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BRASS AND IRON FOUNDER'S 
 GUIDE: 
 
 A. TRET^TISE 
 
 ON 
 
 BRASS FOUNDING, MOULDING, THE METALS AND 
 THEIR ALLOYS, ETC, 
 
 By JAMES LARKIN, 
 
 LATH CONDUCTOR OP THE BRASS FOUNDRY DEPARTMENT IN THE PENN 
 WORKS, PHILADELPHIA. 
 
 A NEW, REVISED AND GREATLY ENLARGED EDITION. 
 
 PHILADELPHIA : 
 
 HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO., 
 
 Industrial Publishers, Booksellers, and Importers, 
 
 810 WALNUT STREET. 
 LONDON : 
 
 E. & F. N. SPON, 
 
 125 STRAND. 
 
 1892. 
 
Copyright, 
 By HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO., 
 1893. 
 
 PRINTED AT 
 
 COLLINS PRINTING HOUSt, 
 
 PHILADELPHIA, U. S. A. 
 
PREFACE TO THE REVISED EDITION. 
 
 As shown by the constant demand for it, The 
 Practical Brass and Iron Founder's Guide 
 still maintains the popularity and reputation it has 
 enjoyed for so many years. 
 
 Tha issue of a new edition having become nec- 
 essary, a large amouut of new and important matter 
 has been added, in order to bring the work up to 
 modern times. Some portions of the original edition 
 being out of date have been eliminated, whilst in 
 others a few alterations have been made. However, 
 in making these alterations as well as the additions, 
 the aim of the author — to prepare a handy book for 
 the use of the practical workman — has been con- 
 stantly kept in view. 
 
 The book has also been proArided with a copious 
 table of contents and a very full index, which will 
 add further value by rendering any subject in it 
 easy and prompt of reference. 
 
 In its enlarged and improved shape, it is hoped 
 (iii) 
 
 loo lo^ 
 
iv PREFACE TO THE REVISED EDITION. 
 
 that the work will fully maintain its claim to the 
 favor it has so long enjoyed as a full and intelligible 
 guide in the workshop. 
 
 Philadelphia, June 16, 1892. 
 
PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION. 
 
 The world at present groans under a load of new 
 publications on every branch of science and art; with 
 which no former period of our literary annals can for 
 a moment be compared. 
 
 The most assiduous students, unable to peruse a 
 thousandth part of the works which are daily soliciting 
 their attention, are quite perplexed and distressed 
 about what to choose and what to reject. 
 
 This I have frequently found to be the case with 
 myself, and while debating the question in my own 
 mind, have lost, in doubt and uneasiness, the time I 
 meant to set apart for practical manipulation. 
 
 Impressed, therefore, with the unspeakable disad- 
 vantages that result from the circumstances just stated, 
 and anxious to save others, in some degree, from that 
 unpleasant dilemma in which I have myself been so 
 often placed, I have resolved on the present pubhca- 
 tion, which I hope will to a very great extent accom- 
 plish the useful object I have in view. 
 
 With what judgment, however, the design has been 
 
 (V) 
 
Vi PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION. 
 
 formed, and with what skill it has been executed, it 
 becomes not me to determine — that question, to the 
 result of which I am deeply alive, remains now with a 
 higher tribunal. 
 
 During the last fifteen years I have, from time to 
 time, contributed papers to well known mechanical 
 and philosophical publications, on subjects herein 
 discussed. These I have carefully revised for the 
 present work, and have added much information 
 gleaned in the field of experience, and from the arcana 
 of science. 
 
 I would add in conclusion, that I have been prac- 
 tically employed in the business for thirty-four years, 
 having conducted the work, in all its branches, at 
 Messieurs Sandford et Varreles, Rue de Rochecourt, 
 one of the largest ateliers in Paris, as well as at the 
 British government works, steam-engine and ship- 
 building yard, Woolwich, London, for the last eleven 
 years — so that the reader may relieve himself of all 
 doubt and difficulty in the matter. 
 
 James Larkin. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 On the properties of the nmetals ^ 
 
 The most striking property of metals 2 
 
 Transmission of light by metals ; Sir Isaac Newton's obser- 
 
 3 
 
 rations 
 
 Crystalline form of metals 
 
 Malleability and ductility of metals ^ 
 
 Table showing the order which the metals bear to one an- 
 other in respect to their properties ^ 
 
 Table of hardness of metals • • • 
 
 Fusibility of metals 
 
 Odor and taste of metals; Specific gravity of metals . . . 9 
 
 Combination of metals with oxygen 10 
 
 Metallic oxides; Combinations of metals with oxygen, 
 
 soluble and insoluble in water 12 
 
 On metallic alloys; Brass, pinchbeck, bell-metal and 
 
 pewter 
 
 Type-metal; Tin-foil; Amalgam of zinc and mercury; 
 
 Gold and silver coins ; Evolution of heat in the forma- 
 
 15 
 
 tion of alloys 
 
 Preparation of alloys, and phenomena observed thereby . 16 
 
 Native metals ; Definition of an ore 1'^ 
 
 Occurrence and reduction of ores ; Definition of metallurgy. 18 
 Table of metals, showing authors and dates of their dis- 
 covery, their specific gravity, melting points and equiv- 
 alents 
 
 On the conducting powers of various metals for voltaic 
 
 electricity; researches of Pouillet 20 
 
 Table showing the degrees of heat evolved by an equal 
 
 current from different metals 21 
 
 (vii ^ 
 
Vlll 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 tr PAGE 
 
 Table of experimental results as to some of the chemical 
 and physical properties of the atomic alloys of copper 
 
 and zinc, and of copper and tin, by R. Mallet 22 
 
 Table showing the chemical and physical properties of the 
 
 atomic alloys of copper and tin 23 
 
 Behavior of metals and alloys in melting and congeal- 
 ing ; Melting points of metals 24 
 
 Transition of metals from a solid to a fluid state ; Dimen- 
 sions of patterns for castings 25 
 
 Shrinkage of various metals ; Table of figures by which the 
 
 weight of a casting can be calculated beforehand ... 26 
 Phenomena in casting due to shrinkage; Explanation of 
 
 strain in the rim of a pulley 27 
 
 Strain in a ring 28 
 
 Shrinkage strains within hollow spherical steel castings , 29 
 General laws regarding shrinkages as presented by Mr. 
 
 Alfred E. Watkins so 
 
 On founding 22 
 
 On brass founding \ 22 
 
 Copper ; Purification of copper ; Mr. Lewis Thompson's in- 
 vention 25 
 
 On the reduction of copper 3g 
 
 Tin, or Bedil in the Hebrew 37 
 
 Brass of the Phoenicians; Native tin; Tin stone, stream 
 
 tin ; Block tin and grain tin ; East Indian tin 38 
 
 On the reduction of tin, grain, and block tin 39 
 
 40 
 
 Lead 
 
 Antimony ^2 
 
 Wire-drawing ductility of metals, and their values as 
 laminable substances; Properties of alloys of copper 
 
 and tin ^2 
 
 Temper ' ' 
 
 Bronze for cannon, statues, etc.; On bell metal 45 
 
 On copper and tin mixtures 4g 
 
 Alloys of copper and zinc ; Table of the best proportions 
 of the principal mixtures 47 
 
CONTENTS. ix 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Alloys of copper, zinc, tin and lead 49 
 
 Manheim gold ; Pinchbeck 50 
 
 Princess metal ; Artificial gold ; Fine brazing solder ... 51 
 Brass moulding ; Formation of sand moulds ; Blown cast- 
 ings 52 
 
 Materials for facing the moulds ; Proportions of sand and 
 
 loam used in the formation of the moulds 53 
 
 Metallic moulds ; Casting of bullets; Moulding of pewter 
 
 pots, inkstands, printing types, etc 54 
 
 Method of filling the moulds ; Sand-burning 55 
 
 Moulding of inflammable complex objects 56 
 
 Moulding of a model moulded in wax ; Founding of bells . 51 
 
 Brass guns 58 
 
 Figure casting 60 
 
 Composition for cores for difficult jobs 61 
 
 Malleable iron castings ; Classification of cast-iron ... 62^ 
 Gray or No. 1 foundry pig; White cast-iron; Mottled iron 63 
 Melting the iron for malleable castings; Moulding, clean- 
 ing and annealing malleable castings 64 
 
 Use of powdered iron in annealing malleable castings ... 65 
 
 Annealing boxes and annealing ovens 66 
 
 Articles usually made of malleable cast iron ; Process of 
 
 making malleable castings with the use of oxide of iron . 61 
 Wrought iron (or mitis) castings ; Discovery by Messrs. 
 Wittenstroem and Nobel ; Advantages of an addition 
 
 of aluminium to fluid iron 70 
 
 Best method of alloying aluminium with iron 71 
 
 Details of the production of mitis castings 72 
 
 Analyses of mitis metal by Mr. Edward Riley 73 
 
 Manufacture of steel castings 76 
 
 Crucible steel castings 77 
 
 Bessemer steel castings 78 
 
 Open hearth steel castings; Mode of making open hearth 
 steel castings according to Mr. Alexander L. HoUey ; 
 
 The furnace . 79 
 
 The initial bath 80 
 
 The softening or refining materials ; Slag-tests ; Metal- 
 tests before the final additions 81 
 
X 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 The final additions 82 
 
 Difficulties in the manufacture of steel castings; Blow- 
 holes 83 
 
 Manner of overcoming the difficulty connected with blow- 
 holes 84 
 
 Shrinkage and ways of remedying this evil 85 
 
 Chemical constitution ; Stripping ; Mechanical pressure ; 
 
 Rising head ; Moulding 86 
 
 Shrinkage holes 87 
 
 Casting of brass ; Materials and tools required for model- 
 ing 88 
 
 Shrinkage of brass castings 89 
 
 How to take impressions and casts from existing works ; 
 
 To prevent wooden patterns from absorbing moisture . 90 
 
 Arrangement of ordinary work in the flask 91 
 
 Green sand mould ; Plate moulding 92 
 
 Cores and how to make them 94 
 
 Moulding of thin brass castings and of small animals, 
 
 butterflies, leaves, etc 95 
 
 Furnaces for melting brass 96 
 
 Crucibles for melting brass ; Mixing and pouring brass ; 
 
 Fuel for the brass furnace 97 
 
 Manner of feeding the metal into the crucible 98 
 
 Pouring the metal 99 
 
 Casting of bronze ; Arrangement of French bronze works ; 
 M. Collas's machine for the automatic reduction or en- 
 largement of solid forms 100 
 
 Moulding of small articles ; Sands employed in moulding; 
 
 Substances used for models 101 
 
 Facing sand ; Sand cores ; What the perfection of bronze 
 
 casting consists in ; Melting the bronze 1 02 
 
 Metals used for bronze ; Casting the bronze ; Cloisonne or 
 
 partition work 103 
 
 Antiquity of the art of founding statues 104 
 
 The c6re-perdu, or waste-wax process 105 
 
 Modern method of founding statues 108 
 
 Bell-founding; Composition of bell-metals HO 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 xi 
 
 PAQH 
 
 Mixture suitable for bells, according to Lafond; Experi- 
 ments in substituting other metals for bell-metal ; Dr. 
 Percy's experiments 
 
 M. Saint Claire Deville's experiment with a bell of pure 
 aluminium ; The constituent parts of a bell 112 
 
 What belongs to a complete church peal ; Moulding and 
 casting of small bells 
 
 Process of moulding the patterns in sand 
 
 Moulding the bell in an upright position 115 
 
 Moulding the bell in inverted position 116 
 
 Moulding and casting large bells ; Principal conditions for 
 
 117 
 
 a good bell 
 
 Manner of tracing the correct profile of a bell of given 
 
 diameter, illustrated and described 118 
 
 Dimensions of eight bells to produce the eight notes of the 
 
 diatonic scale 
 
 Variation in the weights of bells of similar figures ; Mode 
 
 122 
 
 of hanging bells 
 
 Moulding large bells 
 
 Loam for constructing the mould ; Construction of the 
 
 core, illustrated and described 124 
 
 Mode of applying the loam in moulding a bell 125 
 
 Moulding of the cope 
 
 Moulding the crown of the bell J ' ' 
 
 Casting large bells ^ 
 
 Melting and sampling the metal 129 
 
 Reverberatory furnace illustrated and described 130 
 
 Finishing the bell ; Repairing cracked bells 132 
 
 Weight of a few peals of bells 
 
 Analysis of several bell-metals 1^* 
 
 135 
 
 List of large bells 
 
 Chill-casting ; Properties of white cast-iron 136 
 
 Results obtained by the process of chilling a casting . . . ISY 
 Use of chill-castings ; Chilled and non -chilled portions of 
 
 the tong of a railroad frog, illustrated 138 
 
 Moulding a chilled roll, the jour nals of which are to re- 
 main soft, illustrated and described 139 
 
Xll 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 PAQl 
 
 Casting a chilled roll 
 
 Depth of the chill 
 
 Chill-mould for a railroad wheel, illustrated and described 143 
 Description of the largest establishment for the manufac- 
 ture of chilled wheels in the United States 145 
 
 Average life of a chilled cast wheel * ' 153 
 
 F. Tellander's patent for the preparation of hollow chill- 
 castings, illustrated and described; Casting without 
 
 core, illustrated and described 
 
 Casting on to other metals • • • 
 
 Moline's invention for the combination of wrought and cast 
 iron in the manufacture of window frames ; Ornamenta- 
 tion of wrought iron railings 
 
 Burning-on ; Casting ornamental iron railings . . . . ! 161 
 Mode of repairing a piece of machine framing, the necks of 
 
 rolls or a standard ^^.^ 
 
 Bending of cast iron ; Repairing holes on the surface of a 
 casting 
 
 Casting brass nuts on screws . . ' t^a 
 104 
 
 JNew process of casting iron and other metals upon lace, 
 embroideries, fern-leaves and other combustible materials! 165 
 
 Cores in heavy castings 
 
 Core for difficult castings 169 
 
 Brass mirrors ; Copper; Metals _* * ^i^q 
 
 Surface of metals ; Blanched copper ; British 'weapons "and 
 tools in bronze, anciently called Corinthian and Syracuse 
 brass . . ^^i^^^ 
 
 On brass '*,.,„ 
 
 • 172 
 
 Method of casting in plaster— medallions, etc 173 
 
 To transfer engravings to plaster casts ; To varnish plaste'r 
 
 casts 
 
 175 
 
 10 cast concave or convex moulds of medals, on " tin-foil" 
 with plaster 
 
 To cast vegetables, insects, small birds, frogs, fish, etc.', in 
 plaster moulds • . . . . ' i>jtj 
 
 To prepare a metal for casting vegetables, etc.; Sir'is'aac 
 Newton's fusible metal ; Rose's alloy ; Dr. Dalton's fusi- 
 ble alloy 
 
CONTENTS. XUl 
 
 PAGE 
 
 To cast in wax 179 
 
 To cast in sulphur 180 
 
 To cast in glue ; To make a fine glue, wherewith you may 
 
 cast curious medals 181 
 
 To cast in bread paste ... • . . . . • 182 
 
 To cast figures in imitation of ivory ; Rice-glue statuary . 183 
 
 A composition for ornaments 184 
 
 Alloys, amalgams, etc.; On what the formation of alloys 
 depends ; Definitions of alloy and amalgam ; Natural 
 
 alloys 185 
 
 Importance of artificial alloys 186 
 
 Examples of increased and diminished density in alloys. . 187 
 
 Bronze, bell-metal and speculum-metal 188 
 
 Changes in alloys indicating chemical action ; Meteoric iron 189 
 
 Yellow brass 190 
 
 To make copper medals and medallions 191 
 
 Amalgam ; Native amalgam ; Amalgamation of metals with 
 
 mercury 192 
 
 Metals requiring heat to amalgamate them 193 
 
 Decomposition of amalgams 194 
 
 Bismuth 195 
 
 On friction ; Table showing the comparative amount of 
 
 friction of different metals 196 
 
 Sir John Rennie's experiments relative to unguents . . , 197 
 Bells ; Invention of large bells by Paulinus, Bishop of Nola ; 
 
 Large bells of Moscow, Russia 198 
 
 Large bells in England ; On Fluxes ; Black flux • .... 199 
 
 Argol 200 
 
 Use of charcoal as a flux ; Excellent flux for copper ; Fus- 
 ing and melting points ascertained by Prof. Daniell's 
 
 registered pyrometer . 201 
 
 Bismuth and its properties ; Fluidity ; Quantities of heat 
 
 contained by some bodies when rendered fluid .... 202 
 
 Anti-friction metals • 203 
 
 Table for converting decimal proportions into divisions of 
 
 the pound avoirdupois ; Application of the table. . . . 204 
 Keller's statue composition ; Orichalcum, the bronze of the 
 
 Romans 205 
 
XIV 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 PAGB 
 
 The Chinese packfong ; Copper 206 
 
 Silver steel ; Copper and antimony ; Antimony and tin ; 
 
 Copper and bismuth 207 
 
 Bismuth and lead ; Full measure of capacity of tin and 
 
 lead ; Brilliants of Fahlun 208 
 
 Queen's metal ; Tin and zinc ; Tin and iron 209 
 
 To silver copper ; Mosaic gold (ormulu) 210 
 
 To bronze brass, etc 211 
 
 Lacquers ; Deep gold-colored lacquer ; Gold colored lac- 
 quer ; Red-colored lacquer 212 
 
 Pale brass-colored lacquer ; Gold laquer ; Red lacquer . . 213 
 
 Pale brass lacquer ; Pale tin lacquer 214 
 
 Another deep gold lacquer ; green bronze liquid 215 
 
 To silver ivory ; zincking 216 
 
 Table showing the -weight of a square foot of different metal 
 plates ; Table showing the weight of cast-metal balls . . 217 
 
 Table showing the weight of cast-iron pipes 218 
 
 Table showing the weight of cast-metal cylinders ; Table 
 
 showing the specific gravity and weight of materials . . 219 
 Table showing the specific cohesion and strength of metals. 220 
 Table showing the direct cohesion of metals ...... 222 
 
 Table showing the resistance of metals to pressure ; Table 
 
 showing the resistance of metals to torsion 223 
 
 Gold and silver solders ; Hard solder for gold ; Gold sol- 
 der ; hard solder for silver 224 
 
 Another silver solder ; Brass solders ; Method for soldering 
 
 gold and silver 225 
 
 To cleanse silver after it is soldered ; To cleanse gold after 
 
 it is soldered ; silver solder for jewelry 226 
 
 Trinket composition ; Silver plate and medal alloy ; Gold 
 
 coin of America alloy ; Solder for iron 227 
 
 Autogenous soldering ; Arrangement of a Daniell's cock . 228 
 
 Soft solders ; A solder for lead 229 
 
 Plumber's solder ; Composition of pewter ; White metal. . 230 
 Mosaic mixture ; Silvery looking metal ; Metal for flute 
 
 valve keys; German titanium 231 
 
 Spanish titanium ; Britannia metal ; Columbia metal . . 232 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 XV 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Type metals ; Metal for small types ; Type metal of the 
 
 French letter founders ; Berlin type metal 233 
 
 German silver 234 
 
 Speculum metal ... • 235 
 
 Remarks ; Use of arsenic in metallic compositions .... 237 
 
 Platina 239 
 
 On the properties of arsenic 240 
 
 Experimental proofs of the properties of arsenic 241 
 
 Fontainemoreau's new alloys of zinc, a substitute for bronze, 
 
 copper and brass ... • • 242 
 
 Some modern bronzes ; Aluminium bronze ; Properties of 
 
 the various alloys of aluminium with copper 247 
 
 Directions for preparing aluminium bronzes 249 
 
 Manufacture of aluminium bronzes by the Cowles Electric 
 
 Smelting and Aluminium Company 251 
 
 Casting aluminium bronze 254 
 
 Forging aluminium bronze ; Illustration of some of the 
 
 peculiar properties of aluminium bronze 255 
 
 Delta metal, its composition, and advantages claimed for it 256 
 
 Deoxidized bronze 257 
 
 Manganese bronze and its manufacture by Mr. P. M. Par- 
 sons of the Manganese Bronze Co., Deptford, England ; 
 Ferro-manganese ; Cupro-mangauese 259 
 
 Composition of alloys prepared with the assistance of 
 cupro-manganese ; Phosphor-bronze ; Monteiiore and 
 Kiinzel's experiments 
 
 Tenacity and ductility of phosphor-bronze wire according 
 
 toKirkaldy 262 
 
 Copper phosphide and its preparation 263 
 
 Phosphide of tin and its preparation ; Preparation of 
 
 phosphor-bronze 264 
 
 Useful sorts of phosphor-bronze according to Thurston . . 265 
 
 Platinum-bronze 266 
 
 Silicon-bronze 267 
 
 Composition of silicon-bronze used for wires ; Steel-bronze 
 
 or Uchatius bronze 268 
 
 Tobin bronze ; Analyses of Tobin bronze by Dr. Chas. B. 
 Dudley 269 
 
xvi 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 PAGB 
 
 On zinc as a protective covering for iron, and the adapta- 
 tion of the process of electro-deposition for that purpose ; 
 
 Cause of the corrosion of iron 270 
 
 Non-effectiveness of tin and paint for the protection of 
 iron ; Electrical property of zinc in connection with iron 
 
 and other metals 271 
 
 Impurities of zinc; Cause of the rapid destruction of 
 
 zinc 272 
 
 Objections to the immersion of iron in melted zinc ; Extract 
 
 from M. Dumas's report to the French Academy .... 273 
 Purity of the metal deposited by the electro process . . .• 274 
 Protecting influence of zinc upon other metals ; Opinions 
 
 of eminent chemists 275 
 
 Adaptation of the electric processes to the zincking of iron 276 
 
 Decay of iron in contact with lead 277 
 
 Zinc not suitable for protecting articles in use at sea . . . 278 
 Preference at present for zincking iron by immersion or 
 
 galvanizing 279 
 
 Water in pipes ; Table showing the quantity and weight of 
 water contained in one fathom of length of pipes . . . 280 
 
 On crucibles ; Composition for crucibles used in the Royal 
 Foundry of Berlin 281 
 
 Hessian crucibles ; Black lead crucibles 282 
 
 Mr. Anstey's patent process for the manufacture of 
 
 crucibles 283 
 
 Plumbago 284 
 
 Annealing steel ; Disadvantages of using too high a heat . 285 
 Illustration of the destruction of the crystalline structure of 
 
 steel by long-continued heating 286 
 
 Behavior of a piece of fine tap-steel after having been in a 
 
 furnace overnight ; Proper way of annealing steel . . . 287 
 
 Hardening steel ; On boron or borax 289 
 
 Properties of borax 290 
 
 Uses of borax 291 
 
 On sulphur; Occurrence of sulphur 292 
 
 Uses of sulphur ; Sulphurous acid 293 
 
 Combinations of sulphur ; Selenium 294 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 xvii 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Properties of selenium ; On chlorine 295 
 
 Chlorides ; Corrosive sublimate, sources of chlorine . . . 296 
 
 Metallic oxides 297 
 
 Aniline bronzing fluid ; Bronze Barb^dienne on brass . . 298 
 Steel-gray coating. on brass ; To brown gun-barrels ... 299 
 Varnish for gun-barrels that have undergone the process of 
 
 browning ; Ethereal solution of gold 300 
 
 To coat small nails, etc., with tin 301 
 
 Bronzing electrotype casts ; Chemical bronze 302 
 
 Black lead bronze 304 
 
 Carbonate of iron bronze ; To tin iron 305 
 
 Liquid glne ; Artificial fire clay 306 
 
 A cement which resists the action of fire and water . . . 307 
 Cement for the joints of cast-iron ; Niello-metallic orna- 
 ments 308 
 
 Tracing paper 309 
 
 To fix drawings .... • 310 
 
 Antidote to arsenic ; To soften ivory ; To separate the me- 
 tallic portion from gold and silver lace 311 
 
 Blueing and gilding steel 312 
 
 To harden steel dies 313 
 
 Portable glue ; Prevention of corrosion ; . 314 
 
 Cement; Soluble glass 315 
 
 Japanning 316 
 
 To preserve polished steel from rust ; Cement for attaching 
 
 metal to glass 318 
 
 Varnish for colored drawings ; Japanner's copal varnish ; 
 
 Soft varnish 319 
 
 Hard varnish ; Flexible varnish ; French polish 320 
 
 Brunswick black ; Mordant varnish 321 
 
 Several mordant varnishes ; Superior green transparent 
 
 varnish 322 
 
 Etching varnish 323 
 
 Coloring brass a deep blue 324 
 
 On pattern making — contraction of metals, etc.; Contrac- 
 tion-rules 325 
 
 Variations in the qualities of iron 326 
 
XVlll 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 PAGH 
 
 Conducting neat of brass and iron 327 
 
 Varieties of tombac ; On sand-core moulding, blackening, 
 
 etc.; Forms of cores 323 
 
 Composition of cores ; Rock-sand and free-sand for cores . 329 
 Materials for tempering the sand ; Stiffening longer cores. 330 
 
 Black-wash for cores ; Core sands • 332 
 
 Chemical composition of good moulding sand 333 
 
 On washing sweepings, ashes, etc., from brass foundry fur- 
 naces — gilders' and jewellers' workshops — and places 
 
 where metallurgical operations are carried on 334 
 
 Cornish refining flux ; Crude or white flux 337 
 
 Black flux ; Cornish reducing flux ; Imitation silver m'fetal ; 
 
 On case-hardening iron 338 
 
 Varnish for iron ; Varnish for polished iron ; To preserve 
 gum arable solutions ; Best composition of brass for roll- 
 ing and forging 339 
 
 Remarks on the fluxing of metals 340 
 
 Tinning cast copper, or brass 341 
 
 Table of experiments on the tenacity of metals 342 
 
 On reducing copper with white arsenic ; Tin and zinc . . 343 
 Tin and iron ; Copper, tin and iron alloy ; Corinthian 
 
 bronze ; Syracuse bronze 344 
 
 Ship nails composition, strong and durable ; Chinese white 
 metals ; Fenton's anti-friction metal ; To make white 
 
 lacquer 345 
 
 On the strength of materials ; Limit of elasticity .... 347 
 Permanent " set"; Strains to which materials may be sub- 
 jected 348 
 
 Table of the ultimate resistance of different kinds of mate- 
 rials to extension and compression 349 
 
 Variation in the absolute ultimate strength of materials . 351 
 Table of experiments on short cylinders of timber, with 
 flat ends, subjected to a compressive force ; Safe amount 
 of strain to charge materials with in constructions. . . 352 
 
 Mean ultimate strength of wood 353 
 
 On the strength of iron — cast iron 354 
 
 Resistance to extension ; Experiments by the Franklin Insti- 
 tute on American cast-iron 355 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 xix 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Limit of elasticity of cast-iron ; White and gray cast-iron ; 
 
 Properties of gray cast-iron 356 
 
 Description of tlie different varieties of cast-iron 357 
 
 Merits of hot-blast and cold-blast iron 359 
 
 Durability of cast-iron under exposure ; Mr. Mallet's re- 
 searches on this subject 360 
 
 Composition for silvering brass 362 
 
 To silver brass ; Resistance to compression ; Mr. Hodgkin- 
 
 son's experiments 363 
 
 Table giving the results of Mr. Hodgkinson's experiments ; 
 Resistance to a transverse strain ; Theory of the trans- 
 verse strain illustrated 365 
 
 Investigation of the circumstances of a body submitted to a 
 transverse strain ; Table showing the results of Mr. 
 Hodgkinson's experiments on bars of cold-blast iron . . 368 
 
 Static pressure of water under different heads 369 
 
 Table showing the head of water a cast-iron pipe will sus- 
 tain 371 
 
 Directions for preparing and fitting Babbitt's anti-at- 
 trition metal 372 
 
 Soldering fluid for soft solder ; Alloy for the standard 
 
 measure used by government 374 
 
 Tutenag ; Expansion metal ; Bronzing gun barrels . . . 375 
 Index 377' 
 
BRASS AND IRON FOUNDER'S GUIDE. 
 
 ON THE PROPERTIES OF THE METALS. 
 
 The metals constitute by far the most numerous 
 class of undecompounded bodies in chemical arrange- 
 ments- They are, in general, readily distinguished 
 from other substances, by characters which every 
 one recognises ; but to an ordinary observer they do 
 not appear to differ essentially from one another ; 
 they seem rather to owe their differences of colour, 
 and other physical properties, to a tinge and cha- 
 racter given to them by adventitious circumstances, 
 and perhaps some trifling admixture of other sub- 
 stances. This opinion is natural, and was at one 
 time the prevailing doctrine of the learned. 
 
 When chemistry began to be developed in the 
 hands of the alchemists — upon whom it has been 
 fashionable to heap ridicule for the extravagances 
 of their notions — it was generally admitted that all 
 (^) 
 
2 
 
 BRASS AND IRON FOUNDER. 
 
 metals were essentially tlie same ; and as gold was 
 reckoned the most precious, it was assumed to be 
 the pure basis of all the other metals. Upon this 
 assumption, the aim of alchemy was direct and ra- 
 tional ; its object was to separate the substance, 
 whatever it might be, the presence of which pre- 
 vented lead and other base metals from being gold. 
 
 It is hardly necessary to observe that these efforts 
 failed. Accordingly modern chemists, taught by 
 experience to believe the required decomposition 
 impossible, have come to the matter-of-fact conclu- 
 sion that when metals are of different colours, degrees 
 of hardness, lustre, ductility, fusibility, and so on, 
 that they are of different natures. 
 
 Although the metallic character be readily and 
 popularly recognised, it is diflGcult to define it with 
 accuracy. 
 
 With the single exception of quicksilver, the 
 metals are all solid at ordinary atmospheric tem- 
 peratures ; but their most striking property is their 
 lustre, which is so remarkable as to be at once 
 understood by the expression, metallic lustre. This 
 property belongs, in a greater or less degree, to 
 every metal : it is the property of strongly reflect- 
 ing light, and seems connected with a certain state 
 of aggregation of the metallic particles. The same 
 
PROPERTIES OF THE METALS. 
 
 3 
 
 property is however possessed, at least superficially, 
 in a minor degree, by mica, animal charcoal, 
 silenium, and polished indigo — bodies not at all 
 metallic. 
 
 In consequence of the peculiar power of tho 
 metals to reflect light, they are no less remarkable 
 for their opacity than their lustre. Thus, silver- 
 leaf, only one hundred-thousandth of an inch in 
 thickness, is perfectly opaque ; and leaves of other 
 metals, in general, allow no light to pass through 
 their substance. Yet gold-leaf, of the two hundred- 
 thousandth part of an inch in thickness, would seem, 
 as observed by Sir Isaac Newton, to transmit green 
 rays of light; and it is probable that, could we 
 obtain films of other metals of equal thinness, they 
 would be found to allow certain rays to pass through 
 them. The fact, as observed with gold, has how- 
 ever been ascribed to the porosity of the metal, the 
 rays transmitted passing through an infinite number 
 of mmute fissures in the thin leaf. This, it must 
 be admitted, is quite compatible with perfect opacity 
 of the substance of the metal ; the leaf, like a piece 
 of wire gauze, allowing the light to pass only through 
 its interstices, and not through the solid metal itself, 
 which may be perfectly impervious to all lummoua 
 rays. 
 
4 
 
 BRASS AND IRON FOUNDER. 
 
 The polished metals are imperfect radiators and 
 receivers of heat, but they are excellent reflectors, 
 both of light and heat : hence their peculiar fitness 
 for the construction of mirrors. They are also, in 
 general, excellent conductors of heat, and most of 
 them also of electricity, though probably not all. 
 The greater number of them are susceptible of 
 assuming the crystalline form. With several of 
 them this may be effected by fusion and slow 
 cooling. Thus, by suffering the melted metal in 
 a crucible slowly to concrete externally, and then 
 perforating the solid crust, and pouring out the 
 liquid interior, the cavity so formed will be found 
 lined with crystals. 
 
 When a metal is precipitated by another, it is 
 often deposited in a crystalline state. Thus, if a 
 little mercury be thrown into a solution of nitrate 
 of silver (lunar camstic), the silver is precipitated in 
 beautiful crystals. The same phenomenon occurs, 
 when a bit of zinc is suspended in a salt of lead. 
 In like manner, if a stick of phosphorus be immersed 
 in a silver solution, it becomes incrusted with beau- 
 tiful metallic crystals, which after some time per- 
 fectly encase the phosphorus. Gold is also some- 
 times deposited in crystals from its ether solutions ; 
 and during the decomposition of several of the 
 
PROPERTIES OF THE METALS. 
 
 6 
 
 metallic solutions, by galvanic electricity, especially 
 when low powers are employed, beautiful metallic 
 crystals are often obtained. This is readily verified 
 with solutions of copper and silver salts. 
 
 The metals possess, in different degrees, a pecu- 
 liar tenacity, which, in its greatest perfection, ren- 
 ders them malleable and ductile — that is, capable 
 of being extended under the hammer, and drawn 
 into wire — properties which belong to no other 
 species of matter. Thus, gold and silver may be 
 beaten into leaves almost inconceivably thin ; cop- 
 per, tin, platinum, and lead, possess the same pro- 
 perty, but less perfectly ; others are entirely desti- 
 tute of it, as arsenic, antimony, and cobalt. These 
 last can indeed be readily reduced to fine powder, 
 and hence they are distinguished as brittle metals. 
 
 Those metals which are malleable are also ductile ; 
 these properties are analogous, but do not appear 
 to bear a uniform relation to each other, among the 
 metals possessing them. Gold and silver are, how- 
 ever, the most ductile, as they are the most malle- 
 able. Thus, a grain of gold may be extended by 
 hammering, so as to cover fifty-two square inches of 
 surface, or it may be drawn into 500 feet of wire, 
 and by enveloping it in silver, it may be extended to 
 700 feet. In like manner, platinum, which is in- 
 
6 
 
 BRASS AND IRON FOUNDER. 
 
 ferior to copper and tin in malleability, has been 
 drawn into wire not more than the s^j^^^th of an 
 inch diameter — a degree of fineness, which, except 
 under certain circumstances of illumination, is in- 
 visible. Iron may be drawn into wire as fine as the 
 human hair ; copper is less ductile, and zinc, tin, 
 and lead, can be drawn into wire, but considerably 
 less fine. The brittle metals, as might be supposed, 
 do not draw. 
 
 The following table shows the order which the 
 metals bear to one another, in respect to these pro- 
 perties : — 
 
 A TABLE SHOWING THE ORDBK WHICH THE METALS BEAR TO OIH 
 ANOTHER IN RESPECT TO THEIR PROPERTIES : 
 
 Order of Malle- 
 ability. 
 
 Order of Ductility. 
 
 Order of Tenacity. 
 
 Order of Brittle- 
 ness. 
 
 Gold, 
 
 Gold, 
 
 Iron . . lODO 
 
 Antimony, 
 
 Silver, 
 
 Silver, 
 
 Copper 550 
 
 Arsenic, 
 
 Copper, 
 
 Platinum, 
 
 Platinum 494 
 
 Bismuth, 
 
 Tin, 
 
 Iron, 
 
 Silver . , 349 
 
 Cerium, 
 
 Cadmium, 
 
 Copper, 
 
 Gold . . 273 
 
 Chromium, 
 
 Platinum, 
 
 Zinc, 
 
 Zinc . 199 
 
 Cobalt, 
 
 Lead, 
 
 Tin, 
 
 Tin . . . 63 
 
 Columbium, 
 
 Zinc, 
 
 Lead, 
 
 Lead . . 50 
 
 Manganese, 
 
 Iron, 
 
 Nickel, 
 
 
 Molybdenum, 
 
 
 Nickel, 
 
 Palladium, 
 
 Iron wire 1-teDth in. 
 
 Tellurium, 
 Titanium, 
 
 Palladium, 
 
 Cadmium, 
 
 diameter is capable 
 of sustaining 5001bs. 
 
 Potassium, 
 
 
 aTolrdupois, 
 
 Tungsten, 
 
 Sodium, 
 
 
 
 Uranium, 
 
 Solid mercury. 
 
 
 
 Rhodium. 
 
 I 
 
PROPERTIES OF THE METALS. 
 
 are scratched by calc-spar. 
 
 Few of the metals when pure are very hard, and 
 some are so soft as to yield to the nail. The fol- 
 lowing table of hardness is given from the experi- 
 ments of M. Dumas : — 
 
 Titanium, 
 
 Tungsten, r are harder than steel. 
 Manganese, 
 Platinum, 
 Palladium, 
 Copper, 
 Gold, 
 Silver, 
 Tellurium, 
 Bismuth, 
 Cadmium, 
 Tin, 
 
 Chromium, 
 Rhodium, 
 Nickel, 
 Cobalt, 
 Iron, 
 
 Antimony, 
 Zinc, 
 
 Lead yields to the nail. 
 Potassium, 
 Sodium, 
 
 Mercury is liquid above minus 39°, 
 
 scratch glass. 
 
 are scratched by glass. 
 
 are soft as wax at 60°. 
 
8 BRASS AND IRON FOUNDER. 
 
 In respect io fusibility— t\iQ,t is, the capability of 
 being melted by heat— the metals differ from each 
 other as widely as in any other respect. Thus, mer- 
 cury requires to be cooled down to minus 39° before 
 it becomes solid, whereas the melting point of pla- 
 tinum is somewhere beyond 3280°. Potassium melts 
 at 140°, and sodium at 190°. Tin becomes liquid 
 at 444°, bismuth at 500°, lead at 600°, zinc at 770°, 
 and antimony at 800°. Silver, gold, and copper, 
 require a bright cherry-red heat to melt them (about 
 2000°) ; cast iron, nickel, and cobalt, a white heat 
 (about 2800°) ; and manganese, and malleable iron, 
 the highest heat of a smith's forge (about 3000°). 
 The highest temperatures of our furnaces are only 
 suflScient to agglutinate very imperfectly the metals 
 molybdenum, uranium, tungsten, and chromium; 
 and titanium, cerium, osmium, iridium, rhodium, 
 platinum, and columbium, require the intense heat 
 of the oxy-hydrogen blow-pipe, or that of voltaic 
 electricity, to fuse them. Some of the metals, when 
 exposed to heat, not only melt, but, obeying the 
 general law of li(piida, boil and evaporate when the 
 heat is sufficiently high. Thus, mercury, zinc, cad- 
 mium, bismuth, tellurium, and antimony, boil and 
 evaporate at a red heat ; and, in a vacuum, mercury 
 is known to evaporate at ordinary atmospheric tern- 
 
PROPERTIES OF THE METALS. 
 
 9 
 
 peratures (above 50°) ; silver and lead require a 
 high heat to vaporize them ; tin a stifl higher heat ; 
 and gold will only evaporate slowly under the most 
 intense heat that can be applied. Several of the 
 other metals, as iron and nickel, cannot be made to 
 evaporate in the most intense heat with which we 
 are acquainted. Arsenic, on the other hand, eva- 
 porates without melting. 
 
 There are several of the metals which emit a pecu- 
 liar odour, especially when rubbed, or have their 
 temperature slightly raised. This is particularly the 
 case with copper, iron, and tin. The vapour of 
 others is very remarkable. The arsenic vapour has 
 the smell of garlic; that of tellurium smells like 
 horseradish ; and osmium takes its name from the 
 smell of its vapour (osme, odour). Some of the 
 metals have also a peculiar taste when applied to the 
 tongue, which has been ascribed to their electrical 
 condition ; but it must be remarked that many of 
 the most oxidable metals are entirely destitute both 
 of taste and odour. 
 
 A high specific gravity was reckoned one of the 
 most marked characteristics of the metals, till the 
 discovery of the metallic basis of the alkalies by 
 Sir Humphrey Davy. So intimately indeed was the 
 metallic lustre associated in the mind with great 
 
10 
 
 BRASS AND IRON FOUNDER. 
 
 weight, that when a piece of potassium was put, for 
 the first time, into the hand of an eminent teacher 
 of chemistry, in admiring its perfect metallic cha- 
 racter, he poised it upon the finger, and exclaimed, 
 " How heavy !" and the prejudice was only removed 
 by seeing it float upon water. The list of metals, 
 however, includes the densest forms of matter with 
 which we are acquainted ; and, although great weight 
 cannot be regarded as a universal property, we have 
 few examples in which the density is less than the 
 density of water. These examples comprehend only 
 potassium and sodium; all other metals are of 
 greater specific gravity, up to platinum, which is 
 twenty-one times the weight of an equal bulk of 
 water. 
 
 The degrees of facility with which the metals 
 combine with oxygen differ widely. Some, by mere 
 exposure to the atmosphere, absorb its oxygen with 
 great rapidity : such is the case with potassium and 
 sodium : others absorb it more slowly, as manganese, 
 iron, and arsenic ; and lead and copper still more 
 slowly. Others, again, do not oxidate by exposure 
 to air, unless at a high temperature ; this is the case 
 with tin, zinc, mercury, antimony, bismuth, and 
 cobalt, which absorb the oxygen readily when in a 
 
PROPERTIES OF THE METALS. 11 
 
 state of fusion. Others, again, do not oxidate by 
 exposure to air and heat, or by immersion in water, 
 as gold and platinum ; the same is nearly true of 
 nickel and silver. The tendency of the metals to 
 combine with oxygen appears, however, to be greatly 
 influenced by their mechanical condition ; for some 
 of them, which are only slowly oxidized by expo- 
 sure to air and heat, are rapidly acted upon when 
 in very fine mechanical division, even at common 
 temperatures. 
 
 In combining with oxygen under heat, some of 
 the metals burn with great splendour : this is exem- 
 plified in copper, zinc, tin, and bismuth. Iron filings, 
 when thrown even into the flame of a candle, and 
 very fine iron wire, when held in the external part 
 of the flame, take fire and throw ofi" beautiful scin- 
 tillations. Antimony burns at a white heat, and 
 tellurium burns before the flame of the blow-pipe. 
 In short, at intense heats most of the metals may 
 be burned, and, if placed in the flame of the oxy- 
 hydrogen blow-pipe, they deflagrate with intense 
 brilliancy and great facility. 
 
 On the other hand, potassium burns by contact 
 with a piece of ice, with as much intensity as others 
 do in the oxy-hydrogen flame. 
 
12 BRASS AND IRON FOUNDER. 
 
 The metals, by combination with oxygen, lose 
 their metallic characters, and form an important 
 aeries of definite compounds known as the metallic 
 oxides. These have very difi*erent characters and pro- 
 perties ; even the same metal not unfrequently affords 
 oxides which differ from each other widely in pro- 
 perties and appearance. Thus fifty parts of mercury, 
 combining with one part of oxygen, produces a black 
 oxide, and with two parts of oxygen, the oxide is 
 red and highly poisonous. Many of the metals 
 thus afford more than one oxide ; and it is to be 
 observed, that when the same metal unites in more 
 than one proportion with oxygen, the oxygen in the 
 second and higher oxides bears a definite arith- 
 metical relation to the first ; and when two oxides 
 are thus formed, that having the minimum of oxy- 
 gen is termed the protoxide, and that with the 
 maximum of oxygen the peroxide. This law of 
 definite proportions will be explained hereafter. 
 
 Among the combinations of metals with oxygen, 
 some are soluble in water and alkaline, such as the 
 fixed alkalies, soda, potash, and lithia, and the 
 alkaline earths ; others are soluble and sour, form- 
 ing the metallic acids. Some are insoluble in water, 
 and have neither taste nor smell ; and many when 
 
PROPERTIES OF THE JVIETALS. 13 
 
 taken into the stomach act as poisons. Thus, oxide 
 of arsenic is a notorious and virulent poison ; oxide 
 of copper is less virulent than arsenic ; oxide of 
 lead is a painful poison; oxide of nickel is also 
 destructive of life; and the peroxide of mercury, 
 unless in small quantities, is likewise poisonous. 
 
14 BRASS AND IRON FOUNDER. 
 
 ON METALLIC ALLOYS. 
 
 The metals, for the most part, may be combined 
 with each other, forming a most important class of 
 compounds, known as the metallic alloys. Many 
 of these are more useful than the metals of which 
 they are composed, and possess properties a good 
 deal different from their elements. One of the best 
 known and most serviceable of all the alloys is brass, 
 i compound of zinc and copper : it is harder, more 
 asily melted, more close in the texture, better 
 coloured, and less liable to tarnish than copper ; it 
 is less brittle, and in every way more valuable than 
 zinc. Pinchbeck is composed of the same ingre- 
 dients as brass, but in different proportions, the 
 zinc predominating. Copper and tin are two very 
 soft and flexible metals, which, being fused together, 
 form the alloy known as bell-metal, which is harder 
 than iron, very brittle, and very sonorous. The 
 same materials, in different proportions, form spe- 
 culum metal, and the kind of ordnance improperly 
 called brass cannon. Pewter is composed of tin 
 and lead, sometimes with the addition of zinc, cop- 
 per, or bismuth. 
 
ON METALLIC ALLOYS. 
 
 15 
 
 Plates upon which music is stamped are composed 
 of tin and antimony ; and printing types are formed 
 of an alloy of lead and antimony, with a slight ad- 
 dition of bismuth. Tin-foil is an alloy of tin and 
 lead ; and plumbers' solder is composed of the same 
 metals. Fusible metal is a compound of bismuth, 
 lead, and tin, with sometimes a little mercury. 
 
 An amalgam of zinc and mercury is used for ex- 
 citing electric machines, and that of mercury and 
 tin is the compound employed for silvering looking- 
 glasses. Gold coin is an alloy of gold and copper, 
 in the proportion of 11 to 1 ; and jewellers' gold is 
 an alloy of the same metals in the proportion of 3 of 
 gold to 1 of copper. Green gold has silver instead 
 of copper. Silver coin, in like manner, is an alloy 
 of silver and copper in the proportion of 37 to 3. 
 These allogs of. gold and silver are harder, and 
 consequently less liable to wear than the pure 
 metals. 
 
 It is worthy of remark, that in the formation of 
 alloys, the metals in the act of combination gene- 
 rally evolve heat. For instance, when platinum and 
 tin-foil are fused together, there is the most vivid 
 ignition ; and when zinc and copper are suddenly 
 mixed, in the proportion to form brass, the increase 
 of heat is such as to vaporize part of the metal. 
 
16 
 
 BRASS AND IRON FOUNDER. 
 
 The alloys are formed by various processes, de- 
 pending upon the nature of the metals employed. 
 Most of them are prepared by simply fusing the 
 two metals together ; but if there be a considerable 
 difference in their specific gravities, the heavier 
 very generally subsides, and the lower part of the 
 mass thus differs in composition from the upper. 
 This may be in a great measure prevented by agi- 
 tating the alloy till it solidifies, but this is not 
 always convenient. Thus, in stereotype plates 
 which are cast vertically, the upper side usually 
 contains more antimony than the other. The same 
 is observed when an alloy of gold and copper is cast 
 into bars ; the mould being placed perpendicularly, 
 the upper part of the bar contains more copper than 
 the lower. Copper and silver evince the same ten- 
 dency to separate; although they appear readily to 
 combine, it is found extremely difficult to form a 
 bar of their alloy of perfectly uniform composition 
 throughout. Many of the alloys, however, appear 
 to be true chemical compounds ; and in some cases 
 the metals unite in viofinite proportions only. 
 
 It is indeed not improbable that wherever metals 
 do form alloys, that the alloys so formed are definite 
 compounds, and that any undue quantity of either 
 metal present, simply mixes mechanically with the 
 
ON METALLIC ALLOYS. 
 
 IT 
 
 mass. Thus, among the artificial as well as natural 
 alloys, there are many which crystallize ; and in 
 some cases, the true compound may be separated 
 from the mere mixture of the superfluous metal by 
 the process of crystallization. 
 
 The tendency of the metals to unite with other 
 elements, and with each other, prevents their being 
 often found disseminated in mineral nature, in their 
 pure metallic state. 
 
 Some of them do occur so nearly pure as to be 
 called native metals. Thus gold is found only 
 slightly alloyed with silver and copper, and pla- 
 tinum occurs as an alloy of iron, palladium, iridium, 
 rhodium, and osmium. Silver, copper, mercury, 
 antimony, bismuth, arsenic, and tellurium, occur 
 both in the native metallic state, although never 
 absolutely pure, and mineralized with other bodies. 
 Lead, tin, zinc, iron, antimony, and several others, 
 are extensively disseminated as sulphurets, that is, 
 combined or mineralized by sulphur. 
 
 The combination of a metal with its mineralizing 
 substance, is what we denominate an ore; and it is in 
 this state of ore that metals occur, when they are not 
 found native. The ores are exceedingly diversified 
 in appearance ; sometimes they possess metallic 
 
 2 
 
18 
 
 BRASS AND IRON FOUNDER. 
 
 lustre ; sometimes they appear stony, at other times 
 earthy. In some instances they are crystallized 
 into regular forms, but more commonly they occur 
 in shapeless masses. The ores are chiefly found in 
 veins — that is, large fissures of rock, especially the 
 granitic, schistous, and limestone rocks; but some- 
 times they are found in rounded and detached frag- 
 ments, disseminated through certain alluvial and 
 diluvial strata of the earth. The extraction of the 
 metal from them is denominated their reduction^ 
 and implies a laborious series of operations, me- 
 chanical and chemical, comprehended under the 
 term metallurgy. 
 
TABLE OF METALS. 
 
 19 
 
 The following table contains an enumeration of 
 the metals, and may be useful for reference. The 
 column headed "equivalents," shows the -weight 
 which unites with 8 oxygen to form the oxides, and 
 the succeeding column contains the symbols by which 
 the metals are denoted in systematic chemistry. 
 
 ■ 
 
 Names of Metals. 
 
 Authors, and Dates of 
 their Discovv^rv. 
 
 Specific 
 Gravity. 
 
 Melting 
 Points. 
 
 Equ. 
 Hyd. 
 
 Abr. 
 or 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 = 1. 
 
 Sym. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Fahr. 
 
 
 
 1. Gold (Auruin) . . . .' 
 
 
 
 
 
 19.25 
 
 2010» 
 
 200 
 
 Au. 
 
 2. Silver (Argentum) . . . 
 
 
 
 
 
 10.47 
 
 1873 
 
 108 
 
 Ag. 
 
 3. Iron (Ferrum) .... 
 
 
 Known to the 
 
 
 7.78 
 
 *2800? 
 
 28 
 
 I'e. 
 
 4. Copper (Cuprum) . . . 
 
 
 ancients. 
 
 
 ■ 
 
 8.89 
 13.56 
 
 1996 
 
 64 
 
 Cu. 
 
 5. Mercury (Hydrargyrum) 
 
 
 
 
 —39 
 
 200 
 
 Ilg, 
 
 6. Lead (flumbum) . . . 
 
 
 
 
 
 11.35 
 
 612 
 
 104 
 
 Pb. 
 
 7. Tin (Stannum) .... 
 
 
 
 
 
 7.29 
 
 442 
 
 58 
 
 Sn. 
 
 8. Antimony (Stibium) . . 
 
 Basil Valentine 1490 
 
 6.70 
 
 
 65 
 
 Sb. 
 
 
 Agricola . . 
 
 1530 
 
 9.80 
 
 497 
 
 72 
 
 BL 
 
 10. Zinc 
 
 Paracelsus? . 
 
 1530 
 
 7.00 
 
 773 
 
 32 
 
 Z. 
 
 11. Arsenic 1 
 
 Brandt , ■ 
 
 1733 
 
 f 5.88 
 ( 8.53 
 
 2810? 
 
 38 
 30 
 
 Ar 
 
 Co 
 
 
 Wood . . , 
 
 1741 
 
 20.98 
 
 oh. bp.f 
 
 99 
 
 PI. 
 
 
 Cronstedt . . 
 
 1751 
 
 8.27 
 
 2810? 
 
 30 
 
 Ni. 
 
 
 Gahn . . . 
 
 1774 
 
 6.85 
 
 8. f. * 
 
 28 
 
 Mn. 
 
 16. Tungsten (Wolfram) . . 
 
 IVElhuiart . 
 
 1781 
 
 17.60 
 
 
 
 w 
 
 
 MuUer . . . 
 
 1782 
 
 6.11 
 
 620? 
 
 32 
 
 Te. 
 
 
 Hielm . . . 
 
 1782 
 
 7.40 
 
 oh bp 
 
 48 
 
 Mo. 
 
 19. Uranium ... . . 
 
 Klaproth . . 
 
 1789 
 
 9.00 
 
 oh bp 
 
 217 
 
 u, 
 
 
 Gregor . . . 
 
 1791 
 
 5.30 
 
 oh bp 
 
 24 
 
 Ti. 
 
 
 Vauquelin . 
 
 1797 
 
 
 oh bp 
 
 28 
 
 Cr.- 
 
 22. Columbium (Tantalum) . 
 
 Hatchett . . 
 
 1802 
 
 
 f 11.50 
 
 ob^)p 
 
 185 
 
 T. 
 
 23. Palladium 1 
 
 
 WoUaston . 
 
 1803 
 
 
 oh bp 
 
 54 
 52 
 
 Pd. 
 R. 
 
 
 
 Tennant . . 
 
 1803 
 
 
 : : 
 
 foh bp 
 \ohbp 
 
 99 
 100 
 
 Ir. 
 
 Os. 
 
 
 Hlsinger . . 
 
 1804 
 
 
 48 
 
 Ce. 
 
 28. Potassium (Kalium) . .' 
 
 
 
 
 0.86 
 
 136 
 
 40 
 
 K. 
 
 29. Sodium (Natronium) . . 
 
 
 
 
 
 0.97 
 
 190 
 
 24 
 
 Na. 
 
 
 
 Dayy . . 
 
 1807 
 
 
 
 
 70 
 
 Ba. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 44 
 
 Sr. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 20 
 
 Ca. 
 
 
 Stromeyer . 
 
 1818 
 
 8.60 
 
 442 
 
 56 
 
 Cd. 
 
 
 Arfcwedson . 
 
 1818 
 
 
 
 8 
 
 L. 
 
 36. Zirconium 
 
 \ 
 
 Berzelius . . 
 
 1824 
 
 
 ■ . . 
 
 
 8 
 33 
 
 S. 
 Zr. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 14 
 
 Al. 
 
 
 
 Wohler . . 
 
 1828 
 
 
 
 
 18 
 
 Gl. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 32 
 
 Y. 
 
 
 Berzelius . . 
 
 1829 
 
 
 
 60 
 
 Th 
 
 
 Bussy . . . 
 
 1829 
 
 
 
 13 
 
 Mg 
 
 
 Seftstrom . . 
 
 1830 
 
 
 
 69 
 
 V. 
 
 
 Mosander 
 
 1S40 
 
 
 
 ? 
 
 Ln. 
 
 * Smith's forge. t Oxy-hydrogen blowpipe. 
 
20 
 
 BKASS AND IKON FOUNDER. 
 
 ON THE CONDUCTING POWERS OF VARIOUS METALS 
 FOR VOLTAIC ELECTRICITY. 
 
 The researches of Pouillet have thrown much 
 light upon our knowledge of the conducting powers 
 of various bodies for voltaic electricity, and the 
 results he has arrived at enable him to express the 
 relative conducting powers of the different metals 
 by the following numbers : — 
 
 Palladium 
 Silver . 
 Gold . 
 Copper . 
 Platinum 
 Bismuth 
 Brass from 
 Cast steel from 
 Iron 
 Mercury 
 
 5791 
 6152 
 3975 
 3838 
 855 
 384 
 900 to 200 
 800 to 500 
 600 
 100 
 
 The resistance of metals to conduction of electri- 
 city has been accurately ascertained by means of 
 the degrees of heat evolved by the passage of a 
 current of equal intensity through different metals ; 
 
CONDUCTING POWERS OF METALS. 21 
 
 the heat developed in conducting wires is in propor- 
 tion to the extent of surface of the positive plate, 
 no matter whether the current emanate from a sin- 
 gle cell or a series of cells. The following table 
 shows the degrees of heat evolved by an equal cur- 
 rent from different metals, measured by the pressure 
 of expanded air upon a column of alcohol : 
 
 Metals. 
 
 Heat Evolved. 
 
 Kesistance. 
 
 Silver .... 
 
 6 
 
 1 
 
 Copper .... 
 
 6 
 
 1 
 
 Gold .... 
 Zinc .... 
 
 9 
 
 1^ 
 
 18 
 
 3 
 
 Platinum 
 
 30 
 
 5 
 
 Iron 
 
 30 
 
 5 
 
 Tin ... . 
 
 36 
 
 6 
 
 Lead .... 
 
 72 
 
 12 
 
 Brass .... 
 
 18 
 
 3 
 
 It is apparent that the conducting powers of the 
 above metals are inversely as these numbers. Sil- 
 ver being a better conductor than lead, in the 
 ratio of 12 to 1. 
 
22 
 
 BRASS AND IRON FOUNDER. 
 
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ATOMIC ALLOYS OF COPPER AND TIN. 
 
 23 
 
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24 
 
 BRASS AND IRON FOUNDER 
 
 BEHAVIOR OF METALS AND ALLOYS IN MELTING AND 
 CONGEALING. 
 
 The metals are not all equally suitable for casting, 
 their availability for this purpose being dependent 
 on their behavior in melting, casting and congealing. 
 
 The fusibility of the me'tals and their condition in 
 a melted state have first to be considered. Metals 
 fusing with difficulty (platinum, etc.) and those 
 which are too thickly-fluid in a melted state (white 
 pig-iron) are not, or but seldom used for castings. 
 The average temperatures — melting points — at which 
 the metals liquefy are as follows: 
 
 Cast steel melts at 2507° F. 
 
 Gray pig-irou ... " 2327 " 
 
 Copper " 1992 " 
 
 Gold " ..... 1992 " 
 
 White pig-iron ... " 1967 " 
 
 Silver " 1832 " 
 
 Zinc " 779 " 
 
 Lead ..... . " 639 " 
 
 Bismuth " 512.6 " 
 
 Tin " 451.4 " 
 
 The melting points of alloys are, as a rule, lower 
 than those of their constituent metals. 
 
METALS AND ALLOYS. 
 
 25 
 
 With some metals — for instance tin — the transition 
 from a solid to a fluid state takes place suddenly, 
 while others first pass into a pasty state. In the 
 first case the metals are generally more thinly-fluid, 
 which, however, is frequently dependent on foreign 
 admixtures. Phosphorus increases the fluidity, while 
 sulphur decreases it. The fluidity of brass, German 
 silver and bronze is promoted by zinc. Lead has 
 the same effect upon bronze and tin alloys. 
 
 The more thinly-fluid the metals are, the more 
 suitable they are for casting, since they fill the 
 moulds well and permit the manufacture of castings 
 with slight cross-sections. Castings must, as a rule, 
 possess an accurately prescribed size. The dimen- 
 sions of the patterns are always somewhat larger 
 for the following reasons : All metals, when heated, 
 expand, and, hence, after cooling have a smaller vol- 
 ume than in the heated state. Furthermore, a de- 
 crease in volume also takes place in the transition 
 from the fluid to the solid state, zinc and cast iron 
 alone forming an exception, they expanding on con- 
 gealing. But, on the whole, the expansion in con- 
 gealing is not so great as the decrease in volume in 
 cooling, so that the casting will always be somewhat 
 smaller than the pattern. Only with a few varieties 
 of cast-iron rich in graphite, the contraction in cooling 
 
26 
 
 BRASS AND IRON FOUNDER. 
 
 is compensated by the expansion in congealing, so 
 that the mould is exactly filled by the castings. 
 
 The total decrease in all the dimensions of the pat- 
 tern is called Hhrinkage, and is supposed to amount 
 
 in cast-iron to -^^ 
 
 " cast-steel " i 
 
 " zinc "... . 
 
 " brass " 
 
 " gun-metal o . ^ . , . . " 
 
 " bell-metal " . . . . JW 
 
 " statuary-bronze " i 
 
 " lead " ^ 
 
 By taking into consideration these figures, as well 
 as the absolute weight of the pattern and the specific 
 gravity of the casting, the absolute weight of the 
 casting can be readily calculated, provided the pat- 
 tern corresponds in shape exactly to the casting, i. e. 
 has no core-points. The following table shows the 
 figures by which the weight of the pattern has to be 
 multiplied in order to calculate beforehand the 
 weight of the casting. 
 
METALS AND ALLOYS. 
 
 2T 
 
 If the pattern consists 
 of 
 
 Pine-wood . 
 Oalv-wood 
 Beech-wood 
 Linden-wood 
 Pear-wood 
 Birch-wood 
 Alder-wood 
 Brass . . . 
 Zinc . . . 
 Tin (with I to \ lead) 
 Lead or hard lead 
 Cast-iron .... 
 
 And the casting is made in 
 
 Cast- 
 iron. 
 
 Brass. 
 
 Tombac 
 Bronze. 
 
 Ben- 
 in etal 
 
 Giin- 
 metal. 
 
 Zinc. 
 
 14.00 
 
 15.80 
 
 16.60 
 
 17.10 
 
 13.50 
 
 9.00 
 
 10.10 
 
 10.40 
 
 10.90 
 
 8.60 
 
 9.70 
 
 10.90 
 
 11.40 
 
 11.90 
 
 9.40 
 
 13.40 
 
 15.10 
 
 15.60 
 
 16.30 
 
 12.90 
 
 10.20 
 
 11.50 
 
 11.90 
 
 12.40 
 
 9.80 
 
 12.60 
 
 11.90 
 
 12.30 
 
 12.90 
 
 10.20 
 
 12.80 
 
 14.30 
 
 14.80 
 
 15.50 
 
 12.20 
 
 0.84 
 
 0.95 
 
 0.99 
 
 1.00 
 
 0.81 
 
 1.00 
 
 1.13 
 
 1.17 
 
 1.22 
 
 0.96 
 
 0.89 
 
 1.00 
 
 1.03 
 
 1.12 
 
 0.85 
 
 ,0.64 
 
 0.72 
 
 1.74 
 
 0.78 
 
 0.61 
 
 0.97 
 
 1.09 
 
 1.13 
 
 1.18 
 
 0.93 
 
 Several phenomena appearing in casting, which 
 may produce a very disturbing effect, can he traced 
 to shrinkage. Among such phenomena may be 
 mentioned the breaking and cracking, as well as 
 warping, of many castings and the formation of cavi- 
 ties in the castings. 
 
 Many machinists and founders have noticed if a 
 piece be broken from the rim of a pulley, that it 
 cannot be returned without forcing the gap open, 
 showing that the rim has been put under a strain, 
 which caused it to close together so soon as the piece 
 was removed. 
 
 The strain here exemplified may be explained in 
 the following manner : So soon as the pulley is cast, 
 
28 BRASS AND IRON FOUNDER. 
 
 the rim which is thinnest is cooled off by the walls of 
 the mould and sets immediately. The arms, contain- 
 ing more metal in a mass, cool next and set. The 
 hub, containing the most metal in a mass, cools last 
 and sets, but in doing so, like all the rest of the 
 metal, has a tendency to contract from its moulded 
 size. It is now easy to see that the shrinkage of the 
 hub will have a tendency to separate itself from the 
 arms, or these from the rim, hence the strain upon 
 the rim is of such a nature as to cause it to close to- 
 gether and form a circle of less diameter than is 
 natural. When the piece is broken out the strain 
 relieves itself by drawing the rim together. To 
 overcome as much of the evil of this strain as possi- 
 ble, it is usual to curve the arms, which by straight- 
 ening somewhat under the influence of the strain, 
 renders them less likely to be broken. 
 
 If a piece be broken from a ring no perceptible 
 change of form will take place, the piece can be re- 
 turned quite readily and will be found to fit ; this, 
 however, does not prove that there is no strain pres- 
 ent ; on the contrary, we will show that there is. 
 
 When the ring is first cast, the walls of the mould 
 cool off the inner and outer circumferences immedi- 
 ately, causing them to set, the central core of the 
 metal still remaining hot. In a few moments more it 
 
METALS AND ADLOYS. 
 
 29 
 
 sets, and in shrinking exerts two influences, one to 
 reduce its own diameter and that of the outer crust 
 to which it is attached and which has already set ; 
 and the other to crawl around in the direction of the 
 circumference, whereby, with reference to the outer, 
 there is a tendency to close together ; yet, with ref- 
 erence to the inner crust there is a tendency to open 
 outward. Hence if the ring be put in a lathe, and 
 the outer crust removed, the gap will be noticed to 
 close in, increasing in this tendency as we near the 
 centre of the ring with the tool. As we progress 
 toward the inner crust from the centre, an opposite 
 effect will be produced, and the gap will be noticed 
 to open. In a ring of 27 inches diameter, turned 
 till the outer crust was just removed, the ring closed 
 together j\ of an inch in 4 inches. 
 
 Cylinders are no more than deep rings, and the 
 strains explained under rings are also present here. 
 The shrinkage strains within hollow, spherical shell 
 castings are similar to those explained under rings, 
 they being no more, in fact, than rings continued 
 about a central axis. In the case of solid globular 
 castings, the heart or central point within will usually 
 be found hollow or porous, owing to the following 
 causes : The walls of the mould cooling off the outer 
 surface, causes it to set immediately; the interior, 
 
30 
 
 BRASS AND IRON FOUNDER. 
 
 cooling from the exterior inward, endeavors to shrink 
 away from the outer crust, which resists its so doing ; 
 hence, the interior is kept to a greater diameter than 
 is natural, and, there being but so much metal in the 
 entire mass, the atoms are drawn away from the cen- 
 tral point toward all directions to supply the demand 
 made by the metal in shrinking. 
 
 The general laws regarding shrinkages are pre- 
 sented by Mr. Alfred E. Watkins as follows: The 
 most metal in a mass always shrinks last; hence, if a 
 casting be composed of irregular thickness it will be 
 liable to be broken by the forces contained within 
 itself. It is, therefore, especially necessary that 
 columns and castings, supporting or resisting great 
 pressures, should be so designed as to prevent this 
 great error. Mouldings on columns are often so 
 badly designed with regard to this matter, that the 
 columns are excessively weak where they should be 
 strongest. As a rule, mouldings should seldom be 
 cast on a column, but rather bolted on. Much of the 
 irregularity of flat castings and those of irregular 
 shapes could be remedied by a proper attejition to 
 cooling the castings while in the mould. To be sure 
 this is done to a certain extent, though few moulders 
 know why they do so. They know that by removing 
 the sand fpom a particular casting it will straighten 
 
METALS AND ALLOYS. 
 
 31 
 
 in the shrinking. This is but the result of experi- 
 ence, not of thought or any attempt to know why 
 they so act. It is useful to know also that all 
 shrinkage takes place while the casting is changing 
 Crc»m a red to a black heat. 
 
32 
 
 BRASS AND IRON FOUNDER. 
 
 ON FOUNDING. 
 
 The general object of founding is, to mould iron, 
 copper, tin, zinc, lead, &c., &c., in a melted state 
 into the various forms required for the parts of 
 machines and other constructions. 
 
 Wrought iron and steel cannot be properly melted 
 by heat. At high temperatures they drop away and 
 spark off, while the main body of the metal main- 
 tains its consistency, ana i undergoes rapid oxida- 
 tion, as is shown by the scales which are perpetually 
 formed on its surface. 
 
 These metals are, however, in this condition ren- 
 dered extremely ductile, and the wrought irpn espe- 
 cially may be fashioned with facility into any 
 required form, by the application of the hammer. 
 On the contrary, pig iron, of which wrought iron 
 and steel are preparations, has peculiarly the pro- 
 perty of liquefaction by heat, and is therefore well 
 adapted as a material for castings, in which strength 
 and hardness are required. 
 
