sargon L, the king of 
 Northern Babylonia, carried his arms 
 as far as Cyprus. I must add, how- 
 ever, that the Phoenicians were not 
 the only medium through whom the 
 art and civilization of the Assyrians 
 were brought to the West ; the Hittites 
 were also potent instruments in carry- 
 ing out the same work, and there is a 
 good deal in the style of the orna- 
 mentation of the cylinder which re- 
 minds us of Hittite sculpture. But 
 even if we suppose that the Trojan 
 cylinders are not imitated directly 
 from Babylonian originals, but indi- 
 rectly through Hittite influence, the 
 fact remains that they are Babylonian 
 rather than Assyrian in style, while I 
 hope hereafrer to show that the art 
 which was appropriated by the Hit- 
 tites, and carried by them through 
 Asia Minor, was the art of Babylonia 
 rather than of Assyria. The leaden 
 figure of the goddess found by 
 Dr. Schliemann during his recent 
 excavations (No. 226) is the Artemis 
 Nana of Chaldea, who became the chief 
 deity of Carchemish, the Hittite capi- 
 tal, and passed through Asia Minor to 
 the shores and islands of the Aegean. 
 Characteristic figures of the goddess 
 have been discovered at Mycenae as 
 well a< in Cyprus, and I am strongly 
 of opinion that the rude Trojan figures, 
 which Dr. Schliemann believes to re- 
 present the owl-headed Athena, are 
 really barbarous attempts to imitate 
 the images of the goddess who went 
 under the various names of Atargatis, 
 Ate, Kybele, Ma, and Omphale. 
 
 The next inscription I shall take 
 is one which Professor Gomperz 
 vainly tried to decipher (No. 1524). It 
 
 is plain that the sign is not a 
 
 double character, as Haug and Gom- 
 perz imagined, but a single one. Now 
 Perrot and Guillaume, in their great 
 work, Exploration de la JBithynie et 
 Galatie (plate 6), give a drawing of an 
 
 inscription on the jamb of a rock-cut 
 tomb at Delikli-tash, between Yeni- 
 
 No. 1524. An inscribed whorl. (Actual size. Depth, 
 23 ft.) Also engraved, with its section, under No. 1996. 
 
 keui and Mohimul, and near the river 
 Ehyndacus, in Mysia, which is as 
 
 follows : 
 
 Here wq have a character which is 
 evidently identical with the prob- 
 lematical one on the Trojan whorl, 
 allowance being made for the fact 
 that the stonecutter has changed 
 curves into angles, and that a fan- 
 cied similarity of the character to 
 the Latin uncials /\ /\J may have 
 caused a slight modification of it on 
 the part of the copyist. We have 
 only to turn it round and extend one 
 line a little in order to bring it into 
 exact harmony with the form of the 
 character on the whorl (""•K^)* 
 The only Cypriote character which 
 
 it in any way resembles is *^ or ye, 
 which when laid upon its side bears 
 some likeness to it (xJ\J) though a 
 resemblance may also possibly be 
 detected between it and the Cypriote 
 /X/ . la. But for many reasons it is 
 pretty certain that the characters of 
 the Cypriote syllabary are but selected 
 specimens of a syllabary that origin- 
 ally contained many more, and we 
 may accordingly expect to find charac- 
 ters in the syllabaries in use on the 
 mainland which do net appear in that 
 employed by the Cyprians. For the 
 present, however, we may provision- 
 
App. IIL] 
 
 BY PROFESSOR A. H. SAYCE. 
 
 695 
 
 ally give tin's Trojan character the 
 value of ye, in default of anything 
 better. 
 
 The character which follows is also 
 found in the inscription of JJelikli- 
 tash, but there is no difficulty about 
 identifying it. It is the Cypriote 
 
 or /\_> which has the va- 
 riant values of ho, go, and hho. There 
 is more difficulty about the next, 
 
 This may be the Cypriote or Q, 
 
 ya, but it may also be a character not 
 used in Cyprus. I do not think there 
 is much doubt about the next letter, 
 W\ or (^s, which is also found on 
 the whorl No. 3563, 4 under the forms 
 fj\ and /<7> , as well as on No. 2224. It 
 is the Cypriote *T or ^ , ti, rather 
 
 than 'j or J , vo. 5 The last cha- 
 racter in the inscription is an interest- 
 ing one. It occurs in the inscription 
 of Delikli-tash under the form of £s , 
 in which form it is also found in the 
 Cypriote inscriptions of Golgoi, where 
 it has the value of re. The furm met 
 
 with on the whorl (//^) is similar 
 to that borne by it in the inscriptions 
 of Paphos (fr), where it has the 
 value of le. On the whorl No. 3563 
 it is written j"7p\ and [771, on No. 
 
 4148 as ^, on No. 2224 as 
 
 (a form frequently presented by the 
 character on the Cyprian monuments), 
 
 and on the whorl No. 3551 as -^\.~ The 
 terra-cotta seal given above makes 
 
 it VE>- 
 
 Where the inscription on the whorl 
 No. 1524 commences it is impossible 
 to say. If we start with the first 
 
 4 All the Numbers above 2000, cited in this 
 Appendix, are the numbers affixed to the objects 
 referred to in Dr. Schliemann's Trojan collection, 
 at present in the South Kensington Museum. 
 
 5 Compare, however, the Lykian or 
 
 TV 
 
 character discussed and read the char- 
 acter next but one as vo, we shall 
 have Ye-le-vo ye-go, which looks curi- 
 ously like 'I\lov for YlXlFov, but un- 
 fortunately both conditions are more 
 than doubtful. 
 
 Our next inscription is one on a 
 whorl numbered 3559, and found at 
 the remarkable depth of 33 ft. Here 
 the break in the continuity of* the 
 letters seems to indicate that the in- 
 scription should begin or end with 
 the character -f^Y This may be the 
 Cypriote ^j^ , ha (ga or hho), or even 
 ^ , si, but it is more probably the 
 Paphian ^T, le, mentioned above. 
 The character ""^ is plainly the 
 Cypriote ve, which appears at Paphos 
 as ~2__ ; the next character is Jco (go 
 or hho), and the next the Cypriote u, 
 written /\ and in the inscriptions 
 of Ktima and Paphos, as well as on 
 the monuments of Karia. But again 
 we find ourselves in the presence of 
 an unknown word or name. 
 
 The following inscriptions equally 
 indicate the place where the name or 
 word contained in them ends. First of 
 all, one on a whorl numbered 3558, 
 
 which reads f, /(J\t £ |}/|\ All 
 
 these characters except the last, which 
 is manifestly the Cypriote ti, are 
 new. The one next to it has no ana- 
 logue in the Cypriote inscriptions, 
 though a similar letter occurs in the 
 Lykian alphabet with the value of b. 
 A similar letter is also found in the 
 alphabet of Karia. The character that 
 follows has likewise no analogue in 
 the syllabary of Cyprus, though it is 
 met with in the Lykian alphabet with 
 the value of g (or perhaps s), as well 
 as in the Karian and Pamphylian 
 alphabets, and in a curious inscrip- 
 tion copied by Hamilton (Travels, i. 
 p. 383) at Eyuk, near the Halys. 
 The next character may possibly be 
 
 the Cypriote ^ or , me, while the 
 
696 
 
 THE INSCRIPTIONS FOUND AT HISSARLIK. 
 
 [Afp.HI. 
 
 last is perhaps the indication of a full 
 stop. 
 
 On the whorl No. 2461 we have 
 
 O \> r~v 
 
 the first character of which I should 
 read ye, and the second possibly sa, 
 while the third is a common form of 
 the Cypriote go or ho. On the whorl No. 
 
 2236 is ^) where the 
 
 last character may be the Cypriote 
 , ro, turned upside down, and the 
 
 middle one is the same as that which 
 I have hesitatingly identified with the 
 Cypriote ye, when dealing with the 
 inscription on No. 1524. The first 
 character may be the Cypriote mo, 
 which sometimes appears under the 
 form of 5 hut it is more probably 
 a character of undetermined value 
 which is plentiful in the Karian 
 inscriptions. 
 
 On whorl No. 3551 we seem to have 
 
 two words: \J Q ft f] ^. 
 
 These we may perhaps read sa-ye «o(?)- 
 go-re or le. 
 
 The inscription on whorl No. 2224, 
 n\ ° ° fT\ ° fo\ go-go-ti-re 
 or le, may be merely intended for 
 ornament, but it may also contain a 
 proper name. The same may be 
 said of the inscription on No. 3563. 
 
 °K fTV [rT>, 
 
 ti-u-ti- re-re. 
 
 It is otherwise with a whorl bearing 
 the inscription given below, and found 
 at a depth of 20 ft. (No. 1525 ; 
 No. 1222,'p. 563). Here the straight 
 line clearly denotes the end of the 
 word, words being similarly divided 
 from one another in the Karian in- 
 scriptions, as well as in the inscription 
 copied by Hamilton at Eyuk. I can 
 suggest no explanation of the first 
 character on the left ; the next is the 
 Cypriote mo, the next ye ; then comes 
 a letter the phonetic power of which 
 
 in Cypriote has not yet been asce - 
 tained ; then another unknown charac- 
 
 No. 1525. An inscribed whorl. (Natural size. 
 Depth, 20 ft.) 
 
 ter which may be compared with the 
 first on No. 2236, and lastly go or 
 Ico. It is possible, however, that the 
 straight line which I have supposed 
 to be a mark of division may realty be- 
 long to the lines adjoining it ; in this 
 case we should have the Cypriote cha- 
 racter vo. This possibility is suggested 
 by a whorl, found at a depth of 13 ft., 
 which contains the following inscrip- 
 
 © r^l CD J\ /TV 
 
 No. 1526. Inscription on whorl, No. 1860. 
 
 Here the second character is the Cy- 
 priote si (^^)> the third is mo, the 
 fourth u, and the last vo. It is a pity 
 that the value of the first remains un- 
 known, since we seem to have in si- 
 mo-u-vo the same root as in Simoeis 
 
 (=^C/jLO-F€VT-^). 
 
 There are four other whorls about 
 which I am in doubt. They bear 
 marks which may be intended for cha- 
 racters, but if so they are not recog- 
 nizable, and I am disposed to think 
 that they are mere ornaments. Of 
 course it is always possible that the 
 aitist was unskilfully endeavouring 
 to reproduce real characters which he 
 did not understand. Here are the in- 
 scriptions : — 
 
 No. 152V. Inscription on whorl, No. 1994 (No. 3544). 
 No. 1523. Inscription on whorl No. 1962 (No. 2640). 
 
App. III.] BY PROFESSOR 
 
 No. 1529. Inscription on whorl, No. 4148. 
 
 No. 1530. Inscription on whorl, No. 1972. 
 
 No. 1531. An inscribed fragment of pottery. 
 (2 : 3 actual size. Depth 33 ft.) Already 
 represented on p. 29S, No. 173. 
 
 A. H. SAYCE. 697 
 
 The same uncertainty Langs over a 
 fragment of pottery of which a copy 
 is here given (No. 1531 ; No. 173, 
 p. 298). The last character on the 
 left looks like one of those in the 
 inscription of Eyuk, and the next 
 two characters may be intended for ye 
 and go. 
 
 I feel no uncertainty, however, about 
 the marks which run round two 
 vases and which have been taken 
 for inscriptions. They are mani- 
 fest^ mere decorations, the first con- 
 sisting of a series of rudely-formed 
 taus, the second of crosses. Here are 
 exact copies of them : — 
 
 No. 1532 Marks round the neck of the vase, No. 305 (p. 369). 
 No. 1533. Marks round the neck of the vase, Nos. 1010, 1011, 1012 (p. 527). 
 
 I am inclined to think that the 
 signs incised on a whetstone in which 
 Professor Gomperz saw an inscription, 
 as he did also in the first of the vase- 
 markings just given, have likewise 
 nothing to do with written characters. 
 Let the reader, however, judge for 
 himself (No. 1534) :— 
 
 Here, it is true, we have 
 the Cypriote J^, ro, as 
 upon the terra-cotta seal 
 already discussed, but 
 
 No. 1534. Inci 
 
 signs on 
 the whetstone 
 No. 1265. 
 
 there is nothing else 
 
 which can be compared 
 with any of the cha- 
 racters of the Cypriote 
 syllabary, while on the side of the 
 stone there is plainly the representa- 
 tion of a man with his arm out- 
 stretched. It is difficult to attach 
 any signification to the other 
 marks. 
 
 It is different with the design upon 
 a seal now in the Museum of the Chinili 
 
 Kiosk at Constantinople. This is as 
 
 follows : ^YtT^ ' P* c ^ ure °f 
 bull is in the same childish style of 
 art as that with which the terra-cotta 
 whorls discovered by Dr. Schliemann 
 have made us familiar. But it bears in 
 its mouth what may indeed be intended 
 to represent fodder, but is more pro- 
 bably the character ho or go. If so, we 
 have evidence that the Trojan lan- 
 guage denoted the bull by a word of 
 the same origin as the Sanskrit gaus, 
 the Greek /Sou? (for yFoF-s), the Latin 
 bos, and the Old High German cliuo 
 (cow). The language of the Lydians, 
 from whom according to Herodotus 
 (vii. 74) the Mysians were descended, 
 represented a guttural followed b} r a 
 labial by a simple guttural, as may be 
 seen from the word KavhavX^, trans- 
 lated cn<v\.\o7rviKTr]s by Hipponax 
 (Fr. 1, Bergk), where kolv answers to 
 the Sanskrit swan, the Greek kvwv, the 
 Latin canis, and the English hound. 
 
698 
 
 THE INSCRIPTIONS FOUND AT HISSARLIK. 
 
 [Am?. III. 
 
 No. 1535. A 
 
 button 
 with inscribed 
 characters. 
 
 I believe that significant characters 
 may be read on a small 
 button of the annexed 
 pattern : — 
 
 Here we have SZS , re, 
 or perhaps the Cypriote 
 
 9 lv, f\ , ye, and ^ 
 
 of doubtful value. 
 
 Still more striking is the legend, 
 consisting of a single character, 
 scratched upon two funnel-shaped 
 cones of yellow clay, found at a depth 
 of 10 ft. (Nos. 1338, 1339, p. 582). 
 The character in question is | 1 1 , «w ) 
 the name probably of some weight or 
 measure. 6 We are irresistibly re- 
 minded of the Aryan root md, " to 
 measure," with its derivatives, the 
 Sanskrit mdtram, " a measure," the 
 Zend md, "a measure," the Greek 
 jxirpov, and the Latin metare and me- 
 tiri. But these cones lead us to con- 
 clusions even more interesting. A 
 cone of almost exactly the same shape 
 and material was discovered by the 
 late Mr. George Smith under the 
 pavement of the palace of the As- 
 syrian king Assur-bani-pal or Sarda- 
 napalus at Kouyunjik. On this is 
 scratched in the same place and in a 
 similar manner as on the cones from 
 Hissarlik the following inscription : 
 
 No. 1536. Inscription on an Assyrian cone 
 from Kouyunjik. 
 
 These are unmistakably Trojan 
 letters, the first on the left being the 
 familiar re or le. The second character 
 
 is either or ^ , more probably 
 
 the latter, its lower line coinciding 
 with the line along which the engra- 
 ver drew the characters. If the cha- 
 racter is ^ , it may be an abbreviated 
 form of the Cypriote to, which occurs 
 
 6 Dr. Schliemann tells me that he has found 
 the same character on a round object of terra- 
 cotta, as well as on the back of the polishing 
 stone, No. 651, p. 444. 
 
 in some late inscriptions ; if it is ^ 
 
 it is the ordinary ve. The third cha- 
 racter is unfortunately one which is 
 not met with in the Cypriote sylla- 
 bary, though it occurs in an inscrip- 
 tion on a Paniphylian coin. The cone 
 from Kouyunjik cannot be later than 
 B.C. 650, and this gives us an approxi- 
 mate date not only for the period down 
 to which the Cypriote syllabary was 
 in use in the Troad, but also for the 
 relative antiquity of the several strata 
 of remains at Hissarlik. 
 
 I do not, of course, mean to say 
 positively that the cone discovered by 
 Mr. George Smith actually came from 
 the Troad, though its remarkable 
 similaritj' to the Trojan cones in shape, 
 material, and the form of its charac- 
 ters strongly points to such a conclu- 
 sion ; but it must have come from a 
 people who used the same system of 
 writing as the inhabitants of the 
 Troad and were in close contact with 
 them. Early in his reign, which com- 
 menced B.C. 668, Assur-bani-pal received 
 tribute from Gugu or Gyges, king of 
 Lydia, a country the very name of 
 which, he says, his fathers had never 
 heard, and it is probable that the 
 cone reached Nineveh through the 
 Lydians. For the present, therefore, 
 we must leave it undecided whether 
 it was of Trojan or of Lydian manu- 
 facture. This is a point that can only 
 be settled by excavations on the site 
 of the Lydian capital. But it is at 
 least highly probable that the same 
 system of writing was in use in Lydia 
 as in the Troad, and that the discovery 
 of Lydian inscriptions would pour a 
 flood of light on the enigmatical le- 
 gends from Hissarlik which I have 
 been discussing. 7 
 
 7 It is probable, however, that a fragment of 
 a Lydian inscription exists on a broken marble 
 base found by Mr. Wood in the temple of Artemis 
 at Ephesus, and published by Mr. Newton in the 
 Transactions of the Society of Biblical Archaeology, 
 iv. 2 (1876). The base seems to have belonged 
 to an archaic statue, or more probably to one of 
 the caelatae columnae presented by Kroesus. At 
 
App. III.] 
 
 BY PROFESSOR A. H. SAYCE. 
 
 699 
 
 One thing at any rate is clear. The 
 use of the so-called Cypriote syllabary 
 was not confined to the island of Cy- 
 prus, though it continued to be em- 
 ployed there down to a later period 
 than elsewhere. But there was a time 
 when it was known all over the con- 
 tinent of Asia Minor, and it is to that 
 time that the inscribed monuments of 
 Hissarlik take us back. No inscrip- 
 tions have hitherto been discovered in 
 other parts of the Peninsula which 
 are older than the period when the 
 Phoenico-Greek alphabet had been in- 
 troduced and adapted to express the 
 sounds of the various languages spoken 
 there. They are all composed in either 
 the Lykian, the Karian, the Pamphy- 
 lian, the Kilikian, the Kappadokian, 
 or the Phrygian alphabets. But apart 
 from the Phrygian alphabet, which is 
 purely Greek and must have been bor- 
 rowed from the Ionic before the latter 
 had lost the digamma in the seventh 
 century b.c, each of these alphabets 
 contains convincing evidence that it 
 had been preceded by a syllabary iden- 
 tical in the main with that of Cyprus. 
 Sounds which were not expressed at 
 all in the Greek alphabet, or only in- 
 adequately expressed in it, are repre- 
 sented by characters which have the 
 same forms and the same phonetic 
 values as those of the Cypriote sylla- 
 bary. Thus in Lykian we have the 
 
 Cypriote )j( (Jehu), kh, o, e, 
 
 and 31C (ya), v; in Karian, AA, mi, 
 re (or le), J\, ho (go), £1 , ra, 
 
 X» h CD, mo, 7 ~ , ve, and ne; in 
 Pamphylian, If , vo 9 Y, u, J\, ho, M , 
 vu or v, and V', ss (se) ; and in Kili- 
 kian, -J, ta, and LJ-j se. Our only 
 
 any rate it formed part of the older temple whose 
 foundations and materials were used for the 
 temple built in the time of Alexander the Great. 
 One of the characters contained in the inscrip- 
 tion is the Trojan ve, spoken of above. Another 
 
 has the form \, which is also found in a slightly 
 different form at Eyuk, and a third has the same 
 form as the n at Eyuk. 
 
 knowledge of the Kappadokian alpha- 
 bet is derived from the inscription 
 copied by Hamilton at Eyuk, which 
 lay within the frontiers of Kappadokia 
 before the settlement of the Gauls in 
 Galatia, and which is as follows : 
 
 lAllolorhm^ 
 
 No. 1537. Inscription found at Eyuk in Kappadokia. 
 
 This I would read from right to left : 
 Bi(?)-si-p(?)-u [or sa] S (or G)-ma-o-v- 
 o m~a-n, " Eispu (son) of Smaovos (am) 
 I." Here at least four letters are Cy- 
 priote, and one other (^^J) also proba- 
 bly belongs to the old syllabary. 
 
 As I have already remarked, the 
 characters found on the monuments of 
 Cyprus are a selected residuum of 
 those once contained in the syllabary 
 which has left scattered memorials of 
 itself in the later alphabets of Asia 
 Minor. I strongly suspect that the 
 
 Kappadokian ^ which is similar in 
 
 form to the Trojan character found on 
 the whorl, No. 3558, as well as to a cha- 
 ract(r (~|) met with on Pamphylian 
 coins and Karian monuments, is one 
 of the characters not represented in 
 Cyprus. The same is certainly the 
 case with the Lykian o 1 e (ako 
 found in Karian, and possibly in Tro- 
 jan), -f- , 7i,*3 , 8 (also found in Kappa- 
 dokian), th (also found in Karian*) 
 )( (which resembles one form of the 
 Cypriote X , me) and J, Hi (unless 
 this is the Cypriote ^ , e), as well as 
 with the Pamphylian Q, and pos- 
 sibly ^ . So, too, in Karian we have 
 9 or g, e, Y, ss, Q, and ©. The 
 original syllabary of Asia Minor pro- 
 bably possessed about a hundred cha- 
 racters. It seems to be meant by the 
 famous <jr)(A<iTa Xvypd of Homer (JZ. vi. 
 169); though, if so, folded tablets 
 covered with wax were already in use 
 for the purposes of correspondence. 
 These crr/fiara or " characters " were 
 carried by Bellerophon to Lykia, 
 where, as we have seen, the syllabary 
 of Asia Minor had been long in use. 
 
700 
 
 THE INSCRIPTIONS FOUND AT HISSAKLIK. 
 
 [App. III. 
 
 The origin of this syllabary is still 
 enveloped in obscurity. Five years 
 ago, in the Transactions of the Society of 
 Biblical Archaeology (v. i. 1876), I en- 
 deavoured to trace it to the still unde- 
 ciphered Ilittite hieroglyphics which 
 have been found at Aleppo and on the 
 sites of Hamath and Carchemish, the 
 Hittite capital, now represented by 
 the mounds of Jerablus (the Greek 
 Iiierapolis) on the Euphrates, 16 
 miles to the south of Birejik, as 
 well as in Asia Minor. But at that 
 time the only legible Hittite inscrip- 
 tions known were a few short ones 
 from Hamah (or Hamath), which turn 
 out to be engraved in a later, hieratic 
 form of Hittite writing; while the 
 earliest accessible forms of the Cyp- 
 riote characters were those found in 
 comparatively late inscriptions from 
 the island of Cyprus. My compari- 
 sons, therefore, had to be made be- 
 tween the selected characters of the 
 Cypriote syllabary, with late and 
 special forms, and an equally re- 
 stricted number of Hittite hierogly- 
 phics, similarly late and special. 
 Moreover, I had not then made the 
 important discovery of the Hittite 
 origin of the sculptures and inscrip- 
 tions photographed or copied by Perrot 
 and others at Eyuk and Boghaz Kioi 
 (the ancient Pteria) on the Halys, at 
 Ghiaur-Kalessi near the villages of 
 Hoiadja and Kara-omerlu, 9 hours to 
 the south-west of Angora (Ancyra), 
 at a spot which commands the old 
 road by Gordium from Ancyra to 
 Pessinus, and above all at Kara-bel in 
 Lydia, at the junction of the two roads 
 from Ephesus to Phokaea and from 
 Smyrna to Sardes, where in 1879 I 
 had the satisfaction of finding a Hit- 
 tite inscription accompanying one of 
 the two figures supposed by Herodo- 
 tus (ii. 106) to have been portraits of 
 the Egyptian Sesostris. In Lykaonia, 
 near the silver-mines of the Bui gar 
 Dagh, Mr. Davis has discovered Hittite 
 sculptures and inscriptions at Ibreez 
 (or Ivris) a little to the south of Eregle, 
 
 the ancient Kybistra, and at Bulgar 
 Maden (near Chifteh Khan); while 
 Mr. Edmund Calvert has informed me 
 of another Hittite sculpture, consisting 
 of three figures and accompanied by 
 Hittite characters, near Frehtin in the 
 neighbourhood of Ibreez. In fact, it is 
 plain that Hittite power and influence 
 once made itself felt as far as the 
 Aegean along the two high roads of 
 Asia Minor, one of which ran north- 
 wards through Kappadokia, Galatia, 
 andMysia — being in fact the road tra- 
 versed by Kroesus when he marched 
 against Cyrus — and the other south- 
 wards through Lykaonia to Sardes. 
 This latter road was the one followed 
 by Xenophon and the Ten Thousand 
 on their outward march. 
 
 Now Hittite art, which is charac- 
 terized by thick limbs, a fondness for 
 round ornaments and convolutions, 
 winged solar discs, and figures with 
 tiaraed heads and shoes with turned- 
 up ends, is an art which is Assyro- 
 Babylonian in its origin, but which 
 has been modified in a very special 
 way by the artifets of Carchemish. It 
 was carried by the Hittites to the na- 
 tions of the West, where it became the 
 peculiar art of Asia Minor, and passed 
 over, probably through Lydian hands, 
 to Greece. The hitherto unexplained 
 element in early Greek art, which 
 cannot be traced to Phoenician in- 
 fluence, has really come from this 
 source. Thus the tombstones found 
 by Dr. Schliemann at Mykenae are 
 Hittite in general character; so also 
 are the lions over the principal gate 
 of the Acropolis, which find their ana- 
 logue in a rock-tomb at Kumbet in 
 Phrygia; 8 while the head-dress of an 
 ivory figure discovered in the pre-his- 
 toric tombs of Spata in Attica is dis- 
 tinctively Hittite. 
 
 The age when the authority and 
 culture of the Hittites extended itself 
 to the far West was probably about 
 
 8 Compare especially the forms of the bull 
 and lion copied by Perrot at Eyuk (plate 57) with 
 those found on objects from Mykenae and Spata. 
 
App. III.] 
 
 BY PROFESSOR 
 
 A. H. SAYCE. 
 
 701 
 
 B.C. 1300-1200. Herodotus makes Ni- 
 nus the son of Belus the ancestor of 
 the dynasty of the Heraklids in Lydia 
 which ended with Kandaules. This 
 was formerly supposed to refer to an 
 Assyrian occupation of Lydia, but the 
 supposition is rendered untenable by 
 the fact that, according to the cunei- 
 form inscriptions, the country west- 
 ward of the Halys was unknown to the 
 Assyrians before the reign of Assur- 
 bani-pal. The legend however may be 
 sufficiently explained by the arrival of 
 a culture which had come to the Hit- 
 tites from Assyria and Babylonia, and 
 was transmitted by them to Asia Mi- 
 nor. Ammianus Marcel lin us (xiv. 8) 
 calls Hierapolis on the Euphrates, that 
 is, as we now know, Carchemish, the 
 "ancient Ninus" or Nineveh (see, too, 
 Philostratus, Vita Apoll. Tyan. i. 19; 
 and Diodorus, ii. 3, 7). If we may 
 trust the chronology of Herodotus, 
 the beginning of the Heraklid dynnsty 
 must be placed about 500 years before 
 the accession of Gyges, or about B.C. 
 1200. The date is confirmed by the 
 fact that the Assyrian monarch, Tig- 
 lath Pileser I. (b.c 1130), states that 
 the Moschi had been sufficiently strong 
 fifty years previously to wrest the 
 countries of Alzu and Purukhumzu on 
 the Upper Euphrates from the Ass} T - 
 rians, the Hittites at the same time 
 overrunning Subarti or Syria ; while 
 Egyptian annals show that in the time 
 of Ramses II. (b.c. 1320) Dardanians 
 and Mysians came to the assistance of 
 the Hittites, and that under Ramses 
 III. (b.c 1200) they were ranged 
 among the Hittite allies. 
 
 We can hardly suppose that, when 
 the natives of Asia Minor adopted the 
 art of the Hittites, they did not at the 
 same time adopt either wholly or in 
 part the system of writing which ac- 
 companied it. When, therefore, the 
 earliest mode of writing that appears 
 among them is the peculiar syllabary 
 generally known as Cypriote, the pre- 
 sumption arises that this syllabary was 
 derived from the Hittite hieroglyphics. 
 
 And the presumption is confirmed by 
 several facts. First of all the sylla- 
 bary is distinguished hy the remark- 
 able peculiarity of representing the 
 sounds of b, p, and ph, g, k, and kh, 
 and d, t, and th, respectively, by the 
 same characters. That is to say, the 
 original employers of the syllabary 
 made no distinction in pronunciation 
 between the sounds of b, p, and ph, of 
 g, Jc, and Ich, and of d, t, and th. So far 
 as I know, there is only one race in 
 Western Asia to which such a curious 
 indistinctness of pronunciation can be 
 referred. The name of the Hittite 
 capital is written Gar-gamis by the As- 
 syrians, Car-chemish by the Hebrews, 
 and Karu-kamaisha by the Egyptians ; 
 in other words, the name was so pro- 
 nounced that the guttural contained in 
 it seemed to be g to Assyrian ears, 
 hard Jc to Egyptian ears, and soft Jc (c) 
 to Jewish ears. Secondly, the Hittite 
 inscriptions are all written in boustro- 
 phedon fashion : this, it would seem, 
 must have once been the case also 
 in Karian, since some of the Karian 
 inscriptions are written from right to 
 left, while others are written from left 
 to right. Moreover, while most of the 
 Cypriote legends run from right to 
 left, those of Paphos run from left to 
 right, although Paphos was the centre 
 of the Semites, whose writing runs 
 from right to left, while the Assyrian 
 cuneiform is always written from left 
 to right. An explanation would thus 
 be afforded of the otherwise puzzling 
 fact that, whereas some of the oldest 
 Greek inscriptions are in boustro- 
 phedon, all Phoenician or Aramean 
 inscriptions written in the alphabet 
 afterwards handed on to the Greeks 
 run from right to left. And thirdly, 
 we have the two positive facts 
 that the inscription discovered by 
 Hamilton at Eyuk was found at a 
 spot in which Hittite sculpture and 
 writing have left prominent memorials 
 of themselves, while a coloured figure 
 of a warrior copied by Texier (vol. ii. 
 plate 103) at Konieh or Ikonium is a 
 
702 
 
 THE INSCRIPTIONS FOUND AT HISSARLIK. 
 
 [App. III. 
 
 specimen of Hellenized Hittite ait, 
 accompanied by characters which, if 
 Texier's copy can be trusted, belong 
 to a form of the Cypriote syllabary. 
 
 I am strongly inclined to think that 
 the engraving on the whetstone found 
 at Hissarlik is a rude attempt at imi- 
 tating a Hittite inscription. 
 
 So far, therefore, as the evidence 
 goes at present, we are justified in be- 
 lieving that Hittite influence extended 
 throughout Asia Minor in the four- 
 teenth or thirteenth century B.C., and 
 brought with it the art of Assyria 
 and Babylonia as modified at Car- 
 chemish, along with the knowledge of 
 writing. It is, of course, impossible 
 to determine whether the artists whose 
 remains have been found in Kappa- 
 dokia, Lykaonia, and Lydia were ac- 
 tually Hittites proper or the inhabi- 
 tants of the district which extended 
 from the Black Sea to Syria, on the one 
 hand, and from Armenia to the Halys 
 on the other, all of whom, if we may 
 trust the testimony of proper names, 
 together with the Hittites, belonged to 
 the same race, spoke allied languages, 
 and shared in a common civilization. 
 Two or three considerations, indeed, 
 make it more probable that they were 
 the Hittites themselves. The sculp- 
 tured rocks at Karabel bear witness to 
 a military invasion and conquest, such 
 as only a powerful people like the Hit- 
 tites are likely to have made ; the con- 
 nection shown by the Egyptian monu- 
 ments to have existed between the 
 Hittites and the inhabitants of Mysia 
 points in the same direction ; while 
 Mr. Gladstone's identification of the | 
 KrjTctoL of Homer (Od. xi. 521) with 
 the Hittites has much in its favour. 9 
 However this may be, a syllabary was 
 derived from the hieroglyphics used 
 and probably invented by the Hittites, 
 which came to be employed through- 
 out Asia Minor. After passing through 
 various changes and undergoing par- 
 ticular modifications in the different 
 
 9 Homeric Synchronism (London, 1876), pp. 
 
 171 sq. 
 
 districts into which it had been intro- 
 duced, this syllabary was carried from 
 Kilikia into Cyprus in a reduced form, 
 and remained in use there down to a 
 comparatively late period. 
 
 Its disappearance from Mysia and 
 the Troad belongs to an earlier date. 
 The cone discovered by Mr. George 
 Smith at Kouyunjik shows that it was 
 still employed there about b.c 650. 
 But it must have been displaced 
 shortly afterwards by the Ionic Greek 
 alphabet, if we may argue from the 
 fact that the Ionic Greek alphabets of 
 Phrygia, Karia, and Lykia, all con- 
 tained the digamma, which had been 
 lost at the time when the Ionian mer^ 
 cenaries of Psammitichus carved their 
 names on the colossi of Abu-Simbel, 
 B.C. 640 (less probably b.c. 595). A re- 
 markable relic of the period of transi- 
 tion has been discovered by Mr. Frank 
 Calvert in one of the tombs in the ne- 
 cropolis of Thymbra. This is a patera 
 of a shape peculiar to the locality, made 
 of the same drab clay as the funnel- 
 shaped cones above mentioned, and be- 
 longing to the early Phoeniko-Hellenic 
 period of Greek art. Four Cypriote 
 characters occur on it, two of which 
 are written in combination on opposite 
 sides of the patera, and seem to con- 
 tain the name of the maker or owner. 
 These are //^ (the second charac- 
 ter taking also the form J|), the first 
 of which is re or le. The other is appa- 
 rently the Cypriote 55 » tne P uonet i c 
 value of which is unknown, though I 
 am inclined to believe it was von, in 
 which case the name would read Le- 
 vari or A € W. The other two characters 
 are written separately and are evi- 
 dently used as mere ornaments, one of 
 
 them, indeed, -^j^, being a symme- 
 trical modification of , e, for de- 
 corative purposes, though the second, 
 I | ne, is unchanged in form. The 
 patera proves that, in the middle of 
 
Apr. III.] 
 
 BY PEOFESSOR 
 
 A. H. SAYCE. 
 
 703 
 
 the seventh century B.C., the period to 
 which it belongs, the old syllabary 
 was fast passing out of use and coming 
 to be employed for decorative purposes 
 only. 
 
 A good many of the terra-cotta whorls 
 discovered by Dr. Schliemann are simi- 
 larly inscribed with single characters, 
 whose meaning- is merely decorative. 
 
 Thus we find 
 
 ^ or fa, 
 
 and other characters, employed along 
 with rude drawings of animals for this 
 purpose. In some cases it is difficult 
 not to fancy that the designs are in- 
 tended to be barbarous imitations of 
 the more striking objects represented 
 by the Hittite hieroglyphics. Thus 
 
 the tree-pattern ^ 
 
 % is very common, 
 
 and this pattern is not only found 
 among the hieroglyphics of the Hit- 
 tites, but also forms the ornamentation 
 of the robe worn by a figure on a sculp- 
 tured monument from Carchemish,now 
 in the British Museum, while the same 
 ornament occurs frequently upon Baby- 
 lonian seals and other antiquities. A 
 curious phallus of black basalt, for ex- 
 ample, lately brought to England from 
 the Island of Bahrein in the Persian 
 Gulf (which was called " the island 
 of the gods " by the early Chaldeans) 
 has the same pattern engraved by the 
 side of a short inscription. In Baby- 
 lonian art it represents the sacred tree 
 of life. 10 
 
 Among the Hissarlik whorls there 
 are two or three which seem to me to bear 
 marks intended to reproduce cunei- 
 form characters, or rather the wedges 
 of which the characters were com- 
 posed, and which were wholly unin- 
 telligible to the Trojan artists. The 
 Phoenician artists similarly often re- 
 produced the hieroglyphics of the 
 
 10 In Phoenician art it seems to denote a palm- 
 branch. On a silver bowl found at Palestrina 
 and bearing a Phoenician inscription, the tails of 
 the horses ai*e artistically represented under the 
 form of these trees or palm-branches. 
 
 Egyptians, which they did not under- 
 stand and accordingly miscopied and 
 miscombined. We learn from the Tro- 
 jan cylinders already discussed, that 
 objects of early Babylonian origin 
 were known to the primitive inhabi- 
 tants of Hissarlik, and several of the 
 designs on the whorls are obviously 
 imitations of designs on Babylonian 
 cylinders, among which small round 
 holes denoting the stars and planets 
 are especially plentiful. A fragment of 
 pottery excavated by Dr. Schliemann 
 in the Besika Tepeh has markings 
 upon it which also seem somewhat 
 unsuccessful attempts to imitate cunei- 
 form characters (No. 1517, p. 666). 
 
 Two more points remain to be no- 
 ticed before I conclude. One of these 
 is the ingenious endeavour made by 
 Dr. Deecke to derive the C3 r priote 
 syllabary from the Assyrian syllabary 
 as it was at the close of the eighth 
 century bc, when Sargon overran the 
 island of Cyprus. But the fatal objec- 
 tion to this endeavour is the fact that 
 the same syllabary already existed, as 
 we have seen, in an older and fuller 
 form on the mainland, and that conse- 
 quently it could not have been the 
 invention of a Cyprian of Paphos about 
 710 B.C. The inscriptions found at 
 Hissarlik show that its characters al- 
 ready existed in an older form far away 
 in the north-west of Asia Minor. Con- 
 sequently it must have been an im- 
 portation into Cyprus from the main- 
 land, not a possession peculiar to the 
 island. But there are other objections 
 to Dr. Deecke's theory. Thus the forms 
 of the cuneiform characters that he 
 compares belong to more than one age 
 and district, and were not all in use at 
 one and the same time or in one and 
 the same country, while in several in- 
 stances he has to imagine non-existent 
 forms intermediate between the sup- 
 posed cuneiform prototype and its 
 Cypriote equivalent. The phonology 
 of the Assyrian and Cypriote sylla- 
 baries, again, does not agree. The As- 
 syrian language has distinct signs for 
 
704 
 
 THE INSCRIPTIONS FOUND AT HISSARLIK. 
 
 [App. III. 
 
 t and d (also for tli) ; for g, Jc, and hh, and 
 for b andp; and it is inconceivable that 
 these should have been confounded to- 
 gether in a syllabary meant to express 
 the sounds of two languages, the Phoe- 
 nician and the Greek, both of which 
 possessed these very sounds. On the 
 other hand, the Assyrians made no dis- 
 tinction between m and «, as the Cy- 
 priote syllabary does, and had no ye, yi 
 or o, which have special characters to 
 denote them in Cypriote. It may fur- 
 ther be added that the only two cha- 
 racters, e, , and pa, » which 
 
 display a marked resemblance to cu- 
 neiform characters with corresponding 
 phonetic values, lose this resemblance 
 when traced back to the older forms 
 
 and tp 
 
 The other point to be noticed is un- 
 fortunately one upon which very little 
 can be said. Of the language of the 
 Trojans and Mysians we know next to 
 nothing, and it is therefore impossible 
 to explain the words written in Trojan 
 characters, even when they have been 
 deciphered, or to know whether we are 
 dealing with significant words or pro- 
 per names. All we can say positively 
 is. that the Mysian language was allied 
 to those of the neighbouring popula- 
 tions of Asia Minor. Xanthus, the 
 Lykian historian (Fr. 8), makes it half 
 Lydian, half Phrygian, and the words 
 of Herodotus (i. 171) imply the same. 
 Indeed, Herodotus goes so far as to 
 state (vii. 74) that the Mysians were 
 Lydian colonists, though Strabo (xii. 
 pp. 542, 566) calls them Thrakian colo- 
 nists. But the dialects of Thrace and 
 Western Asia Minor belonged to the 
 same stock, while extant Phrygian in- 
 scriptions and glosses show that Phry- 
 gian was a sister-tongue of classical 
 Greek. Slight differences, of course, 
 must have existed between Mysian 
 and Phrygian, as indeed is asserted 
 by a passage in the Homeric Hymn to 
 Aphrodite (111-116), quoted by Dr. 
 Schliemann in an earlier part of this 
 volume (p. 120). The differences, how- 
 
 ever, could not have been great, and it 
 is therefore possible that the meaning 
 of the Trojan inscriptions may yet be 
 cleared up by the discovery of Phry- 
 gian and Lydian inscriptions. Hektor 
 was called Dareios "by the Phry- 
 gians," which seems to imply that da- 
 reios was the equivalent of the Greek 
 c/<T(op, " a stay," in both Phrygian and 
 Trojan. Paris seems to have been the 
 native name which corresponded to the 
 Greek 'AAe'£arSpos, " defender of men," 
 and it is difficult to separate Paris 
 from Priamos. The Aeolic form of 
 Priam os, Htppafios, shows that the ori- 
 ginal form of the word was Peryamos, 
 which has clearly nothing to do with 
 pergamos (? " a citadel "), but seems to 
 be connected with the Lydian -n-dXfxvs, 
 " king." 
 
 The four curious passages in which 
 Homer contrasts the language of the 
 gods with, the language of men, pro- 
 bably also contain some specimens of 
 the Mysian dialect. The single ana- 
 logy that can be found for these pas- 
 sages is a very close one from the Old 
 Edda of Iceland. In this we have a 
 poem called the Alvissmal, or the 
 " Speech of the Allwise," in which 
 the names of various objects are given 
 in the language of men, of the Aesir 
 or gods, and of the Vanir or demigods. 
 It appears that the language of men 
 was the language of ordinary life, 
 while that of the gods was the lan- 
 guage of the poets. In the latter lan- 
 guage were included many foreign 
 words ; thus we are told that what is 
 called ale by men is called beer by the 
 gods, ale being Scandinavian and beer 
 the borrowed Anglo-Saxon. The four 
 passages of Homer are explained and 
 cleared up by the Icelandic poem. In 
 Homer, too, the language of men 
 means that spoken by the natives of 
 Asia Minor; the language of the gods 
 that used by the poets of Ionia. 
 Briareus, as he is called by the gods, 
 is called Aegaeon by men (II. i. 403-4), 
 Briareus meaning " the mighty," and 
 Aegaeon being probably connected with 
 
App. III.] 
 
 BY PROFESSOR A. H. SAYCE. 
 
 705 
 
 the Greek afyis, " tempest " (the Dorian 
 atye?, " waves "). In II. ii. 813-4, men 
 are said to term Batieia what the gods 
 call the tomb of the Amazon Mvrine, 
 whose name reappears in those of 
 Smyrna and the Lemnian and Aeolic 
 towns of Myrina. Batieia may be 
 paTifecrya, " the brambly," a good de- 
 signation for a tumulus which is still 
 covered with bushes. According to 
 It. xiv. 291 and xx. 74, men called 
 Kv/xivSis and ^/ca/zavSpos what the gods 
 called xoAki's and aavdos. Ktyui/Sis is 
 said to have been the Ionic name of 
 the night-jar; but since it has no kin- 
 dred in Greek, it would seem that it 
 was one of the native words borrowed 
 by the Ionic settlers in Asia Minor. 
 If we can suppose that ^aX/a?, " the 
 bronze-coloured," and £av66<;, " yel- 
 low," are real equivalents of kv/juvSls 
 and ^Ka/xai/Spos, we may infer that a 
 root o-Ka/xavS or KVfAivS existed in My- 
 sian which had the signification of 
 
 "yellow." It must not be forgotten, 
 however, that several of the river- 
 names of Asia Minor, such as Alander 
 and Maeander, the latter of which 
 claims relationship with Maeonia, the 
 Lydian /xcovs, " earth," end with the 
 syllables -avSpos ; while, on the other 
 hand, we have various names like 
 Kadyanda, Labranda (from the Lydian 
 Aa/?pv5, "hatchet"), Piginda, Alinda 
 (from the Karian aAa, " horse ") which 
 have the same termination as kv/jllvSls. 
 The name of Mysia itself was derived 
 from the Lydian /xvcro?, which is ex- 
 plained by the Greek 6£vr], "the beech " 
 (or Fagus silvaticus). 1 
 
 1 The following inscription, found by Mr. 
 Frank Calvert in the necropolis of Thymbra, 
 probably contains a specimen of the Mysian 
 dialect spoken in the Troad : — 
 
 . . AIS0ENEIAIEMM(?)ITONIKIAIOI- 
 TOrAVKIO. 
 It is given in Le Bas : Voyage archeologique en 
 Grece et en Asie Mineure, v. 1743 m. 
 
 2 z 
 
APPENDIX IV. 
 
 THYMBEA, HANA'I TEPEH. 
 By Mr. Consul Frank Calvert. 
 The first mention of Thymbra is ! rians, Paeonians, Leleges, Caucones, 
 
 by Horner. iDolon, when he details 
 to Ulysses the position of the Trojan 
 army outside of Troy, places the Ca- 
 
 and Pelasgi, towards the sea; the 
 Lycians, Mysians, Phrygians, and 
 Maeonians, towards Thymbra. 1 This 
 
 PLAIN OF THE 
 SCAMANDER 
 
 ■fMile 
 
 No. 1538. Map indicating the Sites of Thymbra and Hanai Tcpeh, and the junction of the Rivers Thj-mbrius 
 
 and Scamander. 
 
 1 II. x. 428. 
 
App. IV.] THYMBRA, HANAI TEPEH. 
 
 BY MB. FRANK CALVERT. 707 
 
 allocation, though it does not establish 
 the geographical position of Thym- 
 bra, yet, taken with the more precise 
 information given by Demetrius of 
 Scepsis, is of value ; it evidences that 
 a direct 1 " on opposite to the sea, that 
 is, inland, was intended by the poet. 
 The more modern author places the 
 temple of Apollo Thymbraeus at fifty 
 stadia from Ilium (Novum), at the junc- 
 
 tion of the river Thymbrius with the 
 Scamander. 2 Thymbra was identified 
 by Hobhouse with Akshi Kioi 3 (the 
 present Thymbra Farm), and Barkei 
 Webb recognized the Thymbrius in 
 the Kemar Su. 4 My researches have 
 led to the discovery of another ancient 
 site at Hanai" Tepeh, separated from 
 that of Akshi Kioi by an interval of 
 about five hundred yards (see Map, 
 
 lunfnnf *1 1 *L f 
 
 Scale. English Fe e t 
 
 No. 1529. General Plan of Excavation made at Hanai Tepeh. 
 
 2 Strabo, xiii. p. 598. 3 Journey through Albania; London, 1813, p. 753. 
 
 4 Be Agro Trojano ; Milan, 1821, p. 49. 
 
708 
 
 THYMBRA, HANAI TEPEH. 
 
 [Apr. IV. 
 
 No. ] 538). At Akshi Kioi the remains 
 are of later date than at Hanai Tepeh. 
 The Homeric site of Thymbra would 
 appear not to be identical with the later 
 town and temple of the Thymbrean 
 
 Apollo of Demetrius ; and subsequent 
 ancient authors appear to have trans- 
 ferred it to Akshi Kioi from Hanai 
 Tepeh. Pre-historic Thymbra covered 
 a considerable surface of land, on 
 
App. IV.] 
 
 BY MR. FRANK CALVERT 
 
 709 
 
 I j 
 
 10 feet. 
 
 C 
 
 No. 1541. Enlarged portion of Section of Hanai Tepeh from W. to E. 
 
 1. Granaries lined with Clay. 5. Skeleton. 
 
 2. Foundations built on with No. 3. 6. Stone Axes, Weights, &c. 
 
 3. Sun-dried Bricks. 7. Vases. 
 
 4. Tomb of Infant. 
 
 which are found hand-mill stones, 
 stone axes, fragments of pottery, 
 whorls, silex flakes, and other relics. 
 
 The artificial mound of Hanai' Te- 
 peh, which gives its name to the site, 
 is of remarkable interest. It forms, 
 as it were, the nucleus of the old 
 settlement, and stands out promi- 
 nently in the plain at the end of 
 a long spur of land which reaches 
 back to Akshi Kioi. My first excava- 
 tion in this tepeh was made in 1857, 
 and the results and hypothesis founded 
 thereon were published in the Jour- 
 nal of the Archaeological Institute? 
 Further researches were made sub- 
 sequently ; latterly with the powerful 
 assistance of Dr. Schliemann. The 
 later and more extensive investiga- 
 tions, as shown in the accompany- 
 ing General Plan, No. 1539, have led 
 me to relinquish the conviction of the 
 identity of Hanai Tepeh with the 
 common tomb of the Trojans, pub- 
 lished in the above-mentioned journal. 
 A trench, 12 ft. wide, which I made 
 through the mound from west to east, 
 gives a complete section of this arti- 
 ficial hillock (No. 1540). The natural 
 rock rises from the plain to a flat 
 shelly limestone stratum (No. 1540, 
 16), which forms a plateau on the spur. 
 On this surface are the remains of the 
 original settlers, extending beyond 
 the mound itself (No. 1540, b). The 
 
 5 Vol. xv. 1858. 
 
 debris are composed in great part of 
 sun-dried bricks derived from fallen 
 habitations, wood-ashes, and charcoal 
 (No. 1540, b 15 ; No. 1541, 3). Marks 
 of fire on many of these bricks and the 
 foundations of houses superposed seve- 
 rally one on the other (No. 1540, b 14), 
 indicate the repeated destruction and 
 reconstruction of the buildings : these 
 dwellings are unfortunately in too 
 great a state of dilapidation to allow 
 their form or size to be traced. The 
 three or four lower courses of bricks 
 were protected by an outer facing of 
 stone (No. 1541, 2), a method of pre- 
 serving the walls from damp and 
 rain-drij) still adopted in the country. 
 These sun-dried bricks are of various 
 dimensions : the largest and best pre- 
 served, from the tombs of two infants 
 No. 1540, b 13), measure — 
 
 Length, 
 inches. 
 
 Breadth, 
 inches. 
 
 Depth, 
 inches. 
 
 16 
 
 8 
 
 4 
 
 m 
 
 91 
 
 2f 
 
 19| 
 
 13J 
 
 CO 
 
 In the manufacture of the bricks, 
 the yellow loam of the plain was 
 mixed with chopped straw or hay, 
 impressions of which binding-material 
 are quite distinct. Many of these 
 bricks have been burnt red or black 
 by the accidental conflagration of the 
 dwellings. Slime or mortar made of 
 the same materials as the bricks was 
 
710 
 
 THYMBRA, HANAI TEPEH. 
 
 [App. IY. 
 
 used as cement ; it served also as 
 plaster for the surface of the inside 
 walls, portions of which have been 
 preserved. 
 
 In remarkable agreement with the 
 pre-historic cities at Hissarlik is the 
 absence of doors and windows in the 
 habitations. From the numerous 
 indications of fires in both these 
 ancient sites, it would appear that 
 timber was used largely as a building 
 material. This circumstance suggests 
 the hypothesis of an upper story of 
 wood, to which access was gained by 
 means of steps or ladders : for security 
 the ground-floor had no exterior com- 
 munication, but was entered from 
 above from the wooden story. The 
 unhewn pine-log huts, now in use 
 among the Yourouk tribes in this 
 country, may afford a clue to the 
 kind of superstructure adopted by 
 the pre-historic inhabitants of His- 
 sarlik and Hanai Tepeh. This kind 
 of hut has a roof made of salt clay 
 laid on branches of trees covered 
 with reeds or seaweed. Masses of 
 clay with impressions of long reeds 
 are found at Hanai Tepeh, a coin- 
 cidence which is worthy of remark. 
 No walls of a defensive nature have 
 been discovered in the lowest stratum 
 (No. 1540, b). 
 
 Fragments of pottery are very nu- 
 merous, but entire vessels are rare. 
 These are both hand-made (No. 1541, 
 
 No. 1512. Massive hand-made Vase. 
 (About I : 3 actual size.) 
 
 7; No. 1542) and turned on the 
 wheel. Most of the specimens are 
 hand-polished, an effect produced by 
 rubbing the vase with a hard sub- 
 stance previous to its being baked. 
 The lulehs or pipe bowls now made 
 at Constantinople are polished in this 
 manner, and at the same time a deeper 
 shade is given to the clay by this 
 
 rubbing. The prevailing colour of 
 the pottery is black or dark brown, 
 due to the presence of carbonaceous 
 matter ; red is comparatively rare. A 
 few fragments show a dark-coloured 
 core with a bright red surface. Many 
 of the vases have horizontal perfora- 
 tions for the purpose of suspension 
 (Nos. 1543, 1544, 1545), a peculiarity 
 
 No. 1543. Bowl with horizontal perforations 
 for suspension. (Abuut 1 : 3 actual size.) 
 
 No. 1544. Fragmenls of Bowl, with horizontal hole for 
 suspension, dark-brown, hand-polished. 
 (About 1 : 3 actual size.) 
 
 No. 1545. Fragment of a lustrous black Bowl, with 
 large horizontal tubular hole for suspension. 
 (About 1 : 3 actual size.) 
 
 limited to the original settlement, as 
 these have not been discovered above 
 a foot or two from the rock, nor in 
 the upper part of the stratum b. 
 Some of these perforated handles are 
 of a bright lustrous red, striking in 
 appearance, with some similitude to 
 the claw of a lobster (Nos. 1546, 1547). 
 Eibbed ware is common in the upper 
 
App. IV.] 
 
 BY MR. FRANK CALVERT. 
 
 711 
 
 part of the stratum b, but does not 
 appear to have been manufactured in 
 the earlier settlements. The most 
 prevalent form is a large, but shallow, 
 
 No. 1546. Handle of Vase, hori- No. 1547. Horizontally 
 
 zontally perforated, lustrous- perforated lustrous- 
 red, hand-polished. red Vase-handle. 
 (1 : 2 actual size.) (1 : 2 actual size.) 
 
 circular bowl. Vessels on tripods 
 were not rare ; for many fragmentary- 
 
 No. 1548. Handle or foot of a Tripod Vase, 
 black, hand-polished. (1 : 2 actual size.) 
 
 feet (No. 1548) of different shapes 
 have been found close above the rock. 
 Fragments of vases with soot on their 
 exterior show that the use of boiling 
 or stewing in earthenware vessels 
 was not unknown to the inhabitants. 
 Bones of the fallow deer, the roebuck, 
 and the wild boar, which furnished 
 this people with food, are abundant. 
 Besides the produce of the chase, grain 
 of some kind must have been plentiful, 
 judging by the number of hand-mill 
 stones in basalt and syenite. 
 
 Beginning with the lowest stratum 
 (b in plan No. 1540), we find at or 
 near the top small granaries, some- 
 times of a circular, sometimes of a 
 square shape, which have been ex- 
 
 cavated in the soil and coated with 
 clay plaster (No. 1541, 1). In one 
 of these a stone axe has been dis- 
 covered. 
 
 Since no species of grain is indige- 
 nous in the country, it is clear that 
 the original settlers must have brought 
 the cereals they cultivated along with 
 them. The plain of Troy, with its 
 rich and fertile soil, would naturally 
 have attracted them to an agricultural 
 life, and from the first we may assume 
 that agriculture was an important 
 occupation in the Troad. The near 
 neighbourhood of the sea furnished 
 the inhabitants of the district with 
 other articles of food : fish, oysters, 
 mussels, and cockles, entered largely 
 into their diet, but varied at different 
 epochs and in different localities. 
 Thus Professor Virchow has observed 
 that the Ostrea lamellosa alone is found 
 at Hanai Tepeh, whilst Ostrea cristata 
 is confined to Hissarlik. The bones 
 that have been discovered and ex- 
 amined, in the lowest stratum at Hanai 
 Tepeh, prove that the goat was the 
 commonest of the domestic animals, 
 the ox the most rare ; while the horse, 
 as Professor Virchow has noticed, is 
 conspicuous by its absence. From this 
 negative evidence we may infer that 
 the latter animal was unknown in the 
 Troad in the pre-historic age, in 
 striking contrast to the age of Homer, 
 who mentions it so frequently. The 
 dog, on the other hand, that faithful 
 friend of man, has left memorials of its 
 presence in its footprints on several 
 sun-dried bricks, made upon them 
 while the clay was still plastic. Bronze 
 is the only metal met with, and that 
 sparingly. In fact, the only speci- 
 mens of it found in stratum b consist 
 of a hairpin with a. double spiral head 
 and two corroded and shapeless frag- 
 ments. 
 
 On the other hand, implements of 
 bone and stone are not uncommon. 
 Thus we have bone awls ; a few 
 polished axes made of diorite, serpen- 
 tine, talc, and other stones (No. 1541, 
 
712 
 
 THYMBRA, HANAI TEPEII. 
 
 [App. IV. 
 
 6) ; as well as flakes, scrapers, knives, 
 and saws (No. 1549) of obsidian, 
 
 No. 1549. SilexSaws. 
 
 quartz, jasper, and other hard stone. 
 One or two specimens of crystal have 
 also been found. The stones of which 
 the implements are made have all 
 come from the neighbourhood : diorite 
 from the valley of the Ehodius ; ser- 
 pentine and talc from the Foulah 
 Dagh, the Kara Dagh, and the Dum- 
 brek; obsidian from the vicinity of 
 Saragik, in the valley of the Ehodius, 
 and of Aivajik ; while flint nodules 
 are plentiful in the chalk of the 
 White Cliffs on the Hellespont, and 
 jasper is abundant in many localities, 
 more especially in the Foulah Dagh 
 and between Lampsacus and the town 
 of Dardanelles. Quartz, too, ap- 
 proaching to chalcedony, occurs in 
 nodules in a bed of conglomerate 
 metamorphosed by superposed basalt, 
 at the foot of the Foulah Dagh. 
 
 Besides these implements, two ob- 
 jects of mother-of-pearl have been 
 found, — one a small button with a 
 hole in the centre, the other an orna- 
 ment 2 inches long in the shape of 
 a pear. Spindle whorls of dark- 
 coloured clay which has been baked at 
 a fire are common ; but no ornamentation 
 occurs on any discovered in stratum b. 
 Whorls of marble and hard stone are 
 rare, whereas circular potsherds with 
 perforated centres used as substitutes 
 for whorls are plentiful. A couple of 
 reels for winding thread, made of 
 dark-coloured baked clay, and similar 
 to those still employed for the same 
 purpose, also turned up during the 
 excavations, as well as numerous 
 four-sided pyramids of sun-dried clay, 
 which must have served as weavers' 
 weights. These objects indicate a 
 knowledge of textile manufactures on 
 the part of those who used them. 
 
 The early people of Hanai Tepeh 
 were also musicians, since the upper 
 
 fragment of a bone flute (No. 1550) 
 has been discovered. 
 
 No. 1550. Fragment of Flute of Bone. 
 
 Their religion may be represented 
 by a small marble foot, with a minute 
 perforation at the knee for suspension, 
 which seems to have been a votive 
 offering. This is not the only object 
 of marble which bears witness to the 
 artistic capacities of the people; 
 another which is probably intended 
 to represent a flower (No. 1551) has 
 
 No. 1551. Flower (?) in Marble. 
 
 been found, besides flattened spheres 
 of marble, which may have been 
 weights. 
 
 A remarkable feature in this stra- 
 tum, b (No. 1540, 12 ; No. 1541, 5) is 
 the number of skeletons found in it 
 at every variety of depth. Some 
 were on the rock itself, others under 
 the foundations of later houses, and 
 in what seem to have been the floors 
 of inhabited dwellings. These inter- 
 ments are peculiar to the stratum we 
 are now considering, since as will be 
 shown further on, none were made 
 during the subsequent period repre- 
 sented by the superposed debris. The 
 interments on the east side of the 
 mound (No. 154-1, 12) were discovered 
 during the excavations of 1857; the 
 rest were found last winter (1879). 
 The bodies were buried with the faces 
 downwards, the heads towards the 
 
App. IV.] 
 
 BY MR. FRANK CALVERT. 
 
 713 
 
 west, and the knees doubled up. The 
 head of one was found resting on a 
 hand-mill stone (No. 1552). Gene- 
 
 No. 1552. Skeleton, with Skull resting on hand-mill 
 stone. 
 
 rally speaking, they seem to have 
 been interred in the loose earth ; at 
 all events, no special graves or tombs 
 
 No. 1553. 
 
 were prepared to receive them. An 
 exception, however, must be made in 
 the case of two infants, whose bones 
 were found in small tombs made of 
 sun-dried bricks. The skeleton of one 
 of these was that of a newly-born 
 babe ; it was extended on the back, 
 and the tomb in which it was laid 
 was free from earth (No. 3 541, 4, 
 Nos. 1553, 1554). Curiously enough, 
 though the bones show no signs 
 of having been burnt, a quantity 
 
 No. 1554. 
 
 s.w. 
 
 Nos. 1553, 1554. Tomb of Infant, made of sun-burnt bricks. 
 
 of asbestos was found mixed with 
 them. This was unfortunately too 
 fragile to be removed, but its appear- 
 ance when first discovered plainly 
 showed that it must have consisted 
 of some woven texture. The interior 
 of the tomb was 18 inches long by 
 9 broad and 8 high. The body of the 
 other infant was that of a young child 
 (No. 1555), which was laid on the 
 
 No. 1555. Tomb of Child, made of sun burnt bricks. 
 
 light side, with the knees bent up, 
 the right arm extended, the left 
 crossed over the body, and the head 
 resting upon the breast. It had 
 apparently sunk down from its 
 original position. The right side of 
 the tomb in which it was placed was 
 made of stone instead of brick, and its 
 head was turned towards the east. 
 The interior of the grave measured 
 16 inches in length, 9 in breadth, and 
 
 9 in height. No asbestos was found 
 with this skeleton, nor indeed with 
 any of the others, the body of the 
 newly-born babe alone excepted. As 
 may be seen from the plan, the inter- 
 ments are on the west, rather than on 
 the east, side of the tumulus. 
 
 According to Professor Virchow, the 
 race t ) whom the skeletons belonged 
 was brachycephalic ; and the shin- 
 bones have the remarkable peculiarity 
 of being angular, — a peculiarity now 
 confined to the Malay race. He is at 
 present engaged in writing a descrip- 
 tion of them. 
 
 No defensive walls were brought to 
 light in the lower part of stratum b 
 (No. 1540). 
 
 On the other hand, the surface of 
 the stratum had been levelled on the 
 western side to a depth of about 3 ft., 
 for the sake of a massive wall of de- 
 fence, which must have been erected 
 after the accumulation of the soil, and 
 the eastern foundations of which were 
 laid on the rock i'self. The wall was 
 supported by a number of buttresses. 
 Its average breadth is from 8 to 10 feet 
 (b, No. 1540, 10), and its greatest pre- 
 sent height is 5 feet. Its southern side 
 has disappeared. The largest stone 
 
714 
 
 THYMBRA, HANAI TEPEH. 
 
 [App. IV. 
 
 found in the wall is 7 feet long by 2 
 in breadth, and 2 J in height. All the 
 stones composing it are rough and un- 
 hewn, and are bound together with 
 clay cement. They consist partly of 
 miocene shelly limestone found on the 
 spot, partly of crystalline limestone 
 and basalt from the bed of the Thym- 
 brius. 
 
