1 >1 
 
 ON M.OSAICS, 
 
 (GENERALLY) 
 
 AND THE 
 
 SUPERIOR ADVANTAGES, ADAPTABILITY, 
 
 AND 
 
 GENERAL USE, 
 
 fd • 
 
 /in 'THE PAST AND PRESENT AGE, 
 
 * 
 
 IN ARCHITECTURAL AND OTHER DECORATIONS, 
 
 ENAMEL MOSAICS. 
 
 By DR A. SALVIATI, 
 
 OF VENICE. 
 
 BEING A PAPER READ 
 
 BEFORE THE LEEDS PHILOSOPHICAL AND LITERARY SOCIETY, 
 ON FEBRUARY 21st, 1865. 
 
 
 
 VI 
 
 O 
 
 LONDON: 
 
 PRINTED BY WERTHEIMER AND 'GO. 
 
 CIRCUS PLACE, FINSBURY. 
 
 1865 . 
 
 i 1 
 
 Oi 
 
 
 -eft 
 
 
Digitized by the Internet Archive 
 in 2016 
 
 https://archive.org/details/onmosaicsgeneralOOsalv 
 
(GENERALLY) 
 
 AND THE 
 
 SUPERIOR ADVANTAGES, ADAPTABILITY, 
 
 AND 
 
 GENERAL USE, 
 
 IN THE PAST AND PRESENT AGE, 
 
 IN ARCHITECTURAL AND OTHER DECORATIONS, 
 
 OF 
 
 ENAMEL MOSAICS. 
 
 By DR. A. SALVIATT, 
 
 OF VENICE. 
 
 BEING A PAPER READ 
 
 BEFORE THE LEEDS PHILOSOPHICAL AND LITERARY SOCIETY, 
 ON FEBRUARY 21st, 1865. 
 
 LONDON: 
 
 PRINTED BY WERTHEIMER AND CO. 
 
 CIRCUS PLACE, FINSBURY. 
 
ON MOSAICS, 
 
 ETC., ETC., ETC. 
 
 
 
 “Mosaic is the only painting for eternity.” — Giiirt.andajo. 
 “Nothing stands wind and water like mosaic.” — Vasari. 
 
 the term “ Mosaic” is meant a work formed by the 
 use of a very large number of separate pieces, varying in 
 size, of a hard and durable material. Sometimes these 
 pieces are of marble, sometimes of enamel — improperly 
 described as glass; and the pieces being of numerous 
 varying shades of colour, forms, and sizes, are made to 
 produce, more or less successfully, according to the skill 
 of the workmen in dressing and joining them, the same 
 result as is obtained by the painter by means of his pencil 
 and his brush. 
 
 The pieces, when placed together, are fixed on a 
 cement, the nature of which differs according to the 
 various kinds of work to be executed, and the com- 
 position of which has varied considerably at different times 
 and places; and when so joined the whole forms one 
 solid and uniform body. 
 
 Mosaics, as they are used and manufactured in our 
 times, are of two different kinds. 
 
 I. When the mosaic is so manufactured that the surface 
 of the work is thoroughly smooth , a result which is pro- 
 duced by all the stone or enamel pieces having their edges 
 perfectly close and adherent one to another, and by 
 
 Definition of 
 “ Mosaic,” 
 and its pro- 
 cess. 
 
 Mosaics, as 
 generally 
 known, are of 
 two kinds — 
 
 I. That having 
 a smooth sur- 
 face, called 
 M arqueterie 
 or inlaid 
 mosaic. 
 
4 
 
 The Florentine. 
 
 The Toman. 
 
 The Venetian. 
 
 II. That hav- 
 ing a rough 
 surface, called 
 Monumentnl 
 or Byzantine. 
 
 subsequently rubbing and polishing the entire surface of 
 the work; this style of mosaic (like that made up of 
 different coloured woods) is known as inlaid Mosaic or 
 Marqueterie-mosaic. Such a kind of mosaic is generally 
 used in the production of personal ornaments, such as 
 brooches, earrings, bracelets, etc., or objects of house* 
 decoration, as tables and other furniture. In this way 
 are worked the fine Florentine mosaics (lately imitated 
 by the Russians), which are made up of stones, 
 some of them precious, such as lapis-lazuli, malachite, 
 etc. The Homan mosaics, too, are of similar nature, 
 although representing more especially, and often with 
 extraordinary effect, landscapes, fruits, flowers, views, 
 animals, etc., as they are manufactured of very thin pieces 
 of enamels of numberless colours, rubbed and polished. 
 Finally, the Venetians , also, work in the same way, 
 when they intend to produce similar fancy goods, by 
 using smaller or larger pieces of enamels, according to the 
 different patterns, which are generally of a polychromatic 
 and geometrical character. 
 
 II. The other kind of mosaic is made by using stone or 
 enamel pieces cut into shapes which are not quite regular 
 or geometrical ; these pieces are then put together more 
 or less near to each other, so that between them the joints 
 are seen. It will be at once understood that the work does 
 not look smooth, but rough; in this case, the style of 
 mosaic is known as Monumental or Byzantine. This is 
 the sort of mosaic work used by the Ancients, and 
 is the most fitting and generally adopted for the purpose of 
 architectural decorations, both for the interior and exterior 
 of buildings. 
 
 Although learned writers differ much as to the time 
 and place when and where the art of mosaic originated, 
 
 Origin. 
 
5 
 
 there can be no doubt whatever that it was known and 
 practised at a very remote period, for we read in the Holy 
 Bible (Esther chap, i.) that a splendid pavement, formed 
 of pieces of various colours, was one of the magnificent 
 decorations of the palace of King Ahasuerus. 
 
 Doubtless mosaic was first used in the formation of 
 pavement, and was made, in part, or wholly, of marbles 
 and precious stones. Mosaic made of these materials 
 was known either as litho stratum, or opus tesselatum , vermicu- 
 latum , Alexandrinum , accordingly as it was formed of large 
 or small pieces, and of its representing figures or other- 
 wise. 
 
 Lithostratum Mosaic was made of tablets of marble, 
 sometimes interspersed with precious stones, on which no 
 figure at all was shown. Ciampini, in his work “ Vetera 
 Monumental affirms that the first example of such mosaic 
 floors was in Persia. Against this opinion we have the 
 statement of Abbot Hasselin , in his observations upon 
 ancient mosaics, where he asserts that they had their 
 origin in Egypt. M. Labonle states that the practice of 
 embellishing pavements with rich and precious stones was 
 followed in the eastern countries before it made its appear- 
 ance in Greece. 
 
 It would seem that the earliest tesselatum mosaic (formed 
 of smaller pieces of marble) was made in Greece, and 
 some authorities assert that its inventor was Sosus, of 
 Pergamus, who executed that charming mosaic now in 
 the Museum of the Vatican, at Rome, of which Pliny wrote, 
 “ celeberrimus fuit in hoc genere Sosus .... mirabilis ibi 
 columba bibens et aquam umbra capitis infuscans The 
 historians assert, however, that the mosaic pavement of 
 the temple of Olympia was executed at least two 
 centuries before the time of Sosus of Pergamus; and much 
 
 Earliest mo- 
 saic either 
 lithostratum or 
 tesselatum. 
 
 Lithostratum. 
 
 Tesselatum or 
 vermiculatum, 
 or Alexandri- 
 num. 
 
6 
 
 Invention of 
 enamels as a 
 substitute for 
 marble in 
 mosaic. 
 
 Description 
 of coloured 
 enamels. 
 
 praise is due to Parnesus , who decorated with mosaic the 
 temples of Jupiter at Olympia , and of Minerva at Elis. 
 
 The ancients well knew the advantage of colour, and 
 the prominence that should be given to it in architectural 
 decoration, and therefore, having used marbles of different 
 colours, and painted substances, without being able to 
 obtain the effect they desired, they became aware of the 
 necessity of discovering some other material for the purpose 
 of mosaic, in order to obtain those varieties of tints and 
 shades which natural substances were unable to provide 
 them with. Thence arose the use of coloured glass, 
 first transparent, then opaque — that is enamel — as the 
 fittest material by which to obtain the desired advantages, 
 and also for its power of resistance to atmospheric 
 injuries. Pliny calls this a new invention of his time, “ e 
 vitro novitium et hoc inventum .” (Lib. xxxvi. cap. 28 .) 
 
 The next step in improvement was with the view of 
 producing more striking and brilliant effects, and for this 
 purpose the ancients thought of incorporating the precious 
 metals ; but, as this would be beyond measure expensive, 
 a simple means of obtaining similar results was invented, 
 and thus gold and silver enamels were introduced into 
 mosaic works. These enamels are, in truth, made of the 
 precious metals, but in such thin sheets that their use is 
 comparatively inexpensive. The process is a difficult one, 
 for to produce true gold and silver enamels, great know- 
 ledge and experience are necessary. 
 
 As few persons have a clear and distinct knowledge of 
 the difference between coloured and gold and silver enamels, 
 it may be well in this place to say a few words upon the 
 subject. 
 
 Coloured enamels are made of a vitreous paste ( paste 
 being the generic term by which any glass works are 
 
7 
 
 familiarly known). The enamels are formed of the same 
 siliceous and other materials of which common glass is 
 composed, but to these materials are added other mineral 
 substances, which, when properly prepared and fused 
 together, impart to the paste its density and extreme 
 hardness, and also its colour. By such means the requisite 
 degree of opaqueness, purity, and solidity of the enamels 
 is obtained, as also the beauty, softness and great va- 
 riety of their colours; and all these are partly dependent 
 upon the quantity and quality of the mineral elements 
 in union with those of common glass, and are partly 
 dependent upon the degree and continuance of heat to 
 which the whole composition is subjected in the process 
 of fusion. 
 
 If the manufacture of the coloured enamels be imperfect 
 many inconveniences result, both as regards the appearance 
 and the durability of the mosaic work. If the paste be 
 not well and carefully elaborated, or if it be improperly 
 or insufficiently fused, if the mineral elements of the 
 colours be not exactly proportioned, so that either the 
 paste is transparent or some other defect ensues; — then 
 it is utterly impossible for the enamels to render the 
 effect of the painting, as the colouring is uncertain, 
 weak, and almost lost through the transparency of the 
 materials. 
 
 In this state of imperfect manufacture the mosaic is 
 liable to be injured by damp, smoke, and all atmospheric 
 changes ; but if, on the other hand, the coloured enamels 
 are well produced, then they can be made to give precisely 
 the same effect as the painting. In many respects, a 
 thoroughly successful mosaic work has advantages superior 
 to a painting, on account of the greater brilliancy and 
 transparency of its colours, as well as for the ease with 
 
 Inconvenien- 
 cies aiising 
 from their 
 imperfect 
 manufacture. 
 
8 
 
 Description of 
 gold and silver 
 enamels. 
 
 which such a work can be washed or cleaned. Enamels 
 are much more permanent than any other substance 
 that has ever been used in the composition of mosaic, 
 whether stone, marble, or clay, on account of their less 
 porous and less dilatable body.* 
 
 Gold and Silver Enamels are the result of a very different 
 operation. On a ground of thick glass or enamel, accord- 
 ing as it is desired to render the gold enamel transparent 
 or opaque, or to impart to it a warm or variegated colour, 
 there is laid a leaf of gold or silver which is attached prin- 
 cipally by the action of fire ; then a film of the purest glass 
 is spread over it, and this may either be perfectly colourless 
 or of any tint that may be required. When well manu- 
 factured, these three layers, after being fused, become 
 perfectly united with each other, and form a homogeneous 
 body. 
 
 If the operation above described be perfectly successful, 
 the metal will be for ever protected against all possibility 
 of injury, either by atmospheric action, dust, gas, smoke, 
 or insects, and in such a manner as not to lose aught of 
 its brilliancy or splendour, even after many centuries of 
 exposure. When this most delicate film of glass possesses 
 the requisite thinness, fineness, and purity, and when the 
 whole surface of the sheet exhibits no inequality of 
 thickness, the metal appears in all its native beauty, 
 and the glass with which it is covered is scarcely dis- 
 cernible. 
 
 * Those who may desire to obtain an exact idea of how far mosaic 
 renders the effect of the painting, with the other advantages referred to, 
 can, by visiting the South Kensington Museum, see the figure of Niccolo 
 Pisano in mosaic on gold ground, which I lately delivered. It is placed 
 on one of the walls of the New Court, and on the opposite wall is the 
 original cartoon, painted by that accomplished artist Mr. F. Leighton. 
 