 The business of the founder is therefore to take 
 advantage of the common law, according to which 
 fluids always find their level. If, for example, a 
 quantity of water be poured into a vessel, however 
 
ON FOUNDING. 
 
 33 
 
 curiously shaped, it first finds the bottom, and then 
 spreads on all sides as it rises, filling every corner 
 it can reach. The body of water must then be a 
 perfect model in form of the interior of the vessel, 
 and this may be seen by solidifying it in its place 
 by the application of cold, and extracting the body 
 of ice. 
 
 To mould a quantity of melted metal into a 
 desired form, two things are therefore necessary: 
 first, a model, or pattern of the required form. 
 Secondly, a substance of sufficient susceptibility and 
 adhesiveness to receive accurately, and to retain 
 impressions of that pattern made upon it, against 
 the violence of the liquid metal, when run into the 
 mould which is thereby formed. 
 
 ON BRASS FOUNDING. 
 
 Brass founding, considered as a branch of engi- 
 neering, is beset with a host of empirical rules and 
 fancies, to an extent which naturally surprises the 
 scientific practician, when he considers it with regard 
 to the present calculating and philosophizing age. 
 
34 
 
 BBASS AND IRON FOUNDER. 
 
 Every founder thinks he possesses the only true 
 and orthodox system of producing first-rate castings, 
 and, as a matter of course, every one differs from 
 his neighbour in his routine of practice, without 
 reflecting that the process admits as fully of a reduc- 
 tion to scientific rules as any of its sister branches 
 of the manipulatory art. 
 
 It is scarcely necessary to observe, that excellence 
 can never be attained in any art in the prosecution 
 of which so loose a system is tolerated : guess-work 
 will ever give chance results, productive only of 
 inconveniences and objections, which a more system- 
 atic code of regulations would entirely obviate. The 
 number of alloys of copper which come under the 
 generic name of brass, as has been shown, amount 
 to a numerous family, and are of the greatest im- 
 portance, not only to the engineer, but to artists 
 generally, involving the use of the following differ- 
 ent metals, all of which are required in a greater 
 or less degree to suit the variety of operations where 
 brass is indispensable : namely, copper, tin, lead, 
 zinc, antimony, and, in some cases, nickel. 
 
 The first four of these metals are those in the 
 greatest request for engineering purposes. The 
 leading metal of this series, copper, was known to 
 the ancients previous to the discovery of malleable 
 
ON COPPER. 
 
 35 
 
 iron, and was applied to all the purposes for which 
 the latter metal alone is now used. 
 
 Although we find brass frequently spoken of in 
 the Scriptures, as well as in many portions of pro- 
 fane history, yet it is a well ascertained fact that 
 this refers to copper ; the brass of the present day 
 being a discovery of much later date. 
 
 COPPER. 
 
 The word copper is derived from the Island of 
 Cyprus, where it was first wrought by the Greeks. 
 The best method of obtaining it pure, where extreme 
 purity is an object of importance, is to dissolve it 
 in nitric acid : the solution is then diluted, and a 
 piece of iron introduced, upon which the pure metal 
 is precipitated, any adherent particles of iron being 
 readily removed by washing with dilute sulphuric 
 acid. Another method has lately been discovered 
 of purifying copper, namely, by melting 100 parts 
 of it, with 10 parts of copper scales (black oxide), 
 along with 10 parts of ground bottle-glass, or other 
 flux. Mr. Lewis Thompson, who received a gold 
 
36 BRASS AND IRON FOUNDER. 
 
 medal from the Society of Arts, for this invention, 
 says that, after the copper has been kept in fusion 
 for half an hour, it will be found at the bottom of 
 the crucible, perfectly pure, while the iron, lead, 
 arsenic, &c., &c., with which this metal is usually 
 contaminated, will be oxidized by the scales, and 
 will dissolve in the flux, or be volatilized. Thus he 
 has obtained perfectly pure copper from brass, bell- 
 metal, gun-metal, and several other alloys, contain- 
 ing from 4 up to 50 per cent, of iron, lead, bismuth, 
 antimony, arsenic, &c. The scales of copper are 
 cheap, being the product of every large manufac- 
 tory. Copper melts at a white heat, and by slow 
 cooling may be crystallized. Its specific gravity if 
 9, nearly. It melts at a temperature of 1996° 
 Fahr. 
 
 On the Reduction of Oop'per. 
 
 The reduction of copper ore is made by several 
 consecutive processes. The first is by calcining it, 
 and, when the ore is sufficiently "roasted" to oxi- 
 date the iron which it contains, it is melted. The 
 melted metal is, after a time, suffered to flow into a 
 pit filled with water, by which it becomes granu- 
 lated. 
 
ON TIN. 
 
 37 
 
 It then undergoes further heating, and what is 
 called technically its slag (or scoria) is taken off, and 
 it is allowed again to run off into water. 
 
 After these processes it is cast in sand, when it 
 becomes solid, and in this state is called "blistered 
 copper." 
 
 It is now fit for what is called the refinery, and 
 undergoes an operation called refining, or toughen- 
 ing. This is considered to be an operation of deli- 
 cacy, and requires great skill and care in the work- 
 men. It is conducted in a furnace similar to the 
 melting furnace, and the object is to thoroughly 
 purify the metal from any portions of oxygen, which 
 is performed by adding charcoal to the copper, while 
 it is in fusion, and stirring it occasionally, till it is 
 judged to be pure. 
 
 TIN, OR BEDIL IN THE HEBREW. 
 
 The next metal on our list has also been known 
 from the remotest ages. It is mentioned by Eleazar 
 the priest in the book of Numbers, chapter 31st, 
 verse 22d. All the other metals supposed to have 
 
38 
 
 BRASS AND IRON FOUNDER. 
 
 been then known are enumerated in the same pas- 
 sage. Thus, lexicographers form hedil, " to sepa- 
 rate," tin being a separating metal. This carries 
 the knowledge and use of tin back 1500 years 
 antecedent to the commencement of our era. The 
 Phoenicians used tin, of course, m the erection and 
 decoration of the Temple of Solomon. Their brass 
 was bronze ; zinc had not then been discovered. 
 We read of tin, also, having been got by the Cartha- 
 ginian navigator, Himiles, from the Scilly Islands ; 
 they certainly present appearances of ancient exca- 
 vations- Tin occurs, native, in two forms — as per- 
 oxide, and as sulphuret of tin and copper. The last 
 is rare ; the former constitutes the great source of 
 tin, and, in its native mixed state with arsenic, cop- 
 per, zinc, and tungsten, is called "tin-stone;" but, 
 when occurring in rounded masses, grains, or sand 
 in alluvial soil, is called stream tin. The metal 
 reduced from the tin-stone forms block tin — that 
 from the stream tin forms grain tin. 
 
 The greater part of the East Indian tin comes 
 from Siam, Malacca, and Banca. The last place is 
 an island near the south-east coast of Sumatra. 
 The mines were discovered in 1711 ; in 1776 there 
 were ten pits which were^ worked by the Chinese on 
 account of the King of Palimbang. One hundred 
 
REDUCTION OF GRAIN AND BLOCK TIN. 39 
 
 and twenty-five pounds cost him only five rix dol- 
 lars. The greater part went to Alinia, or was used 
 in India. 
 
 On the Reduction of Tin, Grrain, and Block Tin. 
 
 The best ore of tin is found in Cornwall ; it is 
 commonly blasted by gunpowder, and is procured 
 in pieces of considerable size, which are stamped, 
 by beams shod with iron, to powder. It is then 
 well washed, till the earthy particles are carried 
 off', and the tin is fit for the smelting-house. 
 
 After being roasted in a reverberatory furnace, 
 and again washed, it is a second time subjected to 
 the furnace, being now mixed with small coal and, 
 in some cases, with a small quantity of limii. The 
 melted tin thus produced is at last placed in a small 
 furnace, and exposed to a very gentle heat, when 
 the purest portion melts first, and is drawn off. This 
 is called " common grain tin." And the inferior, 
 which still contains a small proportion of copper 
 and arsenic, is then cast into pigs, called ''block 
 tin." 
 
 The purest tin is procured from the stream works 
 of Cornwall, and affords from 65 to 75 per cent, of 
 the best grain tin ; its specific gravity is about 7.5 ; 
 
4U BRASS AND IRON FOUNDER. 
 
 it melts at a temperature of 442°. Like copper, it 
 is the nucleus of an immense number of subsidiary 
 metals, which it is our intention shortly to enter 
 upon. 
 
 ZINC. 
 
 Zinc is a metal whose extensive range of appli- 
 cation is only now beginning to be understood. It 
 is found in the state of oxide and sulphuret; its 
 specific gravity is about 7.7; its fusing point is 
 773°, but at a temperature of 300°, it becomes 
 extremely malleable, and may be rolled into thin 
 leaves, or drawn into fine wire. One of its most 
 valuable modern applications, is as a protective 
 covering for iron, being the best known substance 
 for this purpose. The purifying of zinc may be 
 effected by melting the impure metal with lead, in 
 equal parts, in a deep iron pot, stirring them well 
 together, skimming off the impurities as they rise, 
 covering the surface with charcoal to prevent oxi- 
 dation, and keeping them in a fused state for three 
 hours. The lead descends to the bottom by its 
 greater density, and leaves the zinc above, to be 
 
ON LEAD. 
 
 41 
 
 drawn off by a pipe in the side of the melting-pot. 
 This contrivance is the subject of a patent, granted 
 to Mr. William Godfrey Kneller, in 1844. 
 
 LEAD. 
 
 Lead was also known to the ancients. Its specific 
 gravity is 11.4; melts at a temperature of 612°. 
 This metal is highly poisonous, and the greatest 
 amount of caution ought to be observed in its appli- 
 cation to domestic purposes, as, when in contact 
 with water in open vessels, it quickly tarnishes, and 
 small crystalline scales of oxide of lead are formed, 
 a portion of which dissolves in the water, and is 
 again precipitated in the form of a carbonate. If, 
 however, the water contains a very slight amount 
 of sulphuric acid, or a soluble sulphate, the corro- 
 sion is prevented. 
 
42 
 
 BRASS AND IRON FOUNDER. 
 
 ANTIMONY. 
 
 Antimony was discovered by Basil Valentine (a 
 monk), in the fifteenth century. It is of a grayish- 
 white, having a slight bluish shade, and very bril- 
 liant. Its texture is lamellated, and exhibits plates 
 crossing each other in every direction. Its surface 
 is covered with herbarizations and foliage. Its spe- 
 cific gravity is 6.702. It is sufiiciently hard to 
 scratch all the soft metals ; it is very brittle, easily 
 broken, and pulverizable. It fuses at 810° Fahr. ; 
 it can be volatilized, and burns by a strong heat. 
 When perfectly fused and sufiered to cool gradually, 
 it crystallizes in octahedra. It unites with sulphur 
 and phosphorus. It decomposes water strongly. It 
 is soluble in alkaline sulphates; sulphuric acid 
 boiled upon antimony, is feebly decomposed. Nitric 
 acid dissolves it in the cold ; muriatic acid scarcelv 
 acts upon it. The oxygenated muriatic gas inflames 
 it, and the liquid acid dissolves it with facility. 
 Arsenic acid dissolves it by heat with difficulty. It 
 unites by fusion with gold, and renders it pale and 
 brittle. Platina, silver, lead, bismuth, nickel, cop- 
 per, arsenic, iron, cobalt, tin, and zinc unite with 
 
ORDER AND WORKING OF METALS. 43 
 
 antimony by fusion, and form with it compounds 
 more or less brittle. Mercury does not alloy with 
 it easily. We are little acquainted with the action 
 of alkalies upon it. Nitrate of potash is decomposed 
 by it. It fulminates by percussion with oxygenated 
 muriate of potash. 
 
 The order and facility of working these metals 
 vary considerably with the purpose to which they 
 are applied. Thus, regarding their wire-drawing 
 ductibility, gold is the most ductile metal, being 1. 
 The four first metals are as follows : copper 5, zinc 
 6, tin 7, lead 8. Their relative values as laminable 
 substances are considerably different : thus, under 
 the same circumstances, copper is 3, tin 4, lead 6, 
 zinc 7. 
 
 The following tabulated statements exhibit the 
 most approved properties of the most useful class 
 of alloys, as . laid down by the best authorities, to- 
 gether with the specific purposes to which they are 
 adapted. The first we shall treat upon are the 
 alloys of copper and tin. In this table the quantity 
 of tin is that which is added to one pound of copper. 
 
44 
 
 BRASS AND IRON FOUNDER. 
 
 COPPER AND TIN. 
 
 1 ouncej 
 
 Soft gun metal. 
 
 
 A slightly harder alloy, fit for ma- 
 
 
 thematical instruments. 
 
 IJ " 
 
 Still harder, fit for wheels. 
 
 IJ to 2 
 
 Brass guns. 
 
 2 to 21 " 
 
 Hard bearings for machinery. 
 
 3 « 
 
 Musical bells. 
 
 3J " 
 
 Chinese gongs, cymbals, &c. 
 
 4 " 
 
 Small house bells for domestic pur- 
 
 
 poses. 
 
 
 Large do. 
 
 5 
 
 Largest bells, for churches, &c. 
 
 7 to 8 " 
 
 Speculum metal for the reflectors 
 
 
 of telescopes, light-houses, &c. 
 
 Temper, is a mixture of 2 pounds of tin to 1 pound 
 of copper, and is used for adding to tin in the 
 manufacture of pewter ; the object being to intro- 
 duce an extremely small quantity of copper. 
 
ON BRONZE AND BELL METAL. 45 
 
 BRONZE FOR GANNON, STATUES, ETC. 
 
 Bronze is an alloy of copper, with from 8 to 10 
 per cent, of tin, together with small quantities of 
 other metals, which are not essential to the com- 
 pound. Cannons are cast with an alloy of a similar 
 kind, and the ancient bronze statues were of the 
 same composition. 
 
 ON BELL METAL. 
 
 Bell metal is a compound of 80 parts copper to 
 20 parts tin. The Indian gong, so much celebrated 
 for the richness of its tones, contains copper and tin, 
 in the above proportions. The proportion of tin in 
 bell metal varies, however, from one-third to one- 
 fifth of the weight of copper, according to the sound 
 required, the size of the bell, and the impulse to be 
 given. M. d'Arcet has discovered that bell metal 
 formed in the proportion of 78 parts copper, united 
 with 22 of tin, is indeed nearly as brittle as glass, 
 when cast in a thin plate or gong. Yet if it be 
 
46 
 
 BRASS AND IRON FOUNDER. 
 
 heated to a cherry-red, and plunged into cold water, 
 being held between two plates of iron, that the plate 
 may not bend, it becomes malleable. Thas he 
 manufactures gongs, cymbals, and tantums out of 
 this compound. 
 
 ON COPPER AND TIN MIXTURES. 
 
 The above are the best proportions in use at the 
 present day; for some other peculiar objects a 
 slightly diflferent mixture is adopted, as a small 
 amount of zinc or silver, and even arsenic. The 
 best mode of mixing the component metals o: this 
 alloy, appears to be to melt each separately, and 
 then to add the tin to the copper at the lowest stir- 
 ring temperature. To complete the combination 
 the alloy is again melted very gradually by placing 
 the metal in the crucible almost as soon as the fire 
 is lighted. The hardness of this alloy, compared 
 with the extreme softness of the metals, gives us an 
 example of the chemical changes effected by their 
 combination. Thus, the speculum metal, as used 
 by Lord Rosse, is totally devoid of malleability, and 
 from its hardness cannot be acted on by the file. 
 
SPECULUM, COPPER, AND ZINC. 47 
 
 His speculum consisted of four atoms of chemical 
 combining proportions of copper to one of tin : or, 
 by weight, 126.4 copper to 58.9 tin. This alloy, 
 which is a true chemical compound, is of a brilliant 
 white lustre ; its specific gravity 8.811 ; nearly as 
 hard as steel, and almost as brittle as sealing-wax. 
 The speculum is six feet in diameter, five and a half 
 inches thick. It was cast open, ground with emery, 
 placed on a table in a cistern filled with water at a 
 temperature of 55° Fahr., polished with red oxide 
 of iron, procured by precipitation from green vitriol, 
 or sulphate of iron, by water of ammonia. 
 
 ALLOYS OF COPPER AND ZINC. 
 
 We now come to the consideration of another 
 branch of the copper alloy family of great value in 
 the arts. This is copper and zinc. 
 
 The following table contains the best proportions 
 of the principal mixtures. In this table the quan- 
 tity of zinc is that which is added to one pound of 
 copper. 
 
l! 48 
 
 ji • ' 
 
 BRASS AND IRON FOUNDER. 
 
 III ^ ^"^ ^ 
 
 ounce. This addition is used principally 
 
 II 
 
 for the purpose of producing 
 
 
 sound copper castings. 
 
 1 to IJ 
 
 " Gilding metal for jewellers. 
 
 ! ' ^ 
 
 " Tombac, or red brass. 
 
 1 3 10 4 
 
 " Red sheet brass, pinchbeck, and 
 
 II 
 
 bath metal. 
 
 1 ^ 
 
 " Purbeck metal. 
 
 1 ^ 
 
 " Bristol brass. This and the five 
 
 1 
 
 preceding mixtures solder well. 
 
 Ir 7 to 7 J 
 
 " Good dipping metal. 
 
 8 
 
 " The general proportion for all or- 
 
 
 dinary brass articles. 
 
 
 " Muntz's metal, for ships' fasten- 
 
 
 ings, sheathing, &c. 
 
 
 " Strong brazing solder, for heavy 
 
 ■ ! 
 
 copper work, &c. 
 
 16 
 
 " Sdffc spelter solder. 
 
 From the volatile nature of zinc the above pro- 
 
 portions 
 
 can seldom be strictly adhered to; but a 
 
 slight variation does not much affect the filiug and 
 
 , working of the metal. 
 
 An alloy of copper and lead is often used in place 
 
 of gun metal for inferior work, on account of its 
 
 1 ■ 
 
ON COPPER, ZINC, TIN AND LEAD. 49 
 
 cheapness and facility of manipulation. It is very 
 brittle, particularly where much lead is used. 
 
 The whole of the different metals just discussed, 
 when mixed together, constitute gun metal, or brass, 
 far excellence. This alloy is applied to a very 
 great variety of purposes, and is the one most in 
 demand for engineering works. The principal ones 
 are compounded as below. 
 
 ALLOYS OP COPPER, ZINC, TIN, AND LEAD. 
 
 1| ounces tin, \ ounce zinc, and 16 ounces copper, 
 constitute an extremely tenacious metal, used where 
 great strength is required. 
 
 ounces tin, 2 ounces brass, 16 ounces copper, 
 tor wheels, &c. 
 
 2 ounces tin, IJ ounces brass, 16 ounces copper, 
 for articles requiring turning. 
 
 2^ ounces tin, \\ ounces brass, 16 ounces copper, 
 for bearings, nuts, &c. 
 
 1| ounces tin, 1^ ounces zinc, 16 ounces copper 
 a composition for general purposes, used by an emi 
 nent engineer. 
 
 4 
 
50 BRASS AND IRON FOUNDER. 
 
 2| ounces tin, | ounce zinc, 16 ounces copper, 
 for bearings to resist great strains. 
 
 2^ ounces tin, 2J ounces zinc, 16 ounces copper, 
 an extremely hard metal, almost too hard for the 
 file. 
 
 1 ounce tin, 2 ounces zinc, 16 ounces copper, good 
 button metal. 
 
 5 pounds of zinc to 8 pounds of brass (called pla- 
 tina), an extremely pale, nearly white metal, used 
 by Birmingham button-makers. 
 
 9 pounds of zinc to 32 pounds of brass, another 
 alloy, called Bath metal. 
 
 10 pounds of tin, 6 pounds of copper, 4 pounds 
 of brass, constitute white solder. 
 
 14.75 tin, 144 copper, and 12 brass, is the alloy 
 of the English standard measure. 
 
 Manheim G-old. — 3 parts copper, 1 part zinc, 
 and a small quantity of tin. If these metals 
 are pure, and melted in a covered crucible, contain- 
 ing charcoal, the alloy bears so close a resemblance 
 to gold as to deceive very skilful persons. 
 
 Best Pinchbeck, 5 ounces pure copper, and 1 of 
 zinc. 
 
ALLOYS. 
 
 61 
 
 Princess Metal. — 3 parts copper, 1 part common 
 brass, and J ounce zinc. 
 
 5J pounds copper, ^ pound zinc, best Tombac^ 
 beautifully red, and is more durable than copper. 
 
 Artificial Gold. — 16 parts virgin platina, 7 parts 
 copper, 1 part zinc, put in a crucible, covered with 
 powdered charcoal, and melted till the whole forms 
 one mass. 
 
 Fine Brazing Solder. — 12 pounds of copper, 11 
 pounds of zinc, flux with powdered brimstone. 
 
 We might multiply these examples of the differ- 
 ent mixtures, but as we have already extended this 
 portion of our article to a considerable length, and 
 have given what appear to be the best for general 
 purposes, we shall defer any further remarks on the 
 subject, until we come to white metals, receipts, &c., 
 at the latter part of the work. 
 
52 
 
 BRASS AND IRON FOUNDER. 
 
 Having discussed the rationale of the mixture 
 and proportion of the metals used in alloys of cop- 
 per, the matter leads us to the further consideration 
 of casting them. Brass moulding is carried on by 
 means of earthen, or sand moulds. The formation 
 of sand moulds is by no means so simple an affair 
 as it would at first sight appear to be, as it requires 
 long practical experience to overcome the disadvan- 
 tages attendant upon the material used. The moulds 
 must be sufficiently strong to withstand the action 
 of the fluid metal perfectly, and, at the same time, 
 must be so far pervious to the air as to permit of 
 the egress of the gases formed by the action of the 
 metal on the sand. If the material were perfectly 
 air-tight, then damage would ensue from the pres- 
 sure arising from the rapidity of the generation of 
 the gases, which would spoil the effect of the casting, 
 and probably do serious injury to the operator. 
 
 If the gases are locked up within the mould, the 
 general result is what moulders term a blown cast- 
 ing ; that is, its surface becomes filled with bubbles 
 of air, rendering its texture porous and weak, besides 
 injuring its appearance. 
 
 Plaster of Paris is often used for a number of the 
 
FACING. 
 
 63 
 
 more fusible metals. This material, however, will 
 not answer for the more refractory ones, as the 
 heat causes it to crumble away and lose its shape. 
 
 Sand, mixed with clay or loam, possesses advan- 
 tages not to be found in gypsum, and is consequently 
 used in place of it, for brass and other alloys. In 
 the formation of brass moulds, old damp sand is 
 principally used in preference to the fresh material, 
 being much less adhesive, and allowing the patterns 
 to leave the moulds easier and cleaner. 
 
 Meal dust or flour is used for facing the moulds 
 of small articles ; but for larger works, powdered 
 chalk, wood-ashes, &c., are used, as being more eco- 
 nomical. 
 
 If particularly tine work is required, facing of 
 charcoal or rottenstone is applied. Another plan 
 for giving a fine surface is to dry the moulds over 
 a Slow fire of eork shavings, or other carbonaceous 
 substance, which deposits a fine thin coating of car- 
 bon. This, when good fine facing-sand is not to be 
 obtained. 
 
 As regards the proportions of sand and loam used 
 in the formation of the moulds, it is to be remarked, 
 that the greater the quantity of the former material, 
 the more easily will the gases escape, and the lean 
 
54 
 
 BRASS AND IRON FOUNDER. 
 
 likelihood is there of a failure of the casting; on 
 the other hand, if the latter substance predominates, 
 the impression of the pattern will be better, but a 
 far greater liability of injury to the casting' will be 
 incurred from the impermeable nature of th^ mould- 
 ing material. This however may be got over with- 
 out the slightest risk, by well drying the mould 
 prior to casting, as you would have to do were the 
 mould entirely of loam. 
 
 For some works, where easily fusible metal is 
 used, metallic moulds are adopted. Thus, where 
 great quantities of one particular species of casting 
 is required, the metallic mould is cheaper, easier of 
 management, and possesses the advantage of pro- 
 ducing any number of exactly similar copies. The 
 simplest example which we can adduce is the cast- 
 ing of bullets. These are cast in moulds constructed 
 like scissors, or pliers, the jaws or nipping portions 
 being each hollowed out hemispherically, so that 
 when closed a complete hollow sphere is formed, 
 having a small aperture leading into the centre of 
 the division line, by which the molten lead is poured 
 in. 
 
 Pewter pots, inkstands, printing types, and va- 
 rious other articles, composed of the easily fusible 
 metals, or their compounds, are moulded on the 
 
PEWTERING. 
 
 55 
 
 iBarae principle. The pewterer generally uses brass 
 moulds : they are heated previous to pouring in the 
 tnetal. In order to cause the casting to leave the 
 mould easier, as well as to give a finer face to the 
 article, the mould is brushed thinly over with red 
 ochre and white of an egg ; in some cases, a thin 
 film of oil is used instead. 
 
 Many of the moulds for this purpose are extremely 
 complex, and, being made in several pieces, they 
 require great care in fitting. 
 
 With these peculiar cases we have, at present, 
 little to do, and shall conclude with a few observa- 
 tions on the method of filling the moulds. The 
 experienced find that the proper time for pouring 
 the metal is indicated by the wasting of the zinc, 
 which gives off a lambent flame from the surface of 
 the melted metal. The moment this is observed, 
 the crucible is to be removed from the fire, in order 
 to avoid incurring a great waste of this volatile sub- 
 stance. The metal is then to be immediately poured. 
 The best temperature for pouring, is that at which 
 It will take the sharpest impression and yet cool 
 quickly. If the metal is very hot, and remains long 
 in contact with the mould, what is called sand-burn- 
 ing takes place, and the face of the casting is in- 
 jured. 
 
56 BRASS AND IRON FOUNDER. 
 
 The founder, then, must rely on his own judgment, 
 as to what is the lowest heat at which good, sharp 
 impressions will be produced. As a rule, the smallest 
 and thinnest castings must be cast the first in a 
 pouring, as the metal cools quickest in such cases, 
 while the reverse holds good with regard to larger 
 ones. 
 
 Complex objects, when inflammable, are occasion- 
 ally moulded in brass, and some other of the fusible 
 metals, by an extremely ingenious process ; render- 
 ing what otherwise would be a difficult problem a 
 comparatively easy matter. 
 
 The mould, which it must be understood is to be 
 composed of some inflammable material, is to be 
 placed in the sand-flask, and the moulding sand 
 filled in gradually until the box is filled up. When 
 dry, the whole is placed in an oven sufficiently hot 
 to reduce the mould to ashes, which are easily re- 
 moved from their hollow, when the metal may be 
 poured in. In this way (as will be afterwards shown) 
 small animals, birds, or vegetables may be cast with 
 the greatest facility. 
 
 The animal is to be placed in the empty moulding- 
 box, being held in the exact position required, by 
 suitable wires or strings, which may be burnt or 
 removed, previous to pouring in the metal. 
 
ON BELL FOUNDING. 
 
 6T 
 
 Another mode which appears to be founded on 
 the same principle, answers perfectly well when the 
 original model is moulded in wax. The model is 
 placed in the moulding-box in the manner detailed 
 in the last process, having an additional piece of 
 wax to represent the runner for the metal. The 
 composition here used for moulding is similar to 
 that employed by statue founders in forming the 
 cores for statues, busts, &c., namely, two parts 
 brick-dust to one of plaster of Paris. This is mixed 
 with water and poured in so as to surround the 
 model well. The whole is then slowly dried, and 
 when the mould is sufficiently hardened to withstand 
 the effects of the molten wax, it is warmed, in order 
 to liquify and pour it out. When clear of the wax, 
 the mould is dried and buried in sand, in order to 
 sustain it against the action of the fluid metal. 
 
 If our limits permitted, we might mention the de- 
 tails of numerous other works in the founding of 
 brass. We must for the present content ourselves 
 with a brief examination of one or two cases which 
 come more or less within the province of the engi- 
 neer. One of these is the founding of bells, a sub- 
 ject of considerable interest, as works of this kind 
 are often of very considerable magnitude, and de- 
 mand the skilful attention of the engineer. Large 
 
58 
 
 BRASS AND IRON FOUNDER. 
 
 bells are usually cast in loam moulds, being swept 
 up, according to the founder's phraseology, by 
 means of wooden or metal patterns, whose contour 
 is an exact representation of the inner and outer 
 surfaces of the intended bell. Sometimes, indeed, 
 the whole exterior of the bell is moulded in wax, 
 which serves as a model to form the impression in 
 the sand, the wax being melted out previous to 
 pouring in the metal. This plan is rarely pursued, 
 and is only feasible when the casting is small. 
 
 The inscriptions, ornaments, scrolls, &c., usually 
 found on bells, are put on the clay mould separately, 
 being moulded in wax or clay, and stuck on while 
 soft. The same plan is pursued with regard to the 
 <iars, or supporting lugs, by which the bell is hung. 
 
 BRASS GUNS 
 
 A.RE another important branch of this manufac- 
 ture. They are moulded in a manner quite distinct 
 from any other work of this nature. The exterior 
 surface of the gun is produced by wrapping gaskin 
 or soft rope round a tapered rod, of a length slightly 
 
ON GUN FOUNDING. 
 
 59 
 
 greater than that of the gun. Upon this foundation 
 of rope the moulding loam is then applied ; the 
 surface being turned to the exact shape and propor- 
 tions of the gun. 
 
 A long fire is used by the founder in this process, 
 in order to dry the mould as he proceeds in its 
 manufacture. When perfectly dry, the surface of 
 the mould is black-washed over, and again covered 
 with loam to a depth of two or three inches. This 
 exterior coat of loam is secured and strengthened 
 by a number of iron bands, and the whole is well 
 dried. The primary mould is now completely with- 
 drawn from the outer shell, the formation of which 
 renders it an easy matter, as the timber rod leaves 
 the rope with great facility, when the latter may 
 be withdrawn, and the clay covering picked out 
 afterwards. 
 
 Tne trunnions of the gun are formed separately, 
 and attached to the shell in the ordinary way. 
 When finished, the moulds are sunk perpendicu- 
 larly in a sand pit, near a reverberatory furnace, a 
 vertical runner being made, leading to each mould, 
 which it enters near the bottom. A suitable chan- 
 nel communicates with the furnace containing the 
 brass intended for the guns. The metal being in- 
 
60 
 
 BRASS AND IRON FOUNDER. 
 
 troJucwd at the bottom of the mould, no air can 
 possibly be detained bj its entrance, as each mould 
 is full open to the atmosphere at the top. 
 
 FIGURE CASTING 
 
 Is another branch of our subject, and one which, 
 from its general complexity, ranks as the greatest 
 eflfort of the founder. As an example of this pro- 
 cess we shall take the moulding of thin ornamenta 
 in relief. 
 
 The ornament, whatever it may be, a monumental 
 bas-relief for instance, is first modelled in relief, in 
 clay or wax, upon a flat surface. A sand flask is 
 then placed upon the board, over the model, and 
 well rammed with sand, which thus takes the im- 
 press of the model on its lower surface. A second 
 flask is now laid on the sunken impression, and also 
 filled with sand, in order to take the relief impres- 
 sion from it. This is generally termed the cope, or 
 back mould. The thickness of the intended cast is 
 then determined by placing an edging of clay round 
 the lower flask, upon which edging the upper one 
 rests, thus keeping the two surfaces at the precise 
 
ON FIGURE CASTING. 
 
 61 
 
 distance from each other, that it is intended the 
 thickness of the casting shall be. 
 
 In this process, the metal is economised to the 
 greatest possible extent, as the interior surface, or 
 back of the casting, is an exact representation of 
 the relief of the subject ; and the whole is thus made 
 as thin in every part as the strength of the metal 
 permits. 
 
 Several modifications of the process just described 
 are also made use of, to suit the particular circum- 
 stances of the case. What we have said, however, 
 is a detail of the principle pursued in all matters of 
 a similar nature. In conclusion we will give a com- 
 position for cores that may be required for diflBcult 
 jobs, where it would be extremely expensive to maka 
 a core-box for the same : — 
 
 Make a pattern (of any material that will stand 
 moulding from) like unto the core required. Take 
 a mould from the same in the sand, in the ordinary 
 way ; place strengthening wires from point to point, 
 centrally ; gate and close your flask. Then make a 
 composition of two parts brick-dust and one part 
 plaster of Paris ; mix with water and cast. Take it 
 out when set, dry it, and place it in your mould 
 warm, so that there may be no cold air in it. 
 
62 BRASS AND IRON POUNDER. 
 
 MALLEABLE IRON CASTINGS. 
 
 The term malleable iron castings means an iron 
 that has been cast into any desired shape, and then 
 rendered malleable by removing the carbon by a 
 process of annealing, which consists in burning off 
 the whole or a part of the carbon combined with the 
 iron from which the castings were made. In the 
 manufacture of malleable iron castings, the first ob- 
 ject is to get the proper kind of pig-iron, for all iron 
 is not suitable for making malleable iron by the pro- 
 cess of annealing. From the states in which carbon 
 exists in cast-iron, the latter has been classified into 
 three principal subdivisions. The first is "grey 
 metal," or "No. 1 foundry pig," in which the car- 
 bon is not combined with the iron, but is in the 
 graphitic state, and may be seen in large flakes 
 when the iron is broken. These flakes are some- 
 times called "tissue" and "black-lead." The sec- 
 ond division is "mottled" cast-iron. In this the 
 carbon is partly combined with the iron and partly in 
 the graphitic state, which gives the iron a spotted or 
 mottled appearance. The third division is "white " 
 cast-iron. In this the carbon is combined with the 
 iron, and is unseen. 
 
MALLEABLE IRON CASTINGS. 
 
 63 
 
 Gray or No. 1 foundry iron is best for ordinary 
 castings, because it contains the most carbon, and is 
 softer and will remain fluid longer than either the 
 mottled or white iron, yet it is not best for malle- 
 able castings, for the carbon in it is not combined 
 with the iron, and in converting the castings into 
 malleable iron the carbon is extracted from the iron 
 without melting the castings. If this class of iron is 
 used the castings will be full of small holes after they 
 have been rendered malleable, and will not have the 
 required strength. 
 
 White cast-iron will make the best malleable cast- 
 ings, because in this the carbon is completely com- 
 bined with the iron, and when it is abstracted from 
 it by the annealing process, it leaves a perfectly 
 sound and smooth casting. But in using this iron 
 for malleable castings another trouble arises. The 
 iron contains so little carbon that it will not retain its 
 fluidity long enough to be run into light castings — ■ 
 and almost all malleable castings are very light — so 
 that this class of iron cannot be used. 
 
 As the gray or No. 1 foundry iron contains too 
 much carbon and the white iron too little carbon, the 
 best iron for malleable castings must be the mottled 
 iron, which is between the two extremes. This iron 
 is always used for malleable iron castings, and none 
 
64 
 
 BRASS AND IRON FOUNDER. 
 
 but the very best brands of cold-blast charcoal 
 mottled iron will produce a good malleable casting. 
 
 Iron for malleable castings may be melted in a 
 cupola or in a reverberatory furnace. However, the 
 iron melted in the latter always produces by far the 
 best castings ; for the iron is not melted in contact 
 with the fuel, as in the cupola, and is not deterio- 
 rated by the impurities contained in the fuel. There 
 is also the advantage that, should the iron contain 
 too much carbon, part of it may be removed by the 
 oxidizing action of the flame. 
 
 As most malleable castings are very small, they 
 are generally moulded in snap-flasks, with green sand, 
 from metallic patterns or match plates. The cast- 
 ings, before they are annealed, are as hard and 
 brittle as glass, and must be handled with care to 
 prevent breaking. These castings are put into a 
 tumbler or rattle-barrel, where they are cleansed 
 from all adhering sand, and become polished by 
 mutual friction. To anneal them properly, it is very 
 essential that they should be thoroughly cleansed. 
 The cleansed castings intended for conversion into 
 malleable iron are next packed into iron boxes, with 
 alternate layers of fine iron scales from rolling-mills. 
 The boxes are then closed at the top by a mixture 
 of sand and clay, and all the cracks are carefully 
 
MALLEABLE IRON CASTINGS. 
 
 65 
 
 luted, to prevent the admission of air. The boxes 
 are next put into the annealing oven, where they are 
 subjected to a white heat, not sufficiently hot, how- 
 ever, to melt the boxes. They are kept at this heat 
 for a week or more, and then allowed to cool off 
 gradually. After the castings have been properly 
 annealed, they are covered with a film of oxide of 
 different colors, and resemble in appearance that kind 
 of iron ore called peacock ore. These various colors 
 are a sign of good malleables. This adherent oxide 
 is removed from the castings by another passage 
 through the rattle-barrel, and the process of malleable 
 iron making is finished. 
 
 Powdered iron ore is sometimes used in place of 
 iron scales, but it is not so good, for it contains more 
 or less silica and earth, which, at the temperature of 
 the annealing oven, will fuse and form a slag or cin- 
 der, and prevent the oxidizing action on the castings. 
 For this reason, scales are to be preferred, and care 
 should always be taken to keep them as free from 
 earthy matter as possible. In every "heat" or an- 
 nealing operation, the scales part with some of their 
 oxidizing properties, and before they are again used 
 they must be pickled and reoxidized. This is done 
 by wetting them with a solution of sal ammoniac and 
 water, and mixing and drying them until they are 
 
 5 
 
66 
 
 BRASS AND IRON FOUNDER. 
 
 thoroughly rusted, when they are again ready for use. 
 The annealing boxes were formerly made of soft 
 iron, but at present they are mostly made of hard 
 iron — the same as the castings are made of. The 
 hard iron boxes become annealed the same as the 
 castings, and will last longer than the soft iron boxes. 
 These boxes are generally made about 20 inches 
 long by 14 inches wide and 14 inches deep. They 
 are set one on top of another in the annealing oven, 
 but never more than two high. The lower one has 
 a bottom cast in it, but the top one has no bottom, 
 and is merely a frame set on the lower box. These 
 boxes only last a few heats, and the smaller boxes 
 are said to last longer than the larger ones. 
 
 There are several dilferent kinds of annealing ovens 
 in use, and some very important improvements have 
 been made in their construction in the last few years. 
 The best in use at the present time is one with a fire 
 on each side of it, and so arranged that the flame 
 from the fuel does not enter the oven or strike the 
 boxes. This oven is not allowed to cool off, but is 
 kept hot all the time. At one end there is a door 
 through which the annealing boxes are retioved 
 while at a white heat, and are replaced by cold ones. 
 The door is then closed, and the boxes heated to the 
 required degree. This kind of oven is most econo- 
 
MALLEABLE IRON CASTINGS. 6T 
 
 mical in use, for it requires less fuel than any other, 
 and is not injured by expansion and contraction in 
 cooling and reheating, as the other ovens are. When 
 annealing the castings in the oven, care should be 
 taken not to have the temperature of the oven too 
 high, nor the heat too prolonged, or the castings may 
 be burned and hardened after they have been soft- 
 ened. After the castings have been thoroughly de- 
 carbonized by annealing in the oven, they are virtu- 
 ally a commercially pure iron, and are the same as 
 wrought-iron without fibre, and fibre may be im- 
 parted to them by rolling or hammering. Yet these 
 castings without fibre are sometimes equal to the 
 best wrought iron for strength, and may be bent 
 double when cold without breaking them. 
 
 The process is conveniently applicable only to 
 small castings, although pieces of considerable size 
 are sometimes thus treated. Handles, latches, and 
 other similar articles, cheap harness-mountings, 
 ploughshares, iron handles for tools, wheels, and pin- 
 ions, and many small parts of machinery, are made 
 of malleable cast-iron. For such pieces charcoal 
 cast-iron of the best quality should be selected, in 
 order to ensure the greatest possible purity in the 
 malleable product. The castings are made in the 
 usual way, and are then imbedded in oxide of iron — 
 
68 
 
 BRASS AND IRON FOUNDER. 
 
 in the form, usually, of hematite ore — or in peroxide 
 of manganese, and exposed to the temperature of a 
 full red heat for a sufficient length of time to ensure 
 the nearly complete removal of the carbon. The 
 process with large pieces requires many days. If 
 the iron is carefully selected, and the decarboniza- 
 tion is thoroughly performed, the castings are nearly 
 as strong, and sometimes hardly less malleable, than 
 fairly good wrought-iron, and they can be worked 
 like that metal. They will not weld, however. The 
 pig-iron should be very free from sulphur and phos- 
 phorus. The best makers have usually melted the 
 metals in crucibles having a capacity of 50 to 75 
 lbs., keeping it carefully covered to exclude cinder 
 and other foreign matter. The furnace is similar to 
 that of the brass foundry, 2 to 2| feet square, and 
 the fire is kept up by natural draught. The temper- 
 ature is determined with sufficient accuracy for the 
 practical purposes of the iron-founder by withdraw- 
 ing a portion on an iron bar. If hot enough, the 
 drop burns on exposure to the air. If right, the 
 metal is poured quickly. The "cementation" or 
 decarbonization is conducted in cast-iron boxes, in 
 which the articles, if small, are packed in alternate 
 layers of the decarbonizing material. As a maxi- 
 mum about 800 to 1000 lbs. of castings are treated 
 
' MALLEABLE IRON CASTINGS. 69 
 
 at once. The largest pieces require the longest 
 time. The fire is quickly raised to the maximum 
 temperature, but at the close of the process the fur- 
 nace is cooled very slowly. The operation requires 
 3 to 5 days with ordinary small castings, and may 
 take two weeks for large pieces. Decarbonization is 
 often performed, in the production of steel castings, by 
 a process of dilution, accompanied with possibly some 
 "dissociation." By the preceding method the car- 
 bon takes oxygen from the surrounding oxides, and 
 passes off as carbon monoxide (carbonic oxide). In 
 the process now referred to the carbon of the cast- 
 iron is shared between the latter and the wrought- 
 iron mixed with it in the melting pot, and a small 
 portion may possibly pass off oxidized. The latter 
 method has been practiced to some extent for a cen- 
 tury. Selected cast-iron and good wrought-iron are 
 melted down together in a crucible, and cast in 
 moulds like cast-iron. The metel thus produced 
 contains a percentage of carbon, which is determined 
 by the proportions of cast and wrought-iron in the 
 mixture. The amount is frequently so small that 
 the castings can be forged like wrought-iron. 
 
70 
 
 BRASS AND IRON FOUNDER. 
 
 WROUGHT-IRON (OR MITIS) CASTINGS. 
 
 When wrought-iron is heated to a high tempera- 
 ture it does not pass quickly into the fluid state, but 
 for a large increase of temperature above the point 
 at which it first softens it will remain thick or mushy. 
 At a very high temperature it can be made suffi- 
 ciently fluid to pour into moulds, but the castings 
 then made are notably unsound and weak. It was 
 discovered by Mr. Wittenstroem, of Stockholm, 
 working with the co-operation of Mr. L. Nobel, of 
 St. Petersburg, that if a small amount of aluminium 
 is added to a charge of wrought-iron which has been 
 heated until pasty, the iron immediately liquefies and 
 can be poured into castings having all the properties 
 of wrought-iron except fibre, and as sound as if of 
 cast-iron. These castings were called "Mitis" cast- 
 ings, because of their softness in contrast with iron 
 castings. 
 
 The advantages of an addition of aluminium to 
 fluid iron are important. With moderate care abso- 
 lutely pure and solid castings can be obtained, capa- 
 ble of receiving a high polish. An addition of alumi- 
 nium is especially to be recommended for the manu- 
 facture of steam cylinders, engine castings, press 
 
WROUGHT-IRON CASTINGS. 
 
 71 
 
 cylinders, and generally for castings which are to be 
 subjected to a high pressure. A few hints will serve 
 to show how aluminium is best alloyed with iron. 
 As aluminium only lends itself with difficulty to 
 combination with iron, it is not immediately to be 
 introduced in the ladle which is to be poured into 
 the mould ; a smaller ladle is selected, in which is 
 placed the heated aluminium. Somewhat fluid iron 
 is then brought from the furnace, poured in the ladle, 
 and stirred until the aluminium compound begins to 
 stiffen. The iron intended to be cast is now let out 
 of the furnace into the ladle intended for it, the 
 aluminium-mixture is poured in, and the whole inti- 
 mately mixed. The melted metal should not be 
 poured into the mould too quickly, as it does not 
 solidify as rapidly as ordinary iron. Aluminium- 
 iron in the fluid condition is very active; small 
 globules are formed, which gradually extend to the 
 edge of the ladle, where they disappear. At first 
 the iron is of a milk-white color ; then it becomes 
 orange-yellow, and forms a thin film on the top. 
 When this moment has arrived, the film is removed, 
 and casting is proceeded with, care being taken that 
 the mould is always kept full. For 100 lbs. the 
 proportion of aluminium recommended is about 3J 
 ounces. Cost can be no drawback in view of the pres- 
 
72 
 
 BRASS AND IRON FOUNDER. 
 
 ent comparative cheapness of aluminium, particularly 
 when it is considered with how much greater cer- 
 tainty clean castings can be obtained. Aluminium 
 improves cast-iron as phosphorus improves tombac 
 and brass, the fluidity being increased and the oxide 
 separated. 
 
 The details of the production of Mitis castings are 
 as follows: As the raw material to operate on, 
 wrought iron, scrap or mild steel are equally suit- 
 able. It was found that some of the best results are 
 to be obtained by using Swedish scrap or English 
 hematite iron, that is, materials containing less than 
 0.1 per cent, of phosphorus, which is a very injuri- 
 ous ingredient if present in much larger quantity. 
 Using a mixture with poorer quality of iron, with 
 phosphorus running up to 0.15 per cent., good re- 
 sults may still be obtained — that is, the castings will 
 compare favorably with ordinary malleable castings. 
 In using scrap-steel, which is necessarily low in 
 phosphorus, it was found that manganese interfered 
 with the production of good castings, a result rather 
 unexpected. Since almost every melter devises 
 various mixtures of his own, as circumstances permit, 
 it is but natural that the best features of the Mitis 
 process are found united with some other old estab- 
 lished practices. Thus, in one Mitis plant in the 
 
WROUGHT-IRON CASTINGS. 
 
 73 
 
 United States the mixture for melting was composed 
 of: Mitis scrap 35 per cent., hematite muck bar, 35, 
 wrought iron punchings, 12|, soft steel scrap (0.1 
 per cent, carbon), 12f ; white pig iron, 3 ; ferro- 
 silicon (10 per cent, silicon), 1 ; ferro-aluminium 
 (6 per cent, aluminium), §. It seems that in this 
 charge the melter used a little white iron as a flux, 
 which would probably introduce 0.1 per cent, of car- 
 bon ; then the virtues of ferro-silicon for making 
 sounder castings are utilized by adding 0.1 per cent, 
 of silicon to the charge ; lastly, 0.04 per cent, of 
 aluminium was introduced. 
 
 In general it may be said that if iron free from 
 impurities is used, very good castings are obtained ; 
 if iron is used with a large percentage of phosphorus, 
 proportionally brittle and unsatisfactory castings 
 result. 
 
 The ferro-aluminium should be, for similar reasons, 
 free from any considerable amount of such impuri- 
 ties as generally injure wrought iron. 
 
 Since the castings are almost identical in com- 
 position with the charge of iron melted, the following 
 analyses of mitis metal, made by Mr. Edward Riley, 
 will show the range of material or mixture to which 
 the process has been successfully applied : 
 
74 BRASS AND IRON FOUNDER. 
 
 Raw Material. 
 
 Carbon. 
 
 Silicon. 
 
 Phos- 
 
 Manga- 
 
 
 
 phorus. 
 
 nese. 
 
 Hematite bar .... 
 
 0.067 
 
 0.161 
 
 0.068 
 
 0.022 
 
 Swedish scrap. . . . 
 
 0.053 
 
 0.044 
 
 0.077 
 
 0.027 
 
 Refined iron .... 
 
 0.130 
 
 0.124 
 
 0.137 
 
 0.014 
 
 J Staffordshire iron "1 
 
 0.130 
 
 0.035 
 
 
 2- Swedish scrap. / 
 
 0.150 
 
 0.026 
 
 f Staffordshire iron ") 
 
 0.070 
 
 0.093 
 
 
 
 J Hematite bar. j 
 
 0.194 
 
 0.014 
 
 Staffordshire iron . . 
 
 0.106 
 
 0.080 
 
 0.250 
 
 0.014 
 
 The above figures are percentages ; sulphur was 
 present in all as a trace. The first in the table, 
 those low in phosphorus, gave the best castings, the 
 last the poorest ; with over J per cent, of phosphorus 
 the castings were brittle. 
 
 The charge of wrought iron is placed in covered 
 crucibles and brought to a temperature of about 
 2200° C, at which heat it just loses the solid and 
 assumes the pasty condition. If it were desired to 
 cast the iron without adding aluminium, it would be 
 necessary to superheat it several hundred degrees 
 above this point, not only to give it the desired 
 fluidity, but also to permit it being carried about 
 the casting shop. It is during this superheating 
 that a large part of the gases contained in the 
 melted iron are absorbed. If, therefore, the charge 
 is treated with aluminium immediately on reaching 
 the melting point, the effect is such that this 
 superheating with its accompanying deteriora- 
 
WROUGHT-IRON CASTINGS. T5 
 
 tion of the iron is rendered unnecessary. This 
 is possible for the reason that on adding ferro- 
 aluminium sufficient to introduce 0.05 to 0.1 per 
 cent, of aluminium, the charge immediately liquefies, 
 and is so far from its setting point that it can be re- 
 moved from the furnace and poured into numerous 
 moulds, retaining all the time its exceptional fluidity. 
 The metal acts just as if it had been super-heated 
 several hundred degrees, but this has been accom- 
 plished without leaving it in the furnace for half an 
 hour or so, thus attaining an economy of fuel, which 
 is not to be ignored. When the crucible is taken 
 from the furnace the charge is perfectly dead melted, 
 lies quiet in the crucible, evolves no gas, and teems 
 like melted silver. It is cast in either sand or iron 
 moulds, and on account of its fluidity does not re- 
 quire large heads to bring the castings up sharp and 
 show the finest impressions of the mould. The 
 material being primarily wrought-iron, the castings 
 do not have to be annealed before using. The thin- 
 nest and most complicated castings, which it would be 
 almost impossible to forge in wrought-iron, can be 
 produced, thus furnishing difficultly forged pieces at 
 not much greater expense than ordinary castings. 
 Mitis castings are, in short, objects cast of melted 
 iron, yet having all the desirable properties of 
 wrought-iron. 
 
76 BRASS AND IRON FOUNDER. 
 
 MANUFACTURE OF STEEL CASTINGS.* 
 
 A LARGE number of so-called steel castings are 
 nothing more than malleable iron. The best of these 
 castings are made from superior white pig, as low 
 in silicon and phosphorus as possible. They are 
 made in the same manner as ordinary iron castings, 
 except that the metal having so little silicon chills 
 much quicker than ordinary No. 1 foundry iron, and 
 the liability to shrinkage-cracks renders it necessary 
 to put large "rising-heads" on the castings. The 
 castings after cooling are very hard, and almost as 
 brittle as glass, and are, or should be preferably, 
 perfectly white throughout. They are then an- 
 nealed in ore or scale, to which a little sal ammoniac 
 has been added. This latter operation, which re- 
 quires about two weeks, produces on the entire sur- 
 face of the casting a coating of malleable iron about 
 ^ of an inch thick, and renders the inside sufficiently 
 soft to be tooled without any difficulty. For small 
 castings such a metal is admirably adapted, but cast- 
 ings several inches thick made in this way are only 
 slightly superior to good pig-iron in having, perhaps, 
 a little greater tensile strength. 
 
 * Abstracted from a paper by Mr. P. G. Salom, read before 
 the American Institute of Mining Engineers, May, 1885, 
 
MANUFACTURE OF STEEL CASTINGS. 77 
 
 Crucible steel castings are a* failure and always 
 will be. By this statement it is not meant to say that 
 it is impossible to make such castings satisfactory. 
 But with the single exception of a particular class of 
 work where hardness and ultimate strength are alone 
 desired (for which requirements they are well 
 adapted), there are always a number of disturbing 
 elements that will eventually result in the total dis- 
 use of crucible castings. The value of small steel 
 castings depends on the possession of qualities that 
 render them equal or superior to forgings. When 
 it is attempted to make a steel with the requisite 
 qualities the troubles begin. First, in order to get 
 such a steel, muck-bar must be used almost exclu- 
 sively. This, as every one knows, is very difficult to 
 melt in a crucible furnace, and after melting it is 
 almost impossible to pour it, as the metal chills be- 
 fore the pots can be emptied. If, however, after 
 unusual exertions, a successful cast be made, the 
 castings are found to be full of blow-holes. There 
 are two means employed to remedy the latter defect: 
 first, by the use of ferro-silicon, and second, by mak- 
 ing a steel higher in carbon and therefore more 
 fusible. When sufficient ferro-silicon is added to 
 give from 0.5 to 1.0 of silicon in the steel, the metal 
 is not difficult to melt, but the resulting castings, 
 
T8 
 
 BRASS AND IRON FOUNDER. 
 
 while soft and solid, have lost all their ductility, and 
 are simply a superior form of pig-iron, with a tensile 
 strength of about 50,000 lbs. If, on the other hand, 
 the pots are charged with stock higher in carbon and 
 only a small percentage of ferro-silicon is added, the 
 castings are solid, but are brittle, and so hard as to 
 be difficult to tool. Their hardness is extremely ob- 
 jectionable to machinists, but their brittleness is a 
 still greater evil, and precludes the possibility of 
 their replacing forgings. It has been attempted to 
 overcome the latter difficulty by annealing, and by 
 this means a really superior crucible casting can be 
 made. But the additional cost of production is 
 greater than consumers are willing to pay for the 
 castings, 
 
 Bessemer steel castings. The Bessemer process 
 in the manufacture of steel castings is as yet open 
 to the objection of making a less homogeneous and a 
 harder metal than the open hearth. Some time ago, 
 a number of large Bessemer steel cranks, weighing 
 from 7,000 to 8,000 lbs. each, broke in half when it 
 was attempted to shrink them on the shafts for which 
 they were intended. Notwithstanding these failures, 
 it is believed that in the near future all steel castings 
 will be made by the Bessemer or an equivalent 
 pneumatic process. 
 
MANUFACTURE OP STEEL CASTINGS. 79 
 
 Open-hearth steel castings. This method can bo 
 relied upon to make a very large class of important 
 castings with entire success. According to Mr. 
 Alexander L. HoUey * the operation consists : 
 
 " 1 In the formation of an initial bath of mangan- 
 iferous pig to prevent oxidation during the process. 
 
 " 2 In dissolving such softening or decarbonizing 
 materials as wrought-iron in this bath. 
 
 " 3 In the addition, at the end of the operation, of 
 silicon and manganese in such order and proportion 
 as to prevent the formation of blow-holes while 
 casting, and at the same time to give to the steel 
 certain special physical qualities. 
 
 " Another very important feature of the process is 
 the method of taking tests. We will now describe 
 in detail the different stages of the operation, and we 
 will suppose at first, so as to avoid confusion, that 
 the metal to be produced is of the harder kind. 
 
 " The Furnace. — The object of greatest import- 
 ance during the whole of the operation is to keep 
 oxidation as loiu as possible in the bath. For this 
 reason the furnace must, indeed, be kept as hot as 
 
 * Solid Steel Castings for Ordnance, Structures and General 
 Machinery by the Terrenoire Process. By A. L. HoUey, C. E. 
 (Reprint from the Metallurgical Review, New York, 1878, vol. ii., 
 p. 205.) 
 
80 BRASS AND IRON FOUNDER. 
 
 possible, with a good solid body of flame ; but there 
 should be only just enough air admitted to promote 
 thorough combustion. 
 
 " The Initial Bath. — This must be made of pig- 
 iron containing from 6 to 9 per cent, of manganese. 
 Spiegeleisen is probably the most convenient form of 
 pig ; but as spiegel with this percentage may not be 
 at hand at all times, the bath may be formed by 
 taking a richer spiegel, say 12 or 14 per cent, man- 
 ganese, and diluting it with one-half ordinary pig 
 containing no manganese. 
 
 " The weight of the initial bath, in proportion to 
 that of the whole charge, varies according to the con- 
 ditions under which the heat is made. We may say, 
 generally, that 11 per cent, of the whole is an aver- 
 age quantity. Every open-hearth melter knows that 
 it is impossible to determine in advance the exact 
 quantity of pig wanted for the operation. The tem- 
 perature of the furnace has much to do with it. The 
 nature of the refining material has also a great influ- 
 ence. If a specially pure product is required and 
 the softening materials used are very fine puddled 
 blooms, nearly free from carbon and manganese, the 
 initial bath must necessarily be larger, as well as 
 richer in manganese ; it may in this case reach 14 per 
 cent, of the whole charge. The materials for the 
 initial bath are always charged cold. 
 
MANUFACTURE OF STEEL CASTINGS. 81 
 
 " The Softening or Refining Materials. — Soon 
 after the bath is completely melted, the refining 
 materials are successively added in small lots of about 
 450 lbs. each. These are invariably preheated, as 
 charging them cold and frequently would tend to keep 
 down the temperature of the bath. 
 
 "The materials used in this second period of the 
 operation are chosen with reference to the quality re- 
 quired in the finished product. They may be good 
 Bessemer or open-hearth scrap, fountains from pre- 
 vious castings, puddled bars or direct blooms. Mater- 
 ials inferior to these would correspondingly lower the 
 quality of the product. The proportion of refining 
 materials to the whole charge averages 78 per cent. 
 
 " Slag-tests. — Spiegeleisen is used for the initial 
 bath, because the manganese it contains, being the 
 most oxidizable of all the materials present, will re- 
 move oxygen that may be present in the bath, and 
 will intercept oxygen that tends to enter it. So that 
 the jnore manganese there is in the slag, the less 
 oxygen there will be in the metal below. Oxide of 
 iron tends to make the slag black ; manganese turns 
 it light olive or ash-green, and the different tints be- 
 tween these two extremes give to the practiced eye 
 an exact idea of the state of the oxidation of the bath. 
 
 " Metal-Tests before the Final Additions. — The 
 6 
 
82 BKASS AND IRON FOUNDER. 
 
 slag-test gives no indication of the physical state of 
 the metal, which is an equally important guide in the 
 operation. When, therefore, the operator has reason 
 to believe that the metal is approaching the point of 
 sufficient softening or purification, he makes the fol- 
 lowing tests : A ladleful of metal is taken from the 
 furnace and cast into a round ingot about 3 inches in 
 diameter and 1^ inches thick. The ingot is knocked 
 out of the mould as soon as set, and flattened under 
 a special steam hammer, at its original heat, into a 
 disk about 7 inches in diameter and f of an inch 
 thick. From bending and fracturing these disks the 
 operator can judge of the state of his metal with 
 great nicety, and has at hand all the necessary ele- 
 ments to remedy any unfavorable tendency likely to 
 develop during the operation. 
 
 " The Final Additions. — These consist of a 
 special pig, containing both silicon and manganese 
 and also an additional quantity of manganese intro- 
 duced in the shape of a 50 or 60 per cent. Mn ferro- 
 manganese. A part of these ingredients is taken up 
 by reactions which prevent the formation of blow- 
 holes'; the remainder is left in the metal to impart to 
 it certain physical qualities. The usual charge con- 
 sists of 11 per cent, of special pig, having the fol- 
 lowing composition : 
 
MANUFACTURE OF STEEL CASTINGS. 
 
 83 
 
 Mn, 
 
 3.50 
 
 C, 
 
 3.00 
 
 Si, 
 
 4.20 to 4.60 
 
 P, 
 
 0.10 
 
 " The proportion of ferromanganese used varies 
 
 "The special pig is charged hot. While it is 
 melting a marked change takes place ; the bath 
 which up to that time had bubbled about as much as 
 in the ordinary pig and scrap operation becomes 
 gradually more and more quiet until its surface is 
 smooth and scarcely broken by small and widely 
 scattered bubbles. When the special pig is nearly 
 all melted, the ferromanganese is thrown in hot. The 
 bath is then rabbled vigorously for about a minute 
 and casting takes place immediately." 
 
 The Standard Steel Casting Co., Thurlow, Pa., 
 has found it possible to simplify many points in' the 
 above-mentioned method, securing equally good re- 
 sults. None of the stock is pre-heated except the 
 final additions, and the refining paaterials are charged 
 at once. 
 
 The two principal difiiculties that the steel-foundry- 
 man has to contend with are blow-holes and shrink- 
 age. 
 
 Blow-holes. It is commonly supposed that blow- 
 
 from 1 to 1.8 per cent, of the total charge. 
 
84 BRASS AND IRON FOUNDER. 
 
 holes in castings are due to carbonic acid gas, disen- 
 gaged during the operation of casting. This is only 
 true to a very limited extent, especially where the 
 steel contains 0.1 per cent, or more of silicon. Herein 
 lies the cause of the many failures connected with the 
 manufacture of steel castings. The manufacturers 
 had been led to believe that it was only necessary to 
 add a few pounds of ferro-silicon to their steel, and 
 presto ! all their castings would be solid. Practical 
 experience has proved the fallacy of this idea. 
 
 Blow-holes in steel which has been properly 
 melted, and to which has been added sufficient ferro- 
 silicon, are almost entirely due to the high melting- 
 point of low-carbon steel, or rather to the rapidity 
 with which the metal chills. This is proved by the 
 fact that the lower ends of castings which have been 
 fed from the bottom by means of a runner are always 
 solid, while the blow-holes, when such exist, are 
 always on top. 
 
 The difficulty connected with blow-holes has almost 
 entirely been overcome by putting on top of the cast- 
 ing a rising-head from 2 to 3 feet high. By this 
 means 6000-pound steel rolls without a single blow- 
 hole or flaw of any kind have been made. 
 
 The long riser is effective in two ways : First, it 
 carries from the casting proper the sluggish metal, 
 
MANUFACTURE OF STEEL CASTINGS. 85 
 
 which has been cooled in its passage through the 
 mould, and allows the mould to be filled with hot 
 fluid metal ; and second, the ferrostatic pressure of a 
 column of iron 3 feet high is equal to about 10 
 pounds to the square inch. This pressure has a ten- 
 dency of course to force the metal into all the cor- 
 ners and make it solid. It also prevents, in a 
 measure, shrinkage troubles, and appears to give to 
 steel castings that solidity for which they are noted, 
 giving them a density of 7.8, almost equal to that of 
 a forging. 
 
 Shrinkage. This presents a difficult and trouble- 
 some problem which has not yet been fully solved. 
 It is almost impossible to make certain large, thin, 
 complicated castings of steel. Shrinkage troubles 
 are caused by the immense contraction of cast-steel, 
 which frequently amouncs to fV inch per foot; and to 
 the hard dry sand moulds, which it is necessary to 
 use in order to prevent the white-hot metal from de- 
 stroying the mould. 
 
 There are five different ways of attempting to 
 remedy this evil : 
 
 1. By changing the chemical constitution of the 
 steel. 
 
 2. By stripping the castings as soon as poured. 
 
 3. By mechanical pressure. 
 
86 
 
 BRASS AND IRON FOUNDER. 
 
 4. By large rising-heads. 
 6. By care in moulding. 
 
 Chemical Qonstitution. A change in the chem- 
 ical constitution by increasing the manganese and 
 diminishing the silicon will nearly always have the 
 desired effect. This renders the metal more fluid, 
 and lowers its melting point. 
 
 Stripping. A large number of castings can be 
 saved from tearing apart or cracking when cooling 
 by simply opening the flasks immediately after pour- 
 ing and covering the casting with sand. 
 
 Mechanical pressure. Quite a number of difficult 
 castings have been saved by means of mechanical 
 pressure. For example, at one end of the flask, and 
 immediately at the end of the moulding, a small iron 
 plate is placed. This plate is attached to a screw 
 which can be turned from the outside of the flask. 
 The arrangement is admirably adapted for castings 
 large on both ends and small in the middle. 
 
 Rising-head. A large rising-head prevents 
 shrinkage -cracks by the pressure it exerts, and by 
 feeding the metal to points where shrinkage is taking 
 place. 
 
 Moulding. Many castings can be saved from 
 shrinkage-cracks by an intelligent moulder. It 
 would be useless to enter into details on this subject. 
 
MANUFACTURE OF STEEL CASTINGS. 87 
 
 Suffice it to say that every pattern is a study ; and 
 it is only by an intelligent application of the knowl- 
 edge already gained, that it is possible now to make 
 castings that a few months ago would have seemed 
 ridiculous to attempt. 
 
 Shrinhage-holes. Shrinkage-holes in castings are 
 exactly similar to the phenomenon called " piping" 
 in crucible steel. They are very troublesome and 
 difficult to prevent, although they rarely affect the 
 value of a casting, coming as they do in the centre. 
 They ai-e caused, of course, by the metal chilling be- 
 fore the immense shrinkage occurs. Then when this 
 contraction does take place on all sides, but away 
 from the center, there is no more fluid metal to run 
 into the space thus made vacant. 
 
-88 
 
 BRASS AND IRON FOUNDER. 
 
 CASTING OF BRASS. 
 
 Modelling and pattern-making are both used for 
 brass work, and although these are distinct branches 
 of trade from founding, where work is systematically 
 performed, yet there are many work-shops where it 
 is of great importance that the same man should be 
 able to execute Avork and understand the general 
 principles both of modelling and pattern-making, as 
 well as of brass founding. 
 
 The materials commonly employed for modelling 
 are pipe-clay and stucco. The former is used for 
 work of a protracted nature, the latter for straight 
 flat models, which can be finished off at once. Pipe- 
 clay, which is decomposed feldspar, is made into a 
 putty with water or glycerine ; the latter preventing 
 its getting hard for a considerable time. 
 
 Almost the only tools required for modelling are 
 made of box-wood with variously shaped ends. The 
 handles are about 6 inches long ; the sharpest edges 
 are slightly nicked ; the others are all more or less 
 blunt. 
 
 A horizontal lathe or turning table, like a potter's 
 wheel, is also used for circular pieces. 
 
 A few nicely-planed boards, of various sizes, are 
 
CASTING OF BRASS. 
 
 89 
 
 required. On these boards an outline of scroll or 
 other work is drawn, the clay being placed thereon 
 and modelled. 
 
 Clay is modelled with the hand and wood tools, 
 mostly by pressure. The clay adheres to wood, or 
 the turning table, when slightly moistened, and re- 
 quires no other fixing. 
 
 Models made either in clay or wood, and which are 
 intended for immediate use, require to be made 
 larger than the size given, by J inch to every foot. 
 
 Brass castings under 12 inches in size shrink about 
 ^ inch to a foot in the mould. Large castings shrink 
 about x\ inch. For this purpose it is best to con- 
 struct a measure or rule, properly divided, so as to 
 save time and calculation. 
 
 Should it be required, however, to make a metal 
 pattern from the clay or wood, then the shrinkage 
 will be double, and the model will require to be made 
 I inch larger per foot every way, a second measure 
 or rule being required. The real shrinkage is only 
 but the other i\ is allowed for finishing. Patterns 
 exactly rectangular do not draw well from the sand ; 
 hence, all patterns should be made with a taper of at 
 least I inch to every foot. Sharp internal angles 
 should be avoided, as they leave an arris on the sand 
 which requires mending. 
 