 Besides this inner defensive wall 
 (No. 1540, 10), there was also an outer 
 wall (No. 1540, 11), which sometimes 
 stands detached, with a breadth of two 
 and a half feet, while at other times it 
 is a mere external facing to a rude 
 heap of loose stones. On the east side 
 this wall is of bricks made from the sur- 
 face soil, and the part laid bare by the 
 excavations was well preserved, so far 
 as its form was concerned, though the 
 bricks composing it were disintegrated. 
 Outside the wall, as well as between 
 it and the inner wall, was a quantify 
 of marly red clay (No. 1540, 17); no 
 trace of which, it must be observed, 
 was found on the inner side of the 
 inner wall. The origin of this red 
 miocene clay was at first proble- 
 matical; but a clue was eventually 
 given by the discovery of a brick 
 made of it, built into one of the walls 
 of the habitation near the gateway. 
 The form of this brick was very dis- 
 tinct, though, owing to the absence 
 of straw or any similar binding mate- 
 rial, the clay was disintegrated. It 
 showed clearly that the marly clay, 
 of which such quantities were found, 
 had come from decomposed bricks. 
 These must once have formed the 
 upper part of the massive wall of 
 defence, the stones which now alone 
 mark its course having served as 
 a foundation. As the brickwork 
 crumbled away it fell to the foot of 
 the wall, and there formed the accu- 
 mulation seen in No. 1540, 17. Wood- 
 ashes were occasionally found inter- 
 mixed with it, but otherwise there 
 were no marks whatsoever of fire. 
 
 The entrance to the fortress to 
 which these walls belonged lay on the 
 
 eastern side, and was formed by a 
 narrow passage, 3 feet wide, between 
 two long projecting buttresses. It 
 must have been built upon the tumulus 
 after the accumulation of soil repre- 
 sented by the stratum b. Little addi- 
 tional soil was accumulated within the 
 fortress itself, and the unbroken line 
 of the latter proves incontestably 
 that the interments previously men- 
 tioned must have been made before 
 its construction. One skeleton, in- 
 deed (No. 1540, 12), was actually 
 found under the massive inner wall 
 itself (No. 1540, 10). The inner wall, 
 it may be added, shows in some parts 
 a facing of yellow loam brick on 
 the inside, from 2 to 3 feet in height, 
 and the remains of these bricks con- 
 stitute in great measure the debris 
 within the fortress, which form what 
 wo will call stratum c. 
 
 The fragments of pottery discovered 
 in stratum b are but few. In the 
 lower part the handle of a vase, made 
 in the shape of a cow or ox (Nos. 
 1556-1559), was found, while a small 
 hand-made vase with horizontally per- 
 forated excrescences (No. 1560) was 
 met with close to the wall, and frag- 
 ments of lustrous-black ribbed vases 
 were turned up, similar to those found 
 in the stratum c (Nos. 1561, 1562). 
 
 It is to this stratum that we must 
 now turn. Here we find ourselves 
 in presence of a sacred enclosure, 
 within which altars once stood, dedi- 
 cated in all probability to that Thym- 
 brean Apollo, whose temple, according 
 to the indications of Strabo, must have 
 stood upon this very spot. On the west 
 side are the remains of a wall two and 
 a half feet in diameter, built on the 
 debris of the old fortress, and probably 
 once faced with brick (No. 1510, 7). 
 On the east side, the massive inner wall 
 of the old fortress was converted to the 
 use of the new edifice. On the south- 
 east was a long piece of building, and 
 here too was the entrance, consisting of 
 a narrow passage. The massive wall 
 on the east side shows traces of having 
 
Arr. IV.] 
 
 BY MR. FRANK CALVERT. 
 
 715 
 
 Nl. 1556. 
 
 No. 1557. 
 
 No. 1558. 
 
 Nos. 1556 -1553. Vase-handle in dark-coloured Clay. (About 1 : 2 actual size.) 
 
 been burnt, from which we may infer 
 that the fortress had been successfully 
 stormed and taken by an attacking 
 
 No. 1559. Vase- 
 handle of lustrous 
 black Terra-cotta. 
 (About 1 : 3 actual size.) 
 
 No. 1560. Small hand-made 
 Vase with perforated excrescences. 
 (About 1 : 2 actual size.) 
 
 No. 1561. Handle of a No. 1562. Fragment of a 
 ribbed Vase. lustrous-black ribbed Vase. 
 
 (About 1 : 3 actual size ) (About 1 : 3 actual size.) 
 
 force. The ground within what we 
 may term the sacred enclosure has all 
 been artificially levelled, and a floor 
 formed by a coating of yellow loam 
 plaster from half an inch to one inch 
 thick (No. 1540, 8). Above this floor 
 lies a thin unbroken line of charcoal, 
 testifying to the sacrificial fires that 
 
 once burnt within the enclosure, the 
 whole of which would thus have been 
 consecrated to religious uses. Nu- 
 merous altar-floors of brick occur at 
 various levels (No. 1540, 5), stone 
 taking the place of brick at the northern 
 angle (No. 1540, 4). Their succession 
 is indicated in the section No. 1563, 
 
 20 Feet 
 
 No. 1563. Section of brick-floor Altars. 
 
 where a line drawn from b to A 
 shows the limits within which they 
 were found. The fact that they 
 were thus superposed one upon the 
 other points pretty plainly to the long 
 period of time during which the en- 
 closure was employed for sacrificial 
 purposes and the floor gradually 
 covered by successive deposits of 
 ashes. The brick altar-floors are cir- 
 cular in form, from 15 to 20 feet in 
 diameter, each being composed of a 
 single course of sun-dried brick, im- 
 bedded in clay cement (No. 1564). 
 
 No. 1564. Enlarged portion of Section of brick-floor 
 Altar. 
 
 Cement and brick have alike been re- 
 
716 
 
 THYMBEA, HANAI TEPEII. 
 
 [A pp. IV. 
 
 duced by the action of fire to one homo- 
 geneous consistency and colour. The 
 altar-floors of stone are made of 
 pebbles of basalt from the river-bed, 
 which have been burnt red. Besides 
 these altar-floors, two altars of stone 
 have been discovered (No. 1540, 6), the 
 stones of which they are built being 
 crystalline limestone, calcined by the 
 great and long-continued heat to 
 which they have been exposed. The 
 alt irs and altar-floors alike stand in a 
 thick bed of wood-ashes, derived from 
 the sacrificial fires which formerly 
 burnt upon them. This bed forms 
 the accumulation marked in the plan 
 (No. 1540) as stratum c, which has a 
 depth of from 5 to 8 feet. The ashes 
 are partially vitrified, and there is no 
 trace of charcoal among them. The 
 moisture from the surface has been 
 unable to penetrate through them, so 
 that the whole mass was light, and 
 caused much annoyance in working 
 in consequence of the dust. 
 
 A few calcined fragments of bone 
 and shell have been found in this bed, 
 the forms of which are preserved, 
 though the bones have been converted 
 into vivianite. But these fragments are 
 few and scattered. As shown by me in 
 the Journal of the Archaeological Institute 
 for 1858, the opinion that the accumu- 
 lation is of an ossiferous character is 
 entirely contrary to the fact. A close 
 examination proves that its origin was 
 
 a vegetable one, and that the bones 
 and shells found their way into it 
 only, as it were, accidentally. Conse- 
 quently, the hypothesis that we have 
 here the common tomb of the Trojans 
 must be rejected. 
 
 Fragments of ribbed pottery were 
 found in the stratum, similar, as has 
 already been stated, to those found 
 in the upper part of stratum b, but 
 all burnt red or yellow, and vitrified. 
 
 At certain points on the north-east 
 side, stratum c covers and extends be- 
 yond the massive wall (No. 1540, 10), 
 from which we may conclude that the 
 enclosure continued to be used for 
 sacrificial purposes after the soil 
 within it had grown to such an ex- 
 tent as to cover the upper surface of 
 the old fortress wall. In the trench 
 driven along the eastern wall, as given 
 in section No. 1565, is a remarkable 
 diagonal Assuring of the wood-ashes 
 under the basement of one of the 
 altars, which may possibly be due to 
 lateral pressure. 
 
 A fragment of sun-dried brick from 
 one of the altar-floors has four curious 
 marks upon it, evidently imprinted 
 by the hoofs of some animal, probably 
 a kid, while the white clay was still 
 plastic (No. 1566). 
 
 Near the gateway the old massive 
 wall has been partly destroyed, and a 
 low wall has been built upon it, in the 
 form of a curve, and crossing both the 
 
 __8._Feet_ _ n 
 
 B 
 
 ///x//////////y////////////// / / nock 
 
 No. 1565. Section Bhowing Diagonal Fissuring of Wood-ashes under brick-floor Altar. 
 
App. IV.] 
 
 BY MR. FRANK CALVERT. 
 
 717 
 
 buttresses which flanked the entrance 
 as well as the entrance itself. At the 
 same time, a second inner wall, built 
 partly on the foundations of the 
 massive wall, curves inward, enclosing 
 
 No. 1566. Footprints of a Kid on a fragment of 
 sun-dried brick. 
 
 a space in the shape of a tongue about 
 15 feet in diameter. The entrance to 
 the sacred enclosure was formed by a 
 narrow passage between the extremity 
 of this tongue and the massive wall. A 
 quantity of burnt bricks was found 
 
 here, as well as outside the low curved 
 wall and also within it. 
 
 A section of a portion of the mound 
 from south to north, given in the cut 
 No. 1567, will illustrate the statements 
 just made, and render them easier to 
 understand. We have first of all the 
 natural rock (No. 1567, 1); then comes 
 a stratum of sundried bricks (No. 15C7, 
 2), 1 foot in thickness. The uniformly 
 bright red colour of these shows that 
 they have been subjected to a strong 
 heat. Next (No. 1567, 3) follows a 
 stratum of clay, representing the de- 
 composed sun-dried bricks which have 
 fallen from the walls, of which only 
 the lower part has been preserved. 
 The thickness of the portion of the 
 
 Scale o£ Feet Lj-j-j 
 
 No. 1507. Section of Portion of Hanai l'epeh from S. to N. 
 
 1. Natural Rock. 
 
 2. Stratum of Bricks burnt bright red. 
 
 3. Stratum of sun-dried Bricks. 
 
 4. Stratum of Wood-ashes and Charcoal. 
 
 5. Layer of Wood-ashes. 
 
 6. Sun-dried Bricks and Stones. 
 
 7. General Layer of Wood-ashes in connection with C. 
 
 8. Surface stratum a. on Plan No. 1540. 
 
 stratum on the left of the section is 
 from one and a half to two feet. 
 Some of the bricks whose forms may 
 be traced in it rested on low foun- 
 dations of stone. The inner side of 
 the walls, as well as the floors, were 
 covered with a plaster of clay and 
 chopped straw, the surface of which 
 has been burnt red. Some of the 
 fallen bricks likewise show the marks 
 of fire. In fact, it is plain that 
 the building to which they belong 
 must have perished in the flames. On 
 the floor was a layer of wood-ashes, in 
 which a number of pyramidal weavers' 
 weights of different sizes were found, 
 as well as some whorls without orna- 
 mentation and a minute hand-made 
 vessel with horizontally perforated ex- 
 crescences, similar to No. 1560. Among 
 
 the potsherds were some ribbed frag- 
 ments similar to Nos. 1561, 1562. 
 
 No. 1567, 4, represents a layer of 
 wood-ashes and charcoal, in which 
 we may see evidence of a third con- 
 flagration. A building composed of 
 bricks similar to those found below 
 must once have existed here. Kesfing 
 on the ashes were large jars or jjithoi, 
 which had the appearance of having 
 been placed in a row along the walls, 
 together with smaller vessels. The 
 majority of the vessels are ribbed, some 
 are dark, while others are of a bril- 
 liant red colour. They have all been 
 turned on the wheel. The peculiarity 
 of the pithoi is that they have no 
 handles properly so called, a triangular 
 hole below the lip having served as a 
 substitute. Other large jars with 
 
718 
 
 THYMBRA, HANAI TEPEH. 
 
 [App. IV. 
 
 ordinary handles and fragments of 
 ribbed cups were also found. This 
 stratum is from one and a half to two 
 feet thick. 
 
 We now come to a layer of wood- 
 ashes (No. 1567, 5), which are tho- 
 roughly burnt, the layer being 1 foot 
 in thickness. After this is a stratum 
 of sun-dried bricks and stones (No. 
 1567, 6), 9 inches thick, which con- 
 tained a few fragments of dark ribbed 
 pottery. Then follows (No. 1567, 7) 
 what we have marked as stratum c 
 in the general plan No. 1540, consist- 
 ing of wood-ashes, which rises above 
 and beyond the sacred enclosure. The 
 position of this stratum, together with 
 the black line of charred wood (No. 
 1540, 8), proves that the enclosure was 
 originally built before the huge accu- 
 mulation of ashes which forms the 
 stratum. Above it is the surface 
 stratum (No. 1567, 8), marked A in 
 the general plan No. 1540. 
 
 This stratum carries us into the 
 historic period. We first find sun- 
 dried bricks scattered over the sur- 
 face of the layer of wood-ashes (c), 
 in No. 1 540, proving that a time came 
 when the altar-fires were discon- 
 tinued, the temple in which they 
 had burned being desecrated, and 
 dwelling-houses erected upon its 
 site. These houses seem to have had 
 neither doors nor windows, or rather 
 these necessary openings were at 
 such a height from the ground that 
 all trace of them has disappeared. 
 A brick wall on the western side, be- 
 tween the massive wall of the old 
 fortress and the inner wall (No. 1 540, 
 7), shows that they were constructed in 
 the same fashion as the earlier brick 
 buildings beneath. The bricks, as 
 will be seen from the following table, 
 were of various sizes : — 
 
 10 inches X 8.^x3. 
 
 Hi „ X 5*x2£. 
 
 10 „ X 8 x2J. 
 
 11 „ X10 X2|. 
 191- „ x i2 X 2£. 
 181 „ X i2£x2f. 
 
 It may be noted that one of the 
 bricks has upon it the print of the 
 toes of a child's foot. 
 
 Among the pottery found in this 
 upper stratum may be mentioned the 
 fragment of a specimen of the old 
 dark-coloured ribbed pottery, in the 
 shape of the handle, neck, and broken 
 spout of a vase, the spout being 
 adorned with two eyes, in order to 
 avert the evil eye (No. 1568). Frag- 
 
 No. 1568. ' Upper portion of ribbed Vase, with eyes on 
 Spout. 
 
 ments were also found both of archaic 
 and of later Greek painted pottery, as 
 well as sepulchral pithoi and cists of the 
 Hellenic period. In fact, a time came 
 when the ancient tumulus of Hanai 
 Tepeh formed a portion of the necro- 
 polis of the historical town of Thym- 
 bra, now represented by Akshi Kioi, 
 and groups of tombs are met with all 
 the way to it from the latter spot. 
 Byzantine tombs, too, occur near the 
 surface of the tumulus, some of which 
 contain several bodies, along with 
 vases, beads, and bronze ornaments. 
 These tombs are built of stones, with 
 stone covers, and are ornamented with 
 engraved crosses. Turkish and other 
 undetermined interments have also 
 been found. 
 
 A large number of Greek amphorae 
 have been dug up in the surface soil. 
 It is possible that they may have 
 been used for the libations, and they 
 may indicate that traditions of sanctity 
 still lingered around the spot. Indeed 
 it was still known in the days of 
 Strabo that the place had been the site 
 
Apr IV.] 
 
 BY MR. FRANK CALVERT. 
 
 719 
 
 of the legendary temple of the Thym- 
 brean Apollo. A considerable number 
 of circular terra-cotta discs with raised 
 centre and two perforations, which may 
 have been employed as seals, were 
 discovered together with the amphorae 
 (No. 1569). Several of these discs 
 
 No. 1569. Object of Terra-cotta with two perforations. 
 (1:10 actual size.) 
 
 have impressed stamps upon them ; 
 one represents the double-headed axe 
 and bunch of grapes which was the 
 emblem of Tenedos. Many, no doubt, 
 served as seals to the amphorae to 
 which they were attached ; and seals 
 of exactly the same form, though 
 without perforations, are still used to 
 the present day in Lemnos. Here 
 they are employed for medicinal pur- 
 poses, and are polished by rubbing 
 after being impressed with the seal of 
 the governor of Lemnos. 
 
 The skulls found in the Greek and 
 Byzantine tombs are dolichocephalic, 
 like those found in stratum b (No. 
 1540, 12,). We may shortly expect a 
 published account of Professor Vir- 
 chow's examination of them. 
 
 As has been already stated, the 
 historical Thymbra stood at some little 
 distance from Hanai Tepeh, and occu- 
 pied the site of the present Thymbra 
 farm, the predecessor of which was 
 the Turkish village of Akshi Kioi, 
 depopulated by plague several years 
 ago. Thymbra was a walled town, 
 and the rock on which it was built 
 shows traces of having been cut- into in 
 various places in order to receive hewn 
 stones. No pre-historic remains have 
 been found on its site. Its necropolis, 
 however, which extended as far as 
 Hanai* Tepeh, has yielded archaic as 
 well as later Greek pottery. Among 
 
 the subjects painted upon it may be 
 mentioned the Return of Ulysses, 
 Briseis in the tent of Achilles, Clytaem- 
 nestra, the Adventures of Dionysus, 
 and the like. Besides the pottery, 
 glass vases with bands and waves of 
 different colours have been exhumed, 
 as well as sepulchral inscriptions, 
 pithoi, and cists. Certain marble 
 blocks on the highest portion of the 
 site of Thymbra probably mark the 
 position of the historical temple of 
 Apollo Thymbraeus, as opposed to that 
 famous one of legend and myth which 
 stood on Hanai Tepeh, and was be- 
 lieved to have been the scene of the 
 death of Achilles. A mutilated in- 
 scription discovered there, and pub- 
 lished in Le Bas ( Voyage archeologique, 
 v. No. 1743 tT), contains an inventory 
 of the temple treasur 
 
 Section of the Trojan Plain in the 
 Valley of the Thymbrius. 
 
 The accompanying sketch No. 1570 
 shows a natural section of the left bank 
 of the river Thymbrius (4) (Kemar 
 Su), about 250 feet from the base of 
 Hanai Tepeh. Fragments of pottery 
 
 (2) , similar to those to be seen on the 
 site of pre-historic Thymbra (Hanai 
 Tepeh), are found on the miocene rock 
 
 (3) , upon which there are from 4 to 
 6 feet of alluvial soil (1). The depth 
 of this soil is relative to the irregular 
 configuration of the rock which formed 
 the actual surface in those pre-historic 
 times. Some other fragments of pot- 
 tery were discovered in sinking a 
 well in the alluvium, some 600 
 yards to the east of this locality, 
 and about 20 from the bed of the 
 river, at a depth, from the surface, 
 of 6 to 7 feet. If the arbitrary 
 age of 3000 years be given to this 
 pottery, the rate of increase of allu- 
 
 No. 1570. Section of the Trojan Plain, Valley of the Thymbrius. 
 
720 THYMBRA, HANAI TEPEH. BY MR. FRANK CALVERT. [App. IV. 
 
 viuin on the plain would average a 
 foot in 500 years. Too much stress, 
 however, cannot be laid on a 
 Uniform rate of deposit as proved by 
 ocular evidence. For instance, a flood 
 covers a large tract on the plain with 
 sand and gravel a foot deep, destroying 
 the land for cultivation ; some suc- 
 ceeding flood removes the whole of 
 the detritus, lays bare the former sur- 
 face, and perhaps adds a thin stratum 
 of fertile sediment, re-adapting the 
 land to agricultural purposes. The 
 general effect of the floods in the 
 plain of Troy is to elevate the beds 
 and banks of the rivers : the coarser 
 the matter held in mechanical suspen- 
 sion, the nearer it is deposited to the 
 river; thus the Scamander, in the 
 upper part of the plain, has formed 
 two sloping levels from its banks to 
 the hills on either side. The clear 
 streams from the Bounarbashi and 
 Duden springs, with their uniform 
 flow and no tributary torrent to swell 
 their volume or to bring down detritus, 
 have thus had their courses directed 
 along the base of the hills on either 
 lower level of the plain. 
 
 Note. 
 
 From the above description given 
 by my friend Mr. Frank Calvert 
 of his exploration of Hana'i Tepeh, in 
 which I assisted him in 1878 and 
 1879, it will be seen that all the 
 peoples which succeeded each other 
 on that hill interred their dead, and 
 did not use cremation, which was in 
 general use in all the five pre-historic 
 cities of Hissarlik. The pottery, too, 
 is widely different, for at Hana'i Tepeh 
 all the vases (see the engravings 
 No. 1546, 1547, 1560) have horizontal 
 perforations for suspension with a 
 string, while at Hissarlik all the per- 
 forations for suspension are vertical. 
 There is certainly some analogy be- 
 tween the bowls found in the lowest 
 stratum at Hanai Tepeh and the 
 
 bowls found in the first and lowest 
 city at Hissarlik, because they have 
 in common long horizontal tubes for 
 suspension. But again, as will be seen 
 by comparing the Hanai fragments re- 
 presented in the engravings No. 1543, 
 1544, and 1545, with similar ones from 
 Hissarlik represented on p. 218, Nos. 
 39-42, the tubular holes are altogether 
 different in shape and position. Be- 
 sides, although tripods occur at Hanai 
 Tepeh, as at Hissarlik, the vase-feet 
 are altogether different in form, and 
 among the thousands of vase-feet at 
 Hissarlik there is not one which resem- 
 bles the vase-foot from Hanai Tepeh re- 
 presented under No. 1548. The same 
 may be said of the vase-handles, which 
 never occur at Hissarlik of the shape 
 of those found at Hanai Tepeh and 
 represented under Nos. 1546, 1547, 
 1556 to 1559, and 1561. Conspicuous 
 among the terra-cottas in the second 
 stratum at Hanai Tepeh is a dull 
 blackish or grey hand-made pottery, 
 which — as, for instance, the vase- 
 fragment 1568 — has in colour and 
 fabric a great resemblance to the 
 ancient Lydian pottery found at His- 
 sarlik, immediately below the stratum 
 of debris of the Ilium of the Aeolic 
 colony. I may also lay stress on the 
 fact that, among this pottery from the 
 second Hanai Tepeh stratum vase- 
 handles occur with a cow or ox head, 
 which likewise occurs on vase-handles 
 in the Lydian city at Hissarlik, but 
 never in any one of the five pre-his- 
 toric cities of Hissarlik. 
 
 From all this we may conclude with 
 the greatest certainty, that, although 
 Hanai Tepeh is only an hour's walk 
 distant from ' Hissarlik, yet all the 
 peoples which succeeded each other 
 on that peculiar spot were altogether 
 different from the pre-historic inhabit- 
 ants on Hissarlik, except a Lydian 
 colony, whose existence we infer from 
 the pottery. 
 
 Henry Schliemann. 
 
APPENDIX V. 
 
 MEDICAL PRACTICE IN THE TROAD IN 1879. 
 
 By Professor Rudolf Virchow. 
 
 When last spiing I accepted Dr. 
 Schliemann's invitation to assist him 
 in his excavations in the Troad, I 
 was prompted to do so in no small 
 degree by the hope that, in turning 
 my back on the soil of Europe, I 
 should also for some time turn it upon 
 the whole mass of occupations which 
 threatened to crush me. I did not 
 suspect that the very occupation 
 from which I had gradually with- 
 drawn at home, the practice of medi- 
 cine, would fall to my lot there in 
 burdensome abundance. But scarcely 
 had I been one day at Ilium, or, to 
 speak less dogmatically, at Hissarlik, 
 when some sick labourers were brought 
 to me from among the large numbers 
 employed by Dr. Schlieniann, and this 
 sufficed to spread over the whole of 
 the Northern Troad the report that a 
 newly-arrived Effendi was a great 
 physician. The labourers, numbering 
 from 120 to 150, who came every morn- 
 ing to the excavations from all parts 
 of the neighbourhood, as well as the 
 numerous persons who brought victuals 
 and other necessaries, took care, in a 
 country where foreigners are in them- 
 selves a very unusual sight, to excite 
 a general curiosity. 
 
 I am at a loss to say whether there 
 is a real physician in the Troad. 
 Though I travelled through the coun- 
 try from the Hellespont to the Gulf 
 of Adramyttium, yet I nowhere met 
 with such a man. Even professional 
 quacks did not come across me. Only 
 the Greek priests practise a little 
 medical manipulation here and there ; 
 
 especially are they highly dangerous 
 phlebotomists. Dr. Schliemann 1 has 
 rightly denounced this practice, and 
 has mentioned the terrific example of 
 such a priest, who had bled a girl, 
 seventeen years old, seven times in 
 one month. 
 
 An apothecary's shop is as unknown 
 in the Trojan land as a physician. We 
 were obliged to send for our medicines 
 to the Dardanelles, a distance of six 
 or eight hours, when we needed to 
 renew our stock ; and when, on my 
 journey to the west coast, I came to 
 the village of Ghiekli, and for want 
 of appropriate medicines wrote a pre- 
 scription for a sick woman, her hus- 
 band told me, in answer to my ques- 
 tion whether he could get it made 
 up, that he would go on purpose 
 for it to the island of Tenedos. But 
 that was a real voyage. Strange 
 to say, the people appeared not even 
 to know domestic remedies. Camo- 
 mile grows in many places in such 
 great abundance, that the whole air 
 smells of it, like the kitchen of a 
 Western hospital, but nevertheless I 
 had some trouble to make the plant 
 known to the people and to introduce 
 its use. Juniper grows on all the 
 mountain slopes, but nobody had ever 
 made use of its berries. Happily we 
 had an abundance of medicines. Dr. 
 Schliemann had in former years been 
 obliged to treat diseases in the Troad, 
 and his medicine box was abundantly 
 supplied. My friend Liebreich had 
 
 1 Troy and its Remains,; London, 1875, p. 141. 
 
 3 A 
 
722 
 
 MEDICAL PRACTICE IN THE TROAD IN 1879. 
 
 [App. V. 
 
 provided for me a complete travel- 
 ling apothecary's store ; and though 
 I had taken it with me somewhat 
 reluctantly, it rendered good service. 
 Happily I had little need to make 
 use of it for myself. Of the vase- 
 line I must make a particular ac- 
 knowledgment. Not only against the 
 effects of sun-burning on the skin, 
 but also in various other excoriations, 
 especially from riding, it proved to be 
 highly beneficial. 
 
 My practice consisted at first solely 
 in receiving out-door patients. Besides 
 our labourers and the other persons 
 engaged on the excavations, people 
 came seeking help from all the neigh- 
 bourhood for a distance of from two 
 to three hours. They came some on 
 foot, some on horseback, others on 
 donkeys. With the exception of small 
 carts, which have wooden discs in- 
 stead of wheels, there are still to the 
 present day in the Troad neither 
 vehicles nor real practicable roads. 
 Even the women, therefore, ride when 
 they have to go any long distance. 
 Once only a sick person, a poor con- 
 sumptive girl, in the last stage of 
 exhaustion, was brought to me in a 
 large basket hung on a horse, and, as 
 usual, balanced by a second basket on 
 the other side of the animal. 
 
 In the early morning a whole troop 
 of persons seeking help, men, women, 
 and children, gathered before our 
 wooden barracks. They squatted in 
 a long row in the shade of the 
 kitchen building which was opposite 
 to our barracks, and waited patiently 
 till their turn came. Towards the 
 end of my stay, when my reputation 
 had extended, a second troop came 
 about noon, for the most part from 
 more distant localities. 
 
 But to this was gradually added 
 a practice in the patients' houses. 
 This was particularly the case in the 
 nearest Greek village, Kalifatli, situ- 
 ated in the plain, which we had to 
 pa-s in most of our excursions, espe- 
 cially in our rides to the Heroic tombs 
 
 on the west coast. Sometimes on our 
 return late in the evening, people 
 waited for us, and I cannot sufficiently 
 praise the kind patience of my friend 
 Schliemann, who, in spite of the press- 
 ing urgency of his affairs, and often 
 in spite of his extreme fatigue, never 
 for a moment grew impatient of 
 acting the onerous part of inter- 
 preter, and explaining my prescrip- 
 tions in a circumstantial and popular 
 way with the greatest care and atten- 
 tion. Wherever we came, sick people 
 gathered around us, their attention 
 having probably been aroused by the 
 communications of our workmen ; 
 and even on our journey through the 
 mountains of Ida, the first act in the 
 morning was usually to inspect those 
 who sought help in the open mar- 
 ket. Then followed, not seldom, the 
 request to visit more serious cases at 
 home. 
 
 For the most part my patients were 
 Greeks, and their homes were princi- 
 pally in the Greek towns and villages ; 
 especially (besides Kalifatli) Een Kioi 
 on the Hellespont, Yeni Kioi and Yeni 
 Shehr on the Aegean Sea. Turks, 
 however, were not wanting. The 
 Turkish official who had been sent by 
 the Ministry to Hissarlik to watch 
 the works, as well as the ten zaptiehs 
 (gensdarmes) whom Dr. Schliemann 
 always kept as an escort and safeguard, 
 furnished from the first a certain 
 contingent. The Turkish villages, 
 especially Chiblak and Koum Kaleh, 
 contributed their patients, and even 
 Turkish women were brought to me. 
 Besides these came Gipsies (Tv<f>TOi), 
 who live in the country in large 
 numbers, partly as nomads, partly as 
 resident craftsmen, especially smiths. 
 Our labourers were also composed of 
 many nations; among them were 
 Bulgarians, Armenians, and even 
 Persians. It is easy to conceive 
 what a trouble and what a loss of 
 time it was, in this mixture of 
 nationalities and languages, to carry 
 on the examination of the sick and 
 
App, V.] 
 
 BY PROFESSOR RUDOLF VIRCHOW. 
 
 723 
 
 the explanation of the prescriptions, 
 which had often to be done by two 
 or more interpreters. Sometimes we 
 almost despaired of making ourselves 
 understood, for even the modern Greek 
 patois of the men does not know many- 
 expressions which are current in the 
 more civilized language of Athens. 
 Thus, for instance, we did not suc- 
 ceed in ascertaining whether in this 
 provincial dialect there exists a pre- 
 cise expression for diarrhoea. 
 
 On the whole, I was surprised to 
 find a strong and healthy-looking 
 population. Even the appearance of 
 the women exhibited a favourable con- 
 trast with what I had seen, though 
 only in the streets, at Constantinople 
 and Scutari. Whilst in these large 
 cities the faces of the women, so far 
 as they were at all visible, exhibited 
 a fearful paleness, nay a very strik- 
 ingly bloated and anaemic appearance, 
 I found the women of the Troad, 
 even those from the very regions of 
 fever, if not fresh-looking, at least 
 less pale and of a purer complexion 
 than the greater part of the female 
 population of our large cities. Among 
 the men there are a great number of 
 very strong and well-built forms, and 
 in their bronzed faces rosy cheeks are 
 not wanting. 
 
 And yet it was a particularly criti- 
 cal time. The forty days' fast of Lent 
 was approaching its end, and the 
 whole Greek population was in a 
 state of exhaustion, which could be 
 very precisely measured by the daily 
 decrease of the work done. When 
 the first sick woman I spoke to, a 
 person worn out by long fever, asked 
 me what she should eat, and I pre- 
 scribed to her a generous diet, I was 
 not a little astonished to hear that 
 Lent excludes altogether not only the 
 eating of meat but even of eggs and 
 fish, and that there is no dispensa- 
 tion for the sick or even for children. 
 For forty consecutive days Lent is 
 observed with the greatest austerity 
 by the entire population ! Such is the 
 
 influence of the priests, who are neither 
 educated nor removed from the com- 
 mon pursuits of the people. Nay, I 
 saw one of these gentlemen who kept 
 a frequented inn, and who on Sunday 
 was to be seen sitting in the middle of 
 the bar-room smoking his nargileh. 
 
 In addition to Lent, with the atro- 
 phy it produces, comes a second mis- 
 chievous influence, the malaria. The 
 Trojan Plain is a notorious region of 
 fever, nor can any one be astonished at 
 this. Large swamps and marshes ex- 
 tend in all directions. Several rivers 
 and rivulets disappear in them and 
 fill the subsoil with their water. 
 Shortly before my arrival, the Sca- 
 mander had overflowed its banks and 
 had inundated the plain far and wide. 
 In the first week of April the whole 
 land on its west side was still coated 
 with thick silt and mud; all the 
 roads were covered up, and stagnant 
 water still stood in many places. 
 Then the evaporation commenced, and 
 in the evening a stinking fog lay over 
 the plain. The various arms of the 
 Kalifatli Asmak began soon afterwards 
 to change from flowing watercourses 
 into chains of stagnant pools and 
 tanks. In short, all the conditions 
 were supplied for the formation of 
 malaria, for at the same time the tem- 
 perature of the air increased rapidly, 
 and at noon we had not seldom in 
 the shade 20°, 22°, and even higher 
 degrees centigrade (68°, 71*6° F., and 
 upwards). 
 
 Nevertheless I did not see a single 
 case of malignant fever proper. Ac- 
 cording to what the people say, it is 
 only June and July that bring this 
 increase of the malarious action. We 
 remained exempt, though we did not 
 follow for a single day the well- 
 known rule, not to stay in the open 
 air after sunset. How often did 
 we ride by starlight or moonlight 
 over the stinking plain ! Sometimes 
 after such rides, which were usually 
 very long and fatiguing, I felt on the 
 following morning a slight fulness in 
 
724 
 
 MEDICAL PRACTICE IN THE TROAD IN 1879. [App. V. 
 
 the head, so that for precaution's sake 
 I took some quinine, but no trace of 
 fever was observable. Among the 
 population, intermittent fever, for the 
 most part tertian, was the prevail- 
 ing disease, but generally in lighter 
 forms, though frequently the new- 
 attacks were developed on the basis 
 of an old malarious condition, or as 
 gradations of a chronic state of fever 
 which had existed for five, six, or 
 nine months. Tumours of the spleen 
 are common among the people, and 
 the term " spleen " (cnrXrjv) is gene- 
 rally employed to express the disease. 
 Many apparently similar diseases of 
 course fall under the same term. Thus, 
 fur instance, one day a little boy was 
 brought to me with a large echino- 
 coccus, and my assurances that it was 
 no "spleen" were hardly believed. 
 A man whom I consoled with the assu- 
 rance that his wife had no "spleen," 
 but that she would present him with 
 a child in a few months, was quite 
 panic-stricken, for they had been 
 married for seven years without 
 having any children. I had to refer 
 him to the example of the old patri- 
 arch Jacob. Another, who believed 
 himself to be sick of the spleen, had 
 a most developed purpura (morbus 
 maculosus Werlhofii) ; his disease was 
 promptly cured by the administra- 
 tion of sulphuric acid, though at first 
 he was very reluctant to take it. 
 In other cases extraordinarily large 
 spleens occurred. What was most 
 striking, nay, really new to me, were 
 the splenic tumours of the young 
 children. In Kalifatli, which of all 
 the Trojan localities has the most 
 unfavourable situation in the midst 
 of a swampy region, I saw a child of 
 two years, and another of ten months, 
 who had very large and hard splenic 
 tumours ; in the case of the latter 
 child, the spleen filled almost the 
 whole anterior part of the abdomen. 
 This was the more remarkable, as 
 with adults large splenic tumours 
 were rare ; and in the lighter and 
 
 more recent cases they were generally 
 hardly perceptible. 
 
 Another circumstance also struck 
 me. Shortly before, I had visited 
 the hospitals in Bucharest, and had 
 seen there a larger number of fever- 
 stricken patients. Dr. Gliick had 
 pointed out to me several cases in 
 which ascites with chronic hepatitis 
 (cirrhosis) had been engendered as 
 a consequent disease, and he assured 
 me that this is a frequent occurrence 
 in the fever districts of Eoumania. 
 In the Troad I did not see a single 
 case of the kind. Nor did even 
 anasarca frequently occur. 
 
 At all events, we should have ex- 
 pected that malaria must exercise a 
 great influence on the aspect of the 
 people. If this is by no means gene- 
 rally the case, the reason is not that 
 the number of fever districts is small. 
 It is true that almost all the villages 
 are built on heights, on purpose to 
 avoid the fever. In the plain proper 
 there are in all only three small 
 settlements : the small town of Koum 
 Kaleh at the mouth of the Scamander, 
 and the two villages of Koum Kioi 
 and Kalifatli. But even the villages 
 situated on heights, and in fact al- 
 ways on heights of tertiary or vol- 
 canic rock, are not free from fever. 
 Manifestly the malaria is brought to 
 them by the winds. The fact that 
 the inhabitants have nevertheless a 
 decidedly healthy look, I am inclined 
 to ascribe to their passing the greater 
 part of their life in the open air. 
 Many of them wander about with 
 their herds and seldom come home. 
 Almost all carry on agriculture over 
 large tracts, and the women also take 
 part in the work in the open field. 
 
 This manner of living of course 
 exposes them to other diseases, espe- 
 cially to colds, and these were the 
 order of the day just at the time when 
 I was in the Troad, — during the 
 whole month of April. Though the 
 days were for the most part warm, 
 and sometimes even hot, yet the 
 
App. V.] 
 
 BY PROFESSOR RUDOLF VIRCHOW 
 
 725 
 
 temperature frequently fell in the 
 night to 10° C, and lower ; a quick 
 change taking place at sunset. At 
 the same time a strong wind gene- 
 rally prevailed, and in particular a 
 cool sea-breeze. Under such circum- 
 stances, catarrhs and pneumonia were 
 not to be wondered at. The severest 
 pneumonia I saw was in the case of a 
 man who had passed the nights with- 
 out shelter in the field. None of these 
 cases, however, terminated fatally. 
 Nevertheless it is not improbable that 
 at least some of the cases of con- 
 sumption, of which very severe ex- 
 amples were brought to me, are to 
 be attributed to the same cause. I 
 have not been able to authenticate 
 an immunity from consumption. 
 
 It deserves particular mention that 
 I met with no trace of acute exan- 
 themata, unless erysipelas should be 
 counted amongst them. I saw neither 
 small - pox, nor scarlet fever, nor 
 measles. It may be that the slight 
 intercourse with the outer world con- 
 tributes to prevent these contagions. 
 It is still, however, remarkable that 
 such free spots are found on a conti- 
 nent. Of erysipelas I saw some very 
 severe cases, the most severe being 
 that of an elderly man, who had at 
 the same time erysipelas of the face 
 and a large roseolar swelling of both 
 hands and fore-arms, with high fever. 
 He also recovered. 
 
 Other contagious diseases, apart 
 from skin affections, were also rare. 
 Of lues I met with a single case (ter- 
 tiary) in a foreign labourer. Scabies 
 I saw sometimes ; tinea (porrigo) also 
 among children, but in slight forms. 
 
 A very large number of sick per- 
 sons sought relief from chronic dis- 
 eases, which had already subsided, 
 but had been cured imperfectly, es- 
 pecially chronic diseases of the eye 
 and ear. I extirpated an aural poly- 
 pus ; but for the rest I could do 
 but little except that, particularly 
 for the eye-diseases, I put myself in 
 communication with Dr. Miihlig, the 
 
 physician of the excellent German 
 hospital in Constantinople, asking 
 him to admit them. Of surgical cases 
 but few occurred; but on the other 
 hand a comparatively large number 
 of chronic nervous diseases, particu- 
 larly spasms and paralysis. Among 
 the more frequent skin diseases, I 
 may mention a remarkable case of 
 ichthyosis cornea palmaris. 
 
 Finally, a case of particular interest 
 to me was that of a little boy with 
 geophagia. He was a child seven 
 years old, with a somewhat bloated 
 thick face. The abdomen was rather 
 protuberant, though I could not 
 feel any tumour in it, and the 
 mucous membrane of the mouth was 
 entirely anaemic. In the vessels of 
 the neck there was a remarkably 
 loud anaemic murmur. Though he 
 was the son of the shepherd who 
 brought us eveiy morning excellent 
 fresh sheep's milk, and though the 
 opportunity for a similar indulgence 
 was ceitainly not wanting to him, 
 he nevertheless, " from the time he 
 walked," had preferred to eat earth, 
 that is to say the common earth, con- 
 sisting of calcareous clay, which forms 
 the soil of the pasture. Formerly he 
 is said to have had a healthy appear- 
 ance, but now he is small and weak 
 for his age. His parents declared 
 that they had tried in vain to break 
 him of his propensity. Whether the 
 iron powder which I gave him has 
 cured him, I do not know. 
 
 On the whole I cannot complain of 
 the results of my medical campaign. 
 The sick were obedient ; and, even 
 when I went altogether in opposition 
 to their habits, they were compliant. 
 Schlieraann writes to me, in his en- 
 thusiastic way, from Ilium (May 10): 
 " All your sick in Kalifatli are per- 
 fectly cured, and, blessing you, they 
 exclaim : 
 
 Tpwes Kara. &arv flew wj evx^Tocauro. " 
 
 At the same time he relates the fol- 
 lowing story, which is characteristic 
 
726 
 
 MEDICAL PRACTICE IN THE TROAD IN 1879. 
 
 [App. V. 
 
 of the East and its formation of 
 myths. For the purpose of a geolo- 
 gical investigation of the soil of the 
 Trojan Plain, I had ordered a hole to he 
 dug in the neighbourhood of Kalifatli, 
 in an ancient river-course. Having 
 little time, I set two labourers to work 
 there, and instructed them to dig on 
 until they reached water. In the 
 meantime I rode with my zaptieh 
 (gendarme) to the Ujek and Besika 
 Tepehs, but was so much hindered that 
 it was after nightfall when I returned 
 to the place. As the matter was 
 important to me, I ordered the ser- 
 vants to light matches, examined the 
 hole attentively, and took away some 
 of the excavated earth. On the follow- 
 ing days I again returned to the spot 
 several times, and investigated the 
 condition of the soil. This had evi- 
 dently excited the curiosity of the 
 people, who did not understand the 
 purpose of the work. Under the date 
 of June 4, Schliemann wrote to me 
 from Troy : " Your excavation in the 
 bed of the Kalifatli has been reve- 
 rently enclosed by the villagers with 
 a wall of stones; a great magical 
 virtue is attributed to the spring you 
 brought to light in it, which is called 
 to irrjyaZi rov larpov (the Doctor's 
 spring) ; all the villagers fetch their 
 water from it." 
 
 In this way local legends still origi- 
 nate in the East at the present day. 
 Though it was not possible for me on 
 the island of Kos to seek out the old 
 plane-tree under which the father of 
 medicine, Hippocrates, is said to have 
 received his patients, yet a vivid pic- 
 ture of the old state of things has been 
 disclosed to me. This people is still 
 in many respects just what it was 
 thousands of years ago ; especially in 
 point of personal gratitude. Schlie- 
 mann, who had formerly practised 
 medicine with much success in the 
 Troad, and to whom I had therefore 
 given the name of Machaon, has for 
 a long time been in doubt whether 
 the people were thankful. 2 I myself 
 had the same doubts ; but when the 
 people learnt that I gathered flowers 
 daily, no morning passed without our 
 table being covered with fragrant 
 bouquets ; and when on my return 
 journey to the Dardanelles I rode 
 through Een Kioi, so many bouquets 
 of stock gilly-flowers (levkoies) and 
 basilicum (which are grown in flower- 
 pots on the balconies and on the 
 terraces of the houses) were presented 
 to me, that I had great trouble to 
 find a place about me in which to 
 put them. 
 
 2 Troy and its Remains, pp. 89, 142. 
 
APPENDIX VI. 
 
 Catalogue of the Plants hitherto known of the Troad, compiled according 
 to the collections of Professor KUDOLF VIRCHOW and Dr. JtJLIUS 
 
 SCHMIDT, AND FROM THE LITERARY SOURCES BY PROFESSOR PAUL 
 
 ASCHEKSON of Berlin, Professor THEODOR VON HELDEEICH 
 of Athens, and Doctor F. KUETZ of Berlin. 
 
 The Troad 1 belongs in a botanical 
 point of view to the least known 
 countries of Asia Minor. Though this 
 country has been visited or wandered 
 through by several of the most re- 
 nowned botanical travellers, such as 
 Forskal (1761) and Dumont d'Urville 
 (1819), who merely visited the island 
 of Tenedos, Olivier (1794 and 1798), 
 Sibthorp (1794?), Barker Webb and 
 Parolini (1819), Aucher-Eloy and 
 Gust. Coquebert de Montbret (1833), 
 who explored the Troad proper, yet 
 these explorations did not lead to de- 
 tailed communications on the plants 
 of the regions visited, because some 
 of the travellers named visited the 
 Troad in an unfavourable season, 
 midsummer or autumn, whilst others 
 did not publish anything on their 
 collections, of which only some species 
 have here and there become known. 
 At least as much, therefore, as to 
 the botanists by profession, if indeed 
 not more, are we indebted for our 
 knowledge of the Trojan flora to tra- 
 vellers, who besides their principal 
 archaeological, geological, or geogra- 
 phical objects of study, paid also at- 
 tention to the ever-attractive children 
 
 1 The territory, from which botanical infor- 
 mation has been collected in this catalogue, is 
 far more restricted than the area of the Troas 
 as understood at p. 67 of this work. It extends, 
 on the shore, southward as far as Adramyttium 
 (Edremit), northward to the Quarantine (between 
 Rhoiterion and the Dardanelles). 
 
 of Flora; such were Clarke (1801), 
 Tchihatcheff (1849), Julius Schmidt 
 (1864), and Rudolf Yirchow (1879); 
 supplementary information has also 
 been received from Frank Calvert 
 (1879 and 1880). The collections of 
 the three last-named explorers are for 
 the most part given here for the first 
 time (that of J. Schmidt according 
 to the communications of Th. von 
 Heldreich). From them and from the 
 sporadic notices contained in bota- 
 nical literature on collections of former 
 travellers we gather that (including 
 cultivated plants) there are scarcely 
 500 kinds of plants known to belong 
 to the Troad, which number constitutes 
 at most a quarter or one-third part of 
 the plants existing there. But doubt- 
 less in a country which offers such 
 favourable conditions for the vegeta- 
 tion, a country too which — from the 
 sandy and rocky sea-coast and the 
 swampy plain to the lofry summits of 
 the mountains abounding in forests 
 and springs, and only for some months 
 free from snow — offers a manifold 
 variety of situation and geological 
 formation, there are still reserved 
 for the future sjuendid botanical dis- 
 coveries. 
 
 Since many of the future travellers 
 to the Troad will certainly be active 
 in this direction, an enumeration of 
 the plants hitherto known — however 
 incomplete it must be — seems to be 
 useful in this place. 
 
728 
 
 CATALOGUE OF PLANTS OF THE TKOAD. 
 
 [App. VI. 
 
 To economize space the names of 
 the more frequently occurring obser- 
 vers are abbreviated, namely — ■ 
 
 C = Clarke T = Tchihatchcff 
 
 F = Forskal V=Virehow 
 S = Julius Schmidt W = Barker Webb. 
 
 Ranunculaceae. 
 Anemone coronaria, L. In the Troad widely 
 
 spread, e.g. In Tepeh (C), Novum Ilium 
 
 (V.), Bounarbashi (C), Gargarus (C). 
 A. stellata, Lmk. Bali Dagh (C). 
 A. formosa, Clarke. Gargarus (C). 
 A. blanda, Schott and Kotschy. Bali Dagh 
 
 (C), Gargarus (C ). 
 Adonis aestivalis, L. Tumulus of Achilles 
 
 (V.), Plain of Troy (V.). 
 Ranunculus aquatilis, L. In Tepeh Asmak 
 
 (V.), Kalifatli Asmak (V.). 
 R. ficariiformis, F. Schultz. Novum Ilium, 
 
 grove of fig-trees above the springs (V.). 
 
 ? Tenedos (Virlet). 
 R. orientalis, L. Ida region (V.). 
 ? R. Reuterianus, Boiss. Between Nurlii and 
 
 Tchaukhlar (T.). 
 R. velutinus, Ten. Plain of Troy (S.). 
 R. sceleratus, L. Plain of Troy (S.). 
 R. ophioglossifolius, Vill. Plain of Troy (S.). 
 R. tr achy carpus, Fisch. et Mey. Plain of Troy 
 
 (S.). 
 
 R. arvensis, L. Plain of Troy (S.). 
 Ceratocephalus falcafus, Pers. Valley of the 
 
 Kimar Su (Calvert). 
 Nigella arvensis, L., var. involucrata, Boits. 
 
 Tenedos (D'Urville). 
 N. sativa, L. Troad, cult. (W.). 
 Paeonia decora, Anders. Below the source 
 
 of the Scamander (V.). 
 
 Berberidaceae. 
 Leontice Leontopetalum, L. Plain of Troy 
 (V.), e.g. near Bounarbashi (C). 
 
 Papaveraceae. 
 Papaver dubium, L. Troad (V.). 
 P. Argemone, L., var. Valley of Aiwajik Su, 
 near Eskeklii (V ), Assos (V.). 
 
 Fumariaceae. 
 Hypecoum procumbens, L. Plain of Troy 
 
 (C. W.), Hissarlik (V.). 
 Corydallis Marschalliana, Pers.? (Fumaria \ 
 
 bullosa, Clarke). Source of the Scamander 
 
 (C). 
 
 Fumaria officinalis, L. Troad (C). 
 F. Vaillantii, Loisel. On the Hellespont, near 
 
 the Quarantine (V.). 
 F. parviflora, Lmk. Troad (C). 
 F. anatolica, Boiss. Plain of Troy (S.). 
 F. Gussonei, Boiss., var. umbrosa, Hausskn. 
 
 Plain of Troy (S.). 
 
 Cruciferae. 
 MaWiiola tricuspidata, R. Br. Sandy strand 
 of Talian Kioi near Alexandria Troas (V.). 
 Cardamine hirsuta, L. ? (C. tenella, Clarke). 
 
 Bounarbashi (C). 
 C. graeca, L. Troy (V.). Between Kelbi and 
 
 Tc haukhlar (T.). 
 Dentaria bulbifera, L. Mountain forests of 
 
 the Troad (T.). 
 Arabis verna, R. Br. Upper Scamander valley 
 (V.). 
 
 A. albida, Steven. Between Nurlii and 
 
 Tchaukhlar (T.). 
 Nasturtium officinale, R. Br. At the springs 
 
 near Novum Ilium (V.). 
 Erysimum smymaeum, Boiss. Ida region (V.). 
 Sisymbrium polyceratium, L. Tenedos {F.). 
 
 In Greek, ay ptonapa. 
 Malcolmia flexuosa, Sm. Port of Alexandria 
 
 Troas (V.). Tenedos (Olivier). 
 Aubrietia deltoidea, DC. Rock above the 
 Scamander source (C), Alexandria Troas 
 (V.). 
 
 Vesicaria graeca, Reut. Troy (V.). 
 Alyssum umbellalum, Desv. Troy (V.). 
 A. campestre, L. Troy (V.). 
 I Koniga maritima, R. Br. Troad (W.). 
 Braba muralis, L. Kestambul (V.). 
 Aethionema ovalifolium, Boiss.? (Thlaspi saxa- 
 
 tile, Clarke). Scamander source (C ). 
 Cakile maritima, Scop. Sandy beach oppo- 
 site Tenedos (fc\). 
 Sinapis arvensis, L. Among oats (Calvert). 
 
 Capparidaceae. 
 Capparis sptinosa, L. Troad (W.), Tenedos 
 (F.). Greek, pijxoviapid. 
 
 Resedaceae. 
 Reseda Phtjteuma, L. ? (R. alba trigyna un. 
 data, Forsk.). Tenedos (F.). Greek cvypio- 
 XapOa/j.0. 
 
 R. lutea, L. Tumulus of Patroclus (V.). 
 
 ClSTACEAE. 
 
 Cistus villosus, L. Mountains near Ghiekli 
 (V.) ? Scamander source (C. crispus, Clarke) 
 (C). Var. creticus, Boiss. Between Nurlii 
 and Akhmetlu (T.). 
 C. salviifolius, L. Ren Kioi (V.), Troy (V.), 
 
 Ida district (V.). s 
 Helianthemum guttatum, Mill. Troy (V.). 
 
 Violaceae. 
 
 Viola silvatica, Fr. Chigri Dagh (V), Be- 
 tween Nurlii and Tchaukhlar (T.). 
 Viola olympica, Boiss. Between Nurlii and 
 Tchaukhlar (T.). 
 
 SlLENACEAE. 
 
 Dianthus erinaceus, Boiss., var. alpinus, Boiss. 
 (D. juniperinus, Webb; D. Webbianus, 
 Parol.). On the summit of the Gargarus 
 (W. Parolini). 
 
App. VI.] 
 
 BY PROFESSOR PAUL ASCHERSON, ETC. 
 
 729 
 
 D. glutinosus, Boiss. et Heldr. (D. pubescens, 
 
 D'Urv.). Tenedos, on sunny hills, not rare 
 
 (D'Urville). 
 Tunica velutina, Fisch. et Mey. Plain of 
 
 Troy (8.). 
 T. Sibthorpii, Boiss. Troad (Olivier). 
 Saponaria Vaccaria, L., var. grandiflora, 
 
 Buiss. Plain of Troy (S.) 
 Silene conica, L. Plain of Troy (S.). 
 8. Behen, L. Plain of Troy (S.). 
 S. colorata, Poir. Storaalinine (V.)., Troy 
 
 (V.). Tenedos (Virlet). Var. canescens, Heldr. 
 
 Plain of Troy (S.). 
 S. fabaria, Sin. ? (Cucubalus foliis crassis, 
 
 Forsk.). Tenedos, rock (F.). 
 S. inflata, Sra. Troad (S.). Var. rubriflora, 
 
 Boiss. Troad (S.). 
 
 Alsinaceae. 
 Alsine setacea, Mert. et Koch. Var. anatolica, 
 
 Boiss. Gargarus (Aucher). 
 A. tenuifolia, Wahlenb. Troad (S.). 
 Arenaria leptoclados, Rchb. Troad (S.). 
 Stellularia media, Cir. Plain of Troy (S.). 
 Moenchia mantica, Bartl. Troy (S., V.). Hill 
 
 at Sigeum (V.). 
 Cerastium br achy pet alum, Desp. Var. luridum, 
 
 Boiss. Troad (S.). 
 
 Paronychiaceae. 
 Herniaria incana, Lmk. Troad (S.). 
 Paronychia argentea, Lmk. Troad (W.). 
 
 MOLLUGINACE AE. . 
 
 Mollugo Ccrviana, Ser. Troad (W.). 
 
 Tamariscaceae. 
 Tamorix parviflora, DC. At the Scaraander 
 and Simois in the Plain (V.). The [xvpiK-n 
 mentioned by Homer. 
 
 Hypericaceae. 
 Triadenia Eusseggeri, Fenzl. Adramyttion 
 (Montbret). 
 
 Hypericum rhodopeum, Friv. (H. recognitum 
 Fischer et Meyer). Between Nurlii and 
 Tchaukhlar, in a low stony situation (T.). 
 
 ? H. olympicum, Forsk., hardly L. Tenedos 
 (F.). Greek yovdovpa, ayovSovpa or ayaOov- 
 Se'pa. 
 
 H. Aucheri, Jaub. et Spach. Gargarus 
 (Aucher), Adramyttion (Montbret) ? Be- 
 tween Nurlu and Akhmetlii (H. procum- 
 bens, T., hardly Michx.). 
 
 H. supinum, Vis. On the gulf of Adramyt- 
 tion, near the ancient Antandros (Parolini). 
 
 II. Montbreiii, Jaub. et Spach. Alexandria 
 Troas (V.), Kestambul (V.). 
 
 Malvaceae. 
 Malope malacoides, L. Alexandria Troas 
 (V). 
 
 ? Malva Tournefortiana, Forsk., hardly L. 
 
 Tenedos (F.). Greek, /xoWoxa; Turkish, 
 achedjumez. 
 
 Abelmoschus esculentus, Mnch. Troad, cult. 
 (W.). Greek, 0a/xid ; Turkish, bamia. 
 
 Gossypium herbaceum, L. Is extensively cul- 
 tivated in the Plain of Troy (Olivier, W. V.). 
 In Tenedos, scantily cultivated (F. Olivier). 
 
 Tiliaceae. 
 
 Tilia intermedia, DC. Below the Scamander 
 source, very sparingly (V.). 
 
 LlNACEAE. 
 
 Linum alpinum, Jacq. Besika Tepeh (V.), 
 
 Chigri Dagh (V.). 
 
 Geraniaceae. 
 Geranium asphodeloides, Willd. Valley of the 
 
 Aiwajik Su near Esheklii (V.). 
 G. dissectum, L. Plain of Troy (Calvert). 
 
 Zygophyllaceae. 
 Tribulus terrester, L. Troad (W.). 
 Peganum Harmala, L. Troad (W.), Tenedos, 
 
 on the beach (F.). Greek, PpofMoxoprapo ; 
 
 Turkish, yserlik. 
 
 Rutaceae. 
 Buta chalepensis, L. Troad (W.). 
 
 Sapindaceae. 
 Acer creticum, L., var. obtusifolium, Boiss. 
 Troad (T.). 
 
 Ampelidaceae. 
 Vitis vinifera, L. In the Plain of Troy, very 
 often wild (W.), e.g. at the In Tepeh As- 
 mak, Simois, Thymbrius, Kimar Su (V.) ; 
 but sparingly cultivated, by the Mahomedans 
 only for the grapes; for the making of wine, 
 only at Yeni Shehr, Yeni Kioi (W.), Ren 
 Kioi (V.). Chiefly on Tenedos, the wine of 
 which is celebrated. In this island, viti- 
 culture was flourishing already in ancient 
 times, the arms of ancient Tenedcs showing 
 a grape. 
 
 Terebinthaceae. 
 Rhus Coriaria, L. Sumach. Wild on hills 
 
 near the sea (W.). 
 Pistacia Terebinthus, L. In the Plain of 
 
 Troy, not rare (W. V.) ; also near Ren Kioi, 
 
 and on the Oulou Dagh (V). 
 P. Lentiscus, L. Troad (\V.). 
 
 Papilionaceae. 
 
 Anagyris foetida, L. Found all over the 
 Troad (C. W. S.), e.g. on the banks of the 
 In Tepeh Asmak, and near Novum Ilium 
 (V.). Is not eaten by the cattle. 
 
 Adenocarpus divaricatus, DC. Middle region 
 of the Ida above Evjilar (W.). 
 
 Calycotome villosa, Lk. (Spartium spinosum, 
 Webb). Troad (W.), e.g. Oulou Dagh (V.). 
 
 ? Spartium Scorpius, Webb. Troas (W.). 
 
730 
 
 CATALOGUE OF PLANTS OF THE TROAD. 
 
 [App. VI. 
 
 S.junceum, L. Troad (W.). Between Nurlii 
 and Akhmetlii (T.). 
 
 Genista lydia, Boiss. Gargarus (Aucher). 
 
 Cytisus smyrnaeus, Boiss. Between Nurlii 
 and Tchaukhlar (T.). 
 
 Tiigonella spicata, Sm. Between Nurlii and 
 Akhmetlu (T.). 
 
 T. cretica, Boiss. Between Nurlii and Akh- 
 metlu (T.), 
 
 Medicago marina, L. Troad (S.). On the shore 
 of the Hellespont, near Koutn Kaleh (V). 
 
 M. orbicularis, All., var. marginata, Benth. 
 Plain of Troy (Calvert). 
 
 M. coronate, Desv. Troad (S.). 
 
 M. hispida, Urb., var. denticulate, Urb. Plain 
 of Troy (Calvert). 
 
 M. .arabica, All. Plain of Troy (Calvert). 
 
 M. minima, Bartal. Troad (S.). 
 
 Melilotus sulcatus, Desf. Plain of Troy (Cal- 
 vert). 
 
 M. neapolilanus, Ten. Troad (S.). 
 Trifolium Cherleri, L. Troad (S.). 
 T. stellatum, L. Troad (S.), e.g. on the Kali- 
 
 fatli Asmak, not far from the mouth of the 
 
 Simois (V.). 
 T. scabrum, L. Plain of Troy (Calvert). 
 
 Between Nurlii and Tchaukhlar (T.). 
 T. Bocconei, Suvi. Plain of Troy (Calvert). 
 T. spumosum, L. Plain of Troy (Calvert), Ida 
 
 district (V.). 
 T. repens, L. Troad (S.). 
 T. uniflorum, L. Bounarbashi (C), between 
 
 Nurlii and Tchaukhlar (T.). 
 
 . procumbens, h. (T. agrarium, Poll.). Plain 
 
 of Troy (S. Calvert), Alexandria Troas (V.), 
 
 between Tuzla and Hasii (T.). 
 Physanthyllis tetraphylla, Boiss. Troad (W.), 
 
 between Nurlii and Akhmetlii (T.). 
 Hymenocarpus circinatus, Savi. Plain of 
 
 Troy (S. V.). 
 Lotus creticus, L., var. cytisoides, Boiss. Troad 
 
 (S.). 
 
 L. belgradica, Forsk. Tenedos (F.) ? 
 Bonaveria Securidaca, Scop. Between Nurlii 
 
 and Akhmetlu (T.). 
 Coronilla emeroides, Boiss. et Spr. (C. Emerus, 
 
 Webb), Troad (W.). 
 C. glauca, L. Troad (W.). 
 C. parviflora, Willd. Frequently in the Plain 
 
 of Troy (S. V.), e.g. on the Kalifatli Asmak 
 
 (V.). It has yellow and pink, seldom white 
 
 flowers. 
 
 Fsoralea bituminosa, L. Troad (S.). Var. 
 major, Heldr. Troad (S.). 
 
 Glycyrrhiza glabra, L., var. glandulifera, Regel 
 et Herd. {G. hirsute, Pall.). Troad (W.). 
 
 Astragalus Haarbachii, Sprun. Troad (S.). 
 
 A. Virchowii, Aschs. et Kurtz (A. christianus, 
 Webb). Yeni Shehr, not far from the tu- 
 mulus of Achilles (V.). 
 
 A. anatolicus, Boiss. ? (A. longiflorus, Clarke 
 hardly Pallas). Troad (C). 
 
 A. trojanus, Stev. (A. Tragacantha, Webb) 
 
 Troad (Olivier, Aucher). 
 Onobrychis aequidentata, D'Urv. Troad (S.), 
 
 e.g. Sigeum (V.), Bali Dagh (V.). 
 Cicer arietinum, L. Tread, cultivated (W. 
 
 Calvert). 
 
 C. Montbretii, Jaub. et Spach. Ida district 
 
 (V.), Gargarus (Aucher, Montbret). 
 Vicia hybrida, L. Troad (S.), e. g. Hissarlik 
 
 (V.). Tenedos (Virlet). 
 V. melanops, Sibth. et Sm. Troad (V.). 
 V. grandiflora, Seop. Between Nurlii and 
 
 Tchaukhlar (T.) Var. Biebersteiniana, Koch. 
 
 Troad (V.). 
 
 V. saliva, L„ var. macrocarpa, Boiss. Troad 
 (S.). 
 
 V. Cosentinii, Guss., var. amphicarpa, Heldr. 
 Troad (S.). 
 
 V. lathyroides, L. Between Nurlii and 
 
 Tchaukhlar (T.). 
 V. cuspidate, Boiss. Troad (V.). 
 V. peregrina, L. Troad (V.). 
 V. Faba, L. Troad, cultivated (V.). 
 V. Cracca, L. Troad (V.). 
 V. villosa, Rth. Troad (V.). 
 V. laxijlora, Boiss. Kotch Ali Ovassi (V.). 
 V. smymaea, Boiss. Besika Tepeh (V.). 
 V. hirsute, Koch. Troad (S.). 
 V. Ervilia, Willd. Troad, cultivated (Calvert). 
 Lens esculenta, Mnch. Troad, cultivated (W.) 
 Lathyrus Aphaca, L. Troad (S.). 
 L. sativus, L. Troad, cultivated (Calvert). 
 L. Cicera, L., var. pilosus, Alef. Troad (S. V.). 
 L. setifolius, L. Troad (S.). 
 L. saxatilis, Vis. Troad (S). 
 Orobus sessilifolius, Sibth. et Sm. Troad 
 
 (S. V.). Between Nurlii and Tchaukhlar. 
 
 (T.) 
 
 0. hirsutus, L. Troad (V.). Between Nurlii 
 and Tchaukhlar (T.) Var. glabratus, Gris. 
 Troad (S. V.). 
 
 Visum elatius, M. B. Troad (S.) . 
 
 Phaseolus vulgaris, L. Troad, cult. (W. Cal- 
 vert). 
 