9 
 
 When the reverse of this occurs, that is to say, 
 when the metal remains as it were entombed between the 
 upper and lower strata of glass, and does not present an 
 even surface, then the eye becomes arrested by the glitter 
 of the glass rather than the brilliancy of the metal, and 
 the mosaic work has the utterly wrong appearance of 
 being varnished over. 
 
 These explanations will show that the manufacture of 
 enamels for mosaic is attended with very considerable 
 difficulties and inconveniences, and that to obtain ease and 
 certainty in their production according to the purpose they 
 are destined to serve in imparting to mosaic-work an effec- 
 tive and pictorial appearance, coupled with the utmost dura- 
 bility, not only is a knowledge of general principles in 
 their manufacture necessary, but also long experience and 
 continual and laborious experiments. 
 
 In speaking of coloured enamels , it should be remem- 
 bered how very difficult it is to produce in an exceedingly 
 hard and vitreous material so many beautiful and delicate 
 shades of colour, as are required to impart to a mosaic 
 work the identical effect which the painter obtains simply 
 by the use of oil or water colours. How great, also, is the 
 difference between the production by an inexperienced 
 manufacturer of the various colours on the basis of 
 general principles, and the production according to 
 circumstances of precisely the exact tints or shades of 
 colour which in a special case may be required at a very 
 short notice! And, also, how little faith can we have in 
 the durability of the enamels if their production be not 
 very carefully, skilfully, and conscientiously watched and 
 attended to ! 
 
 With regard to gold and silver enamels it must be 
 remembered that the whole process has to undergo the 
 
 Inconveni- 
 ences arising 
 from their 
 imperfect 
 manufacture. 
 
 Peculiar cau- 
 tion required 
 in the produc- 
 tion of good 
 enamels. 
 
10 
 
 Examples. 
 
 Peculiar ad- 
 vantages of 
 enamels in 
 architectural 
 decoration. 
 
 action of fire, and that it is extremely difficult to protect 
 the tender delicate gold leaf from becoming disturbed, or 
 torn, or crumpled, and to guard against the introduction 
 between the glass and the metal of minute bubbles of 
 air, the effect of which would be, sooner or later, to 
 separate the delicate film of glass from the metal; nor, 
 finally, is it an easy matter to render the surface of the 
 enamel tablets so smooth and even as is essentially requisite, 
 with an entire absence of waving lines and sinuosities of 
 any kind. 
 
 We find that the enamels, of w T hich the mosaics, 
 scattered throughout Europe, are made, have not always 
 been manufactured with the same degree of care and per- 
 fection; indeed a considerable portion of these enamels, 
 made at different periods down to our own time, exhibit 
 the precise defects above alluded to. 
 
 While there are in existence so many coloured and gold 
 enamels of unsurpassed beauty and perfection, there may 
 be found even in the same church — as at St. Ambrogio in 
 Milan , St. Mark's in Venice, St. Giusto in Trieste , in 
 several at Ravenna , Rome , Lucca , Pisa , Florence , — 
 coloured enamels which appear dull, tarnished, and 
 corroded, and gold enamels looking miserably ineffective ; 
 because in them the gold leaf is torn or crumpled, and the 
 upper film o glass is either too thick, so that the gold 
 enamel resembles a piece of varnished gilding, or it has 
 long been separated from the stratum underneath, so that 
 the metal has altogether disappeared or become quite 
 black. 
 
 But suppose the manufacture of the enamels to be in 
 every particular in accordance with the requirements of 
 the mosaic art, that they are not only apparently but 
 really substantially perfect — suppose them used by a skilful 
 
11 
 
 craftsman who follows rigidly the lines of a beautifully 
 painted cartoon, then there can scarcely be conceived a 
 more perfect and exquisite means of decoration which can 
 be made subservient to architectural designs either in the 
 interior or exterior of buildings. 
 
 The man who can make as many tints as he can fancy 
 likely to be required in producing any sort of coloured 
 ornament or picture, the man who at a small expense can 
 use the most costly means of obtaining the qualities of 
 richness and brilliancy by gold and silver enamels, and can 
 produce good evidence, in the examples of works which 
 have stood the wear and tear of many centuries, that both 
 his coloured and gold enamels will endure longer than any 
 other material used for a similar purpose, that man may 
 certainly venture to assert that no other system of decora- 
 tion is so fitting for architectural purposes as mosaic. Not 
 only is it capable of being used in all kinds, styles, and 
 parts of buildings, in all countries and climates, but its 
 value is greatly enhanced by its splendid and imperishable 
 colouring, by the sparkling brilliancy of its gold ground, 
 and by the effective alternation of light and shade, 
 obtained by the immense number of joints between the 
 separate pieces, an element of beauty in all noble architec- 
 ture and good decoration. 
 
 In confirmation of my assertions, I venture to refer to 
 the words of a great English authority, Mr. Buskin, who, 
 in his glorious work “The Stones of Venice, ” writes 
 thus: — “ There are two means of delight in all productions 
 “of art — colour and form. The most vivid conditions of 
 “ colour obtainable by human art are those of Avorks in 
 “ glass and enamel.” In another place, when describing the 
 sculptures on mosaic, inserted in the hollows of the marbles 
 in Byzantine palaces, he Avrites: — “ Each square of glass 
 
 Mr. Ruskin’s 
 opinions on 
 this subject. 
 
12 
 
 “ has the cut gold upon its surface protected by another 
 “ thin film of glass above it, so that no time or weather can 
 “ affect its lustre. The small glazed surface of the golden 
 “ ground is washed by every shower of rain, but the marble 
 “ usually darkens into an amber colour in process of time; 
 “ and when the whole ornament is cast into shadow, the 
 “ golden surface being perfectly reflective, refuses the 
 “ darkness, and shows itself in bright and burnished light 
 “ behind the dark traceries of the ornament. Where the 
 “ marble has retained its perfect whiteness, on the other 
 “ hand, and is seen in sunshine, it is shown as a snowy 
 “ tracery on a golden ground, and the alternations and 
 “ intermingling of these two effects form one of the chief 
 “ enchantments of Byzantine ornamentation.” 
 
 Superior Supported by so eminent an authority, I may confidently 
 
 mosaic for venture to add here a few remarks about the peculiar 
 
 purposes. advantages of adopting enamel-mosaic lor decorative 
 
 purposes. 
 
 In consequence of the peculiar excellence of the material 
 elements and their capacity for imparting to any mosaic 
 work the effects of painting and gilding, even while 
 maintaining their own individual character, the mosaic art 
 is admirably adapted to every' mode of artistic expression, 
 both sacred and secular; not only is it stern and majestic, 
 but also lively, gorgeous, and luxurious, and especially 
 when used on a large scale and in the decoration of large 
 buildings it displays its beauty and richness, so that it at 
 once interests the eye and educates the mind, by illustrating 
 the holy precepts and sacred truths of the Christian faith, 
 as also the glorious individual and national deeds of a 
 great people, and so handing down the memory of those 
 whose acts it celebrates to remote generations in the most 
 durable, magnificent, and expressive language— a language 
 
13 
 
 which cannot be so easily effaced as that spoken by paint- 
 ing or engraving, or, indeed, by any other known method of 
 decoration. 
 
 It may so happen that a mosaic picture, either interior 
 or exterior, may become dirty or dull, through the action 
 of gas, damp, smoke, or insects; it may happen that either 
 through some defect in the manufacture, or carelessness in 
 the use of the cement, or by mischief, some pieces or parts 
 of the mosaic may become loose, in such cases the picture 
 may easily be washed, or the pieces refixed, and the whole 
 work made as perfect and beautiful as it was when first 
 finished many centuries before, and all this may be effected 
 without in the least degree altering or injuring the value, 
 or character, of the whole work. I have myself had the 
 privilege of thus restoring mosaics of priceless worth. 
 
 Now, in the case of an oil or fresco-painting which may 
 have been damaged or almost destroyed by the action of 
 time, or some other external influence, this process of 
 restoration cannot be made use of, as the work would 
 greatly deteriorate in value, and could never be brought 
 back to its original freshness and beauty. For instance, 
 who would dare attempt, worthily, and without fear of 
 damaging the whole work, the reparation of those yet 
 glorious pictures “ The Last Supper ” at Milan , or of 
 “ The Last Judgment ” in the Sistine Chapel at Home ? 
 Now, unhappily, we are scarcely aware of the first great 
 conception of Leonardo da Vinci , and how deeply do we 
 deplore the decay of the marvellous touches of the brush 
 of Michael Angelo ! How much those famous painters, 
 and others whose productions have perished for ever or 
 are almost destroyed, would have rejoiced if, foreseeing 
 the future destruction of their glorious works, they had 
 transferred their cartoons into indestructible mosaic? 
 
 Qualities pe- 
 culiar to 
 mosaic. 
 
 Mosaic com- 
 pared with 
 fresco. 
 
14 
 
 Frescoes at 
 Munich, 
 Westminster 
 Palace, etc. 
 
 General use of 
 mosaic in an- 
 cient Greece 
 and Rome. 
 
 It is a patent fact that frescoes will not stand in northern 
 climates, and we have indeed reason to regret the wasted 
 labour of Cornelius , Kaulbach , etc., in their recent fresco 
 pictures at Munich, and of those great English artists 
 whose works adorn the walls of the new Palace of West- 
 minster , whose rapid decay is indeed a sad loss to art. 
 
 How much better would it have been had the painters 
 devoted their talents to the production of cartoons which 
 the mosaicist could have transformed into imperishable 
 material, as was done in ancient times, and even in milder 
 climates, by the Republic and Dukes of Florence through 
 Taddeo Gaddi, Giotto , and Ghirlandajo , and by the 
 Republic of Venice to the cartoons of Titian , of Paolo 
 Veronese , Tintoretto , Salviati, etc., etc. 
 
 So I conclude, that while the mosaic art is mostly sup- 
 ported by architecture and painting, so those two arts 
 should be by no means jealous, but rather should they re- 
 joice at its existence, because it amply and gratefully repays 
 the architect and the painter, by rendering their splendid 
 works and their famous names more durable, indeed, all 
 but imperishable. 
 
 These being the great advantages of mosaic, it is easy 
 to understand the reason of its having been so widely used 
 and so highly appreciated by the old masters, who have 
 always been regarded as our guides in matters of taste and 
 the arts. If we look back to the early ages, we see Greece 
 and ancient Pome using large quantities of mosaic. For 
 many centuries subsequent to the Punic Wars, mosaic was 
 the fashion, and scarcely a pavement in the houses of 
 the wealthy was made of any other material.* The 
 
 * See Canina — “ Description of the Ancient Tusculum." See also 
 Winckelmann, Fnrietti, Faciaudi, Ciampini, Quatremere de Quincy, 
 Barth^lemy, etc. 
 
15 
 
 Museums of Europe are more or less rich in mosaics 
 discovered at Pompeii and Herculaneum * ; scarcely a r /^^ nejm 
 a house at Pompeii has been uncovered where the pave- 
 ments were not of mosaic vermiculatum. On the threshold 
 of most houses we read the welcome “ Salve,” in mosaic 
 characters. The walls of temples, baths, villas, and tombs, 
 were decorated with portraits in the same enduring 
 material. 
 
 But with the rise and spread of Christianity, the art of Mosaic in the 
 
 1 . early Christian 
 
 mosaic entered on a larger and grander field, and received ages, 
 a new life. It became a powerful means of supporting 
 the dogmas of our holy faith, and in course of time grew 
 to be a real and true art of itself. Here again, we find 
 mosaic mostly encouraged and advanced in the East, for in the East, 
 there we find the Emperor Constantine authorising the 
 prefects to spend any . amount of money in building 
 churches, and decorating them with mosaics.f Superior to 
 all others, we see the grandest model of Byzantine 
 buildings — the Church of St. Sophia , filled with mosaics, 
 which the Vandalism of Mahomet, and the barbaric 
 fanaticism of the Turks, have in vain attempted to conceal 
 from the eyes of Christians. J 
 
 * In England, in the British Museum, and the Museum at South 
 Kensington, there are several remarkable examples. Among the works 
 which treat of these, may be noticed the well-known “ The Grammar of 
 Ornament by Mr. Owen Jones. 
 
 f See Spreti. 
 