9Q BRASS AND IRON POUNDER. 
 
 It is often necessary, in model making, to take 
 impressions and casts from existing works, which 
 cannot be cut up. In such case an impression can 
 be taken from it in gutta-percha. To soften the 
 gutta-percha, either warm it in front of a fire, or 
 place it in hot water, and knead it with the hands to 
 make it of a uniform degree of pliability. After 
 taking the impression, place it in cold water, other- 
 wise the gutta-percha will contract on cooling. 
 
 Stucco is also used for this purpose, or a mixture 
 consisting of 4 parts black-resin and 1 part of yellow 
 wax. 
 
 For complicated patterns, or where cores are re- 
 quired, melt 12 parts glue, to which add 3 parts 
 treacle. 
 
 To prevent wooden patterns from absorbing moist- 
 ure, they should be varnished or painted ; before 
 use, polish them with black lead, as that makes them 
 draw from the sand much more freely. 
 
 Mouldings and the like can be quickly modelled 
 in long lengths, by sweeping them up in stucco or 
 other material, by means of a broad cut to the re- 
 quired profile, as is done in loam moulding. 
 
 A moulding tub is provided for small brass work ; 
 it should be very strong, constructed of wood, pro- 
 vided with sliding bars and a number of 1 inch 
 
CASTING OF BRASS. 
 
 91 
 
 boards with cross-ends the size of the moulding 
 boxes. The moulding boxes are clasped lengthwise 
 by wooden clamps fastened hy screws and nuts. In 
 large boxes cross-bars are sometimes cast across 
 them, or the bars may be of wrought iron cast in. 
 
 Ordinary plain work is arranged according to cir- 
 cumstances in the flask. When only one or two 
 castings are required from a pattern, the pattern is 
 wrapped into the flask, that is, the top part being 
 rammed up, a portion of the sand is removed and the 
 pattern inserted. After sprinkling on some parting 
 sand, the drag is placed on, and facing sand sieved 
 in, after which the ordinary sand is rammed in until 
 the flask is full. Then the flasks, top and drag, are 
 turned over so that the drag is lowest, when the top 
 part is taken off and emptied, the face of the drag 
 cleaned again and dusted with parting sand. After 
 this the top part is put on and filled and rammed 
 with facing and ordinary sand, as was done above. 
 The top part is again removed and the patterns with- 
 drawn. In the process of parting the box and with- 
 drawing the patterns it often occurs that part of the 
 sand is torn away, which in consequence requires to 
 be mended. This process of mending is a very tedi- 
 ous and costly one. When the moulds have been 
 mended and furnished with gas and air outlets, and 
 
92 
 
 BRASS AND IRON FOUNDER. 
 
 gates and runners for the inlet of the metal, the top 
 and drag are put together, closed, and clamped. 
 The mould is then ready to be poured. This mould 
 is called a "green-sand mould," not having been 
 dried; but if a fine appearance is required, the 
 mould before being closed should be placed in the 
 drying stove. When a large number of any article 
 is required, plate-moulding is generally employed. 
 
 In commencing the operation of plate-moulding, a 
 pattern or pattern plate of the articles to be cast 
 from is prepared either in iron, wood, or any other 
 suitable material, in the following manner: The pat- 
 tern, prepared with an allowance for the thickness, 
 is placed upon a suitable board, set upon a deep and 
 solid bed of sand. A moulding box, about 6 inches 
 larger than the pattern every way, is then placed 
 upon the board ; the pattern being set fairly in the 
 middle, it is rammed up and turned over on another 
 solid bed of sand; the board is then removed, and 
 the parting carefully made. The top part of the box 
 is then put on to the part already rammed up, which 
 is the drag ; the gate pins are put in suitable places, 
 and this also is rammed up. 
 
 The two parts are then separated, and a frame of 
 wood, about | inch thick and 1| broad, is placed on 
 the parting, keeping the pattern fair in the middle. 
 
CASTING OF BRASS. 
 
 93 
 
 The outside of the frame is made up firmly with 
 sand, so as to resist the pressure of the metal. A 
 piece of iron, the same thickness as the frame, 2 
 inches broad and about 4 inches long, is placed on 
 each corner of the under part of the box or drag, so 
 that when the top part is placed on it, it will be raised 
 up the thickness of the frame. 
 
 The frame and patterns are then removed, and the 
 mould is carefully finished. The top part is after- 
 wards placed upon the under part of the box, and 
 the two parts are securely fastened together. The 
 metal is then poured into the mould, and the pattern 
 plate is produced. This plate is formed with four 
 checks on it, which are filed and faced to ensure 
 accuracy in the moulding. The pattern plate being 
 cast in the manner above described, it is cleaned and 
 fitted to the moulding boxes, the pins and snugs of 
 which and checks in the plate being all fitted exactly 
 to one another. The pattern plate may be used 
 singly, that is, may be turned over with the top part 
 and drag of the moulding box ; or two plates may be 
 made, the face impression being taken off one plate, 
 and the back impression off a different plate. When 
 two plates are used, each plate must be accurately 
 fitted and secured to a frame, which may be con- 
 structed of wood or iron, and furnished with guides, 
 
94 
 
 BRASS AND IRON FOUNDER. 
 
 corresponding with the pins and snugs of the mould- 
 ing boxes. The pins of the moulding boxes may be 
 either simply faced, or steel fitting strips can be in- 
 serted into grooves formed in them by mandrels. 
 
 When an opening or hollow has to be left in the 
 interior of a brass casting, a core is inserted in the 
 mould. This consists, as usual, of a properly shaped 
 piece of baked sand, exactly the counterpart of the 
 hole that is desired. This is placed in the mould to 
 prevent the metal or alloy from running into the 
 space. To keep the core in its position, it is made a 
 little longer or wider than necessary, so as to have a 
 bearing to rest on at each end. The pattern must 
 have projections on it, so as to leave an impression in 
 the sand to receive the end of the cores. Some cores 
 have only one bearing, as in the case of undercut 
 work, such as fluted columns and ornamental scroll- 
 work. Innumerable modifications in the size and 
 shape of cores exist in every -day practice, and much 
 skill is required in their preparation. 
 
 Cores are usually made in boxes. Where it would 
 be too costly to construct a core box, it may be dis- 
 pensed with by moulding the pattern in sand and 
 casting it solid. A good composition for this purpose 
 is 1 part of plaster of Paris to 2 parts of brick dust, 
 mixed with water. When cast and dry, scrape down 
 to the form of the 
 
CASTING OF BRASS. 
 
 95 
 
 Cores, like moulds, must have passages in them to 
 allow of the escape of gases, otherwise the casting 
 will almost inevitably be spoiled. A wire must be 
 inserted in the core to make such vent, and be with- 
 drawn just before opening the core-box to remove the 
 core- When cores are large they are supported 
 with iron rods, round which they are built up. To 
 give consistency to the sand used in making cores, 
 about one-half of it should be pure rock sand, which 
 contains a certain amount of clay, but not generally 
 enough, and consequently the addition of clay water 
 is necessary to give the sand cohesiveness. 
 
 The cores must be dried in a stove, at a tempera- 
 ture not exceeding about 400° F. When dry they 
 should be black-washed, or coated with a mixture of 
 ground charcoal and water, with a little size. This 
 wash must be dried in the stove, when the cores are 
 ready for use. In green sand moulds it is advisable 
 not to insert the cores till just before pouring, so as 
 to prevent their absorbing moisture. 
 
 When a thin brass casting is required, the upper 
 half of the mould is moulded from the opposite im- 
 pression, and a thin packing piece of clay or other 
 material is placed between the two boxes to keep 
 them the required distance apart. When it is de- 
 sired to mould small animals, butterflies, leaves, or 
 
96 
 
 BRASS AND IRON FOUNDER. 
 
 other delicate and intricate objects which can be con- 
 sumed by fire, they are suspended in a box sur- 
 rounded with a mixture of 2 parts of brick dust to 1 
 of plaster of Paris mixed with water. This mould 
 is placed in a furnace to consume the pattern, the re- 
 mains being shaken out as far as possible, and the 
 metal poured. 
 
 Brass is usually melted in the air crucible furnace, 
 but when large castings are made, as those required 
 for marine engine work, or for ecclesiastical furni- 
 ture, a reverberatory furnace will be found most 
 suitable. 
 
 Brass founders' air furnaces are most frequently 
 sunk below the floor level, the ash-pit being closed 
 with a hinged iron grating. The covers for the fur- 
 nace top may be either of cast or wrought-iron, and 
 should be of a dome shape; there should be a 
 damper in the flue. The interior of the furnace 
 must be lined with fire-bricks set in fire-clay. 
 
 The fire-bricks and clay are often contaminated 
 with foreign matters, such as oxide of iron, magnesia, 
 lime, or black-lead. These impurities impair their 
 fire-resisting qualities, and very much shorten the 
 "life" of a furnace. Pure clay should be white, 
 opaque and oily to the touch, and on analysis should 
 be found to contain a large percentage of silica and 
 
CASTING OF BRASS. 
 
 97 
 
 alumina. Fire-bricks are made from this clay in the 
 ordinary manner. 
 
 It is also most important to have good crucibles, 
 •which will neither corrode nor allow liquids and 
 gases to pass through them. They should also be 
 capable of resisting sudden changes of temperature. 
 The crucibles used are either made of black lead or 
 clay. The latter are cheaper, but less durable than 
 the black lead, and require to be carefully hardened 
 by a gradual exposure to high temperatures. 
 
 In mixing and pouring brass the least volatile 
 metal should be melted first, the others being plunged 
 under the melted metal with tongs, in small lumps, 
 which must be hot and quite dry. The reason that 
 the metal should be hot is that it may remain dry, as 
 the steam from any slight moisture on it when placed 
 in the melting pot, would probably send the melted 
 metal spirting about in all directions. 
 
 The fuel for the brass furnace is hard coke, which 
 
 is broken up into lumps the size of a man's fist. The 
 
 crucible is placed bottom upwards in the fire, so as 
 
 to get it thoroughly heated ; it is then removed with 
 
 the tongs, turned right side up, and bedded on a 
 
 slab of fire-clay or a fire-brick, covered with its lid, 
 
 and the fire neatly banked up around it. The metal 
 
 is then placed in the crucible, the cover put on the 
 1 
 
98 
 
 BRASS AND IRON FOUNDER. 
 
 mouth of the furnace, and the damper is opened to 
 increase the draught. The crucible then remains 
 until the metal is "down." It is usual to throw in 
 with the metal some charcoal dust or broken glass, 
 which floats on the surface of the molten metal and 
 prevents oxidation. In feeding the metal into the 
 crucible, put in the copper or old brass in small 
 pieces until it is nearly full. When this is well 
 melted, add the tin and mix it well in ; then throw in 
 a few small pieces of zinc. If the zinc flares up, 
 throw the rest of it into the pot, stirring it well ; then 
 lift the pot from the furnace, skim off the dross, and 
 pour into the mould. 
 
 When placing the zinc in the crucible, drop a piece 
 of borax as large as a walnut into it. This is done 
 to prevent the loss of zinc which goes off in the 
 fumes. If the surface of the metal is covered by 
 fine charcoal or borax, which is prevented from burn- 
 ing by being renewed, or by broken glass, the loss 
 of zinc is reduced to a minimum. 
 
 If, however, when the small trial pieces of zinc are 
 thrown in, they do not flare up, throw on a little fuel 
 to make the fire brisk, and cover it over until it 
 comes to a proper heat. Then, as soon as the zinc 
 begins to flare, add the rest. If old brass alone is 
 melted no tin is required, but a small quantity of 
 
CASTING OF BRASS. 
 
 99 
 
 zinc. If part copper and part brass, add tin and zinc 
 in proportion to the new copper, with a little extra 
 zinc for the brass. To prevent volatilization, char 
 coal or broken glass may be spread over the metal 
 while being melted. 
 
 If the metal is poured too hot, the casting will be 
 sand-burned and its color impaired. The best cast 
 ings are obtained when the metal is at such a temper 
 ature that it will cool quickly. Heavy castings 
 should, therefore, be poured last. The metal must 
 be carefully skimmed. Small work is poured verti- 
 cally, large work horizontally. 
 
 As soon as the brass is poured, it is usual to open 
 the boxes, and to sprinkle the castings with water 
 from the rose of a watering-pot, which makes the 
 castings softer than they would otherwise be. When 
 the casting is completed, let the fire-bars drop, clear 
 the furnace from ashes and clinkers, and place the pot 
 amongst them to cool gradually. 
 
100 
 
 BRASS AND IRON FOUNDER. 
 
 CASTING OP BRONZE. 
 
 Paris and its neighborhood contain the most 
 famous and the most successful bronze foundries in 
 the world, and any one who has visited that city must 
 have noticed the number of shops devoted to the sale 
 of the smaller articles of vertu, and the beauty and 
 elegance of their contents. 
 
 The French bronze works are usually arranged 
 into departments, which comprise: 1. Designer's 
 room. 2. Bronze foundry. 3. Chasing shop. 4. 
 Model shop. 5. Marble-working shop, provided with 
 apparatus for working marble by hand and machine 
 tools. 6. Enamelling shop. 7. Fitting and mount- 
 ing shop. 8. Store room and gallery for finished 
 work. 
 
 M. CoUas having ioiproved upon crrtain old and 
 well-known principles, and perfected a beautiful 
 machine for the automatic reduction or enlargement 
 of solid forms, was enabled to reproduce any bronze 
 to any scale with perfect accuracy and small cost. 
 Such an invention well deserved the grand medal it 
 obtained at the Paris exhibition, and is now largely 
 employed by French bronze manufacturers, who can 
 by its means provide their customers with a copy of 
 
CASTING OF BRONZE. 
 
 101 
 
 nearly any famous work of art at a comparatively 
 small cost. 
 
 In the foundry, if the works generally to be pro- 
 duced are small in size, the moulding is done on 
 benches, and the moulders work vis-d-vis at the samel 
 bench, which is divided by a longitudinal partition, 
 provided with a shelf for tools. Small and unimpor- 
 tant pieces may be moulded in green sand, large 
 works in loam, but the greater portion of general 
 work is moulded in dry sand. The two sands prin- 
 cipally employed are obtained from a place called 
 Fontenay des Roses, near Paris ; the one is a deep- 
 brown loamy sand, the other is of a light yellow- 
 white tinge. These sands are mixed in proportions 
 carefully regulated according to the nature of the 
 work for which they are intended, and the mixture is 
 reduced to a uniform fineness by being passed be- 
 tween cast-iron rollers. The sand is then dampened 
 and sifted. The moulding boxes are of cast-iron, 
 accurately fitted, the edges being planed true. 
 
 When the objects are to be finished in the lathe 
 the patterns are sometimes of wood, but most fre- 
 quently bronze models are made, and are truly fin- 
 ished to the desired form. Many other substances 
 are used for models, such as plaster, wax, fusible 
 metal, porcelain and glass. 
 
102 BRASS AND IRON FOUNDER. 
 
 For facing sand a mixture of potato starch and 
 charcoal dust or fine white flour is used ; but char- 
 coal dust is the favorite material. 
 
 Sand cores are used for all hollow pieces, unless 
 they are to be cast in loam, or are of a large size ; 
 in the latter case, the cores are of loam. In bronze 
 statue casting, the thickness of the metal should be 
 as uniform as possible, otherwise the work will be 
 distorted from unequal contraction ; bronze contracts 
 considerably on cooling, the extent depending on the 
 proportions of the constituent metals employed in its 
 composition and varying from one to two per cent. 
 This contraction, is found to increase in ratio with 
 the size of the casting. 
 
 The perfection of bronze casting is said to consist 
 in having the mould very highly finished, and ob- 
 taining a bright sharp casting, which shall require 
 only a minimum amount of subsequent chasing and 
 tool-work, thus leaving the skin of the casting as far 
 as possible undisturbed. 
 
 In the French fine-art work the furnace arrange- 
 ments are such that the moulds and cores are gener- 
 ally dried in furnaces heated by the waste heat from 
 the crucible furnaces. The bronze is melted in clay 
 crucibles, holding between 60 and 70 lbs., with coke 
 for fuel, and a fan-blast. For large work an air 
 furnace is generally employed. 
 
CASTING OF BRONZE. 103 
 
 Best English or Straits tin, and very pure South 
 American copper, which latter is purified by liqua- 
 tion, are the metals employed. A proportion of gates 
 and runners may be added, but this is only done 
 when the proportions and quality of their ingredients 
 are known ; and no old bronze guns, old copper or 
 brass, or other material of unknown and variable 
 composition, are ever used, as it is considered im- 
 possible to rely upon obtaining a first-rate casting 
 from such uncertain ingredients. 
 
 The moulds are placed in cast-iron boxes, which 
 are placed in a naked pit. A reservoir formed of 
 sand with a charcoal facing is employed, into which 
 the contents of the crucibles or air-furnaces are 
 drawn. This reservoir communicates with the main 
 gate of the mould, and as soon as a sufficient quan- 
 tity of metal is in the reservoir, an iron plug in the 
 bottom is removed and the metal flows into the mould, 
 from whence the surplus passes off" by " rising heads," 
 which are purposely kept small for fear of distorting 
 the casting by too great a pressure. The gas 
 evolved during the pouring is fired at the rising 
 heads by a torch. 
 
 Bronzes which are to be coated with enamel have 
 their surfaces specially prepared for its reception by 
 what the French artists call cloisonne or partition 
 
104 BRASS AND IRON FOUNDER. 
 
 work. This process is a somewhat tedious one, and 
 requires great skill on the part of the moulder. The 
 outlines of the design for the enamel are described 
 by small thin partitions of bronze projecting upward 
 from the main body of the work less than a twenty- 
 fifth part of an inch. Thus the bronze has its sur- 
 face covered with a network of fine lines, and when 
 the enamel is baked into the shallow cells so formed, 
 the enamel and the bronze partitions are ground and 
 polished to a uniform depth. These partitions serve 
 two useful purposes ; they describe the outlines, and 
 they tend to hold the enamel firmly in position. In 
 finishing patterns for this class of work, every irregu- 
 larity in the cells and partition walls has to be cut out, 
 and great care is necessary not to injure the surface. 
 When such patterns are finished they represent a 
 considerable value in skilled labor, and are extremely 
 delicate ; consequently they are kept covered up on 
 soft cushions, away from danger of accidental dam- 
 age. 
 
 The founding of statues is certainly a very ancient 
 branch of the art, and one in which our ancestors have 
 held their own, as the grace and skill of existing 
 specimens abundantly testify. The invention of the 
 Samian artists consisted, in all probability, of run- 
 ning the metal into a mould which contained a centre- 
 
CASTING OF BRONZE. 
 
 105 
 
 piece or kernel, to diminish the thickness of the 
 metal by leaving a hollow space in the centre of the 
 statue. The necessity of this kernel is self-evident, 
 for a solid bronze statue would be most costly and 
 cumbersome. Besides, unless the statue is very 
 light, it would in many cases be unable to stand. A 
 rearing horse, for instance, could never be upheld by 
 its hind legs if the whole body was composed of 
 solid metal; and to lessen the weight that would 
 otherwise bend and break so slender a support, it is 
 not only necessary that the horse should be hollow, 
 but it must be as light as skilled workmanship can 
 render it. Since the day, therefore, of the Samian 
 artists down to the present time, it has been the con- 
 stant effort of bronze moulders to lessen the thickness 
 of their statues by increasing the size of the kernel, 
 so as to leave as small a margin as possible for the 
 metal to run down this centre-piece and the mould 
 with which it is enveloped. 
 
 Among early methods for obtaining this end, the 
 most familiar is known as the cire-perdu, or waste- 
 wax process, which was still in vogue when the pres- 
 ent system was introduced, and a comparison be- 
 tween the two will best illustrate the progress now 
 accomplished. The "cire-perdu" process required 
 gieat care, and could only be carried out effectively 
 
106 
 
 BRASS AND IRON FOUNDER. 
 
 by the sculptor or modeler himself. Thus, let us 
 suppose for the sake of simplicity that the object to 
 be reduced is a portrait bust measuring 4 inches in 
 height and 3 inches in width. The first step would 
 be to model in "sand," or a mixture of porous 
 cement, the outline of the bust, taking care to make 
 it on every side ^ inch smaller than the size it was 
 designed to give to the finished statuette. This out- 
 line or "core" must be coated up with wax to make 
 up the deficient ^ inch. This much might be accom- 
 plished by an ordinary workman, but for the rest 
 the services of the artist are indispensable. With 
 great delicacy of touch he must work up the likeness 
 and texture of his subject on the wax, in fact the ex- 
 pression, the minute lines, all the details of the ar- 
 tist's conception, must be executed in this wax, and 
 it will be seen at once that he alone is competent to 
 carry this out satisfactorily. Were it done by any- 
 one else, it would be at the best but a copy of the 
 artist's conception. ^ 
 
 The portrait completed, five or six pieces of wire 
 must be pushed through the wax into the sand out- 
 line or core. It is now necessary to coat over the 
 wax with liquid sand, applied most carefully with 
 a fine hair-brush. When a few coats of this sand 
 have been made to adhere to the wax, the statuette 
 
CASTING OF BRONZE. 
 
 107 
 
 is surrounded by an iron frame, and the frame is 
 filled up with sand- mixture. The frame is generally 
 twice the size of the statue. When all is ready this 
 frame is removed with its contents to a warm place, 
 so that the water may evaporate from the sand, and 
 the latter gradually consolidate. Holes must then be 
 cut at one end through the outer sand, after which 
 the frame is subjected to the baking process in a hot 
 oven. The wax of course melts and runs out of the 
 small perforations, leaving a space between the inner 
 core, maintained in its position by the wires above 
 mentioned, and the outer mould, which latter bears 
 the faithful impression of the modeling bestowed on 
 the wax. The holes through which the wax es- 
 caped are now used for the purpose of introducing 
 the molten bronze. The metal poured in rapidly 
 fills the space once occupied by the wax, and the 
 work is done. When the metal has had time to cool, 
 the artist anxiously breaks the sand-casing away to 
 disentomb his work. Sometimes a successful result 
 rewards his pains, but the work is often a failure. 
 The metal has not perhaps filled all the sharper and 
 smaller crevices in the mould, or the presence of 
 damp has impeded the process, or again, the escape 
 of various gases has split the mould, and thus the 
 whole work is in one moment destroyed, and must be 
 recommenced from the very first stage. 
 
108 BRASS AND IRON FOUNDER. 
 
 On the other hand, the method now pursued is 
 more scientific, involves less risk, and is consequent- 
 ly less expensive, though it is still necessary to 
 exercise the greatest skill and judgment. The 
 sculptor need only produce his conception in plaster, 
 and when this is finished, hand it over to the founder, 
 who can undertake the rest of the work without any 
 assistance from the sculptor. The plaster model is 
 immediately imbedded in the sand contained in an 
 iron frame or moulding box. Thus safely laid out in 
 a soft bed, the workman begins what is called piece- 
 moulding. Taking a small section of the statue, he 
 forces the sand, by striking it gently with a mallet, 
 into every fissure and crevice, and thus obtains an 
 accurate impression of that part of the model on 
 which he has been working. Having completed one 
 piece he proceeds with another, until by putting the 
 pieces together, he can cover that part of the statue 
 which is exposed outside of the sand box. The model 
 is then lifted from its bed, turned round, impressions 
 taken from the other side, and when this is com- 
 pleted the model can be removed uninjured. 
 
 The pieces of sand having the impressions of the 
 model are fitted together in their relative seatings 
 within the two halves of the mould-box. The mould 
 being removed, we have, as it were, two sand- 
 
CASTING OF BRONZE. 
 
 109 
 
 inversions, one representing the right and the other the 
 left side of the statue. The moulder then proceeds 
 to make in the impress, a core or fac-simile, only a 
 little smaller in size, so that when this is placed 
 within the mould, there should remain all round a 
 margin between the mould and the core equal to 
 about j% inch in thickness. The core and the pieces 
 which constitute the mould being secured in their 
 respective places, the whole is then exposed to the 
 heat of an oven, so that the moisture may be removed 
 and the sand hardened to receive the metal. Vents 
 for the foul air and the gas must also be provided, 
 and runners to enable the metal to penetrate rapidly 
 the margin between the core and outer mould after 
 the bronze has thus been cast. The sculptor may, 
 if he chooses, suggest any improvement to the 
 chaser, who polishes and finishes off the casting. 
 Owing to the intricacy and fineness of the model, it 
 sometimes requires a great number of pieces to 
 make the mould, and several months' work to finish 
 successfully, even a group small enough to be stood 
 upon a mantle-piece. One of the great advantages 
 of this new process is the fact that if the casting 
 fails, the artist's model, the result perhaps of infinite 
 labor and of an inspiration which may never be re- 
 peated, remains unaltered. A new mould may be 
 taken from it, and the second cast prove a success. 
 
110 
 
 BRASS AND IRON FOUNDER. 
 
 The statue may thus also be reproduced as often 
 as desired; while with the old process, the artist's 
 work was carried away for ever as the wax melted, 
 and if the cast proved a failure, there was no longer 
 any record of the work done and lost. 
 
 BELL-FOUNDING. 
 
 Bell metal is best composed of 80 parts copper 
 and 20 tin, or 78 parts copper and 22 tin. There 
 are, however, variations from these proportions, and 
 small accidental or intentional admixtures of zinc, 
 lead, etc., for instance, Tl parts copper, 26 tin, 1.8 
 zinc, and 1.2 iron, or 80 parts copper, 10.1 tin, 5.6 
 zinc, and 4.3 lead. As regards silver, that is a 
 purely poetical and not a chemical ingredient of 
 bell metal, there being no foundation whatever for 
 the popular notion that it was commonly used in old 
 bells, nor the least reason to believe that it would do 
 any good. This may readily be judged from the 
 fact that a silver cup makes rather a worse bell than 
 a cast-iron saucepan. 
 
 For liou8e hells the following proportions may be 
 recommended : Copper, 4 parts ; tin, 1 ; for tower 
 bells, copper, 32 parts, tin, 9 ; and for very large 
 tower bells, copper, 16 parts, and tin, 5. 
 
BELL-FOUNDING. 
 
 Ill 
 
 According to Lafond, the following mixture is 
 suitable for bells, but especially for small bells and 
 piano plates: Copper, 77 parts; tin, 21, and anti 
 mony, 2. This yellowish-white alloy can be filed 
 only with difficulty. 
 
 Experiments have been made to ascertain whether 
 there is any other metal or alloy which would answer 
 better, or as well, and be cheaper than bell metal. 
 The metals that have been suggested are aluminium, 
 either pure or alloyed with copper, cast-steel, union 
 metal, consisting of tin and iron, and perhaps glass 
 might be added. The first is at present quite out of 
 question, as it is too expensive. Steel bells, though 
 they might be made cheaper than those of bell metal, 
 are exceedingly harsh and unpleasant in tone. Much 
 the same may be said of the iron and tin alloy of 
 which there was a large bell in the London exhibi- 
 tion of 1851. It is scarcely necessary to refer to 
 glass, because its brittleness is enough to disqualify 
 it for use in bells, but besides that the sound is very 
 weak compared with a bell-metal bell of the same 
 size, or even the same weight and, of course, much 
 smaller. 
 
 Dr. Percy cast several small bells of various alloys 
 with the following results : 
 
 1. Iron 95, antimony 5. Not as good as copper- 
 tin alloy either in tone or strength. 
 
112 BRASS AND IRON FOUNDER. 
 
 2. Copper 88.65, phosphorus 11.35. A very 
 hard alloy, capable of a fine polish, but more brittle 
 than bell-metal, and inferior in sound even to the 
 iron alloys. 
 
 3. Copper 90.14, aluminium 9.86. This exceeds 
 bell-metal in strength and toughness, and poUshes 
 like gold, but for tone it will not stand against bell- 
 metal. 
 
 4. Brass. This makes a better bell than the last- 
 named alloys, but very inferior to bell- metal. 
 
 M. Saint Claire Deville, of Paris, cast a bell of 
 pure aluminium. In form it was a reproduction on a 
 small scale of the Westminster bell, reduced to 6 
 inches diameter. The surface was turned and every 
 care taken to produce as perfect an aluminium bell 
 as possible. But this proved quite as objectionable 
 in tone as any of the alloys above named, whilst of 
 course the cost would have put the metal out of 
 question commercially, even if it had given a good 
 musical result. 
 
 For the construction of large bells, it is of im- 
 portance to know the constituent parts of a bell. 
 Every bell consists of the lower rim, the prim, pinch 
 or sound-bow, i. e. the thickest part upon which the 
 clapper strikes, further the interior sloping cavity, 
 the curve, where the bell gradually becomes thicker 
 
BELL-FOUNDING. 
 
 113 
 
 and wider, the upper half, the neck above the cavity, 
 the cap which closes the bell above and carries the 
 clapper, and the crown which is cast on the cap. 
 The prim or pinch determines the proportion of the 
 entire bell. For 200 lbs. of bell-weight, 8 lbs. of 
 clapper- weight are, as a rule, allowed. The strength 
 of the sound is dependent on the quantity of metal, 
 and its depth on the form of the bell. To a complete 
 church peal belongs the octave of tones: the princi- 
 pal notes or key-notes, deep and high, then the 
 fourth and third ; hence, four bells. The relation 
 of their diameters is as that of the figures 2, If, 1^ 
 and 1, and the magnitudes of their weight as 8 : 4rV : 
 2iV: 1. 
 
 In bell founding a distinction is made between the 
 casting of small and of large bells, and both kinds 
 will here be discussed. 
 
 I. Moulding and casting of small hells. Small 
 bells are generally moulded in sand. The patterns 
 used are usually of tin, and must be accurately and 
 correctly made as regards the proportion of width 
 and height, as well as the thickness of the metal to 
 the tone which the bells to be cast are to possess. 
 The patterns have no crown or clapper-ring, but in- 
 stead of them are provided in the centre of the cap 
 with an oblong rectangular aperture. 
 
 8 
 
114 BRASS AND IRON FOUNDER. 
 
 Moulding is done in flasks or boxes, which geft- 
 erally consist of three cast-iron or cast-brass frames 
 placed one upon the other. Wooden frames are 
 seldom employed. For the process of moulding two 
 moulding boards of pine, or best of linden wood, are 
 required for each flask. During casting, they also 
 serve for covering the outer open surfaces of the 
 sand mould and, hence, form, so to say, movable 
 bottoms of the flasks. They should be somewhat 
 longer and wider than the flasks to which they be- 
 long, and be nicely planed on one side, and, to pre- 
 vent warping, provided, on the other, with cross 
 pieces. 
 
 The process of moulding the patterns in sand is as 
 follows: Lay the bell-pattern upon a moulding-board, 
 place one part of the flask over it, and fill it with 
 moist sand. Then invert this portion of the flask so 
 that the pattern now appears as if sunk from above 
 in the sand, dust the latter with powdered charcoal, 
 then place the other portion of the flask upon it and 
 fill it also with sand. Or proceed in the reverse 
 order: Fill the lower portion of the flask with sand, 
 place • the pattern upon or sink it somewhat in the 
 sand, and proceed with the upper portion as before. 
 The object of dusting the sand with charcoal is to 
 prevent the adhesion of the two masses of sand con- 
 
BELL-FOUNDING. 
 
 115 
 
 tained in the two portions of the flask. However, 
 any charcoal powder which may have fallen upon 
 the pattern must be removed, in order to give the 
 sand a chance to penetrate into the depressions. 
 The sand is then carefully and firmly pressed down 
 with the hands, the flask entirely filled with sand, and 
 the latter leveled with an iron straight-edge. Mould- 
 ing being finished, the flask is parted, the pattern care- 
 fully lifted out, and the gate arranged. Small bells 
 are moulded in an upright or inverted position, or 
 rather the process of moulding remains the same, but 
 the runner is placed in two different ways, either 
 from the crown side or from the side of the sound 
 bow. 
 
 a. Moulding the hell in an upright position. In 
 this mode of moulding, the upper part of the flask 
 must have the same height as the bell together with 
 the quoin, whilst the under part may be lower. The 
 upper part is placed upon a moulding-board, and, 
 after placing the bell-pattern together with the quoin 
 in it, the space around it is filled with sand. The 
 flask is then inverted, so that the mouth of the 
 bell is upwards. The under part of the flask is next 
 placed upon the upper and rammed full of sand, 
 which at the same time fills the interior of the bell, 
 and thus forms the core. Before ramming in the 
 
116 
 
 BRASS AND IRON FOUNDER. 
 
 sand the iron staple for the clapper must be so placed 
 in the cavity that only its ring projects, which is 
 then enveloped by the sand of the core. When this 
 is done the flask is again inverted, the upper portion 
 lifted off, the quoin drawn out, and, after taking the 
 pattern from the core, the flask is again put together. 
 Casting is effected through the aperture left by the 
 quoin. The sides of the staple for the reception of 
 the clapper are then in the empty space and sur- 
 rounded by the casting. The high gate is also filled 
 up in casting, and the bell appears with a tenon of 
 the form of the removed quoin sitting upon it. If 
 the bell is to be provided with a ring screwed into 
 the crown, this tenon is sawed off, or a portion of it 
 sufficient for securing the bell is allowed to remain. 
 
 This mode of casting bells has often the disadvan- 
 tage that the core is readily injured by the metal 
 flowing in, and that the latter, since it must spread 
 in all directions from one gate, cools off rapidly, and 
 frequently does not completely fill the mould. For 
 this reason moulding in inverted position is preferred. 
 
 b. Moulding the hell in inverted position. The 
 bell pattern is placed upon the moulding-board inside 
 the under part of the flask and entirely surrounded 
 with sand. The flask is then inverted, and the upper 
 portion placed upon it. Three small rods running 
 
BELL-FOUNDING. 117 
 
 loosely together to a knob over or outside the mould 
 are moulded in, the upper part of the flask being at 
 the same time filled with sand, whereby the core is 
 formed. Around the knob a funnel-like depression 
 for pouring is made. Before taking out the pattern 
 the rods are withdrawn, the passages formed thereby 
 serving as gates. If the bell is to be provided with 
 a canon, a cavity is made in the sand by means of a 
 flat piece of wood. The staple for the clapper is put 
 in in the same manner as before described. By this 
 mode of casting the metal flows in from the gate 
 through three passages, and rapidly fills the mould 
 from three points without injury to the core. 
 
 II. Mouldi7ig and casting large hells. In the 
 construction of large bells, it is of great importance 
 to know the proportions between the dimensions 
 which are most advantageous for the production of 
 sound. The principal conditions for a good bell are : 
 
 1. The greatest diameter of the bell must be at 
 the mouth, and the greatest thickness of metal at the 
 sound-bow. 
 
 2. A bell should at the utmost measure in width 
 fifteen times and in height (measured obliquely on 
 the outside) twelve times the thickness of the sound- 
 bow. 
 
 3. The thickness of the bell decreases from the 
 
118 
 
 BRASS AND IRON FOUNDER. 
 
 sound-bow up to half its height and from there oa 
 should amount only to one-third of the thickness of 
 the sound-bow. From the sound-bow to the cir- 
 cumference of the mouth the thickness also decreases. 
 
 4. The diameter of the mouth of the bell should 
 be twice as large as that of the uppermost part of the 
 crown. 
 
 5. The weight of the clapper should be about 
 that of the bell. For very large bells a weight of 5 
 to 10 lbs. may be added to the clapper. 
 
 6. The ball of the clapper, i. e. its round or pear- 
 shaped end, should be thicker in the proportion of 5 : 
 3 than the thickness of the metal on the sound-bow. 
 However, this applies chiefly only to bells weighing 
 over 120 lbs. 
 
 The correct profile of a bell of given diameter is 
 traced in the following manner, small variations being, 
 however, customary in many foundries. Suppose the 
 horizontal line a 5 in the accompanying illustration 
 (Fig, 1) is the prescribed width of the bell at its mouth. 
 Divide this line which for this purpose is once more 
 drawn at a' h\ into 15 equal parts, which are called 
 " prims," because one such part represents the 
 thickness of the bell on the prim or sound-bow. 
 The diameter of the bell thus divided serves as a 
 measuring scale in the following operations. First 
 
BELL-FOUNDING. 
 
 119 
 
 divide a hhj the lines of, d and e h into four equal 
 parts ; / h now gives the diameter of the cap, which 
 is one-half the diameter of the mouth. Now measure 
 off with the compasses twelve prims, and with the 
 distance thus obtained intersect from the point e the 
 line e h in i, then draw the line hi, and divide it into 
 12 equal parts ; with the radius h which is equal 
 to IJ prims, describe an arc from b. Bj now cut- 
 ting off a prim from k to 1, the thickness of the bell on 
 
 Pig. 1. 
 
 the sound-bow is obtained. After drawing the line 
 I b, erect upon m, as the centre of b i, a perpendicu- 
 lar, and set off upon it a piece, m w = 1| prims. 
 The point n determinates how far the curve of the 
 bell recedes in the centre of the height. The curve 
 itself consists of two parts, n k and n ^, of different 
 curvatures. To trace it, find with a distance of 30 
 prims from n and i an intersecting point o, and from 
 there describe with the radius o n, the arc i n. 
 
120 
 
 BRASS AND IRON POUNDRE. 
 
 Further set off upon the line m n from n to p ^ 
 prim, and describe from o with the radius o p the arc 
 p q for the interior curve of the upper half of the 
 bell. The interior curve of the lower half has to be 
 drawn from another centre. For this purpose find 
 with a distance of 12 prims, from the points p and ly 
 a centre r, and describe from it the arc p I ; then 
 from the points n and k find, with a distance of 8 
 prims, a point s which gives the centre for describ- 
 ing the arc n Tc. Finally, with a distance of 8 
 prims intersect from the terminal points a and h of 
 the line a 6, the axis d g the bell in and from 
 the latter point, describe with the radius t i the arc 
 i n for the outer curvature of the cap. The cap re- 
 ceives a thickness of J prim, and, hence, its internal 
 curvature is described from the centre t with a 
 radius which is ^ prim smaller than t i. For the 
 better securing of the crown upon the bell, the thick- 
 ness of the centre of the cap is increased by J prim, 
 which is designated by w x. The exterior shape of 
 the bell traced according to the above described rule 
 is frequently subject to small variations, for instance, 
 by rounding off ^, and u on the edge of the cap, as 
 well as /c, and by hoops and rods arranged in differ- 
 ent places on the surface, partially for the sake of 
 increasing the strength, and partially for orna- 
 mentation, 
 
BELL-FOUNDING. 
 
 121 
 
 From what has been said it will be seen how diffi- 
 cult the construction of bells is, and that every part 
 must be strictly cast in accordance with its pro- 
 portions. If bells of a fixed weight are to be cast, a 
 normal bell of known tone, dimensions, and weight 
 is used for the calculation. However, such calcula- 
 tion is not applicable to very large bells, and, hence, 
 they must be constructed according to the above de- 
 scribed proportions. Though the moulding of large 
 bells may be called a master-piece, the casting re- 
 quires the same attention and equal skill, in order to 
 obtain a pure harmonious tone ; the slightest in- 
 accuracy or defect in casting destroys the harmony, 
 and spoils the bell. 
 
 In calculating the sizes of bells to produce partic- 
 ular notes, and assuming that eight bells are made 
 of similar material and their sections exactly similar 
 figures in the mathematical sense, they will sound 
 the eight notes of the diatonic scale, if all their di- 
 mensions are in these proportions : 60, 53J, 48, 45, 
 40, 36, 32, 30, which are merely convenient figures 
 for representing the inverse proportions of the times 
 of vibration belonging to the eight notes of the scale . 
 So that if it is required to make a bell a fifth above 
 a given one, it must be two-thirds of the size in 
 every dimension, unless it is intended to vary the 
 
122 BRASS AND IRON FOUNDER. 
 
 proportion of thickness to diameter, for the same rule 
 then no longer holds, as a thinner bell will give the 
 same note with a less diameter. 
 
 The weights of bells of similar figures vary as the 
 cubes of their diameters, and may be nearly enough 
 represented by the figures 216, 152, 110, 91, 64, 46, 
 33, 27. The exact tune of a set of bells, as they 
 come out of the moulds, is a secondary consideration 
 to their tone or quality of sound, because the notes 
 can be altered a little either way by cutting, but the 
 quality of the tone will remain the same forever, ex- 
 cept that it gets louder for the first two or three years 
 that the bell is used, probably from the particles 
 arranging themselves more completely in a crystal- 
 line order under the hammering, as is well known to 
 take place. 
 
 The usual mode of hanging bells is to cast six ears 
 or loops on the top or crown of the bell ; these are 
 called canons, through which iron hooks and straps 
 are put to fasten the bell to the stock. 
 
 This method of hanging by canons is no doubt ob- 
 jectionable, as they must always be the weakest 
 part of the casting, from being nearest the top, and 
 in practice it is found that they frequently break and 
 have to be replaced by iron bolts put through holes 
 drilled in the crown. It is also difficult to turn the 
 
BELL-FOUNDING. 
 
 123 
 
 bell in the stock, to present a new surface to the 
 clapper when it is worn thin in one place. In some 
 bells these disadvantages are avoided by casting a 
 very short, thick, hollow neck with a strong flange 
 round the top, which can be fastened to the stock by 
 bolts with hooked ends. By this arrangement the 
 bell is held by a large section of its own metal, and 
 can at any time be shifted round by slackening the 
 bolts. If a clapper is to be used, it can be hung 
 upon a separate bolt passing through the hole in the 
 neck and through the stock, and secured above. 
 
 When only clock hammers are employed to strike 
 on bells, the wear is so small that the facility of turn- 
 ing the bells is of secondary importance. This plan 
 has the recommendation of great strength, and would 
 probably have been largely adopted but for the loss 
 of the canons, which are regarded by the founders 
 as an ornamental finish to bells, upon which they 
 rather pride themselves. 
 
 Before the Reformation it was usual to cast some 
 religious invocation on the bells ; that custom was 
 replaced by the founders placing their trade marks, 
 or some short sentiment or verse, upon the bells, 
 either with or without a date. 
 
 a. Moulding large hells. Large bells are moulded 
 in loam in the foundry-pit located immediately in 
 
124 
 
 BRASS AND IRON FOUNDER. 
 
 front of the furnace. The loam used should be pale, 
 meagre, and free from coarser pieces of sand and 
 stone. For the core, as well as for the interior of 
 the cope, it should be passed through a fine sieve. 
 On the other hand, red fat loam is used for making 
 the outer layer of the mould, it possessing greater 
 cementing power. For constructing the mould the 
 loam is mixed with horse-dung, straw, chaif, or 
 plasterers' hair, and wetted with water so that it can 
 be kneaded and readily applied. 
 
 In the centre of the foundry-pit a post designated 
 c, in the accompanying illustration, (Fig. 2) is driven 
 into the ground. 
 
 Around this post a wide platform of bricks is 
 built, upon which the core is erected in brick. This 
 core is hollow and, to enable the workman to make a 
 fire in it, is provided below with the flues e e for the 
 necessary draught. About half the height of the 
 core, a flat iron rod g is laid upon the post e and 
 bricked in the wall of the core. In the centre of 
 this bar is a hole for the reception of the point of the 
 spindle h. The latter is provided with two forked 
 arms between which the pattern or templet is se- 
 cured by means of screws. This templet .4 is a 
 board of hard wood cut in the shape of the interior 
 form of the bell, the edges being covered with iron, 
 
BELL-FOUNDING. 
 
 125 
 
 brass or zinc. The templet serves as a guide for 
 obtaining the correct curve in building up the core. 
 When the core is finished one workman covers it 
 ■with loam, while another removes any excess of loam 
 
 Fig. 2. 
 
 by turning the templet- The last surface washing is 
 given by a finely-ground composition of clay and 
 brick-dust. 
 
 In moulding a bell, the loam should be applied in 
 
126 BRASS AND IRON FOUNDER. 
 
 layers and one layer allowed to dry before applying 
 the next. To give, on the one hand, the core a 
 smooth surface, and, on the other, to insulate it from 
 the adjoining layer of loam of the " thickness," it is 
 finally brushed over by means of a brush with finely 
 sifted ashes mixed with water or beer. This being 
 done, the templet is removed and the core dried, a 
 fire being made for this purpose in its cavity. 
 
 When the core is dry, the layer representing the 
 actual bell is laid upon it in loam sand. This layer 
 is called the thickness, and in the illustration, is 
 indicated by a stippled outline. It is applied in the 
 same manner as the core-layers, one layer being al- 
 lowed to dry before applying the next: the last 
 layer is made of very fine loam, A thin coating of 
 a mixture of tallow and wax in a fluid state is then 
 applied, and the entire mould again compared with 
 the templet. Ornamentations, letters, etc., which 
 have been previously moulded in modelling wax, are 
 now attached, the process being much facilitated by 
 the above-mentioned coating of tallow and wax. 
 
 The moulding of the cope is next proceeded with. 
 Since the cope has to stand a strong pressure from 
 the interior to the exterior, it must be of sufficient 
 thickness — for large bells at least 5 to 6 inches — and 
 somewhat thicker on the bottom than on the top. In 
 
BELL-FOUNDING. 
 
 127 
 
 building up the cope, different kinds of loam a^-e 
 used. The first layers are made of fine, sifted loam 
 mixed with moulding sand or brick dust, and made 
 into a paste with sifted horse-dung and water. This 
 paste is carefully applied with a brush, so that all 
 depressions in the ornamentations, letters, etc., are 
 well filled up. These thin layers must be allowed 
 to thoroughly dry in the air. Upon this coating is 
 laid ordinary moulding loam applied either with the 
 hand or trowel. After applying the first layer, a 
 fire is kept up in the core, whereby the coating of 
 tallow and wax melts and soaks in the loam mould, 
 leaving an empty space so that the cope can be read- 
 ily lifted off. The last layers of the cope are made 
 of loam mixed with plasterers' hair, and in order to 
 prevent tearing, hemp ropes are frequently kneaded 
 in all around. 
 
 The crown of the bell is moulded over a wood pat- 
 tern after the spindle is removed. The iron or steel 
 staple for the hammer is set in the core in the hollow 
 left by the spindle. It projects into the thickness, 
 so as to be cast into the metal. 
 
 When the cope is finished, it is secured by iron 
 hoops and rods, which are screwed together, and 
 form, so to say, an iron frame around it. The cope 
 is then lifted off with the assistance of a crane 
 
128 BRASS AND IRON FOUNDER. 
 
 or tackle, accurate marks having previously been 
 made to serve as guides for its replacement. The 
 cope having been lifted off, it is repaired, if neces- 
 sary, with the above-mentioned mixture of loam and 
 moulding sand or brick dust made into a paste with 
 sifted horse-dung and water. It is then dried and 
 heated to glowing to prepare it for casting. The 
 thickness upon the core is now carefully removed 
 with hammer and chisel. The core is then again re- 
 vised, and, if necessary, repaired, and finally given a 
 uniform coating of the previously mentioned mixture 
 of ashes with water or beer. The cavity of the core 
 may be filled with sand, if preferred, but there is no 
 harm done if it is left open ; for bell-metal does not 
 generate much gas, and there is no danger of an ex- 
 plosion. The core being thoroughly dried and 
 warmed by a fire made around it, the warm cope is 
 placed over it, and after putting the mould of the 
 crown in position, all the joints are carefully closed 
 with loam. The mould of the bell being now fin- 
 ished, the pit is filled with sand well rammed in. 
 The cast-gate is on top of the bell, or, if the latter 
 is ornamented, on one side of it. Flow-gates are of 
 no use here ; the metal must be clean before it enters 
 the mould. 
 
 b. Casting large hells. In casting large bells, a 
 
BELL-FOUNDING. 
 
 129 
 
 reverberatory or air furnace is used for melting the 
 metal. The furnace consists of two principal parts, 
 separated from each other, viz., the fire-chamber and 
 the bed or hearth. In the first, the fuel is burned, 
 and in the latter, which is round or oval and slightly 
 depressed, the metal, spread out in not too high a 
 layer, is melted. Opposite to the fire-chamber in the 
 front wall of the furnace is the tapping-hole, closed 
 from the inside by a plug, which is pushed in when 
 the metal is melted. 
 
 In casting bells it is a rule to melt the metal as 
 rapidly as possible and keep its surface covered with 
 powdered coal or coke. First melt the copper, and 
 when that is perfectly liquid add the other metals. 
 When adding the tin, endeavor to push it down to the 
 bottom of the melted copper, otherwise a consider- 
 able portion of it will volatilize and burn before 
 combining with the copper. When the metal is 
 melted, a sample is taken out with a ladle, cast in 
 sand, and examined as to grain and fracture. If the 
 mixture proves successful, the melted metal is freed 
 from impurities and casting may be proceeded with. 
 If instead of new metal old bell-metal is to be used, 
 a sufficient quantity of new bronze (copper and tin) 
 to make up the loss in the old bronze has to be 
 added. For melting 4 to 8 hours are required, ac- 
 
 9 
 
130 
 
 BRASS AND IRON FOUNDER. 
 
 cording to the mass of metal. Before casting, the 
 casting gutter must be thoroughly heated and then 
 cleansed. The plug closing the tapping-hole is then 
 pushed in, and the liquid mass commences to flow 
 over the casting-gutter into the mould of the bell. 
 The air enclosed in the mould escapes through the 
 vent-holes. 
 
 The accompanying illustrations show the ground- 
 plan and side-view of a reverberatory furnace. The 
 line a b represents the sole-plate or bed of the 
 furnace ; e e are two vaulted passages which can be 
 closed by doors at c. They serve for the entrance of 
 air under the fire-chamber. Underneath the hearth 
 is a vault u ; h is the fire-chamber with the grate. 
 The fuel is thrown upon the grate through the stoke- 
 hole g, while/ represents the slide for closing the 
 stoke-hole g. To the right and left, d and k repre- 
 sent steps leading to the stoke-hole ; p is the hearth; 
 0 0, at the right and left sides, are apertures for 
 charging, stirring, cleansing and observing the metal ; 
 s, m and n are levers for raising the doors of the work- 
 ing apertures ; q q air-holes of the hearth ; t t the 
 slides for closing the air-holes ; v the tapping-hole 
 with the plug ; and r the casting-gutter. Several 
 modifications of this construction are employed, the 
 working doors, for instance, being opened on the side 
 
132 
 
 BKASS AND IRON FOUNDER. 
 
 instead with levers over the furnace. Many bell- 
 founders have also furnaces with simple flues in the 
 vault without chimney, but they are not suitable for 
 large castings. 
 
 The principle of the reverberatory furnace is so to 
 deflect, or direct, the currents of flame and heated 
 air that they may exert their most intense power 
 upon the metal lying on the bed of the furnace, in 
 which respect the air-furnace somewhat resembles the 
 action of the blow-pipe, with which the greatest con- 
 centration of heat on a certain body can be eSected 
 in the least time. 
 
 The casting being completed, it is allowed to cool 
 12 to 24 hours. The pit is then emptied, the cope 
 removed, and the bell lifted from the pit with the 
 assistance of a crane or tackle. It is then trans- 
 ported to the work-room, where the feeding-head and 
 vent-hole pieces are sawed off, the letters ground and 
 the ornamentations chased, or, with ordinary bells, 
 simply rubbed with sand-paper. 
 
 Repairing cracked hells. Cracked bells, if it is 
 not preferred to recast them, may be repaired by 
 filling up the crack, or if it does not extend be^'-ond 
 the sound-bow, by cutting it out. However, bells 
 repaired in this manner never possess their original 
 pure and beautiful tone, and are not very durable. 
 
BELL-FOUNDING. 
 
 133 
 
 The operation of filling up the crack is as follows : 
 Saw or file the edges of the crack so as to form an 
 empty triangular space. Into this space accurately 
 fit a piece of wood, which serves for the preparation 
 of a mould, in which the piece of bell-metal to be set^ 
 in is cast. Then fill and surround the bell with 
 glowing coals so that as uniform a heat as possible is 
 maintained, care being, however, taken to prevent the 
 melting of the bell. After 10 to 12 hours direct the 
 blast only upon the crack, lay the piece to be set in, 
 which has been previously cast, in the fire, and, when 
 it and the edges of the crack are nearly at a white 
 heat, remove the coals and ashes, scatter borax upon 
 the edges, place the piece in the crack with the 
 assistance of tongs, and drive it in by gentle blows of 
 the hammer. By hammering, the heat of the edges 
 is sufficiently increased to cause them to fuse to- 
 gether with the new piece. The bell is then allowed 
 to cool slowly, when the crack is filed smooth. 
 
 Weight of a few peals of bells. The following 
 scale gives the average weight of a few peals of bells, 
 of such sizes and proportions as are recommended by 
 Messrs. Warner and Sons in their "Notes on Bells:" 
 
BRASS AND IRON POUNDRE. 
 
 Peals of 3. 
 
 Weight of 
 ten or. 
 
 Note. 
 
 Weight of 
 peals. 
 
 Weight of 
 tenor. 
 
 Note. 
 
 Weight of 
 peals, j 
 
 cwt. qrs. 
 
 lbs. 
 
 
 cwt. 
 
 qrs. 
 
 lbs. 
 
 cwt. qrs. lbs. 
 
 
 cwt. qrs. lbs. 
 
 3 1 
 
 0 
 
 1: o LJ i::^ L U . 
 
 8 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 9 
 
 2 
 
 0 
 
 B flat. 
 
 35 0 0 
 
 3 3 
 
 12 
 
 E. 
 
 9 
 
 2 
 
 14 
 
 10 
 
 2 
 
 0 
 
 A. 
 
 40 0 0 
 
 4 3 
 
 0 
 
 E flat. 
 
 12 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 
 2 
 
 0 
 
 G sharp. 
 
 42 0 0 
 
 5 1 
 
 0 
 
 D. 
 
 13 
 
 2 
 
 0 
 
 13 
 
 2 
 
 0 
 
 G. 
 
 50 0 0 
 
 6 2 
 
 0 
 
 C sharp. 
 
 15 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 16 
 
 Q 
 
 0 
 
 F. 
 
 60 0 0 
 
 6 0 
 
 0 
 
 G. 
 
 16 
 
 2 
 
 0 
 
 18 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 E. 
 
 65 0 0 
 
 
 
 Peals of 4 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Peals of 8 
 
 
 5 0 
 
 0 
 
 E flat. 
 
 16 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 13 
 
 2 
 
 0 
 
 G. 
 
 60 0 0 
 
 5 1 
 
 0 
 
 D. 
 
 17 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 15 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 F sharp. 
 
 68 0 0 
 
 6 0 
 
 0 
 
 C. 
 
 19 
 
 2 
 
 0 
 
 17 
 
 3 
 
 0 
 
 E. 
 
 75 2 0 
 
 10 0 
 
 0 
 
 A. 
 
 28 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 20 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 E. 
 
 85 0 0 
 
 12 2 
 
 0 
 
 G. 
 
 36 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 25 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 E flat. 
 
 100 0 0 
 
 15 0 
 
 0 
 
 F sharp. 
 
 42 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 30 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 E flat. 
 
 111 2 0 
 
 
 
 Peals of 5. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 6 0 
 
 0 
 
 0.. 
 
 23 
 
 2 
 
 0 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 9 0 
 
 0 
 
 B flat. 
 
 30 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 10 2 
 
 0 
 
 A. 
 
 32 
 
 2 
 
 0 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 12 0 
 
 0 
 
 G sharp. 
 
 39 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 13 0 
 
 0 
 
 G. 
 
 40 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 15 0 
 
 0 
 
 F sharp. 
 
 57 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Peals of 6. 
 
 Analyses of Several Bell Metals. 
 
 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 
 
 
 ouen 
 
 isors 
 
 ork. 
 
 incol 
 
 Westminster. 
 
 
 
 O 
 
 >^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Old 
 Peal. 
 
 1610 
 
 Top. 
 
 Bot- 
 tom. 
 
 Copper 
 
 71.0 
 
 72.4 
 
 72.76 
 
 74.7 
 
 75.31 
 
 75.07 
 
 Tin (with antimony) 
 
 26.0 
 
 24.2 
 
 25.39 
 
 23.11 
 
 24.37 
 
 24.7 
 
 
 
 
 0.33 
 
 0.9 
 
 0.11 
 
 0.12 
 
 Zinc 
 
 1.8 
 
 1.0 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1.16 
 
 Traces 
 
 Traces 
 
 
 
 
 1.77 
 
 0.58 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 8.76 
 
 8.78 
 
 8.847 
 
 8.869 
 
BELL- FOUNDING. 135 
 
 List of Large Bells. 
 
 
 
 
 
 xn 
 «j 
 
 OI 
 
 
 Clapper 
 
 
 Weight. 
 
 
 
 d 
 M 
 
 Note. 
 
 or 
 
 
 Dian 
 
 
 Thic 
 
 
 hammer. 
 
 
 
 Tons. Cwt. 
 
 Ft. 
 
 In. 
 
 In. 
 
 
 
 Moscow, 17361 
 
 250 (?) 
 
 22 
 
 8 
 
 23 
 
 
 
 broken, 1737 J 
 
 
 
 
 
 Another, 1817 . . 
 
 110 (?) 
 
 18 
 
 
 
 
 
 Three others , . . 
 
 16 to 31 
 
 
 
 
 
 J nf hell 
 
 Novogorod .... 
 
 31 0 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Olraiitz 
 
 17 18 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Vienna, 1711 . . . 
 
 17 14 
 
 9 
 
 1 A 
 iU 
 
 
 
 
 Westminster, 1856. 
 
 15 8J 
 
 9 
 
 O.J 
 
 8 
 
 E 
 
 12 cwt. 
 
 Erfurt, 1497 . . . 
 
 13 15 
 
 8 
 
 •7 1 
 <^ 
 
 
 F 
 
 
 raris, 1 Dou .... 
 
 
 8 
 
 
 7^ 
 
 
 Ql cwt. 
 
 Montreal, 1847 . . 
 
 12 15 
 
 8 
 
 i 
 
 8i 
 
 F 
 
 
 Cologne, 1448, . . 
 
 11 3 
 
 7 
 
 1 1 
 
 
 r\ 
 Ijr 
 
 . ... 
 
 Breslau, 1507 . . . 
 
 11 0 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Goerlitz 
 
 10 17 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 York, 1845 .... 
 
 10 15 
 
 8 
 
 
 8 
 
 ■ • ,• ■ 
 
 '4* " t' 
 
 cw 
 
 Bruges, 1680 . . . 
 
 10 5 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 St. Peter's, Rome . 
 
 8 0 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 uxioru, iDou . . . 
 
 7 12 
 
 7 
 
 0 
 
 
 
 80 lbs. 
 
 Lucerne, 1639 . . 
 
 7 11 
 
 
 
 
 ' * G ' 
 
 
 Halberstadt, 1457 . 
 
 7 10 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Antwerp 
 
 7 3 
 
 
 
 
 G sharp 
 
 
 Brussels 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Dantzic, 1453 . . . 
 
 6 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Lincoln, 1834. . . 
 
 5 8 
 
 6 
 
 lOi 
 
 6 
 
 A 
 
 150 lbs. 
 
 St. Paul's, 1716 . . 
 
 5 4 
 
 6 
 
 9^ 
 
 
 A 
 
 180 lbs. 
 
 Ghent 
 
 4 18 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Boulogne (new) . . 
 
 4 18 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Old Lincoln, 1610 . 
 
 4 8 
 
 6 
 
 3J 
 
 
 B flat 
 
 
 Fourth quarter bell i 
 
 40 
 
 6 
 
 0 
 
 5| 
 
 B 
 
 
 Westminster, 1857 * 
 
 
 
136 BRASS AND IRON FOUNDER. 
 
 CHILL-CASTING. 
 
 Chill-casting converts into white iron the outer 
 skin of a casting made from certain qualities of cast 
 iron; the depth to wjiich this alteration extends is 
 capable of being regulated. This white cast iron is 
 very hard, brittle and crystalline, and scarcely differs, 
 either in chemical or physical properties, from steel, 
 except that it cannot be "tempered." In this case 
 the whole, or nearly the whole, of the carbon con- 
 tained in the iron is in a state of chemical combina- 
 tion with it ; whilst in the darker irons most of the 
 carbon is diffused throughout the mass in the form of 
 small particles or scales. 
 
 If the cast iron contains a large portion of manga- 
 nese, the amount of combined carbon may be as much 
 as 10 per cent., but ordinary pig iron seldom con- 
 tains more than 5 per cent, of combined carbon. 
 These particles of uncombined carbon must, whilst 
 the metal is in a melted state, be combined with it, 
 for being of a much less specific gravity, less than 
 half, if they were floating about in separate particles, 
 they would necessarily come to the surface of the 
 metal. It is, therefore, assumed that the separation 
 of the particles of carbon takes place at the moment 
 of solidification. 
 
CITILL- CASTING. 
 
 137 
 
 If a thin sheet of gray cast iron is rapidly cooled, 
 it becomes whiter, i. e. a larger portion of its carbon 
 is held in chemical combination. White cast iron 
 may also be obtained from gray pig, by alternately 
 melting and cooling it in the ordinary manner. 
 When it is desired to obtain a white iron direct from 
 the blast-furnace, the proportion of fuel is reduced 
 below the amount usually allowed for the same quan- 
 tity of ore and blast, if a good grey iron were re- 
 quired. 
 
 These facts explain the results which are obtained 
 by the process of "chilling" a casting; where the 
 skin of the casting is in contact with the " chill," it 
 is, for a certain distance inside, converted into a hard 
 ■white iron, whilst the interior of the casting will re- 
 main of the same general nature, as to color and 
 toughness, as the pig from which it was cast. The 
 sudden cooling of the metal prevents the combined 
 carbon near the outer portion from separating, 
 whereas the cooling of the inner portion of the metal 
 being more gradual, allows it to resume its normal 
 condition. The suspended particles of carbon, which 
 are held in the metal near the exterior of the casting, 
 are supposed to be forced inwards into the interior, 
 or still fluid portion, of the casting. 
 
 All, or nearly all, the carbon in the chilled portion 
 
138 BRASS AND IRON FOUNDER^ 
 
 of the casting is therefore in chemical combination 
 •with the metal, whilst that in the interior remains 
 suspended as separate atoms or scales. Such is the 
 generally accepted theory of chilled castings, which 
 may indeed be open to objection. The practical re- 
 sult is, however, beyond any question. 
 
 Chill-castings are much used for portions of con- 
 structions which were formerly made of steel or 
 wrought-iron, such as columns, shafts, material for 
 railroads, etc. If the pieces cast in chills possessed 
 the same degree of hardness throughout, they would, 
 on the one hand, be difficult to work, and, on the 
 other, be very brittle. For this reason it is sought 
 to limit the effect of the chill to the portion of the 
 casting which requires hardening, by making the 
 moulds for the purpose of several parts, some of 
 
 Fig. 5. 
 
 them consisting of sand and loam, which do not 
 exert a hardening action. 
 
 Thus in casting, for instance, the tongue of a frog 
 
CHILL-CASTING. 1B9 
 
 for a railroad, the upper portion of the rail and 
 tongue is only cast in chills, while the remainder, 
 the bottom-plate, lies in a sand-mould which stands 
 over the chill. Consequently only the upper portion 
 of the rail and tongue (Fig. 5,) consists of chilled 
 casting, which is converted into mottled pig, while 
 the bottom-plate consists of fine-grained grey iron. 
 
 A few examples of moulding may here be given. 
 
 a. A ehilled roll, the journals of which are to re- 
 main soft. The mould Fig. 6 consists of three 
 parts. The lower box of iron or wood is filled with 
 " new sand," or a strong composition of clay and 
 sand, in which a wooden pattern is moulded, which 
 forms the coupling and the neck of the roll. The 
 middle part of the mould is the chill, a heavy iron 
 cylinder well bored. The upper part of the mould 
 again consists of a box, but is higher than the lower 
 box, so as to make room for the head in which the 
 impurities of the iron, suUage, are to be gathered. 
 The two boxes with their contents of sand must be 
 well dried. The chill is the important part in this 
 mould. It ought to be at least three times as heavy 
 as the roll which is to be cast in it, and provided 
 with wrought-iron hoops to prevent its falling to 
 pieces, for it will certainly crack if not made of very 
 strong cast-iron. The iron of which a chill is cast 
 
140 
 
 BRASS AND IRON POUNDER. 
 
 should be strong, fine-grained, and not too grey. 
 Grey iron is too bad a conductor of heat ; it is liable 
 to melt with the cast. Iron that makes a good roll 
 
 Fig. 6. 
 
 will make a good chill. The face of the mould is 
 blackened like any other mould, but the blackening 
 must be stronger than in other cases, to resist more 
 
CIirLL-CASTINQ. 
 
 141 
 
 the abrasive motion of the fluid raetal. The chill is 
 blackened with a thin coating of very fine black-lead, 
 mixed with the purest kind of clay. This coating 
 must be very thin, or it will scale off before it is 
 of service. 
 
 The most important point in making chilled rolls 
 is the mode of casting them, and the quality of iron 
 
 Fig. 7. 
 
 used. To cast a roll, whether a chilled roll or any 
 other, from above, would cause a failure. All rolls 
 must be cast from below. The dotted lines in the 
 illustration (Fig. 6) indicate the cast-gate and chan- 
 nel as it is seen from above. A cast-iron pipe, lined 
 inside with mass and thoroughly dried, is generally 
 used. It is screwed to the moulding box for the lower 
 journal of the roll and, as shown by the dotted lines, 
 continues to a certain distance around the latter. 
 Fig. 7 shows a section through the moulding box 
 in the direction of A A. From it it will be seen that 
 
142 BRASS AND IRON FOUNDER. 
 
 the channel of the cast-gate touches the mould in a 
 tangential direction. In casting fluid metal in this 
 gate, the metal will assume a rotary motion around 
 the axis of the roll, or the axis of the mould. This 
 motion will carry all the heavy and pure iron to- 
 wards the periphery, or the face of the mould, and 
 the sullage will concentrate in the centre. It is a 
 bad plan to lead the current of hot iron upon the 
 chill, for it would burn a hole into it, and melt chill 
 and roll in that place together. The quality of the 
 melted iron modifies in some measure the form of the 
 gate, stiff or cold iron requiring a rapid motion, while 
 fluid, thin iron must have less motion, or it is liable 
 to adhere to the chill. The roll must be kept in the 
 mould until perfectly cool, but the cooling may be 
 accelerated by digging up the sand around the chill. 
 
 In considering the advisability of the greater or 
 less depth of chill, estimate the extent to which :he 
 casting may be worn or turned before it becomes ne- 
 cessary to replace it. For castings that will have 
 much surface-wear, such as in rolling metal, or crush- 
 ing minerals, allowance should be made in the depth 
 of the chill for the removal of the exterior of :he 
 rolls, by their being repeatedly turned in the latiie, 
 as their surfaces become worn or injured in use. At 
 the same time, it must be remembered, that the 
 
CHILL-CASTINU. 
 
 143 
 
 greater the depth to which the chill is carried, the 
 more brittle is the casting. The chief strength of the 
 casting is in its tough, unaltered metal beneath the 
 hard, chilled surface. Hence, chilling to a greater 
 depth than necessary should be avoided, especially in 
 cases where strength is required in the castings to re- 
 sist transverse and other strains. 
 