 Dolichos Lubia, Forsk. Troad, cult. (Calvert). 
 
 Caesalpiniaceae. 
 Cercis Siliquastrum, L. Alexandria Troas 
 (V.). On the Lie Tchai (V.). Between 
 NurlU and Akhmetlii (T.). 
 
 Amygdalaceae. 
 Amygdalus Webbii, Spach. Bali Dagh (W. 
 
 v.). 
 
 A. communis, L. Cultivated in the vicinity 
 of the villages (V.), e.g. in the Simois 
 valley (C). 
 
 A. Persica, L. Like the foregoing (V.). 
 
 POMACEAE. 
 
 Pirus communis, L. Forms frequently bushes 
 in the Plain of Troy, more seldom trees, e.g. 
 Koumi Koi (V.). On the In Tepeh Asmak 
 
App. VI.] 
 
 BY PEOFESSOR PAUL ASCHEESON, ETC. 
 
 731 
 
 (V.) Tenedos (Prunus oxyacantha, Forsk.). 
 Greek, ctxAaSa ; also cultivated. 
 
 P. Nalus, L. Aggdagb (T.). Cultivated in 
 the neighbourhood of the villages (V.). 
 
 Crataegus monogyna, Jacq. Often in the under- 
 wood, of the plain and the mountains (V.), 
 e. g. Novum Ilium (V.), upper Scamander 
 valley (V.). 
 
 EOSACEAE. 
 
 Bosa canina, L. ? In bushes, particularly on 
 the river-banks, frequent (V. ). 
 
 Bubus sanctus, Schrb. ? In bushes, particu- 
 larly on river-banks, frequent (V.). 
 
 B. tomenlosus, Borkh. Gargarus (W.). 
 
 Potentilla micrantha, Eamond? (Fragaria 
 sterilis, Clarke, whether L. ?) Gargarus 
 (C). 
 
 Aremonia agrimonioides, Neck. Alexandria 
 Troas (V.). 
 
 Sanguisorba spinosa, Bertol. In the bushes 
 of the Plain of Troy and the hills, so fre- 
 quent that it is used for fuel, e. g. near 
 the In Tepeh, Novum Ilium, Besika Tepeh 
 (V.). 
 
 Myrtaceae. 
 Myrtus communis, L. Troad (W. V.). 
 
 Granataceae. 
 Tunica Granatum, L. Troad, wild and culti- 
 vated (W.). 
 
 Cucurbit ace ae. 
 
 Citrullus vulgaris, Schrad. Troad, cult. (W.). 
 
 Ecbalium Elaterium, Eich. Hissarlik (V.). 
 The seed of this plant was found in ex- 
 cavating. 
 
 Bryonia dioeca, Jacq. ? Troad (V.). 
 
 Crassulaceae. 
 Umbilicus pendulinus, DC. Kotch Ali Ovassi 
 (V.). 
 
 Sedum Cepaea, L. Bali Dagh, "tumulus of 
 Hector " (C). 
 
 TJmbelliferae. 
 Eryngium campestre, L. Tenedos (F.). Greek, 
 ayyaOia. 
 
 E. bithynicum, Boiss.? (E. fricuspidatum, Sibth. 
 et Sm., hardly L.). Plain of Troy (Sib- 
 thorp). 
 
 E. foetidum, Forsk., not L. Tenedos (F.). 
 Lagoecia cuminoides, L. Troad (V.). 
 Bupleurum trichopodum, Boiss. et Sprun. 
 
 Troad (S.). 
 Apium graveolens, L. Assos (V.). 
 Ammi majus, L. Tenedos (F.). Greek, aa- 
 
 irpoKecpaXos. 
 Physocaidus nodosus, Tausch. Troad (S.). 
 Anthriscus nemorosa, M. B., var. anatolica, 
 
 Boiss. Gargarus (Aucher). 
 A. vulgaris, Pers., var. pubescens, Heldr. 
 
 Troad (S.). 
 
 Scandix grandiflora, L. Troad (S.), e. g. His- 
 sarlik (V.). 
 
 Bifora testiculata, DC. Troad (V.). 
 Smyrnium Orphanidis, Boiss. ? Euins of Assos 
 (V.). 
 
 Hippomarathrum cristatum, Boiss.? Troad 
 (S.). 
 
 Echinophora Sibthorpiana, Guss. Troad (S.), 
 vineyards on Tenedos frequent (D'Urville). 
 
 Oenanthe silaifolia, M. B. On the Bounar- 
 bashi Su, near the bridge (V.). 
 
 Foeniculum officinale, All. On the Kimar Su 
 (V.). 
 
 Crithmum maritimum, L. Eocky coast of the 
 
 Troad (W.). 
 Ferula communis, L. Troad (S.), e. g. on the 
 
 In Tepeh Asmak, above the bridge (V.). 
 Tordylium officinale, L. Troad (S.). 
 T. apulum, L. Troad (S.), Alexandria Troas 
 
 (V.). 
 
 Opopanax orientale, Boiss. Troad (S.). 
 Daucus Broterii, Ten. ? (Artedia muricata, 
 
 Forsk.). Tenedos (F.). Greek, aliyyavo. 
 Caucalis leptophylla, L. Troad (S.). 
 
 Araliaceae. 
 Hedera Helix, L. Ida district (V.). 
 
 Cornaceae. 
 Cornus mas, L. Troad (T., V.). 
 
 Caprifoliaceae. 
 Lonicera Caprifolium, L. ? Troad (V.). 
 L. orientalis, Lmk. Between Karajilar and 
 Divanjik (T.). 
 
 BCEIACEAE. 
 
 Bubia peregrina, L. Troad (S.). 
 B. Olivieri, A. Eich. Hedges near Beira- 
 mitch (V.). 
 
 Sherardia arvensis, L. Plain of Troy (S., Cal- 
 vert). 
 
 Galium Aparine, L. Troad (S.). 
 
 Vaillantia muralis, L., var. hirsuta, Guss. 
 
 Troad (S.). 
 V. hispida, L. Troad (S.). 
 
 Valerianaceae. 
 Valeriana Dioscoridis, Sm. Troad (C). Upper 
 
 Scamander valley (V.). 
 Centranthus ruber, DC. Troad (W.). 
 Valerianella coronata, DC. Hissarlik (V.) t 
 
 Tumulus of Batieia (V.). 
 
 DlPSACACEAE. 
 
 Knautia hybrida, Coult. Valley of the Aiwa- 
 
 jik Su near Esheklii (V.). 
 Scabiosa ochroleuca, L., var. Webbiana, Boiss. 
 
 (S. Webbiana, Don). Ida mountains (W., 
 
 Parolini). 
 
 Compositae. 
 Bellis perennis, L. Near the Kalifatli Asmak 
 (V.). 
 
 Asteriscus aquaticus, Mnch. ? (Buphthalmum 
 maritimum, Forsk.). Tenedos (F.). Greek, 
 x6pro Ka8i<p4. 
 
732 
 
 CATALOGUE OF PLANTS OF THE TROAD. 
 
 [App. VI. 
 
 Inula lieterolepis, Boiss. (Conyza Candida, 
 
 Webb, not L.). Troad (W.). 
 I. viscosa, Ait. Besika Tepeh (V.). 
 Diotis maritima, Sm. Sea-shore of the Troad 
 
 (W.). 
 
 Anthemis altissima, L. Plain of Troy (Cal- 
 vert). Tenedos (D'Urville). 
 
 A. arvensis, L. Plain of Troy (V.). 
 
 Matricaria Chamomilla, L. Plain of Troy 
 (Calvert). 
 
 Chamaemelum trojanum, Bory et Chaub. Tene- 
 dos (Virlet). 
 
 ? C. caucasicum, Boiss. Between Nurlii and 
 Tchaukhlar (T.). 
 
 Artemisia maritima, L. Strand near Koum 
 Kaleh (V.). 
 
 Doronicum caucasicum, M. B. Between Nurlii 
 and Tchaukhlar (T.). 
 
 Senecio vernalis, W. K. Between Nulla and 
 Tchaukhlar (T.). 
 
 Calendula arvensis, L. Hissarlik (V.). 
 
 Echinops viscosus, DC. (E. sphaerocephalus, 
 Forsk. notL.). Tenedos (D*Urville). (jireek, 
 udOap ayyaOo. 
 
 E. microcephalus, Sibth. et Sm. ? (E. strigo- 
 sus, Forsk., not L.). Tenedos (F.). 
 
 Cardopatium corymbosum, Pers. Troad, Te- 
 nedos (Olivier). 
 
 Carlina lanata, L. ? (C. rubra, Forsk.). Tene- 
 dos (F.). Greek, KOKivdyyaQo (that is, red 
 Thistle). 
 
 Cynara Scolymus, L. Troad (W.). 
 
 Jurinea mollis, Rchb.? (Serraiula centauroides, 
 Forsk.). Coast of the Troad, opposite Tene- 
 dos (F.). 
 
 Centaurea Cyanus, L. Chigri Dagli (V.). 
 C. lanigera, DC. Between Akhmetlii and 
 Nurlii (T.). 
 
 C. polyclada, DC. (C. arenaria, D'Urv., not 
 
 M.B.). Troad? (Aucher). .Dry hills on 
 
 Tenedos, frequent (D'Urville). 
 C. spinosa, L. (Serratula spinosa, Forsk. ?). 
 
 Troad (Olivier), Tenedos, on dry uncultivated 
 
 hills very frequent (D'Urv.). Greek, 'IaAac- 
 
 rvfiid, Turk, djevvan. Is fastened on the 
 
 hedges (F.). 
 C. solstitialis, L. Troad (W.), ? Tenedos (C 
 
 tomentosa, Forsk. Greek, arpoyipa). 
 C. Parolinii, DC. (C. aurea, Webb). Summit 
 
 of Gargarus (W., Parolini). 
 Cartliamus dentatus, Vahl. Troa l (Parolini). 
 Scolymus Mspanicus, L. (Catananche lutea, F. 
 
 notL.). Troad (W.), Tenedos (F.). Greek, 
 
 aapdd\pia or KeTpivayya.Qo. 
 Cichorium Intubus,lj. Tenelos'F.). Greek, 
 
 KopXa. 
 
 C. Endivia, L. Tenedos ^probably cult.) (F.). 
 
 Greek paSiirn ; Turk, hiddiba. 
 Iledypnois cretica, Willd. Plain of Troy 
 
 (Calvert), Tenedos (F.). Greek, koXtC^o.. 
 Tragopogon porrifolius, L. ? Kotch Ali 
 
 Ovassi (V.), Assos (V.). 
 
 Taraxacum officinale, Web. Meadows along 
 
 the Kalifatli Asmak (V.). 
 Picridium vulgar -e, Desf. Tenedos (F.). 
 Crepis rubra, L. Valley of the Aiwajik Su, 
 
 near Euheklii (V.). 
 Rodigia commulata, Spr. Troy (V.\ 
 Lagoseris bifida, Boiss. Tenedos (Virlet). 
 
 Campanulaceae. 
 Campanula lyrafa, Link. Troad (V.). 
 C. Erinus, L. Troad (S.). 
 Podantltum cichoriiforme, Boiss. Troad (S.). 
 Specularia Speculum - Veneris, Alph. DC. 
 
 Fulah Dagh near the Thymbrius (Khnar 
 
 Su), white and blue flower (V.). 
 Sp. pentagonia, Alph. DC. Troad (V.). 
 
 Ericaceae. 
 
 Arbutus Uuedo, L. Upper Scamander valley 
 (V). 
 
 A. Andrachne, L. Oulou Dagh (V.), on the 
 Scamander, between Karajilar and Di- 
 vanjik (T.), upper Scamander valley (C, 
 V.). 
 
 Erica arborea, L. Troad (W.), e. g. Oulou 
 Dagh (V.). 
 
 Rhododendron flavum Don (Azalea pontica, 
 L.). Between Karajilar and Divanjik (T.). 
 
 Primulaceae. 
 Cyclamen europaeum, Webb, hardly L. Troad 
 (W.). 
 
 Styracaceae. 
 Stijrax officinalis, L. Troad (W., S.), e. g. 
 slopes of Hissarlik towards the Simois 
 valley (V.). 
 
 Oleaceae. 
 
 Olea europaea, L. Cultivated in the neigh- 
 bourhood of the villages (V.). 
 
 Phillyrea media, L. Troad (W.). 
 
 Fontanesia plxillyreoides, Labill. Betweer 
 Bairamkioi (Assos) and Shubrak (T.). 
 
 Jasminaceae. 
 Jasminum fruticans, L. Troad (W.), e. g. His- 
 sarlik (V.). 
 
 Apocynaceae. 
 Nerium Oleander, I;. Troad (W.). Greek, 
 po$o$d<pvr) or TriKpoddcpwn. 
 
 Asclepiadaceae. 
 Periploca graeca, L. Plain of Troy (W.). 
 
 Sesamaceae. 
 Sesamum indicum, L. Troad, cult. (Olivier, 
 W., Calvert , Tenedos, rarely cultivated and 
 growing wild (F., Olivier, D'Urville). Greek, 
 cicrdfii. 
 
 COXVOLVULACEAE. 
 
 Convolvulus tenuissimus, Sibth. et Sm. Troad 
 (V.). 
 
 C. arvensis, L. Plain of Troy (Calvert). 
 
App. VI.] 
 
 BY PROFESSOR PAUL ASCHERSON, ETC. 
 
 733 
 
 BOKAGINACEAE. 
 
 Heliotropium europaeum, L. Troad (W.). 
 
 H. sp. Evjilar (W.). 
 
 Cerinthe major, L. Troad (W.). 
 
 Anchusa officinalis, L. Plain of Troy (V.), 
 
 between Nurlii and Akhmetlii (T.). 
 Onosma stellulata, W. K., var. pallida, Boiss. 
 
 Alexandria Troas (V.), Kestambul (V.). 
 Echium plantagineum, L. Valley of the Thym- 
 
 brius (Kimar Su) (V.)? Tenedos (E.creti- 
 
 cum, Forsk.). 
 Lithospermum apulum, L. On the Hellespont, 
 
 near the Quarantine (V.). 
 L. purpureo-caeruleum, L. Upper Scaniander 
 
 valley (V.). 
 
 Alkanna tinctoria, Tausch. Troad (C, V.). ' 
 Myosotis hispida, Schlechtd. Kalifatli (V.). 
 Cynoglossum pictum, Ait. Valley of the 
 
 Thymbrius (Kimar Su) (V.), between Nurlii 
 
 and Akhmetlii (T.). 
 Asperugo procumbens, L. Valley of the 
 
 Thymbrius (Kimar Su) (V.). 
 
 SOLANACEAE. 
 
 Solatium sodomaeum, L. Troad (W.). 
 S. Melongena, L. Troad, cult. (W.). 
 Hyoscyamus alius, L. Tenedos (F.). 
 E. aureus, L. Tenedos (F.). Greek, /*eA.o- 
 X^prapo. 
 
 SCSOPHULARIACEAE. 
 
 Verbascum phlomoides, L. Tioad (W.), Tene- 
 dos (F.). Greek, <p\6ixo. 
 
 V. sinuatum, L. Troad (W.). 
 
 Linaria Pelicieriana, I)C. Novum Ilium (V.), 
 Besika Tepeh (V.), valley near Tuzla (T.). 
 
 L. arvensis, Desf. Troad (C). 
 
 Scrophularia canina, L. Assos (V.). 
 
 Veronica multifida, L. Troad (V.). 
 
 Eufragia latifolia, Gris. Plain of Troy (Oli- 
 vier, Calvert), e. g. Hissarlik (V.). 
 
 E. viscosa, Benth. Plain of Troy (Olivier). 
 
 Trixago apula, Stev. Plain of Troy (Calvert), 
 between Nurlii and Akhmetlii (T.). 
 
 Oeobanchaceae. 
 Phelipaea ramosa, C. A. Mey. Fulah Dagh 
 
 (V.), Alexandria Troas (V.). Var. Muteli, 
 
 Boiss. Assos (V.). 
 Orobanche pubescens, D'Urv. Troad (V.\ 
 
 ACANTHACEAE. 
 
 ? Acanthus mollis, L. Troad (W.). 
 
 Verbenaceae. 
 Vitex Agnus-castus, L. Troad (W.) e. g. 
 Valley of the Simois (V.). Also between 
 Chigri Dagh and Ine (Sayce). Greek, 
 Xiyapid. 
 
 Labiatae. 
 Lavandula Stoechas, L. Troad (W.). 
 Mentha, sp. On the Kalifatli Asmak (V.). 
 Origanum vulgare, L., var. viride, Boiss.? 
 
 Tenedos (F.). The bpiyavov of Tenedos is 
 praised by ancient classics. 
 
 0. Onites, L. Troad (W.) e. g. at the Scaman- 
 der source. (C.) 
 
 Thymus slriatus, Vahl? (T. Zygis, .Forsk) 
 Tenedos (F.). Greek, 6vfxa.pi. 
 
 Th. hirsutus, M. B. (T. vulgaris, "Webb, not 
 L., Th. cherlerioides, Vis.). Ida mountains 
 (Parolini). 
 
 T. capitatus, Lk. et Hfmg. Troad (W.) 
 
 Salureja Thymbra, L. Troad (Olivier, W.), 
 Olivier derives the name of the city Thym- 
 bra and the river Thymbrius from that of 
 the plant, which he found abundantly in 
 the valley of the Simois (Doumbrek Tchai) 
 which used to bo identified with the Thym- 
 brius. 
 
 Salvia grandiflora, Ettl., var. rotundifolia, 
 Boiss. (S. rotundifolia, Vis). Ida moun- 
 tains (Parolini). 
 
 S. argentea, L. Troad (S.). 
 
 S. verbenaca, L., var. vernalis, Boiss. His- 
 sarlik (V.). 
 
 S. viridis, L. Hissarlik (V.), between Nurlii 
 and Akhmetlii (T.). 
 
 Stachys orientalis, Vahl. Between Nurlii and 
 Akhmetlii (T.). Var. pauciflora, Boiss. ; S 
 pawijlora, Vis. Troad (Parolini). 
 
 S. cretica, L. ? (S. tomentosa, Forsk.). Tene- 
 dos (F.). Greek, fxoax J80A0 x°p Ta P°- 
 
 ? Lamium album, L. Between Akhmetlii and 
 Nurlii (T.). 
 
 L. moschatum, Mill. Troad (S.), e. g. valley of 
 the Thymbrius (Kimar Su), (V.). 
 
 Ballota acetabulosa, Benth. Troad (V.). 
 Does Muluccella fruticosa, Forsk., Tenedos 
 (Gretk, x a P a &6), belong here ? 
 
 Phlomis fruticosa, L. Troad (W.). 
 
 Prasium majus, L. Troad (W.). 
 
 Ajuga chia, Schreb. Troad (V.). 
 
 Teucrium Polium, L. Bali Dagh (C). 
 
 Plijibaginaceae. 
 Statice sinuttta, L. Shore of the Troad (W.). 
 Plumbago europaea, L. Troad (W.). 
 
 Salsolaceae. 
 ? Chenopodium album, L. Tenedos (F.). Tuik. 
 
 siritjam. 
 C. Botrys, L. Troad (W.). 
 ? Atriplex Halimus, L. Troad (W.). 
 Salsola Soda, L. Coast of the Troad (W.). 
 S. Kali, L. Sandy strand opposite Tenedos (F.) 
 
 Polygonaceae. 
 
 Emex spinosa, Campd. Kestambul, on the 
 Chigri Dagh (V.). 
 
 Bumex pulcher, L. Plain of Troy (Calvert). 
 
 B. tuberosus, L. Tenedos (Virlet). 
 
 B. acetoselloides, Bal. Plain of Troy (V.). 
 
 Polygonum aviculare, L. Plain of Troy (Cal- 
 vert), Tenedos, frequent in dry places 
 (D'Urville). 
 
734 
 
 CATALOGUE OF PLANTS OF THE TROAD. 
 
 [App. VI. 
 
 Thymelaeaceae. 
 
 Thymelaea Tartonraira, All. (T. argentea, 
 Clarke). Very frequent near the villages, 
 used as firewood ; e. g. in the environs 
 of the In Tepeh (C, V.), Hagios Demetrios 
 Tepeh (V.). 
 
 T. Hrsuta, Endl. Troad (W.). 
 
 Elaeagnaceae. 
 Elaeagnus hortensis, M. B. (E. angustifolia, 
 Forsk.). Troad, cult. (W.), Tenedos, cult. 
 (F.). Turk. idae. 
 
 LaURACEAE. 
 
 Laurus nobilis, L. Troad (W.). 
 
 Cytinaceae. 
 Cytistis Hypocistis, L. Parasitic on the roots of 
 Cistus salviifolius, L., near Pen Kioi (V.). 
 
 Artstolochiaceae. 
 Aristolocliia Toumefortii, Jaub. et Sp. Troad 
 (Olivier). 
 
 A. hirta, L. Eidge of Hissarlik (V.). 
 
 Euphorbiaceae. 
 Euphorbia Chamaesyce, L. (E. polygontfolia, 
 
 Forsk.). Coast opposite Tenedos (F.). 
 E. amygdaloides, L. Between Nurlii and 
 
 Tchaukhlar (T.) 
 E. biglandulosa, Desf. Kalifatli (V.). 
 Crozophara tinctoria, A. Juss. Troad (W.), 
 
 Tenedos, on fallows (F.). Greek, <TK\ap6- 
 
 Xopro: with the Greek of Natolia, &ypio 
 
 (paaovKia. 
 
 Urticaceae. 
 Urtica pilulifera, L. Valley of the Thymbrius 
 (Kimar Su) (V.), Tenedos (F.). Greek, 
 ar^Vj/cvtSa. 
 
 Hamulus Lupulus, L. In bushes on the 
 river-banks of the Plain of Troy, frequent 
 (V.). 
 
 Morus nigra, L. ( Cultivated near the villages 
 M. alba, L. I (V.). 
 
 Ficus Carica, L. Wild in the Plain of Troy, 
 e. g. in the grove above the springs at Novum 
 Ilium (V.), Bounarbashi (Olivier). Cul- 
 tivated near the villages. The practice of 
 caprification occurs in this country (W.). 
 
 Celtis Toumefortii, Lmk. In the ruins of the 
 thermae ' of Alexandria Troas' (W.). 
 
 Ulmus campestris, L. Bushes on the river- 
 banks of the Plain of Troy; e.g. on the 
 Kalifatli Asmak, on the Scamander, Simois, 
 Thymbrius (Kimar Su) (V.), near Bounar- 
 bashi (Olivier). The m-eAea mentioned by 
 Homer. 
 
 Juglandaceae. 
 Juglans regia, L. Cultivated near the vil- 
 lages (V.). 
 
 Platan ace ae. 
 Flatanus orientalis, L. Wild in the bushes 
 on the river-banks of the Plain of Troy and 
 in the mountains ; e. g. in the lower Simois 
 
 valley (V.), at the Scamander source, there 
 also often a tree (C, W., V.) ; planted in 
 and near the villages. It is the most stately 
 tree of the Troad, e.g. at Kalifatli, in Doum- 
 brek Kioi (V.), Bounarbashi, near Beira- 
 mitch (C. W.). 
 
 Cupuliferae. 
 
 Quercus pedunculata, Ehrh. Ida, lower 
 region (W.). 
 
 Q. sessiliflora, Sm. Like the former (W.). 
 
 Q., var. pubescens, Boiss. Plain near Kouni 
 Kioi (V.). 
 
 Q. lusitanica, Lmk., var. genuina, Boiss. (Q. 
 infectoria, Oliv.). In the Troad, e. g. Ine' 
 (T.), only shrub-like ; the gall-nuts are 
 gathered (Olivier, V.), most appreciated 
 are those which are not yet quite ripe, called 
 "green" or "black;" the ripe "white'' 
 ones have far less value (Olivier). 
 
 Q. Ilex, L. Troad, here and there (W. T.). 
 
 Q. cocci/era, L. Frequent in the anterior 
 Troad, but only shrub-like (W., T.), e. g. 
 Hisi-arlik, on the slopes above the springs 
 (V.). 
 
 Q. Cerris, L. In the lower range of the Ida, 
 and on the Scamander near Kara Kioi (T.). 
 in the upper Scamander valley from Kush- 
 umlii upwards (W.) 
 
 Q. Aegilops, L. In the Troad, widely spread ; 
 it gives abundant Valonia (/3eAaW8ta) (Oli- 
 vier, D'Urville, W., S., V.) ; particularly 
 remarkable trees near Ben Kioi, Koum Kioi, 
 at the foot of the Fulah Dagh, on the Sud- 
 luch Su between Ghiekli and Talian Kioi 
 (V. ), and particularly in the ruins of Alex- 
 andria Troas (Olivier, W., V.), scantily on 
 Tenedos (Olivier). Here also belong 
 Q. trojana, Webb (Q. aegilopi folia, Webb) 
 and Q. Libani, Tchh. (not Oliv.), the latter 
 between Ine' and Kestambul (T.). 
 
 Castanea saliva, Mill. Ida district (V.). 
 
 Betulaceae. 
 
 Corylus Avellana, L. ? Upper Scamander 
 valley (C, V.). 
 
 Carpinus Betulus, L. Spread in the Plain and 
 in the mountains (V.). 
 
 C. duinensis, Scop. In the valley of the El- 
 tchi Tchai (T.). 
 
 Salicaceae. 
 
 Salix alba, L. Spread in the Plain of Troy 
 as bushes on the river-bank*, also a tree, 
 e. g. on the Scamander, Bounarbashi Su, 
 Thymbrius (Kimar Su) (V.), near Bounar- 
 bashi (Olivier). The Iria mentioned by 
 Homer. 
 
 Popidus italica, Mnch. At Ben Kioi and 
 Doumbrek Kioi, planted ; not in the Plain 
 (V.). 
 
 Typhaceae. 
 Typha, sp. On the In Tepeh Asmak, above 
 the bridge (V. v.). 
 
App. VI.] 
 
 BY PROFESSOR PAUL ASCHERSON, ETC. 
 
 735 
 
 Araceae. 
 
 Dracunculus vulgaris, Schott. On the Kalifatli 
 Asmak, near the mouth of the Simois, in 
 the underwood of Elms (V.). 
 
 POTAMEAE. 
 
 Zostera marina, L. Hellespont (Calvert). 
 Posidonia oceanica, Del. In the Gulf of Adra- 
 myttion, near Bairain Kiui (Assos) (V.). 
 
 Orchidaceae. 2 
 Aceras pyramidalis, Rchb. fll. Alexandria 
 Troas (V.). 
 
 Orchis papilionacea, L. Troad (Olivier), 
 
 valley of Yerkassi Kioi (V.). 
 7 0. longicornu, Poir. Between Nurlii and 
 
 Tchaukhlar (T.). 
 0. corioplioxa, L., var. sancta, Echb. fil. 
 
 Troad (Olivier). 
 0. trtdentata, Scop. Yerkassi Kioi (V.). 
 0. brevilabris, Fisch. et Mey. Between Kara- 
 
 jilar and Divanjik on bushy hills (T.). 
 0. punctulaia, Stev. Alexandria Troas (V.). 
 0. provincialis, Balb. Troy (V.), Alexandria 
 
 Troas (V.). 
 
 0. heroica, Clarke. Bali Dagh, " tumulus of 
 
 Hector " (C). 
 0. pseudosambucina, Ten. Oulou Dagh (V.), 
 
 between Nurlii and Tchaukhlar (T.). 
 Ophrys fuciflora, Rchb. Upper Scamander 
 
 valley (V.). 
 
 0. aranifera, Huds. Yerkassi Kioi (V.), var. 
 mammosa, Rchb. fil. Upper Scamr.nder 
 valley (V.). 
 
 Cephalanthera Xiphophyllum, Rchb. fil. Yer- 
 kassi Kioi (V.). 
 
 C. cucullata, Boiss. et Heldr. Yerkassi Kioi 
 (V.), Here may belong C. epipactoides, 
 Fisch. et Mey. Between Kestambul and 
 Tuzla (T.). 
 
 Spiranthes auctumnalis, Rich. Gargarus, below 
 the summit (W.). 
 
 Amaryllidaceae. 
 Galanthus nivalis, L. Scamander-source (C). 
 Sternbergia lutea, Ker. Troad (W.). 
 St., sp. ? Between Bounarba-shi (near Bei- 
 
 ramitch) and Aiwajik (W.). 
 Pancratium maritimum, L. Sea-shore of the 
 
 Troad (W.). 
 
 Iridaceae. 
 
 Crocus moesiaens, Ker, var. Landerianus, Herb. 
 
 Kurshuklu Tepeh (Kushumlii?) (Herbert). 
 C. gargaricus, Herb. (C. aureus, Clarke). 
 
 Gargarus (C). 
 C. bifiorus, Mill., var nubigenns, Baker (C. 
 
 vernus, Clarke ? C. nubigenus, Herb.) 
 
 Summit of the Gargarus (Herbert). 
 C. Sieberi, Gay. Troad (Olivier). 
 C. candidus, Clarke. Gargarus (C). 
 
 2 Virchow's collection has been determined by 
 Mr. F. Kranzlin. 
 
 C. autumnalis, Webb. Gargarus, below the 
 
 summit (W.). 
 Itomulea Bulbocodium, Seb. et Muur. Troad 
 
 (C). 
 
 Iris pumila, L. Novum Ilium (V.), Hagios 
 Demetrios Tepeh (V.). 
 
 I. Pseudacorus, L. On the Bounaibashi Su, 
 not far from the bridge (V.). 
 
 Gynandriris Sisyrinchium, Pari. Not rare in 
 the meadows of the anterior Troad, e. g. in 
 the bed of the In Tepeh Asmak, on the Kali- 
 fatli Asmak (V.). 
 
 Dioscoreaceae. 
 Tamus communis, L. Ida district, at Erinlii 
 (V.). 
 
 Smilaceae. 
 Smilax aspera, L. Troad (W.). 
 Puscus Hypophyllum,~L. (R. troadensis, Clarke). 
 Scamander-source (C, V.). 
 
 Liliaceae. 
 
 Tulipa montana, Lind. Upper Scamander 
 valley, near Karakioi (T.). 
 
 Gagea arvensis, Schult. ? (Ornithogalum a., 
 Clarke). In Tepeh (C). 
 
 G. polymorpha, Boiss. Valley of the Thym- 
 brius (Kimar Su) (Calvert). 
 
 Cr. lutea, Schult. ? (0 inithogalum I., Clarke). 
 Bali Dagh, on the " tumulus of Hector" (C). 
 
 Fritillaria Pinardi, Boiss. Between Nurlii 
 and Tchaukhlar (T.). 
 
 F. Schliemanni, Ascbs. et Boiss. Upper Sca- 
 mander valley (V.). 
 
 Leopoldia trojana, Heldr. Troad (S.), Plain 
 of Troy (V.), upper Scamander valley (V.), 
 Alexandria Troas (V.). Here seems also 
 to belong Bellevalia comosa, Tchih. Plain 
 of Tuzla (T.). 
 
 L. Pinardi, Heldr. Troad (S.). 
 
 Muscari racemosam, Mill. Plain of Troy (V.), 
 Bali Dagh, " tumulus of Hector" (C). 
 
 M. paradoxum, C. Koch. Between Nurlii and 
 Tchaukhlar (T.). 
 
 Ornithogalum prasandrum, Gris. Kalifatli 
 (V), Alexandria Troas (V.). 
 
 0. sulphureum, R. et S. Troad (S.). 
 
 0. comosum, L. Troad (S.), e. g. Hissarlik (V.). 
 
 Allium nigrum, L. Troad (S.). 
 
 A., sp., purple flower. Summit of the Gar- 
 garus (W.). 
 
 Asphodelus microcarpus, Vis. Plain of Troy 
 (W.), e.g. in the dry meadows on the In 
 Tepeh Asmak and on the Simois (V.), 
 Tenedos (F.). Greek, aaizovp^ovXi. 
 
 A. luteus, L. Alexandria Troas (V.). 
 
 Melanthiaceae. 
 ? Colchicum auctumnale, L., and 
 C. variegatum, L. Gargarus, be low the sum- 
 mit (W.). 
 
 Bulbocodium trigynum, Adam. Valley of the 
 Thymbrius (Calvert). 
 
736 
 
 CATALOGUE OF PLANTS OF THE TROAD. 
 
 [App. VI. 
 
 JUNCACEAE. 
 
 Juncus acutus, Lmk. In Tepeb Asmak, above 
 the bridge (V.). 
 
 Butojiaceae. 
 Bidomus umbellatus, L. Plain of Troy (S.) 
 
 Cyperaceae. 
 Cyperus longus, L. Plain of Troy (W.). 
 Galilaea mucronata, Pari. Sandy strand of 
 the Troad (W.), e. g. to the north of Talian 
 Kioi (V.). 
 
 Scirpus Holoschoenus, L. Plain of Troy, near 
 
 Bounarbashi (C). 
 S. maritimus, L. Troad (S.). 
 Carex divisa, Huds. Troad (S.). 
 C. diculsa, Good. Novum Ilium (V.). 
 C. hispida, Willd. On the Bounarbashi Su, 
 
 near the bridge (V.). 
 C. distans, L. Plain of Troy (S.), e. g. on the 
 
 In Tcpeli Asmak (V.). 
 
 Geamineae. 
 Fhalaris minor, Eetz. Plain of Troy (Cal- 
 vert). 
 
 Sorghum vulgare, Pers. Troad, cult. (Calvert). 
 S. halepense, Pers. Tenedos (F.). Greek, 
 
 Ka\apdypa. 
 Zea Mays, L. Tread, cult. (Calvert). 
 Cynodon Bactylon, Kich. Tenedos (F.). Greek, 
 
 aypia or aypidSa. 
 Phleum tenue, Schrad. Plain of Troy (S., 
 
 Calvert). 
 
 Ph. pratense, L. Plain of Troy (Calvert). 
 Alopecurus utriculatus, Pers. Plain of Troy 
 (S.). 
 
 A. agrestis, L. Plain of Troy (Calvert). 
 Avena orientalis, Schreb. Troad, cult. (Cal- 
 vert). 
 
 A. barbata, Brot. Troad (S.). 
 Aera capillaris, Host, var. ambigua, Heldr. 
 Troad (S.). 
 
 Arundo Phragmites, L. Swamps of the Plain 
 of Troy, everywhere (V.). 
 
 A. Donax, L. Plain of Troy, e.g. in the lower 
 Simois valley (W.). 
 
 Briza maxima, L. Troad (S.), quarry at 
 Kotch Ali Ovassi (V.). 
 
 B. spicata, Sibth. et Sm. Troad (S.). 
 Dactylis glomerata, L. Troad (S.). 
 Catabrosa aquatica, P. B. Plain of Troy (S.) 
 Festuca ciliata, Danth. Troad (S.). 
 Biomus sterilis, L. Troad (S.). 
 
 B. tectorum, L. Plain of Troy (S., Calvert), 
 Chigri Dagh (V.). 
 
 B. madritensis, L. Plain of Troy (S., Cal- 
 vert). 
 
 B. secalinus, L. Among oats (Calvert). 
 
 B. scoparius, L. Plain of Troy (S., Calvert). 
 
 B. mollis, L. Plain of Troy (Calvert). 
 
 Brachypodium distachyum, P. B. Plain of 
 Troy (Sibthorp, S.). 
 
 Tritieum vidgare, VOL, and 
 
 T. durum, Desf. Troad, cult. (V., Calvert). 
 
 T. villosum, M. B. Troad (S.). 
 
 Aegilops triaiistata, Willd. Pluin of Troy 
 (Calvert). 
 
 Secale cereale, L. Troad, cult. (V.). 
 
 Hordeum vulgare, L. Troad, cult. (V., Cul- 
 vert). 
 
 II. bulbosum, L. Troad («.). 
 H. murinum, L. Plain of Troy (S., Calvert). 
 H. maritimum, With. Plain of Troy (Calvert). 
 Lolium temulentum, L. Among oats (Calvert). 
 
 Gnetaceae. 
 Ephedra procera, Fisch. et Mey. Novum 
 Ilium (W., V.). 
 
 Coniferae. 
 
 Pims Laricio, Poir. Mountains above Ine 
 
 (T.), Ida Mountains (W.). 
 P. halepensis, Mill. Near the sea-coast (W.), 
 
 Tenedos, scantily (Olivier). 
 P. Parolinii, Vis. Ida Mountains, forming 
 
 the main part (W., Parolini). 
 P. Pinea, L. Between Ine' and Ovajik (T.). 
 Picea orientalis, Carr. (Pinus Abies, Webb). 
 
 Ida Mountains (W.), lower mountain range 
 
 at Tchaukhlar (T.\ 
 Abies alba, Mill. Ida mountains (W.), Agg. 
 
 Dagh (T.). 
 
 Cupressus sempervirens, L. In the Middle 
 Troad, on graveyards, not in the Plain (V.) 
 e.g. Ine(C). 
 
 Juniperus Oxycedrus,~L. Troad (W.), e. g. His- 
 sarlik, slopes above the spring (V.). 
 
 Filtces. 
 
 Polypodium vidgare, L. Upper Scamander 
 
 valley (V.). 
 Pteris aquilina, L. The same (V.). 
 Asplenium Trichomanes, L. Scamander-source 
 
 (V.)- 
 
 A. Adiantum-nigrum, L. Upper Scamander 
 
 valley (V.). 
 Ceterach ojjicinarum, Willd. Gargarus (C). 
 Cystopteris fragilis, Bernh. Scamander-source 
 
 (V.). 
 
 Musct. 
 
 Cinclidotus aquaticus, Bruch et Schimp. 
 Overgrows the wet rocks at the Scamander- 
 source (V.\ The same species is also 
 found at the source of Vaucluse [C. Mutter, 
 Hal.). 
 
 LlCHENES. 
 
 Usnea articulata, Ach. Gargarus (C). 
 
APPENDIX VII. 
 
 ON THE LOST AET OF HARDENING COPPER 
 By A. J. Duffield. 
 
 Some years ago, while engaged in 
 writing on the Incas of Peru, their 
 civilization and knowledge of the fine 
 and the industrial arts, I came to 
 doubt what has been so confidently 
 set forth by some historians, that the 
 Children of the Sun knew of a secret 
 in metallurgy that baffles the scienti- 
 fic knowledge of the nineteenth cen- 
 tury to discover. It is true that the 
 Incas had their mirrors of polished 
 copper, which their women greatly 
 prized ; and did not Humboldt bring 
 to Europe a copper chisel, that was 
 found in a silver mine close to Cuzco ? 
 And is it not true that many of the 
 vessels, weapons, tools, and ornaments, 
 which belong to Incarial times and 
 are now and again found in various 
 parts of Peru, are of a brown com- 
 plexion, and not blue or green with 
 rust ? And does not all this prove that 
 the Incas possessed and practised the 
 art of hardening copper ? 
 
 The Incas were a wonderful people : 
 their system of colonization and set- 
 tlement is worthy the attention of 
 modern statesmen. Their way of life 
 was admirable and enviable for many 
 things : no one, for example, of their 
 kingdom could die for lack of bread ; 
 idleness was punished as a crime ; no 
 lawsuit could be postponed longer 
 than five days. Everybody received 
 an education peculiar to his state and 
 condition. The compulsory education 
 of children began at their birth ; for 
 no mother was allowed to take her 
 babe in her arms to give it suck, but 
 was to bend over it as it lay on its 
 
 back, encouraging the infant to an 
 effort which he should never be re- 
 leased from making through the rest 
 of his life — that, namely, of doing 
 something by which to win his daily 
 food. Thieving was punished with 
 the loss of the eyes ; the moving of 
 a landmark with death. Water was 
 made the universal servant and slave 
 of man ; the soil was divided equally 
 every year between God, the king, 
 and the people ; the earth was culti- 
 vated with joy and singing ; the sun 
 was the image of the Creator, the 
 moon that of his spouse ; the rainbow 
 was his messenger, and the stars which 
 hung in the sapphire night inspired 
 a sense of beauty, that refined while 
 it elevated the taste of all observers. 
 But for all that, I do not believe that 
 the Incas knew how, by artificial 
 means, to give hardness to copper. 
 They were a people gifted with a 
 clear insight ; they loved and wor- 
 shipped Nature in her most excellent 
 forms, and imitated her in all things ; 
 their kings' gardens were beautiful, 
 not only in exquisite flowers and 
 birds and bright-coloured insects, but 
 also in perfect imitations of these in 
 silver and gold. 
 
 Much meditation on the arts of 
 this refined and deeply religious 
 people made me frequently muse and 
 think and mourn, as, wandering 
 among the ruins they have left behind 
 them, I came to indulge in a "lodged 
 hate and a certain loathing " for the 
 immaculate Spanish Christian people 
 who murdered those worshippers of 
 
 3 B 
 
738 
 
 ON THE LOST ART OF HARDENING COPPER. [App. VII. 
 
 Nature, trampled their kings' gardens 
 into mud, melted their silver lilies 
 into five-shilling pieces, and their 
 gold primroses and butterflies into 
 onzas, buttons for court monkeys, and 
 buckles and bracelets for frivolous 
 women. These and like things being 
 fastened in my revolving mind often 
 shaped themselves as figures are 
 shaped by the idle motion of the 
 kaleidoscope; and some years after, 
 while sojourning in Keewaiwona, 
 once the territory of a race who de- 
 lighted to make beautiful things out 
 of a beauteous material, — the Huron 
 Indians, who held the south shore of 
 Lake Superior, — I one day caught 
 sight of a large boulder of peculiar 
 shape and colour lying amongst other 
 and different boulders on the lake- 
 shore. It was slightly tinged with a 
 blue-green mould, but its deeply cut 
 crevices were as bright as red-hot 
 wire. Afterwards I picked up some 
 copper daggers of fine shape, and 
 sharp in edge and point. I was also 
 present at the finding, some thirty 
 feet below the level of Lake Superior, 
 of three swords, 20 in., 18 in., and 16 
 in. long respectively, also complete 
 in bevelled edge and shapeful point, 
 handle and fluting of the sides finely 
 wrought, untouched by the lapse of 
 time, and but little sullied by the 
 presence of an oxide. I subsequently 
 visited the Ontonagon district, where 
 for the first time in my life I saw 
 native copper lying in its rocky 
 womb, twin-born with silver, and 
 shining with a lustre comparable only 
 to that of the heavenly bodies. There 
 is something in the sight and presence 
 of a large massy body shining in the 
 dark of the earth, and retaining its 
 brightness for the eye to take in its 
 fill of beauty, that may be compared 
 to the charm of sustained music unex- 
 pectedly heard for the first time ; and, 
 in the course of a year's residence in 
 that metallic region, I had abundant 
 opportunities of returning to that 
 comparison and testing its truth. 
 
 On my return to England I carried 
 with me many samples of these metals, 
 which were analysed in the usual 
 way ; but the gangue of the samples 
 from Keewaiwona carried a number 
 of bright specks visible to the naked 
 eye, which I picked out with a pair 
 of pincers. They were globules of 
 a bright gre}^- white metal, which 
 had resisted the- action alike of nitric 
 acid and aqua regia. Assisted by my 
 late friend Mr. W. Valentin, of the 
 Eoyal College of Chemistry, 15 grains' 
 weight of these minute specks were 
 treated with an infusion of potassic 
 bisulphate, dissolved in water, preci- 
 pitated on zinc, and subsequently 
 heated in hydrogen, giving us a dark- 
 grey powdery substance that could 
 be beaten into shape. Professor 
 Fi ankland subjected a portion of this 
 to spectrum analysis. The left hand 
 of the ribbon was filled in with the 
 bars characteristic of rhodium, and 
 the charcoal finger crucibles carried 
 minute particles of pure metallic 
 rhodium, which I retain. Subse- 
 quently to this I was requested by 
 Mr. Valentin to analyse the "impuri- 
 ties " of certain coppers, which I did, 
 not knowing whence the coppers came, 
 or in what part of the world they 
 were found ; they yielded us, among 
 other elements, ruthenium and iri- 
 dium. When I came to learn that 
 these coppers came from the great 
 native copper deposit from which the 
 Incas took their metal for making 
 their edge-tools and weapons, their 
 arrow-heads and vessels, their bright 
 flat reflecting mirrors to give gladness 
 to their women, their concave mirrors 
 by which their priests "drew fire 
 from the sun," — the whole thing 
 flashed across my mind, that it was 
 to the presence of the metals of the 
 platinum group that the hardness of 
 the copper was due, and not to any 
 art of hardening copper, which was 
 known to the Incas, but is now lost. 
 T-hen I returned to Lake Superior to 
 hunt for the home of rhodium, sending 
 
App. VII.] 
 
 BY A. J. DUFFIELD. 
 
 739 
 
 from time to time to Mr. Valentin for 
 analysis examples of a certain lustrous 
 deeply-dyed native copper, and he 
 always found traces of rhodium. 
 
 I come therefore to the conclusion, 
 that all the knowledge which the 
 Incas and the Hurons had on the 
 hardening of copper was due to their 
 love of beautiful things : they came to 
 know by experience that the deep- 
 coloured copper from a certain locality 
 was not only fine of complexion, but 
 very hard : of this, therefore, they 
 made their excellent vessels and their 
 keen-cutting blades. 
 
 Professor Roberts, of the Royal 
 Mint, who has taken a deep interest in 
 this matter, has made an experiment 
 with 90 per cent, of copper and 10 per 
 cent, of rhodium, which has yielded 
 an alloy very similar in colour to the 
 native copper of Keewaiwona : the 
 fracture is exactly the same in shade, 
 but of its hardness it is difficult to 
 tell : a portion of the alloy left in the 
 bottom of the crucible was found to 
 be very hard. It is to be hoped that 
 Professor Roberts may yet find time 
 to conduct other experiments which 
 shall throw some light on the amount 
 of rhodium with which Nature used to 
 
 form that alloy of her own, and from 
 which we may assume that some of 
 her (1-evout children made their most 
 perfect things. 
 
 In printing the foregoing commu- 
 nication, I offer my very sincere 
 thanks to Mr. Duffield for his interest- 
 ing account of a discovery so important 
 in its bearing on the general question 
 of pre-historic metallurgy. The dis- 
 covery presents an obvious analogy to 
 the implements of copper, harder than 
 ordinary commercial copper, which I 
 found in the stratum of the fir^t city 
 at Hissarlik (see p. 251) ; but there 
 has not been time, since my attention 
 was called to it, to decide the question 
 whether the copper found by me is, in 
 fact, a natural alloy similar to that 
 which Mr. Duffield discovered in Ame- 
 rica. The necessary experiments have 
 still to be conducted ; but meanwhile I 
 feel it an honour and pleasure that 
 the present work should be enriched 
 with a discovery that promises to be 
 fruitful in results to our knowledge of 
 the early Copper Age, which we now 
 know certainly to have preceded that 
 of Bronze (see pp. 257, 258). — H. S. 
 
APPENDIX VIII. 
 
 ON HERA BOOPIS. 
 
 By Professor Henry Brugsch-Bey. 
 
 In no other land of the ancient world 
 does the worship of the Cow play so 
 important a part as in Egypt. The 
 representations and inscriptions on 
 the oldest monuments already contain 
 copious references to the sacred Cow ; 
 but it is only from the monuments of 
 later periods that scientific enquiry is 
 first supplied with clearer information 
 as to the origin of this worship and 
 its connection with a goddess of the 
 Egyptian Olympus of learned inves- 
 tigation. The following account, 
 founded on monumental records, com- 
 prises in one view everything that 
 relates to the origin of this worship, 
 and that is calculated to throw light 
 on the nature of this peculiar venera- 
 tion for the cow. 
 
 In the oldest representations, re- 
 lating to the creation of the world, 
 the cow, coming forth out of the 
 primeval waters, appears on the terri- 
 tory of the Hermopolite nome in 
 Upper Egypt as the mother of the 
 young Sun-god. Clinging to the 
 horns of his parent, the young god 
 kindles the light of day, and the life 
 of all creatures begins with him. To 
 speak in the language of the monu- 
 ments, Isis (that is, the cow) causes 
 her son Horus (more exactly Harpo- 
 crates, that is, " Horus the child ") to 
 come into existence first of all, and 
 the visible forms of the world com- 
 mence the cycle of their earthly course 
 from life to death : Horus becomes 
 Osiris, and, in the eternal revolution 
 of things, from the dead Osiris a new 
 rejuvenated Horus is developed. In 
 
 this myth Osiris symbolizes the prim- 
 eval water, the fertilizing moisture; 
 Isis, under the image of the cow, the 
 receptive and productive power of 
 nature; Homs, the light which is 
 kindled from the moisture, just as in 
 the teaching of Heraclitus, surnamed 
 " the obscure" (6 aKOTewos). This is the 
 esoteric part of the ancient Egyptian 
 doctrines of hoary wisdom, to which a 
 later cycle of myths sought to give an 
 historic foundation. 
 
 The more ancient conception, which 
 goes back to the times of the thirteenth 
 century, gives the following solution 
 of the enigmatical representation of 
 the goddess Isis with the head of a cow. 
 Horus (Apollo) and Set (Typhon) 
 fought with one another for the 
 sovereignty over the kingdom of 
 Osiris. Set is defeated. Isis, moved 
 with compassion for the " elder brother " 
 conquered by Horus, frees him from 
 his bonds. Horus, filled with anger 
 and rage, separates the head of Isis 
 from her body. Thot, the Egyptian 
 Hermes, by the aid of the magic power 
 of his charms, replaces it by the head 
 of the (sacred) Cow (tep-alie). This 
 strange myth is preserved in the 
 Sallier papyrus No. 4, containing 
 an ancient Egyptian calendar of the 
 times of the first Eamessids, according 
 to which this event took place on the 
 26th day of the month Thot (the 14th 
 of August, according to the Sothis- 
 year, and the 23rd of September, 1 ac- 
 
 1 Chabas, Le Calenclrier du papyrus Sallier, 
 iv. p. 30. 
 
App. VIII.] 
 
 BY PROFESSOR HENRY BRUGSCH-BEY. 
 
 741 
 
 cording to the Alexandrian calendar). 
 In remembrance thereof, sacrifices for 
 the gods Isis and Thot were prescribed 
 for ever on this day. Plutarch 2 was 
 acquainted with this legend, of which 
 he says, " The fight lasted many days, 
 and Horus conquered. But Isis, to 
 whose keeping the fettered Typhon 
 had been committed, did not kill him, 
 but freed and dismissed him. Horus 
 did not bear this patiently ; he even 
 laid hands on his mother, and tore 
 the crown from her head ; but Hermes 
 placed on her a helmet like the head 
 of a cow (^povKpavov KpouW)." The best 
 proof that Isis was in fact worshipped 
 under the local conception of her as 
 Hathor (Aphrodite) in this cow- 
 headed form, is the name of the town 
 dedicated to her, Tep-ahe (' cow-head '), 
 called by the Copts, with the article 
 prefixed, Petpieh, by the Arabs Atfih, 
 the metropolis of the last (the 22nd) 
 Upper Egyptian nome, known to the 
 Greeks under the name of Aphrodito- 
 polis, 3 in which Isis was worshipped 
 as Hathor (Aphrodite). 4 
 
 In another conception (almost a 
 thousand years later) the myth which 
 identifies Isis with the cow is explained 
 in a way that throws the clearest light 
 on its connection with corresponding 
 Greek myths. The goddess Isis, per- 
 secuted by Typhon, retires to the 
 marshes of Buto in Lower Egypt, on 
 the island of Chebi (the Chemmis or 
 Chembis of the Greek authors from 
 Herodotus onward), whose papyrus- 
 beds secured her from the snares of 
 her pursuer. There she brought into 
 the world her son Horus (surnamed 
 Nub, that is, " the golden "). This 
 is the same island spoken of by 
 Herodotus (ii. 156), according to 
 
 2 De Iside et Osiride, c. 1 9. 
 
 3 See Brugsch, Dictionnaire ge'ographique, 
 p. 933. 
 
 4 Ibid. p. 1360, xxii. According to Strabo 
 also (xvii. p. 809), a sacred white cow was held in 
 special honour in the Arabian town of Aphro- 
 ditopolis (that is, on the eastern Arabian side of 
 Egypt), and in the nome of the same name. 
 
 whom the Eg} T ptians maintained 
 that it had been floating since the 
 time when the goddess Leto of Buto 
 received into her care from Isis- 
 Demeter the } T oung Horus- A polio. 
 The Egyptian representation of the 
 legend of the journey of Isis to the 
 island of Chebi-Chemmis is found 
 most fully in a part of the remarkable 
 texts which are treated of in the 
 Metternich-Stele of the time of king 
 Nectanebus I. (378-3G0 B.C.), for 
 the full publication of which, under 
 the title: "The Metternich-Stele 
 published for the first time in its 
 original size " (Leipzig, 1877), 5 science 
 is indebted to the industry of a young 
 Eu^sian Egyptologist, M. Golnisheff. 
 I have published the translation of 
 the part in question in the Aegyptische 
 Zeitschrift for 1879, page i. 
 
 The Egyptian texts frequently 
 allude in other passages to the wander- 
 ings of Isis, and to the flight of the 
 goddess from Typhon. In these, Isis 
 appears accompanied by her son 
 Horus, whom she seeks to withdraw 
 from the snares of his hostile brother 
 by the use of all kinds of stratagems 
 and magic arts. The most remarkable 
 account is that found on one of the 
 walls of the great temple of Edfou 
 (Apollinopolis Magna in Upper Egypt) 
 regarding the statements of mythical 
 geography about the seven Oases 
 of the Libyan Desert, known to 
 the Egj'ptians in the times of the 
 Ptolemies. 6 Under the head which 
 treats of the Oasis of To-ahe, that 
 is " Land of the Cow " (the present 
 Oasis of Farafrah) it is expressly 
 noted that here the worship of Osiris 
 was predominant, in which the great 
 trinity, Osiris, Isis and Horus, was 
 venerated by the inhabitants. On this 
 occasion it is related of the goddess : 
 " She wandered about with her son, 
 
 5 Die Metternich-Stele in der OriginalgrossJ 
 zum ersten Med herausgegeben ; Leipzig, 1877. 
 
 6 Published in full in Dumichen's Die Oasen 
 der libgschen Wiiste ; Strassburg, 1877, plate iv. 
 foil. 
 
742 
 
 ON HERA BOOPIS. 
 
 [Ait. VIII. 
 
 the young boy, to hide him from Set 
 (Typhon). This goddess changed 
 herself into the sacred Cow Hor-Secha, 
 and the young boy into the sacred 
 Bull Hapi (Apis, Epaphus). She went 
 with him to this town of Hapi (Apis, 
 in the Libyan nome of Lower Egypt), 
 in order to behold his father Osiris 
 who is there." 
 
 Nothing can be plainer, clearer, or 
 more instructive than these few words, 
 which throw such a surprising light 
 on the worship of the Cow in the 
 western parts of the Delta. The geo- 
 graphical researches founded on an 
 almost inexhaustible supply of re- 
 cords from all times of Egyptian 
 history, to which my whole attention 
 has been turned for more than twenty 
 years, afford most important disclosures 
 as to the worship of the Cow in the 
 Libyan nome, inclusive of the nome 
 called Mareotes by the geographer 
 Ptolemy. 7 Three towns, above all, 
 claim our attention in this connection. 
 Eirst the town of Hapi, Apis, the old 
 capital of the Libyan nome, in the 
 neighbourhood of the Lake Mareotis, 
 with the worship of Osiris as a bull ; 
 next, the place Tha-ahe, the Cow- 
 town" par excdlence, situated in the 
 neighbourhood of the former ; and 
 the place Tha-Hor-Secha, or Tha- 
 Secha-Hor (the Ta^opo-a of Ptolemy), 
 the name of which means " Abode or 
 Town of the sacred Cow Hor Secha. 8 
 All these designations had their origin 
 in the flight of Isis and her son Horus 
 from the Oasis of the "Cow-land" 
 (Farafrah) to the maritime districts of 
 the Libyan nome situated to the north, 
 the ancient settlements of immigrant 
 tribes, who were wont to direct their 
 course to Egypt on the west by land, 
 
 7 Referring to classical accounts, it may be 
 remarked here that, according to Strabo (xvii. 
 p. 80), an Aphrodite, and a cow consecrated to 
 her, were worshipped in the town of Momemphis, 
 belonging to the ancient Libyan nome of the 
 monuments. 
 
 8 See my treatise Le lac Mar<fotis, in the r.cvv.c 
 tijyptolojique ; Paris, 1880, p. 32. 
 
 on the north by water, and who were 
 destined to become disagreeable neigh- 
 bours for the Egyptians. That a mong 
 these foreigners there were also ad- 
 venturers of Ionio-Carian descent, is 
 proved by the purely Greek designa- 
 tions of some names and towns situated 
 on this side of Egypt ; designations, 
 the origin of which appears to have 
 been connected above all with pro- 
 minent names in the Trojan legends. 
 Menelaus and his pilot Canobus gave 
 their names, the former to a nome, 
 the latter to the well-known town of 
 Canobus. Helen and Paris, on their 
 voyage to Egypt, landed in the same 
 parts, to claim the hospitality of the 
 Egyptian coastguard. Besides these 
 famous names, other appellations of a 
 Greek form indicate a foreign inter- 
 course, the origin of which must not 
 be first sought in the times of classical 
 antiquity. The designation of the 
 Metelitic Nome, lying upon the sea on 
 the western side of the Canobic branch 
 of the Kile, shows most clearly how 
 regular foreign intercourse must have 
 been in this part of the Delta ; for the 
 origin of the name cannot be sought 
 in any Grecized Egyptian word, but 
 in the pure Greek /xir-qX-v^ " foreign 
 visitor and settler." Thus, then, we 
 obtain the clearest explanation of the 
 fact that, besides the worship of Osiris, 
 the Egyptian monuments attribute to 
 the districts frequented by foreigners a 
 worship of the (Typhonic) Set, which 
 found its sensuous expression in the 
 animals consecrated to this deity, 
 the crocodile and the hippopotamus. 9 
 While these strangers brought to 
 the Egyptians what the latter were 
 accustomed to comprehend under the 
 general name of Set, that is every- 
 thing foreign, on the other hand 
 the former received more from the 
 Egyptians than they themselves were 
 in a position to give. In the pro- 
 vince of religion, what must have 
 specially struck the fureigners was the 
 
 9 See my Dictionnaire gtfographiqu:, p. 1305 £ 
 
App. VIII.] 
 
 BY PROFESSOR HENRY BRUGSCH-BEY. 
 
 743 
 
 worship of Osiris, that is, the primitive 
 form of the Egyptian faith, with 
 its peculiar idea of the wandering 
 Isis, who, in the shape of a cow, 
 sought to escape the snares of Set. 
 Even though they may not have known 
 the secret meaning of this myth, 
 which had "been developed on the 
 Libyan side of Egypt along the sea- 
 coast, and which denoted the conflict 
 of foreign ideas with the native 
 religion, customs, and views — the 
 former symbolized by the forms of 
 Set and his demoniacal animals, the 
 crocodile and the hippopotamus, the 
 latter by the trinity of Osiris, Isis, 
 and Horus, and by the animal forms 
 of the sacred cow, Hor-secha, and the 
 Apis-bull, — yet the Greek genius 
 breathed its life into these legends of 
 pure Egyptian origin, and modelled 
 them according to special local colour- 
 ing into special myths, which found 
 their most striking expression in the 
 Hera Boons, and in the cow-headed 
 Io, the wandering goddess, whose 
 name is from the root I in et/xt: 
 and in ancient Egyptian the root i, 
 iu, io, as also the Coptic word i derived 
 from it, denote exactly the same — ire, 
 venire. The migration and trans- 
 ference of this legend from the north- 
 west corner of the Egyptian Delta to 
 the Greek coasts and islands, seems 
 to me to have been conceived under 
 the form of an historical fact, which is 
 best exhibited in the fable of the emi- 
 gration of the Libyan king Danaiis, 
 the brother of Aegyptus, to Argos. 
 
 I am not bold enough to seek an 
 Egyptian origin for the name of Da- 
 naiis, according to a method in favour 
 with many scholars nowadays ; but I 
 cannot pass over in silence the fact 
 that, among the districts and tribes 
 nearest to the sea-coast of the Libyan 
 nome, there appeal s the name Tehannu, 
 Thannu, which must have been known 
 down to the time of Ptolemy, since 
 this writer expressly observes, in his 
 enumeration of the regions, nomes, 
 and towns, on the west side of the 
 
 Delta : rov 8k MapawTOV to. p.kv €7rt 
 OaXdaarj KaXexrai Tatveia r; Teveta. Re- 
 garded from this point of view, the 
 contest for sovereignty, celebrated in 
 the Greek legend, between the two 
 brothers Danaiis and Aegyptus, that 
 is between a Libyan and Egyptian 
 race, would have a deeper historical 
 significance. We know still further 
 from the Egyptian monumental re- 
 cords, that under Mineptah II. (Me- 
 nephthes, about 1300 B.C.), the son of 
 king Ramses II., there occurred a 
 vast migration, which first made its 
 pressure felt from Libya on the 
 western territory of the Delta, 10 whose 
 nearest border district, lying along 
 the sea-coast, embraced the land and 
 people of the Tehannu or Tehennu 
 (the inserted vowels e and a are 
 doubtful, since they have to be sup- 
 plied). The name Tehannu, also 
 written dimply Tehan or Than, 
 which here appears a second time in 
 a wider sense, is of pure Egyptian 
 origin, and must be referred to the 
 Egyptian root thn, " to glitter, to 
 shine, to flash, to beam," (compare 
 the Coptic OHn fulgur) ; whence also 
 we find the name thn as the desig- 
 nation of a stone, according to Lep- 
 sius the yellow topaz, although this 
 latter explanation is not jdaced beyond 
 doubt. The Egyptian appellation 
 thn, transferred to another and larger 
 territory, reminds us at once of the 
 Greek name Marmarica (Map/xapiK^) 
 for the region which followed im- 
 mediately to the west of the Libyan 
 nome, and, in the time of the geo- 
 grapher Ptolemy, formed a separate 
 independent nome, belon gi n g to Egy pt . 
 Just as the Eg} r ptian root thn, so the 
 Greek /xapfxatpu}, /xap/zapt£w, signifies 
 " to glisten, to glimmer, to sparkle, 
 to shine," whence the derivatives pap- 
 ptdpeos, "glistening, gleaming," p,dp- 
 papos, " shining stone, marble," and, 
 let us now add, MappapLKrj, in a sense 
 
 10 See my History of Eijypt, p. 567 ; vol. ii. 
 p. 122 f., Eng. trans. 2nd ed. 
 
744 
 
 ON HERA BOOPIS. 
 
 BY BRUGSCH-BEY. [App. VIII. 
 
 referring to the brightness and glitter 
 of the district, which consists of bright, 
 shining limestone. 
 
 Whether we accept the connection 
 of the Greek Danaiis with the name 
 of the larger region (Marmarica) or 
 of the lesser (Taiveia, Teveta), called 
 Thn on the monuments, the Libyan 
 locality of both remains as cer- | 
 tain as the Libyan origin of King 
 Danaiis. The statement, accredited 
 by the ancients., that he taught the 
 Argives among other things to build 
 larger and more convenient ships, and 
 to dig wells (we may call to mind the 
 cisterns in Lib3 T a, the land of drought), 
 cannot but contribute to give greater 
 force to the probability of this con- 
 nection ; and still more so the circum- 
 stance, that Danaiis made good his 
 claim to Argos by proving his descent 
 from Inachus, that is, from the father 
 of Id, the Libyan Isis, the Cow- 
 Mother of Epaphus-Apis. 
 