 + The beautiful remains in Saint Sophia, after having suffered the most 
 disgraceful treatment from the. Iconoclasts, and from the early Mahomme- 
 dans, were plastered over by the Turks, who converted this grand Christian 
 temple into a mosque; yet have the mosaics been revealed and illustrated 
 in modern times in the works of Dr. G. W. Kortiim, and still later by 
 the Prussian Professor W. Salzenberg, in his magnificent work “ Agia 
 Sophia also by the Italian architect Fossati, both of these latter-named 
 works having been prepared during the brief period that Mr. Fossati was 
 
16 
 
 In the West. 
 
 If, again, we turn to the West, we see that the mosaic 
 art has been largely adopted as the most proper and fitting 
 medium of representing in a durable manner the religious 
 mysteries, and used (probably in the first instance in the 
 catacombs) on roofs and walls, both exterior and in- 
 terior, of all the best and greatest Christian churches.* 
 
 In the fifth century, enamel-mosaic was used in illus- 
 trating the national faith ; it was then that the most ancient 
 of the mosaics in St. Maria Maggiore at Rome (a.d. 432 
 — 450) those of Constantine’s age, in the Mausoleum of 
 
 entrusted by the Turkish Government with the general repairs of the 
 church. 
 
 * Enamel-mosaics have been extensively employed, not alone for 
 religious, but also for secular and historical purposes. Among many 
 examples, we may notice the following. The Emperor Justinian, besides 
 decorating numerous churches and basilicas with enamel-mosaic, covered 
 the walls and roof of the principal saloon of his imperial palace with 
 mosaic pictures, representing the victories of his armies. The Emperor 
 Charlemagne caused similar works to be executed in his palace at 
 Ingelheim, where the walls were decorated with mosaics representing 
 deeds celebrated in ancient history, and those of his own reign. In an 
 adjoining basilica there were, on one side, twenty pictures representing 
 Old Testament, and on the other, as many representing New Testament 
 history. Tlieodolinda, Queen of the Longobards, followed these eminent 
 encouragers of our art, in her royal palace at Monza (see Paolo Diacono, 
 Hist. Longobard, iv. 23). King Theodoricus, besides having built and deco- 
 rated with mosaics the churches of St. Maria in Cosmedin, and of St. 
 Martino in Celo-aureo, at Ravenna, covered with the same brilliant material 
 the splendid saloons of the royal palace at Pavia. 
 
 Illustrious examples of great ancestors are followed sooner or later by 
 their successors. Her Majesty the Queen of England, has not only equalled, 
 but even surpassed the old Emperors and Kings in her encouragement of 
 the arts, and has honoured my manufactory by entrusting it with the exe- 
 cution of large and important commissions for decorating with enamel- 
 mosaics, roofs and walls of different buildings at Windsor Castle ; and, 
 very lately, I have received a commission for executing the mosaic work 
 which is to decorate the National Memorial to the late Prince Consort, 
 now being erected in Hyde Park under the direction of Mr. Gilbert 
 Scott, R.A. 
 
17 
 
 Constance , near Rome , and also those very remarkable 
 works in the sepulchral chapel of Galla Placiclia, and the 
 Baptistry of Ravenna , were executed. 
 
 It would be tedious to enumerate all the enamel-mosaic 
 works which, since the above date, have been scattered 
 throughout Italy and other parts of Europe. Suffice it to 
 say, that mosaic has not been a fugitive fashion, or the 
 result of the passion of one man or one land : Kings, 
 Queens, Popes, Churches, Governments, both Republican 
 and Monarchical, as well as private persons, have vied with 
 one another in the production of mosaic works, even as 
 lately as the last generations but two or three, and they 
 have handed down to us splendid relics of this kind of 
 mural decoration.* 
 
 But think of those glorious Avorks which have been lost 
 to us through political struggles, through the furious 
 onslaught of the iconoclasts, the fanatical hatred of Mahom- 
 medans, and the destructive vandalism of barbarians 1 f 
 
 * See work of Mr. Digby Wyatt, on “ Mosaics of the Middle Ages.” 
 
 f Among those whose destruction is mostly to be deplored, I mention 
 the great mosaic work which covered the entire dome of the noble 
 Cathedral at Aix-ia-Chapelle ; and the more is this to be regretted, as 
 this Church is, perhaps, the only building remaining of Charlemagne's 
 period, as it was the place of his burial. When I made a survey on 
 the spot, I happened to see the drawing of the subject of the destroyed 
 mosaic, which is in possession of the Chapter. On an extensive 
 gold-enamel ground, studded with stars, there was a grand figure of our 
 Lord seated, and surrounded by the Heavenly Host; underneath were 
 standing figures, each bearing a crown, and having an empty throne 
 beneath him ; symbolising the respect and submission due from earthly 
 monarchs to the King of kings. The destruction of this great work, 
 dating from the seventh century, is truly a subject for deep regret; but it 
 would be a still deeper cause for sorrow, if, from the dispute between the 
 archaeologists and the partisans of the neighbouring German schools of 
 painting, the latter should succeed in inducing the Government and Com- 
 mittee to replace the old mosaic with pictures in fresco, thus adopting a 
 
 B 
 
 Widely-spread 
 use of Mosaic 
 since the 5th 
 century. 
 
18 
 
 Progress and 
 decay of early 
 mosaics. 
 
 The mosaic works of succeeding centuries, though vastly 
 numerous, were not always equally successful, either in 
 regard of the materials or of their manufacture, so that 
 the different epochs of the art, and its alternate progress 
 and decay, are plairdy discernible. 
 
 Not only were there enamel mosaics in churches and 
 other buildings in the East, but also in Italy, Germany, 
 France, and Spain, many of the most important of 
 which are still existing at Rome, Ravenna, Florence , 
 Lucca , Pisa , Orvieto , Monreale , Tor cello, Mur a no, Venice , 
 etc., etc., but the best are, doubtless, those of the 5th, 
 6th, and a part of the 7th centuries, while those of the 
 8th, 9tli and 10th, or a part of the 1 1th centuries are 
 much inferior.* In England, too, there are some 
 examples of enamel-mosaic, but they are very few, and of 
 one period (13th century), being, as far as I know, only 
 found in Westminster Abbey, on the tombs of Kings Ed- 
 ward the Confessor and Henry III., and on that of the son 
 of William de Valence, all made by Italian artists. There 
 is, however, a greater quantity of tesselata mosaic {opus 
 Alexandrinum ) used in the earliest times for pavements, 
 as, for instance, those in the same Abbey, and at Canter- 
 
 perishable material, instead of restoring their historical church to its 
 pristine condition. 
 
 * The most glorious mosaic of ancient Christian Rome is, perhaps, that 
 in the church of SS. Cosma and Damiano (526 — 530, a.d.) ; very beautiful, 
 too, is the mosaic in the Church of St. Agnes (625 — 638, a.d.). Remark- 
 able, as well for their artistic merit as for the use of historical figures, 
 which are introduced to render symbolical expressions, are the mosaics in 
 the choir of St. Vitale , in Sta. Maria in Cosmedin, and in St. Apollinare 
 Nuovo (552 — 566, a.d.). 
 
 Far inferior to these are those of the ninth century in the Churches of 
 Sta. Prassede, Sta. Cecilia , St. Mari', Sta. Maria della Navicella, etc., at 
 Rome, and those in the Archbishop’s Chapel, and in the Church of St. 
 Apollinare in Classe (671 — 677, a.d.), at Ravenna. 
 
19 
 
 bury, Albury, Leeds, etc., so that I quite concur with Mr. 
 G. G. Scott, R.A., who, in his work, “ Gleanings from 
 Westminster Abbey,” says that no other country north 
 of the Alps contains such a mass of early Italian decora- 
 tive art. No better idea of the matter can be had than by 
 consulting this very valuable work. It deserves notice 
 here that enamels have been used with marble in the 
 pavement in Westminster Abbey, and I cannot agree with 
 Mr. Burges when he says that their introduction is a devi- 
 ation from the Italian practice, and that the only Italian 
 pavement exhibiting glass mosaic is that in the hall of the 
 Ziza at Palermo, for it is a fact that, besides others, many 
 portions of the mosaic pavement in the basilica of St. 
 Mark, at Venice, are made of enamels. 
 
 With the 11th century commence again the beautiful 
 mosaics treated in the improved Byzantine style, and which 
 decorate the buildings of the following four or five 
 centuries,* until we find a new manner of treating these 
 
 * Among the mosaics of the eleventh and following centuries, which 
 travellers should not omit to see, are — in the South, those in the Cathedral 
 of Monreale, near Palermo, which was erected under the patronage of 
 William the Second, and is one of the most peculiar and marvellous 
 monuments of the middle ages. The architecture and decoration of this 
 Church present a mixture of three styles, viz.: — Norman, Classic, and 
 Byzantine, leading to the belief that it has engaged the attention, at 
 various epochs, of Greek, Saracen, and Sicilian artists (See the work now 
 in progress of issue by B. D. Gravina: “ II duomo di Monreale"). Among 
 the mosaics of this period in Central Italy may be mentioned, as most 
 worthy of remark, those existing at Florence, Lucca, and Orvieto. Of 
 those in Northern Italy most deserving of study and admiration, the finest 
 are of the 11th and 12th centuries, in the Duomo at Torcello, a little 
 island close to Venice; these represent, on one side “ The Madonna," on a 
 vast gold ground, her tears falling, and her hands raised in the act of 
 blessing; on the other side is “ The Last Judgment." It is much to be 
 feared that the rapidly-increasing decay of this work will soon end in its 
 utter ruin, unless the same provident measures are taken which the 
 
 
 Alternate pro- 
 gress and 
 decay of subse- 
 quent mosaics. 
 
20 
 
 Venice, the 
 home of 
 mosaic. 
 
 works, less rigid in form, less simple in the colouring, but 
 rather too classic in design, too grandiose in conception, 
 and too pictorial in effect. These were introduced at 
 the time when the greatest painters of the Venetian school 
 furnished the cartoons. The later manner of treating 
 mosaic was used until the 18th century, when the power 
 of producing the enamels, as well as the knowledge, skill, 
 and experience requisite for forming the mosaics, seem 
 to have been lost, or only practised at Rome , in a new 
 manner, and for purposes differing widely from those 
 derived from the ancients.* 
 
 The place where mosaic in nearly all ages seems to 
 have been at home is Venice. There the art, expelled 
 from Byzantium , seems to have found a shelter, and a 
 
 Government is now again adopting at St. Mark’s. Of the latter church I 
 shall speak presently. 
 
 * Every one has heard of the great manufactory of mosaic in the 
 Vatican at Some, which, since the decay of those formerly at Venice, 
 has been worked at the expense of the Papal Government. Exceedingly 
 beautiful works have been and are produced there, but, with the exception 
 of repairing operations, its chief practice is the reproduction in enamel 
 mosaics (rubbed and polished) of the pictures of the greatest painters, as, 
 for instance, Rafaello , Reni, Sasso-ferrato, etc., etc. In the same way, 
 too, the private manufacturers at Some produce mosaic by inlaying on 
 marble or enamel, small and thin enamel pieces, joined closely together, 
 and representing on a smooth and burnished surface, flowers, fruits, 
 animals, and landscapes. These mosaics are chiefly used for brooches, 
 bracelets, tables, etc. But such kind of work is improperly called mosaic; 
 at least, it accords in no particular with the ancient mosaics, whose 
 principal character, merit, and artistic charm, is their rough and broken 
 surface. 
 
 Mosaics made on the modern Eoman principle require a vast amount 
 of labour, patience, and time in their production, so that, for example, 
 “ The Transfiguration” of Rafaello took thirty years in working. They 
 are not generally approved by those who desire to see mosaic substituting 
 painting without being pictorial, but always preserving its own peculiar 
 nature and characteristics. 
 