 In casting large chilled rolls, the moulds for the 
 ends and necks should be of dry sand, or loam prop- 
 erly built up and connected with the iron chill for 
 the roll itself. The mass of metal in the chill largely 
 influences the depth of the chilled portion of the 
 casting. It is necessary not only that it should be 
 sufficient to reduce, in a few minutes, the tempera- 
 ture of the iron on the surface from the temperature 
 at which it is poured — say 2500° F. — to that of soli- 
 dification — say 1000° F. — when it is bright red in 
 daylight, but also that it should be capable of absorb- 
 ing the heat which will radiate from the interior of 
 the casting, so as to prevent the solidified and chilled 
 surface from being remelted by the radiation of in- 
 ternal heat. 
 
 b. OJiill-mould for a railroad wheel. In this 
 case it must be considered that only the rim is to be 
 hard, while the spokes and hub are to show the con- 
 stitution of ordinary cast iron so that they can be 
 
144 BRASS AND IRON FOUNDER. 
 
 worked and are less exposed to the danger of break- 
 ing. The mould, Fig. 8, also consists of three parts. 
 The middle part is the chill S, I is the lower part, 
 III the upper part with the cast-gate and IC the 
 core for the hub aperture. The lower part is a box 
 of common round form, merely to hold the sand and 
 give support to the centre core and the middle box. 
 
 
 m 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Fig. 8. 
 
 The upper box is of similar form, also round. 
 The middle box is a solid ring, cast of mottled 
 iron and bored out upon a turning lathe, giving its 
 interior the reverse of the exact outer form of the 
 rim of the wheel. This middle box ought to be at 
 least as heavy as the wheel is to be, after casting, and 
 it is preferable if it has two or three times that 
 weight. All the three boxes are joined by lugs and 
 pins as usual, and the latter should fit well without 
 being too tight. The chief difficulty in casting these 
 chilled wheels, is to make the cast of a uniform 
 
CHILL-CASTING. 
 
 145 
 
 strain to prevent the wheels from breaking, and 
 wheels with spokes or arms are very liable to do this. 
 
 At present most of these wheels are cast with 
 corrugated discs or plates. In this way the hub 
 may be cast solid, and the wheel is not so liable to 
 be subjected to an unequal strain as when cast with 
 spokes. In such plate-wheels the whole space be- 
 tween the rim and the hub is filled by metal. The 
 rim of a good wheel should be as hard as hardened 
 steel at its periphery, but soft and grey in its central 
 parts. The first requisite is more safely attained by 
 having a heavy chill ; but if the chill is too heavy, 
 the inner parts are apt to suffer from the cooling 
 qualities of the chill. Success in this branch of 
 founding depends very much on the quality of the 
 iron of which the wheels are cast. Soon after cast- 
 ing such wheels it is advisable to open the mould, 
 and remove the sand from the central portion, so as 
 to make it cool faster. This precaution saves many 
 castings, not only in this particular case, but in 
 many other instances. Uniformity in cooling is as 
 necessary to success as good moulding. 
 
 The following is a brief description of the largest 
 estabhshment for the manufacture of chilled wheels 
 in the United States, and the manner in which the 
 work is advanced from stage to stage : The foundry, 
 
 10 
 
146 BRASS AND IRON FOUNDER. 
 
 which is of course the most important portion of the 
 whole works, is provided with two lines of rails run- 
 ning down its whole length, except opposite the fur- 
 naces. The rails are laid to a gauge of about 10 
 feet, and upon them are placed 12 light travelling 
 cranes, with a platform attached to the centre-post, 
 and upon which the man working the crane stands 
 and controls its movements, both in hauling the 
 moulds and ladles, and in moving the crane from 
 place to place upon the line, the crane being geared 
 for travelling. The floor of the foundry is so laid 
 out that there is room on either side of both pairs of 
 rails for a row of moulds, and in the centre of the 
 building is a path about 4 feet wide. ' Against one 
 side of the building, and in the centre of its length, 
 are five cupolas, three of 4 feet 6 inches internal 
 diameter, and two smaller ones of 18 inches 
 diameter. The former are employed in melting the 
 iron for the wheels, the latter chiefly for experi- 
 mental purposes. The three cupolas are tapped into 
 converging channels, all running into one large tip- 
 ping reservoir, from which the small ladles are sup- 
 plied. The blast to the cupolas is furnished by a 
 vertical blowing engine, with two blowing cylinders, 
 one at the top of the machine and one at the bottom, 
 with the steam-cylinder between the two. 
 
CHILL-CASTING. 147 
 
 The mixing of the irons for the cupola is the most 
 important and difficult operation in the whole course 
 of manufacture. Besides the steel-scrap nothing but 
 charcoal pig iron is employed, and of this from 
 twelve to twenty different kinds, all of the highest 
 class, are used in varying proportions. But these 
 mixtures have to be altered frequently, owing to 
 irregularities in the nature of the metal, and daily 
 tests are made, with a view of ascertaining what 
 changes, if any, have to be introduced into the next 
 day's work. The proportions of the mixture being 
 decided upon, the cupolas are charged, a ton of coal 
 being first put into the bed of each furnace. The 
 charge is then carefully loaded upon trucks upon a 
 weighing platform. Piles of the various pigs are 
 placed in their proper order around the truck, and 
 there is a drum upon the weighing machine, on which 
 a sheet of paper is placed, and the weight of each 
 different pig, in proper order, is written upon it. 
 For instance, the workman commences with 250 lbs. 
 of coal in his truck ; he then places 125 lbs. of old 
 steel rails, 125 lbs. of cinder pig, 350 lbs. of old 
 Avheels, and so on through the long list of charcoal 
 pig iron employed, the old material being placed at 
 the bottom of the furnace. The weighing platform 
 is so arranged as to record the accumulating weights 
 
148 BRASS AND IRON FOUNDER. 
 
 as the drum revolves, bringing before the workman 
 the name and quantity of each successive ingredient 
 which he takes from its respective heap before him. 
 As soon as it is loaded the truck is raised to tie top 
 of the cupola by a hydraulic lift. The moulds, when 
 ready, are placed down the building in four rows, 
 one on each side of the two lines of rail upon which 
 the cranes run. The patterns used are almost all in 
 iron, and the chills in the moulds are of cast iron. 
 One workman can, on an average, mould ten wheels 
 per day, but all failures in the casting arising from 
 any carelessness in moulding, are charged to him on 
 a rapidly increasing scale. 
 
 Before the metal in the cupola is ready to run, a 
 charcoal fire is lighted in the previously mentioned 
 receiver, in order to warm it, and also that when 
 filled the metal may be covered with charco&l and 
 oxidation checked. In a similar manner the ladles, 
 of which there are a very large number employed, 
 have burning charcoal placed in them, and they are 
 internally coated in the usual way. These ladbs are 
 cylindrical pots made of sheet iron and mounted each 
 on a pair of wheels for facility of transport. On the 
 sides of each ladle are two sockets, into one of which 
 the end of a long iron handle is inserted for hauling 
 it along the floor. Also at each end of the axle is a 
 
CHILL-CASTING. 
 
 149 
 
 square hole, into which is placed the end of a handle 
 •with forked ends. The ladle being run up to the re- 
 ceiver, the latter is tipped over by the gearing at- 
 tatched to it, and the ladle is charged ; it is then 
 brought along the floor to the crane, -which takes 
 hold of it. The two square-ended handles before men- 
 tioned are inserted in the holes in the axles, the 
 ladle is raised, and the iron poured into the mould. 
 The chilled portion of the wheel sets almost as soon 
 as it comes in contact with the chills, and in a very 
 short time after the casting has been made, the flasks 
 are removed, the sand is knocked away, and the red- 
 hot wheel is placed on a truck to be taken to the 
 annealing pits. This process is one of the most im- 
 portant of the series. If the wheel be allowed to 
 cool in the open air, severe internal strains are 
 created which will sometimes be sufficient to destroy 
 the casting, and open air cooling was the chief cause 
 of failure in the early periods of this class of wheel 
 making. 
 
 The annealing ovens are placed at one end of the 
 foundry, and below the floors, the tops of the ovens 
 being at that level. Besides these ovens of very 
 large diameters for extra-sized wheels, chilled tires, 
 etc., there are 48 pits ranged in 6 rows of 8 each. 
 These rows are divided into pairs, each pair of 16 
 
150 
 
 BRASS AND IRON POUNDER. 
 
 pits being devoted to the reception of one day's pro- 
 duction, the period required for annealing being 3 
 days. By this arrangement, when the last two rows 
 of ovens are charged, the first two rows can be 
 emptied and refilled, so that the work proceeds 
 without interruption and in regular rotation. Two 
 hydraulic cranes with the booms revolving upon a 
 fixed post, are placed upon the floor and command 
 the whole area occupied by the ovens. The boom 
 of each crane is made double, and upon it runs to 
 and fro a small carriage, from which hangs the 
 chain, carrying at the lower end the hooks by which 
 the wheels are handled. This attachment consists of 
 three arms with flattened ends turned over so as to 
 grip the wheel. The upper ends of these arms are 
 hinged together, and as they tend always to fall in- 
 ward, they hold the wheel tightly, but by moving a 
 single attachment the arms are thrown outward 
 when it is desired to release the wheel. The motion 
 of the cranes is controlled by one man, fixed stops 
 being provided on the guiding apparatus, so that 
 when the crane is adjusted for filling one oven it re- 
 mains in that position till it is thrown over to the 
 next. 
 
 The ovens or annealing pits are cylinders of sheet- 
 iron I inch thick, about 66 inches in diameter, and 
 
CHILL-CASTING. 
 
 151 
 
 of sufficient depth to contain easily 18 wheels with 
 cast-iron distance pieces between them. They are 
 lined with brick-work, and being of considerable 
 depth, they descend into a lower floor. The lower 
 parts are enclosed in a large rectangular chamber, 
 one for each set of ovens. Within this chamber, 
 and for a short distance above it, fire iDrick is used 
 instead of ordinary brick-work as in the upper 
 portions, and within the cylinder a circular founda- 
 tion of brick-work is set, upon which are placed the 
 wheels on being lowered by the crane. The whole 
 of this weight then is transferred direct to the 
 foundation of the building. At the end of each of 
 the three rectangular chambers already mentioned is 
 a furnace, and each chamber is divided down the 
 whole of its length by a perforated flue ; through 
 these perforations the heat from the furnace passes 
 and enters the lower ends of the ovens. These fur- 
 naces are required to prevent the too sudden cooling 
 of the castings, but only I ton of coal is burned for 
 each full day's production. Flues leading to the 
 chimney carry off" the heated gases from the upper 
 parts of the ovens, and so the process of cooling is 
 thus very gradually carried on, until at the end of 
 ' three days the wheels are ready for removal. The 
 three large annealing pits mentioned above are some- 
 
152 BRASS AND IRON FOUNDER. 
 
 what differently arranged. To save room thej are 
 not carried down so low as the other ovens, but ter- 
 minate at a height of about 7 feet above the floor, 
 each being supported upon a central column. "When 
 they are used, a fire is lighted in the bottom of each 
 pit, the wheels are put in and covered over, and the 
 oven is allowed gradually to cool. 
 
 On being removed from the pit the wheels are 
 taken into the cleaning and testing room. Here the 
 sand is removed and the wheels tested by hammering 
 under the sledge as well as by a small hammer, 
 while the tread is cut at intervals by a chisel. The 
 heavy blows to which the wheel is subjected never 
 fail in detecting faults when such exist, and when 
 they are discovered the wheel is removed to be 
 broken up. About 10 per cent, of the whole pro- 
 duction is rejected, but occasionally this proportion 
 is very much higher. 
 
 In order to keep the quality of the wheels up to 
 the desired standard, a large number of test-pieces 
 are cast every day and submitted to examination. 
 By this means an accurate knowledge of the nature 
 of the wheels, the character of the chill, and other 
 points, is obtained ; the data are carefully recorded, 
 and if the tests are satisfactory, the wheels corres- 
 ponding to the test-piece are delivered into stock. 
 
CHILL-CASTING. 
 
 153 
 
 If not, they are returned to be broken up. The 
 sound wheels are finally taken to the machine-shop, 
 where they are bored, and, if desired, fitted with 
 their axles. The tools, therefore, in this shop are 
 
 Fig. 9. 
 
 few in number, consisting of three boring machines, 
 a press for forcing the wheels on or for drawing them 
 off the axles, and a number of lathes. 
 
 The average life of a chilled cast iron wheel of 
 
154 BRASS AND IRON FOUNDER. 
 
 first quality is asserted to be 50,000 miles for passen- 
 ger and 100,000 miles forfreight traffic. 
 
 . c. For the 'preparation of hollow chill-castings, 
 F. Tellander has patented a process which consists in 
 casting around a metallic core, which as soon as the 
 iron begins to solidify is removed from below. The 
 method is shown in Fig. 9. Around the (dark) iron 
 core h, is cast the (dark hatched) wheel-box r, the 
 inner surface of which is to be hardened. The 
 moulding-box/ is filled with sand and the cast-gate 
 e and the vent w are arranged. After the solidifica- 
 tion of the casting, the leaver h is withdrawn and the 
 core h falls into the vessel (7, which is filled with 
 water. 
 
 CASTING WITHOUT CORE. 
 
 This mode of casting would, no doubt, be used 
 more if it were not connected with a peculiar disad- 
 vantage. Casting without core is executed by pour- 
 ing the fluid metal (zinc, tin, lead, or alloys of these 
 metals) into a mould, generally of brass, with a com- 
 paratively large gate, whereby the gate must, of 
 course, be kept uppermost, just the reverse of the 
 position shown in the illustration (Fig. 10). The 
 mould h entirely filled with liquid metal is then more 
 
CASTING WITHOUT CORE. 
 
 165v 
 
 or less quickly inverted, so that it comes in the 
 position shown in the illustration. By not allowing 
 time for complete congelation, the larger portion of 
 the metal poured in will run out, whilst a crust c of 
 
 more or less thickness remains in the mould and 
 forms a casting useful for many industrial purposes. 
 
 To obtain solid castings free from blowholes, the 
 metal must stand under a certain pressure, which is 
 
156 BRASS AND IRON FOUNDER. 
 
 also required for other castings. For this purpose a 
 "dead-head" (riser or sullage piece) is used, and as 
 the dead-head is also hollow, after inverting the 
 mould, this portion of the casting is called the "fun- 
 nel." In the illustration a small bust A is given as 
 an example of casting without a core ; the lower por- 
 tion of the finished bust is indicated by the curved 
 line d; B is the dead-head or funnel which simply 
 serves for making the metal in A compact. After 
 removing the casting from the mould, the dead-head 
 or funnel B is separated from the casting by sawing, 
 filing, or other suitable mechanical treatment along 
 the edge of d. The metals chiefly used for casting 
 without a core possess, however, the peculiarity of 
 being worked with difficulty, especially zinc and 
 many zinc alloys, fouling the saws and files, so that 
 the separation of the dead-head from the casting be- 
 comes a difficult matter. This is the chief reason 
 why casting without core is comparatively little in 
 use. 
 
 The necessity of removing the dead-head or funnel 
 by sawing, filing, etc., is, however, entirely done 
 away with by working in the mould b, along the edge 
 of d, a groove e. This groove is filled with a mate- 
 rial which is a bad conductor of heat, but will stand 
 a high temperature, asbestos being especially recom- 
 
CASTING ON TO OTHER METALS. 15T 
 
 mended for the purpose. Now, while the fluid 
 metal, when poured in, congeals on the metallic walls 
 of the mould, they heing good conductors of heat, 
 congelation does not take place along the line of 
 the asbestos, the metal poured in remaining fluid, or 
 at least much more fluid on this point than on other 
 places of the mould. By now inverting the mould, 
 the strip i lying opposite to the groove e filled with 
 asbestos runs out together with the metal, filling the 
 mould, and when taking the mould apart the dead- 
 head or funnel B will be found separated from the 
 actual casting, or connected with it only by a very 
 thin film, which can be readily severed. 
 
 CASTING ON TO OTHER METALS. 
 
 It is occasionally desired to unite other metals by 
 means of cast-iron, or to fix ornamental castings on 
 to light work made of wrought-iron or steel. 
 
 Such a process cannot be practised with cast-iron 
 upon any of the other useful metals than cast-iron, 
 wrought-iron, or steel, as all the other metals, com- 
 monly used, have melting points so much below that 
 of cast-iron that they would not bear coming in con- 
 tact with liquid cast-iron. 
 
 Sometimes non metallic substances, such as grind- 
 
158 BRASS AND IRON FOUNDER. 
 
 Stones, etc., are held in shape by rings or bands of 
 iron cast round them. 
 
 When iron is cast upon or around solid wrought- 
 iron or steel, certain changes are brought about upon 
 these metals. The cast-iron when thus brought into 
 contact with the comparatively cool surface of the 
 solid wrought-iron or steel will of course be " chilled " 
 at and around all points of contact. It will there- 
 fore be harder, more brittle, and much less tough 
 in these parts, and this result will occur wherever 
 liquid cast-iron comes in contact with either solid 
 cast-iron, or wrought-iron, or steel. 
 
 When wrought-iron is employed it is found to un- 
 dergo a certain amount of deterioration, both in 
 toughness and cohesion, becoming of less value for 
 structural purposes where those quaUties are re- 
 quired. Steel suifers in the same manner, but to a 
 much less extent. A bar of cast-iron cast around a 
 core of wrought iron will be found little, if anything, 
 stronger than a simple bar of cast-iron of the same 
 size. Consequently where the full strength and 
 toughness of these metals are required, "casting on" 
 should be avoided, and especially in any work which 
 will be exposed to sudden shocks, or varying strains. 
 
 But a very large number of useful and ornamental 
 articles, requiring little absolute strength, can be 
 
CASTING ON TO OTHER METALS. 
 
 159 
 
 most readily produced by the process of casting on, 
 such as hand-rails, window frames, panels, hat and 
 umbrella stands, bedsteads, or ornamental gates. 
 
 One well-known application of this process is 
 Moline's invention for the combination of wrought 
 and cast-iron in the manufacture of window frames. 
 The sash-bars are formed of wrought-iron, rolled of 
 any light and convenient section, suited to receive 
 glass ; these bars are united by ornamented cast-iron 
 bosses. 
 
 An iron pattern is first made, from which a sand 
 mould is obtained, the wrought-iron bars are cut to 
 the required lengths, and placed in the mould, with 
 their ends nearly touching; over these ends the 
 mould of the boss is placed, which must be sufficiently 
 large to cover them, so that when cast on, the bosses 
 shall firmly unite the wrought-iron bars. These 
 windows can be readily made of any usual size and 
 shape, and are easily fixed. They are light in ap- 
 pearance, and combine the strength of wrought-iron 
 with the ornamental character, which can easily be 
 obtained by the addition of cast-iron flowers, scrolls, 
 armorial bearings, or other ornament's. 
 
 For ornamenting wrought-iron railings, two ways 
 of applying cast-iron may be mentioned. Either the 
 wrought-iron bars may be placed in the moulds, and 
 
160 BRASS AND IROK FOUNDER. 
 
 the ornaments cast round their ends, or the orna- 
 ments may be cast in green-sand moulds, cored out 
 to fit the wrought-iron bars, on to which they are 
 afterwards fixed by an alloy of zinc and lead. Lead 
 alone is to be avoided, as it sets up a galvanic action, 
 and assists the formation of rust. 
 
 In designing cast-iron railings it will be well to 
 adopt outlines in which the metal will not be unfairly 
 strained, by the union of very light and heavy pieces 
 in the same casting. Discard all very fine orna- 
 mental work for streets where there is much traffic, 
 as accident or mischief will very shortly spoil the 
 beauty of the work, which cannot be repaired. 
 Ornamental cast iron work of an intricate character 
 is only in place where it can be seen to advantage 
 and is not exposed to violence. 
 
 Exposed to the air in large cities, cast-iron rail- 
 ings are much more durable than those of wrought- 
 iron. 
 
 If cast-iron chill moulds are used for the orna- 
 mental castings, the ornaments will naturally be 
 rather brittle; in most cases this will be found of 
 little consequence, but where it is desired to avoid 
 brittleness, the work can be placed in an annealing 
 oven, when the cast-iron will be made into malleable 
 cast-iron, without prejudicially affecting the wrought- 
 
CASTING ON TO OTHER METALS. 161 
 
 iron, if any is used in conjunction with the cast-iron, 
 as is frequently the case. 
 
 Burning-on is also frequently practised, for the 
 purpose of ornamenting wrought-iron with scrolls, 
 volutes or twisted forms. Loam moulds are made, 
 and when thoroughly dried, are applied to that 
 portion of the wrought-iron which it is wished to 
 burn on to; cast-iron is then poured through the 
 moulds until the wrought-iron is brought to a weld- 
 ing heat ; pouring is then ceased, and the cast-iron, 
 when cooled down, is found firmly affixed to the 
 wrought-iron. 
 
 For ornamental cast-iron railings which are de- 
 signed with comparatively heavy pilasters and bars, 
 having the intervals between them filled in with light 
 ornamental work, the two should not be cast at one 
 and the same time, otherwise the light work will be 
 almost certain to break away from the heavy, owing 
 to the unequal contraction in cooling. The orna- 
 mental work should be cast first, of fine, soft, fluid 
 iron, and be provided with small-fitting pieces or 
 lugs, at convenient points, for fixing to the heavy 
 bars or uprights. Coat these lugs on the fine work 
 with clay and black-wash, place it in a sand mould, 
 and cast the heavy work round it. By so doing the 
 iron will not be liable to fracture from unequal con- 
 11 
 
162 BRASS AND IRON POUNDER. 
 
 traction and expansion. Burning-on is sometimes of 
 service in repairing a broken or damaged casting, but 
 the process is neither applicable to fine, delicate 
 work, nor to cases where the size and shape of the 
 original castings must be strictly preserved, as in a 
 cast-iron wheel, which would probably be twisted out 
 of shape by the expansion and subsequent contrac- 
 tion of the metal during the operation of burning-on. 
 
 But a piece of machine framing, the necks of rolls, 
 or a standard which has been broken or found de- 
 fective, may be repaired as follows: First cut away 
 the defective parts down to the sound metal, build a 
 coke-fire round the part of the casting which is to be 
 repaired until it is brought to a bright red heat, then 
 dust over the surface of the cut metal with powdered 
 glass or borax. Then apply a hollow loam mould of 
 the desired part to the casting, properly secured in 
 position, and provided with a hole for the exit of the 
 metal. Pour very hot liquid cast-iron into the mould, 
 and allow it to flow away until the cut surface of the 
 original metal of the casting can be felt with an iron 
 bar to have become soft and pasty by contact with 
 the hot liquid iron. Then stop the exit hole, and 
 allow the metal in the mould to set. If the opera- 
 tion has been properly performed the casting should 
 ring, when struck, with the same sound as a single 
 
CASTING ON TO OTHER METALS. 163 
 
 good casting, thus showing that the old and new 
 metal are perfectly united. 
 
 Where portions of large castings require to be re- 
 moved for this burning-on process, the easiest mode 
 of doing it is to cut the casting while at a cherry red 
 heat, with a rapidly revolving circular saw, such as 
 is used for cutting oflf the " crop-ends " of rolled 
 rails. 
 
 Cast iron may also be bent to a considerable ex- 
 tent with safety at a cherry-red heat, which quality 
 is occasionally of service in remedying variations 
 from the desired shape, arising from contraction in 
 cooling. The bench or surface on which such bend- 
 ing is to be performed must be constructed of non- 
 conducting material, such as baked fire-clay, other- 
 wise the iron will part with its heat too suddenly, 
 and break rather than bend. 
 
 Holes occur occasionally on the surface of a cast- 
 ing, which although not of sufficient importance to 
 make it advisable to reject or break up the casting, 
 are unsightly. Liquid cast-iron may be poured into 
 such holes, the superfluous metal being removed by 
 an iron straight-edge. It is usually preferred, how- 
 ever, to fill up these cavities with an alloy having a 
 similar appearance to the cast-iron, but being much 
 more fusible. One such alloy consists of antimony 
 
164 BRASS AND IRON FOUNDER. 
 
 69 parts by weight, copper 16, tin 2, melted to- 
 gether, to which add afterwards lead 13 parts by 
 weight. Another alloy for the same purpose con- 
 sists of antimony 65 parts by weight, copper 16, 
 lead 13, prepared in the same way. 
 
 CASTING BRASS NUTS ON SCREWS. 
 
 Polish the screw, make a mould on it, with a 
 gate or runner at the end ; when the mould is hori- 
 zontal, 1 inch in diameter, 5 inches high, scoop out the 
 to.p 3 inches diameter beveled down to 1 inch; sec- 
 ond, make the gate or runner on the top of screw J 
 inch diameter, same height as the other. Take a 
 pricker and prick from the top of the mould to the 
 pattern nut about a dozen holes, after which draw 
 diamonds with the wire from these holes to the sides 
 of the mould on the top. Now part the mould, draw 
 the nut and screw, cut the gates, making the one at 
 the end of nut same as the down one, an inch in 
 diameter; take the screw, smoke it over a gas-flame, 
 turning it round, pouring a little oil on it. Continue 
 heating till the oil begins to boil ; at this stage take 
 a little dry parting-sand, which is used to part the 
 mould ; sprinkle this all around the top of the oil ; 
 heat now as before to a dull red heat, and proceed as 
 
CASTING BRASS NUTS ON SCREWS. 165 
 
 before. Remelt the metal, take 3 lbs. of old waste 
 handles, free from iron, add to this 9 lbs. of copper,^ 
 melt both, and when ready for casting add J lb. of 
 zinc or spelter; allow it to remain in the fire 10 
 minutes; take it out, add | lb. of block tin and i lb. 
 of lead ; stir the whole well up. The screw is now 
 red and in the mould. Rush the metal quickly in at 
 the gate, 1 inch diameter ; be sure the metal is hot, 
 and it will rise at the other gate to the top of the 
 mould. Be careful at this stage. To take the nut 
 off do not heat it; dress it as before; hammer it 
 cold, heat it; now hold the screw upright, pour on 
 oil at the top of the nut, allow it to cool, catch nut 
 in vice, apply a lever to the square at end of screw, 
 and turn it round. 
 
 A NEW PROCESS OF CASTING IRON AND OTHER METALS 
 UPON LACE, EMBROIDERIES, FERN LEAVES AND 
 OTHER COMBUSTIBLE MATERIALS. 
 
 Mr. a. E. Outerbridge, Jr., has succeeded in 
 moulding fine lace in cast-iron, the impression show- 
 ing the most delicate lines of the pattern. The lace 
 to be moulded must first be carbonized. In place of 
 lace, other fine tissues, embroidered ornamentations 
 upon stuffs, leaves, grasses, etc., may also be 
 
166 
 
 BRASS AND IRON FOUNDER. 
 
 moulded, previous carbonization being, however, 
 always required. The process, as described by Mr. 
 Outerbridge at a stated meeting of the Franklin In- 
 stitute, Philadelphia, is as follows: The objects are 
 placed in a cast-iron box, the bottom of which is 
 covered with a layer of powdered charcoal or other 
 form of carbon, then another layer of carbon dust 
 is sprinkled over them, and the box is covered 
 with a close-fitting lid. The box is next heated 
 gradually in an oven, to drive off moisture, and 
 the temperature slowly raised until the escape of 
 blue smoke from under the lid ceases. The heat 
 is then increased until the box becomes white-hot; it 
 is kept in this glowing condition for at least two 
 hours. It is then removed from the oven, allowed to 
 cool, and the contents are tested in a gas flame. If 
 they have been thoroughly carbonized, they will not 
 glow when removed from the flame, and the fibres 
 may even be heated white hot before consuming. 
 
 Of course the method employed to carbonize the 
 materials is susceptible of variation, but the scientific 
 principles involved are unchangeable, viz.: 
 
 1. Partial exclusion of air and substitution there- 
 for of a carbon atmosphere. 
 
 2. Slow heating to drive off moisture and volatile 
 elements. 
 
A NEW PROCESS, 
 
 167 
 
 3. Intense and prolonged heating of the partly 
 charred objects to eliminate remaining foreign ele- 
 ments, and to change the carbon from the combusti- 
 ble form of ordinary charcoal to a highly refractory 
 condition. 
 
 In the first experiments the mould was made in 
 "green sand" in the ordinary manner, and the 
 fabric laid smoothly upon one face, being cut slightly 
 larger than the mould, in order that it might project 
 over the edge, so that when the moulding flask was 
 closed the fabric was held in its proper position. 
 As the melted metal flowed into the mould, it forced 
 the fabric firmly against the sand wall, and when the 
 casting was removed the carbonized fabric was 
 stripped off from its face without injury. In this 
 way several castings have been made from one car- 
 bonized material. 
 
 The castings are as sharp as electrotypes, whether 
 made of soft fluid iron or hard quick-setting metal. 
 This peculiarity is owing to the affinity between 
 melted iron or steel ; the melted metal tends to 
 absorb the carbon as it flows over it, thus causing the 
 fabric to hug the metal closely. It is somewhat 
 analogous to the efi'ect of pouring mercury over zinc. 
 As is well known, when mercury is poured upon a 
 board, it runs in a globular form — it does not " wet 
 
168 BRASS AND IRON FOUNDER. 
 
 the board, so to speak; but when poured upon a 
 plate of clean zinc, it flows like water and wets every 
 portion of the zinc ; or, as we say, it amalgamates 
 with the zinc. So when melted iron is poured into 
 an ordinary sand mould, which has been faced with 
 this refractorily-carbonized fabric, it wets every 
 portion of it, tending to absorb the carbon, and 
 doubtless would do so if it remained fluid long 
 enough, but as the metal cools almost immediately, 
 there is no appreciable destruction of the fibres. 
 
 CORES IN HEAVY CASTINGS. 
 
 When cores run through heavy bodies of iron, the 
 hot liquid raises the fusible element of the sand to 
 such a temperature that the grains fuse together, so 
 that when the casting-cleaner tries to get the core out, 
 he finds it almost as hard as the iron. A good thing 
 to prevent this fusing of the sand is to mix some sea- 
 coal or blacking in it, and to give the surface of the 
 core a good body of black lead or plumbago blacking. 
 This outside coat of blacking will prevent the liquid 
 iron from eating into the surface of the core-sand, and 
 the sea-coal or blacking mixed in the sand burns away 
 and passes off in the form of gas, leaving a porous 
 
CORES IN HEAVY CASTINGS. 169 
 
 body between the grains of sand, which assists in pre- 
 venting its fusion. 
 
 In putting rods in such cores as are subjected to a 
 high temperature, it is a good plan to coat them with 
 two or three coats of flour paste and dry them in an 
 oven as it is put on ; for by doing this the dried paste 
 burns off from the rod and leaves it free to come out 
 of the casting. 
 
 CORE FOR DIFFICULT CASTINGS. 
 
 The following are instructions for a composition 
 for cores that may be required for difficult jobs, 
 where it would be very expensive to make a core-box 
 for them : Make a pattern (of any material that 
 will stand moulding) like the core required. Take a 
 mould from the same in the sand, in the ordinary 
 way, place strengthening wires from point to point, 
 centrally, gate and close your flask. Then make a 
 composition of 2 parts brickdust and 1 of plaster of 
 Paris, mix with water, and cast. Take it out when 
 set, dry it and place it in the mould warm, so that 
 there may be no cold air in it. 
 
170 
 
 BRASS AND IRON FOUNDER. 
 
 BRASS MIRRORS.* 
 
 An Etruscan mirror, placed in the hands of 
 " Gerharht of Berlin," was found to consist, in 100 
 parts, of 67.12 copper, 24.93 tin, 8.13 lead ; ap- 
 proximating closely to an alloy of 8 parts copper, 
 3 of tin, and 1 of lead. The oxide of tin obtained 
 in the course of analysis was carefully examined 
 before the blow-pipe for antimony, but he saw no 
 trace of that metal. 
 
 A similar mirror has been analysed by " Klap- 
 roth." He found 62 per cent, copper, 32 tin, and 
 6 per cent. lead. 
 
 Copper. — Copper is thick and pasty, and without 
 some alloy will not run into the cavities and sinu- 
 osities of the mould. 
 
 Metals. — A quarter of a grain of lead will render 
 an ounce of gold perfectly brittle, although neither 
 gold or lead are brittle metals. 
 
 * See Job, xxxvii. 18; Exodus, xxxviii. 8. 
 
SURFACE OP METALS, ETC. 171 
 
 Surface of Metals. — The surface of metals should 
 be carefully defended, while in the fluid state, from 
 the action of the atmosphere, by a stratum of wax, 
 pitch, or resin, if the fusing point be low ; or by a 
 layer of salt, powdered glass, borax, charcoal, &c., 
 if it is high. 
 
 Blanched Copper. — 8 ounces of copper, and J an 
 ounce of neutral arsenical salt, fused together under 
 a flux of calcined borax and pounded glass, to which 
 charcoal powder is added, makes blanched copper. 
 
 British Weapons and Tools in Bronze, anciently 
 called Corinthian and Syracuse Brass. — The metal 
 of which the British weapons and tools were made, 
 has been chemically analysed in modern times, and 
 the proportions appear to be — 
 
 In a spear head, 1 part of tin to 6 parts of copper. 
 In an axe head, 1 do. 10 do. 
 in a knife, 1 do. 7J do. 
 
172 
 
 BRASS AND IRON FOUNDER, 
 
 ON BRASS. 
 
 In Germany brass appears to have been made 
 for centuries before the manufacture was introduced 
 into England. This is stated to have been done by 
 a German, who worked at Esher, in Surrey, in the 
 year 1649. The analysis of a few pieces of bronze, 
 of undoubted antiquity, namely, a helmet with an 
 inscription (found at Delphi, and now in the British 
 Museum), some nails from the treasury of Atreus, 
 at Mycense, an ancient Corinthian coin, and a por- 
 tion of a breast-plate, or cuirass, of exquisite work- 
 manship (also in the British Museum), affords about 
 87 to 88 parts copper to about 12 to 13 tin, per 
 cent. 
 
 The experiments of Klaproth and others give 
 nearly the same results as to ingredients ; the quan- 
 tities sometimes slightly differ. Lead is contained 
 in some specimens, as has been shown. Zinc, and 
 the nature of it, as heretofore observed, was not 
 known to the ancients. 
 
 In an antique sword, found many years ago, in 
 
CASTING IN PLASTER. 
 
 173 
 
 France, the proportions in 100 parts were, 87.47 
 copper, 12.53 tin, with a small portion of lead, not 
 worth noticing. 
 
 METHOD OF CASTING IN PLASTER — MEDALLIONS, ETC. 
 
 Obtain some fine plaster, of good colour, and 
 pass it through a muslin sieve, to remove any coarser 
 particles which may be present. By mixing gum 
 arabic with the water intended to be used in the 
 plaster, not only will the plaster be rendered very 
 hard when it sets, but a beautiful gloss will be given 
 to the surface. Care must be taken to drop the 
 plaster powder gradually into the water, and to per- 
 mit the bubbles to rise before the mixture is stirred ; 
 otherwise it will become lumpy. The plaster should 
 be of the consistence of the yolk of an egg, and, of 
 course, used immediately. If the medal intended 
 to be copied is a valuable one, with a smooth surface, 
 it will be advisable not to oil it, as, in cleaning the 
 oil off, the polish may be injured; but if the 
 surface be rough there will be no remedy, and the 
 oil must afterwards be removed, by dabbing the sur- 
 face of the medal gently with a soft cloth. 
 
174 BRASS AND IRON FOUNDER. 
 
 A rim of thin lead, brass, copper, or even oiled 
 paper, is then tied round the medal, and some liquid 
 plaster, in the first place, stippled over its surface 
 with a soft brush, to prevent the formation of air 
 bubbles, as well as to insure its insertion into the 
 most minute crevices; after which the plaster is 
 poured upon the surface to the thickness of half an 
 inch, or an inch if a large medal. 
 
 To separate the mould from the medal, all we 
 have to do is to immerse it in water, when it is 
 readily removed ; otherwise the mould is sure to be 
 broken. 
 
 To obtain a plaster cast from this mould, we must 
 oil it with warm boiled linseed oil, and allow it seve- 
 ral days to dry. Whenever the mould is used it 
 must be well oiled; otherwise the surface of the 
 casting will be destroyed. The best olive oil must 
 be used, or the colour of the plaster will be injured. 
 
TRANSFERRING AND VARNISHING. 175 
 
 TO TRANSFER ENGRAVINGS TO PLASTER CASTS. 
 
 Cover the plate with ink, and polish its surface 
 ift the usual way ; then put your rim round it, as 
 before stated, and pour in your plaster, mixed as 
 before. Jerk the plate repeatedly, to allow che 
 air bubbles to fly upwards, and let it stand one hour ; 
 then take the cast off the plate, and a very perfect 
 impression will be the result. 
 
 TO VARNISH PLASTER CASTS. 
 
 Plaster casts are varnished by a mixture of soap 
 and white wax in boiling water. A quarter of an 
 ounce of soap is dissolved in a pint of water, and 
 an equal quantity of wax afterwards incorporated. 
 The cast is dipped in this liquid, and, after drying 
 a week, is polished, by rubbing with soft linen, pro- 
 ducing a polish like marble. If to be exposed to 
 the weather, saturate them with linseed oil mixed 
 
176 
 
 BRASS AND IRON FOUNDER. 
 
 with wax, or rosin may be combined. In casting 
 the plaster, always use spring water and gum 
 arable. 
 
 TO CAST CONCAVE OR CONVEX MOULDS OF MEDALS, 
 
 ON "tin-foil," with plaster. 
 
 Take a medal, &c., and cover it with very thin 
 "tin-foil," which press as close to the medal as you 
 ca,n ; go over every part with a brush, laying on 
 tolerably hard, in order to press the tin-foil into 
 every cavity of the medal. After which, you may 
 pour plaster upon it, and, when it is hard, take the 
 medal out, leaving the tin-foil in the plaster ; then, 
 with a little fine olive oil, anoint the tin-foil, and 
 the plaster where it must part, and pour more plas- 
 ter upon the tin-foil, which also let harden. You 
 may then separate them, and take out the tin-foil, 
 and you will have both a concave and a convex 
 mould. 
 
CASTING COMPLEX OBJECTS. 177 
 
 TO CAST VEGETABLES, INSECTS, SMALL BIRDS, FROGS, 
 FISH, ETC., IN PLASTER MOULDS. 
 
 Provide a trough of boards, nailed together so 
 as not to let the water run through the joints. Sus- 
 pend in the trough, by thread or Holland twine, 
 in several places, the vegetable, plant, insect, &c., 
 which you would cast, which being performed, mix 
 four parts of plaster of Paris, and two parts of fine 
 brick-dust, with common water, to the consistence 
 of cream, and with this cover the thing intended to 
 be cast, observing not to distort it, by any means, 
 from its natural position. When you have filled 
 your trough, let it harden by placing it near the fire 
 by degrees till you can make it red hot. Then let 
 it cool, and, with a pair of bellows, blow and shake 
 as much of the ashes out of the mould as you can. 
 You must now put a small quantity of quicksilver 
 into the mould, and shake it, in order to loosen 
 every part of the ashes therein ; also to make a 
 passage through where the strings were tied, in 
 order to let the air out when you pour in your 
 metal. 
 
 12 
 
178 
 
 BRASS AND IRON FOUNDER. 
 
 TO PREPARE A METAL FOR THE ABOVE WORK. 
 
 Take of grain tin 6 ounces, bismuth 2 ounces, 
 and lead 3 ounces. Melt them together in an iron 
 ladle, and you may cast in the above mould to your 
 satisfaction. 
 
 You may combine the above ingredients in such 
 proportions as to compose a metal that will melt in 
 boiling water. Thus, 
 
 Sir Isaac Newton s Fusible Metal is composed of 
 8 parts bismuth, 5 parts lead, and 3 parts tin. This 
 alloy melts at 212°. 
 
 Rose's Alloy is still more fusible ; it is 2 parts 
 bismuth, 1 lead, and 1 tin, and melts at 201°. 
 
 The late Dr. Dalian's Fusible Alloy. — 3 parts 
 tin, 5 parts lead, and 10 J parts bismuth ; melts at 
 197°. The addition of a little mercury makes it 
 more fusible, and fits it to be used as a coating to 
 the insides of glass globes > 
 
CASTING m WAX. 179 
 
 An alloy of equal parts of tin and bismuth melts 
 at 280°. A less proportion of bismuth adds to the 
 hardness of tin, and hence its use in the formation 
 of pewter, or pewter solder. 
 
 TO CAST IN WAX. 
 
 The mould is first made in plaster, but before 
 being used it is placed in warm water, of which it is 
 allowed to absorb as much as it will take — oil not 
 being used in this process. The surface must then 
 be allowed to dry, or the wax would not adhere 
 closely. Pure wax is too greasy for the purpose, 
 and bladder flake-white is therefore mixed with it : 
 the quantity cannot be stated ; but the addition of 
 too much gives wax the appearance of plaster, by 
 taking away its richness. The oftener the wax is 
 remelted, the more its colour is injured. 
 
 In order to obtain a gray marble colour, a marble 
 powder, procurable at any statuary, is mixed with 
 the wax, which not only gives a beautiful appearance 
 to it, but renders it more durable. 
 
 The wax is poured into the mould and allowed to 
 
180 
 
 BRASS AND IRON FOUNDER. 
 
 flow over its surface, and by moistening the plaster 
 mould in water when the wax has become hard, the 
 cast is easily removed. Wax models may be fastened 
 by means of linseed oil and flake-white, and also by 
 a combination of bees' wax and resin. 
 
 TO CAST IN SULPHUR. 
 
 This is a very permanent mode, but as a mould 
 it can only be used for plaster ; for hot wax or sul- 
 phur would injure its surface. When sulphur is 
 heated to the temperature suitable for forming casts, 
 it becomes nearly black, and has, therefore, to be 
 coloured in the proportion of one ounce of vermil- 
 lion to three ounces of sulphur. The surface of the 
 mould, however, need only be coated with this 
 expensive mixture, and common sulphur in any 
 quantity. 
 
 You must use wood to stir the sulphur, as iron 
 will take away its colour. The sulphur will take 
 fire in melting, unless it is properly stirred, and at 
 first will become thick and viscid, but by continuing 
 the application of heat, it will again assume a per- 
 fectly liquid form. 
 
CASTING IN GLUE. 
 
 181 
 
 TO CAST IN GLUE. 
 
 If a medal is so much sunk and engraved that 
 you cannot get a plaster cast off, a mould may be 
 obtained by pouring glue upon it. In this manner 
 a bunch of grapes can be taken in the natural state, 
 and by cutting the glue down the centre, the grapes 
 can be extracted, and the mould used to produce a 
 representation of the original in plaster. Isinglass 
 may be similarly used, but it is first mixed with 
 flake-white, in the state of powder. When the 
 plaster is hard, place the whole in boiling water, 
 when the glue will melt away, leaving a perfect cast 
 of plaster grapes. 
 
 TO MAKE A FINE GLUE, WHEREWITH YOU MAT CAST 
 CURIOUS MEDALS. 
 
 Steep isinglass in brandy, and when it is dis- 
 solved boil it together with water, and pour it over 
 any medal, and when dry it will appear perfect. It 
 
182 BRASS AND IRON FOUNDER. 
 
 must be of a tolerably thick consistence, much like 
 common glue. 
 
 TO CAST IN BREAD PASTE. 
 
 Take the inside of fresh bread, and work it up 
 well with Vermillion — the longer the better, until it 
 becomes viscid and tough. It is then to be worked 
 well into the mould. After having obtained the 
 mould, it must be fastened down upon a piece of 
 wood, by wetting it so as to prevent it from warp- 
 ing as it dries. After it has been thoroughly dried 
 you may oil it, and then obtain as many casts as 
 you please from it, in plaster, wax, or sulphur. 
 
 By means of bread-paste a traveller may alwayp 
 take a model of any small object of interest he 
 meets with on his journey; and thus a proper 
 knowledge of its mode of use becomes invaluable. 
 Scrolls, ruins of tombs and temples, &c., have often 
 thus been copied and brought home at a trifling cost 
 
CASTINa IN ISINGLASS AND RICE GLUE. 183 
 
 TO CAST FIGURES IN IMITATION OF IVORY. 
 
 Make isinglass and strong brandy into a paste 
 with powder of egg-shells, well ground. You may 
 make it whatever colour you please, but cast warm 
 water into your mould, which should be previously 
 well oiled over. Leave the figure in the mould to 
 dry ; and on taking it out it will be found to bear a 
 strong resemblance to ivory. 
 
 RICE GLUE STATUARY. 
 
 Mix rice flour intimately with cold water, and 
 gently simmer it over the fire, when it readily forms 
 a delicate and durable cement, not only answering 
 the purpose of common paste, but admirably adapted 
 to join together paper, card, &c. When made of 
 the consistence of plastic clay, models, busts, basso- 
 relievos, &c., may be formed ; and the articles when 
 dry are very like white marble, and will take a high 
 polish, being very durable. In this manner the 
 
184 
 
 BRASS AND IRON FOUNDER. 
 
 Chinese and Japanese make many of their domestic 
 idols. Any colouring matter may be used at plea 
 sure. 
 
 A COMPOSITION FOR ORNAMENTS. 
 
 Take pounded chalk, what quantity you please, 
 add thereto as much thin glue as will make it into 
 paste, which mix well together. Then put it into 
 moulds, being a little oiled, and press it well in ; 
 after which take it out, and it will grow as hard as 
 stone. 
 
 You must make no more of it than you want for 
 present use ; if left it grows hara, and cannot be 
 used again. 
 
ON ALLOYS AND AMALGAMS. 185 
 
 ALLOTS, AMALGAMS, ETC. 
 
 The formation of alloys appears to depend upon 
 the chemical affinity of the metals for each other, 
 and in some instances it seems to be wanting, for no 
 combination occurs. Thus, according to Gellert, 
 bismuth and zinc do not combine. 
 
 The change of properties which metals undergo 
 by combining, furnishes strong evidence of its aris- 
 ing from chemical affinity and action. Thus, with 
 respect to colour, copper, a reddish-coloured metal, 
 by union with zinc, which is a white one, gives the 
 well known "yellow alloy brass." 
 
 The fusing point of a mixed metal, is never the 
 mean of the temperature at which its constituents 
 melt, and it is generally lower than that of the most 
 fusible metal of the alloy. 
 
 Alloy is a word used to designate either a natural 
 or artificial compound of two or more metals ; ex- 
 cept when mercury is one of them ; the mixture is 
 then termed an amalgam. 
 
 The natural alloys are far less important sub- 
 stances than those which are artificially procured. 
 Thus arsenic occurs combined with the following 
 
186 
 
 BRASS AND IRON FOUNDER. 
 
 metals, namely, antimony, bismuth, cobalt, iron, 
 nickel, and silver. 
 
 There is also found a native alloy of antimony 
 and nickel, and of antimony, cobalt, and nickel ; 
 others might be mentioned; but there is no instance 
 of a native alloy, strictly speaking, being applied to 
 any useful purpose. Whereas, the artificial alloys, 
 as has been fully shown, are of the highest import- 
 ance, both for the uses of common life, and for manu- 
 facturing purposes. By uniting different metals, 
 compounds are formed, which possess a combination 
 of qualities not occurring in any one metal. 
 
 Platina is always used in a pure state, and cop- 
 per, iron, lead, and zinc, are also very commonly sc 
 used. But gold, silver, tin, antimony, and bismuth, 
 are, as we have shown, generally alloyed ; the first 
 three on account of their softness, and the two latter 
 because they are extremely brittle. Gold and silver 
 are hardened by alloying with copper; copper is 
 hardened by zinc, tin, &c., &c. 
 
 All alloys formed of brittle metals are brittle : 
 those made of ductile metals are in some cases duc- 
 tile and in others brittle. When the proportions 
 are nearly equal, there are as many alloys which 
 are brittle as ductile — but when any of the metals 
 is in excess they are most commonly ductile. In 
 
DENSITY OF METALS. 
 
 187 
 
 combining ductile and brittle metals, the compounds 
 are brittle if the brittle metal exceed, or nearly 
 equal the proportion of the ductile one ; but when 
 the ductile metal greatly exceeds the brittle one, 
 the alloys are usually ductile. 
 
 The density of alloys sometimes exceeds, and in 
 other cases is less than that which would result from 
 calculation. The following alloys afford examples 
 of " increased and diminished density :" — 
 
 Increased Density. 
 Gold and Zinc. 
 Gold and Tin. 
 Gold and Bismuth. 
 Gold and Antimony. 
 Gold and Cobalt. 
 Silver and Tin. 
 Silver and Bismuth. 
 Silver and Antimony. 
 Silver and Zinc. 
 Silver and Lead. 
 Copper and Zinc. 
 Copper and Tin. 
 Copper and Palladium. 
 
 Diminished Density. 
 Gold and Silver. 
 Gold and Iron. 
 Gold and Lead. 
 Gold and Copper. 
 Gold and Iridium. 
 Gold and Nickel. 
 Silver and Copper. 
 Iron and Bismuth. 
 Iron and Antimony. 
 Iron and Lead. 
 Tin and Lead. 
 Tin and Palladium, 
 Tin and Antimony. 
 
188 
 
 BRASS AND IRON FOUNDER. 
 
 Increased Den^ty. Diminished Density. 
 
 Copper and Bismuth. Nickel and Arsenic. 
 Copper and Antimony. Zinc and Antimony. 
 Lead and Bismuth. 
 Lead and Antimony. 
 Platina and Molybdenum. 
 Palladium and Bismuth. 
 
 Not only are the properties of metals altered by 
 combination, but different proportions of the same 
 metals produce very different alloys. Thus, by 
 combining 90 parts of copper with 10 parts of tin, an 
 alloy is obtained of greater density than the mean 
 of the metals ; and it is also harder and more fusible 
 than the copper ; it is slightly malleable when slowly 
 cooled ; but, on the contrary, when heated to red- 
 ness and plunged into cold water, it is very malle- 
 able. This compound is known by the name of 
 bronze. 
 
 Again, as has been previously laid down, if 80 
 parts of copper be combined with 20 parts of tin, 
 the compound is the extremely sonorous one, called 
 hell metal. 
 
 An alloy consisting of two-thirds copper, and 
 one-third tin, is susceptible of a very fine polish, 
 and is used as speculum metal. 
 
COMBINATION AND CHEMICAL ACTION. 189 
 
 It is curious to observe in these alloys, that in 
 bronze, the density and hardness of the denser and 
 harder metal are increased, by combining with a 
 lighter and softer one ; while, as might be expected, 
 the fusibility of the more refractory metal is in- 
 creased by uniting with a more fusible metal. In 
 bell metal, the copper becomes more sonorous by 
 combination with a metal which is less so. These 
 changes are clear indications of chemical action. 
 
 It has been already observed that the natural 
 alloys, considered as such, are not important bodies. 
 The only one, if indeed that may be reckoned so, 
 is the alloy of iron and nickel, constituting meteoric 
 iron, and of which the knives of the Esquimaux 
 appear to be made. 
 
 The artificial metallic alloys are of the highest 
 degree of utility. Thus, gold is too soft a metal to 
 be used either for the purposes of coin or ornament ; 
 it is therefore alloyed with copper. Silver, though 
 harder than gold, would also wear too quickly unless 
 mixed with copper ; and copper is improved both in 
 hardness and colour by combination with zinc and 
 tin, forming brass and bronze. 
 
190 
 
 BRASS AND IRON FOUNDER. 
 
 YELLOW BRASS. 
 
 T&E iVUoA-ing table exhibits the composition of 
 ieveral varieties of this species of brass. No. 1 is 
 a cast brass, of uncertain origin. No. 2 is the brass 
 of Jemappes. No. 3 is the sheet-brass of Stolberg, 
 near Aix-la-Chapelle. No. 4 and 5, the brass for 
 gilding, according to De Arcet. No. 6, the sheet- 
 brass of Romilly. No. 7, English brass-wire. No. 
 8, Augsburg brass-wire. No. 9, the brass-wire of 
 Neustadt, Eberswald, in the neighbourhood of 
 Berlin. 
 
 Metal. 
 
 No. 1. 
 
 No. 2. 
 
 No. 8. 
 
 No. 4. 
 
 No. 5. 
 
 No. 6. 
 
 No. 7. 
 
 No. 8. 
 
 No. 9. 
 
 Copper . 
 Zino. . . 
 Lead . . 
 Tin . . . 
 
 61.6 
 35.8 
 2.9 
 0.2 
 
 64.6 
 33.7 
 1.4 
 0.2 
 
 64.8 
 32.8 
 2.0 
 0.4 
 
 63.70 
 35.55 
 0.25 
 0.50 
 
 64.45 
 32.44 
 2.86 
 0.25 
 
 70.1 
 29.9 
 
 70.20 
 29.26 
 0.28 
 0.17 
 
 71.89 
 27.63 
 
 0.85 
 
 70.16 
 27.45 
 0.20 
 0.79 
 
 
 100.0 
 
 100.0 
 
 100.0 
 
 100.0 
 
 100.0 
 
 100.0 
 
 100.0 
 
 100.0 
 
 100.0 
 niiarly] 
 
COPPER MEDALS AND MEDALLIONS. 191 
 
 TO MAKE COPPER MEDALS AND MEDALLIONS. 
 
 Let black oxide of copper, in a fine powder, be 
 reduced to the metallic state, by exposing it to a 
 stream of hydrogen in a gun-barrel heated barely 
 to redness. The metallic powder thus obtained is 
 to be sifted through crape upon the surface of the 
 mould, to the thickness of a quarter or half an inch, 
 and is then to be strongly pressed upon it, first by 
 the hand, and lastly by percussion with a hammer. 
 The impression thus formed is beautiful, but it ac- 
 quires much more solidity by exposure to a red heat, 
 out of contact with the air. Such medals are said 
 to have more tenacity than melted copper, and to 
 be sharply defined. This plan was discovered by 
 M. Boettger, for which he was awarded the gold 
 medal of the Society of Arts. 
 
 An improvement on the above plan, whereby you 
 may prepare the powder of copper more easily and of 
 better quality, by precipitating a boiling hot solution 
 of sulphate of copper, with pieces of zinc ; boiling 
 the metallic powder, thus obtained, with dilute sul- 
 phuric acid, for a little, to remove all traces of tho 
 
192 
 
 BRASS AND IRON FOUNDER. 
 
 zinc or oxide ; washing it next with water, and dry- 
 ing it in a tubulated retort by the heat of a water- 
 bath, while a stream of hydrogen is passed over it. 
 This cupreus precipitate possesses so energetic an 
 aflSnity for oxygen, that it is difficult to prevent it 
 passing into the state of orange oxide. 
 
 AMALGAM. 
 
 Amalgam, a compound of two or more metals, of 
 *vhich one is always mercury ; and this circumstance 
 distinguishes an amalgam from an alloy. Nature 
 presents us with only one amalgam, which is silver, 
 and is termed by mineralogists "native amalgam." 
 It occurs in Hungary, Sweden, &c., and is met with 
 either semi-fluid, massive, or crystallized in rhombic 
 dodecahedrons. Klaproth found it to consist of 64 
 parts of mercury, and 36 of silver, out of 100 parts. 
 Most metals may be amalgamated with mercury, 
 and the combination appears to depend on chemical 
 affinity. 
 
 When the cohesion of a metal is slight, as in the 
 cases of potassium and sodium ; or when its affinity 
 for mercury is considerable, as in the instances of 
 
AMALGAMATION OF METALS. 193 
 
 gold and silver, amalgamation takes place readily, 
 by mere contact. When, on the other hand, the 
 cohesion of a metal is strong or its aflSnity for mer- 
 cury is weak, heat or intermediate action, or both, 
 are requisite to effect amalgamation. 
 
 If forty-four parts of mercury be mixed with one 
 part of potassium, combination occurs with the evo- 
 lution of much heat ; and when the resulting amal- 
 gam is cold, it is hard and has the appearance of 
 silver. When the quantity of mercury exceeds one 
 hundred parts to one of potassium, the compound is 
 liquid, and an amalgamation containing only 1.5 
 per cent, of potassium is susceptible of crystalliza- 
 tion. The density of an amalgam exceeds that of 
 the mean of the metals ; this and the tendency of 
 one or both metals to oxidize, are additional indica- 
 tions of chemical combination. 
 
 There are some metals, it has been observed, re- 
 quiring heat to amalgamate them. Antimony offers 
 an example of this: to effect combmation it must be 
 melted, and while liquid mixed with hot mercury. 
 Mere heat, however, causes scarcely any action be- 
 tween iron and mercury ; they may be amalgamated 
 by mixing the filings of the metal with powdered 
 alum, and rubbing them together in a mortar with 
 a little water. After trituration, the alum may be 
 
 13 
 
194 
 
 BRASS AND IRON FOUNDER. 
 
 washed out. By the intervention of tin or zinc, 
 iron may be combined with mercury, and a double 
 amalgam is formed. Platina also unites with mer- 
 cury, by the intervention of the amalgam of potas- 
 sium, but not by direct action. The double amalgam 
 of iron and zinc does not rapidly undergo any 
 change, and is not attracted by the magnet. All 
 amalgams are decomposed by a red heat ; the mer- 
 cury being distilled, and the more fixed metal re- 
 maining. The process of amalgamation and decom- 
 position is employed to separate gold and silver from 
 their ores. The mercury obtained by decomposing 
 the amalgams is distilled and repeatedly used for 
 the same purpose, with comparatively little loss. 
 
 The amalgams of gold and silver are used or em- 
 ployed in the process of gilding and plating. We 
 have also shown the amalgam of tin is largely used 
 in what is called silvering mirrors, and that various 
 amalgams of tin and zinc are employed for exciting 
 electricity in the machine. 
 
ON BISMUTH. 
 
 195 
 
 BISMUTH. 
 
 At a high temperature this metal is volatil- 
 ized ; may be distilled in close vessels, and solidi- 
 fies in foliated crystals. If it be merely melted in 
 a crucible, and cautiously cooled, it crystallizes in 
 well-defined cubes. Bismuth, as met with in com- 
 merce, is not pure, for it generally contains iron 
 and arsenic. In order to purify it, it is to be dis- 
 solved in nitric acid ; the solution is to be decom- 
 posed by water, and the precipitate, after being 
 boiled in a solution of soda, is to be mixed with 
 black flux, and moderately heated in a crucible. 
 
 Bismuth combines with copper to form a pale- 
 red brittle alloy. It forms a brittle compound with 
 silver ; and it has been proposed as a substitute for 
 lead, in refining silver. It is said to form a more 
 fluid oxide, which penetrates the cupel more readily 
 than that of lead ; and may also be used in smaller 
 quantity. 
 
 With mercury it forms a very fluid alloy, and 
 makes the following metals brittle by combination : 
 tungsten, palladium, rhodium, gold, and platina. 
 
196 BRASS AND IRON FOUNDER. 
 
 It is principally employed in making fusible alloys, 
 and as an ingredient in solders. It is often called 
 in the arts " tin glass." 
 
 ON FRICTION. 
 
 Friction is independent of the velocity ; at least 
 when the velocity is neither very great nor very 
 small. With hard substances, such as wood, metal, 
 and stone, the amount of friction is simply as the 
 pressure, without regard to surface, time, or velocity. 
 Friction is greatest with soft, and least with hard 
 substances. The diminution of friction by unguents 
 depends on the nature of the unguents, without re- 
 ference to the substances moving^over them. 
 
 The following table shows the comparative amount 
 of friction of different metals, under an average 
 pressure of 54.25 pounds to 69.55 pounds. 
 
TABLE OP FRICTION. 
 
 197 
 
 Names of Metals Tried 
 
 Average 
 Weight. 
 
 Proportions. 
 
 Weight per 
 Square Inch. 
 
 Brass on Wrought Iron . . 
 
 lbs. 
 69.55 
 
 7.312 
 
 Ihs. oz. 
 11 12.4 
 
 
 69.55 
 
 6.860 
 
 11 12.5 
 
 Brass upon Cast Iron . . . 
 
 54.25 
 
 6.745 
 
 8 0.5 
 
 
 69.55 
 
 6.592 
 
 11 12.5 
 
 Hard Brass upon Cast Iron 
 
 54.25 
 
 6.581 
 
 6 15.9 
 
 Wro't Iron upon Wro't Iron 
 
 69.55 
 
 6.561 
 
 11 12.5 
 
 Cast Iron upon Cast Iron . 
 
 54.25 
 
 6.475 
 
 8 0.5 
 
 Do. do. Steel . . . 
 
 69.55 
 
 6.393 
 
 11 12.5 
 
 Do. do. Wro't Iron 
 
 69.55 
 
 6.023 
 
 11 12.5 
 
 
 69.55 
 
 5.764 
 
 11 12.5 
 
 
 69.55 
 
 3.305 
 
 11 12.5 
 
 From hence it would appear that hard metah 
 have less friction than soft ones ; and that the fric- 
 tion of hard against hard may be generally estimated 
 at about one-sixth of the pressure. 
 
 Relative to unguents, Sir John Rennie's experi- 
 ments show that for gun metal or cast iron, with oil 
 intervening, and a weight of 1120 pounds, the fric- 
 tion amounted to ^.63 of the pressure ; but on 
 diminishing the insistent weights the friction was 
 diminished to 37.83. 
 
198 
 
 BRASS AND IRON FOUNDER. 
 
 BELLS. 
 
 The large bells now used in churches, are said 
 to have been invented by Paulinas, Bishop of Nola, 
 in Campania, about the year 400 : whence the 
 "Nola" and "Campania" of the lower Latinity. 
 They were probably introduced into England very 
 soon after their invention. They are first mentioned 
 by Bede, about the close of the seventh century. 
 Ingulphus records that Turketul, Abbot of Croy- 
 land, who died about the year 890, gave a bell of a 
 very large size to that abbey, which he named Guth- 
 lac. His successor, Egelric, cast a ring of six 
 others, to which he gave the names of Bartholomew, 
 Bettelin, Turketul, Tatwine, Pega, and Bega. Baro- 
 nius informs us that Pope John XIIL, A. D. 968, 
 consecrated a very large new cast bell, in the Late- 
 ran Church, and gave it the name of John. The 
 ritual for the baptizing of bells may be found in the 
 Roman Pontificale. 
 
 The city of Nankin, in China, was anciently fa- 
 mous for the largeness of its bells, as we learn from 
 Father le Compte ; but they were afterwards far 
 exceeded in size by those of the churches of Moscow 
 
ON FLUXES. 
 
 199 
 
 A bell in the tower of St. Ivan's Church, in Mos- 
 cow, weighed 127,836 English pounds, or 57 tons 
 1 cwt. 1 qr. 16 pounds. A bell given by the Czar 
 Boris Godunof to the Cathedral of Moscow, weighed 
 288,000 pounds, or 128 tons 11 cwt. 1 qr. 20 lbs. 
 And another, given by the Empress Anne, probably 
 the largest in the known world, weighed 432,000 
 pounds, or 192 tons 17 cwt. 0 qrs. 26 pounds. 
 According to Coxe (Travels in Russia, vol. 1, page 
 322), the height of this last bell was 19 feet, the 
 circumference at the bottom 63 feet 11 inches, and 
 its greatest thickness 23 inches. The great bell of 
 St. Paul's, London, weighs 12,000 pounds, and is 
 9 feet in diameter. 
 
 The largest bell in England, is " Great Tom,"of 
 Christ Church, Oxford, which is 17,000 pounds 
 weight. 
 
 ON FLUXES. 
 
 Black flux is made by mixing one part of 
 powdered nitre with two parts of powdered argol^ 
 which is the commercial name for impure cream of 
 tartar, or bitartrate of potash. 
 
200 
 
 BRASS AND IRON FOUNDER. 
 
 This mixture is to be gradually thrown into a red- 
 hot earthen crucible, so as to deflagrate it, taking 
 care not to make the heat so high as to fuse the 
 mixture. 
 
 In this case, the nitric acid of the nitre is de- 
 composed, its oxygen acts upon the carbon of the 
 tartaric acid, carbonic acid is formed, and this unit- 
 ing with the potash, both of the nitre and bitartrate, 
 IS converted into carbonate of potash. The whole 
 of the carbon of the tartaric acid is not, however, 
 80 acted upon ; and the excess remains mixed with 
 the carbonate of potash, in the state of finely divided 
 charcoal. 
 
 This flux should be immediately reduced to 
 powder, and kept in a well stopped bottle ; other- 
 wise it will become damp by the absorption of moist 
 are, to which the carbonate of potash is subject. 
 This flux is doubly useful ; the carbonate of potash 
 combines with the earthy parts of the ore, such as 
 silica and alumina, while the charcoal unites with 
 the oxygen of the metallic oxides, and, carbonic 
 acid being formed and expelled, the metal is reduced 
 and melts. This flux is especially useful in the pro- 
 cess of detecting arsenious acid, and reducing it to 
 the metallic state. 
 
 Argol, already described, is an impure bitartrate 
 
FUSING AND MELTING POINTS. 
 
 201 
 
 of potash, powdered and mixed with the pulverized 
 substance to be reduced, and is sometimes advantage- 
 ously used as a flux. Owing to the intimate mix- 
 ture of the charcoal and potash in this flux, a good 
 deal of potassium is evolved ; and upon the reduc- 
 ing property of this metal, the reduction of the 
 oxides of other metals frequently depends to a con- 
 siderable extent. 
 
 Charcoal alone is, in the case of pure oxides, 
 sometimes employed as a flux : thus, a crucible 
 lined with charcoal is useful for the reduction of 
 oxide of iron ; or the oxide may be mixed with char- 
 coal. ' 
 
 Sal-enixum, or the refuse from aquafortis, is an 
 excellent flux for copper, &c. 
 
 FUSING AND MELTING POINTS, ASCERTAINED BY MEANS 
 OF PROFESSOR DANIEL'S REGISTERED PYROMETER. 
 
 Mercury, .... —39° Fahrenheit. 
 
 Tin, 442° Crichton. 
 
 Bismuth, .... 497° do. 
 
 Lead, 612° do. 
 
 Zinc, 773° Daniel. 
 
202 
 
 BKASS AND IRON FOUNDER. 
 
 Antimonj 
 Silver, . 
 Copper, . 
 Gold, . 
 Cast iron, 
 
 809° Daniel. 
 1873° do. 
 1996° do. 
 2016° do. 
 2787° do. 
 
 Bismutli is mentioned by Agricola, about the year 
 1529, A. D. It is of a reddish-white colour ; its 
 lustre is considerable, and its structure lamellated. 
 It is so brittle as to be easily reducible to powder. 
 When cold, its density is 9.83. It melts at 462°, 
 according to Crighton, jr. ; Irving, 476° ; Daniel, 
 497°. Thus even doctors disagree. Probably, 
 however, the specimens experimented upon might 
 have slightly varied as to quality — the reader is 
 furnished with all the facts. 
 
 FLUIDITY. 
 
 AccoBDiNG to Dr. Irving, the undermentioned 
 bodies contain the annexed quantities of heat when 
 rendered fluid: — 
 
ANTI-FKICTION METALS. 
 
 203 
 
 Lead, 
 Zinc, 
 Tin, . 
 
 162° Fahrenbeit. 
 493° do. 
 500° do. 
 
 Bismuth, .... 550° do. 
 
 ANTI-FRICTION METALS. 
 
 Many use 9 and 10 parts tin to 1 part copper. 
 
 A superior composition to either of the above is, 
 1 part copper, 1 part regulus of antimony, to 10 
 parts of tin. Melt the copper first, then add the 
 antimony, with a small portion of tin ; cover up the 
 "whole with charcoal for a short time prior to cast- 
 ing ; add the remainder of the tin. These composi- 
 tions are solely used for lining brass bearings. 
 