 The comparison of the Egyptian 
 and Greek accounts concerning the 
 woivhip of the Cow and of the cow- 
 headed goddess, whatever were the 
 names and local conceptions of her in 
 Greece and Egypt, leads to the follow- 
 ing result : — 
 
 The Cow (ahe), under the peculiar 
 mythological name of Hor-secha or 
 Secha-hor, was regarded on the Libyan 
 side of Egypt — from the Oasis of To- 
 ahe (that is " Cow-land," the Farafrah 
 of our time) to the sea-coast— as the 
 living symbol of the goddess Isis ; 
 and was worshipped there in towns 
 and sanctuaries of the same name. 
 She represents the transformed Isis, 
 who in this shape seeks to escape the 
 
 persecutions of Set, the Kakodaemon 
 of the Egyptian pantheon. The region 
 of her wanderings is Libya and the 
 Libyan desert in the narrow sense of 
 the word. Her child Hor, the future 
 Osiris-Serapis, appears veiled under 
 the form of a Bull, the Hapi- 
 Apis-Epaphus. The Libyan scat of 
 | his worship is the town of Apis, 
 in the neighbourhood of the Lake 
 Mareotis. The Cow-headed (bodpis) 
 Isis, or whatever may have been her 
 local designation, or Isis with the 
 horns of a cow and the disc of the 
 moon between them on her head, are 
 stereotyped forms of the Egyptian 
 idols, the origin of which goes back 
 to the most ancient times of Egyptian 
 history. The relationship of these 
 forms with the Hera-Io, in idea and 
 representation, is indisputable, and 
 comes from a common source, which 
 had its origin from the soil of 
 the Libyan side of the Egyptian 
 Delta— on that territory which, in the 
 earlier times of the history of the 
 Pharaohs, witnessed the development 
 of an active foreign intercourse by 
 sea and land. 1 
 
 Every connection of the Greek 
 yXavK(077L<5, as an epithet of the Homeric 
 Athene, with Egyptian representa- 
 tions, must be rejected. The Egyp- 
 tians regarded the owl as a bird of ill 
 omen ; and no deity, whether male or 
 female, bears the head of this animal. 
 
 1 These views of my friend Brugsch agree 
 perfectly with the myth of 16 as given in the 
 Prometheus of Aeschylus, and especially with 
 the termination of her wandering in Egypt, 
 where she gives birth to Epaphus. 
 
 H. SCHLIEMANN. 
 
APPENDIX IX. 
 
 TEOY AND EGYPT. 
 
 By Professou Henry Brugsch-Bey. 
 
 My dear friend Schliemann, — In 
 complying most readily with your 
 wish to do justice to the above title 
 from the point of view of Egyptian 
 antiquity, I am troubled with certain 
 scruples, which I cannot withhold 
 from you in the very beginning of 
 my letter. As I have the accidental 
 merit, by favour only of good for- 
 tune, of having moved for a long num- 
 ber of years amidst the world of 
 Egyptian monuments as among old 
 acquaintances, you will perhaps de- 
 mand from me, as from an initiated 
 priest, disclosures on the relations 
 between Troy and Egypt. You may 
 expect from me the solution of ob- 
 scure historical enigmas, and rejoice 
 by anticipation at having found at 
 the right hour the right man, who 
 has in this respect succeeded in 
 evoking, as if by enchantment, old 
 life from the ruins of dead monu- 
 ments. Nothing have I to bring of 
 all that you expect and that I should 
 like to lay at your feet, as the most 
 eloquent testimony of my friendship \ 
 and high esteem. Is it my fault, is j 
 it the fault of the monuments, if I 
 appear before you with a poor gift? 
 I fear the fault lies with both, and, 
 with this f i ank confession, I transport 
 myself into the midst of the monu- 
 ments and their inscriptions. 
 
 The name of the Hellenes must 
 necessarily have been known to the 
 Egyptians from the time when Hel- 
 lenes, as pirates or as travellers and 
 cast-away mariners, set foot on Egyp- 
 tian soil. The latest testimonies to 
 
 this are furnished, as is self-evident, 
 by the times of the Ptolemies. On the 
 extant stones and in the papyrus-rolls 
 of that epoch, which is comparatively 
 the modern history of Egypt, the 
 Hellenes are called by the name 
 of TJinen, Ueinen, which has continued 
 in the Coptic language in the forms 
 of Ueinin, Ueeinin, Ueeienin. The word 
 so written and spoken has no linguis- 
 tic connection either with the 'laches, 
 "Loves, of the Greeks, or with the Javan 
 of the Bible (as has been generally 
 assumed), but it is a derivative from 
 the Egyptian root urn, uini, preserved 
 also in Coptic in the forms uoein, uoini, 
 uoeine, etc., with the significations of 
 the Latin lumen, lux, splendor, and, 
 in composition with tbe verb er 
 (=facere, esse), it means fulgere, splen- 
 dere, illucescere, illuminare, or parti- 
 cipially, lucidus, sjplendens. I observe 
 at once in this place how, in fact, 
 the peoples of the Pulasta (Pelas- 
 gians) and Tekkar (Teucrians) 1 are 
 once denoted on a monument, of 
 the times of King Ramses III., with 
 the help of a Semitic word like 
 talier, that is in Hebrew " bril- 
 
 liant," " shining," " conspicuous," 
 "celebrated." That is to say, the 
 above nations, which I have in my 
 mind, are called, some of them, 
 " celebrated peoples on the land," the 
 others " on the sea." 
 
 This designation, which implies so 
 much that is flatteiing for the Hel- 
 
 1 History of Egypt, vol. ii. p. 153 foil., Eng. 
 trans. 2nd ed. 
 
74G 
 
 TROY AND EGYPT. 
 
 [App. IX. 
 
 lenes, can onl}- be established, as I have 
 said, for the later period of Egyptian 
 history. It is said to be peculiar to 
 the demotic epoch of writing. It is, 
 however, scarcely to be presumed that 
 the Egyptian proper name TJinen, in 
 connection with the Semitic taker — 
 both with the sense of " light, lumin- 
 ous, brilliant," — could have been an 
 invention of the Egyptians. On the 
 contrary, the supposition may be 
 admitted, that the name TJinen repre- 
 sented the Egyptian translation of a 
 genuine Greek denomination of the 
 Hellenic race, and in this connection 
 I call to mind the name Hellas, 
 Hellen, itself, the root of which 
 seems to me to lie in the Greek 
 stem sel (compare aiXas, creAaco, creXdor- 
 o-o/xat, "lustre," "glance," "shine,") 
 with the signification of " to be 
 bright, glance, shine, glimmer." Ana- 
 logies within Greek itself are not 
 wanting. Let us compare aeX-dv-q 
 with eX-dvr], "torch," %cX-rjvr), "moon," 
 avs with v<s, the name of the race of 
 the 'EXXol (Strabo, vii. § 328) with the 
 Homeric SeXAot (Iliad xvi. 234) ; let 
 us add to this the words in which 
 the Greek aspirate ( e ) is equivalent 
 to the Latin s, as in vs = sus, <fSos = 
 sedes, dX<s = sal, salum, 'ipiroi == serpo, 
 iXiKT] = salix, aX-Xofxat = salio, yXcos = 
 sol, TSos = sudor, and many others. 
 
 In the existing bilingual and tri- 
 lingual inscriptions, the demotic 
 TJinen uniformly corresponds to a 
 hieroglyphic form Ha-neb or Hau-neb, 
 which (compound) word has the 
 signification of " those who are 
 behind their chiefs, those who follow 
 their chiefs," consequently foreign- 
 ers, who choose their chiefs in 
 order to accompany them on warlike 
 expeditions. My explanation of this 
 most ancient proper name is new ; 
 but I have confirmed it by the most 
 striking examples of its use. The 
 Hau-neb appear already on the monu- 
 ments of an early time, even before 
 the epoch of the Eighteenth Djmasty 
 (about 1700 bc). They make their 
 
 j appearance in what is called the 
 I " List of the Kine Nations," as a dis- 
 | tinct group of peoples, whose places of 
 abode are clearly and distinctly indi- 
 cated by the following woids in an 
 Egyptian hieroglyphic text of the 
 j Ptolemaic time : " Hau-neb is the 
 | name of the inhabitants of the islands 
 and coasts of the sea, and the numer- 
 ous and great (or, the very numerous) 
 peoples of the north." In this geo- 
 graphical conception of the seat of 
 the peoples and races of the north on 
 the soil of Asia Minor, called Hau- 
 neb, — established as it is hy the monu- 
 ments — we have the solid foundation 
 for all the indications of the earlier 
 and later monuments. 
 
 With some of these peoples we be- 
 come first acquainted from the records 
 of the monuments about the cam- 
 paigns of King Ramses II. Sesiura 
 (Sesostris) against the mighty peo- 
 ple of the Cheta or Chita, the Hittites, 
 or " children of Cheth," of the Bible. 
 A great confederacy of nations, which 
 extended over Western Asia and Asia 
 Minor, opposed the celebrated Egyp- 
 tian conqueror, in order to dispute 
 with him the supremacy over the 
 parts of Asia now mentioned. The 
 heroic poem of Pentaur, in glorifica- 
 tion of the victories of this Pharaoh 
 over the king of Cheta and his con- 
 federates, names as such, first quite 
 generally, " all peoples from the fur- 
 thest extremities of the sea to the 
 land of Cheta." The region is dis- 
 tinctly indicated : the whole of Asia 
 Minor as far as the Euphrates, on 
 whose banks lay the eastern border 
 districts of Qarqamasha, Carchemish, 2 
 ! and QAZAUANATav, Gauzanitis, the 
 | Go hen of the Bible. Over agaii^t 
 them, as representatives of the western 
 regions of Asia Minor (at the extremi- 
 ties of the sea), appear the peoples of 
 the DaRDaNi, the Dardanians, Mauna, 
 
 2 The ruins of Carchemish have been lately 
 discovered at Jerablus (Hierapolis) on the 
 Euphrates. 
 
App. IX.J 
 
 BY PROFESSOR HENRY BRUGSCH-BEY. 
 
 747 
 
 Mauox, the Maeonians or Meonians 
 (the ancient Lydians), Masu, the 
 Mysians, Liku, the Lycians. The 
 two names of nations mentioned be- 
 sides, PiDAsa and KeRKesH or GeRGesH 
 remind us, the former of Pedasus, the 
 latter of the Gergithians in the do- 
 minion of Troas. 3 
 
 These names, handed down to us 
 with all fidelity, bear upon them an 
 unmistakable mark, namely, that of a 
 close connection founded on a politico- 
 geographical relation. They exhibit 
 the military power of Western Asia 
 in its chief representatives, just as 
 we already have them enumerated by 
 name in Homer in the Catalogue of 
 the allies of Troy. But the I lion to 
 which prominence has been given by 
 E. de Rouge, in his celebrated disserta- 
 tion on the epic of Ramses — in ancient 
 Egyptian Iri-una, Iliuna, — must dis- 
 appear from the record of the Trojan 
 allies of the Cheta in their content 
 against Sesostris, for the reading 
 lli-una has probably to be rectified in 
 respect of the first part of the name, 
 iliA It is not to be read lli-una, but 
 Ma-una, that is Maeonia. 
 
 We feel bound to maintain that the 
 whole series of the confederates named, 
 on the west coast of Asia Minor, " be- 
 ginning from the furthest extremities 
 of the sea," as the texts express them- 
 selves, is an historical fact of capital 
 importance. It gives us the certainty 
 that, about a hundred years before 
 the destruction of Troy, the nations 
 enumerated inhabited the same terri- 
 tories which the geographers of classi- 
 
 3 Unless we are altogether deceived, both 
 names are derived from Semitic roots. Pedasos 
 reminds of the root patash " to hammer," 
 whence pattish " iron-hammer ; " gergesh of gir- 
 gash ; Chaldean, gargeshta ; Arabic, girgis 
 " clay, loam — black silt." The change of the 
 Semitic sound sh into the Greek t can be proved 
 also by other examples : compare Kadesh, in 
 Greek Kadytis. 
 
 4 The sign in question is of a polyphonic 
 nature, and can be equally well read in, Hi, or ma 
 and mar. From internal reasons, the statement 
 of which cannot be given here without prolix 
 explanations, I prefer the reading ma. 
 
 cal antiquity have attributed to them. 
 To these we add, with particular re- 
 ference to later times, the names of 
 the Shardana (Shairdana) and Turash 
 (Tuirash), generally with the epithet 
 " of the sea " ; which denoted nations 
 distinguished by their foreign attire 
 and armament, first as enemies of the 
 Egyptians, but afterwards also as 
 their auxiliaries in the wars of Ram- 
 ses II., both against the Cheta and 
 against other peoples. It is the war- 
 like races of the Sardians and the 
 Homeric Tpok?, the inhabitants of 
 Troas, who thus show themselves for 
 the first time on the theatre of the 
 world's history as faithful allies of 
 the Egyptians. 
 
 But under the successor of the great 
 Ramses, king Mineptah II. (about 
 1300 B.C.), the Pheron of Herodotus, 
 the Shardana and Turash appear 
 again as opponents of the Egyp- 
 tians and as allies of the king of 
 the Libyans, who, from the west, 
 on African soil, made a formid- 
 able attack on the region of the 
 Delta. According to the texts relat- 
 ing to them, they appear at one 
 time as " peoples of the sea," at 
 another as " peoples of the north," 
 that is to say, as inhabitants of the 
 coasts of Asia Minor, in brotherly 
 community with the kindred tribes 
 adjacent to their native seats. The 
 inscriptions call them in succession: 
 the " Shairdana, Shakalsha, Akaiua- 
 sha, Leku, Turisha," 5 which we 
 translate : " the Sardians, Shakalsha, 
 Achaeans, Lycians, Trojans." 6 To- 
 gether with their Libyan friends, they 
 are entirely defeated by the Egyp- 
 tians in the battle of Prosopis; and 
 
 5 The final syllable sha or ash of these or 
 other proper names is remarkable, because it 
 represents a termination (the Greek os) which 
 does not occur in any ancient Egyptian writings ; 
 it is conspicuous in the proper name Mashauasha, 
 also written Mashaua, a Libyan people called 
 Waxyes by the Greeks. 
 
 6 History of Egypt, vol. ii. pp. 122, foil., Eng. 
 trans., 2nd ed. 
 
748 
 
 TROY AND EGYPT. 
 
 [App. IX. 
 
 are partly slain and partly carried 
 into captivity. 7 
 
 Under King Ramses ITT. (1200 B.C.), 
 the Froteus of Herodotus, the con- 
 temporary of Alexandros and his 
 beloved Helen, who in their flight are 
 cast away on Egypt, this country is 
 involved in new wars against neigh- 
 Louring peoples. Large confederations 
 of nations rose up more formidably 
 than ever before, to join in hostile 
 invasions upon Egypt. From the 
 West it was the Libyans (Libu), with 
 their allies, who threatened Egypt's 
 ancient frontiers and independence. 
 Among their allies we cite the Masha- 
 uasha, Asabta, Hasa, and Bakana, 
 since the same forms of names are 
 clearly preserved in the classical 
 designations of the Maxyes, Asbytae, 
 Ausees, and Bakales. 8 From the East 
 " the peoples of the north," " the 
 inhabitants of the isles and the 
 coastlands," at one time also called 
 Ilau-neb, directed their attack by 
 water and b}^ land against Egypt. 
 The expedition on the mainland 
 issued from Asia Minor. The peoples 
 and cities, which they touch in their 
 migration, are seized with fear and 
 terror. They settle down in the land 
 of the Amori (Amorites) and establish 
 a fixed camp. Then the warlike 
 attack is again directed against 
 Egypt. At Migdol, on the Felusian 
 arm of the Kile, they join their con- 
 federates, who arriving by sea, had 
 sailed up with their ships into the 
 broad arm of the Nile. A great 
 battle is joined between them and the 
 Egyptians both on land and on the 
 water. The enemy are defeated and 
 killed or captured. Eamses III., the 
 victor, does not omit, in his later expe- 
 dition against Asia Minor, to wreak 
 vengeance on the enemies of Egypt ; 
 and he attacks their cities in their 
 own land, that is to say on the isles 
 and coast-districts of Asia Minor. 
 
 1 History of Egypt, vol. ii. pp. 146, foil., Eng. 
 trans., 2nd ed. ' 8 Ibid. pp. 153, foil. 
 
 This is the brief summary of the rich 
 representations and inscriptions which 
 cover the temple walls of Medinet 
 Abou (in the western quarter of 
 Thebes) and of which the celebrated 
 Harris Papyrus No. 1 contains an 
 epitome. 9 
 
 " The peoples of the north," " the 
 inhabitants of the isles and of the 
 coast districts/' appear also in the 
 wall-paintings, in two separate groups, 
 distinguished by their attire and 
 armament. The first includes the 
 peoples called Purosata or Fulosata 
 (Pelasgians — Philistines!), Tekri or 
 Tekkari (Teucrians) and Danau 
 (Danai?). Their armament consists 
 of spears, short swords, round shields, 
 and helmets crowned with feather- 
 like crests. The enemies of the 
 Egyptians designated as Purosata ap- 
 pear on the monuments as the most 
 important and most distinguished 
 people among the nations now men- 
 tioned. The termination ta gives to 
 the name a Semitic complexion, and 
 with this agrees the fact, that the 
 root puros, PURas, PULas, contains a 
 very suggestive meaning ; for palas, 
 palash (in Hebrew), falasa (in Ethi- 
 opic) means " to make a way for one- 
 self, to depart (abroad), to migrate." 
 The Purosata are, therefore, " the wan- 
 derers, foreigners," which name per- 
 fectly suits the Pelasgians of the Greek 
 tradition, whom Attic wit conceived 
 as the Pelargoi, that is " the storks," 
 which come and depart again. 10 
 
 9 Op. ext. p. 155. 
 
 10 The name Io also contains a similar signifi- 
 cation, for according to your sagacious judgment 
 {Mycenae, p. 20) it should be referred to the root 
 I (in dfMi, I go) ; in stating which I ought not to 
 leave unnoticed the attempt to bring the name 
 of the goddess Io into connection with the Egyp- 
 tian word Ioh "moon," (but of the masculine 
 gender !). Whether the name of the Ionians is 
 related to Io, as I see from some remarks of 
 learned Hellenists, I would by no means venture 
 to decide. From my Egyptian and Oriental 
 point of view 1 would rather refer it to the root 
 I, which in Semitic as well as in Archaic-Egyp- 
 tian (i, ia, ia; plural, iuu, too) signifies " isle " 
 and " islanders." In the Bible the lyyim (once 
 
App. IX.] 
 
 BY PROFESSOR HENRY BRUGSCH-BEY. 
 
 749 
 
 The second group is formed by 
 the kindred peoples of the Shard ana, 
 Shakalsha, and Uashash, with the 
 epithet " of the sea," that is valiant 
 warriors on sea. Their armament is 
 essentially distinguished from that of 
 the first group. Helmets surmounted 
 with horn-like crests, coats of mail, 
 armlets, shields with handles and 
 bosses, long swords, sandals on their 
 feet, — all give them a chivalrous 
 appearance, especially in contrast 
 with the Pelasgian group. The 
 Greek type is unmistakable. 
 
 A pylon of the above-mentioned 
 temple of Medinet Abou shows the 
 king Eamses III. as vanquisher of the 
 Hau-neb, that is, the Hellenes. He 
 brings to the god Anion of Thebes 
 thirty-nine conquered cities with their 
 inhabitants, the names of which — 
 often of Semitic origin — may be found 
 again on the islands and coasts of 
 Asia Minor. 1 I cite the most striking 
 names in the appended list : No. 5, 
 Tarshcha or Tarshach = Tarsus. No. 7, 
 Salomaski = Salamis in Cyprus. No. 8, 
 Katian = Kition ; No. 9, Ai-mar, I-mar 
 
 also Iyyin, in the plural) are a general synonym 
 for the coast-lands and the islands of the Medi- 
 terranean. May not the Ionians have represented 
 by their names just the inhabitants of those 
 islands and coasts? At all events, this hint 
 appears to me worthy of examination. The 
 Bible (Genesis, x. 4) expressly says of the chil- 
 dren of Javan, Elishah, Tarshish, Kittim and 
 Dodanim : " by these were the isles of the Gen- 
 tiles overspread", in their lands, each according 
 to their languages, races, and peoples." That 
 the ethnic name Javan is identical with laones, 
 Ionians, cannot be a subject of the slightest 
 doubt. b But the opinion of a scholiast deserves 
 notice, that the barbarians had denoted the Hel- 
 lenes by the designation laones, as if the name 
 itself had been of a barbarian, that is to say not 
 Greek, origin. 
 
 1 For the full list see Hist, of Egypt, vol. ii. 
 pp. 158, 159, Eng. trans. 2nd ed. 
 
 a German ausgebreitet. A. Y. " divided." 
 
 b This was clearly seen by Milton, who, in his 
 catalogue of the fallen angels (Par. Lost, bk. i.) 
 calls the Greek deities " The Ionian gods, of 
 Javan's issue." In fact IHN is identical, letter 
 for letter, with \V (Ion : with the added 
 vowel points, Javan). 
 
 = Marion; No. 10. Sali^Soli, and 
 No. 11, I-tal = Idalion ; — all four aUo 
 in Cyprus. No. 14, Bitar or Bizar, 
 exactly represents the Hebrew bezer, 
 " copper mine." No. 15, Asi, suggests 
 the name of Ass:.s, a Mysian city 
 in Troas, or of Issa, the ancient 
 designation of the island of Lesbos, 
 or of Issus in Cilicia. No. 20, Kerena, 
 Kelena, recals Kolonae in Troas ; as 
 does No. 22, Aburot, Aburt, the Mysian 
 district of Abrettene. No. 23, Kabur, 
 Kabul, shows itself again in the 
 Greek Kabalis, the name of a district 
 of Phrygia and Lycia. No. 24, U-lu, 
 if the transcription of the name is 
 right, brings Ilium to mind. No. 26, 
 Kushpita, Kushpat, recals the Semitic 
 Keseph " silver," as this again re- 
 minds us of the silver city Argyrion 
 in Troas. With No. 27, Kanu, might 
 be compared the name of the city of 
 Caunus in Caria, and with L(a)res 
 one of the cities called Larissa. No. 
 33, Maulnus, otherwise also written 
 in the inscriptions Muaullos, Mulnus, 
 calls to mind the Cilician Mallus, as 
 do No. 38, Atena, and No. 39, Karka- 
 mash, the names of the cities Adana 
 and Coracesium, likewise situated in 
 Cilicia. 
 
 In this and in all similar lists of 
 nations, countries, and cities, we can- 
 not think of a strictly geographical 
 arrangement. The monuments prove 
 this a hundred times. But, on the 
 other hand, names which have a broad 
 general connection are not separated. 
 The general outline which includes 
 the above-mentioned list of cities is 
 traced out, for the reference is to the 
 islands and coast-cities of Asia Minor, 
 of that region, namely, on which the mi- 
 grations of Aryan and Semitic groups 
 of nations present a confused scene of 
 movements hither and thither. The 
 fact, that the monuments, which are 
 contemporary with the Trojan epoch 
 begin suddenly to speak and to present 
 the wandering tribes according to their 
 appearance and their names before our 
 astonished eyes, is another witness of 
 
750 
 
 TROY AND EGYPT. 
 
 [Apr. IX. 
 
 the certainty of the Greek traditions 
 about the olden time. In this respect the 
 information of the monuments acquires 
 a value beyond all description. Troas, 
 Mysia, Maeonia, Lycia, appear already 
 as the fixed seats of nations bearing the 
 like names, on the west coast and the 
 neighbouring islands of Asia Minor. 
 The statement of the classical writers, 
 that King Eamses II. (Sesostris) ad- 
 vanced on his victorious expedition as 
 far as Thrace, and there set up his 
 last memorial pillars, is therefore no 
 empty tale, invented to glorify the 
 extent of the expeditions of the Egyp- 
 tian Sesostris. Those conquests belong 
 to the region of facts. The further 
 progress of the study of the monu- 
 ments will hereafter dissipate the 
 mist which still covers some parts 
 of these expeditions, which have an 
 historical foundation. The broad 
 general fact is proved, that, as 
 early as the fourteenth century be- 
 fore our era, the Greeks and their 
 several tribes were perfectly known 
 to the Egyptians, and carried on in- 
 tercourse with them. This is alread}^ 
 attested by the Greek fables and the 
 classical traditions. Perseus, Danaiis, 
 Menelaus, Archander, Canobus, Paris, 
 Helen, are names which stand in the 
 closest connection with the geography 
 and the history of Egypt at the north- 
 west corner of the Delta, in the neigh- 
 bourhood of the Canobic mouth, for 
 they refer to times in which Ionians 
 and Carians landed on the same coasts 
 of that region which were marked, at 
 the later epoch of the Ptolemaic age, 
 with the names of the Menelaite and 
 Metelite nome. I have elsewhere 
 shown 2 how the latter denomination 
 has sprung directly from the Greek 
 fA£Tr)\vs (" immigrant, foreign visitor "). 
 Long before Psammetichus I. had 
 opened the land to Ionians and Carians 
 clad in bronze armour, in order to 
 make use of them as mercenaries and 
 auxiliary troops, the Pharaohs had 
 
 2 See Appendix VIII., p. 742. 
 
 | already, 800 years before, obtained 
 I the like service from their ancestors. 
 There are two tribes especially, 
 which claim our whole attention at 
 that epoch; these are the Shardana 
 and the Shakalsha, the predecessors 
 of the Ionians and Carians of the 
 time of Psammetichus. We meet 
 with them sometimes as auxiliaries 
 in the suite of Libyan kings and as 
 enemies of the Egyptians, sometimes 
 as troops allied with the Egyptians 
 against Libyan and Asiatic despots, 
 as has been stated above (p. 747). 
 Misled by the resemblance in sound, 
 some have wished to recognize in 
 their names the most ancient desis;- 
 nations of the Sardinians and the 
 Sicilians. But for all this, it appears 
 to us impossible to sever these tribes 
 from the connection with their neigh- 
 bours in Asia Minor, among whom 
 they obtained so conspicuous a place 
 through their Hellenic appearance. 
 We believe with M. Maspero, 3 that 
 the names refer to Maeonian tribes, 
 among which were the Shardana, 
 the Lydian Sardians, descendants of 
 Sarclos, the hero eponymus of the city 
 named after him. When Shardana 
 served in the armies of the Pharaohs, 
 they did not at all renounce the rights 
 of their native home. Maeonia, the 
 country called Mauna in the ancient 
 Egyptian texts, was and still re- 
 mained their fatherland. The same 
 is true of the peoples called Shakalsha 
 and Uashash, whom we have to regard 
 as tribes akin to the Shardana. I must 
 not omit to mention that, as the former 
 have been regarded as inhabitants of 
 Sicily, so the latter are view r ed by 
 some scholars, according to the sug- 
 gestion of M. Chabas, as the prede- 
 cessors of the Oscans. 
 
 Here then, my dear Friend, you 
 have in bold and rough outline, from 
 the sketch traced on the monuments, 
 the picture of the groups of nations 
 
 3 See his Histoire ancienne dcs Peuples de 
 V Orient (Paris, 1875), p. 249. 
 
App. IX.] 
 
 BY PROFESSOR HENRY BRUGSCH-BEY. 
 
 751 
 
 who peopled the coasts of Asia Minor 
 about the Trojan times. Among them 
 the Dardani, the Dardanians, are not 
 wanting. I have taken pains, as far 
 as I had the ability, to fix clearly the 
 fundamental lines of the picture, and 
 to follow, so far as accorded with my 
 own conviction, the masterly first 
 essays of E. de Rouge and Chabas. 
 The opinions at variance with theirs, 
 which the study of the monuments 
 has forced upon me almost against 
 my will, have respect principally to the 
 country of Asia Minor, which I feel 
 obliged to regard as the common father- 
 land of those Hau-neb or peoples of the 
 islands and coasts to the north of Egypt. 
 I repeat that to recognize the Etruscans 
 in the Tuirsha or Turisha (Trojans), 
 the Oscans in the Uashash, the Sicu- 
 lans in the Shakalsha, and the Sardi- 
 nians in the Shardana (Sardians), is 
 repugnant to my own geographical 
 convictions. 
 
 And where, you will ask me, is the 
 Egyptian Troy (Troja), the site, ac- 
 cording to classic tradition, of the 
 settlement of the Trojans who followed 
 Menelans and remained there as cap- 
 tives? Granted that through this 
 story, preserved by Strabo, there shines 
 forth a bright and clear ray of the 
 historical fact of the old relations 
 between the Egyptians and the Tro- 
 jans (the Turisha of the monuments), 
 confirming what I have maintained 
 above, yet the connection between the 
 names of the two cities of Troy is in 
 
 no wise established. The Egyptian 
 Troja, situated at the foot of the like- 
 named mountain, on the right bank 
 of the Nile opposite to Memphis, and 
 now called Turra, bore in old Egyptian, 
 from the time of the pyramid-building 
 kings, 3 the designation of tarau or 
 tardui, as the mountain bore that of 
 turdu or turdui, which is of genuine 
 Egyptian origin, and has nothing to 
 do with the foreign name of the 
 Asiatic Troy. The Greeks travelling 
 or settled in Egypt fuund it easy to 
 take advantage of the similar names 
 of the two places, in order, after their 
 wonted fashion, to add a geographical 
 basis to the old traditions of the wars 
 of the Egyptians against Troas. Ac- 
 cordingly the captive enemies were 
 represented as making a settlement 
 at the place referred to, and calling it 
 Troy in honour of their native city. 
 
 With this remark, dear and valued 
 Friend, allow me to close this long 
 epistle. On reading over once more 
 the little that it contains, I feel almost 
 ashamed, in contrast with your bril- 
 liant labours and discoveries, so rich 
 in results and consequences, to expose 
 on my part such an evidence of 
 poverty. The reasons for this I have 
 explained in the introduction. Dis- 
 pose of my slight gift according to 
 your own judgment. 
 
 Henry Brugsch. 
 
 3 See History of Egypt, vol. i. p. 91 (et ali'>i), 
 Eng. trans. 2nd ed. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 ABBEEVIATIONS. 
 
 Besides those usual, such as M. = mount ; Pr. = promontory ; R. = river, &c. : c. = city, cities ; d. = daughter ; 
 f. = father ; k. = king ; m. = mother ; s. = son ; N. Ilium, or N. I. = Novum Ilium : Tr. denotes objects belonging 
 to the great Treasure first found; Tr., objects of the 9 otb.3r Treasures ; all found in the debris of 3rd city. 
 
 ABYDOS. 
 
 ABYDOS, on the Hellespont, colonized by 
 Milesians under Gyges, 128, 688 ; no ruins, 
 but pottery, &c, 128 ; coins of, at N. I., 612. 
 
 Accidents at the excavations, 24; narrow- 
 escape from fire, 27 ; in riding to shore in 
 the dark, 52. 
 
 Achaeans, migrate from Peloponnesus to the 
 Troad, 127 ; the Akaiuasha of Egyptian 
 records, 747. 
 
 Achaeorum Partus, on the Hellespont, pro- 
 bably at the mouth of the In Tepeh 
 Asmak, 95. 
 
 Achilles destroys Pedasus, 134 ; Thebe, 135 ; 
 Lyrnessus, 136 ; slain by Paris, 159 ; in- 
 tended marriage with Polyxena, 164 ; 
 bronze statue of, and extravagant honours 
 to, by Caracalla, 179 ; statue at N. I. in 
 the open air, 181 ; shrine seen by Julian 
 uninjured, 182. 
 
 Achilles, Tumulus of, on the shore by the 
 Greek camp, 151, 655 ; deposit of his bones 
 with those of Patroclus in a golden urn ; 
 the tumulus now so called inconsistent 
 with Homer, 649 ; called so in Pliny's time; 
 opened by a Jew in 1786 ; his incredible 
 account of its contents, 654-5 ; author 
 prevented from excavating, 655. 
 
 Achilles and Hector, combat of, 55 ; their 
 race round Troy, 65 ; discussion of, 142, 
 174 ; easily applicable to Hissarlik, 143 ; 
 impossible at the Bali Dagh, 194. 
 
 Achilleum, town probably at Koum Kaleh, 
 104 ; independent of N. Ilium, 167. 
 
 Acland, W., < The Plains of Troy,' 187. 
 
 Acropolis of Athens, widened by Cimon, 
 compared with that of Ithaca, 47 ; of 
 Ithaca, on Mt. Aetos, 47, 48 ; of Novum 
 Ilium, Hissarlik was the, 38, 39 ; temple 
 
 AEOLUS. 
 
 of Athene in, 168 ; of Ophrynium, 60; 
 of Troy (see Pergamos) ; acropolis on 
 height opposite the Bali Dagh, 60. 
 
 Adramyttium, coins of, at N. Ilium, 612. 
 
 Adresteia, city, 132. 
 
 Adrestus and Amphius, sons of Merops, 
 dominion of, 68 ; defined ; cities, 132. 
 
 Aeanteum, city, 103. 
 
 Aegaeon. See Briareus. 
 
 Aenea, or Nea, question respecting, 57. 
 
 Aeneas, prince of the Dardanians, 25 (see 
 Dardania) ; prophecy of his dominion 
 over Troy, 125 ; flies to Lyrnessus from 
 Achilles, 136 ; manifold stories of his fate, 
 164; connected with many places, 165; 
 worshipped as a god at N. Ilium, 165 ; 
 said to have betrayed Troy, in revenge for 
 injury from Paris, 165 ; tradition in the 
 Troad, that he reigned there, after the 
 capture of Troy, on friendly terms with 
 the Greeks, 165 ; confirmed by Homer, 
 165, 166, and accepted by Strabo, 166; 
 confirmed by the excavations, 518 ; re- 
 presentative of the Dardanian line, 166 ; 
 remarks of Gladstone and Grote, 166 ; 
 account of Demetrius of Scepsis, 167 ; 
 with Anchises and lulus on coins of 
 N. Ilium, 642, 647 ; his flight with them 
 not mentioned by Homer, 647. 
 
 Aeolian (and Achaean) colonization of the 
 Troad, in consequence of the Dorian in- 
 vasion of Peloponnesus, 127 ; led by the 
 sons of Orestes, 127, 128. 
 
 Aeolic Greeks at N. Ilium, 167 ; their en- 
 thusiasm for Trojan traditions, 209, 210. 
 
 Aeolis, the Trojan land called, 128. 
 
 Aeolus and Aeolids in Homer ; Aeolians 
 unknown to him, 127. 
 
AESCHYLUS. 
 
 J.NJDEX. 
 
 AMPIIIKYrELLOX. 
 
 753 
 
 Aeschylus on the destruction of Troy, 206. 
 
 Aesepus, R., rises in Ida, 68; described, 
 100 ; boundary of the Lycians, 132 ; 
 limit of Trojan territory, 158. 
 
 Aesyetes, f. of Alcathoiis, tumulus of, the 
 watch-station of Polites, therefore be- 
 tween Troy and the Greek camp, 147, 
 656 ; wrongly placed by Demetrius and 
 Hestiaea (q. v.), and moderns, at the 
 Pasha Tepeh, 107, 108, 174-6, 185, 207, 
 656; site probably at Koum Ki@i, 175. 
 
 Aetos, M., in Ithaca, "Castle of Ulysses" 
 on, first, excavations at (1870), 20 : explo- 
 ration of (1878), 47 ; cyclopean remains 
 on ridge, 47 ; unique cyclopean ruins of 
 the ancient capital on the levelled summit, 
 47, 48 ; unnoticed by travellers owing to 
 the difficult ascent, 48 ; excavations there ; 
 pottery, tiles ornamented and inscribed, 
 48 ; curious handmill, 48. 
 
 Agamemnon, s. of Atreus, k. of Mycenae 
 (avag dvdpccv), commander of the Greeks, 
 157 ; his sepulchre thought by Aeschylus 
 to "be a tumulus, 650. 
 
 Ages of Stone, Bronze, and Iron, according 
 to classical writers, 252-3 ; of Stone pro- 
 per, not at Hissarlik, Pre/, xi. ; of Copper, 
 in 1st c, see Copper. 
 
 Agora of Troy, before Priam's palace in the 
 Pergamos, 140, 161 ; corresponding to the 
 Ag. in front of chief's house, 3rd c, 324. 
 
 Agora held by Hector, near the tumulus of 
 lilts, 147. 
 
 Agora in the Greek camp, 149. 
 
 Agora, little, discovered by Virchow on the 
 Bali Dagh, 55. 
 
 Agrippa fines the Ilians for accident to 
 Julia, 178. See Novum Ilium. 
 
 Aiwadjik, visited, 58, 59; in a valley of 
 Ida, 69, 70. 
 
 Ajax, Tumuli of. 1. The original tomb on 
 the shore of the Hellespont, 103, 648; 
 with temple and statue (Strabo, &c), 652 ; 
 laid open by the sea, as described by 
 Pausanias and Philostratus ; the gigantic 
 bones reburied by Hadrian in the present 
 tumulus ; present remains, 652 ; large 
 mutilated statue near the beach, 103, 
 653 ; ruins of city near, 103. 
 2. See In Tepeh. 
 
 Ajax, s. of O'ileus, prince of Locris, attempts 
 to violate Cassandra at the altar, and 
 perishes on the voyage home, 164. 
 
 Akerit, the, of Egyptian records (Carians ?), 
 123. 
 
 Alcshi Kioi or Batak (i.e. " swamp "), vil- 
 lage, depopulated by plague, and replaced 
 
 by farm of Thymbra, 99 ; site of the ancient 
 historic Thymbra, 719. See Thymbra. 
 
 Albano hut-urns f black, like pottery of 
 6th c, 588. 
 
 Alcathoiis, s. of Aesyetes, married to Hippo- 
 dameia, d. of Anchises, 147. 
 
 Aldenhoven, C. t * Ueber das neuentdeckte 
 Troja; 189. 
 
 Alexander the Great, visit to and veneration 
 for Ilium, the heroes of the war, and 
 Achilles, 171 ; his belief in N. Ilium as 
 Troy ; force of the argument, 210 ; his 
 favours to the city, 172, 688; "casket 
 edition " of Homer, 172 ; his descent from 
 Andromache, 173. 
 
 Alexandria-Troas, ruins of, at Eski-Stam- 
 boul, visited, 56 ; its foundation and his- 
 tory, 56 n. ; Troy placed at, by some, 184 ; 
 coins of, frequent at N. Ilium, 612. 
 
 Alexandros. See Paris. 
 
 Alizonians. See Ealizonians. 
 
 Allies of the Trojans, from Asia Minor and 
 Thrace, 158. 
 
 Alluvial Deposits in plain of Troy and 
 Hellespont, disproving advance of the 
 coast, 84, 86 ; confirmed by observations 
 on the Stomalimne; Yirchow's investiga- 
 tion of; come from the higher mountains, 
 especially Ida, 87-89. Comp. Hellespont, 
 Plain of Troy, Scamander. 
 
 Altar, primitive, below temple of Athene, 
 30, 31. 
 
 Altars, at Thymbra, 715 ; burning, on 
 whorls, 417, 418. 
 
 Altes, father-in-law of Priam and grand- 
 father of Lycaon, dominion of, the Le- 
 leges, 68, 134; on P. Satnoeis near Pr. 
 Lectum, 134 ; cities, 134. 
 
 Alybe, c. of the Halizonians, the " birthplace 
 of silver," prob. on the Pontus, 253. 
 
 Amphikypellon, depas (benas dfj.(piKVTre\\ov, 
 Horn.), a two-handled goblet, not a double 
 cup, as explained by Aristotle : in terra- 
 cotta, lustrous-black in 2nd c, red in the 
 3rd, 4th, and 5th, dull black in the 6th ; 
 probably still used in Homer's time, 299 ; 
 synonymous with clXeto-ov afxepcorov, "a 
 two-eared (i.e. handled) cup," 299- 
 301 ; Aristotle's comparison of bees' 
 cells to dn(J)iKV7reX\a. (only, not SeVa) 
 explained, 301-2 ; only goblet like the 
 Trojan, found at Vulci, 302 ; — of 3rd c. ; 
 lustrous-red, often very large ; mode of 
 using, 371 ; the large golden, Tr., 464 ; 
 how used, 464-5 ; size and weight, 465 ; 
 manufacture of ; handles soldered, 465 ; 
 terra-cotta, containing bars of gold (q. v.), 
 
 3 c 
 
754 
 
 AMPRIUS, 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 arisb£. 
 
 Tr., 405-6 ;— of 4th c, generally like 
 3rd, 518 ; abundant, both hand-made and 
 wheel-made, 534, 535 ; some of hour-giass 
 form, but not two.cups, peculiar to 4th and 
 5th c, black in 4th, red in 5th, always 
 wheel-made, 535-36 ; one of curious 
 shape, 536 ; — of 5th c, much smaller than 
 in the preceding cities, 577 ; — in 6th c, 
 only 2 and small, but a link with its use 
 in Homer's time, 596-7. 
 
 Amphius. See Adrestus. 
 
 Amphorae, Trojan, 3rd c. : two-handled, 
 mostly unique, 397-399 ; one found on 
 Thera,399 ; projection, perhaps for support- 
 ing rope, 397 ; with 2, 3, and 4 handles, 401. 
 
 Amsterdam, author's employment at, 9. 
 
 Anaxarchus, 172. See Homer, Casket edi- 
 tion of. 
 
 Anchises and Aphrodite, on coins of N. 
 
 Ilium, 643. 
 Andalusia, suspension- vases from, 215. 
 Andres, Carl, author's early tutor, 6. 
 Andromache, w. of Hector; the prize of 
 
 Neoptolemns ; married Helenus ; mother 
 
 of the Molossian line of kings, 164; 
 
 Alexander the Great descended from, 
 
 173. 
 
 Animals, Domestic, remains of, in Burnt 
 City, 319, 322 ; at Thymbra, 711. 
 
 Animals (quadrupeds, stags, &c), and birds 
 (prob. storks), on whorls, 418, 419 ; in 
 terra-cotta, 4th c. ; at Szihalom, 560. 
 
 Animals' heads on vases, as Phoenician 
 tribute to Egypt, 595. 
 
 Animals, vessels of terra-cotta in form of : 
 with 3 or 4 feet, frequent in 2nd and 3rd c, 
 294 ; at Cyprus, 294 ; some in Peru and 
 Mexico, 294: tripod in form of sow, 
 2nd c.j 294 ; — of 3rd c, with ram's head ; 
 in form of hedgehog, sow, sheep, hog, 
 mole, hippopotamus (q. v.), 377 ; similar 
 vessels found in Posen, &c, 377-8. 
 
 Ankershagen, in Mecklenburg - Schwerin, 
 author's early life at, 1 ; local wonders 
 and legends, 1-3; castle .of, 2. 
 
 Annelids abundant in Troad, 114. 
 
 Antelion, venomous snake, 22, 144. 
 
 Antenor, favoured by the Greeks for his 
 good faith; said to have betrayed Troy ; 
 
 i led Veneti from Paphlagonia to the Adri- 
 atic, and founded Patavium, 164. 
 
 Antigonus Boson (ob. 221 B.C.), inscription 
 probably of his time at N. Ilium, 633 f. 
 
 Antilochus, s. of Nestor, killed by Memnon, 
 159^ 
 
 Antiochus 1. Soter, his visit to the Troad, 
 and statue at Sigeum, 631 ; his liberality 1 
 
 to Ilium, 172, 632; inscription at N. 
 Ilium, 172, 627 f. See Inscriptions. 
 
 Antiochus III. the Great, sacrifices at Ilium, 
 171, 631 ; expelled by the Romans from 
 Asia Minor, 173 ; coins of, at N. I., 19. 
 
 Antiquities, Trojan, destination of Dr. 
 Schliemann's collections, 66. 
 
 Antoninus Pius (a.d. 138-161), on an in- 
 scription found at N. Ilium; name mis- 
 spelt ANTONIOY, 637. 
 
 Apaesus or Paesus, city; the people Mile- 
 sians ; destroyed, and inhabitants settle at 
 Lampsacus, 132. 
 
 Aphrodite, preferred by Paris, promises his 
 reward, 157. 
 
 Apollo : his servitude to Laomedon, 125 ; 
 temple of, in the Pergamos of Troy, 140 ; 
 Doric temple of, at N. Ilium, 23, 609 ; 
 sculptured metope representing, 23, 622 
 (see Metope) ; statue of, at N. Ilium, trans- 
 ferred to Constantinople, 180 ; on coins of 
 N. Ilium, 641 ; temple of, at Thymbra (see 
 Thymbra); Achilles killed at, 159. 
 
 Apollo Ismenius, Phoenician Eshmun, 154. 
 
 Apollo Smintheus (fr. 2/uV#oy, "field 
 mouse ") : his worship ascribed to the 
 Teucrians, 122 ; temples at Chryse' and 
 the later Chrysa, 122, 136. 
 
 Apollodorus ort origin of the Trojans, 119. 
 
 Appian, for the N. I. site of Troy, 210. 
 
 Aquatic animals (Diademiae and Echinae) 
 imitated by Trojan goldsmiths, 497. 
 
 Aqueduct, Roman, of N. Ilium, from the 
 upper Thymbrius, carried over the Thym- 
 brius, 77, 110, 610. 
 
 Archaeology unknown to Greek Ilians, 211. 
 
 Archelaus, s. of Orestes, leads Aeolian colo- 
 nists to Cyzicus, 127. 
 
 Archery, bone ' bracer ' for, 4th c, 566 ; 
 such used by the Esquimaux, 566. 
 
 Architecture, domestic, of Troy, prototype 
 of modern houses of the Troad, 53 f., 314- 
 317 ; — of 5th c. quite different from 4th ; 
 houses of wood and clay, 573. 
 
 Arctinus, epic poet, Laocoon and Sinon 
 taken from, 160-1. 
 
 Ardys, s. of Gyges, k. of Lydia, sent tribute 
 to Assyria, 130 n. 
 
 Aretaeos, surgeon, of Athens, explains the 
 human remains in a funeral urn, 227. 
 
 Arethusa, fountain of, in Ithaca, 50. 
 
 Arimi, of Homer, dominion of ; a mythic 
 people, placed in the "burnt land" of Lydia 
 or Cilicia; identified by some with the 
 Arimaei of Syria, 137. 
 
 Arisbe, the " divine" (Horn.), near R. Sellei's, 
 residence of Asius, 133. 
 
Alt 1ST ARCHES BEY. 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 ATHENE. 
 
 753 
 
 Aristarches Bey, Great Logothete at Con- 
 stantinople, aids author, 44. 
 
 Aristides, Greek orator, recognizes Troy in 
 N. Ilium, 179, 210. 
 
 Aristodicides, of Assos, in inscription relat- 
 ing to, at N. Ilium, unknown, 632. 
 
 Aristotle on the Senas afxcjitKvneXXov, dis- 
 cussed, 299 f. 
 
 Armenians akin to Phrygians, 120 ; a non- 
 Aryan race, 120. 
 
 Arrabaeus, an Athenian, inscription in 
 honour of, N. I., 638. 
 
 Arrian, for the N. I. site of Troy, 210. 
 
 Arrow-head, golden, on " Tower," 3rd c, pro- 
 bably a ceremonial weapon, 499. 
 
 Arrow-heads : forms of, different in a mould 
 of 1st c. from any found, 248; one of 
 copper, 249, 250 ; 3rd c, bronze or copper, 
 504 ; the only one with barbs found in 
 3rd c, 506; 4th c, bronze, 564; 6th c, 
 bronze, barbed, another without barbs ; 
 similar in Denmark, 604 obsidian, still 
 made and used for small game by Indians 
 of Yosemite valley, 570. 
 
 Artemis, the Ephesian, a non-Hellenic deity 
 combined with a Greek goddess, 154.- 
 
 Artemis Nana, of Chaldea, prototype of the 
 Trojan leaden idol (Sayce), 337, 694. 
 
 Aryan race, not E. of Halys before 8th cent. 
 b.c. ; evidence from Assyrian monuments, 
 120, 121. 
 
 Aryballos, Etruscan and Greek, like bugle- 
 shaped vessels of 6th c, 596. 
 
 Ascania, city of the Phrygians, distant from 
 Troy (Horn.), 120. 
 
 Ascherson, Paid, Prof., List of Plants of the 
 Troad, 727 f. 
 
 Ashes, red, yellow, and black, in enormous 
 quantities in the 3rd, the burnt c, 266. 
 
 Asia Minor : writing and syllabary of, 
 691 f. ; influence of Babylonian and 
 Hittite art and writing in, 694 ; the 
 peoples of, and of the islands, in connec- 
 tion with Egypt ; confederates of Libyans 
 and Kheta ; their names on the monu- 
 ments, 745-749. 
 
 Asiatic Deities, Names of, remoulded in 
 Greek forms, 154-5. 
 
 Asius, son of Hyrtacus, dominion of, on coast 
 of Hellespont, 68; Thraciaos of Sestos; 
 under him ; cities, Arisbe his residence, 133. 
 
 Assaracus, 2nd s. of Tros, 152 ; head of the 
 Dardanian line, 153. 
 
 Assos, ruins of, at Behrahm, 58 ; perfect 
 ideal of a Greek city, 59 ; walls probably 
 Macedonian, but in part cailier, 59 ; coins 
 of, at N. I , 612. 
 
 Assnrbanipal, k. of Assyria, sends embassy 
 to, and receives tribute from, Gyges, k. of 
 Lydia, 128, 698. 
 
 Assyrian Vases, 222. 
 
 Assyrians, first knew the country W. of 
 Halys cir. 665 b.c ; signs of connection 
 with Troy, 128. 
 
 Asteris, I., 45. See Mathitario. 
 
 Astragals (do-rpdyaXoi, huckle-bones), from 
 1st c, 263 ; game of, in Homer, 263 ; 
 story of Patroclus, 263 ;— 3rd c, 426. 
 
 Astyra in Troas, gold mines at, 253. 
 
 Astyanax (Scamandrius), s. of Hector, 
 thrown from the walls of Troy, 164 ; 
 mythical founder of Scepsis, 167. 
 
 Astyoche, d. of Simois, wife of Tros, 152 ; 
 d. of Laomedon, 156. 
 
 Atargatis (Ate, Cybele, Omphale), proto- 
 type of Trojan female idols (Sayce), 
 694. 
 
 Ate, Phrygian goddess, 153 ; related to Atis, 
 154; Ilium built on her sacred hill, 153, 
 643 ; personified power of infatuation, per- 
 nicious eldest daughter of Zeus and Eris, 
 cast by him out of heaven, 153 ; wor- 
 shipped on Hissarlik; original of thellian 
 Athene, and combined with the Greek 
 Athene ; distinguished from the Greek 
 Ate, 154. 
 
 Athene, why hostile to Troy, 157. 
 
 Athene, the Ilian, originated from the Phry- 
 gian Ate (q. v.), 154 ; on a coin as a 
 Phrygian goddess ; combined with the 
 Greek Athene as A. Ilias ; her symbols, 
 the Phrygian cap, spear, torch (replaced 
 by distaff and spindle), and owl, 154 ; the 
 cow of many colours her symbol, 155 ; on 
 coins of N. Ilium, 643. 
 
 Athene Ergane, tutelary deity of Troy ; her 
 character, 229 ; the whorls (q.v.) probably 
 offerings to her, 229. 
 
 Athene Glaucopis (yXavKcoms), the owl- 
 headed or owl-faced goddess of Troy ; 
 argument on, 282 f . ; from analogy with 
 Hera Bodpis (q.v.), 282, 286 ; three stages 
 of the symbolism, 287 ; other figures of 
 deities with animal heads, borrowed by 
 Greek art from Asia, 288 ; Prof. Keller 
 on significance of the owl in connection 
 with Athene, 289 ; true character of 
 Athene or Ate, 289, 290 ; in no way con- 
 nected with Egypt, 744. 
 
 Athene, temple of, in the Pergamos of Troy, 
 140 ; sitting wooden statue of, 140 ; the 
 only idol mentioned by Homer, 233 ; tem- 
 ple in Greek Ilium, 168, 211 ; discovered, 
 29; site art'ficially levelled, 30; statue 
 
756 
 
 ATHOS. 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 BEECH-TREE. 
 
 and inscriptions found in, 29, 633. See 
 
 Inscriptions, Metrodorus. 
 Athos, M., visible from Hissarlik in clear 
 
 weather, 105. 
 AUjs, s. of Manes, k. of Lydia, famine 
 
 and migration under, 128. 
 Augustus ; his project of capital at Ilium, 
 
 178, 205. 
 
 Augustus, coins of, N. I., 641; as founder 
 
 (ktI<ttt]s), i.e. restorer, 646. 
 Aulis in Boeotia, Greek fket assembled at, 
 
 157. 
 
 Aurelius, Marcus, coins of, N. I., 644, 646. 
 
 Aids : of bone and ivory, 1st c, 261, 262 ; — 
 3rd c, 319, 430, 431 ; horns of fallow deer 
 sharpened for use as, 431 ; of bone and 
 ribs of animals, 4th c, 566-7. 
 
 Awl or punch, bronze, 4th c, 565. 
 
 Axes or Celts, stone : of 1st c. (comp. Jade 
 and Jadeite), 238 ; their use described by 
 Sir J. Lubbock, 239 ; for domestic purposes 
 as well as battle-axes, 244 ; perforated, 
 244 ; how drilled, 245 ; parallel examples, 
 244, 245 ;— of 2nd c, 275, 276 ;— of 3rd c, 
 445 ; 5 of them of jade (q. v.), 446 ; — of 
 4th c, 2 of jade, 569 ; — very rare in 5 th c, 
 573 ; a precious one of white jade, 573. 
 
 Axes, bronze, none in the pre-historic cities, 
 except battle-axes (q. v.), 274. 
 
 BABIES' feeding bottles, 5th c, 581; 6th 
 c, 507. 
 
 Babylonian Vas r s, 222. 
 
 Baking pre-historic pottery, mode of, at 
 open fire, 219 ; (see Bismarck) ; Virchow's 
 opinion ; author differs from, 520 n. 
 
 Bali Dagh, the (comp. Bounarbashi), ruins 
 of citadel on, not Cyclopean, 19 ; perhnps 
 Gergis, 19, 208 ; Priam's Pergamus (Le- 
 chevalier), 185 ; the walls and pottery late, 
 192-3 ; Ida not visible from, 194 ; tumuli 
 on, 651 ; Forchhammer's account of, not 
 exact, 655. 
 
 Ballauf, J. H., befriends author, 10. 
 
 Bcdls, 3rd c, perforated, of serpentine, use 
 unknown, 442 ; similar in Cyprus and 
 California, 442. 
 
 Bcdls, terra-cotta : of 3rd c, one with a 
 curious pattern, perhaps astronomical, 
 420 ; with owl's face and hair, the sun, 
 moon, and morning star, 344, 420-1 ; 
 with an( i 4i> 349; curious pattern, 
 in 8 fields, probably in part astronomical, 
 421 ;— of 4th c, like 3rd, 518 ; with signs, 
 perhaps written characters, 563, 564; with 
 and perhaps a cuttle-fish, 572 ; very 
 eurious with 8 fields, 572. 
 
 Barrels, terra-cotta, 3rd c, with spouts, 
 
 404; with handle and 3 feet, 404, 405. 
 Bars of gold, small perforated, for hanging 
 
 strung jewels on, Tr., 463 ; Tr., 493, 498. 
 Bars of gold, with horizontal incisions, 
 
 Tr., 496 ; analysis of, 496 ; may these be 
 
 Homeric talents? 496. 
 Bars of silver and electrum (q. v.). 
 Basements as store-rooms, in Homer and in 
 
 3rd c, 326. 
 Basin, rude hand-made, one-handled, 5th c. 
 
 See Bowls. 
 
 Baskets, coated with earth, for preserving 
 grain, perhaps used at Troy, 324. 
 
 Batak (i. e. " swamp "). See Akshi Kioi. 
 
 Batieia, Idaean nymph, daughter of Tcucer, 
 married to Dardanus, 119, 152, 657. 
 
 Batieia or Myrine, Tumulus of, where the 
 Trojans arrayed their troops, 146 ; placed 
 on hill of Bounarbashi by Cboiseul-Goufher, 
 185, 657 : — (see Pasha Tepch) ; the name 
 (" brambly ") prob. native equivalent to 
 Greek Myrine (q. v.). 
 
 Battle-axes, stone: of 1st c, 244; among 
 Egyptian spoils of victory from W. Asia, 
 with objects of high civilization, 241 n. ; 
 — 3rd c, of green gabbro-rock and grey 
 diorite ; similar in Denmark and Germany, 
 438 ;— 4th c, like 3rd c, 518. 
 
 Battle-axes, bronze, Tr., 476, 477 ; form 
 copied from those of stone, 479 ; analyses 
 of, 477, 478 ; similar found in India, 
 Babylonia, Cyprus, Egypt, and (2 only) 
 at Mycenae, 478-9 ; also of copper in 
 Poscn, Hungary, and N. America, 478; 
 Tr., 487, 494, 495 ;— with hole for fasten- 
 ing to shaft, only 4 such in 3rd c, 506 ; 
 similar in Sardinia, aud of copper in Hun- 
 gary, 506 ; others of common Trojan form, 
 506 ;— 4th c, like 3rd, 518 ; only 5 of 
 same shape as 3rd, but smaller, 565; — 
 5th c, shorter than in 3rd c, 585-6 ; — 
 6th c, one bronze, double-edged, unlike 
 any in the 5 pre-historic cities; charac- 
 teristic of Asia Minor, 606 ; similar 
 found at Mycenae, frequent in Greece, 
 Assyria, and Babylonia; also in Lake- 
 dwellings, 606 ; analysis of, 607. 
 
 Battles to and fro in the Plain, proof of short 
 
 ■ distance of Troy fr. Hellespont, 198, 200. 
 
 Beads, cornelian and glass (q. v.). 
 
 Beads, gold, Tr., 487, 490, 493-5; dif- 
 ferent degrees of alloy, 497 ; hundreds in 
 form of rings and leaves, Tr., 502, 503 ; 
 — 6th c, attached to a bronze brooch, 603. 
 
 Beech-tree (cfyrjyos), before the Scaean Gate, 
 144 ; discussion of its meaning, 145. 
 
BEECH-TREES. 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 BOWLS. 
 
 757 
 
 Beech-trees ((frrjyoi) on tomb of Ilus, noticed 
 
 by Theophrastus, 208. 
 Beiramich, on the Scamander, visited, 57 ; 
 
 valley of, 69. 
 Bellerophon, his a^ara Xvypd (11. vi. 169), 
 
 probably of the old syllabary of Asia 
 
 Minor, 699. 
 Besika, Bay of, 107. 
 
 Besika (i.e. "cradle") Tepeh, 651 ; regarded 
 by Webb as the tomb of Peneleos, 665 ; 
 dimensions, 665 ; excavated by the author, 
 55, 107, 108, 665; strata described by 
 Burnouf, 666 ; pottery found ; vase-bottom 
 with incised signs, perhaps meant for cunei- 
 form, 666, 703 ; large masses of potsherds, 
 703 ; coarse, of large hand-made vessels, 
 and better, of smaller vessels, unlike any at 
 Hissarlik ; marks of wicker-work on vase- 
 bottoms; no perforated projections for sus- 
 pension ; two wing-like handles ; decora- 
 tion of net- work and lines, 667 ; many 
 pieces with indistinct floral and other de- 
 corations, and signs like writing, painted 
 with clay ; remarkable absence of whorls 
 and tripod vessels; fragments of only 2 
 wheel-made vases ; all signs of a town or 
 village, 668 ; polishing stones, but no stone 
 implements ; a few bones and shells ; no 
 trace of a funeral fire, 669. 
 
 Birds of the Troad, various, little known, 
 112 ; few among remnants of Trojan food, 
 chiefly wild, 318, 322. 
 
 Bishoprics of Troad in 10th century, Ilium 
 among, perhaps at another site, 183, 612. 
 
 Bismarck, Otto von, Prince, on the manu- 
 facture and baking of the gigantic jars 
 (see Pithoi), 279, 2*0. 
 
 Bit, bronze, 6th c, 605. 
 
 Black Obelisk of Shalmaneser, in British 
 Museum; Bactrian camel, 112, and ele- 
 phant, represented upon, 426-7. 
 
 Boar, frequent in Troad, in Ida and Mysian 
 Olympus, 432 ; in the Greek mythology, 
 432 ; — tusks abundant in 3rd and 4th c, 
 319, 432, 571. 
 
 Boar's head stamped on a weight of lead, 
 620, 621. 
 
 Boeotia, the ' Catalogue of Ships,' 149. 
 
 Bolts, copper, of the gates, 36 ; comp. Keys. 
 
 Bone : awls, pins, and needles of, 1st c, 261, 
 262 ; parallel examples of, 262 ;— 3rd c, 
 engraved tube of, 425, 426 ; handle of a 
 knife, 427 ; of sticks or sceptres, 427, 428 ; 
 comb, 430 ; awls and needles, 430, 431 ; — 
 4th c, piece with 3 holes, probably an 
 archer's ' bracer,' 566 ; awls, 566 ; staff- 
 handles, 567. 
 
 Bones, animal, found in 3rd c. ; small instru- 
 ments made from, 319; those found at 
 Troy classified by Dr. Moss, 322 ; fossil, of 
 an extinct species of dolphin, 323 ; of 
 deer and boar, found at Thymbra, 711. 
 
 Bones, human, not found in urns of 3rd 
 and 4th cities, except the embryos (q. v.), 
 a single tooth, 39, 323, and a skull, 511. 
 See Skeletons, Skulls. 
 
 Boopis. See Here. 
 
 Botany of Troad. See Flora and Plants. 
 
 Bottle of pure gold, Tr. ; how made, 466. 
 
 Bottles, terra-cotta : 3rd c.j with long neck 
 and handle, rare, 390 ; similar from 
 Bethlehem, Nimroud, Cyprus, and Egypt, 
 390; without handles, 395, 396; with 
 2 handles, 402 ; examples from Cyprus, 
 Egypt, and Assyria, 402 ; tube-spouted, 
 perhaps for feeding babies, 406, 407 ; — 
 4th c, lentil-shaped, 541 ; wheel-made, 
 of various shapes, 543, 544 ; one-handled, 
 546 ; — 5th c, wheel-made, red and black, 
 578,579. 
 
 Bottoms, convex and pointed, of vases, 
 supported by rings (q. v.) of terra-cotta 
 and stone, 440, 451. 
 
 Boideuterion (or Senate-house) of N. Ilium, 
 discovered, 21 ; ruins of, 609 ; 3 inscrip- 
 tions in, or beside its foundations, 609, 
 638. See Inscriptions. 
 
 Bounarbashi (i.e. "Head of the Springs," 
 55) and the Bali Dagh, Lechevalier's site 
 of Homer's Ilium, 18, 185 ; author's first 
 visit to (1868), 18 ; the springs examined, 
 18 ; distance from Hellespont, 19 ; excava- 
 tions, with negative residts, 19 ; revisited 
 with Prof. Virchow ; height of ruins on 
 Bali Dagh ; not Cyclopean ; proved late 
 by mode of working ; pottery only Greek ; 
 agora discovered by Virchow ; the (34 
 or 40 instead of 2) springs investigated; 
 not Homer's warm and cold sources of the 
 Scamander, 55 ; their temperature tested, 
 56 ; village of, 107. See Site of Homers 
 llios. 
 
 Bounarbashi Sa, rivulet, described by Vir- 
 chow, 96 ; its swamps, 97 ; canal from, 
 to the Aegean, probably of no great anti- 
 quity, 98; another canal, 99; the Sca- 
 mander of Lechevalier, 185. 
 
 Bowls, terra-cotta : 1st c, with horizontal 
 tubular holes for suspension, 217; black, 
 228 ; with a pair of eyes, 247 ; none of 
 this sort in 2nd c, 279 ; — 3rd c, with 
 spout and handle, 394, 395; large two- 
 handled, 397; — 4th c, 2 with a cross 
 painted in red clay, 225; two-handled, 
 
758 
 
 BOWLS. 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 BUILDINGS. 
 
 hand-made, 539 ; deep plates like bowls, 
 544 ; with handle and foot, 555 ; per- 
 forated like a sieve, 556 ; — dark-brown, 
 hand-made, frequent in 5th c, 582 ; — 
 6th c, two-handled, or tureen, wheel- 
 made, 589, 590 ; double-handled, 593 ;— 
 N. I., fragments of painted, 614,615; 
 large shallow, at Thymbra, 711. 
 