21 
 
 larger field for its development ; there Greek artists founded 
 schools for the practice of the mosaic art, and taught the 
 Venetian people the secrets, and imparted the skill to 
 produce works to willing scholars, who soon became greater 
 than their masters. There was the glorious basilica of 
 St. Mark’s, which during many ages was being covered 
 with masterpieces of mosaic decoration, and which has 
 become a marvellous building, for its beauty, richness, 
 and peculiarity : all who saw, all learned men who have 
 spoken and written about this church, have told us how 
 charmed they were with it ; for, while presenting a collec- 
 tion of many styles of architecture, it also enshrines every 
 possible example of mosaic decoration, from the middle 
 ages down to our own time.* 
 
 Marble and enamel mosaics cover all the pavements, and 
 are made to imitate the waves of the sea, which is most 
 probably not accidental, as many suppose, but intentional, 
 as Mr. Street thinks, f especially as a similar undulation 
 is to be seen in the fine mosaic pavement in the Church 
 of St. Mary and Donato , at Murano. Mosaic pictures, 
 set in ground of gold enamel, line the vaulting and the 
 walls both within and without the building. Beneath the 
 portico there are mosaic pictures, dating from the early 
 
 * The basilica of St. Mark’s, erected in the 11th century, its pre- 
 decessor having been destroyed by fire, was in the Byzantine style, and 
 during the succeeding three centuries it received many Gothic additions. 
 The Venetians having become learned and rich by the influence of their 
 conquests and their commercial transactions with the East, brought home 
 and deposited in St. Mark’s the most precious marbles and objects of art 
 which they could collect, so that in our time it would, perhaps, be im- 
 possible for any nation to collect, in one place, such expensive and varied 
 treasures as may now be seen in St. Mark’s. 
 
 t See description and reasons in Mr. Street’s valuable work, “ Brick 
 and Marble in the Middle Ages ,” page 126. 
 
 Mosaics in 
 St. Mark’s. 
 
 Description of 
 them. 
 
22 
 
 Objects aimed 
 at by the Ve- 
 netians in 
 producing 
 such a mar- 
 vellous work. 
 
 period, which represent events of Old Testament history. 
 In the interior are displayed, in similar enamel-mosaics, 
 events from the New Testament history, with the Apoca- 
 lypse crowning the whole — this latter is almost destroyed, 
 but is now fortunately undergoing restoration.* 
 
 In erecting the Cathedral of St. Mark's , the Venetians, 
 unlike many persons of this generation, who, unhappily 
 seem to care more for cheapness and fugitive glitter and 
 display than extreme permanence, thinking not only 
 of their present glorification but having a thought for 
 the delight and benefit of future ages, designed to produce 
 
 * “No church,” says Theophile G-authier, “is to be compared to 
 “ St. Mark’s at Venice; neither at Cologne, Strasburg, Seville, or even 
 “ Cordova; it is of an astonishing and magic effect; the first impression is 
 “ like that of an immense golden cavern incrusted with jewels, at once 
 “ brilliant and dark, glittering and mysterious. There the cupolas, vaults, 
 “ architraves, and walls, are all covered with small pieces of gold-enamel, 
 “ produced at the neighbouring island of Murano, of an ineffaceable bright- 
 “ ness, where the light plays and sparkles as on the scales of a fish, and 
 “ where the mosaic artists found a field on which to display their marvellous 
 “ fancies. St. Mark’s is a great golden Bible, in which the people for eight 
 “ centuries have been incessantly reading in pious admiration. Everywhere 
 “ the texts are attached to the figures — above, beneath, roundabout, and on 
 “ every place there are inscriptions, legends, mottoes, names, monograms, 
 “ specimens of the writings of all lands and all people. It is rather the 
 “ Temple of the Verbum than the Church of St. Mark’s — an intellectual 
 “ temple, built with the verses of the old and new faith, while it finds its 
 “ own ornamentation in the expression of its learning. St. Mark’s is a 
 “ world of which one could write many times and always insufficiently.” 
 Those who may wish to read notices of St. Mark’s should see: Filiasi, 
 Memorie Storiclie ; Selvatico, Arcliitettura cli Venezia ; Sansovino, Venezia 
 Descritta ; J. Buskin, The Stones of Venice ; G. E. Street, Brick and 
 Marble in the Middle Ages ; besides many other works such as Cicognara, 
 Zanetti, Moschini, Zanotto, Quadri, Kreutz, etc., etc. In the very 
 interesting tale “ Les Maitres Mosaistes ” there are curious details of 
 the mosaics of the 16th and 17th centuries, which was the remarkable 
 epoch when the works were being executed from the cartoons of Titian, 
 Tintoretto, Eizzi, Palma, Bassano, etc., by the most eminent mosaicists, 
 the Zuccali, Bozza, Bianchini, Alberto Zio, etc., etc. 
 
23 
 
 a grand work which should testify to all times of the 
 power, greatness, wealth, skill, pious and artistic feeling, of 
 a nation that, by its own indomitable exertions, had risen 
 to so high a pinnacle of greatness from its former lowly 
 condition of a colony of fishermen. The} 7 proposed to 
 themselves — and worthily did they fulfil the noble purpose — 
 to delight the astonished visitors to their city by the dis- 
 play of the most costly and unapproachable master-pieces 
 of workmanship which it was possible to produce, as also 
 to teach the great lessons of their holy religion in the most 
 intelligible language, and in the most impressive and 
 durable manner. 
 
 In order to arrive at these high purposes, the Venetians 
 adopted a style of incrusted architecture , as the best means 
 of imparting strength to their building, and to make the 
 best use of a perfect and permanent colour ; secondly , they 
 used the best resources of colouring , because this is the 
 soul of any fine and lovely decoration ; and, thirdly, they 
 employed the most expressive language and the most 
 brilliant, majestic, and durable kind of painting, namely, 
 mosaic ; and it was thus they succeeded in imparting to 
 their Church the elements of strength, beauty, and ex- 
 pression. 
 
 It is then on these qualities that the peculiarity, 
 durability, artistic merit, and religious expression of 
 St. Mark's depend. Its ornamentation is not only 
 exquisite and admirable as a work of art, but it is also 
 fitted for a higher and a sacred purpose, and I venture to 
 think (supported as I am by many greater authorities) 
 that the same principles, in a greater or less degree, ought 
 to be universally observed in these our own times, if we 
 desire to produce any noble architecture, religious or 
 secular, — architecture which should be worthy of its author 
 
24 
 
 On the ques- 
 tion of Church 
 Decoration. 
 
 Mr. Euskin’s 
 remarks on 
 this subject. 
 
 and of the country where it is situated; more especially in 
 the north, where atmospheric influences are so detrimental 
 to every other kind of coloured decoration. 
 
 By devoting so much of my space to St. Mark's , and to 
 Venetian mosaics generally, I aimed not only at proving 
 the great advantages of using colours and gilding in any 
 noble building, especially by means of enamel mosaics, but 
 also to convey an idea of the superiority of the Venetian 
 school of Mosaicists, and to meet the question whether 
 richness of ornament is right in churches. But what can 
 I do better to illustrate my feelings, than to remind the 
 reader of what Mr. Ruskin has written about the matter, 
 in his valuable work, “ The Stones of Venice? ” “ Of all 
 “ God’s gifts, to the sight of man colour is the holiest the 
 “ most divine, the most solemn. . . . The purest and most 
 “ thoughtful minds are those which love colour the most . . . 
 “ It is on the value of St. Mark’s building as a piece of per- 
 “ feet and unchangeable colouring, that the claims of it to 
 “ our respect are finally rested. ... It is not now the 
 “ question whether our northern cathedrals are better with 
 “colour, or without; the simple fact is, that the builders 
 “ of those cathedrals laid upon them the brightest colours 
 “ they could obtain, and that there is not in Europe any 
 “ monument of a truly noble school which has not been 
 “ either painted all over, or vigorously touched with mosaic 
 “ and gilding in its prominent parts. 
 
 “ The perception of colour is a gift just as definitely 
 “ granted to one person, and denied to another, as an ear for 
 “ music ; and the Venetians deserve especial note as the only 
 “ European people who appear to have sympathised to the 
 “ full with the great instinct of the Eastern races in their 
 “ feeling for colour. They indeed were compelled to bring 
 “ artists from Constantinople to design first the mosaics of 
 
25 
 
 “ St. Mark’s, blit they rapidly took up and developed, under 
 “ more masculine conditions, the system of which the Greeks 
 “ had shown them the example. While the burghers and 
 u barons of the north were building; their dark streets and 
 “ grisly castles of oak and sandstone, the merchants of 
 “ Venice were covering their palaces with porphyry and 
 “ gold. St. Mark’s architectural construction, both exter- 
 “ nally and internally, is partly merged in pictorial effect, 
 “ and the whole edifice is to be regarded less a temple wherein 
 “ to pray, than as itself a Book of Common Prayers, a vast 
 “ illuminated missal, .... written within and without in 
 “ letters of enamel and gold. The common people were 
 “ taught their Scripture history by means of the mosaics more 
 “ impressively, perhaps, though far less fully, than ours are 
 “ now by Scripture reading. The walls of the church became 
 “ the poor man’s Bible, and a picture was more easily read 
 “ upon the walls than a chapter. . . For the Venetian people 
 “ St. Mark’s was a type of the redeemed Church of God, 
 “ and a scroll for the written word of God.. . . The mosaics 
 “ were before the eyes of the devotee at every interval of his 
 
 “ worship. Never had city a more glorious Bible 
 
 “ Among the nations of the North, a mule and shadowy 
 “ sculpture filled their temples with confused and hardly 
 “ legible imagery. ... I believe of all works of religious art 
 “ whatsoever, the mosaics (mostly those of the twelfth and 
 “ thirteenth centuries) represented in a central manner by 
 “ the great ones of St. Mark’s, have been the most effective. 
 “ They covered the walls and the roofs of the churches 
 “with inevitable lustre — they could not be ignored or 
 “ escaped from, their size rendered them majestic, their 
 “ distance mysterious, their colour attractive.” 
 
 “As regards the question how far the exquisite and 
 “ varied ornament fits it as a temple for its sacred purposes 
 
26 
 
 Further re- 
 marks by Mr. 
 Street. 
 
 “ and would be applicable in the churches of modern times, 
 “ may be a doubtful question, so long as our eyes rest 
 “ continually in our daily life on objects utterly ugly, and 
 “ the faculties of eye and mind should be suddenly feasted 
 “ upon entering a place of worship, and colour, music, and 
 “ sculpture, should delight the senses, and stir the curiosity 
 “ of men unaccustomed to such appeals, at the moment 
 “ when they are required to compose themselves for acts of 
 “ devotion; but it cannot be a question at all, that if once 
 “ familiarised with beautiful form and colour, and accus- 
 “ tomed to see evidence of noble thought and admirable skill, 
 “ we shall desire to see this evidence also in whatever is built 
 “ or laboured for the house of prayer ; that the absence of the 
 “ accustomed loveliness would disturb, instead of assisting 
 “devotion; and that, meanwhile, our own house is full of 
 “ goodly craftsmanship, we should worship God in a house 
 “ destitute of it. Churches ought to be richly adorned, as 
 “ being the only places in which the desire of offering a por- 
 “ tion of all precious things to God could be legitimately 
 “ expressed.” 
 
 Therefore, Mr. Ruskin concludes that the ornament of 
 St. Mark’s, antj^of any church like it, is of a truly 
 ecclesiastical and Christian character. 
 
 The same points are supported by other strong argu- 
 ments of Mr. G. £. Street, in his work “ Brick and Marble 
 “ in the Middle Ages,” as follows : — • 
 
 “ Over and over again, when at Venice, must one go 
 “ into St. Mark’s, not to criticise, but to admire; and if 
 “ ever in any building in which the main object is the 
 “ study of art, assuredly here it must also be to worship. 
 “ I think I never saw an interior so thoroughly religious 
 “ and religion-inspiring as this, and it is well, therefore, 
 “ not lightly to pass it by as useless for our general pur- 
 
27 
 
 “ poses. It seems to show, as strongly as any one example 
 “ can, how much awe and grandeur even a small building 
 “ may attain to by the lavish expenditure of art and pre- 
 “ cious materials throughout its fabric ; for it is to this 
 “ that St. Mark’s owes its grandeur, and to this only. 
 “ There is nothing imposing either in its size or in its 
 “ architecture ; on the contrary, they appear to me to be 
 “ rather mean, and yet this grand display of mosaics upon 
 “ a glorious gold ground makes the work appear to be 
 “ both larger and better than it is. Could we but place 
 “ one of our cold bare places of worship by the side of St. 
 “ Mark’s, and let the development of Christian art in the 
 “ construction of the fabric be ten times as great in our 
 “ northern church as in the Venetian, we may yet rest 
 u assured that every religious mind would turn at once to 
 “ the latter, and scarce deign to think of the former as a 
 “ place for worship at all. If this is so, does it not point 
 “ most forcibly to the absolute necessity for the introduc- 
 “ tion of more colour in the interior of our buildings, either 
 u in their construction, or afterwards by the hand of the 
 “ painter? And architects must remember that this ought 
 “ all to be within their province as directors or designers, 
 “ and therefore that they must not, as now, venture to 
 “ design cold shells which may or may not afterwards re- 
 “ ceive the necessary and indispensable decorations, but, 
 “ from the very first, must view these decorations as part 
 “ and parcel of the work in which they personally are 
 “ concerned. Then, and not till then, shall we see a satis- 
 “ factory school of architects in England. ... It is quite 
 “ in vain to describe St. Mark’s architecturally. The 
 “ colour is so magnificent that one troubles oneself but 
 “ little about the architecture, and thinks only of gazing 
 
28 
 
 Rise and de- 
 velopment of 
 the early 
 Venetian 
 school of 
 mosaic. 
 