 The following is an excellent anti-friction metal, 
 not used for linings, but used in castings instead of 
 brass : namely, 85 parts zinc, 10 parts tin, to which 
 IS added 5 parts of antimony. 
 
204 
 
 BRASS AND IRON FOUNDER. 
 
 TABLE FOB CONVERTING DECIMAL PROPORTIONS INTO DIVISIONS 
 OF THE POUND AVOIRDUPOIS. 
 
 Decimal. 
 
 oz. 
 
 dr. 
 
 Decimal. 
 
 oz. dr. 
 
 Decimal. 
 
 oz. 
 
 dr. 
 
 Decimal. 
 
 oz. 
 
 dr. 
 
 QQ 
 
 
 1 
 
 iz.oy 
 
 2 
 
 \ 
 
 9*^ 0S\ 
 
 A 
 '± 
 
 1 
 X 
 
 37.85 
 
 6 
 
 1 
 
 . / O 
 
 
 o 
 Z 
 
 1 0 OS 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 O'k 7ft 
 OO. / 0 
 
 A 
 % 
 
 2 
 
 38.28 
 
 g 
 
 2 
 
 1.1 / 
 
 
 o 
 o 
 
 lo. 0 < 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 9R 1 7 
 
 
 Q 
 O 
 
 38.67 
 
 g 
 
 3 
 
 1.00 
 
 
 4 
 
 14. UO 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 9R flR 
 
 A 
 
 4 
 
 39.06 
 
 g 
 
 4 
 
 i.yo 
 
 
 0 
 
 14.40 
 
 2 
 
 5 
 
 9R Qp; 
 
 
 o 
 
 39.45 
 
 g 
 
 5 
 
 O OA 
 
 
 c 
 D 
 
 14.04 
 
 2 
 
 6 
 
 97 OA. 
 
 4 
 
 A 
 u 
 
 39.84 
 
 g 
 
 g 
 
 Z. 1 6 
 
 
 7 
 
 10. 
 
 2 
 
 7 
 
 97 7^ 
 
 4 
 
 7 
 1 
 
 40.23 
 
 g 
 
 7 
 
 £). irf 
 
 
 Q 
 
 0 
 
 10, 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 9ft 1 
 ^0. Id 
 
 4 
 
 ft 
 o 
 
 40.62 
 
 g 
 
 8 
 
 Q F^O 
 
 o.oA 
 
 
 y 
 
 lO.l/l 
 
 2 
 
 9 
 
 9ft \9 
 
 4 
 
 q 
 
 41.02 
 
 g 
 
 9 
 
 d.yi 
 
 
 lU 
 
 ID. 41 
 
 2 
 
 10 
 
 9ft Q1 
 
 zo. yi 
 
 4 
 
 1 0 
 
 41.41 
 
 g 
 
 10 
 
 A on 
 
 
 11 
 
 1 R SO 
 
 2 
 
 11 
 
 9Q QA 
 
 4 
 
 11 
 
 41.79 
 
 g 
 
 11 
 
 A aci 
 
 
 1^ 
 
 1 7 1 Q 
 
 1 ( . ly 
 
 2 
 
 12 
 
 9Q RQ 
 
 4 
 
 12 
 
 42.19 
 
 g 
 
 12 
 
 o.Uo 
 
 
 
 1 7 
 
 1 / .Oo 
 
 2 
 
 13 
 
 nft 
 
 4 
 
 13 
 
 42.54 
 
 g 
 
 13 
 
 K A'7 
 
 
 14 
 
 1 7 07 
 
 1 < .y / 
 
 2 
 
 14 
 
 
 4 
 
 14 
 
 42.97 
 
 g 
 
 14 
 
 O.oO 
 
 
 10 
 
 1 a QR 
 
 lO.OD 
 
 2 
 
 15 
 
 ftfi 
 
 OV.OU 
 
 4 
 
 
 43.30 
 
 g 
 
 15 
 
 O.ZO 
 
 1 
 
 A 
 
 u 
 
 1 ft 7fi 
 10. i 0 
 
 3 
 
 0 
 
 9'i 
 
 5 
 
 n 
 u 
 
 43.75 
 
 7 
 
 0 
 
 £t UA 
 
 o.d4 
 
 1 
 1 
 
 1 
 1 
 
 ly. 14 
 
 a 
 
 1 
 
 81 R4. 
 
 5 
 
 1 
 
 44.14 
 
 7 
 
 1 
 
 T f\0 
 
 1 
 1 
 
 o 
 A 
 
 ly.oo 
 
 Q 
 O 
 
 
 ^?9 
 
 5 
 
 2 
 
 44.53 
 
 7 
 
 2 
 
 7.42 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 19.92 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 32.42 
 
 5 
 
 3 
 
 44^92 
 
 7 
 
 3 
 
 7.81 
 
 1 
 
 4 
 
 20.31 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 32.81 
 
 0 
 
 4 
 
 AK o^ 
 
 40.. 31 
 
 ( 
 
 A 
 
 8.20 
 
 1 
 
 5 
 
 20.70 
 
 3 
 
 6 
 
 83.20 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 45.70 
 
 7 
 
 5 
 
 8.59 
 
 1 
 
 6 
 
 21.09 
 
 3 
 
 6 
 
 83.59 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 46.09 
 
 7 
 
 6 
 
 8.98 
 
 1 
 
 7 
 
 21.48 
 
 3 
 
 7 
 
 88.98 
 
 5 
 
 7 
 
 46.48 
 
 7 
 
 7 
 
 9.38 
 
 1 
 
 8 
 
 21.88 
 
 3 
 
 8 
 
 34.37 
 
 5 
 
 8 
 
 46.87 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 9.77 
 
 1 
 
 9 
 
 22.27 
 
 3 
 
 9 
 
 84.69 
 
 5 
 
 9 
 
 47.27 
 
 7 
 
 9 
 
 10.16 
 
 1 
 
 10 
 
 22.66 
 
 3 
 
 10 
 
 85.16 
 
 5 
 
 10 
 
 47.66 
 
 7 
 
 10 
 
 10.55 
 
 1 
 
 11 
 
 23.05 
 
 3 
 
 11 
 
 85.55 
 
 5 
 
 11 
 
 48.05 
 
 7 
 
 11 
 
 10.94 
 
 1 
 
 12 
 
 23.44 
 
 3 
 
 12 
 
 35.94 
 
 5 
 
 12 
 
 48.44 
 
 7 
 
 12 
 
 11.83 
 
 1 
 
 13 
 
 23.83 
 
 3 
 
 13 
 
 36.83 
 
 5 
 
 13 
 
 48.83 
 
 7 
 
 13 
 
 11.72 
 
 1 
 
 14 
 
 24.22 
 
 3 
 
 14 
 
 36.71 
 
 5 
 
 14 
 
 49.22 
 
 7 
 
 14 
 
 12.10 
 
 1 
 
 15 
 
 24.61 
 
 3 
 
 15 
 
 37.11 
 
 5 
 
 15 
 
 49.61 
 
 7 
 
 15 
 
 12.50 
 
 2 
 
 0 
 
 25.00 
 
 4 
 
 0 
 
 37.50 
 
 6 
 
 0 
 
 50.00 
 
 8 
 
 
 Application of the Table. 
 The Chinese Packfong, similar to our German silver, accord" 
 ing to Dr. Fyfe's analysis, page 108, is said to consist of — 
 40.4 parts of Copper ] f 6 oz. 7 drams, full. 
 
 25.4 — Zinc L • i ^ * 4 — 1 — ^iH- 
 31.6 - Nickel hl'^^^^^^°**M5-l - nearly. 
 2.6 — Iron J I 7 — nearly. 
 
 100,0 Parts. 
 
 I6gz,0 — 
 
 Avd. 
 
STATUE COMPOSITION. 
 
 205 
 
 Keller's statue composition. 
 
 The brothers Keller, who were very celebrated 
 statue founders, used an alloy, 10,000 parts of which 
 contained 9140 parts of copper, 714 parts tin, 118 
 parts zinc, and 28 parts lead. This is the composi 
 tion of the statue of Louis XIV., which was cast 
 at a single jet, by Balthazar Keller, in 1669. It is 
 twenty-one feet high, and weighs 53,263 French 
 rounds. These statues are usually miscalled bronze. 
 
 The best brass consists of four parts of copper to 
 one part of zinc. 
 
 Bronze was well known to the Romans undei the 
 name of " orichalcum" who took advantage of its 
 resemblance to gold, in robbing the temples and 
 other public places of that precious metal. Thus 
 Julius Caesar robbed the Capitol of 3000 pounds 
 weight of gold ; and Vitellius despoiled the cemples 
 uf their gifts and ornaments, and replaced them 
 with this inferior metal 
 
206 
 
 BRASS AND IRON FOUNDER. 
 
 THE CHINESE I'ACKFONG * 
 
 According to Dr. Fyfe's analysis, is said to ccn- 
 Bist of 
 
 40.4 parts of copper 
 25.4 " zinc 
 31.6 " nickel 
 2.6 " iron j 
 
 ^ equiva- 
 lent to 
 
 r6 oz. 7 dr. full. 
 
 4 oz. 1 dr. full. 
 
 5 oz. 1 dr. nearly. 
 
 7 dr. nearly. 
 
 100.0 parts. 
 
 16 oz. 0 dr. 
 
 COPPER. 
 
 Copper, when mixed witli as much zinc as possi- 
 ble, that is 89 pounds copper to 100 pounds zinc, 
 becomes white. The best " Goslar zinc" is from the 
 Hartz, Germany. 
 
 * Similar to our German silver. 
 
COMPOSITIONS. 
 
 207 
 
 SILVER STEEL. 
 
 1 part silver, 600 parts steel, according to Fara- 
 day and Stodan. This alloy would be superior to 
 the best steel. Steel also combines with otner 
 metals, such as nickel, platinum, manganese, &c. 
 
 COPPER AND ANTIMONY. 
 
 75 parts copper, and 25 parts antimony. This 
 alloy is brittle, lamellated, of a violet colour, sus- 
 ceptible of a fine polish, and is more fusible than 
 copper. 
 
 ANTIMONY AND TIN, COPPER AND BISMUTH. 
 
 100 parts of tin, 8 parts of antimony, 4 parts of 
 copper, and 1 part of bismuth, constitute the com 
 pound commonly called pewter. 
 
208 
 
 BRASS AND IRON FOUNDER. 
 
 BISMUTH AND LEAD, 
 
 1 part of bismuth, and 1 part of lead, a very te- 
 nacious alloy, melting at 165° Centigrade, equiva- 
 lent to 370° Fahrenheit. 
 
 2 parts of lead to 1 part of bismuth, gives an 
 alloy which dilates powerfully at the time of cooling. 
 (This property makes it extremely suitable to all 
 castings in which the greatest sharpness and fii^ish 
 are desirable. — H. Meigs.) 
 
 FULL MEASURE OF CAPACITY OF TIN AND LEAD 
 
 82 parts tin, and 18 parts lead. 
 
 BRILLIANTS OF FAHLUN, 
 
 Thus called, are made from 29 parts of tin, anu 
 19 parts of lead A very fusible and brilliant alloy. 
 
COMPOSITIONS OF METALS. 
 
 209 
 
 queen's metal, 
 
 Imitating silver, has great metallic lustre : 9 
 parts tin, 1 part lead, 1 part antimony, and 1 part 
 bismuth. 
 
 tin and zinc. 
 
 1 part tin, and 1 part zinc, is almost as tenacious 
 as brass, and melts at 460° to 500° Centigrade, 
 900° Fahrenheit. 
 
 TIN AND IRON. 
 
 These two metals may be alloyed in all propor- 
 tions. 35 parts of tin to 65 parts of iron, form an 
 alloy of a clear crystalline gray, and so brittle thav, 
 it may be rcdiMjed to an impalpable powder. 
 
 14 
 
210 
 
 BRASS AND IRON POUNDER. 
 
 TO SILVER COPPER. 
 
 Precipitate silver from its nitric solution by the 
 immersion of polished plates of copper. Take of 
 this silver 20 grains, supertartrate of potass, 2 
 drachms, common salt, 2 drachms, and of alum, 
 half a drachm. Mix the whole well together. 
 
 Then take the article to be silvered, clean it well, 
 and rub some of the mixture, previously a little 
 moistened, upon its surface. The silver surface may 
 be polished with a piece of soft leather. 
 
 The dial-plates of clocks, scales of barometers, 
 &c., are plated thus. 
 
 mosaic GOLD [or molu), 
 
 May be thus made : take copper and zinc, equal 
 parts ; mix them together at the lowest possible 
 temperature at which copper will fuse, and stir 
 until a perfect mixture of the metals is effected. 
 Then add gradually small portions of zinc at a time, 
 until the alloy acquires a proper colour, which is 
 
BRONZING BRASS. 
 
 211 
 
 perfectly white while in the melted state. It should 
 then at once be cast into figured moulds. This 
 alloy should contain from 52 to 55 per cent, of zinc. 
 
 TO BRONZE BRASS, ETC. 
 
 To 6 pounds of muriatic acid, add ^ pounds of 
 oxide of iron, and 1 pound of yellow arsenic. Mix 
 all well together, and let it stand for two days, fre- 
 quently shaking it in the mean time, when it is fit 
 for use. 
 
 Whatever may be the article which requires 
 bronzing, let it be perfectly cleaned, and free from 
 grease ; immerse it in the above solution, and let it 
 stand for three hours, or rather till it will turn en- 
 tirely black. Then wash the spirits ofi", and dry it 
 in sawdust, which has been found the best. 
 
 After the article is perfectly dry, apply to it some 
 wet black, the same as used for stones, and then 
 polish it with some dry black-lead and a brush, and 
 it is ready for lacquering. 
 
212 BRASS AND IRON FOUNDER. 
 
 LACQUERS. 
 
 Lacquers are used upon polished metals and wood, 
 to impart the appearance of gold. As they are want- 
 ed of different depths and shades of colours, it is best 
 to keep a concentrated solution of each colouring 
 ingredient ready, so that it may at any time be 
 added to produce any desired tint. 
 
 1. Deep Crold-coloured Lacquer. — Seed lac, three 
 ounces ; turmeric, one ounce ; dragon's blood, a 
 quarter of an ounce; alcohol, one pint. Digest for 
 a week, frequently shaking. Decant and filter. 
 
 2. Gold-coloured Lacquer. — Ground turmeric, 
 one pound; gamboge, an ounce and a half; gum- 
 sandarach, three pounds and a half ; shell lac, three- 
 quarters of a pound (all in powder) ; rectified spirits 
 of wine, two gallons. Dissolve, strain, and add one 
 pint of turpentine varnish. 
 
 3. Red-coloured Lacquer. — Spanish anatto, three 
 pounds ; dragon's blood, one pound ; gum-sandarach, 
 three pounds and a quarter; rectified spirits, two 
 
LACQUERS. 
 
 213 
 
 gallons; turpentine varnish, one quart. Dissolve 
 and mix as the last. 
 
 4. Pale Brass-coloured Lacquer. — Gamboge, cut 
 small, one ounce ; cape aloes, ditto, three ounces ; 
 pale shell lac, one pound ; rectified spirits, two gal- 
 lons. Dissolve and mix as No. 2. 
 
 5. Seed lac, dragon's blood, anatto, and gamboge, 
 of each a quarter of a pound ; saffron, one ounce ; 
 rectified spirits of wine, ten pints. Dissolve and 
 mix as No. 2. 
 
 The following receipts make most excellent lac- 
 quers. 
 
 1. (xold Lacquer. — Put into a clean four-gallon 
 tin 1 pound of ground turmeric, 1| ounces of 
 powdered gamboge, 3J ounces of powdered gum-san- 
 darach, f of a pound of shell lac, and 2 gallons of 
 spirits of wine. After being agitated, dissolved, and 
 strained, add one pint of turpentine varnish, well 
 mixed. 
 
 2. Red Lacquer.- -2 gallons of spirits of wine, 
 1 pound of dragon's blood, 3 pounds of Spanish 
 
214 BRASS AND IRON FOUNDER. 
 
 anatto, 3| pounds of gum-sandarach, 2 pints of tur- 
 pentine. Made as No. 1 lacquer. 
 
 3. Pale Brass Lacquer. — 2 gallons of spirits of 
 wine, 3 ounces of cape aloes cut small, 1 pound of 
 fine pale shell lac, 1 ounce of gamboge cut small, 
 no turpentine varnish. Made exactly as before. 
 
 But observe, that those who make lacquers, fre- 
 quently want some paler, and some darker, and 
 sometimes inclining more to the particular tint of 
 certain of the component ingredients. Therefore, 
 if a four-ounce phial of a strong solution of each 
 ingredient be prepared, a lacquer of any tint can 
 be procured at any time. 
 
 4. Pale Tin Lacquer. — Strongest alcohol, 4 
 ounces ; powdered turmeric, 2 drachms ; hay saf- 
 fron, 1 scruple ; dragon's blood in powder, 2 scru- 
 ples ; red saunders, J scruple. Infuse this mixture 
 in the cold for 48 hours, pour off the clear, and 
 strain the rest ; then add powdered shell lac, | 
 olsvpe ; sandarach, 1 drachm ; mastic, 1 drachm : 
 Canada balsam, 1 drachm. Dissolve this in the 
 cold by frequent agitation, laying the bottle on its 
 side, to present a greater surface to the alcohol. 
 When dissolve^., add 40 drops of spirits of tur- 
 pentine. 
 
LACQUER AND BRONZE LIQUID. 215 
 
 5. Another Beep Gold Lacquer. — Strongest alco- 
 hol, 4 ounces ; Spanish anatto, 8 grains ; powdered 
 turmeric, 2 drachms ; red saunders, 12 grains. In- 
 fuse and add shell lac, &c., as to the pale tin lac- 
 quer ; and when dissolved add 30 drops of spirits 
 of turpentine. 
 
 N. B. Lacquer should always stand till it is quite 
 fine, before it is used. 
 
 GREEN BRONZE LIQUID. 
 
 Take one quart of strong vinegar, half an ounce 
 of mineral green, half an ounce of raw umber, half 
 an ounce of sal-ammoniac, half an ounce of gum 
 arabic, two ounces of French berries, half an ounce 
 of copperas, and about three ounces of green oats, 
 if these can be procured, although, if they cannot, 
 the preparation will succeed perfectly well without 
 them. Dissolve the whole in a strong earthen ves- 
 sel; adding the berries and the oats, over a gentle 
 fire ; bring the compound to boil, then allow it to 
 cool, and run it through a flannel bag, when the 
 bronze will be ready for use. 
 
216 
 
 BRASS AND IRON FOUNDER» 
 
 TO SILVER IVORY. 
 
 Immerse a slip of ivory in a weak solution of 
 nitrate of silver, and let it remain until the solution 
 has imparted to it a deep yellow colour. Then take 
 it out, and immerse it in a tumbler of clear water, 
 and expose it in the water to the rays of the sun. 
 After it has been exposed thus for about three hours, 
 the ivory acquires a black colour, which on being 
 burnished soon becomes a brilliant silver one. 
 
 ZINCING. 
 
 Copper and brass vessels may be covered with a 
 firmly adherent layer of pure zinc, by boiling them 
 in contact with a solution of chloride of zinc, pure 
 zinc turnings being at the same time present in con- 
 siderable excess. The same object may be attained 
 by means of zinc, and a solution of sal-ammoniac, 
 or caustic polassa. 
 
TABLES. 
 
 217 
 
 TABLE I. — METAL PLATES. 
 
 This table shows the weight of a square foot 
 of diiferent metal plates, of thicknesses of one six- 
 teenth of an inch to one inch, advancing by a 
 sixteenth : — 
 
 Six- 
 
 "Wrought 
 
 Cast 
 
 Cast 
 
 Cast 
 
 Cast 
 
 Cast 
 
 Cast 
 
 Cast 
 
 teentbs. 
 
 Iron. 
 
 Iron. 
 
 Copper. 
 
 Brass 
 
 Lead. 
 
 ZiDC 
 
 Tin. 
 
 Silver. 
 
 
 Ita. 
 
 as. 
 
 Iba. 
 
 lbs. 
 
 as. 
 
 as. 
 
 as. 
 
 as. 
 
 1 
 
 2.5 
 
 2.3 
 
 2.9 
 
 2.7 
 
 3.7 
 
 2.3 
 
 .2.4 
 
 8.4 
 
 2 
 
 5.1 
 
 4.7 
 
 5.7 
 
 5.5 
 
 7.4 
 
 4.7 
 
 4.7 
 
 6.8 
 
 3 
 
 7.6 
 
 7.0 
 
 8.6 
 
 8.2 
 
 11.1 
 
 7.0 
 
 7.1 
 
 10.2 
 
 4 
 
 10.1 
 
 9.4 
 
 11.4 
 
 11.0 
 
 14.8 
 
 9.4 
 
 9.5 
 
 18.6 
 
 5 
 
 12.7 
 
 11.7 
 
 14.3 
 
 13.7 
 
 18.5 
 
 11.7 
 
 11.9 
 
 17.0 
 
 6 
 
 15.2 
 
 14.0 
 
 17.2 
 
 16.4 
 
 22.2 
 
 14.0 
 
 14.2 
 
 20.5 
 
 7 
 
 17.9 
 
 16.4 
 
 20.0 
 
 19.2 
 
 25.9 
 
 16.4 
 
 16.6 
 
 23.9 
 
 8 
 
 20.3 
 
 18.8 
 
 22.9 
 
 21.9 
 
 29.5 
 
 18.7 
 
 19.0 
 
 27.3 
 
 9 
 
 22.8 
 
 21.1 
 
 25.7 
 
 24.6 
 
 33.2 
 
 21.1 
 
 21.4 
 
 30.7 
 
 10 
 
 25.4 
 
 23.5 
 
 28.6 
 
 27.4 
 
 36.9 
 
 23.4 
 
 23.7 
 
 34.1 
 
 11 
 
 27.9 
 
 25.8 
 
 31.4 
 
 30.1 
 
 40.6 
 
 25.7 
 
 26.1 
 
 37.5 
 
 12 
 
 30.4 
 
 28.1 
 
 34.3 
 
 32.9 
 
 44.3 
 
 28.1 
 
 28.5 
 
 40.9 
 
 13 
 
 32.9 
 
 30.5 
 
 37.2 
 
 35.6 
 
 48.0 
 
 30.4 
 
 30.9 
 
 44.3 
 
 14 
 
 35.5 
 
 32.9 
 
 40.0 
 
 38.3 
 
 51.7 
 
 82.8 
 
 33.2 
 
 47.7 
 
 15 
 
 38.0 
 
 35.2 
 
 42.9 
 
 41.2 
 
 55.4 
 
 35.1 
 
 35.6 
 
 51.1 
 
 16 
 
 40.6 
 
 37.6 
 
 45.8 
 
 43.9 
 
 59.1 
 
 37.5 
 
 38.0 
 
 54.6 
 
 TABLE II. — CAST METAL BALLS. 
 
 Diam — Iru. 
 
 Iron aa. 
 
 Copper.— J5s. 
 
 Brass.— 
 
 Lead. -Iba. 
 
 I 
 
 3 
 
 33 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 1.1 
 
 1.3 
 
 1.3 
 
 1.7 
 
 3 
 
 3.7 
 
 4.5 
 
 4.3 
 
 6.8 
 
 4 
 
 8.7 
 
 10.7 
 
 10.2 
 
 13.8 
 
 5 
 
 17.0 
 
 20.8 
 
 19.9 
 
 26.9 
 
 6 
 
 29.5 
 
 35.9 
 
 34.3 
 
 46.4 
 
 7 
 
 46.8 
 
 57.1 
 
 54.5 
 
 73.7 
 
 8 
 
 69.8 
 
 85.2 
 
 81.4 
 
 110.1 
 
 9 
 
 99.4 
 
 121.3 
 
 115.9 
 
 156.7 
 
 10 
 
 136.4 
 
 166.4 
 
 159.0 
 
 215.0 
 
218 
 
 BRASS ^ND IRON FOUNDER. 
 
 TABLE III. CAST IRON PIPES. 
 
 This table shows the weight of cast iron pipes 
 1 foot long, of bores from 1 inch to 12 inches diam- 
 eter, advancing by i of an inch ; and of thicknesses 
 from 1 inch to 1 J inch, advancing by i of an inch. 
 
 Bore. 
 
 
 % 
 
 'A 
 
 % 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 1/i 
 
 In. 
 
 liis. 
 3.1 
 
 lbs. 
 
 lbs. 
 
 lbs. 
 
 lbs. 
 
 Vba. 
 
 U>s. 
 
 lbs. 
 
 lbs. 
 
 1 
 
 5.1 
 
 7.4 
 
 10.0 
 
 12.9 
 
 16.1 
 
 19.6 
 
 23.6 
 
 27. Q 
 
 
 3.7 
 
 6.0 
 
 8.6 
 
 11.5 
 
 14.7 
 
 18.3 
 
 22.1 
 
 26.2 
 
 30.7 
 
 
 4.3 
 
 6.9 
 
 9.8 
 
 13.0 
 
 16.6 
 
 20.4 
 
 24.5 
 
 29.0 
 
 33.7 
 36.8 
 
 
 4.9 
 
 7.8 
 
 11.1 
 
 14.6 
 
 18.4 
 
 22.6 
 
 27.0 
 
 31.8 
 
 2 
 
 5.5 
 
 8.8 
 
 12.3 
 
 16.1 
 
 20.3 
 
 24.7 
 
 29.5 
 
 34.8 
 
 39.9 
 
 2^ 
 
 6.1 
 
 9.7 
 
 13.5 
 
 17.6 
 
 22.1 
 
 26.8 
 
 31.9 
 
 37.3 
 
 43.0 
 
 2^ 
 41 
 
 6.7 
 
 10.6 
 
 14.7 
 
 19.2 
 
 23.9 
 
 28.9 
 
 34.4 
 
 40.0 
 
 46.0 
 
 7.4 
 
 11.5 
 
 16.0 
 
 20.7 
 
 25.7 
 
 31.1 
 
 36.8 
 
 42.8 
 
 49.1 
 
 3 
 
 314 
 
 8.0 
 
 12.4 
 
 17.2 
 
 22.2 
 
 27.6 
 
 33.3 
 
 39.3 
 
 45.6 
 
 62.2 
 
 8.6 
 
 13.3 
 
 18.4 
 
 23.8 
 
 29.5 
 
 35.4 
 
 41.7 
 
 48.3 
 
 55.2 
 
 
 9.2 
 
 14.2 
 
 19.6 
 
 25.3 
 
 31.3 
 
 37.6 
 
 44.2 
 
 51.1 
 
 58.3 
 
 3^ 
 
 9.8 
 10.4 
 
 15.2 
 
 20.9 
 
 26.9 
 
 33.1 
 
 39.7 
 
 46.6 
 
 53.8 
 
 61.4 
 
 4 
 
 16.1 
 
 22.1 
 
 28.4 
 
 35.0 
 
 41.9 
 
 49.1 
 
 66.6 
 
 64.4 
 
 11.1 
 
 17.1 
 
 23.4 
 
 30.0 
 
 36.9 
 
 44.1 
 
 51.6 
 
 59.4 
 
 67.6 
 
 
 11.7 
 
 18.0 
 
 24.5 
 
 31.4 
 
 38.7 
 
 46.2 
 
 64.0 
 
 62.1 
 
 70.6 
 
 
 12.3 
 
 18.9 
 
 25.8 
 
 33.0 
 
 40.5 
 
 48.3 
 
 56.5 
 
 64.9 
 
 73.6 
 
 5 
 
 12.9 
 
 19.8 
 
 27.0 
 
 34.5 
 
 42.3 
 
 50.5 
 
 58.9 
 
 67.6 
 
 76.7 
 
 
 13.5 
 
 20.7 
 
 28.2 
 
 36.1 
 
 44.2 
 
 52.6 
 
 61.4 
 
 70.4 
 
 79.8 
 
 5% 
 
 14.1 
 
 21.6 
 
 29.5 
 
 37.6 
 
 46.0 
 
 54.8 
 
 63.8 
 
 73.2 
 
 82.8 
 
 
 14.7 
 
 22.6 
 
 30.7 
 
 39.1 
 
 47.9 
 
 56.9 
 
 66,3 
 
 76.0 
 
 86.9 
 88.8 
 
 k 
 
 15.3 
 
 2.S.5 
 
 31.9 
 
 40.7 
 
 49.7 
 
 59.1 
 
 68.7 
 
 78.7 
 
 16.0 
 
 24.4 
 
 33.1 
 
 42.2 
 
 51.5 
 
 61.2 
 
 71.2 
 
 81.2 
 
 92.0 
 
 
 16.6 
 
 25.3 
 
 34.4 
 
 43.7 
 
 53.4 
 
 63.4 
 
 73.4 
 
 84.2 
 
 95.1 
 
 
 17.2 
 
 26.2 
 
 35.6 
 
 45.3 
 
 65.2 
 
 65.3 
 
 76.1 
 
 87.0 
 
 98.2 
 
 7 
 
 17.8 
 
 27.2 
 
 36.8 
 
 46.8 
 
 50.8 
 
 67.7 
 
 78.5 
 
 89.7 
 
 101.2 
 
 7^ 
 
 18.4 
 
 28.1 
 
 38.1 
 
 48.1 
 
 58.9 
 
 69.8 
 
 81.0 
 
 92.5 
 
 104.3 
 
 m 
 
 19.0 
 
 29.0 
 
 39.1 
 
 49.9 
 
 60.7 
 
 72.0 
 
 83.5 
 
 96.3 
 
 107.4 
 
 19.6 
 
 29.7 
 
 40.5 
 
 51.4 
 
 62.6 
 
 74.1 
 
 86.9 
 
 98.0 
 
 110.6 
 
 8 
 
 20.0 
 
 30.8 
 
 41.7 
 
 52.9 
 
 64.4 
 
 76.2 
 
 88.4 
 
 100.8 
 
 113.5 
 
 
 20.9 
 
 31.7 
 
 43.0 
 
 54.5 
 
 66.3 
 
 78.4 
 
 90.8 
 
 103.5 
 
 116.6 
 
 
 21.7 
 
 32.9 
 
 44.4 
 
 56.2 
 
 68.3 
 
 80.8 
 
 93.5 
 
 106.5 
 
 119.9 
 
 m 
 
 22.1 
 
 33.6 
 
 45.4 
 
 57.5 
 
 70.0 
 
 82.7 
 
 95.7 
 
 109.1 
 
 122.7 
 
 9 
 
 22.7 
 
 34.5 
 
 46.6 
 
 59.1 
 
 71.8 
 
 84.8 
 
 98.2 
 
 111.8 
 
 126.8 
 
 
 23.3 
 
 35.4 
 
 47.9 
 
 60.6 
 
 73.6 
 
 87.0 
 
 100.6 
 
 114.6 
 
 128.9 
 
 23.9 
 
 36.4 
 
 49.1 
 
 62.1 
 
 75.5 
 
 89.1 
 
 103.1 
 
 117.4 
 
 131.9 
 
 
 24.6 
 
 37.3 
 
 50.3 
 
 63.7 
 
 77.3 
 
 91.3 
 
 105.5 
 
 120.1 
 
 136.0 
 
 10 
 
 25.2 
 
 38.2 
 
 51.5 
 
 65.2 
 
 79.2 
 
 93.4 
 
 108.0 
 
 122.8 
 
 138.1 
 
 
 25.8 
 
 39.1 
 
 52.S 
 
 66.7 
 
 81.0 
 
 95.6 
 
 110.4 
 
 125.6 
 
 141.1 
 
 ^ 
 
 26.4 
 
 40.0 
 
 54.0 
 
 68.3 
 
 82.8 
 
 97.7 
 
 112.9 
 
 128.4 
 
 144.2 
 
 
 27.0 
 
 41.0 
 
 55.2 
 
 69.8 
 
 84.7 
 
 99.9 
 
 115.4 
 
 131.2 
 
 147.3 
 
 
 27.6 
 
 41.9 
 
 56.5 
 
 71.3 
 
 86.5 
 
 102.0 
 
 117.8 
 
 133.9 
 
 150.3 
 
 
 28.2 
 
 42.8 
 
 57.7 
 
 72.9 
 
 88.4 
 
 104.2 
 
 120.3 
 
 136.7 
 
 163.4 
 
 
 28.8 
 
 43.7 
 
 58.9 
 
 74.4 
 
 90.2 
 
 106.3 
 
 122.7 
 
 139.4 
 
 156.4 
 
 
 29.5 
 
 44.6 
 
 60.1 
 
 75.9 
 
 92.0 
 
 108.5 
 
 125.2 
 
 142.2 
 
 159.5 
 
 
 301 
 
 45.6 
 
 61.4 
 
 77.5 
 
 93.6 
 
 110.6 
 
 127.6 
 
 145.0 
 
 162.6 
 
TABLES. 
 
 219 
 
 TABLE IV. CAST METAL CYLINDERS.* 
 
 Diam. — ina. 
 
 Iron. — IJ«. 
 
 Copper.— 
 
 BraSB. — U>8. 
 
 Leai—lbn, 
 
 1 
 
 2.5 
 
 3.0 
 
 2.9 
 
 3.9 
 
 2 
 
 9.8 
 
 12.0 
 
 11.4 
 
 15.5 
 
 3 
 
 22.1 
 
 27.0 
 
 25.8 
 
 34.8 
 
 4 
 
 39.3 
 
 47.9 
 
 45.8 
 
 61.9 
 
 5 
 
 61.4 
 
 74.9 
 
 71.G 
 
 96.7 
 
 6 
 
 88.4 
 
 107.8 
 
 103.0 
 
 139.3 
 
 7 
 
 120.3 
 
 146.8 
 
 140.2 
 
 189.6 
 
 8 
 
 157.1 
 
 191.7 
 
 183.2 
 
 247.7 
 
 9 
 
 198.8 
 
 242.7 
 
 231.8 
 
 313.4 
 
 10 
 
 245.4 
 
 299.5 
 
 286.2 
 
 387.0 
 
 TABLE V. — SPECIFIC GRAVITY AND WEIGHT OF 
 MATERIALS. 
 
 r' 
 
 Specific 
 Gravity. 
 
 Autimony, cast 
 Arsenic . 
 Bismuth, cast 
 Brass, cast 
 Brass, wire . 
 Bronze . 
 Oobalt, cast 
 Copper, cast 
 Copper, sheet . 
 Copper, wire 
 Gold, pure . 
 Gold, hammered 
 Gold, standard 
 Gun metal 
 Iron, bars wrought 
 Iron, cast 
 Lead, cast . 
 Mercury, solid . 
 Mercury, fluid . 
 Nickel, cast 
 Platinum, pure 
 Platinum, hammered 
 Silver, pure 
 Silver, hammered 
 Silver, standard 
 Steel, tempered 
 Steel, soft . 
 Tin, cast 
 Tvpe metal . 
 Zinc, cast 
 
 6702 
 5763 
 9822 
 8396 
 8544 
 8222 
 7811 
 8788 
 8915 
 8878 
 19258 
 19362 
 17647 
 8784 
 7786 
 7207 
 11352 
 15632 
 13568 
 7807 
 19500 
 20336 
 10474 
 10511 
 10534 
 7818 
 7833 
 7291 
 10450 
 7190 
 
 Iba. 
 418.9 
 360.2 
 613.9 
 524.8 
 634.0 
 513.4 
 488.2 
 549.3 
 557.2 
 554.9 
 1203.6 
 1210.1 
 1102.9 
 549.0 
 486.6 
 450.4 
 709.5 
 977.0 
 848.0 
 487.9 
 1218.8 
 1271.0 
 654.6 
 656.9 
 658.4 
 
 455.7 
 653.1 
 449.4 
 
 * The cylinders are solid, each one foot in length 
 
220 BRASS AND IRON FOUNDER. 
 
 TABLE VI. — SPECIFIC COHESION AND STRENGTH OP 
 METALS. 
 
 In the following table of specific cohesion, the co- 
 hesion of plate glass is assumed as unity. If any 
 of the numbers in this table be multiplied by 9240, 
 the product will express the force in pounds, which 
 would tear asunder a bar of the corresponding ma- 
 teria^l, of one inch square of transverse section. 
 Thus, the specific cohesion of steel, razor temper, is 
 15.927 ; whence the extreme cohesion of a bar one 
 inch square is 15.927 X 9240 = 147,165.48 pounds. 
 
 Antimony, cast 
 
 Bismuth, cast 
 
 Copper, wire 
 
 " cast, Barbary 
 " " Japan 
 
 Gold, wire 
 " cast 
 
 Iron, wire 
 " bar 
 
 " " best quality 
 " " German, B B 
 
 Specific cohesion. 
 
 0.118 
 . 0.345 to 0.319 
 6.606 
 2.396 
 2.152 
 3.279 
 2.171 
 12.004 to 9.108 
 8.964 tj 5.839 
 7.006 
 9.880 to 6.514 
 
SPECIFIC COHESION OF 
 
 METALS. 221 
 
 Iron, bar, Swedish, L 
 " " Liege 
 " " German, L 
 *' " Spanish . 
 " " Oosement 
 " " fine grained 
 " " medium fineness 
 " " coarse grained 
 " cast, French . 
 " " German 
 * " English 
 
 Lead, milled . 
 " wire 
 
 " cast, English 
 Platinum, wire 
 Silver, wire . 
 
 " cast . 
 Steel, razor temper 
 
 " soft . 
 Tin, wire 
 " cast, English block . 
 " " Banca . 
 " " Malacca . 
 Zinc, wire 
 " patent sheet . 
 " cast, Goslar . 
 
 Specific cohesion. 
 
 9.445 to 7.296 
 
 8.794 to 6.621 
 
 9.119 to 7.382 
 8.685 
 
 8.142 to 7.296 
 5.306 
 3.618 
 2.172 
 
 7.470 to 4.000 
 7.250 
 
 5.620 to 4.334 
 0.354 
 
 0.334 to 0.270 
 0.094 
 
 6.995 to 5.625 
 4.090 
 4.342 
 . 15.927 
 . 12.739 
 0.757 
 
 0.706 to 0.565 
 0.391 
 0.342 
 2.394 
 1.762 
 
 0.312 to 0.286 
 
222 BRASS AND IRON FOUNDER. 
 
 TABLE VII. — DIRECT COHESION OF METaLsi. 
 
 The numbers in this table of experiments express 
 the direct cohesion of bars one inch square in tons, 
 of 2240 pounds. 
 
 Tons, 
 
 lbs 
 
 Iron bar, cast horizontally 
 
 8 
 
 32 
 
 " " vertically 
 
 8 
 
 OCX 
 
 69 
 
 Cast steel, previously tilted . 
 
 59 
 
 93 
 
 Blistered steel, reduced by hammer 
 
 59 
 
 43 
 
 Shear " " " 
 
 56 
 
 97 
 
 Swedish iron " " 
 
 32 
 
 15 
 
 English " " " 
 
 24 
 
 93 
 
 Hard gun metal .... 
 
 16 
 
 23 
 
 Wrought copper, reduced by hammer 
 
 15 
 
 8 
 
 Cast " " " 
 
 8 
 
 51 
 
 Fine yellow brass .... 
 
 8 
 
 01 
 
 Cast tin .... . 
 
 2 
 
 11 
 
 Cast lead ..... 
 
 0 
 
 81 
 
 Wrought iron, mean of 26 experiments. 
 
 
 
 Brunei 31 
 
 20 
 
 ** " 9 Brown 
 
 29 
 
 25 
 
 " " 8 Telford 25 
 
 00 
 
 Iron cable, " 13 Brown 
 
 21 
 
 25 
 
RESISTANCE OF METALS. 
 
 223 
 
 TABLE VIII. — RESISTANCE OF METALS TO PRESSURE. 
 
 In this table of experiments the number of pounds 
 are the weights required to crush cubes of one-quar- 
 ter inch in the edge. 
 
 lbs. 
 
 Iron, cast vertically . . . 11136 
 
 " " horizontally . . . 10114 
 
 Copper, cast .... 7318 
 
 " wrought .... 6440 
 
 Brass 10304 
 
 Tin, cast .... * 966 
 
 Lead, cast 483 
 
 TABLE IX. — RESISTANCE OF METALS TO TORSION. 
 
 This table of experiments by Brandreth, exhibits 
 only the relative resistance to torsion, that of lead 
 being assumed as unity. 
 
224 BRASS AND IRON FOUNDER. 
 
 lbs. 
 
 Cast steel 19.56 
 
 Shear steel . . . • . 17.06 
 
 Blister steel 16.69 
 
 English iron 10.13 
 
 Swedish iron .... 9.50 
 
 Hard gun metal .... 5.00 
 
 Fine yellow brass . , . . 4.69 
 
 Copper 4.31 
 
 Tin ..... . 1.44 
 
 Lead 1.00 
 
 GOLD AND SILVER SOLDERS. 
 
 Hard Solder for Grold is prepared from gold and 
 silver, or from gold and copper, or from gold, silver, 
 and copper. 
 
 G-old Solder. — 66.6 parts of gold, 16.7 parts of 
 silver, and 16.7 parts of copper. 
 
 Eard Solder for Silver. — Equal parts of silver 
 and brass ; but made easier of fusion by the admiX' 
 ture of one-sixteenth of zinc. 
 
ON SOLDERS AND SOLDERINft. 225 
 
 Another Silver Solder. — 19 parts fine silver, 1 
 part copper, 10 parts brass. 
 
 Another Silver Solder. — 66.6 parts silver, 30.4 
 parts copper, 3.4 parts brass. 
 
 BRASS SOLDER. 
 
 Brass mixed with a sixth, an eighth, or even one- 
 half of zinc. 
 
 Another Brass Solder. — 12 pounds copper, and 
 11 pounds of zinc. 
 
 METHOD OF SOLDERING GOLD AND SILVER. 
 
 After the solder is cast into an ingot, it would 
 be more ready for use if you were to draw it into 
 small wire, or flat it between two rollers. After 
 that cut it into little bits, then join your work 
 together with fine soft iron wire, and with a camel's- 
 hair pencil dipped in borax, finely powdered wad 
 
 15 
 
226 
 
 BRASS AND IRON FOUNDER. 
 
 well moistened with water, touch the joint intended 
 to be soldered, placing a little solder on the joint. 
 Apply it on a large piece of charcoal, and with a 
 blow-pipe and lamp blow upon it through the flame 
 until it melts the solder, and it is done. 
 
 TO CLEANSE SILVER AFTER IT IS SOLDERED. 
 
 Make it just red hot, and let it cool ; then hoil 
 It in alum water, in an earthen vessel, and it will 
 be as clean as when new. 
 
 TO CLEANSE GOLD AFTER IT IS SOLDERED. 
 
 Put it through the same process as silver, but, 
 instead of alum-water, boil it in wine and sal-ammo- 
 uiao. 
 
 SILVER-SOLDER FOR JEWELLERS. 
 
 19 dwts. of fine silver, 1 dwt. of copper, and 10 
 ilwts. of brass. 
 
ALLOYS AND SOLDER. 
 
 227 
 
 TRINKET COMPOSITION. 
 
 75 parts gold, 25 parts copper, and a little silver. 
 
 SILVER-PLATE AND MEDAL ALLOY. 
 
 95 parts silver, and 5 parts of copper. 
 
 GOLD COIN OF AMERICA ALLOY. 
 
 90 parts gold, 2.5 silver, and 7.5 copper. 
 
 SOLDER FOR IRON. 
 
 Nothing here is necessary but good tough brass, 
 with borax, applied, mixed with water to the con 
 sistence of cream. 
 
228 BRASS AND IRON FOUNDER. 
 
 AUTOGENOUS SOLDERING. 
 
 Autogenous soldering takes place by the fusion of 
 the two edges of metals themselves without interpos- 
 ing another metallic alloy as a bond of union. This 
 is accomplished by directing a jet of burning hydro- 
 gen gas from a blow-pipe provided with a Daniell's 
 cock upon the surfaces or edges to be soldered to- 
 gether. The hydrogen gas is developed by the 
 action of hydrochloric (muriatic) acid upon zinc shav- 
 ings, the generated gas being collected in strong 
 vessels or bags of stout canvas, made gas-proof by 
 several coats of rubber varnish. The Daniell's cock 
 is so arranged that the gas is mixed with atmospheric 
 oxygen only at the place where it is to be butnt, thus 
 avoiding all danger of explosions. In soldering by 
 the autogenous process, the works are first prepared 
 and scraped clean as usual. The hydrogen gas is 
 then ignited, and after regulating the flame, air is ad- 
 mitted until the flame assumes a fine pointed charac- 
 ter, with which the work is united. This method of 
 soldering is occasionally employed in making small 
 additions to old castings, and also in repairing trifling 
 holes and defects in new ones. 
 
SOFT SOLDER. 
 
 229 
 
 SOFT SOLDERS. 
 
 Tin and lead in equal parts. Easier of fusion^ 
 still is tin, lead, and bismuth, in equal parts ; or 
 one or two bismuth, one lead, and one tin, easiei 
 still. 
 
 For soft soldering brass, tin-foil makes a fine 
 juncture, applied between the joints, care being 
 taken to avoid too much heat. This is most excellent 
 for fine brass work. The tin-foil must be moistened 
 in a strong solution of sal-ammoniac. 
 
 A SOLDER FOR LEAD. 
 
 2 parts. lead and 1 part tin. Its goodness is tried 
 by melting it and pouring the bigness of a dollar 
 piece upon the table ; for if it be good there will arise 
 little bright spots in it. Apply rosin when you ube 
 the solder. 
 
230 BRASS AND IRON FOUNDER. 
 
 plumber's solder. 
 
 1 part bismuth, 5 parts lead, and 3 parts tin, 
 forms a compound of great importance in the arts. 
 
 compositions of pewter. 
 
 1. 100 parts tin, 17 parts of antimony ; the French 
 add a little coffer. 
 
 2. 12 pounds of tin, 1 pound of antimony, 4 
 ounces of copper. 
 
 3. 7 pounds of tin, 1 pound of lead, 6 ounces cop- 
 per, 2 ounces zinc. Melt the copper first. 
 
 WHITE METAL. 
 
 10 ounces lead, 6 ounces bismuth, and 4 drachms 
 of antimony; or, 2 pounds of antimony, 8 ounces of 
 brass, and 10 ounces of tin. 
 
COMPOSITION OF SOFT METAL. 
 
 231 
 
 MOSAIC MIXTURE. 
 
 Equal parts of tin, bismuth, and mercury, forms 
 a metal used for various ornamental purposes. 
 
 SILVERY-LOOKING METAL. 
 
 A VERY fine silvery-looking metal is made from 
 100 parts tin, 8 parts antimony, 1 part bismuth, \nd 
 4 parts copper. 
 
 METAL FOR FLUTE VALVE KEYS. 
 4 ounces of lead and 2 ounces of antimony. 
 
 GERMAN TITANIUM. 
 
 2 drachms of copper, 1 ounce of antimony, and 
 12 ounces of tin. 
 
232 BRASS AND IRON FOUNDER. 
 
 SPANISH TITANIUM. 
 
 8 ounces of scrap iron or steel, 1 pound of anti- 
 mony, and 3 ounces of nitre. 
 
 The iron or steel must be heated to whiteness, 
 and the antimony and nitre added in small portions. 
 Two ounces of this compound are sufficient to harden 
 one pound of tin. 
 
 BRITANNIA METAL. 
 
 4 ounces of plate brass, 4 ounces of tin ; when 
 fused add 4 ounces of bismuth, and 4 ounces of an- 
 timony. This composition is added at discretion to 
 melted tin. 
 
 COLUMBIA METAL. 
 
 4| pounds of tin, J pound of bismuth, | pound of 
 antimony, and | pound of lead; or, 100 pounds of 
 tin, 8 pounds of antimony, 1 pound of bismuth, and 
 
TYPE METALS. 
 
 233 
 
 4 pounds of copper. This alloy is used for making 
 tea-pots, and other vessels which imitate silver. 
 
 TYPE METAL. 
 
 10 pounds of lead, and 2 ounces of antimony. 
 The antimony is added when the lead is in a state 
 of fusion. The antimony gives hardness to the lead, 
 And prevents its contraction when cooling. 
 
 For Small Types. — 9 pounds of lead, 2 pounds 
 of antimony, and 1 pound of bismuth. The anti- 
 mony and bismuth are added when the lead is melted. 
 This alloy expands in cooling ; the mould is there- 
 fore entirely filled when the metal is cold, and no 
 blemish is found in the letters. Stereotype plates 
 are formed of this alloy. Some employ tin instead 
 of bismuth. 
 
 Type Metal of the French Letter Founders. — 
 Four-fifths of lead, and one-fifth of regulus of anti- 
 mony. 
 
 The letter founders of Berlin use 11 pounds of 
 
234 BRASS AND IRON FOUNDER. 
 
 antimony, 25 pounds of lead, and 5 pounds of iron. 
 Many add tin, copper, and brass ; while some make 
 their types from 3 parts lead, to 1 of antimony. 
 
 GERMAN SILVER. 
 
 1. 25 parts nickel, 20 parts zinc, and 60 parts 
 copper. If for casting add 3 parts of lead. 
 
 2. 16 parts copper, 8 parts zinc, and 3|^ parts 
 nickel. 
 
 3. 8 parts of copper, 3| parts of zinc, and 2 parts 
 of nickel. 
 
 4. 28 parts copper, 13 parts zinc, and 7^ parts 
 nickel. 
 
 5. Copper, 8 parts ; zinc, 3| parts ; nickel 3 
 parts. 
 
 This last is a very beautiful compound. Tt has 
 the appearance of silver a little below standard. By 
 some persons it is even preferred to the more ex- 
 
SPECULUM METALS. 
 
 235 
 
 pensive compound. Manufacturers are strongly re- 
 commended not to use a metal inferior to this. 
 
 SPECULUM METAL. 
 
 1. Copper, 64 parts ; grain tin, 29 parts. Melt 
 the metals separately, under a little black flux. In- 
 corporate thoroughly by stirring with a wooden 
 spatula ; then run the metal in the mould, so that 
 the face of the intended mirror may be downwards. 
 
 2. Copper, 32 parts ; tin, 14 parts ; arsenic, 2 
 parts. A very good metal. 
 
 3. Copper, 32 parts ; tin, 13| parts ; arsenic, 1| 
 parts. 
 
 4. Copper, 32 parts; tin, 15 parts; arsenic, 2 
 parts. Better than. 2 and 3. 
 
 5. Copper, 32 parts ; tin, 15 parts ; brass, 1 part ; 
 silver, 1 part ; arsenic, 1 part. A most excellent 
 metal, and Dy far the whitest, hardest, and most re- 
 dective metal I have ever yet met with. 
 
286 
 
 BRASS AND IRON FOUNDER. 
 
 6. Copper, 6 parts ; tin, 2 parts ; arsenic, 1 part 
 Sir Isaac Newton's mixture. It is a compact metal 
 enough, but very yellow when polished. 
 
 7. Copper, 3 parts ; tin, 1^ parts. Compact, and 
 whiter than the last. 
 
 8. Brass, 6 parts ; tin, 1 part. Compact, but too 
 yellow. 
 
 9. 2 parts of 7th composition, and 1 part of 8th. 
 Compact, but much too yellow when polished. 7, 
 8, and 9, are experiments by Professor Molyneux, 
 F. R. S. 
 
 10. Copper, 32 parts ; tin, 2 parts ; arsenic, 1 
 part. A pretty good metal, but polishes too yellow. 
 Professor Mudge's composition. 
 
REMARKS. 
 
 237 
 
 REMARKS. 
 
 In melting arsenic, nitre is a good flux for fixing 
 it with other metals. 
 
 In using iron filings in your compositions, use 
 corrosive sublimate (viz. chloride of mercury) for 
 fixing it. 
 
 Powdered flint glass also makes a most excellent 
 flux for copper, tin, and arsenic. 
 
 No. 5. This metal, when broken, should appear 
 of a bright, glassy, and quicksilver complexion. If 
 it appears hard and of a dead white, more tin must 
 be added. The copper will sometimes take sixteen 
 ounces of tin, if it is very pure. If it appears bluish 
 and rough, more copper or brass must be added. 
 
 It is somewhat singular that arsenic, though par 
 ticularly recommended by Sir Isaac Newton, Di. 
 Olynthus Gregory, and others, for giving homo- 
 geneity to metallic compositions, should he so hastily 
 thrown aside by the founders. This imprudent dis- 
 use of it, I can only attribute to the disagreeable 
 fumes or vapours, which arise when it is introduced 
 'into the crucible, to the melted mixture, which may 
 oroduce disagreeable eff'ects upon the operators, if 
 
238 
 
 BRASS AND IRON FOUNDER. 
 
 proper care be not taken to prevent them from 
 being received into the lungs. All the precaution 
 necessary, is to bruise the arsenic coarsely, and in- 
 troduce it into the crucible with a pair of tongs, 
 having tied it up in a piece of paper, giving it then 
 a stir with a wooden spatula made of birch, during 
 which time retaining your breath — avoid it till you 
 can see no more vapours arise from the crucible, 
 when the metal will be ready to pour. 
 
 The common black flux is made of two parts of 
 tartar, and one of nitre. 
 
 I have always found from adding a small quantity 
 of arsenic, viz., from one-half ounce to one ounce to 
 the pound of metal, that it would considerably im- 
 prove even porous metal, and make it harder, like- 
 wise, as well as whiter. 
 
 In making speculums, the casting should be taken 
 from the mould red-hot, and put into a quantity of 
 hot ashes to anneal it, or else it will break in the 
 sand. Let it remain in the ashes till the whole be- 
 comes cold. 
 
 Professor Nevil Masculyne, speaking of arsenic, 
 says — I have been assured by two ingenious experi- 
 mental philosophers that the fumes of arsenic, even 
 when the garlic smell is very strong, are not in thi 
 least prejudicial to the lungs. 
 
'239 
 
 PLATINA. 
 
 A careful study of the above remarks will be of 
 inestimable advantage to the practical brass founder, 
 savin'g him both loss of work, as well as loss of time. 
 
 PLATINA. 
 
 Mirrors for telescopes, &c., are made of pla- 
 tina, of exquisite beauty. The Spaniards are in the 
 habit of mixing it with iron, in order to form gun- 
 barrels, which are said never to rust, and which are 
 much stronger than iron barrels alone, as it gives to 
 the iron a remarkable toughness. It forms a valu- 
 able coating for copper and iron, and may hereafter 
 become precious for the formation of coins and 
 medals. 
 
 Platina, in its malleable state, may be cut with a 
 knife ; but with steel it forms an alloy not to be 
 touched with a file. 
 
 The nitro -muriatic acid is the proper solvent foi 
 platina. 
 
240 BEASS AND IRON FOUNDER. 
 
 ON THE PROPERTIES OF ARSENIC. 
 
 Arsenic is a brittle metal, and, in the recent frac- 
 ture, of a lively bright colour, between tin-white 
 and lead-gray; but on exposure to the air it soon 
 loses its metallic lustre, and turns prismatic, dull, 
 and at last black. Its specific gravity is, according 
 to Professor Mudge, between 8.310 and 5.763, ac- 
 cording to its texture. 
 
 Its hardness surpasses that of copper, but its 
 ductility is so little, and it brittleness so great, that 
 it is readily converted into a powder by the hammer. 
 It is entirely volatilized when heated to 356° Fahr. 
 It sublimes in close vessels, and then crystallizes in 
 tetrahedra, or octahedra. When heated with the 
 excess of air, it emits a strong smell of garlic, and 
 burns with a bluish white flame. It combines with 
 sulphur by fusion. It unites to phosphorus, and 
 combines with most of the metals. 
 
 Besides giving a white colour to copper, it renders 
 many of the ductile metals, brittle. When mixed 
 with hyper-oxygenated muriate of potash, it deto- 
 nates strongly by the stroke of a hammer. It is 
 Boluble in hydrogen gas by heat. It does not decom- 
 
EXPERIMENTS. 
 
 241 
 
 pose water alone ; it decomposes sulphuric acid by 
 heat. The nitric and nitrous acid oxidate it rapidly. 
 The muriatic acid attacks it with heat. The oxy- 
 genated muriatic acid (now termed chlorine), when 
 in a gaseous state, inflames it instantly. It is nearly 
 unalterable by the fluoric, boracic, phosphoric, and 
 carbonic acids. It unites with alkaline sulphurets 
 and hydro-sulphurets. It is a deadly poison. 
 
 If you insert a little arsenic, reduced to fine 
 powder, between two polished plates of copper, and 
 bind closely together with iron wire, and heat them, 
 the inner surfaces of the copper plates will be ren- 
 dered white by the arsenic. 
 
 JExperiment No. 1. Experimental proofs of the 
 'properties of arsenic. Arsenic hums and is volar 
 tilized by heat. — Introduce into a crucible, made 
 red-hot in a coal fire, a small quantity of arsenic, 
 and it will begin to burn and become volatilized. 
 If this crucible be covered with another, and the 
 joinings luted with clay, the arsenic will be found 
 in the upper one in brilliant crystals. 
 
 Experiment No. 2. — The union of arsenic with 
 copper may likewise be effected by fusing 1 part of 
 arsenic with 4 of copper, in a common crucible. 
 
 16 
 
242 
 
 BRASS AND IRON FOUNDER. 
 
 The alloy produced is a white metal. It is neces- 
 sary in this experiment to cover the substances in 
 the crucible with common salt, to prevent the action 
 of the air. 
 
 FONTAINEMOREAU'S NEW ALLOYS OF ZINC, A SUB- 
 STITUTE FOR BRONZE, COPPER, AND BRASS. 
 
 An invention of a new alloy of zinc, with small 
 proportions of other metals, found to possess very 
 peculiar advantages, has lately been introduced into 
 England, where it has been patented in the name 
 of M. Fontainemoreau. It is likely to prove of 
 great utility in the manufacture of machinery, and 
 in castings relating to the fine arts. As a substi- 
 tute for copper and bronze it already bids fair to be 
 extensively adopted. 
 
 The proportions of metals which have been found 
 most advantageous in forming varieties of the alloy, 
 after very numerous and extensive experiments, are 
 as follows : — 
 
 No. 1. Zinc, 90 parts; copper, 8 parts ; cast iron, 
 I part; lead, 1 part; 100 parts. 
 
FONTAINEMORBAU'S ALLOYS. 243 
 
 No. 2, Zinc, 91 parts; copper, 8 parts; lead, 1 
 part ; 100 parts. 
 
 No. 3. Zinc, 92 parts ; copper, 8 parts ; 100 
 parts. 
 
 No. 4. Zinc, 99 parts ; copper, 1 part ; 100 parts. 
 
 No. 5. Zinc, 97 parts; copper, 2| parts; cast 
 iron, J part ; 100 parts. 
 
 No. 6. Zinc, 97 parts ; copper, 3 parts ; 100 
 parts. 
 
 No. 7. Zinc, 99J parts; cast iron, J part; 100 
 parts. 
 
 No. 8. Zinc, 91| parts; copper, 8 parts; cast 
 iron, J part ; 100 parts. 
 
 The proportions stated of any of these metals 
 may be slightly varied, so long as by such variation 
 the alloy is not made too brittle, or too soft. For 
 instance, the proportion of copper may be varied 
 from about 1 part to about 12 parts, in every hun- 
 dred ; but any greater proportion of copper than 
 this, and less than that used in forming common 
 brass, would make the alloy brittle. The propor- 
 tion of cast iron may be varied from about one- 
 quarter of a part, to about two parts in ev^rf hun- 
 dred. The proportion of lead may be varied from 
 about one, to about twenty-four parts in everj hun- 
 
244 
 
 BRASS AND IRON FOUNDER. 
 
 died parts ; bat the presence of some third metal is 
 necessary to produce a proper combination of the 
 zinc and lead. Instead of pure copper, or any other 
 of the simple metals before to be used, brass, or the 
 other alloys formed of these metals, may be used. 
 But where this is done, the quantity of copper and 
 the simple metals contained in such alloys must be 
 taken into account in calculating the relative pro- 
 portions of simple metals which the new alloy is to 
 contain in reference to the tables of component 
 parts. 
 
 The principal object of the addition of the small 
 quantities of copper, cast iron, and lead to the larger 
 proportions of zinc, is to change the manner of the 
 crystallization of the zinc after it has been fused 
 and set to cool. 
 
 The new alloys are of a closer texture, more 
 homogeneous, and malleable, than simple zinc, and 
 some kinds of iron ; are less liable to oxidation, and 
 of a much finer grain than zinc — somewhat resem- 
 bling that of steel, especially when the alloys are 
 rolled. They are also easier filed than either zinc, 
 copper, or brass, and the filings do not stick in and 
 clog the file. 
 
 N. B. By casting the new alloys in metallic 
 moulds, their hardnesa and homogeneity is increased, 
 
BRONZING THE ALLOYS. 
 
 246 
 
 and a sort of temper is imparted to them, resembling 
 or approaching to steel. 
 
 For the purpose of rendering the alloys which 
 are of a silvery-gray colour, perfectly suitable as 
 substitutes for copper, bronze, brass, and other 
 metals, the colour proper to the metals of which 
 they are intended to be substitutes, is imparted 
 to them by means of any solution of copper. The 
 hydrochlorate of copper is found to answer best — 
 
 Firstly. — For giving the alloys a blackish-bronze 
 colour, they are treated with a solution of the salt 
 of copper, diluted with a considerable quantity of 
 water, and a small quantity of nitric acid may be 
 added. 
 
 Secondly. — To impart a red or copper colour, add 
 to the solution of salt of copper, liquid ammonia, 
 and a little acetic acid. The salt of copper may 
 be dissolved in the liquid ammonia. 
 
 Thirdly. — To impart a brass, or antique bronze 
 colour, either of the three following means may be 
 adopted : 1. A solution of copper, with some acetic 
 acid. 2. The means before described for copper 
 colour, with a large proportTon of liquid ammonia. 
 3, Water acidulated with nitric acid, by which 
 beautiful bluish shades may be produced. It must 
 be observed, however, that this last process can only 
 
246 BRASS AND IRON FOUNDER. 
 
 be properly employed on the alloys which contain a 
 portion of copper. 
 
 In either of these methods of colouring, a solution 
 of sal-ammoniac may be substituted for the liquid 
 ammonia. The quantities of each ingredient have 
 not been stated, as these depend upon the nature of 
 the alloy, the shade or hue desired, and the dura- 
 bility required. 
 
 The blackish-bronze colour may be superadded tc 
 the red or copper colour, whereby a beautiful light 
 colour is produced on the prominent parts of the 
 article bronzed, or on the parts from which the 
 blackish-bronze colour may have been rubbed off. 
 
 These new alloys may be used as substitutes for 
 various metals now in general use, such as iron, in 
 various parts of machinery ; iron, iead, tin, cr cop- 
 per, in pipes and tubes, and bronze, brass, and cop- 
 per, in machinery and manufactories, as well at* for 
 most of the other purposes for which more expensive 
 metals are employed. 
 
SOME MODERN BRONZES. 
 
 247 
 
 SOME MODERN BRONZES. 
 
 Aluminium bronze. Commercial pig copper al- 
 most invariably contains more or less dissolved cu- 
 prous oxide and occluded gases. The presence of 
 these impurities tends to decrease the ductility of the 
 metal, and their removal produces an astonishing in- 
 crease in the tensile strength and general ductility. 
 
 In this simple fact lies the secret of the excellent 
 results obtained with the improved copper-alloys, 
 known as aluminium bronze, phosphor bronze, man- 
 ganese bronze, deoxidized copper, tempered copper, 
 etc.* 
 
 The alloys of aluminium with copper show very 
 different properties, according to the quantities of 
 aluminium they contain. Alloys containing but little 
 copper cannot be used for industrial purposes. With 
 60 to 70 per cent, of aluminium they are very brittle, 
 glass hard and beautifully crystalline. With 50 per 
 cent, the alloy is quite soft, but under 30 per cent, 
 of aluminium the hardness returns. 
 
 The usual alloys are those of 1, 2, 5 and 10 per 
 
 *New Alloys by F. Lynwood Garrison, Journal of the Frank- 
 lin Institute, Vol. CXXXI. 
 
248 BRASS AND IRON FOUNDER. 
 
 cent, of alutninium, the best results being obtained 
 with the latter. With small bars cast in sand, per- 
 haps the best physical results obtained are : Elastic 
 limit, 70,000 lbs. per square inch; tensile strength, 
 95,000 lbs. per square inch, with about 10 per cent, 
 elongation. With rolled bars much better results 
 have been obtained, more particularly as regards 
 elongation. The modulus of elasticity of aluminium 
 bronze is about 18,000,000 lbs.; specific gravity 
 when cast about 7.56, when rolled about 7.89. 
 
 The structure of aluminium bronze is close and 
 dense. The melting point varies somewhat with the 
 amount of aluminium contained in the bronze, the 
 higher grades melting at a somewhat lower point than 
 the lower grades. The color of the 10 per cent, 
 bronze is bright golden. The metal keeps its polish 
 in the air, may be easily engraved, and can be sol- 
 dered with hard solder. 
 
 In making aluminium copper alloys great attention 
 must be paid to the quality of the copper used. 
 Ordinary commercial copper may contain small 
 amounts of antimony, arsenic or iron, which the 
 aluminium can in no way remove, and which affect 
 very injuriously the quality of the bronze. The 
 aluminium bronzes seem to be extremely sensitive to 
 the above raetals, particularly to iron. This neces- 
 
SOME MODERN BRONZES. 
 
 249 
 
 sitates the employment of the purest copper; electro- 
 lytic copper is sometimes used when not too high- 
 priced, but Lake Superior copper is generally found 
 satisfactory enough. Even the purest copper may 
 contain dissolved cuprous oxide or occluded gases, 
 and it is one of the functions of aluminium to reduce 
 these oxides and gases, forming slag, which rises to 
 the surface, and leaving the bronze free from their 
 influences. If tin occurs in the copper it lowers very 
 greatly the ductility and strength of the bronzes, but 
 zinc is not so harmful. 
 
 Care should also be taken as to the purity of the 
 aluminium used, though its impurities are not so 
 harmful as they would be if occurring in similar per- 
 centage in copper, since so much more copper than 
 aluminium is used in these alloys. Yet the bronzes 
 are so sensitive to the presence of iron that an 
 aluminium with as small a percentage of this metal 
 as possible should be used. The silicon in com- 
 mercial aluminium is not so harmful as the iron, but 
 it does harden the bronze considerably and increases 
 its tensile strength. The purest aluminium alloyed 
 with the purest copper always produces the highest 
 quality of bronze. 
 
 For preparing the bronzes the following directions 
 are given : Melt the copper in a plumbago crucible 
 
250 BRASS AND IRON FOUNDER. 
 
 and heat it somewhat hotter than its melting point. 
 When quite fluid and the surface clean, sticks of 
 aluminium of a suitable size are taken in tongs and 
 pushed down under the surface, thus protecting the 
 aluminium from oxidation. The first effect is nec- 
 essarily to chill the copper more or less in contact 
 with the aluminium, hut if the copper was at a good 
 heat to start with, the chilled part is speedily dis- 
 solved and the aluminium attacked. The chemical 
 action of the aluminium is then shown by a rise of 
 temperature which may even reach a white heat. 
 Considerable commotion may take place at first, but 
 this gradually subsides. When the required alum- 
 inium has been introduced, the bronze is let stand 
 for a few minutes and then well stirred, takino- care 
 not to rub or scrape the sides of the crucible. By 
 the stirring, the slag, which commences to rise even 
 during the alloying, is brought almost entirely to the 
 surface. The crucible is then taken out of the 
 furnace, the slag removed from the surface with a 
 skimmer, the metal again stirred to bring up what 
 little slag may still remain in it, and is then ready 
 for casting. It is very injurious to leave it longer 
 in the fire than is absolutely necessary. No flux is 
 required, the bronze needing only to be covered 
 with charcoal powder. The particular point to be 
 
SOME MODERN BRONZES. 
 