 Bowls, small, in pre-historic cities, perhaps 
 for lamps, 620. See Lamps, Lighting. 
 
 Box, terra-cotta covering of a, 1st c, 226. 
 
 Boxes, terra-cott i : 3rd c, painted with red 
 clay, 225; with cap-like covers, one a 
 tripod ; another without feet, found on 
 wall near royal house, containing ashes 
 (prob. of a deceased person), beads, and 
 carbonized cloth and grain, 360-1; — 
 tripod, 4th c, 534. 
 
 Bracelet, copper, 1st c, 251. 
 
 Bracelets, electrum, Tr., 491-2. 
 
 Bracelets, gold : Tr., six stuck together, 458, 
 459 ; mode of manufacture, 458 ; — heavy, 
 with ornamentation of spirals, rosettes, &c, 
 
 . Tr. ; how made, 495 ; 2 heavy, Tr., 502. 
 
 Brass (opelxaXKos), formed by copper with 
 the zinc of Ida, 254. 
 
 Braun, Julius, ' Geschichte d. Kunst in ihrcm 
 Enhvicklungsgange; and ' Homer und sein 
 Zeitalter,' in favour of Hissarlik, 20, 189. 
 
 Breast Ornament, long tassel of gold, Tr., 
 500 ; number of links and leaves in, 501 ; 
 its remarkable discovery, 502. 
 
 Brentano, E., 'Alt-llion im Dumbrekthai; 
 188. 
 
 Briareus and Ae aeon, equivalent names in 
 the ' language of gods and men,' i.e. Greek 
 , and native, 704-5. 
 
 Brick City, the Third so called, 518. 
 
 Bricks, not used in 1st and 2nd c, 266 ; — 
 sun-dried or slightly baked, used specially 
 in the 3rd c. ; partly vitrified by the con- 
 flagration, 21, 33, 34, 305, 314; decayed 
 into formless masses, 305, by rain as well 
 as fire, 317 ; rarely preserved entire, 305 ; 
 dimensions and make ; contain straw, 314 ; 
 — not found in 4th c. ; Virchow's ex- 
 planation ; author differs from, 520 ; — at 
 Thymbra, dimensions and composition, 709. 
 
 Birdie, bronze, 6th c, 605 ; similar in Lake- 
 dwellings, 605. 
 
 Britannicus, coins of, N. I., 646. 
 
 Bronze, Sir J. Lubbock on early knowledge 
 of, in Europe, as a foreign article, 257. 
 
 Bronze, ornaments and utensils of, in 3rd c, 
 but of copper in 1st and 2nd, 249 ; — 3rd c. 
 (see under the several names of the arms, 
 k ornaments, &c), a curious pointed imple- 
 
 ment, 506 ;— 4th c, implements, &c., 564, 
 565 ;— 5th c, 58.% 586 ;— 6th c, 603 f. ; 
 — N. ]., 620, 622. 
 
 Bronze : analyses of the Trojan, 477, 478 ; 
 highly prized; etymology, 480; Semitic 
 derivation of ^aXxoy points to source 
 whence the Aryans of Asia Minor and 
 Greece received it, 481 ; analysis of battle- 
 axe of 6th c, 607. 
 
 Brooches (i.e. the pin only, comp. Fibula): 
 copper and silver in 1st and 2nd c, 249, 
 250, 252, 275 ; electrum, found with fe- 
 male skeleton, 2nd c, 272 ;— 3rd c, bronze, 
 found in urn with female skull, 39 ; with 
 globular heads, common in all the pre- 
 historic cities, 504 ; also with spiral heads ; 
 one double, 504 ; packet of 6 in a bone, 
 cemented by oxide or carbonate of copper, 
 513 ;— 4th c, 564 ;— 5th c, 585, 586 ;— 
 6th c, with gold beads attached by oxide 
 or carbonate, 603. 
 
 Brooches, beautiful gold, Tr. ; construction 
 explained ; ornaments like some at My- 
 cenae, 4b8, 489. 
 
 Brooch, ivory, bird as head, 6th c, 601. 
 
 Broughton, Lord, puts Troy at Alexandria- 
 Troas, 187. 
 
 Brugsch-Bey, H., Prof., ' History of Egypt,' 
 123 et passim ; on tribes of Asia Miuor 
 on Egyptian monuments, 123, and App. 
 IX. on "Troy and Egypt," 745 f . ; on 
 " Hera Boopis," App. VIII. p. 740 f. ; wor- 
 ship of the cow in Egypt, as the symbol of 
 Isis, 740-742; its special seat in the W., 
 the Libyan nome, frequented by foreigners, 
 and connected with Trojan legends, 742; 
 connection with Id, embodied in myth of 
 Danaiis, 743, 744 ; the Libyan Tehannu 
 equivalent to the Greek Marmarica, 743. 
 
 Brunn, H., on the metope of Apollo, 624. 
 
 Brush-handles of terra-cotta, with remnants 
 of vegetable bristles, 3rd c, 414. 
 
 Bryant, Jacob, 'Vindication of Homer,'' 186. 
 
 Biichner, W., for the Hissarlik site, 189. 
 
 Buchholz on the Dominions of the Troad, 
 68 ; his ' Homerische Kosmographie und 
 Geographic; 68 n., 132 n., 188. 
 
 Buckets, terra-cotta, for drawing water from 
 wells, with impression of rope on handle, 
 like those used in Egypt : 3rd c, 381 ; 
 4th c, 554. 
 
 Buckow, Neu, in Mecklenburg-Schwerin, 
 birthplace of the author, 1. 
 
 Bugle-shaped vessels of 6th c, also Etrus- 
 can and Greek, 596. 
 
 Buildings, found in the several strata, 21 
 (comp. Architecture, House-walls, Temple, 
 
BDJUK BOUNARBASHI. 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 CAULDRON. 
 
 759 
 
 Tower, Walls, &c.) : large in 4th city, 23 ; 
 Greek wall belonging to, 28, 29 ; Hellenic 
 and pre-Hellenic, 40 ; — 2nd c, a large one 
 of stone, 2C9 ; — 3rd c, of bricks, vitrified 
 by the conflagration, 305 ; enormous masses 
 of remains, also of small red stones ; easily 
 distinguished from those of 2nd settlers; 
 — 4th c, stone substructions, 519, 520; 
 — 5th c, of wood and clay, 573. 
 
 Bujuk Bounarbashi visited, 58, 59. 
 
 Bunbury, E. H., 1 Cyclopean Remains in 
 Central Italy,' 192. 
 
 Burial of Dead, sometimes used in N. I., 39 ; 
 rare in the pre-historic cities, 39 ; used at 
 Thymbra, 718, 719. Comp. Cremation. 
 
 Burial, in Homer, for the performance of 
 funeral rites without actual interment, 
 649, 650. 
 
 Burnouf, E., joins author at Troy (1879), 
 53 ; his maps, plans, sketches, geological 
 and other researches, 53 et passim. 
 
 Burnouf, E., and Mdlle. L., drawings of the 
 whorls and balls, 421. 
 
 Burnt City (see Third City, Troy, and 
 Conflagration) : now seen at the bottom 
 of the funnel ; points of correspondence 
 with Homer, 683, 684, and Pref. 
 
 Buttons, gold, Tr. ; how made, 490-1 ; he- 
 mispherical, Tr., 498. 
 
 Byzantine remains, none at N. I., 612. 
 
 CABIRI, sons of Hephaestus, mythical me- 
 tallurgists in Phrygia and Samothrace, 
 country of Pergamenes sacred to, 255. 
 
 Caecina of Cyzicus (2nd cent, a.d.), base of 
 lost statue of, with its footprints, found 
 at N. I., 637. See Inscriptions. 
 
 Caesar, Julius, favours Ilium, both in imi- 
 tation of Alexander and as descendant of 
 lulus, s. of Aeneas ; privileges granted to 
 
 i the Ilians, 177, 207 ; his visit to Troy, 
 vow to restore it (Lucan), 206. 
 
 Ca'icus, R., limit of Trojan territory, 67. 
 
 Caius Caesar, son of Agrippa and Julia, 
 adopted by Augustus, governor of Asia, 
 died a.d. 4; his favour to N. I. attested 
 by an inscription, 178, 633. 
 
 California made a State, July 4, 1850, and 
 authors consequent citizenship of the 
 United States, 12. 
 
 Callicolone, M., probably not Kara Your (as 
 Demetrius held, 176), but Oulou Dagh, 
 59, 71, 109, 145-6, 678. 
 
 Callinus, of Ephesus, earliest Greek elegiac 
 poet, in 7th cent., 122. 
 
 Callirrhoe, d. of Scamander, wife of Erich- 
 
 i thonius, 152. 
 
 Callisthenes, 172. See Homer, Casket edi- 
 tion cf. 
 
 Calvert, Frank, U. S. Vice-Con sul at the 
 Dardanelles, holds the ruins at Bali Dagh 
 to be Gergis, 19; convert to the Troy- 
 Hissarlik theory ; owner of part of His- 
 sarlik ; excavates there, 20 ; his ' Asi- 
 atic Coast of the Hellespont,' ' Contribu- 
 tions towards the Ancient Geography of 
 the Troad,' and ' Trojan Antiquities] 91, 
 189 ; on " Thymbra, Hana'i* Tepeh," App. 
 IV., 706 f. ; excavates the tumuli of Priam : 
 655, and Patroclus, 656. 
 
 Calvert, Fred., the late, excavates the tumu- 
 lus above Ren Kioi, 655. 
 
 Camel, Bactrian, in the Tro.id ; on black 
 obelisk of Shalmaneser III.; anciently 
 strange in Asia Minor, 112. 
 
 du Camp, Maxime : * L' Emplacement de 
 Vllion d'Eomere,' 190. 
 
 Camp, Naval, of the Greeks, on the Helles- 
 pont, between Capes Sigeum and Rhoe- 
 teum, 73, 91, 149 ; length, 30 stadia (3geog. 
 miles), 148 ; to the left (W.) of mouth of 
 the Scamander, 92, 147 ; objection of W. 
 Christ answered, 93 ; in sight of Troy, 
 207 ; in 3 lines ; order of the ships 
 and divisions, 148 f. ; the agora, 149 ; no 
 tents, but huts, 149; that of Achilles 
 described, 150; open space where games 
 were held ; goals, 151 ; tumuli of Patro- 
 clus and Achilles on the shore, 151 ; 
 common tumulus and earthen wall of de- 
 fence, 151 ; feint of burning it, 160. 
 
 Camp, Trojan, at tumulus of Ilus, before 
 Ilium, visible from the ships, 200 ; objec- 
 tion founded on, answered, 207. 
 
 Caracalla : visits Ilium, honours Troy and 
 Achilles with mad extravagance, kills 
 his friend Festus to imitate the funeral of 
 Patroclus, 179 (see Ujek Tepeh) ; coins of, 
 N. I., 643-7. 
 
 Caresus, R., rises in Ida, 68; described, 100. 
 
 Carlisle, Lord, ' Diary in Turkish Waters,' 
 187. 
 
 Carians, allies of Trojans, 158. 
 
 Cassandra, d. of Priam, 157. 
 
 Castron, in Ithaca. See Polis. 
 
 Catakekaumene (the "burnt land") of the 
 myth of Typhoeus, 137 ; seat of the Ho- 
 meric Arimi (q. v.). 
 
 Caterpillar on Trojan terra-oottas, 4th c.,562. 
 
 Cauldron (Xe^rjs), copper, Tr., with frag- 
 ments of bronze weapons fused to it, 
 474 ; handles, how put on, 475 ; use of 
 cauldrons in Homer, 475 ; one among the 
 Egyptian tribute from W. Asia, 475. 
 
760 
 
 CAVERN. 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 CLAY-CAKES. 
 
 Cavern, natural, and spring, near N. I., on 
 W. slope of Hissarlik, 625; excavated, 
 only late potsherds and bones, 626. 
 
 Cebren, R., in the Troad, epically connected 
 with Cebriones, s. of Priam, 121. 
 
 Cebrenia, table-land between Dardania and 
 Troy ; with (of old) a c. CebrenS, 138. 
 
 Cellars, Greek, 30 ; substructions served as, 
 in Trojan houses, ancient and modern, 
 54 f., 317; gigantic jars (jriOoi) in, 33 
 (see Pithoi) ; for wine, in W. Asia, men- 
 tioned in Egyptian records, 379 n. 
 
 Celts, origin of the word, 238 n. (See Axes.) 
 
 Cementing action of chloride of copper and 
 silver, 494 ; of carbonate and oxide of 
 copper, 504 ; et passim. 
 
 Censers, terra-cotta : 3rd c, 411 ; similar 
 one from Zaborowo, 412; — 4th c, 555 ; 
 similar in Lusatia, Posen, and Germany, 
 224, 555, 556 ;— 5th c, 580 ;— Greek and 
 Graeco-Phoenician, with 3 feet, 355. 
 
 di Cesnola, General Luigi Palma, * Cyprus,' 
 293-5, 353, 385 et passim. 
 
 Ceteians (oi KrjTeioi), the, dominion of Eury- 
 pylus, on the Ca'icus, bordering on Lyr- 
 nessus, 68, 136, 137, 160 ; identified by Mr. 
 Gladstone with the Eheta and Kliattai 
 of Egyptian and Assyrian records, the 
 Hittites (Chethites) of SS., 137; led by 
 Memnon to Troy, 159. 
 
 Chabas, ' htudes sur VAntiquite historique ; 
 on early Hellenic populations in N.W. 
 Asia Minor, 132. 
 
 Chalcis or Cymindis (XoXkls, KvfiivbLs, Horn. 
 i. e. " yellow "), Greek and native names of 
 a Trojan bird ; its form assumed by Sleep 
 ('Yttvos), 113 ; mythical connection with 
 the Corybantes, workers in bronze, 113 n. 
 
 Chalk, incised ornamentation filled in with, 
 passim ; practised in primitive Gaul, 594. 
 
 Charidemus, mercenary chief in time of 
 Philip It, takes Ilium by a stratagem, 171, 
 688. 
 
 Chersonesus, the Thracian, seen from His- 
 sarlik, 105. 
 
 Chests : supposed wooden of the great 
 Treasure, 41, 454 ; Priam's treasure chests, 
 454 ; quadrangular shape of a chest con- 
 taining carbonized grain, 3rd c, a puzzle 
 and suggested solution, 323-4. 
 
 Chiblak, village and rivulet, 108, 109 ; Troy 
 placed at, by Clarke and Webb, 188. 
 
 Chigri Dagh, visited, 56 ; height, 56, 107 ; 
 vast Hellenic ruins, 57. 
 
 China and Japan, the author's first book 
 on, ' La Chine et le Japon (1866),' 18. 
 
 Chinese bronze cup for libations, as a paralkl 
 
 to the gold dinas dfxcfiLKVTTeWov, 465, 
 466. 
 
 Chloride of silver and copper on the metals, 
 252 ; cementing action of, 468. 
 
 Choiseul-Gouffier, French ambassador at 
 Constantinople, patronizes Lechevalier and 
 adopts his theories ; visits the Plain of 
 Troy; his views of Trojan topography, 
 184 f. 
 
 Christ, W., 1 Topographie der Troianischen 
 Ebene; 92, 190 ; on the site of the Greek 
 camp, 93. 
 
 Chrysa, near Hamaxitus, later than Chryse, 
 with a temple of Apollo Smintheus, 136. 
 
 Chryse, Cilician c. of Troad, close to Thebe', 
 on the sea with a port, with temple 
 of Apollo Smintheus; destroyed before 
 Strabo's time, 136. 
 
 Cilicians, dominion of, 68, 134. See Ceteians, 
 Cilicians of Thebe', Eurypylus, Mynes. 
 
 Cilicians of Thebe, in Troad, dominion 
 of Eetion, 68, 123, 125 ; same race as 
 people of Cilicia, 125 ; cities, Thebe, Chryse, 
 CUM (q. v.), 136 ; — of Lyrnessus, 137. 
 
 Cilia, d. of Laomedon, 156. 
 
 Cillaeus, R. and M., near Cille, 136. 
 
 Cille, Cilician city, near Antandros, founded 
 by Pelops, with temple of Apollo, 136. 
 
 Cimmerians invade the Troad and devastate 
 Asia Minor in time of Gyges and Assur- 
 banipal (cir. 665 B.C.) ; the Gimirrai of 
 the Assyrian inscriptions, 130 n. 
 
 Circassians in the Troad, outrage by, 51. 
 
 Cisseus, f. of Hecuba, 156. 
 
 Cities, successive, on Hissarlik. See under 
 First City, Second City, &c. 
 
 Cities, Greek, sites of, on low hills in plains, 
 like Hissarlik, 195. 
 
 Clarke, Dr. E. D., his Travels ; against the 
 Bounarbashi theory ; places Troy at 
 5 lXieW Kafir], which he puts at Chiblak, 
 20,188. 
 
 Claudius grants exemption to Ilium, 178. 
 
 Clay : cylinders of, perforated, slightly baked, 
 peculiar to 3rd and 4th c, 558, 559 ; 
 similar in Lake-dwellings and German 
 tombs, 559 ; flat perforated pieces of clay, 
 559, 560; similar from Thera and Nimroud, 
 560 ; quadrangular perforated pieces, 3rd, 
 4th, and 5th c, 560 ; curious cube of, with 
 hole, and incised ornamentation of ^,&c, 
 561. 
 
 Clay-cakes (gaieties), used to consolidate 
 debris in foundations of the first 3 or 4 
 prc-historic cities, 213 ; in 2nd c, 269 ; 
 in 3rd c, 305, 307 ; circuit wall founded 
 on ; Burnouf's section and description, 
 
CLAY-COATING. 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 CORN-BRUISERS. 
 
 761 
 
 307-8 ; at base of walls of royal house, 
 325 ; in foundations of 4th c, 308. 
 
 Clay-coating of pottery of 1st c., 219. 
 
 Clay houses of 5th c., 573. 
 
 Cleopatra, d. of Tros, 152. 
 
 Climate of the Troad, 38, 101 f. ; tempera- 
 ture, 101 ; table of winds, fine days, rain, 
 and cloud, 101 ; prevalence of violent N. 
 winds ; rainy season in winter, but seldom 
 severe ; great frosts recorded ; Webb's 
 glowing description, 102. 
 
 Clothes-hooks, terra-cotta, 3rd c, 378. 
 
 Clytius, s. of Laomedon, 156. 
 
 Coined money unknown to Homer, 513. 
 
 Coins, Creek: of Antiochus III., found at 
 N. I., 19 ; of Constans II., the latest found 
 at N. I., 612 ; Ithacan, Greek and Roman, 
 in Ithaca, 50; at Ophrynium, 60. 
 
 Coins of N. I. : proof of belief in its identity 
 with Troy, 179 ; enormous number picked 
 up on surface, and found in the trenches ; 
 all bronze ; none earlier than Macedonian ; 
 chiefly of Ilium itself; many of Alexan- 
 dria-Troas ; some of other cities, 612 ; 
 account of the coins found at N. I., by M. 
 Achilles Postolaccas, 641 f. ; autonomous, 
 silver and bronze, of Macedonian period ; 
 imperial, bronze only, from Augustus to 
 Gallienus ; the silver tetradrachms artistic 
 of Attic standard, with name of the Ilian 
 Athene; their date; types of the bronze ; 
 Athene, Roma, the wolf, Apollo, Gany- 
 medes, 641 ; Hector ; Aeneas, with An- 
 chises and lulus, 642-3 ; — types of the im- 
 perial bronze, Zeus Nikephoros, Dardanus, 
 642 ; the Palladium ; llus and the cow, 
 642-3; Anchises and Aphrodite, Nestor, 
 Priam, 643 ; Hector, 643-647 ; death of 
 Patroclus ; Scamander ; Ilium and Roma, 
 645-6; Ganymedes ; Aeneas, with An- 
 chises and lulus, 647. 
 
 Cold, intense, on Hissarlik in February and 
 March, 26, 38, 52. 
 
 Colours of pottery : lustrous-black of 1st c, 
 218, &c. ; how produced, 220 ; brown, 
 green, grey, red, yellow, &c, 221-225 et 
 passim: — of large pithoi, always dark- 
 red, 280. 
 
 Columns, drums of Doric, of temple of 
 Apollo, N. I., 23 ; drums and capitals of 
 Corinthian, of temple of Athene, 27, 608, 
 609 ; granite monoliths in a quarry, like 
 those of Alexandria-Troas, 56. 
 
 Comb of bone, 3rd c, 430. 
 
 Commodus, coins of, N. I., 642-647. 
 
 Conchylia of the Troad, Virchow's account 
 of, 114 f. ; the purple murex, 115 ; species 
 
 of cochleae and conclylia used as food by 
 Trojans, remains of in houses of burnt c, 
 116, 318; not mentioned by Homer, 
 116. 
 
 Cones, 2 terra-cotta, of 5th c, inscribed 
 with the Cypriote character mo, like one 
 found at Nineveh, 128, 582-3, 698. 
 
 Conflagration, no trace of, in 1st or 2nd 
 stratum, 22 ; traces of, in 3rd stratum 
 (of Troy), 21, 31 ; not in S.E. corner, 54 ; 
 striking effects of, 305-312 ; its centres 
 and direction, 313. 
 
 Conradi, pastor in Ankershagen, 4 n. 
 
 Constans II., his coins the latest at N. I., 612. 
 
 Constantine the Great, first design of new 
 capital near N. Ilium, 180, 205 ; his statue 
 on 'the burnt column' at Constantinople 
 one of Apollo from N. I., 180. 
 
 Constantinople, Museum of See Museums. 
 
 Constantinus Porphyrogennetus (10th cent.) 
 mentions a bishopric of Ilium, 183, 612. 
 
 Conze, A., ' Trojanische Ausgrabungen] 188. 
 
 Cookson, Chas., English consul at Constan- 
 tinople, supplies implements, 25. 
 
 Coomassie, bronzes from, with p^, 353. 
 
 Copper, ornaments and utensils of, in 1st 
 and 2nd c, but of bronze (q. v.) in 3rd c, 
 249 ; parallel examples, 249 ; analysis of; 
 specimens harder than modern commercial 
 copper, 251 (comp. next art.); a pre- 
 Bronze Copper Age, 251, 257, 258; 
 other objects, 253 ; no lances or battle- 
 axes, 252 ; mines in Troad, 253 ; native 
 on Lake Superior, used by Indians for 
 weapons, &c, 257, 738 ; anciently har- 
 dened by plunging in water, 481, 482 ; — 
 plate, with 2 discs, Tr., perhaps hasp of 
 the chest, 468-9; vase, Tr., 485; frac- 
 tured vessel, with gold beads cemented on 
 by oxide, Tr., 495. 
 
 Copper, hardening of, App. VII., a supposed 
 lost art, ascribed to the Incas of Peru, 737 ; 
 daggers and swords of hard copper of the 
 Hurons, found under Lake Superior, 738 ; 
 discovery of alloy of copper and rhodium 
 by Mr. Duffield, 738 ; the copper of the 
 Incas found to be of the like alloy, 738 ; 
 experiment of Professor Roberts, 739. 
 
 Cord for suspending vases, remnants of, 
 found, 1st c, 217. 
 
 Corn, Indian, in the Troad, 118. 
 
 Corn-bruisers (or Mullers), stone : 1st c, 
 parallel examples, 236, 237; — 2nd c, 
 275 ; — 3rd c, enormous numbers in first 
 4 cities ; similar at Mycenae, and in 
 Hungary and Germany, 442; — 4th a, 
 569, 570;— 5th c, very few, 583-4;— 
 
762 
 
 COBNELIAN. 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 CUPS. 
 
 found in Egypt, 570, 584; still used by 
 N. American Indians in the Yosemite 
 valley for pounding acorns, 570. 
 Cornelian, beads of, Tr., 493. 
 Corti, Count, Italian ambassador to the 
 
 Porte, aids author, 44. 
 Corybantes, mythical metallurgists in Samo- 
 thrace, originated fr. Phrygia, 255, 256 ; 
 name derived by some from corium, the 
 Cypriote for ' copper; ' from the Zend, 256. 
 Corythus, s. of Paris, 157. 
 Cotton, in the Troad, 118. 
 Cotylus, M., in Ida range, regarded by some 
 
 as source of Scamander, 58. 
 Covers of Vases : 1st c, with double holes 
 for suspension, 215 ; mode of fastening, 
 221 ; — 2nd c, with crest-like handle ; 
 owl-faced, 291 ; — 3rd c, with crown- 
 shaped handle, 303, 368, 369, 382 ; owl- 
 faced, 341, 343 ; different forms, flat or 
 cap-like, 354 ; flat, with handle, 370 ; 
 wheel-made, in shape of a stopper, 369 ; 
 crown-shaped and with simple arched 
 handle ; like modern Phrygian water- 
 vessels, 374; similar covers from Szi- 
 halom, 375 ; in form of a flower-saucer, 
 411 ; remarkable, with tree, stag, and 
 cuttle-fish or tortoise, 413 ; in form 
 of a stopper, similar from Szihalom, 422, 
 423 ;— 4th c, crested and owl-faced, 522, 
 523 ; unique, wheel-made, with 3 feet, as 
 if to be used as a cup, 530-1 ; with curious 
 handle, 538 ; bell-shaped, with arched 
 handle, 542 ; with holes in edge for tying 
 down, ornamented with and \f\, 562 ; 
 similar one fr. Lusatia, 562 ; — 5th c, 
 crested and owl-faced, 575-6 ; crown- 
 shaped, latest example, 580. 
 
 Cow of many colours, guide of Ilus to site 
 of Ilium, 153 ; the symbol of Athene or 
 Ate, 155 ; parallel legends, ancient and 
 medieval, 155, 156 ; on coins of N. I., 643. 
 
 Cow, worship of, in Egypt, 740 f. See 
 Hera Boopis. 
 
 Cow (or Ox) on handle of a bronze dagger, 
 3rd c, 504. 
 
 Cows or Oxen, terra-co'fa, 4th c. ; how they 
 differ from those at Mycenae; one from 
 Ialysus, 560. 
 
 Cows* heads on vase-hai.dles, frequent in 
 6th c, never in the 5 preceding, 599 ; 
 probable origin of the two-homed vase- 
 handles of Italy, 599 ; numerous examples 
 ^ of the cow-head in pre-historic remains, in 
 gold, bronze, and terra-cotta, 600, 601. 
 
 Cranes in the Troad, Homer's simils from, 
 
 ' 113. 
 
 Craters (Kpar^pes, Horn. Kprjr^pes), large 
 terra-cotta bowls for mixing wine with 
 water, with 2 and 4 handles, from 3rd c, 
 403 ; frequent mention of, in Homer, 403 
 (sometimes also of metal, 404) ; by other 
 Greek authors, 404 ; on Egyptian reliefs, 
 404 ; Etruscan clay models, 404. 
 
 Cremation of Dead, used at N. I., 39 ; general 
 in the 5 pre-historic cities, 39, 270. 
 
 Crest. See Helmets. 
 
 Crete, tradition of Teucrian migration from, 
 to the Troad, 121, 122; resemblance of 
 Cretan and Trojan names, 122. 
 
 Creiisa, d. of Priam, 157. 
 
 Crimean War, commercial effect of, 13, 14. 
 
 Crispina, coins of, N. I., 642, 643. 
 
 Criticism of the pickaxe and spade, 518. 
 
 Crosses : painted in red clay on 2 bowls, 4th 
 c, 225 ; incised on whorls, 416. 
 
 Crucibles of clay and cow-dung, Trojan, 3rd 
 c, 408 ; one containing traces of copper 
 and spangles of gold, 409 ; — 4th c, 558. 
 
 Cucumella, the, at Vulci, described by 
 Milchhoefer ; no real likeness to the Ujeh 
 Tepeh, 664, 665. 
 
 Cuneiform characters, apparent attempts to 
 imitate at Troy, 666, 703. 
 
 Cups, terra-cotta (comp. Goblets) : of 1st c, 
 224 ;— of 3rd c, triple cup on 3 feet, 384 ; 
 wheel-made, with breast-like knobs, 396 ; 
 boat-shaped, of coarse clay, for metallurgy, 
 409, 410 ; similar one from Lake of Bienne, 
 410 ; — 4th c, wheel-made, with ears aud 
 breast-like boss, 532, 533 ; very rude, 533 ; 
 two-handled, of hour-glass form, 535 ; two- 
 handled, one with sunk spots, 536 ; hand- 
 made, of form first found in 4th c. and 
 very abundant in 4th and 5th, 537-8 ; 
 also at Mycenae, 538; single-handled, 
 abundant in 4th and 5th, 538, 539 ; large 
 double-handled, 539 ; 3 and 4 on one body, 
 540; wheel-made, 554; large globular, 
 common in 4th and 5th c, 556 ; perforated, 
 557 ; — 5th c, one-handled (like Nos. 1094- 
 1100 in 4th), very abundant, 578; rude 
 hand-made, one-handled (or basin), 578, 
 580 ; globular hand-made, 581 ; with tube 
 in side, probably for feeding babies, 581 ; 
 double, joined, 582 ; small, with covers, 
 only in the 5th c, perhaps crucibles, 582 ; 
 — 6th c, large one-handled, wheel-made, 
 589, 590; heavy, double-handled, with 
 linear ornamentation and breast-like pro- 
 jections, frequent ; similar found in Italy, 
 593, 594; origin (perhaps) of the finer 
 Greek kantharos and shyphos, frequent in 
 Etruscan tombs, 595 ; heavy one-handled, 
 
curs. 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 763 
 
 or bowl, 594, 595 ; horse-shaped, and frag- 
 ment with horse's head, 594, 595 ; one of 
 a pair conjoined, 597. 
 Cups, metal : bronze, 6th c., perforated 
 like a colander; one on a tall loot, like 
 the Etruscan and Greek holkion, 005 : — 
 electrum, Tr. ; see Electrum : silver, Tr. ; 
 see Silver. 
 
 Curetes, mythical metallurgists in Phrygia 
 and Samothrace, 256. 
 
 Curtius, E., 'History of Greece? 121 et 
 passim ; Lecture on Troy, 187. 
 
 Cuttle-fish (sepia), on a Trojan box, 225 ; on 
 goblets fr. Ialysus, 225 ; painted in dark- 
 red clay, on a terra-cotta box lid, 3rd c, 
 360; (or tortoise?) on a vase-cover, 413. 
 
 Cyclop?an Walls (so called), in 2nd city, 24 
 (see Walls) ; in Ithaca (q. v.) ; — not ne- 
 cessarily primitive, but used at all periods, 
 192. (Comp. Polygonal Masonry.) 
 
 Cylinder, of terra-cotta, perforated, with 
 incised decoration, 3rd c, 415 ; of blue 
 felspar, with remarkable signs, from the 
 royal house, 416 ; the signs discussed ; a 
 mark of Babylonian influence ; resemble 
 
 . the Hittite sculptures, 693, 694. 
 
 Cymindis (Kv/javbis, Ion., 'night jar'), native 
 name equivalent to Greek Chalets (y. v.) ; 
 Kv^ivb connected with rrKafiavd, 113, 705. 
 
 Cynossema (" dog's monument "), the tra- 
 ditional tomb of Hecuba, 648. 
 
 Cypriote character go, on vases, 298 ; sylla- 
 bary. See Inscriptions, Trojan. 
 
 Cyprus, pottery of: flagons with female 
 heads, perhaps derived from Thera, 293 ; 
 animal vases, 294 ; other forms, passim. 
 
 Cyzicus and Dascylium, Aeolian colonization 
 of, by Archelaus, s. of Orestes, 127. 
 
 DACTYLI, the Idaean, mythical metallur- 
 gists, 254, 256. 
 
 Daggers: bronze, Tr., broken and curled 
 up by the conflagration ; proofs of wooden 
 handles, 482 ; with couchant cow or ox 
 on handle, 3rd c, a ceremonial weapon, 
 504; — none in 4th c, 565: — silver, royal 
 house, 3rd c, a ceremonial weapon, 499. 
 
 Danails, connection with Egypt, 743, 744. 
 
 Dardanelles, present town of, 133. 
 
 Dardania, the Troad called from Dardanus, 
 119 ; name also in Samothrace, 124. 
 
 Dardania, dominion of Aeneas and the 
 Antenorids, 68, 133 ; denned by Strabo ; 
 long and narrow; its boundaries, 134. 
 
 Dardania (or Dardanus, 119), c. of Dar- 
 danus, at foot of Ida, before sacred Ilios 
 was founded in the plain, 134, 194 ; de- 
 
 stroyed before Strabo's time, 134 ; not the 
 later Dardanus, 134, 174 n. 
 
 Dardanian, the Scaean Gate so called, 143. 
 
 Dardanians, in the Troad, 123 ; play im- 
 portant part in the Iliad, 124 ; dominion 
 of Troy promised to their prince Aeneas, 
 125 ; akin to, and confounded with, the 
 Trojans, 134; the Dardani of Egyptian 
 records, 746, 750. 
 
 Dardanus, s. of Zeus and Electra, 119 ; 
 crosses from Samothrace to the Troad, 
 119 ; adopted by Teucer, marries his d. 
 Batieia, and succeeds him, 119, 152, 156, 
 642 ; or marries Chryse, who brought him 
 the Palladium, 642; builds the c. of Dar- 
 danus, 119, 152 (see Dardania) ; not known 
 to Homer as an immigrant, 123 ; oldest 
 name in Homer's Trojan genealogy, 152 : 
 his sons llus and Erichthonius, 152 ; on 
 coins of N. I., 642. 
 
 Dardanus, Greek c. on the Hellespont, 134 ; 
 excavations gave only fragments of Greek 
 pottery, 134. 
 
 Dareios, the Phrygian name of Hector, 
 704. 
 
 Dascylium. See Cyzicus. 
 
 Date of Pre-historic Troy, probably 1500- 
 1200 B.C., 292. 
 
 Davies, T., on the stone implements, 235. 
 
 Davies, Wm., on a Trojan fossil bone, 323. 
 
 Davis, E. J., 1 Life in Asiatic Turkey? 374. 
 
 Debris, slanting layers thrown down from 
 the hill by successive inhabitants, 64, 
 328 ; section of, 328. See Hissarlik. 
 
 Deer, species of, in the Troad, 112. 
 
 Deiphobus, s. of Priam, 157 ; marries Helen ; 
 killed by Ulysses and Menelaus, 161. 
 
 Demeter, St. Demetrius, confounded, 106. 
 
 Demetrius, grammarian of Scepsis (cir. B.C. 
 200-180), Homeric critic, his 30 books of 
 Commentaries on the Catalogue (11. ii.), 
 174 ; visits Ilium, 173 ; first questions 
 identity of site at N. Ilium from jealousy 
 for Scepsis, 168, 174 ; his objections, 174; 
 refuted, 175, 686-9 ; explanation of utter 
 destruction of Troy, a gratuitous assump- 
 tion, 175, 176 ; places the site of Ilios 
 at 'iAieW Kco/zt;, 79 (see llians, Village of 
 the) ; on source of Scamander, 58. 
 
 Dendrinos, Mr. and Mrs., their hospitality 
 to travellers in Ithaca, 50. 
 
 Denmark, suspension-vases from, 215, 216 ; 
 other pottery, &c, passim. 
 
 Dennis, C, * Cities and Cemeteries of 
 Etruria? 129 et passim ; on pottery as 
 a test of race, 279. 
 
 AeVa? ^AfKpLKvneXXov. See Amphikypellon. 
 
764 
 
 DETHIER, PH. 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 EAR-RINGS. 
 
 Dethier, Ph., on the Treasures found at 
 
 Troy, 189. 
 Dexia. See Phorkys. 
 
 Deycke, E. L., jun., author's employer at 
 Hamburg, 7. 
 
 Diadems, the 2 golden, Tr. (Homer's tt\€ktt] 
 avahia^rj), 454 n. ; described, 454-7 ; 
 number of pieces in the chains, 457 ; the 
 goldsmith's work explained, 458. 
 
 Diadumenianus, coin of, N. I., 647. 
 
 Dicaearchus, his work on Alexander's sacri- 
 fice at Ilium, 171. 
 
 Dice, game of, attributed by Herodotus to 
 the Lydians; one of stone, 6 th c, 602. 
 
 Dio Chrysostom, for N. I. site of Troy, 210. 
 
 Diomedes fetches Philoctetes, 160. 
 
 Dionysius Pcriegetes for Troy at N. I., 179. 
 
 Disc of bronze, showing a man with uplifted 
 arms, 3rd c, 513 ; not a coin, unknown 
 even in Homer's time, 514. 
 
 Discs, gold, Tr., 494 ; 3 with star-flower 
 pattern, Tr., unique at Troy, but common 
 at Mycenae ; how manufactured, 500. 
 
 Discs, ivory ; with border, 5th c, 585 ; with 
 a scorpion and 2 curious animals in in- 
 taglio, 601. 
 
 Discs, stone, perforated ; of unknown use, 
 1st c, 247 ; stands for vases with pointed 
 feet, 2nd c, 298. 
 
 Discs, terra-cotta, thin, perforated, of 1st c, 
 cut from broken pottery, probably weights 
 for spinning and weaving, 231; parallel 
 examples, 231 ; abundant in the 5 pre- 
 historic c, 422 ; of steatite, 443. 
 
 Discs, terra-cotta, lenticular, in shape of 
 watches, with 2 perforations : 6th c, with 
 a sign frequent on Trojan whorls ; also 
 found in Italy and Transylvania, 601, 
 602; — in N. I., with stamped figures, 
 human, animal, &c, seem to take place of 
 the whorls of former cities, 619, 620; found 
 through Troad and in Greece; probably 
 ex-votos, 620. 
 
 Dishes, terra-cotta; 3rd c, tripod, wheel- 
 made, 396 ; — 5th c, see Plates. 
 
 Dishes ((piaXtu), silver, found near the Trea- 
 sure, 43 ; one in the Tr., 470. 
 
 Distaff, with carbonized woollen thread 
 wound round it, 3rd c, 327. 
 
 Doys, remains of, in 3rd c, 319 ; footprints 
 of one, on bricks at Thymbra, 711. 
 
 Dolmens, suspension-vases from, 215, 216. 
 
 Dolphin, vertebrae of, 3rd c, 323; of an 
 extinct fossil species, 323. 
 
 Dominions of the Troad, 68, 132 f . : (1) of 
 Pandarus, the Lycians, 132; (2) of 
 Adrestus and A mph ius, 132 ; (3) of Asius, 
 
 133 ; (4) of Aeneas, Dardauia, 133 ; (o) of 
 Altes, the Leleges, 134 ; (6) of the Cili- 
 dans, 134 ; including («) of L'ttion, the 
 Theban Cilicia, 134-5 ; (b) of Mynes, 
 Lyrnessus, 136; (c) of Eurypylus, the 
 Keteioi (Hittites), 136 ; (7) of the Homeric 
 Arimi, 137 ; (8) of the Asiatic Pelasgians, 
 138 ; (9) of Priam, Ilios or Ilium (q.v.). 
 Door-socket (probably) of limestone, 2nd c, 
 304. 
 
 Doorways, rare in basements of Trojan 
 houses, except in the royal house, 53; 
 the Lasements were cellars, 317. 
 
 Dorian invasion of the Peloponnesus, various 
 dates and accounts of ; probably in time 
 of Orestes, 127. 
 
 Douglas, B. K., on jade, 451 n. 
 
 Doumbrek, village, at junction of two 
 branches of the Simois ; geological forma- 
 tion, 71. 
 
 Doumbrek Su, K., not the Thymbrius (as 
 Lechevalier held, 185), but the Simois, 
 76 ; a pure Turkish word = " abode of ice," 
 answering to its nature, 77 ; fertile valley 
 of, its orchards, 109. 
 
 Duden — Swamp, one source of the Kali- 
 fatli Asmak, reclaimed by Mr. Calvert, 
 99; its three springs, 108. 
 
 Duffield, A. J., " On the lost Art of Harden- 
 ing Copper," App. VII., 737 f. (comp. 
 Copper) ; his discovery of the hard natural 
 alloy of copper with rhodium, on Lake 
 Superior, 738. 
 
 E, Cypriote character in an older form, on a 
 Trojan seal, 415, 693. 
 
 Eagle: one species in Troad, Homer's nepKros, 
 113 ; — gold, 3rd c, with ornaments like 
 eagle on Hittite sculptures, 503. 
 
 Ear-ring of electrum, Tr., 494. 
 
 Ear-rings, gold, 2nd c, 272 ; — 3rd c, Tr., 
 56 ; various patterns, and manufacture ; 
 the serpent pattern ; those like studs, with 
 pin and socket, 4C0; large, with pen- 
 dant chains and idols, 463-4 ; description 
 and construction, 464; with long pen- 
 dants, Tr., 485-8, 494; 2 pairs, heavy, 
 basket-shaped, with ornamentation of 
 rosettes, beads, &c. (pendants probably 
 lost), Tr., 496, 497 ; 2 large, with pen- 
 dants, rosettes, &c, Tr., 502 ; another, 
 502 ; of common Trojan form, Tr., 490, 
 498 ; one fused on to a bracelet of electrum, 
 Tr., 492 ; others, Tr., 494 ; of simple form, 
 with spiral ornaments, 498 ; with pendant 
 like a bell-clapper, 498 ; simple spirals, 
 for holding up the hair (Horn. II. xvii. 
 
EAR-RINGS. 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 EXCAVATIONS. 
 
 765 
 
 51, 52), 498 ; of serpent form, Tr., 487, 
 488, 490, 494; 2 massive, Tr., 498; 
 others, Tr., 503 ; of common Trojan form, 
 small, Tr., 502,503; boat-shaped (unique, 
 but also in silver), Tr., 503. 
 Ear-rings, silver, Tr., some cemented by 
 chloride, 492, 494 ; 6 cemented together, 
 Tr., 502. 
 
 Earthquake, signs of, in 2nd stratum, 21. 
 
 Eckenbrecher, G. von, ' Die Lage des 
 Homer ischen TrojaJ 20, 169 et passim ; 
 in favour of Hissarlik, 20. 
 
 Eetion, dominion of, 68, 134 ; his capital at 
 Thebe, 135. See Cilicians of Thebe. 
 
 Eetion, discussion about his burial, 650. 
 
 Egg of aragonite, 3rd c, 430. 
 
 Egg, hen's, found at Thymbra, 319. 
 
 Egyptian Porcelain. See Porcelain. 
 
 Egyptian Monuments, mention of Trojan 
 tribes on, 123 ; App. IX. 
 
 Eichthal, G. d\ ' Le Site de Troie selon 
 Chevalier ou selon Schliemann,'' 188. 
 
 Eileithyia, the Asiatic goddess Yodeletb, 
 Moledeth, or Mylitta, 154. 
 
 Elaeus, on the Thracian Chersonese, 105. 
 
 Elaeussa, coins of, at N. I., 612. 
 
 Elagabalus, coins of, N. I., 645, 646. 
 
 Electra, d. of Atlas, mother by Zeus of 
 Iasion and Dardanus, 119. 
 
 Electrum (fjXeKTpov, also ' amber '), an alloy 
 of gold and silver; Homer's use of the 
 word; its etymology, 273, 473 ; the 'pale 
 gold ' of Croesus's offerings at Delphi ; 
 account of, by Pliny, 273 ; by Strabo, Pau- 
 sanias, Eustathins, 273-4 :^one brooch in 
 2nd c, 273 ; frequent in 3rd c, 273 ; fluted 
 goblet, Tr. ; foot, how put on, 467 ; small 
 goblet found in silver vase near the Tr., 
 472; bars, Tr., 485-6, 493; ear-rings, 
 Tr., 488, 494; pendant, Tr., 494. 
 
 Elephant, known in W. Asia; on black 
 obelisk of Shalmaneser, 426-7. See Ivory. 
 
 Elias, St., fires on his festival upon Ujek 
 Tepeh, which is regarded as his tomb, 
 perhaps by a confusion with Ilus, 658. 
 
 Elpenor, discussion about his burial, 650. 
 
 Embryos, human : 1st c, skeleton of, with its 
 mother's ashes, 227, 323 ;— 3rd c, two 
 others, 323 ; preservation of the bones, how 
 explained, 323 ; one described by Virchow, 
 512. 
 
 Ennius mentions the recognition by the 
 Romans of N. I. as their fatherland, 173. 
 
 Epeius and Panopeus, makers of the wooden 
 horse, 160. 
 
 Ephesits, coins of, at N. I., 612. 
 
 Erenlu visited, 58. 
 
 ' Erichthonius, s. of Dardanus, his riches and 
 stud of mares ; his son Tros, 152. 
 Erineos (epiveos, * wild fig-tree ' ?), close 
 to walls of Troy ; its meaning discussed, 
 141-2. 
 
 Eshmun, Phoenician= Apollo Ismenius, 154. 
 
 Ethnography of the Trojans, 119 f. (com p. 
 Troad, Trojans); ancient tribes of the 
 Troad, 119-126 ; Aeolian colonization by 
 Achaeans from Peloponnesus and Aeolians 
 from Boeotia, 127 ; Lydian dominion and 
 settlers, 128; invasions of Trerians and 
 Cimmerians, Gauls (Galatians), 130 ; pas- 
 sage of nations to and fro, 131. 
 
 Etruscan pottery, archaic, like that of 6th 
 stratum on Hissarlik, 685. 
 
 Etruscans, their Lydian origin generally 
 accepted in antiquity, but denied by 
 Dionysius ; arguments against ; their lan- 
 guage agglutinative, 129. 
 
 Eumaeus, house and stables of. See Ithaca. 
 
 Euphorbus, s. of Panthoiis, a Trojan, called 
 a Dardanian, 134. 
 
 Eurydice, d. of Adrastus, w. of Ilus, 156. 
 
 Eurypylus, s. of Telephus and Astyoche, k. 
 of the Ceteioi on the Ca'fcus, 37 (see 
 Ceteians) ; aids the Trojans, 160 ; his 
 dominion, 68, 136 ; killed by Neoptole- 
 mus, 160. 
 
 Evans, John ; ' Stone Implements,' 245 et 
 passim. 
 
 Evjilar, on the Scamander, visited, 57. 
 
 Excavations at Bounarbashi and the Bali 
 Dagh, by Von Halm, .1864, 19; by 
 Dr. Schliemann, 19. 
 
 Excavations at Hissarlik, by some Turks, 
 19 ; by Mr. Calvert, 20 ; Dr. Schliemann's 
 preliminary (1870), 20; first year's work 
 (1871), 21; second year's work (1872), 
 21 ; labourers, implements, and expenses, 
 21, 22, 24, 25; great platform on the 
 N. slope, 22 ; large trench from S. side, 
 23 ; ruins in upper strata demolished 
 in order to discover Troy, 23 ; second 
 platform on N. side, 23 ; abandoned, 
 
 23, 24 ; trench cut in its centre, 23, 24 ; 
 dangers, difficulty, and discomforts, 24, 
 25, 38; great trench through the hill, 
 
 24, 25 ; third year's work (1873), 26 ; 
 new trench on N. side; slopes for 
 removing debris, 27; another large ex- 
 cavation; discovery of street, 33; of a 
 large house, 34 ; of the double gates, 36 ; 
 new trenches from N.W. and W., 40, 
 265; discovery of the Treasure, 40 f. ; 
 obstacles to resumption (1875-6), 4£ ; 
 
 > resumed in 1878, fourth year, 50; tho 
 
766 
 
 EXCAVATIONS. 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 FLAGONS. 
 
 king or chiefs house near the gate, 51 ; 
 more treasures found there, 51-2; fifth 
 year's work (1879), 52 ; directed to circuit 
 walls of Troy, 53 ; area of the 3rd city 
 laid bare, 53 ; Virchow's speech on present 
 condition, 60; his defence of Schliemann's 
 method, 62 f. ; the 3rd, Burnt City, in a 
 hollow in the middle, 65. See also App. 
 I. and Prcf. 
 
 Excavations at Ithaca (1868 \ 18, 48-50. 
 
 Excavations at Mycenae, preliminary (1871), 
 43 ; in 1876, their great success, 20. 
 
 FACE-VASES, urns with human faces 
 found at Pomerellen and elsewhere in Ger- 
 many, &c, 292; not earlier than 1st or 
 2nd century B.C., described, 293 \ relation 
 to the Trojan, Pre/. 
 
 Fallow-deer, horns of, sharpened for use as 
 awls, 3rd c, 431. 
 
 Faustina, the elder, coins of, N. I., 644 ; the 
 younger, coins of, N. I., 642, 643, 645. 
 
 Feeding bottles for babies, 406, 407. 
 
 Feet of Vases, censers, 1st c, 223-4. 
 
 Fellowes, ' Excursion in Asia Minor,'' 186. 
 
 Festus, friend of Caracalla, slain to provide 
 a Patroclus for new funeral games, 179. 
 See Ujek Tepeh. 
 
 Fibula, the buckle of the brooch, absence of at 
 Hissarlik, a sign of high antiquity, Prefxii. 
 
 Fick, * Die ehemalige Spracheinheit Eu- 
 ropas? 121. 
 
 Fifth Pre-historic City of Troy, dis- 
 covered, to depth of 13 ft., 21; stratum 
 about 6 ft. thick, of houses of wood and 
 clay, 573 ; different architecture and 
 implements, 573 ; no stone hammers or 
 axes (except 2 or 3, one of white jade, 
 q. v.) ; saddle-querns rare ; whorls different, 
 573 ; pottery inferior, 574 (see Pottery) ; 
 kitchen-refuse shot over hill, 574; all 
 infers a different race, with perhaps a 
 mixture of the 4th people, 574; doubt 
 whether they had city walls, 574 ; owl- 
 headed vases, 574 f. ; idols, 576 ; arnphi- 
 Jcypellon depas very small, 577 ; other 
 pottery (q. v.), 577 f . ; seals, 582, 583 ; 
 inscribed funnels, 582, 583; silex saw, 
 583 ; one (only) hammer of diorite, 583 ; 
 other stone implements, 584; quoit, 584; 
 mould, 585 ; -disc of ivory, 585 ; weapons 
 and implements of bronze, 585-6. 
 
 Figs in Troad, 118. 
 
 Fig-tree ? (tpiveos) of Troy, 141. See Erineos. 
 
 Figure, with well-modelled face, of terra- 
 cotta, 3rd c, 330; rude, perhaps a toy, 
 3rd c, 331. 
 
 Figures, rude, of terra-cotta or marble (comp 
 Idols). 
 
 Figures, in profile and in front, use of in 
 Greek painting, and on sculptured reliefs 
 and coins, 624, 625. 
 
 Files, unknown at Troy or Mycenae, 463. 
 
 Fillet (<fy7™£), for the head, gold, Tr., de- 
 scribed, 463 ; long plain gold, with holes 
 for tying it, Tr., 502; another, orna- 
 mented, Tr., 503. 
 
 Fimbria takes and sacks N. Ilium (b.c. 85) ; 
 account of Strabo, 176 ; of Appian, 177. 
 
 Fire, 1st c. not destroyed by, 213, 264; 
 corn p. Conflagration. 
 
 Firmans for the excavations: 1871, 21; 
 1876, abortive through local opposition,. 
 44 ; 1878, 45 ; 1879, for exploration of the 
 Tumuli, 54-5. 
 
 First Pre-historic City at Hissarlik, 45 to 
 53 ft. deep, discovered, 22 ; house-walls of, 
 54 ; excavation imperfect, why ; built on 
 native rock and natural soil ; analysis of 
 its strata, 212; slope of strata; not de- 
 stroyed by fire ; no walls of defence found, 
 but a retaining wall, 213 ; pottery, 213 f. ; 
 2 funeral urns (q. v.) on native rock, 227 ; 
 terra-cotta whorls (q. v.), 229 ; perforated 
 discs (q. v.) of terra-cotta or marble, 231 ; 
 rude figure of terra-cotta, 231, 232; im- 
 plements of stone ; saddle-querns, 234 ; 
 mortars and pestle, 235; polishers, 236, 
 237; corn - bruisers or mullers, 236; 
 pounders; hammers; axes or celts, 237 ; 
 jade, its great interest, 238 f. ; silex saws, 
 and knives of flint and obsidian, the only 
 silex implements ever found in any of 
 the pre-historic cities of Hissarlik, 245- 
 247 ; potsherds with pair of eyes, 217, 
 247 ; whet-stones ; mould of mica-slate, 
 248; metal ornaments and implements, 
 249 f. ; absence of iron, proof of high 
 antiquity, 252; sources of these metals, 
 253 f. (comp. Metals) ; bone and ivory 
 objects, 261, 262 ; no indication of its fate. 
 
 Fischer, Professor, on the Trojan jade axes, 
 240-2. 
 
 Fish of wood, 3rd c, 423. 
 
 Fish-bones found at Troy, species, 318. 322. 
 
 Fish-hook, bronze, 3rd c, 504. 
 
 Fishing, followed by Trojans ; why not 
 mentioned in the Iliad, 321, 322. 
 
 Fish-spine ornament, 216, 280 ; on a Trojan 
 tripod ; on gold goblets at Mycenae ; on 
 terra-cottas in Denmark, Hungary,&c;,356. 
 
 Flagons (onnochoae) : of Thera and Cyprus, 
 with female characteristics, 293 ; double, 
 of 2nd c. ; and in all the later pre-historic 
 
FLINT 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 FRICK, O. 
 
 767 
 
 c. ; parallel forms from Khodes, Egypt, 
 Cyprus, and Thera ; also from Swiss 
 lake-dwellings, Lusatia, Posen, and Peru, 
 294, 295 ;— of 3rd c., with piece cut out 
 of mouth, common in 3rd and 4th c, 380, 
 387 ; with double spouts, one behind the 
 other, 384 ; or side by side ; similar ones 
 found only in Cyprus, Germany, and Hun- 
 gary, 385 ; with long neck and trefoil 
 mouth, 386 ; similar in Museum at Bou- 
 logne, at Athens, from Cyprus, Thera, 
 and Mycenae, 387 ; with neck bent back, 
 388 : with upright spout, 388, 389 ; fine 
 grey, with incised bands, and plant-like 
 band round neck, 392 ; — 4th c, of various 
 forms, wheel-made and band-made, 548 f. ; 
 with 2 necks, side by side ; with one spout 
 in front of the other, unique, 553. 
 
 Flint Implements. See Silex. 
 
 Floors, in 2nd c, of beams, not planks, 
 274 ; covered with clay, 275 ; the same 
 in 3rd c, 30, 313 ; of limestone slabs, 30 ; 
 of polished stone in a Greek house, 33. 
 
 Flora of the Troad, Barker Webb's account, 
 116 f. ; oaks, especially the valonea, 116; 
 Homer's pictures; Mowers of Scamander, 
 lotus, apium, vegetation by the river- 
 sides ; flowers on Gargarus, 117; second 
 zone of forests ; wine-making ; grapes, 
 water-melons, &c. ; oil ; Solanum and Se- 
 same, use of seeds for food, mentioned 
 by Homer ; leguminous plants ; cotton ; 
 Indian corn ; silk ; figs and pomegranates ; 
 a field of wheat under the walls of Troy, 
 118. 
 
 Flower, W. H., Prof., on vertebrae of fish 
 found at Troy, 323. 
 
 Flowers, on whorls, 419, 420, &c. ; one of 
 marble, at Thymbra, 712. 
 
 Flutes, ivory, pieces of, 3rd c, 425, 426 ; 
 bone, at Thymbra, 712. 
 
 Food of the Trojans, described by Virchow 
 from remains in the Burnt C, 318 f. ; 
 conchylia (q. v.) best preserved ; fish ; no 
 remains of tortoise ; bones of higher verte- 
 brates abundant, 318; few birds, chiefly 
 wild, no domestic foul ; bones of domestic 
 animals in moderate quantities, chiefly 
 sheep, goat, and horned cattle ; Trojans 
 not great meat eaters ; few pigs ; few horses 
 and dogs (not food, but carcases not thrown 
 out of c); many fallow-deer horns and 
 boars' tusks ; bones made into small in- 
 struments (see Awls, Needles, Scrapers, 
 &c), 319 ; vegetable substances, much 
 burnt grain, chiefly wheat, 319, 320 ; 
 leguminous plants j question about pease, 
 
 320, 321 7i. ; beans, 321 :— remains of at 
 Thymbra, 711. 
 
 Forbiger, * Ilandbuch der alien Geographies 
 187. 
 
 Forchhammer, l Topographische und physio- 
 graph ische Beschreibung der Ebene von 
 Troia; 90, 187; * Daduchos, &c ,' 187; 
 * JScamandros,' 187. 
 
 Forts, two quadrangular, N. I., 610. 
 
 Forty Eyes (Turk. Kirk Gios), the springs 
 at Bounarbashi, 55. See Bounarbashi. 
 
 Fossil vertebra of an extinct species of 
 dolphin, 3rd c, its source, 323; use of 
 fossils for ornaments, 323. 
 
 Fountains, vessels with spouts in the side 
 perhaps placed under to drink from, 3rd c, 
 406. 
 
 Fourth City on the site of Troy, stratum of, 
 13-20 ft. deep, discovered, 21 ; house- 
 walls, many stone implements and pot- 
 tery, 21 ; large building in, 23 ; founded on 
 soil, ashes, and bricks, covering the debris 
 of the 3rd c, with clay-cakes to consoli- 
 date foundations, 310; — described, 518 f.; 
 tradition of continuous habitation con- 
 firmed by the pickaxe and spade ; part of 
 Burnt C. escaped the fire ; objects still of 
 the same character, idols, bronze and bone 
 battle-axes, vases, handles, and saddle- 
 querns, whorls and balls ; differences, pot- 
 tery (q. v.) coarser, stone implements more 
 numerous; great masses of shells (kitchen 
 refuse) in the houses, a sign of low civiliza- 
 tion, 518 ; absence of large cit}^ walls, 518, 
 519 ; those of 2nd and 3rd c. left undis- 
 turbed beneath the debris ; evidence at the 
 gate that the same road was still used, 519 ; 
 walls of defence outside circuit of 3rd c. (see 
 Walls); no brick used; difference of domes- 
 tic architecture, an argument against con- 
 tinuous habitation; pottery, its character, 
 520; owl-headed female vases, 521 ; other 
 vases and pottery (q. v.), 525 f. ; crucibles 
 and other objects of terra-cotta and cla} r , 
 558 f. ; animal figures, 560 ; a lyre, 560-1 ; 
 seals, 561 ; whorls and balls, 562-4, 571, 
 572; implements of bronze, 564; a lead 
 wheel, 565 ; objects of ivory, 565, 566 ; 
 moulds, 567, 568 ; stone hammers and 
 axes, 568, 569; corn-bruisers, 569, 570; 
 other stone implements, 570; — its end 
 unknown, no trace of catastrophe, 574. 
 
 Fowl, domestic, no traces of among Trojan 
 food, 319. 
 
 Franklin, W., ' Bemarks, &c. on the Flain 
 
 of Troy; 186. 
 Frick, 0., ' Zur Troischen Frage,' 188. 
 
768 
 
 FROGS. 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 GOLD. 
 
 Frogs, innumerable about Hissarlik, 38. 
 Frolich, E., Rev., 3 n. 
 Frolich, Ida, 4 n. 
 
 Frontlet, gold, with holes for tying it, Tr., 
 493. See also Diadem, Fillet. 
 
 Funeral Bites, performance of, in Homer, 
 without interment, 650. 
 
 Funeral Urns. See Urns. 
 
 Funnels, terra-cotta : 3rd c., probably for 
 metallurgy, 410, 411 ; numerous in 3rd, 
 4th, and 5th cities, 410; — 2 in 5th c , 
 inscribed with Cypriote character mo (for 
 " measure "), like one found at Kouyunjik, 
 perhaps brought to Nineveh from Gyges, 
 411, 582-3 ; terra-cotta, sieve-like, per- 
 forated, 577. 
 
 Furstenberg, in Mecklenburg - Strelitz, 
 author's life at, 6. 
 
 G AL ATI AN S (Gauls) invade the Troad; 
 their 3 tribes ; settlements on the Helles- 
 pont, in Aeolis and Ionia ; conquer Asia 
 Minor to the Taurus ; exact tribute from 
 Syria ; final settlements in Galatia, 130 ; 
 Ilium unfortified in their time, 173 ; im- 
 plies some sudden temporary decay, 689. 
 
 Gazettes. See Clay-cakes. 
 
 Gallienus, coins of, N. I., 644, 645. 
 
 Ganymedes, 3rd s. of Tros, carried away to 
 be cup-bearer to Zeus, 153 ; on coins of 
 N. L, 642, 647. 
 
 Gargarus, M. (Kaz Dagh), highest summit 
 of Ida, height, 58, 68 ; contains sources 
 of Scamander, 58, 69 ; shrine of Zeus on, 
 68 ; mentioned three times by Homer ; 
 geological formation, 69 ; forests of, 110 ; 
 flowers on, 117 ; nuptials of Zeus and 
 Here, 117, 118. 
 
 Gate, the Scaean (2/catat Trvkai), of Troy ; 
 also called Dardanian ; derivation of the 
 name ; why plural ; Dr. Eyssenhardt 
 upon, 143 ; tower over it, 144 ; placed by 
 Lechevalier at Bounarbashi, 185. 
 
 Gates, the double, of Troy, 36 ; height above 
 sea and below hill, 53 ; erected by second 
 settlers, used by the third, 265-7; 
 described ; piers lowered by second set- 
 tlers ; the doors of the gates were wood ; 
 third gate, with a wicket ; wooden tower 
 over them inferred from the ashes, 266 ; 
 covered up in 4th c, but the way out 
 still used ; proof from the section of the 
 debris, 519 ; Virchow upon, 684. 
 
 Gazelles in the Troad, 112. 
 
 Gell, 'Geography and Antiquities of Ithaca,' 
 48 w. ; imaginary Palace of Ulysses, 49; 
 'Topography of Troy,' 186. 
 
 Gelzer, 'Fine Wanderung nach Troja,' 188. 
 
 Gems, incised, picked up at N. I., chiefly 
 Roman, few Macedonian, none of great 
 artistic value; subjects; absence of rings 
 explained; great value in antiquity, 612. 
 
 Gensdarmes, escort of, their value, 51, 52, 57. 
 
 Geology of the Troad, 70 (see Troad) ; chain 
 of volcanic rock from Hellespont to Aegean, 
 a frame for the Trojan Plain, 678. 
 
 Gergis (Gergetha, Gergithus), Greek city in 
 the Troad, identified by Mr. Calvert with 
 ruins on the Bali Dagh, 19 ; the treasury 
 of Queen Mania, 55 ; city of the Teu- 
 crians, 121 ; origin of Gergithian Sibyl, 
 122 ; destroyed by Attalus I. of Perga- 
 mus, 631 ; prob. the Gergesh of Egyptian 
 records, 747 ; coins of, at N. I., 612. 
 
 Gergitha, new town of, probably referred to 
 in an inscription, N. I., 631. 
 
 Germany, suspension-vases found in, 222, 
 223 ; other antiquities, passim. 
 
 Geta, coins of, N. L, 643, 644, 646, 647. 
 
 Gilding on copper knife, 1st c, the only 
 case in the pre-historic cities, but frequent 
 at Mycenae, 251, 252 ; plating silver with 
 gold mentioned by Homer, 258. 
 
 Giuliano, C., on Trojan goldsmith's work, 
 248, &c. ; of the Treasures, 458 f. 
 
 Gladstone, Pit. Hon. W. F. : Poseidon a 
 sign of Phoenician relations, 50, 125; 
 * Homer's Place in History ; ' Homeric 
 Synchronism; and 'Homer? 190 et pas- 
 sim ; on progress of sculptured images of 
 deities, 233; Homer's 7r\eKTr) avaSto-pr], 
 455. 
 