 Pre-eminence 
 of Venice in 
 the art of 
 Mosaic. 
 
 “ upon the expanse of gold and deep rich colour, all har- 
 “ monised together into one glorious whole.” 
 
 With these patent facts before us, I trust 1 shall not be 
 accused of being misled by a love for iny native country, 
 if I assert that Venice has, from the middle ages until last 
 century, when her political and commercial decay happened, 
 held the first place in the art of making mosaics, both as 
 regards the manufacture of the material elements and the 
 production of the finished works. 
 
 In order to make themselves thoroughly acquainted with 
 the art, the Venetians sought the aid of Greek artists, and 
 in the earliest age we find them enlisting the aid of 
 Theophane of Constantinople , who came to Venice and 
 opened a school, where mosaic designing and manufacture 
 were taught ; and I quite agree with our Muratori , who 
 writes: “ Summa fuit Greeds in Musivis conficiendis 
 peritia but it is also true that the skill, patience, and 
 love of the art increased so rapidly among the Venetians 
 that they were soon able to improve upon the works of 
 their teachers, and to accomplish within the boundaries of 
 their OAvn limited State a greater quantity, and, perhaps, 
 more perfect mosaic works than those possessed by any 
 other nation, and they were even able to supply foreign 
 people with enamel, as is the case now with Rome in re- 
 gard to the primary colours. They also were able to send 
 abroad their artists and mosaicists to execute many 
 important works, and these, doubtless, became founders 
 of schools in those lands to which they emigrated. 
 
 All writers on the subject, however, whether Venetian 
 or otherwise, speak of the pre-eminence of my own city 
 in the art of mosaic, and I will but record a sentence of 
 Lanzi, in his “ Storia Pittorica della Toscana ,” where, after 
 having related the useless attempts of the Florentines to 
 
29 
 
 decorate worthily the chapel of St. Zenobi , he says : “ It 
 “ seems , indeed , that the glory of making mosaics has been 
 “ reserved to \ r enice." * 
 
 It is impossible to set it down as mere chance that 
 Venice succeeded in reaching so high a degree of perfec- 
 tion in the mosaic art; for more probable is it that it was 
 a privilege afforded to her by peculiar and natural circum- 
 stances, arising out of her material and artistic position, 
 her natural inclination, her skill, and her possession of the 
 grandest examples for study and imitation. It is well 
 known that in any art or artistic manufacture, the best 
 elements of origin, development, improvement and perfec- 
 tion, are, firstly, instinctive feeling of the people, secondly, 
 proper material means , thirdly, good schools of instruction , 
 and fourthly, good examples to be placed continually 
 before the eye and mind of the pupil and artist, so that 
 his instinct and knowledge of detail may be constantly 
 growing and improving. 
 
 Now as regards the instinct , it is an undeniable fact 
 that, as every race and people, like individuals, have some 
 peculiar natural, artistic, or industrial bias, in addition 
 to those general inclinations common to all humanity, we 
 have ample evidence that the Venetians possess that 
 instinct which is the primary element of the mosaic art, 
 
 * Andrea Tafi arrived in Venice a.d. 1141. He came from Florence 
 for the purpose of studying the art of mosaic. In the 15th century, 
 Angelo Beroviero of Murano became so famed for the production of 
 enamels and stained glass, that Avellinus, in his work “ De Arcliitectura ” 
 (translated into Latin by King Matthias Corvinus), tells us he was sent 
 to Ferrara, Milan, Florence, Naples, and Constantinople, to introduce his pro- 
 ductions and to teach the nature of his inventions and improvements. About 
 the middle of the 17th century, the Republic of Venice granted to 
 Cosimus II., Grand Duke of Tuscany, as a most special favour, permission 
 for the renowned Venetian mosaic artists Yacopo and Alvise Luna to visit 
 and decorate Florence. 
 
 Instinct , mate- 
 rials, schools, 
 examples, the 
 necessary ele- 
 ments of every 
 art. 
 
 Instinctive 
 feeling of the 
 people. 
 
30 
 
 Material 
 elements . 
 
 namely, a true appreciation of colour , and its proper 
 adaptation.* 
 
 As regards material elements , some countries have the 
 privilege of producing one kind of material better and 
 cheaper than others. This frequently depends less upon 
 skill and often-repeated experiments than upon physical 
 causes, lying either in the soil or the atmosphere. f It 
 would seem that, in regard to enamels, this advantage was 
 given to Venice (that is, to its neighbouring island Murano), 
 for no other country has succeeded in producing in glass so 
 great variety, brilliancy, and peculiar fineness of colour; it 
 may so happen that this arises from atmospheric 
 causes or from some other unknown reason. But to prove 
 the truth of the statement, it is necessary only to mention 
 the ancient Venetian glasses , which in our time are esteemed 
 most precious and deserving to enrich the finest collections 
 of works of art. So also I may name the yet living 
 manufacture of beads, those little fragments of endless 
 variegated coloured glass, which are sold all over the 
 world, and give to V enice a monopoly in spite of all competi- 
 tion by foreign manufacturers. The same reason, perhaps 
 mostly physical, which enables the Venetian manufacturers 
 to produce the best and most variegated colours in their 
 
 * This was, perhaps, the reason why the. mighty Venetian school 
 of painting, headed by Titian, Tintoretto, Cagliari, etc., has remained 
 unrivalled for the strength and beauty of its colouring. 
 
 f It is well known, for example, that one country can produce the 
 best colours in silk stuffs ; and so far is this a privilege to it, that other 
 countries have in vain attempted to obtain the same result, even by using 
 precisely similar material elements of the colouring, and by employing 
 the same workmen. Nobody would certainly dare to assert that in China 
 and Japan the art of painting is on the same level as in Europe; but 
 nobody can deny the extraordinary vivacity, brilliancy, and peculiarity 
 of the Chinese and Japanese colouring. 
 
31 
 
 ' yet unrivalled beads, are those which form the most 
 efficient elements in the production of the best enamels, 
 those most fitted to the requirements of the mosaicist.* 
 
 As regards the schools of instruction. From the com- 
 mencement of the practice of mosaic in Venice down to 
 the time of its decay, there were schools where every artist 
 could be taught until he was capable of becoming himself 
 a master. We know of schools of the twelfth and 
 thirteenth centuries under Greek masters, and of many 
 more in the fifteenth, sixteenth, and seventeenth centuries, 
 where Venetian teachers were famous for the magnificent 
 works now extant. Among these masters I may mention 
 the Zuccati , Bozza , and Bianchini. 
 
 There never have been wanting in Venice the very best 
 examples to be studied by the pupil and the artist. Firstly, 
 the city possessed the master -pieces of the Greek artists on 
 the walls of their glorious Cathedral ; there and in other 
 buildings were placed in the course of about five centuries, 
 the splendid mosaic works produced by the Venetian 
 artists themselves, and these works have always been open 
 to the view cf the whole population, so that the artists 
 of Venice, have ever had the means of being taught by, 
 
 * In all branches of glass mannfacture, where perfect production is 
 more the result of careful and skilful manipulation than of the peculiarity 
 of the material elements, the moral and industrial decay of the people 
 brings with it the decadence and ultimate loss of the industry; as, for 
 instance, the manufacture of looking-glasses, moulded crystals, lamps, etc., 
 for which the island of Murano was formerly so famous, has now been 
 surpassed by foreign manufacturers, and mostly by the English, Germans, 
 French and Belgians ; but where the production is mainly dependent upon 
 the physical nature of its material elements, and upon the peculiar possi- 
 bility and ease of using them to obtain the best result by means of colour, 
 there Murano has ever kept its privilege ; for this is a God’s gift, and no 
 competitor, although even more skilful or more civilized, can venture to 
 touch it. 
 
 Schools of in- 
 struction. 
 
 Examples for 
 study and 
 reference. 
 
32 
 
 Decline of the 
 art in Venice. 
 
 Its revival. 
 
 and of becoming acquainted with, every kind, style, and 
 manner of mosaics. 
 
 Even for Venice the age of glory and prosperity was 
 not to be perpetual. By-and-bye the Queen of the 
 Adriatic declined, and the sunset of her political and 
 industrial day was also the time of decadence of the 
 mosaic art. At last the Republic died, and the art, which 
 had taken such deep root there, fell into lethargy. 
 
 But it was not dead, nor even was it forgotten. The 
 elements of its existence and of its prosperity were not 
 so much dependent on political changes as they were 
 bound up with the nature and spirit of the people ; so that 
 they are capable of being awakened, and directed towards 
 a noble and successful purpose, until is aroused among 
 civilised nations a warm and powerful agency in aid of 
 art and true religion. 
 
 Such were my thoughts and my incentives from the 
 time when I was first able to think about the miserable 
 condition of the mosaics of my poor country, witnessing 
 as I daily did, their rapid decay from want of repair, and 
 stimulated by the efforts made in Rome to keep from 
 death some branch of the beautiful art I have been speak- 
 ing of. Then a warm desire arose in my heart to revive 
 in Venice her peculiar manufacture, for she, I knew, pos- 
 sessed within her the primary elements of its existence, 
 and 1 knew that her people were best capable of using 
 them; in Venice the knowledge of the production of the 
 raw materials, viz., the enamels, had never been lost, and 
 they could even be developed and improved in Murano, 
 which has ever been able to supply foreign nations with 
 the leading colours. There, where the people were not 
 wanting in skill, patience, or feeling, they could be taught 
 to work better and cheaper than in any other place, for 
 does not Venice herself possess the very finest examples 
 
33 
 
 and sources of knowledge? Her peculiar conditions allow 
 of the artisan living at the lowest possible rate, and her 
 youth have from their infancy been surrounded by the 
 ancient productions in every kind and style, and they 
 have them at any moment at their elbow for reference. 
 
 Thus, although many years of my life were devoted to 
 far different pursuits, I could, not resist the temptation to 
 endeavour to be of use to my native land, and to its 
 almost indigenous art, by bringing about in Venice itself 
 the revival of the Mosaic art. So abandoning my lucra- 
 tive profession, I directed my exertions and my capital 
 to the development of the ancient famous Venetian manu- 
 facture of the gold and coloured enamels, by enlisting the 
 aid of the eminent skill, practical aptitude, and long expe- 
 rience of a man in Murano, who had spent his life 
 and fortune in making continual experiments, and who 
 thoroughly succeeded in maintaining and improving upon 
 the ancient method of making enamels, as well as of reviv- 
 ing the forgotten peculiar art of imitating the rich stones 
 called chalcedony-agate.'* 
 
 My next step was to create a school of mosaic, select- 
 ing the chief artists from the school of painting of the 
 Venetian Imperial Royal Academy, while the artisans 
 were taught the principles of geometry and drawing. In 
 the next place, I undertook journeys to distant parts in 
 order to study the best examples, that I may be in a 
 
 * Laurent Radi, of Murano. — An artizan whose beautiful enamels 
 are the result of forty years of deep study and anxious experience. In 
 1840 he received the gold medal of the Imperial Royal Institute of Fine 
 Arts of Venice. To him I owe my first impressions of the possibility of 
 restoring the almost forgotten manufacture of enamels, and from the time 
 of my becoming acquainted with him, I have laboured and studied 
 to make myself more and more acquainted with the peculiar and 
 technical nature of an art to which I was formerly almost a stranger. 
 
 C 
 
 Formation of 
 a modern 
 school of mo- 
 saic. 
 