 251 
 
 attended to in melting these bronzes is to handle as 
 quickly as possible when once melted. 
 
 The manufacture of aluminium-bronzes on a large 
 scale, as carried on by the Cowles Electric Smelting 
 and Aluminium Company, is as follows : The furnace 
 used consists of a brick box 1 foot wide, 5 feet long 
 and 15 inches deep. From opposite ends enter two 
 immense electrodes, that are really electric-light 
 carbons, 3 inches in diameter and 30 inches long. 
 These are partly contained in pipes that, in turn, 
 pass through stuffing boxes in the ends, to exclude 
 the air and, at the same time, admit of adjusting the 
 electrodes. 
 
 To protect the walls of the furnace from the in- 
 tense heat, it is lined with finely-powdered charcoal, 
 which, having been first washed in a solution of 
 lime-water, retains its non-conductivity even after the 
 particles have been partially converted into graphite 
 by heat. 
 
 The bottom of the furnace is now lined to a depth 
 of two or three inches with this fine, prepared char- 
 coal, and by means of a sheet-iron gauge, the walls 
 of the furnace are covered with charcoal to the 
 thickness of two inches. 
 
 The charge, consisting of about 25 lbs. of corun- 
 dum, 12 lbs. charcoal and carbon, and 50 lbs. of 
 
252 
 
 BRASS AND IRON FOUNDER. 
 
 granulated copper, is placed about the electrodes to 
 within a foot of each end of the furnape. A layer 
 of coarsely-broken charcoal is now spread over the 
 charge, and the sheet-iron gauge withdrawn. The 
 coarse charcoal on top allows the escape of carbonic 
 oxide gas formed during the process. An iron 
 cover, lined with fire-brick, is luted on to prevent the 
 entrance of air. 
 
 The charge is now prepared,, and the furnace 
 ready to be connected with a large Brush dynamo, 
 capable of producing ninety horse-power of electric 
 energy. In the circuit between the dynamo and 
 furnace is an ammeter, designed to register from 50 
 to 20,000 amperes of current, which is controlled by 
 a large resistance-box, as the ends of the electrodes 
 may at first be too close together to make it safe to 
 start the dynamo. By watching the ammeter and 
 moving the electrodes, the resistance-box can be 
 taken gradually out of circuit without producing a 
 "short circuit" at the beginning of the operation. 
 In about ten minutes, after the copper about the 
 electrodes has become melted, the latter are slowly 
 moved apart until the current becomes steady. It 
 is now increased to about 1300 amperes and fifty 
 volts. Carbonic oxide begins to escape from the 
 orifices made in the top, and burns in two white 
 
SOME MODERN BRONZES. 253 
 
 plumes of flame. By regulating the distance be- 
 tween the electrodes, the current is kept constant for 
 about 5 hours, and all parts of the charge are 
 brought into the reducing zone. 
 
 When the operation is completed, a resistance is 
 placed in the box, and the current is switched into 
 another furnace charged in a similar manner. The 
 product is an alloy of copper, containing 15 to 30 
 per cent, of aluminium, and having a beautiful silver 
 color when broken. The copper performs no part in 
 the reduction, but is employed to absorb the alumin- 
 ium, which would otherwise be converted into a 
 carbide. 
 
 This alloy is now melted in an ordinary crucible 
 furnace and run into ingots, which, after being ana- 
 lyzed, are re-melted, and sufficient copper added to 
 produce the standard bronzes. 
 
 Two runs from the furnace described will produce 
 about 100 pounds, containing about 15 per cent, of 
 aluminium. 
 
 When a 10 per cent, aluminium bronze is made by 
 . simple mixing of ingredients, it is brittle, and does 
 not acquire its best qualities until having been cast 
 several times. After three or four meltings it 
 reaches a maximum, at which point it may be melted 
 several times without sensible change. As it cools 
 
254 BRASS AND IRON FOUNDER. 
 
 rapidly, large castings require some care to prevent 
 cracking, so numerous runners and a large feeding- 
 head should be employed. The 10 per cent, bronze 
 fuses at about the temperature of brass containing 
 33 per cent, zinc, and the 5 per cent, melts at a 
 somewhat higher temperature. The former should 
 be poured as cool as possible to produce sharp cast- 
 ings, and should be kept covered with charcoal up to 
 the moment of pouring. Considerable care must be 
 taken in the preparation of "risers," so that the 
 metal will free itself of impurities. The metal can 
 conveniently be freed from slag or other impurity 
 when pouring into the mould by the following 
 method: A supplementary pot or crucible, with a 
 hole in the bottom, is secured over the pouring-gate 
 of the mould. This hole is first plugged up by a 
 carbon or iron rod heated to redness, and the pot is 
 filled with the melted metal before the plug is with- 
 drawn. This allows the oxide and slag to rise to the 
 surface, and admits only pure metal to the mould. 
 It also prevents the oxidation that a stream of metal 
 would suffer in pouring through the air to the ^' pour- 
 ing gate," as is often practiced. 
 
 The shrinkage of 10 per cent, aluminium bronze 
 in casting is about 50 per cent, more than ordinary 
 brass. 
 
SOME MODERN BRONZES. 
 
 255 
 
 Aluminium bronze forges similar to the best 
 Swedish iron, but at a much lower temperature. It 
 works best at a cherry red ; if this is much exceeded, 
 the metal becomes "hot short," and is easily crushed. 
 The temperature for rolling is a bright red heat, and 
 it is a curious fact that, if the metal were forged at 
 the temperature it is rolled, it would be smashed to 
 pieces. If the temperature in the ordinary muffle in 
 which it is heated be allowed to rise too high, the 
 bronze will frequently fall apart by its own weight. 
 When in the rolls it acts very much like yellow 
 Muntz metal. As it loses its heat much more rapidly 
 than copper or iron, it has to be annealed frequently 
 between rollings. 
 
 An incident that occurred in the French postage 
 stamp manufactory, Paris, may here be cited as 
 illustrating some of the peculiar properties of alu- 
 minium bronze. Great trouble was experienced to 
 procure a suitable die-plate to place beneath the 
 needles of a machine used for perforating sheets of 
 postage stamps. At every blow, the needles passed 
 through the holes in the die-plate, and as there were 
 300 needles making rapid strokes, about 180,000,000 
 holes were made per day. With this usage brass- 
 plates wore out in a day, and even steel-plates were 
 speedily destroyed. A plate of aluminium-bronze 
 being substituted, lasted for months without renewal. 
 
256 BRASS AND IRON FOUNDER. 
 
 Delta metal. This metal was patented, in 1882, 
 by Alexander Dick, but it has exactly the same com- 
 position as sterro-metal, which was introduced some 
 years ago by Baron Rosthorn, of Vienna. It is 
 composed of about 60 parts of copper, 34 to 44 of 
 zinc, 2 to 4 of iron, and 1 to 2 of tin. 
 
 The peculiarity of this and similar alloys is the 
 content of iron, which appears to have the property 
 of increasing the strength to an unusual degree. In 
 making delta metal the iron is previously alloyed 
 with zinc in known and definite proportions. When 
 ordinary wrought-iron is introduced into melted zinc, 
 the latter readily dissolves or absorbs the former, and 
 will take it up to the extent of about 5 per cent, or 
 more. By adding the zinc-iron alloy thus obtained 
 to the requisite amount of copper, it is possible to 
 introduce any definite quantity of iron up to 5 per 
 cent, into the copper alloy. Hiorns states that the 
 inventor uses a small amount of phosphorus in com- 
 bination with the copper to avoid the oxidation when 
 the alloy is remelted. In some cases he uses tin, 
 manganese and lead to impart special properties. 
 The inventor claims that by this process the iron is 
 chemically combined in the brass and bronze. 
 
 The advantages claimed for delta metal are great 
 strength and toughness. It produces sound castings 
 
SOME MODERN BRONZES. 257 
 
 of close grain. It can be rolled and forged hot, and 
 can stand a certain amount of drawing and hammer- 
 ing when cold. It takes a high polish, and when 
 exposed to the atmosphere tarnishes less than brass. 
 
 When cast in sand, delta metal has a tensile 
 strength of about 45,000 lbs. per square inch and 
 about 10 per cent, elongation ; when rolled, a tensile 
 strength of 60,000 to 75,000 lbs. per square inch 
 and elongation of from 9 to 17 per cent, on bars 
 1.128 inch in diameter and 1 inch area. 
 
 Delta metal can be forged, stamped and rolled hot. 
 It must be forged at a dark cherry-red heat, and care 
 taken to avoid striking when at a black heat. 
 
 Delta metal as manufactured by the " Deutsche 
 Delta-Metall Gesellschaft" is composed as follows: 
 
 Constituents. 
 
 Cast 
 Per cent. 
 
 Wrought 
 Per cent. 
 
 Rolled 
 Per cent. 
 
 Hot 
 punched 
 Per cent. 
 
 Manganese .... 
 
 Nickel 
 
 Phosphorus . . , . 
 
 55.94 
 0.72 
 0.87 
 0.81 
 41.61 
 Trace 
 0.013 
 
 55.80 
 1.82 
 1.28 
 0.96 
 40.07 
 Trace 
 0.011 
 
 55.82 
 0.76 
 0.86 
 1.38 
 
 41.41 
 0.06 
 Trace 
 
 54.22 
 1.10 
 0.99 
 1.09 
 
 42.25 
 0.16 
 0.02 
 
 
 99.963 
 
 99.941 
 
 100.29 
 
 99.83 
 
 Deoxidized bronze. This alloy is manufactured 
 by the Deoxidized Metal Company of Bridgeport, 
 17 
 
258 
 
 BRASS AND IRON FOUNDER. 
 
 Conn. It resembles phosphor-bronze somewhat in 
 composition, and also delta metal, in containing zinc 
 and iron. The following analysis by Mr. Jas. S. 
 de Bonneville gives its average composition : 
 
 Copper 82.67 
 
 Tin 12.40 
 
 Zinc 3.23 
 
 Lead 2.14 
 
 Iron 0.10 
 
 Silver 0.07 
 
 Phosphorus . , 0.005 
 
 100.615 
 
 It seems probable that some deoxidizing flux con- 
 taining phosphorus, similar to that employed in the 
 manufacture of phosphor-bronze is used in the manu- 
 facture of this alloy. Deoxidized bronze is largely 
 used for wood-pulp digesters, as it is found to resist 
 the action of sodium hyposulphite and sulphurous 
 acid remarkably well. 
 
 Deoxidized bronze wire has a tensile strength in 
 the neighborhood of 150,000 lbs. per square inch. 
 The deoxidized copper wire made by the Deoxidized 
 Bronze Company has a tensile strength of 70,000 
 lbs. per square inch ; and the deoxidized copper 
 sheets, a tensile strength of from 30,000 to 50,000 
 lbs. per square inch. 
 
SOME MODERN BRONZES. 
 
 259 
 
 Manganese bronze. This alloy has been used very 
 extensively for casting propeller blades, both in this 
 country and abroad. When cast in sand it has an 
 average elastic limit of 30,000 lbs. per square inch, 
 tensile strength about 60,000 lbs. per square inch 
 with an elongation of 8 to 10 per cent. When 
 rolled the elastic limit is about 80,000 lbs. per 
 square inch, tensile strength 95,000 to 106,000 lbs. 
 
 per square inch, and an elongation of 12 to 15 per 
 cent* 
 
 For several years past manganese bronze appears 
 to have been made in large quantities by Mr. P. M. 
 Parsons of the Manganese Bronze Company, Dept- 
 ford, England, the manganese being added in the 
 form of ferro-manganese. A portion of the man- 
 ganese in the alloy thus added is utilized in deoxi- 
 dation, while the remainder, together with the iron, 
 becomes permanently combined with the copper. The 
 manganese once alloyed with the copper is not 
 driven off by remelting, but usually the quality of 
 the bronze is improved by remelting. 
 
 Ferro-manganese is composed of manganese, 75 
 parts, and iron, 75. 
 
 An alloy of copper and manganese, the so-called 
 cupro-manganese, consisting of copper, 70.5 parts; 
 manganese, 25, and coal, 0.5, is recommended as an 
 
260 
 
 BRASS AND IRON FOUNDER. 
 
 addition to bronze. Of this composition, an addition 
 of 2f per cent, suffices for most cases. The process 
 is very simple. After melting the bronze-masses, 
 the metal-bath is covered with pulverized charcoal, 
 and the pieces of cupro-manganese, previously 
 weighed and reduced to small pieces, are allowed 
 slowly to slide into the crucible. Fusion takes place 
 instantaneously, but the crucible is for a few mo- 
 ments to be replaced upon the fire, in order to some- 
 what increase the temperature reduced by the addi- 
 tion of the cold pieces of metal. In pouring out 
 proceed in the ordinary manner. To enclose the 
 oxide of manganese formed by this process, add to 
 the charcoal, with w.hich the metal-bath is covered, 
 about one-half its quantity of pure carbonate of pot- 
 ash. 
 
 Alloys prepared with the assistance of cupro- 
 manganese, which are especially valuable for tech- 
 nical purposes, have the following composition: 
 
 
 
 Parts. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 I. 
 
 II. 
 
 III. 
 
 IV. 
 
 
 77 
 
 60 
 
 C5 
 
 60 
 
 
 
 25 
 
 20 
 
 20 
 
 
 
 15 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 Nickel .... 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 10 
 
 i^hosphor -bronze. In 1868 Montefiore and Kiin- 
 
SOME MODERN BRONZES. 
 
 261 
 
 zel, of Li^ge, Belgium, observed that the tin in 
 bronze progressively decreases by oxidation during 
 smelting, the tin oxide going partly into the slag 
 and being partly dissolved in the melted metal, so 
 that bronze originally composed of 10.10 per cent, 
 tin and 89.90 copper, after the fourth melting con- 
 tained only 8.52 tin and 91.48 copper. It was 
 found that poling (stirring up the metal with a stick 
 of green wood) eliminated the oxide combined with 
 copper, but had no effect on the tin-oxide. Kiinzel 
 then tried the introduction of a little phosphorus, or 
 " phosphoret of tin or copper," into the mass, with 
 the desired result. Bars cast from the same crucible 
 of metal under the three conditions named gave the 
 following results : 
 
 Condition of the mass of metal. 
 
 Resistance. 
 
 Lengthen- 
 ing until 
 Rupture. 
 
 Per cent. 
 
 Absolute 
 lb. per 
 square 
 iuch. 
 
 Elastic 
 lb. per 
 square 
 inch. 
 
 " deoridized with \ 
 phosphorus. j 
 
 22.982 
 24.922 
 
 33.916 
 
 17.020 
 17.709 
 
 19.300 
 
 2.0 
 2.8 
 
 6.8 
 
 Other experiments in phosphorizing alloys of cop- 
 per, nickel, manganese and iron were not satisfac- 
 tory, nor was that of using sodium instead of phos- 
 phorus as a deoxidizer. The action of phosphorus 
 
262 
 
 BRASS AND IRON FOUNDER. 
 
 in bronze is (1) to eliminate the oxides, and (2) to 
 make the tin capable of assuming crystalline struc- 
 ture, thus increasing the homogeneity of the alloy, 
 and thereby its elasticity and absolute resistance. 
 Among other properties, phosphor-bronze emits 
 sparks under friction less readily than gun metal or 
 copper. It is peculiarly adapted for friction bear- 
 ings ; is easily rolled into sheets, and is very tough 
 in that form. In sea-water it oxidizes at about one- 
 third the rate of copper. 
 
 The following are Kirkaldy's figures for tenacity 
 and ductility of phosphor-bronze wire No. 16, Bir- 
 mingham gauge : 
 
 Phosphor-bronze Wire, No. 16. 
 
 Mater- 
 ials. 
 
 Phos- 
 plior- 
 bronze 
 of sev- 
 eral 
 pro- 
 por- 
 tions. 
 
 Load at fracture. 
 
 Elonga 
 tion. 
 Length 
 5 inches 
 
 No. of twists 
 before break- 
 
 Unannealed. 
 
 Annealed. 
 
 ing. 
 
 
 Per sq. 
 mm. 
 
 Per sq. 
 inch. 
 
 Per sq, 
 mm. 
 
 Per sq. 
 inch. 
 
 Per 
 cent. 
 
 Unan- 
 nealed 
 
 An- 
 nealed 
 
 72.3 kilos 
 
 46 tons 
 
 34.7 kilos 
 
 22 tons 
 
 37.5 
 
 6.7 
 
 80 
 
 85.1 " 
 
 54 " 
 
 33.6 " 
 
 21.3 " 
 
 34.1 
 
 22.3 
 
 52 
 
 85.2 " 
 
 54.1 " 
 
 37.5 " 
 
 23.8 " 
 
 42,4 
 
 13.0 
 
 124 
 
 97.7 " 
 
 62.1 " 
 
 42.8 " 
 
 27.2 " 
 
 44.9 
 
 17.3 
 
 53 
 
 112.2 " 
 
 71.2 " 
 
 41.7 " 
 
 26.5 " 
 
 46.6 
 
 17.3 
 
 66 
 
 106.3 " 
 
 61.6 " 
 
 45.4 " 
 
 28.9 " 
 
 42.8 
 
 15.0 
 
 60 
 
SOME MODERN BRONZES. 263 
 
 Cast Phosphor-bronze. 
 
 Keduetion 
 of section. 
 
 Elastic limit. 
 
 Ultimate resistance. 
 
 Per cent. 
 
 Per sq, mm. 
 
 Per sq. inch. 
 
 Per sq. mm. 
 
 Per sq. inch. 
 
 8.4 
 1.5 
 33.4 
 
 16.65 kilos 
 17.38 " 
 11.6 " 
 
 10.6 tons 
 11.05 " 
 7.2 " 
 
 37.0 kilos 
 32.5 " 
 31.3 " 
 
 23.5 tons 
 
 20.6 " 
 19.9 " 
 
 The content of phosphorus is imparted to the 
 bronze by an addition of copper phosphide or phos- 
 phide of tin, both these phosphides being sometimes 
 used at the same time. They must be especially 
 prepared, the best process being briefly as follows : 
 
 Copper-phosphide. A mixture of bone ash, silica, 
 and carbon is placed in a crucible, and upon it a 
 layer of granulated copper, which is in turn covered 
 with the above mixture. The lid of the crucible is 
 luted on. To make the mixture melt more readily, 
 some carbonate of soda and glass may be added, or 
 a mixture of pulverized milk glass with charcoal and 
 powdered coke is used for lining and covering it. 
 Take for example 14 parts of silica, 18 of bone ash, 
 and 4 of powdered carbon. This is mixed with 4 
 parts of soda and 4 of powdered glass, stirred up 
 with a little gum water, and used to line the cruci- 
 ble. When this is dry the copper is put in and 
 covered with the same mass, and the whole is melted 
 
264 
 
 BRASS AND IRON POUNDER. 
 
 at a bright-red heat. The copper obtained flows 
 well, and has a reddish-gray color. It contains 0.50 
 to 0.51 per cent, of phosphorus. 
 
 According to another method copper-phosphide is 
 prepared by adding phosphorus to copper sulphide 
 solution and boiling, adding sulphur as the sulphide 
 is precipitated. The precipitate is carefully dried, 
 melted and cast into ingots. "When of good quality 
 and in proper condition, it is quite black. 
 
 Phosphide of tin is prepared as follows : Place a 
 bar of zinc in an aqueous solution of chloride of tin, 
 collect the sponge-like tin separated, and bring it 
 moist into a crucible upon the bottom of which sticks 
 of phosphorus have been placed. Press the tin 
 tightly into the crucible and expose it to a gentle 
 heat. Continue the heating until flames of burning 
 phosphorus are no longer observed on the crucible. 
 After the operation is finished a coarsely-crystalline 
 mass of a tin-white color, consisting of pure phosphide 
 of tin, is found upon the bottom of the crucible. 
 
 Phosphor-bronze is prepared by melting the alloy 
 to be converted into it in the usual manner, and 
 adding small pieces of copper phosphide and phos- 
 phide of tin. 
 
 The phosphorus may also be introduced into the 
 bronze as follows : Stick a bar of the phosphorus intc 
 
SOME MODERN BRONZES. 
 
 265 
 
 a tube of pinchbeck, one end of which is hammered 
 together and closed tightly. After the phosphorus is 
 put in the other end is also closed. When the metal, 
 which contains 82 parts of copper to 5 of zinc and 1 
 of tin, is melted, the tube charged with phosphorus 
 is pushed down in it to the bottom of the crucible by 
 means of bent tongs. The stick of phosphorus must 
 be kept under water until it is to be introduced into 
 the pinchbeck tube, when it must be carefully dried, 
 as the presence of any moisture would be sure to 
 cause the metal to spurt or fly about. 
 
 Another way of introducing the phosphorus is as 
 follows : Get from a gas-fitter about 2 feet of iron 
 pipe, with a bore a little larger than the sticks of 
 phosphorus ; make an iron plug to fit the bore, and 
 then drive it down one end of the pipe until the space 
 will hold the quantity of phosphorus you wish to mix 
 in the metal. Make a plug of tin, about ^ inch thick, 
 to fit in the bore. Now introduce the phosphorus in 
 the space formed by the iron plug, and just tap the 
 tin plug into the end of the pipe with a hammer. 
 Stir the pipe about in the melted metal ; the tin plug 
 soon melts, letting out the phosphorus in the bronze 
 baths. 
 
 According to Thurston, five sorts of phosphor- 
 bronze are considered to answer all requirements : 
 
266 
 
 BRASS AND IRON FOUNDER. 
 
 0. Ordinary phosphor-bronze of 2 per cent, of 
 phosphorus. 
 
 1. Good phosphor-bronze of 2| per cent, of phos- 
 phorus. 
 
 These two numbers are in all cases superior to 
 ordinary bronze and steel. 
 
 2. Superior phosphor-bronze of 3 per cent, of 
 phosphorus. 
 
 3. Extra phosphor-bronze of 3| per cent, of phos- 
 phorus. 
 
 4. Maximum phosphor-bronze of 4 per cent, of 
 phosphorus. 
 
 These three, according to Delalot, are superior to 
 any other bronzes. Above No. 4 phosphor-bronze is 
 useless, below No. 0 it is inferior to common bronze 
 and steel. Nos. 3 and 4 are comparatively unoxi- 
 dizable. 
 
 Platinum-hronze. This bronze, which has been 
 patented in various countries by Helonis, of Paris, is 
 described as follows : By alloying nickel with a small 
 quantity of platinum it loses its oxidability and is 
 not attacked by acetic acid. To prepare the alloy 
 the nickel is melted, without flux, with the platinum 
 and a certain quantity of tin. The following alloys 
 are at present used : 
 
SOME MODERN BRONZES. 267 
 
 Nickel. Platinum. Tin. Silver. 
 
 For knives, forks and spoons . 100 1 10 
 
 " bells 100 1 20 2 
 
 " fancy articles 100 0.5 15 — 
 
 " field glasses 100 20 20 — 
 
 A non-oxidizable alloy is as follows: Nickel 60 
 parts, platinum 5 to 10, brass 120. 
 
 Silicori. bronze. This alloy appears to have been 
 invented, about 1881, by M. Weiller of Angouleme. 
 In experimenting with phosphor-bronze wire for tele- 
 graphic and telephonic use, he found its conductivity 
 was insufficient for telegraphic purposes, so he de- 
 vised the alloy now called silicon bronze. 
 
 The silicon-copper compound, from which the sili- 
 con bronze is produced, is made by melting, in a 
 graphitic crucible, a certain amount of copper with a 
 mixture of fluor-silicate of potassium, glass, chloride 
 of soda, carbonate of soda and chloride of calcium. 
 It is claimed the silicon and sodium in this mixture 
 absorb all the oxides present in the mass. 
 
 The action of the silicon on the copper is similar 
 to that of phosphorus. It acts as deoxidizer and, the 
 silica formed being an acid, is a valuable flux for 
 any metallic oxides remaining unreduced. 
 
 Silicon bronze is chiefly used for telegraph and 
 telephone wires, wire made from it having the same 
 resistance to rupture as phosphor-bronze wire, but 
 
268 BRASS AND IRON FOUNDER. 
 
 with a much higher degree of electric conductivity. 
 It also seems that, although wires made from this 
 alloy are very much lighter than ordinary wires, 
 they are of equal strength. 
 
 According to E. Van der Ven, phosphor-bronze 
 has about 30 per cent., silicon bronze, 70 per cent., 
 and steel lOJ per cent, of the electrical conductivity 
 of copper. 
 
 The following shoAvs the composition of silicon 
 bronze used for wires : 
 
 Teleph 
 
 one Wire A. 
 
 Telegraph Wire A. 
 
 Copper , . 
 
 . 99.94 per cent. 
 
 Copper . . .97.12 per cent. 
 
 Tin .... 
 
 
 
 Silicon . . 
 
 . 0.02 " 
 
 Silicon . . . 0.05 " 
 
 Iron . . . 
 
 . trace 
 
 Iron .... trace 
 
 Zinc . . . 
 
 
 Zinc .... 1.62 " 
 
 
 99.99 per cent. 
 
 99.93 per cent. 
 
 Steel-bronze. The ordnance-bronze known under 
 this name is prepared in the Austrian arsenals, the 
 method of melting and subsequent treatment in cast- 
 ing being kept secret. It is only known that the 
 bronze contains 8 per cent, of tin, and that the cast- 
 ing is eflfected in cold iron moulds. The peculiarity 
 of the process of manufacturing ordnance from steel- 
 bronze (also called UcJiatius hrortze after its in- 
 ventor) consists in the piece, after being finished to 
 a certain extent, being subjected to a peculiar mechan- 
 
SOME MODERN BRONZES. 
 
 269 
 
 ical treatment. The calibre of the piece is made 
 smaller than it is finally to be, and is then gradually 
 enlarged to the required diameter by steel-cylinders 
 with conical points being forced through the cavity 
 with the assistance of hydraulic presses. In conse- 
 quence of this peculiar treatment the cavity is, so to 
 say, forged or rolled, the bronze acquiring the great- 
 est power of resistance in those places which in fir- 
 ing are subjected to the greatest pressure. 
 
 Tohin bronze. This alloy is practically a sterro 
 or delta metal with the addition of a small amount 
 of lead, which tends to render copper softer and 
 more ductile. According to the inventor's claims, 
 the bronze can be forged and stamped at a red heat 
 as readily as steel. Bolts and nuts can be forged 
 from it by hand, and machinery when cold drawn. 
 Its increased density and high elastic limit, and the 
 facility with which it can be upset while hot make it 
 well adapted for special purposes. The bronze 
 should be forged only at a cherry-red heat and never 
 be worked at a black heat. Analyses by Dr. Chas. 
 B. Dudley: 
 
 Pig Metal. Test Bar (Rolled). 
 Per Cent. Per Cent. 
 
 Copper 59.00 61.20 
 
 Zinc 38.40 3T.14 
 
 Tin 2.16 0.90 
 
 Iron 0.11 0.18 
 
 Lead ........ 0.31 0.35 
 
270 
 
 BKASS AND IRON FOUNDEfi. 
 
 ON ZINC AS A PROTECTIVE COVERING FOR IRON ; AND 
 THE ADAPTATION OF THE PROCESS OF ELECTRO* 
 DEPOSITION FOR THAT PURPOSE. BY F. PELLATT, 
 ESQ. 
 
 Head at the luatitution of Civil Engineers, London. 
 
 The object of this paper is to direct attention to 
 the properties of zinc as a protecting coating to 
 iron; to describe the processes already employed 
 for this purpose ; the reason of their failure ; and 
 the peculiar adaptation of the electro-deposition of 
 the metal for the end desired. 
 
 It would be a needless waste of time to say any- 
 tning regarding the superior value of iron as a ma- 
 terial ; but a few remarks respecting its chemical 
 influences may not be misplaced. 
 
 The cause of iron becoming corroded is its superioi 
 affinity for oxygen. If the iron and water are both 
 pure, this is not, indeed, found to be the case : but 
 under ordinary circumstances, neither of these exist 
 in a state of purity. The iron, therefore, owing to 
 its OAvn impurity, and that of the water, is subject 
 
ON COVERING IRON WITH ZINC. 271 
 
 to a powerful destructive influence, which is best 
 known to those most experienced in its use ; and 
 there is no circumstance in which "we can place iron 
 to be free from the action of water, it being present 
 in the air and earth. So powerfully is this metal 
 affected in the earth, or in contact with some salts, 
 that it loses all its essential properties, and is 
 converted into a substance so soft that it may be 
 scratched by a finger nail. These facts render it of 
 the utmost importance that some means be obtained 
 for its protection, which, at the same time, will not 
 interfere with the natural properties of the iron. 
 The substances hitherto used for protecting iron are 
 tin and paint. These, as lasting coatings, are not 
 effective. The tin being electrically negative to the 
 iron, renders it a means of destruction, instead of 
 protection, when any part of the iron is exposed. 
 By the laws of electricity, when metals are in con- 
 tact, the negative metal is protected at the expense 
 of the positive. 
 
 Circumstances, such as different chemical men- 
 strua, may alter the relative electrical states of 
 metals. But under all ordinary circumstances this 
 rule holds good ; and zinc being the positive metal, 
 it becomes, in consequence, a protector to the nega- 
 tive metal, iron. This electrical property of zinc in 
 
272 BKASS AND IRON FOUNDER. 
 
 connexion with iron and other metals, has induced 
 those to whom it was known, to recommend it as a 
 coating. The difficulty hitherto has been the ob- 
 taining of zinc pure, and the application of it with- 
 out injuring the texture of the iron. 
 
 From the known qualities of zinc, it has been 
 lately much employed for various purposes, but has 
 entirely disappointed the expectations formed from 
 Its properties. The reason of this is, that no zinc 
 of commerce is pure, and that the impurities 
 existing are destructive to it, from the electrical 
 law we have alluded to. The impurities existing, 
 more or less, in all zinc, are lead, iron, arsenic, and 
 one or two other metals, all of which are electrically 
 negative to zinc ; the consequence being that every 
 atom of impurity, in connexion with the zinc, forms 
 a galvanic battery of many thousands, or rather 
 millions, of pairs of plates, the impurities being pro- 
 tected, and the zinc destroyed. 
 
 It has no doubt surprised many who have made 
 use of zinc, to find it in a few weeks or months, 
 according to circumstances, perforated with small 
 holes, and completely destroyed. We say according 
 to circumstances, because the ordinary time zinc 
 lasts depends not only on the amount of impurities 
 ontained in it, but also on the exciting fluid to 
 
ON COVERING IRON WITH ZINC. 
 
 273 
 
 which it is subjected. Exposed to the actiou of 
 water from the atmosphere, the destructive influence 
 operates comparatively slowly ; but with more ex- 
 citing fluids very rapidly. 
 
 Thus, a roof erected in the neighbourhood of a 
 vinegar distillery, was completely destroyed in six 
 weeks; and vessels used for dairy purposes have 
 lasted but a very short time, owing to the presence 
 of acids — these causing a rapid galvanic action be- 
 tween the zinc and its impariiies. It is then quite 
 evident that impure zinc, being itself valueless, can- 
 not aftbrd protection to any other metal. Now. the 
 only process yet in use for the purpose of coating iron 
 with zinc, is that of immersing the iron in melted zinc. 
 This we conceive open to many objections. The iron 
 by this process being raised to a temperature of at 
 least 800°, causes it to combine with the zinc, form- 
 ing an alloy on the surface, which changes its state, 
 and becomes brittle. But upon this subject, we 
 shall refer to the report made by M. Dumas to the 
 French Academy. He says — 
 
 " The zincing of iron, made by steeping iron in a 
 bath of melted zinc, has many inconveniences; be- 
 sides, the iron combining with the zinc, constitutes 
 a very brittle, superficial alloy. The iron loses its 
 tenacity — a circumstance which is not perceived, 
 
 18 
 
274 
 
 BRASS AND IRON FOUNDER. 
 
 however, except in trying to zinc fine iron wire, or 
 very thin plate. Besides, the surface, being covered 
 with a layer of not very fusible metal, is always iil- 
 formed. Thus, fine iron wire cannot be zinced by 
 this process, as it becomes fragile and deformed ; 
 bullets cannot be zinced, as they become misshapen, 
 and no longer of the same calibre." 
 
 We have reason to believe that very nice manipu- 
 lations, and annealing the iron after zincing, may 
 remove some of M. Dumas' objections to this pro- 
 cess. Still, two fatal objections, in our oninion, 
 would exist to its use: first, the impossibility of ob- 
 tainmg 'pure zinc, except at an enormous expense, 
 the only process being sublimation or distillation; 
 and secondly, the impossibility of retaining its 
 purity, during the process of applying it to iron. 
 
 Setting aside the fact of an alloy of iron and zinc 
 being produced by the action of heated iron immersed 
 in melted zinc, the presence of foreign matter neces- 
 sary to retain the zinc in fusion, renders it impure ; 
 these matters forming less fusible compounds, and 
 zinc being very volatile, a great amount of waste is 
 created. 
 
 But it is well known to all those acquainted with 
 the deposition of metals from soluble salts by the 
 electro process, that pure metal only is deposited; 
 
ON COVERING IRON WITH ZINC. 275 
 
 60 that this process is not open to the objection upon 
 this head, which may be made to every other, more 
 especially in treating a metal of so intractable a 
 character as zinc. It is also applicable to all sizes 
 and shapes of work, requires no expensive erections, 
 and, what is important in large operations, may be 
 performed anywhere, and by any person. 
 
 Although the protecting influence of zinc (we of 
 course speak of pure zinc) upon other metals is 
 practically unknown, it has been well known to men 
 of science ; and we shall take the liberty of quoting 
 the opinions of some of the best chemists upon the 
 subject ; bearing in mind that zinc is electrically 
 positive to other metals, and as such protects them 
 from oxidation at a very trifling loss to itself — and 
 that, by a well known law of electrical science, one 
 body being electrically excite^ that body induces 
 its opposite state in other bodies with which it is in 
 contact. Keeping these three points in view, we 
 would call attention to the following opinions : — Dr. 
 Kane says, " Zinc preserves the other metals, even 
 if it be iron, from oxidation ;" and, again, " Zinc, 
 when exposed to the air even in presence of water, 
 becomes covered with a varnish of a gray substance, 
 probably a definite sub-oxide, which is not further 
 
276 BRASS AND IRON FOUNDER. 
 
 altered by exposure." Professor Graham, alluding 
 to iron in water, says, " Articles of iron may be 
 completely defended from the injury occasioned in 
 this way, by the more positive metal zinc, while the 
 protecting metal itself washes away slowly;" and 
 further, when speaking of zinc, " When exposed to 
 air, or placed in water, its surface becomes covered 
 with a gray film of sub-oxide, which does not 
 increase ; and this film is better calculated to resist 
 both the mechanical and chemical effects of other 
 bodies than the metal itself, and preserves it." And 
 Professor Daniel, in his new work, says, " That a 
 plate of pure zinc, when immersed in water, speedily 
 becomes dulled by the formation of a thin coat of 
 oxide ; but the oxidation proceeds no further, be- 
 cause the adhesion of the metal prevents a renewed 
 contact of the metal and the water." 
 
 From these authorities we notice that pure zinc 
 has a double protecting influence, the iron being 
 protected by the zinc, and the zinc by its own oxide, 
 besides that peculiar galvanic influence induced bv 
 the positive state of the zinc with respect to the 
 iron. With regard to the peculiar adaptation of the 
 electro processes to the zincing of iron, we shall 
 again quote from M. Dumas' Report. He says, 
 'Manufacturers, and those concerned in military 
 
ON COVERING IRON WITH ZINC. 277 
 
 affairs and the fine arts, will learn with interest that 
 these processes enable us to zinc, in an economical 
 manner, iron, steel, and cast iron, by means of the 
 pile or battery, with the solution of zinc, by operat- 
 ing without heat, and consequently not interfering 
 with the tenacity of the metal ; by applying it in 
 thin layers, and by thus preserving the general forms 
 of the pieces, and even the appearance of their 
 minutest details. The thinnest plate may receive 
 this preparation without becoming brittle, and may 
 be turned to account in roofing buildings." 
 
 We hope these authorities fully support what we 
 have asserted, that pure zinc affords a perfect pro- 
 tection to iron, is not itself susceptible of rapid de- 
 cay, and is easily applicable to the electro process. 
 We are aware that other opinions upon this subject 
 have been given ; some have almost denied its gal- 
 vanic influence, and have reduced it to what they 
 term a mere '■'■tendency," whilst others have much 
 overstated it. Effects which may be witnessed every 
 day, prove that there is a secret galvanic agency ar. 
 work when metals are in contact. Take, for in- 
 stance, the decay of iron when in contact with lead. 
 Finery one has observed that iron railings let into 
 stone work with lead, are much decayed within a 
 
278 
 
 BRASS AND IRON FOUNDER. 
 
 short space of the contact of these two metals, whilv 
 the remaining portion is comparatively sound. This 
 effect is from the iron being positive to the lead, 
 which is therefore protected at the expense of the 
 iron. 
 
 It is matter of regret that zinc cannot be used with 
 the same protecting property to articles in use at sea. 
 This arises from its strong affinity for muriatic acid, 
 thereby forming muriate of zinc, which being readily 
 soluble is taken off by the water, leaving a new sur- 
 face of zinc to be acted on, thus rapidly destroying 
 the zinc. 
 
 In situations where the articles are not exposed 
 to the run of salt water, the zinc will be found a 
 protection. 
 
 The zinced iron solders readily. All other metals 
 may be treated by this process for ornamental pur- 
 poses. Copper will be found very useful. The de- 
 positions by alkaline solutions are perfectly j&rm, 
 and not subject to the objection to which those made 
 by acid solutions are; these being always insecure 
 from the formation of an oxide upon the iron, in- 
 duced by the acid of the solution. The deposited 
 copper may be bronzed or gilt, and will be found 
 most useful for ornamental work. 
 
ON COVERING IRON WITH ZINC. 279 
 
 Many specimens of zinced iron, some of whict 
 had been exposed to the action of the weather for 
 months, were exhibited to the meeting, as wel'. 
 specimens of iron coated with copper by th« sar/K. 
 process. 
 
 While iron may be protected by an electro-deposit 
 of zinc, the process, even when working with small 
 articles, is connected with certain difficulties, and is 
 at present but little appllied in practice, zincking by 
 immersion, or as it is technically called "galvanizing," 
 being preferred. In order that the metal to be gal- 
 vanized will take a proper coating of zinc, it requires 
 to be freed from oxide and impurities of every de- 
 scription, which is generally effected by pickling it 
 in a liquid consisting of commercial sulphuric acid 
 diluted with 10 to 12 parts of water and subsequent 
 washing with clean water. The metal is then im- 
 mersed in commercial hydrochloric acid and finally 
 dried in an oven, when it is ready for the zinc bath. 
 The temperature of the latter is a matter of vital im- 
 portance to the quality of the work, and it is here 
 that the skill and experience of the workman tells 
 strongly. For sheet-iron work the heat of the bath 
 is kept at about 1000° F. 
 
280 
 
 BRASS AND IRON FOUNDER 
 
 WATER IN PIPES. 
 
 This table shows the quantity and weight of 
 water contained in one fathom of length of pipes of 
 different bores from 1 inch to 12 inches in diameter, 
 advancing by J inch. The weight of a cubic foot 
 of water is taken at 1000 ounces avoirdupois, and 
 the imperial gallon at 10 lbs. 
 
 Diameter in 
 inches. 
 
 Quantity in 
 
 Quantity in Im- 
 
 Weight in IV 
 Avoir d. 
 
 Cubic iucbe3. 
 
 perial gallons. 
 
 
 14.14 
 
 0.051 
 
 0.51 
 
 1 
 
 56.55 
 
 0.205 
 
 2.oe 
 
 1^ 
 
 127.23 
 
 0.460 
 
 4.50 
 
 2 
 
 226.19 
 
 0.818 
 
 8.18 
 
 
 353.43 
 
 1.278 
 
 12.78 
 
 3 
 
 508.94 
 
 1.841 
 
 18.41 
 
 
 692.72 
 
 2.506 
 
 25.06 
 
 4 
 
 904.78 
 
 3.272 
 
 32.72 
 
 
 1145.11 
 
 4.142 
 
 41.42 
 
 5 
 
 1413.72 
 
 5.113 
 
 51.13 
 
 5i 
 
 1710.60 
 
 6.187 
 
 61.87 
 
 6 
 
 2035.75 
 
 7.363 
 
 73.63 
 
 6^ 
 
 2389.18 
 
 8.641 
 
 86.41 
 
 7 
 
 2770.88 
 
 10.022 
 
 100.22 
 
 
 3180.86 
 
 11.505 
 
 115.05 
 
 8 
 
 3619.11 
 
 13.090 
 
 130.90 
 
 8* 
 
 4085.64 
 
 14.777 
 
 147.77 
 
 9 
 
 4580.44 
 
 16.567 
 
 165.67 
 
 9^ 
 
 5103.52 
 
 18.459 
 
 184.59 
 
 10 
 
 5654.87 
 
 20.453 
 
 204.53 
 
 10| 
 
 6234.49 
 
 22.550 
 
 225.50 
 
 11 
 
 6842.39 
 
 24.748 
 
 247.48 
 
 11^ 
 
 7478.56 
 
 27.049 
 
 270.49 
 
 12 
 
 8143.01 
 
 29.452 
 
 294.52 
 
ON CRUCIBLES. 
 
 281 
 
 ON CRUCIBLES. 
 
 The manufacture of crucibles is a branch of the 
 potter's art, requiring great care to insure success ; 
 and until lately, was at the best a very uncertain 
 process. The chief requisites in a good crucible are, 
 refractoriness in the strongest heats, capability of 
 withstanding the corrosive effects of any substances 
 tnat may be ignited in them, and the effects of sud- 
 den alterations of temperature. They must also be 
 composed of a material sufficiently solid in its texture 
 to prevent the passage of the solid metal through its 
 pores. 
 
 The composition producing pots of the best qua- 
 lity is formed by pure fire clay mixed with finely 
 ground cement of old crucibles, to which is added a 
 portion of black lead or plumbago. The clay is pre- 
 pared in the same manner as observed in pottery 
 generally. The vessels, after being worked to the 
 proper conical shape, are slowly dried, and then 
 baked in a kiln. 
 
 The composition used in the Royal Foundry of 
 Berlin is formed of eight parts in bulk of Stour- 
 bridge clay and cement, five of coke, and four of 
 
282 
 
 BRASS AND IRON FOUNDER. 
 
 graphite or plumbago. Crucibles manufactured from 
 this mixture are capable of withstanding the greatest 
 possible heat in which wrought iron melts, being 
 equal to from 150° to 155° Wedgewood. They also 
 bear sudden cooling without cracking. In the Ber- 
 lin foundry they have been employed for twenty- 
 three consecutive meltings of seventy-six pounds of 
 iron each, which perhaps is the most complete and 
 trying test that could be adopted. 
 
 Another composition is as follows : — 8 pounds 
 Stourbridge clay, 4 pounds burned clay cement, 2 
 pounds coke powder, and 2 pounds pipe clay ; the 
 whole being compressed in moulds while in a pasty 
 state. 
 
 The Hessian crucibles from Great Almerode and 
 Epterode, resist the action of fluxes, and are tole- 
 rably lasting. They are made from a fire clay con- 
 taining a small amount of iron, but no lime. This 
 is incorporated with silicious sand. These crucibles 
 are rather porous, but they resist the effect of saline 
 and leaden fluxes, and are not liable to crack, bur 
 they melt below the fusing point of bar iron. 
 
 The black lead crucibles bear a much higher heat. 
 Their composition is two parts of graphite and one 
 of fire clay ; this is mixed into a pasty mass by 
 means of water. • The crucibles are baked slightlj 
 
ON CKUCIBLES. 
 
 283 
 
 m the kiln, but are not completely hardened until 
 put in the furnace for use. They are of a smooth 
 surface, and are consequently suitable for gold and 
 the precious metals generally. These crucibles are 
 perhaps the very best yet manufactured, and many 
 of the brass founders throughout Europe, and, for 
 aught I have yet seen to the contrary, all the brass 
 founders of America, are adopting them in pre- 
 ference to ordinary clay ones. 
 
 Mr. Anstey's patent process for the manufacture 
 of crucibles is as follows :— 2 parts of finely ground 
 raw Stourbridge clay, and 1 part of the hardest gas 
 coke, previously pulverized, and sifted through a 
 sieve of one-eighth of an inch mesh, are mixed well 
 together with water. This mixture is moulded on a 
 revolving w^ooden block, somewhat similar to the 
 process pursued in pot throwing, a gauge being 
 used to regulate the thickness of the pot, and a cap 
 of linen placed upon the core previous to the appli- 
 cation of the clay, in order to prevent its adhering 
 when removed. The pot is then dried in a gentle 
 heat, and is not thoroughly completed until required 
 for use. It is then warmed before a fire, and laid 
 in the furnace, with the mouth downwards — the heat 
 of the fire having been previously lowered by the 
 application of fresh coke. It is gradually brought 
 
284 BRASS AND IRON FOUNDER. 
 
 up to a red heat, reversed, and fixed in its proper 
 position in the furnace, and is then ready to receive 
 the charge of metal. 
 
 PLUMBAGO. 
 
 Plumbago, or black lead, of which pencils are 
 made, is a compound of iron and carbon, in the pro- 
 portion of 9 parts carbon to 1 of iron. It has 
 nothing similar to lead about it, unless its inquinat- 
 ing property, by which paper is so readily marked. 
 In this combination we have a metallic alloy less 
 cohesive than almost any other substance, mercurial 
 amalgam excepted ; whilst the very same ingredients, 
 in different proportions, produce another alloy, steel, 
 which has properties diametrically opposite, as it 
 is capable of cutting the hardest substances, with 
 very few exceptions. The softest steel is harder 
 i-han the hardest iron. 
 
ANNEALING STEEL. 
 
 285 
 
 ANNEALING STEEL. 
 
 Owing to the fact that the operations of rolling or 
 hammering steel make it very hard, it is frequently 
 necessary that the steel should be annealed before it 
 can be conveniently cut into required shapes for 
 tools. 
 
 Annealing or softening is accomplished by heating 
 steel to a red heat and then cooling it very slowly, 
 to prevent it from getting hard again. The higher 
 the degree of heat, the more the steel will be soft- 
 ened, until the limit of softness is reached, when the 
 steel is melted. 
 
 It does not follow that the higher a piece of steel 
 is heated, the softer it will be when cooled; this 
 is proved by the fact that an ingot is always harder 
 than a rolled or hammered bar made from it. 
 
 Therefore, there is nothing gained by heating a 
 piece of steel hotter than a good bright cherry-red ; 
 on the contrary, a higher heat has several disadvan- 
 tages : 
 
 First. If carried too far, it may leave the steel 
 actually harder than a good red heat would leave it. 
 Second. If a scale is raised on the steel, this scale 
 
286 BRASS AND IRON FOUNDER. 
 
 will be harsh, granular oxide of iron, and will spoil 
 the tools used to cut it. It often occurs that steel is 
 scaled in this way, and then because it does not cut 
 well, it is customary to heat it again, and hotter still, 
 to overcome the trouble ; while the fact is, that the 
 more this operation is repeated, the harder the steel 
 will work, because of the hard scale and the harsh 
 grain underneath. 
 
 Third. A high scaling heat, continued for a little 
 time, changes the structure of the steel, destroys its 
 crystalline property, makes it brittle, liable to crack 
 in hardening, and impossible to refine. 
 
 Again, it is a common practice to put steel into a 
 hot furnace at the close of a day's work, and leave it 
 there all night. This method always gets the steel 
 too hot, always raises a scale on it, and worse than 
 either, leaves it soaking in the fire too long ; and this 
 is more injurious to steel than any other operation to 
 which it can be subjected. 
 
 A good illustration of the destruction of crystal- 
 line structure by long-continued heating may be had 
 by operating on chilled cast-iron. 
 
 If a chill be heated red-hot and removed from the 
 fire as soon as it is hot, it will, when cold, retain its 
 peculiar crystalline structure; if it now be heated red 
 hot, and left at a moderate red for several hours — in 
 
ANNEALING STEEL. 
 
 287 
 
 short, if it be treated as steel often is — and be left in 
 a furnace over night, it will be found, when cold, to 
 have a perfect amorphous structure, every trace of 
 chill-crystals will be gone, and the whole piece will 
 be non-crystalline gray cast-iron. If this is the 
 effect upon coarse cast-iron, what better is to be ex- 
 pected from fine cast-steel ? 
 
 A piece of fine tap-steel after having been in a 
 furnace over night will act as follows : 
 
 It will be harsh in the lathe and spoil the cutting 
 tools. 
 
 When hardened it will almost certainly crack ; if • 
 it does not crack, it will have been a remarkably good 
 steel to begin with. When the temper is drawn to the 
 proper color and the tap is put into use, the teeth 
 will either crumble off or crush down like so much 
 lead. 
 
 Upon breaking the tap the grain will be coarse 
 and the steel brittle. To anneal any piece of steel, 
 heat it red hot; heat it uniformly and heat it 
 through, taking care not to let the ends and corners 
 get too hot. 
 
 As soon as it is hot take it out of the fire, the 
 sooner the better, and cool it as slowly as possible. 
 A good rule for heating is to heat it at so low a red 
 that when the piece is cold it will show the blue 
 
288 BRASS AND IRON FOUNDER. 
 
 gloss of the oxide that was put there by the hammer 
 or the rolls. 
 
 Steel annealed in this way will cut very soft ; it 
 will harden very hard without cracking, and when 
 tempered it will be very strong, nicely refined, and 
 will hold a keen, strong edge. 
 
HARDENING STEEL. 
 
 289 
 
 HARDENING STEEL. 
 
 The process of hardening steel is called temper- 
 ing or attempering, and consists in that novel ar- 
 rangement of the particles which is produced when 
 steel, while hot, is plunged into cold liquids, as 
 water. The colder the liquid, or the more sudden 
 the operation of cooling, the harder will the stee. 
 be. 
 
 Case-hardening is the superficial conversion of the 
 surface of iron into steel, by heating it in contact 
 with animal carbon, in close vessels. Bar iron is 
 converted into steel in the same way, only that 
 powdered charcoal is the substance in which it is 
 imbedded. 
 
 ON BORON. 
 
 This is the basis of a substance which has been 
 long and extensively used in the arts and in medi- 
 cine, under the name of borax. It is found abund- 
 antly in Thibet and in South America, but in a 
 19 
 
290 
 
 BRASS AND IRON FOUNDER. 
 
 State too impure to be used without refining. This 
 was long a secret process practised by the Venetians 
 and Dutch, who imported the crude salt into Europe, 
 under the name of tincal. 
 
 Borax has a sweetish taste, and is "soluble in 
 twelve parts of cold, and two parts of boiling water." 
 Its crystals are transparent, but efiloresce and be- 
 come opaque in a dry atmosphere ; and they appear 
 luminous by friction in the dark. 
 
 It melts at a heat a little above that of boiling 
 water, and gives out its water of crystallization, 
 after which it forms a spongy mass, well known as 
 calcined borax. When further heated to ignition, 
 it passes into a glassy-looking substance, known as 
 glacial borax. 
 
 Boracic acid is obtained in unlimited quantity 
 from the lakes of Tuscany. The water requires 
 simply to be evaporated until the acid solution has 
 been sufficiently concentrated to afford crystals. 
 The acid thus obtained is chiefly taken to M. 
 Payen's works, at Marseilles, where it is manu- 
 factured into borax. 
 
 Dry borax, at a high temperature, has the re 
 markable property of melting and vitrifying thi. 
 metallic oxides into glasses of different colours. On 
 this account it is a most useful reagent for the blow 
 
ON BORON. 
 
 291 
 
 pipe. With oxide of chrome it forms an emerald 
 green glass, and with oxide of cobalt an intensely 
 blue glass. 
 
 Oxide of copper tinges it pale-blue ; oxides of iron, 
 bottle-green ; oxide of tin, opal ; oxide of manganese, 
 violet ; oxide of nickel, pale yellowish-green. With 
 the oxides of silver and zinc, and with several of the 
 earths, it forms white enamels. 
 
 Borax, in consequence of this property of vitrify- 
 ing the metallic oxides, is used to clean the surface 
 of metals, in processes of soldering with hard solder, 
 and of welding cast steel. 
 
 It is also valuable in the fusion of metals to pro- 
 tect their surface from oxidizement. And it is worthy 
 of remark, that, when mixed with shell-lac, in the 
 proportion of one part to five, borax renders that 
 resinous substance soluble in water, and forms witii 
 it a species of varnish. 
 
292 
 
 BBASS AND IRON FOUNDER. 
 
 ON SULPHUR. 
 
 This element, popularly known as brimstone^ 
 stands sufficiently well characterized by its brittle- 
 ness, non-metallic appearance, and peculiar yellow 
 colour. As a combustible it is universally known. 
 Exposed to a temperature of 218° it melts almost 
 into a liquid. When heated a few degrees higher, 
 it becomes tenacious ; and when heated to the tem- 
 perature of 300°, it takes fire, burns away with a 
 lambent blue flame, and leaves no residuum. As 
 the temperature rises the flame becomes more white ; 
 and in pure oxygen gas the combustion goes on with 
 great brilliancy. 
 
 If, while melted and viscid, sulphur be poured 
 into cold water, it acquires somewhat the consist- 
 ency of soft sealing-wax, and in this state it is very 
 commonly used for taking impressions from seals 
 and medals. 
 
 Native sulphur is brought into this country chiefly 
 from Sicily, where it occurs in beds of a blue clay 
 formation, occupying the central half of me south 
 coast of the island, and extending inwards as far as 
 the district of Etna. Sulphur is also an abundant 
 ingredient in various minerals : iron pyrites and 
 
ON SULPHUR. 
 
 293 
 
 galena, sulphurets of iron and lead, are particularly 
 abundant in some localities : and at one time a large 
 portion of the sulphur used in England was obtained 
 from the copper pyrites of the mines of Anglesey. 
 It was, however, less pure than the fine sulphur of 
 Sicily, and other volcanic districts, being commonly 
 mixed with arsenic and other metallic impregnations, 
 which are difficult to separate. 
 
 Sulphur is sometimes employed for cementing 
 iron bars into stone ; and at present it is in repute 
 for taking impressions of seals and cameos. When 
 used for this purpose, it is commonly kept previously 
 melted for some time, to give the casts the appear- 
 ance of bronze. The principal consumption of it, 
 however, is in the manufacture of sulphuric acid, 
 gunpowder, and vermillion. 
 
 When the end of a sulphur match is lighted, the 
 flame emits copious fumes, which are a compound 
 of oxygen and sulphur. These fumes are intensely 
 acid to the taste ; they constitute what is called sul- 
 phurous acid, the first of the combinations of sul- 
 phur and oxygen. The gas has a strong affinity for 
 the water, and the solution which it forms with it is 
 known as liquid sulphurous acid. This, if left ex- 
 posed to the air, absorbs more oxygen, and passes 
 into sulphuric acid. 
 
294 
 
 BRASS AND IRON FOUNDER. 
 
 Sulphur also combines with hydrogen, forming 
 the highly poisonous and offensive gas known as sul- 
 phuretted hydrogen, and which not unfrequently 
 contaminates the coal gas supplied to us for illumi- 
 nation. Sulphur and carbon also combine, and form 
 a beautifully transparent and colourless liquid, ex- 
 ceedingly volatile, and giving off an odour the most, 
 fcetid and nauseous which it is possible to conceive. 
 Sulphur likewise enters into combination with metals, 
 forming sulphurets, and is a most excellent flux in 
 the making of brazing solder. 
 
 SELENIUM. 
 
 This is a rare elementary substance, nearly allied 
 to sulphur in its properties, although it in some re- 
 spects partakes of the nature of a metal. It was 
 discovered by Berzelius, in 1817, in the refuse of 
 an oil of vitriol manufactory, where it was derived 
 from the iron pyrites employed in the works, and 
 which contain a mixture in very minute proportions 
 of a similar compound of selenium and iron. It haa 
 also been found sparingly in combination with seve 
 
ON CHLORINE. 
 
 295 
 
 ral other metals, as lead, cobalt, copper, and bis- 
 muth ; and with sulphur, in the volcanic products 
 of the Lipari Islands. 
 
 It is separated from its combinations with diffi- 
 culty, and hitherto only in minute quantities. When 
 obtained free of admixture, selenium, at common 
 temperatures, is brittle, solid, of a reddish-brown 
 colour, and metallic lustre, without taste or smell. 
 But when finely powdered the powder assumes a 
 deep-red, inclined to purple. It softens at the tem- 
 perature of 180° ; is pasty at 200°, and melts at a 
 few degrees above the boiling point of water. "When 
 warm it exhales a strong odour of decayed horse- 
 radish, and is so ductile that it may be drawn into 
 threads, which are red by transmitted, but gray by 
 reflected light. It boils at 600°, and in close vessels 
 throws oflF deep-yellow vapours, which condense into 
 b)ack, metallic-looking drops. 
 
 ON CHLOmNE. 
 
 Chlorine enters into numerous highly important 
 and interesting combinations. Various bodies, when 
 immersed in it when in a liquid state (that is, when, 
 
296 
 
 BRASS AND IRON FOUNDER. 
 
 submitted to a pressure of four atmospheres, it be- 
 comes a yellow transparent liquid), take fire sponta- 
 neously. A candle burns in it with a red flame, and 
 a piece of phosphorus introduced into it, burns with 
 a pale-white light. Copper, tin, zinc, antimony, and 
 arsenic, when introduced into it in their leaves, or 
 reduced to filings, take fire, and, combining with the 
 gas, form compounds analogous to the oxides, and 
 which are therefore called chlorides. Mercury also 
 enters rapidly into combination with it, forming 
 chloride of mercury, a substance better known as 
 corrosive sublimate. 
 
 The grand source of chlorine is the water of the 
 ocean. This is an enormous solution of salt — a 
 universally known and indispensable article of con- 
 sumption with the human race ; an article, indeed, 
 which seems to be essentially necessary to maintain 
 the body in a healthy condition. Now this salt is a 
 compound of chlorine and a metal. It is, in fact, a 
 chloride, consisting, when pure, of 60 of chlorine, 
 and 40 of sodium, in 100 parts ; and whether it be 
 obtained by evaporation of sea water, or be dug out 
 of the salt mines of Wieliczka or Northwich, it has 
 the same composition. 
 
METALLIC OXIDES. 
 
 297 
 
 Some of the minerals contain but one earth ; but 
 minerals are found in which the earths are combined 
 in different proportions, by processes which produce 
 that apparently endless variety of objects which 
 mineral nature presents for our contemplation. 
 
 Science has of late years demonstrated that none 
 of the earths are simple substances, that is, chemical 
 elements. Sir Humphrey Davy has proved that 
 none of them are entitled to that character, that 
 they are in fact compounds of certain metals witn 
 oxygen — that is, metallic oxides. This has been 
 shown by the very direct method of abstracting 
 oxygen from them, and thereby separating the me- 
 tallic base. Thus, alumina (being the basis of alum) 
 is the oxide of a gray and hard metal like platinum, 
 and which burns with great brilliancy when heated 
 with access of air, and reproduces the earth by ab- 
 sorption of oxygen from the atmosphere. 
 
 It is very singular that soda, as distinguished from 
 potash, has been known with us only of late years ; 
 whereas it was familiar to the Greeks and Hebrews. 
 It was also known in Egypt, where it is found na- 
 tive, and is known by the name of natron — which 
 
298 
 
 BKASS AND IRON FOUNDER. 
 
 occurs in the Bible. Thus Jeremiah speaks of wash- 
 ing in natron.* 
 
 From the preceding summary we may reckon 
 ourselves justified in concluding that the solid strata 
 of our globe — that is, the superficial shell with which 
 we are acquainted, if not the vast mass of the globe 
 itself — are nothing more than masses of metals of 
 diiferent kinds, disguised by oxygen : that they are 
 in fact oxides, and bear evidence, in many cases, of 
 being the products of combustion. 
 
 ANILINE BRONZING FLUID. 
 
 Take 10 parts of aniline red and 5 parts of aniline 
 purple and dissolve in 100 parts of alcohol at 95°, 
 taking care to assist the solution by placing the ves- 
 sel in a sand or water bath. As soon as the solution 
 is effected, 5 parts of benzoic acid are added and the 
 whole is boiled from 5 to 10 minutes until the green- 
 ish color of the mixture is transformed into a fine 
 light-colored bronze. This bronze is said to be very 
 brilliant, and to be applicable to all metals, as well 
 as to other substances. It is easily laid on with a 
 brush and dries promptly. 
 
 BRONZE BARBEDIENNE ON BRASS. 
 
 Freshly precipitated arsenious sulphide is dissolved 
 
 * Jeremiah ii. 22. 
 
TO BRONZE GUN BARRELS. 299 
 
 in ammonia, and antimonious sulphide is added until 
 a dark yellow color is produced. Heat the solution 
 carefully to about 95° F. Leave the articles in the 
 bath until they have acquired a dark brown color, 
 and develop the color by scratch-brushing. 
 
 Steel-gray coating on Brass. 
 Antimony sulphide and fine iron filings, 1 part of 
 each ; hydrochloric acid 3 parts ; and water 3 or 4 
 parts. 
 
 TO BROWN GUN BARRELS. 
 
 Take of nitric acid, half an ounce ; sweet spirit 
 of nitre half an ounce ; blue vitriol, two ounces ; 
 tincture of steel, one ounce. Mix all together in 
 eight gills of water. Apply this mixture with a 
 sponge, then heat the barrel a little, and move the 
 oxide with a hard brush. This operation may be 
 repeated a third and fourth time, till you have the 
 brown required. 
 
 It is then to be carefully wiped, and sponged with 
 boiUng water, in which there has been put a small 
 quantity of potass. The barrel being taken from 
 the water, must be made perfectly dry, and then 
 rubbed smooth with a burnisher of hard wood ; 
 afterwards heated to the height of boiling water 
 and varnished with the following varnish: — 
 
300 BRASS AND IRON FOUNDER. 
 
 Varnish for gun barrels that have undergone the 
 process of browning. 
 
 Take of spirits of wine two parts, dragon's blood, 
 powdered, three drachms; shell-lac bruised, one 
 ounce : dissolve all together. This varnish being laid 
 on the barrel, and become perfectly dry, muai be 
 rubbed with a burnisher to render it smooth and 
 glossy. 
 
 ETIIEIIEAL 30LC110H OF GOLD. 
 
 Saturate nitro-hydrochloric acid with pure gold. 
 Crystallize, and with the crystals saturate water. 
 Shake this aqueous solution in a phial with an equal 
 volume of pure ether ; then two fluids will result, 
 the lighter of which is the ethereal solution of goid, 
 and may easily be separated. This must be kept in 
 a darkened bottle, as by exposure to light it quickly 
 decomposes, flakes of gold being deposited. 
 
 Any substance moistened with this will receive a 
 coating of metallic gold, and hence metals may be 
 rendered not liable to corrosion. 
 
 Even in the dark it cannot be preserved long, 
 hut undergoes slow decomposition 
 
TINNING. 
 
 301 
 
 TO COAT SMALL NAILS, ETC., WITH TIN. 
 
 Put half an ounce of powdered tin (which may 
 be procured of any operative chemist), into a com- 
 mon Florence flask, pour on about two ounces of 
 concentrated muriatic acid, and boil over a spirit 
 lamp until the tin is dissolved. When cool, pour 
 into any convenient vessel and dilute with about an 
 equal bulk of pure water. Drop in the nails required 
 to be coated, holding the vessel so that they may all 
 fall to one side. Immerse a piece of sheet-copper 
 into the solution, as far apart from the nails as pos- 
 sible, and connect it with the latter by means of a 
 piece of copper wire. The eflFect of this arrange- 
 ment is the developement of a current of voltaic 
 electri'^ity, which causes a rapid decomposition of the 
 fluid, and the deposition of tin on the surface of the 
 nails. After being subjected to this treatment for 
 about an hour, the nails will be found to have re- 
 ceived a thick coating of metal, and may then be 
 removed from the liquid, dried, and polished. 
 
 Recourse is frequently had to the above procosd 
 for the purpose of coating the nibs of steel pens 
 with tin, in order to prevent them from rusting. ]t 
 succeeds better than any other method ever tried. 
 
302 BRASS AND IRON FOUNDER, 
 
 BRONZING ELECTROTYPE CASTS. 
 
 Ohemical Bronze. 
 
 There are many modes of bronzing employed m 
 the arts ; the intent of each is to bring out the work- 
 manship of the object. The selection is entirely a 
 matter of taste. To prevent too great a sameness 
 of appearance in a cabinet, it is, perhaps, better not 
 to confine oneself to a solitary method. 
 
 A chemical bronze may be made by boiling two 
 ounces of carbonate of ammonia with one ounce of 
 acetate of copper, in half a pint of vinegar, till the 
 vinegar is nearly evaporated. Into this, pour a 
 solution consistmg ot sixty-two grains oi muriate 
 of ammonia, and fifteen grains and a halt of oxahc 
 acid, in half a pint of vinegar, lleplace the vessel 
 on the fire till the contents boil ; when cold, strain 
 through filtering paper ; preserve the liquor for use. 
 The remaining sediment may be again treated with 
 another half pint of the solution. This preparation 
 must only be applied to medals bright and clean. 
 
 Dirty specimens may be polished by an article 
 used in domestic economy, consisting of rotten- 
 stone, soft soap, and water. The medal is to be 
 
BRONZING ELECTROTYPE CASTS. 303 
 
 well rubbed with a hard brush dipped in this. Care 
 must be taken not to scratch the medal. It must 
 afterwards be washed in water and placed to dry ; 
 when dry, the application of the leather and plate- 
 brush will produce the required polish. Medals may 
 also be cleansed by dipping them in nitric acid, 
 either concentrated or diluted. Wax and grease 
 may be removed by boihng in pearl-ash and water, 
 or by pouring the boiling ley on the medals. 
 
 In applying the bronze, first warm the medal, then 
 dip a camel-hair pencil into the liquor and brush the 
 surface for half a minute ; immediately after, pour 
 boiling water over it. Directly the medal is dry. 
 rub its surface lightly with soft cotton very slightl;y 
 moistened in linseed oil. Gentle friction with a 
 piece of dry cotton will finish the operation. The 
 colour produced by this means is red ; its tints vary 
 according to circumstances. Medals bronzed thus 
 • must be examined occasionally before they are con- 
 signed to the cabinet ; for if perchance the vinegar 
 has not been perfectly washed away, they will be 
 disfigured by the formation of a green powder, — the 
 acetate of copper. Should this occur, it may be 
 removed by means of the moist and dry cotton. 
 
304 
 
 BRASS AND IRON FOUNDER. 
 
 BLACK LEAD BRONZE. 
 