 Glass buttons, balls, and beads, 3rd c, the 
 only objects of glass found in the pre- 
 historic cities at Hissarlik, 429. 
 
 Glass beads, ornamented, N. L, 622. 
 
 Glaucopis. See Athene Glaucopis. 
 
 Go, or Ko, Cypriote, on Trojan vases, 298. 
 
 Goblets, terra-cotta (comp. Cups) : 1st c, red 
 like the clay and golden at Mycenae, 224, 
 225; like those of Ialysus in Rhodes; 
 others elsewhere, 225 ; two - handled, 
 Homer's Senas diJi<f)iKVTreXkov (see Amphi- 
 hypellon), 299 ;— 3rd c, two-handled, 
 nearly all lustrous-red, a few lustrous- 
 black, 372, 373 ;— 5th c, small, 578. 
 
 Goblet, gold fluted, Tr. ; how made, 466-7 ; 
 electrum, Tr. See Electrum. 
 
 Gods, an inseparable part of the Trojan 
 legend, 674 and Pref. 
 
 Gold, obtained from Phrygia ; mines in the 
 Troad, 253 ; imported by Phoenicians from 
 Arabia, 258-260 (comp. Ophir) ; obtained 
 by Egyptians from Phoenicia, Punt 
 
GOLD. 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 HANAI tepeh. 
 
 769 
 
 (Arabia), and Nubia, 261 : — Semitic deri- 
 vation of xpvcros points to importation by 
 Phoenicians, 481 ; — Trojan gold mostly 
 very pure, and thus the easier to work, 
 458, 461 ; various degrees of alloy, 497 ; — 
 lumps or nuggets of, large and small, Ti\, 
 493 ; one very large, bell-shaped, 493-4. 
 
 Gold Ornaments, 3rd c, in an owl- vase, 341 
 -2 ; in silver vase of Tr., 461-2 ; spirals, 
 large and small, Tr., 502 ; abundant at 
 Mycenae, 502. See Treasures. 
 
 Gold rings, 2nd c, 272. 
 
 Gold vessels of the great Tr., 464-467 ; 
 unique ; probably imported, 467. 
 
 Gold-beating, 258. 
 
 Gold, City of, the burnt city was also, 684 
 and Pref. xiv., xvi. 
 
 Goldsmith's work, Trojan, explained by Mr. 
 Giuliano, 458 f. ; soldering known, 458 f. ; 
 also the blowpipe, 460 f. 
 
 Gcmperz, Th., Prof., his attempted decipher- 
 ment of Trojan inscriptions, 692. 
 
 Gordianus III., coins of, N. I., 643-4, 647. 
 
 Gorgyildon, s. of Priam, epically connected 
 with Gergis and the Teucrians, 121. 
 
 Grain : carbonized, in cupboard-like recesses 
 in Trojan houses, 317, 320 ; in a few of 
 the large pithoi, 379 ; receptacles for, in 
 the soil, at Thymbra, 711. 
 
 Granicus (Grenicus, Horn.), R., rises in Ida, 
 68 ; described ; victory of Alexander the 
 Great upon, 100. 
 
 Gras, grandson of Orestes, leads Aeolian 
 colonists to Lesbos, 128. 
 
 Graves, Thomas, Commander, Map of the 
 Troad, 187. 
 
 Greek, wrong method of teaching at school ; 
 mode recommended by the author ; con- 
 firmed by Prof. Virchow's experience, 
 15 n. ; modern before ancient Greek, 15 ; 
 English pronunciation condemned, accord- 
 ing to accents vindicated, 16. 
 
 Greek Camp. See Camp. 
 
 Greek Expedition against Troy: 10 years' 
 preparation ; 186 ships and 100,000 men 
 assembled at Aulis ; superior by 10 : 1 to 
 Trojans and allies, 157; reaches the 
 Troad, 158. See Troy, History of. 
 
 Greeks, known to Egyptians as pirates, tra- 
 vellers, &c. ; by name of Vinen ('the 
 celebrated'), probably a translation of 
 "EWrjves, 745 ; in older records Baneb, 
 746 ; on the coast of the Libyan nome ; 
 the seat of Trojan legends, 750. 
 
 Grohmann, 'Apollo Smintheus und die Be- 
 deutung der Mause in der Mythologies 122. 
 
 Grote, ' History of Greece,'' 20 et passim ; 
 
 for the Hissarlik site, 20, 168, 189, 209, 
 210 ; on Ilium and the Romans, 171. 
 
 Grotto of the Nymphs, in Ithaca, identified 
 and described ; its two entrances ; stalac- 
 tites which suggested Homer's urns, am- 
 phorae, and looms of the Nymphs, 49. 
 
 Gutter of sandstone, in 4th city, 23. 
 
 Gyges, k. of Lydia (cir. 698-660 B.C.), 
 possesses the Troad ; settles Lydians at 
 Abydos ; embassy to, from Nineveh, 128 ; 
 aids Psammetichus I. against Assyria, 
 130 n. ; defeated and beheaded by Cimme- 
 rians,130 ; his tribute to Assurbanipal,698. 
 
 Gypsum, curious object of, probably orna- 
 ment of a box, 3rd c, 514. 
 
 HADRIAN, coin of, N. L, 647. 
 
 Hagia Trias, cemetery at Athens, example 
 of later polygonal masonry, 57, 192. 
 
 Hagios Demetrios Tepeh, with a chapel of the 
 saint, and ruins of a temple, probably of 
 Demeter ; the goddess and saint confused, 
 106, 650 ; its lofty site above the sea, 650 ; 
 explored by the author, with Prof. Virchow 
 and M. Burnouf ; merely a limestone rock, 
 no trace of sepulchres ; pilgrimages to the 
 shrine, 669. 
 
 Hahn, G. von, Austrian Consul, excavations 
 of, at Bounarbashi in 1864, 19 ; 'Ausgra- 
 bungen auf der Homerischen Pergamos 
 his opinion on Homer's Troy, 187. 
 
 Hairpins : gold, with spiral heads, Tr., 488- 
 490 ; electrum, Tr., 493 ; gold, with oc- 
 tagonal head, Tr., 498 ; very pretty, w ith 
 rosettes and spirals, how made, 498-9. 
 
 Halil Ovasi, beautiful plain of, on the 
 Simois, with village of Halil Eli, 109. 
 
 Halizonians or Alizonians, allies of the Tro- 
 jans, 158 ; identified by Strabo with the 
 Chalybes, 253. 
 
 Halo of rays, on reliefs and coins, dates from 
 Alexander the Great, 625. 
 
 Halys, R., E. limit of Aryan races before 
 8th cent. B.C., 120 ; country W. of, first 
 known to Assyrians cir. 665 B.C., 128. 
 
 Hammers, stone : 1st c, 237 ; — 2nd c, 275 ; 
 perforated, 275, 276 ;— 3rd c, 439-441; 
 very numerous, esp. in 3rd and 4th c, 
 441 ; drilling often unfinished, parallel ex^ 
 amples, 439 ; massive, of diorite, 451, 452 ; 
 — 4th c, perforated and grooved, 568, 
 569 ; — of diorite, the only one in 5th c; 
 similar found in California, 583. 
 Hampel, Dr. J., * Catalogue de V Exposition 
 prehistorique des Musees, etc. de la Hon- 
 grief 222 et passim. 
 Hana'i Tepeh, mound of ruins of pre-historic 
 
 3 D 
 
770 
 
 HANDMILL. 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 HESTIAEA. 
 
 Thymbra, excavated by Mr. Calvert, with 
 the help of Dr. Schliemann, 77, 108, 
 706 (App. IV.). See Thymbra. 
 
 Handmill, curious ancient, on M. Aetos 
 in Ithaca, 48. See Saddle-querns. 
 
 Hasper, W., his works on the Site of Troy 
 and Dr. Schliemann 's Discoveries, 187. 
 
 Hathor, Egyptian cow-goddess, like Greek 
 
 10, 288, and App. IX. 
 
 Hatzfeldt, County German Ambassador to 
 the Porte, aids in obtaining firman, 55. 
 
 Haug, Dr. ill"., discovers Cypriote writing 
 on objects from Hissarlik, G91 ; his 
 attempts at decipherment, 692. 
 
 Hecabe, Hecuba, d. of Cisseus, w. of Priam, a 
 Phrygian princess, 120, 156 ; her tomb, 648. 
 
 Hector, s. of Priam, 157 ; but, according to 
 some, of Apollo, 157 n. ; his name Phry- 
 gian, meaning 'a stay,' 120; called 
 Dareios by the Phrygians, 704 ; his house 
 on the Pergamos, 140 ; his dominion, 
 Troy in the narrower sense, from the 
 Naustathmus to Cebrenia, 68, 138; his 
 " helmet crest " and " horse-hair plume " 
 (Horn.) illustrated, 512 n. (see Helmets) ; 
 worshipped at N. I. ; his sanctuary and 
 statue, 165, 181 ; sacrifices and games 
 at N. I. in his honour, 670-1 ; u Hector of 
 the llians," coins of N. I., 179, 642-7. 
 
 Hector and Acldlles, combat of. See Achilles. 
 
 Hector, funeral and tumulus of, described in 
 
 11. xxiv., a real tomb, not a cenotaph; 
 but this book is later and probably repre- 
 sents the Lydian mode of burial, 670; 
 the tomb of Hector claimed by Ophrynium, 
 also by N. I., 670 ; also by Thebes in 
 Boeotia, 671. 
 
 Hector, Tumulus of, on the Bali Dagh, 651 ; 
 consists of small stones ; excavated by 
 Sir John Lubbock, nothing found, 656. 
 
 Heldreich, Th. von, Professor, list of Plants 
 of the Troad, 727 f. 
 
 Helen, wife of Menelaus, carried off by 
 Paris, 157 ; married to Deiphobus ; re- 
 covered by Menelaus, 161 ; Egyptian story 
 of her detention in Egypt and restoration 
 to Menelaus there, 161 n., f., 747, 748. 
 
 Helenus, s. of Priam, captured by Ulysses; 
 his prophecy of the fall of Troy, 160; 
 carried away by Neoptolemus ; succeeded 
 him as king of Chaonia ; married Andro- 
 mache, and founded the Molossian line of 
 kings, 164. 
 
 Hellanicus, his Tpa'tna ; testimony for the 
 N. I. site, 168, 689 ; censured as partial 
 by Demetrius and Hestiaea, 168, 176. 
 
 Hellespont, the N.W. boundary of Priam's 
 
 dominion, 67 ; no evidence of growth of 
 the Plain of Troy towards, 84 ; soundings 
 in, bearing on question of alluvial de- 
 posits, 86 ; the sea has advanced on the 
 land, 91 (comp. Alluvial Deposits, Plain 
 of Troy, Scamander), view of, from His- 
 sarlik, 105 ; passage of nations to and fro 
 across, 131 ; H. and Bosporus, ferries 
 between Europe and Asia, 131 ; narrowest 
 between Sestos and Abydos, 133 ; historical 
 and poetic interest of, 679, 680. 
 
 Helmets, Trojan, fragments of bronze, found 
 near Tr., 473 ; on skulls of two Trojan 
 warriors, 30, 507 ; fractured and decayed 
 by chloride, but upper part preserved, 512 ; 
 the crest (<pa\os) which held the plume, 
 characteristic of Homer's warriors, 512 & 
 n. ; its two pieces recomposed, 513 ; like 
 arrangement on Mycenean intaglios, 513 n. 
 
 Henning Bradenhirl, legend of, 2, 3. 
 
 Henning, Dr. Carl, contribution of Julian's 
 letter about N. I., 180 (see Julian) ; his 
 ' Neu Ilion; 189. 
 
 Hephaestus, and his sons the Cabiri, in 
 Phrygia, 255. 
 
 Hepner, W., Consul-general of Prussia at 
 Amsterdam, aids author, 9. 
 
 Heptaporus, K., rises in Ida, 68, 100. 
 
 Hera or Here Boopis (fioamis), the cow- 
 headed or cow-faced goddess, argument on, 
 282 f. ; confirmed by the excavations at 
 Mycenae, 282-3, 290 ; connection with the 
 moon-goddess, the Egyptian Isis, and the 
 Pelasgian 16, the later Here', 282-5 ; three 
 stages of the symbolism (comp. Athene 
 Glaucopis) ; Brugsch-Bey on, App. IX. 
 
 Hera- Idols at Mycenae and Tiryns, a sacred 
 tradition, like the Palladium idols of Troy, 
 331. 
 
 Heracleum, coins of, at N. I., 612. 
 
 HeraJdes, representative of the Phoenicians ; 
 cycle of myths, of Semitic origin, 125; kills 
 the sea-monster ; is defrauded by Laome- 
 don, takes Troy, and kills Laomedon and 
 his sons, except Podarces (Priam, q. v.), 
 125, 156. 
 
 Hercher, R., 1 Ueber die Homerische Ebene 
 von Troja,' 188. 
 
 Here, why hostile to Troy, 157. 
 
 Hermae, 621 ; key in shape of, N. I., 621. 
 
 Herodotus on the Egyptian story of Helen 
 and the Trojan War, 161 n., f. 
 
 Hesione, d. of Laomedon, w. of Tclamon, 
 ransoms Priam with her veil, 125, 156. 
 
 Hestiaea, of Alexandria-Troas, wrote Com- 
 mentaries on the Iliad ; questioned the N. 
 I. site ; objections refuted, 168, 174, 175. 
 
HICETAON. 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 HOUSES. 
 
 771 
 
 Hicetaon, s. of Laomedon, 156. 
 
 Hipparchus, a member of the Ilian council, 
 in the time of Augustus, named on two 
 inscriptions, 632. 
 
 Hippodameia, d. of Anchises, married to 
 Alcathoiis, son of Aesyetes, 147. 
 
 Hippopotamus, Trojan terra-cotta vessel 
 in shape of, sign of connection with 
 Egypt, 377. 
 
 Eissarlik (the ' fortress hill '), at N.W. 
 corner of site of the Greek Ilium; first 
 visited by the author (1868) ; supposed 
 to be the Acropolis of Troy, Priam's Per- 
 gamus ; height of the hill ; excavations by 
 villagers ; coins of Antiochus III. ; autho- 
 rities for identity with Troy (comp. Site 
 of Homer s Ilios), 19 ; author's prelimi- 
 nary excavations (1870) ; enlargement of 
 the hill, 20 ; first year's work at (1871), 
 21; second year's work (1872), 21-26; 
 appearance of the hill, 22 ; the side formed 
 chiefly of Greek debris, 23 ; increase of, 
 proved, 24 ; steep slope on N., N.E., N.W., 
 and W., 38 ; only l-25th part of the Greek 
 Ilium, 39 ; anciently much lower than 
 now, 40; successive increase of area with 
 each settlement, by debris thrown down, 
 63-65, 264, 328 ; site of, on W. spur of 
 ridge running E. to Oulou Dagh, 109 ; five 
 distinct pre-historic settlements on, 131 ; 
 Mr. Gladstone on desirableness of the spot, 
 131; hill probably levelled for Acropolis 
 of N. L, 588 ; Virchow on Troy and His- 
 sarlik, App. I. and Pref. (comp. Troy) ; the 
 strata not of the Stone age, 685 ; the oldest 
 known settlement in Asia Minor of a pre- 
 historic people of some advance in civili- 
 zation, 685. 
 
 Hissing at demons by early Christians, 181. 
 
 Hittite art: Assy ro- Babylonian origin, in- 
 fluence in Asia Minor and Greece ; time 
 of its introduction ; sculptures at Boghaz 
 KM and Eyuk ; syllabary also brought in 
 by them, 694, 700-702. 
 
 Hittite eagle like one at Troy, 503. 
 
 Hittite mina, its relation to the weights of 
 Asia Minor, 471. 
 
 Hittites. See Ceteians, Klieta. 
 
 Hog (?) of ivory, 3rd c, 423. 
 
 Holkion, Etruscan and Greek, like a bronze 
 cup of the 6th c, 605. 
 
 Holtz, E. L., author's first employer, at 
 Fiirstenberg, 6. 
 
 Homer, recitation of by a drunken miller, 6 ; 
 author's repeated perusal of, 14 ; admir- 
 able painter of nature, 117, 118 ; his al- 
 leged exaggeration answered, 198-9 ; his 
 
 use of fixed epithets, 283; date usually 
 assigned to him, 9th cent. B.C., 355 ; " the 
 Sun of all ancient literature," 517 ; the 
 question of unity left untouched, 517 ; 
 his poems based on real facts, 672; he 
 must have lived in the Troad, and looked 
 on the prospect from Hissarlik, 674-676, 
 and Pref. xv. ; his song not pure fiction 
 after all ; his poems never to be lost by the 
 young, 685 ; to augment the uraversal love 
 for and study of his poems the one object 
 and reward of the author's work, 672. 
 
 Homer, Casket Edition of, by Alexander 
 and the pupils of Callisthenes and Anax- 
 archus, 172. 
 
 Homer, School of (so called). See Ithaca. 
 
 Homeric Hymn to Aphrodite, on the Phry- 
 gian and Trojan languages, 120. 
 
 Honey, perforated vessels for draining from 
 comb, common in 3rd and 4th c, 373. 
 
 Horace, prophecy of Juno about Ilium, dis- 
 cussed, 204 f. 
 
 Horns of fallow-deer, abundant in 3rd c, 319. 
 
 Horse, the : Ilium thrice taken by means of, 
 by Herakles, Agamemnon, and Chari- 
 demus (q. v.), 170. Comp. Wooden Horse. 
 
 Horse, unknown in Troad in pre-historic 
 age, contrast to Homer, 711. 
 
 Horse, cup in shape of, and spout in shape 
 of horse's head, 4th c, 594, 595 ; frequent 
 among the Etruscans, the Greek rhyton 
 (Dennis), 595 ; similar in Berlin and Brit. 
 Mus. from Etruria, 595 ; on clay disc of 
 N. L, 619. 
 
 Horse-hair plume of Trojan helmets, 512-13. 
 
 Horse-trappings (probably), ivory ornaments 
 for : 3rd c, 427 ; Homer's allusion to such 
 use of dyed ivory, 427 ; — 4th c, 566. 
 
 House of King or Chief in the Burnt C, 
 discovery and situation of, to right and 
 left of the gate, 36, 211 ; its treasures, 
 270 ; drawing of, by Dr. Moss, 324, 325 ; 
 house-walls of small stones joined with 
 earth; filled with ashes, shells, pottery, 
 bones, &c, 324-5 ; corridor, 326 ; cham- 
 bers, 327 ; buried under bricks and ashes 
 of upper storeys, 327 ; comparison of with 
 Priam's palace, 326, 327; Virchow's re- 
 marks on it, 684. 
 
 Houses, first discovery of, 30 ; skeletons of 
 warriors found in, 30 ; large Greek, 33 ; a 
 large one on the street, 34 ; another older 
 to right and left of the gates, probably the 
 town-chief's house (see prec. art.), 36 ; 
 why so regarded, 51 ; of 3rd c. laid bare ; 
 substructions only, used for cellars, en- 
 tered only from above, 53; construction 
 
772 
 
 HOUSES. 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 ILIANS. 
 
 like present houses of the Troad, 53 ; of 
 poorer classes in a suburb, 54. 
 Houses, Trojan, resemblance between ancient 
 and modern, 314-317 ; roofs, how made 
 in both, 214 ;— of 1st c, 54 (comp. House- 
 walls) ;— of 2nd c, built of stones coated 
 with clay, 264, 274 ; but some with Avails 
 of clay, 264 ; remains of one, described by 
 Bnrnouf, 2G9 ; stone house, destroyed by 
 fire, with female skeleton and ornaments, 
 270; another, burnt, of small stones (as 
 at Thera), with holes for beams of upper 
 storey, 274 ; another below, burnt, with 
 calcined floor of beams, not planks, 274, 
 275 ; — of 3rd c, some on walls of 2nd c, 
 268 ; basements of small stones joined 
 with earth, 30, 33 ; upper parts of 
 slightly-baked brick, 520 ; floors of clay, 
 generally vitrified, 313 ; sometimes on 
 flagstones, burnt like asphalt, 313 ; floors 
 of upper storeys of beams, covered with 
 clay, which has run down in vitrified 
 lumps, 313 ; domestic architecture like 
 that of the modern Troad, described by 
 Virchow, 314-17 ;— of 4th c, 520 (see 
 House- ivalls) ;— of 5th a, of wood and 
 clay, 573; — at Thymbra, of brick, 709: 
 absence of doors and windows as at His- 
 sarlik, indicating substructions of wooden 
 houses, 710. 
 
 House-walls, pre-historic, dug through by 
 Greek Ilians, 211 ; — of 1st c, of rough 
 stones from the neighbourhood, 54 ; — of 
 2nd city, below chief's house of 3rd city, 
 270, 327 (see Houses) ;— of 3rd city, of 
 small stones and earth, 30, 33 ; labyrinth 
 of, 31; plastered with earth and ashes, 
 whitened with a wash of clay, 326 ; — of 
 4th c, of stones joined with clay, perhaps 
 some clay walls, but no brick, 520. 
 
 Huckle-bones (darpayaXoi). See Astragals. 
 
 Hiickstaedt, Theodor, author's second em- 
 ployer at Fiirstenberg, 6. 
 
 Human ashes in an urn of the 1st c, 
 227. 
 
 Human heads: well modelled, 3rd c, 330; 
 
 helmeted, on clay disc of N. I., 619. 
 Hiinengrab of Goldenitz in Mecklenburg, 
 
 vase from, 222. 
 Huron Indians, their hard copprr weapons, 
 
 738. See Copper, hardening of. 
 
 IALYSUS, goblets from, like those of 1st 
 city, 225. 
 
 lasion, s. of Zeus and Electra, killed by a 
 
 thunderbolt, 119. 
 Ibexes on clay discs of N. I., 619. 
 
 Ibrahim Pasha, governor of the Darda- 
 nelles, obstructs the excavations, 44. 
 
 Ida, mountains of, ascended, 57 ; fine forests, 
 58; sources of the Scamander, 58; Ho- 
 meric epithets of; extent and branches; 
 rivers of, 68 ; wild beasts in forests of, 
 110; named by Teucrians from Ida in 
 Crete, 121 ; view of from Ujek Tench, 679. 
 
 Idol, only one mentioned in Homer, 233 ; Mr. 
 Gladstone on the progress of the art, 233. 
 
 Idols (and rude human figures): of 1st c, 
 terra-cotta, 231 ; marble, 232 ; with in- 
 cisions representing bird-like face, hair, 
 female breasts, and girdle, probably 
 copies of the Palladium, 232; their ex- 
 treme rudeness, 233 ; of ivory, 262 ; all 
 female, and connected with Athene through 
 the owl, 281 (comp. Athene Glaucdpis) ; 
 — of 3rd city, a sacred tradition of the 
 Palladium, 329 ; not for want of plastic 
 ability, 330; with female breasts and 
 hair, necklaces, and wing-like projections, 
 331; of terra-cotta, 331, 332; marble, 
 332-336 ; bone, 332, 336 ; trachyte, 
 332 ; remarkable figure (idol ?) of diorite, 
 337 ; most remarkable idol of lead, 
 with rf on vulva, and goat's horns, 
 337 ; probably an Aphrodite, 338 ; the 
 only similar figures found in Attica and 
 the Cyclades, 338 ; Lenormant upon, 338 ; 
 prototype in the Babylonian Zarpanit 
 (Lenormant) or the Artemis Nana of 
 Chaldea (Sayce), 338-9, 694 ;— in 4th c. 
 like 3rd, 518 ; marble, resembling Baby- 
 lonian figures of Nana, 522-4 ; slate and 
 marble, with owl's face, 524; — of terra- 
 cotta and marble, more plentiful in 5th 
 c. than in any before, 576, 577 ; — 6th c, 
 terra-cotta, 602-3 ; — terra-cotta figure, 
 picked up near Yeni Shehr, like the Trojan 
 idols, 671. 
 
 Idols, gold, pendant, on the Diadems (q. v.), 
 456 f., and ear-rings, 464, of the great 
 Tr. ; on breast-ornament, Tr., 500, 501 ; 
 on ear-ring, Tr., 502. 
 
 Ile'ian Plain ('iAqiW nediov), 139 ; between 
 Troy and Ida, 145. 
 
 Iliad, scope of, 51 days of the 10th year of 
 the war, 158; events from wrath of Achilles 
 to funeral of Hector, 158-9 : the transac- 
 tions of single days, a test of distance of 
 Troy from Hellespont, 195 f. ; Bk. xxiv. 
 a later addition, 649 ; author probably a 
 native of Smyrna, well acquainted with 
 Lydia, 670. 
 
 Ilians, Village of ('iAieW KS^irj), site of 
 Homer's Ilium according to Demetrius of 
 
ILIOS. 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 INSCRIPTIONS. 
 
 773 
 
 Scepsis and Strabo, 79, 175 ; followed by- 
 Clarke and Rennell, 188, 208; on Mr. 
 Calvert's farm of Akshi Kioi or Thymbra, 
 108, 175, 176 ; site explored ; no debris, 
 and few potsherds ; small natural rampart 
 of sand, which may have misled Deme- 
 trius, 108. 
 
 llios, " the Sacred " ("iXios, name of Troy in 
 Homer, once only "iXtov), 139 ; founded in 
 the Plain later than Dardania, 134 ; name 
 of the city only, 139 (comp. Troy) ; had 
 the Vau or Digamma, FiXios, 139 ; Homeric 
 epithets, 139 ; built by Ilus, on hill of the 
 Phrygian Ate, 153, 156. See Site of 
 Homer's llios and Troy. 
 
 Ilium, personified, on coins of N. I., 
 646. 
 
 Ilium, the Greek city. See Novum Ilium. 
 
 Ilium, a city in Thrace, 124. 
 
 lliuna or Iriuna, supposed Egyptian name 
 for Ilium, should rather be read Ma-una y 
 Maeonia, 123, 747. 
 
 Ilus, s. of Dardanus, 152. 
 
 Ilus, s. of Tros, and grandson of Ilus, 152 ; 
 head of the Trojan line, 153 ; goes to 
 Phrygia, whence guided by a cow of many 
 colours, he builds Ilium, 153, 156, 643 ; 
 and receives the Palladium (q. v.) from 
 Zeus, 153; eponym of Ilium, 154, 156; 
 father of Laomedon, 156 ; on coins of 
 N. I, 643. 
 
 Ilus, tumulus of (o-^/xa "lAov), in Homer, 
 81, 147, 200; pillar near, whence Paris 
 shot at Diomed ; agora held by Hector 
 near; on right or left bank of Scamander, 
 147 ; the discrepancy explained by the 
 spuriousness of 11. xxiv. 670 ; on rt. bank 
 of Kalifatli Asmak, N. of Koum Kioi, 
 669 ; a natural hill of sand, almost de- 
 stroyed by the plough, 83, 669 ; circular 
 depression, indicating a former stone re- 
 cess ; thin layer of stones and debris, 
 but no pottery, 669. 
 
 Imbros, I., seen from Hissarlik, 105. 
 
 In Tepeh, tumulus of Ajax, 103, 648 ; on C. 
 Pihoeteum, 600 yds. S. of his old tomb ; 
 raised by Hadrian over the temple in 
 which he re-buried the hero's body, 652 ; 
 the remains of the temple destroyed in 
 1770, but the subterranean passage left, 
 653. (Comp. Ajax.) 
 
 In Tepeh Asmak, R., described, 95 ; its 
 present state, an inlet rather than outlet, 
 96; its mouth probably the ancient 
 Portus Achaeorum, 95 ; the Scamander an- 
 ciently fell through it into the Hellespont. 
 See Scamander. 
 
 Incas, the, of Teru, their institutions and 
 love of beautiful works in metal ; sup- 
 posed art of hardening copper, 737, 738. 
 (Comp. Copper, hardening of.) 
 
 Ine, on the Scamander, site of an ancient 
 city, perhaps Scamandria, 57; silver 
 mines near, 57, 69. 
 
 Ine Tepeh, hill of, 69. 
 
 Inscriptions, Greek, at Ithaca, on tiles, 50. 
 
 Inscriptions, Greek, at N. I., 627 f. ; found 
 in or near Senate-house, 609 ; the largest, 
 of Antiochus I. (prob.) and Meleager, re- 
 lating to a grant of land to Aristodici- 
 des, for N. I., 627 f. ; remarks upon, 
 631-2 ; a record of fines, &c, imposed by 
 the city, of the time of Augustus, 632 ; 
 of the Senate and people, in honour of 
 Caius Caesar (q. v.) ; another, probably 
 of time of Antigonus Doson, 633 f. ; in 
 temple of Athene, 29, on base of statue 
 oiMetrodorus (q. v.), 635 ; in same temple 
 in praise of the proconsul C. Claudius 
 Nero (b.c. 80-79), 636 ; on site of temple 
 of Apollo, on base of a lost colossal statue 
 of Caecina the Cyzicene, in time of Anto- 
 ninus Pius, 637 ; 3 in and beside founda- 
 tions of Senate-house, of time of a king 
 of Pergamus ; in honour of an Athenian 
 Arrabaeus ; in honour of Chaereas, 638 ; 
 a contract for the foundation of a new 
 settlement, 639; another, 640. 
 
 Inscription, Lydian, on fragment of a base 
 from temple of Artemis at Ephesus, 
 699. 
 
 Inscriptions, Trojan, Prof. Martin Hang 
 upon, 143 ; on a vase, 3rd c, 369 ; on 
 whorls, 4th c, 562, 563, 696 ; on a whet- 
 stone, 4th c, 567, 697; on 2 cones of 
 5th c, with the Cypriote character mo 
 (see Cones), 128, 582 ;— Professor Sayce 
 upon, App. IV., 691 f. ; older than the 
 introduction of the Phoenician or Greek 
 alphabet, 691 ; belong to an old syllabary 
 of Asia Minor, retained in Cyprus, 691.; 
 not imported from Cyprus into Asia 
 Minor, 699; compared with the Cappa- 
 docian, Lycian, and Carian ; had about 
 100 characters, 699 ; • beginning of de- 
 ciphering by George Smith, and progress, 
 691 ; Dr. Deecke's theory, untenable, 691, 
 703 ; Cypriote letters at Troy first dis- 
 covered by Haug, 691 ; attempts at deci- 
 pherment by him and Prof. Gomperz, 692 ; 
 the several inscriptions examined and dis- 
 cussed, 693 f. ; the syllabary of Hittite 
 origin ; phonetic peculiarities ; order of 
 writing, 701 ; time of its disappear- 
 
774 
 
 IXZIGHOFEX. 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 JUGS. 
 
 ance from Mysia and the Troad, 702 ; 
 decorative characters on the Trojan 
 whorls like Hittite hieroglyphs, 703; ap- 
 parent attempts to imitate cuneiform cha- 
 racters, 703 ; language of the inscriptions 
 still unknown, 704 ; relations of the 
 Mysian and Phrygian languages, 704 ; 
 Homer on the language of gods and men, 
 i.e. Greek and native ; the examples dis- 
 cussed, 704-5. 
 
 Inzighofen, on Upper Danube, pottery 
 from, 221 et passim. 
 
 Id, a form of the cow-headed Isis, 743. See 
 Hera Boupis. 
 
 Ion (IQN), same as }V, Javan, 132 n., 749 n. 
 
 Iron, none found in the 5 pre-historic cities, 
 252, 604 ; one knife, assigned to the 6th 
 c. ; why, 604 ; Hesiod on use of later 
 than bronze, 252 ; the ' Iron Age,' 252-3 ; 
 early mention of in the Bible, 253. 
 
 Isambert, E., ' Itineraire descriptive] 188. j 
 
 Isles of the Gentiles (Gen. x, 4, 5), coasts 
 and islands of Asia Minor, Greece, &c, 
 peopled by sons of Javan, i.e. of Ion, « 
 132, 749. 
 
 Ithaca, author's first visit to, and excava- 
 tions (1870), 18 ; exploration of, 45 ; the 
 valley Polis proved not the site of the 
 Homeric capital, 45, 46 ; Mathitario I. 
 gave to Homer the idea of his Asteris, 46 ; 
 cyclopean remains, called the ' School of 
 Homer,' of classic times, 46, 47 ; cyclo- 
 pean remains of capital on M. Aetos (q. v.), 
 47, 48 ; Grotto of the Nymphs ; southern 
 portion explored; no ancient town at 
 Vathy; cyclopean walls, suggesting the 
 stables of Eumaeus; ancient potsherds, 
 evidence of rustic habitation, 49 ; the rock 
 Korax ; fountain of Arethusa ; Greek and 
 Eoman coins plentiful ; hares ; Ithaca 
 Phoenician by name and by indications 
 in Homer ; visit to the island strongly 
 recommended, 50. 
 
 Ivory, objects of : 1st c, awls, pins, and 
 needles, 261, 262; trapezium, 262 ; curious 
 object (an idol ?), 262 ;— 3rd c, 423-426 ; 
 musical instruments, 424, 425 ; orna- 
 ments, some probably for horse-trappings, 
 426, 427, 430 ; awls and needles of, 430, 
 431; indicate trade with the East; the 
 elephant on the black obelisk of Shalma- 
 neser, 426, 427 ; a piece with beads strung 
 on for a necklace, Tr., 492-3 ; — 4th c, 
 disc and slips ornamented with circles and 
 dots, probably for horse-trappings, 566 ; — 
 5th c, disc, 585 ; — 6th c, brooch and disc 
 ( 2 . v.), 601. 
 
 Izzet Effendi, employed to hinder the exca- 
 vations, exiled for embezzlement, 44. 
 
 JADE and Jadeite: axes of, 1st c, 238; 
 Prof. Maskelyne on their vast importance, 
 as connecting Troy and Europe with the 
 remote East, 240 ; Prof. Fischer on, 240, 
 241; Prof. Roemer on, 243: localities 
 where jade is found, 242, 243 ;— in 2nd c, 
 of green jade (see Nephrite) ; — 3rd c, axes 
 and celts, 446 ; further discussion of the 
 diffusion of jade, and its importance as a 
 sign of connection with the remote East, 
 by Professors Max Miiller and Maskelyne, 
 the 'Times,' and Mr. E. K. Douglas, 
 446-451 n. ; — 5th c, a precious axe of 
 white jade, extremely rare, 573. 
 
 Japan. See China. 
 
 Jars, gigantic (see Pithoi); great number 
 of large in 3rd c, and some smaller ; with 
 rope-like decoration, 379 ; with 2, 3, and 
 4 handles, 398 f. See Amphorae. 
 
 Javan, sons, peopled the Isles of the Gentiles, 
 i.e. coasts and islands of Asia Minor, 
 Greece, &c, 132; name (JV) identical 
 with Ion (IQN), 132 n., 749 n. 
 
 Jewels (see Electrum, Gold, Silver) : 8700 
 small of gold, found in silver vase, Tr. ; 
 their various forms and manufacture, 
 461, 462. 
 
 Jugs (com p. Flagons, Pitchers) : 1st c, 225 ; 
 — 3rd c, of various forms, 384-396 ; globu- 
 lar, with small necks, 390 ; with rope-like 
 handle and band, 390 ; with incised orna- 
 mentation, 892 ; with fluted body, 392 ; 
 with arched handle, 406, 407 ;— 4th c, 
 flat, like hunting-bottles, 532 ; tripod, 
 globular, &c, 532, 533 ; rude two-handled, 
 536-8 ; globular wheel-made, 545 ; 
 with perforated bottom and rope-shaped 
 handle, unique, probably foreign, 545, 
 546 ; others, 546, 547 ; three-handled, 
 547 ; with long upright necks, 550, 551 ; 
 with neck bt-nt back and spout in body, 
 552 ; curious, with small mouth and sieve- 
 like bottom, 552 ; with 2 necks, side by 
 side; elsewhere in Hungary and Cy- 
 prus only, 553 ; with one spout in front 
 of the other, unique ; covered with 
 protuberances, 553-4 ; — 5th c, with 
 straight necks and long spouts, wheel- 
 made, 577, 578; rude hand-made glo- 
 bular, 578 ; tripod, wheel-made ; with 
 long necks, 578, 579 ; rude wheel-made, 
 580, globular, with boss on neck, 581 ; — 
 6th c, large wheel-made, with wave-lines, 
 590; with bosses or horn-like projec- 
 
JULIA. 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 LAMPS. 
 
 775 
 
 tions, 592-3 ; hand-made, like Etruscan 
 
 lekythos, 596 ; with conical excrescences, 
 
 intended for eyes, 597 ; similar fr. Thera 
 
 and Cyprus, 597. 
 Julia, d. of Augustus, nearly drowned in 
 
 Scamander, 178. 
 Julia Domna, coins of, N. I., 642, 6 13, 645. 
 Julian (aft. emp.), letter of, describing his 
 
 visit to N. I., 180 f. ; comments of Dr. 
 
 Carl Henning, 182; his policy towards 
 
 renegades from Christianity, 182, 210. 
 Julii, house of; their favour to the Trojans 
 
 and hatred of the Greeks, 633. 
 Juno, prophecy of, in Horace, 204 f. (See 
 
 Site of Homer's llios.) 
 Jutchenko, author's agent at Moscow, 12. 
 
 ICADESH, on the Orontes, war of Ramses 
 II. against, 123. 
 
 Kalifatli, village of, 105. 
 
 Kalifatli Asmak, R., ancient bed of the 
 Scamander (q. v.) ; its two arms, 99 ; its 
 course described, 100. 
 
 Kantharos (Kavdapos), Greek cup sacred to 
 Dionysus, probable origin of, 595. (See 
 Cups, 6th c.) 
 
 Kara-Euli, hill of, 70. 
 
 Kara Your, M., visited, 59 ; height, 59, 71 ; 
 wrongly identified with Callicolone, 59, 
 71 ; view from, 71 ; traces of an ancient 
 building on ; desert plateau to Chiblak, 72. 
 
 Karanlik (i. e. " darkness "), port on the 
 Hellespont, perhaps of Aeanteum and 
 Rhoeteum, 104. 
 
 Keller, Otto, 1 Die Entdeckung Ilion's zu 
 Hissarlik,' 154, 189 ; on the owl in con- 
 nection with Athene, 289. 
 
 Kermes, worm of the oak, 114. 
 
 Keys (KA^tSes) : copper or bronze, of the 
 treasure-chest, 41, 454, 484 ; more usual 
 form of, a bolt, as in Homer; 4 such 
 in burnt city, 484 (comp. Bolts) ; 2 in 
 the gates ; 1 in a house, 484-5. 
 
 Key, bronze, with handle in shape of, and 
 with attributes of, the quadrangular Her- 
 mae, N. I., 620, 621 ; Prof. Athanasios 
 Rhousopoulos upon, 621 ; iron, 622. 
 
 KJieta or Kliita (Kattaia, Khethites, Hit- 
 tites ; comp. Ceteians), confederates of, in 
 war with Ramses II., 123 ; include peoples 
 cf Asia Minor, 746-7. 
 
 Ki, Cypriote character, on a terra-cctta ball, 
 3rd c, 349. 
 
 Kiepert, 1 Memoir iiber die Construction der 
 Karte von Kleinasien,' 187. 
 
 Kilns unknown at Troy ; dates of use, 219. 
 
 King or Chief, last, of Troy, his house, 51 ; 
 
 view of, 35 and 325 (see House); Virchow's 
 plea for still calling him Priam, 684, Pref. 
 
 Kitchen refuse, on floors of houses of 4th c. ; 
 shot down the hill from 5th c, 574. 
 
 Knife-handle, bone, 3rd c, 427. 
 
 Knives used in Homers time for eating, 
 408 ; straight, and worn in the belt, 506. 
 
 Knives, copper, 1st c. ; one of them gilt, 251. 
 
 Knives, bronze, 3rd c. ; only one in the 
 great Treasure, 483; in other treasures, 
 494 ; still with pins which fastened 
 them to the wooden handle, 505, 506 ; 2 
 single and double edged of remarkable 
 form, like the Egyptian, 506; — 4th c, 
 564 ;— 5th c, 585-6 ;— 6th c, one plated 
 with gold, 604 ; one of iron, with ring and 
 rivet, like the bronze Etruscan knives, 604. 
 
 Knives of flint, chalcedony and obsidian, in 
 the 4 lowest c, 246-7 ; 3rd c. ; also found 
 at Thera, 445 ;— 4th c, 571. 
 
 Ko, or Go, Cypriote character, ornament like, 
 on vases of 3rd c, 342, 369, 383, 384. 
 
 Korax, rock in Ithaca, 50. 
 
 Koumanoudes, Ath., assistant keeper of 
 the antiquities at Athens, 338. 
 
 Koumanoudes, St., Prof, at Athens, 464, 633. 
 
 Koum Kaleh, town on Hellespont, probably 
 site of Achilleum, alluvial deposits at, 104. 
 
 Koum Kioi (" Village of Sand "), 103 ; site of 
 Polium (q. v.). 
 
 Kouyunjik (Nineveh), palace of Assurbani- 
 pal, funnel with Cypriote characters, like 
 the Trojan of 5th c, found at, 411. 
 
 Kuhse, W., author's brother-in-law, 5 n. 
 
 Kurtz, Dr. F., list of plants of the Troad, 
 727 f. 
 
 LABRAND^, the double-edged battle-axe 
 common in Asia Minor, whence the Zeus 
 Labrandeus of Caria ; like one in 6th c, 
 606. 
 
 Ladle of clay, 5th c, 580. 
 
 Laertes, grandson of Poseidon, a sign of 
 Phoenician relations of Ithaca, 50. 
 
 Lake-dwellings, whorls found in, 230 ; other 
 objects, passim. 
 
 Lambda, ornament on vases in shape of 
 the Greek A, or the Cypriote character 
 go, 290, 297. 
 
 Lampon, s. of Laomedon, 156. 
 
 Lamps not in pre-h. cities, except perhaps 
 little bowls like the condylia in Greek 
 churches ; not known to Homer, 620, 621, 
 Pref. xii. ; unknown in Greece and Asia 
 Minor till 6th cent. b.c. ; those found in 
 N. Ilium nearly all Roman, 405 ; Greek, 
 terra-cotta, one on a long foot, N. I., 620. 
 
776 
 
 LAMPSACUS. 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 LYDIAN. 
 
 Lampsacus, called of old Pityeia or Pityusa, 
 133 ; a Milesian settlement, 132 ; cuins 
 of, at N. L, G12. 
 
 Lance-heads, Trojan, bronze, 30 ; not with 
 a tube, as in Homer, but fastened to shaft 
 by a pin, Tr., 475-7 ; Tr., 494, 505, 506 ; 
 the form with a tube found at Mycenae, 
 and generally in Europe, 475 ; one found 
 beside the two skeletons (q.v.) of warriors, 
 507 ; — not found in 4th c, 565 ; — 6th c, 
 with tube for shaft, like the Mycenean and 
 Homeric, 604. 
 
 Landerer, X, Professor at Athens, 217 et 
 passim. 
 
 Language, Trojan, unknown, 704. 
 
 Laocoon, opposes acceptance of wooden 
 horse ; his fate ; taken from the epic poem 
 of Arctinus, 160, 161. 
 
 Laodice, d. of Priam, 157. 
 
 Laomedon, s. of Ilus, and k. of Troy, legend 
 of; Grote upon, 125; his four sons and three 
 daughters ; walls of Troy built for him by 
 Poseidon (and Apollo) ; Troy taken and 
 L. killed by Herakles, 125, 156. 
 
 Larissa, Pelasgian c. of Troad, near Cyme ; 
 Strabo's discussion on, 138. 
 
 Latin should be taught after Greek, 16. 
 
 Lauria, G. A., ' Troja, uno Studio,' 190. 
 
 Layard, Rt. Hon. Sir A. //.,aids in obtaining 
 firmans ; acknowledgment to, 45, 54. 
 
 Lead, in 1st and 2nd cities, 252, 258 ; — 3rd 
 c, remarkable idol of, 337 ; curious object 
 of, 504 ;— 5th c, object of, 585-6 ;— N. I., 
 block of, stamped with a boar's head, prob- 
 ably a weight, 620, 621. 
 
 Leake, Col., ' Travels in Northern Greece,' 
 46 ; on Ithaca, 48 ; ' Journal of a Tour in 
 Asia Minor,' 186. 
 
 Lechevalier (1785-6), invents the Bounar- 
 bashi theory ; patronized and followed by 
 Choiseul-Goumer, 184-5 ; his views gene- 
 rally adopted, 185 ; see Bounarbashi, Sca- 
 mander, Springs, &c. ; list of followers of 
 his theory, 186 f. 
 
 Ledum Pr., W.-most peak of a chief branch 
 of Ida, 68, 72 ; S. point of the Troad ; 
 altar to twelve gods, mentioned by Homer 
 and Herodotus, 72. 
 
 Leeches, abundant in Troad, 114. 
 
 Leguminous plants of the Troad, 118. 
 
 IjeJca, 123. See Lycians. 
 
 Lekythos, Etruscan, like jug of 6th c, 596. 
 
 Leleges, of the Troad, the dominion of Altes 
 (q. v.), 68, 123 ; their territory about C. 
 Lectum ; close connection with Carians ; 
 also in Greece, 126. 
 
 Lenormant, Fr., i Les Antiquite's dela Troade 
 
 et I'Histoire primitive des Contrees 
 grecques,' 122, 190 ; on Here Bobpis, 283 ; 
 on Athene Glaucopis, 287 ; on the metope 
 of Apollo, and Greek forms of low relief, 
 624. 
 
 Lentoid Gem of cornelian, 3rd c, similar to 
 one from Camirus in Khodes, 514. 
 
 Lenz, C. G., 1 Lie Ebene von Troja; 149, 186. 
 
 Libation, poured by Achilles from a gold 
 cup (dtVay), 465 ; the denas dftffiiKvneXkov 
 of Tr., perhaps used for, 464, 465; 
 Chinese bronze up, used for, 465-6. 
 
 Lichtenstein, J., author's friend and agent 
 at Konigsberg, 14. 
 
 Lids. See Covers. 
 
 Lindemann, junior, author's employer at 
 Altona, 7. 
 
 Ligia Eammam, hot springs, 56 ; valley, 69. 
 
 Lighting by torches (8ai8es) and fire-pans 
 (kafxnTrjpes, Homer), 405. 
 
 Lindenschmit, L., ' Die Vaterldndischen 
 Alterthiimer der Eohenzollerschen Samm- 
 lungen,' 221 et passim. 
 
 Lion, the, in \V. Asia ; familiar to Homer ; 
 why decreased with decline of culture and 
 population, 111 ; — a lion's head, of fine 
 crystal, handle of a sceptre, 3rd c, 428 ; — 
 a lion, terra-cotta, N. I., 616. 
 
 Lisch, Dr., on the baking of pottery, 219. 
 
 Lissauer, ' Beitrage zur westpreussischen 
 Urgeschichte,' 230. 
 
 Livius, consul, sacrifices at Troy, 173. 
 
 Loclchart, Br., Chinese illustrations of Trojan 
 antiquities, 465. 
 
 LocriSy pestilence at for the crime of Ajax, 
 164 ; two noble virgins sent annually from, 
 to Ilium, 164, 166 ; evidence for belief in 
 the site of Troy at N. I., 209. 
 
 Locusts, frequent visitations of, 114. 
 
 Longperier, A. de, on the site of Troy, 189. 
 
 Lubbock, Sir John, ^re-historic Times,' 238 
 tt passim ; on primitive use of stone axes, 
 239 ; on primitive knowledge of metals, 
 257 ; excavates the tumulus of Hector 
 (q. v.), 656. 
 
 Lycaon, s. of Laothoe, d. of Altes, and f. of 
 Pandarus, 134. 
 
 L^ycians, the Leka, Leku or Liku of Egyp- 
 tian records, 123, 746 ; the dominion of 
 Pandarus, 132 ; allies of Trojans under 
 Sarpedon, 158; the old Lycian writing, 
 639. 
 
 Lycurgus, Attic orator, on the utter destruc- 
 tion of Troy, discussed, 203. 
 
 Lydia, name first known to Assyrians in 
 time of Gyges (cir. 665 B.C.), 128. 
 
 Lydian dominion in the Troad, 128; migra- 
 
LYDIANS. 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 METALLURGISTS. 
 
 777 
 
 tion to Umbria and colonization of Etrnria, 
 account of Herodotus, 128-9 ; the question 
 discussed, 587 and n. (comp. Etruscans) ; 
 language Aryan, 129 ; traces of settle- 
 ment at Hissarlik, 128, 587, 688. See 
 Sixth City. 
 
 Lydians, akin to Mysians, 119. 
 
 Lyres, ivory, fragments of, 4 stringed and 
 7 stringed : 3rd c, 424 ; the lyre and 
 lyre-playing in Homer, 424, 425 ; — 4th c, 
 terra-cotta G stringed, fragment of, 560. 
 
 Lyrnessus, in the plain of Thebe, the city 
 of Mynes, and home of Brise'fs, destroyed 
 by Achilles ; Aeneas fled thither from 
 Achilles; ruins near Karavaren(F'ellowes), 
 136 ; a Cilician settlement, bordering on 
 the Ceteians, 137. 
 
 lysi?nachus, his buildings at N. Ilium, 23, 
 31 ; wall of, 27, 40, 63 ; theatre ascribed 
 to, 110; favours and enlarges it, builds 
 city-wall and temple of Athei.e, 172, 173, 
 608, 610 (see Temple, Wall) ; his policy 
 towards the city, 688, 689. 
 
 MACEDONIAN tower and walls at His- 
 sarlik, 20, 23. See Novum Ilium. 
 
 Machaon heals Philoctetes ; is killed by 
 Eurypylus, 160. 
 
 Maclaren, C, first modern writer who iden- 
 tified Hissarlik with Troy, 19 ; his two 
 books, 19 n. ; on alluvium of the Plain of 
 Troy, 86, 189. 
 
 Macrinus, coins of, N. I., 645, 646. 
 
 McVeagh, Wyne, U. S. Minister at Constan- 
 tinople, aids in obtaining firman, 21. 
 
 Maeonians (the ancient Lydians), allies of 
 the Trojans, 158 ; the Mauna of Egyptian 
 records, 746, 747. 
 
 Magazine of nine enormous jars for corn or 
 wine, in 3rd city, under temple of Athene, 
 32, 379. See Pithoi. 
 
 Magyarad, in Hungary, terra-cottas from, 
 231 et passim. 
 
 Mahaffy, J. P., Professor, "On the Eelation 
 of Novum Ilium to the Ilios of Homer," 
 App. II. p. 686 f. ; criticism of the argu- 
 ments of Demetrius and Strabo, 687. 
 
 Malet, E., Minister Plenipotentiary at Con- 
 stantinople, aids in obtaining firman, 
 54. 
 
 Malutin, M. P. N., Brothers, house of, at 
 
 Moscow, 11. 
 Man, with uplifted arms, on whorls, 3rd c, 
 
 416, 418-20 ; 4th c, 571, 572 ; on a vase 
 
 neck, 525. 
 
 Mania, queen, kept her treasures at Scepsis 
 and Gergis, 55. 
 
 Mantasha, near Assos, castle on, 70. 
 
 Map of the Troad, first real, by Spratt and 
 Graves, 187 ; revised by E. Burnouf for 
 this work, Map I. at end. 
 
 Marble, white, blocks of, of Greek Ilium, 
 27 ; sculptured, 28 (see Columns, &c.) ; 
 numerous fragments of, characteristic of 
 the strata of N. L, 610. 
 
 Martens, W. von, description of conchylia 
 found in Trojan houses, 318. 
 
 Maskelyne, N. (Story, Professor, on the 
 Trojan jade axes, 240 f., 446 n. 
 
 Masu, 123. See Mysians. 
 
 Mathitario, islet oft* Ithaca, supposed Ho- 
 meric Asteris, 45 ; ruins quite modern, 46. 
 
 Mahveieff, A., authors agent at Moscow, 12. 
 
 Mauduit, * Decouvertes dans la Troade,' 187. 
 
 Maximinus 1., coins of, N. I., 643. 
 
 Maynard, Mr., U. S. Minister to the Porte, 
 aids author, 44. 
 
 Meal, bruised, not ground flour, in 1st c, 
 234-5 ; in Homer, 235. 
 
 Measures, French and English, Table, viii. 
 
 Medes, the Aryan, early seats, and first 
 settlement in Media, 121. 
 
 Meden, O. von der, partner in the house of 
 Messrs. J. Henry Schroder and Co., in 
 London, 13 n. 
 
 Medical Practice 4a the Troad, by Prof. 
 Virchow, App. V., 721 f. 
 
 Mehlis, E., ' Schliemami's Troja u. die Wis- 
 senschaft,' 189. 
 
 Meincke, Louise, 3 ; her marriage, 3 n. 
 
 Meinche, Minna, 3 ; sympathy with author's 
 boyish enthusiasm for Troy, 4 ; mutual 
 attachment, 4 ; separation, 5 ; last meet- 
 ing, 6; her marriage, 3 n. and 11. 
 
 Mela on N. Ilium : " Urbs bello excidioque 
 clarissima," 179. 
 
 Meleager, satrap of the Troad, inscription 
 relating to, at N. I., 627 f. 
 
 Memel, burning of, in 1854; marvellous 
 preservation of author's goods, 13. 
 
 Memnon, s. of Tithonus and Eos, leads 
 Aethiopians to aid of the Trojans, from 
 Persia, Assyria, or Egypt, according to 
 various accounts ; killed by Achilles ; 
 probably leader of the Keteioi orHittites; 
 his tomb, 159. 
 
 Menelaus, s. of Atreus, k. of Sparta, visited 
 by Paris, who carries off Helen and his 
 treasures, 157 ; appeals to Greek chiefs, 
 157; recovers Helen, 161; Egyptian story 
 of his visit to Egypt and receiving back 
 Helen fr. K. Proteus, 163 n. ; ambassador 
 to Troy before the war, 164. 
 
 Metallurgists, mythical, in Phrygia, 254-5. 
 
778 
 
 METALLURGY. 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 MYCENAE. 
 
 Metallurgy, relics of Trojan, 3rd c, 409, 
 410. See Crucibles. 
 
 Metals : 1st c. ; gold, silver, lead, copper, 
 no iron, 252 ; whence obtained, 253 f. ; 
 worked in Phrygia, 254-5 ; — 2nd c, like 
 1st, though no lead or silver was found, 
 275 ; names of in Asia Minor and Greece, 
 of Semitic derivation ; inference, 481. 
 See under the several Metals. 
 
 Metope, Doric, splendid, of Phoebus Apollo, 
 with horses of the Sun, N. I., of best 
 Macedonian age, 622 f. ; a cast in the 
 Brit. Mus., 622 ; remarks upon, by Hein- 
 rich Brunn, 622, and Lenormant, 624 ; 
 the halo of rays dates from Alexander ; 
 similar examples, 625 ; another mutilated 
 metope, with warriors, 625. 
 
 Metrodorus, son of Themistagoras, mutilated 
 statue of, with inscribed pedestal, by 
 Pytheas of Argos, found in temple of 
 Athene, N. I., 635 ; probably the orator 
 of Scepsis, put to death by Mithridates 
 VII., 635. 
 
 Mexican animal-vases, 294. 
 
 Meyer, E., ' Die Geschichte der Troas,' 180, 
 183, et passim. 
 
 Mice, field, mythological connection of with 
 the Teucrians and Apollo Smintheus 
 (q. v.), 121, 122. 
 
 Mile, Geographical, the minute of a degree 
 at the Equator = 10 Greek stadia, 
 71 n, 
 
 Milesian settlers in Troad, in Lydian times, 
 128 ; at Abydos, 128 ; -at Apaesus and 
 Lampsacus, 132. 
 
 Mina, of Carchemish (Hittite), same as 
 Babylonian, used in Asia Minor ; rela- 
 tion to the silver ' talents,' Tr., 471. 
 
 Mindarus sacrifices to Athene at Ilium, 
 170. 
 
 Mineptah II., k. of Egypt, the Pheron of 
 Herodotus ; peoples of Asia Minor con- 
 federate with Libyans against him, 747. 
 
 Miniature Pottery, probably toys, abundant 
 in 3rd, 4th, and 5th c, 407, 534. 
 
 Mo, Cypriote character on a polisher, 3rd 
 c, 444 ; on two cones of 5th c, 128, 583. 
 
 Moeringen on Lake of Bienne, lacustrine 
 station, 230 et passim. 
 
 Mollusca, shells of, found at Troy, 322. 
 
 Moloch = Zeus Meilichios, 154-5. 
 
 Moltke, Count von, adopts the Bounarbashi 
 theory from " military instinct," 186. 
 
 Mommsen, ' Roman History ; ' on the sup- 
 posed Lydian origin of the Etruscans, 129. 
 
 'Monarch,' H.M.S., officers of, present at 
 finding of treasures, 52, 490. 
 
 Mook, ( Aegyptens Vormetallische Zeit,' 583. 
 
 Morritt, answer to Bryant's ' Vindication of 
 Homtr; 186. 
 
 Mortars of lava, 1st c, 235 ; parallel ex- 
 amples, 235. 
 
 Mortillet, Be, 1 Le Signe de la Croix,' 230, &c. 
 
 Mosaic floors in strata of N. I., 610. 
 
 Moscow, author's house of business at, 12. 
 
 Moss, Dr. E., late of H.M.S. Research, 268 ; 
 on the vitrified Trojan floors, 313; classi- 
 fication of bones found in 3rd c, 322 ; lost 
 in the Atalanta, 322 n. 
 
 Mother-of-pearl Ring, 3rd c, 414. 
 
 Moulds for casting ornaments, implements, 
 and weapons, ninety found (broken), 
 nearly all of mica-schist, a few of clay, 
 one of granite, 432, 433; mode of 
 casting, 249,' 250; two different methods, 
 434, 435 ;— 1st c, for arrow-heads, 249 ; 
 — 3rd c, six-sided, for battle-axes, knives, 
 &c, unique, 433 ; the only similar one 
 from Sardinia, 434; for battle-axe, small 
 hammer, arrow-heads, &c, 435 ; similar 
 of sandstone in Hungary, 436; — 4th c, 
 for ring and strange object, 568; — 5th c, 
 of limestone, 584-5 : — N. I., terra-colta, 
 for stamping figures in relief, 618. 
 
 Mountains of the Troad, 68 f. 
 
 Mutter, Max, German consul at GaTlipoli, 
 sends workmen, 24. 
 
 Mutter, Max, Prof., on Athene Glaucopis 
 and Here Boopis, 282 ; on the Svastika 
 and Sauvastika, 346 f. ; on jade tools, 
 446 n., 448 n. 
 
 Mutters, stone. See Corn-bruisers. 
 
 Munif Efendi promises firman, 54. 
 
 Muralt, Prof, von, author studies Latin 
 with, 15. 
 
 Murex. See Conchylia ; Purple. 
 
 Murray, A. S., of the British Museum, 381. 
 
 Murray, John, the celebrated publisher, 
 672. 
 
 Museums: — of Boulogne-sur-mer, 387; 
 British, passim ; Imperial, of Constanti- 
 nople, treasures from Troy in., 43 ; author's 
 liberality to, 44 ; its share of -objects found, 
 51, 52, &c. ; Mdrkisches, at Berlin, 223 
 et pass.; of Modena, 230 et pass. ; National 
 Hungarian at Buda-Pesth, 231, 375, et 
 pass. ; of Nordiske Oldsager, Copenhagen, 
 215 et pass. ; of Saint Germain-en- Lay e, 
 215 et pass. ; at Schwerin, Grand Ducal 
 Antiquarium, 222 et pass. 
 
 Mycena*, author's first visit to, 18 ; interpre- 
 tation of Pausanias on the Royal Sepulchres, 
 proved right, 18, 20, 45 ; shafts sunk there 
 (1874), 43 ; excavations at (1876), 45, 282; 
 
MYLITTA. 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 K0VUM ILIUM. 
 
 779 
 
 book on Mycenae and Tiryns, 45 ; etymo- 
 logy of the Dame, 282, 28G ; whorls found 
 at, most of stone (gen. steatite), few of 
 terra-cotta ; the inverse of the proportions 
 at Troy, 422 ; other comparisons, passim. 
 
 Mylitta. See Eileithyia. 
 
 Mynes, dominion of, 68; Lyrnessus (q. v.), 
 136. 
 
 Myrine, the ' racer,' said to be an Amazon 
 (iStrabo), 147 ; identical with Smyrna = 
 Artemis-Cybele (Sayce), 147, 705. See 
 
 Batieia. 
 
 Mysia, relation to the Troad, 67 ; the name 
 derived from the Lydian pvoros = Grk. 
 6gvr), " the beech," 705. 
 
 Mysians, cross from Asia into Europe ; their 
 conquests there, 119 ; by some made 
 Thracians, by others Asiatics, akin to 
 Lydians, 119 ; their language akin to 
 Lydian and Phrygian, 119; the Masw 
 of Egyptian records, 123, 747; allies of 
 the Trojans, 158 ; relations of the people 
 and their language to the Phrygians and 
 Trojans; half Lydian, half Phrygian, 
 701. 
 
 NANA, Babylonian goddess, figure of in 
 
 Brit. Mus., like a Trojan idol, 524. Cornp. 
 
 Artemis Nana. 
 Naustathmus. See Camp, Naval* 
 Ne, Cypriote and Hittite character, on a 
 
 Trojan seal ; perhaps the origin of the 
 
 Sivastika (Sayce), 414. 
 Necklaces : gold, Tr., 486-7 ; silver, of 
 
 rings strung on ivory, Tr., 492-3 ; of 
 
 beads, cemented by chloride, Tr., 493. 
 Needles, bone and ivory : 1st c, 261, 262 ; 
 
 3rd c, 319, 430 ; bone, frequent in 4th c, 
 
 571 ; less frequent In 5th c. than in the 
 
 preceding ones, 586. 
 Needles, metal : copper, double-pointed, 1st 
 
 c, 249; parallel examples, 249; 2nd c, 
 
 274 ; — bronze, 3rd c, 505 ; bronze, with 
 
 eyes, some double-pointed, 4th c, 564-5 ; 
 
 bronze, 5th c, 585-6. 
 Neoptolemus, s. of Achilles, brought from 
 
 Scyros to aid the Greeks, 160; shuts up 
 
 Trojans in c, 160 ; kills Priam, 161. 
 Nephrite (green jade), axes, 2nd c, 275 ; 
 
 nature ; derivation of name, 275. 
 Nero, C. Claudius, s. of Publius, proconsul 
 
 of Asia (b.c. 80-79), praised in an inscrip- 
 
 tion found at N. I., 636. 
 Nero, when a youth, speech of, in Forum, 
 
 for the Ilians, 178; on coins of N. I., 646. 
 Nestor " of the Ilians," on coins of N. L, 643. 
 Newton, C. T., l Dr. Schliemann's Discoveries 
 
 at I. Novum,' 189 ; on ignorance of paint- 
 ing in the 5 pre-historic cities, 225 ; on 
 the Trojan idols, 233. 
 
 Niches (cupboards), in walls of Trojan houses, 
 with remains of food, explained by modern 
 houses, 317. 
 
 Nicolaus Damascenus obtains remission of 
 fine imposed on Ilians by Agrippa, 178. 
 
 Nkderhoffer, Hermann, the miller reciting 
 Homer, 7 ; his early and later life, 7 and n. 
 
 Nikolaides, M. G., 1 Topographie et Plan 
 strategique de VJliade,' 187. 
 