34 
 
 position to instruct others, and assist in their continual 
 improvement. Thus had its origin the establishment 
 founded by me in Venice, and known by the title of 
 “ Salviatis Venetian Enamel-Mosaic Works.” * 
 
 It will be supposed that the virtual creation of a new 
 manufacture, of an artistic character, seemed at first a 
 bold and not over easy task. Indeed, many rocks stood 
 between me and the realisation of the enterprise, and 
 among them the two most formidable were — Firstly , the 
 essential economical differences between the old and the 
 new times, such as the possible impracticability of pro- 
 ceeding in case of the manufacture requiring so extensive 
 an outlay as to raise the prices of the finished work so 
 high as to prevent the general application of mosaic, and 
 also there was the possibility that,, instead of according 
 with the taste and wants of the public, the new art may be 
 opposed by the prejudice or ignorance of various classes 
 of people, enhanced and intensified, as these would pro- 
 bably be, by the opposition of those interested in favour of 
 
 * I would refer to the official report, dated 22nd January, 1861, of 
 the mixed commission appointed by the Imperial Royal Academy of the 
 Fine Arts in Venice to pay a visit to my establishment, for the purpose of 
 inspecting and judging of its productions. 
 
 “The result of our examination,” it is literally said, “ was the convic- 
 “ tion, so strong that it could not well be stronger, of the excellence ex- 
 “ hibited in every department of the works. Our expectations were sur- 
 “ passed by the result. We found also that the drawings revealed the best 
 “ possible taste, being well and artistically done, and we have no suggestions 
 “ to offer as to their improvement, as we cherish the conviction that a man 
 “ who has already sacrificed personal interests,- tranquillity and time; who 
 “ has abandoned a liberal profession, securing to him a distinguished and 
 “ honoured position in the country ; who spends large sums of money, and 
 “ makes long journeys for the sake of introducing improvements; who > 
 “ unassisted, and not in the possession of a very large capital, has founded 
 “ an establishment increasing every day in importance, and who gives 
 “ bread and work to so many artizans, requires no additional stimulant to 
 “ spur him on his task.” 
 
35 
 
 a different sort of decoration. — Secondly , there was the 
 possibility of future competition, the result of which 
 might have been not to enrich the inventor of the 
 manufacture, but his imitators, and so he would be 
 deprived of the reward which he had a right to expect in 
 return for all his labour, his risk and his outlay. 
 
 As for the first difficulty, I have happily been able to introduction 
 avoid it completelv, by introducing an entirely new method ot ' manufac : 
 
 A •> 1 J J turing mosaics 
 
 of manufacturing mosaic, quite different in the manipula- 
 tion (but equal if not better in the result) from that used 
 by the ancients, to whom economy was not an object, and 
 whose example is even now followed by the mosaicists 
 employed by the Papal and Russian Governments. The 
 old mosaics were worked on the very spot they were 
 destined to decorate ; the mosaicist having prepared the 
 surface of the wall, and covered it with a layer of cement, 
 produced his subject by putting on the enamels piece by 
 piece. It will be readily seen that this system of working 
 occupies necessarily a long time, and costs avast amount of 
 money because only one, or, at most, a very few, artists can 
 work on the same spot, so that the cost becomes in our 
 times prohibitive. 1 1 is not to be wondered at that people 
 in modern times have been alarmed at the probable expense 
 of producing mosaics, and to this we must attribute the 
 decay and long dormant condition of the art.* 
 
 * I have no better proof to adduce of the great inconvenience (as 
 regards length of time and great cost connected with the production of 
 mosaics according to the ancient method), than the fact that, for this very 
 reason, the great architect of St. Paul’s Cathedral in London, Sir Chris- 
 topher Wren, was prevented from carrying out his glorious project of 
 decorating that cathedral with enamel-mosaic. Let us see what Wren’s 
 son says in his work “ Parentalia," p. 291 : — 
 
 “The judgment of the surveyor was, originally, instead of painting in 
 “ the manner it is now performed, to have beautified the inside of the cupola 
 “ with the most durable ornament of mosaic work, as is nobly executed in 
 
Its advantages 
 in respect of 
 great cheap- 
 ness and 
 rapidity of 
 production. 
 
 3G 
 
 My method, on the contrary, is far simpler ; I am able 
 to produce mosaic work (even when intended for a foreign 
 destination, and for interior or exterior decorative purposes) 
 in my own establishment at Venice, so that it can be con- 
 veyed to the place for which it is intended, ready made, 
 and quite prepared to be fixed bodily on the cement, 
 whether the position be circular, horizontal, or perpendi- 
 cular. By this means I am able to produce a work, of 
 whatever size or importance, rapidly, for many artists and 
 craftsmen can be simultaneously employed; and, when we 
 take into consideration the small price of the raw mate- 
 rials, and the low rate of wages in Venice, I can produce 
 all kinds of monumental mosaic at so cheap a price, and 
 with such very great speed, that this kind of decoration is 
 brought within reach of all classes of people.* 
 
 “ the cupola of St. Peter’s in Rome, which strikes the eye of the beholder 
 “ with a most magnificent and splendid appearance, and which, without the 
 “ least decay of colours, is as lasting as marble or the building itself. For 
 “ this purpose he had projected to have procured from Italy four of the 
 “ most eminent artists in that profession ; but as this art was a great novelty 
 “ in England, and not generally apprehended, it did not receive the encou- 
 “ ragement it deserved. It was imagined, also, the expense would prove 
 “ too great and the time very long in the execution.” 
 
 Had my method been known and practised in Wren’s time, it is very 
 likely that St. Paul’s would wear a very different aspect, and the present 
 English generation, instead of being asked for subscriptions for embellish- 
 ing this grand Protestant Cathedral, would now enjoy the gorgeous decora- 
 tion projected by Wren’s genius, and piously carried out at the expense 
 of their ancestors. 
 
 * I am constantly having inquiries addressed to me in reference to 
 the prices of mosaics, which prove to me that an erroneous idea largely 
 prevails of the cost of this species of decoration, and I as constantly 
 surprise the inquirers by the low charge which I am able to make, as the 
 price of my commonly used mosaics is about the same as that usually 
 paid for stained glass. As a means of making this matter widely known, I 
 cannot do better than use the present opportunity of giving some examples. 
 
 The first great commission I received from Her Majesty the Queen, 
 under the advice of Mr. G. G. Scott, R.A., was to cover the groined 
 
37 
 
 Tliis invention is certainly deserving of notice, as it 
 affords the means of adopting, generally, a system of deco- 
 ration so greatly appreciated and cherished by our 
 ancestors; this is the more important as we have in these 
 times so many desires to satisfy and but too little money 
 in proportion. Very rare are the instances of men like 
 Mr. Guinness, and a few others, who are at once so 
 generous and wealthy as to spend large sums out of 
 their private incomes for the advantage of our public 
 buildings.* 
 
 ceiling of the Wolsey Chapel, at Windsor Castle, with Venetian enamel 
 mosaics. The design comprehended ninety-two figures, besides inscrip- 
 tions, medallions, coats of arms, crests, mottoes, heraldic and sacred 
 emblems, foliage, etc. The whole work measured 2,100 superficial feet, 
 and I was able to execute and fix it in ten months, including the time 
 of transit from Venice, preparations of cement, scaffolding, and at the price 
 of £4,725. 
 
 The large mosaic picture under the dome of St. Paul’s, commissioned 
 by the Dean and Chapter, under the advice of Mr. F. C. Penrose, repre- 
 senting the Prophet Isaiah, and two Angels, covers 250 superficial feet, 
 and was executed and fixed within two months at a price of- £600. 
 
 Had these works been executed in the manner practised by the ancients, 
 the ceiling of Wolsey’s Chapel would have occupied at least ten years, and, 
 at the smallest computation, would have cost £20,000 — and the St. Paul’s 
 work in the same proportion. 
 
 It was at the close of the middle ages, when nations were growing less 
 grand in their conceptions, and less enthusiastic in their true religion and 
 patriotic feelings, that fresco-paintings began to take the place of mosaics, 
 because mosaic-work was enormously expensive and tedious in its 
 process, whilst fresco painting was exceedingly cheap. 
 
 * It is well known that Mr. Guinness has spent above £150,000 in 
 the alteration and restoration of St. Patrick’s Cathedral at Dublin. We 
 have heard, too, of the great sums spent by Mr. Beresford-Hope and 
 others, in the erection of All Saints’ Church, in Margaret-street, London ; 
 by Mr. T. Brown, the Corporation of London, and several City Com- 
 panies, for the decoration of St. Paul’s Cathedral ; by the Count 
 Nellesen and Advocate Jungbluth at Aix-la-Chapelle; by the Baron 
 Sin a for the Greek Church at Vienna, and some others. 
 
38 
 
 And now a few words about competition. I did not 
 much fear this, for even supposing a manufacturer pos- 
 sessed the same power and facilities for producing enamels 
 equal in every particular to mine, and capable of enduring 
 for many centuries, supposing also that he could have 
 similar advantages in the employment of craftsmen, 
 having the instinctive feeling and aptitude of the Vene- 
 tians, and surrounded by ancient examples of all styles of 
 mosaic, supposing all this, I had already obtained com- 
 missions for large and important works, and had executed 
 them to the entire, satisfaction of my employers; people 
 would surely have trusted me in preference to a manufac- 
 turer who had not enjoyed the experience and the advan- 
 tages which, happily, have made my works successful. 
 
 Thus J have been able to carry out my scheme without 
 fear of competition, either in Venice or in other countries. 
 In Venice I had no reason to apprehend competition, for 
 causes to which I need not allude here, and far less in other 
 countries because the same conditions do not exist abroad, 
 and the cost of labour is considerably greater.* 
 
 If I refer to the success of my enterprise I rejoice less 
 for my own sake than that my country has again entered 
 upon this manufacture. My manufactory must be re- 
 
 * There is another danger in creating a manufacture of a new or 
 peculiar character, viz.: — the possible corruption and defection of the 
 craftsmen after their having been taught at the expense of the origin- 
 ator of the manufacture ; still, such is the organization of my establish- 
 ment that this danger is entirely avoided, and no defection could do any 
 harm, unless all the establishment should leave at one time. As there 
 are many branches of the mosaic art practised in my manufactory, and, 
 even in any work of each branch, there are various degrees of easiness, 
 the successful general working is not obtained by the use of any one of 
 the individuals who may have a special mission, but by their mutual 
 helping one of the other, and by the prudent and wise employment of all 
 under a common rule and direction. 
 
39 
 
 garded rather as the centre of a large family than a collec- 
 tion of hired people, for I and my employes are all bound 
 together by a common thought and purpose, so that 
 visitors to my establishment are charmed at seeing the har- 
 monious working of the whole.* 
 
 I trust I shall not be accused of egotism, if, in sketching 
 the progress of my manufacture, I refer to matters which 
 I cannot avoid ; and I frankly acknowledge that any suc- 
 cess I have met with is due not so much to me as an indi- 
 vidual, as to all the members of my establishment. 
 
 Knowing the decay of the mosaics in St. Mark’s was 
 mainly due to the absence of proper materials for their 
 repair, I devoted my earlier exertions to improve the manu- 
 facture of enamels, and also to the study of the nature of the 
 cements used by the ancients, and I am proud to say that 
 I have so far succeeded as to obtain this testimony from 
 the Imperial Royal Academy of Fine Arts in Venice — 
 That the enamels are a superior to all others ever produced, 
 not only to those manufactured in modern times , but also , in 
 a great degree , to those anciently made , for every species oj 
 mosaic .” f 
 
 * Among other Newspapers the Gazzelte di Venezia and the American 
 Boston Advertiser of 6th May, 1863, have given flattering accounts and 
 details of the matter. 
 
 f I will venture to repeat some sentences of the judgment pronounced 
 by the Imperial Eoyal Academy: — 
 
 “ The gold enamels for mosaic work (submitted by Dr. Salviati to our 
 “judgment) are superior to those previously manufactured, and even to 
 “ some of the ancient ones, from the brilliancy and transparency of the 
 “ vitreous layer, (crystalline) over the gold leaf, having a compactness and 
 “ adhesiveness to the underlying layer, so as to secure the greatest possible 
 “ durability ; as well as on account of the lustre and continuity of the gold 
 “ leaf, and of the tablets presenting neither scratches nor swelling. 
 
 “ As regards the pieces for coloured mosaics, we have found them in 
 “ part even superior, through the delicacy and softness of the tints, to 
 “ those of the ancient mosaics.” 
 
 Success of the 
 manufacture 
 of the mate- 
 rials attested 
 by the I. R. 
 Academy of 
 Venice. 
 
40 
 
 Large supply 
 of enamels to 
 St. Mark's. 
 