 A VERY beautiful bronze is obtained by the simple 
 application of plumbago. It is obtained in a few 
 minutes, and with very little trouble. The tint ob- 
 tained seems much to depend on the state of the 
 surface of the original medal. Copies of some 
 medals "take" the black lead better than those of 
 others. To produce the tint in the greatest perfec- 
 tion, the operation should be performed immediately 
 after the medal is separated from the mould. Bright 
 specimens from fusible moulds are best, but all others 
 may be thus treated ; those taken from wax should 
 be cleansed with pearlash or soda. 
 
 The bronze is obtained by brushing the surface 
 of the medal with plumbago, then placing it on a 
 ciear fire till it is made too hot to be touched, and 
 applying a plate brush so soon as it ceases to be hot 
 enough to burn the brush. A few strokes of the 
 brush will produce a dark brown polish, approaching 
 black, but entirely distinct from the well known 
 appearance of black lead. If the same operation is 
 performed on a medal that has been kept some days, 
 or upon one that has been polished, a different, but 
 vevv brilliant tint is produced. The colour ia 
 
TO TIN IRON. 
 
 305 
 
 between red and brown. The richness of colour 
 thus produced is by many preferred to the true dark 
 brown. 
 
 CARBONATE OF IRON BRONZE. 
 
 Beautiful tints are produced by using plate- 
 powder or rouge. After moistening with water, it 
 is applied and treated in precisely the same manner 
 as the plumbago. 
 
 to tin iron. 
 
 Metal to be tinned must be cleansed, if new work, 
 oy putting it in a pickle — a mixture of sulphuric 
 acid and water — then scoured with sand, and cleansed 
 in water : but if old, the pickle should be a mixture 
 of muriatic acid and water. It is then ready for 
 tinning. 
 
 The article should be placed on the fire, and suf- 
 ficient heat applied to melt the tin. Care should be 
 taken that too great a heat should not be applied, or 
 the article will be burned. It must be rubbed well 
 
 20 
 
306 
 
 BRASS AND IRON FOUNDER. 
 
 with a piece of sal-ammoniac placed between two 
 wires, likewise some powder sprinkled upon it, to 
 keep the metal from oxidating. Apply the tin, wipe 
 't over with a piece of tow, then the work is finished. 
 
 LIQUID GLUE. 
 
 Shell-lac dissolved in wood naptha (the pyroxihc 
 spirit of the chemists, and the naptha of the oil and 
 colour shops) makes good liquid glue, water-proof, 
 and not requiring the application of heat. A quarter 
 of a pound avoirdupois of shell-lac to be dissolved in 
 tnree ounces of naptha, apothecaries' measure. Put 
 the former into a wide-mouthed bottle ; pour tho 
 latter upon it, and stir the mixture two or three 
 times during the first thirty-six hours. 
 
 ARTIFICIAL FIRE-CLAY. 
 
 The fusibility of common clay arises from the pre- 
 sence of impurities, such as lime, iron, and magnesia. 
 These substances may be easily removed by steeping 
 
A VALUABLE CEMENT. 
 
 307 
 
 in hot muriatic acid, then washing with water, and 
 drying. Excellent crucibles may be made from 
 common clay prepared in this manner. 
 
 A CEMENT WHICH RESISTS THE ACTION OF FIRE AND 
 WATER. 
 
 Take half a pint of milk, mix with it an equal 
 quantity of vinegar, so as to coagulate the milk ; 
 separate the curds from the whey, and mix the lat- 
 ter with the whites of four of five eggs, well beaten 
 up. The mixture of these two substances being 
 complete, add to them quick-lime, which has been 
 passed through a sieve ; make the whole into a thick 
 paste, to be of the consistence of putty when used. 
 
 This cement has been applied to close the fissure 
 of an iron cauldron for the boiling of pitch, and 
 which has been in use for five years without requir- 
 ing further repairs. 
 
SOS 
 
 BRASS AND IRON FOUNDER. 
 
 CEMENT FOR THE JOINTS OF CAST IRON. 
 
 Take of cast iron borings, 20 pounds ; flour of 
 sulphur, 2 ounces ; muriate of ammonia, 1 ounce ; 
 mix intimately in the dry state, and then add a suf- 
 ficient quantity of warm water to render the whole 
 quite wet. Press the mass together in a lump, and 
 allow it to remain until such time as the combined 
 action of the materials renders it quite hot, in which 
 state it must be hammered, with proper tools, into 
 the joints. » 
 
 NIELLO-METALLIC ORNAMENTS. 
 
 Cover the object to be ornamented with an etch- 
 ing ground similar to that employed by copper-plate 
 engravers ; draw the ornament with a needle, and 
 etch it by means of a corrosive acid ; then carefully 
 remove the etching ground with the proper dissolv- 
 ing fluids (such as oil of turpentine, ether, &c.), and 
 afterwards wash the object quite clean, and set for 
 
NIELLO-METALLIC ORNAMENLS, ETC. 309 
 
 a moment with a weak acid. Place it now in a gal- 
 vano-plastic apparatus, and leave it until it becomes 
 galvano-plastically covered, that is, all the etched 
 lines filled up. When all the lines and cavities are 
 completely filled up in this way, and the deposit in 
 them is equally high as, or yet higher than, the 
 plain surface, the object must be taken out of the 
 galvano-plastic apparatus, and the metallic layer, 
 which has been raised by the operation, ground or 
 planed ofi" until brought to the same level with the 
 metal of the object, leaving the etched lines or cavi- 
 ties full. 
 
 Of course, the metal of the object to be orna- 
 mented and the metallic deposit must be different. 
 The effect produced is extremely pretty, and the 
 means cheap and simple. 
 
 TRACING PAPER. 
 
 Mix six parts (by weight) of spirits of turpentine, 
 one of resin, one of boiled nut oil, and lay on with 
 either a brush or sponge. 
 
310 BRASS AND IRON FOUNDER. 
 
 TO FIX DRAWINGS. 
 
 A METHOD which is equally simple and ingenious, 
 of giving to drawings in pencils and crayons the 
 fixidity of painting, and without injury, is obtained 
 by spreading over the back of the paper an alcoholic 
 solution of white gum-lac. This solution quickly 
 penetrates the paper, and enters even into the marks 
 of the crayon on the other side. 
 
 The alcohol rapidly evaporates, so that in an 
 instant all the light dust from the crayons and chalk, 
 which resembles that on the wings of a butterfly, 
 adheres so firmly to the paper, that the drawing may 
 be rubbed and carried about without the least par- 
 ticle being effaced. 
 
 The following are the accurate proportions of the 
 solution : 10 parts of common gum-lac are dissolved 
 in 120 parts of alcohol; the liquid is afterwards 
 bleached with animal charcoal. 
 
 For the same purpose may be used even the ready- 
 made paint that can be purchased at the colour 
 stores, containing a sixth of white-lac, and adding 
 two-thirds of rectified spirits of wine. After it has 
 been filtered, there is nothing further to be done 
 
USEFUL RECEIPTS. 
 
 311 
 
 than to spread a layer of either of these solutions 
 at the back of the drawing, in order to give them 
 the soliiiity required. 
 
 ANTIDOTE TO ARSENIC, 
 
 Magnesia is an antidote to arsenic, equally effi- 
 cacious with peroxide of iron, and preferable to it, 
 inasmuch as it is completely innocuous in almost any 
 quantity, and can be procured in any form. 
 
 TO SOFTEN ivory. 
 
 Slice half a pound of mandrake and put it into 
 a quart of the best vinegar, into which immerse your 
 ivory. Let it stand in a warm place for 48 hours, 
 and you will then be enabled to bend the ivory into 
 any required form. 
 
 TO SEPARATE THE METALLIC PORTION FROM GOLD 
 AND SILVER LACE. 
 
 Immerse the lace for a short time in nitric acid. 
 
312 
 
 BRASS AND IRON FOUNDER. 
 
 BLUEING AND GILDING STEEL. 
 
 The mode employed in blueing steel is merely tc 
 subject it to heat. The dark blue is produced at a 
 temperature of 600°, the full blue at 500°, and the 
 blue at 550°. 
 
 Steel may be gilded by the following process : to 
 a solution of the muriale of gold, add nearly as 
 much sulphuric ether. The ether reduces the gold 
 to a metallic state and keeps it in solution, while the 
 muriatic acid separates, deprived of its gold, and 
 forms a distinct fluid. Put the steel to be gilded 
 into the ether, which speedily evaporates, depositing 
 a coat of gold on the metal by dint of the attraction 
 between them. After the steel has been immersed 
 it should be dipped into cold water, and the burnisher 
 should be applied, which strengthens its adhesion. 
 Figures, flowers, and all descriptions of ornaments 
 and devices, may be drawn on the steel by using the 
 ether with a fine camel-hair pencil, or writing pen. 
 
TO HARDEN STEEL DIES. 
 
 813 
 
 TO HARDEN STEEL DIES. 
 
 A VESSEL holding 200 gallons of water, is to be 
 placed at the height of 40 feet above the room in 
 which the dies are to be hardened. From this vessel 
 the water is conducted through a pipe of one inch 
 and a quarter in diameter, with a cock at the bottom, 
 and nozzles of different sizes to regulate the dia- 
 meter of the jet of water. Under one of these 
 place the heated dies, the water being directed on 
 to the centre of the upper surface. By this process 
 the die is hardened in a way as best to sustain the 
 pressure to which it is to be subjected ; and the 
 middle of the face, which by the (^d process was 
 apt to remain soft, now becomes the hardest part. 
 The hardened part of the dies so managed, were it 
 to be separated, would be found to be in the seg- 
 ment of a sphere, resting in the lower softer part, 
 as in a dish, the hardness, of course, gradually de- 
 creasing as you descend towards the foot. Dies 
 thus hardened, preserve their form till fairly worn 
 out. 
 
314 
 
 BRASS AND IRON FOUNDER. 
 
 PORTABLE GLUE. 
 
 Boil one pound of the best Russian glue, and 
 strain. Then add half a pound of brown sugar, and 
 boil thick. When cold, the compound may be poured 
 into small moulds, and afterwards cut into pieces. 
 
 This glue is very soluble in warm water, and is 
 particularly useful to artists for fixing their drawing- 
 paper to the board. 
 
 PR#\''ENTION OF CORROSION. 
 
 The best means of preventing corrosion of metals 
 is to dip the articles first into a very dilute nitric 
 acid, to immerse them afterwards in linseed oil, and 
 to allow the excess of oil to drain off. By this pro- 
 cess metals are effectually prevented from rust or 
 cxidation. 
 
CEMENT AND SOLUBLE GLASS. 
 
 315 
 
 CEMENT. 
 
 Mix ground white lead with as much finely-pow- 
 dnred red lead as will make it of the consistence of 
 soft putty. 
 
 SOLUBLE GLASS. 
 
 What is called soluble glass is now beginning to 
 come into use as a covering for wood and other 
 practical purposes. It is composed of 15 parts of 
 powdered quartz, 10 parts of potash, and 1 part of 
 charcoal. 
 
 These are melted together, worked in cold water, 
 and then boiled with 5 parts of water, in which it 
 entirely dissolves. It is then applied to wood-work, 
 or any other required substance. As it cools it 
 gelatinises, and dries up into a transparent, colour- 
 less glass, on any surface to which it has been ap- 
 plied. It renders wood nearly incombustible. 
 
316 
 
 BRASS AND IRON FOUNDER. 
 
 JAPANNINa. 
 
 First. Provide yourself with a small muller and 
 Btone, to grind any colour that you may require. 
 
 Secondly. Prepare yourself with white hard var- 
 nish, brown varnish, turpentine varnish, Japan gold 
 size, and spirit of turpentine, which you may keep 
 in separate bottles until required. 
 
 Thirdly. Provide yourself with flake white, red 
 lead, Vermillion, lake, Prussian blue, king's and 
 Datent yellow, orpiment, spruce and brown ochre, 
 mineral green, verditer, burnt umber, and lamp- 
 black. 
 
 Observe that all wood-work must be prepared 
 with size, and some coarser material mixed with it, 
 in order to fill up and harden the grain of the wood 
 — such, indeed, as may best suit the colour intended 
 to be laid on — which must be rubbed smooth with 
 glass-paper when dry ; but in case of accident it is 
 seldom necessary to resize the damaged places 
 unless they are considerable. 
 
 With the foregoing colours you may match always 
 any one in use for japanning, always observing to 
 grind your colours smooth in spirit of turpcnt/p©; 
 
JAPANNING. 
 
 317 
 
 add a small quantity of turpentine and spirit varnish, 
 and lay it carefully on with a camel's-hair brush, 
 then varnish with brown or white spirit varnish, 
 according to colour. 
 
 For a black, mix up a little size and lamp-black, 
 and it will bear a good gloss without varnishing 
 over. To imitate black rosewood, a black ground 
 must be given to the wood, after which take some 
 finely levigated red lead, mixed up as before directed, 
 and lay on with a flat, stiff brush, in imitation of 
 the streaks in the wood ; after which take a small 
 quantity of lake, ground fine, and mix it with brown 
 spirit varnish, carefully observing not to have more 
 colour in it than will just tinge the varnish; but 
 should it happen on trial to be still too red, you 
 may easily assist it with a little umber, ground very 
 fine, with which pass over the whole of the work 
 intended to imitate black rosewood, and it will have 
 the desired effect. If the work be done by a good 
 japanner, according to the foregoing rules, it will, 
 when varnished and polished, scarcely be distin- 
 guished from the real wood. 
 
318 
 
 BRASS AND IRON FOUNDER. 
 
 TO PRESERVE POLISHED STEEL FROM RUST. 
 
 Mix some oil with caoutehouc; melt in a close 
 v'essel, stirring to prevent burning. A higli tem- 
 perature will be required. This will form a perfect 
 air-proof skin over the surface, which may very 
 easily be removed by brushing with warm oil of 
 turpentine. 
 
 CEMENT FOR ATTACHING METAL TO GLASS. 
 
 Take two ounces of a thick solution of glue, 
 and mix with one ounce of linseed oil varnish, or 
 three-quarters of an ounce of Venice turpentine. 
 Boil together, agitating until the mixture becomes 
 as intimate as possible. The pieces cemented should 
 be fastened together for the space of forty-eight or 
 sixty hours. 
 
VARNISHES. 
 
 319 
 
 VARNISH FOR COLOURED DRAWINGS. 
 
 Canada balsam, one ounce ; oil of turpentine, Ih,-, 
 ounces. Dissolve. Siie the drawings first with & 
 jelly of isinglass, and when dry apply the varnish, 
 which will make them look like oil paintings. 
 
 JAPANNERS' COPAL VARNISH. 
 
 Take of the best pale African copal, seven pounds ; 
 fuse ; add two quarts of clarified linseed oil. Boil 
 for a quarter of an hour, remove it into the open 
 air, and add three gallons of boiling oil of turpen- 
 tine. Mix well, then strain into the cistern, and 
 cover up immediately. 
 
 SOFT VARNISH. 
 
 Callot's soft varnish for etching : — linseed oil, 
 four ounces ; and half an ounce each of gum benzoin 
 and white wax. Boil to two-thirds. 
 
820 
 
 BRASS AND IRON FOUNDER. 
 
 HARD VARNISH. 
 
 Callot's hard varnish for etching : — Take four 
 ounces each of linseed oil ^d mastic, and melt to- 
 sether. 
 
 FLEXIBLE VARNISH. 
 
 Flexible varnish for balloons, &c. : — India-rubber 
 in shavings, one ounce ; mineral naptha, two pounds. 
 Digest at a gentle heat in a close vessel until dis- 
 solved, then strain. 
 
 FRENCH POLISH. 
 
 Dissolve one part of gum-mastic, and one part 
 of gum-sandarach, in forty parts of spirits of wine, 
 and then add three parts of shell-lac. This process 
 may be performed by putting the ingredients into a 
 loosely corked bottle, and then placing it in a vessel 
 
VARNISHES. 
 
 821 
 
 of water a little below 173° Fahrenheit, or the boil- 
 ing point of spirits of wine, until the solution be 
 eifected. 
 
 BRUNSWICK BLACK. 
 
 Foreign asphaltum, forty-five pounds; drying 
 oil, six gallons ; and litharge, six pounds. Boil for 
 two hours, then add dark gum amber (fused), eight 
 pounds ; hot linseed oil, two gallons. Boil for two 
 hours longer, or until a little of the mass, when 
 cooled, may be rolled into pills. Then withdraw 
 the heat, and afterwards thin down with twenty-five 
 gallons of oil of turpentine. Used for iron-work, &c. 
 
 MORDANT varnish. 
 
 Take one ounce of mastic, one ounce of sanda- 
 rach, half an ounce of gum-gamboge, and a quarter 
 of an ounce of turpentine. Dissolve in six ounces 
 of spirits of turpentine. 
 
 21 
 
822 
 
 BRASS AND IRON FOUNDER. 
 
 ANOTHER. 
 
 Place a quantity of boiled oil in a pan, and subject 
 it to a strong heat. When a disengagement of black 
 smoke takes place, set it on fire, and in a few moments 
 extinguish it, by covering over the pan. Then pour 
 the matter while heated into a bottle, previously 
 warmed, adding to it a little oil of turpentine. 
 
 another. 
 
 Mix asphalte and drying oil, diluted with oil of 
 turpentine. For bronzing, or very pale gilding. 
 
 ANOTHER. 
 
 Take a quantity of camphorated copal varnish, 
 and add a little red lead. 
 
 ANOTHER. 
 
 Dissolve a little honey in thick glue. For gild- 
 ing, &c. 
 
 SUPERIOR GREEN TRANSPARENT VARNISH. 
 
 The beautiful, transparent green varnish em- 
 ployed to give a fine glittering colour to gilt or 
 other decorated work, may be prepared as follows : 
 
VARNISHES. 
 
 323 
 
 Grind a small quantity of Chinese blue with about 
 double the quantity of finely powdered chromate of 
 potash, and a sufficient quantity of copal varnish 
 thinned with turpentine. The mixture requires the 
 most elaborate grinding or incorporating, otherwise 
 it will not be transparent, and therefore useless for 
 the purpose to which it is intended. The " tone" 
 of the colour may be varied by an alteration in the 
 proportion of the ingredients. A preponderance of 
 chromate of potash causes a yellowish shade in the 
 green, as might have been expected; and viee versa 
 with the blue, under the same circumstances. This 
 coloured varnish will produce a very striking efiect 
 in japanned goods, paper-hangings, &c., and can be 
 made at a very cheap rate. 
 
 ETCHING VARNISH. 
 
 Take of white wax, two ounces ; and of black 
 and Burgundy pitch, each half an ounce. Melt to- 
 gether, adding by degrees two ounces of powdered 
 asplialtum. Then boil until a drop taken out on a 
 plate will break when cold, by being bent double 
 two or three times between the fingers, when it must 
 be poured into warm water, and made into snvall 
 bails for use. 
 
324 BRASS AND IRON FOUNDER. 
 
 COLORING BRASS A DEEP BLUE. 
 
 A COLD method of coloring brass a deep blue is as 
 follows : 100 grammes of carbonate of copper and 
 750 grammes of ammonia are introduced in a decan- 
 ter, well corked, and shaken until dissolution is ef- 
 fected. There are then added 150 cubic centimeters 
 of distilled water. The mixture is shaken once 
 more, shortly after which it is ready for use. The 
 liquid should be kept in a cool place, in firmly closed 
 bottles or in glass vessels, with a large opening, the 
 edges of which have been subjected to emery friction 
 and covered by plates of greased glass. When the 
 liquid has lost its strength, it can be recuperated by 
 the addition of a little ammonia. The articles to be 
 colored should be perfectly clean ; especial care 
 should be taken to clear them of all trace of grease. 
 They are then suspended by a brass wire in the 
 liquid in which they are entirely immersed, and a to- 
 and-fro movement is commuticated to them. After 
 the expiration of two or three minutes they are taken 
 from the bath, washed in clean water, and dried in 
 sawdust. It is necessary that the operation be con- 
 ducted with as little exposure to the air as possible. 
 Handsome shades are only obtained in the case of 
 
PATTERN-MAKING. 
 
 325 
 
 brass and tombac — that is to say, copper and zinc 
 alloys. The bath cannot be utilized for coloring 
 bronze (copper-tin), argentine, and other metallic 
 alloys. 
 
 ON FATTEBN-MAKING— CONTRACTION OF METALS, ETC 
 
 It is necessary to make patterns in some degree 
 larger than tbe intended castings, to allow for their 
 contraction in cooling, whicb equals from about the 
 ninety-fifth to the ninety-eighth part of the length, 
 or nearly one per cent. This allowance is very 
 easily and correctly managed by the employment 
 of a contraction-rule, which is made like a sur- 
 veyor's rod, but one-eighth of an inch longer in 
 every foot tban ordinary standard measures. By 
 the employment of such contraction-rules every 
 measurement of the pattern is made proportionally 
 'arger without any trouble of calculation. 
 
 When a wood pattern is made, from which an 
 iron pattern is to be made, the cast being intended 
 to serve as the permanent foundry pattern, as there 
 are two shrinkages to allow for, a double contrac- 
 tion-rule is employed, or one the length of whicb 
 IS one-quarter of an incb in excess in every foot. 
 These rules are particularly important in setting 
 
326 
 
 BRASS AND IRON FOUNDER. 
 
 out alterations in, or additions to, existing ma 
 chinery. The latter is measured with the common 
 rule, and the new patterns are set out to the same 
 nominal measures, with a single or double contrac- 
 tion-rule, as the case may be — the three being made 
 in some respects dissimilar, to avoid confusion 11 
 their use. The entire neglect of contraction-rules 
 incurs additional trouble and uncertainty. The 
 contraction of brass is nearly three-sixteenths of 
 an inch in every foot, but from the small size of 
 brass castings the contraction-rule is less required 
 for them, as the differences may be easily allowed 
 for without it. Iron castings weigh about fourteen 
 times as much as the ordinary deal and fir patterns 
 from which they are made — that being nearly the 
 ratio of the specific gravities of those materials. 
 
 In reference to the qimlities of Iron, it may be 
 worthy of remark, that the same mixture of iron 
 will be found to differ very much according to the 
 size of the objects in which it is cast. Iron which 
 in a plate one-fourth of an inch thick may be quite 
 brittle and hard, will mostly be of good, soft, and 
 useful quality in a stout bar, or plate of two or 
 three inches thick. Thick castings are necessarily 
 slow in cooling, and are seldom very hard unless 
 intentionally made so. 
 
CONDUCTING HEAT. 
 
 32T 
 
 Between the extremes (say three parts ot pig- 
 iron to one of old, three parts of old iron to one 
 of pig-iron), various qualities may be selected. In 
 castings for machinery, the general aim is to obtain 
 a strong, sound, and tough iron. Mixtures of this 
 nature which are used for iron ordnance, are called 
 gun-metal amongst the gun-founders. 
 
 CONDUCTING HEAT OF BRASS AND IRON. 
 
 The power of conducting heat is considerably 
 less, in red-hot iron, than in copper and brass ; and 
 therefore the moulds for the latter require to be in 
 a drier condition than those which may be used for 
 iron, But in either case, the presence of superfluous 
 moisture is always attended with some danger to 
 the individual, as well as to the work. Iron foun- 
 ders may use their moulds with safety when sensi- 
 bly more moist than is admissible for brass and 
 copper castings. It is confirmatory of the fact, that 
 the more dense the mould, the drier it must be — as 
 the sand used by iron-founders is also coarser, and 
 therefore more porous than that employed by 
 brass-founders. 
 
328 BRASS AND IRON FOUNDER. 
 
 VARIETIES OF TOMBAC. 
 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 86 
 14 
 
 8 
 
 9 
 
 10 
 
 Copper... 
 
 82-0 
 18-0 
 1-5 
 3-0 
 
 82 
 18 
 3 
 1 
 
 82-3 
 17-5 
 
 80 
 17 
 
 85 
 15 
 
 85-3 
 14-7 
 
 90-0 
 7-9 
 1-6 
 
 92 
 8 
 
 97-8 
 2-2 
 
 Tin 
 
 0-2 
 
 3 
 
 t'ee 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 104-5 
 
 104 
 
 100-0 
 
 100 
 
 ioo'ioo-0 
 
 100 
 
 99-5 
 
 100 
 
 100-0 
 
 Nos. 1, 2, and 3, are for making gilt articles ; 4, French 
 mixture for sword-handles, &c. ; 5, Okar metal near Goslar, 
 in the Hartz ; 6, Yellow tombac for Parisian gilt ornaments ; 
 7, Hanoverian ; 8, Chryso chalk ; 9, Paris tombac ; and 10, 
 the red tombac of Vienna. 
 
 ON SAN'D-CORE MOULDING, BLACKENING, ETC. 
 
 Amongst the great variety of work denominated 
 ereen-sand moulding, mucTi and varied contrivance 
 is displayed in the stracture of the moulds. In 
 particular, the management of cores is a matter of 
 very considerable importance, and the malformation 
 of them is a prolific source of failure in the pro- 
 duction of sound castings. 
 
 Gores are especially useful for forming vacancies 
 in castings. Their forms may be long, and pro- 
 portionably small in diameter or winding, and 
 
ON SAND-COKE MOULDING, ETC. 329 
 
 Otherwise intricate ; and seeing that they are neces- 
 sarily surrounded by the metal when cast, they 
 ought to have, as much as may be, the qualities of 
 firmness of substance and openness of pores. Cores 
 are commonly composed of roek-sand and sea-sand. 
 The former having a proportion of clay in its 
 composition, to which it owes its powerful cohe- 
 siveness when dried, serves very well for short 
 cores that rest on the green sand at both ends, as 
 open communication with it is thus afforded for 
 the free escape of the air in the interstices of the 
 cores. 
 
 But when rock-sand is used for cores of a con- 
 siderable length (which, of course, are surrounded 
 on all sides by the metal, except the small imbed- 
 ded portions at the extremities, by which alone the 
 air can escape), it requires to be moderated by the 
 admixture of free-sand, as a counteractant to the 
 clay. The clay communicates the necessary cohe- 
 siveness to the material of the core ; the sand, on 
 • the contrary, loose and open, renders it less binding 
 and more porous. Free-sand alone is also employed 
 in the construction of confined cores, that they may 
 afterward be easily extracted, as the sand has 
 naturally no power of cohesion. 
 
 "Wanting cohesiveness, it must be tempered to a 
 
330 BRASS AND IRON FOUNDER. 
 
 proper consistency by the addition of clay and 
 water, yeast, flour, or the refuse of pease-meal, used 
 for light flat moulding purposes. In the use of 
 the latter materials, it must be accurately propor- 
 tioned to the sand with which it is mixed. The 
 clay-water is, in ordinary cases, made use of as a 
 cement, and the yeast only in very particular cir- 
 cumstances. For large compact masses of core 
 the common green sand may be used. 
 
 The longer cores are stiffened by iron wires and 
 small rods, which are bent, if necessary, to the form 
 of the cores. These rods are dipped in clay- wash, 
 and enveloped in the core in the progress of its 
 formation, and are afterward extracted from the 
 casting. The cores of considerable length are 
 pierced longitudinally by wires for the " escape of 
 the air ;" or in cases where this is impracticable, on 
 account of bends or angles in the core, a piece of 
 string is laid in the sand alongside the stiffening 
 wires, which is afterward drawn out, when the core 
 is dry, leaving its perforation behind it. With all 
 these precautions, securing the strength of the cores 
 and letting off the air, your castings have every 
 chance of being good, and free from blow-holes. 
 When the bearings of cores at the extremities are 
 considered unfit for steadying them, they are fur- 
 
ON SAND- CORE MOULDING, ETC. 331 
 
 ther sustained by staples struck into the sand at 
 several places in their length, and projecting above 
 it just as much as the thickness of metal, the core 
 is placed upon them, and sustained steadily in its 
 place. The staples are, of course, buried in the 
 castmg, and the projecting points outside cut off in 
 the course of dressing it. Chaplets are used to bear 
 up cores having plain surfaces. Another set of 
 chaplets, or staples, are placed in the cope, and well 
 secured at the back, when the flask is closed, firmly 
 fixed, and in contact with the upper half of the 
 core. It is thus prevented from floating off its 
 seat when immersed in the fluid metal, and pre- 
 vented from springing. This is a matter of greater 
 moment than the mere sustaining of the core from 
 below, as will be apparent on considering the great 
 difference of specific gravities of sand, dry loam, 
 and iron or brass. 
 
 In this case, the upward effective pressure of the 
 fluid metal upon the core is proportional to the 
 difference of their specific gravities, which, being 
 so much in favor of metal, the pressure upward, 
 sustained by the chaplets, cannot be much less than 
 the weight of a body of metal of the same bulk as 
 the core, for the support of which they are des- 
 tined; in brass-founding particularly, great care 
 
332 BRASS AND IRON FOUNDER. 
 
 should be taken that the staples and chaplets are 
 sufficiently strong. Should they be too slightly 
 made, they will bend or melt before the hot metal; 
 and prove entirely useless. This is too often neg- 
 lected. 
 
 Ordinary black-wash for cores consists of oak 
 charcoal; powdered, and a little clay, diluted with 
 horse-dung water. Blackening for moulds is often 
 composed of finely ground plumbago, mixed with 
 a little charcoal, the whole diluted with a solution 
 of the soluble parts of horse-dung. This is fre- 
 quently mixed with pease-meal, or other meal, glue, 
 and extracts from the refuse of tanneries. But all 
 these compositions are more or less too close, and 
 cause a dull surface to the cast. The first is the 
 best, if applied not too much diluted. Blackening, 
 or a coating of carbon, will prevent the burning of 
 the sand, and consequent roughness of the casting, 
 as it fills the pores of the sand. A little plumbago 
 mixed with it makes it more refractory still, and is 
 very desirable where a great body of metal sur- 
 rounds a small core. 
 
 One part of clay mixed with nine parts of free- 
 sand, or any other pure sand, is considered suffi- 
 ciently strong for core sands. Still, these properties 
 depend very much on the nature of the sand and 
 
ON SAND-CORE MOULDING, ETC. 333 
 
 the adhesiveness of the clay, and also what kind 
 of cores are to be made from it — large and compli- 
 cated cores being made stronger than small ones. 
 
 The various kinds of good moulding-sand em- 
 ployed in foundries for casting iron or brass, have 
 been found to be of an almost uniform chemicai 
 composition, varying in grain or the aggregate 
 form only. It contains between 93 and 96 parts 
 silex, or grains of sand, and from 3 to 6 parts of 
 clay, and a little oxide of iron in each 100 parts. 
 Moulding-sand which contains lime, magnesia, and 
 other oxides of metal, is not applicable, particu- 
 larly for the casting of iron or brass. Such sand 
 is generally either too weak or too close — will not 
 stand or retain its form, or it will cause the metai 
 to boil through its closeness. 
 
 In practice, different kinds of castings require 
 difi'erent kinds of sand for the purpose of mould- 
 ing, which will furnish the subject for another 
 article. 
 
334 
 
 BKASS AND IKON FOUNDER. 
 
 ON WASHING SWEEPINGS, ASHES, ETC., FROM BRASS 
 FOUNDRY FURNACES — GILDERS' AND JEWELLERS' 
 WORKSHOPS — AND PLACES WHERE METALLURGIO 
 OPERATIONS ARE CARRIED ON. 
 
 The clinkers, ashes, or cinders, which remain in 
 furnaces after metallurgic operations have been com- 
 pleted, may appear to be among the most Uvseless 
 things. Not so, however. If they contain any 
 metal, there are men who will ferret it out, by some 
 means or other. Not many years since, the ashes 
 of the coal or coke used in brass and bronze fur- 
 naces, were carried away, after picking, as rubbish. 
 But shrewd people have detected a good deal of 
 volatilized copper, &c., mixed up therewith, and 
 the brass founder can now find a market for his 
 ashes as an inferior kind of ore ; or which is still 
 more preferable, in case of slackness of work, can 
 cleanse and smelt them himself; which every brass 
 founder can (or at least, ought to know how to) do. 
 It needs hardly to be stated, that all sorts of filings 
 and raspings, cuttings and clippings, borings and 
 turnings, and odds and ends in the metallic form, 
 are all available for re-melting, whatsoever the 
 metal may be ; all is grist that comes to this mill. 
 
ON WASHING SWEEPINGS, ETC. 335 
 
 If the metal be a cheap one, it will not pay to ex- 
 tricate a stray per centage from ashes and clinkers ; 
 but if it be one of the most costly metals, not only 
 are all scraps and ashes and skimmings preserved, 
 but particles are sought for in a way that may well 
 astonish those to whom the subject is new. 
 
 Take gold as an example. There are dealers who 
 sedulously wait upon gilders and jewellers, at inter- 
 vals, to buy up every thing (be it what it may) 
 which has gold in or upon it. Old and useless gilt 
 frames are bought ; they are burnt, and the ashes so 
 treated as to yield up all their gold. The fragments 
 and dust of gold, which arise during gilding, are 
 bought and refined. The leather cushion which 
 the gilder uses, is bought, when too old for use, for 
 the sake of the gold particles which insinuate them- 
 selves into odd nooks and corners. The old leather 
 apron of the jeweller is bought. It is a rich prize ; 
 for in spite of its dirty look, it possesses very aurif- 
 erous attractions. The sweepings of the floor of a 
 jeweller's workshop are bought, and there is proba- 
 bly no broom, the use of which is stipulated for 
 with more strictness, than that with which such a 
 floor is swept. In short, there are in this world, 
 (and at no time so much as at present) a set of very 
 useful people, who may be designated as mar-ufao 
 
336 
 
 BRASS AND IRON FOUNDER. 
 
 taring scavengers. They clear away refuse, which 
 would else encumber the ground, and they put 
 money into the pockets both of buyers and sellers ; 
 they do effectually create a something, out of a com- 
 mercial nothing. It is essentially necessary, how- 
 ever, for the brass founder (should he employ a 
 smelter of metals to wash his foundry ashes, his 
 own man being too busily engaged in the moulding 
 shop) to have them cleansed and smelted on his own 
 premises, as he will effect a considerable saving 
 thereby, beside have a very superior metal, than 
 if washed off the premises and returned after smelt- 
 ing. The reason is obvious: crucibles generally 
 break before the tin, zinc, or lead is added to the 
 copper, which is always melted first ; this being the 
 case, the smelter has an opportunity (and rarely fails 
 to advantage by it) of reducing the alloy with the 
 inferior metals, at the cost of the employer. There 
 is great room for trickery here, and I have known 
 brass founders themselves (and clever ones at that), 
 who could not detect the imposition. Every brass 
 founder ought to be capable of washing and smelt- 
 ing his own refuse and shop dirt. This may be 
 done (as before stated) at any period of the year, 
 and find him employment when he might otherwise 
 have nothing to do in the moulding shop, as well 
 
FLUXES. 
 
 337 
 
 %s save his employer from laying out cash for that 
 which he has at home, if only gathered together. 
 
 CORNISH REFINING FLUX. 
 
 Deflagrate, and afterward pulverize, two parts 
 of mtre, and one part of tartar. The following fluxes 
 answer the purpose very well, provided the ores be 
 deprived of all their sulphur, or if they contain 
 much earthy matter; because in the latter case, 
 they unite with them, and convert them into a thin 
 glass, but if any quantity of sulphur remain, these 
 fluxes unite with it, and form a liver of sulphur, 
 which has the power of destroying a portion of all 
 the metals ; consequently, the assay must be, under 
 such circumstances, very inaccurate. Limestone, 
 feldspar, fluor-spar, quartz, sand-slate, and slugs, 
 are all used as fluxes. Iron ores, on account of the 
 argillaceous earth they contain, require calcareous 
 additions ; and the copper ores, rather slugs, or vit- 
 rescent stones, than calcareous earth. 
 
 CRUDE, OR WHITE FLUX. 
 
 One part nitre, to two parts tartar, mixed well 
 together. 
 
 22 
 
338 
 
 BRASS AND IRON FOUNDER. 
 
 BLACK FLUX. 
 
 The above flux detonates by means of kindled 
 charcoal, and if the detonation be effected in a mor- 
 tar slightly covered, the smoke that urises unites 
 with the alkalized nitre and the tartar, and renders 
 it black. 
 
 CORNISH REDUCING FLUX. 
 
 Mix well together, 10 ounces of tartar, 3 ounces 
 and 6 drachms of nitre, and 3 ounces and 1 drachm 
 of borax. 
 
 IMITATION SILVER METAL. 
 
 4| pounds tin, J pound bismuth, | pound anti- 
 mony, ^ pound lead. This metal retains its silvery 
 brilliancy to the last. 
 
 ON CASE-HARDENING IRON". 
 
 Case-hardening iron is done by reducing the 
 prussiate of potash to a paste, in a little water 
 smearing over your article, and heating it in the 
 fire to a dull red heat, and then dip in cold water. 
 
VARNISHES — GUM SOLUTIONS — BRASS. 339 
 
 VARNISH FOR IRON. 
 
 The best varnish for iron is red lead, laid on 
 first with a very thin coat, left to dry, then giv<i 
 one or two more coats. 
 
 VARNISH FOR POLISHED IRON. 
 
 Use common gum copal varnish. You may mix 
 a little oil in it. 
 
 TO PRESERVE GUM ARABIC SOLUTIONS. 
 
 A FEW drops of alcohol, or any essential oil, will 
 preserve a quart of the mucilage of " gum Arahic^^ 
 or "gum TragacantK'' from spoiling. A small quan 
 nty of dissolved alum will preserve flour paste. 
 
 BEST COMPOSITION OF BRASS FOR ROLLING AND 
 FORGING. 
 
 Any proportion between the extremes of 50 
 parts copper and 50 parts zinc, or 62 copper and 
 
340 
 
 BRASS AND IRON FOUNDER. 
 
 38 zinc, will roll and work at the red heat. The 
 very best composition, however, is 60 parts copper 
 to 40 parts zinc. 
 
 REMARKS ON THE FLUXING OF METALS. 
 
 Metals are contained in the ores, in most cases 
 as compounds, and if it is the object to separate 
 them, we are to put such matter in contact with 
 them, as will deprive the metal of its compound. 
 If a silicate of iron is melted, we do not precipitate 
 iron by adding carbonate of soda, or caustic lime, to 
 the fluid mass ; this addition merely increases the 
 fluidity of the shg, without producing any metal. 
 But if we add sodium, the oxide of iron will be de- 
 prived of its oxygen, and form metal. Carbon has 
 more afl&nity for oxygen than metal, in the high heat 
 of a melted silicate. If, therefore, we add carbon to 
 the melted silicate of iron, some iron is produced. 
 In all cases, the metal requires a slimy, glassy sub- 
 stance coating, to protect it against the influence of 
 oxygen, when exposed in small particles to that 
 influence. 
 
 Almost all metals burn more readily than carhon 
 ' — gold, the platina metals, and silver, in some meas* 
 
TINNING COPPER AND BRASS. 341 
 
 are, excepted. If, therefore, we desire to obtain a 
 metal, we must produce a slag, which protects it, 
 and at the same time admits of its coagulation. I 
 would strongly recommend the founder to use as 
 general flux (for copper foundings, particularly 
 where large masses of copper have to be melted, 
 prior to adding his tin and zinc), sal. enixum (the 
 refuse from aqua-fortis), to be obtained at most of the 
 chemical works, at a trifling cost. I know of nothing 
 to equal it. This, with charcoal, surpasses every 
 thing else. 
 
 TINNING CAST COPPER, OR BRASS. 
 
 Cast-iron may be tinned by a solution of tin, 
 as muriate of tin, mixed with an equal part of 
 sal-ammoniac, if brushed over the metal, will highly 
 further the operation of tinning ; i. e., make a solu- 
 tion tin, by dissolving oxide of tin (tin putty) in 
 potash ley — adding to the saturated solution some 
 tin-shavings or filings. Make this hot as possible ; 
 place in your brass or copper, and they will bo 
 tinned in a fcAV seconds. 
 
342 
 
 BRASS AND IRON POUNDER. 
 
 The following table of experiments on the tenaci- 
 ties of metals, is given with the results, and the 
 experimenters' names. 
 
 
 In torm 294fl ]h 
 
 
 O 1 
 
 Ha.iiinier6d copper, 
 
 ... 1 0— u 
 
 Sheet copper, 
 
 . . . 21-0 
 
 Wire copper, 
 
 . . . 27-0 
 
 Wire platina, 
 
 . . . 17-0 
 
 Cast silver, 
 
 . . . 18-0 
 
 Wire " 
 
 . . . 17-0 
 
 Oast gold, 
 
 9-0 
 
 Wire " 
 
 . . . 14-0 
 
 Hard gun metal, 
 
 . . . 16-0 
 
 Pine yellow brass, . 
 
 8-0 
 
 Cast tin. 
 
 2-0 
 
 Wire tin, 
 
 3-0 
 
 Cast-iron, No. 1, 
 
 . . . 6 to 7f . 
 
 Cast-iron, No. 2, 
 
 . . . 6 to 8 
 
 Cast-iron, No. 3,* . 
 
 . . 6 to 9| . 
 
 Experimenters 
 
 Sir J. Rennie. 
 (( 
 
 Kingston. 
 
 n 
 
 Guyton. 
 
 Sir J. Rennie. 
 
 Hodgkinson. 
 Hodgkinson. 
 Hodgkinson. 
 
 The above tests are on bars one inch 
 
 square. 
 
 * The Strongest quality of cast-iron, is a Scotch iron 
 known as the " Devon Hot Blast," No. 3. Its tenacity is 
 9| tons per square inch. Its resistance to compression is 
 65 do. The experiments of Major Wade,t on the gun-iron 
 at West Point foundry, and at Boston, give to us results as 
 high as 10 to 16 tons, throughout, and on small cast bars aa 
 high as 17 tons. 
 
 t Strength and other Properties of Metals for Cannon. 4to, PhiJa. 
 Jelphia; H. C. Baird. 1856. 
 
TIN AND ZINC. 
 
 343 
 
 ON REDUCING COPPER WITH WHITE ARSENIC. 
 
 In reducing copper scraps with white arsenic, 
 for buttons, ornaments, candlesticks, clock dials, 
 figures, (Sec, &c., to give them the color of silver, 
 the whole should be brought down under a flux of 
 common salt. The metal is very highly poisonous, 
 and should not in any case be used for cooking 
 utensils. Arsenic being more fusible and brittle, 
 is much used in shot factories, in the proportion of 
 11 lbs. arsenic to 500 lbs. of lead for small shot, 
 =»nd 3 lbs. of arsenic to 500 lead for large shot. 
 
 TIN AND ZINC. 
 
 Tin and zinc will waste more than copper in 
 re-melting metals. To prevent this as much as 
 possible, a flux of potash and soda, freely mixed 
 with charcoal, in the proportion of two ounces to 
 the hundred pounds of metal, should be added im- 
 mediately after the mass is melted, to prevent oxi- 
 dation, and loss of strength and beauty. The 
 quicker the metals are reduced under a good flux, 
 and cast into work, the more perfect will be the 
 crystallization and homogenity. If zinc is to be 
 added after the crucible is taken from the fire (in 
 casting brass work), it is best to introduce it in the 
 form of yellow brass. 
 
344 BRASS AND IRON FOUNDER. 
 
 TIN AND IRON. 
 
 Eight ounces of iron to six ounces of tin, make 
 a beautiful composition, resembling steel both in 
 lustre and hardness. A less proportion of tin still 
 adds to the hardness and brilliancy of iron. 
 
 Let tin-plate scraps be melted with block-tin, 
 under a flux of nitre, and poured out, when melted, 
 together. The metals would not readily combine 
 otherwise. Thus the Spaniards and Chinese cast 
 excellent bells, of the following composition : 
 
 COPPER, TIN, AND IRON ALLOY. 
 
 Copper 
 Tin . 
 Iron . 
 
 25 
 1 
 
 74 pounds. 
 
 100-0 
 
 CORINTHIAN BRONZE, 
 
 SYRACUSE BRONZE. 
 
 90-0 Copper. 
 7-0 Tin. 
 3-0 Zinc. 
 
 82-25 Copper. 
 17-50 Zinc. 
 25 Tin. 
 
 100-0 
 
 100-00 
 
WHITE LACQUER. 
 
 345 
 
 SHIP-NAILS COMPOSITION, STRONG AND DURABLE. 
 
 10 Pounds copper, 8 lbs. zinc, and 1 lb. iron. 
 
 CHINESE WHITE METALS. 
 
 No. 1. 
 
 Copper, 55-0 
 
 Zinc, 17-0 
 
 Nickel, 23-0 
 
 Iron, 3-0 
 
 98-0 
 
 No. 2. 
 
 50-0 
 25-0 
 25-0 
 No iron. 
 
 No. 3. 
 62-0 Copper. 
 19-0 Zinc. 
 14-0 Nickel. 
 
 2-J Cobalt. 
 
 2-1 Iron. 
 
 100-0 
 
 100-0 
 No. 4. 
 
 78-0 Copper, 4-0 nickel, 3+5 zinc. 
 
 Add one-fourth part of zinc to No. 4 metal for soldering 
 the four compositions. 
 
 FENTON'S ANTI-FRICTION METAL. 
 
 7J parts grain tin, 
 7 J parts purified zinc, 
 1 part antimony. 
 
 TO MAKE WHITE LACQUER. 
 
 Take spirits of wine (highly rectified) one pint, 
 which divide into 4 parts. Then mix one part with 
 
346 BRASS AND IRON FOUNDER. 
 
 half an ounce of "gum mastic," in a phial by 
 itself; one part spirits and half an ounce of "gum 
 gandarach" in another phial ; one part spirits and 
 half an ounce of the whitest parts of "gum Benja- 
 min." Then mix and temper to your mind. No 
 rule can further instruct you, unless the quality of 
 the gums and spirits could be ascertained. It 
 would not be amiss to add a very small piece of 
 " white rosin," or clear " Venice turpentine," in the 
 mastic bottle ; it will assist in giving a gloss. If 
 your varnish should prove strong and thick, add 
 clear spirits; if too hard, pour from the mastic 
 bottle ; if too soft, a little from the sandarach or 
 Benjamin. When you have brought it to a proper 
 temper and ready for use, warm the plate on a hot 
 heater, and with a camel's hair brush dipped in the 
 varnish, stroke it quickly over until no shades 
 appear. 
 
STRENGTH OF MATERIALS. 
 
 347 
 
 ON THE STRENGTH OF MATERIALS 
 
 BY C. A. LEK, C. E. 
 
 All solid bodies are proved to be possessed of 
 certain general properties, among the most im- 
 portant of wbicb is the capability of oflfering 
 resistance to forces tending to change the relative 
 position of their particles. It is this that it is 
 proposed to discuss. 
 
 There are different hypotheses as to the ultimate 
 arrangement of the particles of bodies, but for 
 estimating their strength it is customary to sup- 
 pose them to be made up of fibres running parallel 
 to the length of the body — which fibres are more 
 or less elastic, and capable of being extended or 
 compressed within a certain limit, which is called 
 the "limit of elasticity." The amount of compres- 
 sion or extension is directly proportional to the 
 force applied, and to the length of the piece, and 
 inversely proportional to the transverse section. It 
 must be understood, however, that these changes 
 of form are very minute, depending on the nature 
 of the material in question. Moreover, the same 
 force will produce equal extensions and compres- 
 sions in the same piece. Suppose we take a bar 
 
348 BRASS AND IRON FOUNDER. 
 
 of iron and bend it — it is evident that the iibre<< 
 on the convex side are lengthened, while those on 
 the concave side are shortened. It is the natural 
 elasticity of these fibres that causes the bar to 
 spring back when the pressure is removed. If the 
 bar is bent so much, and consequently the fibres 
 extended and compressed so much as to exceed the 
 limit of elasticity, the bar will not return fully to 
 its original form, but will take what is called a 
 permanent " set." When a piece is submitted to a 
 strain sufficient to give it a permanent set, it will 
 from that time, if the force is continued, undergo a 
 gradual yielding, until finally it gives way. This 
 gradual yielding sometimes takes months and years 
 to be sensible ; but experiments have proved that 
 it does take place. After the natural elasticity is 
 once destroyed, the piece, if the charge is con- 
 tinued, keeps growing weaker. It is thus seen 
 that in practice it is absolutely out of the question 
 to submit materials to a greater strain than that 
 corresponding to the limit of elasticity, and it should 
 never ordinarily exceed from one half to three 
 quarters of this limit. There will be given, farther 
 on, practical rules for guidance in this respect. 
 
 There are several species of strains to which 
 materials may be subjected — compression, exten- 
 
STRENGTH OF MATERIALS. 349 
 
 sion, torsion, transversal strain, and detrusion, or 
 where the force acts at right-angles to the fibres. 
 
 When a solid is subjected to a strain sufficient 
 to cause rupture, either by crushing or extension, 
 it is proved by experiment that the force necessary 
 to produce this effect is directly proportional to 
 the transverse section of the body — that is, to the 
 area of the section. There will be found, in the 
 Table, the ultimate resistance of different kinds of 
 materials to extension and compression; but it 
 must be remembered that these experiments were 
 made on fair, sound specimens, and under favora- 
 ble circumstances, and that the pieces subjected to 
 compression were but once and a half their base 
 in height. When the specimens exceeded six times 
 their base, they gave way by bending. 
 
 Explanation of the Table, No. 1.— The first column 
 gives the different materials. The second gives the 
 weight of a cubic inch or foot of each, in pounds. 
 The third gives the weight necessary to rupture, 
 by extension, a piece one inch square. The fourth 
 gives the same with regard to compression. The 
 fifth and sixth give the limits which should not be 
 exceeded, in practical applications, in pounds, per 
 square men of section. 
 
350 
 
 BRASS AND IRON FOUNDER. 
 
 MATERIAL. 
 
 Ash (English) , 
 
 Beech (do.) 
 
 Box "" 
 
 Elm 
 
 Fir (New England) 
 
 Fir (Riga) 
 
 Larch 
 
 Locust 
 
 Oak (English) 
 
 Oak (Canadian) 
 
 Oak (Dantzic) 
 
 Pine (pitch) 
 
 Pine (red) 
 
 Teak 
 
 Iron, 
 
 Bar 1 inch square (Welch). 
 
 Two inch round bar.......... 
 
 Russian 1 inch round bar... 
 
 Swedish 1 inch square bar, 
 
 American bar iron 
 
 English cable iron 
 
 " hammer hardened.. 
 Iron Wire. 
 
 id inch diam. Philipsbure 
 
 0.19 " " '« .. 
 
 0.166 " " " 
 
 0.1 " " English 
 Boiler Iron (American). 
 
 Piled iron 
 
 Hammered plate 
 
 Puddled iron 
 
 Cast 
 
 Wrought Copper, in sheets., 
 
 Cast Copper 
 
 Copper wire.. 
 
 Cast Tin 
 
 Cast Zinc 
 
 Weight of a cubio foot, 
 in pounds. 
 
 Ultimate resistance to 
 extension per square 
 inch of section. 
 
 Ultimate resistance to 
 compression per square 
 inch of section. 
 
 Limit which should not 
 be exceeded in prac- 
 tice —Extension. 
 
 Limit which should not 
 be exceeded in prac- 
 tice. — Compression 
 
 47.5 
 
 17000 
 
 9000 
 
 1000 
 
 1000 
 
 43.8 
 
 11000 
 
 12000 
 
 " 
 
 " 
 
 62.5 
 
 20000 
 
 12000 
 
 tt 
 
 tl 
 
 33.8 
 
 5800 
 
 10000 
 
 tt 
 
 tt 
 
 34.4 
 
 12000 
 
 
 
 
 47.0 
 
 12600 
 
 
 tt 
 
 'll 
 
 33.8 
 
 7000 
 
 4000 
 
 tt 
 
 It 
 
 59.5 
 
 20500 
 
 
 tt 
 
 tt 
 
 50.0 
 
 12000 
 
 8000 
 
 t( 
 
 II 
 
 54.5 
 
 12000 
 
 6000 
 
 
 tl 
 
 47.5 
 
 14500 
 
 7000 
 
 ti 
 
 It 
 
 41.2 
 
 10500 
 
 6700 
 
 tt 
 
 II 
 
 41.3 
 
 10000 
 
 7500 
 
 tt 
 
 II 
 
 47.0 
 
 15000 
 
 12000 
 
 " 
 
 II 
 
 Weight 
 
 
 
 
 
 of a on. 
 
 
 
 
 
 bio inch. 
 
 
 
 
 
 in Iba 
 
 
 
 
 
 0.281 
 
 58000 
 
 70000 
 
 10000 
 
 15000 
 
 
 59000 
 
 
 tt 
 
 II 
 
 
 53000 
 
 
 " 
 
 i( 
 
 
 68000 
 
 
 
 
 {t 
 
 48000 
 
 
 tt 
 
 
 
 53000 
 
 
 tt 
 
 It 
 
 It 
 
 63000 
 
 a 
 
 It 
 
 It 
 
 
 75000 
 
 
 12500 
 
 
 n 
 
 66000 
 
 
 11000 
 
 
 If 
 
 80000 
 
 
 13300 
 
 
 ti 
 
 72000 
 
 
 12000 
 
 
 tt 
 
 56000 
 
 70000 
 
 9300 
 
 11700 
 
 
 55000 
 
 
 9100 
 
 It 
 
 
 51000 
 
 
 8500 
 
 
 
 
 f 80000 
 
 
 C 13000 
 
 0.26 
 
 18000 
 
 \ to 
 
 3000 
 
 \ to 
 
 
 
 [ 150000 
 
 
 ( 25000 
 
 0.32 
 
 BOOOO 
 
 100000 
 
 5000 
 
 16000 
 
 0.317 
 
 17000 
 
 117000 
 
 3000 
 
 19500 
 
 0.32 
 
 30000 
 
 
 lOOOO 
 
 
 0.2fi3 
 
 4200 
 
 1000 
 
 700 
 
 170 
 
 0.248 
 
 8400 
 
 
 1400 
 
 
STRENGTH OP MATERIALS. 351 
 
 [table continued.] 
 
 jyi A i JCiKl All. 
 
 Weight of a cubic inch, 
 in pounds. 
 
 Ultimate resistance to 
 extension per squarn 
 inch of section. 
 
 Ultimate resistance to 
 compression persquare 
 inch of section. 
 
 Limit which should not 
 be exceeded in prac- 
 tice—Extension. 
 
 Limit which should not 
 be exceeded in prao- 
 tice.— Compression. 
 
 
 0.25 
 
 7000 
 
 
 1170 
 
 
 
 0.41 
 
 1700 
 
 483 
 
 300 
 
 80 
 
 T> 1 T nn A 
 
 
 1800 
 
 
 300 
 
 
 
 0.282 
 
 16000 
 
 103000 
 
 2700 
 
 17000 
 
 
 
 32000 
 
 
 5300 
 
 
 
 0.097 
 
 
 10000 
 
 
 1000 
 
 
 0.088 
 
 800 
 
 5000 
 
 80 
 
 600 
 
 
 0.115 
 
 
 5000 
 
 
 500 
 
 
 
 
 2000 
 
 
 200 
 
 
 0.114 
 
 
 5000 
 
 
 500 
 
 Hydraulic lime mortar 
 
 0.055 
 
 140 
 
 500 
 
 15 
 
 50 
 
 
 0.056 
 
 234 
 
 700 
 
 25 
 
 70 
 
 Ordinary lime mortar (old).. 
 
 0.058 
 
 70 
 
 500 
 
 6 
 
 50 
 
 
 0.069 
 
 280 
 
 2000 
 
 30 
 
 200 
 
 
 0.062 
 
 100 
 
 800 
 
 10 
 
 80 
 
 ■ The preceding table has been prepared from the 
 highest authorities — Morin^ Poncelet, Claudel, Bar- 
 low, Hodgkinson, Franklin Institute, and others, 
 and the utmost reliance may be placed upon it. It 
 has been prepared especially for the practical use 
 of American mechanics. The numbers in the fifth 
 and sixth columns are those recommended by the 
 most eminent engineers and practical men both i» 
 this country and Europe. 
 
 With regard to the absolute ultimate strength 
 of materials, it is proper to state that they vary 
 
852 
 
 BRASS AND IRON FOUNDER. 
 
 very much for different specimens of the same 
 material. This applies more especially to wood, 
 but also in some degree to all substances. It de- 
 pends much on the state of the specimen. For 
 instance, in the following table will be found the 
 result of experiments made on short cylinders of 
 timber, with flat ends, subjected to a compressive 
 force. The cylinders were one inch in diameter 
 and two inches in height. The results in the first 
 column were obtained from timber moderately dry; 
 those in the second column were obtained in like 
 manner from similar specimens which were turned 
 and kept in a warm place two months longer. A 
 comparison of the two columns will show the great 
 importance of having timber thoroughly seasoned 
 in order to obtain its full strength. 
 
 Strength per square 
 inch, in pounds. 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF WOOD. , ' . 
 
 Green. Dry. 
 
 Ash 8683 . 9363 
 
 Beech 7700 . 19300 
 
 Birch 3200 . 11600 
 
 Oak (Quebec) 4230 . 6000 
 
 Oak (English) 6480 . 10000 
 
 Larch 3200 . 5560 
 
 Willow 2898 . 6128 
 
 With regard to the safe amount of strain it ia 
 
STRENGTH OP MATERIALS. 
 
 353 
 
 proper to charge materials with in constructions; 
 the engineer will be guided in each particular case 
 by his judgment. It is impossible to give rules for 
 every case. If, for instance, a piece of timber is 
 to occupy a position where the strain upon it is 
 steady, and it is exposed to no abrasion or decay 
 supposing it to be a fair sound specimen, it might 
 be submitted safely to a strain as high as one sixth 
 or one fifth of its ultimate strength. But, ordi 
 narily, this would be too high. The French meca- 
 niciens, Poncelet, Morin, Claudel, and others of the 
 highest authority, have agreed upon certain limits 
 to be used in practice for all kinds of materials 
 and which will be given below. This limit for 
 wood is one tenth the ultimate strength. This is 
 the same ratio recommended by Haupt in his work 
 on Bridges, and which he found to be perfectly 
 successful in practice, as combining a judicious 
 iegree of strength with the least quantity of ma- 
 terial. 
 
 As the mean ultimate strength of wood may be 
 rated at ten thousand pounds per square inch of 
 section, both for compression and extension, we 
 have for our practical limit, not to be exceeded in 
 ordinary cases of construction, one thousand pounds 
 per square inch. Where timber is exposed to 
 
 23 
 
354 
 
 BRASS AND IRON POUNDER. 
 
 other than the legitimate strains due to its position 
 in the structure to which it belongs, and which we 
 will show how to calculate farther on, the engineer 
 must of course use his judgment, unless these out- 
 side forces are such as to be calculated. The limits 
 sDoken of above, are, for wood, stone, and mortars, 
 one tenth their ultimate resistance both for exten- 
 sion and compression, and one sixth for metals. 
 As M. Poncelet has remarked, it would be more 
 proper to determine these limits from the limits of 
 elasticity of the several bodies, but experiments on 
 this point have been made in but few instances. 
 
 ON THE STRENGTH OF IRON. — CAST-IRON. 
 
 This material, which has come to be used so ex- 
 tensively in the arts and in constructions, and 
 whose uses are daily extending, has been made the 
 subject of a great number of experiments. The 
 most recent and reliable are those of Mr. E. Hodg- 
 kmson, the English experimenter. Those especially 
 made by him on the strength of columns, both solid 
 and hollow, and the most suitable forms for cast- 
 iron beams to sustain a transverse strain, have sup- 
 plied the engineer and architect with the most 
 
STRENGTH OF CAST-IRON. 
 
 valuable guide in using and adapting this metal to 
 the various purposes of construction. 
 
 Resistance to Extension. — Experiments have been 
 made on this point by Mr, Eennie and Captain 
 Brown, of England, and under the direction of the 
 Franklin Institute in this country, and also by Mr. 
 Hodgkinson of England. The first named gentle- 
 man obtained for the ultimate tensile strength of 
 cast-iron, from 14,000 to 18,000 pounds per square 
 inch of cross section. The results obtained by Mr. 
 Hodgkinson, also on English iron, both hot and cold- 
 blast, was from 12,000 to 19,000 per square inch. 
 
 The experiments by the Franklin Institute on 
 American cast-iron give for the mean tensile 
 strength, 20,834 pounds per square inch. This 
 material, however, on account of its brittleness, and 
 comparatively low power of resistance to a strain 
 of extension, is seldom ever submitted to it. It is 
 much used in the shape of cast-iron beams, to resist 
 a transverse strain, but this has been shown to be 
 nothing more than a strain of compression on one 
 part, and of extension on another part of the same 
 piece. In large works, it would be much better to 
 use a combination of cast and wrought-iron for re- 
 sisting a transverse strain, tLe cast fcr compression 
 and the wrought for extension. 
 
356 
 
 BRASS AND IRON FOUNDER. 
 
 Care must be taken however, that the different 
 degrees of expansion of these two materials by heat 
 produce no injurious effects. The limit of elasticity 
 as assigned by Claudel, is _Lth, and the force neces- 
 
 O ' 1200 ' 
 
 sary to produce it 16,100 pounds per square inch. 
 Some few remarks on the characteristics of cast- 
 iron may not be out of place here. (They are 
 mostly from the pen of Professor Mahan.) Cast- 
 iron is divided into two distinct varieties, the white 
 cast-iron and gray cast-iron. There are of course 
 intermediate varieties, which partake more or less 
 of the properties of these two, as they approach in 
 appearance nearer the one or the other. 
 
 Gray cast-iron when of good quality is slightly 
 malleable in a cold state, and will yield readily to 
 the action of the file, when the hard outside scale 
 caused by the chill in casting is removed. It is 
 also sometimes termed soft gray cast-iron ; it is 
 softer and tougher than the white iron. On strik- 
 ing a sharp corner with the point of a hammer, an 
 indentation will be produced, when in the other 
 variety a piece would fly out. When broken, the 
 surface of the fracture presents a granular structure, 
 the color is gray, and the lustre is what is termed 
 metallic, resembling small brilliant particles of lead 
 strewed over the surface. 
 
STRENGTH OF CAST-IRON. 
 
 35T 
 
 White cast-iron is very hard and brittle; when 
 recently broken, the surface of the fracture presents 
 a distinctly marked crystalline structure. The color 
 is white, and lustre vitreous or glassy. 
 
 The following description, from Mr. Mallet's Ee- 
 port to the British Association for the Advance- 
 ment of Science, comprises the different varieties : 
 
 " Silvery. — Least fusible, thickens rapidly, when 
 fluid, by a spontaneous puddling; crystals vesicular 
 often crystalline ; incapable of being cut by chisel 
 or file; ultimate cohesion a maximum; elastic range 
 a minimum. 
 
 "Micaceous. — Yery soft; a greasy feel ; peculiar 
 micaceous appearance, generally owing to excess 
 of manganese; soils the fingers strongly; crystals 
 large ; runs very fluid ; contraction large. 
 
 "Mottled. — Tough and hard ; filed or cut with diffi- 
 culty ; crystals large and small mixed ; sometimes 
 runs thick ; contraction in cooling a maximum. 
 
 "Bright Gray. — Toughness and hardness most 
 suitable for working ; ultimate cohesion and elastic 
 range generally are balanced most advantageously 
 crystals uniform, very minute. 
 
 '.'Dull Gray. — Less tough than the preceding; 
 other characters alike ; contraction in cooling a 
 minimum 
 
358 
 
 BRASS AND IRON FOUNDER. 
 
 "Dark Gray. — Most fusible; remains long fluid ; 
 exudes graphite in cooling; soils the fingers; crys 
 tals large aud lamellar ; ultimate cohesion a mini- 
 mum ; and elastic range a maximum. 
 
 "The gray iron is most suitable where strength is 
 rec[uired ; and the white where hardness is the 
 principal requisite." 
 
 The color and lustre presented b}'- the surface of 
 a recent fracture are the best indications of the 
 quality of iron. 
 
 A uniform middling dark gray color and high 
 metallic lustre are indications of the best and 
 strongest. With the same color, but less lustre 
 the iron will be found to be softer and weaker, and 
 to crumble more readily. Iron without lustre, of 
 a dark and mottled color, is the softest and weakest 
 of the gray varieties, 
 
 " Iron of a light gray color, and high metallic 
 lustre, is usuall}'- very hard and tenacious. As the 
 color approaches to white, and the metallic lustre 
 changes to vitreous, hardness and brittleness become 
 more marked, until the extremes of a dull or gray- 
 ish white color, and a very high vitreous lustre, are 
 attained, which are the indications of the hardest 
 and most brittle of the white variety. 
 
 " The strength of cast-iron varies with its density 
 
STRENGTH OF CAST-IRON. 
 
 359 
 
 and this element depends upon the temperature of 
 the metal when drawn from the furnace, the rate 
 of cooling, the head of metal under which the cast- 
 ing is made, and the bulk of the casting. 
 
 "The density of iron cast in vertical moulds 
 increases according to Mallet's experiments, very 
 rapidly from the top downward, to a depth of about 
 four feet below the top ; from this point to the bot- 
 tom, the rate of increase is very nearly uniform. 
 
 " All other circumstances the same, the density 
 decreases with the bulk of the casting ; hence large, 
 are proportionally weaker than small castings. 
 From all these causes by which the strength of 
 iron may be influenced, it is very difficult to judge 
 of the quality of a casting by its external characters; 
 m general, however, if the exterior presents a uni- 
 form appearance devoid of marked inequalities of 
 surface, it will be an indication of uniform strength." 
 
 There has been considerable discussion with re- 
 o-ard to the relative merits of hot-blast and cold- 
 blast iron. Messrs. Fairbairn and Hodgkinson have 
 investigated the matter, and their conclusions are 
 expressed in the following paragraph : " The ulti 
 raatum of our inquiries made in this way stands in 
 the ratio of strength, 1000 for the cold-blast to 
 1024.8 for the hot-blast. The relative powers to 
 
360 
 
 BRASS AND IRON FOUNDER. 
 
 sustain impact are likewise in favor of the liot-blaat, 
 being in the ratio of 1000 to 1126.3." 
 
 The durability of cast-iron under exposure de- 
 pends on different circumstances, the bulk of the 
 casting, its homogeneity and density, &c. Mr. Mallet 
 has made researches on this subject, and the follow- 
 ing are the conclusions he arrived at : 
 
 " That the decay of iron when exposed to the 
 action of water, is principally due to Yoltaic agen- 
 cy, especially in tidal rivers, where there are strata 
 of different densities, a Voltaic pile being thus 
 formed of one solid body, and two fluid ones, 
 making the corrosion much more rapid than where 
 the water is homogeneous. Pure sea-water has 
 much less action on iron than the water of harbors 
 and docks, owing to the hydrosulphuric acid con- 
 tained in the latter, and which comes from the mud 
 at the bottom. In sea- water (pure) the rate of cor- 
 rosion of pieces one inch thick, is four tenths of an 
 inch for cast-iron, and six tenths for wrought-iron 
 per century. In fresh water the corrosive action is 
 much less than under any other circumstances of 
 immersion, the coat of oxide formed on the outside 
 not being dissolved and washed away as in sea- 
 water, but remaining as a kind of protection. In 
 hot s(>a-water, the corrosion is most rapid of any 
 
STRENGTH OF CAST-IRON. 
 
 381 
 
 other circumstances. Iron, chill-cast, corrodes more 
 rapidly than when cast in green sand, by reason of 
 the want of homogeneity of the metal, thus forming 
 Voltaic couples of different densities. When soft 
 and hard cast-iron are brought together under water, 
 the soft is corroded much more rapidly than when 
 by itself, while the hard suffers much less; castings 
 made in dry sand are more durable in water than 
 those made in green sand. From one eighth to one 
 fourth of an inch on the outside of castings, is 
 termed the hard crust. When this is removed, the 
 iron corrodes much more rapidly. The chief pomt 
 in making castings to be exposed to this agent, is 
 to have them as homogeneous as possible, and of as 
 great density." 
 