 Novum Ilium, the Greek Ilium, 19; a modern 
 name for Strnbo's 'existing' Ilium, not 
 used by classical writers, 19, 38 ; site of, 
 viewed from Hissarlik, 109; situation, 
 three miles from Hellespont, four from 
 Sigeum ; inhabited by Aeolic Greeks ; 
 inconsiderable till Eoman times, 167 ; 
 legendary reverence for; the only place 
 that ever bore the sacred name ; temple of 
 Athene in the Acropolis, 168 ; identity 
 with Homer's Ilios first questioned by De- 
 metrius and Hestiaea (q. v.), 168, 174; 
 (comp. Site of Homer's Ilios;) descrip- 
 tion of by Polemon (q. v.), 168 ; visited 
 by Xerxes, 168 ; strongly garrisoned, 170, 
 173; captured by Charidemus, 170 ; visited 
 by Alexander the Great, 171 ; favoured, 
 enlarged, and fortified by Lysimachus 
 (q. v.), 172, 173 ; by Antiochus I. Soter, 
 172 ; is seen in decay by Demetrius ; his 
 statements questioned; mutual recognition 
 of Romans and Ilians, 173 ; new impor- 
 tance of Ilium ; jealousy of neighbouring 
 cities, 174; sacked by Fimbria, 176-7; 
 improved by Sulla, 177 ; receives favours, 
 exemptions, and privileges from Julius 
 Caesar, 177 ; intended for capital of the 
 empire by Julius Caesar, Augustus, and 
 Constantine, 178, 180; fine imposed by 
 Agrippa, remitted through intercession of 
 Herodes ; favoured by Caius Caesar, s. of 
 Julia ; visited by Ovid ; speech in favour 
 of by young Nero secures exemption from 
 Claudius, 178 ; visit and mad pranks of 
 Caracalla (q. v.), 179 ; visit of Julian 
 (q. v.), 180 f. ; sacrifices then still offered 
 to heroes, 181 ; abandonment of, in 4th 
 or 5th cent., presumed from the latest 
 coins, of Constantius II. and Constans II., 
 and from absence of any Byzantine re- 
 mains ; a bishopric in 10th century, 
 perhaps on another site, 183, 612; 20 
 shafts sunk, depth of debris in ; pottery 
 of all ages from the first Aeolic coloniza- 
 tion ; numerous coins and incised gems 
 
780 
 
 NOVUM ILTUM. 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 OWL-HEADED VASES. 
 
 picked up on surface, 612 : — Professor 
 Mahaffy on its relation to Homer's 
 Ilios, App. II., 686 f. ; its history traced, 
 688, 689 ; old Trojan localities shown at 
 N. I. ; why invented, 688 ; proofs of in- 
 significance before Alexander, 689 ; but 
 fortified, not a Kafir) as Demetrius made 
 it, 689 ; sudden expansion due to favour 
 of Alexander and Lysimachus, exciting 
 envy, 689 ; the fine intiicted by Agrippa, 
 a proof of its importance, 689. See In- 
 scriptions and Coins. 
 Novum Ilium, Acropolis of, called Pcr- 
 gamus (after that of Troy), the 7th c. on 
 Hissarlik, 38 ; remains discovered, 6£ ft. 
 deep, 21 ; Bouleuterion or Senate-house, 
 21 ; debris of, deep on S. side of hill, 23 ; 
 Doric temple of Apollo, 23; marble blocks 
 belonging to buildings, 27-29 ; large wine- 
 jars (ttLOoi), 28 ; great temple of Athene', 
 29 ; site probably levelled for, 588 ; rea- 
 sons for the choice, 608 ; the city to the 
 E. and S. ; the temple where Xerxes and 
 Alexander sacrificed, probable remnants 
 of ; later Corinthian, of Lysimachus, 608 ; 
 Doric of Apollo (see Temples) ; block of 
 triglyphs ; the (supposed) Senate-house 
 (see Bouleuterion), inscriptions in or near 
 it ; unavoidable destruction of remains to 
 excavate Troy, 609 ; walls of defence, 
 ancient and Macedonian, 609, 610 (see 
 Walls, Tower) ; slanting layers of debris, 
 610 ; section of, 611 ; size, wealth, and 
 magnificence, attested by the ruins; 
 aqueduct; theatre, 610; archaic Greek 
 pottery (q. v.) and other objects of 
 terra-cotta (<?. v.), 612 f . ; lamps, 620; 
 lead, 621 ; keys, 621, 622 ; glass beads, 
 622; the fine metope (q. v.) of Apollo, 
 622 f. ; cavern on W. slope, 625-6 ; in- 
 scriptions (q. v.), 627 f. ; coins (q. v.), 
 641 f. 
 
 Nuggets. See Gold and Silver. 
 Nymphs, Grotto of, 49. See Grotto. 
 
 OAKS, abundant in Troad ; various species 
 (com p. Vulonea) ; gall-bearing, use of ne- 
 glected, 116, 117. 
 
 Obsidian knives in first 4 c, 247 ; still used 
 by Jews for circumcision, 247. See also 
 Arrow-heads. 
 
 Odyssey, xxivth Book of, a later addition, 
 649, 670. 
 
 Oenochoae (olvoxoai, " wine-pourers "). See 
 Flagons. 
 
 Oenone, d. of R. Cebren, w. of Paris, 157. 
 Oil, scented, used by ladies after the bath 
 
 (Horn.), small tripod bottle, perhaps for, 
 3rd c, 405. 
 
 Ophir and its gold, 258 f. ; etymology, 259. 
 
 Ophrynium, ruins of, at Palaeo-Kastron on 
 the Hellespont, 59, 60, 109; identified by 
 coins; acropolis same size as Hissarlik; 
 Hellenic pottery only, 60 ; Hector's tomb 
 shown at, 76, 670; coins of, N. I., 612. 
 
 Orestes, s. of Agamemnon ; Dorian invasion 
 probably prevented his reigning at My- 
 cenae ; reigned in Arcadia and Sparta ; 
 began the Achaean and Aeolian emigra- 
 tion, but died in Arcadia; his sons and 
 grandsons, 127, 128. 
 
 Ornamentation of Vans: incised linear, 
 filled with chalk, 216; of furrows on 
 handles, 217 ; of ovals, 221 ; painting 
 unknown, except a cuttle-fish in clay, 
 a cross, and owls' faces in clay, 225 ; of 
 dots, 226; incised, on the whorls, 229; 
 remarkable on a potsherd, 232 ; remark- 
 able on a pithos in shape of Greek A, 297 ; 
 spiral, like the litui carried by Hittite 
 figures, 341, 345 ; zigzag, 357 ; the cuttle- 
 fish, 360; of rows of dots, 366; tree, as 
 on many whorls, 367 ; wave, like Cy- 
 priote ho, 369 ; bands, rope-like, &c, on 
 the great pithoi, 379, 380 ; fluting, 392 ; 
 of circles and crosses, like Babylonian 
 and Hittite, 412 ; of animal forms, on 
 whorls, 413; floral, painted, on the Besika 
 Tepeh pottery, 668. 
 
 Ornaments of metal: see Bronze, Copper, 
 Electrum, Gold, Silver ; also Brooches, 
 Far-rings, Pendants, Pins, liings, &c. 
 
 Ornithology of the Troad, 112. 
 
 Otreus, k. of Phrygia, 120. 
 
 Oulou Dagh, visited ; probably Homer's Cal- 
 licolone ; height ; geology ; view from, 59, 
 71 ; viewed from Troy, 109. See Calli- 
 colone. 
 
 Ovens for pottery unknown at Troy ; dates 
 of use, 219. 
 
 Ovid visits N. Ilium, 178. 
 
 Owl, significance of, in connection with 
 Athene, 289 (comp. Athene Glaucopis) : 
 in Egypt a bird of ill-omen ; no owl- 
 headed deities there, 744. 
 
 Owl-face, on flat idols (see Idols) ; one 
 painted in black clay, 225 ; on vase- 
 covers (see Covers)-, — in monogram ; 1st c, 
 on fragments of bowls, 217, 247 ; 3rd c, 
 on a terra-cotta ball, 344. 
 
 Owl-head, terra-cotta figure of, with neck- 
 laces and hair, 3rd c, 334. 
 
 Oivl-headed Vases, with female charac- 
 teristics, represent the Athene Glaucopis 
 
OWLS. 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 PEASE. 
 
 781 
 
 of Homer, 281, 282 : of 2nd c, 290 ; 
 with wing-like arms, distinct from the 
 handles, 291 ; unique, nearest parallel 
 in the German urns with human faces, of 
 recent date (see Face- Vases), 292-3 ; rude 
 flagons of Thera, with necklaces and 
 breasts, 293 ; — 3rd c. ; general descrip- 
 tion ; the wing - like projections not 
 handles ; never with holes for suspension ; 
 with cup on head ; with two handles, 
 339, 340 ; with spiral ornaments, 341 ; 
 one which contained gold ornaments, 
 somewhat like a Posen face-urn, 43, 
 341, 485 ; with ornament like Cypriote 
 ho, 342 ; most remarkable, found in royal 
 palace, with necklace and scarf, 343 ; 
 very curious, with owl's face, necklaces, 
 hair, shield, and side vessels in form of 
 wings, 344: — 4th c. ; one with -j-J-J- on 
 vulva, 521 ; very curious, with basin on 
 head and cup in hands, 521 ; mouth- 
 piece of another, 339, 340 ; with wing-like 
 projeclions, 522:— 5th c, 574 f.; all wheel- 
 made, of rude fabric, and unpolished, 575 ; 
 the owl-headed vases and idols represent 
 in Prof. Sayce's opinion the Eastern 
 goddess Atargatis, Ate, Cybele, Ma, and 
 Omphale', 694. 
 
 Owls, innumerable in the trenches, 38, 113. 
 
 Oxen, two species in Troad, common (Bos 
 Taurus) and buffalo, 112 ; both used for 
 agriculture, 112 ; — terra-cotta figures of (or 
 cows, q. v.), 4th c, 560. 
 
 PAEONIANS, connection with Teucrians 
 and Phrygia, 122, 123 ; allies of Troy, 158. 
 
 Paesus, K., 132 ; c, see Apaesus. 
 
 Painting and Pigments unknown in all the 
 5 pre-historic c, 222, 225 ; the very few 
 exceptions of painting with clay, 225. 
 
 Palace of Priam (Horn.) compared with 
 chief's bouse of Burnt C, 326, 327. 
 
 Palaescepsis (Old Scepsis), royal seat of 
 Aeneas, 167 ; refounded (Scepsis) in the 
 plain, by Scamandrius, s. of Hector, and 
 Ascanius, s. of Aeneas, 167, 688. 
 
 Palaeocastron, Pr., no debris or pottery, 107. 
 
 Palamedes taught the Greeks to play dice, 
 168, 211. 
 
 Palladium, the, sent down fr. Zeus to litis, 
 153, 643 ; or brought by Chryse to Dar- 
 danus as her dowry, 642 ; made Troy im- 
 pregnable, 160 ; carried off by Diomedes 
 and Ulysses, 160, 178 ; said to have been 
 preserved in the sack of N. I, by Fimbria, 
 177 ; described, 153, 232 ; probably sa- 
 credly copied in the Trojan flat idols, 232, 
 
 329 ; identified with Athene on a coin of 
 N. I., 289 ; appears on many coins of N. I., 
 642, 643. 
 
 Pandarus, s. of Lycaon, dominion of, 68; 
 
 the Lycians, fr. 11. Aesepus to Zeleia, 132. 
 Panopeus. See Epeius. 
 Pappadahes, N., author's teacher in Greek, 
 
 14. 
 
 Paris (also Alexandras), s. of Priam and 
 Hecuba ; omens before his birth ; ex- 
 posed on Ida and brought up by shep- 
 herds; why called Alexandros ; his deci- 
 sion of the dispute of the three goddesses, 
 and its consequences ; visits Menelaus and 
 carries off Helen, with treasure ; returns 
 by Egypt and Phoenicia to Troy, 157; 
 shoots Achilles, 159; killed by Philoctetes, 
 160; Egyptian story about Paris and 
 Helen in Egypt, 161 n. f. ; house of, on 
 the Pergamos, 140; the names Paris and 
 Alexandros native and Greek equivalents, 
 704. 
 
 Pasha Tepeh, Tumulus of, promontory from 
 into the plain, 108, 109 ; Webb's site 
 of Troy ; his errors, 108 ; Homer's tomb 
 of Aesyetes, according to Strabo, but 
 really his tumulus of Batieia (q. v.) or 
 Myrine, 656, 657 ; excavated by Mrs. 
 Schliemann, 108, 176, 656, 658; no signs 
 of sepulture, but very ancient pottery, 658. 
 
 Passage, a narrow, between Trojan houses, 
 3rd c, 54, 323. 
 
 Patavium founded by Antenor, 164. 
 
 Patroclus and the game of astragals (Horn.), 
 sculptures representing, 263 ; — his death 
 on coins of N. I., 644-6. 
 
 Patroclus, Tumulus of (Horn)., on the shore 
 by the Greek camp, 151 ; his reputed 
 tumulus an identification opposed to 
 Homer; account of his funeral; his real 
 tumulus a cenotaph, 649 ; the reputed 
 tumulus excavated by Mr. Frank Calvert ; 
 nothing found, 656. 
 
 Pausanias for the N. I. site of Troy, 210. 
 
 Pavements : of street through gates, 33 ; of 
 limestone flags, laid by 2nd settlers ; much 
 worn, covered by 3rd settlers with flags to 
 1st gate, with rough stones to 2nd gate, 
 265, 266, 306 ; flags disintegrated by the 
 conflagration, 266 ; no wheel marks, 265 
 (comp. Street) ; layers of debris over, after 
 the conflagration, 310 ; a level space paved 
 with flags and other stones, 40; of flags, 
 on wall of 2nd c, 267-8 ; on wall of 3rd 
 c, 305. 
 
 Pease used by the Trojans, 118; probably 
 Homer's ipefiivOoi, 321 and n. 
 
782 
 
 PECHEL, M. 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 PITCHERS. 
 
 Pechel, M., the author's brother-in-law, 5 n. 
 
 Pedasus, on the Satniois, destroyed by 
 Achilles, 134; Homeric epithets, 134; 
 supposed Pidasa of the Egyptian monu- 
 ments, 134, 747. 
 
 Pegasius, renegade bishop of N. Ilium, acts 
 as guide to Julian at Ilium, 181. 
 
 Pelasgians, Asiatic, dominion of, on the 
 Aeolian coast, 123, 138 ; c, Larissa (q. v.) ; 
 Prof. Sayce's remarks on, 127 ; the Pulo- 
 sata or Purosata of Egyptian records, 745, 
 748. 
 
 Pendants, gold, Tr., 487. 
 
 Peneleos, tomb of, according to Webb the 
 Besika Tepeh (q. v.), 665. 
 
 Pentaur, Egyptian epic poem of, contains 
 names of peoples of Asia Minor, 123. 
 
 Penthesileia, q. of the Amazons, aids the 
 Trojans ; killed by Achilles, 159. 
 
 Penthilus, s. of Orestes, leads Aeolian colo- 
 nists to Thrace and the Troad, 127, 128. 
 
 Percnos (nepicvos, Horn.), the one eagle of 
 the Troad, 113. 
 
 Percote or Percope (Borgas or Bergas), c. 
 near the Hellespont, 133. 
 
 Percy, Dr. John, on a Trojan crucible, 408. 
 
 Perforated terra-cotta vessels : with handle 
 and 3 feet, to stand on the side, frequent 
 in 3rd and 4th c, all wheel-made, per- 
 haps for draining honeycombs ; similar 
 in Italian terra-mare, 373 ; — 4th c, 
 556, 558 ; difficulty of explaining their 
 use ; perhaps to preserve fruits ; similar 
 from Rhodes, Phoenicia, Hungary, terra- 
 mare, and lake-dwellings, 558. 
 
 Pergamos, -us, -urn (rj Uipyapos, Horn. ; 
 to Uepya.fj.ov : ra TLipyapa), the Acropolis 
 of the Homeric Troy, 211 ; temples and 
 palaces in ; Priam's house, 140, 211 ; 
 Homer's conception of, 140; ascending 
 slope of, 141 ; placed by Lechevalier on 
 the Bali Dagh, 185 ; Hissarlik first sup- 
 posed to be, 38 (see Troy) ; the name 
 continued in the Acropolis of Novum 
 Ilium (q. v.) ; Pergamos not etymologi- 
 cally connected with Priamos, 704. 
 
 fergamum, the famous c. in Mysia, 156. 
 
 Pergamus, cities in Crete, 122 ; foundation 
 ascribed to Aeneas, 156 ; in Pieria, 123. 
 
 Perrot, G., 'Excursion a Troie et aux Sources 
 du Mendere; 188. 
 
 Peruvian animal- vases, 294. 
 
 Pestles of limestone and granite, 1st c, 235. 
 
 Petersburg, St., author's establishment in 
 business at, 11. 
 
 Petra, unknown place in Troad, named on 
 an inscription of N. I., 632. 
 
 Petrowsky, II, the authors brother-in-law, 
 5 n. 
 
 Phallus or Priapus, of stone : 2nd c, 276 ; 
 mythology and worship of, 276 f. ; one on 
 M. Sipylus in Lydia, 278, 452-3 ; some 
 of 3rd c, 452 ; one of white marble, 5th 
 c, 584. 
 
 Philoctetes, brought from Lemnos to Troy, 
 according to a prophecy, kills Paris, 160. 
 
 Phoenicians, migration of, from the Persian 
 Gulf, 260. 
 
 Phorkys, Homeric port of Ithaca, supposed 
 to be Dexia, 49. 
 
 Phnjgia, N.E. boundary of Priam's do- 
 minion, 67 ; rich in flocks and wool, 112 ; 
 mythical metallurgists in, 254-6 ; art of 
 fusing metals invented in, 255. 
 
 Phrygians, akin to Mysians, 119 ; relations 
 to Trojans; Phrygian names of Trojan 
 heroes ; allies of Trojans from a distance 
 (Homer), 120, 150; called Thracians, 
 said to have been once neighbours of the 
 Macedonians, and to have migrated to 
 Asia; affinity with Armenians; their lan- 
 guage related to Mysian and Lydian, and 
 closely to Greek ; other grounds of connec- 
 tion with Greeks ; common legends ; the 
 Pelopids from Phrygia,121 ; relations of 
 the people and their language to the 
 Mysians and Trojans, 704. 
 
 Pickaxe and Spade, criticism of, 518, 672. 
 
 Pidasa. See Pedasus. 
 
 Pig, terra-cotta, covered with stars, N. I., 
 616. 
 
 Pigeon on clay disc of N. L, 619. 
 
 Pilin in Hungary, vases from, 223. 
 
 Pins of copper in 1st c. ; parallel examples, 
 249 ; of bone and ivory, 261, 262. 
 
 Pitchers, terra-cotta (com p. Jugs) : of 3rd 
 c, long and thick, for drawing water 
 from well, with marks of the rope on 
 handles ; like the ancient Egyptian 
 buckets, 381 ; rude, polished, wheel- 
 made, peculiar to 3rd c, 393-5 ; similar 
 from Bethlehem, Egypt, Cyprus, and 
 Szihalom, 394 ; others, unique, 396 ; — 
 4th c, 529 ; rude, of a form very abun- 
 dant, 533 ; lustrous-red, abundant in 3rd 
 and 4th c, 535 ; double-handled tripod, 
 540 ; hand-made, 553-5 ; thick cylindri- 
 cal for drawing water, with impression of 
 rope on handle, 554, 555 ; — 5th c, one- 
 handled, of hour-glass form, 578, 579 ; 
 rude, of frequent type, 581 ; — of 6th c, 
 hand-made with incised ornamentation 
 like embroidery, 590-1; similar from 
 Italy and Lydia, 591; with bosses or 
 
riTHor. 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 POMEGRANATES. 
 
 783 
 
 horn-like projections, 592-3; like those 
 found at Povio, 593 ; pitcher with spout 
 in side, perhaps for feeding babies, 597. 
 
 Pithoi (Uidoc), terra-cotta, in Trojan base- 
 ments, for food, water, oil, &c. ; discovery 
 of, 28, 32 ;— in 2nd c, rudely made, 279 ; 
 Prince Bismarck's explanation of their 
 making and baking, 279, 280, 588 ; Vir- 
 chow's opinion, 520 n. ; always dark red ; 
 fragment of one, 280 ; mentioned by 
 Homer and Hesiod in the legend of Pan- 
 dora, 281 ; — of enormous size in 3rd c, 
 32, 54; the great one presented to the 
 Eoyal Museum of Berlin, its peculiar 
 form, 378, 379 ; numerous and nearly 
 all destroyed ; nine below the temple 
 of Athene ; great number, generally 
 covered with flags, but empty, 379 ; in 
 a few, carbonized grain, &c., 317, 379 ; 
 plain, or decorated with simple bands, 
 379, 380; — gigantic of 6th c, found in 
 situ, thoroughly baked, 588. 
 
 Pityeia, c, and Pityus, district, in territory 
 of Parium, 132 ; said to be old name of 
 Lampsacus, 133. 
 
 Plain of Troy, not of marine formation; 
 and no evidence of growth towards the 
 Hellespont, 84 ; Maclaren on the alluvial 
 deposits in, 86 ; investigations of Virchow 
 and Burnouf, 88, 89 ; not materially 
 altered since the Trojan War, 89 ; con- 
 firmed by Forchhammer and Spratt, and 
 by the author's observations, 90 ; the 
 sea has rather advanced on the land, 9 1 ; 
 misinterpretation of Homer's evpvs koXkos, 
 91 ; panoramic view of, 103 ; breadth 
 of; bounded on W. by hills skirting 
 Aegean, 106 ; Homer's Spao-fios irebioio, 
 the Upper Plain, not a hill, none in the 
 plain, 145 ; small extent of, argument 
 against N. I. site, refuted, 174, 175; 
 alleged growth of, disproved, 203-207 
 (comp. Alluvial Deposits) ; extent of, 
 and view over, from Ujek Tepeh, 678 ; 
 framed by a chain of volcanic rock from 
 the Hellespont to the Aegean, 678. 
 
 Plakia, d. of Atreus or Leucippus, wife of 
 Laomedon, 156. 
 
 Plantal Decoration, on vases; on a vase- 
 cover, 413; on whorls, 413, 418, 419, 
 420, &c. 
 
 Plants of the Troad, list of, by Professors 
 Ascherson and von Heldreich, and Dr. F. 
 Kurtz, App. VI., 727 f. 
 
 Plaster of clay on house-walls, 30, 31. 
 
 Hate of Copper, with two discs, perhaps 
 hasps for the chest, Tr., the first object 
 
 of the Great Treasure caught sight of, 40, 
 453, 468-9 ; — of gold, ornamented in in- 
 taglio, Tr., 493. 
 
 Plates, terra-cotta, perhaps for lining house- 
 walls, peculiar to 2nd c, 281. 
 
 Plates (and Dishes), terra-cotta, shallow and 
 deep : — 2nd c, all wheel-made, very rude, 
 303 ; similar ones found at Magyarad in 
 Hungary, 304 ; also fragments of black 
 hand-made plates, 304 ; — 3rd c, mostly 
 small yellow wheel-made, without handles ; 
 the hand made larger, brown or red, 
 polished, and better baked, 407, 408 ; no 
 marks of wear, 408 ; similar from Assyria, 
 Cyprus, Hungary, Germany, 408; — 4th c, 
 wheel-made, rude and unpolished, shal- 
 low, as in 3rd c, 544; hand-made, deep, 
 polished, lustrous-brown or red, sometimes 
 with 1 or 2 handles ; some tripod and per- 
 forated ; one with cross painted in red 
 clay ; similar, but wheel-made, in Cyprus, 
 544 ; — in 5th c, none wheel-made, 582. 
 
 Platforms. See Excavations at Hissarlik. 
 
 Plato recognized connection of Greek and 
 Phrygian languages, 121. 
 
 Pliny calls N. Ilium " the fountain of all 
 celebrity," 179. 
 
 Plutarch for the N. I. site of Troy, 210. 
 
 Podarces, s. of Laomedon, 156. See Priam. 
 
 Poemanenians, of Poemanenon, S. of Cyzi- 
 cus, in an inscription of N. I., 636. 
 
 Polemon, of N. Ilium, his description 
 (nepirjyrjo-is) of the city ; identifies it with 
 Homer's Ilios, 168, 176. 
 
 Polis, valley in Ithaca, supposed site of the 
 Homeric capital, disproved ; the natural 
 rock Castron not a fortress ; shafts sunk, 
 negative results ; pottery, tombs, coins, an 
 inscription, all much later, 45, 46. 
 
 Polisher (probably) of terra-cotta, curiously 
 decorated, 3rd c, 422. 
 
 Polishers, stone, for pottery, &c. : 1st c, 218, 
 236, 237 ;— 3rd c, of jasper, diorite, and 
 porphyry ; one inscribed with the Cypriote 
 mo, 443, 444 ; — frequent in 4th c, 571. 
 
 Polites, s. of Priam, 157, 174, 656. See 
 Aesyetes, Tumidus of. 
 
 Polium or Polisma, built by the Astypa- 
 laeans on the Simois ; its site at Koum 
 Kioi, 81. 
 
 Polydorus, s. of Priam, 157. 
 
 Polygonal Masonry, no proof of antiquity, 
 57, 192. 
 
 Polyxena, d. of Priam, 157 ; intended nup- 
 tials of Achilles with, 159 ; sacrificed on 
 tomb of Achilles ; another account, 164. 
 
 Pomegranates in the Troad, 118. 
 
784 
 
 POPE, A. 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 POTTEKY. 
 
 Pope, A., on Homer's fixed epithets, 284. 
 
 Porcelain, Egyptian, staff-handles of, 3rd c, 
 sign of relations with Egypt, 429. 
 
 Poseidon, in story of Laomedon, link of 
 connection with Phoenicia, 125. 
 
 Postolaccas, Achilles, account of the coins 
 found at N. Ilium, 641 f. 
 
 Potsherds used for stones in walls of royal 
 house, 3rd c, 325. 
 
 Potter's Wheel, known early in Egypt, 213 ; 
 known but not common in 1st c, 214. 
 
 Pottery (comp. Bowls, Cups, Covers, 
 Dishes, Coble's, Jars, Jugs, Pithoi, 
 Plates, Urns, Vases, &c.) : first discovery 
 of, in the successive strata ; coarse hand- 
 made in 5th and 4th, better hand-made 
 in 3rd, 21 ; in 2 lowest strata, different 
 from those above, 23 ; enormous quantity 
 in a Trojan house, 30 ; of Eoman age in 
 N. Ilium, 39 ; nearly all of pre-historic 
 cities in fragments, 39 ; in Ithaca, 46, 
 47 ; on M. Aiitos, like that of 1st and 
 2nd c. of Troy, 48 ; only Greek at Bounar- 
 bashi, 55; of 6th or Lydian c, unlike 
 the rest, like the Etruscan, 128 ; on site of 
 Dardanus, Greek only, 134 ; the cornu- 
 copia of pre-historic archaeological wisdom ; 
 antiquity of the art, 213 ; test of advance 
 in civilization, 214 ; test of race, 279 ; of 
 chronology, the latest found in ruins a 
 limit of their age ; it may be later, but 
 cannot be earlier, 663. 
 
 Pottery of 1st City, 213 : use for all utensils 
 of life, cellars, and coffins ; no tiles ; best 
 of all the pre-historic cities ; far the most 
 of it hand-made ; some wheel-made, 214 
 and n. ; lustrous-black colour, 218 ; how 
 produced, 220 ; polished by stones ; rough- 
 ness due to materials, 218 ; mode of fabri- 
 cation ; clay coating ; baking at an open 
 fire, ovens unknown, 219; very imper- 
 fect, 232 ; feet of vases, 223, 224 ; re- 
 markable goblet (q. v.), 224 ; miniature 
 pitcher, 225 ; piece of a slab, perhaps of a 
 box, 226 ; 2 funeral urns (q. v.), injured 
 by moisture, 227; terra-cotta whorls (q. v.), 
 229 ; discs (q. v.), 231 ; the only perfectly 
 baked potsherd of the 1st o, 231. 
 Pottery of 2nd City : different from 1st, 
 264, 278; the gigantic jars (pithoi, q.v.), 
 279 ; plates, perhaps for house-walls, 281 ; 
 owl-vases (q. v.), 281 f., and covers, 291, 
 292 ; vessel in shape of a sow, 294 (see 
 Animal Vases) ; vases with vertical tubu- 
 lar holes for suspension, 295; tripods, 
 295, 296 ; all these are hand-made, 296 ; 
 a wheel-made tripod, 296 ; vases with 2 
 
 and 3 handles, 297 ; potsherds with in- 
 cised decoration ; one with written cha- 
 racters, 298 ; the inscription discussed, 
 697 ; the remarkable two-handled goblets, 
 Homer's SeVay diMfaucvneWov (see Amphi- 
 kypellon), 299 ; fragments like the remark- 
 able vase from the chiefs house of 3rd c, 
 302, 303 ; whorls, 301 ; plates, all wheel- 
 made, very rude, 303. 
 
 Pottery of 3rd City : all hand-made, 329 ; 
 imperfectly baked at open fire, 329 ; much 
 (esp. potsherds) completely baked by the 
 conflagration, 329, 521 ; owl-faced idols 
 and vases (q. v.), 329 f. ; tripod vases, 
 354 f. ; curious boxes and covers, 360 ; 
 unornamented tripods, 362 ; vases (q. v.) 
 of various forms, 363 f. ; vase-covers, 
 flat, cap-like, and stopper-shaped, 354, 
 368-70 ; decorated potsherds, 370 ; depa 
 amphikypella (q. v.), 371 ; perforated 
 tripods, 373 ; crown - handled covers, 
 374-5 ; vessels in form of animals, 
 375 f. ; hooks, probably for clothes, 378 ; 
 the great jars (pithoi), 378 f . ; solid 
 pitcher for drawing water, 381 ; various 
 vases (q. v.), 381 ; tripod, with three con- 
 ined cups, 384 ; jugs or flagons (q. v.), 
 with double spouts of two kinds, 384, 
 385 f. ; rude polished wheel-made pitchers, 
 peculiar to this city, 393-4 ; bottles, 390, 
 395, 396 ; wheel-made cup and tripod- 
 dish ; bowls, with handle and spout, 
 396 ; large, with two handles, 397 ; am- 
 phorae, 397, 398 ; vases and bottles with 
 2, 3, and 4 handles, 400-402 ; large mix- 
 ing bowls, 403 (see Craters) ; barrels, 404 ; 
 vessels with spouts in the side, use of, 466 ; 
 miniature vessels, 407 ; fragments deco- 
 rated with circles and crosses, 412; curi- 
 ously ornamented vase-cover, 412, 413. 
 
 Pottery of Ath City: like 3rd, but some 
 new forms; coarser and ruder, wheel- 
 made, 518; only half-baked, 520-1; 
 owl-headed female vases, 521 ; fragments 
 of ornamented vases and handles, 524; 
 vase-neck, incised, and (perhaps) man 
 with uplifted arms, 525 ; suspension and 
 other vases, jugs, pitchers, cups, &c. (q.v.), 
 525; lilliputian vessels, probably toys, 
 abundant in 4th and 5th c, 534; depa 
 amphikypella, 535 f. ; plates, 544 ; vases, 
 jugs, flagons or oenochoae, 545 f.; per- 
 forated vessels, 556-8. 
 Pottery of 5th City : same patterns as 4th, 
 hand-made and wheel-made, but generally 
 inferior, 574; owl-headed female vases 
 and covers (q. v.), all wheel-made and 
 
POTTERY. 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 RHOETEUM. 
 
 785 
 
 unpolished ; other pottery polished, 575 ; 
 the dtpas amphikypellon has become very 
 small, 577 (see Bottles, Cups, Goblets, 
 Jugs, Pitchers, Vases). Note on pottery 
 of 3rd, 4th, and 5th cities, 583 n. 
 
 Pottery of the (5th or Lydian City: totally 
 different in shape and fabric from that of 
 the five pre-historic cities, and that of 
 N. Ilium, 587, 588 ; the gigantic pithos 
 found in situ, 588 ; nearly all hand-made, 
 and mixed with crushed stones, particu- 
 larly mica ; generally bulky ; coated with 
 a wash of clay before baking; slightly 
 baked ; dull black, like the Albano hut- 
 urns, but some dull yellow or brown, 588. 
 
 Pottery of N. I. : archaic Greek, painted ; 
 fragments of vases, bowls, vase-handles, 
 spouts, &c, 612-615; an archaic vase- 
 head, with vertical tubular holes for sus- 
 pension, 614; potsherd with signs like 
 hieroglyphs, 619. Comp. Terra-cottas. 
 
 Pottery found in Besika Tepeh, compared 
 with that of Hissarlik. See Besika Tepeh. 
 
 Pottery found in Hana'i Tepeh, the pre-his- 
 toric Thymbra. See Thymbra. 
 
 Pottery, Etruscan, like that of 6th c. on 
 Hissarlik, 587. 
 
 Pounders for crushing coarse particles in 
 clay for pottery, 1st c, 237. 
 
 P radius t R., described, 101. 
 
 Prendergast, G. L., ' Concordance to the 
 Iliad of Homer,' 403. 
 
 Priam (Uplapos, Horn. ; Aeol. Tleppapos, 
 Hesych.), first called Podarces, s. of 
 Laomedon, spared by Herakles and 
 ransomed (Trpidpevos) by Hesione ; the 
 eponym of Pergamon (Grote) ; marries 
 Hecabe (Hecuba), 156 ; his fifty sons and 
 twelve daughters, 157 ; killed by Neopto- 
 lemus, 161 ; palace of, on the Pergamos, 
 140; still shown by the Greek Ilians, 
 211 (see Novum Ilium) ; "Priam of the 
 IlianSy'' legend on coins of N. Ilium, 179, 
 643 ; Virchow's plea for retaining the 
 name, 684 ; his name IUppapos, orig. Pe- 
 ryamos, not connected with Wpyapos, but 
 with the Lydian 7ra.Xp.vSy " king," accord- 
 ing to Prof. Sayce, 704. 
 
 Priam, dominion of, 67 ; Ilium and sur- 
 rounding country; cities, Thymbra and 
 Ilium (see Troy), 138. 
 
 Priam, Tumulus of, on the Bali Dagh, 651 ; 
 opened by Mr. Frank Calvert ; structure 
 of stone in the centre, probably the base of 
 a monument, 655, 656 ; a few potsherds, 
 but no sign of sepulture, 656. 
 
 Priapus. See Phallus. 
 
 Prokesch-Osten, 1 Er inner ungen aus Aegyp- 
 
 ten und Klein- Asien ,' and ' Denhwur- 
 
 digheiten und Erinnerungen aus dem 
 
 Orient; l c 6. 
 Proteus, k. of Egypt, receives and expels 
 
 Paris, detains Helen and restores her to 
 
 Menelaus, 161 n. f. ; probably Ramses III., 
 
 163 n., 747. 
 Pulszky, F., on a Copper Age, 257. 
 Punches, copper, 1st and 2nd cities, 250; 
 
 bronze, 3rd c, 505. 
 Purple dyeing, from the murex, an ancient 
 
 Trojan industry, 115. 
 Pyramid, small, of green gabbro-rock, 
 
 plugged with lead, 3rd c, 444. 
 Pytheas of Argos, sculptor of statue of 
 
 Metrodorus found at N. I., 635. 
 
 QUACK, MP., consul of Mecklenburg at 
 Amsterdam, aids author, 9. 
 
 Quien, F. G, author's employer at Amster- 
 dam, 9, 10 ; commercial house of, 9 n. 
 
 Quoit (dio-Kos, discus) of granite, 5th c, 
 584 ; in Homer ; etymology ; found in 
 Denmark and England, 585. 
 
 MAMSES II., Fesostris, k. of Egypt : peo- 
 ples of Asia Minor and the islands con- 
 federate with the Khita against him, 746 ; 
 historical foundation for the tradition of 
 his expeditions as far as Thrace, 749, 750. 
 
 Pamses III, k. of Egypt, the Proteus of 
 Herodotus, 163 n., 747 ; defeats peoples of 
 Asia Minor and the islands allied in the 
 invasion of Egypt, 748. 
 
 Bashid Pasha obtains a firman, 44. 
 
 Battles of terra-cotta, 3rd c, 413 ; 4th c. ; 
 found in Moeringen lake-dwellings, 533. 
 
 Pavaisson de Molien, site of Troy, 190. 
 
 EaivlinsoUy Prof. G. } 4 History of IJero- 
 
 . dot us, 7 188. 
 
 Pen Kioiy tumulus above, 648 ; excavated 
 by Mr. Fred. Calvert ; a mere natural 
 mound, 655. 
 
 Rennell, Major, * Topography of the Plain 
 of Troy,' 188; on Alexander's belief in 
 the N. I. site of Troy, 210. 
 
 Bhea, m. of the gods, worship of, common 
 to Phrygians and Trojans, 124. 
 
 Rhesus, R., lises in Ida, 68, 100. 
 
 Bhodius, R., rises in Ida, 68 ; desc.ibed, 100. 
 
 Rhoeteum, Pr. (In Tepeh), on the Hellespont ; 
 distance from Sigeum ; several peaks, hence 
 named in plural ; height ; this and Sigeum 
 not named in Homer, but once alluded to 
 as having the Greek naval camp between 
 them, 72, 73, 103. See Camp. 
 
 3 E 
 
786 
 
 RHOETEUM. 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 SAYCE, A. H. 
 
 Bhoeteum, town, 73, 104 ; independent of 
 N. I., 167. 
 
 Bhouscpoidos, A.j Prof., letter to author on 
 key in shape of a Hermes-pillar, 621 
 and n. 
 
 Bhyton, a Greek vessel, like those with 
 
 horses' heads in 6th c. and Etruria, 595. 
 Bibs of animals, sharpened, 4th c, 566. 
 Bichter, 0. F. von, ' Wallfahrten im Mor- 
 
 genlandej 186. 
 Bieckler, J., ' Ueber Schliemann's Ausgra- 
 
 bungen? 189. 
 Bing, of mother-of-pearl, 3rd c, 414; of 
 
 diorite, 3rd c, 430. 
 Bings of baked clay, probably stands for 
 
 vases with round or pointed bottoms: 
 
 2nd c, 298 ; frequent in 3rd and 4 th c., 
 
 440, 560, 561 ; in Hungary and Swiss 
 
 lake-dwellings, 440, 561. 
 Bings, large copper, belonging to helmets, 
 
 3rd c, 513. 
 Bings for fingers and hair : bronze, 3rd c, 
 
 505 ; 5th c, 585-6 ;— gold, 2nd c, 272 ; 
 
 probably for the hair, 3rd c, Tr., 498, 
 
 502 ; with spiral ornamentation, Tr., 503. 
 Bivers of the Troad, 73 f. : — names of rivers 
 
 always persistent, 77. 
 Boberts, W. Chandler, Prof., on the copper 
 
 of the 1st c, 251 ; on Trojan metallurgy, 
 
 409,410; et passim. 
 Bock, Native, at Hissarlik, about 53 ft. 
 
 deep, 22 ; comp. Diagram at p. vii. ; of soft 
 
 limestone ; old soil upon, 212. 
 Boemer, F., Prof., on implements of jade, 243. 
 Boma on coins of N. I., 641, 646. 
 Bomans enter Asia ; mutual recognition with 
 
 Ilians, as parents and children; favour 
 
 Ilium and enlarge its territory, 173 ; letter 
 
 of S.P.Q.E. to Seleucus in favour of Ilium ; 
 
 acknowledge their descent from Troy, 178. 
 Boofs, Trojan (ancient and modern), fiat, of 
 
 beams covered with clay, 214. 
 Bope-pattem : band on the great pitlioi, 3rd 
 
 c, 379, 380 ; handle and band on a jug, 
 
 3rd c, 390; bands and handles on the 
 
 Besika Tepeh pottery, 667. 
 Bosettes, ornamentation of Babylonian origin, 
 
 brought by Phoenicians to the West, 494. 
 Bussdorf, von, pastor of Ankershagen, 
 
 ghost of, 1. 
 
 SACBIFICES to Trojan heroes at N. I., 
 210. 
 
 Saddle-querns (or stone hand-mills), very 
 abundant in the 4 lower c, especially 3rd 
 and 4th, 448 ; of trachyte and lava in 1st 
 c, 234 ; parallel examples, 234 ; 2nd c, 
 
 275 ; very rare in 5th c, 573 ; at Thym- 
 bra, 711. 
 
 Safvet Pasha aids author, 44. 
 
 Stdamis, fortifications of, example of later 
 polygonal masonry, 57, 192. 
 
 Salisbury, S., ' Troy and Homer,' 190. 
 
 Salonina, coins of, N. L, 641. 
 
 Samothrace, I., seen from Hissarlik ; seat of 
 Poseidon to view battles at Troy, 105 ; a 
 sacred seat of primitive metallurgy, 256. 
 
 Sangarius, K., in Phrygia, abode of Hecuba's 
 brother on, 120. 
 
 Saoce, M., in Samothrace, 105. 
 
 Sarpedon, leader of Lycians, 158 ; his death 
 on coins of N. I., 645, 646. 
 
 Satniois, R., described, 101. 
 
 Sauvastika rt and Svastika Lfi, frequent on 
 whorls, &c, brought to Hissarlik by the 
 3rd settlers, 346; a sign of good omen, 
 from Sanskrit su, "well," and as, "to 
 be "=€vecrTiKr) (cv and eWt, or ev eorco), 
 346, 347 ; Prof. Max Miiller upon ; objec- 
 tion to use of word out of India ; dis- 
 tinction between and Lfj ; earliest 
 occurrence in India, 346-7 ; used for 
 marking cattle ; origin probably in a 
 simple cross; use in Buddhist inscrip- 
 tions, coins, and MSS. ; first attested on a 
 coin about 300 B.C., 347 ; in foot-prints 
 of Buddha, 347, 349; the Nandydvarta, 
 its development, 347 ; in later Sanskrit 
 literature ; occurrence in China, Asia 
 Minor, Etruria, and Teutonic nations; 
 how the sign got its meaning, 348 ; 
 perhaps a moving wheel as symbol 
 of the sun, 348, 353 ; also of the earth, 
 348-9 ; on a Trojan ball ; on a potsherd, 
 349 ; frequent on balls and whorls, with 
 other symbols, 350 ; Burnouf s views 
 on the and 4^, and and c£Ja, 
 the cross for generating fire, 351 ; found 
 frequently and wide-spread in Europe 
 and Asia, 350-2, China, 352, W. Africa, 
 352-3 ; at Mycenae, Athens, and Cyprus, 
 353 ; Prof. Sayce and Mr. Thomas on, 353 ; 
 on whorls, 3rd c, 416-18, 420. 
 
 Saws, of flint and chalcedony, single and 
 double edged : 1st c, 246 (comp. Silex) ; 
 parallel examples, 246 ; — 3rd c, 445 ; fre- 
 quent in 4th c, 571; — silex, only 3 in 
 5th c, 583 ; such found at Helwan in 
 Lower Egypt, 583 ; — none of bronze at 
 Hissarlik, except one thin one in the great 
 Treasure, 274-5. 
 
 Sayce, A. E., Professor, distinguishes walls 
 of 1st and 2nd cities, 24, 213 ; his ' Prin- 
 ciples of Comparative Philology,' 121; 
 
SCAMANDER. 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 SCHLIEMANN, DR. 
 
 787 
 
 for the Hissarlik site, 190 ; cited passim • 
 " On the Inscriptions found at Hissarlik," 
 App. IH, p. 691 f. 
 
 Scamander, f. of Teucer, 119. 
 
 Scamander, R. (Mendere) : Homer's warm 
 and cold sources near Troy, 144 ; not the 
 springs of Bounarbashi, 18, 55, 78 (comp. 
 Springs) ; sources of in M. Ida described ; 
 height ; temperature ; Virchow's discus- 
 sion of ancient opinions, 58 ; they are 
 in Gargarus, 58, 69; but placed by 
 Strabo in Cotylus, 78 ; called Xanthus 
 (yellow) by the gods, i.e. by the Greek 
 settlers, probably a translation of the 
 native name, 78, 113 n., 705 ; punning 
 etymology of Eustathius, 78 ; its course 
 described by Strabo, 78 ; falls into Hel- 
 lespont through the Stomalimne, 79 ; 
 junction with the Simois, 79, 81, 82, 147; 
 length and fall, 79 ; BurnouPs description 
 of its course, 79, 80 ; its ancient bed (the 
 Kalifatli Asmak) described by Virchow ; 
 causes of the change, 80; its bed in 
 front of Troy ; nature of its sands, 81 ; 
 lower course once through the In Tepeh 
 Asmak, 83 ; confirmed by Homer, 92, and 
 Pliny, 84; diverted to the Stomalimne 
 before 180 B.C., 83 ; course below mound 
 of II us, 84 ; ancient volume much larger 
 than now, 85 ; width of bed of the Kalifatli 
 Asmak, 86 ; Virchow's investigation of the 
 bed, 88 ; alluvium due to the mountains, 
 especially to Ida, 88 ; ford between Greek 
 camp and Troy, 92, 147, 200 ; the river 
 flowed on E. side of the camp, 92 ; 
 Homeric epithets, 93 ; the river-god, his 
 temple and altar; takes part in the 
 battles before Troy, 93 ; reverenced by 
 the Trojans, 94 ; Herodotus on occasional 
 lowness of water, confirmed, 94 ; Pliny's 
 mistakes, 95 ; viewed from Hissarlik, 105, 
 117 ; best ford, 107 ; c flowery mead of,' 
 117 ; dangerous in floods, 178, 322 ; the 
 Bounarbashi Su, according to Lechevalier, 
 185; Virchow on old and new bed, 676, 
 677 ; nature of its delta and valley, 677 ; 
 personified on coins of N. I., 646. 
 
 Scamandria, town of, now Ine, 57. 
 
 Scamandrius, surname of Astyanax, 94. 
 
 Scepsis, c, mythical foundation. See Palae- 
 scepsis. (See also Demetrius.) 
 
 Sceptre (o-KrjTTTpov), twofold use of the word 
 for a staff and royal sceptre, 427 ; handles, 
 of bone, lion's head of fine crystal, 
 Egyptian porcelain, and glass, 428, 429 ; 
 such named as Egyptian spoils from W. 
 Asia, 428 n. 
 
 Schlie, Dr. Fr. : his works, / Schliemann 
 und seine Bestrebungen,' 2 n., 190 ; and 
 ' Wissenschaftliche Beurtheilung der 
 Funde Schliemann' s in Hissarlik, 1 190. 
 
 Schliemann, Agamemnon, the author's son, 
 65 n. 
 
 Schliemann, Andromache, the author's 
 
 daughter, 65 n. 
 Schliemann, Elise, the author's sister, 5 n. 
 Schliemann, Rev. Ernest, author's father, 
 
 1 ; conversations with about Troy, 3. 
 Schliemann, Rev. F., author's uncle and 
 
 tutor, 6. 
 
 Schliemann, Dr. Henry: motive for writing 
 his own life ; parentage and birth at Neu 
 Buckow ; early life at Ankershagen ; 
 influence of the local legends, 1-3 ; dis- 
 cussion with his father about Troy, and 
 resolve to excavate it, 3 ; constant firm 
 belief in its existence, 5 ; his mother's 
 death ; separation from Minna Meincke, 
 5 ; education ; first Latin essay, on the 
 Trojan War ; last meeting with Minna ; 
 employment in shop at Furstenberg, 6 ; 
 effect of a drunken miller's recitation of 
 Homer; desire to learn Greek; accident 
 and illness ; employment at Altona and 
 Hamburg, 7 ; goes to sea and is ship- 
 wrecked, 8 ; at Amsterdam ; rescued from 
 destitution ; self-education ; in English ; 
 new method of learning languages, 9 ; 
 French, Dutch, Spanish, Italian, and Por- 
 tuguese ; in house of B. H. Schroder and 
 Co., of Amsterdam, 10 ; learns Russian, 
 10, 11 ; sent to St. Petersburg ; pro- 
 posal to Minna, finds her married, 11 ; 
 success as a merchant at St. Peters- 
 burg; goes to California and becomes 
 a citizen of the United States; branch 
 house at Moscow; learns Swedish and 
 Polish, 12 ; a marvellous escape from 
 ruin by the burning of Memel, 13 ; pro- 
 gress in business; at length finds time 
 to learn modern and ancient Greek ; read- 
 ing of Greek authors, and especially 
 Homer, 14 ; advice on teaching Greek ; 
 study of Latin resumed, 15 ; proposed 
 retirement from business ; travels in 
 Europe, Egypt, Syria, and Greece ; 
 learns Arabic, 16 ; involved in a law- 
 suit ; resumes business with new success ; 
 final retirement (1863), 17; travels to 
 Tunis (Carthage), Egypt, India, China, 
 Japan, America, and settles at Paris to 
 study (1866) ; first book, La Chine et le 
 Japon; first visit to Ithaca, the Pelo- 
 ponnesus, Athens, and Troy, 18 ; ex- 
 
788 
 
 SCHLIEMANN, DR. 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 SESTOS. 
 
 animation of Bounarbashi, the Troj;m 
 Plain, and Hissarlik, 19 ; evidence as to 
 the site of Troy, 19, 20 ; resolve to begin 
 excavations; work entitled Ithaque, le 
 Peloponnese et Troie (1868) ; diploma of 
 Ph.D. from University of Rostock ; return 
 to Hissarlik, preliminary excavations 
 
 (1870) , 20 ; first year's work at Hissarlik 
 
 (1871) , 21; second year's work (1872), 
 21 f. ; third year's work (1873), 26 f. ; pub- 
 lishes Troy and its Remains; sinks shafts 
 at Mycenae (1874) ; lawsuit with Turkish 
 government, 43 ; firman for new excava- 
 tions (1876); baffled by officials at the 
 Dardanelles, 44 ; excavations at Tiryns 
 and Mycenae (1876) ; publishes Mycenae 
 and Tiryns (1877) ; obtains new firman 
 (1878), 45 ; meanwhile explores Ithaca 
 (1878), 45 f. ; fourth year's work at Troy 
 (1878), 50 f. ; useful escort of gensdarmes, 
 51; fifth year's work at Troy (1879), 
 52 f. ; heroic tumuli explored, 55 ; jour- 
 neys through the Troad, 55 f. ; his for- 
 tune and family, 65, 66 ; destination of 
 his collections, 66 ; acknowledgments to 
 friends for assistance, 66, 672 ; the one 
 object and reward of his labours to advance 
 the love for and study of Homer, 672. 
 
 Schliemann, Dr., brothers and sisters of, 5 n. 
 
 Schliemann, Louis, author's brother, dies in 
 California, 12. 
 
 Schliemann, Nadcshda, the author's daugh- 
 ter, 65 n. 
 
 Schliemann, Sergius, the author's son, 65 n. 
 Schliemann, Mrs. Sophia: her enthusiasm 
 
 for Homer and the excavations, 21 ; ac- 
 companies her husband to Troy, 21, 26 ; 
 
 helps 'in securing the great Treasure, 41 ; 
 
 excavates Pasha Tepeh, 109, 656-7. 
 Schmitz, Dr. L., for the Hissarlik site, 189. 
 Schroder, J. C. and G. H. von, pastors of 
 
 Ankershagen, 4 ; their portraits, 4. 
 Schroder, Miss, in Ankershagen, 4. 
 Schroder, Olgartha von, her portrait, 4, 5. 
 Schroder, B. H. and Co., of Amsterdam, 
 
 author's employers, 10; house of, 10 n. 
 Schroder, J. H. and Co., of London and 
 
 Hamburg, 13. 
 Schroder, Baron J. IT. von, of Hamburg, 13 n. 
 Schroder, Baron J. H. W. jan. von, of 
 
 London, 13 n. 
 Bcipio Asiaticus and his army at Ilium, 173. 
 Scoop, terra-cotta, 3rd c. ; similar fr. tomb 
 
 at Corneto, 422, 423. 
 Scorpion on an ivory disc, 6th c, Egyptian 
 
 symbol of the goddess Selk, 601. 
 Scrapers of bone, 3rd c, 319. 
 
 Sculptures, Greek, of N. Ilium, abundant 
 remains of, 610, 611. 
 
 Sea-baths, preventive of colds, 52. 
 
 Seals, terra-cotta : 3rd c, 414, 415 ; one in- 
 scribed with the Cypriote and Hittite 
 character ne, 414 ; another perforated, and 
 inscribed with Cypriote characters, 415, 
 693 ; — 4 th c, 561 ; similar at Pilin, with 
 ?d and i£, 562 ;— 5th c, 582, 583. 
 
 Second Pre-historic City on the Site of Troy, 
 stratum of, from 30 and 33 to 45 ft. deep, 
 discovered ; buildings of large stone 
 blocks, 21, 22 ; signs of an earthquake, 21 ; 
 excavation imperfect, why, 212 ; people 
 of, different from the 1st, proved by ar- 
 chitecture and pottery ; houses built of 
 large stones ; Cyclopean wall, 264 ; great 
 internal and external rampart walls, 
 265, 267, 269; only substructions for 
 fortifications, 268; gates and paved street, 
 265-7 ; the c. probably not destroyed, but 
 abandoned (see Gates, Street), 267, 305 ; 
 funnel-shaped holes in the debris, 267 ; 
 ruins of houses on wall, 268 ; stone walls 
 of a large edifice, 268 ; remains of 3 houses, 
 269; house-walls below chiefs house of 
 3rd c. ; stone house burnt, with f. skeleton 
 and ornaments, 271 (see Skeletons, Skulls) ; 
 another burnt house, of at least 2 storeys ; 
 house-walls below this, with marks of 
 great heat, 274 ; metals ; copper brooches 
 and needles ; saddle-querns, corn-bruisers, 
 hammers, axes (2 of nephrite, q. v.), 
 275 ; a phallus (probably), 276 ; pottery, 
 so different from 1st c. as to prove a 
 different people, 278-9 ; the gigantic 
 jars (pithoi, q. v.), 279 ; plates, 281 ; owl- 
 vases (q. v.), 281 f., 291 ; vase-covers, 291, 
 292; othtr forms, 294 f. (see Pottery); 
 the Senas dficfuKinreXKov (see Amphihy- 
 pellon), 299 ; whorls ; plates, 303 ; lime- 
 stone door-socket (probably), 304. 
 
 Seeds from the Troad, described by Dr. 
 Wittmack, 320. 
 
 Selleis, R., described, 101. 
 
 Semper, ' Keramik, Tektonik, Stcreotomie, 
 Metallotechnik ; ' on craters, 404. 
 
 Senate-house of Ilium. See Bouleuterion. 
 
 Serpents, horned, of terra-cotta (probably 
 vase-handles), 6th c, an ancient Lydian 
 symbol ; present superstitious belief about, 
 in the Troad, 598 ; none like them in the 
 first 5 c, 599. 
 
 Sesame and solanum, use of seeds for food, 
 mentioned by Homer, 118. 
 
 Sestos, Thracians of, led by Asius at Troy, 
 133 ; on Chersonese, opp. Abydos, 133. 
 
SET. 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 SITE. 
 
 789 
 
 Set, the Egyptian Typhonic deity, symbol 
 of foreigners, 742. 
 
 Severus, Hep., coins of, N. I., 643, 645, 646. 
 
 Shafts, 20 sunk on site of N. I., to discover 
 limits of Troy, 38, 211, 611 ; positions, 
 depths, and sections of. See Plan II. 
 
 Shakahha of Egyptian records, a people of 
 x\sia Minor, predecessors of Ionians and 
 Carians, 747, 750, not the Siculians, 751. 
 
 Sltardana of Egyptian records, the Sardians, 
 747, not Sardinians, 750, 751. 
 
 Sharks' bones, in 3rd c, 323. 
 
 Shells, conchylia, species of, 114 ; much, 
 used for food, but not mentioned by 
 Homer, 114, 115 (see Conchylia): 1st c, 
 213 ; masses of shells in houses of 4th c, 
 evidence of low civilization, 518 ; at 
 Thymbra, 711. 
 
 Shield, copper (dams 6[x<pa\6e(rcra), with 
 boss and rim (avrvg), Tr., how made ; like 
 the shields of Ajax and Sarpedon, 473, 474. 
 
 Ships, Greek, on shore between Proms. 
 Ehoeteum and Sigeum, 73. See Camp. 
 
 Sibyl, the Gergithian, and the Sibylline pro- 
 phecies, of Teucrian origin, 122. 
 
 Sickle, bronze, 6th c, 604. 
 
 Sigeum, city on Sigeum Pr. wrongly placed 
 in Spratt's map ; village of Yeni Shehr on 
 its ruins, 72; independent of N. Ilium, 
 167 ; added to N. I. by Romans, 173 ; de- 
 stroyed by the Ilians for its resistance, 72, 
 173; coins of at N. I., 612. 
 
 Sigeum, Pr. (Yeni Shehr), N.W. point of 
 Asia ; height and formation, 72, 105 ; 
 intended new capital of Constantine near, 
 180. Comp. Rhoeteum, Pr. 
 
 Sign of the Cross, made by Christians on 
 the forehead, as related by the Emperor 
 Julian, 181 and n. 
 
 Sigo or Siko, Trojan god or hero, according 
 to Dr. Haug, 143. 
 
 Silex Saws and Knives, the only flint im- 
 plements found at Troy, 1st c, 245-247 ; 
 their present use for threshing-sledges 
 (boKavi), 247. See Knives, Saws. 
 
 Silk, culture of in Troad, 118. 
 
 Silver: from Alybe; prob. on the Pontus, 
 253 ; mines in Troad, near Ine, 57, 68, 
 253 ; plating with gold on (Homer), 258. 
 
 Silver blades, six Tr. ; analysis of, 470 ; 
 are they Homeric "talents"? 471 ; Prof. 
 Sayce on their relation to the money of 
 Babylon and Asia Minor, 471. 
 
 Silver, objects of: brooches, 2nd c, 250, 252 ; 
 another object ; wire, deteriorated by chlo- 
 ride, 252; — 3rd c, silver vessels of the 
 great Tr. ; small vase-cover with zigzag 
 
 lines, 467 ; large jug-shaped vase, con- 
 taining the 8700 small gold jewels ; how 
 made, 467 ; vase with copper fused onto 
 its bottom, 468 ; vase with another broken 
 silver vase cemented to it by chloride, 
 468 ; another bioken vase cemented to the 
 copper plate, 468, 469 ; two vases with 
 caps and tubes for suspension, 469 ; cup 
 and dish ((frttiXr}), 469 ; vase found near 
 the Tr., 473 ; all covered with chloride on 
 outside, free from it on the inside, 472 ; 
 nugget, turned to chloride, with gold 
 beads cemented to it, Tr., 494 ; — 5th c, 
 ornament, in shape of an animal's head, 
 585-6. 
 
 Simois, R. (Doumbrek Su), view of its 
 plain, 59 ; rises on Cotylus in Ida, 68, 73 ; 
 description by Virchow, 73; N. and S. 
 arms; banks and vegetation; branches, lost 
 in great swamp ; three springs near Troy, 
 their temperature ; course from the swamp 
 to the Kalifatli Asmak, 74 ; mentioned 
 seven times in Homer; by other writers ; 
 proofs of identity ; description by Strabo, 
 75, 76 ; confused with the Thymbrius (see 
 Doumbrek Su), 76 ; no ford mentioned in 
 Homer, and why, 77; confluence with the 
 ancient Scamander, 81, 147 ; confounded 
 with the true Scamander, by Lechevalier, 
 185 ; Tirchow on its valley, 677. 
 
 Sinon betrays the Trojans ; taken from Arc- 
 tinus ; forms of the fable, 161 and n. 
 
 Site of Homer's Ilios (comp. Bounarbashi ; 
 Bissarlik ; Ilians, Village of) : founded in 
 the Plain later than Dardania, 134, which 
 agrees with Hissarlik, not with Bounar- 
 bashi, 194-5 ; similar sites of Greek cities, 
 195 ; ancient belief in continuity of site 
 at N. Ilium, 167-8 ; no other city ever 
 bore the sacred name, 168 ; attested by 
 Polemon, by Hellanicus, by Herodotus, 
 168 ; (visit of Xerxes, 168-9 ; remarks of 
 Grote and Eckenbrecher, 169, 170;) by 
 Xenophon, 170 ; by Alexander the Great, 
 and his successors, 171 ; by the Romans, 
 173 ; by Pliny, Mela, Tacitus, and 
 other writers, 178, 179 ; first questioned 
 by Demetrius and Hestiaea from local 
 jealousy, 168 ; their objections, 174 ; an- 
 swered, 175-6; adopted by Strabo only, 
 176 ; proof from coins of N. Ilium, 179 ; 
 by Caracalla, 179 ; modern opinions, and 
 discussion of ; some for Alexandria-Troas ; 
 modern philology and Oriental dis- 
 coveries then unknown, 184; theories of 
 Lechevalier, 184-5 ; adopted by Choiseul- 
 Gouffier, 185; list of followers cf the 
 
790 
 
 SIXTH CITY. 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 STADIUM. 
 
 Bounarbashi theory, 186-188 ; advocates 
 of other theories, 188; of the site of 
 Troy at Hissarlik, 189, 190 ; chief argu- 
 ments for Bounarbashi answered, 190 f. ; 
 distance from Hellespont tested by the 
 transactions of single days in the Iliad, 
 195 f. ; the argument from the ships — 
 " far from the city " — answered, 201 ; other 
 proofs from Homer of short distance, 201, 
 202 ; relative position of Scamander, 202 ; 
 alleged growth of Plain (q. v.), 203 ; dis- 
 cussion of arguments founded on a passage 
 from Lycurgus, 203 ; on the prophecy of 
 Juno in Horace, 204-6; on Aeschylus 
 and Lucan, 206 ; Bournabashi-site in- 
 consistent with hydrography; argument 
 from Trojan camp; Greek fleet in sight 
 of Troy, 207 ; other evidence from an- 
 cient authors, 208-9; from the sending 
 of Locrian virgins to Ilium ; continuous 
 habitation ; value of the local tradition ; 
 enthusiasm of the Greek Ilians for the 
 Trojan legends, 209,210; Grote on this 
 legendary faith ; argument of Major 
 Eennell on Alexander's belief; testimony 
 of Arrian, Aristides, Dio Chrysostom, 
 Pausanias, Appian, Plutarch, 210. Comp. 
 Ilios and Troy ; see also Prof. Virchow, 
 App. I. and Pre/., and Prof. Mahaffy's 
 criticism of views of Demetrius and 
 Strabo, App. II. 
 
 Sixth City on the site of Troy, probably a 
 Lydian settlement, 128 ; indicated by 
 pottery between the 5th c. and N. I., 
 distinct from other cities, generally 6 ft. 
 deep, sometimes less, and abundant on 
 slopes of the hill,resembling archaic Etrus- 
 can pottery in Italy ; perhaps founded 
 when the Troad was subject to Gyges, 
 128, 586, 587 ; no remains of buildings, 
 587 ; probably levelled by the Greek 
 settlers for their Acropolis, 588 ; this con- 
 firmed by debris on side of hill, 588 ; 
 pottery (q. v.), 588 f. ; objects of ivory 
 and marble, 601, 602 ; whorls ; idols, 602 ; 
 bronze implements and vessels, 603 f. ; 
 chronology, 607. 
 
 Skeletons, human : of an embryo (q. v.), 227 ; 
 female, with ornaments, in a house, 2nd c, 
 270 ; of two Trojan warriors, with helmets 
 and a lance-head, in a house, 3rd c, 30, 
 507 (see Skulls) ; at Thymbra, 712, 713. 
 
 Skulls, first discovery of, 30, 39 ; female, in 
 house of 2nd c, drawn and described by 
 Virchow, 271-2; brachy cephalic, 510; 
 of two Trojan warriors, 3rd c, 30, 507 ; 
 drawings and description by Virchow, 
 
 501 f.; dolichocephalic, 510; indicate high 
 civilization, no mark of the savage, 510 ; 
 of a young woman, found in a jar, 3rd c, 
 dolichocephalic, 39, 511 ; question of race 
 and social position, 510, 511 ; of a foetus, 
 3rd c, 512. 
 