 Further 
 Improvements 
 in production 
 of enamels. 
 
 I had the honour and the privilege of furnishing to the 
 administration of St. Mark’s Cathedral at Venice a consi- 
 derable quantity of enamels for the repair of the ancient 
 mosaics, and so satisfied have been my employers that they 
 gave me two other orders, and in February, 1861, they 
 entered into a contract with me to supply for fifteen years 
 all enamels which may be required. A further proof of the 
 fitness of my enamels for making and repairing mosaics, 
 not only new but old also, is the execution of the repairs 
 of ancient works in St. Mark’s, where, though some of 
 the mosaics are half old and half new, the most critical 
 observer cannot distinguish the ancient from the modern 
 work, even while close beside it. 
 
 In my manufactory many improvements have been made 
 from time to time in the production of enamels. Besides 
 the great variety in the tints of coloured enamels, and the 
 giving to the gold enamels different tones so as to render 
 the proper effects of light and shade, there are two other 
 improvements, very important because of their having been 
 unknown to the ancients. 
 
 By aid of these, pieces of gold enamel are obtained of a 
 tolerably large size, and having a surface so curved and 
 moulded as to be capable of receiving the most varied 
 forms, and of being employed in almost every species of 
 ornamentation. We can thus produce, of gold enamel in 
 relief, picture and mirror frames of various sizes and 
 patterns, ornamental leaves, rosettes, heads and figures of 
 animals, spiral and fluted columns, bosses, &c. We thus 
 obtain articles of ornamental furniture made in an impe- 
 rishable gilded material, for the gold is covered with a 
 surface of inseparable glass, and is protected against injury 
 either from dirt, insects, or atmospherical agencies. Another 
 improvement is the obtaining on gold enamel, by means of 
 
41 
 
 engraving on the gold leaf, before it is enclosed in the two 
 plates of glass, inscriptions, names, numbers, words, lines, 
 and large alphabetical letters. 
 
 Having now obtained a complete idea of the nature and 
 quality of the enamels, I need not enumerate the endless 
 applications of a manufacture, which, associating all the 
 resources of human fancy and skill in the art of painting, 
 makes use of the most brilliant, effective, and variegated 
 colours, and of indestructible gilding. 
 
 From the description 1 have given, can be seen how 
 applicable is this style of decoration to pictures, ornaments, 
 and inscriptions to be placed on walls, ceilings, floors, 
 reredos, pulpits, fonts of churches, either externally or in- 
 ternally ; so also it may be applied to the ornamentation 
 of dwelling-houses, public halls, ornamental fountains (even 
 of those parts subjected to the play of the water), theatres, 
 baths ; or the decoration of doors in private or public build- 
 ings; in cemeteries, to memorials and tombs; and, finally, 
 (when the mosaic is smooth ), from it may be made the 
 finest articles of bijouterie , as bracelets, necklaces, brooches, 
 clasps, breast-pins, &c. 
 
 These numerous applications of the art of mosaic are 
 not the play of fancy; they are an accomplished fact, as 
 witness the examples I have produced, and which I am 
 producing, and which may be seen in many parts of the 
 world, in Europe, in Africa, and in America; and I may 
 add that, judging from the remarks of private and public 
 persons, and the criticisms of the press, my works have 
 given general satisfaction A 
 
 * The Jury of the Italian Exhibition, held at Florence (1861), in 
 conferring upon me six prize medals for the various branches of art 
 relating to the different nature and character of my productions, pro- 
 nounced: — “ This Venetian manufacture, although the latest that made its 
 
 Endless appli- 
 cations of the 
 mosaic manu- 
 facture. 
 
 Proved by 
 facts. 
 
42 
 
 Works exe- 
 cuted and 
 commissions 
 received, 
 proving the 
 application 
 of mosaic to 
 
 Walls, roofs, 
 and pavements. 
 
 The numerous commissions with which I have been en- 
 trusted, some of which have been executed, and others are 
 now in course of production, are in themselves practical 
 illustrations of the applicability of mosaic to the purposes 
 of interior and exterior decoration. 
 
 Without entering into any description of mosaics 
 which I have made in my own country, and the large 
 commission executed for His Highness Said Pacha, late 
 Viceroy of Egypt, of the floor and a considerable part o 
 the walls of a large saloon at Meks, I may enumerate 
 among many others the following, as illustrative of the 
 adaptability of my material for the decoration of walls, 
 roofs , and pavements , of buildings. 
 
 “ appearance in this august Italian Hall of Arts, exceeds any other in 
 “ splendour, taste, and originality and the Committee for the Roman 
 and Venetian exhibitors said: “ The productions exhibited by Dr. Salviati’s 
 “ establishment could themselves alone retrieve the splendid fame of the 
 “ Venetian industries.” 
 
 The Jury of the International Exhibition, held in London in 1862, 
 and the Visitors, have been not less generous in bestowing reward and 
 praise on my manufacture. Without making mention of the prize medals 
 then obtained, and of all that has been said about these productions by 
 nearly every organ of the English press, I feel constrained to reprint 
 some words from the Times: — 
 
 “ Signor Salviati’s productions are probably the most successful imita- 
 “ tions of the ancient Byzantine mosaics which modern art has produced, 
 “ equalling them in most of their qualities, and in some even surpassing 
 “ them. * * * He can produce any effect of which mosaics are 
 
 “ capable. They are of a substance to which the most brilliant and the 
 “ most delicate colours can be indelibly imparted — indestructible by the 
 “ action of time, and which can be fashioned into any form, however 
 “fantastic or minute * * * so that the 'original brightness of the 
 
 “ gilding can never be tarnished or damaged by any external influence 
 “ * * * and the colours will be as brilliant and as delicate 200 or 300 
 
 “ years hence as we now see them. * * * Of their adaptability to 
 
 “ all kinds of works we have here numerous examples, from large church 
 “ mosaics and pavements to the most exquisitely enamelled brooches, rings 
 “ anrl Hfpcel.ets, etc., etc.” 
 
43 
 
 I. The large mosaic picture (about 250 superficial feet) 
 fixed in July, 1864, on one of the eight spandrils under 
 the dome of St. Paul’s Cathedral, in London. The decora- 
 tion of his great work with mosaics was one of the most 
 cherished wishes of Sir Christopher Wren, and now that 
 the formerly existing difficulties of time and prohibitive 
 cost have been removed, the plan of the great architect is 
 about to be realised under the advice of Mr. Penrose, with 
 the sanction and cordial assistance of the Dean, Dr. Mil- 
 man, and the other members of the Chapter. The cartoon 
 for the spandril already worked was made by that accom- 
 plished artist, Mr. Alfred Stevens.* 
 
 II. The whole vaulted roof of Cardinal Wolsey’s Chapel 
 at Windsor Castle, covering an area of 2,100 superficial 
 feet. The decoration of this beautiful chapel, which is 
 being carried out under the superintendence of Mr. G. G. 
 Scott, R.A., is an especial object of interest with Her 
 Majesty Queen Victoria, as it is a family memorial to His 
 Royal Highness the Prince Consort. The cartoons for 
 this great work were made by Messrs. Clayton and Bell.f 
 
 These two commissions were the first with which I had 
 the honour of being entrusted in England, and to these I 
 
 * The subject completed represents the prophet Isaiah. The figures 
 of the prophet, and two attendant angels, are represented on a gold 
 ground, the first in a sitting posture, deriving the materials of his in- 
 spiration from a tablet held towards him by an angel, whilst another 
 angel behind the prophet is holding another version of prophecy, also 
 indicated by a tablet. 
 
 f The style of Cardinal Wolsey’s Chapel is Perpendicular Gothic, 
 therefore the above-mentioned ceiling is groined, and all the spaces between 
 the interlacing ribs are filled with enamel mosaic pictures on gold-enamel 
 ground. Each long panel has a half-length figure of an angel, whose 
 head is surrounded by a gold nimbus, and both beneath and above every 
 figure are ornaments representing foliage, clouds, etc. The other panels 
 along the centre of the ceiling contain the Prince Consort’s crests, with 
 
44 
 
 attribute in a great degree the rapid development in that 
 country of my manufacture, which, although introduced by 
 a foreigner, has met with that encouragement which an en- 
 lightened and generous people are ever ready to accord to 
 an art possessing true and real beauty. I must not forget, 
 however, the eminent advantages I have enjoyed in the 
 patronage I have received from the most illustrious per- 
 sons, and the encouragement I have met with from those 
 who, appreciating the peculiar value of this species of 
 decoration for a northern climate, have recommended 
 and are encouraging its use, and have thus done good 
 service to their country by securing unrivalled durability 
 and non-liability to injury from atmospheric changes.* 
 
 this motto, “ Treu und Fest,” his initials, medallions, devices, and other 
 ornaments. The roof is divided into two parts; the first we may call 
 the historical or heraldic part, and the second the sacred. 
 
 In the whole there are ninety-two angelic figures, each holding a shield. 
 The sixty-four angels of the first portion carry shields, bearing the arms 
 of the Prince Consort and the ancestors of his family ; the other twenty- 
 eight angels bear shields emblazoned with the various emblems of our 
 Lord’s Passion. 
 
 While abstaining from repeating the flattering opinions of the press 
 generally, and the testimonials which I have received from my employers 
 as to the success of works already executed by me in England and else- 
 where, I venture to report the following sentence in The Builder (the 
 organ of the English Architects, etc.), as it relates to the nature and kind 
 of the materials employed in the work referred to: “The larger number 
 “ of tints and the improved quality, as well of the coloured as of the 
 “ gold-enamels, are very noticeable, particularly the different tints which 
 “ the gold enamel is capable of receiving, and the successful use of it 
 “ (ruby-orange and variously-shaded colours) in the wings of the angels, 
 “ in the gloria round the heads, in the shields, crests, and many other 
 “ important places.’’ 
 
 * As public opinion in England is generally expressed through the 
 press, which worthily deserves universal consideration for its impartiality, 
 let us repeat what has been said by some of its most conspicuous organs 
 with regard to the commissions received. 
 
 “ Among the different traces,” said the Morning Post of 23rd October, 
 
45 
 
 III. — The vaulted roof of the canopy over the statue of 
 the Prince Consort in the National Memorial, now in 
 course of erection in Hyde Park, from the designs of Mr. 
 G. G. Scott, R.A. ; other mosaics will adorn the exterior 
 of this monument, to which I shall refer presently. 
 
 IV. — Mosaic Cross, Avitli ornaments, monograms, 
 
 &c., over the chancel arch of All Saints ’ Church at 
 Windsor : architect, Mr. A. Blomfield. 
 
 V. — The soffits of the tAvelve side AvindoAvs, and of the 
 great blank Avest Avindow, in the Wolsey Chapel, at 
 
 1862, “which the International Exhibition of 1862 is likely to leave 
 “ behind it in the future history of English art and architecture, none, 
 “ perhaps, will be more strongly marked than the impulse which it seems 
 “ destined to give to the development of mosaic decoration. With the 
 “ completion of the work at Windsor Castle, and with the kindred deco- 
 “ ration of St. Paul’s in enamel-mosaic — which cannot fail to mark an 
 “ epoch in the history of English ecclesiastical decoration — we shall 
 “ possess at last some specimens of a kind of decoration so peculiarly 
 “ adapted to our English climate, and so capable of resisting the destruc- 
 “ tive influences of coal-smoke and gas, as well as of damp, that the only 
 “ wonder is it should not have been already adopted on an extensive 
 “ scale. If, three centuries ago, it was remarked by the Herodotus of 
 “painting, by old Vasari, that 1 nothing stands wind and water like 
 “ ‘ mosaic;' if, earlier still, it was declared by Ghirlandajo that ‘ mosaic 
 “ ‘ is the only painting for eternity ,’ it ought to be welcomed with a special 
 “ eagerness amongst ourselves, who have had such severe and convincing 
 “ experience of the perishable nature of our customary modes of deco- 
 “ ration.” 
 
 “ The Venetian enamel mosaics,” said the Times of 22nd October, 1862, 
 “ recently admirably revived, under the direction of Dr. Salviati, are now 
 “ to be adopted in this country in the decoration of St. Paul’s, and also 
 “ in the vaulting of the Chapel Royal, Windsor. This is, probably, the 
 “ first instance of their introduction into our Gothic buildings north of 
 “ the Alps, since their being made use of in the 13th century in the tombs 
 “ of Edv r ard the Confessor and Henry III., in Westminster Abbey. A 
 “ more magnificent mode of decoration can scarcely be imagined, and it 
 “ has in this country the great advantage of not being liable to injury 
 “ from the dampness of the climate.” 
 