 Mr. Mallet concludes with the following very ju- 
 dicious remarks : " The engineer of observant habit 
 will soon have perceived, that in exposed works of 
 iron, equality of section or scantling, in all parts 
 sustaining equal strain, is far from insuring equal 
 passive power of permanent resistance, unless, in 
 addition to a general allowance for loss of substance 
 by corrosion, this latter element be so provided for, 
 that it shall be equally balanced over the whole 
 structure ; or, if not, shall be compelled to con- 
 fine itself to portions of the general structure. 
 
362 BRASS AND IRON FOUNDER. 
 
 which may lose substance without impairing its 
 stability." 
 
 COMPOSITION FOR SILVERING BRASS. 
 
 Take silver, or gold lace, half an ounce; add 
 thereto one ounce of double refined aqua fortis; 
 put them in an earthen pot, and place them over a 
 gentle fire till all be dissolved, which will happen 
 in about five minutes ; then take it off and mix it 
 in a pint of clear water, after which, pour it into 
 another clean vessel to free it from grit or sediment 
 and then add a spoonful of salt, and the green water 
 will immediately let go the silver particles, which 
 will form themselves into a white curd. Then pour 
 off the -water and throw it away, for it is of no fur- 
 ther use. The white curd must then be mixed with 
 two ounces of salt of tartar, half an ounce of whiting, 
 and a large spoonful of salt, more or less, according 
 as you find it for strength. Mix it well up together, 
 and it is ready for use. 
 
RESISTANCE TO COMPRESSION. 
 
 363 
 
 TO SILVER BRASS. 
 
 Having well cleared the biass from all scratches 
 (otherwise it will spoil its appearance), rub it over 
 with a piece of an old beaver hat and rotten-stone 
 to clear it from all greasiness ; then rub it with salt 
 and water with your hand ; then take a little of the 
 before-mentioned composition on your finger, and 
 rub it over where the salt has touched, and it will 
 adhere to the brass, and appear as well as silver. 
 After which, wash and steep it in plenty of clear 
 cold water; to kill the aqua fortis which remained 
 in the composition ; and when dried with a clean 
 hot rag, it is then ready to be varnished with the 
 white lacquer. 
 
 RESISTANCE TO COMPRESSION. 
 
 The best authority on this point is Mr. Hodgkia- 
 son, whose experiments were very full and varied. 
 The trials were mostly on small columns with cir- 
 cular bases. The resistance was found constant for 
 d. height less than once and a half the diameter of 
 the base, from this to a height equal to three times 
 the base; the resistance was less than before, but 
 
364 
 
 BRASS AND IRON FOUNDER. 
 
 Still remained constant ; and for any height greater 
 than this, the resistance decreased with the height. 
 When the piece was higher than three times the 
 base, the rupture generally took place by bending. 
 The pieces submitted to experiment generally 
 yielded by an oblique fracture, the upper pan 
 sliding off on the lower. The angle made by the 
 plane of the fracture, with the axis of the solid, waji 
 constant, and equal to about 55°. 
 
 The strength was found to be in direct propor- 
 tion to the area of the cross section. The measure 
 therefore, of the resistance offered by a splid to rup- 
 ture, either by compression or extension, is that 
 force which will rupture a sectional area of the 
 solid represented by unity. The following are the 
 results obtained by Mr. Hodgkmson. The mean 
 of the experiments on hot-blast iron gave, for crush- 
 ing weight, 121,685 ibs. per square inch; cold-blast 
 iron gave a mean of 125,400 lbs. per square inch. 
 These were on short prisms, whose cross section 
 was a circle. When the section was a square, or 
 other regular figure, the resistance v^as decreased 
 to 100,600 lbs. per square inch. 
 
RESISTANCE TO COMPRESSION. 
 
 365 
 
 Table from Mr. Eodghinsonh Experiments. 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF METAL. 
 
 Devon iron, No. 3, hot-blast... 
 Bufferyiron, No. 1, hot-blast.. 
 
 Do. " No. 1, cold-blast. 
 
 Do. " No. 2, hot-blast. . 
 
 Do. " " cold-blast. 
 Carron iron, " hot-blast. 
 
 Do. " '* ccld-blast 
 
 Do. " No. 3, hot-blast. 
 
 Do. " " cold-blast 
 
 CompressiTe Porce|TeuBile Force per 
 per square inch, square inch, in 
 in pounds. pounds 
 
 145,435 
 
 86,397 
 93,385 
 82,734 
 81,770 
 108,540 
 106,375 
 133,440 
 115,442 
 
 21,907 
 13,434 
 17,466 
 16,676 
 18,855 
 13,505 
 16,683 
 17,755 
 14,200 
 
 Resistance to a Transverse strain. — The resistance 
 of cast-iron to a transverse strain, is a subject of 
 the highest importance to the engineer and archi- 
 tect. Indeed, to prove this, it is only necessary to 
 point to the daily extending uses of this material 
 in almost every possible shape, and it is well known 
 that cast-iron is seldom, if ever, submitted to any 
 other than a transverse strain, as in cast-iron beams, 
 girders, &c., and a strain of compression, as in 
 columns, which will be investigated farther on. 
 
 The theory of the transverse strain has been fully 
 investigated ; and great numbers of experiments 
 have also been made on this point, so that among 
 mechanics the matter is considered as sufiiciently 
 settled. 
 
 The remarks below apply to other materials, as 
 well as to cast-iron. 
 
366 
 
 BRASS AND IRON FOUNDER. 
 
 Let A B be a body to which a force, P, is ap- 
 plied, ia a direction perpendicular to the direction 
 of the fibres. Supposing the force to be sufficient 
 to bend the body, as in the figure, the fibres a h, on 
 
 the upper side, will be extended, while those, c a, 
 on the lower side, will suffer a strain of compres- 
 sion. This can be made evident ; for, by increasing 
 the weight P, until a fracture takes place, the rup- 
 ture will be found to commence on the convex side, 
 thereby proving that the fibres on that side havo 
 been most extended ; and if some of the fibres on 
 the convex side be separated by cutting them 
 through transversely, it will be found that a 
 smaller force than P will suffice to produce the 
 rupture. 
 
 If, on the contrary, the fibres on the concave 
 side, c d, be cut through transversely to a depth, m n 
 
 a 
 
 Fig. 11. 
 
RESISTANCE TO COMPRESSION. 367 
 
 corresponding to about half the depth of the piece, 
 and a slip of hard material like a sheet of iron be 
 interposed, so as to just fill the place cut out, it 
 will be found, on subjecting it again to the force P 
 that the thin plate will be strongly retained by a 
 pressure tending to compress it, while the strength 
 of the solid will not be altered — the rupture com- 
 mencing under the same strain, and in the same 
 place as before. As we proceed from the convex 
 toward the concave side of the solid, the extension 
 of the fibres will gradually become less, until at a 
 point at or near the centre of the piece, the length 
 of the fibres will be found to undergo no variation. 
 Beyond this distance, the fibres will be found to be 
 more and more compressed, until we arrive at the 
 concave side, where the compression will be at its 
 maximum. The position of the fibres, whose form 
 is not altered by the flexure, and represented by 
 the line e / is called the neutral axis. Its 
 position varies for different substances, but for 
 practical purposes may be considered to coincide 
 with the centre of gravity of a transverse section 
 of the solid. 
 
 The fibres, whose lengths are not altered, are 
 contained before the flexture in a plane perpen- 
 dicular to the direction of the pressure, and which, 
 
368 
 
 BRASS AND IRON FOUNDER. 
 
 of course, contains the neutral axis, as one of its 
 elements. After the flexure, these fibres form a 
 cylindrical surface, whose elements are parallel to 
 the same plane. 
 
 Moreover, the fibres, at equal distances above and 
 below this plane, undergo equal extensions and 
 compressions. 
 
 In order to investigate the circumstances of a 
 body submitted to a transverse strain, it is neces- 
 sary to obtain the moment of the acting force, with 
 reference to the points of support, and establish an 
 equation between this and what is called the "mo- 
 ment of elasticity," when the deflection of the body 
 is in question, and the moment of rupture, when 
 rupture is the point. The investigation is conducted 
 by the aid of the higher analysis, and would be 
 of no use to the practical engincei. It is therefore 
 omitted — all the results, however, being given in a 
 form to be easily understood. These remarks apply 
 to other materials, wood, &c., as well as to cast- 
 iron. 
 
 The experiments of Mr. Hodgkinson on cast- 
 iron beams, the strength of best form for, &c. 
 are the latest and most reliable authority on this 
 point. 
 
 The following are the results of one of his ex- 
 
KESI8TANCE TO COMPRESSION. 
 
 369 
 
 periments on bars of cold-blast iron five feet long ; 
 distance between supports, four feet six inches ; the 
 weight being applied at the middle of the bar : 
 
 Reetaneular Bar 
 
 Rectangular 
 
 Bar 
 
 Rectangular Bar 
 
 1 Inch 6 
 
 eep, 1 incli broad. 
 
 3 inches deep, 1 inch broad. 
 
 6 inches deep, 1 inch broad. 
 
 Weight 
 
 Defi'ct'n 
 
 
 Weight 
 
 Defl'ot'n 
 
 Set in 
 
 Weight 
 
 Defl'ct'n 
 
 Set in 
 
 in 
 
 in 
 
 Set in 
 
 in 
 
 in 
 
 in 
 
 in 
 
 pounds. 
 
 inches. 
 
 inches. 
 
 pounds. 
 
 inches. 
 
 inches. 
 
 pounds. 
 
 inches. 
 
 inches. 
 
 16 
 
 .033 
 
 
 1082 
 
 .091 
 
 .003 
 
 4936 
 
 .110 
 
 .013 
 
 30 
 
 .062 
 
 
 1343 
 
 .111 
 
 .006 
 
 6867 
 
 .130 
 
 .017 
 
 56 
 
 .120 
 
 .002 
 
 1605 
 
 .138 
 
 .008 
 
 6798 
 
 .153 
 
 .020 
 
 112 
 
 .240 
 
 .007 
 
 1836 
 
 .164 
 
 .010 
 
 7730 
 
 .179 
 
 .025 
 
 168 
 
 .370 
 
 .014 
 
 2126 
 
 .190 
 
 •012 
 
 8662 
 
 .195 
 
 .030 
 
 224 
 
 .510 
 
 .028 
 
 2388 
 
 .220 
 
 .015 
 
 9593 
 
 .219 
 
 .034 
 
 280 
 
 .649 
 
 .041 
 
 2649 
 
 .250 
 
 .019 
 
 10525 
 
 .250 
 
 .042 
 
 336 
 
 .798 
 
 .061 
 
 2910 
 
 .281 
 
 .026 
 
 10588 
 
 Broke. 
 
 
 392 
 
 .953 
 
 .084 
 
 3172 
 
 .310 
 
 .031 
 
 
 
 
 448 
 
 1.120 
 
 .120 
 
 3433 
 
 .345 
 
 .037 
 
 
 
 
 504 
 
 1.310 
 
 .170 
 
 3694 
 
 .378 
 
 .046 
 
 
 
 
 514 
 
 
 
 3825 
 
 Broke. 
 
 
 
 
 
 518 
 
 Broke. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Ultimate deflection, 
 
 Ultimate deflection, 
 
 Ultimate deflection. 
 
 
 1.36. 
 
 
 
 .396. 
 
 
 
 0.252. 
 
 
 STATIC PRESSUEE OF WATER UNDER DIFFERENT 
 HEADS. 
 
 A CONVENIENT and easily remembered method 
 for approximating to the pressure of water, is to 
 allow one half pound pressure per square incH tor 
 each foot of head. The pressure at any point being 
 directly as the perpendicular depth below the level 
 
 24 
 
870 BRASS AND IRON FOUNDER. 
 
 of the surface, this simple rule affords a ready 
 method of ascertaining its amount with an accu- 
 racy sufficiently close for ordinary purposes. That 
 it is not strictly correct, however, may be readily 
 perceived ; and having occasion, recently, to calcu- 
 late with tolerable exactness the pressure corres- 
 ponding to several heads between ten and one 
 hundred feet, I present the following Table for the 
 convenience of others, having enlarged it by the 
 addition of several numbers outside of the limits 
 named above. The temperature of the water is 
 assumed at 59° Fahrenheit ; the density, from the 
 presence of salts and other foreign matters, is as- 
 sumed at 1.000,149, distilled water being 1.000,000. 
 This density, corresponding with the investigations 
 of Briagarand on the water of the Garronne, and 
 with that of Brisson on the Seine, I have assumed 
 as the density of ordinary fresh water. An allow- 
 ance should perhaps be made for the increase of 
 density due to the compression under great heads, 
 but too slight to be of any practical importance. 
 
 Recent experiments on this point indicate a com- 
 pression about TOTrt^FOT} of its bulk, under a pres- 
 sure of one, atmosphere, or 88.90 feet head. 
 
 A pipe of cast-iron 15 inches diameter and | of 
 an inch thick, will sustain a head of water of sij 
 
PRESSURE OF WATER. 
 
 371 
 
 hundred feet. One of oak, two inches thick, and 
 of the same diameter, will sustain a head of one 
 hundred and eighty feet. 
 
 
 Head 
 
 Pressure, in ponnds, 
 
 r- 
 
 L_ 
 
 ^ in feet. 
 
 per square inch. 
 
 
 
 — 5 1 
 
 .43 
 
 
 
 —10 2 
 
 .88 
 
 
 
 — 15 3 
 
 1..S0 
 
 
 
 —20 4 
 
 1.73 
 
 
 
 —25 5 
 
 2 16 
 
 
 
 — 30 10 
 
 4.33 
 
 
 
 — 35 15 
 
 6.60 
 
 
 
 — *0 20 
 
 8.66 
 
 
 
 — 45 25 
 
 10.83 
 
 
 
 —50 30 
 
 12. 
 
 
 
 —55 35 
 
 16.16 
 
 
 
 —60 40 
 
 17.33 
 
 
 
 —65 45 
 
 19.50 
 
 
 60 
 
 21.66 
 
 
 65 
 
 23.83 
 
 
 60 
 
 25.90 
 
 
 65 
 
 28.06 
 
 
 70 
 
 30.65 
 
 
 75 
 
 32.72 
 
 
 80 
 
 34.66 
 
 
 85 
 
 36.83 
 
 
 90 
 
 38.90 
 
 
 95 
 
 41.07 
 
 
 100 
 
 43!33 
 
 
 125 
 
 54 17 
 
 
 160 
 
 65. 
 
 
 175 
 
 7605 
 
 
 200 
 
 86.67 
 
 
 300 
 
 130.01 
 
 
 400 
 
 17334 
 
 
 500 
 
 216.68 
 
 
 600 
 
 259.02 
 
 
 700 
 
 305.56 
 
 
 800 
 
 346.69 
 
 
 900 
 
 389.03 
 
 
 1000 
 
 433.37 
 
 
 1500 
 
 650.05 
 
 
 2000 
 
 866.74 
 
 
 3000 
 
 1300.11 
 
 
 4000 
 
 1733.48 
 
 
 6000 
 
 2166.88 
 
 
 6000 
 
 2600.22 
 
 
 7000 
 
 3033.69 
 
 
 8000 
 
 3466.96 
 
 
 9000 
 
 3900.33 
 
 
 10000 
 
 4333.70 
 
 By paying strict attention to the above Table, 
 
372 BRASS AND IRON FOUNDER. 
 
 much loss and inconvenience will be saved, particu 
 larly to plumbers, &c., in laying down pipes of the 
 required strength according to the pressure, saving 
 bursting, taking up, and laying down others, to 
 say nothing of the annoyance of tearing up pave- 
 ments, highways, &c., through the want of a proper 
 knowledge of the static pressure in all cases per 
 square inch. 
 
 DIRECTIONS FOR PREPARING AND FITTING BAB- 
 BITT'S ANTI-ATTRITION METAL. 
 
 Melt 4 pounds of copper, add by degrees 12 
 pounds best quality of Banca tin, 8 pounds regulus 
 of antimony, and 12 pounds more of tin while the 
 composition is in a melted state. 
 
 After the copper is melted and 4 or 5 pounds 
 of tin have been added, the heat should be reduced 
 to a dull red, to prevent oxidation ; then add the 
 remainder of the metal as above. In melting the 
 composition, it is better to keep a small quantity 
 of powdered charcoal on the surface of the metal. 
 The above composition is called Hardening. For 
 lining the boxes, take one pound of this Hardening 
 and melt it with two pounds of Banca tin, which 
 produces the lining metal for use. Thus, the pro 
 
babbitt's anti -attrition metal. 373 
 
 portions for Lining Metal are 4 pounds of copper, 
 8 pounds of regulus of antimony, and 96 pounds 
 of Banca tin. 
 
 The article to be lined, having been cast with 
 a recess for the lining, is to be nicely fitted to a 
 former, which is made the same shape as the bear- 
 ing. Drill a hole in the article for the reception of 
 the metal, say one half or three fourths of an inch, 
 according to the size of it. Coat over the part not 
 to be tinned with a clay wash ; wet the part to be 
 tinned with alcohol, and sprinkle on it powdered 
 sal ammoniac ; heat it till a fume arises from the 
 sal ammoniac, and then immerse it in melted Banca 
 tin, care being taken not to heat it so that it will 
 oxidize. 
 
 After the article is tinned, should it have a dark 
 color, sprinkle a little sal ammoniac on it, which 
 will make it of a bright silver color, and cool it 
 gradually in water. Then take the f&rmer, to which 
 the article has been fitted, and coat it over with a 
 thin clay wash, and warm it so that it will be per- 
 fectly dry ; heat the article until the tin begins to 
 melt, lay it on the former, and pour in the metal, 
 which should not be so hot as to oxidize through — 
 the drilled hole giving it a head, so that as it shrinks 
 
374 
 
 BRASS AND IRON FOUNDER. 
 
 it will fill up. After it is sufficiently cool remove 
 the former. 
 
 P. S. — A shorter method may be adopted when 
 the work is light enough to handle quickly, viz. : — 
 When the article is prepared for tinning, it may be 
 immersed in the lining metal instead of the tin, 
 brushed lightly in order to remove the sal ammo- 
 niac from the surface, placed immediately on the 
 former, and lined at the same heating. 
 
 SOLDERING FLUID FOR SOFT SOLDER. 
 
 To two fluid ounces of muriatic acid add small 
 pieces of zinc until bubbles cease to rise ; add half 
 a teaspoonful of sal ammoniac, and two fluid ounces 
 of water. 
 
 P. S. — By the application of this, iron or steel 
 may be soldered without being previously tinned. 
 
 ALLOY OF THE STANDARD MEASURE USED BY 
 GOVERNMENT. 
 
 576 Parts of copper, 
 69 " tin, 
 
 48 " brass (yellow, 22 cop. to 1 of zinc). 
 
TUTBNAG AND EXPANSION METAL. 375 
 
 TUTENAG. 
 
 8 parts of copper, 5 parts of zinc, and 3 parts of 
 nickel. 
 
 EXPANSION METAL. 
 
 9 parts of lead, 2 parts of antimony, and 1 part 
 bismuth. 
 
 BRONZING GUN BARRELS. 
 
 First make the barrels smooth and bright with 
 emery ; after which clean carefully with lime to remove 
 all grease ; then apply the following mixture with a 
 clean sponge or rag : To a quart of soft water, add 
 one ounce and a half of spirits of wine, one ounce 
 and a half tincture of steel, half an ounce of corrosive 
 sublimate, one ounce and a half of sweet spirits of 
 nitre, one ounce of blue vitrol, and three quarters of 
 an ounce of nitric acid. The barrels are then to be 
 exposed to the air for twenty-four hours, after which 
 rub with a steel scratch-brush until the rust is en- 
 tirely removed ; then again apply the mixture, and 
 in a few hours repeat the scratch brushing. Con- 
 tinue the operation for four or five days ; then wash 
 the barrels with plenty of hot water, and while hot, 
 finish with a leather and a little beeswax and turpen- 
 tine. This will give a fine and glossy finish. 
 
IND 
 
 EX. 
 
 ACID, boracic, 290 
 sulphurous, 293 
 Acids, metallic, 12 
 Alchemists, aim of the, 1, 2 
 Alkalies, fixed, 12 
 Alkaline earths, 12 
 Alloy, definition of an, 185 
 for silver plate and med- 
 als, 221 
 for standard measure, used 
 by the government, 314 
 non-oxidizable, 267 
 of American gold coin, 227 
 of copper, tin and iron, 344 
 Rose's, 178 
 Alloys, amalgams, etc., 185-189 
 and metals, behavior of, 
 in melting and congeal- 
 ing, 24-31 
 artificial, importance of, 
 189 
 
 atomic, of copper and tin, 
 properties of the, 
 23 
 
 of copper and zinc, 
 experimental re- 
 sults as to the 
 properties of, 22 
 casting of, 52-58 
 copper and tin, properties 
 
 of, 43, 44 
 density of, 187, 188 
 for bells, experiments on, 
 
 111, 112 
 for repairing holes in cast- 
 ings, 163, 164 
 
 Alloys, fusible, 178, 179 
 melting points of, 24 
 metallic, 14-18 
 
 formation of, 16, 17 
 natural, 185, 186 
 new, of zinc, 242-246 
 of copper and zinc, 47-49 
 of copper, zinc, tin and 
 
 lead, 49, 50 
 prepared with cupro-man- 
 
 ganese, composition of, 
 
 260 
 
 properties of, 186, 187 
 Aluminium, advantages of an 
 addition of, to fluid iron, 
 70, 71 
 bronze, 247-255 
 casting of, 254 
 forging of, 255 
 manufacture of, on a 
 large scale, 251- 
 253 
 
 peculiar properties 
 
 of, 255 
 preparation of, 249- 
 
 251 
 
 properties of, 247, 248 
 shrinkage of, 254 
 experiment with, for bells, 
 
 112 
 iron, 71 
 Amalgam, 192-194 
 
 definition of an, 185 
 density of an, 193 
 native, 192 
 
 of zinc and mercury, 15 
 
 377 
 
378 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Amalgams and alloys, 185-189 
 American cast iron, experi- 
 ments on, 355 
 gold coin alloy, 227 
 Analyses of a few bell-metals, 
 134 
 
 of mitis metal, 73, 74 
 Aniline bronzing fluid, 298 
 Annealing boxes, 66 
 
 malleable castings, 64—67 
 ovens, 66, 67 
 steel, 285-288 
 Anstey's, Mr., patent process 
 for the manufacture of cru- 
 cibles, 283, 284 
 Anti-friction metal. Babbitt's, 
 preparing and 
 fitting,372- 
 374 
 
 Fenton's, ,345 
 Anti-friction metals, 203 
 Antimony, 42, 43 
 
 amalgamation of, 193, 194 
 and copper, 207 
 and tin, copper and bis- 
 muth, 207 
 Argol, 200, 201 
 Arsenic, antidote to, 311 
 melting of, 237 
 Prof. N.Masculyne on, 238 
 properties of, 240-242 
 white, reducing copper 
 with, 343 
 Ashes, sweepings, etc., from 
 brass foundry furnaces, gil- 
 ders' and jewellers' work- 
 shops, etc., washing of, 334- 
 337 
 
 Autogenous soldering, 228 
 
 BABBITT'S anti-friction met- 
 al, preparing and fitting, 
 372-374 
 Back mould or cope, 60 
 Bedil or tin, 37-39 
 Bell, constituent parts of a, 
 112, 113 
 
 Bell founding, 110-135 
 metal, 14, 45, 46, 188 
 
 proposed substitutes for, 
 111 
 
 metals, analyses of a few, 
 134 
 
 composition of, 110, 111 
 moulding the cope of a, 126, 
 127 
 
 the crown of a, 127 
 the, in inverted position, 
 
 116, 117 
 the, in an upright posi- 
 tion. 115, 116 
 principal conditions for a 
 
 good, 117, 118 
 tracing the correct profile 
 of a, 118-120 
 Bells, 198, 199 
 
 calculating the sizes of, 
 
 121, 122 
 casting large, 128-132 
 cracked, repairing of, 132, 
 133 
 
 founding of, 57, 58 
 hanging of, 122, 123 
 house, composition for, 
 110 
 
 . invention of, 198 
 large, list of, 135 
 
 moulding of, 123-128 
 and casting of, 
 117-132 
 small, casting and mould- 
 ing of, 113-117 
 variation of weights of, 
 122 
 
 weight of a few peals of, 
 133, 134 
 Benneville, Jas. S. de, analysis 
 of deoxidized bronze by, 
 258 
 
 Berlin Royal Foundry, cruci- 
 bles used in the, 281,282 
 type metal, 233, 234 
 
 Berzelius, discovery of silenium 
 by, 294 
 
INDEX. 
 
 379 
 
 Bessemer steel castings, 18 
 
 Birds, insects, frogs, fish, vege- 
 tables, etc., to cast in 
 plaster moulds. 111 
 
 Bismuth, 195, 196, 202 
 
 Bismuth and lead, 208 
 
 Black,. Jirunswick, 321 
 flux, 199, 200, 338 
 lead bronze, 304, 305 
 crucibles, 282, 283 
 wash, for cores, 332 
 
 Blackening, sand core mould- 
 ing, etc., 328-333 
 
 Blanched copper, 171 
 
 Block tin, 38, 39 
 
 Blow-holes in steel castings, 
 83-85 
 
 Blueing and gilding steel, 312 
 Boracic acid, 290 
 Borax, 289-291 
 Boron, 289-291 
 Boxes, annealing, 60 
 Brass, 14, 1'72, 173 
 
 and copper vessels, to zinc, 
 216 
 
 and iron, conducting heat 
 
 of, 327 
 best, composition of, 205 
 bronze and copper, substi- 
 tutes for, 242-246. 
 bronze Barbedienne on, 
 
 298, 299 
 casting, insertion of a core 
 
 in the mould for a, 94 
 casting of, 88-99 
 casting, thin, 95, 96 
 castings, shrinkage of, 89 
 coloring, a deep blue, 324, 
 325 
 
 composition for silvering, 
 362 
 
 etc., to bronze, 211 
 
 for rolling and forging, 
 
 best composition of, 339, 
 
 340 
 
 founders' air furnaces, 96, 
 97 
 
 Brass founding, 33-35 
 
 foundry furnaces, washing 
 
 ashes, sweepings, etc., 
 
 from, 334-337 
 guns, 58-60 
 melting of, 96 
 mirrors, 170 
 
 mixing and pouring of, 
 97-99 
 
 nuts, casting of, on screws, 
 
 164, 165 
 or cast copper, tinning of, 
 
 341 
 solder, 225 
 
 steel-gray coating on, 299 
 Syracuse and Corinthian, 
 171 
 
 to silver, 363 
 
 work, modelling and pat- 
 tern-making for, 88, 89 
 work, ordinary, arrange- 
 ment of, in the flask, 91 
 small, moulding tub 
 for, 90, 91 
 yellow, 190 
 Brazing solder, fine, 51 
 Bread paste, to cast in, 182 
 Brilliants of Fahlun, 208 
 Britannia metal, 232 
 British weapons and tools in 
 
 bronze, 171 
 Bronze, 188 
 
 aluminium, 247-255 
 casting of, 254 
 forging of, 255 
 manufacture of, on a 
 large scale, 251- 
 253 
 
 peculiar properties 
 
 of, 255 
 preparation of, 249- 
 
 251 
 
 properties of, 247, 
 248 
 
 shrinkage of, 254 
 Barbedienne on brass, 298, 
 299 
 
380 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Bronze, black lead, 304, 305 
 British weapons and tools 
 
 in, 171 
 carbonate of iron, 305 
 casting of, 100-110 
 chemical, 302, 303 
 copper and brass, substi- 
 tutes for, 242-246 
 Corinthian, 344 
 deoxidized, 257, 258 
 for cannon, statues, etc., 
 45 
 
 foundries of Paris and 
 neighborhood, 100 
 
 introduction of phosphorus 
 into, 264, 265 
 
 liquid, green, 215 
 
 manganese, 259, 260 
 
 melting of, 102, 103 
 
 phosphor, 260-266 
 
 varieties of, 265, 266 
 
 platinum, 266, 267 
 
 silicon, 267, 268 
 
 steel, 268, 269 
 
 Syracuse, 344 
 
 Tobin, 269 
 
 Uchatius, 268, 269 
 
 works, French, arrange- 
 ment of, 100 
 moulding of, 101 
 Bronzes, some modern, 247- 
 269 
 
 Bronzing brass, etc., 211 
 
 electrotype casts, 302, 303 
 fluid, aniline, 298 
 gun barrels, 375 
 
 Brunswick black, 321 
 
 Bullets, casting of, 54 
 
 Burning-on, 161-163 
 
 CANNON, bronze for, 45 
 Carbonate of iron bronze, 
 
 305 
 
 Case hardening iron, 338 
 Cast-iron, American experi- 
 ments on, 355 
 bending of, 1 63 
 
 Cast-iron, bright gray, 357 
 
 cement for the joints of, 
 308 
 
 changes in, by chilling, 
 136, 137 
 
 chilled wheel, life of a, 
 153, 154 
 
 dark gray, 358 
 
 density of, 359 
 
 dull gray, 357 
 
 durability of, 360-362 
 
 gray, properties of, 356 
 
 limit of elasticity of, 356 
 
 micaceous, 357 
 
 mottled, 62, 63, 64, 357 
 
 pipe, head of water sus- 
 tained by a, 370, 371 
 
 resistance of, to a trans- 
 verse strain, 365-369 
 
 resistance of, to exten- 
 sion, 355, 356 
 
 silvery, 357 
 
 strength of, 354-362 
 
 varieties of, 356 
 white, 62, 63, 357 
 metal cylinders, weight of, 
 
 218 
 
 steel, use of borax for 
 welding, 291 
 Casting and moulding large 
 bells, 117- 
 132 
 
 of brass guns, 
 58-60 
 
 of small bells, 
 113-117 
 
 blown, 52 
 
 brass nuts on screws, 164, 
 165 
 
 chilled rolls, 141-143 
 figure, 60, 61 
 
 figures in imitation of 
 
 ivory, 183 
 in bread paste, 182 
 in glue, 181 
 in plaster, 173, 174 
 in sulphur, 180 
 
INDEX. 
 
 381 
 
 Casting in wax, 179, 180 
 
 iron and other metals upon 
 lace, embroideries, fern 
 leaves and other com- 
 bustible materials, 165- 
 168 
 
 large bells, 128-132 
 
 of alloys, 52-58 
 
 of aluminium bronze, 254 
 
 of brass, 88-99 
 
 of bronze, 100-110 
 
 of bullets, 54 
 
 on to other metals, 157-164 
 phenomena in, due to 
 
 shrinkage, 27 
 suitabilitj^ of metals for, 25 
 to find the weight of a, 
 
 from that of the pattern, 
 
 26, 27 
 
 vegetables, insects, small 
 birds, frogs, fish, etc., in 
 plaster moulds, 177 
 without core, 154-157 
 Castings, Bessemer steel, 78 
 chill, 136-154 
 crucible steel, 77, 78 
 difficult, core for, 169 
 heavy cores in, 168, 169 
 hollow, chill, 154 
 malleable iron, 62-69 
 open hearth steel, 79-87 
 repairing holes in, 163, 
 164 
 
 steel, manufacture of, 76- 
 87 
 
 wrought iron or mitis, 
 70-75 
 
 Casts and impressions from ex- 
 isting works, 90 
 electrotype, bronzing of, 
 
 302, 303 
 plaster, to transfer en- 
 gravings to, 175 
 to varnish, 175, 176 
 
 Cement, 315 
 
 for attaching metal to 
 glass, 318 
 
 Cement, for the joints of cast 
 iron, 308 
 resisting the action of fire 
 and T- ater, 307 
 Chaplets for cores, 331 
 Charcoal, facing of, 53 
 use of, as flux, 201 
 Chemical bronze, 302, 303 
 Chill castings, 136-154 
 hollow, 154 
 depth of the, 142, 143 
 mould for a railroad wheel, 
 143, 145 
 Chilled wheels, manufacture of, 
 in the United States, 
 145-154 
 Chinese packfong, 206 
 white metals, 345 
 Chlorides, 296 
 Chlorine, 295, 296 
 Church peal, a complete, 113 
 Cire-perdu or waste wax pro- 
 cess, 105-107 
 Cleansing malleable castings, 
 64 
 
 Cloisonne or partition work, 
 103, 104 
 
 Cohesion, direct, of metals, 222 
 specific, and strength of 
 metals, 220, 221 
 
 Coin, gold, 15 
 silver, 15 
 
 CoUas, M. machine for the re- 
 duction or enlargement 
 of solid forms by, 100, 
 101 
 
 Columbia metal, 232, 233 
 Compression, 348 
 
 and extension, ultimate 
 resistance of different 
 materials to, 349-351 
 resistance of iron to, 363- 
 365 
 
 Congealing and melting, be- 
 havior of metals and al- 
 loys in, 24-31 
 
 Contraction rules, 325, 326 
 
382 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Copal varnish, japanners', 319 
 Cope, of a bell, moulding the, 
 
 126, 127 
 Cope or back mould, 60 
 Copper, 35, 36, 170, 206 
 and antimony, 207 
 and brass vessels, to zinc, 
 216 
 
 and tin alloys, properties 
 of, 43, 44 
 
 and tin mixtures, 46, 47 
 
 and tin, properties of the 
 atomic alloys of, 23 
 
 and zinc, alloys of, 47-49 
 experimental results 
 as to the properties 
 of atomic alloys of, 
 22 
 
 blanched, 171 
 blistered, 37 
 
 bronze and brass, substi- 
 tutes for, 242-246 
 
 cast, or brass, tinning of, 
 341 
 
 flux for, 201 
 
 medals and medallions, to 
 
 make, 191, 192 
 phosphide, 263, 264 
 purifying of, 35, 36 
 reduction of, 36, 37 
 
 with white arsenic 
 343 
 
 refining or toughening of 
 37 
 
 tin and iron alloy, 344 
 to silver, 210 
 
 zinc, tin and lead, alloys 
 of, 49, 50 
 Core, casting without, 154-157 
 for difficult castings, 169 
 insertion of a, in the mould 
 
 for a brass casting, 94 
 sands, 332, 333 
 Cores, black wash for, 332 
 chaplets for, 331 
 for difficult jobs, composi- 
 tion for, 61 
 
 Cores, forms of, 328, 329 
 
 in heavy castings, 168, 169 
 
 making of, 94, 95 
 
 rock sand for, 329 
 
 stiffening of, 330 
 Corinthian and Syracuse brass, 
 171 
 
 Corinthian bronze, 344 
 Cork-shavings, facing with, 53 
 Cornish reducing flux, 338 
 
 refining flux, 337 
 Cornwall, tin ore in, 39, 40 
 Corrosion, prevention of, 314 
 Corrosive sublimate, 296 
 Cowles Electric Smelting and 
 Aluminium Co., manufac- 
 ture of aluminium bronze 
 by the, 251-253 
 Crown, of a bell, moulding 
 
 the, 127 
 Crucibles, 97, 281-284 
 Crucible steel castings, 77, 78 
 Crude or white flux, 337 
 Cupro-manganese, 259, 260 
 Cylinders and rings, strains in, 
 28-30 
 
 cast metal, weight of, 218 
 
 D ALTON'S, Dr., fusible alloy, 
 178 
 
 Daniell, Prof., on the protect- 
 ing influence of zinc, 276 
 
 Daniell's cock, 228 
 
 D'Arcet, M., discovery in re- 
 gard to bell metals by, 45, 
 46 
 
 Decimal proportions, table for 
 converting the, into divisions 
 of the pound avoirdupois, 204 
 
 Delta metal, 256, 257 
 
 Deoxidized bronze. 257, 258 
 
 Detrusion, 349 
 
 Deutsche Delta Metal Gesell- 
 schaft, composition of Delta 
 metal, manufactured by the, 
 257 
 
 Deville, St. Claire, experiment 
 
INDEX. 
 
 383 
 
 with aluminium for bells by, 
 112 
 
 Dies, steel, to harden, 313 
 Drawings, colored, varnish for, 
 319 
 
 to fix, 310, 311 
 Ductility and malleability of 
 
 metals, 5, 6 
 Dudley, Chas. B., analyses of 
 
 Tobin bronze by, 269 
 Dumas, M., experiments on the 
 hardness of metals by, 7 
 on zincking by immersion, 
 273, 274 
 of iron by electro 
 processes, 276, 277 
 
 EARTHS, alkaline, 12 
 Elasticity, limit of, 347, 348 
 Electricity, resistance of metals 
 to conduction of, 20, 21 
 voltaic, conducting power 
 of metals for, 20, 21 
 Electrotype casts, bronzing of, 
 
 302, 308 
 Embroideries, casting iron and 
 
 other metals upon, 165-168 
 England, large bells in, 199 
 Engravings, to transfer to plas- 
 ter casts, 175 
 Equivalents of metals, 19 
 Etching varnish, 323 
 Expansion metal, 375 
 Extension, 348, 349 
 
 and compression, ultimate 
 resistance of different 
 materials to, 349-351 
 resistance of cast iron to, 
 355, 356 
 
 FACING, 53 
 sand, 102 
 Fahlun, brilliants of, 208 
 Fenton's anti-friction metal, 
 345 
 
 Fern leaves, casting iron and 
 other metals upon, 165-168 
 
 Ferro-manganese, 259 
 Figure casting, 60, 61 
 Fire and water, cement resist- 
 ing the action of, 307 
 bricks, 96, 97 
 clay, 96, 97 
 
 artificial, 306, 307 
 Fish, frogs, insects, small birds, 
 vegetables, etc, to cast in 
 plaster moulds, 177 
 Fixed alkalies, 12 
 Flask, arrangement of ordinary 
 
 brass work in the, 91 
 Fluidity, 202, 203 
 Flute valve keys, metal for, 
 231 
 
 Flux, black, 199, 200, 338 
 common black, 238 
 Cornish reducing, 338 
 refining, 337 
 crude or white, 337 
 Fluxes, 199-201 
 Fluxing of metals, 340, 341 
 Fontainemoreau's new alloys 
 
 of zinc, 242-246 
 Founding, 32, 33 
 brass, 33-35 
 of bells, 57, 58, 110-135 
 of statues, 104-110 
 Foundry pig No. 1, or gray 
 
 metal, 62, 63 
 Franklin Institute, experiments 
 on American cast-iron 
 by the, 355 
 Free sand, 329 
 
 French bronze works, arrange- 
 ment of, 100 
 moulding sands, 101 
 polish, 320, 321 
 type metal, 233 
 Friction, 196, 197 
 Frogs, fish, insects, small 
 birds, vegetables, etc, 
 to cast in plaster moulds, 
 177 
 
 Furnace, reverberatory, 130- 
 132 
 
384 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Furnaces, brass founders, 96, 
 97 
 
 Fusibility of metals, 8, 9 
 Fusible alloys, 178, 179 
 
 metal, 15 
 Fusing and melting points, 
 
 201, 202 
 Fyfe's, Dr. analysis of Chinese 
 
 packfong, 206 
 
 GALVANIZING or zincking 
 by immersion, 279 
 German silver, 234, 235 
 
 titanium, 231 
 Gilders and jewelers' work- 
 shops, washing ashes, 
 sweepings, etc., from, 
 334-337 
 Gilding and blueing steel, 312 
 Glass, cement for attaching 
 metal to, 318 
 soluble, 315 
 Glue, casting in, 181 
 
 for casting curious medals, 
 
 181, 182 
 for taking impressions, 90 
 liquid, 306 
 portable, 314 
 Gold and silver, amalgams of, 
 194 
 
 lace, to separate 
 the metallic 
 portion of, 311 
 
 soldering of, 225, 
 226 
 
 solders, 224, 225 
 artificial, 51 
 coin. 15 
 
 coin of America alloy, 227 
 ethereal solution of, 300 
 green, 15 
 
 hard solder for, 224 
 
 leaf, transmission of light 
 
 by, 3 
 Manheim, 50 
 mosaic, 210, 211 
 solder, 224 
 
 Gold, to cleanse after soldering, 
 226 
 
 Goslar zinc, 206 
 
 Graham, Dr., on the protecting 
 
 influence of zinc, 276 
 Grain tin, 38 
 
 common, 39 
 Gravity, specific, of metals, 9, 
 
 10, 19 
 
 Gray cast iron, properties of, 
 356 
 
 Green sand mould, 92 
 Gum arable solutions, to pre- 
 serve, 339 
 Gun barrels, bronzed, varnish 
 for, 300 
 bronzing of, 375 
 to brown, 299 
 Guns, brass, 58-60 
 Gutta-percha for taking impres- 
 sions, 90 
 
 HARDENING steel, 289 
 Hardness of metals, table 
 showing the, 7 
 Heat and light, reflection of, by 
 polished metals, 4 
 conducting of, by brass and 
 
 iron, 327 
 contained in fluid metals, 
 
 202, 203 
 evolved from metals by an 
 equal current, 21 
 Hessian crucibles, 282 
 Hodgkinson, Mr., experiments 
 on bars of cold-blast 
 iron, by, 368, 369 
 results of experiments by, 
 on the resistance ol 
 iron to compression, 364, 
 365 
 
 HoUey, Alexander L., on open 
 hearth steel castings, 79-83 
 
 House bells, composition for, 
 110 
 
 Hydrogen, sulphuretted, 294 
 
INDEX. 
 
 385 
 
 IMPRESSIONS and casts from 
 existing works, 90 
 Inkstands, moulding of, 54, 55 
 Insects, small birds, frogs, fish, 
 vegetables, etc., to cast in 
 plaster moulds, 177 
 Iron and brass, conducting heat 
 of, 327 
 other metals, casting of, 
 upon lace, embroider- 
 ies, fern leaves, and 
 other combustible ma- 
 terials, 165-168 
 tin, 209, 344 
 zinc, double amalgam of, 
 194 
 
 bars of cold-blast, experi- 
 ments on, 368, 369 
 bright gray cast, 357 
 carbonate of, bronze, 305 
 case hardening of, 338 
 cast, American, experiments 
 on, 355 
 bending of, 163 
 cement for the joints of, 
 308 
 
 density of, 359 
 durability of, 360-362 
 limit of elasticity of, 356 
 resistance of, to extension, 
 
 355, 356 
 resistance of, to a trans- 
 verse strain, 365-369 
 strength of, 354-362 
 varieties of, 356 
 castings, malleable, 62-69 
 cause of the corrosion of, 
 
 270, 271 
 change in, by chilling, 136, 
 137 
 
 combination of wrought and 
 cast, 159 
 
 dark gray cast, 358 
 
 dull grey cast, 357 
 
 fluid, advantages of an ad- 
 dition of aluminium to, 70, 
 
 Iron, gray cast, properties of,356 
 hot-blast and cold-blast, 359, 
 
 360 
 
 meteoric, 189 
 micaceous cast, 357 
 mottled cast, 62, 63, 64, 357 
 oxide of, for making mal- 
 leable castings, 67-69 
 pig, classification of, 62 
 polished, varnish for, 339 
 protection of, by tin, 271 
 qualities of, 326, 327 
 railings, ornamentation of, 
 
 159-161 
 resistance of, to compres- 
 sion, 363-365 
 silvery cast, 357 
 solder for, 227 
 tin and copper alloy, 344 
 to tin, 305, 306 
 varnish for, 339 
 white cast, 62, 63, 357 
 wrought, or mitis castings, 
 70-75 
 
 zinc as a protective cover- 
 ing for, 270-279 
 zincking of, by electro pro- 
 cesses, 276, 277 
 Ivory, to cast figures in imi- 
 tation of, 183 
 silver, 216 
 soften, 311 
 
 JAPANNERS' copal varnish, 
 319 
 
 Japanning, 316, 317 
 
 Jewelers' and gilders' work- 
 shops, washing sweep- 
 ings, ashes, etc., from, 
 334-336 
 silver solder for, 226 
 
 TZANE, Dr., on the Keller's 
 
 statue composition, 205 
 Kirkaldy's experiments on phos- 
 phor-bronze wire, 262, 263 
 Klaproth, experiments of, 172 
 
386 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Kneller, W. G., patent for the 
 purificat ion of zinc 
 granted to, 40, 41 
 
 Kunzel and Montefiore's ex- 
 periments, 260-262 
 
 LACE, casting iron and other 
 metals upon, 165-168 
 gold and silver, to sepa- 
 rate the metallic portion 
 of, 311 
 Lacquer, deep gold, 215 
 
 colored, 212 
 
 gold, 213 
 
 colored, 212 
 pale brass, 214 
 
 colored, 213 
 tin, 214 
 red, 213, 214 
 
 colored, 212, 213 
 white, 345, 346 
 Lacquers, 212-215 
 Lafond's mixture for bells, 111 
 Lead, 41 
 
 and bismuth, 208 
 
 and tin, full measure of 
 
 capacity of, 208 
 solder for, 229 
 Lee, C. A., on the strength of 
 
 materials, 347-354 
 Light and heat, reflection of, 
 by polished metals, 4 
 transmission of, by metals,3 
 Limit of elasticity, 34T, 348 
 Liquid glue, 306 
 Lustre, metallic, 2, 3 
 
 MACHINE-framing,repairing 
 of, 162, 163 
 Malleability and ductility of 
 
 metals, 5, 6 
 Malleable iron castings, 62-69 
 Mallet, Mr. on the durability 
 
 of cast iron, 360-362 
 Manganese bronze, 259, 260 
 Manheim gold, 50 
 Masculyne, Prof. N. on arsenic, 
 238 
 
 Materials, specific gravity and 
 weight of, 219 
 strength of, 347-354 
 ultimate resistance of dif- 
 ferent kinds of, 349- 
 351 
 
 strength of, 352,353 
 Medal and silver plate alloy, 
 227 
 
 Medallions and medals, copper, 
 to make, 191, 192 
 casting of in plaster, 173, 
 174 
 
 Medals and medallions, copper, 
 to make, 191, 192 
 glue for casting, 181, 182 
 moulds of, to cast on tin- 
 foil, 176 
 Melting and congealing, be- 
 havior of metals and 
 alloys in, 24-31 
 and fusing points, 201, 202 
 iron for malleable cast- 
 ings, 64 
 points of metals, 19 
 Mercury and zinc, amalgam 
 of, 15 
 
 Metal, Babbitt's anti-friction, 
 
 preparing and fitting, 
 
 372-374 
 balls, weight of, 217 
 Berlin type, 233, 234 
 Britannia, 232 
 cement for attaching, to 
 
 glass, 318 
 Columbia, 232, 233 
 Delta, 256, 257 
 deposition of pure, 274, 
 
 275 
 
 expansion, 375 
 Fenton's anti-friction, 345 
 for bells, melting the, 129, 
 130 
 
 for casting vegetables, in- 
 sects, small birds, frogs, 
 fish, etc., in plaster 
 moulds, 178, 179 
 
INDEX. 
 
 387 
 
 Metal for flute valve keys, 231 
 French type, 233 
 fusible, 15 
 
 Sir Isaac Newton's, 178 
 gray, or foundry pig No. 1, 
 62, 63 
 
 plates, weight of a square 
 
 foot of, 217 
 Princess, 51 
 Queen's, 209 
 silvery-looking, 231 
 speculum, 235-239 
 type, 233, 234 
 white, 230 
 Metallic acids, 12 
 alloys, 14-18 
 lustre, 2, 3 
 moulds, 54, 55 
 oxides, 12, 297, 298 
 
 poisonous, 13 
 portion, the, of gold and 
 
 silver lace, to separate, 
 
 311 
 
 Metallurgy, definition of, 18 
 Metals and alloys, behavior of, 
 in melting and con- 
 gealing, 24-31 
 iron, casting of, upon lace, 
 embroideries, fern leaves 
 and other combustible 
 materials, 165-168 
 anti-friction, 203 
 brittleness of, 170 
 casting on to other, 157- 
 164 
 
 Chinese white, 345 
 combination of, with oxy- 
 gen, 10-13 
 conducting powers of, for 
 voltaic electricity, 20, 21 
 contraction of, pattern 
 
 making, etc, 325, 327 
 crystalline state of, 4, 5 
 direct cohesion of, 222 
 discovery of, 19 
 electric states of, 271, 272 
 enumeration of, 19 
 
 Metals, equivalents of, 19 
 
 experiments on the tenac- 
 ity of, 342 
 
 fluid, heat contained in, 
 202, 203 
 
 fluxing of, 340, 341 
 
 friction of, 196, 197 
 
 fusibility of, 8, 9 
 
 heat evolved from, by an 
 equal current, 21 
 
 malleability and ductility 
 of, 5, 6 
 
 melting points of, 19, 24 
 
 native, 17 
 
 odor and taste of, 9 
 
 order and facility of work- 
 ing of, 43 
 
 polished, reflection of light 
 and heat by, 4, 
 
 properties of the, 1-13 
 
 resistance of, to pressure, 
 223 
 
 of, to torsion, 223, 
 224 
 
 to the conduction 
 of electricity by, 
 20, 21 
 
 specific cohesion and 
 strength of, 
 220, 221 
 gravity of, 9, 10, 
 19 
 
 surface of, 171 
 
 symbols of, 19 
 
 table of hardness of, 7 
 showing the order 
 which they bear to 
 one another in re- 
 spect to their pro- 
 perties, 6 
 
 transmission of light by, 
 3 
 
 Meteoric iron, 189 
 Mirrors, brass, 170 
 Mitis cq,stings, details of the 
 production of, 72-75 
 metal, analyses of, 73, 74 
 
388 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Mitis plant in the United States, 
 mixture for melting, 
 used in a, 12, tS 
 or wrought iron castings, 
 70-75 
 
 Modelling and pattern-making 
 
 for brass worlc, 88, 89 
 Models, wax, moulding of, 57 
 Montefioreand Kiinzel's experi- 
 ments, 260-262 
 Mordant varnishes, 321, 322 
 Morin's invention for the com- 
 bination of wrought and 
 cast-iron, 159 
 Mosaic gold, 210, 211 
 
 mixture, 231 
 Moscow, large bells of, 198, 199 
 Mottled cast-iron, 62, 63, 64, 357 
 Mould, green sand, 92 
 
 insertion of a core in the, 
 for a brass casting, 94 
 Moulding a chilled roll, the 
 journals of which are 
 to remain soft, 139-141 
 and casting large bells, 
 117-132 
 of brass guns, 58- 
 60 
 
 of small bells, 113- 
 117 
 
 large bells, 123-128 
 malleable castings, 64 
 materials for, 52, 53 
 of bronze works, 101 
 of complex objects, 56 
 of statues, 105-110 
 of steel castings, 86, 87 
 plate, 92-94 
 requirements for, 33 
 sand, 333 
 
 sands, French, 101 
 the bell in an upright po- 
 sition, 115, 116 
 in inverted position, 
 
 116, 117 
 cope and crown of a 
 bell, 126, 127 
 
 Moulding tub, for small brass 
 work, 90, 91 
 wax models, 57 
 Mouldings, modelling of, 90 
 Moulds for chill-castings, 138 
 metallic, 54, 55 
 method of filling the, 55, 56 
 of medals to cast on tin foil, 
 176 
 
 plaster, to cast vegetables, 
 insects, small birds, frogs, 
 fish, etc., in, 177 
 sand, formation of, 52 
 Music plates, 15 
 
 NAILS, ship, composition for, 
 345 
 
 small, etc., to coat with 
 tin, 301 
 Native metals, 17 
 Natron, 297, 298 
 Newton's, Sir Isaac, fusible 
 
 metal, 178 
 Niello-metallic ornaments, 308 
 309 
 
 ODOR and taste of metals, 9 
 Open-hearth steel cast- 
 ings, 79-87 
 Ore, definition of an, 17 
 Ores, occurrence of, 18 
 
 reduction of, 18 
 Orichalcum, 205 
 Ormolu, 210, 211 
 Ornaments, composition for, 184 
 
 niello-metallic, 308, 309 
 Outerbridge, A. E., Jr., process 
 of casting iron and other 
 metals upon lace, embroider- 
 ies, fern leaves, and other 
 combustible materials, by, 
 165-168 
 Ovens, annealing, 66, 67 
 Oxides, metallic, 12, 297, 298 
 
 poisonous, 13 
 Oxygen, combinations of metals 
 with, 10-13 
 
389 
 
 PACKFONG, Chinese, 206 
 Paper, tracing, 309 
 Paris, bronze foundries in, 100 
 Parsons, P. M., manufacture of 
 
 manganese bronze by, 259 
 Partition or cloisonn^ work, 
 
 103, 104 
 Pattern-making and modelling 
 for brass work, 
 88, 89 
 contraction of met- 
 als, etc., 325-327 
 to find the weight of a cast- 
 ing from that of a, 26, 27 
 Patterns, dimensions of, 25 
 
 wooden, varnishing of, 90 
 Paulinus, Bishop of Nola, in- 
 vention of bells by, 198 
 Peal, church, a complete, 113 
 Peals of bells, weight of a few, 
 
 133, 134 
 Pellat, F., on zinc as a protec- 
 tive covering for iron, 270- 
 279 
 
 Percy, Dr., experiments on al- 
 loys for bells, by. Ill, 112 
 Permanent set, 348 
 Pewter, 14, 207 
 
 compositions of, 230 
 pots, moulding of, 54, 55 
 Phosphide of tin, 264 
 Phosphor-bronze, 260-266 
 
 varieties of, 265, 
 266 
 
 wire, tenacity and 
 ductility of, 262, 
 263 
 
 Phosphorus, introduction of, 
 
 into bronze, 264, 265 
 Pig, foundry. No. 1, or gray 
 
 metal, 62, 63 
 Pig-iron, classification of, 62 
 Pinchbeck, 14, 50 
 Pipe, cast-iron, head of water 
 
 sustained by a, 370, 371 
 Pipes, water in, 280 
 Plaster, casting in, 173, 174 
 
 Plaster casts, to transfer en- 
 gravings to, 175 
 to varnish, 175, 176 
 moulds, to cast vegetables, 
 insects, small birds, frogs, 
 fish, etc., in. 177 
 of Paris, 52, 53 
 to cast moulds of metals on 
 tin-foil with, 176 
 Plate moulding, 92-94 
 Platina, 239 
 
 amalgamation of, 194 
 Platinum bronze, 266, 267 
 Plumbago, 284 
 Plumber's solder, 230 
 Polish, French, 320, 321 
 Pouillet, researches on the 
 conducting power of metals, 
 by, 20 
 
 Pound avoirdupois, table for 
 converting the decimal pro- 
 portions into divisions of the, 
 204 
 
 Pressure, resistance of metals, 
 to, 223 
 static, of water, 369-372 
 Princess metal, 51 
 Printing types, 15 
 
 moulding of, 54, 55 
 Protecting influence of zinc, 
 
 275, 276 
 Pulley, strain in the rim of a, 
 27, 28 
 
 Pyrometer, Prof. Daniel's, fus- 
 ing and melting points as- 
 certained by, 201, 202 
 
 QUEEN'S metal, 209 
 
 RAILINGS, wrought-iron, or- 
 namentation of, 159-161 
 Railroad frog, chilled portions 
 of the tongue of a, 138, 
 139 
 
 wheel, chill-mould for a, 
 143, 145 
 
390 
 
 'index. 
 
 Rattle-barrel or tumbler, 64 
 Reduction of ores, 18 
 Resistance of iron to compres 
 sion, 363-365 
 ultimate, of dififerent kinds 
 of materials, 349-351 
 Reverberatory furnace, 130-132 
 Rice glue statuary, 183, 184 
 Riley, E., analyses of mitis- 
 
 metal by, ^3, 74 
 Rings and cylinders, strains in, 
 28-30 
 
 Rock sand for cores, 329 
 Roll, chilled, moulding a, 139- 
 141 
 
 Rolls, chilled, casting of, 141- 
 143 
 
 repairing necks of, 162, 163 
 Rose's alloy, 178 
 Rosse, Lord, speculum metal 
 
 used by, 46, 47 
 Rottenstone, facing of, 53 
 Rust, to preserve polished steel 
 
 from, 318 
 
 SAL-EXINUM, 201 
 Sand-burning, 55 
 Sand core moulding, blacken- 
 ing, etc., 328-333 
 facing, 102 
 free, 329 
 
 moulds, formation of, 52 
 rock, for cores, 329 
 Screws, casting brass nuts on, 
 
 164, 165 
 Sea salt, composition of, 296 
 Selenium, 294, 295 
 Set, permanent, 348 
 Ship nails, composition for, 345 
 Shrinkage, 26 
 
 holes in steel castings, 87 
 in steel castings, 85, 86 
 of aluminium bronze, 254 
 of brass castings, 89 
 phenomena in casting due 
 to, 27 
 
 Shrinkages, general laws of, 
 
 30, 31 
 
 Silicon bronze, 267-268 
 Silver and gold, amalgams of, 
 194 
 
 lace, to separate 
 the metallic 
 portion of, 311 
 
 soldering of, 225, 
 226 
 
 solders, 224, 225 
 
 3oin, 15 
 
 German, 234, 235 
 
 leaf, transmission of light 
 
 by, 3 
 metal, imitation, 338 
 plate and medal alloy, 227 
 solder for jewelers, 226 
 solders for, 224, 225 
 steel, 207 
 
 to cleanse, after soldering, 
 226 
 
 Silvering brass, 363 
 
 composition for,362 
 ivory, 216 
 of copper, 210 
 Soda, 297, 298 
 Soft solders, 229 
 Solder, brass, 225 
 fine brazing, 51 
 for iron, 227 
 for lead, 229 
 plumber's, 230 
 silver for jewelers, 226 
 soft, soldering fluid for, 374 
 Soldering, autogenous, 228 
 fluid for soft solder, 374 
 gold and silver, 225, 226 
 Solders, gold and silver, 224,225 
 • soft, 229 
 Soluble glass, 315 
 Spanish titanium, 232 
 Specific gravity and weight of 
 materials, 219 
 of metals, 19 
 Speculum metal, 14, 188, 235- 
 239 
 
INDEX. 
 
 391 
 
 Speculum metal as used by 
 Lord Rosse, 46, 
 47 
 
 Speculums, making of, 238 
 Standard, repairing of a, 162, 
 163 
 
 Statuary, rice glue, 183, 184 
 Statue composition, Keller's, 
 205 
 
 moulding, cire-perdu or 
 waste wax process of, 
 105-107 
 modern process of, 108- 
 110 
 
 Statues, bronze for, 45 
 
 founding of, 104-110 
 Steel, annealing of, 285-288 
 Bessemer, castings, 78 
 blueing and gilding of, 312 
 bronze, 268, 269 
 cast, use of borax for weld- 
 ing, 291 
 castings, blow holes in, 83- 
 85 
 
 change in the chemical 
 constitution of, 86 
 
 final, additions in, 82, 
 83 
 
 furnace for, 79, 80 
 initial bath for, 80 
 manufacture of, 76-87 
 mechanical pressure for, 
 86 
 
 metal tests before final 
 
 additions in, 81, 82 
 moulding of, 86, 87 
 rising head for, 86 
 shrinisage holes in, 87 
 shrinkage in, 85, 86 
 slag tests in, 81 
 softening or refining 
 
 materials for, 81 
 stripping of, 86 
 
 crucible, castings, 77, 78 
 
 dies, to harden, 313 
 
 hardening of, 289 
 
 open-hearth castings, 79-87 
 
 Steel, polished, to preserve 
 from rust, 318 
 silver, 207 
 Strain in the rim of a pulley, 
 27, 28 
 transversal, 349 
 transverse, theory of the, 
 365 
 
 Strains in rings and cylinders, 
 
 28-30 
 Stream tin, 38 
 
 Strength and specific cohesioa 
 of metals, 220, 221 
 of iron, 354-362 
 of materials, 347-354 
 ultimate, of materials, 352, 
 353 
 
 ultimate, of wood, 353, 
 354 
 
 Stucco for taking impressions, 
 90 
 
 Sulphur, 292-294 
 
 to cast in, 180 
 Sulphuretted hydrogen, 294 
 Sulphurous acid, 293 
 Sweepings, ashes, etc., from 
 brass foundry furnaces, gild- 
 ers' and jewelers' workshops, 
 etc., washing of, 334-337 
 Symbols of metals, 19 
 Syracuse and Corinthian brass, 
 171 
 bronze, 344 
 
 TABLE by which to find the 
 weight of a casting from 
 that of the pattern, 27 
 for converting decimal pro- 
 portions into divisions of 
 the pound avoirdupois, 
 204 
 
 of direct cohesion of metals, 
 222 
 
 of experimental results as 
 to the properties of the 
 atomic alloys of copper and 
 zinc, 22 
 
392 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Table of hardness of metals, "7 
 of resistance of iron to com- 
 pression, 365 
 of metals to pressure, 
 223 
 
 to torsion, 223, 
 224 
 
 of specific cohesion and 
 strength of met- 
 als, 220, 221 
 gravity and weight 
 of materials, 219 
 of the ultimate resistance of 
 different kinds of materi- 
 als to extension and com- 
 pression, 349-351 
 showing head of water sus- 
 tained by a cast iron 
 pipe, 371 
 results of experiments on 
 bars of cold blast 
 iron, 369 
 of experiments on 
 the strength of 
 short cylinders of 
 timber, 352 
 the amount of friction 
 
 of metals, 196, 197 
 the discovery, specific 
 gravity, melting 
 points, equivalents 
 and symbols of met- 
 als, 19 
 the heat evolved by an 
 equal current from 
 different metals, 21 
 the order which the 
 metals bear to one 
 another in respect to 
 their properties, 6 
 the properties of the 
 atomic alloys of cop- 
 per and tin, 23 
 the quantity and weight 
 of water in pipes, 280 
 the tenacity of metals, 
 342 
 
 Table of the weight of cast metal 
 
 cylinders, 218 
 of metal balls, 
 217 
 plates, 217 
 Taste and odor of metals, 9 
 Telegraph wire, silicon bronze, 
 
 composition of, 268 
 Telephone wire, silicon bronze, 
 
 composition of, 268 
 Tellander, F., process for hol- 
 low chill-castings patented 
 by, 154 
 Temper, 44 
 
 Tempering, materials for, 329, 
 330 
 
 Tenacity of metals, experi- 
 ments on the, 342 
 
 Thompson, L., method of puri- 
 fying copper invented by, 
 35, 36 
 
 Timber, experiments on the 
 strength of short cylinders 
 of, 352 
 
 Tin and antimony, copper and 
 bismuth, 207 
 and copper mixtures, 46, 47 
 properties of the 
 atomic alloys of, 23 
 and iron, 209, 344 
 and lead, full measure of ca- 
 pacity of, 208 
 and zinc, 209, 343 
 block, 38, 39 
 common grain, 39 
 East Indian, 38, 39 
 foil, 15 
 
 to cast moulds of medals 
 on, 176 
 grain, 38 
 
 iron, and copper alloy, 344 
 or bedil, 37-39 
 ore in Cornwall, 39, 40 
 phosphide of, 264 
 protection of iron by, 271 
 reduction of, grain and block 
 tin, 39, 40 
 
INDEX. 
 
 393 
 
 Tin stone, 38 
 stream, 38 
 
 to coat small nails, etc., 
 with, 301 
 Tinning of cast copper or brass, 
 341 
 
 of iron, 305, 306 
 Titanium, German, 231 
 
 Spanish, 232 
 Tobin bronze, 269 
 Tombac, varieties of, 328 
 Tools and weapons, British, in 
 
 bronze, 111 
 Torsion, 349 
 
 resistance of metals to, 223, 
 224 
 
 Tracing paper, 309 
 Transversal strain, 349 
 Trinliet composition, 227 
 Tumbler or rattle-barrel, 64 
 Tutenag, 375 
 Type metal, 233, 234 
 Types, printing, 15 
 
 moulding of, 54, 55 
 small, metal for, 234 
 
 UGHATIUS bronze, 268, 269 
 United States, manufac- 
 facture of chilled wheels 
 in the, 145, 154 
 United States, mixture for 
 melting used in a 
 Mitis plant in 
 the, 72, 73 
 standard measure, 
 alloy for the, 374 
 
 VARNISH, etching, 323 
 flexible, 320 
 for browned gun barrels, 
 300 
 
 for colored drawings, 319 
 for iron, 339 
 for polished iron, 339 
 hard, 320 
 
 japanners' copal, 319 
 plaster casts, to, 175, 176 
 
 Varnish, soft, 319 
 
 superior green transparent, 
 322, 323 
 Varnishes, mordant, 321, 322 
 Vegetables, insects, small 
 birds, frogs, fish, etc., to cast 
 in plaster moulds, 177 
 Veins, 18 
 
 WASTE wax, or cire-perdu 
 process, 105-107 
 Water and fire, cement resist- 
 ing the action of, 307 
 head of, sustained by a cast 
 
 iron pipe, 370, 371 
 in pipes, 280 
 
 static pressure of, 369-372 
 Watkins, A. E., on the general 
 
 laws of shrinkages, 30, 31 
 Wax, casting in, 179, 180 
 models, moulding of, 57 
 waste, or cire-perdu process, 
 105-107 
 Weapons and tools, British, in 
 
 bronze, 171 
 Weight and specific gravity of 
 
 materials, 219 
 Wheel, cast iron chilled, life of 
 
 a, 153, 154 
 Wheels chilled, manufacture of, 
 in the United States, 145- 
 154 
 
 White cast iron, 62, 63, 357 
 lacquer, 345, 346 
 metal, 230 
 
 Window frames, iron, manu- 
 facture of, 159 
 
 Wires, silicon bronze, composi- 
 tion of, 268 
 
 Wittenstroem and Nobel, inven- 
 tion by, 70 
 
 Wood, ultimate strength of, 
 353, 354 
 
 Works, existing, impressions 
 and casts from, 90 
 
 Wrought iron or mitis cast- 
 ings, 70-75 
 
394 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Wrought iron railings, orna- 
 mentation of, 
 159-161 
 
 VELLOW brass, 190 
 
 ^INC, 40, 41 
 
 ^ and copper, experimental 
 results as to the prop- 
 erties of atomic alloys 
 of, 22 
 
 and iron, double amalgam 
 of, 194 
 
 and mercury, amalgam of, 
 
 15 
 
 and tin, 209, 343 
 
 Zinc as protective covering for 
 iron, and adaptation of the 
 process of electro-deposi- 
 tion for that purpose, 270- 
 279 
 
 destruction of, 272, 273 
 Fontainemorau's new alloys 
 
 of, 242-246 
 Goslar, 206 
 purification of, 40, 41 
 Zincking, 216 
 
 by immersion, M. Dumas 
 
 on, 273, 274 
 by immersion or galvaniz- 
 ing, 279 
 iron by electro processes, 
 276, 277 
 
OF 
 
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i8 HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE. 
 
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HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE. 19 
 
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20 HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE. 
 
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HENRY CAREY BArRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE. 21 
 
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22 HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE. 
 
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 its History, Occurrence, Properties, Metallurgy and Applications 
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 RIFFAULT, VERGNAUD, and TOUSSAINT.— A Practical 
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HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE. 23 
 
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24 HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE. 
 
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28 HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE. 
 
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HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO/S CATALOGUE. 31 
 
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32 HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE. 
 
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