 Skyphos. See Cups, 0>th c. 
 
 Sling Bidlets, of loadstone, haematite, and 
 diorite, 3rd c, 437,438; ancient use of 
 the sling, 437 ; one of copper ore, analysis 
 of, 477. 
 
 Sminthos, Smintheus. See Apollo, 
 
 Smith, George, first decipherer of Cypriote 
 characters, 691. 
 
 Smith, Philip, on movements of nations to 
 and fro across the Hellespont and site of 
 Troy, 131 ; ' Student's Ancient History 
 of the East,' 132 ; on the site of Troy, 
 189, 195; 672. 
 
 Smith, Dr. W., ' Dictionary of Greek and 
 Boman Antiquities,' 192 n. ; 1 Dictionary 
 of Greek and Roman Geography,' 189. 
 
 Smyrna, coins of, at N. I., 612. (Comp. 
 My vine.) 
 
 Snakes in the Troad, 22; numerous and 
 venomous, 114. 
 
 Soldering of metals in use at Troy ; hardly 
 ever at Mycenae, 474. 
 
 Sonderdorp and Earn, consuls at the Texel, 
 aid author when shipwrecked, 8. 
 
 Spiral ornaments of gold, Tr. ; how made ; 
 like those at Mycenae, 490; the form 
 also Babylonian and Assyrian, 494. 
 
 Spit-rests, of mica-schist, 3rd c, 436 ; fre- 
 quent in 4th c, 57 L. 
 
 Spitting, a Christian sign against the demons 
 at baptism in Greek church, 181 n. 
 
 Spoon, large silver, in repousse work, with 
 a boss, probably for libations, Tr., 503. 
 
 Spoons, terra-cotta, for metallurgy, 410. 
 
 Spouts in sides of vessels, probable use of, 
 for drinking at fountains, 406. 
 
 Spratt, T. A. B., Admiral ; his Map of the 
 Troad, 187. 
 
 Sprenger, A., Prof., ' Die alte Geographic 
 Arabiens ; ' on gold and Ophir, 258 f. 
 
 Springs, Homer's warm and cold, of the 
 Scamander; his two, the forty at Bou- 
 narbashi (Lechevalier), 183 (see Bounar- 
 bashi, Scamander) ; three, near walls of 
 Novum Ilium, with modern enclosures and 
 troughs, 110 ; three, in the Duden swamp, 
 at site of 'iXieW Kafir), their temperature, 
 108 ; hot, numerous in the Troad, 70. 
 See also Ligia Ilammam. 
 
 Stadium, of 600 Greek feet = l-10th of an 
 English geographical mile, 71 n. 
 
STAFF-HANDLES. 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 TEKKAR. 
 
 791 
 
 Staff-handles, of bone, terra-cotta, porce- 
 lain, glass : 3rd c., 428, 429 ;— 4th c., 567. 
 Comp. Sceptre. 
 
 Stark, B., his Essays on the site of Troy, 
 188 ; ' Reise nach dem griechischen 
 Orient; 208. 
 
 Statue of Athene, the only Trojan one men- 
 tioned by Homer, 281. 
 
 Statues, Greek, of N. L, fragments over the 
 whole hill, 609 ; of Metrodorus, in temple 
 of Athene, 635. 
 
 Steitz, A., i Die Lage des Homerischen 
 Troja; 189. 
 
 Stephanus Byzantinus recognizes Troy in 
 N. Ilium, 179. 
 
 Stick-knobs, marble, 6th c, 603. 
 
 Stoll, Louis, befriends author, 10. 
 
 Stomalimne, the lagoon at the mouth of the 
 ancient Scamander, 79, 83 ; Virchow's 
 description of, 84 ; observations on, 87. 
 
 Stone Implements (comp. Axes, Balls, Corn- 
 bruisers, Hammers, Mortars, Pestles, 
 Polishers, Pounders, Saddle-querns, &c), 
 abundant in 4th stratum; fewer in 3rd 
 stratum, 21 ; in two lowest strata, 22-3 : 
 —1st c, 234 f. ; 2nd c, 275 f. ; 3rd c, 
 436 f. ; 4th c, like 3rd but thrice as 
 numerous, 518 ; objects of unknown use, 
 570, 571 ; very rare in 5th c, 573, 583-4. 
 
 Stones, un wrought, cemented with earth, 
 of 4th city, 21 ; large, rudely hewn, of 
 2nd city, 21 ; obtained from neighbour- 
 hood, 54, 264 ; of 3rd city, small, from 
 the Hissarlik ridge, 316 ; smoothly hewn 
 and cemented with clay, of 4th city, 23 ; 
 
 . mode of working by a pick-hammer, sign 
 of a later age, 55. See Houses, Walls, 
 and under the several cities. 
 
 Stfppers, vase-covers in shape of. See 
 Covers. 
 
 Storeys of Trojan houses, numerous, 268, 
 274, 313. 
 
 Stork, return of in March, 38, 52 ; respect 
 shown to in the Troad, by Turks, not 
 by Christians, 112, 113 ; biblical name, 
 Chasidah, "pious," 112; included by 
 Homer with cranes (yepavoi), 113. 
 
 Strabo: proofs that he never visited the 
 Troad, 73 ; follows Demetrius in placing 
 Troy at the village of the Ilians, 79, 176. 
 
 Strata of Hissarlik, succession of, discovered, 
 21 ; irregularities of, 23, 30, 63 ; succes- 
 sion shown on block left standing, 62; 
 Virchow on their nature, compared with 
 other ruins, 62 ; slanting, of N. I., 610 ; 
 section of, in the great N.W. trench, 611 ; 
 various depths in the shafts, 611, 612; 
 
 diagram of, vii. (For the seven successive 
 strata, see under First, Second, &c.) 
 
 Streets : the principal one, 33 ; paved with 
 flags, 33 (see Pavement) ; made by 2nd 
 settlers, used by 3rd, 265, 306 ; for foot 
 passengers only, proved by steep slope 
 and absence of wheel-marks, 265 ; Eyssen- 
 hardt upon, 143 ; Virchow upon, 684 
 (com]). Gates); only another found, a small 
 one or lane, paved with flags, 3rdc, 54; 
 and a narrow passage, 54. 
 
 Strymo, d. of Scamander, wife of Laomedon, 
 and m. of Priam, 124, 156 ; the name 
 Also in Thrace, 124. 
 
 Studs, gold, Tr., for sewing on clothes, 461. 
 
 Suburb of Troy, 3rd c, houses of, 54 ; in- 
 habited by poor people, 328. 
 
 Suidas recognizes Troy in N. Ilium, 179. 
 
 Sulla restores N. Ilium after the injuries 
 of Fimbria, 177. 
 
 Sun, Moon, and Stars, on whorls and balls, 
 419, 420. 
 
 Suspension Vases (comp. Vases) : 1st c, with 
 vertical tubular holes, especially double, 
 215, &c. ; with horizontal tubular holes, 
 217, 223;— 2nd c, with vertical holes, 
 295, 296 ; — 3rd c, an example of double 
 tubular holes, 363 ; 2 from Nimroud, with 
 4 holes, 367;— 4th c, 525 ;— one of 6th 
 c, 596 ;— at N. I., 614 ; at Thymbra, 
 with horizontal holes, 710. 
 
 Svastika (Suastika, Swastika). See Sau- 
 vastika. 
 
 Swamj)S, in Plain of Troy, in Homer's time 
 and now; increased by want of cultiva- 
 tion, 106 ; one near Troy (Horn.), 144. 
 
 Swan stamped on clay discs of N. I., 619. 
 
 Swords, remarkable absence of, in all the 
 pre-historic c, contrasted with their fre- 
 quency at Mycenae, 483, Pre/, xii. 
 
 Sybel, L., * Ueber Schliemann's Troia,' 188. 
 
 Syllabary, meaning of the term, 691. 
 
 Szihalom, in Hungary, terra-cottas from, 
 291 et passim; crown-shaped vase-covers, 
 375. 
 
 TACITUS recognizes identity of N. Ilium 
 
 with Troy, 179. 
 Talents, perhaps the Silver Blades, Tr. (q. v.), 
 
 or the bars of gold, Tr., 496. 
 Tchihatcheff, * Asie Mineure : Description 
 
 physique, statistique, archeulogique, cfcc.,' 
 
 79, 101, 110. 
 Tectosages, Gallic tribe, conquer central 
 
 parts of Asia Minor, 130. 
 Tekkar or Tekkri, on Egyptian monuments, 
 
 the Teucrians, 122, 123, 745. 
 
792 
 
 TELCI1INES. 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 THIRD CITY. 
 
 Ttlchines, artists and metallurgists in Samo- 
 
 thrace, 256. 
 'Temple of Athene in Acropolis of N. I., 
 the original one built at once on 4th 
 stratum, on a site lowered and levelled, 
 29, 328, 608 ; new, built by Lysima- 
 chus and restored by Sulla, 608 ; drums 
 and capitals of its Corinthian columns, 
 608, 609 ; foundations only in situ, floor 
 of slabs ; dimensions, sculptures destroyed, 
 609 ; wall and tower belonging to, 609. 
 Temple of Apollo, Doric, in the Acropolis of 
 Greek Ilium, on the N. side of Hissarlik, 
 large ruins of, but even the foundations 
 destroyed, 23, 609 ; block of triglyphs and 
 metope (q. v.), 609. 
 Temples of Thymbrean Apollo, pre-historic 
 
 and historic, at Thymbra, 714, 719. 
 Ten Years' War of Troy, Grote on the 
 
 mythical significance of, 158. 
 Tenedos, I., distances from mainland, Lesbos, 
 and Sigeum, 107 ; seat of worship of 
 Sminthean Apollo, 107 ; Greek fleet retire 
 behind, 160 ; coins of, at N. I., 612. 
 Tepeh (a " low or small hill "), the Turkish 
 
 for tumuli (q. v.), 648. 
 Terra-cottas (see Balls, Pottery, Whorls, and 
 the names of the various objects) : 3rd c, 
 curious object, perhaps a polisher, 422 ; 
 another, perhaps an ex-voto, 422, 423 ; — 
 4th c, curious solid object with 4 feet and 
 incised patterns, 561-2; — N. I., female 
 figure in Assyrian style, 614 ; another in 
 Oriental style on a slab, prob. an idol, 615 ; 
 woman and child, best Greek style, 615, 
 616; lion; pig covered with stars; slab 
 with horseman in relief ; archaic head in 
 relief, Assyrian style, with winged thun- 
 derbolts; bearded head with curious head- 
 dress, 616 ; female heads, prob. of Mace- 
 donian period ; cup-bottom, 2 boys kiss- 
 ing, in relief, 617 ; mould for impressing 
 figures in relief; curious tablets, with 
 winged thunderbolts, &c, in relief, nu- 
 merous, 618 ; round objects, shaped like 
 watches, with 2 perforations, and stamped 
 figures, human, animal, &c, 619, 620 
 (see Discs) ; lamps, 620. 
 Terramare of Italy, meaning of the word, 
 373 n. ; whorls found in, 230 ; pottery 
 and other objects, passim. 
 Teucer, s. of Scamander, reigns in the 
 Troad ; adopts and is succeeded by Dar- 
 danus, 119 ; tradition of his migration 
 from Attica, 122. 
 Teucer, s. of Telamon and the Trojan prin- 
 cess Hesione, 121. 
 
 Teucrians, ancestors of the Trojans, named 
 from King Teucer, 119; a remnant of 
 them at Gergis, 119, 121 ; cross the 
 Bosporus with the Mysians, conquer 
 Thrace, &c, as far as the Ionian Sea, and 
 the Peneus, 119 ; name used for Trojans 
 by Roman poets, 119, 120 ; not connected 
 with Troy by Homer, 121 ; tradition of 
 their migration from Crete, and of the 
 field mice, derived from the poet Callinus, 
 121-2; their worship of Apollo Smin- 
 theus, 122 ; resemblance of Cretan and 
 Trojan names, 122; on the Egyptian 
 monuments, 122, 123 n., 745; the Sibyl- 
 line prophecies of Teucrian origin, 122 ; 
 connection with the Paeonians, 122, 123. 
 
 Texier, C, ' Description de VAsie MineureJ 
 186. 
 
 Theatre, great, of N. I., excavated in the rock 
 on the slope W. of Hissarlik, probably 
 Macedonian, 108, 109, 610 ; fragments of 
 its sculptures, 611. 
 
 Thebe (Qrjfir), never ©/?/3cu), a fortified Cili- 
 cian c. of the Troad, " the sacred c. of 
 Eetion," destroyed by Achilles ; site, near 
 Adramyttium ; Homeric epithets ; doubt- 
 ful why called " hypoplacian ; " relations 
 with the Egyptian and Boeotian Thebes, 
 according to Mr. Gladstone, untenable, 
 135, 136. 
 
 Thebes (Qrjfiai), Boeotian, a Phoenician 
 colony, name probably Semitic ; native 
 meaning according to Varro, 136 ; con- 
 firmation of its legendary history by 
 Homer's use of the name 'YnoOrifiai, 
 516. 
 
 Thebes, Egyptian, name of, 135 n., 136. 
 
 Theophrastus for the Hissarlik site, 208. 
 
 Thera, I., suspension-vases found at, 221 ; 
 date, 222 ; buildings of small stones, like 
 the 2ndc, of Troy, 274 ; rude flagons with 
 necklaces and breasts, 293 ; other objects 
 passim. 
 
 Third Pre-historic City, the Burnt City, 
 at Hissarlik, stratum of, discovered : cal- 
 cined debris, bricks, saddle-querns, few 
 stone implements, good pottery, 21 ; 
 called Troy for convenience, 26 ; its 
 whole area laid bare (1 879), 53 ; strata, 
 generally 22 or 23 ft, to 30 or 33 ft. 
 deep, but reached at only 12 ft. deep 
 on N. and N.E. side, outside the city 
 wall, 328, 499, 500; proofs; explained 
 by a suburb, 328 ; founded on levelled 
 site of the abandoned 2nd city, 305 
 (see Buildings, Gates, Walls); much 
 smaller than 2nd city on E. side, 360 ; 
 
THOMAS, E. 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 TOMBS. 
 
 793 
 
 whole circuit of city wall brought to light, 
 306 ; debris of city after the conflagration, 
 310, 311; the c. of a triangular form; 
 Burnouf's description of its remains, 313 ; 
 the houses (q. v.), 313-317 ; food of the 
 people, remnants described by Virchow, 
 318-321 (see Food); social condition, 
 agriculture and fishing, 321, 322 ; royal 
 house (see Bouse), 324 f. ; irregularity of 
 strata (q. v.), 327 ; pottery ; rude idols and 
 owl-headed %ases (q. v.), not for want of 
 ability to mould human features, but a 
 sacred tradition of the Palladium, 329, 
 330 f. ; the Ft and 345 f. (see Sau- 
 vastika) ; tripod vases (q. v.) in enormous 
 number, and others (see Vases, Pottery), 
 354f. ; SeVa dfji(f)iKV7reX\a, 371 (seeAmphi- 
 hypellon) ; mixing vessels, 403 (see Cra- 
 ters) ; plates, 407-8 ; crucibles, cups, 
 spoons, and funnels, for metallurgy, 409, 
 410; various objects of terra-cotta, 413 
 f.; seals and cylinders, decorated and 
 inscribed, 414-416; whorls and balls, 
 their various patterns, 416 f. ; other 
 objects of terra-cotta, wood, and ivory, 
 423; musical instruments, 424, 425; 
 handles of sceptres, &c. in bone, terra-cotta, 
 fine crystal, Egyptian porcelain, and glass, 
 427-9; glass buttons, balls and beads, 
 429 ; comb, needles, awls, of bone, ivory, 
 and horn, 430, 431 ; boars' tusks and fish- 
 vertebrae, 432 ; moulds for casting, 432- 
 
 436 ; spit-props, &c, 436 ; sling-bullets, 
 
 437 ; stone weapons and implements, 438 
 f. ; the great Treasure (q. v.), 453 ;— the 
 9 other treasures, 485 f. ; other metal orna- 
 ments, arms, and implements, 503 f. ; the 
 skeletons and arms of 2 warriors, 507, 508 ; 
 skulls (q. v.) discussed by Virchow, 508 f. ; 
 other objects found, 514 ; one unique, of 
 gypsum, 514 ; the question — " Was this 
 Burnt City Homer's Troy ? " 514 f. (see 
 Troy) ; tradition that Troy was not utterly 
 destroyed ; probable connection between 
 the inhabitants of 3rd and 4th c, 518 
 (see Fourth City). 
 
 Thomas, E., 1 The Indian Swastika and its 
 
 Western Counterparts,' 353. 
 Thracians, connection of, with the Trojans, 
 
 123, 124 ; allies of Troy in Homer, 124, 
 
 158 ; of Sestos, allies of Troy, 133. 
 Threshing-sledges (Boicdvi), with flint flakes, 
 
 now used in Asia Minor, 246-7. 
 TJiucydides on the Dorian invasion, 127. 
 Thunderbolt, winged, on terra-cottas of 1ST. I., 
 
 616, 617. 
 
 Thymbra (Thymbre), town in Priam's 
 
 dominion, named by Homer, with temple 
 of Thymbrian Apollo, ruins in mound 
 of Hanai Tepeh, 77 ; Mr. Frank Calvert 
 on, A pp. IV., 706 f. ; placed inland by 
 Homer, 706, 707 ; site defined by Deme- 
 trius and Strabo, 707; — the historic 
 city at Akshi Kioi (now the farm of 
 Thymbra), 719 ; painted pottery, glass 
 vases, sepulchral inscriptions, pithoi, and 
 cists found, 718, 719 ; marble blocks 
 (probably) of temple of Thymbrean 
 Apollo, 719 ; — the pre-historic city, at 
 Hana'i Tepeh, excavated by Mr. Calvert and 
 Dr. Schliemann, 223, 709 ; three strata of 
 successive habitations, 708 ; their walls, 
 houses, pottery, remains of food, stone 
 and bronze implements, and other objects, 
 numerous tombs and skeletons, remains 
 of old temple of Thymbrean Apollo, with 
 altars and ashes, &c, 709-718 ; vases 
 with horizontal holes for suspension, 223 ; 
 marks of distinction from the five pre- 
 historic cities of Hissarlik, and of resem- 
 blance to the 6th or Lydian c, 223, 720. 
 
 Thymbrius, K. (Kemar Su), rises near Oulou 
 Dagh, falls into the Scamander opposite 
 Botmarbashi ; meaning of modern name ; 
 not named by Homer, 77 ; Burnouf's 
 description; swamp of, now drained, 78 ; 
 not the Doumbrek Su, as Lechevalier 
 held, 185, 677 (comp. Doumbrek) ; section 
 of Trojan Plain in its valley, 719. 
 
 Tiarks, Henry, partner in the house of 
 Messrs. J. Henry Schroder & Co., of 
 London, 13 n. 
 
 Tiles, not used for roofing in the pre-historic 
 cities, 214. 
 
 * Times,' the, on jade, 449 n. 
 
 Tin, small (accidental) traces in copper of 
 1st c, 251 ; otherwise unknown, as it 
 perishes without leaving a trace, 258, 612 ; 
 Sir J. Lubbock on, 257 ; whence obtained 
 by the Trojans for their bronze, 479 ; 
 origin of the name, kastira, Kaacrlrepo^, 
 not Sanscrit but primitive Babylonian, 
 pointing to the tin mines of the Caucasus 
 (Sayce), 479 ; Sir J. Lubbock on the 
 Phoenician trade with Cornwall, 479 ; fre- 
 quent mention of tin in the Bible and 
 Homer, 480; Lenormant's opinion that it 
 was obtained from Crete, 481. 
 
 Tithonus, s. of Laomedon, 156. 
 
 Tolisboji, Gallic tribe, settle in Aeolis and 
 Ionia, 130. 
 
 Tombs, Greek, found in the shafts on site 
 of N. I., 38, 39; at Thymbra, 712, 713; 
 of heroes, see Tumuli. 
 
794 
 
 TOP. 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 TROAS. 
 
 Top, terra-cotta, 3rd c, 413. 
 Torches, Homeric (8atSey), pieces of resinous 
 wood, 621. 
 
 Tortoises, land and water, abundant in 
 Troad ; not eaten either at Troy or now, 
 114, 318. 
 
 Towers : of Homer's Troy, 141 ; the Great 
 Tower of Ilium, over the Scaean Gate, 
 144; pair of great walls so called, sub- 
 struction walls, in 2nd .and 3rd c, 25, 26, 
 265, 305 ; connection with city wall, 54 
 (comp. Walls) ; a wooden tower (pro- 
 bably) over the gates, 267. 
 
 Tower, Greek, N. I., of the Macedonian age, 
 20, 23, 40 ; probably built by Lysimachus 
 on older foundations, 609. 
 
 Toys, Trojan, of terra-cotta, 3rd c, 331, 413. 
 See also Miniature Pottery. 
 
 Tozer, H. F., f Besearches in the Highlands 
 of Turkey,' 187. 
 
 Treasures, 10 large and small, all found in 
 the 3rd c, the Burnt or Gold City, and 
 all but one in or near its principal house 
 (see House of King or Chief), 43, 51, 52, 
 54, 211, 290 ; Virchow's remarks on, 683 
 and Pref xiv. ; discovery of the Great 
 Treasure (1873) ; the spot described, 40 ; 
 excitement and danger, 41 ; how it came 
 to be there, 41, or it and the others may 
 have fallen from upper storeys, 454; 
 wall of 4th c. built over the spot, 454 ; 
 general view of, 42; list of, 453 (see 
 under the several articles) ; the chest 
 (supposed) and key, 454; — three small 
 (2nd, 3rd, 4th) found and stolen by work- 
 men (1873), and mixt in division among 
 them, partly recovered, but partly remade 
 into modern work : all in Museum at 
 Constantinople, 43, 485 f.; another (5th) 
 found in presence of officers of H.M.S. 
 Monarch (1878), in a broken terra-cotta 
 vase, fallen from an upper storey, 490 ; 
 two more (6th and 7th) in vases similarly 
 fallen, 493 ; another larger (the 8th) on 
 the house-wall, 494 ; another small (the 
 9th), found in the presence of MM. Bur- 
 nouf and Virchow, only 13 ft. deep, on 
 N. side of the hill (1879), 328, 499 ; its 
 position explained ; same style of work 
 as all the rest, 499, 500; a 10th dis- 
 covered in presence of MM. Burnouf and 
 Virchow, close to the royal house and the 
 place of the Great Treasure, 502. 
 
 Tree ornament, on vases and many whorls, 
 367, 368, &c. ; of Hittite and Baby- 
 lonian origin, 703. 
 
 Trenches. See Excavations at Hissarlik. 
 
 Treres, neighbours of Thracians, invade the 
 Troad with the Cimmerians, 130. 
 
 Triglyphs, Boric, block of, 23, 623. See 
 Metope. 
 
 Tripod, curious small dish of terra-cotta, 
 ornamented with caterpillar, tree, and 
 cross, 4th c, 562. 
 Tripod Vases, terra-cotta : of 1st c, 220 ; 
 funeral urns (q. v.), 227 ;— 2nd c, with 
 vertical tubular holes for suspension, 295, 
 296; one wheel-made, 296; — 3rd c, 
 Dearly all the vases tripods; differ from 
 the Mycenean ; feet never perforated, 
 but vertical side tubes and holes in rim 
 and cover for suspension, or no holes in 
 rim but tubes on cover, 354 ; the method 
 shown (No. 252), 357 ; examples of very 
 long tubes, 356 ; of perforations in edges 
 of the body, 357, 360 ; of various forms 
 and decorations, some with the suspen- 
 sion system, some without, 357 f. ; with 
 spiral handles and feet, 358, 359 ; curious 
 box and cover, with ornament like a cuttle- 
 fish, 360; examples of unornamented, 
 362 ; a lustrous-black two-handled, 373 ; 
 curious perforated, with handle, made 
 to stand on its side, 373 ; wheel- 
 made, 380; one finely decorated, 383; 
 triple cup, 384 ; jug, 384 ; barrel, 405 ; 
 small globular decorated vessel, perhaps 
 for scented oil, not a lamp (q. v.), 405 ; 
 wheel-made, 405, 406 ; with spout in 
 side, 406; small globular, 407; — 4th c, 
 528 ; with vertical suspension tubes, and 
 with handle and ears on sides, 530, 531 ; 
 globular, like a bottle, 531; jugs and 
 pitchers, 532, 533; box, 534; two- 
 handled pitchers, 540 ; with 3 and 4 cups 
 on one body, 540 ; wheel-made and hand- 
 made, 544 ; mode of putting on the feet, 
 544 ; flagon or oenochoe, 548, 549 ; per- 
 forated, to stand on its side, 557, 558 ; — 
 5th c, jugs, wheel-made, 578, 579 ; — 
 feet of tripods at Thymbra, 711. 
 Tripod Vases, terra-cotta, not used in 
 Greece in historic times, except censers; 
 examples of, from lalysus, Etruria, and 
 Peru ; none in Lake-dwellings, 355. 
 Tripods, bronze or copper, none found at 
 Troy, not even in 6th c, and only one 
 at Mycenae, but must have been still 
 used in Homer's time, 355 ; problems 
 thus raised, 356 ; uses of them in Homer, 
 as presents, 355 ; prizes in games, orna- 
 ments of rooms, for heating water, and 
 cooking, 356. 
 Troas, the Troad (17 Tpcods ) : extent as 
 
TROCMI. 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 TROY. 
 
 795 
 
 defined by Strabo, 67 ; dominions, 68 ; 
 mountains, 68 f. ; geology and surface 
 undulations, 70 ; promontories, 72 ; rivers, 
 73 f. ; climatology, 101 ; panoramic view 
 of the N. part, 103 ; of the S. part, 107 ; 
 zoology, 110; flora, 116; called Aeolis 
 from the Aeolian colonization, 128; in- 
 vaded by Treres and Cimmerians, Gauls 
 or Galatians, 130 ; dominions, 68, 132 
 (see Dominions) ; population of (see Eth- 
 nography and Trojans) ; gold, silver, and 
 copper mines, 253-5 ; the heroic tumuli, 
 648 f. 
 
 Trocmi, Gallic tribe, settle on Hellespont, 
 130. 
 
 Troilus, s. of Priam, 157. 
 
 Trojan Territory between the K. Aesepus 
 and Ca'icus, 158. 
 
 Trojan War, 158 f. ; see Troy, History of. 
 
 Trojans, the (ol Tpcoes), the people of the 
 Troad, but sometimes only of Ilium and 
 its territory, 67 ; ethnography, 119 f. ; 
 they were Teucrians, 119 ; called Teucri 
 by Roman poets, Trojani by prose writers, 
 119, 120; called Phrygians by Attic tra- 
 gedians and Roman poets, but distin- 
 guished in a Homeric hymn, 120; the 
 Troad peopled by non-Hellenic tribes, ac- 
 cording to Homer ; their names men- 
 tioned on Egyptian monuments, 123 ; the 
 Tr. a Thracian race, intermarried with 
 native Phrygians (Forbiger), 123 ; con- 
 firmation from Strabo, 123-4 ; names com- 
 mon to Thrace and the Troad, 124 ; the 
 Trojans were Greeks (Dionys. Halic), 
 124 ; Aeolian colony after the Trojan war, 
 127, 128 ; the country called Aeolis ; 
 Milesian settlers at Abydos in Lydian 
 times ; Tr. subject to Gyges, king of 
 Lydia, 128 ; the Turash or Turisha of 
 Egyptian records, 747, 751 ; relations of 
 the people and their language to the 
 Mysians and Phrygians, 704. 
 
 Trojans of the Burnt City, their social 
 condition, agriculture, and fishing, like 
 that of the modern inhabitants, 321, 322. 
 
 Tros, s. of Erichthonius, eponym of the Tro- 
 jans, 152, 156; his sons, llus, Assaracus, 
 and Ganymedes, and d. Cleopatra, 152 ; 
 immortal horses given him by Zeus, 153. 
 
 Troy (Tpoi'a, Tpoirj Horn, and Ion., name of 
 the city and country ; Ilios (q. v.) of the 
 city only; called Ilium and Troja by 
 Latin writers, 139) : author's first desire 
 to excavate, 3 ; constant firm belief in 
 its existence, 5 ; opinions on site of, 18 ; 
 results of first investigations (1868) against 
 
 Bounarbashi, in favour of Hissarlik, 19 ; 
 the special object of the excavations, 23 ; 
 the 3rd c., specially called Trot, 25 ; small 
 extent of, even less than the hill of His- 
 sarlik, 38 ; last king or- chief, his house, 
 51 ; present state of the ruins, 60 f. ; 
 Troy now at the bottom of a hollow in 
 the middle of the hill, 65. See App. I. 
 and Pref. 
 
 Homeric Topography : Troy the do- 
 minion of Priam, 138 ; special dominion 
 of Hector, 68, 138 ; the Acropolis or Per- 
 gamos (q. v.), containing the palace of 
 Priam, Agora, houses of Hector and Paris, 
 temples of Athene, Apollo, and Zeus, 140 ; 
 wall built by Poseidon and Apollo ; 
 towers, 141 ; course round wall easy, 142 ; 
 one gate only, the Scaean (see Gate), 143 ; 
 tower over it ; chariot-road to the two 
 sources of the Scamander ; stone washing 
 troughs; swamp, 144; beech-tree, 144-5 
 (see Beech) ; the Ileian plain ; wheat-field, 
 145 ; Callicolone, 145-6 ; the OpaxTfibs n€- 
 dtoto, the Upper Plain ; tumulus of Batieia 
 (q. v.) or Myrine, 146 ; of Aesyetes ; con- 
 fluence of Scamander and Simois ; ford of 
 Scamander ; tumulus of llus, 147 ; the 
 Naustathmus, naval camp of the Greeks 
 (see Camp), 143, 148 :— 
 
 History, 152 f. ; mythical genealogy : 
 
 Dardanus, son of Zeus, builds Dardania ; 
 his sons llus and Erichthonius, father of 
 Tros, eponym of the Trojans; his sons 
 llus, Assaracus, Ganymedes, 152 ; litis 
 head of the Trojan line — Laomedon, Priam, 
 Hector; Assaracus of the Dardanian — 
 Capys, Anchises, Aeneas, 153 ; llus builds 
 Ilium, 153, 643; receives the Palladium 
 from Zeus, 153 ; his son Laomedon ; walls 
 built by Poseidon (and Apollo), 156 ; Troy 
 destroyed by Herakles ; Priam ransomed, 
 his family, 156 ; Paris, rape of Helen ; 
 Greek expedition against Troy, 157 (q. v.) ; 
 Trojans and allies routed and shut up in 
 the city ; irregular war for nine years, 158 ; 
 events of fifty -one days of 10th year in the 
 Iliad (q. v.), 158-9 ; sequel from allusions 
 in Homer and other sources ; Penthesileia 
 and Memnon killed by Achilles, 159; 
 arrival of Philoctetes and Neoptolemus ; 
 loss of the Palladium ; stratagem of the 
 wooden horse, 160 ; capture and destruc- 
 tion, 161-2 ; tradition of Troy's rebuilding, 
 and Aeneas reigning there, 166 ; Achaean 
 and Aeolian colonization, 127, 128 ; Ly- 
 dian settlement, 128 ; Lydian foundation 
 of N. Ilium, according to Strabo, 167 ; 
 
796 
 
 TROY. 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 VASES. 
 
 proof of continued habitation from pottery; 
 also a tradition of the Greek Ilians, 167, 
 16S ; cities built from the ruins of Troy, 
 a gratuitous assumption of Demetrius, 
 175-6 ; connection of Troy with Assyria, 
 128 ; with Egypt, 745 f. (History con- 
 tinued under N. Ilium.) 
 Troy and Ilissarlik : — Was the 3rd, the 
 Burnt City, Homer's Troy? — Small size 
 of primitive Greek cities, 514, 515 ; the 
 acropolis the city proper ; Homer never 
 saw Tro} T , but sang of real events from 
 tradition ; remarks of Sayce ; Lenormant ; 
 Gladstone, 515, 516 ; points of agreement 
 with the 3rd c, 516 ; the event preserved 
 by tradition, details imagined by the poets, 
 517; civilization of Homer's time, that of 
 Novum Ilium rather than the burnt city, 
 517:— 
 
 Virchow on " Troy and Hissarlik," App. 
 
 I. ; legends of Troy before the Iliad, 673 ; 
 fitness of the site for poetic legends, 674 
 and Pre/. ; its scenery the scenery of the 
 Iliad, 674-5 and Pre/. ; the view from 
 Hissarlik the horizon of the poem, 682 and 
 Pre/. ; the mythological arena wider than 
 the strategical, 678 and Pref. ; this scenic 
 background only darkened by the student's 
 lamp, 681 ; differences from Homer's de- 
 scription, 681-683 ; the Ilium of fiction 
 must he a fiction itself, 681 ; points of 
 likeness in the " burnt city," which is 
 also a "city of gold," 683, 684, and Pref. 
 
 Troy (Troja), the Egyptian (tarda,), has 
 no etymological connection with Troy ; 
 but the likeness of name made it the 
 seat of Trojan legends in Egypt, 751. 
 
 Tumid i, Heroic (so called), of the Troad, 
 explored in 1879, 55 ; meaning of the 
 word ; described in order ; the Cynossema, 
 or tomb of Hecuba ; a 2nd near site of 
 Dardanus ; a 3rd ; 4th above Ren Kioi 
 (7. v.) ; 5th and 6th ; 7th on the heights 
 of Rhoeteum (com p. In Tepeh); the ori- 
 ginal tomb of Ajax on the shore, 648 ; 
 tombs of Achilles and Patroclus (q. v.), 
 648 ; Hagios Demetrios Tepeh (q. v.), 650 ; 
 Besika Tepeh (q. v.) ; Ujek Tepeh (q. v.) ; 
 four on the Bali Dagh ; tombs of Hector 
 and Priam ; another opp.' the Bali Dagh ; 
 the Hanai* Tepeh (q. v.) on the Thymbrius ; 
 the Pasha Tepeh (q. v.) ; two smaller ; one 
 N. of Koum Kaleh, the turn, of litis (q. v.), 
 651 ; turn, just S. of N. Ilium ; shaft 
 sunk ; only a few Roman bricks, 669. 
 
 Tureen, two-handled, 6th c, wheel-made, 
 589, 590. 
 
 Tweezers, bronze, 5th c, 585-6. 
 
 Tyrsenians, led from Lydia to Umbria by 
 Tyrsenus, s. of Atys, 129 ; same as Etrus- 
 cans, 129 (q. v.). 
 
 UEINEN,- Uinen (the * shining '), the later 
 Egyptian name for the Hellenes, 745. 
 
 Ujek Tepeh (ujek = 1 fire-side '), so called from 
 the fires upon it on the festival of St. Elias ; 
 traces of them, 651, 658 ; the highest 
 tumulus in the Troad, wrongly identified 
 with the Tomb of Aesyetes (q. v.) by 
 Lechevalier, Choiseul-Gouffier, &c, 107, 
 185 ; excavated by Dr. Schliemann (1879) 
 from the top and side, 55, 659 f. ; pro- 
 gress and difficulties of the work, 659- 
 662 ; a massive quadrangular tower abovfe 
 a circular enclosure of polygonal stones of 
 the Macedonian age, probably a sacred 
 shrine, 662 ; the mound identified with 
 the cenotaph of Eestus, killed by Caracalla 
 to provide a Patroclus for funeral games 
 in imitation of Achilles; no trace of a 
 funeral fire ; fragments of Greek pottery 
 of 5th cent. B.C. or earlier, and of Poman 
 pottery fixing the date ; alleged resem- 
 blance to the Cucumella at Vulci, 663 ; 
 — view from its summit of the arena of 
 the Iliad, and to the wider range of it s 
 mythological scenery, 679, 680. 
 
 Ulysses, fetches Neoptolemus from Scyros; 
 steals the Palladium from Troy, 160 ; 
 ambassador to Troy before the war, 164. 
 
 Ulysses, Castle of (so called), on M. Aetos 
 in Ithaca, 18, 47 ; Palace of, Sir W. 
 Gell's, imaginary, 49. 
 
 Urns, with 2 handles, 3rd c, 399, 400; 
 hand-made, 4th c, 539. 
 
 Urns, Funeral, 2 tripod, found on native 
 rock, one containing human ashes and the 
 skeleton of an embryo; interment ex- 
 plained, 227;— of 3rd c, in shape of a 
 box, 360-1 ; many found in 3rd and 4th 
 c, 39 ;— No. 426, type of funeral urns of 
 3rd c. ; No. 424, type of those of 4th c. ; 
 only two such in 3rd ; similar one from 
 Thera, 400 ; of Roman age, with human 
 ashes, in N. I., 39. 
 
 VALE PI ANUS I., coins of, N. I., 645. 
 
 Valonea Oak, abundant in Troad, prepara- 
 tion of acorns for tanning, 116, 118. 
 
 Vase Covers, terra-cotta. See Covers. 
 
 , silver Tr. : see Silver. 
 
 Vase-handles, with heads of serpents (q. v.) 
 and cows (q. v.), 6th c, 598, 599. 
 
 Vases, silver, of great Tr. See Silver. 
 
VASES. 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 VIRCH0W, PROF. 
 
 797 
 
 Vases, owl-beaded : containing a treasure, 
 43 ; broken, containing a treasure, 52. 
 See Owl-headed Vases. 
 
 Vases, terra- cotta (comp. Pottery) : of 1 st c, 
 214 ; with double vertical holes for sus- 
 pension, common, but rare elsewhere, 215 ; 
 none such in 2nd c, 279 ; parallel exam- 
 ples, 215 ; ornamentation (q. v.), 216 ; with 
 remnants of suspending cord, 217 ; colour, 
 fabric, and baking (see Pottery) ; with 
 four perforations in rim, 220; mode of 
 closing ; with single tubular holes, 221 ; 
 parallel examples rare, 222 ; more fre- 
 quent with horizontal holes, as at Hanai 
 Tepeh, 223, 720 ; large two-handled, 227, 
 228 ; curious red, 227, 228. 
 
 ■ of 2nd City : pithoi (q. v.), 279 ; owl- 
 headed (q. v.), 290 ; suspension and tripod, 
 295 ; two and three bandied, 297. 
 
 ■ of Zrd City : remarkable, with hollow 
 
 wing-like projections, from chiefs house, 
 302, 303, 329 f . ; with well-modelled 
 human bead, 330 ; owl-headed {q. v.), 
 339 f. ; fragment with ornament like a rose, 
 340, 341 ; vase with projections like birds' 
 beaks, 345 ; tripods (q. v.), with female 
 characteristics, 325, &c. ; decorated and 
 plain, 354 f. ; without feet, 363 f. ; with 
 double tubular holes, only two or three 
 found in 3rd c, 363, 364 ; various forms, 
 ornamented and plain, with and without 
 system for suspension, 364 f. ; decoration 
 of rows of dots, 366 ; two remarkable (No. 
 302), with incised ornaments of branches, 
 368 ; one like a melon, 368, 3G9 ; with in- 
 scription round body, 369 ; with wave orna- 
 ment like Cypriote Jw, 369, 383, 384 ; small, 
 rude, with breast-like projections, 369 ; 
 globular, curiously decorated, 370; with 
 handles and wing-like projections, 381 ; 
 splendid lustrous-red, with long and re- 
 curved hollow projections, spiral and fish- 
 spine ornaments, from royal house, 381 ; 
 others of like form, 382, 383 ; globular, 
 395, 396; with two, three, and four 
 handles, 398-402. 
 
 of 4th City : like 3rd, 518 ; owl- 
 headed (q.v.) and female, 521-523 ; with 
 vertical suspension tubes, 525 f. ; with 
 spiral perforated handles, 526 ; wheel- 
 made, with spiral handles and suspension 
 tubes between, 526 ; with curious cha- 
 racters, probably not a real inscription, 
 526, 527, 697 ; most of these are hand- 
 made, 527 ; various incised decorations ; 
 tripods, 528 f. ; one with 3 bottoms, 
 529 ; one with small jug adhering 
 
 to it, 529 ; with 3 and 4 cups on one 
 body, 540 ; large two-handled ; two- 
 handled with wave ornament, 541 ; others, 
 
 542 ; with one vertical and one horizontal 
 handle, 542 ; globular, with 4 breast-like 
 bosses, 543 ; with tubular spout, unique, 
 
 543 ; with 4 thin handles, wide mouth, and 
 large border, only 3 such found, 545, 546 ; 
 three-bandied, 547 ; large two-handled, 
 with pointed foot, 547 ; with 3 handles 
 and cover, 547, 548 ; with 4 handles, 548 ; 
 with 3 mouths and 2 bandies, unique, 
 553-4 ; with 2 handles and 2 wings, 556 ; 
 perforated, 556, 557. 
 
 Vases of 5th City : owl-vases (q. v.), 574 f. ; 
 with female characteristics, 576; two- 
 handled, with breasts, 577, 578 ; globular, 
 wheel-made, with zigzag round neck, 
 580; large wheel-made, with double 
 upright handles, of later fabric than in 
 preceding cities, with crown-shaped cover, 
 580; with tubes at side and holes in 
 rim, for suspension, 581 ; double, joined, 
 582. 
 
 of Qth City : very large, four-handled, 
 
 wheel-made, 590 ; globular, two-handled, 
 wheel-made, 590, 591 ; large hand-made, 
 with one common handle, and three like 
 ram's horns, explaining excrescences on 
 Etruscan vases, 591-2, and protuberances 
 on others, 593-6 ; with vertical tubes for 
 suspension, 596, 597 ; in shape of a bugle, 
 with three feet, frequent ; similar from 
 Rhodes and Cyprus ; perhaps the Etruscan 
 and Greek Aryballos ; the benas d^cf)iKv- 
 rreWov, 596 ; other forms, 597. 
 
 Vases, painted terra-cotta, of N. I. ; an ar- 
 chaic vase-head, hand-made, with tubular 
 holes for suspension, 614 ; fragments of 
 wheel-made, 614, 615. 
 
 Vathy, capital of Ithaca, not the site of an 
 ancient city, 49. 
 
 Veneti or Eneti, led by Antenor from Paphla- 
 gonia to the Adriatic, 164. 
 
 Vertebrae of sharks, dolphins, and tunnies, 
 3rd c, 323, 432. 
 
 Villanova, cemetery of, whorls found in ; its 
 age, 230. 
 
 Vimpos, Th., author's teacher in Greek, now 
 Archbishop of Athens, 14. 
 
 Virchow, Prof. Budolf, on learning Greek, 
 15 n. ; his drawings and descriptions of 
 Trojan skulls, 30, 39 (see Skulls) ; joins 
 author at Troy (1879), 53; his re- 
 searches there, 53; medical practice in 
 the Troad, 53, 721 f. ; on the construction 
 of Trojan houses, 53 f. ; on the sources of 
 
798 VIRCHOW, ADLE. 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 WHEEL. 
 
 the Scimander, 58 ; speech on the exca- 
 vations, 60 f. (see Excavations at Hissar- 
 lik and Troy) ; on the Scamander and 
 Plain of Troy, 80 f. ; his 1 Beitrdge zur 
 Landeskunde der Troas,' 80, 95, 190, &c. ; 
 account of Conchylia, 114 f. ; for the His- 
 sarlik site, 190 ; also Pre/., and App. I., 
 p. 676 f. ; excavations at Zaborowo, in 
 Posen, 223 ; on domestic architecture of 
 ancient and modern Trojans, 314.-317 ; 
 on food of the people from remnants at 
 the burnt city, and their social condition, 
 318-321; on "Troy and Hissarlik," App. L, 
 673 f. ; " Medical Practice in the Troad," 
 App. V., p. 721 f. 
 
 Virchow, Adele, her excavations at Zabo- 
 rowo, 223 et passim. 
 
 Virchow, Dr. Hans, 223 et passim. 
 
 Virlet aVAoust, 'Description topograph ique et 
 archeologique de la Troade,' 189. 
 
 Vitellius, coins of, N. I., 646. 
 
 Vivien de Saint-Martin, L., ' L'llion oVEo- 
 mere, V Ilium des Romains? 188. 
 
 Vogler., Mr., partner in the house of Messrs. 
 J. H. Schroder & Co., in Hamburg, 13 n. 
 
 Voss, J. H., residence at Ankershagen, 2 n. 
 
 Vulci, vase resembling the Trojan hiira 
 dfx(f)iKV7reXka found at, 302. 
 
 Vultures in the Troad, 113. 
 
 WALL, earthen, of the Greek camp, 151. 
 
 Wall of Eerakles, Trojan rampart near the 
 sea-shore, 151. 
 
 Wall of Troy, built by Poseidon, 141, or by 
 him and Apollo, 156. 
 
 Walls (see also Eouse-walU, and the arts, on 
 the several cities) : a Cyclopean wall in 2nd 
 c, resting on a retaining wall of smaller 
 stones of 1st c, 24, 264 ; pair of great 
 (see Tower of Ilium), 25 ; two Trojan, 
 27 ; Greek, 28, 29 ; of fortification below 
 temple of Athene, 30, 31 ; of sun-dried 
 brick, near the 9 large jars, 33 ; great in- 
 ternal wall of 2nd c, 40, 265; another 
 of 2nd c, 265 ; of Lysimachus, 40 ; stands 
 on debris thrown down, 63 ; others, 40 ; of 
 Troy disclosed in its whole circuit, 54 ; 
 retaining wall, 1st c, 213 ; — rampart wall 
 of 2nd c, N.W. of gate, paved with flags, 
 267-8; — walls of 2nd and 3rd c, their 
 relation to each other, 268 ; great slope, 
 easy to scale, proves them only substruc- 
 tions, 268 ; — of 3rd c, new wall added to 
 wall of 2nd c. ; its pecu!iar construction, 
 305 ; of brick, 305 ; densely inhabited 
 works of defence over, 306 ; city wall 
 brought to light in its whole circuit, 306 ; 
 
 its course, 307; construction of brick, 
 upon a few courses of slabs, founded on 
 clay cakes (q. v.), 307 ; Burnouf's descrip- 
 tion and sections of the brick walls, 308 ; 
 section of remnant of the brick wall, 312 ; 
 — of 4th c. ; no large city wall, properly so 
 called, 518, 519 ; one N.W. of tower-road ; 
 ancient enclosure wall, with battlements, 
 on N.W.; 2 more on S.E. ; all beyond 
 precincts of 3rd c, 319 ; no brick walls of 
 defence, 320 ; — of 5th c, doubtful ; per- 
 haps destroyed by succeeding settlers, 574; 
 — of N. I. ; great Hellenic wall built im- 
 mediately on debris of 3rd c, 311 ; only 
 the lower courses of the Greek tower pre- 
 Macedonian, 609 ; great city wall ascribed 
 to Lysimachus, well preserved ; probably 
 repaired by Sylla ; traces of an inner wall, 
 connecting 2 quadrangular forts, 610. 
 
 W ilpole, ' Memoirs relating to European 
 and Asiatic Turkey? 186. 
 
 Washing-troughs, stone, of Trojan women 
 outside Troy, 144. 
 
 Wave-line ornament on fragment of a great 
 pithos, 280. 
 
 Wave ornament on vases, like Cypriote cha- 
 racter go, ko, or kho, 1 369, 383, 384, &c. 
 
 Weapons, bronze, Tit., mass molten together 
 by fire, 482 ; long quadrangular bar with 
 sharp end, Tn., 482 ; another such, and 
 2 smaller, Tr., 494. See Battle-Axes; 
 Daggers; Lance-heads. (N.B. No swords 
 found.) 
 
 Webb, P. Barker, his * Topographie de la 
 Troade? 20, 188 et passim ; places Troy 
 at Chiblak, 20 ; geology of Ida and its 
 valleys, 69, 70; description of climate 
 and beauty of the Trojan land, 102-3 ; 
 account of Flora of the Troad, 116. 
 
 Weight, standard of, in Asia Minor. See 
 Mina. 
 
 Weights: 3rd c, one (probably) of green 
 gabbro-rock, 436 ; for doors, looms, or 
 nets, of terra-cotta, 411; of stone, 442, 
 443, 444 ; — 4th c, of stone for nets, 570, 
 584 ; similar in Denmark, 584. 
 
 Welcker, * Kleine Schriften,' 187. 
 
 Well, Greek, in the Acropolis of N. L, 211. 
 
 Wendt, J. F., kindness to the author, 8; 
 death, 9 n. 
 
 Wheat, a field of, under the walls of Troy 
 (Horn.), 118, 145 ; remains of, in Trojan 
 houses, 320 ; other grain, 320 n. 
 
 Wheel, leaden, with 4 spokes, 4th c, doubt- 
 
 1 These are only various readings of the same 
 character, J\ . See p. 695, a, near the top. 
 
WHEELS. 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 XERXES. 
 
 799 
 
 less model of wheels in use there ; com- 
 pared with other forms of wheels ; eight 
 spokes in Homers chariot of Here, 565. 
 
 Wheels, moving, on whorls, 417. 
 
 Whetstones : 1st c, of indurated slate ; ex- 
 amples from Egypt and elsewhere, 248; 
 — 3rd c, of green stone ; common in all the 
 pre-historic cities, but rare at Mycenae, 
 443; similar at Szihalom and Thera, 
 443 ; — 4th c, porphyry, with inscription, 
 567, 697 ; many of slate and porphyry, 571. 
 
 WJwrls, stone, of steatite, about 50 collected, 
 422 ; contrast with the great number found 
 at Mycenae, 422, 443. 
 
 Whorls, terra-cotta : 1st c, plain and orna- 
 mented ; the latter known by the fiat 
 form ; probably offerings to Athene 
 Ergane, 229; found in various parts 
 of Europe, Mexico, Mycenae (very few, 
 but many of stone), Thera, 231 ; — 2nd 
 c, also all black, smaller than in 1st, 
 with incised ornamentation as in upper 
 cities, 303 ; — 3rd c, double, or top-shaped, 
 rare, 416 ; various forms and patterns, 
 416 f. ; nearly half have incised pat- 
 terns, 416 : generally on one side only, 
 sometimes on both ; crosses, with dots, 
 and l£, man with uplifted arms, 418; 
 a moving wheel, written characters, burn- 
 ing altars, animals, plants, flowers, zigzags, 
 the sun, birds, probably storks, 416-420 ; 
 rudeness of representation due to a sacred 
 tradition ; uniformity of style, 419 ; 
 spirals, strokes, and dots, 420 ; all perfo- 
 rated, of coarse clay, coated with fine clay 
 and polished — colours red, yellow, black 
 or grey, thoroughly baked (but in other 
 cities imperfectly) ; ornamentation in- 
 cised, and filled with white chalk ; 
 hardly any show signs of wear, 421 ; 
 probably votive offerings to Athene Er- 
 gane, 419, 420, 422; more than 18,000 
 collected; comparison with the few at 
 Mycenae, 422; — thousands in 4th c, 
 like those in 3rd, 518, 571 ; various 
 patterns ; written characters, 562-564, 
 571, 572 ; patterns of 3rd c. recur, 571 ; 
 crosses, altars, ?d and ^ hares and other 
 animals, zigzags, a man (probably), sym- 
 metrical patterns, 571-2 : — 5th c, patterns 
 often different from 3rd and 4th ; fabric 
 inferior ; shape more elongated and 
 pointed ; examples of new forms ; one 
 with three deer ; another with strange 
 scratchings, 573 ; — 6th c, ornamented, 
 594, 596 ; frequent, of same dull- 
 black clay as the other pottery; de- 
 
 coration linear, with Ft and ^ ; — rare in 
 stratum of N. I., thoroughly baked and 
 plain, 618 ; their place seems taken by 
 the stamped lenticular discs (q. v.). 
 
 Winckelmann, E., of Ankershagen, 2 n. 
 
 Wind, at Hissarlik, troublesome from N., 
 25 ; Homer's icy blasts of Boreas, 26 ; 
 table of prevalent winds, 101. 
 
 Wine, huge jars (tt'lOol) for (see Fithoi); 
 making of in modern Troad, 118 ; mixing- 
 vessels for (see Craters) ; wine-mer- 
 chant's magazine under temple of Athene', 
 379 (comp. Cellars). 
 
 Wing-like projections, on Trojan idols, 331, 
 &c. ; and vases, 339, 381, &c. 
 
 Wire, gold, Trojan, drawn finer on account 
 of the purity of the gold, 458 ; quadran- 
 gular, Tr., 494. 
 
 Wittmack, Dr., on seeds from the Troad, 
 320 n. 
 
 Wolf with Eomulus and Remus, on coins of 
 N. I., 641, 647. 
 
 Wollert, 'Hopping Peter,' village tailor of 
 Ankershagen, his stories, 4, 5. 
 
 Wood, beams for floors, in 2nd and 3rd c, 
 30, 274 ; difficulty of working with the 
 stone axes, 274; largely used for build- 
 ings of 3rd c, as shown by quantity of 
 ashes, 266 ; wooden houses of 5th c, 573. 
 
 Wooden Horse, legend of, 160, 161; opinions 
 about, 207 ; bearing on argument upon 
 the site of Troy, 208. 
 
 Wool, ancient export of, from Phrysia, 112 ; 
 woollen thread, carbonized, still on a 
 distaff, 3rd c, 327. 
 
 Workmen, numbers and wages of, 21, 22, 
 24, 27, 51. 
 
 Worsaae, 1 Nordiske Oldsager? 215 et 
 passim. 
 
 Writing, in Asia Minor, long before the intro- 
 duction of the Phoenician alphabet, proved 
 by Dr. Schliemann's discoveries, 691. 
 
 Written characters, on seals, 415 ; on 
 whorls, 417-420. 
 
 XANTHUS, Lydian historian, on the 
 Mysian language, 119. 
 
 Xanthus, R. (* 3 r ellow '), the ' divine/" i.e. 
 Greek name, equivalent to the native 
 Scamander (q. v.), 705. 
 
 Xenophon for the N. I. site, 170. 
 
 Xerxes, his bridge of boats, 133 ; visits 
 Ilium as Homer's Troy ; sacrifices to 
 Athene ; makes libations to Trojan heroes, 
 168, 680 ; topography of his march, 168- 
 9 n.; N. I. of no importance then but for 
 its shrine, 689. 
 
800 
 
 YENI KIOI. 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 ZOOLOGY. 
 
 YENI KIOI, Christian village, fever- 
 stricken, 106. 
 
 Yeni Shehr, 105, site of the ancient 
 Stgeum (q. v.). 
 
 Yerkassi, military farm, 101. 
 
 ZABORUWO, in Posen, pre-historic grave- 
 yard, excavated hy Professor Virchow and 
 his children, pottery from, 223 et passim. 
 
 Zarjpanit or Zirbanit, Babylonian goddess, 
 prototype of the Trojan female idols 
 (Lenormant), 339. 
 
 Zeleia, Lycian c. on the Aesepus, 132 ; at 
 end of a chief branch of Ida, 68. 
 
 Zeus, temple of, in the Pergamos, 140. 
 
 Zeus Uerkeios, altar of, Priam slain at, 211 ; 
 shown by Greek Ilians, 211. 
 
 Zeus Meilichios = Moloch, 154. 
 
 Zeus Nikejohoros, with Palladium, on coins 
 of N. I., 642. 
 
 Zigzag ornament on a Trojan tripod, 357; 
 pattern on whorls, 418, 420, &c. 
 
 Zinc (yj/evbapyvpos) in M. Ida, 253-4. 
 Comp. Brass. 
 
 Zoology of the Troad : Barker Webb and 
 Tchihatcheff on ; wild beasts in Ida, 110 ; 
 lions, bears, panthers, wolves; the boar; 
 horses, asses, mules, oxen, goats, camels ; 
 sheep, 111 ; use of the ox for agriculture ; 
 buffalo also used in farming ; the Bactrian 
 camel ; stag rare ; deer, roebuck, and gazelle 
 frequent; birds, various but little known, 
 112 ; the stork, 112, 113 ; cranes; various 
 vultures ; one eagle ; a bird, probably 
 Homer's Chalcis or Cymindis (q. v.) ; owls, 
 113 ; snakes, numerous and poisonous ; 
 tortoises, land and water ; annelids, leeches; 
 locusts; Kermes worm, 114; Virchow's 
 report on Conchylia, 114 f. ; their use for 
 food, 115, 116. 
 
 THE END. 
 
i 
 
A.B, C,D, etc. Parts not 
 
 earavated,. 
 
 The Darkest tints uxdicatz, 
 the deepest etrrarniiians. 
 The, immhers rndzrate, vv metre^ 0%£ 
 the depth, hei/nr th e. a /joining levzL 
 The,si'rnpleJ\atchmgs mdiratie,thesTwt 
 debris of the, exrAxvratuonfi 
 The, crossed; hatchings marie, the, 
 vnecxxttmix/L soil/. 
 
 a, Gate, of the, city. b.o.o.Eacterrialwulls 
 c. BmerTvoJls. ob. Strej!t^>aved,-mih,flM^s 
 e e Trojan^wOdaigs. ff Ex/ovations w 
 first, & Lowest city. g.TlvLchwaU;m,dve,smxxJl£r 
 nordvtrench,. /u27r^^ of tfw first aty. 
 0. Jars . © (red/) Wells ■ 
 ^RmchdagbyMlrojvk fohrrt . 
 A' Place, Trfvere. the, largo treasure was lounrb. 
 
 Harper fc3rolb K 3 . SewY ork 
 
Plan I. 
 
 1 PILAH ©F Ti©¥ 3 
 
 I 
 
 ^ EMILE BURNOUF. 
 
 \\\# Jane, 1879. 
 
 5 10 IS 20 26 30 35 
 
 1 .... I .... I .... I .... I I I ... .I i, 
 
 zoo feet/ 
 
 m New York. 
 
\ 
 
Plan IV. 
 
I 
 
PLAN 
 
 TUMULUS 
 
 BUILDINGS 
 
 FknV 
 
 AJdMassvve square tower, TearAmg almost 
 tiit-top of the tumulus, height, 11-&0metrej 
 
 BB Grcular wjil of -polygonal stones -passing 
 heneattv the. tower A. PL. 
 C Another arcuJLar-waR leaning against/ 
 thewjll BB . 
 
 / NOTE . The, dark parts indicate, the, tamuls dug The, tunnel D 
 comes from, the outside- and gvres access to the square tower and/ 
 I if areolar vails, this tamul is 30 metres long. The, lower part of 
 the, areat shxtft sunk from/the top of the- tamvdus is indicated by 
 " M the.squmx, space, EE'. The dotted hhes mdwit* the, tunnels dug 
 ■below thf tower, hx the. midst, PPi# a, shaft sunk- dawn to ttu-vtrguv 
 soil 
 
 Harper «c Brothers New Yarn 
 
Transverse Sec"^^^ 
 
 Plan VI. 
 
 AA.Masswe square, tower. 
 BB Grcalar wall of pofygoaaL stones . 
 
 underneath the, massive tower A A . 
 CC Another txradarwJL. 
 00 Canty ibwut uv the massive, tower. 
 PP <%a/fc oZotu? «fo a«z> ofthetower. 
 a^b,c,<L,e,f,a,, Hmnds dag to hring to 
 light the areolar walls & the .sides of 
 the scfaart massive tower. 
 ICf Irregular* tunnel made beneath 
 
N 03 1801-1316 . 
 
 SPECIMEN SECTIONS OF WHORLS DUG UP AT TROY- 
 
 Harper Sc Brothers New York. 
 
N° fl 1817-1832. 
 
 J 
 
 SPECIMEN PATTERNS OF WHORLS DUG UP AT TROY- 
 
 Harper $c lire thers New York. 
 
N os 1833-1848. 
 
 SPECIMEN PATTERNS OF WHORLS DUG UP AT TROY- 
 
 Harper 8cBrofl)|srs .New York. 
 
flo.s 1849-1855. 
 
 SPECIMENS OF WHORLS, &c. DUG UP AT TROY. 
 
 Rarper flc Brothers New York. 
 
1856 -1860. 
 
 .wPECltoENS OF WHORIS.&C. DUG UP AT TROY. 
 
 H.arper %l Brothers New York. 
 
N 03 1861-1864. 
 
 SPECIMENS Of WHORLS, &C. DUG UP AT TROY. 
 
 Harpc; kIirotbp.ro New York. 
 
N 03 1865-1871. 
 
 SPECIMENS OF WHORLS, &c. DUG UP AT TROY_ 
 
 Harper 8c lirothfirs _Ne\y York. 
 
N°. 3 187Z-1876 . 
 
 SPECIMENS OF WHORLS, &C. OUG UP AT TROY 
 
 Harper ?c Brothers JNewYork.. 
 
N? s 1879. -1660 . 
 
 SPECIMENS OF WHORLS, &C. DUG UP AT TROY. 
 
N»s 1681-1884. 
 
 SPECIMENS OF WHORIS.&C. DUG UP AT TROY_ 
 
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SPECIMENS OF WUORIS &c DUG UP AT TROY. 
 
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SPECIMENS OF WHORLS.&C. DUG UP AT TROY _ 
 
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SPECIMENS OF WHORLS.&C. DUG UP AT T ROY_ 
 
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SPECIMENS t)F WHORLS, &C. DUG UP AT TROY. 
 
 Earper 1c Rrothfirs New York. 
 
NPS 1310-1915. 
 
 SPECIMENS OF W'lORLS, &C. DUG UP AT TROY. 
 
 Harper 8c Brothers New York. 
 
1*08 1916 -mi. 
 
 SPECIMENS OF WHORLS, &C. DUG UP AT TROY. 
 
 Harper 4c Brothers New York. 
 
U 08 1322-1526. 
 
 SPECIMENS OF WHORLS, &C .0 U G UP AT TROY.. 
 
W s 1327-1932. 
 
 SPECIMEN* OF WHORLS, &c. DUG UP AT TROY- 
 
 Harper %ciirothitrs KewYork 
 
m s 1933-1338 
 
 PECIMENS OF WHORLS, & c. OUC UP AT TROY. 
 
N° s 1939-1345. 
 
 SPECIMENS OF WHORLS, &c. DbC UP AT T R OV . 
 
 Harper Be Brothers .New York. 
 
No? 1946 -19 BO. 
 
 SPECIMENS OF WHOPAS, 8tC. DUG UP AT TRC*. 
 
 flarper- toBrofllBTS Hew Yo-.-K. 
 
SPECIMENS OF WHORLS OUC UP at TROY. 
 
 Harrse- !c Srofl ftrs NswYork * ' 
 
1855 -13 6C 
 
 SPECIMENS Of WH3PLS,&C. DUG UP AT TROY_ 
 
 Har-oer 9r, Brothers -New York. 
 
N°. s 1961-1865 . 
 
 SPEC1MINS OF WtfQ7US, &c, HUG UP AT TKOY. 
 
fl 05 1966-1971 
 
 $ PICONS !>? Vtr'HQRlS, DUG UP AT TROY- 
 
 b'ATfC:- Brothers BewYopJc. 
 
1T03 1972-1978. 
 
 SPECIMENS OF WHORLS, &C. DUG UT AT TROY. 
 
 Earner %r. Brothers New York 
 
N os 1982-1985. 
 
 S PECIMENS 
 
 OF WHORIS. 
 
 &C. DUG UP AT TROY. 
 
JSP» 1986-1990. 
 
 SPECIMENS OF WHORLS, &C. DUG UP AT TROY. 
 
 Karper Urochp,rs New York. 
 
SPECIMENS OF WHORLS, &c. DUG -OP AT TROY. 
 
 Harper 9c Brothers ,JN ervv York. 
 
N°s 1993-1996, 
 
 SPECIMENS OF WKQRIS, &C DUG UP AT TROY- 
 
 Haraejr 8c Brodifirs JKewYork.. 
 
No. 9 1997-2000. 
 
 SPECIMENS OF WHORLS, &C> DUG UP AT TROY 
 
 Harper ScBrofrfirs. New York. 
 
v . 
 
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