46 
 
 Exterior 
 
 decoration. 
 
 Windsor Castle. Also the twenty-eight panels and the 
 tracery of the same window, which, in addition to 
 ornamental and heraldic work, will contain full-length 
 portraits of those Sovereigns and Prelates who have, at 
 various times, been engaged in the erection or decoration 
 of the Castle. The whole of the cartoons for this work 
 are being drawn by Messrs. Clayton and Bell, under the 
 direction of Mr. Geo. Gilbert Scott, R.A. As these por- 
 traits form a most interesting and important work, they 
 require very delicate treatment from the fact that they are 
 comparatively near the eye. 
 
 VI. — Mosaic figures of angels with wide-spreading wings, 
 supporting scrolls, on the walls of the church at Clyst St. 
 George, near Topsham, for the Rev. H. T. Ellacombe, 
 whose enlightened love for the art of mosaic has led him 
 to adopt this style of decoration. 
 
 VII. — A large mosaic inscription, with figure, on the 
 wall of the church at Speen, near Newbury. 
 
 VIII. — A life-size figure, on gold ground, of Niccolo 
 Pisano , in the New Court of the South Kensington 
 Museum. It is understood to be the intention of the 
 Council to adorn the walls of this Court with a series of 
 portraits in mosaic, each representing an old master, 
 and the cartoons of which are being designed by some of 
 the most eminent English painters. I am now executing 
 two others of this series representing Apelles and Benozzo 
 Gozzoli. 
 
 IX. — Medallions on the interior of the chancel of a 
 church at Ealing, architect, Mr. S. S. Teuton. 
 
 X. — The decoration with gold enamel of a pavement 
 to be laid in front of the altar at Westminster Abbey. 
 
 I am aware that doubts have been expressed whether 
 mosaic work for exterior decoration will stand in northern 
 
47 
 
 climates, especially in England. I am quite sure that there [ion of ^moi 
 are no grounds whatever for apprehending danger. As P^®" c n ^ eon 
 far as the enamel itself is concerned, if it be well made extenor 
 is is absolutely indestructible. What influence can affect 
 it ? Not cold or frost, or rapid changes in the state of 
 the weather ; these could only affect a material if it were 
 extremely dilatable, but the enamel which I use has, per- 
 haps, less tendency to expand than any other material. The 
 damp cannot injure it, because it is less porous than clay, 
 stone, marble, &c. If danger is apprehended from smoke, 
 dust, &c., enamel has a peculiar claim to be preferred to 
 other methods of obtaining coloured decoration, for it 
 can be easily washed and cleaned. 
 
 But some will say, “We do not doubt your material, 
 but what about the cement ?” I answer that if the cement 
 is bad no means of encrusted architectural decoration can 
 be applied out of doors in England, and I think that to 
 such a conclusion the supporters of terra-cotta, stone, or 
 marble decoration would scarcely arrive. But the English, 
 who possess so many excellent cements, should be the last 
 to entertain this fear. For my own part I have full con- 
 fidence in my own peculiar cements , and I should always 
 wish to be permitted to use them, because they are of the 
 same nature as those used by the ancient mosaicists.* 
 
 * There can be no doubt that the cement on which the enamels are 
 fixed is a great constituent part of the mosaics themselves. My impres- 
 sion is, that the best way of giving to the mosaics of this day the utmost 
 chances of permanence, is to study carefully, and to follow religiously, the 
 principles of the old masters, as the extraordinary durability of their 
 works, which have stood the wear and the weather of many centuries, is 
 the best proof of the goodness of their cements. The old Venetian 
 chronicles, which I have consulted in the matter, give me the utmost con- 
 fidence in my cements, as they are constituted like those therein described. 
 
 I have no objection at all to Portland, Keen’s, or Roman cements; I even 
 allow that for some purposes, especially where rapid setting is the quality 
 
48 
 
 In addition to the physical arguments I have adduced, 
 there is an unanswerable reason for placing reliance upon 
 the permanent quality of the cement — it is the eloquent 
 fact of the great mosaics standing; for centuries on the 
 exterior of many churches, viz., St. Frediano’s at Lucca , 
 St. Mark's at Venice , etc., etc. If it should be objected 
 that this argument is not applicable to England, on account 
 of the great difference between the Southern and Northern 
 climates, I would answer, —Firstly, The opposing argument 
 is negative, and can only be valued until it can be sup- 
 ported by the evidence of a positive fact ; meanwhile we 
 have the contrary on our side. Secondly , It must be 
 proved that the variation between the two climates is so 
 great as to produce such a difference in the result, that a 
 kind of cement sufficiently good to keep mosaics standing ten 
 and more centuries in Northern Italy is of no power at all 
 when used in England. Thirdly , I venture to assert that it 
 is an error to suppose that Venice, for instance, enjoys con- 
 tinually a mild Southern climate. The people of England 
 think much too favourably of Venice in this matter, and 
 it is as much a prejudice to expend so many praises on the 
 climate of Venice, as it is for those on the Continent to 
 vilify so loudly that of England. We have very severe 
 winters in Venice, and frequently the mercury falls many 
 degrees lower than it does in England. 
 
 O O 
 
 chiefly required, these are the best cements to be used ; but I do not go so 
 far as to state, with some eminent authorities, that on account of this 
 quality of theirs they will last longer than other materials which demand 
 longer time to harden. 
 
 The cements used by me are of a kind which do not at first show a 
 peculiar hardness; but when they have set sufficiently to keep the enamels 
 fixed on them, they grow harder every day, so that after a mosaic work 
 nas stood for a time, it inspires more and more confidence in its standing 
 as long as is desired. 
 
49 
 
 So extremely severe, sometimes, are the winters in 
 Venice, that more than once during this century the la- 
 goons have been frozen so hard that not only could people 
 walk upon the ice, but carriages and waggons have been 
 used for the journey to Murano and other neighbouring 
 islands and the mainland. 
 
 In Venice the alternations from heat to cold, and vice 
 versd , are at times more rapid even than in England. 
 Notwithstanding this, the exterior Venetian mosaics have 
 stood during many centuries, while the surrounding stone 
 and marble have succumbed to the severity of the 
 weather. * 
 
 If any doubt should still exist (after reference to these 
 patent facts) about the supposed greater difference be- 
 tween the English and Venetian climates in their effect 
 upon mosaics, I would instance those at Prague. I need 
 not refer to their good or bad qualities as works of art ; I 
 desire only to direct attention to their long proved capa- 
 bility for exterior decoration in a severe climate, and I am 
 sure that no person who has experienced the severity of 
 the winter in Prague will put forward the objection of 
 the injurious effect of cold and frost. 
 
 And we must not lose sight of the fact that in case of 
 the worst happening, mosaic affords, better than any other 
 decoration, the opportunity of re-fastening the pieces in 
 case of their becoming loose. 
 
 For my own part I cannot give a better proof of my 
 full conviction in this matter than the fact that I have 
 
 * Visitors who, for instance, examine the side of St. Mark’s facing 
 the Ducal Palace and the sea, will observe that the marbles forming the 
 lower part are much decayed, while the mosaic works on the upper portion, 
 although earlier by four centuries, are perfectly sound, and are yet kept 
 together by the underlying and surrounding Venetian cement. 
 
 D 
 
50 
 
 Fountains. 
 
 Tombstones 
 and other kind 
 of Churchyard 
 Memorials 
 
 decorated with my enamel-mosaic a great portion of the 
 facade of my own house in Venice, which is in a less 
 favourable condition in this respect, viz., it stands (near to 
 the Academy of Fine Arts) on the north side of the 
 Grand Canal. But if I may be permitted to judge, I have 
 good reason for believing that the objection I have referred 
 to is not deemed important, as the most eminent architects 
 have entrusted me with commissions for executing mosaics 
 which will be exposed to the external atmosphere. For 
 instance — 
 
 I. I have been honoured by Mr. Scott with an order 
 to prepare mosaics for the decoration of the spandrils 
 and tympana of the National Memorial to the Prince Con- 
 sort, now being erected in Hyde Park. 
 
 II. I have executed and fixed the ornamentation in 
 enamel-mosaic on the ceiling of the exterior vestibule of 
 the Mausoleum at Frogmore by the command of Her Ma- 
 jesty the Queen, under the advice of Mr. A. J. Humbert, 
 the architect. 
 
 III. The decoration in enamel-mosaic of the facade 
 of the Wedgwood Memorial at Burslem, as part of the 
 ceramic design now being carried out under the direction 
 of Mr. It. Edgar. 
 
 IV. The large mosaic cross on the top of the Tyndale 
 Monument now erecting at Nibley Knoll, by the archi- 
 tect, Mr. S. S. Teuton. 
 
 V. I may add also as an example of exterior decoration, 
 as well as for the application of mosaic to fountains , the 
 mosaic work on the fountain now being erected at West- 
 minster from designs by Mr. Teuton. 
 
 As regards the application of mosaic to tombstones , and 
 all kind of churchyard memorials. 
 
 I. A tablet in enamel-mosaic on Carrara marble, with a 
 
 Portraits. 
 
51 
 
 portrait on a gold enamel ground, inscription, ornaments, 
 
 &c., as a memorial to the late eminent American minister, 
 the Reverend G. W. Bethune, D.D., about to be fixed in 
 the church at Brooklyn, New York.* 
 
 II. A churchyard cross at Wey bridge, for N. C. Milne, 
 
 Esq. 
 
 III. A churchyard cross in Brompton Cemetery, to the 
 memory of Mrs. E. Thompson. 
 
 IY. An inscription on a cemetery gate at New York, 
 ordered by Mrs. Bethune. 
 
 I will now give a few instances of the applicability of Alt “r-pieces 
 mosaic to the decoration of altar-pieces and reredoses. 
 
 I must mention, first of all, the very important work 
 which I am executing for Westminster Abbey. It is a 
 large picture on gold- enamel ground representing “ The 
 Last Supper,” from cartoons by the well-known artists 
 Messrs. Clayton and Bell. 
 
 I mention further the mosaic decoration on — the reredos 
 of St. Peter’s Church at Vauxhall, ordered b}? the archi- 
 tect, Mr. Pearson ; — the reredos of Monkland Church, 
 near Leominster, architect, Mr. Street ; — the reredos in 
 Hanworth Church, near Staines, architect, Mr. Teulon ; — 
 the east end of Exeter College Chapel, at Oxford, archi- 
 tect, Mr. Scott ; — the reredos at Compton Pauncefoot 
 Church, near Bruton, architect, Mr. Slater ; — the reredos 
 for Hawkley Church, Hants, architect Mr. Teulon ; — the 
 
 * A better means of preserving in the memory the very features of 
 deceased persons cannot be imagined than is offered by this process. The 
 colours are always vivid, and the gold ground never becomes tarnished. 
 
 A mosaic portrait possesses peculiar advantages over sculptured busts 
 in its richness and power of expression, and over painting in its dura- 
 bility, its standing either in or out of doors, and its non-liability to 
 be spoilt or injured by the effects of damp, smoke, gas-fumes, rain, 
 sunshine, etc. 
 
52 
 
 Fonts and Pul- 
 pits. 
 
 Dwelling - 
 houses, 
 
 chimney-pieces, 
 
 etc. 
 
 reredos at St. John’s Church, Torquay, architect, Mr. 
 Street ; — the reredos at St. Stephen’s Church, Lewisham, 
 architect, Mr. Scott; — the reredos at Cowley Church, 
 architect, Mr. G. E. Street. 
 
 As instances of the applicability of mosaic to the deco- 
 ration of fonts and pulpits, I may mention — the font at Rode 
 Church, recently built for Randle Wilbraham, Esq., from 
 designs by Mr. Scott; — the pulpit for Beuhilton Church, 
 Sutton, Surrey, architect, Mr. Teuton ; — the pulpit at the 
 new Catholic church of St. Mary’s, at Chelsea, architect, 
 Mr. Bentley. 
 
 Among works for the decoration of furniture and 
 house fittings I may name, by way of example, the 
 chimney-pieces for the drawing and dining-rooms in the 
 mansion of His Grace the Duke of St. Albans, now 
 being built from the designs of Mr. S. S. Teuton. 
 
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 WERTHEIMER AND CO., PKINTEHS, FINSBURY CIRCUS. 
 
 

 
 
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